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 / ;
 
 GENERAL BIOGRAPHY; 
 
 LIVES 
 
 OP 
 
 THE MOST EMINENT PERSONS 
 
 OF 
 
 ALL AGES, COUNTRIES, CONDITIONS, and PROFESSIONS, 
 
 ARRANGED ACCORDING TO ALPHABETICAL ORDER. 
 
 M(t!Stvn-:5 ioiif) ^oxtVdiit&. 
 
 VOLUME 
 
 LONDON : 
 PRINTED BY G. SMEETON, 17, ST. MARTIN'b LANE, CHARING CROSS. 
 
 1818.
 
 L
 
 LIBRARY n 
 
 .- T UlflVERSnY CF CALIFOKNU: J 
 
 ^ SANTA BARBAKA. A 
 
 'Ji^^i./ PREFACE. 
 
 JN OTHING can be less necessary than to make a formal 
 display of the advantages of biographical writing. If any species 
 of literary composition has to boast of an universal suffrage in its 
 favour, it is that, which, by representing human characters in 
 association with every thing distinguished in the nature, fortunes, 
 and acquirements of man, affords in a supreme degree the union 
 of instruction and amusement. But with respect to the princi- 
 -ples on which a general work on biography, like that now 
 offered to the public, may be most eligibly planned, different 
 opinions will probably be entertained ; and it cannot be imper- 
 tinent to anticipate the doubts and objections which may arise 
 on this subject in reflecting minds, by stating some of the leading 
 considerations which have guided the authors in their present 
 undertaking. 
 
 The most prominent circumstances attending a work of' this 
 kind, are selection,, compass, and arrangement. To speak of the 
 latter first, as requiring the least discussion ; although the al- 
 Jihahetical order \s yoxd of all claim to ingenuity, yet its great 
 convenience, together with the insurmountable difliculties ac- 
 companying every other method, v.licn attempted to l)e put 
 into practice, have given it the same preference witli us, that it 
 has generally obtained witli our brother-v/r iters. If any one 
 who has conceived of peculiar advantages likely to result from 
 some otlier mode of arrangement — that, lor instance, according 
 to classes of persons — will make the experiment, he will prc- 
 
 VOL. I. A
 
 « 
 
 scntly fuul so many doubts arise \vith respect to llie cjasslfication 
 of individuals, and such a necessity for subordinate divisions, 
 framed ujion dilTcrcnt and incompatible principles, that he will 
 perceive the danger of inextricable confusion. 
 
 Schct'wn is the niost important ])oint, and at die same time 
 the most dillicult to adjust, in a design of Uiis nature. For 
 though our work bears the name of general, and is essentially 
 meant to sustain that character, still selection is a necessary 
 task. In the long lapse of ages from the first records of history, 
 the names of those who have left behind them some memorials 
 of their existence have become so numerous, that to give an 
 account, however slight, of every person who has obtained 
 temporary distinction in every walk of life, would foil the in- 
 dustry of any writer, as well as the patience of any reader. 
 Fame, or ceklmly, is the grand principle upon which the choice 
 of subjects for a general biography must be founded ; for this, 
 on the whole, will be found to coincide with the two chief 
 reasons that make us desirous of information concerning an indi- 
 vidual — curiosity, and the wish of enlarging our knowledge of 
 mankind. But under the general notion of celebrity, many 
 subordinate considerations arise, which it will be proper here to 
 touch upon. 
 
 The great affairs of the world are frequently conducted by 
 persons who have no other title to distinction than merely as 
 they are associated with these affairs. With abilities not at all 
 superior to those of a clerk in an ofhce, or a subaltern in a regi- 
 ment, the civil and military concerns of great nations are often 
 managed according to a regular routine, by men whom the 
 chance of birth alone has elevated to high stations. Such cha- 
 racters appear in history with a degree of consequence not really 
 belonging to them ; ^nd it seems the duty of a biographer in 
 these cases to detach the man from his station, and either entirely 
 omit, or reduce to a very slight notice, the memorial of one 
 w^hose persr,'ial qualities had no real influence over the events of 
 his age, and afford nothing to admire or imitate.
 
 3 
 
 There is a class of personages to whom the preceding remark 
 may be thought in a p^ecuhar manner to apply — that of here- 
 ditary sovereigns, many of whom have stept into the throne and 
 quitted it, without having served for more than to mark out a 
 particular portion of the national history. But since the degree 
 of power entrusted in their hands renders the personal character 
 of even the most insignificant of them not without importance; 
 and since the chronological series of leading events in a country 
 is best learned by associating it with their names; it has been 
 thought advisable in the present work, to insert every individual 
 of all the principal dynasties, ancient and modern, with a sum- 
 mary of their reigns, more or less particular, according as they 
 have exerted a greater or less personal influence over the occur- 
 rences in them. In these lives, as in all others of men enga^-ed 
 in public affau's, it has been our peculiar aim to make a distinc- 
 tion between hiograjihical and historical matter, and to give the 
 former in as ample, the latter in as concise a form, as was com- 
 patible v;ith our general views. It is impossible absolutely to 
 separate the twd departments ; yet it is obvious that biography 
 alone properly belongs to the person ; and that historj'^, referring 
 more particularly to transactions, blends the exertions of many 
 individuals into one common agency, without being very solici- 
 tous to assign to each his exact share in the result. 
 
 That interesting class which lays claim to the. remembrance 
 of posterity on account of distinction in art, science, or litera- 
 ture, depending solely on personal qualifications, and commonly 
 acting individually, might seem to admit of an easier estimate 
 of relative merit than the preceding. But the number of. 
 claimants is so great, that, in the impossibility of commemo- 
 rating ail, many names must be rejected, which, on the first 
 glance, may seem as worthy of insertion as their preferred rivals. 
 The difficult work of selection ought in these cases to be 
 regulated by some fixed principles ; and the circumstanC'CS 
 which appear to be most worthy of guiding the decision, are 
 those oi i^ivention, :ivA.imjirovement.
 
 4 
 
 None ap]K*ar to us to have a more decisive claim to bio- 
 graphical notice than inventors ; including in the class all who, 
 by the exercise of their faculties in an original path, have 
 durably added to the stock of valuable products of human skill 
 and ingenuity. Perhaps, in the history of the human mhid, 
 there is nothing more curious dian to trace the operations ot an 
 inventive talent, working its way, often without any foreign aid, 
 and deriving from its own resources the means of overcoming 
 the successive difliculties which thwart its progress. It is in 
 such a ])rocess that the distinguishing powers bestowed upon' 
 n-!an arc most surprisingly exerted, and that the su])eriority of 
 one individual over the --common mass is most luminously 
 displayed. How much higher, as an intellectual being, does a 
 Brindicy rank, directing the complex machinery of a canal, 
 which he himself has invented, than an Alexander at the head 
 of his army! A Newton, who employed the most exquisite 
 powers of invention on the sublimest objects, has attained a 
 point in the scale of mental pre-eminence, which perhaps no 
 known mortal ever surpassed. 
 
 Between invention and hnjirovement no precise line can be 
 drawn. In reality, almost all the great discoveries in art or 
 science have arrived at perfection through the gradual advances 
 given to them by successive improvers, who have exercised a 
 greater or less degree of invention on the subject. When the 
 addition made has been something considerable, the improver 
 seems to have a just title to have his name perpetuated; and 
 accordingly we have been careful not to omit recording every 
 person, of whom it may be said, that any of the nobler pursuits 
 of the human mind received from his labours a conspicuous 
 advancement. The attainment of uncommon excellence in 
 any particular walk, though not attended with what can strictly 
 be called improvement, may be regarded as a just cause for 
 commemoration; since it implies a vigorous exertion of the 
 faculties, and rffords animating examples of the possibility of 
 effecting extraordinary things. Many painters, sculptors, mu- 
 
 i
 
 slcians, antl otlicr artists of high reputation, come under this 
 head, and liavc been noiiccd accordingly. 
 
 The class known by the general term of zvnters lias pre- 
 sented to us diHiculties of selection more embarrassing than anj 
 of those hitherto mentioned. It comprehends many whose 
 claims on the biographer are surpassed by none ; for where is 
 the celebrity which takes place of that of a Ilomcr and Vir- 
 gil, a Livy and Thucydides, a Swift and Voltaire r But from 
 such sreat names there are all the shades of litcrarv distinction 
 down to the author of a pamphlet; and where must the line 
 be drawn ? Desirous of rendering our work as well a book of 
 reference for the use of men of letters, as a store of biogra- 
 phical reading, we have extended our notices of authors much 
 beyond what the single circumstance of remaining celebrity 
 would warrant ; and it has been our pui-pose to include some 
 account of all those persons whose works still form part of the 
 stock of general literature, though perhaps now ratlier occa- 
 sionally quoted than perused. We are sensible, however, that, 
 with respect to the individuals who come under this description, 
 infinite differences of opinion must prevail ; and VvC can only 
 assert that v.'e have, in our several departments, exercised our 
 judgment on this head with all the intelligence and impartiality 
 of which we were capable. 
 
 Two other circumstances by w^hich selection may be affected 
 are, country and age. We have seen no general biographical 
 work which is free from a decisive stamp of nationality ; that is, 
 which docs not include a greater number of names of natives of 
 the country in which they were composed, than the fair pro- 
 portion of relative fame and excellence can justify. Perhaps 
 this fault is in some measure excusable, on account of the supe- 
 rior interest taken by all nations in eminence of their own growth ; 
 and if readers are gratified by such a deference to their feelings, 
 writers will not fail to comply with their wishes. We do not 
 pretend to have made no sacrifices of this sort ; but being sensible 
 that disproportion is a real blemish in a v/ork, and that in this
 
 instance it partakes of the nature of injustice, we hope we shall 
 be found not to have exceeded the bounds of moderation in this 
 particular. We have most sedulously endeavoured to avoid the 
 more serious fault, of awarding to our countrymen individually, 
 more than their due share of merit in comparison widi foreign 
 competitors. In this point we would be truly citizens of the 
 world. 
 
 The circumstance of age or jieriod in which the claimants 
 have lived, has an operation similar to that of country. We are 
 much more impressed with the relative consequence of persons 
 who have trod the stage of life within our own memory, than 
 of those whose scene of action has long been closed, though 
 equally eminent in their day. Of course, curiosity rs more ac- 
 tive respecting the former ; and to this natural predilection It 
 may be proper for the biographer to pay some deference, pro- 
 vided he does not too much infringe the principle of equitable 
 proportion, which ought essentially to regulate a vt^ork, professing 
 to comprehend every age of the world, as well as every country. 
 One cause that will alwavs give to modern and domestic articles 
 somewhat more than their exact share of extent, is the greater 
 case and copiousness with which information respecting them is 
 usually obtainable. This presents a temptation to prolixity, 
 which a writer can with difficulty resist. 
 
 Prolixity, however, we have in all cases studiously avoided ; 
 which leads us to speak of the remaining consideration, viz; 
 that of the comjiass we have allowed ourselves. Biography will 
 certainly bear to be written much at large; and in judicious 
 hands it is often die more entertaining and instructive the more 
 it is minute. But with so vast a subject before us as the lives 
 of eminent men of all ages and nations, it is obviously imprac- 
 ticable to employ a very extensive scale; and the aim must 
 rather be, to give a set of characteristic sketches in miniature, 
 than a series of finished and full-sized portraits. The scope we 
 have taken admits, in our opinion, of such an execution with 
 regard to all characters of real eminence ; and we hope v/c have
 
 •tfismissed few of tliat class, without fully answering the leading 
 biographical questions, What was he ? What did he ? His 
 moral and intellectual qualities, the principal events of his life, 
 his relative merit in the department he occupied, and especially, 
 the manner in which he was first formed to his art or profession, 
 with the gradations by which he rose to excellence, have engaged 
 our attentive inquiries, and we have endeavoured to develope 
 them with all the. accuracy that conciseness would allovr. But 
 having been thus diffuse M'itli respect to the higher claimants, 
 we have been necessarily reduced to very brief notices of those 
 of inferior rank. These articles we have considered as rather 
 designed for being consulted than read ; and we have comprised 
 under a few short heads of information, all that we had to say 
 •concerning thejn. 
 
 If we have faithfully observed the rules of composition above 
 suggested, it is evident we cannot have been mere copyists or 
 translators ; since we may venture to assert, that no model 
 exists of a work of this species, executed with any degree of 
 ' uniformity, upon such principles. For our materials, it is true, 
 we must in general have been indebted to the researches of for- 
 mer historians and biographers. The acknowledged accuracy 
 and impartiality of many of these will justify a liberal confi- 
 dence in their statements of fact, especially when confirmed by 
 mutual agreement. But, in melting down- the substance of 
 different narrations into one, in proportioning the several parts, 
 in m.arking out the characteristic features of the portrait, and in 
 deducing suitable lessons and examples of human life, we have 
 freely exercised our own judgments, and have aspired, at least, 
 to the rank of original writers. 
 
 '■•"V''' Besides the references to authorities occasionally given in 
 the substance of articles, at the end of every one are printed in 
 Italic the names of all the authors who have been consulted in 
 compiling the narrative. But it is to be understood that, in 
 general, we have derived from these sources the matter of fact 
 alone, not the sentiments and refections.
 
 ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 1 
 
 THE future volumes will be conducted as nearly as possible in the 
 same spirit with that now presented to the public. The new literary assist- 
 ance which the deatli of Dr. Enfield has rendered neceflary, has already- 
 been in part secured, and will in due time be made known to the en- 
 couragers of the undertaking. 
 
 i
 
 J)e3Qrg>J.cap m^t de xn Li^t-o-cevende Stceixen JJRlU_enriLXJMNllM.A.a'an.iieiaa^da.xix.r.rJ^s.s-3'
 
 GENERAL BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 A. 
 
 A. 
 
 A A R 
 
 .AGARD, Christian, a Danish poet, 
 was born at Wibourg, in the year 1616. He 
 was professor of poetry at Sera, and after- 
 wards lecturer in theology at Ripen, in Jutland. 
 Among other Latin poems, he wrote " Threni 
 Hyperborei," [Lamentations of the North] 
 published, in folio, in the year 1648, on the 
 death of Christian IV. king of Denmark. Se- 
 veral of his pieces are inserted in the second 
 volume of " Delicise Poetarum Danorum." 
 He died in the year 1664. BarthoUni B'lhlloth. 
 Septentr. Erud. Moreri. — E. 
 
 AAGARD, Nicholas, brother of Chris- 
 tian Aagard, was professor in the university at 
 Sora, in Denmark, where he also occupied the 
 office of librarian. He died in 1657, ^' ^'^'^^ 
 age of forty five years, and left behind him 
 several philosophical and critical works, written 
 in Latin ; among which are, " A Treatise on 
 Subterraneous Fires ;" " Dissertations on Ta- 
 citus;" " Observations on Ammianus Mar- 
 cellinus ;" and a " Vindication of the Style of 
 the New Testament." Barthol. Blbl. Scptent. 
 Erud. Morcfi. — E. 
 
 AARON, a Hebrew, of die tribe of Levi, 
 the elder brother of Moses, was born about the 
 year 1574 before Christ. Nothing is known 
 concerning him, more than is recorded in the 
 Hebrew Scriptures, from which we learn the 
 following particulars. Moses having been ap- 
 pointed to rescue the Hebrews from their cap- 
 tivity in Egypt, made choice of his brother 
 Aaron as his associate in this undertaking. 
 Being himself defective in the powers of speech, 
 he thought it necessary to engage a colleague, 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 A A R 
 
 who should be able to supply tliis defect. Li 
 the repeated interviews of Moses with Pha- 
 raoh, king of Egypt, to obtain his permission 
 for the departure of the Hebrews, and in his 
 public communications with his countrymen, 
 Aaron accompanied him, and " spake for him 
 to the king and to the people." Aaron's rod 
 was a principal instrument in the wonders per- 
 formed before Pharaoh. After Moses had ex- 
 torted the king's consent, when he led the He- 
 brews out of Egypt and passed the Red Sea, 
 Aaron accompanietl him, and assisted him in 
 the management of this discontented people. 
 In the course of their journey, Miriam, Aaron's 
 sister, jealous for the honour of the Hebrew 
 race, remonstrated with Moses for having mar- 
 ried an Ethiopian, and was seconded in the 
 remonstrance by Aaron. While Moses was 
 withdrawn from the people, receiving the law 
 on Mount Sinai, they became exceedingly dis- 
 satisfied at his absence, and, notwithstanding 
 the wonderful events which had attended their 
 deliverance from Egypt, requested Aaron to 
 " make them gods, who should go before 
 them." Aaron complied widi their request, 
 and, from the car-rings which were found 
 among the people, framed a golden calf, which 
 they worshipped as the god who had rescued 
 them from Egyptian bondage. In the law, 
 delivered by Moses to the people, it was or- 
 dained, that Aaron and his sons should be in- 
 vested with the offices of priesthood. This grant 
 excited much jealousy among the Israelites, and 
 occasioned an insurrection, which was, how- 
 ever, speedily suppressed. Aaron, who had
 
 A A R 
 
 ( 
 
 ) 
 
 ABA 
 
 been appointed liigli-pricst, continucJ to occupv 
 tliis liigh station, till, at a vcn- aJvanccil pcriocl, 
 in the picscnce of tlieasscmbloJ people, lie traiis- 
 fcrrcil tlic mbcR ot' his offii e to his son Klcu^cr, 
 and died i»pon NJount Hvu , 
 
 From the few particulars preserved concern- 
 ing Aaron, little can be gathered with respect 
 to liis character. The request of the Hebrews 
 that Aaron shouKl make them a golden calf, 
 may -be accounted for from their long inter- 
 course with the Egyptians, among whom this 
 . kind of id<jlatrv prevailed ; but it may be more 
 . difficult to assign a reason, which will excuse 
 the conduct of Aaron in complying with their 
 retjuest. Perhaps he might be terrified into 
 compliance by the threats of the jjcoplc ; for 
 his apology to Moses was, " thou knowest the 
 jicoplc, tiiat they are set on mischief." In 
 what manner Aaron acquitted himself in his 
 por.tifical office, wc are not informed ; hut, 
 through the whole course of his connection 
 widi Nioscs, he appears to have acted die part 
 of a faithful and useful associate. Exod. iv. v. 
 xxxii. NtimL ■^K. Joseph. Ant'iq. lib. ii. c. 13. 
 — E. - 
 
 AARON, a Briton, honoured with the title 
 of saint, according to Venerable Bede, in the 
 year 1303, suffered martyrdom with his brotlier 
 Julius, during the persecution of the emperor 
 Dioclcsian. Accounts remain of two churches, 
 detlicated to St. Aaron and St. Julius, in which 
 tiieir bcdics were intened, at Caer-Leon, the 
 ■iK-icnt metrcpolis of VValcs. Bcd<e Eccl. lib. 
 i. Gil aid. Cnrr.br. Itin. lib. v. Biographla 
 Britannica. — E. 
 
 .•I A RON, the Caraite, a learr.ed Jew, flou- 
 rished about the year 1299. He left many 
 works on the Olvi Testament, among which 
 is one, upon whicii father Simon, an excel- 
 lent tTitic, sets great value, and which he fre- 
 quently cites in his " Critical History of the 
 Old Testament ;'' it is er.iitled, " A Commen- 
 tary upon the Pentateuch." It was written in 
 Hebrew, rnd was printed in folio, with a Latin 
 translation by Dan/.ius, at Jena, in 17 10. The 
 author is to be distinguislied from another 
 Aaron, a Caraiie Jew, the author of a concise 
 Hebrew grair.mar, entitled " Chelil Jophi," 
 [I'he FerfLCtion of Beauty] prinicil in 12 mo, 
 at Constantinople, in 1 581. Simon, Hist. Crit. 
 du Ticux Test. lib. ii. c. 31. Afoicri. — E. 
 
 AARSENS, Francis, lord of Somcisdyck, 
 was the son of Cornelius Aarsens, register of 
 tfie states of the United Provinces. He was early 
 employed in public affii-rs, and in 1598 was ap- 
 pointed rtsident for the Statesatthe court of Hen- 
 ry IV. of France. Upon this footing he resided 
 
 there till 16Q9, when, on the twelve years' truce 
 with S|iain, he was acknowledged as embassa- 
 dor, and was the first minister of the republic 
 who received that honour in France. He re- 
 mained in that country fifteen years, much fa- 
 voured and honoured by the king, who raised 
 him to the rank of nobility. Afterwards, his 
 attachment to the interests of his own coun- 
 try made him obnoxious to the F'rencli king 
 arid ministers ; and being recalled, he was em- 
 ployed by the States in various missions to Ve- 
 nice, to several princes in Germany and Italy, 
 and also in extraordinary embassies to France 
 and England. This last country he visited in 
 the years 1620 and 1641 ; the latter time, to 
 negotiate the marriage of the prince of Orange 
 with a daughter of Charles 1. He revisited 
 France at the beginning of t!ie administration 
 of Richelieu, who had a high opinion of him. 
 Of all his negotiations he has left very exact 
 memoirs, which show him to have been one of 
 the ablest men of his time, and fully deserving 
 of the confidence which was placed in him by 
 his country. It should not, however, he con- 
 cealed that he showed a bitter enmity to the re- 
 monstrants, and is supposed to have been the 
 principal adviser of the violent measures pur- 
 sued by prince Maurice against the venerable 
 patriot Barneveldt. The assembling of the fa- 
 mous and persecuting synod of Dordrecht is also 
 atiributed chiefly to his counsel. He died at an 
 advanced age, possessed of a large property. 
 He left behind him one son, known by the 
 name of Mons. de Soinelsdyck, and reckoned 
 the richest man in Holland. Bayle. Mod. Univ. 
 Hist.— A. 
 
 ABA, Albon, or Ovon, king of Hungary, 
 married the sister of St. Stephen I. in conse- 
 quence of which he was elected on the deposi- 
 tion of Peter, in 1041. The emperor Henry III. 
 preparing soon after to restore Peter, Aba made 
 an incursion into his dominions, and brouglit 
 back a great booty, but was next year obliged 
 to make restitution, and pay a large sum, in 
 order to prevent an invasion from the emperor- 
 Thinking himself now confirmed on the throne, 
 he treated with great seveiity the malcontents, 
 and rendered himself universally odious to his 
 nobility, fifty of whom he put to death on ac- 
 count of a conspiracy. Their dislike of him 
 was aggravated by the familiarity with which 
 he treated the lower class of people, whom he 
 often admitted to his conversation and table ; aii 
 indulgence shocking to the prejudices of the aris- 
 tocracy. A revolt was raised against him by the 
 fugitive nobles, aided by the emperor and mar- 
 quis of Moravia, in which, after a bloody battle
 
 ABA 
 
 ( S ) 
 
 ABA 
 
 fought near Javarin, Aba was obliged to fly to 
 the village of Scocbc near tiie 'I'eiss, where he 
 was murdered bv his own soldiers, in 1044. Mod. 
 Univ. Hist. Hht. dc Hongr'u par Sacy. — A. 
 
 ABAKA-Khan, eighth emperor otrhe Mo- 
 gols, of theraceofZingis, wastheson of Hulagii, 
 who, in 1264, left him heir to the kingdoms of 
 Irak, Mazanderan, and Khorasan. • During his 
 reign the IMusulmans enjoyed great repose, the 
 Mogols lived in exact discipline, the ruins of Bag- 
 datwere repviired, and the arts and sciences revi- 
 ved. Abaka, however, had fomewarsto sustain. 
 In the beginning of his reign, Barkah Khan, king 
 of Bokharia, attempted to break into Persia 
 through the straits of Caucasus, but was de- 
 feated by Abaka's brother. He returned foon 
 after with a prodigious army, and having pene- 
 trated to Teflis in Georgia, was about to give 
 battle to tl'iC Mogols, wlien he was carried ofF 
 by a sudden illness, and his troops dispersed. 
 Borak-Khan, another prince of the fame race 
 with Barkah, afterwards passed the Amur with 
 a great body of horse, and reducing Khorasan, 
 advanced to Aderhijan, where he was met by 
 Abaka, who near 'he city of Herat obtained a 
 great victory over him, and forced him back 
 across the Amur. T he Egyptians having 
 made incursions into Anatolia, Abaka repulsed 
 them ; and in 1280, on the accession of sultan 
 Seifeddin to the throne of Egypt and Syria, 
 Abaka sent an army into the latter country in 
 order to take possession of it. The first expe- 
 dition was only a predatory incursion ; but in 
 1282, Mango i'imur, Abaka's younger brother, 
 inarched with a large army, accompanied by 
 the king of Armenia ; and encountering the 
 Egyptians between Hamah and Hems, was de- 
 feated, and soon after died. Abaka himself 
 di<l not long survive. In the same year, hav- 
 ing celebrated Easter-day in the church of the 
 Christians at Hamadan, he partook of a mag- 
 nificent teast the next day, given bv a Persian ; 
 after which he was taken ill, and died in a short 
 time. It was suspected that he was poisoned by 
 the contrivance of his first ininister. D' H(r- 
 lelot. Blhl. Orient. Univ. Hist. — A. 
 
 ABANO, PetrusDe. See Apono. 
 
 ABARIS, a native of Hyperborean Scythia, 
 is more celebrated as an impostor than as a phi- 
 losopher. Writers differ widely concerning the 
 time when he lived. Porphyry and Jamblichus 
 make him contemporary w ith Pythagoias, and 
 mention a conversation which he had with that 
 philosopher, while he was detained prisoner by 
 Phalaris: but little credit is due to the accuracy 
 of writers who are so credulous as seriously to 
 lelate that Pythagoras showed his golden thigh 
 
 to Abaris, and that Abaris passed through the 
 air, over land and sea, on a golden arrow, which 
 he had received from tlie Hyperborean Apollo. 
 Passing liy this tale of a witch riding upon a 
 broomstick, we may mention, as better entitled 
 to credit, the story that in the time of a general 
 pestilence, probably in the third Olympiad, or 
 B. C. 768, when the oracle directed that the 
 Athenians sliould be requested to sniiplicate the 
 gods for all other nations, Abaris was sent on this 
 embassy from Scythia. In the course of his tra- 
 vels, he is said to lia\ e delivered prophecies, and 
 written oracles, which remained extant long af- 
 ter his death : they are now lost, but probably the 
 loss is not much to be regretted. Herod, lib. iv. 
 c. 36. Diod. Sic. lib. iii. c. 1 1, yamblich. Vit. Py- 
 thag. c. 28. Eiiseh. Chron. n. 1568. Suidas ad 
 Harpocrat. Clem. Alex. Strom.-\\\i. i. Bayle. — E. 
 
 ABAUZIT, h'iRMiN, a learned Frenchman-, 
 librarian of Geneva, was born at Use/,, in Lan- 
 guedoc, in November 1679. He lost his father 
 at two years of age. The edi6t of Nantz. was 
 at. that time revoked, and the French protcflants 
 were commanded to bend their consciences to the 
 will of Louis XIV. or submit to tlie cruelties 
 of persecution. Young Abauzit's mother, who 
 was a protestant, experienced its terrors. To 
 fecure her son from danger, and afford him the 
 benefit of education, she with difficulty convey- 
 ed him to Geneva. From his tenth to his nine- 
 teenth year, his time was devoted to learning ; 
 and, after making great proficiency in languages, 
 history, and antiquities, he studied mathematics, 
 natural history, physics, and theology. To 
 finish his education, he travelled in the year 
 1698 into Holland, where he became acquaint- 
 ed with Bayle, Basnage, and Jurieu. Thence 
 he passed over -into England, where he was in- 
 troduced to fir Ifaac Newton, as a young man 
 deeply conversant in mathematical studies. That; 
 great man discerned and appreciated his irierit, 
 and fent him his Commercium Epistolicunt, ac- 
 companied with the following honourable testi- 
 mony in writing : " You arc well worthy to 
 judge between Leibnitz and me." The reputa- 
 tion of Abau7.it became known to king William, 
 who attempted, by a handsome olfl-r, to detain 
 liim in England, but he'chose to return to Geneva. 
 
 Here, devoting himself to study, Abauzit, in 
 1 7 15, entered into the society, formed for the 
 purpose of translating the New Testament iirto 
 the French language; and the clergy, of whom, 
 chiefly, the society consisted, acknowledged 
 themselves indebted to him for useful assistance 
 in this important work, 'i'he University, in 
 1723, offered him the chair of philosojihy, 
 which he refused, pleading the weakness of his.
 
 A B A 
 
 ( 4 ) 
 
 ABB 
 
 <'on'!iituiion. and of liis t;il nis. The former 
 ple.t was all<T\vctl to be valid ; the latter, his 
 irii-iuls, who knew his rmiiicnt qunhlicaiions, 
 could not adtnit. In 1727, Abau/it was (irc- 
 scntcd with the freedom of the city of Geneva, 
 and ap|K)inied to the office of libiarian to the 
 city. «hich, laying him under no buidenfomc 
 restraint, he cheerfully aceeptcd. It may be 
 ouestioned, whether this excellent man was not 
 (leticient in the duty which he owed to his age, 
 in with-holding the instructions, which he was 
 so well able to give. He was relii;ious by prin- 
 ciple, and a Ciiristian upon conviction. He de- 
 fendeil religion to the time of his death, and em- 
 ployed some of his last days in endeavouring to 
 establish its evidence. Pious without hypocrisy, 
 virtuous witliout austerity, he loved mankind ; 
 he sought to he useful to them ; and he never 
 blamed others for thinking diffeiently from him- 
 self. His knx- of simplicity appeared in all his 
 actions; he shunned ceremouy, and retired from 
 flattery. His conversation, always heard with 
 cageriiefs, was delivered without ostentation. 
 Even the exterior of his house, and ot his person, 
 discovered an unaffected dislike of parade and 
 luxury. Always himself, he was always tlie 
 nioilesT, tlic wise Abau/.it. This valuable man 
 died, lamented by the republic, and regretted by 
 the learned, in the year 1767, at the advanced 
 age of 87 years. 
 
 Voltaire is said to have paid a fiuc compli- 
 ment to Abair/.it. A stranger, having said to 
 the poet of Fcrney, tliat he was come to Ge- 
 neva to see a great man, Voltaire asked him, 
 whether he had seen Abauzit ? 
 
 Abauzit left behind him some writings, chief- 
 ly theologii al. Of these tlie principal was, an 
 '• Essay upon the Apocalypse," written to show 
 that the canotiical authority of the book of Re- 
 velation was doubtful, and to apply the predic- 
 tions to the destruction of Jerusalem. Tiiis 
 work was sent by the author to Dr. Twells, 
 in London, who translated it from French into 
 Englilli, and added a refutation, widi which 
 Abauzit was so well fatisficd, that he desired 
 his friend in Holland to stop an intended im- 
 pression. The Dutch editors, however, after 
 his death, admitted this essay into their edition 
 of his works, which, besides, comprehends, 
 " Reflections on the Eucharist;" " on Idola- 
 try ;" " on the M\ sterics of Religion ;" " Pa- 
 raphrases and Explanations of sundry Parts of 
 Scripture ;" several critical and antiquarian pieces, 
 and various letters. An edition, without the 
 Essay on the Apocalypse, was printed at Ge- 
 neva, in 8vo. in 1770. 
 
 Thefe writings, though valuable, by no 
 
 means afford an adequate idea of the merit of 
 Abauzit. To judge of the dejith of his phy- 
 sical and mathematical knowledge, it must be- 
 rcmemhered, that he defended Newton against 
 father Castel ; that he discovered an error in. 
 tlie Pi'mcipia, at a time when there were few 
 people in Eiiroi^e capable of reading that work ; 
 and that Newton corredled the error in the se- 
 cond edition. Abauzit was one ot tlie first 
 who adopted the grand conceptions of New- 
 ton, because he was a geometrician fufficiently 
 learned to see their truth. He was, withal, per- 
 fectly acquainted with many languages ; he un- 
 derft'ood ancient and modern history so exactly, 
 as to be master of all the principal names and 
 dates: he was so accurate a geographer, that 
 the celebrated Pococke concluded, from his mi- 
 nute descrijitiou of Egypt, that he must, like 
 himself, have travelled in that country : he had 
 a very extcnilve knowledge of physics ; and 
 lastly,' he was intimately conversant with medals 
 and ancient manuscripts. All these different 
 sciences were so well digested and arranged ita 
 his mind, that he could, in an instant, bring 
 togedier all that he knew upon any subject. 
 Of this we shall add a striking example. Rous- 
 seau, in drawing up his Dictionary of Music, 
 had taken great pains to give an accurate ac ■ 
 count of tlie music of the ancients. Convers- 
 ing with Abauzit upon the subject, the librarian 
 gave him a clear and exact account ot all that 
 he had with so much labour collected. Rous- 
 seau concluded, that Abauzit had lately been 
 studying, the subject; but this learned man, of 
 whom it might almost literally be said that he 
 knew every thing, and never forgot any thing, 
 xmaffeftedly confeffed, that it was then thirty 
 years fince he had inquired into the music of 
 the ancients. It was, probably, owing to the 
 strong iinpression which this incident made 
 upon the mind of Rousseau, that the only pa- 
 negyric which he ever wrote upon a living; 
 person, and at the same time one of the tinest 
 of his elogcs, was addressed to Abauzit. Hist. 
 Lit. dc Geneva tar Scticbier, vol. iii. p. 63, &c. 
 — E. 
 
 ABBADIE, James, a celebrated protesfanl 
 divine, was born at Nay, in Beam, in 1654, 
 or, according to Niceron, in 1658. He studied 
 at Sedan, and took the degree ot doctor in di- 
 vinitv ; but not being able to exercise his cleri- 
 caj functions with safety in his own country, 
 he accompanied the count d' Espense to Ber- 
 lin, where he was appointed minister of tlie 
 French church, established under the patronage 
 of the elector of Brandenburg. After the death 
 of tlie elector, Abbadie accompanied marshal
 
 • .1- ,/r/' 
 
 f^ti/t^/on t/i/'i'^i- f
 
 ABB 
 
 ( 5 ) 
 
 A B B 
 
 Schombcrg to Holland, wheie he fell into tlic 
 train of the prince of Orange, and passed over 
 with liim into England. He was zealously at- 
 tached to the interests of king William, and to 
 the principles of the rcvolntion, of which he 
 wrote an able defence. In his profcffional ca- 
 pacity he acquitted himself witli great reputa- 
 tion ; and he was the author of a treatise " on 
 the Truth of the Christian Religion," written 
 in French, and translated into Englisli and 
 Dutch ; a work which was universally read, 
 and esteemed an excellent defence of revelation. 
 His clerical preferment docs not appear to have 
 been equal to his merit. The deanry of Killaloe 
 in Ireland, with other appendages, afforded him 
 a slender income. After a tour to Holland, he 
 paid a viiit to his friends in London, where he 
 was taken ill, and died in the year 1727. 
 
 Abbadie appears to have been attached to 
 the cause of civil and religious freedom both bv 
 fituation and principle. It may be regretted, 
 that he somewhat discredited the independence 
 of his spirit, by writing, while in Berlin, a pa-- 
 negyric on the electoi' of Brandenburg, and af- 
 terwards in England, another on queen Mary. 
 He was, however, a good scholar, an eloquent 
 preacher, and an able divine. He possessed un- 
 common powers of memory : he is said to have 
 composed his works, throughout, in his head, 
 and not to have committed them to writing, but 
 as they were wanted for the press. Befides the 
 works already mentioned, he 1\as left little that 
 deserves particular notice : his last performance, 
 on the Apocalypse, entitled, " The Triumph of 
 Providence and Religion in the Opening of the 
 Seven Seals," was tancitui and visionary. His 
 works were all written in French. Niceron, 
 Mem. dcs Hommcs 111. torn. 33. Biog. Brit. — 
 E. 
 
 ABBAS, EP.x Abdalmotkleb, uncle of 
 Mahomet, was at first hostile to his nephew, 
 ■whom he regarded as an impostor and traitor 
 to his country. He was taken prisoner at the 
 battle of Beder, and s£t at a high ransom. On 
 complaining to his nephew, that it was hard 
 to reduce his uncle to beggary, MahomeT, who 
 knew that he had money concealed, «a id to him, 
 " Where are the purses of gold that you gave 
 your mother to keep when you left Mecca ?" 
 Abbas, who thought thi? transaction secret, was 
 much surprised, and began to entertain such an 
 opinion of his nephew, that he embraced his 
 religion. He afterwards became one of Ma- 
 homet's principal captains, and was with him in 
 the battle of Honain fought against the Thakef- 
 ites. In this combat Mahomet was brought 
 into imminent danger, and would have perished, 
 
 had not Abbas, who ha^l a very loud voice, re- 
 called the fugitives, and animated them to his 
 defence. Abbas was also one of the first doc- 
 tors of Islamisni, the whole of whose science 
 consisted in being able to repeat and explain 
 the Koran, and ])reserve in their memory cer- 
 tain apocryphal histories ; but in this he w;is 
 greatly surpassed by liis son. The Musulmans 
 had a great veneration for Abbas ; and the ca- 
 liphs Omar and Othman never pafled hiin on 
 horseback without dismounting to salute him. 
 He died in the year of theHegira 32, A. I). 6 53. 
 
 Abul-abbas, surnamcd Safrali,oue of his grand- 
 sons, was caliph a century after his dcatii, and 
 gave commencement to the dynasty of the Ab- 
 bassides, who possessed this dignity 524 years. 
 D'Hcrbclot, Bibl. Orient.— A. 
 
 ABBAS I. (Shah) the Great. This fainous 
 Perfian king was tlie third son of Shah Mo- 
 hammed Kiiodabandch, and was born about 
 A. D. 1558. He was at first governor or king 
 of Khorasan ; but, on the murder of his bro- 
 ther Isinael (who had himself caused that of 
 his elder brother Hamzeh), he succeeded to the 
 throne of Persia in 1585. One of his first ac- 
 tions was to put to death, partly with his own 
 hand, his tutor Murrtiid, to whom he had been 
 indebted for his life and crown, but who fliowed 
 a disposition to keep him in subjection ; and 
 this bloody deed, in a barbarous and despotic 
 country, was confidered as an indication of the 
 vigour of charadler, and ability for governing, 
 which he afterwards displayed; 
 
 When he ascended the throne, Pcrfia waS 
 divided among more than twenty princes, who 
 had usurped their governments, and rendered 
 themselves independent There was also a body 
 of troops, resembling the janizaries in Turkey, 
 who kept all former sovereigns under controul. 
 These, as well as the leading families, were of 
 the race of Kurchi, or Turkmans ; and were 
 aflbciated for mutual defence, so a« to set the 
 supreme authority at defiance. It was theic- 
 fore the great objeiSf of Abbas to destroy till 
 the ancient families, and refonn the refractory 
 troops; a design in the main justifiable, though 
 he {)ursued it with all the perfidy and cruelty 
 that have ever distinguished eastern policy. 
 
 Abbas began his public exploits by a war- 
 fare of three years against Abdallah, khan of 
 the Usbecks, who had invaded Khorazan. It 
 terminated in the capture and death of the khan, 
 and all his family. Abbas then visited Ispahan, 
 with the situation of whicli he was so much de- 
 lighted, that he made it the scat of his ernpirc. 
 He next undertook an expedition against the 
 Otliman liirks, from whom he took. Tauris,
 
 ABB 
 
 ( 6 ) 
 
 A B B 
 
 and various cities aiiJ provincts in that nci^ll- 
 boui liooil ; valid by ai\ act of t!ic basest pci Hdy 
 and ingratitude, he massacral all the thitts of 
 the Kurds, who had assisted him in takinir the 
 strong town of Oiumi. He next subdued tiic 
 provinces of Shirwan and Ghilan, on the west- 
 ern coast of the Caspian sea, and made roads 
 through the most difficult parts of those coun- 
 tries. Tlic Turks in the mean time advanced 
 \sith a prodigious army to Tauris, but were 
 driven back, after fome bloody anions, by Ab- 
 bas. And on a second invasion, two years af- 
 teavards, though tliey took Tauris, and gain- 
 ed several advantages, they were in the end 
 compelled to retreat. An interval of twenty 
 years ensued, during which Persia enjoyed tran- 
 quillity ; but at the expiration of this term, the 
 Turks made a third irruption, in conjunction 
 •with the Krim Tartars. They were, however, 
 finally repulsed bv one of the generals of the 
 Shah. 
 
 Abbas then made an expedition into Geor- 
 gia. Finding his foldiers much addicted to the 
 ufe of tobacco, he prohibited it, and enforced 
 his order by causing the noses and lips ot of- 
 fenders to be cut off. A merchant, ignorant of 
 the prohibition, coming into the camp with 
 some bags of tobacco, was by the Shah's com- 
 mand set upon a pile of faggots, and consumed 
 in the midfl of his merchandize. 
 
 This cruel disposition was soon after exer- 
 cised in a very tragical manner on his own fa- 
 milv. Befides a vaft number of concubines. Ab- 
 bas had three wives, who bore him as many 
 ions. The two younger were, according to 
 custom, deprived of their sight. The elder, Safi 
 Mirz.a, had been instigated by some nobles, wea- 
 ried with the father's tyranny, to join in a con- 
 spiracy against his life, and ascend the throne in 
 his stead. Safi, widi filial duty, difcovered the 
 plot to his father ; but he thereby infused an in- 
 curable suspicion into the mind of Abbas ; and 
 this was only to be removed by his death. The 
 father proposed his son's execution to a brave old 
 general, who at the liazard of his own life re- 
 fused the deed. Another was not so scrupulous. 
 He met the prince coming from the bath on a 
 mule, attended only by a single page ; and feiz- 
 ing his bridle, bid him alight and die, in obedience 
 to the royal pleafure. The prince exclaimed 
 against the injustice of the sentence, but added, 
 " Since it is God's jileasure thus to dispose of me, 
 his w ill, and the king's, be done." He immedi- 
 ately received tw o stabs, and fell dead at the feet 
 of his executioner. This act, even in Persia, 
 occasioned a dangerous tumult of the people ; 
 and the mother of the murdered prince ran to 
 
 the Shah's apartment, and with bitter reproaches- 
 tore liis face ^^ ith her naiK. Abbas bore it pa- 
 tiently, and was contented with vindicating hi.: 
 conduct, from tlie danger of his own lite. He 
 even felt poignant rcmorfe. He shut himself up 
 ten days with his eyes covered, lived a month 
 ujion sjiarc diet, mourned a whole year, and 
 never afterwards wore clothes which could di- 
 stinguisli him from those of the meanest condi- 
 tion, f Ic likewise converted the place where his 
 son was killed into a sanctuary. 
 
 His bloody disposition, however, was rather 
 irritatctl than softened by this disaster. He in- 
 vited all the khans whom he suspected to a ban- 
 quet, and caused them to die in his presence by 
 poison; and alter having, according to promise, 
 rcwardt;d his son's executioner by making him a 
 khan, he obliged him to cut off his own son's 
 head, that he might feel the wretchedness he had 
 been instrumental in occasioning. That his 
 grandson, of whom he was fond, might not 
 cultivate popularity as his father had done, Ab- 
 bas caused opium to be administered daily to him, 
 in order to stupefy and weaken his faculties. 
 
 Proceeding in the course of conquest, he 
 took from the Kurds the kingdom of Lar, com- 
 prising a considerable part of Pars, or Persia 
 proper. He also, in 1613, invaded Georgia, 
 then shared between two princes, whom, by 
 his deceitful policy, he detached from their mu- 
 tual defensive alliance, and then, by means or 
 various acts of perfidy, drove from their king- 
 doms and ruined. He secured the country by 
 building numerous fortresses and filling them 
 with Persians, and by transporting above 80,000 
 families of Georgians into different provinces of 
 his own dominions, filling their places with Ar- 
 menians and Persians. About the fame time 
 he took the city of Bagdat from the Turks, and 
 next year rejiulsed the general who came to 
 recover it. Two years after^vards, the Shah's 
 general gave a signal defeat to another Turk- 
 ish army which advanced for the fame pur- 
 pofe. This victory was so welcome to Ab- 
 bas, that, going to meet his general, he dis- 
 mounted, and compelled him to ride his horse, 
 while he himself and his khans followed some 
 paces on foot. 
 
 One of the most remarkable successes of Shah 
 Abbas was the taking of Ormuz in the Persiaa 
 gulf, from the Portuguese; in which exploit he- 
 received great assistance from an English fleet", 
 vvhith thus retaliated on the Portuguese the 
 molestation rliey had given to their trade. The 
 place surrendered to the English, who delivered 
 up the military stores and all the Mahometans 
 to the Shah's general, and iu return obtained a
 
 ABB 
 
 ( 7 ) 
 
 ABB 
 
 very atlvantagcoiis commercial treaty for their 
 nation. This happened in 1622. 
 
 Ahout the end of 1628, Shah Abhas, being 
 at his favourite palace of Fcrebail in Mazande- 
 ran, fell sick ; and perceiving the disease to be 
 dangerous, he sent for four ot the cliicf men of 
 Jiis council, and declared iiis grandson Sain 
 IVlirza, tiie son of Safi, his successor. He com- 
 manded his death to be kept concealed till the 
 succession was fecured ; and for this purpofc 
 directed that his body should be daily exposed 
 in the hall of justice in a chair of state for six 
 weeks, witli the eyes open, and the back to the 
 hangings, behind which an aga was to stand, 
 who with a string should make a motion with 
 the arm by way ot anlwcr to questions propofed 
 from the other end of the hall. By this ridicu- 
 lous farce his death was kept a secret for six 
 weeks. In order to conceal the real place of 
 his funeral from his subjects, probably through 
 fear of violation of his remains, he ordered his 
 obsequies to be celebrated in three places at the 
 same time. It is probable that he was buried at 
 none of them ; but at Cufa, near the sepulchre 
 ot Ali. He died in the seventieth year of his 
 age, after a reign of forty-three years over Per- 
 sia, and fifty over Khorasan. Shah Abbas was 
 of a low stature, with a keen aspect, small and 
 fiery eyes, a high hooked nose, a sharp beard- 
 less chin, and long thick mustachios bending 
 downwards — a physiognomy altogetlter suited 
 to his character ! 
 
 By the Persians, who arc accustomed to per- 
 fidy and cruelty, the memory of Shah Abbas is 
 lield in great veneration : and it is certain that 
 he was in many respects an useful sovereign to 
 his countrv. By destroying the power of the in- 
 dependent khans, and the standing army, he in- 
 troduced peace and good order at home. He 
 was tond of those acts of rigorous justice which 
 render a prince popular, and are easy to a de- 
 spot ; but in these he displayed that cruel and 
 ferocious disposition which appears in all his 
 acts, and often punished the innocent with the 
 guilty. His encouragement of commerce was 
 beneficial to his subjects, though probablv he 
 was excited to it onlv by a desire of enriching 
 himself. He made alliances with European 
 princes against the Turks ; and gave privileges 
 to foreigners who were disposed to trade in his 
 dominions. It was by means of his liberality 
 that the Armenians were enabled to extend the 
 bilk trade through great part of the East. He 
 settled them in Julfa, a suburb of Ispahan, 
 which soon vied in riches and population widi 
 the city itself. An instance of his good sense 
 appeared in the pains he took to substitute a re- 
 
 ligious pilg4<ij-nage to the tomb of the imam 
 Riz/.a in his own country, to that of Mecia, 
 which carried great sums of money among fo- 
 reigners and enemies. He adorned his empire 
 with many magnificent and useful works, in 
 short, comparei! with the ignorant and weak 
 des])ots who generally occupy the tlironcs of 
 the East, he may merit the title of Cheat \ if 
 that be at all compatible with perfidy, injustice, 
 and cruelty. Mod. IJmvers. Hist.— A. 
 
 ABBAS II. (Shah) was great-grandson of 
 Shah Abbas I. and succeeded his father. Shah 
 Safi I. in 1642, at the age of thirteen. His 
 reign affords few memorable events. He as- 
 sisted the prince of the U/.liek Tartars against 
 his own children, who had risen in rebellion ; 
 and recovered the province of Kandahar from 
 the great Mogul. His generals made some inef- 
 fectual attempts to reduce the prince of Jaskes, 
 whose country lies on the coast of the Indian 
 sea. Several other military expeditions, of 
 which little is known, took place in his reign. 
 The Shah himself had the character of great 
 capacity, and a good disposition ; yet the stories 
 related of him are little to his honour. He was 
 much addicted to excesses in wine and women ; 
 and, if not naturally cruel, was however led by 
 intemperance and the spirit of despotism into 
 several acts of cruelty. He was fond ot strangers, 
 and had a taste for the arts ; which may account 
 for the encomiums he has received from some 
 Eurojiean travellers ; yet Tavernier, who had . 
 near access to him, has little better to relate con- 
 cerning him than some scenes of low debauch, 
 and a trivial curiosity for works of European 
 mechanism. After a reign of twenty -four years, 
 he died miserably in consequence ot a venereal 
 disease caught from a dancing-girl, which his 
 irregularity would not suffer to be treated pio- 
 ])erly. This was in 1666. He was buried at 
 Koni under a magnificent sepulchre, of \vhich 
 a draught is given by the celebrated traveller, 
 Chardin. AfoJ. Urilvcrs. Hist.— A. 
 
 ABBASSA, sister of the caliph Haroun al 
 Raschid, a lady of extraordinary talents, is 
 chiefly known by her tragical and singular tor- 
 tune. Her brother niariicd her to his fivoiu- 
 ite vilir Giaffar the Barmecide, but under the 
 hard condition that they should never apjiroach 
 nearer to each other than would suffice for the 
 indulgence of words and looks. Youth and mu- 
 tual passion tempted them to break through the 
 restriction ; and the consequences ot this dis- 
 obedience \vere such as could not be long con- 
 cealed. Abbassa was delivered of twins (ac- 
 cording to some writers), who were sent to be 
 pri\ately educated at .Mecca ; but the secret was
 
 ABB 
 
 ( 8 ) 
 
 ABB 
 
 bftraved to the caliph. In a fit of despotic rage 
 he caused the husband to be put to death, and 
 turned his sister out of the palace, to confront 
 the extremes of hardship and want. Several 
 years afterwards she was recognised by a lady 
 who had known her in her prosperity, and was 
 asked what had brought her into that wretched 
 condition. " I once (said Abbassa) possessed 
 4CX) llaves ; I have now no other property than 
 two sheep- skins, one of which serves for my 
 upper, the other for my under garment. I at- 
 tribute my misfortunes to ^vant of gratitude to 
 God for former blessings. I am penitent and 
 content." The lady presented her with 500 
 kilver drachms, which flie received widi as much 
 joy as if she liad been restored to her former 
 .splendor. It appears from some tender Arabic 
 verses of hers whit h have been preserved, that 
 the first disclosed to Giaflar the passion by which 
 «he was consumed. D'llabelot, B'lbl. Orient. 
 —A. 
 
 ABBO DE Fleuri, a Benedictine monk of 
 the icrh century, was born in the territory of 
 Orleans, and educated in the abbey of Fleuri, and 
 afterwards at Paris and Rheims. He made great 
 proficiency in theology, dialectics, geometry, 
 astronomy, music, and rhetoric. Oswald, bi- 
 shop of Worcester, in 985, applied to this mo- 
 nastery for a proper literary preceptor, for the 
 abbey of Rainsay, of which he was the founder,, 
 Abbo was sent over to England for this purpose ; 
 and his singular merit soon obtained him re- 
 spect with king Ethelrcd, and the English nobi- 
 lity. Returning to Fleuri, he was, upon the 
 death of the abbot, elected his successor. Ar- 
 noul, bishop of Orleans, not contented with his 
 spiritual jurisdiction over the monastery, de- 
 manded that the abbot should acknowledge him- 
 self his vassal, and as such rake the oath of feal- 
 ty- This Abbo peremptorily refused, alleging 
 that the abbey depended upon the king alone for 
 its temporalities. At the council of St. Denys 
 in 995, this monk strenuously opposed the at- 
 tempts of the bishops to deprive the monks and 
 laics ot the tithes which they possessed ; and the 
 populace taking the part of Abbo, raised a tu- 
 mult, which obliged the clergv to break up the 
 council without accomplifliing their purpose. 
 To justify his conduct to the reigning princes, 
 Hugh Capet and Robert his son, Abbo publish- 
 ed an " Apology," dedicated to them, which was 
 afterwards printed, at the head of a collection of 
 his letters, in folio, at Paris in 1687. Abbo 
 was zealously attached to the monastic discipline, 
 and at last fella victim to his zeal. Undertaking 
 to restore the discipline of Rcole, an abbey sub- 
 oidmatc to that of Fkuri, a tumult was excitedj 
 
 in which he received a mortal wound : he died 
 in the year 1004. Abbo wrote an abridgment 
 of the Lives of the Popes, down to the pontifi- 
 cate of Gregory II. which was published in 4to. 
 at Mentz, in 1002, Histoire Lit. de la France, 
 Morcri. — E. 
 
 ABBOT, George, in the reigns of James I. 
 and Charles I. archbishop of Canterbury, was 
 born at Guilford in Surrey, October 29th, 1562. 
 He was the son of Maurice Abbot, a cloth- 
 worker. In his childhood he imbibed from his 
 parents, who, under the reign of queen Mary, 
 had suffered persecution, a zealous attachment 
 to the protestant interest, and consequent aver- 
 sion to popery, which strongly marked his cha- 
 racter through the whole of his future life. He 
 received the rudiments of classical learning 
 in the frci-'-school at Guilford; and, in 1583, 
 became a student in Baliol college, Oxford. 
 Having passed through the usual course of gra- 
 duation. Abbot was elected master of University 
 College, and was three times appointed vice- 
 chancellor of the university. With these high 
 academic honours he enjoyed the clerical dig-, 
 nity of dean of Winchester. It cannot be doubt- 
 ed, that Dr. Abbot owed his advancement, in part 
 at least, to his learning : this may be concluded, 
 from his first publication, "Quasstiones sex toti- 
 dem Prffilectionibus in Schola Theologica Oxo- 
 niae habitis," [Six Questions discussed in six 
 Lectures read in the Divinity-School of Ox- 
 ford] printed at Oxford in 1598, and reprinted 
 in 1616, at Frankfort ; and with still greater cer- 
 tainty, from his obtaining, in 1604, the second 
 place in the list of eight learned men of Oxford, 
 to whom was entrusted the important charge of 
 translating the historical parts of the New Tes- 
 tament. Perhaps, too, his early advancement 
 might be, in part, owing to his zeal for the 
 protestant cause: for, in the reign of queen Eli- 
 zabeth, this was a powerful recominendation ; 
 and Abbot, during his residence at Oxford, had 
 given frequent proofs of his aversion to po- 
 pery. He discovered an early disaffection to 
 doctor, afterwards archbishop, Laud (Heylin's 
 Life of Abp. Laud, p. 53, 54.), and was active 
 in promoting tlie censure, passed upon him for 
 a sermon [)reached before the university. In a 
 dispute, which arose concerning the propriety 
 of replacing the cross at Cheapside, which, in 
 1600, had been taken down to be repaired, he 
 gave it as his decided opinion, that the crucifix 
 with the dove upon it should not be set up 
 again, but that a pyramid, or some other stone 
 merely ornamental, should be placed in its stead. 
 (Cheapside Cross censured and condemned, 410. 
 Loud. 1641.) His opiuioa oa this matter was.
 
 ABB 
 
 ( 9 ) 
 
 ABB 
 
 liowevcr, in part over-ruled ; and the primate 
 and bishops, who seem to have been no stran- 
 gers to the value of the prudent maxim, media 
 tntijjimus ibis, determined tliat the cross only 
 sliould be erected, without the body, or the 
 dove. 
 
 A new patli of ascent to clerical honours now 
 opened before Abbot. King James, who, though 
 a native of Scotland, was fond of the English 
 hierarchy, earnestly wished to establish an 
 union between the churches of the two king- 
 doms. This important commission he entrust- 
 ed to the care of his treasurer in Scotland, the 
 earl of Dunbar ; and Abbot, whose character 
 for discretion had been long established, was 
 fixed upon as a proper person to accompany 
 the treasurer as his chaplain, and assist him in 
 the arduous task of bending the necks of the 
 Scotch clergy to the yoke of episcopal juris- 
 diction. By the prudent management of the 
 dean, aided, perhaps, by the powerful influence 
 of some seasonable distributions from the trea- 
 sury, (Calderwood's Hist, of the Church of 
 Scotland, p. 588.) this favourite object was, 
 vithout much opposition, so far accomplished, 
 that the bishops were appointed to be perpetual 
 moderators in the diocesan synods, and to pos- 
 sess the power of presentation to benefices, and 
 of deprivation, or suspension, of ministers, with 
 other privileges. The success of this commis- 
 sion was highly gratifying to the king; and 
 Abbot, to whose judicious exertions this success 
 was principally owing, from this time stood 
 high in his royal master's favour. Another 
 circumstance, which contributed to ingratiate 
 him with James, was, that, during his residence 
 in Edinburgh, an account being published by 
 judge Hart of the trial of George Sprot, w^ho, 
 on his ovi^n confession, was convicted and exe- 
 . cuted for being concerned in Cowrie's conspi- 
 racy, Abbot prefixed to this account a preface, 
 which cleared up that mysterious affair to the 
 satisfaction of the king and the public. Possi- 
 bly, too. Abbot might be a little indebted for his 
 good fortune to adulation ; for we find that he 
 so far adopted the fashion of the times, as, in 
 the preface just mentioned, to load his royal 
 master with the following fulsome panegyric : 
 " His whole life has been so immaculate and 
 unspotted in the world, so free from all touch 
 of vlciousness and staining imputation, that 
 even malice itself, which leaveth notliing un- 
 searched, could never find true blemish in it, nor 
 cast probable aspersion on it : zealous as Da- 
 vid ; learned and wise, the Solomon of our age ; 
 religious as Josias, careful of spreading Christ's 
 faith as Constantine the Great ; just as Moses ; 
 VOL. 1. 
 
 undefiled in all his ways, as a Jclio:;apha!, or 
 Hezekias ; full of clemency, as another Theo- 
 dosius." 
 
 Abbot now possessed a considerable portion 
 of the royal confidence, and was consulted by 
 the king on the propriety of his interfering as a 
 mediator between the crown of Spain and the 
 United Provinces. Of the dean's opinion upon 
 this business we have no other information than 
 from a singular letter from the king to Abbot, 
 first published by Sherlock, dean of St Paul's. 
 From this letter it appears, that Abbot's ideas of 
 regal power were, at this time at least, not very 
 consistent with the principles of libert)'. To the 
 king's enquiry', " whether a Christian and a 
 protestant king may concur to assist his neigh- 
 bours in shaking off their obedience to their 
 own sovereign, upon the account of oppression 
 or tyranny ?" he gave, it seems, a reply in the 
 negative, on the slavish principle, that even ty- 
 ranny is God's authority. (New Obscrvator, 
 vol. iii. Numb. 12.) In the present case the 
 good dean may be allowed to have had some 
 merit in bringing forward even this servile doc- 
 trine, at a time when it did not suit the king's 
 convenience to listen to it. There was not, 
 however, much danger that he would give such 
 a prince as James lasting offence by such doc- 
 trine ; and we are not surprised that the king 
 dismissed the argument and the doctor, with 
 this piece of pleasantry : — " Mr. Doctor, I have 
 no time to express my mind further on this 
 theory business ; I shall give you my orders 
 about it by I\Ir. Solicitor; and until then, meddle 
 no more in it, for they are edge-tools ; or rather 
 like that weapon, that is said to cut with one 
 edge and cure with the other." 'ihe event 
 proved, that the doctor's notions on this " theo- 
 ry business" were not very olTensive to his ma- 
 ster ; for, very soon afterwards ecclesiastical ho- 
 nours w'ere lieaped upon him in rapid succes- 
 sion ; first, the bishopric of Litchfield and Co- 
 ventry ; then the mitre of London, and about 
 two years afterwards, in April 161 1, the ar- 
 chiepiscopal see of Canterbury. 
 
 To this summit of ecclcsi.istical preferment 
 Abbot arrived in the midst of manv envious ri- 
 vals, among whom were several dignitaries who 
 were inclined to favour the papists : and his 
 learning, probity, and industry enabled him to 
 sustain the buiden of his high ofiice with repu- 
 tation. Some tacts, however, occurred in the 
 course of his life, which jilainly showed, that, 
 though at the head of what migiit tlien be call- 
 ed tlie low party in the church, and though a 
 decided enemy to the superstition and intole- 
 rance of the Romish church, his mind was 
 c
 
 ABB 
 
 ( 10 ) 
 
 ABB 
 
 deeply tincrared with the tyrannirul principles, 
 r.ml bigotcJ spirit, of the age. The same prin- 
 ciples, wfiich had before prompted him to dis- 
 courage the king from assisting the Dutch in 
 regaining tl»eir liberty, now inclined him, as 
 soon as he was vested with the .niprcme eccle- 
 siastical power, to assert in their full extent the 
 prerogatives of his office, as exercised in the 
 higli couit of commission, and to refuse sub- 
 mission to those restrictions, which that upright 
 judge. Sir Edward Coke, attempted to put upon 
 its formidable and oppressive jurisdiction ; (Win- 
 wood's Memorials, fol. 1725. vol. iii. p. 281. 
 394.) concerning which judge Blackstone says, 
 that " in tlie reigns of James and Charles I. 
 means were found to vest in the high commis- 
 sion cxtiaordinary and almost despotic powers 
 of fining and imprisoning." (Comment, b. iii. 
 oil. 5.) At a subsequent period, however, 
 we shall find the tone of the archbishop's poli- 
 tical principles considerably lowered. 
 
 With respect to religious opinions, archbi- 
 shop Abbot was a rigid Calvinist ; and his zeal 
 for the reformed faith, according to his own 
 .standard, was accompanied with so little libe- 
 rality, that he was scarcely less inclined to 
 treat with severity the protestant heretics on one 
 side, than the Roman catholics on the other. 
 When Conrade Vorstius, who had, in Hol- 
 land, written, in Latin, an Arminian treatise, 
 *' On the Attributes of God," was nominated to 
 a professorship in the university of Leyden, the 
 archbishop, as appears from authority which 
 the author of the Confessional (See Confession- 
 al, p. 285. 3d ed. Brandt's Hist, of the Ref. vol. 
 ii.p. 19. Winwood's Memorials, vol. iii. p. 296.) 
 has in vain attempted to invalidate, persuaded 
 the king to interpose his protest, by means of 
 his minister Sir Ralph Winwood, in the assem- 
 bly of the States-General, against the admission 
 of this heretic to the professional chair. And, 
 when this effort of bigotry met with unexjiect- 
 ed opposition, it was with an ill grace tliat the 
 archbishop concurred in the pitiful expedient of 
 postponing the decision till the opinion of the 
 churches of France, Germany, and other coun- 
 tries, on the subject, could be collected. 
 
 The powerful effect of prepossession to mis- 
 lead the judgment Is singularly exemplified in 
 an interview, wiiich, in consequence of tlie af- 
 fair of Vorstius, took place between Abbot and 
 the illustrious Grotius. In hope of giving the 
 king a more favourable idea of the Arminians, 
 or remonstrants, of Holland, this great man, 
 who was their most able advocate, came over 
 to England, and had several conferences with 
 the king and the bishops. From the archbishop's 
 
 own letter to Sir R. Winwood, we learn that 
 Grotius, though so eminent for learning, ge- 
 nius, and judgment, intro<iuced under an unfa- 
 vourable association, appeared to Abbot in no 
 better light than that of an impertinent prater, 
 nide and troublesome by his garrulity. A pas- 
 sage in this letter is too curious to be omitted. 
 " You must take heed how you trust Dr. Gro- 
 tius too far ; I perceive him to be so addicted to 
 some partialities in those parts, that he feareth 
 not to lash, so it may serve a turn. At his first 
 coming to the king, bv reason of his good Latia 
 tongue, he was so tedious, and full of tittle-tat- 
 tle, that the king's judgment was of hii», tliat 
 he was some pedant full of words, and of no 
 great judgment. And I myselt, discovering that 
 to be his habit, as if lie did imagine that every 
 man was bound to hear him so long as h& 
 would talk (which is a great burden to inen re- 
 plete with business), did privately give him no- 
 tice thereof, that he should plainly and directly- 
 deliver his mind, or else he would make the 
 king weary of him. This did not so take place,, 
 but that afterwards he fell to it again, as was e- 
 specially observed one night at supper at the lord 
 bishop of Ely's, wliither being brought by Mr, 
 Casaubon (as I think), my lord entreated him 
 to stay supper, which he did. There was pre- 
 sent Dr. Steward and another civilian, rrntc* 
 whom he flings out some questian of that pro- 
 fession, and was so full of words, that Dr.. 
 Steward afterwards told my lord, that he did 
 perceive by him, that like a smatterer he had 
 studied some two or three questions, whereof 
 when he came in company he must be talking 
 to vindicate ; but if he were put from those, he 
 would iliew himself but a simple fellow. There 
 was also Dr. Richardson, the king's professor 
 of divinity in Cambridge, and anotlier doctor 
 in that faculty, with whom he falleth in also- 
 about some of those questions, which are now- 
 controverted ainong the ministers in Holland r 
 and being matters wherein he was studied, he 
 uttered all his skill concerning them ; my lord 
 of Ely sitting still at the snpper all the while, 
 and wondering what a man he had there, who, 
 never being in the place or company before, 
 could overwhelm them so with talk for so long 
 a time." (Winwood's Mem. vol. iii. p. 459.) 
 For a simple fellow, tins Grotius seems, from 
 the archbishop's own account, to have played 
 his part tolerably well ainong these doctors. If 
 the preceding passage will remain an unequivo- 
 cal proof of Abbot's want of skill and discern- 
 ment in jndging of characters, other parts of the 
 letter clearly evince his want of candour. Dis- 
 pleased with Grotius for presuming to advise
 
 ABB 
 
 ( II ) 
 
 ABB 
 
 the king not to give his judgment hastily con- 
 cerning points lit' religion then in clitiercnce in 
 Holland, for that his majesty hud intbnnation 
 but of one side, the archhisliop indulges himself 
 in invective against the remonstrants. " Gro- 
 tius," says lie, "might have let his majesty 
 know liovv factious a generation these contra- 
 ilicters are ; how they are like to our puritans 
 in England ; how refractory they are to the 
 authority of the civil magistrate, and other 
 things of the like nature. After this oblique 
 stroke at the puritans, we cannot easily credit 
 the report that he secretly favoured them, and 
 admitted their leading men to his private conti- 
 dence. 
 
 We pass on to affairs in which our metropo- 
 litan appears with greater advantage. In the 
 business of the divorce between the earl of Es- 
 sex and lady Frances Howard, referred to a 
 court of delegates, consisting of bishops and ci- 
 vilians, although it was well known that the 
 king and the court were desirous of the divorce, 
 the archbishop, who foresaw that it would af- 
 ford public countenance to licentious gallantry, 
 vith inflexible firmness gave his vote against it, 
 and afterwards wrote a vindication of himself, 
 (Case of the earl of Essex and lady Frances 
 Howard) which was answered by the king, 
 but without producing any alteration in the 
 archbishop's opinion or conduct. 
 
 From this time it is probable, that Dr. Ab- 
 bot's interest with the king declined : he, how- 
 ever, made use of the queen's favour, to intro- 
 duce to the royal patronage George Villiers, af- 
 terwards duke of Buckingham, who at first ex- 
 pressed tlie warmest gratitude to the archbishop, 
 calling him father, and requesting his advice 
 how to conduct himself in his new post, but 
 whose subsequent enmity against his benefactor 
 Was such, as brought to the archbishop's recol- 
 lection the reflection of Tacitus, that benefits 
 while they may be requited are valued as sucli ; 
 but when they are so great that they cannot 
 be repaid, they become occasions of hatred. 
 (Rufliworih's Hist. Collect, vol. i. p. 460.) 
 
 The archbishop's zeal for the protestant in- 
 terest, which never deserted him, was shewn, in 
 the pains which he took to promote the mar- 
 riage of the princess Elizabeth to the elector 
 Palatine ; in the polite attention which he paid 
 to the elector during his visit to England ; and 
 in the importunity with which, in a letter (Ca- 
 bala, 3d ed. p. 102.) written to the secretary 
 of state while he was confined in bed by the 
 gout, he urged the king to support, with a mili- 
 tary force, the elector's claim to the crown of 
 Bohemia. 
 
 In tlic year 1621 an accident happened, wliich 
 occasioned the archbishop much trouble and vex- 
 ation. The declining state of liis health requir- 
 ing that he should use much e>;ercisc, he some- 
 times took tlie diversion of hunting. Discharg- 
 ing from a cross-bow an arrow at one of tlic 
 deer in lord Zouch's park, it unfortunately flruck 
 Peter Hawkins, his lordship's gamc-kcejicr, anii 
 the wound i)roved mortal. The affair, though 
 it appears to have been a perfect casualty, with- 
 out any indiscretion on the jjart of the arcli- 
 bishop, gave him such lasting uneasiness, that 
 from tiiat time til! his death he kept, on this ac- 
 count, a monthly fast. He settled an annuity 
 on the unfortunate man's widow. The arch- 
 bishop's enemies did not fail to sci/.e the oppor- 
 tunity, \\hich this accident presented, of briiig- 
 •ing him into discredit. They attempted to re- 
 present the affair in an imfavourable light to the 
 king ; but he smartly replied, " An angel might 
 have miscarried in this sort." Doubts were 
 raised, whether tiiis action might not amount 
 to an irregularity, which disqualitied him for 
 sacred offices. A commission was appointed 
 to examine tlie merits of the case ; and it was 
 determined, that there had been an irregularity, 
 and that it must be expurgated both by a j)ardon 
 from die king, and by a dispensation to rein- 
 flate Abbot in his metropolitan authority. Ail 
 this was not sufficient to remove the delicate 
 scruples of those who were now waiting for 
 consecration; and they obtained the king's per- 
 mission to receive it from the hands of simdry 
 bishops. It does not appear that this affair at 
 all abated the archbishop's zeal and courage in 
 withstanding any measures, which seemed inju- 
 rious to the protestant cause. On this ground 
 he strenuously opposed the marriage of prince 
 Charles to the infanta of Spain, both by a per- 
 sonal address to the king on presenting tlie re- 
 monstrance of the house of lords ; and by a let- 
 ter (Rushwordi's Collect, vol. ii. p. 85. Frank- 
 land's Annals of K. James, p. 80.) to his ma- 
 jesty, (if die letter be genuine, of which some 
 doubts have been entertained) in which he re- 
 probates in strong terms the toleration of popish 
 doctrines. If we condemn the bigotry, we must 
 admire the intrepidity, of this conduct ; and it 
 is pleasing to find that it did not diminish the 
 archbishop's interest in the king's favour; though 
 he seldoin assisted him in the council, he attend- 
 ed him frequently during his last illness, and 
 was with him when he expired. 
 
 Under the next reign, die current of court 
 favour turned towards the ecclesiastical party 
 w-hich countenanced the Roman catholics ; anci 
 the enemies of the archbishop, among whom the.
 
 ABB 
 
 ( 12 ) 
 
 ABB 
 
 mo^r forwani was the ungrateful duke of Buck- 
 ingliam, dctcrmiiicJ to bring him to disgrace. 
 When an occasion of otfencc is wantai, it is 
 soon found. A sermon was prcaihed at the 
 Lent a';siscs in 1627 by Dr. Sibthorpe, the pur- 
 port of which was, to justify and support the 
 loan which Charles had demanded. This ser- 
 mon was transmitted to the archbishop, with 
 the king's order to license it for the press. Ab- 
 bot, whose political principles appear at this 
 time to have been more liberal than in the early 
 part of his life, refused to obey the king's com- 
 mand ; and the sermon, after some corrections, 
 ■was licensed bv the bishop of London. Such 
 was the resentment of the king and the court at 
 this refusal, that the archbishop received a com- 
 mand to retire, and was suspended from the 
 offices of metropolitan jurisdiction. (Rush- 
 worth's Collections, vol. ii. p. 435. 438.) It 
 was soon, however, found necessary to recal 
 him ; and he returned to his public post, with 
 the same notions of constitutional rights, and 
 the same firmness in maintaining them : for 
 when the Petition of Right was under consi- 
 deration, he gave it his decided support ; and 
 when \)t. Manwaring was brought to the bar 
 of the house of lords, for maintaining, in two 
 serinons, the right of the king to impose taxes 
 and loans upon the people without consent of 
 parliament, he officially reprimanded him, de- 
 claring that he disliked and abhorred his doc- 
 trine. (Parliament. Hist. vol. iii. p. 209.) 
 
 In his clerical, as well as in his civil capacity, 
 archbishop Abbot acted with great steadiness 
 and consistency. As in the former reign he 
 refused to read the king's proclamation per- 
 mitting sports and pastimes on the Lord's day, 
 so now he ventured, in several Instances, to act 
 contrary to certain instructions, which, through 
 the influence of bishop Laud, were sent by the 
 king to the bishops of his province, and were in- 
 tended to favour the opinions of the prevailing 
 party. If archbishop Abbot was less zealous 
 for ceremonies than some, of his brethren, it 
 does not appear that he, in any instance, neg- 
 lected his clerical duty, or betrayed the interests 
 of the church in which he presided. One of 
 his last official actir)ns was, an order to the pa- 
 rishioners of Crayford in Kent to receive the 
 sacrament kneeling at the steps of the commu- 
 nion table. About a month after this order was 
 given, in tlie year 1633, the archbishop died at 
 his palace ot Croydon. His remains were in- 
 terred in the parish church of Guildford. 
 
 Neither the political nor the religious princi- 
 ples of archbishop Abbot agreeing with those of 
 
 the ruling paity under Charles I. it is no won- 
 der that towards the latter part of his life he had 
 many enemies, and sutfered much obloquy. He 
 seems to have been particularly obnoxious to 
 bishop Laud ; and the mutual dislike, which 
 early sprung up between them at the university, 
 appears to have continued tlirough life. We 
 see no reason to with-hold from Abbot the praise 
 of having uniformly supported the character of 
 an uj)right and worthy man. His natural tem- 
 per seems to have leaned towards the extreme 
 of severe gravity. No suspicion lies against 
 his personal virtues, and numerous testimonies 
 remain of his liberality and munificence ; among 
 which one of the principal is the erection and 
 endowment of the hospital at Guildford, tipoa 
 which he expended considerable sums during 
 his life-time. His deep contrition on account 
 of the innocent homicide which he unfortu- 
 nately perpetrated, displays a feeling heart. If 
 his religious zeal was deeply tinged with bigo- 
 try, the fault was chiefly in the times : even 
 protcstants, of all sects, were still strangers to 
 the first principles of religious freedom. His 
 political principles seem to have undergone some 
 change, but his religious system remained the 
 same ; and while Calvinism was his idol, pope- 
 ry and Arminianism were his aversion. The 
 trait of his character which appears most re- 
 spectable, and most worthy of honourable re- 
 membrance, is tlie integrity with which in all 
 situations he adhered to his principles, and the 
 firmness with wliich he supported them, in de- 
 fiance of powerful opposition, and at the hazard 
 of incurring royal displeasure. 
 
 Besides the work already inentioned, arch- 
 bishop Abbot wrote " An Exposition of Jo- 
 nah," published in 1600; a geograiihical work 
 entitled, " A brief Description of the whole 
 \Vorld," first printed in 1617, and afterwards 
 frequently reprinted ; and some temporary pie- 
 ces. Fi/Her's Abel RedlviVus. JVood's Almu 
 Oxon. and Fasti Oxon. Aubrey's Hist, and An- 
 tiq. of Surry. Neve's Lives of Protest. Arch- 
 bishops. Biogr. Brit. — E. 
 
 ABBOT, Robert, the elder brother of the 
 archbishop, born at Guildford in 15604 shared 
 his good tortune, and perhaps was not his infe- 
 rior in merit. Having passed, \\ ith great credit» 
 through the same course of education with his 
 brother, he early distinguished himself a? a 
 preacher, and his popular talents procured him 
 the living of Bingham, in Nottinghamshire. In 
 1594, he appeared as a writer against popen,^, 
 in a piece entitled, " A Mirror of Popish Sub- 
 tlety." King James, who had, at least, the
 
 ABB 
 
 ( 13 ) 
 
 A B D 
 
 merit of being the patron of learned men, ap- 
 pointed Dv. Robert Aiibot one of In's chaplains 
 in ordinary. The strong aversion to popery, 
 whicii he, togetlier with his brother, inlierited 
 from his parents and retained through h'fe, ap- 
 peared in all his writings. One of these, en- 
 titled, " Anticliristi Demonstratio" [A Demon- 
 stration of Antichrist] was so much admired by 
 the king, that he ordered his own " Paraphrase 
 on the Apocalypse" to be printed with it : " by 
 which," says Mr. Granger, " he paid himself 
 a much greater compliment than he did the 
 doctor." In 1609, Robert Abbot was elected 
 master of Baliol College ; and the manner, in 
 which he conducted himself in this difficult post, 
 did credit to the choice. His college was di- 
 stinguished by the industry, sobriety, and harmo- 
 ny of its members, and was a fertile nursery of 
 literature and science. His zeal against popery 
 was ably displayed in a course of lectures, read 
 in his college, and published after his death, 
 " On the Kmg's Supremacy :" it was also ex- 
 pressed, with singular keenness, in a sermon 
 preached before the university, in which he laid 
 open the secret methods by which certain per- 
 sons were attempting to undermine the reforma- 
 tion, with so manifest a reference to Dr. Laud, 
 who was present, that the whole auditory made 
 the application. The doctor wrote to his friend 
 Dr. Ncal, bishop of Lincoln, complaining, that 
 *' he was fain to sit patiently at the rehearsal of 
 this sermon, though abused almost an hour to- 
 gether, being pointedat as he sat," (Rushworth's 
 Collect, vol. i. p. 62.) and consulting him, whe- 
 ther he ought to take public notice of the insult. 
 As we hear nothing more of the affair, it is 
 probable that the bishop, aware that the attack 
 had not been unprovoked, advised the doctor to 
 remain quiet. Robert Abbot's talents and zeal, 
 united probably with the interest of the arch- 
 bisliop, at last obtained for him the see of Salis- 
 bury, and his brother had the gratltication of 
 performing upon him the ceremony of conse- 
 cration. On his departure fronr the university, 
 he delivered a farewell oration in Latin, which 
 was much admired. He possessed his episcopal 
 dignity little more than two years ; but dis- 
 charged his duty, during that short period, with 
 great diligence and fidelity, and left behind him 
 an unblemished reputation. Comparing the 
 merits of the two brothers. Robert and George, 
 Fuller remarks, (Worthies of England, Surry, 
 p. 82.) that "George was the more plausible 
 preacher, Robert the greater scholar ; George 
 was the abler statesman, Robert the deeper di- 
 vine." Robert Abbot died in the year 1617, 
 being one of five bishops, who succeeded to the 
 
 see of Salisbury within si.v years. The writings 
 of this prelate were chieriy levelled against po- 
 pery. He wrote several commentaries on the 
 scriptures wliich were not printed : among these 
 is a Latin commcnt.uy on tlie wliole epistle to 
 the Romans, in four volume s folio, which has 
 remained to this time, unpublished, in the Bod- 
 leian library ; a circumstance which will be the 
 less regretted, when it is observed, what nume- 
 rous volumes of jirinted commentariis on the 
 scriptures are permitted, by modern divines, to 
 sleep undisturbed on the shelves of our public 
 libraries. Fuller's JVoithlcs af E>igUind. Ifood's 
 Athen. Oxon. B'logr. Brit. Grainger's Biogr. 
 Hist, of England. 'James I, Class i. — E. 
 
 ABBl', Thomas, was born in 1738, at 
 Ulm, and died in 1766, at Biickeberg, a privy- 
 counsellor of the count of Schauinburg-Lippe. 
 Nicolai, of Berlin, composed his biography. He 
 translated successfully the historian Sallust into 
 German. He also published an original volume 
 "concerning Alerit," and another " concerning 
 Death for one's Country," which display bold- 
 ness of style, compression of thought, and inti- 
 mate familiarity with the ancient lii'-torians. He is 
 one of the earliest wi iters of the German-, who 
 retain a classical rank, and would probably have 
 excelled in history had he lived longer. — J. 
 
 ABDALLA-EBN-ZOBEIR. When the 
 caliph Moawiyah j)rocurcd his son Yc/.id to be 
 recognised as his successor, several of the Ara- 
 bian chiefs at Medina opposed this design of 
 rendering the caliphate hereditary, among whom 
 was Abdalla the son of Zobcir. Moawivah, 
 describing to his son the characters ot his oppo- 
 nents, told him, " Abdalla-ebn-Zobcir is the 
 man you ought most to fear : he is of an enter- 
 prising genius, and capable of any undertaking; 
 he will attack you with the strength of the lion, 
 and the subtlety of the fox ; and death alone can 
 free you from such an enemy." Abdalla inade 
 good the prediction of M()a\\ iyah. He retired 
 to Mecca ; and after the battle of Kerbela, in 
 which Houssain, the son of Ali, was killed, the 
 inhabitants of Mecca and Medina, witli whom 
 Abdalla had much ingratiated himself by his re- 
 ligious zeal and engaging behaviour, proclaimed 
 him caliph, A. D. 680. Hegir. 62. On the 
 news of this event, Yczid sent an officer to Mec- 
 ca, with a silver collar, commanding him to tell 
 Abdalla, that if lie would acknowledge his au- 
 thority he should remain in peace at Mecca, 
 otherwise, he must put the collar round his 
 neck, and bring him to Damascus. Abdalla 
 refusing the proposition, Yezid raised an army, 
 which first pillaged Medina, and then besieged 
 Abdalla in Mecca. The siege was carried on
 
 A B D 
 
 ( H ) 
 
 A B D 
 
 viith vigour, htu in the mean time the ili-nth of 
 Yeziil h.-ipi)cning, the army wiis withdrawn, 
 nml vMnlalla was left in peaceable possession of 
 i!if caliphate. 
 
 He was rccogni/ecl in all the provinces ot the 
 empire, except Syria and Palestine ; ami en- 
 joved his dignity nine ^-ears, till the seventy -se- 
 <:oiid vc-ar of his age, and scvcncv-third of the 
 I Ii'^ira ; for he was the first person horn at Me- 
 dina after Mahomet's arrival there. At this 
 innctuvc, the caliph .'\hdalinclik, vivo liad first 
 defeated and slain Mii'.ah the brodier of Ahdal- 
 la, sent his general. Hegiage, to besiege Mec- 
 •ca. Abdalla defended himself for the sj)ace of 
 .<!cven months, with the greatest resolution, 
 --thongh ricsertcd bv his two sons. His courage 
 ^vas sustained by his inothcr, a woman of nine- 
 t\', named Asema, grandnughter to tlie calipli 
 Abubek(.-r; wlui supported his spirits by her ex- 
 hortations, and brought refreshments with lid- 
 own hand to him and his soldiers at the breach. 
 At length, finding he could hold out no longer, 
 he took leave of his mother, swallowed a cordial 
 draught with musk, and sallied out on the ene- 
 my. He killed many ot them with his own 
 hand ; but being at last obliged to retreat, he 
 took his stand on a sjiot in Mecca where he 
 <.ould be attacked only in front, and still de- 
 fended himself. The assailants tlirew tiles and 
 stones at him ; and when he felt the blood trickle 
 down his face and beard, he is said to have re- 
 cited this verse from an Arabian poet, — " The 
 blood of our wounds falls not upon our heels, 
 but our feet." The blov.'s were repeated till he 
 fell dead under them, when his head was cut off, 
 and sent to Abdalmelik. 
 
 Abdalla is in great reputation among the Ara- 
 bian vi-riters for courage, but is noted as exces- 
 sively avaricious; so that he has given rise to a 
 kind of proverb, " That there was never a 
 brave man who was not liberal, till Abdalla the 
 son of Zobcir." He was in much esteem for 
 piety, and is recorded to have been so intent on 
 prayer, that a pigeon once alighted on hi^ head 
 \vhile he was thus employed, and sat long with- 
 out his perceiving it. ' D''Herhcl<jt, B'lblioth. 
 Orient. jV/arigny, Hist, des Arabes. — A. 
 
 ABDALLA-EBN-ALI, an eminent captain 
 of the Saracens, was uncle of the two first ca- 
 liphs of the Abassides, and was very instrumental 
 in raising that family to the throne. He was 
 the general of his nephew- Abul-Abbas-al-JafFah, 
 and gained tor him a great battle against the ca- 
 liph Merwan. After the death of that prince 
 he caused his nephew to be proclaimed caliph, 
 and was made by him governor of Syria. Here 
 he used the most treacherous arts to get into his 
 
 possession tire chiefs of the house of Ommijah, 
 \vliom he massacred in a very inhin-Aan manner. 
 Tile cruelties he inflicted upon the unfortunate 
 partisans of this family are scarcely surpassed by 
 any thing recorded in history, and render the me- 
 mory of Abdallali detestable. Thev cavscd the 
 surname of Al jaffah, or Shcdderof Blood, to Ue 
 given to his nephew, though he is not accused o»' 
 sharing in them. During the reign of this caliph, 
 AbdiJlah possessed great audiority; but at his 
 death he could not iubniit to become a subject 
 of his secoml nephew, Abu GiafFer A!manz.or, 
 but caused himself to be pi-oclaimcd at Darnas- 
 cus, alleging that the caliphate ^^■as not heredi- 
 tary, but elective. He raised a stiong army, an<l 
 marched against his ncpliew; but he was met au'l 
 totally tkfeated by the general Abu Moslem, 
 and obliged to fly for refuge to Bosra. Here he 
 concealed himself several months ; but his retreat 
 being at length discovered, he was enticed by his 
 nephew, with the same arts he had himself used 
 again t the Ommijans, to venture himself at 
 court, where he was at first graciously rcceivC'd. 
 A house was built for him, the foundations of 
 %\'hich are said to have consisted of salt. These 
 suddenly giving way on the aifusion ot water, 
 he, with many friends, was crushed to death 
 under the ruins. This happened, A. D. 754. 
 D'Herbdot, BibL Marigny, Hist, des Arabes. 
 — A. 
 
 ABDALMELTC, son of Merwan, and tenth 
 caliph, was raised to the throne at his father's 
 death, being about 40 years of age, A. D. 684, 
 Hegir. 65. It is said that he received the news 
 of hi^ elevation when sitting with the Koran in 
 his lap, and that he cried, folding it up, " Di- 
 vine book, I must now take leave of thee !" 
 
 As Abdalla-ebn-Zobeir held Mecca against 
 hirn, he with gieat policy substituted the reli- 
 gious pilgrimage to Jerusalem in place of that to 
 Mecca, causing a relic, called Jacob's stone, to 
 be set up for veneration in the mosque of Jerusa- 
 lem. The great business of his reign was to re- 
 duce the rebels who possessed part of the empire, 
 in which he completely succeeded by means of 
 his generals, so as to become the inost potent of 
 the caliphs who had hitherto reigned. Under 
 hiiT), likewise, sorne nations of the Indies were 
 conquei-ed, and the Mahometan arms first pene- 
 trated into Spain. Yet his own personal quali- 
 ties were not worthy of such success. He was 
 treacherous and cruel ; and so avaricious, that he 
 obtained the name of Rash-al-hegiarat, or sweat 
 of a stone. Amru the son of Said, governor of 
 Damascus, having revolted against him, sup- 
 ported by a strong party, the caliph agreed to an 
 accommodation, and seemed reconciled to him.
 
 A B D 
 
 ( ^5 ) 
 
 A B D 
 
 Soon after, however, sending for him to his pa- 
 lace on some pretence, he put him into fetters, 
 bitterly upbraided him, and struck out two of his 
 teeth. Being tlieu summoned to tlie mosque, he 
 gave orders to his brother to put Amru to death. 
 Ilie remonstrances of the unfortunate Amru had 
 such an effect on the brother of Abdahnehc, that 
 he was unable to execute the command. On 
 which, riie cahph, wrth his own hands, and in 
 a butcherly manner, killed Amru; but the cruel 
 action threw him into sucli a fit of trembhng, 
 that he fell down upon the body. 
 
 When the head of Musab, the brother of 
 Abdalla, after his defeat, was brought to Abdal- 
 melic, an old officer present made an observation 
 •which strongly characterises those times. " I 
 have seen, said he, the head of Hossein brought 
 to Obeidollah, that of Obridollah to Almoktar, 
 that of Almoktar to Musab, and' now Musab 's 
 is brought to you." This remark struck the 
 caliph so deeply, that he left the castle where he 
 was, and ordered it to be demolished. The suc- 
 cess of his general in taking Mecca, with the 
 death of his rival Abdalla, is mentioned under the 
 latter person'^ life. Various rebelhons took place 
 after this, which gave rise to many vicissitudes 
 of fortune, but in the end were all terminated by 
 the valour of the caliph's general, Hegiage, who 
 Is said to have behaved with great cruelty to- 
 wards the vanquiflied. 
 
 Abdalmelic died about the 2ist year of his 
 reigTi, and 6oth of his age, A. D. 705, Hegir. 86. 
 He left 16 sons, four ot whom reigned af- 
 ter him in succession. This caliph was so great 
 an enemy to the house of Ali, that he could not 
 endure the praises that the poet 1^'erozdac had in 
 several places of his works lavished on them. 
 He is cominended for moderation towards the 
 Christians, whom he left in possession of a church 
 at Damascus, which they would not give up at 
 his demand. He is asserted to have been the first 
 who coined Arabic money. D'Hcrbelot, Bibl. 
 Afaiigny, Hht. des Arabei. — A. 
 
 ABDALRAHMAN.L surnamed the Just, 
 was son of Moawljah, and grandson of the caliph 
 Hesham, of the family of the Ommiades. Af- 
 ter the ruin of his family in Asia, he came into 
 Spain, in his 28th year, about A. D. 756, in- 
 vited by the Saracens, who had revoked against 
 their king, Joseph. AbJalrahman gained seve- 
 ral battles against Joseph, who in the last was 
 slain. He was then recognized throughout the 
 weft as legitimate caliph, conquered with great 
 bloodshed Castile, Arragon, Navarre, and ror- 
 tugal, and took the title of king of Cordova. At 
 this city he built the great mosque ; and died 
 iri 790 after a reign of 32 years. He was the 
 
 founder of a monarchy wliich lasted near 20a 
 year . Mod. Uuivcrs. Hist. — A. 
 
 ABDALRAIIMAN, called by French his- 
 torians AuuERAME, was captaiii-gt ticral and 
 governor of Spain under tlie caliph Hisham, lit 
 the eighth century. Eudes, duke of Aquitain, 
 being exposed to an attack from the French on 
 one side, and apprehensive of a fresh irruption 
 ot the Saracens on rhe other, entered into an al- 
 liance \\itli Muiui/a or .Muniz a celebrated Sa- 
 racen leader, and induced liim to revolt against 
 the caliph and his governor. Abdalrahman, 
 however, defeated and pursued him, and forced 
 him to put an end to his life. He then asseni- 
 bled a powerful ariny, which he led into France, 
 and advancing to Aries, defeated a large body of 
 troops which opposed liim. He next pushed in- 
 to Gascony, crossed the Garonne and Dordogne, 
 and routed Eudes who ventured with a n-iw ar- 
 my to engage him. Still following the duke of 
 Aquitain, he marched tlirough Perigord, Sain- 
 tonge, and Poitou, every wlicre committing 
 dreadful ravages, and ])utting all to fire and 
 sword. Having reached Tours, he was met 
 by Charles Martel, who had been reinforced by 
 a body of Gennans and Gtpida; and, after 
 skirmishes for six succesive days, a general ac- 
 tion ensued on the seventh, in wiuch the Sara- 
 cen army was alinost cut in pieces, and Abdal- 
 rahman himself fell in the field of battle. This. 
 great event, which first broke tlie Saracen pow- 
 er, and taught the Europeans that they were not 
 invincible, is placed by most writers in tlie year 
 732, Hegir. 114. 
 
 Some authors place this expedition some 
 years earlier, and represent the irruption of the 
 Saracens as a consequence of aid requested of 
 them by Eudes, who had before been vanquish- 
 ed by Charles Martel. A'Tod. Uriivcrs. Hist^ 
 — A. 
 
 ABDAS, a Persian bishop, who flourished 
 about the middle of the fifth century, in the 
 reign of Theodosius the younger, only deserves 
 mention as a memorable example of the folly of 
 attempting to support any cause by persecution. 
 In his intemperate zeal for the Christian religion, 
 he destroyed a pagan temple, in which the Per- 
 sians performed, according to the institutions of 
 Zoroaster, the worship of fire. The king ot 
 Persia, on rcceivi.ig the complaint of tlie in- 
 jured Magi, ordered Abdas to rebuild the tem- 
 ple, at the saine time threatening, in case of re- 
 fusal, to pull down all the Cliristian temples. 
 The bigoted priest refused to obey the king's 
 equitable command : tijxui which a dreadful 
 persecution of the Christians ensued, which 
 lasted thiri:v years, acconipaiiicd by a war be-
 
 A B D 
 
 C i6 ) 
 
 ADD 
 
 nn'fcn the Greek empire and the Persians. Ab- 
 ilas paid the penalty of his violence and obsti- 
 luicy ; tor he lost his lite in this persecution. 
 It' bigon^ could instigate a Chribtian bishop, liv- 
 ing under a pagan prince, to commit such an 
 outrage, who can be surprised at the mischiefs 
 which the same spirit has produced, when it 
 has acted under the protection and authority of 
 tlic civil power? Tluod'ufk" s EccUs. Hiit.Wh. v. 
 c. 39- Socrat. Eccl. Hist. lib. vii. c. 18. Bay/c. 
 — E. 
 
 ABDIAS, of Babylon, is the fabulous author 
 of an apocryphal work, entitled " Historia Cer- 
 taminis A|)ostolici" [An History of the Con- 
 test of the Apostles]. He pretends that he had 
 seen Christ, and was one of the seventy disci- 
 ples, and tliat he accompanied the apostles, Si- 
 meon and Jude, into Persia : nevertheless he 
 cites a ])assage from Hegesippus, who lived in 
 the time of Justin Martyr. The work was un- 
 known to the ancient Christian fathers, and was 
 tirst brought to light by W'olfang Lazius, who 
 found the manuscript in a cavern of CailntJiia, 
 and published it, in folio, at Basil in 1551. La- 
 iius finds so strong a resemblance between the 
 former part of this book and the Acts of the 
 Apostles, that, he thinks, either Luke borrowed 
 from Abdias, or Abdias from Luke. The book 
 was reprinted in 8vo, with notes, by Faber, at 
 Paris in 1556, and 157 I, and, in i2mo, at Co- 
 logne in 1569: it may also be seen, illustrated 
 with notes, in Fabricius's " Codex Apocry- 
 phalis Novi Testamenti." Part 11. p. 388, 
 &c. Cave, Hist. Lilt. Foss. Hist. Giac. lib. 
 ■II. c. 9. Baylc. Mcrcri. — E. 
 
 ABDOLMUMEN,or ABDALMON,issaidto 
 have been the son of a potter, but a youth of a 
 bold and enterprising genius. About the year 
 1 115, Abdallah, a Berber of mount Atlas and a 
 famous preacher, setting himself at the head of 
 a revolt against Abraham, or Brahem, the last 
 of the Almoiavide kings of Africa, expelled him 
 from the throne ; and, by the assistance of Ab- 
 dolmumen, who was tlien general, obliged him 
 to leave Oran, where he had taken shelter. 
 'I'he unhappy prince threw himself down a pre- 
 L ipice in his flight, and his head \\as sent by 
 Abdolmumen to Abdallah, who liimself died 
 soon after, having founded the new dynasty of 
 the Almohedcs. On this event, Abdolmumen 
 was proclaimed king by that party, and took 
 the name of Emir Al Mumcnin (chief of the 
 true believers) added to his own ; which has been 
 corrupted into Miramamoulin, and used to di- 
 stinguiih the Mahometan kings of this dynasty. 
 
 Abdolmumen, marching to Morocco, took it 
 by assault, and strangled with his own hands 
 
 Isaac, the infant son of Braham, who had been 
 proclaimed his successor. He emjiloyed, how- 
 ever, a merciful fraud in order to evade tiie oatli 
 he had taken of passing Morocco througli a 
 sieve; causing some bricks taken from the hous- 
 es to be powdered and sifted. He actually de- 
 molished, indeed, the great mosque, palace, and 
 other pul)lic buildings, in order to obliterate the 
 memory of tlie former dynasty, their founders ; 
 but he erected more sumptuous ones in their 
 stead. He likewise pursued with unrelenting 
 rigour all the remains of the AJmoravide race, 
 and their partisans, so that the first years of liis 
 reign were filled with blood. The change in 
 tite government caused many of the governors 
 of provinces and towns to declare themselves in- 
 dependent, which greatly altere<i the state of 
 that part of Africa. Abdolmumen, however, 
 acted with so much vigour, that he pushed his 
 conquests on all sides, till he had reduced the 
 Numidians and Galatians on the west, and the 
 kingdoms of Tunis, Tremeccn, and the great- 
 est part of Mauritania and Tingitana. He 
 likewise sent assistance to the Moorish princes 
 in S))ain, and made conquests in that country 
 and Portugal. He expelled the Christians from 
 the principal city they held in Africa, and from 
 others on the coast. This warlike prince, who 
 disguised his mean origin by a pretended descent 
 from the family of Mahomet, died in 1 156, and 
 was succeeded by his son Joseph. Mod. Uni~ 
 vers. Hist. — A. 
 
 ABDOLONYMUS. After Alexander the 
 Great had subdued Sldon, he gave permission 
 to Hephsestion to bestow its crown on whom 
 he pleased. Hephaestion offered it to two bro- 
 thers with whom he lodged, but tliey declined 
 it, alleging that according to their laws it could 
 only be worn by one of the blood royal. Be- 
 ing desired to point out such a person, they 
 named one Abdolonymus, who, notwithstand- 
 ing his birth, had fallen into so mean a condi- 
 tion, that he supported himself by the culture of 
 a kitchen garden. Hephaestion directed the bro- 
 thers to carry him the crown and royal robes. 
 They obeyed, and found him weeding in liis 
 garden ; and ha\ing caused him to wash, they 
 invested him with the ensigns of royalty, and 
 conducted liim to Alexander. This prince, who 
 discerned in him an aspect not unworthy of his 
 origin, turning to those about him, said, " I 
 wish to know how he bore his poverty." — 
 " Would to heaven (replied Abdolonymus) I 
 may as well bear my prosperity ! these hands 
 have ministered to all my necessities ; and as I 
 possessed nothing, I wanted nothing." Alex- 
 ander was so well pleased with this reply, that
 
 ABE 
 
 ( 17 ) 
 
 A B li 
 
 he confirmed the nomination of Heplisstion, 
 and gave the new king the palace and private 
 estate of Strato his predecessor, and even aug- 
 mented his dominions from tiie neighbouring 
 country. 
 
 Thus Q. Curtius tells the story, and is fol- 
 lowed bv Justin ; but Dindorus, who calls this 
 person Ballonimus, says he was made king of 
 Tyre ; and Plutarch removes the scene to 
 Paphos, and names him jjlov^mui. Probably 
 some truth is contained in the narration, though 
 Curtius, after his manner, seems to have ad- 
 orned it with fictitious circumstances. — A. 
 
 ABEILLE, Gasp.vf.d, a French poet and 
 dramatic wricer, was born at Ricz in Provence 
 in 1648. He came very young to Paris, and 
 distinguished himself by his pleasantry and so- 
 cial talents. Marshal Luxemburgh was attach- 
 ed X.Q him, and took him as a companion in his 
 campaigns ; and he was likewise patronised by 
 the prince of Conti and duke de ^'endome. A 
 very uglv wrinkled countenance, susceptible of a 
 variety of comic expressions, gave a zest to his 
 bons-mots and stories, and made him a great 
 inspirer of mirth. He embraced the ecclesi- 
 astical profession, and had the priory of Notre 
 Dame de la Merci, but this was no restraint 
 upon his facetiousness, which, however, is said 
 not to have pafled the bounds of decency. He 
 chiefly addicted himself to poetry, and wrote a 
 number of odes, epistles, and tragedies, together 
 with one comedy and two operas. None of 
 these acquired any great repritation ; for though 
 his sentiments were not without elevation, his 
 style was mean and languid. He had, liow- 
 ever, interest enough to obtain a seat in the 
 French academy, in 1704, where some of his 
 odes were publicly recited. He died in 17 18. 
 
 A brother of the preceding, named Sciplo, 
 was a surgeon by profession, and wrote an 
 esteemed work " On the Bones," and a treatise 
 entitled the " Army Surgeon." He was likewise 
 a composer of verses. Aforeri. Nouv. Diet. 
 Hist.— A. 
 
 ABEL, the second son of Adam and Eve, 
 concerning whom it is recorded in the book of 
 Genesis that he offered the firstlings of his flock 
 to the Lord, at the same time that his elder bro- 
 ther Cain was making an otFering from the 
 fruits of the earth ; and that the latter, displeased 
 at the superior favour shown to Abel, " rose up 
 against him and slew him." A much admired 
 and beautiful poem, entitled " The Death of 
 Abel," has been written in German by Gesner, 
 and has been translated into various languages. 
 Genesis, ch. iv. — E. 
 . ABEL, Frederick Gottfried, M.D. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 assessor of the college of pliysicians, and mem- 
 ber of tiie literary society at Halbeistadt, son ot 
 Caspar Abel, the historian, and master of .St. 
 John's school in that city, was born on the 8th 
 of July 1714. After a classical education at 
 Halberstadt and Wolf'enbuttlc he entered him- 
 self at the former place as a student of theology, 
 in 1 73 1, under IMosbcim ; and a year after, re- 
 moved to Halle, where he attended the lectures of 
 Wolf and Baumgarten, and often preached him- 
 self with mucli ap])lause. Though he had a 
 great chance of succeeding to the rectorship of 
 St. John's school in his native place, he in a 
 few years gave up tbecjlogical piirfuits alto- 
 gether, applied to medicine at Halle, and in 
 1744 was admitted to the degree of doctor at 
 Konigsberg in Prussia. On his return to Hal- 
 berstadt, he practised as a pliysician for above 
 half a century, and died on the 23d of Novem- 
 ber, 1794. In the early part of iiis life he bad 
 made a poetical translation of Juvenal into 
 German, which, by the advice of his friend 
 Gleim, he retouched a few years before his 
 death, and publilhed in 1788. He intended to 
 correct and publifTi Ovid's Rcmedium Amoris, 
 which he had also translated in his youth, and 
 to attempt Persius ; but age and other occupa- 
 tions prevented him from accomplirtiing this 
 design. Abel married in 1744, and left three 
 daughters, and two sons, one of whom, John 
 Abel, phyfician at Dusseldorf, has distinguifli- 
 ed himself as a writer. "Schriehtegrolis Necro- 
 
 ABEL, king of Denmark, was second sur- 
 viving son of Valdcmar IL His father created 
 him duke of Sleswick and South Jutland, and, at 
 his death in 1240, leffhim independent master of 
 those provinces. Abel had married the daugh- 
 ter of Adolphus, duke of Holstein, though tire 
 enemy of his family ; and on the accession of 
 his elder brother Eric V. he soon was involved 
 in disputes with him, which terminated in open 
 war. Eric over -ran Holstein, which Abel re- 
 covered ; and after various alternate fuccesses, 
 peace was made, and Abel was left independent 
 duke of Sleswick, but was obliged to pay ho- 
 mage for South Jutland. Some time afterwards, 
 Eric making a visit to his brother Abel, the lat- 
 ter laid a plan tor murdering him, in conse- 
 quence of which, Eric w^as carried on board a 
 boat, killed, and thrown overboard. Notwith- 
 standing this detestable act, which was soon su- 
 spected, though not fairly proved, the assembled 
 states of Denmark elected Abel king, in 1250, 
 by which means his hereditary- possessions were 
 again united to the crown. Abel took pains to 
 exculpate himself from the charge of fratricide ; 
 
 D
 
 I 
 
 ABE 
 
 ( 18 ) 
 
 ABE 
 
 but his guilt hung heavy on his con<;cicncc, 
 espetinllv when he founcl by Eric's will, that 
 he had intcndul to resign the crown to him, and 
 hadexpressedthegreatcstaftVction forall his bro- 
 thers. The hatred hi"; crime inspired caused his 
 eldest son Valdemar to be lei'/.cd by the bifhop 
 of Cologne, as he passed through his territories, 
 and detained four years in prison. Abel's reign 
 was fhort ; for an insurrection of the inhabitants 
 of Einbden and other places between iSlcswick 
 and Holstein being raised on account ot a new 
 tax, the king marched against the insurgent;;, 
 and after a bloody battle, in which he exhibited 
 great bravery, was slain, in 1252. Mod. Uni- 
 I'trs. Hist. — A. 
 
 ABEL, Charles Frederic, an eminent 
 musical composer and performer, was a native 
 of Germai'.y, and a di^ciple of Sebastian Bach. 
 During nearly ten years he was in the band of 
 the electoral king of Poland at Dresden ; but 
 the calamities of war having reduced that court 
 to a close economy, he left Dresden in 1758 
 with only three dollars in his pocket, and pro- 
 ceeded to the next little German capital, where 
 his talents procured a temporary supply of his 
 wants. In this manner he travelled on, and at 
 length, in 1759, made his way to England, 
 where he soon obtained notice and reward. He 
 was first patronised by the duke of York ; and 
 on the formation of the queen's band he was 
 appointed chamber-musician to her majesty, 
 with a salary of 2Col. per annum. In 1763, 
 in conjunction with Bach, he established a 
 weekly concert by subscription, which was 
 well supported ; and he had as many private 
 pupils as he chose to teach. Abel performed 
 on several instruments ; but that to which he 
 chiefly attached himself was the viol da gamba, 
 an instrument growing out of fashion, and now 
 very little used. His hand was that of a per- 
 fect master. The character of his composition 
 and performance cannot be better given than in 
 the words of Dr. Burney. " His compositions 
 ■were easy and elegantly simple, for he used to 
 say, * I do not chuse to be always struggling 
 with difficulties, and playing with all my might. 
 I make my pieces difficult whenever I please, 
 according to my disposition, and that of my au- 
 dience.' Yet in nothing was he so superior to 
 himself, and to other musicians, as in writing 
 and playing an adagio ; in which the most pleas- 
 ing, yet learned modulation ; the richest har- 
 mony ; and the most elegant and polished me- 
 lodv, were all expressed with such feeling, taste, 
 ana .science, that no musical production or per- 
 formance with which I was then acquainted, 
 seemed to approach nearer perfection. The 
 
 knowledge Abel had acquired in Germany in 
 every part of musical science, rendered him the 
 umpire in all musical contioversies, and caused 
 him to be consulted in all difficult points. His 
 concertos and other pieces were very popular, 
 and were frequently played on public occasions. 
 The taste and science of Abel were rather great- 
 er than his invention, so that sonie ot his later 
 productions, compared with those of younger 
 composers, appeared somewliat languid and 
 monotonous. Yet he preserved a high repu- 
 tation in the profession till his death." 
 
 Abel was a man who well knew the world, 
 and kept on tolerable terms with society, though 
 a natural irascibility, and disposition to say 
 strong things, sometimes rendered him over- 
 bearing and insolent in company. His greatest 
 failing was a love of the bottle, in which he in- 
 dulged to a degree that probubly shortened his 
 life ; though once, it is said, his breaking 
 through the rules of his physician, and despe- 
 rately swallowing a large portion of claret, 
 when labouring under a spitting of blood, un- 
 expectedly put an end to the complaint. He 
 died in London, June 20, 1787. Hiirney's 
 Hist, of Music, vol. iv. Morning Post for June 
 22, 1787. — A. 
 
 ABELARD, Peter, the son of Berenger, 
 of noble descent, was born at Palais, near 
 Nantes in Bretagne, in the year 1079. En- 
 dowed by nature witli a vigorous and active 
 mind, it was the lot of Abclard to appear at a 
 period, when genius and industry were wasted 
 upon trifles, and when eminence in the art of 
 disputation was the surest road to preferment. 
 1"he useful study of nature was then unknown ; 
 education was almost entir;rly occupied in logic, 
 metaphysics, and polemic theology ; and abs- 
 truse and subtle questions, merely speculative, 
 and often merely \ erbal, employed the leisure 
 and ingenuity of the learned. In these circum- 
 stances Abelard, whose life by his father's ap- 
 pointment and his own inclination was devoted 
 to letters, had no other field for the exercise of 
 his talents than the scholastic philosophy. In 
 order to fit him for the career to which he was 
 destined, after the usual grammatical prepara- 
 tion, he was early placed under the tuition of 
 Rosceline, an eminent metaphysician, the found- 
 er of the sect of the Nominalists. Under this 
 able instructor, before the age ot sixteen, he 
 turnished himself with a large store of scholastic 
 knowledge, and acquired a subtlety of thought, 
 and fluency of speech, wliich afterwards gave 
 him great advantage in his scholastic contests. 
 
 Ardent in the pursuit of fame, Abclard now 
 took leave of Rosceline, and visited the schools
 
 ABE 
 
 ( 19 ) 
 
 ABE 
 
 of several neighbouring provinci-^, after the cx- 
 imiplc of those ancient philosophers, who tra- 
 velled from place to place in search of wisdom. 
 At last, in the twentieth year of his nge, he 
 fixed iiis residence in the celebrated university of 
 Paris, at that time the first seat of learning in 
 Europe. The master, to whom he cominittcd 
 the direction of his studies, was William de 
 Champeaux, in high repute for his knowledge of 
 philosophy, and his skill in the dialectic art. 
 He was at first contented with receiving instruc- 
 tion from so eminent a preceptor : and de Ciiam- 
 peaux, flattered by the attention, and proud of 
 the talents of his pupil, admitted him to his 
 friendship. Soon, however, the aspiring youth 
 ventured to contradict the opinions of his master, 
 and in the public school, before a nu\nerous 
 auditory, held disputations with him, in which 
 he was frequently victorious. The jealousy of 
 tlie master was excited ; the vanity ot the pupil 
 was inflamed ; and a' speedy separation ensued. 
 Abelard, elated by the success of his first at- 
 tempts, felt a degree of confidence in his own 
 powers, which led him, without hesitation, at 
 the age of twenty-two, to open a public school 
 of'his own. " I was young indeed," says he, 
 " but confident of myself ; mv ambition had no 
 bounds : I aspired to the dignity of a professor, 
 and only waited till I could fix on a proper place 
 to open my lectures." (Hist. Calamit.) The 
 place which he chose for this bold display of 
 his talents was Melua, a town ten leagues from 
 Paris, where the court frequently resided. It 
 was not without difficulty that Abelard executed 
 his plan: for de Champeaux, who considered 
 ivtm as his rival, openly employed all his inter- 
 est against him. After a contest of six months, 
 genius and spirit triumphed over craft and jea- 
 lousy ; Abelard's school was opened, and hss 
 lectures were attended by crowded and admiring 
 auditories. Emboldened by this success, and 
 perhaps stimulated by unworthy resentment, 
 Abelard resolved to maintain an open contest 
 with his master, and for this purpose removed 
 his school to Corbeil near Paris. The com- 
 bataiits now frequently met in each other's 
 schools ; and the contest was supported tin each 
 side with great spirit, amidst crowds of their 
 respective scholars, and other auditors. At 
 length, the young champion was victorious, and 
 his antagonist was obliged to retije. 
 
 The constant application and violent exertions 
 which these disputations required, had now so 
 far impaired Abelard's health, that it was be- 
 come necessary for him to interrupt his labours ; 
 and, with the advice of his physician, he with- 
 drew to his native country, where he continued 
 
 two years. ITpon 1-is return to Coibcil, he 
 found that de Chainiieaux had taken the mo- 
 nastic habit among the regular cations in the 
 convent of St. Victor ; but that he still conti- 
 nued to teach rhetoric and logic, and to hold 
 public disputations in theology. Returning to 
 the charge, he renewed the contest with so 
 much ability, that his opponent was obliged to 
 acknovviedge himself defeated ; and the scho- 
 lars of de Champeaux deserted him, and went 
 over in crowds to Abelard. Even tb.e new 
 j>rofes-or, who had taken the former school of 
 de Champeaux, voiuntai ily sun endered the chair 
 to the young philosopher, and requested to be 
 enrolled among his disci])les. So complete a 
 triumph, while it gratified the vanity of Abe- 
 lard, could not fail to provoke the resentment 
 of his old master, who found means to obtain 
 the appointment of a new professor, and drive 
 Abelard back to Melun. De Champeaux's mo- 
 tive for this violent proceeding was soon per- 
 ceived ; even his friends were ashamed of his 
 conduct i and he retired from the convent into 
 the country. As soon as Abelard was inform- 
 ed of the flight of his adversaiv, he returned to- 
 wards Paris, and took a new station at the ab- 
 bey on mount St. Genevieve. His rival, the 
 new professor, was unequal to the contest, and 
 was soon deserted by his pupils, who flocked to 
 the lectures of Abelard. De Champeaux too, 
 returning to his monastery, renewed the strug- 
 gle ; but so unsuccessfully, that Abelard again 
 triumplied, modestly adojiting the language 
 which Ovid puts in the mouth of Ajax : 
 
 ■ Si quxritis hujus 
 
 Fortunam pugiur, non sum supcralus ab illo. 
 
 " Would you the fortune of this rombat know, 
 I was nut vanquished by the mighty foe." 
 
 During a short absence, in which Abelard 
 visited his native place, de Champeaux was pre- 
 ferred to the see of Chalons. This circumstance 
 put a final termination to the long and singular 
 contest between these philosophers ; and Abe- 
 lard, perhaps for want of a rival to stimulate his 
 exertions, or possibly through envy of the good 
 fortune of his rival, determined to exchange the 
 study and profession of philosophy for that of 
 theology, and, quitting his school at St. Gene- 
 vieve, removed to Laon, to become a scholar of 
 Anselm. From tlii'i celebrated master he en- 
 tertained high expectations ; but they \\'ere soon 
 disappointed. On attending his lectures he 
 found, that, though he possessed uncommon 
 fluency of language, he left his auditors without 
 ijistruction. " You would have thought,"
 
 ABE 
 
 ( 20 ) 
 
 A B p: 
 
 says Abelard, " he was kindling a fire, wlien 
 instantly the whole hoii-^e was tilieil with smoke, 
 in which not a single spark was visible : he was 
 a tree covered with a thick foliage, which pleas- 
 ed the distant eye ; but, on a nearer inspection, 
 there was no tVuit to be found : I went up to 
 this tree in full expectation, but I saw that it 
 was the fig-tree which the Lord had cursed." 
 (Hist. Calamit.) Abelard gradually retired from 
 these unprofitable lectures, but without offering 
 offence either to the. veteran professor, or his 
 scholars. In conversation one ot tliem asked 
 him, what he thought of tfic study of the scrip- 
 tures ? Abelard replied, tliat he thought the ex- 
 planation of them a task of no great difficulty ; 
 and, to confirm his assertion by an experiment, 
 he undertook to give them a comment, the next 
 day, upon anv part of the scriptures they should 
 mention. They fixed upon the beginnmg ot 
 the prophecy of Ezckiel ; and the next morning 
 he explained the passage in a theological lec- 
 ture, which was heard with admiration. Por 
 Several successive days, the lectures were, at 
 the request of the audience, continued ; the 
 whole town pressed to hear thein ; and the 
 name of Abelard was echoed through the streets 
 of Laon. Anselm, jealous of the rising fame 
 of this young theologian, prohibited his lec- 
 tures, under the pretence that so young a lec- 
 turer might fall into mistakes, which would 
 bring discredit upon his master. Abelard, 
 vhose ambition required a wider held than that 
 of Laon, obeyed the prohibition, and withdrew. 
 Returning to Puris, whither the fame of his 
 theological talents had arrived before him, he 
 opened his school with his lectures on the pro- 
 phecy of Ezekiel. His auditors were delighted ; 
 his school was crowded with scholars ; and 
 from this time he united in his lectures the sci- 
 ences of theology and philosophy with so much 
 success, that multitudes repaired to his school 
 not only from various parts of France, but from 
 Spain, Italy, Germany, Flanders, and Great 
 JBritaip. 
 
 Thus far Abelard has appeared with high 
 distinction, as an able disputant, and a popular 
 precep:or: we are now to view him under a 
 very different character, and, when nearly ar- 
 rived at the sober age of forty, to see him, on a 
 sudden, exchanging the school of philosophy 
 for the bower of pleasure, and even disgracing 
 himselt, as will too plainly appear in the se- 
 quel, by formii^g and executing a deliberate plan 
 for the seduction of female innocence. It hap- 
 pened that there was at this time, resident in 
 Paris, Heloisc, the niece of Fulbert, one of the 
 canons of tftc cathedral church, a lady about 
 
 eighteen years of age, of great personal beauty, 
 and highly celebrated for her literary attain- 
 ments. Abelard, whose vanity had been sati- 
 ated with fame, anil the vigour of whose mind 
 was now enervated by repose, found himselt in- 
 t lined to listen to the call of passion. He be- 
 held with ardent admiration the lovely Heloise, 
 and, confident that his personal attractions were 
 still irresistible, he determined to captivate her 
 affections. Fulbert, who doubtless thought 
 himself honoured by the visits of so eminent a 
 scholar and philosopher, welcoined him to his 
 house as a learned friend, whose conversation 
 could not fail to be highly instructive to his 
 niece. He was soon afterwards prevailed upon, 
 by a handsome payment which Abelard oti'ereJ 
 for his board, to receive him into his fair.ily ; 
 and, apprehending no hazard trom a man of 
 Abelard's age and gravity, confidentially re- 
 quested him to devote some portion of his lei- 
 'sure to the instruction of Heloise, at the same 
 time granting him full pcnnission to treat her 
 in all respects as his pupil. Abelard accepted 
 the trust, but, as it seems, without any^ other in- 
 tention than to betray it. The hours of in- 
 struction were employed in other lessons than 
 those of learning and philosophy ; and to such 
 a master as Abelard, it was not surprising that 
 Heloise was a ready scholar. Fulbert's re- 
 spectful opinion of the philosopher, and his par- 
 tiality for his niece, long concealed from him 
 an amour, which was become the subject ot ge- 
 neral conversation. At length the discovery 
 burst upon him like a clap of thunder. He re- 
 proached his own wilful blindness ; he lament- 
 ed the disgrace of his niece ; he execrated the 
 treachery of Abelard, and resolved never to for- 
 give it. In the breast of Heloise, every other 
 sentiment was absorbed in passion tor her se- 
 ducer. Upon discovering her pregnancy, it 
 was thought necessary for her to quit her un- 
 cle's house, and Abelard conveyed her to Bre- 
 tagne, where his sister was prepared to receive 
 them. Here Heloise was delivered of a son, to 
 whom they gave the whimsical name of Astro- 
 labus. Abelard, upon the birth of the child, 
 proposed to Fulbert to marry his niece, pro- 
 vided the marriage might be kept secret: Ful- 
 bert consented, and Abelard returned to Bre- 
 tagne to fulfil his engagement. Heloise, partly 
 out ot regard to the honour of Abelard, whoe 
 profession bound him to celibacy, and partly 
 trom a romantic notion that love like hers 
 ought not to submit to ordinary restraints, at 
 first gave Abelard a peremptory refusal. He, 
 however, at last prevailed, and they were pri- 
 vately married at Paris. Heloise from this time
 
 ABE 
 
 ( 
 
 2 I 
 
 ) 
 
 ABE 
 
 met with unkind and severe treatment from her 
 uncle, which furnished Ahelard with a plea for 
 removir.g her from his house, and phicing her 
 in the ahbcy of Benedictine nuns, in which she 
 had been educated. Fulhert concluded, perhaps 
 not without reason, that Abelard had taken this 
 stej), in order to rid liimself of an incumbrance 
 which obstructed his future prospects. Deep 
 resentment took possession of his soul, and he 
 meditated great revenge. He employed several 
 ruffians to enter his chamber by night, and in- 
 flict upon his person a disgraceful and cruel 
 mutilation. The deed was perpetrated ; the ruf- 
 fians were taken, and suffered, according to the 
 " Lex Talionh,^^ the punishment they had in- 
 flicted ; and Fulbert, for his savage, though not 
 unprovoked revenge, was punished with the de- 
 privation of his benefice, and the confiscation of 
 his goods. Abelard, unable to support his mor- 
 tifying reflections, resolved to retire to a con- 
 vent. At the same time he formed the selfish 
 resolution, tliat, since Heloise could no longer 
 be his, she should never be another's, and un- 
 generously demanded from her a promise to de- 
 vote herself to religion : so little was he dis- 
 posed to repay her fond attachment with confi- 
 dence, that he even insisted upon her taking the 
 holy vow before him, suspecting, as it seems, 
 that, if he first engaged himself, she might vio- 
 late her promise, and return to the world ; a 
 circumstance, wit!) which she afterwards thus 
 tenderly reproached him ; " In that one in- 
 stance, I confess, your mistrust of me tore my 
 heart; Abelard, I blushed for you." (Epistolse 
 Helois. i.) Heloise submitted to the harsh in- 
 junction, and professed herself in the abbey of 
 Argenteuil. At the moment when she was re- 
 ceiving the religious habit, she exclaimed in the 
 words of Cornelia : 
 
 — O m:ixime conjux ! 
 
 O ihalamis indi^nc mcis ! hoc juris liabchal 
 In tanlum forUuia caput r cur impia nupsi, 
 Si miserum faclura fui .- nunc accipc pa-iias, 
 Sed quas sponte luam. 
 
 LucAN. 1. viii. 
 
 " Ah ! my once greatest lord ! Ah ! cruel hour ! 
 Is thy victorious head in Fortune's pou'r ? 
 Since miseries my baneful luvc pursue, 
 Why did I Mcd thee, only to undo 1 
 But sec, to death my willing neck I bow ; 
 Atoue the angry guds by one kind blow." 
 
 RowE. 
 
 The roiTiantic ardour of Heloise's afl^ection 
 supported her through this sacrifice, and seems 
 never to have forsaken her to the latest moment 
 of her life. 
 
 A few days after Heloise had taken her vows, 
 
 Abelard assumed the monastic habit in tlie abbey 
 of St. Denys, determined as it seems to forget, in 
 hope ol being forgotten by, the world. How- 
 ever, his admirers and scholars in Paris were un- 
 willing that the world should lose the benefit of 
 his labours, and sent deputies to entreat him tu 
 return to his school. After some deliberation, 
 he again yielded to the call of ambition; and at 
 a small village in the country, he resumed his 
 lectures, and soon found himself surrounded with 
 a numerous train of scholars. The revival of 
 his popularity renewed the jealousy of other pro- 
 fessors. An opportunity soon offered itself, of 
 bringing him under ecclesiastical censine. A 
 treatise which he published at this time, entitled, 
 " The Theology of Abelard," contained, or 
 was said to contain, some heretical tenets re- 
 specting the IVinity. Albericus and Lotulfus, 
 formerly pupils of Anselm and rivals of Abelard, 
 now professors in the school at Rheims, pre- 
 sented the work to the arclibishop of Rheims as 
 heretical, and demanded that the author should 
 undergo ecclesiastical censure. A synod was, 
 upon this, called at Soissons in the year 1121 ; 
 and, after much altercation, in which neverthe- 
 less the merits of the work were not canvassed, 
 it was condemned to be burnt, and Abelard was 
 commanded to throw it into the flames, as an ex- 
 ample to check the daring insolence of future in- 
 novators. To this was added the humiliating 
 injunction of reading, as his own confession of 
 faith, the Athanasian Creed, and the severe or- 
 der for his confinement in the convent of St. Me- 
 dard. This arbitrary proceeding excited gene- 
 ral dissatisfaction ; the agents in the affair were 
 soon heartily ashamed of it ; and Abelard, after 
 suffering the mortification of a short imprison- 
 ment, was permitted to return to St. Denys. But 
 here, too, he found himself, as formerly, sur- 
 rounded by enemies, who gladly seized an op- 
 portunity of bringing him into new disgrace. 
 Ha\nng read in Bede's Commentarv on the Acts 
 of the Apostles, that Denys (Dionysius) the 
 Areopagite was not bishop of Athens, but of 
 Corinth, he ventured, in conversation, to ad- 
 duce the passage as a proof, that the patron of 
 the convent, and of the I-rench nation, was not, 
 as was commfinly believed, the Areopagite, but 
 another St. Dionysius bishop of Athens. A 
 violent ferment was immeiliately raised in the 
 convent, and Abelaid \\ as accused to the bishop 
 and the king, as a calumniator of the order, and 
 an enemy to his country. Abelard foimd means 
 to make his escape from the gathering storm, and 
 with a few friends fled tt> the convent of St. 
 Ayoul at Provins in Champagne, the prior of 
 which was his intimate friend. Ihe place ui
 
 ABE 
 
 ( 
 
 ) 
 
 ABE 
 
 hi« retrraf w a"; '^non di'icovered, and thrrats and 
 pcrsiia'iioii'; were in vain emplovcd to rcral liim : 
 :tt last he obtained permission to retire to some so- 
 litary rrtrear, on condition that he should never 
 agaiii become a member of a convent. 
 
 The spot which he chose was a vale in the 
 forest of Champagne, near Nogent upon tlie 
 Seine. In this solitude, accompanied by only one 
 ecclesiastic. AbtlarJ, in 1122, erected a small 
 oratory, which he dedicated to the Trinity, and 
 which he afterwar-ds enlarged and consecrated to 
 the Third Person, the Conilortcr, or Paraclete. 
 Here he was soon discovered, and followed by a 
 train of scholars. A rustic college arose in the 
 forest, and the number of his pupils soon in- 
 creased to six Inuidrcd. Jealousy again provoked 
 hostility. Norbert, a zealous fanatic, and Ber- 
 nard, a gloomy enthusiast, who enjoyed great 
 popularity in this neighbourhood, united their 
 etforts to bring Abelard into discredit. Tiie 
 philosopher, who had already surfered so much 
 from the violence of bigotry, took the alarm, 
 and was meditating his escape, when, through 
 llie interest of the duke of Bretagne, and with the 
 conscH'.t of the abbot of St. Denys, he was elected 
 .superior of the monastery of bt. Gildas, in the 
 diocese of Vannes, where, though not without 
 frequent and grievous vexations, he remained 
 several years. 
 
 About this time, Suger the abbot of St. De- 
 nys, on the plea of an ancient right, obtained a 
 grant for annexing the convent of Argenteuil, of 
 which Heloise was now prioress, to St. Denys, 
 and the nuns, who were accused of irregular 
 practices, were dispersed. Abclard, informed of 
 the distressed situation of Heloise, invited her, 
 with her companions, eight in number, to take 
 possession of the Paraclete. Happy in being 
 thus remembered in the moment of distress by 
 the man to whom her soul was devoted, she 
 joyfully accepted the proposal : a new institution 
 was established ; Heloise was chosen abbess ; 
 and, in 1127, the donation was confirmed by 
 the king. Abclard, now abbot of St. Gildas, 
 paid frequent visits to the Paraclete, till he was 
 obliged to discontinue them through fear of his 
 enemies among the monks, who carried their 
 hostility against him to such a height, as to make 
 xepeated attempts upon his life. 
 
 It was during AbcJard's residence at St. Gil- 
 ■<Ias, that the interesting correspondence passed 
 Ijetween him and Heloise, which is still ex- 
 tant, and that Abelard wrote the memoirs of his 
 life, which come down to the year 1 134. The 
 Jctters of Heloise, in this correspondence, abound 
 •with proofs of genius, learning, and taste, which 
 might have graced a better age. It is upon these 
 
 letters that Air. Pope has formed his " Epistle 
 from Kloisa to Abelard ;" a piece, which is en- 
 tith-d ro the highc-st praise for its poetical merit, 
 but which deviates in many particulars from the 
 genuine character and story of Heloise, und cul- 
 pably violates moral propriety ; as Mr. Berring- 
 ton has clearly shown in his judicious critique. 
 (Hist, of Abelard, p. 240, &c.) Here, too, A- 
 belard probably wrote his " Theology," which 
 again subjected him to persecution. William, 
 abbot of St. Thierry, the friend of Bernard, now 
 abbot of Ciairvaux, whose disaffection towards 
 Abelard has already appeared, brought a formal 
 charge against him for heresy in thirteen articles, 
 copied chiefly from the work just mentioned. 
 Bernard, (Epist. Bernard, ad innocent.) after an 
 unsuccessful private remonstrance, accused Abe- 
 lard to pope Innocent II. of noxious errors and 
 mischievous designs. Abelard, with th? concur- 
 rence of the archbishop of Sens, challenged his 
 accuser to appear in a public assembly, • hortly to 
 beheld inthatcity,andmake good his accusation. 
 The abbot at first declined accepting the chal- 
 lenge, but afterwards made his appearance, and 
 delivered to the assembly the heads of his accu- 
 sation. At this instant Abelard, perhaps from 
 the apprehension of a popular tumult, rose up 
 and said, " I appeal to Rome." This formal ap- 
 peal did not prevent the council from examining 
 the charges, and pronouncing Abelard's opinions 
 heretical. It was, however, judged «ecessary 
 to inform the bishop of Rome of the proceed- 
 ings, and to request his confirmation of the sen- 
 tence. In the mean time Bernard, by letters 
 written to the Roman prelates, strongly urged 
 them to silence, without delay, tliis dangerous 
 innovator. His importunity succeeded ; and the 
 pope, without waiting for the arrival of Abe- 
 lard, pronounced his opinions heretical, and sen- 
 tenced him to perpetual silence and confinement: 
 an arbitrary proceeding which could admit of no 
 apology. Immediately upon being informed of 
 the decision of the council of Sens, Abelard had 
 set out for Rome, in hopes of being permitted to 
 plead his own cause before the holy father. On 
 his way, he called at Cluni, a monastery on the 
 confines of Burgundy. Here he met with a kind 
 reception from Peter Maurice the abbot. During 
 his stajs Reinardus, abbot of Citeaux, arrived 
 on the friendly errand of effecting a reconcilia- 
 tion between Abclard and Bernard. To the 
 united entreaties of Reinardus and Peter, Abe- 
 lard yielded ; and he returned with the former to 
 an interview w ith Bernard, in which a reconci- 
 liation took place. At Rome, however, the 
 premature and unjust sentence had been passed, 
 and, without some friendly interposition, must be
 
 ABE 
 
 ( n ) 
 
 ABE 
 
 executed. The kiud-Iiearted Peter undertook 
 this office, and succeeded. A letter whicli he 
 wrote to Rome, nccoinpanicd with a submissive 
 apology on the part of Abelard, and with a dc- 
 thuation of his faiih, in wliich he appears to 
 have yielded to the stern necessity of his situa- 
 tion, ol-tained his pardon, and he was permitted 
 to end his days in the monastery of Ciuni. 
 
 At Cluni the cloistered philosopher was re- 
 tired, studious, and devout. The monks of the 
 convent importuned him to resume the business 
 of instruction ; in a few occasional efforts he 
 complied with their solicitation ; and his lectures 
 were heard with undiminished applause. But his 
 health and spirits were too much enfeebled to 
 support these exertions. The symptoms of debi- 
 lity and disease increased. An ineffectual at- 
 tempt was made by his friends to renew the ex- 
 piring flame in the pure air of the priory of St. 
 Elarcellus, near Chalons, to which place he was 
 removed a short time before his death. Abelard 
 died in his 63d year, on the 2 1st of April, 1 142. 
 His body was sent to Heloise to be interred in the 
 convent of the Paraclete. Heloise survived her 
 husband 2 1 years, a pattern of conjugal affec- 
 tion, and monastic virtue. 
 
 The amour, which has given Abelard so 
 much celebrity in the annals of gallantry, will 
 certainly not entitle his name to a place in the 
 tablet of moral merit : it will remain an eternal 
 blot upon his memory. In Heloise, the crimi- 
 nality, though not obliterated, was palliated by 
 youthful ardour and inexperience ; and extreme 
 sensibility, romantic attachment, noble genero- 
 sity, and disinterested invincible constancy, unit- 
 ed to throw a veil over human frailty. But in 
 Abelard, every circumstance, instead of excusing, 
 aggravated the offence. At forty, " the hey-day 
 of the blood is tame, and waits upon the judg- 
 ment." It was not a juvenile indiscretion of 
 which Abelard was guilty, but, according to his 
 own confession, the seduction of innocence, de- 
 liberately planned, and resolutely executed. It 
 was accompanied with breach of confidence, 
 violation of duty, and degradation of character. 
 Except in the grant of the Paraclete as an asylum 
 to Heloise and her sisterhood, an uniform self- 
 ishness appears in Abelard's conduct, which ad- 
 mits of no apology ; unless we transfer the blame 
 from the man to the profession, and reprobate 
 that syttem of super; tition, which, by the unna- 
 tural injunction of clerical celibacy, has given 
 birth to innumerable irregularities and enormi- 
 ties. Viewed apart from this disgtaceful affair, 
 Abelard appears v\ith more advantage. His 
 writings, indeed, will not give the reader a high 
 idea of his genius or taste ; but it cannot be 
 
 questioned, that the man who could foil the first 
 masters of the age at the weapons of logic, could 
 draw round him crowded and admiring audito- 
 ries, and could collect scholars from different 
 provinces and countries wherever he chose to 
 form a school, must have possessed extraordi- 
 nary talents. He must be allowed the credit not 
 only of having made himself master of the phi- 
 losophy and theology of the age, such as they 
 were, but of having boldly advanced, beyond 
 the time, into the region of new opinions. Had 
 liis love of truth been equal to his thirst of fame, 
 and had his courage in adhering to his principles 
 been equal to his ingenuity in defending them, 
 his sufferings and persecutions might have ex- 
 cited more regret, and his title to honourable re- 
 membrance would have been better established. 
 Upon the whole, of Abelard it may perhaps with 
 truth be said, that he was too vain to be truly 
 great, and too selfish to be eminently good, and 
 that his character is rather adapted to excite ad- 
 miration than to command respect. 
 
 His principal works, written in Latin, are, 
 " An Address to the Paraclete on the Study of 
 the Scriptiu-es ;" " Problems and Solutions ;" 
 " Senuons on the Festivals ;" "A Treatise 
 against Heresies ;" " An Exposition of the 
 Lord's Prayer ;" " A Commentary on the 
 Romans ;" " A System of Theology ;" and 
 his Letters to Heloise and to others. These, 
 with some other pieces, were collected and edit- 
 ed from the MSS. of Amboise, in 4to, at Paris, 
 in 1 6 16. Abelard'i Hhtorla Calamhatum, Epis- 
 toliS, tsfc : Gervnisc, Vie iP Abelard. Fleury, Hist. 
 Ecc. tom. 14. Baylc. Moicri. Bcrrington' s His- 
 tory of the Lives of Ahelard and Heloija. — E. 
 
 ABEN-EZRA, Abraham, a celebrated 
 Jewish rabbi, was btirn at Toledo in Spain, 
 in 1099, ^"^' ^'^'^'^ "^^ Rhodes in 11 74. He tra- 
 velled tor the acquisition of knowledge, and far 
 surpassed his brethren of that period both in sa- 
 cred and profane learning. His knowledge pro- 
 cured him, in this daik age, the titles of The 
 Wise, The Great, and The Admirable. His 
 commentaries on scripture have been much e- 
 steemed. He also wrote " Elegantise Grammati- 
 cs," printed in 8vo. at Venice in 1548, and " |e- 
 sud-Mora," an exhortation to the study of the 
 Talmud, now become very scarce. His style is 
 concise and obscure. IVolfii Bibl. Hch. p. 146. 
 JVIorcri. — E. 
 
 ABEN-MALLER, a learned rabbi of the 
 seventeenth century. He explained the gram- 
 matical sense of the Bible in a work, to whieli 
 he gave the fanciful title of " The Beauty of 
 Holiness," publislicd at Amsterdam in 1661. It 
 was written in Hebrew, and afterwards trau>-
 
 i 
 
 ABE 
 
 ( 24 ) 
 
 ABE 
 
 latcil into I-atm. Simoit, Hijl. Cr'it. Moreil. 
 — E. 
 
 ABERNF-THY, John, an eminent presby- 
 teri.in divine ot" Ireland, ilic son of a dissenting 
 minister of Colcniinc, in the county of Londun- 
 derrv, was horn at that place on the 19th ot 
 Octlibcr, 16S0. During the troubles occafion- 
 cd bv tlie i.iNurrection in 1689, he was carried 
 by a relation into Scotland, where he was sent 
 to a grammar-school, and at the early age of 
 thirteen was entered a student in the college of 
 Glasgow. This premature entrance upon aca- 
 demical studies.he afterwards fre(]uently regret- 
 ted ; well aware, doubtless, of the inestimable 
 value of a complete classical education to one 
 who is dctined to a learned jirofession. His 
 studies, preparatory to his entering upon the 
 ministry, were prosecuted partly in Gla-^gow, 
 and partly at Kdinburgh, under professor Camp- 
 bell ; antl, at the very early age of twenty-one, 
 he was licensed hv the Irish presbytery to be- 
 come prcaclicr. Tlie dissenters in the North 
 of Ireland, who are chiefly of Scotch descent, 
 have formed tlicir religious societies upon the 
 model of the church of Scotland. A general 
 synod is held annually, in which, among other 
 ■ecclefiastical atfairs, the destination of young 
 candidates for the ministry is settled. To the 
 exercise of this authority', though a manifest in- 
 fringement of the right of private judgment, and 
 likely, in many cases, to be an extreme hard- 
 ship both upon ministers and congregations, 
 Abernethy was obliged to submit ; and, when a 
 competition arose between the two dissenting 
 churches ot Coleraine and Antrim, to determine 
 •which of them should have him for their pastor, 
 the matter was settled, by the authority of the 
 general synod, in favour of Antrim- This kind 
 of ecclesiastical interference was repeatedly ex- 
 ercised with respect to Abernethy 's place of re- 
 sidence ; at one time, it was determined that, 
 though he had received an invitation from the 
 congregation in Londonderry, he should remain 
 at Antrim ; at another, after much debate upon 
 two invitations which he received about the 
 same time from societies in Belfast and Dublin, 
 it was resolved, that he should leave Antrim, 
 and settle in Dublin. Abernethy, who had al- 
 ways been a diligent student, and habituated to 
 think closely, and judge freelv, had a mind too 
 well inliirmed, and too liberal, not to perceive 
 the extreme hardship, and manifest injustice, of 
 this interference. The conviction was strength- 
 ened by the attention which he, about this time, 
 paid to the controversy occasioned by biihop 
 Hoadly's celebrated sermon, on the kingdom of 
 Christ ; and he determined to make a manly 
 
 opposition against this oppressive exercise of 
 ecclesiastical juri^dict^on. After visiting Dub- 
 lin, he returned to Antrim, and publicly declar- 
 ed his resolution, contrary to the order of the 
 synod, to remain at Antrim. This bold step, 
 altogether new in the north of Ireland, gave 
 high offence to the narrow-minded members of 
 the synod, and excited a general ferment. The 
 synod was of course sup[)orted by a powerful 
 party. Abernethy too had his friends ; and a 
 society of dissenting clergy and laity was soon 
 formed to suppoi't the cause of religious liberty. 
 Besides the ])articular subject which had occa- 
 sioned the dispute, these friends to the right of 
 free enquiry turned their attention to the ques- 
 tion concerning subscription to articles of faith, 
 and publicly protested against the proceedings 
 of tiie Irish presbyterian synod, who, in the 
 year 1705, had passed a resolution, requiring 
 candidates for the ministry to subscribe, at their 
 entrance, the Westminster Confession of Faith. 
 Abernethy was justly considered as the head of 
 this party, who were distinguished by the title of 
 the Non-subscribers. His penetrating judgment, 
 his command of temper, his quickness of appre- 
 hension, and the facility with which he was 
 able, on all occasions, to express his concep- 
 tions, eminently qualified him to take the lead 
 in their deliberations : and the situation, in 
 which he was placed, called for the utmost ex- 
 ertion of his virtues, and his talents ; for he had 
 to contend at once with the influence and au- 
 thority of a zealous and powerful synod, and 
 with the prejudices of an inflamed populace. So 
 strong was the attachment of the Irish dissent- 
 ing clergy to subscription, that when, in the 
 year 17 15, the benefit of the Toleration Act 
 was offered them by government, they refused to 
 accept it on any other condition, tlran that it 
 should require subscription to the W cstminstcr 
 Confession. So violently did the northern syn- 
 od resist every approach of heresy, that they 
 did not scruple to exercise their jurisdiction 
 with oppressive severity against those, whose 
 orthodoxy was brought into suspicion. In the 
 midst of these unfavourable circumstances, 
 Abernethy, with cool intrepidity, continued, 
 both by writing and action, to support the 
 cause of religious freedom. In 17 19, he pub- 
 lished a sermon on the right of private judg- 
 ment, from the text, " Let every man be fully 
 persuaded in his own mind," which excited 
 much animosity. When, in 1724, the synod, 
 who were not themselves members of an esta- 
 blishment, but subsisted under the protection of 
 a toleration act more liberal than tliev had 
 themselves desired, exercised towards the Rev.
 
 A 6 E 
 
 ( ^5 ) 
 
 A B G 
 
 Mr. Nevln, of Downpatrick, inquisitorial ri- 
 froiir, in expelling him from the synod even 
 without convicting him of heresy, Mr. Aberne- 
 thy, with several of his brethren, signed and 
 piiblislied a well written protest against the ex- 
 pulsion. Afterwards, when the disputes grew 
 still more violent, he endeavoured by several ju- 
 dicious and temperate jjublications to prevent a 
 separation. His efforts to stem the torrent of 
 bigotry were, however, ineffectual ; and, in 
 1726, tlie synod resolved, that the ministers 
 visually called Non-subscribers should no longer 
 be of their body. Though these ministers, wlio 
 now formed themselves into a separate body, 
 were firmly suppoited by many of the laity, 
 others, less liberal, or less courageous, deserted 
 them. Mr. Abernetliy, particularly, lost many 
 of his friends in Antrim, and found his situation 
 so unpleasant, that he readily listened to an invi- 
 tation from the society of protestant dissenters 
 in Wood-street, Dublin ; and after due delibe- 
 ration, but without asking permission from any 
 synod, in the year 1730, accepted it. 
 
 The opposition and mortification, which A- 
 berncthy had for many years met with, did not 
 prevent his exertions, in his new situation, in 
 the cause of religious liberty. While the dis- 
 senters in Ireland were attempting, in 1731, and 
 in 1733, to obtain a repeal of the Test Act, he 
 ivrote two pamphlets, in which he clearly and 
 forcibly reprcsejited the injustice and impolicy 
 of excluding from places of civil trust men of 
 integrity and ability, merely on account of reli- 
 gious opinions and practices. Opposite opinions 
 and interests, hpwe^'cr, prevailed, and the appli- 
 cation to parliament for the repeal miscarried. 
 It is probable, that the wit and asperity with 
 \vhiclr dean Swift, in several tracts, opposed the 
 repeal, contributed materially to produce the de- 
 feat, which the Irish dissenters, at this time, suf- 
 fered. 
 
 Abcrnethy was distinguished, not merely as a 
 zealous and able defender of the principles of 
 religious freedom, on which the dissenters pro- 
 fess to ground their separation from the esta- 
 blished church, but as an active friend to the 
 protestant interest, and as a judicious advocate 
 in the general cause of religion. In the early 
 part of his residence at Antrim, he took great 
 jiains, and not without some success, to make 
 converts from popery. During his ministry in 
 Dublin, he delivered " Sermons on the Being 
 and Attributes of God," which were afterwards 
 published, and which, though written with some 
 prolixity of style, as a methodical series of sound 
 argumentation on the fundamental doctrine of 
 religion, are extremely valuable. Other proofs 
 VOL. 1. 
 
 of Abernethy's talents as a prcaclicr remain in 
 four voluirn.* of posthinnous sermons: they arc 
 entirely practical, and, though not distinguished 
 by studied elegance, may be read with pleasure 
 and improvement. Abernethy composed \m 
 sermons with great care, and, even in the latter 
 part of his life, commonly wrote one every 
 week. After a life diligently occupied in pro- 
 fessional duties, and eminently iidorred by piety 
 without severity, by 7.eal without bigotry, and 
 by prudence without selfishness, he died, in the 
 year 1740, with a degree of composure and 
 firmness worthy of his principles and character. 
 
 Life prefixed to his Sermons. Biogr. B 
 
 rit.- 
 
 -E. 
 
 ABGARUS, king of Edessa, a small terri- 
 tory in Arabia, lived in the time of Christ, and 
 is said by Procopius to have been a favourite of 
 the emperor Augustus. Eusebius, in his Eccle- 
 siastical History, (lib. i. c. 13.) relates, that 
 this prince, labouring under a grievous distem- 
 per, incurable by human skill, having heard of 
 the miraculous cures performed by Jesus in Ju- 
 daea, sent him a letter, entreating him to come to 
 him, and cure his disease, and promising him, 
 in his small city, a secure asylum from his ene- 
 mies ; and that Jesus, in return, vouchsafed td 
 write him a letter, in which, though he refused 
 to visit Wm, he promised to send one of his dis- 
 ciples, who should heal his distemper, and bring 
 him salvation. Eusebius inserts the letters, and 
 adds, that, after the ascension of Jesus, Thomas, 
 one of the twelve apostles, sent Thaddeus, one 
 of Christ's seventy disciples, to Edessa ; who, 
 having converted Abgarus to the Christian faith, 
 miraculously cured him, and performed many 
 other similar wonders. This story Eusebius 
 gives on the evidence of the records of the city 
 of Edessa, " in which," says he, "these things 
 are still found preserved to this day." He adds, 
 " These things, translated from the Svriac lan- 
 guage, word for word, we have placed here, as 
 we think, not improperly." Though this story 
 rests upon the respectable authority of Eusebius, 
 who inserts it in his history without intimating 
 any doubt of its authenticity, there is good rea- 
 son to believe that it is altogether fabulous. For, 
 without impeaching, on this occasion, the vera- 
 city of Eusebius, which however is not alto- 
 gether free from suspicion, though it be admit- 
 ted, that the story was recorded in the archives 
 of Edessa in the Syriac language, and was 
 thence translated into Greek, it does not ap- 
 pear, either diat Eusebius understood Syriac, or 
 that he was at Edessa, and took this account 
 from the archives himself Le Clerc's remark 
 on Eusebins's testimony to this story is: "Qua- 
 si veto fucus Eusebio fieri non potuit, qui in tot
 
 ABO 
 
 ( ^6 ) 
 
 ABO 
 
 aliis OS slbi subllni pa^sus est !" (Hist. Eccl. tlu- 
 onim prim. Sxc. p. 1 1 1. §. 12.) The stoiy is not 
 roentioiied by any writer prior to Eusebiiis, nor 
 frequently taken notice of by writers who suc- 
 cecileil: Jcroin (in Matt. x. j.) mentions it, 
 probably on the authority of Eusebius ; tor he 
 iays, " Eockfiastical history informs us, that tlic 
 apostle Thaiideus was sent to Edessa to Abga- 
 rus." Witliout remarking the internal appearan- 
 ces of fiction in this storv, it mav be sufficient to 
 add, that this epistle of Jesus to Abgarus appears 
 to have been wholly unknown to the ancient 
 ■Christian fatheis, who were of opinion that 
 Christ wrote nothing; tliat it has no place in 
 any catalogues of canonical books in ancient 
 authors ; and that it docs not appear as a part 
 of the NewTestament, wlicre, doubtless, a letter 
 written bv Christ's own hand would have had 
 the first place. The story was, perhaps, fabri- 
 cated by some Christian at Edessa, in the time 
 •of Eusebius, who was desirous to give the peo- 
 ple of Edessa the honour of having been early 
 converted to the Christian faith. Lardner's Hea- 
 then Tcjlimonies, ch. i. — E. 
 
 ABIATHAR, a high priest of the Jews, 
 whose father, Ahimelech, was killed in a massa- 
 cre of priests by Saul, escaped the slaughter, and 
 followed David. He succeeded his father in 
 the priesthood, and gave many proofs of his at- 
 tachment to David, especially during the revolt 
 of Absalom. After the death of David, he at- 
 tempted to place AJonijah on the throne ; upon 
 ■which, Solomon deprived him of his dignity, 
 and sent him into exile : this happened about 
 the year 1014 before Christ. 1 Sam. ch. xxii. 
 I Kings, ch. ii. Jofeph. Ant. lib. viii. ch. i. — E. 
 
 ABIJAH, a king of Judah, son of Reho- 
 boam and Maacah, began his short reign of 
 three years, in the year 958 before Christ. In 
 the second year of his reign he obtained a signal 
 victory over Jeroboam, "king of Israel. The 
 writer of the book of Kings speaks of him as a 
 wicked prince, addicted to the vices of his fa- 
 ther. 2 Kings, XV. 2. Chron. xiii. Jofeph, jintiq. 
 lib. viii. c. 1 1. — E. 
 
 ABNER, Saul's uncle, and the general of 
 his armies, served that prince with great fidelity 
 and courage, and after his death supported Saul's 
 family in opposition to David. The party of 
 David prevailing, his general, Joab, treache- 
 rously murdered Abner, in the year before Christ 
 1048. 2 Sam. ch. iii. Jofeph. Ant. lib. vii. ch. I. 
 — E. 
 
 ABOU-HANIFAH, a celebrated Mahome- 
 tan doctor of the eighth century, was the found- 
 er of the sect of the Hanifites, and wrote several 
 books in support of his tenets, which were con- 
 
 trary to the popular faith. During his lite he 
 was imprisoned at Bagdat by the caliiih Alman- 
 sor, for refusing to subscribe to the doctrine of 
 al)splutc predestination ; but afterwards, Abou 
 Joseph, supreme judge under the caliph Hadi, 
 brought his doctrine into such credit, that, in or- 
 der to be a good musulman, it was thought ne- 
 ceflarv to be a Hanifite. He was born at Cusa in 
 the yc-ar 700, and died in prison in the 70th year 
 of his age. In the year 1092, a sultan of the Sel- 
 juk dynasty, in the same city in which Hanifah 
 had been imprisoned, erected a superb mausoleum 
 to his memory, and a college for the use of those 
 who professed themselves ot his sect. Such are 
 the fluctuations of opinion, and of fame! The 
 reader may be struck witii some resemblance be- 
 tween the fate of this preceptor and tliat of So- 
 crates, to whose memory a statue was erected, 
 in the city in which he had suffered. Writers 
 are agreed in ascribing to Hanifah the merit of 
 strictly conforming, in his practice, to the moral 
 precepts of Mahomet. An anecdote related 
 concerning him is worth preserving. Having 
 received from another a rude blow on the face, 
 he said to the person who had the audacity to 
 strike him, " I could return you outrage for 
 outrage, but I will not ; I could bring an accu- 
 sation against you before the caliph, but I will 
 not ; I could pray to God to avenge the affront, 
 but I will not : if^the day of judgment were now 
 come, I would pray to God that I might enter 
 heaven with you." Fid. D' Hcrbclot, BlLlioth.. 
 Orient. A'foreri. — E. 
 
 ABOULOLA, was the surname of Ahmed 
 ben Soliman, an Arab, born in the town of 
 Maara, A. D. 973, who became one of the 
 most celebrated poets of the nation. He was 
 blind from three years old, when he lost his 
 sight by the small-pox ; but this defect was 
 compensated by the qualities of his mind. He 
 made a journey to Bagdat, and during a year 
 and a half enjoyed the conversation of all the 
 learned in its famous academy, but did not en- 
 list himself as a disciple of any of them. He re- 
 turned to his native place, which he never af- 
 terwards left; and followed the peculiar bent of 
 his own mind. At forty-five he relinquished the 
 use of f^esh, and soon afterwards that of eggs 
 and milk, and lived on vegetables alone. This 
 was in consequence of his adopting the tenets of 
 the Bramins respecting the unlawfulness of kill- 
 ing animals. In other respects, he was little 
 attached to religious dogmas, and was account- 
 ed no sound musulman by the ortliodox. In- 
 deed, some of his works are explicit enough on 
 this head. The following lines may serve as a 
 specimen.
 
 A B R 
 
 ( 
 
 ) 
 
 A B R 
 
 *' The Christians wander here and there in 
 t?icir paths, and tiie Maliometans are entirely 
 out of the way. 
 
 " The Jews are now mere muinmies, and the 
 Persian magi dreamers. 
 
 " The world is then divided between two 
 sorts of persons ; of wdiom some have sense 
 Avithout religion ; others religion without sense." 
 
 The Persian poets Khakani and Fclcki were 
 the disciples of Aboulola, and he read to them 
 the principal of his works, entitled Sckth-al- 
 Kcitd, a poem greatly esteemed through the eail. 
 He died in 1057. D'Heibclol. — A. 
 
 ABOU-RIHAN, a geographer and astrolo- 
 ger, born at Biroun, in the province of Kho- 
 varezme, was celebrated at the beginning ot the 
 eleventh century, for his knowledge of the sci- 
 ences, and his skill in the art of astrology, and 
 was honoured widi the tide of Al-Mohakapad, 
 tlie very subtle philosopher. He was competi- 
 tor in fame with Avicenna, another celebrated 
 Arabian. He wrote a " Treatise on Geogra- 
 phy ;" a " Theory of the Fixed Stars ;" a 
 " Treatise on the Sphere ;" and an " Introduc- 
 tion to Judicial Astrology." Vid, D'Heibelot, 
 Bill. OiieJit. Moreri. — E. 
 
 ABRABANEL, Isaac, a Jewish rabbi, 
 whose ancestors were of Castile, was born at 
 Lisbon, in 1437. He found means early to in- 
 troduce himself into the court of Portugal, and 
 was admitted to the council of Alphonsus V. 
 After the death of that king, he was supeeted of 
 having been concerned in a conspiracy to deliver 
 up Portugal to the Spaniards. Whether the 
 suspicion was well-founded, does not appear ; 
 but it is certain, that Abrabanel thought it pru- 
 dent to seek his safety in flight ; he took refuge 
 in Castile, where he enjoyed the protection and 
 favour of king Ferdinand, and queen Isabella. 
 After a residence of several years in this coun- 
 try, where he was entrufted with posts of ho- 
 nour and profit under the crown, when, in the 
 year 1492, the Jews were expelled from Spain, 
 Abrabanel shared the fate of his countrymen. 
 In the countries which he visited, particularly 
 Sicily, Naples, and Venice, liis learning and 
 talents procured him the notic-e of the great. At 
 Venice, he was employed to settle a dispute be- 
 tween die Venetians and Portuguese concerning 
 the spice-trade, aaid gained much credit by the 
 manner in which he conducted this business. 
 The principal employment of his leisure hours 
 was the study of the Hebrew scriptures, on 
 which he wrote commentaries much esteemed 
 among the Jews. Besides these, he wrote a 
 treatise " On the Creation of die World," 
 ■jirintod at Venice in 4to. in 1592, against Ari- 
 
 stotle's doctrine that the world is eternal ; " Sa- 
 crificium Paschatis," [The Pasclwl Sacrifice] 
 printed in 4to. at Venice, in IS4S; eight Dis- 
 sertations, translated into Latin by BuxtorfF, and 
 printed at Basil, in 410. in 1662 ; and several 
 other works ; many of which have been reprint- 
 ed in Germany and Holkmd. '! he persecutions 
 which his countrymen hid sullercd inflamed his 
 indignation against tlie Christians ; and the lead- 
 ing object in his writings is to cast odium upon 
 Christianity, and its professors. Tiic Jews re- 
 gard him as one of their most learr.ed writers, 
 and even class him witli Mainionides. Abra- 
 banel died at Venice in 1508. Jcta Lips. Nov. 
 1686. AutBti. Bibl'ioth. Hlip. tom. ii. Simon, 
 Hist. Crit. Bayie. — E. 
 
 ABRAHAM, at first namell Abram, the 
 founder of the Hebrew nation, was born at Ur, 
 a city of Chaldea, about two thousand years be- 
 fore Christ. Of the particulars of his life, re- 
 corded in Genesis, the first book of tlie Hebrew 
 scriptures, the following is a brief summary. 
 Abram was the son of Terah, who, towards the 
 latter part of his life, left Ur, and went with his 
 family to reside at Haran in Canaan. After his 
 father's death, Abram, by the command of the 
 Lord» wh& promised that he should be the father 
 of a great nation, with his wife Sarah, and his 
 nephew Lot, removed from Haran, anij, tra- 
 versing a part of the land of Canaan, took a, 
 temporary station at Sichem, where he erected 
 an altar to the Lord. He was soon obliged by 
 a famine to go into Egypt, where, to avoid the 
 danger which he apprehended from his wife'.? 
 extraordinary beauty, he instructed her to say, 
 that she was his sister. Returning out of Egypt 
 into Canaan, his herdsmen quarreled with those 
 of Lot, and a separation ensued ; I^ot going to- 
 wards Sodom, and Abram pitching his tents oil 
 the plains of Mamre. Lot, during a contest 
 among the neighbouring chieftains of the coun- 
 try, being taken prisoner bv the prince of Elam, 
 Abram armed his servants and released him. 
 Sarah proving barren, Abram took Hagar, an 
 Egyptian of his household, as his concubine, by 
 whom he had a son named Ishmael. At ninety 
 years of age, Abram received a renewed promise 
 from the Lord, that he should be a father of 
 many nations ; and, as an expression of this pro- 
 mise, his name was changed to Ahrahnm^ the 
 father of a great nmltliiidc : at the same time 
 was instituted the ceremony of circumcision ; 
 and Abraham, though Sarah was now far ad- 
 vanced in age, was assured that she should bear 
 a son. The promise was repeated by three an- 
 gels, who in a human form visited Abraham, 
 and were entertained by liiiu ill his tent ; antl
 
 A B R 
 
 ( 28 ) 
 
 ABU 
 
 who wore sent by the Lord to ilcstroy Sodom for 
 its wickedness : Lot, ttumigh the intercession 
 of Abraham was permitted to escape. The pa- 
 triarch, again changing liis station, went to- 
 wards the south, and settled in Gevar, where 
 he made use ot' the «ame expedient, which lie had 
 before employed in Egypt, to jjrevent hazard to 
 himself from the tetni)tation which Sarah's beau- 
 ty might present to Abimelech, the prince of 
 the country. Here, according to the prnmi'jc, 
 when Abraliain was an hundred years old, and 
 Sarah ninety, their sDn Isaac was born. When 
 Isaac was arrived at mature age, the Lord com- 
 manded Abraham to offer him up as a sacritice : 
 Abraham obeyed, and prepared for die offering, 
 hut at the moment when his hand was lifted up 
 to .'•lay his son, the Lord, having proved his 
 faith, by the voice of an angel prevented the 
 itrokc, and provided a ram for the altar. Abra- 
 ham, when Isaac was forty years old, sent a 
 faithful servant into his own country to procure 
 a wife for his son ; and he obtained for him 
 Rebekkah, the daughter of Milcah, Abraham's 
 sister. After the death of Sarah, who lived 
 to the 127th year, Abraham married another 
 wife, Keturah, by whom he had six sons. The 
 patriarch died about the year 1825, B. C. at the 
 age of 175. 
 
 Numerous fables have been invented by the 
 Jewish rabbis and others concerning the father 
 of the faithful ; but we confine ourselves to the 
 scripture-narrative, in which Abraham is exhi- 
 bited as an eminent pattern of generous conde- 
 scension, liberal hospitality, and religious obe- 
 dience. A more striking example of kind gene- 
 rofity, expressed with beautiful simplicity, will 
 not easily be found than in the proposal which 
 Abraham made to his nephew Lot, on the dis- 
 pute which arose between their servants : " Let 
 there be no strife, 1 pray thee, bet\veen me and 
 tfiec, and between my herdmen and thy herd- 
 men, for we are brethren. Is not the wliole 
 land before thee ? Separate; tliyself, I pray thee, 
 from me : if thou wilt take tlic left hand, then 
 I will go die right : or if thou depart to the right 
 hand, then I will go to the left." Genesis, cli. 
 xii. — XXV. Joseph. Jntiq,. lib. i. ch. 6 — 17. — E. 
 
 ABRAHAM, Ben Chaila, a Spanish rabl 
 bi, in the thirteenth century, practised astrology, 
 and assumed the character of a prophet. He 
 predicted the coming of the Messiah, and fixed 
 for the time of hi.s advent the year 1358, but for- 
 tunately died in 130J, fifty-five years before the 
 time when his prediction was to be fulfilled. A 
 Ucatise of his, " De Nativitatibus," was printed 
 in 4to. at Rome, in 1545. Nouvcm Diction- 
 n((ne Historiqi/c — E. 
 
 ABRAHAM-USQUE, a' Portuguese Jew, 
 in conjunction with Tobias Athias, translated 
 the Hebrew Bible into Spanilh : it was publish- 
 ed in folio at Ferrara, in 1553- This edition 
 is become scarce ; but a second was published 
 in Holland in 1630. In this translation the He-- 
 brew text is rendered verbatim. Simon, Hist. 
 Ciit. lib. V. ch. 19. Aforcri.—E. 
 
 ABRAM, Nicholas, a Jesuit of Lorrain, 
 born in the diocese of Toul in 1589, was a po- 
 lite scholar. Besides several theological tracts, 
 he wrote in Latin, " Notes on several of Cice- 
 ro's Orations ;" " A Commentary on Virgil," 
 and " A Hebrew Grammar in Verse." He is a 
 very learned, but prolix writer. Moreri. — E. 
 
 ABSALOM, the son of David and Maachah, 
 was more celebrated ibr his beauty, than his 
 virtues. He assassinated his brother-in-law Am- 
 non, in revenge for the violence which he had 
 offered to his sister Tamar. He raised a rebel- 
 lion against his father, and drove him out of 
 Jerusalem. During his father's absence, he vi- 
 olated his concubines, whom he had left in his 
 house. His army was at last routed, and he 
 himself was slain. David, notwithstanding his 
 crimes, bitterly lamented his death : he died a- 
 bout 1030 B. C. 2 Sam. ch. xiii. — xviii. ya- 
 seph. Antiq. lib. vii. ch. 8, 9, — E. 
 
 ABSTEMIUS, Laurentius, born at Ma- 
 cerata in Ancona, distinguished himself, at the 
 time of the revival of letters, as a writer of con- 
 siderable talents. He was librarian at Urbino, 
 to the duke Guido Ubalde, to whom lie dedi- 
 cated a critique upon some difficult passages in 
 ancient authors, under the title of " Annota- 
 tiones Variae." His principal work is entided, 
 " Hecatomythiuni," a collection of an hundred 
 fables, many of which are ludicrous, and point- 
 ed against the clergy : they will be found annex- 
 ed to an edition of ./Esop's Fables published in 
 8vo. at Franckfort, in 1580. Gruter. Thes. 
 Crit. torn. i. p. 878. Baylc.- — E. 
 
 ABUBEKER, the immediate successor of 
 Mahomet, and the first who bore the title of 
 Caliph, was a wealthy and respectable Arabian^ 
 of die same tribe and family with Mahomet, and, 
 one of his four first converts. His original 
 name is said to have been Abdnlcaetba, the ser- 
 vant of the Caaba, or temple ot Aiecca ; whence 
 may be inferred the piety of his disposition. 
 Mahomet, on his conversion, changed it to Ab~ 
 dalla, or servant of God ; and on the marriage 
 of the jiropliet with his daughter Ayeslia, he re- 
 ceived the appellation of Abubeker, or father of 
 the virgin. The countenance of Abubeker was- 
 of great service to Mahomet in gaining his first 
 pirosclytes ; and when he was obliged to fly from
 
 ABU 
 
 ( "-9 ) 
 
 ABU 
 
 Mecca, this faithful friend was his sole compa- 
 nion. He continued to be the peculiar intimate 
 of that exlvaordinarv man; and at Mahomet's 
 death, having by his moderation appeased the 
 parties which arose on that event, the chiefs 
 unanimously concurred in electing him the head 
 of the new religion. This happened in the year 
 of Christ 632, of the Hegira 11. The title by 
 which he modestly chose to be distinguished was 
 that oi' Caliph., signifying both vicar and succes- 
 sor, which has since been used by all who have 
 borne the same office. 
 
 The election of Abubeker was not, however, 
 recognised by Ali and his partisans, till the 
 threats of Omar induced him to come and pay 
 his homage ; on which occasion Abubeker made 
 an offer of resigning his dignity, which was not 
 accepted. Soon after, a considerable party of 
 Arabians threw off their subjection to the Ca- 
 Jiph, and to the religion of Mahomet ; but by 
 the courage and activity of the famous Caled 
 they were defeated, and their chief Malek put to 
 tleath. The mild Abubeker, however, disap- 
 proved of this execution. Another pretended 
 prophet, Moseillama, who had been one of 
 Mahomet's first disciples, also set up for him- 
 self, but was slain in battle by Caled, and his 
 surviving followers reduced to submij-sion. 
 
 Having thus brought Arabia to a state of tran- 
 quillity, Abubeker determined to find employ- 
 ment for the turbulent spirit of his people by 
 engaging in a war for the propagation of the 
 faith, called by musulmans the holy war. As- 
 sembling an army from all the tribes of his sub- 
 ■iects, he caused them to march into Syria, un- 
 der the command of Yezid, and himself accom- 
 panied them some way on foot, and offered up 
 fervent prayers for their success. Heraclius, 
 who was then emperor, expected nothing less 
 than such an invasion. His troops were at first 
 defeated by the Saracens, but fortune afterwards 
 changed in his favour. At; length the formida- 
 ble Caled was made commander in chief, and 
 by the famoAis sieges of Bostra and Damascus, 
 put the Mahometans in possession of the greater 
 part of Syria. The news of the capture of the 
 latter place never reached the Caliph, for he died 
 on the day of its surrender, of a fever, at the 
 age of 63, having reigned two years and three 
 months. On finding his end approach, he dic- 
 tated the following will, which deserves preser- 
 vation for its piety and simplicity. '' In the 
 name of the most merciful God, I, Abubeker- 
 cbn-abi-Cohasa, being ready to depart from tliis 
 world to the next, do make my will, at the 
 moment when infidels believe, when the wicked 
 no longer doubt, and when liars speak truth. I 
 
 nominate Omar-cbn-alKhetab to be my SBCces- 
 sor, from the good opinion I have of his integrity. 
 1 think he will rule according to justice; if he 
 doth otherwise, he will receive according to his 
 works. I have acted for the best, but I cannot 
 dive into meij's .'ecret thoughts. Finally, such 
 as do evil will surely be punished for their mis- 
 deeds. Act uprightly, and may the blessing of 
 God be upon you." 
 
 Abubeker is characterised by prudence, equi- 
 ty, and moderation. He does not seem to have 
 been a warrior, but was properly the civil and 
 religious head of the state. His manners were 
 simple, his way of life frugal, and he showed 
 great indifference for riches and honours. He 
 was liberal to the poor, and bestowed on tliem 
 and the soldiery all the money of the public trea- 
 sury, taking no more for himself than the price 
 of his simple habit, and the maintenance of a 
 slave, and a camel to bring him water. Omar 
 well said that he had left a difficult example for 
 his successors to follow. He was honoured by 
 Mahomet with two epithets ; that of Sedclik, or 
 the faithful witness ; and of ^ttik, or the deli- 
 vered from hell-fire, confequently thm predesti- 
 nated. He was the first, according to several 
 writers, who collected the fcattered verfes of the 
 Koran into a volume divided into chapters. To 
 this he gave the name of Almoshaf, or the 
 Book ; and deposited it in the hands of Hafessa, 
 the daughter of Omar, and widow of Mahomet. 
 D'Herlelot, Bthl. Marigtii, Hist, dcs Arabes,. 
 — A. 
 
 ABUCARAS, Theodore, bishop of Ca- 
 ria, in the Sth century, attached himself to the 
 party of the learned Photius, during the disputes 
 which at that time disturbed the church of Con- 
 stantinople. He undertook, with Zachary, bi- 
 shop of Chalcedon, an embassy to the emperor 
 Lewis I. to present to him a book which Pho- 
 tius had written against pope Nicholas, and tO' 
 endeavour to persuade him to shake off the 
 pope's yoke. On his journey he was recalled by 
 Basil, who had usurped the empire ; and, soon 
 afterwards, finding it no longer sate to support 
 the interest of Photius, he prudently abandoned 
 it, and, before the council of Constantinople, en- 
 treated pardon, protesting that he had been se- 
 duced by artifice into the part he had acted. This 
 submission answered its purpose, and the bishop 
 was restored to his place in the council. Several 
 treatises remain, which bear the name of Ahuca- 
 ras, written against jews, Mahometans, and he- 
 retics ; ihey have been collected by Gretser, and 
 published in 410, at Ingol tadt, in the year 1606. 
 Mr. Arnold found in the Oxford Bodleian library 
 another treatise by Abucaras, " De Unioue et
 
 .\ n u 
 
 ( 
 
 ) 
 
 ABU 
 
 Incaniarioiie," wliicti he publlslieil in 8vo. at Pa- 
 ris, in i68y It is (li^iiuteJ whether the iVieiulof 
 lliotius, anil the vriicr of these treatises, be tlie 
 same ^icrson , but tlic dispute is not wortli settling. 
 Cave, Hist. Lit. Dupiii. Biiyle. — E. 
 
 AHU GIAFFF.R. SL-e Almaxzor. 
 
 ABULFEDA, Ismai:!., an Arabian of the 
 14th century, covcrnor of Hamah a city of !^y- 
 ria, was an eminent geographer, asapjiears from 
 a valuable work cntitlcil, " A Dcscri])tion of 
 Chorasmia anil Mawaralnalire, or tlic Regions 
 bcvund the River Oxus, from tlic Tables of 
 Abulteda IsmacI; piincc of Hamah," written in 
 Arabic, anil published at London, in 1650, with 
 a l.aiin translation, notes, and a preface, by the 
 learned John Grasvius. At the end of the book 
 it is said to have been written in the year of the 
 Hcgira 721, or 132 1 of Christ. The tables are 
 given in the order of tlic climates, with the de- 
 grees of longitude and latitude. Abulfeda disco- 
 vered the true longitude of the Caspian sea, con- 
 cerning which Ptolemy was mistaken. A new 
 edition of this work was published by Hudson, 
 ac Oxford, in 17 12, in the third volume of his 
 collection of lesser Greek geographers ; and 
 another, in folio, at London, in 1 732. A trans- 
 lation of tliis piece is annexed to a French work, 
 published in i2mo. in 1727, entitled, " Voyage 
 ilans la Palestine," which was translated into 
 Englisli bv Dr. Stroder. Abulfeda also wrote a 
 " Lite of Mahomet," published in Arabic and 
 Latin, at London, in 1723; and a " Life of 
 Saladin," printed in folio, at Leyden, in 1732 : 
 lie dial about the 733d year of the Hegira, or 
 the 1332 of Christ. Bayle. Moreri. — E. 
 
 ABULGASI Bayadur, chan of Charasm, 
 was born at Urgens in Charasm, in the year 
 1605. He reigned 20 years, and a little before 
 his death resigned his crown to his son. He 
 Spent his last days in writing " A Genealogical 
 History of the Tartars." fTiis valuable work 
 was brought by some Swedish officers into Eu- 
 rope, and was translated into German by count 
 Strahlenberg : a French translation appeared at 
 Leyden, in i2mo. in theyear 1726. Moreri. — E. 
 
 ABULPHARAGIUS, Gregory, an emi- 
 nent physician and historian, of the 13th cen- 
 tury, was born at Malatia, a town in Armenia, 
 near die source of die Euphrates. Of his medi- 
 cal skill or practice little is known ; but he is 
 spoken of by contemporaries in a style of most 
 extravagant panegyric. Among other equally 
 splendid titles, he was called the king of the 
 learned, tl.e pattern of Ids times, the phcenix of 
 the age, the glory of the wise, and the crown of 
 the virtuous. XVe know nothing concerning 
 liiiu which can justify such highcoinuieiidations. 
 
 He professed Christianity, and was bishop of 
 Aleppo, and, probably, of the sect of the Jaco- 
 bites. His only claim to the attention of jjoste- 
 rity is, " An Abridgment of Universal Histarv 
 from the beginning of the world to his own 
 time." It is written in Arabic, and divided into 
 ten parts, or dynasties. The parts which relate 
 to the Saracens, the Moguls, and the conquests 
 of Genghis Khan, are the most valuable. Y)r. 
 Pococke, in 1663 and 1674, published this book, 
 in 4to. at Oxford, witli a Latin translation and 
 a supplement, continuing the history of the east- 
 ern princes, which adds greatly to the value of 
 die work: he had before, in 1650, publislied an 
 extract from this work with learned notes, under 
 the tide of, " Specimen Hisloria Arabum, Sec." 
 Dr. Pococke takes pains to excidpate this learned 
 physician from the charge of having forsaken 
 Christianity. Abulpharagius died in the vear 
 1286, sixty years of age. Pococke, Pref. to Spe- 
 cimen Hist. Arab. Baylc. — E. 
 
 ABU MOSLEM, a famous Mahometan cap- 
 tain in the secmid century of the Hegira, is by 
 some said to have been born near Meru in Khorar 
 san, ofa family of distinction; but others represent 
 him as originally a slave, of Curd extraction. 
 He however rose to notice so early, that he was 
 sent by Ibrahim, head of the family of Abassides, 
 to be his representative in Khorasan. In this 
 province, A. D. 747, he proclaimed Ibrahim 
 caliph, in opposition to Merwan, then the reign- 
 ing caliph of the house of Ommiades ; and he- 
 expelled all Merwan's commanders from Kho- 
 rasan, and reduced it to the obedience of Ibra- 
 him ; and likewise distinguished himself in all 
 the other wars on his account. After the death 
 ot Ibrahim, he continued his services to his suc- 
 cessor the caliph Al JafFah, and was by him 
 confirmed in the government of Khora"an. Hi? 
 confidence in the services he had rendered to the 
 house of Abbas, however, made him presump- 
 tuous ; so that, being refused the office of con- 
 ductor of the caravan of pilgrims to Mecca by 
 Al Jaffah, who bestowed it on his brother Abu 
 Giaffar, he inortally affronted this prince by 
 setting out a day before him, with 200 camels 
 laden with provision of all kinds, and keepine; 
 open table twice a day for all the principal pil- 
 grims ; to which munificence he added that of 
 presenting each with a vest after every meal. 
 After the accession of Abu GiafFar, who took 
 the name of Almanzor, Abu Moslem was en- 
 trusted with an army against the caliph's uncle 
 Abdallah, who had revolted, and whom he en- 
 tirely defeated. But his too great services were 
 repaid by Almanzor with the blackest ingrati- 
 tude. The caliph began widi demanding of him
 
 ABU 
 
 ( 3' ) 
 
 ABU 
 
 an exact account of all the plunder taken on that 
 occasion. This mark of suspicion was so niucli 
 resented by Abu Moslem, that he withdrew to 
 Khorasan, where he lived as an independent 
 prince, though without renouncing his allegianoe. 
 Almanzor at lengtli tempted him to court, and 
 gave him a most gracious reception ; but a few 
 davs afterwards, on repeating his visit, he was 
 assassinated in the caliph's very chamber and 
 presence by four men concealed fur the pur- 
 pose. 
 
 Abu Moslem was a valiant and able com- 
 mander, and so successful, that he is said to liave 
 killed, in battles for the house of Abbas, 600,000 
 persons. His moral qualities are very differently 
 represented ; some describing him as a fierce 
 brutal soldier ; others, as merciful and discreet ; 
 some, as conversant \\ ith all the poetical writers 
 of his country, and with the moral precepts of 
 his religion ; others as a glutton and a sensualist. 
 He is said to have been profuse in his manner of 
 living; and so jealous of his wives, that he kept 
 them confined in a castle to which none but him- 
 self had access, and supplied them with provi- 
 sions through the windows. He even carried 
 his delicacy so far, that when any of them had 
 visited him, he caused the beast on which she 
 had rode to be killed, and the saddle to be burned, 
 that no man might afterwards make use of them. 
 D'Hcrhelot. Mod. Univ. Hist. — A. 
 
 ABU OBEIDAH, one of the companions of 
 Mahomet, and among the most considerable of 
 the first musulman captains, was appointed by 
 Abubeker at his accession to the supreme com- 
 mand in Syria, but was soon after superseded by 
 Caled, under whom he served as second at the 
 famous siege of Damascus. It was with him 
 that the unfortunate inhabitants made a treaty of 
 surrender, induced by the superior mildness and 
 humanity of his character above that of Caled, 
 who wished to carry the place by storm, that he 
 might put all to the sword. He exerted himself 
 to the utmost to stop the slaughter which Caled's 
 troops had begun, and prevailed upon that bloody 
 chief to ratify the capitulation, and suffer the 
 Christians to depart with their effects. On the 
 accession of Omar, that calijjh so much preferred 
 the prudence and clemency of Abu Obcidah to 
 the ferocious daring of Caled, tnat he raised him 
 again tothechiet commai'.din Syria ; and when 
 Abu Obeidaii's nrodesty and want of ambition 
 led him to hesitate in undertaking the office, 
 Omar confiiined the appointment, and Caled, 
 with true patiioiism, submitted to serve under 
 him. Abu Obcidah ever altcrwards took a 
 pleasuie in a(.kno\\ledging the assistance he re- 
 ceived from him. He proceeded to ky siege to 
 
 Hems, or Emessa ; and granting the people a 
 year's truce on paying tribute, he received the 
 submission of several other ])laccs, which were 
 won over by his character for humanity, and 
 then marched for Balbec. This place he took 
 by surrender ; and then returning before Emes- 
 sa, after a considerable resistance, he obliged it 
 also to capitulate. Before the battle of Yer- 
 mouk, f(jught aj^ainst the Grecian emperor's 
 troops, Abu Obcidah resigned the supreme com- 
 manil to Caled, nor did he resume it during all 
 the military operations that followed, but con- 
 tented himself with seeing that prayers were duly 
 performed, and the wounded drest ; and after- 
 wards signalised his equity in dividing the spoil. 
 The musulman troops next proceeded to Jeru- 
 salem, where Abu Obeidah had a friendly con- 
 ference with the patriarch Sophronius, who a- 
 greed widi him on favourable terms of surren- 
 der ; and the caliph himself was sent for to re- 
 ceive the submission of so renowned a city. 
 Thence Abu Obeidah departed to take upon him 
 the government of nordiern Syria, accompanied 
 by Caled. Here he took Aleppo by capitulation, 
 a.nd its castle by surprise; and then marched for 
 Antioch, which capital at length fell into his 
 hands. He would not suffer his troops long to 
 continue in this delicious abode, lest they should 
 be corrupted by luxury and effeminacy, which 
 ab^eady begaji to make some progress among 
 them ; and he consulted Omar on this subject, 
 who, to his surprise, condemned his rigour. 
 From Antioch he sent some troi'ps to conquer 
 the hilly country, who were surrounded, and re- 
 duced to great danger, till relieved by the enter- 
 prising Caled. Being invested with imlimited 
 power to carry on the musulman conquests as 
 lie thought fit, he dispatched Amru-ebn-al-as 
 with a separate army to reduce fhe remainder of 
 Palestine, who met with extraordinary success. 
 But a grievous pestilence, which now prevailed 
 through Syria, proved fatal to a number ot the 
 chief officers of the Mahometans, and among the 
 rest to Abu Obeidah, who died, A. D. 639,. 
 A. Hegir. 18, the year of destruction, as it was 
 called. The civil and moral virtues of this 
 leader appear to have been superior to his mili- 
 tary talents ; but the reliance placed in his clc- 
 niericy and good faith was not less s;rviceable to 
 tiie progress of the Mahometan conquests, than 
 the dread inspired by the fiercer and nrore daring 
 captains. Alod. Univ. Hist. Alarigny, Hist. 
 dcs /hahes. — A. 
 
 ABU-SAID, Khan, sultan of the Mogols, 
 sonof Algiaptu,of the race of Gengi -khan, suc- 
 ceeded his father at the age of 12, A. D. 1317. 
 During his minority, the tniir Juban governed
 
 ABU 
 
 < 3^ ) 
 
 A B Y 
 
 the cmplve with unlimited sway, and repulsed the 
 l''y.lK'k Tartars, who made nn irruption into the 
 Mogul's ten itories. In a rebLllion of his.^^wn 
 troops, the youn;:!; Abusaid so signalised his va- 
 lour. <hat he ob[:iined the surname of Bahoder, 
 ■or Brave, by which he is distingirished. Jiiban, 
 in the height of his favour, married the sultan's 
 sister, and proved his fidelity bvliringing back to 
 Itis duty his own son wlio had revolted. But an 
 incident occurred which cventuailv procured his 
 Tuin. Juban gave his daugliter Baghdad Kha- 
 tan, accounted the greatest beauty in Asia, to the 
 emir Hassan Ilkliani Sayn, and though Abusaid 
 fell in love with her, he refused to separate her 
 from her husband. This greatly displeased the sul- 
 tan ; who first took an opportunity of putting to 
 ■death a son of f iitan who had assumed undue au- 
 thoritv, and then, raisingan army, marched against 
 the father, \\ho put iiimself in a state of dctence. 
 Juban was, howc%'er, deserted by his troops, and 
 at lengdi lietraved and put to death. Hassan had 
 the complaisance to divorce his wife, Juban's 
 daughter, and send her to the sultan, over whom 
 she obtained a great a.scendencv. Nothing of 
 •consequence occirrs in the reign of Abusaid, till 
 the vear 1336, when the Uzbeks making ano- 
 ther irruption, he marched into the province of 
 ShirAvan to meet them, where the malignity of the 
 air threw him into a fever, of which he died, af- 
 ter a reign of 20 years. He was buried at Sul- 
 tania, his usual res«dencc. He was the last sin- 
 gle monarch of his race acknowledged by the 
 IMogols, who, afier his death, Taroke into sepa- 
 rate sovereignties, D'Harhelot^from Khondemlr. 
 — A. 
 
 ABUSAID MIRZA, son of Mohammed, a 
 great grand^ion of Timur, was in the army of 
 Ulug Beg when he was engaged in war with 
 his son ; and taking the opportunity of the civil 
 broils, he secured Bokhara for himself, and in 
 T450 ascended the Mogol throne, and made 
 •war upon Abdallah, who had succeeded the son 
 of Ulug Beg. He first reigned over the pro- 
 vinces to the north of the river Amur ; but in 
 the course of an active reign he extended his 
 <lominions from Kashgar in the east, to Tauris 
 in tlie west, and from Kerman in Iran, and 
 Multan in Hiiidostan, to Karizm on the east 
 coast of the Caspian sea. He generally passed 
 his winters at Meru in Khorasan, where he liv- 
 ed in great magnificence. At length, pursuing 
 with obstinacy a war against Hassan Beg, a 
 Turkman prince, who repeatedly desired peace 
 from him, he fell into an ambuscade, and was 
 taken prisoner and put to death, in 1468, having 
 lived 42 and reigned 19 years. He left behind 
 him eleven sons^ some of whom succeeded to 
 
 different partj of his donunions. D^Hcrbchu 
 — A. 
 
 ABU THAHER, a prince of the Karma- 
 tlvians, an Arabian sect which arose about A. 
 ]). 891, made himself lemarkable for the mi-;- 
 ciiicfs he did as a plunderer and conqueror in 
 the reign of the caliph Al Moktadcr and his suc- 
 cessors. About the vear 926, Abu Thaher, 
 having, at the age of 18, succeeded his brother 
 Said as chief of the Karmatbians, penetrated 
 with a great army to Bassora, which he pillaged, 
 with the slaughter of all the inhabitants who 
 came in his way. The next year he intercepted 
 ami plundered a caravan returning from Mecca 
 to Baghdad, and made an immense booty; after 
 which he sent an ambassador to the caliph, re- 
 quiring the sovereignty of Bassora and its neigh- 
 bourhood; and this being refused, he pillaged 
 Cufa in the following year. Two years after- 
 wards, he defeated the caliph's forces with great 
 slaughter, and threatened Baghdad itself, to the 
 gates of wliicli he advanced with 500 horse. 
 His retreat was celebrated by the caliph as a sig- 
 nal deliverance. He next seized the towns of 
 Rahaba, and Reskisia in Mesopotamia. He 
 fixed his own residence at Hajar in Yemama, 
 where he built a palace. In 929 he surprised 
 the holy city of Mecca, killed 30,000 pilgrims 
 and inhabitants, filled the sacred well Zemzem 
 with dead bodies, profaned the sanctuary of the 
 Caaba by entering it with his horse, and car- 
 ried away the famous black stone, the ancient 
 monuinent of the Arabs, and an object of high 
 veneration. To these injuries he added the in- 
 sult of telling the musulmans that they were 
 fools to call that building the house of God, for 
 that if God had regarded it as such, he would 
 have struck him dead for his profanations. Six 
 years afterwards, the caliph Al Radi made a 
 treaty with him, by which Abu Thaher was to 
 receive an annual tribute of 120,000 dinars, on 
 condition of forbearing to molest the caravans 
 of pilgrims to Mecca. He lived till the year 
 953, in the peaceable possession of a large ter- 
 ritory. D'Herbelot. Mod. Unlvers. Hist.-^A. 
 
 ABYDENUS, an historian, was the author 
 of an " History of the Chaldeans and Assyri- 
 ans," of which some fragments are preserved 
 by Eusebius in his " Praeparatio Evangelica," 
 and by Cyril in his work against Julian. He 
 is to be distinguished from Palsphatus Abyde- 
 nus, who lived in the time of Alexander, and, 
 according to Suidas, wrote concerning Cyprus, 
 Delos, Attica, and Arabia ; for, this Abydenus 
 refers to Bcrosus, who lived at a later period: 
 he probably wrote about two hundred years 
 B. C. Fosslus de Hist. Gracis, lib. i. C. 9.
 
 A C A 
 
 ( 33 ) 
 
 A C A 
 
 lib. il. c. I. Fahricit Bib/. Grac. lib. i. c. 22. 
 ss. 4, 5.— E. 
 
 ACACIUS, a Christian divine, bishop of 
 Amida on the Tigris, who flourished about the 
 year 420, is memorable tor an act ot charity, 
 which entitles him to higher honour, than a 
 place in the calendar of saints. This humane 
 prelate, declaring that a God vho neither eats 
 nor drinks has no need of cups or dishes, sold 
 the gold and silver vessels belonging to his 
 church, and employed the money, raised by the 
 sale, in redeeming seven thousand Persian 
 slaves, who were perishing with hunger. He 
 supplied their immediate wants, and sent them 
 back to their king, who was so touched with 
 this act of generosity, that he requested an in- 
 terview with the benevolent bishop. To this 
 interview is ascribed the peace, which at this 
 time took place between the king of Persia and 
 Xheodosius the younger. Socrat. Ecd. Hist. 
 lib. vii. c. 21. Gibbon's Hist. c. 32. — E. 
 
 ACACIUS, a Christian divine, bishop of 
 Bercea, a native of Syria, flourished in the fourth 
 and fifth centuries, and was a moderator be- 
 tween Cyril and Nestorius, who held that there 
 were two distinct persons in Christ. He was 
 educated in the monastery of Gandarus, near 
 Antioch. While a presbyter he was a strenuous 
 advocate for the catholic faith against the Ari- 
 ans. About the year 378 he was ordained by 
 Eusebius of Samosata bishop of Beroea. In 381 
 he was sent by Flavian to Rome, to entreat for 
 Flavian communion with the western churches, 
 which he obtained. At the beginning of the 
 fifth century he joined Antiochus and others 
 against Chrysostom, and voted for his deposi- 
 tion. When the controversy between Cyril 
 and Nestorius arose, he wrote a letter to Cyril, 
 in which he endeavoured to convince him, that 
 the dispute was merely verbal, and to apologise 
 for Nestorius. He was not present in the coun- 
 cil of Ephesus, but sent his vote by proxy 
 against Cyril, and by letter advised the oriental 
 bishops to treat him as an Apollinarian. He 
 afterwards wrote to the emperor, urging him, 
 not only to confirm the condemnation ot Nes- 
 torius, but also of Cyril and Memnon ; advice 
 ■which Theodosius followed, giving orders that 
 they should all be deposed. In a subsequent 
 council, held in 432 at Bercea, he endeavoured 
 to promote a reconciliation between Cyril and 
 the eastern churches ; but without efFect. He 
 died, at an advanced age> about the year 436. 
 Of his writings only three epistles remain, two 
 to Alexander of Hierapolis, (Lupi Collect, p. 
 109, 188.) and one to Cyril. (Concil. Gr. et 
 Lat. torn. iii. p. 382.) ' Socratis Hist. Eccles. 
 
 VOL. I, 
 
 Iii). vi. c. 18. Sizomoi. Wh. vii. c. 28. lib. viii. 
 c. 20. Cave, Hist. Lit. Dupin. — E. 
 
 ACACIUS, surnamed Monophthalmus, one- 
 eyed, a Christian divine, bishop of Ca:sarea, 
 in Palestine, flourished about the middle of the 
 fourth century. He was a pupil of Eusebius of 
 Cassarea, succeeded him in his see, in the year 
 340, and inherited his library. He distinguished 
 himself in the councils ot Antioch and Sardis. 
 In the latter, the trinitarian party prevailed, and 
 Acacius was deposed v. ith several of his bre- 
 thren. They formed an opposite council at 
 Philippopolis in Thrace, in which they, in their 
 turn, condemned the doctrines of tlie Athana- 
 sians. Acacius and his party were vehemently 
 opposed by Cyril, bishop of Jerusalem ; but en- 
 joying the support of the emperor Constantius, 
 they obtained the superiority, and Cyril was de- 
 posed. He was a man of good sense and readv 
 elocution, and a very skilful di>putant, but un- 
 steady in his principles. He is considered as the 
 founder of a distinct branch of the Arians, call- 
 ed, from him, Acacians. They neither assert- 
 ed, with the Arians, that Christ was a created 
 being, nor, with the semi-Arians, that he was 
 of like substance, but simply that he was like 
 the father. (Epiplian. Ha?rcs. 73.) In the syn- 
 od of Seleucia, he joined the Anti-Nicaeans, 
 who rejected both the s/^osiriov, and the 6y.oi8!rtov, 
 the doctrine of the same substance and of like 
 substance. He is said to have afterwards 
 g;one over to the semi-Arians, and in the reitrn 
 of Jovian, to have received the Nicene ci'eed. 
 Whatever were his tenets, this Acacius appears 
 to have been a man of considerable talents. He 
 wrote many books, particularly the life of his 
 master Eusebius, the loss of which is much to 
 be regretted. He wrote seventeen books upon 
 Ecclesiastes, six books of miscellaneous ques- 
 tions, and a book against Marcellus, of which a 
 fragment is to be found in Epiphanius. (Hjeres. 
 72.) Another quotation is made by Jerom from 
 his Select Questions. Acacius of Cresarea died 
 about the year 365. Philostorg. lib. ii. c. ult. lib. 
 iv. c. 12. lib. V. c. I. Sozomai. lib. iii» c. 2. 
 Hieron. de Fir. III. c. 98. Socrat. lib. ii. c. 40 : 
 iv. c. 23. Cave, Hist. Lit. Ditpi/i. Lardner's 
 Cred. pt. ii. ch. 69. s. 9. — E. 
 
 ACACIUS, a Christian divine, was created 
 patriarchal bishop of Constantinople in 471. 
 For attempting to settle the disputes concerning 
 the two natures of Christ by a pacific compro- 
 mise, he fell under a juspicion of heresy, and 
 suffered papal censure. He persuaded the em- 
 peror Zeno to puLilish, in 482, the " Hcnoti- 
 con," or Decree of Union, designed to recon- 
 cile die contending parties, by confirming the 
 F
 
 A C C 
 
 ( 34 ) 
 
 A C C 
 
 catholic Joctrinc, without nuking particular 
 mention of the council of Chalccdon, which 
 was the chief siihject of coiitcniion. This de- 
 cree was signed by Acacius and other moderate 
 men, but was rejected by violent men of oppo- 
 site parties, and became itself a new occasion of 
 division. Acacius was charged witli favouring 
 the Eutvchians, and other heretics; and on tliis 
 ground pope Felix II. in the year 483, inanlta- 
 Tian council, passed a sentence of excommuni- 
 cation against him. The patiiarch of Con- 
 stantinople in his turn excommunicated the 
 pope. He denied the authority of the bishop of 
 Rome in the eastern churches, and, notwith- 
 standing his fulmination, remained in his pa- 
 triarcliatc till his deith, which happened about 
 the year 488. Tlius did the contest for spi- 
 ritual doininion between the heads of the eastern 
 and the western churches produce mutual ana- 
 themas ; and the names of tlie pope and the pa- 
 triarcii were reciprocally branded with infamy, 
 by being, at Rome and at Constantinople, 
 struck from the diptychs, or sacred registers. 
 Tliree epistles of this bishop remain in the 
 Historj' of Councils, tom. iv. p. 1089, 1108. 
 Dup'tn. Cave, Hist. Lit. Moiheind Eccl, Hist. 
 cent. v. part. 2. — E. 
 
 ACCA, an English divine, was bishop of 
 Hagustald, or He.vham, in Northumberland, in 
 the eighth century. He was an Anglo-Saxon 
 by birth, and was educated under Bosa, bishop 
 «f York : he took the religious habit in the or- 
 der of St. Benedict, and travelled to Rome with 
 Wilfrid, then bishop of Hagustald, whom he 
 succeeded in that sec in the year 709. He ex- 
 pressed his pious zeal, according to the spirit of 
 the age, in ornamenting his cathedral at a great 
 expense, by means of workmen whom he pro- 
 cured from Italy : he also paid great attention 
 to church music, which he improved by the 
 assistance of Maban, an excellent singer, train- 
 ed in the school of pope Gregory : at the same 
 time he introduced many Latin hvmns, which 
 had been betore unknown in the northern 
 churches of England. Acca was not inattentive 
 to letters : he formed a library chiefly coiisisting 
 of ecclesiastical writings; and he himself wrote, 
 in Latin, a treatise " On the Sufferings of the 
 Saints," " Offices for his church ;" and " Let- 
 ters to his friends ;" among which is a letter to 
 his friend Bede, givirig him advice on the study 
 of the scriptures. From some cause which is 
 unknown, this prelate was driven from his see 
 into banishment : but he was afterwards restor- 
 ed, and died at Hexham in 740, where his re- 
 mains were buried with great solemnity. Mi- 
 raculous powers were ascribed to his bones : 
 
 Simeon of Durliam relates, that a blind old 
 ■woman was restored to sight by means of a 
 little holy water, in which one of the saint's 
 bones had been steeped. Diipin. Voso, de 
 Hist. Liii. lib. ii. c. 28. Caie, Hist. Lit. Biog. 
 Brh. - E. 
 
 ACCARISI, Francis, a civilian, of the 
 sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, born at 
 Ancona, obtained great celebrity as a professor 
 of civil law in the university of Sienna, where 
 he had studied. In his youth he had enjoyed 
 the friendship of Bargalio and Benevento, men 
 who had acquired considerable reputation for 
 their knowledge of the law. Accarisi, when 
 first called to the professorial chair, was only 
 employed to explain the Institutes ot Justinian : 
 afterwards, his lectures were extended to the 
 Pandects ; he was then appointed, by the grand 
 duke Ferdinand I. to lecture upon the civil law 
 in general, after the manner of Cujacius : at 
 length, upon the death of Bargalio, he was pro- 
 moted to the chair of ordinary professor of law, 
 whicli he occupied for twenty years. So high 
 was the reputation which he acquired in this 
 office, that very advantageous proposals were 
 repeatedly made him from other Italian univer- 
 sities. His partiality to his nlma mater, and his 
 gratitude to liis patron, long prevented him from 
 listening to them ; but when the duke of Parma 
 added, to large pecuniary offers, the flattering 
 proposal of giving him the title of his counsel- 
 lor, the tetnptation was irresistible, and he re- 
 moved to Parma. Tlie grand duke of Tuscany, 
 however, soon recalled him, by giving him the 
 first professorship in law at Pisa. He died at 
 Sienna in 1622. — E. 
 
 ACCIAJUOLI, DoNATo, a native of Flo- 
 rence, borji in the year 1428, was at once a use- 
 ful and active citizen and a learned scholar. His 
 preceptor was John Argyropylus of Constan- 
 tinople. He wrote " Notes upon the Morals 
 of Aristotle, addressed to Nicomachus," for 
 which, in Ins dedication to Cosmo de'Mcdici, 
 he acknowledges himself indebted to the lectures 
 of his master. He has also left " A Latirt 
 Translation of Plutarch's Lives of Aicibiades 
 and Demetrius," printed, in folio, at Florence^ 
 in 1478; and the lives of Hannibal, of Scipio, 
 and of Charlemagne. Acciajuoli was sent by 
 the Florentines to Louis XI. of France to so- 
 licit his aid against pope Sixtus IV. He died 
 at Milan in 1478. It was a singular proof ot 
 his disinterested spirit, and of the high respect in 
 which he was held by his countrymen, that hi 
 ^vas buried at the public expense, and that his 
 daughters, like tho e of Aristides, were porlioned 
 for marriage by his fello\v-citizea«. Jov:n^ in
 
 A C C 
 
 ( 35 ) 
 
 A C C 
 
 Flog. 
 
 c. 1 6. J^olalnr. B. 2i. Voss. de Tint, 
 Ltit. lib. ii. c. 8. Bayle. — E. 
 
 ACCIAJUOLI, Zenorio, a Florentine of 
 the same family with Donato Acciajuoli, and a 
 Dominican monk, was librarian of the Vatican 
 unJer Leo X. He learned Greek and Hebrew 
 towards the latter part of his life, and wrote a 
 translation, of Olympiodorus on Ecclesiastcs, of 
 a treatise of Eusebius against Hieroclcs, and of 
 Theodoret's Cure of tlic false Opinions of tlic 
 Gentiles, with some other pieces. He died at 
 the age of 58, in 1520, or, according to some, 
 ill 1537. Bayle. — E. 
 
 ACCIUS, or Attius, Lucius, a Latin 
 tragic poet, the son of a frecdman, was born, 
 according to Jerom, in the year of Rome 584, 
 B. C. 170. He is generally named along with 
 Pacuvius, thongh the latter was fifty years older; 
 they were, however, contemporaries ; and Ac - 
 cius once recited a tragedy to Pacuvius, the 
 style of which the old man thought lofty and 
 sonorous, but somewhat harsh and crude. The 
 particular character of Accius, indeed, seems to 
 have been that of vigour and sublimity: thus 
 Horace styles him altus, elevated ; and Ovid, 
 aiiimosus, spirited. The latter also applies the 
 epithet of atrox, cruel, to his works, which pro- 
 bably refers to the subjects of his plays, viz. the 
 great catastrophes treated of by the Greek dra- 
 matists. In these he was probably for the most 
 part a translator ; hut he composed one tragedy, 
 on the story of Brutus and Tar([uin. He is also 
 supposed to have written some comedies ; as 
 well as some historical annals in verse. Deci- 
 mus Brutus, consul in A. R. 615, was his par- 
 ticular friend and patron, and was celebrated by 
 him in verses which Brutus so much prized, as 
 to hang them up among the monuments of his 
 victories. Cicero was familiarly acquainted 
 with Accius. Valerius Maximus mentions a 
 poet of this name who was accustomed not to 
 rise when Julius Casar entered the assembly of 
 the poets, as reckoning himself, in that place, 
 his superior. 
 
 We have nothing remaining of Accius but 
 the titles of some of his plays. Bayle. Vossiui. 
 Lilius Gyrald. — A. 
 
 ACCOLTI, Benedict, an Italian lawyer. 
 Was born at Florence in 14*5 where he ac- 
 quired high distinction. In 1450, he succeeded 
 Poggius as secretary to the republic. He was 
 loaded with ecclesiastical honours ; Leo X. 
 gave him the bishopric of Cadiz, and Adrian VI. 
 that of Cremona ; and the archbishopric of Ra- 
 venna. Clement Vll. created him a cardinal. 
 At the request of the latter pontiff, he wrote a 
 treatise to assert the right of the pope to the 
 
 kingdom of Naples. He was so great a master 
 of the Laiin tongue, tiiat he was called the Ci- 
 ccro of his age. 1 lis memory was uncommonly 
 retentive. Haxiiig, one dav, heard a speech de- 
 livered by an ambassador from the king of Por- 
 tugal to the senate of Florence, he afterwards 
 repeated it, word for word. He wrote a trea- 
 tise " De Pncstantia Virorum sui svi," after- 
 wards printed at Parma, 121x10.1689. In this 
 work, which passed through many editions, the 
 author compares tlie characters of the moderns 
 to the ancients, in order to prove that the former 
 are in no respect inferior to the latter. Accolti 
 also wrote a valuable work, which Tasso made 
 use of as his text in writing his Jerusalem De- 
 livered ; it is entitled, " Dc Bcllo a Christianis 
 contra Barbaros, pro Christi Scpulchro et Judaa 
 recuperandis, libri tres," [On the War carried 
 on by the Christians against the Barbarians, for 
 the Recovery of Christ's Sepulchre, and of Ju- 
 dsa] printed, in 410. at Venice, 1532. Be- 
 nedict Accolti died at Florence in 1549. Me- 
 rer}. Hist, de la Lit. Ital, lib. ix. n. 4. — E. 
 
 ACCOLTI, Francis, brother of the pre- 
 ceding, called, in his time, the prince of lawyers, 
 was born about the year 141 8, and professed 
 jurisprudence at Bologna from the year 1440 to 
 1445, ^"^^ afterwards at Ferrara. Sienna, and Pi- 
 sa. He possessed a strong understanding, and 
 powerful eloquence. The distinction which he 
 acquired was so great, that he flattered himself 
 with the expectation of obtaining a cardinal's 
 hat, on the accession of Sixtus IV. to the pon- 
 tifical throne : and when it was refused him, 
 the pope thought it necessary to accompany the 
 refusal with this complimentary apology : " I 
 would gladly have granted you the honour, had 
 I not feared, that your preferment, by removing 
 you from your school, would have hindered the 
 progress of science." The reputation of Fran- 
 cis Accolti was tarnished by the parsimony with 
 which he amassed vast treasures. He wrote 
 several treatises on law, and translated some of 
 the writings of Chryspstom. Moreri. Hist, de 
 la Lit. de rital. lib.' ix. n. 97. — E. 
 
 ACCORSO (in Latin Accursius), Fran- 
 cis, the elder, an eminent lawyer, born at Ba- 
 gnolo,near Florence, in 1 1 82, studied at Bologna 
 under Azzon, and was professor of law in that 
 university. Though he began the study of law 
 at a late period of life, he made such proficiency 
 as to become an eminent preceptor. Having 
 observed, that the numerous comments which 
 had been made upon the Code, the Institutes, and 
 the Disjests, only served to involve the subjects 
 in obscurity and contradiction, he undertook the 
 great work .of uniting the whole into one- body,
 
 A C C 
 
 ( 36 ) 
 
 ACE 
 
 retrenching superfluities, and (giving consistency 
 and harmonv to the whole, it is s;iid, that, he- 
 iiig informed of a bimilar work begun by Odo- 
 fred, anotlicr lawyer of Bologna, he pretended 
 to be ill, and interrupting his public lectures, 
 shut himself up, till he had, widi the utmost ex- 
 pedition, completed his design. His work, en- 
 titled " A Perpetual ComnK-ntary," was much 
 valued : it is printed with the " Body of Law," 
 published in six volumes, folio, at Lyons, in 
 1627. Accorso died in the year 1260, and left 
 great riches. His stui, the younger P'rancis 
 Accorso, succeeded him in the chair of law, and 
 in 1273 accompanied Kdward I. on his return 
 from the crusade to England. Baylc. Moreri. 
 Htsl. de la Lit. cle l' Italie par Landi, lib. vi. 
 n. 45.— E. 
 
 ACCORSO, M.\RiANG£i.o, a native of 
 Aquiia, a town in the kingdoin of Naples, who 
 lived in the sixteenth centurv, is ranked among 
 the most learned and ingenious critics ot that 
 age. Besides possessing a perfect knowledge 
 of Greek and Latin, he was well acquainted 
 vith several modern languages. Posterity is 
 much indebted to him, with many other learned 
 inen of his time, for the diligence with which he 
 sought and collated ancient manuscripts. His 
 •work, entitled " Diatribs," printed at Rome, 
 in folio, 1524, remains a monument of erudi- 
 tion and critical acuinen : the authors on whom 
 his lucubrations are employed, are Ausonius, 
 Solinus, and Ovid. He is said to have bestowed 
 great pains upon Clandian, and to have made 
 above seven hundred corrections in that poet 
 from various manuscripts : but unfortunately 
 these criticisms were never published. It is a 
 circumstance, which strongly marks the industry 
 of this learned critic, that these corrections were 
 made as he travelled on herse-back, during a 
 tour through Germany and Sarmatia. Accorso 
 published an edition of Ammianus JMarcellinus, 
 at Augsburg, in 1533, which contains five 
 books more than had appeared in any former 
 edition : the first thirteen books are still want- 
 ing. He was also the first editor of the " Let- 
 ters of Cassiodorus," with his " Treatise on 
 the Soul." He humourously ridiculed the af- 
 fected use of anti(juatcd terms, into which some 
 Latin writers of tliat period had fallen, in a dia- 
 logue, published in i';3i, entitled, " Osco, 
 Volsco, Romanoque, Eloqucntia, Interlocuto- 
 ribus, Dialogn.s Ludis Romanis actus." He is 
 said (Toppi Bib!. Napolon. p. 206.) to have 
 composed a book on the invention of printing ; 
 and to have written, with his own hand, in the 
 first leaf of a grammar of Donatus, printed on 
 velium : " This Donatus, with another book, 
 
 entitled, " Confessionalia," were die first books 
 printed, and John Faustus, citizen of Mentz, 
 inventor of that art, had put them to the press in 
 the year 1450." (Chevalier's Origin of Printing, 
 p. 21.) Accorso has left an example of an au- 
 thor's jealousy for the immaculate purity of his 
 literary fame, which to modern authors may 
 seem scarcely credible, but which is too curious 
 to be passed by. Having been accused of pla- 
 giarism in his notes on Ausonius, for which he 
 w as said to have been indebted to Fabricio Va- 
 rano, bishop of Camarino, he expurgated him- 
 self from the charge of the heinous offence of 
 literary theft, by the following very solemn 
 oatii. " In the name of gods and men, of truth 
 and sincerity, I solemnly swear, and it any de- 
 claration be more binding than an oath, 1 in 
 that form declare, and I desire that my declara- 
 tion may be received as strictly true, that I have 
 never read or seen any author, from which my 
 own lucubrations have received the smallest 
 assistance or iiuprovement ; nay, that I have 
 even laboured, as far as possible, whenever any 
 writer has published any observations which 1 
 myself had before made, iminediately to blot 
 them out of my own works. If in this declara- 
 tion I am forsworn, may the pope punish my 
 perjury ; and may an evil genius attend my 
 writings, so that whatever in them is good, or 
 at least tolerable, mav appear to the unskilful 
 multitude exceedingly bad, and even to the 
 learned trivial and contemptible ; and may the 
 small reputation I now jsossess be given to the 
 winds, and regarded as the worthless boon of 
 vulgar levity." (Accursii Diatribae, ad calc.) 
 Were this rigorous oath introduced, in these 
 days, into the republic of letters as the test of 
 originality, and required of every new author as 
 his passport to the press, what a wonderful 
 change would it probably produce in the number 
 of literary productions ! Might there not be some 
 reason to apprehend, that authors would become 
 almost as rare as claiiriants of the Dunmore flitch 
 of bacon ? Toppl B'lbl. Napol. Bayle. — E. 
 
 ACESIUS, a bishop of Constantinople, in the 
 reign of Constantine, was a disciple of Novatus, 
 the founder of a rigid sect, whose distinguishing 
 doctrine was, that those who had fallen from 
 the faith in time of persecution, or who after 
 baptism had committed any mortal sin, were not 
 to be admitted to the communion of the church, 
 even though they gave proofs of sincere repent- 
 ance. At the council of Nice, in 325, Constan- 
 tine inquired of Acesius, whom, though sepa- 
 rated from die communion of die church, he 
 had invited to the council, what was the ground 
 of his separation ? Acesius, in reply, admitted
 
 A C H 
 
 ( 37 ) 
 
 A C H 
 
 that tlie crccJ which had been subscribed by tlic 
 synod was orthodox, and assented to their deter- 
 mination concerning tlie festival of caster, but 
 pleaded, as a sufficient reason for separation, the 
 Novatian doctrine, which would not permit them 
 to hold communion with those, who, in the per- 
 secution under Decius, had forsaken the church. 
 Upon this, Constantine, displeased at tlie severity 
 of a sect which discouraged repentance, said, 
 " Then, Acesius, make a ladder for yourself, 
 and go up to heaven alone." Sociat. lib. i. c. 7, 
 10. Sozomen. lib. i. c. 21, 22. Diipiii. Lard- 
 ner's Crrclihilhy, part ii. c. 47. — E. 
 
 ACHARDS, Eleazar, born at Avignon in 
 1679, ''"'^ afterwards bishop of that see, is enti- 
 tled to a distinguished place in the truly honour- 
 able class of good men, by the persevering forti- 
 tude with which, at the imminent hazard of his 
 life, lie discharged the offices of piety and huma- 
 nity, during the plague at Avignon in 1721. Pope 
 Clement XII. well acquainted with the useful ta- 
 lents and amiable spirit of this prelate, employed 
 him in the capacity of apostolic vicar, to settle 
 the disgraceful disputes which had arisen among 
 the missionaries in China. The worthy bishop 
 undertook the delicate and hazardous commis- 
 sion ; and, after a tedious voyage of two years, 
 and a residence of the same length in China, 
 without having been able to accomplish the pur- 
 pose of his mission, died in Cochin, in 1741, 
 a martyr to benevolent zeal. An account of this 
 mission was published by his secretary, M. Fa- 
 ber, in three volumes i2mo. Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 — E. 
 
 ACHERI, Lue D', a Benedictine monk, of 
 the fraternity of St. Maur, born at St. Quintin, 
 in Picardy, in 1609, was famous for the pains 
 which he took to bring to light works whicli till 
 that time had remained concealed. In 1645, ^^ 
 published the episde attributed to the apostolic 
 Bernard, with notes by Menard, a monk of the 
 same fraternity. In 1648, he published the 
 Life and works of Lanfranc, archbishop of Can- 
 terbury ; and, in 1651, those of Guibert, abbe 
 of Nogent, with numerous notes and observa- 
 tions. Having himself made a large colle6fion 
 of histories, chronicles, lives of saints, acts of 
 councils, letters, poems, and other pieces, and 
 hoping to excite the industry of others in the 
 same wav, he, in the year 1655, began an an- 
 nual publication under the title of " Spicilegium,' ' 
 which was continued to the year 1677. It was 
 was first published in 4to. but was afterwards, 
 in 1723, reprinted by M. de la Barre in three 
 volumes folio. The collcdlion is accompanied 
 with prefatory discourses. It contains no pieces 
 of earlier dare than the fall of the v^ estern Ro- 
 
 man empire, and is chiefly valuable as a book of 
 reference in matteis of ecclesiastical history. 
 This author also published some ascetic pieces of 
 little value. This industrious compiler, whose 
 wliolc life appears to have been devoted to solitui'e 
 and fludy, died at St. Germain des Pres, in Paris, 
 in 1685. Dupin. Aforcri. — E. 
 
 ACHILLES, the renowned hero of the Iliad, 
 is not to be regarded as a fabulous personage, 
 tiiough in his history truth is so mingled with fa- 
 ble, that it is impossible to separate them. Many 
 ancient writers besides Homer have contributed 
 a share to his story, and the circumstances they 
 adduce are not always consistent with each other. 
 The following sketch contains tlie most current 
 opinions concerning him. He was the son of 
 Peleus, who reigned at Phthia in Thessaly, and 
 of Thetis, fabulously rejjresentcd as a marine 
 goddess. She is said, by dipping him in the ri- 
 ver Styx when an inf;int, to have rendered his 
 whole body invulnerable, except the heel by 
 which she held him. This, however, is, not an 
 universally received fiction, since he is by some 
 related to have been wounded in various places. 
 He was educated under the centaur Chiron, who 
 fed him on the marrow of wild beasts, and 
 brought him up to deeds of hardiness. But Ho- 
 mer, more naturally, gives him Phosnix, a friend 
 of his father's, for his tutor, and only makes him 
 indebted to Ciiiron for some particular instruc- 
 tions. As it was predicted that if he went to the 
 siege of Troy he would never return, his mother 
 caused him, when a boy, to be sent, disguised in 
 a female habit, to the court of Lycomedcs, king 
 of the isle of Scyros. Here he remained some 
 time, and so ingratiated himself with the king's 
 daughter Deidamia, that a child was the fruit of 
 their intimacy. In this retreat he was detected 
 by the art of Ulysses, who presenting before 
 the ladies of the court a box of trinkets ami. 
 jewels together with some arms, Achilles be- 
 trayed himself by putting on tlie helmet and 
 grasping the sword. He was then fitted out by 
 his father for the Trojan expedition, and con- 
 ducted thither a squadron of ships and a band of 
 warlike Myrmidons. He di^tinguished himself 
 in many combats and predatory expeditions dur- 
 ing the nine years tliat preceded the capture of 
 Troy. In the tenth, a quarrel between t]im and 
 Agamemnon, thechiefcominandcrot the Greeks, 
 which ended in unjusdy taking from Achilles 
 his favourite captive, the fair BriseVs, caused him 
 to remain inactive with his troops, while tlie 
 Greeks sustained gieat losses from the supe- 
 riority of the Trojnns. This anger of Achilles 
 is the well-known foundation of Homer's prin- 
 cipal epic poem, the Iliad. Jt terminated in Jiis
 
 A C H 
 
 ( 38 ) 
 
 A C H 
 
 resuming arms to avenge the death of his beloved 
 friend Patmclus, (o whose manes lie sacrihced a 
 ninltitiide otthc Trojans, and in particular their 
 great support, the valiant Hector. 'J"he savage 
 violence ot' his character was shown in his drag- 
 ing the bodv ot" this generous defender of his 
 countrv thrice round the walls of Troy at his 
 chariot wheels, in the sight of all his family. 
 Althougli, in the poem ot Homer, it would ap- 
 pear that this success decided the fate of Troy, 
 yet we tind that Achilles himself lost his life be- 
 fore the tinal ruin of that city. Different rela- 
 tions are given of his deatii; some attributing it 
 to a wound in his heel from a shaft sent by Pa- 
 ris ; (Virgil. .'En. Ovid. Metam.) others to a 
 treacherous attack upon him in a temple where 
 he was treating concerning a marriage with one 
 of Priam's daughters. (Dictys Cret. Dares 
 Phryg.) The Greeks interred him with great 
 funeral honours at the promontory of Sigaum, 
 and sacrificed Polyxena, the daugiiter of Priam, 
 on his tomb. His son by Deidamia, named 
 Pyrrhu.s, or Neoptolcmi:s, is represented as a 
 principal adlor in the storming of Trov : though 
 this fact is scarcely consistent with his age at 
 that period. 
 
 Achilles is drawn by Homer (who had proba- 
 bly received his character from tradition) as the 
 model of a hero in a barbarous age. Surpassing 
 all others in strength, vigour, beauty, and va- 
 lour; furnished with the most valued accom- 
 plishments ot the time, skill in music and poetr\', 
 and the talent of elocution ; kind to his friends, 
 terrible to his foes, passionate, cruel, and lesent- 
 ful, yet not void of generous emotions ; he is 
 rendered an interesting if not an estimable per- 
 sonage, and has excited a mischievous emulation 
 in the breasts of the Alexanders of posterior 
 ages. Homer. II. et Odyss. Bayle. — A. 
 
 ACHILLINT, Alexander, a philosopher 
 and physician, was born at Bologna, in 1463. 
 He studied at Paris, and returning to his native 
 city at the age of 22, began to lecture in philoso- 
 phy and medicine. Having remained there 20 
 years, he was invited to the university of Padua 
 in 1 506, where he was professor for two years 
 only, having for his rival and enemy the cele- 
 brated Pomponazzi, who did him ill offices with 
 his hearers. The simplicity of his manners too, 
 with his negligence in dress, and his thick mode 
 of speaking, rendered him an object of ridicule 
 to the students. He returned to Bologna, and re- 
 sumed the chair till 1512, when he died; though 
 some extend his life to 1525. Achillini, in phi- 
 losophy, was a follower of Averrhoes ; and such 
 was the renown he acquired in disputation, that 
 he was called the gnat philosopher. He wrote 
 
 many w orks in physics and dialectics, and also in 
 the visionary sciences of chiromancy and physi- 
 ognomy, now forgotten. His medical works have 
 gained him some more durable tame. He pub- 
 lished " In Mundini Anatomen Annotationes," 
 and " De Humani Corporis Anatomia," both 
 probably the same work, printed at Bologna, in 
 1520, and at Venice, 152 1. This is chiefly 
 a collection from Mundlnus and the Arabian 
 writers, but contains various observations, which 
 show him to have attended real di-sections ; and 
 some discoveries are attributed to him, particu- 
 larly of the little bones in the ear. A treatise 
 entitled, " De Subjecto Medicine," is likewise 
 contained in the collection of his works, Venice, 
 1568. Achillini was also a writer of Italian po- 
 etry, but not with much success. Tirahoscht. 
 HalUr, Bibl. Anat. Vander Linden, Script. 
 Med.—K. 
 
 ACHILLINI, John-Philotheus, bro- 
 ther of the preceding, was born at Bologna in 
 1466. He addicted himself principally to po- 
 etry, and composed a variety of works, which, 
 being written in the bad taste that prevailed 
 about the end of the 15th century, have left 
 scarcely any memory of their existence but their 
 titles. One of the principal was entitled, " Vi- 
 ridario," and contained the eulogy of many of 
 his contemporaries in literature, with lessons of 
 morality. He was, further, a man of considera- 
 ble learning, conversant in the Greek and Latin 
 tongues, in music, philosophy, theology, and 
 antiquities, of which last he had made ample 
 collections. He died in 1538. Tlraboschi. AIo- 
 reri. — A. 
 
 ACHILLINI, Claude, great nephew of 
 the two former, was born at Bologna in 1574, 
 and was considered as one of the greatest orna- 
 ments of his native place. He was a philoso- 
 pher, theologian, mathematician, poet, and law- 
 yer. In the latter capacity, he was professor of 
 jurisprudence for several years at Bologna, Par- 
 ma, and Ferrara, with the highest reputation. So 
 much admiration did his learning excite, that in- 
 scriptions to his honour were placed in theschools 
 in his life-time. He went to Rome, where he 
 obtained great promises of preferment from popes 
 and cardinals, but they proved only promises. 
 The duke of Parma, however, engaged him, on 
 very liberal terms, to occupy the chair of law in 
 his university. Achillini was a particular friend 
 of the cavalier Marini, whose style in poetry he 
 imitated, adopting the same strain of turgid me- 
 taphors, far-fetched thoughts, and points, which 
 obtained the applause of that age. A canzone, 
 which he addressed to Louis XIII. on the birth 
 of the dauphin, is said to have been rewarded by
 
 A c ri 
 
 ( 39 ) 
 
 A C H 
 
 cardinal Richelieu with a golJ chain of the value 
 ot" looo crowns. His poems were published at 
 Bologna in 1632, in 410. He also printed a vo- 
 lume of Latin letters. He died in 1640. Tita- 
 boschl. Aforcri. — A. 
 
 ACHMET I. emperor of the Turks, was 
 third son and successor of Mahomet III. and a- 
 scended the throne in 1603, being then scarcely 
 fifteen ; the first instance of a reign commencing 
 before the age of maturity in that country. As 
 few caetern sovereigns rule except through tlie 
 medium oflheir ministers and favourites, their per- 
 sonal character has little influence on the events 
 of their reign. That of Achmet was fertile in 
 circumstances both prosperous and adverse to 
 the Turkish empire. It began with larges.ses to 
 the soldiery, and by the removal of his grandmo- 
 ther, a proud and ambitious woman, from any 
 share in the administration. The Asiatic rebels 
 employed his arms immediately after his acces- 
 sion ; who, being driven to take refuge in Persia, 
 involved the two empires in a war, which lasted, 
 with intermissions, for some years. During the 
 course of it, Bagdad was taken from the Turks, 
 and tliough great efforts were made for its reco- 
 very, they proved abortive. 
 
 Transylvania and Hungary were the scenes of 
 much warfare between the Turks and German 
 empire during this reign ; and the former were 
 assisted by the famous Bethlem Gabor, and Pots- 
 kay. Gran was taken by the Turks ; and, 
 though peace was made with the emperor in 
 1606, affairs in Moldavia, Transylvania, Wa- 
 lachia, and the border provinces, continued much 
 embroiled for some years longer. Meantime the 
 Turks had been embarrassed by the rebellion of 
 the pacha of Aleppo, who, after great efforts, 
 was at length reduced to submit and solicit his 
 pardon. Losses bv sea, tumults of the janizaries, 
 fires, and other public calamities, afflicted the 
 Turkish empire in this reign ; and Achmet's re- 
 pose was disturbed bv a pretender to the throne, 
 and by attempts onhis life. He seems, however, 
 to have addicted himselt to amusements, and to 
 have passed his time chiefly in his haram and the 
 sports of the field. To gratify the first of these 
 tastes, it is said that he had a seraglio of 3000 wo- 
 men ; and for the purpose ot the second, lie kept 
 40,000 falconers, and nearly as many huntsmen, 
 in the different parts of his dominions. He de- 
 lighted in building, and expended great sums on 
 this species of magnificence. A moscjue which 
 he built in the hippodrome cost a prodigious sum 
 in its completion, and was reckoned to excel 
 that of Sancta Sophia in splendour, though infe- 
 rior in size. Achmet was by charac tcr haughty 
 and ambitious, but less cruel than his predeces- 
 
 sors. He was of a good constitution, strong and 
 active; yet he died at twenty-nine, in the year 
 1617, after reigning 14 vears. His three sons 
 succes ^ively ascended the throne after him. Mod. 
 Univ. Hist. — A. 
 
 ACHMET II. emperor of the Turks, son -4^ 
 of sultan Ibrahim, succeeded his brother Solyman 
 in 16^1. Ashe was merely passive in affairs 
 of state, it will be sufficient to mention a few of 
 the most inemorable events of his reign. His 
 grand vizir, KiuiH-rii Ogli, marching with an 
 army to tlic hanks ot the IDannbc, was defeated 
 and slain at the battle of Salankemen, the effects 
 of which were very injurious to the Turkish in- 
 tcre ts. The imperialists over-ran several pro- 
 vinces of the Ottoman territory ; and the Vene- 
 tians got possesion of tlie Morca, took the isle of 
 Chios, and various places in Dalmatia. The 
 Arabs plundered a caravan of pilgrims, and even 
 laid fiege to Mecca. The administration at 
 home was frequently changed, and exhibited all 
 the unsteadiness and weakness incident to a reign 
 of eunuchs and domestics. Achmet was good- 
 tempered, devout, and hannless. He had a love 
 for justice, but possessed too little sagacity to ad- 
 minister it properly. Though totally unfit to be 
 a sovereign, he was aniiablc in private life. Ha 
 was chearful, familiar, and fond of poetry and 
 music, in both which he made some proficiency. 
 He died in 1695 at the age of fifty, making his 
 last request to his successor Mustapha, that he 
 would spare the life of his son. Mod, Univcrs. 
 Hist.— A. 
 
 ACHMET III. emperor of the Turks, son 
 of Mahomet IV. was raised to the throne on the 
 deposition of his brother Mustapha II. in 1703. 
 His brother, on resigning the crown to him, 
 warned hiin of his future insecurity if he should 
 suffer the mutineers who had raised him to re- 
 main unpunished. In consequence, though Ach- 
 met was at first obliged to remove his mother 
 from his councils in compliance with their de- 
 mands, he found means in time to get rid of 
 them all. His first care was to amass as much 
 wealth as possible ; and he ventured upon mea- 
 sures which none of his predecessors had chosen 
 to adopt — debasing the coin, and laying new 
 taxes. The fear of a reliellion, however, made 
 him stop short in these designs. In 170Q, the 
 event of the battle of Pultawa caused Charles 
 Xll. of Sweden to take refuge in the Turkish 
 dominions. He was received with great hospi- 
 tality, and a succession of intrigues took place 
 at the Ottoinan court between the Russian and 
 the Swedish parties. The sultana-mother, who 
 had recovered much of her influence, took part 
 with Charles XII. and war was declared
 
 AGO 
 
 ( 40 ) 
 
 AGO 
 
 against Czar Peter, wliich tcniiiiiatcJ by the 
 peace of Priith, where tl)e vi/.ir, corrupted, as 
 supposed, by presents, sulVered tlic Czar to es- 
 cape from certain ruin. Tlie conditions, how- 
 ever, were favourable to the Turkisli empire. 
 The king of Sweden was at length compelled by 
 force to depart from the Turkish dominions. 
 Achmet likewise made war against the Vene- 
 tians, from whom lie recovered t!ic Morea. An 
 expedition into Hungary against the emperor of 
 Germany turned out les favourably, the Turk- 
 ish army being defeated in 17 16, by prince Eu- 
 gene, at the battle of Pcterwaradin. 
 
 Achmet was much under tlie government of 
 liis ministers and favourites, who often occa- 
 sioned unexpected revolutions in the politics of 
 the Porte ; yet it is said that lie frequently went 
 in disguise to places of public resort in his ca- 
 pital, in order to discover the sentiments of his 
 people. A sedition of the soldiery, occasioned 
 by mal-administration, and inllamed by a fana- 
 tic, at length caused his detlironcment in 1730, 
 and the elevation of his nephew A'lahomet V. 
 He was confined in the same aj)artment whence 
 his nephew had been taken, where he lived in 
 quiet till he was carried off by an apoplexy in 
 1736, aged seventy-four years. He had him- 
 self set the unusual example of lenity to a de- 
 throned predecessor, at his own elevation. 
 
 Achmet III. appears to have been a prince 
 not devoid of abilities and good intentions ; but 
 u blind confidence in his vizir, as he himself 
 confessed to his nephew in the advice he gave 
 him on taking his place, tarnished the glory of 
 his reign, and precipitated him from the throne. 
 Afod. "Univers. Hist. — A. 
 
 ACHMET, an Arabian author, supposed to 
 have lived about the fourth century, wrote a 
 book " On the Interpretation of Dreams, ac- 
 t:ording to the Doctrine of the Indians, the Per- 
 fians, and the Egyptians." The orginal of this 
 work is lost ; but curiosity, or superstitious cre- 
 dulity, has preserved it translated both in Greek 
 and Latin ; it was published, together with " Ar- 
 temidorus on Dreams and Chiromancy," by M. 
 Rigaud, in 4to. Paris, 1603. Riband. Pii^f. in 
 Achmet. Inteip. Bayle. Nouv. Diet. Hist. — E. 
 
 ACONZIO, Jame», a native of Trent, a 
 philosopher, mathematician, and divine, of the 
 16th Century, appears to have advanced beyond 
 the age in which he lived in liberality of senti- 
 ment, and hence to have incurred more odium, 
 and obtained less praise, than he merited. Em- 
 bracing the protestant religion, he left his own 
 country, and placed himself under the patronage 
 of Elizabeth, queen of England, from whom, 
 cJiiefiy on account of his skill in fortification, he 
 
 obtain'-d a pension as engineer. To her, under the 
 canonising title of Diva Eli-zabctha, he inscribes. 
 Iiis principal work, " De Stratagematibus Sata- 
 ns," [On the Stratagems of Satan in the Business 
 of Religion, by means of SujKTStition, Error^ 
 Heresy, Hatred, Calumny, Schism, Sec] The 
 princijjal objedt of this work was to inculcate 
 the doctrine, and promote the spirit, of tolera- 
 tion ; a design w hich very few, even of the 
 protestant divines, were prepared to favour. The 
 work, therefore, brought upon the author a 
 heavy load of acrimonious censure. It was al- 
 leged against him, as matter of reproach, that 
 the aim of his whole work was to bring the fun- 
 damentals of religion into so narrow a compass^ 
 that a way might be opened to a general union 
 of all Christian sects : he was accused of wiili- 
 ing to inclose the orthodox, and heretics of all 
 descriptions, like Noah's clean and unclearj 
 beasts, in one ark ; and his work was condemn- 
 ed, as of all bad books the worst. Some, how- 
 ever, were of a different opinion, and ventured 
 to say, that Aconzio was a luminary of pru- 
 dence and moderation, and that in his writings 
 he reasoned judiciously and piously. His good 
 sense, and accurate manner of thinking, were 
 also shown, in an Epistle to Wolfius, " De 
 edendorum Librorum Ratione," [On the Man- 
 ner of publishing Books] a work which con- 
 tains much good advice to authors : they were 
 still more fully displayed in his system of 
 logic, under the title of " De Methodo," 
 [On Method," or the right Manner of study- 
 ing and teaching the Sciences] in which are 
 pointed out the order in which the sciences, 
 ought to be studied, and the steps by which the 
 mind passes from the discovery of one truth to 
 another. This treatise is neatly written, and its 
 precepts are well illustrated by examples. It 
 was published at Basil in 1558. The author 
 bestowed great pains upon this work, for a rea- 
 son, which, as a proof of his penetration, as 
 well as modesty, we Ihall give in his own trans- 
 lated words : " I perceive that it is my lot to 
 live in an exceedingly cultivated age ;. and yet I 
 do not so much fear the decision of the present 
 race of learned men, as 1 dread the rising light of 
 a period still more cultivated than the present: for,, 
 although the present century has produced, and 
 still continues to produce many eminent men, yet 
 I think I perceive before us a degree of know- 
 ledge and refinement beyond our prefent con- 
 ceptions." The prediction of this intelligent and 
 enlightened man has been fulfilled : cumbrous 
 erudition has gradually given way to useful sci- 
 ence ; and, if the world has become less learned, 
 it may be confidently asserted to have become
 
 AGO 
 
 { 41 ) 
 
 ACQ 
 
 more attentive to the dictates of good-sense, and 
 the precepts of experience, and therefore to be 
 more wise. The time of Aconzio's death is 
 not known, but it was probably about tlie year 
 1561;. His " Stnitagemeta" was printed at Ba- 
 sil, 8vo. 1563, and reprinted at the same place 
 in 1610, and at Amsterdam, in 1674; and a 
 French translation was published in ihe year 
 1 6 10, and reprinted at Delft, in 1624. Bayle. 
 Tirabofch'i, Storia della Lett. Ital. — E. 
 
 ACOSTA, Joseph, a Spanilh Jesuit, and 
 missionary, was born about the year 1540, at 
 Mcdina-dcl-Campo in Leon. He was employ- 
 ed seventeen years in attempting the conversion 
 of the Indians in Soiitli America, and was made 
 a provincial in the Jesuiis' society in Peru. Af- 
 ter his return to Spain he visited Rome, where 
 he published a treatise, " De procuranda Indo- 
 rum Salute." [On procuring Salvation for the 
 Indians.] Befides some other pieces, he wroce, 
 in Spanifli, " The natural and moral History 
 of the Indies," publiflied in 8vo. 1591, and 
 translated into French in 1600. This work is 
 frequentlv quoted by Dr. Robertson, and other 
 modern authors, who have treated ot the history 
 of America. Joseph Acosta died, rector of the 
 college of Salamanca, in the year 1600. Nlc. 
 ylnton. Bill. H'lfp. Ahrer'i. — E. 
 
 ACOSTA, Uriel, a Portuguese, born at 
 Oporto about the close of the i6th centurv, is 
 chiefly famous for the changes which he paffed 
 through, respefting his religious opinions and 
 profcffions. Descended from one of those Jewdh 
 families, which had been compelled to submit 
 to Christian baptism, he was educated in the 
 Roman catholic religion. In early life, he ap- 
 pears to have been a strict observer of the cere- 
 monies of the churdi ; but the difficulties which 
 he met with, in conscientiously conforming to its 
 requisitions, raised in his mind speculative doubts 
 concerning the authority of the church, and con- 
 cerning the divine origin of the Christian reli- 
 gion. His sceptical turn of mind soon led him 
 to abandon Christianity, and even to reject the 
 doctrine of a future state. Not satisfied, how- 
 ever, with the idea of an entire renunciation of 
 every instituted form of religion, he resolved to 
 examine the faith of his ancestors ; and upon 
 comparing Judaism with Christianity, he ima- 
 gined the former more satisfactory than the lat- 
 ter, and formed a determination to ju-ofes^ him- 
 self a Jew. He communicated his thoughts to 
 his mother and brothers, and having brought 
 them over to his opinions, prevailed upon them 
 to adopt the same resolution. The profession . 
 of Judaism in Portugal would have exposed 
 them to the terrors of the inquisition. They, 
 
 VOL. I, 
 
 therefore, determined to make tlieir escape from 
 this country, and seek refuge in Holland, where 
 the public profession of diflerent forms of reli- 
 gion was tolerated. Relinquishing; a post of 
 some profit, Acosta, with his family, went to 
 Amsterdam, where, as soon as they arrived, 
 they were admitted into the synagogue. Upon 
 comparing the customs and practices of tiie mo- 
 dern Jews with the law of iVIoses, he remarked 
 many essential points of difference, and ventured 
 to request permission from the rabbis to decline 
 sucli observances as were not authorised by the 
 Jaw. The request only produced a threatening 
 ot excommunication, in case of the smallest de- 
 viation from the established doctrines or customs. 
 Acosta paid little regard to threatenings from a 
 tribunal whicli, unlike the inquisition he had 
 escaped, could only inflict spiritual censure ; and 
 he persisted in his disobedience to the authority 
 ot the synagogue. But he soon found, to his 
 cost, that mere spiritual power, unaided by the 
 civil magistrate, is not without its terrors. Tiie 
 sentence ot Lxcommiuiication was projiounced ; 
 and he instantly became the object cf universal 
 neglect and insult. The boys hooted him in the 
 streets ; the populace gathered in crowds about 
 his house, and threw stones at his windows : 
 even his brothers, if they met him, dared not 
 salute him. The public resentment against him 
 was still further inflamed by a piece which he 
 wrote on the Sadducean principle, that there is 
 no resurrection of the dead ; in which, as a Jew, 
 he urged, as an argument against the immorta- 
 lity of the soul, thy.t Moses makes no mention 
 of a future state, and that the jienalties of the 
 Mosaic law only respect the present life. For 
 this publication he was brought by the Jews be- 
 fore the civil court of Am>terdam, by which he 
 was. sentenced to imprisonment ; and, thougii, 
 after being confined eight or ten days, he was re- 
 leased, the impression of !iis book was confis- 
 cated, and he was fined three hundred guilders. 
 Advancing still further in scepticism, Acosta at 
 length rejected the divine autliority of Moses : 
 and now, instead of persevering in that consci- 
 entious and manly adherence to his jirinciples, 
 which in the midst of all the exccntricities of his 
 opinions, had hitherto done credit to his moral 
 character, Acosta formed the base resolution of 
 sacrificing his conscience to his interest ; and, 
 after having lain fifteen years under the sentence 
 of excommunication, he in tlic public svira- 
 gogue recanted his errors, and signed the pre- 
 scribed formulary. This dishonest desertion of 
 principle did not, however, long answer his 
 purpose. Having inadvertently neglected some 
 ceremony iu the synagogue, he was again ac- 
 o
 
 A C R 
 
 ( 42 ) 
 
 ACT 
 
 cuied of infidelitv, and prosecuted with the ut- 
 most rigour. 'I'iic sciitciKe <>( excommunica- 
 tion was a second time passed u|).)n liim : the 
 indignities and insults of the poj)ulace were re- 
 newed ; and when, after seven years, he again 
 submitted to make a pubhc confession and de- 
 claration, his restoration to the synogague was 
 accompanied with the public disgrace ot receiv- 
 ing th'itty-n'itie stripes, and being laid on his 
 back at the door of the synagogue, that every 
 one who went out might trample upon him. 
 The mortification attending these indignities, 
 accompanied with the humiiiaiing consciousness 
 of having in repeated instances abandoned his 
 principles, and violated his intci^'riiy, at last 
 drove him to tiic desperate resolution of putting 
 an end to his own life with a pistol. After hav- 
 ing first aggravated his guilt by atteiTi])ting to 
 •shoot his principal adversary, he shot himself at 
 Amsterdam, in 1 640, or, according to the Bi- 
 bliothcque Universclle, in 1647. 
 
 Had Acosta adhered to tlie profession of his 
 principles througli life, with the same honesty 
 which he at first discovered, whatever inight 
 have been thought of his opinions, his integrity 
 would have entitled him to approbation ; and we 
 should only have condemned the bigotry and in- 
 tolerance which subjected him to jiersecution : 
 but his cowardly and base compliance with re- 
 quisitions, which were contrary to his jtidgment 
 and conscience, for the sake of personal ease 
 and security, leaves his name under a blot of 
 eternal infamy. A valuable treatise was written by 
 Limborch, in refutation of Acosta's objections to 
 Christianity, entitled, " De Veritate Religionis 
 Christians arnica CoUatio cum erudito Juda?o." 
 Gouds. 4to. 1687. Acosta Exemplar Vit. 
 Hum. afud Limb. Arnica Collnt'io. Bayle. — E. 
 
 ACkOPOLITES, George, a Byzantine 
 historian, was born in the year 1220 ; for we 
 iearn from his history, that he was twenty-one 
 years of age when Irene, the wife of John Du- 
 cas, died. (Acropolit. Chron. c. 39). His fa- 
 ther, who appears to have left Constantinople 
 when it was taken bv the Latins in 1204, •"'"1 
 to haveaccompanied Theodore Lascaris when he 
 removed the Greek empire to Nice, introduced 
 him, whilft a boy, to the court of John Ducas, 
 successor to Lascaris. (ib. c. 29). At Nice, 
 having been already well instructed in gramma- 
 tical learning, he studied madiematics, poetry, 
 rhetoric, and logic, (ib. c. 32). At the age of 
 twenty-one, l;e disputed with the physician Ni- 
 colaus, in the presence of the emperor John 
 Ducas, and his wife Helena, concerning eclip- 
 ses of the sun. (c. 39). His talents at length 
 advanced him to distiiKtion in the state. "He 
 
 was appointed by Theodore Lascaris tlie young-- 
 er, prietor of Greece ; and in the reign of Mi- 
 chael Palsologus, or perhaps earlier, he was 
 raised to the dignity of Logotheta, (Pachymer. 
 Hist. lib. V. c. 13, Sec.) an office, which, among 
 the Greeks, corresponded to that ot high 
 chancellor among the Latins. Under iievcral 
 successive emperors he was employed on fo- 
 reign embassies, and in other public affairs, 
 (c. 49, 66, 84). Upon the recovery of Con- 
 stantinople to the Greek empire, in the year 
 1261, Acropolites was employed to compose the* 
 public forms of thanksgiving to be recited on the 
 emperor's entrance into riic city. (c. 85, 87). ' 
 In 1273, he was sent, with four other persons, 
 on an embassy to pope Gregory X. to terminate 
 the schism of the eastern churcli. He continued 
 to enjoy his honours, and tlie favour of the em- 
 peror, till his death, which hapjjcned in the 
 year 1282, the same vear in which Michael 
 Palsologus died. (Conf. Acron. Chron. c. 34^ 
 Pachymer. Hist. lib. i. c. I.) 
 
 'I"he situation of this statesman afforded him 
 great advantage for becoming the historian of 
 the Greek empire for the period in which he 
 lived ; and he has left behind him a Chronicle 
 of this period, which, notwithstanding much ob- 
 scurity of style, and confusion of method, is 
 valuable as a minute, and apparently accurate, 
 detail of events, of which he was, for the most 
 part, a spectator. His Chronicle commences 
 widi the siege of Constantinople by the Latins in 
 1203, and ends with the recovery of that city 
 by the Greeks in 1 26 1. A compendium of the 
 work was first published, in 8vo. in Greek and 
 Latin, by Dousa at Leydcn in 1 6 14. The 
 entire work appeared, with the Latin version of 
 Allatius, in folio, at Paris, in 1651. Hanck- 
 ius de Byzant. Script, p. i. c. 33. Voss. de 
 Hht. Grac. lib. ii. c. 18. Fabric. Blbl. Grac. 
 lib. V. c. 5. s. 10. — E. 
 
 ACTUARIUS, John, a Greek physician, son 
 of Zachary, is supposed to be nained from the 
 office he held in the court of Constantinople, as 
 he is also cnlled Archlater. When he lived, is 
 not vei y certain ; but Freind refers him to the 
 reign of Michael Angelus, towards the end of 
 the twelfth century. He composed one of his 
 works for the use of the great chamberlain, 
 Apocauchus, who was going on an embassy to 
 the north. There are considerable remains of 
 this physician's writing ; a " Method of Prac- 
 tice," a " Compendium of Phy ic," a " Trea- 
 tise on Urines ; and on the Action and Affec- 
 tions of the Animal Spirits, and their Nu- 
 trition ;" with other detached tracts. He is 
 mostly a follower of Galen and his Greek pre-
 
 ADA 
 
 ( 43 ) 
 
 ADA 
 
 dccessors, yet has inany tilings proper to liim- 
 sclf. He IS tlie first Greek wlio mentions die 
 inilcler purgatives, and he seems to have Iiad a 
 knowledge of" distilled li(|uors. His works Iiave 
 been piinred as well entire, as in parts. Fieind, 
 Hist. ofP/iys. Haller Bill. Mccl. Pract.—A. 
 
 ACUNA, Christopher, a Spanish JesTiit, 
 born at Burgos in 1597, wtnt as a missionary 10 
 the American Indians. He spent many years in 
 Chili and Peru, and on his return wrote in 
 Spanish, in the year 1641, a curious work, en- 
 titled, " A New Description ot the great River 
 of the Ama'/.ons ;" it was translated into French, 
 with a prefatory Dissertation, by Gomberville, 
 in four vols. i2mo. 1682. Bayle. Chcvreau. 
 Hist, du AJonde. Alorcii. — E. 
 
 ADALBERT, a German divine, of the 
 tenth century, archbishoj) ot IMagdebeig, was 
 educated in the monastery ot St. Maximin of 
 Treves, and was, in the year 961, employed by 
 the emperor Otho I. to preach the gospel to the 
 Russians. He returned without much success, 
 but afterwards bestowed his labours wirii more 
 profit upon the Sclavonians on the borders of 
 tlie Elbe and the Oder. Dupiii. Alorcri. — E. 
 
 ADALBERT, archbishop of Prague, in the 
 tenth century, was one of the first founders of 
 the Christian religion in Hungary. He also 
 preached the gospel in Prussia, and Lithuania, 
 where he was murdered by Sego, a pagan priest. 
 Dupin. A'lorci'i. Mosheim. Eccl. Hist. Cant. 
 X.— E. 
 
 ADAM, according to the Hebrew scriptures, 
 ■was tlie first man, the father of the human race. 
 He was created by God, and placed in the gar- 
 den of Eden, where grew the tree of the know- 
 ledge of good and evil, the fruit of which he was 
 forbidden to taste, under the penalty of death. 
 Eve, his wife, enticed by a serpent, ate some of 
 tlie prohibited fruit : Adam, through her persua- 
 sion, did the same ; and they both became mortal, 
 and were driven out ot Paradise. According to 
 the Hebrew chronology, commonly received, 
 Adam was created in the year 4004before Christ, 
 and died in the year 3074, aged 930 years. 
 Chronologers, however, differ exceedingly con- 
 cerning the date of the creation of the world. 
 Strauchius, in his Chronology, gives a long list 
 of dates assigned to this event by various Chris- 
 tian and Jewish writer-, among whom the ex- 
 treme points of difference are 6984 years, and 
 3670 years, before Christ. On a question of 
 chronology attended with so much uncertainty, 
 it is perhaps in vain to expect satisfaction. In- 
 numerable fables have been invented concerning 
 Adam, which it is unnecessary to repeat. Ge- 
 nesis, i. ii. iii, — E. 
 
 ADAM, of Bremen, a canon of the church 
 in that city, who lived towards the end of the 
 eleventh century, wrote "An Ecclesiastical His- 
 tory," which treats of the rise and progress of 
 the Christian iaith in the northern countries, 
 from the reign of Ch arlemagne to that of the 
 emi)eror Henry IV. 'J"o this work is annexed 
 a description of Denmark, and tlie oiner north- 
 ern kingdoms, containing an accour.t of tiie re- 
 ligion, and the manners, ot the inhabitants. The 
 best edition of this work i> that of Helmsiadt, 4to. 
 1670. Dupin. Voss. dc Hist. Lat. lib. ii. c. 47. 
 — E. 
 
 ADAM, IMelchior, a biographer, who 
 wrote at the beginning of the .seventeenth cen- 
 tury, was a native of Grotkow in Silesia, and 
 studied in the college of Brieg. Under the pa- 
 tronage of tlie duke ot Brieg, and other men of 
 rank, he became an eminent preceptor, and was 
 at length appointed rector of the college of Hei- 
 delburg. In 16x5, he wrote, in 4to. the first 
 volume of his " Vits lUustrium Virorum," 
 [Lives of Illustrious Men] which contained 
 those of philosophers : threa other volumes soon 
 followed, containing, lives of divines, historians, 
 critics, lawyers, and jihysicians. All the cele- 
 brated men, whose lives are introduced into 
 these voluines, lived in the sixteenth, or at the 
 beginning of the seventeenth century, and were 
 almost entirely Germans. Bayle gives this bio- 
 grapher the character of an industrious collect- 
 or, and acknowledges himself much indebted to 
 his writiiigs. Melchior Adam died in 1622. 
 Bayle. Moreri. — E. 
 
 ADAM, Lambert Sigisbert, an emi- 
 nent sculptor, was born at Nancy in 1700, 
 where his father, Jacob Sigisbert, exercised the 
 same profession. He received his first instruc- 
 tions from his father, and in 17 19 came to Paris 
 for further improvement, where he passed four 
 years. Thence he went to Italy as a royal pen- 
 sionary, and in that scat ot the arts he spent ten 
 years, principally studying after the antique. He 
 finished thcie several considerable w orks ; among 
 which, one that gained him great applause from 
 the judges was tlie restoration of the mutilated 
 group of the family ot Lycomedes, discovered by 
 cardinal Polignac in the ruins of tlie villa of Ma- 
 rius. His model for the fountain of Trevi ob- 
 tained the preference over those of sixteen sculp- 
 tors and architects, which, however, the jea- 
 lousy of the Italians towards a foreign artist 
 prevented him from executing. He was admit- 
 ted a member of the academy of St. Luke in 
 Rome, and returned to Paris in 1733. Here 
 he was employed in a variety of great works for 
 the decoration of palaces, gardens, &c. Of
 
 ADA 
 
 ( 44 ) 
 
 A D A 
 
 these the most celebrated are a group represent- 
 ing the union of the rivers Seine and Marnc, at 
 the caseadc ol St. Cloud ; two groups ot' hunting 
 and fishing, presented to the king of Prussia ; 
 Neptune calming the sea ; the triinnph ot Neji- 
 tunc, at Versailles ; the has relief of the chapel of 
 St. Adelaide ; St. Jcrom ; Poetry ; and Mars ca- 
 ressed bv Love. In 1754 he published a collec- 
 tion of ancient Roman and Greek sculptures, 
 designed by himelf, and engraved by able artists, 
 in folio. Most of these he had purchased from 
 the heirs of cardinal Polignac. Excess of appli- 
 cation, and a edcntary life, at length brought on 
 an apoplexy, of which he died in 1759. His 
 compositions are in a harsh and savage style, 
 resembling rocks by their deep cavities and 
 roughnesses. They however exhibit strong 
 marks of a knowledge of the antique, and are 
 specimens of patient labour and meditation. 
 Fies (les fam. Sculpt, par D' Argcnv'ille. — A. 
 
 ADAM, Nicholas-Sebastian, second 
 brother of the preceding, was born at Nancy in 
 1705. After being instructed in the elements of 
 sculpture by his father, he was sent for improve- 
 ment to Paris. His progress was such, that at 
 the age of eighteen M. Bonnier took him to 
 work, at his seat near Montpeliiei", where he 
 was employed eighteen months in decorating the 
 front of the mansion. Thence he went to Rome 
 in 1726; and in less than two years obtained 
 the first prize given by the academy of St. Luke. 
 He employed liimself with great ardour in the 
 study and imitation of the antique in that capital, 
 where he remained nine years, during part of 
 which he had the society of his elder brother, 
 and of a younger who was educated in the same 
 branch. Nicholas also practised painting at his 
 leisure hours, which gave a particular character 
 to his sculptures. In 1734 he came to Paris, 
 where his models of Clitie and tlie Sacrifice of 
 Jj^higenia acquired hiin the applause of the aca- 
 demy of paiminc;. As a further trial, the diffi- 
 cult subject of Prometheus chained to the rock 
 was given him to model, in which he had ad- 
 inirable success. Next year he was employed 
 in a bas-relief of bronze for the chapel of Ver- 
 sailles, representing the martyrdom of saint Vic- 
 toria, reckoned one of his best performances. 
 He afterwards wrought for some time with his 
 elder brother on the group of Neptune, at Ver- 
 sailles. Several considerable works were com- 
 mitted to him in the succeeding years ; and in 
 1740 he obtain<d the apartiTient aiid work-room 
 of the deceased Bousseau, in the Louvre— a fa- 
 vour only granted to excellent artists. He gave 
 a model for the mausoleum of cardin::l Fleurv, 
 in-concuircnce with Bouchardon and Lemoyne, 
 
 to which the connoisseurs gave the preference, 
 though the court did not conhrni their judgment. 
 A singular incident respecting him took place in 
 1747. Frederic king of Prussia, who had long 
 wiihed to draw him to Berlin, sent a person 
 with very liberal otlers to give him an invitation. 
 The agent applying first to the elder Adam, he 
 kept the affair concealed from Nicholas, and 
 passed off in his stead his younger brother, 
 who accepted the proposal. Nicholas, when 
 afterwards acquainted with the circumstance, 
 was not displeased witii a deception which 
 kept him in France. He was soon after em- 
 ployed by king Stanislaus to make a monu- 
 ment for his queen in a mausoleum near Nancy, 
 which was one of his principal works. His last 
 performance was the Prometheus, the model for 
 which is before mentioned. This piece w'as 
 greatly admired, and tlie king of Prussia oiR-red 
 a large sum for it, which Adam refused, saying 
 he had made it for his own master. 
 
 This artist was estimable for the simplicity, 
 integrity, and mildness of his character, which 
 conciliated the friendship of his brother artists. 
 He had the misfortune of losing his sight several 
 years before his death, which happenedin 1778,31 
 the age of 74. D'Jrgcnvillc, Fiesdes Sculpt. — A. 
 
 ADAM, Francis-Gaspard, the younger 
 brother above-mentioned, was born at Nancv in 
 1 7 10, went through a similar course of studies 
 with his brodiers, with the elder of whom he 
 chiefly worked ; resided some years with repu- 
 tation in Prussia, and died at Paris in 1759. 
 D' Argcnv'tUe, Vies da Sculpt.— A. 
 
 ADAM, Robert, architect, was born at 
 Kirkaldy, in the Shire of Fife in Scotland, in 
 the year 1728. He was educated at the uni- 
 versity of Edinburgh, and afterwards pursued 
 his studies with all the advantages which an ac- 
 cess to die objects of taste and elegance at home 
 and in foreign countries could bestow. On his 
 return from a visit to Italy in the year 1762, 
 he was appointed architect to the king, an ofScc 
 \yhich he held till the year 1768, w'hen he re- 
 signed it on account of his election as repre- 
 sentative of the county of Kinross, in the Bri • 
 tish parliament. The peculiar beauty and light- 
 ness of the ornamental parts of buildings which 
 were the offspring of his inventive powers were 
 so generally admired, that not only the archi- 
 tecture, but all the manufactures of this country, 
 which depend upon or are connected with de- 
 coration, experienced a considerable degree of 
 improvement. A periodical work consisting of 
 designs, which he published about the year 1775, 
 contributed greatly to diffuse this taste" and man- 
 ner. The genius of Robert Adam was not
 
 ADA 
 
 ( 45 ) 
 
 ADA 
 
 confined to arcliitecture and ornamental com- 
 position, but appeared in numerous landscapes 
 which display a felicity of invention and ma- 
 nagement of tint at once bold and luxuriant. It 
 would be difficult to enumerate the many public 
 and private edifices which have been constructed 
 from his plans and designs. His activity was un- 
 remitted through life. In the year preceding his 
 death he designed eight public and twenty-five 
 private works, so various and excellent in style 
 and designation, as would have afforded him a 
 high degree of reputation, even if these alone had 
 constituted the whole of his performances as an 
 artist. He died on the third of March 1792, by 
 the bursting of a blood-vessel, in the sixty-fourth 
 year of his age, and was buried in the south aisle 
 of Westminster Abbey. — N. 
 
 ADAMSON, Patrick, a divine of Scot- 
 land, was born at Perth in the year 1536, and 
 studied in the university of St. Andrew's, of 
 ■which place he was afterwards elected archbi- 
 shop. It was the misfortune of this prelate, 
 that he was early advanced to a public charac- 
 ter which he wanted energy of mind to support, 
 and called to corrtend with opposition too violent 
 for his feeble and timid spirit. After he left the 
 university, he retired to a village in Fife, where 
 he supplied the want of a patrimony by perform- 
 ing the humble but useful duties of a school- 
 master : and had it been his fortune to remain all 
 his days in that station, though his name might 
 not have been sent down to post.rity, he would 
 probably have passed an undisturbed and reputa- 
 ble life ; for we are told, that, during the four 
 years which he passed in this retirement, he had 
 many pupils and v.as much respected, and it 
 appears from his subsequent Latin publications, 
 that he was a good scholar. It was his misfor- 
 tune, as the sequel will fhow, to be put into the 
 track of preferment, by being engaged by a 
 neighbouring gentleman to accompany his son 
 to Frafice, as his tutor, while he prosecuted the 
 Study of the civil law. It was not long after 
 this change of his situation, which happened in 
 1566, that his loyalty to Mary queen of Scots 
 brought him into great peril. On the birth of 
 Jame<:, while Mr. Adamson and his pupil were 
 at Paris, he wrote, and published, a Latin poem, 
 in the title of which he called the child, " The 
 most seiene and most noble prince of Scotland, 
 England, France, and Ireland. (Oper. Pat. 
 Adamson). This circumstance gave so much 
 umbrage to the French court, that Adamson 
 ^yas put under arrest, and kept in confinement 
 six months. Afrer his release, wliich was ob- 
 tained with difficulty, he retired with his pupil 
 to the university of Bourges in Berri. During 
 
 the dreadful massacre of St. Bartholomew, Adam- 
 son escaped the general slaughter by lying con- 
 cealed for seven months in an apartment of a 
 public house, the master of which paid dearly 
 for his humane hospitality, by being thiown 
 from the roof of his house, at seventy years of 
 age, for having harboured an heretic. (Pref. 
 to Adamson's Version of Job) Mr. Adamson 
 amused himself in his confinement by writing 
 two Latin poems, " A Poetical Version of the 
 Book of Job," and " A Tragedy on the Fate 
 of Herod :" these were afterwards, in 1572, 
 published. 
 
 Returning to Scotland, Adamson took cleri- 
 cal orders, and was appointed minister ot Pais- 
 ley. His zeal for episcopacy, shown in the 
 commission to which he was nominated, for 
 settling the jinisdiction and policy of the church, 
 recommended him to the favour of the regent, 
 the earl of Morton, who, soon afterwards, in 
 1576, presented him to the archbishopric of St. 
 Andrew's. This presentation excited the jea- 
 lousy of the presbyterians ; and the general as- 
 sembly required him to submit to examination 
 before their body, and to receive the bishopric 
 with such limitations as they should prescribe ; 
 in the mean time they prohibited his election by 
 the chapter of St. Andrew's. The chapter dis- 
 regarded the jjrohibition, and elected him : the 
 general asseinbly summoned him before them, 
 to examine the validity of his election ; and it 
 was not till he consented to their conditions, that 
 he was confirmed in his see. Even after this, 
 die violence of the presbyterian party on the one 
 side, and the archbisliop's pusillanimitv on the 
 other, subjected him to perpetual vexation. 
 Many heavy charges were brought against him 
 by his adversaries, which do not appear to have 
 been substantiated. If, in their elegant phrase, 
 " he kept himself in his castle like a fox in u 
 hole," the most that can be made of this circum- 
 stance is, that he wanted courage to face his 
 enemies. If, under a painful disease which his 
 physicians could not cure, he took a simple me- 
 dicine from an old woman, it did not follow, 
 either that the old woman was a witch, or that 
 the archbishop thought her so : yet, in the vio- 
 lence of party-spirit, and in the weakness and 
 cruel rigour of superstitious credulity, the pre- 
 late was accused of having recourse to the devil 
 in a case in which the physicians had failed him, 
 and the poor old woman was committed to pri- 
 son, and, after having escaped for four years, 
 was burnt for witchcraft. When king James, in 
 1583, visited St. Andrew's, Adam' on, in a sermon 
 which he preached before him, and in a pubhc 
 disputation, maintained the claims of the cpisco-
 
 A D A 
 
 ( 46 ) 
 
 ADD 
 
 p;<l thiiicli. His bcliavioiir on this occasion 
 was so pleasing to tlic king, ihit he aiipointctl 
 l.im his anil).l>-:adoi- to queen EiizalKth ; and 
 the jirelatc ocecutcJ his commission with such 
 iealous fidehty, particularly in liis sermons — 
 tor he was an eloquent preacher — tliat tlic 
 queen, who appears to have been jealous ot the 
 rising popularity oi' James, forbade him to enter 
 tlie pulpit. 
 
 The whole conduct of the anhhisjiop, dining 
 kii residence in England, conlinncd the aversion 
 of the leaders of "the presbyterian church ot 
 Scotland acaint Adamson ; and when, on his 
 return to Edinburgh in 1584, he appeared in 
 parliament, and brought forward several acts in 
 favour of episcopacy, the odium of proceedings 
 so offensive to the generality of the Scotch na- 
 tion, fell upon him, as the principal agent in the 
 business. The resolute struggle of the prcsby- 
 terians against the attempt of the king to intro- 
 duce episcopacy proved successful : the king's 
 declaration was reversed ; and, in a synod held 
 at St. Andrew's, in 1586, archbishop Adamson 
 was excommunicated ; a violent measure, which 
 he" retaliated bv excommunicating the modera- 
 tor of the synod. His adversaries carried their 
 hostilities still farther. The general assembly 
 granted a commission f(;r trying him on several 
 accusations ; one of which was, that, contrary 
 to a law then existing in the church of Scotland 
 — a law, by the way, which is an unparalleled 
 instance of ecclesiastical bigotry — he had mar- 
 ried the earl of Huntley to his countess, without 
 obliging him to subset ibe to a confession of 
 faith. Even his master, to whom he could now 
 no longer be useful, and against whom his only 
 offence appears to have been the failure of suc- 
 cess in his attempts to serve him, ungratefully 
 deserted him. James granted the revenue of 
 his see to the duke of Lenox, and left the un- 
 fortunate prelate, and hi; family, in a situation, 
 in which they, literally, wanted bread. Thus 
 oppressed with poverty, he meanly submitted to 
 deliver to the assembly a formal recantation of 
 all his opinions concerning church government, 
 which had given offence to the presbyterians. 
 Though this confession was represented as a 
 testimony which the force of truth had extorted 
 from an adversary, (Robertson's Hist, of Scot- 
 land, book viii.) it was, probably, understood 
 to have been dictated by necessity, without any 
 real change of opinion ; for, we do not find that 
 the confession procured him any melioration of 
 his condition. Supported, at the last, by cha- 
 ritable contribution, he terminated his unfor- 
 tunate life towards the latter end of the year 
 1 59 1 . Though we can by no means exculpate 
 
 this prelate's enemies in the church of Scotl.iiid 
 from the charge of unrelenting rigour, and even 
 of ciuel cahinmv, we think them perfectly jus- 
 tified in their opposition to the oppressive and 
 injurious measures, whicii he supported under 
 the authority of the king. We perceive in his 
 character a coiisiderable portion of bigotry, 
 mixed with, at least, an equal share of timidity ; 
 we account for his misfortunes chiefly from his 
 incapacity to support the cause he espoused with 
 cool intrepidity ; and we find little to mention 
 in his praise, except that he wrote tolerable 
 Latin verse, acquired high reputation as a po- 
 pular preacher, and, in his last forlorn situa- 
 tion, strongly expressed sentiments of pious re- 
 signation. We give little credit to the extra- 
 vao-ant panegyric of Mr. Wilson, the editor of 
 his works, who writes, that " he was a mi- 
 racle of nature, and rather seemed to be the im- 
 mediate production of God Almighty, than born 
 of a woman." Volincm Fit. Adamso)i. Cal- 
 dcrwoocCs Hist, of the Church of Scotland, tol. 
 1680. Spoti-ivood, Hist. Ch. Scotland. Biogr. 
 Brit.—E. 
 
 ADDISON, Lancelot, an English cler- 
 gyman, was born at Mauldismeburne, in West- 
 moreland, in tlie year 1632. He early distin- 
 guislied himself by his zealous attachment to 
 the Stuart family. After having taken his de- 
 gree of master of arts, in Queen's College, Ox- 
 ford, he was chosen one of the " Terrs filii" 
 for the act which was celebrated in 1658. In 
 his oration upon this occasion, he so severely 
 satirised the republican rulers, that he was ob- 
 liged to make a public recantation, and ask 
 pardon upon his knees. He soon afterwards 
 left the university, probably in di gust. At the 
 Restoration, the only remuneration which he 
 received for his loyalty was. an appointment to 
 the post of chaplain to the garrison of Dunkirk, 
 and afterwards to that of Tangier. It was not 
 till 1675, t'^^t ^^ obtained a prebendal stall in 
 the cathedral of Sarura, and not till 1683, diat 
 he received the- deanry of Litchfield. In tJie 
 convocation which met in 1689, dean Addison 
 was present, and is said to have expressed so 
 strongly his attachment to tory principles, as to 
 prevent his further advancement under the ex- 
 isting government. Dean Addison appears to 
 have supported a consistent and upright charac- 
 ter, and has left several treatises, which are now 
 little known. His most valuable legacy to the 
 world, was his son Joseph. — Of the writings of 
 Lancelot Addison, the following may deserve 
 particular mention : " West Barbary, or a short 
 Narrative of the Revolutions of the Kingdoms 
 of Fez, and Morocco, with an Account of the 
 
 i
 
 ADD 
 
 ( 47 ) 
 
 ADD 
 
 present Customs, SacreJ, Civil, and Domestic," 
 printed in 8vo. at Oxford, in 1674. " The 
 Present State of the Jews, more particularly re- 
 lating to those in Barbary ; with a Summary 
 Discourse of the Mi^na, Talmud, and Gema- 
 ra." Both these tracts were written when the 
 author was abroad, and contain curious matter 
 from his own observation. The dean wrote 
 several tracts in divinity, catachetical, contro 
 versial, &:c. One of the, principal is " A Mo- 
 dest Plea for the Clergv," 8vo, 1677 ; after- 
 wards reprinted by Dr. Hickes, without know- 
 ing die author. JVoocfs Athena Oxon. et Fasti 
 Oxon. Biogr. Brit. — E. 
 -Y ADDISON, Joseph, one of the most ce- 
 lebrated names in English literature, was the 
 son of the Rev. Lancelot Addison, dean of 
 Litchfield ; and Jane, daughter of Nathaniel 
 Gulston, esq. He was born at Milston near 
 Ambrosbury, in Wiltshire, on May I, 1672, 
 at his father's rectory. After receiving the ru- 
 diments of school education at Ambrosbury 
 and Salisbury, he was removed for farther im- 
 provement to the Charter-house, under the tui- 
 tion of Dr. Ellis ; at which seminary he con- 
 tracted an intimacy with Mr. Steele (afterwards 
 sir Richard) which continued through life. 
 
 At the early age of fifteen, Addison was en- 
 tered of Queen's-college, Oxford, where the 
 felicity with which he applied to classical lite- 
 rature, and particularly to Latin poetry, was 
 soon taken notice of, and caused him to be elect- 
 ed a demy of Magdalen college, where he took 
 the degrees of bachelor and master of arts. Such 
 was the approbation his Latin poems met with, 
 that eight pieces were printed in the second vo- 
 lume of the collection entitled " Musaruin An- 
 glicarum Analecta," where they excited very 
 general applause. The topics are both serious 
 and light ; and in the latter, a vein of that hu- 
 mour for which he was afterwards so distin- 
 guished, is discernible. 
 
 It was not till his twenty-second year, that he 
 becaine an author in his own language ; and 
 his first attempt of that kind was a short copy 
 of verses addressed to the veteran poet Dryden. 
 It was follo\\eJ by a translation of great part 
 of the fourth Georgic of Virgil. Both these 
 gave him the reputation of a skilful and correct 
 versifier. Soon after, he exercised himseit in 
 the field of criticism ; and communicated to 
 Dryden a discourse on Virgil's Georgics, which 
 was prefixed, without a name, to that writer's 
 translarion of the Georgics. Other poetical ef- 
 forts succeeded ; and in 1691; he opened the ca- 
 reer of his- fortune as a literary man, by a com- 
 plimentary poem on one of the campaigns of 
 
 king \\'iHiam, addressed to the lord-keeper 
 Somers. This had the effect of engaging the 
 friendship and ])atronage of that eminent states- 
 man ; and was probably the cause of his laving 
 aside all thoughts of entering into orders, which 
 he seems once to have entertained, and for 
 which his seriousness of principle, and regula- 
 rity of conduct, appeared ])eculiarlv to qualify 
 him. A pension of 300I. per annum from the 
 crown, whicli his patron obtained for him, en- 
 abled him to indulge his inclination for travel ; 
 and he set out on a tour through France and 
 Italy in the latter end of 1699. His Latin po- 
 ems, which had been printed and made known 
 abroad, were useful harbingers to him ; and 
 they gained the applause of a judge, certainly 
 not prejudiced in favour of the English, the fa- 
 mous Boileau. An epistolary poem, from Italy, 
 which Addison wrote to lord Halifax, in i7or, 
 was a valuable return to his cortntrv for the 
 public patronage he had received. It breathes 
 a noble spirit ot liberty, and will probably con- 
 tinue to be, as it has been, one of die most ad- 
 mired of his works. 
 
 His first considerable work in prose was ani 
 account of his travels, published on his return. 
 A comparison of the ancient and modern state- 
 of the countries he visited, and the illustration. 
 of classical descriptions bv observations made 
 on the spot, were its princip:d objects ; to which 
 may be added, a decided purpose of displaying 
 the blessings of free government, by contiasting 
 its effects with those of slavery. The first re- 
 ception of this work appears to have been rather 
 cold ; but it gradually rose in its reputation, and 
 is still, notwithstanding the numerous later vo- 
 lumes on similar topics, read with pleasure. 
 Some passages in it, particidarly the description 
 of the diminutive republic of San Marino, give 
 a fore-taste of the inimitable humour displayed 
 in the Tatler and Spectator. 
 
 The most famous of Addison's political poems, 
 " The Campaign," appeared in 1704. This 
 was not a spontaneous production, but a task 
 kindly imposed by his patron lord Halifax, in 
 consequence of a wish expressed by lord Godol- 
 phin to have the victory at Blenhciin, and the 
 rest of Marlborough's succe'ses, adequately cele- 
 brated in verse — with an intimation that tlte 
 writer should not lose his labour. The poein is 
 certainly as good as such an origin could be ex- 
 pected to produce; and it was rewarded by an 
 immediate appointment of the author to the post 
 ol commissioner of appeals. In 1705, Addison 
 attended lord Halifax in his mission to Hanover; 
 and in the succeeding year he was made under- 
 secretary of state. These opening prospects of
 
 ADD 
 
 ( 48 ) 
 
 ADD 
 
 political elevation did not render him negligent 
 of the Muses, to whom he owed so much. He 
 r.ven ventured on a kind of experiment in poe- 
 try, and wrote Ids amusing and melodious opera 
 of "Rosamond ;" which, however, was not suc- 
 cessful on the stage. A pamphlet which came 
 out anonymously in 1707, entitled, " The pre- 
 sent State of the \\'ar, and the Necessity of an 
 Augmentation considered," is assigned to him in 
 Tickell's edition of liis posthumous works, and 
 does credit to his powers in this kind of writing. 
 Jn 1709, he accompanied the marquis of Whar- 
 ton, made lord lieutenant of Ireland, as his secre- 
 tary ; and to this post was added that of keeper 
 of the records, with an augmented salary. It 
 was during his continuance in this kingdom, that 
 an incident took place, wliicii eventually contri- 
 buted more to tlie fame and usefulness of Addi- 
 son than all his poetical or political exertions. 
 His friend Steele began in London, in the year 
 1709, to publisli his periodical paper, " The 
 Tatler ;" a miscellaneous performance, includ- 
 ing, with the common articles of a newspaper, 
 e-savs and letters on a variety of subjects, con- 
 iiected with manners and literature. Addison 
 occasionally afforded his assistance in a number 
 of papers, allegorical, humorous and serious, 
 some of whicJi are exquisite productions, espe- 
 cially those which relate to the laughable foibles 
 and minute peculiarities of character, in the de- 
 lineation of which no writer ever equalled him. 
 " The Court of Honour," and " The Political 
 Upholsterer," are pieces of this kind, which he 
 himself never surpassed. Steele modestly and 
 ingeniously compared his situation to that of a 
 distressed prince, who calls in a more powerful 
 neighbour to his aid, and is undone by his auxi- 
 liary ; and certain it is, that nothing of his own 
 can be compared to the communications of his 
 friend. Nevertheless, so sensible was he of the 
 value of Addison's co-operation in engaging the 
 public attention, that, when the Tatler was 
 dropped in January 171 1, he concerted with 
 Addison die plan of a new paper under tlie title 
 of " The Spectator," which made its appear- 
 ance on March i, in the same year. 1"o this 
 very celebrated work, which by its size and 
 merit stands at tlie head of all publications of a 
 similar kind, Addison contributed a stock of ma- 
 terials comprising some of the most interesting 
 pieces, moral, critical, and humorous, to be met 
 with in the English language. All that regards 
 the smaller morals and the decencies of life, ele- 
 gance and justness of taste, the regulation of 
 temper, and the improvement of domestic so- 
 ciety, is touched upon in these papers with the 
 h.ij)piest combination of seriousness and ridicule. 
 
 In some of them Addison takes the higher torys 
 of a religious monitor, and gives lessons from 
 the press, wliicli pcrliaps would not have been 
 attended to from the inilpit. The improvement 
 of our language was another point wliich he 
 successfully laboured ; and the abolition of un- 
 graceful contractions, proverbial vulgarisms, and 
 cant plirascology of all kinds, which at that pe- 
 riod grcatlv infested our writing and speech, is 
 greatly owing to his precept and example. His 
 papers in the Spectator are all marked by some 
 one of the letters composing Clio ; but in gene- 
 ral they contain internal evidence of their autlior 
 sufficient to assure a practised reader. It was a 
 great merit in this work, that, at a time when 
 party disjiutes ran so highas to interfere in almost 
 every concern of life, the topics of the Spectator 
 were so chosen and managed as to keep clear of 
 this source of discord, and to afford one point, 
 at least, in whicli all lovers of letters and mora- 
 lity miglit unite. Accordingly, its popularity 
 rose to such a height, that, ma. much less reading 
 age than the present, 20,000 of the papers were 
 sometimes sold in a day. This publication con- 
 cluded in September 17 12, and was succeeded 
 in 17 13 and 17 14 by " The Guardian," a simi- 
 lar work, in which Addison likewise bore a 
 considerable share, though perhaps with some- 
 what less exertion. A few numbers of the 
 " Whig Examiner," a paper printed in 17 10, 
 and intended as an attack upon the famous " To- 
 ry Examiner," are attributed to Addison ; who 
 thus gave vent to party rancour, without min- 
 gling it with better subjects. A short humorous 
 piece of a similar nature, meant to expose the 
 French commerce bill, proceeded from his pen 
 in 17 13, under the title of " The late I'rial and 
 Conviction of Count Tariff." 
 
 His fame in the year 17 13 received an acces- 
 sion from a new effort of his genius, which for a 
 time almost eclipsed that which he had acquired 
 as a periodical writer in prose. This was his 
 celebrated tragedy of " Cato," a production 
 equally remarkable for a correctness of plan, 
 and sustained elevation of style, then unusual on 
 the English stage, and for die glow of its senti- 
 ments in favour of political liberty. Addison, as 
 we have seen, set out a decided friend of freedom. 
 His patrons had been of the party most attached 
 to free principles in government, and the present 
 juncture was thought particularly to require an 
 effort to render them popular. He is said to 
 have written he greater part of Cato when on 
 his travels ; but lie now retouched and aug- 
 mented it, and it was brought on the stage, en- 
 foiced with a sublime prologue by Pope, and an 
 humorous epilogue by Garth. Its success was
 
 ADD 
 
 ( 49 ) 
 
 ADD 
 
 astonishing ; for the general expressions in fa- 
 vour of liberty with which it was hllcd could 
 not, in a mixed constitution like the English, be 
 decently objected to by either party- 'Iherctore, 
 while thcwhigs loudly applauded it as peculiarly 
 their own, the tories re-echoed the applause, as 
 adopting its sentiments ; and Bolingbroke, their 
 leader, from his box, presented Booth, tlie dra- 
 matic Cato, with a purse of tifty guineas, " tor 
 so well defending the cause of liberty against a 
 peipetual didator." The play ran thirty-hve 
 nights without interruption, and was afterwards 
 acted at Oxford, and in other provincial towns. 
 It w as likewie received abriiad with more appro- 
 bation than any English tragedy had yet ob- 
 tained, and was translated into various foreign 
 languages. The honour of criticism also was 
 not sparingly bestowed upon it ; and the furious 
 Dennis, though a staunch whig, made a prolix 
 attack upon its poetical merit. At this cool di- 
 stance of time, public opinion has become pretty 
 uniform respefting its character. The dignity 
 of Roman manners, and the portraiture of the 
 hero, in particular, whose soul was elevated by 
 philosophy and the love of liberty, are allowed to 
 be sustained with great force of sentiment and 
 beauty of language ; and many of the fine pas- 
 sages of the play indelibly impress themselves 
 npon the reader. Many of the descriptions, 
 likewise, are animated and poetical, and afford 
 much pleasure in a closet-perusal. But the piece 
 fails in point of interest ; and the love-scenes, 
 which in compliance with custom are interwoven 
 in it, are remarkably insipid. 
 
 After the death of queen Anne, Addison was 
 again plunged in public life. He was appointed 
 secretarv to the lords justices ; and afterwards 
 again visited Ireland as secretary to the lord 
 lieutenant, the earl of Sunderland. On the earl's 
 removal, soon after, he \\as made a lord of trade. 
 At die breaking out of the rebellion in 17 i 5, he 
 published the most considerable of liis political 
 ■works, " The Freeholder ;" a set of periodical 
 papers that unite his characteristical humour with 
 the topics of party controversy which then pre- 
 vailed. This union rendered them very success- 
 ful; and the service he performed to the cause he 
 espoused W'as probably as considerable as could 
 be expected from such weapons. His delincatifm 
 of the tory fox-hunter is well worthy the hand 
 that had drawn sir Roger de Covcrly. About 
 this time, too, he published some short pieces of 
 poetry ; among which was his epistle to sir God- 
 frey Kneller on painting the king's picture, distin- 
 guished by its very happy and ingenious adapta- 
 tion of the heathen mythology to the series of 
 English sovereigns. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 In 17 16, Addison married the countess dow- 
 ager of Warwick, w ith whom his acquaintance 
 is said to have commenced at the time he was 
 tutor to her son ; but of this situation there is no 
 particular account in any memoirs of his life. 
 Ilie court^hip was long, and conducted on his 
 part with the diffidence of one conscious of in- 
 equality of condition ; nor docs it appear that 
 the marriage-state produced that union of dispo- 
 sitions and interests wliich is essential to its feli- 
 city. Yet his elevation the ensuing year to the 
 office of one of the principal secretaries of state, 
 put him on even an external footingof equality — 
 and what woman, who was ca])ablc of appre- 
 ciating Addi-on's mind, could think herself his 
 sujierior there r The manner in which he filled 
 the high post in \shich he \\as placed, has not 
 served to remove the prejudice usually entertained 
 by men of business against men of letters. He 
 was slow, irresolute, and timid ; and, having no 
 talents as a public speaker, was unable to filltlje 
 part of secretary of state in the debates of the 
 house of coinmons. A consciousness of this 
 inability, and declining health, induced him the 
 next year to resign his office to Mr. Craggs, and 
 to retire from public business upon a pension ot 
 15C0I. per annum. The decline of health, un- 
 fortunately, was not a mere pretext ; for an asth- 
 matic disorder, to which he had been long sub- 
 ject, was fast tending to dropsy. Nor ought it 
 to be concealed, that his constitution suffered in- 
 jury from an habitual excess in wine. He had 
 always been fond of a tavern life ; and nothing 
 seemed to give him so much enjoyment, as un- 
 bending from fatigue, and warming the natural 
 reserve and bashfulncss of his temper, with a 
 select party of friends, over an evening bot- 
 tle. How dangerous the Circaan cup, when 
 parts and virtue like those of Addison fell vic- 
 tims to it ! He employed, however, th.e leisure of 
 his closing life in siijiporting those religious 
 principles which had accompanied the whole 
 course of it. He drew up a " Defence of the 
 Christian Religion," published in an unfinished 
 state after his death. This contains more marks 
 of historical credulity than a friend to his memo- 
 ry and to the cause would have \\ ished ; yet, as 
 the voluntary oflering of a fiyman, and one so 
 high in reputation, it has been gratefully ac- 
 cepted- 
 
 Whenall hopes of prolongation of life were at 
 an end, Addison sent for a young man, ncarlyre- 
 lated to liim, who wanted such a lesson (supposed 
 to have been his step-son, the earl of Warwick), 
 and grasping his hand, said to him with tender 
 emphasis, " See in what peace a Christian can 
 die." He expired at Holland-house, Kensington, 
 H
 
 A D D 
 
 ( 
 
 50 ) 
 
 ADD 
 
 on June i7tli, 1719, when entoniig the 48111 year 
 of his age ; leaving an only daiightor by the 
 countess of Warwick. 
 
 All eiliiion ot his works was puh'.i.slicil soon 
 after his ikcease by Mr. Tickcll, tuwhdin lie 
 h;ul given his papers, with ciiicctions concerning 
 them. 'I'his contain>, besiiles tiie pieces ahcady 
 noticed, several poetical translatiuni iVoni Ovid's 
 Metamorplioses ; and " Dialogues on ihe Use- 
 fulness of Antient Medals, c-pecially in Rela- 
 tion to the Latin and Greek Poets." This last 
 work, for which he began to collejSl materials 
 when on his travels, is a mofl delightful pcr- 
 formarce, not only highly gratifying to one of 
 classical taste, by its easy and elegant illustra- 
 tions of passages in the fine.st ancient writers (in 
 which, however, he is not original) ; but afford- 
 ing, perhaps, the happieft sptcimcn in the Eng- 
 lish language of the true mode of dialogue-writ- 
 iii"^, in which the characters of the speakers are 
 supported with a dramatic propriety, and the 
 dryness of a didactic subje6f is enlivened with 
 strokes of delicate humour, and vivacity of re- 
 mark. Pope contributed to it a prefatory copy 
 of verses, highly elegant and complimentary. In 
 this edition was omitted, greatly to the offence of 
 Steele, a comedv called, " The Drummer, or 
 Haunted-House," which had been written some 
 years before by Addison, and fitted and recom- 
 mended to the ftage by Steele, but met with lit- 
 tle success in the aifling. It is now printed with 
 Addison's works ; and some late critics of note 
 have bestowed high commendations upon it. 
 Without doubt, it contains several scenes of ge- 
 nuine humour, but rather over-wrought, and be- 
 longing to low-life ; and its pretensions to the 
 higher rank of comedy are very small. It gives 
 some pain to find, that one ot the last of Addi- 
 ■son's literary exertions was tlie carrying on an an- 
 gry and contemptuous political controversy with 
 his old friend and constant associate Steele. This 
 was on occasion of the celebrated bill for limit- 
 ing the number of the peerage ; which measure 
 was attacked by Steele, and defended by Addison 
 in two papers, entitled, " The Old Whig." 
 They were not inserted in Ti( kell's edition, but 
 have been published in a separate jiamphlet. 
 
 To what has already been said of the moral 
 and literaiy character of Addison, not much 
 needs be added. It is universally agreed, that the 
 former w.as highly estimable ; and few mea coidd 
 boast a larger list of friends and admirers of the 
 first rank for station and understanding. Even 
 the bitterness of partv did not dissolve some of 
 his most valuable friendships ; and with the acri- 
 monious Swift he maintained a mutual inter- 
 course of kiudneis and respecfl, though occa- 
 
 sicMially oh-:cured by political clouds. With 
 Pope he had a longer and more serious diffe- 
 rence ; and his conduct towards this great p:;et, 
 but irritable man, has subjected him to more 
 censure than almost any other circumstance of 
 his life. It is unnecessary to canvas the particu- 
 lars of what, after all, amounts to little more 
 than a sijuabble between two of the genus bnta- 
 h'lk. Its principal occasion seems to have been 
 the patronage Addison gave to Tickell's transla- 
 tion of the first book of the Iliad , and perhaps 
 there was some want of openness and candour in 
 his fluctuation between two persons, one of 
 whom he wished to serve as an humble friend, and 
 the other of whom he was in awe of as a rising 
 genius. Some jealousy in one arrived to the 
 chair in polite literature towards a dangerous 
 competitor is credible, and, in the imperfect 
 state of humanity, excusable. Pope, however, 
 considered liimself as deeply injured ; and he has 
 left the tokens of his resentment in some lines, 
 which their exqui-ite polish renders only more 
 cutting. They are in his " Epistle to Dr. Ar- 
 butlmot," and were sent to Addison in manu- 
 script, but not printed till after his death. Though 
 they bear undoubted marks of exaggeration, yet 
 it is probable that there was a just foundatit^i for 
 the satire on this eminent person's leading foi- 
 bles, literary jealousy, and a love of flattery. 
 
 It inay be mentioned, to the honour of Addi- 
 son, that, though warmly attached to the church 
 of England, and to the ortliodox system of faith, 
 he showed much friendship to Whiston, and 
 procured that worthy man many subscribers to 
 his astronomical lectures. 
 
 As a poet, the character of Addison since his 
 own time has rather sunk than risen in the scale. 
 Much more correctness than he possessed has 
 since been common ; and his excellencies are not 
 of that superior kind, which can atone forrecble- 
 ness or neglect. Generally elegant, sometimes 
 strong, and fre(]uently ingenious, he has scarcely 
 any of that vivid force and sublime conception 
 which characterises a poet of the first rank ; 
 nor hjs he that fine polish and dazzling bril- 
 liance, which give a title to an exalted place in 
 the second. As a critic, he obtained great re- 
 putation from several essavs in his periodical 
 works, and particularly from the series of ob- 
 servations on the " Paradise Lost," and of pa- 
 pers on " The Pleasures of the Imagination." 
 These abound with remarks dictated by good 
 taste, and a fine feeling of the beauties of nature 
 and art ; and, if not so profound as the philoso- 
 phical criticism of the present dav would de- 
 mand, were, however, highly useful at their 
 time. It is not doubted that he was the principal
 
 n 

 
 A D E 
 
 ( 5' ) 
 
 A D E 
 
 in;;truiiient in awakening the nation to a just 
 sense of the excellencies of the divine Milton. 
 
 But it is from his own original vein of hn- 
 niour, and of ingenious invention, displayed in 
 Ills periodical works, that Addison will derive 
 liis highest and most durable literary fame. In 
 tlie former, he has remained absolutely unrival- 
 ed ; and his comic paintings, delicate, good-hu- 
 moured, and natural, w ill probably give pleasure 
 to reader; of the remotest periods. As a model 
 of English prose, too, he has deserved the high- 
 est praise; so much, that eminent Judges have 
 fixed upon iiis works as thcvery standard of style, 
 and liavc considered every snlxcqucnt change in 
 the language as a deteiioration. This o|)inion, 
 however, cannot be maintained with resptct to 
 grammatical correctness ; though it may hold as 
 to flic characteristic idiom of the Knglish tongue. 
 Btit on this subject it is xmnecessary to do more 
 than quote the words of one, whose authority 
 few will call in question. " Whoever," says Dr. 
 Johnson, (Lifeof Addi.on, in the English Poets) 
 " wishes to attain an English stvle. familiar but 
 not coarse, and elegant but not ostentatious, 
 must give his days and nights to the volumes of 
 Addison." 
 
 The fadVs in the preceding account are taken 
 from the Biograpkla Britami'tca. — A. 
 
 ADELARD, a Benedictine monk of Bath, 
 in England, who flourished in the early part 
 of the twelfth century, was, for the time in 
 which he lived, a man of great learning and 
 knowledge. To improve his acquaintance with 
 science, he traveled not oidy through the princi- 
 pal countries of Europe, but into Egypt and 
 Arabia. Having made himself master of the 
 Arabic language, he translated, from Arabic 
 into Latin, Euclid's Elements, before any Greek 
 copies had been discovered. He also translated 
 an Arabic work, entitled, "Ericheatarim," up- 
 on the seven planets. He wrote a treatise on the 
 seven liberal arts, the circle of instruction, which, 
 at that time, comprehended the " Trivium," 
 or grammar, rhetoric, and dialectics ; and the 
 " Quadrivium," or music, arithmetic, geome- 
 try, and astronomy- Several other books on the 
 physics and medicine are ascribed to him. Some 
 manuscripts of his, referred to by '\'^ossius, re- 
 main in Corpus Ch.risti and Trinity colleges, 
 Oxford: but \V'allis, in his Algebra, p. 6. takes 
 notice of the prefaces to two manuscript books 
 of travels, one or both of which had mentioned 
 the travels of Athelardus Bathoniensis, wliicli had 
 been cited bv ^^ossius, but were, since his time, 
 cut out of the books and carried away: a kind 
 of literary larceny, which, in the repui)lic of let- 
 ters, deserves to be treated as a capital offence. 
 
 If. of JMalimhuyy, lib. ii. c. lO. Vos!. de Scicn. 
 Math. Brjickcr. Phil. Hist. Crit. lib. vii. c. -^. 
 Mutton i Molhcmat'ical Dictionary. — E. 
 
 ADELBOLD, a monk of Lobes, in the dio- 
 cese of Liege, and afterwards bishop of Utrcclit, 
 has a place among historians. He wrote the 
 Life of his Emperor Henry 11. surnamed Clau- 
 dius, with whom he was a favourite. This 
 Life i« annexed, in an imperfect state, to the Life 
 of Otho, in Grct/er's " Divi Bambergenses," 
 Adebold was made bishop of Utrecht in ioo8, 
 and died in 1027. Foss. de Hist. Lat. lib. ii. 
 C. 42. ATorcri. — E. 
 
 ADELER, CuRTius, also called Siveiscn, 
 or Cifvis-'i!, an eminent naval commander, was 
 born in Norway, of a burgher family, in 1622. 
 He left his native country early, and entered into 
 the Dutch sea-service under Harpvecht Tromp. 
 Thence he accompanied to Venice John Regers, 
 a Dutchman, made admiral of the Venetians, at 
 whose death he succeeded to his post. During 
 fifteenycars that he occupied this station, hefilled 
 the Adriatic with the renown of his exploits. He 
 had a great share in the victory obtained over 
 the Turks near the Dardanelles, in 1651. In 
 
 1652, being on board the admiral's ship atArgen- 
 tiera, it was by his means alone that the Vene- 
 tian state-inquisitors, destined for Candia, were 
 saved from shipwreck ; and he obtained for his 
 services on this occasloir a golden collar. In 
 
 1653, he carried succours to the Venetians in 
 Candia, and caused the enemies to retire. His 
 most memorable engageinent was fought with 
 the Turks, at the entrance of the Hellespont, in 
 
 1654, In this, being separated from the fleet in 
 his single ship, and surrounded by more than 70 
 galleys and other vessels, he sunk 15, burnt seve- 
 ral, and dispersed the re^t after they had suffered 
 a loss of 5000 men. Not a year afterwards 
 passed in which he did not perform some signal 
 act of valour; in recompenfc for which he was 
 made a knight of St. Mark, of the first class, and 
 received several magnificent presents, and a 
 liandsome pension for his own life and that of his 
 heirs. Retiring from this service, he went into 
 tlie Low Countries, and married a lady of rar.k 
 at Amsterdam. Frederic 111. king of Denmark, 
 inviting him to return to his native country, he 
 removed to Copenhagen in 1663, and there 
 spent the rest of his days. He was made admi- 
 ral-in-chief of the Danish fleet, created a noble, 
 and invested with the order of Danebrog. He 
 died in 1675, as he was preparing to sail against 
 the Swedes. Jlforni. — A. 
 
 ADEODATUS, apope, also railed, "Dieu- 
 donne," God's Gift, was a Roman by birtii, 
 and a monk by protession. He asceiidcd tlie
 
 A D I 
 
 ( 5^ ) 
 
 ADO 
 
 papal chair in 672, ami »licil in 676. Nothing 
 is recorded of him, but that he was pious and 
 charitable, and that he culaigcd and endowed the 
 inon.isterv to which he bclo'.i<;cd. Pltitnui cle 
 I'it'is Pontlf. Duj>'tn. Bower's Lives of the 
 Popes. — E. 
 
 ADHAD-EDDOULAT, son of Rokn-cd- 
 doidat, and second prince of the race ot Buiah, 
 or Dilamitcs, born about A. D. 93$, succeeded 
 his uncle Amad-eddoulat In the ( mpire of Per- 
 sia ; and, by the additions he made to it, became 
 the most potent prince in the cast. Being called 
 in to the assistance of his cou'iii Azz-eddoulat, 
 who was driven by tlie Turks from Bagdad, he 
 defeated the Turks, and got possession of the 
 place, and the person of the caliph (who was at 
 lliat time no more than the head of the Mahome- 
 tan religion) ; and re-instated his cousin in the 
 post of cmir-al-omrah, or the civil head of the 
 state. Afterwards, he went to war with his cou- 
 sin, and gave him several defeats, on the last of 
 wliiclj he made him captive, and put liim to 
 deatli. Adhad-cddoulat then, in 977, became 
 emir himself, and master of Bagdad ; and turned 
 all his attention to the embellishing and improv- 
 ing of his extensive dominions. He built hos- 
 pitals, founded mo-ques, and, in particular, laid 
 out great- sums in the repair and enlargement of 
 the tombs of Ali and his son Houssain. He 
 deepened and cleansed the beds of rivers, and thus 
 recovered and rendered more salubrious large 
 tracts of land. Men of learning and poets were 
 much encouraged in his reign ; and he had him- 
 self a good taste and proficience in the science 
 and literature most in esteem among the Arabs. 
 He married one of his daughters to the caliph 
 Al Tav, and thus mingled the blood of the 
 Buians with those of the ancient sovereigns of 
 the Moslems. He left a high reputation in the 
 cast ; of which a number of marvellous tales 
 current concerning him is a proof. His inor- 
 dinate ambition led hiin into some acts of injus- 
 tice and severity; otherwise \\u government was 
 equally wise and beneficent. Repeated attacks 
 of the epilepsy carried him off at the early age 
 , of 47, A. D. 982. He left four sons, among 
 v\liom he shared his dominions. D'Hcrbclot. 
 j\Iod. Univers. Hist. — A. 
 
 ADIMANTUS, a Christian writer,- who 
 probably flourished about the latter end of tlie 
 third century, was a disciple of Mani, and a zea- 
 lous supporter of the Manichean doctrine. He 
 wrote a book to show, that the New Testament 
 contradicts die Old, and consequently that the 
 latter cannot be of divine authority. This book 
 was much valued by the Manichees, and was 
 answered by Augustine. The work is lost, but 
 
 the answer remains. Augustine says that Adi- 
 mantus was also called Addas. Some other writ- 
 ers make Addas a distinct disciple of Mani, the 
 author of another treatise in defence of Mani- 
 cluiism, imdcr the title of " Modion." The 
 matter is doubtful ; but Dr. Lardner inclines to 
 prefer the authority of Augustine, and, as a rea- 
 son for the preference, remarks, that the book 
 ascribed to Addas might be a Latin translation 
 of the Greek original, and that Addas might be 
 more generally called Adimantus by the Latins, 
 as Mani himself, who for die most part is called 
 Manes by the Greeks, is generally called Mani- 
 cha:us by the Latins. Augustin. Retract, lib. i. 
 c. 22. Contr. Adv. Leg. lib. ii. c. idt. Contr. 
 Adimant.c. 12,13. Lardnei^s CredibiHty,'p2iTt\\. 
 c. 63. — E. 
 
 ADIMARI, Raphael, a native of Rimi- 
 ni, who lived towards tlie close of the i6th cen- 
 tury, wrote a history of his country, which was 
 published in4to. at Brescia in 16 1 6, under the ti- 
 tle of " Sito Riminese." This work is valued ; 
 but the Italians give the preference to the his- 
 tory written by Clementini. Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 — E. 
 
 ADLZREITTER, John, of Tettenweis, 
 chancellor of Bavaria, an historian and lawyer, 
 flou^i^hed in the 17th century. He wrote, in 
 Latin, Annals of Bavaria, from the beginning 
 of the history of that country to the year 1652. 
 The work, which was compiled from authentic 
 sources, first appeared in 1662, and was re- 
 printed in folio atLeipsic, in 1710, by Leibnitz. 
 Aforeri. — E. 
 
 ADO, archbishop of Vienne in Dauphine, 
 born in the year 860, was distinguis'ied by his 
 piety, industry, and learning. He has acquired 
 considerable celebrity as an historian by his 
 " Universal Chronology," comprehending the 
 whole extent of history down to the year 879. 
 It was ])rinted in folio at Paris in the year I 512, 
 in Gothic characters, and aftcrvi'ards reprinted 
 by Morel in 1567. A new edition of this e- 
 steemed work was published in folio at Rome in 
 1745. Ado was also the author of a Maityrolo- 
 gy, of v;hich an edition was given by fat'ier 
 Rosweide, a Jesuit, in 161^. Foss. de Lat. Hist. 
 lib. ii. c. 36. Djipin. — E. 
 
 ADOLPHUS, emperor of Germany, count 
 of Nassau Wisbaden, was the son of Walrab, 
 the preceding count, from whom he had a very 
 slender patrimony. But his military reputation, 
 joined with the interest of his kinsman Gerhard, 
 elector of Mentz, caused him to be elevated to 
 the imperial throne in 1292. He soon engaged 
 in warlike enterprises, with various success. His 
 poverty induced him to commit acts of rapine 
 
 i
 
 i
 
 ADR 
 
 ( 53 ) 
 
 ADR 
 
 and injustice, which proxctl his ruin. Having 
 accepted ot a subsidy trtim Edward I. king of 
 England, for his aid in a war against Phihp of 
 France, he employed part of it in purchasing the 
 landgraviates of Thuringia and Misnia from 
 Albert, surnamed the Depraved, who liad repu- 
 diated his wife, and disinherited his three sons, 
 through attachment to a concubine. In order 
 to gain possession of his purchase, he entered in 
 a hostile manner into Thuringia, and made him- 
 self extremely odious by the violences he com- 
 mitted. At the same time lie disgusted all his 
 friends by his haughty and tyrannical behaviour, 
 and the shameless debaucheries into which he 
 plunged. This canted a confederation against 
 him, head.d by his rival Albert, duke of Austria. 
 A diet was held at Mentz, in which Adolphus 
 was solemnly deposed, and Albert elected in his 
 Stead. A battle ensued near Spire, which was 
 fought with great fury. At length the two ri- 
 vals met in the field, and Albert, by a blow in the 
 face, struck Adolphus from his horse, who was 
 immediately dispatched by Albert's party. This 
 event happened on July 2, 1298. Thisemperor 
 married Imagine, daughter of Gerlac, count of 
 Limburg, by whom he had several children. 
 Gerlac, the fifth son, is considered as the stock 
 of the princes of Nnssau-Usingen, Saarbruck, 
 and Weiiburg. Mod. Univers. Hist. — A. 
 
 ADOLPHUS-Frederic II. of Holstein 
 Goftorp, king of Sweden, born in 1 7 10, suc- 
 ceeded his father Frederic in 1751. He married 
 a sister of the king of Prussia in 1744. His 
 reign was on the whole prosperous for his coun- 
 try, the good of which he seems faithfully to 
 have pursued. He_ reformed the laws, promoted 
 commerce, cultivated science, and for the most 
 part preserved peace ; though he could not jire- 
 vent Sweden from joining the league against the 
 king of Prussia in 1757, very little to its reputa- 
 tion. He instituted an academy of inscriptions 
 and belles Icttres, in imitation of that of France, 
 and erected a pyramid at Torneo, in La])land, to 
 commemorate the labours of the French acade- 
 micians sent to that place to measure a degree. 
 He died, greatly regretted, in 177 i, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his son Gu tavus III. Nohv. Diet. 
 Hist.— A. 
 
 ADRASTUS, king of Argos. His history 
 goes so far back into the semi-fabulous times, 
 that it is difficult to form a credible and consist- 
 ent narrative of it. The following, however, 
 seems the most authentic. He was son of Ta- 
 laus and Lysianassa, daughter of Polybus king of 
 Sicyon. He appears to have reigned first in 
 Sicyon, after his father-in-law, and afterwards 
 to have been established at Argos. While king 
 
 of this latter city, he married his two daugiitcrs 
 to Polynices ancl Tydeus, who came to take re- 
 fuge in his court. The former was son of CK- 
 dipus, and brodier of Eteoclcs, who had deprived 
 him of his equal share in the royalty at Tiiebes. 
 Adrastus resolved to attempt the restoration of 
 his son-in-law Polynices ; and in consequence 
 the famous expedition against Thebes was un- 
 deitaken, headed by seven chiefs, whose adven- 
 tures have afforded so much matter for poetical 
 fiction. They all lost their lives before the place 
 but Adrastus, who was obliged to have recourse 
 to tlie Athenians, in order to compel the Thebans 
 to restore the bodies of the slain. The date of 
 this event is placed about 1225 B. C. After this 
 unsuccessful expedition, Adrastus collected a 
 new army, under the sons of the former chiefs, 
 thence called the Epigoni, and marched with them, 
 accompanied by his own son ^gialeus, against 
 Thebes. The city was taken, and ^gialeus 
 alone, among the chiefs, was killed in the siege. 
 This loss so much affected Adrastus, that he died 
 on his return at Megara. His memory was 
 much honoured at Megara, and still more ac 
 Sicyon, at which place he had instituted the ce- 
 lebrated Nemcan games. Baylc's Did.' — A. 
 
 ADRETS, Francis de Beaumont, ba^ 
 ron des, one of those fieiy and enterprising spi- 
 rits who are adapted for civil commotions, was 
 descended from an ancient family in Dauphine, 
 and served in his youth in the royal army with 
 reputation. Resentment against the duke of 
 Guise made hitn engage in the Huguenot party 
 in 1562 ; in which he signalised his valour and 
 activity by taking many places of importance, 
 and at tlie same time rendered himself the object 
 of terror and detestation by his cruelties. He 
 treated with the utmost barbarity the catholic 
 priests who fell into his hands, inventing new 
 and strange punishments for them. At some 
 places which he took, he compelled the enemy's 
 soldiers to leap from the tops of towers on the 
 points of pikes held below to receive tliem. On 
 one of these occasions an anecdote is told of a 
 soldier, who being reproached by the baron for 
 twice hesitating before he took the leap, " 1 will 
 give you, sir, (replied he) thice times to do it in." 
 I'his humorous sally saved his life. Coligny 
 said of Des Adrets, " that he must be made use 
 of like an enraged lion; and that his services 
 must excuse his insolences." These severities 
 appear, indeed, to have been in some measure 
 provoked by previous ones of the other party. 
 Des Adrets showed how little there was of prin- 
 ciple in the side he took, by turning catholic, 
 on being refused the government of the Lyon- 
 nois; but this would not have prevented his being
 
 ADR 
 
 ( 54 ) 
 
 ADR 
 
 punishcJ for Ms atrocities, had not the peace 
 saved him. He hvcd abhorred and despised by 
 both parties, but unmolested. Like Sylla, lie 
 seemed to pride himself in his disarmed securi- 
 tv. The ambassador of Savov, surprised at once 
 meeting with him, when old, walking alone in 
 the liighwav, without anv defensive weapon, 
 asked him, what news ? " I have nothing to say, 
 (said des Adrets) but to desire you to tell your 
 niaster, that vou found his very iiumble serv'ant, 
 the baron des Adrets, walking with a stick and 
 without a sword, on the public road, and that 
 nobody said any thing to him." Some time be- 
 fore i:is death, however, he went to Grenoble, 
 where the duke of Mayenne tlicn was, for the 
 purpose (as he said) of showing that his sword 
 was not yet so rusty, that he could not give sa- 
 tisfaiSlion to tliose who had any complaints 
 against him. He died in 1587. Nouv. Diet. 
 
 Hht. — A. 
 
 ADRIAN, Romanempcror,(jELiusADRiA- 
 Nus) was born at Rome, but descended from a fa- 
 mily ofltalica in Spain, the birth-place ot the em- 
 peror Trajan. His gi and-fathcr Alarcellinus was 
 tl\e first senator of the family. His father, ^lius 
 Adrianus Afer, arrived no higher than the prae- 
 torship ; but he was cousin-german of Trajan, 
 whom, on his death, he a])pointed, together with 
 Ccelius Tatianus, a Roman knight, guardian to 
 his son, then ten years of age. When Trajan 
 was adopted by Ncrva, Adrian served as tribune 
 in the army of Lower Moesia ; and at the death 
 of Nerva, he was the first to carry the news of 
 this event to Trajan in Lower Germany. The 
 commencement of his elevation was in the third 
 consulate of Tr;ijan, A. D. 100, when he e- 
 spouscd Julia Sabina, the emperor's grand niece 
 and heiress, for wliich advantage he was chietly 
 indebted to the good offices of the empress Plo- 
 tina. In the next vcar, Trajan made him his 
 quastor ; and one of the functions of this post 
 being to read the emperor's addresses to the se- 
 nate, he incurred some ridicule from a rustic and 
 provincial pronunciation. This defect had been 
 occasioned by a long visit paid by Adrian in his 
 youth to liis family in Spain, and by a greater 
 attenilon to Greek than to Roman literature ; 
 but when he was made sensible of it, he mani- 
 fested tlie vigour of his mind by correcting it to 
 such a degree, that he became one of tlie best La- 
 tin orators of his time. Letters, indeed, had been 
 his favourite pursuit ; and from them he had 
 derived a fondness for the arts of peace in pre- 
 ference to those of war — an inclination not likely 
 to gain him the favour ot so martial a prince as 
 Trajan, had he nor been powerfully supported 
 by the protection of the empress. 
 
 As quxstor, y^.drian followed Trajan in his 
 war against the Dacians. He was made tri- 
 bune of the people in 105, and prset&r in 107; 
 he governed Lower Pannonia in loS, was sub 
 stituted consul in lOQ, and was designated con- 
 sul, and commander-general in Syria, in 1 17, 
 the concluding year of Trajan. During this 
 progress through civil and military honours, he 
 approved himself by many displays of courage, 
 and by fulfilling with equal success the functions 
 of general and magistrate. Nor was he want- 
 ing to his interest in paying personal court to 
 Trajan, whose foibles he flattered ; yet he was 
 unable to procure from him that adoption which 
 was the great object of his ambition. Notwith- 
 standing his near affinity to the emperor, Trajan, 
 it is said, did not love him, and had other views 
 as to a successor. We are positively assured by 
 Dio Cassius that the adoption, in fact, never 
 took place ; and that Plotina, with the assist- 
 ance of Tatian, in the last moments of Trajan, 
 forged the act of adoption which secured to 
 Adrian the succession to the empire. 
 
 It was in the year of Rome 868, of Christ 
 117, that Adrian, then at Antioch, received iu 
 tlie month of August the tidings of Trajan's 
 death. He immediately caused himself to be 
 proclaimed emperor by the Syrian army, and 
 wrote to the senate for their confirmation of 
 this act. It was granted without difficulty, and 
 Adrian remained some time longer in the east, 
 where he thought it advisable to abandon all the 
 conquests of Trajan. This has been attributed 
 to envy of the glory of his predecessor, yet it 
 might be justified by motives of policy. He also 
 demolished Trajan's bridge over the Danube ; 
 and in his conduct towards the barbarous nations, 
 showed a greater desire to secure peace, than to 
 maintain the honour of the Roman arms. On 
 his return to Rome, lie at first affected a total 
 oblivion of all ill offices that had been done him 
 by his enemies or competitors ; but a conspiracy 
 having been formed against him wliile absent in 
 Illyricum, four men of consular dignity, three 
 of whom had been intimates of Trajan, were 
 found guilty, and put to death by order of the 
 senate. To efface the impression of this severity, 
 Adrian bestowed profuse largesses on the people 
 of Rome, and remitted taxes to an immense 
 amount throughout the empire. He likewise 
 demonflrated the utmost res[>ect for the senate, 
 carefully preserving all its privileges, and reliev- 
 ing the necessities nt many ot its meuibers. As 
 the character of this prince began to open, it 
 displayed a singular mixture of virtues and vices ; 
 bur the first were public, the second personal ; 
 and in general the empire was happy under his
 
 
 I
 
 ADR 
 
 ( 55 ) 
 
 ADR 
 
 government. He avoided tlie vain multiplication 
 ot titles and honours, lived wiih much siin|)li(,ity 
 and familiarity among iiis friends and courtiers, 
 and affected on all occasions to appear rather 
 the first functionary tiian the master of the em- 
 pire. He cultivated popularity, and treated the 
 people with fliows and amusements of all kinds, 
 conducted with great expense. He exhibited se- 
 veral striking examples of clemency towards 
 those who had offended hinr ; and to one, in 
 particular, who had been much his enemy while 
 a private man, he cried, on the first interview 
 after becoming emperor, " You are saved." 
 No prince displayed more munificence in repair- 
 ing the calamities that fell upon particular cities 
 and countries during iiis reign, and in forming 
 ■public works of utility and ornament. Among 
 the more signal instances of this kind, was a co- 
 lumn raised to the honour of Epaminondas at 
 Mantinea, and several noble temples and a pub- 
 lic library founded at Athens. The care with 
 which he sought out and restored to tlieir due 
 honours the ashes of Pompey the Great in 
 Egypt, was peculiarly creditable to him. The 
 vast sepulchre which he constructed for his fa- 
 mily at Rome, has attained consequence in the 
 later ages, and still subsists, under the name of 
 the castle of St. Angelo. He built a number of 
 cities in various parts of the empire, to which, 
 ihrough the desire of perpetuating his name, he 
 gave the appellation of Adrianople. One of 
 them fiill flourishes, as the second town belong- 
 ing to the Turkish empire in Europe. 
 
 A more important point in which he served the 
 public, was the administration of justice. He 
 In'mself, assisted by the mort celebrated lawyers 
 of his time, sat frequently on the bench, both in 
 Rome and on his journeys. He watched care- 
 fully over the governors of provinces, and kept 
 them to their duty. He reformed the police of 
 Italy by appointing four consular magistrates to 
 administer justice in as many departments into 
 which he divided it. For the u.<-e of Rome, he 
 caused a pcriietual edidl: to be drawn up as the 
 rule, by which the prajtors vvere to decide causes. 
 His humanity was very laudably displayed by 
 various laws to alleviate the lot of that oppressed 
 and wretched class of society, the slaves, whom 
 he rescued from the power of life and deatli, and 
 of confinement in domestic dungeons, formerly 
 exercised by their masters. At the same time 
 he repressed the insolence of favourites among 
 them, and allowed his own freed-men none of 
 that power and credit which had proved such a 
 grievance under other emperors. He also made 
 various regulations to correct the prevailing 
 licentiousness of manners ; and attended to ma- 
 
 ny smaller matters of public convenience and 
 
 advantage. 
 
 Though Adrian was a lover of peace, he was 
 fully sensible of the ncce-sity of military force in 
 order to sustain such a fabric as tiie Roman em- 
 pire ; whence he paid extraordinary attention to 
 the discipline of his armijs, and the maintenance 
 of all the fortresses on tlic frontier in a perfect 
 state of defence. He himself visited every ])lacc, 
 and kept a most accurate account of its condi- 
 tion. He promoted no one to military rank, 
 nor suffered others to do it, except upon the 
 ground of inerit. He abolished all the luxuri- 
 ous indulgences which had crept in among the 
 troops, setting himself an exainjile of strict tem- 
 perance and sobriety, and the patient endurance 
 of all hardships. He familiarised him elf with 
 the common soldiers, visiting tl;cm in sickness, 
 and : tudying tlieir advantage and emolument in 
 various respects ; whence he made himself ex- 
 tremely beloved by them. 
 
 From the preceding sketch of Adrian's public 
 character, it would seem that no emperor ever 
 mere completely fulfilled the duties of his station ; 
 and it is agreed by historians that tlie empire was ■ 
 never more flourishing than under his admini- 
 stration. But this high degree of merit is ob- 
 scured, though certainly not obliterated, by 
 many private foibles and vices. He was under 
 the influence of two leading passions, vanity and 
 curiosity. These united in exciting him to em- 
 ploy his admirable talents upon a vast variety of 
 topics, some of them trilling and mischievous ; 
 and to regard with unworthy jealousy those who 
 excelled him. He was much addicted to the de- 
 lusive arts of astrology and magic, and gave ear 
 to divinations and predictions of all kinds. He 
 entered with the ardour of curiosity into all the 
 rites and ceremonies of the pagan religion, and 
 caused himself to be initiated in all the Grecian 
 mysteries. Yet he was void of the persecuting 
 spirit ; and the Christians were treated with mo- 
 deration and a regard to justice during his reign. 
 He loved the commerce of the learned, and was 
 fond of philosophical disputation ; but his petty 
 jealousy rendered it unsafe to contradict or sur- 
 pass him; and one of lii. antagonists, who had 
 suffered himself to be easily vanquished in a con- 
 troversy, sensibly ansv/ered to a fiiend who re- 
 proached him with weakness, " Would yoii 
 have me be in the right against the master of 
 tliirty legions .'"' Various stories are told of his 
 envious and malicious conduct towards men of 
 science, which in some instances carried liim to 
 absolute cruelty. He was, indeed, excessive 
 both in love and iiatreil; and when he took a dis- 
 like to a person, he forgot all former obligtitions
 
 ADR 
 
 ( 56 ) 
 
 ADR 
 
 towards liim. This was CKomplihetl in the case 
 of Tatian, his ancient guaidian, and the instru- 
 ment of his elevation ; whom, after raising to 
 the highest posts, he disgraced and banished. 
 He hvcd upon the worst terms with Sabir.a his 
 wife, whom ho would have repudiated, had he 
 not been afraid of weakening therebv his claim 
 to the empire. To his patroness Plotina, iiow- 
 cver, he continued to manifest the most grateful 
 regard ; and after her death he paid divine ho- 
 nours to her memory. 
 
 Adrian's attachment to pleasures of the most 
 scandalous and disgraceful kind is a ftill deep- 
 er blot in his charaiftcr ; and the name of 
 his beautiful and unfortunate favourite, Anti- 
 nous, will ever cover his own with dishonour. 
 This vouth is said to have been persuaded by 
 his iTiaster, whose mind was impressed with 
 some magical super tition, to make a voluntary 
 sacrifice of his life on his account. Such an 
 action might excuse a considerable warmth of 
 gratitude ; but the honours which Adrian paid 
 to Antinous after death appeared like insanity. 
 Not contented with naming a town after him, 
 and filling the empire with his statues, he made 
 a god of him, and recognised his translated 
 spirit in a new star. 
 
 Having thus given a sketch of the singularly 
 compounded character of Adrian, we proceed 
 to notice the principal aftions and events of his 
 reign. In his third or fourth year, A. D. 120, 
 he began his travels, and first visited Gaul and 
 Germany, where his attention was chiefly occu- 
 pied in the restoration of military discipline. 
 Thence he went into Britain, and in this isle 
 constructed a wall or rampart from the mouth 
 of the Tync to Solway Fritli, for the purpose of 
 restraining the incursions of the northern bar- 
 barians. Some tumults which in the mean time 
 had taken place in Egypt respecting the ox 
 Apis, a worthy subject of contention for that 
 superstitiou-i people, were quieted without re- 
 quiring hi'; presence. He spent that winter in 
 Spain, and thence passed over into Mauritania, 
 where he was obliged to employ arms to repress 
 some commotions that liad arisen. During the 
 four following years he visited Greece, Syria, 
 and all Asia Minor ; and returning through 
 Greece, he passed into Sicily, and thence to 
 Rome. In this progress he every where left 
 marks of his munificence, and attention to the 
 public good, and composed all differences with 
 the barbarian nations on the frontiers. After 
 continuing two years at Rome, he went to 
 Africa, then afflicted with a long drought, 
 which ceased during his stay. In the next year 
 he again visited the eastern countries, and sent 
 
 back to Chosroes, king of Parthia, his daughter, 
 whom Trajan had made captive. In the year 
 132 he was again in Egypt, whence he sent a 
 letter to his brother-in-law Servian, strongly 
 painting the manners and vices of that people. 
 It was at this time that Antinous died in t!ic 
 'I'hcbai-. He passed the winter of 134 at 
 Athens, where he loaded the people with bene- 
 fits of every kind. The Alans, a Scythian tribe, 
 who had made an incursion into Ca[)padocia, 
 were at tliis time stojiped by a Roman army in 
 such formidable condition that they retired with- 
 out hazarding a battle. 
 
 Almost the only considerable disturbance that 
 agitated the empire during his reign was the le- 
 volt and war of the )ews. This superstitious 
 and re- tie -s people, driven almost to niadness by 
 the profanation of the holy ground of Jerusalem, 
 where Adrian had established a Roman colony, 
 and had built a new town out of the ruins, 
 which he named ^!ia Capitolina, broke out in- 
 to an open revolt under a pretended m. ssiah, 
 the robber Barcochebas, and ravaged Judsea and 
 Syria with desperate rage and cruelty. This 
 gave occasion to a bloody war ot three years' 
 continuance, in which Julius Severus, a distin- 
 guished commander, brought out of Bii^ain, pur- 
 sued the rebels with incessant and unrelf-nting 
 rigour, and finally almost totally exterminated 
 them at the storm of their last strong place, 
 Bi'ther. Adrian then resumed the design of 
 founding a new city at Jerusalem, into which he 
 would not suffer the Jews to enter, except on the 
 anniversary of the capture of the old town ; and 
 he took care to profane all the places accounted 
 holy by Jews and Christians, by the erection of 
 heathen temples. 
 
 In the year 135, Adrian fell into a lingering 
 disorder, which thenceforth confined him to Ita- 
 ly. He adopted a young patrician, named L. 
 Ceionius Commodus, but usually called Verus ; 
 a person chiefly distinguished by his personal 
 beauty, and by the most voluptuous delicacy and 
 effeminacy of manners. His only praise-wor- 
 thy quality was an attachment to polite litera- 
 ture, in which he had made considerable profi- 
 ciency. His bodily constitution was so weak as 
 to promise a very fhort life ; which made this 
 unworthy choice of the emperor's more extra- 
 ordinary. To his security, however, Adrian 
 sacrificed his kinsinan, the aged Servian, and his 
 grandson Fuscus. Sabina also, about this time, 
 died either from poison, or compelled suicide. 
 Verus himself terminated his brilliant prospects 
 with his life, three years after his adoption. This 
 was a signal benefit to the empire ; for Adrian 
 substituted to him, as his adopted successor, Ti-
 
 ADR 
 
 ( 57 ) 
 
 ADR 
 
 tus Antoninus, one of the most virtuous men of 
 tlie age, who hail risen by his merit to the 
 highest offices of tlie state. At the same time 
 ■he engaged Antoninus to adopt the son of Ve- 
 rus, and also Marcus Annius (afterwards Au- 
 relius) his own wife's nephew. TIius Adrian 
 redeemed all the public fauks he can be said to 
 have had, by securing to the ftate a succession of 
 two of the best sovereigns the world ever saw. 
 
 His disease, which now proved to be dropsi- 
 cal, went on augmenting ; and so impatient of 
 his sufferings did he become, that he would se- 
 veral times have put himself to death, had not 
 the orders of Antoninus removed from him the 
 means. It likewise exasperated his temper ; and 
 he condemned without any just reason several 
 senators to death, who were saved by the in- 
 fluence of Antoninus. At length he resigned all 
 care of public affairs to his successor, and retired 
 to Baiae. Here, on July lo, A. D. 138, A. R. 
 889, he expired in the arms of Antoninus, in 
 his fixty- third year, after a reign of twenty 
 years and nearly eleven months. A fliort time 
 before his death, he was tranquil enoiigii to 
 write a few lines on the occafion, in a strain of 
 tender levity, which have been rendered famous 
 by several translations and imitations. 
 
 Animula vagiila, bUndiila, 
 Hospcs comesquc corporis, 
 Qufe nunc abibis in Icca, 
 Pallidula, rigida, nuduia? 
 Nee, ut soles, dabis jocos. 
 
 Little, courteous, vand'ring, tliin», 
 "Whither MJlt thou turn thy wing, 
 
 The body's I'licnd and j^uest? 
 Pale and naked, cold as claj-. 
 Forgot, alas ! tliy wonted play, 
 
 VVhere ftilt thou talce tliy rest ? 
 
 It was with much difficulty that Antoninus 
 could obtain from the senate a decree for allow- 
 ing divine honours to the deceased emperor. 
 They even talked of rescinding his acts as a ty- 
 rant. " One of those acts is that of my adop- 
 tion," said Antoninus , who pleaded so earnestly 
 for his benefactor, that he prevailed. Adrian's 
 obsequies were performed with great magnifi- 
 cence, and a temple was erected to his name at 
 Puteoli, with a ]niesthood and the other accom- 
 paniments of pagan idolatrv. 
 
 The authorities for the events of this reign are 
 principally JDio Ciissius, and Spattiayius. See, 
 further, Crevler's Hut. des Emp. Rom. — A. 
 
 ADRIAN I. Pope, successor to Stephen III. 
 was elected to the papal chair in the year 772. 
 He was the son of Theodore, a Roman noble- 
 man, and had passed w ith credit througli all the 
 previous stages of ecclesiastical advancement. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 He possessed considerable talents for business, 
 and his pontificate furnished him with abundant 
 occasion to employ them- From the beginning 
 ot his reign he found it his interct to maintain 
 a friendly alliance with Ciiarlemagnc, against 
 whom Desidcrius, king of the Lombards, en- 
 tertained hostile designs, in revenge of his hav- 
 ing divorced that prince's daughter. Desiderius 
 in vain attempted, by a flattering embassy, to 
 draw over Adrian to his interest, and therefore 
 resolved, without delay, to invade his territory. 
 He entered the state of Ravenna, possessed him- 
 self of several cities, and threatened Rome it- 
 self. In the distress occasioned by this invasion, 
 Adrian had recourse to Charlemagne for assist- 
 ance. That ambitious and enterprising mo- 
 narch gladly seised the opportunity of extending 
 his dominions. Having passed the Aljjs witli a 
 large army, he entered Lombardy, defeated the 
 forces of Desiderius, and took possession of the 
 principal cities. During the siege of Pavia, 
 whither the king of Lombardy had retreated, 
 Charlemagne visited the pope at Roine, and 
 was received with that respect which was due 
 for his signal services. He confirmed to the 
 pope the grants of territory which had been made 
 by his father Pepin, with large additional dona- 
 tions ; and a perpetual league of friendship was 
 formed between the growing power of France, 
 and the established supremacy of the western 
 church. On this occasion the king expressed 
 his piety, by the humiliating ceremony of kiss- 
 ing each of the steps, as he ascended to the 
 church of St. Peter. On his return to Pavia, 
 the city surrendered, and the dynasty of the. 
 Lombard princes, which had lasted 206 years, 
 was terminated in the year 776. The pope, 
 however, did not immediately, as might have 
 been expected, enjoy undisturbed tranquillity. 
 The bishop of Ravenna claimed, and seised, the 
 exarchate, and the dukedom of Fcrrara, which 
 Charlemagne had restored to the pope ; but ,1 
 second visit from the king of France soon re-in- 
 stated Adrian in his possessions, and settled the 
 affairs of Italy. Charlemagne, in return for 
 these services, obtained the title of king of tha 
 Lombards, and the rights of temporal sovereign- 
 ty in the territory of the Roman see. It has 
 been said, that Adrian invested him with the 
 prerogative of ordering and confirming the elec- 
 tion of the popes ; but tlie Ostrogoth kings, and 
 the exarchs, had exercised the same prerogative 
 as an appanage of the sovereigns of Rome. 
 
 The ci\il commotions ot Italy being thus hap- 
 pily terminated, the pope had leisure ro attend to 
 the affairs of the church. It happened, that, in 
 the court of Constantinople, Irene, who in tl-.c 
 I
 
 ADR 
 
 ( 58 ) 
 
 A D R 
 
 (luring the mi- 
 
 year 7R0 assumed tlic regency 
 nority of her young son Constantine, formed 
 the design of restoring through the empire 
 the worship of images, wliich had been prolii- 
 bited by the edicts of former em|KTors. Hav- 
 ing raised to the patriarchate of Constaniinople 
 her secretary Tarasius, Irene scut messengcis to 
 the pope with a letter, informing him ot her re- 
 ' sohition to call a general council at Constanti- 
 nople, for the purpose of restoring the ancient 
 and laudable practice of image -worship, and re- 
 questing him to give the council tlic sanction of 
 his personal attendance. The letter was ad- 
 dressed, " To the most lioly and bles^ed Adrian, 
 pope of Old Rome ;" and in the letter he is 
 styled, " the first bishop, the bishop who pre- 
 sides in the room and chair of St. Peter." The 
 pope approved the design, and, though he de- 
 clined assisting at the council, sent tiiither his 
 legates, Stephen and Tlicophylact. The coun- 
 cil, to which no bishops from the west, except 
 the pope, were invited, held their first meeting 
 in August, 786, but were soon dispersed by an 
 insurrection of the citizens, who were vehe- 
 mently averse to the worship of images. The 
 council, however, met again the next year, 787, 
 under tlie protection of a military force, in the 
 city of Nice, and a decree was passed to restore 
 the worship of images. Altiiough this decree 
 was approved by ])ope Adrian, it was treated by 
 many in the western church as heretical and 
 dangerous. Charlemagne himself condemned 
 the innovation, and both the French and Eng- 
 lish clergy opposed it. A treatise, containing 
 an hundred and twenty heads of refutation 
 against the decision of the council of Nice, ap- 
 peared, as the work of Charlemagne, under the 
 title ot "The Caroline Books." This book 
 was sent to Rome, and presented to the pope by 
 the king's ambassador. Adrian, who had sup- 
 ported the worship of images by his legates in 
 the council of Nice, thought himself bound to 
 answer the work, in a letter which he wrote to 
 Ciiarlemagne. Tlie letter, however, produced 
 no alteration in the sentiments either of the king, 
 or of the Galilean and Englisli churches. In a 
 great council, held at Frankfort on the Maine, 
 in the year 794, which consisted of about 300 
 western bishops, every kind of image-worship 
 was condemned: — a decisive proof, that the 
 judgment of the pope, even on a question of 
 fundamental importance respecting religious 
 worship, was not, at that time, held to be of in- 
 fallible authority. Adrian, in his letter to Char- 
 lemagne, took great pains to assure him, that 
 he had not been induced to countenance the 
 worship of images by any attachment to the 
 
 Greek emperor : and it does not appear, tliat the- 
 difference of opinion, between the pope and the 
 king on this subject, produced any personal 
 alienation. Adrian did not live to see the ter- 
 mination oftliis great contest concerning image- 
 worship. After a busy pontificate of nearly 
 t\\entv-four years, he died in 795. 
 
 This pope appears to have been more atten- 
 ti\'e to tlie support of advantageous political 
 cc;nnections, than to tlie improvement of tlie 
 churcii. His long pontificate affords few ex- 
 amples of ecclesiastical reformation; and his let- 
 ters, which remain, furnish little proof of lite- 
 rary talents or erudition. It is recorded, to his 
 lionour, tiiat he expended vast sums in repairing 
 and adorning churches, and in rebuilding the 
 walls, and restoring the ancient aqueducts of 
 the city. Adrian presented to the Vatican ba- 
 silic a chandelier of curious workmanship and 
 great value, capable of holding 1370 candles. 
 Charlemagne, probably, supplied tlie pope, 
 from the plunder of his conquests, witli great 
 quantities of gold, silver, and precious stones, 
 for the embellishment of the churches and city 
 of Rome. At the death of Adrian, the king is 
 said to have shed tears, as for the loss of a 
 brother. He wrote his epitaph, which is slill 
 seen in St. Peter's, at Rome, in thirtv-cight 
 Latin verses. Eginhard. Fit. Carol. M. JDu- 
 p'ln. Rycaut's Lives of the Popes. Moreri. 
 Bower. — E. 
 
 ADRIAN IT. Pope, a Roman by birth, 
 presbyter of the church of St. Mark, succeeded 
 Nicliokisl. in the year 867. He had twice be- 
 fore refused the dignity, and now, in his 76th 
 year, accepted it at the united reqiiest of the 
 clergy, nobility, and people. His election was 
 approved by the emperor Lewis. The beginning 
 of his pontificate was disturbed by the invasion 
 of Lambert, duke of Spoleto, W'hose soldiers 
 plundered tlie city of Rome. By the united 
 force of the ein]-)tror's authority and the pope's 
 bulls, this band of robbers was dispersed. 'I'his 
 pope took off the sentence of excommunication, 
 which had been passed upon Lothaire king of 
 Lorraine tor having repudiated his queen. 
 
 A few years before the accession of Adrian II. 
 to the pontificate, the contest for power, between 
 the heads of the Greek and Latin churclies, had 
 hcL-n carried to a most violent excess. The 
 learned Photius had, in the year 85S, been ap- 
 pointed patriarch of Constantinople, by the em- 
 peror Michael, in the room of Ignatius, whom 
 he sent into exile. Pope Niciiolas I. had espous-. 
 ed the cause of Ignatius, and, in S62, in a coun- 
 cil a sembled at Rome, had excommunicated. 
 Photius as unlawfully elected: the pope, in re-

 
 ADR 
 
 ( ;9 ) 
 
 ADR 
 
 turn, had been, in 866, excommunicated by 
 Pliotius. Under pretence nt avenging tlie in- 
 juries of Ignatius, pope Nicholas indulged his 
 own resentment by an embas-sy to Constanti- 
 nople, in which he demanded ihc restitution of 
 several Greek provinces, which the patriarch of 
 Constantinople had taken from the jinisdiction 
 of the Roman pontiH". Wiiile things were in 
 this state, Basil, a new ^inperor, recalled Igna- 
 tius from exile to the patriarchal see, and con- 
 lined Photius to a monastery. At the beginning 
 of the pontihcate oi' Adrian II. Basil ^ent to 
 Rome the acts of the council held by Photius 
 against pope Nicholas ; and Adrian, in council, 
 condemned them, and ordered them to be burn- 
 ed. The restoration of Ignatius was, in the 
 year 86g, approved in a council held at Con- 
 stantinople, at whii-h the legates of the Roman 
 pontitf' were present, and were treated with the 
 highest marks of distinction. The religious 
 disputes between the Greek and Latin churches 
 were, by the decrees of this council, suspended. 
 But the controversy concerning the authority 
 of the Roman pontiffs, and the limits of tlieir 
 spiritual domains, still subsisted. The Bulga- 
 rians sent messengers to tliis council to inquire, 
 whether they ought to be subject to the church 
 of Rome or of Constantinople. A warm con- 
 test arose upon this subject, which terminated, 
 as might be expected, in favour of the patri- 
 archate : and Ignatius, without delay, drove out 
 the Latin missionaries from Bulgaria, and sent 
 Greeks in their room. 
 
 This pope, wliile he was contending with the 
 eastern patriarch for power, was at home ex- 
 tending his authority over the kings and prin- 
 ces of the west. Charles the Bald having taken 
 possession of tire kingdom of Lorrain upon the 
 death of the king, without an heir, and been 
 crowned at Rheims by the archbishop Hinc- 
 mar, the pope employed the whole force of his 
 interest, to indticc Charles to relinquish Lorrain 
 in favour of the emperor, and to prevail upon 
 Hincmar, with the rest of the clergy, and the 
 nobility, to desert hiin ; he even sent legates to 
 the king, ordering him to yield to the emperor's 
 undoubted right. The king, however, was not 
 to be intimidated ; and the pope was at last ob- 
 liged to give up the point. Not taught hu- 
 mility by this disappointment, he again asserted 
 his high claim of interfering with the affairs of 
 princes, by taking Charles's rebellious son Car- 
 loman, and his accomplice, the younger Hinc- 
 mar, bishop of Laon, under the protection of 
 the Roman see. Even when the latter was 
 condemned and deposed by the unanimous vote 
 of a council, in which his uncle, the archbishop 
 
 of Rheims, presided, the pope, to whom ho had 
 made his apjxul, by his apostolic authority com- 
 manded the king lo send the bishop of Laon to 
 him. Charles firmly resisting this imperious 
 demand, the poy^e foimd he had proceeded too 
 far, and wrote a submissive letter, laying the 
 blame of the former upon his secretary, and 
 soothing the king with the proinisc of his inter- 
 est, if they .should both survive the emperor. 
 Adi ian still contended for tlie right of the see of 
 Rome to the jurisdiction of Bulgaria, and was 
 much displeased with tlie conduct of his hishcjp 
 Grimoald, \vho had left it in the hands of the 
 Gieeks. Death prevented his intended inquiry 
 into the conduct of that prelate, and tenninated 
 a life of restless, and often disappointed, ambi- 
 tion in the year 872, after a pontihcate of tivc 
 years. A miraculous increase of money, ia 
 distributing alms, is ascribed to this pope by liis 
 biographer Platina. Adrian. Epist. apud Gnll. 
 Concil. Diiphi. Moihe'im. Phuhia. Alorer'i. 
 Bo'Mcr. — E. 
 
 ADRIAN III. Pope, by birth a Roman. 
 succeeded Marinus in the year 884. He \\as 
 desirous to deliver Italy, and tlie papal see, from 
 their dcpendance upon the emperor ol Germany, 
 and passed a decree, that, if Charles should die 
 without male issue, the kingdom ot Italy, and 
 the title of emperor, should be bestowed only on 
 natives of Italy, and that no regard should, in 
 future, be paid to the authority of the emperor 
 in the creation of a pope. Basil the Macedo- 
 nian, emperor of the East, endeavoured, but 
 without success, to persuade this pope to annul 
 the excommunication of his predecessor against 
 Photius, patriarch of Constantinople. Adrian 
 III. died on his way to a diet at Worms, in 
 885, having held the see little more than a year. 
 Platina. Moreri. Boiver. — E. 
 
 ADRIAN IV. Pope, whose original name 
 was Nicholas Brekespere, Avas born, towanls 
 the close of the 1 1 th century, at Langley near 
 St. Albans in Hertfordshire. He was the only 
 Englishman who ever filled the papal chair. 
 in his childhood, he was dependent, for his daily 
 subsistence, upon the charity of the monastci y, 
 of which his father, Robert de Camera, was a 
 domestic servitor, and aftenvards a brother. 
 Being unable, through poverty, to attend the 
 schools, he could not obtain admission into the 
 monastery for want of sufficient learning. He 
 therefore resolved, in order to avoid the re- 
 proaches of his fatlier, who was continually ac- 
 cusing him of idleness, to try his fonune in an- 
 other country. He, accordingly, went over to 
 France, where, after passing through several 
 cities, he became a servitor in the inouasiery of
 
 ADR 
 
 ( 60 ) 
 
 ADR 
 
 St. Rufus near Avignon. Here Iiis pleasing 
 tounicnancf, obliging behaviour, reatly tulcius, 
 and diligence in stiidv, rei ommcndcd him to tlic 
 fuvuiir of the monks, and he was, in due time, 
 a<lmittetl into their tnitemiiy. Tpon the death 
 ot the ahhot, in 1 137, he was iiiwmiimiusly cho- 
 sen superior ol the house: but, Iruin some un- 
 known cause of jealousy, or offence, the bre- 
 thren at length became dissatished, and, in or- 
 der to frc-c themselves from his government, 
 brought several accusations against him before 
 poixr Eugcnius III. The pope, upon examina- 
 tion, was not only convinted of the abbot's in- 
 nocence, but discovered in him talents, which 
 might render him useful in a higher station. He 
 therefore instructed the monks to cho(;se another 
 abbot, and took Nicholas under his own pa- 
 tronage. " Go," said he, " choose a superior, 
 with whom you mny, or rather will, live in 
 peace ; this man shall be no longer a burden to 
 you." In the year 1 146, the pope created him 
 cardinal-bishop of Alba ; and in 1 148 sent him, 
 in the capacity of apostolic legate, into Den- 
 mark and Norway, where he made many con- 
 verts. He is said to have erected tlie church 
 of Upsal into an archiepiscopal see. Returning 
 to Rome, he was received with great respect by 
 the pope Anastasins, who had succeeded Euge- 
 nius. This pope died soon afterwards ; and, 
 in November 1154, the bishop of Alba was 
 unanimously elected to succeed him. 
 
 Nicholas Brekesperc having thus, by an un- 
 common train of good fortune, risen from the 
 condition of a mendicant to the first dignity in 
 the churcli, assumed with the papal crown the 
 Dame of Adrian. On his accession, Henry II. 
 of England, sent the abbot of St. Alban's, 
 and three bishops, to congratulate him on his 
 election, and to convey to him a letter expres- 
 sive of good wishes, and containing excellent 
 instructions to his holiness, to enable him to 
 " answer the expectations of his station." He 
 advised him, " not to be biassed by any secular 
 regards in the disposal of ecclesiastical prefer- 
 ment ; to take care, since God had raised him 
 to the top of spiritual grandeur, to shine forth 
 in an exemplary conduct ; and so to govern the 
 church, as not only to become a general blessino- 
 in his life-time, but that future ages might be 
 the better for his memory, and his native coun- 
 try might congratulate herself on producing so 
 illustrious a prelate." Tiie abbot of St. Alban's, 
 who accompanied the embassy, brought with 
 him several valuable presents, and, among the 
 rest, three rich mitres and some sandals. The 
 mitre? and sandals the pope accepted, on ac- 
 count of their excellent worknianship, but re- 
 
 fused the rest, saving jocosely, " I will not ac- 
 cept your gifts, because, when I wished to take 
 the habit of vour monastery, you rejected me." 
 
 The abbot smartly answered, " It was not 
 for us to oppose the will of providence, which 
 had destined you for greater things." The 
 pope thanked him for his handsome compliment, 
 and, alluding in a playful conceit to his episco- 
 pal title, added, " Dearest abbot, ask boldly- 
 whatever you please : it will be impossible for 
 his own Alban to refuse any thing to St. Ak 
 ban:" — Abbas charissime, audacter pete quod 
 vis: non poterit beato Albanodeesse suus Alba- 
 nensis. To relieve the church of St. Alban's 
 from the oppressions of the bishop of Lincoln, 
 of which the abbot grievously complained, the 
 pope granted it the singular privilege of being 
 exempt from all episcopal jurisdiction, except 
 to the see of Rome; he added other valuable 
 liberties and immunities. The abbot, after his 
 return to England, sent the pope a pair of gold- 
 en candlesticks, which were deposited in St. Pe- 
 ter's church ; and his holiness, in return, sent 
 to the church of St. Alban's the relics of the 
 Theb^an legion, and other donations. 
 
 Pope Adrian IV. seems to have early con- 
 ceived a full idea of the extent of papal prero- 
 gative, and to have been well inclined to exer- 
 cise it. He began his pontificate with spiritual 
 fulminations against the people of Rome, who 
 were at this time attempting to regain their an- 
 cient liberties, and restore the independent au- 
 thority of the Roman senate ; an attempt to 
 which, in the pontificate of Eugeniiis, they had. 
 been stimulated by Arnold of Brescia. The de- 
 puties, who waited upon him to assert the claims 
 of the citizens, he haughtily dismissed without 
 an answer. Arnold, whom the people had re- 
 called, he commanded the senators to banish. 
 Seising the occasion of an assault committed by 
 the populace on one of his cardinals, he put the 
 city under an interdict, by which all religious 
 functions were suspended, till the reformer 
 should be expelled. Superstitious terror over- 
 powered the spirit of freedom ; Arnold and his 
 adherents were driven from Rome : and the peo- 
 ple again surrendered the government of the city 
 into the hands of the pope. 
 
 In an interview which Adrian had near Sutri, 
 in 1 155, the year after his accession, with Fre- 
 deric, king of the Romans, to negotiate peace, 
 the pope w-as conducted on horseback to the 
 king's tent, with every mark of honour, except 
 that, when he dismounted, the king did not hold 
 the stirrup. The poutitF claimed this humili- 
 ating expression of submission as his right : the 
 king maintained, that he was under no obligatioa
 
 ADR 
 
 ( 6i ) 
 
 ADR 
 
 to perform this menial office ; and it was not till 
 after a long conference, thut Frederic was per- 
 suaded, on the authority of precedents, to com- 
 ply witli a custom so degrading to royalty. Af- 
 ter this submission, the pope consented to confer 
 upon Frederic the imperial crown ; and, on the 
 iSthof June, in the year 1155, in the church 
 of St. Peter, he placed it upon his head. (Otto 
 Frising. lib. i. c. 22.) 
 
 The same year this ambitious father of the 
 church exercised the high prerogative of dis- 
 posing of kingdoms. Henry II. of England 
 having formed the project of conquering Ireland, 
 to serve his present purpose imprudently ac- 
 knowledged the existence of this prerogative in 
 the see of Rome, by soliciting from him a bull 
 to sanction this act of injustice. Adrian, well- 
 disposed towards the king of his native country, 
 and not averse to the extension of his own spi- 
 ritual jurisdiction, readily complied. When it 
 is determined, that the freedom of a nation shall 
 be sacrificed, it is not difficult to find a pretext 
 to cover the iniquity. The plea in this case as- 
 sumed by the pope was, that the Irish nation 
 hadhitherto been imperfectly converted to Chris- 
 tianity. In this bull, issued in 1155, (Matt. 
 Paris. Hist. Ang. p. 95, ed. 1640.) the pope 
 imputes Henry's design to the pious motive of 
 " instructing ignorant and barbarous people in 
 the Christian faith, and reforming the licentious 
 and immoral ;" he expresses his confidence that, 
 " by the assistance and blessing of God, the 
 success will answer the wisdom and discretion of 
 the undertaking:" asserting, as an incontesta- 
 ble point, the jurisdiction of the holy Roman 
 church over the whole Christian world, he 
 " grants" the king " full liberty to make a de- 
 scent upon Ireland in order to enlarge the bor- 
 ders of the church," upon condition that " a 
 yearly acknowledgment of one penny for every 
 bouse be paid to St. Peter;" and he "com- 
 mands the people of that country to receive and 
 acknowledge Henry as their sovereign lord, 
 provid-d the rights of the churches be inviola- 
 bly preserved, and the Peter-fence duly paid. 
 Though the design was not immediately put into 
 execution, the pope's claim were expressly as- 
 serted, and his power exercised in its utmost 
 extent. Another prerogative, not less danger- 
 ous to society, and certainly not less impious, 
 than the former, this pope exercised, in granting 
 to the same prince absolution from the oath 
 which he had taken, not to set aside any part of 
 his father's will. If the oath, which was ex- 
 torted as the condition of his father's interm.ent, 
 was on tliat account not binding, the dispen- 
 sation was unnecessary : if the oath, thus cir- 
 
 cumstanced, was ohligatory, no earthly power 
 could dissolve the obligation. 
 
 Of the tyranny exercised by the papal power 
 even over crowned heads, this pontificate af- 
 fords another example, in Adrian's treatment 
 of William, king of the two Sicilies. Under 
 the plea that this prince was a feudatory of the 
 Roman see, Adrian refused to acknowledge him 
 as king, and in a letter simply called hini lord of 
 Sicily, because he had taken the crown without 
 the consent of the pontiff. A war ensued, in 
 which the king was victorious. Ne^'ertheless, 
 at the conclusion, the king consented to receive 
 investiture from the pope, to swear allegiance to 
 the apostolic see, and to pay it an annual tri- 
 bute. William, however, obtained, that no 
 appeal should be made to Rome, nor any le- 
 gate received from thence, without the king's 
 consent ; and that the elections ot the clergy 
 should be free. 
 
 Another violent struggle for power, in which 
 Adrian IV. was engaged, was with the emperor 
 Frederic. At the commencement of the quarrel, 
 which originated in the pope's neglect of the em- 
 peror in his treaty of peace with tiie king of the 
 two Sicilies, Adrian showed a strong inclination 
 to assert his paramount authority. He boasted, 
 that the holy Roman church had received Frede- 
 ric with kindness and affection and " had will- 
 ingly conferred upon him the imperial crown, 
 and with it the plenitude of all power." Tlje 
 emperor, and the princes and bishojjS of the em- 
 pire, understood these words as an assertion that 
 the empire was held as a grant from the pope ; 
 and the language oi one ot the pope's legates at 
 the public reading of this letter confirmed this 
 construction. " Of whom," said he, " does 
 your emperor hold the empire, if not of our 
 lord the pope ?"' words which so provoked the 
 count palatine of Bavaria, that, drawing his 
 sword, he would have made the legate pay dear- 
 ly for his presumption, had not the empero: 
 interposed. The legates were sent back to 
 Rome ; the emperor, and the whole body of 
 the German princes, nobles, and clcrgv, reseni- 
 ed the insolent claims of the pope : and the bi- 
 shops remonstrated, in terms whicli convinced 
 Adrian, that he had proceeded too far, and had 
 asserted claims, which he was unable to support. 
 He therefore wrote a letter of retractation, in 
 which he calls Frederic lord and emperor of the 
 city and the world (dominum et imperatorem 
 urbis et orbis)., and pitifully explains awav the 
 meaning of his words ; saying, that by benef.cium 
 (benefit) he mfM\X7i^ooddeed, which he had done 
 in crowning him, and that, by conferring upon 
 him the imperial crown, he only meant, putting
 
 ADR 
 
 ( 62 ) 
 
 A 1) R 
 
 the crown upon l>is head. Tliis expl.ination 
 was understood as a virtual relinquishment 6( 
 tiie ilaim ; and ilu- pope ai.d tlx ciupiror were 
 apparently reconciled. However, new demands 
 on the part ot'tlic emperor iVom flic Roman cler- 
 .cv, as his subjects, soon produced new com- 
 plaints t'rom the poiie ; the quarrel was renewed ; 
 notwithstanding some advances on each side, it 
 remained unsettled at the death of Adrian ; and 
 a foundation was laid for contests between the 
 emperor and the papal sec, which long after- 
 wards disturbed the peace of Europe. (Rade- 
 vicus in !• rcdcric. lib. I.) 
 
 Towards the close of his pontificate, Adrian 
 IV. removed the papal seat from Rome to Or- 
 vieto, but he soon found it necessary to return. 
 The people being stiil restless under liis yoke, 
 he wittidrcw, for the sake of tranquillity, to 
 Anagni, where, in the year 1 159, he died. 
 The circumstances of his death are variously re- 
 lated. According to Matthew Paris, (Vit. Ab- 
 bat. S. Alb. p. 74.) he was poisoned : accord- 
 ing; to Bale, (Dc Script. Brit. cent. 2. n. 64. in 
 append.) and othcis, his death was occasioned 
 by a tiy, which found its way into his throat. 
 Some letters and homilies written by hiin are 
 extant. (Concil. torn. x. Leland de Script. 
 Brit. Adr.) 
 
 The private life of this pope is unknown. If 
 it be true, (Cave, Hist. Lit. Ann. 1154.) that 
 he lelt his mother to be maintained by the alms 
 <)t the church of Canterbury, filial piety was 
 not among his virtues. His personal happiness, 
 from his own confession, was not increased by 
 his advancement to the papal dignity. During 
 a visit which he received at Rome from his old 
 friend, John of Salisbury, he fairly acknow- 
 ledged to him, that all the former hardships of 
 his lite were noticing in comparison of the 
 burden of the papacy, that he looked upon St. 
 Peter's chair to be the most uneasy seat in the 
 world, and that his crown seemed to have been 
 put burning upon his head : he had been, as he 
 expressed it, " Strained througii the limbec of 
 affliction." The uneasiness of his situation 
 was the effect of the perpetual restlessness of his 
 ambition. The citizens of Rome experienced 
 his tyrannical spirit ; and though their effort to 
 regain their liberties was ineffectual, their per- 
 petual struggles gave him much vexation and 
 alarm. His friendship with Henry II. of Eng- 
 land, was only a league for iniquitous conquest 
 and oppression. His enmity against the emperor 
 Frederic was but the ebullition of mortified 
 pride, unable to brook submission to any civil 
 power, and then only pleased, when it could set 
 Jts foot upon the neck of princes. It may be 
 
 diff.cult to say. ■whether this po])e'.. royal alli- 
 ances, or hostilities, were most inischicvouc : 
 but it is certain, that kingdoms and nations were 
 little benefited eitiier by tlie one or the other. 
 Lctaiid de Script. Brit. Pi'to de I/.'ustr. Jug/. 
 Script. Matthew Paris, Fit. Abhat. S. Alban. 
 G. Neubrig. de Preb. Jug. Plotina. Dtlpin, 
 Moreri. Bower. Biogr. Brit. — E. 
 
 ADRIAN V. Pope, a Genoese, whose for- 
 mer name was Ottoboni Fiesci, succeeded In- 
 nocent V. in tlie vear I2y6. He was nephew 
 of Innocent IV. who, with other ecclesiastical 
 preferment, created him cardinal deacon of Sr. 
 Adrian. In 1254 he was sent by his uncle into 
 England, in the capacity of legate, to settle the 
 disputes between Henry 111. and his barons, and 
 was employed again on the same legation in 
 1265 by Clement III. when he issued a sentence 
 of excommunication against the king's enemij-s. 
 The king honoured tliis legate by placing him in 
 his royal chair at a public festival, and ordering 
 him to be first served. Several years after his re- 
 turn to Rome, when his health was much de- 
 clined, lie was elected to the papal chair. When 
 his relations came to congratulate him on his 
 accession, he said, " I wish you had found ine 
 a healthy cardinal, rather than a dying pope." 
 Leaving Rome immediately after his election, he 
 went to Vlterbo, whither he had invited Rodol- 
 phus the emperor, to oppose the usurpations of 
 Charles, king of the two Sicilies ; but his illness 
 increasing, he died soon after his arrival, having 
 enjoyed his dignity only thirty-eight days. He 
 was a zealous supporter of the crusade to the 
 Holy Land, and hrimcdiately after his election 
 sent a considerable sum to Constantinople, for 
 the purpose of building galleys, with large pro- 
 mises of further supplies. Jil. Paris. Platina. 
 Moreri. Boiver. — -E. 
 
 ADRIAN VI. Pope, who succeeded Leo X. 
 in January 1522, was a native of Utrecht in 
 Holland, the son of Florent Boyens, a tapestry- 
 weaver, or, according to some, a brewer's ser- 
 vant. His father, observing in him an early 
 disposition towards learning, procured him ad- 
 mission into the pope's college at Louvain, 
 where poor scholars were educated gratuitously. 
 Here he distinguished himself bv uncommon 
 diligence in his studies : frequently spending a 
 great part of the night in reading by the light 
 ot the lamp, which was constantly kept burning 
 in the church. He in a few years acquired a 
 great reputation for theological learning, and ob- 
 tained the patronage of Margaret, widow of the 
 duke of Burgundy, and sister of Edward IV. of 
 England. Through her interest, Adrian Flo- 
 rent obtained the professorship of divinity in
 
 HADRIANVS VI. CCXXII. PAPA, VLTRAIE. 
 
 CTINVS, HOLLANDVS. 
 
 Ovpmifcfjcr^oc^^jfc^olf/tJon'iStrcc^t/ in JfjoUanD. 
 
 PapacLeoniDccimofufFicitur Adrianus Sextus Anno Mundi D.CCCC 
 LXXXIlILChriftiM.D.XXILScditCaroloV.Caefare 
 lmperante,annum iinum,menfes odo^dies fex. 
 
 / - 6% ' ;
 
 ADR 
 
 ( 63 ) 
 
 ADR 
 
 Louvaiii, the deanry of the cathedral, and the 
 vice-chanccll( rship of the university. When 
 he was admitted doctor in divinity, this princess 
 paid the expenses attending the ceremony. 1'he 
 talents and virtues which he displayed in his aca- 
 demical ofEces attracted the notice of the lord of 
 Chievres, whom Maximilian had appointed to 
 superintend tlic education of his grandson Charles, 
 and he was chosen by that nobleman preceptor 
 to the young prince. Chailes discovering a 
 greater inclination to arms than to letters, Adri- 
 an was soon released from this charge, and em-- 
 ployed by the emperor on an embassy to Ferdi- 
 nand, king of Spain. That prince was so well 
 satisfied with his conduct, that he conferred upon 
 him the bishopric of Tortosa. Alter the death 
 of Ferdinand, Charles became by his will the 
 sole heir of his dominions ; and the young prince, 
 during his minority, appointed Adrian his regent. 
 Cardinal Ximenes, a man better qualified for 
 this high otEce than Adrian, and more accepta- 
 ble to the Spaniards, had been appointed by Fer- 
 dinand. The government of die country was 
 conducted in the name ot both conjointly ; but, 
 in fact, during the life of Ximenes, Adrian's dig- 
 nity was merely nominal: the cardinal, though, 
 from complaisance to his new master, he treated 
 his colleague with respecTl:, took upon himself 
 the whole management of affairs. The empe- 
 ror Maximilian, who retained a great respect 
 for Adrian, recommended him to Leo X. as a 
 man highly deserving of fardier advancement ; 
 and he was, in 1517, preferred by that pontiflto 
 the dignity of cardinal. After the accession of 
 Charles to the empire, imder the title of Charles 
 V. Adrian was appointed by the cmj-.eror to meet 
 the cortex of Valencia, and receive in his name 
 their oath of allegiance ; but die Valcncian no- 
 bles, considering it as an indignity to be go • 
 veined by a vicerov, refused lo appear before 
 him. His subsequent appointment to the re- 
 gency of Castile, during the emperor's absence 
 in 1520, gave equal offence to the Castilian no- 
 bles, who remonstrated against the measure as 
 illegal. The Castilian commons were still more 
 dissatisfied, and v/itli better reason. An insur- 
 rection having been raised in Segovia, in de- 
 fence of the ancient liberties of the Castilians, 
 Adrian's zeal to support his master's authority 
 hurried him into a resolution, contrary to the 
 natural timidity of his tem.per, ar.d inconsistent 
 with a just respect for the rights of free citizeris. 
 He ordered the emperor's military commanders 
 to enforce submission ; the attempt was made, 
 but without success; freedom was triumpliant ; 
 the forces, which had been tyrannically and 
 rashly employed, were pusillanimously with- 
 
 drawn ; and the regent, wiio, though virtuous 
 and disinterested, wanted the courage and saga- 
 city requisite in such circumstances, scarcely re- 
 tained the shadow of authority. 
 
 After a short interval, an unexpected event 
 relieved Adrian from the burdens of an unpopu- 
 lar regency, and advanced him to the summit of 
 ecclesiastical dignity. Upon the death of Leo X. 
 in 152 1, great discord arose in the conclave con- 
 cerning the choice of a successor. Julio, cardi- 
 nal de' Medici, Leo's nephew, had a strong par- 
 ty in his favour among the younger members of 
 the sacred college. 'I'he old cardinals, thinking 
 it dangerous to elect a new pontiff from thu 
 powerful family of the Medici, united against 
 him, but were not agreed in favour of any other 
 person. In tlie midst of this contest, Julio de' 
 Medici and his adherents, merely to protract 
 time, one morning, at the scrutiny which ac- 
 cording to form was made every day, voted for 
 cardinal Adrian. The adverse party instaiitU- 
 closing with th.em, to their own amazement and 
 that of all Europe, a stranger to Italy, and a man 
 little suited to fill die papal ciiair at so difficult a 
 juncture, was elected. The election was proba- 
 bly the effect of Intrigue ; and Adrian owed his 
 iinexpcQted advancement leSs to his personal me- 
 rit, or to the Impulse of the Holy Ghost, under 
 which the conclave pretended to act, than to the 
 address of the imperial ambassador, John Ma- 
 nuel, who was desirous to obtain a pope devoted 
 to his master's interest. (Burman. in Analcct. 
 de Hadr. p. 52. Robertson's Reign of Charles V. 
 book ii.) 
 
 Without changing his name, Adrian, upon 
 receiving, at Victoria In Biscay, the news of his 
 election, assumed the pontifical habit, and set out 
 for Rome. Neither his exter\ial appeaiancc, 
 which was humble, nor his manners, whicii 
 were strict, nor his principles and maxims, which 
 were simple and candid, accorded with the taste 
 and spirit of the R.oman court. It was his mis- 
 fortune, too, that he came to the papal see at a 
 time when the city of Rome was afflicted with a 
 pestilence, -wlien the finances weic exhausted, 
 and when literature and the art-, required judi- 
 cious and liberal patronage. All these circum- 
 stances concurred to render Adrian unpopular, 
 and to throw a veil over qualifications and vir- 
 tues, which. In other times, might have appeared 
 with credit, and even with some degree of splen- 
 dor. He avoided the expensive magnificent c, 
 by which his predecessor had encumbered tlic. 
 sec with debts. In his personal conduiff, lie ^ct 
 an example of temperance and regularity, whicli 
 might have been expected to produce a reforma- 
 tion of the dissolute manners of the court aad the
 
 ADR 
 
 ( 6+ ) 
 
 ADR 
 
 citv. He treatcil his relations with extreme se- 
 venty, sciiJiiig back, with a scanty supply of 
 cloaVhs and money, such as had come to Rome 
 with higli expectations of advancement. He 
 annulled many ordinances, which the cardi- 
 nals, during the vacancy of the see, had made 
 for their own advantage, and reclaimed tor the 
 public many bcnetices which they had courteous- 
 Iv bestowed on each other. Several offices, which 
 pope Leo liad created and granted with large 
 emoluments to his favourites, Adrian abolished, 
 in order to contract tlie public expenditure. It 
 was a maxim with tjiis pope, tliat men were made 
 for places and not places for men. He even 
 scrupled to retain such territories as some of his 
 predecessors had acquired by violence or fraud ; 
 the duchy of Urbino, which Leo had unjustly 
 seised, he restored to its lawful proprietor, Fran- 
 cesco Maria dc Roverc; nnd lie surrendered to 
 the duke of Ferrara several places, of which he 
 had been injuriously deprived. Jn the political 
 affairs of Europe, Adrian endeavoured to act 
 the part of a mediator. Probably with a good 
 intention, though certainly without right, he is- 
 sued a bull, requiring all Christian princes to 
 consent to a truce for three years, to which so 
 much regard was paid, that the Imperial, French, 
 and English ambassadors at Rome were empow- 
 ered to deliberate on terms of pacification. In ec- 
 clesiastical affairs, though his zeal for the ca- 
 tholic faith urged him to send his nuncio to the 
 diet at Nuremberg, to demand a vigorous execu- 
 tion of the imperial edict against Luther and his 
 followers ; he, at the same time, declared a dis- 
 position to exercise his spiritual authority for the 
 internal reformation of the church. These un- 
 equivocal proofs of a desire to regulate his con- 
 duct by the principles of justice, and to promote 
 the cause of virtue, ought to have obtained for 
 this amiable pontiff public tokens of respect. In- 
 .stead of this, a perverse construction was put 
 upon his most meritorious actions. His econo- 
 my was called parsimony ; his plans of reform 
 were imputed to unnecessary austerity, and his 
 disinterested conduct to weakness and inexpe- 
 rience. One principal cause of his unpopula- 
 rity was, that, being a ftranger in Italy, and find- 
 ing little encouragement, on his first arrival, to 
 place confidence in his brethren of the conclave, 
 lie sought for counsellors among his countrymen 
 and former friends, and advanced some of these, 
 perhaps \sifli a partial preference, to posts of 
 trust and distinction. It must also be admitted, 
 that this pontiff acted too much under the in- 
 fluence of the empeior Charles, and that he 
 sometimes suftisred his attachment to his master 
 IQ mislead his judgment. One instance of this 
 
 has already been adduced in his treatment of tLc 
 generous Castilians ; and another presents itself 
 in the last public act of his life, in which he 
 abandoned his professed neutrality ; relinquished 
 his plan of a general pacification among the 
 powers of Europe ; and formed an alliance with 
 the emperor and the king of England against 
 France. Adrian, on the day on which he signed 
 tliis confederacy, was seised with a slow fever, 
 and, after an illness of a few weeks, retired from 
 the cares and vexations of his high station to the 
 repose of the grave : he died in December 1523, 
 having possessed the papal dignity one year and 
 ten months, and was buried in the church of St. 
 Peter. On his tomb was inscribed an epitaph, 
 which informs posterity, that the greatest misfor- 
 tune which he experienced in life, was, that he had 
 been called to govern. 
 
 Adrianus Papa VI. hie situs est, 
 qui nihil sihi infclicius 
 
 in vita, 
 
 quam quod imperaret, 
 
 duxit. 
 
 Adrian VI. tliough an honest man, and adorned 
 with many private virtues, wanted that strength 
 and energy of mind, which his difficult station 
 required. Timid, irresolute, and inconsistent, 
 his real virtues were mistaken for defects ; and 
 where, with greater firmness, he might have 
 commanded applause, he undeservedly incurred 
 contempt. Perhaps, with so few fault ;, no man 
 ever incurred so much popular dislike, or was 
 loaded with so many calumnies. Ir is said, that 
 the night after his decease, some young men 
 adorned the door of his physician with garlands, 
 and this inscription, " To the Deliverer of his 
 Country." This circumstance, however, was 
 an honour to his memory ; for it appears to have 
 proceeded from the joy of the dissolute, on being 
 released from the apprehension of the bulls which 
 this rigid disciplinarian was about to issue against 
 various irregularities and enormities. It must 
 be acknowledged that this pontiff had more pi- 
 ety than taste for the fine arts. When he was 
 shown the statue of Laocoon, he turned away 
 his head, to show his aversion to pagan images ; 
 and he lield the race of poets so clieap, that he 
 gave them the contemptuous appellation of Te- 
 rentians. He was, nevertheless, well read in 
 theology and scholastic pliilosophy. While he 
 was professor of divinity at Louvain, he wrote 
 " A Commentary upon the Book of Sentences 
 by Peter Lombard ;" " Epistles ;" and " Quse- 
 stiones Quodlibeticie ;" printed at Louvain in 
 1^15, and at Paris in i i;i6, and 1531. "Jov'ii 
 Fit. Adrian. Dupin. Rycaut's Continuatioii of
 
 M L I 
 
 ( ^S ) 
 
 JE h I 
 
 Platina. Morer'i. Bower. Robertson's, Ch. V. 
 book I, 2. — E. 
 
 ^DESIUS, a Platonic philosoplier, at the 
 beginning of the fourtli century, was a precep- 
 tor in philosophy at Cappailocia, his native 
 place. He was of the school of Plotinus, in 
 which was taught a species of false philosophy, 
 compounded of mysticism and imposture. His 
 immediate predecessors were Porphyry and Jam- 
 blichus. He either fancied or pretended tha the 
 had supernatural intercourse with divinities. It 
 is related, that, in one of these conimunicationsby 
 dream, some god delivered to him an oracle in 
 hexameter verse, which in the morning he found 
 written upon the palm of his hand. The story 
 is told, and the lines are preserved, by his biogra- 
 pher Eunapius, one of the same school, and 
 as great a fanatic as himself. Eunapii Fit. 
 Bnickrr. — E. 
 
 ^GIDIUS DECoLUMNA,a Roman monk 
 of the Augustine order, was distinguished in 
 the 13th century among the scholastics, and ob- 
 tained the appellation of the most Profound Doc- 
 tor. He was preceptor to the sons of Philip III. 
 of France, and taught philosophy and theology 
 with high reputation at Paris. He was preferred 
 by Boniface VIII. to the episcopal see of Berri, 
 and, according to some writers, was by the same 
 pope created a cardinal. He died in the year 
 1 316, in the 69th year of his age. His body was 
 conveyed to the church of the Augustine frater- 
 nity in Paris, and it was inscribed upon his tomb, 
 that he was a most perspicuous commentator 
 upon the prince of philosophers, Aristotle, and 
 that he was lux in htcem reduccns dul>ia, " the 
 luminary which brought doubtful things to 
 light." In a general council at Florence, his doc- 
 trine, " which enlightened the whole world," 
 was ordained to be received, and inviolably ob- 
 served, by all students and readers belonging to the 
 Augustine order. His writings, which are nu- 
 merous, afford little confirmation of this charac- 
 ter : they treat abstruse questions with profound 
 obscurity. His " Lucubrations on the Sentences 
 of Lombard" were printed at Basil in 1623 : his 
 work " On Original Sin," in 4to. at Oxford in 
 1479 • ^"'^ ^'^ " Quasstiones Metaphysicfe et 
 Quodlibeticas," at Venice, 1501. Dupiit. Lav. 
 Hist. Lit E. 
 
 ^GINETA. See Paulus. 
 
 jELIAN, Claudius, an historian and rhe- 
 torician, was born atPrseneste about the year 80, 
 and lived upwards of sixty years. He was a Ro- 
 man citizen, and never left Italy ; yet he became 
 so perfect a master of the Greek language, that 
 he wrote it with Attic purity. Under the empe- 
 ror Antoninus he taught rhetoric iu Rome, and 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 is therefore classed among the sophists: an ip- 
 pellatit)n first given by the Greeks to true philo- 
 sophers, afterwards to those who taught and ex- 
 ercised the subtle arts of disputation, and, in the 
 time of ^lian, to thoe who practised public de- 
 clamation, and kept schools of rhetoric. ^Elian's 
 favourite study appeals to have been that of his- 
 tory : but his only piece properly historical, 
 which is extant, is a small miscellany of facts 
 and anecdotes, in 14 books, under the title of 
 " Various History." This work is probably 
 left imperfect, for Stobaus and uuidas quote 
 passages from it which are not in our present co- 
 pies. It was first published, with some other 
 pieces of different authors, by Peruslus, in 410. 
 at Rome, in 1545. The editions of this work, 
 most valued, are those of Schefer, printed in 8vo. 
 at Strasburgh, in 1662 ; of Periz,onius, in 8vo. 
 printed at Leyden in 1701; and of Gronovius, 
 in 4to. at tb.e same place in 1731. Perizonius 
 has shown that /Elian, in these anecdotes, fte- 
 quently follows Athenajus. Of this writer also 
 remains a small work in natural history, entitled, 
 " An History of Animals." This tieatise con- 
 tains many curious and amusing particulars con- 
 cerning animals, which the author professes to 
 have in part gathered up from his own observa- 
 tion, but which were chiefly collected from Ari- 
 stotle and other writers : they are presented to 
 the reader without any regard to methodical ar- 
 rangement, and many of them are evidently fa- 
 bulous. The chief value of this and indeed of 
 the former work consists in the purity and sweet- 
 ness of the style, on account of which the author 
 obtained the appellation of MfMyXiao-o-oi, the ho- 
 ney-tongued. A treatise " On the Tactics of 
 the Greeks" has been also ascribed to yElian, 
 and is published with his other works in Ges- 
 ner's edition, printed in folio at Zurich in 1556 ; 
 but it is probable, from an account which the au- 
 thor of that work gives, of a conversation which 
 he had upon the subject of tactics with the em- 
 peror Nerva and with F'rontinus, that it was 
 written by another ^lian under that emperor : it 
 does not appear that Claudius j^lian ever at- 
 tended to military affairs, or frequented the im- 
 perial court. According to Suidas, he was high 
 priest to some divinitv, whose name is not 
 known ; and he showed his respect for morality 
 by writing a book against Heliogubalus, without, 
 however, venturing to mention his name, under 
 the titleof Kar>iyooia ra Tv/oLyiho;, " The Accusa- 
 tion of the Effeminate Man." Good selections 
 may be made from the writings of jElian for 
 the use of schools ; of which an example has 
 been given in Dr. Huntingford's " Interpretatio 
 ricixfAijj'Ig-rofiaj in Usum Schola; ^Vintonieni>•is." 
 K
 
 JE M I 
 
 ( (>(> ) 
 
 IE M I 
 
 Perliaps it was this ^lian whom Martial com- 
 pliments under the appellation ot" Fucundtts, in 
 lib. xii. epijj. 24. Voss. dc C',fC. Hht. lib. ii. 
 c. It. Fahncii Bil'l. Gr,ec. lib. iv. c. 21. — E. 
 
 i9<:MlLlANI, Jerom, a nobl« Venetian, of 
 ihc i6fli century, was the f'oimJcr of the regular 
 clerks of St. Maieul, called also, from the place 
 where their community was Hrst csc^iblished and 
 where iheir founder resided, the Fathers of So- 
 masque. This was one of the various commu- 
 nities which, under the name of Regular Clerks, 
 were, after the reformation, formed within the 
 Roman clnirch. Moilicim, cent. xvi. — E. 
 
 ^MILIANUS, C. Julius, was by birth a 
 Moor, and of obscure descent. He served from 
 his youth in the Roman armies, and by his va- 
 lour raised himself to the first offices of the state. 
 In the rcij!;n of the emperor Gallus he was go- 
 vernor of Pannonia and Moesia, and with great 
 vigour opposed the barbarous nations dwelling 
 on the banks of the Danube, who broke into his 
 province. After a successful battle, in which he 
 animated his soldiers by distributing among 
 them the money colletSled for tribute to the bar- 
 barians, he was proclaimed emperor on the field, 
 B. C. 253. He immediately marched against 
 Gallus, who was indulging in the pleasures of 
 Italy. The emperor assembled an army, and met 
 his rival at Interamni ; where the imperial troops, 
 despising their leader, put him to death with his 
 son Volusianus, and concurred witli the opposite 
 army in acknowledging ^milianus. The se- 
 nate confirmed the choice ; and the new empe- 
 ror wrote a letter to this body, in which he pro- 
 mised to expel all the invaders of the empire, 
 and to prove himself a worthy lieutenant of the 
 republic ; and medals are extant, anticipating this 
 success, and representing him under the charac- 
 ters of Mars and Hercules. Meantime Valerian 
 was advancing against him wid) the legions of 
 Gaul and Germany. On his arrival at Spole- 
 tura, in presence of the troops of ^milianus, 
 exactly the same event took place as when the 
 latter met Gallus ; and ^milianus was killed by 
 his own soldiers, who joined in placing the crown 
 on the head of Valerian. This happened in his 
 46th year, after he had reigned less than four 
 months. Uiiivers. Hist. Gibbon. — A. 
 
 yEMILlUS, PAULUs,surnaniedy^/fliWo«.'f«j', 
 an illustrious Roman general, was the son of 
 Paulus ./Emilius, the consul, who fell at Cannai, 
 and was born about the year of Rome 526, 
 B. C. 228. Being of a patrician family, with 
 a portion of the high spirit which accompanied 
 that class, he did not stoop to court popular fa- 
 vour, but was content to owe his elevation to his 
 virtues. So high was his reputation in early 
 
 youth, that lie carried his election for the edilc. 
 .ship against twelve competitors, who arc all said 
 afterwards to have become consuls. When created 
 augur, he devoted himself with unusual care to 
 the study of that ceremonial and political office> 
 and was extremely punctual in the performance 
 of every rite enjoined by the religion of his coun- 
 try. Nor was he less exact in promoting the ri- 
 gorous observance of the military discipline by 
 which Rome had become viiflorious. His first 
 command in the army was in Spain, whither he 
 was sent as praetor in the war witli Antiochus, to 
 quell a general revolt of the subject nations. \\\ 
 this he perfectly succeeded, and left the province 
 entirelv pacified and restored to the dominion of 
 Rome. He returned not a drachma richer than he 
 went out, and lived, as before, upon his own mo- 
 derate estate, which all his public successes never 
 augmented. He had married Papiria, the daughter 
 of Papirius Maso ; and in the course of an union 
 of soine years she had borne him several children. 
 But upon some unknown disgust he divorced her, 
 and took another wife. His two sons by Papi- 
 ria were adopted into two of the noblest families 
 of Rome, that of Fabius Maximus, and Scipio 
 Africanus. 
 
 He was first created consul, B. C. 182. The 
 next year he was sent against the Ligurians, 
 called Ingauni. With a small comparative ar- 
 my he defeated their numerous forces ; and, after 
 obliging them to deliver up their towns and ships, 
 dimantled the former, and carried ofFall the lat- 
 ter, except some of tlie smaller vessels. On his 
 return he lived chiefly in privacy, attending to his 
 duties as augur, and presiding over the education 
 of his children ; for whose instruction he en- 
 gaged masters of all kinds, qualified to teach not 
 only the branches most esteemed in Rome, but 
 the politer arts of Greece, sculpture and paint- 
 ing. When at leisure, he himself was present 
 at their studies and exercises ; and exhibited him- 
 self in the amiable light of a most indulgent anti 
 affectionate parent. He stood candidate once 
 again for the consulship, but meeting with a re- 
 pulse, he solicited it no more. It was not till 
 about his 60th year that the voice of liis country 
 called upon Jiim to resume his public services. 
 Tlie Romans were engaged in a war with Pcr- 
 ses king of Macedon ; and, though they could 
 not regard him as a very formidable foe, yet the 
 arts by which he protracted the decision, and the 
 little success the leaders of the republic had ob- 
 tained against hiin, irritated the minds of the 
 people, and made them resolve to lay aside all 
 party considerations, and bestow the command 
 on one worthy of their confidence. By daily soli- 
 citations, they almost compelled Paulus .^milius
 
 JE M I 
 
 ( 67 ) 
 
 JE MI 
 
 to appear in theCampiisMartJusasacanJidatefor 
 tlie consulship. He was elected with universal con- 
 currence, and the province of Maccdon was de- 
 creed him, as Plutarch says, without the usual re- 
 ference to lot. This was B. C. 168. He imme- 
 diately proceeded to the camp in Macedonia, 
 where his first care was to restore strict disci- 
 pline, and show the soldiers his resolution of be- 
 ing implicitly obeyed. By skilful manoeuvres he 
 forced Perses to abandon a strong fortified posi- 
 tion which he occupied, and retreat 10 Pydna. 
 .^milius followed him, and Perses found him- 
 self necessitated to put every thing to the hazard 
 of a a;eneral engagement. The conflict was 
 for some time dubious, and the Macedonian 
 phalan.x presented a formidable front to the le- 
 gionaries. At length it was broken, and a total 
 rout ensued, witli great carnage. The loss of 
 the Romans was very moderate. iEmilius was 
 for some time rendered unhappy in the hour of 
 victory by fears for the safety of his favouiiteson 
 Scipio, then a youth of seventeen, whose ar- 
 dour had carried him to a distance in the pur- 
 suit. He was sought by his friends with the 
 greatest anxiety, and a profound melancholy 
 reigned through the whole army, till, when al- 
 most given up, he returned all bloody, with 
 two or three companions, and filled his father 
 with joy. This was afterwards the conqueror 
 of Carthage. Perses fled from place to place, 
 till the isle of Samothrace afforded him an asy- 
 lum. All Macedonia submitted to the con- 
 queror, who preserved the cities from pillage, 
 and secured the royal treasures for the Roman 
 state. Perses, after an unsuccessful attempt to 
 f scape to Crete, surrendered himself to the Ro- 
 iTinn admiral, and was sent to the camp. The 
 consul received him with humanity, though 
 not without the indignant emotions that the base- 
 ness of his character was fitted to excite; and 
 moralised on his fate to those around him like a 
 wise man and a philosopher. He committed 
 hitn to custody ; and then took a progress through 
 Greece, making such changes in the govern- 
 ments as he thought advisable. He returned to 
 meet the ten consular legates sent from Rome to 
 settle the affairs of Macedon ; and joined with 
 them in the new division of the country, and the 
 total alteration of its government. He proceeded 
 to Amphipolis, where, after regulating the re- 
 maining affairs of Greece, and capitally con- 
 demning Andronicus the j^tolian, and Neo the 
 Boeotian, for their unshaken attachment to Per- 
 ses (an act of more rigour than justice), he cele- 
 brated games with the utmost magnificence. 
 One scene in the exhibition was the conflagra- 
 tion of all the arms of the Macedonians in one 
 
 pile, to which the consul himself, after a solemn 
 invocation of the gods, set fire with a torch. It 
 was thus that the Romans mingled appeals to 
 religion with the most unjustifiable proceedings 
 of their ambition ; nor can it be doubled that 
 such men as ^Emilius were themselves deceived 
 by the combination. Hence he went into Epi- 
 rus to ex-'cute a most severe decree of the se- 
 nate, which he is said to have read with tears, 
 though he could not refuse to obey it. It 
 granted to the Roman army tlie pillage of all 
 that part of this country which liad adhered to 
 Perses. ^milius distriijuted his troops in small 
 bodies through the towns, under pretext of giv- 
 ing them liberty ; when, having ordered the ten 
 chiefs of the state to bring into his camp all the 
 gold and silver they could find, for the public, 
 treasury, he gave permission on a certain day and 
 hour for the soldiers to make booty of all the rest 
 of the property of the poor inhabitants, of whom 
 one hundred and fifty thousand were made slaves, 
 and sold for the benefit of the republic. 
 
 .^milius then proceeded to Italy, carrying 
 with him the captive kings, Perses, and Gentius, 
 king of lllyria, his ally. He sailed up the Ti- 
 ber in the royal galley magnificently adorned ; 
 and, on arriving at Rome, demanded his tri- 
 umph. By the machinations of Servius Galba, 
 a tribune who had served under him, the sol- 
 diery were worked up to such a resentment 
 against their general for his strictness of disci- 
 pline, and the sums he had diverted from them 
 to the treasury, that the first tribe gave their 
 vote against his triumph. All the better part of 
 Rome, however, both senate and people, ex- 
 claiming against this scandal, and using their 
 utmost efforts to efface it, the triumph was at 
 last unanimously decreed. It was one of the 
 most splendid spectacles Rome had beheld, and 
 lasted three days. The gold and silver carried 
 in the show amounted to so vast a sum, that it 
 freed the people from all taxes for one hundred 
 and twenty-five years. Perses and his family, 
 led as captives, added, in a Roman eye, to die 
 grandeur of the scene, though even Roman 
 hearts were affected with sorrow at the exam- 
 ple thev afforded of human change and wretched- 
 ness. But die consul himself was an instance 
 equally striking. Of his two sons by his se- 
 cond \\ ife, whom he designed to represent his 
 own family, one, at the age of fourteen, died 
 five days before the trium])h ; the other, aged 
 twelve, three days after it. In a speech he made 
 to the Roman people on the occasion, ^milius, 
 adopting the notion of the ancients, that in tlie 
 midst of prosperity ill fortune is ever on the 
 watch for a victim, nobly expressed his hope that
 
 ALN E 
 
 ( 68 ) 
 
 iE N E 
 
 this '.Iroke of adversity whiili luiJ fulK-n on 
 himself, would prove- a security to tlic liappincss 
 of his country, " Now (said he) the man who 
 triumphed, and he who was led in chains, are 
 on a par ; but the children of Perses arc living ; 
 those of ^niilius are no more !" 
 
 Four years afterwards, ^milius bore the 
 weighty office of censor, conferred upon him 
 by the people without solicitation. He acted in 
 it with lenity, and in harmony with his col- 
 league, Miircius Pliilippus. At tlie expiration 
 of It he fell into a lingering illness, for which he 
 went to the sca-siilc, and passed some time in 
 perfect retirement. At length, his presence 
 being required at a solemn sacrifice, he returned 
 to R(!me, apparently much recovered, amid the 
 congratulations of the whole Roman people. 
 But on the completion of tiic rites, he fell into a 
 delirium, and dial within three days, B. C. 164, 
 in the sixtv-fourth year of his age. At his fu- 
 neral, which was conducted with extraordinary 
 solemnity, an honourable testimony was paid to 
 his humanity and integrity by such of the na- 
 tives of tlie countries he had conquered as were 
 at that time in Rome, who einulously assisted in 
 carrying his bier, and joining in the procession 
 with tears and praises. He left behind him a very 
 moderatesum, the savings of his private fortune ; 
 and perhaps no man ever enriched his country 
 more and himself less. His character was that 
 of a genuine Roman, formed in the best mould; 
 adorned with letters, and humanised by philoso- 
 phy. Asa military man, he may be estimated 
 by the maxim he delivered to his son Scipio : 
 " A good general never gives battle but when 
 led to it by absolute necessity, or by a verv fa- 
 vourable opportunity." Plutarch. Univ. Hiji. 
 
 /ENEAS, one of the semi-fabulous persona- 
 ges of Trojan story, is represented as the son of 
 Anchises, a Dardan prince, related to Priam, 
 and of the goddess Venus. He was one of the 
 auxiliaries of Troy durin,^ its long siege. In 
 the Iliad, ^neas makes a respectable, but a se- 
 condary figure : tlie circumstance of his being 
 the hero of Virgil's epic muse, and the supposed 
 founder of the Roman state, has given him his 
 great celebrity. There is an almost universal 
 agreement among writers, that, after the capture 
 of Troy, ^neas made a convention with the 
 Greeks, and wns suffered to depart, with his 
 fiiends and followers. His famed piety, in car- 
 rying through the flames his aged father, with 
 his penates on his shoulders, together with the 
 loss of his wife Creusa amid the confusion and 
 terror of the night, are perhaps tlie additions of 
 jpoetical hction. Whither he went after this 
 
 catastrophe, has been a subject of warm contro- 
 versy. The best historical proof seems to be on 
 the side of his settling in Phrygia ; but the poe~ 
 ttcal and national tale of his proceeding in quest 
 of Italy, and fixing on the banks of the Tiber, 
 has obtained greater popularity. Pursuing this, 
 in its most credible form, it is enough to say, 
 that, after long wanderings, and the various ha- 
 zardous adventures that attended an expedition 
 by sea during those times, he sailed with the re- 
 lics of his fleet up the Tiber, and partly by force 
 of arms, partly by agreement, gained an esta- 
 blishment among the rude tribes then inhabiting 
 the country. He was soon involved in wars, 
 and had to contend with a formidable foe in the 
 gallant Turnus, contracted to Lavinia the daugh- 
 ter of king Latinus ; which union the arrival of 
 jEneas was likely to prevent. Turnus was 
 slain in battle. Lavinia became a prize to the 
 foreign conqueror, who, by the death of his fa- 
 ther-in-law, succeeded to the throne of Latium. 
 After a short reign in peace, a new war with 
 the Tyrrhenians, under their king Mezentius, 
 broke out, which proved fatal to jEueas, who, 
 during a combat, was forced into the river Nu- 
 micus, and there drowned. He was succeeded 
 by his son Ascanius or lulus ; and, became 
 himself, one of the Dii Indigetes of the coun- 
 try. The story of the loves of Dido and ^neas, 
 which forms so interesting a part of the ^neid, 
 is allowed to be a mere poetical ornament, 
 brought in by a violent anachronism. VirgWs 
 jEneld. Heyne s Excurfus in jEn. Bayle. — A. 
 
 ^NEAS GAZtEUS, a Platonic philoso- 
 pher, who lived towards the close of the fifth 
 century, was by birth a pagan, and by profes- 
 sion a sophist, or teacher of rhetoric. In the 
 early part of his life he was a disciple of Hiero- 
 cles, but was afterwards converted to Christia- 
 nity. He is chiefly known as the author of a 
 dialogue entitled, '" Theophrastus," in which 
 are maintained the doctrines of the immortality 
 of the soul, and the resurrection of the body. 
 The author, though writing professedly against 
 Plato, confounds the doctrines of Platonism and 
 Christianity. An edition of this work was pub- 
 lished in 4to. by Bovver, at Leipsic, 1655. Fa- 
 bric. Blbi Grac. lib. ii. c. 10. § 29. Brucker, 
 lib. vi. c. 3. — E. 
 
 ^NEAS Sylvius. See Pius II. 
 
 ^NEAS, Tacticus, was an ancient Greek 
 writer on the military art. He probably flou- 
 rished about 300 years before Christ : for it ap- 
 pears from the Tactics of ^lian, that Cineas, 
 a Thessalian, sent embassador from Pyrrhus to 
 Rome in the 125th Olympiad, wrote an epi- 
 tomp of his works. Casaubon annexed this
 
 JE S C 
 
 ( 69 ) 
 
 JE S C 
 
 piece, with a Latin translation, to his edition 
 of Polybius, printed in folio, at Paris, in 1609. 
 The work was republished by Scriverius, in 
 I2mo. at Lcyden, in 1633, together with Ve- 
 getius, Frontinus, and yElian on Military Af- 
 fairs. Fabric. Bibl. Gra^c. lib. iii. c. 30. § 9. 
 — E. 
 
 AERIUS, a presbyter, and monk, of the 
 fourth century, a native of Pontus, or lesser 
 Armenia, was the founder of a Christian sect. 
 In the leading disputes of tlie times concerning 
 the person of Christ, he was a follower of Ari- 
 us. About t!)e year 3^5, he was an unsuccess- 
 ful competitor against Eustathius for tlie bishop- 
 ric of Sebaste in Armenia. It has been con- 
 jectured, that this disappointment induced him 
 to separate himself from the body of Christians 
 to which he belonged : it is only certain, that 
 he did erect a new sect, and had many follow- 
 ers, who, from their founder, were called Ae- 
 rians. Augustine, who wrote his book of 
 Heresies in the year 428, speaks of the Aerians 
 as then numerous in Pamphylia. 1 he leading 
 tenet professed by Aerius was, that bishops arc 
 not distinguished from presbyters by any divine 
 right, but that, according to the institution of 
 the New Testament, their offices and authority 
 are the same. Those who are acquainted with 
 the overbearing arrogance which many of the 
 bishops of this period had shown, will not be 
 surprised that such an opinion should become 
 popular. Aerius also taught, that no offerings 
 ought to be made for the dead, and denied the 
 necessity of observing stated fasts, or celebrat- 
 ing Easter. If, as Epiphanius intimates, these 
 opinions were adopted from an apprehension 
 that such observances have a tendency to encou- 
 rage superstition, and to promote erroneous no- 
 tions concerning the nature of religion, Aerius 
 and his toUoweis had at least a plausible plea 
 for their separation. It appears, however, that 
 this sect gave great offence to the orthodox 
 church. Aerius and his followers were ex- 
 cluded from churches, cities, and towns, and, 
 being obliged to lead a wandering life, suffered 
 great hardships. Epiphan. Hcercs. 75. August. 
 de Har. c. 53. Lardner's Crcd. part ii. c. 82. 
 Mosheim, cent. iv. — E. 
 
 ./ESCHINES, a celebrated Grecian orator, 
 was born at Athens 327 years before Christ. If 
 we are to credit his own account, he was of di- 
 stinguished birth, and in his early years bore 
 arms with honour. If we believe the report of 
 Demosthenes, he was the son of a courtesan, 
 and an inferior performer in a company of co- 
 medians, from which he was dismissed with 
 disgrace. Whatever were his birth and early 
 
 foitune, he certainly possessed considerable at- 
 lents ; for he was able, in an Athenian assem- 
 bly, to support, with considerable credit and ap- 
 plause, a contest with the prince of orators, 
 Demosthenes. His orations against Philip, king 
 of Maccdon, first brought him into notice ; and 
 his eloquence soon raised him to the head of 
 one party, while Demosthenes was the leader 
 of another. The oratory on several occasions, 
 strenuously opjjosed each other, and mutual 
 jealousy and animosity were excited. Demo- 
 sthenes accused iEschines of having suffered 
 himself, on an embassy to Philip, to be cor- 
 rupted by Macedonian gold, j^schines reta- 
 liated this attack upon his reputation, by op- 
 posing the design, which, after the defeat at 
 Chseronea, the partisans of Demosthenes had 
 formed, of conferring upon him, as a token of 
 public approbation, a golden crown. Ctesiplion, 
 one of the zealous friends of Demosthenes, had 
 moved the senate to prepare a decree for this 
 purpose, and had obtained their consent to the 
 resolution. jEschines commenced a suit against 
 Ctesiphon, as the mover of a decree repugnant 
 to the laws. Before a numerous assembly of 
 judges, and citizens, .^Eschines appearetJ to 
 support his accusation, and Demosthenes to 
 defend himself. Each orator exerted to the ut- 
 most his powers of eloquence : Demosthenes, 
 who, besides the advantage of superior talents, 
 appears evidently to have had truth and justice 
 on his side, was victorious, and the vanquished 
 orator was sent into exile. At his departure, 
 Demosthenes, to show that he no longer re- 
 tained his resentment, went to him and entreat- 
 ed him to accept a present of money : ^schines, 
 impres ed with his kindness, exclaimed, " How 
 do I regret leaving a country, wiiere I have 
 found an enemy so generous, that I despair of 
 elsewhere meeting with friend-; who shall be 
 like him !" At I<hodes, the place of his exile, 
 iEschines opened a school of eloquence. He 
 began his lectures by reading to his auditors the 
 two orations which had been the cause of his 
 banishment. They bestowed great praise upon 
 his own ; but when he came to that of Demo- 
 sthenes, their applauses were redoubled ; at this 
 moment, so trying to his vanity, he generously 
 said, " What would you have thought, if you 
 had heard him thunder out the words himself?" 
 A noble speech, to come from the lips of an 
 enemy ! .^schines afterwards removed to Sa- 
 mos, where he died in the 75th year of hi; age. 
 Only three of his orations remain. His elo- 
 quence is diffuse, ornamented, and more adapted 
 to please than to move ; that of Demosthenes, 
 on the contrary, is energetic and nervous, and
 
 JE S C 
 
 ( 70 ) 
 
 M s c 
 
 nnhes upon the minJ of tlie render with the 
 Jorcc ot an irrcsisiiblc torrenr. The arations ot 
 yEschines were pubhshcd wiili those of Lysias, 
 Amlocides, Is;eus, &c. by Aldus, in folio, at 
 Venice, 151 3. and by Henry Stephens, in 1575. 
 The folio edition of tiie Orations of Demo- 
 st!iene< and ^schines, with tlie notes of Ul- 
 pian aad Wolf, published at Franckfort in 
 1604 ii very valuable. Plutarch, in Dennith. 
 SuiJas. Fabric. Bikl. Criec. lib, ii. c. 26. § 9. 
 — E. 
 
 yESCHIN'ES, an Athenian, a Socratic phi- 
 losopher, was co-tcin]iorary \\ ith Socrates, and 
 a disciple of his school. His parentage was 
 mean, and his condition low ; but his poverty 
 only ser\'cd to stimulate his exertions in the pur- 
 suit of knowledge. When he presented him- 
 self to Socrates, he said, I am poor, and have 
 notiiing to give you but myself. Socrates ac- 
 cepted the present, and found it valuable ; tor 
 y9£schincs proved one of his most attentive and 
 faithful disciples. After passing many years in 
 Athens in a state of poverty, he was induced, 
 by the example of Plato, Aristippus, and others, 
 who were at that time courting the favour of 
 ])ionvsius die king of Sicily, to put himself un- 
 der the patronage of that prince. Whether 
 Plato or Aristippus introduced him to Diony- 
 .sius, is uncertain : for, though Plutarch asserts 
 that Plato took the opportunity of the arrival of 
 ./Eschines to regain the fa-vour of the tyrant 
 whom he had displeased, and even relates the 
 ronversation which passed on his introduction, 
 Diogenes Laertius says, that .^schines was 
 sliglued by Plato on account of his poverty, and 
 that he was presented to Dlonysius by Aristip- 
 pu". However this was, it appears certain tliat 
 vEschines met vi-ith a favourable reception. He 
 presented to the tyrant, who had at least the 
 merit of being the patron of philosophers, his 
 Socratic Dialogues, for which he received a li- 
 beral reward. He continued in Syracuse till 
 Dionysius was deposed ; after which he return- 
 ed to Athens, and taught philosophy in private 
 for a pecuniary gratuity, not presuming to open 
 a public school as the rival of Plato or Aristip- 
 pus. Of his Socratic Dialogues only three are 
 extant : they are on the inoral topics of Virtue, 
 Riches, t!ie Fear of Death, and are written with 
 great simplicity of sentiment and style. A frag- 
 ment of a fourth, on the Duties of the State of 
 IVIarriage, will be found in Cicero " De Inven- 
 tione Rhetorica," lib. i. c. 31. An edition of 
 these dialogues, with a Latin translation, and 
 valuable notes, was presented to the public by 
 Le Clerc ; it was printed in 8vo. at Amsterdam 
 in 1711. Diog. Laert. Brucker. H'ljl. PhiL 
 
 lib. ii. c. 4. Ftihric. Bib. Grtsc. lib. ii. c. 2 J. 
 
 § 3'— E- 
 
 JiSCHYLUS, an Athenian, the father of 
 
 regular tragedy among the Greeks, was born, 
 according to the best authorities, about the end 
 of the lixt^'-thir<i Olympiad, B. C. 461. He 
 was of a respectable family ; and, with his two 
 brothers, distinguished himself at the battles of 
 Marathon, of Salamis, and of Plataa. His 
 mind was early elevated by an enthusiastic 
 fondness for the poems of Homer ; and before 
 his twenty-fifth year he composed pieces for 
 |)ublic representation. The stage was as yet 
 in a very rude state. He undertoook its im- 
 provement ; and to its external decorations add- 
 ed the actor's mask, flowing robe, and buskins, 
 and a stage or platform instead of a cart. He 
 also changed the language of the drama from 
 the burlesque to the lofty and serious ; and made 
 the essential addition of dialogue, and action, 
 properly so called. He retrenched the chorus, 
 and gave it a connexion w ith the subject of the 
 piece. His fertility was such that he wrote about 
 seventy tragedies, of which twenty-eight gained 
 the prize. In some of them, certain free senti- 
 ments concerning religion are said to have given 
 such disgust to the Athenians, that he was con- 
 demned for impiety, and would have suffered 
 capitally, had not one of his brothers interceded 
 for him, and exhibited to the people his own 
 arm maimed by the loss of its hand at the battle 
 of SalaiTiis. Whether in resentment for this 
 usage, or, as some assert, on account of the 
 prize being awarded against him to Sophocles 
 at a public soleinnity, in which the latter pro- 
 duced his first performance, ^schylus quitted 
 his native country, and retired to the court of 
 Hiero, king of Syracuse, where he soon after 
 died, at the age of sixty-nine. A story of his 
 being killed by an eagle which let fall a tor- 
 toise upon his bald head is probably an idle fa- 
 ble. The jicople of Gela raised a tomb to his 
 memory, with an honourable inscription, in 
 which, however, his military renown is tlie 
 only topic of praise. 
 
 Tlie character which the dramas of ^schy-i 
 lus bore in ancient times, and which a judicious 
 and unprejudiced critic will now give of them^ 
 from such a have reached us, is that of force, 
 grandeur, and sublimity, often ascending to 
 heights which scarcely any other writer has at- 
 tained, yet often lost in tumid obscurity. His 
 leading ;^:rsonagcs are usually well sustained, 
 but his plots are 1 r, ie and unartful, and the dia- 
 logue frcquentl ' . ants interest. His stvle was 
 of old said to savour of the wine whicli iic ioved 
 to indulge in. It is observed, that women arc
 
 ^ s o 
 
 ( 7' ) 
 
 ^ s o 
 
 rerer represented in his plays as under the in- 
 lluciice ot' the tender passion, but often trans- 
 ported by rage and tury. Yet, with all his turn 
 tor the terrific, he is said to have wrought the 
 retonnation of excluding scenes of slaughter 
 from the eyes of the spectators. His pieces re- 
 tained their reputation long after his death, and 
 were received with applause, when duly cor- 
 rected, by his polished countrymen ; thus justi- 
 fying his appeal to posteiity at the time ot his 
 defeat. Yet he is in general allowed only the 
 third place in the triumvirate of Greek trage- 
 dians. The extreme difficulty of his pieces has 
 rendered them rather objects of critical sagacity, 
 than of general reading, even among classical 
 scholars. Seven plays remain, ot which various 
 editions have been made. 'l"he most esteemed 
 are those of Stanley and Pauw, but much is still 
 wanting to their perfect elucidation. A very 
 ^of/iVa/ translation of them in English has been 
 given by archdeacon Potter. Fossius de Poet. 
 Gra^c. Bayle.—A. 
 
 I JESOVj a celebrated ancient fabulist, was 
 probably born in Phrygia about 600 years be- 
 fore Christ. The particulars of his life are un- 
 certain, and many stories are related concerning 
 him, which are entitled to no credit. Herodo- 
 tus speaks of idle stories, which had, even in his 
 time, been circulated concerning ^sop. Pla- 
 nudcs, an eastern monk, in the fourteenth cen- 
 tury, wrote a lifeof^sop, which, on account of 
 its gross chronological errors, and its palpable 
 absurdities, is universally rejected as altogether 
 unworthy of credit. Even the account which 
 Plutarch gives of this famous fabulist, in his 
 conversation of the seven wise men of Greece, 
 is probably nothing more than a collection of 
 traditionary tales. The circumstances which 
 seem most deserving of credit, are, that he was 
 
 - sold as a sla-e to Demarclius an Atlienian, 
 with whom he of course acquired the know- 
 ledge of the Greek language ; that he after- 
 wards passed into the possession of Xanthus of 
 Samos, and ot Idmon in the same island ; that, 
 during the latter servitude, Rhodopis, who after- 
 wards became so famous, was Jiis fellow-slave ;. 
 and that, having obtained his freedom through 
 the kindness of Idmon, who admired his talents, 
 lie tiavelled in Greece and Asia Minor, teach- 
 ing moral \\ isdom by fables. The accounts of 
 his conversations with Solon, Croesus, Pisistra- 
 tus, and other great men, have too fabulous an 
 air to merit particular recital. He is said to 
 have been put to death at Delphos, in conse- 
 quence of the freedom with which he censured 
 the manners of the inhabitants. Eusebius places 
 the death of JEsop 561 years before Christ. 
 
 His personal deformity, wliich has almost be- 
 come proverbial, rests wholly upon the legen- 
 dary memoirs of Planudcs. Great respect was 
 paid to his memory after his death, and his fa- 
 bles were univei sally admired. Socrates amused 
 himself in prison by turning some of them into 
 verse. (Plutarch, de audiend. Poet. Platon. 
 PJiado.) Plato, when he banished the poetical 
 fictions of Hesiod and Homer iVom his common- 
 wealth, permitted such fables as those of ^sop 
 to remain. (Plat. Rep. lib. ii.) The Athenians 
 had such high respect for the memory of this 
 moral teacher, that they erected a statue to his 
 memory. (Phsedr. Fab. lib. ii. f. 10.) How 
 far the present collection of fable-;, which passes 
 under the name of iEsop, was really written by 
 him, is uncertain, no confidence being due to the 
 collector Planudes. Bayle has observed concein- 
 ing the original Greek, that Henry Stephens,, 
 in his " Thesaurus Lingux Grascse," never 
 cites ^sop's fables, doubtless because he took 
 them for the work of a modern Greek. It has- 
 been also remarked, that in one of these fables 
 the Piraeus is mentioned, which was not built 
 till the time of Themistoclcs, long after the 
 death of ^sop. The truth probably is, that 
 the collector of these fables took the stories 
 from various sources, and expressed thein in 
 his own language. Perhaps the genuine fables 
 of ^sop may be best found in the former part^ 
 of those of Phsdrus, who thus introduces his- 
 fables : 
 
 jT^HOpus auctor quani maleriain rcpperit, 
 ^ Hiinc ego polivi verstbus sen^iriis. 
 
 Mine is the task, in easy verfe, 
 The tales of .ffisop to rehearse; 
 
 After all, however, the question is of little 
 consequence: nor is it of niudi importance to 
 determine, whether ^;,op, or, as t^)uintiliaii. 
 thought, (Instit. lib. i. c. 9.) Hesicxl, or whe- 
 ther some writer of still higher antiquity, was' 
 the inventor of this species ot writing. ^V e 
 are in possession of a valuable treasure in this 
 collection of fables, which, under the name of 
 ^sop, has, for so many ages, afforded instruc- 
 tion and amusement to children ; and, though 
 respect is due to the memory of the inventor,, 
 who so happily united the pleasing and the 
 useful — 
 
 Onine lulil punctuni, ciui niiscuil utile dulci, 
 LcclotCiii dekctandu, pMiterque monendo — 
 
 HOR. 
 
 our chief concern is, not to lose, through an af- 
 fectation of refinement, the benefit of these sim-
 
 JE S O 
 
 ( 72 ) 
 
 A E T 
 
 pV productions of ancient gcniu';. It is no va- 
 lid objection against this kind of fables that 
 thcv teach children to suppose that birds and 
 beasts can speak ; for perhaps no child was ever 
 foolish enough to think so. If, by associating 
 moral truths with an impressive image, they 
 serve to fix lessons of wisdom iipon the minds of 
 children, better than can be done by simple pre- 
 cept, thev answer a valuat>le purpose: and this 
 is the value which Quintilian ascribes to ^sop's 
 fcibles, which are, he ob-^erves, particularly cal- 
 culated "to interest the unlearned peasant, who, 
 charmed with the simple fiction, will yield a 
 ready assent to that with which lie is delighted." 
 f Ducere animos solent, pracipue rusticorum ct 
 imperitorum, qui et simpliciu>i qua ficta sunt 
 audiunt, et, capti voliiptate, facile iis quibus de- 
 kctantur conscntiunc]. (Quint. Instit. lib. v. 
 c. 1 1. Vid. Aul. Gell. Nocr. Ait. lib. ii. c. 29.) 
 
 The fables, published by Plunudes as ^sop's, 
 were printed at Milan in 1480, and afterwards 
 by Aldus in 1508, by R. Stephens, in 8vo. at 
 Paris, in 1545, and, with large additions, at 
 Franckfort, in 1610. Herodnt. lib. ii. Plut. 
 Conv. Sap. et Vk. Solonis. Phisdr. Fab. Fabric. 
 Bibl. Grac. lib. ii. c. 9. Bay/e. Life of M sop 
 prefixed to Dodsley^s Select Fables. — E. 
 
 .(tSOPUS, Clodius, a famous Roman 
 actor, flourished in the seventh century of 
 Rome, contemporary with Cicero, to whom he 
 gave instructions on the art of actioru His 
 excellence was in tragedy. Horace calls him 
 gravis, weighty or dignified, and represents 
 him, and Roscius, as performers in the pieces 
 .of the early Roman dramatic writers. 
 
 Quz sea vis J&to^m, quz doctus RoGcius, e^'U. 
 
 Epist. ii. 1. 
 
 He entered so thoroughly into the spirit 
 of his parts, that he is said by Plutarch, when 
 once personating Atreus, to have been so trans- 
 ported with fury, as to strike a servant with his 
 sceptre and kill him. He was much addicted to 
 hixury ; and Pliny the elder speaks ef a single 
 dish served up at his table at the cost of about eight 
 hundred pounds sterling, consisting of singing 
 and talking birds. Notwithstanding this wan- 
 ton profusion, such were the gains of the pro- 
 fession at that time, that he left a large fortune 
 to his son, who surpassed him in expense of the 
 same kind ; for he not only treated his guests 
 with singing birds, but, as Horace records, dis- 
 solved in vinegar a precious pearl taken from a 
 lady's car, and drank it ofF. At the dedication 
 of Pompey's theatre, A. R. 698, ^sopus at- 
 tempting to entertain the spectators as usual, 
 was obliged to stop sliort in a sentence through 
 
 the failure of his voice ; whence it is probable 
 he was then in the decline of life. Bayle. — A. 
 
 AETIUS, count of tlie empire, and a cele- 
 brated general in the reign of Valentinian IIF. 
 was born at Dorosterum in Moesia. His father 
 was Gaudentius, a Scythian by birth, but who 
 had risen to the dignity of master of the cavalry, 
 and married an Italian lady ot rank and fortune. 
 Aetius was from his infancy enrolled among the 
 emperor's household troop*:, and, after the battle 
 of Pollentia, in 403, was given as a hostage, 
 first to Alaric, afterwards to the Huns, with 
 whose chiefs he by that means contracted an 
 intimacy. He had a fine figure, and robust 
 constitution, excelled in all martial exercises, 
 and was fitted for enduring all the hardships of 
 war. In character he was intrepid, prudent, and 
 sagacious. On his return from the country of 
 the Huns, he married the daughter of Carpilio, 
 captain of the guards, and soon rose to high 
 trust in tlie empire. He was joined with count 
 Boniface in the defence of Marseilles against 
 Ataulphus. On the death of the emperor Ho- 
 norius, he took part with the usurper John, and 
 was sent by him to hire an army of Huns for 
 his service. Three days after the death of John, 
 Aetius entered Italy with 60,000 Huns, and 
 being met by Aspar, a bloody but indecisive 
 engagement ensued. Aetius, however, thought 
 it best to make terms for himself with Placidia, 
 the mother of Valentinian, wiio received him to 
 favour, and gave him the title of count; upon 
 which he prevailed on the Huns to march back 
 after obtaining for their services the province of 
 Pannonia. 
 
 Soon after, being jealous of the power of 
 count Boniface, he persuaded Placidia to recal 
 him from his government of Africa, and at the 
 same time secretly warned him, as a friend, not 
 to obey. By this treachery he drove Boniface 
 into a revolt, which was the .fatal cause of the 
 entrance of the Vandals into that province. 
 The fraud of Aetius being at length discovered, 
 a civil war ensued between him and Boniface, 
 and the latter died of a wound he received in 
 battle. Aetius, however, was forced to retire to 
 the court of Rugilas, king of the Huns, in Pan- 
 nonia. Hence he returned at the head of a large 
 army, which so awed Placidia, that she was 
 compelled not only to pardon him, but to raise 
 him to the rank of patrician, and in effect to 
 put herself, her son, and the whole western em- 
 pire into his hands. He was thrice invested 
 with the consular dignity ; assumed the title of 
 master of the cavalry and infantry, and with it 
 possessed the whole military power of the state. 
 
 In this situation, the talents and activity of 
 Aetius were the great defence of the falling em-
 
 A E T 
 
 ( 73 ) 
 
 A E T 
 
 pire. He concludeil a treaty with Genseric, 
 which averted the Vandals from the pkindcr of 
 Italy. He restored the authority of the empire 
 in Spain and Gaul; and compelled the Franks 
 and Suevi, after vanquishing them in the field, to 
 become useful allies. The Britons addressed to 
 Iiim their expressive Groans on the miseries they 
 endured from the attacks of the Picts and Scots; 
 but the circumstances of the empire would not 
 permit him to send them relief. He settled two 
 colonies of Huns and Alans in Gaul, and em- 
 ployed diem in the defence of the passages of 
 the Rhone and Loire. Theodoric, king of the 
 Goths, .settled in Aquitain, made an inroad into 
 Gaul, and besieged Narbonne, where he was 
 defeated in battle by Aetius ; and when count 
 Litorius was afterwards overthrown and taken 
 prisoner at Toulouse, the presence of Aetius 
 Stopped the progress of the victorious Theodo- 
 ric, with whom, however, he thought it expe- 
 dient to make a treaty. 
 
 In the year 451 the dreaded Attila, with a 
 prodigious army of Huns and other northern 
 barbarians, invaded Gaul ; and after taking and 
 laying waste a number of cities, laid siege to 
 Orleans. Aetius advanced from Italy to its re- 
 lief, and engaged Theodoric to join him. Atti- 
 }a's troops had entered the suburbs, when the 
 confederate armies came in sight, and obliged 
 them to make a hasty retreat, in which tliey 
 sustained considerable loss. Soon after, Aetius 
 and Theodoric came up with the retreating 
 host of Attila on the plains of Chalons, when 
 one of the most bloody battles recorded in his- 
 tory ensued, in which Theodoric was slain ; 
 but the consequences proved the advantage to 
 be on the side of the Romans and Goths, since 
 Attila declined another engagement, and con- 
 tinued his retreat. By the persuasion of Aetius, 
 who did not wish to destroy the Huns, and 
 leave the empire at the mercy of the Goths, 
 Torrismond, the son of Theodoric, retired to 
 his own country ; as did likewise another ally, 
 Meroveus, king of the Franks. Attila slowly 
 moved to the Rhine without further molesta- 
 tion. In the next year he made an irruption 
 into Italy, spreading devastation and terror 
 wherever he came. Aetius was not able to 
 meet him in the field ; but assembling all the 
 troops he could collect, he harassed and re- 
 tarded the march of Attila, who made a truce 
 with the emperor, and retired. 
 
 At length the great influence of Aetius at 
 court began to totter. An eunuch, named He- 
 raclius, having obtained an ascendancy over the 
 weak Valcntinian, infused suspicions into his 
 tjiind of the patrician's designs on the throne, 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 and of his correspondence witli tlic barbarians. 
 He himself aggravated them by a haughtiness 
 of demeanour, and by pressing too warmly the 
 promised marriage of^ his son Gaudentius with 
 the emperor's daughter. Aetius was summoned 
 on a false pretence to the palace, and being ad- 
 mitted into the emperor's apartment, Valcnti- 
 nian stabbed him with his own hand, and his 
 officers and eunuchs finished the murder by a 
 multitude of wounds. At the same time, Boetius 
 the praetorian prsefect, and the other principal 
 friends of Aetius, were separately assassinated. 
 This happened in 454, when Aetius was consul. 
 The bloody and treacherous deed was regarded 
 with detestation both by subjects and strangers ; 
 and a Roman, whose opinion Valentinian ask- 
 ed concerning it, honestly replied, " I know 
 not, sir, upon what ground you have dione this ; 
 I only know that you have cut ofF your right 
 hand with your left." Univers. Hisl, GiM'Ofi. 
 —A. 
 
 AETIUS, a Christian divine, a native of 
 Antioch, and a bishop of that city, in the fourth 
 century, followed the doctrine of Arius, and, 
 advancing further than his master in opinion.^ 
 deemed by the prevailing party heretical, was 
 .surnamed the athei t. In his youth, his poverty 
 obliged him to procure a subsistence by manu;il 
 labour, and he wrought in the occupation ot a. 
 goldsmith. He found means, at length ,^ to fol- 
 low his inclination for learning, and became a 
 student in one of the schools at Alexandria. 
 Here he acquired a knowledge of the inedical 
 art, which he afterwards practised with credit. 
 Theology became his favourite study ; and after 
 reading the scriptures with several learned theo- 
 logians, he assumed the clerical character, pro- 
 bably about the year 359. He is censured for 
 not having acquainted himself more fully with 
 the Christian writers, and charged with not 
 understanding the scriptures. The only proof 
 of this which appears, is, that he did not explain 
 the scriptures in what was called the orthodox 
 sense. Among the followers of Arius, who 
 agreed in rejecting tlie doctrine that Christ was 
 of the same substance with the father, or the. 
 homoouuon of the Nicene synod, and who were 
 at first all comprehended under the appellation 
 of Homoiousii, or believers in the similarity of 
 the nature of the son to that of the father, dif- 
 ferent opinions arose upon the question, whe- 
 ther the son was like the father. Aetius, who, 
 though stigmatised as a contentious sophist, ap- 
 pears to have been an able disputant, was of 
 opinion that there must be an infinite difference 
 between the creator and his creatures, and there- 
 fore maintained, that the son was in substance 
 
 L
 
 A E T 
 
 ( 74 ) 
 
 A F R 
 
 .ilto-othcr !iu:i:(^ ihc father. The profession of 
 f liis'joctrinc was an express violation of a hiw, 
 which h:nl l>c.-n passed by the emperor Constan- 
 tius, "that no man shoiikl say, tiiat the son of 
 G(xl was of the same suhstancc with God, or ot 
 ii ditKercnt substance, but that he was in all 
 fhinjjslikc to him that begat him." Aeiius, as 
 the author and propagator of the opinion of an 
 entire dissimilaiity between the substance of the 
 father and the son, fell untlcr t!ie penalty of tiiis 
 law, and was banished into a remote part of 
 I'liiygia. Upon the accession of Julian to the 
 empire, he was, however, recalled from exile ; 
 and he was so much esteemed by this emperor, 
 that he wrote him a letter to invite him to his 
 court, and gave him an estate near Mitylene in 
 T.csbos. fie died, probably at Constantinople, 
 about the vcar 366, and was liandsomely in- 
 terred by Eunomius and other friends, who 
 publicly espoused his doctrine. A small tract 
 of Aeftius concerning the faith is preserved, and 
 answered, by Epiphanius, Dc Hares. 76. It 
 must be lainentcd, that it should ever have been 
 thought necessary to determine abstruse points 
 of theological controversy by the authority of 
 the civil magistrate. Constantius might very 
 properly have advised the clergy not to disturb 
 thcmselve:, or the hiitv, with disputes concern- 
 ing tlie similarity of substances, of which they 
 could have no idea ; but to restrict the freedom 
 of inquiry by a law, which would subject such 
 ingenious men as Aetius to exile, for no other 
 offence than maintaining a new opinion on an 
 obscure question, was as impolitic as it was un- 
 just. Socrat. lib. ii. c. 35. Greg. Nyss. contr. 
 Eunom. lib. i. Philostorg. lib. iii. c. 15. Theo- 
 dor. Hill. Ec. lib. ii. c. 29. Fab. Har. lib. iv. 
 c. 3. Lardner's Crcd. part ii. c. 69. Gibbon's 
 Hist. c. 21. — E. 
 
 AE'riL'S, C a physician, of Amida in Me- 
 sopotamia, studied at Alexandria, and flourished 
 not earlier, according to Haller, than the begin- 
 ning of the sixth century. He was probably 
 a Christian, and appears to have had the rank 
 of Comes Obsequii. He is little known except 
 by his works, which have come down to our 
 times, written in Gicck. They are a compila- 
 tion from various authors, especially Galen, 
 whose observations and remarks he repeats as 
 il they were his own. They consist of sixteen 
 books, divided into four tctrabiblia. He begins 
 with a large enumeration of medicines, in which 
 there are many the offspring of superstition ; 
 then proceeds to some general disorders, and 
 fevers. Next, he goes through the diseases of 
 different parts of the body. These are succeeded 
 by antidotes, external remedies, and chirurgical 
 
 subjects, concluding with the diseases of women, 
 and child-birth. The collection shows little 
 judgment in choice, or method, but is a valuable 
 relic of ancient medicine, containing several 
 things not to be found elscwlierc, particularly 
 relative to ^gyi)tian pharmacy. Only the eight 
 first books have been printed in the original, but 
 tlie whole has several times been edited in the 
 Latin version. Freind, Hist, of J'Jiys, Haller, 
 Bibl. Med. Pract.—K. 
 
 AFER, DoMiTius, a celebrated orator in 
 the reigns of Tiberius and the three succeeding 
 emperors, was born at Nisines in Gaul, B. C. 
 15 or 16. He appeared with reputation at the 
 Roman bar, and was made praetor ; but being 
 ambitious of higher advancement, he complied 
 with the base spirit of the times, and took up the 
 infamous trade of delator, or accuser. He be- 
 gan with an atcick on Claudia Pulchra, Agrip- 
 pina's iriend and cousin ; ana succeeding in the 
 cause, he thereby ingratiated himself with Ti-^ 
 berius, who mortally hated Agrippina. Her 
 scjn, Quintilius Varus, was the object of his ac- 
 cusation the next year ; and finding this the 
 road to wealth and honours, he continued to fol- 
 low it to old age, though the decline of his 
 powers at last injured the faine of his former 
 eloquence. He possessed the art of flattery, aS 
 well as the talent of public speaking, a very nea 
 ccssary accomplishment to one who meant to 
 thrive under the emperors of that period. His 
 readiness in this respect was of great service to 
 him in an incident which strongly marks the 
 debasement the Romans had fallen into. Afer 
 had erected a statue to Caligula, in the inscrip- 
 tion of which it was noticed that the emperor 
 was a second time consul at the age of twenty- 
 seven. Caligula pretended to understand this as 
 a censure upon him for violating the law, and 
 pronounced in the senate a vehement oraticii 
 against Afer. The orator, affecting prodigious 
 admiration of the emperor's eloquence, declared 
 that he dreaded it more than his sovereign 
 power, and repeated great part of his speech in 
 a strain of rapture. By this management, he 
 not only gained his pardon, but was raised to 
 the consulate. He died under the reign of Ne- 
 ro, A. D. 59, as is said, at table, after eating to 
 excess. Of the character of his eloquence, Qiiin- 
 tilian, who in his youth was a frequent attendant 
 upon him, gives a particular account. It was 
 full of variety and art, and worthy of being 
 compared with that of the most famous oratc^s 
 in the golden age of Rome. He often inter- 
 mixed pleasant stories, and strokes of wit 1 
 his pleadings ; and collections were made of j 
 jests. Afer wrote two books on oratoiv
 
 A G A 
 
 ( 75 ) 
 
 A C A 
 
 Quintiliaii speaks with much feeling of the 
 ridicule he incurred by continuing to plead 
 after his faculties were impaired. Tacitl jinn. 
 QtiintiHan. Bayle. — A. 
 
 AFRANIUS, L. a Latin comic poet, flou- 
 rished about a century B. C. He is said by 
 Cicero to have imitated C. Titius, and is com- 
 mended by him for the acuteness of his genius, 
 and fluency of his style. Horace mentions him 
 as an imitator of Menander. Quintilian cele- 
 brates his talents for comedy, but laments that 
 he sullied his pieces by impure and unnatural 
 love-adventures, declaratory of his own man- 
 ners. A story is told by Suetonius, in his Lite 
 of Nero, of the acting of a comedy of Afranius, 
 called the "Conflagration," in which the pil- 
 lage of the house burned was given to the 
 actors. None of this author's works remain. 
 Vosslus de Poet. Lat. Aforeri. — A. 
 
 AFRICANUS, Julius, an eminent chro- 
 nologer, flourished at the beginning of the third 
 century. It is doubtful whether he was a na- 
 tive of Palestine, or of Africa. He was em- 
 ployed, some time between the years 218 and 
 222, on an embassy to the emperor Heliogaba- 
 ]us, to obtain an order for restoring the city of 
 Emmaus in Palestine, which was accordingly 
 rebuilt under the name of Nicopolis. He vi- 
 sited Alexandria, to attend the lectures of Hera- 
 clas, about the year 231. Four distinct works 
 of this learned Christian are mentioned by Eu- 
 sebius and Photius, and three of them by Je- 
 rome ; the " Cesti," a collection of passages 
 from various authors, chiefly on physical to- 
 pics, of which only a few fragments remain ; 
 a " Letter to Origen," still extant, written to 
 prove the history of Susanna, annexed to the 
 book of Daniel, to be a forgery ; a " Letter to 
 Aristides," to reconcile the dissonances on the 
 genealogies of Christ given by Matthew and 
 Luke, an extract from which is preserved by 
 Eusfbius ; and a chronological work, in five 
 books, containing a series of events from the 
 beginning of the world to the year of Christ 
 221. Of the latter work Piiotius writes, that 
 though concise, it omits nothing that is neces- 
 sary to be related. Eusebius, as well as other 
 subsequent chronologers, is thought to have 
 borrowed very largely from this chronicle. Ju- 
 lius Africanus was certainly a learned man, and 
 a good writer: it is much to be regretted that 
 so little from his pen remains entire. Fabric. 
 Biht. Grac. lib. v. c. i. Lardner's cred. part ii. 
 c. 37. Voss. de Hist. Grac. lib. ii. c. 15. Dupiu. 
 — E. 
 
 AGAMEMNON. The story of this early 
 Grecian monarch is less intermixed with fabu- 
 
 lous or incredible circumstances than tliat of 
 most of the heroes engaged in the Trojan war. 
 He was the son according to Homer, the grand- 
 son according to Herodotus, of Atreus, whom 
 he succeeded in tiie realms of Argos and My- 
 cena. On account of the cdmparativc extent 
 and power of his dominions, he was chosen su- 
 preme commander of the confedei ate army de- 
 stined against Troy, which expedition com- 
 menced, according to the Usherian chronology, 
 1194 years B. C. On arriving with the fleet 
 at Aulis, the winds for a long time proved con- 
 trary ; when, in conformity to the cruel super- 
 stition ot such an age, the soothsayer Calchas 
 enjoined the sacrifice of Agamemnon's daughter 
 Iphigenia, as a projjitiatory offl^ring to Diana. 
 His compliance with the barbarous order is said 
 to have been the cause of the fatal hatred of his 
 wife Clyta:mnestra towards him. During the 
 long war with Troy he fulfilled the duties of a 
 prince and general, though his unjust treatment 
 of Achilles, in taking from him Briseis, was the 
 cause of many evils to the Greeks. On his re- 
 turn, bringing with him Cassandra, the daugh- 
 ter of Priam, as a concubine, he was received 
 with a treacherous welcome by Clytaemnestra, 
 who had forined a guilty connection with Egis- 
 thus, and was assassinated by that prince, his 
 relation, his own wife assisting in the deed, and 
 triumphing in her vengeance. His son Orestes 
 afterwards took revenge oji the murderers ; and 
 the events of horror afforded by the history of 
 this family have been favourite subjects of the 
 tragic muse of ancient Greece, and its imitators 
 in modern times. Bayle. Morcri. — A. 
 
 AGAPETUS, Pope, a Roman by birth, was 
 raised to the papal see by the interest of Theo- 
 dotus, king of Italy, in the year 535. The spi- 
 ritual power of the Roman see was by this time 
 greatly increased; and this bishop of Rome, 
 though he possessed his high station only for a 
 few months, found opportunities of asserting 
 the supremacy of the papal authority in the 
 church, and its independence with respect to 
 the civil power. When the emperor Justinian, 
 who was always, notwithstanding the multipli- 
 city of his secular cares, attentive to the interests 
 of religion, entreated the pope to exclude from 
 his communion a certain class of heretics, he 
 granted a request which gave him an opportu- 
 nity of exercising his spiritual authority, but 
 took care, at the same time, to express his dis- 
 approbation of the emperor's interference in 
 matters of faith. On another occasion, when 
 Justinian solicited the pope in favour of the 
 Arian clergy lately converted to the orthodox 
 faith, that they might resume tlieir foimtr rank
 
 A G A 
 
 ( 76 ) 
 
 A G A 
 
 in the church, he refused the request. During 
 an embassy to Constantinople, which Agapetui 
 undcnook'at the request of'l'lieodotus , to pre- 
 vent lusiiniaii's threatened invasion of Italy, the 
 pope' resolutely opposed the emperor, and the 
 empress 'I'heodora, in the countenance which 
 they gave to the Eutychian heresy, hy appoint- 
 ing' Anthemius, a supposed follower of Euty- 
 chius, to the pairiarchato of Constantinople. 
 Tiic emperor finding the pope peremptory in 
 his refusal to acknowledge Anthemius by ad- 
 mitting him to his communion, endeavoured to 
 iniimiclate him by threats; but tlie pontiff re- 
 mained hnn in his purpose, and sternly said, 
 " \\'hcn I came to Justinian, I hoped to meet 
 a Christian prince, but I have found a Diocle- 
 •sian." The emperor, in part perhaps influen- 
 ced by religious fears, for he was eminently 
 pious,' instead of resenting the freedom, yielded 
 to the decision, of the pope, and in the room of 
 the heretic Anthemius, chose as patriarch, Mem- 
 iias, a divine of approved orthodoxy. The pope 
 ordained Memnas and boasted that he was the 
 first eastern bishop who had been consecrated 
 by a successor of St. Peter. While Agape- 
 tiis was at Constantinople, he fell sick, and 
 died in 536, having enjoyed his dignirj- scarcely 
 twelve months. His remains were conveyed 
 to Rome, and his name was afterwards en- 
 rolled among the saints. While we repro- 
 bate that proud assumption of spiritual domi- 
 nion, which presumed to punish the ideal crime 
 of heresy, we must admire the intrepidity which 
 so firmly withstoood the interference of the civil 
 power in ecclesiastical affairs. It may deserve 
 notice, that the see of Rome was at this time 
 reduced to such poverty, that, when Agapetus 
 undertook his embassy to Constantinople, he 
 ■was obliged, in order to provide for the expenses 
 of his journey, to pawn the sacred vessels of the 
 church of St. Peter. Dupin, cent. vi. Platliia. 
 Aforeri. Bower. — E. 
 
 AGAPETUS II. pope, a Roman by birth, 
 ■who came to the sec of Rome in the year 946, 
 and possessed it till the year 956, appears to 
 have been busily occupied in deciding disputes 
 concerning bishoprics, and in attempting to ter- 
 minate the civil divisions with which Italy v/as 
 at this lime distracted. He sent for the empe- 
 ror Oiho to oppose Berenger II. who assumed 
 the regal power in Italy. He has left behind 
 him the reputation of a man of wonderful sanc- 
 tity. Plat'ina. Dupin, cent. x. Aforeri. — E. 
 
 'AGAPETUS, deacon of the church of Con- 
 stantinople, in the sixth century, wrote a letter 
 to the emperor Justinian, known by the title of 
 X'/eor, Bas-iAijiij, the Royal Paper, giving him ad- 
 
 vice concerning the duties of a Christian prince, 
 which was much valued, and procured the au- 
 thor a place among the most judicious writers 
 of this period. The principal editions are, that 
 of Frobenius, in 8vo. at Basil in 152 i. and that 
 printed in 8vo. at Cologn in 1604. — E. 
 
 AGARD, Arthur, an English antiquary, 
 born at Foston in Derbyshire in 1540, was edu- 
 cated for the practice of the law, and became a 
 clerk in the exchequer, and afterwards, in 1570, 
 deputy-chamberlain of the exchequer. He pro- 
 bably owed his taste for antiquarian pursuits to 
 his situation, so favourable to researches of this 
 kind ; and not, as Wood, in his " Athenas 
 Oxonienscs," asserts, to his intimacy with sir 
 Robert Cotton, who was born in the same year 
 in w-hich Agard came into his ofEce. He drew 
 up catalogues of records in the treasury, and 
 other treatises relative to his office, which he 
 left in manuscript for the use of the public. He 
 made a large collection of curious articles in 
 English antiquities, forming twenty volumes, 
 which he bequeathed to his friend sir Robert 
 Cotton. The public reaps the benefit of his 
 industry, in five pieces, contained in Hearne's 
 " Collection of curious Discourses, written by 
 eminent Antiquaries," printed in 1720 ; and 
 another, the genuinene s of which is doubted, 
 " On the Antiquity, Power, &c. of the Par- 
 liament of England," published, with similar es- 
 says by Doddridge, Holland, Tate, and Camden, 
 in 1658, and 1679. 'I"he pieces publislied by 
 Mr. Hearne are, " On tlie Antiquiiy of Shires- 
 in England;" "On the Dimensions of the 
 Lands of England ;" " On the Authority, Of- 
 fices, and Privileges, of Heralds in England ;" 
 " On the Antiquity and Privileges of the Inns of 
 Court, and of Chancery ;" and " On the Di- 
 versity of Names of this Island." Agard died 
 in 1615. He was member of a celebrated so- 
 ciety of antiquaries, which subsisted from the 
 year J 57 2 to the year 1604, when king James, 
 from political or ecclesiastical jealousy, dissolved 
 it. Nicholson's English Hist. Lihr. TVood's 
 Ath. Oxon. n. 685. Biogr. Brit. — E. 
 
 AGATHARCIDES, or Agatharcusof Cni- 
 dus, a Greek historian, grammarian, and rheto- 
 rician, mentioned by Josephus, Diodorus Si- 
 culus, Strabo, and other ancient writers, lived in 
 the time of Ptolemy Philometor, about one hun- 
 dred and sixty years before Christ, and wrote 
 several historical treatises. Pho'.ius, who wrote 
 his Bihliotheca in the ninth century, says, that he 
 was reader and secretary to Heraclida, and a 
 pupil of Cinnffius, and mentions, as his princi- 
 pal historical writings, ten books on the affairs 
 of Asia, forty-nine books on those of Europe,
 
 A G A 
 
 ( 77 ) 
 
 A G A 
 
 and five on the Red Sea. Fragments of this 
 nriter may be found in Josephus, Lucian, and 
 Photius. Foss. Hijh Gr. lib. i. c. 20. Fabric. 
 Bibl. Gr. lib. iii. c. 8. lib. v. c. 38.— E. 
 
 AGATHEMER, Ortiiokis, a geogra- 
 pher, whose age and country are unknown, 
 wrote, in Greek, for the use of his pupil Philo, 
 whom he mentions in the work, a " Compen- 
 dium of Geography." Someplace tliis geogra- 
 pher as early as the time of Scpiimius Sevcrus ; 
 others suppose him to have been contemporary 
 with Gemistlius Plctho in the fifteenth century. 
 The internal evidence from the work concern- 
 ing its author is very uncertain, and no external 
 testimony is found. His treatise contains many 
 things worthy tlie attention of the learned. It 
 was published, with a translation and notes, in 
 8vo. by Tcnnulius, at Amsterdam, in 167 1; 
 afterwards, in 410. by Gronovius, at Leyden, in 
 1697; and by Hudson at Oxford, in 1703, in 
 his second volume of the lesser geographers. 
 Fabric. Bibl. Grac. lib. ii. c. 2. § 10. — E. 
 
 AGATHIAS, one of the Byzantine histo- 
 rians, who wrote in the sixth century, was, as 
 appears from the preamble to his history, a na- 
 tive of Myrina in .^olis. Having studied the 
 law at Alexandria, he assumed the profession of 
 an advocate, whence he was surnamed Scho- 
 lasticus, from the schools or colleges in which 
 lawyers were instructed. It cannot be certainly 
 learned from his history, whether he was a 
 Christian. The work was written after the 
 year 566, in which JUstinian died, and was not 
 published earlier than the year 593- It treats 
 of the affairs of part of that emperor's reign, 
 beginning where Procopius ends, at the twenty- 
 sixth year of Justinian, or 553 years after 
 Christ, and closing with the slaughter of the 
 Huns in 559. His style is terse, and ornament- 
 ed, as might be expected from a writer who 
 paid homage to the muses. He wrote epigrams, 
 many of which may be still read in the Antho- 
 logia, and also wrote, as Suidas attests, partly 
 in prose and partly in verse, pieces eniitled 
 "Daphnica." Poems under this title ai^ men- 
 tioned in the preface to the history. J. Vulca- 
 nius published Agathias's history, in 4to. at 
 Leyden, in the year 1594; It was afterwards 
 elegantly reprinted, in folio, at Paris, in 1658. 
 Vo^s. dc Hist. Gr. lib. ii. c. 22. Fabric. Bibl. 
 Gr. lib. V. c. 5. Hanck. Byz. Hist. p. i. c. 7. 
 — E. 
 
 AGATHO, pope, a native of Palermo, was 
 raised from a monastery to the pontificate in the 
 year 679. He came to the papal cliair at a time 
 when the sect of the Monothelites had gained 
 considerable strength ; and the first exercise of his 
 
 pontifical authority was, to order synods to be 
 convened in all the western provinces to give 
 their decision upon their leading doctrine. 'l"o 
 this measure he appears to have been stimulated, 
 partly by his zeal for the catholic faith, and 
 partly by his respect for the authority of t!ie em- 
 peror, which was still paramount even in reli- 
 gious matters ; for Constantine Pogonatus had 
 written a letter to the preceding pope, declaring 
 his intention to summon a general council for 
 the purpose of settling disputes, and requiring 
 him to send legates to the council. Agatlio, 
 finding, as he might expect, that in the synods 
 the Monothelite doctrine was condemned as he- 
 retical, sent legates to Constantinople to repre- 
 sent the western church. Upon their arrival, 
 Constantine immediately issued instructions to 
 the patriarchs, to summon the bishops of their 
 respective sees to a general council at Constan- 
 tinople. This general, or oecumenical council 
 assembled in the year 680. The point referred to 
 their decision was one of those subtle questions 
 concerning the person of Christ, which meta ■ 
 physical speculation had generated, and which, 
 for several centuries, had disturbed the peace of 
 the world. The Eutychians, or Monophysites, 
 had taught, that in the person of Clirist tliere 
 was but one nature. To reconcile this sect with 
 the catholic church, wliich held the union of two 
 natures in Christ, it was proposed, in a confe- 
 rence held with the emperor Heraclius in the 
 year 630, that the controversy should be termi- 
 nated by admitting on the part of the Monophy- 
 sites, that, in Christ, after the union of the two 
 natures, there was but one will and one opera- 
 tion. An edict was accordingly published in 
 favour of this doctrine, and it was confirmed by 
 a council, and approved by the Roman pontiff 
 Honorius. By subsequent popes, however, and 
 by many bishops both'of tlie eastern and western 
 churches, this doctrine was still deemed hereti- 
 cal ; and, notwithstanding the injunction of the 
 emperor Constans, that an entire silence should 
 be observed on the difficult and ambiguous ques- 
 tion concerning the one will and one operation 
 in Christ, the dispute still continued, and was 
 carried on with such violence, that it was deem- 
 ed necessary^ to have recoiirfc to the only expe- 
 dient which tlic wisdom ot those titnes could de- 
 vise for settling religious disputes ; and this 
 sixth general council was called. The result 
 was, that the Monothelites were ^oleinnly con- 
 denmed. It is a memorable circumstance at- 
 tending this decision, that Agatho, By his re- 
 presentatives the Roman legates, as appears 
 from the words of the judgment, and, though 
 denied hy Biuonius, ib admitted by the generality
 
 A G A 
 
 ( 78 ) 
 
 A G A 
 
 ot" writers, condcninal in this council his prcile- 
 ct-SMir the Moiiothilitc pope lloiiorius, and 
 thiit he confirmed by penal lau^ ihescntcr.ee 
 pronounced by tlic council. It is evident, that 
 cither pope Honoiius, or the sixth general coun- 
 cil, was not iut'allible : where the failure l.U', the 
 advocates for infallibility may determine. Con- 
 cerning this council it is hinrier to be remai ked, 
 that it was summoned bv titc emperor, and that 
 no appeal was made to tlie decisions of former 
 popes, nor any pec uliar deference .shown to the 
 authoiitv of the present bishop of Rome. Aga- 
 tlio lived but a short time after the dissolution of 
 tjiis council, and the remainder of liis pontificate 
 was occupied in attending to the temporal in- 
 terest of his sec, that he might obtain from Con- 
 stantinc a remission of the fine paid to the em- 
 perors on the election of a new pope. Agatho 
 died in 682. Of his personal character lit- 
 tle is known, for nothing can be inferred on 
 this head witli absolute certainty from his ca- 
 nonisation ; and we pay little regard to the ac- 
 count ot Platina, that he was a man of such 
 sanctity, that his kis > was an instant cure for the 
 leprosy. Agatho wrote a letter to the emperor 
 against the Monothelites ; and another granting 
 privileges to the monastery of Weremouth, to 
 be lound in Dugdale's " Alonasticon Anglica- 
 num." Platina de Vh. Pontif. Mos/uims 
 Eccles. Hist. cent. vii. Dupin. Bower. — E. 
 AGATHOCLES, king or tyrant of Sicily, 
 was one oi the most extraordinary men of the 
 age in which he lived. He was the son of Car- 
 cinus, a potter, of Rhegium in Italy, who re- 
 moved to Thermae in Sicily, and there married 
 a woman of the place. By the father's order, 
 the child was exposed at his birth, but, after ly- 
 ing some days in that condition, he was se- 
 cretly taken away by his mother, and brought 
 up at her brother's house. At seven years of 
 age, being a very beautiful boy, the matter was 
 disclosed to his father, who joyfully received 
 him ; and soon after removing to Syracuse, 
 nlucated him in Iiis own trade. After his fa- 
 ther's death, his beauty recommended him to 
 Demas, a rich noble of Syracuse, who liberally 
 supported him ; aiid being himself appointed 
 general of the Agrigentines, advanced him to 
 tlic command of a thousand men in that army. 
 He had before distinguished his strength and agi- 
 lity as a common soldier, and as an officer he 
 soon displayed great military skill and courage. 
 On the death of Demas, Agathocles married his 
 widow, and thus became at once the richest citi- 
 zen of Syracuse. 
 _ This city, like most republics, was subject to 
 violent party contests, in one of which A^^atho- 
 
 cles was expelled. He retired to Italy, and served 
 the Crotonians with great reputation in a war 
 against the Bruttians ; but being discovered in a. 
 design of making himself master of Crotona, and 
 afterwards of Tarentum,lie couidgain admission 
 into no city, and for some time headed a troop of 
 banditti, who ravaged the circutrijacent country. 
 By means of a sudden change of politics in Sy- 
 racuse he was recalled ; and being placed at the 
 head of the troops, he defeated the expelled aris- 
 tocratieal party, with their Cartliaginian allies. 
 He soon showed, however, such a disposition to 
 become himself a tyrant, that a plot was laid 
 against his life, which he narrowly escaped. 
 Having employed himself in raising a considera- 
 ble army in the island, he marched towards Sy- 
 racuse, which, to avoid a civil war, received 
 him, on a solemn oath of allegiance. He soon, 
 however, began to court the popular party ; 
 and, by its means, was appointed to the com- 
 mand of an army raised for a particular enter- 
 prise. He made use of this to destroy all the 
 nobles and principal citizens ; and a dreadful 
 massacre took place, in which, for two days and 
 nights, all sorts of enormities were committed. 
 Having thus, as he called it, purged the state of 
 its distempers, he affected an intention to retire to 
 private life ; but his partisans, by acclamation, 
 bestowed upon liiin the royal title, with absolute 
 authority. 
 
 The first use he inade of his power was to 
 cancel all debts, and divide the public lands 
 equally. And having thus levelled all condi- 
 tions, and secured the favour of the common 
 people, he put on the manners of a just and cle- 
 inent prince, governed with moderation, and 
 enacted wholesome laws. He likewise carried 
 his arms into the neighbouring states with such 
 success, that in the space of two years he re- 
 duced the whole island, except a few cities 
 which were possessed by the Carthaginians. 
 
 In order to put a stop to his progress, Ha- 
 milcar was sent from Carthage with a powerful 
 fieetand army; and being joined on his landing 
 by some of tiie Sicilians, he advanced to Aga- 
 thocles, who attacked him near the city of Hi-- 
 mera, and, in the beginning of the engagement, 
 was successful. But succours arriving to Hamil- 
 car, the fortune of the day was completely 
 turned, and Agathocles was driven from the 
 field, and obliged to shelter within the walls of 
 Syracuse. The Cardiaginians followed him, 
 and laying siege to the place, appeared to have 
 reduced their enemy to extremities. It was now 
 that Agadiocles displayed his courage and ge- 
 nius, by aiTieasurc of almost unexampled bold- 
 ness, and which served afterwards as an exam-
 
 A G A 
 
 ( 79 ) 
 
 A G A 
 
 pic to the great Scipio in less difficult circum- 
 stances. Communicating his design to no indi- 
 vidual, he told the Syiaciisana that he had disco- 
 vered a way of extricating them from their cala- 
 mitous state ; and, having ordered a body of 
 horse and foot to he ready at a certain hour, he 
 embarked with them, attended hy his sons, on 
 board a fleet of sixty galleys. A superior Car- 
 tliaginian fleet blocked up the harbour, which 
 for some time he could not pass. At lengtli, 
 taking the opportunity of their pursuit of a fleet 
 of provision vessels which came in sight, he 
 pushed to sea, and steered directly for Africa. 
 He defeated such of the enemy's ships as over- 
 took him, and made good his landing on that con- 
 tinent in the year B. C. 279. 
 
 That the enterprise might be conducted with 
 the resolution that had prompted it, lie prevail- 
 ed upon his soldiers to burn all their ships, him- 
 self setting the example with his own. Indeed 
 it would have been impracticable for him to have 
 secured them in an African port. He then pro- 
 ceeded up the country, and took and pillaged se- 
 veral towns. Carthage was struck with equal 
 astonishment and consternation at the news. 
 The citizens, however, levying a large army 
 under the command of Hanno and Bomilcar, 
 heads of opposite factions, marched out against 
 the invader. An action ensued, in which Hanno 
 ■was slain, and the Carthaginians were defeated, 
 with the loss of their camp. This disaster was 
 imputed to the treachery or party-spirit of Bomil- 
 car, who kept back his division. Messengers 
 were now dispatched in all haste to Sicily to re- 
 cal Hamilcar for the defence of his own coun- 
 try. He raised the siege of Syracuse, and sent 
 a small part of his army home; but hoping to 
 surprise the city in the night, he again drew 
 near to it ; when the Syracusans, becoming ac- 
 quainted with his design, made a sally, defeated, 
 and took him prisoner. 
 
 Agathocles had now effected what he had 
 first purposed by his daring project ; but the new 
 views of conquest that opened to him were to be 
 satisfied with no less than the destruction of the 
 Carthaginian empire. He engaged as many of 
 the African princes in his interest as he was 
 able. Among these was one of Alexander's 
 captains, named Ophelias, who was become 
 prince of Cyrene, and was at the head of a 
 large body of regular troops. Agathocles, after 
 he had joined him, probably jealous of his in- 
 fluence, caused him to be treacherously murder- 
 ed, and incorporated his people into his own ar- 
 my. He now assumed the title of king of Afri- 
 ca, and invested the city of Carthage. Whilst 
 his army was lying before this place, he paid a 
 
 visit to Sicily, where he struck with such terror 
 the jiowers combined against the Syracusans, 
 that he again reduced the whole island, a few of 
 the sea-port towns excepted. On his return to 
 Africa, he foimd a considerable change in hi.'j 
 affairs for the worse ; and, on an atunipt upon 
 the Carthaginian camp, he was rej)ulscd witli 
 loss. This ill success occasioned the desertion 
 of all his African auxiliaries, which induced 
 him to resolve to leave the country. Endea- 
 vouring to withdraw privately, he was seised by 
 the soldiers, and kept inciistody. Great confu- 
 sion ensued, and during a panic with which the 
 army was struck, lie made his escape, and put 
 to sea in a small vessel, leaving his sons to the 
 mercy of the enraged troops, who put tlicm to 
 death, and then concluded a treaty witii the. 
 Carthaginians. 
 
 Agathocles, arriving in Sicily, assembled some 
 troops, and marched against the Egestines who 
 had revolted ; and storming their city, he put all 
 the inhabitants to the sword. Then lie took ;i 
 most cruel vengeance for the murder of his sons, 
 by ordering the butchery of every relation, how- 
 ever remote, to any of the Syracusans who 
 composed the army in Africa. This cruelty oc- 
 casioned a large party to be formed against him 
 under Dinocrates whom he had banished ; and- 
 he was so far pressed by them, as to be induced 
 to purchase a peace with the Carthaginians by 
 the restoration of all the places they had before 
 possessed. He also made propositions to Dino- 
 crates, which being rejected, he attacked this 
 rival, and defeated him, but afterwards received 
 him into his friendship. After this success, in 
 two years' time he brought all Sicily under sub- 
 jection, except the Carthaginian cities. 
 
 Unable to live in tranquillity and inaction, 
 though now far advanced in years, he made an 
 expedition into Italy, where he subdued the 
 Bruttians ; and thence to the Lipari islands, 
 which he laid under contribution, and plundered 
 of all the treasure of the temfiles. After his re- 
 turn he is said to have been poisoned by one 
 Msnon, by means of an envenomed tooth-pick, 
 and to fiave been burned on the funeral pile, 
 while still living, and in the 95th year of his 
 age — an account that relishes strongly of fable. 
 Probably, too, some of the stories of his cruelty 
 may have been exaggerated from a party spirit. 
 He was certainly a man of great talents and ac- 
 tivity ; and appears to have truly served his 
 country so far as the expulsion of the Carthagi- 
 nians was a leading object of his policy. He 
 had greatness of mind enough not to be ashamed 
 of his low origin ; and at public entertainments, 
 when his guests were served out of gold- and sii-
 
 AGE 
 
 ( So ) 
 
 AGE 
 
 ver, he was accustomed to eat from earthen 
 ware, as most suitalile to a potter. Dlodorui Si- 
 eu.'us. Justin. Univcrs. Hiit. — A. 
 
 AGA THON, a Greek dramatic poet, a dis- 
 ciple of Socrates and I'rodicus, was rich, hand- 
 some, and good-tempered, but of loose morals. 
 His first tragedy gained the prize in the first 
 year of the nmetieih Olympiad, H. C. 419, on 
 \vliich occa^ion he gave splendid entertainments. 
 He is supposed to havedied at the court of Arche- 
 laus king of Macedon. Nothing is left of his 
 works but some passages quoted by Aristotle 
 and other writers. It appears that he was very 
 fond of antithetical sentences ; of which one of 
 the most remarkable recorded is, " that it is i)ro- 
 bable many things should happen against proba- 
 bilitv." 
 
 \''ossius supposes Agathon the tragic, and 
 Agathon the comic writer, to have been two per- 
 sons ; but it seems more probable that one person 
 was a writer in both species of dramatic compo- 
 sition. Bayle. Vossius. — A. 
 
 AGELNOTH, in Latin Acjielnotus, an 
 English divine, the son of earl Agilmaer, lived 
 in the reign of Canute, and was created archbi- 
 shop of Canterbury in the year 1020. He ob- 
 tained the appellation of the good, probably on 
 account of his religious zeal, for he is said to have 
 prompted the king to acts of piety, and to have 
 obtained from him large sums of money for the 
 support of foreign churches. It would, in those 
 superstitious times, be regarded as a further 
 highly meritorious proof of his piety, that, on 
 his way to Rome, whither he went to receive 
 his pail from the pope, he purchased at a vast ex- 
 pense an arm of St. Augustine, a precious relic, 
 which he presented on his return to Leofric earl 
 ot Coventry. It was more to his credit that he 
 discharged his archicpiscopal duties with dili- 
 gence, and employed his influence with Canute 
 to restrain him from excesses. This prelate ap- 
 pears to have taken an active and decided part in 
 political contests. After the disturbances w-hich 
 happened after the death of Canute concerning 
 the succession, when HaroliI, during the ab- 
 sence of Hardicanutc, seized the whole kingdom, 
 Agelnoth refused to crown hiin, pleading that the 
 late king had obtained from him a promise not 
 to place the crown upon the head of any one 
 who was not of the issue of queen Emma. This 
 refusal was publicly given at the altar, and ac- 
 companied with a solemn imprecation against 
 any bishop who should presume to perform the 
 ceremony. Neither threats nor promises could 
 prevail upon the archbishop to recede from his 
 determination ; and it is doubtful whether the 
 ceremony of coronation was ever perfoimcd 
 
 upon Harold. Agelnoth published a " Panegyric 
 on the Blessed Virgin Mary ;" a " Letter to Earl 
 Leofric concerning St. Augustine ;" and " Let- 
 ters"to several persons. Gervase tt Kny^htan aptid 
 Decern Scriptores. Haipsjicld, Hist. Eccl, Angl. 
 Bale ({c Scriptor, Britun. Biogr. Britan. — E. 
 
 AGESILAUS, king of Sjiarta, one of the il- 
 lustrious men of Greece, was the younger son 
 of king Archidamns II. Not standing in pro- 
 spect of the crown, he was brought up in the 
 severity of a common Laceds'monian education, 
 and was thoroughly grounded in the lessons of 
 self-denial and obedience. His vigorous spirit, 
 tempered with chearfulness and good-nature, 
 caused him to be early esteemed, notwithstand- 
 ing the personal defects of lameness in one leg, 
 and a small stature. In particular, he gained the 
 affection of Lysandcr, at that time the leading- 
 man in the Spartan state ; and it was by his in- 
 fluence, that, at the death of his brother king 
 Agis, he was preferred to his nephew Leotychi- 
 das, to whom the succession regularly belonged ; 
 but the stain of illegitiinacy had been thrown on 
 his birth, to which Agis himself had given cre- 
 dit, though he afterwards retracted his opinion. 
 One obstacle to the elevation of Agesilaiis arose 
 from the superstitious regard of the Spartans to 
 an oracle, which warned them against a /ame 
 reign; the meaning of which, however, Ly- 
 sander artfully turned froin the lameness of 
 Agesilaus to the illegitimacy of Leotychides. 
 The oracle itself seems to have been intended to 
 guard against changing the constitutional ap- 
 pointment of two co-equal kings to that of a 
 single one. On the throne, yVgesilaus conducted 
 himself in such a manner as to ingratiate him- 
 self with all ranks and parties ; insomuch, 
 that the ephori are said to have laid a fine upon 
 him for monopolising the affections of the Spar- 
 tans. 
 
 The Peloponnesian war was at this time sub- 
 sisting, and, in addition to it, the king of Persia 
 declared himself openly against the Lacedaemo- 
 nians, and prepared to reduce all the Greek ci- 
 ties in Asia, which they had taken under their 
 protection, and on which their maritime power 
 entirely depended. On this occasion, Agesilaus, 
 at the instigation of Lysander, was constituted 
 general of Greece, and an army was decreed 
 him to carry over into Asia, where the La- 
 cedaemonians had already a force under Dercyl- 
 lidas, Agesilaus made it a condition of his ac- 
 cepting the command, that a council of thirty 
 should accompany him, of whom Lysander was 
 the chief. While waiting at Aidis to set sail, 
 he had a quarrel with the Boeotians about a sacri- 
 fice, which afterwards proved the occasion of a
 
 AGE 
 
 ( 8i ) 
 
 AGE 
 
 var between the nations, and of the subversion 
 ot the Spartan dominion. 
 
 On arriving in Asia, B. C. 396, Agesilaus 
 found Iiis authority o much cchpsed by tliat of 
 Lysander, who was by nature haughty and domi- 
 neering, that he thought it necessary to take 
 spirited measures to controul it. He even, by 
 way of mortification, appointed Lysander his 
 victualler, and then hid the lonians " go and 
 pay court to his butcher." Lysander was con- 
 tented with a mild reproof; but, returning to 
 Greece, he secretly entered into a train oi in- 
 trigues for overturning the constitution of Spar- 
 ta, which death prevented him from bringing to 
 effect. The lieutenant for the great king in 
 these parts, Tissapherncs, being unprepared to 
 resist j\gesilaus, at first gained time by a ficti- 
 tious treaty, and then having collected an army, 
 declared war against him. Agesilaus, thank- 
 ing him for a perjury wliich would render the 
 gods enemies to the Persians and friends to the 
 Greeks, over-ran the province of Phrygia, and, 
 collecting a vast booty, returned into Ionia by 
 the sea-coast, and wintered at Eplicsus. The 
 next year he marched intoLydia, and near Sar- 
 dis gave the Persiar.s a defeat, which made him 
 master of all that country. This success occa- 
 sioned the recal and death of Tissaphernes, who 
 was succeeded by Tithraustes. He offered great 
 presents to Agesilaus, and proposed an accom- 
 modation between his master and the Greeks ; 
 but the Spartan king replied that this was be- 
 yond his powers without orders from hoiT\e : he 
 however gratified Tithraustes with removing 
 out of his province into Phrygia, where Phar- 
 nabazus was governor, first receiving from Ti- 
 thraustes a sum to defray his expenses. On liis 
 march he received a decree from Sparta, con- 
 ferring on him the unprecedented trust ot the 
 command by sea as well as land. To the for- 
 mer he appointed Pisandcr, his brother-in-law, 
 in which he w-as charged with being somewhat 
 biassed by private attachment. Proceeding into 
 Phrygia, he reduced many cities, and raised great 
 contributions without opposition, Pharnahazus 
 not choosing to face him. Thence he marched 
 into Paphlagonia, being invited by Spithridates, 
 a satraj), who had revolted fiom the Persian 
 king. He made a league with Cotys, prince of 
 that coimtry ; and, returning into Phrygia, win- 
 tered in the palace of Pharnaba/,us, maintaining 
 his army at free cost, and enriching it by plun- 
 der. This satrap desired an interview with him, 
 and, arriving at the appointed place, was snr- 
 prised to find Agesilaus seated on the grass un- 
 der a tree. The slaves of the Persian spread 
 rich carpets for their master , but, ashamed to 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 nsc them in presence of the Spartan, he seated 
 liimself on the grass by his side. When Pliar- 
 nabazus expostulated with Agesilaus for the in- 
 juries inflicted on liim, notwithstanding tlie 
 friendship he had formerly shown to the Lace- 
 demonians, the other Spartans cast down their 
 eyes in silence, and the king was obliged to ex- 
 culpate himself on the ground of neces^-.ary hos- 
 tility against one who was a vassal of their great 
 enemy, the Persian monarch. They parted with 
 mutual tokens of frir-ndship ; and it is pleasing 
 to know, that when Pharnaba/.us was afterwards 
 driven to take refuge in Pelopoimesus, he re- 
 ceived protection and all kind offices from Age- 
 silaus. 
 
 He had now been two years at the liead of 
 the Greek army in Asia, during which he liad 
 exhibited all the talents of a warrior and states- 
 man, and all the virtues of a Lacedemonian. In 
 the endurance of hardships, in contempt of 
 wealth and luxury, in personal disinterestedness 
 and moderation, he was surpassed by none of 
 the most celebrated among his countrymen. 
 And, though he seems to have given his army 
 free licence of pillage, he is charged with no 
 acts of cruelty or brutality. He brought all the 
 cities in his protection under excellent regula- 
 tions, and settled rheir governinents without put- 
 ting to death or banishing an individual. At- 
 tachment to his country, and to the glory and 
 advantage of Greece in general, appears to 
 have been his ruling passion ; and he had form- 
 ed vast schemes for transferring the war into 
 Persia, and striking at the heart of the eastern 
 empire, in the execution of which he might 
 have anticipated Alexander, had he been suffer- 
 ed to proceed in his career. But the Persian 
 policy exciting enemies at home against the La- 
 cedemonians, it became necessary to recal Age- 
 silaus for the defence of his native land. He 
 liesitated not a moment to obey tiie order, 
 diough he showed his sense ot that influence 
 which had been the cause of it, by raying, " that 
 he had been driven out of Asia by thirty thou- 
 sand of the great king's archers ;" alluding to 
 the impression of an archer 0]i the gold coin 
 called a daric. Leaving a small army to secure 
 his conquests, he set out on his return by the 
 way that Xerxes entered into Cjreece. As he 
 marched through Thrace, he did not stay to ask 
 permission for passage of the barbarous nations, 
 but only demanded of each, " whether they 
 chose him to pass as a fiiend or an enemy ?" 
 And when the king of Macedon replied to this 
 question, " that he would consider of it,*' " LvCt 
 him consider (said he) : in the mean tiine we 
 will march." He met with resistance in some 
 w
 
 AGE 
 
 ( S2 ) 
 
 A G E 
 
 places, but routeJ the opposers w itli liitle dlffi- 
 
 tultv. 
 
 On his return to Greece, he was met hy an 
 oril.r Iroin tlie cphori to invade Baotia, which 
 he comphtd with, though contrary to his judg- 
 ment. At Chieronca he came in view ot an 
 army of Thebans a.id Argives, when a very se- 
 vere cnnagement ensued, in which Agesilaus 
 drove olF the field tlie Argives who were opposed 
 to iiim, wliile the Thehans did the same with 
 rcspcLt to tlieir antagonists. The victors then 
 fought ; and, though the Tiicbans retreated from 
 the field, they could not he broken, and Agesi- 
 laus received several wounds. It is to the credit 
 of his liumanitv, that the smart of them did not 
 prevent his dismissing unhurt some of the enemy 
 who had taken refuge in a temple of Minerva. 
 On his return lo Sparta, he secured the esteem 
 of his fellow-citizens by a mode of life as frugal 
 and unostentatious as if he had never seen the 
 luxury of Asia. He made no change in his 
 furniture, diet, or equipage; and the carriages, 
 in which his daughters rode at solemn proces- 
 sions, differed in no respect from those of other 
 young women. 
 
 Corinth next becoming the head-quarters of 
 the confederates, Agtsilaus was sent to besiege 
 it i but the enterprise did not succeed. He was 
 kept in check by Iphicrates the Athenian com- 
 mander, and obliged to return after laying waste 
 the territory. He then, at the instance of the 
 yVchneans, made an expedition against the Acar- 
 i;anians, whom he obliged to sue for peace. In 
 the mean time, the Spartans being much pressed 
 at sea by Conon the Athenian, it was thought 
 advisable to negotiate a peace widi the Persian 
 king, and Antalcidns was sent to his court for 
 that purpose. The other Grecian states, either 
 voluntarily or from compulsion, concurred in 
 the agreement ; and the peace, called that of 
 Antalcidas, was made, by which the sove- 
 reignty of Greece was guaranteed to Sparta, but 
 on the dishonourable condition of abandoning 
 the Greek cities of Asia to the Persians. This 
 was B. C. 387. The Spartans soon after dis- 
 played their tyrannical disposition in chastising 
 several of the smaller states separately ; and in 
 a most unjust manner they seised upon the cita- 
 del of Thebes, an action abetted by Agesilaus, 
 through the hatred he had long conceived against 
 the '1 hebans, and his principle of patriotism, 
 vhich too much inclined to the approbation of 
 all acts beneficial to his country, whether equi- 
 table or not. This conduct in the end involved 
 Sparta in a new war with Athens, which was 
 nearly terminated hy agreement, when the The- 
 bans, uudcr the illustrious Epaminondaf, began 
 
 to be formidable to their fippressors. Agesi- 
 laus hail already been blamed for teaching 
 them the art of war by his expeditions against 
 them ; and now they were able to meet the 
 Lacedemonians in the field, as appeared in 
 the famous battle of Lcuctra, where Archi- 
 damus, the son of Agesilaus, and Cleombrotus. 
 the other Spartan king, were entirely defeated 
 with great loss, and Cleombrotus was left dead 
 on the spot. 
 
 This terrible stroke occasioned great conster- 
 nation at Lacedemon, and it was necessary tcv 
 invest Agesilaus with a dictatorial power, since 
 tlie severity of the Lvcurgan laws would Jiave 
 inflicted such penaltie, on the fugitives as could 
 not now be borne. Agesilaus eluded the diffi- 
 culty by saying, " Let the laws sleep to-day, 
 to-morrow let them resume their full vigour." 
 He then exerted hiinself with all the energy of 
 his character to levy a new army, and restore 
 the spirits of his people ; and when Epaininon- 
 das entered Laconia with a great force, and ap- 
 peared before Sparta itself, which never till then 
 had beheld an enemy from its roofs, Agesilaus, 
 by his military skill and prudence, baffled him ia 
 all his attempts on the city, and obliged him to 
 retire after wasting the country. By his pre- 
 sence of mind, too, he defeated a dangerous con- 
 spiracy of Spartans who had seized the temple 
 of Diana, but who were induced by his orders 
 to quit their post, and were afterwards all appre- 
 hended and executed witliout the usual forms of 
 law. In the progress of this war, which lasted 
 five years, he was of the greatest use to his 
 countrymen by his counsels ; and his son Archi- 
 dainus, as commander-in-chief, was frequently 
 successlul in the field. 
 
 New commotions broke out in Peloponnesus 
 in the year B. C. 362, and Agesilaus marching 
 with an army to join the Mantineans, was near 
 giving Epaminondas an opportunity of surpris- 
 ing Sparta. Soon after followed the battle of 
 Mantinea, in which Agesilaus, at the head of 
 the Spartans and their allies, was defeated by 
 Epaminondas, who died in the moment of 
 victory. All Greece was now desirous of 
 healing the wounds of their country by a ge- 
 neral peace ; which was concluded with the 
 exception of the Lacedemonians alone. They, 
 at the instance of Agesilaus, refused to con- 
 cur, because the Messenians were comprehend- 
 ed in it as a separate state; for which obsti- 
 nacy he is justly blamed by his biographer Plu- 
 tarch. 
 
 By this time he was far advanced in years ; 
 yet he did not scruple to engage in a totally new 
 scene of action, by accepting the command of a
 
 AGE 
 
 ( 83 ) 
 
 A G I 
 
 band of mercenary troops in the service of Ta- 
 chos, a competitor for the ihroue of Egypt. 
 When he arrived in tliat country, a number of 
 Egyptians, eager to see a person ot whose tame 
 they had heard so much, went to meet liim : hut 
 beliolding a little old man, meanly clad, sitting 
 on the glass by the sea-side, they expressed their 
 disappointment by applying the fable of the 
 mountain in labour. He increased their wonder 
 and contempt by accepting only the substantial 
 partot the provisions they broiigiit him, and de- 
 siring tiiem to carry to the Helots the sweetmeats, 
 pastry, and perhunes. He soon, however, gave 
 them a different idea of him by his actions ; but 
 he sullied his reputation and that of his country 
 by going over, on more advantageous offers, to 
 t)ie other competitor, Nectanabis. Indeed the 
 whole transaction reflects little honour on the 
 public principles of the Spartans or their king. 
 He displayed, however, his wonted skill and va- 
 lour in favour of Nectanabis, whom he left 
 iirinly established on the throne. Returning with 
 a large suin on the public account for the aid lie 
 liad given, he ^vas driven by a storm to a place 
 called the Haven of Menelaus, on a desert coast 
 in Africa, where he died in his 84th year, B. C. 
 360, after a reign of forty-one years, during 
 iibove thirty of whiclr he had been the most di- 
 tinguished personage in Greece. 
 
 The life and actions of Agesilaus have been 
 recorded by Xenophon, ^vho was his intimate 
 friend and partial admirer, by Diodorus Siculus, 
 Plutarch, and Nepos. His general character 
 \vill sufficiently appear from the preceding nar- 
 rative, taken from these authorities ; to which a 
 few strokes may be added. He had, on the 
 whole, a high regard for justice ; and, on hear- 
 ing the king of Persia named under the appella- 
 tion of the great king, he \yas wont to say, 
 " How greater than I, if he be not more just V 
 Yet it has been seen that his maxims of justice 
 could give way to the particular benefit of his 
 country ; and even private friendsliip would 
 sometimes make them waver. Plutarch asserts 
 that a letter of his was extant, in which he said, 
 " If Nicias is innocent, acquit him ; if he is 
 «ot, acquit him on my account : at any rate, ac- 
 quit him." Yet his personal integrity and disin- 
 terestedness were always above su'^picion ; and 
 no man made less use of such opportunities of 
 enriching himself. He was likewise- remarkably 
 fr-ee from vain-glory and would never suffer any 
 statue of himself to be set up, or any represen- 
 tation whatever of his person to be taken, " Let 
 my actions," he would say, " if deserving, be 
 my monument." The kindness and hun:anity 
 of his temper have already been noticed ; aud 
 
 the following anecdote gives a very pleasing 
 idea of Km domestic affections. A friend once 
 caught him riding upon a stick with hi; child- 
 ren ; " Tell nobody what you have seen (said 
 Agesilaus) till you are yourself a father." In 
 the collections of anophthcgms, a nmnber arc at- 
 tributed to this king, which display the true 
 Spartan force and smartness. Xcnopfion, Hd- 
 lai'u. et Or/It. cle Laud. AgesU. Plutarch, 
 Fit. Jgtsil. Corn. Nepos, Fit. Jgesil. Diodo- 
 rus Siculus. y us tin. Univers. Hist. — A. 
 
 AGILULF, king of the Lombards, was 
 duke of Turin at the time of the death of Au- 
 tharis, the preceding king. The nation, on this 
 event, being assembled to elect a successor, and 
 not able to agree among themselves, referred the 
 choice to Tiieudelinda, the widow of Autharis, 
 desiring hei to fix on one who should be her hus- 
 band and their sovereign. Her choice of Agi- 
 lult, a person of acknowledged merit, and a re- 
 lation of Autharis, was universally approved, 
 and he was crowned at Milan in 591. Soon 
 after his accession, Theudelinda, a princess of 
 great religious zeal, persuaded him to quit the 
 Arian communion for the catholic; in which he 
 was followed by numbers of his subjects, some 
 of whom, indeed, had hitherto been pagans. 
 In the tliird year of his reign he had to sustain a 
 war against some of his own rebellious dukes, 
 whom, in the end, he forced to submit. Wiiile 
 he vyas thus engaged, Romanus, exarch of 
 Ravenna, made an incursion into Lombardy, 
 and took several places ; but Agilulf, by his vi- 
 gour, recovered them, and even marched into the 
 Roman dukedom, and encamped not far from 
 Rome. Here he committed great ravages, and 
 made a ntnnber of prisoners from the poor inha- 
 bitants, till pope Gregory the Great, by his in- 
 fluence over Theudelinda, prevailed on him to 
 retire, after ransoming his captives. He soon 
 after concluded a peace with the exarch. This 
 was not of long continuance. The new exarch, 
 Callinicu ', treacherously broke the treaty, and 
 seized Parma, in whicli was the daugliter of 
 Agilulf with her husband. Higb.ly provoked by 
 this conduct, Agilulf entered into a treaty with 
 the chazan of the Avares, and engaged liim to 
 make a diversion in Thrace, %\hilsr himself 
 should pursue the war in Italy. He took seve- 
 ral cities, plundered and burned Padua and Man- 
 tua, and laid waste the province of Istria. For 
 the advantage of his conquests, he fortified and 
 enlarged Ferrara, then an inconsiderable village. 
 Having thus secured and augmented his domi- 
 nions, he employed himself, by the advice of 
 his queen, in rebuilding and endowing churches 
 and monasteries , and, after a reign of twe\itv-
 
 A G I 
 
 ( 84 ) 
 
 A G I 
 
 five years, he died in 619, leaving the crown to 
 his son Ad;ih»aid, whom he had for some years 
 l<ctorc caused to be declared his colleague. 
 L'nhuis. Hist. — A. 
 
 AGIS III. king of Sparta, son of Archidamus, 
 and grandson of Agcsilaus, was a prince of great 
 magnanimity. In his youth he wa; sent am- 
 bassador to'Philip, king of Maccdon, then in 
 the Iicight of his power. Philip, seeing him 
 alone, whereas the other states of Greece had 
 complimented him widi sending many deputies, 
 cried, " What! from Sjjarta hut one?" Agis 
 replied, in the true Laconic spirit, ," I was sent 
 to one." He succeeded his fatiier, B. C. 346; 
 and, though he detested the Macedonian domi- 
 nation, he would not expose hi> country to ruin 
 by resisting it, till Alexander was deeply engaged 
 in his Persian expedition. After the battle of 
 Issus, many Greek mercenaries coming home 
 for refuge, he enlisted eight tliousand ot them 
 with money sent by Darius, and, equipping a 
 fleet, sailed to Crete, part of wliich he sub- 
 dued. And when Alexander had gained the bat- 
 tle of Gaugamela, he incited many states of 
 Greece to a revolt, by showing them that when 
 Persia was subdued, Greece would be a mere 
 province to its king, whether Macedonian or 
 Persian. Thus inflaming tiiem with their an- 
 cient love of liberty, lie raised an army of twen- 
 ty thousand foot and two thousand horse; which 
 Antipatcr, governor of Macedon, met with one 
 ot forty-thousand. Agis did not shun an en- 
 gagement ; and a well-disputed action ensued, 
 in which, after great loss on both sides, the con- 
 Icdcrates were defeated, and Agis himself slain. 
 His end was glorious ; for, l;cing carried se- 
 verely wounded froin tlie field, the soldiers who 
 bore him were on the point of being surrounded 
 by the enemy: on whicii, commanding them to 
 set him down, and preserve their own lives for 
 the service of their country, he fought alone on 
 his knees with his sword m hand, and killed se- 
 veral of the assailants, till he was struck through 
 the body with a dart. This event happened 
 B. C. 337. Univos. Hist.— A. 
 
 AGIS IV. king of Sparta, son of Eudami- 
 das, was the next but two of the same line in 
 succession to the preceding. He exhibits the 
 memorable example of strict virtue in a corrupt 
 age, ami a reformer on the throne. Long before 
 liis time, the ancient Spartan poverty and equality 
 had been subverted by dieinflux of foreign wealth 
 consequent on success, and the discipline of Ly- 
 curgus had fallen into disuse. He himself had 
 been brought up in affluence and indulgence by 
 hi.s mother Agesis-trata and his grandmother Ar- 
 cludamia, who were the most opulent persons in 
 
 Lacedemon. lie had, moreover, a handsome 
 person and graceful demeanour; yet, at the age 
 of twenty, he renounced all the allurements of 
 pleasure, became plain in his dress and diet, di- 
 ligent in his exercises, and practised all the rules 
 of the pure Spartan discipline, die restoration of 
 which, he was wont to say, was the only object 
 for which he desired the regal authority. He 
 therefore in earnest set about rctormingthe state, 
 in which design he was at first assisted by his 
 maternal uncle Agesilaus, a man of eloquence 
 and abilities, but unprincipled. By his influ- 
 ence, the mother and grandmother of Agis were 
 gained over to co-operate in the plan, and they 
 continued till the last to glory in his virtues and 
 second all his views. 
 
 The first attempt of Agis vi-as to renew the 
 original law for the equal division of landed 
 property, which had lost all its efficacy. He 
 easily gained over the young men to his party ; 
 but the men of wealth and mature age, with 
 most of the women of condition, alarmed at a 
 change which would deprive them of thir conse- 
 quence, applied to the other king, Leonidas, the 
 son of Cleonymus, to oppose his projects. Le- 
 onidas, who had been brouglit up in the Asia- 
 tic courts, and affected a pomp beyond any of the 
 former Spartan kings, was v^^ell inclined to com- 
 ply with them as far as he durst. Agis, how- 
 ever, got a decree proposed to the senate for the 
 cancelling of all debts, and the equal division of 
 all the lands. The senate not being able to 
 come to a determination upon it, Lysander, one 
 of the ephori, and. a friend of Agis, convoked 
 an assembly of the people, in which the matter 
 was brought forward; and Agis .made to the 
 community the magnificent offer of his own 
 large estate, and six hundred talents in money, 
 should the scheme take place. He gained, as 
 might be expected, rhe people to his side; but 
 the senate, supported by Leonidas, stopped the 
 decree from proceeding. Lysander then prose- 
 cuted Leonidas upon an ancient law, forbidding 
 a descendent of Hercules from marrying a stran- 
 ger, which he had violated ; and in tlie end lie 
 procured his deposition from the throne, and his 
 banishment. The ephori of the next year at- 
 tempted the restoration of Leonidas, and the 
 prosecution of Lysander. But Agis and the 
 new king Clcombrotus, with tlieir party, de- 
 posed the ephori; and bloodshed woultl have 
 ensued, had it not been for the moderation of 
 Agis. He even sent an escort to Leonidas, 
 whom Agesilaus had designed to murder on the 
 road to Tegea. 
 
 The party for reform being now triumphant, 
 it was proposed immediately to pass tiic decree ;
 
 A G I 
 
 c 
 
 ) 
 
 AGO 
 
 bnt AgcsHaus, who was Iiimsclf deeply in debt, 
 advised tliat the first operation should be the can- 
 celling of debts, as likely to make the division 
 of the lands more palatable. This was agreed 
 to ; and all bonds were brought to the market- 
 place, and burned in one pile ; which Agesilaus 
 called " a glorious flame." He had then the 
 address to put otFthe other equalising operation, 
 till it was time for Agis to march with an army 
 to the relief of the Achseans, who had applied to 
 them for succour. Agis led out the young men 
 most attached to him ; and it was acknowledged 
 that never had a Spartan army observed better 
 discipline, and behaved with more regularity. 
 During his absence, Agesilaus conducted him- 
 self so tyrannically, that a conspiracy was form- 
 ed for bringing back Leonidas, which succeed- 
 ed. Agis, who was then returned from his ex- 
 pedition, took sanctuary in a temple, as did the 
 other king, Cleombrotus. The latter was im- 
 mediately dragged forth and sent into banish- 
 ment. Agis remained a considerable time in 
 safety, and was occasionally conducted by his 
 friends to the bath, whence he returned to the 
 temple. At length, these false friends were 
 bribed to betray him ; and one day, on coming 
 from the bath, one of them arrested him in the 
 name of the ephori, and the others joined in hur- 
 rying him to prison. Leonidas, upon the news, 
 presently came and surrounded the prison with a 
 band of mercenaries, whilst the ephori and sena- 
 tors of their party went in. They interrogated 
 Agis concerning his proceedings and the motives 
 of ihem. He affirmed that a desire of restoring 
 the institutions of Lycurgus was his only mo- 
 tive, and that every thing he had done had origi- 
 nated from himself alone. On being asked 
 whether he repented, he answered that he should 
 never repent of so glorious a design, though death 
 were placed before his eyes. Sentence of death 
 was then passed upon him, and the officers were 
 ordered to take him into a room where malefac- 
 tors were strangled. But such was the respect 
 he inspired, that neither they, nor even the mer- 
 cenary soldiers, dared to touch him. Demo- 
 chares, therefore, one of the traitors, thrust him 
 into the place. By this time it was generally 
 known that Agis was in custody ; and a crowd 
 of people, with the king's mother and grandmo- 
 ther, assembled round the prison, and requested 
 that he might have a fair and open trial. This 
 hastened his fate. As he was led to execution, 
 perceiving one of the officers in tears, he said, 
 " My friend, cease to weep; for, suffering, as I 
 do, innocently, my lot is preferable to that of 
 those who condemn me contrary to law and 
 justice." He tlien tranquilly offered his neck to 
 
 the executioner. His grandmother being after 
 ward-; admitted, \\ as put to death. His mother 
 came in next, and beholding her son stretched 
 on the ground, and her mother suspended, she 
 first assisted the officers in taking down the bo- 
 dy of her mother, and laying it by that of Agis ; 
 then kissing her son, she Said, " My son, thy 
 too great moderation and humanity have ruined 
 both us and thee." " If you approved his ac- 
 tions (said one of the senators), you shall sliare 
 his reward." She rose, and crying " May all 
 this be for the good of Sparta," submitted to her 
 fate. This tragical event happened about the 
 yearB. C. 241. Plutarch. Fit. Jgid. Unlvers. 
 Hist.— A. 
 
 AGOBARD, archbishop of Lyons, was one 
 of the most celebrated prelates of the ninth cen- 
 tury. His political conduct is entitled to little 
 praise. He justified, and even fomented, the 
 rebellion of Lothaire and Pepin against their 
 father, the emperor Louis the Meek ; and was 
 one of the prelates, who, in the year 833, un- 
 der the authority of the pope, deposed Louis 
 in the assembly of Compeigne. Upon the 
 restoration of Louis, he was summoned to ap- 
 pear before a council at Thionville, and, on his 
 third refusal, was deposed. Soon afterwards, 
 however, Agobard found means to regain the 
 favour of the emperor, and was restored to his 
 see, where he rei« lined till his death, \vhich 
 happened in the year 840. Agobard, due al- 
 lowance being made for the time in which he 
 lived, appears with greater advantage in his cle- 
 rical and literary character. He zealously op- 
 posed both the worship, and the use, of images,. 
 in a treatise " De Picturis et Imaginibus," a 
 work which excited much attention, and occa- 
 sioned the advocates for this practice great em- 
 barrassment. He wrote a treatise against Felix 
 d'Urgel, who maintained, that Christ was an 
 adopted son ; and another in defence of the 
 priesthood, to prove, that even wicked priests 
 have the power of administering the sacraments. 
 He wrote on the duties of pastors, and the dis- 
 pensation of ecclesiastical benefices. During an 
 epidemic disease, which occasioned large dona- 
 tions to the church from the hope of preventing 
 the infection, he opposed, in writing, the ava- 
 rice of the clergy, which, in a season of calamity, 
 could tlnis take advantage of the weakness of 
 the people. He made a more direct attack up- 
 on superstition, by writing a treatise in opposi- 
 tion to a vulgar error then prevalent, that it 
 was in the power of sorcerers to raise tem- 
 pests. He was an enemy to the practice of 
 duelling ; and wrote to the emperor to soli- 
 cit tlic revocation of the law of Gondebaud,
 
 A G R 
 
 ( S6 ) 
 
 A G R 
 
 f; 
 
 which pci.Jiiitcd tlie decision of (lisputcs by Mil- 
 lie coinbit. or by the orJcal ot" iii e and water. 
 In several of his writings, Agobard appeals to 
 have pjid more attention to physical st.ience 
 than was usual at that period ; and he every 
 where discovers hiniself to be a man of Icainiiig 
 and talents. His works were fir;t jxiblislicd by 
 Masson, in 1606, and afrerwardi, uitii learned 
 note-, by Bahi/c, in two volumes 8vo. in 1666. 
 Ahrer'i'. Moiheints Ecil. Hist. cent. ix. Cav. 
 Hist. Lit. — E. 
 
 AGOSTINO, Paulo, da Vai.lrano, 
 an eminent mu!.i('al compnst-r, horn in 159.3' 
 was educated in the Roman scliool of music 
 under Bernardo Nanini, and succeeded Soriano 
 as master of the pontifical chapel at St. Peter's. 
 He is spoken of as one of the most scicntitic 
 and inventive composers of his tkne in every 
 species of music ; and his productions for four, 
 six, and eight choirs or chorusscs were the ad- 
 miration of all Rome. Padre Martini has pre- 
 served an Agnus Dei, in eight jiarts, of this 
 composer, which is a very extraordinary per- 
 formance. He died in 1629, as;cd thirty-six. 
 Biirmj, Hist. Mus. vol. iii. Haivkins, ditto, 
 vol. iv. — A. 
 
 AGREDA, Mary of, deser\es to be men- 
 tioned as a singtilar example of wild fanaticism, 
 or bold imposture. She was born at Agreda in 
 Spain in 1602, took the vcii in 1620, in a con- 
 vent founded by her father and mother, was 
 elected superior in 1627, and died in 1665. She 
 reported that slie had received from God and 
 the Virgin Mary express orders to write the 
 life of the Holy Virgin. She began the work 
 in 1637, but threw what she then wrote into 
 the fire. The command was re])eated ; the 
 work was resumed, and the fruit of her reveries 
 was a life of the Virgin, under this strange ti- 
 tle, " The Mystical City of God, Miracle of 
 the Almighty, Abyss of the Grace of God, tlie 
 Divine History and Life of the Most Holy 
 Virgin Mary, Mother of God, manifested in 
 these last Ages by the Holy Virgin to Sister 
 Mary of Jesus, Abbess of the Convent of the 
 immaculate Conception, of the City of Agreda." 
 This piece was written by her own hand, with 
 an attestation, that all its contents Iwd been 
 communicated to her by divine revelation. 
 What is most surprising concerning this work 
 is, that father Crozet should give himself the 
 trouble of translating it, and that the learned 
 doctors of the Sorbonne should think it neces- 
 sary to condemn it. The translation, which, on 
 the appearance of the first part, had been sup- 
 pressed in the year 1696, was afterward,, in 
 J717, published entire at Brussels in three vo- 
 
 lumes quart i. So creative are the powders of a 
 fanatical imagination ! Bayle. Moreri. — E. 
 
 AGRICOLA, Cn.-eus Julius. This emi- 
 mcnt Roman was born at the colony ot Forum- 
 lulii or Frejus, A. D. 40, in the reign of Cali- 
 gula. He was descended from a fainily of eques- 
 trian rank ; and his father, Julius Gracinus, oi 
 the scnatorian order, was celebrated as an ora- 
 tor and philosopher. These endowir,ents wcro 
 fatal to him ; for, being commanded by Cali- 
 gula to undertake the accusation of Silanus, he 
 nobly refused, and on that account was put to 
 death by the tyrant. The excellent mother of 
 Agricola, Julia Procilla, conducted the educa- 
 tion of her son, and sent hiin caily to pursue 
 his studies at Marseilles, a place where the Gre- 
 cian politeness, and provincial implicity of 
 manners, were happily blended. Here the youth 
 displayed the vigour of his character by the ar- 
 dour with which he engaged in the sciences of 
 philosophy and law ; insomuch, that it was 
 found necessary to check his attachment to pur- 
 suits, which, in one destined to active life, ought 
 to hold only a secondary rank. 
 
 His military service began in Britain under 
 that active and experienced commander, Sueto- 
 nius PauUinus, who had the arduous task of re- 
 covering the province, which had been nearly 
 overwhelined by a rebellion of the natives. Agri- 
 cola was admitted into the general's own tent as 
 his companion ; and entered with the greatest 
 assiduity into the duties of his new profession. 
 Particularly he inade it his business to acquire 
 an accurate knowledge of the country, which 
 afterwards proved highly serviceal)le to him. 
 Departing hence to Rome in order to undertake 
 the offices of magistracy belonging to his rank, 
 he formed a matrimonial connection with Do- 
 mitia Decidiana, a lady nobly descended and 
 well allied, with vvliom he always lived in per- 
 fect union. He was made quaestor of Asia un- 
 der Salvius Titianus, brother to the emperor 
 Otho ; and, in that lucrative and teinpting situ- 
 ation, preserved an untainted charactei'. He 
 passed through the subsequent offices of tribune 
 of the people and praetor, in that prudent inac- 
 tivity which all good men were obliged to adopt 
 under Nero. Fortunately the judicial part of 
 the prsetorian charge did not fall to his lot ; and, 
 in the expensive duty of exliibiting shows to the 
 people, he preserved a just mean between econo- 
 my and regard to his reputation. On Galba's 
 accession, he was appointed to conduct an in- 
 quiry concerning the property belonging to the 
 temples, which had been scandalously plundered 
 by Nero ; and by his care any further depreda- 
 tions were prevented.
 
 A G R 
 
 ( S7 ) 
 
 A G R 
 
 During the civil commotions of the next 
 year, A. D. 69, Agricola suffered a severe af- 
 fliction from the murder of liis mother, and the 
 ravaging of her estate, a.\ IntcmcUi in Liguria 
 (now Vintimigiia), by tlie piratical fleet of Otho. 
 As he was JKistcning to tlic spot, he was over- 
 taken bv the news of Vespasian's assumption of 
 the empire. For his service he raised new le- 
 vies of troops ; and this proof of his active fide- 
 lity caused him to be appointed by Mucianus 
 commander ot tiic 20th legion, stationed in Bri- 
 tain, which had exhibited marks of disaffection 
 and mutiny. By his wise and moderate con- 
 duct he secured the obedience ot the legion ; and 
 he continued for some time in Britain under tlie 
 governments of Vettius Bolanus and Petilius 
 Cerealis. The latter, who was active and en- 
 terprising, entrusted Agricola witli the command 
 of large parts of tlie army on several occasions, 
 in which he equally approved his spirit in ex- 
 ecuting orders, and his modesty in relating his 
 successes. 
 
 On (liis return he was elevated by Vespasian 
 to the patrician order, and invested with the go- 
 vernment of the province of Aquitania in Gaul. 
 Here he abundantly proved that his military cha- 
 racter had not rendered him less fit for civil ad- 
 ministration ; and, in a residence of three years, 
 he acquired universal love and esteem. Such a 
 post was the great trial of virtue among the Ro- 
 mans ; and Agricola acquitted himself in such a 
 manner, as to raise his reputation to tlie highest 
 pitch. 
 
 He was created consul along with Domitian, 
 A.D. 77. This office at that time had become 
 little more than a nominal dignity ; it was, how- 
 ever, still an object of ambition, and part of the 
 progress to high trusts in the state. During his 
 consulate, he contracted his daughter to 7'acitus 
 the historian ; from whose admirable biographi- 
 cal memoirs of his father-in-law the present ac- 
 count is extracted. After his year was expired 
 he was admitted into the pontifical college, and 
 appointed governor of Britain. This extensive 
 and turbulent province had been the scene of 
 many bloody contests under a succession of go- 
 vernors ; of whom the iminediate predecessor of 
 Agricola was Julius Frontinus, a man of abili- 
 ties, and the conqueror of the warlike nation of 
 tlie Silures. 
 
 Agricola, on his arrival, found theOrdovices 
 or people of North Wales in a state of insurrec- 
 tion. Marching against them at a late season of 
 the year, he gave tlicm a signal defeat, which 
 almost extirpated the nation ; and then reduced 
 Mona, or the isle of Anglesey. After these mi- 
 litary successes, he turiicd his attention to tlie 
 
 correction of those abuses which had excited 
 tlie hostilities of the Britons. He treated them 
 with equity and liumanity, lightened their bur- 
 dens, and softened their manners by encouraging 
 in them a taste for the arts of peace. He like- 
 wise was assiduous in providing a liberal educa- 
 tion for the sons of the chieftains, and in pro- 
 moting the use of the Roman habit and lan- 
 guage ; and thus he maintained the southern 
 part of the island in that tranquillity, which is 
 the best compensation for the loss of freedom. 
 
 The ambition of extending the Roman li- 
 mits led him, however, to carry his arms north- 
 wards ; and in the third year of his government 
 he spread the ravages of war as far as the Frith 
 of Tay. His military skill was particularly dis- 
 played in his establishment of fortified posts, 
 which were so well chosen, that none of them 
 were ever taken or abandoned. He erected a 
 chain of fortresses from the Clyde to the Frith of 
 Forth, by which he separated the conquered part 
 of the island from the fierce and untamed tribes 
 of the remotest north. He stationed troops in 
 that part of Scotland which is opposite Ireland, 
 on which island he had future views of conquest. 
 His sixth campaign was spent in an expedition 
 to the eastern parts beyond the Frith of Forth, 
 in which he was accompanied by his fleets 
 which explored the inlets and harbours, and 
 hemmed in the natives on all sides. Ihe Cale- 
 donians made a fierce attack on one of his 
 camps, in which, after a temporary success,, 
 they were repulsed with great loss. 
 
 The seventh summer was passed in the same 
 part of Scotland ; and the Grampian hills were 
 the scene of a decisive engagement. A large 
 body of the natives, under Galgacus- their most 
 renowned leader, here made their stand. Agri- 
 cola di posed his troops in a masterly manner, 
 and waited the descent of the enemy from their 
 hills. The victory was a considerable time dis- 
 puted, but at last was complete on the side of 
 the Romans, who, with small comparative loss, 
 killed a great number of the Caledonians, and 
 dispersed the rest. Agricola, after receiving 
 hostages from some of the tribes, withdrew his 
 army slowly within the Roman limits, having 
 ordered the commander of his fleet to circumna- 
 vigate the island. 
 
 Domitian, in the mean time, had succeeded 
 to the empire. His jealous disposition rendered 
 the account of Agricola's brilliant successes a 
 matter of anxiety, ill disseinbled by apparent 
 satisfaction. He-caused, however, the triumphal 
 insignia to be decreed him by the senate, toge- 
 ther with abundance of comidimentarv expres- 
 sions ; and, in recalliiig him, he took care that
 
 A G R 
 
 ( 88 ) 
 
 A G R 
 
 a nimour OioulJ be spread of an intention 
 to apjxtint liim to the govevninent of Syria. 
 Agricola resigned his province in peace to liis 
 successor; and returning, wms receival by the 
 emperor with a slight embrace, and then sut- 
 frrcd to mingle with the throng, and retire to 
 private life His high reputation, and the wislies 
 of the public for his further advancement, were 
 the source of fret|ucnt danger to liim in this ty- 
 rannical reign ; which lie averted only by his 
 prudence and moderation. The year anivcd 
 in which, according to the u.sual course, the lot 
 of proconsul of Asia or Afiica must fall upon 
 him. The emperor, who dreaded the union 
 of such abilities with so much power, by his 
 emissaries induced him to request an excuse 
 from undertaking the charge, and readily grant- 
 ed it as a seeming indulgence to his love of re- 
 tirement. Soon after, he was seised with the 
 illness of %vhich he died. This was, by com- 
 mon report, attributed to poison ; and it is cer- 
 tain that Domitian showed a wonderful anxiety 
 to be informed of the progress ot his disease, and 
 of his approach to dissolution. Yet it is proba- 
 ble that in tliis instance the susjiicion of foul 
 practices was unfounded. Agricola died on Au- 
 gust 23, A. D. 93, in the fifty-fourth year of his 
 age, leaving a widow and only daughter. He 
 lost a voung son while in Britain. His decease 
 was lamented as a public loss, and even foreign 
 nations sympathised in it. Taciti Fit. Agri- 
 colir. — A. 
 
 AGRICOLA, George, the most celebrated 
 metallurgist of his time, was born at Glau- 
 chen in Misnia in 1494. After studying at 
 Leipsich and other places in Germany, he went 
 for further improvement into Italy, and on his 
 return settled as a physician at Joachim's-thal 
 in Misnia. He afterwards removed to Chem- 
 nit7., and applied himself with the utmost dili- 
 gence to the study of mineralogy, and all the 
 operations on metals, in that country so famous 
 for its mines. In this pursuit he spent not only 
 a pension given him by Maurice duke of Saxonv, 
 but part of his own fortune. The treatises he 
 vrote on these subjects are uncommonly full 
 and exact, and, for a long time, were considered 
 as standard works. They are composed in an 
 elegant Latin style, and abound in curious in- 
 formation, though tinctured with the credulity of 
 the age. He was also a man of general learn- 
 ing, and wrote treatises as well in his own pro- 
 fession as in political and theological subjects. 
 He remained warmly attached to the old reli- 
 
 fion, though he lived among Lutherans. He 
 ied at Chemnitz in 1555, and was buried 
 at Zeitz; the bigotry of his townsmen not 
 
 suffering his body to obtain a grave among 
 them. 
 
 His works on inetallurgy and mineralogy arc 
 divided into various heads, but are chiedy coni- 
 preheiuled under the titles, " De Ortu et Causis 
 Subterrancoruni;" " De Natura eonun qua af- 
 fluuntex Terra;" "De Natura Fossilium; "De 
 mcdicatis Fontibus ;" " De suhterraneis Animan- 
 tibus;" "DeveteribusetnovisMetallis; and"Df 
 Re metallica," printed first at Basil in 1546 and 
 1561 in folio, and reprinted in other places. He 
 also wrote a learned work, " DeMensuriset Pon- 
 deribus, Romanorum et Grscoium," with va- 
 rious matter on the same topic referring to modern 
 times. Hisprincipalmedical workis "DePeste," 
 lib. iii. Basil, 1 5 54. Mclchior Adam, W^t. Med. 
 Germ. Vandcr Linden, de Scnipt. Med,'— A. 
 
 AGRICOLA, Michael, a Lutheran mi- 
 nister at Abo in Finland, was the first who 
 translated the New Testament into the language 
 of the country: it was printed in 1548. He 
 died ill 1556. Bayle. Moreri. — E. 
 
 AGRICOLA, RoDOLPHUS, a man of let- 
 ters, was born at Bafflon, near Groningen, iri 
 Friesland, in the year 1442. He discovered an 
 early love of learning, and devoted himself al- 
 most entirely to literary pursuits. The school 
 in which he received his education was that of 
 Louvain, where he might have obtained a pro- 
 fessor's chair, but he chose to prosecute his stu- 
 dies without the restraint of any professional 
 engagement. Having received academic ho- 
 nours from his alma mater, \v\<ih whom he passed 
 his juvenile years with great sobriety and indus- 
 try, he determined to extend his acquaintance 
 with science and- letters by visiting France and 
 Italy. He made choice of Ferrara as the place 
 of his temporary residence; and here he taught 
 Latin, which he wrote with so much purity and 
 elegance, as to contend in prose with Guarini, 
 and in verse with the Strozzas, celebrated writers 
 at that period. (Valer. Andr. Bib!. Belg. p. 798) 
 Here he also studied the Greek language, and 
 extended his acquaintance with philosophy un- 
 der the lectures of Theodore Gaza. In the 
 school of this philosoplier Agricola himself 
 sometiines declaimed, and obtained applause both 
 for his style and elocution. He remained in 
 Ferrara two years, and enjoyed the patronage of 
 the duke of Este. Returning into the Nether- 
 lands about the year 1477, he visited Deventer, 
 where he saw Erasmus, who was then a boy 
 about ten years old, and predicted that he would 
 become a great man. Continuing his travels, 
 his celebrity procured him several offers of ho- 
 nourable and lucrative stations ; but he preferred 
 die unrestrained enjoyment of literary leisure to
 
 ROB OXr]PHV^^AGRICOI.A^
 
 Stemmate -natus €ques,JKp(Jicus3Q^nsatcjjvenUi 
 Jurvs et 9mperij conjid ^igri-p^a f u] . OO ±
 
 A G R 
 
 ( 89 ) 
 
 A G R 
 
 evety tiling else, and in the ycs.T 1482, settled 
 in the Palatinate, passing his time partly at Hei- 
 delberg and partly at Worms, in each i)lace 
 giving, as it seems, occasional lectures in po- 
 lite literature. Schottus, ina letter to Agricola, 
 dated February i8th, 1484, says, " On my 
 return to Sirasburg, I was pleased to learn, 
 that you had begun at Heidelberg to purge the 
 tongues and ears of the youth, that the former 
 miglit not babble absurdity and folly, and that 
 the latter, baviug tasted the sweetness of your 
 learned and elegant in truction, might avoid, as 
 magical incantations, the insipid and wordy tri- 
 fling of sciolists." The love of logical subtleties 
 was still, however, too prevalent in the schools, 
 to leave either leisure or taste for the due cultiva- 
 tion of polite learning ; and the elegant lectures 
 of Agricola were less frequented than they de- 
 served. 'J'he elector palatine had good sense 
 and taste sufficient to discern the singular merit 
 of this polite scholar: he took pleasure in liear- 
 ing him discourse on topics of learning; and, at 
 his request, Agricola wrote an Abridgment of 
 Ancii nc History. Among his intimate friends 
 was John Dalburgh, bishop of Worms, whom 
 he had instructed in the Greek language. It 
 was, probably, in cotisequence of his acquaint- 
 ance with this prelate, that he turned his 
 thoughts, after forty years of age, to the study 
 of theology. With the help of a Jew, whom 
 the bishop procured for this service, he prepared 
 himself for his new pursuit, by acquiring a 
 knowledge of ti.e Hebrew. The st'idv of this 
 language was at first so difficult to him, that, ac- 
 cording to his own account, I'.e seemed to be 
 wrestling with Antasus ; and it is not probable 
 that he ever made anv great prcneiency in this 
 study, or in theological knowledge ; for, soon 
 after he had entered upon these pursuits, he was 
 stopped in his literary career bv death. This 
 haj'pened at Heidelberg in I4§5. It is said, 
 that on the subject of religion he had a glimpse 
 of that liglit, which rose on the world in the 
 next age, and that, in conversation, he deplored 
 the darkness, and censured the superstitions of 
 the times in which he lived. Neither his natural 
 , temper, nor his course of study, was, however, 
 such as to qualify him for the character of a 
 reformer. Fond of ease and leisure, and de- 
 voted to study, he declined every kind of public 
 office or trtted occupation : he even refused to 
 encounter the cares and fatigues of the married 
 .state ; and his homage to the sex is said to have 
 been confined to the easy task of writing ele- 
 gant verses, ar.d practising mu?ic, vocal and in- 
 Btrumental, for their amuseiTierit. It was not 
 to be expected, that a man of so indolent a dis- 
 VOL. I. 
 
 position would take the trouble to enlighten and 
 reform the world. Yet his life was by no 
 means either dishonourable to himself or useless 
 to society. In an ago when such exertions were 
 much wanted, he contributed largely to the re- 
 storation of learning, and the revival of taste. 
 He possesses the praise of having been the, first 
 who restored the Greek learning to Germany. 
 Erasmus, relating a circumstance concerning 
 his death, that he died for want of timely medi- 
 cal assistance^ calls him " a man truly divine." 
 Veluti si quis in morbo capital! medicum opperi- 
 aturinsignem aut procul acccrsendum : qua? res 
 homi>icm ilium vcre divinum extinxit Rodolphum 
 Agricolam ; etenim, dum cunctatur medicus, 
 nio;s antevertit. (Erasmi Adag.) 
 
 Bayle says of him that Italy, which at that 
 time called all beyond the Alps barbarous, pro- 
 duced nothing against which PViesland might 
 not confidently bring into competition herAgii- 
 cola. A learned Venetian honoured Agricola 
 with an epitaph, which ranks him with the 
 most celebrated names of Greece and Rome. 
 But of his productions little remains, which 
 will in the present age bethought to justify such 
 high panegyric. Hi woi'ks, of which the prin- 
 cipal is a logical treatise, entitled, " De Inven- 
 tione Dialectica," were first published by i^lard, 
 • at Lou vain, in 15 16. and afterwards reprinted in 
 4to. by Occo, at Cologne, in 1539. Voss. de 
 Hist. Lat. Melclnor Jdam,de Vit. Germ. Phi!. 
 Bayle. Morcii, lib. iii. c. 6. — E. 
 
 AGRIPPA, of Bithynia, an astronomer, lived 
 at tlie latter end of the first century. He is ce- 
 lelnated foran astronomical observation which he 
 made on the course of the moon, and which is re- 
 corded by Ptolomy. He observed in Bithynia, on 
 the 29th of November in the fourth year of the 
 217th Olympiad, or gad year of Christ, that 
 the moon was in conjunction with the Pleiades. 
 
 lib. vii. 
 — E. 
 
 0- 
 
 p. 170. ed. 
 
 Fid. Ptolom. Almag. 
 Bas. 1538. Aforcri. 
 
 AGRIPPA, Hen«.y Cornelius, alearned 
 philosopher, jjossessed a vigorous and versatile 
 genius, and experienced great vicissitudes of 
 fortune. He was born in the year 14S6, 
 (Agripp. Epist. lib. vii. ep. 26.) at Cologne, of 
 the noble fainily of Nettesheym, which had 
 been long in the service of the house of Au- 
 stria. (Ep. vi. iS.) Inhis youth he was employed 
 as secretary to the emperor Maximilian, andaf- 
 terwards entered into hi service in the army of 
 Italy, where he r>m"incd seven years. Of his 
 military character anu exploits nothing furth.er 
 is known, than that he signalised himself b his 
 valour on stverni occasion-, and obtaii ed the 
 
 honour of kniLiitheod. 
 
 Thjt this disiii.ciloii 
 
 N
 
 A G R 
 
 ( 90 ) 
 
 A G R 
 
 Ivlghly gratihod his vanit)', appears from one of 
 ^is letter-;, in which he says, " I Jiil not pro- 
 cure tliis orJer by solicitation, nor borrow it in 
 jiiy foreign travels, nor impudently extort it at 
 a royal inauguration i but I obtained it by mili- 
 tary desert, displayed in the open held of battle." 
 (Ep. vii. 21.) Though the particulars of his 
 education are unknown, it is certain that he 
 must have found opportimity, in tlie midst ot his 
 avocations, for application to study ; for we 
 find him caily possessed of an extensive know- 
 ledge of language and of science. Concerning 
 himself he relates, in one of his letters, (Ep. vii. 
 21.) that he was acquainted with e-ight languages, 
 six of which were so familiar to him, that he 
 was able not only to read and speak thein, but 
 to translate from them, and to use any ot them 
 fluently in public discourse. Forsaking the 
 jnilitary profession, he followed the natural bias 
 of his mind by devoting himself to literary and 
 scier.tific pursuits; and his progress was so ra- 
 pid, that he early obtained, but at what time 
 and place docs not appear, the united academic 
 honours of doctor in law and physic. The 
 study of medicine turned his attention towards 
 the grand project, so eagerly pursued at this 
 time by physicians and other men of science, of 
 transmuting inferior metals into gold ; a pro- 
 ject, to which has been given the quaint appel- 
 lation of the phjlosoplier's stone. By pro- 
 fessing to be intimately acquainted with the se- 
 crets of nature, and to be just within sight of the 
 grand deuderatum, he hoped to attract the admi- 
 ration of the public, and to recommend himself 
 to the patronage of princes. Full of romantic 
 expectations, he entered on his travels. In the 
 year 1507, the twenty-first of his age, he vi- 
 sited France, and the next year passed some 
 time in Spain. Returning to France, he took up 
 a temporary residence at the college of Dole in 
 Curgundv, where he read pubhc lectures in di- 
 vinity, and was appointed to theofEceof regent 
 with a salary. (Agr. Defensio Prop.) The 
 text on which he read was the mystical work 
 of Reuchlin, " De Verbo mirifico." His lec- 
 tures became exceedingly popular, and were at- 
 tended even by the counsellors of the parliament. 
 He advanced many things, however, too new 
 and bold to pass without offence to the clergy, 
 who were jealous for the purity of the faith : it 
 is probable, too, that on this occasion he di'-- 
 played somewhat too freely that vein for satiri- 
 cal wit, which afterwards raised against him so 
 numerous an host of enemies ; for we learn, that 
 the monks rendered his residence in Dole so trou- 
 blesome, that he found it necessary to withdraw. 
 From France, in the year 15 10, Agrippa 
 
 passed over into England, but his stay there was 
 short, and we are only informed, that, while 
 he was in London, he published a treatise on 
 the epistles of St. Paul. Thence he returned to 
 his native city, and, for a short time, read lec- 
 tures in scliolastic theology. His ristless spirit, 
 or perhaps his necessities, impelled him to a 
 change of situation ; and he once more resumed 
 his military character in the emperor's army in 
 Italy. He remained not long, however, in a 
 station which ill suited his dispositions and habits. 
 At the solicitation of his friend the cardinal de 
 Sainte Croix, he went, in his theological capa- 
 city, to a council at Pisa ; but the speedy disso- 
 lution of the assembly at once deprived him of 
 an opportunity of displaying his talents, and 
 saved him from the hazard of exposing himself 
 to the censure of the church for heretical opi- 
 nions ; unless, indeed, it be true, that he had 
 before this time been induced, by the hope of 
 preferment, to retract his former errors, and 
 make profession of orthodoxy ; a suspicion 
 which receives some support from a letter, 
 which pope Leo X. wrote to Agrippa, dated 
 from Rome, July 12th, 15 13, iu which he is 
 commended for his zeal in these strong terms : 
 (Agrip. Op. vol. ii. p. 710.) " We have 
 been informed by a letter from our venera- 
 ble brother, Ennius, bishop of Verulam, our 
 nuncio, and from the report of others, of your 
 devotion to the holy apostolic see, and of your 
 zeal and diligence in defending its privileges and 
 safety; which is highly acceptable to us: where- 
 fore we greatly commend you in the lord, and 
 applaud this your meritorious conduct." The 
 pope's favour appears, however, to have termi- 
 nated in barren praise ; for we find Agrippa, 
 after this time, supporting himself by reading 
 lectures in divinity, sometimes at Turin, and 
 sometimes at Pavia. At the latter place he also 
 read lectures in the year 1 5 15, on the occult 
 philosophy of Mercurius Trismegistus. (Agr. 
 Defensio Prop.) But these resources appear to 
 have been insufficient for his comfortable subsist- 
 ence ; for, in the same or the next year, he 
 suddenly retired from Pavia. If his poverty 
 v^'as in any degree owing to a matrimonial en- 
 gagement into which he had entered, it ii mucli 
 to be regretted ; for he speaks of his wife in terms 
 of affectionate commendation, which may deserve 
 to be recorded. (Ep. ii. ig.) " I give abundant 
 thanks to Almighty God, who has united me 
 to a wife after my own heart, a young lady of 
 good family, well bred, young, and handsome, 
 who so perfectly adapts herself to my ha- 
 bits, that an angry word never passes between 
 us, and who, to complete my happiness, is ia
 
 A G R 
 
 ( 9' ) 
 
 A G R 
 
 prosperity and adversity always alike faithful, 
 kind, and affectionate, of strict integrity and 
 great prudence, and ever attentive to the con- 
 cerns of her family." 
 
 That tiie domestic felicity which Agrippa 
 enjoyed with this excellent wife was disturbed 
 by poverty, appears very probable ; for we find, 
 that on iiis leaving Pavia with his wife and son, 
 his friends at Cologne made several efforts to 
 procure him a reputable and advantageous set ■ 
 tlement. They at length succtedcd ; and in 
 15 1 8 he was in possession of the post of syn- 
 dic, advocate, and orator of the city of Mentz. 
 (Oper. vol. ii. p. 1096.) A foolish dispute, 
 however, soon disturbed liis repose. Con- 
 trary to the pojiular opinion, that St. Ann, the 
 mother of tlie Virgin Mary, had three hus- 
 bands, he ventured to maintain that she had but 
 ene. It fs vexatious to see great talents thus 
 absurdly occupied. Another affair more wor- 
 thy the interference of a philosopher, which 
 contributed to excite the indignation of the 
 monks, was the vindication of a poor woman 
 who had been accused of witchcraft. The in- 
 quisitor had put the poor woman to the torture 
 ©n no other pretence, than that she was the 
 daughter of a reputed witch : Agrippa succeeded 
 in proving her innocence, and obtaining the in- 
 fliction of a slight penalty upon her accusers ; 
 but he brought upon himself such a load of 
 theological odium by this and ctlier attacks 
 upon superstition, that his residence at Mentz 
 became uncomfortable and hazardous. After 
 enjoying his post only two years, he resigned it, 
 and in 1520 left Mentz, but not without fixing 
 upon it the stigma of being omnium bonanim U- 
 ierarum virtutumque noverca, " the stepmother 
 of learning and virtue." (Ep. ii» 39, 40.) 
 
 Agrippa returned to Cologne, and here lost 
 his amiable wife, who died in the year 1 521. 
 For some unknown reason he buried her at 
 Alentz, where he no longer resided. Probably 
 it was not so much through extreme regret for 
 his loss as through the natural restlessness of his 
 temper, that he now left Cologne and went to 
 Geneva : for, the next year, he so far subdued 
 his grief as to take to his arms a second wife, a 
 Genevan lady, of whom he speaks in terms 
 scarcely less commendatory than of the first.. 
 (Ep. iii. 60.) One of his friends speaks of 
 her as rich ; but, had this been the case, it could 
 not without uncommon extravagance have 
 happened, that, while he was at Geneva, where 
 he practised physic, he should complain of not 
 being able, for want of money, to make a jour- 
 ney to Chamber! to solicit a pension, which the 
 duke of Savoy had given him reason to expect. 
 
 (Ep. iii. 24.) The failure of this expectation, 
 with other circumstances, induced Agrippa to- 
 leave Geneva ; and, in 1523, he removed to 
 Friburg in Switzerland, where he continued to 
 practise medicine. Soon dissatisfied with this 
 situation, or unexpectedly favoured by fortune, 
 he obtained, through the interest of his friends, 
 an appointment under Francis 1. as physician to 
 that prince's mother, and, in 1524, settled at 
 Lyons. This sunshine of court-favour proved 
 but a transient gleam. A year had scarcely- 
 passed, when Agrippa, who was supposed by 
 his ignorant and superstitious mistress to possess 
 the power of consulting the stars concerning 
 future events, received orders to inform her, 
 by means of his astrological art, what turn the 
 affairs of France would take. Indignant, or 
 affecting indignation, at being thus employed, he 
 advised her not to degrade his talents by the ex- 
 ercise of so unworthy an art, when she might 
 command his services in happier studies. The 
 princess was displeased with this freedom, and 
 still more when she found that Agrippa had be- 
 fore employed this Mivjorthy art in flattering 
 the constable, the enemy of her house, with an 
 assurance of speedy victory. Agrippa, upon 
 this discovery, was regarded, and, as it seems, nof 
 without reason, as treacherous to his patron;- 
 his pension was detained; and, while his friends- 
 were making interest to obtain the payment, he 
 had the mortification to be informed that his- 
 name was struck from the list of pensioners. 
 When he knew that he was cashiered, he tried 
 the power of complaints and threats to obtain 
 his restoration : he threatened to discover all he 
 knew of the intrigues of courtiers ; he intimated 
 a purpose to employ his secret arts to procure 
 him better fortune ; he even condescended to 
 make use of the language of gross abuse, call- 
 ing the princess a cruel and perfidious Jezabel : 
 but all was unsuccessful, and he was obliged to 
 look out for new resources.. (Ep. iii. 70. iv. 52, 
 37, 20, 62, 25. vi. 22.) 
 
 It clearly appears, from the preceding inci- 
 dent, that Agrippa had the art to attract the at- 
 tention of persons of the first distinction by his 
 extraordinary talents, and even to create a per- 
 suasion that he could predict future events. His 
 wonderful powers seem to have impressed many 
 people with a kind of horror. On his way from 
 Lyons to Antwerp^ (Ep. v. 51.) the place 
 which he chose for his next residence, it was not 
 without great difficulty that he obtained the ne- 
 cessary passport. The duke of Vendome, to 
 whom this office belonged, when he heard the 
 name of Agrippa, suddenly tore to pieces the- 
 paper he was to sign, saying, with great indig-
 
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 ( 9^ ) 
 
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 nation, that lie would never sign n passport for 
 a conjurer. (Ep. iv. 30.) Whether it was from 
 aiiv superstitious dread of his supposed superna- 
 tural powers, or from a secret liope that so great 
 a master of the secrets of nature might at length 
 discover the pliilo-opher's stone ; or mer- ly 
 from respect for his great learning and singidar 
 talents ; whatever was the motive, the tact cer- 
 tainly was, that Agrippa had not been long at 
 Antwerp, when his growing fame produced an 
 emulation among different states for the honour 
 of affording him patronage. In the year 1529, 
 he received mvitations at once from Henry Vill. 
 king of England, the emperor's chancellor, an 
 Italian marquis, and Margaret of Austria, mis- 
 tress of the Netherlands. He accepted the offer 
 of the latter, and through her interest obtained 
 the post of historiographer to the emperor 
 Charles V. (Ep. v. 88.) 
 
 It might now have been imagined, that the 
 tide in Agrippa's affairs was setting in with a 
 full current, and would speedily lead him on to 
 fortune : and the court which he paid to the 
 emperor, at his entrance upon his office, by 
 WTiting, as Bayic relates, a history of his go- 
 vernment, or, according to Moreri, an account 
 of his coronation, might seem to confirm tliis 
 expectation. But Agrippa's eccentric genius 
 could not submit to the systematic trammels of 
 the age in which he lived ; and his satirical wit 
 could not resist the temptation of putting its 
 sickle into the rich harvest of folly, which the 
 times produced. In the year 1530, he publislied 
 a treatise " On the Vanity of the Sciences," in 
 ■which his principal object was, not to discredit 
 genuine science, but to show the futility of 
 many of the pur-uits of the learned, and expose 
 the inefficiency and absurdity of the common me- 
 thods of instruction. The work was a severe 
 satire upon the monks, the theologians, the 
 preachers, and the members of the universities : 
 Erasmus, speaking of it, says, " On every oc- 
 casion he lashes vice and commends virtue ; but 
 there are persons who can bear nothing but 
 praise." [In omni genere rerum vituperat 
 mala, laudat bona: sed sunt qui nihil aliud 
 sustinent, quam laudari.] (Erasmi Epist. lib. 
 27.) 
 
 It is not easy to conceive the degree of irrita- 
 tion which this corrosive publication excited. 
 The numerous and powerful body who had 
 been the- object of his satire united their forces 
 against him ; and the emperor, in opposition to 
 the friendly interference of Campegius the pope's 
 legate, and of cardinal de la Mark, bishop of 
 Liege, withdrew from him his pension, and even 
 permitted his imprisonment for debt, in 1531, at 
 
 Brussels. (Ep. vi. 14,15.) The emperor was 
 probably instigated to this treatment of Agrippa 
 by the bigotry of his sister, Margaret of Au- 
 stria, whom the monks had violently prejudiced 
 against Agrippa, as appears from a letter written 
 at this time to a friend. After complaining 
 that he was left by the deities of the court to pe- 
 rish with hunger, he adds, alluding to the em- 
 peror : " What the great Jupiter himself intends, 
 I cannot guess. I have just learned what great 
 danger I have been in : for it has been hinted to 
 me, that the brethren of the cowl had so far in- 
 fluenced the princess, a woman weakly addicted 
 to superstition, that, had she lived, I should have 
 been convicted and condemned, like a blasphemer 
 of the Christian religion, for the heinous crime 
 of treason against the majesty of monkery, and 
 the sacred cowl." (Ep. vi. 15.) 
 
 After the death of Margaret, Agrijipa was 
 released from prison ; but the animosity of his 
 enemies was soon revived by another treatise, 
 which in 1 531 appeared at Antwerp, " On 
 Occult Philosophy ;" a work which Agrippa 
 had written in his younger days, and of which 
 manuscript copies had been dispersed over almost 
 all Europe. This work was not, as it has been 
 called, a treatise on magic, but a sketch of mys- 
 tical theology, explaining, on the principles of 
 the emanative system, the harmony of the ele- 
 mentary, celestial, and intellectual worlds. It 
 was published to prevent a spurious and muti- 
 lated edition, and, appearing under the protec- 
 tion of the emperor's licence, was at first re- 
 ceived without opposition. The clergy, how- 
 ever, wliose sight was sl\arpcncd bv the severe 
 castigation they had suffered from the former 
 work, at length discovered, under the obscure 
 language of this treatise, error and licresy ; 
 and, at their instigation, fathfer Conrad ofUhn, 
 inquisitor of the faith, interposed his autliority 
 to prevent a diird edition. This happened in 
 1532, while Agrippa was on a visit to tiie arch- 
 bishop of Cologne, to whom he had dedicated his 
 " Occult Philosophy," and from wliom he had 
 received an obliging letter. (Ep. vii. I.) The 
 prohibition, however, was soon either super- 
 seded or disregarded ; for, in i 533, a new edi- 
 tion of the work appeared at Cologne, and an- 
 other in 1542, whicii, by the \\av, is the most 
 complete and the most, scarce. This publica- 
 tion was accompanied with an " Apology foi 
 himself to the Senate of Cologne," full of 
 spleen and invective, which excited violent re- 
 sentment, and obliged him to withdraw. He 
 retired to Bonn, where, as John W'ier, (Wic- 
 rus de Magis, c. 5.) who was his domestic ser- 
 vant, attests, he divorced his third wife, a lady
 
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 ( 
 
 93 
 
 ) 
 
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 of IMeclilin, whom he hail married soon after 
 his second, who died at Antwcri) in 1529, had 
 brought lii 111 five sons. His poverty, as ivell as 
 his natural temper, still urging him to a change 
 of situation, he determined once more to try his 
 fortune in France, and returned to I^yons in the 
 year 1535. Here, instead of meeting with the 
 patronage he expected, he was imprisoned as a 
 state offender, for some satirical jvipcrs which 
 he had formerly published against the mother of 
 Francis I. He had still, liowever, sufficient in- 
 terest in this country to obtain a speedy release, 
 and he retired to Grenoble. Here, in the same 
 year 1535, he died ; but so little is known con- 
 cerning the immediate cause, or the circum- 
 stances of his death, that it is not even certain 
 whether he died in the hospital of the city, or in 
 the house of a friend. (Wierus de Magis, c. 5. 
 Naud. Apolog. p. 427.) 
 
 A more singular and heterogeneous charac- 
 ter than that of Cornelius Agrippa can scarcely 
 be found in the records of biography. Not- 
 withstan.iing the grievous charge brought against 
 him by his accusers, of his being "miserably en- 
 chanted to the most cunning and execrable magic 
 that can be imagined ;" (Thevet. Hist. Horn. U- 
 lust.tom.vii.p. 221. ed. Par. 1671.) and notwith- 
 standing the dreadful story told by several au- 
 thors, that lie had always a devil with him in 
 the shape of a black dog, (Wierus de Magis, 
 c. 5.) who attended him to his last breath, 
 and then disappeared, no one knew how ; it 
 is pretty certain that Agrippa was not a ma- 
 gician. How far his acquaintance with the se- 
 crets of nature extended, does not appear. — 
 That he was not possessed of the grand art of 
 alchymy, may be confidently presumed from his 
 having lived and died poor ; but it is doubtful, 
 whether he owed any portion of his reputation 
 for wonderful powers to his superior knowledge 
 of the chemical and mechanical laws of nature, 
 or whether it was entirely built upon his pre- 
 tended skill in astrology and occult philosophy : 
 from the general cast of his writings, and from 
 the particulars of his life, tlie latter appears most 
 probable. His knowledge of languages was un- 
 common ; his reading, in the various branches 
 of learning at that time studied, appears to have 
 been extensive ; and his facility in assuming any 
 character which suited his convenience or his 
 humour, was wonderful. We are astonished 
 to see him by turns a soldier and a philosopher ; 
 a municipal officer and a lecturer; a lawyer and 
 a physician ; an astrologer and a divine. Yet, 
 we do not find him in any or all these capacities 
 able to procure any important advantage to him- 
 self, or to render any essential benefit tu the woiJ J. 
 
 He had one beautiful wife after another ; but his 
 temper was too impetuous, his mode of life too 
 unsettled, and his circumstances too embarrassed, 
 to enjoy any large portion of domestic happiness. 
 He had many flattering prospects, and yet was 
 always poor, and often in distress. He had nu- 
 merous friends and great patrons, yet his ene- 
 mies almost always triumphed over him. With 
 talents which, steadily exercised and prudently 
 directed, might have expedited the progress of 
 knowledge ; and with an enlargement and libe- 
 rality of mind, which raised him above vulgar 
 superstition, and might have placed him in 
 the first class of reformers, he had a fickleness 
 of temper, and perhap<; we must add a selfishness 
 of spirit, which would not permit him to take a 
 decided part in the work of reformation. He ap- 
 plauded Luther, and called him the invincible 
 heretic, yet he lived always in the communion 
 of the Romish church, and contrived to obtain 
 the thanks of the pope for his fidelity. If he had 
 any decided principles, they were those of that 
 mystical system of philosophy, which finds a 
 sublime and spiritual meaning in all the opera- 
 tions of nature, and leads the soul, according to 
 his own language in his epistles, to " a myste- 
 rious intercourse, and an essential and imme- 
 diate union with God." (Ep. v. 19.) The 
 most valuable service which he performed to so- 
 ciety, was that of chastising the follies of igno- 
 rance and the vices of priestcraft in his satirical 
 writings, which entitle him, in the scale of let- 
 ters, to a place, though of inferiordisiinction, with 
 Erasmus. In fine, Agrippa, though an extra- 
 ordinary, and on the whole a splendid character, 
 was rather a dazzling meteor than a steady and 
 useful luminary. 
 
 Besides the writingsalrcady mentioned, Agrip- 
 pa has left " A Dissertation on Original Sin," 
 intended to prove that the fall of our first parents 
 was the consequence of uncha-^te love ; " A De- 
 clamation on the Excellence of Women," writ- 
 ten to gratify the vanity of Margaret of Austria; 
 " A Commentary on the Art of Raymond Lul- 
 ly," which is as unintelligible as the author on 
 whom it comments, and as ridiculous as the art 
 which it teaches ; with many other pieces. His 
 works weie printed at Lvons, in 8vo. in 1586, 
 but the edition is mutilated and unfaithful : they 
 were published in French at Paris in 1726. His 
 principal j)iece, "On the Vanity of the Sciences," 
 was printed in 4to. at Antwerp in 1530, 1^32, 
 1539. This last edition has a head of Agripjja. It 
 was printed in Sv". at Paris in 1531 ; and was 
 translated into Italian by Domineciii, in 8vo. 
 Venice, 1 549 ; and into French by Tuiguet, 
 8vo. Lyons., i^'Sz ; and by Gueudevillc, 1726;
 
 A G R 
 
 ( 94 ) 
 
 A G R 
 
 J^iceren. Aftm. Dup'in. Stiul'-er. H:st. 
 Lit. di Goitvc. t. i. p. II 8. -Buyle. Mo- 
 
 rtri. — h- . 
 
 AGRIPPA I. Herod, was the son of An- 
 stobulus, bv Berenice, daughter of Herod the 
 Great. He' was brought up at the court of Au- 
 gustus with Driisus the son of Tiberius ; and, 
 being naturally of a high spirit, with a taste for 
 profusion, he was kd into cxpcn^ics so much be- 
 yond his fortune, that on Urusus's death lie was 
 oblige*] to retire into Jud.ca. Here he passed 
 some years in a castle of Iduma;a, in circum- 
 stance's so desperate, that he had resolved to 
 starve himself; and was prevented only by the 
 exertions of his wife Cyprus, the daughter of 
 Phasacl, and some other friends, for his relief. 
 Hence he returned to Rome, where, attaching 
 himself to Caius Qesar (afterwards Caligula), 
 he was imprudent enough to drop some expres- 
 sions signifying his wi^h for the death of the em- 
 peror Tiberius, which, being reported to that 
 jealous prince, caused him to be imprisoned, and 
 loaded with chains. At the accession of Caius, 
 he was immediately set at liberty, and treated 
 with the greatest distinction. A golden chain of 
 the same weight with that of the iron one he 
 wore was presented to him ; and the title of king 
 was conferred on Iiim, together with the two va- 
 cant tetrarchies of Philip and Lysanias. 
 
 After remaining a year at Rome, he set out 
 on a visit to his territories; and taking Alexan- 
 dria in his way, he made so pompous an entry 
 into that city, as to excite the envy of the Alex- 
 ;indrians, who, always inclined to raillery, af- 
 fronted him by a mock procession of a madman 
 personating a king of the Jews. Agrippa and 
 his numerous countrymen were much offended 
 with this insult, for which thev could obtain no 
 redress, the Roman governor, Flaccus, being no 
 friend of their nation. A violent persecution of 
 the Jews at Alexandria succeeded, which being 
 reported to the emperor by Agrippa, occasioned 
 the recal and ruin of Flaccus. 
 
 Meantime, Herod Antipas, viewing with en- 
 vy the elevation of Agrippa, made a journey to 
 Rome, with his wife, Agrippa's sister, in order 
 to obtain similar honours ; but Agrippa pre- 
 ferring an accusation against him, as being con- 
 cerned in the conspiracy of Sejanus, procured 
 his disgrace and banishment, and obtained pos- 
 session of his tetrarchy and all his treasures. 
 
 Agrippa, being afterwards in Rome, had oc- 
 casion to go through a severe trial of Caligula's 
 regard. I'hat frantic tyrant having resolved 
 tliat his image should be set up and worshipped 
 in the very sanctuary of the temple of Jerusa- 
 km, excited such a spirit of resistance in the 
 
 Jews, that his governor, Pctronius, was obliged" 
 to delay the execution, and write to the emperor 
 for fuidier instructions. Agrippa came to in- 
 tercede for his countrymen at the very time that 
 Caligula was reading the letter; and was so 
 much struck with his angry reception of him, 
 that he fainted away, and was carried to his pa- 
 lace. Here he wrote to the emperor an apolo- 
 getical letter, still extant in the works of Philo, 
 (unless it be of Philo's own composition) which, 
 with other artful manageinent, diverted Caligu- 
 la for the present from his purpose; however, 
 he resumed it, and the consequence would have 
 been terrible, had it not been prevented by his as- 
 sassination, A. D. 41. 
 
 In the interregnum which succeeded the death 
 of Caligula, Agrippa, according to Josephus, 
 (for no Roman historian mentions it) was ap- 
 plied to both by the senate and Claudius as a ne- 
 gotiator between them ; and it was by his per- 
 suasion that Claudius was encouraged to assume 
 the imperial power. However this was, it is- 
 certain that Claudius treated him with much 
 favour, not only confirming to him all the 
 grants of Caligula, but extending his kingdoms 
 of Judaea and Samaria to the utmost limits in 
 which they had been possessed by Herod the 
 Great. He likewise decorated him with the 
 consular insignia, and allowed him in the senate- 
 to pay his compliments in the Greek language 
 instead of the Latin. At his suit he likewise 
 bestowed the little kingdom of Chalets in Syria, 
 on his brother and son-in-law Herod. 
 
 Agrippa soon after went to reside in Judiea,. 
 where he showed himself zealously attached to 
 the religion of his country, and ruled Jiis subjects 
 with clemency. He seems to have been fond 
 of interfering in ecclesiastical affairs, for he 
 made and deposed several- high priests in a short 
 time. He mixed certain heathen practices with, 
 the Jewish ceremonial, in such a manner, as to 
 offend the more zealous. He even gave shows- 
 of gladiators and other theatrical exhibitions in 
 the Roinan taste. Being publicly inveighed: 
 against on this account by one Simon, an austere 
 observer of the law of Moses, lie sent, for him 
 into the theati:e, seated him by his side, and, by 
 flattering attentions, so mollified his rigour, as to 
 gain his approbation of all that he did. It was. 
 probably in order to ingratiate himself with the 
 Jews that he persecuted the Christians ; and the 
 martyrdom of James, the brother of John, and! 
 the imprisonment of Peter, are placed to his ac- 
 count. 
 
 His power and opulence raised him to high re- 
 putation among his neighbours ; and a singular 
 display of his magnificence was the immediate
 
 A G R 
 
 ( 9S ) 
 
 A G R 
 
 prehide to his death. Being at Caesarea, at- 
 tended witli a mimerou'; and splendid train, for 
 the purpose of celebrating soine games in ho- 
 nour of Claudius, he appeared in a most dazzling 
 dress, and made an oration to the deputies of 
 Tyre and Sidon, who were come to apologise 
 for some ortence, and entreat his favour. The 
 deputies and other sycophants exclaimed that his 
 voice was that of a god and not of a man ; and 
 he seemed too well pleased with this extrava- 
 gant flattery. But soon after he was seised 
 with a violent disorder in his bowels, which car- 
 ried him otFin extreme tortures within five days, 
 A. D. 44, in the fifty-fourth year of his age, 
 and seventh of his reign. He left one son and 
 three daughters ; the eldest, who was the famed 
 Berenice, was married to Herod. The people 
 of Cfesarea expressed great joy at his death, 
 and insulted his memorv with the vilest out- 
 rages. Joseph. Antiq. P/i'tlo, Legal. Acts of 
 Apost. [/>!!vers. Hist. — A. 
 
 AGRIPPA II. Herod, son of the preced- 
 ing king, was brought up at Rome, and was 
 only seventeen years old at his father's death ; 
 on which account, being thought too young to 
 reign, Judsa was again reduced to the form of 
 a province, and put under the administration of 
 Roman governors. On the death, however, of 
 his uncle Herod, king of Chalcis, Agrippa ob- 
 tained the superintendency of the temple and sa- 
 cred treasury, and the privilege of nominating 
 the high priest. The kingdom of Chalcis was 
 also conferred upon him. He resided much at 
 Jerusalem, and here, together with his sister Be- 
 renice, he heard the defence of Paul before the 
 governor Festus, and owned himself almost con- 
 vinced by him. (Acts, XXV. xxvi.) By build- 
 ing a palace which overlooked the temple, he 
 greatly offended the Jews ; and, at the com- 
 mencement of that revolt which proved so de- 
 structive to them, attempting by a speech to ap- 
 pease them, he was attacked with stones and 
 driven from Jerusalem. He then joined Cestius 
 the Roman governor ; and when Vespasian was 
 sent into the province, he methim with a consi- 
 derable reinforcement. He also accompanied 
 him to Rome when he took possession of the 
 empire. During the siege of Jerusalem he was 
 very serviceable to Titus ; and after its reduc- 
 tion, he and Berenice (with whom he was su- 
 spected to have had an incestuous intercourse) 
 retired to Rome. He is supposedtohave died there 
 about A. D. 94, and in him terminated the Hero- 
 dian line and family. Joseph. Antiq. et Bell. 
 "jud. Unii'ers. Hist. — A. 
 
 AGRIPPA, Marcus-Vipsanius. This 
 celebrated friend and general of Augustus was 
 
 of obscure origin, but from his infancy wa-; 
 brought up with the young Octavianus. No- 
 thing is known of his early life; but he must 
 soon have been con^ideredas a rising man, since 
 he obtained for his first wife Attica, daughter of 
 the celebrated Pomponius Atticus. Aitaclicd 
 to the CsEsarcan family, he appeared as tlie 
 accuser of Cassius before the senate. When 
 the war broke out between Marc Antony and 
 Octavianus, Agrippa, \\ ith a body of veterans, 
 rescued Salvidienus, a general of the latter, from 
 the danger into which he was brought by Lu- 
 cius, Antony's brother, and joined in shutting 
 up Lucius in Perusia. He was afterwards ap- 
 pointed by Octavianus commander of his navy ; 
 and by his indefatigable exertions, he assembled 
 a fleet able to oppose that of Sextus Pompcy, 
 who had hitherto been master of the sea. He 
 took Hiera, and defeated a squadron of Pom- 
 pey's ; and at length obtained a complete victory 
 over Pompey himself with his whole fleet. The 
 success of this action, though Octavianus was 
 present, was without doubt due to Agripjia, and 
 he was honoured for it with a standard and a 
 rostral crown. 
 
 When Antony had assembled his fleet at Ac- 
 tiuin, Agrippa intercepted all his convoys, and 
 making descents in several places on the coast 
 of Greece, stormed various cities. He also de- 
 feated and dispersed a squadron under Sosius, 
 coming to join Antony. In the famous sea- 
 fight that ensued, which gave to Octavianus the 
 empire, Agrippa was posted in the centre divi- 
 sion, and directed the whole. The victory 
 crowned him with glory, and laid his master 
 under obligations whicli were never forgotten 
 by him, nor abused by Agrippa — a rare in- 
 stance to the honour of both ! Octavianus, now 
 possessed of supreme power, consulted, either 
 in earnest or afi'ectedly, his two most confiden- 
 tial friends, Mscenas and Agrippa, whetiier he 
 should retain his superiority, or resign it to the 
 senate. The generosity of Agiippa's character 
 led him to advise the restoration of tb.e Roman 
 liberty ; but Maecenas gave the palatable coun- 
 sel to Octavianus of continuing at the head of 
 affairs, and governing with absolute sway as 
 emperor. This last \\ as followed; yet Agrippu 
 seems to have lost none of his master's favour. 
 They were colleagues in the consulate in the 
 year B. C. 28, which was the second time of 
 Agrippa's bearing that oflice ; and the same 
 partnership was renewed the succeeding year. 
 Agiippa was also assumed into the imperial fa- 
 mily by marrying Marcclla, the emperor's niece, 
 and sister of young Marcellus ; and so far did 
 Octavianus equal him with himself, that, wheu
 
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 ( 9^ ) 
 
 A G R 
 
 at the army together, Agrippa had a tent exactly 
 likchis, and gave the%'.i)rii altcnntcly with him. 
 He displavtd his public spirit and mimiticence 
 by decorating Rome with several edifices, of 
 \vhicii the in..ist remarkable were his portico for 
 the use of the popular asseinblies, and the famous 
 t>mpic called the Pantheon, still subsisting as a 
 Chri.slian church. Agrippa would have given to 
 the emperor the honour of this last structure, hut 
 he o))p(iseil it , and both their statues were placed 
 in the vestibule. A simple inscription on tlie 
 frontispiece, yet in being, dccLucs that the tem- 
 ple was elected by M. Agrippa, thrice > oiisul. 
 
 In the year P'. C. 23, Augustus falKug dan- 
 gerously ill, f.ive Agrippa the highest possible 
 mark of conh(i<"nce by commirting to liim his 
 ring. As the cm|)eror had made no declaration 
 as to a succtss'jr, this was interpreted as a pre- 
 ference of Agrippa ; a circumstance that gave 
 high olFen^c to Marcelkis; insomuch, that Au- 
 gustus, on his recovery, thought it advisable to 
 remove Agrippa from court by the honourable 
 exile of the uch government of Syria. Agrippa, 
 otfLnded in Ids turn, openly siiowed i.is sense of 
 it by sending his lieutenants into the province, and 
 living at Mitylene as a private man. This alie- 
 nation, however, was not ol long continuance. 
 Marcellus died ; and Augustus recalled Agrippa 
 to Rrme, wlure some troubles had arisen, and 
 married him to his daughter fulia, the widow of 
 Marcellus. Ma?cenas, on being consulted as to 
 this alliance, is said to have replied, " You have 
 made Agrippa so gieat, that you must either 
 take him otF or make him your son-in-law." 
 The trar.nuillity which Agrij)pa's influence re- 
 stored at R'^iTij was the emperor's best reward 
 for this additional instance of trust. The mar- 
 riage, though a fertile one, did nor prove happy. 
 Julia's misconduct is too notorious in the his- 
 tory of those times. 
 
 'l"he Germans having made an inroad into 
 Gaul, Agrippa was sent to oppose them ; and 
 his reputation alone caused them in hasre to re- 
 pass the Rliine. Thence he marched against the 
 Cantabrians, who had never thoroughly sub- 
 mitted to the Roinan yoke, and were now de- 
 sperately combating for liberty. Agrippa found 
 great difficulty in subduing this brave people, 
 who had struck so much terror into the Roman 
 soldiers, that he was obliged to punish a whole 
 legion with ignominy before he could restore dis- 
 cipline, and make them face the enemy. At 
 k-ngth he completely reduced the Cantabrian 
 nation, and, aftcrthe slaughter of almost all who 
 Were fit to hear arms, brought the rest into 
 quiet subjection. A triuinph was decreed him 
 by tlje senate on this occasion, which, in con- 
 
 formity with the emperor's secret instructions* 
 he refused. In recompense, Augustus, on his 
 return, associated him with himself in the tribu- 
 ni'.ian power, which was conferred on him for 
 five years. He also constituted him joint censor 
 with hiinself ; and they made together that re- 
 duction of senators, which was called a reform 
 of the order. 7 he emperor likewise, in the 
 year B. C. 17, adopted two grand-children, 
 which Julia had borne him by vVgrippa. 
 
 Three years afterwards, Agrippa went to set- 
 tle affairs in the east. He was received with 
 great distinction by Herod, whom he accompa- 
 nied to Jerusalem, where he oftered a solemn sa- 
 crifice. At Herod's lequest he granted his pro- 
 tection to the jews throughout Aiia Minoi', 
 confirming to them their privileges, and forbid- 
 ding them to be molested on account of their re- 
 ligion. (Josephus, Ant. Jud. lib. xvi.) Thence 
 making an expedition to the Cimmerian Bos- 
 phorus, he appeased some troubles which had 
 arisen in those parts. For thi . a triumph was 
 again decreed hiin, which he again refused; and 
 after that period no person but of the imperial 
 family ever triumphed in Rome — a rule, doubt- 
 less, thought of importance to be established un- 
 der the new constitution. 
 
 Oil his return from the east, the tribunitian 
 power was conferred upon him for five years 
 more ; and he was immediately sent, with a 
 large army, and uncontrouled authority, into 
 Pannonia. Having, by hi; presence alone, qui- 
 eted the disturbances of that country, he return- 
 ed to Italy, where he was attacked, in Campa- 
 nia, widi a fever that soon cairied him off, A. 
 R. 740, B. C. 12, in the fifty-first year of his 
 age. On the first advice of his danger Au- 
 gustus hastened to him ; but was informed of 
 his death on the road. He inanifested great 
 concern at the loss of his best friend, and so- 
 lemnised his obsequies with the greatest pomp, 
 himself pronouncing his eulogv, and causing 
 him to he deposited in his own mausoleum. 
 Agrippa by will left the Roman people the gar- 
 dens and bathi wiiich were afterwards called by 
 his name; but Augutus was his principal heir. 
 
 His surviving children were one daughter by 
 his first wife Caseilia Attica, named Vipsauia 
 Agiippiaa, and married to 1 iberius ; and three 
 sons and two daughters by his t Jrd wife, Julia. 
 Two of the sons, Caius and Lucius Cffisars, 
 died in their youth. l"he other, Agrippa Post- 
 humus, was sacrificed to the jealoi ?y of Tibe- 
 rius soon after his accession. Of t!ie daugh- 
 ters, Julia was married to Lucius Paulus, and 
 Agrippina to the celebrated Germanicus. 
 
 Agrippa's fame, though sufficiently secured
 
 Ag-ripp a . oi-i 6^e?y/ ^nl ^ra^.
 
 A G R 
 
 ( 97 ) 
 
 A G R 
 
 hv his great actions, lias received an accession 
 from the immortal records of poetry. Virgil, 
 in his noble anticipation of die battle ot Actiuin, 
 gives a dignified sketch of this commander, 
 though obliged to make him only the second 
 figure on his canvass. 
 
 Parte alia ventis et (lis Agrippa scrtindis, 
 Arduus, aj^men atjens ; cui, boUi insignc superbum, 
 Tcmpora navalt I'ul^eiit rustrata corona. 
 
 /En. viii. 682. 
 
 Asrippa seconds him witli prosp'roiis gales, 
 And with prr.pilitms gods, his lues assails. 
 A naval rrown, tliat binds liis manly brows, 
 Tlie happy fortune of the tight Ibrcftious. 
 
 Dryden. 
 
 And Horace addresses to liim an ode, (6th of 
 B. I.) in which he confesses his own inability 
 to celebrate wonhilv his great exploits, a task 
 fitter for the Homeric pen of Varius. Sueto- 
 nius, Fit. Jugust. Dio. llnivers. Hist. — A. 
 
 AGRIPPA, Me N EN 1 us, was consul of 
 Rome, A. R. 251, B. C. 503. Together with 
 his colleague P. Posthuniius, he gained a com- 
 plete victory over the Sabines, for which he had 
 the honours of a triumph. Afterwards, in the 
 consulate of Virginius and Veturius, when the 
 people, tyrannised over hy the patricians, had 
 seceded to the Sacred Mount, Menenius strong- 
 ly contended in the senate for endeavouring to 
 procure a reconciliation by prudent and equita- 
 ble concessions. Being; himself chosen as one 
 of the deputies, and finding the people, spirited 
 by their leaders, unwilling to come to an agree- 
 ment, he is said to have pronounced the cele- 
 brated apologue of the stomach and members, 
 by whieh, with promises of redress of griev- 
 ances, he brought them over. They insisted, 
 however, on being indulged with magistrates of 
 their own to protect their rights (wh,o were the 
 tribunes) ; and with this demand Menenius ad- 
 vised the senate to comply. He died soon after, 
 at an advanced age, in universal esteem for his 
 wisdom and integrity ; but so poor, that his re- 
 lations intended to bury him in a private man- 
 lier. The people, however, assessed themselves 
 at two ounces of brass, a head, in order to pro- 
 cure their friend a magnificent funeral ; and 
 when the senate, unwilling to admit of such an 
 obligation, decreed a sum for the purpose out 
 of the treasury ; the people refused to receive 
 back their money, but ordered it to be paid to 
 the children of the deceased. Livy. Dionys. 
 JJalicarn. — A. 
 
 AGRIPPINA, the elder, daughter of Mar- 
 cus Agrippa, and wife of Gennanicus Cjesar, 
 was a lady of distinguished merit. She attended 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 licr husband abroad, was with liim in tli* 
 camp of tlic legions in Germany when thcv ic- 
 volted in the beginning of the reign ot J'ibc- 
 rius, and was w'nh difficulty persuaded to wrh- 
 draw from tlie danger, though accompanied by 
 her eldest child, and pregnant with the seconci. 
 The commiseration excited by the sorrowful 
 departure of the much respected wife of their 
 general uas a principal agent in bringing back 
 the revoltcrs to their duty. Some time after- 
 wards, her courage was of essential service to 
 the Roman interest, in preventing the biiilge 
 built over the Rhine near Treves from bcinjj 
 broken down through fear of the Germans, 
 whereby a safe retreat was secured to Cseciiia 
 and his legions. On their arrival she received 
 them at the head of the bridge, and returned 
 them public thanks for their valour. Slie even, 
 in the absence of lier husband, acted as their ge- 
 neral, and relieved the necessities ot the sick and 
 wounded with unbounded generosity. Ihcse 
 popular acts, however, awakened the jealousy 
 of Tiberius, and aggravated the dislike with 
 which she was already viewed at court, where 
 her high spirit had embroiled her with the em- 
 peror's mother, Livia. 
 
 She afterwards accompanied Germanicus on 
 his visit to the ensicrn provinces, and had the 
 grievous afRiction of paying him the last sad 
 duties at Antioch, where he died A. D. 19. 
 On his death-bed, foreseeing the dangers that 
 awaited his unprotected family, he conjured 
 Agrippina to abate the natural hauglitines; of 
 her temper, and bring her mind to a conformity 
 with her fortune. He left her a widow with 
 six children, three of each sex ; three other 
 sons had died infants. She gathered his ashes 
 into an urn ; and proceeding slowly home- 
 wards, landed with them at Brundusium, at- 
 tended by two of her children; affording a spec- 
 tacle of sorrow wJiich melted die hearts of t'le 
 whole Roman people, and has employed all 
 the powers of the vivid pencil of Tacitus to 
 describe. 
 
 Her great care at Rome was to protect her 
 children from the wicked arts of Sejanus, and 
 the hatred of Livia. Yet it appears that she 
 could not effectually practie die lesson of her 
 dying husband ; for, on the accusation of her 
 cousin, Claudia Pulchra, she flew to the empe- 
 ror, and, with much bitterness of language, up- 
 braided hiin widi persecuting the children of 
 Augustus, and asserted that the only crime of 
 Pulchra was her warm attachment to heiielf. 
 Tiberius deeplv felt this reproach, though he 
 coollv dismissed iter with a line from a Greek 
 tragedy, implying, " You think yourself in- 
 o
 
 A G R 
 
 ( 98 ) 
 
 A G R 
 
 iarcil it' you do iicn reign." Not long after, 
 Tiberius payin;; her a \Wn in an inclii.posiiion, 
 she took occasion to make liim ihe unexpected 
 rciiucst of a sctonil liusbawl, to be the protector 
 ot' the chilJrcn of Germanicos; to which he rc- 
 nirnfd no answer. Her anger at this treatment 
 was artfiillv inflimed by tlic agents of Scjanus, 
 who persuaded Ikt that'the emperor intended to 
 poison her ; and she was so imprudent as openly 
 to sliow her suspicion of him. This irretric^'- 
 ablv ahenited the stern soul of the tyrant, and 
 he thcnccfortli resolved her niin. Immediately 
 after the death of his mother, Livia, he sent to 
 the senate letters of accusation against her and 
 her son Nero. The crime alleged against 
 ATippina was her imperious ungovernable 
 temper; her virtue in other respects was above 
 suspicion. The people of Rome were much 
 arfectcd with the danger of the widow and son 
 of their darling Germanicus, and the senate he- 
 sitated how to act. But a letter from Sejanus, 
 and a second from the emperor, at once pro- 
 duced the condemnation of liie criminals, and 
 Agrippina was banidied to the isle of Pandata- 
 ria, now Santa Maria, Iving off the coast of 
 Terracina. She is said, on receiving the sen- 
 tence, to have broken out into such intemperate 
 invectives against Tiberius, that die centurion, 
 to whose charge she was committed, beat her 
 on the face, so as to strike out one of her eyes. 
 Nero was banished to the neighbouring isle of 
 I'ontii, where he soon after died. Drusus, her 
 second son, was declared an enemy of the state, 
 and closely confined in the lower apartments of 
 the palace. In t'lis miserable condition Agrip- 
 pina survived about four years, having in vain 
 expected relief from the death of her enemy Se- 
 janus. At length, soon after her son Drusus 
 had been famished, the merciles'. Tiberius an- 
 nounced to the senate the death of Agrippina at 
 her place of banishment, wlio also perished 
 througii want of food ; but whether voluntarily 
 or compelled, is not certainly known. This 
 Jiappencd A. D. 33. The tyrant suffered him- 
 self to be thanked by the senate, for not order- 
 ing her to be strangled, and her body to be ex- 
 posed Jikc that of a common malefactor; but 
 he compensated this clemency by a worse cruelty 
 to her memory, accusing her of adultery with 
 Asinius Gallus, whose death, he said, had been 
 the cause of hers. Her known cliastity, however, 
 repelled this infamous charge ; and Tacitus, in a 
 sentence, sums up her character, by saying that 
 *• impatient of equality, and greedy of domina- 
 tion, she had banished female frailties by mas- 
 culine ambition." 
 
 Her remains were brought in great pomp 
 
 from Pnndataria by her son Caligula soon after- 
 his accession, and deposited in the mausoleum 
 of Augustus, and all sorts of honours were paid 
 to her memory — an instance of filial piety 
 ■whicli is one of the best things recorded of that 
 imperial monster ! Tac'itl Annal. Unlvers. 
 Hi it. — A. 
 
 AGRIPPINA, the younger, daughter of the 
 preceding, and Germanicus, is known in history 
 as the bad mother of a worse son. She was 
 married, A. D. 28, by the emperor Tiberius to 
 Cn. Domitius, a man of rank, and related to the 
 imperial family, but ferocious, brutal, and de- 
 bauched. Her own character was so faulty, 
 that Domitius, on being congratulated on the 
 birth of their son Nero, is said to have observ- 
 ed, that nothing could spring from Agrippina 
 and himself but what would prove detestable 
 and pernicious to the state. Caligula, who is 
 accused of loving all his sisters with more than 
 a brother's love, bestowed on her, with the 
 others, extraordinary honours at his accession. 
 Her husband died during that reign, leaving no 
 other child than Nero. Agrippina had before 
 forfeited her reputation by an intrigue with 
 .^milius Lepidus, for which, and a supposed 
 conspiracy against her brother, slie and her 
 sister Livilla were banished to the isle of Pontia. 
 Their honours were abolished and their pro- 
 perty confiscated. Tigellinus was exiled as 
 another lover of Agrippina. She was recalled 
 by the emperor Claudius ; and married, for a 
 second husband, Crispus Passienus, a celebrated 
 orator, whom she soon afterwards poisoned 
 to obtain the dowry he had settled upon her. 
 After the fate of the empress Messalina, by her 
 allurements, and the influence of Pallas, she 
 was preferred to the diadem by marrying her 
 uncle the emperor Claudius. In this situation 
 she assumed despotic sway, and exercised it 
 with great injustice and cruelty. She procured 
 the disgrace of Silanus, who was betrothed to 
 Octavia, the emperor's daughter, for the pur- 
 pose of obtaining that alliance for her son ; 
 which event soon followed her elevation. She 
 was haughty, domineering, and avaricious ; and 
 ■with all her pride, stooped to grant her favours 
 to .the freedman Pallas, in order to support her- 
 self by his credit. She caused the banishment 
 and death of Lollia Paullina who had dared to 
 rival her in the choice of Claudius ; and when 
 the head of this unfortunate woman was brought 
 her, with her own hands she opened the mouth 
 in order to identify her by something parti- 
 cular in the teeth. The best exercise of her 
 power was the recalling Seneca from banish- 
 ment, and placing him as preceptor to her son.
 
 A G R 
 
 ( 99 ) 
 
 A G U 
 
 Slie prevailed on the weak cmpefor to adopt her 
 son, thoiigh he had one of his own, Bi itannicus, 
 ■whom he loved ; and she used all her arts to 
 keep this unhappy boy out ot his father's sight, 
 and reduced him to the most depressed conditi- 
 on. The foundation of a colony at the capital 
 of the Ubii, wliere she was born, and to which 
 she gave the name of Colonia Agrippinen is, 
 now Cologne, was an ostentatious but innocent 
 display ot her autliority. Her desire ot ob- 
 taining the fine gardens of Statilius Taurus, a 
 senator, led her to raise a false accusation 
 against him which drove him to suicide. 
 
 Meantime the emperor, stupid as lie was, let 
 fall some expressions %\hich showed him to be 
 sensible of the crimes of his wife, and to enter- 
 tain an intention of punisliing them. He also 
 gave tokens of repenting his adoption of Nero, 
 and he showed unusual affection for Britanni- 
 cus. These circumstances alarmed Agrippina, 
 who kne«' herself hated by the powerful treed- 
 nian' Narcissus, and had a rival in Domitia Le- 
 pida, sister of lier first husband Domitius, and 
 equally abandoned with herself. She employed 
 her arts in the first .place to the destruction of 
 Lepida ; and then, taking the opportunity of 
 an iJlness of the emperor's which put him more 
 in her power, she caused him to be poisoned in 
 a dish of mushrooms, which, after some strug- 
 gle, put an end to his life, A. D. 54. Agrippina 
 affected great sorrow on the occasion, and art- 
 fully under pretence of endearment keeping Bri- 
 tannicus in the chamber, caused Nero, accom- 
 panied by Burrhus the pratorian prefect, to ap- 
 pear before the soldiers, and be recognised as 
 emperor. She soon sacrificed Narcissus to her 
 resentment; and Junius Silanus, a man of high 
 rank, and descended from Augustus, to her 
 jealousy. 
 
 To Agrippina are to be attributed all the 
 enormities of the beginning of Nero's reign, 
 for she possessed unbounded authority over 
 him, and exercised it with all the rigour of su- 
 spicion. Her intemperate ambition led her one 
 day to attempt to mount the throne with him at 
 a public audience of embassadors ; and this pro- 
 fanation (in a Roman eye) was only prevented 
 by the suggestion of Seneca that he should de- 
 scend and meet her. By degrees this overstrain- 
 ed sway began to decline ; and, when she per- 
 ceived the change, she broke out into rage and 
 invective. Finding these not to succeed, she 
 was equally extravagant in compliance and ca- 
 resses. Her influence soon received a severe 
 blow by the disgrace of Pallas, which again 
 threw her into paroxysms of fury, and impo- 
 tent menaces. Nero was now dipping as deep 
 
 in crime as herself; and having removed Bri- 
 tannicus, he was no longer in danger of a rival. 
 As she thought fit to pay court 10 tlie soldiers 
 and nobles, he deprived her of her guards and 
 honorary di^tinctions, drove her from the pa- 
 lace, and caused her to retire in neglect and so- 
 litude to a house of her own. After this, how- 
 ever, she was restored to a degree of favour, 
 which she used all her arts to improve. Nay, 
 she is charged with sliowing a willingness to 
 attach her son by compliances the most shock- 
 ing to conceive of in a mother. Poppaa, how- 
 ever, had now obtained the highest influence 
 over Nero, and used it to the injury of Agrip- 
 pina ; and it was she who first stimulated him 
 to the commission of parricide. Nero resolved 
 to take away his mother's life, but was at a loss 
 how to contrive the deed so as that such a mon- 
 strous crime might not appear too evident 
 against him. At length Anicetus, commander 
 of his fleet, caused a galley to be prepared in 
 such a manner that it might suddenly admit the 
 water, and founder; and Nero, by pretending a 
 reconciliation, and using the most hypocricical 
 endearments, enticed her on board, in the Baian 
 bay. The stratagem, however, succeeded im- 
 perfectly, and through the slowness of the pro^ 
 cess, Agrippina with her companion Aceronia 
 were let gently into tlie water, where the latter, 
 being taken for Agrippina, was dispatched, while 
 she herself got to shore. It was now neccs ary 
 by force to complete a crime which could not 
 be concealed. Anicetus, with a body of mari- 
 ners, surrounded the house where she took re- 
 fuge, and entering her chamber with two others, 
 killed her with many wounds. It is said that 
 after receiving the first blow, she courageously 
 presented her womb to the assassins, bidding 
 them strike that part which had harboured sucli 
 a monster. Her body was burned that very 
 night ; and over her remains, after Nero's 
 death, was raised a vulgar tomb, on the road 
 from Rome to Misenum. Her detestable son 
 at first affected great sorrow for the event ; but 
 afterwards wrote a letter to the senate, con- 
 taining all the black list of her crimes, and 
 charging her with a consjiiracy against his lite ; 
 and that servile body returned solemn thanks 
 for his escape, and declared the memory of 
 Agrippina execrable — a judgment in which all 
 posterity has readily concurred ! Tac'iti Histor. 
 Suetonius. IJnh'crs. Hht. — A. 
 
 AGUESSEAU, Hknry Francis u', a 
 chancellor of France, equally distinguished for 
 worth and talents, was born at Limoges in 
 1668, of an ancient family from Saintonge. 
 His father, who was intcndant ot Languedoc,
 
 A G U 
 
 ( loo ) 
 
 A G U 
 
 gave him his first instructions. T.itcnitiire was 
 his earliest passion; ar.d he ciiltivateil his taste 
 not only by stuily, but by the society of Boileau, 
 Racine, and otlicr eminent writers, from whom 
 he imbibcil a love for poetry, and a readiness in 
 the composition of it. He was received ad- 
 vocate-general at Paris in i6gu .whe^ he ap- 
 peared witii so much lustre, that tlu' celtbrafcd 
 Talon said " he could wish to Hiii<;li as this 
 yoirng inan began." He was iiRLcd, accord- 
 ing to Voltaire, the first who spoke at the bar 
 as well with purity as with energy. Before his 
 time ti>e language of lawyers consisted only irV 
 a set of professional phrases, but he introduced 
 into it a real and polished eloquence. His pro- 
 found knowledge in juiisprudence soon displayed 
 itself in a number of regulations respecting the 
 discipline of the bar, and criminal proceedings, 
 which he drew up in a s ip>.'rior manner. The 
 tiiancellor Pont-chartrain employed him in the 
 formation of various laws. One object in 
 which he warmly interested himself was the 
 management of hospitals ; and when he was 
 admonished by a friend to give himself some 
 respite from the continued labours he under- 
 went, he nobly replied, " Can I take rest, 
 whilst I know that such a number of men are 
 sutfcring f" No man contributed more than 
 himself to alleviate the hardships of the scarcity 
 in the dreadful winter of 1709, in which he ex- 
 tended his cares over all the provinces as well 
 as the capital. He was a strenuous defender of 
 t!ie libeities of the Galilean church, and ven- 
 tured to resist all the solicitations of Lewis 
 XIV. and the chancellor Voisin to give con- 
 clusions for a declaration in favour of the bull 
 Unigenitus. In the regency of the duke of 
 Orleans he was made chancellor, after the 
 death of Voisin. The circumstances of the 
 times rendered this a stormy post, which re- 
 quired all his prudence and firmness. He op- 
 posed the famous financial project of Law, and 
 caused it for a time to be rejected ; and, when 
 the regent was at length persuaded decidedly to 
 adopt it, despairing of being able to overcome 
 the opposition of d'Aguesseau, he took the 
 seals from him, and ordered him to retire to his 
 country seat of Fresnes. From this honourable 
 exile he was recalled in 1720, without any so- 
 licitation on his part, and reinstated in his of- 
 fice. He was again deprived of it in 1722, and 
 returned to his retreat ; whence cardinal Fleury 
 recalled him in 1727. The seals, however, 
 had been given to Chauvelin ; and when a de- 
 putation of the parliament waited on d'Agues- 
 seau before they would register the appoint- 
 ment of the new keeper of the seals, he told 
 
 them, he would set the first example of sub- 
 mission. It was not till 1737 that he resumed 
 the post of chancellor, wiiich he tlicnceforth 
 held till his death. From 1729 to 1749 he was 
 closely occupied in making a reform of the 
 laws, which he wished to reduce to an uni- 
 formity in their mode of execution, without 
 changing their fundamental principles ; but all 
 his efforts in this important matter could only 
 produce four or five useful ordinances ; so dif- 
 ficult is it to introduce method and system in 
 what was originally the product of chance, and 
 temporary necessity ! Probably, too, a partiality 
 with which he was charged for his own pro- 
 fession, might check the vigour of his plans. 
 He himself one day replied to the duke of 
 Grammont, who had asked him if there were 
 no method of abridging law-suits, and render- 
 ing them less expensive ? — that he had often 
 thought on the subject, and had even begun a 
 regulation respecting it ; but that the reflection 
 how many counsellors, attorneys, and officers 
 of the courts he should ruin by it, had put a 
 stop to his design. (Mem. de Duclos) It was 
 also thought that the habit of viewing things in 
 every light, and fully discussing the arguments 
 on both sides, had given him a kind of indeci- 
 sion, which retarded , his dispatch of business. 
 Yet his own apology for the slowness of his 
 determinations must be allowed to be forcible. 
 " When I recollect (said he) that the decree of 
 a chancellor is a law, I think myself permitted 
 to take a long time for consideration." (Ibid.) In 
 these cares, and his literary studies, he readied 
 to an advanced age with a sound constitution, 
 the reward of his temperance and equanimity ; 
 but in the year 1750, increasing infirmities 
 warned him to retire from public life. He did 
 not long survive, but closed the scene in 1751J 
 in his eighty-third year. 
 
 D'Aguesseau is called by Voltaire the most 
 learned magistrate that France ever possessed. 
 Besides the languages of antiquity, he was ac- 
 quainted with all the principal modern ones. 
 He was deeply versed in the history of all na- 
 tions and periods ; and was master of jurispru- 
 dence in its most enlarged sense. His reputation 
 extended to foreign countries, and England con- 
 sulted him upon the reformation of its calendar. 
 Though so well calculated for business, he 
 .shone no less in retreat. His two residences at 
 Fresnes, which he called the " fair days of his 
 life," he employed in the studv of the scriptures 
 in their original tongues, in perfecting iiis plans 
 of legislation, and educating his ciiildren, oc- 
 casionally relieving these severer occupations 
 with mathematics, the belles Icttres, and agri-
 
 AH A 
 
 ( roi ) 
 
 A H L 
 
 culture. He was superior to ambition and 
 avarice, and left no other gains from his great 
 posts than his tine hbrary. 'I'heie have been 
 published nine volumes quarto of his works. 
 He is said to have thought in them as a philo- 
 sopher, and spoken as an orator. His eloquence 
 has the force of logic and the order of geome- 
 try, united to the riches of erudition, and the 
 charms of persuasion. His style is extremely 
 chaste and harmonious, but perhaps deficient in 
 warmth. Voltaire, Sih-le de Louts XI V, Nouv. 
 Diet. Hist. Alcm. Secrets dc Duclos. — A. 
 
 AGUILLON, Francis, an eminent ma- 
 thematician, who flourished at the beginning of 
 the 17 th century, was a Jesuit of Brussels, and 
 professor of philosophy at Douay, and of theo- 
 logy at Antwerp. He was one of the first who 
 introduced an attention to mathematical studies 
 into Flanders. He wrote a treatise on optics, 
 which was long held in estimation, but has been 
 superseded by modern discoveries and improve- 
 ments in this branch of physics : it was pub- 
 lished, in folio, at Antwerp in 161 3. He also 
 wrote " A Treatise on the Projections of the 
 Sphere." He gave the public reason to expect 
 that he would also write on the subjects of cat- 
 optrics and dioptrics, but was prevented by his 
 death, which happened at Seville in the year 
 1617. ^^ouv. Diet. Hist. Hutton's Math. 
 Dict.—E. 
 
 AGUIRRE, Joseph, a learned theologian, 
 of the order of St. Benedict, was born at Lo- 
 grogno in Spain in the vear 1630. He was, 
 first, interpreter of the scriptures in the univer- 
 sity of Salamanca ; and then secretary, and 
 censor of the inquisition ; and was afterwards 
 honoured with the purple by pope Innocent XT. 
 He died at Rome in 1699. The work, for 
 which he is chiefly celebrated, is his " Collec- 
 tion of the Councils of Spain," with an in- 
 troductory hi torv of these councils. It was 
 first printed at Rome in 1693, '^^'^ ^"^^ "^" 
 printed at Rome in 1753, '"^ ^'^ volumes fo- 
 lio. Abstracts are given of this work by the 
 journalists of Leipsic, in the ^cta Eruditorum 
 for the year 1696. Bayle. Nouv. Diet. 
 Hisl.—E. 
 
 AHAB, one of the kings of Israel, was 
 chiefly distinguished by his impieties. He mar- 
 ried Jezabel, the daughter of Ethbaal, king of 
 the Sidonians, and at her instigation introduced 
 the idolatrous worship of Baal among the Is- 
 raelites. With a very small force he obtained 
 a signal victory over Benhadad, king of Syria, 
 wlio had be'itged Samaria. In a subsequent 
 war with the same prince, in which Ahab was 
 joined by Jchosaphai king of Judah, the oih- 
 
 cers of Benhadad's army rcceived orders perso- 
 nally to attack the king of Israel ; he endea- 
 voured to elude the er.emy by a change of 
 clothes, but was accidentally killed by an arrow. 
 He died about the year 897 before Christ. The 
 despotic character of this prince, and tlic savage 
 cruelty of hi? wife je/abel, are strongly mark- 
 ed in the anecdote related concerning Naboth's 
 vineyard. See I Kings, xvi. 29 — 33. xx. xxi. 
 xxii. Jofephi Anliq. lib. viii. c. 13. — E. 
 
 AHAZ, a king of Judah, who succeeded his 
 father Joatham at the age of twenty years, and 
 reigned till the year befoic Christ 726, was in- 
 famous for his idolatrous jjractices. After the 
 manner of the pagan nations, he caused his 
 children to pass through the fire; and he shut 
 up the temple, and destroyed its vessels. In a 
 war with Rezin king of Syria, and Pekeh king 
 of Israel, he supplicated the assistance of Tig- 
 lath -pileser king of Assvria, and became tribu- 
 tary to him. For his impiety, l-.is body was not 
 allowed interment among the sepulchres of the 
 kings of Israel. See 2 Kings, xvi. 2. Chron.. 
 xxviii. Jofeplii Antiq. lib. ix. c. 12. — E. 
 
 AHAZIAH, son and successor of Ahab, 
 reigned two years, and continued his father's 
 impieties. I Kings, xxii. 31, &c. 
 
 AHAZIAH, an idolatrous king of Judah, 
 who succeeded Jehoram, reigned only one year. 
 He was led into his evil practices by the counsel 
 of his mother Athaliah, and by his alliance 
 with the house of Ahab. He was slain by Jehu 
 in the year 889 before Christ. 2 Kings, viii. 
 2 Chron. xxii). — E. 
 
 AHLWARDT, Peter, professor of logic 
 and metaphysics at Grcifswalde, .son of a shoe- 
 maker in poor circumstances, was born in that 
 city on the 14th of February, 1 7 10. He ac- 
 quired a knowledge of the Greek and Roman 
 languages in the hiqh school, where he soon 
 became distinguished by his talents. In 1727 
 he entered himself among the academical stu- 
 dents, and applied to theology ; but his principal 
 pursuits were the philosophical sciences, and the 
 mathematics, which he studied under Westphal, 
 Lembke, and Gebhardl. In three years he re- 
 moved to the imlverslty of Jena, where he at- 
 tended the lectures of those celebrated profes- 
 sors, Hamburger, Weedburg, and Walch, and 
 he received some instruction also in medicine 
 and jurisprudence. In 1732 he returned to 
 Greifswakle, and the following year read a 
 course of lectures on philosophy and the ma- 
 thematics. In 1743 he became an adjunct of 
 the philoso])hical faculty at that place, and 
 nine years after was chosen professor. As he 
 had been admitted to the degree of master of
 
 A J A 
 
 ( 
 
 lo: 
 
 ) 
 
 A I D 
 
 arts he often preached witli great approbation •, 
 and fhout^h lie was oUcrcd many appoiniments 
 in ditTtrcnt parts, he pretciicdan establishment 
 in his native city. He was an active member 
 of the German society at Griefswakle, and con- 
 tributed largely to its critical researches. He 
 was founder also of tiio order of the Alxlites, 
 and wrote on tliat occasion a treatise entitled, 
 ♦' The Abelite," which has Ixen translated into 
 Danish. His principal works are, " Conside- 
 rations on the Confession of Augsburg ;" 
 " Thoughts on the Powers of the Human 
 Understanding;" "An Introduction to Philo- 
 jiophy," " A Treatise on the linnmrtality of 
 the Soul," and " Brontoiheologia, or Thoughts 
 on Thunder and Lightning." Of the last there 
 is a Dutch translation. Ahlwardt is said to 
 have been so accurate in his composition tliat 
 he never corrected what he had once written. 
 He died on the 1st of March, 1791. Schligte- 
 groU's Necrology. — J. 
 
 AHMED KHAN, son of Huhgu, and bro- 
 ther of Abaka Khan, succeeded the latter as 
 emperor of the Mogols in 1282. His original 
 name was Nickudar Oglan, but he assumed 
 that of Ahmed on his embracing Mahomined- 
 ism, on whicli occasion he wrote a letter to 
 the sultan of Egypt and Syria, offering his fa- 
 vour and protection to all of that religion. This 
 step gave great offence to all the princes of his 
 family, who liad a rooted aversion to the mu- 
 sulmans, so that Ahmed, though endowed with 
 many excellent qualities, could never obtain 
 their affection. Argun, the son of Abaka, re- 
 tiring into Khorasan, raised an army, and open- 
 ly declared himself his uncle's competitor. His 
 troops were, however, soon dispersed by Ah- 
 med's general, and himself enticed to the em- 
 .peror's camp, where he was put under custody, 
 with an intention of soon taking away his life. 
 Ahmed, thinking the danger at an end, set out 
 on his return to Baghdad, impatient to indulge 
 ill the pleasures of the court ; but soon after 
 his departure, a conspiracy was formed by some 
 great lords, who took Argun from his confine- 
 ment, and attacked and killed the emperor's ge- 
 neral, and principal officers. Argun with a se- 
 lect band pursued his uncle, and overtook him. 
 He was delivered to Argun's mother-in-law, 
 vho, in revenge for the loss of her own sons 
 whom Ahmed had caused to be slain, put him 
 to death after a reign of two years and two 
 months, A. D. 1284. D'Hcrbelot. Vnlvers. 
 Hist.—h. 
 
 AJAX OILEUS, or Oiliades, one of the 
 leaders of the Greeks in the expedition against 
 Troy, was the son of Oileus, a powerful chief of 
 
 (he Ldcrians. He is distinguished by Homer for 
 his agility and promptitude in all warlike encoun- 
 teis, and is said to have excelled in the bow, the 
 javelin, and in swiftnes.s of foot. As to his 
 moral character, it appears in a very unfavour- 
 able light. At the sack of Troy he violated 
 Cassandia, the prophetic daughter of Priam, in 
 the very sanctuary of Minerva, where she had 
 taken refuge ; an action which shocked the 
 Greeks themselves. Ajax himself, indeed, de- 
 nied tlie fact of the violation, and imputed the 
 charge to the artifice of Agamemnon, who 
 wished to keep Cassandra for himself. On his 
 voyage home Ajax Oileus was wrecked with 
 all his fleet, an event attributed to the resent- 
 ment of Minerva. It is fabled that even in the 
 instant of perishing he displayed the ferocity of 
 his disposition by a blasphemous defiance of 
 heaven. Bayle. Morer'i. — A. 
 
 AJAX TELAMONIUS, son of Telamon, 
 prince of Salamis, one of the principal heroes of 
 the Iliad, is represented by Homer as inferior 
 only to Achilles in strength and valour ; and 
 during the secession of that warrior, was the 
 chief bulwark of the Greeks. His character 
 seems to be intended as the model of that steady 
 equable courage which is ever at liand when its 
 exertion^ are wanted, and requires no aid of cir- 
 cumstances to excite its energy. He is the 
 only hero who neither asks nor receives the as- 
 sistance of a deity. He prays for light alone to 
 enable him to see his enemy, and is then will-' 
 ing to perish if it be so decreed. A stain of bru- 
 tality and stupidity adheres to his character, 
 which seems derived rather from what is said 
 of him by later writers, than by H(Hner. After 
 the death of Acliilles, Ajax and Ulysses were 
 each claimants for his armour ; and the Greek 
 chieftains, assembled to decide the claim, ad- 
 judged it to Ulysses. Ajax was so affected 
 with his disappointment that he became frantic, 
 and first, as it is said, vented his rage upon a 
 flock of sheep, taking them for Greeks, and 
 then turned his sword against himself. The 
 fabulists say, that tlie flower called hyacinth 
 sprung from his blood. A superb monument 
 was raised to his memory by his countrymen 
 on the Rhcetean promontorv. His fate was 
 the subject of several ancient tragedies. Bayle. 
 Aforcri. — A. 
 
 AIDAN, a British bishop, in the seventh 
 century, was successfully employed in instruct- 
 ing the inhabitants of the northern parts of 
 England in the Christian religion. He was a 
 monk in the inonastery of Hii, or Jona, one of 
 the Hebrides, subject to Britain, but given to 
 the monks by the Picts, who inhabited those
 
 AID 
 
 ( 
 
 lot 
 
 ; 
 
 A 1 L 
 
 parts of Britain, in recompense of the real 
 with wliich they Iiad preached to them the faith 
 of Christ. The kingdom of Northumberland 
 had, a httle before this time, received the Chris- 
 tian doctrine from Paulinus, archbishop of 
 York ; but when that prelate, after the death of 
 king Edwin, had left the kingdom, the North- 
 umbrians returned to idolatrs' ; and Anfrid 
 and Osric, kings of Deira and Bernicia, though 
 they had embraced Christianity in Scotland, fol- 
 lowed the example of their subjects. In this 
 state of religious affairs, Oswald, in the year 
 634, became king of Northumberland. I'his 
 prince, who was desirous that his subjects 
 should enjoy the benefit of Christianity, deter- 
 mined to procure them some able instructor. 
 Having been himself instructed in religion in 
 Scotland, he chose rather to send into that 
 country for a missionary, than to recal Pauli- 
 nus to his see, or to employ tlie minister whom 
 the archbishop had left in Northumberland. 
 Corman, an ecclesiastic of a severe disposition 
 and rugged manners, was lirst sent on this mis- 
 sion, but soon returned without success, and 
 reported to his countrymen, that the English 
 were an untractable people, too fond of paga- 
 nism to be converted to Christianity- 1 he 
 monk Aidan, who was present, said, " Brother 
 Corman, your failure seems to me to have 
 been owino- to a want of condescension to the 
 weakness of your unlearned hearers : had you, 
 according to the apostolic rule, first held out to 
 them the milk of a milder and gentler doctrine, 
 YOU might have nourished them with the word 
 of God, till they were capable of receiving its 
 more sublime precepts." This discreet address, 
 and the well-known mildness and prudence of 
 Aldan's character, pointed him out as the proper 
 person to be employed on this important mis- 
 sion ; and having received episcopal consecra- 
 tion, he was sent to the court of Oswald. At 
 the solicitation of Aidan, the king removed the 
 episcopal see from York to Lindisfarne, a pe- 
 ninsula, joined to the coast of Northumberland 
 by a narrow isthmus, called also Holy Island, 
 from its being chiefly inhabited by monks.. 
 Here, without affecting the metropolitan digni- 
 ty, and without having any intercourse with 
 the Roman pontiff, Aidan exercised an exten- 
 sive jurisdiction, and preached the gospel with 
 great success. In his pious labours the bishop 
 was assisted by the king, who, having acquired 
 a sufScient knowledge of the language during his 
 residence in Scotland, frequently was himself 
 Aidan's interpreter. After the death of Oswald, 
 under his joint successors, Oswin and Oswi, 
 this bisliop continued to preside iji die church 
 
 of Northumberland. He died in the year 
 651. 
 
 Of this prelate's liberalitv to the poor the fol- 
 lowing anecdote is a singular proof : some time 
 after king Oswin had presented the bishop with 
 a fine horse and rich housings, happening to 
 meet upon the road a poor man who begged 
 charity, Aidan dismounted, and presented the 
 horse, thus caparisoned, to the beggar. Tlie 
 king was told of this eccentric act of humanity, 
 and, when he next saw the bishop, expressed 
 some displeasure at the slight which he con- 
 ceived to have been put upon his favour. Aidan 
 quaintly, but forcibly, replied, " Which do you 
 value most, the son of a mare, or a son of' 
 God f" [Numqnid tlbi carior est ille hlius. 
 equa, quam ille lilius Dei ?] The reply made 
 such an impression upon the king, that he af- 
 terwards on his knees entreated the bi.shop's for- 
 giveness. Bede bestows upon Aidan the higiicst 
 commendation, exhibiting him to posterity as 
 a pattern worthy to be imitated, " for his peace- 
 able and benevolent temper , for his continence; 
 and humility ; for his superiority to the passions 
 of anger and avarice ; for his contempt of pride 
 and vanity ; for his diligence in obeying and- 
 teaching the divine commands ; for his vigilant 
 application to study ; and for his truly sacerdo- 
 tal exercise of authority in rebuking the proud 
 and imperious, and kindness in comforting the 
 afflicted, and relieving and defending the poor." 
 We are contented to give full credit to this high 
 panegyric, which the venerable Bede pronoun- 
 ces upon his brother, provided we be permitted 
 to with-hold our assent to the miracles which he 
 ascribes to him. During a fire tiie wind might 
 change, and in the burning of a building a par- 
 ticular piece of timber might be preserved, 
 without a miracle ; and when the good bishop 
 gave the priest, who was to conduct the be- 
 trothed wife of Oswi by sea to Northumber- 
 land, a phial of holy oil, bidding him, in case of 
 a storm, pour it into the sea, and assuring him. 
 that it would presently become calm, one may 
 believe, that the prelate was acquainted with a 
 physical phcenomenon, which is mentioned by 
 Pliny, and which Dr. Franklin has since con- 
 fiiTned by experiments. Priests have, in all 
 ages, thought t'lemselves at liberty to turn their 
 knowledge to account, by passing natural ap- 
 pearances upon the ignorant and cred'jlous for 
 miraculous events. Bede, Hist. Ecc. lib. iii. c. 3. 
 Huntingd.apt'd Script. post Red.Blogr.Jirit. — E. . 
 AILLY, Peter d', bishop of Cambray, 
 an illustrious but bigoted ecclesiastic, was born 
 of an obscure family at Compeigne in the year 
 1350. His father, though a butcher, gave him:
 
 A 1 L 
 
 ( 104 ) 
 
 A I L 
 
 ihcadvun'me of a good ciUication. He finislicd 
 his studies a't Paris, where he was received as a 
 ])cnMoiipr in tlio colK-gc ot' Navarre, among tlie 
 Mudcnc: ill divinity. While he was a mcinhcr 
 of this colle:;c he appeared as rii author, and in 
 his treatises,' " On F.ogic," " On the Nature of 
 the Soul," and " On Meteors," gave proof; of 
 arutencss of intellcet, wliich laid the foundation 
 of his suhsequent reputation. He appears to 
 have hcen an eminent master of the subtleties of 
 scholastic learning, and was, withal, celebrated 
 as a good preacher. In 1380 he was received 
 as a doctor of the Sorbonne, and was appointed 
 canon at Noion. Four years afterwards he 
 was recalled 10 Paris, to superintend the college 
 of Navarre, under the title of Grand-master. 
 His talents apjicar to have been respectable ; 
 but he did not, perhaps, owe his rapid ad- 
 vancement to these, so much as to the ardor 
 of his 7eal for tiie catholic faith. John de 
 Montfou, a Jacobin, who had incurred eccle- 
 siastical censure for some l)old opinions which 
 he had advanced concerning the miraculous 
 conception, having mud." his appeal to the court 
 of Rome against the sentence pronounced upon 
 him by the faculty of divinity at Paris, Pefer 
 d'Ailly, in 13S7, undertook a journey to Rome 
 to plead against him before the pope, and by 
 his eloquence obtained a confirmation of the 
 sentence. At a rime when schism and heresy 
 were beginning to disturb the tranquillity of the 
 church, such zealous exertions for its support 
 would not long pass unrewarded. In 1387 he 
 was made confessor and almoner to Charles VI. 
 and chancellor of the university ; a few years 
 afterwards, was appointed treasurer to the holy 
 chapel of Paris, then aichdeacon, and, in 1396, 
 bishop, of Cambray. These latter honours he 
 owed to pope Benedict XIII. who was indebted 
 to his recommendation, for the resolution of the 
 king's council to acknowledge him lawful pope. 
 Ailly gave further proof of his zeal for tlie 
 faith, by preaching before this pope at Genoa, 
 " on the mystery of the trinity," and by per- 
 suading the holy father to enjoin the celebra- 
 tion of this mystery in all the churches. He 
 distinguished him.self in the council of Pisa in 
 the year 1409, and was two years afterwards 
 created cardinal. In the capacity of pope's le- 
 gate, he visited Germany in 1414, and was pre- 
 sent in the great general council of Constance, 
 which lasted from the year 1 41 4 to the year 
 1 41 8. He presided in the third session of this 
 council, and was a principal agent in the pro- 
 ceedings which convicted WicklifFand Huss of 
 heresy, and at last brought them to the staked 
 Upon Jolin Huss he pronounced the sentence 
 
 of death, not, however, without first advising 
 him to submit to the decision of the council. 
 " You have," says the legate, " the choice 
 of one of thcfe two ways ; either to throw 
 yourself wholly upon the power and favour of 
 the council, and acquiesce in their sentence, 
 which will induce the council, out of respect to 
 our lord the king of the Romans here present, 
 and his brother the king of Bohemia, to treat 
 you with clemency ; or, if you have thoughts 
 of maintaining and defending any of the articles 
 alleged against you, and desire another audience, 
 it shall be granted you ; but, be assured, that 
 there are liere great and enlightened men, who 
 can produce powerful arguments against your 
 articles, and that there will be danger of your 
 involving yourself in still greater errors : I 
 give you thi; advice as your friend, not as your 
 judge." The advice appeared friendly, and 
 was probably so meant ; but the judge seems 
 not to have been aware that higher and more 
 powerful considerations than even a regard to 
 personal safety govern the mind of an honest 
 man. When Huss chose rather to submit to 
 the penalty of death than violate his conscience, 
 and abandon what he judged to be the cause of 
 truth, his persecutors probably accused him of 
 pcrvcrseness and obstinacy. It has been said, 
 that, notwithstanding all the zeal which cardinal 
 Ailly discovered against heresy, he was him- 
 self a friend to reformation, and that he wrote 
 a book " On the Reformation ofthe Church ;" 
 but this book is not to be met with among his 
 works ; and it is probable that his ideas of re- 
 form extended no further than the termination 
 of the disputes which arose in his time con- 
 cerning the succession to the papal see, and 
 which perhaps led him to v^'rite, during the sit- 
 ting of the council of Constance, a treatise, 
 " On the Method and Form of electing the 
 Pope." That his mind was not sufficiently en- 
 lightened to form any liberal and extensive plan 
 of reformation, may be concluded from the 
 pains which he took to obtain a general coun- 
 cil, as the only effectual remedy for schism. 
 This may be inferred still more certainly from 
 liis fondness for judicial astrology, that sjuirious 
 offspring of astronomy. Be ides several other 
 treatises on this delusive art, he wrote a book, 
 " De Concordia Historic et Astrologise Divi- 
 natricis," [On the Harmony of History and 
 Judicial Astrology] in which he maintained 
 that Noah's flood, the birth of Christ, and such 
 other miracles, might have been foretold by as- 
 trology. This zealous son of the church died, 
 as appears from the register of the church of 
 Cambray, in 1425, leaving behind him the cha-
 
 A I M 
 
 ( 105 ) 
 
 A I N 
 
 rictcr of " The Englc of Fiance, and the in- 
 defatigable Mallet of Heretics." A part of the 
 epitaph upon his tomb may be copied, as a cu- 
 rious specimen of pceiical taste. 
 
 Mors raj. (lit !'c(r\iin ; pctram suliiit putrc coriiusj 
 Sl-<J jiolrain Christum sjiirilus ipse petit. 
 
 The conceit of these lines must be lost in a 
 translation : their meaning is — 
 
 Death sci/cs Peter, and under this stone 
 Hia budy deciiys ; his spirit is hu\\u 
 To JcKus Iiii rycfc. 
 
 Of his numerous works, several treatises and 
 sermons were printed at Strasburg in 1490: his 
 " Quajstioncs in Sphreram Mundi'' was prinred 
 at Paris in 1498, and at Venice, 1508: his 
 " Treatise of Meteors" appeared at Paris in 
 1504, and his " Life of Celestin V." in 1539. 
 Dupin. Cav. Hist. Lit. — E. 
 
 AlLRED, Ethelrf.d, or Ealred, an 
 historian, abbot of Revesby in Lincolnshire, 
 was born in tiie year 1109, and educated in 
 Scotland with Henry, son of David king of 
 Scotland. He was fond of retirement and stu- 
 dy, and refused ecclesiastical preferment. Se- 
 veral of the fruits of his literary industry, writ- 
 ten in Latin, remain. " A History of the 
 War of the Standard in the Reign of Stephen;" 
 •* A Genealogy of the English Kings;" " An 
 History of the Life and Miracles of Edward the 
 Confessor ;" and, an " History of the Nun of 
 Watthun," are extant in the Decern Sciipteres, 
 published by Twysden, in London, 1652. "Ser- 
 mons;" " The Mirror of Charity ;" a treatise 
 '■ On the Child Jesus ," and another, " On 
 Spiritual Friendship," were published at Douay 
 in 1631, and may be found in the Bibliotheca 
 Cistertiensis, torn. v. and in the Bibliotheca Pa' 
 trum, torn, xxiii. Hist. Angl. Decern Script. Pits 
 de Illust, Angl. Script. Lcland, Comment. Cav. 
 Hist. Lit. Biog. Brit. — E. 
 
 AIMON, of Atjuitaine, a Benedictine monk, 
 is chiefly knovi'n as the author of " A History 
 of France." The time in which he lived is 
 disputed ; but Vossius, who has taken great 
 pains to ascertain the point from the internal 
 evidence of his work, is of opinion, that he 
 lived in the ninth century, and wrote about the 
 year 840. The history is brought down to a 
 much later period, the year 1 1 05 ; but it ap- 
 pears from positive evidence adduced by Vos- 
 sius, as well as from the diversity which he re- 
 marks in the style of the latter part of the fourth 
 ■and the fifth books, that these were afterwards 
 ■added by another hand. The matter scarcely 
 
 VOL. I, 
 
 deserves investigation, for the work Is of too 
 le"cndarv a cast to be entitled to much credit. 
 It may be seen in the third volume ot the col- 
 lection of Duchesne, f^oss. de Hist. Lat. lib. ii. 
 C. 29. Aforcri. — E. 
 
 AINSWORTH, Henry, an eminent bi- 
 blical commentator and divine among the Eng- 
 lish nonconformists, flourished at the latter end 
 of the sixteenth and the beginning of the seven- 
 teenth century. The rime and place of liis 
 birth are not known. He united himself to the 
 persecuted sect of the Brownists, who renounced 
 all communion with the church of England, 
 and disclaimed every kind of chtirch authority, 
 ex'cept that which might subsist among the 
 members of a single congregation. To escape 
 the troubles which harassed these sectaries, un- 
 der that intolerant protestant queen Elizabeth, 
 Ainsworth, after the example of many otiier 
 nonconformists, left his country and retired to 
 Holland. Here, in union with one of his bre- 
 thren, Mr. Johnson, he became minister of an 
 independent congregation, in which the secta- 
 rian spirit was carried to such an height, as to 
 occasion violent dissensions, and a final separa- 
 tion. While we respect the integrity, and pity 
 the sufferings, of tliese exiles, we must regret 
 that they showed so little of that candour which 
 they expected from other churches, and that 
 they frequently spent their 7e;tl upon things, 
 which, to an enlightened and liberal inquirer, 
 must appear of little moment. If Heylin, w'ho 
 was no friend to sectaries, did not give hasty 
 credit to an idle rumour, we must believe on his 
 authority, (Heylin's Hist, of the Presbyterians, 
 p. 374.) that Ainsworth maintained a violent, 
 dispute with Broughton, one of his brethren, on 
 the silly question, " whetlier the colour of Aa- 
 ron's linen ephod was blue or green ?" l"he 
 quarrels of the Brownists in Amsterdam drove 
 Ainsworth for a time out of the country, and 
 led him to seek a retreat in Ireland ; he soon 
 however returned, and remained in Holland till 
 his death, concerning which a singular circum- 
 stance is related. Ainsworth, having acciden- 
 tally picked up in the street a valuable diamond, 
 advertised it, and found the owner to Itc a weal - 
 thy Jew. The JewofTcred liiin any recompense 
 he might demand, bjt Ainsworth would accept 
 of no acknowledgement, and only requested, in 
 return, that the Jew would obtain for him a 
 conference with some learned rabbis on the pro- 
 phecies of the Old Testament concerning the 
 messiah. The Jew- promised this, but not being 
 able to make good his engagement, is said, 
 through shame, or vexation, or from some 
 other motive which does not appear, to have
 
 A I N 
 
 ( io6 ) 
 
 A I R 
 
 poisojictl Mr. Ainsworth. Tliis probably hap- 
 pened about the- year 1629. 'I'Jic unpopulantv 
 of ilic sett to which Ainsworth bilbngecl (Jul 
 not altogether, even during his life, deprive hiin 
 of the praise due to great biblical learning. Bi- 
 sliop Hall acknowledged hini to he the greatest 
 man of his party, and called him their doctor 
 and rabbi. He has left behind him learned an- 
 notations on the Scriptures, which, though per- 
 haps less read in England than they have de- 
 scrvcil. have brought the author numerous tes- 
 timonies in his favour from learned men of dif- 
 ferent countries and various sects. His " An- 
 notations" appeared at diircrciit times ; those on 
 die psalms in 1612, in4to; those on the five 
 books of Moses, in two volumes 410, in 1621. 
 They were reprinted together in folio in 1627 
 and '16^9. This last edition is become cxceed- 
 in<'lv rare. 'I'hc volume contains a prefatory 
 discourse on the life and writings of Moses ; a 
 literal translation of the Pentateuch, with an- 
 notations chiefly from rabbinical writers ; an 
 advertisement touching some objections made 
 against the sincerity of the Hebrew text, with 
 other short dissertations ; a life of David ; 
 annotations on the book of Psalms ; the 
 song of Solomon, with a literal translation 
 from the Hebrew, in prose, and another in 
 verse, and also annotations. This work was 
 translated into Dutch : it has been supposed 
 that the learned Lightfoot was indebted to it. 
 Ainsworth wrote other pieces, chiefly referring 
 to the controversies of the time: they are now 
 forgotten, except, perliaps, his "Arrow against 
 Idolatry." Neale''s Hht. of the Puritans. Biogr. 
 B>it.-E. 
 
 AINSWORTH, Robert, a grammarian, 
 to whom alinost every English scholar of the 
 present age will acknowledge his obligations, 
 was born at Woodyate in Lancashire, near 
 Manchester, in the year 1660, and received his 
 education at Bolton in the same county, where 
 he afterwards taught a school. From Bolton, 
 Ainsworth removed to Bethnal Green near Lon- 
 don, where he continued the profession of a 
 school-master with great reputation. During 
 his residence at tliis place, he wrote " A short 
 Treatise of Grammatical Institution." Having, 
 in different situations near the metropolis, conti- 
 nued his school till he had acquired a decent 
 competency, he withdrew from the fatigues of 
 tuition. In the latter part of his life, he often 
 employed himself in rummaging the shops of 
 obscure brokers to pick up old coins and other 
 valuable curiosities, which he frequently pur- 
 chased at a small expense. He died at London 
 in 1743, and was buried at Poplar. The fol- 
 
 lowing Inscription, written by himiielf, will not 
 perhaps give the reader a very high opinion of 
 Ainsvvonh's poetical talents, but may deserve 
 prest^rvation as a memorial of the compiler of 
 the T/ieiowus. 
 
 Rob. Ainsworth ct.uxor ejus, admodtim scncs, 
 Dorniituri, vcstem dctritum hie cxuprunt, 
 Novain, ptimo mane surgcntcs, induturi. 
 
 Dum fas, mortalis, sapias, et respicc fincm. 
 Hoc suadent manes ; hoc canil Amrainides. 
 
 To thy reflection, mortal friend, 
 Th' advice of Moses I commend, 
 Be wise, and meditate thy end. 
 
 The two last lines of the above Latin inscrip- 
 tion are EngVished by the author in his owiv 
 manner, which is iinitated in the following ver- 
 sion of the first three Hnes ; 
 
 Here Robert Ainsworth and his -wife. 
 Put otl' the worn-out vest of life, 
 Hoping tlie morn will soon appear, 
 Wlien they a brighter robe sliall wear. 
 To thy, &c. 
 
 Though there may not be much reason to 
 regret that other productions of Ainsworth 's 
 muse have not been preserved, respect is due to 
 his memory for the judgment, industry, and per- 
 severance with which he completed the laborious 
 task of compiling a dictionary for the use of 
 schools. The work was begun about the year 
 1714, and was not finished till 1736. Upon 
 its publication, the author, in his dedication to 
 Dr. Mead, writes, " Not without great labour, 
 and many watchings, I have at length, after 
 more than twenty years, completed tliis work." 
 "Hoc opus, ante quatuor abhinc lustra, baud sine 
 magno labore, multis vigiliis, ad finem perduxi." 
 In subsequent editions, Patrick, Ward, Young, 
 and other learned men, contributed to its im- 
 provernent; and, in 1773, appeared a new edi- 
 tion, very mucli enlai ged and further improved, 
 by Morell. The work may now be regarded 
 as an excellent guide to the scholar in acquiring 
 tlie knowledge of the Latin tongue. A useful 
 abridgment of this dictionary has been given in. 
 8vo. by Mr. Thomas. Prefaces to different 
 editions of AimwortlCs Diet. Biogr. Brit. — E. 
 AIRY, Henp.y, an English divine, was 
 born in Westmoreland in 1559, and educated 
 under the care and patronage of Bernard Gilpin, 
 who, in 1570, sent him to St. Edmund's Hall, 
 Oxford, Airy was afterwards tiansferred to 
 Qiieen's College, where he was successively 
 servitor, fellow, and ma ten In 1598, he was 
 appointed provost of his college ; in 1600, took 
 the degree of doctor in divinity; and, in 1606,
 
 A I S 
 
 ( 107 ) 
 
 A I T 
 
 ms elected vice-chancellor of the university. 
 He was a constant anJ zealous preacher, and a 
 strenuous dorendcr of the Calvinistic system. He 
 wrote a treatise " y\gainst bowing at the Name 
 of Jesus," and " Lectures on tl.c Epistle to 
 the Philippians," published in 1618. Airy was 
 much esteemed for his learning, gravity, and pie- 
 tv. [flood's Athoi. Oxon. n. 480. Granger's 
 Biog. Hist. J. 1. CI. 4. — E. 
 
 AISTULPH, or Astolphus, king of the 
 I,ombards, was elected to succeed his hrcjtlier 
 Racliis in A. D. 750. He was contcniptirary 
 with the eastern emperor Constantino Copi ony- 
 mus ; who, being engaged in war with the Sa- 
 racens, gave Aistulph the opportunity oi invad- 
 ing the exarchate of Ravenna, which he siih- 
 dued, \\i;h all its dependencies, and added to the 
 kingdom of Lombardy. This was the final 
 termination of the exarchate, wliich was thence- 
 forth changed to a dukedom. Not contented 
 with this acquisition, he laid claim to Rome 
 itself and its dukedom ; and, marching an army 
 towards the city, declared his intention of plun- 
 dering it and [Hitting the inhabitants to death, un- 
 less they agreed to acknowledge his right, and pay 
 him tribute. Pope Stephen, in this emergency, 
 first applied for assistance to tb.e emperor ; but, 
 receiving from him no other aid than that ot an 
 embassador, whom Aistulph treated with scorn, 
 Jie had recourse to Pepin, king of France. This 
 powerful monarch, having in vain attempted by 
 embassies to dissuade Aistulph from his violent 
 proceedings, at length entered Italy \\ith an ar- 
 my, and invested the Lombard king in Pavia. 
 Aistulph was glad to purchase peace by promis- 
 ing to restore all the places he had taken, and 
 even the exarchate ; which Pepin made over to 
 the see of Rome. But, on the departure of Pe- 
 pin, he broke the treaty, again entered the terri- 
 tories of Rome in a hostile manner, and laid 
 siege to the city itself Stephen a second time 
 applied to Pepin with the most submissive en- 
 treaties, and Pepin again entered Italy. Aistulph 
 broke up the siege of Rome, and marching to 
 meet him, again threw himself into Pavia, where 
 he was a second tiine besieged. Meantime Con- 
 stantine sent ambassadors to Pepin for the pur- 
 poseof claiming theexarchatc, as justly belonging 
 to the eastern empire ; but Pepin declared his re- 
 solution of making it subject to the church. He 
 pressed the siege of Pavia with such vigour, that 
 Aistulph was obliged to renew and execute his 
 former treaty widi some fresh renunciations. He 
 notwithstanding showed an inclination to try the 
 fortune of war once more, and was making 
 great preparations for the purpose, w hen he was 
 killed in huirting, A. D. 756, leaving no mule 
 
 issue. Besides the spirit of warlike enterprise 
 which this prince possessed, he had the better 
 ambition of a legislator, and publi.slied a new 
 code of laws in the fifth year of liis reign, 
 which is still extant. Univcis. Hist. 
 
 Astolphus and his queen arc made the subject 
 of a curious tale, of tlie free kind, to be found 
 in La Fontaine and other novelists. — A. 
 
 AITON, William, an eminent horticul- 
 turist and botanist, was born, in 1731, at a vil- 
 lage near Hamilton in Scotland. Having been 
 regularly trained to the profession of a gardener, 
 as it was and still is practised by numbers of his 
 countrymen, with an union of manual skill and 
 scientific knowledge, he came into England in 
 1754; and, in the year following, obtained the 
 notice of the celebrated Philip Miller, tlien su- 
 perintendent of the physic-garden at Chelsea, 
 who employed him for some time as an assistant. 
 His industry and abilities in this situation were 
 so conspicuous, that he was pointed out to the 
 princess-dowager of Wales as a fit person to 
 manage the botanical-garden at Kew ; and, in 
 1759, he was appointed to this office, in whicli 
 he continued during life, and which was the 
 source of his fame and torture. The encou- 
 raecment of botanical studies bcino; a distin- 
 guished feature in the reign of Gccrge III. it 
 was determined to render Kew the grand repo- 
 sitory of all the vegetable riches, which could be 
 accumulated by regal munificence, from re- 
 searches carried on through all quarters of the 
 globe. These treasures could not have been 
 committed to better hands than those of Aiton, 
 whose care and skill in their cultivation, and 
 intelligence in tiieir arrangement, acquired him 
 the highest reputation among all lovers of the 
 science, and the particular esteem of his royal 
 patrons. Under his superintendence, a vaiiety 
 of improvements took place in the plan and 
 edifices of Kew-gardens, till they attained an 
 undoubted superiority over every other scene of 
 botanical culture. In 1783, b.is merit was very 
 properly rcw'arded in a lucrative view, by add- 
 ing to his botanical department tlie care of the 
 pleasure and kitchen-gardens of Kew. In 1789 a 
 work appeared, which had been the labour of many 
 years, and which entitles him to respectful com- 
 mcinoration among the promoters of science. 
 This was the " Hortus Kewensis ; or a Cata- 
 logue of the Plants cultivated in the Royal Bo- 
 t.uiic Garden at Kew," three vols. 8vo. with 
 thirteen plates. No catalogue, which could com- 
 pare with this in richness, had hitherto been 
 made public. The number of species contained 
 in it is between five and six thousar.d, ot w hich 
 a very considerable part had not before been dt-
 
 A I T 
 
 ( 108 ) 
 
 A K B 
 
 scribiti. A new and curious article in it relates 
 to the first introluction of particular exotics into 
 the English gardens. The system of arrange- 
 ment followed is tlic Linnseao, luit with some 
 improvements, adapted to tt.e advanced state of 
 homnical science. The modesty of the author 
 has ktl him freelv to acknowledge the assistance 
 he received in tliis great work from those two 
 eminent Swedish naturalists, Dr. Solander and 
 Mr. Jonas Drvandcr. IndicJ Mr. Alton's cha- 
 racter was such as secured him the friendship 
 and good offices of the most distinguished names 
 in science of his time, and he \\as for many 
 years peculiarly honoured by th.e notice ot -ir 
 Joseph Banks, the president of the royal society. 
 The "Hortus Kewensis" was received with 
 avidity by the botanic world, and a large impres- 
 sion was soon disposed of. 
 
 Notwithstanding a life of singular activirN-^ and 
 temperance, Mr. Ait(m fell into that incurable 
 malady, a scirrhous liver, which carried him off 
 in 1793, in his sixty-second year. He left be- 
 hind him a wife and several children. His eldest 
 son, brought u]) successfully to the same pursuits, 
 was, by the king's own nomination, appointed 
 to all his father's employments. The private 
 character of Mr. Airon was highly estimable for 
 mildness, benevolence, piety, and every domes- 
 tic and social virtue. He was interred in the 
 church-yard of Kew, amidst a most respectable 
 concourse of friends. Gent. Afagaz. for May 
 179'?, Funer. Sermon by IV. Smith. Acct. of 
 the Hcrlus Kewensis in Monthly and Critical Re- 
 views. — A. 
 
 AITZEMA, Leo, an historian, was born 
 at Doccum in Friezland in the year 1600. He 
 was counsellor of the Hans Towns, and was 
 ap[)ointed to be their resident at the Hague, 
 vhcre he continued forty years. The work 
 inhich entitles him to memorial is, " A History 
 of the United Provinces," written in Dutch. It 
 contains, copied entire, and translated from their 
 original language into Dutch, treaties of peace, 
 instructions and memoirs of ambassadors, lette-rs, 
 capitulations, and other public acts. As a large 
 collection of authentic pieces, the work is ex- 
 tremely valuable ; as a history, it is more to be 
 commended for its fidelity than for its elegance. 
 The author writes with impartiality on those af- 
 fairs which concern religion. The work was 
 published in fifteen volumes 4to. at different 
 times from 1657 to 1671. Another edition, in 
 $even volumes folio, immediately succeeded the 
 former. The period on which this history is 
 written is from the year 1 62 1 to the year 1668^. 
 The author is said to have been well acquainted 
 vith several languages, an able politician, and 
 
 a inan of amiable manners. He died at the 
 Ha^ue in t!ie year 1669. His work has been 
 coiuinutd down to the year 1692. Moreri. 
 Kouv. Diet. Hist. — E. 
 
 AKBAR, Sultan, was the third of the de- 
 scendants of Timur, who leigned in Hindostan 
 under the name of Moguls. He succeeded his 
 father Hemayun in 1556. The first action of 
 his rei2;n was to recover Dehli, which had been 
 seized by the Patans. Soon after, he was inau- 
 gurated at Dehli, and assumed the government, 
 wliich had before been administered by his tutor, 
 Beyiam Khan. He took the strong fortress of 
 Chitor, and suppressed some rebellions ; and 
 afterwards made a pilgrimage on foot two hun- 
 dred miles to the tomb of Haji Mondi, in order 
 to obtain the blessing of children. On the news 
 of a rebellion in Guzerat, he inarched with great 
 celerity into that province, mounting his follow- 
 ers on dromedaries, and effected its complete 
 reduction. He next made an expedition into 
 Bengal, took the city of Patan after a long 
 siege, and made himself master of all the coun- 
 try. Kabul was the next place that submitted to 
 his arms ; and Kandahar was betrayed into his 
 power. He then invaded Kashmeer, into which 
 kingdom he gained an admission by treachery, 
 and soon reduced it, making its king a prisoner, 
 to whom he was just enough to allow a pension. 
 The kingdom of Sindi next fell into his hands ; 
 and his ambition growing with this tide of suc- 
 cess, he sent a powerful army to invade the De- 
 can, which gained a signal victory over the troops 
 of the queen of that country, and subdued various 
 provinces. But, in the mean time, the usual 
 family misfortunes of an eastern despot began 
 to interrupt the prosperity of Akbar. His son 
 Morad died from the consequences of intempe- 
 rance. His son Selim, during his father's ab- 
 sence in the Decan, seised his treasures, and 
 marched with a numerous army towards Agra, 
 in order to dethrone him. His third son, Da- 
 niel, who had made a great progress in the De- 
 can, at length gave himself up to drinking, and 
 died. On this event, the old king sent letters to 
 Selim, reproaching him with his rebellion, but 
 saying that as he was now his sole heir, he 
 would receive him to favour on his submission. 
 Selim obeyed tlie summons ; and, though at first 
 roughly treated by his father, was at length 
 pardoned, though not without some tokens of 
 remaining suspicion. Akhar did not long sur- 
 vive this reconciliation ; and the circumstances 
 of his death were singular. Being incensed 
 against a Mirza for some iu'^olent expression, he 
 resolved to take him off. For this purpose, he 
 ordered two pills of opium (the common cordial
 
 A K E 
 
 ( »09 ) 
 
 A K E 
 
 of that country) to be prepared, one of them 
 poisoned. These lie kept in his hand till, not 
 able to distinguish them, he took the poisoned 
 one himself, and presented the other to the Mir- 
 za. The consequences were fatal. Perceiving 
 his danger, he placed his own turban on Selim's 
 head, andgirt him with his father's sword ; and, 
 on the 1 2th day from the accident, died, at 
 die age of 63, A. D. 1605. Afsd. Unlvers. 
 Hist— A. 
 
 AKENSIDE, Mark, M. D. This per- 
 son, who, as a man of eminence, classes rather 
 among the poets than the physicians, was born 
 in 1721 at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, where his fa- 
 ther was a substantial butcher. He had his 
 early education first at a grammar-scliool, and 
 then at a private academy in Newcastle ; and, at 
 the age of eiglitcen, was sent to the university of 
 Edinburgh, for the purpose of being qualihed for 
 a dissenting minister. Here, however, he soon 
 changed his studies for those of physic ; and, 
 after continuing three years at Edinburgh, he 
 removed to Levden for two more, where he took 
 the degree of doctor in 1744. In this year ap- 
 peared his capital poem " On the Pleasures of the 
 Imagination ;" which was received with great 
 applause, and at once raised the author into po- 
 etical fame. A proof of the attention it drew, was 
 the notice Mr. (afterwards bishop) Warburton 
 thought proper to take of some prose remarks in 
 it concerning the nature and objects of ridicule; 
 these called forth some severe strictures from 
 that polemic, who, however, did not attack the 
 poetry of the work. An anonymous reply was 
 made to them by Dr. Akenside's very intimate 
 friend Mr. Jeremiah Dyson. This poem was 
 soon followed by a very warm invective against 
 the political apostasy of the celebrated Pulteney, 
 earl of Bath, in an " Epistle to Curio." In 
 1745 he published ten odes on different sub- 
 jects, and in various styles and manners. All 
 these works characterised him as a zealous vo- 
 tary of Grecian philosophy and classical litera- 
 ture, and an ardent lover of liberty. His poli- 
 tics were thought to incline to republicanism, 
 and his theology to deism ; yet William III. was 
 the great object of his praise ; and in his ode to 
 Hoadley, and to the author of the Memoirs of 
 the House of Brandenburg, he has testified his 
 regard for pure Christianity, and his dislike of 
 attempts to set men tree from the restraints of 
 religion. 
 
 He continued from time to time to publish 
 his poetical effusions, though in a more leisure- 
 ly manner. A political ode, addressed to the 
 earl of Huntingdon, came out in 1748 ; and an 
 ode to the country gentlemen of England, de- 
 
 signed to rouzc the ilrooping martial spirit of the 
 nation, in 1758. Most of his remaining poems 
 first appeared in Dodsley's collection. Of these, 
 the most considerable is a •' Hymn to the 
 
 Naiads." 
 
 With respect to his professional career, it was 
 not highly successful, and affords few incidents 
 wordi recording. He settled for a short time at 
 Northampton ; then removed to Hampstcad, 
 where he resided two years and a half; and, 
 finally, fixed himself in London. While his 
 practice was small, he was, with uncommon ge- 
 nerosity, assi<;ted by his friend, Mr. Dyson, 
 with an allowance of 300I. per annum. He 
 pursued the regular course to advancement, 
 through the stages of fellow of the royal so- 
 ciety, physician to St. Thomas's hospital, doc- 
 tor ot physic by mandamus at Cambridge, and 
 fellow of tile London college of physicians. He 
 wrote, too, several occasional pieces on medical 
 subjects, as, " Observations on the Origin and 
 Use ot the Lymphatics," being the substance of 
 the Gulstonian lectures, which he read in 1755, 
 and published in the Philosophical Transactions 
 for 1757 ; " An Account of a Blow on the 
 Heart, and its Effects," published in the same 
 for 1763 ; "A Treatise on the Epidemic Dys- 
 entery of 1764," his principal medical work, 
 written in elegant Latin, and printed separately; 
 " Observations on Cancers, on the L^se of Ipe- 
 cacuanha in Asthmas, and on a Method of 
 treating White Swellings of the Joints ;" all 
 published in the first volume of the Medical 
 Transactions. By these efforts his practice and 
 reputation increased, so that, upon the settlement 
 ot the queen's household, he was appointed one 
 ot her majesty's physicians ; though this elevation, 
 not very congenial with his political character, 
 was probably chiefly owing to the influence of 
 Mr. Dyson, who was become a member of ad- 
 ministration. It is i-aid that Dr. Akcnside had a 
 haughtiness and ostentation of manner which 
 was not calculated to ingratiate him with his 
 brethren of tlie faculty, or to render him gene- 
 rally acceptable. He died of a putrid fever in 
 June 1770, in the forty-ninth year of his age. 
 His books and prints, of which last he was a 
 curious collector, came, after his death, into the 
 hands of Mr. Dyson. [Biogr. Brit.) 
 
 The rank which Akenside holds among the 
 English classics is principally owing to his di- 
 dactic poem, on the " Pleasures of the Imagina- 
 tion," a work finished at three-and-twcnty, and 
 which his after-performances never equalled. Its 
 foundation is the elegant and even poetical pa- 
 pers on the same subject by Addison, in the 
 Spectator ; but he has so expanded the pl-in, and
 
 A K E 
 
 ( I'o ) 
 
 A K I 
 
 enriched tlie illustrations from the stores of phi- 
 lojopliy aiiil poetry, that it woukl be injurious 
 to deny liini the claims of an original writer. 
 Ko |)ocm of so elevated and abstracted a kind 
 \va< ever so popular. It went ilirough several 
 editions soon after its appearance, and is still R-ad 
 with enthusiasin by those who have acquired a 
 relish for the lofty conceptions of pure poetry, 
 and the strains of numerous blank verse. Irs 
 merit, and that of the writer, have probably 
 never been so well appreciated as by Mis. Bar- 
 bauld, in an Essay, prefixed to an ornameni.ed 
 edition of this poem, published by CadtU and 
 Davies in 1795. We shall copy part ot the 
 summary w^ith which it concludes. 
 
 " If the genius of Akenside is to be estimated 
 from this poem, it will be found to be lofty and 
 elegant, chaste, correct, and classical ; not mark- 
 ed with strong traits of originality, not ardent 
 nor exuberant. His enthusiasm was rather of 
 that kind which is kindled by reading, and im- 
 bibing the spirit of authors, than by contem- 
 plating at fust hand the works of nature. As a 
 versifier, Akenside is allowed to stand amongst 
 those who have given tlie most finished models 
 of blank verse. His periods are long but har- 
 monious, the cadences fall with grace, and the 
 measure is supported with uniform dignity. His 
 muse possesses t!ie mien erect, and high catn- 
 -manding gait. We shall scarcely find a low or 
 trivial expression introduced, a careless and un- 
 finished line permitted to stand. His statelincss, 
 however, is somewhat allied to stiffness. His 
 verse is sometimes feeble through too rich a red- 
 undancy of ornament, and sometimes laboured 
 into a degree of obscurity from too anxious a 
 desire of avoiding natural and simple expres- 
 sions." 
 
 The author was known to have been employ- 
 ed many years in correcting or rather new- 
 modeling this work. The unfinished draught 
 of it on this new plan, which he left behind 
 him, seems to render t probable that it would 
 have lost as much in poetry as it would have 
 gained in philosophy. 
 
 Of his other pieces, the " Hymn to the 
 Naiads," al o in blank verse, is the longest and 
 best. With the purest spirit of classical litera- 
 ture, it contains much mythological ingenuity, 
 and many pcetical id.-as beautifully expressed! 
 \yuh respect to his lyric productions, their co- 
 piousness and elevation of thought does not 
 compensate for their total want of grace, ease, 
 and appropriate harinony. They are cold, stiff", 
 and affected, liiey do not appear ever to liavc 
 been great favourites with the public, and are 
 not likely ever to become so. The only sparks 
 
 of animation they exhibit are when they totich 
 on |)olitical topics. — A. 
 
 AKIBA, a Jewish rabbi, wlio is said to have 
 been born early in the first century, and to have 
 lived to a great age, was one of those profound 
 doctors who studied and taught the mysteries of 
 the Jew ish cabbala. Till forty years of age, he 
 was employed in the humble occupation of a 
 shepherd, in the service of a rich citizen of Je- 
 rusalem : but his master's daughter promising to 
 marry him on condition of his becoming a learn- 
 ed man, he devoted himself to study. After some 
 years, he w-as so famous for learning, that his 
 school, first at Lydda, and afterwards at Jafna, 
 was crowded with scholars. The account given 
 by the Jews, that he had twenty-four thousand 
 disciples, is, however, incredible : it is hard to 
 say whence such an immense number of pupils 
 should have been collected ; and im.possible to 
 believe, that these disciples, as the Jews relate, 
 all died between the passover and pentecost, and 
 were buried near Tiberias, at the foot of a hill, 
 with Akiba and his wife. (Basnage, Hist, des 
 Juifs, lib. vi. c. 9.) Akiba was one of the first 
 compilers of the Jewish traditionary institutes, 
 which he enlarged by inventions of his own. 
 Many of these were, in the highest extreme, ab- 
 surd and ridiculous; and extended the ceremonial 
 precepts to tlie most mechanical actions. In- 
 gressus sum aliquando j)ost R. Josuam in Jedis 
 sccretffi locum, et tria ab eo didici: Didici pri- 
 mo, quod non versus orientem etoccidentem, sed 
 versus septentrionem et austrum nos convertere 
 debeamus, &:c. &c. (Talm. Massech. Berach. 
 fol. 62. col. I.) Yet this rabbi was held in 
 such veneration among the Jews of Palestine, 
 that they thought him immediately instructed by 
 God to deliver to them the oral law, and as- 
 serted, that those things which were not revealed 
 to Moses, were revealed to rabbi Akiba. He 
 is commonly supposed to be the author of a book 
 called " Jezirah," concerning the creation ; a 
 work which teaches the cabbalistic doctrine, 
 and which probably originated from the Jewish 
 schools in Egypt. Some of the Jews Itave given 
 it a more ancient origin, and ascribed it to the 
 patriarch Abraham. Akiba is said to have un- 
 derstood seventy languages; but this perhaps 
 only exjjresscs an indefinite number by a defi- 
 nite term, by a figure of speech Common to all 
 nations. When far advanced in life, Akiba e- 
 spoused the cause of the false messiah Barcho- 
 chebas, and maintained, that the words of Ba- 
 laam, " A star shall come out of Jacob," were 
 fulfilled in him, and that he was the true mes- 
 siah. An army of two hundred thousand men 
 is said to have repaired about the year 132 to
 
 Ful hf WlicharJfonJuh/ I. Ij^ <? Jork HoufeMlP/JlreinSy.
 
 ALA 
 
 ( 
 
 II I 
 
 ) 
 
 ALA 
 
 flie standard of this pretended deliverer of Israel : 
 Akiba anointed him as Samuel did Saul, and at- 
 tended him as armour-bearer at the head of his ar- 
 mv. (Joh.a Lent. Schediasm. de Pseudo-Mess. p. 
 o.) Theforces which the Roman emperor Adrian 
 sent against these insurgents, who had commit- 
 ted dreadful devastation, after a doubtful contest 
 were successful. This pretended rhessiah and 
 his army were shut up in the city of Bitterah, 
 and, after a long siege, were put to the sword. 
 Akiba was taken, and imprisoned. It is said, that 
 during his confinement, when he was nearly pe- 
 rishing for want of water, he chose ratlier to make 
 use of a small portion in washing his hands, ac- 
 cording to the rabbinical law, than in quencliing 
 his thirst, saying, " that it was better to die of 
 thirst than to transgress the precepts of their 
 fathers." With his son Pappus he was flayed 
 alive. This happened about the year 135. 
 After his death the Jews paid great honour to his 
 memory, and his tomb at Tiberias was visited 
 with great solemnity. Akiba is said to have 
 altered the text of the Hebrew bible, with re- 
 spect to the age of the patriarchs when they be- 
 gan to have children, which is greater accord- 
 ing to the Septuagint, than in the Hebrew text ; 
 and to have done this to make it believed, that 
 the time of the coming of the Messiah was not 
 yet arrived, because that, according to the tra- 
 dition of the Jews, the Messiah was not to appear 
 till the completion of six thousand years. Iii 
 support of this conjecture it is urged, that the 
 translation of Aquiia, published in the twelfth 
 year of Hadrian, agrees with the Hebrew text 
 of this time ; ar.d tlmt this Aquiia, having gone 
 over from the Christian to the Jewish religion, 
 and becoming a pupil of Akiba, probably per- 
 suaded his master to make this alteration, which, 
 it is said, his high character among the Jews in 
 Palestine might enable him to effect. (Pezron. 
 Antiq. c. 16.) The charge, however, is feebly 
 supported, and the dissonance between the Sep- 
 tuagint and Hebrew text still remains to be sa- 
 tisfactorily accounted for. The book entitled 
 Jezirah was first printed at Paris, in 8vo. in 
 the year 1552, and translated into Latin by 
 Postel, with notes : it was reprinted, with other 
 Jewish books, in folio, at Basil, in 1587 ; and a 
 Latin translation, with notes, was published in 
 1642, by Rittangel, a converted Jew, professor 
 at Koningsberg. Zemach. David, ad Ann. AI. 
 370. Lightfoot, Horee Heb. t. ii. p. 449. Ottho- 
 nh Hiit. Doct. Mismcorum. p. 132. Bayle. 
 Brucker. Hist. P hil. \ih. iv. c. 2. — E. 
 
 ALABASTER, William, an Enghsh di- 
 vine, born at Hadleigh in Suffolk, in the six- 
 teenth century, and educated in Trinity Col- 
 
 lege, Cambridge, accompanied the earl of Es- 
 sex, as his chaplain, in his expedition to Cadiz 
 in the reign of queen Elizabeth. He was a 
 man of a restless and fickle temper, and affords 
 a singular example of sudden and violent changes 
 of opinion. While he was abroad with the 
 earl of Essex he became a convert to the Ro- 
 mish church ; but on his return, came back in- 
 to the bosom of his mother church, and was 
 provided with a living in Hertfordshire, and a 
 prebend in St. Paul's, London. He now de- 
 voted himself to the study of the Hebrew lan- 
 guage, and became an enthusiastic admirer of 
 the mysteries of the Jewisli Cabbala, according 
 to which he interpreted, or rather perverted, the 
 scriptures. As a specimen of his method of 
 explaining scripture, may be mentioned a ser- 
 mon which he preacired on taking his degree of 
 doctor of divinity in Cambridge : he took for 
 his text the beginning of the first book of Chro- 
 nicles, Adam, Set.':, Enoch ; and having touched 
 upon the literal sense, fell into the mystical, ex- 
 plaining Adam as signifying misery, &c. He 
 lived to the year 1630. He wrote a Lexicon 
 Pentaglotton, printed in folio, in 1637, and 
 other works, from the titles of which the mys- 
 tical turn of his mind will sufficiently appear. 
 " Apparatus in Revelationem Jesu Christi : 
 Spiraculum Tubarum, sen, Fons spiritualiuni 
 Expositionum ex a?quivocis Pentateuchi Signifi- 
 cationibus:" and " Ecce Sponsus venit, seu, 
 Tuba Pulchritudinis, hoc est, Demonstratio quod 
 non sit illicitum, nee impossibile, computare Du- 
 rationem Mundi et Tcmpus secundi Adventus 
 Christi." [Preparation for the Revelation of 
 Jesus Christ : The Mouth of the I'rumpet, or 
 the Fountain of spiritual Expositions from the 
 double Meanings of the Pentateuch. — Behold 
 the Bridegroom cometh, or the Trump of Beaut)% 
 a Demonstration, that it is not unlawful nor im- 
 possible to compute the End of the World, and 
 the Time of the second Advent of Christ.] 
 This m3'stic, in the former of these works, un- 
 dertakes to provide a new and admirable method 
 of investigating the mysterious sense of the pro- 
 phecies, by making the scripture its own inter- 
 preter ; but a writer, who, in order to bring out 
 his interpretation, did not scruple to assign new 
 significations to words, to alter the grammatical 
 constniction, and even to separate the syllables 
 and letters of the Hrbrew words at his pleasure, 
 (Rivet. Isagoge ad Script. Sac. c. 15.) can only 
 he considered as an egregious trifler, or a mad 
 enthusiast, whose works can deserve notice 
 merely as monuments of human folly. This 
 learned enthusiast died in 1640. Fuller's IJ'or- 
 thics. Biiyle. /■food's Fasti Oxon. — E.
 
 ALA 
 
 ( 
 
 112 
 
 ) 
 
 ALA 
 
 ALAIN, ]o»v, a Danish writer, was born 
 in 15'ij, and died in 1630. He I'ublistK-d a 
 tic.itisc " On the Ovigin of the Cimbri, and 
 thiir various E-tabh';hments ;" another, " On 
 Lotic, natural, and artificial ;" and a third, 
 *' On the Pronunciation of the Greek Language, 
 with an Apology for Saxo (jrammriticus." 
 Koiir. Bihl. vet. et n(rv. Moreri. — E. 
 
 ALAIN, de lisle, a native of Li";le, in 
 Flanders, who flourished in the thirteenth cen- 
 tury, was so celehratctl for his skill in theology, 
 philosophy, and i)0ctrv. that he was called the 
 Vniver^al Doctor. He died in the year 12Q4, and 
 left behind him many pieces in prose and verse, 
 collected into one volume, in folio, at Antwerp, 
 in 1653. ^V'hcn he was alive, his fame was 
 so great, that it was thought a felicity to have 
 known him ; and it was proverbially said, 
 '• Suffice it to have seen Alain." Probably, 
 in the present more enlightened age, the sight of 
 his voluminous work on the shelf of a library 
 will be thought enough, and it will be again 
 said, " Suffice it to have seen Alain." Dupht. 
 Aloreri. — E. 
 
 ALAMANNI, Luic.r, born at Florence in 
 1495, of a family of distinction, rendered him- 
 self celebrated from early youth for his progress 
 in philosophy and Greek literature. He was 
 originally attached to the Medici party, and in- 
 gratiated himself with cardinal Julio de' Medici, 
 afterwards pope Clement VII; but upon some 
 disgust, he entered into a conspiracy against the 
 cardinal, and in consequence was obliged to 
 take refuge in Venice. He was afterwards 
 imprisoned in Brescia, and with great difficulty 
 obtained the liberty of expatriating himself. He 
 wandered about some years, living partly in 
 France, partly in Genoa, till 1527, when he 
 was recalled to Florence on the expulsion of 
 the Medici family. Here he was engaged in 
 various public affairs for the support of the li- 
 berties of his country, till that family finally re- 
 gained and perpetuated their authority in 1530. 
 Alamanni was detained three years in Provence, 
 and then declared a rebel. Taking refuge at 
 length in France, he passed there some time in 
 retirement, chiefly occupying himself in poetical 
 compositions. Francis I. at length called him 
 to court, honoured him with the order of St. 
 Michael, gave him a considerable office in the 
 household of Catharinede' Medici, and employed 
 him m various concerns at Rome and Naples. 
 In I 544 he sent him on an embassy to the em- 
 peror Charles V. In his complimentary ha- 
 rangue before this prince, having frequently 
 introduced the word aquila (eagle) Charies re- 
 plied by a quotation from a satirical poem of 
 
 Alaraannl's own, in which the cock is made (o 
 call the eagle " Aquila grifagna, che, per piii 
 divorar, due hecchi porta ;" [The rapacious 
 eagle, who has two beaks to devour the more, j 
 Alamanni, not disconcerted, apologised for his 
 lines as written in the fervour of youth, and 
 with the licence of poetical fiction, but that it 
 was now his business, as an embassador and a 
 man of mature age, to speak the ti-uth. He was 
 afterwards employed in various negotiations by 
 Henry II ; and died at Amboise in 1556, leav- 
 ing two sons, one of whom was made bishop 
 of Macon. The works of Alamanni are all in 
 Italian poetry. The first publication of them 
 was at Lyons in 1532 and 33, containing ele- 
 gies, eclogues, satires, sonnets, hymns, psalms, 
 &c. and a translation of the Antigone of So- 
 phocles. These are much esteemed for their 
 elegance and grace. His poem " Delia Col- 
 tivatione," a didactic piece on agriculture, in 
 blank verse, greatly added to his fame. It was 
 first printed at Paris in 1546. In 1548 he pub- 
 lished a piece of greater bulk, entitled " Gironc 
 il cortese," taken from a French romance of 
 " Giron the courteous." He left behind him an 
 epic poem called " I'Avarchide," on the siege 
 of Bourges, which had not much success, any 
 more than his comedy entitled " la Flora." But 
 his Tuscan epigrams, a species of writing, first 
 successfully attempted by himself, were well re- 
 ceived, and produced several imitators. On the 
 whole, Alamanni is considered as one to whom 
 Italian poetry lies under particular oliligations. 
 
 ^>no7iio Alamanni, whose burlesque poems 
 are printed with those of Burchiello, was a re- 
 lation of Luigi. Moreri. Tiraboschi. — A. 
 
 ALAN, of Lynn, a divine of the fifteenth 
 century, born at Lynn in Norfolk, and educated 
 at Cambridge, acquired great reputation both as 
 a student and a preacher. He was fond of alle- 
 gorical explications of scripture, and applied the 
 historical parts of the Old and New Testament 
 to the concerns of religion and moral conduct. 
 He wrote tracts on the interpretation of scrip- 
 ture, sermons, and elucidations of Aristotle. He 
 became a Carmelite in a monastery at Lynn, 
 where he died. He is celebrated for the great 
 pains which he took in making indexes to the 
 books which he read, a long list of which is 
 given by Bale. The modern method of annex- 
 ing indexes to books is so exceedingly useful, 
 that no book of value ought to be published 
 without an index ; for, though they may in some 
 instances* encourage indolence, they greatly faci- 
 litate and expedite the labours of the real scho- 
 lar, and in truth are perhaps, as Fuller remarks, 
 most used by those who pretend to despise them,
 
 ALA 
 
 ( 113 ) 
 
 ALA 
 
 Bale. Leland. Pits. Fuller's PFort^ies, Biogr. 
 Brit. — E. 
 
 ALANT, or ALLEN, William, an Eng- 
 lisliman of good family, a /.ealons son of the Ro- 
 mish churcli, was born at Rossal in Lancashire, 
 in the year 1532. Educated at Oxford by a tutor 
 warmly attached to popery, he entered upon the 
 world under a strong prepossession in favour of 
 tlie catholic faith. Though at college he had 
 acquired considerable reputation, particularly 
 for his skill in logic and his knowledge of phi- 
 losophy, and obtained the honour of being made 
 principal of St. Mary's hall, and afterwards 
 proctor of the university ; on the accession of 
 queen Elizabeth to the crown he not only de- 
 spaired of further preferment, but apprehended 
 himself in danger, and therefore determined to 
 withdraw from his native country. In 1 560 he 
 took up his residence at Louvain, whither many 
 English catholics had already fled, and where 
 an English college was erected, of which he 
 became the chief support. His zeal for the po- 
 pish cause was for a long time displayed only in 
 those kinds of exertion wliich every man, who 
 is convinced of the truth and importance of his 
 opinions, has a right to make for their support 
 and propagation. He wrote, in reply to a work 
 of the learned bishop Jewel,. " A Defence of 
 the Doctrine of Catholics, on the Subjects of 
 Purgatory and Prayers for the Dead," which 
 was printed at Antwerp in 1565, and occasion- 
 ed a continued controversy. When, for the 
 recovery of his health, which had been im- 
 paired by hard study, he revi^ited his native 
 country, his zeal for the Romish cause induced 
 him, without regard to his personal safety, to 
 support it by writing and distributing small tracts 
 in its defence ; and when these rendered him so 
 obnoxious to government, that he was obliged 
 to conceal himself, in his retreat, under tiie pro- 
 tection of the duke of Norfolk, or in the house 
 of a friend near Oxford, he wrote an apology 
 for his party, under the title of " Brief Reasons 
 concerning the Catholic Faith." After renewed 
 attempts to recall the wavering, and convert the 
 apostate, to the ancient faith, finding it no longer 
 safe to remain in England, where it was deem- 
 ed by the reigning powers an incontrovertible 
 maxim, that popery ouglit not to be tolerated, 
 he, in 1568, with some difficulty made his 
 escape into Flanders. 
 
 Allen's zeal for popery, so courageously dis- 
 played during a stay of three years in England, 
 secured him a cordial welcome on his return to 
 a country where orthodoxy was still considered 
 as the test of merit. In a monastery at Mechlin 
 he was received with great applause as a lecturer 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 in divinity ; at Doiiay, the academic honour of 
 doctor of divinity was conferred upon him ; and 
 he was preferred to the honourable and profita- 
 ble canonry of Cambray, and soon afterwards 
 to that of Rheims. Still solicitous to serve the 
 interests of the Roman catholic religion in Eng- 
 land, Allen establislied a seminary for the edu- 
 cation of English youth at JJ)ouay, which he 
 afterwards transferred to Rheims ; and he con- 
 tinued to write books in defence of popery, and 
 against the church of England, which were 
 sent over to his native country, and circulated 
 by his friends, till it was thought necessary to 
 issue a proclamation from the queen, prohibit- 
 ing such books to be sold or read. (Strype's An- 
 nals, vol. i. p. 557.) His zeal even prompted 
 him to make several journeys into Spain and 
 Italy, for the purpose of instituting schools for 
 English students; and he procured the establish- 
 ment of one at Rome, and two in Spain, in 
 which the young men were not only provided 
 with various kinds of instruction, but were even 
 furnished with gratuitous support. 
 
 Though these proceedings might admit of 
 apology, on the ground of a conscientious at- 
 tachment to the religious principles which the 
 church of England had forsaken, it is not sur- 
 prising that Allerr was reputed by the English 
 government an enemy to his country, especially 
 as he had by this time given pretty strong proofs 
 that the same principles which led him to attempt 
 the restoration of popery, alo led him to under- 
 mine the authority of the reigning queen by his 
 writings. To correspond with him was con- 
 sidered as a treasonable offence ; and a Jesuit, 
 Thomas Alficld, was tried and executed, iiv 
 1585, for bringing some of his writings into 
 England. The treasonable expressions on which 
 the indictment was grounded, chiefly taken from 
 a scarce tract, entitled, " The Defence of the 
 Twelve Martyrs in one Year," and still found 
 among the papers of the lord-treasurer Burleigh, 
 areas follows: (Strype's Annals, vol. iii. p. 562.) 
 " The bond and obligation we have entered into 
 for the service of Christ and the church, far ex- 
 ceedeth all otlier duty which we owe to any 
 human creature ; and therefore, where the obe- 
 dience to the inferior hindereth the service of 
 the other, which is superior, wc must, by law 
 and order, discharge ourselves of the interior. 
 The wife, if she cannot live with her own hus- 
 band, being an infidel, or an heretic, without 
 injury or dishonour to God, she may depart 
 from him ; or, contrariwise, he from her for 
 the like cause: neither oweth the innocent party, 
 nor can the other lawfully claim, any conjugal 
 duty, or debt in this case. The bond-slave,
 
 ALA 
 
 ( iH ) 
 
 ALA 
 
 Tvhich is, i" anotliei- kinJ, no less bound ro his 
 lord and master than the subject to his sove- 
 reign, may also, by tlic ancient imperial laws, 
 dciiait, and refuse to obey or serve him, it he 
 liceome a heretic ; yes, ipso facto, he is made 
 free. Finally, the parents that become heretics, 
 lose the superiority and dominion they have, by 
 iJie law of nature, over their own children. 
 Therefore let no man marvel, that in case of 
 heresy, the sovereign loseth the superiority over 
 his people and kingdom." 
 
 Not satisfied witii teaching a doctrine, which 
 suspended all domestic and civil obligations upon 
 religious opinion, Allen pursued his hostility 
 against the protestant government of Elizabeth 
 to tlie last extremity of treasonable practice. 
 Instigated, probably, by the advice of his friend, 
 the celebrated Jesuit, Robert Parsons, (Watson's 
 Quodlibets, 8vo. p. 240.) as well as prompted 
 by his zeal for popery, he united with the Ro- 
 man catholic noblemen who had left England 
 and were resident in Flanders, to persuade Philip 
 II. of Spain to invade England. While this 
 project was under deliberation, he wrote a vindi- 
 cation of tlie base surrender of die garrison of 
 English and Irish forces at Dcventer, by the com- 
 mander, sir William Stanley, to the Spaniards. 
 To reward his zeal and to stimulate his farther 
 exertions, he v^'as, in 1587, created a cardinal, 
 and presented to an abbey of great value in Na- 
 ples, with promises of much greater preferment. 
 Just before the sailing of the Spanish armada, in 
 1 588, on the projected enterprise, Allen, or as 
 some say, father Parsons, with other Jesuits, 
 wrote a work, many thousand copies of wliich 
 w ere printed at Antwerp, to be put on board the 
 fleet, that they might be dispersed in England 
 upon the landing of the Spaniards. The book 
 • consisted of two parts ; the first, " A Declara- 
 tion ot the Sentence of Sixtus Y y maintaining 
 that, by virtue of the pope's bull, queen Eliza- 
 beth was accursed, and deprived of her crown, 
 which was transferred to the king of Spain ; the 
 second, " An Admonition to the Nobility and 
 People of England," pronouncing Elizabeth a 
 schismatic and heretic ; a pretended queen, and 
 usurper, who had committed actions which 
 rendered her incapable of reigning, and even 
 unworthy of life, and declaring all her subjects 
 absolved from their oath of fidelity. (Watson's 
 Quodlibeis, p. 240.) On the failure of the en- 
 terprise, these books were industriously but not 
 entirely destroyed. The earl of Arundel, who 
 had been three years in prison on a charge of 
 high treason, was brought to his trial, and, 
 chieflv on the charge of his having correspond- 
 -fd with carditial Allen, was found guilty by his 
 
 peers. The cardinal was now recompcn-cd {ax 
 iiis services with the archbishopric of Mechlin. 
 He did not however reside upon his sec, but 
 spent the remainder of his life at Rome in great 
 splendor and reputation, still using his interest 
 to serve the catholics who had fled from Eng- 
 land. It is said, that towards the close of life he 
 repented of the measures he had taken against 
 his countrv, and that he expressed dissatisfaction 
 at the spirit and conduct of the Jesuits. This 
 change of opinion has been inferred from the 
 disrespectful manner in which the Jesuits spoke 
 of him at that time, and is, in some degree, fa- 
 voured by a letter found among the papers of 
 lord Burleigh, and endorsed by his lordship's 
 own hand : it is from cardinal Allen at Rome 
 to Richard Hopkins, fugitive, dated August 14, 
 1593, of which the following is an extract ; 
 
 " Yours gave me knowledge of a certain 
 overture, made to you by one that might seem 
 to do it by some secret commission of treaty of 
 an accord between England and Spain, with de- 
 sire of my sense therein, either of myself, or with 
 the pope, upon some reasonable conditions for 
 toleration of the catholic religion in our country; 
 which argument, how grateful it should be unto 
 me, you that of old knew my opinion and de- 
 sire in that cause, may easily deem : and after 
 a little pause of mind on so sudden and unwont- 
 ed news, I could think no otlierwise, but that 
 God himself had stirred up in their hearts this 
 motion for die saving of that realm from the 
 present fears, and dangers, and perplexities it is 
 fallen into ; and thereby, also, a special favour 
 offered at length unto me, once ere I die, not 
 only to give the willing and desired comforts I 
 owe unto my afflicted catholic friends and bre- 
 thren, but herein also td serve most faithfully 
 and profitably even my own very enemies, 
 though, otherwise than through these unfortu- 
 nate differences and debates in religion, (our 
 Lord God forgive the author thereof) I know I 
 have none ; or to do the one or tlie other : and 
 above all to my native country, most dear unto 
 me, so much good as an unfeigned peace would 
 bring, I \\ould travel to the last drop of my 
 blood. I thank God, I am not so estranged 
 from the place of my birth, mo t sweet, nor so 
 affected to foreigners, that I prefer not the weal 
 of that people above all mortal things, whereof 
 if it pleased the queen's majesty or council. to 
 take a sure taste, I desire no more, but that they 
 would confidently use and command me in this 
 matter." 
 
 The cardinal goes on to propose the proper 
 method of proceeding, to accomplish the recon- 
 ciliation he desires. It may be mentioned as a,
 
 ALA 
 
 ( "5 ) 
 
 ALA 
 
 farther proof of his favourable disposiuon to- 
 wards his country in the latter part of his life, 
 that on his death-bed he was desirous of speak- 
 ing to the Enghsh students then in Rome, but 
 vas prevented by the attending Jesuit. He died 
 in the year 1594. A strong suspicion aro e 
 after his death, that lie was poisoned by the Je- 
 suits. He was buried in thec)ia])el oflhe Eng- 
 lish college at Rome. Tlirough liis whole life 
 cardinal Allen appears under no other character 
 than that of a dutiful and zealous son of the 
 Romish church, ready at all times to encounter 
 any hazard in supporting her caue. To discuss 
 the questions which might arise concerning the 
 morality of his conduct in supporting and pro- 
 pagating, from a plea of conscience, principles 
 which suspended every domestic and civil obli- 
 gation upon religious opinions, or concerning 
 the wisdom and equity of interposing tl;e civil 
 authority to prevent the free circulation of any 
 speculative tenets, would carry us out of our 
 proper province. One thing, with respect to 
 the subject of this memoir, seems clear ; that, 
 whatever credit may be due to this English car- 
 dinal for his integrity and zeal in support of the 
 cause which his judgment approved, as a traitor 
 and rebel to the country, which he had deserted, 
 and to the government which the majority of 
 his countrym.en certainly approved, he was high- 
 ly criminal. As a writer, Allen is entitled to 
 respectful notice, as one of the ablest advocates 
 for the church of Rome whom the period in 
 which he lived produced. He wrote, besides 
 the pieces already mentioned, " A Defence of 
 the lawful Power and Authority of the Priest- 
 hood to remit Sins, with a Supplement on Con- 
 fession and Indulgencies," printed in 8vo. at 
 Louvain, 1567 ; " On the Sacraments," print- 
 ed at Antwerp, 1576; " On the Worship of 
 Saints and their Relics ;" and, "A true, sincere, 
 and modest Defence of Christian Catholics, that 
 suffered for tlieir Faith at home and abroad," 
 printed in 1583. The latter work was an an- 
 swer to a book written by lord Burleigh him- 
 self, and is esteemed the best of the cardinal's 
 writings : the learned Edmund Bolton said of it, 
 *' A princely, grave, and flourishing piece of 
 natural and exquisite English is cardinal Alan's 
 apology." Wood's Athtn. Oxon. Camden. Jnnal. 
 Pits de lllust. Ang. Fkzherhert, Fit. Card. 
 J Ian. Biog. Brit. — E. 
 
 ALARIC I. king^of the Visigoths, and con- 
 queror of Rome, was descended from the fa- 
 mily of the Balthi, the most illustrious among 
 the Goths next to tljat of the Amali. Wiih 
 tlte rest of his countrymen who were expelled 
 by the Huns, he crossed the Danube in 376,' 
 
 and served with great reputation in the wars 
 between the Goths and Romans, whicli con- 
 tinued from tiiat tiine till the year 382, when 
 they all submitted to Theodosius the Great, and 
 were allowed to settle in Thrace, on condition 
 of serving the em|iire when required. Alaric 
 fought for Theodosius against the usurper Eu- 
 genius, at the head of a body of iiis country- 
 men ; but being refused a Iiigher command, he 
 remained dissatisfied ; and after the death of 
 Theodosius, he led a revolt of his nation against 
 the weak successor to the empire, 7\rcadius, 
 at the instigation, as some suppose, of his mi- 
 nister Ruhnus. He first ravaged the countries 
 of Pannonia and Dacia ; and then, in 396, 
 made an irruption into Greece. Passing across 
 Macedonia and Thessaly, unresisted by the 
 pioconsul Antiochus, he made his way througli 
 the pass of Thermopyte, and laid wasre witli 
 fire and sword all the fairest realms of ancient 
 Greece. He preserved the city of Athens at 
 the expense of the greatest part of its wealth, 
 penetrated into Peloponnesus, and destroyed the 
 venerable relics of art and superstition spread 
 over those renowned countries. While engaged 
 in this peninsula, the celebrated general Stilicho, 
 having collected a fleet and army, came up with 
 him, and obliging him to retire to the moun- 
 tain Pholoe in Arcadia, invested his camp, and 
 inclosed it with strong lines of circumvallation. 
 Here Alaric seemed devoted to perish by want, 
 or to be compelled to a surrender ; but taking 
 advantage of the too great security of his ad- 
 versary, or, as some say. of Iiis connivance, he 
 suddenly broke the bariier, puslied on to and 
 crossed the gulf of Corinth, and took posses- 
 sion of all Epirus. The empire was now sur- 
 prised \vith hearing Alaric proclaimed at Con- 
 stantinople master general of the Eastern lUy- 
 ricum, and received as a faithful ally and servant 
 of the imperial crown. He had a lawful coin- 
 mand given him over those cities and countries 
 which he had so lately pillaged as a merciless 
 toe ; and he furnished his troops with arms out 
 of the magazines and manufactories of tlie em- 
 pire. At this period he was, by his own nation, 
 unanimously elevated to the rank of king of 
 the Visigoths. 
 
 In the year 400 Alaric turned Iiis arms 
 against Italy. Of his fi,rst irruption into this 
 country little is known but that he carried otF 
 a great quantity of spoil and number of cap- 
 tives. Two ye''rs afterwards he over-ran the 
 provinces of Venetia and Liguria, and advanced 
 towards Milan, whence the timid western em- 
 peror Honorius hastily fled, and was pursued by 
 the Goths, and invested in the fortress of Asta,
 
 ALA 
 
 ( ii6 ) 
 
 ALA 
 
 Meantime, Srilicho. having colkctca all the 
 troops he could muster, advanced to the relief 
 of Hcnoriijs ; and in the neighbourhood of 
 Pollentia, on the Tanaro, he made an attack 
 upon Aliric, who waited his coming. The 
 event of this engagement is very differently re- 
 presented by authors ; it seems probable, how- 
 ever, that the Romans, who gained the advan- 
 tage in the beginning, were worsted towards 
 the conclusion of the day. But the wife and 
 children of Alaric were taken prisoners; and, 
 being foiled in his attempt to push for\yards in- 
 to Tuscany, he entered into a negotiation with 
 Stilicho, by which he recovered his family, and 
 made a peaceable retreat across the Po. He 
 resolved, however, to take possession of the 
 city of Verona : but his counsels being betray- 
 ed,' he met with a severe defeat in the vicinity 
 of that city, himself narrowly escaping. He 
 withdrew the remains of his army amidst the 
 mountains, where he was blocked up by the 
 Romans, and lost the greater part of his fol- 
 lowers bv distress and desertion. At length, 
 tiuough secret passes, he made his final retreat 
 into Thrace , and thus Italy was for the present 
 liberated. 
 
 In the revolution of politics we find Alaric 
 soon afterwards the friend of Stilicho, and at 
 his instigation taken into the service of Hono- 
 rius, with the title of master-general of the Ro- 
 man forces in Western lllyricum. Alaric, in 
 his new quality, entered the dominions of the 
 Eastern empire, and remained some time in- 
 active in Epirus, holding correspondence, and 
 probably bargaining for his services, with the 
 two rival courts. At length he advanced to 
 the Italian frontier, and made a heavy demand 
 -of payment on the Roman court. Stilicho 
 supported his demand, and tlie sum was decreed 
 to be paid ; but in the mean time that renowned 
 general lost his life ; and the delays of the mi- 
 nisters gave Alaric a pretext for again entering 
 Italy, in 408. By rapid marches he advanced 
 un(;pposcd till he pitched his camp under the 
 walls of Rome itself. He invested this haughty 
 capital, and by cutting off all supplies of pro- 
 vision, reduced it to the utmost extremities of 
 famine and pestilence. At length a negotiation 
 was entered upon, which terminated in fixing a 
 ransom, on payment of which Alaric raised the 
 blockade, and withdrew his army into Tuscany. 
 Here he received a reinforcement of Goths and 
 Huns under his wife's brother, Ataulphus. He 
 l)chavecl, however, with great moderation, and 
 afFtcted to appear rather as the friend than ene- 
 my t'f the Romans. He made proposals of 
 peace to the court of Honorius, at Ravenna, 
 
 only insisting on his military rank in the em- 
 pire, and the possession of some of the pro - 
 vinces between Italy and the Danube. These 
 terms were rejected; on which Alaric again 
 advanced to Rome, A. D. 409. He made him- 
 self master of the port of Ostia ; and by that 
 means compelling Rome to a surrender, he ele- 
 vated to the purple Attalus, the prsefect of the 
 city. At the head of his army, Alaric con- 
 ducted Attalus almost to the gates of Ravenna, 
 with the purpose of deposing Honorius. But 
 Attalus himself, falling into disgrace with Ala- 
 ric, was first deposed by him ; and it was thought 
 that nothing would now have prevented a peace. 
 The court of Ravenna, however, had the folly 
 to offer a public insult to Alaric ; upon which, 
 in great wrath, he marched back to Rome, re- 
 solving to satiate his appetite for plunder and 
 vengeance. On the 24th of August, 410, the 
 Gothic army entered Rome. As many of the 
 Goths, together with their king, were Chris- 
 tians, they respected the churches and the mi- 
 nisters of religion. But the Huns, and other 
 heathen barbarians, were held by no restraint ; 
 and massacre, rape, and violence of every kind 
 roamed at large through the streets of Rome. 
 Avarice, however, was the passion that chiefly 
 called for gratification ^ and, in a sack of six 
 days, a great portion of the wealth of that 
 former metropolis of the world was converted 
 to the property of these new spoilers. On 
 leaving Rome, the Gothic army marched south- 
 wards, plundering and ravaging all in its way. 
 At length it arrived at the extremity of Italy, 
 opposite to Sicily, which fertile island was the 
 next object of Alaric's ambition. But hh ca- 
 reer was now brought to an end. A sliort ill- 
 ness put a period to his life in the neighbour- 
 hood of Rhegium, A. D. 410. He was buried 
 in the bed of the river Busento, whose waters 
 were diverted for the purpose ; and the place 
 was concealed by the massacre of the slaves em- 
 ployed 'in the funeral. 
 
 The character of a barbarian conqueror re- 
 quires little funher to illustrate it. Alaric seems 
 to have possessed mere humanity, moderation, 
 and fidelity to engagements, than many of the 
 same cla's. His exploits have rendered his 
 name memorable in the most civilised parts of 
 the world — an honour not attained bv some 
 greater conquerors. Univers. Hist, Cibbon's 
 Fall and Decline. — A. 
 
 ALARIC II. king of the Visigoths, succeed- 
 ed his father Euric in 484, and reigned over all 
 the country between the Rhone and tlie Ga- 
 ronne. Desirous of maintaining his kingdom 
 in peace, he gave up to Clovis, the potent king
 
 A L A 
 
 ( n; ) 
 
 ALA 
 
 of the Franks, his foe Syagrius, who had taken 
 refuge in his dominions. Though an Aiian, 
 he kept on good terms with the orthodox pre- 
 lates, whom he suffered to hold a council at 
 Agde in 506. He adapted to his own states 
 the Theodosian collection of laws, and pub- 
 lished it as the law of tlie Visigoths, since known 
 by the title of the code of Alaric. Differences 
 arising between him and Clovis, they held a 
 conference in an island of the Loire, near Ani- 
 boise, which appeared to terminate witli per- 
 fect amity ; but the ambition of Clovis was too 
 active to be easily allayed ; and he explicitly 
 declared the motive of the subsequent war, in 
 a speech to his nobles at Paris. " It grieves 
 me that the Arians shoidd possess the fairest 
 portion of Gaul. Let us march, and with the 
 aid of God make ourselves masters of their fer- 
 tile provinces." The conjoined interests of re- 
 ligion and plunder could not fail of moving this 
 ■warlike people. Clovis marched against the 
 Visigoths with the confidence of a heaven-sent 
 leader, Alaric assembled a more numerous 
 host to oppose him, but divided in wishes and 
 opinions, and sottened by a long peace. Clovis 
 was suffered to pass without opposition the ford 
 of the hart over the Vienne, and he overtook 
 the Gothic army in the plain of Vouille, not 
 far from Poitiers. A battle immediately en- 
 sued, in which Alaric was slain by the hand of 
 Clovis, A. D. 507. He left, by Theodogotha, 
 daugliter of Theodoric the Great, king of the 
 Ostrogoths, a son, Amalaric ; and also a natu- 
 ral son, Gesalic, who took possession of his 
 throne. Uriivers. Hist. Gibbon. Aloreri. — A. 
 ALASCO, John, a Polish noble, uncle to the 
 king of Poland, (Fox, vol. iii. p. 40.) became a 
 protestant divine, and was, in the sixteenth cen- 
 tury, during the reign of Edward VI. founder and 
 first minister of the Dutch church, in London. 
 In his early years he was a member of the ca- 
 tholic church, and possessed the episcopal dignity ; 
 but becoming a convert to the opinions of the 
 reformers, he relinquished his see, forsook his 
 country, and settled as a preacher to a pro- 
 testant congregation, at Embden, in East-Fries- 
 land. Under the terror of persecution, the con- 
 
 fregation, together with their pastor, fled into 
 -ngland, where, in 155c, they were incorpo- 
 rated by charter, and had a grant of the church 
 •of Austin-Friars. Alasco had not only the 
 particular charge of this church, but the gene- 
 ral superintendance of the other churches and 
 schools of foreigners in London. At the ac- 
 cession of Mary, in 1553, he was obliged to 
 depart the kingdom ; but his eminent talents 
 and virtues had, during his short residence in 
 
 England, procured him great interest with ma- 
 ny eminent persons, and even with Elizabeth, 
 to whom, alter she came to the crown, he 
 wrote letters of advice and encouragement re- 
 specting the reformation of religion. Among 
 Alasco's friends were Melanchthonand Erasmus. 
 Melanchthon addresses him in terms of high re- 
 spect and calls him his patron; (Epist Me- 
 lanchth. ed. Lugd. Bat. 1647.) ^^ tells him, 
 that the persecution of the protcstants was be- 
 come so violent, that he himself expected ba- 
 nishment, and might probably soon be under 
 the necessity of seeking an asylum with him ; 
 at the same time he assures himself of an hos- 
 pitable reception with one who could adopt the 
 sentiment of the exiled queen : 
 
 '* Non ignara mali, miaeris succurrere disco." 
 
 *' Touch'd with misfortunes I myself have known, 
 1 view with pity woes so like my own." 
 
 ViRO. .En. I. 634. 
 
 Erasmus, in a letter written in 1527, says of 
 him, that he found him " a man of so ainiable a 
 disposition, that he should have thought himself 
 sufficiently happy in his single friendship." 
 [Johannis Alasco tale sum expertus ingenium, 
 ut vel hoc uno amico mihi videar satis beatus. 
 lib. xix. ep. 15.] In another letter, written in 
 the same year, he acknowledges that though 
 old he had become a better man by conversing 
 with this youth, and after enumerating his ex- 
 cellent qualities, adds, " That which the young 
 ought to learn of the aged, I, an old man, have 
 learned of this youth." [ — quse juvenis a sene 
 discere debuerat, a juvene senex didici. lib. 
 xxviii. ep. 3.] The friendship between them 
 continued as long as Erasmus lived ; and it is 
 probable that Alasco was with this great man 
 in his last sickness ; for he purchased of hiin, 
 when he lay on his death bed, his valuable li- 
 brary. Alasco passed his last years in his na- 
 tive country, where he died in the year 1560, 
 having, in times and circumstances of peril, 
 supported a consistent, amiable, and respectable 
 character. Strype's Mcmoriah of Cranmer. 
 b. ii. c. 22. G)ai)i^cr's Biographical History of 
 England. Ed. vi. CI. 4. — £. 
 
 ALAVA, EsQUivT.L, Diego, a Spanish 
 divine, bishop of Cordova, in the sixteenth cen- 
 tury, assisted at the council of Trent, where he 
 proposed the prohibition of the practice of hold- 
 ing livings in commcndam, and of all ecclesi- 
 astical pluralities. He died in the year 1562. 
 He wrote a work which contains valuable par- 
 ticulars concerning the rcloimation, entitled, 
 " De Consiliis Universalibus, ac de his, quae
 
 ALB 
 
 ( 'i8 ) 
 
 ALB 
 
 ad Religionis et Christianne RclpuWica Rcfor- 
 inaiioiitm instituciida viikntur," [On General 
 Councils, ami on those Thinp which appear ne- 
 tcbSiry to be onlniucd for tlie Reformation of Re- 
 ligion, ami thcCliristian Republic ] pi iiitecl at Gre- 
 nada, in folio, 1582. Notiv. Diet. Hist. — E. 
 AI-BAN, St. of the third centiirv, celebrated 
 as the Hrst Christian martyr in Great Britain, 
 is said to have been born at Vcrulam, an ancient 
 city, near the site of the present town of St. 
 Aloan's in Hertfordshire. It is probable that 
 he was of a pagan family of some distinction. 
 He went to Rome, as was at this time custom- 
 ary with the British youth, and served seven 
 years in the armies of tlic emperor Diocle^ian. 
 Notliing more is known concerning his con- 
 version to Christianity than that, on his return 
 to England, Amphibalus, who, according to 
 some, was a monk, a native of Caer-Leon, the 
 capital of Wales, according to others a Roman 
 vvlio passed into Britain under Dioclesian's per- 
 secution, instructed him in the Christian faitli. 
 He lived from that time in tliis profession, and 
 in the year 303, was beheaded by order of the 
 Roman governor. According to Bede, and 
 other martyrologists, as St. Alban went to exe- 
 cution, a stream was miraculously divided to 
 afford a passage for himself and a thousand 
 persons, and a fountain sprung under his feet 
 to quench his thirst: and the executioner's eyes, 
 at the instant in which he gave the stroke, 
 dropped out of liis head. Concerning these 
 miracles, we shall, without fui ther discussion, 
 adopt the words of Milton, in his History of 
 England ; where, speakings of St. Alban, he 
 says, " The story of whose martyrdom, soiled 
 and worse martyred with the fabling zeal of 
 some idle fancies, more fond of miracles than 
 app'rehensive of truth, deserves no longer di- 
 gression." As some workmen were repairing 
 the church of St. Alban's, in the year J 257, 
 they found certain leaden sheets containing .e- 
 lics, with a plate of lead upon which was .;us 
 inscription. " In hoc Mausoleo inventum est 
 vcnerabile corpus Sancti Albani Protomartyris 
 Anglorum." [In tliis tomb was found theVe- 
 nerable body of St. Alban, the proto-martyr of 
 the English] The following lines are part of 
 the hymn formerly sung on the festival of this 
 saint. 
 
 Ave, protomartyr j^nghrumy 
 Miles regis angelaruM, 
 OAIbane, flos marlvrum. 
 
 llsil, Alban,of .-7/(g/fi first martyr, 
 Of Ihe grcal king of aiigrii the soldier, 
 Thouflovv'f of the martyrs, all hail! 
 
 — E. 
 
 ALBANI, Francis, an eminent painter,, 
 was the son of a silk merchant at Bologna, 
 and was born in 1578. At the age of twelve, 
 his genius for painting discovering itself, he was 
 placed with Denis Calvart, where he was in- 
 structed bv Guido, then at the head of his 
 school, dn Guido's departure, Albani soon 
 followed, and they both entered under the Car- 
 racchi. Soon after leaving this scliool he ac- 
 companied Guido to Rome, where, at intervals, 
 he resided eighteen years. His friend's recom- 
 mendation caused him to be employed in some 
 great works, by which he gained high reputa- 
 tion. He painted most of the chapel of San 
 Diego, the national church of Spain, and fur- 
 nished pieces for the galleries of tl.e Marquis 
 Justiniani, at Bas;ano, and the Verospi palace 
 at Rome. He married at this citv, and had 
 a daughter, whose birth cost the life of the mo- 
 ther. 
 
 At tire instance of his elder brother he return- 
 ed to settle at Bologna, where he married again, 
 and, by an amiable wife, had twelve children. 
 These, and their mother, served him for models. 
 The mother held her infants in suitable atti- 
 tudes, suspended them by sashes, or took them 
 in her arms asleep ; and as they were very beau- 
 tiful, Albani converted them into so many Cu- 
 pids, and the mother into a Venus or a Grace. 
 He returned occasionally to Rome to paint in 
 churches or palaces ; but it was his great de- 
 light to pass the summer months with his ami- 
 able family in one of his country houses, ci 
 which he possessed two, adorned with fountains 
 and grove". These served him for landscape, 
 scenery in his favourite subjects of Loves and 
 Graces, which he treated with an elegance of 
 design, a harmony of colouring, and delicacy 
 of finivsh. that are the characteristics of his pen- 
 cil. It was his iTiaxim that nothing coarse or 
 extravagant should be admicted into imitations 
 of nature, which is itself always highly finished 
 and correcc. He was not, therefore, an ad- 
 mirer of sketches in which effect is produced by 
 strong and spirited strokes. Still less did he love 
 vicious and degrading representations of man- 
 ners. His own pieces, though breathing soft- 
 ness and inspiring pleasure, are always modest 
 and chaste. He was not a student of the an- 
 tique, nor ever aimed.at die grand and terrific in 
 painting. He was mortified that his education 
 had not enabled him to understand the Latin 
 poets in the originals ; but he was seldom with- 
 out a Tasso or some other Italian poet in his 
 hand. In private life he was decent, affable,- 
 unaffected, pleasant in conversation, and at- 
 tached to his pupils, whose works he willingly
 
 \ 
 
 I
 
 ALB 
 
 ( 119 ) 
 
 ALB 
 
 retouched and improved. He was extremely 
 industrious, and h;is supplied all the great ca- 
 binets with pieces by his hand, which were al- 
 ways highly esteemed, and still form some of 
 the most valuable ornaments of collections. 
 They are, however, charged ^\ith want of va- 
 riety ; and the same faces of old men, women, 
 and children, may be traced through the whole. 
 He was sometimes too hasty to be correct in his 
 drawings. He worked to the last ; and died of 
 old age, at Bologna, in 1660, aged near eighty- 
 three years. 
 
 His principal great works are at Rome and 
 Bologna ; but his cabinet pictures are found in 
 all considerable collections. D'jirgenviHe, Abve- 
 ge dc la Vie des plus Ulust. Pcintres. — A. 
 
 ALBANI, John Jerom, in the sixteenth 
 century, descended from a noble family of Ber- 
 gamo in Italy, was devoted to the study of the 
 civil and canon law. His zeal for religion, 
 which he showed by supporting a process in 
 the court of inquisition against one ot his near 
 relations, recommended him to the favour of 
 tlie inquisitor, cardinal Alexandrinus, who, 
 when he came to the papal see, under the name 
 of Pius V. bestowed upon Albani a cardinal's 
 bat. He died in the year 1591. He published, 
 a treatise, " De Immunitate Ecclesi- 
 
 m I 
 
 j3j' 
 
 arum ;" [On the Immunity of Churches] 
 and another, " De Potestate Papse et Concilii," 
 [On the Power of the Pope and Council] 
 printed at Venice, in 1561. JHorcri. Nouv. 
 Did. Hist. — E. 
 
 ALBATEGNI, also called Mohammed ben 
 Geber Albutani, an Arabian astronomer, flou- 
 rished, as appears from his observations, to- 
 ■wards the close of the ninth century. He made 
 astronomical observations at Antioch, and at 
 Racah, or Aracta, a town of Chaldea. He 
 computed new astronomical tables adapted to 
 the meridian of that place. He wrote in Arabic 
 a work entitled, " The Science of the Stais," 
 founded upon his o\-\n observations and those 
 of Ptolemy. This work, translated into Latin 
 by Plato Tiburtinus, was printed at Nurem- 
 berg, in 8vo, 1537 ; atid afterwards reprinted, 
 with additions, by Rcgiomontanus, at Bologna, 
 in 1645. ^^- Halley, who <;peaks of Albategni 
 as a man of great ability, and a most accurate 
 and skilful observer, has detected many faults in 
 these editions. The original Arabic, which has 
 never been published, is in the library of the 
 Vatican. D' Herbclot, B'lbl. Orient. Abitlph. 
 Hist. Dyn. Moreri. Hutlons Matbem. Diet. 
 Fhil. Trans, for 1693. -^"^ ^°4" — E. 
 
 ALBERGOTTI, Francis, a civilian of 
 Are^zo in the state of Florence, who flourished 
 
 in the fourteenth century, made an unconimoi\ 
 progress in tlie sciences, particularly in philo- 
 sopliy and jurisprudence, which he studied un- 
 der the celebrated Baldi. He at first exercised 
 the profession of advocate at Arezzo, and af- 
 terwards removed to Florence, where the ser- 
 vices which he rendered the state procured him 
 the honours of nobility. He was admired for 
 the uprightness of his character, no less than 
 for his great skill in the law ; and his name is 
 transmitted to posterity with the honourable 
 appendage of solidre veritatis doctor, the teacher 
 of solid trutii. He wrote " Commentaries on 
 the Digest," and some other pieces in law : he 
 died in the year 1376. Moreri. — E. 
 
 ALBERIC, or Albert, a French histo- 
 rian, canon of the church of Aix, in Provence, 
 who lived in the twelfth century, wrote an ac- 
 count of the first crusade. Not being himself 
 able to accompany those who undertook this 
 expedition, he einploved himself in writing the 
 history of it, from the reports of eye -witnesses. 
 His narrative, which extends from the year 
 1095 to the year 1120, is contained in two di- 
 stinct works, under the titles of " Chronicon 
 Hierosolymitanum," [The Jerusalem Chroni- 
 cle] printed in 4to at Helmstadt, 1584; and 
 " Gesta Dei per Francos," [The Disjicnsations 
 of God by means of the Francs] in folio, 161 1. 
 Noitv. Diet. Hist. — E. 
 
 ALBERONI, Cardinal, a celebrated 
 statesman, was born, in 1664, at Placentia in 
 Italy, where his father followed the business of 
 a gardener. He was employed in cultivating 
 the ground till the age of fourteen, when he 
 obtained a petty post in the cathedral of Pla- 
 centia, and in time became priest, the bishop's 
 domestic steward, and a canon. The circum- 
 stance which gave the turn to his after fortune, 
 was an accident which the poet Campistron, 
 the duke of Vendoine's secretary, met with ; 
 who, having fallen into the hands of robbers, 
 was hospitably entertained by Alberoni, and 
 furnished with cloaths and monev. Campistron 
 recommended his benefactor to his master, then 
 commanding in Lombaidy, who employed him 
 in discovering the stores of grain concealed by 
 the countrv people ; and when this general was 
 recalled in 1706, he accompanied him to France. 
 In 1709, Vendome, being sent to command in 
 Spain, fixed upon Alberoni as a proper person 
 to manage his correspondence with the princess 
 des Ursin , who at that time was at the head 
 of affairs in tliat kingdom, i'or diis purpose, Al- 
 beroni was provided with the character of agent 
 for the duke of Parma at the court of Madrid. 
 He made himself very useful as well to Ven-
 
 ALB 
 
 ( X20 ) 
 
 ALB 
 
 dome, as to the court, during his resilience ; 
 and when the new king, Philip V. was become 
 a widower, Alberoni projected, and carried into 
 execution, the measure of marrying liim to the 
 princess of Parma. This queen, who obtained 
 the ascendance over her husband, gave all her 
 coiitidcnce to Alberoni. S!ie caused him to be 
 created cardinal in 17 17. and made him a 
 grandee of Spain, and prime-minister. In this 
 situation, he sent a squadron to protect the 
 coast of ItaK- from the Turks, re-established 
 the royal authority in the provinces, corrected 
 vaiious abuses in the government, and intro- 
 duced some important reforms in the military 
 on t!ic French system. Extending his views to 
 still greater projects, which suited his intriguing 
 and enterprising disposition, he set on foot an 
 expedition against Sardinia and Sicily ; having 
 previously, m order to prevent the opposition 
 of the other powers interested, made an alliance 
 with czar Peter, and Charles XII. of Sweden, 
 and, as was said, also with the Ottoman porte. 
 His designs were no less than to excite the Turk 
 to make war on the emperor, to set the pre- 
 tender on the throne of England by means of 
 Peter and Charles, to deprive the duke of Or- 
 leans of the regency of France, and to annihi- 
 late the German power in Italy. But the dis- 
 covery of the plan caused an union between 
 England and France, which powers declared 
 •war against Spain in 17 19, and would not con- 
 sent to a peace, but on the condition of the 
 immediate removal of Alberoni, and his banish- 
 ment from the kingdom. He received an order 
 in Dec. 1720 to quit Madrid in twenty-four 
 hours, and Spain in a fortnight. He retired 
 with vast riches, and had been two days on his 
 journey before it was discovered that he had 
 taken with him the testament of Charles II. of 
 Spain, appointing Philip universal heir of the 
 monarchy. A messenger was dispatched after 
 him, who was obliged to use force in order to 
 get it out of his hands. On leaving Spain, the 
 fallen minister went to Genoa, wliere he was 
 arrested at the instance of the pope, on the 
 charge of negotiating with tlie Turks. From 
 this, however, he was exculpated ; and pro- 
 ceeding to Rome, a formal inquiry into his 
 conduct was instituted in the sacred college, in 
 consequence of which he was ordered to retire 
 for a year to a convent of Jesuits. On his li- 
 beration he engaged in new intrigues, one of 
 ■which was an enterprise against the petty re- 
 public of St. Marino, which failed like his 
 greater projects. A more innocent project for 
 perpetuating his name occujiied a good deal of 
 his atiention at this period, which was the 
 
 foundation of a seminary for the education of 
 poor scholars at his native city. He erected 
 vast buildings for this purpose at his sole ex- 
 pense ; but to the funds for its maintenance 
 which he himself gave, he added those which 
 he discovered to have been usurped from the 
 church in that district ; whence the Placentines 
 looked with an evil eye on his new institution. 
 Alberoni preserved his health and vivacity to a 
 <rreat age. He was fond of talking of the trans- 
 actions in which he had been engaged, enlivened 
 his recitals with numerous anecdotes, mingled 
 Frcncli, Spanish, and Italian in his language 
 according to the scene of his discourse, and ge- 
 nerally concluded with a maxim of Tacitus. 
 He was warm and impatient of contradiction. 
 He lived to the age of eighty-seven, and died in 
 175?,, leaving behind him the character of a 
 great politician, as daring as Richelieu, and as 
 Scipple as Mazarin, with as little principle as ei- 
 ther. His life, to the year 17 19, has been pub- 
 lished by John Rousset, translated from the 
 Spanish. A pretended Political Teitament in 
 the name of cardinal Alberoni, printed in 1753, 
 is considered as spurious. Moreru Nouv. 
 Diet. Hist. — A. 
 
 ALBERT I. emperor and duke of Austria, 
 was son of the emperor Rodolph of Hapsburg, 
 and a competitor for the imperial crown with 
 Adolphus of Nassau, whom he defeated and 
 killed in battle. After this victory he was 
 crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle, A. D. 1298, amid 
 such a concourse of people, that his brother-in-v 
 law, the duke of Saxony, with many other per- 
 sons, was squeezed to death. His reign was 
 stormy and active. It began with a renewal of' 
 the league between the empire and France, and 
 a treaty of marriage between Rodolph, the em- 
 peror's eldest son, and Blanche, daughter to 
 king Philip. Albert was soon involved in a 
 quarrel with pope Boniface, who, as a friend pf 
 the late emperor Adolphus, hated him, and 
 made use of the opportunity of an accession to 
 enforce the claims of the see of Rome over the 
 empire. A quarrel of Albert's with the three 
 ecclesiastical electors widened this breach, which 
 proceeded so far, that the pope forbade the sub- 
 jects of the empire to acknowledge Albert. It 
 ended, however, in the submission of Albert to 
 the nominal authority of Rome. But he had 
 before reduced the ecclesiastical electois to sue 
 for peace, and give up the point in dispute be- 
 tween them. An unsuccessful expeditio;i which 
 he made against Jo'nn d'Avenes, heir to the 
 count of Holland, in order to svpi>ort the rights 
 of the empire over Holland and West Friesland 
 as its fiefs, was terminated by admission of the 
 
 I
 
 Hill" 
 
 AI.HKRT I. 
 
 illlllllilllilllM 
 
 ^^'I'-rJ' i-Aet: 0<^tein're,^1f'^J£.i-tnrnftej- mr Jhm/i^t JJauf/iine /a .A-u^-teni.- J '. C<r/!
 
 ALBERT II. ' 
 
 Mort-A' ^cy.T^'r 24:^1; . 
 
 ^*uri,rr/t^x.O(/iftttfrVfAf'^^{jBnriamp&r ride Z>an/mi X)aitf»Atne Ai e/eztarifrrze ^or'ie ChcAciy:.
 
 ALB 
 
 ( 
 
 121 
 
 ) 
 
 ALB 
 
 Ecir to the poisessioii of the provinces, upon 
 doing hoiiipwe to tlie emperor. In 1302 Al- 
 bert invaiicd Bohemia, but was obliged to re- 
 treat with loss. Afterwards, on the death of 
 Winceslaus the younger, lie seized the same 
 kingdom, and placed his son Rodolph on the 
 throne ; but upon his sudden death, Albert was. 
 unable to secure the succession for his next 
 son, Frederic. 
 
 The emperor's next exploit was to support 
 Philip of Nassau, brother of Adolphus the late 
 emperor, in an unjust attempt to recover Misnia 
 andThuringia from their rightful possessors ; but 
 it terminated in a diseraceful defeat. He un- 
 derwent another mortihcation, the consequences 
 of which were highly important, and salutary 
 to mankind. By his oppressions, and the ty- 
 lanny of his governors, the Helvetian cantons 
 of Ury, Schwitz, and Underwald, were driven 
 to throw off the yoke of Austria ; which ex- 
 ample was imitated by the other cantons, and 
 laid the foundation of the confederate republic 
 of Switzerland. Rapacity, and an unprincipled 
 desire of aggrandising his family, were, indeed, 
 the characteristics of this emperor, and at length 
 brought him to a violent end. On his refusal 
 to put his nephew John, son to the duke of 
 Suabia, in possession of his paternal estates, 
 which Albert had probably destined to one of 
 his own sons, John engaged three confede- 
 rates in a conspiracy against him, which they 
 thus put in execution. The emperor, having 
 paid a visit at Basils proceeded to Rhinfelden, 
 and arriving at the river Rhees near Schaff- 
 hausen, crossed it in a small boat along with 
 his nephew and the conspirators, and sent the 
 boat back for the rest of his company. As he 
 ■was walking through a field, John advanced 
 and stabbed him in the throat, and the others 
 completed the murder, in sight of his son and 
 retinue, who could afford him no assistance. 
 So died Albert the Triumphant. This event 
 took place in 1308. 
 
 Albert, by his wife Elizabeth, daughter of 
 the duke of Carinthia, had six sons, and five 
 daughters, most of whom survived him. His 
 youngest son, Albert, continued tlie male line 
 of the family. Mod. Univers. Hist. — A. 
 
 ALBERT 11. emperor and duke of Austria, 
 born in 1304, was the son of Albert duke of 
 Austria, the fourth of the name. By the wise 
 government of liis hereditary states he acquired 
 so mudi reputation, that Sigismund, emperor 
 and king of Hungary, gave him his only daugh- 
 ter and heiress Elizabeth in marriage, and at liii; 
 death declared him his successor in tlie kingdoms 
 of Hungary and Bohemia. He succeeded qui- 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 ctly to the Hungarian throne, but was opposed 
 in that of Bohemia by a party who chose Ca- 
 simir, brother of the king of Poland. After a 
 struggle, however, Albert obtained possession 
 of it, and was crowned at Prague. In the same 
 year, 1438, he was elected emperor. His first 
 care was to as emble a grand diet at Nurcm- 
 burg, in which he reformed the administration 
 of justice, and abolished the famous tribunal, 
 called the secret or ^Ve,^tphalia judgment, which 
 condemned without tiial, or even public accusa- 
 tion. In this diet Germany was divided into 
 four great circles. Albert conhrmed the German 
 neutrality between the po])e and the council of 
 Basil, and made a peace betvi-een Hungary and 
 Poland. Sultan Amurath having invaded Bul- 
 garia, Albert took arms in it-: defence, and. 
 marched to Buda ; but being there attacked 
 with a dysentery, he set out on liis return to 
 Vienna, and died on the road, A. D. 1439, in 
 the second year of his reign. He left a posthu- 
 mous son and two daughters. Few emperors 
 have borne a better character than vMberrll. for 
 justice, liberality, and every royal and private 
 virtue. His surnames were the Grave and Mag^- 
 ?ia»imci!is. Mod. Univers. Hist. — A. 
 
 ALBERT, king of Sweden,. was second son- 
 of Albert duke of Mecklenburg, to whom the 
 crown of Sweden was offered by some malcon- 
 tent noblemen who had risen against the tyran- 
 ny of king Magnus. The duke rejected the 
 offer for himself, but recommended his son, who 
 was in consequence elected in 1363, and re- 
 ceived into Stockholm. Magnus, supported by 
 Denmark and Norway, endeavoured to recover 
 his crown, but was defeated by Albert and taken 
 prisoner. Albert then laid siege to the towns 
 which still held out for his rival, and, in order to 
 gain them, was obliged to make peace with Den- 
 mark at the expense of considerable sacrifices. 
 War again ensued with that power, and with 
 Norway, but at length he possessed the king- 
 dom in peace. He now fell into the same 
 faults with the deposed Magnus, endeavourino- 
 to make himself ai binary by the introduction of 
 Germans into the army, and even into the se- 
 nate, contrary to the express laws of the realm ; 
 and as his revenues proved insufficient for the 
 maintenance of his favourites and mercenaries, 
 he violently seized upon a third part of all rents 
 of the laity and clergy. This injustice induced 
 the nobles to ap])ly for aid to the celebrated 
 Margaret queen of Denmark and Norway, who 
 granted it on the condition of possessing the 
 crown of Sweden, and transmitting it to her 
 heirs. She marched into the country, and ac» 
 cepting. a coarse defiance sent her by Aibcif, 
 R.
 
 ALB 
 
 ( >^2 ) 
 
 ALB 
 
 nvt liim ncai F.ilcoping in West Gotlil and, <le- 
 t'caterl liim in a bloody battle, and took hiin pri- 
 soner, \\ ith his son. Albert was kept in prison 
 seven years, during great part of which the 
 country was torn in pieces by faction, and 
 Stockholm was leduced to the greatest misery 
 by a siege from Margaret's troops, and the 
 bloody tyranny of Albert's German garrison 
 within. At length, by a treaty ih 1394, Albert 
 was set at libertv, on condition of surrendering 
 Stockholm witliin three vcars to Margaret ; but 
 tlie first use he made of his liberty was to en- 
 deavour to regain the crown by the aid of the 
 Teutonic knights, who were in possession of 
 the isle of Gothland, which they resigned to 
 him. However, every thing being settled in 
 Margaret's favour by the treaty of Calmar in 
 J 397, and his own son Eric dying, he thought 
 lit to surrender Stockholm and all his rights to 
 Margaret, and passed tlie remainder of his days 
 in Mecklenburgli. Mod. Univcrs. Hist. — A. 
 
 ALBERT, archduke of Austria, sixth son of 
 tlie emperor Maximilian II. and Mary of Austria, 
 was born in 1 559. He was destined to the church, 
 and was created, when very young, cardinal and 
 archbishop of Toledo. In 1583 he was made go- 
 vernor of Portugal, and his conduct was so much 
 approved by king Philip II. whose nephew he was, 
 that he resolved to place him in the arduous post 
 of governor of the Low Countries, from which 
 the Seven United Provinces had lately been sepa- 
 rated by a successful revolt. Albert arrrived at 
 Luxemburg in the beginning of 1596, and began 
 his operations by reducing Calais, Ardres, and 
 Hulst ; these successes, however, were more 
 than compensated by those of prince Maurice. 
 The negotiations for peace failing, Philip, in 
 1598, contracted his daughter Isabella-Clara - 
 Eugenia to Albert, who thereupon renounced 
 his cardinalate and ecclesiastical character. The 
 Netherlands, and the provinces of Burgundy 
 and Charleroi, were her portion, and they were 
 hencefortli considered as joint sovereigns of 
 those countries. They made their public entry 
 at Brussels, in great state, in 1599. The Dutch 
 showing no disposition to return to their alle- 
 giance to the house of Austria, the archduke 
 renewed the war with vigour, and marched to 
 attack prince Maurice at Nieuport, but was to- 
 tally defeated on Julv 2, 1600. Albert, how- 
 ever, still kept the field with a powerful army, 
 and in the next year laid close siege to Ostend. 
 The taking of this place cost all his efforts for 
 three years, and in the mean time Maurice took 
 Sluys and Grave, and brought Albert into the 
 most distressful circumstances. His affairs were 
 somevi'hat retrieved by Spinola ; but the arch- 
 
 duke ^\-a« at length glad to send deputies to tlie 
 Hague, who first concluded a truce for some 
 months, and in 1609 another for twelve years. 
 During this interval Albert employed himself in 
 regulating the affairs of the catholic pro\inccs, 
 and ingratiating himself with liis people by a 
 .wise and gentle administration. Soon after the 
 expiration of the truce, he died, in 162 1, without 
 posterity, greatly regretted by his subjects. Mod. 
 Univ. Hist. — A. 
 
 ALBERT of Brandenburg, a prince of tlic 
 liouse of Brandenburg, born in 1490, wa^ cho- 
 sen grand-master of the Teutonic order in 151 1, 
 and maintained a war with Sigismund king of 
 Poland, in support of the independence of that 
 body. This was concluded by a treaty in 1525, 
 in which he obtained the investiture ot the duchy 
 of Prussia as a secular and hereditary fiet of Po- 
 land, and immediately after made public profes- 
 sion of Lutheranism, and married a princess of 
 Denmark. This treachery to his order caused 
 him to be put under the ban of the empire ; but 
 he maintained possession of the duchy, and 
 transmitted it to his son. He died in 1568. 
 After his son's decease the dukedom ot Prussia 
 became united to the electorate of Brandenburg. 
 Afad. Univcrs. Hist. Mem. de Brandebourg. 
 —A. 
 
 ALBERT, marquis of Brandenburg-Culm- 
 bach, born in 1522, was a principal actor in 
 the troubles of Germany during the reign of 
 Charles V. In 1552 he joined with Maurice, 
 elector of Saxony, in the confederacy of the 
 German princes against Charles, and took the 
 separate command of a body of adventurers 
 whom he had drawn together. With this band 
 he commenced a predatory war, exacting con- 
 tributions wherever became, burning towns and 
 villages, and planning the most unjust enter- 
 prises. He compelled the ecclesiastical princes, 
 particularly the bishops of Bamberg and Wurtz- 
 burg, to pay him great sums of money; and the 
 former to transfer to him the property of almost 
 half his diocese. He pushed to the Rhine, took 
 Spire and Worms, and over-ran all the neigh- 
 bouring country. In these transactions he paid 
 no regard to the interests or remonstrances of his 
 allies, and no one knew which side he meant 
 to take when the emperor invaded Lorraine. 
 He however defeated the duke ot Aumale, and 
 then joined the emperor before Mentz, and re- 
 ceived a pardon for all past offences. Being 
 afterwards condemned by the imperial chamber 
 to renounce his usurpations on the bishoprics of 
 Bamberg and Wurtzburg, on his refusal a league 
 was formed against him, of which Maurice was 
 declared the head. A fierce battle was fought
 
 ChAKLES, MARQVIS DVlLBERT. 
 
 Dur c/e 1. nines. Pair G ojuht sTijblc, cf Grand Faulconnicr 
 ^<r -France G oiiucrneitr cl Licuteuant General pour lcR:>yEicardur.
 
 .^]LBIEKT"V>^/v M^^G^N^/",
 
 ALB 
 
 ( J23 ) 
 
 ALB 
 
 between their respective troops in 1553, in 
 whicli Albert was entirely defeated, but Maurice 
 received a wound of which he died. Albert was 
 put under the ban of the empire, and again 
 routed by tlie duke of Brunswick, and obliged to 
 quit Gel many. He was deprived of all his 
 states, and after lingering some years in indi- 
 gence and exile, died, in consequence of intem- 
 perance, at Pfortzheim, in Jan. 1558. His he- 
 reditary estates were afterwards restored to his 
 collateral heirs. This man possessed the cou- 
 rage, activity, and liberality, proper for a soldier 
 of fortune; but was rash, violent, brutal, and 
 drunken ; and only from his profligacy deserved 
 the title of the Alclbtadcs of Germany, by which 
 he was distinguished. Morcris Diet. Robert- 
 son's Charles V. — A. 
 
 ALIJERT, Charles d', duke of Luynes, 
 was bon. in 1578, in the county of Venaissin, 
 where his family, the Alberti, originally from 
 Florence, had e- tablished themselves. Henry IV. 
 who was his godfather, placed him as a page 
 about his son, the dauphin, afterwards Louis 
 XIII. whose good graces he is said to have 
 gained by training butcher-birds to Tiawk at 
 sparrows. Rising in the favour of the young 
 king, he was instrumental in persuading him to 
 get rid of his imperious minister the marshal 
 d'Ancre, though he had himself procured the 
 government of Amboise through the marshal's 
 jjatronage. After the tragical death of that fa- 
 vourite, Luynes rose to the first place in the 
 admmistration ; and all kinds of honours and of- 
 fices, civil and miiitarv, with the high post of 
 constable of Frar,ce, were accumulated upon 
 him. He recalled to court the ancient nobility 
 who had seceded from it, made peace with the 
 queen mother, and used all political arts to 
 confirm himself in his authority. So great was 
 his consequence, that his weak and fickle master 
 became jealous of him, and betrayed some symp- 
 toms of being tired of him. It is said to have 
 been in consequence of perceiving this loss of 
 his influence, that Luynes resolved to make 
 himself necessary, by involving the king in 
 disputes with his protestant subjects ; yet, as a 
 faithful minister of the crown, he might pursue 
 the same plan of humbling an almost indepen- 
 dent party, that Richelieu afterwards succtss- 
 fully followed. In 1621 he raised an army and 
 possessed himself of almost all their strong 
 places, except Montauban, in the siege of which 
 he failed. Towards the end of the same year 
 he died in camp of a fever, aged forty-three ; and 
 he had scarcely expired when his effects were 
 pillaged by his attendarits, so that there was not 
 a sheet left to wrap his body in. Such \\as the 
 
 end of an all-powerful favourite ! His general 
 character was that of an ambitious courtier, 
 supple and artful, disposed to mildness rather 
 than force. Moieri. Kouv. Diet. Hist. — A. 
 
 ALBERT, surnamed the Great, one of the 
 most famous doctors of the thirteendi centur)', 
 was born at Lawingen in Suabia, in the year 
 1 193, or, according to some accounts, in the 
 year 1205. He was educated at Pavia, where 
 he took the religious habit among the Domini- 
 cans ; he was successively vicar general, and 
 provincial of his order. Having acquired an 
 extensive knowledge of tlic subtle i)hilosophy 
 and obscure theolpgy of the times, he became a 
 public preceptor, and lectured, with great repu- 
 tation, to crowded schools, first in Cologne, and 
 afterwards at Paris. His celebrity attracted tiie 
 attention of the Roman pontiff, and about tlie 
 year 1248 he was called by pope Alexander IV. 
 to Rome, and appointed to the office of master 
 of the holy ])alace. In the year 1260 he was 
 elected bishop of Ratisbon, but finding the du- 
 ties of the episcopal see inconsistent with his 
 love of retirement and study, he resigned this 
 dignity, and returned to Cologne, to enjoy the 
 leisure of monastic life. Except that, by the 
 coinmand of pope Gregory X. he went into 
 Germany and Bohemia to preach the crusade, 
 and afterwards, in 1274, attended the council of 
 Lyons, Albert remained at Cologne till his 
 death, which happened in the year 1280. Much 
 that is fabulous hangs upon the history of Al- 
 bert, and it is not easy to separate from it the 
 trufh. That he was a magician, and framed an 
 androi's, or machine in the human form, of dif- 
 ferent kinds of metals, tlie several parts of which 
 were formed under dis'crs celestial aspects and 
 constellations ; that after thirty years' indefatiga- 
 ble labour he brought this machine to such per- 
 fection that it could speak, and under certain 
 constellations could reveal to Albert the solution 
 of his most difficult questions ; that this won- 
 derful speaking machine retained its power till 
 Thomas Aquinas, Albert's pujiil, in terror broke 
 it to pieces with his stick ; that this great magi- 
 cian reproduced the flowers of spring in the 
 midst of winter for the entertainment of Wil- 
 liam, earl of Holland, and king of the Romans, 
 when he passed through Cologne ; these and 
 such like wonderful talcs might obtain credit in 
 an ignorant age, but will at present scarcely be 
 read with patience. It is not impossible that 
 Albert possessed a degree of physical know- 
 ledge beyond his contemporaries, and that his 
 acquaintance with mechanics and chemistry 
 might enable him to frame a curious machine, 
 which, by the help of air, might send forth
 
 ALB 
 
 ( 124 ) 
 
 ALB 
 
 ■rounds icscmbling the human voice, or to pro- 
 Jjcc, as iTiodcni chemists have done, artificial 
 resemblances of flowers and fruits. Tiiere is 
 no proof tiiat he was, as some have said, the in- 
 ventor of tire-arms. His experiments in natural 
 l)hllc)Sophy were, probably, chiefly coufinc.l to 
 tlie search after the philosopher's stone, the 
 common " ignis fatuus" of the age. It is pro- 
 bable that he practised the superstitious and de- 
 ceitful ait of astrology. A book entitled " The 
 Mirror of Astrology," and another treatise, 
 " On wonderful Things," full of idle supersti- 
 tion, are ascribed to him; though some have 
 questioned whedier these, as well as several 
 other pieces thai bear his name, were not writ- 
 ten by other hands. The works which are in- 
 disputably his are exceedingly numerous, and 
 treat on various subjects ; logic, ethics, meta- 
 physics, tlicology, and physics. The whole 
 mass of the works genuine and spurious, which 
 have appeared under his name, was published 
 by father Jammi, at Lyons, in 1651, in twenty- 
 one volumes folio. If some tilings which de- 
 serve to be rescued from oblivion might be 
 found by a diligent search through this immense 
 pile of words, few persons will, we fancy, have 
 patience to undertake the task, especially if they 
 respect the judgment of cardinal Fleury, whose 
 stricture upon the writings of Albert we shall 
 .copy. (Nouv. Diet. Hist.J " I leave it to those 
 .■".vho have read this author more carefully, to 
 inform us how he merited the title of The 
 .Great. The few following remarks I have 
 made upon his writings : in his three volumes 
 vof physics, he always cites Aristotle, and his 
 Arabian commentators. He pays attention to 
 those natural philosophers whom Aristotle com- 
 iats, whose writings are lost, and whose opi- 
 nions are forgotten ; he always supposes the 
 .four elements, and the four qualities of /lot, cold, 
 Miy, and moist ; he frequently lays down, as 
 principles, propositions which are neither self- 
 evident, nor proved elsewhere. In treating of 
 the heavens he discovers little knowledge of as- 
 tronomy: he supposes the influence of the stars, 
 .and speaks of astrology as a true science, with- 
 out condemning it ; he even mixes it with poli- 
 tics in treating ou the subject of meteors. He 
 betrays great ignorance of geography, and places 
 Byzantium with Tarentum in Italy. Speaking 
 of minerals, he attributes to precious stones vir- 
 tues similar to those of the load-stone, relying 
 upon experiments which he had never tried ; 
 and he endeavours, afterwards, to assign the 
 causes of these virtues. He often crives absurd 
 etymologies, and attempts to explain Greek 
 xiames without understanding tlie language, a 
 
 common fault among the doctors of this period." 
 Foss. dc Sc'icnt. Math. Bayle. Morcr'i. Dupin, 
 cent. xiii. Biuckcr, Hist. Ph. lib. vii. c. 3. § 2. 
 Huttons Math. Diet. — E. 
 
 ALIiERT, of Aix, or Albertus Aquex- 
 sis, a canon of Aix-la-Chapelle, in the twelfth 
 century, travelled to the Holy Land, and wrote, 
 in Latin, " A History of the Expedition to 
 Jerusalem under Godfrey of Bulloign, and other 
 Leaders." The history, which is esteemed ac- 
 curate, comprehends a period of twenty-four 
 years, and terminates in the year 1120. It was 
 printed by Reineccius in 1662. Vofs. de Hist, 
 Lat. lib. iii. c. 6. Moreri. — E. 
 
 ALBERT, Erasmus, born near Frankfort, 
 was a German divine of the sixteenth century. 
 From a book entitled " The Harmony between 
 Jesus Christ and St. Francis," which the Fran- 
 ciscans valued as much as the Turks value the 
 Koran, he collected many absurdities, and com- 
 posed a work which he entided " The Alcoran 
 of the Cordeliers." Luther, of whom this Al- 
 bert was a disciple, honoured the compilation 
 widi a preface. This singular piece was first 
 published in German, without the name of 
 the place, or printer, in 1531 ; then in Latin, 
 at Wittemberg, in 4to. 1542 ; and since, in 
 French, at Geneva, in 1560 ; and at Amster- 
 dam, in i2mo. 1734. The author wrote other 
 works in Latin and German : he died in the 
 year 1 55 1. Nouv. Diet. Hist. — E. 
 
 ALBERT, Krantz, an historian, professor 
 of divinity in Hamburgh, flourished at the be- 
 ginning of the sixteenth century. He wrote a 
 work entided " Metropolis," [A History of the 
 Churches established or restored in the Reign of 
 Charlemagne] aho, a "History of Saxony;" 
 " A History of the Vandals ;" and " A Chroni- 
 cle of the Affairs of the North from the Time of 
 Charlemagne to the Year 1504." He died in 
 the year 1517. He is spoken of by several 
 writers as an historian, ^^•ho collected facts 
 with diligence and related them with fidelity and 
 freedom. Foss. de Hist. Lat. lib. iii. c 10. — E. 
 
 ALBERT of Stade, an historian, was a Be- 
 nedictine monk, who flourished about the mid- 
 dle of the thineenth century. He wrote a 
 " Chronicle," comprehending the whole period 
 from the beginning of the world to the year 
 1256. The work was published by Reineccius, 
 with notes, in 1587. Foss. de Hist. Lat. lib. ii. 
 c. 59.— E. 
 
 ALBERT, of Strasburg, or Albertus 
 Argentinensis, who flourished in the four- 
 teenth century, published, in Latin, " An His- 
 tory or Chronicle of Affairs from the Reig;i of 
 Rodolphus I. in the Year 1270, to the Death of
 
 ALB 
 
 ( 125 ) 
 
 ALB 
 
 Charle'; IV. in the Year 1378." The work is 
 faitlifiilly written, and contains many tiling;; not 
 to be found elsewhere. It was edited by Ur- 
 sticius, in a collection of antbors who wrote on 
 the affairs of Germany. Foss. de Hist. Lot. 
 hb. iii. c. 3. — E. 
 
 ALBERTI, John, a learned German law- 
 yer, born at VV'idmanstadt, flourished in the 
 sixteenth centurv. He was well skilled in the 
 oriental languages, and wrote " An Abridge- 
 ment of the Koran," with notes, published at 
 Nuremberg in the year 1543. In 1556 he pub- 
 lished, in 4to. at Vienna, at the expense of tlie 
 emperor Ferdinand I. a New Testament in the 
 Syriac character and language, for the use of 
 the Jacobite sect. In this book, the Second 
 Epistle of Peter, the Second and Third of John, 
 the Epistle of Jude, and the Book of Revelation 
 were omitted. Only a thousand copies of this 
 edition of the New Testament were printed, of 
 which the emperor kept five hundred ; the rest 
 were sent into the east. Alberti also wrote a 
 Svriac grammar, with a very curious preface, 
 in which is described the progress of the Orien- 
 tal languages among the Latins. Morer'i. Nonv. 
 Diet. Hist.—Y.. 
 
 ALBERTI, Leander, of Bologna, an Ita- 
 lian historian, a Dominican, was born in 1479. 
 He is a writer of some celebrity ; his works are, 
 in Latin, "A History of illustrious Men of his 
 Order," printed in folio in 1517; in Italian, "A 
 History of Bologna ;" and " A Description of 
 Italy," printed in 1550. This last work abounds 
 with curious information, but mixed with the 
 superstitious tales of Annius of Viterbo : it was 
 translated into Latin by Kiriander. Vossius 
 ae Hist. Lat. lib. iii. c. 2. Moreri. Landi,,Hist. 
 Lit. Ital. lib. xii. — E. 
 
 ALBERTI, Leoni-Baptista, an eminent 
 Italian architect, and universal scholar, was born 
 in 1398 at Florence, where his family was no- 
 ble. He pursued the general studies of litera- 
 ture with such success, that, when at the univer- 
 sity of Bologna, in his twentieth year, lie com- 
 posed a Latin comedy, entitled " Philodoxeos," 
 under the name of Lepidus the comic writer, 
 which passed for antique with the learned Al- 
 dus Manutius. Other pieces of his have been 
 collected in a volume, undei the title of " Quae- 
 stiones Camaldulenses." At Bologna he took 
 the degree of doctor of laws, and was ordained 
 priest. 
 
 Applying himself particularly to the arts of 
 design, he made several joiuneys for the pur- 
 pose of measuring ancient edirices. At Rome 
 he obtained the confidence of jiope Nicholas V, 
 who employed him, together with Bernardo Ro- 
 
 scllini, in several works of architecture. At 
 Mantua, Rimini, and Florence, he planned 
 some considerable buildings, which show a great 
 knowledge of the principles of the art, thougli 
 he is said to have wanted taste, and to have bet- 
 ter understood the theory than the practice. He 
 was alio a painter ; but his other occupations 
 prevented his leaving any considerable perform- 
 ance in that branch. He was a good mechanic, 
 and invented an instrument to assist the practice 
 of perspective. But it is chiefly as a writer that 
 his memory has been preserved. In 1^81 a 
 work of his was printed, " On the Art of Ar- 
 chitecture," in ten books, written in good Latin. 
 This was the first of modern works of the kind, 
 and was in high esteem in that age and the next. 
 It was translated into Italian by Bartoli in 1546, 
 and soon afterwards into French. It compre- 
 hends almost everv branch of the building art. 
 He also wrote, in Latin, a work upon sculp- 
 ture and painting, in three books, which was 
 translated by Doinenichi. Alberti lived to an 
 advanced age, and is thought to have died about 
 1480, butTiraboschi places his death, at Rome, 
 in 1472. Angelo Poliziano pronounced his fu- 
 neral oration, and he was celebrated by the 
 contemporary Italian poets. Vies des Fameu.-c 
 Architeetes par M. d' Argcnvillc. Tirabofchi. 
 — A. 
 
 ALBERTI, DoMENico, a Venetian gentle- 
 man celebrated for musical talents, in the eigh- 
 teenth century, was tlie disciple of Biffi and 
 Lotti. He accompanied the ambassador of his 
 country to Spain in quality of page or secretary, 
 and was even tlicn distinguished for extraordi- 
 nary vocal powers. He afterwards went to 
 Rome, where he cultivated singing, and playing 
 upon the harpsichord. On this instrument lie 
 invented a new and expressive style of playing, 
 which was long imitated and admired, with a 
 continual division bass, and a treble part, in 
 which the melody is still truly vocal. His les- 
 sons were justly admired for their elegance and 
 facility, when Handel and Scarlatti were unri- 
 valled for learning and original genius. In 1737 
 he set to music Metastasio's " Endimione," 
 and some time after, his " Galatea." The 
 vocal compositions of Alberti are regarded by 
 Dr. Burney as the most cxiiuisite of the time in 
 which they were produced. Bnrncy, Hist. AIus. 
 iv. and liis private information.- — A. 
 
 ALBERTINUS, Mussatus, an Italian 
 historian and poet, a nafixe of Padua, flourished 
 in the ninth century. He wrote concerning the 
 reign of the emperor Henry VII ; twelve books 
 on the Affairs of Italy after Henry W\. and a 
 third part, on the history of Lewis of Bavaria.
 
 ALB 
 
 ( ^^6 ) 
 
 ALB 
 
 He is a jiulicioiis, a faithful, and, for the time 
 in which he lived, an elegant historian. He 
 also wrote a tragedy founded on the" tyranny of 
 Acciolini, which, with several other poetical 
 productions, procured hiirt distinguished ho- 
 nours in the university of Padua. Petrarch 
 mentions him with respect, as a most industri- 
 ous and accurate inquirer into fact*;. He died 
 in the year 829. Voss. de Hist. Lat. lib. ii. 
 c. 64. — E. 
 
 ALBINUS,Bernard, properly called /-flvi^ 
 
 [White], was born, in 1653, at Dessau, where his 
 father was burgomaster. He studied physic with 
 great reputation at Leyden, where he graduated ; 
 and after spending some time in his travels, he 
 returned to Germany, and was made professor 
 of medicine at Frankfort on the Oder in 1680. 
 Some time afterv.'ards Frederic-William, elector 
 of BranJenburg, invited him to hLs court, and 
 made him hij physician. After the death of 
 that prince, in 1688, Albinus resumed his office 
 at Frankfort. He receivetl an invitation from 
 the university of Groningen, but the elector 
 Frederic, in order to keep him in his dominions, 
 augiTiented his salary, and in 1697 called him 
 to Berlin in quality of his physician. He also 
 gave him a canonry of Magdeburg, which of- 
 fice Albinus, with his permission, sold to an- 
 other. At length he accepted, with the elector's 
 consent, of an invitation to the medical chair 
 in Leyden, v,'hich he filled with great distinc- 
 tion from 1702 to the time of his death in 1721. 
 He wrote various treatises on different subjects, 
 practical and physiological, but they are at pre- 
 sent little known, except to collectors. Two of 
 his sons were medical professors. Moreri. — A. 
 AI,BINUS, Bernard Siegfried, son of 
 the former, one of the most celebrated anato- 
 mists of his time, at the age of twenty had raised 
 such a promise of himself, that by the interest of 
 Boerhaave he was elected to the anatomical pro- 
 fessorship at Leyden, which office he held for 
 fifty years, with no avocation to divert him 
 from his favourite studies. He was a most 
 laborious dissector, skilful in the art of injection 
 and making preparations, and assiduous in ob- 
 taining the aid of the best painters ; so that he 
 surpassed all other anatomists in the description 
 of the bones and muscles, and added a great 
 number of observations to anatomical science in 
 general. His inaugural oration, on the subject 
 of comparative anatomy, was printed in 17 19; 
 and thenceforward he continued, at no long in- 
 tervals, to publish the works which have made 
 his nam.e so well known among anatomists. 
 His first work, on the muscles, entitled " His- 
 toria Musculorum Hominis," 410. appeared in 
 
 1734. In composing this he had taken vast 
 pains at leisore hours to measure and describe all 
 the insertions of the muscles in the bones, and to 
 mark them in with aqua fortis, which he after- 
 wards caused to be drawn by an excellent ar- 
 tist. In 1737 he gave some coloured plates of 
 the arteries and veins of the intestines, and some 
 inimitably elegant figures of the bones of the 
 foetus. An anatomical explanation of Eusta- 
 chius's plates, with a new edition of the plates 
 themselves, in folio, came from his hand in 
 1743, afterwards republished with improvements 
 in 1761. His own large tables of the skeleton 
 and muscles, a work of extraordinary beauty, 
 appeared in 1 747 ; and about the same time, 
 seven tables of the gravid uterus. His great 
 tables of tlie bones came out in 1753, and again, 
 in an improved state, in 1762. These are ad- 
 mirable performances. Eight volumes 4to. of 
 " Anatomical Annotations," replete with cu- 
 rious matter, appeared successively from 175410 
 1768. Too much of these are occupied with 
 angry controversy against rivals and antagonists, 
 especially the illustrious Haller, once his do- 
 mestic pupil, who had the misfortune to offend 
 him respecting a claim to a discovery belonging 
 to Wachendorf. Albinus died in 177 I. Hal- 
 lev's Biblioth. Anat. — A. 
 
 ALBINUS, Decimus Clodius, was born 
 at Adrumetum in Africa. His father was Cei- 
 onius Posthumus, a man of small fortune, but 
 of an illustrious descent. His own name of Al- 
 binus was given him in consequence of his un- 
 common fairness of complexion when an in-- 
 fant. He was liberally educated ; and proceeded 
 so far in letters, as to be the author of a work 
 on agriculture, and a collection of Milesian tales ; 
 but his decided taste was to a military life ; and he 
 was used to repeat with rapture that verse in the 
 ./Eneid, book ii. 
 
 Arma amens capio, nee i^l rationis in armis : 
 Maddening I arm, nor reason guides my arms. 
 
 He entered into this career tmder the Anto- 
 nines, whose esteem he acquired ; and he com- 
 manded the troops of Bithynia at the rime of the 
 revolt of Avidius Cassius against Marcus Aure- 
 lius. His fidelity on this occasion was of great 
 use to the emperor, and he is said to have been 
 rewarded by the consulship, though his name' 
 does not appear about that period in the Fasti. 
 In tlie reign of Commodus he gained advantage-) 
 over the barbarians on the Riiine and Danube ; 
 and was at length appointed to the supreme 
 command in Britain. Here, according to Ca- 
 pitolinus, he had permission granted him by an
 
 ALB 
 
 ( 127 ) 
 
 ALB 
 
 express letter from the emperor, to assume the 
 title ot Cassar, which, however, he declined : 
 but the rebtion is discredited by. the best judges. 
 On the accession ot" Scvenis, while that artful 
 prince was preparing to resist his competitor Ni- 
 ger, he soothed the ambition of Albinus by 
 creating him Caesar, lavishing honours and flat- 
 teries on him, and giving him the expectation 
 of participating in the imperial sway. Albinus, 
 who was of an unsuspecting temper, was deluded 
 by this false show of friendship, and gave Severus 
 full opportunity to destroy his rival. He was 
 consul together with tlie emperor in 194. After 
 the death of Niger, however, Severus began to 
 consider how he could rid himself of one who 
 was too great for a subject, and whose character 
 for mildness, contrasted witii his own cruel 
 disposition, induced the senate to wish for him 
 as a master rather than himself. Severus is di- 
 rectly charged by Herodian and Capitolitius' with 
 sending assassins to inurder Albinus, who were 
 detected before tliey could execute their purpose. 
 However tliis were, itiscei'tain that Severus gave 
 the first cause of offence by depriving Albinus of 
 the title and prrrogatives of Ctesar. This opened 
 his eyes : he assumed the rank of Augustus ; en- 
 gaged Gaul and Spain in his interests; and de- 
 clared his intention of contending for the em- 
 pire. Severus, in return, proclaimed him a pub- 
 lic enemy; and the two rivals advanced towards 
 each other, at the head of their respective forces. 
 They met in the plain between Lyons and Tre- 
 voux with nearly equal annies, each consisting 
 of about one hundred and fifty thousand men. 
 The battle which ensued was long disputed with 
 great bloodshed; at length Severus was victo- 
 rious, and Albinus fled with the relics of his ar- 
 my, first to Lyons, then to a house on the 
 banks of the Rhone. Here, seeing all lost, he 
 fell on his sword, and was yet breathing, when 
 « party of the enemy arrived, and cutting ofFhis 
 head, carried it to Severus, This event hap- 
 pened on Feb. 19, 197. 
 
 The character of Albinus has been differently 
 represented. Capitolinus paints him in very 
 dark colours ; stern, reserved, unsocial, severe, 
 to cruelty, in discipline, gluttonous and brutal. It 
 is certain, however, that his soldiers were much 
 attached to him, and that the senate highly re- 
 vered his justice and humanitv. He seems to 
 have been a plain downright soldier, in whom 
 the good qualities preponderated the bad. Um- 
 vers. Hist. Crevlcr. — A. 
 
 ALBINUS, A. PosTHUMius, a Roman his- 
 torian, who, in the year 151 before Christ, was 
 consul with Licinius LucuUus, wrote in Greek 
 a " History of the Afl'ciirs of Rome." Con- 
 
 cerning him, Cicero, in his " Brutus," says : " A. 
 Albinus, he who wrote history in Greek , who was 
 consul with L. Lucullus, was a man of learning 
 and eloquence." Aulus Getlius also mentions 
 him as colleague with Lucullus in the consul- 
 ship, and speaks of his having written a Roman 
 history in the Greek language. He moreover 
 relates, that Albinus entreated pardon for defects 
 and improprieties of expression of a work writ- 
 ten in a language so different from that of his own 
 country: upon which, Cato facetiously asked, 
 " Why did you choose rather to entreat pardon 
 for a fault than not to have committed it ?" Or, 
 according to Plutarch, in Catone, " You cer- 
 tainly ought to be pardoned if you wrote by the 
 command of the Ampiiictyor.s." Without such 
 a command, Albinus might be entitled to pardon ; 
 for the history of Rome would be more exten- 
 sively read in the Greek than in the Latin lan- 
 guage; the former, as Cicero acknowledges, 
 (Orat. pro Archia), being known to almost all 
 nations, while the latter w as almost wholly con- 
 fined to the Roman territory. Foss. de Hist. 
 Grac. lib. i.e. 20. — E. 
 
 ALBIZI, or Barthelemi of Pisa, a Fran- 
 ciscan of the fourteenth century, in honour of 
 his order, wrote a singular treatise under the ti- 
 tle, " The Conformities of St. Francis with 
 Jesus Christ," the. object of which was to raise 
 St. Francis above all the saints, to an equality 
 with Christ. This curious book, which has 
 been much sought after, first appeared in print 
 at Venice without a date ; the second and third 
 editions were published in the Gothic character 
 at Milan in 1510 and 1513. It was printed 
 with omissions at Bologna in 1590 ; and at Co- 
 logne in 1632, with alterations, under the title 
 of " Antiquitates Franciscans." The edition of 
 Marsus at Liege, in 410, 1658, though it omits 
 some of the extravagances of the original work, 
 contains much matter of anausement. — See the 
 article Albert Erasmus. Aloreri. Nouv, 
 Diet. Hist. — E. 
 
 ALBOIN, king of the Lombards, and con- 
 queror of Italy, was the son of Audoin who 
 reigned in Pannonia. While serving under his 
 father, he slew in battle a sou of Turisund, king 
 of the Geplda. It was thch the custom that a 
 prince should not be permitted to sit down at ta- 
 ble with his father, till he had been solemnly in- 
 vested with arms by a foreign sovereign. Insearcli 
 of this honour, Aiboin vcritured to visit the couit 
 of Turisund himself, accompanied by forty com- 
 panions ; and there, notwithstanding the feel- 
 ings of the king towards one who had deprived 
 him of a son, he was honourably treated, and 
 reeeived the military decoration he requested iu
 
 ALB 
 
 ( 12S ) 
 
 ALB 
 
 the blooJy arms of the very youth he had killed. 
 On his succession to the crown, lie asked in mar- 
 riage the fair Rosamond, daughter of Cuni- 
 mund, another son of Turisund ; and meeting 
 with a refusal, lie endeavoured, at hrstunsuccess- 
 fully, to obtain her by force of arms. After- 
 wards, joining witli the Avars, to whom he of- 
 fered very advantageous conditions, he utterly 
 destroyed the kingdom of the Gepldae, with the 
 slai^htcr of Cunimund, whose skull he caused 
 to be fasltioned into a drinking cup. This hap- 
 pened, A. D. 566. 'J'he Avars occupied the 
 country of the dispossessed Gepid:i?, tlie modern 
 Walachia, Moldavia and Transylvania ; and 
 Rosamond fell into the hands of the victorious 
 Alboin, who made her his wife. 
 
 In tl'.e next year his ambitious spirit led him 
 to undertake the conquest of Italy. Besides his 
 own subjects, a number of tribes from Germany 
 and Sarmatia flocked to his standard. The Lom- 
 bards relinquished their lands to the Avars, on 
 the condition of receiving them again, should the 
 expedition prove unsuccessful. The famous 
 Narses, disgusted by his contemptuous recal from 
 Italy by the Byzantine court, is accused of having 
 invited this storm of war on the Romans. He 
 died before it discharged itself. Alboin crossed 
 the Alps in 568 ; and, without a single battle, 
 occupied all that fertile part of Italy extending 
 from Trent as far as the gates of Rome and Ra- 
 venna. He met with resistance only at Pavia, 
 before which his army lay three years ; and 
 ■when it yielded, he was prevented from fulfilling 
 his vow of massacring all the inhabitants, by a 
 superstitious regard to the omen of his horse's 
 fall as he entered the gates. In this city he fixed 
 his seat of empire, and it remained for some ages 
 the capital of the Lombard kingdom. 
 
 Alboin did not long enjoy his splendid acqui- 
 sitions. At a feast which he gave his compa- 
 nions in the palace of Verona, he was led by 
 intoxication and native brutality to send to "his 
 queen Rosamond the cup made of her father's 
 skull, filled with wine. She touched the liquor 
 with her lips, but resolved on a bloody ven- 
 geance. Having before held a criminal corre- 
 spondence with Hclmichis, the king's armour- 
 bearer, she engaged him to undertake the murder 
 of his master ; but he feared to attack so formi- 
 dable a warrior without furdier aid. Peredeus, 
 a youth ot great strength and courage, was 
 joined in the deed ; and the prostitution of Ro- 
 samond herself was the means employed, to de- 
 termine him. Alboin, heavy with wine, had 
 retired to repose, when the queen called jnthe 
 conspirators. On the first alarm he flew to his 
 s wordj, but R.o: ainoiid hiid fastened it in the scab- 
 
 bard. He defended himself some time with a 
 stool, but was at length dispatclicd by the assas- 
 sins. 1'his was in the year 573. He left an 
 only daughter bv Rosamond ; but his vacant 
 throne was filled by election. Alboin joined to 
 savage valour and military talents a proficience 
 in the art of government. He is said to liavc 
 been the inventor of various warlike weapons, 
 long in use after his time. Unlvers. Hist. Gib~ 
 hon. — A. 
 
 ALBON, James d', marquis of Fronsac, 
 known in history by the title of marshal de St. 
 Andre, was descended from an ancient family 
 in the Lyonnois, and rose to great military emi- 
 nence in tlie reigns of Henry 11. and Charles IX. 
 of France. The former, who became ac- 
 quainted with him when dauphin, and was cap- 
 tivated with the engaging qualities ot his person 
 and character, made him a marshal of France 
 in 1547, and first gentleman of his bed-cham- 
 ber. He had before displayed his courage at the 
 siege of Boulogne and the battle of Cerisolles. 
 At the latter, the count d'Enguien, who nomi- 
 nally commanded, jealous of the praises given 
 him on accoun: of his spirited pursuit of the 
 enemy, cried to his officers, " Either call him 
 back, or let me follow" He was chosen to 
 carry the collar of his order to Henry VIII. king 
 of England, who decorated him with that of the 
 garter. In 1552 and 1554 he commanded in 
 Champagne, where lie acquired great reputation. 
 At the battle of St. Quintin, however, in 1557, 
 he was made prisoner. He contributed greatly 
 to the peace of Cateau Cambresis. After tlie 
 death of Henry II. he was cliosen one of the 
 triumvirate who governed the kingdom four or 
 five years in spite of Catharine of Medicis. It 
 was intended tliat his only daughter should mar- 
 ry prince Henry of Guise, but the design was 
 prevented by the assassination of thar prince at 
 Blois. The marshal St. Andre was at the battle 
 of Dreux in 1562, where he was killed by a pis- 
 tol-shot from a person named Aiibigny or Bobir 
 gny, whose confiscated estate he possessed. The 
 huguenots, whodid not love him, used to call hiin 
 " The harquebuseer of the west." He had the 
 qualities of a soldier and a courtier; was addicted 
 to pleasure and luxury of all kinds, excelled in 
 politeness and all the amiable talents, and on the 
 day of battle equally signalised his courage and 
 conduct. His daughter and heiress i; said to 
 have been poisoned by her own niutlier for her 
 property. Afore ri. Nouv. Diet. Hist. — A. 
 
 ALB'ORNOS, Giles Alvares Caril- 
 to, cardinal and archbishop of Toledo, was a 
 celebrated statesman of the fourteenth century; 
 He was born at Cuenza, of noble pareiuagcj*
 
 ALB 
 
 ( 129 ) 
 
 ALB 
 
 descended from the ancient kings of Leon. He 
 studied in canon law at Toulouse, and taking 
 orders, became almoner to Alfonso XI. king ot 
 Castile, and gradually rose to the primacy of 
 Spain. He rendered great services to his prince 
 in his wars with Alboazen, a Moorish king, and 
 procured him large sums of money from the 
 ■pope and king of France. At tlie accession of 
 Peter the Cruel, wliom he had oftcndcd bv free 
 ■remonstrances against his irregularities, he was 
 obliged to take refuge at the court of pope Cle- 
 ment VI. then at Avignon, by whom he was 
 -created cardinal. On this promotion he resigned 
 ■his archhishojiric, saying, " that it as little be- 
 came him to keep a spouse whom lie could not 
 serve, as it did king Peter to forsake his queen 
 for a inistress." Pope Innocent VI. sent him to 
 Italy as his legate, where lie brought all the re-' 
 volted states to submis .ion to the holv see. Re- 
 turning to the succeeding pope Urban V. his 
 holiness demanded an account of the expenditure 
 of the great sums he had received for his Italian 
 expedition. 'J"he cardinal caused a carriage to 
 'be brought under the palace window, laden 
 with locks and keys ; and desiring the pope to 
 .look out, " There (said he) is my account of 
 the money. I have made you master of all the 
 towns, the keys and locks of which you see in 
 that carriage." The pontiff embraced him, and 
 varmly expressed his obligations. Albornos 
 then retired to Viterbo, where he spent the re- 
 mainder of his days in acts of piety. He died in 
 1367, and was interred at Toledo. He was the 
 founder of the magnificent Spanish college at 
 Bologna. Moreri. — A. 
 
 ALBUCASIS, properly Abul Casem Ca- 
 LAF ebn'ol Abbas, the principal Arabian 
 ■writer on surgery, lived, as is commonly siip- 
 posed, about the end of the eleventh century, 
 though Freind places him a century or two lat- 
 er. Very little is known of him except from 
 •his works. He appears to have been a man of 
 much experience as well as reading, and to have 
 revived in his day the art of surgery, which had 
 simk into neglect. He describes a great uuinbcr 
 ■of chirurgical operations, and gives figures of the 
 instruments used in them. Some of these are 
 very daring ; and he also made great use of the 
 cautery; whence it may be conclixlcd that the 
 art of surgery was very severe at that time. He 
 Avas acquainted with the operation of lithotomy 
 by the smaller apparatus, as it is called; and he 
 has many observations, which show a consider- 
 able extent of knowledge. A compendium of 
 medical practice, under the name of " Alsaha- 
 -ravius," is shown by Freind to be by the same au- 
 thor. The chirurgical works of Albucasis have 
 
 VOL. I, 
 
 been several times jirintcd, and were reckoned 
 standard autliority for some ages. Ficind's Hist, 
 of P/iys. Halle'yi Bibliot/i. — A. 
 
 ALBUMAZAR, or Albuassar, was a ce- 
 lebrated Arabian philosopher, astrologer, and 
 physician of the ninth or tenth century. He is 
 mentioned by several writers as one of the most 
 learned astronomers of his age. He wrote a 
 work, chiefly astrological, published at Venice, 
 in 8vo. in i 506, under the title, " De Magnis 
 Conjunctionibus, Annorum Revolutionibus, ac 
 eorum Perfectionibus :" He also wrote " In- 
 troductio ad Astronomiam," printed in 1489. 
 It is reported that he observed a comet in his 
 lime above the orbit of "\'^cnus. Nouv. Diet. 
 Hist. Huttoris Math. Diet. — E. 
 
 ALBUQUERQUE, Alphonso de, sur- 
 named the (jreat,was one of the most illustrious 
 characters his country ever produced. He was 
 of a Lisbon family, which derived its origin 
 from natural children of the Portuguese crown, 
 but he was himself born at Melinda in Atrica, 
 in 1452. He accompanied his uncle (or, as 
 some call him, cousin) don Francisco d'Albu- 
 querque, when commander in chief in the East 
 Indies, and distinguished himself by his courage 
 and good conduct. On a subsequent visit to those 
 countries, he excited by liis reputation the jea- 
 lousy of the viceroy Almeyda to such a degree, 
 that he was confined by him for a time in the 
 citadel of Cananor. The pretext was mi ma- 
 nagement in an attempt upon Ornn z. He was, 
 however, liberated by the arrival of the marshal 
 of Portugal, with an order from king Emanuel, 
 appointing him general and commander in chief 
 of the Portuguese forces in the East Indies. 
 
 His first attempt, after assuming the com- 
 mand, was, at the instance of the marshal, to 
 reduce Calicut ; but in this he was repulsed with 
 loss, himself receiving much injury from a stone, 
 and the marshal being killed. He next under- 
 took an expedition again t Goa, then belonging 
 to the king of the Decan, and can icd the place 
 by storm, being assisted hv a fleet and army ot 
 the king of Onor. Into this citv he made a tri- 
 umphal entry in Feb. 1510; and he settled its 
 government with all the care so important a con- 
 quest deserved. After he quitted it, howev'cr, it 
 was retaken; and it cost a long war finally to 
 secure it, Goa has ever since been the chief 
 seat of the Portuguese government in the East 
 Indies. 
 
 In 151 1 he sailed with a powerful fleet to 
 Malacca, where he demanded some Portiiguese 
 prisoners taken by the king. Receiving an 
 equivocal answer, he set fire to the place; upon 
 which the prisoners were delivered. But as the 
 s
 
 ALB 
 
 ( 
 
 130 
 
 ) 
 
 ALB 
 
 real Jcsign of Albuquerque was to conquer Ma 
 lacca. lie took care to disagree with the king on 
 the terms of pacification, and in consequence 
 made a serious attack upon it with all his force, 
 and carrying it, gave it up to he pillaged by his 
 soldiers, who obtained immense wealth there. 
 Such was European justice ! He remained about 
 a veui in Mabcca, receiving the friendly em- 
 bassies of the neighbouring Indian princes, and 
 securing his conquest ; and then sailed for the 
 coast ot Malabar, in which passage great part 
 of his fleet was destroyed bv a storm. Tlience 
 proceeding to Goa, he composed all differences 
 tl)at had liappened in his absence; and by his 
 prudence and good conduct, inspired all the coun- 
 try powers with such respect and confidence 
 in him, that tlie Zamorin sent to desire a peace, 
 and to offer the liberty of building a fort at Cali- 
 cut ; and many other princes declared their rea- 
 diness to submit to such terms as he should 
 please to dictate. A squadron which he had 
 detached from Malacca reduced tiie Molucca 
 islands ; and various other advantages were 
 gained in those parts by his lieutenants. 
 
 The thirst after glory still stimulated him to 
 deserve further of his king and country, and he 
 resolved to obtain possession of Ormuz, where 
 he had before been foiled. He appeared suddenly 
 before it with his fleet, and, partly by force, 
 partly by artifice, obtained full possession of that 
 wealthy feat of commerce. Here he received 
 an embassy from tlie shah of Persia, on which 
 occasion he conducted himself with so much ad- 
 dress, as to lay the foundation of a solid friend- 
 ship with that potent monarch, v> honi he meant 
 to unite with the Portuguese in acting against 
 the Turks. For the purpose of injuring this last 
 nation, and aggrandising his own country, he 
 had formed two grand and daring projects. One 
 was to destroy tlie trade of Alexandria into the 
 east by way of the Red Sea, and indeed- to ruin 
 all Egypt, by indtxing the emperor of Abyssi- 
 nia to divert the channel of the Nile into the 
 sea before it reaches Egypt. The other was, to 
 transport a body of horse to Arabia, in order 
 to plunder Mahomet's tomb at Mecca, and 
 thereby put an end to the religious and commer- 
 cial pilgrimages to that place. But these mighty 
 designs were cut short by the death of Albu- 
 querque, which happened soon after his return 
 to Goa, after a short illness, .ii his sixty-third 
 year, Dec. 16, i 515. 
 
 Beside the qualities of a consummate general 
 and able politician, Albuquerque possessed those 
 of a truly great, and, in many respects, a good 
 man. ^ Though not scrupulous, as has been 
 seen, in.the means by which he put his country 
 
 in posession of the rightful property of the na- 
 tives, he governed them, when subjected, w ith 
 great justice and benevolence, and made himself 
 enemies among his countrymen by repressing 
 their insolences and exactions. Many years af- 
 ter his death, the poor Indians testified his me-^ 
 rits towards them by going to his tomb to de- 
 mand justice against their oppressors. With 
 his countrymen he lived in a plain and familiar 
 manner, adhering, in his private mode of liv- 
 ing, to the ancient frugality of his country, 
 treating all his officers as his children, with 
 whom he had every tiling in common, discou- 
 raging all flattery, and so careless of his own 
 fortune, as to die poor amidst all his opportuni- 
 ties for accuinulation. On public occasions, he 
 affected all the magnificence of the representa- 
 tive of a great king ; and, in levying the duess 
 of the crown, he was rigid and exact. He 
 maintained strict discipline, both civil and mili- 
 tary, and punished wilful offences with severity; 
 so that it is not to be wondered at, that persons 
 were found who misrepresented his conduct in 
 such a manner to his sovereign, that he was in^ 
 disgrace at hoine, while so famous and success- 
 ful abroad. The news of the appointment of a 
 successor reached him while on his death-bed, 
 which drew from him a pathetic coinplaint, end- 
 ing with, " To the grave, unhappy old man I it 
 is time thou wert there — to the grave!" He 
 wrote a short letter to the king in favour of his 
 son, a natural child. It concluded, " I say no- 
 thing of the Indies ; they will speak for them- 
 selves and for me." His son, who lived to at- 
 tain sonic of the highest posts in the kingdom of 
 Portugal, published memoirs of his father's ac- 
 tions, printed at Lisbon in 1.576. Alod.Umvers, 
 Hist. Moreri. — h. 
 
 ALBUQUERQUE CCELHO, Edward, 
 marquis of Basto, count of Fernambuco in Bra- 
 zil, and gentleman of the chamber to Philip IV, 
 king of Portugal, was distinguished by his va- 
 loiu' in the Portuguese army against the J3utch 
 at Bahia. He wrote a "Journal of the War," 
 beginning from the year 1630, which was print- 
 ed in 4to. at Madrid in 1654. He died at Ma- 
 drid in 1658. Moreri. — E. 
 
 ALBUTIUS, SiLUS, who was born at No- 
 vara, was, in the reign of Augustus, an orator 
 of some distinction in Rome. He had left his 
 native place, where he was sedile, in conse^ 
 quence of an insult which he had received in the 
 execution of his office : some persons, against 
 whom he had passed sentence, having been so 
 enraged, that they seized his person, and dragged 
 him by the feet from the tribunal. At Rome 
 he formed a friendship with the orator Muna--
 
 ALB 
 
 ( t3» ) 
 
 A L C 
 
 tius Plancus, a disciple of Cicero, but at length 
 became his rival. In attempting to plead causes 
 at the bar, he brought himself into discredit by 
 too free a use of rhetorical figures. In his old 
 age he returned to Novara, where, being trou- 
 bled with an asthma, he grew weary of life, 
 and, after a public harangue, ;n which he jus- 
 tified his determination, he starved himself to 
 death. Sueton. dc clar. Rhetor, c. 6. QitintiL 
 lib. ix. c. 2. Bayle. — E. 
 
 ALBUTIUS, Titus, a Roman philoso- 
 pher, flourished about one hundred and twenty 
 years before Christ. He is ranked by Cicero 
 among the Epicureans. (De Nat. Dcor. lib. i. 
 c. 33.) Having been educated at Athens, lie 
 acquired such a fondness for Grecian manners, 
 that he chose rather to pass for a Greek than a 
 Roman. Scsvola, when prsetor at Athens, to 
 ridicule this folly, saluted him in Greek. Ci- 
 cero (De Finibus, lib. i. c. 3.) quotes some 
 lines from a satire of Lucilius, in which Scaevo- 
 la is humourously introduced as thus addressing 
 Albutius : 
 
 -Grfece ergo prretor Athcnis, 
 
 Id quod maliii-sti, te, cum ad inc accedi', saluto. 
 Xat^e, inquaui, Tile ; lictores, turnia onini', cohorsque, 
 Xa"^£. Hinc iiostis Muti Albutius, hinc iniiuicus. 
 
 When, Titus, as you wisli'd your friends to speak, 
 
 At Alliens I saluted you in Greek, 
 
 When " Chalrt:^ Titus," was my compliment, 
 
 And " Chahe, Titus," thrnugli the circle went, 
 
 'Twas then my sad misfortune to offend, 
 
 And by a harmless jest to lose my friend. 
 
 Scaevola, while he thus amused himself at the 
 expense of his friend, exemplified the lemark of 
 Horace, 
 
 — ^— — ^ dumniodo risum 
 
 Excutiat sibi, non hie cuiquam parcit amico. 
 
 S.\i. t. lib. i. 
 
 It is probable that Scaevola often repeated this 
 kind of provoking raillery: for, according to 
 Cicero, (De Orat. lib. iii. c. 43.) Lucilius in- 
 troduces him as jesting upon Albutius's style, 
 which he compares to inlaid or mosaic work. 
 
 Qiiam lepide Icxcis coniposta*, ut tesserulsc omnes 
 Arte pavimcnto, atquc eniblcniate vcrmiculato. 
 
 How neatly arc hispolish'd words inlaid! 
 Not nicer skill the artist has display'd, 
 Whose patient hatitl, on smooth mosaic ground, 
 figures tlmt live, and speak, lias strew'd around. 
 
 Albutius was appointed propraetor of Sardi- 
 nia, and, while he was in that office, cele- 
 Ibrated a kind of triumph in his province. The 
 ■vanity and arrogance of this measure was pu- 
 
 nished by the senate, who refused him a " sup- 
 plicatio," or public thanksgi\ ing to the gods in 
 honour of his exploits. On his return from Sar- 
 dinia, he was accused before the senate of cor- 
 ruption and peculation in his office, and was sen- 
 tenced to exile. He withdrew to Athens, where 
 he devoted the remainder of his days to the stu- 
 dy of philosophy. Albutius appears to have 
 possessed some talents for oratory, and to have 
 been minutely attentive to the niceties of lan- 
 guage : but we find nothing in his character 
 which entitles him to respect as a statesman, 
 or as a philosopher. He appears, in short, to 
 have been an affected and finical trifler, on whom 
 Cicero deservedly bestowed the sarcastic appel- 
 lation of " Graecus homo." (Cic. in Bruto.) 
 Bayle. — E. 
 
 ALC^US, a famous Greek lyric poet, of 
 Mitylene in the isle of Lesbos, flourished in the 
 forty-fourth Olympiad, about B. C. 600, and 
 was contemporary with Sappho. He is by some 
 accounted the inventor of lyric poetry, as seems 
 to be implied by Horace, in (Ode xxxii. lib. i.) 
 unless it means only that he invented the barbi- 
 ton, or harp. He was a strenuous asscrior of 
 the liberty of his country against Pittacus, who 
 usurped the dominion ; and he took up arms in 
 its defence ; though with little success, for he 
 himself acknowledges that he left them behind 
 him in his flight from a battle in which the Les- 
 bians were defeated by the Athenians. Pittacus 
 made him prisoner, but dismissed him unhurt. 
 He was however exiled, and appears to have 
 been at the head of a party who were expelled 
 on a change of government. Whether he pre- 
 vailed in the end, or whether he was at length 
 put to death by Pittacus, appears uncertain. 
 From some hints in Horace, we may conclude 
 that he became a corsair. 
 
 The subjects of his lyrics, as we learn from 
 Horace, were as well amatory and bacchana- 
 lian as grave and political ; but he seems chiefly 
 to have been characterised by the last. Tlnis^ 
 Horace calls his muse minax, or the thrcatcitiiig-^ 
 and he contrasts his verses with those of Sap- 
 pho, in some fine lines which give the most di- 
 stinct idea now to be had of tlie merits ol this 
 illustrious bard. 
 
 Et te sonantem plenius aurcr>, 
 AU-.dse^ plectro, dura navis, 
 Dura fuga- mala, dura belli. 
 Ulrum'iuc sacro digna sileiilio 
 Miraiitur umbra- diccrc : sed niagis 
 Pu^iKis ct exactos tyrannos 
 Dcnsura humerisbibit Rurc \u!i;ns. 
 
 Od. 13. lib, ii, 
 
 Alcrrus strikes tlie golden strings, 
 Aud se.is, iXii, war, and exile sings :
 
 A L C 
 
 13a 
 
 ) 
 
 A L C 
 
 Thds while lliry »lrikc the varioiu I\ re, 
 The i;hu>t-> tlic sacred souiuls admiri:; 
 Kut when Ale»us lifts Ihe strain 
 To dticds ol* M-ar and tyrants slain, 
 In ll.ickcr crowds the sliaduwy throng 
 Drink deeper duwu the martial sung. 
 
 Fr AN'CIS. 
 
 some smuU fracrinents of his poems 
 
 ' - Al- 
 
 Only 
 are now extant. A lyric measure, the ^ 
 ca'ic." is denominated fiom him, Vossiiis, 
 Foet. Giac. Boyle — A. 
 
 ALCASAR, Lewis, a learned theologian, 
 vas boni at Seville in the year I554- ^^ '^"' 
 tercd, with large possessions, among the Jesuits. 
 He taiiglit philosophy and divinity at Corduba 
 and Seville. His studies seem to have been al- 
 most wholly devoted to the arduous task of im- 
 folding the mysteries of the Book of Revelation. 
 He is said to have employed nearly twenty years 
 in preparing a work upon this subject, entitled, 
 "Vestigatio arcani Sensus in Apocalypsi." [An 
 Investigation of the hidden Meaning of tlie 
 Apocalypse] It was first printed at Antwerp in 
 1604, and afterwards reprinted at the same 
 place in 161 1, and 1614, and at Lyons in 
 1 61 6. It has been thought one of the best per- 
 formances on this difficult subject among the Ro- 
 man catholics ; yet one of his encomiasts, who 
 speaks of it as an ingenious and elaborate work, 
 adds, " Sharp and strong as his arrow may be, 
 who will answer for him that he has hit the 
 mark r" It has been intimated that Grotius bor- 
 rowed many ideas from diis work. In conti 
 nuation of his inquiries, he wrote a commen- 
 tary on such parts of the Old Testament as he 
 judged to have any relation to the Apocalypse. 
 The whole work, including an appendix " On 
 sacred Weights and Measures," and another, 
 " On bad Physicians," forins two volumes in 
 folio. Alcasardied at Seville in the year 1613. 
 His " Key to the Apocalypse" has been examin- 
 ed by Heidegger, in his " Mysterium Babylonis 
 magna;." Bayle. — E. 
 
 ALCHABITIUS, an Arabian astrologer, 
 the date of whose lite is not known, wrote an 
 introduction to the knowledge of the celestial 
 influences, entitled, " Isagoge ad Magistcrium 
 Judiciorum Astrorum ;" " A Treatise on the 
 Conjunction of the Planets ;" andanodier " On 
 Optics." His astrological works were printed 
 at Venice in 149 1, with explanations, by John 
 of Seville; and, in 1521, with the corrections 
 of Antony de Fantis. Bayle. — E. 
 
 ALCIATI, Andrew, of Milan, an eminent 
 civilian, was born in the year 1492. Having 
 studied the civil law under Jason, in the univer- 
 sity of Pavia, and under Ruini in that of Bolo- 
 gna, and takjen his degree as doctor, he entered 
 
 upon the practice of his profession at Milan \\\ 
 1517. His early reputation for knowledge of 
 the law procured him an invitation from tlic 
 university of Avignon to the professorship of ci- 
 vil law : and it ajipears from letters of Alciati, 
 published at Utiecht, that he entered upon 
 this professorsliip in the year 15 18, when he 
 was only twenty-six years of age. His salary 
 in that year amounted to live hundred crowns, 
 and he had seven hundred auditors : two years 
 afterwards his salary was increased to six hun- 
 dred crowns, and he had upwards of eight hun- 
 dred auditors, among whom were some prelates, 
 abbots, and counts. A contagious distemper 
 having brought debts upon die city of Avignon, 
 which occasioned a failure in the punctual pay- 
 ment of his stipend, he, in 1522, withdrew in 
 displeasure from that place, and returned to Mi- 
 lan, where he exercised his profession at the bar. 
 That Alciati was incited to this removal by a 
 sordid love of wealth, may be inferred from the 
 mean expedierrt which he made use of to obtain 
 an advance of his salary during his residence at 
 Avignon. From his own letters it appears, 
 that \%'hen he had been there about two years, 
 he employed one of his friends to obtain for him 
 an invitation from Bologna or Padua, not with 
 an intention of accepting the offer, but in hopes- 
 of increasing his income in his present situation. 
 " Not that I would remove," says he, in a letter 
 to a friend, " to either of these academies, but 
 because the people of Avignon, when they find 
 that I am solicited by others, will be afraid lest 
 I should leave them, and will augment my sti- 
 pend." We shall immediately see him playing 
 off the same artifice in another situation. 
 
 The king of France, Francis I. having been 
 informed of the high reputation with which 
 Alciati had filled the professorial chair at Avi- 
 gnon, invited him, in 1529, to Bourges, as a 
 proper person to promote the study of the ci- 
 vil" law in that university. After the first year, 
 either from his great popularity, or, more pro- 
 bably, by some mean expedient, his salary, at 
 first six hundred crowns, was doubled. His 
 inconstant humour, or rather his avaricious tem- 
 per, would not suffer him to remain long in any 
 situation. At the expiration of five years, in 
 1533, he received from Francis Sforza, duke of 
 Milan, an invitation to return to his native coun- 
 try, accompanied with a promise of a large sa- 
 lary, and senatorial honours. There can be 
 little doubt that this offer was stimulated by the 
 crafty management of Alciati. In a Latin let- 
 ter of Bembo to Alciati, July 15th, 1532, ha 
 importunes him to coine and take possession of 
 the professorship, which the republic of Venice
 
 L.y£nareas prt/co ^'eddxi Jua jura nitorj j 
 
 Conjidtostjue facit dodiius inde loauj .(^J « .
 
 A L C 
 
 ( ^53 ) 
 
 A L C 
 
 BaJofFereJ him in the university of Padua, and, 
 to remove the objection, which kept him in sus- 
 pencc concerning the species of crowns in wliich 
 his stipcivl was to be paid, assures him, tliat if 
 he come, he shall in a very little time receive all 
 tlie money he desires, with other advantages. 
 Afterwards, in April 1534, when our professor 
 had left Bourges and was at Pavia, Bembo 
 wrote to him, saving, that the ctirators of tlie 
 university of Padua were not satisfied with his 
 excuses, and that they were persuaded that 
 he had solicited the professorsliiji of civil law 
 among them, only m order to excite the duke 
 of Alilan to offer him a larger salary. It was 
 probably owing to this pilifid thirst of gain that 
 Alciati was restless and dis.atisfied in every 
 situation. Pavia, Bologna, and Fcrrara, in ra- 
 pid succession, enjoyed the benefit of his in- 
 structions, and lamented tlie loss of them. 
 Though he was in every place attended by nu- 
 merous scholars and clients, and. received ample 
 recompense for his labours, no place could de- 
 tain him longer than four years. When his 
 friends censured his frequent changes, he had 
 the vanity to ask, whether they blamed the sun 
 for going round to enlighten all nations ; or 
 whether, when thxy admired tlie fixed stars, 
 they found fault with the planets ? This, how- 
 ever, was only a flourish of oratory ; for, what- 
 ever gratification he might derive from the proud 
 idea of being a revolving luminary in the world 
 of letters, the ruling passion of his heart was 
 avarice. Of this he gave ample proof, when 
 at Ferrara. Pope Paul III. invited him to Rome 
 ■with the flattering promise of future honours ; 
 but he preferred the solid advantages of his profes- 
 sion to the flattering hope of a cardinal's robe. 
 " Why," said he in a letter to a friend, " should 
 I, for the empty and uncertain hope of the 
 purple, relinquish the honours of my profes- 
 sion, accompanied as they are with the secure 
 enjoyment of a rich stipend?" — From Ferrara 
 Alciati returned to Pavia, where the luminary, 
 having completed its revolution, stopped its 
 course and disappeared. He died in the year 
 1550 of a surfeit, as it is said, from over-eat- 
 ing. Alciati appears to have possessed bril- 
 liant talents, but their lustre was tarnished by 
 those sure indications of a litde mind, vanity, 
 fickleness, and meanness. He contributed es- 
 sentially to the improvement of his profession 
 by mixing a taste for polite literature with the 
 study of the law, and by bringing into discredit 
 that barbarous latinity, which, till that time, 
 had prevailed in the lectures and writings of the 
 civilians. Erasmus bestows upon Alciati this 
 high encomium : " The praise which Cicero 
 
 divides between Scxvola and Cvassus, when h? 
 calls the latter the orator -best skilled in law ; 
 and the former the lawyer who was most elo- 
 quent, is, by the consent of the learned, united 
 in Alciati." (Erasm Ciceronian.) Posterity is 
 indebted to him for some valuable works. His 
 first essay was, " An Explication and Correc- 
 tion of the Greek Terms which are met with 
 in the Digests." It was first published in Italy, 
 and afterwards at Strasburg, in 15 15. His next 
 works were, " Paradoxes of the Civil Law ;" 
 *' Dispunctiones et Prstermissa," published 
 about the year 15 17. A book of Akiati, " Dc 
 Verborum Sigulhcatione," was printed at Bour- 
 ges in 1529. These, with manv other works 
 on jurisprudence, were published in 157 1, in six 
 volumes folio. Besides these, this author wrote 
 notes on Tacitus, whose language he thought 
 harsh, and of whom he said, that in his writ- 
 ings energy of style contends with elegance. He 
 also wrote " Emblems," in verse; a perform- 
 ance which ranks this lawyer among the poets, 
 and upon which the elder Scaliger, who was 
 not lavish of praise, bestows the following en- 
 comium : " They are entertaining, chaste, and 
 elegant, and not without strength ; the senti- 
 ments are such as may be useful even in civil 
 life." They were published at Augsburg, in 
 8vo. in 1531, and afterwards at Padua, in 4to, 
 with notes, in 1661. They have been trans- 
 lated into various languages. Odier works of 
 Alciati, not included in the folio edition, are, 
 '* Responsa," Lugd. 1561; "Historia Medio- 
 lanensis," 8vo. 1025 ; " De Forma Romani 
 Imperii," 8vo. 1559 ; " Epigrammata," 8vo. 
 1629. A volume of the letters of this civilian 
 was published at Utrecht in 1697 : and at Ley- 
 den, in 1695, appeared a letter which he wrote 
 to a friend who had turned friar, representing 
 the imprudence of his conduct, and exposing, 
 with great spirit, the abuses of monastic life. 
 Hank, de Script. Rom. p. i. c. 52. ii. 52. Mi- 
 710S. Fit. And. Alc'iat. Bayle. Nouv. Diet. 
 Hist. — E. 
 
 ALCIATI, John Paul, a native of Mi- 
 lan, in the sixteenth century, distinguished liim- 
 self among that class of protestants who receded 
 the fartliest from the catholic faith, by denying 
 the doctrine of the Trinity, and maintaining, 
 that Jesus Christ did not exist before he w-as 
 born of Mary. In hopes of being permitted to 
 pursue his inquiries, and profess his opinions ■ 
 freely in a protestant city, Alciati, accompanied 
 by Blandrata, a physician, Grii)aud, an advo- 
 vocate, Gentilis, and others, removed to Gene- 
 va. They soon, however, found protestants not 
 less intolerant tlian papists. Calviu'a persccu^
 
 A L C 
 
 ( 13+ ) 
 
 A L C 
 
 tion of Scrvetns, tlic severe proceedings against 
 Gcntilis, and tlie demnnd wlvich was ra^uie of 
 subscription to the formularv of the Irahan 
 church at Geneva, induced tlicse Socinians — so 
 •called from the Socini of Italy, wlio led tlic way 
 in this recession from the catholic chuich — to 
 seek refuge in some other country. Tlicy fled 
 to Poland ; and A'.ciati and Blandrata were very 
 successful in disseminating their ojiinions in that 
 country. Akiati is reproached with having to- 
 ■\vards the close of his life abandoned Chris- 
 tianity, and become a Mahometan ; but there 
 is little room to doubt, that tirls was a calumny 
 Aviiich arose, as the same reproach has since 
 arisen ac;ainst others of the same sect, from a 
 ■notion, tiiat to oppose the Trinitarian doctrine, 
 and deny the pre-existence of Christ, was in ef- 
 fect to turn RIahometan ; the fundamental te- 
 net of the musulman faith being the simple uni- 
 ty of the divine nature. Calvin, who indulged 
 the most deadly hatred against the Socinians, 
 speaks of Akiati as a " man not only foolish and 
 ignorant, but frantic even to rage ;" and Beza 
 calls him a " giddy, frantic man ;" (Calvin. 
 adv. Valent. Gent. Tract. Theol. p. 659.) 
 Nothing, however, appears to support these 
 charges ; and we know, by long experience, 
 that calumny is the natural offspring of bigotry. 
 John Paul Alciati, towards the close of his life, 
 settled in Dantzic, where he died. He published 
 *' Lettres to Gregorio Pauli," in 1564, against 
 the pre-existence of Christ. Hist, de Geneve, 
 par Spoil. Bayk. Hist. Lit. de Geneve, par 
 Senebier. — E. 
 
 ALCIBIADES, son of Clinias, an Athe- 
 nian, was one of the most splendid and remark- 
 able characters of the age in which he lived — 
 the golden age of Greece! Nobly born, rich, 
 handsome, vigorous, endowed with an excellent 
 •understanding, and every quality tliat could in- 
 spire love and esteem, he wanted only principle 
 and steadiness to render him a truly great man. 
 He early displayed the ruling passion of his life, 
 that of surpassing otheis, and accomplishing 
 every thing on w hich he set his mind. One ad- 
 venture in hiscliildhood is very characteristic of 
 his temper. Being at play with otlier boys in 
 the street, it was his turn to throw something 
 across the way. A loaded waggon coming up 
 at the instant, he called on tiie driver to stop for 
 him. The driver, regardless of his request, 
 ■whipped on his horses, and the other boys clear- 
 ■cd the road; but Alci blades threw himself on 
 the ground directly before the waggon, and bade 
 the man drive on \i he thought -fit. This reso- 
 lution caused the waggoner, in a fright, imme- 
 <liately to stop his horjes. Such a child could 
 
 not turn out a coinmon youth. He soon exhi- 
 bited strong passions, irregularily of conduct, 
 and a strange mixture of levity and seriousness. 
 His beauty rendered him a very general object 
 of tliat love, which appears sometimes to have 
 been a pure, sometimes an ambiguous, some- 
 times a scandalous attachment among the Greeks. 
 It was ills fortune to excite the virtuous affec- 
 tion of Socrates ; and that philosopher took un- 
 coiiiinon pains'to correct all that was wrong in 
 hi:n, and train him to honourable pursuits and 
 just principles ; and though he was not entirely- 
 successful, his pupil seems never totally to have 
 lost the benefit of his instructions. 
 
 Several anecdotes of his youth display the vi- 
 vacity of his temper and his understanding. 
 Going one day into a grarnmar-school, he asked 
 for a voluine of Homer ; and the master an- 
 swering him that he had none, Alcibiades gave 
 him a box on the ear and walked out; by which 
 action he meant to imply, that the person who 
 was not conversant with Horner, was unfit to 
 superintend the education of youth. He once 
 called at tiie house of Pericles, his relation and 
 guardian, in order to speak to him ; and, being 
 told that Pericles was busy in studying the ac- 
 counts he was to lay before the people, " He 
 had better (said Alcibiades) study how to avoid 
 giving tliem any account at all." One day, in 
 a mere frolic, and in consequence of a promise 
 to his companions, he gave a box on the ear to 
 Hipponicus, a respectable man of jank and for- 
 tune. This act of insolence was talked of 
 through the city, and various expectations pre- 
 vailed of the event. Early next morning Alci- 
 biades went to the house of Hipponicus, and, 
 being admitted into his presence, stript himself, 
 and oftered his naked l)ody to be chastised as he 
 pleased. This humiliation disarmed the resent- 
 ment and engaged the esteem of Hipponicus, 
 so that some time after hegave him his daughter 
 Hipparcte in marriage. 
 
 Alcibiades freely joined in all the pleasures 
 and amusements of youth, both of the licentious 
 and more allowable kinds. He was addicted to 
 illicit amours, and to all the debaucheries com- 
 mon in companies of the gay and profligate. 
 He was fond of fine horses and chariot-races ; 
 and, as he could pursue nothing with modera- 
 tion, he is recorded as the first person who ever 
 sent seven chariots at one time to the Olympic 
 games. The prizes he won, and the magnifi- 
 cence he exhibited in these spectacles, rendered 
 him extremely popular among the states of 
 Greece ; and three of them thought it an honour 
 to join in bearing his expenses at the public 
 shows*. In Athens he occupied a large share of
 
 ^Wa/^uuce^ . 
 
 ^. S<^^ e/e/.eif^^c»A :
 
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 ( 
 
 ^35 
 
 ) 
 
 A L C 
 
 the jUscourse of the citizens ; ami a story is 
 told of his cutting off tlie tail of a beautiful aog, 
 which lie much valued, puiposelv to find them 
 something to wonder at, and divert them from 
 prying too closely into the more serious parts of 
 his conduct. He early engaged in the military 
 service of his country, and made a campaign in 
 tlie war which Athens carried on against Po- 
 tidasa, where Socrates was his constant compa- 
 nion, and lodged in the same teiu witli him. At 
 the principal battle, Alcibiades, after fighting 
 valiantly, iell wounded on the field, and was 
 indebted to Socrates for the preservation of his 
 life. This obligation he repaid some years af- 
 terwards at the battle of Delium, when in the 
 retreat he covered Socrates, who was on foot, 
 and brought him oft' safe. 
 
 Tlie career of his ambition opened while he 
 was yet running that ot pleasure. It was im- 
 possible, indeed, in a constitution like that of 
 Athens, that any youth of spirit and genius 
 should not engage in public life. Alcibiades had 
 rendered hiniself a great master of eloquence ; 
 and the natural quickness of his parts readily 
 suggested those artifices by which a popular 
 state is managed. The Athenians and Spartans, 
 after some years of severe warfare, had made a 
 peace ; and Nicias, the leading man at Athens, 
 who had been the author of it, was strenuous in 
 preventing any new causes of disputes. If was 
 the plan of Alcibiades to overturn his influence 
 and the system that supported it. He began by 
 promoting a league with Argos and some other 
 states, the consequences of which greatly em- 
 broiled the affairs of Greece, and widened the 
 breach between the Lacedemonian and Athenian 
 parties. He had the command of a fleet de- 
 stined to assist the Arglves, and to put an end to 
 the frequent changes of politics which had hap- 
 pened in their capital ; and though the tv/o lead- 
 ing nations did not openly declare war, they 
 committed mutual hostilities as allies to the con- 
 tending powers. The misanthrope, Timon, 
 well foresaw the event of the influence acquired 
 by this young and daring politician ; and, on 
 beholding him one day conducted by the people 
 with great honour from the place of assembly, 
 where he had carried a motion, he shook him 
 by the hand and cried, " Go on and prosper, 
 my brave boy ; for your success will prcve the 
 destruction of all this mob at your heels." 
 
 The Athenians had long cast an eye of desire 
 upon Sicily, and had several times interfered in 
 its internal quarrels, for the purpose of gaining 
 a footing in the ifl md. Alcibiades inflamed 
 this popular passion to such a degree, that a 
 powerful armament was voted against Syracuse, 
 
 and he himself, together with Nicias and Lams'* 
 chus, were appointed joint commanders, — Ni- 
 cias, much against his inclination. As prepara- 
 tions were making for the expedition, an inci ■ 
 dent happened which threw the city into confu- 
 sion, and was very momentous to the fortune of 
 Alcibiades. On one night almost all the Hermae, 
 or half-statues of Mercury, which were very 
 numerous in Athens, were defaced and muti- 
 lated. This action, which was probably nothing 
 more than a mischievous frolic, gave occasion to 
 a variety of suspicions concerning plots and con- 
 spiracies in themindi of the people ; and a strict 
 inquisition being made into every circumstance 
 of the like nature, information was given that 
 Alcibiades and some of his dissolute companions, 
 in their revels, liad defaced other statues, and had 
 mimicked some of the sacred mysteries. A ca- 
 pital charge of impiety was thereupon made 
 against Alcibiades ; but through apprehension 
 of the army, wliichwas greatly attached to him, 
 his enemies would not brin"' it to a trial before 
 his departure. He had not, however, been long 
 in Sicily, when a vessel was dispatched from 
 Athens to bring him back. He accompanied 
 the messengers without reluctance as far as 
 Thurii, where, going on shore, he concealed 
 himself, and afterwards withdrew to Peloponne- 
 sus. On his non-appearance he was condemned, 
 his property confiscated, and all the priests and 
 priestesses pronounced a solemn execration 
 against him, except "I'heano ; who made this 
 memorable excuse, " that she was a priestess 
 for prayer, not for cursing." 
 
 Alcibiades, now throwing ofF all regard for 
 his country, had recourse to the Spartans, by 
 whom he was well received, and whom he in- 
 fluenced to send succours to the Syracusans, 
 and to declare war against Athens. During 
 his abode at Sparta, he gave proof of his force 
 of mind and wonderful versatility of manners, 
 by adopting in its utmost rigour the Lacedemo- 
 nian discipline, and surpassing the natives them- 
 selves in the qualities they most admired. He 
 cut his hair short, bathed in cold water, fed 
 upon coarse bread and black broth, and affected 
 simplicity and gravity of demeanour. Mean- 
 time he urged the war against his countrymen 
 with all possible inveteracy ; and passing over 
 into Ionia, induced several of the cities there to 
 revolt from the Athenians ; and engaged Tissa- 
 phernes, the gr-eat king of Persia's lieutenant, in 
 a league with the Spartans. A relic, however,, 
 of his former manners was near effecting his 
 ruin. He engaged in an intrigue with the wife 
 of the Spartan king Agis ; rather, as he himself 
 confessed, through the vanity of giving a future
 
 A L C 
 
 { 
 
 136 
 
 ) 
 
 A L C 
 
 line of kings to the Lacedemonians, than from 
 sensual motives. This was discovered, ami 
 rendered Agis 1\is implacahlc enemy. Many 
 otliers of ihe principal men in Sparta, too, were 
 envious of the ascendency he had gained in tlicir 
 city. In conse«iuence, orders were sent to their 
 general in Ionia to procure the death of Alci- 
 hiades; but, having gained some intelligence of 
 his danger, he -took refuge with Tissapherncs. 
 In this situation, by practising the aits ot deli- 
 cate riattery, and conforming to all the elTcmi- 
 iiate and luxurious manners of the Persians, he 
 so ingratiated himself with the satrap, that no- 
 thing was done without his advice. By his coun- 
 sel, 'rissaphernes held an even balance between 
 the Athenians and Lacedemonians ; and at length 
 he was anful enough to make the friendship ot 
 ihc Persians an instrument of his own return to 
 Athens. 
 
 After a variety of intrigues at Athens, in 
 •which the constitution was changed from a de- 
 mocracy to an oligarchy, the Athenian army at 
 Samos, attaclied to dcmocracv, sent for A.lci- 
 fciades, and constitutedhim their commander-in- 
 chief, with full power. This he exercised with 
 «o much prudence, and so dexterously applied 
 Ws influence with Tissapherncs to his own pur- 
 poses, that he overthrew the new government at 
 Athens, and procured his public recal. He 
 would not return, however, till he had made 
 himself more welcome by his service';. In con- 
 junction with the other Athenian commanders, 
 Theramcnes and Thrasybuhis, he took several 
 places, and gained victories over the Spartans 
 ■and their allies ; of which the most remarkable 
 ■was a double victory by land and sea, in one 
 <lav, near Cyzicum, which gave a mortal blow 
 to the Spartan power in those parts. The cap- 
 ture of Selybria, Byzantium, and various other 
 towns on the Hellespont, followed. The year 
 after these events, Alcibiades set sail for Athens 
 with a fleet of two hundred ships laden with rich 
 spoils, and bringing in triumph the ships and flags 
 captured from the enemy. As he landed at the 
 Piraum, all Athens ran to meet him. He alone 
 was the object of all eyes and tongues. The old 
 pointed him out to the young; shouts of joy ac- 
 ■companied him ; garlands of flowers w€re heap- 
 ed upon him ; and tears of sensibility were min- 
 gled widi the general rapture. A full assembly 
 being convoked, Alcibiades, in an eloquent and 
 pathetic speech, bewailed his past misfortunes, 
 and imputed them rather to his evil genius than 
 the ill-will of his countryinen ; and he so pleased 
 the people, that thev presented him with crowns 
 of gold, declared him absolute commander of 
 the forces by sea and land, and ordered him to be 
 
 solemnly liberated from all the execrations that 
 had been denounced against him. Their confi- 
 dence in him exceeded all bound-, and raised ex- 
 pectations which it was impossible to realise. 
 
 Soon after, he sailed on an expedition with a 
 fleet of a hundred ships, much to the satisfac- 
 tion of the principal citizens, who were conti- 
 nually appreliensive lest the people, in the mad- 
 ness of their zeal, siiould confer upon him the so- 
 vereignty of die state. He proceeded to the isle of 
 Andros, and gained a victory over the Andrians, 
 wliich, however, was followed by no important 
 consequences ; and thinking it necessary after- 
 wards to go in person into Caria to raise mo- 
 ney, he left the fleet in the charge of Antiochus, 
 a commander appointed by himself, with orders 
 bv no means to hazard an engagement. But 
 Lysander, the Spartan commander, by superior 
 skill, brought on a battle, in which the Athe- 
 nian fleet was entirely defeated, and Antiochus 
 slain. And though Alcibiades on his return 
 regained the superiority by sea, such discontents 
 arose at Athens, fomented by his enemies, and 
 aggravated by his own imprudence, that the 
 people stripped him of his command. 
 
 Alcibiades did not choose to return to Athens ; 
 for it was his maxim rather to escape an accusa- 
 tion than defend himself against it. On a former 
 occasion he once said, " I would not trust iny 
 own motlier with voting for my life, lest she 
 should mistake a black bean for a white one ;" 
 alluding to the Athenian manner of giving votes 
 by beans of different colours. He therefore col- 
 lected a band of soldiers of fortune, with whom 
 he made war upon some of the Thracian tribes, 
 and enriched himself by the booty he took. He 
 also defended some of the Greek colonies in 
 Thrace against the natives. He thus avoided 
 the fate of the ten new commanders the Athe- 
 nians had appointed, most of whom they put to 
 death on accolint of ill success. While in 
 Thrace, he gave a laudable instance of remain- 
 ing attachment to his country, by warning the 
 Athenian cominanders of the danger to which 
 their fleet was exposed while lying at ^gos- 
 Potamos ; but his advice was received with con- 
 tempt, though the fatal event which followed 
 justified its prudence. 
 
 Adiens being soon after taken by Lysander, 
 and the Lacedemonian interest triumphant by 
 sea and land, Alcibiades thought proper to retire 
 to Bithynia with as much of his property as he 
 could carry with him. Being here plundered of 
 great part of it, he resolved to seek the protec- 
 tion of Pharnabazus, the Persian governor of 
 Phrygia ; and, going to him, he was respect.' 
 fully received. Meantime the suiFerings of tlic
 
 A L C 
 
 ( 137 ) 
 
 A L C 
 
 Athenians under tlie thirty t^Tants imposed upon 
 rhem by Lysander, caused tliein to cast a long- 
 ing look towards their former favourite Aici- 
 biades ; which being known to the tyrants 
 themselves, Critias, one of the number, formerly 
 the most intimate friend of Alcibiadcs, repre- 
 sented to Lysander that his death was necessary 
 to the perfect security of the new government. 
 Lysander was unwilling to engage in an act of 
 treachery: but orders arriving from Sparta for 
 the execution of the project, he wrote to Phar- 
 nahazus to obtain his concurrence, who com- 
 mitted the management of the business to his 
 own brotlier and uncle. Alcibiades at that 
 time resided at a village in Phrygia, with his 
 mistress Timandra. The assassins sent to di- 
 spatch him suiToundcd his house by night, and 
 set it on fire. He threw out a quantity of 
 clothes to damp the flame, and then, \\ rapping 
 his robe about his left hand, and taking in his 
 right the dagger of an Arcadian friend who was 
 his guest (his own s\\ord having been removed), 
 he rushed forth, and safely passed the fire. The 
 murderers did not dare to stand in his road, but 
 killed him by pouring in darts from a distance. 
 Timandra, when they \verc gone, wrapt the 
 body in her own garments, and buried it in a 
 town named Melissa, where the emperor Adrian 
 long afterwards caused a marble statue to be 
 erected to his memory, and a bull to be annually 
 sacrificed on his tomb. His death happened 
 about the fortieth year of his age, B. C. 403. 
 
 The life of this extraordinary man has been 
 ■written bv Plutarch and Corn. Nepos, from 
 whose narrations, and those of Thucydides, 
 Diodorus, Xenophon, and the other writers on 
 the affairs of Greece at that time, the preceding 
 iicconnt is compiled. — A. 
 
 ALCIDAMAS, a Greek rhetorician, a dis- 
 cii->le of Gorgias Leontinus, and contemporary 
 with Isocrates, a native of E!a;a in /Eolia, lived 
 about four hundred years before Christ. Two 
 orations are still extant which bear his name ; 
 the first, " Ulyssis contra Palamedem," puh- 
 li'-hed by Aldus in his edition u( the Orations 
 of ./Eschines, Lvsias, &c. printed in folio at ^'^e- 
 nice, in 1513, and afterwards by H. Stepliens, 
 with the same orators, in 1577 ; the second, 
 " Contra Sophistas," annexed to Aldus's edition 
 of Isocrates, printed in folio at Venice in 1518. 
 Cicero mentions Alcidamas as the author of a 
 treatise in ])raise of death. Fabric. Btbl, Gi ac. 
 lib. ii. c. 26. § 5. not. — E. 
 
 ALCIMUS, surnamed J.ackim, a Jewish 
 high-priest, entered on his ofEce about the 163d 
 year before Christ. He owed liis dignity to the 
 arms of Antipchus Eupator, king of Syria. To 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 secure the favour of Eupator's successor, De- 
 metrius Soter, he accused the whole nation of 
 re\olt, and especially Judas Maccabacus, and his 
 brothers. Demetrius, upon tliis, took Alcimus 
 under his protection, and sent Bacchides with 
 forces to establisli him in his office. Alcimus 
 rendered himelf an object of terror to his coun- 
 trymen by Ills rapine and cruelty. He was still, 
 however, supported by Demetrius, and, with a 
 numerous army under Bacchides, he arrived at 
 Jerusalem, where he committed depredations 
 upon the temple. He died of a palsy after hav- 
 ing possessed his die;nitv two years. Alaccab. 
 vii. &:c. yoscphl Antlq. lib. \ii. c. 9. 10. — E. 
 
 ALCINOUS, a personage recorded by Ho- 
 mer only, but probably from real tradition, is re- 
 presented as king of the P!ia?aciuns, in the island 
 now called Corfu. His father's name was Nau- 
 sithous, and his wife was Arete, the daughter of 
 his brother Rhexenor. He had five sons, and a 
 daughter named Nausicaa, whose character and 
 adventure w iih Ulysses forms one of the most 
 pleasing pictures of nature and simplicity in th.e 
 works of Homer. Alcinous received the ship- 
 wrecked Ulysses with great hospitality, and fit- 
 ted out a vessel to convey him to Ithaca. His 
 subjects were excellent mariners, and much ad- 
 dicted to the dance and song, and social pleasures 
 of all kinds. There is nothing which has made 
 this petty prince more celebrated than his taste 
 for horticulture. His garden, or rather orchard, 
 is very pleasingly de^crlbed by Homer, Vvho 
 dwells chiefly on its plenty and quick succession 
 of fruit, and its copious streams and pleasant 
 shade. Homer, Ocfyss. — A. 
 
 ALCINOUS, a Platonic philo.sopher, who 
 probably lived about the beginning of the second 
 century, wrote an " Introduction to the Philoso- 
 phy of Plato," containing a good sinnmary of 
 his doctrine: it was translated by I'icinus into 
 Latin. It was published by Aldus in Greek, 
 8vo. at Venice, in 1521, and in 1532 ; with Fi- 
 cinus's translation at Basil, 1532; at Paris, in 
 4to. 1562 ; and by Charpentier, \\ith a com- 
 mentary, in 1573. Heinsius published an edi- 
 tion of this woi'k, annexed to liis Maximus Ty- 
 rius, at Leyden, 8vo. 1607, wliich was reprint- 
 ed separately at Oxford, in 1667. It has been 
 translated into Englisli by Stanley. Fabric. Bibl. 
 Qrac. lib. iv. c. 23. § 13. — E. 
 
 ALCIONIO, Peter, (in Latin, Alcyoni- 
 us) a learned Italian, contributed to the revival 
 of letters in the sixteenth century. He studied the 
 Greek and Roman languages with great dili- 
 gence, and was for many years corrector of the 
 press of Aldus Manutius at Venice, whence is- 
 sued somany valuableeditions of ancient authors. 
 
 T
 
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 ( 13S ) 
 
 A L C 
 
 His learning at length raiscJhim to the Iji^her sta- 
 tion of a profissoiship at Florence, which he oh- 
 taincd under the poniititate of Adrian VI. Be- 
 sides hi. pension, lie received from cardinal de' 
 Medici ten ducats a month for translating a work 
 of Galen. He translated many Greek works into 
 Latin ; hut concerning the merit of his transla- 
 tions very different opinions have been enter- 
 tained. Sepulvcda, a learned Spaniard, criticised 
 his translations of Aristotle with so nnicli seve- 
 rity, and at the same time with so much ap- 
 plause, that Alcyonius thought it necessary to 
 buy up as many copies as possible of his adver- 
 sary's work and destroy them. Other writers 
 bestow higli commendation on his translations. 
 Nolanus, an able pliysician, in a letter to Eras- 
 mus, (Erasm. Epist. lib. x. ep. 28.) written in 
 15 1 8, relates, that when various candidates of- 
 fered themselves to succeed Musurus as professor 
 of the Greek language, Alcyonius distinguished 
 himself among the more elegant translators. 
 " He rendered many things from the Greek 
 into the Roman tongue with the utmost ele- 
 gance; he expressed several of the orations of 
 Isocrates and Demosthenes with so much arpi- 
 tiity, that you would have even imagined you 
 was reading Cicero himself. So fairly did he 
 translate many of Aristotle's pieces, tliat Latium 
 might say, we have an Aristotle of our own." 
 If diis panegyric be carried too far, some litera- 
 ry merit must, at least, be allowed to a writer, 
 who published a piece on exile, which contained 
 so many fine passages, that a rumour was cir- 
 culated of his liaviug inserted in it several parts 
 of a treatise of Cicero, " De Gloria," which he 
 had had the good fortune to recover in the li- 
 brary of a monastery, and which he had after- 
 wards the dishonesty to destroy ; and who was 
 afterwards able, in a great measure, to remove 
 the suspicions which had been raised against 
 him, by publishing two fine orations on the 
 taking of Roine by Charles V. Other original 
 productions showed him to be a man of talents. 
 Little, however, can be said in praise of his dis- 
 position and manners ; the former was strong- 
 ly marked with ill-hulnour and ingratitude, as 
 the latter is said to have been with gross intein- 
 perance. He had too much vanity to consult 
 his friends concerning his own works, and was 
 perpetually detracting from the merit of other 
 writers ; he slighted his best friends and forgot 
 their kindnesses. If we may credit Paul Jovius, 
 to whom, it must be confessed, Alcyonius was a 
 successful rival, he was so mean, and so much 
 devoted to gluttony, that he would dine more than 
 once the same day at the expense of others. 
 When cardinal dc' Wedici was elected pope, he 
 
 went to Rome in iiopcs of preferment, but was 
 disappointed. In the troubles which tlie Co- 
 loimas excited in Rome, he lost his estate. 
 When the etnperor's forces, in the year 1527, 
 took tlie city, he received a wound as he was 
 forcing his w^ay into the castle of St. Angelo, 
 where lie joined the pope ; yet afterwards, uptm 
 the raising of the siege, he had the base ingrati- 
 tude to leave his patron, and pass over to cardi- 
 nal Poinpey Colonna, at whose house he fell 
 sick, and a few months afterwards died. If his 
 learning entitled him to praise, the account is 
 balanced by the censure which is due to his 
 faidts. His piece on exile, and his orations on 
 the taking of Rome, and on the knights wiio 
 died at the siege of Rhodes, are all the original 
 works which he has left. The former was 
 printed at Venice in 1522, in 410. and reprinted 
 at Leipsic, in 1702, under the title of " Ana- 
 lecta de Calamitate Literatorum." [Collections 
 respecting the Misfortunes of the Learned] Paul. 
 'Jovius in Elog. Varillas Anccd. Letters of Prin~ 
 ces. Picrius, Valerian, de Literat, Inf elicit. Bayle. 
 — E. 
 
 ALCIPHRON, a philosopher of Magnesia, 
 flourished in the time of Alexander the Great. 
 He is mentioned by M. Antoninus, (Anton. 
 Med. lib. X. c. 31.) and by Suidas. He is not 
 to be confounded with the author of the epistles. 
 Fabric. Bibl. Grac. lib. ii. c. lo. § 25. — E. 
 
 ALCIPHRON, the sophist, whose age is 
 unknown, wrote epistles on various topics, of 
 which an edition was published in 8vo. at Leip- 
 sic in 17 15. Fabric. Bib. Gr.Iib. ii. c. 10. § 25. 
 — E. 
 
 ALCMyEON, a native of Crotona, a phy- 
 sician and philosopher, who probably flourished 
 about 500 years before Christ, was a disciple of 
 Pythagoras and attended his lectures. He wrote 
 a treatise on the causes of natural phenomena, 
 which, as Diogenes Laertius informs us, was 
 introduced with this remark, — " With re<pect 
 to things invisible and immortal, the gods alone 
 are perfectly acquainted with them ; men are 
 only permitted to form conjectures concerning 
 them." As far as his opinions can be learned 
 from a few scattered fragments, h.e seems to 
 have admitted two classes of natural objects, in- 
 telligible natures, which are immutable ; and 
 material forms, which are infinitely variable ; 
 and to have taught, that the heavenly bodies are 
 eternal, and animiicd by portions of that divine 
 fire which is the first principle in nature ; and 
 that the soul of man is seated in the brain, is im- 
 mortal, and is in perpetual inotion or action. 
 In medicine, he placed health in a due medium 
 between heat and cold, dryness and moisture.
 
 Je SU S C OJLTLE (G-JE 
 
 JOHN- AjL(rco>CK:.Bisgiiop>ofE5,-r
 
 A L C 
 
 ( 139 ) 
 
 A L C 
 
 He i<; said to Iiave been the first who attempted 
 the dissection of a dead body. -Diog. La'crt. 
 lib. viii. Clem. Alex. Strom. Hb. i. Aristot. j\Tct. 
 lib. i. V. Jamhl. Vit. Pyth. c. 23. Cic. dc Nat. 
 Dear. lib. i. Plut. Plac. Phil. lib. ii. iv. Sto- 
 hai Eel. Fahr. Bihl. Grac. lib. vi. c. 9. — E. 
 
 ALCMAN, otherwise Alcm.kon, a Greek 
 poet, flourished in the twenty-seventh OlymjMad, 
 about B. C. 670. He was of a family of 
 Sardcs, in Lydia, but probably was born and 
 bred at Lacedemon, of which city he was free. 
 He wrote many verses on amatory topics, and 
 is said to have been the inventor of love-songs 
 made to be sung in public companies. He was 
 a man of loose manners, much addicted to the 
 pleasures of the table, which intemperance was 
 probably the cause of his falling into the lousy 
 disease which proved his end. Megalostrata, 
 a poetess, was his mistress. The Spartans were 
 proud of him as a genius of their own growth, 
 and erected a monument to him. The small 
 remains of him extant are quotations in Athe- 
 na;us and other ancient writers. He made use 
 of the Doric dialect. Another Alcman, of Mes- 
 sene, is mentioned, but there is no certainty that 
 he was a different person. Bayle. — A. 
 
 ALCOCK, John, an English divine, in the 
 fifteenth century, successively bishop of Ro- 
 chester, Worcester, and Ely, is entitled to ho- 
 nourable remembrance as the founder of Jesus 
 college, Cambridge. He was a native of Be- 
 verley in Yorkshire, and a student in Cambridge, 
 where he took the degree of doctor of laws. His 
 ecclesiastical preferment was various and rapid. 
 He was also honoured successively with the 
 high civil posts of master of the rolls, privy- 
 counsellor, ambassador to the king of Castile, 
 and lord-high- chancellor of England. This 
 last ofEce he held only ten months. He is 
 spoken of, in general, as a man of great learn- 
 ing and piety, and singularly eminent for his abs- 
 tinence and purity. The building of which he 
 obtained a jrrant from Hcnrv VII. for Tesus 
 college, was a convent, tlie nuns of whicli, ac- 
 cording to Camden and Bale, were so notorious 
 for their incontinence, that their society was 
 called " Spiritualium Meretricum Ccenobium." 
 [A Community of spiritual Harlots.] The 
 good bishop performed a meritorious service in 
 obtaining its dissolution, and converting it into 
 a school of learning and virtue. Bishop Alcock, 
 besides his professional merit, was eminently 
 skilled in architecture, and was on that account 
 made comptroller of the roval works and build- 
 ings. He greatly improved the palaces of his 
 several sees. He was famous for preaching long 
 sermons: one of his sermons before the univer- 
 
 sity continued upwards of two Jiours. A pub- 
 lication of bishop Alcock, printed in London, 
 4to. 1498, has the whimsical and punning title 
 of " Galli Cantus ad Confratrcs suos." [The 
 crowing of the Cock to his Brethren.] At the 
 beginning is a print of the bishop preaching to 
 tlie clergy, with a cock on each side ; there is 
 also a cock in the first page. He likewise wrote 
 " Mons Perfectionis ad Carthusianos ;" " Ho- 
 milies and Meditations ;" the " Penitential 
 Psalms in English verse ;" " Spousage of a 
 '^''irgin to Christ," &rc. Bishop Alcock died 
 at Wisbcach in the year 1 500, and was buticd 
 in a sumptuous chapel which he had built for 
 himself. Godwin de Piasul. Angl. Fuller's 
 Worthies. Baleus de Script. Brit. Tanner''s 
 Bibliotlieca. Biogr. Brit. — E. 
 
 ALCUIN, Albinus Flaccus, an English 
 divine of great distinction in the eighth century, 
 was educated first under Venerable Bede, and 
 afterwards under Egbert, archbishop of York. 
 He was successively librarian to that prelate, 
 deacon of the church of York, and abbot of the 
 monastery of Canterbury. Having acquired all 
 the learning which this ignorant age afforded, 
 his high reputation procured him an invitation 
 from Charlemagne, to come into France to su- 
 perintend his studies, and to assist h.im in the ad- 
 vancement of science, and the correction of 
 heresy. Towards the close of the eighth cen- 
 tury, Felix, bishop of Urgel in Catalonia, ad- 
 vanced an heretical opinion, that Jesus Christ 
 was the son of God not by nature, but by adop- 
 tion. The opinion was condemned by a synod 
 in 792, but was still maintained by Felix and 
 some other Spanish bishops. It is probable that 
 one principal purpose for which Charlemagne 
 invited Alcuin to France, was to employ his 
 learning and talents against this heresy ; for ia 
 793 Alcuin accepted die invitation, and in 794 
 he accompanied Charlemagne to the council at 
 Frankfort, and was admitted a member of that 
 council in which three hundred bishops decided, 
 that Jesus Christ, as man, ought to be called the 
 proper, not the adopted son of God. The dispute 
 lasted many vears ; and, after Felix had been 
 anathematised by the pope, Charlemagne, in the 
 year 799, permitted him to defend his opinions 
 iDefore an assembly of the bishops at Aix-la- 
 Chapelle. In this disputation Alcuin was his 
 opponent, and so successlully refuted the here- 
 tic, that he abandoned his opinion and embraced 
 tliat of the ciiurch. Alcuin was employed by 
 the emperor in other services for the supjiort of 
 religion. He exercised his learning and inge- 
 nuity in explaining the holy scriptures, in which, 
 however, he took more paini to discover a mys-
 
 A L C 
 
 ( 140 ) 
 
 A L D 
 
 lical sciT^e, than to explain by accurate criticism 
 its literal ineaniiig ; as sufficiently appears from 
 his coniipcntaries. He corrected the errors of 
 the Latin translaiion of the scriptures, which 
 was in common use ; and it is to his encou- 
 ragement and direction that some writers attri- 
 bute the fir>t German translaiion of the scrip- 
 tures. Few of the clergy being at this time ca- 
 pable of explaining the epi'-iles and gospels read 
 in the ritual, he was appointed, together with 
 Paul Diaconus, to compile, from the writings of 
 the fathers, homilies, or discourses upon these 
 portions of the scripture, which the priests 
 might commit to memory, and recite to the 
 people. 
 
 Other services, certainly, in this ignorant age, 
 not less important tlian the former, Alcuin, un- 
 der the patronage, and with tlie assistance, ot 
 the emperor, rendered to the public, in forming 
 and establishing public schools, particularly in 
 France. Whatever France could boast with 
 respect to science and polite literature in this 
 dark age, she chiefly owed to the meritorious 
 exertions of Alcuin. The universities of Paris, 
 Tours, Fulden, Soissons, and many others, were 
 indebted to him for dieir origin and increase. 
 Even those of which he was not the founder 
 were enlightened by his doctrine, directed by his 
 example, and enriched by the benefits which he 
 procured for them from the emperor. (Cave, 
 Hist. Lit. ann. 7S0.) A German poet, cited by 
 Camden, thus extols the merit of Alcuin in in- 
 troducing literature into France : 
 
 Quid non Alcuino, faciinda Liitctia, debes? 
 Iiisti'.urarc bonas ihi qui fcUciter artes, 
 Barbariuiuquc procul sulus depcllere, co?pit. 
 
 Let Gallia's sons, nurtur'd in ancient h>re^ 
 To Alcuin's name a grateful tribute payj 
 
 'Twas Ills, the liglit ot" science to restore, 
 And bid barbaric darkness flee away. 
 
 " We must not," however, as Dr. Warton 
 judiciously observes, " form too magnificent 
 ideas ot those celebrated masters of science, who 
 were thus invited into foreign countries to con- 
 duct the education of mighty inonarchs, and to 
 plan the rudiments of the most illustrious acade- 
 mies : their merits are, in a great measure, re- 
 lative ; their circle of reading was contracted ; 
 their .systems of philosophy were jejune ; and 
 tlieir lectures rather served to stop the growth of 
 ignorance, than to produce any positive or im- 
 portant improvement in knowledge." (Warton's 
 History of English Poetry, diss. 2.) At such 
 a period, however, to have been one of the first 
 scholars ; to have formed schools and precep- 
 tors ; and to have instructed a powerful prince. 
 
 and in many respects a gicnt inan, was some 
 honour. Alcuin, in the year 801, obtained 
 leave from the emperor to retire to the ablicy of 
 St. Martin's at Tours, where, after three years 
 employed in useful instruction, and honourable 
 leisure, he died. Alcuin is the first historian of 
 the affairs of the metropolitan see of York : Itis 
 poem, " De Pontificibus et Sanctis Ecclesiie 
 Ehoracensis," first discovered by M.ibillon, 
 has been pidilished by Dr. Gale, among iiis 
 " Quindeccm Scriptores." (Nicholson's Eng- 
 lish Hist. Library, p. 135. ed. fol. 1736.) He 
 has left other writings, which are extremely vo- 
 luminous : they consist of commentaries oa 
 scripture ; homilies ; lives of saints ; theological 
 and metaphysical discussions ; epistles ; verses, 
 and treatises on orthography, grammar, rhetoric, 
 and music : the pieces are fifty-three in number. 
 They Vvcre published by Du Chesne at Paris, ia 
 folio, in 1 61 7, and afterwards at Ratisbon, in 
 1777. Contradictory accounts are given of their 
 merit ; we are inclined to believe that few mo- 
 dern readers would find tliem very interesting. 
 Lcland. Bale de Script. Brit. Cave, Hist. Lit. 
 IF. Malmsb. de Gest. Reg. Jngl. Dupin. Mo- 
 sJicim. Biog. Brit. — E. 
 
 ALDEBERT, or Adalbert, an impostor 
 of the eighth century, a native of France, de- 
 luded the people by pretended visions and reve- 
 lations. He was one of those French divines 
 who refused submission to the church of Rome, 
 and exercised the episcopal dignity without the 
 authority of Boniface, the pope's legate. He 
 boasted that he had received a letter trom heaven 
 by the hands of the arch-angel Michael, which 
 was written by Jesus Christ to the human race ; 
 and distributed among the people relics of admi- 
 rable virtue. He remitted sins without confes- 
 sion, and required his followers to quit the 
 churches, and worship God in houses of prayer, 
 which iie erected in the fields, and to kneel be- 
 fore crosses, which he placed in woods and by 
 the side of fountains. He became exceedingly 
 popular, and excited tumults among the eastern 
 Franks. At the instigation of Boniface he was 
 condemned by the pontiff Zacharv, in a council 
 assembled at Rome in the year 748 ; he was, in 
 consequence, cast into a prison, where he pro- 
 bably concluded his days. An edition ot his 
 forged letter was published by Stephen Baluse 
 in the "Capitularia Regum Francorum," vol. ii. 
 Moreri. Mosheim, cent. viii. — E. 
 
 ALDEGRAEF, Albert, a painter and 
 engraver, was born at Soest in Westphalia, in 
 1502. He applied to the art of painting with, 
 so much diligence, that there is reason to be- 
 lieve he would have attained to great excellence
 
 A L D 
 
 ( HI ) 
 
 A L D 
 
 had he possessed ihe advantage of an cdiiration 
 in Italy. He furnislieil die churclus of his na- 
 tive pluoc, and of Nuremberg, with many va- 
 luable pieces, though somewhat in the Gothic 
 manner. His designs arc correct, and his ex- 
 pression; graceful. He more particularly ex- 
 celled, however, in engraving portraits. His 
 Qwn head, and those of the anabaptist John of 
 Leydcn, and his associate Knipperdoling, are 
 much admired. His pen drawings are very 
 fine, and he copied many of them with the 
 graver. This artist died poor at his native 
 place. De Piles. Marcri. Nvuv. Diet. Hist. 
 —A. 
 
 ALDHELM, or Adelm, one of the very 
 few luminaries which relieved the darkness of 
 the seventh century, a near relation of Ina, king 
 of the West Saxons in England, was born at 
 Caer-bladon, since called Mahnsbury, in Wilt- 
 shire. He received instructions from Maildul- 
 phus, a learned Irish monk ; from Theodore, 
 archbishop of Canterbury ; and from Adrian, 
 one of the most learned professors who Iiad ever 
 been in England ; or from his pupil Albin. 
 After the death of Maildulphus, who had insti- 
 tuted a school at Pvlalmsbury, Aldhelm built a 
 large monastery, of which he himself was the 
 first abbot Upon the division of the kingdom 
 of the West Saxons into two dioceses, Win- 
 chester and Shireburn, the latter see was be- 
 stowed by king Ina upon Aldhelm. He was 
 consecrated at Rome by pope Sergius I. Whilst 
 he was with that pontiff, he is said, by Godwin, 
 to have had the courage to reprove him to his 
 face for his incontinency ; but Bale gives a con- 
 trary account, and blames Aldhelm for not hav- 
 ing availed himself of his intimacy with the 
 pope in admonishing him. We cannot deter- 
 mine on which side of these contradictory ac- 
 counts the truth lies. Extraordinary things are 
 related of his voluntary chastity ; and still more 
 extraordinary tales are told of his miraculous 
 powers, by which he lengthened a piece of 
 timber which a carpenter had cut too short, 
 and hung his garments upon a sun-beam. It is 
 more deserving of attention, that he was, for 
 the time in which he lived, an eminent scholar, 
 a good writer, a poet of no mean merit, and an 
 excellent musician. From his writings it ap- 
 pears, that he was acquainted with the most ce- 
 lebrated authors of Greece and Rome, and well 
 skilled in the languages in which they wrote. 
 His literary fame was so widely extended that 
 his correspondence was much sought by the 
 karned. Areville, a prince of Scotland, who 
 had employed himself in writing, sent his works 
 (e Aldhelm for correction, requesting him to 
 
 rub off their Scotch rust, and give them the last 
 polish. His love of literature, and the scientific 
 and literary pursuits in which he was engaged, 
 are well represented in a letter which he wrote 
 to Hedda, bishop of Winchester. Of his stu- 
 dies the best idea will be gained from his w^rit- 
 ings. He wrote, " Against the Mistakes of the 
 Britons concerning the Celebration of Easter ;" 
 " On the Fight of the eight principal Virtues ;" 
 " Of the Dignity of the Number Seven, col- 
 lected from the Flowers of the Old and New 
 Testament, and from the Doctrines of Pliiloso- 
 phers ;" " Of the Admonition of brorlierly 
 Charity ;" " Of the Nature of insensible 
 Things, metaphorically said to be indued with 
 Speech ;" " Of the Monastic Life;" " Of the 
 Praise of the Saints ;" " Of Arithmetic ;" " Of 
 Astrology ;" " Of the Rules of metrical Feet ;"' 
 " Ot the Figures called Metaplasm and Syna- 
 Icepha ;" " Of the Scanning and Ellipses of 
 Verses;" "A Dialogue concerning Metre;" 
 " Homilies ;" and " Epistles." These pieces, 
 written in Latin, are mentioned by Bede and 
 William of Malmesbury, but are not extant. In 
 verse Aldhelm wrote "Enigmas," consisting of 
 a thousand verses, written in imitation of the po- 
 et Symphorius; "Ballads," in the Saxon tongue, 
 with other pieces, whicii were published, in 8vo. 
 by Martin Delrio of Mentz, in 1601. He also 
 wrote a book, partly in prose, and partly in 
 hexameter verse, in praise of virginity, dedicat- 
 ed to Ethelburga, abbess of Barking, and pub- 
 lished among Bede's " Opuscula." In a pas- 
 sago from one of his treatises on metre, cited by 
 William of Malmsbury, he boasts of himself as 
 the first Engli^liman who introduced Latin po- 
 etry into England. " Tliese things concerning 
 the kinds and measuies of verse, I have written 
 accoiding to my ability, not without much la- 
 bour, with what profit I cannot say ; but I am. 
 conscious that I have a right to adopt the boast 
 of Virgil : (Georg. iii. 16.) 
 
 Primus ego in patriaui mecum, modo vita supersit, 
 Aonio rcdicus deducam verlice Mubas." 
 
 I first of Romans to tii* Hesperian plain 
 Will lead th* Aonian nyniphs, it" lii'c remain. 
 
 WARtON. 
 
 The laudable use which Aldhelni made of 
 his talents for writing English ballads, in polish- 
 ing the barbarous manneis of the people, and 
 disposing them to listen to his instructions, is thus 
 happily described : " Alfred," says William of 
 MaliTisbury, " informs us, that Aldhelm com- 
 posed ballads, such as are still coiTiinonly sung ; 
 adding a probable reason why so great a maa .
 
 ALU 
 
 ( M2 ) 
 
 A L D 
 
 f mploycd himself upon such trifles, that the peo- 
 ple, at i!i;it time halt' barbaiians, were little at- 
 li-iuive (o divine instrucrion, and accustomed to 
 run iKime inimediatelv after the singing of mass ; 
 on which account this holy man, placing him- 
 self upon a bridge which joined the town and 
 tountrv, would often stop them as tliey went 
 out, professing himself a good singer : by this 
 artifice he gained the favour of the common 
 people, who flocked about him, and was able, 
 by occasionally introducing more serious dis- 
 course from scripture, to produce an effect upon 
 tlie manners of his townsmen, which he might 
 in vain have attempted by severer methods. (W. 
 Afalmshur. Vit. S. Aldheim.) 
 
 Of Aldhelm's writings, liis meinorialist, Wil- 
 liam of Malmsbury, if we are to respect his 
 judgment, speaks in terms of high commenda- 
 tion, lie acknowledges, indeed, that his style is 
 less livclv than may he desired by those who are 
 n\ore attentive to language than matter ; but 
 adds, that if you examine his writings attentive- 
 Jv, you will find in them Grecian acuteness, 
 Roman elegance, and English dignity. " His 
 Latin compositions," as we learn from Mr. 
 Warton, " whether in verse or prose, as novel- 
 ties, were deemed extraordinary performances, 
 and excited the attention and admiration of scho- 
 lars in other countries." A learned contempo- 
 rary, who lived in a remote province of a 
 Frankisli territory, in an epistle to Aldliehn 
 has this remarkable expression, — " Vestrje la- 
 tinitatis pancgvricus rumor. [The panegyrical 
 report of your Latinity has reached us even at 
 this distance, Sec] Aldhclm, w-ith many of 
 the ecclesiastics of his period, was well skilled 
 in music, both vocal and instrumental ; and we 
 are told by Bale, that he preferred music to 
 every other delight in the w-orld. M^e conclude 
 our account of this celebrated prelate \\ith an 
 encomium, copied by Leland from an ancient 
 chronicle: if the reader should be disposed to 
 think it too laudatory, he should recollect that 
 the literary merit of the seventh century is not 
 to be measured by the standard of the eighteenth. 
 " SanctusAldhelmus, Ins, regis West-Saxonum 
 propinquus, citharccdus erat optimus, Saxonicus 
 atque Latinus poeta facundissimus, cantor peri- 
 tissimus, doctor egrcgius, ?crmone nitidus, scrip- 
 turarum tam liberalium quam ecclesiasticarum 
 eruditione mirandus." [Saint Aldheim, a near 
 relation of Ina, king of tlie West Saxons, was 
 an excellent harper, a must elegant Latin and 
 Saxon poet, a very skilful singer, a doctor of 
 singular merit, an eloquent speaker, and a won- 
 derful master of sacred and profane learning.] 
 Bale, dc Script. Brit. Godwin, de Prasid. Angl. 
 
 JV. Malmsbur. de Vita S. J/d/icmi, apud 
 IVharton. AngUts Sacra. Henry's History of 
 Britain. Biogr. Brit. — E. 
 
 ALDHUN, an English bishop who lived in 
 the tenth and eleventh centuries, is chiefly me- 
 morable as the founder of the bishopric of Dur- 
 ham. In the year 990, he was created bishop 
 of Lindisfarne or Holy Island. After having 
 been frequently disturbed by the incursions of 
 Danish pirates, he determined to remove his 
 station. Accompanied by the monks, and 
 many other persons, and taking with him the 
 body of St. Cuthbert, which had been buried 
 about one hundred and thirteen years, he wan- 
 dered about for some time, and at last settled at 
 Dunelm, since called Durham, which then con- 
 sisted only of a few scattered cottages. The 
 spot of ground which he chose for his little co- 
 lony was covered with a thick wood which his, 
 followers cleared away, and a sufficient number 
 of habitations were soon erected. After three 
 years, the building of a church was completed, 
 and it was dedicated to St. Cuthbert, whose 
 bones %vere deposited within its walls. From 
 this time the episcopal see remained fixed at 
 Durham. The good bishop is highly extolled 
 for his virtues, but the particulars of his life are 
 not known. He died in the year 1018, having 
 enjoyed the prelacy twenty-nine years. Sim. 
 Dunelm. apud Decern Scriptores. Godwin, de 
 Prissul. Angl. Biogr. Brit. — E. 
 
 ALDRED, an English prelate, of the ele» 
 venth century, is more indebted to his dignities 
 than to his merit, for a place in the records of 
 biography. He appears indeed to have been a 
 man of talents and enterprise : for he undertook a 
 journey to Jerusalem, through Hungary, which 
 had never before been attempted by any English 
 bishop ; on his return he was employed by Edward 
 the Confessor on an important embassy to the 
 emperor Henrv II ; and, after remaining a year 
 in Germany, he returned to possess large ec- 
 clesiastical preferments, and to aspire at more. 
 But his enterprising and ambitious spirit knew 
 not how to confine itself w^ithin any limits. 
 Not contented with possessing the see of Wor- 
 cester, which he had obtained in 1046, four 
 years before his journey to Jerusalem, he found 
 means to procure tlie administration ot the see 
 of Wilton three years during the absence of its 
 bishop, and of that of Hereford four years after 
 the death of the incumbent. Still grasping at 
 further preferment, he obtained from the king 
 an appointment to the archbishopric of York, 
 and permission, withal, to hold the see of Wor- 
 cester in commcndam : an indulgence which, 
 according to William of Malmsbury, he owe4
 
 A L D 
 
 ( 143 ) 
 
 A L D 
 
 to -bribcrv. It was with great difficulty that 
 the pope, who was informed of his simoniacal 
 practices, could be prevailed upon to confirm 
 the king's nomination ; and though Nicholas 
 II. would only consent to grant him the pall 
 upon condition of his resigning the see of Wor- 
 cester, he detained from his successor, Wolstan, 
 a plain, easy man, twelve valuable manors be- 
 longing to that see, and unjustly transferred the 
 benefit of them to the see of York. An anec- 
 dote related by his panegvrist, Thomas Stubbs, 
 affords an uncommon instance of manly reso- 
 lution, mixed with a portion of priestly arro- 
 gance. " The high-sheriff of the county of 
 York meeting some of the archbishop's ser- 
 vants, who were conveying provisions to his 
 palace, ordered the ofScers who attended him 
 to sicze the carriages and provisions, and carry 
 them to the king's granary, in the castle of 
 York. When the archbishop was informed of 
 this assault, instead of seeking legal redress, he 
 sent several of the clergy and citizens to demand 
 restitution, threatening the sheriff, in case of 
 refusal, with exxommunication. The sheriff 
 refused ; and the archbishop, with a numerous 
 train of ecclesiastics, went up immediately to 
 the king, who was then sitting in council at 
 Westminster. Without returning the custom- 
 ary salutations, he abruptly addressed the king, 
 who had risen to meet him, in this haughty 
 language. ' Hear me, William ! when thou 
 wert an alien, and God had permitted thee, for 
 our sins, and through much blood, to reign 
 over us, I anointed thee king, and placed the 
 crown upon thy head with a blessing : but now, 
 because thou deservest it not, I will change 
 tbat blessing into a curse against thee, as a per- 
 secutor of God and his ministers, and a breaker 
 and contemner of those oaths and piomises, 
 which tbou madest unto me before the altar of 
 St. Peter.' The king, astonished and terri- 
 fied, threw himself at the archbishop's feet, and 
 entreated to be informed by what offence he had 
 merited this severe sentence. The nobility 
 who were present expressing resentment at the 
 prelate's arrogance in suffering the king to lie 
 at his feet, ' Let him alone,' says the archbi- 
 shop ; ' Let him lie : he is not fallen at my 
 feet, but at the feet of St. Peter.' After some 
 time, he raised the king, and delivered his com- 
 plaint. William, more intimidated, as it seems, 
 By the threat of ecclesiastical censure, than in- 
 duced by a sense of the injustice of his sheriff's 
 concuct, gave orders for the full restitution of 
 the archbi>hop's goods, and sent him away 
 loaded with rich presents." If this anecdote il- 
 lustrates the extreme tyranny of the regal power 
 
 at this time, it also shows the abject vassalage 
 in which the minds even of princes weie held 
 by superstitious reverence for the priesthood. 
 Tile injury, v/hich the prelate had received, 
 could not justify so presumptuous an exercise of 
 his spiritual power. 
 
 Archbishop Aldred's versatility of principle 
 was fully shown, in his political conduct under 
 the changes of government which happened 
 during the latter part of his life. No sooner 
 was his patron Edward dead, than he assisted 
 Harold to obtain the crown. On the arrival 
 of William the Norman, when Stigand arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury refused to crown him, 
 Aldred, yielding to the current, performed the 
 ceremony. Upon the Danish invasion, when 
 the citizens of York, and other inhabitants of 
 the northern counties of England, declared in 
 favour of Edgar Atiicling's title, the archbi- 
 shop, whether through vexation or fear, or 
 from what other cause, is uncertain, fell sick 
 and died. This happened in the year 1069. 
 Sim. Dunelm. de Gcst. Reg. ^ngl. Th. Stubbs. 
 jict. Ebor. Episc. apud Decern Scr'tplorcs. JV. 
 Malmsb. post Bedam. B'lOgr. Brit. — E. 
 
 ALDRICH, Henry, an eminent and wor- 
 thy English divine, and polite scholar, was 
 born in Westminster in 1647, ''"'^ educated in 
 the college-school of that city under the cele- 
 brated Busby. In the year 1662 he was ad- 
 mitted into Christ Church college, Oxford, and 
 from that time to his death continued an orna- 
 ment of that noble seminary. With high re- 
 putation for learning, he passed through the 
 whole scries of academic honours, and was first 
 a diligent student, then a useful tutor, and af- 
 terwards an excellent master of liis college. 
 Having cultivated a taste for architecture, and 
 acquired great skill in that elegant art, he em- 
 ployed his ingenuity in improving the buildings 
 of Christ-church : diat regular and beauiitid 
 ])iecc of architecture, called Peck-water qua- 
 drangle, was designed by him. He rendered 
 yet more important services to his jilma mnlcr. 
 After his advancement to the deanry of Christ- 
 church, and the presidency of the college, he 
 exerted his respectable talents with industry and 
 Zt-al for the advancement of learning. To the 
 diligent and ingenuous student he was a liberal 
 patron, and a kind friend. In order to encou- 
 rage a taste for polite literature, as well as to 
 support the credit of the university for its at- 
 tention to classical studies, he made it his prac- 
 tice to publish annually some piece of an an- 
 cient Greek author, as a new-year's present to 
 the students of his house. Ainong the works, 
 which he edited in 8vo, at Oxford, in Greek
 
 A L D 
 
 ( 144 ) 
 
 A L D 
 
 and Litin, were, " Xenopliontis Memorabilia, 
 
 1690 ," " Xenophonth Seimo de Agesilao, 
 
 1691 ;" " Aiistcae Historia LXXII Intcr- 
 prctum, 1692 ;" " Xenophoiitis de Re Eques- 
 tri, 1693;" " Epictetiis, ct Theophrastus, 
 1 707 ;" he edited, in Greek, " Platonis, Xe- 
 nopliontis, Plutarchi, Luciani Symposia ;" Ox- 
 on. 17 1 1, 8vo. Dr. Aldrich drew up also, for 
 the use of the college, a system of Logic, under 
 the title of " Artis Logic's Compendium," and 
 " Elements of Geometry." 
 
 Dean Ahlricli amused his academic leisure 
 with music and poetry. As a musician, his 
 ahilities arc said to have been such, as to rank 
 him among the first masters of the science. He 
 very siiccessfullv naturalised the compositions 
 of the old Italian masters, and adapted English 
 \vm\h to tlieir music : he was also himself a 
 good composer, and enriched the stores of 
 church music witli inany new anthems and 
 services. He preserved an admirable choral 
 discipline in his college, and established in it a 
 musical school, where he was a careful exa- 
 miner and liberal lewarder of merit ; and at his 
 decease he bequeathed to his college a most ca- 
 pital collection of church music. His niusical 
 talents were not \\holly devoted to sacred use. 
 Being naturally of a chearful temper, and pos- 
 sessing a happy vein of wit and humour, he 
 did not despise the Horatian maxim, " Dulce 
 est desipere in loco." For the entertainment 
 of smokers, of which fraternity he himself was, 
 it seems, a very wortliy member, he composed 
 a famous smoking catch to be sung by four 
 men smoking their pipes : he was also the au- 
 thor of the popular catch, " Hark the bonny 
 Christ Church bells." As a Latin poet, Aid- 
 rich is entitled to some distinction. The 
 *' Musa; Anglican^" contain two elegant 
 pieces written by him ; one, on the accession 
 of William III ; the other on the death of the 
 duke of Gloucester. He has the credit of being 
 the author of several humourous pieces, and, 
 among the rest, of the following epigram, en- 
 titled, " Causx Bibcndi." 
 
 " Si bene (juid n]emini, causK sunt qninque bibendi, 
 Hospitis aflvcntus, praraens sitis, atque futura, 
 Aat villi bonitas, aiit ijun-libet altera causa." 
 
 " If on my theme I riglitly lliinic, 
 
 There are five reasons wliy men drink j 
 Good wine, a friend, because I'm dry, 
 Or lest 1 should be by and by, 
 Or any other reason wliy." 
 
 That more serious and important labours 
 commonly occupied the time of Aldrich, ap- 
 pears not only from the academic history of 
 
 his life, but from his literary productions. Be- 
 sides iiis editions of classical authors already 
 mentioned, he had some concern in the publi- 
 cation of Gregory's Greek Testament, printed 
 in folio at 0.\ford, in 1703. He wrote not'.-s 
 on Havercamp's edition of Josephus. He was 
 the author of " A Reply to two Discourses, 
 lately printed at Oxford, concerning the Ado- 
 ration of our blessed Saviour in the holy Eu- 
 charist ;" and " A Defence of the Oxford Re- 
 ply, &c." the former printed in 4to. at Oxford, 
 in 1687 : the latter, in 1688. His modesty pre- 
 vented his prefixing his name to several learned 
 tracts ; but his leputation as a writer, in the 
 period in which he lived, inay be inferred from 
 the testimon^r ot bishop Burnet, who ranks him 
 among those eminent English clergymen, " who 
 examined all the points of popery with a solidity 
 of judgment, and a clearness of arguing, far be- 
 yond any thing that had before that tiine ap- 
 peared in our language." (Burnet's History of 
 his own Time. ed. 1724. p. 673.) 
 
 The candour of Aldrich's temper, and the 
 moderation of his principles, may be interred 
 from his having been, in 1689, appointed by 
 William III. one of the cominissioncrs for pre- 
 paring matters towards introducing alterations 
 in the service of the church, and accomplishing 
 a comprehension with the dissenters : a design, 
 which, at this time, and in every subsequent at- 
 tempt, has failed through an unreasonable dread 
 of innovation. In conjunction with bishop 
 Sprat, he was employed to revise the manuscript 
 of lord Clarendon's History of the Rebellion ; 
 but it does not appear that they made any con- 
 siderable additions or alterations. In 1702 Aid- 
 rich was chosen prolocutor of the convoca- 
 tion. He possessed the living of Wem in Shrop- 
 shire, but it does not appear that he was ever re- 
 sident out of Oxford. In 17 10, he died at his 
 college, leaving an order to be buried, without 
 any memorial, in the cathedral. 
 
 His modesty and huinility, his easy plea- 
 santry, liis attention to academic business and to 
 the credit of his college, his exertions for the 
 encourageinent of learning, and the proofs which 
 his memoirs afford of respectable talents, va- 
 rious accomplishments and amiable qualities, 
 unite to transmit his name with honour to po- 
 sterity. TVood's Allien. Oxon. Le Neve^s Fasti. 
 Burncy's and Hav.klns' Hist, of Alitsic. Biogr, 
 Brit. — E. 
 
 ALDRICH, or Aldridge, Robert, an 
 English divine, was bishop of Carlisle in the 
 reigns of Henry VIII. Edward VI. and Mary ; 
 a circumstance ^vvhich strongly marks his cha- 
 racter, and slio'.vs the convenient pliableness of
 
 A L D 
 
 ( 145 ) 
 
 A L E 
 
 his principles. Tlirough every change in 
 church and state, which th.esi- three reigns i)ro- 
 duced, to have retained liis station and emolu- 
 ments, cannot, witli the utmost stretch of can- 
 dour, he entirely imputed to his moderation. 
 Aldrich has, however, the credit of having hten 
 praised, when voung, by two such eminent men 
 as Erasmus and Leland. He is said, by Eras- 
 mus, in one of his epistles, to be " blandre elo- 
 quenti^ juvenis" [a youth wiio possessed cap- 
 tivating powers of language] ; and Leland ex- 
 pressed his admiration of his talents and learn- 
 ing in a Latin epistle. Bishop Aldridge %\ as 
 born at Burnham in Buckinghamshire, was en- 
 tered at King's College, Cambridge, in the year 
 1507 ; took possession of the see of Carlisle in 
 1537, and died in 1555. He wrote " Resolu- 
 tions Concerning the Sacraments," " Answers 
 to Queries concerning tlic Abuse of the Mass ;" 
 " Epigrams," &c. Godwin de Prasul. A>ig. 
 Wood, Athen. Oxon. Lcluad. Collectaii. Bio^i-, 
 Brit. — E. 
 
 A-LDROVANDI, Ulysses, a celebrated 
 naturalist, called the modern Pliny, was born at 
 Bologna, in 1522, of a family descended from 
 the counts of the same name. He very early 
 displayed his inclination for travelling, by ac- 
 companying on foot, as far as the shrine of St. 
 James of Compostella, a pilgrim whom he ac- 
 cidentally met with not far from home. He 
 pursued his studies partly at Bologna and partly 
 at Padua, and there was no science which his 
 inquisitive disposition did not lead him to culti- 
 vate. Falling into some suspicion respecting 
 his religious opinions, he made a journey to 
 Rome in 1550 in order to clear himself; and 
 there attentively studied the antiquitits of the 
 place, and drew up a treatise on the ancient sta- 
 tues, which he gave to his friend Lucio Mauro, 
 with whose work on Roman antiquities it was 
 printed. He there likev/ise made an acquaint- 
 ance with Rondelezio, whose researches into 
 the history of fishes gave him a taste for the 
 knowledge of nature. Returning to Bologna 
 he applied himself to botany, and vvent to Pisa 
 to obtain further instructions in it from Ghini, 
 the profes.sor in that branch. He graduated in 
 physic at Bologna i)i 1553, and on the iollow- 
 jng year was appointed to the cliairs of logic and 
 philosophy, a::d to the extraordinary Icctnresliip 
 of botany, which in 1561 was made oidinary. 
 By his interest the botanical garden of Bologna 
 ^•as founded in 1567, of wliicji he had the su- 
 perintendence. Besides attending to the duties 
 of his station, he employed infinite labour in 
 accumulating all the information concerning 
 natural history that the age could afford, tol- 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 Iccting books of all kinds, making numerous 
 jourr.cys, and estal)lishing correspondences witli 
 tlic learned all over Europe. He likewise, at 
 great expense, formed a museum of rare and 
 curious productions, and kept several of the 
 best artists in his employ for several years in 
 delineating them. The fruit of these toils was a 
 prodigious collection of matter relative to all the 
 kingdoms of nature, of wliich in his life-time he 
 published lour folio volumes, with plates ; three 
 of them on ornithology, and one on insects. 
 One volume on bloodless animals, and one on 
 fishes, were likewise composed by him. The 
 rest published under his name, which make the 
 whole number thirteen volumes, and treat on 
 serpents, quadiupeds, monsters, inetals, and 
 trees, are comi)ilations by other persons chiefly 
 from materials which he left behind him. Not- 
 withstanding he was aided by several princes, 
 and bv the senate of Bologna, in these expen- 
 sive pursuits, he lived to exhaust all his pro- 
 peny, and is said to have died, at the age of 
 eightv-three, blind, and in an alins-house. He 
 bequeathed to his country all his vast collec- 
 tions ; of which a catalogue was printed in Ita- 
 lian in 1648. His museum formed the basis of 
 that now existing at Bologna, and many of hi» 
 specimens are still in being. His memory is 
 held in great honour at his native place. His 
 works are defective in method and selection, 
 and abound in superfluities and matter of du- 
 bious authority ; yet natural history owes him 
 great obligations for his indefatigable industry 
 and munificent jtatronage. The illr.strious Buf- 
 fon calls hirn the mo^t laborious ar.d learned of 
 all the naturalists, and praises the plan and dis- 
 tribution of his work, and tlie exactness of his 
 descriptions. Besides his manuscripts in natural 
 history, he left copious writings upon almost 
 every branch of the arts and sciences ; which 
 proves his disposition, like that of Pliny, to have 
 rather been towards collection and compilation, 
 than towartls th.e exercise of the judgment. 
 Moieri. Tivaboichi, — A. 
 
 ALDUS. See Manuzio. 
 
 ALEANDER, Jerom, born in the year 
 1480, distinguished himself in the sixteenth cen- 
 tury as a violent opposer of Luther and the re- 
 formation. Notwitiistandiiig the assertion of 
 Luther that he was a Jew by birth, it appears 
 jirobable, as Bayle has shown, that he was de- 
 scended from a catholic family of distinction in 
 Istria, and that the only ground for supposino 
 him a Jew, was his perfect knowledge of the 
 Hebrew tongue. He is said to have jiosscssed 
 a memory in an uncommon degree retentive, 
 and to have been enabled, by means of this fa- 
 . U
 
 ALE 
 
 ( h6 ) 
 
 ALE 
 
 ciilty, to have made himself master, besides the 
 Hebrew, of the Greek, and I/aiin, and several 
 modern languajres. His splendid talents attracted 
 tlie attention ot' the Roman court; and, if we 
 are to credit the account ofl^uther, which Bayle, 
 however, disputes, lie was at Rome hi the pon- 
 tificate of Alexander VI. and was secretary to 
 tlie infamous Csesar Borgia. It is more certain 
 that he was invited by Louis XII. into France, 
 and was appointed, in 1508, profes-^or of philo- 
 sophy in the university of Paris. The reputa- 
 tion which he acquired in this situation intro- 
 duced him with credit to the court of Leo. X. 
 This pontiff, the patron of learned men, at first 
 procured him the office of secretary to the cardi- 
 nal de' Medici; and afterwards, on the death of 
 Acciaioli, appointed him librarian of the Vatican. 
 A more important proof of his confidence in his 
 talents and zeal was given him by the pope, when 
 in 1519 he sent liim as his nuncio into Ger- 
 many, to meet the formidable storm which was 
 then rising to threaten the safety of the church. 
 In tlie diet of Worms he undertook the accusa- 
 tion of Luther, and spoke against him three 
 hours. He could not, however, prevent the diet 
 from granting Luther permission to make his 
 defence; and, whether from fear of encountering 
 so able an antagonist, or from confidence in the 
 disposition of the assembly, when Luther chal- 
 lenged him to disputation he declined the contest. 
 In the result of the trial, he had sufficient influence 
 in the diet to obtain an edict for burning his 
 books, and proscribing his person, and he drew 
 up the edict witii his own hand. He was sent 
 a second time into Germany as nuncio from the 
 pope in the year 1531, and endeavoured, but 
 without success, to dissuade Charles from mak- 
 ing a truce with the prutestants in that country. 
 Pope Paul III. created him cardinal, and sent 
 him a third time into Germany, where he re- 
 mained a year in the capacity of a legate, still 
 exerting his utmost efforts to check the progress 
 of the reformation. Returriing to Rome, he 
 died there in 1532, not, as has been said, through 
 the unskilfulness ofhis physician, but because 
 he had destroyed his health by taking too much 
 care of it. He died at the time when he was 
 putting his last hand to a work against the pro- 
 fessors of the sciences, which was never pub- 
 lished. The only works which he has left are 
 proofs of his having been an eminent scholar : 
 they are, " Lexicon Grseco-Latinum," printed 
 in folio at Paris in 1521, and " Gramma- 
 tica GrjECa," printed in 8vo. at Strasburg in 
 1517- 
 
 Luther describes Alcander as a man desti- 
 tute of principle, ungovernable in his passions, 
 
 choleric even to madness, of insatiable avarice, 
 and siiamefuUy addicted to licentious pleasures : 
 but it must be remembered that this is the report. 
 of an adversary, who was not sparing in terms 
 of reproach against his enemies, and who ap- 
 pears evidently to have given hasty credit to the 
 story ofhis being a Jew. That he was a man 
 of ill-temper and violently passionate, is ac- 
 knowledged by Gentin, this cardinal's secretary, 
 in one of his letters to the bishop of Vienna, in 
 which, having informed him of his death, he 
 says, " Hitherto I have not looked out for ano- 
 ther Maecenas at Rome, for the violent teinper 
 of mv deceased patron renders me fearful, lest I 
 shouldmakc Glaucus's exchange withDiomed." 
 (Lib. viii. Epist. ad Nauseam.) Erasmus, who 
 appears to have had an early intimacy with 
 Aleander, and speaks of him as an old friend, 
 bears a handsome testimony to his learning. 
 " I always, says he, pay great respect to Ale- 
 ander, especially in letters, nor am I more hurt, 
 if he be more learned, than if he be richer or 
 handsomer than myself." [Ipse plurimum tri- 
 buere soleo Aleandro, praesertim in literis ; ni- 
 hiloque inagis ine Isdi puto si doctior est, quam 
 quod ditior est, aut formosior] (Erasm. Epist. 
 xii. 4.) He complains, however, and, as it 
 appears, not without good reason, that he had 
 abandoned his friendship, and become his inve- 
 terate and malignant enemy ; giving credit to 
 every ill report against him, and not scrupling 
 any means by which he might exasperate the 
 pope and bishops against liim. " I am informed," 
 writes Erasmus, " that a general persuasion 
 prevails, that my writings have occasioned all 
 this storm which has fallen upon the church : 
 the chief author of this idle report is Jerom Ale- 
 ander, a person, to say the least, not scrupulously 
 exact in speaking the truth." [Jam audio mul- 
 tis persuasum ex meis scriptis extitisse totam 
 hanc ecclcsis procellam : cujus vanissimi ru- 
 moris auctor Hieronymus Aleander, homo, ut 
 nihil aliuddicam, non superstitiose verus] (Epist. 
 XX. 84.) The fact seems to have been, that 
 Aleander's zeal for the church of Rome, united 
 with great warmth of temper, surmounted every 
 consideration of private friendship, and deter- 
 mined him at any expense to accomplish, if pos- 
 sible, the ruin of Lutheranism ; and it cannot 
 be doubted that Erasmus, though not an avowed 
 reformer, gaVe the zealous Catholics as much of- 
 fence by his indirect strokes of sarcasm, as Lu- 
 ther by his open and vehement assaults. How 
 keenly Aleander felt the mortification of finding 
 all ills efforts to stem the torrent of heresy inef- 
 fectual, may be seen in the expressive epitaph 
 which he wrote for his own tomb.
 
 ALE 
 
 ( 147 ) 
 
 ALE 
 
 no\Kcuy, wvTfep iSsiv a.Xyiw r^v (l3.ya.ry. 
 
 ** Not unreluctant I resign my brealli, 
 
 " For to behold life's ills is worse than death." 
 
 (P. Jovius in elog.) Bayle. Alorcrl. — E. 
 
 ALEANDER, Jerom, the younger, a ne- 
 phew of die cardinal Aleanclcr, hy profession a 
 civihan, was a writer t^f some ilistinction in the 
 seventeenth century. He was secretary first to 
 cardinal Bandini, and afterwards to Barberini, 
 and lived chiefly at Rome, where he was mem- 
 ber of a literary society, who called themselves 
 the Humourists. He wrote many pieces for that 
 society, and published one in Italian on the de- 
 vice whicii the society had adopted. In his 
 professional capacity, he wrote " Commentaries 
 on the Institutes of Caius." He was fond of 
 antiquarian pursuits, and wrote a piece entitled, 
 " Explicatio antique Tabulae marmorese Solis 
 Effigie exsculptas," &c. [Explanation of an an- 
 cient Marble Tablet engraved \\\\.\\ the I igure 
 of the Sun, &c.] printed in 4to. at Rome, in 
 1616, and in Paris 1617. He also wrote Ita- 
 lian and Latin poems, and some pieces on eccle- 
 siastical affairs. He is said to have died of in- 
 temperance in eating: his death happened in 
 1631. Nicieui Eryth. Bayle. Morcri. — E. 
 
 ALEGAA4B, Philip, a learned Flemish Je- 
 suit, was born at Brussels in the year 1592. He 
 appears to have possessed talents, which qualified 
 him cither for active or studious life. In his 
 younger days, after liis classical education was 
 finished, he went into the service of the duke of 
 Ossuna, whom he accompanied into Sicily. Af- 
 ter he had taken the Jesuit's habit, he travelled 
 through Germany, France, Spain, Portugal and 
 Italy, as tutor to the son of prince Eggeniberg, 
 a favourite of the emperor Ferdinand II. He 
 afterwards accompanied the same young man, 
 as his confessor, on an embassy to Rome. I11 
 the school ofGratz he taught philosopliy, school- 
 divinity, and morals. For several years he was 
 employed at Rome by the general of the jesuirs 
 as secretary tor the Latin dispatches which re- 
 lated to Germany, and was afterwards appointed 
 to the prefecture of spirituals in the Ala'aon Pro- 
 Jesse. He died at Rcme in 1652. His literary 
 labours were chiefly devoted to the honour of his 
 fraternity. Besides the " Life of Cardin, a Por- 
 tuguese Jesuit ;" and " Memoirs of the Suffer- 
 ings of some of his Brethren," he wrote a " Bi- 
 bliotheque des Auteurs Jesuites," founded upon a 
 catalogue begun by Ribadeneira in i6c2, and 
 enlarged by Scholt in the Antwerp edition of 
 1 61 3. Alegamb gives a very accurate account 
 ■of works published by Jesuits, and of the birth, 
 
 situation and employment of each writer ; but is 
 
 too lavish of panegyric, discovers great partiality 
 to his order, and industriously keeps out of sight 
 such works as have been censured by tlic inquisi- 
 tion, or are proscribed in the " Index Expurga- 
 torius." This work was printed at Antwerp iu 
 164^, and reprinted at Rome, by P. Sotuel, in 
 1675. P. Oudin has since publisiied a move 
 complete work of the same kind. Sotuel. Bibl. 
 Script. Socict. fes. Bayle. — E. 
 
 ALEMAN, Louis, the cardinal of Aries, 
 was born t^f a noble family which possessed the 
 seignory of Arbent and Mongisson in the year 
 1390. Having entered the church, he advanced 
 rajiidly through the several stages of ecclesiasti- 
 cal preferment till he obtained the archbishopric 
 of Aries. In 1422, pope Maitin V. sent him 
 to Sienna to direct the removal of the council of 
 Pavia to that city. Soon afterwards he employed 
 him in reforming the police in Romagna. Louis 
 III. king of Naples, held him in high respect, 
 and on his account confirined the privileges 
 which his predecessors had granted to the city of 
 Aries. The pope honoured him with the dignity 
 of cardinal. After the death of Martin V. the 
 cardinal, during the council of Basil, in which 
 he was president, embroiled hiinself with pope 
 Eugenius IV. on the subject of that council, 
 which, contrary to the pontiff's pleasure, he 
 continued to hold at Basil. In this council Eu- 
 genius was deposed, and the duke of Savoy, un- 
 der the name of Felix V. was named in his 
 place. Euoenius, on his part, excommunicated 
 the cardinal, and declared him unworthy to hold 
 any dignity in the church. But after Felix had 
 renounced the papacy in favour of Nicholas V. 
 the lawful successor of Eugenius, this pontiff 
 received the cardinal of Aries to his communion, 
 restored to him his dignities, and sent him as his 
 lep^ate into Lower Germany. On his return 
 Aleman retired to his diocese, where he was 
 usefully employed in endeavouring to reform the 
 clergy, and instructing the people. He died at 
 Salon in the year 1450, and was afterwards 
 canonised. With the virtues of an ecclesiastic 
 he united the talents of a statesman. Nouv. 
 Diet. Hist. Jlforcri. — E. 
 
 ALEMAN, Louis Augustine, a gram- 
 marian and historian, advocate of Grenoble, 
 where he was born in 1653, pr'fted In French 
 " Remarks of M. de Vaugelas on the French 
 Language," v\ith a preface containing his own 
 observations. He afterwards wrote, "New Ob- 
 servations, or a Civil War in France upon Lan- 
 guage," printed in i2ino, at Paris, in 1683: 
 " The Monastic History of Ireland," in 121110, 
 Paris, 1 690; and, " An Historical Journal of
 
 ALE 
 
 ( 148 ) 
 
 ALE 
 
 Mo 
 
 oren. 
 
 Nouv. 
 
 Europe for the Year 1694. 
 Diet. His/.-'E. 
 
 AL1.MHERT, John i.e Rond d', a cc- 
 Icbratcil French philosopher and mathematician, 
 ami an c!.-gant writer, was born at Paris on the 
 i6rh of November, 1717. He came into the 
 WdilJ under the disadvantage of illegitimate 
 birth, and was exposed as a foundling by his 
 mother, who is said to have been mademoiselle 
 'Icnciii, sister of die abbe, afterwards cardinal, 
 Tenein. His sm-namc, dc le Rond, is derived 
 from tiie church near which he wai exposed. 
 He owed his life to the humanity of the overseer 
 of the quarter, who put him to nurse to the wite 
 of a gla-/.ier. Information of the situation of 
 the child being communicated to his father 
 Destouches Canon, b.e listened to the voice 
 of natjre and duty, and took measures for his 
 future subsistence and education. 
 
 The genius of D'Alembert did not wait the 
 maturity of age to display its powers. When 
 he was only ten years old, his school-master de- 
 clared, that he had nothing further to teach him. 
 He was sent to finish his education at the col- 
 lege of ]\Ia7,arin, where his attainments raised 
 him to the first distinction. Early in his acade- 
 mic cour-e his attention was directed to theolo- 
 gy ; and he composed a " Commentary on the 
 Epistle of Paul to the Romans," which raised 
 in the Janscnists an expectation that D'Alem- 
 bert would prove an able champion to their 
 cause, and might even become a second Pas- 
 chal. His penetrating intellect, however, found 
 more satisfaction in the demonstrative reason- 
 ings of mathematicians than in die vague dispu- 
 tations of theological controversialists ; and he, 
 at this time, acquired a predilection tor mathe- 
 matical studies, which remained with him 
 through life. 
 
 Retaining a grateful attacliment to the asylum 
 of his infancy and childhood, and desiring no- 
 thing more than a quiet retreat, where he might 
 prosecute his studies in tranquillity, D'Alembert, 
 upon leaving the college, took up his residence 
 in the family of his nurse, the only family 
 ■which he could consider as his own. Here he 
 lived many years in great simplicity of inanners, 
 esteeming himself happy in contributing, as his 
 fortunes improved, to the comfortable subsistence 
 of those, whose kind attentions had, during his 
 early years, supplied the place of parental af- 
 fection. His worthy hostess, not having en- 
 joyed the advantages of education, was not 
 aware how great a man she had fostered ; and, 
 though she frequently heard him mentioned as 
 the author of books which were admired, she 
 still regarded him as an object of compassion. 
 
 " You will never," said she one day to him, "be 
 
 anv thing but a philosopher; and what is aphilo- 
 phcr but a Ibol, who toils and plagues liimself, 
 that people mav talk of him after he is dead f" 
 
 In order to enlarge his means o! comforcab'e 
 subsistence, D'Alembert at first turned hia 
 .thoughts to the law, and took his degrees in tiint 
 profession. Finding tliiseinploymeiit unsuitable 
 to his inclination, he next applied to the study of 
 medicine. But his fondness for inathematics 
 rose superior to everv other consideration ; and 
 rather than deny jiimself the gratification of fol- 
 lowing, without restraint, the strong bias ot his 
 minJ towards these studies, he chose to decline 
 the benefit of any lucrative profession. 
 
 At the age of twenty-four, in tlie year 1741, 
 the original genius of D'Alembert for mathema- 
 tical investigation appeared in a masterly correc- 
 tion of the errors of Reyneau's " Analyse De- 
 montiCe," a work of high repute in analytics ; 
 and this work, in concurrence with his general 
 reputation for uncommon talents, obtained him 
 an honourable admission into the academy oi" 
 sciences. He now applied himself with great 
 assiduity to the solution of the problem concern-- 
 ing the motion and path of a body which passes 
 obliquely from a rarer into a denser fluid. This 
 inquiry led him into general speculations on the 
 forces of moving bodies, which produced " A 
 Treatise on Dynamics," [Traite de Dyna- 
 mlque] 4to. Paris, 1744, 1758, first published 
 in 1743." In this treatise, the author establishes 
 an equality at each instant between the changes 
 which the motion of a body has undergone, and 
 the forces or powers which have been employed 
 to produce them ; in other words, he separates 
 into two parts the action of the moving powers, 
 and considers the one as producing alone the 
 motion of the body in the second instant, and 
 the other as einployed to destroy that which it had 
 in the first. This principle he afterwards ap- 
 plied to the theory of equilibrium, and to the 
 motion of fluids : and all the problems, before 
 reiolved in physics, became, in some measure, 
 its corollaries. The discovery of this new prin- 
 ciple was followed by that of a new calculus, 
 the first applications of which appeared in "A 
 Discourse on the general Theory of the Winds," 
 [Reflexions sur la Cause generale des Vents] 
 4to. Pari', 1747. which, in 1746, obtained the 
 prize-medal in the academy of Berlin. This 
 society was so fully satisfied of the merit of this 
 discourse, that they elected him an honorary 
 member. It happened at this time, that the 
 king of Prussia terminated a glorious campaign 
 by an honourable peace. D'Alembert availed 
 himself of this fortunate circumstance, and de-
 
 ALE 
 
 ( H9 ) 
 
 ALE 
 
 dicated his work to the king in these three Latin 
 verses: 
 
 ttax c^o dp ventis, dum ventornm ocyor alls 
 l'u];uiU-s a^it Auslrfacos I-'redericus, ct oibi, 
 Insignis lauro, raniuin prxtcndil olivir. 
 
 Swifter th-jii vind, vliMe of tlic winds I write, 
 Tlie foes of coiiqu'ritt;; Frederic tjiecd their lli^'.it ; 
 While laiiicl o'er (lie Ju-ro's temple bentis, 
 To the tix'd Morld the olive branch lie sends. 
 
 Flattered by this dedication, Frederic senthiin 
 ii polite letter, and from this time ranked liim 
 among his philosophical friends. — His new 
 " Calculus of Partial Differences," D'Alem- 
 bert, in 1747, applied to the subjects of sounds, 
 and vibrating chords. He afterwards employed 
 his principle concerning motion, in explaining 
 the motion ofany body of a gi\en figure. In 1749 
 lie resolved the problem of the precession of the 
 equinoxes, determining its quantity, and ex- 
 pkiining the phaenoinenon ot the nutation of the 
 terrestrial axis discovered by Dr. Bradley ; " Re- 
 cherches sur la Precession dcs Equinoxes, et 
 sur la Nutation de I'Axe de la Terre dans le Sy- 
 steme Newtonien," 410. Paris, 1749; and, in 
 1752, he published a treatise, containing much 
 original matter, under the title, " An Essay to- 
 wards a New Theory of the Motion of the 
 Fluids," [Essais d'une nouvelle Theorie du 
 Mouvement des Fluides] 410. Paris, 1752. In 
 the same year he published, " Elements of Mu- 
 sic," upon the principles of Rameau ; an excel- 
 lent abridgnient of that author's doctrines. About 
 the same time appeared, in the Memoirs of the 
 Academy of Berlin, " Pvcsearches concerning 
 the Integral Calculus." Other pieces, pub- 
 lished at various times in the Memoirs of the 
 Academies of Paris and Berlin, were after- 
 wards collected under t!ie title of " Opus- 
 cules Matiii;inatiques," pf.blished at Paris in 
 nine volumes 410. in 1773, or " Memoirs on 
 various Subjects of Geometry, Mechanics, Op- 
 tics, and Astronomy," from the year 1761 to 
 1773. D'Alembert also wrote "Researches on 
 several important Points of the System of the 
 World." [Recherches surdiffcrens Points impor- 
 tan; du Systeme du Monde] 3 vols. 4to, Paris, 
 1754, 1756. These numerous and original pro- 
 ductions, in various branches of mathematical 
 science, entitle D'Alembert to rank among the 
 most celebrated mathematicians of the age. He 
 has had the merit of adding a new calculus, or 
 method of performing mathematical investiga- 
 tions and resolutions, to those of the last age, 
 and new branches of the science of motion to 
 those discovered by Galileo, Huygens, and 
 Newton. 
 
 With the character of an eminent mathema- 
 tician, D'Alembert united that of a polite scho- 
 lar. Genius, judgment, and elegant taste are 
 happily displayed in his miscellaneous works, 
 and he is justly regarded in France as one of the 
 first writers of that nation. He is generally un- 
 derstood to have been the first projector of that 
 vast undertaking, to which the world has been 
 much indehti-d for the diffusion of knowledge, 
 " The Encvclopx'dia." This work was begun 
 in 1750 by D'Alembert, Voltaire, Diderot, and 
 many other learned men. The work is enriched 
 by many valuable articles in mathematics, his- 
 tory, and polite literature, from the pen of 
 D'Alembert : and it may be remarked, to the 
 credit of his judgment, that his style is always 
 suited to his subject, and that he ne\ er assumes 
 the language of poetry in scientific discussions. 
 To him the public is indebted for the excellent 
 preliminary discourse of the Encyclopffidia ; 
 and the vestibule of this superb edifice will re- 
 main a lasting monument of his genius and 
 good sense: it is an elegant dissertation, in 
 which are united strength and harmonv, learn- 
 ing and taste, just thinking, and fine writing.. 
 The general table which he gives ot human 
 knowledge, discovers a comprehensive, well* 
 informed, and methodical mind ; and the judg- 
 ments, which he passes upon writers who have 
 contributed to the improvement of science, are 
 worthy of an enlightened and impartial philoso- 
 pher. D'Alembert displayed his fine talents in 
 many other literary productions. His "Transla- 
 tion of select Parts of Tacitus, [Traduction de 
 oKsrs Morccaux de Tacite] in 2 vols. i2mo, 
 afford an elegant specimen of his learning. His 
 " Memoirs of Christina, Queen of Sweden," is 
 a masterly piece of biographical writing. In 
 this work the author shows that he understood 
 the natural riglits of mankind, and that he had 
 the courage to assert them. His " Essav on the 
 Alliance between the Learned and the Great," 
 gravely, but keenly, satirises the mean servility 
 of the fonner, and the insolent tyranny of the 
 latter. A lady of high rank, hearing the author 
 accused of having exaggerated the despotism ot 
 the great, and the submission which they re- 
 quire from those who arc honoured with their 
 patronage, said smartly, " \i he had consulted 
 me, I could have told him still more of the mat- 
 ter." These pieces, together with other essays 
 on subjects of polite literature ; " E!oge.>" on 
 Bernoulli, Terrasson, Montesquieu, IVIalkt, and 
 Dumarsais ; and " Elements of Philo.sophy," 
 were about die year 1760 collected into five vo- 
 lumes, and published lU'-der the title of " Me- 
 langes de Literature, d'Histoire, et dt Philoso-
 
 ALE 
 
 ( 150 ) 
 
 ALE 
 
 pliie," 5 vols. i2mo. [Literary, Historical and 
 Philosophical Miscellanies.] 
 
 In 1765, D'Alcmbtrt puWishcd a piece "On 
 the Destruction of the Jesuits," [Dc la Destruc- 
 tion dcs Jesuites] in i2mo, Paris, 1765, in 
 which he treats with nearly equal severity the 
 Jesuits and their adversaries. He gives a large 
 collection of epigrams occasioned by the tall 
 of this body, with some of his own. This woi Ic 
 treats the disciples of Ignatius Loyola with so 
 miicli insulting contempt, that it may not impro- 
 perly be said of the author, "Non riJct, sed ir- 
 ridet." [He deals in derision rather than ridicule. ] 
 D'Alembert excelled in panegyric no less than 
 satire. Upon his election, in 1772, to the of- 
 fice of secretary to the French acadeiny, he con- 
 tinued the " History of tlie Academy," published 
 by Messrs. Pelisson and D'OIivet, by writing in 
 (he form of elogcs, or panegyrics, " An His- 
 tory of those Members of the French Academy 
 who died between the Years 1700 and 177 i," 
 [Histoire des Membrcs de 1' Academie Fran^oise, 
 molts depuis I700jusqu'en 177 i] 6 vols. i2mo, 
 Paris, 1787. This collection, notwithstanding 
 some inequalities of style, is justly admired ; it 
 abounds with lively portraits, amusing anec- 
 dotes, ingenious parallels, and fine reflections. 
 
 While D'Alembert confined himself chiefly 
 to mathematical studies, he remained in compa- 
 rative obscurity ; and his uncommon talents as 
 a man of genius and wit were known only to a 
 small circle of friends. As soon, however, as 
 he embarked in the great design of publishing an 
 Encyclopedia, he attracted a large share of 
 public attention ; and, with some obloquy, on 
 account of the freedom of several articles of the 
 work, obtained, as he proceeded, high reputa- 
 tion for the knowledge and talents which, in 
 common with his colleagues, he discovered. 
 His company was now sought by the great, and 
 his literary merit was thought sufficient to enti- 
 tle him to royal patronage. Through the in- 
 terest of the minister, count D'Argenson, the 
 king, in 1756, granted him a pension of twelve 
 hundred livres. In 1762, the empress of Rus- 
 sia invited him to undertake the education of her 
 son, the grand-duke, accompanying the invita- 
 tion with an offer of a salary of an hundred 
 thousand livres, and other considerable privi- 
 leges. This flattering proposal, D'Alembert's 
 attachment to his friends and his country, and 
 his fondness for literary leisure, would not permit 
 him to accept. Though it was urged a second 
 time, by a letter written by the empress's own 
 hand, he still persisted in his refusal. The next 
 year another, perhaps more enticing though less 
 lucrative, oflFer was made him by the king of 
 
 Prussia. That illustrious philosoplier, and pa- 
 tron of philosophers, invited D'Alembert to ineet 
 him at Wesel after the peace of 1763, and, oa 
 the first interview, affectionately embraced him. 
 The kir.g's first question was, " Do the mathe- 
 matics furnish anv method of calculating politi- 
 cal probabilities?" To which the geometriciaii 
 replied, " That he was not acquainted with any 
 method of this kind, but that if any such exist- 
 ed, it could be of no use to a hero, who could 
 conquer against all probability." 7"he king, 
 who would, doubtless, be gratified by such a 
 compliment, and who was already well ac- 
 quainted with the talents of D'Alembert, made 
 him an offer of the presidency of the academy 
 of Berlin, vacant by the death of Maupertuis. 
 The ferment which had lately been excited in 
 France by some articles in the Encyclopffidia, 
 especially that of Geneva, and the odium which 
 had particularly fallen upon himself, mighthave 
 furnished a good reason for seeking a peaceful 
 asylum in the court of a philosophical prince. 
 D'Alembert, however, chose to decline the of- 
 fer ; and the king, far from being displeased at 
 the refusal, maintained a friendly correspon- 
 dence with him as long as he lived. The letters 
 which passed between them will be found in 
 " The Posthumous Works of the King of 
 Prussia." This correspondence, together with 
 that which he carried on with Voltaire and other 
 philosophers ; the constant intercourse which he 
 had with illustrious persons at home, and with 
 learned foreigners ; his influence in the academy 
 of sciences, and, above all, in the French aca- 
 demy, of which, after the death of Duclos in 
 1772, he was secretary, were circumstances 
 which concurred to give importance to the cha- 
 racter which D'Alembert, during the latter part 
 of his life, sustained in the republic of letters. 
 And, though his enemies called him the Ma'z.a- 
 rin of literature, candour requires us to believe, 
 that he owed his influence less to artful manage- 
 ment and supple address, than to the esteem 
 which his talents and virtues inspired. His 
 aversion to superstition and priest-craft carried 
 him, it is true, into the region of infidelity ; and 
 his enmity to the Jesuits and the clergy pro- 
 duced in him a degree of hostility against the 
 religion of his country, which sometiines ob- 
 liged even the philosopher Frederic to read him 
 a lesson of moderation. The eccentricity of 
 his opinions did not, however, destroy the vir- 
 tues of his heart. A love of truth, and a zeal 
 for the progress of science and freedom formed 
 the basis ot his character; strict probity, a no- 
 ble disinterestedness, and an habitual desire of ob- 
 liging were its distinguishing features. Many
 
 ALE 
 
 ( 
 
 151 
 
 ) 
 
 ALE 
 
 yoims; people, who iliscovercd talents for science 
 and learning, found in him a patron and guide. 
 To wonliy men, even in adversity and perse- 
 cution, he was a firm and courageous friend. 
 To those who had shown him kindne.'^s, he ne- 
 ver ceased to be gratetul. Gratitude induced 
 him to dedicate two of his works to two mini- 
 steis, when they were in disgrace, tlie count 
 D'Argenson, to whom he liad owed his pension, 
 and the marqui'i D'Argenson, who had given 
 him many proofs of respect and esteem. When, 
 in early life, mad. de Tencin, informed of his 
 singular talents, came to him, and fondlv ca- 
 ressing him, discovered to him the secret of his 
 birth, " What do you tell me, madam ?" he 
 cried out : " Ah, you are but a step-mother ; it is 
 the glazier's wife who is my motiier!" Through 
 life he retained for his nurse the affectionate sen- 
 sibility of a grateful son. He remained in her 
 house near thirty years, and did not leave it, till, 
 in 1765, after a long illness, his physician repre- 
 sented to him the necessity of removing to a more 
 airy lodging. His health being recruited, he 
 continued to occupy iiis honourable station among 
 philosophers till the 29th of October 1 783, when, 
 in the sixty-sixth year of his age, he expired ; 
 leaving behind him the reputation of amiable 
 virtues, and eminent talents. Perhaps no cha- 
 racter has ever appeared, which has more com- 
 pletely exemplified the union of strong mathe- 
 matical genius with an elegant taste for polite li- 
 terature. Eloge de J. le Rond d' Alcmbert par 
 JH. Condorcet, dans l' HiUoire de V Acad. Frang. 
 1783. 'Nouv. Diet. Hist. Supplem. to Hut- 
 ion's Mathem. Diet. — E. 
 
 ALESSI, Galeazzo, a very celebrated ar- 
 chitect, was born at Perugia in 1500. He rose 
 to such eminence in his profession, that he was 
 applied to Irom France, Spain, and Germany, 
 to give plans, not only for churches and pa- 
 laces, but for public fountains, baths, &c. in 
 which he exhibited a great fertility of invention. 
 He acquired the greatest reputation by his plan 
 for the monastery and church of the Escurial, 
 which was preferred to those of the ablest archi- 
 tects in Europe. Many cities in Italy are adorned 
 with his structures; but none so much as Ge- 
 noa, which is one of the reasons why it has ob- 
 tained the name of the superb. Alessi died in 
 1572. He is said to have possessed a great 
 fund of knowledge, and to have been very ca- 
 pable of managing the most important affairs. 
 Nouv. Diet. Hist. — A. 
 
 ALEXANDER the Great, a man who 
 perhaps has attained a larger share of that fame 
 which is associated with great events, considered 
 independently of moral excellence, than any 
 
 other mortal, was the son of Philip, king of 
 Maccdon, by his wile Olympias, daughter of 
 NeGptoleiTii;s, king of Epirus. He was born at 
 Pella, in the first year of the io6tIi Olympiad, 
 and the 356th before the Christian aera. (Uni- 
 vers. Hist. vol. viii, %\licrc this date is deduced 
 from the testimony of Aristobuhis in Arrian, 
 concerning his age at his death.) It was his 
 good fortune to he contemporary with some of 
 the greatest men Greece ever produced, and to 
 have a father sensible of the benefits of educa- 
 tion, and wise enough to make a proper choice 
 of preceptors for his son. The young Alexan- 
 der was placed under the care of Leonidas, a 
 man of strict morals, his mother's relation: his 
 first preceptor was Lysimachr.s, an Acarna- 
 nian ; and as soon as he was of an age capable 
 of receiving philosophical instruction, the great 
 Aristotle became his tutor, and appears in a high 
 degree to have engaged the esteem of his pupil. 
 An early fondness for the poems of Homer was 
 probably, however, what gave the decisive turn 
 of his mind to military glory. The character 
 of Achilles served him for a model ; and, during 
 his whole life, he displayed a passionate regard 
 for the works of that illustrious bard. Many 
 stories are told of the early tokens he exhibited 
 of a strong and elevated inind, destined to great 
 actions. Of these, one of the most characteris- 
 tic is the account of his conversation, when no 
 more than seven years of age, with Artabazus 
 and other refugees from the court of Artaxcrxes. 
 AiBong his questions to them concerning Per- 
 sia were, " What was its military strength ; the 
 arms and courajre of its soldiers ; the swiftness 
 of its horses ; tlie character and manners of the 
 king; and the iiumher of days' -mareh from Ma- 
 eedonia to Susa f" (Plutarch, dcVit. Alexandr.) 
 It is said, too, that on being flattered on account 
 of his swiftness in running, and told that he 
 ought to enter his name among the competitors 
 at the Olympic games, he replied, " I would, 
 were I to have kings for antagonists." He was 
 much addicted to manly and martial exercises, 
 and particularly to the art of horsemanship; re- 
 specting which, a story is related of the ;kill and 
 courage he showed in breaking the famous horse 
 Bucephalus, whotn none of his grooms could 
 venture to mount. On this occasion his father 
 was so much delighted, that, tenderly embrac- 
 ing him, he bid him " look out for a larger 
 country to govern, for that Macedonia was not 
 capable of containing him." His youth was 
 not only distinguished by these murks of an en- 
 terprising spirit, but by the rarer qualities of tein-' 
 perance, chastity, and self-command. He was 
 much attached to his mother, and took her part
 
 ALE 
 
 ( 15^ ) 
 
 ALE 
 
 ill a spirited manner, when the iliffcrcnces be- 
 tween her aiul ]iis fatlici arose to sucli a height, 
 as to occasion her divorce. In consequence ot 
 this event, a mutual ahenation took place be- 
 tween the father and son : and it is probable that 
 ilicv were never aftcr«-ards thoroughly recon- 
 ciled ; a suspicion continually jivevailing in the 
 minds of Alexander and liis mother, that Phi- 
 lip would some time disinherit him in favour of 
 one of his younger children by another wife. 
 
 Before this pcuv.ii, I'hilip.'on undertaking the 
 siege of Bvzantium, had entrusted his son, tlien 
 only sixteen, with the uncontroulcd government 
 of Macedonia; which gave him the opportunity 
 of indulging his warlike disposition by march- 
 ing against Viie revolted Mtdnri, a subject peo- 
 ple ot" 'i'hracc. His father afterwards employed 
 him in reducing vaiious towns of the Clicrso- 
 nesc. Soon alter, when the Greek mercenaries 
 in Philip's annv, on their march through the 
 country of the Triballi, mutinied against him, 
 and, in an affray, liad beaten him from his horse 
 and wounded him, Alexander, rushing for- 
 wards, protected him with his shield, and diove 
 hack the assailants, so as to save his father's 
 life. The famous battle of Chaeronea, between 
 Philip on one side, and the Atlienians and The- 
 hans on tlie other, ensued in the eighteenth year 
 of Alexander's life ; in which combat the young 
 prince, by his fierce attack on the Theban le- 
 gion, contributed greatly to the victory. 
 
 After the open breach between Alexander and 
 his father, on account of the repudiation of 
 Olvnipias, the prince retired into Epirus w'ith 
 his mother ; but Philip did not long suffer him 
 to continue there, but recalled, and was appa- 
 rently reconciled to him. That powerful and 
 ainbitious monarch was now in full preparation 
 for his ex]'edition into Asia against the Great 
 King, for which purpose he had procured him- 
 self to be declared supreme commander of the 
 united forces of Greece. But, when just upon 
 the point of entering upon his undertaking, he 
 was cut off by the hand of Pausanias, whom he 
 liad mortally injured. Alexander and his modier 
 incurred some suspicion of being privy to this 
 conspiracy ; however, it does not seem neces- 
 sary to call in the supposition of tluir instiga- 
 tion in order to account for the deed ; and it is 
 certain that the first act of Alexander's reign 
 yvas to execute justice on his father's mur- 
 derers. 
 
 It was in his twentieth year diat Alexander, 
 without opposition, succeeded to the throne of 
 Macedon. His youth, at first, excited an in- 
 clination in several of states of Greece to throw 
 off the yoke of the Macedonian usurpation ; 
 
 and Attalus, coinmander of tlie army on the 
 frontiers of Asia, endeavoured to engage the 
 soldiers in his own interest as com])etitor for the 
 crown. But Alexander, by a sudden march in- 
 to Thessaly, overawed the Greeks, so that they 
 declared him his father's successor in the gene- 
 ralship of the whole nation ; and, by means of 
 a conhdential emissary, he caused Attalus to be 
 put to death. 
 
 Being now confirmed in the regal authority, he 
 began liis military career with an expedition in- 
 to Thrace ; in which he penetrated across mount 
 Hiemus into the country of the Triballians, (the 
 modern Bulgaria) whom he defeated, and drove 
 beyond the Ister or Danube. He followed them, 
 and engaged with the Gets, a barbarous nation, 
 wlio inhabited the country on the othei' side. 
 While encamped in these parts, he received em- 
 bassies from various circumjacent people, among 
 w liom were the Celtes, a brave and high-spirited 
 race, who manifested little dread of his arms. 
 With these and the otlier neighbouring tribes he 
 made a peace; and set out on his return, after 
 having rather displayed his valour and military 
 skill in this enterprise, dian gained any solid ad- 
 vantages. In his march he was drawn aside by 
 a revolt of the Illyrians, under Clytus, who was 
 supported by Glaucias, king of the Taulantians. 
 These he defeated with great slaughter, and drove 
 to the mountains. 
 
 Meantime a report of his death excited great 
 commotions in Greece, chiefly from the insti- 
 gation of Demosdienes, the inveterate foe of 
 the Macedonian domination. The city of 
 Thebes openly revolted, and having put to death 
 two chief commanders of the Macedonian gar- 
 rison, prepared to besiege the citadel. The in- 
 telligence of these events caused Alexander to 
 hasten his march into Greece ; and such was his 
 expedition, that he passed the straits of Ther- 
 mopylffi and entered Bceotia before the Thebans 
 were undeceived as to his death. He appeared 
 willing to give them time to recollect themselves ; 
 but their resolution and love of freedom prompted 
 them to stand a siege, in which the city was 
 taken by storm, with a dreadful slaughter of the 
 inliahitants. So much was Alexander incensed, 
 that he sold all the remaining people for slaves, 
 divided their lands among his soldiers, and rased 
 all the private buildings, sparing only the house 
 in which the poet Pindar had dwelt. This in- 
 stance of severity struck all the rest of Greece 
 with terror, and gave a complete superiority to 
 his party in all the towns. Athens signahsed it- 
 self by the meanness of its submission ; and, in 
 return, was treated with great lenity by Alexan- 
 der, who, at the recjuest of the Athenians, de-
 
 ALE 
 
 ( 153 ) 
 
 ALE 
 
 slsted from his demand of delivering up to him 
 Demostlienes and the other most distinguished 
 orators and demagogues. Having reduced Greece 
 to a state of tranquiUity, he repaired to Corinth, 
 where, at a general assembly of the states, his 
 office of supreme commander was recognised 
 and defined. At JEgs: he held a grand council 
 of war to determine on his expedition into Asia, 
 in which his own ardent desire was probably the 
 deciding argument. Great enteitainments and 
 festivities succeeded, with munificent gifts to his 
 principal officers, out of the crown revenues in 
 Macedonia. His character now seemed to de- 
 velope itself, and to exhibit that turn for every 
 thing vast, magnificent, and excessive, whether 
 laudable or otherwise, for which it was after- 
 wards so conspicuous. An answer that he made 
 to one who asked the cause of his wonderful 
 success in quieting the dangerous tmnults in 
 Greece, is worth recording. " It was, (said 
 he) by delaying nothing." 
 
 At this juncture Darius III. sirnamed Codo- 
 mannus, reigned in Persia, raised to that emi- 
 nence by Bagoas the eunuch, after the destruc- 
 tion of Ochus, his son Arses, and all their fa 
 milies. Darius was related to the royal line, and 
 was reckoned not unworthy of the diadem, hav- 
 ing displayed his valour in a war against the Ca- 
 dusians. He is accounted the tenth of the Per- 
 sian monarchs from Cyrus ; and the empire, 
 founded by that conqueror, had now lasted about 
 two hundred and thirty years. But the usual 
 consequences of success, luxury and effemi- 
 nacy, had deeply impressed the character of the 
 once hardy Persians ; and the strength of their 
 armies now consisted in foreign mercenaries. 
 After the news of Philip's death, contempt of the 
 Youth of Alexander had infused a vain security 
 into the mind of the Great King; ; but the mili- 
 tary reputation acquired by the young prince 
 soon made him an object of different emotions. 
 To prevent the coming danger, Memnon the 
 Rhodian, a commander of approved talents and 
 fidelity, was sent with an army, chiefly of 
 Greeks, to occupy Cyzicus; but he was unable 
 to take the place by surprise, as he had expected. 
 IMeantime, the generals of Alexander advanc- 
 ing, the two armies held each other in check. 
 
 It was in the twenty- second year of his age, 
 B. C. 334, that Alexander crossed the Helles- 
 pont into Asia. The army he took with him 
 on this mighty enterprise amounted to no more 
 than about thirty tliousand foot and five thousand 
 horse. (Arrian, Diodorus Siculus, and Plu- 
 tarch.) The gieater part of these were cm- 
 harked at Scstos, but the king himself sailed 
 irvm Eleus. Various sacrifices, divinations, 
 VOL. 1. 
 
 and other religious ceremonies, preceded un(^ 
 followed his transit; for superstition was a di 
 stinguislied feature in tlic character of this ex- 
 traordinary man. At Ilium, to which he first 
 marched, he gratified his feelings of every kind 
 by sacrificing to the heroes buried there during 
 the siege of Troy, and likewise to thenianes of 
 Priam, in order to divert his dis|)leasure at!;ainst 
 one who claimed descent from Achilles, and was 
 going to subvert another Asiatic empire. The 
 Persians, in this interval, had assembled an ar- 
 my in Phrvgia ; and, contiary to the advice of 
 the experienced Memnon, determined to wait 
 the invader on the banks of the Granicus. Very 
 different statements are given of their numbers ; 
 but Arrian, whose authority seems the best, 
 reckons them at no more than twenty thousand 
 foot and as many horse. The Persians, hav- 
 ing the advantage of the situation, made a very 
 spirited resistance while the Macedonians were 
 crossing the river and ascending its steep banks, 
 but at length they were driven away, and routed 
 with great slaughter. Alexander exposed him- 
 self to the greatest personal hazards, and nar- 
 rowly escaped with his life, especially, wlien, 
 impelled by his impetuous valour, he rushed in- 
 to the midst of a body of Greek mercenaries, 
 who, on the retreat, had withdrawn to an emi- 
 nence. Twenty-five of his own guards were 
 killed ; but upon the whole his loss was very 
 inconsiderable. 
 
 The immediate consequence of this victory- 
 was the possession of all (he country southwards 
 as far as the Hermus, and Sardis, the cliiet town 
 of Lydia, \^ hither he marched. Thence he pro- 
 ceeded to Ephesus, and restored there the demo- 
 cratical form of government, as he did to all tlie 
 Greek cities on the coast of Lesser Asia. He 
 next besieged and took Miletus, at which place 
 he dismissed his fleet; an extraordinary mea- 
 sure, imputed to liis want of money tor paying 
 his mariners, and his distrust of the issue of na- 
 val engagements. It was likewise his intention 
 to take all the sea-ports by land; and, in conse- 
 quence, he proceeded to lay siege to the strong 
 town of Halicarnassus. In this place Memnon 
 had thrown himself with a numerous garrison ; 
 and he defended it with so much skill and resolu- 
 tion, that much blood was shed and time spent 
 in the attack. At lengdi, however, it was aban- 
 doned by the Persians, who first set it on hrc. 
 Tralles was next taken by Alexander and le- 
 velled with the ground. Alinda was surrendered 
 to him by Ada, who claimed the title of queen, 
 and whom Alexander received into favour, and 
 constituted governess-general of all Caria — a 
 piece of generous policy, which atterwards in- 
 
 X
 
 ALE 
 
 ( «54 ) 
 
 ALE 
 
 ducccl many of the satraps and prlncts of Lesser 
 Asia to lorsake the Persian interest, and put 
 themselves under iiis protection. At the ap- 
 proacii of winter he sent some of liis officers 
 into Macedonia to raise recruits ; suffering tliem 
 to lead with them all tlie new-married soldiers 
 of his army, that tiiey might pass the interval 
 ■with their wives. By this permission he liighlv 
 ingr.itialed himself with his people. About this 
 time a conspiracy against the life of Alexander 
 was discovered and jirevented, carried on by 
 Alexandei-, the son of yEropus, general of the 
 Thessalian horse, who lield a correspondence 
 \\ ith an officer of Darius. 
 
 On tiie approach of spring, Alexander pro- 
 ceeded on iiis march along the sea-coast of Ly- 
 cia and Painphylia, taking possession of the prin- 
 cipal towns as he passed. Thence he marclied 
 northwards througii Phrygia ; and, having as- 
 sembled his whole army at Gordium, where he 
 is said with his sword to have cut through the 
 knot, to the loosening of wliich the hite of Asia 
 was attaciied, he entered Galatia at Ancyra, and 
 reduced the province of Cappadocia, as far as 
 the river Halys. He then returned towards the 
 sea, and, marching through Cilicia, took pos- 
 session of Tarsus. In this place, either in con- 
 sequence of fatigue, or of bathing in the cold 
 waters of the Cydnus, he fell into a disease 
 which brought him into imminent danger of his 
 life. This gave occasion to a noted display of 
 the heroism of his character. His physician 
 Philip, having prepared a medicine of dubious 
 operation, suited to the urgency of the case, 
 brought it to him at the instant that he had re- 
 ceived a letter from Parmenio, intimating his 
 suspicions that Philip was bribed by Darius to 
 give him poison. Alexander read the letter and 
 then gave it to Philip, at the same time taking 
 Irom him the medicine, which he drank up with 
 an air of perfect security, his eyes steadily fixed 
 upon his physician. His noble confidence was 
 repaid by a speedy cure, which succeeded a tem- 
 porary struggle from the effects of the remedy ; 
 and the skill and honesty of Philip received the 
 most ample rewards. 
 
 On his recovery, hearing that Darius was ad- 
 vancing against him through Syria, he marched 
 to meet him as far asMyriandrus ; but Darius, 
 passing the straits of mount Amanus, came 
 down behind Alexander to Issus on the sea-coast. 
 A battle was now inevitable. Alexander turned 
 back, and the two armies met near Issus. Tbat 
 pfDarius was extremely numerous, consisting, 
 it is said, of six hundred thousand men, among 
 whom were thirty thousand Greek mercenaries. 
 But tliis vast multitude was of little use in a 
 
 close and broken country, which allowed no room 
 for the display of liis numerous cavalry. The ac- 
 tion which ensued was for some time welldisputed, 
 and Alexander, who made a fierce attack upon 
 the person of Darius, received a wound in the 
 thigh. At length tlie Persian emperor fled, and 
 drew with him his whole army in disorderly rout. 
 A dreadful carnage took place ; and the tent of 
 Darius, with his mother, wife, and daughters, 
 came into the possession oi the conqueror. Alex- 
 ander acquired as much glory by his polite and ge- 
 nerous treatment of tlie illustrious captives, as he 
 had done by his valour in the field. On this oc- 
 casion, too, he gave a celebrated proof how ca- 
 pable he was of a sublime friendship ; for, when 
 lie entered the royal tent along with Hephitstion, 
 Sisygambis, the mother of Darius, taking the 
 latter for Alexander, fell at his feet and adored 
 him in the eastern manner. The discovery of 
 her mistake having put her in confusion, Alex- 
 ander respectfully raised her, saying, " Do not 
 be uneasy, inotiier — you were not in the wrong ; 
 for he, too, is Alexander." 
 
 The fruits of this great victory were the sub- 
 mission of several of the neighbouring petty 
 princes and governors, and Alexander's unin- 
 terrupted progress into Syria. Parmenio marched 
 to Damascus, and there possessed himself of 
 the treasures of Darius. Deputies having ar- 
 rived from the famous maritime city of Tyre 
 with offers of submission, Alexander intimated 
 to them his purpose of paying the city a visit, 
 and sacrificing to the Tyrian Hercules. This 
 was very contrary to the wishes of the inhabi- 
 tants, who came to the resolution of not admit- 
 ting a single Macedonian within their gates. 
 Alexander, now flushed with success, was so 
 highly incensed by their refusal, that he imme- 
 diately determined to lay siege to Tyre ; using 
 as an argument with his council for undertaking 
 this difficult task, the necessity of breaking the 
 naval power of the Persians, which would be 
 greatly affected by the subjugation of this port. 
 The siege, therefore, which is one of the most 
 famous in history, commenced, and was carried 
 on during seven months with great variety of 
 fortune, and extraordinary displays of skill and 
 valour on both sides. Tyre being situated in an 
 island, and powerful by sea, there was no other 
 way of attacking it effectually than by carrying 
 a mole from the continent quite to its walls. Bv 
 means of it the place was at length stormed and 
 utterly destroyed. Alexander, on thi; occasion, 
 sullied his character bv great cruelty towards a 
 people who had only offended him by their brave 
 defence of their country. Besides putting many 
 thousands to the sword on entering the city, he
 
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 ALE 
 
 ( ^55 ) 
 
 A L li 
 
 caused two thousand to be cnicitied, and sold 
 all the remainder for slaves. After desolating 
 the place, he peopled it anew, and boasted of 
 beinr the founder ot a citv which lie had ruined. 
 This event took place B. C. 332. 
 
 It was after the reduction o( Tyre that the 
 flate of a splendid event in Jewish history, re- 
 lating to Alexander, is placed. Offended \\ ith 
 the Jews tor the supplies ot provisions they had 
 sent to the Tyrians, he is said to have marched 
 towards Jerusalem with the resolution of chas- 
 tising them. On his approach. Jaddua the high 
 priest, arrayed in his pontifical habit, with the 
 jiriests in their sacred vestments, and the people 
 clad in white, met him at some distance from the 
 city. Alexander, when the high priest came up 
 to him, bowed himself, and paid religious ado- 
 ration ; and, being asked the reason of this un- 
 expected demeanour by Parmenio, answered, 
 that the figure of a person thus habited had ap- 
 peared to him at Dium in Macedonia, and as- 
 sured him of the divine aid and guidance in his 
 expedition. Alexander afterwards accompanied 
 Jaddua to Jerusalem, sacrificed in the temple, 
 and conferred great favours on the Jewish na- 
 tion. As Josephus is the only historian who re- 
 lates this transaction, which is inconsistent with 
 the accounts of all other writers, and contains, 
 in his narration, some circumstances contradic- 
 tory to known fact, independently of its mar- 
 vellous nature, it is rejected by some of the most 
 judicious modern critics. Otherwise, the im- 
 pression made upon this superstitious prince 
 by an imposing religious solemnity, would 
 not of itself be improbable; and it is not dis- 
 puted that he showed himself in various in- 
 stances friendly to the jews. 
 
 He next proceeded to Gaza, and took it by 
 storm, after a bloody siege, in which he was 
 wounded. Here he again showed his cruelty by 
 the slaughter of numbers of the inhabitants ; 
 as well as a ferocious vanity in dragging the 
 living body of the valiant commander, Betis, 
 round the city, after the example of Achilles. 
 He then proceeded to Egypt. From this en- 
 slaved country he met with no resistance. After 
 making a tour through it, and offering solemn 
 sacrifices at Memphis, he marked out the plan 
 of a city, which has sincexbccome so famous 
 under the name of Alexandria. He next em- 
 ployed himself in a romantic expedition to the 
 temple of Jupiter Ammon, situated in the midst 
 of deserts, on one of those insulated spots of 
 verdure termed Oasis. The flattery of the 
 priests here conferred upon him the title of son 
 of Jupiter, which the intoxication of his fortune 
 •seems to have persuaded him tp understand, in 
 
 some measure, as a reality. Returning to Mcm- 
 l)his, he settled the future government of.Kgvpt, 
 and then proceeded to the general rendezvous of 
 his army at Tyre. Hence he marched toThap- 
 sacus on the Euphrates, which liver he crossed, 
 and likewise tlie Tigris. About this time Sta- 
 tira, the captive queen of Darius, died; and 
 Alexander celebrated her obsequies widi the ut- 
 most magnificence, and consoled her surviving 
 relatives in the most feeling manner. 'J"he ac- 
 count of his conduct on this occasion moved 
 Darius, who had now collected another mighty 
 army, to renew propositions of peace which 
 Alexander had formerly rejected ; and he went 
 so far as to offer him all the provinces between 
 theExiphratcsandthe Hellespont ; but the young 
 conqueror was incapable of listening to any pro- 
 posals which would check his career of glory 
 and ambition. Darius, therefore, waited his ap- 
 proach a little beyond the Tigris, at Gaugame- 
 la, w'.iere was fought the decisive combat (com- 
 monly called the battle of Arbela), which deter- 
 mined the fate of Asia. The Persian host, con- 
 sisting of seven or eight hundred thousand 
 men, though having the advantage of a plain fit 
 for the developement of their cavalry, v^'erc to- 
 tally routed by a very moderate army of Mace- 
 donians, after a feeble resistance. Parmenio, 
 indeed, being encompassed with a large body of 
 the enemy's liorse, was in great danger, till res- 
 cued by Alexander in person. The pursuit was 
 continued with great slaughter to the river I.y- 
 cus, which Alexander crossed, and then ma.''ched 
 to Babylon, which capital was readily surren- 
 dered to him. 
 
 While these events were passing in Asia, the 
 Macedonian power was endangered in Greece. 
 Antipater, Alexander's viceroy, had exercised 
 great vigour in keeping the states in subjection. 
 But, on a rebellion of the governor of Thrace, the 
 Grecians, seising the opportunity of resistance, 
 took up arms, and appointed Agis, king of Lace- 
 dsmon, their general. Antipater, without lo.^ing 
 time, marched against him with a superior and 
 well disciplined arhiy, and, after a very obstinate 
 engagement, defeated and killed him. This en- 
 tirely broke the confederacy, and obliged the 
 Greeks to have recourse to the mercy of the 
 conqueror; and thus the fortune of Alexander 
 prevailed at a distance as well as in his presence, 
 and perhaps in a contest more arduous than that 
 in which he was personally engaged. It is ob- 
 servable, that the Athenians, either through jea- 
 lousy of the Spartans, or dread- of the Mace- 
 donians, on this occasion took part with the lat- 
 ter. 
 
 Susawas the next important stage of Alexan-
 
 ALE 
 
 ( 156 ) 
 
 ALE 
 
 iler's eastern progress, and at this city he took 
 possession of more trtasuies of Daiius. He 
 then, after a sharp resistance, reckceJ the 
 Uxians ; and forcing iii< way, not without 
 mucli difficuhy, through tlic Persian Straits, at 
 length reachccl the famous citv of PersepoHs. 
 This place lie gave to he sacked hy his soldiers, 
 who indicted upon the wretched inhabitants all 
 that military rage and licence could suggest. 
 They loaded themselves with the richest spoils, 
 and the king seised to his own use an immense 
 treasure in money. Soon after, amid the fes- 
 tivities occasioned hy this acquisition, in a fit 
 of drunken furv, and instigated, as is said, by a 
 Grecian harlotj he set fire to the imperial pa- 
 lace, renowned through the east for its splen- 
 dour, and reduced it to a heap of ashes. 
 
 Receiving advice that Darius was still at Ec- 
 butana, the capital of Media, he made a rapid 
 march thither, and arrived soon after lie had 
 quitted it. He still pursued him beyond the 
 Caspian straits, but was at length stopped by 
 the intelligence that the unhajipy monarch had 
 been murdered in a conspiracy of his own sub- 
 jects. Alexander, such is the inconsistency of 
 human nature ! feelinglv bewailed the fate of the 
 man whom he himself had driven to inevitable 
 destruction. He then reduced Hyrcania, and 
 the barren country of the Manlians, and over- 
 came the revolted Arians. 
 
 The natural consequence of all these splen- 
 did successes was, relaxation of discipline and 
 riotous luxury among his troops, and particu- 
 larly his principal officers, whom he had en 
 riched with a lavish hand. They began to 
 split into factions, and to show many tokens of 
 discontent at the conduct and designs of their 
 king. This he aggravated by adopting, at 
 this period, many of the manners and cus- 
 toms of the Persians, and attempting to blend 
 the two nations into an uniform mass of sub- 
 jection — a project justifiable in policy to one 
 who was now become a Persian einperor, but 
 which could not fail of giving disgust. The 
 effects broke out in a formidable coiispiracy 
 against his life, formed in his own camp, the 
 circumstances of which have been handed down 
 with much obscurity. Its discovery, however, 
 involved in t!ie guift Philotas tlie son of Par- 
 menio, a person liigh in trust with Alexander; 
 and, upon his confession, forced by torture, he 
 was put to death Soon after, his father, vvitii 
 true eastern policy, was taken otf in a treache- 
 rous manner ; arkl others were sacrificed to the 
 awakened suspicion of the king. 
 
 This dome tic danger being overcome, he 
 resumed his eastern niarch, cntcied Arachosia, 
 
 passed the mountain Parapomisus 111 a rigorous 
 season, and penetrated into Bactria, which he 
 subdued. He then crossed the river Oxus in 
 pursuit <if Bessus, who had assumed the imperial 
 purple after the murder of Darius, in which he 
 liad been a principal actor. Bessus was here 
 delivered up to Alexander, who sent him to the 
 brother of Darius, by whom he was put to a 
 cruel death. Alexander next inarched to Mara- 
 canda, tiie capital of Sogdiana, and afterwards 
 crossed the laxartes. In these remote regions 
 he had many actions with the barbarous inha- 
 bitants, of whom he destroyed great numbers, 
 taking several of their towns ; but not without 
 loss on his side, and personal danger and hurt. 
 He received ambassadors from the Scythians, 
 and had soine dubious combats with that un- 
 conquerable people. He founded a city in these 
 parts to perpetuate his name, and bridle the na- 
 tives. IMeantiine his manners and character ap- 
 proached more and more to those of an eastern 
 despot. He became arrogant, boastful, and 
 fond of the grossest flattery ; and having at an 
 entertainment been diwarted by the rude free- 
 dom of his old friend and faithful servant Cly- 
 tus, inflamed by rage aird wine, he murdered 
 him widi his own hand. His nature, however, 
 was not yet so debased as to suffer him to com- 
 mit such an action without deep remorse. For 
 three days after he refused food, and gave hiin- 
 self up to the most poignant grief. New adu- 
 lation, however, reconciled him to himself; and 
 the detestable doctrines of Anaxarchus, the 
 sophist, taught him that he ought to obey no. 
 other law bat his will. He was soon induced 
 to claim divine honours ; and Callisthenes, the 
 orator, a man of a free spirit, but haughty arul 
 imprudent, who manifested his contempt of this 
 assumption, severely felt the consequences of 
 Alexander's displeasure. The discovery of a 
 fresh conspiracy against his life by some of his 
 Macedonian pages, further irritated the king's 
 temper. Still his passion for enterprise remained 
 imsated, and at the return of spring he pushed 
 his conquests into the countries to the north- 
 east of Persia, (the seat of the present Usbeck 
 Tartars) and performed several extraordinary 
 exploits in the reduction of fortresses deeined 
 impregnable. In one of these, the daughter of 
 the Sogdlan prince Oxyartes, the famous Rox- 
 ana, fell into his hands, whose charms had such 
 an influence over him that he publicly espoused, 
 her. 
 
 He then marched southward, and by himself 
 and his generals reduced the countries lying on 
 the west of the river Indus (or Sind) ; and at 
 length (B. C. 327.) he cros.ed this celebrated
 
 
 -C^aAi^.-ri, ^f' I vC 
 
 ^^a-n -^^ <:^^/^^A:
 
 ALE 
 
 ( '57 ) 
 
 ALE 
 
 stream, aiul penetrated beyond it to the Hy- 
 daspes. Here lie was op])osed by Porus, a power- 
 ful and valiant Indian king, with a great army, 
 furnished with two hundred war elephants. A 
 battle ensued, in which Porus, after displaying 
 great gallantry, was defeated, and obliged to 
 surrender. Alexander treated him in a manner 
 that did honour to his generosity, restoring him 
 his liberty and kingdom, and converting him 
 huo an useful ally. He built in these parts two 
 cities, and still proceeding, crossed tiie Acesines 
 and Hydraotss, and gained fresh victories over 
 the Indians. The last place he took was the 
 city of Sangala, after which he pre[)ared to pass 
 the Hyphasis ; but here the discontents of his 
 army, at being led from country to country, 
 without any proposed object or termination of 
 their toils, arose to such a height, that, after at- 
 tempting in vam to work upon them by ad- 
 dre ses to their love of glory and plunder, and 
 loyalty to their prince, he was compelled to 
 yield to their desires, and put an end to his pro- 
 gress. He caused twelve altars to be erected of 
 extraordinary si'/e, to mark the limits of his 
 conquests, and offered sacrifices upon them, and 
 exhibited games, according to the Grecian man- 
 ner. Then, making a present of all the con- 
 quered country to Porus, to be annexed to his 
 owndominions, and dividing his armvintotwo 
 parts, he set out on his return. Arriving at the 
 Hydaspes, he made vast preparations for the 
 embarkation of part ot his army on this river, 
 ■with the intention of descending to the Indus. 
 When the fleet was got ready, under the com- 
 mand of Nearchus, he himself went on board, 
 with his light troops, !-en<ling the greater part of 
 his army before, to march along each bank of 
 the river. Many dangers were incurred in the 
 progress, and Alexander di'- embarking, made an 
 expedition against the Malli, who had taken up 
 arms to oppose him. In storming their princi- 
 pal city he met with an adventure which strongly 
 characterises his desperate and romantic valour. 
 Having himself scaled the walls, he leaped down 
 into the city accompanied by only three of his 
 body-guards. The enemies immediately rushed 
 upon this small band, and in the conflict, Alex- 
 ander, fighting with undaunted courage, was 
 wounded, and fell through loss of blood ; while 
 one of his guards was killed, and the two others, 
 covering him with their shields, were dreadfully 
 wounded. From this imminent peril he was at 
 length rescued by his soldiers who burst into 
 the place, and put all the inhabitants to the 
 sword. This danger seemed to endear the king 
 to his soldiers, who expressed the most un- 
 
 bounded joy at sieing him again when reco- 
 vered from his wound. 
 
 Having settled the affairs of the country, and 
 marked a site for a city at the conflux of the 
 Hydraotcs and Acesines, he proceeded down 
 the river with an augmented fleet, reducing 
 some Indian tribes on the banks. One of their 
 princes, named Musicanus, who had subinitted 
 and revolted again, was crucified, together with 
 a nuinber of Brachinans who were supposed 
 to have instigated the revolt ; yet we are told 
 that Alexander, on beconn'ng acquainted with 
 the character and tenets of the Brachmans, jjald 
 them much respect, and held conversations with 
 some of the most learned among them. The 
 fleet, with the king on board, fell down to Pat- 
 tala, a river-island, made by the branching of 
 the Indus. Here lie caused docks and a fortress 
 to be constructed, and then proceeded down the 
 western branch to the ocean, not without incur- 
 ring great danger near the mouth of the river. 
 Having entered the Indian ocean, and perform- 
 ed some religious rites in honour of Neptur.e, 
 he contented himself with the survey of two 
 small islands, and then returned to Pattala. He 
 next explored the other branch of the Indus as' 
 far as the sea-coast, and there left his fleet in a 
 place of safety, with directions to his admiral, 
 Nearchus, as soon as the season would permit, 
 to sail to the Persian gulf, and thence up the 
 Tigris, where he was to meet him and his army 
 in Mesopotamia He himself determined to 
 ma;ch to Babylon by land, and accordingly 
 proceeded with his van-guard across the river 
 iirabis to the principal fortiess of the Orita", 
 which he seised and committed to Heph^stion,- 
 in order to convert it into a new city. Hence 
 he led his ariny through Gedrosia, a most bar- 
 ren sandy region on the southern side of Persia, 
 where they underwent prodigious hardships- 
 froiTi hunger, tliiist, and fatigue. In these Alex- 
 ander shaied like the meanest soldier, exhibiting 
 a vigour of inind wliich all his abuse of power 
 and prosperity had not been able to subdue. At 
 length he arrived at the plentiful country of 
 Caramania, where he recruited his troops, and 
 redressed many grievances which the neigh- 
 bouring people had ' uffcred from the oppression 
 of his governors, someot whoin he put to death. 
 Hence he proceeded in a kind of triumphal 
 inarch ; and turning into Persis, visited the 
 tomb of Cyrus at Pasargada:. He ordered the 
 wealthy governor of Persia, Orsines, to be cru- 
 cified on a charge of high crimes ; but the just- 
 ice of this execution is differently represented 
 by historians. Marching to Susa, he there gave
 
 ALE 
 
 ( 
 
 138 
 
 ) 
 
 ALE 
 
 a loo-^c to his taste for pleasure and magnifi- 
 cence, not without tlie political design ot pro- 
 moting a s'l ict union between his Grecian and 
 Asiatic subjects. He himselt' married at once 
 Statira or Barsine the daiigliter of Darius, and 
 Pary atis, daughter of Ochu- ; and he gave 
 other Persian ladies of high rank to his princi- 
 pal (jflicers, bestowing on them large dowries, 
 lie likewise displayed a noble nninihccnce in 
 rewarding his aimv for tlieir services, and he 
 distributed promotions among all wlio liad serv- 
 ed him faithfully, without distinction of coun- 
 try. J^esirous of exploring the maritime parts 
 (it his empire, he descended to the Persian gulf, 
 and thence sailed up the Tigris, to the camp of 
 Heph^estion, whom he had sent before to wait 
 his arrival. On the banks of this river, his ar- 
 my of Macedonians, in consequence ot an edict 
 wfiich lie issued, discliarging the superannuated 
 and invalids, broke out into a violent mutiny. 
 In quelling this sedition he displayed extraordi- 
 nary courage and presence of mind ; and by an 
 affectation of transferring his confidence to the 
 Persians, he brought the Macedonians to the 
 most submissive humiliation ; after which he 
 received them to favour, and sealed the recon- 
 ciliation by a solemn festival. 
 
 Hence he took his course througli Media to 
 the capital, Ecbatana, where his arrival was 
 celebrated by all kinds of festivities. But the 
 public joy was interrupted by the death of the 
 king's most intimate friend and favourite, He- 
 pbsstion, who was cut off by a short illness. 
 Tlie grief ot Alexander on this occasion passed 
 all the bounds of sobriety, and he expended vast 
 sums on the funeral. An expedition which he 
 imdcrtook against the Cosssans, a rude people 
 in the vicinity, in which he slew many thou- 
 sands of them, is represented by some as a sa- 
 crifice to the manes of Hephsstion. 
 
 He now proceeded towards Babylon, giving 
 audience by the way to various deputations 
 from the states ot Greece, and from barbarian 
 princes. He entered that renowned city, and 
 immediately began to form vast projects for its 
 improvement, and tlie extension of his domi- 
 irions. He went in person down the Euphrates 
 to examine the practicability of draining the 
 fens by which the country was rendered insa- 
 lubrious. He gave oiders for making a vast 
 bason at Babylon ; and he set on foot inquiries 
 concerning Arabia, with the view of a future 
 invasion ot that peninsula. He assisted at a 
 grand review of his forces, and determined upon 
 the incorporation of the Persian troops, disci- 
 plined after the Greek model, into his Mace- 
 
 donian army. But in the midst of these mighty 
 designs, he was seised with a fever, either caujcd 
 or at least aggravated by excess in drinking, 
 wliicli becoming continued, on the sixth day put 
 a period to his life. He died in the ii4tli 
 Olympiad, B. C. 431, after lie had lived thirty- 
 two years and eight months, and reigned twelve 
 years and eight months. He ap])ointed no suc- 
 cessor ; but when interrogated by his friends, 
 to whom he bequeathed his empire ? he is said 
 to have replied, " To the most worthy." By 
 his various queens he left only an intant and du- 
 bious progeny, who could not liope to succeed 
 to such a vast inheritance, which evidently was 
 an object immediately to be shared and fougiu 
 for. 
 
 The preceding account of the life and actions 
 of Alexander has been extracted from the so- 
 berest and most probable narrations (those of 
 Arrian, Strabo, and Diodorus Siculus) ; other- 
 wise, had it been the purpose to astonish by 
 wonders, the numerous records of history and 
 tradition which the fame of hii great exploits 
 has produced, would have furnished abundant 
 scope for marvellous description. His name 
 has been associated with fables of every kind ; 
 and even the remote regions of the east, which 
 are almos. entirely unacquainted with the other 
 heroes of Europe, still preserve the memory of 
 tlieir conqueror in many a roinantic tale. His 
 character has afforded matter of discussion to 
 the critics, and of declamation to the philoso- 
 phers of every age from his own to the present ; 
 and it is still doubted wliether he ought to be re- 
 garded as a madman or a politician — a civiliser 
 or destroyer of mankind. Yet it would seem 
 not very ditficult to estimate him from the cer- 
 tain records of his actions. The firm founda- 
 tion of the Macedonian power vyas laid by his 
 fatlier Philip, who, having subjugated Greece, 
 could not have found it a very arduous task to 
 shake the Persian throne. Alexander's expe- 
 dition appears to have been originally directed 
 by no other principle dian that ot accomplishing 
 extraordinary and difficult things. This led him 
 into unaccountable deviations from any regular 
 track ; and at length impelled him to such a 
 distance irom the source of his strength, that he 
 could have entertained no reasonable expectation 
 ot retaining under his authority the extent of 
 country through which he ran in the career of 
 conquest. To speak of the justice of a conquer- 
 or's designs would be idle ; but more humanity 
 to the vanquished might well have been expect- 
 ed ; and even the earlier years of his cour-e 
 were stained by many acts of detestable cruelty.
 
 ALEXANDER MAMAEAE F^IMP > 
 
 X XIIII
 
 ALE 
 
 ( 159 ) 
 
 ALE 
 
 Yet he was not devoid of generous emotions ; 
 and the splendid qualities of valour, munifi- 
 cence, and magnniumitv, were cariicd by liim 
 to that excess which borders on fault. That 
 he was intoxicated by success, and that liis high 
 fortune rendered him vain and intemperate, and 
 made him ahnost forget the condition of morta- 
 lity, is not to be wondered at. Large and sub- 
 lime views of tlie true policy of a mighty mo- 
 iiarcji seem often to have opened on his mind ; 
 yet he had too much of tlic ardour of enterprise 
 and the love of military glory to pursue steadily 
 the plans of rational and pacific improvement. 
 On the whole, the best parts of hi; character 
 were fitted rather to inspire admiration than 
 esteem ; while the woist rendeicd him a pe^t of 
 mankind, and resembled him to one of those 
 baleful meteors whicli dazzle as they fly, but 
 ruin where they fall. 
 
 In person, Alexander was of a middle size, 
 with his neck somewhat awry, full eyes, and a 
 fierce majestic countenance. Either through 
 taste or vanity he would not suffer any por- 
 traiture to be formed of him except by the three 
 greatest artists of the age ; Praxiteles in sculp- 
 ture, Lysippus in cast metal, and Apelles in 
 painting. He was a lover and favourer of the 
 arts and literature, and carried with him in his 
 train pOets, orators, and philo ophers, though 
 the choice did not always honour his judgment. 
 He rendered a great service to science by his 
 munificent presents to Aiistotle in order to ena- 
 ble him to pursue his inquiries in natLiral histo- 
 ry. He employed men of talents of every de- 
 scription, and while he profited by their labours, 
 rewarded them liberally — an easy road to re- 
 putation ! wliich, however, not many monarchs 
 have had enlargement of mind enough to fol- 
 low. Arr'ian. Plutarch. Strabo. Diotionis Si- 
 culus. Q. Cuvtius. Un'tveis. Hist. — A. 
 
 ALEXANDER Severus. Alexianus, 
 (this was the family name of the Roman emperor 
 in question) was born at Arce in Phoenicia, about 
 the year 208 according to one account, in 205 
 according to another, preferred by Gibbon. (See 
 his Hist. chap, vi.) His lather was Gcnesius 
 Marcianus, of whom nothing is known but tliat 
 he was a Syrian, and became consul. His mo- 
 ther was Mamaea, daughter of Julia Msesa, the 
 sister of Julia, wife to the emperor Severus. 
 Another daughter of Msesa was Sosmias, mo- 
 ther of Heliogabalus ; so that Alexianus was 
 first cousin to that emperor. The family to 
 which he belonged was notorious for dissolute 
 ness of mannejs; but his mother Mamasa, a 
 woman of superior character, and even sup- 
 posed to have imbibed the maxims of Christi- 
 
 anity, applied all her attention to educate her 
 son in purity of morals, and to form his mind 
 and body to useful accomplishments. An ex- 
 cellent natural disposition in the youth seconded 
 her cares. He received instruction of every 
 kind with facility, aiid regularly devoted a part 
 of eveiy day to martial exercises and to literary 
 acquirements. He was handsome, well made, 
 robust, and wanted nothing that could inspire 
 pleasing expectations. When the monstrous 
 excesses of Heliogabalus gave a sure presage of 
 a speedy and fatal termination to his career, his 
 grandmother Massa artfully persuaded him to 
 adopt his cousin, who was only a few vears 
 younger than him elf. He accordingly nomi- 
 nated him Cffisar, changing at the same time his 
 name of Alexianus into Alexander, to which 
 that of Severus was added. 
 
 The first attempt of the abandoned emperor 
 was to corrupt his adopted son, under the pre^- 
 tcnce of directing his education. This was 
 powerfully resisted by Mamsa, whose influ- 
 ence over her son was able to controul the bad 
 examples and precepts of t!ie court, arid to carry 
 him on In a course of iinprovcment worthy his 
 station. Heliogabalus then conceived such a 
 hatred against him, that he attempted to take 
 away his life by poison ; and, baffled in this 
 design by his own indiscretion, and the vigi- 
 lance of Mamsa and her mother, he next made 
 an open attack upon him. So mucli, hov>ever, 
 had the young Alexander conciliated the favour 
 of the praetorian guards, that they took up arms 
 in his defence, and, by their threats, obliged the 
 emperor to come to the camp, and promise to 
 be reconciled to him. Such a forced reconci- 
 liation could not be sincere. Heliogabalus \\as 
 engaged In plotting the death of Alexander, 
 when he himself, v.ith his mother, was killed In 
 a sedition of tlie pia?torIans. 
 
 By the same too powerful body, Alexander 
 was raised to the imperial dignity, in the year 
 222, the seventeenth (according to the preferable 
 calculation) of his own age. The senate rea- 
 dily confirmed the choice ; and so disgusted had 
 they been with female usurpation in the last 
 rtiign, tliat thev passed a decree that no woman 
 should afterwards enter the senate. Mamasa 
 knew her authority over her son, and was con- 
 tent to exercise it In a less invidious manner. 
 The name of Antoninus was offered to Alex- 
 ander, but he modestly rejected that venerable 
 appellation, as a burden to which he was un- 
 equal. The same diffidence caused the whole 
 administration of the new reign to fall into the 
 hands of M<Esa and Mamaea, and the empire 
 had no cause to complain of the manner in
 
 ALE 
 
 ( i6o ) 
 
 ALE 
 
 wliich they exercised the supreme power. The 
 god Hcliogabalus, from whom tlie late emperor 
 had borrowed his iiiimc, was sent back, to Syria. 
 Tlie higli offices of state were taken from their 
 unworthy occupiers, and conferred on better 
 men ; aiid tlic celebrated lawyer Ulpian was 
 put into the important post of pra-torian prefect. 
 Mamxa, now that her son's morals were ex- 
 posed to the higher dangers attending sovereign 
 sway, was far from relaxing in her attention 
 to preserve their innocence, and to render h:m 
 in every respect wordiy of empire. She assi-_ 
 duously kept olF flatterers and tiie ministers of 
 pleasure ; encouraged frequent attendance at 
 council ; and especially the full and constant 
 employment of his lime. Her cares succeeded 
 so far as to render this too short-lived emperor 
 an example of all that is amiable and much that 
 i^ estimable in tlie character of a prince. 
 
 To describe the principles of his public con- 
 duct would be little more than to repeat what 
 has been said of Trajan and the Antonines. 
 The same clemency, benevolence, moderation, 
 affability, respect for virtue, and abliorrence of 
 vice, distinguished him ; and the only idea of 
 inferiority must arise from a suspicion that his 
 actions were less his own, in consequence ot 
 his youth, and great deference to his mother's 
 authority. The detail of his private life will 
 afford a more just estimate of the real and per- 
 sonal merit of this emperor ; and it has with so 
 much judgment been extracted from his biogra- 
 pher in the Augustan history by the learned and 
 eloquent Gibbon, that no words can so well re- 
 present it as his own. 
 
 " Alexander rose early : the first moments 
 of the day were consecrated to private devotion, 
 and his domcKtic chapel was filled with the 
 images of those lieroes, v/ho, by improving or 
 reforming human life, had deserved the grateful 
 reverence of posterity. But, as he deemed the 
 .service of mankind the most acceptable worship 
 of the gods, tlie greatest part of his morning 
 hours was employed in his council, where he 
 discus'ied public affairs, and deteimined private 
 causes, with a jjaticnce and discretion above his 
 years. The driness of business was relieved 
 by the charms of literature ; and a portion of 
 time was always set apart for his favourite stu- 
 dies of poetry, history, and philosoph)'. The 
 ■works of Virgil and Horace, the Republics of 
 Plato and Cicero, formed his taste, enlarged his 
 undL-rstanding, and gave him the noblest ideas 
 of man and government. The exercises of the 
 body succeeded tliose of the mind ; and Alex- 
 ander, who was tall, active, and robust, sur- 
 passed most of his equals iu the gymnastic arts. 
 
 Refreshed by the use of die batli and a sliglit 
 dinner, lie resumed, with new vigour, the bu- 
 siness of the day ; and, till the hour of supper, 
 the principal meal of the Rom;ins, he was at- 
 tended by his Secretaries, widi whom he lead 
 and answered the multitude ot letters, memori- 
 als, and petitions, tiiat must have been addressed 
 to the master of the greatest part of the world. 
 His table was served with the most frugal sim- 
 plicity ; and whenever he was at liberty to con- 
 sult his own inclination, the company consisted 
 of a few select friends, men of learning and vir- 
 tue, amongst whom Ulpian was constantly in- 
 vited. Tlieir conversation was familiar and 
 instructive; and the pauses were occasionally 
 enlivened by the recital ot some pleasing com- 
 position, which supplied the place of the dancers, 
 cotnedians, and even gladiators, so frequently 
 summoned to the tables of the rich and luxu- 
 rious Romans. The dress of yVlexandcr was 
 plain and modest, his demeanour courteous and 
 affable ; at the proper hours his palace was 
 open to all his subjects, but the voice of a crier 
 was heard, as in the Eleusinian mysteries, pro- 
 nouncing the same salutary admonition, ' Let 
 none enter these holy walls, unless he is con- 
 scious of a pure and innocent mind." (Gib- 
 bon's Hist. chap, vi.) 
 
 To the preceding recital may be added, that 
 one of the personages with whose image he de- 
 corated his private chapel is said to have been 
 Jesus Christ, whose associates were Abraham, 
 Orpheus, and Apollonius Tyaneus. It is also 
 proper to observe, in order not to conceive too 
 higJily of the juvenile dignity ot his character, 
 that some of the amusements with which he 
 unbent his mind were of a more cliildish or less 
 laudable kind ; such as the combats of little 
 dogs with sucking pigs, and the battles of cocks 
 and partridges. But this was probably during 
 the earliest years of his reign. 
 
 His filial duty towards his mother seems to 
 have been attended with a degree of weakness 
 and timidity ; of which an instance highly dis- 
 creditable to both is related by Ilerodian. She 
 had given him a wife of an illustrious descent ; 
 but becoming jealous of her influence over him, 
 she procured her expulsion from the palace. 
 Her father complaining in strong terms of this 
 insult was put to death by the orders ot Mamsea, 
 and the daughter banished to Africa, without 
 any interference on the part of Alexander to 
 prevent such cruel injustice. Lampridius, how- 
 ever, relates the matter otherwise, and asserts 
 that the father-in-law of the einperor was first 
 detected in a conspiracy against him, and that 
 the repudiation of the daughter was a couse-
 
 ALE 
 
 { i6i ) 
 
 ALE 
 
 qnencc of his crime. — Timidity, imlecd, is a 
 charge that Herodian continually urges against 
 this emperor ; and it is unfortunately supported 
 by the allowed facts of freejuent unchastised 
 mutinies of the prcetorians, in one of which they 
 murdered Ulpian in his very palace and pre- 
 sence ; and in another compelled Dio the hi- 
 storian, then consul, to retire into Bithynia. 
 Yet there is equal evidence that in another 
 fierce tumult of +iis soldiers he conducted him- 
 self with the greatest firmness and magnanimity, 
 and brought back the mutineers to their duty. 
 It is probable, that advancing years had given 
 his character an addition of that strength which 
 alone it seems to have wanced. A prying suspi- 
 cious disposition, which led him to employ spies 
 for discovering all that passed in the capital, 
 was another defect indicative of weakness ; as 
 likewise a disposition to vanity, which made 
 him attempt to sink the dishonour of his Syrian 
 origin, by a fabricated genealogy carried up to 
 the renowned Roman family ot the Metelli. 
 
 The principal public event of this reign was 
 the war with Artaxerxes king of Persia. This 
 warlike prince had revolted against his sovereign 
 Artabanus king of the Parthians, and had ef- 
 fected a revolution which transferred the empire 
 to his own nation. He succeeded to the ancient 
 enmity between the Parthians and the Romans, 
 and prepared for the invasion of Mesopotamia 
 and Syria. Alexander, either intimidated, or 
 oaturally inclined to peace, sent an embassy to 
 exhort him to refrain from hostilities, which the 
 haughty Artaxerxes treated with contempt, and 
 instantly made an iriuption into Mesopotamia, 
 and carried his ravages as far as Cappadocia. 
 Alexander now in earnest made preparations to 
 oppose this formidable attack. Assembling an 
 army consisting of the praetorian guards and 
 part of the hardy legions of Europe, he encou- 
 raged them by an abundant largess, and left 
 Rome, probably in the year 232. In his march 
 he observed severe discipline, and at tlie same 
 time preserved the attachment of his soldiers by 
 the greatest attention to all their wants, and the 
 most popular manners. A second embassy 
 which he sent from Antioch to the eastern mo- 
 narch occasioned an arrogant reply, enjoining 
 the Romans to relinquish all the countries whieli 
 had made a part of the ancient Persian empire. 
 Of the military operations that ensued we have 
 only indistinct and contradictory accounts. He- 
 rodian asserts that the plans of Alexander com- 
 pletely failed, and that he returned ignoniiniously 
 to Antioch, with the hatred and contempt of 
 his army. Lampridius, on the other hand, re- 
 cords a great victory that he gained over Ar- 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 taxeixcs who, was at the head of an army equal 
 to those of Darius and Xerxes in former ages. 
 And Alexander himself, on his return to Rome, 
 in the recital of his exploits before the senate, 
 claims a similar success. That a triumph was 
 decreed him by that subservient body, is no 
 proof of the fact ; but the event of the whole 
 war was, that Artaxerxes retired from Meso- 
 potatnia, and remained quiet in his own domi- 
 nions. 
 
 Alexander did not long rcinain in Rome. He 
 was summoned by an incursion of the Germans 
 across the Rhine into Gaul ; and he marched 
 against them in 234, with a great army, and 
 accompanied by his mother, who still retained 
 all her inriucnce over him. In this expedition 
 he offered hotli war and peace to the barbarians ; 
 showing himself willing, according to Herodian, 
 to purchase the latter with money. Several dis- 
 orders having crept into the Gallic legions, he 
 undertook the dangerous task of correcting 
 them, and introducing a stricter discipline. 
 There was at this time in his army a Thracian 
 barbarian, Maximin, who for his courage and 
 strength of body had been raised from the ranks 
 to a post of consequence, and had gained the 
 esteem of the soldiers. This man took ad- 
 vantage of the discontents which Alexander's 
 efforts to restore discipline had occasioned, and 
 inflamed them to such a degree, that in a sud- 
 den sedition they proclaimed him emperor, and 
 flew to the attack of the defenceless prince, 
 whom, with liis mother, they cruelly massacred. 
 This event happened on March 19, A. D. 235, 
 after he had rtigned thirteen years complete. 
 Herodian affirms that he met his fate w-ith great 
 pusillanimity, throwing himself in his mother's 
 arms, and charging her with his ruin. But he has 
 already been noted as the constant detractor 
 from Alexander's merit. This emperor was 
 twice or thrice married, but left no children. 
 
 In estimating his character, while it is im- 
 possible to deny him goodness of heart and ma- 
 ny excellent qualities, none but a direct pane- 
 gyrist can fail to remark certain features of 
 weakness of temper and irresolution, which 
 will not permit him to be placed among the 
 great princes, though he will ever be ranked 
 among the good ones. It is not clear whether 
 die authority his mother possessed over him has 
 most tended to raise or depress his reputation. 
 To her, the best acts of the earlier pait of his 
 reign were undoubtedly owing ; but her avarice 
 and pride threw a cloud over the latter part, and 
 her jealous superiorirv often reduced him to an 
 inglorious subordination. 
 
 Ale.xander was favourable to the Christians, 
 
 Y
 
 ALE 
 
 ( 162 ) 
 
 ALE 
 
 whose conduct and principles lie seems In seve- 
 ral respects to have admired, though without 
 any inclination to join them. In return, he has 
 been represented iu flnttering colours by most 
 Christian writers. Univeis. Hist. Gibbon. 
 C,\v'.n:—A. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Balas, king of Syria, 
 affords a remarkable example ot the success ot 
 an impostor. Demetrius Soter, liaving by his 
 conduct e.vcited the enmity of the neiglibouring 
 kings and of the Roman republic, a young man 
 of Rhodes, named Balas, or, as others say, Pom- 
 pa'ns, of mean extraction, was suborned to pass 
 himself for a son of Antiochus Epiphanes, and 
 a suming the name of Alexander, to claim the 
 crown again'-t Demetrius. He went to Rome, 
 where the senate solemnly recognised him, and 
 made a decree in his favour, though, as Polybi- 
 us asserts, the whole city was convinced that he 
 was an impostor. Landing in Syria, he raised 
 an army bv the aid of the combined kings, and 
 made himself master of Ptolemais, where he 
 obtained the further assistance of Jonathan the 
 successor of Judas Maccabseus. He fought 
 with Demetrius, and was defeated ; but still 
 maintaining his ground with fresh succours, 
 he proved successful in a second battle, in which 
 Demetrius was killed, B. C. 150. Alexander, 
 now in peaceable possession of the whole Sy- 
 rian empire, sent an embassy to Ptolemy Phi- 
 lomctor, king of Eg>'pt, demanding his daugh- 
 ter Cleopatra for u wife ; and Ptolemy, to do 
 him honour, himself conducted her to him, and 
 the nuptials were celebrated at Ptolemais with 
 great magnificence. But Alexander, who had 
 hitherto acted his part with ability, was unable 
 to withstand the influence of prosperity. He 
 gave himself up to indolence and dissolute plea- 
 sure, and committed the management of affairs 
 to a most tyrannical minister, who soon excited 
 the hatred of the whole nation against him and 
 his master. Demetrius, the late king's eldest 
 son, now made an attempt to recover his here- 
 ditary rights, and was acknowledged by Apol- 
 lonius the governor of Ccele-Syria and Phosnice. 
 Alexander, roused from his lethargy, took the 
 field, and called upon his father-in-law Ptolemy 
 for assistance. Ptolemy advanced with a vast 
 army ; but on the pretence of having discovered 
 a plot against his life, deserted Alexander's cause, 
 and joined Demetrius, to whom he gave his 
 daughter Cleopatra for wife, after taking her 
 from her former husband. Alexander met his 
 foes near Antioch, where a bloody battle was 
 fought, in which he was defeated. Attended 
 by a small body of horse, he made his escape 
 into Arabia ; where, entrusting himself in the 
 
 hands of a chieftain of the country, he w.-'S 
 treachei ously stabbed by him, after a reign of 
 five or six years. Univcrs. Hist. — A. 
 
 ALEXANDER king of Poland, son of 
 Casimirll. was elected oi\ the death of his bro- 
 ther John Albert in 1501, chiefly for the pur- 
 pose of conciliating the Lithuanians, whose 
 grand duke he was. At his consecration, the 
 archbishop of Gnesna refused to perform the 
 same ceremony for his queen, daughter of the 
 grand duke of Muscovy, on account of her ad- 
 herence to the Greek church ; for which affront 
 her father invaded Lithuania, but was obliged 
 to retreat and conclude a truce with his son-in- 
 law. Alexander after this fell into a lingering 
 disease, which emboldened the Tartars, and 
 Bogdan, palatine of Walachia, to make an in- 
 road into Lithuania, which they filled with 
 blood-shed and rapine. Alexander caused him- 
 self to be carried in a litter at the head of his 
 army to chastise those barbarians ; and a terrible 
 combat ensued near ^V'^ilna, in which victory 
 finally declared for the Poles, who slew twenty 
 thousand of their enemies. The news of this 
 success reached Alexander just as he lay at Wil- 
 na in the agonies of death : but he was able by 
 signs to express his gratitude for it, and then 
 expired, in 1506, aged forty-five, after a reign 
 of five years in Poland, and fourteen in Lithu- 
 ania. He was a prince of a heavy genius and 
 remarkable taciturnity, but courageous, hu - 
 mane, and of generous sentiments. His libe- 
 rality degenerated into weak profusion ; and he 
 lavished so inuch, particularly upon musicians, 
 that a law was afterwards passed, restraining 
 the kings of Poland from making grants out of 
 the revenue without consent ol the diet. Mod. 
 Univers. Hist. — A. 
 
 ALEXANDER L king of Scotland, son of 
 Malcolm in. succeeded his brother Edgar in 
 1 107. From the vigour and impetuosity of his 
 character he obtained the appellation of the 
 Fierce, though this disposition had been so con- 
 cealed by his piety and devotion before he came 
 to the crown, that his unruly subjects were 
 equally surprised and discontented when it de- 
 clared itself. The northern parts of the king- 
 dom were soon filled with insurgents, whom 
 Alexander defeated in succession, and he se- 
 cured the public peace by executing many o 
 the most powerful chieftains. On his retur 
 southwards, receiving the complaint of a wi- 
 dow against the young earl of Mearns w ho had 
 put to death, without law, her husband and son, 
 his vassals, the king, after a proper inquiry into 
 the'fact, caused the culprit to be hanged in his 
 presence. This severity of conduct prevented
 
 ALE 
 
 ( 163 ) 
 
 ALE 
 
 any further open revolts against Iiis authority ; 
 biK a private conspiracy to take away liis life 
 was t'ormctl while he was lying at a castle in the 
 Carse of Gowrie, and tlic traitors obtained ad- 
 mission into his bed-chamber at night. Alex- 
 ander, starting to arms, slew six of them, and 
 then made his escape. After reducing his king- 
 dom to order, he paid a visit to his brother-in- 
 law Henry I. of England, to whom he was ser- 
 viceable in terminating a difference between him 
 and the Welch. The remainder of his reign 
 was spent in civil and ecclesiastical regulations. 
 He died unmarried in die seventeenth year of 
 his reign, and was succeeded by his younger 
 brother, David. Mod. Univers. Hist. Bu- 
 chanan. — A. 
 
 ALEXANDER II. king of Scotland, son 
 of WiUiam the Lion, succeeded his father in 
 12 14, being then in his sixteenth year. He 
 was early involved in a war with John, king of 
 England, who refused him possession of North- 
 umberland, and made an inroad into England, 
 which was retaliated on the part of John by a 
 very destructive expedition into Scotland. Alex- 
 ander again entered by the western side of Eng- 
 land, took Carlisle, and penetrated as far as 
 Richmond in Yorkshire. The next year, be- 
 ing invited along with Lewis the French prince 
 to assist the party which had revolted against 
 John, he came to London ; and returning in 
 hostile array, after John had made his peace 
 witii the pope, his march was intercepted, and 
 he was reduced to great danger, from which the 
 death of Johii freed him. He proceeded north- 
 wards, committing great spoil in his way, and 
 brougln back a vast booty. For this act of hos- 
 tility Scotland was laid under an interdict. In 
 122 1 he married Joan sister of Henry III. of 
 England, by whose means the two kingdoms 
 were kept in peace with each other for eighteen 
 years. Alter her death disputes arose between 
 the two kings, which were adjusted by the me- 
 diation of the earl of Cornwall and the arch- 
 bishop of York. Alexander married for his 
 second wife the daughter of Ingelram de Couci, 
 a French baron. Some disturbances arising in 
 Argyleshire, he embarked for that country ; but 
 faUing sick, he was set on shore on one of die 
 islands of the coast, where he died in 1249, ''g*-'' 
 fifty-one, leaving an onlv son bv his second 
 wife. Mod. Univers. Hist. Buchanan. — A. 
 
 ALEXANDER III. king of Scotland, son 
 of the preceding, succeeded to the crown in 
 1249, when only eight years of age. A mar- 
 riage was soon after negotiated between him 
 and Margaret daughter of Henry III. of Eng- 
 land, which took place in presence of both 
 
 courts at York. The young king fell entirely 
 into the power of a potent family, the Cumings, 
 who kept him and the queen in close custody, 
 and did not suffer them to cohabit. In onlcr 
 to relieve them, Henry advanced to the borders, 
 and by his emissaries gaining possession of 
 Edinburgh castle, set the roval pair free, and 
 dispossessed the usurpers. Other intrigues and 
 tumults, liowever, succeeded, till the king was 
 of age to assume tiie reins into his own hands. 
 In 1263, Haquin king of Norway, who had 
 pretensions on the Western islands, appeared off 
 the coast of Scotland with a large fleet, and dis- 
 embarking, made himself master of Aire, and 
 advanced up the country. Alexander assem- 
 bled an army to meet hiin, and coming up with 
 him at Largs, a very furious and well-disputed 
 action ensued, ending in the total defeat of tlie 
 Norwegians, of whom sixteen thousand were 
 slain. Buchanan gives the honour of the day 
 to Alexander Stuart, and represents it as doubt- 
 ful whether the king was in the action. Ha^ 
 quin died soon after ; and his successor, Mag- 
 nus, made a treaty with Alexander, in which, 
 for a pecuniary consideration, he renounced all 
 his claims on the Western islands. Their amity 
 was cemented by the betrothment of Eric the 
 prince of Norway to Margaret, Alexander's 
 daughter. This king lived upon terms of close 
 friendship with his father-in-law, Henry, whom 
 in his wars with the barons he assisted with 
 five thousand men. On the accession of Ed- 
 ward I. the king of Scotland was present with 
 all his family ; and he attended at the parlia- 
 ment held in 1282 as first peer of England. He 
 was unfortunate in his children, who died one 
 after another, leaving him at length widi no 
 other issue than the infant daughter of his daugh- 
 ter the queen of Norway. As he was a wi- 
 dower, his states strongly urged him to a second 
 marriage, which he contracted v^•ith Tolctta, 
 daughter to the count of Dreux in France ; but 
 soon after, he was unfortunately killed while 
 hunting, by the accident of his horse rushing 
 down a precipice, in 1285, the forty-fifth year 
 of his age, and thirty-seventh of his reign. No 
 prince was ever more regretted by his subjects, 
 both on account of the critical circumstances in 
 which he left the succession, and of his own 
 good qualities. lie had in the course of his 
 reign done much to establish the swav of the 
 laws among a turbulent people, and had intro- 
 duced many excellent regulations of govern- 
 ment. He divided his kingdom into four ])arts, 
 in each of which he resided alternately, preserv- 
 ing the public peace, and administering justice 
 personally to all ranks of people. He cased his
 
 ALE 
 
 ( 164 ) 
 
 ALE 
 
 S\iV)ji-cts by diminishing the services paid accord- 
 ing to the feuilal system ; and bridled the hccnce 
 and oppressions of the nobility. Buchanan. 
 Vnivers. Hist. — A. 
 
 ALEXANDKR I. pojie, a Roman by birth, 
 was bishop oi Rome during the reigns of Trajan 
 and Adrian. Irena.-iis reckons him tiic fifth bi.shop 
 oi Rome. He is said to have introdxiced the 
 use of holy water and other ceremonies. The 
 honour of martyrdom has been ascribed to 
 liim, and his name has been enrolled among the 
 saints ; but nothing is known with certainty 
 concerning him, further than that he was bishop 
 of Rome from the year 109 to the year 119. 
 Iren. lib. iv. c. 3. Plat'ina. Dupin. More- 
 fi, Bo:ver's Lives of the Popes. — E. 
 
 ALEXANDER II. pope, before he \vas 
 clccced to tlic pontificate named Anselm, was a 
 native of Milan, and was removed from the see 
 of Lucca to that of Rome in the year 106 1. At 
 thetime when this pope came to the see of Rome, 
 the cliurcli was endeavouring to throw off all 
 tlepcndence upon the civil power, and was even 
 assuming a supreme authority in all secular af- 
 fairs. Hence arose a violent struggle in the 
 city of Rome befwcen the clergy and the laity. 
 At the head of the former faction was Hilde- 
 biand, who had guided the conclave under the 
 preceding pope Nicholas II. at tlie head of the 
 latter were the counts of Frescati and Galera. 
 Hildcbrand, on the death of Nicholas, pro- 
 cured the election of Anselm, under the title of 
 Alexander II. without soliciting the concur- 
 rence and authority of the emperor Henry IV. 
 or more properly his mother the empress Ag- 
 nes, widow ot Henry III. who was regent during 
 the minority. She considered this election as an 
 infringement of the imperial prerogative, and, 
 supported by the lay-faction at Rome, and by 
 the clergy and princes on the other side the 
 Alps, procured a council at Basil, in which Ca- 
 dalous, bishop of Parma, was, in opposition to 
 Alexander, elected pope under the name of Ho- 
 norius II. The pretensions of each pope were 
 supported by a strong military force ; and Alex- 
 ander was in great danger of being driven from 
 the papal chair; when Anno, archbishop of Co- 
 logne, formed a powerful party against Cadalous 
 and the imperial interest by which he was sup- 
 ported, and, having terminated the appeal to 
 arms, by seising the person of the young empe- 
 ror, prevailed upon the contending parties to re- 
 fer the dispute to a council, which was, accord- 
 ingly, held at Mantua in the year 1064. Here 
 Alexander and Cadalous, with their respective 
 partisans, met, and the former was declared 
 lawful pope. This memorable event was a 
 
 signal triumph of the church over the civil pow- 
 ei, and contributed in no small degree towards 
 tile establisiunent of that haughty dominion, 
 w hich the papal see, from this time, long conti- 
 nued to exercise over the princes ot Europe. 
 Alexander was chiefly indebted for his success 
 to the e(forts of the ambitious Hildcbrand, who, 
 through his wlicde pontificate, had the chief di- 
 rection ot his councils. 
 
 The ecclesiastical proceedings of this pontiff 
 chiefly respected the discipline and the piivileges 
 of the clergy. The bishop of Florence was 
 arraigned and deposed for simony. New canons 
 were issued from the council at Rome against 
 simony, the marriage of the clergy, and inces- 
 tuous marriages ; and requiring the clerks to re- 
 side togethernearthe cliurches which they served, 
 and to enjoy their incomes in common. The 
 privileges of the monks were extended, and a 
 bishop of Clugni, who had exercised jurisdiction 
 over a monastery in that province, was obliged 
 to ask pardon of the pope, and enjoined to fast 
 seven days upon bread and water. The person 
 chiefly employed by the pope in conducting 
 these regulations was Peter Damien, a monk, 
 and a zealous defender of tlie monastic orders. 
 
 Whilst spiritual usurpation was thus reigning 
 triumphant within the church, it was indus- 
 triously and successfully extending its sway over 
 kingdoms and empires. The Roman pontiiFnow 
 claimed the high prerogative of deciding the 
 quarrels of princes, and gladly seised every oc- 
 casion of interposing in secular aff^airs. It was 
 a circumstance wliich contributed, in no small 
 degree, to encourage and establish this tyranny, 
 that William, duke of Normandy, in framing 
 his project for the conquest of England, applied 
 for advice and protection to the holy see. Alex- 
 ander, enlightened and stimulated by his coun- 
 sellor Hildebrand, soon perceived that this ap- 
 plication to the papal chair might essentially con- 
 tribute towards the extension of its authority, 
 and the enlargement of its emoluments, and 
 gladly granted the bold adventurer the powerful 
 support of his sanction. He denounced ex- 
 communication against Harold as a perjured 
 usurper ; and he sent William a consecrated 
 banner, and a ring with one of St. Peter's hairs 
 in it: thus, to borrow the expression of Hume, 
 " safely covering over all the ambition and vio- 
 lence of that invasion with the broad mantle of 
 religion." In those days of superstition, a 
 more promising expedient could not be tried. It 
 succeeded: William conquered England; and 
 the dominion of the pope in that country was 
 confirmed. Popes' legates, hitherto unknown 
 in England, exercised arbitrary power. Tlic
 
 A L E 
 
 ( ^65 ) 
 
 A L li 
 
 archbishop of Canterbury, Stigand, was re- 
 moved from his sec, to miikc room for the pope's 
 favourite Lanfranr: otlier EngHsh prelates and 
 clergy were proscribed, to provide for Norman 
 and Itahan monks ; and, thougii Wiiham still 
 retained, even in the church, sovereign authority, 
 the pope reaped great advantage hum the cliange 
 of government which he had contributed to in- 
 troduce. 
 
 Otliercountries,as well as England, felt at this 
 time the increasing power of the papal see. Not 
 contented widi prohibiting the young emperor 
 from executing, on pain of excommunication, 
 his design of divorcing his wife Bertha, Alex- 
 ander, in the year 1073, exercised an authority 
 which no pope hud before ventured to c\eri isc 
 over a crowned head, in summoning the emjie- 
 ror to appear in person at Rome, to answer for 
 his conduct in disposing of church benefices to 
 provide supplies for his army. Henry resented 
 the indignity ; but the dispute was suddenly ter- 
 minated by the death of the pope, which hap- 
 pened in the year 1073. "^'^^ personal charac- 
 ter of this pope is little known. In his public 
 capacity, he appears to have acted an under- 
 part, and to have been almost entirely under the 
 direction of HildebraiiJ, who, consequently, is 
 chiefly answerable for the increase of pn\yd\ ty- 
 ranny, which marks this period. Many of the 
 letters written by Alexander II. are extant : they 
 chiefly relate to public affairs : one of these docs 
 credit to the pope's humanity ; it is addressed to 
 the bishops of Spain, to require them to put a 
 stop to the cruelties \\hith were at that time ex- 
 ercised towards the Jews. Hildebrand, who had 
 conducted the aff'airs of this pontiff", was his 
 successor, under the well-known naine of 
 Gregory VII. Dupin, Eccl. Hist. Aforeri. 
 Bower. — E. 
 
 ALEXANDER III. pope, before his pontifi- 
 cate named Roland, bishop of Sienna, the place of 
 his birth, and chancellor of the church of Rome, 
 succeeded Adrian HMn the year 1 159. The con- 
 tests between the emperors and popes, which 
 had formerly been so violent, but had slept for 
 thirty years, were renewed under his predeces- 
 sor. Frederic I. had taken vigorous measures 
 to reduce die power of the Roman see, and to 
 support the rights of the empire. Alexander 
 III. came to the papal chair at the time when an 
 open rupture had been expected between Frede- 
 ric and Adrian. The electors were divided into 
 two parties. The more powerful party elected 
 the bishop of Sienna ; but the rest, dissati'<hed 
 with his choice, proceeded to another election, 
 in which the papal dignity was conterrcd upon 
 Octavian, a cardinal, afterwards known by the 
 
 name of Victor IV. The emperor patronise'! 
 \'ictor; and, being then in Italy, besieging Cie- 
 mona, he summoned a council, tn the year 
 it6o, at Pavia, who confirmed \'ictor's elec- 
 tion ; and pronounced a sentence of excommu- 
 nication on Roland and his adherents. This 
 decision was generally admitted us valid in Ger- 
 many and Italy ; and Alexander, having first 
 in his turn excommunicated his ojiponent, lelt 
 Rome and fled into France, where, as well as 
 in England, after some deliberation, he was 
 acknowledged as lawful bishop ot Rome. In 
 the midst of the tumults which this contest oc- 
 casioned, Victor died at Lucca in 1164; but 
 the emperor, whose hostility to Alexander and 
 his jiarry still continued, found means to supply 
 his place ; and cardinal Guy was elected pontift" 
 under the name of Paschal III. After the death 
 of Victor, the whole interest of the Roman 
 clergy was in favour of Alexander, and, at their 
 request, he returned to Rome, and was restored 
 to his see. Upon this the emperor, in 1 166, 
 called a council at Wurtzburg, where the Ger- 
 man nobles and clergy united with him in an 
 oath to acknowledge no other pope than Paschal. 
 Alexander, on the ojipositc side, in 1 167, called 
 the council of Lateran, in which he solemnly 
 deposed the emperor, and dissolved the oath of 
 allegiance by which his subjects had acknow- 
 ledged him their lawful sovereign. The appeal 
 was now made to the sword. Frederic was at 
 first successful; the insolent pontiff was even 
 driven out of Rome, and iiis competitor, Pas- 
 chal, put in possession of the apostolic chair. 
 The tide of fortune, however, turned against 
 the emperor. A jiestilcntial disease laid waste 
 his army. Paschal died, and it became neces- 
 sary to elect another rival. John, abbot of 
 Strum, was chosen, under the name of Calix- 
 tus III. but was ill supported in his claim to the 
 papal chair. After a long struggle, Frederic was 
 coinpelled to give up the contest; and, notwith- 
 standing the oath which he h;id taken at Wurtz- 
 burg, in a formal treaty of peace, into which 
 he entered with Alexander at Venice in the 
 year 1177, he publicly acknowledged him legal 
 pontiff. This was a proud day for Alexander ; 
 and he bore his triumph v.idi the haughty exul- 
 tation of a conqueror, ratlier than with the 
 meek humility of a Christian bishop. Some 
 writers assert, that when Frederic was pro- 
 strate at his feet, the pope insolently repeated 
 the words of the psalmist, " Thou shalt tread 
 upon the lion and adder ; the young lion and 
 the dragon thou shalt trample under loot ;" and 
 that the emperor answering, " Not to you. but 
 to Peter;" the p-opc replied, " Tome, and to
 
 ALE 
 
 ( i66 ) 
 
 ALE 
 
 Piter." This story, formerly bciicvcd, lias of 
 late been generally tli:.cret]itc(l'. Tl'c silence of 
 some wrucrs, on ;i circumstance so disgraceful 
 to the pope, is, however, no pi oof of the false- 
 hood of the story; and Alexander's own ac- 
 count of the transaction, given in his letters, 
 may leave some room to suspect tliat the fact 
 really happened. " On the 241)1 day of July," 
 says he, "the emperor came to the c^hurch of 
 St.' Nicolas, at the distance of a mile from \ e- 
 nice, and having, with all the bishops and Ger- 
 man princes abjured the schism, he, together 
 with thetn, received absolution. Afterwards, 
 being arrived at Venice, he gave us the marks 
 of his obedience, with all manner of humility, at 
 the entrance of St. Mark's church, in the pre- 
 sence of an innumerable multitude of people ; re- 
 ceived from us tlie benediction of peace ; gave 
 lis the right-hand, and conducted us with devo- 
 tion to the altar. 'I"hc next day, being the fes- 
 tival of St. James, we went to St. Mark's church 
 to celebrate mass ; when the emperor came to 
 meet us without the church, gave us the vight- 
 liand ; reconducted us when divine service was 
 ended ; held the stirrup whilst v.e mounted the 
 horse ; and paid us all the respect and duty 
 which had been usual with his predecessors." 
 (Dupin.) It ought, however, to be mentioned 
 to Alexander's credit, tliat after he found himself 
 established in his authority, he rook no revenge 
 xipon his unfortunate rival Calixtus III. but, 
 upon his submission, treated him with kindness, 
 admitted him to his table, and appointed him to 
 the see of Benevento. 
 
 The contest between Frederic and Alexander, 
 which lasted eighteen years, and produced three 
 successive claimants of the papal chair, thus 
 triumphantly terminated on the part of the pope, 
 confirmed the high pretensions of the Roman see 
 to supreme jurisdiction ; and it seems to have 
 been the chief business of Alexander, after he 
 had obtained the peaceable possession (if his dig- 
 nity, to secure the independence, and maintain 
 the powers and privileges, of the triple crown. 
 In order to prevent in future the contests which 
 might arise between factions of nearly equal 
 strength in the election of popes, he procured, 
 in the third general council of Lateran, held in 
 the year 1 179, a canon, ordaining, that two- 
 thirds of the votes of the electors shoidd be ne- 
 cessary to a legal election to the pontifical digni- 
 ty. In the same year he exercised that power 
 over princes, which had been claimed by the pon- 
 tiffs from the time of Gregory VII. in conferring 
 the title of king, with the ensigns of royalty, upon 
 Alphonso I. duke of Portugal, by an arrogant 
 bull, in yvhich he treats that prince as his vassal. 
 
 Eaiiy in the contest between the emperor and 
 Alexander, while the latter was in France, that 
 pontifical autliority, which he was scarcely able 
 to preserve, he exercised in supporting the arro- 
 gant pretensions of Thomas Becket, archbishop 
 of Canterbury, against his sovereign Henry II. 
 When the Constitutions of Clarendon, passed in 
 council in the year 1 164, were sent to the pope 
 for his ratification, finding that they asserted the 
 king's jurisdiction over the clergy, and abolished 
 appeals to the pope, he rejected and annulled 
 them. Upon the deposition and banishment of 
 Becket, he gave him a welcome reception in 
 France; obtained for him from the king of 
 France a liberal pension, abrogated by a bull the 
 sentence which had been passed upon him, in- 
 vested hiin anew Vvith his dignity, and appointed 
 him his legate in England. During the whole 
 dispute between the king and Becket, the pope 
 held over the former the rod of excommunica- 
 tion ; and, after the murder of Becket, though 
 there was no proof that the king had consented 
 to it, or been in any other way accessary than 
 by a passionate speech which seems to have sug- 
 gested the design to the assassins, Alexander 
 compelled the terrified and suppliant monarch to 
 pass through a severe course of penance. Even 
 in the civil contest between Henry and his sons, 
 this prelate, glad to embrace such an opportunity 
 of exercising his power, at the request of the 
 king, issued his bull of excommunication against 
 the rebellious prmces. 
 
 In his ecclesiastical functions, Alexander III. 
 was a rigorous defender of the catholic faith. 
 In the council of Lateran, he anathematised the 
 heretics, who, from the Manichean sect of the 
 Paulicians, had spread themselves in Italy under 
 the names of Cathari and Patareni, and in 
 France under the name of Albigenses. These 
 mystics, who rejected all external forms of reli- 
 gion, and advanced many new opinions, were 
 excluded by a decree of excommunication from 
 human society, and driven into the deserts to pe- 
 rish with hunger. 
 
 Alexander ill. had enjoyed the quiet po ses- 
 sion of the pontifical chair scarcely four years, 
 when, in the year 1 181, he died; leaving behind 
 more proofs of ambition to obtain, than of mo- 
 deration in exercising, the supreme ecclesiastical 
 authority. Dupin, Eccl. Hist. Mosheim, cent. 
 xii. Hume, Henry II. A'loreri, Bovjer. — E. 
 
 ALEXANDER IV. pope, whose name, 
 before his election, was Raynald, was called 
 from the bishopric of Ostia to succeed Innocent 
 IV. in the year 1254. From the diocese of 
 Anagni, in which he was born, he is called 
 Anagninus. He came to the papal chair in the
 
 ALE 
 
 ( «07 ) 
 
 A L E 
 
 midst of tlie contests between the Gueli>lis and 
 Gibelincs. Ilie kingdom of Sicily having been 
 tor some time in a state of feudal vassalage to 
 the see of Rome, Alexander's predecessor had 
 carried on a war in support of the papal clainis 
 against Mainfrov, who held the kingdom as re- 
 gent for young Conradine, son of the emperor 
 Conrad. Innocent IV, who, both as feudal 
 lord of Sicily, and as vicar of Christ, claimed a 
 right over the Sicilian crown, had, from the hope 
 of obtaining a powerful ally, presented it to Ed- 
 mund, the second son of Henry 111. kingof Eng- 
 land. Alexander III continued the same po- 
 licy, and began his pontificate by publishing a 
 crusade ; for, under the cloak of this sacred 
 name, the holy fathers did not scruple to disguise 
 their projects of ambition. Henry III. was 
 called upon for large contributions in support of 
 his son's claim to Sicily ; and a tenth was levied 
 on all ecclesiastical benefices in England for 
 three years. The enterprise proceeded unsuc- 
 cessfully ; and a legate was sent to England 
 with fresh demands, and with a threat of excom- 
 munication if they were not instantly complied 
 with. The demand was refused ; and the crown 
 of Sicily returned into the hands of Alexander, 
 when it was no longer his to bestow. Mainfroy 
 defeated the crusaders, and, in 1158, usurped 
 the throne of the two Sicilies. 
 
 Tb.is pontiff was equally unsuccessful in his 
 attempts to oppose the jjrogress of Ezzelin, who, 
 at the head of theGibclines, and, on the part of 
 the heirs of Frederic II. had made himself ma- 
 ster of Lombavdy. Though the banner of the 
 cross was displayed under the command of an 
 ecclesiastic, the pope's legate, the pontiff's ar- 
 my, after some partial advantages, was cotally 
 defeated, and the legate himself was impri- 
 soned. 
 
 Even the fulmination of anathemas from the 
 apostolic see was unavailing. In defiance of 
 these, Ezzelin kept the legate in prison, and 
 pursued his victories ; and Mainfroy kept the 
 crown which he had seised, without the con- 
 sent or knowledge of the pope. 
 
 Alexander IV. considered in the light of a 
 prince contending for territory against other 
 powers, may be pronounced unfortunate. In 
 his proper ecclesiastical character he is entitled 
 to little praise. The authority of his apostolic 
 bulls was chiefly employed in support of the 
 mendicant Dominican friars against tlie mem- 
 bers of the university of Paris, who refused to 
 admit them to divinity professorships, and to 
 other rights and privileges of their society. In 
 the course of the dispute, one of the doctors of 
 the Sorbonne, William de Saint Amour, pub- 
 
 lisl-.edabook underthe title of " The Perils ofihe 
 last Times," in which thccliaractcrand comlnct 
 of the Dominican friars are described, and tlieir 
 pride, hypocrisy, and licentiousness, indirectly 
 but severely cen.ured. This work «as con- 
 demned by the pope as containing perverse opi- 
 nions, contiary to the honour of thofc who 
 make profession of poverty for God's sake, and 
 as likely to raise great scandals, and to divert 
 the faitliful from devotion and charity. Ano- 
 ther work, condemned by this pope in the coun- 
 cil at A lies in 1260, was a book entitled, 
 " The Everlasting Go>pel," written by the 
 abbot [oachim, of which the leading doctrine 
 was, that the law of the gospel would soon be 
 superseded by another law much more perfect, 
 the law of the spirit, in the third state of the 
 world, in which the active life will give way to 
 the contemplative life. The professors of this 
 doctrine, called Joachimites, who were nume- 
 rous, were at the same time proscribed. F lom 
 these affairs, which, however uninteresting they 
 would now be thought, at that time excited ge- 
 neral attention, the pontiff was called to the lau- 
 dable office of settling the difl'erences which had 
 arisen between the states of Venice and Genoa. 
 A council for this purpose was appointed to be 
 held at Viterbo ; but before the time fixed for 
 its meeting arrived, in 1261, Alexander IV. 
 died, from apprehension and vexation, as it is 
 supposed, on account of the dissensions which 
 disturbed the church. He appears to have been 
 a naiTow-mindedblgot, more concerned to pre- 
 serve and enlarge the privileges of a monastic 
 order, than to correct abuses or encourage im- 
 provements. Platlna. Dupui. Afoicri. Bow- 
 er.— ¥.. 
 
 ALEXANDER V. pope, whose original 
 name was Philargo, was born about the year 
 1339 in the isle of Candia, then subject to the 
 Venetians. (Landi, Hist, de la Litt. dc I'ltal. 
 lib. ix. n. 62.) His parents, probably through 
 poverty, abandoned him in his childhood, and 
 he was under the necessity of begging his bread 
 from door to door. An Italian monk of the order 
 of friars minors, happening to remark in the 
 boy a promising aspect, took him under his jno- 
 tection, instructed him, and obtained him ad- 
 mission into his order. Through the favour of 
 his patron lie was enabled to become a student in 
 the university of Oxford ; whence he went to 
 Paris, and obtained the degree of doctor in di- 
 vinity. Returning to Lombardy, his talents 
 and learning recommended him to the favour of 
 John Galeas Visconti, duke of Milan, who 
 obtained for him, first the bishopric of Viccn- 
 za, tlicn that of Novara, and afterwards the
 
 ALE 
 
 ( i68 ) 
 
 ALE 
 
 archbishopric of Milan. Pope Innocent VII. 
 raised liim to the tiiguity of cardinal, and ap- 
 pointed liiin Iiis lejfate in [.oiiibardy. After the 
 deposition of Gregory XII. in the year 1409, 
 at tlie council tluii lield at Pis 1, tlie caidinals 
 unanimously elected Peter of Caiidia, archbi- 
 shop of Milan, under the name of Alexander 
 V. In this rapid and uninterrupted course 
 of advancement, did this child of fortune rise, 
 from the condition of a mendicant, to the 
 first station in the church, and, according to 
 the idea -which tlien prevailed of the papal sec, 
 to the first digiiitv in the world. He enjoyed his 
 honours for so short a period, tliat his history 
 scarcely affords sufficient materials to enable us 
 to forni a judgment of his character. In the 
 council of Pisa, in which after his election lie 
 presided, several decrees were passed, which in- 
 dicated a liberal spirit. Those who had been 
 promoted to benefices by the two competitors 
 Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII. were perniit- 
 ted to retain the peaceable possession of their 
 preferments. It was ordained, that the pope 
 should make no translation without the consent 
 of the parties concerned. All the arrears due 
 to the apostolic chamber before the day of elec- 
 tion were remitted, and the pope declared, that 
 he did not intend to heap up to himself the spoils 
 of deceased bishops, or the profits which should 
 arise out of vacant benefices. He promised that 
 he would apply himself diligently to the refor- 
 mation of the church, and prorogued the coun- 
 cil for three years, that after due deliberation 
 they might enter upon this imi)ortant business. 
 The undertaking, thus postponed, as has often 
 happened in similar cases, was never resumed ; 
 and we find the easy, good-natured pontifF em- 
 ployed in granting dispensations, creating of- 
 fices, and giving entertainments. He was par- 
 ticularly indulgent to the mendicant orders of 
 monks, loading them with favours, and renew- 
 ing to them tlie privileges of preaching and con- 
 fessing. One circumstance which greatly fa- 
 voured the natural generosity of this jxjntifF, 
 was, that he ielt himscU under no obligation to 
 provide for a train of needy or ambitious rela- 
 tions : in this respect he had the advantage of 
 all his predecessors, for he had never known fa- 
 ther, or mother, brother, sister, or kinsman. In 
 one instance only do we find the natural gene- 
 rosity of his disposition counteracted by the ar- 
 tificial obligations of his station. As guardian 
 of the public faith, he sent severe orders to the 
 archbishop of Prague to proceed with rigour 
 against those who adopted the heretical tenets 
 of John Huss, and summoned Huss himself to 
 appear at the tribunal of the apostolic see to an- 
 
 swer the charges brouglit against him. Tlie 
 manner in which Huss treated riie summons 
 seemed to imply some confidence in the pontiff's 
 candor ; instead of appearing personally at Rome, 
 he sent two friends to plead liis cause, and said, 
 " I appeal from Alexander ill-informed, to Alex- 
 ander well-informed." This pontificate would 
 probably have been more splendid, and would, 
 perhaps, have lasted longer, had not the pope'i 
 pliant temper brought him completely under the 
 influence of Balthazar Cossa, cardinal of Bo- 
 logna. This artful ecclesiastic prevailed upon 
 Alexander to visit Bologna, with his cardinals. 
 It happened, through the contrivance, as some 
 have asserted, of Cossa, that while the pope was 
 at Bologna, he died ; and Cossa, who had now 
 the cardinals under his power, was chosen to 
 succeed him, under the name of John XXIII. 
 Alexander V. died in the year 1410, having 
 possessed the holy see little more than ten 
 months. His munificence during his pontificate 
 was so unbounded that he used to say, " When 
 I became a bishop, I was rich ; when a cardi- 
 nal, poor ; and when pope, a beggar." Dupin. 
 Platina. Morer'i. Boiver. — E. 
 
 ALEXANDER VI. pope, a scandal to the 4 
 papal chair, was born in 143 1 at Valencia in 
 Spain : his oiiginal name was Roderic Borgia, 
 and his mother, from whom he derived the 
 naine, was sister to Calixtus III. Though in his 
 youth exceedingly licentious, he found means 
 to ingratiate himself with his uncle, the pope, 
 and in the year 1455 obtained the dignity of 
 cardinal. He was afterwards made archbishop 
 of Valencia, and vice-chancellor of Rome. This 
 last office was so profitable, that it is said to have 
 brought him in, annually, twenty-eight thousand 
 crowns ; an income which enabled him to sup-. 
 port the state of a prince. Pope Sixtus IV. sent 
 him as his legate to Spain, where he lived in 
 great extravagance and irregularity. At length, 
 when advanced to a considerable age, after hav- 
 ing seen the dignity at which he aspired pass, 
 in succession, from his uncle to four pontiffs, 
 by openly making profession of extraordinary 
 piety and sanctity, and by secretly distributing 
 among the cardinals large presents and liberal 
 promises, Roderic was, on the death of Inno- 
 cent VIII. in the year 1492, elected to the pa- 
 pal chair. When he ascended this seat of 
 sanctity, in his sixty-first year, he was the fa- 
 ther of five children, four sons and a daughter, 
 by Vanozza, a Roman lady, with whom he had 
 continued an illicit connection through all the 
 stages of his ecclesiastical life. His second son, 
 named Ca?sar Borgia, was a monster of de^ 
 bauchery and cruelty. He is said to have quair
 
 Ley:ancU^Vro 
 
 ove 
 
 the C^eawentD^ 
 
 I-Onantrv fculv •
 
 ALE 
 
 ( 169 ) 
 
 ALE 
 
 relied with his elder brotlier for the favours of 
 their sister I^ucretia, and to have killed him, anil 
 thrown liiin into the Tiher. His father, never- 
 theless, idolised him, and employed every means 
 for his advancement. Alexander VI. in short, 
 made no scruple of any acts of treadiery, or 
 cruelty, by which he could aggrandise iiis child- 
 ren, and enrich himself. He is at the same 
 time charged witii the most infamous licentious- 
 ness, and is even accused of incest with his own 
 daughter. In political' connections, this pontiff 
 formed alliances with all the princes ot his 
 time, only to break them. He engaged Charles 
 VIII. to come into Italy to conquer the king- 
 dom of Naples, and as soon as that prince had 
 succeeded in the enterprise, he entered into a 
 league with the Venetians, and with Maximi- 
 lian, to rob him of his conquest. He sent a 
 nuncio to the sultan Baja/et, to entreat his as- 
 sistance against Charles Vlll. king of France ; 
 and, after a large remittance from him, delivered 
 up to the king of France Zizim, the brother of 
 Bajazet, then with the pope. To add hypocrisy 
 to all his other vices, Alexander VI. proposed 
 to the Christian princes a design of putting him- 
 self, notwithstanding his great age, at the head 
 of an army against the Turks. This zeal for 
 the honour of the Christian name served as a 
 pretext for certain clauses annexed to the bull 
 issued for a jubilee in the year 1500, which 
 brought him immense sums from all parts ot 
 Europe. As a singular example ot pontifical 
 arrogance, may be mentioned the bull ot this 
 pope, by which he took upon him to divide the 
 new world between the kings of Spain and Por- 
 tugal ; granting to the former all the territory on 
 the west, and to the latter all the territory on 
 tlie east, of an imaginary line, passing from 
 north to south, at one hundred leagues distance 
 from Cape Verd islands. This pontiff pursued 
 his profligate career till the year 1503, when the 
 poison, which he and his son Cxsarhad prepar- 
 ed for Adrian, a wealthy cardinal, was, by mis- 
 take, taken by the father and the son; thus shar- 
 ing themselves the fate which they had, in many 
 instances, inflicted upon others. Some writers 
 have questioned tlic truth of this account of 
 Alexander's death, but it rests upon the autho- 
 rity of several reputable historians, of whom 
 the principal is Guicciardini ; and there , is no- 
 thing in the story inconsistent with the acknow- 
 ledged character of this pontiti and his son. The 
 talents and accomplishments ot Alexander VI. 
 his eloquence and address, and above all his ex- 
 alted and sacred station, were only aggravations 
 of his crimes. One part of his character, his 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 insatiable avarice, is pointedly expressed In the 
 following lines : 
 
 Vcndit AIe\andcr clavPA, alt.tria, Christnni- 
 VciKlcrc jure potest : cmcrat ilto i>ri\i» 
 
 Chrt-st'ft altars, keys, and Cliri:>t hinuclf, 
 W'erc barter'd by Ihi.s pope for pelf: 
 Bui who shall say, he did not well ? 
 That which he bouijht, he bure iiiiL;hl icil. 
 
 Gu'icdiudini, lib. v. Bcmbo, lib. vi. AJorcr'i. 
 Noiiv. Diet. Hist. Gordon's Life of AL-xander 
 VI. Burchard. Fit. Alex. VI. 4to. Hanov. 
 1697. Platina. Dupin. Bower. — E. 
 
 ALEXANDER VII. pope, whose fonner 
 name was Fabio Chigi, of the illustrious house 
 of Chigi, was born at Sienna in 1599. While 
 voung he was sent by his friends to Rome, 
 where the friendship of the marquis Pallavicini 
 introduced him to tlie favour of pope Urban 
 Vlll. The talents for business and intrigue 
 which he early discovered, procured him first 
 the office of inquisitor at Malta, and afterwards 
 that of legate at Ferrara. In the more impor- 
 tant post which he next occupied, as nuncio in 
 Germany, he was mediator at Munster, in the 
 long conferences held there to restore the peace 
 of Europe ; and he conducted the negotiation 
 with all the circumspection and skill of a crafty 
 statesman. At his return he was made bishop 
 of Imola in Romagna, and afterwards cardinal 
 and secretary to the pope. Upon the death of 
 Innocent X. he was elected to the papal see by 
 the unanimous suffrages of the sixtv-four cardi- 
 nals ; a circumstance which had scld(Mii before 
 occurred in the election of a pope, but for which 
 it will not be difficult to account if we credit 
 the observation, that " Fabio Chigi possessed, 
 among other great qualities, that ot perfectly 
 dissembling his bad ones, which he did so art- 
 fiiilv, that the whole college of cardinals could 
 not discover it till they had made him pope." 
 (Wicquefort, Traite de I'Ambass. t. ii. p. 308.) 
 The manner in which he conducted himself 
 during the course of his election, shows him, 
 indeed, to have been a complete master of that 
 art of dissembling which lord Chesterfield has 
 described as of infinite advantage in business. 
 The nomination of this cardinal having been 
 agreed upon the preceding day, his brethren 
 waited upon him with their congratulations ; 
 he received them, at first, only with tears in his 
 eyes, and entreated them to make a better 
 choice ; but afterwards he took courage, and 
 thanked them for their good-will. Alter the 
 election, when he was carried, according to the 
 custom, 10 receive the homage of the cardinals
 
 ALE 
 
 ( 
 
 170 
 
 ) 
 
 ALE 
 
 on the great altar, he refusal to take the usual 
 place at the mid.Ue of the altar, but took his 
 station at one of the corners, not thinkidg him- 
 self, he saiJ, woithy of the place whicii had 
 been occupied by his predecessor. Dining the 
 whole ceremony of the homage, he remained 
 prostrate on the ground, with a crucifix in his 
 arms. Upon his entrance on his apartments in 
 the Vatican, the first order he gave was, to 
 have his coffin brought and placed undei- his 
 bed, as a perpciual memento of monality. When 
 his pontifical habit v.as put on, it was observed 
 that he had a hair cloth under his shirt. To 
 complete the farce of this affected humility, 
 when a wealthy female, signora Olympia, the 
 favourite of the late pontiff, came to congratu- 
 late him on his election, he dismissed her with 
 a cold repulse, saying, " It is not decent for a 
 woman to enter the dwelling of the father of 
 the cliurch." 
 
 Ti>e subsequent conduct of this pontiff fully 
 proved, that in all this he was only practising 
 the most crafty dissimulation. Though at his 
 first admi.Mon to the papal chair his relations 
 were forbidden to be seen in Rome without spe- 
 cial permission, he soon grew more indulgent 
 to them. It is reported that, having sworn 
 never to receive his relations at Rome, father 
 Palaviciui relieved him from the perplexity of 
 this oath, by advising him to go and meet them 
 on the road from Sienna to Rome, which cer- 
 tainly would not be receiving them at Rome. 
 With this wretched salvo for his conscience, it 
 is said, that the pope was satisfied, and that he 
 accordinglv received his family on the high 
 road. However this was, it is certain riiat 
 Alexander VII. was not exceeded by any of his 
 predecessors in the practice which has been cal- 
 led nepotism, or making provision for his rela- 
 tions. Offices and honours, ecclesiastical and 
 civil, were poured upon them without limitation.' 
 So shamefully did the conduct of the pope, in 
 this respect, contradict his former declarations, 
 that father Palavicini found it necessary to can- 
 cel many sheets of a pompous eulogy prefixed 
 to his History of the Council of Trent, in which 
 he had exhausted all his powers of rhetoric in 
 extolling tlie disinterested spirit of Alexander in 
 not permitting his family to come to Rome. 
 Ihough, while cardinal, he breathed nodiing 
 but zeal tor religion, and bitterly lamented the 
 miserable state to which the Christian world 
 was rediiced, by the obstinate wars which had 
 been so long carried on by its chief princes ; 
 after he entered his pontificate, his zeal subsided, 
 and he took no pains to promote the restora- 
 
 tion of peace between the crowns of France 
 and Spain. Tlie truth was, that he ■vvas no 
 friend to France, and was personally at vari- 
 ance with the French minister cardinal Maza- 
 rin : if he seemed to show respect to the king 
 of France, by raising a pyramid at Rome, with 
 an inscription expressing the. outrage which had 
 been offered to the French ambassador, the duke 
 of Crequi, by the Corsican guards, and the sa- 
 tisfaction which had been given to the French 
 court for this indignity, he was compelled to 
 this measure by the tear of the warlike prepara- 
 tions made against him. 
 
 The principal ecclesiastical transaction of 
 this pontificate was, the confirmation of the 
 bull of the preceding pope Innocent X. against 
 the Jansenists. That pontiff had declared five 
 propositions, which were considered as contain- 
 ing the sum of their doctrine, to be heretical ; 
 but Jansenius not being named in tiie bull, the 
 Jansenists defended themselves by pleading, that 
 thoiigh the five propositions were justly con- 
 demned, the pope had not declared, and conse- 
 quently they were not bound to believe, that 
 these propositions were to be found in the book 
 of Jansenius. Alexander VII. probably insti- 
 gated by the Jesuits, the avowed enemies of the 
 Jansenists, issued in the year 1656 a bull, de- 
 claring that the five propositions, which had 
 been condemned, were the tenets of Jansenius, 
 and were contained in his book. The pontiff 
 persisted in enforcing this declaration, so evi- 
 dently calculated to foment contention, and, 
 nine years afterwards, in 1665, sent into France 
 a formulary, to be subscribed by those who ex- 
 pected any preferment in tlie cliurch, affirming, 
 that the five propositions were to be found in 
 the book of Jansenius, in the sense in which 
 they had been condeirmed. This strange deci- 
 sion upon a matter of fact occasioned much 
 di turbance and opposition, and was commonly 
 thought, not ojily by the Jansenists, but by wise 
 and moderate men in general, to imply an as- 
 sumption of infallibility, in points to wliich the 
 papul authority did not extend. The bull was 
 certainly imprudent, intolerant, and opj)ressive, 
 in die extreme ; yet it has been asserted, that 
 this pontiff was liberal in his opinions, and that 
 there was a tiine, before he came within sight 
 of the papal chair, when he was inclined to 
 abandon the catholic faith, and rank himself 
 among the Hugonots. Even after he arrived 
 at the pontificate, he is said to have expressed 
 his disapprobation of the severities exercised to- 
 wards the Vaudois in Piedmont, and to have 
 treated protestams who visited Rome with great
 
 N SF LEFAPE ALE 
 
 Cardinal Pwrre Otthohoiv, ruv 
 VentUcn, el de Vtctotre Tormeuv 
 vloye en dm^erses dmhassaAeJ.et 
 de Veins e,(n rut aue jcj ^Ayeuls Tl 
 
 XA^BF^E Vlll. Cy-d^vam 
 
 OTMtde Marc Otthohon,nobU 
 
 'y ig ^urd 1610 Son Fere Jut em^, 
 
 no re de la charge de C/umceuer 
 
 ye J estud^^ a Padoue.ou d prit l& bonnet 
 
 de Dtocteur el Urbain VIII connouJant son merUt , le gratifia de plujiewrj 
 charges dans IXa Its & Innocent X le fit Cardinal en^ i6j a. ■ de puis jut Evesquc 
 de Sresse- en, i6^^- &iswUe Protexteur de V&mse et Dataire sous Clement IX 
 et enfn es'lA PAPE le S'Oct^bre ifSp tc '^f '-£^^x' , ' ^J
 
 ALE 
 
 ( 17' ) 
 
 ALE 
 
 rondescensloh. It is related, (Currdlxi et Sor- 
 bier. Epist. apud Praestant. Vir. Episiola?, 
 p. 876. Amst. fol. 1684) that wlien some 
 English gentlemen presented tliemsclves at his 
 feet to pav him the ciistoniurv homage, finding 
 upon inquiry that they were protcstants, he af- 
 fably said, " Rise ; you shall not commit what 
 you think an idolatry : I will not give you my 
 blessing, but I pray God you may be wortiiy to 
 receive it." If these accounts of this pope's mo- 
 deration and liberality are to he credited, they 
 can only be reconciled with his severity towards 
 the Janscnists during his pontificate, and ^vith 
 the earlier hostility which he showed towards 
 the protestants in Germany, by having re- 
 course to that dissimulation which easily brings 
 into the same character apparent inconsisten- 
 cies. 
 
 Whatever were the real principles of this pon- 
 tiff, he has at least the credit of having been a 
 friend to the fine arts and to lilerature. He ex- 
 pended a large portion of the apostolic revenue 
 in improving and embellisliing the city of Rome ; 
 he afforded liberal patronage to men of letters, 
 and erected the magnificent college della sapi- 
 enza, which he furnished with a fine library, 
 and a botanical garden. He instituted six new 
 professorships, and augmented the salaries of 
 former professors. Alexander VII. ranks among 
 authors, though not with that higii distinction 
 Avhich his panegyrists represent. A volume ot 
 Latin poems, under tb.e title of '• Philomathi 
 Musae juveniles," consisting of heroic, elegiac, 
 and lyric verses; and a tragedy, entitled " Pom- 
 pey,-' written after the model of Seneca, was 
 published, in folio, at the Louvre, in the year 
 1656 : they were written in his youth, \vhile a 
 student in die school of Sienna. This pontitF 
 died in the year 1667, with a higher reputation 
 for talents tha'n for honesty, and, as Bayle says, 
 more lamented by the Jesuits, than by the Jan- 
 senists. Heidegger, Hist. Pap. .^ng- Corraro 
 Relation de la Cour de Rome. Bayle. Moslieim. 
 Morcri. — E. 
 
 ALEXANDER VIII. pope, whose former 
 name was Peter Ottoboni, was barn at Venice 
 in the year 1610. Ot his early life, little more 
 is known, than that having studied first at Ve- 
 nice, and afterwards at Padua, he, at twenty 
 years of age, removed to Rome, wliere he dis- 
 covered talents for ecclesiastical aiTaiis, which 
 recommended him to the notice of pope Urban 
 VllL From that pontiff he received several 
 honourable appointments ; under Innocent X. 
 he was created a cardinal and a bishop ; and 
 after the death of Innocent XI. in the year 1689, 
 at the advanced age of seventy-nine, he was 
 
 elected pope. Having now, at the mo;t, onlv a 
 few years of life remaining, it niiglit have hccn 
 expected from the zeal and piety of an aged fa- 
 th.erot the church, that be would consecrate all 
 his remaining labours to the service of religion. 
 The industry, however, of Alexander \'lll. was 
 wholly occupied in providing for lii'; relations, 
 whom he loaded with honotirs and riches. It 
 is related, that when he asked one of his domes- 
 tics what die people said of him, the domestic 
 ans^^ercd, that the people said, " He lost no 
 time in the advancement of his family j" and 
 diat the i)iipe replied, " Right, for 1 have only 
 half an hour left of the four-aiid-twenty." (Mc- 
 nagiana, p. 208.) So busily was he cccujiicd in 
 this iniquitous nepotism, that he gave himself 
 no concern for the security and credit of the see 
 which he occupied, and took no pains to accom- 
 modate the differences which subsisted between 
 France and tiie court of Rome. His negligence 
 in this business was construed by the French 
 court into a disposition to yield to the claims of 
 the clergy of France, and several French writ- 
 ers extolled this pope's liberality, and wrote 
 verses in his praise. It soon appeared that their 
 panegyrics were premature ; for, when the pon- 
 tiff, who had hitherto, in hopes of gaining some 
 advantages, amused Louis XIV. with flattering 
 intimations of coinpliance, found himself on the 
 verge of tiie grave, he issued a bull of execra- 
 tion against all that bad been done to the preju- 
 dice of the pope's authority in. the assembly of 
 the clergy of France in 1682. This bull, while 
 it furnished an instructive lesson on the folly of 
 writing any man's eulogy before his death, gave 
 the French court full proof that the pope had 
 deceived them. Alexander VIII. enioved the 
 papal dignity only fifteen or sixteen months, and 
 left his character stained with the reproach of 
 avarice and duplicity : he died in c!\e year 1691. 
 Bayle. Moreri. — E. 
 
 ALEXANDER, an abbot in Sicily, was an 
 historian of the twelfth ceiittiry. He wrote 
 four books of the life and reign of Roger, king 
 of Sicily. The work was printed at Saragossa, 
 in 1578, and afterwards inserteii in the historical 
 collection called, "Hispania lllustrata." Dii- 
 pin. — E. 
 
 ALEXANDER, bishop of Alexandria, flou- 
 riihed at the beginning of the fourth century. 
 He succeeded Achillas in the see of Alexandria, 
 in the year 312, or 313. He was present at the 
 council of Nice in 325, and died at Alexandria 
 in that year or the next, 'i'his prelate is spoken 
 of by Thcodoret as an excellent defender of the 
 evangelical doctrine. (Theod. Hist. Eccl. lib. i. 
 c. 2.) He wrote numerous letters to bishops who
 
 ALE 
 
 ( 172 ) 
 
 ALE 
 
 espoused contrary i.iJes in the A r ian controversy ; 
 (Socrat. Hist. lib. i. c. 6.) bu' of tliese only two 
 remain, one in Socrates, to the bishops of the 
 catholic churcli throughout the world ; (ibid.) 
 the other, in 'I'heodorct, (lib. i. c. 4.) to Alex- 
 ander of Byzantium, with fragments of some 
 others. He expresses himself with great acri- 
 mony against Arius and his followers, calling 
 them apostates, impious, and enemies ot Christ. 
 Cav. Hist. Lit. Lardners Cred. part ii. c. 68. 
 — E. 
 
 ALEXANDER ab Alexandro, so call- 
 ed because both his Christian and family name 
 were Alexander, a civilian and polite scholar, 
 was born at Naples in the year 1461. In early 
 life he studied and practised tlie law, lirst at Na- 
 ples, and afterwards at Rome ; but he found so 
 many things in the practice of tlie courts to dis- 
 gust an honest mind, that he determined to re- 
 linciuish an employment which threatened to 
 corrupt his integrity, choosing rather to be con- 
 tented with a humble fortune in peaceful retire- 
 ment, than to hazard his conscience in the pur- 
 suit of gain. The reasons which induced this 
 worthy man to abandon his profession, reflect 
 so much credit upon his character, that it would 
 be injustice to his memory not to give them in 
 his own words. " When I saw these things, 
 and that it was impossible for the advocates to 
 support their clients against the povter and fa- 
 vour of the great, I said it was altogether fruit- 
 less for us to study with so much labour and 
 assiduity the controveited points of law, and the 
 varieties of its cases, when we -could not but 
 observe, that the issue of suits depended, not 
 upon the justice of the cause, but upon the fa- 
 vour and will of an indolent or corrupt judge, 
 whom the laws suppose to be a man of probity; 
 and that the provisions of law, so wisely con- 
 trived, were thus iniquitously set aside, and per- 
 verted." (Genial. Dier. lib. vi. c. 7.) \\\ so 
 corrupt a state of legal practice, it was no won- 
 der that an honest man despaired of success : in 
 such times, '• probitas laudatur, et alget.'^ Our 
 civilian, who had early acquired a taste for clas- 
 sical studies, having, as we learn from himself, 
 when he was very young, attended the lectures 
 of Philelphus on Cicero's Tusculan Qi;esrions, 
 and those of Perottus and Calderinus on Mar- 
 tial, employed his leisure in reading the works 
 of the ancients. From these he made a large 
 collection of passages, relating to the history 
 and customs of the Greeks and Romans, which,, 
 with some grammatical discussions, and other 
 miscellaneous articles, he arranged in six books, 
 giving the work the title of " Dies Geniales," 
 in imitation of the " Noctes Attics' of Aulus 
 
 Gellius, and the " Saturnalia" of Macrobius. 
 Among die miscellaneous matter of this work 
 are many particulars concerning the author, and 
 several tales, which prove him to have been a 
 very credulous man. He relates wonderful sto- 
 ries of dreams and spectres, and tells ot appari- 
 tions which haunted the house in which he 
 lived at Rome. The historical part of the work 
 was first published at Rome, without quoting 
 the authors from which the materials were col- 
 lected ; but this defect was afterwards supplied 
 by a learned commentator, Tiraquellus, who 
 reprinted the work, with notes, at Lyons, in 
 1587. An edition, with notes of various writ- 
 ers, was published in two volumes, 8vo. at 
 Levden, in 1673. T^^^ work discovers more 
 learning than judgment or taste. The author 
 died at Rome, probably about the year 1523. 
 Alexand. ab Alex. Genial. Dier. Foss. de Hist. 
 Lat. Bayle. — E. 
 
 ALEXANDER of iEgea, a peripatetic phi- 
 losopher, a disciple of Sosigenes, flourished in 
 the first century. It was to this philosopher, 
 together with Seneca, that Agrippina, the wife 
 of the emperor Claudius, committed the educa- 
 tion of her son Nero ; but the philosopher gain- 
 ed little credit in this oflSce, for he is suspected 
 of having corrupted his pupil. He published a 
 commentary on Aristotle's Meteorology. Sui- 
 das. Fabric. Bibl. Grac. lib. iii. c. 1 1 . — E. 
 
 ALEXANDER Aphrodis.sus, so called 
 from a city of Caria, which gave him birth, 
 was, about the end of the second century, a ce- 
 lebrated philosopher of the school of Aristotle. 
 Under the emperor Septimius Severus he v^'as 
 profe sor of the Aristotelian philosophy, but 
 whether at Athens or Alexandria is uncertain. 
 He inscribed the first fruits of his labours, his 
 book " De Fato," to that emperor. He wrote 
 various commentaries on the works of Aristo- 
 tle, and was thought to have clearly conceived, 
 and accurately expressed, the meaning of hia 
 author. On account of the variety and excel- 
 lence of his comments on Aristotle, he was em- 
 phatically called The Commentator. He was 
 esteemed by his contemporaries an excellent 
 preceptor in the peripatetic philosophy ; and his 
 judgment, as a commentator, was highly re- 
 spected by subsequent Aristotelians, both among 
 the Greeks and Latins. Even the Arabians, 
 particularly Averroes, followed his interpreta- 
 tions, and Hottinger and Herbelot attest, that 
 Arabic translations of the commentaries of 
 Alexander Aphrodisaeus are still extant, jerom 
 (Epist. ad Domnion.) savs, that he translated 
 these commentaries into Latin, in order to make 
 himself master of the Aristoteliaa philosophy-
 
 ALE 
 
 ( 173 ) 
 
 ALE 
 
 In various parts of his writing; this philosopher 
 spealcs witli reverence ot the Supreme Being, 
 anJ asserts in explicit terms tlie doctrine of di- 
 vine providence. To separate providence from 
 the deity, is, he says, the same thing as separat- 
 ing whiteness and cold from snow, heat from 
 fire, or sweetness tVom honey. (Quast. et Solut. 
 lib. ii. c. 21.) Concerning the soul, he main- 
 tained, that it is not a distinct substance by it- 
 self, but iatform of an organised body ; (Praef. 
 in lib. de Anima.) he denied its immortality, 
 and asserted, that, to maintain the possibility of 
 its existing separately from the body, was as ab- 
 surd as to say that two and two make five. 
 (Coram, in Topic, lib. ii.) The works of this 
 philosopher, still extant, are, his book " De 
 Fato," published, without any division of chap- 
 ters, by V. Trincavellus, from the press of Al- 
 dus, in folio, at Venice, in tlie year 1534; by 
 Grotius, with a translation, in i2mo. at Am- 
 sterdam, in 1648; and, in 8vo. at London, 
 with a new Latin translation, in 1688: -his 
 commentaries on Aristotle's Topics, Analytics, 
 Metaphysics, Physics, Rhetoric, &c. were first 
 published at Venice, at the press of Aldus, early 
 in the sixteenth century, and many of them 
 \yere afterwards reprinted at different places ; 
 but since the study of Aristotle has fallen into 
 neglect, his best commentator has been forgot- 
 ten. Some medical treatises, ascribed to this 
 writer, were probahlv written by some other 
 Alexander. Fabric. B'lbl. Grac. lib. iv. c. 25. 
 — E. 
 
 ALEXANDER Celisenus, abbot of 
 Ceglio, an historian, flourished in the twelfth 
 century, in the time of Roger, king of Sicily, 
 who reigned from the year 1102 to the year 
 I154. Upon the death of Roger, this monk 
 undertook to record the actions of his reign. 
 He is extremely negligent with respect to dates ; 
 a fault the more unpardonable, as he relates 
 events which passed in his own time, concern- 
 ing which it could not be difficult to gain in- 
 formation. The work will be found in the 
 third volume of " A Collection of Spani.sh 
 Historians." Vas. de Hist. Lat. lib. ii. c. 53. 
 Moreri. — E. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Cornelius, sumamed 
 Polyhistor, an historian and grammarian, ap- 
 cording to Suidas a native of Miletus, but ac- 
 cording to others, of Cotvaeum in Phrygia, 
 flourished about eighty years before Christ. 
 Probably, not by birth, but by misfortune, he 
 had been a slave, and was sold to Cornelius 
 Lentulus, who, finding him qualified to become 
 his preceptor, gave him his freedom, and the 
 surname of Cornelius. He was a disciple of 
 
 Crates. He was at Rome in the time of 
 Sylla. Tlie house in which he was at Lau- 
 rcntum being on fire, he perished in the flames ; 
 and his wife, when she heard of the accident, 
 became frantic with grief, and hanged herself. 
 Time has deprived the world of numerous vo- 
 lumes, produced by the industry and ingenuity 
 of this learned man. Suidas, to whom we are 
 chiefly indebted for our information concerning 
 this writer, says, that atnong innumerable other 
 books, he wrote five concerning Rome. Suidas 
 adds this singular circumstance — that the au- 
 thor says, that there was a Hebrew woman, 
 named Moso, who.se writings were the law of 
 the Hebrews. He is mentioned by Plutarch, 
 Diogenes Laertius, and others, as the author 
 of various works in history and philosophy. 
 Clement of Alexandria circs a book of his con- 
 cerning the Jews ; and Eusebius in his " Prs- 
 paratio Evangelica," (lib. ix. c. 17.) not only 
 quotes it, but makes a large extract from it, at 
 the same time praising the author as a man of 
 great ingenuity and various learning, well known 
 to those of the Greeks who devote themselves 
 diligently to study. It is probable that this is 
 the work referred to by Justin Martyr^ in his 
 " Exhortation to the Greeks," when he men- 
 tion-; those who speak of iXIoses as the leader 
 and chief of the Jews. Athensus (lib. xi.) 
 and Plutarch (De Musica, sub init.) speak of 
 him as a writer upon music , and Pliny appearsy 
 from frequent references to this writer, to havs 
 been considerably indebted to him in his natu- 
 ral history. We have only to lament, tliat all 
 the works of a writer who appears to have ob- 
 tained so much celebritv, should be lost. Suidas-. 
 Voss. de Hist. Grac. lib. i. c. 22. — E. 
 
 ALEXANDER, a Christian divine, bishop 
 of Hierapolis, flourished about the year 430. 
 He was a zealous advocate for the doctrine of 
 Nestoritis, that there were two distinct persons 
 in Christ. In a synod, summoned by John of 
 Antioch at Ephesus, he supported this doctrine, 
 and signed the excommunication of Cyril. The 
 party of Cyril prevailing, he was himself ex- 
 pelled from his see, and sent into exile in Egypt. 
 Several Latin epistles of this bishop arc extant 
 in the " Epliesian Epistles," edited by Lupus. 
 Ciiv. Hist. Lit. — E. 
 
 ALEXANDER Jann.eus, king of the 
 Jews, son of Hyrcan, succeeded his brother 
 Arisiobulus, B. C. 106. He was taken out of 
 prison, in which he had been kept with his bro- 
 thers by Aristobulus, and placed on the throne 
 by queen Salome as the best of the family ; but 
 he began his reign with the death of his fourth 
 brother, who had made some attempts to sup-
 
 ALE 
 
 ( ^^74 ) 
 
 A L E 
 
 plant liiiii. Having a great passion for con- 
 quest, he maichcd an avuiy against Ptoleniais 
 in tlic first year of liis reign, but was obligeJ to 
 raise the siege of tliat place by an invasion ot 
 his own terriiorics from Ptolemy Lathyrus king 
 of Kgvpt, who ravageil the country, anj gave 
 him a signal defeat. This was the commsnce- 
 tnent of a long war, attended M'itli variety of 
 succc-s. One of its events was the capture of 
 Gaza by Alexander, whicli he utterly demo- 
 lished, after treating the inhabitants with great 
 scvciity. Returning to Jerusalem, he was treat- 
 ed with c,reat disresjiect by the people, in tigated 
 \>y die taction of the pharisees who were al- 
 ways hU enemies, and a tumult arose which 
 was the cause of much bloodshed. He pro- 
 reeded again to foreign conquests, but a rebel- 
 lion was r.dsed in his absence, which caused a 
 civil war of six years' continuance. The rebels 
 called in tiie aid of Demetrius Euchserus, who 
 gave -Alexander a defeat ; but in the end he 
 proved victorious, and destroyed vast numbers 
 of his foes. He used his success with detestable 
 cruelty, if the account of Josephus, a strict pha- 
 risee, may be credited ; who charges him with 
 causing eight hundred of the captives to be cru- 
 ■citied at Jerusalem in one day, after their wives 
 and children had been butchered before their 
 faces ; and asserts that he had a banquet pre- 
 pared near the place, where, with his concublijes, 
 he beheld and enjoyed the scene. Alexander, 
 after having thus secured his throne, pursued his 
 conquests in Syria, Idumsa, Arabia, and Phoe- 
 nicia, where he took many places, and incor- 
 porated them with his dominion ; so that he 
 may be looked upon as one of the inost warlike 
 and successful princqs of his race. His con- 
 stitution being at length ruined by intemperance 
 and fatigue, he died in his camp before Re- 
 gaba, a fortress beyond Jordan, in the twenty- 
 seventh year of his reign, B. C. 79. Univers. 
 Hist. — A. 
 
 ALEXANDER, bishop of Jerusalem, in 
 the former part of the third century, though not 
 known to posterity among the Christian fa- 
 thers by his writings, deserves to be remembered 
 with higli respect, on' account of his amiable 
 virtues, and his firm adherence to his Christian 
 profession in the midst of persecution. In the 
 earlv part of his life hp was instructed, as ap- 
 pears from fragments of his letters preserved in 
 Eusebius, by Pantsnus and Clement of Alex- 
 andria, of whom he speaks (Euseb. Hist. Ec. 
 lib. vi. c. 14.) in terms of warm affection, as 
 masters to wliom he had been much indebted : 
 it is, therefore, probable that though no proofs 
 remain of his learning, he possessed a compe- 
 
 tent share of knowledge, to qualify him for the 
 stations which he afterwards occupied in the 
 church. Early in the third century, about tlie 
 year 204, under the emperor Severus, Alexan- 
 der, who was then bishop of the cliurch in Cap- 
 pado.ia, was imprisoned for his profession of 
 the Christian faith. Unle s he was imprisoned 
 more than once in the reign of Severus, lie re- 
 mained in prison seven or eigiit years : for, in 
 a letter to tlie church at Antioch, cited by Eu- 
 s bius, (lb. lib. vi. c. 8.) he speaks of himself 
 as comforted in his bonds by the account which 
 he had received of the ordination of Asclepi- 
 ades to the bishopric of Antioch, whicIi hap- 
 pened in the year 211. Tl;e fidelity with which 
 this worthy man had serve<i the Ciu-istian cause, 
 while bishop of Cappadocia, induced the church 
 at Jerualem, after his release from prison, to 
 make choice of him as colleague to their vene- 
 rable bishop Narcissus, now advanced to the 
 uncommon age of a hundred and si.xteen years. 
 Jerom, who quotes a letter from Alexander, in 
 which this circumstance is mentioned, also re- 
 lates particulars respecting his election by the 
 church at Jerusalem, which will not, in the pre- 
 sent day, easily obtain credit. (Hieron. de Vir. 
 111. c. 62. Conf. Euseb. Hist. Ec. lib. vi. c. 
 8, II.) He speaks cf a special revelation to 
 Narcis us and many of his clergy, apprising 
 them tliat the next day, in the morning, would 
 come into that church a bisliop, who sliould be 
 a helper of tlie sacerdotal chair. Eusebius 
 mentions the same story, with the additional 
 circumstance, that a voice was heard distinctly 
 by some persons eminent for piety. The sim- 
 ple fact appears to have been, that Alexander 
 happening at this time to visit Jerusalem, he 
 was promoted to the bishopric of that church. 
 In this honourable station he remained near 
 forty years ; and though the particulars of his 
 ministry are not preserved, it may be reasonably 
 concluded, from what is known of his charac- 
 ter, that he discharged its duties with credit to 
 himself and benefit to the churches. In the 
 reign of Decius, the persecution of the Chris- 
 tians was renewed ; and about the year 250, as 
 we learn from Eusebius, this good man, now 
 venerable for his old age and grey hairs, was 
 brought before the governor's tribunal at Cesa- 
 rea, and, having in the presence of his persecu- 
 tors renewed his profession of the Ciiristian 
 faith, was cast into prison, wliere he was treated 
 with great cruelty, and in the year 251 he ex- 
 pired. (Euseb. Hist. Ecc. lib. vi. c. 39.) Ori- 
 gen, with whom he had an intimate friendship, 
 in a homily which he delivered at Jerusalem, 
 bore this testimony to the mild spirit of this
 
 ALE 
 
 ( '75 ) 
 
 ALE 
 
 excellent man. " You are not," says he, " to 
 expect in us what you have in your bishop 
 Alexander ; for we acknowledge that he excels 
 lis all in the virtue of gentleness. Nor do I 
 alone commend him for this quality ; you all, 
 from your own e.xperience, know and admire 
 his amiable character. I know that you liave 
 ever been accustomed to liear the mild dis- 
 courses of your most gentle father ; whereas 
 the fruit of our plantation has somewhat of 
 rouglmess in its taste." (In lib. Reg. horn. i. 
 torn. ii. p. 482.) 
 
 It ought to be added, as a circumstance which 
 reflects credit upon the memory of this worthy 
 bishop, that lie formed a library at Jerusalem, 
 in which many valuable writings were pre- 
 served, and which remained, undestroyed in the 
 succeeding persecutions, to tlie time of Eusc- 
 bius, who acknowledges (Hist. Ecc. lib. vi. c. 
 20.) that he collected materials from it for his 
 ecclesiastical history. Lardner, part. ii. ch. 34. 
 Cavers Life of Oiigen. Cav. Hist. Lit. sec. 
 ii. — E. 
 
 ALEXANDER, bishop of Lincoln, in the 
 twelfth century, a Norman bv birth, and ne- 
 phew of Roger, bishop of Salisbury, was pre- 
 ferred to his episcopal see in the year 1123. 
 From the habits of his education, he v;as fond 
 of a luxurious and splendid style of living, and 
 indulged himself so lavishly in ostentatious ex- 
 pense, that lie was called in the court of Rome, 
 Alexander the Magnificent. Vying with the 
 nobility in show and state, his expenditure far 
 exceeded his income, and he was obliged in or- 
 der to support his extravagance to rack and op- 
 press his tenants. It is a striking example of 
 the inconsistency into which historians may be 
 led by a desire of flattering the great, that Hen- 
 ry of Huntingdon, the historian who records 
 the preceding particulars concerning this pre- 
 late, in dedicatory verses prefixed to the work, 
 addresses him in a strain of high panegyric, 
 calling him the glory and pattern of tlie age, 
 and the flower of human kind. St. Bernard 
 treated him more honestly, in a letter which he 
 wrote to this prelate about a year before his 
 death, in which he admonished him not to be 
 dazzled with the lustre of worldly greatness, or 
 to value his fortune more than himselh (Eoist.. 
 64.) This prelate expended vast sums, in imi- 
 tation of the barons and some of the bishops of 
 that time, in erecting castles : he had one at 
 Banbury, another at Sleaford, and a third at 
 Newark. These stately edifices, and strong 
 fortresses, gave great umbrage to king Stephen, 
 who, fearing that they might be employed in 
 support of the pretensions of tlie empress Maud, 
 
 determined to seize them The ca.^t!e of New- 
 ark after some resistance surrendered, and the 
 bishop himself was for several mouths impri- 
 soned. In the year 1142 he visited the court 
 of Rome, and returned in tlie capacity of le- 
 gate from the pope, with ])Ower to tall a synod 
 for regulating tire affairs of the Englisli church. 
 He made a second journey to Rome in 1144; 
 and, in 1 147, he went into France to meet the 
 pope, where he fell sick ; and, returning home 
 \\ith great difficulty, he soon af'tcrwaid.s died. 
 This prelate, instead of leaving behind him the 
 " monumentum aere perennius," which ge- 
 nius alone can raise, left only perishable monu- 
 ments of his mimiiiccnce in public edifices. To 
 that kind of praise whicli he seeins most to have 
 valued, he was certainly entitled ; for, besides, 
 his castles, he founded two monasteries ; and 
 he rebuilt the cathedral church at Lincoln, 
 which had been accidentaliv burnt down, se- 
 cured it against a similar accident by a stone- 
 roof, and made it one of the most magnificent 
 edifices in the kingdom. A^att. Paris. Hist., 
 ^ngl. Godwin, dc Pvtrsul. /Ingl. H. Huntingdon, 
 Hist, apud Script, -post B<ditm. Girald. Cam- 
 brens. dc Fitis Episcop. Lincoln. Chronic. 
 Bromton apud Decern Script. Biogr. Brit. — E. 
 
 ALEXANDER of Lycopolis, a city of 
 Thebais in Egypt, is chiefly known as a writer 
 against the sect of the Manichccs. It is uncer- 
 tain whether he was a pagan or a Christian. 
 Photius calls him archbishop of Cyropolis : 
 moderii writers have entertained contrary opi- 
 nions concerrjng him. The account of Tillc- 
 mont may deserve attention : he says, (T. iv. 
 Les Manich.) that " by his book he appears to 
 have been a pagan philosopher, who observing 
 that some of his fellow disciples embraced the 
 opinions of the Manichees, wrote this piece to 
 confute it by natural and philosophical reasons : 
 he speaks with some respect of Jesus Christ, 
 and prefers the doctrine of the churches to that 
 of Mani ; but it may be perceived by those very 
 places, that he is by no means a Christian." 
 Tlie work entitled, "npoj rac Mavf/xis ^a^o.;" 
 [A Refutation of the Opinions of Alanicheus] 
 was jjublished in Cambelisius, T. 2. auctor. 
 noviss. Paris, 1672, folio. P/iotii Cod. 85. 
 Fabric. Bibl. Grac. lib. v. c. i. Jtict. Fet. de 
 Man. Lardner, part ii. ch. 63. — E. 
 
 ALEXANDER Nevskoi, a Russian saint 
 and hero, son of the great-duke Yaroslat, was 
 born in 1 218. This was a period in which 
 Russia was pressed by enemies from every quar- 
 ter, and particularly by the Tartar hordes on 
 the south. In order to be nearer at hand to op- 
 pose them, Yaroslaf quitted liis residence at
 
 ALE 
 
 ( 176 ) 
 
 ALE 
 
 Novogmoil, and left his two sons, Feodor and 
 Alexander, his viceroys in tliat city. On tlie 
 death of Fcodor, Alexander became sole vice- 
 roy. He married a princess of the province ot 
 Polot7.k i and, having naturally a martial dis- 
 position, he employed himself with great rigour 
 to defend his government from all assailants. 
 He drew a line of forts along the river Shelonia 
 to the Umen lake, by way of security against 
 the incursions of the Tshudes or Esthonians. 
 In 1239, while Yaros-laf was engaged with the 
 Tartars, a combined army of Swedes, Danes, 
 and knights of the Teutonic order, undertook 
 an expedition against Novogorod, and landed 
 from their ships on the banks of the Neva. 
 They sent a haughty embassy commanding 
 Alexander to submit to a force superior to any 
 lie could bring to oppose them ; but tlie brave 
 prince rather those to try tlie fortune of the 
 field. An obstinate engagement ensued, in 
 which Alexander overthrew the enemy with 
 great slaughter, wounding with his own hand 
 (it is said) the king of Sweden. This battle is 
 one of the most distinguished events in the Rus- 
 sian history, and is decorated with a variety of 
 circumstances, probably the fictions of a rude 
 age. From the river Neva, near which the 
 action was fought, Alexander obtained t!ie 
 surname of Nevskoi. The remainder of his 
 life was .passed in extraordinary exertions of 
 valour and activity against the invaders of his 
 ■country- He defeated the Tartars in various 
 engagements, and delivered Russia from a tri- 
 bute imposed by the successors of Zinghis 
 Khan. He died at Gorodetz near Novogorod 
 about the year 1262 ; and the grateful admira- 
 tion of his countrymen raised him to the rank of 
 one of the national saints. Peter I. like a great 
 man, took advantage of the enthusiastic vene- 
 ration of the Russians for a character of sucli 
 patriotic virtue, and built a splendid monastery 
 not far from his new city of Petersburg on the 
 spot marked by tradition for the scene of St. 
 Alexander's most glorious exploit. He also 
 instituted an order of knighthood bearing tlie 
 name of St. Alexander Nevskoi, though he did 
 not live to apjioint the knights. This was done 
 by Catharine I. in 1725 ; and the order now 
 flourishes in great splendour. Coxes Traveis 
 into Russia. Gen. Biogr. Diet. edit. 1798. — A. 
 ALEXANDER, Noel, a Dominican, one 
 of the most industrious writers of the seven- 
 teeth century, was born at Rouen in 1639. 
 This voluminous author wrote in Latin, in 
 eight volumes folio, " An Ecclesiastical His- 
 tory of the Old and New Testainent," first 
 published in separate portions between the years 
 
 1678 and 1686, and afterwards collected in 
 1699. Anotlier edition was published at the 
 same time, in twenty-six volumes 8vo ; and a 
 third at Lucca, in 1754. The learned disser- 
 tations in this work are much esteemed. The 
 author having given offence to the court of 
 Rome, I)y supporting certain claims of the Gal- 
 lican church, and the riglits of kings, hi. work, 
 as far as it was then published, was in 1684 
 proscribed by an express decree of pope Inno- 
 cent XI. This proscription did not, however, 
 prevent Alexander from proceeding with his 
 work, and he was suffered to complete it with- 
 out molestation. His judicious replies to the 
 censures of the inquisition will be read with 
 pleasure. Another elaborate work produced 
 by the industry of this learned ecclesiastic was, 
 " A System of Theology, Positive, Dogmatic, 
 and Moral," published in ten volumes 8vo. in 
 1694, and afterwards in two voluines, folio, in 
 1703. He published in 1699, at Cologne, 
 " An Apology for the Dominican Missionaries 
 in China ;" and in 1700, a treatise " On the 
 Agreement of the Chinese Ceremonies with the 
 Greek and Roman Idolatries." Seven letters 
 to the Jesuit fathers Dez and Le Compte, upon 
 the same subject, afterwards appeared. This 
 learned Dominican's two last works, were, "A 
 Literal and Moral Exposition of the four Evan- 
 gelists," printed in folio in 1703 ; and a similar 
 " Exposition of the Epistles," in 17 10; they 
 are written in Latin. Noel Alexander was suc- 
 cessively a professor of philosophy and theolo- 
 gy ; he was created a doctor of the Sorbonne, 
 in 1675, and died, at Paris, in 1724. Not- 
 withstanding the proscription passed upon his 
 works, pope Benedict XIII. called him master, 
 and many patient readers have probably pro- 
 fited by his labours. Moreii. Nouv. Diet. 
 Hist. — E. 
 
 ALEXANDER of Paphlagonia, born at 
 Abonotichos, a town of Paphlagonia on the 
 Euxine, an infamous impostor, probably prac- 
 tised his delusions towards the latter end of the 
 second century. His story is humorously told 
 by Lucian, who declares himself to have been 
 an eve-witness of his impostures, but evidently 
 with a mixture of fiction, which it is difficult 
 to separate from the truth. We shall content 
 ourselves with barely mentioning a single inci- 
 dent. In the war between Marcus Aurelius and 
 the Quadi and Marcomani, this deceiver, hav- 
 ing free access to the court of the emperor by 
 means of Rutilianus, delivered an oracle, com- 
 manding, that two lions should be thrown alive 
 into the Ister with spices and a sacrifice, pro- 
 mising, that the consequence would be victor)',
 
 ALE 
 
 ( 177 ) 
 
 ALE 
 
 J- 
 
 glory, and peace. The comnianil was executed, 
 and the lions, winch swam on shore in the ene- 
 mies' country, were destroyed : but, contiary to 
 the expectation excited hy the prediction of t]iis 
 pretended oracle, tlic Romans shortly afterwards 
 suffered a total defeat. Alexander, in order to 
 save his credit, had recourse to the expedient so 
 often tried at Del phos, and coolly said, th.at the 
 oracle had indeed foretold a victory, but did not 
 declare whether it would happen to the Ro- 
 mans or to their enemies. Tliose who wish 
 to read turther particulars concerning this Alex- 
 ander, are referred to the entertaining and sati- 
 rical piece of Lucian, entitled, " Alexander, or 
 Pseudomantis." — E. 
 
 ALEXANDER of Paris, a French poet, 
 who flourished in the twelfth century, was born 
 at Bernai in Normandv. He left liis native 
 province, then under the jurisdiction of the 
 kings of England, and removed to Paris, w here 
 he cultivated letters, and became in some mea- 
 sure the founder of French poetry. He imi- 
 tated Gasse, also a Norman, in the form of his 
 versification, adopting his verses of twelve syl- 
 lables, as most proper for heroic subjects. In this 
 measure he wrote his poem of " Alexander the 
 Great," which was very favourably received in 
 the court of Philip-Augustus, and gave the first 
 idea of what could be done in that way by the 
 French language. The poem is a sort of metri- 
 cal version of a life of Alexander then current, 
 but mixed with several facts which, under the 
 name of Alexander, allude to the history of 
 France at that period. The versification is in 
 many parts harmonious, with passages of strong 
 sense. It has been supposed that the name of 
 Alexandrines, applied to lines of twelve syl- 
 lables, has been taken from this work either 
 in reference to its author or its subject. More- 
 rl.—A. 
 
 ALEXANDER, William, earl of Stirling, 
 a poet and statesman, was the son of Andrew 
 Alexander of Menstrie in Scotland, and was born 
 in 15S0. He travelled as tutor or companion to 
 the earl of Argyle, and, on his return, lived as 
 a private gentleman in the court of king James 
 VI. and exercised those poetical talents whiclr 
 he had yery early manifested. After having 
 preluded with amorous verses, he changed his 
 strain-to the themes of philosophy and morals, 
 and aimed at holding the mirror to princes, in a 
 series of tragedies in rhyme, formed somewhat 
 upon the ancient model with chorusses. One, 
 on the story of. Darius, was published at Edin- 
 burgh in 1603 ; and it was reprinted with three 
 more, viz. Crcesus, the Alexandrian, and Ju- 
 lius Caesar, in 1607, under the title of " Mo- 
 VOL. I. 
 
 narchick Tragedies." They are grave, lofty, 
 and sententious ; and tlie language and versili- 
 cation are such as even still would iccm to re- 
 quire little correction. He publi'.'ied otlier 
 poems of a political kind; particulaily a " Par- 
 arnesis" 10 prince Henry, in which is contained 
 a noble lesson to an heir of royalty. He also 
 wrote a supplement to complete the tliird part 
 of sir Pliilip Sidney's romance, published in 
 1613, in which year he was male one of the 
 gentlemen ushers of the presence to prince 
 Charles. In 1614 he printed a sacred poem of 
 considerable length, called " Dooms-Day ;" and 
 in that year was knighted by king James, and 
 made master of the requests. Now began his 
 ])olitical career. ' Having projected the settle- 
 ment of a colony in Nova Scotia, he had agrant 
 made him of that country in 1621. Charles, 
 on his accession, greatly countenanced the 
 scheme, and, to promote it, founded the order of 
 knights baronet in Scotland and Nova Scotia, 
 each of whom were to have a portion of land 
 in the new colony. Sir William Alexander 
 himself was to have precedence as his majesty's 
 lieutenant of Nova Scotia. He had also the 
 privilege of coining small copper money. This 
 design, however, was attended with little suc- 
 cess, and sir William underwent some discre- 
 dit in the sale of his honours. At length he 
 disposed of the whole country to the French for 
 five or six tlrousand pounds. 
 
 The king created him secretary of state for 
 Scotland in 1626, and a peer of that realm, by 
 the style of viscount Stirling, in 1630. He was 
 raised to the dignity of earl in 1633, at the so- 
 lemnity of the king's coronation at Holyrood- 
 house. He dischari;ed the office of secretary of 
 state with great reputation till his death in 1640. 
 To a new edition of his poems, printed some 
 time before, he added the first book of an heroic 
 poem, entitled, " Jonatlian ;" and he polished 
 and improved the style of the \^ hole with miTtli 
 care. They compose a very respectable portion 
 of the polite literature of that age ; though their 
 gravity and prolixity are not much suited to tlie 
 taste of the present. It docs not apj'car t-liat his 
 plays were ever acted. 'I'liey are ratlier drama- 
 tic poems for perusal in the closet. B'logr. Bri- 
 tan. — A. 
 
 ALEXANDER Tralliani's, a physi- 
 cian of Tralles, in Lydia, flourished in the 
 reign of Justinian, in the sixth century. He was 
 broughtiip underhis father, and arrived at high re- 
 putation and extensive practice, as well at Rome, 
 as in various parts of the empire into which he 
 travelled ; whence he bore the name of Alexan- 
 der the physician. He appears to have been 
 2 A
 
 ALE 
 
 ( 178 ) 
 
 ALE 
 
 rmployetl among people of Iiigh rank. He was 
 a martoflcaniing, and chiefly followed the prac- 
 tice of Hippocrates, and the theory of Galen. 
 His works in Greek have come down to our 
 times, and arc not unworthy of notice. They 
 are less of a compilation than those of other 
 Greeks about that age, and contain many obser- 
 vations drawn from his own practice. He even 
 ventures occasionally to contradict the aiitliority 
 of Galen. He describes diseases in a plain and 
 precise manner, from those of the head to those 
 of the feet ; and gives various formula; of medi- 
 cines of his own invention. Amidst several 
 useful things are mingltd amulets, incantations, 
 and other follies of the time; on the whole, 
 however, he is one of the most valuable of the 
 early practitioners. His works have several 
 times been published both in Greek and the La- 
 tin version. Of the latter, Haller gave an edi- 
 tion at Lausanne in 1772. Frcind, Hist, of 
 Pkys. Hiilhr, Bibl. Med.Pract. — K. 
 
 ALEXIS MiCHAELoviTCH, czar of Rus- 
 sia, the son of the czar Michael Theodorovitch, 
 was born in 1630. At the death of his father 
 in 1646, he was immediately crowned by the 
 care of his governor Morosou, who became 
 his prime-minister and chief confidant, and en- 
 deavoured to divert him from attention to public 
 affairs. He married him to the daughter of a 
 nobleman of small fortune dependant on him- 
 self, and took the sister for his own wife. The 
 mal-admini .tration of this minister and his con- 
 federates occasioned a terrible insurrection of the 
 inhabitants of Moscow, who succeeded in ob- 
 taining the punishment of several of them, and 
 Morosou was with difficulty saved by the inter- 
 cession of the czar himself. 
 
 Alexis' afterwards took the reins of jovern- 
 ment into his own hands, and exhibited tokens 
 of great vigour and capacity. He made war 
 with the Poles, and recovered the towns and 
 provinces which had been ceded to their) at the 
 last peace. When Poland was invaded by 
 Charles GustavuF, king of Sweden, Alexis made 
 a truce with that kingdom in 1656 ; and soon 
 after thought it necessary to turn his arms against 
 Charles, who had appropriated Lithuania to 
 himself. A war ensued with various success, 
 which was terminated by the treaty of Carlis 
 in 1661. During the course of these wars, the 
 czar paid the greatest attention to the internal 
 improvement and prosperity of his dominions; 
 and, with very little advantage of education, 
 showed a truly enlightened mind. He caused an 
 epitome of several sxriences to be tsanslated into 
 the Russian language, and took great delight in 
 the perusal of it^ He collected into one body all 
 
 tlie laws of the various provinces of his empire, 
 and had them printed together in Russian — a 
 very laudable attempt in legislation, though the 
 result, in so rude a state of ci\ ilisation, could be 
 no better than an imperfect and ill-digested com- 
 pilement. He introduced several new manufac- 
 tures, particularly of silk and linen ; added two 
 suburbs to Moscow ; and built mai ket tow ns in 
 several districts, which he peopled with Poles 
 and Lithuanians. He also brought several 
 large desert tracts into cultivation by settling 
 upon them prisoners taken in war. He even 
 formed a design of maintaining fleets in the Cas- 
 pian and Black seas, and sent for shipwrights 
 from Holland for the purpose of building them. 
 He received ambassadors from Persia, China, 
 and other countries in Asia ; and was the first 
 czar who maintained a close correspondence 
 with the principal European powers. He en- 
 deavoured, though circumspectly, to augment 
 the power of the crown ; a necessary prepara- 
 tive to improvement in a country possessed by a 
 potent and barbarous aristocracy. He instituted 
 a private chamber for the trial of offences against 
 himself; and, though he proceeded cautiously in 
 exaininations, he executed justice with rigour on 
 the guilty, and generally in a private manner. 
 Though his revenues were proportionally very 
 small, yet, by good economy, he kept a magni- 
 ficent court and large army, and left his trea- 
 sury rich. Besides his foreign wars, a very 
 extensive and formidable domestic rebellion ob- 
 structed his plans for the good of his country. 
 This was excited in 1669 by Stenko Razin, 
 chief of the Don Cossacs, and for a long time 
 was carried on with equal success and cruelty. 
 Stenko gained possession of Astrakan ; and, 
 being joined by a multitude of oppressed pea- 
 sants who rose against and murdered their lords, 
 there were at one time two hundred thousand re- 
 bels in arms. Equal severity was employed in 
 suppressing it ; but it was not fully quashed till 
 167 1, when Stenko was betrayed into the czar's 
 hands, and executed. 
 
 The affairs of Poland caused several haughty 
 and menacing messages to pass between the 
 grand seignior and the czar, which at length 
 ended in direct hostilities. Alexis endeavoured 
 to engage all the princes of Christendom in a 
 league against the Turks ; and sent an ambas- 
 sador to Rome, who refused to degrade his ina- 
 ster's dignity by kissing the pope's toe. He was, 
 however, higlily caressed by that court, and 
 brought back promises, but little else. Alexis 
 then joined with the Poles, and, by the diversion 
 he gave to the Turkish arms, contributed much 
 to the great victorj' obtained by John Sobieski.
 
 ALE 
 
 ( 179 ) 
 
 ALE 
 
 At tlie vacancy of tlic crown of Poland, he- pro- 
 posed iiis son for king, with tlie project of an 
 union between Poland, Lithuania, and Russia ; 
 but tlie electors preferred Sobieski. Various 
 jealousies arose between the two crowns in the 
 progress of the war against Turkey, which 
 ended in the conquest of the whole Ukraine by 
 the Poles. In this state of atfairs, Alexis was 
 seised with an illness which carried him oft' at 
 the early age of forty-six, A. D. 1677. He 
 left behind him two sons and four daughters by 
 his first wife; and one son and daughter by his 
 second wife, Natalia, the daughter of Naris- 
 kin, a captain of hussars. This last son' was 
 afterwards the great czar Peter ; to whom 
 Alexis was a worthy predecessor and example. 
 A/od. Univers. Hist. — .A. 
 
 ALEXIUS L (CoMNENUs,) emperor of 
 the east, son of John Comneuus, who \\as 
 brother of the emperor Isaac, was born at 
 Constantinople in 1048. After receiving an ex- 
 cellent education, he was earlv employed in mi- 
 litary service, and, along with his elder brother, 
 Isaac, commanded against the Turks, then in- 
 vading the empire under their great sultan, Alp 
 Arslan. The two brothers adhered to the em- 
 peror Michael Ducas ; and Alexius suppressed 
 a rebellion against him formed by Ursel, or Ru- 
 selius. At length, Nicephorus Botoniates hav- 
 ing assumed the purple, and Michael Ducas re- 
 tiring to a monastery, Alexius offered his ser- 
 vices to the new emperor, desiring him to judge 
 of his future loyalty by his past opposition. Be- 
 ing received to trust, he defeated Bryennius and 
 Basilacius, two competitors for the throne, in 
 which exploits he equally distinguished his va- 
 lour and humanity. In consequence of some 
 court intrigues, and the hostile designs of the 
 favourites of the emperor, the two brothers of 
 the Comneni were driven into rebellion ; and, 
 withdrawing to the army on the borders of 
 Thrace, they obtained its concurrence in the 
 deposition of Nicephorus. Isaac, though the 
 elder, readily consented to tlie preference of 
 Alexius. He was saluted emperor by the troops, 
 and immediately proceeded with them to Con- 
 stantinople. The capital was betravcd into his 
 hands, and his barbarian soldiers obtained much 
 wealthy spoil from the churches and monasteries. 
 By the influence of George Pal.-Eologus, the fleet 
 was induced to declare in his favour ; and the 
 resignation of Botoniates transferred, without 
 bloodshed, the crown to Alexius in 1081, 
 
 After atoning by a public penance for the dis- 
 orders of his troops, he began to make prepara- 
 tions for stopping the progress of the Turks. He 
 
 had obtained some successes against them, when 
 he was obliged hastily to acce]it their ovcrtuies 
 for peace, on the advice tliat Robert (juiscard, 
 the famous Norman, was irivading the empiie 
 on the side of Epirus. Robert advanced to 
 Durazzo (Dyrrhachiuin), to which he was 
 laying siege, when Alexius met him at the head 
 of a large army. A battle ensued, in which 
 the emperor was defeated with great loss ; and 
 Durazzo surrendered. Alexius was indefatiga- 
 ble in raising new levies ; and, in order to reple- 
 nish his exhausted treasury, he made free with 
 some of the wealth of the church, a measure 
 that gave great offence to the clergy. He like- 
 wise entered into an alliance with Henry, em- 
 peror of Germany ; by whose invasion of Ca- 
 labria, Robert was recalled home. His son, 
 Bohemond, however, continued the war in 
 Greece with various success : but a; length he 
 found it expedient to evacuate his conquests, and 
 follow his father. In 1084 Robert made a second 
 expedition into Greece, to opjiosc which Alexius 
 engaged the Venetian fleet to join his own. 
 Three engagements were fought near Corfu, in 
 the two first of which the Greeks and Venetians 
 had the advantage ; in the latter, the Normans 
 obtained a complete victory. But Robert dying, 
 the Normans withdrew their forces from Greecq, 
 and tranquillity was restored. 
 
 Immediately after the termination of this war, 
 another succeeded with the Scythians, who, 
 crossing the Danube, laid waste the country of 
 Thrace. The emperor's generals at first sus- 
 tained some defeats from these barbarians ; but 
 Alexius himself marching against them, put an 
 end to the war by a victory in which the ravagcrs 
 were almost totally destroyed. Wars with the 
 Turks, and a renewed war with the Scythians, 
 kept the empire in almost constant agitation, till 
 the period when it was still more seriously en- 
 dangered by the events of tl;e iamous first cru- 
 sade. 
 
 Alexius himself originally contributed to rouze 
 this storm of war which fell so heavily on his 
 own dominions. His ambassadors appeared at 
 the famous council of Placentia, where, by 
 strong representations of the danger of Constan- 
 tinople from the Turks, and sup])liant addresses 
 to the martial princes of western Europe for 
 their aid, they obtained as urances of powerful 
 and speedy succour. But the first exjiedition 
 under Peter the hermit was sufficient to e.xcite 
 the apprehensions of the Greek emperor with 
 respect to such ferocious and dangerous allies ; 
 and when Godfrey of Bouillon, with the other 
 confederate princes, arrived at Constantinople in
 
 ALE 
 
 ( iSo ) 
 
 ALE 
 
 iot)6, Alexius was ratlier disposed to rcgavd 
 ihtni as entmics than friends. His policy was 
 ilicrctbrc irresolute and ambiguous ; and he has 
 been charged by the Latin writers with the 
 basest treachery, while his intentions seem to 
 have been no more than to guard against the 
 dangers which pressed him on all sides. He 
 made a treaty, in which it was stipulated that 
 he should assist them with his forces, and sup- 
 ply them witli all necessaries, while on their 
 parts they should restore to the empire all the 
 jconquests they should make from the Turks and 
 Saracens. He attached tire leaders by presents 
 and flattery, and having induced them all seve- 
 rally to pay him homage, he dismissed them as 
 speedily as possible to the seat of war in Asia. 
 IvJice was the first place obtained by the arms of 
 the crusaders ; and the emperor's lieutenant was 
 put in possession of it. Afterwards Antioch 
 surrendered to them ; but of this metropolis and 
 its territory they elected Boliemond king, re- 
 gardless of their stipulations with the emperor, 
 who, they alleged, had failed in his part of the 
 conditions. Alexius, however, reaped some 
 advantage from the successes of the Christian 
 princes, since they enabled Iiim to recover from 
 the Turks several of the Greek islands, with 
 some maritime towns in Lesser Asia. But he 
 was thereby involved in a war with Bohemond, 
 who took from him Laodicea, as appertaining 
 to his kingdom of Antioch. The emperor 
 then fitted out a great fleet, which met and de- 
 feated that of the crusaders near Rhodes. He 
 also ordered one of his generals to lay siege to 
 Laodicea, who retook it. Bohemond afterwards, 
 reinforced by large suxcours from Europe, 
 landed in Greece, and besieged Durazzo. It 
 held out, however, till the war was terminated 
 by a negotiation ; and soon after, the emncror 
 was deliveied by death from his ambitious foe. 
 Alexius then marched in person against the 
 Turks, who had made incursions to the gates 
 of Nice, and gave them a great defeat; but 
 they returned next year, and several actions en- 
 sued between them and the emperor's lieute- 
 nants, till.at length they were brought to sue for 
 peace. 
 
 Alexius, now grown old and disabled with the 
 gout, no more left his capital, but spent the 
 latter part of his life in endeavouring to heal the 
 divisions which rent the Greek church. He in- 
 gratiated himself with the clergy as a champion 
 of the ortliodox faith ; and,, though not. cruel by 
 nature, was led by zeal to the persecution of he- 
 retics. His long reign of thirty-seven years fa- 
 tigued his subject;, and when he died, in 1118, 
 
 he had, in a great measure, lost their affection 
 and rivcrence. On his death- bed he resisted tlie 
 solicitatioriS of the empress Irene for disinherit- 
 ing his son John infavour of the'husband of his 
 daughter Anne; and the empress indignantly 
 replied to a pious ejaculation that he made on, 
 the vanity of the world, " You die as you have 
 lived — a hypocrite.'''' His character has been 
 painted in the most opposite colours by friends 
 and enemies. His daughter, the celebrated his- 
 torian, Anna Comnena, represents it as a com- 
 position of every royal and private virtue; while 
 the Latins paint him as a monster of perfidy. 
 Considering the peculiar difficulties under which 
 he laboured, some craft and duplicity may be 
 excused ; and it must be acknowledged that his 
 incessant vigilance and activity were worthy of 
 his station, and that fevi' princes have done more 
 for the benefit of their people. He was bounti- 
 ful to his friends, and clement to his enemies — a 
 lover of letters, and equally versed in the arts 
 of government and ot war. Univcrs. Hist. 
 Gibbon. — K. 
 
 ALEXIUS III. Angelus, emperor of the 
 east in 1195, usurped that station by the basest 
 perfidy towards his brother Isaac Angelus, whom 
 he confined in a melancholy prison, and de- 
 prived of sight. Quitting his family name, he 
 assumed that of the Comneni; but he employed 
 his elevation merely as an instrument of riotous 
 luxury, committing the management of all pub- 
 lic afliiirs to his wife Euphrosyne, who oppressed 
 the people by extortion, and set the chief offices 
 of state to sale. His nephew Alexius, the son 
 of Isaac, escaping fiom his power, went to 
 Venice, where a body of western princes and 
 nobles were assembled for the purpose of a 
 fourth crusade against the infidels. He engaged 
 these by a treaty to assist him in the recovery of 
 his paternal crown; and, in 1202, the united 
 powers of the French and Venetians appeared 
 before Constantinople. The usurper in vain, 
 endeavoured to divert them from an attack by a 
 suppliant embassy. They laid close siege to 
 the city; and, though at first received by the 
 Greeks with firmness, they at length, in 1203, 
 broke within the fortifications, and repulsed 
 Alexius, who, at the head of a much superior 
 body, attempted to drive thcni back. In the en- 
 suing night, collecting all the treasure he could 
 find, and deserting his wife and people, Alexius 
 escaped in a bark through the Bosphorus to an. 
 obscure harbour in Thrace, and his blind bro-- 
 ther Isaac, w ith his son, were by the people re- 
 stored to their throne. Alexius, after various 
 adventures, fell into the hsnds of his son-in-law-
 
 ALE 
 
 ( '8r ) 
 
 A L F 
 
 Theodore Lascaris, (aguin.U whomlic had insti- 
 gated tlie Turks) who put out liis eyes, and sliut 
 him up in a monastery at Nice in Asia, wlicrc 
 he died some years alter. Univcrs. Hist. Gib- 
 bon. Alorni. — A. 
 
 ALEXIUS IV. or the Young, was made 
 joint emperor with his father Isaac in 1203, in 
 die manner above related. The obligations un- 
 der which he had laid liimselt" to submit the east- 
 ern empire to the authority of the pope, and to 
 bestow ample rewards on his western auxiliaries, 
 involved him in great difficulties ; and quarrels 
 soon arose in Constantinople between the Latins 
 and Greeks, one of which occasioned a dread- 
 ful conflagration that destroyed a great part of 
 the city. Alexius made a progress through his 
 dominions, escorted by the marquis of Montfer- 
 rat ; but, on his return, he- found the affections 
 of his subjects alienated. His measures to raise 
 the sums due from him to his ailies occasioned a 
 tumult, fomented by a prince of the house of 
 Ducas, surnamed Murtzuffle, in which Alexius 
 was deposed, imprisoned, and soon after put to 
 death. This happened in the year 1204. Whe- 
 tlier his father was first dead, or not, is a fact 
 Kot agreed upon among historians. Univers. 
 Hist. Gibbon. Morer'i. — A. 
 
 ALEXIUS V. Ducas, surnamed j^//(r/2«^i?, 
 from his black shaggy eyebrows, was a near re- 
 lation of the imperial family, and possessed both 
 vigour and address, but allied to treachery and 
 cruelty. After the murder of his predecessor he 
 was raised to the empire by the unanimous ac- 
 clamations of the Constantinopolitans, and pro- 
 ■ ceeded to prepare for that defence of his metro- 
 polis, which he foresaw would soon be necessa- 
 ry. The Latins, pitying the fate of tlieir un- 
 happy ally Alexius the young, and irritated at 
 the prospect of losing their rewards, collected all 
 their forces for a second siege. Murtzuffle, in 
 a nocturnal sally, was defeated with great loss, 
 and his great standard, consisting of a miraculous 
 image of the virgin, was taken. The defence, 
 liowever, was continued three months longer, 
 till all was prepared on the part of the Latins 
 for a general assault, in the month of April 1204. 
 It succeeded ; and A'lurtzuffle made his escape in 
 the night in a small vessel along with Euphro- 
 syne, the wife of Alexius III. and her daughter 
 Eudoxia, whom he had married after abandoning 
 his lawful wife. He repaired to the camp of his 
 father-in-law in Thrace, who received him at 
 first with apparent favour; but, soon after, lie 
 caused him to be seised in the bath at a feast, 
 deprived of his sight, stripped of his treasures, 
 and turned out to wander. Murtzuffle procured 
 a conveyance into Asia, but was seised in liis 
 
 passage by the Latins, \\\\o caused Iilm to ?>« 
 tried for the murder of young Alexius, and 
 condemned him to an ignominious death. The 
 mode of it was singular. He was made to a- 
 scend the 1'heodosian column, a pillar one hun- 
 dred and forty-seven feet i;. height, wiiencc he was 
 cast down headlong, and daslied in pieces. Uni- 
 vers. Hist. Gibbon. Morcr'i. — A. 
 
 ALFENUS, Varus, a Roman civilian, a 
 disciple of Scrvius Sulpitius, flouri.shcd about the 
 year of Rome 754, or the second year of the 
 Christian sra. Horace mentions liim as one 
 who had been brought up in the mechanic trade 
 of a shoe-maker, but had quitted this humble 
 occupation for a profession in which he liad ac- 
 quired reputation. (Sat. lib. i. sat. 3. v. 130.) 
 
 -Alfcnus vafer, omni 
 
 Abjccto instruracnto arlis, clauaaquc taberna, 
 Sulor erat. 
 
 Ammianus Marcellinus, speaking of the advo- 
 cates of his time, says, that, in order to be 
 thought deeply read in the science of the law, 
 they talk of Trebatius, Cascellius, and Alfcnus ; 
 whence it appears, that his name in matters of 
 law was of high authority. (Amm. M. lib. iii. 
 c. 4.) Alfenus wrote forty books of Digests, 
 which are mentioned in the index of the Pan- 
 dects, and sundry books of collections. Aulus 
 Gellius, while he criticises the passages which 
 he cites from these works, speaks ot the author 
 as a diligent inquirer into antiquities — " Re- 
 rum antiquarum non incuriosus." (Aul. G. 
 lib. vi. c. 5.) The civilian Paulus wrote an 
 abridgment of the works of Alfenus. One of 
 the old scholiasts upon Horace, in his note on 
 the passage above referred to, relates, that he 
 was buried at the public expense. If this was 
 true, Alfenus, without enriching himself by Iiis 
 profession, had acquired an honest reputaiio:;, 
 which may afford a great encouragement to gi- 
 nius to step boldly out of the lower walks of 
 life, and enter upon the honourable career of 
 professional merit. Baylc. Morcri. — E. 
 
 ALFORD, Michael, an English. Jesuit, 
 a native of London, was born in the year 1587, 
 and entered into the society in 1607. After 
 having studied philosophy and theology, partly 
 in Spain and partly at l^ouvain, he resided five 
 years at Rome. Returning to England, he was 
 arrested at Canterbury and sent to London, but 
 was soon set at liberty. From that time.he re- 
 sided in England as a missionary from the society 
 upwards of thirty years. He died at St. Omer's 
 in the year 1652, and left two treatises in eccle- 
 siastical history ; " Britannia lllustrata," print- 
 ed in 4to. at A-iuwerp, in 1641 ; and " Annales
 
 A L F 
 
 ( 182 ) 
 
 A L F 
 
 Ecclesiastic! Britannoruin," &c. piinted at the 
 same plai.e. A/oreri. — E. 
 
 ALFR AGAN, or Ali-ergan, Mahomet, 
 an Arabian matheniatician and astvonomer, was 
 born at Fcrgan in Sogdiana, now called Samar- 
 cand. He lived in tlietime of caliph Al-mamon, 
 who died in tiie year 833. He wrote in Arabic 
 a work cr.ti'lcd, " The Elements of Astrono- 
 my," in which he chiefly follows Ptolemy, and 
 frequently cites him. This work was first 
 translated into Latin in the twelfth century by 
 Jolsannes Hispaiensis, and printed at I-'errara in 
 1493, and at Nuremberg in 1537, with a pre- 
 face by Meljncthon. A second translation, by 
 Christman, from the Hebrew version of Anto- 
 li, appealed at Franctort in 1590. This trans- 
 lation is accompanied with a commentary, in 
 which the translator compares the calendars of 
 the Romans, Egyptians, Arabians, Persians, 
 Syrians, and Hebrews, and shows the corre- 
 spondence of their years. A third, by Golius, 
 professor of mathematics and Oriental languages 
 at Leyden, accompanied with the Arabic text, 
 and with valuable notes to the end of the ninth 
 book, was published in 4to. at Amsterdam in 
 1669. This translator did not live to complete 
 his commentary. Morcri. Hiitton' s Math. 
 Dict. — E. 
 
 ALFRED, or .^LF RE D,surnamed the Great, 
 the most illustrious of the Anglo-Saxon kings, 
 was the youngest son of Etiielwolf, king of the 
 West-Saxons, and was born at Wannating, 
 supposed to be Wantage in Berkshire, A. D. 
 849. So early as the fifth year of his age he was 
 taken by his father to Rome, and he was again 
 sent thither some time afterwards with a nume- 
 rous retinue. On his second visit he is said to 
 have received the royal unction from the pope, 
 Leo IV. on a report of liis father's death ; though 
 it is certain he could not be regarded as the heir 
 of the crown while he had three older brodievs. 
 It may be supposed that at this polished court he 
 imbibed, though so young, tliat taste for civi- 
 lised society, for which he was afterwards so 
 much distinguished ; yet it appears, that on his 
 return, tlie indulgence of his parents suffered 
 him to misspend his time in youthful sports, so 
 that in liis twelfth year he was not yet able to 
 read. His mother fiist excited in him the desire 
 of literary attainments by the recital of some 
 Saxon poems ; and, when he had mastered these 
 compositions, he proceeded to acquire a know- 
 ledge of the Latin language, and gained such a 
 relish for study, that he was totally absorbed in 
 these pursuits, till the state of the kingdom called 
 him forth to active life. 
 
 His fatlier died when he was only ten years 
 
 old, and was succeeded by his sons Ethclhald 
 and Ethelbert, incoiijunction. The former soon 
 dying left the latter sole king ; who, after a 
 reign of five years, died and gave way to his 
 next brodicr Etheircd. The condition of Eng- 
 land was at this time most calamitous. The pi- 
 ratical Danes, continually pouring in fresh bands 
 of plunderers, had laid waste a great part of the 
 kingdom, and established themselves in several 
 of the central districts. Alfred had no great 
 cause to be satisfied with the justice or genero- 
 sity of his brotliers towards him ; but philosophy 
 had rendered him content with a small mainte- 
 nance, in lieu of a large patrimony wliich his 
 father had bequeathed him. On the summons 
 of Ethelred, however, he quitted his beloved 
 studies, and took up anns against the invaders. 
 He fought along with his brother with various 
 success; and when Ethelred lost his lite In con- 
 sequence of a wound, Alfred, then twenty-two 
 years of age, A. D. 871, ascended a throne 
 which promised much more anxiety and dan- 
 ger than ease and splendour. It is observable, 
 that the crown was entailed by Ethelwolf on his 
 four sons, and thatsoine of Alfred's brothers had 
 left sons ; but the laws of hereditary succession 
 were not yet so settled as to give them a prefera- 
 ble claim. Indeed an infant heir would have 
 been a great misfortune in such turbulent pe- 
 riods. 
 
 It would be unsuitable to the intention of a 
 biographical work like the present, to trace mi- 
 nutely all the public events of this busy reign, 
 the chain of which is sufficiently perplexed in 
 the relation of professed historians. It will be 
 more to the purpose to select a few which par- 
 ticularly exhibit the character of this great 
 prince. 
 
 Adversity was his first lesson. New swarms 
 of Danes overspread the whole kingdom, and 
 no power was left to oppose thciri except in 
 Alfred's peculiar dominions, in the south-west- 
 ern part of the island. Many battles were 
 fought, and treaties made and broken ; till at 
 length the cause of the Saxons seemed so despe- 
 rate, that Alfred was deserted by all his adherents, 
 and compelled to quit the regal ensigns, and to 
 seek for safety in disguise and concealment. 
 Under a peasant's habit he took shelter unknown 
 in the cottage of one of his neat-herds, where an 
 incident passed, which, though trivial, has be- 
 come memorable in popular story. As he sat 
 one day by the fire-side, trimming his bow and 
 arrows, the neat-herd's wife committed to his 
 care during her absence the baking of some 
 cakes on the hearth. Alfred, absorbed in re- 
 flection, neglected his charge; and, on the good
 
 2^' OL 
 
 Jloy L^ -' J/u/Lh'/7x ■ 
 -■ - JAw/,^ jiC. j'^'--- 3a^ ■ 
 
 li
 
 A L F 
 
 ( 1S3 ) 
 
 A L F 
 
 woman'i return, receiveil a sharp reprimand for 
 sutFcring those cakes to burnwliith he was rea- 
 dy enough to eat. 
 
 Soon after, collecting a few faithful followers, 
 he took possession of a spot of linn ground in a 
 morals formed by the confluence of the Thone 
 and Parrett in Somersetshire, where he made a 
 kind of fortress, and gave the place the name of 
 ^thelingey, or the Isle of Nobles, now Athel- 
 cey. Here he passed a year with his family, 
 occasionally sallying out in profound secrecy, 
 and beating up the quarters of the unguarded 
 Danes in the vicinity. At length news came 
 to him that the earl of Devonshire had defeated 
 and slain Hubba, a distinguished Danish leader, 
 and taken their famous magical standard of the 
 Raven. It was now time to show himself. He 
 left his retreat ; and proceeding towards the 
 camp of Guthrum, the Danish prince, he en- 
 tered it in the disguise of a harper or minstrel, 
 ajid made his observations on the state and posi- 
 tion of the enemy tor several days. He then 
 summoned his nobles with their followers to a 
 general rendezvous on the borders of Selwood 
 forest, where he was received with traasports of 
 joy and loyalty. He led them against the Danes, 
 whom he first defeated, and then, surrounding 
 the fortified camp in which they had takerj 
 refuge, compelled to surrender. Such was 
 the number of that nation in the island, 
 that he thought it advisable to try to convert 
 them into peaceable subjects rather than aim 
 at their destruction or expulsion. Accord- 
 ingly he gave them settlements in East Anglia 
 and Northumberland, on the conditions of alle- 
 giance to him and conversion to Christianity. 
 The terms were accepted, and Alfred was spon- 
 sor for Guthrum at the font. He likewise gave 
 the same laws to both nations, and endeavoured 
 by every politic measure to incorporate them in- 
 to one people. This method succeeded so well, 
 that, excepting one incursion of a body of Danes 
 up the Thames, the country was not for some 
 years exposed to their ravages. 
 
 In order to secure his kingdom against future 
 depredations, he established a regular militia in- 
 to which all his people fit to bear arms were en- 
 rolled. Of this, part was stationed in castles 
 and fortresses erected in proper situations, and 
 part was appointed to be in readiness for assem- 
 bling at stated places in case of alarm. To 
 this internal defence was added what has since 
 become the favourite protection of the nation 
 — an armed fleet. He increased the English 
 shipping to the number of one hundred and 
 twenty ships of war, manned partly by his 
 own subjects, ai:kd partly by hired Frisians ; 
 
 and these he distributed in squadrons round the 
 island, at such parts of the toast as were most 
 accessible to an enemy. 
 
 All these wise regulations, iiowcver, could not 
 afford uninterrupted security against so nume- 
 rous and enterprising a foe. In the year 893, 
 Hastings, a potent Danish chieftain, after ra- 
 vaging tiie sxa-coast of France, disembarked a 
 large force in Kent and began to plunder the 
 country. Alfred opposed the diftlrent parties of 
 Danes witli success ; but in the mean time their 
 countrymen, who had been settled in East Au- 
 glia and Northumberland, no longer restrained 
 by their princes, broke out into rebellion, and 
 embarking in a numerous fleet, appeared sud- 
 denly on the western coast of England. Alfrtd 
 met and repulsed them there ; but while absent 
 in these parts, the Danes with Hastings found 
 sufficient employment for his forces elsewhere. 
 However, the chief fortress of the Danish chief 
 was taken, with his wife and children, whom Al- 
 fred generously restored on condition of his quit- 
 ting the kingdom. Other molestations from the 
 piratical Danes succeeded the departure of Hast- 
 ings ; but the whole warfare was closed by the 
 capture of some Northumbrian Danes who 
 were ravaging in the west, and whom Alfred, 
 after a legal trial at Winchester, executed as the 
 common enemies of civilised society. Hence- 
 forth full tranquillity reigned in England ; for 
 such was the awe inspired by the vigour and 
 abilities of this great prince, that the Danish set- 
 tlers in the eaS't and north humbly submitted on 
 his approach, and the Welch likewise recognised 
 his authority ; so that he reigned the sole and 
 undisputed king of the island as far as the fron- 
 tiers of Scotland. This quiet at the latter part 
 of his reign was purchased at the expense of 
 fifty-six battles by sea and land, in which he had 
 been personally engaged, and by a life of inces- 
 sant toil and vigilance. 
 
 ' But the warlike exploits of Alfred, great and 
 beneficial as they were, formed, perhaps, the 
 least of the services he rendered hi-^ country. As 
 a legislator, a reformer of manners, and a pro- 
 moter of learning and the arts, his exertions in 
 such an age were still more extraordinary. Much 
 controversy, indeed, ha~ arisen as to his claim to 
 originality in some of the admirable institutions 
 which are found prevailing in his reign ; but no 
 doubt can subsist witii respect to tiie wonderful 
 cliange he effected by them in the state of a 
 country, which, at l;is acces.sion, was sunk in 
 barbarismand all the evils of anarchy. He framed 
 a coinplete body of laws, which the learned an- 
 tiquary Spelman supposes to have been the foun- 
 dation of the common law of the land. (Lifo
 
 A L F 
 
 ( 184 ) 
 
 A L F 
 
 of AlfrcJ.) They appear, however, to have 
 Ken a collection of sucli ordinances in the laws 
 of king Ina, and other Saxon princes, as a|)- 
 pcarc-d to him most beneficial and reasonable ; 
 niid tliey were conrtrmed by the assent of the 
 wisest persons in tlie kingdom. The institution 
 of trial by jury, that pallaiiium of English, li- 
 berty, is popularly attributed to him ; but sir W. 
 Blackstone (Comment, vol. iii.) is of opinion that 
 ihis tribunal made a pan of the constitutions of 
 all the northern nations, and was coeval with 
 the first civil government of Englaiuh The 
 division of the kingdom into shires, tritliings, 
 liundreds, and tithing-;, for the purposes of judica- 
 ture and police, is more confidently ascribed to 
 him ; yet in this point, too, certain antiquaries, 
 particularly Mr. Whitaker, (Hist, of Manches- 
 ter, vol. ii.) deny him the praise of invention, 
 since they find traces of similar regulations in 
 all the tribes of German origin. What ap- 
 pears certain is, that he caused a general survey 
 of the kingdom to be taken, tailed tlie "Book 
 of ^Vincllester," of vviiich the famous Domes- 
 day-book is only a new edition ; and that he at 
 lease renewed an obsolete practice in the divi- 
 sion and subdivision of the people, which he 
 made so effectual an instrument in the preserva- 
 tion of justice and order, by means of mutual 
 pledges for good behaviour, ascending from the 
 individual to the tithing, hundred, &c. thatheput 
 an end to theft and robbery, and all acts of vio- 
 lence, and rendered the roads so secure, that (ac- 
 cording to the historians of the tiine) money or 
 jewels might have been left upon them without 
 danger of their being touched by passengers. He 
 seems to have been even a rigorous reformer of 
 judicial administration ; for it is recorded, that 
 in one year he inflicted capital punishment 
 upon forty-four judges, for iniquitous practices 
 in the execution of their office. No doubt the 
 corruption of the times required severe reme- 
 dies. 
 
 Alfred is likewise considered as a kind of 
 founder of the political constitution of England, 
 at least of that important part of it, which ordains 
 the regular convocation of the states. His great 
 council, like that of his predecessors, consisted 
 of bishops, earls, the king's aldermen, and his 
 chief thanes or barons. These, in the more 
 ■settled part of his reign, were, by an express 
 law, called together at London at least twice in 
 the year, for tlie purpose of the well governing 
 of the realm ; and thus constituted an image of 
 later parliaments. Alany of the principal cities 
 in the kingdom, also, were indebted to him for 
 their restoration from the ruined state into 
 ■which the cruel inroads of the Danes had re- 
 
 duced thcrn ; and of some he was tlie original 
 founder. He repaired all the royal palaces, and 
 maintained a numerous court in a high degree 
 of comparative lustre. He founded and rebuilt 
 many religious houses, vvhicii in that age were 
 not mere offerings of suiierstition to fulsd piety, 
 but vve;e the most effectual instruments in pro- 
 moting civilisation. The arti were at that time 
 in so mean a condition, that much splendour 
 Could not result from his exertions of this kind ; 
 yet the appearance of the country must have 
 been greatly improved from the state in which he 
 received it. 
 
 His encouragement of learning, and his own 
 proficience in it, were still more extraordinary 
 features in Alfred's character. The learning, 
 such as it was, of the age, was almost entirely 
 confined to the ecclesiastics ; and even of these, 
 Alfred complains that there were very few on 
 this side Humber who understood the service 
 of the church, or could translate a single epistle 
 from Latin into English. For the purpose of 
 remedying this, at an early period of his reign, 
 lie invited to his court men of learning from 
 Wales, Scotland, Ireland, and France, whom 
 he honoured with his own conversation, and 
 placed at die head of seminaries in various parts 
 of the kingdom. He endowed a number of 
 schools, and secured the attention of his subjects 
 to education by making a certain degree of lite- 
 rature necessary for all who were to execute the 
 functions of magistracy, as well as for all orders 
 of ecclesiastics. Whether he was the original 
 founder of the university of Oxford, is a point 
 that has been warmly disputed ; but it is not 
 questioned that he greatly improved the system 
 of education there, by erecting and endowing 
 schools for the various branches of science, 
 which he furnished with eminent professors. 
 He is likewise acknowledged to have founded 
 University College. He himself was one of die 
 most learned persons of his kingdom, and stands 
 at the head of the list of royal authors. Indeed, 
 so many works have been attributed to him, 
 that, in order to keep within the bounds of cre- 
 dibility, it must be supposed that he received the 
 aid of others in those voluminous translations 
 which bear his name. And we have his own 
 authority, that in some instances his share was 
 converting into elegant Anglo-Saxon (of which 
 he was a great master) the sense of authors, 
 which were interpreted to him by the foreign 
 ccclasiastics who attended about his person. 
 (Prefat. epist. to the Pastoral of Gregory.) 
 Versions of Orosius, of Bede, of Boetius, ot 
 some pieces of St. Gregory, of .^sop's fables, 
 of the Psalter and other religious works, and
 
 Lan*i*>n tltre^r'^
 
 A L F 
 
 ( 185 ) 
 
 A L G 
 
 collections of legal and historical matters, are 
 particularly ascribed to his pen. A more curi- 
 ous relic than any of these is an account, extant 
 in his translation of Orosius, of a voyage made 
 under his patronage by Ohthere, a Dane or 
 Norman, and Wullstang, an Englisliman, for 
 the discovery of a north-east passage. Nor 
 was this the only mark of his attention to com- 
 merce and navigation ; for, in consequence of a 
 vow, he fitted uul an expedition to carry alms 
 to the Christians of St. Thomas, in the East 
 Indies, and received back in his ships a quantivy 
 of the precious commodities produced in those 
 remote regions. 
 
 To accomplish all tliese things, an exact 
 distribution bodi of his time and his revenue, 
 was essential. With regard to the foriner, \vc 
 are told that he divided it into three equal 
 parts, one of which he devoted to the service of 
 God, another to the affairs of his kingdom, and 
 the riiird to rest and refreshment. As it is 
 scarcely to be supposed that the mere repetition 
 of devotional forms, or barren meditation, could 
 occupy such a man eight hours in the twenty- 
 four, it may be presumed that his literary em- 
 ployments, many of which had a moral and re- 
 ligious purpose, were included in this portion. 
 A method which he took of ascertaining the 
 consumption of time curiously displays the 
 want of art in that period, and his own inge- 
 nuity in contrivance. He caused wax candles 
 of a certain length and thickness to be prepared, 
 on which were marked the spaces that were 
 found in the burning to correspond to certain 
 portions of time ; and that these might not be 
 affected by the wind, he invented horn lanterns 
 for their security. As to his revenue, he first 
 divided it into two moieties, one dedicated to 
 sacred, the other to civil uses. The former 
 coinprehcnded alms to the poor, the support of 
 religious houses of his own foundation, and the 
 rebuilding or repair of other monasteries and 
 churches, and also the maintenance of the pub- 
 lic school':. The latter went to the support of 
 his household, the payment of his workmen, 
 and tlie entertainment and relief of strangers. 
 
 In piivaie life, Alfred was one of the most 
 amiable of men. Of a temper equal and serene, 
 but inclined to chearfulness, affable, gentle, 
 kind, forgiving, fond of society, and not averse 
 to innocent amusements, eminently pious, and 
 free from any stain of licentiousness, he was 
 equally beloved and reverenced hy those about 
 him. His person, also, corresponded with his 
 mental excellencies ; for though the hardships 
 he endured had made him liable to great in- 
 firmities, he had by nature a handsome and 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 vigorous form, and a dignified and engaging 
 aspect. 
 
 Thus, during a glorious reign of twenty- eight 
 years and a half, did this truly great prince fill 
 his allotted station, and shed blessings on man- 
 kind. He died (according to the most probable 
 computation) in 901, in the vigour of his fa- 
 culties, being only in his fifty-tliird year. By 
 iiis queen ylilswitha, daughter of Etfielrcd earl 
 of Mereia, he had three sons and three daugh- 
 ters. His eldest son, Edmund, died in his life- 
 time. The next, Edward, surnamed the Elder, 
 succeeded him. /Ethelfleda, one of his daugh- 
 ters, wife to a Mercian earl, seems to have 
 inherited the largest portion of her father's en- 
 dowments. 
 
 The life of Alfred has been a favourite theme 
 widi our monkish liistorians, who have varied 
 considerably in their narrations, and intermixed 
 their story with fabulous circumstances. They 
 all agree, however, in bestowing on him the 
 higliest commendations ; which his affection 
 to the church, and benefactions to religious and 
 learned men, may be supposed not a little to 
 have influenced. But the best praise of Alfred 
 is his actions ; and since we have not a single 
 record from history of any thing that can throw 
 a shade on his character, it ought to be admit- 
 ted, however improbable the fact, that thcie lias 
 ewsted a perfect pi hicc\ Biogf. Br'itan. Hu.-ne's 
 Hist, of England. — A. 
 
 ALGARDI, Alexa-ndfr, a lamous- 
 sculptor, was born at Bologna in i6c2. He 
 studied painting and design in the school of 
 Lewis Carrachi ; but it was his acquaintance 
 with Gonventi, a Bolognese sculptor, that gave 
 him a turn to statuary. A»t the age of twenty 
 he accompanied to Mantua Gabriel Berta/.ziioh, 
 the architect of duke Ferdinand, into whose 
 service he eiitered for the purpose of working 
 in ivory, and making models of figures and or- 
 naments to be executed in metal. But his ta- 
 lents and good conduct here acquired him the 
 permission to study after the pictures of Julio 
 Romano, and the antiques in the ducal gallery, 
 which contributed greatly to his improvement. 
 He tiience went to Venice ; and in 1625 he vi- 
 sited Rome, where he was employed by cardinal 
 Ludovisi to repair his antique-i. Here he be- 
 came intimately acquainted with Domcnichino, 
 who obtained for him the statuary work in the 
 chapel Bandini, which he himself was painting. 
 For several years, however, he had few great 
 works to execute, and was chiefly employed in 
 restoring antiques, and modeling for gold- 
 smiths. At length, his reputation procured him 
 employment worthy of his abilities. One of 
 a B
 
 A L G 
 
 ( i86 ) 
 
 AL G 
 
 "the first which JlsplaycJ his powers of ma- 
 naging marble was a suituc of St. Philip dc 
 Neri, with an angel holding a book before him, 
 in the sacristy of tlic f.'thcrs of the oratory at 
 Rome. He made a great group of the decol- 
 lation of St. Paul for the B.inajjke church at 
 Bologna ; and afterwards executra^the tomb ot 
 Leo XI. in St. Peter's. But a bas-relief in this 
 cathedral, representing tlie story of Attila, which 
 cost him four years, and is thirty-two feet by 
 eighteen, wasone of his capital performances, 
 and gained him universal applause, with the 
 honour of knighthood and tlie golden cross. 
 His bronze figure of Innocent X. is reckoned 
 the finest of the statues of the popes in Rome. 
 A crucifix of his became extremely famous, 
 4»nd has been copied by many of the ablest ar- 
 itists. It is called by way of distinction Algar- 
 di's crucifix. He was industrious and quick in 
 execution ; but growing corpulent and infirm 
 at an early period, he was obliged to make use 
 of the assistance of his pupils, of whom he 
 formed an eminent school, which long main- 
 tained the credit of the art. He died of a fever 
 in 1654, at the age of fifty-two. 
 
 Algardi was of a lively disposition, and plea- 
 sant conversation. His morals were irreproach- 
 able. He lived in celibacv, and left his pro- 
 -perty to a sister. His works are still regarded 
 as among the most excellent of their kind ; but 
 the air of his heads is thought to be rather arti- 
 ficial and studied, and he is somewhat of a man- 
 jierist, especially in the folds of his draperies. 
 The greater part of his works are at Rome and 
 the villas in its vicinity. There are some at 
 Bologna, and other places in Italy. Fies des 
 Famcux Sadpteurs far M. D' Argenv'ille. — A. 
 
 ALGAROTTl, Francis, was born at Pa- 
 dua in 17 12. After imbibing the rudiments of 
 literature at home and in Rome, he was sent 
 to the university of Bologna, where he studied 
 six years under the most eminent professors of 
 the place. He commenced his travels early ; 
 and it was probably his visit to England which 
 gave him that predilection for the Newtonian 
 jihilosophy which occasioned him to make it 
 the subject of a work dated from Paris in 1736, 
 entitled, " Newtonianismo perle Dame." [New- 
 tonianism for the Ladies.] This ingenious 
 piece is a dialogue formed upon the model of 
 Fontenelle's " Plurality of Worlds;" and is 
 esteemed a very good popular view of the sub- 
 lime philosophy of Newton, rendered enter- 
 taining by elegant turns of wit and gallantry, 
 though npt without a degree of affectation, par- 
 donable in a young Italian. The author af- 
 terwards visited the court of Berlin, where he 
 
 met with a very gracious reception from the 
 great Frederic, who made him a kniglit of the 
 order of Merit, decorated him with the tide of 
 count, and gave him tlie honorary post of cham- 
 berlain. He afterwards was a considerable time 
 domesticated at the court of Stanislaus king of 
 Poland, who created him a privy-counsellor. 
 The character he sustained was that of a man 
 of letteis, a philosopher, and one of the hrst 
 connoisseurs in Kurope with respect to the fine 
 arts of music, painting, sculpture, and archi- 
 tecture. He was a great reformer of t!ie Italian 
 opera ; and wrote verses in his ov,-n language, 
 replete with sentiment and imagery. One who 
 lived with him at Berlin has thus, perhaps sati- 
 rically, painted him. " He was full of wit, of 
 atfectation, and of self-love ; a Frenchman in 
 genius, an Italian in character, disagreeable ia 
 society, often exposed to the royal pleasantry, 
 and receiving it as a favour." On revisiting 
 Italy, he died at Pisa in 1764, having first erect- 
 ed a mausoleum for himself, which may pasi 
 as well for a specimen of taste as of vanitj'. 
 The epitaph with which he inscribed his tomb 
 was Hie jacct Jlgarottus, scd non omn'is. " Here 
 is contained Algarotti, but not the whole of 
 him." Whether this is to be construed as a 
 declaration of his belief in a future existence, or 
 whether, like the Hon omtiis tnoriar of Horace, 
 (whence it is obviously taken) it is only an as- 
 sertion of the vitality of his farhef inust be de- 
 cided by those who were best acquainted with 
 his sentiments. 
 
 A collection of his works in Italian was pub- 
 lished at Leghorn in 1765, in four volumes Svo. 
 They consist of his Newtonianism, of essays 
 on the fine arts and on commerce, of dissertati- 
 ons on subjects of language, of historical dis- 
 quisitions, and of miscellaneous pieces, literary 
 and philosophical. They have been translated in- 
 to French, English, and other languages. They 
 all display depth and vivacity, but sometiines at 
 the expense of nature and simplicity. Nouv. 
 Diet. Hist. — A. 
 
 ALGAZEL, a learned Arabian, a native of 
 Tos or Tus, in Asia, who probably lived about 
 the beginning of the twelfth century, wrote nu- 
 merous treatises in defence of the Mahometan 
 religion against tlie Jews and Christians; among 
 which are, " A Demonstration of Islamism ;" 
 and " A Treatise on the Unity of God." He 
 also wrote " The Resurrection of the Law of 
 Science;" " I'he Balances of Justice," a mo- 
 ral work, translated by Abraham Chaldai into 
 Hebrew; and a philosophical work, entitled 
 " The Destruction of Philosophers," of which 
 a Latin version was printed at Venice in 1560.
 
 A LI 
 
 ( 187 ) 
 
 A L I 
 
 This philosopher was a public preceptor at 
 Bagdat, where he amassed great riches. To- 
 wards the close of his life, he distributed his 
 wealth among the poor, took the habit of a her- 
 mit, and retired to Mecca. Thence he travelled 
 into Syria and Egypt, and returned to Bagdat, 
 where he died. After his decease, a treatise of 
 his was found, which freely censured some of 
 the indulgences of the Mahometan law : it was 
 condemned, and every copy of it ordered to be 
 burned. Fococke, Specim. Hist. At ah. Leo 
 jifricamts. Herbclot. Biuckcr, lib. v. c. i. 
 Morcri. — E. 
 
 ALHAZEN, a learned Arabian, lived in 
 Spain about the beginning of the twelfth centu- 
 ry. He wrote a treatise upon Astrology, and 
 another upon Optics : the latter was printed in 
 Latin, by Risner, at Basil, in 1572, under the 
 title of " Opticae Thesaurus." Alhazen was 
 the first writer who showed the importance of 
 refractions in astronomy ; a subject little un- 
 derstood by the ancients. He treats concerning 
 the twilight, and the height of the clouds. Mo~ 
 reri. Huttons Math. Diet. — E. 
 
 ALI, tlie son of Abu Taleb, Mahomet's 
 tincle, is one of the most distinguished names in 
 the Mahometan history. At the age of four- 
 teen he was a convert to the divine mission of 
 Lis cousin, and engaged in his cause witlr all the 
 zeal of youth and enthusiasm. When Ma- 
 homet first summoned his kindred, and, declaring 
 his prophetic office, asked which among them 
 would be his vizir, or companion, Ali cried out, 
 ♦' I am the man ; whoever rises against thee, I 
 will dash out his teeth, tear out his eyes, break 
 his legSj rip up his bellv- O prophet ! I will 
 Be thy vizir over them." Mahomet accepted 
 his offer, and ever after found in him a faithful 
 and affectionate coadjutor, whom he entitled his 
 brother, his vicegerent, and the Aaron 10 anew 
 Moses. He was equally celebiated for his elo- 
 quence and his valour ; and the surname of 
 Die Lion of_ God always victorious sufficiently 
 indicates his military renown. By descent he 
 was, after his father's death, chief of the illustri- 
 ous family of Hashem, and hereditary guardian 
 of the city and temple of Mecca. To these ho- 
 nours he joined that of being the husband of 
 Fatima, Mahomet's daughter, by whom he had 
 ohildrcn during the life time of their grandfa- 
 ther. These claims of pre-eminence naturally 
 caused him to be looked to as the successor of 
 Mahomet in his regal office ; but he was set 
 aside during the reigns of the three first caliph'-', 
 Abubcker, Gmar, and Othman ; and it was not 
 till the vacancy caused by the assassination of 
 the latter that the election fell upon him. At 
 
 the hour of prayer, repairing to the mosque of 
 Medina, cloathcd in a thin cotton gown, a 
 coarse turban on his head, his slippers in one 
 hand, and his bow instead of a walkiug-stafF in 
 the other, he w-as saluted caliph by the compa- 
 nions of the prophet, and the chiefs of the tribes, 
 A.D. 655, Hegir. 35. 
 
 A strong party, however, headed by Aycsha, 
 Mahomet's widow. All's mortal foe, opposed 
 his succession ; and Telha and Zobeir, two 
 men of great influence, after a reluctant homage 
 to the new caliph, fled to Bassora, and thcVc 
 raised the standard of rebellion. Ali had before 
 taken the very impolitic step of resolving to dis- 
 place all the governors of provinces, now be- 
 come very powerful ; but of his new governors 
 only one was allowed to take possession of his 
 post ; and Moawiyah, the former governor of 
 Syria, excited a strong party against Ali, which 
 demanded vengeance against the murderers of 
 Othman. Telha and Zobeir, collecting a large 
 army of mal-contents, and persuading Aycsha 
 to march at their head, proceeded to Bassora, 
 where Ali met them with an army inferior in 
 number, but consisting of veteran troops. The 
 bloody battle which ensued, is called the day of 
 the Camel, because the most desperate part of 
 the combat was around the camel on which 
 Ayesha was carried- in her litter. Ali gained a 
 complete victory, making Ayesha captive, 
 whom he treated with respect, and sent back 10 
 the tomb of the prophet. Telha was killed in 
 the battle, and Zobeir was dispatched by one 
 to whom he had surrendered on jiromise of. 
 quarter ; an action of which Ali showed his 
 abhorrence in such strong terms, that the as- 
 sassin stabbed himself. 
 
 Ali next marched against Moawiyah, who 
 had been proclaimed caliph, and was supported 
 by the house of Ommijah, and Amru, the con- 
 queror of Egypt. The two armies came in 
 presence of each other at the plain of Sitfiii, on 
 the western banks of the Eupluates. Ali pro- 
 posed to Moawiyah to decide their diJFerences 
 in single combat ; hut this was refused. A de- 
 sultory war ensued for one hundred and ten 
 days, in which a vast number of petty actions 
 were fought, with great loss on both sides, 
 though much less on the part of Ali than of his 
 competitor. In a nocturnal combat, Ali dis- 
 played his courage and vigour to such a degree, 
 that, according to eastern exaggeration, he re- 
 peated four hundred times liis ejaculation of 
 JHah Jcbar, or " God is victorious," when 
 he smote a foe. At length Moawiyah and 
 Amru made use of a pious artifice in order to 
 produce division among the friends of Ali, Fix-
 
 A L I 
 
 ( i88 ) 
 
 A L I 
 
 in"- a number of koian; to die points of lances, 
 thcv caused them to be cavricil at the head of 
 their trooiis, and proclaimed, " This is the book 
 which ouf^ht to decide our difFerences, and 
 which forbids mussulmans to shed each otlier's 
 blood." Ali was comiicllcd to submit to the 
 award ; and two umpires were chosen ; on the 
 part of Ali, Abu Moussa, a worthy but weak 
 man ; on that of Mo;t\viyah, tlie artful Amru. 
 On tlie day of decision, Abu Moiis-.a, ascend- 
 ing tlie pulpit, -cried, " 1 depose both Ali and 
 M'oawiyah from the caliphate, as I draw this 
 ring from niy fuiger." He then descended, and 
 Amru, getting up', said, " I also depose Ali, and 
 I invest Moawivah with the caliphate, as I put 
 on this ring." He added, that Othman had de- 
 clared Moawiyah his successor and avenger. 
 ^rhis was the conimcncement of that famous 
 Rschism anibng tlie Mahometans, which the two 
 parties long carried on with mutual curses and 
 excommunications, and which still subsists. 
 
 AH and his jiartisans were, of course, much 
 surprised and irritated at this injustice ; but for 
 the present they were obliged to make a kind ot 
 comprornise, and retire to Kufa. Meantinie Ali 
 was deserted by the Kharcgites, a sect of en- 
 thusiasts, who openly revolted against him, and 
 preached a new doctrine different froin that of 
 Mahomet. Ali, however, found means to de- 
 tach the greater part of their arniy, and he en- 
 tirely destroyed the rest in battle, which again 
 gave him the possession of Arabia. But his ri- 
 val established hii-nself in Syria and Persia, and 
 Amru seised upon Egypt in his name. The 
 Syrians also made an incursion into Yemen, 
 where two of All's sons were taken and put to 
 a cruel death. 
 
 At length the disorders which prevailed over 
 the Saracen empire were terrninated by an un- 
 expected event. Three Kharegites discoursing 
 in the ternple of Mecca on the blood that had 
 been shed, and the miseries that were still en- 
 during, in consequence of this unhappy civil 
 war, resolved to end it by assassinating the three 
 authors of it, Ali, Moawiyah, and Amru. 
 They accordingly set out with poisoned swords 
 to execute their purpose. One, at Damascus, 
 wounded Moawiyah, but not mortally. An- 
 other by mistake dispatched a friend of Amru, 
 instead of that leader himself. The third, 
 whose name was Abdalrahman, came to Kufa, 
 where associating two persons with hiin, they 
 fell upon Ali at the door of the mosque, and 
 Abdalrahman gave him the fatal blow. The 
 murderer was taken ; and Ali hurnanely charg- 
 ed his son Hassan, if he himself should die, to 
 dispatch the assassin by a single stroke. Ali 
 
 expired on the fifth day after bis wound, in tlic 
 sixty-third year of his age, A. D, 660, A. He- 
 gir. 40. 
 
 Ali, after the death of Fatima, had eight 
 other wives. He left a numerous progeny, of 
 wliom the most noted were Hassan and Hous- 
 saln, his sons by Fatinia. He and Iiis house 
 were .distinguished by their bravery. Ali, 
 however, is also of high repute for learning 
 among the mussulmans. There is extant by 
 Wm a collection of a hundred maxims or sen- 
 tences, which have been translated from tlic 
 Aiabic into the Persian and Turkish ; as also a 
 divan, or collection of verses. But his most 
 celebrated relic is a parchment written in my- 
 stv^rious characters, intermixed with figures, pro- 
 phetic of all the great events that are -to happen 
 in the world. This was a deposit in the hands 
 of his family. Many sayings and apoplithcgms 
 of Ali are also found in authors. One of the 
 most instructive is the following : " He who 
 would be rich without wealth, powerful without 
 subjects, and a subject without master, has only 
 to forsake sin, and serve God." 
 
 Two of the principal titles given by the 
 mussulmans to Ali are Fassi, or the executor or 
 /leir (of Mahomet) ; and Mortadhi, or the ac- 
 cepted of God. His particular sectaries are called 
 by the Sonnites, or orthodox, Shiitcs, heretics. 
 These have possessed various states in Asia and 
 Africa ; and at present the Persians, part of the 
 Usbec Tartars, and some Mahometan sove- 
 reigns of India, arc of the sect of Ali. His 
 sepulchre near Kufa was kept concealed during 
 the caliphate of the Ommiades ; but in the year 
 ofthe Hegira367, A. D. 977, Adhad ed Dow- 
 lat erected a sumptuous monument over it, 
 which received decorations from all succeeding 
 Persian kings, and is a great object of the devo- 
 tion of his votaries. A city, named Meshed 
 Ali, has also been built to his honour not far 
 froin the ruins of Kufa. Some of his bigoted 
 devotees suppose him still living, and imagine 
 that he will come in the clouds at the end of the 
 world, and till the earth with justice. Tlie de- 
 scendents of the house of Ali are distinguished 
 by wearing a green turban. D' Hcrhelot, Bi- 
 bTioth. Orient. — A. 
 
 ALI BEY, a modern adventurer, wlio for a 
 time excited mucli notice in Europe and tlie 
 east, is supposed to have been born among the 
 Abezans, a people of mount Caucasus, whence 
 he was brought for sale to Cairo in Egypt, as a 
 slave. He was first purchased by two Jews of 
 the custom-house, who presented him, then 
 about twelve or fourteen, to Ibrahim, a Kiaya, 
 or veteran colonel of janizaries, at that time the
 
 A L I 
 
 ( 1S9 ) 
 
 A 1. I 
 
 most powerful man in Egypt. Here lie was 
 tauglit the rudiments of iL-tters, and tlic usual 
 military exercises, in which last he exliibited a 
 fire and vivacity that obtained liim the surname 
 of Djendali, or madman. By his patron he was 
 made free, married, promoted to the rank of 
 governor of a district, and at length placed by 
 election among the twenty-four beys, or gover- 
 nors of provinces. After the deadi of his pa- 
 tron, he cngageil in the intrigues for power so 
 perpetual in that unsettled government ; and by 
 the prevalence ot an opposite faction was dri- 
 ven to exile in the Said, or upper Egypt, where 
 he resided two years, employed in maturing his 
 plans for future dominion. He returned to 
 Cairo in 1766, killed or expelled the beys who 
 were his enemies, and seised upoi) the supreme 
 authority. Not content with this, he proceed- 
 ed to throw ofF his dependence upon the Porte, 
 expelled the Turkish pacha, refused the accus- 
 tomed tribute, coined money in liis own name, 
 and in short affected the rank of sultan of 
 Egypt. The Porte, occupied in other concerns, 
 was obliged to temporise ; and Ali Bey made use 
 of the opportunity to recover a port of the Said 
 which hud been seised by an Arab shaik, and 
 even to tit out a fleet from Suez which took 
 possession of Djedda, the port of Mecca, while 
 a body of cavalry, commanded by his favourite 
 Mohammed Bey, occupied and plundered Mec- 
 ca itself. His project, suggested by a young 
 Venetian merchant, was to revive the ancient 
 trade to tlie East Indies by the Mediterranean 
 and Red Seas. In 1770, inaking an alliance 
 with the famous shaik Daher, a rebel against 
 the Porte in Syria, he projected the conquest of 
 all Syria and Palestine. He first dispatched a 
 body of Mamlouks to secure Gaza, and then 
 sent the largest army he could raise, under Mo- 
 hammed Bey, who at Acre formed a junction 
 with the troops of Daher, and proceeded with 
 them to Damascus. Here a battle was fought, 
 on June 6, 177 i, against the Turkish pachas 
 of the neiglibourhood, who had assembled their 
 forces, in which Mohamtned and Daher were 
 victorious. Without further opposition they 
 took possession of the town of Damascus ; and 
 the castle had actually capitulated, when Mo- 
 hammed suddenly commanded a retreat, and 
 hastened with all his Mamlouks back to Egypt. 
 'I'he cause of this unexpected event was said to 
 have been a report of Ali Bey's death ; but others 
 attribute it to an impression made upon Mo- 
 hammed and the other beys by the agents of the 
 Turkish commander. Ali Bey, greatly disap- 
 pointed, still however kept in view a renewal 
 of the enterprise ; but his efforts towards it were 
 
 unsuccessful. He became suspicious of Mo- 
 hammed, and failing in an attempt to seise him. 
 drove him to exile in the Said. Molianimed 
 sliortly returned with a strong i)artv, and de 
 feating Ali Bey and his friends in a skirmish at 
 tlie gates of Cairo, oblit^cd him to make his 
 escape to his old ally shaik I^aher. joining 
 forces with him, Ali Bey marched to raise tiie 
 siege of Sidou, tlien invested by Osman, t!)e 
 Turkish commander ; and in a battle fought in 
 July 1772, tiie confederates entirely det'eatcd 
 the Turkish army, thougli tlnice as imincrous. 
 Tlicy next took Jaffa, after a siege of eight 
 months. Ali Bey was now impatient to re- 
 turn and try his fortune at Cairo, having a pro- 
 mise of the support of Daher and the Russians, 
 and being invited by letters from thence, which Jj^ 
 afterwards proved to be fabricated for the pur-^[ 
 pose of ensnaring him. He was also told by^jp 
 an astrologer, in whose predictions he |)ut great 
 faith, that the aspee^ of the stars was propi- 
 tious, and the fortunate hour was come. He 
 set forward, therefore, in April 1773, at die 
 head of his Mamlouks and some troops of J^a- 
 her's ; but when he had advanced into the de- 
 sert which separates Gaza from Egypt, he fell 
 into an ambush of a thousand chosen Mam- 
 louks, commanded by Murad Bey, who was 
 animated widi the promised leward of Ali's 
 beautiful wife, with whom he %yas in love, if he 
 should get possession of Ali's person. 'I'hev 
 attacked witii impetuosity, and Murad himself 
 wounded Ali Bey in the forehead, made liim 
 prisoner, and took him to Mohammeil. This 
 former servant received his master with mui h 
 feigned respect and sensibility ; but on the third 
 day, either in consequence ot his wounds, or 
 poison, Ali's life came to an end. 
 
 Ali Bey was certainly a character of original 
 vigour and capacity, and was superior in his 
 views to what could have been expected from 
 one who was bred in a school of barbarism and 
 ignorance. He governed Egypt with a steady 
 hand, and was particularly favourable to the 
 Franks ; but he undertook more than he had 
 power or talents to perform, and exhausted his 
 revenues in fruitless enterprises. He is also 
 blamed for too soon resigning active labours to 
 his lieutenants, and for placing unlimited con- 
 fidence in his favoiuite, and winking at the 
 exactions of his ofiReers. His morals were those 
 of hi^ class and country, where periidy and 
 murder are allowable means in pursuing the 
 objects of ambition ; yet he was not devoid of 
 generosity and a sense of justice. Vohie/i Tra- 
 vels in Egypt and Syria. — A. 
 
 ALIMENTUS, Cincius, a Roman histo«
 
 A r K 
 
 ( 190 ) 
 
 A L K 
 
 rian, frequently mentioned by Livy, \va<; a prae- 
 tor in the consulship of Claudius RIarcellus, 
 and Marcus Valerius, in the year 152 before 
 the Christian a-ra, and was afterwards sent, 
 upon tlic death of the consul MarccUus, to his 
 colleague Crispinus, and fell a prisoner into the 
 hands of Hannibal. Li\y speaks of him as a 
 jliligcnt collector of historical facts, and as an 
 cinincnt writer : (lib. vii.) he gives him the ap- 
 pLJlation of " maximns auctor." (lib. xxx.) 
 'riuuigh he was a Roman, lie wrote the His- 
 tory of Hannibal ; he also wrote the History 
 of Gorgias of Leontium, probably from docu- 
 ments which he collected during tlie time of his 
 residence as prxtorin Sicily. Alimciitus, besides 
 these historical works, was the author of a 
 treatise on the military art, mentioned by Au- 
 lus Gelllns. (lib. xxvi. c. 4.) Arnobius meii- 
 Itions this writer in the following curious pas- 
 sage : (lib. iii.) " Foreign divinities are, from 
 tiieir novelty, called, by Cincius, Noveiuiles ; 
 for it is a custom with the Romans, with re- 
 spect to the gods of the cities which they con- 
 quer, to disperse one part of them through pri- 
 vate families, and to honour the other part by 
 public consecration ; and lest, through igno- 
 rance or inattention, any of these numerous di- 
 vinities should be overlooked, they briefly and 
 compendiously comprehend them all under one 
 general name of Novensiles." Voss. de Hht. 
 Lat. lib. i. c. 4. — E. 
 
 ALKENDI, Jacobus, a distinguished Ara- 
 bian philosopher, a native ofBassora, flourished 
 in the caliphate of Al-mamon, at the beginning 
 of the ninth century. He studied philosophy at 
 Bassora, and acquired so much celebrity, both 
 among his contemporaries, and in subsequent 
 ages, tliat the most lofty titles were bestowed 
 upon him. He was called. The great astro- 
 loger — the learned physician — and the sub- 
 tile philosopher ; Cardan ranks him among the 
 first twelve sublime spirits of the world. Though 
 these encomiastic cliaracters are, doubtless, ex- 
 travagant, Alkendi appears to have possessed 
 eminent talents, and to have gone in search of 
 knowledge beyond the usual limit of the age. 
 in philosophy, he was a follower of Aristotle, 
 and, in the schools, interpreted and illustrated 
 l\is writings. Of his astronomical and medical 
 knowledge he has left evidence, in his two trea- 
 tises which have been printed, " De Tempo- 
 ruin Mutationibus ;" and, " De Gradibus Me- 
 dicinarum compositarum investigandis." Other 
 works of Alkendi, cited by authors, are, '♦ De 
 Ratione sex Quantitatum ," " De Quinque Es- 
 scntiis ;" " De Motu diurno ;" " De Vegeta- 
 bilibus ;" and, " De Thcoria Magicarum Ar- 
 
 tium." The bare titles of tlicse works may- 
 serve to give some idea of the variety ot the au- 
 thor's studies. From the treatise last mentioned, 
 it has been inferred, that Alkendi practised die 
 art of magic, but without foundation ; for the 
 purport of the work is, to account in a natural 
 way for all that is attributed to good or bad an- 
 gels. The truth probably was, that this learned 
 Arabian shared the fate of many philosophers in 
 the ages of ignorance and superstition ; and, 
 merely because he was better acquainted with 
 the phrenomena and laws of nature than most 
 of his contemporaries, was thought to be a ma- 
 gician. A story is related concerning this phi- 
 losopher by Abulfaragius, which reflects great 
 credit irpon the character of Alkendi, and af- 
 fords an instructive example of moderation. 
 
 Alkendi, having in the course of his instruc- 
 tions at Bagdat, endeavoured to explain the doc- 
 trines of the Mahometan religion in a sense 
 consi.tent with the principles of philosophy, 
 gave great offence to Abu-Maashar, an igno- 
 rant and bigoted advocate for the vulgar inter- 
 pretation of the Koran ; who, with strong ex- 
 pressions of indignation, accused him to the 
 caliph of impiety. Instead of employing his in- 
 terest with the caliph, in forcibly restraining the 
 petulance and malignity of this angry zealot, 
 Alkendi generously attempted to subdue his re- 
 sentment by enlightening his understanding. Hfe 
 found means to engage a preceptor to instruct 
 him, first in mathematics, and afterwards in 
 philosophy. It is the natural effect of know- 
 ledge to soften and meliorate the temper. Abu- 
 Maashar felt its genial influence ; his ferocity- 
 was subdued; he was ashamed of, his. folly ; 
 and, convinced of the superior merit of the man 
 whom he had persecuted, became his convert 
 and disciple, and was an ornament to his school. 
 Such men as Alkendi, though certainly no friends 
 to vulgar superstition, are friends to reason and 
 virtue, and, as such, are entitled to honourable 
 remembrance. Pococke, Spec. Hisii Arab. Ahul- 
 far. Dyn. IX. Biiyle. Brucker.— E. 
 
 ALKMAAR, Henry of, a native of the 
 town of Alkmaar in Holland, was the author of 
 the celebrated fable of " Reynard the Fox," a 
 poem written in low Dutch, in the fifteenth 
 century, which, under the allegory of a society 
 of animals, satirises the different vices of man- 
 kind. The good sense and ingenuity of this 
 performance rendered it so popular that it was 
 translated into all the languages in Europe. Mr. 
 Gottsched has given a fine edition of it in Ger- 
 man, adorned with figures, and, enriched with 
 learned dissertations. 
 
 Such is the commoir account ; but Tiaden,.in
 
 ALL 
 
 ( 191 ) 
 
 ALL 
 
 the first volume of liis " Gelelirten Ost Friescn," 
 [Learned East Kiicsland] printed at Aiirach, in 
 1785, under the article of Nicholas Banmann, an 
 East-Fricslandcr, has satisfactorily proved, that 
 Henry von Alkmaar, sxipjiosed autlior of the sa- 
 tirical work called '' Reincc de Voss," [Reynard 
 the Fox] never existed ; but that Baumann liim- 
 self wrote the work in question, and assumed the 
 above name in order to secure himself from the 
 inquiries of the ducal court of [uliers. This Bau- 
 mann was a member of the council ofduke Magnus 
 of JulierE,whodiedini503; but beingdriven from 
 court by means of a cabal, he composed this alle- 
 gorical poem for the purpose of satirising his ene- 
 mies, and painting the intrigues carried on there. 
 The language and phraseology of the earlier edi- 
 tions ot this work prove the writer to have been 
 an East-Frieslander. Baumann had no concern 
 in the edition of 1522, or any subsequent ones. 
 l<!ouv. Diet. Hist. Tiaeien, Gel. Ost-Fries. — A. 
 
 ALLARD, Guy, born in Dauphine about 
 the middle of the seventeenth century, acquired 
 reputation by numerous works respecting the 
 liistory of that j^rovince. His " Nobiliaire du 
 Daupliine avec les Armoirics," printed in i2nro. 
 at Grenoble, in 17 14; and his " Histoire des 
 Maisons Dauphinoises," in four volumes 4to. 
 printed in 1672-1682, are his principal works : 
 they have been much esteemed in France. Ado- 
 rcri. Nouv. Diet. Hist. — E. 
 
 ALLATIUS, or Allacci, Leo, born in 
 the island of Chios, in the year 1576, was oiae 
 of the most voluminous writers of the seven- 
 teenth century. He was at first educated in the 
 Greek church, but, being at nine years of age 
 brought into Calabria, he came under the pa- 
 tronage of a catholic familv, and embraced the 
 Romish religion, for which, as frequently hap- 
 pens to converts, he was afterwards a most zea- 
 lous advocate. He studied classical learning, 
 philosophy, and divinity, in the Greek college at 
 Rome ; and acquired a degree of reputation 
 which obtained him the office of grand vicar to 
 the bishop of Anglona. The same employment 
 ■was afterwards conferred upon him by the 
 bishop of Chios. This gave him an opportu- 
 nity of passing a few years in his native coun- 
 try. Evenv\ith this powerful motive for predi- 
 lection, it was not likely that the island ot Ciiios 
 would long be thought an eligible situation by a 
 man of letters, who had experienced tlie advan- 
 tages of a residence at Rome. Alliitius returned 
 thither, and studied physic, but docs not appear 
 to have pursued that profession ; for we find 
 him soon afterwards employed in teaching the 
 Greek language in the college of his nation. 
 Pope Gi-egory XV. sent him, in the year 1622, 
 
 into Germany, to bring from HcidL-Iberg to 
 Rome a library, which the elector of Ba\ aria 
 had presented to that pontirf". Tlie death of the 
 pope deprived him of the recompense which lie 
 expected for this service ; but his fondness for 
 books, and his well-known learning, induced 
 cardinal Barberini to make him his librarian. 
 In this situation he was always industriouslv 
 employed in bringing to light ancient manu- 
 scripts, or in writing books. ']'hc reputation 
 which he by these means obtained among the 
 learned, procured him the favour of pope Alex- 
 ander VII. wlio appointed him librarian of the 
 Vatican. Allatius continued in this post till 
 his death, at the age of eighty-three, in the year 
 1669. Of his numerous publications, some arc 
 editions of old manuscripts ; some, translations 
 of Greek authors; and some, treatises composed^ 
 by himself. Among the latter some of the" 
 principal are, " Dc Ecclesias Occidentalis ct 
 Orientalis pefpelua Consensionc" [On the 
 perpetual Agreement of tlie Western and East- 
 ern Church], printed in 4to. atColognein 1648 ; 
 " On Purgatorv," printed in 8vo. at Rome in 
 1655; "De Patria Homeri" [On the Country 
 of Homer], printed at Lyons, in 8vo. 1640; 
 " De Septem Orbis Spectaculis" [On the Seven 
 Wonders of the World], printed in 8vo. at 
 RoiTie, in 1640; " Confutatio Fabiilae de Jo- 
 anna Papissa" [A Confutation of the Fable of 
 Pope Joan] ; " De Psellis" [On the Pselli] ; 
 " De Georgiis" [On the Georges] ; " De Si- 
 meonibus," &cc. [On the Simeons.] Allatius 
 appears to have been veiy well qualified by a 
 retentive memory, and a habit of industry, for 
 drawing up catalogues : he published a work, 
 which is now become scarce, under the title of 
 " Apes Urbanie," containing a literary history 
 of all the learned men, who adorned the city of 
 Rome in the year; 1630, 1631, and 1632, will; 
 a catalogue of their wtnks : the fanciful title of 
 this piece is an allusion to the bees which pope 
 Urban VIU. had in his coat of arms. He drew 
 up another similar catalogue, relating to dra- 
 matic works and their authors, under the title of 
 " Dramaturgia ;" it was published at Rome in 
 the year 1636, and was reprinted at Venice in 
 1755, with a continuation. Industry appears 
 to have been this writer's chief merit. He was 
 constantly employed in writing, wiote with sur- 
 prising rapidity, and never employed an ama- 
 nuensis. Though he wrote Greek verses on the 
 birth of Louis XIV. and on other occasions, it 
 does not appear that he ])ossesse<l any large por- 
 tion of genius. Of his taste and judgment we 
 have a suffi,cicnt specimen, in the books in 
 which he gives an account of all tlic Simeons ,
 
 ALL 
 
 ( 192 ) 
 
 ALL 
 
 
 and passes on from the Simeons to the Simons, 
 the Siinoniilcs, and Simoiiactides. If AUatius 
 was deficient in judgment, he was not less defi- 
 cient in candour and urbanity. He loads his 
 antagonists in controversy with the most vulgar 
 abuse, calling them impudent liars, fools, and 
 blockheads. Against heretics and schismatics, 
 even of the chi/rch within the pale of which he 
 was born, he denounces the severest penalties, 
 saying, that ihey ought to be proscribed, exter- 
 mmatcd, and, if obstinate, committed to the 
 flames. The implicit credulity, or the abject 
 servility of this bigot, is strongly pourtrayed in 
 the terms in which he speaks of the pope, at the 
 beginning of his book concerning the perpetual 
 agreement of the eastern and western church. 
 ♦'"I'he Roman pontiff," says he, " owes fealty 
 ^,,to no one ; he judges every one, and is judged 
 ^r>f none ; obedience is to be paid him, though 
 lie govern unjustly; he gives laws, but receives 
 none ; he alters them at his pleasure ; he creates 
 magistrates; he determines matters of faith, and 
 diiects as he pleases the great affairs of the 
 church ; he cannot err if he would, for no infi- 
 delity or error can come near him ; and, if an 
 angel should say otherwise, invested as he is 
 with the authority of Christ, he cannot change." 
 A whimsical instance of indecision of character 
 shall close this memoir. " Why," said pope 
 Alexander VII. to Allatius, " do you not take 
 orders r" " It is," ansvv'cred Allatius, " because I 
 would be always ready to marry." " Why 
 then," said the pope, " do you not marry ?" 
 " Because," replied Allatius, " I would always 
 be at liberty to take orders." (Mabillon, Mus. 
 Ital. tom. i. p. 61.) Baylc. Dupin. Aforeri. 
 Noiiv. Diet. Hist. Launi, Hist. Lit. d'ltalis. 
 lib. xiv. n. 4. — E. 
 
 ALLECTUS, a person of unknown ori- 
 gin and country, was lieutenant and first 
 minister to Carausius, emperor in Britain. 
 Fearing to be called to account for the op- 
 pressions he had been guilty of, he murdered his 
 master in 294, and possessed himself of the im- 
 ))erial dignity. He retained it during three years, 
 while Constantius Chlorus was making prepa- 
 rations to restore Britain to the Roman domi- 
 nion. At length his general Asclepiodotus passed 
 over to th.e island with his fleet, and, under co- 
 ver of a fog, escaped that of Allectus, stationed 
 off the Isle of Wight; thus convincing the Bri- 
 tons (says Mr. Gibbon) " that a superiority of 
 naval strength will not always protect their 
 country from a foreign invasion." Allectus 
 made a hasty march into the west to encounter 
 him ; but he was entirely defeated and slain in 
 the engagement ; and, by the event of a single 
 
 battle, Britain returned under the Roman go- 
 vernment, A. D. 297, ten years after it had 
 formed a separate empire. Gibhon. Univers. 
 Hist— A. ' 
 
 ALLEGRI, Gregorio, an eminentmusi- 
 cal composer, was a native of Rome, and an 
 ecclesiastic by profession. He was admitted as 
 a singer into the pope's chapel in 1629, having 
 been a disciple of Gio. Maria Nanino. He was 
 distinguished by his devout temper and his bene- 
 volent disposition, which last he manifested by 
 relieving daily the poor at his door, and making 
 frequent visits to the prisons and other abodes of 
 distress. As a singer he was not excellent, but 
 he obtained great fame as a composer of church 
 music, in which many of his works are still 
 preserved in the pontifical chapel. Among these 
 is the celebrated " Miserere," which is still 
 constantly performed at that chapel on Wednes- 
 day and Good Friday in Passion-week by ths 
 best singers in Italy, and the choral band in or- 
 dinary. The most extravagant praises have 
 been given to this composition, which is simply 
 a piece of counterpoint, in five parts. It is kept 
 in the chapel library with great care and reserve, 
 and very itw correct copies of it have been suf- 
 fered to get abroad. A very complete one, how- 
 ever, was presented about 1773 by the pope to 
 king George III. as an inestimable curiosity. 
 Allegri died in 1672. Biirncy, Hist. Mu.\ 
 vol. iii. Hawkins, ditto, vol. iv. — A. 
 
 ALLEGRI. See Corregio. 
 
 ALLEIN,. Richard, an English noncon'- 
 formlst divine, was born at Ditchet in Somer- 
 setshire, in the year 1 611. He was educated 
 by his father, the rector of Ditchet, for the uni' 
 versity of Oxford, where he received the degree 
 of master of arts. As a clergyman, he dis- 
 charged his duty with great indiistry and fidelity, 
 first, as assistant preacher to his father, and af- 
 terwards as rector of Batcomb in Somersetshire. 
 Having early received from his father a bias to- 
 wards the sentiments of the Puritans, in the 
 time of the contest between Charles 1. and his 
 parliament, he attach-d himself to tiie party of 
 the latter, and sometimes met with disturbance 
 from the king's forces. He was a zealous sup- 
 porter of the solemn league and covenant, and, 
 in 1648, subscribed a paper to this purpose, en- 
 titled, " The Testimony of the Ministry of 
 Somersetshire to the Truth of Christ." With 
 his father, he was einployed as an assistant to 
 the commissioners appointed by parliament for 
 ejecting scandalous ministers ; a commission. 
 which originated in intolerance, and was exe- 
 cuted with rigour. At the restoration, AUein 
 discovered a disposition towards peaceable sub-
 
 ALL 
 
 ( »93 ) 
 
 ALL 
 
 mission to government ; but not being able, 
 without violating his conscience, to comply with 
 the terms of conformity then required, he chose 
 the manly and virtuous part of relinquishing 
 his preferment to preserve his integrity •" after 
 having enjoyed his living upwards of twenty 
 years, he suffered himself to be deprived, by 
 the act of uniformity, of his accustomed 
 means of subsistence, and ranked himself in 
 the meritorious band of sufferers for an honest 
 adherence to their principles, w'ho, to the num- 
 ber of two thousand, were at that time known 
 by the appellation of the ejected ministers. 
 Thougli tlye narrow and injurious system of ec- 
 clesiastical policy, which then prevailed, would 
 not protect this wortliy man in the exercise of 
 his clerical functions, it neither deprived him of 
 friends, nor altogether suspended his useful la- 
 bours. At the request of Mr. More, a gentle- 
 man of distinction in his neighbourhood, who 
 had formerly been a member of parliament, he 
 frequented his house to preach to his family and 
 some of his neighbours: and, though this ille- 
 gal action subjected him to a short imprison- 
 ment, he was not deterred from returning to his 
 professional duties. His persevering zeal several 
 times brought him before the magistrates, to re- 
 ceive a reprimand for holding a conventicle ; but 
 his well-known piety, learning, and exemplary 
 conduct, secured him from rigorous treatment. 
 After the severity of this persecution was in- 
 creased by the enaction of the law, called " The 
 Five Mile Act," which prohibited any ejected 
 minister from residing within five miles of any 
 market town, Allein retired from Batcomb 
 to Frome Selwood, where, in the house of a 
 friend, he still continued to exercise his mini- 
 stry, notwithstanding the hazard to which he 
 was exposed. He remained in this situation 
 till his labours and troubles were terminated by 
 death in the year 1681. Richard Allein was 
 distinguished by the diligence w-ith which he 
 discharged the public and private duties of his 
 profession, and was admired as a practical, pa- 
 thetic preacher. Next to the merit wliich he 
 displayed in a firm adherence to his principles 
 in times of difficulty and hazard, must be men- 
 tioned to his credit the candour and moderation, 
 which secured him respect in his neighbourhood 
 among botli laity and clergy of sentiments dif- 
 ferent from his own. The vicar of the parish 
 where he resided, Mr. Jenkins, preached his fu- 
 neral sermon, and bore an honourable testimony 
 to his piety, moderation, and probity. Richard 
 Allein, in common with the generality of his 
 nonconformist brethren, chiefly confined his 
 publications, if not his studies, to subjects of 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 religion. His works, all of the devotional 
 kind, which have been frequently reprinted, and 
 were formerly much read, arc strongly marked 
 %vith the peculiar features of the religious cha- 
 racter then prevalent among die nonconformists, 
 as will be in part seen from the titles of his pub- 
 lications. His most celebrated work is, " Vin- 
 diciae Pietatis, or, A Vindication of Godli- 
 ness in the greatest Strictness and Spirituality, 
 with Directions for a godly Life ;" it was pub- 
 lished in 1665 without a printer's name, be- 
 cause it was not licensed ; and for some un- 
 known, though probably not a very good rea- 
 son, tJic copies of it were seised, and sent to the 
 king's kitchen for waste paper. The rest of 
 Richard Allcin's works are, " Heaven opened, 
 or a brief and plain Discovery of the Riches of 
 God's Covenant of Grace ;" printed in 1665 : 
 " The World conquered ;" published in Svo. 
 in 1688 : " Godly Fear;" printed in 8vo. in 
 1674: " A Rebuke to Backsliders, and a Spur 
 for Loiterers ;" printed in Svo. in 1677 : " A 
 Companion for Prayer ;" in i2mo. 1680: "A 
 brief Character of' Mr. Joseph Allein;" and 
 " Instnictions about Heart- Work, what i/to 
 be done on God's Part and ours, for the Cure 
 and Keeping of the Heart ;" a posthumous piece 
 published in Svo. by Dr. Annesley in the vcar 
 1 68 1. Wood's Athcn. Oxon. Calamys Lift 
 of Baxter, vol. ii. Biogr. Brit. — E. 
 
 ALLEIN, Joseph, an English nonconfor- 
 mist divine, was born at the Devizes in Wiltshire 
 in 1633. Early habituated to devotional exer- 
 cises, he discovered while a boy a strong incli- 
 nation to the clerical profession, and, after due 
 classical preparation, he was sent to Oxford, 
 where he was uncommonly studious, and main- 
 tained a settled gravity of behaviour. When he 
 had in his option a fellowship, or the office of 
 chaplain to Corpus Cliristi college, of which he 
 was a member, he preferred the latter, because 
 it gave him an opportunity of daily exercising 
 his talents in prayer. During the latter part of 
 his residence in college, he di-chargcd the du- 
 ties of a tutor with diligence and success, and 
 had many pupils, who afterwards occupied re- 
 spectable stations either in the established church, 
 or among the nonconfonnists. From the year 
 1655, when he left college, to the year 1662, 
 when he shared the seveie fate of the noncon- 
 forming clergy, he was an assistant minister at 
 Taunton Magdalen, in Somersetshire. With a 
 very small income, at first only forty, never 
 more than eighty pounds a year, except such 
 addition as arose from his wife's industry in 
 keeping a boarding-scliool, he supported his fa- 
 mily reputably ; and he was not discouraged 
 
 2C
 
 ALL 
 
 ( 194 ) 
 
 ALL 
 
 by the stTjitntss of his circumstances from giv- 
 iii" (inwcaricil attention to hi^ pastoral duty. Be- 
 siitcs his services in the church, he spent si^veral 
 afternoon-; in every week in paying his parishio 
 
 ncrs religious visits ; a practice which, inmodern 
 times, except where a few sparks of puritanic 
 7cai ytt remain unextinguished, has been, by 
 mutual consent of priest and people, discon- 
 tinued. 
 
 In tlic humble but useful, or at least well- 
 meant, labours of iiis ministry, this industrious 
 and pious teacher was in ?ome measure inter- 
 rupted by the stern authority, which, in 1662, 
 for want of compliance with' the hard conditions 
 of the act rtf uniformity, drove him from his 
 living. Still, however, 'his zeal prompted him 
 to persevering exertions in the service of reli- 
 gion; and, with the perpetual hazard of prose- 
 cution, he preached in private commonly six or 
 seven, and sometimes fourteen or fifteen times a 
 week. He did not desist till, in 1663, the strorig 
 hand of the law seised liim, and shut him up in 
 prison. He was committed to Ivelchester jail, 
 where seven ministers and fifty quakers w^ere 
 already suffering confinement and hardships on 
 the same account. Being shut up together in 
 the same room, they continued their mutual ex- 
 hortations till the assises. AUein was then con- 
 victed before judge Foster, of having preached 
 on the 17th of May preceding, and was sen- 
 tenced to pay a hundred marks, and to remain in 
 prison till the fine was paid. It was the modest 
 language of conscious innocence, and not the 
 arrogant boast of perverse and criminal obsti- 
 nacy, which he uttered on receiving his sentence: 
 " I am glad," says he, " that it has appeared 
 before my country, that, whatever 1 am charged 
 vith, I have been guilty of nothing but doing 
 mv duty ; and that all that appeared from the 
 evidence was, that I sung a psalm, and instruct- 
 ed my family, others being there, and both in 
 my own house." For such an offence such a 
 penalty was, surely, bigotry itself being judge, 
 too severe. The twelve months' imprisonment 
 which followed, so far impaired Allein's consti- 
 tution, that he never afterwards enjoyed sound 
 health ; and, after renewed labours and repeat- 
 ed sufferings, he arrived at the end of his course 
 in the year 1668, when he had scarcely half 
 completed the usual term of human life. If it 
 may not be easy wholly to separate from the 
 cliaracter of this good man a tincture of fanati- 
 cism, it must be remembered, that it was the na- 
 tural effect of the notions then prevalent, espe- 
 cially among the nonconformists, concerning 
 the nature of religion ; and that this defect was 
 abundantly compensated by an honesty whichno 
 
 allurement could corrupt, and no force could 
 subdue. The works of Joseph Ailein, like 
 those of his relation, are all on religious subjects. 
 They arc, " An Explanation of the Assemblies 
 shorter Catechism ;" printed In 1656. " A Call 
 to Archippus," urging the ejected ministers to 
 continue their ministry, 4to. 1664. " An Alarm 
 to the Unconverted," of which, when first 
 printed in 1672, twenty thousand copies were 
 sold ; and, soon afterwards, in 1675, under 
 another title, " A Sure Guide to Heaven," fif- 
 - ty thousand. " Christian Letters full of Spiri- 
 
 tual Instruction ;" printed in 1672 
 Conscience." 
 Death of Mr. 
 Baxter, vol. ii. 
 
 H^'ood's Athen. 
 
 " Cases of 
 Remains," hcc. Life and 
 y. AUein. Calamy's Life of 
 Neale's Hist, of the Puritan's. 
 Oxon. Biog. Brit. — E. 
 ALLEN, or ALLEYN, Thomas, an emi- 
 nent mathematician in the sixteenth century, 
 was born at Urtoxeter, in Staffordshire, in the 
 year 1542. He studied at Oxford in Trinity- 
 college, where he was admitted to a fellowship : 
 but his love of retirement and scientific pursuits 
 induced him to resign his fellowship and quit 
 die college. In 1570 he took up his residence 
 at Glocester-hall, where he diligently employed 
 himself in the study of mathematics, philosophy, 
 and antiquities. His learning and talents at- 
 tracted the attention of several persons of distinc- 
 tion, under whose pationage he might easily 
 have advanced his fortune ; but he preferred tlie 
 pleasures of a studious life to every otiicr object. 
 When strongly solicited by Albertus L'Askie, 
 count of Sirade in Poland, who happened to 
 be in England in the year 1583, to accompany 
 him into diat country, he declined the proposal. 
 Allen's retirement, however, was rather thac 
 of an independent man of letters than of an 
 austere recluse. He did not deny himself the 
 gratification of occasional intercourse with so- 
 ciety ; and in the family of the earl of Northum- 
 berland, who was a patron of men of science, 
 particularly of mathematicians, he had an op- 
 portunity of becoming acquainted with the most 
 celebrated masters of mathematical learning. 
 Among the nobility, Allen was honoured with, 
 the friendship of the earl of Leicester, queea 
 Elisabeth's favourite, who placed such confi- 
 dence in him, that he had frequent communica~ 
 tlons with him on affairs of state. The high, 
 estimation in which he was held by other emi- 
 nent men of that period may be inferred from 
 the testimonies borne to his merit by Selden and 
 Camden ; of whom the former speaks of him 
 as "a man of univeisal erudition and consum- 
 mate judgment, the brightest ornament of the 
 famous uuivejsity of Oxford," (Not. ad Ead-.
 
 ALL 
 
 ( 195 ) 
 
 ALL 
 
 rner. p. 200.) and the latter gives Iiiin the 
 praise ot being " highly accomplished in an 
 extensive acquaintance with liberal science." 
 (Britan. de Saxon.) Allen collected, with great 
 industry, curious manuscripts in various branches 
 of learning. He published in Latin, with a 
 commentarv, the second and third books of Pto- 
 lemy, " Concerning the Judgments of the Stars," 
 or,_ as it is commonly called, " Of the Quadri- 
 partite Construction." He also wrote notes on 
 Bale's work, " De Scriptoiibus Maj. Britan- 
 nia;," and on several of the writings of Lil- 
 ly. Allen died at Glocester-hall in the year 
 1632. It may be regietted, that a man so much 
 esteemed by his contemporaries, and by one of 
 his panegyrists extolled as " the soul and sun of 
 all the mathematicians of his time," has left pos- 
 terity so few of the fruits of his mathematical 
 studies. Burton, Orat. Funcb. T. Allcn'i, Lend. 
 1632. li'ood's Athen. Oxon. n. 662. Biogr. 
 3>it. Button's Mathem. Diet. — E. 
 
 ALLEYN, Edward, a celebrated come- 
 dian, was born in London in 1566, and was 
 early trained to the stage. Having a good per- 
 son, a flexible voice, and a facility in adopting a 
 variety of characters, he rose to be the most po- 
 pular performer in his time, especially in digni- 
 fied parts, and was an original actor in several 
 of Shakspearc's and Jonson's plays. He be- 
 came master of a company, which exhibited in 
 a playhouse of his own building, called the For- 
 tune; and he was likewise keeper, by patent, of 
 the royal bear-garden, or theatre of wild beasts. 
 Bv means of these advantages he amassed a con- 
 siderable property, which he bestowed in a 
 manner that has rendered his name more memo- 
 rable than his professional merit could have 
 done. This was in the foundation of a college, 
 for the maintenance of aged people and die edu- 
 cation of children, at Dulwich in Surry, still 
 subsisting. The building was finished, from a 
 plan of Inigo Jones, about 1617, at an expense 
 of eight or ten thousand pounds ; and he endow- 
 ed it with all his lands, and resided in it, together 
 ■with his wife, adopting the simple life of one of 
 his own almoners. He died in 1626, and was 
 buried in the chapel of his own college. Biog. 
 Britan. — A . 
 
 ALLESTRY, Richard, an English epi- 
 scopalian divine, was born at Uppii?gton, near 
 the VVreken, in Shropshire, in the year 1619. 
 He received part of his classical learning at Co- 
 ventry, under the voluminous translator Phile- 
 mon Holland. In 1636 he was entered by his 
 father, a gentleman of an ancient family in Der- 
 byshire, a commoner in Christ Church College, 
 and was put under the tuition of Richard Bus- 
 
 by, afterwards a celebrated master of West- 
 minster-school. His talents and industry soon 
 jirocured him respect and distinction in hi'i col- 
 lege ; and, after he had taken the degree of bu - 
 chelor of arts, he was chosen moderator \n phi- 
 losophy. From tiic pursuit of literary honours, 
 he was suddenly called, by the exigency of the 
 times, to military service. In the year 1641 
 he engaged, with many other Oxford scholais, 
 in the king's service, and continued to give this 
 proof of his loyalty till sir John Biron, wlio was 
 sent with a i)arty of horse to encoiiragi; and sup- 
 port the scholars in arms, left Oxford. Return- 
 ing, during a short interval, to liis gown and his 
 studies, he v^as exposed to great ])crsonal danger 
 from a republican party, who entered Oxford to 
 plunder the colleges. Some of these soldiers, 
 having with mucli difficulty broken open thf 
 treasury, and found nothing in the iron chest 
 but a groat and a halter, in hojies of repaying 
 themselves for their lost labour, went to tlic 
 deanery and collected many valuable articles, 
 which they locked up in an apartment, intending 
 the next day to carry away tlieir plunder. \\\ 
 the mean time Allcstry, who had a key to the 
 rooms during tlie absence of the dean and h.is 
 family, observed what they had done, an;l con- 
 veyed away every thing they had collected. Dis- 
 covering that Allestry had been the cause of 
 their disappointment, they seised liim, and would 
 jirobably have treated him severely, had not these 
 forces been suddenly called away by the earl of 
 Essex. In October following he again took 
 arms, and was at the battle of Keinton- field, in 
 Warwickshire. On his way to Oxford, wiii- 
 ther he was going to prepare for the reception 
 of the king at the deanery of Christ-church, he 
 was taken prisoner by a party of horse from 
 Broughton-house, then garrisoned by lord Say 
 for the parliament ; but this garrison soon after- 
 wards surrendered to tiie king's forces, and he 
 was released. 
 
 Allestry now for a short time interrupted his 
 military service, and, resuming his studies, took 
 his degree of master of arts. A pestilential dis- 
 ease, which then raged in the garrison of Ox- 
 ford, seised him, and brought his life into ex-- 
 tremc hazard. Upon his recovery he entered a 
 third time into the king's service, enrolling him- 
 self in a regiment of volunteers, formed ot Ox- 
 ford scholars, who served without pay, and 
 who, from their zealous attachment to the royal 
 cause, chearfully submitted to the restraints, fa- 
 tigues, and hazards of military life. Allestry, 
 though master of arts and fellow of a college, 
 thought it no discredit to serve his king as a 
 common soldier. In the mean time he aid not
 
 ALL 
 
 ( 196 ) 
 
 ALL 
 
 altogether neglect his studies, " frequently," as 
 his memorialist expresses it, " holJing his mus- 
 «|uet in one hand and his book in the other, and 
 making the watchings of a soldier the lucubra- 
 tions oV a scholar." He continued in the ser- 
 \ ice of the crown till the end of the war, when, 
 finding the republican party triumphant, he re- 
 tired to his college. Here he was appointed to 
 the office of censor of the college, and was em- 
 ploved as private tutor to several students. At 
 tliis time, when the decided part he had taken in 
 defence of the unsuccessful cause cut him off 
 from all present prospect of ecclesiastical pre- 
 ferment, he entered into holy orders. Still true 
 to the party he had espoused, and courageous in 
 its support, he signed the decree and judgment 
 passed in the university of Oxford against the 
 solemn league and covenant. The consequence 
 was, that lie shared the fate of those members 
 of the university who could not persuade them- 
 selves to submit to the new authorities, and was, 
 by visitors from the parliament, proscribed and 
 banished from Oxford. The visitors refused 
 him a short respite, which he solicited foi set- 
 tling his affairs, for a singular reason assigned 
 by one of their number, " because he was an 
 eminent man." The indulgence he requested 
 was, however, conceded by the governor of the 
 town, lieutenant-colonel Kelsy. 
 
 During the depression of the royalists, Al- 
 lestry found a secure retreat at first in the fami- 
 ly of the honourable Francis Newport, Esq. in 
 Shropshire, to whom he was chaplain, and by 
 "vi'hom he was sent over to France, to settle the 
 affairs of his father lord Newport ; and after- 
 wards in that of sir Anthony Cope in Oxford- 
 shire, which he made his stated rcFidence for 
 several years. The friends of Charles II. who 
 were secretly preparing the way for his restora- 
 tion, had such entire confidence in the known 
 abilities and tried fidelity of AUestry, that they 
 frequently employed him in conveying messages 
 to the king. After several successful expeditions 
 of this sort, on his return from Flanders in the 
 summer before the restoration, he was seised at 
 Dover by a party of soldiers, and, upon exami- 
 nation before a committee of the council of safe- 
 ty, was sent prisoner to Lambeth-house, the 
 common jail for the king's friends, in which 
 he suffered a dangerous illness. After a few 
 weeks' confinement, by the interest of the earl of 
 Shaftesbury, who highly respected him, he ob- 
 tained his release. Paying a visit at this time to 
 his relations in Shropshire, he hoped, on his re- 
 turn, to have seen his friend the learned and 
 worthy doctor Hammond at his house at West- 
 wood uear Worcester, but had the affliction to. 
 
 meet at the gate his body carrying to the burial ! 
 he received, however, by hi ; will a testimony 
 of esteem in the legacy of his valuable library, 
 accompanied w ith this reason for the bequest ; 
 " well knowing that in his hands they would be 
 useful weapons, for the defence of that cause he 
 had during life so vigorously supported." 
 
 Soon after the restoration of Charles 11. Al- 
 lestry returned to Oxford, and took the degree 
 of doctor in divinity. His faithful services and 
 -sterling meritdid not remain unrewarded. He was 
 made a canon of Christ Church, and, upon a 
 vacancy in the divinity chair, was chosen regius 
 professor. In 1665 the king conferred upon 
 AUestry the provostship of Eton-college ; a 
 benefice, which he appears to have accepted 
 less on account of its emolument than to prevent 
 the irregularity of its falling into lay-hands. 
 That he was not distinguished by higher prefer- 
 ment, appears to have been wholly owing to his 
 moderation, or rather indifference to wealth, of 
 whicli he gave a singular proof in neglecting to 
 renew the patrimonial estate which he held by 
 lease for life. His munificence was displayed, 
 in an exemplary retrenchment of his dues as pro- 
 vost of Eton college, in order to redeem the 
 debts occa<;ioned by former negligence and pro- 
 fusion ; in erecting at his own expense the west 
 side of the outward court of Eton College ; and 
 the grammar-school in Christ-church College ; 
 and in several settled pensions on indigent per- 
 sons and families, as well as occasional chari- 
 ties. Having no call from domestic connec- 
 tions to accumulate property, he expended his 
 income liberally, and is said never to have pur- 
 chased an inch of ground or any lease or an- 
 nuity. In 1679, AUestry, finding his health 
 declining, resigned the professorship of divinity, 
 which he had filled with reputation seventeen 
 years; and, in 1681, a dropsy terminated his 
 life. He left a valuable library to his college. 
 AUestry is spoken of by his original biographer, 
 as a man of uncommon talents and singular me- 
 rit. " Memory, fancy, judgment, elocution, 
 great modesty and no less assurance ; a compre- 
 hension of things, and fluency of words ; an apt- 
 ness for the pleasant, and sufficiency for the rug- 
 ged parts of knowledge; a courage to encoun- 
 ter, arid an industry to master all things, make 
 up the chr.racter of his happy genius. There 
 was not in the world a man of clearer honesty 
 and courage : no temptation could bribe him to 
 do a base thing, or terror affright him from the 
 doing a good one. This made his friendships as 
 lasting and inviolable as his life, without the dirty 
 considerations of profit, or sly reserves of 'craft ; 
 not the pageantry of ceremonious address, or.
 
 ALL 
 
 ( 197 ) 
 
 ALL 
 
 cold civility, much less the servile falseness of ob- 
 sequious flattcrv." Whatever (iiftlieiit opinions 
 may be entertained of Allestry's poHiical princi- 
 ples, concerning tlie honesty and consistency of 
 his character no doubt can remain. He appears 
 to have been a hard student ; for we are told, 
 that after long continued study, his spirits were 
 frequently so much exhausted, that he was in 
 great danger of fainting. Of his literary talents, 
 posterity is left to judge from a volume of ser- 
 mons, torty in number, printed in folio at Ox- 
 ford in 1684. In these sermons will be found 
 an example of credulity, in the manner in which 
 the author introduces and comments upon a 
 marvellous story related in Mendez Ponto's 
 Voyages, which we should scarcely have ex- 
 pected from so intelligent^ and learned a man as 
 Allestry. The credulous character of the age 
 furnishes, however, some apology for this fault ; 
 the sermons, in other respects, do no discredit to 
 the memory of the audior. The epitaph, in- 
 scribed on Allestry's monument in Eton cha- 
 pel, is remarkable for its terseness and ele- 
 gance. IFood, Athen. Oxon. Preface to Dr. 
 ^/illestry's Sermons. Biog. Brit. — E. 
 
 ALLIX, Peter, an able defender of the Pro- 
 testant faith, and a learned divine of the church of 
 England, was born at Alen^on in France, in 
 the year 1641. He entered upon the clerical 
 profession among the protestants in France, at 
 a time when the edict of Nantes permitted the 
 protestant clergy to exercise tlieir functions, 
 and was, till the thirty-fifth year of his age, 
 minister of the reformed church at Rouen. Dur- 
 ing this time he wrote several pieces in the 
 controversy between the papists and protestants 
 on the subject of the eucharist, which obtained 
 him great reputation among those of his own 
 communion. From Rouen he removed to Cha- 
 renton near Paris, to take the charge of the 
 principal church of the reformed, frequented by 
 persor.s of the first distinction among the French 
 protestaiits. In this situation, Aljix rendered 
 essential service to the protestant cause, by 
 preaching a course of excellent sermons in its 
 defence. The piincipal object of these discourses 
 was to repel the attack of the bishop of Mcaux, 
 who Was one of the most ingenious and able 
 opponents of the reformation. Twelve of these 
 sermons were afterwards publi hed in Holland, 
 and increased the writer's reputation. 
 
 The impolitic and cruel revocation of the 
 . edict of Nantes, in the year 1685, interrupted 
 this worthy man in his useful labours ; and he 
 sought refuge from persecution, wi'h multitudes 
 of his protectant brethren, by w ididrawing from 
 France and passing over into England. Here his 
 
 talents and learning, and his approved zeal for 
 the reformed religion, procured him a welcome 
 reception. Within three years after his arrival 
 in lingland, he had made himself so perfectly 
 master of the Englisii language, as to lie able to 
 write, ill very correct English, a " Defence of 
 the Christian Religion." The work, which was 
 published in 168B, was dedicated to James II. 
 in testimony of gratitude for his kindness to the 
 distressed refugees; a circuinstancc, which, con- 
 sidering tliis monarch's strong predilection for 
 popery, places his character in a singularly fa- 
 vourable light. In justice to his memory, as 
 well as to give a specimen of tlie talents of 
 Allix, we shall make an extract from this cu- 
 rious dedication. — " As your majesty continues 
 still to give such illustrious instances of your 
 clemency and royal protection to those of our 
 nation ; so 1 confess, sir, 1 thought myself un- 
 der an obligation to lay hold upon this oppor- 
 tunity of publishing what all those, who find so 
 sure a protection in your inajestv's dominions, 
 feel and think, as much as myself, upon these 
 new testimonies of your royal bounty. When 
 your majesty had taken us into your particular 
 care, and iiad granted us several privileges, and 
 so made us sharers in all the advantages, which 
 those who live under your governinent enjoy ; 
 your inajesty did yet something more, and in- 
 spired all your subjects with the same compas- 
 sion towards us, with which your royal breast was 
 already touched. You saw our miseries, and re- 
 solved to give us ease ; and this generous design 
 was executed ; and your royal clemency dif- 
 fused in the hearts of all your subjects. The 
 whole world, sir, which has received upon all 
 its coasts some remainders of our shipwreck, is 
 filled with admiration of the unexampled effects 
 of your majesty's clemency. — I could wih, 
 sir, that this w ork which I now present to vour 
 majesty, might be so happy as to pass to poste- 
 rity with this character of our acknowledgment, 
 and that it might stand as a fliitii.^ul record for 
 ever, to perpetuate the memory of that lively 
 sense of your bounty, which is imjjrinted on all 
 our hearts." 
 
 Soon after his arrival in England, Allix re- 
 ceived the honour of tb.e degree of doctor in di- 
 vinity; an honour, to which his extensive tb.eo- 
 logical learning, and his numerous and useful 
 writings on subjects of divinity, had well entided 
 him : he, at the same time, received the more 
 substantial reward of a benrfirial office, as trea- 
 surer of the church of Sali-bury. Allix, as 
 champion for the protestant catise, contiiu.ed his 
 literary labours in its defence, and, with much 
 learning and abihty, maintained, iu opposition
 
 ALL 
 
 ( 198 ) 
 
 A L M 
 
 to the bishop of Meaux, that the protestants 
 were not chargeable with heresy and schism, 
 and retorted the charge upon tiic church of 
 T^ouie, by showing, that while she had loaded 
 others so freely wth the opprobrium of here- 
 sv, she had herself introduced new articles of 
 faith. 
 
 Having hitherto devoted his labours to the ge- 
 n ral defense of Christianity, and of protestan- 
 tism, AUix next undertook tlie task of supporting 
 the doctrine of the Trinity against the Unita- 
 rians, who maintained that th-; notion of the di- 
 vinity of Christ could be traced no higher than 
 the time of Justin Martyr. With much display 
 of erudition he attempted to prove, that the tri- 
 nitarian doctrine was held by tlieaiicient Jewish 
 churcli. Towards the close of his life, when 
 his reputation for learning and ability was well 
 cstablislied, he brought upon himself some de- 
 gree of ridicule, by tlifi temerity with which he 
 ventured, from his comments upon scriptural 
 prophecies, to predict the time of the second 
 coming of Christ, which he fixed to the vear 
 1720, or, at the latest, to 1736. His studious 
 Jife was protracted to the length of seventy-six 
 years: he died at London in tlie year 17 17, 
 leaving behind him numerous proofs of consi- 
 derable talents, extensive learning, and great in- 
 dustry, as well as of zealous attachment to the 
 Christian faith, to the protestant cause, and to 
 the doctrines of the church of England. Al- 
 lix wrote in Latin, on the subject of transub- 
 stantiation, " An Answer to a Dissertation of 
 Father Anselm Paris," printed, at the end of 
 Claude's Answer to Arnaud, in 8vo. at Que- 
 villy, in 1670. In Latin and French, " Ra- 
 tramn, or Bertrand the Priest, on the Body and 
 Blood of our Lord ;" printed in lamo. at Rouen, 
 in 1672. In Latin, " Dissertations, or the F'irst 
 Rise of the Trisagium, or Doxology ;" " On 
 the Life and Writings of TertuUian ;" " On 
 theAuthority of certainCouncils," printedabout 
 the year 1680 ; " Anastasius's twelfth Book of 
 Contemplations on the Creation," printed at 
 London, in 1682. In French, " Twelve Ser- 
 mons on several Texts," printed in i2mo. at 
 Rotterdam, in 1685 ; " The Maxims of a good 
 Christian," at Amsterdam, 1687 ; " St. Paul's 
 Farewell to the Ephesians," Amsterdam, 1688. 
 In English, " Reflexions upon the Books of the 
 Holy Scripture, to establish the Truth of the 
 Christian Religion," in two volumes 8vo. Lon- 
 don 1688; " Remarks upon the Ecclesiastical 
 History of the ancient Churches of Piedmont," 
 in 4to. London, 1690 ; " Remarks upon the 
 Ecclesiastical History of the ancient Churches 
 of the Albigenses," in 410, London, 1692 ; 
 
 " The Judgment of the ancient Jewish Church 
 against the Unitarians," 8vo. London, 1689 ; 
 " Preface and Arguments on the Psalms ;" 
 " The Prophecies which Mr. Whiston applies 
 to tlie Times immediately following the Messi- 
 ah's Appearance, considered," Svo. London, 
 1707 ; " Remaiks on some Places in Mr. 
 Whiston's Books," Svo. London, 17 11. In 
 French, " Preparations for the Lord's Supper," 
 Geneva. In Latin, " On the two Advents of 
 the Messiah," i2mo. London, 1701 ; " Nec- 
 tarius's Confutation of the Pope's Authority in 
 the Church," Svo. London, 1702 ; and, " A 
 Dissertation on the Year and Month of the Birth 
 of Jesus Christ," Svo. London, 1707. Bayh; 
 bestows high encomiums upon Allix's writings ; 
 of his sermons he says, that they contain a 
 thousand beautiful passages, equally strong in 
 sentiment, and delicate in their turn of ex- 
 pression. Notivelles de la Repub. dcs Lettres, 
 tom. iii. V. vi. Wood's Fasti Oxon. Biogr, 
 Brit. — E. 
 
 ALMAGRO, Diego de, one of the con- 
 querors of Peru, was a Spaniard of such mean 
 extraction that he did not know his father, but 
 took his name from the village where he was 
 born, about 1463. After a youth spent in mi- 
 litary service, he went over as an adver.turer to 
 the new world, and was settled and become 
 wealthy in Panama, when, with Pizarro and 
 de Luque, he made an association, in 1524, for 
 discovery and conquest on the coast of Peru. 
 The part that Almagro undertook, was the con- 
 ducting of reinforcements and provisions to Pi- 
 zarro, as he might need them in the prosecution 
 of the enterprise. This task he performed in 
 their first unsuccessful expeditions in 1525 and 
 1526. In 1531, Pizarro, furnished with full 
 powers from Spain, sailed to the coast of Peru, 
 leaving Almagro in his former office at Panama. 
 At the end of the next year, Almagro followed 
 with a supply of men nearly equal in number 
 to tliose Pizarro had with him. The Inca 
 Atahualpa was now in the hands of the Spani- 
 ards, and the sharing of his ransom caused a 
 difference between the two leaders. They join- 
 ed, however, in the execrable deed of trying and 
 executing like a criminal the wretched Inca ; 
 and Almagro is charged with having been the 
 most urgent for his death. When the news of 
 the success of these adventurers arrived in Spain, 
 the promised honours were bestowed on them 
 by the court ; and Almagro was constituted 
 Adelantado, or governor, with jurisdiction over 
 two hundred leagues of country beyond the 
 southern limits of the province assigned to Pi- 
 zarro. These honours and privileges, however.
 
 A L M 
 
 ( 199 ) 
 
 A L M 
 
 were the immediate cause of dissensions. Al- 
 magro attempted to seise Cuzco, the lesiJuncc 
 ot the Incas, as being witliin his boundailcs; in 
 which he was opposed by Piz;irro ; and tliey 
 were preparing to decide the dipute by the 
 sword, when the brother of Pi/airo, arriving 
 from Spain, mediated a reconciliation. I'he 
 condition of this was tliat Almagro should ini- 
 dertake the conquest of Chili. Accordingly, in 
 ''535' ^t fhe head of five hundred and seventy 
 Europeans, a great number to be collected be- 
 yond the Atlantic, he crossed the mountains, 
 and, after suffering great hardships and losses, 
 descended into the plains of that devoted region. 
 Here he met with more resistance than had 
 been experienced in tlie other countries invaded 
 by the Spaniards ; he had, however, made some 
 progress, when he was recalled to Peru by the 
 news of the investment of Cu7co and Lima by 
 the natives, who had risen in a great body 
 against their oppressors. Almagro, after a toil- 
 some march along the sea-coast, arrived at 
 Cuzco, resolved to occupy the place both 
 against the Indians and his Spani>sh rivals. He 
 repulsed with great slauglitcr an attack by the 
 Peruvian army, and proceeded without farther 
 interruption to the gates of Ci;7.co. Here he 
 forced or gained admittance, and made prisoners 
 two brothers of Pizarro who were in the place, 
 and resisted him. This was the commence- 
 ment of a civil war ; the first event of which 
 was highly advantageous to Altnagro, who by 
 .skilful manoeuvres entirely routed a body of 
 Spanish troops coming to the relief of Cuzco, 
 and made piisop.er of their commander Alva- 
 rado. But instead ot improving his success by 
 advancing to Lima against Pizarro, he returned 
 to Cuzco, and there waited the approach of his 
 rival. Pizarro, sensible of his own weakness, 
 proposed an accommodaiion, and with great 
 art protracted the negotiations, and worked up- 
 on the credulity of Almagro, till he was suffi- 
 ciently in force to attack him openly. One of 
 the Pizarros, with Alvarado, had exaped from 
 prison, and Almagro, confiding in a pretended 
 treaty, set the other at liberty ; so that Pizarro 
 was now free to act. He advanced to Cuzco, 
 and met the troops of Almagro, who, disabled 
 by age and infirmity, had resigned the command 
 to Orgognez, tliough he was present with' 
 them. A fierce battle ensued, in -vvhich Almc- 
 gro's army was defeated, and himself made pri- 
 soner. He was kept several months in custody, 
 and at length brought to trial for high treason, 
 and condemned to death. All his supplications 
 for life, though abject, were vain ; but he un- 
 derwent his fate with manly firmness. He was 
 
 strangled in prison, and afterwards publicly bc- 
 
 luad(.d, and his body was treated with all the 
 ignominy of a common malefactor. He >ut- 
 fiied in his -evcnty-fifth year, A. D. 1538. He 
 left an only son by an Indian woman of Pana- 
 ma, whom, though then a prisoner at i-ima, he 
 appointed his successor in his government. 
 
 Almagro was a more amiable, though less 
 able, man than his rival. He was brave, open- 
 hearted, liberal, unsuspicious, and well formed 
 to gain the attachment of military adventurers, 
 by wiioin he was generally beloved. He is also 
 said to have acquired the confidence and affec- 
 tion of the poor Indians, who looked to him 
 for protection against the stern and unfeeling 
 Pizarro. 
 
 ALMAGRO the younger, the son above- 
 mentioned, was placed, after the death of his 
 father, at the head of the party, and was highly 
 esteemed for his courage, generosity, and ac- 
 complishments. He was defeated by Vaca de 
 Castro, and, on being h.traYcd into his hands, 
 was beheaded in Cuzco, A. D. 1542. Afod. 
 Univ. Hist. Robertson's Hist, of America. — A. 
 
 ALMAIN, James, a scholastic philosopher, 
 who flourished at the beginning of the sixteenth 
 century, was a native of Sens, and pro;essor of 
 divinity at Paris in the college of Navarre. He- 
 was a subtle logician, and deeply versed in abs- 
 truse metaphysics. 1'he masters whom he 
 chiefly followed were the profound Scotus and- 
 Occam. He was employed to write in favour 
 of Lewis XII. against pope Julius II. and af- 
 terwards to vindicate the authority of the coun- 
 cils, against a treatise written by cardinal Caje- 
 tan. He died very young, in the year 1515, 
 and left a treatise on logic, entitled, " Consc- 
 quentiarumTractatus," printed at Paris in 1508; 
 "A Treatise on Physics," printed in 1505;. 
 " A Treatise on Ethics," printed in 15 10 ; and 
 various tracts in scholastic divinity : they were 
 collected by Lugduneus, and published in folio 
 at Paris in 15 16. Dupin. AJorcri. Bayle. 
 Cav. Hist. Lit. — E. 
 
 ALMAMON, or Mamon, alsoc;dIcd Abdul-- 
 lah, caliph of Bagdad, son of Haroun-al-Ra- 
 schid, was born about A. D. 785. At the' death 
 of his father he was governor ot Chorasan ; and,, 
 tliough he soon found that his elder brother,. 
 Al Amin, who had >.ucceeded to thecahiii.ite, had 
 been rendered his enemy, he caused him to be 
 jjroclaimtd diroiighout his governmcut, and 
 took measures to preserve^ the public peace. 
 Soon after, however, Al Amin was persuaded 
 to exclude his brother from the succession, in 
 opposition to their father's will, wlio had direct- 
 ed that his three sons should succeed in order.
 
 A L M 
 
 ( 
 
 loo 
 
 ) 
 
 A L M 
 
 This brought on an open rupture, in the course 
 of which Almamoii caused himself to be pro- 
 claimed caliph. His general, Thaher, after va- 
 rious successes, laid siege to Bagdad, and gained 
 possession of it ; tlien, pursuing Al Amin to his 
 retreat, he caused him to be assassinated, and 
 Almanion remained without a competitor. This 
 liappencd, A. D. 813. 
 
 The beginning oi his reign was disturbed by- 
 rebellions in various parts of the empire, which 
 were at length extinguished. But tlie caliph's 
 conduct in favouring the sect of All, at the in- 
 stigation of his visir, caused more dangerous 
 and lasting commotions. He invited to court 
 Ali-ebn-Musa, commonly called the Imam Riz- 
 za, married him to his daughter, and even de- 
 clared him Ills successor in the empire. At the 
 .same time he assumed tlie green turban (the co- 
 Jour of the house of Ali), and obliged his cour- 
 tiers and troops to do the same. The house of 
 Abbas and the orthodox musulmans, alarmed at 
 tliese steps, excited a revolt in Bagdad, and pro- 
 claimed Ibrahim, Almamon's uncle, caliph. A 
 civil war was on the point of being commenced, 
 when Rizza died, and Fadel, the visir, was as- 
 sassinated ; in consequence of which the peo- 
 ple of Bagdad deposed Ibrahim, and returned to 
 tlieir allegiance. Thaher, the general, in the 
 mean time, took the occasion of Almamon's 
 absence to make himself sovereign in Khorasan, 
 where he founded a dynasty, which subsisted for 
 sixty years. 
 
 Almamon employed the interval of tranquil- 
 lity that ensued, in his plans for that introduction 
 of science and literature into his dominions, 
 which forms the great glory of bis reign. Dur- 
 ing his residence in Khorasan, in his father's 
 life-time, he had shown his love of knowledge 
 by collecting from various countries a number 
 of learned men, whom he formed into a col- 
 lege, appointing for their president Mesue, of 
 Damasc-us, a famous Christian physician. On 
 his father's remonstrance against conferring 
 such an honoarona Christian, he replied, that 
 he had chosen Mesue, not as a teacher of reli- 
 gion, but as a preceptor in science and useful 
 arts ; and that his father well knew that the 
 most learned men and skilful artists in his domi- 
 nions were Jews and Christians. On his pos- 
 session of the throne of the caliphs, he rendered 
 Bagdad the seat of learning,. by opening public 
 schools, founding an academy, and inviting 
 men of eminence from all quarters. He like- 
 wise caused translations to be made into Arabic 
 from a number of valuable books in the Greek, 
 Persian, Chaldean, and Coptic languages, among 
 which were the works of Aristotle and Galeu. 
 
 The caliph lilmsclf was accustomed to visit the 
 schools, and to treat the professors with great re- 
 spect, thereby setting an example to others of 
 due regard to mental cultivation.. He was him- 
 self no mean proficient in several branches of 
 knowledge, particularly mathematics, astrono- 
 my, and philosophy. He drew up with his 
 own hand astronomical tabks, which have been 
 much valued for their accuracy. Inconsequence 
 of these encouragements, the Saracens, from a 
 rude and ferocious people, began to be changed 
 into that character of politeness and civilisation, 
 which advantageously distinguished them at a 
 time when the most powerful of the European 
 states were plunged in ignorance and barbarism. 
 It is to be regretted, that a partiality to his own 
 language, or, perhaps, a desire of enhancing the 
 reputation of the Arabic writers, led him to de- 
 stroy the originals of the translated manuscripts; 
 wl/ence literature has sustained some irreparable 
 losses. The introduction of philosophy and 
 letters gave tliat alarm to the zealous religion- 
 ists among the Mahoinetans, that it has ever 
 done elsewhere to the patrons of narrow and 
 unintelligible opinions ; and the caliph has been 
 treated by the Sonnites, or orthodox, as little 
 better than an infidel. He appears, indeed, not 
 to have been sufficiently careful in preserving a 
 philosophical mean betwixt the different sects 
 which sprung up during the prevalence of dis- 
 cussion, and he showed too open an inclination 
 to the doctrines of the Motazeli, who denied the 
 eternity of the Koran, and afSrmed the free- 
 will of man. The murmurs -vhich arose 
 against him on this account, are said at one 
 time to have stimulated him to exhibit his zeal 
 for religion, bv establishing a kind of inquisi- 
 tion, which should compel all his subjects to 
 make profession of istamism ; but if this really 
 took place (which, with respect to his Chris- 
 tian subjects, it certainly did not) the experiment 
 soon issued in the better and juster expedient of 
 universal toleration. 
 
 With respect to the public transactions of his 
 reign — he lent a body of troops to Thoinas, a 
 Greek, who, in 822, made war on the emperor 
 of Constaiitinople, IMichael the Stammerer, and 
 besieged his capital. This expedition, however, 
 which appears to have been unjust on the part 
 of the caliph, proved unsuccessful, and Tho- 
 mas was made prisoner and put to death. After- 
 wards, in 829 and 830, he made direct war 
 upon the Greeks, and succeeded in rendering 
 himself master of many places, and ravaging 
 their territories to a wide extent. Nothing, how- 
 ever, of great iinportance was the result. He 
 made an expedition into Egj'pt in 831, in order
 
 A L M 
 
 ( 201 ) 
 
 A L M 
 
 to suppress a icbellion, which he effectually 
 performed. In that country a great treasure was 
 discovered to hiin, buried under two columns by 
 Merwan, tlic last caliph of the house of Om- 
 mijah. Almainon displayed his love of science 
 by erecting a new nikias or measuring-pillar for 
 determining the gradation of the increase of 
 the Nile, and repairing a decayed one of the 
 same kind. Ke again visited Egypt in 833 ; and, 
 on his return, penetrated into the territories of 
 the Greek emperor as far as Tarsus in Cilicia. 
 Returning thence towards Bagdad, he encamped 
 on the banks of a river, the waters of whicli, 
 by their coolness and limpidity', invited him to 
 quench his thirst. At the same time, express- 
 ing a longing tor some dates of a particular 
 kind, it happened that some mules laden with 
 them passed by, and furnished him with a 
 plentiful supply. An immoderate indulgence in 
 the fruit and cold water brought on a complaint 
 in his stomach, which terminated in a fever that 
 soon brought him into imminent danger. Sensi- 
 ble of his condition, he wrote letters into the 
 provinces, declaring his brother Motassem his 
 successor, and then patiently awaited the event. 
 After a long struggle, uttering this ejaculation, 
 " O thou who never diest, have mercy on me, 
 a dying man !" he expired at the age of forty - 
 eight or forty-nine, after a reign of twenty years 
 and some months. His body was buried at Tar- 
 sus, which some zealots interpreted as a mark of 
 reprobation. 
 
 The character of this illustrious caliph was a 
 pleasing instance of the efficacy of science and 
 letters in humanising the temper. The cruelty 
 and violence of a Saracen and a despot seem- to 
 have been entirely lost in him ; and he appears 
 under the mild features of a liberal, virtuous, and 
 beneficent sovereign. His conduct towards his 
 uncle and rival Ibrahim \vas an unusual exam- 
 ple of clemency and magnanimity. That prince, 
 after his deposition, kept himself some years 
 concealed in Bagdad. Being at length disco- 
 vered, he was brought before the caliph, and 
 told that the council had unanimously condemn- 
 ed him to death. " Your counsellors (said 
 Ibrahim) have judged according to the custom- 
 ary rules of political government ; if you par- 
 don me, you will not, indeed, judge according 
 to precedent, but you will have no equal among 
 sovereigns." The caliph, raising and tenderly 
 embracing him, said, with great emotion, " Un- 
 cle, be of good cheer — I will not do you the 
 least injury ;" and he not only pardoned liim, 
 but bestowed upon him a lank and fortune suit- 
 able to his birth. When Almamon's courtiers 
 came in crowds to compliment him on this ge- 
 
 voL. 1. 
 
 nerous action, he exclaimed, in the fullness of 
 his heart, " O ! did men but know the pleasuic 
 I feel in pardoning, all who have offended nic 
 would come and confess their faults I" It was 
 probably tiiis generosity of disposition that chief- 
 ly induced him to show those favouis to the 
 oppressed house of Ali, which involved the be- 
 ginning of his reign in trouble. Hisfrts com- 
 munication with men of different relii;i()MS gave 
 him a liberality on that head very unusual in a 
 mussulman, who was not a profligate ; and the 
 preference he discovered to particular opinions 
 seems to have proceeded from their superior ra- 
 tionality. Afod. Univcrs. Hist. Marigny, Hut. 
 da Arahcs. — A. 
 
 ALMANZOR (the Victorious), the name 
 usually given to Abu Giaffer, second caliph of 
 the dynasty of Abbassidcs, succeeded his bro- 
 ther Abul Abbas in 753, A. Hcgir. 136, and 
 was inaugurated the following year. He had at 
 first a formidable rival in his uncle, Abdallah- 
 ebn-Ali, whoin, by means of the famous ge- 
 neral Abu Moslem, he defeated. Soon after, 
 dreading the power and abilities of Abu Mos- 
 lem, he caused him to be assassinated' by his 
 guards in his own presence ; and not content 
 with this, lie committed outrages on the dead 
 body, and kept it several days in order to glut 
 his eyes with the spectacle. The next event of 
 this reign was a revolt in Khorasan by a Persiaix 
 named Sinam. The caliph sent against this re- 
 bel his general Giamhour, who defeated him : 
 but Giamhour and his army being disgusted by 
 the avarice of Almanzor, who demanded all 
 the booty, the general himself seised the sove- 
 reignty of the province. He in his turn was 
 defeated, and the rebellion terminated. About 
 this time, thB patriarch of Antioch being de- 
 tected in a correspondence with the Grecian 
 emperor, the Christians in the caliph's domi- 
 nions were laid under several restraints. 
 
 In 757 Almanzor sent a large army into 
 Cappadocia, which occupieil and fortified the 
 city of Malatia. In this year an eastern sect 
 called Ravendians, believers in the metempsy- 
 chosis, being molested in their worship by Al- 
 manzor, made an attack upon him, in which he 
 was near losing his life; but he was generously 
 rescuetl by Maan, an Omtnijan chief, who was 
 living in concealment through fear of the caliph's 
 re-^entment. 'I'his event happened at liisca|)ital 
 of Hashcmia ; and the disgust it gave Alman- 
 zor was die cause of his founding Bagdad, where 
 he fixed his after-residence. Mahomet and 
 Ibrahim, grandsons of Hassan the son of Ali, 
 having rebelled against the caliph, he sent troops 
 to seise them ; but for a time they eluded tljc 
 2 D
 
 A L M 
 
 ( i02 ) 
 
 A L M 
 
 pursuit ; and the caliph's fury fell upon their 
 father Abdallah and others of the family. Al- 
 inan/or is said to h.ive canst d twelve of the sons 
 of Hoseiii to be shut up together in so small a 
 room t!iat thcv p^-rished for want of air. Af- 
 terward-, botli ]\i:ihomct and Ibrahim were de- 
 feated and killed. The caliph, likewise, by as- 
 surances of pardon and safety, got into liis pos- 
 session his uncle Abdallah, w!io had rebelled 
 against him at the beginning of his reign; when, 
 bv his contrivance, a house which was built tor 
 his uncle suddenly fell and crusiied him in its ruins. 
 
 About the year 769 Almanzor tell into a dan- 
 gerous illness, from wbicii he was freed by the 
 aid of George- ebn-Raktishua, a famous Chris- 
 tian phvsician. The caliph showed himself 
 very grateful for the cure ; and learning that 
 George had only one vvi'e, old and infirm, he 
 sent him two beautiful Greek girls, with a sum 
 of money. George, to his great surprise, sent 
 them back, alleging the unlawfulness of poly- 
 gamy to a Christian ; which conscientious scru- 
 ple increased the caliph's esteem for him. 
 
 Various other military transactions took place 
 in this reign, in which Almanzor's troops were 
 for the most part victorious. He exercised 
 much severity tovi'ards his Christian subjects, 
 collecting the capitation with great rigour, and 
 impressing upon them the marks of slavery. In 
 the year 774 he set out on a pilgrimage to Mec- 
 ca, but was taken ill on the road of a disease 
 which from the first threatened danger. He 
 sent for his son and intended successor Al Moh- 
 di, and gave him some salutary advice, of 
 which one of the most important articles was, 
 " Never to permit any of his women to inter- 
 meddle in affairs of state, or influence his coun- 
 .^els — but this advice (added he) I know you 
 will not take." He was carried on till he ar- 
 rived at Bir Maimun, or the Well of Maimun, 
 where he expired in the sixty-third year of his 
 age, and twentieth of his reign. He was in- 
 terred at Mecca. The qualities ascribed to him 
 by historians are very contradictory, comprising 
 most of the virtues and vices of a prince. It 
 seems on the whole to be agreed, that he was 
 brave, prudent, conversant in the arts of go- 
 vernment, and fond of the learning of his age 
 and country ; at the same time he was extremely 
 avaricious, unfeeling, and, wherever his in- 
 terest was concerned, cruel and treacherous. 
 Alod. Vnlvers. Hist. Maripiy, Hist, des 
 Arabes. — A. 
 
 ALMEIDA, Francis d', son of the count 
 d'Abrantes, a grandee of Portugal, served with 
 great distinction king Ferdinand of Castile in his 
 war with Grenada, and was in high esteem at 
 
 the court of his own sovereign. King Emanuel 
 nominated him, without any solicitation on his 
 part, the first governor-general and viceroy of 
 the newly conquered countries in the East In- 
 dhs ; and he set sail from Lisbon in March 
 1505-6 with a powerful fleet. He reduced Alom- 
 baza, built a fortress at Angediva, near Goa, and 
 another at Cananor, and secured Cochin in the 
 Portuguese interest. The island of Madagascar 
 was discovered during his government. His 
 son, don Lorenzo, first surveyed the Maldivc 
 islands, and then discovered the fine island of 
 Ceylon, and obliged its principal sovereign to 
 own himself a vassal of Portugal. This young 
 warrior was afterwards killed in a sea-fight with 
 the Zamorin ; a loss which his father bore with 
 great heroism, saying, " that Lorenzo could 
 not die better than in the service of his coun- 
 try." Almeida, however, was not equally su- 
 perior to the impressions of jealousy ; for, on 
 the arrival of Alphonso d'Albuquerqu?, whom 
 he knew to be his destined successor, he de- 
 clined the assistance he might have had from 
 him, and even confined him in the citadel of 
 Cananor, under pretence of misconduct. In 
 1508-9, Almeida attacked in the port of Diu a 
 numerous fleet, commanded by Mir Hocen, 
 admiral of the sultan of Egypt, united with the 
 Zamorin and other country powers, and en- 
 tirely defeated it, himself boarding and taking 
 the ship of Mir Hocen. This victory gave a 
 great blow to the Mahometan power in the In- 
 dies, and facilitated the enterprises of Albu- 
 querque. On being superseded, he embarked 
 for Europe with the great riches he had acquired, 
 but which he did not live to enjoy : for, hav- 
 ing touched at Saldanha point, on the coast of 
 Africa, to water, some of the sailors on shore 
 quarrelled with the natives, who drove them to 
 their ship. Some fiery young officers, burnings 
 to revenge this affront, as they thought it, per- 
 suaded Almeida himself to go ashore, with a 
 body of one hundred and fifty 'men, armed only 
 with swords and lances. " Whither do you 
 carry my sixty years ?" said Almeida on step- 
 ping into his boat. The Portuguese pushed on 
 to attack the natives, now augmented to a great 
 number ; and Almeida, with fifty-seven of his. 
 men, fell victims to this rash and unjust attempt, 
 A'loreri. Mod. Uniz'ers. Hist. — A. 
 
 ALMELOVEEN, THEooaRE Jansson, 
 a scholar of repute in Holland ofthe seventeenth, 
 and the beginning of the eighteenth century, 
 was professor in history, the Greek language, 
 and medicine, at Harderwick. He died at 
 Amsterdam in the year 1742. He wrote notes 
 upon various ancient authors, and other works.
 
 ALP 
 
 ( 203 ) 
 
 ALP 
 
 Of these the most known arc, " De Vitis Stc- 
 plianorum," [The Lives of the Stephens] in 
 i2mo. printed at Amsterdam in 1683 ; " Ono- 
 masticon Rcruin invcntaruni," [Catalogue of 
 Inventions] in i2mo. 1694 ; BiWiothcca pro- 
 niissa et lattns," [The promised and concealed 
 Library] in lamo. i6()2 ; " Amoenitates thcolo- 
 gico-philologic£," [Theologico-philosopliical 
 Amusements] in 8vo. 1694; " Pkigiarionim 
 Syllabus" [List of Plagiaries] ; " Fasti Con- 
 sidares" [Consular Tables], in 8vo. Amsterd. 
 1740. l^oiiv. Diet. Hist. — E. 
 
 ALP ARSLAN, second sultan of the dy- 
 nasty of Seljuk, was the son of David, brother 
 of Togrul Beg, and was born about A. D. 
 1030. His first name was Israel, which he 
 exchanged for Mohammed on becoming a mu- 
 sulman. yilp AidaUy signifying in I'urkish 
 a valiant lion, was a surname conferred on 
 him on account of his military renown. He 
 succeeded his uncle Togrul in 1063, after hav- 
 ing commanded ten years in Khorasan as his 
 lieutenant. At the beginning of his reign he 
 had several rebellions among his subjects to 
 quell, in which he advantageously made use of 
 the services of his visir, the famous Nezam-el- 
 Mulc. He himself crossed the Euphrates with 
 his cavalry, and plundered Cssarca, the metro- 
 polis of Cappadocia. He also completed the 
 conquest of Armenia and Georgia ; and as a pu- 
 nishment for the obstinate resistance of the Geor- 
 gians, he compelled their grandees to wear a 
 horse-shoe at their ears in token of slavery — a 
 mark of ignominy which induced several of 
 them to adopt the exterior profession of Maho- 
 iTietism in order to get rid of it. 
 
 In 1068, Alp Arslan turned his arms against 
 the Constantinopolitan empire, then possessed 
 by Eudocia, who, for her defence, gave her 
 hand and sceptre to the brave Romanus Dio- 
 genes. The new emperor was successful in 
 three campaigns, and drove the Turks beyond 
 the Euphrates. In the fourth, he attempted the 
 relief of Armenia. With a great army he ad- 
 vanced into the country, where he was met by 
 the sultan at the head of forty thousand cavalry. 
 Romanus refused to listen to the proposals of 
 peace which Alp Arslan made, and a decisive 
 battle ensued. I'he sultan, before the engage- 
 ment, gave free permission for all among his 
 troops Viho chose it to retire from die field ; and 
 tying u[) his horse's tail with his own hand, and 
 exchanging his bow and arrows for a mace and 
 scvmetar, cloathed himself in a white robe per- 
 fumed with musk, and resolved to peiish on the 
 "spot unless victorious. By the artiul manceu- 
 ■^res of the Turkish cavalry, the Greek phalanx 
 
 was at length broken, and routed. Romanus, 
 in the retreat, fighting valiantly, was taken pri- 
 soner. AVIru brought bcfoic Alp Arslan, it i>! 
 said that the suhnn leapt from his throne and 
 ret his foot on the neck of Lis captive. Tliis 
 action, however, is scarcely comp-itiUlc with 
 the respect and generosity with whicii iho sul- 
 tan is allowed to have treated him, ai.d wb.ich 
 would I'.ave done honour to tiiC most civilised 
 court. As the price of the emperor's liberty, 
 he enjoined a large ransom, an annual (ribiitc, 
 intermarriage between the families, and the de- 
 liverance of all the captive musulmans. Ro- 
 manus, consenting to tlie terms, was dismissed 
 with rich presents ; but he was not able to 
 make good his agreement on account of the re- 
 volt of his own subjects. 
 
 Soon after tliis event. Alp Arslan, having as- 
 sembled all the governors, generals, and great 
 men of his extensive dominions, declared his 
 eldest son RIakk Shah his sole heir and suc- 
 cessor, and placing him by his side on a golden 
 throne, caused all jirescnt to swear allegiance to 
 him. He then declared his intention of attempt- 
 ing tire conquest of Turkestan, the original seat 
 of iiis ancestors ; and, having made great prcjia- 
 rations for this expedition, lie marched a powerful 
 army to the banks of the Oxus. It was neces- 
 sary, before he crossed the river, to gain pos- 
 session of some neiglibouring fortresses. One 
 of these was vigorously defended for several days 
 by Joseph Cothual, a Carizmian, who, being 
 at length obliged to surrender, was brouglit be- 
 fore the sultan. Enraged at his presumption, 
 the sultan addressed him in very reproachful 
 terms. Joseph replied with so much spirit, that 
 Alp Arslan, losing all patience, commaiidcd him 
 to be fastened to four stakes in order to be put 
 to a cruel death. Joseph, rendered desperate, 
 drew a dagger concealed in lii'i boots, and ap- 
 proached the sultan to stab him. The guards 
 moved forwards to seise him ; but Alp Arslan, 
 tlie best archer of his time, forbid them to ad- 
 vance, and let Hy an arrow at the Carizmian, 
 which missed him. Joseph then rushed for- 
 wards and gave the sultan a mortal blow ; and 
 afterwards wounded several of the guards before 
 he could be dispatched. Alp Arslan lived some 
 hours after the wound, but finding his end ap- 
 proach, he said to those about him, " I now re- 
 collect two pieces of advice given mc by a wise 
 man ; the first, never to despise any one ; the 
 second, never to think too highly of myself 1 
 have broken both these precepts ; for, yester- 
 day, surveying my numerous host from an emi- 
 nence, I thought there was nothing on earth that 
 could resist me, nor any mortal \vlio would daic
 
 ALP 
 
 ( 204 ) 
 
 ALP 
 
 to attack mc ; and to dav, seeing the man ap- 
 proach me with his dagger drawn, 1 trusted in 
 mv own power to defend myself, and prevented 
 the interference of my guards. But I now see 
 that no strength or skilt avails against destiny." 
 He died in 1072, and was buried at Meru, one 
 of tiie capitals of Khorasan. On his tomb was 
 inscribed this epitaph. O ye who have seen the 
 grandeur of Alp Arslan lifted to the sizes, come to 
 Jlfeni, and you ivlll behold it burled in the dust. 
 
 Alp Arslan had a commanding size and gra- 
 cious demeanour. He wore very long whisk- 
 ers, and generally covered his liead with a high 
 tuiban folded in the form of a crown. He was 
 equally esteemed for his valour and his libera- 
 lity. In power, no contemporary prince could 
 com]iare with him. He was sole and absolute 
 monarch of all the countries between the Oxus 
 and Tigris ; and twelve hundred princes or sons 
 o* princes have stood at the foot of his throne. 
 'I'he calii h, Bemrillah. conferred on him the ti- 
 tleot Ezzedin, ox /1dadheddin,%ign'\^yingDefend- 
 er of the Faith. D' Hcrbclot. Gibbon. — A. 
 
 ALPHERY, MiKEPHER, an English di- 
 vine in the seventeenth century, was a native ot 
 Russia, of the imperial line. At the time of the 
 tivil commotions of Russia, towaids the close 
 of the sixteenth century, this gentleman, with 
 his two brothers, were sent over to England, 
 to the care of Mr. Joseph Beddel, a Russia mer- 
 chant, by whom they were entered at Oxford. 
 Here two of the brothers died of the small pox, 
 and the survivor took orders in the English 
 church, and was presented to the rectory of 
 VVarlcy in Huntingdonshire. During the civil 
 ■wars he suffered great hardships from the repub- 
 lican party, and was ejected from his living. At 
 the restoration he was again put in possession 
 of it, but, being infirm, he was obliged to trans- 
 fer the duty to a curate. He died at a great age, 
 much respected ; affording, in his life, a singular 
 example of a vicissitude of fortune. Biograph. 
 Brit. — E. 
 
 ALPHIUS, AviTUs, a Roman biographer, 
 probably lived about the time of Alexander Se- 
 verus, at the beginning of the tliird century. He 
 wrote in verse the lives of eminent men. His 
 contemporary, Terentianus Maurus, mentions 
 him, as well as Priscian the grammarian. Of 
 his portraits, in miniature, the following lines, 
 ^escribing, in part, the adventure of the school- 
 master at Falisci, will be a s'a£Ecient specimen. 
 
 Tmhi literator creditus 
 Ludo Phaliscflm, liberot 
 Caussatus in campi patent, 
 Extraque muri duccre ; 
 Spatisndo pauUatim trahit 
 Haifilii ad valli latus. 
 
 'Tvas tli(*n F:ilisci's poda^ogue, 
 A craflj, Ay, and treach'roiia roguCj 
 Giving Iiis bnys a morning-Mall;, 
 Cheated their cars with plcasaut talk, 
 Till, lar bey Olid the city-^^ail, 
 luto the hostile camp tiiey fall. 
 
 He wrote in the same manner the history of 
 the Carthaginian war. Voss. de Hist. Lat. 
 lib. iii. — E. 
 
 ALPHONSO I. or Jlonzo-Enriquez, first 
 king of Portugal, was the, sou of Henry of Bur- 
 gundy, count of Portugal, who possessed part of 
 that country as the dowry of his wife Tneresa, 
 daughter of Alphonso, king of Leon and Cas- 
 tille. After the death of count Henry in 11 12, 
 his son, Aljjhonso, being only in his third year, 
 was left under the tutelage of his mother. 'VV'hen 
 he was about eighteen, Theresa being suspected 
 of an intention of marrying the count of Tras- 
 temara, and conferring on him the supreme au- 
 tliority, Alphonso, at the instigation of the no- 
 bility, assumed the sovereignty, defeated his 
 mother's party who opposed him, and kept her 
 in confinement the rest of her life. At the com- 
 mencement of his administration he sustained 
 several wars as well against the king of Leon 
 and Castille, as against the Moorish princes or 
 governors, who then possessed great part of Por- 
 tugal and Spain. 7"hese last being reinforced 
 by an army sent from the Moorish emperor ia 
 Barbary, invaded Alphonso's territories in 1139 
 with forces much more numerous than he could 
 bring to oppose them. He however stood their 
 attack on the plains of Ourique, and there gain- 
 ed a most signal victory on July 25, the anni- 
 versary of which has ever since been kept, as 
 the event which secured the Cliristlan cause in 
 that country. Alphonso, who had hitherto 
 only governed as count, was proclaiined king 
 of Portugal on the field of battle ; which nomi- 
 nation was afterwards confirmed, and the laws 
 of the monarchy established, in an assembly of 
 the states at Lamego in 1145. He continued 
 to wage war with various success against all 
 his enemies; and in 1 1 47 he recovered Lisbon 
 from the Moors by the aid of a band of military; 
 adventurers, from different countries, who had 
 taken the cross for an expedition to the Holy- 
 land, and put into the Tagus by accident. In 
 consequence he became complete master of four 
 of the six provinces which now compose Por- 
 tugal, and he employed himself with great pru- 
 dence and industry to put his dominions -into a, 
 prosperous condition. He married ?vlatilda, 
 daughter of the count of Savoy, by whom he 
 had a numerous progeny, which enabled him to. 
 contract useful alliances with the neighbouring 
 powers. Ojie of his- daughters vras married' to 
 
 I
 
 ALP 
 
 ( 
 
 205 
 
 ) 
 
 ALP 
 
 FeiJmand, king of Leon, which diJ not prevent 
 him from engaging in a dispute witli his son-in- 
 law, who made him prisoner in a battle, but re- 
 stored him to Hherty. His son, Don Sancho, 
 who inherited his iniliiary disposition, conduct- 
 ed several wars towards the latter part of his 
 reign, and gained a glorious victory over the 
 emperor of Morocco, who had led a great army 
 into Spain, and had advanced as far us Santaren 
 in Portugal. Alphonso died in 1185, in the 
 seventy-sixth year of his age, after a long reign 
 of fifty-seven years. His martial ardour, with 
 his great size and strength, have rendered him 
 the subject of many popular fables in his coun- 
 try. He seems to have poss»ssed the true spirit 
 cf chivalry as ir then existed, and he was the 
 founder of the order of knigluhood called Avis, 
 still subsisting with honour. Mod Un'rjcrs. 
 Hist.— A. 
 
 ALPHONSO IV. king of Portugal, sur- 
 named the Brave, was the son of king Denis, 
 and w^as born in 1290. Whiie prince he re- 
 volted against his father, and ei;£,a3;ed in a civil 
 war, instigated, it is said, by tue ueen -dowager 
 of Castille, his uite's mother, and jealous jf the 
 influei.ee of Alphonso Sanclie/., his natural 
 brother. He was brought to submission,, and 
 repeatedly broke again with his iaLer, whom 
 he succeeded in the throne in 1324. At the be- 
 ginning of his reign, he spent all his time in 
 hundng, to the neglect oi affairs of govern- 
 ment. One day. after having given his council 
 a history of a tnor.th's sport ironi wliich he was 
 just returned, a nobleman arose and very freely 
 represent£d to him the injury he did to his peo- 
 ple by such an abuse of his time, concluding 
 with telling him that if he did not redress the 
 grievances of his subjects, they must look cut 
 for another and a better king. Alphonso left 
 the room in a transport of rage ; but soon re- 
 turning calm and composed, he exjjressed his 
 conviction of the justnes'; of the reproof, and 
 his resolution to be no longer Alphonso the 
 sportsman, but Alphonso the king. He kept 
 his word ; and no prince ever attended with 
 more diligence to the business of governing, 
 though it was as a stern unprincipled polkician, 
 rather than as a good king. He declared his 
 natural brother a tiaitor, and drove him into re- 
 bellion, but afterwards forgave and received him 
 to favour. By his crooked politics he involved 
 his country in a long war with the king of Cas- 
 tille ; but he terminated it meritoriously by afford- 
 ing him efFectual assistance when attacked by 
 the Moors. But nothing hr.s made his memory 
 »o odious as his conduct to the fair Agnes or 
 Inesde Castro, the mistress and concealed wife 
 
 of his son Don Pedro. At the instigation of 
 lus cruel counscllorihe gave orders for l.cr mur- 
 der ; and, though he was at lirtt moved to com- 
 passion by her entrcniics, he repeated his com- 
 mand, and afterwards owned and justified the 
 deed. It drove his son to phrensv ; and a civil 
 war ensued, which was terminated by a recon- 
 ciliation not over sincere on the prince's part. 
 Alphonso, now advanced in years, endeavoured 
 by acts of piety and bounty to efface the cha- 
 racter for tyranny he had too well merited ; and 
 he enacted many wholesome laws and regula- 
 tions for tlic benefit of his subjecrs. Indeed, 
 like many other unl'eeling but wise mpnarchs, 
 he appears to have lulcd with general justice, 
 and to have consulted the good ot liis people in 
 the encouragement of industry, and the security 
 of property. He brought all tanks of men un- 
 der submission to the laws, and protected the 
 weak against the strong. Ha died in 1357, in 
 the sixty-seventh year of his age, and thirty-se- 
 cond of his reiga AJod. U/iivns. Hist.— A. 
 
 ALPHON so V. king of Portugal, surnamcd 
 t/ic African, son of king Edward, was born in 
 1432. His father dying when he was only six 
 years of age, the regency was given by the states 
 to his uncle don Pedro, who governed witli 
 great reputation, and married his daughter to 
 the young king ; but this did not prevent his 
 being treated as a traitor at the expiration of his 
 regency, and put to death with several of his 
 adherents, liie king, who, from his youth, 
 was only an instrument of the regent's enemies 
 in this business, afterwards did justice to his 
 memory. The qi-een dying in 1455, Alphonso 
 showed his attachment to her by tlienceforth 
 renouncing all connections with t!ic sex. His 
 jiassion wa-^ military glory, which he indulged 
 in a war against the Moors in Barbary. In 
 1458 he crossed over ii.to Africa and took Alca-, 
 zar; and his expeditions tliither continued from 
 time to time with various success till 1470, when 
 he had redi eed Arzilla and Tangier. On occa- 
 sion of tliis w ar he instituted the order cA knights 
 of the sword, the name of which is said to have 
 arisen from a fable of a sword kept by the 
 Mf'ors with extraordinary care in P\'/., which 
 a Ciiristian prince was fated to conquer, and 
 whicli exploit he thought reser\ed for himself. 
 A less fortunate contest was that which he car- 
 ried on agaiiist Ferdinand and Isabella ot Cas- 
 tille, in support of the claim of his niece Joan, 
 to that crown. His ill success led him to take 
 a journey to France in older to engage the as- 
 sistance of Louis XI. ; and, on discovering how 
 much he had been duped by the empty promises 
 of that faithless king> he was so uflccted, that
 
 ALP 
 
 ( 206 ) 
 
 ALP 
 
 he dctcniiiiicJ on resigning Iii? crown, ami 
 niaking a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. He pro- 
 ccodal so far as to direct his son don Juan to 
 protlaini liimsclt king, ar.dliis sui)jects to regard 
 him as their sovereign. He was, however, pre- 
 vailed iip'Mi to return linine, when his son, \v])o 
 had ruled with great ability in his abicnce, rciii- 
 .'tattd hitn on the throne. But a melancholy had 
 taken pos.ses,sion of him wliich he could not 
 ■sli.ikc off, and which confirmed him in his re- 
 solution ot" retiring to a monastery; and he was 
 on his way to put this into execution, when he 
 Wd. seised at Cintra with the plague, of which 
 he died in 1481, in the forty-ninth year of his 
 age, and forty-third of his reign. He vs^as great- 
 ly beloved tor his benignity and afFabiiity of 
 temper, and his bounty and charitableness, 
 whicli he particularly displayed in the ransom 
 of prisoners, so as to acquire the popular title of 
 the redeemer of captives. He was likewise sin- 
 gularly temperate, and fond of letters, and was 
 the first Portuguese king who formed a library 
 in his palace. Guinea was discovered in his 
 reign under the auspices of his uncle the cele- 
 brated don Henry ; and a ver^' lucrative trade 
 ^vas establislied by the Portuguese to that coun- 
 try, which he vindicated against the claims and 
 attempts of the Spaniards. Mod. Unlvcrs. 
 Hist.— A. 
 
 ALPHONSO III. the Great, king of the 
 Asturias, was born in 847, and succeeded his 
 father Ordogno in 865. Soon after his acces- 
 sion he wa obliged to retire from nis kingdom 
 in consequence of the rebellion of Don Froila ; 
 but on tlie assassination of that usurper, he re- 
 turned to his states with universal applause. 
 He soon showed himself a warlike and able 
 prince ; and had many successful combats 
 against the Moors, from whom lie conquered 
 several places. He married Ximene or Chi- 
 iTiene, descended from the house of Navarre ; 
 in consequence of which alliance he formed a 
 treaty with that power against the Moors, and 
 obtained a series of new victories over them. 
 In his advanced years he was disturbed by re- 
 volts among his own subjects ; a principal oc- 
 casion of which seems to have been the attenti- 
 on he paid to tlie ease and welfare of the com- 
 mon people, which disgusted his haughty nobi- 
 lity. By his vigour he repre sed these disturb- 
 ances ; and when his kingdom became tranquil 
 again, he held, in the year 900, a great council 
 of his clergy and states at Oviedo, in which 
 many usefiil regulations were enacted. A few 
 years afterwards he had the affliction of seeing 
 his son, Don Garcias, at the head of a rebelli- 
 on ; but he soon suppressed it, and made his 
 
 son prisoner. The discontents wliicli the cap- 
 tivity of Garcias occasioned, and others arising 
 from the imposition of taxes, arose to such a 
 height, that in 908 he assembled his grandees, 
 and solemnly abdicated his crown, and placed 
 it on the head of Garcias ; at the same time 
 gi\ing the province of Gallicia t6 his other son, 
 Ordogno. After his resignation, finding his 
 successor engaged in a war with the Moors, 
 which he did not know how to manage, Al- 
 phonso oflcrcd to take the command of an ar- 
 iny ; and with this he made a glorious cam- 
 paign, in 912, and brought back his troops 
 laden with spoil, to Zamora. In that city, 
 shortly after his return, he died, about his sixty- 
 fifth year. He left a high character tor virtue, 
 piety, and all princely qualities. He was a patron 
 of learned men, and, according to the times, was 
 learned himself. A chronicle of Spanish affairs, 
 from the death of king Recesuintho, to that of 
 Ordogno, Alphonso's father, is thought to be 
 the work of his own hand. Alod. Univers. 
 Hist. — A. 
 
 ALPHONSO X. the Wise, king of Leon 
 and Castille, succeeded his father, Ferdinand, 
 in 125 1. His surname was given him, not for 
 the wisdom of a king, but for scientific attain- 
 ments. His projects of ambition were ill con- 
 certed, and disturbed the prosperity of his reign. 
 He began with laying claim to Gascony against 
 Henry III. of England, and sending an army to 
 support his rights ; but this terminated in a re- 
 nunciation of his claims, on the condition that 
 prince Edward, the son of Henry (afterwards 
 Edward I.) should marry his sister Eleonora. 
 At the same time he engaged in an expedition 
 planned by his father against the Moors in Bar- 
 bary ; and by these means exhausted his trea- 
 sury so much as to be obliged to debase the 
 coin, to the great discontent of his subjects. 
 From this design he was, after all, diverted by 
 prosecuting his mother's right to the duchy of 
 Suabia ; and this leading him into connections 
 with the German princes, he was induced to 
 become a competitor, with Richard earl of 
 Cornwall, for the imperial crown ; a pursuit 
 that cost both of them vast sums, with no other 
 return than the vain title of emperor bestowed 
 on them by their own partisans. His domestic 
 peace was disturbed by various conspiracies of 
 the nobles and princes of the blood, supported 
 by the Moors. These he repressed with vigour, 
 and gained several advantages over the Moorish 
 princes ; for fickleness, rather than incapacity 
 tor governing, was his leading fault. A design 
 that he formed of making a journey to Italy, 
 excited the opposition of his states ; and the
 
 ALP 
 
 ( 207 ) 
 
 ALP 
 
 malcontents became at lengtli so powerful ami 
 numerous, that he was obliged to emcr into 
 terms with them. He did mt drop his favourite 
 project of being elected emperor, which was 
 the source of most of the difficulties and incon- 
 sistencies of his reign, even when Rodolph of 
 Hapsburg was chosen to that high station ; for, 
 proceeding to Beaucaire, in order to persuade 
 the pope to make void that election, he staid 
 there, while the Moors, taking advantage of his 
 absence, were ravaging his dominions, and 
 tlirowiiig all tilings into confusion. His eldest 
 son died in this interval ; and the second, don 
 Sanchez, having gained great reputation in op- 
 posing the infidels, laid claim to the succession, 
 in prejudice of his elder bi other's children. This 
 claim was admitted by the states of the king- 
 dom ; but it involved Alphonso in a war with 
 Philip, king of France, who supported the cause 
 of the children, whose mother was his sister 
 Blanche of France ; and it occasioned the re- 
 treat of his own queen Yolande or Violante to 
 the court of her father, the king of Arragon. 
 Thus involved in domestic quarrels, forced by 
 the pope to the renewal of an unsuccessful war 
 widi the Moors, quitting that for a war with 
 the king of Granada, ruined in his finances, and 
 seeing all his afFairs in disorder, he was obliged 
 to call an assembly of his states, which, in 1282, 
 deprived him of the regal dignity, and declared 
 don Sanchez regent. In order to oppo'^e this 
 defection, he called in the aid of the king of 
 Morocco, and solemnly cursed and disinherited 
 his son. At length, however, he was prevailed 
 upon to pardon and receive him again to fa- 
 vour ; soon after which he died, in 1284, in the 
 cightv-first year of his age. 
 
 Though the events of his reign prove Al- 
 phonso to have been a weak and misguided 
 prince, he has left a high character as a patron 
 et learning, and even a proficient in science be- 
 yond the level of his age. He completed a code 
 of laws begun by his father, which is still cele- 
 brated under the titfe of " Las Partidas ;" and he 
 effected a reform in law proceedings, which 
 Other nations have much later adopted, that of 
 exchanging the Latin tongue for the vernacular. 
 He introduced various reforms into the univer- 
 sity of Salamanca ; and caused a general history 
 of Spain to be composed iai the Castilian lan- 
 guage, to the polishing of -which he was pro- 
 perly attentive. By his orders the bible was also 
 translated into the same language. But his fa- 
 vourite pursuit was astronomy. During his 
 father's life, in 1240, he assembled at Toledo 
 the most skilful astronomers of his time, Chris- 
 tians, Jews, and Mahometans, in order to form 
 
 a plan for constructing new astronomical tables 
 wliith should correct the cirors he had disco- 
 vered h, rho«c of Ptolemy. Thi; task was ac- 
 complished at u vast expense, in the first year of 
 his reign, chiefly by tlie skill of Rabbi Isaac 
 Hazan, a learned Jew; .-ind the work had the 
 title of the " Alphonsine Tables." Their t. poch 
 is the 30th of May 1252, the day of his ac- 
 cession to the tiirone. They were first i. raited 
 at 'Venice in 1483. A book of general piiilo- 
 sophy, called " The Treasure," is also attri- 
 buted to him; and he is said to have been vers- 
 ed in the sciences of astrology and chemistry, 
 both, perhaps, ecjually delusive at that time. 
 His learning aiid connection with persons of 
 other religions, and the freedoms he took witli. 
 the revenues of the church, are perhaps what 
 have stami/cd him with the iinputation of irre- 
 ligion ; but a saying of his, that " if he liad 
 been of God's privy-council when he created 
 the world, he could have advised him better," 
 is usually quoted in confirmation of this cliarge- 
 But the more candid interpretation of this free 
 speech is that he meant it as a sarcasm on the 
 futile and absurd philosophy by which the laws 
 of nature were then attempted to be explalncd.. 
 Afod^ U/iivcrs. Hht^ Huttons Mathem. Dict^ 
 — A. 
 
 ALPHONSO V. the Magnanimous, kin^ 
 of Arragon, was born in 1384, and succeeded 
 his father, Ferdinand the Just, in 141 6. By 
 his vigour, he quieted the commotions which 
 arose in his states soon after his accession ; and 
 he displayed his magnanimity by destroying 
 without perusal a paper contiiining the names- 
 of the nobles who had conspired against his 
 life. He was adopted by Joan queen ot Na- 
 ples, and made an expedition into the country 
 to secure his rights. The queen's breach of 
 her engagement caused a civil war tliere, in 
 which Alphonso took possession of Naples, and' 
 expelled her. Returning thence, he left his bro- 
 ther don Pedro as viceroy ; but !iis affairs from 
 that time declined in Naples, and his competitor 
 the duke of Anjou gained possession of most of 
 the kingdom. On a renewed application troui 
 queen Joan, he prepared for a new expeditit)n ;. 
 to which he is said to have been further impelled 
 by domestic uneasiness from the jealousy ot bis 
 wife, Maria of Castile. He remained in Sicily 
 from 143 1 to 1434, in which year, making an 
 invasion of Naples, and besieging G.ieta, lie in- 
 volved hims- If in a war with the dtike of Milan 
 and republic of Genoa. Tl.e G.noese fleet 
 sailed to relieve the place, and meeting with 
 Alphonso at the head of his, an engagement 
 ensued, ia which i^Vlphonso, with afrnvst the
 
 ALP 
 
 ( 208 ) 
 
 ALP 
 
 ■*-liolc of his armament, foil into the enemies' 
 hands. He wns roiuluctecl to Milan, where he 
 so ingratiated himself with the duke, and 
 wrought upon him by arguments, that he soon 
 converted him uito a friend and ally. In the 
 mean time his hereditary states vied with each 
 other in granting him supplies, so that he be- 
 came more powerful tlian ever. In 1442 he 
 made himsclt complete master of the kingdom 
 ef Naples, which he ever after held ; and wa ; 
 esteemed the arbiter of Italy- He remained in 
 that country, not without being disquieted in 
 his declining years bv various political intrigues 
 and dissensions ; anil di'd in 1468, leaving his 
 natural son, don Ferdinand, successor to bis 
 Neapolitan dominions ; and his brother, don 
 Juan king of Navarre, heir to all those in Spam, 
 with Sardinia and Sicily- 
 
 Alplionso was accounted the most accom- 
 plished prince of his time. He gave shelter to 
 the Greek literati expelled from Constantinople, 
 and in other respects was a great patron of 
 learniflg, to which lie was himself so much at- 
 tached, ithat he gave ft>r his device an opened 
 book, and used to say that an unlettered prince 
 was but a crowned ass. When sick once at 
 Capua, he was cured by the perusal of Quintus 
 Curtius, which was brought him by his pre- 
 ceptor and historiographer, Antony of Palermo. 
 He was brave, liberal, and generous, and dis- 
 dained in his affairs the petty arts of intrigue 
 and dissimulation. He was a great lover of his 
 subjects, and lived familiarly with them Being 
 once remonstrated with for walking about his 
 capital unarmed and unaccompanied, " A fa- 
 ther (he replied) has nothing to fear in the midst 
 of his children." Seeing one of his galleys ready 
 to perish with its crew and a number of soldiers, 
 he leaped into a shallop for its relief, saying, 
 " I had rather share than behold their calami- 
 ty." Overhearing an officer, who was present 
 when his treasurer brought him ten thousand 
 ducats, exclaim, " I should only wish that sum 
 TO make nie ha|)py ;" " You shall be so," cried 
 Alphonso ; and caused it to be given him. He 
 had an extraordinary aver-ion to dancing, which 
 he looked upon as a kind of insanity. His 
 greatest failing wa.s an attachment to women. 
 His fondness for one of his mistresses, Lucretia 
 Alana, at a very advanced period of life, sullied 
 his reputation ; and he seems much to have 
 neglected his wife, who, nevertheless, was zea- 
 lous and active in his interests. Mod. Univers. 
 Hist. — A. 
 
 ALPHONSUS, Peter, a Spanish Jew of 
 the twelfth century, was, in 1106, converted to 
 the Christian faith, and at his baptism had Al- 
 
 phonsus king of Arragon for his godfather. 
 He wrote a treatise '• On Science and Philoso- 
 phy," and a " Dialogue between a Jew and a 
 Christian" concerning the truth of the Ciiristiaii 
 religion. The latter work, which is methodi- 
 cally and clearly written, was pubhshed at Co- 
 logne in 1536. Dup'tn. Moreri. — E. 
 
 ALPHONSUS, TosTADus, bishop of Avi- 
 la, a distinguished Sp.miard, who was invested 
 both witli civil and ecclesiastical honours, fiou- 
 rished about the middle of the fifteenth century. 
 His writings are so voluminous, that they fill 
 twenty-seven volumes in folio, of which twenty- 
 fbur are commentaries on scripture : the rest 
 are chiefly tlieological : they were printed, by 
 the order of cardinal Ximenes, at Venice, in 
 1530 ; and reprinted, at the same place, in 
 1596 ; and at Cologne, in 1612. His " Com- 
 mentary upon the Chronicon of Eusebius" was 
 printed separately at Salamanca in 1506. High 
 encomiums have been bestowed upon his works ; 
 yet they are fallen into oblivion. Foss. de Hist, 
 Lat. hb. iii. c. 7. Duphu — E. 
 
 ALPHTEGIN, was a Turk by nation, and 
 first distinguished himself, while slave to t!ic 
 son of sultan Lhmael Samani, by his skill in 
 juggler's tricks, which among an ignorant peo- 
 ple passed for enchantment. Having obtained 
 his freedom, he embraced the profession of 
 arms, and by his conduct and bravery gradually 
 rose to the post of governor of Khorasan under 
 sultan Abdalmelic. On the death of that prince, 
 in 917, being consulted concerning a successor, 
 he pronounced for the exclusion of Manzor the 
 son of Abdalmelic on account of his youth, and 
 gave his vote for Manzor's uncle. The people 
 of Bokhara, however, proclaimed Manzor ; on 
 which account Alphtegin was obliged to retire, 
 and was soon after declared a rebel. With 
 seven hundred horse only he was pursued by 
 fifteen thousand ; but drawing his enemies into 
 an ambuscade, he entirely defeated them. Find- 
 ing himself still pursued by Manzor's troops, 
 he desired his seven hundred followers to aban- 
 don him, and make their peace with the sultan 
 as well as they could. " "Where can we go, 
 (said they) if we quit you ? We have partaken 
 of your prosperity ; let us also partake of your 
 adversity." They remained with him, and by 
 their courage and his own skill he became 
 master of the field, and seised upon the city of 
 Gazna, where he was acknowledged as sove- 
 reign. He reigned there sixteen years, and at 
 his death left the throne to his son-in-law Se- 
 bekteghin, whose son Mahmoud was the found- 
 er of the famous dynasty of the Gaznevids. 
 D'Herbeiot. — A. 
 
 Iii
 
 A L R 
 
 ( 209 ) 
 
 A L R 
 
 ALPINI, Prospero, (Alplmu) a celebrated 
 physician and traveller, was bom at IMarostica, 
 in the state of Venice, in 1553. In his youth he 
 bore arms, and Inad an employ in the state of 
 Milan ; but on the persuasion of his father, 
 who was a physician, he went to study in that 
 profession at Padua, where he took his doctor's 
 degree, in 1578. Having an attachment to bo- 
 tany and natural history, he accepted the offer 
 of accompanying the Venetian consul to Egypt 
 in 1580, where he remained three years, dili- 
 gently collecting information as to the medicine 
 and various other particulars of that country, 
 which he afterwards published. Soon after his 
 return, he went to Genoa in quality of phy- 
 sician to Andrew Doria, and practised with 
 great reputation in that city. Thence he was 
 recalled by the republic of Venice, which ap- 
 pointed him professor of botany at Padua, and 
 curator of the physic garden there. He was 
 inuch incommoded with deafness in advanced 
 Jife, and died at Padua in 1616, aged sixty-three. 
 One of his sons succeeded him in the botanical 
 chair. 
 
 Alpinus was the author of several learned 
 works. The most valuable is a volume, " De 
 JMedicina .^gyptiorum, lib. iv." fiist published 
 at Venice, in 161 1, and several times reprinted. 
 It is full of curious information as to the dis- 
 eases, medicine, surgery, and modes of life, of 
 the modern Egyptians. His botanical observa- 
 tions in that country appeared in some separate 
 publications ; as, " De Balsamo," a treatise on 
 the famous Balm of Gilead ; and, " De Plantis 
 ./Egypti." He also published a treatise " De 
 Rhapontico ;" and among his posthumous pa- 
 pers was an account of the " Natural History 
 of Egypt." He published. In 1601, a consi- 
 derable medical work, " De praesagienda Vita 
 et Morte -^grotantium," wliich consists chiefly 
 of a collection and arrangement of the presages 
 of Hippocrates. Another learned performance, 
 entitled " De Medicina Methodica," published 
 in 161 1, is an attempt to elucidate and restore 
 the ancient doctrine of the methodic sect in me- 
 dicine. It is for the most part a compilation, 
 but with some observations from his own prac- 
 tice. He had made some progress in a work, 
 *' De Stirpibus Exoticis," to which he had writ- 
 ten the preface. The work itself was published 
 by his son in 1627. Moreri. Hallcr, Bibl. Med. 
 Pract. et Botan. — A. 
 ^ ALRED, Alfred, or Alured, an an- 
 ^ cient English historian, who flourished in the 
 beginning of the twelfth century, was a native 
 of Beverley in Yorkshire. He received his 
 education in Cambridge, where, at the same 
 
 VOL, I. 
 
 time that he obtained the knowledge of philo. 
 sophy and theology, he became well read in 
 history. Returning to his native place, he took 
 the habit of a secular priest, and was appointed 
 a canon and treasurer of the cliurch dedicated 
 to St. John of Beverley. He wrote a valuable; 
 woik in English history, entitled, " Annals," 
 in which he give; the history of the ancient 
 Britons, of the Saxons, and of the Normans, 
 down to his own times, as far as tlic twenty- 
 ninth year of Henry I. in the year 1 129, soon 
 after which he probably died. Some writers 
 have considered his history merely as an abridg- 
 ment of Jeffrey of Monmouth's British History ; 
 but it is probable, that Jeffrey of Monmouth 
 wrote after Alfred, for he was made bishop of 
 St. Asaph in 1150, or 1151. (Preface to Jef- 
 frey of M. Tanner's Biblioth. p. 308.) Jeffrey, 
 in his dedication to Robert Earl of Gloucester, 
 speaks of him as having had Henry for his fa- 
 ther, who died in II35 ; Jeffrey and Alured are 
 cited as distinct authorities by Ralph Higden, 
 who wrote about four hundred years since ; 
 and, if the work had been taken from Jeffrey 
 of Monmouth, no reason can be assigned why 
 Alured did not mention his author, as is done 
 by Henry of Huntingdon, who adds Jeffiey's 
 history, as an appendix to his own. " The 
 Annals of Alured of Beverley" were printed 
 at Oxford, in 17 16, by Mr. Hearne, from a ma- 
 nuscript belonging to Thomas Ravvlinson, esq. 
 The work, though not divided in the manner of 
 the Abbey Chronicles, may not improperly be 
 called Annals, as dates are constantly given, 
 and, in the latter part, the years of the king's 
 reign in which events occurred are mentioned 
 vi'ith great exactness. Withamstead, who flou- 
 rished in the fifteenth century, and attacked the 
 history of Jeffrey of Monmouth, speaking of 
 Alured, says, that he wrote a ciironicle of event* 
 from the settlement of Brutus to the time of th« 
 Normans, and mentioned the names by which 
 London, Canterbury, York, and various otlier 
 cities, were called in those times in which they 
 were inhabited by Britons. This work ha» 
 been mentioned under different titles, but there 
 is no sufficient reason for thinking that Alured 
 wrote any other work, except " The History of 
 St. John of Beverley," a collection of records, 
 which has never been printed, but is preserved 
 in the Cotton library, under the title of " Li- 
 bertates Ecclesiae S. Johannis de Beverlik," &c. 
 [Biblioth. Cotton. Otho. chap. xvi. cod. Char- 
 taceus, 4to.] The Annals of Alured, both on 
 account of the materials of which they are 
 composed, and the concise and elegant style in 
 wliich they are written, are very valuable. Alu- 
 2 jt:
 
 A L S 
 
 ( 210 ) 
 
 A L S 
 
 red Ini been called, perhaps not improperly, the 
 Knglish I'iorus. It is surprising tliat no trans- 
 lation has ever been given of this work. Pitt 
 de lllust. Angl. Script. Bale de Script. Prafat. 
 ad Aiured. Vosi. de Hist. Lat. Cay. Hist. Lit. 
 Bii^r. Bnl. — E. 
 
 AlvSOP, Vincent, an English noncon- 
 formist ilivinc, of tlie seventeenth centur)', was 
 a native of Northamptonshire, and a student in 
 St. John's college, Cambridge, where he took 
 the degree of master of arts. He took orders 
 in the church of England, but afterwards, not 
 being satisfied with episcopal ordination, was 
 ordained bv presbyters. In the year 1662, he 
 was ejected for nonconformity from his cure at 
 \S'iiby, in Northamptonshire. He afterwards 
 preached occasionally, and performed other cle- 
 rical offices, for wliich he was imprisoned six 
 months at Northampton. A publication in re- 
 ply to Dr. Sherlock's treatise " On the Know- 
 ledge of Christ," brought him into notice, and 
 he was invited to a nonconformist congregation 
 in We^tminster. Here, his vicinity to the court 
 sometimes exposed him to inconvenience, during 
 the reign of Charles II ; he, however, escaped 
 legal penalties, through the singular circum- 
 stance, as Calamy reports, of the concealment 
 of his Christian naune. In the reign of James 
 II. j\lr. Alsop's son was convicted of treason- 
 able practices, but obtained the king's pardon. 
 This act of clemency attached Mr. Alsop to the 
 royal interest; and he is said to have drawn up 
 an address, presented to the king by sundry 
 presbyterian ministers, expressing in strong 
 terms their gratitude for his declaration of in- 
 dulgence to dissenters ; and entreating him to 
 believe that loyalty is " not entailed to a par- 
 ty," and to be assured that their conduct would 
 " ever justify the credit which his majesty's 
 charity had given them ;" in answer to which 
 the king assures them, that " it had been his 
 judgment a long time, that none has, or ought 
 to have, any power over the conscience but 
 God ;" and compliments them by telling them, 
 that they " looked like gentlemen of too great 
 ingenuity to entertain any such suspicions as 
 had been harboured by some of his subjects, 
 that he had issued his declaration in a design.''' 
 Mr. Alsop on all occasions spoke respectfully 
 of king James ; but, after the revolution, when 
 he seems to have thought himself released from 
 the obligation of personal gratitude, he zea- 
 lously attached himself to the interest of kino- 
 William. He continued his professional la- 
 bours with assiduity to an advanced age, and 
 died in Westminster in 1703. He is celebrated 
 as a wit, and in proof of this is mentioned his 
 
 first publication, entitled " Antlsozzo," in vin- 
 dication of some great truths opposed by Mr. 
 ■\V'illiam Sherlock, printed in 8vo. in 1675. 
 He also wrote '• Melius inquirendum, in An- 
 swer to Dr. Goodman's Compassionate En- 
 quiiy," 8vo. 1679: " The Mischief of Im- 
 position, in Answer to Dr. Stillingfieet's Mis- 
 chief of Separation," 1680, with several single 
 sermons, among which is one against following 
 strange fashions in ajiparel, published in the 
 " Continuation of the Moining Exercise." 
 Calamy'' s Life of Baxter, vol. ii. /food, Athen. 
 Oxon. Biogr. Brit. — E. 
 
 ALSTEDIUS, John Henry, a protestant 
 German divine, was born about the year 1588, 
 and was professor of philosophy and divinity at 
 Herborn in the county of Nassau, and aiter- 
 wards at Alba- Julia in Transylvania, where he 
 died in 1638. He was an industrious compiler 
 of systems of sciences. His principal work is 
 his " Encyclopedia," printed, in two volumes, 
 folio, at Lyons, in 1649. Vossius speaks re- 
 spectfully of Alstedius, as a writer of great eru- 
 dition, and particularly mentions that part of 
 his Encyclopffidia which treats of arithmetic. 
 Other fruits of this writer's industry are his 
 " I'hesaurus Chronologicus :" of these diere 
 have been several editions ; " I'riumphus Bi- 
 blicus," written to show, that all arts and sci- 
 ences may be fetched from the bible ; " Theo- 
 logia Polemica," answered by Hemmelius, di- 
 vinity-professor at jena ; " Philosophia resti- 
 tuta ;" " Elementa Alathematica ;" " Methodus 
 formandorum Studlorum," printed at Strasburg, 
 in 4to. in 1610 ; and a treatise " De Mille An- 
 nis," published in 1627, in which he maintains 
 the tnillennarian doctrine, that Christ will reigii 
 upon earth a thousand years, and fixes the com- 
 mencement of this reign in the year 1694; upou 
 which it was scarcely necessaiy for Bayle to re- 
 niark, that we are fully assured he was mis- 
 taken. Of whatever use the voluminous com- 
 pilations of this w^riter might formerly have been 
 to students, they have been superseded by mo- 
 dern publications. The character of this plod- 
 ding writer has been well expressed in one aha- 
 grammatic word, " Sedulitas." IVitte, Diar^ 
 Biog. torn. i. Voss, de Scient. Math, Bayle. 
 jMoreri. — E. 
 
 ALSTON, Charles, M. D. an ingenious 
 botanical and medical writer, was the son of a 
 gentleman in the west of Scotland, and was born 
 in 1683. Pursuing his studies at Glasgow a^^ 
 the time of his father's death, he was taken un'^P 
 der the patronage of the duchess of Hamilton ;. 
 and rejecting other schemes of life, he attached 
 himself to the profession of physic. At th«
 
 piiDUI^lTAS anajTCLmnui. tiht Juia h-aJidit, crav 
 {tunir inerM OPPIDA CVNCTA. tuas 
 
 ^y^-mt
 
 ALT 
 
 ■( ^~ii ) 
 
 ALT 
 
 mature age of iliiity-thrce he ■went t(5 Levtlcn, 
 and passed three years in studying under IJocr- 
 haave, having for his frierid and companion the 
 celebrated Alexander Monro. On their return, 
 in conjunction with Rr.ttierford, Sinclair, and 
 l^hininier, they imderiook departments in the 
 medical college of Edinburgh, and bv their in- 
 dustry and ability laid a solid foundation for the 
 reputation ot that scliool of pliysic. Alston's 
 department was botany and the materia medica, 
 hranches which had long been his favourite stu- 
 dies, and in which he lectured with great assi- 
 duity till his death, in November, 1760. 
 
 Alston is known as a botanical wiiter 
 principally from his " Tirocinium Botanicum 
 Edinburgense," published in 1753, containing 
 an attack upon the stxiial system of Linnaus. 
 This is conducted with much ingenuity, sup- 
 ported by some strong experiments ; and though, 
 in the opinion of the learned, it has failed in its 
 main purpose, yet it must be acknowledged to 
 be one of the best argued pieces on that side of 
 the question. He sometimes indulges in an 
 asperity of language unsuitable to a scientific 
 topic, for which, however, Linnsus had given 
 some cause by the pruriency of some ot his 
 descriptions. Alston likewise wrote several 
 medical papers in the " Edinburgh Medical Es- 
 says," and engaged in a chemical controversy 
 respecting quicklime with Dr. A\'hytt. His 
 " Lectures on the Materia Medica," prepared 
 for publication before his death, were in 1770 
 published by his friend and successor Y)v. Hope, 
 in 2 vols. 4to. They are a valuable collection 
 of facts in that branch, and are free froin many 
 of the exaggerations and errors of former w rit- 
 ers ; but they have since been superseded by 
 more accurate and scientific j^ertormances. Pul- 
 tcncy s Sketches of Botany m England. — A. 
 
 ALTHAMENIS, Andrew, a Lutheran 
 minister at Nuremburg, lived in the sixteenth 
 century. He assisted, in 1528, at the confe- 
 rences of Eerne, w hich prepared the way for the 
 reformation in this canton. He was so great a 
 zealot for the doctrine of justification by grace, 
 that he rejected the autliority of the apostle 
 James, because he says, that a man is justified 
 by works. Grotius cites a passage from his 
 . " Annotations on James," printed at Strasburg 
 in.1527, in which he reproaches this apostle for 
 opposing his single authority against that of 
 Christ and all the other apostles, '"aSid, in short, 
 gives him the lie direct. Besides a dictionary ot 
 the proper names in the bible, entitled " Sylva 
 Biblicorum Nominum," printed at Basil in 
 '535 ; ^ reconciliation of scriptural disso- 
 nances, under the title of " Conciliatiyncs Lo- 
 
 corum 5<triptur»," printed at \^'ittcmbcrg in 
 1 582 ; and some other theological tracts : litf 
 published, " Notes upon Taciius's Treatise on 
 the Manners of tlic Germans ;" this woik was 
 printed at Nuremberg, in 4to. in the year I 529, 
 and, in 8vo. at Amberg, in 1609. Getnir. 
 Bihlioth. Hatzii Bih. Germ. Opmcul. Grot. 
 BayU: — E. 
 
 ALTHUSIUS, John, a German riviJiaii* 
 of the seventeenth century, is celebrated for the 
 freedom of his political principles. He was 
 professor of die law at Herborn, and received 
 the dignity of syndic at Bremen. In his " Po- 
 litica methodice digcsta," [Politics methodically 
 digested] printed at Herborn in the year 1603, 
 the fundamental principles arc, "that kings are 
 nothing more than magistrates ; that the people 
 are the source of all majesty ; that the people 
 possess the sovereignty in every state ; and that 
 the people may remove a tyrant from his office, 
 deprive him of his authority, and, if there be 
 no other security against his tyranny, put him 
 to death, and substitute another in his i>lace:" 
 a doctrine, which was then, as it would be now, 
 condemned by many, as calculated to disturb 
 the repose of the world, and dissolve the bonds 
 of society. The work, which some repro- 
 bated as deserving to be called Dcmojcgiea, or 
 Democratic Politics, and, as such, to be pub- 
 licly consigned to the flames, others did not 
 scruple to recommend as worthy to be stu- 
 died by academic youth. Besides his " Politi- 
 ca," Althusius wrote a treatise, " De Ji!ris- 
 prudentia Romana," another " DeCivili Con- 
 versatione," and other ti acts. Boeder, in Grot, 
 (ie Jure Belli, lib. i. c. 3. Conring de Civ. 
 Prttd. c. 14. Meyer in Anal. lib. iii. PoUt. 
 Jr'nt. Althusii Poitt. Bayle. — E. 
 
 ALTILIO, GakriF-L, a native of the king- 
 dom of Naples, %\as jireccptor to Ferdinand the 
 Younger, king of Naples, and afterwards was 
 made bishop of Policastro. He died about 
 1501. He was celebrated as an excellent f.a- 
 tin poet, and obtained the praises of several of 
 his contemporaries on that account. His ele- 
 gies were distinguished for delicacy and tender- 
 ness. His heroic ))oetry is lofty and clotjucnt, 
 but not free from alFectation and conceit. The 
 poems of Altilio are contained in the first vo- 
 lume of the " Deliciae Poetar. lialor." Tira- 
 hoschi. Afwcri. — A . 
 
 ALTING, Henry, a German divine, \vas 
 born at Embdcn in 1583. He was early de- 
 voted to tlie sacred profession by his father, who 
 was himself minister of the chinch of Embden. 
 Afier a due course of preparatory instruction, 
 he was sent, in the year 1602, to the university
 
 ALT 
 
 ( 212 ) 
 
 ALT 
 
 at Hcrborn, where he stiulied with so mucli 
 success, that from a pupil he soon became a 
 preceptor. He was appointed tutor to the three 
 young counts of Nassau, Sohns, and Isen- 
 burg, who studied with tlie electoral prince pa- 
 latine, first at Sedan, and afterwards at Heidel- 
 berg. In 1608 he became preceptor to that 
 prince, and discharged his office with so much 
 Lredit and success, that, in 1612, he was chosen 
 to accompany the young elector into England. 
 Here he was introduced to the acquaintance of 
 many celebrated men, and, among the rest, of 
 doctor Abbot, archbishop of Canterbury. Af- 
 ter the marriage of tlie elector with the princess 
 of England, in 1613, Altiag returned to Hei- 
 delberg, where lie received his degree of doctor 
 of divinity, and was appointed director of the 
 College of Wisdom. In 1618 he was sent, 
 with two other learned divines, as deputies to 
 the synod of Dort from tlie Palatinate, where 
 he signalised himself by his eloquence and 
 learning. 
 
 From the patronage of the elector, Alting 
 might resonibly expect to reap much advan- 
 tage : it was his lot, however, only to share his 
 misfortunes. When the city of Heidelberg was 
 in 1622 taken by count Tillv, and devoted to 
 plunder, Alting, in hopes of escaping the fury 
 of the soldiers, attempted to pass by a back door 
 into the chancellor's liouse which was put under 
 a strong guard. As he was entering, the offi- 
 cer who guarded the house, not knowing him, 
 said, " With this battle-axe I ?iave to-day killed 
 ten men ; Alting, if I knew where he was, 
 should be the eleventh. Who are you ?" With 
 great presence Alting returned an answer eva- 
 sive but true, which saved him. " I am a 
 teacher," said he, " in the College of Wisdum." 
 The officer promised to protect him ; and, the 
 next day , the Jesuits took possession of the house, 
 and left him no time at his departure to take 
 care of the teacher in the College of Wisdom. 
 Alting, now in the hands of the Jesuits, hid him- 
 self in a garret, where he was supplied with 
 food by a cook of the electoral court, who hap- 
 pened to be employed by count Tilly in the 
 kitchen occupied by him in the chancellor's 
 house. Here he remained till an opportunity 
 presented itself of making his escape to Heil- 
 bron, whither his family had been sent some 
 time before. 
 
 If Alting was in danger from military hosti- 
 lity, he was scarcely less harassed by ecclesi- 
 a!.tical intolerance. ' After the desolation of the 
 Palatinate by the victorious forces of count Til- 
 ly, he retired for a few months, with the per- 
 mission of the duke of Wirtcmberg, to Schorn- 
 
 dorf. Among protestants, at least, it miglit harff 
 been expected that one, who had just escaped, 
 out of the flames of a popisli war, might have 
 found a welcome and hospitable retreat. But 
 the reformers, whatever other lessons they 
 might have learned in their new school, had hi- 
 therto paid little attention to the doctrine of mu- 
 tual forbearance and candour. The Palatinate 
 was near the duchy of Wirtemberg : the pro- 
 fessors of Tubingen and those of Heidelberg 
 frequently attacked each other in disputations 
 and polemic writings. Hence had arisen, be- 
 tween the two sci)ools and their respective vici. 
 nities, a settled jealousy and enmity. 
 
 ** Inter linitimos vetus afque nntiqua simuttas, 
 Immonale odium, et numquani iaaabile vulaus." 
 
 Juir. 
 
 " A lastint; war two neighbouring cities wage 
 With steadfast hate, and unrelenting rage." 
 
 OWE.V. 
 
 Tl'.e Lutheran ministers of Schorndorf, who 
 were involved in these feuds, murmured at the 
 permission which the duke had given to a pro- 
 fessor of Heidelberg to reside among thein ; and 
 even the injuries which Alting had received 
 from the coininon enemy were not sufficient to 
 secure him a fiiendlv reception among them. 
 Such are the inischievous effects of religious dis- 
 sensions. 
 
 In the year 1623 Alting retired with his fami- 
 ly to Embden, whence he followed his late pu- 
 pil, now king of Bohemia, to the Hague. The 
 attachment of this prince to his master was such, 
 that he retained hiin as preceptor to his eldest 
 son, and would not permit him to accept of tite 
 charge of the church at Einbden, or of a profes- 
 sorship which was offered him at Franeker. In 
 the year 1627, however, he gained his patron's 
 leave to remove to Groningen, where he was 
 appointed to the professorship of divinity, which 
 lie held till his death. Tlie general esteem which 
 his character and talents had obtained, was un- 
 equtvocally shown in the repeated endeavours of 
 different universities to appropriate to them- 
 selves the credit and benefit of his services. The 
 university of Leyden solicited his presence, but 
 the states of Groningen refused their consent to 
 his removal. An offer afterwards made him by- 
 prince Lewis Philip, administrator of the Palati- 
 nate, to appoint him professor of divinity at Hei- 
 delberg, and ecclesiastical senator, opened before 
 him a prospect of such extensive usefulness, in 
 re-establishing the university and restoring the 
 churches, that he determined to accept it. In 
 the year 1634, in the luidst of many hazards to 
 which the war exposed him, he set out for Hei- 
 
 I
 
 ALT 
 
 ( 213 ) 
 
 ALT 
 
 tielberg, anJ, on his way, reached Fraiicfort : 
 but the battle of Norlingcn. in which the impe- 
 rialists were successful, icndeiedlus farther pro- 
 gress impracticable ; and he refumed, not with- 
 out great difficulty, to Groringcn. 
 
 The last years of this excellent man's life 
 vcre embittered by domestic afflictions and per- 
 sonal sufferings. The loss of his eldest daugh- 
 ter brought upon him a settled melancholy, ac- 
 companied with bodily disease, which was with 
 great difficulty removed ; and, when an interval 
 of four years had in some measure worn out his 
 grief, he suffered the still severer loss of an amiable 
 and valuable wife, and irrecoverably relapsed in- 
 to his former dejection of mind and diseased 
 habit of body, which, after a few months, in 
 the year 1644, P""^ ■^ period to his life. 
 
 Alting appears to have been a man of emi- 
 nent talents and learning, and of very amiable 
 dispositions, who was more solicitous to serve 
 the public than to benefit himself, and whose 
 merit justly excites regret for his misfortunes. 
 If he was no friend to the innovations intro- 
 duced at this period by the Socinians, he was 
 also averse to quarrels and disputes about tri- 
 fles. Adhering, as he judged, to the plain doc- 
 trine of Scripture, he was equally desirous to 
 avoid sophistical subtlety and fanatical scrupulo- 
 sity. His works are as follows r " Nota3 in 
 Decadem Problematum, Johannes Behm," 
 Heidtlbergae, 1618. [Notes on a Decad of 
 Jacob Behmen's Problems.] " Loci Com- 
 munes." [Common Places.] " Problemata." 
 [Problems.] " Explicatio Catacheseos Palati- 
 nae," Amstelod. 1646. [Explanation of the Pa- 
 latine Catechism.] " Exegesis Augustanse Con- 
 fessionis," Sec. Amst. 1647. [Commentary 
 on the Augustan Confession.] " Methodus 
 Theologize DiJacticie ct Catachetic.-B," Amst. 
 1650. [A Method of Didactic and Catachetic 
 Theology ] The " Medulla Historic Pro- 
 phana;," [Marrow of Profane History] pub- 
 lished under the name of Parjeus, was written 
 by Altiiig. Fita H. Mtlng. Bayle. Moreri. 
 — E. 
 
 ALTTNG, James, son of Henry Alting, 
 horn at Heidelberg in i6i8, was a student, and 
 afterwards professor of divinity in the univer- 
 sity of Groningen. He early imbibed a fondness 
 for the study of the Oriental languages, and, in 
 1638, put himself under the tuition of a Jewish 
 rabbi at Embden. In 1640 he visited England, 
 and, determinmg to take up his residence there, 
 was admitted to clerical orders by doctor Pri- 
 deaux, bishop of Worcester. An offer of the He- 
 brew professorship in the university of Gronin- 
 gen soou induced him to cliange his plan of life, 
 
 and, in 1643, ^^ returned to Germany. His 
 talents procured him great credit, and many ho- 
 nours in the imiversity : he was admitted doctor 
 of philosopliy ; was a|>poinicd academic preach- 
 er ; and, at length, in 1667, was chosen pro- 
 fessor of divinity in conjunction with a col- 
 league, Samuel Des Marcts. These professors 
 adopted different systems, and followed different 
 methods of teaching. Des Marcts was an ad- 
 mirer of the subtleties of the scholastics, and 
 had acquired great reputation and influence by 
 the ingenuity with which he had pursued the 
 scholastic plan of instruction. Alting devoted 
 himself wholly to the study of the Scriptures and 
 rabbinical learning, and, without having re- 
 course to the method of tlie school-divines, read 
 lectures on divinity, which procured him great 
 popularity. A rivalship took place, which pro- 
 duced between these professors mutual jealousy, 
 and which created violent animosity amongtheir 
 respective partisans in the university. 71i8 
 weight of age and authority, and the prejudice 
 of prescription were on the side of Des Marcts. . 
 The curators of the university permitted him to • 
 appear as public accuser of Alting ; and a long 
 list of erroneous propositions was presented to 
 the divines of Leyden for their opinion. The 
 judgment which they passed upon the dispute, 
 if it discovered an indecisive timidity, at least 
 'bowed good sense and moderation ; they pro- 
 nounced Alting innocent of heresy, but impru- 
 dently fond of innovation; and they declared. 
 Des Marets deficient in modesty and candour. 
 The dispute excited much attention, and might 
 have occasioned much mischief, had not the su- 
 periors prohibited the further discussion of the 
 subject in the consistories, classes, and synods. 
 Whenever the order of ecclesiastics proposed 
 any further measures against Alting, the pro- 
 posal was immediately rejected by the civil 
 power ; nay, the penalty of deprivation was 
 decreed against those clergy, who should in any 
 assembly of pastors revive the Ahreslo-Alim- 
 gian controversy. The protection thus afforded 
 Alting by the rnagistrate against the exercise of 
 ecclesiastical tyranny, was a legitimate and . 
 laudable employment of civil authority r but 
 the magistrates, in their turns, became oppres- 
 sors, when they proceeded so far as to jireyent 
 the free discussion of the questions in dispute from 
 the press, by prohibiting writing either for or 
 against the judgment of the divines of Leyden. . 
 I'he breach between Des Marets and Alting was . 
 never perfectly healed, though a kind of formal 
 reconciliation\vas attempted by their common 
 friends while Des Marets lay upon his death- 
 bed. Alting was taken off by a fever in 16J9.
 
 A L V 
 
 ( 214 ) 
 
 A L V 
 
 Tlis fondness for laUhinical learning gave occa- 
 sion to a report, tliai lie was inclined to become 
 a yew. His opinions, wliicli perhaps excited 
 more attcniion than tlicy decivcd, may be seen 
 at large inliis woiks, collected a tew years after 
 his death into live volumes folio, by his coisin 
 Menso Alting, burgo master of Groningcn, 
 who wrote a gooddcscrijition ot the Low Coun- 
 tries, under the title of " Notitia Germanise 
 Inferioris." T//. Jacohi Alting, apiid 0[>cra. 
 Boyle.— Y.. 
 
 ALVA, Ferdinanm) Alvarez de To- 
 ledo, duke of, descended from one ot the most 
 illustrious families in Spain, was born in 1508. 
 He was educated in the political and military 
 arts under his grandfather, f'redcric of 'J'oledo, 
 and bore arms at the battle of Pavia, and at the 
 siege of Tunis., He was made a general by 
 Charles V. in 1,538, and in 1542 he successful- 
 4v defended Peijiignan against the dauphin of 
 France. Such was his reputation, that he was 
 appointed general in (hiet ot the army which, 
 in 1546, marched against the German protcs- 
 tants, headed by the elector of Saxony. He 
 gained tlie battle of Aluhlberg, in which the 
 elector himself was made prisoner; and was 
 thought a fit perwin to preside at the court-mar- 
 tial wj)ich, with little regard to forms of justice, 
 condemned that unhappy prince to death. In 
 1552 he had the command ot the army destined 
 to invade France, and was obliged, by the em- 
 peror, contrary to his opinion, to lay siege to 
 ISletz, which was successfully defended against 
 his utmost efforts by the duke of Guise. The 
 progress of the French in Piedmont, under 
 Brissac, in 1555, ca.used him to he appointed to 
 Ore supreme command of all the einperor's 
 forces in Italy, with vmlimitcd authority. His 
 success at first, however, was not adequate to 
 Ijis boastings, and he was obliged to retire into 
 winter-quarters. The next year he was or- 
 dered to advancdBfirito the pope's territories, 
 where he made himsi.lf master of the Cain- 
 pagna Romana. But this war against the head 
 of religion was not agreeable to his principles, 
 qr-tho.se of his new master Philip 11. He there- 
 fore behaved with great moderation, and made 
 a truce, and afterwards negotiated a peace, with 
 the pope. One of its terms was, that the duke 
 ■of Alva should in persoi;i ask forgiveness of the 
 haughty pontiff whom he had conquered ; and 
 such was the superstitious veneration then en- 
 tf rtained for the papal character, that the duke, 
 proud as he was by nature, and accustomed to 
 treat with persons of the highest dignity, con- 
 fessed .hat his voice failed him, and his presence 
 of mind forsook him, at the interview. After 
 
 the peace of 1559 he was sent at the head of a 
 splendid embassy to Paris, to espouse, in. the 
 name of his niastcr, Elizabctli, daughter of 
 Henry, king of France. 
 
 The civil and religious tyranny of Philip hav- 
 ing at length excited a dangerous spirit of re- 
 sistance in the Low Countries, th.e duke of Alva 
 was in 1567 [)itchcd upon by him as the fittest 
 person to put in practice that system of luire- 
 lenting severity by which alone he was deter- 
 mined to reclaim rebels and l^eretics. Armed with 
 powers which left, the duchess o' Parma, the 
 gouvcrnante, only the shadow of authoiitv, ar.d 
 furnished with ten thousand veterans, he landed 
 in that devoted country, and immediately began 
 to show himself worthy of the confidence of 
 such a master. He established a new council 
 to judge of the late commotions, -which soon 
 deserved the name of the bloody tribunal. He 
 annihilated every remaining privilege of tlie 
 people, imprisoned the two popular leaders, the 
 counts Egmont a;id Horn, caused them to ba 
 tried, condemned, and executed, and raged with 
 uncontrouled cruelty over all meaner offenders. 
 The duchess of Parma resigned her office, and 
 every place was filled widi scenes of horror and 
 dismay. The prince of Orange, who had es- 
 caped by flight the fate to which he had been 
 destined, levied an army in Germany for the" 
 relief of his countrymen ; and his brother, prince 
 Lewis, inarched with a body of troops into 
 Friesland. Lew-is was at first successful, but jit 
 length, by the activity of Alva himself, was en- 
 tirely defeated. Tlie prince of Orange -was 
 more formidable, and it required all the caution 
 as well as valour of Alva, and his son Frederic 
 of Toledo, to prevent him from breaking in 
 u|-ion the Netlierlands. This was, however, 
 etfected, and Alva had the glory of baffling that 
 great leader, and obliging him, after .considera- 
 ble loss, to disband all his remaining army. He 
 was now able to pursue wid-iout obstiuction 
 his scheme of reducing all the provinces to ut- 
 ter slavery, and extirpating tiie reformed reli- 
 gion ; and the executioner was fully employed 
 in removing all those friends of freedom w-hora 
 the sword had spared. Alva erected citadels 
 in most of the considerable towns ; and in that 
 of Antwerp placed a statue of hini^elf, which 
 was no less a monument of his vanitv than bis 
 tyranny. He was figured trampling on the 
 necks of two smaller statue . representing the 
 two estates of the Low Countries. This impoli- 
 tic insult was aggravated by his arbitrary requi- 
 sitions, of new and unusual supplies from the 
 states, which he enforced by violence and me- 
 naces. Meantime the exiles from the Low-
 
 yin^inunu' of Pht Jarv=c(niAiPrcvs 
 
 ^^Mffyauqhanjcul^ 
 
 
 'IF
 
 A L V 
 
 ( 2'5 ) 
 
 A J. V 
 
 Gountries had fitted out ;i kind of piratical fleet, 
 which, after strengllicning itself by successful 
 depredations, ventured ujion the bold exploit 
 of seising the town of the Bricl, and thus gave a 
 commencement to the independence of the se- 
 ven Dutch provinces. The Spanisli fleet was 
 defeated, North Holland and Mons were re- 
 duced by the insurgents, numbers of the cities 
 and towns threw off the yoke, and the states- 
 general assembled at Dordrecht, ojienly declared 
 against Alva's government, and es))oused the 
 part of the prince of Orange. Alva now ex- 
 perienced the insolidity of a power founded on 
 terror and oppression, and he attempted, but in 
 vain, to regain the people by a lenient edict. 
 He prepared, however, with vigour, to oppose 
 the storm. By his son Frederic he recovered 
 Mons, and afterwards carried Meclilin and 
 Zutphen, where his soldiers more than retaliated 
 the excesses committed bv those of the prince of 
 Orange. In the end, he regained ail the pro- 
 vinces except Zealand and Holland ; and in 
 the last, his son stormed Waerden, and massa- 
 cred its inhabitants with the most savage cruel- 
 ty, and then invested the citv of Haerlem. This 
 place stood an obstinate siege, and nothing less 
 than the inflexible spirit of Alva could have 
 overcome the difficulties presented to the assail- 
 ants. ■ Frederic was at one time disposed to 
 raise the siege, but the stern reproaches of his 
 father urged iiim on, and at length fatigue and 
 want overcame the constancy of the inhabi- 
 tants. Tolerable conditions were granted by 
 the victor ; but Alva himself arriving on the 
 third day from the surrender, satiated his ven- 
 geance by the sacrifice of numerous victims 
 who had been led to expect mercy. Alkmaar 
 was die next object of attack ; but the spirit of 
 desperate resistance was now wound up to such 
 a height in the brea' ts of the Hollanders, that 
 the Spanish veterans were repulsed with great 
 loss, and Frederic was obliged reluctantly to re- 
 tire. Soon after, a fleet which Alva had with 
 great labour and expense fitted out, was entirely 
 defeated by the Zealanders, and its commander 
 taken prisoner. The town of Gertruvdenburg 
 was likewise surprised bv the prince of Orange. 
 These disasters, with the broken health of Alva, 
 caused him to solicit iiis recal from the govern- 
 ment of the Low Countries, a measure which 
 probably was not displeasing to Philip, who 
 was now resolved to try the eflrct ot a 
 ■milder plan of administration. In December 
 1573 the *duke of Alva, accompanied by iiis 
 son, quilted a country, in which he boasted that 
 he had, during the course of six years, con- 
 
 signed 18,000 persons to the executioner, be- 
 sides tiie multitudes destroyed in battle and mas- 
 sacred after victory. The first .act of his suc- 
 cessor, Requcsens, was to pull down his inso- 
 lent effigies at Antwerp, so tiiat nothing re- 
 mained of Alva but the eternal memory of his 
 cruelties. 
 
 On his return, he was for some time treated 
 with great distinction by his master ; but a son 
 ot his liaving debauciied one of tjie <)ueen's at- 
 tendants under promise of marriage, and being 
 conmiittcd to prison till he shouUriulril his en- 
 gagement, Alva assisted liis' esca|)e, ami married 
 him to a cousin of his own. For this oflx;nce 
 Alva was banished from court, and confined to 
 his castle of Uzeda. He had been two years 
 in this state of disgrace, when the success of 
 Don Antonio, in assuming the crown of Portu- 
 gal, caused Philip to turn his eyes towards the 
 ])erson in whose fidelity and abilities he most 
 confided on such an occasion. He sent a se- 
 cietary to Alva to ipiquire whether his health 
 would permit him to resume the command of 
 an army ; and receiving an answer full of ioval 
 zeal from the aged chief, he appointed him to 
 the supreme command in Portugal, at the same 
 time not deigning to forgive his former oflcnce, 
 or to peimit him to come to court. This stem 
 usage ot the man in whom he was placing so 
 important a trust, is a clraracteristic mark of 
 the unrelenting temper of Piiilip, and at the 
 same time a noble testimony to the honour and 
 loyalty of Alva. He immediately repaired to 
 his post, entered Portugal in 1 58 1, defeated 
 Antonio, and drove him from the kingdom, 
 the whole of which he soon reduced to Philip's 
 authority. He seised an immense treasure at 
 Lisbon, and sufi^ered his soldiers to sack its 
 suburbs and vici.iity with their accustomed 
 violence and rapacity. It is said that an ac- 
 count being demanded from Alva of the mo- 
 ney acquired on this occasion, he replied, " It 
 the king asks me tor an account, I will make 
 him a statement of kingdoms preerved' or 
 conquered, of signal victories, of successful 
 sieges, and of sixty years' S"rvice." Philip 
 thought proper to make no furtiicr inquiries, 
 aud Alva did not live to enjoy the honours 
 and rewards of this last great exploit. He 
 died in 1582. aged sevcntv-lour. The actions 
 above recited give so full an idea of his charac- 
 ter, that little more is necessary to C(>mi)lete it. 
 Indeed it ditfers little from that of h s coinury- 
 men in general, except that the Sn-anish severity 
 in him seems to have been little tempered by 
 the spirit of generosity which has often accom-
 
 A L V 
 
 ( 216 ) 
 
 A L Y 
 
 panicd it in others. Vanity was his greatest 
 weakness, and strict impartial discipline his 
 greatest military virtue. When his favourite 
 son Frederic, thinking !ic could attack the prince 
 of Orange to advantage, sent to request ot his 
 fatiicr permission for this purpose, he received 
 a stern reprimand for presuming to exercise his 
 judgment on a point already determined by his 
 superior, with a menace in case of repetition. 
 And there is evidence of his having severely 
 punished the un/iccusid barbarities of liis sol- 
 diers. Ro/'i-rtsmi's Charles F. A'lod. Uiiivcrs. 
 Hist. Nou-J. Diet. Hisi.—K. 
 
 ALVAREZ, Emanuel, a learned Jesuit, of 
 Portuguese extraction, was born in the island 
 ■ of Madeira, in 1526. He was successively 
 rector of the colleges of Coimbra, Lisbon, and 
 Evora, at which last place he died in 1582. He 
 was tlie author of an excellent Latin Grammar, 
 entitled " De Institutione Grammatica," pub- 
 lished in 4to. in 1599, which has gone through 
 many editions, and is still used by the Portu- 
 guese Jesuits in their colleges. Aioreti. Nouv. 
 JDict. Hist. — E. 
 
 ALVAREZ, Francis, a Portuguese priest, 
 who lived at the beginning of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury, was almoner to Emanuel, king of Portu- 
 gal, and was sent ambassador from that prince 
 to David, prince of Ethiopia or Abyssinia. After 
 residing six years in those countries, Alvarez 
 returned with letters of friendship from David to 
 Juan, who had succeeded Emanuel, and of sub- 
 mission to pope Clement VIL He gave an 
 account of his expedition to that pontiff, in the 
 presence cf the emperor Charles V. at Bologna 
 in the year 1523. He published, in Portuguese, 
 the relation of his journey ; it was printed, in 
 folio, at Lisbon, in the year 1540. Damien 
 Goez, a Portuguese gentleman, translated this 
 work into Latin, under the title, " De Fide, Re- 
 gione, Moribus ^thiopum." A French trans- 
 lation was printed in 8vo. at Anfwerp, in 1558. 
 Alvarez is the first writer who gives us any 
 certain information concerning Ethiopia ; his 
 account, however, is not to be received with 
 implicit credit, for he does not always speak 
 fiom his own knowledge, and he fiequently 
 Jeals in exaggeration. Adoreri. Nouv. Diet. 
 Hist.—E. 
 
 ALVAROTTO, James, a native of Pa- 
 dua, was an eminent professor of law in that 
 city in the fifteenth century. He had studied 
 under Saliceti and Zarabella, and was a great 
 master both of civil and canon law. Among 
 other treatises, he wrote " Commentaria in Li- 
 tres Feudorum," printed in folio, at Frankfort, 
 
 in 1587 ; a work much esteemed, and often 
 cited l)y the Italian lawyers. Aforcri. Nouv. 
 Diet. Hist. — E. 
 
 ALVIANO, Bartholomew, an eminent 
 military character in the beginning of tlie six- 
 teenth century, was a general in the service of 
 the Venetians, and, in 1508, gained such ad- 
 vantages over the emperor Maximilian, that the 
 republic decreed him triumphal honours. He 
 was second in command during the famous 
 league against Venice, when his fire and enter- 
 prise did not well agree with the caution of 
 count Pitigliano, the general in chief. At the 
 battle of Aignadel, where he commanded the 
 rear-guard, after the greatest exertions of va- 
 lour, he was wounded and made prisoner. When 
 the Venetians afterwards became the allies of 
 France, Alviano had the chief command of 
 their army. He defended Padua with success 
 against the emperor ; but lost the great battle 
 of la Motte, in which, liowever, his exertions 
 were so conspicuous, that the senate gave him 
 the most honourable assurances of the conti- 
 nuance of their esteem ; and he soon after de- 
 feated the enemy in Friuli. He afforded such 
 timely aid to Francis L in the desperate battle 
 of Marignano, as greatly contributed to his 
 success. Afterwards, laying siege to Brescia, 
 he incurred such fatigue in superintending the 
 works as threw him into a fever, of which he 
 died in 1515, aged sixty. He was a rare in- 
 stance of a soldier of fortune, so disinterested, 
 as to neglect his own affairs in his zeal for those 
 of his masters. He was profusely liberal to his 
 soldiers, and yet a strict observer of discipline ; 
 and so much had he gained their affections, 
 that they kept his body unburied twenty-five 
 days, carrying it with thein in funeral pomp in 
 their marches. The republic, which deeply re- 
 gretted his loss, buried him at the public charge, 
 supported his unprovided family by a pension, 
 and portioned his daughters. AJodern Univers. 
 Hist.— A. 
 
 ALYATTES, king of Lydia, succeeded 
 his father Sadiattes, B.C. 619. He carried on 
 the war his father had begun with the Milesians, 
 for sotne years, till, despairing to reduce them 
 by famine, he made peace with them. He 
 also, for six years, maintained a bloody war 
 with Cyaxares, king of the Medes, which was 
 at last terminated by a total eclipse of the sun 
 that happened while the two armies were en- 
 gaged, and struck both parties with supersti- 
 tious terror. Alyattes then employed all his 
 forces to expel the Scythians, or Cimmerians, 
 from his country, which at length he effected.
 
 A L Y 
 
 ( 217 ) 
 
 A M A 
 
 He was equally succes;ful against the Sinyr- 
 naeans, \^hosc country and capital he reduced 
 to subjection. He died after a rei2;n of fifty- 
 seven years, and transmitted liis kingdoin in 
 great prosperity to his son Croesus. Univcis. 
 Hist. — A. ' 
 
 ALYPIUS, of Alexandria, a Platonic phi- 
 losoplier, flourished at the beginning of the fifth 
 century, and is celebrated for the acutcness of 
 his p;enius, and tlie subtlety with which he lec- 
 tured upon the abstruse speculations of the Pla- 
 tonic school. His communications to his pu- 
 pils were entirely oral, whence none of his in- 
 structions have been transmitted to posterity : 
 but Jamblichus, who wrote his life, speaks of 
 him as a pattern of virtue, as well as a philo- 
 sopher of superior talents. He is said to have 
 possessed a great mind in a small body, his sta- 
 ture being so diminutive, as to denominate him 
 a dwarf. He died, at a great age, in Alexandria. 
 Ennap. Fit. Jamblich. Bay/e. — E. 
 
 AL YPlUb, of Antioch, a geographer of the 
 fourrii century, was in the service of the empe- 
 ror Julian. He was sent into Britain in tlie ca- 
 pacity of deputy-governor ; and he was after- 
 wards employed by the emperor to rebuild the 
 temple ot Jerusalem. Ammianus Marcellinus 
 relates, that while Alypius, with the assistance 
 of the governor of the province, was carrying 
 on the work with great expedition, tremendous 
 balls of fire burst forth in frequent eruptions 
 near the foundations, which sometimes burned 
 the workmen, and rendered the place inacces- 
 sible : thus resolutely opposed by the element, 
 thev desisted from tlie undertaking. (The read- 
 er way see the testimonies respecting this af- 
 fair, with a judicious and candid examination of 
 their weight, in Lardner's Heathen Testimonies, 
 ch. xlvi. sect. 3. Compare al o Gibbon's 
 History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman 
 Empire, c. xxiii. vol 4. p. 105 — 108. 8vo. 
 ■edit. 1 79 1.) Towards the latter part of his 
 life, Alypius, when he had retired from public 
 business to enjoy repose, was involved in a per- 
 secution which fell upon certain persons who 
 •were accused of practising magic. His son Hie- 
 rocleswas condemned to deatli, and he himself 
 sufl^ered confiscation and banishment. (Amm. 
 Marc. lib. xxix. c. I.) The crime for which 
 they were punished is said, by Ammianus Mar- 
 cellinus, to have been giving poison ; but the 
 historian imputes their sufferings to the hand of 
 injustice, which reached even to the most quiet 
 retreat. Julian himself speaks of Alypius in 
 terms of high respect, and honoured him with 
 his confidence. " As to your conduct in pub- 
 lic affairs," says the emperoiv " it gives me 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 pleasure to observe the assiduity and humanity 
 which appear in all your transactions ; for, so 
 to temper lenity and moderation with firmness 
 and fortitude, that the good may experience the 
 benefit of the former, and the bad may \k cor- 
 rected by the latter, requires no small share of 
 ability and virtue." (Julian, Epist. 30.) Aly- 
 pius was the author of a treatise on geograpliy. 
 with which Julian was much pleased ; but it is 
 probable iliat if is lost. The work, whiili was 
 l)ublisheil by Godfrey in Greek and Latin, un- 
 der the title of " A Descrijnion of the Oi.i 
 World," printed in 4to. at Geneva, in 1628, 
 though by some ascribed to Alypius, was pr.)- 
 bably not his, as the autlior speaks uf Britain, 
 not fiom his own observation, but from the re- 
 port ot others: this " Description" is an anony- 
 mous work, wiiich seems to have been written 
 in the reign of the emperors Constantius and 
 Constans. Ammiuii. Marcel. BayU: Nouz'. 
 Diet. Hist.—E. 
 
 ALYPIUS, of Tagasta, a town of Numi- 
 dia in Africa, a Christian divine of the fourth 
 century, was a friend of Augustine, with whoni 
 he was baptised at Milan in the year 388. H.; 
 travelled to Palestine, and, on his return in the 
 year 394, was made bishop of his native ijlacc. 
 In the early part of his life he adopted the opi- 
 nions of the Manichees, but afterwards became 
 a zealous advocate for the catholic faith. He 
 united with Augustine in opposing the sect of 
 the Donatists, who claimed the exclusive honour 
 ot being the true church. In the council of 
 Carthage, held in the year 403, Alypius as- 
 sisted in an unsuccessful attempt to bring this 
 sect into the union of the church. Afterwards, 
 in 41 1, he, with six of his brethren, held a con- 
 ference at Carthage with seven of the Donatist 
 bishops : but neither the force of argument, nor 
 the still stronger force of decrees issued by the 
 emperor Honorius against these heretics, was 
 sufficient to suppress them. Alypius, who ap- 
 pears to have been a powerful cham])ion in de- 
 fence of the catholic church, and to have scru- 
 pled no means, however violent, for its support, 
 afterwards exercised his zeal against the Pela- 
 gians, another sect, whom the prevalent party 
 condemned as heretics: he was deputed by the 
 churches of Africa to the emperor Hor.orius, 
 and obtained from him severe decrees against 
 this sect, in consequence of which tlieir assem- 
 blies were broken up, their churches destroyed, 
 and their ministers banished. Alypius died about 
 the year 430, more memorable for his zeal than 
 his charity, j^u^ustitt. Conf. c. xii. epist. 32. 
 Bayle. Dupin. — E. 
 
 AMADEDDULAT, first sultan of the 
 
 2 F
 
 A M A 
 
 ( ^i8 ) 
 
 A M A 
 
 Bisiyan dynastv, was the son of Buiyali, a fish- 
 erman of Dilcm, on tlie Caspian sea. His pro- 
 per nair.c was /!!•, hur, for tJie scivicts he ren- 
 dered lo the caliph Radhi, he was dignified with 
 tlie namcbv wliich he was afterwards known, and 
 which signifies Si'pport of the State. His brother 
 at tlic same time had the title of Rokneddulat, or 
 Villar of the State. He first rose to distinction in 
 the armies of Makan, sidtan of Dilem, and, on 
 iiis decline, served another master; but when he 
 found liimself strong enough, he began con- 
 <]ucriiij^ for himself, and, with his two brothers, 
 gained jiosscssion of Persia Proper, Persian 
 Irak, and Kerman, or Caramania. He fixed 
 his own seat of sovereignty at Schiraz, in Persia 
 Proper, in 933. 1 he general of caliph Caher 
 attempted to expel him, but without success ; 
 and Radlii, the succeedi;ig caliph, thought it 
 most prudent to make peace wi;h him, declare 
 him his cmir-al-oairah, and confirm him in his 
 conquests. He proved himself w orthy of his 
 station by his prudence and magnanimity, and 
 his bounty towards his brothers. His liberality 
 to them had once reduced him to great difficul- 
 ties for want of money to pay his army, when 
 he is said to liave been relieved by a remarkable 
 incident. Walking in the hall of his palace, 
 which had formerly been inhabited by the ca- 
 liph's general, he saw the head of a serpent ap- 
 pear at a crack in the wall. He ordered an 
 opening to be made in order to catch it. This 
 led to a cavity, in which were deposited several 
 chests of gold and other treasure, concealed 
 there by his predecessor. The fortunate disco- 
 very supplied his wants, and prevented a danger- 
 ous mutiny. Amadeddulat died, after a reign 
 ot sixteen years, in 949, aged about fifty-three, 
 and, having no son, he left his crown to Adad- 
 eddulat, son of his brother Rokneddulat. D' Hcr- 
 helot. Alod. IJnivers. Hist. — A. 
 
 AMADEUS V. count of Savoy, succeeded 
 to the sovereignty of that state in 1285. Though 
 a prince of such small dominions, he acquired 
 the surname of Great from his wisdom and suc- 
 cess.^ He much increased his territories by 
 marriage, purchase, and gift ; and, by his con- 
 duct, obtained the friendsliip of all the principal 
 European powers, who constituted him the ar- 
 biter of their differences. He acquired great 
 renown from the defence of the isle of Rhodes 
 agamst the Turks, who, soon after its capture by 
 the knights of St. John of Jerusalem, attempted 
 to retake it. It was in memory of this service 
 (hat he and his successors took for their arms a 
 Maltese cross, with the letters F. E. R. T. 
 which are explained to stand for Fortitudo ejus 
 Rfiodum teauit — ^' His valour kept Rhodes." 
 
 A palace at Lyons was bestow^ed upon him by 
 the grand master as a reward. He died in 132;? 
 at Avignon, wliithcr he had gone to engage 
 pope John XXII. to preach a ciusadc in favour 
 of Andronicus, emperor of the east, who had 
 married his davighter. Afod. Univ. Hist. — A. 
 
 AMADEUS VIII. count of Savoy, suc- 
 ceeded his father Amadeus VII. in 1391. He 
 was one of the most singular characters of his 
 time. From his prudence and attention to keep 
 in peace with his neighbours, he obtained the 
 title of the Pacific, and the Solomon of the J^ge. 
 He ]iurchased the county of Gencvois from its 
 last pos:;essor, and laid claim to the sovereignty 
 of the city of Geneva ; but his claim, though en- 
 forced by the pope, was rejected by the citizens ; 
 and the emperor Sigismund declared it an impe- 
 rial citv, and undertook its protection against all 
 potentates, and Savoy in particular. Before that 
 period, in 1416, the emperor had erected Savoy 
 into a duchy, a rank it has ever since supported. 
 Amadeus, after this elevation, took the extraor- 
 dinary step of leaving his throne and family, 
 and retiring to a religious house at a place called 
 Ripaille. As he had affected uncommon sanc- 
 tity, the motives for his retirement were gene- 
 rally understood to be religious ; tlie world was 
 therefore mucli surprised to find that his liermi- 
 tage was a seat of th.e most refined luxury. It 
 was provided with every thing that could delight 
 the senses ; and such was the voluptuousness of 
 the life led here, that the phrase /fl/r^ Ripailles, 
 in the French language, was mads to denote 
 exquis'te good cheer. He instituted a secular 
 knighthood for the place, called that of St. 
 Maurice, or the Annimciata. The brethren 
 were called hermits, because they wore beards, 
 and excluded women from their community ; 
 in other respects thev were decent Epicureans,, 
 devoted to the pleasures of society and the table. 
 The duke himself wore purple robes and a gold- 
 en cross, and was attended by several intimates 
 and twenty servants. Though he resigned his 
 authority to his son, he kept him very bare of 
 money ; which renders more probable what has 
 been asserted, diat he employed large sums at 
 the council of Basil for the purchase of its no- 
 mination to the popedom ; otherwise his retire- 
 ment was too little edifying to have sanctified 
 the choice. Whatever was the motive, the 
 council, which had deposed pope EugeniusIV. 
 conferred the triple crown, in 1439, on Ama- 
 deus, who thereupon assumed the name ot Fe- 
 lix V. It is to be observed that he had never- 
 taken holy orders. This election occasioned a 
 schism in the church, in which the powers of 
 Europe took different sides ; but the party of
 
 A M A 
 
 ( 219 ) 
 
 A M A 
 
 Eugenius was the strongest, and he cxccmmu- 
 nicateil his rival. At length, mi the ikiith of 
 Eiigenivis, the Roman cardinals chose a new 
 pope; and Felix was prevailed upon to abdi- 
 cate. He obtiiintd honourable conditions, lieing 
 made a cardinal, bishop, and apostolical legate, 
 and permitted to retain most of the pontilical 
 insignia. He spent the latter part of his life at 
 Lausanne, \\here I.e died, in 1 451, at the age 
 of sixtv-nine. Mod. Univcrs. Hist. — A. 
 
 AMADEUS IX. count of Savoy, though in- 
 firm in body, and not distinguished bv deeds of 
 renown, deserves recording as a prince who made 
 the happiness of his subjects the great object of 
 his reign. He was possessed of all the Christian 
 virtues in an eminent degree, and, in particular, 
 of that of charity. Being asked one dav by a 
 foreign minister whether he kept hounds ? " A 
 great many (said he), and you shall see them 
 to-morrow." On the next day, leading the 
 minister to a window which looked into a large 
 square, the duke showed him a number of peo- 
 ple eating and drinking.** " Those (said he) 
 are my hounds, with whom I go in chase of 
 heaven." When lie was toid that his alms 
 would exhaust his revenues, he cried, " Here 
 is the collar of my order ; let them sell it, and 
 relieve nvy people." He married lolandc of 
 France, who seconded him in all his good woiks. 
 He died, universally regretted, in 1472, having 
 lived thirty-seven years, and reigned seven. The 
 saintly title ot the Blessed was conferred on 
 him by his subjects. Afod. Univers. Hist. — A. 
 
 AMAK, called also Jhulna^'^ih al Bokhari, 
 was a celebrated Persian poet, a native of Bok- 
 hara, who flourished during the fifth century 
 from the Hegira, (the eleventh of our xra) un- 
 der the raonarchs of the race of Seljuk. He 
 particularly attached himself to Khedar Khan, 
 who reigned in the Transoxian provinces, and 
 who was a most munificent patron of letters, 
 and especially of poetry. This prince l>e!d a 
 kind of academy, at whieh he jjtesided, seated 
 on a throne, at the foot of which were four 
 great basons of gold and silver coin, destined 
 tor the reward of the poets who obtained his ap- 
 probation. Amak wa^ at the head of this aca- 
 demy, which consisted of one hundred men -of 
 letters, who had handsome pensions. He him- 
 self lived in a state beyond that of a poet in any 
 other country, possessing, from the bounty of 
 the sovereign, a great nuiiiber of slaves of both 
 sexes, and thirty trained horses, with rich capa- 
 risons. This prosperity? as might be supposed, 
 -excited the envy ofjioine of his brother hards ; 
 -and Raschidi, whom he had recommended to 
 Tourt, employed his interest with the sultan's) 
 
 favourite mistress to supplant him. Amnic, in 
 return. dccriL-d his verses. 'I"lic sultan for his di- 
 version made them contend in his presince, .ind 
 the satirical veiMS of Raschidi gained th.e pii/c, 
 to the great mortilicaiion of Amak. 'J'his pf)et 
 lived nearly a whole centurv. His principal 
 work is the " History of the Loves of Jr.sejili 
 and Zoleiskah," a romance taken from the ac- 
 count of the patriarch Joseph, in the Koran. 
 He was, however, principally famed for his ele- 
 gies. It is recorded, that when sultan .'^anoiar 
 was incon>-o!ah!e for the death of his sister, an.l 
 disregarded all the funereal verses presented !)/ 
 other poets, Amak was sent for from his retire- 
 ment to sooth him. B.-ing too intinn, through 
 age, for travelling, h.c exerted his remaining 
 powers in composing an elcgv, wliich he sent 
 to the sultan bv liis son, and it obtained a de- 
 cided prelerence over all that Ivul been w ritten 
 on the same occasion. IT Hahdol. — A. 
 
 AMALARIC, or Amcmry, king of the Vi- 
 sigoths, was the son of Alaric II. Being left 
 an infant at his father's death, he obtained tlie 
 powerful tutelage of his grandfather 'I'heodoric 
 king of the Ostrogoths, who expelled from the 
 throne Gesalic. Ainahuic's natural brother, and 
 governed tlie 'S^isigoths hin-.se'f rill lij-; death in 
 526, when Amalaric assumed the reins. He 
 had married, in 517, Clotilda, the daughter of 
 Clovis, a lady who inherited the piety and or- 
 thodoxy of her mother of the same name. 
 Amalaric was as much attached to the Arian 
 dfctrines ; and u^ed the most violent means 
 (say the catholic historians) to force his queen 
 to become a convert. She bore her wrongs in 
 jiatience for some time ; at length she made 
 complaints to her brothers, and, as a proof of 
 the treatment she underwent, sent a handker- 
 chief tinged with her blood. One of them, 
 Childebert king of Paris, marched into the ter- 
 ritories of Amalaric, who then held his court at 
 Narbonne ; defeated, and obliged him to fly in- 
 to Spain, A. D. 531. Soon after, attempting 
 to re-enter Narbonne, he was killed, eitlicr bv a 
 Frank, or by assassins placed for the purpo.c 
 by Theiidis, who succeeded him. Some make 
 Barcelona the scene of his death. Such were 
 the fruits of religious discord, and the spirit of 
 proselytisin ! Moreri. Univers. Hist. — A. 
 
 AMALASONTHA, youngest daughter of 
 Theodoric the Great, king of the Ostrogoths, bv 
 the sister of Clovis, was born about 498. S!ie wa-s 
 married in 515 to Eutliarii;, the la>t heir of the 
 regal race of tl.e Amali, whom Theodoric had 
 sent for from Spain, and destined for his suc- 
 cessor. Eutharic, however, died before his ta- 
 ther-in-law , leaving an only son, A'.huiaiic,
 
 A M A 
 
 ( 220 ) 
 
 A iM A 
 
 who was eight years of age at the death of 
 Thco(}oiic. His ffiandfather bequeathed to liim 
 the kingdom of Italy, under the guardianship 
 of his motlier, Amalasondia. T!>is piincess 
 was a worthy descendant of Theodoric, and 
 possessed a full share of his talents, improved 
 bv a learned etlucation. She spoke witli equal 
 ease the Greek, Latin, and Gothic tongues, and 
 was well versed in the pliilosophy and theology 
 of the age. Her administration was directed 
 by wisdom and justice. She restored the child- 
 ren of Bocthius and Symniachus to their in- 
 l\eritance. She checked the rapacity and op- 
 pression of the Gothic leaders, who were in- 
 clined to treat tlie Romans as a conquered peo- 
 ple. She retained all the laws, magistrates, and 
 political institutions of her father, but remitted 
 some of the impositions he had laid on his sub- 
 jects. She warmly patronised learning and its 
 professors, and took care that the stipends to 
 pul^lic teachers should be regularly paid. She 
 assiduou^ily cultivated a good understanding 
 with the imperial court, and tiic neighbouring 
 potentates ; and during some years lier govern- 
 ment was universally prosperous and respected. 
 The education of her son was a point deservedly 
 next her heart ; and as her own mind was high- 
 ly cultivated, she wished to give him every ad- 
 vantage science and letters could bestow. But 
 neither the inclinations of the youth, nor the 
 character of the Gothic nation, seconded her 
 views. The Goths had begun to e.Kclaim 
 against the effeminate course of discipline in 
 vihich their prince was bred ; when, one day, 
 the youth, having undergone chastisement from 
 his mother, came with the tears yet in his eyes 
 into a room where some of the nobles were as- 
 sembled. Learning the cause of his distress, 
 they broke out into violent expressions of in- 
 dignation, and insisted on his release from ma- 
 ternal authority, and the lessons of pedants. 
 Amalasontha was compelled to give way ; and, 
 in consequence, the prince fell into the hands of 
 those who plunged him into dissolute pleasure, 
 inspired him with contempt of his mother, and 
 soon undid all she had been labouring to effect. 
 Her resentment led her to select three of the 
 ringleaders of this factious interference, whom 
 .she confined in the remotest parts of Italy. But 
 the party formed against her was so powerful, 
 that she had thoughts of retiring to the protec- 
 tion of Justinian ; and a correspondence passed 
 between them on the subject. She was on the 
 point of setting sail, when she chose first to 
 make trial of a bold exertion of authority. She 
 caused the three malcontents to be privately as- 
 sassinated ; and this act, though it inflamed the 
 
 hatred of tlie public against her, answered the 
 present purpose of restoring her absolute sway. 
 But it was not long before her son, at the age of 
 sixteen, fell a victim to his early debaucheries, 
 and left her without any legal claim to the go- 
 vernment. Her ambition, however, would not 
 suffer her to retire to a private station ; and she 
 souglit for support in a plan of sharing the 
 throne with her cousin Theodotus, whose in- 
 dolent and pusillanimous disposition would, she 
 thought, still leave her in possession of the su- 
 preme power. But the event soon proved the 
 danger of trusting to weakness without princi- 
 ple. He caused her to be imprisoned in an 
 island in the midst of the lake Bolsena, where 
 she was strangled in the bath, A. D. 535. Some 
 writers attribute this deed to the instigation of 
 the empress Theodora, wlio was jealous ot the 
 great regard entertained by Justinian for Ama- 
 lasontha. Gibbon. Unlvcrs. Hist. — A. 
 
 AMALEK, son of Eliphaz, and grandson 
 of Esau, was t!ie father of the Amalekites, a 
 powerful people, whd' inhabited Arabia Petraea, 
 and were perpetually at war with the Hebrews. 
 Genesis, xxxvi. 12. Exod, xv;i 8, &c. — E. 
 
 AMALRIC, AuGERi, an ecclesiastical his- 
 torian of the fourteenth century, lived in the 
 time of pope Urban V. who was elected in the 
 year 1362. He dedicated to that pontiff a his- 
 tory of the popes, under the title of " Chroni- 
 con Pontificale," which he boasts to have col- 
 lected from upwards of two hundred writers ; . 
 he brings down the history to pope John XXIL 
 Voss. de Hist. Lat. lib. iii. c. I. — E. 
 
 AMALTHEO, the name of a family cele- 
 brated for literature, originally from Pordenone 
 in Friuli, and branched out into several places 
 in that province. Several of its members were 
 poets, physicians, and professors of belles lettres. 
 The most distinguished were the sons of Fran- 
 cesco Amaltheo, professor of belles lettres in 
 Sacile ; viz. 
 
 GiROLAMo (jnom) born in 1507, at Oder- 
 7.0 in the Trevisan. He engaged in, the pro- 
 fession of physic, in which he liecame so emi- 
 nent that the queen of Poland wislied to obtain 
 him for her physician ; but the love of his coun- 
 try, and of philosophical freedom, induced him 
 to refuse her offers. He taught medicine at 
 Padua, and practised it in several towns of Fri- 
 uli, till 1574, when he died at Oderzo, greatly 
 honoured by his townsmen. He excelled so 
 much in Latin poetry, that tlie learned Muretus 
 placed him at the head of all the Italians who 
 exercised their talents in diat species of compo- 
 sition. The famous epigram of " Aeon ai^d , 
 Leoiiiila" is by this author.
 
 A M A 
 
 ( 221 ) 
 
 A M A 
 
 GiAM BATISTA CJohn Baptist). He was 
 born at Odeizo in 1525, and received his edu- 
 cation at Padua, where he so much distinguish- 
 ed himself, that, at the age of twentv, he was 
 tailed to Venice to instruct tlie youth of the 
 Lippomana family in polite literature. He con- 
 tinued, however, to pursue his own studies, 
 which comprehended not only tiie Greek, La- 
 tin, and Italian languages, but philosophy, theo- 
 logy, and jurisprudence. In 1554 he accom- 
 panied ihe Venetian ambassador, Michele, to 
 England. He was afterwards made secretary 
 10 the republic of Ragusa ; and thence was in- 
 vited to Rome, where he was first secretary to 
 Pope Pius IV. and then accompanied in that 
 quality the cardinals deputed to the council of 
 Trent. He died at Rome, in 1573, lamented 
 by all the learned men of his time, by whom he 
 was held in the highest esteem for his genius 
 and erudition. His Latin poems, printed first 
 in 1550, raised him a reputation equal to that of 
 his brother ; and indeed they are scarcely to be 
 surpassed in suavity and elegance. He likewise 
 wrote poems ir» his own language, which are 
 much esteemed. 
 
 The Latin poems of these two writers, and 
 also of another brother, named Cornelius (like- 
 wise a physician), are contained in the first vo- 
 lume of the " Dtliciae Poet. Italor." and were 
 published in a separate volume, at Venice, in 
 1627, and at Amsterdam, in i68q. Uraboschi. 
 Baillet, Jugcm. Ncuv. Diet. Hist. — A. 
 
 AMARIA, SixTiNus, a learned writer of 
 the seventeenth century, was a native of West 
 Friesland, in Holland. He was educated in the 
 university of Franeker, w?iere he obtained a 
 considerable knowledge of the Oriental lan- 
 guages. About the year 1613 he took a journey 
 into England, and visiting Oxford, he became 
 for some years a resident of Exeter college, and 
 taught Hebrew in the university. (Wood's 
 Athcn. Oxon. n. 612.) Returning to his native 
 countrv, he was appointed professor of the He- 
 brew language in tlie university of Franeker. 
 He remained in this station till liis death ; and 
 resisted an importunate solicitation from the 
 university of Leyden to accept the chair which 
 had been filled by Erpenius, one of the most 
 learned orientalists of his age. His talent for 
 biblical criticisin was first displayed in a cri- 
 tique on the vulgate translation of the Penta- 
 teuch, printed, in 4to. in 1620, at Franeker, un- 
 der the title of '"Censura Vulgatas Latinae Edi- 
 tionis Pentateuchi." This publication was a 
 'Specimen of a larger work which he had in 
 contemplation, " a General Censure of the 
 Vulgate Version of the Scriptures," which had 
 
 been declared authentic hv tlie counciT of 
 Trent. He was interrupted in this undertaking, 
 by a similar design of collating tlie Dutch ver- 
 sion of the scriptures with the originals and the 
 best translations. The result of his labours he 
 laid before the public in a work written in the 
 Dutch language, and eniklod " Bybelsclic Con- 
 ferencie," published in 1603. Being informed 
 that Mersennus had undertaken the vindication 
 of the Vulgate, and had written a refutation of 
 his critique on the first six chapters of Genesis, 
 he resumed his former design ; in 1627 he pub- 
 lished a letter to Mersennus ; and, in 162 S, a 
 work under the title of " Antibarbarus Bibli- 
 cus," containing a farther reply to Mersennus ; 
 and a critique upon the vulgate version of tlie 
 historical books of the Old Testament, of Job, 
 the Psalms, the books of Solomon, and some 
 detached dissertations. I'he book was reprinted 
 in 1656, with the addition of the author's cri- 
 tique upon the vulgate translation of the pro- 
 phecies of Isaiah and Jeremiah. This work 
 effectually exposed tlie misrepresentations, whe- 
 ther through ignorance or design, of the mean- 
 ing of the original scriptures, with which the 
 vulgate translation abounded. This author also 
 wrote a learned dissertation, " De Nomine 
 Tetragrammato," published in 8vo. at Frane- 
 ker, in 1620. Sixtinus Amama's labours ex- 
 cited much attention to biblical learr.ing ; and 
 many synods from this time ordained tiiat no 
 one should be admitted into the clerical profes- 
 sion without at least a moderate acquaintance 
 with the Hebrew bible, and Greek te-tament. 
 Amama was an useful as well as an honourable 
 member of the university of Franeker : by his 
 spirited exertions he contributed essentially to 
 the reformation of the moral irregularities 
 which had crept into that seminary. He died 
 at Franeker in 1629. 7'he respect in which he 
 was held by his countrymen, was judiciously 
 and generously shown, at his decease, by mak- 
 ing a liberal provision for his family. Si.vt. 
 Amam, in Prelim. Anti-barb. Baylc. Aloreri. 
 — E. 
 
 AMASEO, Romulus, a learned Italian of 
 the sixteenth century, was born in the yeai 
 1489, at Udine in Friuli. He was professor of 
 Greek and Latin at Dologna, and secretary to 
 the senate. Pope Paul 111. appointed him pre- 
 ceptor to his grandson, Alexander Farnesc, and 
 afterward employed him on important embas- 
 sies to the emperor, the princes of the empire, 
 and the king of Poland. He taught eloquence 
 at Rome for a fixed salary of six hundied 
 crowns, and, in the capacity of secretary to 
 pope Julius III. acquired great distinction among
 
 A M A 
 
 ( 
 
 222 
 
 ) 
 
 A M A 
 
 the liMiiicd at Rome. FIc translated, witli miirc 
 elegance than fiilelitv, Pausaiiias's Antiquities of 
 Greect^ anil Xenophon's Expedition of Cyrus: 
 he also wrote a vi)lunic of speeches, and a book 
 on education, entitled *' Scholx duae de Ra- 
 tione institiiendi." [Two Dissertations on the 
 Method of Instruction.] He died about the 
 year 1552. Hnctius characterises Amasa-us as 
 a great admirer of elegance and jicrspiciiitv, 
 \\ho, iiihis translatiopis, anipiitied what was too 
 concise, and conti acted what was too diffuse, 
 and who cleared uj) obscure passage.?. (Huet. 
 do claiis Interp.) IIU translation of Paiisanias 
 was corrected bv Sylburgius. Baillet, y'lge- 
 r»t)is des S^in>an.i. B(i\'le. — E. 
 
 AA'IASIS, king of Egypt, was of plebeian de- 
 scent, andro^e by merit to the confidence of 
 king Aprics. hi a sedition against this ])rincc, 
 Amasis was saluted king; and, inconsequence, 
 the country was involved in a civil war, which 
 terininatctl in the defeat and rapture of Apries. 
 Amasis ascended the throne B. C. 569, and pre- 
 sently put his foimer master to death. He go- 
 verned his country ^^idl prudence and activity ; 
 making it his rule to attend closely to business 
 in the mornings, and to devote the evenings to 
 •social pleasures. Under his reign Egvpt is said 
 for many years to have enjoyed uninterrupted 
 fertility, and to have acquired a prodigious po- 
 pulation. In order to prevent the evils arising 
 from an idle populace, he tnade a law enjoining 
 every man, on pain of death, to api)ear once a 
 year befoie the governor of his province, and 
 -declare by what means he earned his living. 
 He showed an enlarged mind in the encourar^e- 
 menr he gave to strangers, especially the Greeks, 
 to visit his country ; granting them establish- 
 ments on tlie sea-coast, and allowing them to 
 build temples, and perform all the rites of their 
 religion. Solon the lawgiver was one of his 
 visitors. Amasis married a Greek woman, and 
 was a liberal contributor to some of the Gre- 
 cian cities and institutions. In his own country 
 he erected several magnificent works, in the gi- 
 gantic taste prevalent there. He subdued the 
 isle of Cyprus, and rendered it tributary. The 
 prosperity of his reign was at length clouded by 
 the vast preparations made by Cambyscs to in- 
 vade Egypt, in whicii design he was assisted by 
 the desertion of Phancs, captain of the Greek 
 auxiliaries in the service of Amasis. Polycrates, 
 tyrant of Samos, who had been intimately con- 
 nected with him, also became his enemy. Ama- 
 sis, however, escaped the storm by dying after a 
 reign of forty-fonr years, B. C. 525. Yet, ac- 
 ■cordir.g to the Egyptian notions, a serious part 
 of the evil which overwhelmed his son Psam- 
 •mcticus, fell upon himself, since his dead body 
 
 was dragged from its tomb, mann;led, and butnl. 
 Hero (lot. Diod. Sicul, Univers. Hlil. — A. 
 
 AMATUS LUSITANUS, a physician of 
 eminence, whose true name was John Rodri- 
 gues de Castcl Blanco, the place of his birth 
 in Portugal, flourished about tlie middle of the 
 sixteenth century. He studied at Salamanca, 
 and practised surgery in the hospitals of that 
 city, after which he fixed as a professor of me- 
 dicine at Ferrara. His reputation here caused 
 him to be engaged as public physician by the 
 republic of Ragusa, at a large stipend. The 
 king of Poland offered him high terms to come 
 and reside at his court, but he refused them, and 
 went to Thessalonica, where he publicly de- 
 clared himself a Jew. His writings chiefly 
 consist of a " Commentary on Dioscorides,'* 
 and of a large collection of practical observa- 
 tions in physic and surgery, entitled "Cura- 
 rationes Mcdicinales" in seven cenluries, prir.t- 
 ed successively from 1551 to 1557, and several 
 times re-edited conjunctively. It is a work of 
 much learning and information \ but its credit 
 has suffered from the suspicion of falsehood ard 
 boasting in the author. Vandcr Linden, de 
 Script. Med. Hallo; Blhl. Med. — A. 
 
 AMAURI I. orALMERic, king of Jerusa- 
 lem, succeeded his brother Baldwin III. in 1162, 
 at the age of twenty-seven. He was active and 
 enterprising, but extremely avaricious, a fault 
 that proved very prejudicial to his affairs. Tak- 
 ing advantage of the di<;sensions which reigned 
 among the Alahometans, he marched into 
 Egypt, where at first he met with great success, 
 twice expelling from the country Siracon or 
 Shairacuh, the caliph's general, and taking Bel- 
 beis or Pelusium, on which occasion he is ac- 
 cuscd of great cruelty by the eastern writers. 
 From this place he proceeded to Cairo, which 
 it is supposed he might easily have taken, had 
 not a desire of preventing his army from plun- 
 dering it, and of seeming the booty to himself, 
 can.sed him to listen to the Mahometan gene- 
 ral s proposals for accommodation on payment 
 of a large sum, till Nouradin's army arriving 
 obliged him to raise the siege. The famous 
 Saladin, who succeeded his uncle Shairacuh, 
 followed him into his own kingdom, and pressed 
 him closely. Amauri, however, assisted by a 
 fleet of the Greek emperor's, laid siege to Da- 
 mietta, but was constrained by want and sick- 
 ness to abandon it. Meanwhile Saladin entered 
 Palestine, and took Gaza, while Nouradin on 
 the other side made an incursion about Antioch. 
 Amauri, while defending himself with in^vinciblc 
 courage against these attacks, died in 1173, at 
 the age of thirty eight. Moreri. Med. Univers, 
 Hist. — A.
 
 qEORGE lyAMBOISE, QAKI>I1<IAL 
 
 & Archeucfque de Rouen. Chapitre 104.,
 
 A M A 
 
 ( 223 ) 
 
 A M B 
 
 AMAURI, DE Chartres, or Amalric, a 
 native of Bene, in the Jiocese of Chartres, taught 
 logic anil theology in Paris at the beginning of 
 tlie thirteenth century, and distinguisiieci him- 
 stlt by the singularity of his opinions. Of 
 these very different and confused accounts have 
 been given by different writers. Tlie truth 
 perhaps is, tliat, in common with the Beghardf, 
 or Bretiiren of the Free Spirit, a German sect, 
 which arose about tliis time, he held a system 
 which absurdly grafted the most extravagant 
 mysticism upon the pliilo oj.hy of Aristotle. 
 He taught that all things were parts of one sub- 
 stance, or, in other words, diat the universe was 
 God, and that not only the forms of diings, but 
 also their matter or substance, proceeded from 
 the deity and must return to their source. From 
 these principles he deduced the fanatical notion, 
 that the soul of man by its union with God was 
 blended with the divine nature, and that the di- 
 vine man being thus one with God, this union 
 superseded all necessity of external worship. 
 Amauri was brought before pope Innocent 111. 
 to answer for his opinions; they were pro- 
 nounced heretical, and he was terrified into a 
 verbal retractation of his errors : upon which 
 he retired, under a load of chagrin and self- 
 reproach, to a monastery, in which he soon 
 afterwards died, and was interred. Some 
 writers also impute to this enthusiast and 
 his followers, the fanciful doctrine, that there 
 are, in the order of things, three successive 
 epochs, which are the reigns of the three per- 
 sons in the Trinity ; the reign- of the father 
 having lasted during the law of Moses ; that 
 of the son, 1200 years after his appearance 
 upon earth, which was the period of ceremonies 
 and sacraments ; and that of the holy spirit, 
 commencing in the thirteenth century, in which 
 ordinances were to cease, and no religion to 
 remain but the pure worship of the soul : but 
 in this statement perhaps the doctrine of Amauii 
 is confounded with that of Joachim. Amauri 
 had many disciples, who fell under severe per- 
 secution. Their tenets were condemned in a 
 council of Paris, in the year 1209; ten of their 
 number were burned, and three condemned to 
 perpetual imprisonment ; and the bones of their 
 leader were dug up, and thrown into a common 
 jewer. Duphi. Mosheim, cent. xiii. Aforeri. 
 NciiV. Did. Hist. — E. 
 
 AMAZIAH, king of Judah, succeeded his 
 father joash in his twenty-fifth year. His mo- 
 ther was Jehoddan of Jerusalem. He is said to 
 have done " that which was right in tlie sight 
 of the Lord, but not with a perfect heart ;" by 
 ■which is meant that he was a worshipper of the 
 
 true God, but with an intermixture of foreign 
 idolatry. Soon after his accession he put to 
 death those unfaithful servants by whom his fa- 
 ther had been murdered, but he observed the 
 humane law of Moses against punisliiuf the 
 children witii the guilty fathers. He made a 
 great muster of his subjects able to bear arms, 
 and likewise hired a large body of troops from 
 Israel, for the purpose of an expedition against 
 the Edomites, whom he defeated in the Valley 
 of Salt, after which he took tlie town of Selah. 
 From some jealousy, however, of the Israelite 
 auxiliaries, he did not make use of their ser- 
 vice , but sent them back ; at which thev were 
 so much enraged that they ravaged the country 
 on their return. After his victory over the 
 Edomites, Amaziah is said to have brought 
 home the gods of the children of Seir, and to . 
 have paid them divine honours. In the elation 
 of prosperity he also sent a message to Jchoash, 
 king of Israel, propc ing that they should •' look 
 one another in the face," which the sequel 
 shows to have been a hostile challenge. Je- 
 hoash attempted to dissuade him from his pur- 
 pose, but in vain. They met at Bethshcmesh, 
 where the men of Judah were put to the rout, 
 and Amaziah was made captive. }ehoash then 
 carried the vanquished king with him to Jeru- 
 salem, which city he entered, breaking down 
 a large portion of the wall ; and having plun- 
 dered the temple and the king's palace, he re- 
 turned to Samaria. After this misfortune, 
 Amaziah reigned many years over Judah. At 
 length a conspiracy was formed again>-t him in 
 Jerusalem, which compelled him to fly for re- 
 fuge to Lachish ; but his enemies pursuing him 
 thither, he was slain in the twenty-ninth year 
 of his reign. 2 Kings, xiv. 2 Chron. xxv. — A. 
 AMBOISE, George d', a French cardinal 
 and minister of state, the son of Peter, a branch 
 of the illustrious house of Amhoi- c, was born 
 in 1460. Destined to the cliurch, his family 
 interest obtained h.im the bishopric of Alontau- 
 ban at fourteen years of age. He was one of 
 the almoners of Louis XI. and I.e attached 
 himself particularly to the duke of Orleans, af- 
 terwards Louis XII. in whose service he suf- 
 fered imprisonment. This prince recovering 
 his credit at court, D'Amboi^e was raised to 
 the archbishopric of Narbonne, which he after- 
 wards changed for that of Rouen. Acting ax 
 lieutenant-general under the duke of Orleans, 
 who was governoi of Normandy, he was ot 
 great service in restoring justice and order to 
 that province. On the accession of Louis XII. 
 to the throne, D'Amboise was made a cardinal 
 and first minister, and immcdiaicly rendered
 
 A M B 
 
 ( 224 ') 
 
 A M B 
 
 himself popular by diminishing the imposts. 
 He excited the king to ilie conquest of" tlie 
 Milanese in 1499, and on the subsequent revolt 
 of the people he was sent to bring them back to 
 their allegiance, which he performed success- 
 fully. The pope made him his legate for 
 France, and in tiiat capacity he laboured to- 
 wards the reform of the ecclesiastical orders. 
 He himself set the example of holding no more 
 than one benefice at a time, and of consecrating 
 two-thirds of tlic revenue of his archbisliopric 
 to the service of the poor, and the repair of reli- 
 gious edifices. He had even an ambition to be 
 made pope, " merclv for the purpose, (as he 
 said) of effecting the rcf'ormntion of abuses, and 
 the correction of manners;" and he would have 
 had some chance of succeeding at the death of 
 Pius HI. had he not been outwitted by the Ita- 
 lian cardinals. As a minister of state, he was 
 charactc-riseil by industry, steadiness, plain sense, 
 and good iiUcntions, by which he promoted the 
 welfare of the nation, so as to be called the 
 father of the people, though his abilities were 
 moderate, and his views limited. His greatest 
 exertion was in the reformation of the courts of 
 judicature, in which the most sliameful corrup- 
 tions and abuses prevailed. With the aid of 
 the sages of the law, he caused a new code of 
 regulations to be drawn up, for the expediting 
 of processes, and the suppression of bribery and 
 partiality through the whole kingdom ; and he 
 himself went into Normandy, of which he was 
 governor, to put his reform into execution. His 
 disappointment with respect to the popedom 
 induced him to urge his master to go to war 
 with the Venetians, to whom he attributed it ; 
 and it was probably the consciousness of faults 
 committed through ambition that urged him, 
 in his last illness, to exclaim to the infirmary- 
 brother who attended him at the convent of Ce- 
 lestines at Lvons, " Brother John! why have 
 I not been all my life brother John?" He di- 
 ed in I i;io, at the age of fifty. Moreri. Notiv. 
 Diet. Hist.— A. 
 
 AMBROSE, of Alexandria, the friend of 
 Origen, flourished in the former part of the 
 third century. He was a man of good family 
 and fortune, and, as jerom attests, of considera- 
 ble talents, of which he left proofs in his letters 
 to Origen. Eusebius speaks of him as in early 
 life a follower of the gnostic tenets of Valentian ; 
 Jerom calls him a Marcionite, but both agree 
 that he was brought over to the orthodox doc- 
 trine of the church by the preaching of Oi igen. 
 He was a deacon of the church at Alexandria, or 
 perhaps at Caesarea, where Protectetus was 
 presbyter, to whom, together with Ambrose, 
 
 Origen dedicates liis book on martyrdom. He 
 suffered persecution for the Christian cause un- 
 der tlie emperor Maximin, about the year 236. 
 From the dedications of several of Origen's trea- 
 tises to his friend Ambrose, it appears that he 
 lived to the year 250, or nearly to that time. 
 He is spoken of by Origen as a man of great 
 piety, and much devoted to the study of the 
 scriptures. His friendship for Origen was shown 
 in the generous assistance whicli he afforded 
 him in liis writings : he provided him with !e- 
 veral notaries, to whom he, by turns, dictated 
 his commentaries ; and he employed other ama- 
 nuenses to copy his works. At a time when 
 the multiplication of copies was a business of 
 great labour and expense, these services were 
 not only acts of private friendship, but of pub- 
 lic munificence ; and Ambrose may be fairly 
 entitled to rank among the patrons of letters. It 
 is lamented by Jerom, that Ambrose, who had 
 shown so much generosity to his friend during 
 his life, did not leave him any legacy at his 
 death, when Origen was botli poor, and in his 
 old age ; and we do not find a satisfactory apo- 
 logy for this failure of friendship in Tillemont's 
 conjecture, that Ambrose knew his friend's 
 mind, and that Origen chose to be poor, and to 
 live in a state of dependence on providence. 
 Euscb. Eccl. Hist. lib. vi. c. 18, 23. Hieron. 
 de Fir. III. c. 56. Lardner's Cred. p. ii. c. 38. 
 Cave, Hist. Lit. — E. 
 
 AMBROSE, a monk of Camalduli, born 
 at Portico in Romagna, was a man of distinc- 
 tion among the learned at the beginning of the 
 fifteenth century. He learned Greek at Ve- 
 nice under Emanuel Chrysoloras. He was sent 
 by pope Eugenius, in 143 1, to the general 
 council at Basil, where he defended the papal 
 see with great eloquence : he afterwards distin- 
 guished himself at the council of Ferrara, and 
 was employed to draw up the decree for the union 
 of the Greek and Latin churches. He obtained 
 great applause by an oration which he delivered 
 upon this occasion in Greek. Cosmo de' Me- 
 dici respected him highly for his learning, and 
 dedicated to him his works. He was a man of 
 amiable temper, and urbane manners. Paul 
 Jovius speaks of him as one who was always 
 placid and serene, and in whom was found the 
 rare union of sanctity and chearfulness ; and 
 relates, that, having in vain attempted to recon- 
 cile the two jealous and angry literary rivals, 
 Poggius and Valla, he told them that men who,' 
 from personal pique, were capable of polluting 
 the sanctuary of the muses with foul language, 
 had neither the charity of Christians, nor the 
 politeness .of scholars. Ambrose died in 'the
 
 A M B 
 
 ( "5 ) 
 
 A M B 
 
 year I439- ^<^ '^^ft bcliind liiiii several trans- 
 lations ot Greek authors, particularlv of Pal- 
 ladius's Lite of Chrysostom, ])rinted at Venice 
 in 1533 ; of the Lives of the Philosophers, by 
 Diogenes Laertius ; and of the four books of 
 Manuel Calacus against the Errors of the 
 Greeks, printed at Ingolstadt in 1603. He also 
 wrote " A lourney tlirough Italy, to visit tiie 
 Monasteries of his Order," published in 4to, 
 at Florence, in 1681, in which many of the 
 disorders of monastic life are faithfully related; 
 and " Letters," to be found in the collei tion of 
 D. Martenne, which contain many paiticulars 
 respecting civil and literary history. The trans- 
 lations of Ambrose are not sufficiently exact. 
 Bayle. Foss. de Hist. Lat. Morcri. Nouv. 
 Diet. Hist.- E. 
 
 AMBROSE, Is.\AC, an English presbyte- 
 rian divine, was born about the beginning of 
 the seventeenth century in Lancashire. In the 
 year 1621 he wasadmitted into Brazen-nose Col- 
 lege, Oxford, where he took the degree of ba- 
 chelor of arts. U|ion taking orders he officiated 
 in the church of England, but without obtain- 
 ing any preferment, till, in 1641, he went over 
 to the prcsbyterian party, and subscribed to the 
 . solemn league and covenant. From this time he 
 was a preacher, first at Garstang, and after- 
 wards at Preston. His zeal against the e])isco- 
 palian clergy procured him a nomination as one 
 of the assistants to the intolerant presbyterian 
 commission, for ejecting scandalous and igno- 
 rant ministers and schoolmasters. It was his 
 custom to retire every year for a month into a 
 ■small hut in a wood, where, in entire seclu- 
 sion from society, he devoted himself to reir- 
 gious meditation. Doctor Calamy relates, that, 
 having a strong impulse upon his mind of his 
 approaching end, he took a formal leave of his 
 friends at their own houses, and the next day 
 shut himelf up in his parlour, where he was 
 found just expiring. He died in the year 1634, 
 aged seventy-two. Isaac Ambrose was the au- 
 thor of several cumbrous treatises, written in 
 the true spirit of Puritanism. The titles are, 
 jty, *' Prima, Media, et Ultima," [The First, 
 Middle, and Last Tiling-.] printed at first in se- 
 parate parts in 1640 and 1650, and afterwards 
 together in folio at London in 1674: " Looking 
 vinto Jesus;" " A view of the Everlasting Go- 
 spel, or the Soul's eyeing fesus as carryingon the 
 great Work of Man's Salvation ;" a large quarto 
 volume, printed iu London in 1648; and "A 
 War \\\x\\ Devils, and Mir.istvaiion of, and 
 Communication with. Angels ;" printed with 
 the formLi-. Bio^. Brit. Grainger's Biog. Hist. 
 c. ii. cl. 4. — E. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 AMBROSE, bishop of Milan, distiiiguishc4 
 by the appellation of Saint, was by descent a ci- 
 tizen of Rome, but was born in PVance, accord- 
 ing to some writers, in the year 334, according 
 to others, in the year 340. Hi's farher, at the 
 time of his birth, was pra:lorian prefect of Gal- 
 lia Narbonensis, and probably resided at Aries, 
 the capital of that country, till his death ; when 
 the widow left Gaul, and rciurncd wicli her fa- 
 mily to Rome. Under the care of his mother and 
 his sister Marcellina, women celebrated for their 
 piety, he was brought u|) in habits of viituc, ar.il 
 with an early bias towards the religious svsttin 
 of the catholic church. The particulars of liis 
 literary education are not known; but from his 
 writings it may be fairly inferred, that he was 
 early initiated in the Greek and Roman learn- 
 ing. Having studied tlie law, he pleaded causes 
 in the court of the prwtorian jirsfect, Anicius 
 Probus, with such ability, that tin's goveri'.or 
 thought him wortliy of a place in his (oun- 
 cil. He was probably admitted to this office in 
 the year 369, in whicli we find a rescript iVoiu 
 the emperor Valentinian to Anicius Probus. 
 (Cod. Theod. lib. i. tit. 7.) Soon afterwards 
 he was appointed by Probus, consular of Ligu- 
 ria and Emilia, countries which comiirehended 
 the present territory of Milan, Liguria, Turin, 
 Genoa, and Bologna. He tt)ok up his residence 
 at Milan, and conducted the affairs of his go- 
 vernment wiih so much prudence and equity, as 
 to obtain general esteem. 
 
 In the year 374 an incident occurred, wliich 
 produced a sudden and extraordinary change ia 
 the fortunes of Ambrose, and transformed him 
 from a civil magistrate into an ecclesi;istical go- 
 vernor. Auxeiitius, bisiiop of Milan, the leader 
 of the Arian party in the west, having bv his 
 death left vacant the episcopal sec of Alilan, a 
 warm contest concerning tlie succession ensued 
 between the Arians and catholics. In the midst 
 of the tumultuous dispute Ambrose came into 
 the assembly, and with great calmness and gra- 
 vity delivered a speech, exhorting them to con- 
 duct the election peaceably. At the conclusion 
 of his address, a child ciied out from the midst 
 of the crowd, " Ambrose i^ bishop." Theciy, 
 which the superstitious multitude regarded as a 
 miraculous suggestion, but which was more 
 probably a previous contrivance of Ambrose, 
 or his friends, was immediately followed by a 
 general acclamation of assent, and Ambrose was 
 elected. The magistrate expressed great re- 
 luctance against the choice, and made use of 
 singular expedients to convince the people that 
 he wished to decline the office, or was unwor- 
 thy to occupy the sacred chair. Returning to 
 2 G
 
 A M B 
 
 ( 226 ) 
 
 A M B 
 
 tJ)C bench of magistracy, lie treated the culprits 
 who were brought before him with cruel seve- 
 ri:v. He openly received into his house women 
 of iiitamous'character. The pcoi)le, who were 
 well acquainted with his humane disposition and 
 virtuous habits, saw through the artifice, and 
 persisted yet more eagerly in the election. Re- 
 mainhig still intlexiMe, he secretly left the city 
 by night in order to retiic to Ticinum, but, 
 missing his way, he wandered uj) and down all 
 night, and in the morning found himself at the 
 ga'tc of the city. His flight being known, he 
 was seised and kept in confinement by his 
 friends till a mcsseiiger was sent to the emperor 
 to entreat his authoritative confirmation of the 
 election. Tliis was easily obtained ; for tlie 
 cliaracter of Ambrose was well known to Va- 
 Icntinian. In the mean time, however, the bi- 
 shop-elect had again made his escape, and was 
 withdrawn to the country-house of his friend 
 Laurentius. The emperor's peremptory com- 
 mand to the lieutenant of Italy to see that the 
 election was carried into effect, induced Lau- 
 rentius, by a kind of treachery, which Ambrose 
 himself v.-ould not, perhaps, find much difficulty 
 in pardoning, to bring forth his friend from his 
 retreat. Ambrose, no longer resisting the pub- 
 lic choice, submitted to exchange the fasces for 
 the crosier, and, having now first received bap- 
 tism, was ordained to the episcopal office. It 
 has been generally believed that this election was 
 conducted without artifice or intrigue, and that 
 Ambrose's " Nolo episcopari," was perfectly 
 sincere ; and the ancient ecclesiastical historians 
 speak of it as a "divine election," and " the 
 peculiar work of God." The cry of the child ; 
 Ainbrose's losing his way to Ticinum ; his se- 
 cond escape from a guard ; and his friend's sur- 
 render of him after the emperor's pleasure was 
 known, are circumstances tliat have an appear- 
 ance of contrivance ; the affectation of cruelty 
 and lewdness looks like an over-acted part ; and 
 the whole has the aspect of a farcical process. 
 
 Whatever may be thought of Ambrose's dis- 
 position towards an office, for which he was 
 certainly not prepared by his former habits and 
 occupations, which promised no pecuniary emo- 
 lument, but which opened a spacious field of 
 ambition, it will, however, be admitted, that, 
 when he had accepted the prelacy, he took great 
 pains to qualify himself for discharging its du- 
 ties, and conducted himself in hi? new station 
 with ability, firmness, and integrity. Having 
 disengaged himself from secular cares by be- 
 stowing his money upon the poor ; by settling 
 his lands upon the church, with the reserve of 
 making his sister tenant for life ; and by com- 
 
 mitting the care of his house and family to his 
 brother, he entered upon a course of theolo- 
 gical study with his fi iend Simplician, a presby- 
 ter of Rome, (Ambr. Ep. 2.) and occupied him- 
 self in ecclesiastical affairs. 
 
 About the year 377, while the irruption of 
 the Goths and other northern barbarians spread 
 terror through the Roman empire, Ambrose, to 
 escape the devastation which threatened Italv, 
 fled with many other persons to lllyricum. This 
 voluntary exile was not, however, of long con- 
 tinuance ; for the tribe of invaders who had 
 taken possession of Italy were defeated by the 
 forces of the emperor, and driven out of the 
 country. 
 
 Returned to the post of ecclesiastic duty, this 
 zealous prelate found ample scope tor the exer- 
 tion of all his talents and spirit, in the contest 
 which he held himself bound to maintain with 
 heresy. The doctrine of Arius concerning the 
 person of Christ, though not commonly re- 
 ceived as the orthodox faith, had found many 
 able defenders among the clergy, and some 
 powerful patrons among the laity. While Gra- 
 tian, the son of the elder Valentinian, a zealous 
 catholic, retained the faith of his father, and 
 gratefully accepted from Ambrose the instruc- 
 tion of his learned treatise " Concerning the 
 Faith ;" the younger Valentinian, now be- 
 come Gratian's colleague in the empire, was 
 trained up in tlie principles of Arianism by his 
 mother Justina, who, from the time of her 
 husband's death, had openly espoused the Arian 
 sect ; and all the attempts of the prelate to con- 
 vert the young prince to the catholic faith were 
 ineffectual. 
 
 Arianism, though discountenanced by Theo- 
 dosius the emperor of the east, had numerous 
 advocates among the clergy of the eastern 
 church. In the west, too, though the election 
 of Ambrose as successor to Auxentius had 
 given it a check, it was still ably supported. Two 
 of the leaders of this party, the bishops Palla- 
 dius and Secnndianus, persuaded that if the opi- 
 nions of the whole body of Ciiristian bishops 
 were fairly taken, the decision would turn out_ 
 in favour of Arianism, entreated Gratian to call 
 a general council from all parts of the Roman 
 empire. The request was so evidently reason- 
 able, that the emperor granted it without hesita- 
 tion. But Ambrose, who was aware of' the 
 hazard of putting the question upon this issue, 
 had the address to persuade Gratian, that a ge- 
 neral council was unnecessary, and that two 
 rotten heretics (so Palladius and Secundus were 
 styled in the subsequent council) inight be 'ea- 
 sily silenced in an assembly of the western cler-
 
 A M B 
 
 ( 227 ) 
 
 A M B 
 
 gV, A synod, consisting of chirtv-two bisliops, 
 was accordingly held, in the year j8i, at Aqui- 
 leia, and Ambrose was appointed president. 
 Palladius, called upon bv the assembly to defend 
 his cause, refused to enter into any discussion 
 in a partial meeting, in which a determined and 
 violent enemy to their cause presided, and in 
 which the general sense of the body of Chris- 
 tian bisliops could not be taken. Ambrose, af- 
 ter some slender evasions, in whicii he pleaded 
 precedent-; in favour of the competency of the 
 court, and urged that the oriental bishops, hav- 
 ing had notice of the meeting, miglit have at- 
 tended if they pleased, terminated the business 
 by the sure appeal to suffrage, and pronounced 
 \ipon the two bishops tlie sentence of ejection 
 fi'om the episcopal office. 
 
 If Ambrose thought himself justified in em- 
 ploying both artifice and violence to remove his 
 brethren from their functions, merely for differ- 
 ing from him in opinion on questions of pole- 
 mic theology, it vvill not bethought surprising, 
 that he exerted the whole force of his eloquence 
 and authority to prevent the grant of any kind 
 oi indulgence to the followers of the ancient pa- 
 gan religion. 
 
 Upon the accession of the young prince, Va- 
 lentinian II. to the empire, the party still at- 
 tached to paganism, among whom were many 
 of the senators, resolved to make a new at- 
 tempt to restore its credit and authority. Sym- 
 jnachus, their leader, a wealthy senator, at this 
 time prsefect of the city, on whose talents they 
 had great reliance, was, in the year 384, em- 
 ployed to prepare and present a petition for the 
 restoration of the altar of Victory to its ancient 
 place in the hall of the senate, and of the public 
 funds for the support of the seven Vestal vir- 
 gins, and their religious ceremonies. The pe- 
 tition was drawn up with great eloquence and 
 address. It requests the restoration of that form 
 of religion which had long been profitable to the 
 state : it reminds the emperor how much Rome 
 had been indebted to Victory : it pleads the ne- 
 cessity of preserving her altar, on which the se- 
 nators had been accustomed to swear, as the 
 pledge of fidelity to the public ; it api)eals to 
 facts, in proof of the -benefits derived to the 
 state from its religious institutions ; it argues, 
 that all men worship one divinity under diffe- 
 rent forms, established by custom, which ought 
 not to be forsaken ; it urges the injustice and 
 impolicv of augmenting the treasury at the ex- 
 pense of the priesthood; it ascribes the famine 
 which had distressed Italy to the neglect of that 
 provision for the priests, which is a primary 
 cause.of .the fertility of the eaith. (Symmachi 
 
 lib. X. epist. 54.) To this addrcs."! Ambrose re- 
 plied at large, in a letter to Valentiniau, in whicli 
 he argues, that the pagan deities often desci ted 
 their worshippers ; that Rome had iiccn more 
 indebted to the valour of her soldiers than to 
 the ceremonies of her priests, or tlie predictions 
 of her augurs ; that the pagans asked for them- 
 selves indulgence which they had refused to 
 Christians; tiiat voluntary virpjiitv, witliout a 
 recompense, was more meritorious than that 
 which was hired by the state; that the pat;an 
 priests could have no claim to temporal emolu- 
 ments, which were refused by Christian mini- 
 sters ; that the wealth taken from the heathen 
 priests was devoted to the poor ; that it was ab- 
 surd to ascribe a partial failure of provision to a 
 cause so remote as the neglect of superstitious 
 ceremonies, or to suppose that heaven wcndd 
 distress mankind with famine, because certain 
 priests liad been deprived of their livings ; tiiat 
 those divinities must have been little worthy of 
 homage, who were not able to defend their vo- 
 taries ; that the whole process of nature encou- 
 raged improvements and iimovations, and all na- 
 tions had allowed them even in religion ; that 
 heathen saci ifices were an insupportable ofTence 
 to pious Christians ; that it would be unjust to 
 oblige Christian senators to take the customary 
 oath on the altar of ^'ictory ; and, in fine,^hat 
 it was a debt which Christian princes owed t«> 
 their faith, not to give countenance to heathen 
 rites. (Ambr. tom. ii. epist. 17, 18; 30.) 
 
 Both in the petition and the reply, which are 
 preserved entire in the epistles of Svmmachus 
 and of Ambrose, a mind, accustomed to accu- 
 rate reasoning, will discover a strange mixture 
 of sophistrv and superstition with sound sense 
 and solid argument. If Svmmachus might 
 plead tlie right of the pag;ms, in common with 
 the Christians, to the free profession of their reli- 
 gion, under the protection of the civil power, 
 and the utility of permitting the continuance of 
 those ceremonies, by which the consciences of 
 men are bound to fidelity; he had no right to 
 claim for paganism the exclusive patronage of 
 the civil power on the jdca of antiquitv ; and 
 when he attempted to terrily the emperor into a 
 compliance with his request, by imputing the 
 calamities of the state to innovations in religion, 
 he deserved no other reply than ridicule. If Am- 
 brose might be justified in treating with con- ' 
 tempt the superstition, wiiich connected the 
 idea of efficacy with the heathen ceremonies, 
 and in opposing wiiii vehemence the legal re- 
 establishment of so absurd and pernicious a sy- 
 stem ; when he endeavoured to deprive the pa- 
 gans of, the protection of tlie state in the public
 
 A M B 
 
 ( 2^8 ) 
 
 A M B 
 
 exercise of their religious rites, and when he 
 represi.ntt.(l the performance of these ceremonies 
 as an insufterable offence to Christians, he 
 showed himself altogether ignorant of the true 
 principles of religious freedom, "fhese, how- 
 ever, were the common errors of the times, and 
 no peculiar blame ought to fall upon Ambrose 
 for not possessing an enlargement and liberality 
 of sentiment, for which the world was not then 
 prepared. It is scarcely necessary to add, that 
 the petition of Symmachus was rejected. 
 
 I'hc intolerant zeal oi' Ambrose met with a 
 more violent, but equal!-,- unsuecessiul, opposi- 
 tion within the pa!e of the church, from the 
 powert'ul sect of the 7\rians. Justina and the 
 young emperor, professing the Arian faith in 
 common with a considerable body of clergy and 
 laity, very reasonably demanded from the bi- 
 shop the use of two churches, one in the city, 
 the other in the suburbs of Milan. This de- 
 mand, made the week preceding the festival of 
 Easter, in the year 385, the prelate, who re- 
 garded the sacred edifices as exclusively the 
 property of the Catholic church, and bishops as 
 the appointed guardians of its temporal as well 
 spiritual interests, peremptorily refused, as im- 
 pious and sacrilegious, firmly declaring his re- 
 solution to die a martyr, rather than deliver up 
 the temple of the Lord into the hands of here- 
 tics. (Amb. epist. 20, 21, 22.) Justina, of- 
 fended at this refusal, which she regarded as an 
 insolent act of disloyalty, resolved to employ her 
 son's imperial authority in procuring by force 
 tliat which could not be obtained by more gen- 
 tle mear.s. Ambrose was summoned to ap- 
 pear before the council. He obeyed, but took 
 care to he accompanied by a numerous crowd 
 of people, whose impetuous ardour terrified 
 the ministers of Valentinian, and he was per- 
 mitted to depart without making the demanded 
 surrender. The next day, while he was per- 
 forming divine service in the Basilica, or New 
 Church, the prefect of the city came to per- 
 suade him, at least, to give up the Portian church 
 in the suburbs. Amidst the clamours of the 
 people, he persisted in his refusal. Notliing 
 now remained on the part of the court but the 
 exercise of the strong arm of power. Orders 
 were issued to the officers of the household, to 
 prepare first the Portian church, and afterwards 
 the Basilica, for the reception of the emperor 
 and his mother on the approaching festival of 
 Easter. Under the protection of a guard, to 
 keep off the populace, the order with respect to 
 the Portian was executed. Ambrose, while his 
 humanity prompted him to rescue an Arian ec- 
 clesiastic out of the hands of an enraged mob 
 
 who threatened his life, did not, however, re- 
 frain from preaching inflammatory di courses, 
 in which he compared Justina to Jezabel and 
 Herodias, and represented the present proceed- 
 ings of the court as a cruel persecution of the 
 catholic church. The prelate was supported 
 not only by the tumultuous cry of the numerous 
 populace, but bv a majority of the most respect- 
 able citizens. The court perceived his strength, 
 and thought it prudent, after trying violent mea- 
 sures without success, to have recourse again 
 to solicitation : but their importunity only ren- 
 dered him more tenacious ot his supposed ec- 
 clesiastical rights, and he resolutely replied: 
 " If you demand my patrimony, which is de- 
 voted to the poor, take it : it you demand my 
 person, I am ready to submit : carry me to pri- 
 son, or to death, I will not resist ; but I will 
 never bctiay the church of Christ. I will not 
 call upon the people to succour me ; I will die 
 at the foot of the altar rather than desert itw 
 The tumult of the people I will not encourage, 
 but God alone can appease." (Epist. 20.) This 
 declaration was followed by sermons, strongly 
 asserting the exclusive power of the catholic 
 bishops over the churches, and expressly deny- 
 ing the riglit of the emperor even to the use of 
 a church for himself. (Sermo de Basilicis non 
 tradendis.) Valentinian and his court were by 
 no means convinced by the arguments, or dis- ■ 
 posed to subrnit to the tyranny, of this resolute 
 ecclesiastic. Another attempt was made to seise- 
 the Basilica. A body of Goths, who, from 
 their Arian principles and ferocious spirit, might 
 be expected to execute their commission effec- 
 tually, advanced towards the church. On the 
 threshold they were met by the courageous Am- 
 brose, who, thundering out a threat of excom-r 
 munication, asked them, By what authority 
 they presumed to invade the house of God ? 
 Superstitious terror held them in suspense: the 
 intended assault was given up ; the catholics 
 were left in quiet possession of all the churches 
 of Milan, and ecclesiastical tyraiiny was, for 
 the present, triumphant ; not, however, with- 
 out leaving deep resentment in the breast of 
 Justina, and drawing from her son a passion- 
 ate exclamation, that he was betrayed into the 
 hands of an insolent priest. 
 
 An attempt was, about this time, made by 
 the adveisaries of Ambrose to bring the theolo- 
 gical dispute between the catholics and Arians 
 to a public discussion. A second Auxentius, 
 from the east, who had been appointed bishop 
 over the Arians in Milan instead of the former, 
 challenged Ambrose to a disputation in the pre- 
 sence of the emperor, and of certain jtodges to
 
 A 11 B 
 
 ( 229 ) 
 
 A M B 
 
 be chosen on each part. Ambrose, not, pro- 
 bably, from ilistrust of his cai'se, but of his 
 judges, declined the contest, ami jilcadcd in ex- 
 cuse, that matters of faith could only be deter- 
 mined in ecclesiastical councils, and tliat bish(,ps 
 only ought to have tlie cognisance of cpiscupal 
 causes. (Anibr. Orat. in Auxcnt.) 
 
 Oi.e principal cause of Ainbiose's triuni|'h 
 over his opponents, doubtless, was the warm in- 
 terest which he possessed in the affections of tiie 
 common iieojjlc. Besides the general influence, 
 which he derived from tlie superstitious leve- 
 rence at this time univer ally paid to the episco- 
 pal character, he devised various expedients to 
 win their hearts, and guide their passions. A 
 numerous bai.d of indigent persons 'were pen- 
 sioners on his bounty. In his " Commentaries 
 upon the Scriptures," allusions and applications 
 to existing characters and cncumstanccs were 
 perpetually introduced. The devotion of the 
 people was wonderfully excited by the alternate 
 or resporisorv mode of singing?; in the churches, 
 at this time brought into Italy from the east. 
 (August. Conf. lib. ix. c. 6, 7. Ambr. Orat. 
 in Auxent.) On several occasions, the super- 
 stitious credulity of the populace was assaulted 
 by pious frauds. At the moment when the 
 situation of Ambrose required ail the support of 
 popularity, he was fortunately directed by a 
 dream to the remains of two martyrs, Gerva- 
 sius and Protasius, which had lain upwards of 
 three hundred years under the pavement of the 
 church. Two perfect skeletons were found, 
 fre;hly sprinkled with blood, with the head of 
 one separated from the body. (Ambr. torn. ii. 
 epist. 22.) The peopie crowded to behold these 
 holy relics. A blind man, who was permitted 
 to touch the bier witli his handkerchief, was re- 
 stored to sight: several demoniacs, and other 
 sick persons, who touched the bodies, were 
 cured. Ambrose appealed to these miracles in 
 his sermons, and his hearers believed them to be 
 real. The Arians, it Is true, denied their reali- 
 ty; and Justina and her court derided diem, as 
 theatrical representations, by the contrivance, 
 and at the expense, of fhc bishop ; but Ambrose 
 execrated their obstinacy and incredulity, and 
 charged them with greater infidelity than the 
 very devi's that were cast out, who " believed 
 and trembled :" the people were satisfied, and 
 the prela e esiablished an authority, with which 
 it was in vain for the civil power to contend. It 
 is remarkhble, that these miracles are atte: ted not 
 only by Ambrose, (Ep. 85.) but by Augustine 
 (Confess, lib ix. c. 7.) and Paulinus, (Vit. 
 Ambr.^ who were then resident in Milan ; and 
 it is scarcely less remarkable, that, till Dr. 
 
 Middlcton wrote his '• Free Inquiry," th.se 
 miracles, and innumerable others, said to h ivc 
 been performed in the .second, third, and fourth 
 centuries, obtained general credit among Ciiris- 
 tian writers. Dr. Cave, in his " J.ives of the 
 Fathers," speaking of the miracles just related, 
 says, " I make no doubt but God sulfered tli.m 
 to be v/rought, at this time, on purpose to con- 
 front the Arian impieties." 
 
 Advcise as J'jsiina and the court were to the 
 religious principles and ecclesiastical conduct of 
 this prelate, they respected his talents, and, in 
 circumstances of extreme political exigency, 
 more than once solicited his assistance : and it 
 is a proof of the geiierositv of his disposition, 
 not to be mentioned withouthigh respect, tliat, 
 in the moment of jiiiblic danger, l;e laid aside his 
 personal rcsentinents, and served his country 
 with fidelity. A few years before, in 383, 
 when Maxcntius, who had usurped the su- 
 preme power in Gaul, was prcpaiing, after the 
 assassination of Gratian, to march for Italy, 
 Ambrose was sent by Valcntiuian on an embassy 
 to the tyrant, and found ineans to dissuade him 
 froin passing the Alps. Now, a second time, 
 when Maxentius, in the year 387, was again 
 making preparations for invading Italy, our 
 prelate, under the imperial authority, (Ep. 27. 
 ad Valentin.) undertook tb.e same office, and 
 executed it, though not with the same success, 
 yet with equal dignity and zeal. If his address 
 was not conciliatory, it at least bore strong 
 marks of honesty and intrepidity ; and, had the 
 council of Milan li>tened to the suggestions of 
 Ambro e on hi- return, they might have been 
 armed against the perfidy of Maxentius, and 
 Italy might, perhaps, have escaped the desola- 
 tion wliich soon followed. The conqueror 
 marched, without opposition, into the heart of 
 Italy, and entered Milan in triuinph. Justina 
 and her son fled, with precipitation, from the 
 country, and, putting themselves under the pro- 
 tection of Theodosius, emperor of the east, 
 took up a temporary residence in the port 
 of Thessalonica. But Ambrose, whose cou- 
 rage never deserted him, remained at his post ; 
 and, during the calamities occasioned by the 
 depredations of a victorious army, gave an il- 
 lustrious proof of his huinanity, in ordering the 
 valuable plate, belonging to the church, to be 
 converted into money, and distributed among 
 the unfortunate sufi'erers. 
 
 While Theodosius, whose victorious army 
 had reinstated Valcntinian in his kingdom, was 
 in Italy, in 388, he received an account of an 
 act of violence and iniu-^tice which had been 
 committed against the jews by a Clwistian bi»
 
 A M B 
 
 ( 
 
 230 
 
 ) 
 
 A M B 
 
 shop, who had ordered one of their synagogues 
 to be burned. (Paulin. Vit. Anibr. Zoiiar. 
 Annul, torn, iii.) Th» emperor immediately 
 sent order."! that the Rv'iagogiic should be rebuilt 
 at the expcn-e of tlic bishop. The sentence 
 was equitable, and the candour which dictated 
 it merited applause. Ambrofie, whose charity 
 never stepped beyond the narrow inclosure ot 
 the catholic clnirch, was highly dispLascd with 
 the emperor's conduct in this affair, and, in a 
 letter which he wrote from Aquiieia, repre- 
 sented it as a grievous scandal, that the revenues 
 of the church should be employed in erecting a 
 Jewish temple. l( he permitted this order to be 
 executed, the Jews, he said, might write upon 
 the \\alis of the synagogue this inscription, 
 " Templum Impietatis factum de Manubiis 
 Christianorum," (Ep. 29.) [The Temple of Im- 
 piety, erected from tlie Spoils of Christians.] 
 He justified the action of the bishop who had 
 destroyed the synagogue, on the plea, that the 
 Jews liad often been guilty of similar practices 
 towards Christians. In fine, he tlireatens the 
 emperor with exclusion from the altar, unless he 
 reverse the edict. \Vonderful is the power of 
 religious bigotry to confound men's ideas of 
 right and wrong ! The bishop saw no injustice 
 in destroying the property of a Jew ; and 
 the emperor, blinded hy his sophistry, fancied 
 that he had done wrong in ordering an injury to 
 be repaired, and reversed his edict. Ambrose 
 appears with more advantage in the next trans- 
 action. 
 
 In a tumult which soon afterwards, in the 
 year 390, happened at Thessalonica, Botheric, 
 one of the generals in the army of Theodosius, 
 with some other officers, was killed. The em- 
 peror, who then resided at Milan, received the 
 intelligence of this audacious and cruel outrage 
 with extreme indignation ; and, irritated still 
 further by the suggestions of an artful favourite, 
 ■Rufinus, he sent an order for a general mas- 
 sacre of the Thessalonians. The order was 
 executed with horrible fidelity ; and at least 
 seven thousand persons fell in one promiscuous 
 carnage. (Amhr. torn. ii. ep. 51, 28. Augustin. 
 de Civir. Dei, lib. v. c. 26. Paulin. Vit. Ambr. 
 Sozomen. lib, vii. c. 25. Theodoret. lib. v. c. 
 ■17, 18. Zonaras, lib. xiii.) Ambrose, when 
 he was informed of this dreadful act of revenge, 
 was deeply impressed with horror and anguish, 
 and wrote to tlie emperor a letter of severe re- 
 proof and solemn admonition, in which he 
 W|arned him not to approach the holy commu- 
 nion with hands polluted with innocent blood. 
 Theodosius, in the anguish of self-reproach, 
 vras going into the great church, of Milan to 
 
 perform his devotions, when he was met at the 
 porch by the bishop, who, with the stern au- 
 thority of a minister of heaven, forbade him to 
 enter the holy place. The emperor pleaded, in 
 extenuation of his offence, that David, the man 
 after God's own heart, had been guilty both of 
 murder and adultery. His faithful monitor bold- 
 ly replied, " You have imitated David in his 
 crime: imitate him in his repentance." Theo- 
 dosius obeyed, and, during eight months, re- 
 mained in penitential retirement. He was then 
 admitted to the spiritual privileges of absolution 
 and communion ; but not till he had signed an 
 edict, (Cod. Theod. lib. iii. tit. 40.) which re- 
 quired that an interval of thirty days sliould 
 pass, before any sentence of death, or even con- 
 fiscation, should be executed : a wise precau- 
 tion against the effects of sudden passion, which 
 reflected honour upon the good sense and hu- 
 manity which prescribed it. If philosophy 
 should despise the super titious weakness which 
 put the conscience of the prince into the hands 
 of his priest, it must applaud the use which was 
 in this instance made of spiritual power, to as- 
 sert the rights, and support the cause, of hu- 
 manity. si sic omnia ! 
 
 The inflexible courage of Ambrose was 
 again put to the test, when, in the year 393, 
 after the assassination of Valentinian, the em- 
 pire of the west was usurped by the ignoble 
 Eugenius. With a manly spirit, the prelate re- 
 fused to enter into alliance with the usurper, 
 (Ambr. torn. ii. ep. 15.) and withdrew from 
 Milan: yet, when the victorious army of Theo- 
 dosius regained the empire, he generously in- 
 terceded with the emperor for tlie pardon of 
 tho e who had attached themselves to the in- 
 terest of Eugenius. 
 
 Having paid funeral honours to the memory 
 of Theodosius, who died at Milan soon after lie 
 had obtained the peaceable possession of the en- 
 tire Roman empire, Ambrose did not long sur- 
 vive his sovereign. After a short illness, during 
 which he preserved perfect composure of mind, 
 declaring to his friends, that he had not so con- 
 ducted himself as either to be ashamed to live, 
 or afraid to die, he took leave of the world. 
 His death happened in the year 397. 
 
 Between the extremes of superstitious vene- 
 ration and indi criminate contempt with wliicli 
 the characters of the Christian fathers have been 
 treated, it is no easy task to find the exact point 
 from which tliey may be accurately contem- 
 plated, and fairly appreciated. With respect to 
 the subject of the present memoir, we may safe- 
 ly dismiss, as altogether unworthy of credit, 
 many marvellous tales with which his history is
 
 A M B 
 
 ( 
 
 231 
 
 ) 
 
 A M B 
 
 encumbered. Few persons. In the present d;iy, 
 will give themselves the tiouble to in(|uirc into 
 the aiithenticitv of tlie stories, gravelv related by 
 Pauiiiius, Cave, and others, of the swarm of 
 bees that gently settled upon his face, while an 
 infant in his cradle ; of the paralytic woman, at 
 Rome, who, while he was praying by her lied- 
 side, was instantaneously cured ; of the two Afian 
 gentlemen, who, having oH-ered him an affront, 
 were, at the same instant, thrown from their 
 horse-; and killed ; and the bloody bones of the 
 saints Protasius and Gervasius, and the cures 
 they performed through the medium of hand- 
 kerchiefs ; of the globe of fire, which, in his 
 last illness, covered his head, and then crept in- 
 to his mouth, leaving his face as white as snow; 
 and, lastly, of the voice, which, just before he 
 expired, cried out three times, in the hearing of 
 a bishop, " Arise, and hasten to him, for he is 
 departing." 'i'Jie manner 'in which Ambrose 
 came into the church, and several particulars of 
 his management in acquiring popularity, will 
 scarcely permit us to exculpate him from the 
 charge of dishonest artifice. Of his intolerant 
 and persecuting spirit, his conduct towards pa- 
 gans, Jews, and h.eretics, leaves no roimi to en- 
 tertain a doubt. Nor is it easy to believe, , that 
 the pertinacity with which he held fast the ex- 
 clusive privileges of the catholic church, and the 
 high tone in which he prescribed, in civil as 
 well as ecclesiastical affairs, to the supreme ma- 
 gistrate, was merely dictated by a sense of duty, 
 without any mixture of pride and arrogance. 
 Nevertheless, the memory of this prelate is en - 
 titled to respect for the inflexible firmness with 
 which he on all occasions delivered his senti- 
 ments, and di,scharged his duty ; for the dili- 
 gence with which he performed the offices of 
 the church ; for his unbounded liberality to the 
 poor ; for the genero.ity which he, in several 
 instances, showed towards his adversaries ; and 
 for his zeal in the cause of humanity. In short, 
 Ambrose appears to have possessed great natu- 
 ral strength of understanding, and an invincible 
 energy and firmness of mind, and, in his; na- 
 tural disposition and general habits, to have 
 been amiable and virtuous, and seldom to have 
 acted wrong, except when he was misled by 
 professional ambition, or religious bigotry. 
 
 The writings of Ambrose are numerous ; 
 but many of them are link more than transcripts 
 from the Greek fathers, particularly Origen. 
 The great object of all his works appears to 
 have been, to maintain and establish the faith 
 and discipline of the catholic church. Several 
 .of his treatises are written, to recommend pcr- 
 
 pctnal celiliacy as (he summit of Christian per- 
 fection. His books, on this suliject, are, " iJc 
 Virginibus," written for the benefit of his sis- 
 ter Maitellina; " De Virginis Institutionc," a 
 discourse, to prove the perpetual virginity of the 
 mother of Christ, against ihe heresv of Bono- 
 sus, who maintained, that, after his birth, Ma- 
 ry was no longer a virgin ; " Exhortatio Vir- 
 ginitatis," a sermon, preached at Florence. 
 Other theological tracts, among the works of 
 Ambrose, are, " De Mvsteriis ;" " De Pceni- 
 tentia ;" " De Saccrdotali Dignitate ;" " De 
 Fide," a defence of tlie divinity of Christ, 
 written for the instruction of the emperor Gra- 
 tian. His book " De Officiis," chiefly in- 
 tended to explain the duties of Christian mini- 
 sters, is perha])S the most valuable of Am- 
 brose's works : it ii drawn up after tlie method 
 of Cicero's " Offices," and, with much that is 
 merely professional, contains many good moral 
 sentiments concisely and pointedly expressed. 
 The rest of the pieces may be classed luidcr the 
 heads of " Commentaries on the Scriptures," 
 in which the author chiefly follows the absuid 
 method of allegorical interpretation ; " Ser- 
 mons," or homilies, of which the number is 
 small ; and " Ejiisiles." in eight books, which 
 cast much light upon the history of his life and 
 times Modern judgment may pronounce ma- 
 ny of the sentiments of Ambrose to be absurd, 
 ti ivial, or ludicrous : but there is a terseness and 
 smartness in his style, similar, though inferior, . 
 to that of Seneca, which may render his works . 
 not altogether unworthy of perusal. Perhaps 
 the censure of Mr. Gibbon is too severe : 
 " Ambrose could act better than he could write ; 
 his compositions are destitute of taste or genius, 
 without the spirit of Tertullian, the copious 
 elegance of Lactantius, the lively wit of Je- 
 rom, or the grave energy of Augustin." 
 
 The first editi(jn of his works was published, 
 without date or place, bv- MaiFellus Venia : the 
 second at Milan, by Cribcllius, in 1490: in 
 1492 they were printed at Basil by Amberba- 
 chius. Erasmus undertook a new edition, 
 printed at Basil in 1527, 1538, and 1555, and 
 at Palis, 1 529. Cardinal Montalto, after- 
 wards pope Sixtus V. professed to give a cor- 
 rect edition at Rome, wliicli appeared, in six 
 successive volumes, between the years 1579 
 and 1587. This edition was found to be de- 
 fective and faulty, and was superseded by the 
 edition of the Benedictine monks, printed at 
 Palis, in two volumes tolio, in 1682, and re- 
 printed in i6go. This edition is esteemed to be 
 very accurate and complete. Fita jdmbr. Pau'
 
 A M E 
 
 ( 232 ) 
 
 A M E 
 
 rini. Fie par Us Benedict, apud Op. Dupin. 
 Cav Hat. Lit. Cave's Lives of the Fathers. 
 Gil-bons Hist. c. 27. Aloreii. — E. 
 
 AMBROSIUS AURELIANUS, a general, 
 and aticiwauls king oflhc Britons, is supposed 
 to have been son oi' one of the kings chosen by 
 the Britons after the departure of the Romans, 
 and to have been of half Roman blood. He 
 \\as educated at the court of Aldroen, king of 
 Annorica, whence, at the request of the Bri- 
 tons, lie was sent over, about the year 457, with 
 a body of ten thousand men, to assise them 
 against the Saxons, who liad been called in by 
 Vortigern. His success was so great, that, af- 
 ter the death or abdication of Vortigern, Am- 
 brosius, probably already king of the Danmf)- 
 nii bv the death of his father, was elected to the 
 pendragonsliip or sovereignty of all England. 
 In this liigh office he greatly distinguished him- 
 self byhii valour against foreign enemies, and 
 his civil abilities in regulating the affairs of the 
 kingdom. The famous Arthur was trained 
 to war under him, and obtained several victo- 
 ries against the nortlicrn Saxons during his 
 reign. Ambrosius at length, according to Cieoi 
 frey of Monmouth, died at Winchester of poi- 
 son administered by a Saxon in the disguise of 
 a physician ; but the more common opinion is, 
 that he was killed in a greatbattle, fougluin 508, 
 against Ccrdic, a general of the West-Saxons. 
 Geoffrey makes him the foimder of Stone- henge ; 
 but his narration of this event is evidently fabu- 
 lous. Biogr. Brit. IVhitakcr's Hist, of Man- 
 chester. — .A. 
 
 AMEDEUS, a monlc, bishop of Lausanne, 
 flourished about the middle of the twelfth cen- 
 tury. He wa; the author of " Sermons in 
 Praise of the ^'irgin Mary," printed at Basil in 
 1537, and at Antwerp in i6co, and inserted in 
 the " Biblintheca Patrum." Dupin. — E. 
 
 AMELIUS, Gentilianus, a Platonic 
 philosopher of the third century, was a na- 
 tive of Tuscany. He was early instructed 
 in philosophy by Lysimachus, a Stoic. Ac- 
 quiring, in the course of his studies, a great 
 fondness for the writings of Plato, he, in the 
 year 24c, became a disciple of Plotinus at 
 Rome. He remained the pupil and friend of 
 that celebrated preceptor riventy-four years ; dur- 
 ing the last six of which, Porphyry was his 
 •companion. It was a strong proof of the simi- 
 larity of his talents and opinions to those of Plo- 
 tinus, that he was emi)loyed by him to solve 
 difEculties proposed by his disciples, and to re- 
 fute the objections and calumnies of his enemies. 
 He made large collections from the lectures and 
 
 disputations of the schools. He then ventured 
 to \vi itc his own tliougins, and produced a large 
 woik, which, in forty distinct books, refuted 
 Zostrianus, a Christian heretic, who confound- 
 ed the doctrines of the gospel with those of the 
 pln'losophers. He also wrote, in vindication of 
 liis master against a charge of plagiarism, a 
 pii.ce, " On the DiiFercnce between the Doc- 
 trine of Numenius and that of Plotinus." Lon- 
 ginus censures his wriiings as verbose, but ad- 
 mits that they merited attention. The produc- 
 tions of this philosopher are lost, but a passage 
 is cited from him by Eusebius, (Prasp. Evang. 
 lib. ii. c. 19.) and also by Theodoret, (Gr.-cc. 
 AtPect. lib. ii.) and Cyril, (In Julian, lib. viii.) 
 in which he quotes tlie beginning of the gospel 
 of Joiin in confirmation of Plato's doctrine 
 concerning the divine nature. Porphyr. Fit. 
 Plotin. c. 7. Eunapius. Suidus. Baylc. Bruck- 
 er. — E,. 
 
 AMELOT DE LA HoussAYE, a French 
 author of some note in the seventeenth century, 
 was horn at Oilcans in the year 1634. He was 
 formed under the president of St. Andre, am- 
 bassador at Venice, who employed him as his 
 secretary. He was a man of austere manners, 
 and a harsh writer. His condition of life was a 
 little above indigence ; and he was frequently 
 indebted to the bounty of hi , friends. He died at 
 Paris in the year 1706. He wrote with great 
 freedom on political subjects. Of his works, 
 written in French, the principal are, " A Trans- 
 lation of Father Paul's History of the Council 
 of Trent," 4to. 1686, well-esteemed before the 
 translation of Courayer a])pearecl : " A Trans- 
 lation of Machiavel's Prince," in i2mo. with 
 notes, intended to vindicate that writer from the 
 reproach of having taught assassination and poi- 
 soning : " A 1'ranslation of Gratian's Cour- 
 tier," in i2mo. with moral and political reflec- 
 tions : " A Translation of the Annals of Taci- 
 tus," chiefly valuable for its political notes : 
 " The History of the Governinent of Venice," 
 in three volumes i2mo. printed in 1714, with an 
 " Inquiry into the Original Liberty of Ve- 
 nice, tran lated from tlie Italian ;" a faithful his- 
 tory, which gave great offence to the Venetian 
 senate : " The Morals of Tacitus, extracted 
 from his Annals," in i2mo. a work which Itas 
 been much read : " Memoirs Historical, Politi- 
 cal, Critical and Literary," in three volumes, 
 I2mo. a posthumous publication, ill-written, 
 but abounding with satirical anecdotes. Moreri. 
 Nouv. Dict.^ Hist. — E. 
 
 AMELO'I"'lE, Denys, born at Saintes, in 
 1606, a ptiest of the Oratory, is chiefly known
 
 A M E 
 
 ( 
 
 
 ) 
 
 A M E 
 
 r 
 
 as the author of a " Translation of tlic New 
 Testament in French, with Notes." The 
 work was publislied in four vohimes, 8vo. in 
 1666. He boasted in the preface to the first 
 edition, that he had consulted the manuscripts 
 ot the Vatican, and many others, but afterwards 
 confessed that he had never seen any of tliem. 
 He also wrote, " An Abridgment of Theo- 
 logy," in 4to. and " A H;irniony of tlie Go- 
 spels," in i2mo. published inFrerich,iu 1669; 
 and in Latin, in 1670. Amelotte died at Paris 
 in tiic year 1678. Moieri. Nouv. Diet. 
 
 AMERBACH, John, a learned printer, was 
 a native ot Reutling in Suabia, and practised his 
 art with great reputation at Basil. He primed 
 with great correctness tlie works of Augustin, 
 which first appeared in print tiom his press, in 
 1506. He began an edition of Jerom, but died 
 before it was completed. It is to him we are 
 indebted for the introduction of tlie beautiful and 
 useful Roman type, instead of the Gothic and 
 Italian. A'loreri. Kotw. Diet. Hist, — E. 
 
 AiMERIGO. See Vespucci. 
 
 AMES, Joseph, an industrious antiqua- 
 rian, was originally a ship-chandler in Wap- 
 j)ing, and did not apply to the study of antiqui- 
 ties till late in life. He made himself known 
 chiefly by his " Typographical Antiquities ; 
 being an Historical Account of Printing in Eng- 
 land, with some Meinoirs of our ancient Printers, 
 and a Register of Books printed by them, from 
 the Year 147 1 to the Year 1600, with an 
 A]ipendix concerning Printing in Scotland and 
 Ireland, to the present Time, 1749," 4ro. 
 This is reckoned an accurate and usefid work, 
 and is often quoted. He also published, in 8vo. 
 " A List of English Heads, engraved and mez- 
 zotinto ;" and he drew up the " Parentalia," 
 from Wren's papers. He was made secretary 
 to the society of antiquaries, and died in 1759. 
 Nic/iois's JiiecJotcs of Bo-juycf. — A. 
 
 AMES, "William, an English divine, ce- 
 lebrated as a learned and ingenious controversial 
 writer, was descended from an ancient family 
 of that name, of which there are remains in 
 Norfolk and Somersetshire, and was born in the 
 year 1576. He was educated at Cambridge, 
 in Christ Church college, under Willi'im Per- 
 kins, from whom, probably, he imbibed the 
 Calvinlstic and puritanic notions which distin- 
 guished his subsequent writings. That he was 
 strongly tinctured with the spirit of puritanism 
 before he left the university, appears from the 
 account (Fuller's Hist, of Cambridge, fol. 
 1695, p. 159) which he gives a friend of a 
 sermon which he preached in the year 1 610 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 before the university in St. Mary's church. 
 " Being in possession, for an hour, of the 
 watchman's place in the tower of the university, 
 he employed the hour in inveighing against 
 many liberties taken at that time, particularly 
 against playing at cards and dice He affitmed, 
 that dice had been in all ages accounted the de- 
 vice of the devil, and that as (jod inventtd the 
 on(-a>id-tivcnty letters whereof he made the bi- 
 ble, the devil found out the one-and-lwenty 
 spots on the die; adding that canon law forbad 
 the use thereof, seeing that an invention of the 
 devil can be established by no custom. (Inven- 
 tio diaboli nulla consuetudinc potest validari.)" 
 What reformation this blunt admrinition pro- 
 duced, we are not informed : its harsh and rigid 
 tone gave so much offence to the cars of his 
 learned auditors, thtit Ames found it neccssa- 
 try to withdraw from the university, in or- 
 der to avoid the disgrace of an expulsion. The 
 same year, he publi'-hed, in Latin, a treatise in 
 defence of puritsnism, imder the title of " Pu- 
 ritanismus Anglicanus," in which he extols the 
 ])uritans as the only good men in England, be- 
 cause they alone avoid plays, oaths, dancing, 
 dice, and feasting, while the rest arc famous 
 gamesters, potent drinkers, vile swearers, and, 
 in short, sons of Belial ; so that no other alter- 
 native remained, but either " to suppress episco- 
 pacy, or to bring back the pope from hell" 
 [vel ementitum hunc ejiiscopum ordinem, vel 
 denuo papam revocandum ah orco]. 
 
 Such gross and vulgar abuse, which was too 
 common at this time, could only >erve to dis- 
 grace one partv and irritate the other. 
 
 Soon after Ames left Cambridge, he went 
 over to Holland, and seems to ha\e been for 
 some time resident at the Hague, as minister of 
 the English church in that place. In 1613, 
 he began a public disputation with Grevincho- 
 vius, the minister of Rotterdam, on the doc- 
 trines of election and redcmjition, and after- 
 wards carried on the dispute from the press. 
 The ability and learning which he discovered 
 in this controversy, and in other polemic wiit"- 
 ings, in which he defended the Calvinists against 
 the Arminians, induced the states of Friesland 
 to invite him to the divinitv-chair in the uni- 
 versity of Fiancker. He accepted the invita- 
 tion, and for twelve years oicujiied tlie post 
 with reputation. In 1618 Ames attended the 
 synod of Dort, and informed king James's 
 ambassador, from time to time, ot what passed 
 in that assembly. The latter part of his life 
 was passed at Rotterdam, where he preached to 
 a congregation of his countrymen, and where, 
 in tiie year. 1633, be died. 
 2 H
 
 A M I 
 
 ( ^34 ) 
 
 A M M 
 
 Ames daring his life was a warm advo- 
 cate fortlie Ciilvinistic systcin of faith, and the 
 independent form of church discipline, and was 
 much celebrated for hi^; skill in solving difficult 
 cases of conscience. On these subjects he left 
 many treatises, which, thougii now almost for- 
 gotten, and thougl\, perhaps, never much no- 
 ticed in this country, obtained liim considerable 
 reputation abroad, as an able controversialist, 
 and a skilful casuist. Though a narrow-minded 
 zealot, he possessed popular talents, and was a 
 learned man. His principal writings are, " Pii- 
 ritanismns Anglicanus," 8vo. 1610, printed in 
 English, in London, 1641. " Disceptatio Scho- 
 lastica, inter N. Grevinchovium et G. Aine- 
 sium," 8vo. Ams. 1613. " Disputatio altera," 
 Rett. 8vo. 16 1 5. " Coronis ad Collationem 
 Hagicnsem," lamo. Lugd. Bat. 1618, writ- 
 ten against the Arminians. " Medulla Tlieo- 
 logica," i2mo. Franek. 1623, Amst. 1627, Sec. 
 in English, London, 4to. " De Incarnatione 
 Vcrbi," 8vo. franek. 1626, against the Soci- 
 nians. " Bellarminus enervatus," 8vo. Amst. 
 1627. Oxon. 1629, &c. against the papias. 
 " De Conscientia," lamo. Amst. 1630, and in 
 English, under the title of " A Treatise on 
 Conscience," 4to. 1643. " Antisynodalia," 
 &c. i2mo. Franek. 1629. Amst. 1633, against 
 the Remonstrants. " Demonstratio Logics 
 verae," i2mo. Lugd. Bat. 1632. " Disputa- 
 tio Theologica," against metaphysics. " Tech- 
 nomctria," Amst. 8vo. 1632, on the purpose 
 and bound of arts. " Reply to Bishop Morton," 
 on ceremonies ; " Fresh Suit against Ceremo- 
 nies," and other pieces in the same contro- 
 versy. "Christians Catechesiu; Sciographia," 
 Franek. 1635. " Lectiones in Psalmos Da- 
 vidis," 8^o. Amst. 1635. This last posthumous 
 work was dedicated to the magistracy of Rot- 
 terdam, by Hugh Peteis, with whom Ames was 
 colleague in the English church of that city. 
 Nea/f's Hist, of Puritans. Biog. Brit. Grain- 
 ^et's Rio^. Hist. ch. i. cl 4. — E. 
 
 AMIN. '1 his degenerate son and successor 
 of liie great caliph Haroun-al-Raschid, is only 
 worthy of commemoration on account of the 
 singular supineness and apathy with which he 
 met liisruin. His proper name was Mohammed 
 ■A'lv.sa., towhich j4/ ^min, or the Fatt/iful, was 
 an addition. He succeeded his father in 809, 
 on the conditicn that his brother, Al Mamon, 
 should have the crown after him. While prince, 
 Al Amin had shown very unworthy dispositions, 
 and a total disregard to every serious concern ; 
 arid, vvhtn sovereign, he onlvusedliis authority 
 to indulge more freely in gaming, women^^nd 
 wine. He attempted to exclude his brother from 
 
 the succession, and, in other respects, behaved 
 to him so as to drive him to open hostilities. 
 (See the life of Almamon.) When news was 
 brought him of tlie approach of Thaher, Al- 
 mamon's gencr;il, to Bagdad, after having taken 
 Hamadan, Al Aniin was amusing liimself with 
 anL;ling. " l^o not disturb me (said he to the 
 messenger) ; for my freedmanKouter has already 
 caught two fish, and I have not taken one." 
 Dui-ingthe very attack of Bagdad, and after the 
 enemy had taken an important post, tlie caliph 
 was found by his ministers playing tranquilly at 
 chess ; and he desired they would let him alone, 
 for he was just going to give his adversary 
 check -mate. Such a prince was not likely long 
 to retain tlie attachment of his subjects, though 
 he was extremely profuse in his gitts to his fa- 
 vourites. After Bagdad was taken, he fled to 
 Old Bagdad, wliich was soon invested by Tha- 
 her. A short time before its surrender, he sent 
 for one of his singing girls to entertain him ; 
 and the verses she sung being considered by 
 him as prophetic of his approaching end, he 
 cried with a sigh, " When destiny defeats our 
 projects, all precautions are useless." He at- 
 tempted, however, to escape, and put himself 
 into the hands of Harthema, a general whom he 
 dreaded less than Thaller ; and, for that pur- 
 pose, embarked on tlie Tigris in a small shal- 
 lop ; but his design beins discovered, the boat 
 was sunk, and he was "taken, with a ragged 
 mantle about his shoulders, and dragged to a 
 neighbouring house. Here, by the orders of 
 Thaher, his head was cut off and sent to Al- 
 mamon. This event happened in the fifth year 
 of his reign, ami thirtieth of his age. D' Her- 
 bclot. Afod. llnivcrs. Hist. — A. 
 
 AMMAN, John Conrad, a physician of 
 the seventeenth century, deserves recording as 
 the principal author of a scientific method of 
 teaching the deaf and dumb to speak. He was 
 a native of Schaffhausen, in Switzerland, and 
 graduated at Basil in 1687. -^^ would have 
 obtained a professorial chair in his own coun- 
 try, had he not been attached to peculiar notions 
 in religion, on account of which he settled in 
 Holland, where he lived in a rural retreat. His 
 most celebrated work was first written in Dutch, 
 with the title of " Surdus loquens," Sec. 
 printed at Haerlem in 1692. A Latin transla- 
 tion of it, with the additional title of " Di.sser- 
 tatio dc Loquelii," appeared at Amsterdam, 8vo. 
 1708 ; and at Leyden, corrected and enlarged, 
 8'. o. 1727. It was also translatetl into English 
 and German. The method, described in it, was 
 founded upon an exquisite observation of the 
 organs by which every sound is formed, and 
 
 m 
 
 _♦,.
 
 A M M 
 
 C ^^5 ) 
 
 A M M 
 
 their several nctior.s, which lie caused the iliimb 
 to iinitate, ai.d to iindtist;ind in the ]>ioni]ncia- 
 tion ot othcis. He also acciiratcly invcstigatid 
 the causes of all detects of speech, and laid 
 down rules for their cure. He .howed equal 
 patience in putting his methods into practice, as 
 he had done ingenuity in discovering them ; and 
 restored to society many persons, of all condi- 
 tions, who had been secluded from it in conse- 
 quence ot tlitir impediment. His work is e- 
 steemed a most excellent one of the kind, and he 
 has the glory of having brought his art to all the 
 perfcctinn of which it seems capable. Halhr, 
 BihI. Jtiat. et Med. Pratt. — A. 
 
 AMMAN ATI, B A RTHoLoMEo, a celebrated 
 sculptor and architect, was born at Florence in 
 1511, and studied sculpture in his native city 
 under Bandinclli, and afterwards at ^'enice un- 
 der Sansovino. He became, at the same time, 
 ex'cellently skilled in aichitecture, and was em- 
 ployed in several considerable edifices. He de- 
 signed the porticoes of the Pitti palace, and the 
 bridge della Trinita, at Florence, which last is 
 accounted one of the most beautiful works since 
 the revival of arts. At Rome he built the palace 
 Ruspoli, and the noble front of the Roman col- 
 lege. This work so mtimately connected him 
 with the Jesuits, that, on his return to Florence, 
 he employed his talents and part of the wealth 
 he had amassed, in building the churth of San 
 Glavanino, belonging to these fathers, in which 
 he was interred. Ammanati composed a large 
 work, entitled, " I>a Citta," comprehending 
 the designs of all the public edifices necessary in 
 a capital city. This performance, after passing 
 through many hands, came at length into those 
 of prince r'erdinand of Tuscany, and it is not 
 known what since became of it. Ammanati 
 died in 1586, or, according to another account, 
 in 1592. He had a literary turn, and carried 
 on an epistolary correspondence with Annibal 
 Caro. This disposition was favoured by the 
 talents of his wife, Laura Battiferri, wlio be- 
 came distinguished for her poetical productions, 
 of which a collection was printed at Florence in 
 1560. Moral. Nouv. Diet. Hist. — A. 
 
 AMP41ANUS Marcellinus, a Roman 
 historian of the fourth century, was, as may 
 be learned from several passages in his his- 
 tory, by birth a Greek. From a letter written 
 to him by Libanius, it appears, that his native 
 place was Antioch. In his youth he devoted 
 himself to a military life, and was enrolled 
 among the protectores domestici, a station usu- 
 ally occupied by young men of good family. 
 In the year 350, he accompanied Ursicinus, a 
 general of the horse under the emperor Con- 
 
 stantius, when he was sent into the cast. He 
 followed the same officci in several subsequent 
 e\|icditions, and, from his own modest account, 
 it appears that he deiervcd well of his sovereign. 
 WlKthei he obtair.cd any military promotion 
 beyond the rank of domestic protector, is not 
 known ; but it is certain that he continued in the 
 army underthc emperor Julian, andacconipanicd 
 him in his expedition into Persia. Under the 
 reign of Valcns he was resident at Antioch, 
 where, in the year 371, he saw the torments of 
 inany persons, whom Valcns had ordered to 
 be put to death. (Hist. lib. 29.) Quitting the 
 military life, he settled at Rome, and occupied his 
 leisure in writing the history of the affairs of the 
 empire, during a period of near three centuries. 
 The history, \yrittcn in thirty-one books, com- 
 mences (where Tacitus ends) with the reign of 
 Nerva, .nnd terminates with the death of \^a- 
 lens. The first thirrcen books, which brought 
 down the history to the reign of Constantius, 
 are lost: the work, in its present mutilated state, 
 begins with the year 353, and ends at the year 
 375. Several particulars of a later date are, 
 however, mentioned in the course of the his- 
 tory, such as the accession of Theodosiiis to the 
 eastern empire ; the character of Gratian, and 
 the consulate of Neothorius, of which the date 
 is, the year of Rome 1 142, or of Christ 390 : 
 whence it appears that the author lived, at least, 
 till that year. From the letter of Libanius, 
 above mentioned, \vc learn that Arnmianus read 
 his books in public, and that he received great 
 applause from numerous auditors. Some writers 
 have supposed that Ammianus Marcellinus was 
 a Christian, but we find nothing in his work, 
 or in the incidents of his life, to justitV this opi- 
 nion. He never speaks of the pagan divinities 
 in the language universally adopted by Christian 
 writers. If he bears a respectful testimony to 
 the moderation and purity of certain Christian 
 bishops, to the inflexible fidelity of the Christian 
 martyrs, and to tiic equitable and gentle spirit of 
 Christianity, all this only shows him a well-in- 
 formed and candid historian ; and that hcisentiiled 
 to this character, his w hole history fully proves; 
 There is a harshness and verbosity in the style, . 
 which may be easily accounted for from the au- 
 thor's habits of life, which must have left him 
 little leisure for study ; but this defect is am])^ 
 compensated by the variety of inteiesting occur- 
 rences which he relates, of most of vvliich he 
 was himself a spectator, and by tlie fidelity and 
 imi)artiality with which he writes. Mr. Gib- 
 bon very justly characterises him as " an accu- 
 rate and faithful guide, who composed the his- 
 tory of his own times, withotit indidging thtf-
 
 A M M 
 
 ( 
 
 236 
 
 ) 
 
 A M M 
 
 prejudices ami passions which usually affect the 
 mind of a contemporary." (Hist. Decline and 
 Fall, c. 26.) 
 
 The remaining works of Ammlanus Marccl- 
 linus were edited, in folio, by Sabinus, at Rome, 
 in 1474; at Bologna, by Castellus, in 1517 ; and 
 at Basil, by Frobcnius, in 1518. Accursius, in 
 his editionj printed at Augsburg in 1533, in which 
 he boasts of having corrected five thousand er- 
 rors, added the Sve last books which had never 
 been printed before. Gclcnius, in the same year, 
 publiihed an edition at Basil, with the same addi- 
 tions, except the last book, and the last page of 
 the last book but one. From this time the work 
 pas.sed thVough feveral editions, which have been 
 supersedi^d by that of Valesius, printed in folio, 
 at Paris, in 1681. Tl'.is edition contains, be- 
 sides the notes of Lindenborgius, from his edi- 
 tion of 1609, many new notes of the editor, 
 and a life of the author, by ChifBetius, profes- 
 sor of law at Dole. Gronovius reprinted this 
 edition at Leaden in 1693, ^"'^ added valuable 
 notes. A good French translation of this work 
 was puWisiied by M. Moulines, at Berlin, in 
 1778. Vales'il Prof, ad Arnm. Alarc. Voss. de 
 Hist. Lat. lib. ii. c. 9. Fabricli Bibl. Lat. 
 lib. ii. c. 12. Hankli dc Rom. Script, p. i. 
 C. 24. Bayle. — E. 
 
 AMMIRATO, SciPio, an eminent Italian 
 writer, was born at Lecce, in the kingdom of 
 Naples, in 1531, and descended from a fami- 
 ly of rank, originally of Florence. He was 
 destined by his father to the profession of the 
 law, and was sent to Naples for the study of 
 jurisprudence ; but the charms of polite litera- 
 ture disgusted him witli so dry a pursuit, and a 
 charge of having written a lampoon drove him 
 from that city. He visited Venice and Padua ; 
 but, receiving no supplies from an irritated fa- 
 ther, he returned to Lecce, where, for some 
 time, he was in the service of the bishop, who 
 bestowed a canonry upon him. He then again 
 went to Venice, where the suspicion of an in- 
 trigue with his patron's wife was near costing 
 him his life. Rome was his next abode. Here 
 he devoted himself to the service of Briana Ca- 
 raflFa, the pope's niece ; but a quarrel with the 
 pope's sister obliged him to leave Rome and re- 
 turn to Lecce, at which place he founded the 
 academy of the Trasfortnati. After a variety of 
 other disappointed projects, and wanderings 
 through most parts of Italy, he at length fixed 
 at Florence ; where, in 1570, the grand duke 
 Cosmo engaged him to write the Florentine his- 
 tory, and apartments were assigned him for this 
 purpose in a palace, with a canonry in the ca- 
 thedral lor his maintenance. Naturally queru- 
 
 lous and inconstant, it does not seem that he was 
 satisticd with this situation ; yet he found it good 
 enough to be retained for the thirty remaining 
 years of his life. He died at Florence in Ja- 
 nuary 1 60 1, leaving for his heir, the assistant of 
 his studies, Cristophoro del Bianco, who, in 
 conforiTiity to his will, took the name of Scipio 
 Ammiraio the Younger. 
 
 Ammirato was a very copious and industrious 
 writer. His " Florentine History," first pub- 
 lished in 1600, contains the events of Florence 
 from its foundation to 1574- The advantages 
 he enjoyed from the researches of former writers, 
 and from his access to public and private re- 
 cords, rendered this the most complete of all 
 the works on the subject, and it is still in great 
 esteem for accuracy and exactness. The second 
 part was published by Ammirato the Younger 
 in 1641, who also gave a new edition of the 
 first, with considerable additions. Ammirato 
 the elder also wrote genealogical accounts of the 
 principal families of Florence and Naples, 
 which display a great knowledge of the au- 
 thentic monuments of antiquity, and were very 
 favourably received by the literati. He likewise 
 published " Discourses on Tacitus," and es- 
 says on a variety of subjects, historical, moral, 
 and poetical. He wrote arguments, in verse, to 
 all the cantos of the " Orlando Furioso," 
 and other pieces of poetry, in which kind of 
 composition, however, he did not excel. Ti- 
 rahoschi. Moreri. — A. 
 
 AMMON, the son of Lot, was the fa- 
 ther of the Ammonites, a people who were 
 frequently at war with the Israelites. He lived 
 about igoo years before Christ. Genes, xix. — E. 
 
 AMMONIUS, son of Hermias, a Peripa- 
 tetic philosopher, flourished at the beginning of 
 the sixth century, and taught at Alexandria un- 
 der the reign of Anastasius. He was a disciple 
 of Proclus, and a preceptor of Simplicius, Phi- 
 loponus, and ]3amascius ; the latter of whom 
 speaks of him as superior to the other philoso- 
 phers of his age, and as particularly excelling 
 in mathematical learning. He wrote commen- 
 taries upon Ari totle and Porphyry, which are 
 still extant. His commentary on Aristotle's 
 book, De Interpretatione, was published, in 
 folio, by Aldus, at Venice, in 1503. An ex- 
 tract from this work, on the subject of Provi- 
 dence, was published separately by Grotius, at 
 Paris, in 1648. His commentary, " In Isa- 
 gogen Porphyrii," was printed by Aldus, in 
 folio, at Venice, in 1 500, and has passed 
 through several editions. Fabric. Bibl. Grac. 
 lib. iv. c. 25. s. 12. Suidas. Bayle. — E. 
 
 AMMONIUS, a Peripatetic, the preceptor
 
 A M M 
 
 ( 237 ) 
 
 A M O 
 
 of Plutarch, flourished about one hunched and 
 forty years before Christ. He was a native of 
 Egypt. Plutarch makes frequent mention of 
 him, but without bestowing upon him either 
 praise or blame. He attempted to extend the 
 authority of Aristotle beyond the limits of his 
 own sect, by blending with his doctrines those 
 of Plato and Zeno. He taught and died at 
 Athens. Emiap. Pioctm. Plut. Tliemist. Fit. 
 Moral, ed. Fiancf. p. 70 — 385. Siiidas. Bayle. 
 Brucker. — E. 
 
 AMMONIUS Saccas, so called, as is 
 commonly supposed, from his early occupation 
 as a porter in the harbour of Alexandria, was 
 an eminent philosopher, the founder of the 
 eclectic sect. If, as Porphyry intimates, Plo- 
 tinus attended both upon his lectures and those 
 of Potamo, he must have flourished eaily in the 
 third century. He was born of Christian pa- 
 rents, and was educated at Alexandria in the 
 catechetical schools of Athenagorns, Pantsnus, 
 and Clement of Alexandria. Under the e 
 Christian preceptors, who themselves united 
 gentile philosophy with Christian doctrine, he 
 acquired an early fondness for philosophical stu- 
 dies. Porphyry positively asserts, that " having 
 been educated a Christian by Christian parents, 
 as soon as he came to years of understanding, 
 and acquired a relish for philosophy, he imme- 
 diately passed over to the legil establishment," 
 (apud Euseb. Hist. Eccl. lib. vi. c. 19.) or 
 ajjostatised to the pagan religion. Eusebius, 
 who quotes this passage, pronounces it a noto- 
 rious falsehood, and adds, (Ibid.) " Ammonius 
 maintained sincere and uncorrupted the doctrine 
 of the divine philosophy to the end of his life, 
 as the works wliich he left, and for which he is 
 in great repute, still testify ; such as his treatise 
 ' On the Harmony between Moses and Christ,' 
 and several others which may be found with the 
 curious." Jerom asserts the same, (De Vir. 111. 
 c. 55.) and refers to his " Harmony," and to 
 another work, entitled " The Evangelical Ca- 
 nons." It appears, notwithstanding, very cer- 
 tain that Ammoniu - Saccas, when he became a 
 teacher of pliilosophv, had renounced Christi- 
 anity. 'I"he testimony of Porphyry in this case 
 is of more weight than that of Eusebius, for he 
 lived nearer his time, and could not but be well 
 informed concerning this circumstance by his 
 master Plotinus, who spent eleven years with 
 Ammonius. Besides, it is altogether incredible 
 that Plotinus, a pagan, would have adhered for 
 eleven years to a Christian master, or that a 
 Christian would have admitted among his dis- 
 ciples pagans who waged perpetual war against 
 the Christian veligion. As to the prpoi of his( 
 
 continuing a Christian, brought by Euscbiu-v 
 and Jerom from his writings, it is of no weight 
 against the testimony of Longinus, one of his 
 pupils, who says, (Porphyr. \'it. Plot. c. 3.) 
 that Ammonius wrote nothing, but thought it 
 sufficient to deliver oral instructions to his au- 
 ditors. 'I'hc truth doubtless was that Eusebius 
 confounds Anunonius Sacca witli another Am- 
 monius, in the Ciiristian school, tlic author of 
 tlie treatises above mentioned. It is not at all 
 surprising that tliis mistake of Eusebius should 
 be adopted by Jerom and other subsequent 
 writers. 
 
 The dissensions which had for ages subsisted 
 among pliilosvipliers might naturally excite the 
 desire, and give birth to the design, of selecting 
 fronj the doctrines of the several sects such opi- 
 nions as seemed to approach nearest the truth, 
 and combining them into one system. At Alex- 
 andria, which, soon after the commencement of 
 the Christian a:ra, became the chief seat of phi- 
 losophy, this Iwrmonising plan was atiem])ted 
 by Potamo, who, according to Diogenes La- 
 ertius, intrf.duced an eclectic sect, (exAexrixi) 
 rif aiiso-i; Diog. Laert. Procem.) which selected 
 tenets from evciy former sect. His attempt 
 seems to have proved abortive ; but the idea 
 was pursued with more success by Ammonius. 
 Ihis philosopher instituted a school in Alexan- 
 dria, in which he professed to reconcile the dis- 
 cordant doctrines of Plato and Aristotle. He 
 had many disciples ■v\ ho afterwards obtained ce- 
 lebrity, among whom were the elegant Longi- 
 nus, author of the justly admired " Trcatie on 
 the Sublime," and the profound Plotinus, who 
 rendered the mysteries of Plato still more myste- 
 rious. Ammonius taught his select disciples 
 certain sublime doctrines under the seal of se- 
 crecy ; and they promised not to divulge \\hat 
 they had learned, but to lodge them safely in 
 their purged minds. Hercnnius, however, af- 
 ter the death of his master, violated his promise 
 by divulging the secrets of his school ; and his 
 example was followed by Origen (not the cele- 
 brated Christian father), who published, from 
 the instructions of his master, a book concern- 
 ing damons. After this, I'lotinus thought him- 
 self no longer boinul by his promise of sccrecv, 
 and became a public preceptor in philosophy 
 upon the eclectic jdan ; so that from his writ- 
 ings may be gathered some knowledge of the 
 doctrine of Ammonius. This ]>liilos(iphcr died 
 about the year 243, leaving behind him the le- 
 putation of having been divinely instructed. 
 Hierocles calls him the heaven-taught Ammo- 
 nius. (Ajj.tj.uyni r« dfSJ'tJaxra. Hicroc. apud 
 Phot. Cod'. 214. 251.) Pc'p/t. rit. Plothv.
 
 A M O 
 
 ( 238 ) 
 
 A M O 
 
 SuleTfl!. Faf'rlc. Biht. Gr. lib. !v. C. 26. § II. 
 Lardner's Cndil/ility, part. ii. c. 36. Buyle. 
 Byuiktr. — E. 
 
 AMMOXIUS, tlic grammarian, lived in 
 tlic fourtli century, ami was a pupil of" the 
 grammarian Hclladius of Egypt, as Socrates, 
 the crclcsiatical liistoiian, aittsts. We learn 
 iVom ihesamc authority that he fled from Alex- 
 aiuliia during the tumult in the year 389, oc- 
 casioned hy the destruction of tlie hcatlicn Um- 
 plcs by the order of the CTnperor Theodosius. 
 It is probably this Ammonias of whom Pho- 
 tius speaks as a great admirer of the Greek po- 
 ets, and an industrious critic in the Greek Ian 
 gua"C, and to whom is to be ascribed a treatise 
 on Greek Svnonymes, under the title of " Ilesi 
 ofjioiii.'v xai haifdfxv Ae^stuv" [On Wordj of 
 siinilar and of different Significations], drawn 
 np in the form of a dictionary. Tliis work was 
 first published at Venice in 1497, and after- 
 wards, at the press of Aldus, as an appendix to 
 a Greek and Latin Lexicon, published, in folio, 
 at "V'enice, in 1524, reprinted at Paris in 152 1, 
 and at Basil in 1532, and annexed to Stephens's 
 Tiiesaurus in 1572, and to Scapula's Lexicon. 
 Falii'ic. Bib!. Grac. lib. iv. c. 26. § 15. — E. 
 
 AMONTONS, William, an experimen- 
 tal pliilosopher, the son of a lawyer of Nor- 
 mandy, was born at Paris in the year 1663. 
 Labouring, from an illness in his childhood, un- 
 der the infirmity of extreme deafness, he amused 
 himself, ih the want of society, by studying 
 geometry and mechanics. He learned designing 
 and surveying, and was einployed in many pub- 
 lic works. In the year 1687, he presented to 
 the Academy of Sciences an hygrometer upon a 
 new construction, which was much approved. 
 In 1695, he published, in French, a treatise, en- 
 tiikd " Observations on a new Hour-G!ass, 
 and Barometers, Therrnometers, and Hygrome- 
 ters." The work was dedicated to the Academy 
 of Sciences, of which he was admitted a member 
 in the year 1699. Upon this occasion he read 
 a paper on friction, in which a new theory up- 
 on that subject is proposed: the paper will 1)6 
 found in the memoirs of the academy. He 
 found out a method of conveying intelligence to 
 a great distance in a short space of time, by 
 means of signals, from one person to another, 
 l>laced at as great a distance as they could be 
 seen by means of telescopes : he may therefore 
 be esteemed the inventor of the telegraph. This 
 ingenious man, who was remarkable for his in- 
 genuity in inventing and his accuracy in exe- 
 cuting experiments, died in the year 1705. His 
 pieces, which are numerous, and on various 
 subjects, as air, fire, barometers, pumps, fric- 
 
 tion, &c. mav be found in the volumes of the 
 Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences for the 
 years 1696, 1699, 1702, 1703, 1704, 1705. 
 Fontenclk. Hist, dc C Jcad. des Sciences. Mo- 
 reri. Nouv. Diet. Hiit. Hutton's Math. Diet, 
 — E. 
 
 AMORY, TiioMAs, an English presby- 
 terian divine, was born of reputable parents at 
 Taunton in Somersetshire in the year 1 700. 
 He received his classical instruction from Mr. 
 Ciiadwick, a preceptor of considerable emi- 
 nence in the west of England. Among his 
 school-fellows was Micaiah Towgood, after- 
 wards an able advocate for the dissenters. With 
 him he entered upon academic studies, under the 
 care of Mr. Stephen James, and Mr. Henry- 
 Grove, joint-tutors in a dissenting seininaiy at 
 Taunton". In 1722, he was examined and ap- 
 proved as a candidate for the ministry, and be- 
 came for some time an occasional preacher. 
 In London he attended a course of experimental 
 philosophy under John Eames, an eininent tutor 
 among the dissenters. In 1725 he was chosen 
 colleague w ith his uncle Mr. Grove in the aca- 
 deiny at Taunton, and undertook the depart- 
 ments of classics and natural philosophy. Upon 
 the death of that able preceptor and valuable 
 man, Amory became principal tutor in his 
 place. From the year 1730 to the year 1759 
 he was pastor of 'a congregation in Taunton. 
 In the united capacities of tutor and minister he 
 obtained liigh respect for fidelity, integrity, and 
 moderation. Notwithstanding the universal 
 esteem in which he was held in the town and 
 neighbourhood of Taunton, he was induced, 
 chiefly from the hope of being able to dispose 
 of his children more advantageously, to listen 
 to an invitation which was sent him from the 
 dissenting congregation of the Old Jewry in Lon- 
 don, to become their minister, as afternoon 
 preacher and colleague with Dr. Samuel Chan- 
 dler. He removed to London in 1759; and, 
 though his popularity as a preacher was un- 
 equal to his merit, he was treated with great 
 respect by the intelligent and liberal of all per- 
 suasions. In 1768, the university of Edinburgh 
 conferred upon him the degree of doctor in di- 
 vinity. He Vyias appointed morning preacher at 
 Newington Green as colleasrue to tiie celebrated 
 and wortliy Dr. Price, and one of the lecturers 
 at S;iltcrs'-hall. As a zealous friend to religious 
 freedom, he took an active part in the attempt 
 which was made, in the year 1772, to obtain an 
 enlargeinent of the terms of the toleration act, 
 and was one of the committee appointed for 
 that purpose. His capacity for public useful- 
 ness continued nearly to his deaths which hap-
 
 A M O 
 
 ( ^39 ) 
 
 A M O 
 
 pcned in the year 1774. His funcial sermon 
 was preached by Dr. llcxmaii, an old fViciid, 
 with whom he had been in liabits of intimacy 
 upwards of forty years, and wlio declared that 
 their friendship had never once been interrupted 
 by distaste, or darl<ened by a frown. 
 
 Amory, if not distinguished by talents of 
 extraordinary brilliancy, possessed a well cul- 
 tivated understanding, and an excclleiU heart. 
 His piety, the result of rational in<iuiry as 
 well as early education, was the ruling princi- 
 ple in his character, and gave the tone to his 
 general conduct. The natural mildness of his 
 temper, formed into a liabit of general benevo- 
 lence, rendered his manners, in everv relation 
 of life, peculiarly amiable. His studies were 
 chiefly occupied in subjects of theology and mo 
 rals. His religious system ap])ears to have 
 nearly coincided with that of doctor Samuel 
 Clarke. His sermons were judicious, accu- 
 rate, practical, and devotional : though not adapt- 
 ed to captivate die vulgar ear, they were always 
 acceptable to the sensible and liberal. Many 
 of these, both on general subjects and on par- 
 ticular occasions, have been published at various 
 times, and have been collected into two vo- 
 lumes ; the first, entitled, " Eighteen Sermons 
 on various Subjects," printed in 8vo. in 1758 ; 
 the second, entided, " Twentv-two Sermons 
 on several Subjects," printed in 8vo. in 1766. 
 Besides sermons, Amory published " A Dia- 
 logue on Devotion, after the Manner of Xe- 
 nophon ;" witli " A Translation of a Conver- 
 sation of Socrates on the Being and Providence 
 of God," 8vo. 1733, and 1746; " A Family 
 Prayer Book," 1763 ; " An Account of the 
 Life and Writings of Mr. Grove," prefixed to 
 his posthumous works, 1740 ; " A'Ir. Grove's 
 System of Moral Philosophy, revised and en- 
 larged," 1749 ; " Memoirs of Dr. Benson," 
 prefixed to his History of the Life of Christ ; 
 and " Memoirs of Dr. Samuel Chandler," pre- 
 fixed to his four volumes of posthumous ser- 
 mons. From private Communications. Biog. 
 Brit. — E. 
 
 AMOS, the third of tlic twelve minor ])ro- 
 phets in the Hebrew sciiptiires, flourished about 
 eight hundred years before Christ. In the tribe 
 of judah, about five miles from Jerusalem, on 
 a mountain, lay Tekoah, a village visible in 
 clear weather from the city. The land about 
 is sandy, barren, and fit only for sheep-walks. 
 (Hieron. prolog, ad Amos, et in Jer. vi. I.) 
 Of this village, and OiiC of the shepherds, was 
 Amos, the son of a sliepherd. (Ch. vii. 14.) 
 In the twenty-seventh year of Jeroboam II. 
 king of Israel, that is, in the year 804 before 
 
 Christ, Uzziah, or A/ariah, king of Judah, 1)C- 
 gan his reign. (2 King.s, xv. i.) ft was un- 
 der this prince that Amos left the country of 
 Judah for that of Israel, to prophesy there. The 
 exact year when he began hii olliee cannot be 
 known ; for the date of die enitlnpiake men- 
 tioned by Amos, (Ch. i. v. 1.) and also by 
 Zeehariah, (Ch. xiv. v. 5.) is not to be ascer- 
 tained. It was, however, subsequent to die 
 victories by which Jeroboam II. extended the 
 limits of the kingdom of Israel from Hemath to 
 Anion, the river of the wilderness, (Amos, vi. 
 I, 2, 13, 14.) and during the last ibuiteeii 
 years of Jeroboam II. who reigned foity-onc 
 years. Amos began to deliver liis prophecies 
 at Bethel, and was ultimately driven back to 
 his own country, in the name of the magistrate, 
 by Amaziali and other priests of Israel. (Ch. 
 vii. v. 10 — 13.) He was the father of Isaiah, 
 (2 Cliron. xxvi. 22. Isaiah, i. i.) who had 
 already begun to prophesy at the time of U/,- 
 ziah's death, (Isaiah, vi. 1.) and was, per- 
 ha)is, of the family of Ashur, (i Cliron. ii. 24.) 
 from whose son, Tekoah seems to have had its 
 name. The conjecture, that the father of Isaiah 
 was another Ainc.s, a man of rarJc in Jerusalem, 
 has no foundation. 
 
 The prophecy, which is short, is written with 
 great simplicity of language, and abounds with 
 allusions to jjastoral life. After denouncing die 
 judgments of God upon neighbouring nations, 
 the prophet directs his threatenings against the 
 ten tribes of Israel, warning them of approach- 
 ing calamities, yet encouraging them to hope for 
 future restoration. — E. 
 
 AMOUR, William de St. a French 
 ecclesiastic, was born at St. Amour, in Franche- 
 Comte, about the beginning of the thinceiitli 
 century. He was a canon of Beauvais, and a 
 doctor of the Sorbonne. He distinguished him- 
 self in the contest which arose, in the year 
 1228, between the mendicant friars of the Do- 
 minican order and the university of Paris. The 
 privileges, which had been lavisIitcUiv the Ro- 
 man pontifl's on the Franciscan andT)'iminii.an 
 friars, had excited the jealousy of other ecuc- 
 siastics, and bitter dissensions had arisen be- 
 tween these mendicant orders and the bisliops. 
 In die university of Paris the Domiiiicans had 
 claimed a right to two divinity profifssor»hi4>s : 
 the secular doctors contested this righ^, ami 
 passed an academic law, prohibiting any of the 
 regular orders to hold more than one. I'hc 
 Dominicans asserted their claim ; and the dis- 
 pute was refcried to the court of Rome. In 
 this debate, Wllli.'.m de St. Amour betame tbr 
 champion of the univcrhity, and inaiiuajucd its
 
 AMP 
 
 ( 240 ) 
 
 A M R 
 
 riglits with great ability and 7CzL He, iu va- 
 rious treati'^cs, vehemeiuly attacked the whole 
 mendicant tribe, paiticularly in a book " Con- 
 cerning tliclVrils of the last Times," in which 
 he endeavoured to prove, that St. Paul's pro- 
 phecy, relating to the perilous times which were 
 to come in the last days, was fulfilled in the 
 establishment of the mendicant fiiars. This 
 book was condemned bv pope Alexander IV. 
 as containing perverse opinions, contrary to 
 the honour of those \vho make profession of 
 poverty for God's sake; and the author was 
 jenienced to perpetual exile from France. St. 
 Amour retired into I'Vanclic-Comte, where he 
 remained till die death of die pontiff, who had 
 supported, with so much violence, the cause of 
 the Dominicans. Upon the accession of Cle- 
 metit IV. he rctinntd to Paris, and collected 
 and enlarged his former works, exhibiting, in 
 bold portraits, the character and conduct of the 
 mendicants. Tliis pope, who respected the ta- 
 lents and merit of St. Amour, suffered him to 
 remain unmolested till his death, wliich hap- 
 pened in the year 1272. The mendicant fra- 
 ternities reprobated him as a heretic, wliile the 
 learned doctors of the Sorbonne treated his me- 
 xnorv with the highest respect. The resolute 
 opposition which he made to idleness and hy- 
 pocrisy veiled under the mask of humility and 
 sanctity, entides his memory to respect ; and 
 the talent and spirit which his writings discover, 
 may justify the eulogy of Mosheim, that St. 
 Amour was " a man of true genius, worthy to 
 liave lived in better times, and to have adorned 
 a more enlightened a^e." Such of his works 
 as could be collected were published in 4to. by 
 Cordesius, in Paris, in the year 1632 ; but tlie 
 editor, in order to avoid the resentment of die 
 mendicants, concealed his own name, as well 
 as those of the printer and place of publication, 
 under the enigmatical inscription, " Constan- 
 tice ad Insigne bon<e Fidei apud Alitophilos." 
 Dupin, cent. xiii. Mosheim, cent. xiii. AIo- 
 reri. — E.„ 
 
 AMPHlLOCHIUS, a Christian divine of 
 the fourth century, was a native of Cappa^- 
 docia, (Hieron. Epist. ad Magn. toin. ii. p. 327. 
 De Vir. 111. c. cxxxiii.) and was constituted 
 ])ishop of Iconium about the year 374. In his 
 youth he studied rhetoric, and practised the law. 
 Devoting himself to a religious life, he retired, 
 ■with his friends Basil and Gregory Nazianzen, 
 into a solitary part of Cappadocia, called Ozi- 
 zaia. The latter retained through life so strong 
 an affection for him, that he had recourse to 
 him upon all occasions, and corresponded with 
 him so constantly, that he tells him his daily 
 
 letters to him might serve for the journal of hi4 
 life. (Ep. 395-) Called to the public duties 
 of the episcopal character, Amphilochius as- 
 sisted in the first general council at Constantino- 
 ple, as well as at subseijucnt councils in 385 
 and 394. This Christian father's zeal for the 
 catholic faith, particularly for the doctrine of 
 the Trinity, was shown in an incident related 
 by Theodoret, (Hist. Ecc. lib. v. c. 16.) Sozo- 
 men, (Hist. Eccl. lib. vii. c. 6 ) and others. 
 The assemblies of Aiian Christians beinjr at 
 this time very numerous, this zealous priest en- 
 treated the emperor Theodosius to issue an edict 
 for their suppression. The einperor, not in- 
 clined to exercise such severity, slighted the re- 
 quest. In order farther to engage his attention 
 to this business, and interest his feelings in its 
 favour, Amphilochius took care, upon his next 
 visit, when Arcadius, Theodosius's son, who 
 had just been joined with his fatlier in the em- 
 pire, was present, to behave with cereinonious 
 respect to the father, but to omit the due salu- 
 tations to the young prince. The emperor, 
 though willing to impute the omission to inad- 
 vertence, could not help expressing to the bishop 
 some degree of dissatisfaction at so untisual an. 
 instance of neglect. Amphilochius answered, 
 that he had paid his salutations to him, and 
 that was sufficient. Theodosius, offended with 
 this answer, said, that a slight put upon his son 
 was an indignity to himself: upon which the 
 bishop replied: " Yon see, sir, that you can- 
 not bear your son to be slighted ; and can you 
 suppose that the Almighty isnotdl pleased with 
 those who blaspheme his only-begotten son ?" 
 The emperor, who, on similar occasions, of- 
 ten suffered himself to be played upon by his 
 priests, without examining the weight of this 
 analogical argument, yielded to the impression 
 which the bishop wislied to make upon his pas- 
 sions, and passed an edict to prohibit the assem- 
 blies of heretics. This incident probably oc- 
 curred in the year 383 ; for there is a law of 
 Theodosius still extant, dated July 25th, of that 
 year, which forbids, particularly, Eunomians, 
 Arians, and Macedonians, to hold any meetings 
 for worship, either in public places or private 
 houses. Ofthe life of this Christian father nothing 
 more is known, than that he, on all occasions, 
 displayed, with respect to heretJcs, more zeal 
 than charity. His works are often referred to 
 by the councils, and by ancient Christian 
 writers, particularly " A Treatise on the Divi- 
 nity of the Holy Spirit ;" but nothing remains 
 except a few fragments preserved in Theodo- 
 ret, Facundus, and others, and <' A Synodic 
 Epistle," edited by Cotelerius. A poeiUj ad-
 
 AMR 
 
 ( 241 ) 
 
 AMR 
 
 dressed to Seleuciis, containing a catalogue of 
 the books of the Old and New '["estamcnt, is 
 ascribed to him ; but it was probably written by 
 Gregory of Nuzian'/.en. Tliis and some other 
 pieces, probably spurious, were imblisbed toge- 
 ther, under !iis name, by Combesis, at Paris, in 
 1644. Diip'in. Basnngc, ^««. 394. Ciivc, Hut. 
 Lit. Larchier's Cied. part ii. c. 99. — E. 
 
 AMRU-EBN-AL-AS, one of the most fa- 
 mous of the tirst race_ of Saracen leaders, was 
 the dubious progeny of Aasi, of tiic tribe of 
 Koreish, by a wo.man of infamous cliai'aeter. 
 In liis youth he was addicted to poctrv, and 
 one of his exercises was a copy of satirical 
 verses against the person and doctrine of Ma- 
 homet. So zealous was he in opposing the 
 new religion, that he is said to have been sent 
 on an embassy to the king of Ethiopia, for 
 the purpose of indisposing him against the con- 
 verts who had taken refuge in his court. He 
 returned, however, Iiimself a convert; and, es- 
 caping from Mecca \\ith Caled, he joir.ed the 
 fugitive prophet at Medina. 
 
 Amru had already obtained the character of 
 an able captain, wlien Abubeker determined to 
 send a fresh army into Syria. Of this he ear- 
 nestly solicited and obtained the command. He 
 approved his skill and valour on many occa- 
 sions ; and was the chief in Irak, when Caled 
 summoned all the Arabian generals to his as- 
 sistance before Damascus. He afterwards serv- 
 ed in Palestine, where Abu Obeidah was com- 
 mander-in-chief, in the caliphate of Omar. 
 Beiii2 sent to besiep;c Casarea, he had a re- 
 markable conference with Constantine, the son 
 of the emperor Heraclius. This, according to 
 the relation we have of it, consisted chiefly in 
 genealogical arguments respecting the affinity ot 
 the Greeks and Arabians, and the rights of the 
 latter as the descendcnts of riiem. However, it 
 was closed by Amru with a frank declaration, 
 •' that the Arabians were tired of living in their 
 scorching deserts, and were resolved to re-enter 
 into the possession of the delightful country 
 which was the inheritance of their fore-fathers." 
 Then, denouncing perpetual enmity to the 
 Greeks unless they should become converts or 
 tributaries, he retired, without giving the least 
 hopes of accommodation. The actions that en- 
 sued terminated in the capture of Caesarea by 
 Amru, and the subjugation of all tlie maritime 
 towns of Syria. This was in the year of the 
 Hegira 17, A. D. 638. 
 
 On the death of Obeidah, Amru assumed the 
 chief command in Syria, in vshich, notwith- 
 standing the opposition of Othman, he was 
 confirmed by Omar. Amru had written to tlie 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 caliph tliat he .should proceed on the expedition 
 into I'lgypt, whicli had been before determined 
 upon. At tlie iicad of only four thousand 
 Arabs he inarched from Gaza, when he was 
 overtaken by the messenger of Omar, who 
 brought a letter, commar.ding him, if he 
 should receive it while yet in Syria, to return ; 
 but, if l,e should already have entered Egypt, 
 to proceed, with the assurance of all necessary 
 .supplies. Amru, who had a suspicion of the 
 contents, marched on to the Eg\ptian frontiers, 
 and then assembling his principal officers, open- 
 ed and read the calijili's letter. After which, 
 causing some of tlie inliabitants to he brought, 
 " he asked in what country they were?" And 
 the reply being " Egypt," " Let us continue 
 our maicli," said Amru. 
 
 Into this rich and ]vo]>ulous country-, then 
 under the dominic>n of the Greek em^Krors, 
 Amru first led the mussulman arms. After the 
 cajiture of Pharma, or Pelusium, he marched 
 to Misrah, tlie ancient Memphis, before wliicii 
 he lay seven montlis. Notwithstanding the re- 
 inforcements sent him, he would have found it 
 difficult to take the place before the inundation 
 of the Nile, had not the governor, Mokawkas, 
 treaclierously withdrawn part of the garrison 
 from the citadel. It was then carried by storm, 
 and the Greeks wlio remained were made pri- 
 soners or slain. Amru erected a new city, 
 named Fo-tat, on the spot, the ruins of which 
 now bear the name of Old Cairo. After this 
 conquest, the Coptic Christians, or Jacobites, 
 who composed the great body ot native Egvp- 
 tians, and were mortal enemies to the Greek 
 catholics, submitted to Amru, and agreed to 
 pay tribute, and to find quarters and subsist- 
 ence for the mussulman army. Their patriarch, 
 Benjamin, emerging from the desert, had an in- 
 terview with Amru, which passed with mutual 
 civility. 
 
 Amru then followed the fugitive Greeks to. 
 Alexandria, which city, after a bloody siege of 
 fourteen months, he took, A. 13. 640. In one 
 of the attacks, the general, uho exp(,s- d his per- 
 son like the meanest soldier, was, with one ot 
 his officers and a slave, taken prisoner. They 
 were carried before the governor, who was ig - 
 norant of the importance of bis capture. As he 
 upbraided them with t'.e injustice of their cause, 
 Amru, unable to repress hi^ .spirit, replied with 
 so much haughtiness, that the governor, sup- 
 posing him to be a man of rank, oidered his 
 liead to be struck off. The command would 
 have been executed, had not the slave, who 
 understood the Greek tongue in whicli it was 
 given, immediately struck his maiter a blow oa 
 2 I
 
 AMR 
 
 ( 242 ) 
 
 A M S 
 
 the ear, as a reward for the impertinence of 
 speaking in his presence. This circumstance 
 changed tlic governor's opinion, and m;ule him 
 revoke the order. The captive officer then, hy 
 the oiTL-r of promoting an accommodation, ob- 
 tained the hberty of all three ; and the acclama- 
 tions of the army, at the return of Amru, soon 
 informed the governor of the error he had com- 
 mitted. Alexandria was preserved from pil- 
 lage ; and Amru had influence enough \% ith his 
 soldiers to persuade them to submit to the pre- 
 servation of the money, jewels, and most valua- 
 ble property, for the payment of the expenses of 
 the war. The destruction of the famous Alex- 
 andrian library is not to be laid to the charge of 
 Amru. He was disposed to make a present of 
 jt to John, surnamed Philoponus, the gramma- 
 rian, witl) whom he had contracted an intimate 
 friendship ; but, upon consulting the caliph on 
 the occasion, Omar commanded it to be de- 
 stroyed. Such was the number of the books, that 
 Amru having distributed them as fuel to the hve 
 thousand baths in the city, six inonths Vi-ere 
 spent in the consumption — if the story does not 
 ipartake of eastern exaggeration ! 
 
 All Egypt soon followed the fate of Alexan- 
 dria. Amru imposed upon it a large tribute ; 
 but his administration was just and politic. He 
 supplied the necessities of Arabia, when suffer- 
 ing under famine, by corn from Egypt ; and 
 .strings of camels overspread almost the whole 
 road from Memphis to Medina. In order to" 
 facilitate conveyance, he opened again a canal 
 from the Nile to the Red Sea, which, in former 
 ages, had been attempted, or actually executed, 
 by the Pharaohs, the Ptolemies, and the C.^- 
 sars. Amru, whose genius was equal to such 
 an undertaking, employed his troops upon the 
 Avork, and completed it in a short time, to the 
 great advantage of the country. 
 
 From Egypt, Amru extended his conquests 
 to the neighbouring parts of Africa ; and, at 
 the accession of Othman, he was superseded 
 in the government of Egypt by Abdallah-ebn- 
 Said. This change proved so unwelcome to' 
 the inhabitants, that a plot was formed, and put 
 in execution, for delivering Alexandria to a Gre- 
 cian fleet. Amru was sent to retake it ; and, 
 after a brave defence, he stormed it, with great 
 .slaughter. By the utmost exertion of his autho- 
 rity he at length put a stop to the massacre, and 
 saved the greatest part of the people. The 
 Afosque of Afercy was afterwards built on the 
 spot where the slaughter ceased. Amru, how- 
 ever, dismantled the town, that it might no 
 longer harbour an enemy. After this exploit, 
 he was again displaced by Abdallah, and recall- 
 
 ed to Medina. He was employed by Othman 
 to quell, by his influence, a sedition formed 
 against him, but without success. 
 
 On the accession of Ali, he became a mal- 
 content, and intimately connected himself with 
 Moawiyah. With a body of troops he marched 
 into Damascus, acknowledged Moawyiah as 
 caliph, and swore allegiance to him. When 
 Ali made the proposal of deciding the difference 
 with his rival by single combat, the gallantry of 
 Amru led him to advise Moawiyah's acceptance 
 of it ; and he urged it so far, that Moawiyah 
 told him he supposed his advice to proceed from 
 a desire of getting him out of the way, in order 
 to become a competitor for the tlirone himself. 
 Nevertheless, Amru continued firm to his 
 friend ; and, with more art than honesty, served 
 him in the affair of the arbitration, as has been 
 mentioned in the life of Ali. He also took pos- 
 session of Egypt in Moawiyah's name, defeat- 
 ing Mahomet, Ali's governor, in batde. He 
 was now so conspicuous a person, as to be 
 marked out by the fanatic Charegites for one of 
 the three whose assassination was to give peace 
 to the Saracen empire. His escape was owing 
 to a violent fit of the colic, which prevented 
 him from officiating at the mosque on die day 
 appointed, so lliat the assassin, by mistake, 
 killed the friend whom Amru had sent in his 
 stead. 
 
 Amru died in his governinent of Egypt, in 
 the caliphate of Moawiyah, A. D. 663, Hegir. 
 43, greatly esteemed by all his countrymen. 
 His early offence in satirising Mahomet gave 
 him concern on Ids death-bed, and was the sub- 
 ject of a pathetic discourse to his children. Ma- 
 homet, however, had forgiven it; for he was 
 used to say ofhim, " That diere was no mus- 
 sulman more sincere and stedtast in the faith 
 than Amru." 
 
 It is related, that on a visit of Amru to Medina, 
 in the reign of Omar, the caliph desired to view 
 the sword which had cut down so many Chris- 
 tian warriors. Amru drew a short and ordinary 
 scymetar ; and, when Omar exhibited signs of 
 surprise, he cried, " Alas, the sword itself, 
 without the arm of its master, is neither sharper 
 nor more weighty than the sword of Phaiezdak 
 the poet." jyUerbclot. Alarigny. Mod. Uni~ 
 vers. Hist. — A. 
 
 AMSDORF, Nicholas, a Lutheran di- 
 vine, was born at Meissen in the year 1483. He 
 studied at Wurtemberg, where he became a dis- 
 ciple of Ludier, who appointed him minister of 
 Magdeburg, and a fterwards of Naumberg. He wa5 
 a zealous opponent of the Roman catholics. In 
 the controversies amons: the reformers he main-
 
 AMU 
 
 ( 243 ) 
 
 A M U 
 
 from a heap in which he had concealed himself, 
 aiul iilimgcd a dagger in his bcllv. Oilicrs at- 
 tribute his dciuh to a young Servian, who, pre- 
 tending to have somewhat important to commu- 
 nicate, gained admission to iiim, and stabbed 
 Iiiin. He died in the seventy-first year of his 
 age, and thirtieth of his reign, A. I). 1389'. 
 
 Amurath is highly extolled by the ']"urk.s for 
 his justice, piety, fortitude, love of learning, 
 and temperate and simple mode of liv ing. From 
 an anecdote related of iiini, it would seem that 
 lie was once negligent of the ritual of his reli- 
 gion. Going before the mufti to give evidence 
 in a cause, that officer refused to admit his tes- 
 
 laincd, against Melanchthon and his partisans, 
 that good works were not necessary to salva- 
 tion ; he even asserted, in the ardour of his zeal 
 for the doctrine of Luther on tliis subject, that 
 good works were an impediment to salvation ; 
 a rash and absurd expression, which served as 
 new fuel to the flame of controversy. Ams- 
 dorf died at Magdeburg in 1 541 : he gave 
 birth to a sect called Amsdorfians. Moreri. 
 Alosheim. — E. 
 
 AMURATH (orMoRAD) I. sidtan of the 
 Turks, succeeded his father Orchan in 1360. 
 He pursued with vigour the plan of his prede- 
 cessor in making conquests upon the Greek 
 
 empire; and, in the first year of his reign, timony as valid, upon the plea of his abstaining 
 completed the subjugation of the whole province from public worship. The sultan received the 
 of Romania, or Thrace, and fixed his Euro- reproof with humility, and atoned for his fault 
 pean capital at Adrianople. He afterwards sub- by erecting a ma^niificent mosque at Adrianoplc. 
 dued the Sclavonian nations between theDanubc Alod. Umvcrs. H'nt. Gibbon. — A. 
 and the Adriatic ; and, on this occasion, having AMURA7T1 (or Morad) II. succeeded 
 made a great number of hardy cai)tives, the his father Mahomet I. in 1422, being then 
 chief spoil afforded by these rustic tribes, he was eighteen years of age. Soon after his acces- 
 advised by his vizir to select from them the fifth sion an impostor arose, supported bv the Greek 
 part, which, by the Mahometan law, was the emperor, pretending to be Mustapha, the son of 
 royal share, and educate them in religion and Bajazet, who, after defeating the grand vizir, 
 arms for his service. This was the origin of the was at length taken and put to death by Amu- 
 famous military body of janizaries. The new rath. The sultan then invested Constaiitinoplc 
 militia was named and consecrated by a cele- with a mighty army, but without effect; for 
 trated dervis, who, standing in the front of the the emperor found employment for his arms by 
 ranks, and stretching his sleeve over the head of promoting the rebellion of the sultan's younger 
 the foremost soldier, said, " Let them be called brother, Mustapha. This prince, however, 
 Yengi-c/ieri (new soldiers) ; may their counte- was soon made pi isoncr, and trangkd in the 
 nance be ever bright ; their hand victorious ; presence of Amurath himself. Other troubles 
 their sword sharp ; and, wheresoever they go, arose in Asia, which were in the end qi:ieied by 
 may they return with a white face!" By their the sultan's generals. In 1426 Amurath laid 
 aid, Amurath extended his conquests in Europe waste the isle of Zante, belonging to the \'ine- 
 and Asia. He gave assistance to the emperor, tians. In the next year he invaded and subdued 
 
 John Palsologus, against the Bulgarians. This 
 prince frequently attended at the sultan's court 
 with his four sons, and followed his camp when 
 summoned. A rebellion is said, by the Greek 
 writers, to have been concerted against their 
 fathers by the elilest sons of tliese two sove- 
 reigns, -vhich Amurath punished in his own by 
 depriving liim of sight, a]id insisted on the same 
 being inflicted on the son of the Greek emperor. 
 After a long series of success, the arms of Amu- 
 rath were opposed by a formitlable league of the 
 Walachians, Hungarians, Dalmatians, Tri- 
 ballians, and Arnauts, under tlie command of 
 Lazarus, prince of Servia. The sultan m n the 
 confederates in the plain of Kossova, where a 
 fierce battle was fought, which terminated in 
 the defeat and capture of Lazarus. It proved 
 fatal, however, to the victor ; for, as he was 
 walking over the field, and viewing the slain, a 
 Christian soldier, recognising him, started up 
 
 the Morea, and obliged the Grecian emperor to 
 pay him tribute. He then took Thcssalonica, 
 or Saloniki, and compi lied the Venetians to a 
 peace. A rebellion of Karaman Ogii, in 1434, 
 was suppressed by the sultan in person. About 
 this time a v^ar broke outbttween the Ottoman 
 empire and the king of Hungary, in which the 
 famous Hungarian general, John Hm.iades, 
 gained se\tral victories. Amurath, however, 
 passing the Danrbe, and laving waste die coun- 
 try, besieged Belgrade, but was not able to 
 make himself ma-ter of it. He also invaded 
 and subdued Servia; but it was r >tored ai a 
 peace made beiwecn him on th-- oie parr, and 
 Hungary and Poland on the ot er, in vv lich it 
 was stijHilated that niither parly should cr .s the 
 Danube in a hostik m,.nner into t edomnions 
 of the other. In 14 •2, Karam nOgli, t'l. in- 
 veterate foe of t'le Turkish em.' re. aga n took 
 up arms, and laid waste several ot the Asian
 
 AMU 
 
 ( 244 ) 
 
 AMU 
 
 provinrcs. Amuratli assembling an army, 
 inarclieJ to oppose Iiim, but, being met by Ka- 
 ramaii's vife, his o.vn sister, he was prevailed 
 upon, by her entreaties, to be reconciled to him. 
 His dominions bring now in a state of perfect 
 repiise, Amurath, who liadalways shownhimscU 
 much attach.cdto the practices of hisrcligion, and 
 was become philoso;)hically sensible of the vanity 
 of|>omp andpower, resigned tiie empire to his son 
 Mahomet, and retired to Magnesia, where he 
 joined the society of dervises and hermits, and 
 "adopted all their austerities and fanatic rites. 
 Tins was in 1443, when lie had only reached the 
 age of forty. He was, however, soon summon- 
 ed from his retreat by an invasion of the mussul- 
 man territories bv the king of Hungary, Ladis- 
 laus, and his auxiliaries, at the instigation of Ka- 
 raman Ogli, whom no oaths or promises could 
 bind. The new sultan and his subjects were 
 equally desirous in this onergency of availing 
 tlumsclves of the tried abilines of their late lord ; 
 and Amuratli consented again to lead the armies 
 of the faithful. He met the Christians at Var- 
 na ; and, during the heat of the engagement, he 
 caused the late treaty of peace between himself 
 and the Hungarian king to be borne through his 
 ranks on the point of a lance, while he cried 
 aloud, " Let the infidels come on against their 
 God and sacrament ; and, if their belief of those 
 things be certain, let them, O just God, declare 
 themselvestheir own avengers, and punishers of 
 their own ignominy!" While the battle was yet 
 doubtful, tiie young king of Hungary, pene- 
 trating to Amuradi's station, engaged with him 
 in single combat. Amurath pierced his horse, 
 and he fell, and was presently dispatched by the 
 janizaries. His head was cut off, and displayed 
 to his troops on the point of a spear. They were 
 totally routed, and the greater part of them ei- 
 ther slain or made prisoners. Cardinal Julian, 
 •who had obtained for the king of Hungary the 
 pope's dispensation from his oath, was one of 
 the victims ot this just vengeance. Amurath 
 again retired to a private and religious life, from 
 which he was a second time recalled, in 1446, 
 by a fierce sedition of the janizaries, who filled 
 Adrianople with rapine and slaughter. This he 
 soon quelled, and next turned his arms agaiijst 
 the famous Scander-heg, prince of Epirus, who 
 had revolted. He expelled him from his king- 
 dom, and followed him to Albania; but, after 
 two attempts to take Kroya, the capital, in 
 which he sustained great loss, he was obliged to 
 give up the design. Amurath, however, by the 
 alternative of death or the Koran, converted all 
 -the Epirots to his own faith. The Hungarians 
 found him fresh employment by another inva- 
 
 sion of the territories near the Danube. The 
 sultan immediately marched against thecn, and 
 met them atKossova,the placewhere Amurathl. 
 had been victorious. Several bloody but par- 
 tial actions ensued, which at length terminated 
 in the rout of tlie Christian forces ; and John 
 Huniades, in his retreat, was made prisoner by 
 thed;;spot of Servia. Amurath returned to Adria- 
 nople, and seems now to have given up all pre- 
 sent thoughts of resignation ; for, after marry- 
 ing his son Mahomet to the daughter of the 
 prince of Elbistan, he sent him to govern Asia 
 Minor. But in 1451 he was seised with a dis- 
 order in his head, which soon carried him ofF 
 in the forty-seventh year of his life, and twenty- 
 ninth of his reign. 
 
 He left behind him a very high character 
 among his subjects, as well for civil as milita- 
 ry virtues ; and his piety and munificence in 
 building mosques, caravanseras, colleges, and 
 hospitals, and in bestowing alms on the devo- 
 tees of his religion, are much extolled. He had 
 too much of the Mahometan conqueror, ill 
 whose estimation cruelty and violence are sanc- 
 tioned by the propagation of the faith ; yet it i,s 
 generally acknowledged that he seldoin drew the 
 sword without previous provocation, and that he 
 observed his treaties with inviolable fidelity. 
 Mod. IJniven. Hist. — A. 
 
 AMURATH (or Morad) III. succeeded 
 hisfather sultan Selim II. in 1575. Incompliance 
 with the barbarous policy of the Turkish throne, 
 he began his reign with causing his five brother.? 
 to be strangled in his presence. The mother 
 of one of them stabbed herself to the heart ; 
 and Amurath is said to have shown some sen- 
 sibility on the occasion. His reign was event- 
 ful in militarv transactions, in which, however, 
 he himself bore no part; and few sovereigns 
 are so little mentioned by the Turkish histo- 
 rians. At his recommendation, Stephen Bat- 
 tori was elected king of Poland; a circumstance 
 favourable to his designs against Persia, which 
 occupied many years of his reign. The inva- 
 sion of this empire by the Turks began in 1578, 
 and, after a great deal of mutual slaughter, it 
 ended in AmuratK's possession of Tauris, and 
 three contiguous provinces of Persia. The 
 Krim Tartars revolting from the Turkish do- 
 minion were reduced. Syria and Egypt were 
 involved in troubles from bad government ; and 
 Ibrahim pacha, sent to .settle affairs in those 
 jiarts, used the Druses with great cruelty. 'I'he 
 frontiers of Hungary, as usual, were the scene 
 of various encounters between the Turks and 
 Christians ; and in 1590, Amurath being at 
 peace with the other powers, declared war
 
 A M U 
 
 ( 245 ) 
 
 AMU 
 
 against the emperor of Germany. This was 
 the cause of much devastation and bloodshed ; 
 and the Turks triumphed in the capture of the 
 important town of Raah in Upper Hungary. 
 During the continuance of this war Aniurath 
 died, in January 1596, at the age of fifty-lwo. 
 He is spoken of by Christian autliors as of a mild 
 disposition, a lover of justice, -zealous in his 
 religion, and a friend to temperance and order. 
 He was much s\\ayed by the counsels of the 
 females ot his family, and appears to have pos- 
 sessed little activity. Yet, on the occasion of a 
 dangerous mutiny of the janizaries, instead of 
 complying with their insolent demands, he 
 caused the gates of his palace to be set 0])en, 
 and sallying forth with his domestics, killed a 
 number of diem, and dispersed the rest; nor did 
 he receive them again to favour without punish- 
 ing the ringleaders. A'lod. Univevs. Hist. — A. 
 
 AMURATH (or Morad) IV. sumamed 
 Ghnzi, or the Valiant, was son of Achmet f. 
 and succeeded his deposed uncle Mustapha in 
 1622, beinjr then in his thirteenth year. The 
 beginnings of his reign were unprospeiuus ; and 
 amidst other loses, Bagdad was taken by the 
 Persians. The pacha of Er/eium, likewise, 
 continued in his rebellion begun in the former 
 reign, and ravaged many of the provinces of 
 Lesser Asia. To enable himself to oppose these 
 enemies, th^ sultan made peace with the em- 
 peror of Germany, and then sent a powerful 
 army to recover Btigdad. This attempt failed 
 of success, partly in consequence of new re- 
 bellions in the Asiatic dominions. Troubles 
 rose, too, at home, from tl-.e mutiny of the 
 spahis ; and more than one vizir lost his life in 
 the storms of the Porte. The young monarch 
 was violent in his temper, and much addicted to 
 intemperance ; and a fright he got from a 
 dreadful flash of lightning which one night en- 
 tered his chamber, was thought to have durably 
 impaired his reason. He was active, however, 
 in resisting the foes who pressed on tlie empire 
 on all sides, though his policy appears to have 
 been fluctuating, and he readily both commen- 
 ced and laid aside hostilities. The recovery of 
 Bagdad from the Persians was an object that 
 he pursued with more st.'adiness than any 
 other ; and after various failures, he at length, 
 in 1637, marched at the head of a numerous 
 ■ army, and by means of thirty days' continual 
 assault, with an immense loss of lives, at length 
 stormed the place. He equally showed the 
 brutal ferocity of his temper in driving on his 
 men by the scymetar to the attack, and in 
 slaughtering 30,000 Persians who had 'urrcn- 
 dered at discretion, after the capture. It is said 
 
 that the only person who excited his pity at 
 this dreadful massacre, was a famous player on 
 the harp, who requested the executioners to 
 permit him to speak to the sultan before his 
 death. On mentioning who lie was, and being 
 ordered to give a specimen of his powers, he 
 touched his instrument so sweetly, accompany- 
 ing the strains with pathetic lamentations on the 
 tragedy ot Bagdad, and with artful praises of 
 Amurath, that the tyrant was softened to tears, 
 and not only saved him, but the rest of the sur- 
 vivors. This loss so broke the power of the 
 Persians, that they no longer dared to enter the 
 lists w ith the Ottoman empire. 
 
 By habits of debauchery the constitution of 
 Amurath was so broken, that the infirmities of 
 age came upon him, though yet in the prime 
 of life. The immediate cause of his death was 
 a revel in the fea'-t of Bairam, whicli threw 
 him into a fever that carried him oW\n February 
 1640, at the age of thirty-one. It is saij, that 
 perceiving his end approach, he gave orders for 
 jnitting to death his brother Ibrahim, the next 
 in the succession, tor the purpise of securing 
 the throne to his favourite, Mustapha, the ca- 
 pitun pjcha ; but the execution was prevented 
 by his mother. The manners and adventures 
 of Amurath have afforded matter for numerous 
 Turkish relations; and display such a mixture 
 of extravagance, singularity, and cruelty, as is 
 only to be found in the union of barbarism 
 with despotic sway. None of his predecessors 
 were so inveterately addicted to drinking ; and he 
 did not scruple openly to violate the laws of his 
 country and religion, by an edict permitting the 
 public sale and use of wine. At the same time 
 he shut up the coffee-houses, and declared mor- 
 tal war against opium and tobacco, the use of 
 which he punished with immediate death. In 
 his fits of intoxication he wouUl sally from his 
 palace by night w ith his sword drawn, and cut 
 down all he met ; and such was his habituil 
 propensity to cruelty, that he would shoot with 
 arrows from his upper windows at tiic passen- 
 gers, and often roam in disguise througli the 
 streets in the day-tiine, and not return without 
 putting to death some poor wretches, for little 
 or no cause. The opium-chewcrs would fall 
 into fits at hearing tlie name of Amuratli; a 
 name never pronounced without dread ! The 
 persons whom he destroyed in a reign of seven- 
 teen years amounted to 14,000, many the 
 highest officers uf the state. He frcipiently, 
 however, descended to familiarities with his fa- 
 vourites, and joined them in dressing his own 
 provjsions, and bringing wine from the taverns 
 to the pleas ure-.gardeas without the city. He
 
 AMY 
 
 ( 246 ) 
 
 AMY 
 
 sometimes practised humourous Jests, amoiig 
 which can hardlv be reckoned his uniting in 
 marriage old men to girls, and young fellows to 
 ■women of fourscore. Had he not hecn thus 
 intoxicated with power and wine, his natural 
 qualities of mind and body might have made 
 him r-spcctable. No man drew the bow or 
 darted the jerid with such dexterity, or surpassed 
 him in swiftness of foot. He was firm and re- 
 solute in accomplishing any object in which he 
 seriously engaged, and was little moved with 
 ■reverses of fortune. But his moral qualities 
 were radically depraved. He was a great dis- 
 sembler, and very avaricious. He treated reli- 
 gion with contempt, and its votaries with ridi- 
 cule. Mod. Unlvers. Hist. — A. 
 
 AMY, N. advocate of the parliament of 
 Aix, <lie(l in the year 1760. He is known 
 by several useful writings in physics : " Ex- 
 perimental Observations on the Waters of 
 the Seine, the Ma me, &c." printed in i2mo. in 
 1749; "New Filtrating Fountains," i2mo. 
 1757 ; " Reflections on Copper, Lead, and 
 Tin Vessels," i2mo. 1757. These pieces, 
 written in French, do credit to the author, par- 
 ticularly as they show him to have been a friend 
 to his species, who employed his leisure upon 
 subjects of common utility. Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 — E. 
 
 AMYOT, James, a French divine, bishop 
 of Auxerre, distinguished by his learning, and 
 still more by his good fortune, was born at Me- 
 lun in the year 1514. He was of low extrac- 
 tion ; his father being, according to some, a 
 currier, or, according to others, among whom 
 is Thuanus, a butcher. When he was about 
 ten years old, he ran away from his father's 
 liouse for fear of being chastised, and was 
 found sick on the road by a gentleman, who 
 took him up behind him on his horse, and car- 
 ried him to the hospital at Orleans, where he 
 soon recovered, and was charitably furnished 
 with sixteen pence for the expenses of his jour- 
 ney home ; a kindness which he remembered to 
 his death, and repaid with interest, by leaving to 
 the hospital a legacy of twelve hundred crowns. 
 Whether his parents sent him to Paris for 
 school-learning, and maintained him there by 
 their industry, or whether he went thither of his 
 own accord as a beggar, and was charitably 
 taken under the patronage of a lady who ap- 
 pointed him to attend her sons at college, is un- 
 certain ; but we find him early an industrious 
 student in the university of Paris, and at nine- 
 teen years of" age in possesion of his degree of 
 master of arts. In the year 1537 he left Paris, 
 and accompanied the abbot of St. Ambrose in 
 
 Bourges to that city. Here, through the in- 
 terest of the abbot, he became preceptor to the 
 children of William Bouchetel, secretary of 
 state, who was so well pleased with his ser- 
 vices, that he recommended him to the patro- 
 nage of the princess Margaret, duchess of Berri, 
 sister of Francis I. Through her recommen- 
 dation he obtained the chair of public lecturer 
 in Greek and Latin in the university of Bour- 
 ges ; and, for ten years, he daily read two lec- 
 tures, one in Latin in the morning, and one in 
 Greek in the afternoon. During this period 
 he translated into French the ancient Greek ro- 
 mance of Heliodorus, entitled his " Ethiopic 
 History, or the Loves of Theagenes and Chari- 
 clea." The performance was admired, and 
 procured him the abbey of Bellosane. 
 
 After the death of Francis L Amyot, in search 
 of preferment, went into Italy with Morvillier, 
 who was sent by Henry II. on an embassy to 
 the states of Venice. Remaining in Venice 
 after Morvillier's return, he was employed by 
 cardinal de Tournon, and the French ambassa- 
 dor De Selve, to carry the king's letter of pro- 
 test to the council of Trent, and to read it be- 
 fore the assembly. Having executed this diffi- 
 cult commission with credit, he went for two 
 years to Rome, where, in the midst of his stu- 
 dies, he did not neglect to ingratiate himself 
 with those who might serve his interest. The 
 caidinal de Tournon, who respected his talents, 
 recommended him to the king ot France, as a 
 fit preceptor for his two younger sons ; and in 
 1558 he left Italy to take upon him this impor- 
 tant charge. His elder pupil soon succeeded 
 his father on the throne, under the name of 
 Charles IX. and, as appears from the registers 
 of the French court, the next day after his ac- 
 cession, in the year 1560, appointed his precep- 
 tor to the dignity of great almoner, and at the 
 same time made him curator of the university 
 of Paris : he afterwards loaded him with the 
 honours and emoluments of the abbey of St. 
 Corneille, and tlie bishopric of Auxerre. When 
 the younger of his pupils, Henry III. came to 
 the crown, he continued Amyot in the office of 
 grand almoner ; and upon the institution of the 
 order of the. Holy Ghost, in 1578, he appointed 
 him master of that order, and, in consideration 
 of his talents and services, ordained, that these 
 two offices should always be united in the same 
 person. Thuanus accuses Amyot ot ingrati- 
 tude towards his benefactors, in countenancing 
 a rebellion in the city ot Auxerre ; but this is 
 contradicted by Rouillard, the writer of his life, 
 who intimates that he was ill-treated for his fi- 
 delity. In the mid:.t of much disturbance, and
 
 AMY 
 
 ( 347 ) 
 
 AMY 
 
 some lossps, from the civil \\ar, lie remained 
 upon his diocese till liis death, which happened 
 
 '« 1593- 
 
 Aniyot has been accused of avarice ; and, in 
 addition to the ambiguous proof of this cliargc, 
 drawn from the iiumerous dignities whicli he 
 possessed, and from his having died worth two 
 hundred thousand crowns, it is related of him, 
 that wlren he was one day soliciting from 
 Charles, IX. another benefice, the monarcli 
 said, " How now, master ? you told me, that if 
 you had a thousand crowns a year, you should 
 be satisfied; I believe you have that, and more." 
 " True, sire, replied the bishoji, but appetite 
 comes by eating." However this was, Amyot 
 was certainly a learned man, as fully appears 
 from the translation of Heliodorus, already 
 mentioned, and still further from a translation 
 of Plutarch's lives, which he wrote while he 
 was preceptor to the young princes. This 
 translation is still read and admired in France. 
 The best edition is that of Vascosan, printed 
 in 1567, and 1574, in thirteen volumes, 8vo. 
 Racine, in the preface to his Mithridatcs, says, 
 that this old translation possesses a grace not to 
 be equalled in modern language. If the author 
 be entitled to the praise which has been given 
 hiin, of having introduced into French ]irose a 
 degree of sweetness and amenity, btfoi* his 
 time unknown, he must not, however, be allow- 
 ed the credit of being an accurate translator. 
 Amyot was requested to write a history of 
 France, but declined the task, saying, that " he 
 loved his masters too well to write their lives." 
 Besides Heliodorus and Plutarch, Amyot trans- 
 lated seven books of Diodorus Siculus ; some 
 of the Greek tragedies, and the Pastoral of 
 Daphnis, a beautiful edition of which was pub- 
 lished, with plates, in 8vo. in 17 18. The mis- 
 cellaneous works of Amyot were printed in 
 8vo. at Lyons, in 161 1. Roitillard, Antiq. de 
 Afeliiiu Bayle. Afoteri. Nouv. Diet. Hist. — E. 
 
 AMYRAUT, Moses, a French protestant 
 divine, was born of a good family at Bour- 
 gueil in Touraine, in the year 1 596. His fa- 
 ther devoted him to the study of the civil law, 
 and for some time he applied with great indus- 
 try to this study in the college of Poitiers. But 
 his attention being diverted from this pursuit by 
 the conversation of his coimtryman and friend, 
 M. Bouchereau, the minister of Saumur, and 
 by the perusal of Calvin's Institutes, he with 
 difficulty qbtained permission from his father, 
 who had higher prospects for him, to enter up- 
 on the profession of a Christian minister. He 
 Studied theology at Saumur in 1626, and suc- 
 "Ceeded iMr. Daille, in tlie church of that place. 
 
 Soon afterwards he was appointed, by the aca- 
 demic council of Saumur, 10 the professorship 
 of divinity in their university. Two other pro- 
 fessors, De la Place, and Lewis Cnppel, were 
 admitted at tlie same time; and, a ciicum-tancc 
 is mcntioiied, \\hich may deserve attention as 
 sonrewhat rare in academic history, that they 
 lived in perfect harmony, and, witnout envy or 
 jealousy, unitvd their exertions for the credit of 
 their -seminary. In the year 1631 Amyraut was 
 deputed, from the protestant synod at Ciiaren- 
 ton, to jiresent to the king their compKiints 
 concerning the violation of the edicts which had 
 been passed in their tavour. He was particidar- 
 Iv directed on this occcasion not to deliver his 
 speech on his knees, after the example of late 
 deputies : and, after several confarences with 
 the secretary of state and cardinal Richelieu, he 
 carried his i)oint. The ability and address 
 which lie discovered in this business were ad- 
 mired bv the cardinal. 
 
 At the request of a Roman cadiolic of rank, 
 well affected towards tlie protestants, Amyraut 
 wrote a treatise, " On Grace and Prede tina- 
 tion," which excited much attention, and great 
 animosity among the protestant divines of 
 France. The work, which was an ingenious 
 attempt to reconcile the doctrine of predestina- 
 tion with that of universal grace, met with \\o- 
 lent opposition from the Caivinistie divines, and 
 particularly from one of their celebrated cham- 
 pions, Du Moulin. The doctrine of his work 
 was examined in the synod of Alencon, and, 
 after violent contests, he was with difficulty ac- 
 quitted, wirii an injunction of silence upon these 
 questions. Amyraut, who did not find himself 
 bound by this injunction, returned to the charge ; 
 and, for many years, the contest was kept up 
 with increasing credit on the part of this able 
 polemic. In Holland his doctrine met widi 
 powerful opposition from the learned pens of 
 Rivet, Spanheim, and Des Marets, but fomid at 
 least equally powerfid support from Daillc', 
 Blondcl, Mestrezat, and Clauile. At length, 
 the sentiments of Amyraut, on the subject of 
 the divine decrees, which in fact nearly coincid- 
 ed with those of the Pelagians and Arminians, 
 were received in all die universities of the Hu- 
 
 fonots in France, and were disaeminatcd by the 
 rench protestants, who fled from the rage of 
 persecution, thiough all the reformed churches 
 of Europe. 
 
 Notwithstanding the heretical cast of Amy- 
 raut's opinions, his talents, learning, and mo- 
 deration procured him universal respect among 
 eminent men of all professions. In the catho- 
 lic church, many persons of die first distinction,
 
 AMY 
 
 ( 
 
 ) 
 
 ANA 
 
 both amont; the clergy and tlie laity, held l-.im in 
 lii"h csiecm. Cardinal Mn/ariu treated him 
 witli uncommon civility. I'erlmps this was ia 
 pan owinfi; to tlie political opinions which he 
 openly avowed. Tliese, far from being conso- 
 nant to the i)rinciplcs of religious freedom as- 
 serted bv proicstants, or such as might have 
 been expected from one of those Hugonots 
 who liad sullered so much from arbitrary pow- 
 er, were exactly adapted to !.iipport the ln"gh 
 pretensionsof absolute monarchy. In the ajio- 
 logy for the protestants of France, published in 
 1647, he declares that he will not pretend to 
 justify the taking np arms against or.e's prince 
 on aiiv occasion whatever ; and that he always 
 believed it to be much more agreeable to the 
 nature of the gospel, and the practice of the 
 ancient church, to have recourse to no otlier 
 arms than patience, tears, and prayers. In his 
 I)Ook, " On the Sovereignty of Kings," pub- 
 lished in 1650, on occasion of the tragical death 
 of Charles 1. he expresses in the strongest terms 
 his approbation of the doctrine of passive obe- 
 dience. This abject doctrine he, however, held, 
 with the exception of ca^es of conscience, in 
 which he regarded the authority of God as su- 
 perior to that of man. When the seneschal of 
 Suuinur notified to him an order of the council 
 of state, requiring all the protestants to put out 
 hangings before their houses on Corpus Chrhtl 
 day ; instead of exhorting his flock to comply 
 with the command, he went from house to 
 house, counselling them to suffer any extremity 
 rather than submit to the arret. No hang- 
 ings were put out, and the order was soon re- 
 toked. 
 
 Amyraut was the author of numerous writ- 
 ings ; of these, the principal, besides the works 
 already mentioned, are, " A 'Ireatise on Reli- 
 gions," published in 1631 ; " On the Nature 
 and Extent of the Gospel," 1636 ; " The Ele- 
 vation of Faith, and Abasement of Reason," 
 1641 ; •' A Defence of Calvin in relation to 
 the Doctrine of absolute Reprobation," in La- 
 tin and French, 1644. " Paraphrases on the 
 Scriptures," published without his name ; " An 
 Apology for the Protestants ;" " A Treatise 
 on Free Will ;" " On Separation from the 
 Church of Rome," in Latin, published in 1647 > 
 *' Irepicon," to promote a rc-union of the Lu- 
 therans and Calvinists, printed in 1648 ; " Of 
 the Calling of Pastors," 1649 ; " Chri;tian 
 Morality," in six volumes, 8vo. 1652 ; " A 
 Treatise on Dreams ;" "A Treatise on the Mil- 
 lennium ;" " The Life of La None ;" and a 
 poem entitled " St. Stephen's Apology to his 
 Judges." These pieces are written in French, 
 
 except where particularly mention?d to be in 
 Latin. 
 
 Few per<:ons of the clerical order were in his 
 time more celebrated than Amyraut. His writ- 
 ings bear marks of a sound understanding, and 
 deep penetration. His system of morality, 
 though now almost forgotten, is accurate ar.d 
 elaborate, and furnished several subsequent 
 writers on that subject with large materials. 
 He was well attpiainted with the world, an.i 
 capable of conversing with pertinency and flu- 
 ency on a great variety of subjects. His can- 
 dour procured him universal respect among 
 men of different sects. His liberality to the 
 poor was large, and without distinction of ca- 
 tholics and reformed ; he distributed in charity 
 the whole salary of his ministry during the last 
 ten years of his life. He died in possession of 
 high and deserved reputation, in the year 1664. 
 Bayle. Aloreri. Nouv. Diet. Hiit. — E. 
 
 ANACHARSIS, a Scythian philosopher, 
 who flourished abont 600 years before Clirlst, 
 was the son of a Scythian chief, who had mar- 
 ried a native of Greece. Being from this cir- 
 cumstance early instructed in the Greek lan- 
 guage, he became desirous ot being acquainted 
 with Grecian wiselcm, and obtained trom the 
 king of Scythia an embassy to Athens. On his 
 arrival, in the first year of the forty-;.eventh 
 Olympiad, or 592 before Christ, he met with 
 Toxaris, one of his countrymen, who con- 
 ducted him to the house of Solon. When he 
 arrived there, he desired an attendant to inform 
 his master that Anacharsis, a Scythian, was at 
 the door, and requested to be received as his 
 guest and friend. To this inessage Solon's 
 answer was, that " friendships are best formed 
 at h.ome ;" to which Anachar.-is replied, " then 
 let Solon, who is at home, make me his friend, 
 and receive me into his house." Solon, struck 
 with the smartness of the reply, admitted him as 
 his guest, and finding him, upon further ac- 
 quaintance, worthy of his confidence, gave him 
 a jilace in his friendship. Anacharsis, on his 
 part, did not neglect this opportunity of possess- 
 ing himself of ail the wisdom which was to be 
 learned from so excellent a master. He was 
 introduced by Solon to the most eminent men 
 of Athens, and was the first stranger who re- 
 ceived from the Athenians the honour ot ci- 
 tizenship. 
 
 Having resided several years In Athens, pro- 
 bably till the death ot Solon, and having atter- 
 wards travelled into different countries, Ana- 
 charsis returned to Scythia, with an earnest de- 
 sire of communicating to his countrymen the 
 wisdom which he had acquired, and, as it seems,
 
 
 
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 ANA 
 
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 ANA 
 
 <hf Introducing among them the gods and laws of 
 Greece. The attempt, however, was unsuc- 
 cessful. \\ liile he was, according to a vow 
 made upcjn his way home, performing sacred 
 rites to the goddess Cybele, he was killed by an 
 arrow, sent, as is related, from tlie king's own 
 hand. Thus fell Anacharsis, a sacrifice to the 
 envy and tolly of his countrymen, who would 
 not submit to receive wisdom from Greece. 
 
 From the blunt freetiom of : pcech whicli he 
 used, arose the proverbial phrase of " Scythian 
 eloquence." The inventionofthe potter's wheel 
 has been ascribed to him ; but this instrument 
 was known in the time of Homer. Among 
 liis ingenious sayings the following may de- 
 serve to be mentioned. " The best method of 
 teaching a youth sobriety, is to set beibre his 
 eyes a diunken man." " The vine bears three 
 sorts of fruit : the first, pleasure ; the second, 
 intoxication ; the third, remorse." " An ape 
 is by nature ridiculous ; man, by art and studv." 
 To an Athenian of infamous character, who 
 reproached him for being a Scythian, he said, 
 " My country may be a disgrace to me. but 
 you are a disgrace to your country." The 
 epistles which bear his name are probably spu- 
 rious. Herod, lib. iv Ptut. Fit. Solon. Diog. 
 Laert. lib. i. Strabo, lib. vii. Seneca, Ep. 90. 
 Stanley's Lives of Phil. Brucker. — E. 
 
 ANACLETUS, or Cletus, or Anen- 
 CLETUS, pope, reckoned by Roman catholics 
 the third, succeeded Linus as bishop of the 
 church of the Romans, according to Eusebius, 
 in the second year of the reign of Titus, that is 
 in the year 79 of the Christian rera, and go- 
 verned that church thirteen years. This bishop 
 has been enrolled among the saints and martyrs 
 but there is no satisfactory evidence of hi.s mar- 
 tyrdom. Eusel). Hist. Eccl. lib. iii. c. 13, 15. 
 it an. lib. iii. c. 3. Diipin. Platina. Bower. — E. 
 
 ANACLETUS. a comjietitoi- for the pope- 
 dom against Innocent If. was the grandson of 
 a converted jew, named Peter of Leon. The 
 emperor Lotharius II. having acknowledged 
 Innocent II. as successor to the jiapal chair 
 upon the death of Honorius 11. in 1130, Roger, 
 king of Sicily, did homage to Anacletus. 'J bus 
 powerfully supported, a violent struggle be- 
 tween these two rivals ensued, and Anacletus 
 was for some time master of Rome. After 
 the defeat of Roger, upon whom he had con- 
 ferred the title of king of Naples and Sicily, he 
 was obliged to yield to the more tortunatc com - 
 petitor. He died in 1138. The memory of 
 this anti-pope is loaded with the reproach ot 
 scandalous vices. Dtipin. Morcri. Houv. Diet. 
 Hist.—Y.. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 ANACREON, a celebrated lyric poet, wmj 
 a native of Tcos in Ionia. He flourished in 
 the sixth century B. C. and was in great favour 
 with j'olycratcs, tyrant of Samos, at whose 
 court he resided. Si:cli was ills fame, that 
 Hipparchus, son of Pisistratus, sent a vessel of 
 fifty oars on purpose to bring him to Athens. 
 He was a professed voluptuary, addicted to the 
 pleasures of wine and love without restraint, 
 and beyond the limits prescribed in purer times. 
 Yet he had a sort of philosophical contempt of 
 money, if the story be true that he returned to 
 Polycrates a large sum he had given him, after 
 finding fioni the experience of two nights that 
 the thoughts of it prevented his sleep. He en- 
 joyed a chcarful old age, and protracted iiis life 
 to eighty-five years, when, as it is said (or 
 probably fabled), he was choaked, when drink- 
 ing, by a grapc-f tone. 
 
 The poems of Anacrcon which remain are 
 sliort cides upon light and voluptuous topics, 
 abounding in suavity, sprightlincss, and elegant 
 fancy, and so characteristic in their manner, aj 
 to have given the mme of Anacreontic to the 
 whole class of similar compositions. Some 
 suspicions arc entertained of the authenticity of 
 certain of the pieces which form the collection 
 passing under bis name, but many of them ar j 
 referred to by ancient writers. Translations 
 and imitations of them have been published in 
 various languages. The free versions of Cow- 
 ley are perhaps the happiest attempts of this 
 kind in English- Of the editions of the original, 
 those of Barnes and Pauw are the most esteem- 
 ed. Bayle. Vossitis. Lillus Gyrald. — A. 
 
 ANAGNOSTA, John, a Byzantine histo.. 
 rian, flourished in the reign of the emperor John 
 Palteologus, and was present in Tbessalonica, 
 when, in the i,car I430, that city was besieged 
 by sultan Morad, and brought under the Turkish 
 yoke. He relates affairs which happened two 
 or three years after that siege, and therefore lived 
 at least to the year 1433- His work " l)e Re- 
 bus Constantinopolitanorum Macedonicis," re- 
 lates the particulars of the siege of Thessaloni- 
 ca, and its surrender to the Turks. This his- 
 tory was published in Greek, with a Latin trans- 
 lation, bv Allatius, in 8vo, at Cologne, in 1653. 
 Hoiikii de Byzant. Script, p. I. c. 38. — E. 
 
 ANASTASIUS I. emperor of the East, was 
 born at Duras in Ulyricum, in 430, of an obscure 
 parentage. Of his youth nothing is known. 
 He was yet one of the officers in the palace 
 \tamei] silentiarii, under the great chamberlain, 
 and had not attained the lank of .senator, when, 
 at the advanced age of sixty, he was elevated to 
 the cjiiipirc, iu 491, by the choice of Ariadne; 
 2 K
 
 ANA 
 
 ( 250 ) 
 
 ANA 
 
 widow of the f mperor Zeno, who gnvc him her 
 hanJ in marriage. Such an extraordinary rise 
 attests a high reputation tor wisdom and virtue, 
 which is confirmed by the voice of the people 
 at his accession, who cried, " Reign, Anasta- 
 sius, as you have hvcd!" His first act corre- 
 sponded with their liopes ; for he remitted all 
 dues to the exchequer, and abolislied a most 
 oppressive tax, named chyiurgyrum, levied up- 
 on all who exercised any trade or calling, even 
 common beggars, and hence termed the gold of 
 affliction. He moreover expelled all informers 
 trom Constantinople, and put a stop to the sale 
 of i)ublic ofEces, which had been a source of 
 great abuses in the preceding reign. Troubles, 
 however, both foreign and domestic, soon arose 
 to distract the falling empire, and destroy the 
 popularity of the emperor. Longinus, the late 
 emperor's brother, being banished to his native 
 country of Isauria, raised there a formidable re- 
 bellion, which gave employment to the best com- 
 manders of the empire for some vear-^. Various 
 tumults were excited in Constantinople, either 
 on account of the imposition of new taxes, or 
 the contemptible factions of the circus, which 
 were attended with much mischief and danger. 
 The Roman troops were defeated in Thrace by 
 the Bulgarians ; and, in 502, the Persians broke 
 into the Asiatic dominions of the empire, and 
 took Amida. An army sent to recover the place 
 was defeated. It was, however, restored at a 
 truce between the two empires made in 505. 
 About this time, IMondo, a Goth, settled on the 
 Dacian frontier, making incursions into the Ro- 
 man territories, tlie general Sabinian was sent 
 against him, which obliged him to have re- 
 course to the aid of Theodoric, the Gothic king 
 of Italy. Sabinian was entirely defeated by the 
 coniederates ; and the empire was in conse- 
 quence involved in a dispute with Theodoric. 
 Such were the dangers that seemed to press on 
 Constantinople, that Anastasius displayed its 
 weakness by building a bulwark called the loyig 
 ■ivall, extending between fifty and sixtv miles 
 fmrn the Propontis to the Euxine, and inclosing 
 the country within a distance of tliirty-tive or 
 forty miles from the capital. 
 
 The diiEculties Anastasius had hitherto sus- 
 tained were light in comparison with those 
 in which he was involved by a religious war, 
 the first that disgraced the Christian name. 
 The emperor, who was a favourer of the Eu- 
 tychians, abolished, at their suggestion, an or- 
 thodox addition that had been made to the 
 *' Trisagion," a hymn used in public worship. 
 This occasioned a most violent tumult, in which 
 many pcrsous lost their lives ; and the emperor 
 
 was compelled to take refuge in his galley, till 
 the orthodox patriarch, Macedonius, had par- 
 doned and interceded for him. Macedonius 
 was afterwards banished ; and the sedition was 
 renewed with such accmnulated rage, that 
 Anastasius was obliged to conceal himself in a 
 suburb for three days, at the end of which he 
 appeared in the circus without his diadem, and 
 in the posture of a suppliant, and was happy to 
 reconcile himself witli his people by the sacri- 
 fice of two unpopular ministers to their fury. 
 In the mean time, Vitalianus, one of his gene- 
 rals, espousing the cause of Macedonius and 
 the other expelled orthodox prelates, approach- 
 ed Constantinople, in 514, with an army of 
 Huns and Bulgarians, and insisted on their re- 
 storation. As this was not complied with, he 
 over-ran Thrace with great slaughter, and in- 
 vested Constantinople itself; so that the empe- 
 ror was forced to agree to all his conditions, and 
 consent to the establishment of the orthodox 
 faith. Pope Symmachus engaged in this quar- 
 rel, and, by excommunicating Anastasius, set 
 the first example of the employment of spiritual 
 thunder against sovereigns. Anastasius died, in 
 518, in the eighty-eighth year of his age, and 
 twenty-eighth of his reign ; as much hated by 
 his subjects in the end of it, as he had been 
 esteemed in the beginning. He is charged by 
 the catholic historians with avarice, cruelty, and 
 all the crimes that could disgrace a sovereign ; 
 but his greatest, in their eyes, seems to have 
 been a want of orthodoxy. He left behind him 
 a vast treasure, which, if not accumulated by 
 strict economy, was probably raised in some 
 mode from the spoils of the people. Gibbon. 
 Univers. Hist. — A. 
 
 ANASTASIUS II. whose proper name was 
 Artemius, was elevated to the throne of Con- 
 stantinople from the condition of secretary in 
 7 13. He was a man of learning, and a zealous 
 catholic, yet he did not neglect the defence of 
 the empire, threatened by the Saracens. He 
 sent Leo, the Isaurian, with a strong army to 
 resist them on the frontiers of Syria ; and pre- 
 pared against their intended siege of the capital 
 by causing all who were unprovided with means 
 of subsistence to leave the place, and by filling 
 the arsenals and granaries, and repairing the 
 walls. He also dispatched a fleet to the isle of 
 Rhodes to destroy the enemy's naval stores ; * 
 but the seamen in a mutiny killed their com- 
 mander, and, in order to avoid punishment, set 
 up a new emperor, by name Theodosius. On 
 the news of this event, Anastasius fled to Nice, 
 and Theodosius proceeded to Constantinople, 
 and, after a siege of six months, got possession
 
 ANA 
 
 ( 251 ) 
 
 ANA 
 
 of it. Anastasius, hereupon, renounced his 
 claim, and taking the habit of a monk, with- 
 drew to Thcssalonica, aficr a reign of about 
 two years. In 719, Leo being then emperor, 
 Anastasius quitted his retirement, and tied to 
 Tribehn king of the Bulgarians, whom he pre- 
 vailed upon to espouse his cause. At the head 
 of an army of those barbarians he marched to 
 Constantinople, which he expected would be 
 surrendered to him by his partisans ; but meet- 
 ing with a vigorous resistance, the Bulgarians 
 were so provoked at their disappointment, that 
 they seised Anastasius, and delivered him to 
 I^eo, by whom be was put to death, with all 
 his accomplices. Gibbon. Untvers. Hist. — A. 
 
 ANASTASIUS, pope, a Roman, succeeded 
 Siricius in the see of Rome, in the year 398. 
 He appears to posterity under no other charac- 
 ter than that of a zealous defender of the ca- 
 tholic faith. Origen, one of tlie greatest orna- 
 ments of the church, whose works had been 
 read and admired for upwards of one hundred 
 and fifty years, was by this bigoted pontiff de- 
 clared an heretic ; all cathohc Christians within 
 the jurisdiction of the see of Rome were pro- 
 hibited reading his writings, or keeping them in 
 their possession ; and Ruffinus, a presbyter of 
 Aquileia, who had translated his " Periarchon," 
 or book of Principles, was cut off from the com- 
 munion. To this violent act of intolerance the 
 bishop of Rome was instigated by Jerom, who 
 liad himself translated many of Origen's writ- 
 ings ; and by Marcella, a bigoted woman, 
 whose courage in opposing the new doctrines 
 which were countenanced, or connived at, by 
 the clergy of Rome, is bv that father highly ex- 
 tolled. This pontiff died in the year 402. His 
 epistle to John bishop of Jerusalem, who had 
 written to him in behalf of Ruffinus, is extant, 
 together with Ruffinus's apology, in Constant. 
 Epi't. Rom. Pontif. fol. ed. Paris, 1721. Jug. 
 ep. 165. Hicicji, ep. 16. Platina. Dupin. AJo- 
 reri. Fabric. Bih. Gr. lib. v. c. 35. § 8. — E. 
 
 ANASTASIUS II. pope, the son of a Ro- 
 man citizen, succeeded pope Gelasius in the 
 year 496. This pontiff possessed a strong dis- 
 position to promote the peace of the church, 
 not by the only practicable method of mu- 
 tual forbearance, but by bringing the whole bo- 
 dy to a unity of faith and worship. Forthi; 
 purpose he wrote to the emperor Anastasius a 
 conciliatory letter, and sent upon the emba'sy, 
 besides two bishops, Festus a patrician. This 
 layman, in a private conference with the empe- 
 ror, was brought over to his views, and en- 
 gaged to i:se his interest with the pope to ctlect 
 a reconciliation between the eastern and western 
 churches, upon such terms as the emperor pro- 
 
 posed. The pacific temper of the pontiff might 
 have raised great cxi>cctations from this nego- 
 tiation ; but it was suddenly broken olf by the 
 death of the pope, while Pestus was on his way 
 to Rome ; he died in the year 498, Iniforc he 
 had completed the second year of liis pontificate. 
 A ])ope who, for the sake of peace, was willing 
 to sacrifice, in part, the pretensions of his see, 
 was not likely to obtain, in ages of ignorance, 
 any distinguishing honours. Pope Anastasius 
 II. has not been thought worthy of a place in 
 the calendar : bigoted biographers have even 
 attem])ted to asperse his memory, by perpetu- 
 ating a malignant rumour, that he was cut off 
 by a sudden death as a judgment from heaven, 
 (Platina, de Vit. Pontif. Anast. II.) Yet all that 
 we know of him seems to prove, that he was an 
 amiable and worthy man. His letter to the 
 emperor, with another to Cknis, king of 
 France, congratulating him on his conversion 
 to Christianity, are still extant in the books of 
 councils. Dupin. Fabric. Bibl. Grac. lib. v. 
 c. 35. § 8. Platina. Cav. Hist. Lit. — E. 
 
 ANASTASIUS HI. pope, a Roman by 
 birth, succeeded Sergius in the year 911. He 
 possessed the papal chair only two years. 'Jhc 
 only praise uhicli rests upon the memory of 
 this pontiff, is, that he did nothing deserving of 
 blame : an higher encomium than may at 
 first view be perceived. Morcri. Platina. Bow- 
 er. — E. 
 
 ANASTASIUS IV. pope, called Conrad be- 
 fore his advancement to the papal dignity, suc- 
 ceeded Eugenius III. in the year 1153. Being 
 of a jieaceable temper, he sent his cardinal, Ge- 
 rard, to settle a dispute, which had arisen in the 
 last pontificate between the court of Rome and 
 the emperor Frederic, concerning the drsposal 
 of an episcopal see. The messenger behaved with 
 more haughtiness than the emperor was in- 
 clined to bear, and he received orders to quit 
 Germany. The po|>c took no notice of the 
 affront, and viclded to the emperor the point in 
 dispute. This submission, wliich seems to have 
 arisen from the humane desire of preventing the 
 liorrors of war, has been imputed, by writers 
 jealous for the honour of the papal crown, to 
 pusillanimity. In a great scarcity of corn, 
 which happened during this pontificate, the 
 pope showed great humanity, by his liberal con- 
 tributions towards the support of tlie poor. 
 There was more meiit in this action, than in 
 the bull which he issued for increasing the pri- 
 vileges of the knights of the hospital at Jeru- 
 salem, since known by the name of the knights 
 of Malta. After possessing the papal cliuir 
 little more than one year, Anastasius iV. died 
 in 1154. Icn letters of tliis pope are pre-
 
 ANA 
 
 ( 252 ) 
 
 ANA 
 
 served in the Collections of Councils by Lab- 
 be and HaiJiiiii, and in Dii Chesne's Histo- 
 ry of France. Platina. Moreri. Fabric. Bibl. 
 Ciac. lib. V. c. 35. § 8. — E. 
 
 AiVASTASlUS, an antipope, was elected in 
 the veur 855 by the commissaries of the empe- 
 ror Louis 11. in opposition to Benedict 111. but 
 was obliged, soon afterwards, to relinquish his 
 pretensions. Moral. — E. 
 
 AXASTyVSlUS, the Sinaite, a monk of 
 mount Sinai, in Palestine, flourished in tlie sixth 
 century, and lived, as appears horn his writings, 
 nearly to the end of that century. He was the 
 author of several works, in Greek, still extant, 
 among which are, " Hodegos" [A Guide in the 
 Way], printed in 4to, at Ingoldstadt, in 1606 ; 
 written against a sect called the Acephali, who 
 admitted only one nature in Christ ; a work of 
 little value, except on account of the numerous 
 references which it contains to the writings 
 and opinions of others ; and " Anagoria, or 
 Mysterious Contemplations on the six Days 
 Creatioi," the last book of which was pub- 
 lished in Greek, in 410, at London, in 1682 ; a 
 treatise, which, according to the opinion of Mos- 
 heim, betrays the levity and ignorance of the au- 
 thor. He has left several other tracts to be 
 found in the " Bibliotheca Patrum." Fabric. 
 Blbl. Grac. lib. v. c. ■??. § i. Cav. Hist. Lit. 
 — E. 
 
 ANASTASIUS, Theopolitanus, bishop 
 of Antioch, riourished in the sixth century. The 
 emperor Justinian formed a design to depose him, 
 for espousing the opinions of a sect called Incor- 
 ruptibles, who held that the body of Christ, even 
 before liis rcsuriection, was incorruptible and 
 incapable of suffering. Justinian was pievented 
 by death from executing his purpose; but Justin 
 the younger, in the year 570, banished this pa- 
 triarch ; and he remained in exile twenty-three 
 years. In the year 593, under the reign of 
 Mauritius, he was recalled and restored to his 
 see : he died in the year 599, and was succeeded 
 by another Anastasius, who was killed in a tu- 
 mult by the jews in 609. This bishop of An- 
 tioch, who has been confounded with Anasta- 
 sius the Sinaite, has left some sermons and trea- 
 tises on the trinity, and other points of faith, of 
 which a Latin translation was published," in 4to, 
 at Ingoldstadt, in 1616 ; and " On the Annun- 
 ciation of the Virgin Mary and the Transfigu- 
 ration of Christ," publislied in Greek and La- 
 tin, in the first volume of " Combesisii Aucta- 
 rius," folio, Paris, 1648. Evagrlus, iv. 40. v. 
 5. vi. 24. Nlcephorus, xvii. 36. xviii. 26, 44. 
 Fcibr. Bib/. Grac. lib. v. c. 34. § I. — E. 
 
 ANASTASIUS, the librarian, a Roman ab- 
 
 bot, flourished in the ninth century. Under se- 
 veral popes, he had the charge of tie Vatican 
 library. In the year 869, he assisted in the ge- 
 neral council t f Constantinople. He translated 
 into Latin the acts of that council, and prefixed 
 to the translation, " An History of the Schism 
 of Photius and the Council." He also trans- 
 lated other acts of the councils of the Greek 
 cliurch ; and wrote, or compiled, the lives of 
 the popes down to Nicholas I. continued by 
 others, and published, with the ecclesiastical his- 
 tory of Nlcephorus, Syncellus, and Theophanes, 
 in folio, at Paris, in 1649. -^^'^ edition of this 
 work, with enlargeinents, has been since pub- 
 lished by Bianchini, in four volumes folio, at 
 Rome, in 1718. Anastasius was a learned man, 
 and a tolerable writer. Fabr. Bib. Grac. lib. v. 
 c. 35. § 8. Dupm. Cav. Hist. Lit. Aforerl. 
 Nsi/v. Diet. Hist. — E. 
 
 ANATOLIUS, patriarch of Constantinople, 
 succeeded Flavian in that dignity in the year 
 449. Before his preferment to the patriarchate, 
 and afterwards till the death of Theodosius the 
 younger, Anatolius supported the party of the 
 Eutychians, who held that there was but one na- 
 ture in Christ : but after the accession of Merci- 
 an, who favoured the opposite party, he passed 
 over to the catholic orthodox belief of two na- 
 tures, and thus at once secured the favour of the 
 emperor and of pope Leo. While Anatolius 
 found himself supported by the imperial power, 
 he maintained a bold contest with Leo, for the 
 equality of the two churches of Rome and Con- 
 stantinople : but when he found Marcian dis- 
 posed to yield to the pretensions of the see of 
 Rome to the supreinacy in the church, he gave 
 up the point. Farther to secure the favour of 
 the pope, he called a council at Constantinople^ 
 in which he procured a sentence of anathema 
 against Nestorius and Eutyches, and sent de- 
 puties to Rome assuring Leo of the purity of his 
 faith. Candour will not forbid us to demur up- 
 on the sincerity of this conversion ; and wc 
 may be allowed to dismiss this time-serving ec- 
 clesiastic without panegyric. He died in the 
 year 458. Co>ic. Chalced. apiid Di/pln. Mo- 
 reri. — E. 
 
 ANATOLIUS, hi hop of Laodicea in Sy- 
 ria, was a native of Alexandria, and flourished 
 in the third century, under the emperors Probus 
 and Carus. He was eminently distinguished 
 among his conteinnoraries, for his acquaintance 
 with Greek learr.ing and philosophy, and for 
 his knowledge of ar:tlunetic, geometry, astro- 
 nomy, grammar, and logic. From his excellent 
 qualifications, the citizens of Alexandria thought 
 him worthy to fill up the vacant Aristoieliaa
 
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 A fJ A 
 
 school ; and it is probable, from the manner in 
 which Eusebius mentions this circumstance, that 
 he accepted the cliarge, and was for some time 
 a preceptor in philosophy, according to the Pe- 
 ripatetic system. "VV'hetlier he was born of 
 Christian parents, or became a convert from 
 paganism to Christianity, is not certain. It is 
 higldy probable that he was a Christian long 
 before lie Ixxame bishop of Laodicea ; for he 
 is spoken of as enjoying the fricndshij) of the 
 preceding- bishop of that sec, at the time of the 
 siege of Bruchium, or Pyruchium, one of the 
 quarters of the city of Alexandria, which is 
 supposed tohavehajipened in the reign of Gal- 
 lienus, about the year 263. A memorable in- 
 cident occurred during t!';is siege, which places 
 the character of Anatolius in an amiable light. 
 Anatolius was shut up in Bruchium ; his friend 
 Eusebius was w ithout, among the Romans, the 
 besiegers. When the besieged were severely 
 harassed by famine, Anatolius contrived to in- 
 form his friend of their situation, and to entreat 
 him, who had great interest with the Roman 
 commander, to obtain jiermission, that such as 
 ■were unfit for the use of arms might leave the 
 city. Permission was granted, and aged ])er- 
 sons, children, women, ecclesiastics, and many 
 others, cloathed in tl.eir habits, escaped ; and 
 great multitudes of them were entertained by 
 Eusebius. 
 
 After this, but at what time, or upon what 
 occasion, is not known, Anatolius left Alexan- 
 dria, and went into Syria ; where Theotecnus, 
 bishop of Cffisarea, ordained him bishop, in- 
 tending him for his successor, and, in fact, 
 making him his colleague : but Anatolius, on 
 his way to a council held at Antioch on the af- 
 fairs of Paul of Samosata, passing through 
 Laodicea, immediately after the death of Euse- 
 bius, was detained by the body of Christians in 
 that city, and was appointed their bishop. This 
 probably happened about the year 269. Of his 
 episcopal conduct and character no particulars 
 are related ; but he is spoken of in general terms 
 as a great ornament of the Christian church. 
 Eusebius mentions, as a proof ot his eloquence 
 and his extensive knowledge and learning, a 
 treatise written by Anarolii s concerning Eas- 
 ter, " De Paschate, or Canones Paschales," 
 from which he makes a large extract. An an- 
 cient Latin version of tliis work, said to be by 
 Rufinus, and to be, in the main, a faithful co- 
 py of the genuine work, was published by 
 vEgidius Bi.cherius, in folio, at Antwerp, in 
 1634. We also learn from Eusebius and Jerom, 
 that he wrote ten books of " Institutes of Arith- 
 metic," extracts of which are preserved in a col- 
 
 lection, entitled " 'riicologumena Arithmcti- 
 ca." Fragments of Anatolius are published by 
 Fabric! us, whence appears the high estimation 
 in which lie held mathematical learning, as con- 
 nected with philosophy. Emeh. Hiit. Eic. 
 lib. vii. c. 32. HUron! de Fir. III. c. 73. Fa- 
 bric. Bibl. Greec. lib. iii. c. 2. CaV. Hht. 
 Lit. Lardncr's Cicd. part ii. c. 51. Bi tick- 
 er. — E. 
 
 ANAXAGORAS, to whom was given the 
 appellation of Mind, one of the most illus- 
 trious philosophers of antiquity, was born at 
 Cla'/.omene, in Ionia, in the first year of the 
 seventieth Olympiad, or five hundred years be- 
 fore Christ. If the account wliich Pythagoras 
 gave of i)hilo^ophers be true, that they are men 
 who appear in life merely as spectators, and 
 who, despising all other pursuits, devote them- 
 selves to the study of nature, and the search 
 after wisdom, (Cic. Tusc. Disp. lib. v. c. 3.) 
 Anaxagoras was eminently entitled to be called 
 a philosopher. Though of noble extraction, 
 and possessed of a large patrimony, he relin- 
 quished his connections and estate, that he might 
 be entirelv disengaged from secular concerns, 
 and, as Cicero says, " give himself wholly to 
 the divine pleasure of learning and inquiry." 
 " An, ni ita se res haberet, Anaxagoras, aut hie 
 ipse Democritus, agros et patrimonia sua reli- 
 quissent, huic discendi quaerendique divinse de- 
 Icctationi toto se animo dedissent t" (Tusc. Qu. 
 hb. V. Conf. Valer. Max. lib. viii. c. 7.) Those 
 who measure the value of every thing by the 
 money it will produce, and arc of opinion that 
 the first object in life is to get wealtli, will, of 
 course, ridicule Anaxagoras's plan, and be dis- 
 po ed to say, as many of his countrymen 
 said, " that he philosophised very foolishly." 
 
 ( oLrtuf atirov a-/'jr^rx o-jpi^sir^ai. Plat. Hip. 
 
 Maj.) And there may, intrutii, be some reason 
 to hesitate concerning the wisdom and merit of 
 that kind of contempt of the world, which, while 
 it robs the individual of many real comforts, de- 
 prives society of the benefit of his active ser- 
 vices. 
 
 Anaxagoras left his lands to be cultivated and 
 enjoyed by his relations, and bccaine a pupil ot 
 Anaximenes the Milesian. At twenty years of 
 age he left Miletus, and entered upon the study 
 and profession of philosophv at Athens, where, 
 according to Diogenes Laertius, he remained 
 thirty years. He was, probably, the first disci- 
 ple of the Ionian school, founded by Thales, 
 who taught ])hilosophy in Athens ; but Clement 
 of Alexandria is mistaken, when he says, (Stro- 
 mat. lib. ii.) that he translated the school from 
 Ionia to Atlicns; for the Ionian school was
 
 ANA 
 
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 ANA 
 
 coiyiiuicJ by Archelaus, a disciple of Anaxago- 
 ras, and was by liiiii transferred to Athens from 
 Lamp acus. (Di<'g- Lai-rt. lib. ii.) 
 
 Anaxagoras acqulrid high reputation in 
 Athens as a preceptor in philosophy, and had 
 many illustrious disciples, airiong whom were 
 Euripides the tragedian, the statesman Pericles, 
 and Socrates. To these some add Themistocles ; 
 but the date of his birth is several years prior to 
 that of tiiis philosopher. Without undertaking 
 any public office, or appearing in affairs ot 
 state, he served the Athenian republic. It is 
 probable thut Pericles was much indebted to 
 him, not only for his early principles ot wis- 
 dom, but for frequent advice and counsel in 
 important concerns. Neither his learning, nor 
 his disinterested spirit, nor the friendship of Pe- 
 ricles, could preserve him from persecution. He 
 was accused by Cleo of impiety, for teaching 
 that the sun was a burning mass of stone, (Plu- 
 tarch, de Supcrstit.) or an inanimate fiery sub- 
 stance ; herein, robbing it of its divinity, and 
 contradicting the popular opinion, that the sun 
 ■was A])oI!o, oneof the greater deities. Perhaps 
 political dissatisfaction might have some share 
 in this prosecution ; for, it is said, that Thucy- 
 dides, who was of a party opposed to Pericles, 
 charged Anaxagoras not only with impiety, but 
 with treasonable practices. But from the pro- 
 fession, opinions, and general character of 
 Anaxagoras, it is probable that his principal 
 offence was the propagation of new opinions 
 concerning the gods. That he did not scruple, 
 when occasion offered, to expose the vulgar su- 
 perstitions, may be concluded from the ridicule 
 whicii he cast upon the Athenian priests for 
 predicting an untortunate event from the un- 
 usual appearance of a ram which had but one 
 horn: to convince the people that there was 
 nothing in the affair supernatural, he open- 
 ed the head ot the animal, and showed them, 
 that it was so constructed, as necessarily to 
 prevent the growth of the other horn. It 
 •does not, however, appear that any accusa- 
 tion was brought against Anaxagoras for 
 teaching the doctrine of a Supreme Intelli- 
 gence, the Creator of the world. He was 
 sentenced by his judges to death, but, through 
 the interposition of Pericles, who appeared in 
 his defence, and maintained that he had com- 
 mitted no capital crime, and that his prosecution 
 had bet-n prompted by prejudice and malice, the 
 •sentence was changed to that of fine and exile. 
 When one of his friends expressed regret on ac- 
 ■count of his banishment, he said, " It is not I 
 who have lost the Athenians ; but the Athenians 
 who have lost me :" a speech which, if it dis- 
 
 covers some degree of vanity, also strongly 
 marks the equanimity with which this true phi- 
 losopher met the vicissitudes of fortune. Other 
 anecdotes, which still more atTcctingly illus- 
 trate this part of his character, must not be 
 omitted. Receiving, a; he was one day deli- 
 vering a lecture in philosophy, the news of the 
 death of one of his sons, he calmly said, " I knew 
 that I begat him mortal." He consoled him- 
 self by a similar reflection, when he received 
 his own sentence of condemnation : " Nature," 
 said he, " long ago pronounced the same sentence 
 against me." 
 
 After his banishment from Athens, Anaxago- 
 ras ])assed the remainder of liis days at Lam- 
 psacus, where he taught philosophy in the school 
 of his deceased master, Anaximenes, till, in the 
 year before Christ 428, the infirmities of age 
 terminated his labours. Being asked, just be- 
 fore his death, whether he wislied to be carried 
 for interment to Clazomene, his native place, 
 he said, " It is unnecessary ; the way to the re- 
 gions below is every where alike open." He 
 gave, at the same time, a singularly striking 
 proof of the placid chearfulness and benevo- 
 lence of his disposition, in the reply (Plutarch. 
 Praecept. de Rep. gerend, Conf. Diog. Laert.) 
 which he made to a message from the magi- 
 strates of Lampsacus, requesting to be informed 
 in what manner he would permit them to ho- 
 nour his memory. " Only," said he, " let the 
 day of my death be annually kept as a holiday 
 by the boys in the schools of Lampsacus.'* 
 The good-humoured requestwas complied with ; 
 and tiie custom remained in Lampsacus in the 
 time ot Diogenes Laertius. Anaxagoras died 
 about the age of seventy-two. The inhabitants 
 honoured his memory by a tomb, on which was 
 inscribed this epitaph : 
 
 EvBccSe, irXsKrtov aKvj^aix; STti repfi^a. VEsrjira,; 
 Ovpccvia x.0(r{/,s, ■/.sira.i Ava^ayofx;. 
 
 This tomb great Anaxagoras coniincs, 
 
 Whohc mind explored the pallis ot* heav'nly trifth. 
 
 An altar is also said to have been consecrated 
 to him, inscribed with the words Truth, and 
 Mind ,; of which the latter was the appellation 
 given him, on account of the doctrine which he 
 taught concerning the origin and formation of 
 the world. 
 
 Several particulars are related concerning this 
 jihilosopher, which inust be entered in the 
 long catalogue of fables. Of this kind we 
 ought, probably, to reckon the story told by 
 Plutarch, in his life of Pericles ; that, when he 
 was grown old, finding himself neglected, and
 
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 i.^55 ) 
 
 ANA 
 
 I 
 
 in want, he covered up his head, determining 
 to starve himself, till Pericles came to him, and 
 entreated him to live, that he might not lose so 
 valuable a counsellor ; upon wliich, uncover- 
 ing his face, he replied, " Ah, Pericles I tliey 
 who have need of a lamp, take care to supjilv it 
 with oil:" (Plut. Vit. Peritlis) for Anaxagoras 
 was not more than fifty years old when lie left 
 Athens ; and it was never probable, tliat Peri- 
 cles would suffer a man, whom he so much va- 
 lued, to be in extreme indigence. Still more in- 
 credible is the story told by Pliny and contirmed 
 by Plutarch, and recorded on the Arundelian 
 marbles, of a stone, about the size of a bean, 
 of an adust colour, which, in the fourth year of 
 the seventy-seventh Olympiad, or in the second 
 year of the seventy-eighth Olympiad, fell from 
 the sun, in the day time, in a part of Thrace 
 near the river ^gos, the fall of which was pre- 
 dicted by Anaxagoras. His prediction of a 
 shower of rain at the Olympic games was 
 not quite so wonderful. 
 
 The records which remain of this philoso- 
 pher are mere fragments, occasionally scattered 
 through various writing's, and, after an interval 
 of more than seven hundred years, collected, 
 ■with little care and judgment, by Diogenes 
 Laertius. The accounts abound with chrono- 
 logical contradictions, and other inconsistencies ; 
 and the biographer himself has given unequi- 
 vocal proofs of ignorance or negligence, a strik- 
 ing example of which is, his making Anaxa- 
 goras speak of the tomb of Mausolus, who did 
 not die till the year 353 before Christ, seventy- 
 five years posterior to the death of this philoso- 
 pher. We may be allowed to receive such me- 
 morials with some degree of suspicion, and to 
 exhibit with diffidence a summary of his doc- 
 trine, which must be, in a great mea^ure, col- 
 kcted from such sources. 
 
 In natural philosophy, Anaxagoras, in the 
 midst of some strange conceptions, held opi- 
 nions which indicate no inconsiderable know- 
 ledge of nature. He appears to have had no 
 other idea of the heavens than as a solid vault, 
 in which luminous bodies arc fixed, which were 
 01 iginally stones, raised from the earth by the 
 rapid motion of the ambient sethcr, set on fire by 
 its heat, and kept in their places by the rapid cir- 
 cular motion of the heavens. That he con- 
 ceived the sun to be a fiery stone, is attested by 
 numerous authorities, among which are Xeno- 
 phon (Memorab. lib. iv.) and Plato, (Apolog. 
 Soc.) who must havebeen well acquainted with 
 his tenets : both introduce Socrates as refuting 
 and deriding this notion ; and the latter makes 
 him speak of his books as of little value. Yet 
 
 Ana.vagoras must have paid considerable attcn- 
 tioii to the phienomcna of nature, to have pci- 
 ceivcd that il.c rainbow is the effect of the re- 
 flection of tlic solar rays from a dark iloud, and 
 that wind is produced by the rarefaction of ti»c 
 air, and sonr.d by its percussion. If, as is re- 
 lated, he could predict rain, and darkness at 
 noon day, he must have had some knowledge 
 of the atmosphere, and of eclipses. 
 
 Of his opinions concerning the princijilcs of 
 nature, and the origin of things, our informa- 
 tion is somewhat more correct. He supposed 
 in nature as many kinds of principles, as there 
 are species of compound be dies; and conceived, 
 that the peculiar form of the primary particles, 
 of which any body is composed, is the same 
 with that of the compound body itself. A bone, 
 for example, he imagined to be composed of a 
 great number of small bones ; a piece of gold, 
 of small particles which are themselves gold : 
 thus, according to Anaxagoras, bodies of every 
 kind are generated from daoiofts^isia, similar par- 
 ticles. This system is well represented by Lu- 
 cretius: 
 
 Principium rerum quam dicit Homtrompriam, 
 Ossa videlicet c p;tu\illts atque ininulis 
 Ossibus ; sic et de pauKiUis atqtic minutis 
 Visceribus viscus gigni, saiiijucnque crcari 
 Sanguinis inter se inuitis cbeuntibus guttis; 
 E\ auriquc putal inicis consistcrc posse 
 Auriun ; et de terris terrain concrescere parvis ; 
 Ignibus ex ignem; luimorein ex buinuribtiia csie, 
 Cartera consiuiili I'mgit ratione, putatque. 
 
 With Anaxagoras, great Nature's law 
 Is similarity; and ev'ry compound form 
 Consists of parts minute, c;icli like tliewliolc; 
 And bone is niadt^ til' bone, ;ilui llesli of flesh ; 
 And blood, and fire, and earth, and massy gold. 
 Are in their smallest portions still the same. 
 
 The absurdity of this notion is evident: it ad- 
 mits no simple, unccmpoundtd principles : it 
 makes no provision for piodtiction or dissolu- 
 tion, the formation of any new body being, ac- 
 cording to this doctrine, nothing more than the 
 collecting together of a number of small simi- 
 lar bodies ; and it gives no explanation of tlie 
 original formation of the small compound bo- 
 dies of which the larger consist. 
 
 That part of the system ot Anaxagora<, which ^ 
 explains the active piinciple in nature, is more 
 consonant to reason. Anaxagoras, according to 
 Diogenes Lae'rtiu , (lib. ii. n. 6.) taught that 
 " the universe consists of small bodies coinpostrJ 
 of similar parts, and thai mind is the beginning 
 of motion." " He was the first," says the same 
 writer, " who superadded mind to matter, open- 
 ing his work in this pleasing and sublime lan- 
 guage, ' all things were contused ; then came
 
 ANA 
 
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 ANA 
 
 ininJ, and ilisjiosed them in order." Phito as- 
 serts (Plia-d. Hlppias Major) that lliis philo- 
 soplier tauglu tlie existence of a disposing mind, 
 tlie cause ot" all things. Aristotle says, (Me- 
 taph. lib. i. c. 3.) that Anaxagoras taught, 
 diat mind was " the cause of t!ic world, and of 
 all order," and that " while all tilings else are 
 compounded, this alone is pure and unmixed;" 
 and tliat " he ascrihcs to this principle two pow- 
 ers, to know and to move, saving, that mind 
 put the universe into motion." Cicero ex- 
 pressly asserts, tliough not without someincon- 
 sistencv with what he had before said of Thales, 
 that Anaxagoras, who was a disciple of Anaxi- 
 mcnes, was the first who taught, that the ar- 
 rangement and order of all things was contrived 
 and accomplished by the understanding and 
 power of an infinite mind. (De Nat. Deor. 
 lib. i. c. 10, II. Conf. Tusc. Q. iii. 24. v. 39. 
 De Orat. lib. iii. c. 23.) Plutarch and others 
 confirm this account of the doctrine of Anaxa- 
 goras. It may be fairly concluded, from the 
 concurrent testimony of antiquity, that this il- 
 lustrious philosopher was the first among tlie 
 Greeks, who conceived the primary active prin- 
 ciple in the universe, mind, to be simple pure in- 
 telligence, existing separately from and inde- 
 pendently of matter, and acting upon it with de- 
 sign in the arrangement of the similar parts, 
 ■which before existed in a state of chaotic confu- 
 sion. Diogenes La'ertius, lib. ii. in Anaxag. 
 Plutarch, in Pericle. Suidas. Bayle. Brucker. 
 Stanley's Lives of Phil. Moreri. — E. 
 
 ANAXANDRIDES, king of Sparta, son of 
 Leo, reigned about B. C. 550 — 540, with liis 
 colleague Aristo. He is chiefly remarkable as 
 the only Lacedemonian who had two wives at 
 a time. The ephori commanded him to divorce 
 his first wife on accountof sterility ; but his af- 
 fection for her not permitting him to comply, he 
 took a second, and wisely lodged them in sepa- 
 rate houses. The new wife was brought to bed 
 of a son, who was named Cleomenes. Soon 
 after the first cjueen became pregnant, and was 
 delivered of a son named Dorieus ; and she af- 
 ter\v.-:rds bore twins, one of whom was the cele- 
 •brated Leonidas, who fell at Therm opylre. Not- 
 Iwithstanding the children of the first queen 
 Fwere much more promising than of the second, 
 the laws of Sparta gave the succession to Cleo- 
 jnenes, as eldest born. j\naxandrides was suc- 
 cessful in war against the Tegeates. Several 
 apophthegms of his, which evince his good 
 sense, are recorded by Plutarch. Bayle. Univers. 
 Hist. — A. 
 _ ANAXANDRIDES,acomic poet, a native 
 icither of Rhodes or Colophon, flourished during 
 
 the reign of Pliilip of Maccdon, about B. C- 
 370 — 80. Suidiis says he was the first who in- 
 troduced on the nage love adventures, turning 
 upon the mis-haps of young damsels. He was 
 a personable man, and affected great magnifi- 
 cence in his dress and equijiage; and even is 
 said once to have recited a piece at Athens on 
 horseback. He had more genius than correct- 
 ness ; and, though he was greatly chagrined at 
 ill success, would not take the pains to retouch 
 his performances. Of sixty-five plays which 
 he composed, ten only were crowned. The 
 Athenians, who would seldom endure any re- 
 flections on their state, whatever liberties they 
 permitted against individuals, condemned him to 
 die of famine for a line censuring their govern- 
 ment. An " Odyssey" of this poet is mentioned 
 by Athenseus. Fossius. Bayle. — A. 
 
 ANAXARCHUS, a Grecian philosopher, 
 who flourished under Philip of Macedon and 
 Alexander, was a native of Abdera,and belonged 
 to the Eleatic sect, founded by Leucippus, and 
 continued by Deraocritus. Diomenes of Smyrna 
 and Metrodorus of Chios are inentioned as his 
 preceptors. He was a companion of Alexan- 
 der, and, from the few anecdotes preserved con- 
 cerning him, appears to have treated him with 
 the freedom of a friend. When Alexander a- 
 spired at the honours of divinity, this pliilosopher 
 ciiecked his vanity, by pointing to his finger 
 when it bled, saying, " See the blood of a mortal, 
 not of a God ;" on another occasion, during a 
 banquet, he repeated a verse from Euripides, re- 
 minding him of his mortality. He was not al- 
 ways, however, thus faithful ; for, when the 
 mind of Alexander was tortured with remorse 
 for having killed his friend Ciitus, this philoso- 
 pher, instead of encouraging the virtuous senti- 
 ment, administered tlie balm of flattery, by say- 
 ing, that " kings, like the gods, could do no 
 wrong." A tale is related of his having been 
 pounded in an iron mortar by Nicocreon, king 
 of Cyprus, and of liis enduring great torture 
 with invincible patience : but this story, waich 
 is also told of Zeno the Eleatic, is probably fa- 
 bulous : it is unsuitable to the general character 
 of this philosopher, who, from his easy and 
 tranquil habit of life, obtained the appellation of 
 Eu^a///.oy()coj, " The fortunate." Diog. Laert. 
 lib. ix. Stanley. Brucker. — E. 
 
 ANAXILAUS, a native of Larissa, was a 
 follower of the Pythagorean philosophy in the 
 time ot Augustus. He seems to have assumed 
 the character of a philosopher, chiefly for the 
 sake of obtaining credit to his pretensions to ma- 
 gical powers. His acquaintance with natural 
 philosophy he employed as an instrument of de-
 
 ANA 
 
 ( ^bl ) 
 
 ANA 
 
 Uision. Among other curious arts by whicli lie 
 excited the ignorant wonder and .superstitious 
 tciror of the vulgar, Pliny mentions his giviu'r 
 a livid and ghastly hue to the luinian face by 
 means of sulphureous flaine. Bv the order of 
 tlie emperor Augustus, he was, in the twenty- 
 eighth year before Christ, banished from Italy 
 as a magician. Eitub. Citron. Pli». Nat. Hist. 
 lib. xix. c. I. &:c. Brucker. — E. 
 
 ANAXIMANDER, a philosopher, the dis- 
 ciple and friend of Thales was born, ])robablv, 
 at Miletus, where Thale- lived, in the third 
 year of the forty-second Olympiad, or in the 
 year 610 before Christ. He was the first 
 among the Greeks who taught philosophy in a 
 public school, and is therefore often considered 
 as the foiuider of the louic school, thoiigh that 
 honour in fact belongs to lliales. The mathe- 
 matical and astronomical sciences appear to 
 have been indebted to this philosopher for some 
 iinprovcments. He wrote a compendium of 
 geometry, and delineated a map of the earth, 
 or geographical table, in which he marked the 
 divisions of land and water. Pliny ascribes to 
 Anaximander the discovery of the obliquity of 
 the ecliptic ; but, if Thales could predict an 
 eclipse, this obliquity must have been known to 
 liim. The invention of the sun-dial is ascribed 
 to this philosopher : but Herodotus, with great- 
 er probability, gives it to the Babylonians. It is 
 not likely that astronomers should have remain- 
 ed for several centuries unacquainted with so 
 ebvious and useful an instrument ; and the early 
 division of time into hours seems to indicate its 
 existence long before this period. It is related 
 ef Anaximander, that he predicted an earth- 
 quake, and advised the Lacedemonians to quit 
 the city, that they might avoid the destruction 
 wliich threatened tlicm ; but it is altogether in- 
 credible that he was able, at a period when phy- 
 sical knowledge was so exceedingly imperfect, 
 to do that which is, even to this day, beyond the 
 reach of philosophy. Among the physical no- 
 tions imputed to Anaximander, are these : — 
 that the stars are globular collections of air and 
 £re, carried round with the spheres in uhlch 
 they are placed ; that they are gods and are in- 
 numerable ; that the sun has the highest place 
 in the heavens, the moon the next, and the 
 planets and fixed stars the lowest ; that the 
 earth is placed in the midst of the universe as in 
 a common centre ; and that the sun is twenty- 
 eight times larger than the earth. 
 
 Tlie doctrine of Anaximander concerning 
 the principles of things, and the origin of nature, 
 is so imperfectly and inconsistently related, rliat 
 it is impossible to pronounce decisively con- 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 ccrningii. Audiors arc agreed, that he made 
 TO arnpv, infinity, t'le first princijile, from which 
 all things proceed, and into whicli they ulti- 
 mately resolve , and that the parts change, but 
 the \\holc is immutable ; but what he meant by 
 ;«/?«/■/)•, whether, as Plutarih (Plac. I'liil. lib. i.) 
 and Aiistotle (Pins. uusc. lib. i. c. 5. iii. 4.) 
 assert, he meant the boundless universe ot mat- 
 ter ; or whether, as Hermias (Inis. (Jeiit. ap. 
 Tatian.) maintains, he adhered to the doctrine 
 of his master Thales, and supposing to ijyjsoy, 
 watei-, or a humid mass, the first passive prin- 
 ciple, to be animaicfl by an active iirincijile, ou- 
 first eternal cause of motion, conceived these t^ 
 be united in one infinite universe ; we shall not 
 undertake to determine. 
 
 Anaximander is said to have committed iiis 
 doctrine to uriting, but no remains of his 
 works are extant. An anecdote is related of 
 him, which has been mentioned as a proof that 
 he was employed in instructing youth, and 
 which certainly shows that he respected their 
 opinion. Being laughed at by the boys for 
 singing ill, he said, " We must endeavour to 
 sing better for the sake of the boys." Anaxi- 
 mander died at the age of sixty-four years. 
 Diog. Lo'at. lib. ii. Cie. Ac. Qit. lib. iv. P/in. 
 Hist. Nat. lib. ii. c. 79. lib. vii. c. 56. Suittas. 
 Stanley. Brucker. — E. 
 
 ANAXIMENES, a philosopher of Mile- 
 tus, the disciple and successor of Anaximander, 
 flourished about 550 years before Christ. No 
 particulars of his life reinain, except that he 
 continued the school of his mast-er, and taught 
 and wrote in a plain and concise style. Con- 
 cerning his opinions we have very obscure arid 
 imperfect information. His notions concerning 
 the heavenly bodies, according to Plutarch, 
 were, that the stars are fiefy sul>^tances, fixed 
 in the heavens like nails in a crystalline sphere ; 
 that the sun and moon are circular plates of a 
 fiery substance, and that thcv arc eclipsed when 
 the orifice out of which their heat issues is closed. 
 Concerning the origin of things, he seems, in- 
 stead of the water of Thales, to have substitut- 
 ed as the first principle, air, which he held to be 
 infinite, immense, and ever active. He heM 
 that air is God ; that all souls arc air ; andjiw 
 from air proceed, by rarefaction or condc^^^ 
 tion, fire, water, and earth. From comparnig 
 the terms in which this doctrine is conveyed 
 with the probable tenets of the piedccessorS of 
 Anaximenes, it may be reasonably conjectorcti, 
 bi:t by 110 means positively asserted, that the air 
 of Anaximenes is, as Lattantius supposes, a 
 subtle aether animated by a divine principle. 
 It was reserved, however, for his successor, 
 2 L
 
 A N C 
 
 ( 25S ) 
 
 A N C 
 
 Anaxagor-T^, to separate tliis divine piinciple 
 trom air, fire, \v;uer, i.tul all material substances, 
 and to conceive tlie forming and directing pow- 
 er in nature to be pure intellect. Diog. L<ic>t. 
 lib. ii. Plitt. ad }'/iyi. lib. i. c. 2.' Plac, Phil. 
 Cic. de Nat. Dcor. lib. i. c. 10. Acad. Qu. lib. 
 iv. Suidtis. Stanley. Brucker. — E. 
 
 ANAXIMENES, a Greek historian and 
 rbetorician, was born at Lampsacus about 
 580 years before Christ. He was a disciple of 
 ]Jioge:ies the Cynic. Philip of Maccdon in- 
 vited him to his court to instruct his son 
 ^AlcxandL-r in rhetoric; and sonic writers ascribe 
 Wo him ihe treatise of rhetoric which bears the 
 name of Aristotle. This learned man, with 
 many others, accompanied Alexander in his 
 expedition against the Persians. The inhabi- 
 tants of Lami)sacus, who had espoused the in- 
 terest of I^arius, upon Alexander's conquest of 
 the country, entreated dieir countryman Anaxi- 
 menes to implore the clemency of Alexander 
 on their behalf. Me undertook the embassy ; 
 but the king, as soon as he learned his errand, 
 swore that he would grant iiim nothing that he 
 should ask. " I entreat you," he answered, 
 " to destroy Lampsacus, to burn its temples, 
 and to sell the inhabitants for slaves." Alexan- 
 der, pleased with this smart retort, kept his 
 word, and spared the city. Anodier humourous 
 anecdote is related of this Anaximenes. Enter- 
 taining, on some account, a grudge against the 
 historian Theopompus, he revenged himself by 
 writing a severe satire against the Spartans and 
 Thebans, in a style exacdy similar to that of 
 Theopoinpus, and addre sing it, under his name, 
 to the Athenians. The work was universjilly 
 received as his, and brought upon him much 
 discredit and ill-will throughout almost all 
 Greece. This successful deception, though it 
 reflected no honour upon the author's disposi- 
 tion, was an unequivocal proot of his talents. 
 This rhetorician wrote a history of the life and 
 actions of Philip, and another of those of Alex- 
 ander ; he also wrote twelve books on the early 
 history of Greece, beginning with the theogony 
 or fabulous history, and ending with that battle 
 ofMantinea in which Epaminondas fell. It is 
 to be regretted that these works are lost. Pau- 
 sanias, Elcac. lib. ii. Etcslath. in Arht. Suidas. 
 y'oss. de Hist. Grac. lib. i. c. lO.^-E. 
 
 ANCARANO, Peter de, a celebrated ci- 
 vilian of Bologna, flourished in the fifteenth ceir- 
 tury. He was a pupil of Baldus, and rivalled 
 his master in the knowledge of the civil and 
 canon law. In 1409 he was chosen by the 
 council of Pisa to defend it against the opposi- 
 tion of tlie ambassadors of Robert duke of Ba- 
 
 varia ; and showed, that it had a right to pro- 
 ceed against Gregory XII. and Benedict XllL 
 in order to tennir.ate the schism. He died at 
 Bologna in the year 1417, and left behind him, 
 in Latin, " Commentaries on the Decretals 
 ^nd Clementines, " printed at Lvons, Venice, 
 Bologna, and eisewhcie. On his tomb was 
 inscribed an epitaph, in which he is called 
 " The mirror of the canon law, and the 
 anchor of the civil." A'/oreri. Noiiv. Diet. 
 H,3t.—E. 
 
 ANCILLON, Charles, an advocate, born 
 at Metz in 1659, was an able and learned de- 
 fender of the protestant -cau^e. After the revo- 
 cation of t!ie edict of Nantz, the reformed in 
 the city of Metz sent him to court, to entreat 
 an exemption in their favour : all that he could 
 obtain was a milder treatinent of his persecuted 
 brethren. He removed to Berlin, where he 
 was appointed inspector of the tribunal of jus- 
 tice instituted for die French in Prussia, hiuo- 
 riographer to the king, and superintendant of 
 the French school. He wrote, in French, " An 
 History of the Establisment of the French Re- 
 fugees in the States of Brandenburg," printed in 
 8vo. at Berlin, in 1690 ; " A critical Miscel- 
 lany of Literature, collected from the Conver- 
 sations of his Father, Minister of Metz," 3 vol. 
 8vo. i6g8 ; " The Life of Soliman II." 4to. 
 1706 ; " A Treatise on Eunuchs," 4to. 1707 ; 
 " Memoirs of many literary Characters," lamo. 
 •1709. Bayle. Morcri. — E. 
 
 ANCILLON, David, a French protestant 
 divine, the father of Charles Ancillon, the sub- 
 ject of the preceding article, was born at Metz, 
 in the year 161 7. Through his \vliole lite he 
 exhibited a most amiable and meritorious ex- 
 ample ol tlie united accomplishments and vir- 
 tues which ought to adorn the clerical charac- 
 ter. In early youth he studied diligently, and 
 exercised his understanding freely in the search 
 of truth. He applied with such indefatigable 
 industry to his studies, that it sometimes became 
 necessary to interpose the paternal authority to 
 interrupt them : "he was," says his first bio- 
 grapher, " excessively, and if I may use the 
 expression, intcmperately studious. At ten years 
 of age he studied in the college of the Jesuits, 
 which was near Metz, a school of sound learn- 
 ing : here much pains were taken to bend his 
 understanding to the yoke oi implicit faith in 
 the church ot Rome, and to entice him into the 
 order of St. Ignatius ; but he prudently avoided 
 the snare, and, trom that time, formed a resolu- 
 tion to examine for himself the grounds and 
 principles of religion, and to devote his life to 
 the profession of divinity. In tlie year 1633 he
 
 A N C 
 
 ( 259 ) 
 
 A N C 
 
 removed to Geneva ; and, du-ing a residence of 
 seven or eight years in that place, lie acquired, 
 inidcr several eminent masters, an extensive and 
 accurate knowledge of philosophy and theolofry. 
 Returning to France, he jjasscd through an ex- 
 amination, preparatory tdhis admission into the 
 ministry, before the synod of Charenton ; and 
 he discovered on this occasion a degree of capa- 
 city, learning, and modesty, which obrained 
 much approbation, and procured him an ap- 
 pointment to the church of Meaux, one of the 
 most considerable benefices then vacant among 
 the reformed. 
 
 At Meaux, Ancillon enjoyed, for twelve years, 
 all the satisfaction and happiness which literary 
 industry, professional fidelity, growing reputa- 
 tion, and talents and virtues peaceably and use- 
 fully exercised, could bestow. As a preacher, 
 he was admired ; as a pastor, beloved ; and 
 people of all persuasions, catholic as well as 
 protcstant, paid a willing tribute of respect to 
 his learning, eloquence, and virtue. For tlie 
 completion of his domestic felicity he was, in a 
 singular manner, indebted to his professional 
 popularity. A venerable old man, who possessed 
 an estate near Meaux, happening to hear An- 
 cillon preach at Charenton, was so struck v^•ith 
 admiration of his talents and piety, that he said 
 to some persons, who sat near him at church, 
 that he Im^ but one daughter, an only child, 
 whom he tenderly loved ; but that, if that gen- 
 flcman should come and demand her of him in 
 marriage, he would give her to him with all his 
 heart. This circumstance having been men- 
 tioned among Ancillon's friends at Meaux, 
 who were exceedingly desirous of preventing 
 his removal to Met^, his native place, where 
 his father and relations resided; application was 
 made to the old gentleman, to inquire wlicther 
 he still continued in the same mind ; a tavouja- 
 b!e answer, with new professions of esteem and 
 affection, was received ; and, in the year 1640, 
 the negotiation terminated in marriage. Theie 
 was a considerable disproportion in the age of 
 Ancillon and his young bride, who was only 
 fourteen years old ; nevertheless, the union 
 proved a happy one, and Ancillon found in his 
 ■young wife so much discretion, that lie relied 
 upon her entirely in the management ot his do- 
 mestic concerns. 
 
 Four years after his marriage, in 1653, •^"" 
 cillon, who still retained a predilection tor his 
 native citv, embraced the opportunity of a va- 
 cant benefice, to remove to Metz. Here he 
 supported the same clerical reputation as in his 
 former cure. At the same time his love of let- 
 ters continued, and he pursued his studies with 
 
 unabating ardour. His favourite c;ra(Ificafioii 
 was the purchase of books ; and this the estate 
 \\hich he gained by his marriage, enabled him 
 to enjoy \sithout restraint. His library was 
 curious and large , it was furnished with all the 
 capital books which may be called the pillars ot 
 a great library, and was enriched and decorated 
 by the daily addition of all that appeared new and 
 valuable in the republic of letters : it became, at 
 length, one of the finest private collections in 
 France, and wa ; visited as an object of curio- 
 sity by travellers who passed through Mct7. It 
 was a rule with Ancillon always lo purchase^ 
 the best editions of books, for which he gave 
 these very good reasons : that the less the eye is 
 fatigued in reading a book, the more is the mind 
 at liberty to judge of it; and tliat, as the beau- 
 ties and faults of a work are more clearly seen 
 in print than in manuscript, so the same beau- 
 ties and faults are more clearly seen, when it is 
 printed on good paper, and in a fair character, 
 than wdien the paper and type arc bad. His 
 love ot books, and eager thirst after knowledge, 
 induced him to purchase the first editions of 
 new books, without waiting for subsequent 
 corrections and additions : rightly judging, that 
 it is better, where necessary, to have two editions 
 of a good book, than to want the advantage of 
 perusing the first. If this respectable divine 
 discovered sound judgment and good taste in 
 furnishing his library, he showed them no less 
 in his method of using it. His books were not 
 plated upon the shelves, in ostentatious elegance, 
 to be admired as articles of beautiful and costly 
 furniture by spectators ; they were em[)loycd 
 by their proprietor for every valuable purpose 
 of study. Sometimes he amused himself witli 
 light reading on trivial subjects ; and even 10- 
 manccs, ancient and inodern, did not escape hii 
 eye. FVom neglected authois he gath.ercd up 
 useful particulars, not to be met with else- 
 where ; and he was of opinion, that there is 
 no hook from which something useful may not 
 be collected. He, however, made only impor- 
 tant books and serious things the objects of his ^ 
 dilieent study. He made a great difference be- 
 tween reading books which he oidy looked into 
 th;it he might not be ignorant of any thing, an^|k 
 studying such as were useful in his profession^ 
 'J he former he read but once, cursorily, ac- 
 ccjrding to the Latin proverb, " sicut canis ad 
 Nilum bibens et fugiens" (like the dog that 
 drinks at the stream as he runs) : the latter he 
 read several times over with care and appl^- 
 tion, otnitting no means of impressing their coti- 
 tcnts correctly upon his memory. He maiked 
 his books with a pen as he read them, and
 
 A N C 
 
 ( 260 ) 
 
 A N C 
 
 .placed in tlie margni references to other au- 
 tliorE. 
 
 When he undertook to study a subject tho- 
 rou(;hlv, he consuUed at the same time various 
 autliors who had written upon it : it he met 
 witli the same tiling in different books, lie was 
 pleased with the repetition, as " a new stroke 
 which completed tlie idea he had conceived." 
 A large table stood in the middle of liis study, 
 which was commonlv full of books, most of 
 them open. He continued the subject till he 
 had confronted authors, places, times, and opi- 
 nions ; till he hud seen all, and knew wliat to 
 depend upon. Of notes and " memoranda" 
 he made a sparing and judicious use, chiefly for 
 the purpose of having always at hand authori- 
 ties »nd proofs for what he might advance. 
 
 Ancillon, t'lougli as a stud^-nt industrious in 
 an uncommon degree, did not sutler his fond- 
 jicss for studv to interrupt or prevent the dis- 
 charge of his professional duty. He lost no 
 time, indeed, in paving his court to the great ; 
 in meddling with state affairs, or the intrigues 
 of the town ; in busying himself widi other peo- 
 jile's concerns, or in listening to the tattle of 
 tale-bearers : and he was, jierhaps, too much 
 inclined to a recluse and sedentary life ; for he 
 excused himself from the management of do- 
 mestic affairs ; lie could never be prevailed up- 
 on, more than three -or four times, to visit a 
 country-house which he had near the city ; and 
 he scarcely ever left his own habitation, except 
 to go to church, and perform the functions of 
 his office ; but he never neglected the services of 
 religion, or the calls of humanity : without os- 
 tentation, without ambition, without avarice, 
 he faithfully discharged the useful duties of a 
 Christian minister. 
 
 The impolicy, injustice, and cruelty of perse- 
 cution will be felt, as well as«een, by the reader, 
 when he is informed, tiiat, atter occupying, 
 with great reputation and usefulness, during 
 a period of twenty-two years, the station of mi- 
 nister to the protestant cjiurcli of Metz ; and 
 , after having enjoyed upwards of forty years the 
 sweets of literary retirement ; this learned and 
 excellent man was by one fatal stroke driven 
 from his library, his church, his fiienik, and his 
 country ; and was obliged to seek refuge, from 
 the frenzy of religious bigoti v, among strangers. 
 Upon the revocation of tlie edict of Nants, in 
 1685, he left Met/, and fled into Germany. 
 His noble and rich librarv, e>;cept a small num- 
 ber of books which he found means to conceal, 
 was broken up, and fell, in small parcels, and 
 for very small payments, into the hands of the 
 moaks and clergy of Mctz, and the adjacent 
 
 towns. Thus, in a single day, was destroyed the 
 labour, care, and cxpence of fortv-four years : 
 thus was a wf)rtliy man deprived of the trca- 
 suics of elegant nmu:;ement and honest instruc- 
 tion, which it had been the pride of his life to 
 collect ! With how much propriety might An- 
 cillon exclaim ! 
 
 Impius ha:c lam culfa novalia miles liahebif, 
 Barbarus iias scgctC5 ? ViRC. EcL. 
 
 Sliall tiic rough foldier till Uiefo cuUur'd lands^ 
 Tliefc fertile crops enrich barbarian hands,^ 
 
 W^hat lover of learning, of justice, or of huma- 
 nity, will not deplore the weakness, and depre- 
 cate the wickedness, which could in the seven- 
 teenth century, and which, alas ! can still, in 
 t!ie eighteenth century, in protestant as well as 
 popish countries, plunder the sacred habitations 
 of learning and science ? 
 
 In Germany Ancillon found a welcome asy- 
 lum in the city of Hanau. Here, at the request 
 of the members of the French church, he exer- 
 cised his ministry with great reputation, till his 
 popularity excited the jealousy of the other two 
 ministers of the church, who, though they were 
 both related to him by marriage, ami had in- 
 vited him to Hanau, treated him with great 
 unkindness, and created him innumerable vexa- 
 tions. The gentleness of his spirit soon deter- 
 mined him to withdraw from the field of con- 
 tention, rather than to owe his success to cabal 
 and faction. Lest his friends, by endeavouring 
 to detain him, should spread the flame which he 
 wished to extinguish, sacrificing his interest to 
 the public peace, he secretly withdrew from 
 Hanau, and went to Frankfort. The ccmdition 
 ■of his family, which was numerous, requiring 
 him to reside in some jilace where he miglu 
 have a better prospect, than this city afforded, 
 of settling them to advantage, he shortly after- 
 wards removed to Berlin, Here he met with a 
 favourable reception from the elector of Bran- 
 denbtirg, and obtained the charge of a French 
 church. In tliis situation he reinained, enjoy- 
 ing tlie comfort of seeing his children and other 
 relations well established, and supporting the 
 character, which he had maintained through 
 life, of a learned scholar, an excellent minister, 
 and in all respects a trulv worthy man, till 
 death finished liis course, in the year 1692. 
 
 The fruits of Ancillon's literary industry, 
 transmitted to posterity, are few. In 1657 he 
 published, in quarto, at Sedan, " A Relation 
 of the Controversy concerning 'Iraditions," held 
 between the author and \l. Bedacier, a doctor 
 of the Sorboruie. '"AnApologyforLuther, Zuin-
 
 A N C 
 
 ( 261 ) 
 
 AND 
 
 glius, Calvin, and ]?c7,a," he prinred at Haniui 
 in 1666. He al.:o wrote " Tiie Life of William 
 Farel, or the Idea of a faithful Minister (jf 
 Christ;'* of wliich onlv a surrcptiiious copv 
 was printed in Holland. Heads^f liis learned 
 conversations were puhlishe<i by his son in a 
 miscellany mentioned in the preceding article. 
 Discours sur la P'ie de A'l, Andllon. Baylc. 
 Journal ck Lcipsic, 1698. Afoirri. — K. 
 
 ANCOURT, Florent Carton d', a 
 celebrated French actor and writer in corned v, 
 was born at Fontainel)leau, in 166 1, of a good 
 familv, who had been protestants, but had 
 conformed. He was brought up in tlic Jesuits' 
 college in Paris, where the quickness of iiis 
 parts made hi ; instructors desirous of engaging 
 him in the society, but his dispositions were al- 
 together adverse to a religious life. He was 
 then destined for the law, and admitted an advo- 
 cate at seventeen ; but falling in love with an 
 actress, whom he mariied in 1680, he thence- 
 forth devoted himself to the stage. He was es- 
 teemed an excellent actor, especially in the 
 graver comic parts ; and having a great facility 
 of speech, and a natural eloquence, he was tlie 
 }>erson chosen by his company to address the 
 public on particular occasions. As a dramatic 
 writer, his line was humourous farce. He par- 
 ticularly excelled in rustic characters, and his 
 dialogue is filled with the jargon of the [xjasant- 
 ry. It was said of him, " that he was oftcner 
 in the village than the town, and at the mill 
 than the village." His dialogue, however, is 
 gay, lively, and full of smart sallies : his plots 
 tov the most part consist of little incidents, con- 
 trived to ridicule the follies of the day. His 
 pieces had a great run, and many of them still 
 draw full audiences. He wrote prose much 
 better than verse, in which last he moved widi 
 difficulty and constraint. His company was 
 much sought after by the gay and great, and 
 Louis XIV. v.as fond of liim. When the king 
 was to see one of his ))lays, D'Ancourt went 
 first to read it over to him in his closet, when 
 no otlicr person was admitted but Mad. de 
 Montespan. D'Ancouit quitted the theatre in 
 1718, and retired to an estate of his in Berry, 
 where he employed himself in those cares 
 for the good of his soul, with which, »ccording 
 to the maxims of the Roman catholic religion, 
 the profession of a plaver is incompatible. He 
 died in 1726, at the age of sixty-five, leaving 
 two married daughters. His wife, who had 
 also left the stage, died the year before him. 
 ^His works were printed in 1729, in nine vo- 
 'jumes, i2mo. A collection of the best of 
 them, comprising most of those still represent- 
 
 ed, has been published in three volumes, i2mo. 
 A/cirii. Noiiv. Diet. Hist. — A. 
 
 ANCUS MARTIUS, fourth king of Rome, 
 was grandson of Numa Pompilius, by Iiis daugh- 
 ter Pompilia. He was elected on the death of 
 iullus Hostilins, according to the common 
 computation, B. C. 634. Like his aneesfoi 
 lie chiefly applied himself to the arts of peace, 
 yet his natural disp(jsition was martial, and lir 
 gainctl various advantages for his country by 
 his arms. Tlie r^;itins, breaking the treaty 
 thev had made with Tullus, invaded the Ro- 
 man territories ; on which, Ancus, who wa» 
 greatly attached to all the rites of religion, de- 
 clared war against them with every circum- 
 stance of solemnity enjoined by Numa, anii 
 marched out with a new -levied army. He took 
 several of their cities, defeated them in a pitch- 
 ed battle, and obtained a triumph in conse- 
 quence of his success. He also recovered h i- 
 dens which had revolted, and gained victories 
 over the Sabines and Veientes, fonl^vhich he 
 triumphed a second time. During his reign 
 Rome was enlarged by taking into the walls 
 the Aventine hill, and occupying the hill Jani- 
 culum, beyond the Tiber. He also built the 
 bridge called Suhlicius, and elected a public, 
 prison in the forum. He extended the territo- 
 ries of Rome quite to the sea, and built the town 
 and port of Ostia at the mouth of the '1 iber, 
 for the purposes of commerce. Ne.ir this place 
 he caused salt-i)its to be dug, and distrihutt-J 
 that necessary article gratuitously among tl.c 
 poorer part of his subjects. He improved the 
 city, and augmented the conveniences ot the 
 inhabitants in various other ways ; and died 
 after a prosperous reign of twenty-four >^cars 
 Liz'y. Dionyiiiu Halic. — A. 
 
 ANDERSON, Alexander, an eminent 
 mathematician, wjio flourished at the latter end 
 of the sixteenth and the beginning of the seven- 
 teenth centuries, was born at Aberdeen in Scot- 
 land. He was profes-^ior of mathitnatics at Pa- 
 ris, where he published several ingenious works 
 'in geometry and alget)ra, written by others, 
 with notes and additi<»ns of his own. In 1612,^ 
 he published, in 4to, a suppk-ment to Apollo- 
 nJus, written by Gheraldus of Ragusa, iinder 
 the tide, " Supplcmentum Apollonii redivivi." 
 In this work solids were exhibited mechanically, 
 and various practical problems were added. 
 Another work, under the title of <■' .\irr.:."/ta.''" 
 ( Demonstration], which treats of the /.etetic 
 or analytic method of reasoning, and contains 
 further observations on the fonner work, was 
 published at Paris, in 4to. in the year 1615. 
 Anderson also published, about the same time.
 
 AND 
 
 ( 262 ) 
 
 AND 
 
 two treatises of Victa " on Equations," witli 
 :in appciulix, and Victa's tract on " Angular 
 Sections," with new dcitionstrations. Foss. de 
 Sclent. Math. Morer'i. Htttiaiii Math. Diet. 
 — E. 
 
 ANDERSON, Sir Edmund, an English 
 lawyer, of Scotch descent, was born about 
 the year 1540, at Brougliton, or Flixborough, 
 in Lincolnshire. He studied in f-incoln col- 
 lege, Oxford, and in the Inner Tctnple, and 
 in due time became a barrister. In the year 
 1577 he was appointed queen Elizabeth's 
 Serjeant at law, and not long afterwards one 
 'of the justices of assize. In the Norfolk cir- 
 cuit of 1 581 he distinguished himself by his 
 zeal against sectaries, particularly against the 
 Brownists, in the person of their leader Ro- 
 bert Brown, who was at this time in con- 
 finement at Norwich. Anderson was, in the 
 year 1582, advanced to the dignity of lord 
 thiet justice of the common pleas, and the year 
 iollowiiigrfeceived the honour of knighthood. 
 He was one of the comniissioners for trying 
 Mary queen of Scots, and satin the star-cham- 
 ber when sentence was pronounced against her. 
 He also sat as lord chief justice in the same 
 court, when Davison, the queen's secretary, 
 was charged with issuing d;e warrant for the 
 execution of the queen of Scots, contrary to 
 queen Elizabeth's command, and without her 
 knowledge. In order to appease James of 
 Scotland and the friends of Mary, it was found 
 necessary to throw the blame of the execution 
 u|ion the secretary ; and the minds of the ser- 
 vants of die crown were at that time too much 
 enslaved by arbitrary principles, not to yield, as 
 tlieir||uty, entire submission to the interest and 
 will of their sovereign. After the cause had 
 been heard, sir Roger Manv.obd, the chief ba- 
 ron of the exchequer, extolled tlie queen's cle- 
 mency, and blamed Davison for inconsiderately 
 preventing the exercise of it : and the chief 
 justice, who acknowledged that he did not tliink 
 Davison otherwise a bad man, said, that whaL 
 he had done was "-jitstum, non juste;" that is^^ 
 that he had done justice, but not actedjustlv : a ' 
 nice distinction, upon which Mr. Granger 
 very properly, as well as smartly, remarks, 
 that, " it was excellent logic for finding an 
 innocent man guilty; drawn from the same 
 mood and figure with the queen's ordei^nd no- 
 order ior Davison's signing the warrant." 
 (Biogr. Hist, of England. Sir E. Anderson.) . 
 The distinction was admitted ; and the secretary 
 was sentenced to pay a fine of ten thousand 
 pounds, and to be imprisoned during the queen's 
 pleasure. So irresistible at this lime was the 
 
 influence of the sovereign's will even in tlie ex- 
 ecution of justice ! 
 
 On sevcial occasions, besides that of Brown 
 already mentioned, lord cliief justice Anderson 
 discovered aa intolerant and persecuting spirit. 
 In the exammaiion of Mr. Udal, a puritan mi- 
 nister, at lord Cobham's house, in January 
 1589-90, he endeavoured artfully to draw from 
 him a confession that he was the author of cer- 
 tain books, upon which the charges against him 
 were founded ; though a law of Edward III. 
 to vvhicii Udal referred, says generally tiiat no 
 man shall be put to answer without present- 
 ment before justices, or matter of record, or by 
 due process, &c. And though vUdal was not 
 tried till the July following, the lord chief justice 
 could not be ignorant, that, in the existing dis- 
 position ot government towards separatists, such 
 a confession miglit hazard his life. (Pierce's 
 Vindication of Dissenters, parti, p. 129. Neal'a 
 HrStory of the Puritans, vol. i. p. 509.) In 
 the northern circuit of 1596, he discovered the 
 same spirit, declaring, in his charges to the grand 
 juries, that such persons as opposed the esta- 
 blished church, opposed her majesty's authority, 
 who was supreme in all matters, as well eccle- 
 siastical as civil, and, as such, were enemies to 
 the state, and disturbers of the public peace ; 
 and directing the grand juries to inquire con- 
 cerning such persons that they might be punish- 
 ed. At Lincoln, according to a letter from a 
 clergyman given in Strype's Annals (vol. iv. 
 p. 267.) Sir E. Anderson insinuated, with 
 wonderful vehemeney, that the country was 
 troubled with Brownists, with d'iwKplinarians, 
 .g^nd erectors of presbyteries : he called the 
 preachers knaves, saying, that they would start 
 up in the pulpit, and speak against every body : 
 he lu-ged the grand jury to suppress, by the sta- 
 tute against conventicles, a meeting held, with 
 the bishop's allowance, at Lowth ; and declared 
 tliat he would complain to her majesty of any, 
 dtough never so great, who should show them- 
 selves discontented v/ith the jury for any such 
 matter: in short, with so much wrath, so many 
 oariis, and such reproachful revilings, upon the 
 bench, did he carry himself, that offence was 
 taken at it by persons of principal credit and 
 note, thi^ijuglicut all the circuits. 
 
 Lo:d chief justice Anderson was an able law- 
 yer, but adhered wit'i rigorous exactness to the 
 statutes. In the trial of Henry Cufte, secretary 
 to the earl of Essex, when the attorney general 
 argued the case on general principles, the chief 
 justice said, " I skihere to judge of law, and 
 not of logic," and clirected the attorney to press* 
 the statute of Edward III, on which the pri-
 
 AND 
 
 ( 26j ) 
 
 AND 
 
 soner was iiulictcil. To this comkict, however, 
 lie was iiiclnced, not by an im]ilitit regard to 
 [jreccdciit, but l>v an high opinion of the rea- 
 sonableness and excellence of tlic laws of Eng- 
 land ; for, where precedents wcre*v\anting, he 
 followed his own judgment. When an advo- 
 cate in favour of his cause urged, that he had 
 searched all the hwks, and there was not one 
 case in which he who is named in the writ 
 may be received, tlie lord chief justice replied ; 
 " What of that? Shall we not give judgment 
 because it is not adjudged in the books before ? 
 We will give judgment according to reason, 
 and if there be no reason in the books, I will 
 not regard theiW' 
 
 Obedient as lord chief justice Anderson, with 
 most of his cotemporary brethren, was to the 
 will of his sovereign, his submission does not 
 appear to have proceeded from motives of per- 
 sonal interest, or, as Mr. Granger intimates, 
 from a fear of losing his office, but from respect 
 for what he deemed the constitutional right of 
 the crown. When the queen stretched her pre- 
 rogative beyond the limit of the law, by grant- 
 ing her letters patent to Mr. Cavendish, a crea- 
 ture of the earl of Leicester, for making out 
 writs of supersedeas upon exigents in the court 
 ot common pleas ; the lord chief justice and his 
 brethren, being of opinion tliat the queen had no 
 right to grant such patent, refused to admit Mr. 
 Cavendish to the office ; and even on a second 
 mandatory letter, under the queen's sign manu- 
 al, they persisted in their refusal, saying that 
 they could not comply, because it was incon- 
 sistent with tKeir duty, and contrary to their 
 oaths of office ; and the queen, after a full hear- 
 ing, was obliged to relinquish her claim, and to 
 admit that her coronation oath restrained her 
 from such arbitrary interference with the rights 
 of the courts. The lord chief justice also signed,- 
 with the rest of the judges, and the barons of 
 exchequer, a remonstrance against the arbitrary 
 . proceedings of the court, by which, at the com- 
 mand of a counsellor, or nobleman, subjects 
 were frequently committed to prison, and de- 
 tained without good cause, and contrary to the 
 laws of the realm ; a spirited measure, which 
 produced a considerable effect; for we are told, 
 in sir William Anderson's Reports (Reports, 
 part. ii. p. 297.), that " after this time tliere did 
 follow more quietness than before. " 
 
 Upon the accession of James 1. the lord chief 
 justice was continued in his office, and he re- 
 tained it till his death, which happened in 1605. 
 rood's Memor. vol. ii. {•^41.) Wah a 
 hSTsh and severe temper, Jind intolerant princi- 
 
 (Wlnwood's Memor. vol. ii. plW!4i. 
 OTsh an 
 pies, which rendered hiin hostile to sectaries, 
 
 and wiili notions of arbitrary power which 
 made liim, in some cases, an instrument of tv- 
 ranny, he appears to have posscs.scd great firm- 
 ness of tcm|)er, and independence of character. 
 It his principles would not suffer him to be al- 
 waysan equitable judge, he was a great lawyer, 
 and, probably, on the whole, an honest man. 
 IJis works are, " Reports of Cases adjudged in 
 the time of Queen h'Ji/abetli in the Common 
 Bench," in folio, printed in London, in 1644: 
 " Resolutions and Judgments in the Courts of 
 ^Vestminster in the latter end of the reign of 
 Queen Elizabeth ;" published l)y John Goldcs- 
 borough, esq. 1653. The title is now extinct. 
 IT'oocTs Athcn. Oxon- Lloyd's Slate H'oitliies. 
 Cambden, Ann. 1586. St>y[it's Annals, vol. iii. 
 B'tovr. Brit. — E. 
 
 ANDERSON', John, a native of Hainbui:;, 
 son of a rich merchant, was born in 1674. He 
 had a liberal education, and attained great pro- 
 Hcience in canon law, natural hi>torv^nd the 
 languages. He was made syndic of the city of 
 Hamburg, and was emjiloyed in various nego- 
 tiations in the principal courts of Europe. 
 During his tiavcl-, he was indefatigable in ac- 
 quiring new stores of knouled^^c ; and, at his 
 return, though raised to the hig.'i post of burgo- 
 master of Flamburg, he did not cease to pur- 
 sue his studies, and keej) up a correspondence 
 with the literati of F' ranee and Germanv. He 
 particularly attached himself to an acquaintance 
 witli tiie northern nations ; and not contente.l 
 ^vith readi r.rr all accounts of vovacres and travels 
 into those |iarts, he sought for information from 
 the mouths of travellers themselves. By mcar.s 
 of the Danish colonies e.^tablishcd in I3a<fe's 
 straits, he obtained an accurate knowledge of 
 those sequestered ])arts ; and he carried on a 
 course of inquiries into the state ot Iceland, 
 which enabled him to correct the erroneous and 
 fabulous narrations concerning that island. The 
 fruit of these labours appeared in a German 
 work, entitled " 'J'he Natural History of ice- 
 lai8l, Greenland, Davis's Straits, and other 
 Northern Regions," since translated into other 
 languages. Mr. Anderson died in 1743. Ho 
 left behind him 'itiany other pieces in MS. but 
 which have not been published. Aioieii. — A. 
 
 ANDOCIDES, an Athenian orator, was 
 born at Aihc-ns the first year of the seventy- 
 eighth Oljwpiad, or four hundred and sixty- 
 ei-^ht years before Christ. He was si\(ral 
 times banished, but was always recalled. He 
 was no friend tO popular govcrnmeajihut a 
 favourer of oligarchy. In die trial oWUcibi- 
 ades, for demolishing the statues of M(4«ir%, 
 suspicion fell upon Andocidcs ; and, because die
 
 AND 
 
 ( ^64 ) 
 
 AND 
 
 decree promwcd impuniiy to any one who 
 would confess and inform, he acknowledged the 
 crime, and escaped at the cxpence of the lives of 
 those whfun he accused. 1'hc style of his ora- 
 tions is plain and simple, almost entirely desti- 
 tute of ornament. Four arc extant, of whicli 
 the two tirst arc vindications of liimselt ; the 
 ihjrd is on the subject of peace with die Lace- 
 demonians ; the fourth, against Aicihiadcs, who 
 had sent him into exile. They were first pub- 
 lished, together with the orations of Antiphon, 
 ^schines, Lysias, Isaus, Dinarchus, J.ycur- 
 gus, Gorgias, and Lcsbonax, hy Aldus IVIanu- 
 tius, in folio, at Rome, in 15 13. A more cor- 
 rect and splendid folio edition of the Greek ora- 
 tors was presented to the public, in the year 
 1575, by Henry Stephens. The orations of 
 Antiphon, Andocides, and Isjeus, were publish- 
 ed, in 8vo, with a Latin version, ar Hanau, in 
 1619. Plitt. Akih. et Oral. Decern. Fabi: Bib. 
 Gruc. lib. ii. c. 26. § 3. — E. 
 
 ANDRADA, Diego de Payva d', in 
 Latin Andradius, a learned Portuguese divine 
 of the sixteenth century, was born at Coimbra, 
 and distinguished himself in the university of 
 that city. Sebastian, king of Portugal, sent 
 him, as one of his divines, to the council of 
 Trent, in 1562, to which he is said to have 
 carried the understanding of a deep theologian, 
 and the tongue of an eloquent orator. Besides 
 the service which he rendered to the assembly in 
 its public debates, he, during the session of the 
 council, wrote a work, entitled " Orthodox- 
 arum Explicationum Libri Decern," in answer 
 to a smart attack upon the Jesuits by Chemni- 
 tius. This publication provoked a reply from 
 Chemniiius, under the title of " Examen Con- 
 cilii Tridentini." To this Andrada afterwards 
 prepared at his leisure an elaborate rejoinder 
 under the title of " })efensio Tridentinffi Fidei 
 &c." [A Defence of the Catholic Faith of the 
 Council of Trent, in five books, against the 
 Calumnies of Heretics, and especially of Martin 
 Kemniiz.] It was first published, in 410, at 
 Lisbon, in 1578, and afterwards, at Ingolstadt, 
 in Svo, in 1580. It is become very scarce ; but 
 the work of his antagonist, written against the 
 Jesuits, is easily met with. Andrada also pub- 
 lished seven volumes of sermons. He was a 
 zealous champion for orthodoxy ; yet had the 
 candour to admit that the heathen philosophers 
 might be saved. Palavic. Hist. Cone. Trie!. 
 Baylc. — E. 
 
 ANDRADA, Francis, historiographer to 
 Philip III. king of Spain, was the brother of 
 the divine, who is the subject of the preceding 
 article. He wrote " The History of John 111. 
 
 king of Portugal." The work was written in 
 the Portuguese language, and was published in 
 4to, at [..isbon, in 1533. Moreri. Nouv. Diet. 
 Hist. — E. 
 
 ANDREA DA Pisa, a sculptor and archi- 
 tect, was born at Pisa in 1270. He excelled 
 more in the former capacity than the latter, 
 though he was sufficiently eminent in architec- 
 ture to be entrusted with the construction of 
 many considerable edifices. He built several 
 castles in the Florentine territory ; and is also 
 said to have given the model of a church of a 
 round form, called St. John, at Pi tola. It was 
 in Florence itself, however, that the most esteem- 
 ed of his buildings were to be se^, erected when 
 the duke of Athens governed that city. He for- 
 tified the palace of that duke, and rendered it so 
 extensive, that several spacious mansions were 
 afterwards made out of it. He likewise sur- 
 rounded Florence with magnificent towers and 
 gates ; on which account the right of citizen- 
 ship was conferred upon him, with several im- 
 portant offices. At length, having, at the re- 
 quest of the duke of Athens, made a model of a 
 citadel which he intended to erect in; order tO' 
 bridle the Florentines, they took die alarm, ancf 
 expelled the duke ; but Andrea did not parti- 
 cipate in his disgrace. He passed the remainder 
 of his days at Florence, cultivating the fine arts, 
 of which he possessed painting, poetry, and 
 music, as well as those more professional to 
 him ; and died in 1345, aged seventy-five. Some 
 assert that he gave designs for the famous arse- 
 nal of Venice. Felibien. Nouv. Diet. Hist. — A. 
 
 ANDREA DEL Sarto, an eminent painter 
 of the Florentine school, was born in 1488, in 
 Florence, where his father exercised the trade of 
 a taylor, which gave the son his name of del 
 Sarto. He was taken from a goldsmith's shop 
 by a painter, who kept him three years, after 
 which he was put under the tuition of Pietro 
 Cosimo, the first painter in Florence. Andrea 
 soon surpassed his master, and acquired a high 
 reputation ; his humility, however, led him to 
 fix so low a price on his works, that he always 
 lived in mean circumstances. His professional 
 character was that of an excellent artist, but not 
 a man of genius. He worked with facility, 
 drew well, coloured admirably ; but was unable 
 to give that grace and dignity to his figures 
 which denote brilliant and elevated conception. 
 His heads of the Virgin have a cast of uniformi- 
 ty, which is partly attributed to his having his 
 thoughts occuukd with his wife, of whom he 
 was cxtremelyTond and jealous. After paint- 
 ing long in his native city, he was led by the 
 reputation of Michael Angelo and Raphael to
 
 AND 
 
 ( 
 
 ) 
 
 A N D 
 
 visit Rome ; ami from ilic study of tluir woiks 
 he improved liis own style, so tli;it the [lieees he 
 painted after Ills return arc reckoned tlie best. 
 Andrea was invited to F-Vance by b'rancis I. and 
 executed several works there. 'Die king, at 
 his departure, entrusted him with a considerable 
 sum to purchase pictures in Italy, with whii h 
 he was soon to return. The poor painter, 
 however, sjient the money with his vvitc and 
 triends at Florence, and never ventured to go 
 back, but sent a few pittnres to gain his par- 
 don, whicli was granted, but with no new invi- 
 tation. He continued to work diligently, when, 
 at the siege of Florence, in I 530, he was car- 
 ried off by the plague, in his forty-second year, 
 abandoned by his wife, and almost without any 
 assistance. 
 
 , The works of Andrea del Sarto are in great 
 esteem in Italy, and especially at Florence, 
 where are the principal of them, and which, 
 during the ricrccst civil broils, were carefully 
 preserved, while palaces and churches were 
 given to the flames. He copied Raphael's ad- 
 mirable portrait of Leo X. with such exactness, 
 as to deceive Vasari, who had seen the original 
 painted, and Julio Romano, who had himself 
 executed the drapery. Several eminent painteis 
 were his disciples. D'^rgcirjil/c, Fics dcs 
 Pelntres. — A. 
 
 ANDREAS, John Valentine, a Luthe- 
 ran clergyman, born in the year 1586, was first 
 dean of Vayhingen, afterwards superintendant 
 at Calion, cha])lain to Everhard III. duke of 
 Wurtemberg, abbot of Bebcnhausen, and lastly 
 of Adelberg. He died on the twenty-seventh 
 pt June 1654. His principal works arc " iMv- 
 ■thologia Christiana ;" " De Curiosilatis Perni- 
 cie ;" " De Rcstitutlonc Rcipnblicae Christi in 
 Germania ;" " Subsidia Rei Christianis et Li- 
 terarise ;" " Thcnphilus, sive de Rcligione 
 Christiana colenda ;" " IVIenippus piior et 
 posterior ;'' " Peregrinus in Patria ;" '• I-'anui 
 Andreana refloresccns," which C(jntains the life 
 ot his grandfather ; and various poems in ho- 
 nour of Augustus duke of Wolfcnbuitle, which 
 were inserted in a book, called " Selenalia Au- 
 gustalia." Some consider John Valentine An- 
 tlreas as the founder of the society known un- 
 der the name of the Rosicruciuns. Gen. His!. 
 Diet, hy Jjinclus. — f. 
 
 ANDREAS, VAi.i:Rius, a learned Bra- 
 bnntcr, was born at the village of Dessch'.l on the 
 twenty-fifth of November 1588. lie received 
 the early pait of his education at the place of 
 l.is birdi under Valerius Houtius, and aitcrwards 
 studied the Gieck hngu-.ige at Antwcrj), imder 
 Andreas Schottus. John Hay, a Scots Jesuit, 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 instnictcil him in the Hebrew, in which he inadi; 
 such proficiency that he was invited to Louvain 
 to be professor of that language. Aftcrwardj 
 he applied to the study of the law, and, in 162 1, 
 obtained the degree of doctor. In 1628 he was 
 appointed professor of the Imututa, and, in 
 J 368, librarian to the academv. His works 
 are, " Orthographic Ratio, ab Aldo Manutio 
 collccta, nunc multis aucta : cum Libello dc 
 Ratione interpinigendi ac Distinct. Notis ;" " Dc 
 Initiis Collegii Uusliiliani, deque Vit.n ct Scriptis 
 Protcssoruni ejusdem Collegii ;" " I3e Lingu.T 
 liebiaicx Laudibus, Antiqiiitatc, Dignitatc, Ne- 
 cessitate;" " Dis.^ertatio de Toga ct Sago;" 
 " Topographia Helgica." The work, how- 
 ever, wliicii acquired him most celebrity was his 
 " Bibliotheca Belgica, de Belgis \'ita Scriptisque. 
 Claris;" first printed in the year 1623, and af- 
 terwards reprinted in 1 643 with ton,i(lcr.ibIc 
 additions. Gen. Hist. Die:, hy Liiisciiiu — I. 
 
 ANDRE/E, JohnGkrhard Reinhari>, 
 an apothecary at Hanover, was born on the .se- 
 venteenth of December 1724. Having lost his 
 father, who was of the same profession, at an 
 early age ; his mother, who had no other child- 
 ren but one daughter, gave him a good cdii- 
 cation, and |)laced him under the best mas;ers, 
 that he might be instructed in the languages and 
 the sciences. He learned pharmacy in the sliop 
 of his father, which was conducted by Rugc, 
 afterwards apothecary to the court at Zell ; and, 
 in the year 1744, visited Berlin, where he at- 
 tended lectures on chemistry', anatomy, botany, 
 and natural history. The year following he 
 made a tour to Dresden; and, after inspecting 
 the mines in various parts of Saxony, he pro- 
 ceeded through Leipzig, Halle, the Hart/, and 
 Cassel, to PVankfort, where he resided till the 
 spring of 1746. In compliance with the ad- 
 vice of a friend he was desirous of studying me- 
 tallurgy iiTid chemistry at Blankenburg und<T 
 the celebrated Cramer ; but thi> mineralogiit 
 being engaged in other occupations, advised him 
 to go to Leyden, and attend the lectures ot 
 Gaubius. He proceeded therefore to the uni- 
 versity of that citv, and studied chemistry under 
 Gaubius, botany undtr Royen, and natural phi- 
 losophy under Muschenbrock. In 1747 IrtT, 
 went over to England, and icturncd the sain^ 
 year to Hanover enriched with much useful 
 knowledge. On his return to Haiiovi r, he took 
 upon him the direction of his father's business, 
 to \shich he entirely succeeded on the death ot 
 his mother, in 1751, and soon disiingiiished 
 himself by his .-•kill and diligence. He wr<ne 
 many useful papers in the Hanoverian Maga- 
 zine, and other periodical works, which pro- 
 2 M
 
 AND 
 
 ( 266 ) 
 
 AND 
 
 cured hiiiv esteem from the public, arKl the con- 
 fidence of govcniincnt. In tlie vear 1763 he 
 made a tour to Swisserland, which he seems to 
 Lave surveyed with the eye of an accurate ob- 
 server, as appears bv his letters from that coun- 
 trv, tir.st printed in the Hanoverian Magazine, 
 and afterwards published, in 1776, in a quarto 
 volume with engravings. In the vear 1765 he 
 vas charged by government to examine the 
 principal kinds of cartli and marl in the elec- 
 torate, and to publish, for the use of farmers, 
 an easv and comprchen.sivc introduction to the 
 knowledge of them, and the purposes to which 
 they might be applied in the cultivation of land. 
 This work, the most complete and useful that 
 has yet been written on the subject, appeared in 
 1769, under the title of " A Treatise on vari- 
 ous Kinds of Earth in his Britannic Majesty's 
 German Dominions, &:c. and their Uses in Agri- 
 culture." In the month of December 1791, he 
 ■was attacked by a disorder which terminated in 
 an inflammation of tlie urethra. This malady 
 was at first removed by the assistance of Dr. 
 Zimmermann, and other medical friends ; but 
 having caught cold, it returned with more vio- 
 lence, and, after long suffering, he died on the 
 first of May 1793. Andres's writings and his 
 excellent collection of natural history procured 
 him an extensive acquaintance at home as well 
 as abroad, and admission into inany learned so- 
 cieties. In the course of his travels he formed 
 an intimacy with various men of science ; and 
 among his respectable friends with whom he 
 carried on an epistolary correspondence, may be 
 mentioned, professors Baldinger, Beckmann, 
 Butner, Murray, and Michaelis, at Gottingen ; 
 Berger, physician to his Dariish majesty ; the 
 duke d^' Chaulnes, at Paris ; Dr. Franklin, So- 
 lomon Gesner, Gmelin, Gaubius, Lavater, De 
 Luc, SchiifFer, at Ratisbon ; Scopoli, Zimmer- 
 mann. and Dr. Shaw, at London. Schllchte- 
 groll's Necrology. — J. 
 
 ANDREE,'Yves-Mary, a French Jesuit, 
 was born in 1675, at Chateaulin, in the county 
 of Cornouailles. He occupied the chair of 
 professor royal of mathematics at Caen, from 
 the year 1726 to the year 1759, ^^ben he was 
 eighty-four years of age : after four years' re- 
 pose, he finished his laborious life in 1764. Na- 
 ture had given him a good constitution, and he 
 preserved it by temperance and chearfulness. He 
 taught mathematics with reputation, and was 
 no stranger to other branches of learning. He 
 wrote elegant verses, but is chiefly known by 
 " An Essay on the Beautiful," written in 
 French, of which a new edition was given in a 
 collection of liis works, publisiied, in three vo- 
 
 lumes lamo, in 1766. Tlie subject is treated 
 with great perspicuity of method, strength of 
 argument, and dignity of stv'e. Nohv. Diet. 
 Hist.— v.. 
 
 AN'DREINI, Isabella, a native of Padua, 
 flourished in tlie close of the sixteenth and be- 
 ginning of the seventeenth century, as one of 
 the most celebrated actresses in Italy. She was 
 handsome, played and sung well, and had ai>. 
 excellent talent for poetry ; so that she was the 
 object of universal admiration. The academy 
 of Irttemi in Pavia thought themselves honour- 
 ed by enrolling her in their society. She was 
 much esteemed by cardinal Cinthio Aldobran- 
 dini, nephew of pope Clement Vlll. wlio wrote 
 many verses in her praise. She visited France, 
 where she was received very favourably by the 
 king and queen and principal persons of the 
 court, in honour of whom she composed several 
 sonnets. She died of a miscarriage in 1604, in 
 the forty-second year of her age, at Lyons, 
 where she was buried with great marks ot di- 
 stinction. Her husband, in an epitaph, bears 
 an equal testimony to her morals and her ta- 
 lents. A great variety of elegiac verses written 
 on the occasion, in Latin and Italian, are pre- 
 fixed to an edition of her poems at Milan in 
 1605. These consist of sonnets, madrigals, 
 songs, and eclogues, and a pastoral, entitled 
 " Mirtilla." Some letters of hers were also 
 publisiied at Venice in 1610. Besides her other 
 qualifications, she had some acquaintance viith 
 philosophy, and understood the French and 
 Spanish languages. Bayle. Tirahoschi. 
 
 Her husband, Francis Andreini, was a 
 player, and famous for rhodomontade parts. 
 After his wife's death he left the stage, and be- 
 came an author, in a similar style with his 
 acting. 
 
 Their son, John Baptist Andreini, was 
 an actor, and also a copious dramatic writer, 
 but of little \alue. A piece of his, called, 
 " Adamo," has been an object of curiosity, as 
 supposed to have afforded a hint to Milton in 
 the composition of Paradise Lost. Some ac- 
 count of tliis piece, and translations from it, are 
 annexed to " Haylev's Life of Milton." — A. ' 
 
 ANDRELINI, Publio Fausto, a modern 
 Latin poet, was born at Forli, in Italy, about 
 the middle of the fifteenth century. He devoted 
 himself to poetry from his youth, and with 
 such success, that having composed and pub- 
 lished his four books " De Amoribus," they 
 were received with so much applause, that the 
 author, then only twenty-two, was solemnly 
 crowned at Rome by the Roman Academy. 
 At that city he became known to Ludovico
 
 AND 
 
 ( 267 ) 
 
 AND 
 
 Gonznga, Juke of Maiiuia, wlio took him back 
 with him in 1484, and gave him the title of his 
 own poet. ]n 1488 he went into Fiance with 
 a recommenJation from Gonzaga to the dau- 
 phin ; and the next year he was appointed pub- 
 lic professor of belles-lettres in Paris, whirli 
 office he held for thirty years. Besides his pub- 
 lic lecture-;, lie gave instructions in private ; and 
 lie joined to rhetoric and poetry the explanation 
 ot the S]5here. He was much honoured by the 
 lings Charles VIII. Lewis XII. and FVancis I. 
 who gave him considerable appointments. He 
 was also pensioned by queen Anne, of Bretagnc, 
 whence he made use of the whimsical designa- 
 tion of Pcita regius ac regineits. By many of 
 his contemporaries he was celebrated as the 
 first poet of the age, and the great civiliscr of 
 France in respect to literature. Erasmus, how- 
 ever, who praised him when alive, gave a very 
 different idea both of his talents and morals, af- 
 ter his death. He charges Aiidrelini with great 
 licentiousness and turbulence of manners, af- 
 firms that he was continually quarrelling with 
 liis brother professors, and wonders that his au- 
 dacious sarcasms against the theologians of Pa- 
 ris could be endured. Notwitlistanding these de- 
 fects, he continued to live in high esteem as a 
 professor and writer till the time of his death, 
 which happened at Paris in February 151 8 : and 
 his memory was honoured by the learned with 
 elegies, inscriptions, &.'c. 
 
 Andrelini's great faculty was to pour forth 
 with uncommon facility sonorous verses, com- 
 posed of elevated and pompous expressions, but 
 extremely void of meaning ; so that Vossius 
 compares his poetry to a river of words with a 
 drop of sense ; and even this drop is contested 
 by Erasmus. Yet they were enough admired 
 in France to meet with commentators and trans- 
 lators. As they are now sunk in oblivion, it 
 will not be necessary to copv the titles of them 
 from Baillet and Mazzuchelli. Most of them 
 have been inserted in the first volume of the 
 *' Deliciffi Poetar. Ital." They chieflv consist 
 of elegies, eclogues, and panegyrical pieces on 
 various occasions. Andrelini also wrote moral 
 and proverbial epistles in prose. Ba'illct. Tira- 
 boichi. Alorer't. — A. 
 
 ANDREW I. king of Hungary, was a 
 prince of the blood-royal, cousin of St. Ste- 
 phen, and eldest son of Ladislaus the Bald. 
 With his brothers Bela and [>eventha, he was 
 obliged, at the restoration of king Peter, A. D. 
 1044, to take refuge in Russia. Tiie discon- 
 tented Hungarians of the old stock, who were 
 still idolaters, kept a correspondence with these 
 
 exiles, and promised to kill Peter, ami drive out 
 all foreigners, provided Andrew would restore 
 the old religion, and destroy the Christian 
 churches. 'I he agreement was made ; and, af- 
 ter great cruelties piactiscd apinst the priests, 
 and the plundering and demolition of churchc* 
 and monasteries, Andrew was placed on the 
 throne, in 1047, instead of Peter, who was taken 
 prisoner, and lost his eyes, and soon after died. 
 He did not, however, keep liis promise of re- 
 storing, or even tolerating, paganism ; but obliged 
 all his subjects to profess Christianity. He had 
 disputes with Albert of Austria, which at length 
 terminated in a peace. Soon after, he invited 
 his brother Bcla, with his family, to settle in 
 Hungary, anil gave him a tliird |)art of his do- 
 minions. Andiew was then without childicn ; 
 but he after\vards married Agmunda, daughter 
 ot the duke of Russia, by whom he had two 
 sons. The emperor Henry 111. invading Hun- 
 gary, was reduced to such straits by Andrew 
 and Bela, that, in (jrder to save his army from 
 total destruction, he entered into a treaty, one 
 condition of which was the marriage of his 
 daughter with Andrew's son, Solomon. After 
 this event, he caused his son, though onlv fi\e 
 years old, to be crowned ; and fearing that the 
 ambition of his brother Bela would disturb the 
 succession, he sent for him, having first instnict- 
 ed two of his confidential servants how to act. 
 " I shall offer him (said the king) a crown, the 
 svmbol of the roval authority, and a swonl, 
 that of the ducal. If he chu'-es the former, in- 
 stantly put him to death ; if the latter, let him 
 live." An officer who overheard this order, 
 whispered to Bela, as he was proceeding to the 
 dangerous trial, " Chuse the sword." Bela, 
 in answer to Andrew's offer, expressed tiie 
 strongest attachment to his nephew's right of 
 succession, and accepted the sword, to be used 
 in hi? defence. Andrew was satisfied ; but Bela 
 soon after retreated to Poland, whence lie came 
 at the head of an aiinv to dethrone him. An- 
 drew received the aid of the emperor, to whom 
 he sent his children for protection ; but meeting 
 his brother on the iiaiiks of the Teiss, he waw 
 defeated, abandoned by his own men, and killed 
 in the pursuit, A. D. 1059. Alod. Vnivcn. 
 Hist. Sncy, Hist, dc Hongric.-- \. 
 
 ANDREW II. king of Hungary, was se- 
 cond .'•on of Bela 111. He raised a revolt against 
 his elder brother Emeric, who had succeeded 
 their father; but he was deserted by all his fol- 
 lowers, and obliged to throw himself on his 
 brother's mercv. His character, after this 
 event, was so changed, that he became otic of
 
 AND 
 
 ( 268 ) 
 
 AND 
 
 the mcst faitl.ful supporters of the throne. On 
 the iliuili of his neplicw Laili^laus, in 1204, 
 Andrew succeeded by general consent of the 
 Slates. He had governed in peace twelve years, 
 when, tiic po]>e preaching up a new crusade, 
 Andrew took the cross, and was constituted the 
 chief ot the expedition. He proceeded to Con- 
 stantinople, where he soon heard of a tragical 
 event that had taken place at home. Bancban, 
 a palatin, to whom he had confided the go- 
 vernment during his absence, h;id a very beau- 
 tiful wife, of whom the queen's brotlicr, the 
 count of Moravia, becatne enai:ioured. The 
 lady provii-.g impregnable to soiicitations, the 
 queen infaniouslv assisted her brother in a sclieine 
 for obtaining his desires by force. On the dis- 
 coveiy of its success, the injured husband, un- 
 able to revcnse himself on the ravisher, who had 
 lied, stabbed the queen, and, coming out with 
 liis bloody sword into the street, justified tiie 
 deed. He then proceeded to Constantinople to 
 submit the case to the judginent of the king. 
 Andrew had a sufficient sense of lionour and 
 justice to acquit him, and send hiin back to go- 
 vern the country. Bancban's family, however, 
 was in the end riiincd by the resentment of the 
 king's sons. Meantime Andrew proceeded to 
 Syria, and displayed his courage in some conflicts 
 with tiie Saracens ; but, becoming weary of the 
 expedition, after a short stay he declared his in- 
 tention of returning hoine, which he put in 
 execution, notwithstanding the patriarch of Je- 
 rusalem menaced him with excommunication. 
 Agreeing to leave half his troops under the 
 command of the duke of Austria, he set out on 
 board of a Venetian fleet, enriched by soine 
 j)recious relics, and the title of the Hicrosohmi- 
 tan \ and, paying a visit at Este, fell in love 
 with and married the daughter of the prince, 
 whom lie brought home. He employed the re- 
 mainder of his reign chiefly in healing the dis- 
 contents of his subjects, -and establishing a sy- 
 stem of legislation. Like most of the sovereigns 
 who engaged in the crusades, he was obliged to 
 strip the crownof partof its authority, and raise 
 that of the nobles. He was the author of a fa- 
 mous decree, confirming and augmenting the 
 privileges ot the nobility, and permitting them to 
 take up arms in their defence, should he or his 
 successors attempt to abridge them — a stipula- 
 tion, nugatory against a powerful monarch \ 
 and which has answered no other purpose, than 
 to render the aristocracy factious, and the mass 
 of the people slaves ! Towards the end of his 
 reign, the Tartais made soine successful inroads 
 into Hungary. Andrew died in 1235, and left 
 
 his crown to his eldest son Bela, to wliom he 
 had already resigned the sovereign power. Mod; 
 Univcrs. Hist Sacv, Hiit. dc Hongiie. — A. 
 
 ANDREW Hi. king of Hungary, called 
 ihi; Venetian, was the grandson of /Andrew II. 
 and son ot prince Stephen, by a Venetian la- 
 dy. He was called to the tlnonc by the Hun- 
 garians on the death of Ladislaus in 1290 ; and, 
 taking his way from Italy, where he then was, 
 tluough Austria, he was detained by Albert, tlie 
 duke, till he jiromiied to espouse Agnes his 
 daughter ; a promise which he afterwards ful- 
 filled, though he had protested against its vali-t 
 dity, and was supported bv his nation. He 
 went to war, however, with Albert, and laid 
 waste almost ail Austria, till at length a peaca 
 was made by the intercession ot the prelates 
 Meantime a party in Hungary, supported by 
 many nobles and ecclesiastics, acknowledced for. 
 tiieir king Ciiarles, named Martel, son of the. 
 king of Sicily, by a sister of Ladislaus. The 
 youth had been crowned at Naples, and waS' 
 favoured by the pope, wh.o pretended to dis- 
 pose of the crown of Hungary as a fief of the 
 holy see.. Charles obtained a footing in the. 
 kingdom ; and the two competitors, w'lrh their 
 partisans, kept Hungary in a divided state, till 
 they both died in the same year, 1 301. Andrew, 
 closed his life at Buda without male issue, and 
 in him the line of St. Stephen terminated. Uni- 
 vcrs. Hist. Sacy, Hist, de Hongrie. — A. 
 
 ANDREW OF Hungary, called by the 
 Italians Andrcasso, king of Naples, was second- 
 son of Charles II. or Charobert, king of Hun- 
 gary. He was early destined for the husband of 
 his relation Joan queen of Naples, and, at. 
 six years of age, was sent over to that court in, 
 order to receive a suitable education ainong his 
 future people. Mild and docile, but heavy and 
 gross, he was unfortunately die object of con- 
 tempt and aversion to his spouse ; and, though 
 she could not refuse the marriage, she was re- 
 solved to exclude him froin all share of the so- 
 vereign power. Their differences were aug- 
 mented by two persons who governed them ;. 
 Robert, a Franciscan monk, the favourite of 
 Andrew ; and the famous Catanese, once a 
 washerwoman, the confidante of Joan. Lewis 
 prince of Tarentum, a kinstnan of Joan, was 
 also much in her good graces ; and many of the 
 Neapolitan nobles were jealous of the expected 
 influence of the Hungarians in their country. 
 Preparations were made for the solemn consecra- 
 tion of the king and qtieen, and they were lodged 
 together in a convent at Aversa; when, one 
 night as Andrew was going to bed, he was
 
 AND 
 
 ( 269 ) 
 
 AND 
 
 called out of tlic queen's aparti-.icnt (in the pre- 
 tence ot some urgent busii-.tss ; ami, liis moutlx 
 being stopt, a rope was thrown touiul b.is neck, 
 aiul lie was instantly stjangled. His bodv was 
 let down into the garden, where tl;c murderers, 
 coming to bury it, found his nurse, a Hungarian 
 woman, embracing the liieless corpse, and try- 
 ing to reanimate it. 'riiey retired ; and the 
 shocking catastrophe being made known in the 
 town, a furious mob rose to take vengeance on 
 the conspirators ; and Joan herself was obliged 
 to fly to Naples. 'Jlie .sequel of this tragedy v. ill 
 he related under her aiticle. It hap])ened in 
 1545, when Andrew uas in iiis nineteenth 
 year. Mod. Univcrs. Hist. Sucy, Hut. cle 
 Hongr. — A . 
 
 ANDREW, a Jew, an apostle of Christ, 
 •was bornat Bethsaida, a town of Galilee, pro- 
 bably the same which is called by the geographer 
 Ptolemy Betharamplitlia, situated to the north 
 of the lake Gennesareth, at the influx of the 
 Jordan into that lake. He was the son of Joliii, 
 or Jonas, a fisherman of diat town, and, with 
 bis brother Peter, folio\^ed that occupation. 
 John Baptist, who had taught in this neighbour- 
 hood the doctrine of repentance, and had col- 
 lected many followers, and who now began to 
 introduce Jesus to the notice of the Jewish people 
 as the Messiah, observing that Jesus was walk- 
 ing near, pointed him out to Andrew and Si- 
 ir.on Peter, who were among the number of 
 John's disciples, under the embleinatic appella- 
 tion of the Lamb of God, as the expected Sa- 
 viour of Israel. Upon this tliey followed Jesus 
 to his usual place of residence. Andrew ap- 
 pears to have been the first disciple of Christ ; 
 for he it was who first understood John's saci i- 
 fical allusion, and said to his brother, " We 
 have found the Messiah." (John i. 35—41.) 
 These particulars, which are related by the apos- 
 tle John, are omitted by the other evangelists, 
 who agree in relating, that while Jesus was 
 preaching near the lake Gennesareth, he saw 
 Peter and Andrew fishing, and calling them 
 to him, said, " Follow me, and I will make 
 you fishers of men. (Matt. iv. 18 — 20. Mark 
 i, 16 — 18.) Luke, omitting the name of An- 
 drew, adds to the account a relation of a mira- 
 culous draught of fishes. (Lukev. I — II.) An- 
 drew was afterwards chosen by Christ as one 
 of his twelve apostles. It is recoided by the 
 evangelists, that in the house of Simon and 7\n- 
 drew (Ch. i. 29.) Simon's mother-in-law was 
 miraculously cured of a fever ; that, in the mi- 
 raculous supply of five thousand with food, 
 Andrew (John vi. 7.) informed Jesus of the 
 
 lad who had five hatley loaves and two «;m:ill 
 fii>lKS; that, a little infore the criicifixnn, 
 wli'-n thcv were in Jerusalem. Andrew sc- 
 quainttd Jesus with the request of certain Greik? 
 to see him (John xii. 20—22.); and lastlv, 
 tliai this aposile was one of four (Mark xii'i. 
 3, 4.) who asked him privately when the icni- 
 ])le would be destroyed. This is all that the 
 evangelijts rel.ite concerning him: the nst of 
 listoiy is involved in uncenaintv. Eusc- 
 relates (Hist. Ecc. lib. iii. c. i.), that in 
 
 his h 
 bins 
 
 the distribution which the apostles arc said to 
 have made of their mission for propagating 
 Christianity, Andrew made choice of v^'cythia. 
 Rut thii account rests upon tradition, and is the 
 less entitled to credit, as it mentions only four 
 ot the twelve apostles. Subsequent accounts of 
 the travels and sufferings of this apostle are still 
 Icsi satisfactory. " The Acts of the Passion of 
 Sr. Andrew" (apud Surii Sanct. Hist.), in 
 which is related his martyrdom at Patra; in 
 Achaia, though said to have been written by 
 the priests of Achaia, are evidently spurious. 
 The ancient ecclesiastical writers knew nu 
 other records of St. Andrew than those which 
 were corrupted by the Manichees, mentioned 
 by Philastrius (De Hsres. n. 40.) and Au- 
 gustin (De Fide, cont. Manich). This work 
 is not mentioned till the seventh century ; and 
 its doctrines and language do not accord with 
 those of the early ages. Some say that he was 
 crucified on a cross of the form of the letter X, 
 hence vulgarly called St. Andrew's cross ; others, 
 that he was crucified on an olive-tree (Petrus 
 Chrysol. serm. 133.) ; but the whole story of his 
 crucifixion depends upon doubtful testimony. 
 Jcrom says his body was removed with St. 
 Luke's to Constantinople in 357. (Hicron. 
 adv. Vigil, p. 22. Conf. Greg. Naz. orat. 
 25. Theod. in Ps. 116.) It is remarkable, 
 that the later accounts of this apostle, by Gre- 
 gory of Tours in tlie sixth century (De Glor. 
 Martyr, lib. i. c. 31.), by Nicephorus of Con- 
 stantinople in the nin;:i (Chronogr. p. 309.), 
 and by Nicephorus Callistus in the fourteenth 
 (Hist. Eccl. lib. ii. c. 39.) contain many par- 
 ticulars which appear to have been wholly un- 
 known to more ancient writers : a strong pre- 
 sumption, that these later accounts arc fabulous. . 
 Who will now listen to the ridiculous legend of 
 Gregory, which tells of streams of oil flowing 
 from the tomb of tliis saint on the anniversary of 
 his martyrdom, and sometimes swelling to the 
 middle of the church ? — E. 
 
 ANDREW, bishop of Crete, a native of 
 Damascus, Houiishcd in the seventh, and ul
 
 AND 
 
 ( 270 ) 
 
 AND 
 
 the beginning of the eighth century. lie pass- 
 ed tho early part of his life as a monk at Jeru- 
 salem, whence he is somelimts called Andrew 
 of Jerusalem. He was invited by Theodoret, 
 patriarch of Jerusalem, to attend the sixth ge- 
 neral council of Constantino])le, and afterwards 
 copied the acts (jf that assembly against the iMo- 
 nothclites. (Combefis. Auct. Nov. toni. ii. 
 Hist. Monothel. p. 235, &c.) He was ap- 
 pouited bishop of Crete, and probably remained 
 in that sec till his death, about the year 720. 
 This prelate has left several homilies, and other 
 pieces, more adapted to nourish superstition than 
 to teach good morals, which were collected and 
 published, in folio, by Francis Combefisius, at 
 Paris, 1644. Fabric. B'tbl. Gicsc. lib. v. c. 41. 
 §2. Cav. Hist. Lit. — E. 
 
 ANDREW, or ANDREAS, James, a 
 German protcstant minister, was born at Waib- 
 ling, in the duchy of Wurtemberg, in the year 
 1582. His parents, who were poor, put him 
 apprentice to the mechanical occupation of a 
 carpenter ; but he was taken from this employ- 
 ment by some wealthy friends, who observed his 
 talents, and sent him to the university of Tubin- 
 gen, where he distinguished himself in the study 
 of philosophy and the languages, and where, af- 
 terwards, he was a professor. Devoting him- 
 self to the ministry, he became a zealous Lu- 
 theran. In order to settle the disputes which 
 had arisen in the Lutheran churches, it was 
 proposed, that a certain number of wise and 
 moderate divines should be employed to draw 
 up a form of doctrine, which, having obtained 
 the sanction of the Lutheran princes and consis- 
 tories, might become the common standard of 
 faith. This measure was espoused by the dukes 
 of Wurtemberg and Brunswick, and the elector 
 of Saxony. Under their authority, James An- 
 drew took the lead in this arduous undertaking; 
 ,and he, with equal zeal and prudence, exerted 
 himself to render the form universally accep- 
 table. For this purpose, he travelled through 
 different parts of Germany, and visited Den- 
 mark, negotiating alternately with courts and 
 synods. The project, however, as must hap- 
 pen to every attempt to bind tlie fluctuating opi- 
 nions of men bv a written formulary, proved 
 unsuccessful. He died in the year 1590. He 
 •wrote several works, of which the most cele- 
 brated is, " A Treatise on Concord," published 
 in 4to. in the year 15S2. Moreri. Nouv. Diet. 
 Hist. Moihcim, cent. xvi. — E. 
 
 ANDRE^^^ or ANDREAS, John, a ce- 
 lebrated Italian canonist of the fourteenth centu- 
 .ry, was born at Mugello, near Florence. He 
 
 was the illegitimate son of a priest, and was him- 
 self, in his youth, addicted to licentious plea- 
 sure. In the university of Bologna he received 
 both instruction and pecuniary assistance from 
 an eminent professor of the law, Gui de Bait ; 
 and through his interest he obtained a doctor's 
 d^'gree, and a professorship. He read lectures 
 on canon law at Padua, at Pisa, and at Bolo- 
 gna. It is said that he had a daughter, nained 
 Novella, who was so well instructed in law, 
 that she occasionally read lectures for her father, 
 with a curtain drawn before her, that her beau- 
 ty might not interrupt the attention of the scho- 
 lars. Wonderful things arc related concerning 
 the austerities %\hich he practised towards the 
 latter part of his life: he mortified his body with 
 fastings and prayers, and slept every night, for 
 twenty years together, on the ground, wrapped 
 in a bear's skin. After having been forty-five 
 years professor of canon law, he died of the 
 plague at Bologna, in the year 1348. He wrote 
 a glossary on the sixth book of the Decretals, 
 printed in folio at Mentz, in 1455, ^"'^ ^^ ^ '^' 
 nice in 158 1 ; and " A Commentary on the 
 Clementines," printed, in folio, in 147 i, and at 
 Lyons in 1575. He published enlargements of 
 the " Speculum" of Durandus, in which he was 
 an egregious plagiary ; copying, without ac- 
 knowledgment, word for word, from the "Con- 
 silia" of Oldradus ; on which account he is 
 justly called, by Baldus, who detected the pla- 
 giarism, " insignis alienorum tur," a noto- 
 rious pilferer from other men's works : never- 
 theless he is styled, in his epitaph, 
 
 -*• Rabbi doctoruni, lux, censor, normaque niorum," 
 
 [the rabbi of the doctors, the light, censor, and 
 rule of manners]. Volaterran. Bayle. AIo- 
 rcri. — E. 
 
 ANDREW, or ANDREAS, John, who 
 lived in the fifteenth century, was born a Ma- 
 hometan, at Xativa in the kingdom of Valencia. 
 In the year 1488, he was converted to the 
 Christian faith by a sermon which he heard in 
 the great church of Valencia ; and, from that 
 time, he became a very zealous Christian preach- 
 er, and was successfully employed by Ferdinand 
 and Isabella in convcrtiiig the Moors of Gra - 
 nada and Arragon. At the command of Mar- 
 tin Garcia, bishop of Barcelona and inquisitor 
 of Arragon, he translated the Koran. He al- 
 so wrote a work to expose the imposture of Ma- 
 homet, under the title of " The Sect of Maho- 
 met demolished;" a book frequently cited by- 
 writers against Mahometanism. It was pub-
 
 j See heer a, Shadcwjrom thatjetttng SVNNE, 
 I "Whofe. ^Iprtous courfe through this Hcnzgn. rum 
 Leftike dimmjacc cf our dull SemiJ^hxere , 
 /iU one areat-Eye, all drctvn'd in one greatTkcil'e. 1^ 
 1 '^haje rare induflnoiisSnileledhtsJreetfimight^ 
 fhrou^hLeSirtimgS Unwerfe, and,vamly)fo:^ht\rt 
 i ^^ornfor her siacimj Selfi undtL at letwth 
 j ^QlneJ-ound yway heme,: witkan holy strength- 
 
 r ' „Are tc he:_foll hy^BJiai}0er dnrettiag 
 I .. in Stationers Hall . J £ T 2i . _ 
 
 t*U^ 
 
 (^natcfit herfelflience to Heai/'nrfiM a hngk fhce. 
 Mulsi thofe immortal Fires, and on the- fdcc 
 Of heryreat MAKER Jlxt ajUmvng ey&, 
 'A Where Jltll she reads trucpure. DmnitlC. 
 ' And nowy^raue Aipect hath detgnd tojhrmk^ 
 Intv thts le/Je abearance. If you, thxnk^ 
 Tis hut a. (iead £a.ce,yirt dcdi heer bequeath 
 Lookm theJoUtmnng leau&S (PJee. him Jjreatil. 
 
 lohn Pi^yne. F<ffeit 
 
 J
 
 AND 
 
 ( 271 ) 
 
 AND 
 
 lislied, in 4to. at Seville, in j^^-j, and has 
 been tran lated from Spanish into otlicr lan- 
 guages. A French translation, by Gui Ic Fc- 
 vre de !a Bodcrie, appeared m 1574. B<i)/f. 
 Noiiv. Diet. H/st. — E. 
 
 ANDRE W, John, secretary of the Vatican 
 library, under the popes Paul and Sixtus IV. 
 v-as employed, at the tirst introduction of print- 
 ing into Rom-j, in revising manuscripts, writing 
 prefaces and dedications, and correcting proofs. 
 Cardinal de Cusa, formerly his school-fellow, 
 gave him the bishopric of' Accia in Corsica ; 
 and pope Paul 11. afterwards appointed him to 
 that of Aleria in the same island, where he died 
 in the year 1493. 1 ''^ republic of letters is 
 Indebted to him for an edition of Livy, and of 
 Aulus GcUius, printed at Rome, in folio, in 
 1469; of Herodotus in 1475; and of Strabo, 
 printed at Venice, in folio, in 1472 : he also 
 edited the Epistles of Cyprian, and the works of 
 S. Leo. Nonv. Diet. Hist. — E. 
 
 ANDREW, presbyter of Ratisbon, an his- 
 torian of the iifteentli century, flourished under 
 the emperor Sigismund. He wrote, in Latin, a 
 *' Chronicle of the Dukes of Bavaria," which 
 Was published at Amberg ; also, " A History 
 of Bohemia," in seven books. His writings 
 \vere so much admired by his countrymen, that 
 they called him a second Livy. Vossius, dv Hist. 
 Lat. lib. iii. c 5. — E. 
 
 ANDREW, bishop of Samosata, flourished 
 in the fifth century. He was an intimate friend 
 of Theodoret. About the year 429, he was 
 appointed by John bishop of Antioch to re- 
 fute, in the name of the eastern bishops, the 
 " Anathematisms" of Cyril. At first he ex- 
 ecuted tlie task negligently, and with apparent 
 reluctance ; but afterwards, when Cyril viru- 
 lently attacked his friend Theodoret, he entered 
 with greater earnestness and warmth into the 
 dispute. He refused to be present at the coun- 
 cil of Ephesus pretending illness ; he, however, 
 opposed the Nestorians v^'ith his utmost ability ; 
 and it was not till after many years that he ceased 
 hostilities against Cvril. Large extracts from 
 his first book against Cvril are found in Cy- 
 ril's " Apologetics for his Anathematisms," 
 against the objections of the eastern bishops, or 
 the work of Andrew written under their sanc- 
 tion. Smaller fragments of his second book 
 against Cyril are preserved by Anastasius the 
 Sinaite in his " H&degos." Eight letters of 
 this writer remain in an ancient Latin version, in 
 the collection of " Ephesian Epistles," published 
 by Lupus. Cav. Hist. Lit. vol. i. p. 419. 
 Fab. Bib. Gr, vol. x. p. 124. Dupin. — E. 
 
 AN1')REW, Toe IAS, a K.ni'.d Gtrnian, 
 born at Braunfils in the county ti Solrns, wis 
 upwards of forty years professor oi history and 
 the Greek tongue at Groningcn. He was a 
 great admirer of the Cartesian philosophy, and 
 pave private lectures upon it in his own house, 
 even when age had much impaired his strength. 
 Rluch honour is due to his memory for the zeal 
 with which he appeared in support of Dcs 
 Cartes, in a prosecution which he instituted 
 against Martin Schookius, professor of philoso- 
 phy at Groningcn, for publicly accusing him of 
 atheism. The re-nlt of the prosecution was, 
 that the accuser atknowkdged Dcs Cartes' in- 
 nocence, but \\ as himself acquitted ; a decision 
 which gave too much encouragement to defa- 
 mation. Des Cartes' friend Andrew, after the 
 death of that celebrated philosopher, wrote in 
 defence of his system, against Revius a profes- 
 sor of Leyden, and other opponents. His " Mc- 
 thodi Cartesians Assertio," was published in 
 the year 1653. T'^'S professor died in 1676. 
 Lives of Prof, of Groningen. Baylc. — E. 
 
 ANDREWS, Lancklot, an English di- 
 vine, who, in the reign of James I. and Charles I. 
 was bishop of Winchester, was born at London 
 in 1565. He was descended from a family of 
 distinction in Suffolk. Having passed with 
 credit through the grammar-school, he was ad- 
 mitted to a scholarship in Pembroke-hall, Cam- 
 bridge. At college he studied diligently, and 
 acquired a great reputation for his knowledge of 
 theology, and for his skill and judgment in set- 
 tling doubtful points of practical casuistry. The 
 following anecdote may serve to illustrate this 
 part of his character. A corpulent alderman of 
 Cnnibridge, whose conscience troubled him for 
 slee])ing at church, and who had been several 
 times publicly admonished by the preacher for 
 this breach of decorum, but found himself inca- 
 pable of overcoming his infirmity, came to 
 Andrews for his spiritual advice. Aiulrcws 
 told him it was an ill habit of body and not of 
 mind, and advised him on Sundays to make a 
 sparing meal at dinner. The alderman did so, 
 but still fell asleep, and was preached against. 
 He came again, with teats in his eyes, to An- 
 drews, who now advised liim to make a hearty 
 meal as usual, but to take out his full slcej) be- 
 fore he went to church. The alderman followed 
 his advice, and came to St. Mary's church, 
 where the preacher was prepared w ith a sermon 
 against sleeping at church, which was thrown 
 away ; for the good alderman looked at the 
 preacher all sermon-time, and spoiled his de- 
 sign. (Aubrey's MSS. Notes in Seward's Ancc-
 
 A N D 
 
 ( 27^ ) 
 
 AND 
 
 dotes, vol. iv. p. 341.) Andrews's lectures, as 
 catcchist of liis college, were attciuied by a nu- 
 merous autlitory. His reputation for learning, 
 his popuhr talents as a preacher, and his zeal 
 fpr the protcstcint cause, procured him the pa- 
 tronage of Henry earl of Huntingdon, and of 
 sir Fiancis Walsingham, secretary to queen Kli- 
 ••sabeth.; and he passed through several stages of 
 prcfemicnt to the deanry of Westminster. He 
 was one of the chaplains in ordinary to the 
 queen, wlio took great delight in his preaching, 
 and personally interested herself in his advance- 
 ment, 'riiough his residence was chiefly in 
 London, wheie, for some years, as prebendary 
 and residentiary of St. Paul's, he read divinitv 
 lectures in that cathedral three times a week 
 during term-time ; he continued his connection 
 with his college, of which he was chosen ma- 
 ster, and to which he was a liberal benefactor. 
 
 Andrews's style of preaching, which was 
 ;pedantic and quaint, exactly suited the taste ot 
 James I. and he was a great favourite with that 
 prince during the whole of his reign. He was 
 •called in to vindicate the king's sovereignty in 
 all ecclesiastical affairs against the vehement at- 
 tack of Bellarminc. who, in reply to James's 
 " Defence of the Right of Kings,' had written 
 a tract under the fictitious name of "Matthew 
 Tortus." This piece the dean refuted with 
 great spirit in a Latin work, which appeared un- 
 der the jingling title of " Tortura Torti" [or 
 Tortus tortured], printed in 4to. by the king's 
 printer in i6og. This service was so acceptable 
 to the king, and the dean on other accounts stood 
 so high in his esteem, that, in tiie same year, he 
 was advanced to the see of Ely. He was ap- 
 pointed one of his majesty's privy counsellors, 
 first in England, and afterwards in Scotland, 
 whither he accompanied the king on his journey 
 to that kingdom. Upon a vacancy in the bishop- 
 ric of Winchester, he was, in 1618, translated 
 to that see, where he remained till his death, 
 wliich happened soon after the accession of 
 Charles 1. in the year 1626. 
 
 Alter making all due allowance for the style 
 of panegyric in his eiiitnph, where he is called 
 an infuiite treasure and stupendous oracle of 
 learning and science, and is said to have me- 
 rited eternal admiration for his indefatiga- 
 Tale Industry, consummate wisdom, constant 
 piety, profuse liberality, uncommon affability, 
 and tried probity ; we may believe, that 
 this prelate was a man of eminent talents, ac- 
 ■quirements and virtues. Bishop Buckeridge, in 
 a sermon preached at his funeral, informs us, 
 that he understood fiftsen languages. From his 
 
 first biographer, Isaacson, we learn that he de- 
 voted a large portion of each day to dcvotioi\ 
 and study ; that his learning, affability, and hos- 
 pitalitv rendered him highly respected and ad- 
 mired not only by his countrymen but bv learned 
 foreigners who visited him, among whom are 
 particularly mentioned Vossius, Grotius, Ca- 
 saubon, Cluverius, Erpenius, and Dumoulin ; 
 that in the distilbution of preferment he was 
 disinterested, impartial, and judicious ; that he 
 ])rovided liberally for the descendants ot his early 
 instructors and benefactors ; that, after he be- 
 came bishop, he never visited either of the uni- 
 versities \^ithout leaving fifty or a hundred 
 pourids to be distributed among poor scholars ; 
 that his charity to the poor kept pace with his 
 advancement, his private aims alone, in the last 
 six years, amounting to upwarih of 1300I. ; and 
 that, dying unmarried, he left large legacies to 
 charitable uses, and, among the re t, a great part 
 of his estate to be distributed among his poor 
 servants. That bishop Andrews was a faithfid 
 son, and able defender, of the church, may be 
 gathered from an observation of lord Claren- 
 don's : mentioning the death of archbishop Ban- 
 croft, he remarks, that " if be had been suc- 
 ceeded by bishop Andrews, or any man who 
 understood and loved the church, that infection 
 would easily have been kept out, which could 
 not afterwards be so easily expelled. (Life of 
 ^Valler, prefixed to his works.) Of the mo- 
 deration of this prelate's political principles, as 
 well as of the independence of his spirit, and his 
 superiority to the base adulation which disgraced 
 the court of James, the following anecdote is a 
 memorable example. Mr. Waller, the poet, 
 relates, that, going to see the king at dinner, he 
 over-heard an extraordinary conversation be- 
 tween his majesty and tsvo prelates, the bishop of 
 Winchester, and Dr. Neale, bishop of Durhain, 
 who were standing behind the king's chair. 
 His majesty asked the bishops, " My lords, 
 cannot I take my subjects' money when I want 
 it, without all this formality in parliament?" 
 The bishop of Durham readily answered, " God 
 forbid, sir, but you should ; you are the brcatii 
 of our nostrils." Whereupon the king turned, 
 and said to the bishop of Winchester, " ^Vcll, 
 my lord, what say you ?" " Sir," replied the 
 bishop, " I have no skill to judge of parliamen- 
 tary cases." The king answered, " No put- 
 offs, my lord, answer me preserjtly :" " Then, 
 sir," said he, " I think it lawful for you to take 
 my brother Neale's money, for lie offers it." 
 — Milton thought bishop Andrews v\orthy to 
 be celebrated by bis pen, and, at seventeen,
 
 AND 
 
 ( 273 ) 
 
 AND 
 
 wrote a Latin elegy on his death, full of that 
 rich fancy which has ininiortaliscil his works. 
 
 Besides the work already mentioned, bishop 
 Andrews was tlie audior of " A Manual of 
 private Devotions ;" " A Manual of Direc- 
 tions for the Visitation of the Sick;" a vo- 
 lume of tracts, chiefly in Latin, consisting of 
 sermoriS, theological dissertations on the eccle- 
 siastical rights of princes, tythcs, usury, &c. 
 published in 4to. after his decease, in 1629; a 
 posthumous volume of " Sermons," published, 
 in folio, by the direction of the king, and under 
 the inspection of the bishops of London and 
 Ely ; " The Moral Law explained, or Lec- 
 tures on the Ten Commandments," with other 
 Sermons, printed, in folio, in the year 1642 ; 
 and " A Collection of Posriiumous and Or- 
 phan Lectures," delivered at St. Paul's, and St. 
 Giles's, Cripplegate, church, printed, in folio, 
 in 1657. 
 
 The sermons of bishop Andrews, however 
 learned and pious, are not written in a style 
 which can be read with pleasure in an age of 
 correct taste : they afFoid many sjiecimens of that 
 pedantry and false wit, v^'hich so strongly mark- 
 ed the period in which he lived. His other works 
 are now forgotten. Isaacson's Life of Bis/top 
 Andrews, ap. Abel. Rcd'tviv. Loud. 1633. 
 fP'ood's Fasti Oxon. Biog. Brit. Gra!!^ct''s 
 Biog. Hist. James I. class 4.-^E. 
 
 ANDRISCUS, called by the Romans 
 Pseudophiitppus, is said to have been a native 
 of Adramyttium in the Troad, and descended 
 from parents of the lowest condition. Sixteen 
 years after the death of Perscs, king of Mace- 
 <lon, he assumed the character of a natural son 
 of Perses, under the name of Philip; and the 
 account he gave of himself was, that his father, 
 doubtful of the event of his v.ar against the Ro- 
 mans, had sent him to Adramyttium to be 
 brought up as a poor man's son, with a charge 
 not to disclose the secret of his birth till he 
 should be fourteen. With this story, rendered 
 more plausible (it is said) by a striking likeness 
 of Perses, he went to the court of Demetrius 
 Soter, who had married a daughter ot that 
 king. Demeirius, either convinced of h.is im- 
 posture, or apprehensive of the displeasure of 
 the Romans, delivered him up to the rejmblic. 
 At Rome he was committed to custody, but so 
 slighdy guarded, diat he made his escape, and 
 took refuge among the Thraclans. The people 
 of Macedon had nov.- sufficiendy experienced 
 the Roman dominion to become diton'.cntcd 
 with it ; and little attention was paid either to 
 remedy their grievances, or to keep a force able 
 to compel their submission. Andriscus, diere- 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 fore, who had made an interest in Thncc, and 
 collected a number of persons attachc<i to Iiii 
 fortune, marched boldly into M.iccdon, and de- 
 clared himself the rightful heir to the crown. 
 His success was beyond hi; o\\n expectation. 
 He made himself master of all the country with 
 little opposition, and began to carry his arms in- 
 to the adjacent parts ofGrcecc. 'Fhe Romans, 
 much surprised with this revolution, sent Scipio 
 Nasica to keep tile Greeks .stedfast to their in- 
 terest, and prevent thee\ il from spreading farther. 
 Scipio, aided by a body of auxiliaries, checked 
 the progress of Andriscus, and drove him back 
 into Macedon. The praetor Juventiui Thal- 
 na was then disjiatched with a considerable ar- 
 my to put an end to the war. A contempt of 
 his enemy led him to advance incautiously into 
 Macedon, when he was suddenly attacked by 
 Andriscus, his army totally defeated, and him- 
 self slain, with Q. Cctlius, the second in com- 
 mand. By this success Andriscus, or Pliilip, 
 was confirmed on his throne, and began to as- 
 sume all the consequence of the und(iid)ted "sove- 
 reign of a powerful state. The Carthaginians, 
 then about to be involved in the third I'unic 
 war, sent cmba'-sadors to congratulate him, and 
 propose an alliance. But the character of this 
 man was not equal to the trial of prosperity. 
 He became a tyrant, and, by acts of opjircssion 
 and cruelty, lost the aflections of his new sub- 
 jects, though they still obeyed him through 
 hopes of establishing their independence. Mean 
 time die Romans, roused to more serious exer- 
 tions, sent Q. Cafcilius Metellus with a fresh 
 army to Macedon. Andriscus collected all hi.s 
 force, and valiantly contended for his crown and 
 life. He gained the advantage over Mctillus in 
 an engagement of cavalry ; but soon afterward.'; 
 was entirely defeated, and compelled again to 
 retire into Thrace. The Thracians received 
 him with great friendship, and sent him back 
 with a numerous army ; but engaging rashly 
 with Metellus, he was again defeated, and Ills 
 affairs quite ruined. Flying for refuge to Byzas, 
 a petty jirince of 'J'hrace, he was by him deli- 
 vered up to the Romans. Metellus led him in 
 triumph (B. C. 147), and he was afterwards 
 put to deadi by onlcr of tlie senate. Thj war 
 he excited was deemed so important, tli;it the 
 successful general obtairicd the title of Mace- 
 donicus at its conclusion ; and it seems to have 
 been left in some doubt whether he was an im- 
 postor, or really the son of a king, llnivert. 
 Hist. — A. 
 
 ANDROM.ACHE, the wife of Hector, was 
 the daughter of Action, king of Thebes, in Ci- 
 licia. She lived in the happiest conjugal union 
 2 N
 
 AND 
 
 ( ^74 ) 
 
 AND 
 
 ■^\{h her heroic lord till his unfortunate death. 
 At the capture of Troy, she saw her sou 
 Astvanax precipitated from a rower, and her- 
 self a capiive slave in the power of Pyrrhus, 
 the fierce son of Hector's deadly foe. The fe- 
 male sex wire at that period so much accus- 
 tomed to follow the law of conquest, that her 
 feelings probably suffered less than could now be 
 conceived, when she became the concubine of 
 Pvrrhus, to whom she bore children. After 
 tlie death (or, as some say, during the life) of 
 this prince, <:he marrii.d her fellow-captive, He- 
 lenus, a son of Priam and brother of Hector; 
 and she reigned with him over part of Epirus, 
 and perpetuated a race, from whom Pyrrhus, 
 king of Epirus, the antagonist of the Romans, 
 is said (or rather fabled) to have sprung. Seve- 
 ral tragedies, ancient and modern, have been 
 composted on the subject of Andromache: but 
 the interest of the most pathetic scenes arises 
 from, sentiments probably foreign to her period 
 and character. Bayle. — A. 
 
 ANDROMACHUS of Crete, physician to 
 the emperor Nero, and the first known to have 
 borne the title of Archialer, was eminent both 
 for his medical and literary talents. He is prin- 
 cipally celebrated as the inventor of the famous 
 compound electuary called Thcriaca, first used 
 as an antidote against poisons, but afterwards, 
 and down to the present time, a favourite remedy 
 in all diseases supposed to possess a malignant or 
 pestilential nature. Andromachus himself gave 
 a, dc?criptioi\ of it in Greek verse, dedicated to 
 Nero, and which has reached our times. His 
 son, of the same name and in the same station, 
 described it in prose, along with a number of 
 other compound medicines. Morsvi. Haller^ 
 Blbl. Med. Pract. — K. 
 
 ANDRONICUS I. Comnenus, was the 
 son of Isaac, and grandson of Alexius Comne- 
 nus. He had from nature a vigorous body 
 and a firm mind ; he was active, intrepid, mar- 
 tial and eloquent ; nursed in habits of exercise 
 and temperance, and fitted for every deed of 
 daring. In his youth he was for some time a 
 captive to the Turkish sultan. Recovering his 
 liberty, he became a favourite of his cousin the- 
 cmperor Manuel ; and, while the emperor lived 
 in incest widi his niece Theodora, Andronicus 
 openly maintained a licentious commerce with 
 her sister. Eudocia. He had a military com- 
 mand in Cilitia, where he foi med the siege of 
 Mopsuestia; but asucce sful saily of the enemy 
 obhgcd him to break it up in disorder. The 
 brotliers of Eudocia attempted to assassinate him 
 m his tent at midnight ; but being timely roused, 
 he cut his way through his foes and escaped. 
 
 Engaging afterwards in a treasonable, corre- 
 spondence with the king of Hujigary and em- 
 peror of Germany, he was apprehended, and 
 closely imprisoned in a tower of the palace of 
 Constantinople. Here he remained above twelve 
 ycais, not without repeated attempts to escape, 
 in which lie displayed equal resolution and dex- 
 terity. The last succeeded, and he withdrew to 
 the court of the great-duke of Russia. His ser- 
 vices tlicre, in engaging the duke to join his arms 
 ■with those of Manuel in an invasion of Hun- 
 gary, procured him a free pardon ; and, after a 
 campaign on the Danube, he returned with the 
 emperor to Constantinople. By refusing an oath 
 of allegiance to the prince of Hungary, Ma- 
 nuel's intended son-in-law and successor, he 
 again incurred the emperor's displeasure, and 
 was sent from court to the command of the Ci- 
 lician frontier. Here he gained the affections of 
 Philippa, daughter of the Latin prince of An- 
 tioch, and sister to the empress Maria ; and 
 with her he wasted his tiine in amusements, till 
 the resentment of Manuel put a stop to their in- 
 tercourse. He collected a band of adventurers, 
 and made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem ; where lie • 
 so ingratiated himself with the Christian king, . 
 as to be invested with the lordship of Berytus... 
 In this neighbourhood resided I'heodora, the 
 young and beautiful widow of Baldwin, king of 
 Jerusalem, a princess of his own family. She 
 fell in love with him, and scrupled not to live 
 with him as an avowed concubine. Tlte em- 
 peror still pursuing him widi inveterate hatred^ 
 he fled with Theodora first to Damascus, and 
 then to different parts of the east, till he settled 
 among the Turks of Asia Minor, and exercised 
 himself in frequent incursions into the province, 
 of 'J'rebizond. At length, Theodora being made 
 captive, widr her two childien, and sent to Con- 
 stantinople, he implored his pardon with such, 
 tokens of submission, that it was granted, and 
 he threw himself at the feet of Manuel. He 
 acted the penitent so thoroughly, that he was 
 restored to the good graces both of the court and 
 the church ; but he was sent to reside at CEnoe, . 
 a town on the coast of the Black sea. 
 
 The death of Manuel, in 1177, who was 
 succeeded by his son Alexius II. a youth of 
 twelve or fourteen, opened a new career to his 
 ambition. I'hc misconduct of the empress 
 dowager caused a civil war in Constantinople ; 
 and men's minds v.ere turned to Andronicus, as 
 the only person who e rank and ability could 
 restore the public trauquillity. At the instance 
 of the patriarch and patricians, he marched at 
 the head of an armed force to Constantinople^ 
 which he entered without resistance- He took
 
 AND 
 
 ( 275 ) 
 
 AND 
 
 possession of the palace, confined the mother of 
 the emperor, put to death her guilty minister, 
 tindassumedthcoincc ofprotcctor. His hypocrisy 
 lor a time concealed his criminal designs ; but he 
 soon showed the cruelty ot his disposition by put- 
 ting to death many persons whom he thought ill- 
 a fFected towards him, and causing theemprcss her- 
 self to betriedand executed on a charge of treason 
 in corresponding with Bcia, king of Hungary. 
 The coronation of the young emperor was soon 
 after performed with great solemnity ; and An- 
 dronicus, v.'ith the sacrament in his hand, vowed 
 the most inviolable fidelity to him ; at the same 
 time artfully inculcating the necessity of an ex- 
 perienced ruler to avert the evils which thieut- 
 cncd the empire. His adherents immediately 
 raised the cry of " Long live Alexius and An- 
 dronicup, Roman emperors !" and, in the midst 
 of his affected repugnance, he was elevated, by 
 acclamation, to a partnership in the empire. 
 It was not long before the murder of the unfor- 
 tunate Alexius dissolved this ill-assorted union. 
 His body was brought before the tyrant, who, 
 striking it with his foot, characterised the de- 
 ceased in these words: "Thy father was a 
 knave, thy mother a whore, and thyself a fool !" 
 Being now sole emperor, A. D. 1183, he ex- 
 ercised the supreme power with a singular mix- 
 ture of justice and beneficence towards his sub- 
 jects at large, and the most bloody tyranny to- 
 wards all within his grasp whom he hated or 
 feared. The noblest families, especially these 
 allied to the Comneni, were either cut off or 
 driven into exile. Some of these engaged in 
 revolt; and the Sicilians, by an invasion, in 
 vhich they took and sacked Thessalonica, add- 
 ed to the sum of public calamity. At length, 
 Isaac Angelus, a person of distinction, and de- 
 scended from the first Alexius, being ordered to 
 execution, made his escape to a church, where 
 he took refuge with several of his kindred. 'J"hc 
 populace, collecting in his favour, raised a gene- 
 ral sedition, in which Isaac was declared empe- 
 ror. Andronicus, who was then absent, re- 
 turned with all -speed to Constantinople; but, 
 being universally deserted, he was seised, and 
 dragged in chains before his rival. By him An- 
 dronicus was given up to the resentment of those 
 he had injured ; and, for three days together, he 
 was made to undergo all the insults and torments 
 that rage and revenge could inflict. He endured 
 this cruel treatment with invincible patience, 
 ■only at times crying : " Lord have mercy upon 
 me," and, " Why will you bruise a broken 
 'reed?" At length a merciful stab put an end to 
 i:is sufferings, in his seventy -third year, after a 
 
 reign of two years. With him terminated the dy- 
 nasty of the Comneni. Gibbon. Univ. Hist. — A. 
 
 ANDRONICUS II. PALtoLoous. son 
 of Michael Pal.cologus, succeeded to the Greek 
 empire in 1283. He is said to have been learm-i 
 and virtuous ; but he was weak in his conduct, 
 and abjectly superstiiious. He bt-gan his reign 
 with restoring the ceremonial ot the Greek 
 church, and annidling what had been done by 
 his father towards iis union widi the Roman, 
 and the acknowledgment of the superiority of 
 the latter. He became involved in ecclesiastical 
 disputes \\ ith the patriarch, and in civil conten- 
 tions with rebellious subject^. Having hired a 
 body of Catalans for his defence against the in- 
 roads of the Turks, thcv revolted against him, 
 seised Callipolis, or Gallipoli, and, calling the 
 Turks to theirassistance, gave them the first en- 
 trance into Europe. Thrace was ravaged by the 
 combined invaders, and the emperor's forces were 
 defeated ; but at length the Turks were all taken 
 or destroyed. Worse evils arose from the un- 
 principled ambition of the emperor's favourite 
 grandson, Andronicus the younger ; who, after 
 the death of his father Michael (who had been 
 partner in die empire for 25 years), broke out 
 into open rebellion, and at length obliged his 
 grandfather to share his dominions with him. 
 After some vicissitudes of unstable peace and 
 declared enmity, the grandson gained possession 
 of Constantinople, and, dcpri\ ing the aged em- 
 peror of all rcmainiiig appearance ot audiority, 
 first confined him to his palace, and th.cn drove 
 him to a monaster)'. His old age was embit- 
 tered by blindness and neglect; and, under the 
 name of Father Antony, he closed an unquiet 
 life, four years after his abdication, A. D. 1332, 
 aged seventy-four. Gibbon. Univers. Hist.— A. 
 
 ANDRONICUS III. Pal.€ologus, or 
 the Younger, was the son of Michael, eldest son 
 and colleague of the elder Andronicus. His 
 wit and bcautv rendered him a great favourite 
 with his grandfather ; ar.d this favour precipi- 
 tated him into intemperance and debauchery of 
 all kiixls. An intrigue which he had with a 
 beautiful matron was the cause of a sad tragedy ; 
 for, ui>on some suspicion of her fidelity, ne 
 placed assassins about her house, with orders to 
 dispatch the first person that approached. His 
 own younger brother, coming to seek for him, tell 
 into their hands, and was murdered ; and their 
 father soon after died of grief. The grandfa- 
 ther, having made several fruitless attempts to 
 reclaim him, declared a resolution to punish 
 and disinherit him. He escaped from couit, 
 and, repairing to Adrianople, was joined by a. 
 
 1
 
 AND 
 
 ( 276 ) 
 
 AND 
 
 band of adherents aiid favourites, the principal 
 of \vhi.:n was John Cantacuv.cnus ; and, assem- 
 bling his forces, he raised tlic standard of rebel- 
 lion. His success in compelling his grandfatlier 
 first to a partition of iiis dominion, and then to 
 n abdication, is mentioned in the foregoing lite. 
 From 1328 he reigned alone : and, during the 
 period of his sovereignty, had to contend against 
 tlie Bulf,arians and Turks ; the last of whom 
 cbliged him to sign an i-,nominious treaty, by 
 whicli he relinquished to ilicni all the places 
 they had taken in Asia. This was, however, 
 only a temporary pacification ; and every token 
 of contempt and decline was accumulating 
 round the empire, when, worn out by his vices, 
 he died in his forty-fifth year, A. D. 1341. 
 Gibbon. Vnlvcrs. Hist. — A. 
 
 ANDRONICUS, Cyrrestes, an Athe- 
 nian astronomer, is celebrated as the inventor of 
 weathercocks. He erected an octagon tower 
 of marble, on each side of which he engraved 
 figures representing the eight winds, which are 
 mentioned by Vitruvius under the names of So- 
 lanus, Eurus, Austcr, Africus, Favonius, Co- 
 rns, Scptentrio, and Aquilo. A copper Triton, 
 holding in its hand a stick, turned upon a pivot, 
 and showed the direction of the wind. Salma- 
 sius gives the form of this tower in his com- 
 mentary on Solinus. ^ul. Gell. lib. vi. c. 22. 
 Morcri. — E. 
 
 ANDRONICUS, Livius, the oldest of the 
 Latin poets, represented his first piece on the 
 stage ill tlie year of Rome 514, B. C. 240, a 
 year before tlie birth of Ennius. He i said to 
 have been a slave, of Greek origin, and to have 
 received his Latin name Livius from Livius Sa- 
 linator, whose children he insttucted, and who 
 made him free. His productions were princi- 
 pally dramatic, and probably, for the most part, 
 comedy, but rude in their design, and barba- 
 rous in language. He was an actor in his own 
 pieces ; and it is said, that having become 
 hoarse by the frequency of repetition, he caused 
 tlie words to be recited by a servant, while he 
 himself performed the gesticulation. He wrote, 
 besides, hymns to the gods, one of which, in 
 honour of Juno, is said by Li vy and Val. Maxi- 
 mus to have been sung through the city by 
 girls. An Odyssey is likewise attributed to 
 him. His lines are frequently quoted by gram- 
 marians and critics, and these are the only relics 
 left of him. They have been printed along with 
 the fragments of the other ancient Latin poets, 
 in the "Comici Latini," and the "Corpus Poe- 
 tarum." LiliusGyialdus. Fossius. — A. 
 ANDRONICUS, ofRhodes, a Peripatetic 
 
 philosopher, caine to Rome in the time of Ci- 
 cero, and comiibuted greatly towards restoring 
 the writings and establishing the philosophy of 
 Aristotle. Sylla, ;is we Icani from Plutarch, sent 
 from Athens to Rome the library of Apellicon, 
 which contained most of Aristotle's works. 
 Tyrannio, an eminent grammarian, wdio had 
 access to this library, prepared these writings 
 for jiublication, and permitted them to pass into 
 the hands of Andionicus, who, having, as Por- 
 pliyry relates, collected them into one body, 
 carefully examined and arranged iliem, and re- 
 store;! what had been injured by length of time 
 and the carelessness of those in whose hands 
 they had remained, and transcribed and published 
 them. Plutarch adds, that he annexed to them 
 indexes, which were then in every one's hands. 
 Andronicus may ti.en be considered as, after 
 Apellicon, who had published incorrect copies 
 of the manuscripts, a restorer of the writings 
 of Aristotle. Whether the obligation of pos- 
 terity to this philosopher be not, in some degree, 
 lessened by tlie liberties which he seems to have 
 taken in transcribing the manuscripts, may de- 
 serve consideration ; especiaUy as we are told by 
 Strabo, that booksellers were permitted by Syl- 
 la's librarian to employ unskilful transcribers in 
 multiplying copies of these manuscripts foi sale. 
 Andronicus wrote a Paraphrase of Aristotle's 
 Categories and Physics, and probably of some 
 other pieces (Aul. Gell. lib. xx. c. 5 ) ; but 
 none of them are extant, unless the Paraphrase 
 of Aristotle's Ethics, published under his name 
 by Heinsius, in 8vo. at Leyden, in 1617, and at 
 Cambridge in 1679, be his ; which Salmasius,. 
 Vossius, and others, dispute. It is doubtful, whe- 
 ther a small treatise " On the Passions," pub- 
 lished by David Hoeschelius in 1593, was writ- 
 ten by this Andronicus. Plut. Fit. Syllce. For- 
 phyr. Fit. Piotin. Strabo, lib. xiii. Bayle. — E. 
 ANDRONICUS, of Thessalonica, who 
 flourished in the fifteenth century, was one of 
 those learned men who left Greece after the tak- 
 ing of Constantinople by the Turks, and con- 
 tributed to the revival of letters. He passed into 
 Italy, and taught Greek at Rome, where he 
 was entertained in the house of cardinal Bessa- 
 rion. His salary, however, was so inconsi- 
 derable, that he was obliged, througli poverty, 
 to leave Rome. He repaired to Florence, where 
 he lectured for ome time with reputation ; but, 
 in expectation of improving his fortune, he re- 
 moved to Paris, where he died at an advanced 
 age. Perhaps none of his contemporaries pos- 
 sessed a more perfect knowdedge of the Greek 
 language, or a more extensive acquaintance
 
 AND 
 
 ( 277 ) 
 
 A N G 
 
 yvith Greek aUihors ; but iie lubourcJ under tlic 
 inconvenience of a bad pionunciatimi, wliidi 
 disqualified liim for public speaking. Volalerran. 
 lib. xxi. Bayle. — E. 
 
 ANDROUET DU CERCEAU, James, 
 a celebrated French architect, was born at C)r- 
 lean;, or, as some say, at Paris. He was sent, 
 by ihe favor of the cardinal of Armagnac, to 
 perfect himself in liis art in Italy, wiierc the 
 study of the noble remains of antiquity fixed 
 his taste. No edifice struck him so much as 
 the triumphal arc at Pola in Istria ; and an 
 imitation of its style may be traced throiioh his 
 principal works. On his return he was made, 
 though a steady Calvinist, arcliitcct to Henry 
 III. who employed him, in 1578, in the con- 
 struction of the Pont Neuf at Paris. His plan 
 for this structure was greatly admired, but the 
 civil wars prevented its completion till 1604, 
 under another architect. He built a number of 
 capital hotels in Paris ; and was employed by 
 Henry IV. in the enlargement of the "I'uilie- 
 ries, and the continuation of the great gallery 
 connecting it with the Louvre. But the ])erse- 
 cutions which the protestants were beginning to 
 undergo induced him to quit liis native country 
 in 1585, and withdraw to foreign parts ; v\here 
 he died, the time and place uncertain. He left 
 two sons of his own profession, one of them 
 eminent. Du Cerceau was one of the princi- 
 pal improvers of architecture in France, and 
 planned as well ornamental and fanciful works, 
 as capital edifices. He published several books 
 in his art; as his " Arctiitecture," 1560, con- 
 taining designs of all the parts and ornaments of 
 buildings ; " Lessons in Perspective," 1576 ; 
 " The most excellent Edifices in France," 
 1576, and 1607, 2 vols. fol. being a description 
 of thirty royal palaces, and other buildings, with 
 figures ; " Architecture of Country-Houses and 
 Mansions," 1582 ; and " Roman Edifices, or 
 a C<dlection of Remains of Antiquitv, drawn on 
 the Spot." Vies da plus Jam. Architeclcs, par 
 D'JrgenvilU. — A. 
 
 ANDRY, Nicholas, a physician of Pa- 
 ris, was born at Lyons in 1658. He studied at 
 Pa: is, and, taking the ecclesiastical ton ure, be- 
 came Latin regent in the college des Grassins, 
 in which situation he spent all his earlier years. 
 At length he a ssumed the lay habit, engaged in 
 the study of medicine, and graduated at Rhcims 
 in 1693. He was afterwards admitted into the 
 .body of the faculty of Paris, became doctor-re^ 
 gent, professor in the royal college of France, 
 and was made censor-royal of books. He 
 joined the abbe Bignon, in 1702, in setting on 
 foot the " Journal des Savans," to which work 
 
 he was a contributor forty years. In 1725 he 
 became dean of the faculty at Paris, and en- 
 gaged witli great w armth in the dispute beiwi< n 
 the physicians and surgeons. Ho died in 1742, 
 aged eighty-four. Besides his other literary la- 
 bours, he wrote in liis own profession " A Trea- 
 tise on the Generation of Worms in the Hu- 
 man Body," two vols. i2mo. Paris, 1750; 
 " A 'I realise on Lent Foods," 2 vols. i2mo. 
 1710 ; " Orthopa;dia, or the Art of correct- 
 ing Deformities in Children," 2 vols. i2mo. 
 1741 ; and various other smaller pieces, prac- 
 tical, theoretical, and controversial. In these he 
 exhibits a good deal of learning and acuter.css, 
 though mixed with ()rcjudice, and not free from 
 numerous errors. He wrote in a good stvlc, and 
 is ^aid to have lent his pen to the anatomist Win- 
 slow. Mcrerl. Halle) , Bibl. Med. Pract. — A. 
 
 ANELLO. (See Massaniello.) 
 
 ANGE DE Saint Josehh, a Carmelite 
 of Toulouse, whose real name was Brosse, was, 
 in the seventeenth century, sent as a missionary 
 to Persia, where he remamed a long time. His 
 residence in that country gave liim an o|)portu- 
 nity of making himself master of its language ; 
 and he undertook a translation of " The Per- 
 sian Pharmacopceia," which was published, in 
 8vo. at Paris, in 1681. He also published, 
 " Gazophylacium Lingtiae Persarum," [A 
 Treasury of the Persian Language], which 
 was printed, in folio, at Amsterdam, in 1684. 
 In this work, the Persian woids are rendered 
 into Latin, French, and Italian, in order to adapt 
 it to general use through Euiope. The value 
 of this work is increased by many miscellaneous 
 remarks and historical particulars, which the 
 author has occasionally introduced. He was a 
 provincial of his order in Langucdoc, and died 
 at Perpignanin 1697. Nouv. Diet. Hist. — E. 
 
 ANGE DE Sainte Rosalik, an Augus- 
 tine mendicant, and learned genealogist, was 
 born at Blois in 1655 ; his family name was 
 Francis Raffard. With an associate, father 
 Simplician, he completed, in French, a large 
 work, which fatlicr Anselme had begun, enti- 
 tled, " The History of the HouiC of France, 
 and of the great Officers of the Crown :" it 
 w;is published in nine volumes folio: it is a va- 
 luable store-house of materials for the historv 
 of France. The author also published, infi\c 
 volumes i2mo. a work entitled, " The State of 
 France." He died at Paris in 1726. Kouv.Dict. 
 Htst. — E. 
 
 ANGELIO, Peter, a man of letters, par- 
 ticularly distinguished as a modern Latin poet, 
 was born in 1517 at Barga, a castle in Tus- 
 cany, whence he is usually called Bargdus.
 
 A N G 
 
 ( ^78 ) 
 
 A N G 
 
 He ni;ule a rcmarkaWc proficiency in Latin and 
 Greek as early as ten years of age ; but the loss 
 of his parents obliged him to quit books tor 
 arms. He returned, however, to literary pur- 
 suits, and was sent to Bologna to study the law 
 under Akiatus ; but he was drawn aside by the 
 charms of potiie literature, in wliicli he had the 
 direction of Romolo Amaseo. Sonic satirical 
 versei which lie wrote obliged him to leave Bo- 
 logna, and he went to \''cnitc, where he was ho- 
 nourably entertained by ^\ illiam Pellicier, the 
 fVench embassador, who made use of his as- 
 sistance in coriecfing the Greek MSS. which 
 that minister caused to be copied for his sove- 
 reign Francis I. In 1542 he accompanied An- 
 tony Pollin, sent liy the same prince to Con- 
 stantinople ; where his 7.cal for the honour of 
 his nation having urged him to kill a French- 
 man who spoke disrespectfully of it, his life was 
 brought into great danger. With much diffi- 
 culty he escaped first to Genoa, and then to Mi- 
 lan, where he was patronised by the marquis 
 •let Vasto. On the death of this protector, he 
 accepted an invitation from the city of Reggio, 
 in Lombardy, to become public preceptor in 
 Greek at that place. He remained there three 
 years ; and then was invited by Cosmo I. duke 
 of Florence, to occupy a professorship in the 
 university of Pisa, first of the belles lettres, 
 and afterwards of the Ethics and Politics of 
 Aristotle, in which posts he continued seven- 
 teen years. While residing in this city, he 
 showed that he had not lost his martial disposi- 
 tion ; for, when Peter Strozzi approached it in 
 the war of Sienna, and it was in a defenceless 
 state, Angelio put himself at the head of the 
 scholars of the university, and kept the enemy at 
 a distance till the arrival of suc-ours from Flo- 
 rence. In 1575 he was invited to Rome by the 
 cardinal Ferdinand de' Medici, who entertained 
 him with great liberality at his court, and re- 
 warded hiin with a gift of two thousand gold 
 florins for the dedication of his poems. He 
 passed his latter days at Pisa, living at ease on 
 the munificence of his sovereign, and died there 
 in 1596. He left a considerable number of 
 works, prose and verse, in Italian and Latin ; 
 but it is to the latter that he is chiefly indebted 
 for his reputation. He published five books of 
 miscellaneous Latin poems, among which are 
 some elegies, in which he has happily imitated 
 the style of Catullus : Also, " Cynegedcon," 
 [or the Chace,] in six books, first printed in 
 1568, a poem said to be the labour of twenty 
 years, and reckoned among the best products of 
 modern Latinity, and greatly praised by Lam- 
 h\n, De Thou, and Possevin. He intended to 
 
 have subjoined to this a poem on fowling, of 
 which, however, he only published the first 
 book. In his old age he composed " Syrias," 
 an epic poem in twelve books, on the expedition 
 of Godfrey of Bouillon to the Holy-land; which 
 subject was at that very time in the hands of 
 Tasso. This work did not receive his last finish., 
 and, though elegant, has not the majesty required 
 for such a theme. Tiraboschi, AJorcri. — A. 
 
 ANGELONI, Francis, an historian and 
 antiquary of the seventeenth century, was the 
 author of an illustration of the Roman history 
 by medals, published at Rome in folio, in the 
 year 1685, under the title of " Histoire Au- 
 guste par les Medailles, depuis Jules Cesar 
 jusqu'a Constantin le Grand." He also wrote, 
 " A History of Terni," his native country, 
 printed in 4to. at Rome, in 1646. This writer 
 died at Rome in 1652. Notiv. Diet. Hist. — E. 
 
 ANGIOLELLO, John Maria, an his- 
 torian, was a native of Vicenza, and flourished 
 towards the latter end of the sixteenth century. 
 Having been a slave under the young sultan 
 Mustapha, he followed hiiti, in the year 1573, 
 into Persia, in the dreadful war which Maho- 
 met II. made in person with near two hundred 
 thousand ineni in the states of UssunCassan. As 
 eye-witness of the events of this war, he wrote 
 " A History of Mahomet II." in the Italian 
 and Tuf-kish languages, which was dedicated to 
 the sultan, and, though freely written, was well 
 received, and liberally rewarded. An Italian 
 Work, entitled, " Of the Life and Actions of 
 the King of Persia," was printed at Venice, in 
 1553, under the name of this writer; he also 
 wrote in Italian, " A Relation of the Life and 
 Actions of Ussun Casson " Konig. Bibl. ap. 
 Bayle. — E. 
 
 ANGLtJS, Thomas, an English catholic 
 priest, whose real name appears to have been 
 White, was, in the seventeenth century, a pro- 
 fessed follower of the Aristotelian p/iilosophy. 
 He was of a roving temper, and was known 
 by the name of Thomas Anglus in various 
 parts of Europe. He resided a considerable 
 time at Paris and at Rome, and was principal of 
 a college at Lisbon, and sub-principal at Douay. 
 In England he was for some time in the family 
 of sir Kenelm Digby, and adopted his opinions. 
 Des Cartes, who, from the character given of 
 him by sir Kenelm Digby, conceived a high 
 respect for his talents, hoped to have brought 
 him over to his own system ; but Anglus, af- 
 ter puzzling himself, and perplexing that philo- 
 sopher with many obscure objections, retained 
 his predilection for the Aristotelian doctrines, as 
 sublimated by sir Kenelm, and determined to
 
 A N G 
 
 ( 279 ) 
 
 A N I 
 
 use tliem as tlie key for unlocking the mysteries 
 of religion. He ;ippc;irs to have been a man 
 of acute but confused intellects, who thought 
 much and freely, but to litile purpose, ami 
 vhose writings surpassed those of his modern 
 master, Digby, in obsruritv. He used to va- 
 lue hiniselt upon liis brevity, as becoming the 
 masters and dispensers of science, and to s iv, 
 •' Either the learned understand me, or they do 
 rot understand me; if they understand me, and 
 find me in an error, they may easily confute 
 me ; if they do not understand me, they have 
 no reason to exclaim against my doctrine." He 
 .seems to have wished to attract attention by his 
 singularities, and to have been mortified to rind 
 tliatthey excited no more opposition. Some of 
 his works were, in 1658, censured by the con- 
 gregation of the Index Expurgatorius at Roine; 
 particularly his principal treatise, which was, 
 " Institutiones Peripatetics ad Mentem summi 
 Viri clarissimique Philosophi, Kenelmi Equi- 
 tis Digbai" [Peripatetic Institutions, after tbc 
 Doctrine of that great Man and famous Phi- 
 losopher, Sir Keneltn Digby]. This work was 
 printed at Lyons in 1646. He also wrote 
 " Qujestio Theologica." &;c. [A Theological 
 Enquiry, how, according to the Principles of the 
 Digbaan Peripateticism, or, according to Rea- 
 son, and by abstracting from the Passivene ,s 
 of Matter, Free-will is to be explained and re- 
 conciled wit!) effectual Grace] ; " Institutiones 
 Theologies, "&c. [Theological Institute^ raised 
 on the Foundations laid in the Digbsean Peripa- 
 tetics] ; and several other tract;. This muddle- 
 headed writer lived in the reign of Charles I. 
 and II. Bc7vle. — E. 
 
 ANGUIER, Francis and Michaf.i,, 
 sculptors, were sons of a cabinet-maker of Eu 
 in Normandy. Francis, the elder, born in 1604, 
 •was brought up under Guillain, a sculptor in 
 Paris. He v>as sent for to England, where he 
 acquired, by his labours, a sufficiency to enable 
 him to visit Italy for his improvement. There 
 he spent two years ; and returning to France, 
 was made keeper of the cabinet of antiques by 
 Louis XIII, and had aj)artments in the Louvre. 
 He was employed in several considerable works, 
 chiefly of the monuinental kind, of which the 
 principal are the tomb of James Souvre, grand 
 prior of France, at St. John de Lateran, and the 
 mausoleum of the last duke de Montmorency, 
 at Moulins. Francis died at Paris in 1669. 
 
 Michael, the most celebrated of the brothers, 
 was born in 1612. He became an artist as early 
 as fifteen, at Eu ; and then worked some years 
 at Paris under Guillain. Like his brother, he 
 employed his first savings in a journey to Italy, 
 
 and entered into the school of the famous AI- 
 gardi at Rome. He parsed ten years in Italy ; 
 and, rcturningio France, fiist assisted his brother 
 in the monument of .Montmorency. He rose 
 to great reputation, and was eni|)lovcd in many 
 works of decoration ; sculpture being much the 
 taste of that period. He adorned the njartment 
 of queen Anne, of Austiia, in the Oid i^ouvrc, 
 with a profusion of allegorical figures ; and ex- 
 ecuted most of the works in that queen's fine 
 church of Val de Grace. He made the j^reat 
 altar-piece of the church of St. Denis de la 
 Chartre, and the rich sculptures of the gate of St. 
 Denis. His last work was a marble crucifix 
 over the high altar of the ciiurch of the Sor- 
 bonne. He died in 1686. Via da Jam. Sculpt, 
 par D^ ArgenvilU — A. 
 
 ANGUILLARA, Giovannandrea 
 dell', an eminent Italian poet, was born of a 
 mean family, at Sutr-i, in 1517. Going to Rome 
 to seek his fortune, he engaged with a printer, 
 whose house he was obliged to leave on account 
 of an intrigue with his wife. He then retired to- 
 Venice, where he ingratiated himself with -jl. 
 bookseller, who is said to have purchased of him 
 his translation of Ovid's Metamorphoses ; the 
 work that has chiefly made him known. This 
 seems, however, to have been first publishcil at 
 Paris, dedicated to kingHenry II. ; and tlieauthor 
 took a journey into I'rance for the purpose of 
 obtaining a recompense. The credit he got by 
 this perforiTiance, was probably the cause of the 
 gieat pomj) with which his tragedy ot CEdipus 
 was acted, in 1565, at Viceir/,a, where Palladio 
 was employed to erect a magnificent temporary 
 tlieatre for the purpose. He afterwards under- 
 took a translation of Virgil's ^neid, but he ne- 
 ver finished it. He wrote various other poems, 
 some satirical, soine burlcque, by the publica- 
 tion of which, and the presents of dedicatees, he 
 supported a precarious and irregular life. He 
 died (the year not known) at Rome, in lodgings, 
 indigent, and of a disease contracted by liis dis- 
 solute mode of living. 
 
 His translation of Ovid is written with great 
 facility of language, and became extremely po- 
 pular. He takes great liberties with his 01 i- 
 Tinal, adding and retrenching at pleasure, as he 
 thought would be most acceptable to his readers. 
 The first three books- appealed in 1554; the 
 first entire edition in 156 1. His tragedy of 
 CEdipus, printed in 1556, is reckoned one of 
 the best dramatic pieces of the age.. He also 
 coinposed notes on the Orlando Furioso. 77- 
 raboichi. — A. 
 
 ANICETUS, pope, a Syrian by birth, was, 
 after the death of Pius, apj)ointcd bishop of
 
 A N 1 
 
 ( 280 ) 
 
 ANN 
 
 Rome, according to Euscbius, in the year 157 ; 
 Init, according to other writers, a few years 
 earlier. In his time the Gnostic doctrines of 
 the Valentinians and Marcionites were adopted 
 by many persons in Rome : but Polycarp, bi- 
 shop of Smvrna, who came to Rome to settle a 
 controversy between the eastern and western 
 churches concerning the time of cclebri-.ting 
 Easter, is said to have recalled them to tlie 
 apostolic faith. It is a memorable fact, that, 
 though Polvcarp and Anicetus ditFeicd in opi- 
 nion after their conference on the subject of Po- 
 lycarp's embasy, no imjilicit submission of 
 judgment was required, or yielded, on either 
 side, and the two bishops gave mutual proofs of 
 forbearance and charity. They communicated 
 together on the Eucharist ; and Anicetus, to 
 shew his respect to Polycaip, ceded to him the 
 honour of performing the ceremony. What 
 incalculable mischiefs might have been pre- 
 vented, had the successors of Anicetus in the 
 see of Rome, and other heads of the church, 
 followed the example of these apostolic bishops ! 
 In the time of Anicetus, Hegesippus, a Jew, 
 the author of an ecclesiastical history now 
 lost, and Justin Martyr, visited Rome, but on 
 •what occasion is not known. Modern histo- 
 ries of the popes ascribe to Anicetus ordinances 
 and decrees, for which no authority appears in 
 ancient writers : they also confer upon him the 
 crown of martyrdom, though neither Irenasus, 
 •who wrote in the second century, nor any of 
 the ancient ecclesiastic writers, mention so me- 
 morable a circumstance. Anicetus occupied 
 the see of Rome eleven years. The letters 
 ascribed to this pope are, as Dupin has shown, 
 certainly spurious. Emcb. lib. iv. c. 8. 13 — 
 22. Iren. lib. iii. c. 3. P/atina. Dupin. Afo- 
 reri. — E. 
 
 ANICH, Peter, an astronomer, mathe- 
 matician, and ingenious mechanic, was born at 
 Oberperzutf, a village near Inspruck, in the 
 year 1723. He was the son of a labourer, who 
 sometimes amused himself with turning. He dis- 
 covered an early inclination to the study of astro- 
 nomy and geometry. Father Hill, a Jesuit, 
 professor in the university of Inspruck, hap- 
 pening to become acquainted with the young 
 man's talents, afforded him an opportunity of 
 cultivating and employing them. In a short 
 time he became a great astronomer, and one of 
 the most skilful mech:inics in Europe. He made 
 for the university of Inspruck a pair of globes, 
 which are master-pieces of their kind. He 
 contrived and completed many mathematical 
 instruments. He delineated maps with admi- 
 rable neatness and accuracy. Cut off in the 
 
 prime of his age, his death was mucli regretted ; 
 and the empre.^s-queen, to show her respect for 
 his memory, settled upon his sister a pension of 
 fifty florins. Anich died in the year 1766. 
 J<!ouv. Diet. Hist.— E. 
 
 ANNAND, a Scotch episcopalian divine, 
 dean of Edinburgh, was born at Air in 1633. 
 He was educated at Oxford, and received his 
 doctor's degree at St. Andrew's. He distin- 
 guished himself by his loyalty and by his 7eal 
 for episcopalianism. He wrote, in English, 
 several treatises of polemical and practical divi- 
 nitv, under concise Latin titles: " Fides Ca- 
 tholica," [or The Doctrine of the Catholic 
 Church] in eighteen grand ordinances, 4to. 
 London, 1662; " Panem Qnotidianum," [Dai- 
 ly Bread], in defence of set forms of prayer, 
 4to. London, 1662 ; " Pater Nostcr" [Our 
 Father, on the Lord's Prayer], 8vo. 1670. 
 " Mysterium Pietatis," [The Mystery of God- 
 liness,] 8vo. 1672 ; " Doxologia" [or Glory 
 to the Father, the Church's Hymn, reduced to- 
 glorifying the Trinity], 8vo. 1672 ; " Duali- 
 tas," including " Lex Loquens," [or The 
 Honour of Magistracy,] &c. and " Duorum 
 Unitas," [or The Agreement of Magistracy 
 and Ministry], &c. These titles sufficiently dis- 
 close the mind of the writer. Annand died 
 at Edinburgh in 1689. fVood, Athen. Oxon. 
 Biogr. Brit. — E. 
 
 ANNAT, Francis, a French Jesuit, con- 
 fessor to Louis XIV. was born in Rovergue in 
 1590. In the university of Toulouse he taught 
 philosophy six years, and theology seven. He 
 was in such high esteem with his fraternity, that 
 he was invited to Rome to discharge the office 
 of censor-general of the books published by the 
 society, and that of theologist-general. Re- 
 turning to France, he was successively lector of 
 the colleges of Moiitpelier and Toulouse. Dis- 
 tinguishing himself in two general assemblies of 
 the Jesuits, he was advanced to the most ho- 
 nourable and confidential posts of the order. He 
 held the office of confessor to the kine for six- 
 teen years ; and it was not till witliin four 
 months of his death, when age had impaired his 
 hearing, that he was permitted to retire from 
 the court. It is said (Amours du Palais Royal), 
 but the anecdote wants confirmation, that whea 
 madame de la Valiere was taken into the royal 
 favo'.'.r, he solicited permission to lay down his 
 office. Another circumstance equally honour- 
 able to his character, and more certam, is, that, 
 during his long connection with the court, he 
 never employed his interest in providing for his 
 poor relations. One black and indelible blot, 
 however, stains his memory, which is the seve-
 
 
 Illiun'- ^tf.^rk' al\iru' L- z.i\ i.vivut n't'c. cl^ic- ./• <''^ 
 
 '/'.■■■ ^'Him
 
 ANN 
 
 ( 281 ) 
 
 ANN 
 
 rity with w'lich he persecuted the professon: of 
 ne\v opinions, aii'.l particiilnily t!io J^nscni-ts : 
 he has been calk-d, " The Fliiil of Heretics." 
 He died at Paris in the year 1670. His writings, 
 which are numerous, and chiefly in Latin, turn 
 almost entirely upon the controversy with the 
 Janseni ts. The principal of them Were col- 
 lected into three volumes, and printed at Paris 
 in 1666. Bihlioth. Script. Soc. Jcs. Bay!c.—E. 
 ANNA COMNENA, daughter of the em- 
 peror Alexius Comnenus I. has heen rendered 
 inemorahlc by her talents a" well as her rank. 
 In the midst of a voluptuous and frivolous court, 
 she addicted herself to the study of letters, and 
 cuUivated an acquaintance with philosophers. 
 She was married to a young nobleman of di- 
 stinction, Mccphorus Bryennius ; and her phi-' 
 losophy had not so far mortihed her ambition, 
 but that, upon the last illness of her father, she 
 joined with tiie empress Irene in soliciting him 
 to disinherit his son in favour of her husband. 
 On the failure of this scheme she did worse, in 
 exciting a conspiracy for the deposition of her 
 brother ; and wiien Bryennius impeded its suc- 
 cess by his fears or scruples, she lamented that 
 Nature had mistaken their sexes, for diat he 
 ought to have been the woman. The plot was 
 discovered and defeated ; and Anna was pu- 
 nished by the confiscation of her property, 
 ■which was however, restored to her by the in- 
 dulgent emperor; but she appears never more 
 to have possessed any influence at court. She 
 soothed the solitude of tlie latter years of her 
 life by employing them in composing a mi- 
 nute history of her father's reign ; a work still 
 extant, and which forms a conspicuous portion 
 of the collection of Byzantine historians. It is 
 written with an elaborate display of rhetoric and 
 science, and bears the appearance of a conti- 
 nued panegyric or apology, rather than an im- 
 partial narrative. Yet it contains many va- 
 luable facts and observations, and affords an 
 useful contrast to the no less partial accounts 
 ■which the Latin historians have given of the 
 same tran'action";. Unlvcn. Hist. Gibhon.—\. 
 ANNA IVANOVNA, empress of all the 
 Rusias, born in 1693, w^as the daughter of the 
 czar Ivan Alexiowitch, elder brotlier of czar 
 Peter the G^eat. She was married in 1 710 to 
 Frederic-William, duke of Courland, who left 
 her a widow, without children, in 171 1. The 
 duchy was tlicncetorth governed in her name, 
 but under the influence of Russia. She herself 
 was entirely in the hands of Ernest John Biren, 
 a favourite of mean descent, who engaged her 
 affections so as to rule over her with absolute 
 ilomiiiion during all the rest of her life. In 
 VOL. I. 
 
 January 1730, .she was called to the succfrsion 
 of the Russian empire on the decease of Peter II. 
 Attempts were made by a patriotic party to li- 
 niit the power of the trown ; and they induced 
 her to sign articles for the jjurposj, togctlicr 
 with a |)romise that siie should nut bring Bircn 
 into Russia. He, however, api)cared at ^Ioscow 
 directly after her arrival ; and, forming a party 
 among ilie young ncjblcs and milliarv, the 
 crown was offered to Anne with the same de- 
 spotic authority as her predecessors had jw sess- 
 ed. In consequence, the articles were torn ia 
 pieces in her presence. The reign of Anne 
 was in fact tliat of Biren, who ruled the vast 
 emj^iie of Russia with uidimitid sway. He 
 governed with vigour and capacity, but with 
 such susjicious rigour, tliat above twenty thou- 
 sand people are said, by Manstein in his me- 
 moirs, to have been sent to Siberia in Anne's 
 reign, of whom scarcely five thousand were 
 ever more heard of. Anne, who was herself 
 mild and merciful, was often compelletl by him 
 to sign orders of atrocious cruelty, thcugh with 
 tears and unavailing remonstrance^. S- ch was 
 his ascendencv over her, that, while he treated 
 her in a most arrogant and disrespectful manner, 
 a threat of his returning to Courland (of which 
 she had made him grand duke) was sufficient to 
 enable him to carry any point. He lived in a 
 style of magnificence far su|>crior to hevs; and 
 she had no table of her own, but used to dine 
 with his family. The public transactions of 
 the reign were few. Russia was on a respect- 
 able footing with all her neiphbours, without 
 engaging in any of iheir quarrels, exci-pt a 
 war with the Ottoman Pone in 1737. Anne 
 died in 1740, aged forty-seven, ami left the 
 crow n to her grand nephew, Ivan, under the re- 
 gency of Biren. Alorcri. Coxc. — A. 
 
 A Si N E o r A u s T R I A , queen of Trance, eldest 
 daughter of Philip HI. king of Spain, by Mar- 
 garet of Austria, was born in 1604, and mar- 
 ried Louis XIII. in 161 5. 'I'iiis connection was 
 a source of very little happiness to her. Car- 
 dinal Ri-.helieu, who absolutely governed the 
 king, and wis jt-alous of her inflLicncc, per- 
 suaded him that she was concerned in conspi- 
 racies against his life. By mecns of his spies, 
 Richelieu discovccd that she held a corrcs] on- 
 de..cc witii the duke of Lorraine, the quetn of 
 England, and hci brother, the king of Spain. Ic 
 was easy for him to make the king believir that 
 she was' more attaclied to the int. rests of the 
 country she left than of that to w hic'i she tyas 
 come— the common evil springing from foreign 
 marriages ! These suspicions were carried to. 
 such a length, that she was obliged to answer 
 2 o
 
 ANN 
 
 ( 282 ) 
 
 ANN 
 
 interrogatories before the clwncellor concerning 
 her foreign correspontlciices, anil, on her con- 
 fession, was compelled to ask. pardon ot the 
 king, and promise to alter her conduct. After 
 tJic king's death she was declared sole regent, in 
 1643, by the parliament of Paris, during ti)C mi- 
 Horiiy of her son l,ouisXIV. ar.dlier husband's 
 will was annulled. She gave all lur confidence 
 to cardinal Mazarin, who ruled despotically, 
 and at first widiout opposition- At length, 
 however, discontoits arose, fomented by the 
 grandees, which terminated in a civil war ; dur- 
 ing which she was obliged with her son to fly 
 from Paris, and entreat the assistance of the 
 great Conde. Tiie cardinal was banished the 
 kingdom, then recalled ; the princes of the blood 
 were imprisoned, then liberated ; and a variety 
 of stormy scenes ensued, in wh.ich the queen, 
 upon the whole, displayed great firmness. At 
 length a complete pacification took place ; and 
 the young king assuming the reins of govern- 
 ment in 1 66 1, the queen-mother retired, and 
 passed the remainder of her life in pious exer- 
 cises. She died in 1666 of a cancer, the pains 
 of which she endured with exemplary patience. 
 In her youth she had l>eauty and attractions, and 
 the court of France was indebted to her for 
 much of its characteristic politeness and amenity. 
 She had, however, a full share of the haughti- 
 ness of her family; and, like her son, was rather 
 an actor of greatness than a great character. 
 Moreri. Nouv. Diet. Hist. Mod. Vnivers. 
 Hist. — h. 
 
 ANNE OF Be AujEU, daughter of Louis XL 
 iing of France, and wife of Peter Beaujeu, 
 duke of Bourbon, was appointed, by her fa- 
 ther's will, gouvernante during the minority of 
 his son, Charles VUI. This preference ex- 
 cited a civil commotion, which was terminated 
 by a defeat the insurgent nobles sustained in 
 1488. The princess held the reins with much 
 firmness, and in general acted prudently ; but, 
 giving way to a spirit of revenge against the 
 duke of Orleans, afterwards Louis XlL who 
 had slighted her love, she never ceased to per- 
 secute him, to the prejudice of her affairs. Her 
 jealousy also laid the foundation of the fatal 
 quarrel between Francis I. and the constable 
 Bourbon. She died in 1522, aged about sixty. 
 Aforert. Mod. Univ. Hist. — A. 
 
 ANNE BOLEYN, queen of Henry VlIL 
 king of England, has been rendered of much 
 greater celebrity from her accidental connection 
 with a great event in history than from her 
 personal qualities. She was born in 1507, and 
 was daughter of sir Ihomas Bolcyn, a gentle- 
 Hiaa of family and great alliances, whom Hen- 
 
 rv VIL employed in several embassies. Her 
 mother was daugliier of the duke of Norfolk. 
 She was carried over to Paris at an early age 
 by the king's sister, Mary, who married Lewis 
 XIL king of France ; and, after the death of 
 that king, and the return of Mary to England,, 
 she remained in the service of Francis's queen, 
 and afterwards passed into the family of the du- 
 chess of Alen^on. Her residence in France 
 gave her the freedom and vivacity of manners 
 and conversation, for which that country has, 
 so long been distinguished ; and these were set 
 off by her personal charms, which were consi- 
 deiable, though she was not a perfect beauty. It 
 is not certainly known whether, on her return to 
 England, Henry had already expressed scrujiles 
 as to his union with Catharine of Arragon ; but 
 he soon became enamoured of her, and soli- 
 cited her favours, which, how-ever, she had too 
 much prudence or virtue to grant without mar- 
 riage. She was placed at court as maid of ho- 
 nour to the queen, anddistinguished by various 
 marks of the king's attachment, who at length 
 resolved to make way for her by that divo)ce» 
 which was eventually the cause of the separa- 
 tion of England from the papal dominion. Im- 
 patient of the obstacles and delays which his 
 application for a divorce met with, Henry pri- 
 vately married Anne Boleyn in November 
 1532, and publicly declared her queea in thifc 
 April following. In September she was deli- 
 vered of a daughter, aftewards the famous 
 queen Elisabeth. She possessed for some time 
 a great influence over her lordly husband, which 
 she employed in widening the breach betweea 
 him and Rome (for she had imbibed the prin- 
 ciples of the reformers during her residence with 
 the duchess of Alencon), and in overthrowing 
 the power of that haughty favourite cardinal 
 Wolsey. At length the king's disappointment 
 at her being brought to bed of a dead male child, 
 the ill offices of die catholic party, and, above 
 all, Henry's new passion for lady Jane Sey- 
 mour, prepared him to admit into his bosom 
 those jealousies of her conjugal fidelity, to 
 which the thoughtless levity of her carriage 
 gave too much probability. She was accused 
 of adultery with several of the officers of the 
 household, and even with her brother lord Roch- 
 fort. She was tried as guilty of high treason ; 
 and though the proof of her guilt was very in- 
 competent, and only one, and the meanest of 
 her supposed paramours, through fear, made a 
 confession of a criminal intercourse with her, 
 she was condemned to be beheaded, and the sen- 
 tence was put in execution in May 1536. Her 
 last behaviour was a mixture of firnuiess aiji
 
 A N isr 
 
 ( 2S3 ) 
 
 ANN 
 
 •singular levity. She confessed to various indis- 
 cretions, but constar.tlv denied any serious guilt. 
 A letter written by lier to the liing, after con- 
 'tlemnation, is preserved, and gives a inueli 
 .higher idea of her character and understanding 
 than the accounts of her conduct would con- 
 vey. 
 
 The hatred entertained against the memoiy 
 ef this unfortunate queen by the bigoted ca- 
 tholics, for the part slie and her <laiiglitcr acted 
 in the reformation, and a weak cxpct tation of 
 injuring the cause of protestantism, by stigma- 
 tising the characters and motives of its pro- 
 i-moters, has induced the Jesuit Sanders, ainl 
 Other writers, to propagate the most malignant 
 stories concerning licr, the greater part of 
 vhich arc refuted by well-know n facts, or have 
 no evidence or probability for their sup]Kirt. 
 How far her innocence extended as to the 
 charge on which she lost her life, is a matter of 
 doubt ; but, on the whole, it seems much less 
 certain that she was criminal, thanthat her hus- 
 band was a capricious and bloody tyrant. Hume. 
 Burnet. Bayle. — . A . 
 
 ANNE OF Britanny, queen of France, 
 daughter and heiress of Francis II. duke of 
 Britanny, was born in 1476. She was first 
 married by proxy to Maximilian of Austria ; 
 and, on his death, to Charles VIII. king of 
 France, in 1491, an alliance of high impor- 
 tance to that crown on account of the dowry 
 she brouglit, of a proviiice within the king- 
 dom. Her qualities, bodi bodily and mental, 
 were amiable and respectable ; and she goveined 
 ■with great prudence as recent durii-.g the absence 
 of Charles on his Italian expedition. Her children 
 by this prince all died young, and she became a 
 widow in 1498. Louis XIl. die successor, who 
 had loved her when single, obtained her for his 
 spouse, ha\ing annulled a former marriage for 
 her sake. She formed a very splendid court, 
 decorated with all the ladies of quality, both 
 French ar.d Bretoi:, to whom she afforded an 
 exami^le of every femr.le excellence. She em- 
 ployed the revenues of her duchy, which the 
 king left at her disposal, in acts of charity and 
 beneficence ; particularly favouring the poor 
 nobility of her own province. She first insti- 
 tuted the order of maids of honour to the queen, 
 and first had the prerogative of guards and gen- 
 tlemen of her own, and of giving audience to 
 foreign ambassadors. She had a haughtiness of 
 disposition which too much inclined her to be 
 vindictive ; and she thought her virtue entitled 
 her to govern her husband : her character, how- 
 ever, on the whole, was generous, feeling, and 
 siaeere. She died at Blois, without issue, in 
 
 1514, and was buried in great state at St. De- 
 nis. Morcrl. Mod. Univ. Hiw. — A. 
 
 ANNE, (juccn of Great Biitiin, second 
 daughter of king James II. by his first wife, 
 Anne Hyde, was born in 1664. She married 
 prince George of Denmark, in 1683, and had 
 several children by him, none of whom lived to 
 maturity. She succeeded to the crown in 1702, 
 on the death of king William ; and licr reign 
 comjiriscs one of the most splendid arul im- 
 portant periods of English history. It is, how- 
 ever, the reign of her ministers and favourites, 
 for her own feeble character did not allow her 
 to do any thing of herself ; and, except a strong 
 predilection for tory principles in cliurch and 
 stale, she exhibited no decided inclinations which 
 Could influence the slate of affairs. Arbitrarily 
 governed by the duchess of Marlborough in the 
 earlier part of her reign, she pursued the pro- 
 jects for redu< ing the power of Louis XIV. of 
 France, which her predecessor had begun ; and, 
 during several years, a series of successes crown- 
 ed her arms with glory. After a fruitless pro- 
 traction of hostilities, they were at length, chief- 
 ly in consequence of the influence acquired by a 
 female favourite of the opposite party, termi- 
 nated by the peace of Utrecht in 1713. Tlie 
 union of the English and Scotch nations, by an 
 act of legislature in 1706, was an event of this 
 reign more important to the prosperity of the 
 realm. The contention of parties was ex- 
 tremely violent during the greatest part of Anne's 
 administration ; and it was near bursting into a 
 flame at the close of it, when the queen showed 
 a manifest desire of securing the succession to 
 the exiled pait of her family, ar.d gave the tory 
 party such a superiority, as inclined them to 
 push to extremes their favourite plans of politi- 
 cal and religious government. If was therefore 
 equally to the triumph of one party, and tliC 
 disappointment of tiie oilier, that she died in 
 August 17 14, in the fiftieth year of her age, 
 and thirteenth of htr reign, c( a dropsy, con- 
 tracted or aggravated by her habits of living. 
 Her private character was amiable, and it is 
 said she was not deficient in understandmg, 
 though her indolent and yielding temper would 
 not suffer her to exert it. The title of the ^ooj 
 queen June cxijresses the sentiments entertained 
 of her by the majority of her subjects, whose 
 prejudices co-incidcd with her own. The 
 number of eminent writers who flourished un- 
 der her reign, and several of whom rose tohiglj 
 stations, has rendered it a sort of Augustan age 
 of English literature, though her own disposi- 
 tions or acquiiements had no share in making it 
 such. Hume. — A.
 
 ANN 
 
 ( 284 ) 
 
 A N N 
 
 ANNESLEY, Arthur, earl of Anglesey, 
 and lord privy-seal in the reij^n of Ciiarles II. 
 was the son of sir Francis Anneslcy, bart. lord 
 Moiint-Norris and viscount Valentia in Ire- 
 land, and was born at Dublin in 1614. He 
 was sent yoi;ng to England for his education, 
 and at sixteen ciitcrcd of Magdalen college, 
 Oxford, whence he removed to Lincoln's-inn, 
 and engaged in tlic study of the law. After 
 spending some time in that situation, he made 
 the tour of Eiiiopc, and returning, in 1640, 
 lie was elected knight of the shire for Radnor, 
 but lost his scat on a petition from another can- 
 didate. At the commencement of the dispute 
 between king Charles I. and tlie parliament, he 
 inclined to the royal cause, and sat in the parlia- 
 ment, holdcn at Oxford, in 1643. He thought 
 proper afterwards, however, to reconcile him, elf 
 with tl;e other party, into tlie favour and confi- 
 dence of which he was soon admitted. He was 
 sent by the parliament, as one of their commis- 
 sioners, into Ulster, in 1645, wliere he displayed 
 his judgment and dexterity, in tlie management 
 of difficult alfliirs, to the great advantage of his 
 employers and the protestant cause in Ireland. 
 He was afterwards at the head of the commis- 
 sion, sent in 1647 to treat with the marqui. of 
 Ormond, lord lieutenant of that country, which 
 negotiation he brought to a happy issue. On 
 his return to England, he seems to have steered 
 a middle course through the confusions and 
 changes of parties. He avoided all concern 
 with the king's trial anddeatli, and opposed se- 
 veral of the illegal acts of Cromwell, so as to 
 be put among the number of tlie secluded mem- 
 Tjers. After the death of Cromwell he appears 
 to have lain quiet, waiting for the decision of 
 events, and trusted by none of the parties. But 
 ■when the secluded members began to resume 
 .their seats, and tilings evidently tended to the 
 restoration of tlie (;ld constitution, he took a de- 
 cided part in promoting the recall of the king, 
 and entered into a correspondence with him, 
 which unfortunately occasioned the death of a 
 younger brother, who was drowned in stepping 
 into a packet-boat with letters for his majesty. 
 Soon after the restoration, he was raised to the 
 dignity of a baron and earl, as an express reward 
 for his services in that event. Nor did he scru- 
 ple to manifest his loyalty by sitting as one of 
 the judges at the tiial of the regicides. He soon 
 caitie into offices of trust and profit under the 
 new reign, and was panicularlv employed in 
 commissions for settling the affairs of Ireland, 
 with which he had a thorough acquaintance. 
 In 1673 the post of lord prlvv-seal was con- 
 ferred upon him, which he held several years 
 
 with the favour of liis master. At the time 
 when it was one of the artifices of the jiaity in 
 opposition to tlie court to promote the belief of 
 popisli plots, be was publicly charged at tlie bar 
 of the house of commons, by Dangerfield, with 
 an attempt to stifle evidence in this matter; yet 
 the suspicion he incutrcd from tliis attack did 
 not prevent him from being the only lord who 
 dissented in tiie house of peers from joining in 
 the vote of the commons, asserting tlie belief of 
 an Irish popish plot. From this conduct he was 
 charged as being a secret papist, though there 
 appears to have been no other ground for the 
 suspicion, than that he was neither a bigot nor 
 a credulous man. In 1682, when the nation 
 was in a great ferment concerning the prospect 
 of a succession, tlie earl of Anglesey presented 
 a very extraordinary memorial to the king, in 
 which he represented, in strong terms, the fatal 
 consequences of the duke of York's attachment 
 to popery, and gave the king some very free 
 counsel respecting his obligations to govern ac- 
 cording to law. Tills was not well received ; 
 and joining with a dispute in which the earl was 
 involved with tlie duke of Oi'mond, (originating 
 from an answer he Iiad written to lord Castleha- 
 ven's Memoirs on the Irish Rebellion, in which, 
 for- his own justification, he had been obliged 
 to reflect on the duke) it occasioned his dismis- 
 sion from the office of lord privy-seal in August 
 1682. After this he lived chiefly in retirement, 
 yet not so as to have resigned all ambitious 
 views. And o artfully did he conduct himself, 
 that he recovered the favour of the duke of 
 York, when Jamcs II. so much as to have been 
 supposed to be destined for the high office of 
 lord chancellor, had not the design been cut 
 short by hi death in April 16S6, when in the 
 seventy-third year of his age. He left a nume- 
 rous posterity by his wife, one of the co-hei- 
 resses of sir James Altham. 
 
 The earl of Anglesey was a person of great 
 parts and learning ; particularly conversant in 
 the legal and constitutional history of his coun- 
 try, andwellacquainted with divinity and c'lurch 
 history. He wrote well, and was the author of 
 several publications in political and religious 
 controversy, and historical narrative. He was 
 a ready but not a graceful speaker; was indefa- 
 tigable in business, and of a grave deportment 
 and sober manners. His political conduct has 
 undergone much censure for its versatility, nor 
 can it apparently be vindicated from this charge, 
 though strong gleams of integrity occasionally 
 slnne through it. He certainly contrived to in- 
 gratiate himself with men and parlies as oppo- 
 site as possible ; and if it was true that James
 
 A N N 
 
 ( 285 ) 
 
 ANN 
 
 n. thought of him for chancellor, uhcn he 
 liad a Jetirics at his command, notiiing (as has 
 been justly obseivcd) could be a greater imputa- 
 tion on the carl's character. Bio^. Brit. — A. 
 
 ANNESLEY, Samukl, an English non- 
 conformist minister, was born about the year 
 1620, at Harlcy in Warwicksliire, and was 
 educated in Queen's-coliege, Oxford. While 
 a student, lie was remarkable for temperance 
 and industry. It apjiears froin a certificate 
 preserved by Calamy, that he was ordained af- 
 ter the presbvlertttn mode ; yet Wood asserts 
 that he received episcopal ordination. He was 
 cliaplain to the earl of AVarw ick, and afterwards 
 rector of Cliffe in Kent, a valuable living, with 
 peculiar civil jurisdiction. Through the inter- 
 est of his friends he obtained the degree of doc- 
 tor of laws in Oxford, by the command of the 
 chancellor of the univcrsitv, the earl of Pem- 
 broke. Annesley was zealously attached, dur- 
 ing the civil wars, to the parliamentary interest, 
 and, in 1648, preached a violent sermon be- 
 fore the parliainent, in which he inveighed 
 .against the king, then a prisoner in the Isle of 
 Wight. Under the protectorate he resigned 
 his living in Kent, and was appointed Icctuier 
 at St. Paul's, and presented to the vicarage of 
 St. Giles's, Cripplegate. In 1662 he was 
 ejected for his nonconformity ; but continued 
 to preach till his death, which happene<l in 
 1696. Annesley, though celebrated for his 
 piety, probity, and charity, was chiefly distin- 
 guished by his zeal for nonconformity. He 
 published a few sermons, some of which may 
 be seen in " The Morning Exercise at Crip- 
 plegate," printed in 1674. JVood'' s Athen. 
 Oxon. Calamy s Abridgment of Baxter'' s Life, 
 vol. iii. p. 65. Biogr. Brit. — E. 
 
 ANNIUS, of Viterbo, or John Nanni, a 
 Dominican monk, who was born in the year 
 1437, is chiefly memorable as an ingenious but 
 impudent impostor. Possessed of an extensive 
 acquaintance v^ith languages. Oriental as well 
 as European, and well read in hi torv. he 
 employed his learned leisure in writing books 
 from his own ferule invention, which he after- 
 wards palmed upon the world as genuine re- 
 mains of several ancient authors, in " Seven- 
 teen Books of Antiquities." This curious col- 
 lection contained, " Archilochi de Temporibus, 
 Jib. i. Xenophontis dc Ecjuivocis, lib. i. Be- 
 rosi Babylonici dey\ntiquitatibus Italia", ac totius 
 Orbis, lib. v. Manethonis iEgyptii Supplc- 
 menta adBerosum, lib. i. Metastlienis [Megas- 
 thenis] Persaj de Judicio Temporum, et Anna- 
 Jibus Persarum, lib. i. Philonis Hebrsi.de Tem- 
 poribus, lib. ii. Joannis Annii dc primis Tcm- 
 
 poribu.'! ct quatuor ac viginti Rcgibus Hispanix, 
 ct ejus Antiquitate, lib. i. Ejusdemde Ansiquitatc 
 ct Rebus Etrurix, lib. i. Ejusdein Comir.cn- 
 tarium in Propcniuni dc Vcrtumno sive Jano, 
 lib. i. Q^Fabii Pictcrisde aiirco Scculo c-t Ori- 
 gine Urbis Rom», lib. ii. Myrsili Lcsbii dc 
 Origine Italia: ac Turrhenia:, lib. i. M. Ca- 
 tonis Fragmcnta de Originibus, lib. i. Ai.toni- 
 ni Pii Cxsaris Augusti Itincrarium, lib. i. C. 
 Scmpronii dc Chorographia, sive Descriptionc 
 Italix, lib. i. Joannis Annii de Etrusca si- 
 mul ct Itaiica Chronographia, lib. i. Eju.sdcm 
 Qua'Stiones de Thuscia, lib. i. CI. Marii 
 Arelii, Patricii Syracusani, dc Situ Insula? Sici- 
 lis, lib. i. Ejusdem Dialopus in quo Hispama 
 describitur." The hist edition of this work 
 was published at Rome by Eucharius Silber in 
 1498, with a dedication to Ferdinand and Isa- 
 bell.i. A second edition, without the commen- 
 taries of Annius, was published by B. Vcnctus 
 at Venice. In 1552 it was published in 8vo. at 
 Antwerp. The editor pretended to have found 
 the books at Mantua, wb.en he was there with 
 his patron the cardinal Paul de Campo I'ulgoso, 
 1 he publication, like some other spurious pro- 
 ductions ot later date, for a time im|)osed upon 
 several learned men. After the fraud began to 
 be susjiected, it becaine a subject of literary con- 
 test, and many writers appeared on each side 
 of the question. Ten advocates for the ge- 
 nuineness of these writings arc mentioned by 
 Vossius and Bayle. Among these are Sigonius, 
 who, speaking of the e|>it()mes of Cato, says, 
 " I attribute to these epitomes, as great autho- 
 rity as is justly due to any of the genuine re- 
 mains of the ancients ;" and Barthius, a Lu- 
 theran, who imputed the faults of these piece? 
 to the ignorance or dishonesty of transcribers 
 and translatois, and who, in favour of the 
 fragments of Cato, particularly, argues thus : 
 " Examine the work again and again, condemn 
 it as you will, yet vou must see and confess, that 
 it bears the characters of the genius and style of 
 the true Cato, which are not to be fcipncd or 
 counterfeited by such writers as Annius." On 
 the other side, however, critics of the first note 
 examined the pieces published by Aiuiius, and 
 declared them spurious. Gasper Berreiros, a 
 Portuguese, published at Rome, in Latin, and 
 afterwards in Portuguese, in 1557, a censure of 
 Annius, wliich cle.irlv proved the forgery. Vo- 
 laterranus, in his " Anthropologia." lib. xiv, 
 'N'crb. Berosus. soon after the appearance of 
 Annius's pieces, pronoimced them a gross im- 
 position upon the world. Bccanus in the pre- 
 face to his " Chronicle," Posscvinus in the 
 sixtccDtii book of his " Bibliothcca sclccta,"
 
 A N S 
 
 ( 286 ) 
 
 A N S 
 
 Jceph ScaligcT in tlie fifth book of liis treatise 
 " Dc Emciutatione Temporum," and Ludovi- 
 cus Vivos in his fifth book, " De tiadendis Uis- 
 ciplinis," give the same judgment. I\I?ny other 
 wriieis of the sixteenth century united with 
 them ; and it is now universally admitted, that 
 the whole collection is spurious. The jus- 
 tice of this decision is confirmed by a fact re- 
 lated by Autonius Augustus, on the credit of 
 Latinius, a native of Viterbo : Annius, in a 
 vineyard near the city, hid a marble table, on 
 •which he had written an inscription, and after- 
 wards, pretending to find it, brought it to the 
 magistrates of Viterbo, as a proof that their ci- 
 ty was built by Isis and Osiris, long before the 
 city of Rome! In refutation of the charge of 
 fraud with respect to the manuscripts, the only 
 apology offered by the Dominicans, who, in 
 raprit du corps, wish to save the credit of a 
 bnither, is, (Italian Journal of 1673, 1674, 
 nnd 1678,) that the imposture does not rest with 
 Annius, but with some other persons, who 
 com.municated them to him as genuine. One 
 of his apologists, Apostolo Zeno^ relates tiiat 
 father Quien, a Dominican, had found in the 
 Colbertine library a large volume, in manu- 
 script, two hundred years anterior to the tiineof 
 Annius, in which the pretended histories of Be- 
 rosus, Manetho, and others were found. But 
 if Annius copied this manuscript he ought to 
 have produced it, and declared where it was 
 found, or from whom he received it. As he 
 did nothing of this kind, the fraud must lie at 
 his own door, and his name must remain, in 
 the annals of literature, eternally stigmatised 
 with the disgrace of imposture. It will contrit- 
 bute little towards wiping off this blot upon his 
 memory, to add, that he was a professor of di- 
 vinity, and wrote sermons and commentaries 
 upon the Scriptures. Annius of Viterbo died at 
 Rome in the year 1502. Aitamwa in Bill. 
 Domht. Scotus in Bibl. Hisp. Bayle. Latidi,. 
 Hiit. Litt. d'ltal. lib. X. ,n. 3. — E. 
 
 ANSCHARIUS, a Christian divine, bishop 
 of Hamburgh and Bremen, was born in the 
 year 801, iu France, at Corbie, in the diocese 
 of Amiens. Having from his youth been de- 
 voted to religion, he was recommended by the 
 emperor Louis to Harold, king of Denmark, 
 who had passed some time in France, and had 
 become a convert to the Christian faith, as a 
 proper person to accompany him into the north 
 as an apostolic missionary. He preached the 
 gospel to the Danes, and made many converts. 
 Under the authority of Olave, king of Sweden, 
 he also undertook the instruction of the Swedes 
 in the Qiristian religion, but with less success. 
 
 By a coimcil lield at Aix-Ia-chapcllc in 833, an 
 episcopal sec was instituted at Hamburgh, and 
 Anscharius was ordained its first bishop. His 
 church bemg burnt by the Normans in 845, the 
 see of Bremen was united to that of Hamburgh, 
 and this apostolic prelate removed to Bremen, 
 where he resided till his death in 865. He 
 wrote the life of Willihad, first bishop of 
 Bremen. His life, written by iVlabillon, is re- 
 ])riuted by Fabricius, in his " Memoires pour 
 I'Histoire de Hambourgh." Dupin. Moreri. 
 — E. 
 
 ANSELM, an Italian by birth, and, in the 
 reigns of William Rufus and Henry I. archbi- 
 shop of Canterbuiy, was born at Aousta, in 
 Piedmont, in the year 1033. Having visited 
 several monasteries in France, he fixed his resi- 
 dence in the abbey of Bee in Normandy, o£ 
 which Lanfranc was prior, andliere, at the age 
 of twenty-seven, took the monastic habit in the 
 order of St. Benedict. Upon the removal of 
 Lanfranc from Bee to the see of Canterbury, 
 Anselm was appointed prior, and afterwards 
 abbot, of the monastery. Visiting England seve- 
 ral times during his abbacy, his talents and cha- 
 racter were well known there ; and, in 1092, 
 while he was with Hugh, earl of Chester, who 
 had solicited his attendance in his sickness, he 
 was summoned, on the same spiritual office, to 
 the king, William Rufus, then ill at Glocester.. 
 The see of Canterbury being at that time va- 
 cant, the king, whose conscience now reproach- 
 ed him for having injured the church by keep- 
 ing its revenues in his own hands during long 
 vacancies in its episcopal sees, determined to be- 
 stow the metropolitan honours upon his ghostly 
 monitor, Anselm. The abbot long refused 
 with most ostentatious humility. When the 
 bishops entreated him to forego his own ease 
 and quiet for the service of religion at the head 
 of the English church, he urged his want of 
 health and spirits for so arduous a charge, and 
 pleaded, as insuperable obstacles, the duty he 
 owed to his monastery, his obedience to his 
 archbishop, and his allegiance to his prince r 
 and even when the king importuned him, by a 
 regard to his spiritual peace and safety, not to 
 let the burden of keeping the see vacant remain 
 longer upon his conscience, the abbot still per- 
 sisted in his refusal, kneeling, weeping, and en- 
 treating him to change his purpose. The pas- 
 toral staff, the ensign of spiritual dignity, was 
 at last violently farced into his hand ; and, when 
 the king had by letter obtained a discharge from 
 his foreign obligations, he suffered himself to be 
 invested with his office ; not, however, before he 
 had obtained a promise of the restitution of all
 
 A N S 
 
 ( ^87 ) 
 
 A N S 
 
 tjic lands which were in tlic possession of the sec 
 in the time otLantVanc. The tenijioralities of 
 the archbishop being secured, Anschn submit- 
 ted to do homage to the king, and was conse- 
 crated, on the 4tli of December, in the year 
 1093. 
 
 It was not to be expccteti that much cordiah- 
 ,ty shoidd subsist between this foreign ecclesias- 
 tic and liis new prince. \V'iniam Rufus, in 
 imitation ot his father's firm assertion of his 
 right to supreme ecclesiastical power in his own 
 dominions, determined not to yield to any claims 
 on the pan of the pope or the clergy, which 
 miglit interfere with his sovereignty. At the 
 same time, he did not hesitate to exen ise his 
 power over his subjects, both ecclesiastics and 
 laity, w^ith that oppressive tyranny, of which, 
 also, his father had set him the example. An- 
 selm, on the contrary, though not unaccustom- 
 ed in his monastic jurisdiction to the exercise of 
 arbitrary power, had too high notions of cleri- 
 cal independence, to submit willingly to capri- 
 cious demands even from royalty itself; and, in 
 ecclesiastical affairs, regarded the support and 
 extension of the papal power, as an object to 
 \vhicU every secular interest, and every liuman 
 obligation, was subordinate. Causes of aliena- 
 tion, and mutual hostility, soon arose. The 
 king wanting a supjJy of money for carrying 
 on his design against Normandy, the arch- 
 bishop n>ade him a voluntary gift of five hundred 
 pounds, which, though at that time a large sum, 
 the king thought too small, and refused to ac- 
 cept. " 1 entreat your highness," said Ansclm, 
 " to accept the present; it will be more ho- 
 nourable to receive a less sum with my consent, 
 ♦hao to extort a greater by force. If your high- 
 ness allow me the freedom and privilege of my 
 station, my person and fortune shall lie at your 
 service ; but if I am treated like a slave, I sliall 
 be obliged to stand aloof, and keep ray fortune 
 to myself." This manly tone was neither re- 
 lished, nor probably understood, by the king : 
 the offer was rejected, and when it was after- 
 wards hinted to Anselm, that a repetition ot the 
 offer might conciliate the royal favour, he an- 
 swered, "God forbid that I should suppose my 
 sovereign's favour may he purchased with a 
 small sum of money, like a horse at a fair ! Per- 
 suade the king not to set a price upon his favour, 
 but to treat one, on honouiable terms, as his 
 spiritaal father, and I am ready to pay him the 
 duty of a subject. As for the five hundred 
 pounds, which he was pleased to refuse, tliey 
 are given to the poor." The king, upon being 
 informed of what had passed, was nri;ch dis- 
 ple^cd, aad said, lie would never acknow- 
 
 ledge Ansclm for his ghostly father ; he warned 
 neither his prayers nor his l>encdictions, and he 
 might go whitlier he pleased. Another and 
 still more serious occasion of dissatisfaction be- 
 tween the king and the archbishop arose from 
 the contest, at that time subsisting, between Ur- 
 ban and Clement for the papacy. The arch- 
 hisiio|) supported the interest of the former, the 
 king favoured tiic latter. Anselm was above all 
 things desirous of establishing Urban's authoiity 
 in England, and was determined, if he could 
 not obtain the king's consent, to accomplish 
 his purpose without it. 'William was resolved 
 that his subjects should acknowledge no pope 
 whom he had not previously received ; and, 
 justly resenting the insolence which attempted 
 to interfe-re with his prerogative, summoned an 
 episcopal synod at Rockingham, with an in- 
 tention of deposing Anselm. The prelates, 
 whether from fear or conviction does not appear, 
 so far complied with the will of their sovereign, 
 as to withdraw duir canonical obedience from 
 their ])rimate ; but did not proceed to the last 
 extremity of deposition ; pleading in excuse, 
 that this could not be done without papal au- 
 thority. The atfdir, after some interval of sus- 
 pense, %vas so far compromised, that the arch- 
 bishop, though not permitted, as he had re- 
 quested, to go to Rciine to receive the pall from 
 pope Urban II. was allowed to lake it from the 
 altar of the cathedral, on which it was laid br 
 the po))e's nuncio. The breach, liowever, was 
 not healed. When 'William required from the 
 archbishop his quota of men for an expedition 
 against Wales, he sent them out so wretchedly 
 equipped, that the king was much offended, and 
 threatened him with a prosecution. Anselm, 
 on his part, considered the demand as oppres- 
 sive, treated the king's complaint with silent 
 contempt, and, in his turn, demanded the resti- 
 tution of all the revenues of his sees, and made 
 his appeal to Rome. In opposition to the 
 king's express prohibition, but not without re- 
 pairing to the court to attempt his jusiiheation, 
 he left England ; and the king instantly confis- 
 cated the temporalities of thearchbi:>hopric. 
 
 Upon his arrival in Rome. Ansclm was re- 
 ceived w ith great respect by Urban, as a zealous 
 defender of the rights of the holy see, and a 
 meiitorious sutferer in the cause of religion. 
 He accompanied the pope to a country-seat near 
 Capua, and receivctl from him numerous piootit 
 of friendship. Attending Urban in the council 
 of Bari, he appeared as an able advocate for the 
 catholic doctrine, against the tenets of the Greek 
 church, conterninir the procession of the Holy 
 Ghost. la the same council lie supported the
 
 A N S 
 
 ( 288 ) 
 
 A N S 
 
 claims of the clergy to the exclusive right of 
 ekction to tluircli pi-eft-rment, without doing 
 Iiomagc to lavmeii ; and he generously inter- 
 posed to prevent the sentence of excommunica- 
 tion, wluch tlie assembly was inclined to pro- 
 nounce against the king of England. Upon 
 their return to. Rome, the pope's friendship tor 
 Anselm was put to a severe trial. In conse- 
 quence of a letter sent from Urban II. to Wil- 
 liam soon after Anselm's arrival at Rome, de- 
 manding his reinstatement in all the emolu- 
 ments and privileges of liis sec, an ambassador 
 from England was arrived, to vindicate the con- 
 duct of the king. The ambassador was at first 
 received witli haughtiness, and was commanded 
 by the pope to return and inform his master, 
 that, unless he would hazard the highest cen- 
 sure of tiic church, he must instantly reinstate 
 Anselm in his archiepiscopal rights. He soon, 
 however, found means to prevail upon his holi- 
 ness to relax his demands. Anselm's own bio- 
 grapher, Eadmer, who was one of his retinue, 
 modestlv intimates, and Malmsbury honestly, 
 and not'without expressions of indignation, de- 
 clares, that, after some struggle between duty 
 and interest, the pope accepted a large present, 
 and abandoned the cause of his friend. Finding 
 himself deserted by the court of Rome, even in 
 a public council, in which his case was men- 
 tioned and dismissed, Anselm could not be im- 
 posed upon by the personal attentions which 
 the pope still continued to pay him with in- 
 creasing assiduity : he left Rome in disgu<-t, and 
 went to Lyons, where he remained with Hugo, 
 the archbishop, till the death of William Ru- 
 fus, in tlie year iioo. 
 
 Henry I. who, on his accession to the throne, 
 employed everv popular expedient to support 
 the authority which he had usurped, being well 
 acquainted with the interest which Anselm's 
 zeal and piety had obtained in the affections of 
 the people, immediately after his coronation, 
 sent repeated me -sages to the prelate at Lyons 
 soliciting him to return into England ; and, 
 having prevailed, appointed a messenger tc meet 
 him on the wav, with a letter, in which he 
 apologises for having suffered himself to be 
 crowned Iiy another prelate, and entreats him 
 again to take possession of the archiepiscopal 
 see of Canterbury. Upon his arrival, Anselm 
 was received both by the king and the people 
 with every mark of respect. An important oc- 
 casion of dispute, however, soon arose between 
 the king and the archbishop. Henry required 
 from Anselm the renewal of that homage which 
 he had done his brother, and which the rights 
 of the crown demanded. Anselm, equally jea- 
 
 lous for the rights of the church, and the su- 
 ])rtmacy of the papal see in all ecclesiastical af- 
 fairs, peremptorily refi sed ; and, pleading the 
 authoritv of the council of Bari, declared that 
 he woiikl not communicate with any eccclesi- 
 aptic wlio accepted investiture from a layman. 
 'J"he king, to avoid an immediate quarrel with 
 the archbishop, from whose popularity he ex- 
 pected great advantage, referred the matter to 
 the pope, and sent a messenger to Rome. Dur- 
 ing this interval, Anselm showed himself well 
 disposed, as far as was consistent with the su- 
 perior claims of thechuich, to comply with the 
 wishes, and serve the interests, of the prince who 
 had reinstated liim in his dignities. In a synod 
 which he summoned at Lambeth, he obtained a 
 decision in favour of the king's intended marri- 
 age with Matilda, although in the nunnery in 
 which she was educated she had, without taking 
 the vows, worn the veil. When the duke of 
 Normandy invaded England, he served the king, 
 not only by supplying him with a large body of 
 men, but by employing all his interest and au- 
 thority with the barons in his favour, and even- 
 by riding through the ranks of the army, to in- 
 vigorate the loyalty of the soldiers. In return, 
 the king professed gieat reverence for the wis- 
 dom and sanctity of Anselm, and promised a 
 strict regard to the rights and privileges of the 
 church. But wiien the danger from the inva- 
 sion was over, and the messenger from pope 
 Paschal II. returned with a peremptory nega- 
 tive upon lay-investiture, the contest between- 
 the king and the archbishop was renewed. 
 Henry, determined not to relinquisli the im- 
 portant prerogative of granting church prefer- 
 ment within his own dominions, yet desirous if 
 possible to avoid a rupture with the pope and 
 Anselm, sent three bishops to Rome, while the 
 archbishop on his part dispatched two messen- 
 gers, to submit the affair to the reconsideration 
 of the pontiff. The pope's letter, under his 
 hand and seal, confirmed, in arrogant terins,- 
 his former resolution ; but this formal declara- 
 tion was contradicted by the oral testimony of 
 die king's bishcps, w!io asserted that Paschal 
 had privately expressed to them his acquiescence 
 in their master's claim, but had not given it un- 
 der his hand, lest other princes should insist 
 upon the same privilege. Anselm and his mes- 
 sengers regarded this storv as a designed preva- 
 rication, prompted by the king: the quarrel daily 
 grew inore violent, and Anselm was threatened 
 with banishment. At length the king granted 
 him permission to make a journey to Rome in 
 order to learn the pope's final pleasure ; and he 
 was attended to the sea-coast by crowds of peo- 
 
 I 
 
 t 
 
 V
 
 A N S 
 
 ( ^h ) 
 
 A N S 
 
 pie of all ranks, whom his austere piety and zeal 
 for the church had attached to his interest. 
 The king, still desirous of an accommodation, 
 appointed William de VVazclwast to follow the 
 archbishop to Rome, and attempt to obtain 
 from the pope an acknowledgment of tlie con- 
 tested right. This messenger boldly told Pascal, 
 that the king his master would sooner lose his 
 crown, than part with the prerogative of grant- 
 ing investitures. " And 1," replied Pascal, 
 " would rather lose my head, than suffer him to 
 retain it." At this moment, accommodation 
 appeared very remote ; and Anselm retired first 
 to Lyons, and afterwards to his monastery at 
 Bee in Normandy. Pascal, however, who had 
 lately been engaged in a violent contest with 
 the emperor on the same subject, was secretly 
 desirous not to proceed, with respect to the king, 
 to the last extremity of excommunication: and 
 Henry, knowing the popularity of Anselm, and 
 dreading, perhaps superstitiously as well as po- 
 litically, the consequences of excommunica- 
 tion, in a visit which he paid to his sister, the 
 countess of Blois, in Normandy, had an inter- 
 view with him, in which he restored to him the 
 revenues of his see, which had been confiscated, 
 and endeavoured, though without success, to 
 persuade him to return into England, and yield 
 to him the right of investiture. Things being 
 thus in train towards an accommodation be- 
 tween Pascal and Henry, and Anselm having 
 received importunate letters from the clergy so- 
 liciting his return ; the dispute was at length 
 terminated by a compromise, in which it was 
 agreed, that the see of Rome should retain its 
 spiritual power of investiture, and bestow upon 
 the bishops the ring and crozier as symbols of 
 office ; and that the king of England should re- 
 ceive homage from them for their temporal 
 properties and privileges. The king sent a mes- 
 senger immediately to Anselm to invite him into 
 England, and, upon receiving information that 
 he was ill at the abbey of Bee, went in person 
 into Normandy to settle every remaining point 
 of difference between them. Anselm, after his 
 recovery from his indisposition, embarked for 
 England, and was received with singular expres- 
 sions of a joyful welcome. Among these it 
 may deserve particular mention, that the queen 
 herself travelled before him on the road, and 
 gave orders for his accommodation. 
 
 The popularity of this prelate may be im- 
 puted, in a great measure, to the severity of his 
 manners, and to the zeal with which he opposed 
 abuses, imaginary as well as real, and encou- 
 raged superstitious austerities among the clergy 
 or laity. He rigorously enforced clerical celi- 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 bacy, and was the first who prescribed this ab- 
 surd, unnatural, and mischievous practice in 
 England. By a canon of the national synod 
 held at Westminster in 1 102, ii was provided, 
 " 1 hat no archdeacon, priest, deacon, or canon, 
 should be allowed to marry, or live with his wife 
 already married." He was violent in his oppo- 
 sition to all innovations, even in articles of dress 
 and ornament, and preached zealously against 
 the long hair and curled locks which were then 
 in fashion : he even refused the ceremony of 
 the ashes on Ash- Wednesday to those who ap- 
 peared thus adorned ; and in his sermons, with 
 vonderful efFect, exhorted the young men to 
 exchange their curls for cropt hair. That jea- 
 lousy for the privileges of the clergy which 
 marked his whole character, was particularly 
 shown in the displeasure which he expressed at 
 the liberty taken by Henry, of interfering in 
 ecclesiastical jurisdiction, by fining some of the 
 clergy for a breach of the canons ; and in a 
 dispute which he had towards the close of his 
 life, and which was left undecided at his death, 
 with the archbishop elect of York, who at- 
 tempted to decline the customary profession of 
 canonical obedience to the archbishop of Can- 
 terbury, and thus raise his see into an indepen- 
 dent province. This is the only material oc- 
 currence mentioned during the three last years 
 of Anselm's life, in which he enjoyed the quiet 
 possession of his archiepiscopal see. Tins cele- 
 brated prelate died at Canterbury in the year 
 1 109. 
 
 The superstitious reverence which was paid 
 to the memory of Anselm, and the characteris- 
 tic credulity of the age, arc fully shown in the 
 tales of his miracles recorded by John of Salis- 
 bury, an intelligent and learned writer of the 
 twelfth century : they are too curious to be 
 omitted. He relates, that, while he was living, 
 a Flemish nobleman was cured of a leprosy, by 
 drinking the water in which Anselm had washed 
 his hands in celebrating mass ; that he extin- 
 guished fires, calmed tempests, and healed dis- 
 eases, by making the sign of the cross ; that 
 he had rescued a hare, which had (.nken refuge 
 under his horse's feet, by commanding the dogs 
 not to pursue her ; that two soldiers were cured 
 of an ague, by tasting the crumbs fallen from 
 some bread which he had been eating ; that, by 
 praying to God, he produced a spring of excel- 
 lent water at the top of a hill for the relief of 
 certain villagers ; and that a ship in which he 
 sailed, having a large hole in one of her planks, 
 nevertheless took in no water as long as ilic 
 holy man was on board. John of Salisbur)- adds, 
 that after Anselm's death miracles were wrought 
 2 P
 
 A N S 
 
 ( 290 ) 
 
 A N S 
 
 at his tomb ; that one bom blintl, tleaf, and 
 dumb, gained sight, hearing, and speech by pay- 
 ing his devotions at his tomb ; that a soldier 
 was cured of a dropsy by winding the saint's 
 girdle about his body, and that the same girdle 
 was successfully applied to the assistance of wo- 
 men in child-birth. (Johan. Sarisbur. de Vit. 
 Anselmi.) 
 
 Without examining the powers of Ansclm 
 as a saint, we shall perhaps fairly estimate his 
 inerit as a man, if, widi great allowance for 
 the narrow prejudices of a monastic education, 
 and for principles and habits generated by a de- 
 basing system of superstition, we give him credit 
 for honest zeal, and manly resolution in sup- 
 port of what he conceived to be the cause of 
 religion. Had his own claims and those of his 
 holy father been wholly of a spiritual nature, the 
 question concerning papal authority, and the 
 right of investiture, would have been an inofFen- 
 sive dispute purely theological ; but involving, 
 as their claims under every appellation evident- 
 ly did, temporal interests and emoluments, it is 
 evident that they were such as could not be con- 
 ceded, without relinquishing to a foreign or in- 
 terior power the supremacy of the civil magi- 
 strate, and establishing in the church indepen- 
 dent privileges and prerogatives, altogether in- 
 consistent with the freedom of the state. In the 
 religious character of Anselm we learn the ten- 
 dency of unenlightened piety to degenerate into 
 trifling scrupulosity ; and, from the part which 
 he acted under the popes, in his struggles with 
 William and Henry, we see reason to depre- 
 cate that corrupt state of religion and of society, 
 in which eminent talents and laudable disposi- 
 tions are employed as instruments and tools of 
 ambition and avarice. 
 
 Anselm, considering the period in which he 
 lived, was a learned man. He contributed to 
 the introduction of the scholastic method of 
 Xvriting, in which the subtleties of logic were 
 applied to theology. Among his metaphysical 
 ■works is a treatise on the existence of God, in 
 which this fundamental doctrine is established by 
 arguments drawn from the abstract idea of de- 
 ity, in the manner afterwards resumed by Des 
 Cartes. His works, which are numerous, were 
 first published in folio, at Nuremberg, in 1491 ; 
 and afterwards, in three volumes,, at Cologne, in 
 1573 ; i" four volumes, with the notes of Pi- 
 card, at Cologne, in 1612 ; at Lyons, in three 
 volumes, in 1630 ; and by Gerberon, at Paris, 
 in 1675. In tliis edition they are divided into 
 three parts. The first, entitled " Monologia," 
 contains metaphysical and theological tracts ; 
 among which are pieces on Truth ; Free-will ; 
 
 Predestination; the Will of God; the Fall of 
 the Devil ; the Sacrament ; the Incarnation ; 
 the Vimin's active Conception ; the Virgin's 
 passive Conception ; the Procession of the Ho- 
 ly Ghost ; Marriage ; and a Disputation on 
 Grammar. The second part contains practical 
 and devotional tracts, as Meditations ; Solilo- 
 quies ; Hymns ; Eulogies on the Virgin Ma- 
 ry ; Exhortations ; Homilies ; Poems. The 
 third part consists of Anselm's letters, in four 
 books. The metaphysical pieces are subtle and 
 acute ; the devotional abound with mysticism ; 
 the epistolary are on various topics of monastic 
 or ecclesiastical discipline, piety and morality, 
 or personal affairs, and are negligently written. 
 Eadmeri Monachi Cant. Hist. TV. Malmsb. 
 dc Gcst. Pontif. Angl. Cav. Hist. Lit. Du- 
 pin. Biog. Brit. — E. 
 
 ANSELM OF Paris, an Augustine monk, 
 was born in the year 1625. He devoted his 
 life almost entirely to genealogical and biogra- 
 phical researches. In 1674 he published at Pa- 
 ris, in two volumes 4to. a French work enti- 
 tled, " The Palace of Honour, or Historical 
 Genealogies of the Illustrious House of France, 
 and of several noble Families of Europe." This 
 was followed by "A Genealogical and Chrono- 
 logical History of the House of France, and of 
 the great Officers of the Crown," first pub- 
 lished at Paris, in 410. in the year 1694. The 
 author died, in 1 694, before he had completed 
 his design ; but it was republished with enlarge- 
 ments, in two volumes folio, by Foumi, in 
 1711 ; and it has been since continued by the 
 Augustine fathers Ange and Simplicien, and, 
 in 1726, &c. was published in nine yolumes fo- 
 lio. Biographers have been much indebted to 
 this industrious collector. Aforeri. Bayle. 
 "Nrnv. Diet. Hist. — E. 
 
 ANSON, Geor.ge Lord, an eminent Eng- 
 lish naval commander, descended from an ancient 
 family in Staffordshire, was the third son of 
 William Anson, esq. of Shuckborough in that 
 county, and was born in 1697. He was early 
 destined to the sea ; and, after passing regularly 
 through the inferior stations, was made post- 
 captain in 1724. Between that time and 1735 
 he was thrice with the ships under his com- 
 mand in South Carolina, where he acquired 
 property, and erected a town bearing his name, 
 which has since given an appellation to the sur- 
 roundingdistrict, called Anson-county. He made 
 a fourth voyage to the coast of Guinea and 
 America between 1738 and 1739, in which, by 
 his prudence, he engaged the French to desist 
 from interrupting the English Guinea trade, 
 without coming to any acts of hostility. 
 
 \
 
 *^"^i^^s;:i,^'-'^ 
 
 G]E OR GJE 1, OiJXJ jt'UVS QTI
 
 A N S 
 
 ( 291 ) 
 
 A N S 
 
 On the breaking out of the Spanish war in 
 1739, he was pitched upon as a proi)cr person 
 to command a fleet-destincd to attack the Spa- 
 nish settlements in the Pacific Ocean. This 
 expedition, which is among the most memora- 
 ble of the naval transactions of England, and 
 conferred celebrity on the name of the command- 
 er, has been so well described in a very popu- 
 lar book "Anson's Voyage" (written by Mr. 
 Robins, under the name of Mr. Walter, the 
 chaplain) that it is unnecessary here to do more 
 than meniion a few circumstances whicli dis- 
 play the personal character of Anson. 
 
 He set sail on September 18, 1740, witli a 
 squadron of five men of war, a sloop, and two 
 victuallers. The time of departure was very 
 ill chosen with respect to the seasons to be en- 
 countered in the climates to which he was 
 bound ; and the whole business of the fitting out 
 was managed with the negligence and incapa- 
 city which then pervaded most branches of the 
 public administration. These errors were se- 
 verely felt through the whole expedition, and 
 gave full exercise to the fortitude and talents of 
 the commodore. After passing along the east- 
 em coast of South America, he doubled Cape 
 Horn in a series of such storms and tempests as 
 separated his whole fleet, only a small part of 
 which ever rejoined him. He refittal at the island 
 of Juan Fernandes, wlierehe set tlie example to 
 his officers of assisting with his own hand in set- 
 ting the sick sailors on shore ; and, for the be- 
 nefit of future navigators, he sowed a variety of 
 garden-vegetables and fruit-trees. He likewise 
 there and elsewhere caused surveys to be taken, 
 and accurate charts made of all the roads, bays, 
 coasts, 8cc, that some advantage, at least, might 
 accrue from the expedition, even though its 
 leading purposes were to fail. Thence he pro- 
 ceeded to the coast of Peru, and took the rich 
 town of Paita, which, on the refusal of the 
 Spaniards to ransom it, he was obliged, accord- 
 ing to the practice of war, to reduce to ashes. 
 On this coast he took some valuable prizes, on 
 board of vihich were some passengers of di- 
 stinction of both sexes. His treatment of these 
 was so generous and honourable, and that of 
 the women in particular so delicate and polite, 
 that it excited the greatest surprise in persons 
 who had been led to expect nothing from Eng- 
 lish sailors but insolence and barbarity, and it 
 left the most favourable impressions of himself 
 and his nation. Afterwards he sailed to the 
 coast of Mexico ; and there, resolving to at- 
 tempt to intercept the annual Acapulco ship, he 
 took his departure across the Pacific Ocean 
 with his own vessel the Centurion man of 
 
 war, and the Gloucester. In this p.i^sag<*; the 
 Gloucester became so leaky that it was nttci- 
 sary to abandon her, and the united crews wire 
 so thinned .-jud weakened by the scurvy, that 
 the utmost exertions were requisite to enable 
 them to reach the charming but uniniiabitcd isle 
 ot Tininn, one of the Ladroncs. While tlie 
 commodore, with most of his officers and crew, 
 was iierc on shore, the Centurion was blown 
 out to sea ; and so little prospect was there of 
 her being able to reach the island again, that 
 much labour was spent in lengthening a small 
 vessel foimd on the island, Anson taking tlic 
 axe in hand like a common sailor. The 
 only occasion in which the marks of emotion 
 broke through the unitorm sredfastncss and 
 equality of his demeanour was when he re- 
 ceived news of the Centurion's coming again in 
 sight. From Tinian he went 10 refit at Macao, 
 and, again putting to sea, liad (he good fortune 
 to fall in with the Manilla galleon, which he 
 captured after a sharp action, though greatly 
 superior to his own ship in size and number of 
 men. At the moment of victory he had a call 
 for the exertion of all his courage and presence 
 of mind, inconsequence of a fire which broke 
 out near the Centurion's powder-room, but 
 which, his orders, given with all the calmness 
 of one conversant with danger in every .".hape, 
 soon got under. He sailed back w iih his prize to 
 Canton, and there exhibited equal dexterity and 
 fiimness in transacting affairs with the crafty 
 Chinese, and maintaining the rights of the Eng- 
 lish flag. Returning by the Cape of Good 
 Hope, he arrived atSpithead on June 15, 1744, 
 having completed the circumnavigation of the 
 globe, and brought back great riches taken 
 from the enemy, though unforeseen disasters 
 had defeated some of the principal purposes of 
 the enterprise. 
 
 Immediately on his return he was made a 
 rear-admiial of the blue ; and, not long after, a 
 commissioner of the admiralty, rear-admiral of 
 the white, and, in 1746, vice-admiral. He 
 commanded the Channel fleet during the winter 
 of 1746-7. In May, 1747, he performed a 
 signal service to his country by capturing off 
 Cape Finistcrrc the whole squadron of M. de la 
 Jonquiere, consisting of six men of war, which 
 were convoying a large fleet bound to the East 
 and West Indies. Four East Indiamen also 
 fell into his hands. The great superiority of 
 his squadron rendered this exploit rather a mat- 
 ter of good fortune than a display of braver)-, 
 though his seainanship was conspicuous in pre- 
 venting the escape of any of the enemy's ships 
 of war. For tliis and his other services he was
 
 A N S 
 
 ( 292 ) 
 
 ANT 
 
 with great propriety, in the June following, 
 raised to the F2nglis!i peerage by tlie style of 
 lord Anson, baron of Soberton, in the county 
 of Southampton. On this occasion he took 
 the appropriate motto of Nil despcrandum, 
 which was, in reality, the maxim of his event- 
 ful life. In 1748 he married Elizabeth, eldest 
 daughter of the lord chancellor Philip lord 
 Hardwicke, who died without issue in 1760. 
 The post of vice-admiral of Great Britain was 
 conferied on him in 1749; and in 1751 he oc- 
 cupied the important station of first commission- 
 er of the admiralty. He was exposed to some 
 censure in consequence of the loss of Minorca 
 at the beginning of the war of 1755, as not 
 having sent out a fleet sufficiently early nor 
 strong enough for its defence ; and, in Novem- 
 ber 1756, on a change of administration, he re- 
 signed his post. On a parliamentary enc^uiry, 
 however, he, with the rest of the late ministry, 
 was acquitted of all blame respecting Minorca. 
 In 1757 he again was placed at the head of the 
 admiralty board, where he continued during the 
 remainder of his life, which included almost all 
 the glorious period of that war. The last time he 
 commanded a fleet was in 1758, when he co- 
 vered the descents made on the coast of France, 
 and kept the French fleet in port. In 176 1 he 
 was railed to the principal naval dignity, 
 that of admiral and commander-in-chief of the 
 fleet, for the purpose of bringing over the 
 queen. He had formerly, on several occasions, 
 been entrusted with conveying king George II. 
 to and from the continent. Full of honours and 
 reputation, he died at Moor-Pafk, Hertford- 
 shire, on June 6, 1762, leaving his whole 
 property to his brother, Thomas Anson, estj. 
 of Staffordshire. 
 
 Among the merits of this eminent person 
 was that of having bred up several excellent of- 
 ficers, who afterwards performed great services 
 to their country. Till later voyages had mul- 
 tiplied the circumnavigations of the globe, " to 
 have been round the world with commodore 
 Anson" was a great distinction to a seaman. 
 Biog. Britan. — A. 
 
 ANSTIS, John, an heraldic antiquary of 
 eminence, was the son of John Anstis, esq. of 
 St. Neot's in Cornwall, wliere he was born in 
 1669. He was educated at Oxford, and after- 
 wards entered at the Middle Temple. In the 
 years 1702, j, and 4, he represented the bo- 
 rough of St. Germans in parliament, and di- 
 stinguished himself as one of tire opposers of 
 the bill for occasional conformity. After en- 
 joying other places, he was, in 17 14, appointed 
 to that of garter king at arms, which he held 
 
 till his death in 1744. He published, in 1706, 
 " A Letter concerning the Honour of Earl 
 Marshal," 8vo ; in 1720, " The Form of the 
 Installation of the Garter," 8vo; in 1724, "The 
 Register of the most noble Order of the Garter, 
 with a Specimen of the Lives of the Knights," 
 2 vols, folio; and in 1725, " Observations intro- 
 ductory to an Historical Essay on the Knighthood 
 of the Bath," 410. He left behind him in MS. 
 a variety of collections relative to subjects of 
 heraldry, antiquities, family history, and topo- 
 graphy ; among the rest, a work nearly finish- 
 ed, entitled *' Aspilogia, a Discourse concern- 
 ing Seals in England," with fine drawings. 
 His professional eminence may be inferred from 
 a line in one of Prior's Epigrams : 
 
 But coronets we owe to crowns, 
 
 And favour to a court's affection ; 
 By nature wc are Adam's sons, 
 
 And sons of ^nstt's by election. 
 
 Nhkolls's Anecd. of Bowyer. — A. 
 
 ANTELMI, Joseph, a laborious French 
 writer in ecclesiastical history, was a canon of 
 Frejus in Provence in the seventeenth century. 
 He pubUshed, in 4to, in 1680, a Latin " Dis- 
 sertation, Historical, Chronological, and Criti- 
 cal, on the Church of Frejus." He also wrote 
 a critical inquiry concerning the author of the 
 creed commonly called Athanasius's, with se- 
 veral other tracts, full of curious research. He 
 died, a victim to immoderate study, at the age 
 of forty-nine, in the year 1697. Morer'i. Nouv. 
 Diet. Hist. — E. 
 
 ANTENOR, a Trojan prince, the subject 
 of various fabulous narrations, is supposed to 
 have been a son of Laomedon, and younger 
 brother of Priam. Homer represents him as 
 one of the prudent counsellors who advised the 
 restoration of Helen, and giving satisfaction to 
 the Greeks. Some posterior writers have 
 charged him with betraying Troy to the ene- 
 my. It is generally agreed, that he was spared 
 in the massacre ; and a celebrated story has 
 been framed, adopted by Virgil in his JE,ns\i\, 
 that, after the destruction of Troy, Antcner led 
 a colony of Heneti (a people of Paphlagonia) 
 into Italy, near the mouth of the Po, where, 
 expelling the Euganei from their lands, he set- 
 tled in them, and founded Padua. The name 
 of the Venetl is derived from this supposed emi- 
 gration. A pretended tomb of Antenor, disco- 
 vered in the thirteenth century, is manifestly 
 fictitious. His wife Theano, the daughter of 
 Cissaius king of Thrace, was priestess of Mi- 
 nerva. Morcri. Heyne, Exc. in P'irgil. Mn. 
 lib. i. — A. 
 
 ANTESIGNAN, Peter, an industrious
 
 ANT 
 
 ( 293 ) 
 
 ANT 
 
 Grammarian, a native of Rabasteins, in Lan- 
 gucdoc, flourished in the sixteenth century. 
 He published a Greek grammar, wliich passed 
 through several editions, and a treatise on uni- 
 versal grammar ; a laborious but ill digested 
 work. His most useful publications were his 
 editions of Terence ; in which he sparcxi no 
 pains to facilitate the learning of the Latin lan- 
 guage. He published the comedies of Terence 
 in three different ways ; first, with short notes, 
 and contents at the head of each scene, marking 
 the accents of every word of more than two 
 syllables, and the manner in which each verse 
 should be scanned; secondly, with the notes of 
 almost all the commentators who had written 
 upon Terence ; and lastly, with new marginal 
 notes ; and a French translation and paraphrase 
 of the first three comedies. This work was 
 published, at Lyons, in 1556. This writer's 
 indefatigable industry' also appears in his " The- 
 matis Verborum investigandi Ratio," and liis 
 ■*' Praxis Prseceptorum Linguae GrKCs," an- 
 nexed to several Greek grammars. Antesignan 
 had the merit of pursuing with -great perseve- 
 rance useful rather than ostentatious labours. 
 " Let others," says he, " affect the reputation 
 of learning ; I honestly and freely own, that I 
 have to the utmost of^ my power devoted my 
 labours to the useful purpose of forming and 
 assisting the studies of boys." " Much praise," 
 as Erasmus remarks, " is due to those who, for 
 the sake of public utility, do not refuse to be- 
 stow their industry on a troublesome task, 
 which promises little fame." (Erasmi Praefat. 
 in Lexicon; Ep. 21. lib. 28.) Bayle. Morerl. 
 — E. 
 
 ANTHEMIUS, emperor of the West, was 
 a native of Constantinople, and the representa- 
 tive of an illustrious and opulent family. He 
 derived his name from his maternal grandfather, 
 Anthemius the prefect, the excellent minister of 
 Theodosius the younger. He married Euphe- 
 mia, daughter of the emperor Marcian ; and suc- 
 cessively rose to the highest dignities of a sub- 
 ject. He was consul in 455, and afterwards 
 patrician, and general, in which last capacity 
 he gained a victory over the Huns on the banks 
 of the Danube. Being nominated by the em- 
 peror Leo L to terminate the interregnum of 
 the West, Anthemius left Constantinople with 
 a splendid retinue, and entered Rome, amidst 
 universal acclamations, where he was inaugu- 
 rated A. D. 467. The next year, he married 
 his daughter to the patrician Ricimer, the too 
 potent barbarian commander. His government 
 had not sufficient strength to protect Gaul from 
 she inroads of the Visigoths, who defeated a 
 
 body of Britons sent for by Antliemius to pro- 
 tect his unwarlikc subjects. Discord arose be- 
 tween the emperor and his son-in-law, Rici- 
 mer ; and the latter, fixing his residence at Mi- 
 lan, exercised an independent sovereignty over 
 that part of haly. After some unsuccessful 
 negotiations, Ricimer marched with an army 
 of Burgundians and Suevi, bringing witii him 
 Olybrius, whom he destined for liic empire. 
 Anthemius was faithfully su|)j)orted by tlic se- 
 nate and citizens of Rome, who stood a siege 
 of three months. At length, Ricimer took tlic 
 capital by storm, and, discovering Anthemius in 
 his concealment, caused him to l>e massacred, 
 A. D. 472. Univers. Hni. Gibbon. — A. 
 
 AN'l'HEMIUS, a celebrated architect in 
 the time of Justinian, was a native of Tralles, 
 in Asia Minor, and attached himself to the 
 service of that emperor. Justinian employed 
 him in the erection of various cilificcs, and, 
 among the rest, of the church of St. Sophia, in 
 Constantinople. Anthemius was also a sculp- 
 tor, a mathematician, and an experimental phi- 
 losopher. He is said to have made an experi- 
 ment by which he so well imitated an earth- 
 quake, as to frighten out of his house one Zc- 
 no, a rhetorician, who had oflcnded him. Vi- 
 lellioii asserts that he made a burning-glass of a 
 combination of plane mirrors. Some fragment* 
 are remaining of a Greek work of his concern- 
 ing " Wonderful Machines" [Machinamcnta 
 Paradoxa]. Fclibicn, Viet des ArchU. Ah- 
 reri, — A. 
 
 ANTIGENIDES, a celebrated player on 
 the flute, was a native of Thebes in Bcrotia, and 
 the son of Satyrus, an eminent performer upon 
 the same instrument. He received instructions 
 from his father, and likewise from Philoxcnus, 
 a famous poet and musician, by which means 
 he rose to such celebrity, that some of the first 
 men of his time were his disciples. Pericles 
 put his nephew Alcibiades under the instruction 
 of Antigenidcs ; but that extraordinary charac- 
 ter, seeing in a mirror his face distoncd by 
 blowing the flute, broke the instrument in pie- 
 ces ; an incident which rendered it unfashionable 
 in Athens. Antigenidcs introduced .several im- 
 provements in the flute, multiplying its aper- 
 tures, and thereby rendering its sounds more 
 various and flexible. He himself played on it 
 in all modes ; the simple .("Eolian, the varied Io- 
 nian, the plaintive Lydian, the grave Phrygian, 
 and the martial Dorian ; and had likcvvjsc a 
 strain peculiar to himself, which pave him the 
 reputation of being the inventor 01' a new spe- 
 cies of music. H< was a great assctter of the 
 dignity of the musical profession, and appeared
 
 ANT 
 
 ( 294 ) 
 
 ANT 
 
 at public spectacles with the Milesian sandal, 
 ar.tl the vellow mantle called trocoton. He 
 also composed lyric poems. His professional 
 eminence may be inferred from a bon-mot of 
 Epaminondas, who, on being told that the Athe- 
 nians had sent out a body of troops equipped in 
 new armour, replied, " Do you think Antige- 
 nidcs troubles himself when he sees new flutes 
 in the hands of Tellis?" Tellis was noted as a 
 bad performer. Athenreus says that Antigenides 
 was sent for to play at the luiptials of Iphicrates 
 with the daughter of Cotys king of Thrace. 
 Morer'i. — A. 
 
 ANTIGONE, daughter of CEdipus and 
 Jocasta, is greatly celebrated by the ancient 
 tragedians for her filial and fraternal piety. She 
 was the guide of her father in his wanderings 
 after he had lost his sight : and when her bro- 
 ther Polynices was killed in the fatal war of 
 I'hebes, notwithstanding the inhuman order of 
 Creon, she ventured to pay funereal honours to 
 his exposed corpse. Being detected in this of- 
 fice, the tyrant commanded her to be starved to 
 death in prison ; but she anticipated her fate by 
 strangling herself. Her lover, Haemon, Creon's 
 son, killed himself upon her lifeless body. Ma- 
 rer'i. — A. 
 
 ANTIGONUS, I. one of the greatest of 
 Alexajider's captains, was the son of Philip, a 
 Macedonian nobleman. On the first division 
 of the provinces after Alexander's death, Pam- 
 phylia, Lycia, and Phrygia Major were assign- 
 ed to him. But Perdiccas, acquainted with his 
 high spirit and abilities, resolved to take him off, 
 and to this end brought various accusations 
 against him. Antigonus avoided the danger by 
 retiring into Greece with his son Demetrius, 
 where he was protected by Antipater ; and at 
 the new division, after the death of Perdiccas, 
 the foriner provinces were given him, with the 
 addition of Lycaonia. He was likewise ap- 
 pointed to the command of the Macedonian 
 household troops, and ordered to prosecute the 
 war against Euraenes, declared a public enemy. 
 This war was attended with variety of events. 
 Eumenes was at first totally defeated, and 
 obliged to retire to a castle on an inaccessible 
 rock with only six-hundred men, where An- 
 tigonus could not take him. In the mean 
 time his friends, who had raised a new army, 
 were routed and made captives by Antigonus, 
 who now began to display the great designs of 
 his ambition. Antipater being dead, and Poly- 
 sperchon succeeding as tutor to the young king 
 of Macedon, Antigonus resolved to set up for 
 himself, as lord of Asia. He greatly wished 
 to gain over Eumenes to his interest ; but that 
 
 faitliful commander, having made his escap» 
 from the fortress where he was blockaded, as- 
 sembled an army, and was created the royal ge- 
 neral in Asia. He was joined by the governors 
 of Upper Asia, and was successful in several 
 engagements against Antigonus ; but at length 
 was delivered up to him by treachery, and put 
 to death. On this event the governors of Asia 
 submitted to Antigonus ; hut he thought pro- 
 per to sacrifice or displace such of them as he 
 suspected. He then made himself master of all 
 the treasures at Susa, and marched his army to 
 Babylon, of which Seleucus was governor. Sc- 
 leucus made his escape to Ptolemy, and joined in 
 a league with him, Lysimachus, and Cassander, 
 for the purpose of reducing the exorbitant 
 power of Antigonus ; who, notwithstanding, 
 seized the provinces of Syria and Phoenicia. 
 But while he was engaged in repelling Cassan- 
 der, who had made great progress in Lesser 
 Asia, those provinces were recovered by Pto- 
 lemy, who defeated his son Demetrius. At 
 length they were repossessed by Antigonus ; ami 
 his success led him to plan an expedition against 
 the Nabathsan Arabs, inhabiting the deserts 
 adjacent to Judaea. His general, Athenaeus, 
 surprised the town of Petra ; but almost the 
 whole of his troops, with himself, were after- 
 wards cut off by the Arabs. Antigonus then 
 sent his son against them, who marched back 
 after having brought them to a sort of composi- 
 tion. Demetrius afterwards drove Seleucua 
 from Babylon ; and so great was his success, 
 that the confederates made a treaty with Anti • 
 gonus, leaving him in possession of all Asia» 
 under the condition that the Greek cities should 
 remain free. This was soon broken, under 
 pretence that Antigonus had placed garrisons in 
 some of those cities. Ptolemy made a descent in 
 Lesser Asia, and on some of the islands of the 
 Archipelago, at first with success ; but he was 
 defeated in a sea-fight by Demetrius, who also 
 took the island of Cyprus, with a great number 
 of prisoners. On this occasion, Antigonus 
 was so elated, that he assumed the title of king, 
 and conferred the same on his son ; and from, 
 that time, B. C. 306, properly commences his 
 reign in Asia, as also those of Ptolemy in 
 Egypt, and of the other captains of Alexander in 
 their respective territories. 
 
 In resentment of the hostility of Ptolemy, 
 Antigonus resolved to attack him in his own 
 dominions ; and having prepared a powerful 
 army and fleet, he put himself at the head of 
 the former, and gave Demetrius the command 
 of the latter. They joined on the coast near 
 mount Casius, after each had suffered much in
 
 ANT 
 
 ( 295 ) 
 
 ANT 
 
 his progress -, but Ptolemy defended liimself 
 ^vith so much skill, that the enterprise was at 
 length abandoned. I'lie reduction of Rhodes 
 was their next attempt : but this proving a dif- 
 ficult task, Demetrius was well pleased to make 
 a favourable treaty with the Rhodians, on a 
 summons he received to assist the Athenians 
 against Cassander. A new confederacy was 
 then formed by Cassander, Seleucus, and Lysi- 
 machus, against Antigonus and his son ; and 
 though Antigonus affected to treat it with con- 
 .tempt, he thought it necessary to call Deme- 
 trius from Greece to his assistance ; when they 
 proceeded together with a potent army toPhry- 
 gia. Here they met Seleucus and Lysimachus 
 ■with a force nearly equal, and a decisive battle 
 ensued; that of Ipsus, in which Antigonus, 
 fighting with great bravery, was killed, in the 
 eighty-fourth year of his age, B. C. 301. 
 
 Tire character of Antigonus was that of a 
 soldier of fortune ; brave, active, sagacious, of 
 insatiable ambition and cupidity, and little scru- 
 pulous of the means by which these passions 
 ^vere to be gratified. Yet he was not without 
 better qualities. Though violent and severe in ear- 
 lier life, he grew more clement as he advanced 
 in years, and attempted to retain by good-will 
 the subjects he had acquired by force. He was 
 strictly just in private matters ; and when his 
 brother wished him to hear in his cabinet a 
 cause in which he was a party, " No, my dear 
 brother, (he replied) ; I will hear it in the open 
 court of justice, because I mean to do justice." 
 He frequently uttered philosophical sentiments 
 concerning the weight and the duties of a 
 ■crown ; and when addressed by a flatterer with 
 the title of God, he remarked, that his chamber- 
 lain well knew the contrary. As an excuse for 
 the rigour with which he levied taxes on his 
 subjects, he said, " Alexander reaped Asia, but 
 I only glean it." The most pleasing part of 
 his character was the perfect harmony in which 
 he lived with his wife and family, and his en- 
 tire friendship for his son Demetrius, whose 
 splendid qualities and ambition might well have 
 excited the envy and jealousy of a suspicious fa- 
 ther. He admitted him to a full partnership in 
 his authority ; and -so valued himself on their 
 mutual affection, that one day having given an 
 audience to the ambassadors of the confederate 
 kings, during which Demetrius entered the 
 apartment from hunting, with his javelin in 
 his hand, and kindly saluted him, he called 
 them back as they were raking leave, and bid 
 them further tell their masters on what terms he 
 .and his son lived together. TJfiivers. Hist. — A. 
 
 ANTIGONUS GONATUS, son of De- 
 
 mctrius Poliorcetes, and grandson of ilic prc- 
 ccxiing Antigonus, was disiinguislied by his mild- 
 ness and humanity. \V hen l)csitj;ing Thclics 
 under his father, he ventured to n.akc a r( inon 
 strancc very unusual for a prince, on the !(>»> of 
 so many lives for such an object. He was very 
 conspicuous for filial |>i(.ty ; for wlicn liis fit 
 ther was made prisoner by Sclcuciis, he ofTcrcd 
 himself as a hostage to procure his liberty ; and 
 not succeeding, he wore deep mourning, and 
 refused to partake of any fchiiviiics wliilc his 
 father remained in prison. On the news of his 
 death, lie sailed with a fleet to meet his ashes, 
 and received them with the utmost sensibility 
 and respect. He was heir to the European do- 
 minions of Demetrius, consisting of vaiious ci- 
 ties in Greece, and the kingdom of Matcdon, 
 Of the last he was several times deprived and 
 repossessed. He defeated the Gauls who in- 
 vaded the country, but was soon after expelled 
 by a more formidable foe, Pvrrluis king of 
 Epirus. When that prince was killed at Ar- 
 gos, Antigonus expresed great indignation 
 against his own son, who brought him Pyrrhus's 
 head in triumph ; and throwing liis robe over 
 it, he ordered the body to be sought, and treated 
 with all funeral honours. He likewise used 
 with great kindness Hclenus, the son of I'yr- 
 rhus, who fell into his hands. During die latter 
 years of his reign he held Macedon in peace, 
 and conciliated the minds of the people to him 
 and his family so as to engage dicir attach- 
 ment to all his descendants. One of the least 
 honourable transactions of his life was the 
 gaining possession of the citadel of Corinth by 
 stratagem, which success threw liim into a 
 frenzy of joy ; and lie made use ot the power 
 it gave him, in augmenting his dominions in 
 Greece, and supporting the petty tyrants against 
 the free states. His schemes were powerfully 
 opposed by the Achwans and their illustrious 
 chief Aratus, who at length recovered Corinth ; 
 but Antigonus was so little inclined to war, that 
 even this event did not cause him to change the 
 course of his artful and peaceable policy. He 
 died above the age of fourscore, after a reign of 
 thirty-four years, B. C. 243, and was succeeded 
 by his son Demetrius II. Univers. Hht. — A. 
 
 'ANTIGONUS DOSON, succcctied his 
 brother Demetrius II. (whose widow he mar- 
 ried) on the throne of Macedon, B. C. 237. He 
 was a prince in high reputation for justice, cle- 
 mency, and affability ; though the greater rea- 
 diness w ith which he promised than performed 
 is said to have conferred on him l!ie name of 
 Dofon, or about to t^ive. He was invited into 
 Greece by the Acha-ans, asa check to tlic power
 
 ANT 
 
 ( 296 ) 
 
 ANT 
 
 of Cleomenes, king of Sparta, who was assist- 
 ed by the ^tolians. The citadel of Corinth 
 was put into his hands, on which occasion he 
 made a great entertainment, and placed next 
 him the patriot Aratus, whom circumstances 
 had now made a friend to the Macedonians. 
 He showed his prudence in withstanding every 
 attempt of Cleomenes to bring him to an en- 
 gagement in the absence of a great part of his 
 army ; but he afterwards totally defeated him 
 at Sellasia, and in consequence took the iiither- 
 lo unconquered city of S))aria, wliichhe treated 
 with great lenity, and left free. Hence he was 
 hastily recalled to Macedon by the intelligence 
 of its invasion by the lUyrians. Staying no 
 longer than to receive the compliments of the 
 Grecian states at the Nemean games, he pro- 
 ceeded to his own country, and delivered it 
 from the invaders by a decisive victory, which, 
 however, was purchased by his own life. For, 
 having strained his voice in the engagement, 
 it brought on a spitting of blood, which carried 
 him off within a few days, B. C. 221. He ap- 
 pointed for hU successor Philip, his brother's 
 son, to whom he had acted the part of a kind 
 and faithful guardian. Univcrs. Hist. — A. 
 
 ANTIGONUS CARYSTIUS, a philoso- 
 pher and historian, flourished under the Ptole- 
 mies Lagus and Philadelphus, about three hun- 
 dred years before Christ ; Aristocles, an ancient 
 writer, of whom a fragment is preserved in Eu- 
 sebius (Pra;p. Ev. lib. xiv. c. 18.), speaking of 
 AntigonusCarysfius, as contemporary with the 
 philosopher Pyrrho, and as his biograf)her; and 
 it is well known that Pyrrho lived in the time of 
 Ptolemy Lagus. Diogenes Laertius mentions 
 Antigonus as the author of a Life of Timon, who 
 was a friend of Ptolemy,Philadelphus. Antigo- 
 nus wrote several lives of philosophers ; an he- 
 roic poem, entitled " Antipater," mentioned by 
 Athenaus, and other works ; but none of his 
 writings are extant, except 'la-ropitvy TtapxSo^uif 
 Hvvccyuiyii [A Collection of wonderful Stories], 
 containing singular tales and observations con- 
 cerning animals, and other natural bodies, com- 
 piled from various authors. Xylander first 
 published this work, with a Latin version, in 
 8vo. at Basil, in 1568. It was reprinted, in 
 4to. at Leyden, by Meursius in 16 19. Fossius, 
 de Hist. Grac. lib. i. c. 12. Fabric. Bibl. 
 Grac. lib. iii. c. 27. § 8. — E. 
 
 ANTIGONUS SOCH^US, a Jew, who 
 was born at Socho, on the borders of Judsa, 
 and flourished in the time of Eleazar the high 
 priest, about three hundred years before Christ, 
 appears to have given birth to the Sadducean 
 sect. He was a disciple of Simeon the Just. 
 
 Dissatisfied with the pharisaical innovations 
 introduced by the teachers of traditionary pre- 
 cepts, and particularly with their doctrine of 
 meritorious works which entitled men to tem- 
 poral rewards, he maintained and taught, that 
 men ought to serve God, not like slaves for 
 hire, but from a pure and disinterested principle 
 of pietv- This refined doctrine the followers 
 of Antigonus extended to the rewards of a fu- 
 ture life : and two of his disciples, Baithos and 
 Sadoc, taught that no future recompense was to 
 be expected, and consequently that there would 
 be no resurrection of the dead ; whence arose 
 the sect of the Baithossei or Sadducees. Light- 
 foot, Hor.Heb. t. ii. p. 273, 737. Rcland. Pa- 
 lest, lib. iii. Basnage, His. Jud. lib. ii. c. 14. 
 BrUL'ker. Otthon. Hist. Doct. Misn. p. 33. — E. 
 ANTIMACHUS. Three Greek poets of 
 this name are recorded, of whom the most cele- 
 brated was the son of Hipparchus, a native 
 either of Claros or the neighbouring Colo- 
 phon, who flourished in the ninety-third Olym- 
 piad, about B. C. 408. He was numbered 
 among the six most famous of the ancient Gre- 
 cian poets ; and is placed by Quintilian the 
 next to Homer in heroic poetry, though at a 
 great interval. That critic says of him that he 
 possessed dignity and no common eloquence, 
 but was defective in pathos, amenity, and me- 
 thod. His great work was a Thebaid, or epic 
 poem on the war of Thebes ; and if it be true 
 that he wrote twenty-four books before ,ne 
 brought the seven chiefs to the siege, it is ndt to 
 be wondered at that all his auditors but one 
 deserted him at a public recital of his piece. 
 That one who remained, however, is said to 
 have been Plato ; and Antimachus declared, that 
 he would read on, for Plato alone was equal to 
 a whole audience. From a story related by 
 Plutarch, Antimachus seems before to have ob- 
 tained the good opinion of Plato, who, while 
 yet a youth, consoled him when Lysander had 
 awarded the crown to Niceratus in a contest 
 between him and Antimachus. When he was 
 almost forgotten, the emperor Adrian attempted 
 to revive his fame, and even to give him the 
 priority to Homer ; but this was beyond the 
 reach of imperial power. Antimachus also 
 wrote a poem to the memory of Lyde, sup- 
 posed to be either his wife or his mistress, 
 which seems to have obtained celebrity, since it 
 is alluded to by way of instance by Ovid : 
 
 Nee tantum Clario Lyde dilecla poetar. 
 More lov'd than Lyde by the Clarian bard. 
 
 Nothing of this writer has reached modem 
 times. Lilius Gyraldus. Fossius, — A.
 
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