1*K fin MANUAL aw CLASSICAL LITERATURE m >^>> OF THE ^ [TJIIVERSITY, / MANUAL OF CLASSICAL LITERATURE FROM THE GERMAN OP J. J. ESCHENBURG, PROFESSOR IN THE CAROLINUM, AT BRUNSWICK. WITH ADDITIONS. By N. W. FISKE, PROFESSOR OF MORAL AND INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY (FORMERLY OF THE LATIN AND GREEK LANGUAGES) IN AMHERST COLLEGE. ^^ of uira^^j!'-';- [UFIVElsiTT] PHILADELPHIA: EDWARD C. BIDDLE, No. 5 MINOR STREET. 184L 4-Svj6-7 Entered according to act of Congress, in the year 2836, By Edward C. Biddle, In the office of the Clerk of the District Court of the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. university; PREFACE BY THE TRANSLATOR. It will be natural to ask, why this book is offered to the public, The translator knows not how to introduce the reasons, in a better way, than by first allowing the author himself to explain the design and character of the original work. For this purpose, the reader is requested to peruse the following extracts from the Prefaces of EsCHENBURG. From the Preface to the fifth Edition. — Twenty-seven years ago, I was in- duced to commence a revision and enlargement of that portion of Hederick's Introduction to the Historical Sciences, which treats of Classical Literature, Mythology and Roman Antiquities. In doing this I expected to aid an es* teemed friend, who had been requested by the booksellers to prepare an im- proved edition of the whole work. But what determined me to the attempt was a conviction, that it was undertaking a work of very useful tendency, and a hope, that by it a want, long felt in elementary instruction, might be supplied. Other duties hindered the seasonable accomplishment of this pur- pose, and I was led to enlarge the original plan, so as to include the Grecian Antiquities, and what is embraced under the head of Archaeology of Litera^ ture and Art. Thus it formed a complete Manual, furnishing the most es- sential aids in reading the classical authors, and with sufficient fulness for all elementary purposes. My work so designed has, therefore, now scarcely a trace in it of the treatise of Hederick. My aim, in this work, was to furnish both Learners and Teachers with a book, which might at the same time serve as a general introduction to the reading of classical authors, and likewise afford further and constant help in understanding and explaining them. It surely is unnecessary to prove, that a knowledge of Greek and Roman Mythology and Antiquities, and some ac- quaintance with the Archseology of Literature and Art, and also with the general History and Criticism of the Ancient Authors, are not only useful, but absolutely indispensable, in the pursuit of classical study. And it ap- pears to me, that it must greatly facilitate the acquisition of this knowledge, to have the whole range of it brought into one collected system, as it is in this work, and all digested with one common end in view, and reduced as far as far as possible to one uniform method, with a careful selection of what is most essential, and omission of what is comparatively unimportant, and a con- stant reference to its appropriate use. The Teacher will find presented to him throughout the work occasions and hints for further illustrations and ad- ditions ; while the Learner has; in the book itself what is of indispensable importance, and in such a form, that he may easily re-peruse and review it. The Archaeology of Literature and Art had never, previously to the attempt in this work, been exhibited in a form adapted for general instruction. Yet some such acquaintance with the subject as this work may furnish, is of the highest importance to the scholar. It may be expected, that the glance, which he will here obtain of the rich monuments of antiquity, will lead him to seek the pleasure of a more complete and full knowledge, especially of Grecian art. And certainly the classical teacher needs to be in some degree familiar with the objects presented in this field of study, in order to do jus- tice to his pupils. — The View of the Classical Authors was necessarily con- fined within brief limits. I preferred to arrange them in Departments, in- stead of following purely chronological order, because I could thereby more conveniently introduce the brief remarks I wished to offer respecting the form, which each Department of writing assumed among the Greeks and Romans. In giving the editions of the classics, and the works helping to il- A tl PREFACE. lustrate them, I confined myself chiefly to such as are most suitable for schol- ars, and best calculated in my view for their advancement. In describing the authors, only a short and condensed summary could be given, not includ- ing a complete enumeration of their works, but merely naming the most im- portant. — The sketch of Greek and Roman Mythology is that, which I first drew up for use in my own lectures, and which has been separately printed. Here I have endeavored to separate the circumstances most important for the scholar's notice from those of minor consequence ; introducing the historical or traditional part of the fables, without saying much of the theories and speculations employed in solving them ; yet presenting hints at explanations, worthy of the scholar's notice. The references to the Metamorphoses of Ovid are added, because I deem it highly useful to connect a reading of these with the study of Mythology. — A new system of Greek and Roman 'Antiqui- ties might s«em, at first view, less needed than the other parts of this work, since there are other systems and compends easily accessible, especially of Roman Antiquities. But it was necessary to the completeness of the Manu- al to include these branches. Nor was this all. I hoped here, as in the rest of my work, to furnish something especially valuable on account of its- embracing all that is most essential to the subject, with the exclusion of ex- traneous and unimportant matter. Since the last edition of this Manual, there have appeared some perform- ances of a similar kind, in which I thankfully find evidence of the utility of my own work, and am ready to acknowledge their excellence in some partic- ulars. These works might render a new impression of mine superfluous ; but the very frequent call for the Manual, the urgent request of the booksel- lers, and the apprehension of a second counterfeit emission of the work, have persuaded me to prepare this fifth edition. In the emendations and improve- ments I have been guided by the same considerations, which controlled me in the preceding editions. In the additions in the part treating of the classic authors I have received very friendly assistance from Professor Scheffler, of this place. From the Preface to the Sixth Edition. — In a former preface, the occasion , design, and plan of this Manual have been stated. In each successive edi- tion, I have endeavored to make useful improvements ; but have throughout adhered to the original design, and confined myself, of course, to substantial- ly the same limits. Although much progress has been made in classical stud- ies in Germany during the last thirty years, and there are now several books of great merit, which may serve as guides and introductions to such studies, yet the demand for another impression of this Manual has compelled me again to take it in hand and to perform the renewed labor of revision. In this labor I must again gratefully mention the assistance kindly rendered me by Profes- sor SCHEFFLER. The 6th edition was the last published during the life of the author. But the work has been printed once or twice since his death. The following is taken from the Remarks prefixed to the seventh edition (Berlin, Nov. 1, 1824). — The continued acknowledgement of the great excellence of this Manual of Classical Literature, which is proved by the constant demand for the book, renders it unnecessary to say much by way of preface to a new edition. After the death of Eschenburg, the society of booksellers employed a well qualified editor, who has revised the work and superintended it with great care and fidelity. An examination will show, that in doing this, advantage has been taken of the important results of modern classical researches. It is, therefore, confidently believed, that this work, will still be found one of the most useful of the kind; perhaps the very best Manual, both for the Gymna- Bia and other Seminaries, and also for private use. In view of this account of the character, design, and reputation of the original work, it is easy to see the reasons why it should be pre- sented to the scholars of our country. Many instructors have felt the want of a Comprehensive Text-book in the department of Clas- sical Literature and Antiquities. After much inquiry, the transla- tor has been able to find no work, which, on the whole, seemed so well adapted for the object, as Eschcnburg's Manual. PREFACE. Vll It will be seen, by a mere glance, that the general design and plan of the work, in its present form, is to exhibit in a condensed but comprehensive summary, what is most essential on all prominent topics belonging to the department of Classical Literature and Anti- quities, and at the same time give references to various sources of information, to which the scholar may go, when he wishes to pursue any of the subjects by further investigations. I cannot doubt, that a Manual on this plan, thoroughly executed, would prove one of the greatest aids to the classical student, which it is possible to put into his hands ; and I cherish the hope that in the entire want of a book of this sort not only in our country, but also in the English language hitherto, the present attempt to introduce one from abroad will meet with a candid reception ; especially as it is one whose value has been so fully attested in the land most of all celebrated for classical at- tainments. Here it may be proper to mention, that, some years since, this work was ' translated into the French. The translator, after some preliminary remarks, says, " from such considerations, I supposed I should render the public a ser- vice, by making known in France a series of elementary works universally esteemed and circulated in Germany. I begin with the Manual of Classical Literature by Eschenburg. This author is Councillor in the Court of the Duke of Brunswick, and Professor in the public Seminary called the Caroli- num. As estimable for his moral character as for the variety of his attain- ments, known as editor of the posthumous writings of Lessing, and dear to all the celebrated men of the country ; living also in the vicinity of one of the richest libraries; he united, along with these advantages, all the light and experience derived from a long series of years devoted to instruction, and that good judgment, admirable but rare, which knows how to avoid the super- fluous without omitting the necessary and the useful. I shall not attempt an encomium on the book, of which I here offer a translation ; it is sufficient to refer to the public suffrage and decision, by which this Manual has been adopted as the basis of public and private instruction in a major part of the Universities and Colleges in Germany." — Subsequently to the time of this translation, in a Report made to the French Institute respecting the literary labors of the Germans, by Charles Fillers, the distinguished author of the Essay on the Reformation of Luther, the Manual of Eschenburg was noticed as a valuable gift to the world. I feel at liberty also to state, as evincing the value of this work, in the es- timation of competent judges, that the present translation was commenced with the warm approbation and encouragement of Prof. Stuart of Andover and Prof. Robinson now of Boston. In fact, under the advice of these emi- nent scholars, Mr. Isaac Stuart, Professor of Languages in the University of S. Carolina, had made preparations for translating the same work, and wholly without my knowledge, but had been compelled to renounce the design, just before I consulted their views of the utility and expediency of my attempt. It is likewise worthy of notice here, that, from a conviction of the great value of the Manual and of its fitness to be useful in our country, it had actually been translated, before I entered upon the work, by Mr. Cruse, whose trans- lation of the part pertaining to Roman Authors is introduced into the present publication. No more needs to be said respecting the design and merits of the original work and its claims to be introduced to the knowledge of American scholars. But something more maybe desired respecting the author himself. This desire I am able to gratify, through the friendship of Prof. Robinson, whose repeated advice and assistance in the present work I here gratefully acknowledge, and who has fur- pished the following brief notice of Eschenburg. Vlll PREFACE. " The name of Eschenburg stands high in Germany, as one of their best writers on taste and the theory of the fine arts, including fine writing. The article [below] is condensed in the Encyclopedia Americana; but I have pre- ferred to translate the original [from the Conversations-Lexicon] as being more full. John Joachim Eschenburg, Professor in the Carolinum at Brunswick, was born 1743 at Hamburg, and died at Brunswick, 1820. This distinguished scholar and writer received his earliest education in the Johanneum at Ham- burg ; afterwards in Leipzig, where Ernesti, Gellert, Morus, and Clodius, were his instructors ; then under Heyne and Michalis in Gottingen. He then came, through the agency of Jerusalem, as a private tutor, to Bruns- wick ; where he afterwards received the Professorship in the Carolinum, va- cated by the death of the poet Zacharia. This post he held during his life. To him Germany is indebted for a nearer acquaintance with many good Eng- lish writers in the department of ^Esthetics ; e. g., Brown, Webb, Burney, and Hurd, whom he translated and in part accompanied with notes and addi- tions. He published, moreover, at different times in Journals and Magazines, accounts of the most remarkable appearances in English Literature, by means of which a love and taste for the literary treasures of that island and people were greatly promoted among the Germans. His greatest desert, however, lies in his translation of Shakpheare (Zurich, 1775-87, 14 vols. ; 1798-1806, 12 vols.). Although not the first in this great undertaking, since Wieland had already begun a similar, yet he has long had the merit of being the most complete ; even though so many excellent translations of the great tragic writer have been since begun. Indeed his version of the collected works of this poet is to this moment sought after, although not possessing the charm of metre nor the literal fidelity, which others exhibit. In making his trans- lation, moreover, by means of his literary and social connections, he enjoyed many advantages, which another would with difficulty possess in an equal degree ; and his own private library contained, so long ago as 1807, more than 400 volumes in reference to Shakspeare, exclusive of Engravings, &c. An- other great benefit, conferred on the public by Eschenburg, was the publica- tion of his Lectures in the Carolinum, his Theorie unci Literatur der schOnen Wissenschaften, his Lehrbuch der Wissenschaftskunde, and his Handbuch der CUissischen Literatur ; of the last work a seventh edition was published in 1825. In social intercourse, Eschenburg was exceedingly amiable, and, not- withstanding his occasional satirical remarks, generally beloved. Three years before his death he celebrated his official jubilee or 50th anniversary. He was also Senior of the. Cyriacus-foundation, and a knight of the Guelphic order. — In the 6th Supplementary Volume of Jorden's Lexicon deutscher Dichter und Prosaisten, there is a minute catalogue of his works, both original and translated, and also of his editions of other authors of former or recent times." It remains for the translator to speak briefly of the principles and method by which he has attempted to execute his task, in preparing the work in its present form ; and the following remarks contain all that it seems important for him to say on this point. For the rest, those who use the book must judge. As to the translation itself, my aim has been throughout to express the au- thor's meaning with strict fidelity ; but in doing this I have endeavored to avoid the long periods and involved arrangement of words and clauses, for which the German language is of known celebrity ; I have almost uniformly employed shorter sentences, and have sometimes departed very much from the phraseology of the original. The alterations are not many ; in some in- stances I have omitted a clause or sentence, and in a few a whole section or paragraph, without any notice to the reader ; in a few cases also I have al- tered the arrangement of the sections. Otherwise, wherever I have not pre- sented the author entire and unaltered, a distinct intimation of some change by the translator is given to the reader, by one of the marks which will be explained below. — The additions are very considerable; and, whatever may be their pertinency or their value, they certainly have cost some labor. In making them, I have endeavored to keep constantly in mind the grand dot PREFACE. IX sign of the work, and to render it more complete in the respects which, as; has been before remarked, constitute its peculiarity, distinguishing it from every other work on these subjects in our language. The additions may gen- erally be distinguished from the original, either by the size of the type or by particular marks ; as will be described under the Explanations below. It will be seen, that large additions have been made in the portion relating to the Greek Literature and Authors ; it was my intention to make similar additions to the Viae of the Roman Authors; but the design was renounced for the rea- sons stated in the Advertisement on page 290.* I regretted, on receiving Mr. Gruse's Translation, to find that it did not include thfe notices of edi-. tions and illustrative works mentioned by Eschenburg; and should the pres- ent effort meet with approbation, it is my purpose to prepare for separate pub- lication something more complete on, the Roman Literature. I flatter myself, that the condensed view of the sacred writings and the writings of the early Christians, as found in the Greek language, will be considered a useful addi- tion. — The whole of Part V is also added by the translator, as explained on page 572 t ; only it ought to be further remarked, that a few paragraphs per- taining to the remains of Athens and Rome, placed under Antiquities by Es- chenburg and omitted in the translation, are introduced, with alterations, in this part under the Topography of those cities. The work is now offered as a humble contribution to the service of the public, and commended to the candid examination of the scholar j in the hope, that under the blessing of Him, in whom is the fountain of all wisdom and knowledge, it may prove an auxiliary of some value in the cause of liberal and good education. Amherst College, April 12, 1836. EXPLANATIONS. The following statement will enable the reader to know in general what is from the author, and what from the translator. A star annexed to the number of a section always indicates that the section is added by the translator. The Italic letter t always denotes that the section or paragraph to whose number it may be annexed is altered so as to differ more or less from, the original. All the matter in the largest of the three kinds of type is translated directly from Eschenburg, excepting such sections as may have one or the other of these marks. All the matter in the smaller type is added by the translator, with the following exceptions ; (1) sec- tions or paragraphs having the Italic letter u annexed to their number, which are all translated from Eschenburg ; (2) the first paragraphs of the several sections on the individual Roman aw- thors, which are also translated from Eschenburg, unless their number is accompanied by a star, or the letter t, as above described ; and (3) part of the mere references to books and au^ fchors, a majority perhaps of which are taken from him. As to these references, it did not seem of much consequence to discriminate carefully between what was put in by the author and whatby ( me ; if any oneshould find some of them irrelevant or unimportant, he may safe- ly charge such upon me rather than Eschenburg ; if any inquire why the numerous references to German works, are retained, I only remark, that it is becoming more and more common to import such works into this country, and more and more important for our scholars to be ac- quainted with the German language ; and if any deem it superfluous to have given so many references, let such consider, that the same books are not accessible to all students, and an in- creased number of references must increase the probability of presenting some to books within the reach of every reader ; and it should be borne in mind also, that so,me references are giver* chiefly as bibliographical statistics, which is the case especially with respect to some of the edi- tions of Greek and Roman classics, • * This refers to page 290 of the first edition, The advertisement there given was, in sub- stance, that the present translator, when his work was far advanced in the printing, entered into an arrangement with Rev, C. F. Cruse, in consequence of a notice then received from the latter, that he had already translated the whole of Eschenburg, with the previously announced design of publishing it. By this arrangement it was engaged that Mr, Cruse's translation, should be used in the part of the work which treats of the Roman Authors ; with the under- standing that, if a new edition should be demanded, the present translator might omit or ret tain it, according to his own choice. f The explanation (here referred to as on page 572 of the first edition) was simply an ac-? knowledgement, that the Epitome of Classical Geography, contained in Part Fifth of this Man-. ual, is chiefly drawn from an English treatise, bearing the same title, by W. C. Taylor ; with, a considerable change in the divisions and arrangement ; and with more full descriptions of ancient Rome. Athens, and Sparta, collected from other sources, A* PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. When the second edition of this Manual was issued, it was expected that a more full view of Roman Literature than the work then contained would be prepared for separate publication by the author. Circumstances which it is unnecessary here to specify delayed the execution of the plan until the last summer, when the publisher of the Manual requested an immediate prepara- tion of a third edition. The design of a separate publication was then re- nounced, from a conviction, that the convenience and advantage of the stu- dent would be better served by incorporating the whole into one work. The present edition, accordingly, contains a new translation of that part of Es- chenburg which relates to the Roman Authors, with large additions. Besides this essential improvement, a considerable quantity of new matter is also introduced in other portions. The value of the work is, moreover, augmented by the insertion of numerous illustrations. These are carefully combined in Plates to avoid the loss of room occasioned by scattering single cuts separately over the pages ; and the whole printing is executed in a very compact style ; so that, notwithstanding all the additions and the accession of several hundred cuts, the sensible bulk of the volume is scarcely increased. The author would here make a general acknowledgement to those friends who have favored him with remarks and notes. With special gratitude, he mentions the very valuable assistance received from Prof. Sears, of the Newton Theological Seminary, who freely furnished critical remarks, cor- rections, and additions, for the whole of the part on the Archaeology of Liter- ature and Art, and also the History of Greek Literature ; to his generous at- tentions, much of the improvement in these portions" of the work is entirely due. The work of Eschenburg still enjoys high estimation in Germany, as is' evinced by the fact that a new edition has very recently been published at Berlin. It is believed, that the American Translation is not rendered less truly valuable by the large amount of various matter which it now contains in addition to the original. Amherst College, September, 1839. TABLEOF CONTENTS PART I. Archaeology op Literature and Art. pulse to Grecian civilization. 41 In- fluence of eastern nations on the reli- gion of the early Greeks. 42 On their arts. 43 Influence of the Greek bards. 44 Of the Greek games. //. Of the Alphabet, Method of Wri- ting and Books, p. 27 — 35. §§ 45—60. 45 Letters introduced Introduction, p. 1 — 20. §§ 1—32. 1. The original capaci- ty and knowledge of men. 2 Devel- opement of the same. 3 Aided by language. 4 Origin of arts and sci- ences. 5 First character of the same. 6 Attainments made before the Del- uge. 7 Effects of the dispersion of the human family, by the confusion of , Cadmus. Resemblance of Grecian *~^. „..,,-.„ n( TJnU^I fi Pnrl'.Dct Omn ATT. J . _. .... . ,-. -»T tongues at Babel. 8 Earliest employ- ments ; food. 9 Effect of climate and other causes ; influence of agriculture on arts. 10 Rise of architecture and use of metals. Tools of stone. 11 Im- itative arts. 12 Origin of Language. 13 Origin of Writing. 14 Previous methods of communicating thought. 15 Picture-writing; by Mexicans ; N. Am. Indians. 16 Hieroglyphics 17 Abbreviated pictures, 18 Syllable- writing. Chinese ; Cherokee ; Persian &c. 19 Alphabetic writing. 20 Mate- rials and implements. 21 Contents of earliest writings ; writings of Moses and Job the most ancient ; claims of the oriental records. 22 The earliest sciences. 23 Origin of Medicine. 24 Of Arithmetic. 25 Of Astronomy. 26 Of Geometry. 27 Of Geography. 28 Egypt and Asia the cradle of the sci- ences. 29 High culture of the Greeks and Romans. Importance of classical studies. 30 Object of the present treatise. 31 Utility of the same. 32 References to works illustrating the subjects included. ARCHAEOLOGY OF GREEK TURE. LITERA- I. Of the origin and first steps of Grecian culture, p. 23 — 28. §§ 33—44. 33 First population of Greece. The Pelasgi. 34 Early state of society. Colonies from the east. 35 Origin of Greek language. Vari- ous theories on the subject. 36 Lan- guage of Noah; nature of the Confu- sion of tongues. Languages of west- ern Asia. Semitic and Sanscrit fami- lies. 37 Japheth and descendants. 33 The probable foundation of the Greek. 39 Causes of the great per- fection of the Greek. 40 First inl- and Phoenician alphabets. 46 Num- ber of letters in the alphabet of Cad- mus. 47 Changes in form of Greek letters. 48 Direction of letters and lines in writing. 49 Uncial and Cur- sive characters. Abbreviations. 50 Breathings. 51 Accents. 52 Punc- tuation. 53 Materials used in Greece for writing. 54 Instruments. 55 Ma- terial used for ink. 56, 57 Form of books. 58 Copyists. 59 Infrequent use of writing in early times. Wheth- er Homer committed his poems to wri- ting (cf. p. 179j. 60 Instruction giv- en orally. III. Of the most flourishing period of Greek Literature, p. 36—43. §§ (31_77. 61 Circumstances favor- able to progress in letters. Different characters of different Hellenic tribes. Actual studies and attainments. 62 Design of the author under the pres- ent head of the subject. 63, 64 The Grecian system of education ; Gymna- sia; Music. 65,66 The Musical and Dramatical contests. 67 Rehearsals public and private. 63 Professed Readers. 69 The Symposia or lite- rary feasts. 70 No learned professions among the Greeks. 71 Grammar as a par t of education. 72 Philosophy, Esoteric and Exoteric. 73 Methods of teaching; Socratic. 74 The great public schools; Academy, Lyceum, Porch, Cynosarges, Garden. 75 Reg- ulations and discipline of the Gymna- sia and schools. 76 Greek libraries. 77 Travels of learned men. IV. Of the decline of Greek Litera- ture, p. 43—47. § § 73—85. 78 Causes of its decline. 79 Greek language still extensively used. 80 Greek letters cultivated at xu CONTENTS. some places ; Rhodes, Pergamus, Al- exandria, &c. 81 Greek letters pat- ronized by some of the Emperors. 82 Schools of Athens suppressed. 83 Op- position between Christianity and pa- gan literature ; influence of Christian- ity. 84 Loss of Classical manuscripts, in various ways. 85 Political condi- tion of the Greeks after^the Christian era. V. Of the Remains and .Monuments of Grecian Literature, p. 47 — 63. § § 86—108. 86 Division of these in- to three classes. — I. Inscriptions. 87 References to works on Greek in- scriptions. 88 General design and character of inscriptions. 89 Qualifi- cations requisite for interpreting in- scriptions. 90 Notice of some of the most important inscriptions of a date prior to Alexander. 91 Of those of a date between Alexander and the Chris- tian Era. 92 Of a period subsequent to the Christian Era. — II. Coins. 93 Utility of an acquaintance with coins. 94 Uncoined metal first used. 95 Earliest Greek coins. Chronolog- ical classification of Greek coins. 96 The coins in most common use among the Greeks. Number of ancient coins preserved. 97, 98 Forms of letters on Greek coins. 99 References to works on Numismatics. — III. Manu- scripts. 100 Utility of them. 101 Their antiquity. Palimpsesti. 102 How made and preserved. 103, 104 Marks by which the age of a Ms. is known; or criteria of Palaeography. 105, 106 Importance and advantages of collating manuscripts. 107 Notice of some of the oldest and most curious manuscripts extant ; Greek Scrip- tures ; Herculanean Rolls ; Egyptian Papyri ; Hebrew Pentateuch. 108 Li- braries containing Greek manuscripts. ARCHEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERA- TURE. J. Of the sources of Roman culture. p. 65—68. §§ 109—114. 109 Origin of the Ro- mans. Two different theories respect- ing the inhabitants of Italy. Early tribes. Uncertainty of the early his- tory of Rome. 110 Origin of Latin written characters. Ill Intercourse of the Romans with the Greeks. 112, 113 State of culture before the Punic wars. 114 Origin and progress of the Latin Language. Monuments of its early character. //. Of the Alphabet, Writing and Books, p. 69—71. §115—118. 115 Number of origi- nal letters. 116 The early and later orthography. 117 Forms of. letters. Abbreviations ; J\"ota Tironianw. 118 Form of books. Materials and instru- ments for writing. List of names and terms used in relation to writing, &c. ///. Of the most flourishing period of Roman Literature, p. 71 — 75. § 119—127. 119 Influence of the Greek colonies in Magna Grascia. 120 Introduction of the Greek philosophy. 121 Most brilliant age in Roman let- ters. Causes. 122 branches cultiva- ted. 123 Change in the system of ed- ucation. 124 Instructions of the Grammarians and Rhetoricians. 125 Public schools. Atheneum. Literary exercises specially practiced by the youth in the course of education, &c. 126 Libraries at Rome. 127 Custom of finishing study abroad. Places vis- ited for the purpose. IV. Of the decline of Roman Litera- ture, p. 76, 77. § 128 Causes of the decline. Com- mencement of it. Exertions and influ- ence of some of the Emperors. Effect of intercourse with provincials ; of the removal of the seat of government to Constantinople. Schools of learning in the empire ; Byzantium, Berytus, Massilia, Augustodunum. V. Remains and Mom/me?its of Ro- man Literature, p. 77 — 85. § 129_143. 129, 130 Roman I n- scriptions; References to works on the subject. 131 Abbreviations and initial letters on Roman coins. 132 Peculiar advantages of study of Ro- man inscriptions. 133 Notice of some of the most important inscriptions that are preserved. 134 Roman Coins; when first struck. Connection be- tween poetry and medals. 135 Divis- ion into Consular and Imperial. 136 Legend on coins. Peculiar forms of writing on early coins. 137 False coins. 138 References to works on Roman coins. 139 The most valua- ble collections of ancient coins. Sym- bols on coins and medals. 140 Roman Manuscripts; few existing of a very early date. 141 Successive changes in the manner of writing. 142 Zealous search for manuscripts on the revival of letters. Petrarch, Poggio, and others interested in it. Deposito- CONTENTS. X1H ries of Latin manuscripts. 143 Some of the most ancient Latin manuscripts known. ARCHAEOLOGY OF ART. Preliminary Remarks, p. 87 — 90. § 144—153. 144 Meanings of the word Art. 145 Division of the arts in- to the Mechanical and the Fine. 146 The plastic arts. 147 Objects repre- sented by them. Allegorical images. 148, 149 Requisite! in the artist, con- noisseur, and amateur, severally. 150 Utility of some knowledge of the his- tory of art. 151 Antiques and the study of them. 152 Original design of the monuments of ancient art. Sci- ence of ^Esthetics; references on the same. 153 Object of the present trea- tise. Four branches of art particular- ly included. /. Sculpture, p. 90—108. § 154 — 191. 154 Comprehensive meaning of the term. 155, 156 Origin of Sculpture. Character of the first specimens. Image of Cybele. 157 The materials used. 158 First soft ; clay &c. 159 Various kinds of wood. 160 Ivory. 161 Marble and stone of different kinds. 162 Bronze. 163 Classes of Statues ; costume ; atti- tudes. 164 Busts. 165 The kind of fig- ure called Hermes. 166 Bas-reliefs. 167 Mosaic. 168 Inscriptions on stat- ues. 169, 170 Egyptian sculpture. 171 Sculpture among the Asiatics. 172, 173 Character and remains of Etrus- can Sculpture. 174 Rise of sculpture in Greece ; circumstances favorable to its advancement. Daedalus. 175 The four periods of Grecian sculpture. 176 Its character in the first period. 177 Different schools. 178 Frequent demand for statues in greece. 179 — 181 Grecian sculpture in its subse- quent periods. 182 — 184 Sculpture among the Romans. 185 The most celebrated remains of ancient sculp- ture. 186 Of Statues. 187 Of Busts. 188 Of Bas-relief. 189 Of Mosaic. 190 The most famous collections of such remains. 191 References to works on this subject. //. Lithoglyphy or Gem- Engraving. p. 108—120. § 192—213. 192 Explanation of the term. 193 Gems early known. 194 Respecting the nature and classifica- tion of gems. 195 Notice of some of the principal gems employed in this art. Murra. Alabaster. 1S6 Manner of forming the figures on them ; in- taglios ; cameos, 197, 198 Various ob- jects represented. 199 Origin and earliest instances of the art. 200, 201 Gem-engraving of the Egyptians. — Scarabai; Abraxas. 202 This art among other nations, especially the Etrurians. 203, 204 Among the Greeks. 205 Among the Romans. 206 Uses made of sculptured gems. 207 Mechanical operations in engraving. 208 Fictitious gems. 209 Advantages of some knowledge of ancient gems. 210 This study facilitated by the use of paste imitations. The impressions of Lippert; of Wedge wood ; ofTassie. 211 Some of the most remarkable an- cient gems. 21 2 The most celebrated collections. 213 References to works illustrating the subject. III. Painting, p. 120—126. § 214—226. 214 Explanation of this art. 215 Date of its origin. 216 Its early existence in Chaldsea and Egypt. 217 Earliest pictures among the Greeks. 218 The colors employed by Greek painters. 219 Materials and instruments for painting. Fresco- painting. 220 Encaustic painting. — Painting on glass. Mosaic. 221 Merit of ancient painting. Perspective. 222 Schools in painting among the Greeks. Celebrated masters. Four periods. — Comparative number of paintings and statues. Portraits. 223 Etruscan paint- ings. 224, 225 Painting at Rome. 226 Monuments of ancient painting. Ref- erences to works on the subject. IV. Architecture, p. 127—142. § 227—244. 227 Both a mechanic and a fine art. Its origin. 228 Lead- ing principles, or causes affecting its character. 229 Materials in early times. Influence of materials on the style. 230 The grand branches of Architecture, Civil, Military, jYaval. 231 Egyptian Architecture. Cyclope- an. 232 Architecture as exhibited in Homer. 233 Most flourishing period of this art in Greece. 234 Descrip- tion of ancient temples. 235 Of The- atres and Odea. 236 Of Gymnasia. 237 Of Porticos. 238 Of pHlars and columns ; and the several orders of Architecture. 239 Ornaments of an- cient Architecture. Caryatides, At- lantides, &c. 240 Most celebrated Greek architects. 241 Tuscan and Roman Architecture. Description of ancient Baths. 242 Remains of an- cient architecture. 243 Works illus- trating the subject. 244 Notice of several styles of Architecture, more modern ; Romanesque, Saracenic, Chinese, Gothic. XIV CONTENTS. PART II. History of Ancient Literature, Greek and Roman. GREEK LITERATURE. Introduction p. 145 — 157. §§ 1 — 10. 1 Circumstances favor- able to literature among the Greeks. 2 Excellence of Greek classics; import- ance of acquaintance with them. 3 Beauty and perfection of the Greek language. 4 Its dialects. 5 Pronun- ciation of Greek. 6 Principles and methods in studying. Analytical and Synthetical methods. Interlinear translations. Grammatical and logi- cal analysis. Other exercises. Use of Reading-books. System in the Lon- don University. 7 List of various helps in the study of Greek. 8 Plan to be pursued in the present view of Greek literature. 9 Six periods in Grecian political history , very conven- iently applied to the history of litera- ture. 10 The several departments or classes of writers to be noticed. J. Poets, p. 157—199. §§11—81. 11 Subjects of earliest Greek poetry. 12 Poetry first culti- vated in the northern provinces of Greece. 13 Poetry originally connect- ed with music among the Greeks. References on the origin and progress of Greek poetry. 14 Kinds or varie- ties of Grecian poetry. 15 Sacred. 16 The Sibyls. 17-20 Epic. 21 The Cyclic poets. The Homeridae. Iliac Table. 22-26 Lyric poetry. 27 The Scolion. 28-29 Elegiac. 30 Bucolic or Pastoral, 31 , 32 Didactic. 33 Ero- tic. 34 The Epigram. 35 Anthologies. 36 Dramatic poetry, including (37-40) Tragedy; (41-43) Comedy; and (44) Satyre. 45 Different forms of Satire. 46 Farces and Mimes. 47 Pomp and expense of representation. Instruct- ing of the actors. 47t References to works treating of the Greek poets gen- erally. 48 Orpheus. 49Musams. 50 Homer. 51 Hesiod. 52 Archilochus. 53 Tyrtams. 54 Sappho. 55 Solon. 56 Theognis. 57 Phocylides. 58 Pytha- goras. 59 Anacreon. 60 Pindar. 61 jEschylus. 62 Sophocles. 63 Eurip- ides. 64 Empedocles. 65 Aristoph- anes. 66 Menander. 67 Lycophron. 68 Theocritus. 69 Bion ; Moschus. 70 Callimachus. 71 Aratus. 72Clean- thes. 73 ApolloniusRhodius. 74 Ni- cander. 75 Oppian. 76 Nonnus. 77 Coluthus. 78 Quintus Smyrnaus or Calaber. 79Tryphiodorus. 80Theo- dorus Prodromus. 81 Tzetzes. //. Orators, p. 199—207. § § 82—107. 82 Oratory as an art not known in the heroic ages. 83 Elo- quence much practiced after time of Solon. 84 History of Grecian elo- quence short. 85 Chiefly confined to Athens. 86 Three aspects in three different eras. 87, 88 Era of Them- istocles. 89-91 Era of Pericles. 92-94 Era of Demosthenes. 95-97 Subse- quent decline. School of Rhodes. 98 Three branches of ancient oratory. 99 References to works illustrating the Greek orators collectively. 100 Anti- phon. 101 Andocides. 102 Lysias. 103 Isocrates. 104 Isaeus. 105 Ly- curgus. 106 Demosthenes. 107 JEs- chines. Hyperides. Dinarchus. III. Sophists and Rhetoricians. p. 207—215. §§ 108—128. 108 Description of the Sophists. 109 Their performan- ces. 110 Names of some of the more eminent in different periods. Ill Dis- tinction between Sophists and Rhetor- icians. 112 Rhetoricians in different periods. 113 General references. 114 Gorgias. 115 Aristotle. 116 De- metrius Phalereus. 117 % Dionysius Halicarnasseus. 118 Dion Chrysos- tomus. 119 Herodes Atticus. 120 JEYius Aristides. 121 L.ucian. 122 Hermogenes. 123 Athenseus. 124 Longinus. 125Themistius. 126 Him- erius. 127 Julian the Apostate. 128 Libanius. IV. Grammarians, p. 215 — 219. § § 129—147. 129 Time when writ- ers of this class first flourished ; place. 130 Their various performances. 131 Some of the most distinguished be- fore the time of Constantine. 132 Grammarians at Constantinople. 133 General references. 134 Hephcestion. 135 Apollonius Dyscolus. 136 ^Elius Herodianus. 137 Julius Pollux. 138 JElius Mceris. 139 Harpocration. 140 Hesychius. 141 Ammonius. 142 Photius. 143 Suidas. 144 The Ety- mologium Magnum. 145 Eustathius. 146 Gregorius Pardus, or Corinthius. 147 Thomas Magister. V. Writers of Epistles and Roman- ces, p. 220—224. § § 141 —165. 148 Extant letters as- cribed to ancients, in part spurious. 149 Romances unknown in best pe- riods of Greek literature ; reason. 150 Erotic and Milesian tales. Irnag- CONTENTS. XV iliary voyages. 151 Some of the au- thors of Romances. 152 References on the writers of this division. 153 Anacharsis. 154 Phalaris. 155 The- mistocles. 156 Socrates. 157 Chion. 158 Aristaenetus. 159 Alciphron. 160 Heliodorus. 161 Achilles Tatius. 162 Longus. 163 Xenophon of Ephes- us. 164 Chariton. 165 Eumathius. VI. Philosophers, p. 224—240. §§ 166—201. 166 The poets of Greece her first philosophers. 167 The next her priests and legislators. Subjects of speculation in the early religious philosophy. Political philoso- phy. Seven Sages. 168 Origin of schools in philosophy. The earliest of celebrity. 169 The Ionic. 170 The Italic. 171 The Socratic. 172 Sects derived from the Socratic. Three Minor. Cyrenaic. Megaric. Eliac. 173 Four Major. Cynic. 174 Stoic. 175 Academic. 176 Peripatetic. 177 Sects derived from the Italic. Eleatic. Heraclitean. 178 Epicurean. 179 Sceptic. 180 Periods of Greek litera- ture in which the several sects arose. Grecian philosophy after the Roman supremacy. 181 The New Platonists. Eclectics. 182 Christian philosophy. Peripatetic philosophy after time of Constantine. Its propagation in west- ern Europe. 183 References to sources of information on the Greek philoso- phy. 184 jEsop. 185 Ocellus Luca- nus. 186 Xenophon the Athenian. 187 iEschines, the philosopher. 188 Cebes. 189 Plato. 190 Timams of Locri. 191 Aristotle. 192 Theophras- tus. 193 Epictetus. 194 Arrian. 195 Plutarch. 196 Marcus Antoninus. 197 Sextus Empiricus. 198 Plotinus. 199 Porphyry. 200 Jamblichus. 201 Stobseus. VII. Mathematicians and Geograph- ers, p. 240—247. § 202—221. 202 Mathematics re- duced to scientific form by Greeks, but derived from other nations. 203 The foundation for philosophy. Views of Plato. 204, 205 State of Greek mathematics in differ- ent periods. 206, 207 Degree of knowledge among the Greeks respect- ing Geography. 208 Treaties on Tac- tics. 2Q8t General references. 209 Euclid. 210 Archimedes. 211 Apol- lonius Pergaeus. 212 Pappus. 213 Diophantus. 214 Hanno. 215 Era- tosthenes. 216 Strabo. 217 Diony- eius Periegetes. 218 Claudius Ptole- my. 219Pausrnias. 220m Stephanus of Byzantium. 220 Cosmas Indie o- pleustes. 221 Onesander. Polyae nus. VII I. Mythographers. p. 247—249, § 221m— 231. 221u Principal sour- ces whence the traditionary fables of the Greeks may be learned. 222 Pal- aepbatus. Euhemerus. 223 Heracli- tus. 224 Apollodorus. 225 Conon. 226 Parthenius. 227 Phurnutus or Cornutus. 228 Hephaestion. 229 An- toninus Liberalis. 230 Sallustius, the Platonist. IX. Historians, p. 249—261. § 231—260. 231 Earliest history in a poetical form. Earliest writers of history in prose. 232 The composi- tions styled logographies. 233 The distinguished historians in the bril- liant period of Greek literature. 234 Writers on Attic history. 235, 236 Chief historians between Alexander and the Roman supremacy. 237, 238 Principal writers during the next pe- riod until time of Constantine. 239a Historical authors after time of Con- stantine. The Byzantine Historians, 239b Grecian Biography. 240 Gener- al references. 241 Herodotus. 242 Thucydides. 243 Xenophon. 244 Ctesias. 245 Polybius. 246 Diodorus Siculus. 247 Dionysius Halicarnas- seus. 248 Flavius Josephus. 249 Plutarch. 250 Arrian. 251 Appian 252 Dion Cassius. 253 ^Elian. 254 He- rodian. 255a Diogenes Laertius. 255b Philostratus. 255c Eunapius. 256 Zosimus. 257 Procopius. 258 Agathias. 259 Zonaras. 260 Dares Phrygius. Dictys Cretensis. X Writers on Medicine and Natur- al History, p. 262—267. § § 261—277. 261 Greeks less emi- nent in these sciences. JEsculapiua and his descendants. Hippocrates the first author. 262 The Dogmatic school. 263 Dissections. Empiric school. Medicine first practiced at Rome by Greek slaves. 264 The Methodic school. The Eclectic school. Char- acter and influence of Galen. 265 State of medicine after time ot Con- stantine. 266 Physics included under studies of the philosophers. 267 Ar- istotle founder of Zoology : Theo- phrastus, of Mineralogy and Botany. Cabinets of the Ptolemies at Alexand- ria. Chief writers before the time of Constantine. 268 State of natural science under the emperors of Con- stantinople. 269 Collections of Greek writers on medicine and physics. 270 Hippocrates. 271 Dioscorides. 272 XVI CONTENTS. Aretseus. 273 Galen. 274 Aristotle. 275 Theophrastus. 276 Antigonus of Carystus. 277 JEA'ian. Apollonius Dyscolus. ■ Notice of the Hebrew-Grecian and Christian icritings. p. 167 — 275. § § 278—293. 278 The Septuagint. 279 The Apocrypha. 280 Works from Christian authors. 281, 282 Books of the New Testament. Their moral au- thority. Their literary influence. 283 Works of the Apostolical Fathers. 284 Spurious or Apocryphal writings. 285 Opinions of early Christians re- specting human learning. Christian seminaries. Philosophy adopted by the Fathers. 286 Biblical writings. Versions of Bible ; Origen's Hexapla. Harmonies. Commentaries. 287 Controversial writings. lrenseus, Jus- tin Martyr, Tatian, Athenagoras. 288 Historical writings. Eusebius. 289 Doctrinal. Origen Athanasius. 290 Homiletical. Character of the an- cient homily. Few remains of early sacred oratory. 291 Homilies of Ori- gen. 292 Distinguished Christian ora- tors just after the time of Constantine. Basil, Gregory, and Chrysostom. 293 References to works giving informa- tion respecting the Fathers. ROMAN LITERATURE. Introduction, p. 277—282. W 294—302. 194 Rank of the Ro- mans in literature. 295 Utility of study- ing their language. 296 The four ages commonly assigned to it. 297 Pronun- ciation of Latin. 298 Methods and ex- ercises in studying. 299 Various works useful as helps. 300 Plan followed in this treatise. 301 Five periods of the history of Roman literature. 302 Classes of authors. 1. Poets, p. 282— 321. S§ 303—389. 303, 304. Earliest poetry of the Romans. Hymns of the Fratres Arvales and Salic Priests. Fescennine verses. 305 Tuscan His- triones. Atellane Fables. 306 Early national ballads. 307, 308 Introduc tion of regular dramatic forms. 309- 312 Tragedy. 313-317 Comedy. 318 Atellane Fables. 319 Mimes. Panto- mine. 320 Origin of modern dramatic exhibitions. Plays at fairs. Holy farces. Mysteries and Moralities. 321-325 Epic Poetry. 326-329 Lyric. 330, 331 Bucolic. 332, 333 Elegiac. 334-336 Didactic 337 The Fable. 338- 341 The Epigram. 342 Anthologies. 343-347 Satire. 348 General refer- ences. Collections of Roman Poetic 349 Livius Andronicus. 350 Naevius. 351Ennius. 352Plautus. 353 Pacuvi- us. 354 Accius or Attius. 355 Ter- ence. 356 Lucilius. 357 Lucretius. 358 Catullus. 359 Cornelius Gallus. 360 Tibullus. 361 Propertius. 362 Virgil. 363 Horace. 364 Ovid. 365 Cornelius Severus. 366 Pedo Albino- vanus. 367 Gratius Faliscus. 368 Publius Syrus. 369 Marcus Manilius. 370 Csesar Germanicus. 371 iEmilius Macer. 372 Phaedrus. 373 Persius. 374 L. Annosus Seneca. 375 Lucan. 376 Valerius Flaccus. 377 Silius Italicus. 378 Statius. 379 Martial. 380 Juvenal. 381 Flavius Avianus. Festus Avienus. 382 Dionysius Cato. 383 Nemesian. 384 Calpurnius. 385 Ausonius. Proba Falconia. 386 Clau- dian. 387 Prudentius. 388 Sedulius. 389 Rutilius Numatianus. //. Orators, p. 321—328. §$ 390—406. 390 Eloquence in the earliest ages. 391'jlnfluence of Greek teachers. 392 Civil honors acquired by oratory. 293 Eloquence of the Gracchi. 394 Increase of speakers. Eminence of Crassus and Antony the Orator. 395 Study of the art of speak- ing. Schools. 396 Two eminent ora- tors, Sulpitius and Cotta. 397 The two great rivals, Hortensius and Cice- ro. 398 The kinds of oratory. 399 Decline of Roman eloquence . 400, 401 Principal orators in the later ages. 402 Panegyrical oratory of the Ro- mans. 403 General references. 404 Cicero. 405 Pliny the younger (Caius Crecilius Secundus). 406 The Pane- gyrists ; Claudius Mamertinus, Eume- nius, Nazarius, Pacatus, Symmachus, III. Rhetoricians, p. 328—332. 407—415. 407 Distinction between Rhetoricians and Grammarians. 408 First rhetoricians at Rome. Opposi- tion to the Grecian teachers. 409 Schools of Roman freed-men. 410 411 Principal authors in this depart- ment. 412 General references. 413 Cicero. 414 Marcus Annseus Seneca, 415 Quintilian. IV. Grammarians, p. 332 — 338. 416 Studies and influence of the Grammarian. 417 The ancient gram- marian and modern philologist. 418 Principal grammarians down to the death of Augustus. 419 Chief gram- marians of the next period. 420 High rank enjoyed by grammarians in later times. 421 Names of the more emi- nent. 422 General references. 423 CONTENTS. XVI 1 Varro. 424 Asconius Pedianus- 425 Aulus Gellius. 426 Censorinus. 427 Nonius Marcellus- 428 Pom- ponius Festus. 429 iElius Dona- tus. 430 Macrobius. 431 Charisi- us. 432 Diomedes. 433 Priscianus. 434 Isidore. V. Epistolizers and Romancers, p. 328—342 §§ 435 — 445. 435 Number and val- ue of Roman epistles extant. The earliest specimens. 436 — 438- The principal authors. 439 Romance scarce- ly found in Roman literature- Cicero- 441 Pliny the younger (C. Coecilius Secundus). 442 Lucius Annseus Sen- eca- 443 Fronto- 444 Symmachus. 445 Sidonius Apollinaris- VI. Philosophers, p. 342—355- §§ 446 — 474- 446 origin of Roman philosophy. 447 Numa a philosopher, 448 Philosophers introduced by Paulus jEmilius and Scipio Africanus. 449 Date of the rise of philosophy at Rome. 450 Difference between Greeks and Romans in respect to philosophical studies- 451 comparative number of Roman philosophers- 452 Patronage of Lucullus. 453 Philosophy in the time of the emperors- Introduction of oriental views- 454 Example of Marcus Aurelius. Influence of Chris- tianity. 455 Sects of philosophy at Rome- 456 Academic. 457 Stoic 458 Peripatelic. 459 Cynic 460 Ep- icurean. 461 Sceptic. 462 Pythago- rean. 463 New Pythagorean. 464 New Platonists. 465 Eclectics- 466 Philosophy of Christian Fathers. 468 Cicero. 469 Lucius Ann. Seneca. 470 Pliny the elder (Caius Secundus). 471 Apuleius. 472 Petronius Arbiter. 373 Capella. 474 Boethius. VII. Mathematicians, Geographers, and ^Economists, p. 355 — 364. § § 475—501. 475, 476 Merit of the Romans in mathematical science. 477- 479 Principal writers in this depart- ment. 480 Knowledge of geography among the Romans. Survey of the Empire- 481, 482 Principal writers and works. 483 Class of writers term- ed (Economists. Greek and Roman agriculture. 484, 485 Roman writers on husbandry. 486 The Culinary art. 487 Surveying of land. 488 Treatises on the art of the agrimensores or land- surveyors- 489 General references. 490 Vitruvius. 491 Frontinus. 492 Vegetius. 492 Julius Firmicus- 494 Pomponius Mela- 495 Solinus- 406 Vibius Sequester. 497 The Roman B Itineraries. 498 Marcus Porcius Cato. 499 Varro. 500a Columella. 5006 Palladius. Martialis Gargilius- 501 Ccelius Apicius- VIII. Mythographers. p- 364 — 366. § § 502—509- 502 The tales of Ro- man mythology similar to those of the Grecian. 503 The writers few. Col- lections- 504 Hyginus. 505 Fulgen- tius. Albricus- 506 Lactantius Pla* cidus- IX. Historians and Biographers. p. 366—383- § § 507—542. 507 Metrical annals. 508 The Pontifical Commentaries and other early records- 509 Legal docu- ments. Family memoirs. Funeral eulogies. 510 Loss of early historical records- Dispute^ respecting the au- thenticity of the common history of Rome. 511— 51 3 The Annalists- 514, 515 Principal writers in the third peri- od of Roman Literature. 516 Official documents in this period- 517 — 522 Historical writers after the time of Augustus. 523—526 Roman biography. Several classes of biographical works. 527 General references. 528 Julius Caesar. 529 Sallust- 530 Cornelius Nepos." 531 Titus Livius- 532 Vel- leius Paterculus. 533 Valerius Maxi- mus. 534 Tacitus. 535 Quintus Cur- tries- 536 Florus. 537 Suetonius- 538 Justin. 539 Sextus Aurelius Vic- tor- 540 Eutropius. 541 Ammianus Marcellinus- 542 Authors of the Au- gustan History. X. Writers on Medicine and Natur- al Science, p. 383 — 388. § § 543—557. 543 Science of Med- icine in low estimation at Rome. 544 Early notions respecting the nature of diseases- 545 Greek slaves the first physicians. 546 Regard paid to the Greek physicians. 547a Cato's book of medicine- 547J Roman med- ical authors, from the time of Augus- tns to that of the Antonines. 548 Med* ical writers in later times- 549 Rank of physicians under the emperors- 550 Opportunities for advancing natural science enjoyed by the Romans. 551 Principal authors in physics. 552 Gen- eral references. 553 Aulus Cornelius Celsus. 554 Scribonius Largus- 555 Serenus Sammonicus- 556 Theodorus Priscianus- 557 Marcellus Lmpiricus. XL Writers on Law and Jurispru- dence, p- 388—394- §§ 558 — 571. 558 Number of works in this department lost- Reason for it XV111 CONTENTS. 559 Various classes of works. 560 De- sign of the notice here to be taken- 561 Earliest collections. The Jus Papir- ianum ; Twelve Tables ; Jus Flavian- um ; Jus iElianum- 562 Writers in the second period of Roman literature ; Manilius, Mucius Scaevola. 563 Emi- nent writers of the next period ; Sul- picius Rufus ; Cicero; Alfenus Varus ; Cascellius ; ^Elius Tubero, &c- 564, 565 Chief civilians and authors in the period between Augustus and the An- tonines ; Masurius Sabinus, and Sem- pronius Proculus ; Cocceius Nerva , Juventius Celsus ; Neratius Priscus ;. Salvius Julianus ; Gaius, &c- 566 Rank of the legal profession in the time between the Antoninesand Con- stantine- Encouragement under the system of Constantine. Law-School of" Berytus. 567 Papinian ; Ulpian ; Julius Paulus. 568 Codex Hermogen- ianus. Codex Theodosianus. Code of Theodoric Breviary of Alaric. 569 Arrangements of Theodosius for re- ducing to order the Roman law- La- bors of Tribonian. Constituent parts of the Body of Roman Law- 570 In- fluence of the system of Justinian, Revival and sway of Roman Jurispru- dence. 571 General refences. Christian Writings in the Latin Lan- guage, p- 394- § § 572. Names of some of the au- thors- References on the subject. Appendix to the Greek and Roman Literature- p- 394—396- § § 573—575. 573 Editions of the Classics in regular sets. 574 Collec- tions of Translations. 575 History of classical studies- PART III. Mythology of the Greeks and Romans. Introduction, p. 399 — 406. § § 1 — 12. 1 Circumstances calcu- lated to give a fabulous character to early traditions. 2 Mythology in the Greek, and in the modern sense of the term. 3 Different points of view in contemplating mythological fables. 4 Changes and additions in mytholog- ical stories. 5 Different sources of mythological fabrications. 6 Advan- tages of an acquaintance with mythol- ogy- X Eastern origin of the Grecian deities. 8 The Roman gods borrowed from the Greeks. 9 The Greek and Roman system of classifying their gods. 10 The four classes under which they are arranged in this work. 11 The notions of deity entertained by the Greeks and Romans. Abode of the gods. 12 References to works treating on the subject. J. Mythological History of the Supe- rior gods. p. 407 — 429. §§ 13—67. 13 Gods included in this class. 14-17 Saturn. 18 Janus. 19- 21 Cybele or Rhea. 22-25 Jupiter. 26-28 Juno. 29-31 Neptune. 32-34 Pluto. 35-37 Apollo. 38-40 Diana. 41-43 Minerva. 44-46 Mars. 47-50 Venus. 51-54 Vulcan. 55-56 Mer- cury. 57-60 Bacchus. 61-64 Ceres. 65-67 Vesta. //. Mythological History of the In- ferior gods. p. 429 — 442. §§ 68 — 96. 68 Gods included in this class. 69,70 Ccelus. 71,72 Sol or Helius. 73 Luna. 74,75 Aurora. 76 Nox. 77 Iris. 78 iEolus. 79,80 Pan. 81,82 Latona. 83 Themis, Asttea. Nemesis. 84 iEsculapius, 85 Plutus. 86 Fortune. 87 Fame. 88 Terminus. Priapus. 89 Vertum- nus. 90 Flora. 91 Feronia. 92 Pales, 93 Gods presiding over various condi- tions or pursuits of men. Bellona. Victoria, «fcc. 94 Deified Roman em- perors. 95 Virtues and Vices. 96 Egyptian deities worshiped among the Romans. 777. Mythical beings, whose history is intimately connected with that of the gods. p. 442 — 451. SS 97—117. 97 Titans. 98 Giants. 99 Tritons. 100 Sirens. 101 Nymphs. 102, 103 Muses. 104 Graces. 105 Hours. 106 Fates. 107 Furies. 108 Harpies. 109 Daemons. 110 Manes. Ill Lares. 112 Penates. 113 Sleep, Dreams, and Death. 114 Satyrs and Fauns. 115 Gorgons. 116 Amazons, 117 Minotaur, Chimaera, and various other monsters. IV. Mythical History of Heroes, p. 451—456. § § 118—133. 118 Three periods of Grecian story. 119 General cause of the deification of heroes. 120 Two classes of venerated heroes. 121 In- achus, Oxgyges, Cecrops and several others, honored specially among their own people. 122 Perseus. 123,124 Hercules. ] 25, 126 Theseus. 127, 128 Jason and the Argonauts. 129 Castor and Pollux. 130 Heroes of the Theban war. 131 Pelops and his descendants. 132 Heroes of the Tro- jan war. 133 Deified Roman emperors. CONTENTS. XIX PART IV. Greek and Roman Antiquities. GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. Introduction, p. 459 — 464. §§ 1 — 14. 1 Origin of the name Grsecia. 2 Countries indluded under it. 3 Most important Grecian cities. 4 Political changes. 5 First inhabit- ants. 6 Their early intercourse. 7 Early forms of government. 8 The Spartan system. 9 Athens. 10 Caus- es of Grecian improvement. tality. 58 Employments; agriculture I hunting. 59 Employments of wo- men. 60 Amusements. 61 Marriage. 62 Education of children. 63 Slaves. II. Of the Later and more flour- ishing Ages, p. 482 — 552. (1) Religious Affairs. §§ 64 — 90. 64 Number of gods in- creased. 65 Temples more splendid. 66 Sacred groves. Asyla. 67 Class- ity of study of Antiquities, and of es of priests. Purification. 68 Sac Grecian in particular. 12 Original sources of knowledge on the subject. 13 References to authors. 14 Defects in the common treatises on Greek an- tiquities. Early and later ages distinct. /. Of the Earlier and less cultivated Ages. p. 464—482. § 15 The period included. Subject divided into four brances. (1) Religious Affairs. § § 16—32. 16 First traces of the religion of the Greeks. 17 Form and mode of religious instruction. 18 In- fluence of the poets. 19 Number and character of the gods. 20 Temples and sacred places. 21 Images and statues. 22 Priests and Priestesses. 23 Rites; ablutions. 24 Prayers. 25 Sacrifices; the materials ; the origin. 26 Altars. 27 Sacrifices ; the cere- monies. 28 Gifts and offerings. 29 Worship rendered to heroes. 30 Fu- neral solemnities. 31 Burning of corpse ; monuments. 32 Oracles and divination. ^ (2) Civil Affairs. §§33—41. 33 Early rudeness. 34 Power of the kings. 35 Their retinue and councillors. 36 Courts of justice. 37 Laws and punishment. 38 The Cretan laws. 39 Successive forms of government at Athens. 40 At Sparta. 41 Commerce and Navigation. (3) Military Affairs. § § 42—51. 42 Early Greeks warlike. 43 Their armies, how composed. 44 Weapons; Defensive. 45 Offensive. 49 The materials of which made. 47 War-galleys. 48 Camps. 49 Order of Battle. 50 Division of Spoils. Barbarous stripping of the slain. Com- bat of chiefs. 51 Treaties. (4) Domestic Affairs. §§ 52 — 63. 52 Common food. Dai- ly meals. 53 Social repasts. 54 Dress. £5 Practice of bathing. Cultivation cf the IJair. 56 Houses, 57 Hospi- rifices and attendant ceremonies. 69 Oaths. Leagues. 70 Oracles. Im- posture at Argos. 71 Oracles of Ju- piter; at Dodona ; in Crete ; African desert. 72, 73 Of Apollo at Delphi. 74 Of Trophonius ; and others. 75 Arts and methods of divination. 76, 77 Festivals ; notice of the principal ; of Adonis, of Bacchus, of Ceres, of Minerva. 78 Games. 79 The race. 80 Leaping. 81 Wrestling. 82 The discus. 83 Boxing. 84 Four sacred games. Olympic. 85 Pythian. 86 Nemean. 87 Isthmian. 88 System of athletics. 89 Theatres, and dram- atic representations. 90 Chorus. Theoric money at Athens. (2) Civil Affairs. §§ 91—134. 91 Athens and Sparta distinguished by pecularities. 92 Dra- co and Solon at Athens. 93 The tribes and classes at Athens. 94 Pis- istratus, and his sons. 95 The thirty tyrants. Form of government after them until death of Alexander. 96 Buildings of Athens. 97 The free citizens of Athens. 98 The foreign residents. 99 The slaves. 100 Mag- istrates. The Archons. 102 The Eleven. Orators. Ambassadors. No- taries. 103 Athenian revenues. 104 Officers of the revenue and treasury. Expenditures. 105 Amphictyonic council. 106 Assemblies of the peo- ple. 107 Athenian senate. 108 Ar- eopagus. 109 Athenian courts of jus- tice. TheEphetse. 110 The Heliaea. Ill The Forty. The Disetetae. 112 Different kinds of actions. 113 Pun- ishments. 1 14 The Ostracism. 115 Modes of inflicting death. 116 Pub- lic rewards and honors. 117 Attic laws. 118 Natural situation of Spar- ta. 119 Spartan tribes. 120 Treat- ment of children at Sparta. 121 Spar- tan slaves. 122 The kings of Sparta. 123 The Senate. Ephori. 124 No- mophulakes and other magistrates. 125 Assemblies of the people. 126 XX CONTENTS. Public repasts. 127 Judicial affairs. 123 Punishments. ]29 Laws of Spar- ta. 130 Cretan constitution. 131 Cretan laws ; public meals ; slaves. 132 Constitution of Thebes. 133 Constitutions of Corinth and Syra- cuse. 134 Of Argos; of iEtolia, and Achaia. (3) Military Affairs. $$ 135—160. 135 The warlike char- ter retained ; especially by the Spar- tans. 136 Persons liable to military duty. Their support. 137 Classes of troops. The infantry. 138 Cavalry. Use of Elephants. 139 Armor. 140 Various officers. 141 The divisions of the army. 142 Forms of Battle-array. Manoeuvres. 143 Declaration of war. Treaties. 144 Camps. 145 Standards and ensigns. Signals for battle. 146 Art of besieging. 147 Military en- gines. 148 Defence of cities. 149 Treatment of captures places. 150 Division of spoils. 151 Military re- wards and punishments. 152 Means of conveying intelligc nee. 153 Cross- ing of rivers. 154, 155 Ships. Names of their principal parts. Vessels of war. 156 Rowers, sailors and ma- rines. Manner of placing the seats of rowers. 157 Instruments employed in naval battle. 158 Naval officers. 159 Manner of naval battle. 160 Na- vul victories and monuments. Naval punishments (4) Affairs of Private Life. S$ 161—187. 161 Food. Use of wines. 162 The different meals. Manner of spending the day at Athens. 163 En- tertainments or feasts. 164 Customs at table. 165 Substances eaten at the principal meal. 166 Officers and attendants at an entertainment. 167 Customs in drinking. Amusements accompanying a feast. 168 Customs of hospitality. -Officers called Proxe- ni. Inns. 169 Dress, for the body, head, and feet. Use of silk. Adorn- ing of the person. 170 Bathing and anointing. 171 Houses. 172 Com- merce and Agriculture. 173, 174 Gre- cian money and coins. Ratio of Gold and silver. 175 Greek system of no- tation. 176 Grecian weights. 177 Measures. 178 Social amusements. 179, 180 Music and musical instru- ments. 181 Condition of females. 182 Laws and customs respecting marriage. 183 — 186 Funeral rites. Anniversaries held in honor the dead, with orations and games. 187 Sepulchral monuments, ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. Introduction, p. 55^—557. §§ 188—198. 188 Origin of Rome. 189 Principal events which affected the appearance of the city. Compar- ative splendor of ancient and modern Rome. 190 Population of Rome. 191 Extent of the Roman empire. 192 Pro- portion of soldiers and other citizens. 193 The time of the regal govern- ment. 194 Most brilliant era of Ro- man history. 195 Condition under the emperors. 196 Utility of studying Roman antiquities. Original sources of information on the subject. 197 Referencesto modern works and au- thors. 198 Division of the subject. (I) Religious Affairs, p. 557 — 578, §$ 199—239. 199 Use of the term re- ligio. 200 Origin of the religion of the Romans. 201 Its connection with politics. 202 Design of Romulus and Numa. Gods of the Romans. 203 Temples. 204 Statues and offerings. Groves. 205 Altars. 206 Vessels employed in sacrifices. 207 Several orders of priests. 208 Pontifices. 209 Augurs. Various methods of augury. 210 Haruspices. 2ll Epulones. 2l2 Feciales. 213 Rex sacrorum. 214 Flai ; nes. 215 Salii. 216 Luperci. 217 Galli and others. 218 Vestal vir- gins. 219 Fratres Arvales, Curiones, and others. 220 Customs in offering prayers. 221 Sacrifices and attend- ant rites. 222 Vows. 223 Dedica- tion of sacred buildings. 224 Expia- tions. The lustrum. 225 Oaths. 226 Oracles. 227 Lots. 228 Divisions of time. 229, 230 Festivals. 231 Pub- lic games. 232, 233 Ludi Circenses. Naumachia. 234 Ludi Seculares. 235 Ludi Gladiatorii. 236 Ludi Flo- rales. 237 Ludi Megalenses, Cerea- les, and others. 238 Theatres, Masks &c. 239 Amphitheatres. (2) Civil Affairs, p. 578—601. § § 240—274. 240 Regal government. 241 Consuls. 242 Imperial govern- ment. 243 Praetors, 244 iEdiles. 245 Tribunes. 246 Quaestors. 247 Cen- sors. 248, 249 Extraordinary magis- trates; Dictator; Decemviri; Military Tribunes ; Praefects. Interrex, &c. 250 Proconsuls, and other provincial magistrates. 251 Tribes. 252 Six classes of citizens. Centuries. 253 Patricians and plebeians. 254 The populace. Patrons and clients. 255 Roman nobility. Right of images. Curule office, 256 The Equites or CONTENTS. XXI Knights. 257 The Senate. 258, 259 The Comitia. 260 Right of citizenship. Government of conquered cities and nations. 261 Judicial proceedings. Public actions and trials. 262 Private actions. 263 Penal offences. 264 Pun- ishments. 265 System of laws. Body of Roman civil law. 266 Regulations respecting grain. 267 Revenue. 268 Commerce. Mechanic arts. 269 Agri- culture. Carriages. 270 Money. Coins. 271 System of reckoning and notation. 272 Modes of acquiring property. 273 Auctions. Confisca- tions. 274 Measures of extent, &c. Modesof determining the Roman foot. (3) Affairs of War. p. 601—619. § § 275—309. 275 Authorities on the subject. 276 Military establishment of the kings. 277 Persons liable to duty. Time of service. 278 Consu- lar army. Exempts. 279 System of levy. 280 Classes of troops. 281 Sub- division into maniples, &c. 282 Stand- ards. Music. 283 Weapons. 284 Wages. Rewards. 285 Punishments. 286 Order of battle. 287 Modes of at- tack. 288 Light troops. 289, 290 Cav- alry. 291 Cohorts. 292 Auxiliaries. 293 Attendants upon the army. 294 Order of march. 295 Forms of array. 296, 297 The Camp. 298 Watches. Exercises of soldiers. 299 Sieges. Engines. Mounds and towers. Bat- tering ram and other engines 300 Modes of defence in a siege. 301 The fleets. 302 Method of naval battle. 303 Construction and parts of Roman ships. 304 Different kinds of vessels. 305 Rewards of generals. 306 Laws on the subject. 307 The triumph. 308 The ovation. 309 Military system un- der the emperors. (4) Affairs of Private Life. p. 620—640. §§ 310—343 .3lOThe/ree-iornand the free-made discriminated. 311 Sys- tem of applying proper names. 312 Regulations respecting marriage. 313, 314 Marriage contracts. 315 Nuptial ceremonies. 316 Divorces. 317 The right and power of the father over his children. 318 Emancipation of sons. 319 Adoption. 320 Legitimation. 321 Education of youth. 322 Slaves. 323 Slave trade.- 324 Emancipation of slaves. 325 Dwellings. Parts and ornaments of a Roman house. 326 Country seats or villas. 327 Manner of life. Morals. 328 Daily Routine of employment. 329 Fobd and meals. Furniture for eating. 330 Different courses at supper. Roman hospitality. 331aDrinkino- and'games at banquets. Dice. 3316 Wines. 332 Dress. The toga. 333. The tunic.^&rtfges. 334 The stola and other garments of wo- men. 335 Various outer garments. Use of silk. 336 Coverings for tho head and feet. 337, 338 Dress of the hair. Personal ornaments. 339 Fu- neral customs. Exposure of the corpse. 340 Funeral processions. Eulogy. 341 Burning. Place of burial. Tombs. Phials of tears. 342 Mourning for the deceased. Games and sacrifices. 343 Consecration ed emperors. PART V. Classical Geography and Chronology. EPITOME OF CLASSICAL GEOGRA- PHY. Introduction, p. 643, 644. § § 1-5. 1-3 Portion of earth known to ancients. 4, 5 Ancient divisions. It Of Europe, p. 644—688. § § 6—148. 6, 7 Extent and bounda- ries. 8 General subdivisions. 9. 15 56 Streets. 57 Fora. 58-60 Temples and groves. 61-63 Curiae, basilicas, circuses ; theatres &c. 64 Baths. 65 -67 Schools, porticos, columns, tro- phies &c. 68 Aqueducts. Sewers. 69 Monuments to the dead. 70 Dwellings. 71 Villas. Suburbs. 72-75 Thracia. 76 Four natural divisions of Grsecia. 77-81 Macedonia. 82-88 Thessalia. Epirus. 89-103 Hellas. 104-116 To- JYorthern countries of Europe ; Scan- pographij of Athens. 104, 105 Its sit- uation. 106 The Acropolis. 107 Par- dinavia, Cimbrica, Sarmatia, Germa- nia, &c. 16-26 Middle countries of Europe ; Gallia, Rhsstia, Noricum, Pannonia, Illyricum, Moesia, Dacia. 27-29 Southern countries of Europe. 29-31 Hispania. 32-50 Italia. 51-71 Topography of Rome. 51, 52 Gates and roads. 53 Bridges and hills. 54 Districts. References to writers on the topography of the city. 55 Campi. thenon and other buildings of the cit- adel. 108-110 The lower city and its- temples. Ill Porches. Odea. Cer- amicus. 112, 113 Forums. Aqueducts. Stadium. 114 Areopagus. Pnyx. 115 Theatres. Choragic monuments. 116 Harbors. References to writers on the topography of Athens. 117-125 Peloponnesus. 126-129 Topography XX11 CONTENTS. of Sparta. 126 Form and situation. 127 Forum. 128 Columns and statues. 129 Hippodrome. Harbor. Refer- ences to writers. 130-148 European Islands 130-136 Britannia and adjoin- ing islands. 137 Balearic®. Corsica and Sardinia. 138-140 Sicilia. 141.142 Ionian islands. 143-148 .Egean islands. II. of asia. p. 683—692. § § 149—172. 149, 150 Extent and general division of Asia. 151-155 Countries of the Eastern division. Scythia, Singe, India, Persia, Media, Parthia. 156-171 Countries of the West- ern division. 156 Sarmatia, Colchis, Albania, Iberia. 157 Armenia. 158 -165 Asia Minor. 166-169 Syria in- cluding Palsestina. 170 Mesopotamia, Babylonia and Assyria. 171 Arabia. 172 Asiatic islands. III. OF AFRICA, p. 692—696. §§ 173—183. 173 Extent and di- visions of Africa. 174-176 Egypt. 177 Ancient ruins and remains of Egypt. Works on the subject. 178 ^Ethiopia. 179 Libya. 180 Africa Propria. 181 Numidia. 182 Mauri- tania. 183 Africa Interior. Atlantis. INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. Preliminary Remarks, p. 697- $$ 184. Importance of the subject* Design of present sketch- Two parts. J. Of measuring time and adjusting its divisions- p. 697 — 702. $$ 185—196- 185 The three natural divisions of time ; day, month, and year- 186, 187 Ancient customs as to beginning and dividing the day. 188 Devices for marking and making known the parts of the day. Dial, Clepsydra. 189 190 The month. The Grecian system. 191 Roman method of reckoning the months, and the days of the month. The week- Names of the days- 192 The year- The Gre- cian ; Roman ; Julian. The Gregori- an Calendar. Old and new style- 193 Cycles. 194 The lunar cycle- 195 The solar. 196 The cycle of indiction. Julian Period. //• Of fixing the dates of historical events and arranging them in order. p. 702—720. §§ 197—215- 197 Topics noticed in this part- 198— 201 Methods of as- certaining dates. 1. Successive gen- erations ; and successive reigns of kings- 2- Celestial appearances. 3. Coins, inscriptions &c- 4. Historical testimony. 202, 203 Epochs and eras. Era of Olympiads ; of Rome ; the Christian ; the Mahometan ; of the French Republic. 204 — 207 Systems and tables. 204 Claims of the Egyp- tians and Babylonians. 205 The He- brew and the Septuagint chronology. Newton's. Usher's. 206, 207 Various plans for charts- The best- 208-215 Actual dates of most prominent events. 208 Common complaint of students. Remedy. 209 Brief outline of general Chronology. 210 Systems of artificial memory- 211 Chronology of ancient states • eight principal states of Asia ; references to works on their history. 212 Of the two principal in Africa. 213 Of Greece- 214, 215 Of Rome. DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. [Reference from one place to another in this Manual is commonly made by specifying the number of the Part, and Section, and Subdivision of the section. Thus, (in the following col- umns, or any where in the work,) the reference cf. P. IV. § 44. 2, directs the reader to Part IV. section 44, paragraph numbered 2. — Sometimes the P. and the $ may be omitted ; as thus, cf. IV. 77. 4. which would refer to Part IV. section 77, paragraph 4.] 1. Frontispiece. View of Delphi and the Heights of Parnassus, as given by Bocage in Bartheletny , s Anacharsis ; cf. the volume of Plates, p. 71, as cited P. II. $ 153. 2. — P. V. $97. 2. Reverse of Title-page. View of Ath- ens, reduced from Hobhouse's Albania. 3. Plate I. (Page 2.) Ancient Books, and Implements used in Writing and in the Arts. — Fig. 1. A painting on the wall of a chamber, found at Herculaneum ; it shows a bag of money, tied, lying on a table between two heaps of coins, with an inkstand and reed, a parchment or papyrus manuscript with its ti- tle appended, a style, and tablets. — Fig. 2. Tablets connected by a rina, pugillares; cf. P. I. $ 56.2,$ 118. 3. — Figs. 3 and -1. BtJ lea ; cf. P. I. $ 54. — Fig. 9. A reed. — Fig. ... A roll showing the manner of writing. — Fig. 6. Two tablets, and the capsa, or bookcase ; cf. P. I. 'i a °YX l ?) of Manetho. Cf. P. I. $1£. 1; $91.7.8. Fig. B. Ancient British writing on moveable sticks ; cf. P. I. $53. Fig. C. The papyrus, growing on the banks of the Nile ; cf. P. I. $ 118. 1. Fig. E. Comparative view of several corre- sponding letters in eight different alphabets (cf. P. I. $ 45. 2) ; forming as nearly as the al- phabets will allow, the words of the Hebrew inscription, Holiness to the Lord, which was engraved on the golden plate attached to the mitre of Aaron (Exod. xxviii. 36, 37) ; — the line a is in Hebrew old coin letters ; b, in the Hebrew common letters, as in the modern printed Hebrew Bible ; c, in the Egyptian hie- ratic or priest's letters ; d, in the Samaritan ; e, in the Egyptian phonetic hieroglyphics ; /, in the Coptic ; the next line gives the corre- sponding Roman letters, as formed in modern printing, being the same as ours; g, the com- mon Greek, as nearly as the alphabet seems to allow ; the last line, h, is the Septuagint version of the inscription. This cut may serve also to illustrate the ancient custom of engrav- ing an inscription in different languages on the same monument ; as, e. g. the Rosetta etone (cf. P. I. $91. 7) ; the Egypto-Persian Vase noticed above in explaining fig. G; and the memorable three-fold inscription placed by Pilate over the head of the Savior upon the cross (Luke, xxiii. 38 ; John, xix. 19). 5. Plate II. (Page 53.) Grecian Coins.— For particulars, see P. I. ft 93. 2, $ 95. 1, P. IV. $ 173. 3. 6. Plate III. (Page 64.) Roman Coins.— For the details, see P. I. $ 134. 1, $ 139. 2, P. IV. $ 270. 3. 7. Plate IV. (Page 86.) Specimens of An- cient Sculpture. — Fie. 1. Dving Gladiator; cf. P. I. $ 186. 9.— Fie. 2. Head of Antinous ; cf. P. I. $ 186. 10. — Fig. 3. Apollo Belvidere ; cf. P. I. $ 186. 4. — Fie. 4. Gladiator Borghese ; cf. P. I. $ 186. 8. — Fig. 5. Laocoon ; cf. P. I. $ 186. 1. —Fig. 6. Hercules Farnese ; cf. P. I. $ 186. 6. 3. Plate V. (Page 109.) Jewels and Sculp- tured Gems. — Figs. 1 and 2. Specimens of the Abraxas ; cf. P. I. ft 200. 2, $ 198 ; P. III. $96. (6). — Fig. 3. A Roman seal ; cf. P. I. $ 20fi. — Fig. 4, and figs. g. h, i, o, and r. Jewels for the ear and breast ; cf. P. IV. $ 338. — Fig. 5. Cupid, ason an ancient gem ; cf. P. I. $ 198. Fig. 6. Daedalus, as on an ancient gem ; cf. P. I. $ 198. — Figs. 7 and 8. Gems bearing a Her- mes and Herrneraclcs ; cf. P. 1. $ 164. 2.— Figs, a, b, c, d, e,f. Finger-rings,with eems inserted; cf. P. I. $206. 9. Plate VI. (Page 121.) Illustrations per- taining to the Theatre. — Fig. 1. Plan of the Greek theatre ; cf. P. 1. ft 235. — Fig. 2. Plan of the Roman theatre; cf. P. IV. $238.— Fig. A. Edifice called Choragic Monument of Thra- syllus ; cf. P. I. $ 66. 3 ; P. V. $ 115. —Fig. C. Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, called also Lantern of Demosthenes. — Fig. B B. A repre- sentation in Mosaic, found at Pompeii : cf. P. I. $ 189. 1. V ' 10. Plate Via. (Page 128.) Architectural Illustrations. — Figs, a, b, c, d, e. Columns, Egyptian &c. ; cf. P. I. $ 238. 3. — Figs. /, g, h, hi, h, I. Grecian and Roman columns, ex- hibiting the different orders &c. ; cf. P. I. $238. 1. — Figs, m and n. Arches upon pil- lars ; cf. P. I. $244. — Figs. p,q, s, u. Grecian capitals ; cf. P. I. $ 238. 1. — Figs, o, r, t, v. Pillars i r and v, Gothic ; o, Saracenic ; t, Chi- nese ; cf. P. I. $ 245. 11. Plate VII. (Paee 134.) Comparative View of celebrated Edifices and other Structures. See bottom of the Plate. 12. Plate VIII. (Page 144.) Grecian Busts, with names annexed ; taken from the Historic Gallery, cited P. I. $ 187. 13. Tlate IX. (Page 276.) Roman Busts, with names annexed ; taken from the Historic Gallery and Landun, as cited P. I. $ 1S7. 14. Plate X. (Page 398.) Mythological Il- lustrations.— Fig. 1. Saturn ; cf. P. III. $ 14- 17. — Fig. 2. Cybele; cf. P. III. $19-21.— Fig. 3. Pluto; cf. P. III. $32-34. — Fig. 4. Vulcan; cf. P. III. $51-54. — Fig. 5. Nep- tune; cf. P. III. $29-31. — Fig. 6. Venus, with attendants ; cf. P. III. $ 47-49. — Fig. 7. Diana ; cf. P. III. $ 38-40. — Fig. 8. Bacchus ; cf. P. III. $57-60. 15. Plate XI. (Page 408.) Mytholocrical Il- lustrations. — Fig. 1. Juno ; cf. P. III. $ 26-28. — Fig. 2. Mercury ; cf. P. III. $ 55, 56.'— Fig. 3. Jupiter ; cf. P. III. $ 22-25. — Fig. 4. Apol- lo ; cf. P. III. $35-37. — Fig. 5. Ceres ; cf. P. III. $61-64. — Fie. 6- Minerva; cf. P. III. $ 41-43. — Fig. 7. Mars ; cf. P. III. ft 44-46. — Fig. 8. Janus ; cf. P. III. $ 18. — Fig. 9. Cu- pid ; cf. P. III. $50. — Fig. 10. Vesta; cf. P, III. $65-67. m. Plate XI a. (Page 415.) The Hindoo Triad. Cf. P. III. $ 25. 4. 17. Plate XI b. (Page 431.) The Avatars of Vishnu. Cf. P. III. $ 25. 4, $ 376. 18. Plate XII. (Page 439.) Mythological Illustrations. — Fig. 1. Soi, as represented on a coin of the Rhodians ; cf. P. III. $ 71-73. — Fig. 2. Nox, as represented on a gem ; cf. P, III. ft 76. — Fig. 3. Luna; cf. P. III. $ 73. — Fig. 4. Hebe ; P. III. $ 27. — Fig. 5. Flora ; cf. P. III. $ 90. — Fig. 6. jEsculapius ; cf. P. III. ft 84. — Fig. 7. Pan; cf. P. III. $79.— Fie. 8. Spes, or Hope ; cf. P. III. $95. 1. — Fig. 9. Fortuna; cf. P. III. ft 8^. — Fig. 10. Victoria; cf. P. III. $93. — Fig. 11. Concor- dia ; cf. P. III. $ 95. 1. — Fig. 12. Pax, or Peace; cf. P. HI. ft 95. 1. 19. Plate XIII. ' (Page 458.) Crowns, Gar- lands, <$-c— Figs. 1,2,3,4, 5. Roman crowns or wreaths, bestowed as military rewards, Fig. 6. Imperial crown. Cf. P. IV. $284. 1. — Figs. 7, 8, 9, 10. Crowns or garlands re- ceived by victors in the games ; cf. P. IV. $84-87, $233. — Fig. A. Plan of a Gymna- sium or Palaestra after Vitruvius, as given in Barthelemifs Anacharsis ; cf. P. I. $236.— Fie. B. Victorious charioteer ; cf. P. IV. $233. — Fig. C. A golden crown found in Ireland ; cf. P. IV. $ 34. 20. Plate XIV. (Paee 475.) Military Weap- ons,St'c. For particulars^see P. IV. $45,137,283, XXIV DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. 21. Plate XV. (Page 483.) Tombs and Se- pulchral Remains. — Figs. 1,2, 3. Tomb of Cyrus, Absalom's pillar, and Pvramid of Ces- tiiis ; cf. P. IV. $ 187. 4. — Fig. 4. Gates of a tomb ; cf. P. IV. $ 187. 4. — Figs, a and dd. Lachrymatory and 'unguentary vases ; cf. P. IV. $341. 7. — Fig. B. Egyptian Psych^stasy, or weighing of the soul ; "cf. P. III. $ 34. 2. — Fig. c. Funeral couch ; cf. P. IV. $ 340. 1. — Fig. hh. Coffin and urns, &.c. ; cf. P. IV. $341.6. 22. Plate XVI. (Page 505.) Temple*. — Fig. I. Parthenon ; cf. P. IV. $96, P. I. $234.3, P. V. $ 107. — Fig. 2. Temple of the Winds ; cf. P. IV. $ 96, P. V. $ 110. — Fig. 3. Temple of Theseus ; cf. P. I'V. $ 96, P. V. $ 109. — Figs, a, b, c, d, e, /, g, A. Ground-plans of the different kinds of temples : cf. P. I. $234. 2. 23. Plate XVII. (Page 522.) Various Arti- cles of Armor. — Figs, a, b, c, > OF THB x 4*! uhiveesitt; PLATE I. ImSMT-^JL^, INTRODUCTION ARCHAEOLOGY OF LITERATURE AND ART. 1. — The origin of human knowledge, and its advancement into the form of sciences and arts. § 1. Man in his first state had the natural capacity for acquiring a great variety of knowledge, by reason of those superior faculties, which distinguished him from irrational animals. But he had then no actual store of innate knowledge and skill. Much less had he any comprehension of those rules and precepts, which guide us in the arts and sciences, and which are the result of long observation and mature reflection. All that is known respecting the first state of man is contained in the ac- count given by Moses respecting Adam and Eve, who were the first human pair, and were formed by direct creation. This account gives little informa- tion as to the degree or the nature of their actual knowledge. Certain it is, however, that Adam was created a man; he was not created a child, infant or embryo, and left to advance to manhood by the gradual steps, which are requi- site by what we call the laws of nature in the formation of every other man. It can be little else than a dispute about words to contend, whether he had or had not innate ideas and actual knowledge before the exercises of mind which were first occasioned by surrounding circumstances. For these exercises of his mental powers, if truly the exercises of a man, and not of a child, must have been such as, in all other cases but his own, could have arisen only after obtaining previous ideas or actual knowledge to some extent ; and in fact, as plainly exhibited in the account of Moses, they were such as, in other cases, presuppose a maturity of intellect. It seems an evident conclusion, therefore, that Adam either possessed by creation the requisite knowledge, or was caused to put forth without it the same exercises as if he had it. On either supposition (if any can adopt the latter) some degree of the knowledge, which is now acquired gradually in the progress from infancy to manhood, came at first directly from God. God implanted it in some way or other ; man did not acquire it by the gradual process which we now term natural. This knowledge, skill, attainment, intellectual power, or whatever any may choose to call it, was the original stock or germ, from which every subsequent acqui- sition sprang. Such a view of the original maturity of the first man by no means supposes Adam to have possessed the extensive knowledge imagined in the fabulous tales of the Jewish Rabbins, or in the descriptions of some theologians. It only represents him as a man literally and truly, instead of a child ; as cre- ated at once a moral and intellectual man ; instead of being formed a sort of animal in human shape, and left to grow into an intelligent being under ac- cidental influences. See O. C. Knapp, Lectures on Chr. Theology, Tr. by L. Woods, N. Y. 1831. 2 vols. 8 vo. B. I. P. ii. Art. 6. — Cowpcr's description of Adam, in the verses entitled Yardly Oak; given in rfUtia's British Poets, Phil. 1831, p. 96", 4 .-.riCIIJEOLOGl' OF LITERATURE AND ART, § 2. There was a gradual development of his faculties, through the impulse of his wants, favored sometimes by accident, and aided by experience and repeated efforts. Thus he acquired a multitude of ideas about himself and the objects of nature around him, which were successively enriched, corrected, and engraved upon his mem- ory. By degrees meditation led him from the visible to the invisible, and from observing actual operations and appearances he proceeded to conjecture and contemplate secret causes and powers. § 3. By means of language the communication of knowledge be- came more easy and rapid. Then this knowledge was no longer confined to the isolated observations and partial experience of each individual observer. The ideas of many were collected and com- bined. The amount of acquisition was increased more and more, as men united themselves in social bonds, and as, in the progress of population and civilization, there was a tendency to the same com- mon aims, and modes of living, and mutual interests. (See remarks under § 12. 1, 2.) § 4. The knowledge of the arts was acquired sooner than that of the sciences, because the wants that gave them birth were more ur- gent, and the difficulty of acquiring them was not so great, since they were chiefly the fruit of experience rather than of reflection. And among the arts themselves, the mechanical or those of common life, must, for the same reasons, have appeared first. It was only at a late period y when man began to think on the means of a nobler destiny, and to feel a desire and relish for higher pleasures, that the fine arts took their rise. Necessitatis invent a antiquiora sunt quam voluptatis. (Cicero.) § 5. We must not imagine the first notions concerning the arts to have constituted any thing like a system reduced to a regular form and fixed principles. With regard to the theory, there were at first only disconnected observations and isolated maxims, the imperfect results of limited experience. As to the practice, there was little but a mechanical routine, some process marked out by chance or imperious necessity. The principal object was to secure the satis- fying of wants, the preservation of life, and the convenience of a so- cial state, which men sought to accomplish by reciprocal aid, and by communicating to each other their experience and acquirements. § 6. Before the great catastrophe of the Hood, men had already acquired much practical knowledge ; such as the first elements of agriculture, architecture, and the art of working metals ; these arts were practiced, although in an imperfect manner. But in that singu- lar revolution of nature, which caused the destruction of nearly the whole human family, the greatest part of this knowledge was lost. Respecting the number of people existing on the earth before the flood, and the state of art, science, and literature among them, nothing is known be- yond mere conjecture. — The following remarks on the subject are from Shuck- ford's Sacred and Profane History connected. " The number of persons in this first world must have been very great ; if we think it uncertain, from the differences between the Hebrew and the Septuagint in this particular, at what time of life they might have their first children, let us make the great- est allowance possible, and suppose that they had no children until they were ft hundred years old, and none after five hundred, yet still the increase of this INTRODUCTION. ANTEDILUVIAN SCIENCE. O world must have been prodigious. There are several authors, who have formed calculations of it, and they suppose, upon a moderate computation, that there were in this world at least two millions of millions of souls. It would be very entertaining, if we could have a view of the religion, politics, arts or sciences of this numerous people." — After pursuing some hints re- specting their religion, he adds, " we can only guess at the progress they might make in literature or any of the arts. The enterprising genius of man began to exert itself very early in music, brass- work, iron-work, in every ar- tifice and science useful or entertaining ; and the undertakers were not lim- ited by a short life, they had time enough before them to carry things to per- fection J but whatever their skill, learning, or industry performed, all remains or monuments of it are long ago perished. We meet in several authors hints of some writings of Enoch, and of pillars supposed to have been inscribed by Seth. The Epistle of St. Jude seems to cite a passage from Enoch ; but the notion of Enoch's leaving any work behind him has been so little credited, that some persons, not considering that there are many things alluded to in the New Testament, which were perhaps never recorded in any books, have gone too far, and imagined the Epistle of St. Jude to be spurious, for its seem- ing to have a quotation from this figment. — There is a piece pretending to be this work of Enoch, and Scaliger, in his annotations upon Eusebius's Chron- icon, has given us considerable fragments, if not the whole of it. It was vastly admired by Tertullian and some other fathers ; but it has since their time been proved to be the product of some impostor, who made it, according to Scaliger, Vossius, Gale, and Kircher, some time between the captivity and our Savior's birth. — As to Seth's pillars, Josephus gives the following account of them. ' That Seth and his descendants were persons of happy tempers and lived in peace, employing themselves in the study of astronomy, and in other researches after useful knowledge ; that in order to preserve the knowl- edge they had acquired, and to convey it to posterity, having heard from Adam of the Flood, and of a destruction of the world by fire, which was to follow it, they made two pillars, the one of stone, the other of brick, and in- scribed their knowledge upon them, supposing that one or the other of them might remain for the use of posterity. The stone pillar, on which is inscribed, that there was one of brick made also, is still remaining in the land of Seriad to this day.' Thus far Josephus ; but whether his account of this pillar may be admitted, has been variously controverted ; we are now not only at a loss about the pillar, but we cannot so much as find the place where it is said to have stood." For further remarks on the pillars of Seth : Shuckford, Sac. & Prof. Hist, connected, Vol. I. p. 55. Phil. 1824. 2 vols. 8.—E. Stilling-fieet, Origines Sacrae, B. i. c. 2. Lond. 1662. 4.— Re- specting the book of Enoch, cf. P. II. $ 279.— On the attainments of antediluvians, also Du. Pin (as cited P. II. §240), B. I. Sect. 1. § 7. Subsequently to the deluge, the free communication and pro- pagation of knowledge was hindered by the confusion of tongues, and the consequent dispersion of the inhabitants of the earth into many countries. Thereby the progress of human acquirements was retarded in a very sensible manner during the first ten centuries. For a long time men were destitute of some particulars of knowl- edge almost essential to life ; as, for instance, the use of fire. However incredible it may at first seem, that any part of mankind should have been ignorant of the use of fire, it is attested by the most ancient and unanimous traditions. (See references in proof of it, in De GogueVs Origin of Laws, Arts, &c. P. I. B. ii. as cited § 32.) — Modern discoveries have con- firmed the same. " The inhabitants of the Marian Islands [Marianas or La- drones], which were discovered in 1521, had no idea of fire. Never was as- tonishment greater than theirs, when they saw it, on the descent of Magellan on one of their islands. At first they believed it to be a kind of animal that fixed itself to and fed upon wood. Some of them, who approached too near, being burnt, the rest were terrified, and durst only look upon it at a dis- tance." (Goguet.) 1* 6 ARCHEOLOGY OF LITERATURE AND ART. Respecting the effect of the dispersion on civilization, cf. § 12. 2. § 8. The food of man in the first ages was extremely simple, and consisted in a great measure of the spontaneous productions of the earth. The use of animals for nourishment was very limited, from want of means to domesticate or capture them. The art of prepar- ing food of either kind was likewise very imperfect. But the neces- sity of taking nourishment was, doubtless, the most imperious of wants ; and hence it is not only probable, but certain from the testi- mony of sacred and profane authors, that tilling the ground and tending herds and flocks were the first and most general occupations of men, and that the knowledge relating to these objects was the first acquired and the most extensive. A proof of the antiquity of agriculture is found in the fact, that almost all the ancient nations ascribe its invention and introduction in their country to some divin- ity, or some deified founder of their state, or early sovereign of their land. § 9. According to the difference of country, climate, manner of living, and habits, there was a difference likewise in these simple at- tainments, and in the steps of their progress. With some nations agriculture was the most common occupation, with others the rais- ing of cattle, and with others hunting and fishing ; and by natural consequence, among each people, the experience relating to their own occupations, and the observations and acquirements resulting from it, were the most generally diffused and the most perfect. Com- pared with the other modes of subsistence, agriculture has an im- portant advantage in promoting various arts, because it compels men to renounce a wandering life, and settle in fixed, permanent abodes : thus it increases the demand for conveniences, and furnishes an oc- casion for inventions, which may help to facilitate and carry to per- fection the culture of the soil. § 10. Among the inventions which resulted from this, we may no- tice especially architecture and the working of metals. The first arose from the necessity of procuring a shelter from the inclemency of the seasons and the attacks of wild beasts. Rude in its origin, it hardly deserved the name of an art ; but under the influences of social life, it made a progress considerably rapid. The metals were probably discovered to man by some accident. For the art of work- ing them we may be indebted to operations perceived in nature, vol- canic eruptions, e. g., or casual fires. 1. The art of working metals is alluded to by Moses (Gen. iv. 22) as ex- isting before the deluge, but was lost probably in the dispersion of Noah's descendants, except among those who remained near the spot where man was first located. (Comp. § 12.)— The same authority shows the use of metals established a few ages after the flood. Gen. xxii. 6, xxxi. 19, xxxiii. 12, Levit. xxvi. 19, Deut. xxix. 16, 17. Comp. Job xxviii. 1, 2, 17. 2. Goguet remarks that the use of iron probably was not so early as that of other metals, and that tools of stone preceded those made of iron. " Ancient- ly they employed copper for all the purposes for which we now make use of iron. Arms, tools for husbandry and the mechanic arts were all of copper for many ages. The writings of Homer leave no room to doubt of this. We see, that at the time of the Trojan war, iron was very little used. Copper supplied its place. It was the same for ages amongst the Romans." — "A kind of stones, commonly called thunder-stones (Ceraujiia), are still preserved INTRODUCTION. ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE, 7 in a great many cabinets." They have the shape of axes, plough-shares, ham- mers, mallets, or wedges ; for the most part, they are of a substance like that of our gun-flints, so hard that no tile can make the least impression upon them. It is evident from inspection, that these stones have been wrought by the hands of men. The holes for inserting the handles prove their destina- tion and the several uses that were made of them. It is well known, that tools of stone have been in use in America from time immemorial. They are found in the tombs of the ancient inhabitants of Peru, and several nations use them at this day. They shape and sharpen them upon a kind of grind- stone, and by length of time, labor and patience, form them kito any figure they please. They then fit them very dexterously with a handle, and use them nearly in the same manner we do our tools of iron. Asia and Europe 1 are strowed with stones of this sort. They are frequently found. There must then have been a time, when the people of these countries were igno- rant of the use of iron, as the people of America were before the arrival of the Europeans." Ooguet, Or. of Laws, &c. P. I. B. ii. c. 4. — Cf. Dictionn. Class. d'Hist Nattirelle (cited $ 1 ( J4), article Ceraunias.—Mahudcl, Des pretendes pierres de foudre, Mem. Acad. Inscr. xii. 163w § 11. The arts of imitation had a later origin, because they were not produced by an equally urgent want, and require more deep med- itation and some abstraction of mind. In their commencement they were, however, merely the developments of superior mechanical dexterity, rather than what may properly be called fine arts, and the first attempts were but rude and defective. Among these we number whatever belongs to sculpture, or the art of imitating fig- ures in relief; for which purpose it is probable, that soft materials, as earth and clay, were at first employed. The proper art of draw- ing presupposes more abstraction ; probably it was first practiced in tracing the outlines of shadows cast from different objects and bodies. Music, which, independent of any natural pleasure in rhythm and melodious sounds, might originate from the songs of birds, must be regarded as among these early arts of imitation. With it, if not before it, was invented poetry, which, in its origin and its first advances, was joined inseparably with something of musical accompaniment. § 12. We have already (§ 3) mentioned Language as the princi- pal means of communication among men. Respecting its origin, we only observe, that the first men possessed by creation the faculty of speech, although language itself, most probably, was not an im- mediate gift of the Deity, but a gradual invention of man; the natu- ral expressions of feeling, which he had in common with other ani- mals, being by degrees formed into articulate sounds and signs of thought. Not necessary to him in the isolated state of nature, it was yet so essential to the social state as to call into exercise the im- planted faculty of speech, and constantly and rapidly increase the stock of words. But, as the ideas were few and confined chiefly to objects of sense, the original language needed neither great compass nor high improvement. 1. The remarks of the author in this section indicate too much agreement with the common error of considering a state of barbarism as the natural and original state of man. Philosophers in tracing the progress of human know- ledge have often founded their speculations on this supposition, that men at first were but a number of ignorant savages, not joined by any social ties, a mere mutum ac turpe pccus, scarcely elevated above the beasts of the forests through which they roamed. Dr. Fergurson has the following judicious ob- 8 ARCHAEOLOGY OF LITERATURE AND ART. servations on this topic. a The progress of mankind from a supposed state of animal sensibility, to the attainment of reason, to the use of language, and to the habit of society, has been painted with a force of imagination, and its steps pointed out with a boldness of invention, that would tempt us to admit among the materials of history the suggestions of fancy, and to receive perhaps as the model of our nature in its original state some of the animals whose shape has the greatest resemblance to ours. It would be ridiculous to affirm, as a dis- covery, that the species of the horse was probably never the same with that of the lion ; yet, in opposition to what has dropped from the pens of eminent writers, we are obliged to observe that men have always appeared among ani- mals a distinct and superior race ; that neither the possession of similar organs, nor the approximation of shape, nor the use of the hand, nor the continued in- tercourse with this sovereign artist, has enabled any other species to blend their nature or their inventions with his ; that in his rudest state, he is found to be above them, and in his greatest degeneracy, he never descends to their level. He is, in short, a man in every condition ; with him society appears to be as old as the individual, and the use of the tongue as universal as that of the hand or the foot. If there was a time in which he had his acquaintance with his own species to make, and his faculties to acquire, it is a time of which we have no record, and in relation to which our opinions can serve no purpose and are supported by no evidence." See A. Fergurson's Ess. on History of Civ. Society, Bost. 1809. 8vo. The allusion of the author, in the passage quoted, is to such theorists as Rousseau and Monboddo. — See Rousseau, sur l'origine de l'inegalite parmi les hommes, in his Ouevrcs, Par. 1823. 25 vols. 18. vol. 1st. — Jfonboddo (J. Burnet ), Origin and Progress of Language, Edinb. 1774, 6 vols. 8vo. — Also, Bozy de St. Vincent, L'Homme, Essai Zoologique sur le genre humain. Par. 1827. 2 vols. 16mo. This author attempts to prove that there are several species of human kind, and that Adam was the father of but one species. For more correct views, see S. S. Smith, Essay on the cause of variety in the complexion and figure of the Human Species. N. Brunsw. 1810. 8. — J. C. Prishard', Researches into the Physical History of Mankind. Lond. 1826. 2 vols. 8vo. 2. The whole history of the world is opposed to the hypothesis of a gradual advancement of the human race from a condition of barbarism. In the first place, all the nations which are known to have risen from barbarism to culti- vation have been thus raised by coming into contact and intercourse with other nations more civilized and cultivated than themselves, and not by the natural progress of their own independent steps towards perfection. In the next place, a nation or society once merged in barbarism is found in fact to sink into deeper and deeper degradation when separated from the influence of more enlightened nations, instead of rising gradually from its depression and gaining the rank and happiness of a civilized people. So great is this tenden- cy to deterioration, that it is a matter of exceeding difficulty, even with all the aids which the most cultivated nation can furnish, to introduce and per- petuate among savage tribes the manners, intelligence and blessings of civili- zed life. But the truth on this subject is, that the natural and original state of man, that in which he was first placed by his benevolent Creator, was a state combining all the blessings of civilization needed in a single holy family. Man was at his creation put at once into the social and family condition, and if before the deluge there was any such state of things as existed after it in the savage and barbarous tribes, it was a state into which man plunged himself, by not choosing to retain God in his knowledge. It was in this way that man was thrown into the savage state after the deluge. The family of Noah was a civilized family, in which were preserved, no doubt, all the useful know- ledge and arts of the antediluvian world, as well as the true religion. There is no evidence, that there was any state of barbarism among their descendants until after the dispersion. So far as history and tradition cast any light on this subject, they point to that portion of the earth, where the subsiding flood left the family of Noah, as the region of earliest civilization and refinement. Every search after the primary sources of intellectual culture conducts the inquirer towards this quarter, as the original centre of light. The families and tribes, which remained nearest this centre, retained most of the arts, sciences, and religion of their ancestors. Those which removed the farthest retained the least, and gradually lost nearly all resemblance to their primitive charac- ter, and finally, in the course of their various and distant migrations, sunk to the manners and spirit of savages. INTRODUCTION. ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE. If " It is customary to begin history with hypothesis ; to seek the history of religion, or of socie- ty, for instance, in the savage state ; in that state which historical criticism cannot reach ; among the shadows which lie beyond all history. I shall do otherwise." * * * " Whence comes modern history ? It is clear that there was something before it and I need not insist upon demonstrating that its real and well known roots lie in the Grecian and Ro- man world ; to this parentage all kinds of evidence lead us. And this world of classical antiq- uity, does it not suppose a previous world ? It is perfectly well known that if the roots of the modern world lie in classical antiquity, those of classical antiquity may be found on the coasts of Egypt, the plains of Persia, and the high lands of Central Asia. It is evident in at word, that the East preceded Greece. Ml evidence brings us to this i but does it carry us far- ther?"— V. Cousin's Introduct. to Hist, of Philosophy, Lect. 2nd. Transl. by H. 6. Linberg, Bost. 1832. 8. See Zimmerman, Geograph. Geschichte de Menschen. — Meiners, Gesch. der Menscheit, and Bailly, sur l'origine des Sciences, cited § 32. — Tytler's History, P. II. S. 50. — Prichard, as above cited, Vol. I. p. 86.— Bibl. Repos. and Quart. Obs. No. xvii. p. 261.— Faber's Difficulties of Infidelity, Sect. III. 3. As to the origin of language, the question has been fully discussed by theologians, grammarians and philosophers. Many have maintained that it was of human invention. But the advocates of this opinion have advanced the most diverse and contradictory conjectures as to the mode and process. Lord Monboddo, for instance, supposes the original form of language to have been the inarticulate cries, " by which animals call upon one another, and ex- hort or command one another to do certain things," and adduces, apparently to illustrate what he means, such exclamations as Hi ha, Ho ho, Halouet, used, he says, among the Hurons of North America, and quite analogous to our own halloo, huzza, hurra, u which are no other but cries, calling, or exhorting, a little articulated ! " — Dr. Murray, who died in the year 1813, then Professor of Oriental Languages in the University of Edinburgh, imagined all language- to be derived from nine barbarously rough monosyllables. " Taste and phi- losophy," says he, " will receive with aversion the rude syllables, which are the base of that medium through which Homer, and Milton, and Newton, have delighted or illumined mankind. The words themselves, though inelegant, are not numerous : each of them is a verb and name for a species of action. Pow- er, motion, force, ideas united in every untutored ^mind, are implied in them all. The variation of force in degree was not designated by a different word, but by a slight change in the pronunciation. Harsh and violent action, which affected the senses, was expressed by harsher articulations. 1. To strike or move with swift, equable, penetrating or sharp effect waa Ag ! Ag ! If the motion was less sudden, but of the same species, Wag. If made with force and a great effort, Hwag. These are varieties of one word, originally used to mark the motion of fire, water, wind, darts. 2. To strike with a quick, vigorous, impelling force, Bag or Bwag, of which Fag and Pag are softer varieties. 3. To strike with a harsh, violent, strong blow, Davag, of which Thwao and Twag are varieties. 4. To move or strike with a quick, tottering, unequal impulse, Gvvag or CWAG. 5. To strike with a pliant slap, Lag and Hlag. 6. To press by strong force or impulse so as to condense, bruise or compel, Mag. 7. To strike with a crushing, destroying power, Nag, Hnag. 8. To strike with a strong, rude, sharp, penetrating power, Rag or Hrag. 9. To move with a weighty, strong impulse, Swag. These nine words are the foundations of language, on which an edifice has been erected of a more useful and wonderful kind, than any which have exercised human ingenuity. They were uttered at first, and probably for sev- eral generations, in an insulated manner. The circumstances of the actionst were communicated by gestures, and the variable tunes of the voice ; but the actions themselves were expressed by their suitable monosyllable." Such theories seem scarcely less absurd than that of the Italian, who con- sidered the Greek as the original language, and traced its rise to a few vowet sounds gradually generated in the family of Adam. " When Adam opened his eyes on the beauties of creation, he very naturally exclaimed, O !, which gave birth to Omega. When Eve was taken out of his ribs, he uttered oo ! or u !, Upsilon. The first child as soon as born cried out e ! e !, and this 10 ARCHAEOLOGY OF LITERATURE AND ART. formed Epsilon or Eta. The next, probably, had a little shriller note i ! i !, and furnished the parents with a fourth vowel, Iota." — Rousseau represents man as originally without language and without society, and having started the en- quiry how language was invented, soon " stuck in the difficulty, ichether lan- guage icasmore necessary for the institution of society, or society for the inven- tion of language." But Maupertuis leaps the obstacle bravely, and " conjec- tures that language was formed by a session of learned societies assembled for the purpose ! " Other writers speak more rationally, although agreeing with our author, that the faculty of speech, and not any language itself, was the immediate gift of God to man. " The theory which derives the most support from history," says Dr. Knapp, " is that the roots, the primitive words, were originally made in imita- tion of the sounds we hear from the different objects in the natural world, and that these original sounds become less and less discernible in languages in pro- portion as they are improved and enlarged." — But it is surprising that any per- son, pretending to receive the Mosaic account of the creation of man, should attempt to explain the origin of language in any such way. In that account Adam is represented as using language immediately on his creation, not only giving names to objects, but assigning reasons for the names, and reasons too which have not the least connection with the sounds of the words, or any sounds in nature. ( Gen. ii. 19 — 23. iii. 20.) Men have been led into their speculations on this subject, because, on a superfi- cial view, it seems difficult to suppose God to create a man, or any thing else, in ^mature state. A little reflection might convince us, that it is just as difficult to suppose him to create a man in an immature state. The real difficulty lies in conceiving any sort of creation. All the evidence we have as 4 to the actual state, in which God did in fact create man, is the testimony of Moses, and that is no evidence at all, beyond that of obscure ancient tradition, unless it is sanc- tioned by divine inspiration. Those who believe it to be thus sanctioned, it would seem, ought to abide by its facts. And is it not the simple, undisguis- ed representation of Moses, that Adam had from the first a real and adequate language, consisting of articulate sounds ? As to the extent of his vocabula- ry, nothing is directly told us ; but is it not as obvious that he had literally a language, as that he had literally a hand, a tongue, or an eye ? Whatever mode of expression, therefore, any may choose to adopt in refer- ence to this matter, whether to say that language was of divine origin, or that Adam was created with a language, or that language was an immediate gift of God to him, or that God created him with a faculty immediately to form artic- ulate sounds significant of thought, it is certain that a spoken language exis- ted immediately after the creation of Adam. — If any languages besides this original were in use before the flood, they were doubtless derived from it. From the flood until the confusion of tongues, Moses explicitly testifies, there was but one language in the world. As, then, Adam was the father of the many millions that have peopled the earth, so his language was the parent of the thousands of dialects, by which they have carried on the mutual inter- change of thought and feeling. See Knapp, Lectures (cited $ 1), B. I. P. ii. Art. 6. § 55.— Herder, ueber den Ursprung der Sprache. Berl. 1789. — Monboddo, Or. and Prog, of Lang, above cited. — Maupertuis, Reflections on the Origin of Languages, in his Works, 1756. 4 vols. 8. — Ad. Smith, Considerations on the first formation of Lang, (in Tfieo. of Mot. Sent. Bost. 1817. 8.)—Shuckford, Sac. and Prof. Hist, connected. II. B.— Warburton, Divine Legation of Moses. B. IV. Sect. 4. Lond. 1741. — Good, Book of Nature, Lect. IX.— Blair, Lect. on Rhetoric, Lect. VI.— A. Murray, Hist, of the European Languages. Edinb. 1823. 2 vol. 8 — Condillac, Ess. sur l'orig des Connois. Hum. (in 1st vol. of his Works. Par. 1821. 23 vols. 8.)—Arndt, ueber den Ursprung der Europ. Sprachen. Frankf. 1827. 8.—T. C. Upham, Mental Philosophy. Port. 1837. 2 vols. 8 (vol 2nd. p. 431.) § 13. The invention of Writing belongs to a period subsequent to the origin of language. By this invention the sounds, which had hitherto been only audible, were rendered, as it were, visible, and ac- quired a much more extensive and more permanent utility as signs of thought. It was an invention in the highest degree important to the communication of human knowledge, and still remains essential- INTRODUCTION. ART OF WRITING. 11 ]y necessary for its advancement. As it stands in so close and uni- versal connection with literature and science, we ought not merely to mention it, but to consider ks origin, and the successive steps of its progress. § 14. Previously to the art of writing, there were other methods of representing thoughts to the eye, and thus imparting them to a great- er number of individuals, and even to posterity. They were, how- ever, very inadequate methods, and were chiefly employed to pre- serve the memory of some remarkable event or person. Of this kind are monumental structures, pillars, or even rude masses of stone. Established festivals, and historical ballads transmitted orally, might give to such monuments a significancy, otherwise not belonging to them. On the return of a festival, the occasion in which it origin- ated and its history would be sung or rehe.arsed. Traces of such methods may still be found among savage or but partially civilized tribes. § 15. Superior to any such mode was the imitation or picturing of objects, which is considered as the first step towards a written lan- guage. This presupposes some idea of the art of drawing, or a rude sort of painting. Such imitation, however, could express only sepa- rate individual thoughts without their connections and relations, and must be limited to visible objects. It is chiefly mere actions and events, that can in this way be made known, and even of these only what transpires at a particular instant can be represented by each sin- gle picture. 1m. There are vestiges of this mode of writing in the Egyptian hieroglyphics, which, we remark, however, received various successive changes in form and signification ( § 16 ). It was in use among the Mexicans, who apprised their king Montezuma of the landing of the Spaniards by means of a linen cloth, on which this event was represented by pictures of visible objects. See Warburton, Div. Leg. (as cited $ 12. 3.) Bk. IV. Sect. 4. where he gives a curious speci- men of Mexican picture- writing. — For a notice of other specimens, see Astle cited § 32. — Edinb. Encyclop. under Alphabet. 2. This mode is said to have been practiced by some of the North American Indians. " In Schoolcraft's Journal of Travels through the North-western regions of the U. S. we are told that the party, in passing from the river St. Louis to Sandy Lake, had, with their Indian attendants, gotten out of the way, and could not tell where they were. The Indians, not knowing what might be the result, determined to leave, at a certain place, a memorial of their journey for the benefit of such of their tribe as might come in that direction afterwards. In the party there was a military officer, a person whom the In- dians understood to be an attorney, and a mineralogist ; eight were armed ; when they halted they made three encampments. The savages went to work and traced with their knives upon a piece of birch bark a man with a sword for the officer, another with a book for the lawyer, and a third with a hammer for the mineralogist; three ascending columns of smoke denoted the three en- campments, and eight muskets, the number of armed men." Upham's El. Int. Phil. First Ed.— For specimens of the picture-writing of N. Am. Indians, see Jirchceclogia, vol. 6th. p. 159, as cited below ( $ 242. 3). § 16. These imitations or pictures afterwards became symbolical, and represented not so much the objects pictured, as others having some resemblance to them, and incapable of imitation by painting. In this way many spiritual and invisible things might be indicated by bodily and visible signs. The necessity of something of the kind must soon appear among a people, not wholly occupied with impres- 12 ARCHEOLOGY CF LITERATURE AND ART. sions en the senses, but engaging in reflections upon God and nature, Accordingly the Egyptians, especially their priests, at a very early period employed the hieroglyphics in a symbolical and allegorical manner. The eye, for instance, became a symbol of providence, the bird an emblem of swiftness, the scaling ladder a representative of a siege. 1. The late discoveries of Champollion respecting the Egyptian hieroglyphics have awakened much interest. The following short account is from the Am. Quart. Reg. vol. iv. p. 52. " According to Champollion, the hieroglyphics are divisible into three dis- tinct classes : 1. Figurative signs ; 2. Symbolic ; 3. Phonetic, or expressive of sound. The figurative occur often, either in an entire or an abridged form. Thus the sun is represented by an exact image > the firmament, by the section of a ceiling with or without stars. The first is termed figurative proper, the second figurative conventional. The plan of a house is given instead of the house itself. This is termed figurative abridged. The second form of hiero- glyphics is the symbolical. These are the characters generally alluded to by the ancients, when they speak of hieroglyhics. Two arms stretched up to- wards heaven expressed the word offering ; the four quarters of a lion, strejigth; an asp,potcer of life and death. As the Egyptians were a very civilized na- tion, it is clear that hieroglyphics like those described were not by any means sufficient to designate their various wants, occupations, and ideas; and this want may have led to the invention of what Champollion calls the third class of hieroglyphics, phonetic, or designating a sound. He has also dis- covered the principle, on which these signs were chosen to express one cer- tain sound ; it is this, that the hieroglyphic of any object might be used to rep- resent the initial sound, or as ice should say, the initial letter, of the name of that object.'' [E. g. the picture of an eagle stood for the sound or letter A the first letter or sound in the word Ahom, the Egyptian name for eagle ; and the picture of a mouth for R, the first sound]in Ro, the Egyptian name for mouth.} " As the great number of hieroglyphics, which this principle would assign to each of the 29 elementary sounds (the number in the Egyptian alphabet), would have been a continual source of error, the characters were soon reduc- ed to a few. As far as ascertained, 18 or 19 is the largest number assigned to any one letter, while few have more than five or six representatives, and sev- eral only one or two." For farther information see J. G. H. Greppo, Essay on the Hieroglyphic System of M". Champollion, &c. Translated hy /. Stuart. Bost. 1830. 12mo. Noticed in Spirit of the Pilgrim*. iv. 98, 197.— M. Champollion, 2d ed. Par. 1828.— see also $ 91. 7. The following notice of the views of Seyffiarth respecting the hieroglyphics is from the Chri.-t. Sped. Vol. viii. p. 433. " These venerable characters have lately found another erudite ex- positor in Professor Seyffarth, of Leipsic. From the celebrated inscription on the Rosetta Stone, and from examining many rolls of papyrus, this laborious inquirer is of opinion that the liieroslyphics in general are simply hieratic letters, ornamented agreeably to a calligraphic principle. He also infers, that both the hieratic and demotic letters had their origin in the most ancient Phoenician alphabet. The Leipsic Literary Journal, which contains a notice of this theory, mentions farther that the learned professor reckons the hieroglyphic signs or char- acters to amount to about 6000, as four or more figures are frequently conjoined in the forma- tion of one of them. We feel more and more convinced that, by arranging and comparing the multitude of ancient Egyptian records, inscriptions on stones and monuments, sarcophaguses, papyri, mummy cases, &c. &c. which now abound in Europe, we shall at length be enabled to decipher this long buried language of the early world." An Italian scholar, by the name of Jannelli, has attempted a new method of interpreting the Egyptian hieroglyphics altogether different from that of Champollion. Not much expecta- tion ofhis success seems to have been awakened in others. — See /. Cullimorc, on the system of Hieroglyphic Interpretation proposed by Signor Jannelli ; in the Transactions of Vie Royal Su- ciety of Literature, vol. 3d. Lund. 1837. 2. A hieroglyphic system of writing, itis said, was possessed by the Tultecans^ a nation formerly existing in the southern part of North America. — See Amer. Bibl. Repos. No. xxvii, July, 1837. p. 229.— § 17. In proportion as these pictnral signs became more common and familiar, curtailments or abbreviations of them were introduced, for the sake of convenience. The figure was made in a more sim- ple form. Often particular parts were substituted for the whole, espe- INTRODUCTION. IDEOGRAPHIC WRITING. SYLLABIC. 13 cially such parts as were most essential to the significancy of the pic- ture, and most important for its present use. For example two hands and a bow might take the place of the full image of an archer. The picture of an effect might be employed to represent its obvious cause, or that of an instrument to represent the person customarily using it ; thus, in an abridged image, rising smoke might denote a conflagra- tion, and an eye and sceptre might signify a monarch. To these were added doubtless many other signs, wholly arbitrary in their na- ture, and obtaining a definite meaning by agreement and frequent use. § 18. But all these means served only to represent things, not the words and sounds, by which we express them in speech. At length, men began to apply the simple figures, which by a course of abbre- viation had taken the place of the original pictures, to spoken lan- guage and its separate organic elements. Probably it was first done with whole words, to each of which was appropriated a certain sign, as in the written language of the Chinese ; and afterwards with sylla- bles, as the frequent recurrence of the same syllables in different words was observed, and so certain common signs were applied to represent them. These signs expressed at the same time both vowels and consonants. Among the Ethiopians and several people of the East there was some such system of syllable-writing, and it is found at the present day among the Siamese. 1. The first information received by Europeans respecting the written lan- guage of the Chinese was from the Catholic missionaries. They represented it as comprising 80,000 arbitrary characters. Later researches have shown that the elementary characters are much fewer. In an account of this lan- guage published in ]825, Dr. Morrison gives first a collection of 373 ancient symbols, with explanations of their meaning and origin. These ancient sym- bols are said to constitute the first principles of the language. From them were derived 214 characters, which are the leading ones, or heads of classes, in modern usage, and are called radicals. He next gives a table of 411 sylla- bles, of which, exclusive of tones and accents, the spoken language consists. The 21 4 radicals and 411 syllables are considered as forming the materials of the whole written language. It is obvious, therefore, that the idea of its hav- ing a distinct character for every word cannot be correct, and yet it is wholly unlike to an alphabetic or syllabic system. " Its characters are not intended to be the signs of simple articulate sounds. They are sometimes denominated hieroglyphic and symbolical. It originated in a sort of picture-writing, from which it has, after the lapse of many years, become what it now is. In its present state, the best idea of its character would be derived from comparing it with the Arabic figures. These figures, characters, or symbols, are now al- most universally understood throughout the world, however differently named by the people of different nations, and the primitive signs are now to most na- tions quite arbitrary, whatever the reasons of their first formation may have been. But supposing 2 and 3 to be entirely arbitrary, the union of these two, 23 or 32, presents to the eye a definite idea, which is the result of combination, and which remains the same whether pronounced by an Englishman, a Hin- doo, or a Chinese, in the spoken language peculiar to each nation." It has been asserted, that in consequence of this peculiarity of the Chinese written language, it is understood and read in all the regions of eastern Asia, by peo- ple whose spoken languages are very different, and who cannot maintain the least oral intercourse with each other. Duponceau, however, denies this as- sertion, in his work below cited. See Chinese Miscellany, &c. By Morrison, Lond. 1825. 4. — Chinese Repository, (published at Canton,) vol. 3d No. 10. Cf. Miss. Herald, vol. xxxi. 197. 387.— P. L. Duponceau, Dissertation on the Nature of the Chinese system of writing &c. Phil. 1838. 8. Cf. For. Quart. Rev. No. xlii. p. 316. — In a recent German work, by C. F. Neumann, entitled Asiatic Studies, (1837.) is a Dissert, on the Chinese language, and on the history of writing among the Tartar Tribes. 2 14 ARCHAEOLOGY OF LITERATURE AND ART. 2. Respecting the written language of the Siamese, the knowledge of Eu> ropeans does not appear to have been hitherto very exact. According to the most recent account, which has been noticed and which is from Mr Rob- inson, an American missionary in Siam, the system of writing is not properly speaking syllablic. The characters do not individually represent the sounds of syllables. The alphabet is said to consist of thirty-five characters which represent consonant sounds, and a small number of points or marks which rep- resent vowel sounds ; and different syllables are formed according as the latter are placed before or after, above or below, the former. See Missionary Herald, vol. xxxii. p. 177. — Rees' Cyclopaedia, under Siam. — Asiatic Researches, vol. x.— An imperfect copy of the Siamese alphabet is given in Greg. Sharpens Syntagma Dis- sertationum. — Founts of type in this alphabet have recently been cut for the use of the Amer- ican mission in Siam. Ms." letter of Rev. Dr. Anderson. 3. A most remarkable instance of the syllabic alphabet is found in that of the Cherokee Indians. This was invented, about the year 1824, by a Chero- kee named Guess or Guyst, who was notable to speak English, or read a word in any language. Having learned the principle of alphabetic writing, viz. that certain characters are signs of sound, he conceived the idea of expressing all the syllable-sounds of his native language by separate marks. On collecting the different sounds which he could recollect, he found the number to be eighty-two. Four others were afterwards discovered by himself or some one else ; making all the known syllables of the language only eighty-six ; a very curious fact ; especial- ly when it is considered that the language is very copious, a single verb undergoing, it is said, some thousands of inflections. The syllables ail terminate, as in the Polynesian languages, with a vowel sound. To represent these sounds, Guyst took the English Capital letters from a spelling-book in his possession, and combining them with other marks of his own invention, formed his alphabet consisting of eighty-six characters. With this alphabet he commenced Writing letters, and a great interest Was soon awakened thereby among the Cherokees. The youth of 1 the land traveled a great distance to learn the new art of writing and reading, which, from the peculiarity of the alphabet and language, they could acquire in three days sufficient- ly to practice themselves and to teach others. Types for printing in this character have been cast. A newspaper, partly in the Cherokee language with the same character, was sustained among that unfortunate people for a short time. The appearance of the language thus printed is singularly uncouth and barbarous.--See Missionary Herald, vol. xxii. p. 47. xxxii. p. 269. also Encyclopedia Americana, under Indian Languages. 4. There are extant some remains of an ancient system of writing in which all the characters are formed by different combinations of one simple element* The character has been very commonly termed arrow-headed from the form of this elementary sign, which in most specimens is shaped almost exactly like the head of an arrow or spear. It is also called Persepolitan, because it is found chiefly in inscriptions on the ruins of Persepolis. The inscriptions upon the bricks brought from the site of ancient Babylon are evidently in the same general character, although marked by considerable variations. Different con- jectures respecting the principles of this method of writing had been thrown out, but no attempt at an* interpretation of it had been made, it is believed, be- fore Champollion's discoveries in reference to the Egyptian hieroglyphics. Some had thought it to be an alphabet of syllables j and some had supposed it must consist of signs of words or of ideas. The first hint towards deciphering the character seems to have been obtained by Champollion from a twofold inscription upon an Egyptian alabaster vase, presenting the name of Xerxes, one part having it in the Egyptian hieroglyphics, and the other in the Persepolitan arrow heads. Since that discovery several scholars, especially Lichtenstein, Grotefend, and Dr. Lasseri of Bonn, have turned their attention to the subject ; and although De Sacy asserted in 1833, that no satisfactory method of interpretation had then been suggested, yet it is said, that many orientalists both of Germany and France have received the method of Grotefend. This de- cipherer makes three varieties of the arrow-headed or wedge-shaped alphabet ; all of which are found in the inscriptions at Persepolis. The oldest character is supposed to be in the Zend language, the sacred idiom of the Magians ; the characters of the second kind are supposed to belong to the Pehlvi language ; and those of the third, to the Babylonian or Assyrian. 'Our Plate I a. presents, in fig. d, an inscription taken from a Babylonian brick ; and, in fig. g, the inscription on the vase above mentioned, and several other specimens of the arrow-headed character from Median or Persian monuments, with Grotefend's interpretation. See Descrip- tion of Plates.— Cf. Calmefs Diet, of the Bible, with Fragments &c vol. 4th. p. 198. as pub- lished, Charlestown, 1814. 4 vols. 4. — Dr. Jcnks, in the Comprehensive Commentary, Vol. ii. p. 533. — Licber, Encyclopedia Americana, under Persepolis.— American Bib. Repository,. No. xxvii. July, 1837. p. 248.— G. F. Grotefend, Neue Beitrage zur Erklarung der Persepolitanischen Keil- Schrift. Hannov. 1837. 4. § 19. The last step in bringing this art to its maturity was alpha- betic or letter writing. This method combines the use of the eye and the ear, in as much as it represents not the objects of thought INTRODUCTION. ALPHABETIC WRITING. 15 themselves, but the sounds by which these objects are indicated to the ear in our spoken language. The exact time of this most useful invention cannot be ascertained ; but passages in the Bible, in the writings of Moses (Ex. xvii. 14), and the book of Job (xix. 23, 24), where it is spoken of as well known, prove its existence at a very early period. It is impossible to decide who was its author, or even to what people the honor of its origin belongs. Probably it may be claimed by the Assyrians or the Egyptians, their social organization having been the most ancient. The Greeks and Romans generally ascribed the invention of letters to the Phoenicians. "Some think letters were perfectly known before the confusion of Babel, and imagine them to have been in common use in the antediluvian world (cf. § 6), and that Noah and his family brought them into the new world, in which they have been continued through a vast variety of changes until now. Some attribute the invention to Moses, others to Abraham, others to Abel, and some of course, to Adam. The Jewish Rabbins say, God created them on the even* ing of the first Sabbath." Adam Clarke, Succession of Sacred Literature. Lond. 1830. 2 vols. 8.— This writer main- tains, that alphabetic writing was of divine origin ; heing taught to Moses by God when he wrote with his own finger the Decalogue on the tables of stone.— Rollin also considers the art of writing as of divine origin. " Only God could teach mankind to establish certain figures to signify all sounds or words." See vol. 2d, p. 459, of his Ancient Hist, as cited § 32. 1.— Cf. Murphy's Tacitus, vol. 2d, p. 416 of ed. Boston, 1832.— Also Astle and Hug, as cited § 32.2. § 20. While the art of writing was known to but few nations, and only to particular individuals in these, its use was rare, except upon public monuments, where the letters were generally engraved on stone, metal, or wood. Such substances were the first employed for the purpose of writing ; afterwards were used skins, bark, leaves (especially of the palm-tree), tablets covered with wax, ivory, linen, parchments, and the Egyptian papyrus, prepared from the fibres of the plant of that name. The chisel, style, pencil, and reed were an- ciently the most common instruments for writing ; the place of the last was first yielded to the quill in more recent times. It was com- mon to proceed from right to left, rather than from left to right as in modern practice. § 21. The contents of the first writings, both on monuments and in books, were historical. Letters, on their invention, were natural- ly applied to commemorate remarkable events upon pillars, altars, pyramids, obelisks, and the like, and to record the sayings and tales which had hitherto been transmitted orally from one generation to another. As this historical matter generally received something of the form of poetry in oral communication, it resulted of course that poetical tales were written earlier than narratives in prose. Even moral and political maxims were framed into song, and accompanied with music. Of all books now in existence, the writings of Moses and the book of Job are the most ancient, although many probably were written before these. Whatever claims have been urged for the antiquity of any other books, they are all certainly of later origin. Much has been said by some respecting the high antiquity of the records among oriental nations. But more full investigation proves, that there is nothing authentic in their histories belonging to a very early date. A dis- tinguished scholar, Klaproth, has given, as the result of a thorough examina- tion of the subject, that there is no hope of finding, among the Asiatics, ma- terials for the early history of man, beyond what is found in the books of Moses. He remarks, that the history of ancient nations is naturally divided > v OF THtt •$«<% XV EI 16 ARCHEOLOGY OF LITERATURE AND ART. into three parts ; (1) mythological, which may contain some portion of truth enveloped in an impenetrable veil of allegories and fables ; (2) uncertain, in which the main facts are true and the personages real, but the chronology undetermined ; and (3) true, in which the facts and the time are clearly and satisfactorily recorded. The true or certain history of the Hindoos does not reach back so far as the time of Christ, and that of China extends not quite 800 years before Christ, and even the uncertain history of these, which are the most ancient of the Asiatic nations, does not go much beyond the time of the Mosaic deluge, or between 2000 and 3000 years before Christ. See Christian Spectator, vol. vii. p. 544. § 22. By the aid of these and other helps, scientific knowledge among ancient nations gradually became more various and general. But not until a comparatively late period could it receive a systemat- ic form, in which general principles were separated from particular facts and perceptions, and arranged according to some regular meth- od or properly scientific classification. Here necessity was the first teacher, and conducted human intelligence to those truths and sci- ences, which were most indispensable to the supply of human wants, and most useful in advancing the improvement of social life. Such were especially medicine, arithmetic, astronomy, geometry, and ge- ography. § 23. The natural instinct for self-preservation and for guarding against every thing, which threatens danger to health and life, occa- sioned the first observations and rules of medicine. Various acci- dental opportunities for such observations and experience as consti- tuted its original foundation, were presented while men used only vegetable food. It was long, however, before the art of medicine was reduced to definite principles, and became an object of special attention by a particular class or profession. The Assyrians, Egyp- tians, and Phoenicians were the first to cultivate it ; although the time of its being brought into any regular or scientific form, cannot be accurately determined. The art was at first directed more espe- cially to external maladies, and anatomy probably owes its origin to the care and healing of wounds. Th. Sprengel, Versuch einer pragmatischen Geschichte der Arzneykunde. Halle, 1821-28. 5 vols. 8. 3d ed. There is a French translation (from the 2d ed.) entitled Histoire de la Medi- cine, &c. Par. 1815. 9 vols. 8.— W. Royston, Rise and Progress of the Medical Arts. Lond. 1818. 8. — Le Clerc, Histoire de la Medicine. Amst. 1723. 4. — T. Mason Good, History of Medicine. Lond. 1795. 12.— Win. Hamilton, History of Medicine, Surgery, and Anatomy. Lond. 1831. 2 vols. 12. § 24. Of mathematical sciences arithmetic seems to have been the most ancient. It probably consisted at first only of a few simple op- erations, of which no theory had been formed. The first organiza- tion of civil society and division of property required the use of num- bers, weight, and measure. The practical part of this science there- fore unquestionably must be very ancient, and probably existed first among the Egyptians and Phoenicians, whose commerce and naviga- tion rendered its assistance indispensable. This must have been the case also with the Babylonians, on account of their early attention to astronomy and chronology. Pebbles, seeds of grain, and the like, were used as the first helps in enumeration; but ere long cer- tain written characters were employed as indicative of numbers ; of which there are various traces upon the earliest Egyptian monuments. See Montucla, Histoire des Mathematiques.— Ch. Bossut, Histoire des Mathematiques, Par, 1810. 2 vols. 8. Translated by Bonnycastle, Lond. 1803. 8, INTRODUCTION. ORIGIN OF SCIENCES. 17 § 25. The origin of astronomy likewise belongs to the earliest pe- riods, since some of its truths are necessary for the dividing and reckoning of time, and not only in the management of navigation, but also in the orderly arrangement of civil business, and in all the labors of agriculture. The Egyptians, and the Babylonians and Chal- deans especially, were allured to the study of the heavens by the mildness of their climate and the extent and openness of their hori- zon. The early origin of astrology, which was so prevalent among the Chaldeans, is full proof of their early observation of the stars. And the most ancient civil histories show, that the idea of the con- stellations, and even the discovery of the planets was a very early attainment of man. See Ideler, Untersuchung ueber d. Ursp. und. d. Bedeut. d. Sternnamen. Berl. 1809. 8. — J. S. Bailly, Histoire de l'Astronomie ancienne. Par. 1781. 4.—Dclambre, Histoire de l'Astronomie. Par. 1817. 2 vols. 4 Cassmi, on the origin of Astronomy, in the Mem. de VAcad. des Sciences, vol. viii. — History of Astronomy, in the Library of Useful Knowledge. § 26. Geometry, in its practice, is very old, but was originally lim- ited to a few elementary principles and manual operations. It was at first probably confined to longimetry, or the measuring of lengths and straight lines, which would be indispensable in the rudest at- tempts at building. Planimetry, or the measuring of surfaces, was more difficult, and required for its discovery a greater degree of im- provement and attention. The first occasion for it seems to have been the division of lands. Stereometry , or the science of measur- ing solid bodies, was probably last in the order of discovery, although the invention of the balance, early in use, presupposes it. In these branches of science, the Egyptians, Babylonians, and Phoenicians also led the way. Several mechanical instruments must undoubtedly be referred to a very high antiquity, as, for instance, the balance, the lever, and also the sledge and the wheel carriage. § 27. The origin of geography must be ascribed to the necessity, which would soon be felt, of determining the situations and distance of countries already known and inhabited. The use of certain marks or memorials for recognizing places visited and left, the tracing of journeys from one spot to another, and the establishing of public routes, all conduced to a development of this branch of knowledge. Of its existence to some extent, there is proof both in the conquests, and in the travels by sea and by land, which took place in the earli* est times. It was however then, as in fact it was in the later and more enlightened periods of antiquity, exceedingly limited and defect- ive. Neither the historical and statistical, nor the physical and math- ematical parts of this science were so regularly and carefully cultivate ed as were other sciences. J. Blair, History of Geography. Lond. 1784, 12. — J. R. Johj, Ancienne Geographie, comp, a la moderne. Par. 1801. 2 vols. 8. — W. Vincent, Commerce and Navigation of the Ancients in the Indian Ocean. Lond. 1807. 2 vols. 4. — C. Hawkins, Observations on the Tin Trade of the Ancients, Lond. 1811, B.—JlPPherson's Annals of Commerce. Lond. 1805, 4, vols. 4. — J. P. Gosselin, Recherches sur la Geographie Systematique et positive dea anciens, pour ser^ vir de base a 1'histoire de la Geographie Ancienne. Par, 1794. 4. vols, 4.— Also, Recherches sur la Geographie Ancienne, in the Mem. de PInstitvt Royal, Xlasse d' Hist, et Lit. Jlncienne^ vol. i. p. 41. — Especially, M. C. Sprcngcl, Geschichte der wichtigsten geouraphischen EnU deckungen. Halle, 1792, 2d, ed, § 28. It appears irom the foregoing remarks, that the first seat, and, as it were, the cradle, of the sciences was in Asia and Egypt. The cause is to be found in the numerous population of the coun- ty* 18 ARCHAEOLOGY OF LITERATURE AND ART. tries, and the early organization of their civil state, so that the pri- mary wants of life were easily supplied, and the human mind enjoyed freedom and leisure for improvement. These countries also were not disturbed by tumult and war ; Egypt particularly enjoyed a long period of happy tranquillity. The intercourse of the Phoenicians with other people, by means of their commerce and navigation, was pecu- liarly favorable to their advancement in knowledge. In general, however, the progress in the arts and sciences was far less rapid in the first ages, than afterwards. The proper helps were comparative- ly few, and there was especially wanting the means of an easy and ready intercommunication of knowledge, until the invention of alpha- betic writing furnished one so appropriate and so useful. II. — TJie importance and usefulness of a knowledge of classical literature and art. § 29. From Asia and Egypt the arts and sciences were introduced into Greece. Here they attained that culture and perfection, which renders ancient history and literature so agreeable and so valuable a branch of modern knowledge. Through the Greeks, the Romans afterwards came into possession of the same treasure. These two nations preeminently distinguished themselves by their merits and accomplishments in literature and the fine arts. Hence it is that there is so much in what pertains to Greece and Rome, that is wor- thy of our admiration and study. Much has been written both for and against classical studies. The various arguments cannot be presented here. But some references ought to be given. 1. Shortly after the revival of letters the famous question respecting the comparative merits of the ancients and moderns began to be agitated. The earliest writers were Italian. In France the controversy began in 1687, and advocates were found for both sides. In England the discussion commenced shortly after the formation of the Royal Society, and soon called forth emi- nent writers. In Germany the subject has not been much canvassed, except as involved in the controversy of the Humanists and Philanthropists. The following references pertain to the controversy. — In Italy; A. Tassoni, Pensieri di- versi. Carp. 1620. 4. (10th B.) — S. Lancelotto, L'oggidi, ovvero gl'ingegni moderni non inferi- ori a'passati. Ven. 1658. 8.— P. Beni, Comparazione di Tasso con Homero, &c. Pad. 1612. 4. — In France. Ch. Perrault, Le Sieclede Louis le Grand. 1687. By Same, Parallele des Anc. et Modernes. Par. 1688.— Longepierre, Disc, sur les Anciens. Par. 1687. 12.— P. D. Htiet, Lettre sur le merite des Anc. et Mod. (in his Pieces fug. d'Hist. et de Lkt. Par. 1702. 12.) — Boileau, Reflex. Crit. in his Trans, of Longinus. Par. 1694. 12. — Tourneil, Disc, de la fameuse Cluest. sur le Mer. des Anc. et des Mod. (in his Works. Par. 1721. 4.)— La Matte, Disc, sur Homere, (in his Works. Par. 1754. 12.) — Gedoyn, Comp. merits of ancients and moderns, in the Mem. Acad, fnscr. xii. 80. — Mad. Dacier, Des causes de la corrupt, du gout. Par. 1714. 12. — In England. Sir Wm. Temple, Essay upon the ancient and modern learning,— in his Mis- cellanies. Lond. 1696. 8.— Wm. Wotton, Reflect, on anc. and mod. Learning. Lond. 1705. 8. — Swift, Battle between ancient and modern Books, in his Works. N. York. 1812. 24 vols. 12. (3d vol. p. 200.) — Addison, Disc, upon anc. and mod. Learning. Lond. 1739. 4. — See also J. Dennis, Advancement and Reformation of mod. poetry. Lond. 1701. 8. In Germany. Haller, Quantum Antiqui eruditione et ihdustria anteceilant Modernos. Bern. 1734. 4. — J. B. Carpzow, De antiq. et recent, doctrinae compar. Helmst. 1748. 4. — O. E. Oroddeck, Ueb. d. Vergleich. d. alter, besond. d. griech. mit der deutschen und neuern schcenen Lit. &.c. Berl. 1788. 8. 2. Liberal learning was designated among the Romans by the term human- itas. Hence, on the revival of letters, the study of classical literature was very naturally called studivm humanitatis. In Germany the lovers and advo- cates of the ancient classics received the name of Humanists (Humanisten) ; and their views on this subject were followed in the general system of educa- tion, until the middle of the last century. After that period, different views INTRODUCTION. VALUE OF CLASSICAL STUDIES. 19 were advocated by a class of reformers in education, who obtained the name of Philanthropists ; several of whom established schools on their peculiar prin- ciples and called them Philanthropina. Basedow, the leader of the Philan- thropists, opened his school at Dessau in 1774. Salzmann opened another at Schnepfenthal in 1784. Classical studies were nearly excluded from their system. In other respects also they proposed to amend the former modes of instruction. The views of the Philanthropists are presented and advocated in the following works ; Basedoic's Elementarwerk, 1774. — Campe's Revisionswerk. Hamburg, 1785 ss. 16 vols. 8. (a sort of periodical.) — Trapp's Paedaeogik, 1780. and Ueber der Unterrichf in Sprachen. Brunsw. 1788. 8.— Cf. J. Weitzel, Was socman lernen ? Oder Zweck des unterricht. Lpz. 1828. 12. contending that in European schools, too much time is devoted to Latin and Greek. The views of the Humanists in the following ; Funk, Ueber den Nutzen richtig getriebener Phi- lologie. 1784. — Nictliammer, Streit des Philanthropismus und des Humanismus. Jena, 1808.8. — For a fuller notice on this subject, Schwartz's Erziehungs-lehre, vol. 2d. — Cf. American Journal of Education, New Series, vol. i. No. 6. 3. The utility of classical studies has been strongly controverted in this country. But the public conviction is evidently settling firmly in their favor. The Greek and Latin classics are now considered as indispensable in a good education, more generally than before the recent discussions of the question. The following are some of the many pieces relating to this topic. T. Orimke, Address bef . Lit. and Phil. Soc. of S. Carolina. Charleston, 1827. — Rumford, (signature of unknown writ- er) in the Boston Centiael, 1825, or 6. — Pax (signature of an anonymous writer), on the Course of Study in the Oneida Institute, JV*. Y. Observer, Vol. XII. 1834.-5(6. Repository, Oct. 1832. Amer. Jour, of Science, Vol. XV. p. 297. — Chris. Spec. 1826, p. 456.— M. Stuart, Quar. Journal Amer. Ed. Soc. July, 1828.-5. B. Patton, in the Bib. Repository, No. xxv. Jan. 1837. p. 46.— J. Packard, in Bib. Repository, No. xxix. Jan. 1838. p. 28. — See also Beecher's Plea for Colleges. 1836. 18. For an account of classical learning in this country in the last century, see Miller, Retro- spect of the Eighteenth Century, New York, 1803. 2 vols. 8. 4. Respecting the peculiar excellence and spirit of the ancient classics, we refer to the following. Abbe Dubos, Reflections critiques sur la Poesie et la Peinture. Transl. by Nugent. Lond. 1743. 3 vols. 8. — 1. Blackball, Introduction to the classics. Lond. 1727. 8 ; publ. also in Latin under the title, De Prmstantia Class. Auct. Lips. 1735. 8. — O. Manwaring, On the Classicks. Lond. 1737. 8 6. F. Oellert, sammtl. Schriften. Th. 5th.— D. Jenisch, Geistder Alten. Berl. 1789. 8. — We may add also, on the utility of classical learning, — Gregory's Letters, Phil. 1809. — Vic. Knox, Liberal Education, or Pract. Treatise on the methods of acquiring useful and po- lite learning. Lond. 1789. 2 vols. 8. (in the Introduction.) — D. O. Hubler, Werth der class. Schriftsteller in Rucksicht auf Bildung des Geistes, &c. Bresl. 1800. 8. — Bitaube, Sur l'etude des anciens, Man. de VInstitut, Classe de Lit. et Beaux Arts. Vol. i. p. 259. — Fuhrmann, Kl. Handbuch, p. 5 — 9, as cited below (P. II. $ 7. 9). § 30. In what we term the Archaeology of Literature and Art, among the Greeks and Romans, it is not designed to enter into very minute details. The object will be to give a correct general view of the subject, presenting the most important circumstances of the ori- gin and progress of refinement in these nations, and enabling the reader to form a just idea of the actual state of letters and arts among them, as well as of the monuments which they have left to posterity. This object cannot be accomplished fully, if the history of knowledge and art is wholly separated from what may be called their antiquities. § 31. The utility of such archaeological information cannot be questioned. It furnishes us with the best illustrations of many pas- sages and allusions in the Greek and Roman authors. It helps us to understand the peculiar excellences and beauties of their writings and those also of the works of art. It puts us in a situation to form more correct opinions on these and kindred topics. In short, it serves in respect to our own literary taste, not only to secure to it a solid basis, but to impart'refinement and delicacy. § 32 u. The following works may be consulted for farther details on the subjects presented in this introduction, and likewise on some of the topics of the subsequent archaeological sketches. 20 ARCHAEOLOGY OF LITERATURE AND ART. 1. On the origin and progress of civilization and knowledge ; Ant. Y. Goguet, De POrigine des Loix, des Arts et des Sciences chez les anciens Peuples. Par. 1758. 3 vols. 4. 6rne ed. corr. Par. 18-20. 3. vols. 8. Ens. Transl. Edinb. 1775. 3 vols. 8.— Schiller's Thalia, vol. 9. p. 3, ss. — Adelung, Versuch einer^Geschichte der Cultur des menschlichen Geschlechts. Lpz. 1800. 8. — Christ Jph. Meincrs, Geschichte des Urspru gs, Fortgangs und Verfalls der Wissenschaften in Griechenland und Rom. Lemgo, 1781. 2 vols. 8. Not finished.— By Same, Grundriss der Geschichte der Mensehheit. Lemgo, 1786. 8. " Not Critical."— Le Tens, Recherches sur l'origine de decouvertes attribues aux Modernes, fcc. Par. 1766. — Bailly, Lettres sur l'Origine des Sciences. Par. 1777. 8. — Irwing, Versuche ueber den Ursprung der Erkenntniss d. Wahr- lieit u. d. Wissenschaften. Berlin, 1781. 8.— Virey, Hist. Natur. du Genre Humain. Bruxelles, 1827. 3 vols. 12.— Rio, L'Histoire de l'Esprit Humain dans l'Antiqnite. Par. 1829. 2 vols. 8. — Cramer, Geschichte der Erziehung und des Unterrichts im Alterthume. 1836. 2 vols. 8. — C. Rollin, History of the Arts and Sciences of the Ancients, in his Ancient History, New York, 1835. 2 vols. 8.—Beckmann, Hist, of Inventions and Discoveries. Lond. 1814. 4 vols. 8. 2. On language and writing ; Herm. Hugo, De prima scribendi origine ; cui notas adj. Tro- tzius. TrajTadRh. 1738. 8.—Ch.de Brosses (le President), Traite de la formation mechan- ique des langues. Par. 1801. 2 vols. 12. — Tho. Astle, The Origin and Progress of Writing. Lond. 1803. 4. — T. L. Hug, die Erfindungder Buchstabenschrift, ihr Zustand und fruehester Gebrauch im Alterthum. ° Ulm. 1801. A.—Chr. Fried. Weber, Versuch einer Geschichte der Schreibkunst. Goett. 1807. 8. — J. L. Saalschuti, Forschnngen in Gebiete der Heb. -Egypt. Archaeologie. First Part, on the History of Letters, the Hebrew, Phoenician, Greek, and Egyp- tian. Konigsb. 1838. 3. On various topics of Archaeology ; T. H. Christ, Abhandlungen ueber die Literatur und Kunstwerke, vornehmlich des Alterthums, durchgesehen und mit Anmerkungen begleitet von I. K. Zeune. Lpz. 1775. 8. — /. A. Emesti, Archaeologia literaria. Ed. II. emendata atque aucta opera et studio G. H. Martini. Leipsia?, 1790. 8. — LI. Rambach, archaeologische Untersuchun- gen. Halle, 1778. 8. As third volume to his Translation of Potter's Archaeol. Graeca. — /. C. L. Schaaf, Encyklopaedie der classischen Alterthumskunde. Magdeb. 1826. 2 vols. 8. 3d ed. '* Very valuable." 4. On art more particularly : Jbh. Winckelmar.n, Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums. Neue Aufl. Wien, 1776. 4. — Same in French, Histoire de l'Art chez Les Anciens avec des notes his- toriques et critiques de differens auteurs. Paris. An 2e la Rep. — Winckelmann, Stemtliche Werke, ed. by Fernow, Meyer, and Schtdze. Dresd. 1808-17. 7. vols. 8, with an Index by Sie- belis. Dresd." 1820. 8. and Supplement by Forster. Berl. 1825. 3 vols. 8. " Winckelmann the greatest critic in ancient art in his time, but now surpassed." — Serouz oivixaia, the epithet referring not to the form, or nature, or originof the letters (those of Cadmus being the same with those of the Pelasgi), but to the material on which they were written. Schoell, Hist. Lit. Gr. L. iii. ch. 3.— Cf. Weber, Geschichte der Schreibkunst, cited § 32.— Renaudot, Sur l'origine des lettres Grecques, in Mem. de PAcad. des Jnscr. vol. ii. p. 231. 2. Respecting the origin of the Phoenician alphabet, see Hug-, Erfindung der Buchstabenschrift (cited § 32).--" This writer," says Schoell, " has shown that the Phoenician letters are hieroglyphic, and the hieroglyphics, Egyptian. Aleph signifies ox, and its primitive form resembles the head of that animal. Beth signifies house, and its first form represents an Egyptian house or hut pointed at the top. Gamel (gimmel) would signify a camel, and this letter was originally the head of the same." The reader will not fail to perceive, that in each of these the principle of Champollion's system of interpreting the Egyptian hieroglyphics (cf. § 16. 1) is exactly exemplified. For a comparison of the Greek and Hebrew alphabets, see Buttmayi's Gram, by Robinson, p. 459 ; Stuart's Heb. Gram. p. 385 ;— of the Greek and Phoenician, Shuckford, Sac. and Prof. Hist. B. iv.— See also Plates in Astlc, cited § 32, and those in Edinb. Encyclojxedia, illustrating alphabets ; and table of Alphabets in O. Higgins, The Celtic Druids. .Cf. Southern Reciew, Aug. 1829. p. 1.— Also E. Fry, cited § 47.— In our illustrations, Plate 1 a, fig. e. a few corre- sponding letters of several alphabets may be compared. Cf. Explanation of Plates. On the Phoenician language and writings, see W. Gesenius, Palatograph. Studien uebei Phoenische und Punische Schriften, &c. Lpz. 1835. 4.— Same, Scripturte LinguEeque Phoenicia Monumenta, &c. Lpz. 1837. 4.— Cf. For. Quar. Review, No. xlii. p. 445. On the hieroglyphic origin of alphabets, see Lamb's Hieroglyphical Alphabet of the He- brews. — J. O. L. Koscgarten, De Prisca ^Egyplorum literatura, cum tabulis. Vimar. 1828. 4. § 46. The alphabet of Cadmus was incomplete, consisting, as is commonly thought, of only sixteen letters, viz. A, B, r, J, E, 7, k, A, 31, N, o, n, P, 2, T, y. Soon after, z, 0, H, and X. were added, and subsequently, <*>, x, l F, and n. The former were termed Ka9/i*ta or ipoiviztia yquuuara, Cadmean or Phoenician letters. The addition- al characters are ascribed to Palamedes, Simonides, and Epichar- mus. These letters soon were received among thelonians, and being somewhat changed by them, formed what was called the Ionian al- phabet, which contained twenty-four letters, and of which Callistra- tus the Samian is considered as the author. The Ionians imparted these improvements to the other Grecian nations, and after the mid- PLATE I a £ K/I^K^piOCMNlHpOCOYKeTTOpeY OHeNBOVAHXCeBCOJN ' 4t- q £ S g p h 5- 2 9 h ° g H Z Z ii iii i titi aii HBHIA2JK e r ro , x Kvoiov ' Ayiaaua h £ Ii ft * s i 4 A v^ Ii ii i AAAAA / I >"\/s/Wv' : A/V\a!* Mi? M±J AAWv* 1 -vu%). The reed or cane chiefly used was that from Egypt or Cnidus. It was sharpened and split for the purpose, like our pen, which was not known to the ancients, the beginning of the 7th century being the earliest period of its use. Persons of fortune and rank often wrote with a calamus of silver ; some- thing probably like cur silver pens. Both the styles and the reeds were kept in cases. The earliest evidence of the use of the quill is given by Isidorus, a Latin writer of the 7th century, who employs the word penna to designate a writing pen. The pencil (called by the Romans penicillus or ptniculus) was properly an instrument for painting. Its invention is ascribed to Apollo- dorus, an Athenian painter, B. C. 408. Cf. § 222. Beckmann's History of Inventions (cited § 32). — Isidorus, Origines. lib. vi. c. 13. For different forms of the style and reed, see Plate I. fig. 3, 4, 9 ; also in fig. 1. § 55. The ink was commonly black ( f ,i/.«r, iiikav yQayou?«- fisixbg), without the proper limits of the city, surrounded by a grove 4* 42 ARCHAEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE. with shady walks. Plato was the first teacher here, and was suc- ceeded by various disciples, who, from the place of instruction, re- ceived the name of Academics. The Lyceum, the school of Aris- totle, was an enclosure on the banks of the Ilyssus, also without the proper city, and sacred to Apollo ; as Aristotle and his successors were accustomed to give instruction in the place for walking (moi- Trarog), they were called the Peripatetics. Another building in the suburbs of Athens, called Cynosarges, and originally a gymnasium or school for the bodily exercises, was the place where philosophy was taught by Antisthenes and his followers ; and this, without re- gard to their doctrines, may have given them the name of Cynics. Within the limits of the city was the celebrated portico, called Poe- cile (noixtirj), from its various paintings, and, by way of eminence, the Stoa (zroa) ; here Zeno from Cyprus opened his school, and thus attached to his disciples the appellation of Stoics. The garden of Epicurus should also be mentioned here, as it was in this, his own private retreat, that he taught his disciples, who are thence sometimes called philosophers of the garden. After Greek philosophy was transplanted to Alexandria, the Museum, in the part of the city called Bruchion, was famous as the place where instruction was given by numerous teachers. Besides these public schools of philosophy, there were at Athens common schools, established at an earlier period by Solon, in which elementary in- struction was given in the different branches of education. The schools of the sophists must be distinguished from both. (Cf. P. II. § 108.) § 75m. The teachers in these and other schools among the Greeks, enjoyed unlimited freedom in the expression of their views and principles, both upon theological and philosophical subjects. The government provided for the ex- ternal management and discipline of the schools (§ 64), and some regulations on this subject are found in the laws of Solon. The teachers were constant- ly attentive to the preservation of this discipline. The rigid discipline, es- pecially of the Lacedemonians in their early education, was celebrated in an- cient times, although it was sometimes more severe than judicious ; as, for instance, in the annual scourging (diauaoriywoic,) of boys at the altar of Dia- na Orthia. See Craqii (Craig), de Rep. Laced. 1670.— Potter, Arch. Grsc. bk. ii. ch. 20.— Mueller, Hist, and Ant. Doric Race, bk. ii. ch. 9. § G.—F. H. Q. Schwartz, Erziehungslehre— (Geschichte der Erziehung). 1829. Vol. i. p. 231-430 Wachler, Geschichte der Liter. Vol. i. p. 105. § 76 1. Among the means of promoting knowledge enjoyed by the Greeks, we must mention their libraries, some of which are celebrat- ed in history. \u. The first considerable collection of books at Athens was made by Pis- istratus. This collection is said to have been borne away with other booty by Xerxes on his capture of that city, and to have been restored by Seleucus Nicator, king of Syria. Sylla gained possession of it when he took the city of Athens, B. C. 85, and removed it to Rome. 2u. Another library of much value is said to have been gathered by Aris- totle aided by the munificence of Alexander, which also, after many accidents, according to the account of Strabo, fell into the hands of Sylla at the same time, and was carried to Rome. 3 u. King Attalus and his son Eumenes collected a large library at their cap- ital Pergamus. This contained 200,000 and according to some statements 300,000 volumes, most of which were conveyed to Egypt, and being added, by Cleopatra or Antony, to the still more famous library of Alexandria, finally shared in its miserable fate. 4. The library of Alexandria, the most celebrated of ancient times ,was com- menced by Ptolemy Philadelphus, and numbered among its keepers various LIBRARIES. TRAVELS. 43 distinguished Greeks, as Demetrius Phalereus, Callimachus, Eratosthenes, Apollonius Rhodius, and Aristophanes of Byzantium. It suffered repeated disasters and losses and was again improved and enlarged ; the largest number of volumes mentioned as belonging to it is about 700,000 ; the library in the* Bruchion containing about 400,000, and that in the Serapeion containing about 150,000. Different accounts are given of its final destruction, some ascribing it to the mistaken zeal of Christians in the time of Theodosius the Great, and others, to the fury of the Saracens under Omar, A. D. 642. 5. There*was also at Constantinople a large library of Latin and Greek authors, commenced probably by Constantius, the son of Constantine, and greatly augmented by Julian. Its contents gradually increased to 120,000 vol- umes. It was finally, with valuable collections in the arts, committed to the- flames amid the dissensions in the time of Zeno and Basiliscus or Basilices, about A. D. 477. Respecting these libraries, see Heeren's Geschichte des Stud, der class. Literat. as cited § 53. — Wackier, Geschichte der Literat. I. 173. — Heyne, de Interim Operum artis priscas etc. in Commentat. Soc. Oott. vol. xn. — " Rheinisches Museum, No. i." — Ch. D. Beck, Specimen His- toriae Bibliothecarum Alexandrinarum. Lpz. 1779.4. — C. Rcinhard, ueber die juengsten Schick- sale der Alex. Bibliothek. — Banamy, La Bibliotheque d'Alexandrie. Mem. Acad. laser, ix. 397. — Lond. Quart. Rev. xvi.329. — See also an account of an Athenian Library in Barthclemy'a Anacharsis, ch. xxix. § 77. Although the Greeks were exceedingly jealous of their na- tional honor, and were especially solicitous to secure to their litera- ture the merit and praise of being an original possession carried to- perfection by native resources, yet they did not wholly reject the ad- vantage resulting from acquaintance with the arts and sciences of other lands. They frequently traveled in those countries, which were most distinguished for their advancement in knowledge, especially in Egypt* To the latter the Greeks were much indebted in matters per- taining to intellectual culture, as well as in reference to their civil and religious institutions. Nor did the Greeks neglect domestic travel ; they were accustomed to visit the most distinguished provinces, regions and cities, to gain personal knowledge of what might be curi- ous or useful, and their observations were sometimes committed to writing. By such travels at home and in foreign lands, most of the distinguished men of Greece sought to increase and perfect their at- tainments. Here might be named, as instances, Homer, Lycurgus, Thales, Pythagoras, Solon, Herodotus, Anaxagoras, Hippocrates, Pla- to, Aristotle, Polybius, Strabo, Pausanias, and many others. See Francii Exercitat. Acad, de peregrinatione veterum sapientium, eruditionis ergo suscep- ta. Lips. 1679. 4. IV. Of the decline of Greek Literature. § 78. From its brilliant state previous to the time of Alexander, Greek literature gradually declined. Among the causes were the in- creasing luxury and consequent effeminacy and remissness of the people, and the various internal political commotions, which followed the death of Alexander. In fact, the declension began with the first loss of their independence under the supremacy of Philip. And when at last they became a prey to Roman ambition, at the fall of Corinth, and when, somewhat later, Athens herself was plundered, partially at least, of her stores of learning and art by Sylla, the Greeks, by being wholly deprived of liberty, were bereft of their 44 ARCHEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE. highest motives to exertion. Their native vigor and originality nor longer showed itself, except in a few single efforts, and finally sunk prostrate under foreign oppression and domestic corruption. § 79. It is worthy of remark, that the knowledge and use of the Greek language was greatly extended after the conquests of Alexander. Many cities were built by him in the east, which were inhabited chiefly by Greeks. Be- fore the time of Christ the language had become familiar throughout Palestine. The Latin writers bear ample testimony to the general diffusion of Greek. The words of Cicero are, Grceca leguntur in omnibus fere gentlbus. The Ro- mans were obliged to adopt this for their official laguage, in the eastern pro- vinces. Even when the seat of the Roman government was removed to Con- stantinople and a special effort was made to introduce the Latin, it was but partially successful. The emperor Justinian found it necessary to publish his Institutes, Code and Pandects in Greek, as well as Latin, because the lat- ter was so imperfectly understood by his subjects and civilians. — In the fourth century the Greek language seems to have been employed to some extent in Nubia and Abyssinia. See Gibbon'' s Rom. Emp. ch. liii. (vol. v. p. 364, N. York, 1822.)— Home's Introduction to the Study of the Scrip, vol. n. P. i. ch. i. § 2. — Lctronne, as cited § 92. 5. Mem. dc VInst. &c. ix. p. 170. — The Byzantine Greek was corrupted by the intermixture of many words from the Latin and other languages. — See Ducange, Diss, de causis corruptee Grrecitatis. — Gibbon, Hist, ch. lxvi. (vol. vi. p. 261.) — Sclucll, Litt. Gr. l. vi. ch. lxxi. § 80. From the period whence we date the decline of Greek literature it appears less national in its character. This probably was not owing wholly to the circumstance that the Greeks were no longer their own masters. Some- thing must be allowed for the fact, that the literature of the subsequent peri- ods was not the growth of the native soil of Greece, but the product of places without her proper limits and remote from the scene of her early struggles and successes. It was chiefly at Rhodes, Pergamus and Alexandria, that let- ters were cultivated. Athens was no longer the capital and mistress of the literary world ; although for a long time after her submission to Rome her schools were the resort of youth for completing their education. Even in this respect, however, she had rivals. Apollonia on the shore of the Hadriatic was celebrated for its cultivation of Greek literature, and honored as the place where Augustus finished his studies. Massilia in Gaul, now Marseilles, a little later gained still greater celebrity for its schools of science. Antioch, Berytus, and Edessamay also be mentioned as places where Greek was studied after the Christian era. See SektcM, Hist. Litt. Gr. livre v. ch. 50. — Heereri's Gesch. des Stud, der griech und roem. Litt. $ 28. cited § 53. § 81. At different times during the decline of Greek letters, royal and im- perial patronage was not wanting. Very liberal encouragement was afforded by some of the first Ptolemies at Alexandria to all the arts and studies, espec- ially by Philadelphus At Pergamus, also, great efforts were made by Attalus and Eumenes to foster learning. Among the Roman Emperors, likewise, there were patrons of Greek literature. Under the Antonini there was a little fresh blooming both in Greek and Roman letters ; and Aurelius Antoninus espec- ially befriended the cultivation of philosophy and bestowed privileges upon Athens. Julian the Apostate cultivated and patronized Greek studies, and allowed considerable stipends to teachers in the schools of pagan philosophy. He is said to have erected at Constantinople the royal portico, where was lodg- ed the library already mentioned (§ 76), and where also was established a sort of College for giving instruction in the arts and sciences. At a later period some emulation was awakened among Greek scholars in the east by the zeal and inquiries of the Arabian Caliphs, who were liberal patrons of learning, especially at Bagdad. See Gibbon, Hist Rom. Emp. ch liii. (vol. v. p. 367, ed. cit.1 — Herren, Gesch. des Stud, der griech. und roem. Litter. $70.— Berington, Literary History of the Middle Ages. Lond. 1814. 4. Appendix i. § 82.* In speaking of the circumstances connected with the de- cline of Greek literature, the suppression of the philosophical and SUPPRESSION OP SCHOOLS. LOSS OF BOOKS. 45 rhetorical schools at Athens, by the Emperor Justinian, is usually mentioned and lamented. These schools had existed from the time of Socrates and Plato. In them the most distinguished philosophers and rhetoricians had taught numerous disci- ples native and foreign. While sustained they kept alive a taste and love for Greek literature and philosophy. They were only partially interrupted by the subjection of Athens to Rome, and afterwards were warmly supported by some of the Roman emperors, particularly by Julian, who, as has just been mention- ed, allowed a stipend to the teachers in them. Hadrian also is said to have furnished them with the means of procuring books. But they were entirely suppressed by Justinian, A. D. 529 ; not, it is said, because he was hostile to schools or philosophy, but because the teachers opposed his efforts to exter- pate paganism. Dimascius, Simplicius, and other philosophers were obliged to leave Athens, and fled to the protection of Chosroes king of Persia. Although Greek literature had been declining for many centuries, and these schools had not hindered its wane, still their suppression probably hastened the entire oblivion, into which it soon fell in the west : because after this event there was less literary intercourse between the west and the east. See Enfield's History of Philosophy, b. ii. ch. ii. (vol. n. p. 327. Dubl. 1792.) Gibbon's Hist. Rom. Emp. ch. xl. 7. (vol. iv. p. 90. N. York, 1822.)— Meursius, Fortuna Attica, ch. viii. p. 59. in his Opera, t. i. — Ritter, History of Philosophy, as cited P. II. § 467.— JVeander, Kirchenge- schichte, bk. ii. Abth. i. § 83.* The essential and fundamental contrariety of the Christian religion to the whole spirit of pagan philosophy and mythology, is a circumstance proper here to be noticed. It was not at all strange that Christians should neglect to study the pagan writings, except as they wished to arm themselves for the defence of their own faith. 1. Opposition to the cultivation of heathen literature early appeared, but there was not perfect agreement among the Fathers on the subject. The council of Carthage, A. D. 398, formally condemned it. Yet many distin- guished Fathers recommended the study of Greek learning. Basil wrote a treatise in favor of it (cf. P. II. § 292. 2). Origen carefully taught it, and was applauded for the same by one of the most eminent of his disciples, Gre- gory Thaumaturgus. Chrysostom and Gregory of Nazianzen also advocated this study. Indeed the Eastern or Greek Church as a body appears to have been inclined to favor it, while the Western or Latin Church was strongly opposed to it. There was, nevertheless, a general disrelish for every thing connected with paganism, which would naturally tend to accelerate the grow- ing neglect of the productions of Grecian literature. The Christians had their seminaries designed for the education of the ma- turer class of youth, and such especially as were to become religious teachers. But the sacred Scriptures were the basis of instruction. See Enfield's Hist. Phil. bk. vi. ch. ii. (p. 276, ed. cited above.)— Mosheim's Ecc. Hist, by Murdock, vol. i. p. 100 — H. Hallam's View of Europe in the Middle Ages, ch. ix.— Prof. R. Emerson, On the Catechetical School, or Theological Seminary, at Alexandria. Bibl. Repos. No. xm. — Tischimer, Der Fall des Heidenthums. — Nearuler's Chrysostomus, p. 6. — Ullmann'a Gregorius von Nazianzen, p. 22. 2. Nothing in the above remarks implies that Christianity has been in its in- fluence unfavorable to the progress of mind. On the contrary it has unspeaka- bly elevated the human intellect, and advanced, on the whole, more than any other cause, the interests of science and literature. It proposed and has ac- complished a mighty mental revolution, opening wider and more extensive channels of thought, imparting keener sensibility to the feelings of the heart, and giving ample scope to all the noble energies of man. The happy results of this will go on accumulating to the end of the world. On the influence of Christianity upon Society, see Christ. Sped. vol. v. p. 409. — On its in- fluence upon Literature, see Schlegd's Hist. Lit. (lectures 4 and 6.)— Christ. Spect. vol. vi. p. 57.— See also, on the whole subject, C. Fillers, Essay on the Reformation by Luther, (witll Introduction by J>r. S. Miller.) Phil. 1834. 8. § 84.* The great loss of classical manuscripts, after the Christian era, is justly regretted by all. The chief source of this loss was 46 ARCHAEOLOGY OP GREEK LITERATURE. the destruction of the great libraries, which has been previously mentioned (§ 76). The destruction of the Alexandrian library was especially felt, because it was in connection with this library that the greatest establishment for copying and multiplying manuscripts had existed. (Cf. § 58.) There were other causes that contributed to diminish the number of classi- cal manuscripts. — Private hostility to the writings of particular authors occa- sioned some losses. It was a custom, both with the Greeks and the Romans, to sentence the writings of individual authors to the flames, as a kind of pun- ishment or to hinder the circulation of objectionable sentiments. The prac- tice was adopted in the Christian church. In the middle ages this hostility was in some instances directed against classical authors, and different emper- ors at Constantinople are said to have been induced to burn the existing cop- ies of several of the ancient poets. Some loss also may be ascribed to private negligence and ignorance, if we may conjecture from the statement, which asserts that three of the lost de- cades of Livy were once made into rackets for the use of a monastery. " A page of the second decade of Livy, it is said, was found by a man of letters in the parchment of his battledore, whilst he was amusing himself in the country. He hastened to the maker of the battledore, but arrived too late ; the man had finished the last page of Livy about a week before." Israeli, Curiosities of Literature, vol. i. — Lond. Quart. Rev. xvi. 323. Another way in which such losses occurred, was by obliteration. The papy- rus becoming very difficult to procure after Egypt fell into the hands of the Saracens, in the 7th century, and parchment being thereby rendered more costly even than before, copyists very naturally began to seek some remedy. They adopted the expedient of obliterating the writing of an old manuscript. The parchment, after the obliteration, was used again, and thus the manu- script, which originally contained perhaps some valuable work of a Greek or Roman author, received in its stead, it might be, the absurd tales of a monk, or the futile quibbles of a scholastic. See Ilmic's Introduction to Study of Holy Scriptures, vol. tu P. i. ch. ii. § 2. — This prac- tice of deletion was known in the time of Cicero ; and a manuscript written on a second time, as above described, was termed Codex Palimpsestus. Cic. ad Trebat. 4. 16. Cf. Catull. 20. 5.— Some MSS. of this kind have been deciphered. See Arch\l. Jfares, Historical Account of Discoveries made in Palimpsest Manuscripts ; in the Transactions of the Royal Soc. of Lit- erature, vol. i. Lond. 1829. Cf. P. II. § 443.— Lond. Quart. Rev. *vi. 331. § 85. To notice particularly the civil history of the Greeks after the Chris- tian era would be foreign from the design of this glance at some of the cir- cumstances attending the decline of Greek letters. We ought, however, to observe, that they underwent a series of political changes, very few of which were calculated to exert any beneficial influence upon learning, while many of them were exceedingly unpropitious. Among the former, the removal of the Roman Court to Constantinople was probably the most favorable. Among the latter, we may mention the early inroads of the barbarians ; the encroach- ments of the Saracens ; the capture and plunder of Constantinople by the Latins ; the internal dissentions after the recovery of the capital ; and finally the attacks of the Turks, which were renewed from time to time until the final overthrow of the Greeks, A. D. 1453. By the various disasters thus suffered, the supremacy of the Greek emperors was ere long confined to a narrow corner of Europe, and at last to the suburbs of Constantinople, and here learning found its only refuge. Respecting the condition of Greek literature at Constantinople, see Berington , s Lit. Hist. of Middle Ages. Appendix I. as cited § 81. 1. On the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, many of the Greek lit- erati fled to Italy and other parts of western Europe, and by their oral instruc- tions and their writings contributed greatly to the revival of letters, and es- pecially to the study of the Greek language, in the west. See Humpf. Hodius, De Gracis illustribus lingiue Grrecje instauratoribus. Lond. 1742. 8. ~ Ch. Fr. Bwmerus, De Doctis hominibus Grrecis, literarum Grtecarum in Italia instauratoribus. Lpz. 1750. 8.— Also Heerev, Geschichte, &x. cited § 53.—//. Hallam, Introduction to the Liter- ature of Europe in the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Seventeenth Century. Lond. 1837. 8.— 7\ ffarton, Diss, on the Introduction of Learning into England, is his Hist, of English Poetry.. Lond. 1824. 4 vols. 8, WRITTEN MONUMENTS. 47 2. Notwithstanding all the disasters above suggested, and a subjection of nearly 400 years to the tyranny of Turkish masters, the Greeks have still an existence. By a painful and protracted struggle, commenced A. D. 1820, they secured their independence. Their present language differs from that of classical times, both in pronunciation and in structure, and contains as yet but a slender literature. The hope, however, has been awakened, that Greece may again rise to eminence in letters and in arts. For an account of modern Greek literature, see Cours de Litterature Grecque Modeme, donne a Geneve, par Jacovaky Riio Neroulos. (Publie par Jean Humbert,) Genev. 1828. 12. 2d ed. and also as furnishing some historical and geographical facts. It is a fragment, of nearly two hundred lines in two distinct parts, of a decree of the senate and republic of Olbia, a Greek city on the Hypanis or Bug, in honor of one Pro- tegenes, magistrate and benefactor of the city. It is engraved on a cippus of marble, which is preserved at Stolnoie, in the government of Tchernigov, Rus- sia. Its date is not certain, but has been placed between 278 and 250 B. C. The inscription was published by P. de Kacjipai, in the Wiener Jahrbvchcr der Literatur. voL xx. 1822 also in the work, J>~ordoc.staue des Pontiu, Yfien, 1823. 8.— It appeared likewise under the title Olbischcs Psephisma zu Ehren des Protegeno. Wien. lb'23. 8. — Volte Erun has a trans- lation of it in French, with corrections and observations, in the Annales des Voyages, vol. xx. p 4 132; 4 u. The inscription called the Chronicon Parium, in the collection of Arun- delian or Oxford Marbles, brought to England from the island of Paros, by Thomas Howard earl of Arundel, and given by him to the University of Ox- ford. It is a monument of great value in reference to Grecian Chronology, as INSCRIPTIONS. 51 " it fixes the dates of the most remarkable events from the time of Cecrops down to the a^e of Alexander the Great." Its date is supposed to be about 268 B. C. The editors Selden, Prideaux, and Mattairc (cited below), have made learned researches up- on this subject ; so also Pahnerius, in his work eutitled Exercitat. in Auctores Gzcecos. Ultraj. 1694. 4,_ Robertson has endeavored to raise doubts concerning the authenticity of these inscrip- tions, in a work entitled The Parian Chronicle, with a dissertation concerning its authenticity. Lond. 1788. 8. In opposition to this, see Hewlett's Vindication of the authenticity of the Parian Chronicle. Lond. 1788. 8. ; Parson's Review of Robertson's Dissertation, in the Monthly Review, 1789. p. 690. ; R. Gough, Vindication &c. in Archaologia (as cited § 242. 3.) vol. ix. p. 1*57. ; and F.C. Wagner, Die Parische Chronik. Gcett.1790. 8.— The Chronicle was first published by Selden, Marmora Arundeliana. Lond. 1628. 4. ; afterwards by Prideaux, Marmora Oxoniensia. Oxon. 1676. fol. ; Mattaire, Marmora Oxoniensia. Lond. 1732. fol. Append. 1733. ; Chandler, Marmora Oxoniensia. Oxon. 1763. fol. The latest edition is by TV. Roberts. Oxf. 1791. The inscription is found with an English version in Hale's Analysis of Chronology. It is given also in M. Rusr- sell, Connection of Sac. and Prof. Hist. Lond. 1827. 2d vol. p. 381, with a specimen of the man- ner of writing, p. 337. " The Arundelian marbles sufficiently prove for what a variety of purposes inscriptions on stone were used among the ancients. Some of the inscriptions on them record treaties ; others, the victories or good qualities and deeds of distinguished persons : others, miscellaneous events. Most of them, however, are sepulchral. By far the most important and celebrated is the Parian Chronicle." [Libr. of Useful Knowledge, Life of Caxton.] 5. We may notice here the Milesian inscription. It was found and copied by W. Sherard, among the ruins of a temple of Apollo Didymceus, near Miletus. It is a letter of Seleucus Callinicus, king of Syria, and his brother Antiochus Hierax, king of Asia, addressed to the overseers of the temple, when (243 B. C.) they had made peace with Ptolemy Euergetes I. king of Egypt. It is accom- panied with a catalogue of presents consecrated by them to the god. See Chishull, Antiq. Asiat. p. 65.— Sclwell, Litt. Gr. lib. iv. ch. xxvi. 6. The inscription of Cyretioe. It was discovered in the valley of Titaresius, not far from Larissa in Thessaly, by Col. Leake, who published a notice of it in the year 1815. It is interesting as a monument referring to the Roman con- quests in Greece. It is a letter of Titus Quintius Flaminius, addressed to the people of Cyretise, bestowing certain favors upon them. It is without date, but is assigned to about 195 B. C. This inscription was published by Visconti in the Journal des Savans. 1816. p. 21. — Also by Leake in the Classical Journal. Cf. vol. xm. p. 158. xiv. p. 339. 7. One of the most interesting inscriptions is that known by the name of the Rosetta Inscription, or the Rosetta Stone. It was discovered during the ex- pedition of Bonaparte in Egypt about the year 1800. As a party of French troops were digging for the foundations of a fort at Rosetta, they disinterred a large block of black basalt, containing the remains of three inscriptions. This stone afterwards fell into the hands of the English, and was deposited in the British Museum, London. A considerable part of the first inscription was wanting ; the beginning of the second and end of the third were mutilated. The third only was in Greek. It is a sort of decree of the Egyptian priests in honor of Ptolemy V. Epiphanes, its date being the year in which he began his reign, B.C. 193. It recounts the memorable deeds of his minori- ty, and pledges the erection of a statue to him in every temple ; and what is specially remark- able on account of the results to which it has led, adds, that this decree was ordered to be en- graved in three different characters, viz. the Greek, the Enchorial (i. e the common Egyptian letter), and the Sacred or Hieroglyphic. This triple inscription, therefore, presents a specimen of hieroglyphics with an authentic translation ; and is the foundation of the celebrated discove- ries of Champollion ($16). The proper names, Ptolemy and Cleopatra, occurring in the inscrip- tion, furnished the clue, and the phonetic hieroglyphs which form these names were first dis- covered. By means of these hieroglyphs, other names of Grecian kings and queens written in hieroglyphics were deciphered, and thus at length the value of all the phonetic pictures or signs was ascertained. For a more full account of the various efforts and steps connected with this discovery, see Schoett, Hist. Litt. Gr. lib. iv. ch. xxvi. — Stuart's Translation of Greppo, cited § 16.— Amer. Quart, R v. No. n. — For. Quart. Rev. No. vm. xxiv. xxxu. — Edinb. Rev. No. lxxxix. xc — -Supplement to En cyclop. Britann. Art. Egypt — Cf. Bibl. Repos. and Quart. Obs. July, 1836. p. 249 Marquis Spi- neto's Lectures, Lond. 1819 — Count Robiano, Etudes sur l'Ecriture &c. de l'Egypte. Par. 1834. — Sharpe's Egyptian Inscriptions, Lond. 1836 Jannelli, Tabulae Rosettanae Hieroglyphics: &c. Neap. 1830.— Jannelli, Fundamenta Hermeneutica Hieroglyphic© crypticas veterum gentium &c Neap. 1830. Cf. Cullimore, as cited $ 16. 1. The Greek inscription was published by Granville Penn, under the title, The Greek Version of the Decree of the Egyptian Priests, . § 98. There are Greek inscriptions not only upon the coins of the states of Greece which were struck while they were in posses- sion of their liberty, or under the government of Grecian masters, but also upon the coin of the Greek cities and provinces after their subjugation by the Romans, and likewise upon the later coins of Sicily and Magna Craecia. This renders a knowledge of the Greek language the more indispensable to every amateur in collecting med- als and coins. — The coins of Greek cities under the Roman domin- ion sometimes have on one side a Greek inscription and on the other Latin. § 99u. Of the works upon Numismatics, such, that is, as will serve for an introduction to the science of coins and medals, or contain copies of the coins and the necessary explanations, we will mention here some of the principal; including such as treat of Roman as well as Grecian coins. 1. Among the more extensive works are the following. — Ez. Spanhemii Dissertationes de praestantia usu Xumismatum antiquorum. Lond. et Amsterd. 1717. 2 vols. fol. — Joh. Eckhel Doctrir.a Nuraorum Veterum. Vindob. 1792. ss. 8 vols. 4. — J. C. Rasche, Lexicon Universae Rei Xumariae Veterum. Lips. 1785. ss. 10 vols. 8. 2. The following treat the subject less fully.— J. Evelyn, on Medals Antient and Modern. Lond. 1697. fol.— L. Jobert, La Science des medailles antiques et modernes, avec des rem. hist, et crit (par ./. Bimard dc la Bastic). Par. 1739. 2 vols. 8. — J, C. Rasche, Kenntniss antiker Muenzen, nach den Grundsaten des P. Jobert und des Hrn. de la Bastie, mit neuen Verbesser- ungen. Numb. 1778-79. 3 Th. 8.— (Fr. Ant. Zaccaria), Istituzione antiquario — numismatica o sia Introduz. alio studio degli antiche Medaglie. Rom. 1772. 8. (2. Ediz. accresciuta di una let- tera del P. Paciaudi. Venet. 1793. 8.) — Erasm Frwlich, Xotitia elementaria numismatuna. Cum fisrg. Viennae 1758. 4.— Ejusd. Utilitas Rei Xumariae Veteris, compendio proposita. (a. n. Debiet). Viennae. 1733. 8. — Ejusd. Q,uatuor Tentamina in Re Xumaria Vetere. Vienn„ 1737. A.—Pinkcion, Essay on Medals. Lond. 1789. 2 vols. (Very valuable). Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. i. \Vl.— Virtuoso's companion and coin collector's Guide. Lond. 1797. 12. — F. Schlichte- groll, Annalen der gesaromten Xumismatik. Leipz. and Gothe, 1804. 1806. 2 vols. A.— By the same, Geschichts des Studiums cer alter Muenzkunde. Munchen, 1811. 4. — C. L. Stieglitz, Arch- aeologische Unterhaltungen. Leipz. 1820. 8. (2d div. treats of Ancient coins).— D. $> tini, cenerales seu moneta vetus urbium, pop. et reguui, ordine geogr. et chronol. descripta. edit. M. Florent. 1821. A.—Ackerman, Xumasmatic Manual. Lond. 1832. 12. 3. Of works with plates, including Greek coins, the following are among the most impor- tant.— Hnberti Goltzii, de Re Xumaria Antiqua Opera quae extant Universa. Antwerp. 1708. 5 vols. fol. — JV. F. Haym, Tessoro Britanico, overo Museo Numario. Lond. 1719. 20. 2 vols. 4. — 5. F. Oarii Museum Florentinum, as cited § 191. vol. 4th. — lo. lac. Grsuo-i, Xumismata Graeca regum atque virorum illust. c. commentario. Tiguri, 1738. fol. — Ejusd. Xumismuta Graeca populorum et urbium. ibid. 1739. fol.— Ejusd. Xumismata Began) Macedoniae. ib. 1738. fo\.—Pe!lrrin, Recueil des medailles des Rois des peuples et des villes, avec les Supplement Par. ITOJL 78. 10 vols. A.—Matjnan, Miscellanea Numismatica. Rornae, 17*4. 4 vols. A.—Milli- gen, Recueil dequelques Medailles Grecques inedites. Par. 1812.— T. E. jilionnrt, Description de medailles antiques, Grecques et remains. Paris, 1806-13. 6 vols. 8. Supplement, Paris, 1819-22. 2 vols. 8. " containing more than 20,000 impressions of medals." ( Ventouillac, French Librarian, p. 310). — C. P. London, Numismatiques de Voyage der jeune Anacharsis, on Me* dailies der beau terns de la Grece. Par. 1818. 2 vols. &-— BartheU-nuj, Essai d'une Paleographie Numismatique. J)Iem. Acad. In.-cr. Vol. xxiv. p. 30. xlvii. p. 140.— For other references, see Sui- ter's Allg. Theor. article Scliaumucnze. (c) Manuscripts. § 100. We must consider the copies of the prose and poetical writings of the Greeks as among the most valuable monuments of their literature. By means of these we are made acquainted, not MANUSCRIPTS. 59 only with their history, but also with their whole genius and charac- ter, and with the most valuable models in every variety of style. It is to the discovery of these, that we are, in great measure, indebted for the revival of letters. — Although most of the Greek writings ex- tant have already been published and circulated by means of the press, yet the different manuscripts which are in our possession, and particularly the more ancient, are of much value and utility to the critic. § 101. In point of antiquity, inscriptions and coins claim a supe- riority over manuscripts. Of the latter, if we except the Hercula- nean rolls and a few Egyptian Papyri (§ 107), there does not now remain a single copy, which was made during the life of the author, or which was transcribed directly from the original manuscripts. The most ancient, now existing, are not dated farther back than the sixth century ; and but few of these can be referred to so early a date with unquestionable certainty. 1 u. We must attribute the loss of the earlier manuscripts, partly to the de- structibility of their material, partly to the political and physical disasters which befel Greece, and partly to the ignorance and superstition of the mid- dle ages and the consequent contempt for these monuments of literature. The practice of obliteration also occasioned losses. Manuscripts still exist whose original writing was effaced that they might receive other compositions ; such are those termed codices Palimpsesti (§ 84). Some losses must also be ascrib- ed to the carelessness of the first publishers, who printed directly from the manuscripts and thereby spoiled them, or after committing a work to the press, viewed the manuscript as useless. 2ti. Notwithstanding this destruction, and perhaps through the very igno- rance and neglect of the owners of collections then existing, a large number of Greek manuscripts were preserved, especially in convents, abbeys, and ca- thedrals. Some of these certainly belong to the middle ages, in which there were a few men of information and lovers of ancient literature, while othere for the sake of gain employed themselves as copyists. Many of these manu- scripts were written during the dawn of the revival of letters, in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, and in the first half of the fifteenth century, for the use of colleges and of the literati. Even for some time after the invention of printing, while the art was yet imperfect and not extensively cultivated, the practice of copying manuscripts was continued. See the work of Hccren, cited $ 53, and Taylor, cited § 58. § 102. To become well acquainted with manuscripts, and to fix their precise dates, is very difficult. Upon this point we cannot lay down rules, which shall be applicable in every case, and perfectly de- cisive. There are only some general external marks, by which the age of the manuscript is to be determined with any considerable de- gree of probability. We must form our decision by the characters used in writing, by their size, their spaces, the direction of the letters, the abbreviations and contractions, and by the whole exterior of the manuscript. § 103. In a question respecting the author of a work, or the age in which he lived, more reliance can be placed on the internal evi- dence, which is presented by the subject, the style, and the historical statements and allusions. Sometimes we find the name of the author, and the date of the copy, at the close of the manuscript, but usually only the name of the transcriber. Often we may be satisfied from internal evidence, that a work was not composed by the reputed au- 60 ARCHEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE. thor, while we are still unable to point out the real author, or the writer of the manuscript. § 104. We shall here limit ourselves to a mention of some of these external signs, for the sake of example. The most ancient Greek manuscripts, as well as inscriptions, are written in capital letters (lit* era unciales), without any space between the words, and without signs of punctuation. Accents and aspirates were not introduced till the 7th century ; the capital letters in the 8th and 9th were a lit- tle longer and had more inclination and slope. At this period, they began to make contractions, and a smaller style of writing commenc- ed. After the 12th century, new characters and abbreviations were introduced, and greater variety appeared in the forms of the letters. 1 u. The best manner of becoming acquainted with these characteristics, is by the study of the manuscripts themselves. They may be learned also by means of the patterns, which Montfaucon has given in his Greek Palaeography. These marks, however, it must be remembered, are not an invariable and in- fallible criterion of the age of a manuscript. Often, in later times, transcriber strictly imitated the ancient copies, and preserved all their peculiarities un- changed. 2. Although the signs of punctuation are said to have been devised by Aristophanes (cf. § 52), they were not used generally in writing, until a much later period. Bernhardy remarks that " interpunction is not found in the manuscripts much earlier than the 8th century." — Speci- mens of the manner of writing above described, in uncials, and without punctuation, are give*n !n our Plate I a. fig. i, and iii. — The two lines of fig, ii, in the same Plate, are designed to show some of the abbreviations or contractions used in writing. The letters in the upper line (the Plate being turned upon its side to the right), are employed as abbreviations for the words un- der them in the lower line ; kc i. e. ks for kurios ; if for iesous ; chs for christos ; Hern for icruiu- salem. Letters used as abbreviations (cf. § 49), commonly, but not always, had a horizontal line drawn over them ; as is seen in the specimen in fig. iii, where ois, in the first line, stand* for o iesous i but pni, in the second line, is also an abbreviation, standing for pncumati. Con- tractions with the mark over them were formerly used in printing, Bernhardy, Grundl. zur Encyclopaedic der Philologie. (p.- 126.) Halle, 1332. — B. Movtfaucon, Palaeographia Graeca. Par. 1708, fol. — Pfeiffer, iiber Bucher-Handschriften (§ 53.) — Mannerfs Miscellanea, meist diplomatisch. Jnhalts, Numb, 1796. 8 Graeca D. Marci Bibliotheca cod- icum manuscriptorum &c. (" auctoribus A. M. Zanetto e,tA, Bongiovannio' n ) Venet. 1740. fol.— Qn Greek orthography, Class. Journal, ii. 7. 81. § 105. A very profitable use may be made of an extensive know- ledge and diligent study of ancient manuscripts. They are of service to the critic in determining, correcting, and confirming the readings of printed books ; and there is often something to be gleaned even from the copies already examined by others. By comparing manu- scripts we may be prepared to fill up blanks, to discover false inser- tions, and to rectify transpositions. And such an examination may give rise to many critical, philosophical, and literary observations. Writings may be found also, in searching over the libraries of con- vents, which have never been published, and which may have hither- to escaped the eye of the learned. But in order to profit by the ad- vantages presented by this study, one must have much previous know- ledge of language, criticism, bibliography, and literary history. § 106. It is to the assiduous application of many votaries of class- ical literature, after the revival of letters, in the discovery, examina- tion, and comparison of ancient manuscripts, that we are indebted for the best editions of the Greek and Roman authors. Although their attention was confined chiefly to the criticism of the text and the settlement of readings, it was laying the foundation for all useful criticism upon the matter and contents, which must depend for its basis and certainty on such previous researches. The editions thus prepared, in connection with the prefaces and commentaries accom- MANUSCRIPTS. 61 panying them, will serve, much better than any rules which can be given, as guides in similar efforts, and as suggesting the best meth- ods of treating this whole subject. § 107. The following may be mentioned as among the oldest Greek manuscripts that are known ; the Codex Alexandrinus , the Codex Vaticanus, the Codex Cottonianus, and the Codex Colbertinus, a manuscript of Dioscoridcs, preserved in the Imperial library at Vien- na, and another in the library of the Augustines at Naples. All these manuscripts are in the uncial letter, without accents or marks of as- piration.— To these must be added the Herculanean Rolls, and the Egyptian Papyri. 1. The Codex Alexandrinus consists of four folio volumes, containing the Septuagint version of the Old Testament, with the Apocryphal books, the New Testament, and some additional pieces. It is preserved in the British Museum, at London. " It was sent as a present to King Charles I. from Cy- rillus Lucaris, a native of Crete, and patriarch of Constantinople, by Sir Thomas Rowe, ambassador from England to the Grand Seignior in the year 1628. Cyrillus brought it with him from Alexandria where it was probably written." It is referred by some to the fourth century, but by most is con- sidered as belonging to the sixth. It is written without accents or breathings, or spaces between the words, and with few abbreviations. An exact fac-simile of the part containing the New Testament, was published by Dr. Woide, li- brarian of the Museum, in 1786. In 1812 a fac-simile of the part containing the Psalms, was published by Rev. H. H. Baber ; who was subsequently au- thorised to publish the rest of the Old Testament at the expense of the British Parliament. The Codex Vaticanus contains the Old Testament in the Septuagint version, and a part of the New. It is lodged in the Vatican library at Rome. It is written on parchment or vellum, in three columns on each page, with the let- ters all of the same size except at the beginning of a book, without any di- vision of words, with but few abbreviations. Some critics have maintained that it was written as early as the fourth century ; but others refer it to the sixth or seventh. The Codex Cottonianus was brought from Philippi by two Greek bishops, who presented it to Henry vm. It was placed in the Cottonian library, and a great part of it was consumed by fire in 1731. The fragments are deposited in the British Museum, and are in a very decayed state. It is considered as the most ancient manuscript of any part of the Old Testament now extant, being generally ascribed to the fourth century, or the very beginning of the fifth. It was decorated with numerous paintings, or illuminations. The Codex Colbertinus contains a part of the Septuagint. It once belonged to the collection called the Colbert Mss. but is now lodged in the Royal library at Paris. It is thought to be a part of the same manuscript with that now in the library of the Academy at Leyden, termed Codex Sarravianus. They are referred to the fifth or sixth century. On (he whole subject of the Manuscripts of the sacred Scriptures in Greek, see T. H. Home, Introduc. to the Crit. Study of the Holy Scriptures. Phil. 1825. 4 vols. 8. (vol. n. pt.i. ch. ii. §2.) — Also W. Carpenter, Guide to the Reading of the Bible (ch. ii. as given by Dr. W. Jenks and J. W. Jenks, in the Supplement to the Comprehensive Commentary), — The Plate la. of our illus- trations presents, in fig. i, a fac-simile of part of the 1st verse of the first Psalm, as written in the Codex Alexandrinus. — In fig. iii, we have a fac-simile of Matt. xxii. 43, as written in a Co- dex Rescriptus, some time since discovered in the library of Trinity College, Dublin. 2. The manuscript of Dioscorides, in the library at Vienna, is a very curious monument. It was purchased at Constantinople for Maximilian II. by Busbe- quius, who went, about 1550, an ambassador to Turkey. It is said to have been written by Julianna Anicia, the daughter of Flavius Anicius Olybrius, who occupied the imperial throne of the west A. D. 472. It is ornamented with miniatures representing plants, birds and serpents, and the portraits of celebrated physicians of antiquity. The other copy, once in the library at Na- ples, is now in that of Vienna, and is considered as of about the same antiquity as the former. 6 62 ARCHAEOLOGY OF GREEK LITERATURE. The Vienna manuscript is described by Lambecius, Commentarium de augustissima biblioflier ^ Caesarea-Vindobonensi libri vm. Vindob. 1665— 1679. 8 vols. fol. — See Schall's Hist. Litt. Grecque, livre v. ch. lxxi. 3. The Herculanean Rolls (papyri) found in excavating Herculaneum, are more remarkable for their antiquity than for their real value, so far as at pres- ent known, although they amounted to J600 or 1700 in number. Most of them were too much injured to be unrolled and deciphered, many of them crumbling- to dust under the hand of the operator. Very great interest and the most san- guine expectations were awakened in the literary world on their first discovery. But the first-fruits of the indefatigable toil in unrolling and deciphering , were very far from meeting these high hopes ; the treatise of Philodemus en music being of little value. Piaggi and Merli, Mazocchi, Sickler, and Sir Humphrey Davy, successively applied their labors and experiments with but poor success. See Cramer's Nachrichten zur Geschiehte der herkulanischcn Entdeckungen. Halle, 1773. 8. — Cartel's Briefe iiber Kalabrien und Sicilien.— Hcrculanensium Voluminum quae supersunt. Neap. Vol. 1. 1793. vol. n . 1809. fol. — iusoniaii Magazine, No. i.— Quart. Kcv. vol. ill'. — Encyd. Britaan. Supplement, under Herculaneum.— Archasoiugia (as cited Q 243, 3.) vol. xv. p. 114, on method of Unrolling, Sec. 4. Several papyri, with Greek writing on them, have been found in Egypt, which are said to be of more ancient date than any other known manuscripts in Greek. They exhibit the earliest use of the cursive Greek letter. Three of these are dated before Christ. The earliest was breught to Europe by M. Casati in 1829, and belongs to the Royal library of France/ It is sixteen and a half feet long and eight inches deep, and contains 505 lines. Its date corresponds with the year B. C. 113. It is merely a contract or deed of the sale of a portion of land near Ptolemais. The next in point of antiquity contains a similar contract, with a date corresponding to B. C. 104. It was fonnd in a tomb, and has exercised, in its deciphering, the care of Aug. BSckh, Phil. Buttmann, and Imm. Bek- ker. That, which is ranked next in age, treats of the payment of certain funeral charges, and is remarkable for containing besides the Greek, an Egyptian writing, in the same character as appears in the Rosetta Inscription, called enchorial {iy/MiHa). Its date is judged to be 82 B. C. Two other papyri are described as written in the second century after Christ, and all the rest that are known as written in the fifth, or later. See Scfiaill, Histoire de la Litt. Grec. livre v. ch.50. — Aim-. Bw.ckh, ErklArung einer iigypt. Ur- kunde in Griech. Cursiv-schrift. &c. Berlin, 1821. 4. — Journ. des Savans, 1821. p. 537." 1822. p. 555. — JV7c. Schow, Charta papyracea grace scripta Musei Borgiani Veletris. Rom. 1788. 4, 5. A number of papyri have also been found containing only Egyptian char- acters, either enchorial or hieroglyphic, which are considered to be much more ancient than those just mentioned. " The most remarkable of" them all, and very certainly the most ancient manuscript known at this day, contains an act of the fifth vear of the reign of Thouthmosis HI., the fifth king of the eighteenth dynasty. . , . Now Tiiouthmosis governed Egypt about the time when Joseph was carried there as a slave- ; and consequently %\\o centuries at least before the time when Moses wrote. ... Is it so very astonishing, that the autograph of the Legislator of the Hebrews, which was an object of veneration to all the people, and w;is so long and carefully preserved in the ark, could have existed until the reign of Josiah, i. e.' about nine centuries after Moses y when the hypogeums of Thebes present us with papyri containing certain transactions which ■were between private individuals merely, and wliich" extend back 3500 years and even more." y — See Oreppo, as cited $ 16. 1. One of these papyri, discovered by Champollion, is said to have been sixty feet in length. — Some specimens of "the papyri, in Egyptian character, are given, by fac-simile, in the Atlas il- lustrating the Travels of Denon in Egypt. The same work notices a manuscript on cloth, the envelope or wrapper of a mummy, consisting of nineteen pages, separated arid bordered by a* many vignettes. Parts of the writing in these manuscripts are done in red ink. The pictures are in different colors. 6. Mr. Taylor (in his work cited § 58) remarks, " The most ancient manuscripts extant are f?ome copies of the Pentateuch on rolls of leather ; " but in this remark he could not have had reference to the Egyptian remains above mentioned. No extant Hebrew manuscripts are of so ancient a date ; although some, which are doubtless of a high antiquity, have been preserved in the Jewish synagogues. Dr. Buchanan procured from the black Jews in Malabar, an old copy of the Law, which he discovered in the record-chest of one of their synagogues, in 180(5. It consists of thirty-four leather skins, sewed together, measuring nearly 50 feet, by about 2 broad; the skins are some of them brown, and others red; some of them much impaired by tune, and strengthened by patches of parchment on the back. It now belongs to the University at Cam- bridge, England. See Buchanan's Researches.— Home, as cited above, pt. I. ch- ii. $1.— Amcr. Quart. -Register, wL IX. p. 59. The Nestoriana at the village of Koosv, in Persia, have a neat, well pMSerVed copy of the New Testament, in Syriac, upon parchment, in small characters ; written, according to the date inserted by the writer, about A. D. 320. It is greatly reverenced both by the people and the priests. Smith and Dtoight, cited § 3(5. 1. vol. n. p. 257 — Cf. $57. §108. It may be proper here to mention some of the principal libraries, which contain the finest collections of Greek manuscripts. — In Italy. The king's library, and library of the Augustine convent, at Naples. The Royal library at Turin. The Vatican library and some private libraries at Rome. Cathedral MANUSCRIPTS. 63 library at Bologne. Library of St. Mark and several private collections at Venice. That of the Medici, at Florence, contains one of the most extensive collections of this kind. The Ambrosian library at Milan. — In Spain. The library of the Escurial. — In France. The Royal or National library at Paris, which contains the Mss. once belonging to several other libraries. — In Eng- land. The libraries at Cambridge. The Bodleian library at Oxford. The British Museum at London. — In Germany. The Imperial library at Vienna. That of the king of Bavaria at Munich. The library of the council or senate at Leipsic. The libraries of the Dukes at Weimar and Wolfenbuttel. The Royal library of Berlin. That of the king of Saxony at Dresden. — In Den- mark. The Royal library at Copenhagen. — In Holland. The University library at Leijden. — In Russia. Library of the Synod at Moscow. 1. Details on the subject of Greek Mss. may be found by consulting the following works : Bern. JHontfancon, Itecensio Bibliothecar. Graecarum, in quibus manuscripti codices habentur; in his Palaeographia Graeca ($104). — Ejusd. Bibliotheca Bibliothecarum manuscriptorum Nova. Par. 1739. 2 vols. fol. — F. Eckard, Uebersicht der Oerter, wo die bekanntesten griech. Schriftsteller gelebt haben ; und Grundlage zur Geschichte der Bibliotheken, wodurch jenein Handschriften sind erhalten worden. Giessen,1776. 8. — For some remarks on the Libraries of Greece, whence Mss. have been obtained, see Travels by E. D. Clarke. N. York, 1815, vol. iv. Append. No. 6. where is also a catalogue of the Mss. in the Library of Patmos. — Cf. Clais. Journ. vol. vn., in which, and the following volumes, is a notice of the manuscripts in the various libraries in Eng- land. 2. The Royal library at Paris contains 70,000 Mss. of various kinds ; the Vatican at Rome 30,000 ; the Ambrosian at Milan 15,000. In the case of most of the libraries mentioned above, there are catalogues of the Mss. preserved in them. The most valuable of these catalogues are ^uch as give not only the simple name and title, but also critical and historical notices of the manuscripts, their authors, age, rarity, price, &c. See e. g. Catalogus Bibliothecce Bunaviarue. Lips. 1750 — 55. 7 vols. 4. — Bondbii's Catalogue of Mss. in the Library of the Grand Duke at Florence, 1764 — 93. 11 vols. fol. — Notices des Manuscrits de la Bibliotheque du Roi. Par. 1787 — 1818. 10 vols. 4. — " The Catalogues of the Mss. in the British Museum, hitherto (1835) printed, &U fiye folios and four quartos." PLATE III. ARCHEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. I. — Of the Sources of Roman Culture. § 109. We have no authentic history of the first inhabitants of Italy. The later Romans themselves knew but little in regard to this subject, as there did not remain any monuments of the early ages; those which had been preserved at Rome having been destroyed at the capture and burning of that city by the Gauls, B. C. 390. This uncertainty has given rise to many fables. The Romans com- monly traced their own descent from the Trojans, a colony of whom under JEneas amalgamated with the aborigines or most ancient in- habitants of Italy. 1. Different accounts are given of the origin of the name Italy, Italia. Some derive it from Italus (a), said to be a chief who came from Arcadia, or CEnotria, and established a colony and kingdom ; considered by many, how- ever, to be a fabulous personage. Others derive it from the term ixaXbq, a. calf, applied to the country from the herds of young cattle (b) found in it by the Greeks. The name seems to have been first applied (c) to the southern ex- tremity of the peninsula, to the province called Calabria ulterior, and after- wards extended so as to include the whole land as far as the Alps. (a) Virg. JEn. vn. 178 Time. vi. 2.— (b) Varr. de Re rust. II. 5.— Gell. Noct. Att. xi. 1. Dion Hal. i. 35.— (c) Arist. Pol. vn. 10. Cf. Scbcell, Histoire de la Litterature Romaine. Par. 1815. 4 vols. 8. Vol. i. Intro, p. 4. 2. The question whenceltaly received its population has been much agi- tated. Two theories or systems have been strenuously defended, called the oriental and the northern. The former system maintains that the early in- habitants of Italy came from the east; from Greece, Asia Minor, Phoenicia, or Egypt, according to different advocates of the theory. The other system ad- mits an eastern origin of all the inhabitants of Europe, but maintains that Italy received its population directly from the northern or Celtic tribes. The oriental theory (a) is most generally adopted. — " At the period, when light is first thrown by authentic documents on the condition of Italy, we find it occupied by various tribes, which had reached different degrees of civiliza- tion, spoke different dialects, and disputed with each other the property of the lands whence they drew their subsistence." These various tribes may be in- cluded under the five following classes, ranged in the order of their supposed antiquity; viz. the Illyrii, including the Liburni, Siculi, and Veneti ; the Ibe- ri, including the people called Sicani ; the Celtce, to which belonged those named Umbri by the Romans ; the Pelasgi(b) ; and the Hetrusci, Etrusci, or Tyrrheni. (a) See J. Dunlop, History of Roman Literature, (vol. i. p. 21 of ed. Phil. 1827.)— Schmll, p. 8, as above cited. — These authors give references to the principal works in defence of each theory. — ('ft; Diomjs. Hal. i. 11.— Schcell, as above, p. 13.— Cf. § 33. 3. The Etruscans were the most celebrated of all these nations, having attained to a height of prosperity and glory before the existence of Rome. The history, institutions, and antiqui- ties of this people have been the theme of much interesting; discussion. See C. O. Mueller, Die Etrusker. Bresl. 1828. 2 vols. S.—jlnthou's Lemp. Class. Diet, under Hetruria.—Edinb* Rev. vol. l. p. 372.— Dunlop, Hist. Rom. Lit. vol. i. p. 26. 4. The early history of Rome is involved perhaps inextricably in fabulous. 6* 66 ARCHAEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. traditions. There has been an earnest literary controversy respecting the a*a^ thenticity of the commonly received accounts. For the common account of the origin of Rome, see Livy, lib. i. — Dion. Hal. Ant. Rom, lib. i. — Plut. Romulus. — For arguments against the credibility of it, see Pouilly, De Beaufort? and others, as cited P. II. § 510. § 110. From this it is easy to perceive, that the origin and intro- duction of the Latin characters is a subject of much uncertainty. Some authors attribute the invention or introduction of these letters' to the Greeks, some to the Pelasgians, some to the Phoenicians, and others to the Etruscans. It is most commonly ascribed to Evander, who, antecedently to the Trojan war, conducted into Latium a Pe- lasgic colony from Arcadia. The affinity and resemblance of the most ancient Greek characters to the Latin is unquestionable. It was probably by means of the colonists settling in that country from various foreign parts, that civilization and the art of writing were introduced into Italy and a common alphabet at length formed. The Pelasgi coming from Arcadia, and, under the name of Tyrrheni, from Asia Minor,, seem to have been the first colonists. Soon after them, there arrived other Greek colonists, who established themselves in the lower part of Italy, and brought with them their religion, lan- guage, and alphabet. If we may credit duintilian (lib. i.), there existed at first but a smaller number of letters, and they differed in their form and signification from those afterwards used. See JVammachcri, Comment, de Lit. Rom. Bruns. 1758. 8. — Comp. Dion* Hal. i. 3G. — Liv* i. 7. — Tac. Ann. xi. 14. — Plin. Hist. Nat. vn. 58, 68. — On the resemblance of the Greek and Roman letters, see also Spelmaiut's Dissertation, in his Trans, of Dion. HaLvol. u. p. 297, as cited P. II. § 246. § 111?*. The Greeks, who established themselves in the southern part of Italy, always maintained their relations and an extensive commerce with the other Greeks, and even preserved their language. From them the country which they inhabited was called Magna Grcecia. It was separated from Sici- ly, where Greek colonies were also settled, only by a small strait. From thi& circumstance arises the resemblance found betweeg them and; the inhabitants- of this island in their language, sciences, manners, and government. These countries having enjoyed the advantages of a long peace, suffered nothing from the Romans until a late period, and their intercourse with the Greeks always existing, the arts and sciences- among them- rose to a very flourishing state. It is sufficient in this place merely to allude to the school of Pythag- oras, which tok the name of Italian, and that founded by Xenophanes, some- what later, and called the Elcatic. In Magna Graecia and Sicily resided ma- ny great men, renowned even at the present day, by the brilliancy of their talents and by their writings ; as, for instance, Archimedes-, Diodorus ; the poets Theocritus, Moschus r and Bion; the orators Lysias, Gorgias, and others. See Jagemann's Geschichte der Kunste und Wissenschaften in Italien. — Dunlop, Hist. Rom. Lit. vol i. p. 49, as cited' $ 109., — Saintc-Croix, Legislation de la Grande Grace. Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xlii. p. 286, and: xlv. p. 284. § 112. But the circumstances of the Romans must principally occupy our attention here. That first and long period, which com- prises all the time included between the foundation of Rome and the close of the first Punic war, a period of about 590 years, was very sterile with respect to intellectual- culture; at least it was far from being so fertile as might have been expected in a republic, which ad- vanced so rapidly to a flourishing condition, and was surrounded by neighbors civilized and instructed in literature and the arts. But the spirit of aggrandizement which controlled and guided afl the intel- lectual and political exertions of the Romans, was in no small degree ORIGIN OP THE LATIN LANGUAGE. 67 itself the cause. This involved them in continual war and compelled them to neglect literature and science, which are the offspring of peace and leisure. Their whole constitution, and consequently their very education, tended only to this end. Hence the opposition which the elder Cato made to the reception of the Greek philosophers at Rome. Hence also the prejudice which caused the Romans to regard all arts and sciences, with the exception of agriculture and war, as dishonorable and fit only for slaves. § 113?/. Even in this period, however, there appear a few traces of a dawn- ing cultivation. We may specify as particulars, the care which, in the time' of Tarquin the Proud, the civilian Papirius employed in preparing a collec- tion of the laws ; the embassy sent to Athens, about 454 B. C-, to examine the institutions of Greece, which resulted in the establishment of the laws of the twelve Tables ; the preservation of the national history in the pontifical books called Annales, or Commentarii, parts of which were written in verse, and were sung upon public days ; and finally the introduction, about B. C. 363, of the Etrurian plays, called ludi scenici, in which originated the Roman drama. These plays at first consisted of nothing but dancing and pantomime accompanying the music of the flute. After the Romans had extended their conquests over Italy, they began to bestow more attention upon the arts and sciences. There were in Italy at this time two nations particularly, by whom the arts had been especially cultivat- ed, the inhabitants' of Etruria and of Magna Graicia. (Cf. § 109, 3. and § 111.) Both these nations were subjected to the Romans more than 250 years before Christ ; the former about B. C. 283 ; the latter, B. C. 266. The Romans were thereby brought into greater intercourse with them. The in- fluence of this intercourse upon the culture of the Romans was favorable, but was not very great until the close of the first Punic war, B. C. 241. § 114. The origin of the Latin language cannot be traced to any one primitive tongue, because Italy in the early periods was occupied by so many people, and it is so uncertain which of them were the most ancient. Among the earliest occupants were no doubt the Cel- tae, or the Pelasgi, who came from Thracia and Arcadia, and seem to have been of the same race as the aborigines. Grecian colonists subsequently planted themselves in the middle and lower part of Ita- ly, where also, as well as in Sicily, Phoenicians and Carthaginians afterwards settled, as likewise did the Gauls in the northern part of the country. The first foundation of the Roman tongue was proba- bly the dialect which has been termed Ausonian or Oscan (Lingua Osca). Romulus was perhaps educated among the Greeks, and seems on this account to have introduced into his city the Grecian language, while the native tongue, not having fixed rules and analo- gies of its own, must have been liable to arbitrary changes, and would borrow many peculiarities from other dialects. We find in the derivation of many Latin words, and in the general structure of the language, frequent traces of the Greek, especially the yEolic dia- lect. The resemblance between the Greek and Latin alphabets has already been mentioned (§ 110). 1 u. Properly speaking, the Latin and the Roman languages are not the same. The former was spoken in Latium, between the Tiber and the Liris, until the abolition of the regal government in Rome ; and was introduced at Rome after that period. The laws of the twelve Tables were in this dialect. 2. " The population of Italy being composed of various people, there were of course various languages and idioms in the country, as the Ombrian, Etruscan, Sicanian, Latin, and others. The Latin was the primitive language of the people of Latium, and graduaUv took the place of all the rest. The ancient inhabitants of Latium constituted a part of the 63 ARCHAEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. Aborigines, but this term indicates, scarcely more than that their real origin was unknown. They are sometime* also called Ausonans. According to Dionysius Halicarnasseus, they were Arcadians. But it is more probable they were Ulyrian-, or Celtae, or rather a mixture of these two race-* with the Pelasgic colonists. In fact, we may see in the Latin language, two funda- mentil idioms, the Celtic, and the Creek of the ASolic and Doric dialects, which nearly resem- bled the ancient Pelagic. Every thing in the Latin which is not Greek is from the Ceitae, and especially the Ombri. Dionysiua therefore h'ld reason for his remark that the ancient idiom of Rome was neither entirely Greek nor entirely barbarian. As Lati'sm contained anciently sev- eral independent tribes, there were several dialects, anions them those of the Osci, the Volsci, the Lat'ni, and the Samnites. All the-e die.lects gradually disappeared, and were sunk in the Roman language, as the Romans became masters of Italy. The use of it was regarded as an acknowledgment of their supremacy, and when the allies made an attempt to throw off the Roman yoke, they resumed their primitive languages on the money they stamped. The Julian law, passed shortly after, B. C. about 90, bestowing upon these states the rights of Roman cit- izenship, struck a mortal blow at all these idioms, as it forever banished them from public transactions. The Etruscan alone survived for any considerable time, being favored on ac- count of the respect affected by the Roman government towards the rites of the Tuscans." See Schall, Hist. Litt. Rom. vol. 1. p. 37, as cited $ 109. 1. — On the origin of the Latin lan- guage, see also Dunlop. Hist. Rom. Lit. vol. i. p. 4°.."as cited $ 109.2. — Niebuhr, Hist, of Rome, vol. i. — Class. Jii'irn. iii. 217 ; vi. 375 ; ix 219 ; xviii. 359. — Func'dus, De origine Lat. Linsr. Tracta- tus, Giessae. 1720 ; De Pueritia L. L. Tractatus. Marb. 1720 ; De Adolescentia L. L. Tract. Marb. 1720. These are separate portions of a History of Latin Literature, by T. JV*. Funk, of Rinteln, published at Marburg between 1720, and 175), in 8 vols. 4. For the other portions, see P. II. §296. (g.)-We refer also to J. C. F. Bwhr, Geschichte der Roem. Literatur. Carlsr. 1832. 8. p. 1. — Jakel, Germanische Ursprung der Lat. Sprache &c. Bresl. 1830. — Paulino di S. Bartolomeo, De Lat. Serm, origine &c. Rom. 1802. — Compare the remarks on the families of languages, in § 3G, and references there given. 3u. During the period preceding the close of the first Punic war, the Ro- man language was in no settled state. It was necessarily exposed to he a mixture of various idioms, from the diversity of foreigners who composed the early population of Rome. Traces of the old forms of the language are found in fragments of the earliest poets, and also in the comedies of Plautus. It was not until the close of the period of which we have spoken, that any atten- tion was paid to the regular settling of the principles and forms of the lan- guage, and not until a still later time that any approved author labored upon the cultivation of style. During all this time, therefore, the language contin- ued in a changing state. 4. There are still extant some monuments of the language during the period preceding the first Punic war. To these it will be proper briefly to advert. The earliest specimen is supposed to be as ancient as the time of Romulus, the Hymn chant- ed by the Fratres Arcales. It is given by Dunlop, with an English version, as follows : Enos Lases juvate Ye Lares, aid us ! Mars thou God of Might ! Neve luerve Marmar sinis incurrer in From Murrain shield the flocks, the flowers from pleoris. blight. Satur fufere Mars : limen sali staberber : For thee, O Mars ! a feast shall be prepared ; Semones alternei advocapit cunctos, Salt, and a wether from the herd : Enos Marmor juvate; Invite, by turn, each Demigod of Spring; Triumpe, Triumpe. Great Mars, assist us ! Triumph! Triumph sing ! The hymn is explained somewhat differently by different interpreters. — See Dutilop, Hist. Rom. Lit. vol. i. p. 41.— Schoell, Hist. Litt. Rom. vol. l. p. 41.— Baihr, as above cited, p. 62. — Eustace, Class. Tour in Italy, vol. m. p. 416. — Comp. Hermann, Elem. Doct. Metric, lib. in. c. ix. 6, where he gives an interpretation in the later Latin. — Edivb. Rev. No. 80. p. 395. The next specimens belong to the time of JVuma, and consist in the remains of the Carmen Saliare, and of the Laws of JVuma. Of the former, which was the hymn sung by the Salic priests appointed under Numa to guard the Sacred Shields, there remain only a few words, cited by Varro (De Ling. Lat. lib. vi. 1, 3.) Of the latter, some fragments are preserved by Festus. The following is an example ; Sei cuips hemonem loebesom dolo sciens mortet duit pari- ceidad estod sei im imprudeas st dido inalod oceisit pro capited oceisei et nateis eiius citdo condoned ariete.n subicitod: which is interpreted, in the later language, as follows ; Si qui* himinem libc- rum dolo sciens morti dcderit, parricida esto .- St mm iwprndens, sine dolo malo, occidcrit, pro capite occisi ct vatis ejus in concionem arietem subjicito. — Festushas preserved also a law ascribed to Ser- vius Tullius, fifth King of Rome. After the fragments f the Regal Laws, we have no monument of the language until we come to the Laws of the Ticclce Tables, B. C. 450. It may be doubted whether the genuine original reading has been preserved invariably in the fragments which are now extant. — For specimens, see Schtcll, Hist. Litt. Rom. vol. l. p. 45. — Cf. P. II. § 561. Add : tional monuments of the laniuage in the period now spoken of are the DuilUan, Scip- ian, and Eagubian Inscriptions, which will be mentioned on a subsequent page. ( Cf. $ 133.) 5. It may be worthy of observation that, in the time of Cicero, there seem to have been marked differences in the Roman language according as it was spnken in the city, or in the country, or in the conquered provinces ; the lan- guage of the city being designated as the sermo urbanus ; that of the country, the sermo rusticanus ; and that of the provinces, the sermo per eg rinus. — Cic. De Orat. iii. 10.— 14. ARCHAEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. II. — Of the Roman Alphabet, Method of Writing, and Books. § 115. Ancient Grammarians do not altogether agree concerning the nature and number of the original Latin or Roman letters. Ma- rias Victorinus mentions the following ; A, B, C, D, E, I, K, L, M, N, O, P, a, R, S, T ; 16 in number. Of these, a is not found in the Greek alphabet, but corresponds to the Greek y.^rra (§ 46) ; C was sometimes equivalent to it. V, used both as a consonant and as a vowel, was subsequently added ; originally I or O was used instead of V as a vowel; and instead of B as a consonant the iEolic Digamma r was employed. It was in this way, that F obtained its place as a letter. H, G, X, Y, Z, were also added at a later period. Comp. Dionys. Hal. Ant. Rom. 1. 30. Plin. N. H. vn. 5G,57.— Tat. Ann. xi. 14.— On the sub- ject of the Roman alphabet, see also Port Royal Latin Grammar, bk. ix. — On its origin, Lanzi, Sa^gio di Ling. Etnisc— Baihr, p. 12. as cited \S 109. 2. and references given by him. He con- siders the Roman alphabet as derived from the Greek. § 116. The ancient orthography differed from that of later times, from the fact that the pronunciation was much changed. To see this clearly, it will only be necessary to compare with the modern orthography, the original of a passage in a decree of the senate re- specting the Bacchanales (§ 133), which is one of the most ancient monuments of Roman writing, about B. C. 186. The passage in the original form is as follows : neve, posthac inter, sed. coniovrase. NEVE. COMVOVISE. NEVE. CONSPONDISE. NEVE. CONPROMES[SE. VELET. NEVE. QVISQVAM. FIDEM. INTER. SED. DEDISE. VELET. SACRA. IN. OQVOLTOD. NE. QVISQVAM. FECISE. VELET. NEVE. IN. POPLICOD. NEVE. IN. PREIVATOD. NEVE. EXTRAD. VRBEM. SACRA. QVISQVAM. FECISE. velet. In the later orthography, as follows : Neve posthac inter se conjurasse, neve convovisse, neve conspondisse, neve compromisisse vel- let, neve quisquam fidem inter se dedisse vellet, sacra in occulto ne quisquam fecissc vellet, neve in publico, neve in privato, neve extra urbem sacra quisquam fecisse vellet. Respecting this decree, seeLivy, xxxix. 18. — Sclurll, Hist. Litt. Rom. vol. l. p. 52. Cf. § 133. 3. — On the various changes in orthography, see Dunlop, Hist. Rom. Litt. l. p. 48. — Port Royal Lat. Gram, bk, ix. — Funcciu* De Pueritia. Ling. Lat. c. 5. and De Adolescentia Ling. Lat. c. 7. — Terrason, Hist, de la Jurisprudence Rom. pt. l. § H7. Not only in ancient times, but even in the later and most flourishing period of their literature, the Romans wrote only in cap- ital letters. The small Roman letters did not come into general use until the beginning of the middle ages. If small letters (Uteres mi- nutes) were employed earlier, it was only a smaller size of the capi- tals. 1. A late writer in the publication of the London Antiquarian Society hag made an attempt, which some consider as successful, to show that minuscule writing (i. e. writing in the small letters) was practiced by the ancients; al- though this is contrary to the opinion hitherto universally received. See W. Y. Qttleifs account of the Ms. of Cicero's Aratus, as mentioned below § 143. — Cf. C. Wordsworth, Specimens and Fac-similes of ancient writing found on the walls and streets of Pompeii. Lond. 1838. 8. 2u. When the writers wished to take down a spoken discourse, or to note something in the margin, they formed abbreviations (nutai) by using the initial letters, or some of the principal letters, of the words, or by using particular signs for the syllables of most frequent occurrence, or arbitrary characters standing for whole words. The most remarkable of these signs or characters 70 ARCHAEOLOGY OP ROMAN LITERATURE. are the notee. Tironiance, the invention of which is ascribed to Annaeus Seneca y and to Cicero's freed man Tiro ; from the latter of whom they derived their name. Gruter and Carpenticr have collected and attempted to explain these characters ; it has been done more completely by Kopp in treating of the Tachygraphy of the ancients. Some have imagined, that our small numerical figures derived their origin from these characters instead of being, as is com- monly believed, an invention of the Arabians ; but there is no ground for the supposition. 3. There are manuscripts in existence of great antiquity, written in short hand. Some of these are in Greek. According to Kopp, the Greek notes or abbreviated signs are more easy and simple than the Tironian, and in appearance more similar to modern short hand. See Curpeiitler, Alphabatum Tironianum. Par. 1747. fob— U. F. Kopp, Tachygraphia Veterum exposita et illustrata. Manheim, 1817. 2 vols. 4.— Gruter, a? cited § 130. — The Roman notes are also exhibited in Gruter's Seneca, cited P. II. § 4G9. 4.— Cf. Class. Journal, vol. xxxix. p. 185L § 118. The books of the Romans, both the more ancient and those of later times, resembled in form and material, the books of the Greeks. (See § 56, 57.) The rolls among the Romans were call- ed volumina ; the leaves composing them, pagince (from the word pangcre, to put together) ; the sticks upon which they were rolled, cylindri, also bacilli, surculi ; the knobs or ornaments at the ends of the sticks, umbilici or cornua ; and the edges of the rolls, frontes. In writing the first draft of any thing, whether in accounts or letters, the Romans commonly made use of tablets covered with wax (tabula cerates, ccrce). They also had books, made and folded in the same manner as ours, of square leaves of vellum or papyrus, which they called codices. Their instruments for writing were the style (stylus, graphium), and the reed (calamus, arundo). They used ink of sev- eral dyes or colors. And copyists introduced the same ornaments in writing manuscripts as among the Greeks. Comp. §§ 55, 58. 1 . The paper used by the Romans was formed from the Egyptian papyrus; a species of rush, which was procured on the banks of the Nile. The term biblus (fiifliog) was also applied to the same plant. Hence we have our words paper and Bible. The papyrus was used for purposes of writing at a very early period (cf. §107. 5). Manufactories of the paper existed at Memphis, it is stated, more than 600 years before Christ. At the time of the conquest of Egypt by the Romans, it was made chiefly at Alexandria. Pliny gives a description of the manner of making the paper. One layer of the fibrous mem- branes (pkilyra) was placed crosswise upon another layer ; they were then moistened with the water of the Nile, pressed, and dried in the sun. Bruce affirms that the water of the .Nile is not glutinous, and that the strips of papyrus adhere together solely by the saccharine matter con- tained in the plant, and that the water must have been used only to dissolve and diffuse this matter equally. After being dried, it was pounded with a mallet and polished with a tooth, shell, or other smooth substance. It was then cut into sheets or leaves (plagula, schedw), which were of various qualities and kinds. A number of sheets were joined together to form a roll or volume ; the number was never greater than twenty ; the term scapus was employed to desig- nate collectively any number thus joined. The sheets were glued together for a volume or manuscript by slaves, termed glutinntores (i. q. librorum covipactores, (tifl).io7ir study with more care the principles of their language. They also became - acquainted with the Grecian philosophy. What contributed very much to this last, was the visit of three Greek philosophers, Carneades, Diogenes and Critolaus, who came to Rome on an embassy, B. C. 155. These men, (cf. P. II. § 408.) notwithstanding the efforts made by Cato to shorten their stay and to prevent their teaching their doctrines, excited great interest in the Greek philosophy. The Romans now also began to set more value upon the art of oratory ; to apply themselves to historical researches, and to look upon the study of jurisprudence as a favorable means for improving their welfare. After the taking of Carthage, and especially after the subjection of Greece, Rome enjoyed more of peace, together with the numerous advantages she had gain- ed by her conquests ; then followed the reign of the sciences and fine arts, and that brilliant period, which is called the golden age of her literature. See Mbc le Moine, and J. H. Eberhardt, as cited P. II. $ 294. § 121. The most brilliant age of Roman literature commenced with the capture of Corinth and Carthage, B. C. 146, and continued to the death of Augustus, the first emperor, A. D. 14, comprising a period of 159 years. The progress of the Romans in the sciences and arts was now so great, that it has excited the admiration of pos- terity, and secured them a rank among the distinguished nations of antiquity, second only to the Greeks. Among the causes of this re- markable advancement, must be mentioned the comparative tranquil- lity of the period, the greatness of the empire, the custom of imita- ting the best Grecian models, and those changes in the Roman con- stitution and policy with regard to the arts and sciences, by which they not only obtained tolerance, but enjoyed protection, respect and the most flattering encouragement. § 122. It was thus, that the productions of genius came to the greatest perfection, that the language was enriched and poetry took a novel and more brilliant form, particularly in the reign of Augustus. The art of oratory presented a vast field for the intellect, and held a superior rank. History acquired more of dignity and interest. Phi- losophy in all its sects adopted the Grecian method of instruction, and received the most encouraging attention. The Mathematics, which hitherto had been limited to arithmetic and the elements of geometry, obtained far greater extent and perfection. To medicine and jurisprudence were imparted more solidity and exactness in their application. This progress became still more rapid and universal, as these acquirements extended through different classes of citizens, and Romans of the highest rank, and even the rulers themselves, engaged in literary pursuits, or at least considered it their glory to favor and encourage them. § 123. The progress of improvement was specially manifest in the system of education. It was no longer limited to the bodily powers and the art of war. Every faculty of the mind was de- veloped, as among the Greeks, who were in this as in other things the masters and models of the Romans. The first instruction of the Romans was received from Greeks, and Grecian letters and arts constituted the principal study. Hence their evident imitation of the Greeks, whom however they did not servilely copy, but infused into their imitations their own spirit and genius. In the same man- ner as the Greeks, the Romans also had their contests or trials of EDUCATION. SCHOOLS. 73 skill in oratory, poetry and music, their public recitals, their pro- fessed readers, and their literary feasts ; and the sciences were not limited to particular classes or professions, any more than among the Greeks. The knowledge which they considered suitable to every condition, and worthy of a man of noble birth, and of good capaci- ty, education and manners, they called by way of eminence, artes liberates, studia humanitatis. See Cellarii Diss, de studiis Romano-rum literariis, Hal. 1698.4. — Also con- tained in Cellarii Antiq. Rom. edited by Walch, Hal. 1774. 8. § 124. In these studies we must include the instruction given by the Grammarians and Rhetoricians, who were also styled professores, literati, and literatores. These latter instructed not only in the ele- ments of the Latin and Greek language, but also in the principles of poetry and oratory, the principal works of which they analyzed and explained. Of declamation, or public oratorical rehearsals, there was a frequent practice. Not only children and youth, but men of parts and education, assisted in these exercises. Besides this en- couragement the instructors received recompenses and favors, and sometimes even shared in the highest dignities of state. The first Grammarian, who taught in Rome with success, was the Grecian Crates from Mallos (cf. P. II. § 418). After him L. Plotius be- came one of the most celebrated in that profession ; and he was the first who taught the art of oratory in the Latin language. § 125. Many public schools (scholce, ludi, pergula magistrates) were established, in consequence of the great number of these gram- marians, which at length increased, so that many were obliged to leave Rome, and spread themselves in upper Italy. One of the most celebrated of the schools was that instituted at a later period by the emperor Adrian. It was held in a large edifice, called the Atheneum, partly devoted also to public recitals and declamations, and was continued under the name of Schola Romana, until the time of the first Christian emperors. There was also an establishment of the kind in the Capitolium. In addition to these, some temples, as that of Apollo, for example, formed halls of assembly, for the pur- poses of rehearsal. And in the Gymnasia, there were various intel- lectual as well as bodily exercises. The methods of instruction, particularly in the study of philosophy, were similar to those of the Greeks. (Cf. §§ 71—73.) 1. In the temple of Apollo, built by Augustus on the Palatine bill, authors, particularly poets, used to recite their compositions before select judges. They were there said to be matched or contrasted, committi, or to contrast their works, opera committcre. Hence commissiones was used to signify showy declamations. Cf. Juv. vi. 435.— Suet. Aug. 45. 89. Claud. 4. 53. — JVaudet, Sur instruction publique chez les anciens, particulierement les Romains. Mem. de PInstitut C 1 as s e d'Hist. et Lit. Anc. vol. ix. p. 388. — L. Reederer, De Scholast. Romanor. Institutione. Bonn. 1828. 4. 2. The following extract, from Kennctt's Antiquities, will give further par- ticulars respecting the education of the Romans. " For masters, in the first place, they had the Literatores or r<>auuaTiOTal, who taughtthe children to read and write ; to these they were committed about tlie age of six or seven years. Being come from under their care, they were sent to the grammar schools, to learn the art of speaking well, and the understanding of authors ; or more frequently in the houses of great men, some eminent grammarian was entertained for that employment. — It is pleasant to con- sider, what prudence was used in these early years to instil into the chidren's minds a love and inclination to the Forum, whence they' were to expect the greatest share of their honors 7 /4 ARCHAEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. and preferments. For Cicero tells Atticus, in his second book de Legibus, that when they were boys they used to learn the famous laws of the Twelve Tables by heart, in the samt* manner as they did an excellent poem. And Plutarch relates in his life of the younger Cato, that the very children had a play in which they acted pleading of causes before the judges ; accusing one another, and carrying the condemned party to prison. — The masters already mentioned, together with the instructors in the several sorts of manly exercises for the im- proving of their natural strength and force, do not properly deserve tbat name, if set in view with the rhetoricians and philosophers ; who, after that reason had displayed her faculties, and established her command, were employed to cultivate and adorn the advantages of na- ture, and to give the last hand towards the forming of a Roman citizen. Few persons made any great figure on the scene of action in their own time, or in history afterwards, who, be- sides the constant frequenting of public lectures, did not keep with them in the house some eminent professor of oratory or wisdom. At the age of seventeen years, when the young gentlemen put on the manly gown, they were brought in a solemn manner to the forum, and entered in the study of pleading ; not only if they designed to make this their chief profession, but although their inclinations lay rather to the camp. For we scarce meet with a good captain who was not a good speaker, or any em- inent orator, who had not served some time in the army. Thus it was requisite for all persons who had any thoughts of rising in the world, to make a good appearance, both at the bar, and in the field ; because if the success of their valor and conduct should advance them to any considerable post, it would have proved almost impossible, without the advantage of elo- quence, to maintain their authority with the senate and people ; or if the force of their oratory should in time procure them the honorable office of praetor or consul, they would not have been in a capacity to undertake the government of the provinces (which fell to their share at the expiration of those employments) without some experience in military command. In the dialogue de Oratoribus, we have a very good account of this admission of young gen- tlemen into the forum, and of the necessity of such a course in the commonwealth. — " Among our ancestors," says the author, " the youth who was designed for the forum, and the practice of eloquence, being now furnished with the liberal arts, and the advantage of a domestic insti- tution, was brought by his father or near relations, to the most celebrated orator in the city. Him he used constantly to attend, and to be always present at his performance of any kind, either in judicial matters, or in the ordinary assemblies of the people, so that by this means lie learned to engage in the laurels and contentions of the bar, and to approve himself a man at arms in the wars of the pleaders." To confirm the opinion of their extreme industry and perpetual study and labor, it may not seem impertinent to instance in the three common exercises of translating, declaiming, and re- citing. — Translation, the ancient orators of Rome looked on as a most useful, though a most laborious employment. All persons that applied themselves to the bar, proposed commonly some one orator of Greece for their constant pattern ; either Lysias, Hyperides, Demosthenes, or iEschines, as their genius was inclined. Him they continually studied, and, to render them- selves absolute masters of his excellencies, were always making him speak their own tongue. This Cicero, Quintilian, and Pliny Junior, enjoin as an indispensable duty, in order to the ac- quiring any talent in eloquence. And the first of these great men, besides his many versions of the orators for his private use, obliged the public with the translation of several parts of Plato and Xenophon in prose, and of Homer and Aratus in verse. As to declaiming, this was not only the main thing, at which they labored under the masters of rhetoric, but what they practiced long after they undertook real causes, and had gained a considerable name in the forum. Suetonius, in his book of famous rhetoricians, tells us that Cicero declaimed in Greek till he was elected Pra;tor, and in Latin till near his death ; that Pompey the Great, just at the breaking out of the civil war, resumed his old exercise of de- claiming, that he might the more easily be able to deal with Curio, who undertook the defence of Cesar's cause, in his public harangues ; that Mark Antony and Augustus did not lay aside this custom, even when they were engaged in the siege of JVlutina ; and that Nero was not only constant at his declamations, while in a private station, but for the first year after his advance- ment to the empire. — it is worth remarking, that the subject of these old declamations wasnot a mere fanciful thesis, but a case Which might be brought into the courts of judicature. When I speak of recitation, I intend not to insist on the public performances of the poets in that kind, for which purpose they commonly borrowed the house of some of their noblest pa- trons, and carried on the whole matter before a vast concourse of people, and with abundance of ceremony. For, considering the ordinary circumstances of men of that profession, this may be thought not so much the effect of an industrious temper, as the necessary way of raising a name among the wits, and getting a tolerable livelihood. I would mean, therefore, the re- hearsal of all manner of compositions in prose or verse, performed by men of some rank and quality, before they obliged the world with their publication. This was ordinarily done in the meeting of friends and acquaintances, and now and then with the admission of a more numer- ous audience. The design they chiefly aimed at was the correction and improvement of the piece ; for the author, having a greater awe and concern upon him on these occasions than at other times, must needs take more notice of every word and sentence, while he spoke them before the company, than he did in the composure, or in the common supervisal. i.esides, he had the advantage of all his friends' judgments, whether intimated to him afterwards in pri- vate conference, or tacitly declared at the recital by their looks and nods, with many other to- kens of dislike and approbation. (( f. § 67.) The example of the younger Pliny, in this practice, is very observable, and the account which we have of it is given us by himself. " L omit (says he, Ep. vn. 17,) no way or method that may seem proper for correction. Aud first 1 take a strict view of what I have written, and consider thoroughly of the whole piece ; in the next place, I read it over to two or three friends, and soon after send it to others for the benefit of their observations. If I am in any doubt concerning their criticisms, 1 take in the assistance of one or two besides myself, to judge and debate the matter. Last of all, I recite before a great number; and this is the time that I furnish myself with the severest emendations." On the rehearsals of the Romans, see Gierig, as cited below, § 128. 3.— For some remarks on Roman education, see Qood\s Book of Nature. Lect. xi.— On Rom. education in time of Quin- tilian, Rollin, on the Latin Rhetoricians, in his Aac. lli.it. ed. N. York 1835, n. p. 552. LIBRARIES. 75 § 126. Collections of books were considerably numerous at Rome. The first private library is said to have been that which P. Emilius founded B. C. 167, immediately after the Macedonian war ; which, however, could not have been very large. More extensive was the library which Sylla brought with him from the capture of Athens, which included the rich collection of Apellicon. But this did not equal the magnificence of the famous library of Lucullus, obtained in the Mithridatic war. Besides these there were several other dis- tinguished private libraries, many citizens having them at their coun- try villas. The first public library was founded by Asinius Pollio, in the ha41 of the temple of Liberty, on Mount Aventine. One of the most celebrated was that founded by Augustus in the temple of Apollo on Mount Palatine. Another particularly celebrated was the Ulpine library founded by Trajan, and afterwards located in the Baths of Diocletian. There were also other public libraries, as for exam- ple, in the Capitol, in the temple of Peace, and in a building adjourn- ing the theatre of Marcellus. 1. Varro is said to have collected a very valuable library, which was open to the use of literary men. Cicero and Atticus also possessed considerable li- braries. Tyrannio, a native of Pontus, who was taken prisoner by Lucullus and brought to Rome as a slave, and who, having received his freedom, en- gaged in teaching rhetoric and grammar, is said to have acquired by his earn- ings a library of 30,000 volumes. 2ti. Generally libraries (bibliotliexa) occupied one of the principal apart- ments in the edifices and palaces of the Romans, usually in the eastern side of the building. They were ornamented with paintings and with statues and busts of distinguished writers. The books were ranged along the walls in cases {armaria, capsa), which were numbered and had subdivisions (foruli, loculamenta, nidi). Grammarians, and Greek slaves or freedmen, were ap- pointed for the librarians (bibliothecarii) . We cannot infer with certainty the number either of different authors, or of different works, contained in a library, from the number of volumes mentioned ; as often only one author, or one work even, was comprised in many volumes. The same work was no doubt found in va- rious libraries, and duplicates might exist in the same library. How many of the volumes enu- merated in the different libraries of Rome, were filled, for example, with the poems of Virgil ? — A recent writer has estimated that, at the end of the second century, when there were pro- bably about three millions of Christians in the Roman empire, there were about 60,000 copies of the Gospels in use among them. Allowing that each gospel constituted but a single volume, this would make 240,000 volumes, in existence, for only four different authors. Cf. A. Norton, Evidences of the Genuineness of the Gospels. Bost. 1837. 8. p. 45. ss. See Hceren'sGesch. Klass. Litt. bk. i. $§ 8-15. cited § 53. — Silv. Luersen, De temploet biblio- theca Apollinis Palatini. Franequ. 1719. 8« — ScIiceII, His't. Litt. Grecque. lib. v. ch. bQ.—Dunlop, Hist. Rom. Lit. ii. 50. — J. 11. Fels, De As. Pollionis bibliotheca &c. Jen. 1713. 4.— Plutarch, in Lucullus — Poppc, De Romanor. Bibliothecis. Berl. 1826. 4. § 127. To these various means of improvement we must add trav- els, by which not only professed men of letters, but also persons of distinguished rank, extended their information and perfected their taste. At this time, education and knowledge were no longer re- stricted so much as formerly by national prejudice. The Romans began more and more to appreciate the merits of foreigners, and to reap advantages from their intercourse with them. For this reason they resorted to Athens, the seat of Grecian refinement. They went also to Lacedemon, Rhodes, Eleusis, Alexandria, Mytilene, and other places. Cicero, Sallust, Vitruvius, Virgil, Propertius, and others thus went abroad for improvement. See O. JV. Kriegk, Diatribe de Veterum Roiaanorum peregrinationibus academicig. Jen. 1704. 4. 76 ARCHAEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. IV. — Of the Decline of Roman Literature. § 128 t. Roman literature, from the latter part of the first century after Christ, began to decline very sensibly from its height of glory and perfection. Its decline became, from the concurrence of many causes, more rapid than had been its former progress and improve- ment. We must place among these causes the loss of liberty and the triumph of despotism ; the little encouragement given to litera- ture by most of the emperors succeeding Augustus ; the great in- crease of luxury and the consequent universal degeneracy* of man- ners. The changes in the moral and political condition of Rome paralyzed the nobler motives, which had stimulated the citizens. Pure taste and delicate sensibility were gradually lost. Gaudy orna- ment was admired rather than real beauty. Affectation was substi- tuted for nature, and the subtleties of sophistry for true philosophy. Finally the invasions of the barbarians, the frequent internal commo- tions, the conflict of Christianity with pagan superstition (§ 83), the transfer of the imperial throne to Constantinople, and the division of the empire, consummated that fall of Roman literature, for which so many united causes had prepared the way. See Meiners, Geschichte des Verfalls der Sitten und der Staatsverfassunj? der Rcemer. Lpz. 1782. 8. 1. The decline of Roman literature may be dated from the end of the reign of Augustus, A. D. 14 ; and its history is considered as terminated with the overthrow of the western empire. A. D. 476. The whole time intervening is commonly divided into two periods, the beginning of the reign of the Anto- nines, A. D. 138, being the epoch of separation. It is by some divided into three, the first from Augustus to Antoninus, A. D. 14 — 138, the second from Antoninus to Constantino, A. D. 138 — 313, the third from Constantine to the fall of the empire, A. D. 313—476. On the periods in the history of Roman literature, see P. II. § 296, 301. 2. Some of the emperors after Augustus patronized letters; and during a portion of the time the declension of literature was not owing to the want of imperial encouragement. Under Hadrian the empire flourished in peace and prosperity, and men of letters were honored. The reign of the Antonines was also favorable to literature and the arts. After the death of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, A. D. 180, the imperial influence was much less propitious to learning. From this event to the reign of Constantine, conspiracies and se- ditions, bloodshed and devastation, mark the history. Constantine is said by his biographer Eusebius to have been a warm patron of letters, but his reign perhaps accelerated rather than retarded the declension of Roman literature. The establishment of Christianity by him necessarily tended to encourage a new system of education, and a new form and spirit of literature. Julian the apostate, who received the imperial throne A. D. 361, less than 30 years after the death of Constantine, made violent but ineffectual efforts to restore the intellectual influence wholly to the pagans, absolutely prohibiting Chris- tians to teach in the public schools of grammar and rhetoric ; vainly hoping in this way to hinder the propagation of the Christian religion. See Berington, Lit. History of the Middle apes. hk. i. — Gibbon, Hist. Rom. Emp. ch. iii. xiii. xxiii. — Hallain's Middle Ages. bk. iv. pt. i. — Comp. $ 81. — On Hadrian's regard to literature &.C. see Sainte Croix, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xlix. p. 405. 3. Among the circumstances contributing to the decline of letters, espe- cially to the depravation of taste, among the Romans, some have mentioned the custom of authors in publicly rehearsing or reciting their own produc- tions. The desire of success naturally led the writer to sacrifice too much to the judgments or caprice of the auditors in order to secure their plaudits of approbation. CORRUPTION OP TASTE. 77 See Schcell, Hist. Litt. Rom. vol. ir. p. 251. — Gierirr, Excursus de recitationibus Romanorum, in his edition of Pliny's Letters. Lpz. 1802. 2 vols. 8. Contained also in Lemaire's Pliny, Vol. ii. p. 219. 4. The Roman language suffered from the vitiating influence of intercourse with provincial strangers, who flocked to Rome. Many of these were admit- ted to the rights of citizenship and even received into offices of honor. It was impossible, that the peculiarities of their respective dialects should not modify in some degree the spoken language, and the consequences might ere long appear even in the style of writing. The purity of the language was much impaired before the time of Constantine. The removal of the govern- ment from Rome to Constantinople occasioned still greater changes in it, par- ticularly by the introduction of Greek and Oriental words with Latin termi- nations. The invasions and conquests of the barbarians completed the depra- vation of the Roman tongue and laid the foundation for the new languages which took its place. See Schall, Hist. Litt. Rom. vol. n. p. 255 j in. 10.— Gib bon, Rom. Emp. ch. ii. — On the transition of the Latin to the modern French, Italian, &c. see Hallam's Middle Ages, ch. ix. p. 1. — ./I/. Bonamy, Essav in Mem. de l'Acad. ties lnscr. tome xxm. — Funck, De imminente L. L. senectute, &c. as cited P. II. § 299. (g). 5. There were schools of learning in different parts of the empire during the decline of letters. ' In these professors were supported at public expense, and taught the principles of philosophy, rhetoric, and law or right. Such schools existed at Byzantium, Alexandria, Berytus, and Milan, and at several places in Gaul, where letters were cultivated with much zeal, as at Augusto- dunum (Autun), Burdegala (Bourdeaux), and Massilia (Marseilles). These schools, however, are said to have contributed to the corruption of taste, as the teachers were less solicitous to advance their pupils in real knowledge than to acquire glory from pompous display. At Berytus was the most fa- mous school for the study of Roman jurisprudence. See Schmll, Hist. Litt. Rom. vol. in. p. 8. — Gibbon's account of the school at Berytus, in Dccl. and Fall of Rom. Enq). ch. xvii. — Compare $ 80. V. — Of the Remains and Monuments of Roman Literature. § 129. The existing monuments of Roman literature are more numerous than those of Grecian, and scarcely inferior in point of utility and importance. We shall briefly notice them under the three classes of Inscriptions, Coins, and Manuscripts. Great advantage may be derived from Roman inscriptions and coins, in the illustra- tion of history, antiquities, geography, and chronology, and the man- uscripts present much that is subservient to philology and criticism, and taste. The same general remarks, which were made upon the written monuments of the Greeks, may be applied to those of the Romans. (Cf. § 86. ss.) (a) Inscriptions. § 130. The Grecian custom of commemorating remarkable events, by short inscriptions upon marble or brass, and of ornamenting their temples, tombs, statues, and altars with them, also existed among the Romans. There now remains a large number of these ancient in- scriptions, which have been collected and explained by several learn- ed men. We here mention some of the collections. — Among the earliest ; J. Reinesius, Syntagma Inscript. Antiquarum. 1G88. 2 vols. fol.—R. Fubrctti, Inscriptionum Antiquarum, &c. Expli- cate. Rom. 1699. fol. — One of the most complete works on the subject ; Jani Gruteri, In- Bcriptiones antiquae totius orbis Roman!, notis Marqu. Gudii emendats. Cura J. G. Qracvii. 7* 78 ARCHAEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. Amst. 1707. 2 torn. fol. — Next to this, the following are among the most valuable ; /. B. f/onft^ Inscriptiones Antiquae, nunc primum editae, notisque illustratie, etc. ab A. F. Oorio. Floiv 1731. fol. — Inscriptiones Antiquae, in urbibus Hetrurire, c. obs. Salvinii et Oorii. Flor. 1743. 3 vols. fol. — L. A. Muratorii Novus Thesaurus veterum inscriptionum, in prtecipuis earundem collectionibus hactenus praetermissarum. Mediol. 1739. 4 vols. foj. — Seb. Donati, Ad Novum Thesaurum Vet. Inscrip. cl. viri L. A. Muratorii Supplementa. Lucae, 1704. 1775. fol.— Rich. Pococke, Inscr. Antiq. Gnec. et Latin. Liber. Lond. 1752. fol.— B. Passionci, Inscr. Antiche. Luce. 1703. fol.—/. C. Hagenbuchii Epistolse Epigraphies, in quibus pVurima- antiquas inscrip- tiones, imprimis thesauri Muratoriani emendantur et explicantur. Tiguri, 1747. 4. — There are smaller collections of the more important inscriptions ; Oul. Fleetwood, Inscriptionum an- tiquarum sylloge. Lond. 1091. 8.— Romanarum Inscr. Fasciculus, cum explicatione notarum, in usum juventutis (auct. Comite Polcastro) .. Patav. 1774. 8. — Among the most valuable modern works ; F. Osann, Sylloge Inscript. Antiq., begun as cited § 87 ; continued and fin- ished, Darmst. 1822-29, in 8 Parts ; including Latin and Greek inscriptions. — J. C. Orelli, Inscr. Lat. select. Collectio. Zur. 1828. 2 vols. 8.- — On the distinction between epigrams and in- scriptions, cf. P. II. § 342. § 131. Some of the Roman inscriptions are among the most an- cient monuments of the Roman language and manner of writing. In order to decide upon their genuine character and estimate aright their contents, much previous knowledge is requisite. It is especial- ly necessary to understand the abbreviations which are frequently used. These consisted sometimes of detached letters, which ex- pressed a praenomen, or some known formula; sometimes of the principal letters of a word, the others being omitted; sometimes of monograms, by the contraction of different letters into one charac- ter ; sometimes by putting a single vowel enlarged for two similar ones ; and sometimes by the omission of some letters in the middle of a word. 1 u. It may be proper to introduce and explain some of the more common abbreviations that occur in Roman inscriptions. — L. S. M. C locum sibi monumento ce- (A) A. jedilis, annus, Aulus. — A. L. F. ani- mo lubens fecit* — A. P. aedilitia potestate. — A. S. S. a sacris scriniis AN. V. P.. M. annos vixit plus minus. — AVSP. S. auspicante sa- crum. (B) B.. DD. bonis deabus. — B. B. bene bene, i. e. optime. — B. D.S. M. bene de se merenti. — B. G. POS. biga gratis posita. (C) C. Caius, civis, cohors, conjux. — C. C. S. curaverunt communi sumtu. — C. F.-Caii fi- lms, carissima femina. — C. R. curavit refici, civis Romanus — C. V. P. V. D. D. communi voluntate publice votum dederunt. — CVNC. conjux. (D) D. decuria, domo. — D. D. dono dedit, dedicavit. — D. L. dedit libens. — D. M. V. diis manibus votum. — D. S. P.. F. C. de sua pecu- nia faciendum curavit. — DP. depositus. (E) E. erexit, ergo, expressum. — E. C. eri- gendum curavit. — E. F. egregia femina. — E. M. V. egregiie memoras vir- — E. S. e suo.— EX. PR. ex praecepto.— EX. TT. SS. HH. ex testamentis supra-scriptorum heredum. (F) F. fecit, rilia, hlius, fiamen.— F. C. fa- ciendum curavit. — F. F. fieri fecit, filius fami- lias.— F. F. fecerunt, filii, fratres.— F. II. F. fieri heredes fecerunt.— F. I. fieri jussit. — FR. D. frumenti dandi^-F. V. S. fecit voto sus- cepto. (H) II. habet, heres, honorem. — II. A. F. C. hanc aram faciendam curavit. — H. (i. hie qui- escit. — H. I. I. heredes jussu illorum. — H. S. E. hie situs est. (I) I. Imperator.— I. L.F. illius liberta fecit. — I. L. H. jus liberorum habens. — 1.0. M. D. Jovi optimo maxime dedicatum. (K) K. Caius, calendas, candidatus, casa. (L) L. legio, lustrum.— L. A. lex alia, li- bens animo.— L. C. locus concessus.— I,. H. L. D. locus hie liber datus.— L. P. locus publi- pit — LEG. legatus. (M) M. magister, mater, monumentum. — M. A. G. S. memor animo grato solvit. — MM. memories.— MIL. IN. COIL militavit in co- horte. (N) N. natione, natus, nepos, numerus. — N. P. C. nomine proprio curavit. ( O) O. D. S. M. optime de se merito. — O. H. S. S. ossa hie sita sunt. — OB. AN. obit anno. (P) P. pater, patria, pontifex, posuit, puer. — P. C. patres conscripti, patronus colonic s. corporis, ponendum curavit. — P. E. publice er- exerunt. — P. I. S. publica impensa sepultus. — P. P. publice posuit, pater patrite, praefectus praetorio. — P. S. P. Q,. P. pro se proque patria. — PR. SEN. pro sententia.— P. V. praefectus urbi. (Q) Q.. quaestor, qui, Q,uintus. — Q.. A. quaestor aedilis. — Q,. D. S. S. qui dederunt supra scripta. — Q.. F. quod factum. (R) R. recte, retro. — R. G. C. rei gerundae caussa. (S) S. sepulcrum, solvit, stipendium. — S. C. Senatus Consultum. — S. C. D. S. sibi curavit de suo. — S. E. T. L. sit ei terra levis. — S. L. M. solvit libens merito.— S. P. Q,. S. sibi poste- risque suis SVB. A. D. sub ascia dedicavit. (T) T. Titus, tribunus, tunc— T. C. testa- menti causa. — T. F. testamento fecit, Titi fi- lius, titulum fecit.--T. P. titulum posuit.— TR.. PI. DESS. tribuni plebis designati. (V) V. Veteranus, vixit.— V. A. F. vivus aram fecit. — V. C. vir consularis, vivus cura- vit. — V. D. D. votum dedicatum. — V. F. F~ vivus fieri fecit. — V. M.S. voto merito sus- cepto.— V. E. vir egreeius. (X) X. ER. deciniae eroaator XV. VIR.. SAC. FAC quindecimvir sacris faciundis. 2. The following works treat upon this subject. — Scrtorii Ursatide noti< Komanorum Com- mentarius. Patav. 1672. fol.— J. D. Coleti Notae et Siglae Ronu Venet. 1785.4.— J. Gerrard, INSCRIPTIONS. 79 Siglarium Romanum. Lond. 1792. 4. — Explicatio lit. et not. in antiq. Rom. monimentis occur- rentium. Flor. 1822. 8. — See Notts Compendiariw, in Ainsworth's Latin Diet, by Morrell Lond. 1816. 4.— Cf. Port Royal Lat. Grammar, bk. ix.— Also § 136. 1. § 132. Besides the numerous advantages already mentioned, as derived from Roman inscriptions, this study is of service in devising and preparing inscriptions designed to be placed upon modern mon- uments. It renders one acquainted with what is called the lapidary style, distinguished by its brevity and simplicity. For compositions of this sort the Latin is usually preferred to any modern language, on account both of its comprehensive brevity and also of its suita- bleness to the form and character of the monuments, which are gen- erally constructed after ancient models. It is scarcely necessary to observe, that in such cases the capital letters are used. The following is mentioned as a treatise very useful in this study. F. A. Zaccaria, Istituzi- one Antiquario-lapidaria, o sia Introduzione alio studio delle antiche latine Iscrizioni. Rom. 1770. 4. Ver. 1793. 8.— Cf. J. G. Heineccius, Fundamenta stili cultioris. Lpz. 1761. 8. Pt. n. c. v. § 133. A vast number of Roman inscriptions have been gathered from the mass of ancient ruins. They differ very much from each other in point of utility and importance. Those of a public charac- ter are obviously far more valuable than such as are mere private records and epitaphs. With regard to their philological worth we should particularly consider their antiquity. The following are among the most important. lu. The inscription upon the pedestal of the Columna rostrata, a column so called because ornamented with beaks of ships. It was erected in honor of the Consul Duillius (a) after the naval victory which he obtained over the Carthaginians, B. C. 261. During the time of the second Punic war this col- umn was struck down by lightning (b), and its ruins remained for a long time concealed, until in 1560 they were discovered, together with the pedestal, upon which is found the inscription. This inscription has been published and ex- plained by several learned men. It is much mutilated ; Lipsius has attempt- ed in part to fill up the blank places ; and Ciacconi entirely. It'has been con- sidered as the most ancient monument of the Latin or Roman characters hith- erto discovered ; yet it may not be the original inscription, but one placed upon the monument on its being restored at some subsequent time. A new column is supposed to have been erected by the emperor Claudius. (a) Cf. Flor. Hist. Rom. 112.— Tac. Ann. ii. 49.— Plin. Hist. Nat. xxxiv. 5.— (b) Liv. xlii. 20 See Ciacconi, in Columnae Rostratae inseriptionem a se conjectura suppletam Explica- tio. Rom. 1608. 8.—Graevii Thes. Ant. Rom. tome iv. cited P. IV. § 197.— Gruteri Corp. In- script. cccciv. 1. It may be found in the editions of Florus, by Gr'aevius and Duckcr. See also Anthon's Lempr. under C. Duillius.— .Dun/op's Hist. Rom. Lit. — Schwll, Hist. Lit. Rom. vol. i. p. 47. — Edinb. Rev. No. lxxx. p. 400. 2u. The inscriptions on the tombstones of the Scipios. The epitaph of the Father, C. L. Scipio Barbatus, Consul B. C. 298, is probably nearly as old as the column of Duillius. It was discovered in 1780 in the vault of the Scipian family, between the Via Appia and Via Latina. It is on a handsome Sarcopha- gus. — The epitaph of the son, Lucius Scipio, was discovered much earlier, on a slab which was found lying near the Porta Capena, having been detached from the family vault. Though later as to the date of its composition, the epitaph on the son bear marks of higher antiquity than that on the father. The inscription in honor of the son is given by Schall, as follows ; honcoino. ploirume. COSENTIONT. R.... DUONORO. OPTUMO. FUIS3E. VIRO. LUCIOM. SCIPIONE. FILIOS. BARBATI. CON- SOL. CENSOR. A1DILIS. HEC. FUET. A . . . . HEC. CEPIT. CORSICA. ALERIAQUE. URBE. DEDET. TEM- pestatebus. aide, mereto. This, being changed into the Latin of later times, may be read as follows ; Hunr. unum plurimi conscntiunt Roma; bonorum optimum fuissc virum, Lucium Scipionem. Filius Barbati, consul, censor, cedilis hie fait apud vos. Hie cepit Corsicam Aleriamque urbem ; dedit Tcmpestatibus asdem merito. See Dunlop's Hist. Rom. Lit. vol. i. p. 46. — Graivii Thesau. Ant. Rom. tome iv Monumenti degli Scipioni publicati dal Cav. F. PiraneA. Rom. 1785. fol. — Hobhouse's Illustrations of Childe Harold.— Schall, Hist. Litt. Rom. vol. i. p. 46. — Wagner, De Sepulchro Scipionum. Marb. 1828. 4.— For a view of the Sarcophagus, see Winckclmahn, Hist, de l'Art, as cited $32.4.vol. tt.pL xxvi. Cf, ib. p. 314. 80 ARCHAEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 3. The Eugubian Tables (Tabula Eugubincc). These are seven tablets of brass, dug up in 1444, at Eugubium (Gubbio) a city in ancient Umbria near the foot of the Apennines. The inscriptions on five of the tablets are said to be in the Etruscan character and language. The other two are in Roman letters, but in a rustic jargon, between Latin and Etruscan. They were at first sup- posed to be of very high antiquity ; but " it is now agreed that they do not reach further back than the fourth century before the Christian era ;" and.Dun- lop states that " the two tables in the Latin character were written towarda the close of the sixth century of Rome." See Dunlop, Hist. Rom. Lit. l. p. 47.— Edinb. Rev. No. 80. p. 383.— Btshr, Gesch. Lit. Rcem. (cited § 114. 3.) p. G4. — The inscriptions are given in Gruter, as above cited. — also in Zawzi, Saggio di Ling. Etrusc. — and Orelli, as cited § 130. 4 u. The Inscription termed the Decree respecting the Bacchanalia, Scnatus consuhum de Bacchanalibus. This decree was enacted B. C. 186. Livy (xxxiv. 8. — 18.) gives us the occasion and contents of it. By certain passages in that author concerning this edict, the authenticity of this monument is con- firmed. It is engraved upon a table of bronze, which was discovered in 1640, in the province of Abruzzo, in digging the foundations of a manor house. It contains the prohibition of the nocturnal celebration of the Bacchanalian rites, throughout the Roman dominion. The tablet, upon which are some fractures and gaps, is about a foot square, and is now in the imperial collection at Vienna. See Senatusconsulti de Bacchanalibus explicatio, anctore Malthco JEvyptio (Egizio). Neap. 1729. Fol. This dissertation is reprinted in the 7th vol. of Drachenborch's edition of Livy. The edict itself is found in Gessner's and Ernesti's edition of Livy. — See also Schoell, Hist. Litt. Rom. vol. l. p. 52. 5 m. The Monumentum Ancyranum. This consists of several inscriptions on marble, upon the propylaeum of a temple of Augustus at Ancyra (modern An- gora) in Galatia. They record the achievements of that Emperor. The mon- ument was discovered by Busbequius in 1553. It has been much disfigured by time, or barbarian violence. See Qruleri Thes. Inscr. ccxxx. — Chishull, Antiq. Asiat. — J. O. Baieri Marmoris Ancyrani historia. Jen. 1703. 4. — Remarques sur le monument d'Ancyre, Biblioth. Choisie. tome viii. — Jac. Gronovii Memoria Cossoniana, cui annexa est novaeditio iMonumenti Ancyrani. Lugd. Bat. 1695. 4. — Observ. sur le Mon. d'Ancyre, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. 47. p. 85. 6 u. The Fasti Capitolini. These are portions of the tablets anciently placed in the Capitol, on which were inscribed in succession the names of the consuls and other magistrates, and by means of which Roman chronology is much elucidated. They are tablets of marble discovered in the Forum, at Rome, 1547, and contain a list of the Consuls from the year 270 to the year 765 after the building of Rome. They were in a broken state. The frag- ments were united by the care of Cardinal Alexander Farnese, and placed in the palace of the Capitol, where they still remain. — Some additional portions were discovered at Rome in 1816. See Orcevii Thes. Ant. Rom. tome xi. — J. B. Piranesi, Lapides Capitolini. Rom. 1762. Fol. — Nuovi framenti dei Fasti cons. Capitol, illustrati da Bartol. Borghesi. Milan, 1818 — 1820. 4. — Also C. Fea, Framnienti di Fasti consolari Sec. Rom. 1820. Fol. — Verrius Flaccus has been supposed to be the author of the Fasti Capitolini, and they were published by Onvfrius Panvinius, 1553, under the name of that grammarian. This mistake was occasioned by a passage in Suetonius, in which he mentions that Flaccus attached to a structure erected at Preneste twelve tablets of marble containing a Roman Calendar, Fasti kalendares. Four of these latter tables, or rather fragments of them, were discovered in 1770, and form what is called the Calendarium Prmnestinwn. They contain the months of January, March, April, and December, and cast much light on the Fasti of Ovid. They were published by P. F. Foggini, Fastorum anni Ro- mani reliquias &c. Rom. 1779. Fol. The work contains a collection of the existing fragments of Roman Calendars.— Schwll, Hist. Litt. Rom. vol. n. p. 60. 65.— Btshr, Gesch. Rom. Lit. p. 413. (b) Coins and Medals. § 134. Without entering into any minute history of Roman coin- age, we only remark that the first coins at Rome were probably struck under the reign of Servius Tullius, that the more ancient coins were for the most part of brass, and that silver coin was not introduced until B. C. 263, and gold not until B. C. 207. Besides the coins used as the current money, there were also a great many medals and COINS AND MEDALS. 81 historical pieces or medallions (missilia, numismata maximi moduli)^ distinguished from the others by the absence of the letters S. C. which are commonly found upon the Roman coin, especially the brazen. On the gold and silver coins these letters are less frequently seen, and seem not to indicate the authority granted by the senate for the strik- ing of the coin so much as for the erecting of the statues, triumphal arches and the like, which are represented on the reverses. 1. The remarks offered under a previous section (§ 93), respecting the util- ity and entertainment connected with the study of coins, are applicable here. The Roman coins particularly are interesting on account of the striking per- sonifications and symbols found on their reverses. Many descriptions and al- lusions in the classical poets are beautifully illustrated from the figures and devices on the Roman coins. On the connection between poetry and medals, see Addison's Dialogues upon the usefulness of ancient Medals especially in relation to the Latin and Greek Poets ; in his Works, vol. m. p- 273. of ed. N. York, 1837. 3 vols. 8.— See also Spencc, as cited § 151. 2. On the Roman money coined in the time of the republic, very commonly was seen an im- age of victory, in a triumphal car, driving sometimes two horses, and sometimes four. Hence the pieces were called bigati or quadruti. The coins were also indented round the edges like a saw, and therefore termed scrrati. Tacitus speaks of the money thus marked as the ancient and well known coin. It would seem that the later coin was adulterated. — Cf. Tac. De Mor. Germ. b.—Plin. Hist. Nat. xxxm. 3. 3 m. The pieces, which have been termed nummi. contorniati, may be included perhaps among the medallions. They are distinguished by a rim which is wrought with much art. They may have been prize medals of illustrious athlete, or may perhaps have been used as a sort of tickets for admission to public shows. 4. Medals seem to have been sometimes employed in ancient times, as in modern, for pur- poses of satire upon private individuals and upon rulers. The medals called Spintrian were probably of the satirical class, and are supposed by some to have been designed to ridicule the debaucheries of Tiberius in the island of Caprea. — Gourdin on Satyric Medals, Arclucologia (as cited § 243. 3), vol. ix. p. 61. § 135. There are two principal divisions of the Roman coins ; the Consular, struck in the time of the republic, called also coins of the Roman families ; and the Imperial, the series of which extends from Julius Caesar to Heraclius. Of the Consular coins, the most rare are the golden ; of the Imperial, the most rare are the brazen coins of Otho. 1. " The Consular coins include the following. 1. Brass coins. — These con- sist chiefly of large pieces of rude workmanship without any interesting im- agery. In all these, the prow of a ship is constantly the figure on the reverse, with very few exceptions. Sometimes, indeed, they have a shell, two heads of barley, a frog, an anchor, or a dog, on the reverse. 2. Silver. — Of this the denarius was the first and principal coin. It was stamped originally with X, denoting that the value was ten asses. On the reverse was Castor and Pollux, or a chariot of victory. Afterwards the busts of various deities make their appearance ; and in the seventh century of Rome the portraits of illustrious persons deceased are met with. 3. Gold. — Most of these are of great value. The number of these exceeds not 100. The aureus is the general gold coin j but two or three gold semisses of families likewise occur." The first head of a living person that was struck on Roman coins is said to have been that of Caesar the Dictator. But the features of deceased consuls had previously been struck both on the silver and on the gold coins. u The Imperial coins include 1. Brass. — This is of three sizes ; large, middle, and small. The first forms a most beautiful series, but very expensive. It ia the most important of all the Roman coins, and exceeds even the gold in value. — The middle brass is next in value to the former ; and in it are many rare and curious coins, particularly interesting to Britons, as elucidating the history of the island. — The small brass series abounds also with curious coins. They are scarce till the time of Valerian and Gallienus, but very common afterwards. 2. Silver. — This series is very complete, and the cheapest of any ; especially as the small brass becomes a fine supplement to it ; the latter being had in plenty when the silver becomes scarce, and the silver being plentiful when the brass is scarce. 3. Gold. — The Roman imperial gold coins form a series of great >V o* THE ^ 82 ARCHAEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. beauty and perfection ; but on account of their great price are beyond the pur- chase of private persons. 4. The colonial coins. — They occur only in brass. On many of the coins we meet with fine representations of temples, triumphal arches, gods, goddesses, and illustrious persons. But coins with those repre- sentations are by no means common ; the colonial coins till the time of Tra- jan bearing only a plough, or some other simple badge of a colony. Camelo- dunum is the only colony in Britain of which we have any coins. 5. The minimi. — This includes the smallest coins of all denominations, most of which do not exceed the size of a silver penny. They are the most curious of all. The reason of the scarcity of the small coins is probably their diminutive size ; by reason of which they are mostly lost." 2. A great number of coins have been found, at different times, during the excavations at Pompeii. In one of the streets a skeleton was found, supposed to have been a priest of Isis ; " in his hand was a bag of coarse linen, not entirely destroyed, containing three hundred and sixty silver coins, forty two of copper, and six of gold ; and near him several figures belonging to the worship of Isis ; small silver forks, cups, patera: in gold and silver, a cameo represent- ing a satyr striking a tamborine, rings set with stones, and vases of copper and bronze." — " In several of the houses, skeletons with rings, bracelets, necklaces and other ornaments, to- gether with many coins, were found." — " A pot of gold coins, principally of the reigns of Trajan and Antoninus Pius, was found by a peasant, in 1787, at Nellore in Hindostan." 3. It has been thought that false and base coin was fabricated by illegal coiners. Molds, which were employed for casting Roman coins have been found at Lyons in France and Ed- ington in England. — J. Poole, on Molds for Roman coins &c. Archaologia (as cited § 242. 3.) vol. xiv. p. 99. § 136. The writing upon the Roman coin is usually the legend, as it is called, on the head of the coin or on both sides ; but there is sometimes an inscription more at length placed upon the reverse. The contents of the legend commonly point out the person whose image is impressed upon the principal side and indicate his rank ; sometimes also a short notice of his exploits, forming the inscription, is upon the reverse. The date of the coin is often stamped upon it, either in whole words, or by certain letters or figures; and likewise the names of the cities where it was struck; sometimes even that of the artist, together with the value, particularly upon the Consular coins. lu. In order to read and to understand all these kinds of writing, it is necessary to be ac- quainted with the peculiar abbreviations, which are employed. — For a brief introduction to the subject, see /. C. Ratchc, Lexicon Abruptionuin, quae in numismatibus Romanorum occurrunt- Nurimb. 1777. 8 Cf. § 131. 2. 2 u. The coins of the Romans being among the most ancient monuments of their manner of writing, it is proper here again (cf. § 116), to refer to their orthography. It is not from mistake, but from ancient usage, that the orthography on the old coins differs from the modern. We find, for example, v in place of b in the word danvvivs ; o instead of v in volkanvs, and divos ; ee for e in feelix ; n for i in viirtvs ; s and m suppressed at the end of words, as in aebinv, captv ; xs for x, in maxsvm vs ; f instead of ph, as in trivmfvs. § 137. Much attention and caution must be exercised with regard to Roman as well as Grecian coins, in order to distinguish genuine from false, which are very numerous and of different kinds. Many of those that are offered as ancient, are struck in modern times with the ancient costume; others have been stamped in express imitation of really ancient coins, among which we may particularly notice those called Paduane, so celebrated on account of their good impres- sion ; others are cast similar to the old coins, by means of molds, and may be distinguished by traces of the casting ; others are formed by putting together two ancient coins in order to obtain rare and unique pieces, which may be detected by a careful examination of the edges ; others are really antique, but falsified by some change in their impression, or inscription. COINS AND MEDALS. 83 See G. Beauvois, Maniere de discerner les medailles antiques de celles qui sont contrefaites. Par. 1739. 4. Translated into German and enlarged by Lipsius. Dresd. 1791. 4. §138. Besides the works already mentioned (§ 99) as illustrating the subject of ancient coins, we will cite the following, which relate principally to Roman coins. Charles Patin, Introduction a l'Histoire par la connoissance des medailles. Par. 1665. 12. — Ch. Putin, Histoire des Medailles, ou Introduction a la Connoissance de cette Science. Paris, 1695. 12. — Fwlv. Vr sini Familiar Romans in antiquis numismatibus ab urbe condita ad tempora D. Augusti; edit. Carol. Patin. Par. 1663. fol. — J. Foy Vaillant, Nummi antiqui Familiaruin Romanorum. Amst. 1703. 2 vols, fol.— Ejusd. Numismata Imperator. Romanor. prrestantiora &c. cura T. F. Baldini. Rom. 1743. 3 vols. 4. Supplementum, op. Joh. Khell. Vindob. 1767. 4. — Ejusd. Numismata rerea Imperatorum Roman, in coloniis, municipiis &c. Par. 1688. 2 vols. fol. — By the same, Numismata Imperatorum, a Populis, Romanre dictionis, Graece loquentibus, per- ■cussa. Amst.1700. fol. — By same, Selectiora Numismata in iEre Maximi Moduli illustrata. Paris 1695. 4. idolphi Occonis, Numismata Imperatorum Romanorum prasstantiora. Mediol. 1730. fol. — Thesaurus Morellianus s. Familiaruin Roman. Numismata Omnia. Comm. illust. Sigcb. Havercampus. Amst. 1734. 2 vols. fol. — Ans. Bundurii Numismata Imperatorum Romanor. a Trajano Decio ad Palaeologos Augustos. Par. 1718. 2 vols. fol. Supplement, ed. H. Taninius, Rom. 1791. fol. — Car. Patini Imperator. Romanor. Numismata. Argent. 1671. fol. Amst. 1696. fol. — Io. lac. Qesneri Numismata Antiqua Imperatorum Romanorum latina et grseca. Tiguri, 1748. fol. ; Numismata Antiqua Familiarum Romanarum. Tiguri, 1749. fol. — Win. Cooke, The Medallic History of Imperial Rome, &c. Lond. 1781. 2 vols. 4. On medals of a large size, see Mongcz, Sur des Medaillons Romains d' une volume extraordinaire, in the Mem. de Plnstilut. Classe a? Hist, et Lit. Anc. ix. 266 — Ant. Steinbuechel, Recueil de medaillons en or du Cabinet Im- perial de Vienne. Vien. 1826. 8. On the subject of Roman coins, K. 0. Mueller, Archasolo- gie &x. (as cited § 32. 4.) is a " very good authority." §139. The most valuable collections of ancient coins are the fol- lowing : at Paris, in the Royal library, and the Library of St. Gene- vieve ; at Rome, in the Vatican, and the collection once belonging to Christina queen of Sweden, now to the duke of Bracciano; in the British Museum at London; the Imperial collection at Vienna; the Royal collection at Berlin ; the Duke's collection at Gotha ; the Royal collection at Stuttgart ; and at Copenhagen. There are valuable cata- logues of most of these public collections of coins. See Kmhler, Anweisung zur Reiseklugheit. Ed. Kinderling. Magdeb.1788. 8. — Eckfiel (as cited $99.), Proleg. cap. xxiii — Dictionnaire des Artistes, par Meuscl.—Suher, Allg. Theor. &c. arti- cle Antik, V. 1. Few genuine antiques have ever been brought to this country. Of really ancient coins, the Boston Mheneum probably possesses the largest number, having about 1400 Greek and Roman ; of which less than 200 are silver, and the rest are copper or brazen. (Ms. Lett, of Dr. Bass, Lib. to Bost. Ath. 1836J 2. Before leaving this subject, it is proper to remark that some examples of the manner in w hich symbols are employed on coins and medals may be seen by inspection of our Plate III. In fig. 6, Britain is represented by a woman reclining against a shield, and holding a spear in one hand, with her head resting on the other, as if in a contemplative mood. In fig. 9, the river Tiber is symbolized by the image of an old man with a branch of some plant, or perhaps some heads of grain, in his left hand, and his right hand on the prow of a vessel. In fig. 7, a coin of Trajan, the Danube is represented in a manner in some degree similar. In fig. 8, a coin of Antoninus Pius, the symbol of Italia appears, a woman sitting on a globe and holding a sceptre and a horn of plenty, indicating her universal dominion and her riches. On many pieces, Rome is exhibited as a goddess, the image being a head with a helmet ; as in fig. 1, a coin of the Aurelian family, on which the helmet is curiously wrought, so as to present in its form the head, neck, and wings of an eagle ; in fig. 2, which is the piece of money called trims, the head on the obverse is like- Wise probably designed to represent the goddess Rome ; as is also perhaps the head covered with a lion's skin instead of a helmet, in fig. 3, which is the obverse of a quadruns. The heads of deities were frequently placed on Roman coins ; as that of Mercury in fig. 4, the obverse side of a sextans ; and that of Janus, in fig. a, the obverse of a duplex denarius. Rome is symbolized sometimes by the eagle, as Athens is on Greek coins by the owl ; as in fig. 10, which gives the obverse of another sextans ; the reverse of this (not given in the plate) presents a wolf nursing Romulus and Remus, but the reverse of these brass pieces more commonly contains merely the prow of a ship, as in fig. 2: the points or dots on these pieces indicate their value ; four, the tricns ; three, the quadrans ; and two, the sextans. We see the goddess of plenty or abundance represented, in fig. 5, a coin of the emperor Decius. The colonial coins of Antioch in Pisidia often bear, as in fig. s, the device of a bull with a hump-back representing mount Taurus. Some of Caesarea in Palestine show an eagle holding in his claws a thunderbolt, as in fig. t ; the let- ters underneath, in this coin, probably stand for Colonia Augusta Casarca, or Canadensis ; this city became a Roman colony after the conquests of Vespasian. Many of the coins of Vespasian bear upon the reverse a very striking symbol ; as in fig. y, with the lvords judea capta and initials of senatus consulto forming the legend, and the fate of conquered Palestine repre- sented by a woman sitting solitary and weeping, under a palm-tree, upon a collection of arms, shields, helmets, &x. thrown upon the ground. There is here a remarkable coincidence with a prophetic declaration of Isaiah, iii. 26 : and she, desolate, shall sit on the ground. 84 ARCHAEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. The Plate presents a view of one side of some of the principal silver coins of the Romans, In rig. a, we have the obverse of the double denarius, equivalent to the didrachina of the Greeks ■ on the reverse was a quadriga. In fig. b, is the denarius, having its value of x asses of brass stamped upon it. -This is the coin designated by the word penny sls used in reference to Ro- man money in the common English version of the New Testament ; it commonly had on it, in the period to which the New Testament history relates, the image of the Roman emperor, and his superscription, i. e. his name or its initials inscribed on it as in fig, r, a gold coin of Ves- pasian. (See Matt. XXII. 20. Mk. 111. 16.) By some it has been supposed that the thirty silver pieces (aqyi'otu) for which Judas covenanted to betray his master and Lord were so many denarii ; while others think that the silverpiece here intended was the siclus, oiy./.oc, a Jewish coin equivalent to the Attic tetradrachma. (Cf. Matt. xxvi. 15. Acts. xix. 19.— Upham's Trans. of John's Arch. § 117.) In tig. c, we have the quinarius, or half denarius, with its value of v asses stamped on it. The sestertius is given, in fig. d, having on the reverse Castor and Pol- lux on horseback ; usually marked by the letters h s on its obverse. In fig. e, is a silver coin presenting the eagle as a symbol of Rome, with the name of the city in the exergue. In fig. o, we have a very small gold coin, with its value of x x sesterces enstamped, which was some- times named scrupulum from its weight. (c) Manuscript s . § 140. What has been said (§ 100 — 106) concerning the intrinsic value, the antiquity, the preservation, and the study of Greek manu- scripts, is in general applicable to the Roman, and we need not here repeat it. The works of very many Latin writers, as well of the most flourishing period of Roman literature, as of later times, have been preserved and handed down to us by means of written copies. These manuscripts, however, belong not to the classical ages. Latin manu- scripts, like most of the Greek, are not of earlier date than the sixth century after Christ. We must generally consider those the most ancient, whose writing bears most resemblance to the characters found upon coins and inscriptions. But this criterion is not a certain one, as in after ages the ancient manuscripts were sometimes copied with a perfect imitation of their manner of writing. See Oatlercr on the method of determining the age of Mss. in the Comment. Societ. Oatt. 8th Band or vol. — Also Schornemann, Versuch eines vollst. Systems der Diploinatik. — Pfeiffer, cited $53. — Taylor's Transmission, &c. cited § 58. §141. We must refer to a later origin the small Roman characters, punctuation, and the contracted form of the diphthongs ce and ce, which were originally written in full ae and oe. The letter y, from the seventh century, was often marked with a point y ; on the con- trary, the i was written without a point until the end of the tenth cen- tury ; afterwards it took an accent over it, i ; in the fourteenth cen- tury the accent was changed into a point. From the small Roman letters arose, by some alterations, the Gothic and Lombard characters, and those of the Francs and Anglo Saxons ; as these people derived the art of writing chiefly from Italy. The larger portion of the an- cient Latin manuscripts now in existence belongs to this age. During the 9th and 10th centuries, more attention was paid to the beauty and elegance of the characters. In the 11th century enlarged letters were introduced, and more abbreviations, the multiplication of which in after times, and the overburdening of the letters with useless appen- dages, disfigured the writing and rendered it more difficult to read. Cf. § 117. Fac-similes and specimens, to illustrate the different modes of writing found in Latin manuscripts, are eiven in Mabillon de Re Diplomatica. — See also Walthcri Lexicon Diplo- maticum cum speciminilms Alphabetorum et Scripturarum. Goett. 1745. 3 vols. fol. — Nouceau. Traite dc Dlplom. torn. II. and in. § 142. Since the revival of letters, which was hastened and facili- tated by the discovery and study of the classical manuscripts, they have been carefully collected, compared, copied and published. Pe- MANUSCRIPTS. 85 trarch searched more than two hundred libraries, and greatly aided an early cultivation of Roman literature, first in Italy, and afterwards in other countries. We are under similar obligations to Gasparini, Poggius, Beatus Rhenanus, Aloysius Moccenicus, Grynaeus, Sichard, and others. Without doubt there still exist some treasures of this sort, particularly manuscripts of the middle ages, which, if not valu- able on account of their style, may be of much importance to history, criticism, and literature generally. The libraries which have been mentioned (§108) as the principal depositories of Greek manuscripts, contain also a still more considerable collection of Latin manuscripts. The printed catalogues of some of them give notices of the manu- scripts. To the references there (§ 108) given, we add the following. Wackier, Handbuch der Gea- chichte der Literatur, (as cited P. II. § 7. 9.) vol. m. p. 82. ss. ; giving a historical sketch of these libraries. — Bernhardy, Encyclopaedie der Philologie. Halle, 1832. — Petit-Radcl, Recher- ches sur les Bibl. Anciennes et Moderns. Par. 1819. 8. — Eichhorn, Geschichte der Literatur. Gbtt. 1805, ss. 6 vols. 8. ; giving (vol. in. p. 431. ss.) " a good account of the German li- braries." Respecting the labors of Petrarch and others, see Heeren's Einl. zu. Gesch. des Klass. Lit- teratur, cited § 53.— On the zeal for the discovery and study of manuscripts after the revival of letters, see Roscoe's Life of Lorenzo de Medici, and of Leo X. — For an account of the gene- ral circumstances pertaining to the formation, loss, and recovery of the " classical Mss. of Rome," see Dunlop's Hist. Rom. Literature, Appendix. § 143. The following are among the most ancient manuscripts in the Latin language : (a) the Gospel of Mark, in the library of St. Mark at Venice, of very ancient date ; (b) the Virgil of Florence^ or the Codex Medicceus ; (c) the Virgil of the Vatican, which seems to belong to the fifth century ; (d) the Terence of the Vatican, writ- ten in square letters, and ornamented with a large number of ancient masks ; and (e) the Florentine manuscript of the Pandects. (a) It has been asserted that the Latin Manuscript of St. Mark was written by that apostle himself. " But this is now proved to be a mere fable ; for the Venetian Ms. formerly made part of the Latin mtouscript preserved at Friuli, most of which was printed by Blanchini, in his Evangeliorum Qnadruplex. The Venice Ms. contained the first forty pages, or five quater- nions of St Mark's gospel ; the last two quaternions or twenty pages are preserved at Prague, where they were printed by M. Dobrowsky, under the title of Fragmeiitum Pragcnse Evan- gelii S. Marci vulgo autographi, 1778. 4. — See Home's Introduction, &c. vol. iv. pt. n. ch. ii. § 3. — Gentlemank Magazine, vol. xlvi. — (b) Published by Foggini exactly after the manu- script. Rome, 1741. 4. — (c) Published by Bartoli, 1741. fol. in engraving. For a notice of both these Mss. of Virgil, see Schcell, Hist. Lit. Rom. i. 362.— (d) Printed at Urbino, 1736. fol. at Rome, 1767. fol. — " Ce precieux manuscrit a passe de la bibliotheque du Vatican dans celle de Paris." (SchccU, Hist. Lit. Rom. vol. i. p. 134.) — (e) Of this Brenckmann has given a de- scription in his Historia Pandectarum. Traj. ad Rhen. 1722. 4. It is now in the library of the Grand Duke at Florence, and formerly was held in great reverence. Curious and profane eyes were prohibited from looking upon it. It was opened only in the presence of a body of priests and a deputation of civil magistrates, with prescribed ceremonies and amidst burning tapers. Cf. Schall, Lit. Rom. iii. 281. In regard to manuscripts much information may be found in /. O. Schelhorn's Anleitung fur Bibliothekare und Archivare. Ulm, 1791. 2 vols. 8.— Cf. § 108.— W. Roscoe, Account of the Manuscript Library at Holkam in Norfolk ; in the Transact, of the Royal Soc. of Literature, vol. ii. Lond. 1834. A considerable collection of Mss. illustrated with miniatures and paint- ings, once belonging to Mr. Douce, is now in the Bodleian library at Oxford. For an ac- count of the Mss. in the British Museum, illustrated with miniatures, &c. see O. F. Waagen, as cited § 190. 4. vol. i. p. 134. — There is among these a curious Ms. of Cicero's translation of Aratus (cf. P. II. § 71), adorned with miniatures of the constellations and busts of the planets Jupiter, Mars, &c. A writer ( W. Y. Ottley) in the Trans, of the Lond. Antiquarian Soc. would refer it to the 2d or 3d century.— See Archaologia (cited $ 243. 3), vol. xxvi. p. 48. ss. 8 PLATE IV. ARCHAEOLOGY OF ART. Preliminary Remarks. $ 144. By the word art, taken subjectively, is understood a prac- tical skill in producing something in agreement with certain purposes and rules. Taken objectively, it signifies the abstract union of those rules and practical principles, which are essentially useful to guide in the production of any designed object or work. When Nature and Art are placed in contradistinction, the former designates the original powers in the material and spiritual world and their immedi- ate operations, the latter the efficiency of reason by means of choice and intention ; nature therefore is understood to operate by necessa- ry, art by voluntary or arbitrary laws. A distinction is also made between Art and Science, the one being the theory of that of which the other is the practice ; science implies the accurate knowledge of principles ; art is their successful application. § 145. The arts are generally divided into the mechanical and the liberal ox fine. The former have reference chiefly to the bodily, the latter to the intellectual powers of man. The mechanical are those which are employed in producing and improving whatever is impor- tant to the necessities or comforts and conveniences of life. The fine arts are such as have chiefly pleasure for their object, although utility is connected therewith as a secondary point ; they aim at the representation or imitation of moral beauty or excellence, and are addressed to the imagination and the feelings. It is on account of this representation of beauty and this immediate reference to the emotions of the mind, that they are termed the fine or the beautiful arts. They are Poetry, Oratory, Music, Dancing, Drama, Painting, Engraving, Lithoglyphy, Sculpture, and Architecture, which last may include Gardening, usually treated as a separate art. On the connection between Architecture and Gardening, see vol. n. p. 278 of Charactere der Vornehmsten Dichtcr (cited below, P. II. § 47).— Cf. ch. xxiv. of Home's Elem. of Criticism »/, sculptura ; the second is more exactly the art of molding, nlaaxr/A^ figlina ; and the third, the art of casting, ■lonsvriy.]^ statuaria. The German word Bildnerkunst includes the whole, and is used by Luther in translating the Hebrew phrase (in Chron. iii. 10), which is rendered in the English version image-work. The figures are either formed entire so as to be seen on all sides (jifQupavij, insRunde), or only prominent from a plane surface (ttoootv- 7tu«Ta uxovixa, faopcrgijra, statua* SCULPTURE. BUSTS. 93 iconicce) ; and finally those smaller than life, of which such as were very small went by the name of sigilla. — In reference to costume, the Romans called such as had a Grecian dress, palliata ; those in the Roman, togatce, ; those with the military garb,paludatcB, chlamy- datce, loricatm ; and such as were veiled, velatce. — In attitude there was still greater variety, as the figures might be either standing, sit- ting, reclining, or lying at rest, or in action, &c. There was also a distinction between simple statues, and composites or groups, consist- ing of several figures. Groups, where the parts were entwined or in- terwoven with each other, were called symplegmata {cvftnUyfuxta). See Compte Guatco, Essai historique de l'usasre de statues chez anciens. Bruxelles 1768. 4. — Cf. Le Compte Caylus, L'habillement des divinites. Mem. Acad. Insc. vol. xxxiv. p. 35. § 164. Busts, likewise, almost as frequently as entire figures, were formed by the ancient artists. They were called by the Greeks nyovouui ; by the Romans, imagines, sometimes thoraces. They were located, in honor of gods, heroes, philosophers, and other distinguished men, in public places, such as theatres, prytanea, gymnasia, galleries, libraries, and the like. 1m. The bust was chiefly used to represent deceased persons. At Rome the Patricians used to place in their halls (a) the busts of their ancestors. Like stat- ues, busts were of various sizes. They differed also in respect to the portion of the frame included, taking in sometimes the whole breast, sometimes just the shoulders, and sometimes merely the head. On their supports or pedestals the character or exploits of the person represented were often inscribed. When busts were formed in relief on shields, they were termed imagines clypeatce. (a) Cf. Polyb. vi. 51. Pim. xxxv. 2. — See OurUtfs Versuch Uber die Biistenkunde. Magdeb. 1800. 4. 2 m. There was a peculiar kind of statue or bust, to which was given the the name of Hermes ( ' Enu^g ) . It consisted of a mere head, or head and breast, or at most head and chest, and a quadrangular pillar, or one terminating in a point, which served as a support. It derived its name either from the god Hermes, Mercury, whose image generally appeared on this kind of erection, yet not always ; or perhaps, as probably, from the word ' Eniia designating the quadrangular pillar sustaining the image ; Suidas explains the phrase fQuaiog 7.[&og by the word rsrouymrog. These representations were placed by the highways and streets, in gardens, and among the Greeks in front of tem- ples and dwelling-houses. Human likenesses were formed sometimes in this manner ; general^, however, the images represented some deity presiding over gardens and fields. The Romans employed them to point out the boundaries of lands, and on that account called them termini. Sometimes the attributes of the god were indicated on the .work ; sometimes there were inscriptions, of which, however, such as may have been preserved are not all genuine. They very seldom had any representation of costume. The head and pedes- tal were not always of the same material. Two heads were occasionally united on one pillar; as for instance, in the ' Equabi^i], Mercury and Minerva united; the f 'Enin l nuy..'.i l g, Mercury and Hercules ; and ' Eqiiottuv, Mercury and Pan. 3. The compound name is also applied where the pedestal commonly bear- ing the head of Hermes has merely the head of some other personage, as in the figure of c Eou tftaxlfjt, given in Plate V. fig. 8. In fig. 7, of the same Plate, is a Hermes. § 165. The ancient artists made a vast number of bas-reliefs (ty.TvTra, TroonTriia, uvaylvyu). These works may be said to hold an intermediate place between sculpture and painting, in as much as they present a plane for their ground, and have their figures formed, more or less prominent, by the chisel or by embossing. The most common material was marble or brass. The Etrurians made use also of clay hardened by fire. D4 archjEolgy op art. § 166 m. The subjects represented by such pieces were drawn from mythol- ogy, history, allegory, and other sources, according to the imagination of the artist. The purposes for which they were devised were exceedingly numer- ous ; they often were separate tablets, constituting independent works; and ^very often they were formed upon shields, helmets, tripods, altars, drinking cups, and other vessels and utensils, tombs, urns, and funeral lamps, arches, and generally upon large structures, particularly the front of buildings. In explaining the meaning of these devices there is need of much caution and much knowledge of literature and art ; it is the more difficult, because in many instances the works are in a mutilated or altered state. § 167. Among the varieties of image-work practiced by the an- cients must be mentioned that which is called Mosaic (uovoeiov, opus musivum, tesselatum, vermiculatum), which was very common, and carried to great perfection. It has its name from its elegance and grace (uovoa). It consists of figures curiously formed by pieces, in different colors, of clay, glass, marble, or precious stones and pearls, with which they used to ornament their floors and walls. Separate tablets or ornamental pieces were also formed in the same way. 1 u. The pieces of which this kind of work is composed are so small, that sometimes one hundred and fifty are found in the space of a square inch. The art was most in vogue in the time of the emperor Claudius, and one of the most distinguished artists (a) in it was Sosus. 2. One of the earliest notices of this art among the Greeks is in the ac- count of the magnificent ship constructed under the direction of Archimedes for king Hiero. The whole fable of the Iliad (b) was represented by mosaics ('sv apaxiay.ois) inlaid in the apartments of the vessel. (a) Cf. PUn. Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 25.— (b) Cf. Schall, Hist. Litt. Grecque, vol. vn. p. 447. On mosaics, see references given below, § 189. § 168. Some of the works of the ancient sculptors have inscrip- tions upon them, presenting the name of the artist, or explaining the work itself. Such inscriptions are placed sometimes on the pedestal, and sometimes on the drapery or other parts of the statue. 1 u. On the statue of Hercules Farnese, for instance, are the words, TAY- KuN AGHNAIOC EII01E1; on the Gladiator Borghese, ArAC IAC JO CTQEor EE CIOC EIIOIEI; on a Roman statue of the goddess Hope, Q. AQVILIVS DIONYSIVS ET NOMA FAVSTINA SPEM RESTITVERVNT. 2u. But these inscriptions are not always genuine, being frequently of re- cent origin, as is thought to be the case with the first of the above mentioned. In judging of them there is need therefore of much antiquarian skill and re- search, and a careful application of historical and mythological learning. A fine specimen of this critical scrutiny is found in Lessing's Laocoon, a work of great value to those who study the arts. O. E. Lessino-, Laokoon, oder iiber die Grenzen der Mahlerei und Poesie, in his Scemmtlicke Schriftm. Berl. 1796. ss. 30 vols. 12. Vol. 9th.— There is a French translation of it by Van- derbourg. § 169. Although we have no historical account of the origin of the art of sculpture, as has been suggested (§ 156), yet it is certain that the Egyptians were in possession of it at a very early period. On this account its invention is ascribed to them by some ancient writers. The Egyptians were not deficient in the mechanical part of sculpture. Yet their general mode of thinking, their prevalent taste, the peculiar character of their civilization, and especially the nature of their religion, were unfavorable to the advancement of this art, and hindered its attaining among them any true and beautiful perfection. We find in their design, as well as in their whole exe- cution, a barrenness and uniformity that appears very .unnatural. EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE. 95^ Owing to the prevalence of animal worship in Egypt, figures of ani- mals were the most frequent and most successful performances of their artists, among whom Memnon is perhaps most celebrated. J. S. Memes (LL. D.J, History of Sculpture, Painting, and Architecture. Boston, 1834. 12. — Oiamb. Broccki, Ricerche sopria la scultura presso gli Egiziani. Venez. 1792. 8. — Ecettiger's Andeutungen, &c. iiber Archaeologie. Dresden, 1806. 8. — V. Denon, Voyage dans la basse et la haute Egypte. Par. 1802. 2. vols, fol., with plates.— Description de l'Egypte. Par. 1809 -1818. 9 vols, fol-, with plates ; of this work there is also a more recent edition. (Cf. P. V. § 177.) — In Beck's Grundriss der Archaologie, (Lpz. 1816,) is an account of the artists among ancient nations, and of the remaining monuments, and mention of the works pertaining to the subject. — Respecting Memnon, consult Anthon's Lempriere. ] u. In the history of Egyptian art, a distinction must be made between the old and the later style. The former appears in the earliest monuments down to the conquest of Egypt by Cambyses, B. C. 525. The latter belongs to a subsequent period, in which the Persians and Greeks held supremacy in the land. There is a difference between the works of art in Egypt, according to which they may be designated respectively as the Old Egyptian, the Persian- Egyptian, the Grecian-Egyptian, and the Roman-Egyptian, or Roman imita- tions of the Egyptian manner. The uniformity and stiffness are much great- er in the old style ; yet the later performances are deficient in beauty of de- sign and execution, in cases where there is no drapery, as well as in others. There are also works, discovered in Italy, in Egyptian taste and manner, which are not really of Egyptian origin, but were made by later Greeks, in Rome, especially under the reign of Hadrian. 2. The period preceding the time of Cambyses is considered by Memes as the only period of real Egyptian sculpture. Of its character there are left two sources of judging, viz. vestiges of ancient grandeur yet existing on their native site, and numerous specimens in European cabinets. These remains may be classed under three divisions. 1. Colossal figures. 2. Figures about the natural size, single or in groups. 3. Hieroglyphical and Historical re- lievos. The colossal remains are very numerous. Some are figures of men > others of animals, chiefly the sphinx. The dimensions extend from twelve to seventy cubits in height. The largest now known are the two in the vi- cinity of Thebes, which are " vulgarly called Shamy and Damy " ; one of which, from inscriptions still legible, would appear to be the famous sound- ing statue (a) of Memnon. In the ruins of the Memnonium there remains a prostrate and broken colossus of vast size, with hieroglyphic inscriptions, from which it has been supposed to be the statue of Osymandyas (b) or Sesostris. Of figures about the natural size there are also many remains. Many are found in the excavations of Philoe, Elephantis, Silsilis, and at El Malook in the tombs of the Theban Kings. These excavations are often suites of mag- nificent chambers hewn from the hard and white calcareous rock. A singu- lar peculiarity marks these statues ; a pilaster runs up behind each the whole height, not only when the statue is connected with the surface of a wall, but also when it is wholly detached. Relievos are found in great abundance, oc- cupying often the entire walls of the temples. In these there is much skill in the mechanical workmanship, but they are very deficient in merit as per- formances of art ; proportion and perspective seem to have been utterly un- known. (aj Cf. P. III. $ 74. — Letronne, La statue de Memnon, dans ses Rapports avec l'Egypt et la, Grece ; in the Mem. de P Institut, Classe

7. The antique work called the Torso, in the Belvedere at Rome. It con- sists merely of the body or trunk, of white marble, executed in a very supe- rior manner. On account of its size and appearance of muscular strength, it is commonly taken for the body of a statue of Hercules. It has been called the Torso of Michael Angelo, because he particularly admired and studied it. See Winckelmann's Werke, VI. 1. — Lond. Quart. Rev. xiv. 544, 545. 8. The Gladiator Borghese, formerly in the villa Borghese at Rome, now in the Royal Museum of Paris. This is the representation of a hero or warrior, who seems to be defending himself against a cavalier. In the opinion of Heyne it belonged to a group. Connoisseurs in art do not agree respecting its design. It is a beautiful and noble figure, of manly age, athletic, with the muscles in strong tension, yet not overstrained or unnatural. The inscription on it as- cribes the work to Agasias of Ephesus, who is not mentioned by any ancient writer, but certainly must have belonged to the period of the highest perfec- tion of Grecian art. See Heyne's Antiq. Aufs. St. 2. — Winckclmann, Werke, VI. 1. p. 263.— Jlnthon's Lempriere, Agasias. — Compare § 168. — — Quatrimere de Qurncy, Sur la course armee, &c. — nouvelle ma- niere d'expliquer la statue d' Agasias, Mem. de Plustitut, C 1 a s s e d'Hist. et Lit. Anc. vol. i v. p. 165, 190, with a plate ; he supposes it to be a statue of an oplitodrome. The Musee Royal (vol. n. 2d series, as cited § 191.) contains a beautiful engraving of this statue, showing the side opposite to that presented in our Plate IV. fig. 4. 9. The Dying Gladiator (Gladiator deficiens) in the Campidoglio at Rome. He lies upon a shield, supported by his right hand, with a collar or chain (torques, cf. P. IV. § 234. 2.) upon his neck, and seems to be exerting his ut- most strength to rise. Some parts of the figure are modern, but admirably wrought, and ascribed to Micheel Angelo. See Heyne's Aufs. St. 2.— Winckelmann's Werke, VI. 1. p. 59.— Montfaucon, (cited P. III. % 12. 2. d). vol. in. p. 267. pi. civ.— Lond. Quart. Rev. xix. 22G.— A. Mongcz, Sur deux des Stat- ues antiques desig. par le noni de Glad>ateur, in the Mem. de I'Institut, Classe Lit. et Beaux Arts, vol. ii. p. 243, with engravings of the heads. — See our Plate IV. fig. 1. 10. Antinous, a very beautiful statue in the Belvedere at Rome. It has been considered, although without grounds, as a representation of Antinous, the 104 ARCHAEOLOGY OF ART. favorite of Hadrian. Winckelmann took it for a statue of Meleager, or some other young hero, and admired very much its head. It is now quite common- ly viewed as a Mercury. Levezow, iiber den Antinous dargestellt in den Kunstdenkmilern des Alterfhums. Berlin^ 1898. 4.— Winckelmann. ti. L p. 306. — Bmttiger's Andeutungen, cited above $ 169.— The His- toric Gallery of Portraits and Paintings &c. as cited $ 187. vol. 7th. There are several ancient monuments which are considered as representations of Antinous. One of these is the celebrated bust of the villa Aibani, a beautifully finished bas-relief in white marble ; a part only of the work is preserved. This is given in Plate IV. fig. 2, from Winckelmann. The head is crowned with a garland of lotus -flowers ; in the right hand was held something, which is now lost j a wreath of flowers has been conjectured from the appear- ance of a ribbon which remains, and accordingly such a wreath is attached to it in the modern restoration. — See Winckelmann, Histoire &c. as cited § 32. 4. vol. n. p. 464. 11. A Flora, formerly in the Palace Farnese at Rome (thence called the Flora Farnese), now at Naples. The body only is ancient ; the rest is modern by Delia Porta ; whence it is not certain that this statue originally represented Flora. Winckelmann considered it as intended for a Muse. Its principal merit is in its drapery, which is regarded as the best of all ancient statues. It is nearly as large as the Hercules Farnese, yet its whole expression is feminine. See Winckelmann' s Werke, iv. p. 124. » 12. Marcus Aurelius, an equestrian statue, of gilded metal, in the square of the modern capitol at Rome. It is much larger than life. It retains now but few traces of the gilding, but is otherwise in good preservation. Its effect is increased by the pedestal on which it was elevated by Michael Angelo. The horse particularly is admired, seeming actually to move forward, and ex- hibiting, generally, fine proportions. Falconet, Observations sur la Statue de Marc-Aurele, par Amst. 1771. 12. — Winckelmanny Werke, vi. 1. p. 318. Parts of an equestrian statue, which is said to bear some resemblance to that of Aurelius, was found on a triumphal arch in Pompeii ; the Avork.inship is inferior. — There are in the Museo Borbonico, at Naples, two equestrian statues, excecuted in marble, called the statues of the Balbi. They were excavated at Herculaneum, and are said to be striking specimens of sculpture.— Cf. Pompeii, p. 116. as cited § 226. — Fisk's Travels p. 200. as cited above (6). 13. The statue of Pallas, found in 1797 in the vicinity of Velletri and brought to Paris, where it is lodged in the Royal Museum. A representation of the Pallas of Velletri is given in the Masee Francaise as cited § 191. 4. vol, iv. Part 2d. — See also Landon, Galerie du Musee Napoleon, cited $ 191.4. An account of it is given by Fernow, in the JV. D. Mercur, for 1798. Th. 1. p. 299. It may be thought that a statue of Aristides discovered at Herculaneum, and now in the Mu- seo Borbonico, deserves mention here. " The philosopher stands with his arms folded in his cloak, in all the dignity and integrity of his character. It is a work as near perfection, I think, as human art can achieve. This is the kind of statuary which I covet for my country. I had? much ado to refrain from a violation of the command, Thou shall not covet, when looking at this matchless figure. Could I have it, thon^ht I, to exhibit to the youth of America, to the young men of our universities, such a dignified personification of integrity, in the person of Aristides the just, might greatly aid in elevating their characters and strengthening their principles." W. Fisk, as just cited. § 187 u. Among the valuable remains of antiquity are many busts, which, aside from the skill and beauty in their execution, afford much pleasure and utility by preserving the features of celebrated persons. The correctness of these likenesses is not certain, especially as in many cases they have under- gone the process of restoration by modern hands. Many also exhibit no dis- tinct characteristics, to enable us to decide any thing as to the persons they represent. The uncertain character of the inscriptions has already been men- tioned (§ 168) ; and sometimes the head and pedestal do not belong together. It may be too that the portrait is the mere fancy of the artist. — Among the most distinguished and authentic are those of Homer, Socrates, Plato, Alex- ander the Great, Scipio, Julius Caesar, and others found in the collections of statuary about to be mentioned. There is the largest number in the Capitol at Rome : engravings of these are found in the Museo Capitolino. See GurlitPs Versuch iiber Bustenkunde. Magdeb. 1800. 4.— C P. Landon, Galerie Histor- ique &c. Par. 1803-11. 13. vols. 12.— The Historic Gallery of Portraits and Paintings. Lond. 1807, ss. 8. — L. P. Bellorius, Veterum illustrium Philosophorum, Poetarum, Rhetorum et Oratorum Imagines — illustratae. Rom. 1685. fol. — Visconti and Mongez, Iconographie Ancienne. Par. 1810 — 1821. 5. vol3. fol. This splendid work owes its existence to Napoleon and wa< executed at the public expense. It contains portraits of celebrated personages of Greece and Rome drawn from ancient statues, busts &c. with learned and valuable notices. The Iconographie Romaine by Monger was published in 1821. The Iconographie Grecqve, containing 304 portraits, by F.~ Q. Visconti, was published in 1810, 3 vols, fol.— See notices in Ventouillac' s French Librarian, REMAINS OF ANCIENT BAS-RELIEF. 105- p. 311. Class. Journ, No. xiv. vol. vn. p. 209. Revue EncycJ. vol. xxvi. 427.— E. Q. Visconti, Iconografia Romana ; and (separately) Iconosrafia Greca. Mil. 1823. 8 vol*. 8 — We add, Anli- cluta di Ercolano, cited $ 243. 2. The 5th volume (entitled Bronzi di Ercolano &x. Neap. 1767. fol.) is on Busts ; and the 6th is on statues in bronze. § 188 u. There likewise remains a multitude of works in relief, either in whole pieces, or fragments on edifices, columns, shields, helmets, tripods, tombs, altars, &c. Vases and drinking utensils, urns and funeral lamps, are often found in antiquarian collections ; many of distinguished excellence as works of art. It would be too long to enumerate the monuments adorned with relief, even the most celebrated ; and we only mention the triumphal arches still existing at Rome, erected by the emperors Titus, Septimius Sev- erus, and Constantine, and the columns of Trajan and Antoninus Marcus. 1. Among the most remarkable of the vases, is that now called the Warwick rase. " It is a monument of Grecian art, the production of Lysippus, statuary to Alexander the Great. It was dug up in Adrian's villa, at Tivoli, and was sent to England by Sir Wm. Hamilton in 1774. It is of sculptured marble adorned with elegant figures in high relief; vine leaves, tendrils, fruit and stems, forming the rim and handles." {Amer. Journal of Scienceby Silliman, vol. xxvi. p. 244.) — " The Warwick vase is six feet and eleven inches in diameter. In magnitude, form, and beauty of workmanship, it is the most remarkable vessel of antiquity which we possess, in which the ancients used to mix their wine. It is accordingly very appropriately adorned with spirited Bacchic masks, and the handles have the appearance of vines glowing out of the vase and surrounding it with their foliage." ( Waao-cn, as cited below, § 190\ 5. vol. 2d. p. 163.) Dr. Humphrey, speaking of a visit to " a superb show-room of cutler}', medals, vases &:c," in Birmingham, says " The most imposing object was a stupendous bronze vase, a fac-simile of the marble one, which we afterwards saw in the gardens at Warwick castle. It will hold about two hundred gallons, and the proprietor of this beautiful imitation has refused ten thousand pounds for it." It is said to have cost five thousand pounds and six years' labor. (H. Humphrey, Tour in Great Britain &c. N. York. 1838. 2. vols. 12. vol. i. p. 139.) In 1835, a beautiful vase was found at Alexandria, and came into the possession of the French consul ; it is said to resemble the Warwick vase so exactly that one must have been a copy of the other, and some have considered the Alexandrian vase as the original. (Cf.Incidcnts of Travel in Egypt &c. by an American (Mr. Stevens, N. York, 1837).— A "collection of articles, which was soid in Paris in 1833,as belonging to " the late French consul in Egypt," contained a small bronze vase, call- ed in the catalogue a fac-simile of the Warwick vase. Cf. Waagen. as just cited above. Another celebrated monument of the same kind is that known by the name of the Lanti vase. It was found in Adrian's villa at Tivoli, and was formerly possessed by the Lanti family, but is now at Woburn Abbey (Eng.) the seat of the Duke of Bedford. It is of beautiful marble, and nearly equal to the Warwick vase, being 6 feet and 2 inches in diameter and 6 feet in height ; its general form is the same, and its handles are constructed in a similar manner ; it is also adorned with Bacchanalian masks. — Cf. Hunt's Descr. of Wob. Abbey, cited below $ 191. On sculptured vases, see C. Antonini, Manuale di vasi ornamenti componenti la serie de vasi Antichi si di Marmo che di Bronzo &c. Rom. 1821. Fol. 1st. 2d. and 3d. vols, in one. — Cf. $173. 2. The column of Trajan was erected in the middle of the market or forum called by his name. Its height has been stated differently, 128 feet, and 144 feet ; its diameter is about 12 feet at bottom and ten at the top. It is encrusted with marble, on which the exploits of Tra- jan and his army, in Dacia particularly, are represented in bas-relief. On the top was a colos- sal statue of the emperor with a sceptre in his left hand, and in his right a hollow globe of gold, which is said to have received his ashes ; although Eutropius states (vm. 5.) that they were deposited under the pillar. There were steps inside for ascending to the top, with windows to admit the light. (R. Fabretti, De columna Trajana Syntagma. Rom.. 1683. fol.) — TlM column of Antonine, erected by the senate after his death, is said to be 176 feet high. It has steps for ascending to its top, with windows. The sculptures in relief upon it represent the military achievements of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus among the Germans. His statue was placed upon the summit. The whole monument resembles that of Trajan, but is inferior to it. — One of the popes, Sextus V., absurdly caused statues of the apostles Peter and Paul to be placed on these columns. The triumphal column of Bonaparte at Paris is built after the model of Tra- jan's pillar ; it is 140 feet high and 12 in diameter at the base ; encompassed with brazen plates which were made of cannon taken at the battles of Ulm and Austerlitz and are covered with commemorative bas-reliefs ; surmounted with a statue of Napoleon. The Arch of Titus was erected in honor of his capture of Jerusalem. Among the bas-reliefs on it are representations of the spoils of the temple, as borne in the triumphal procession ; e.g. the incense vessels, the golden candlestick, the table of shew-bread, and the jubilee trumpets. Thus, through the vanity of a Roman conqueror, are transmitted to us models of the lidy uten- sils plannedby the Divine Architect. See our Plate xxvi. fig. E. The Arch of Septimius Severus was erected in the beginning of the third century ; directly over the Via Sacra ; con- sisting of a main arch in the centre, and a smaller arch on each side ; adorned with figures in bas-relief commemorative cf his victory over the Parthians ; surmounted with equestrian statues. The Arch of Constantine consists also cf three arches ; the noblest monument of the kind ; in fine preservation. It has been thought that this may be the arch erected in honor of Trajan, as the bas-reliefs appear to represent chiefly his achievements. Good en- gravings of these arches, andof the columns above mentioned, are given in Montfaucon, L'An- tiquite Expliquee, vol. iv. Plates ovm.— cxu. (as cited P. III. § 12, 2. (d). 3. Many remains of sculptured bas-relief have been found at Herculaneum and Pompeii. See Antichita d> Ercolano, cited $ 243. 2. The 8th. volume is on lamps uxir&og) is of a deep red, often an orange color. The stone of violet hue, to which the ancients gave also the same name, seems to have been rather a species of Amethyst. The Amethyst (auitoorog), violet colored in different degrees and shades, was much sought for by ancient artists. One variety of it was held in particular estimation ; that which they termed nuidioiog, or uvrtQog, and the gem of Ve- nus (gemma Veneris). GEMS USED IN LITHOGLYPHY. Ill The Agate («/«t>/?) received its name from the river Achates in Sicily, where the stone was first found. Agates (b) are of various shades in transpa- rency and color. The agate-onyx, with a white surface and another color be- neath, was often employed for engraving in relief, the surface of the stone be- ing used for the figure. There are numerous sorts. The Cornelian is so called from its color resembling that of flesh (carnis). It belongs to the class of agates. It was very frequently used for purposes of engraving (c), on account of the ease with which it could be wrought. The Sardine or Sardius (auodivog, auoStog, sarda) is likewise red and of the same kind as the Carnelian. It is used for seals and signets very much, be- cause it is so readily detached from the wax. The term sarda was a common name for every kind of Carnelian. The Opal (6na?J.iog, opalus) is ordinarily white, but occurs with other colors. It was much esteemed (d) by the ancients. The Jasper (iaajtig, iaspis) presents various colors, red, green, brown, gray which sometimes appear simple, and sometimes mingled. For lithoglyphy the latter kind was preferred, particularly that with red spots upon a green ground, which was also called heliotropia. The Onyx (ow/§) took its name from its whitish red color resembling the nails of the hand. That which presents veins of red was termed Sardonyx. A kind of marble of similar color was also termed onyx or Onychitis, and likewise Alabastrites. The Crystal (y.oi or alios, crystallus) was so called from its resemblance in form to ice (y.ovog, xqvotuoj). Ancient artists made use of it both in lithogly- phy, and for drinking vessels on which devices were to be sculptured. (a) Pliny speaks of many varieties of the Emerald. The real gem was highly prized When the rich Lucullus visited Alexandria, Ptolemy is said to have presented to him an emerald bearing on it an engraved likeness of the king of Egypt ; and this was considered as the most valuable present which could be made. But, when it is stated that the hall of Ahasuerus was paved with emerald ; that a temple of Hercules was adorned with pillars of emerald ; and that whole statues were cut in emerald ; the maragdites, or some variety of marble, must be meant. Gems of emerald have been found at Herculaneum and Pompeii. — (b) Agates seem to have been frequently used for vases ; some beautiful vases of this stone are preserved in the collec- tions at Dresden and Brunswick. If a stone presented two colors, so that the raised figure could be of a color different from the rest of the surface, it was specially valued. Very fine speci- mens of such engraved stones are preserved inJhe Royal Museum at Paris. — (c) The Carnelian, and the stones included under the names of Jqrate and Onyx, seem to have been the ones most commonly used in forming cameos (cf. $196). Many very fine specimens are preserved in the public collections. — (d) " Nonius, a Roman senator, possessed an Opal of extraordinary beauty valued at £160,000 ; rather than part with which to Mark Antony, he chose to suffer exile. He fled to Egypt ; and there, it was supposed, secreted his gem;" and it was never more heard of until, in modern times, a Frenchman by the name of Roboly pretended to have found it amidst the ruins of Alexandria. Only a few engraved specimens are found in the collections. 2 m. In reference to the accounts given of precious stones by ancient writers, particularly by Pliny, the 37th Bk. of whose Natural History is devoted to this topic, it must not be forgotten that the names and characteristics therein given do not always belong to the stones which bear those names in modern science. Many of the ancient gems must be distinguished from such as have the same names now, but different characteristics. The smallest points of variance were sufficient with the ancients to secure to a precious stone a new name. See L. de Launaifs Tableau de Comparaison de la Mineralogie des Anciens avec celle des Modernes, in his Mineralogie des Anciens. Brux. 1803. 2 vols. 12. — TV*. F. Moore, Ancient Mine- ralogy, or Inquiry respecting the mineral substances mentioned by the ancients &c. N. York. 1834. 12. commended in SMimauPs Journal of Science, vol. xxvm. p. 188. 3. Several precious stones are enumerated in Exodus (xxviii. 17 — 20) ; by the Sept. thus : Ouadiov, totvuliov, OiiaouySog, «»^oa|, ounysioog, i'aOTTig, Xiyv- Qiov, a/uTtjg, auidvOTog, /Qvo6Xi&og, fitjnv/.s.iov, ovv/iov. The list in Rev. xxi. contains also /al.y.rfioiv , oaodovv'i, /nvouTiQaoog, vuy.iv&og. See Epiphanius, de xii Gemmis &c. on the xii gems in the breast-plate of Aaron, in his Opera. Colon. 1682. 2 vols. fol. — also in Qessner, De fossilium genere, cited P. II. $ 268. 4. Some have included among the gems the Murra or murrhinum, men- tioned by Pliny, of which were made the vessels (vasa murrina) so much val- ued by the Romans. But as to the nature of this substance there have been many conjectures, of which the most probable seems to be, that it was a kind of porcelain. " The vases were in such esteem at Rome, in the first ages of the Christian era, that two of them were bought by one of the emperors at the price (a) of 300 sestertium, more than £2000 sterling each. A cup capable of 112 ARCHAEOLOGY OF ART. holding three sextarii (4 1-2 pints) was sold for seventy talents ; and a dish for three hundred; a talent being equal to £180 English." (a) Silliman's Amer. Journ. of Science and Art. vol. xxvi. p. 236. — See Graf von Veltheim, Abhandlung iiber die Vasa murrina. Helmst.1791. 8.— Gurlitt, iiber die Gemmenkunde. Magdeb. 1798.4 Roloff, iiber die murrinischen Geftesse der Alten, in the Museum der Alterthumsw. by Wolf&c Buttmann (Bd. n). — Launay, Mineral, des Anciens, above cited, vol. l . p. 85. — Le Blond & Larchcr, Les Vases murrhines, Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol.xnu. p. 217,238. — Mong-ez, Sur les vases murrhins, Mem. de Vlnstit. C 1 a s s e de Lit. et Beaux Arts. vol. n. p. 133.— Cf. Class. Journ. i. 242. 5. The substance called alabaster (a?.u^aarooc) was employed by the ancients as the mate- rial for their unguentary vases, or the vessels for holding precious perfumes and ointments. Hence the term a?.u(iiiCSTQov came to be used as a common name for a vase or bottle designed for this purpose (cf. Matt. xxvi. 7.), of whatever it might be formed, whether of alabaster, gold, glass, or other material. The alibaster of the ancients was, according to Dr. E. D. Clarke, carbonated lime, and precisely the substance which forms the stalactites in the famous grotto of Antiparos. — Clarke's Travels, vol. ill. p. 275, ed. N. Yk. 1815. §196. On these gems the figures were formed either in depression below the surface, or in relief above. Those of the first kind were called, by the ancients, UQoi Siuyl.vrtroi, gemma diaglyphicce, insculptce. Those of the other kind were called ZL&oi avayXvnxoi, gemmce ectypce, anaglyphies, exsculptce. The moderns also apply distinguishing terms to the two kinds : gems with figures cut below the surface are called intaglios ; gems with figures in relief above the surface are called cameos. 1 u. Where the figure is formed below the surface of the gem, the depres- sion is of different degrees, according to the perspective. Sometimes the sur- face of the gem receives a swelling form like that of a shield, to enable the- artist to express the prominent parts more naturally and without curtailment and preserve a more accurate perspective. 2u. The word cameo was formed, it may be, from the union of two words, viz. gemma onychia, as it originally was applied only to gems of onyx having two colors, the figure in relief being formed of the upper color, and the other appearing in the ground. Or it may have come from the name of a shell, Came. Which is found on the coast of Trapani in Sicily, and which has various figures on it in a sort of relief. See J. D. Fiorillo, Abh. iiber das Wort Camee, in his Klein. Schrift. artistischen Inhalts. §197. The objects represented upon engraved gems are very vari- ous. Often the figures transmit and preserve the memory of particu- lar persons, remarkable events, civil and religious rites and customs, or other matters worthy of notice. Sometimes the whole is an arbi- trary device of the artist, combining and exhibiting mythical, allegor- ical, and imaginary objects. Frequently we find merely heads, of gods, heroes or distinguished personages, either singly, or one after another (capita jug ata), or facing each other (advcrsa), or turned the opposite way (aversa). The heads usually appear in profile. In dis- covering and explaining the design, it is useful to compare the pieces with coins and with other gems. §198. Upon many gems are found figures in full length, either single or grouped. There are, for example, full figures of gods with various costumes, and appendages. Frequently mythical and allego- rical representations are united. Many times the engravings illustrate points of history and antiquities. Festivals, sacrifices, bacchanals, feats in hunting and the like, are often presented. There are gems also with inscriptions, which usually give the name of the artist, but not with certainty, because the inscription is so often made subse- quently to the time of the engraving. Some gems also bear in large letters the names of the persons who caused them to be engraved. Occasionally the inscription contains the words of some sacred or votive formula ; scarcely ever an explanation of the subject represented, GEM-ENGRAVING OF THE EGYPTIANS. 113 See Fr. de Ficoroni, Gemmce antique literatas. Rom. 1757. 4. Particular gems were con- sidered as peculiarly appropriate to certain gods ; e. g. representations of Bacchus were spe- cially common on the Amethyst having the color of wine ; Neptune and the nymphs were executed in Aquamarine having the greenish color of water. — In Plate V. fig. 5, and 6, we have specimens of whole figures engraved on gems. In fig. 5. Daedalus is seen sitting on a block and fabricating a wing which rests on a tripod ; it is curious that he seems to be work- ing with a mallet. In fig. b, Cupid is sitting on a shell, and playing with a butterfly ; the oval ring in the fig. shows the actual size of the beautiful gem here exhibited. This may be an alle- gorical device, as the butterfly was regarded by the ancients as an emblem of the soul. Winck- elmann gives an antique, in which a philosopher is looking contemplatively upon a human skull with a butterfly on the crown of it, supposed to represent Plato meditating on the immortality of the soul. So in the gem here exhibited, the artist may have designed to intimate the influ- ence of love upon the soul, or to remind the observer of the allegory of Eros and Psyche (cf. P. III. § 50). In figs. 7, and 8, we have a Hermes and a Hermeracles, as engraved on gems. In fig. 1, is a mythological representation : Harpocrates, the god of silence, sits on a lotus flower, holding in his left hand a scourge {flagellmn), instead of the horn of plenty, which more commonly he holds, and placing the fore finger of his right hand upon his lips ; on one side of him is the sun, and the moon on the other ; on his head he has a vessel of some sort instead of a crown. §199. The history of this art has its different periods, and princi- pal changes and characteristics in reference to origin, progress and decline, in common with sculpture or image-work in general. Like sculpture.it depends much on design; its advancement is effected by the same causes as that of sculpture ; so also is its decline ; its pro- gress, likewise, presents the same varieties of style, the rude, the more cultivated, and the elegant. It is probable, that soon after the discov- ery of precious stones men began to etch upon them, at first, perhaps mere characters or simple signs. The Bible gives the earliest notices of the art, in the precious stones of the Ephod and the Breast-plate of Aaron, on which were inscribed the names of the twelve tribes of Israel. Gems and precious stones are spoken of at a still earlier period. Cf. § 195. 3.— See Gen. ii. 12. Job. xxviii. 6. 16. 19. Comp. Lev. xxvi. 1. — J. J. BellcrmanrL, Die Uiim und Thummim, die altestens Gemmen. Berl. 1824. 8. §200. The Israelites without doubt derived the art from the Egyp- tians, among whom it had been long known, and had been promoted by their superstitious ideas respecting the wonderful efficacy of such stones in the preservation of health. In this view they were marked with hieroglyphic characters, and used as talismans, or amulets. 1m. Many of these stones yet exist, especially of a convex form like that of the beetle, termed Scarabcci (xuoapoc) ; however, many of them were wrought at a later period, after the time of Christ, to which more recent class belong also those called by the name of Abraxas. 2. The word Abraxas, being interpreted according to the numerical force of its corresponding Greek letters, a (i o a I a g , signifies 365, the number of days in the year. It is said to have been fabricated by Basilides, who main- tained that there were so many heavens ; or by some one of the sect called Gnostics. The engraved stones designated by this name are supposed to have proceeded from the followers of this sect and to have been designed as a sort of amulets or talismans. Great numbers of them are preserved in the cabi- nets of Europe. Montfaucon divides the gems called Abraxas into seven classes : 1. those with the head of a cock usually joined to a human trunk with the legs ending in two serpents ; 2. those with the head or body of a lion, having often the inscription Mithras • 3. those having the inscription or the figure Serapis ; 4. those having Anubis, or scarabrei, serpents, or sphinxes ; 5. those having human figures with or without wings ; 6. those having inscriptions without figures ; 7. those having unusual or monstrous figures. The term Abraxas, sometimes written Abrasax, is found, only on a few. A specimen of the first class is given in our illustrations, Plate V. fig. 2. The image engraved has the body and arms of a man ; in the right hand is held a round shield ; in the left the flagellum; the head is that of a cock with a crest, and the legs assume the form of serpents. It bears the inscription 1 A UJ , * u o>, which is commonly found on these stones, on the shield or on some other part ; this may be intended to correspond to the Jlebiew of Jehovah (see Plate I a, in fig. e, line b) ; the word Adonai is found on some of these stones. A very singular specimen is given in Walsh, on Coins &c. p. 68. as cited § 213. The mystie word J^BPAQA 'ABPA is supposed to have come from the same sect. An amulet was formed by writing these letters in such a way that they should make an inverted cone or triangle with 10* 114 ARCH.EOLGY OF ART. the whole word at the base and the letter A at the apex ; which was done by beginning the word one place farther to the right in each successive line and also cutting off at each time one letter from the end. This was employed as a charm for the cure of a fever. See Mojitfaucon, L'Antiquite expliquee. tomen. p. 353 (part 2. livre iii.) — Joa. Macarii, Abraxas s. Apistopistus ; antiquaria disquisitio de Gemmis Basilidianis. Antv. 1657. 4. — P. C. Jablonsky, De Nominis Abraxas vera significatione, in the Miscell. Lips. Nov. (Bd. 7. Th. 1.) — J. J. Bellermann, uber die Gemmen mit dem Abraxas-bilde, und iiber die Scarabaeen-Gem- men. Bed. 1817. 8. 3. The most fanciful and superstitious notions have prevailed respecting the marvelous pow- ers of gems. Fabulous accounts of the origin of different stones were invented by the ancients. Particular gems were imagined to hold peculiar relations to certain planets, constellations, and months of the year. The gem appropriate for a particular month was worn as an amulet dur- ing the month, and was supposed to exert a mysterious control in reference to beauty, health, riches, honor, and all good fortune ; as e. g. a sapphire for April, an agate for May, and an eme- rald fox June. Different gems were also supposed to possess specific powers ; e. g. the emerald was an antidote to poison, and a preventive of melancholy ; the amethyst was a security against intoxication, if worn as an amulet or used as a drinking-cup ; the ruby or spinelle was a pro- moter of joy and a foe to all bad dreams. Such notions were cherished also among the Ara- bians and eastern nations ; and were embraced in Europe in the middle ages. Indeed, to un- derstand the virtues of gems was esteemed an important part of natural philosophy, and trea- tises were written on the subject (cf. P. II. $268). Marbodus, a monk of the 12th century, who was made bishop of Rennes, wrote a poem (De gemmis) setting forth, in Latin verse, the mi- raculous efficacy of precious stones. Cf. JVarton's Hist. Eng. Poetry. Lond. 1824. 2d vol. p. 214. Twelve gems were appropriated as symbolical of the twelve Apostles, and called " The Apos- tle gems ;" the hint having been drawn from the twelve gems representing the twelve tribes on Aaron's breast-plate, and from the figurative language of the Apocalypse of John (Rev. xxi. 14, 19, 20), in which the walls of the new Jerusalem are represented as having twelve foundations of precious stones, inscribed with the names of the twelve Apostles of the Lamb. 4. We may mention here a class of engraved stones, sometimes called Socratic, having heads of various animals connected with the form or feet of a cock, or other devices, among which is found a head resembling Socrates. See Sulzer, Allg. Theorie, &c. vol. n. p. 399.— Joa. Chifictii Socrates, s. de Gemmis ejus im- agine caelatis Judicium. Antv. 1662. A.—Middlcton'' s Antiq. Tab. xxi. sect. 10. cf. Doddridge, Family Expositor. Note on Rev. iv. 7. (p. 913. Am. Ed. Amherst, 1833.) §201. Among the Egyptians, lithoglyphy, like the other plastic arts, and on account of the same hindrances (§ 169), never reached any distinguished excellence or perfection. Stones and gems, adorn- ed with figures in relief, were much less common among them than among the Greeks and Romans, with whom a greater degree of lux- ury in general favored the exercise of this art in particular. " The ancients appear to have obtained the emerald from Egypt. Cailliaud has succeeded in finding the old emerald mines in the the Theban deserts on the Arabian Gulf. He mentions having found subterranean mines capable of allowing four hundred men to work ; he like- wise found tools, ropes, lamps and other utensils." § 202, Among the Ethiopians and Persians, and other nations of Asia and Africa, this art must have been known in very ancient times, because their sculptured stones are mentioned by the ancient Greek and Roman writers. Persian gems are still in existence of various kinds. But the Etrurians were more remarkable. They either bor- rowed the art from the Egyptians, or very soon became imitators of the Egyptian manner and like them wrought gems in the form of the scarabaeus or beetle. They carried their skill in execution much fur- ther, but not to the point of Grecian excellence. We probably have re- maining but few sculptured gems, really Etruscan : most of those so called are probably of Grecian origin ; at least the evidence that they are Tuscan is very unsatisfactory. § 203. Whether the Greeks borrowed this art from Egypt cannot be decided any more certainly than the exact time when they became ac- quainted with it. That it existed in Egypt at an earlier period is un- questionable ; but that the Greeks must therefore have borrowed it from that country by no means follows. Probably it arose among them at the same time with sculpture. It seems to have been known in the time of the Trojan war, although Pliny expresses doubt on the GEM-ENGRAVING OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. 115 point. This writer and others mention, as the most ancient remarka- ble gem among the Greeks, that belonging to the signet of Poly crates, king of Samos. lu. This seal was an emerald or sardonyx on which was carved a lyre. Ac- cording to tradition, this jewel, having been thrown by the king into the sea to avoid an accident that threatened him, was brought back by a fish that was served at his table. The artist, who wrought it, was Theodorus of Samos, who flourished about 530 years before Christ. The art was at that time quite im- perfect, but afterwards it advanced rapidly. 2. For the story of this ring, cf. Herodotus, iii. 39 — 41. — Pausanias, viii. 14. — Pliny, xxxiii. 1. xxxvii. 1. — " In the temple of Concord at Rome, in the time of Pliny, a sardonyx was shown which was said to be the ring of Polycrates. It was kept in a golden box, and was a present from Augustus. According to Herodotus the stone was an emerald."— Barthelevnf s Anachar- sis. vol. vi. p. 265, 447. § 204. The art of gem-engraving reached its highest perfection among the Greeks about the time of Alexander. In this flourishing time, no graver of gems equaled Pyrgoteles in celebrity. While Apelles alone was allowed by Alexander to paint his likeness, and Lysippus alone to carve his statue, Pyrgoteles was the only one per- mitted to sketch his miniature on the precious stone. In the same period lived also Sostratus, whose name is inscribed on some of the most beautiful gems still existing. Somewhat later, although it is not certain precisely of what time, were Apollonides and Cronius, artists of nearly equal celebrity. Many other names of Grecian lapidaries occur both on existing ancient gems and in ancient writers. Not much reliance, however, is to be placed on the inscriptions (cf. §198). Some of the names are the following : Agathangelus, Agatho- pus, Aulus, Alpheus, Arethon, Epitynchanus, Albius, Evodus, Mycon, Admon, ./Etion, Anteros, Gceus, Pamphylus, Philemon, Sosocles* Tryphon, &c. See Chr. Tlieoph. de Murr. Bibliotheque glyptographique. Dresd. 1804. 8. — Fr. Vettori, Disser- tatio glyptographica &c. Rom. 1739. 4. — D. A. Bracci, Memoire degli anticbi incisori, chi scol- pirono i loro nome in Gemme e Camei. Fir. 1784. fol. — On the history of Gem-sculpture, see references § 213. 3. § 205. The Romans possessed this art only as the conquerors and lords of Greece. Engraved gems were highly valued among them, and were bought at exorbitant prices. Yet they can claim no proper merit for the advancement of this art, because all, who were most dis- tinguished in it among them, were Greeks by birth. Of these, Dios- corides and Solon, in the time of Augustus, were the best. Gems which are engraved in the proper Roman manner (and such are re- cognized by the costume) are not valued so highly as the Grecian. — It is to be remarked that this art fell at the same time, and from the same causes, with the other arts. In the middle ages, however, lithoglyphy was not wholly neglected, since to this period belong the stones already mentioned (§ 200) as passing under the name of Abraxas, and designed for magical purposes. § 206. The use of engraved stones with the ancients was two-fold, for seals, and for ornaments ; in both cases it was common to make- of them rings. The early use of gems for such purposes is evident from passages in the Bible (cf. § 199). For seals, the figure was generally cut below the surface of the stone («oo;r£) ; but when the stone was designed merely for ornament, it was usually formed in re- Jief (&>#£). The ancients made collections of gems, which they termed 116 ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. dactyliotliecce^ayTvXio&^y.ai, from SaxrvXtoc a ring; artists who wrought these gems were from the same circumstance called 3axTvlioykvs Journal, vol. xxvi. p. 244. 5. The glass pastes of James Tassie, a native of Glasgow, resident at Lon- don, have acquired great celebrity. His collectio'n of impressions of ancient and modern gems amounted to 15,000. His pastes were brought into greater notoriety by the jewelers, who inserted them in seals, rings, and other orna- ments. An account of his numerous impressions was published under the following title : A De- scriptive Catalogue of a general collection of ancient and modern Gems, cast in colored pastes, swhite enamel, and sulphur ; by J. jTassie,^arranged and described by R. F. Raspe,—and illus- 1 18 ARCHAEOLOGY op art. •trated with Copperplates ; to which is prefixed an Introduction on the various uses of this col- lection, the origin of the art of engraving on stones, and the progress of pastes. Lond. 1791, -2 vols. 4. 6. Copies of coins and medals are also multiplied by means of casts in sul- phur and other substances. Thus, e. g. the medals struck in commemoration of events in the life of Bonaparte, are imitated and made known extensively by sulphur casts ; the medals consisting of 160 pieces ; the casts forming a suite of 185 pieces including several reverses. See Laskei/s Series of Bonaparte's Medals, royal 8vo. Lond On the general subject of pastes *nd casts, we may here refer to Sulzer's AHg. Theorie &c. under the words Mdruecke, Abgues- se, Paste. §211. Of the great number of existing gems only a few will bo named, of such as are the most celebrated. Of this class are the following : — the signet of Michael Angelo (cachet de Michel Ange) y as it is called, in the Royal Museum at Paris, a carnelian, on which is represented with masterly skill an Athenian festival, or as some think (a), the training of Bacchus ; — a very beautiful Medusa's head upon a chalcedony, formerly in the Strozzi collection at Rome, now in possession of the Baron von Schellersheim ; — the head of Socra- tes on a carnelian in the collection of St. Mark's at Harlem ; — Bac- chus and Ariadne upon a red Jasper in the collection of the Grand Duke at Florence; — the heads of Augustus, Maecenas, Diomedes, and Hercules, inscribed with the name Dioscorides ; — a head of Alexan- der, a cameo of Sardonyx (6), with an inscription scarcely genuine of the name Pyrgoteles. Among the largest gems remaining (c), are the following : — an onyx in the Imperial collection at Vienna, on which is exhibited the Apotheosis of Augustus and Livia ; — the so called Mantuan Vessel, formed of onyx (cl), in possession of the family of the Duke of Brunswick ; and the celebrated (e) Barberini or Portland vase. 1. (a) It has been remarked that the seal of Michael Angelo affords a nota- ble instance of the errors and controversies of antiquarians. " By one the subject is supposed to be Alexander the Great represented as Bacchus ; by another it is thought a religious procession of the Athenians ; and there are others, who suppose it simply a vintage, or sacrifical rites relative to the con- quest of India. But it is said to be proved, that instead of being an antique, this gem was engraved by an intimate friend of Angelo himself. It was bought by the keeper of the cabinet of Henry IV. of France for 800 crowns, and Louis XIV. having afterwards acquired it, frequently wore it as a ring." (New Edinb. Encyc.) Cf. New Edinb. Encycl. under Oems.— Winckclmann mentions, as one of the finest antique gems, a cameo from the hand of Athenion, preserved in the Farnese cabinet at Naples ; representing Jupiter in a chariot hurling his thunderbolts and driving over the prostrate Titans. He gives an engraving of it. Cf. Histoire &x. vol. n. p. 112, 115, as cited § 32. 4. 2. (b) The cameo of Sardonyx bearing the head of Alexander was publish- ed by Stosch in his work cited below (§213. 1). It is also given, with other supposed portraits of that conqueror, in a paper in the Memoirs of the Institute. Speaking of engraved stones which present in relief the heads of illustrious personages, Winch elmann says, the first rank may be assigned to a bust of Au- gustus, on a flesh colored chalcedony, in the library of the Vatican. Jameson mentions as very fine an engraved gem of heliotrope (cf. §195. 1.) preserved in the national or royal library at Paris ; it represents the head of Christ scourg- ed {Christ Flagellt), and is so cut that the red spots of the gem represent drops of blood. Cf. Mem. de VInstitut, Classe de Lit. et Beaux Arts. vol. i. p. 615.— Winckelmann, Histoire &c» livre iv. ch. vn. $ 67-70. R. Jameson, .Mineralogy. Edinb. 1820. 3 vols. 8.— A gem with a beau- tiful female head and bust i3 noticed in the Hist de VAcad. Insc. vol. in. p. 244. Sur une Prime d' Emeraud antique ; supposed by some to represent Eucharib, the celebrated female dancer at Rome. COLLECTIONS OF ANCIENT GEMS. 119' 3. (c) Mongez, in the Memoirs of the French Institute, describes three an- tique cameos said by him to be the largest known. The first is a Sardonyx, in the cabinet of the king of France, and is called the Agate of Tiberius. It is of an irregular oval form, nearly one foot (un pied) in length and about ten inches (dix pouces) in the greatest breadth. The sculpture on it exhibits three Bcenes ; one, in heaven, is the apotheosis of Augustus ; another, on earth, is the investiture of a priestess, in the family of Tiberius, for the worship of Au- gustus ; a third scene presents captives of various nations of the earth. — The second cameo is in the Imperial cabinet at Vienna. It is about one third less than the one just specified, and represents Tiberius as descending from a char- iot. — The third is a Sardonyx, which in 1808 belonged to a public collection in Holland ; it represents Claudius and his family drawn by Centaurs. 4. (d) " The concentrically striped onyxes, which are very rare, were much prized by the an- cients and they cut upon them very beautiful figures in demyrelief. Oneof the most beautiful works cut in this variety of chalcedony is the celebrated Mantuan vase, which was seized by the Germans at the storming of Mantua, and ever since has been preserved in the Ducal collec- tion in Brunswick. Several beautiful plates of onyx are preserved in the Electoral Cabinet in Dresden ; there is one valued at 44,000 dollars." (e) The Portland vase is not formed of a natural gem ; it has been already described (cf. § 173. 2). Mongez, in the Mem. de Vlnst. Olasse d'Hist. et Lit. Jlnc. vol. vin. p. 370.— K. A. Bcettiger, TJeber die ^Echteit und das Vaterland der antiken Onyx-Kameen von ausserordentlicher Grosse. Lpz. 1796.8. — Jameson, as above cited, vol. i. p. 244. § 212. The most celebrated collections of ancient gems are the following: — 4he Grand Duke's at Florence, which contains 3000; — those of the families of Barberini and Odescalchi at Rome> the latter of which formerly belonged to Christina queen of Sweden ; — the royal Cabinet or Museum at Paris ; — the collection, formerly belonging to the Duke of Orleans, now at Petersburg ; — some private collections in London, particularly those of the Duke of Devonshire and Count Carlisle ; — the Imperial Cabinet at Vienna ; — the collection of the King of Prussia, of which the gems formerly belonging to Baron de Stosch form the largest and most valuable part ; — that of the King of Netherlands at Hague. See Gurlitt, as before cited § 195. — Respecting the collections in England, Waagcn, as cited $ 190. 6. — On the Cabinet of the grand duke at Florence, see Johnson's Philosophy of Travel- ing, p. 119, as cited § 190. 6. The Royal Museum at Naples, which is now enriched with the treasures of several private collections, contains many precious stones, besides fine stat- ues, bronze figures, vases, and antiques in glass. — See Finati (and others), Real Museo Borbonico. Nap. 1824-33. 8 vols. 4.— E. Gerhard &c Th. Panofka, Neapels Antike Bild- werke ; commenced 1828.. The collection of gems formerly belonging to Baron de Stosch, above mentioned, is now lodged in the Royal Museum at B e r 1 i n. And we should remark, that this Museum now con- tains the gerns and also the statues and other antiques formerly deposited in the Royal Man- sion and at Sans Souci (cf. $ 190. 3). It also contains Holler's collection of Vases from Cam- pania and other parts of Italy ; Bartoldiano's collection of Antiques in Bronze ; several smaller collections made by different persons ; and a number of statues recently procured from Italy. It is called a splendid assemblage. Casts of ancient gems or medals are found in the libraries or museums of most public insti- tutions. The Boston Atheneum has several cases. § 213. Engravings and Plates are a useful help in attaining a knowledge of sculptured gems. Various works containing plates and descriptions of the most remarkable specimens, with historical and critical observations, have been published. 1. Works referring to particular cabinets or collections. — A. F. Gorii, Museum F 1 o r e n t i- num, as cited $ 191. 2. The 1st and 2d volumes treat of Gems.— Le Museum de Florence, oh Collection des Pierres gravees, Statues, Medailies, et Peintures, qui se trouvent a Florence principalement dans le Cab. du Gr. Due, &c. grave par David, avec explanations par Mulot< Par. 1781-88. 6 vols. 4.— Man gez, Camees, &c. de la Galerie de F 1 o r e n c e et du Palais Pitti, &c. as cited § 191. 2i Winckdmann, Description de Pierres gravees du feu Mr. Le Baron d e Stosch. Flor. 1760. 4.—F. Schlichtegroll, Auswahl vorzuglicher Gemmeu aus der Stosch- i s c h e n Sammlun£. The 1st vol. Numb. 1797. 4. A 2d vol. in continuation, under the title Dactyliotheca Stoschiana. Numb. 1806. 4.— P. J. Marictte, Recueil des pierres antiques de la collection de Mr. de Gravelle. Par. 1735-37. 2 vols. 4. Le Blond et De la Chau, Description ;, Lwyoa(/u*>;), is the represen- tation of visible objects upon a plane surface by means of figure and color. It is not confined, however, to the mere exhibition of mate- rial bodies and forms ; but expresses also their invisible powers and immaterial and spiritual nature and affections, by gestures, attitudes, and the like. It also employs the form of sensible objects allegori- cally to signify things very different from what actually meets the eye. (Cf. § 147.) — The real foundation of painting is laid in the art of designing, that is, representing objects on a plane by lines and strokes ; by the advancement of which in correctness and beauty the progress of painting must be forwarded, almost as a matter of course. § 215. It has been already remarked (§ 155), that the art of design- ing, or sketching, although it is of so great importance as a foun- dation and help to all the plastic arts, is yet probably of later origin. So the art of coloring merely was doubtless of earlier origin than painting, properly so termed ; which implies the filling up, with col- ors suitably chosen and applied, of an outline sketched designedly. Yet the art of designing and painting existed, beyond all question, in a very early period, although we cannot determine exactly when, or in what nation, it originated. It is still a controverted question, whether it existed in Greece at the time of the Trojan war ; and the negative is certainly quite probable. This however would not imply that it did not then exist in other countries. § 216. The Egyptians were acquainted with this earlier than the Greeks, although not so much earlier as according to Pliny (Nat. Hist. xxxv. 5) they claimed. Sketching or designing seems to have become common among them quite early. Originally the art was chiefly temple-painting, and we must distinguish between that which PLATE VI. 122 ARCHAEOLOGY OP ART. is found upon the walls of edifices, and that upon mummies and pa* pyrus rolls. Painting remained very imperfect in Egypt, as did the plastic arts in general. The artists applied their colors in uniform tints, without shading or contrast. !?ome paintings found in Egypt seem to be an exception to this remark, but they were probably exe- cuted in the time of the Ptolemies by Grecian artists. 1. " Egyptian painting, seldom, if ever, attempts more than an outline of the object as seen in profile, such as would be obtained by its shadow. To this rude but always well-proportioned draught, colors are applied, simply and without mixture or blending, or the slightest indication of light and shade. The process appears to have been, first, the preparation of the ground in white ; next, the outline was firmly traced in black; and, lastly, the flat colors were applied. The Egyptian artists employed six pigments, mixed up with a gummy liquid, namely, white, black, red, blue, yellow, and green; the three first always earthy, the remaining, vegetable or at least frequently trans- parent. The specimens from which we derive these facts, are the painted shrouds and cases of mummies, and the still more perfect examples on the walls of the tombs. It can furnish no evidence of extraordinary experience or practice, that these paintings still retain their color clear and fresh. The circumstance merely shows the aridity of the climate, and that the coloring matters were prepared and applied pure and without admixture." (Memes.) Some notices of Egyptian painting may be found in J. O. Wilkinson, Manners and Customs of the Egyptians. Lond. 1837. 3 vols. 8. with some colored plates. — See, also, in Denon (as cited § 238. 2.), vol. i. p. 177, a notice of the paintings in the tombs at Thebes. — Lond. Quart- Rev. xix. 192, 421. 2u. That painting, or at least the art of coloring, existed early among the Chaldeans and Israelites is indicated by passages in the Bible. Ezek. xxiii. 14; viii. 10 ; comp. Numb, xxxiii. 52. § 217. According to the common tradition of antiquity, which agrees well with the natural probability of the case, painting, or rather designing, took its rise originally from the tracing of the shad- ows of objects upon a wall, and marking the outline with carbon or chalk. Ardices of Corinth and Telephon of Sicyon are said to have been the first who, by drawing the inner parts, presented something more than the outline, and indicated light and shade. The earliest Greek pictures were drawn with a single color, and are thence termed iiovo/odHtura; a red color was chiefly used, perhaps because it resem- bled that of flesh in the human body. The first that employed vari- ous colors appears to have been Bularchus, who lived in the time of Candaules, king of Lydia, about 720 B. C. " The first painting on record is the battle of Magnete by Bularchus, and purchased by Candaules, King of Lydia, for its weight in gold, or as some say, a quantity of gold coins equal to the extent of its surface. This estab- lishes the first era of the art in Greece." But painting had been practiced for several centuries preceding, especially at Corinth. The art is said to have passed through several gradations; as, simple skiagraphy, ox shadow-paint- ing; the monographic style, consisting of a simple outline; monochromatic compositions, in which one color only was employed ; and polychromatic , where a variety of hue was used, but without shading. It is, however, hard- ly supposable that the art advanced by any perfectly regular series of steps. See Memes, p. 120, 121, as cited $ 169.— Coylus, (Dissertations relat. a i'histoire et a Part ;) Abhandlungen zur Geschichte und Kunst. (bk. ii. p. 23. 74.) Altenb. 1768. 2 vols. 4.— Ram- dohr, Ueber Malerei, &c. bk. ii. p. 176, as cited § 226. 2. § 218. The succeeding Greek painters used only four principal colors; viz. white, yellow, red, and black; which are called, by Pliny, 3felinum, Atticum, Si7iopis Pontica, and Atramcntum. Of the real nature of these pigments, and of the modes of mixing and preserving them, we know but little. Oil colors appear not to have ANCIENT PAINTING. ENCAUSTIC. 123 been known to the ancients ; they always used water colors, to which, especially to black, they sometimes added vinegar. They also, es- pecially in paintings upon plaster or in fresco, made use of a sort of varnish of wax to increase the brightness and durability of the col- ors. Both these objects Apelles effected by means of a fine black varnish which none could imitate. " In the pictures at Naples and Rome, is greater variety of coloring than, from some passages in their writings, has been allowed to the ancients. And, indeed, unless Pliny be supposed to point out a distinction in this respect be- tween the practice of the earlier and later painters, he contradicts himself; for in all, he enumerates no less than five different whites, three yellows, nine reds or purples, two blues, one of which is indigo, two greens, and one black, which also appears to be a generic expression, including bitumen, charcoal, ivory, or lamp-black, mentioned with probably others." (Memes, p. 12S.) See Pliny, Hist. Nat. xxxv. 5-42. — De Covins, on certain passages of Pliny, &c. Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxv. 149.— O. E. Lessing, Vom Alter'der Oel-maherer aus dem Theophilus Presbyter, in his Scemmtliche Schriften (as "cited $168), vol. vm. p. 285.— F. W. Docring, Progr. de coloribus Veterum. Goth. 1788. A.—Sliegliti, uber d. Malerfarben der Griech. und Rom. Lpz. 1817. 8.— JVinckelmann, Histoire, &c. lib. iv. ch. viii. sect. 31. § 219. Single pieces of painting were usually executed upon wood, and therefore called niraxtc, tabula;. The wood of the larch tree (larix) was preferred on account of its durability and its not being liable to warp out of shape. They painted more rarely upon linen cloth ; as in the colossal picture of Nero mentioned by Pliny. The most common kind of painting was that upon plaster ; which is now called fresco-painting. Less common was drawing or painting on marble and ivory. 1 u. The fresco-painting was executed upon a moist as well as upon a dry ground. In this last mode of painting, the colors were probably laid on with a peculiar sort of glue or size, since in many pieces of this kind that have been found, they are so well fixed and preserved, that a wet sponge or cloth may be drawn over them without injury. Previous to the paintings, the walls received a double coating, and the surface was carefully polished. Beautiful deep blue colors have been found in the fresco-paintings on the walls of ancient Konian structures. " In clearing away the rubbish within the baths of Titus, the walls of which display many beautiful specimens of fresco-painting, the painter's room was discov- ered ; and in several of the jars were found different kinds of paint, and among others a quan- tity of the beautiful celestial blue, which retained its lustre and freshness so remarkably on the walls. Sir Humphry Davy, on analysis, found it to consist of a frit of copper, soda, and si- lex ; and by reconiposition formed the" same color from fresh materials. Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. xiv.407. — Rodeet Rcim, de la Peinture chez les Anciens (in Winckel- mann's Histoire, &x. Par. 1803. (Vol. in. p. 59, 137.) 2. The terms niral and nnuxtov seem to have been applied to any material on which a picture was drawn. The easel, or frame to which the material was fixed, while the artist was painting, was called by the Greeks dxoipag ; •yqayig and vjcoynaipig signified the style and pencil (penicillus) ; zQwiiara and tpatjuuy.a, the colors ; h\y.v&o<;, the box in which they were kept. Eiy.uv signi- fied a portrait or likeness as well as statue ; a mere sketch was termed vno- y(>«' l Qior),f, the room for anointing the wrest- lers, or such as had bathed; the Conisierium (xonan'oiov), where the dust was kept for sprinkling those that had been anointed. There were also rooms for bathing, in cold or hot water, as, e, g, k, i, called by the Romans Frigida- rium, Tepidarium, Laconicum ; also a room, A, for the stove. The Stadium, (orudiov), o, is here placed on the north side of the structure. On the south 12 134 ARCHEOLOGY OF ART. and west were the Xvotol, covered places designed for exercise in bad weath- er ; and the Xvaru, which were walks open at top, and designed for exercise in pleasant weather. This structure is about one stadium square. See Barthelcmifs Anacharsis, ch. viii. — Potter's Archaeol. Graec. bk. viii. Boyd's edition, p. 42; where is a plan of the remains of the Gymnasium at Ephesus. — Stieglitz Archasologie der Baukunst. Weimar, 1801. — The details are derived from Vitruvius, on Architecture, 5th bk. Cf. P. II. $ 498. § 237. Porticos (oroai } portions) were very common and important works of Greek and Roman architecture, and were constructed either alone by themselves, or in connection with other buildings, temples, theatres, baths, market-places, and the like. They served at the same time for protection against the sun and rain, for secure and con- venient public promenades, for common places of resort where friends might meet, and where philosophers, especially the Peripatetics, im- parted instruction. They consisted of columns or pillars, with greater or less spaces between them (intercolumnia), where statues were often fixed, while the interior was decorated with paintings. They were not always covered above, but were generally long and spacious. There was one at Rome a ihousand paces in length, and thence termed Porti- cus Miliaria. One of the principal at Athens was that styled Pacile. On the paintings in the Pcecile, cf. Harris, Miscellanies, vol. iv. p. 264. — See $ 74. § 238. There were three forms of pillars (orp.ai, arvUi) ' m use among the Greeks, commonly called the three orders of architecture ; the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The Doric exhibits the greatest simplicity and solidity ; the Ionic has proportions more agreeable and beautiful ; the Corinthian is most highly ornamented, and was less frequently employed in large and public buildings. The Tuscan and Composite orders are not of Grecian origin ; the former was, as its name imports, from Etruria; the latter was of Roman invention. 1. Although a particular description of the distinguishing marks of the dif- ferent orders may belong more properly to the theory of architecture than to its archaeology, yet the classical scholar should have some information on the subject. On this account the Plate VI a. is inserted ; and the following re- marks and explanations of terms are given. They are necessarily brief; but it is hoped that they may serve to excite, in the minds of such as may use this Manual, more interest than classical scholars of our country have usually felt in cultivating the taste in reference to an art so noble and elevating. The front of any edifice, claiming notice as a production of the architectural art, is called its fasade (fas-sade). This, when viewed perpendicularly, presents three parts, which are readily distinguished ; the columns, which usually first strike the eye of the observer, and which form the middle part ; the pedestal, which forms the lower part, and supports the columns ; and the entablature, which is the upper part, and rests upon the columns. These three parts may be noticed and discriminated in an instant by glancing at fig. 17, or fig.18, in Plate VII. ; or at fig. 1, or fig. 3, in Plate XVI. Two of these parts, the column and the entablature, are seen in the figures /, g, h, i, j, and k, in Plate VI a. In some ancient edifices, constructed after the art began to decline, a portion of the pedestal directly under each column, and also a portion of the entablature directly above it, were made more prominent than the remaining portions ex- tending between the columns ; thus forming an appearance which is exhibited in fig. I, of Plate VI a. ; in which the proper column and those more prominent portions of the pedestal and entablature, taken together, seem to form merely a column or pillar ; a peculiarity which in part has occasioned, in modern times, the absurd mistake of making the squared prominence of the entablature a part of the column itself, and then placing another entablature above it. — Each of the parts already named is subdivided again into three other parts. The pedestal, also called the stylobate, is divided, as may be seen in fig. I, into the plinth, p, at the very bot- tom ; the die, d, in the middle ; and the cornice, or surbase, co, at the top. The column con- sists, as may be seen in fig. k, of the base, b, resting on the cornice of the pedestal ; the shaft, s, the middle and longest part; and the capital, c, the ornamented portion at the top. The entablature includes the architrave or epistylium, ar, the lower portion ; the frieze, f, in the middle ; and the cornice, co, at the top. To the different parts above named various moldings may be attached, which need not be described. — The pediment of a building is the triangular face above the entablature ; formed hy the cornice of the entablature and the projecting ex- tremities of the two sloping sides that make up the roof (see Plate XVI. fig. 1.) ; these projec- tions are sometimes called the cornice of the pediment, and the flat triangular portion between them is called the tympanum. This part of the edifice was often richly adorned with statues and bas-reliefs. PLATE VII 1. Great Pyramid. 7. Salisbury Spire. 13. Nelson's Column. 2. Spire of Mechlin. 8. Notre Dame, Paris. 14. Obelisk, front of St. Peter's. 3. St. Peter's. 9. Pagoda by Sir W. Chambers. 15. Cleopatra's Needle. 4. St. Paul's. 10. Wellington's Testimonial. 16. Leaning Tower at Pisa. 5. Strasbur?h Cathedral. 11. Monument, London. 17. Temple of the Giants, Agri- 6. Hotel de Ville, Brussels. 12. Trajan's Column 18. Parthenon. [gentum. 136 ARCHAEOLOGY OP ART. The architectural orders are discriminated by certain peculiarities in the column and the en- tablature ; there are three respects in which these peculiarities may appear : 1. the proportion* of the column ; 2. the form of the capital ; 3. the ornaments of the entablature. — The Doric is the earliest and most massive of the Grecian orders. Its proportions vary in different ancient edifices ; in those at Athens, the height of the column is about six times the width at the base, which is always called the diameter; in older buildings, as at Paestum, the column is but four or five diameters in height. Its capital is formed, as may be seen in fig. p, by a few annulets or rings at the extremity of the shaft, a molding above them of the kind called echinus, and above this a flat portion called the abacus. The pure Doric column had no base, and had twenty superficial flutings, as in fig. g, which is a specimen of the time of Pericles, when it is thought to have been in its greatest perfection ; as employed by the Romans it usually had a base, as it appears in fig. h, a specimen of the Roman Doric ; in which the height is increased to eight diameters, and the capital is more complicated. The entablature of the Doric, as may be noticed in fig. g, and in fig. h, presents an architrave, usually perfectly plain ; a frieze, marked by per- pendicular oblong prominences, called triglyphs, which are divided each into three parts by vertical furrows and ornamented beneath by guttce or drops ; with a cornice composed of a few large moldings having on their under side a series of square sloping projections called mutules, which resemble the ends of rafters and are also ornamented beneath by guttce. The spaces of the frieze between the triglyphs were called metopes, and commonly contained sculptures in bas-relief. The Elgin sculptures, representing the Centaurs and Lapithaa, were metopes of the Parthenon. The Ionic is a lighter order than the Doric in its proportions ; the column is usually eight or nine diameters in height ; having a base called Attic, composed of several mold- ings. Its capital is instantly known by the spiral volutes on its opposite sides, as is seen in fig. t, and in fig. 5 ; on the shaft between these volutes are moldings which may vary with the pleasure of the artist ; but above the volutes is always an abacus molded at the edges. The regular Ionic capital has two pairs of parallel volutes ; the Romans gave it a different form, in which it had four pairs of diagonal volutes. The Ionic entablature presents an architrave plain or merely lined by a molding horizontally attached as in fig.i ; a frieze perfectly plain and un- broken ; a cornice composed of various moldings, and usually marked by a row of small square ornaments somewhat resembling teeth and called dentels. The Corinthian order is still lighter than the Ionic. Its proportions allowed a column often ten diameters in height. The base of the column was like the Ionic, but more complicated. Its capital presents the shape of an inverted bell ; and is richly ornamented, as in fig. j, and fig. q, having around it two rows of acanthus leaves, and above them eight pairs of small volutes, and upon these the abacus, which was marked by truncated angles and by concave sides, each adorned with a flower in the centre. — This capital, according to Vitruvius, had its origin in accident. By the tomb of a Corinthian virgin, an affectionate nurse had left a basket containing various articles precious in the estimation of the virgin while alive ; on the basket was a tile to protect the contents ; an acanthus plant, on which the basket chanced to rest, had pushed its shoots and foliage around the basket up to the tile, in a beautiful manner, as in fig. u; in this state it was seen by the sculptor Callimachus, and suggested to him an idea of architectural ornament, to which he soon gave reality in the Corinthian capital. Notwithstanding this delightful little story, it is most probable that the capital in question was a mere improvement upon some Egyptian model, such e. g. as is given in fig. c. The entablature of the Corinthian order resembles that of the Ionic, differing from it chiefly by having more complicated moldings, and by having on the cornice a row of projections which correspond to the Doric mutules, but are ornamented each with a volute or a leaf, and are called modillions. The Tuscan order was quite similar to the Doric ; it is given in fig. /. Its proportions are lighter, as the column was seven diameters in height. The column has a base which is very simple. Its capital is generally as simple as the Doric. Its entablature is somewhat like the Ionic, but more plain. This order is the one most entirely stripped of ornament. The Composite order is exhibited in fig. k, formed out of the Corinthian by merely combining together the Corinthian capital and the Roman Ionic capital with diagonal volutes. The frieze has a convex surface instead of a plane one. In reference to the columns in all the orders, it may be remarked, that they are fluted or not according to the choice of the builder. Sections of fluted or reeded columns are seen in fig. w, x, and y, of Plate VI a. Pilasters are a sort of square column attached to the wall of a build- ing, and projecting from it sometimes only a sixth of their diameter, and sometimes as much as a third. They are often constructed with the peculiar ornaments of the several orders, although this was not originally the practice. 2. The best specimens of the Doric order are found in the Parthenon, the Propylsa, and the Temple of Theseus, at Athens ; of the Ionic, in the edifice called Erectheum, at Athens (cf P. V. §107), consisting of two, and according to some of three temples ; of the Corinthian, in the choragic monument of Lysi- crates, the small but elegant structure, at Athens, sometimes called the Lamp of Demosthenes. — Of the Tuscan there are no remains (§ 241). The best ex- ample of the Composite is presented in the Arch of Titus. The Corinthian appears to have been the favorite order with the Romans. — The monumental columns of Trajan and Antonine, already mentioned on account of their sculp- tured ornaments (cf. §188), are Doric. — The column at Alexandria, celebrated as Pompey's Pillar, is represented as having " a fine shaft surmounted by a Corinthian capital executed in the worst manner." 3. Our Plate VI a. is enriched by cuts of a great variety of columns ; those belonging to the regular orders have been sufficiently explained ; the specimens of Saracenic, Gothic, and Chi- nese, will be mentioned below (§ 245) ; tho Egyptian, Persepolitan, and Hindoo, we will no- tice here. In fig. d, we have a very singular column, from the famous Cave at Elephanta, near Bombay, a remarkable subterranean structure, excavated by the ancient Hindoos out of the solid rock. In fig. e, a column from the ruins of Persepolis is represented ; the capital is very peculiar, seeming to combine several in one, and being, it is said, beautiful in appearan. ce, ARCHITECTURE. THE ORDERS. ORNAMENTS. 137 The columns of Egyptian buildings vary greatly in their proportions and style. Nothing like any regular distinction of orders any where appears. The relative height is usually below that of the common Doric, being in general not more than four and a half diameters. In ap- pearance the columns sometimes resemble the plain trunk of a tree ; sometimes bundles of reeds or of the plant papyrus, bound together at different distances, as in fig. c. The capitals present, it is said, nearly all the flowers peculiar to the country, the capsules, petals, pistils, and most minute parts being exhibited. In fig. c, is shown a capital, which resembles those found in the temple of Hermontis, and in the temple of Apollinopolis at Edfow, bearing parts of the lotus flower. Elegant capitals were formed by combining the branches, leaves, and fruit of the palm tree ; by weaving together the stems, leaves, buds, and flowers of the lotus ; and by inter- mingling these or other flowers and plants with the vine and the papyrus. " On beholding," says Denon, " so many varieties of form, and such richness in the ornaments, united with" so much grace in the contour, one is astonished that the invention of architecture should have been ascribed to the Greeks on their own testimony, and that the three orders should have been considered the only truths of that art." The head of the goddess Isis was sometimes wrought into the capitals, adorned with the various symbols of her imaginary attributes, as in fig. 6, which is a specimen from the celebrated temple of Denderah. — Cf. Denon, as cited just below, plates xxix, xxxiv, xliv, xlv, xlvi. On the Cave of Elephanta, Ooldingham, Memoir in the Asiat. Researches, vol. iv. — On Hindoo architecture, Langles, cited §243. 3. For a view of Poinpey's Pillar, see plate 3d of the Atlas accompanying Denon's Travels &c. Lond. 1804. 2 vols. 4. cf. vol. i. p. 17. — For a view of the Parthenon and temple of Theseus, see our Plate XVI. 1. 3. — of the Monument of Lysicrates, Plate VI. A. — of Trajan's column, Plate VII. 12. — For a brief account of the five orders, see Bigelow's Technology. Bost. 1829. 8. containing views of several Greek and Roman edifices reduced to the same scale : also Ameri- can Family Magazine, 1837, vol. 5. p. 65, 140, &c. — For explanation of terms, illustrated by plates, Stuart's Dictionary. — Cf. § 243. 4. § 239. Various ornaments, exterior and interior, were used in an- cient architecture. In the best periods of the art they were introduced with propriety, taste, and in moderate number ; but in later times too abundantly, and so as to destroy both beauty and convenience. Among the exterior ornaments, for example, were the following : statues upon the ends of the buildings ; bas-reliefs on the architrave ; imitations of human forms combined with the pillars, like the Caryatides and At- lantes ; with various embellishments in the capital and entablature, and about the doors, vaults, and other openings. In the interior, the ceiling and walls were ornamented with stucco-work, gilding, paint- ing, and mosaic. The ordinary decoration of an apartment consisted in coloring the walls and attaching to them small pictures of diversi- fied character. Ceilings adorned with fretwork were called by the Greeks tparrafiata', by the Romans, tecta laqueata or lacunaria. See notices of ornaments in the buildings at Pompeii, in Pompeii (cited § 226.), p. 449, 156, 163, 166, &c. — L. Vulliamy, Examples of Ornamental Sculpture in Architecture, drawn from the originals in Greece, &c. engraved by A. Moses. Lond. 1828. fol. 40 plates. — C. H. Tatham, Grecian and Roman Ornaments. Lond. 1825. fol. 96 plates. § 240. The most celebrated Greek architects were the following : DcBclalus, to whom are attributed many of the most ancient and ex- tensive structures of Greece, with much exaggeration and mere fable however (§174) ; Ctesiphon or Chersipkron, celebrated as builder of the Temple of Diana at Ephesus ; Callimachus (not the poet), who was also a sculptor, and said to be the inventor of the Corinthian Or- der ; Dinocrates, who lived in the time of Alexander, and was era- ployed by him in building Alexandria in Egypt; Sostratus, a favorite of Ptolemy Philadelphus, who erected the celebrated tower of Pharos ; JEpimachus, an Athenian, known by a stupendous war-tower con- structed by him for Demetrius Poliorcetes in the siege of Rhodes. Franc. Milizia, Memorie degli Architetti antichi e moderni. Parm. 1781. 2 vols. 8. A cata^ logue of Greek and Roman architects may be found in Junius, de Picture Veterum, as cited « 226. 2. — also in Stuart's Dictionary (Appendix No. 1), with a notice of their works and the time when they flourished. § 241. In Italy, almost as early as in Greece, architecture was cul- tivated, especially in Etruria. The Tuscan order is among the proofs of this. In the early times of Rome, also, many temples and other 12* 138 ARCHJSOLOGY OF AET. buildings were erected there by native art. But their architecture was greatly improved afterwards, when the Romans imitated Grecian models, and many Greek architects of celebrity resided in Rome. As the power, refinement, and luxury of Rome advanced, splendid archi- tectural works were multiplied, and thus arose in rapid succession temples, amphitheatres, markets, baths, bridges, aqueducts, palaces, manors, &c. These buildings were magnificent not only from their architecture, but in their various embellishments, for which the other arts, especially sculpture and painting, were brought into requisition. The most distinguished Roman architects were chiefly Greeks by birth, or scholars and imitators of Grecian masters; the following may be named ; Cossutius, Hermodorus, Vitruvius, Rabirius, Frontinus. Time has not spared a single edifice of the Etruscans ; the Tuscan order is therefore known only from the description of Vitruvius. Yet some sepulchres exist in Italy whose architec- ture agrees with the character ascribed to the Tuscan buildings.— Mueller, Die Etrusken. Cf. $ 109, 173. 1. "According to the account given by Vitruvius, the public buildings of the Romans in the regal and consular times were rude enough, exhibiting a state of the science as already described among the early nations of the East — ver- tical supports of stone, with wooden bearers. This continued to be their style of design and practice, till extending empire brought the Romans ac- quainted with the arts of the Dorian settlements on the eastern and southern shores of Italy. Down to the conquest of Asia and the termination of the republic, Rome continued a " city of wood and brick." Only with the es- tablishment of the empire and the reign of Augustus, with the wealth of the world at command, and the skill of Greece to direct the application, com- mences the valuable history of architecture among the Romans. — Of all the fine arts, poetry not excepted, architecture is the only one into which the Ro- man mind entered with the real enthusiasm of natural and national feeling. Success corresponded with the exalted sentiment whence it arose ; here have been left, for the admiration of future ages, the most magnificent proofs of original genius. This originality, however, depends not upon invention so much as upon application of modes. To the architectonic system, indeed, the Romans claim to have added two novel elements in their own Doric, or Tus- can, and Composite orders. But in the restless spirit of innovation which these betray, the alleged invention discovers a total want of the true feeling and understanding of the, science of Grecian design. As far as concerns the invention of forms, and the just conception of the elemental modes of Greece, the Romans failed. Their architecture was imperfect, both as a system of symmetry, and as a science founded upon truth and taste." 2. "But when their labors are viewed as regards the practice of the art, their merits are presented under a far different aspect. Whether the magnitude, the utility, the varied combinations, or the novel and important evidences of their knowledge, be considered, the Romans, in their practical works, are yet unrivalled. They here created their own models, while they have remained examples to their successors. Though not the inventors of the arch, they, of all the nations of antiquity, first discovered and boldly applied its powers ; nor is there one dignified principle in its use which they have not elicited. Rivers are spanned, the sea itself, as at Ancona, is thus enclosed within the cinture of masonry ; nay, streams were heaved into air, and, borne aloft through entire provinces, poured into the capital their floods of freshness and health. The self-balanced dome, extending a marble firmament over head, the proudest boast of modern skill, has yet its prototype and its superior in the Pantheon. The same stupendous and enduring character pervaded all the efforts of Roman art, even in those instances where more ancient principles only were brought into action. Where the Greeks were forced to call the operations of nature in aid of the weakness of art, availing themselves of some hollow mountain side for the erection of places of public resort, the imperial masters of Rome caused such mountains to be reared of masonry, within their capital, ARCHITECTURE. ROMAN EDIFICES. BATHS. 139 for the Theatre, Amphitheatre, and Circus. Palaces — Temples — Baths Porticos — Arches of Triumph — Commemorative Pillars — Basilica, or Halls of Justice — Fora, or Squares — Bridges — without mentioning the astonish- ing highways, extending to the extremities of the empire — all were construct- ed on the same grand and magnificent plan." Memes, p. 270. Cf. on the Grandeur of Grecian works, Chateaubriand (cited $ 233), p. 146.— On Roman Ar- chitecture, see also Schmll, Hist. Litt. Rom. vol. n. p. 191 Ant. Mongez, Sur les travaux pub- liques des Romains, Mem. del'Institut, Classe de Lit. et Beaux Arts, vol. i. p. 492. 3. The edifices designed for public baths, although differing in magnitude and splendor and in the details of arrangement, were all constructed on the same common plan. " They stood among extensive gardens and walks, and often were surrounded by a portico. The main build- ing contained spacious halls for swimming and bathing ; others for conversation ; others for various athletic exercises ; others for the declamation of poets, and the lectures of philosophers ; in a word, for every species of polite and manly amusement." Those erected by the emperors especially had these appendages, and were of a great magnificence. "Architecture, sculpture, and painting, exhausted their refinements on these establishments, which for their extent were compared to cities; incrustations, metals, and marble, were all employed in adorning them. The baths of Caracalla were ornamented with two hundred pillars, and furnished with sixteen hundred seats of marble : three thousand persons could be seated on them at one time. Those of Diocletian surpassed all the others in size and sumptuousness of decoration ; and were, be- sides, enriched with the precious collection of the Ulpian library. We can entertain some idea of the extent of this edifice, when we are told that one of its halls forms at present the church of the Carthusians, which is among the largest and at the same time most magnificent temples of Rome. Here we are furnished with one of the many monuments of the triumphs of Chris- tianity, in despite of the most persevering and cruel persecutions of the then sovereigns of the world. On this very spot, where the organ and the choral strain of devotion are now daily heard, Diocletian is said to have employed in the construction of his baths forty thousand Chris- tian soldiers, whom, after degrading with all the insignia of ignominy, he caused to be massa- cred when the edifice was completed.— It may be added that "the private baths, at some of the villas of the rich, vied in splendor with the public therms. According to Seneca, the walls were of Alexandrian marble, the veins of which were so disposed as to resemble a regular pic- ture ; the basins were set round with a most valuable kind of stone imported from the Grecian islands ; the water was conveyed through silver pipes, and fell by several descents in beautiful cascades ; the floors were inlaid with precious gems ; and an intermixture of statues and co- lonnades contributed to throw an air of elegance and grandeur over the whole." (Bell on Baths. Philad. 1831. 12.) The following description is drawn principally from the public baths discovered at Pompeii. It will apply substantially to the Greek baths (P. IV. $170.) as well as the Roman " The building, which contained them, was oblong, and had two divisions ; the one for males, and the other for females. In both, warm or cold baths could be taken. The warm baths, in both divisions, were adjacent to each other, for the sake of being easily heated In the midst of the building, on the ground-floor, was the heating-room, hypocaustum, by which not only the water for bathing, but sometimes also the floors of the adjacent rooms, were warmed. Above the heating-room was an apartment in which three copper kettles were walled in, one above an- other, so that the lowest (caldarium) was immediately over the fire, the second (tepidarium) over the first, and the third (frigidarium) over the second. In this way, either boiling, luke- warm, or cold water could be obtained. A constant communication was maintained between these vessels, so that as fast as hot water was drawn off from the caldarium, the void was sup- plied from the tepidarium, which, being already considerably heated, did but slightly reduce the temperature of the hotter boiler. The tepidarium, in its turn, was supplied from the piscina or frigidarium, and that from the aqueduct ; so that the heat, which was not taken up by the first boiler, passed onto the second, and instead of being wasted, did its office in preparing the contents of the second for the higher temperature which it was to obtain in the first. The cop- pers and reservoir were elevated considerably above the baths, to cause the water to flow more rapidly into them. The terms frigidarium, tepidarium, and caldarium, are applied to the apart- ments in which the cold, tepid, and hot baths are placed, as well as to those vessels in which the operation of heating the water is carried on. The bathing-rooms had, in the floor, a basin of mason-work, in which there were seats, and round it a gallery, where the bathers remained before they descended into the bath, and where all the attendants were. In the division of the Pompeian baths supposed to belong to the men, the principal public entrance led directly into the vestibule, a sort of court, along three sides of which there ran a portico or walk (ambulacrum). Seats were ranged round the walls, perhaps for the slaves, who accompanied their masters to the bath. In this place was the box for the quadrans (fourth of an as, less than a farthing), the piece of money given as a fee for bathing by each visiter. A corridor or small passage, in which were found above 500 lamps, conducted from the court into the room for undressing, apodyterium. This room had three seats, made of lava, with a step to place the feet on. The room was stuccoed from the cornice to the ground, highly finished and colored yellow. In the vaulted roof was a window with a single large pane of glass (cf. P. IV. § 325). Various ornaments were carved in the cornice. The floor was paved with white marble in mosaic. Several doors communicated with the room. One of these led to the cold bath, frigidarium. This was a round chamber, encrusted with yellow stucco, having its ceiling in the form of a truncated cone, apparently once painted blue. It was lighted by a window near the top. In it were four niches, equi-distant from each other, with seats, sclwlm, in them for the bathers. There was also a basin, nearly 13 feet in diameter and 2 feet 9 inches deep, entirely lined with white marble, with two marble steps to aid the descent into it, and a sort of cushion, pulvinus, also of marble, at the bottom, for the bathers to sit upon. An- other door of the undressing-room opened into a passage leading to the tepidarium, or warm chamber, so called from its warm but soft and mild temperature, which prepared the body of the bather for the more intense heat of the vapor and hot baths, and also softened the transition 140 ARCHAEOLOGY OF ART. from the hot bath to the external air. This room was divided into a number of niches or com- partments, was lighted by a window with a bronze frame of four panes of glass, and had many ornaments in stucco. A door-way led from it into the caldarium or sudatorium. This apartment exactly corresponded to the directions laid down by Vitruvius, for constructing the vapor-bath. Its length was twice as great as its breadth, exclusive of the laconicum at one end, and the lava- crum at the other. It was stuccoed like the other rooms, painted yellow and decorated with va- rious ornaments. The floor and walls of the sudatorium were made hollow, that the heated air might pass freely around : the design was to furnish a sudatory of dry air ; " it corresponds precisely with a hot stove room of the present day, except that the stove proper was beneath and outside the sudatorium." The laconicum was a large semi-circular niche, seven feet wide and three feet six inches deep, in the middle of which was placed a vase for washing the hands and face, called labrum ; this was a large basin of white marble, elevated three feet six inches above the pavement and about five feet in diameter, into which the hot water bubbled up through a pipe in the centre : an inscription on this labrum states that it cost 750 sesterces. There is in the Vatican a magnificent Porphyry labrum, found in one of the imperial baths at Rome. The lavacrum, or hot-bath, at the other end of the room, was twelve feet long, four feet four inches wide, and one foot four inches deep ; entirely of marble, into which the hot water was conveyed by a pipe ; it was elevated two steps above the floor ; the descent into it was by a single step, which formed a continuous bench around it for the convenience of the bathers. Besides the rooms thus described, there was also a room called the unctuarium or elmothesium ; in which the bathers anointed their bodies with oil before taking their exercise, or with perfumes ufter bathing. This room was usually stored with pots containing numerous varieties of ungu- ents appropriated to different parts of the body (P. IV. § 170). There was likewise another room, in which various exercises were performed before taking the bath ; this room was sometimes called ephebium, more frequently sphmristerium, because the favorite exercise was the ball. The conisterium was an apartment where was kept the powder which was sprinkled over the body after the exercises just mentioned. In the more splendid imperial baths there were various other rooms and halls. Those who went to bathe, first proceeded to the apodytcrium, where they took oft* their clothes and committed them to the care of the capsarii, slaves employed for the purpose by the overseer, balneator. Thence they proceeded to the unctuarium, where they were anointed by other slaves, alipta. Thence they proceeded to the sphwristerium, to engage in some of the exercises of that apartment. From this room they went to the caldarium. In taking the hot-bath in the latter room, they sat upon the step or bench already described, which was below the surface of the water. Here they scraped themselves with instruments called strigiles, usually of bronze, sometimes of iron ; or this operation was performed by an attendant slave. From drawings on a vase found at Canino, it is inferred that the bathers, after the use of the strigilis, rubbed them- selves with their hands, and then were washed from head to foot by having pails or vases of water poured over them. They were then dried carefully with cotton or linen cloths, and covered with a light shaggy mantle, called gausape. On quitting the caldarium, they went in- to the tepidarium, and, after some delay, thence into the frigidarium ; but are supposed not generally to have bathed in these rooms at the public therms, but to have used them chiefly to soften the transition from the intense heat of the caldarium to the open air. The bathing was usually followed by an anointing of the body with the perfumed oils of the elaeothesium, after which the clothes left in the apodyterium were resumed. For fuller details, with notices of some of the imperial baths, see Pompeii, p. 153. — The most copious work on the Roman Baths and their remains is that of Cameron, entitled The Baths of the Romans explained and illustrated. Lond.1772. fol. with the illustrations of Palladio, 75 plates. — Cf. Les Thetmea des Romains, dessinees par Andre Palladio ;, or, and st, like the continental i (as in machine) ; at like e in there ; and v in av and si like /or v. Those who follow Erasmus sound tj like a in hate ; ai like ai in aisle ; si like ei in height; oi like oi in Boiotia ; av and sv like an and eu in Glaucus and Eurus (Robinson s Buttman, § 2. 6). The former are often called lotista. and the lat- ter Etistce, from their respective modes of sounding the vowel i; ; these terms instantly suggest to a continental scholar the ground of their application ; but to an English or American eye and ear, they would best convey the meaning by being written and spoken eotistae, or etista; and dtistm (ctists and otists). In England and in this country, especially in the northern schools and semi- naries, it has been the common practice to sound the Greek vowels according to the prevailing analogy of the vernacular tongue. The controversy between Reuchlinians and Erasmians has therefore excited little interest among us. For references to authors who have discussed the subject, consult Harles, Introductio in His- toriam Lingua? Graecjs (Prol. § 7, and Supplement). Harles expresses the opinion hinted above in this section, that the vowels bad not always and in all places a uniform sound. — Cf. Messrs. de Port-Royal, Gk. Gram. Pref. ix.—Lond. Quart. Rev. xi. 471. 3u. The chief difficulty in pronouncing Greek is found in the expression of what is called the accent. The tone in Greek is placed upon short syllables as well as long ; in German, it accompanies regularly only long syllables. The consequence is, that in reading Greek with the accent always placed where the Greek tone is marked, a German naturally violates quantity, and in verse destroys all poetical measure. Yet attention and practice will enable one to give the accent to the syllable marked by it, and at the same time re- gard and exhibit the quantity in his pronunciation. 4. The mode of expressing what is called the accent, is viewed as a subject of greater importance than the sound of the vowels. In giving an accent to a syllable in an English word we thereby render it a long syllable, whatever may be the sound given to its vowel, and in whatever way the syllable may be composed ; so that as above stated in relation to the German, an English accent, or stress in pronunciation, accompanies only a long syllable. The con- sequence is that, if we in pronouncing Greek put our accent wherever the Greek tone (toioc) occurs, we shall in many cases grossly violate the laws of quantity ; because the Greek tone is placed on short syllables as well as long ones. "Let one take, for example, the word uvBoorrtug, and attempt to place the stress on the first syllable, and yet make the second seem as long in 148 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. quantity. He will certainly find some difficulty. It is of no consequence in the matter, which sound he gives to a in the first, the open or contracted ; the quantity, to an English ear, is the same whether he says an'thropos, or an'thro- pos. Nor does it make any difference, as to the point in question, whether he givc3 to a> in the second the contracted sound or the open ; in either case, the quantity will be the same to English ears, whether he says an'throp os, or an' - thro pos, and must be the same in English verse, just as in the two words hig'ot cd and temp' 6 ral. Now in this difficulty what shall the student do ? " Three different methods have been followed by different persons. One is to persevere in the effort to separate stress and quantity, and give stress in all cases to the syllable which has the Greek tone, and at the same time to pronounce that syllable and the others with a prolongation or curtailment of sound according to their prosodial quantity. Many distinguished scholars recommend this effort, as Matthias, Michaslis, Foster, Buttman, and others, with the assurance, that perseverance will attain the object. But it is believed that very few, if any, ever succeed- in the effort. Bwckh is said always to follow both accent and quantity ; and Hermann to do it in prose, while he confesses his want of success in poetry. It is indeed not very difficult to give a mere elevation to the syllable that has the tone, and still pronounce it in half the time em- ployed in uttering either of the other syllables. Such enunciation, however, must to our ears seem like singing rather than accented pronunciation. Nor is elevation by any means synony- mous with our accent ; for the syllable which has the stress, in our language, is not always elevated above the others in enunciation, but is very often depressed below them. — A second method is to place the stress always on the syllable which has the Greek tone, and make no effort to exhibit the relative quantity of the syllables. This is done by the modern Greeks, and" is perfectly easy for us. But it is a method, which inevitably violates all the prosodial meas- ures, and utterly destroys Greek versification. On this account, chiefly, scholars in this country,, although often urged, have been reluctant to adopt it. — The third mode is to place the stress on the syllable (whether the Greek tone be on that syllable or not) on which it would fall by- Latin analogy; i. e. on the penult, if the penult be long, or the antepenult, if the penult be short. This method, of course, is very easy for us, and it also accords with the Greek prosodial quan- tity far better than the second, although it does not by any means perfectly harmonize there- with. It however makes distinctly perceptible the quantity of the penult in all words of three or more syllables; and this is nearly all that can be accomplished by modern utterance, even accord" ing to Buttman's statement, although he advocates a regard to the Greek tone in pronunciation. On the second method above named ; J. Pickering's Memoir on the Pronunciation of Ancient Greek. Camb. 1818. 4. — Liscovius, Ueber die Aussprache des Griechischen. — Bloch, Revision der Lehre von Ausprache des Altgriechischen. 1826. For the cited statement of Buttm ami ; Robinson's Buttmann, § 7, note 7. — Cf. Rales for Pronouncing- Latin and Greek, and a Method of Logical Analysis applied So Cheek Composition. Amherst, Mass. 1834. 32 pp. 12mo. On this subject, also, the following works may be mentioned. John Foster, An essay ou the Differ- ent Nature of Accent and Quantity, with their Use in the English, Latin, and Greek Lan- guages, &c. Third edition, containing Dr. IT. Galhf's Two Dissertations against pronouncing the Greek according to Accents. Loud. 1820. 8.— William Primatt, Accentus Redivivi, or a De- fence of an accented pronunciation of Greek prose. Camb. 17G4 8. — Metronariston, or a new pleasure recommended in a Dissertation upon a part of Greek and Latin Prosody. Lond. 1797. 8. — J. Walker's Key to the classical pronunciation &c. with observations on Greek and Latin Accent and Quantity. Lond. 1798. 8. Boston, 1818. 24.— William Mitford, An Inquiry into the Principles of Harmony in Language, &c. Lond. 1804. 8. — Wagner, cited P. I. $51.. — See also Harlcs, Introductio &c. Prol. § t>, and Supplement. § 6. It is important to begin the acquisition of this language at an early period of life. But a tedious, unfruitful mode of study must be avoided, lest a language so beautiful and excellent should become disgusting to youth. The pupil must first be well grounded in the principles of the Grammar, the understanding of which and the fix- ing of them in the memory may be aided by exercises in the trans- lation of easy passages from suitable text-books. The best mode of studying and teaching the languages- has been a fruitful theme for discussion. In this place a few general remarks only will be offered. 1. Perhaps no one method of teaching can be devised, which shall, by its essential peculiarities as a method, be the best in all circumstances. It is es- sential to great success, that the teacher's own mind should be roused to wakeful activity and interest ; and also that the student should be put upon a kind and degree of exertion which really tasks him, and which yet is fully within his present ability. It must be obvious to every observer, that the method, which might secure these objects in some cases, would utterly fail in others. The teacher, therefore, who relies upon any plan, as possessing in itself certain efficacy, and on that account promising infallible success, will inevitably be disappointed. The efficacy of any method will depend very much on his own spirit and feelings ; and if he trusts to a favorite method merely or chiefly as such, however successful it may be when executed with INTRODUCTION. METHODS OF STUDYING GREEK. 149 his own mind glowing with enthusiasm, he will soon discover, that his meth- od will not work by magic ; as a machine or instrument employed with wake- ful ardor by him it accomplishes much; but it can do little or nothing of itself alone. The judicious and skillful teacher will be regularly guided by certain general principles, but will ever be on the alert to watch among his pupils the first flagging of interest in his present methods, and put himself to devise new expedients to forward his ultimate object. 2. The analytical and synthetical methods, as they have been termed, have often been brought into comparison. The former is less adapted for the study of a dead language than for almost any other branch of learning to which it can be applied. Much has been urged in its favor in this study, but only doubtful evidence can be adduced from experience. Where there is time suf- ficient and constant oral instructions can be afforded, such a method is no doubt adequate. But no abiding foundation is laid until the student is well ground- ed in the principles of grammar, as hinted in the section above. The princi- ples of grammar are nothing but classifications or synthetic statements of those facts respecting the language, which by the analytic process the pupil learns by induction from a series of particular cases ; i. e. if he learns them by the analytic process in reality ; but in point of fact, he usually learns them, if he learns them at all, because his teacher orally states the general facts to him again and again, as successive particular instances occur; and thus when one of these facts has been stated so often that he cannot help remembering it, he has learned simply what he learns when he commits to memory from his grammar the rule or principle, in declension or syntax, which presents that one general fact ; and the former process is as truly synthetic as the latter, with only this difference, that the pupil commits the thing to memory from hearing it said over and over again by the master, instead of committing it in a vastly shorter time and in a more accurate form from his grammar at the outset. The remark of the author above, that the fixing of the principles of gram- mar in the memory may be aided by suitable accompanying exercises, is just and important. Much of the prejudice against the method, which has been called synthetic, has arisen from the practice of forcing the beginner to spend many weeks in merely committing the grammar to memory. It is far better that he should be put upon the application of what he learns as he learns it, and that he should be furnished with exercises adapted for the purpose. This is the method most generally practiced in the schools of our country. Most of the elementary books now in use, in the study of both Greek and Latin, contain portions designed for such exercises. A very good help for acquiring and fixing in this way the principles of Greek Grammar is the following; Lessons in Greek Parsing, or Outlines of the Greek Grammar, illustrated by appropriate exercises in Parsing ; by Cliavncy A. Goodrich. New Haven, 1829. Attempts have recently been made in England to introduce (in the language of the advo- cates of the system, to restore) the method of Interlinear Translation. A series of text-books has been published adapted to this design. The Greek course commences with Selections from Lucian's Dialogues. The beginner is freed from the toil and delay of studying a grammar or turning to a lexicon. The translation is given word for word, the English directly under the Greek, and the learner is expected to be able, on examination by the master, to render the Greek into English word for word, and also without the book to give the English for each Greek word, and the Greek for each English word. The second volume in the course consists of the odes of Anacreon, and is to be studied in the same way, but accompanied with the study of a grammar adapted to the plan. For an account of this system, see An Essay on a system of Classical Instruction, combining the methods of Locke, Milton, Ascham, and Colet 5 the whole series being designed to exhibit a Restoration of the primitive mode of Scholastic Tuition in England. Lond. 1829. Cf. Land. Quart. Rev. No. lxxvii. 3. It is sometimes asked whether a youth should begin with Greek or with Latin. The question is not perhaps of so much importance as some have supposed. But it may be observed, that some of the most distinguished schol- ars, both in this country and others, as Pickering, Wyttenbach, &c. have thought that the classical course should commence with Greek. The chief remark we wish to urge here is, that it is of the utmost consequence that both languages should be commenced in early life ; although very high attain- ments have been made by persons who began classical study at a compara- tively advanced age. 4. Whatever methods are employed in the first stages, it is obvious that as 13* 150 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. the student advances his attention should be turned to various points by suit-' able exercises. Tbe habit of thoroughly analysing sentences upon grammat- ical principles must be formed and never lost. It is a profitable exercise to the most advanced scholar occasionally in his readings to select a sentence and go ovei it in a perfectly minute examination of every word and make a formal statement, even a written one, of all that is true respecting it in its place in that sentence. On the importance of thorough study, see Hint? on the study of the Greek Language by Prof. Stuart, in the Bibl. Repository, No. vi. vol. II. p. 200. Another exercise, which will be found of much utility, is that of analyzing upon logical principles. This analysis extends of course beyond the parts of a single sentence, and examines not only the mutual relations of those parts, but also the nature and ground of the connection between the sentences. It may be united with a tracing out of the train and order of thought in the mind of the author through successive paragraphs or a whole piece. The nature of this exercise is partially exhibited in A Method of Logical Analysis applied to Greek Composition, cited above § 5. 3. — Cf. A. J. Sylvestre de Sacy, Principles of General Gram- mar, adapted to the capacity cf youth, and proper to serve as an Introduction to the study of Languages. Part iii. as tra"n>l. by D. Fosdick. Andov. 1834. 12. Exercises in oral or written translation from the original into the vernacular are of indispensable importance. It is advantageous to vary the mode of trans- lating. The scholar may sometimes be required to give the vernacular for the original, word for word, taken in grammatical order, a mode absolutely essen- tial with beginners ; sometimes he may proceed exactly in the order of the original, a method which will be found very useful in gaining familiarity with an author's mode of thinking and with the idioms of the language. Some- times he may, either before or after reading the original, translate a sentence or passage as a whole, giving as far as possible the exact meaning of the au- thor's words, in the best words of the vernacular, and using only vernacular idioms ; a method of peculiar advantage in cultivating accuracy and prompt- ness in the use of the vernacular. Loose and paraphrastic translations cannot be safely indulged even in advanced scholars. Various other exercises, connected with inquiries on the facts and allusions, the sentiments, figures, and general scope of the original, and with topics of history, chronology, geography, arts, and antiquities, w T ill be suggested to ev- ery competent teacher. In all cases it is to be kept in mind, that repeated reviewing cannot be too much recommended. On the last point and on this whole subject, see Dissertations on the importance and best method of studying the Original Languages of the Bible, by Jahn, with notes by M. Stuart. Andov. 1821. Also, Observations on the importance of Greek Literature and the best method of studying the classics, translated from the Latin of Prof. Wvtteabach. Boston, 1820. — Cf. Prof. A. S. Pad.ard, On the best method of studying the ancient Languages ; in the Lectures before the American Institute of Instruction. Boston, 1834. 8. — //. Felton, Dissertation on read- ing the Classics. Lond. 1718. 12. 1730. 8. Translating from the vernacular into the language, which the student wishes to learn, is eminently useful. In the study of Greek this exercise has been practiced among us much less than in the study of Latin ; owing chiefly to the want of suitable helps to enable the learner to begin it in the outset of his course. The student should commence the writing of Greek as soon as he enters upon h's Chrestomathy or Reading-Book. 5. How far Reading-Books, comprising mere extracts and selections, should be used, has been a subject of inquiry. In this country for many years, until recently, the course of study has been chiefly confined to such books in the Colleges as well as other schools. Lately, objections have been urged which have awakened some prejudice against them. No friend of learning can ob- ject to the reading of " whole authors," which has been demanded. But the time allowed to Greek, in the present systems of study at our Colleges, is not sufficient for reading the who!e of more than one or two important authors. Yet that the student, who would derive full advantage or pleasure from the study, must go beyond his Collectanea or Excerpta, needs not to be stated. In what order it is best to read the Greek authors is less obvious. The Odyssey of Horner and Anabasis of Xcnophon are adapted for an early place in the course. Cf. Prof. Stowc's Remarks in the Bibl. Repository, vol. n. p. 740.— J. G. Schilling, Leber den INTRODUCTION. INSTRUCTION IN GREEK. 151 Eweck und die Methode beym Lesen der Gr. u. Rom. Class. Hamb. & Kiel, 1795, '97. 2.- Abth. 8.—Fr. Crevzer, Das acad. Stud, des Alterthums. Heidelb. 1807. 8 K. O. Schelle, Welche alta class. Autoren, wie, in vvelcher Folge und Verbindung mit andern Studien soil man sie auf Schulen lesen? Lpz. 1«24. -J Bde 8.— H. Salzer, Gedanken iiber d. beste Art d.- class. Schriftst. zu lesen. Bed. 17(i5. 8. — Thiersch, Ueber Schulen, iy.u~ Haaora, sive Collectanea Graeca Minora ad usum Tiro- num accommodata. 2d edit. Edinb. 1791. Sev- eral editions have been published in this coun- try. It was the common text-book for begin- ners until the publication of the Greek Reader, and is still used in some of the schools. The following is considered as the best edition : Collectanea Grceca Minora, with explanatory notes collected or written by A. Dalzel, Prof, of Greek in the University of Edinburgh. Sixth Cambridge edition ; in which the Notes and Lexicon are translated into English. Wyttenbach," Eyj.oyut f IoTuoixui ; Q r Se- lecta Principum Historicorum. 2d ed. Amst.1808. It has been pronounced an admirable selection. A. Dalzel, .Avu7.hy.Ta' Es.?.r t vix.u Mtttova, ticularly under the care of J. S. Popkin, Camb. 1824; the notes of Prof. Popkin, very briefly and modestly expressed, are very valuable, and this edition is considered as altogether the best extant. — A third volume was added by Prof. Dunbar, Edinb. 1819, comprising a greater quantity of Greek than the first or second ; it has not been re-published in this country. — The Grceca Majora has been until recently, for many years, the principal text-book in our colleges. Cf. $ 6. 5. — A few editions of par- ticular authors have been published in our country, designed for the use of schools and colleges ; e. g. Robinson's Portion of Homer ; Felton's Iliad of Homer ; Woolsey's Alcestis of Euripides, and other tragedies ; Stuart's CEdi- pus Tyrannus of Sophocles ; Cleveland's Ana- basis of Xenophon. — Publications of this class are now increasing in England ; as among them may be mentioned the Valpy Greek Clas- sics, and the editions of Prof. Lmg. — Highly commended is the following collection : Fr. Jacobs &. V. C F. Rost, Bibliotheca Grae ca, viror. doct. recognita et commentari- is in usum Scholarum instructa. Gothae, (com- menced) 1826. 8. It was to comprise 18 vols, for prose writers and 20 vols, for poets ; is not yet completed.' 2. Grammars. It would be almost endless to name all the meritorious. The following are among the noted. Jacobi fVellcri, Grammatica Graeca. (edit. Fischer.) Lips. 1781. 8. J.F.Fischeri Animadversiones,quibus J. Wel- leri Gram. Graeca emendatur&x. (ed. Kuinoel) Lips.1798— 1801. 3 vols. 8. Trendelenburg's Anfangsgriinde der griech. Sprache. Leipz. 1805. 8. Buttmann' s griech. Schul-grammatik. Berl. 1824. 1831. — Same, transl. by Edward EverM. Bost. 1822. Abridged (G. Bancroft). Buttmann's Ausfahrliche griech. Sprachlehre. Berl. 1819. 1827. 2 vols. 8. The want of the syntax in this work is supplied by G. Bern- hardy's large volume on Greek Syntax, pub- lished 1829 (8vo. with the title, Wissenschaft- liche Syntax der Griechischen Sprache), and sive Collectanea Graeca Majora, ad usum Acad- j much commended by Tholuck INTRODUCTION. HELPS IN THE STUDY OF GREEK. 153 A. Matthm, Ausfiihrliche gr. Grammatik. Leipr.. 1807. 8. 2d edit. 1827. — Same, transl. by Ed. V. Bloomfield (ed. J. Kenrick). Lond. 183-2. A 3d ed : t. was nearly prepared before the death of Matthias ; since published. JiV. Thiersch, Grammatik des gemeinen und Homerischen Dialekts. Lpz.1819. 8. 3ded.l836. V. Ch. Fr. Rost, griech. Grammatik. 3d edit. Gotting. 1825. Rost's Greek grammar, trans- lated from the German. Lond. 1827. 8. A 5th edit, of the original, 1836. Kuhner has published a School Grammar ; called the best by Tholuck. We add the following : Bell's Compendious Grammar. — Jones's Philosophical Grammar. Cf. Class. Journ. xn. 23. — The Port Royal Greek Grammar ; A new method &c. Transl. from the French of the Messrs. de Port Royal by T. Nugent, (latest ed.) Lond.1817.— Smith's Greek Grammar. Bost. 1809. The following are the Grammars more com- monly used in our schools : the Gloucester ; Moore's ; Valpy's ; Hachenberg's, or rather Goodrich's ; Buttnann's by Everett: Fisk's, and Anthon's. — It may be remarked that one chief difference between these Grammars re- spects the plan of classing the nouns and verbs ; some reducing the declensions to three, and the conjugations to three or two ; others retaining the larger numbers of the old systems. Some excellent thoughts on this subject are found in a pamphlet styled Remarks on GreckGi-ammars. (printed, not published. Bost. 1825.) — A brief history of Greek grammars may be found also in J. C. Bloomfield's Preface to the Translation of Matthias above cited. To the more ad- vanced student, Buttmann's Larger Greek Grammar, translated by Edward Robinson (An- doverl833.), will be most satisfactory. — For the theological student we mention in addition, G. B. Winer's Grammar of the New Testament, transl. by Stuart and Robinson. Andover, 1825. A 3d ed. of Winer, Lpz.1830. 8. much improved and highly valued ; a 4th edit. Lpz. 1836. — A Grammarof the N. Testament by Prof. Stuart. Ando.1834.— In speakingof grammatical helps, it is proper to refer to the treatises of the Greek refugees, as those learned men have sometimes been termed, who on the capture of Constanti- nople by the Turks fled into Italy. These trea- tises were published by Aldus. (See Hodius and Ba-rnerus, as cited P. I. $85. 1.) — Concerning the Aldine Collection of their grammatical trea- tises, cf. § 133 below. — The ancient gramma- rians may also be mentioned ; as the writers just named doubtless drew from these sources. See notice of the Grammarians on a subsequent page ; $i29 ss. — The Scholiasts likewise may be named, or those who wrote Greek commen- taries on ancient authors. These, whatever there may be in their comments that is puerile, dull, or false, nevertheless furnish some valu- able assistance. Among the most important works of the kind, are the commentaries of Ul- pian on Demosthenes, and Eustathius on Ho- mer. — On the value of the scholiasts, see Chla- denius, as cited below, § 133. 3. Lexicons. A number are now offered to the choice of the student. Henrki Stcphani Thesaurus Graec. Ling. Ge- nev. 1572. 4 vols. fol. This is the most exten- sive. A Supplement was published by Daniel Scott : Appendix ad Stephani Thesaurum. Lond. 1745. 2 vol*, fol. An improved edition of the Thesaurus was commenced, Lond. 1815 ; completed, 1825. {Valpy ed.) Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. No. xliv. — A third edition was begun, Par. 1831, superintended by M. Hase, see Lond. Quart. Rev. No. ci. ; Btbl. Repos. No. xv. 'I he work is in progress (under Hase and the two Dmdorfs), 12 or 14 Nos. having been hsued; " it is an improvement upon the Engl, edition, and embodies nearly all the Greek learning of the age." Juan. Scapulce, Lexicon Graeco-Latinum, &c, Basil, 1579. fol. Oth. ed. Bazil, 1605 ; Lugden, 1683 ; Glass. 1816. 2 vols. 4. Still ranked next to Stephanus. The principal words are ar- ranged alphabetically, and under them are the derivatives and compound words : there is be- sides a complete alphabetical index. Hedericus, Grajcum Lex. Manuale, cura J. A. Ernesti. Lips. 1796 ; Edinb. 1827. 8. Jo. Dan. a Lennep, Etymoloeicum Ling. GrffiC (Ed. Scheid.) Traject. ad Rhen. 1790. 2 vols. 8. J. G. Schneider's griechisch-deutsches Wtfr- terbuch. Lpz.1819. Supplement, 1821. F. Passow, Handwbrterbuch der Griechisch. Sprache. Lpz. 1831. 2 vols. 8. This 4th was the last ed. by Passow. His plan was in each successive edition to make the Lexicon com- plete for the interpretation of some additional author or authors until it should become a full Thesaurus of the Greek language. The work has been committed to Rost, who is expected to carry out the plan.— Rost has published a School Lexicon, said to be very good in the de- velopment and arrangement of significations. John Jones, The Tyro's Greek and English Lexicon. 2d ed. Lond. 1825. Cornelii Schrevelii Lexicon Graeco-Latinum. 13th ed. Lond. 1781.— Translation of Schreve- lius's Greek Lexicon into English, for the use of Schools. Lond. 1826. 8.— The Greek Lexi- con of Schrevelius, translated into English, with many additions, by John Pickering and Daniel Oliver. Boston, 1826. J. Groves, A Greek and English Dictionary, &c. Lond. 1826. 8. James Donnegan, A new Greek and Enslish Lexicon. 2d ed. Lond. 1831. Revised and en- larged bv R. B. Patton. Boston, 1832. 8. W. Pope, Etymologisches Worterbuch der Griech. Sprache, &c. Berl. 1835. 8. E. Robinson, Lexicon of the New Testament- Boston, 1836. 8. This is indispensable to the critical study of the New Testament. "There are Lericons illustrating particular au- thors ; thev will be mentioned in speaking of the authors.— Respecting the various Lexicons and Glossaries composed by ancient authors ; see the notice of Grammarians below, § 129- 147. 4. There are various subjects on which the student may desire more full investigations than can be given in a Grammar or Lexicon. (a) Idioms and Synonyms. Gul. Budmi Commentary Line. Graec. Par. 1548. (4th ed.) Basil, 155S. fol. Franc. Vigerus, de praecipuis graec. diet, id- intismis. Cum animadversionibus Hoogeveeni, Zeunii, et Hermanni. (impr. ed.) Lips. 1822. 8. The work of Vigerus is compiled from that of Budasus.— New ed. by Hermann, 1834. ./. Seager, Vigerus Greek Idioms abridged and translated into English, with original notes. Lond. 1828. 8. Lockhart's Idioms of the Greek Language, accurately arranged and translated. 12. Nelson's Greek Idioms. 8. Mart. Rylandus, Synonymia Latino-Grasca. (opera Ha-.schelii.) Gen. 1646. 12. The Latin terms and phrases are arranged alphabetically, and under them the corresponding Greek. A. Pillon, Traite des Synonymes et Homo- nymes Grecs. Traduit du Grec d'Ammonius. Par. 1824. 8. Cf. $ 141. (b) Ellipsis and Pleonasm. Lamb. Bos, Ellipses Grascae, etc. Norimberg, 1763 ; Lpz. 1808 ; Glasg. 1813. 8. J. Sean-er, The Gr. Ellipses of Bos, abridged and translated into English. Lond. 1830. 8. Furgchantps,Les Fastes Universels, ou Tableaux Historiques, Chronologiques, &x. Par. 1821. Ludw. Ideler, Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie. Aus den Quel- len bearbeitet. Berl. 1826. 2 vols. 8. Highly commended. Priestley's System of Biography. Phil. 1803. 8. with a chart. Not without value. Goodrich's Elair's Outlines of Chronology is a useful compend. (d) History and Biography. Chaudon et Delandine, Dictionnaire Histor- ique. 20 vols. Adam's Classical Biography. Mitford's History of Greece. Boston, 1823. 8 vols. 8, Gillie's History of Ancient Greece. 4 vols. 8. Mueller's History and Antiquites of the Do- ric Race. Translated from the German by Tuffncll & Lewis. Oxf. 1830. 2 vols. 8. C. Thirlwull, History of Greece, in Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia. Schlosser's Weltgeschichte. Lpz. 1817-24. 5 vols. 8. P. A. de Golberg, Histoire Universelle de l'Antiquite. Par. 1828. 3 vols. 8. Translat- ed from the German of F. C. Schlosser. Cf. Westminster Rev. Jan. 1834. Cf. P. IV. $ 8, 9. 8. Benefit as well as pleasure may be deriv- ed from works giving philosophical reflec- tions, or elegant and popular views, on subjects embraced in classical study. We put here the following. F. Heeren's Reflections on the Politics of Ancient Greece. By 6?. Bancroft. 1824. 8. F. Schlegel's Lectures on the History of Lit- erature. Phil. 1818. 2 vols. 8. A. W. Schlegel's Lectures on Dramatic Liter- ature. By J. Black, Lond. 1815. 2 vols. 8. Campbell's Letters on the Greek Historians. We may name here also, JV. F. Moore, Lectures on Greek Literature. New York, 1835. 8. 9. Among the very important aids in this study, are those which may be called Histories of Greek Literature, or Introductions to the History of Greek Literature, giving compre- hensive notices of the Greek authors, their different works, and the various editions, translations, commentaries, &c. The design of the sketch of Greek Literature given in the present work, is to furnish the scholar with a help of this kind. But he will wish to be re- ferred to others. J. A. Fabricii, Bibliotheca Grseca. Hamb. 1790-1809. (Ed. by Theoph. Christ. Harles.) 12 vols. 4to. The most complete, although very deficient in method. Theoph. Ch. Harles, Introductio in historiam Lingua? Gnucae.Altenb. 1792-95. with Supplem. Jen. 1804-1806. 5 vols. 8. By the same, Notitia brevior literaturae grsc. Lips. 1812. 8. Jo. Ernest. Imman. Walch, Introductio in linguam Graecam. Jen. 1772. M. D. Fuhrmann, Handbuch der klassischen Literatur. Rudolst. 1804-1810. 4 vols. 8. By tlie same, Kleineres Handbuch, &c. Ru- dolst. 1823. 8. T. A. Rienwcker, Handbuch der Geschichte der Griech. Lit. Berl. 1802. God. Ern. Groddek, Historiae Graecorum lit— erariae Elementa. Viln. 1811. A new ed. commenced, 1821. G. C. F. Mohnike, Geschichte der Literatur der Griechen und Rb'mer. Greifsw. 1813. 8. Considered an excellent abridgement. L. Schaaff, Encyklop'Adie der klassischen Al- terthumskunde. Magd. 1820. 2 Th. 8.— a 3d ed. in 1826 —a 4th in 1837. F. Passow, Grudziige der Griech. und Rom. Literaturgeschichte. Berl. 1816.4.— 2d ed. 1829. L. fVachler, Handbuch der Gesch. der alten Literatur. Frankf. 1822. 8. G. Bernhardt, Grundriss der Griech. Literatur, mit einem vergleichende Ueberblick der RS- mischen. Halle. 1836. 8. pp. 530. J. C. O. Schincke, Handbuch der Geschichte der Griech. Literatur fur Schul-unterricht. 1837. F. SchwU, Histoire de la Litterature Grecque, &c. (2d ed.) Paris, 1823. 8 vols. 8. Prof. Anthon has made much use of it in his last edition of Lempriere's Classical Dictionary (1833), which the student may consult on the Greek and Latin authors with great advantage. There is a German translation : F.J. Schwarze & Jtfor.Pi/i, 7toi»/t^c) ; while the for- mer were only said to sing (taltiir, aoldog). They were not restricted in the choice of subjects. They clothed in new and exaggerated forms the oldest recollections and traditions ; they rehearsed the genealogy of the gods, the origin of the world, the wars of the Titans and the Giants, the exploits of the demigods and heroes. The poets were numerous after the time of the Trojan war. They brought to its perfection hexameter verse, which had been employed by preceding bards ; and from this time it was restricted chiefly to epic poetry. § 18. All the poets of this class were wholly eclipsed by Homer, who is justly styled the father of epic poetry, and who remains to this day acknowl- edged prince of epic poets. It is a remarkable fact, that the Homeric poems were the principal foundation of the whole literature of the Greeks. Yet it has been supposed by many, that they were not committed to writing (cf. § 50. 4) until the time of Solon and Pisistratus, at the close of the second or beginning of the third period before mentioned (§9). They were then col- lected into a body, and constituted the first production that circulated among the Greeks in a written form. It was a splendid model, and received with high and lasting admiration by every class of the people. The influence of these poems in Greece is beyond calculation. " From Homer," says Pope, " the poets drew their inspiration, the critics their rules, and the philosophers a defence of their opinions ; every author was fond to use his name, and ev- ery profession writ books upon him till they swelled to libraries. The war- riors formed themselves upon his heroes, and the oracles delivered his verses for answers." The history of Grecian epics ends as it begins, essentially, with Homer. The only poet near his time who has enjoyed much celebrity is Hesiod, who wrote in hexameter, and is usually ranked among the epic poets, although his principal work belongs rather to the didactic class. There is a story of a poetical contest between Hesiod and Homer, in which the for- mer bore away the prize ; but it is a fabrication, and the tradition on which the story was founded, probably grew out of a conjectural comment on the passage of Hesiod, where he alludes to a prize gained by him at Chalcis, but says nothing of Homer. Cf. P. I. § 65. 160 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. § 19. During the whole of the third period into whieh we have divided th> history of Greek literature, from Solon to Alexander, we do not find a single epic poem. The Perseid of Chcerilus of Samos is lo&t, and if extant would not secure its author a rank above his contemporaries in the class of later Cyc- lic poets. The Thebaid of Antimachus of Colophon, which is also lost, was much commended by some of the ancient critics > but it seems to have been of a mythological cast rather than properly epic. In other departments poe- try flourished in the highest degree ; but in this Homer had closed the path to glory. Cf. Schcell, n. 122-127— A. F. JVfe&e, Choerili Samii quae supersunt. Lips. 1817. 8.— C. A. G. Schellenburg, Antimachi Colophonii fragmenta, nunc primum conquisita. Hal. 1786. 8. § 20. In the next period, the Alexandrian age, we meet with but one name of any celebrity, Apollonius Rhodius, author of the Argonautics, who flour- ished about 200 years B. C. Three other epic poets are mentioned, belong- ing to the same age ; Euphorion of Chalcis ; Rhianus of Bene in Crete, orig- inally a slave ; and Musa^usof Ephesus, who lived at Pergamos. Each is said to have written several poems ; which are wholly lost. (Scholl. Hist. livr. iv. ch. 30.) In the fifth period, from the supremacy of the Romans, B. C. 146, to the time of Constantine, A. D. 325, there were several didactic poems in hexam- eter, but not an epic appeared that has secured remembrance. In the last period, after the seat of empire was removed to Constantinople, there was a crowd of inferior poets, or verse makers, hanging about the court. Many performances were composed in hexameter. The principal, that can be called epic, are the Dionysiacs of Nonnus, and the Paralipomena of Quin- tus Calaber, which, although some critics have highly praised them, will be read but very seldom. The Destruction of Troy by Tryphiodorus may also deserve to be named. On epic poetry in general ; Eschenburg's Entwurf, p. 196. — P. le Bossu, Traite du Poeme Epique. 5th ed. Haye, 1744. 2 vols. 12. English Transl. Lond. J719. 8. — R. Blackmore, On Epick Poetry, in his Essays, &c. Lond. 1716. 8. — H. Pemberton, Observations on Epic Poe- try. Lond. 1738. 8. — Kames, Elements of Criticism, ch. xxii. — Blair, Lectures on Rhetoric, lect. xlii. — Vatry, and De la Barre, in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. ix. 228, 239. On the epic poetry of the Greeks ; Sckall, i. 97, n. 122. — Fr. Schlegel, Geschichte der Poesie der Griechen und Romer. Berl. 1798. 8. — Herder, Von dem Ursprung des Epos ; in his Adra- stea. — Spitzner, De versu Grasco heroico. Lips. 1816. 8. See also Sulzer's Allg. Theorie ; under Heldengedkht. — Encycl. Am&r. under Epic. § 21. (c) The Cyclic poets and the Homeridce. Although there was no great epic poet after Homer, there were many who imitated his manner and sung of the same or similar subjects. Some of these, perhaps most of them, were Rhapsodists, who publicly rehearsed portions of Homer and other poets, as well as their own verses. This led to the composition of the pieces called sometimes hymns (vutoL), being addressed to some deity ; and also proems (IlQooiuia), because they were a sort of introduction to the rehearsal which followed. The Rhapsodists, who chiefly rehearsed or imitated Homer, have been called the Homeridce. (Scholl, Hist. liv. ii. ch. iv.) But to all these po- ets, as a class, the term Cyclic was applied by the ancient grammarians. The name is derived from xifxXog, a circle, and was given because their poetry was confined to a certain round or cycle of subjects and incidents. Their per- formances were of the epic character, but are almost totally lost. The cycle of subjects treated by them included the whole extent of Grecian story, real and fabulous, from the origin of the world down to the sack of Troy. They are sometimes called the poets of the epic cycle ; and have been divid- ed into two classes ; such as treated of the mythology and legends anterior to the Trojan war, termed poets of the Mythic Cycle; and those who treated of the various incidents connected with that war from the decision of Paris to the death of Ulysses, termed poets of the Trojan Cycle. It is easy to perceive how the term cycle should obtain its metaphorical sense of a monotonous and spiritless author. The Cyclic poets are interesting to us chiefly from the fact, that they fur- nished the sources whence subsequent poets drew their materials. Virgil and Ovid are said to have borrowed largely from those authors. There were several poets in the period between Solon and Alexander, who treated of subjects belonging to the epic cycle, and are sometimes called the POETRY. EFIC. LYRIC. 161 later Cyclic poets. (Scholl. liv. iii. ch. xv.) In the last period also of Gre- cian literature the poets, who are called epic, are rather mere imitators and copiers of the Cyclic tribe, and might be classed with the same ; as e.g. Quin- tus Calaber, Tryphiodorus, and Tzetzes. On the Rhapsodists, cf. Suiter's Alls. Theorie, vol. u. p. 561. — Coleridge, Introduction to Study of Greek Poets, (p. 45, Philad. 1831.) — Wolf, Prolegomena ad Homerum Chartere der vornehmsten Dichter, vol. II. p. 5. iiber die Dichtkunst der Griechen im heroischen Zeitalter, nach dem Homer. On the Cyclic poets, see especially Fr. Wvllner, De Cyclo Epico Poetisque Cyclicis. Mo- nasterii (Munster), 1825. 8. A work (according to John's Jahrbucher for 1828) of solid learn- ing and sound judgment. Wvllner mentions, by their Greek titles, twenty-seven poems as be- longing to the Epic Cycle. — See Heyne^s Excurs. 1 ad iEn. n. — Fabricii Bib. Graec. i. — Schall, liv. ii. ch. iv. — Schwartz, Dissertationes selectae (ed. Harless.) Erlang. 1778. — Bouchaud, An- tiquites Poetiques, ou Dissert, sur 1. Poetes cycliques. Par. 1799. 8. — Dodwell, de Cyclis, cited P. V. $ 193. — The chief original source of information is a passage taken from Proclus ; see Bibliothek d. jilt. Lit.und Kunst. i. 66. — Photii Bib. ed. Schott. p. 980. — Heinrichsen, De Carmin- ibus Cypriis, Havniae. (Copenhagen), 1828. — W. Mutter, De Cyclo Graecorum Epico. Lpa. 1829. — G. Langc, Ueber die Kyklischen Dichter, &.c. Mainz, 1837. 8. — Jahn's Jahrbucher, for 1830, vol. n. p" 240. — Osann, in the Hermes, vol. xxxi. p. 185. The names and works of some of these poets are given on the Iliar Table. This is a tablet of marble on which the capture of Troy and events connected with it are represented by little figures in bas-relief, with names added. It was found among the ruins of an ancient temple on the Via Appia, and is preserved in the Museum of the capitol at Rome. Its date is not known ; probably not before the time of Virgil. See Montfaucon, Antiq. Expl. tome iv. § 22. (d) Lyric Poetry. It has already been remarked, that in the earliest poetry of Greece, music and song were united. The hymns and other mythic pieces of the sacred poetry were adapted to some instrumental accompani- ment. The rehearsals of the Rhapsodists and epic minstrels were not with- out the music of the harp or lyre, employed at least in proems and interludes. But the poetry distinctively called lyric originated later. It commenced probably in odes sung in praise of particular gods ; partly addressed to them like hymns, and partly recounting their deeds. Of these there were many varieties; as the IJaiuv, an ode to Apollo originally, afterwards to any god; 'YTzoQ/tffta, a song accompanied with dancing as well as music ; JiGvyauSoc, an ode in honor of Bacchus. There was also a class of songs, called IT0006- 3ia, used on festivals and in processions ; as the Jacfrt^fonixu, sung by virgins bearing laurel branches in honor of Appollo ; T^moSr^oQixu, sung when the sacred tripods were carried in procession ; ^Oa/oyoQix'u, sung by youth carry- ing branches and clusters of the vine in honor of Minerva. There were odes giving thanks for deliverances, especially from epidemics, 'Sjulolftta*, and others supplicating help and relief, 'Evxrtxa. Diana was celebrated in the songs called "Oimtyyoi ; Ceres, in the * IovZoi ; Bacchus, in the ^ l^uxyoi ; Apollo, in the i?.r i Xiudai. § 23. But lyric song was not confined to the praises of the gods and to religious festivals. The enthusiasm awakened by the revolutions in favor of liberty burst forth in effusions of lyric poetry. The tumult and excitement of republican contests and hazards seem to have been congenial to its spirit. It admitted a free license and variety of metres, and was suited to every im- aginable topic that could awaken lively interest. It was shortly extended to almost every concern of life, and the weaver at the loom, the drawer of water at the well, the sailor at his oars, and even the beggar in his wanderings, had each his appropriate song, and, so generally was music cultivated, they could usually accompany it with the lyre. Accordingly we find numerous species of songs spoken of in the classics. Odes to heroes were of three varieties ; the 'Eyxioiaov. proclaiming the deeds of the person celebrated; ^Enairbc, his virtues ; and 'Ennlxior, his victories. There were different forms of nuptial odes ; the T vftsvaiot and yaui'^.ia, sung at the wedding ; aiutursia, in conducting the bride home; Irci&a'J.uiua, at the door of the bed-chamber. The l'uu§og was a sort of bantering satirical song ; the nalyvia were of a similar but more sportive and loose cast. The rcaiSixa and nao&tvia were sung by choirs or companies of boys and virgins. The tiosaiojrai, %tli66via, and y.oQoniaiiaTa were songs of mendicants. Finally, without enumerating any more, it may be remarked, that Ilgen has pointed out about thirty different kinds, in a treatise on the convivial songs of the Greeks. (Cf. § 27.) 14* 162 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. C. D. Ilgen, 2y.o/.tu h. e. Carmina conviv. Grsec. Jen. 1798. 8. — Burette, Sur la Musique Ancienne, in the Mem. de VAcad. des laser . as cited P. I. $63. — Souehay, Sur l'epithalame, Mem. Acad. laser, ix. 303. — Cf. Fuhrmaaa, Klein. Handbuch zur Kentniss griech. und rom. class. Schriftsteller. Rudoldst. 1823. p. 113. § 24. It has been observed that lyric poetry allowed a great variety of metres. Many of these were afterwards distinguished by the names of the lyric poets supposed to have invented them. A great license was also indulged in the form of the stanzas or strophes in which the lyric pieces were composed, both as to the number of verses or lines included in them, and the order or succession of lines of different metres. The earliest and simplest form of strophe consisted of two lines or verses of different metre. The second form seems to have in- cluded four verses, consisting of at least two metres, used by Alcaeus, Sappho, and Anacreon. But strophes of a more artificial composition were employed by Alcman and Stesichorus. Those of Pindar, and such as are used in the choral parts of tragedy, exhibit the greatest art in their construction. On the metres and strophes consult Hermann and Seager, as cited § 7. 4. (h) § 25. Lyric poetry began to flourish at the close of the second period we have pointed out, from the Trojan war to Solon, and after epic had reached its height. The most ancient of the lyric poets (as distinguished from the mythic, epic, and cyclic poets), whose name is recorded, was Thaletas of Crete, in- duced by Lycurgus to remove to Sparta. (Cf. Plutarch on Lycurgus.) Archi- lochus, Alcman, Alcaeus, and Sappho, flourished just before Solon, or about the same time, and were all celebrated among the ancients, particularly the first and last of them ; but we have nothing of their writings except a few fragments. In the next period, between Solon and Alexander, lyric poetry was culti- vated with increased ardor and splendid success. Simonides, Stesichorus, and Bacchylides, are mentioned with praise. Many other names of less note are also preserved ; as Lasus, Hipponax, Ibycus, Pratinas, Asclepiades, Glycon and Phalrecus, Melanippides, Timotheus, Telestes, and Philoxenes. Several po- etesses also adorned the circle of lyric authors in this age; as Erinna, Myrtis, Corinna, Telesille, and Praxilla. But it is not from any of the writers we have named, that the lyric poetry of the Greeks derives its high reputation among modern scholars ; for of all their works almost every thing has perished ; a loss which some of the mutilated portions remaining cause us much to regret. Time has been more sparing in reference to the performances of two other poets, to whom the judgment of all has ascribed the palm of pre-eminent excel- lence in lyric verse, Anacreon and Pindar. Each of these excels, yet their characteristics are totally opposite. Anacreon sings of women and roses and wine ; Pindar of heroes, of public contests, of victories and laurels. The one melts away in amatory softness; the other is ever like the foaming steed of the race, vaulting in the pride of conscious strength, or the furious war-horse, dashing fearlessly on, over every obstacle. Under these masters, Grecian ly- rics were advanced to their greatest perfection. § 26. The ancients speak of nine as the principal lyric poets, viz. Alcman, Alcseus, Sappho, Stesichorus, Ibycus, Anacreon, Simonides, Pindar, and Bac- chylides. It will be observed that all these have been already mentioned. The age of Pindar completes essentially the history of lyric poetry in Greece, as that of Homer does the history of epic. No eminent genius appears after him. In the next period after the time of Alexander, we hear of two or three poetesses, as Anyta, Nossis, and Mcero ; and some of the poets at Alexandria wrote lyrical pieces, as Philetas, Lycophron, and Callimachus. But after the Roman supremacy we shall scarcely find a strictly lyrical production noticed in the fullest detail of Grecian poetry. On the subject? and varieties of Lyric Poetry, see Escheabara- , 's Entwurf einer Theorie &c. as before cited. — Encxjc. Amer. under Lyric. — On the general character and history of Greek Lyric Poetry, see Preface to Dacier's Transl. of Horace. — M. de la JVauze, Sur lea chansons de l'ancienne Grece, in Mem. de VAcad. des laser, ix. 320.— Barney's Gen. Hist. .Music. Lond.1776. 4. — Meusnier de Querloa, Mem. Histor. sur la chanson en gen. et en part. Francoise. Par. 1765. 3 vote. 8. — Historical Essay on the Orig. and Prog, of National Song. pref. to Select coll. Engl. Songs. Lond. 1783. 3 vols. 8. — Saher's Allg. Theorie. Artie. Ode, Lied, &c. § 27. (e) The Scolion {oxoUlv aoua). This was a species of poetry, which POETRY. LYRIC. ELEGIAC. 163 appeared before the time of Solon, and flourished especially in the period be- tween him and Alexander. It was nearly allied to lyric poetry ; or, more properly speaking, was only a peculiar form of it, consisting of little songs, designed for social purposes, and particularly used at banquets and festive en- tertainments. The word oxo?.iov, employed to designate the kind of song here described, has troubled the grammarians. It properly signifies something crooked or distorted (detoilrne), and evidently indicates something irregular in the poetry to which it is applied. The question has arisen, wherein consisted the irregularity ? According to Suidas, the Greeks had three modes of singing at the table. First, all the guests forming a joint chorus chanted a paean accompanied by the harp, in honor of some god. Then, the harp was passed from guest to guest, beginning with the one occupying the chief place, and each was requested to sing some morceau or sonnet from Simonides, Stesichorus, Anacreon, or other favorite author. If any one declined playing, he might sing without the harp, holding in his hand a branch of myrtle. There was a third manner, which required absolutely the accompaniment of the harp, and something of the skill of an artist. Hence the harp did not pass in order from guest to guest, but when one performer had finished some couplets, he presented the myrtle-branch to another qualified to continue the song and music. This one, having completed his part in turn, gave the branch to a third, and so on. Along with the myrtle was presented also to the singer the cup or vase, which from this practice gained the name of 'lodog. From this mode of passing the harp, in an irregular man- ner, the poem thus recited was termed oxoXibv. — Plutarch, on the other hand, states that the scolia were accompanied with the sound of the lyre ; that this instrument was presented to each guest, and those who were unable to sing and play could refuse to take it ; he adds that the axo?.iuv was so called because it was neither common nor easy. But he gives also another explanation, according to which the myrtle branch is represented as passing from couch to couch in the following way -. the first guest on the first couch passed it to the first on the second couch, and he to the first on the third ; it was then returned to the first couch, and the guest occupying the second place there, having sung and played, passed it to the second on the sec- ond couch, and thus it went through the whole company. From this crooked manoeuvring the songs of the table were called oy.o7.iu. These explanations are too subtle to be perfectly satisfactory. It seems much more simple to suppose the name to have referred originally to the irregularity of metre, in which respect the scolion seems to have had unlimited license. The subjects of these songs were not always the pleasures of the table and the cup. They often treated of more serious matters, including sometimes the praise of the gods. Songs for popular use, and those designed to enliven manual labor and domestic care, as those of shepherds, reapers, weavers, nurses, &c. went under the common name of oy.o/.iu. The earliest known author of scolia, or according to Plutarch the inventor of music adapted to them, is Terpander, of Antissa in Lesbos, who lived about 670 B. C. Other authors of such pieces are recorded ; as Clitagorus the Lacedaemonian, Hybrias of Crete, Timocreon of Rhodes. Archilochus, and other lyric poets, composed pieces which belong to the class here described. See M. dc la Nauze, Burette, and Ilgen, cited § 23, 26, especially the latter. — H. H. Cludius, von den Skolion der Griechen, in the Bibl d. alt. Litter, u. Kunst. No. 1. — Schcell, Hist. Litt. Gr. livre ii. ch. 5. § 28. (b) Elegiac Poetry. The origin of elegiac poetry was an ancient theme of dispute if we may credit Horace : Quis tamen exiguos elegos emiserit auctor, Grammatici certant, et adhuc subjudice lis est. "It appears," says Scholl, "that the grammarians of Alexandria (for to these Horace doubtless alludes) raised this question from their confounding times and terms. The matter becomes clear when we give to terms their proper meaning. It is necessary to distin- guish between the ancient i/.eysla of Callinus, and the later E/Lfyoc, the inven- tion of which has been attributed to Simonides. The first was merely a lyric piece, particularly a war-song, composed of distichs with hexameter and pen- tameter alternating, the original form of Ionian lyrics. The word ^?.syog (from a-', alas ! and Uyto) signifies a lamentation ; and any lyric poem on a mournful subject was so termed. The Attic poets, when they sung on a mournful theme, employed the distich of alternate hexameter and pentameter, which had been previously used in the war-song. It was now that this distich received the name tZsyslu, from the new class of subjects to which it was applied; for it was not originally so called, but went by the general name of tnog, afterwards restricted to heroic verse. The term was therefore the name of a kind of metre or strophe, rather than a kind of poetry. The grammarians, overlooking this, called the two kinds by the name of elegy, because the metre was the same in both." Callinus of Ephesus is regarded as the author of the first poem composed in elegiac metre. He is commonly supposed to have lived about 684 B.C. Oth- ers place him much earlier. The fragment ascribed to him is part of a song stimulating his compatriots to fight valiantly against their enemies the Mag- nesians. Tyrtaeus is next in time, immortalized by his songs composed for the purpose of rousing and encouraging the Spartans in a war with Messenia. 164 HISTORY OP GREEK LITERATURE. § 29. The first example of the new application of the elegiac metre (i. e. to mournful themes) is said to have been given by Mimnermus of Colophon in Ion- ia,about 590 B.C. The few verses remaining of him breathe a sweet melancholy, deploring the rapid flight of youthful days, and the brevity and ills of human life. But Simonides is considered as the inventor of the proper elegy, although he neither devised the metre, nor first applied it to topics of a saddening cast; but it was after Simonides that the name f/.syog Was given to a poem of con- siderable size in distichs of hexameter and pentameter. Most of his pieces which are preserved are, however, epigrams rather than elegies. Antimachus a lyric poet, Euripides the tragic writer, and Hermesianax, are mentioned among the authors of elegies in the period now before us, between Solon and Alexander. In the next period, the only elegiac writer of any importance was Callima- chus ; although Alexander the yEtolian and Pliiletas of Cos are named. Cal- limachus was much admired and imitated by the Romans. After him elegiac verse does not appear to have been cultivated at all among the Greeks. In conclusion, very little of the Greek elegiac poetry remains to us, but some of the fragments we have are in strains peculiarly soft and sweet. On the origin of Greek Elegiac Poetry, see ./. V. Francke, Callinus sive Qusestiones de orig. carm. elegiaci. Alton. 1816. 8. — C. A. Bottiger, Abh.. ueber d. Fabel vom Marsyas, in Wie- land's Attisch. Museum, B. i. St. S.-^Schwll, Hist. Gk. Litt. livre ii. ch. 5. — On Greek elegiac poetry generally, Fraguier, Sur l'elegie Gr. & Lat. in the Mem. de I'Acad. des Inscr. (tome vm. ed. d'Amst.) Par. ed.Vol. vi. p. 277. — Souchay, Discerns, sur les Elegiaques grecs, in the Menu de I'Acad. des Inscr. vol. vn. 333, 352. — Esehenburg's Entwurf (cited $ 14.) p. 165. § 30. (g) Bucolic or Pastoral Poetry. This species of poetry is supposed to have taken its rise from the rustic songs of Sicilian shepherds. Its invention is ascribed to a certain Daphnis, who lived in the early fabulous ages, and en- joyed the reputation of a divine descent, while he pastured his flocks at the foot of mount JEtna. But Theocritus, belonging to the Alexandrine age of Grecian literature, may be considered as the father of bucolic song. The Idyl had not been culti- vated by any writer before him. This term, from iiSv/./.iov, signifies a little picture, a representation in miniature, a delicate piece of poetical drawing. The Greek Idyl does not seem to have been confined to any one topic exclu- sively, yet was chiefly employed in representing the scenes of pastoral life. Its external form was marked by the use of the Hexameter verse and the Do- ric dialect. Theocritus carried it to a high degree of perfection ; and in pasto- ral poetry, no poet, ancient or modern, has surpassed him. In fact, Greek bucolic poetry begins and ends with Theocritus. Two other poets belonging to the same age, viz. Bion and Moschus, are commonly ranked in the class of bucolic or pastoral writers. But neither of them is considered as equal to Theocritus ; and the subjects and scenes of their poetry have more of the lyrical or mythological than of the pastoral character. On Pastoral Poetry in general ; Bern, dc Fontenelle, Disc, sur lanat. de l'eclogue. P. 1688. 8. — Ch. CI. Genest, Diss, sur la Poes. pastor. &c. Par. 1707. 12. — Florian, Ess. sur la Pastorale, in Pref. to his Esielle. Par. 1788. 12. — Fraguier, Sur l'eclogue, in Mem. dc I'Acad. des laser, ii. 121. — Pope, Disc, on Pastoral Poetry, in Towson's Miscell. Lond, 1707. 8. — The Guardian, Xo. 28, 30, 32. A r emberry, Poetry on a new Plan. Lonri. 1762. 8 Blair's Lectures. On Greek Pastoral Poetry ; Al.Guully dc Bois Robert, Disc, sur les anc. Poet, biicol. de Sicile, in Mem. de I'Acad. des Inscr. Vol. v. p. 85. — Jacq. Hardion, Hist, du Berger Daphnis. in the same Mem. &c. vol. vi. p. 459. — TVarton, dfcpoesi bucolica Grmc. preface to his edit, of Theo- critus. Oxon. 1770. — Arethusa, cder die bukolisch. Dichter des Alterthums. Berl. 1806 — 10. 2 Bde. 4. — Schmll, Hist. Gr. Litt. livre iv. ch. 33 — Midler's Dorians, bk. iv. ch. 6. $10.— Class. Journ. xx. 124. xvn. 74. § 31. (h) Didactic Poetry. In this form of poetry, the literature of the Greeks was not peculiarly rich. The objects which didactic poetry has in view, may be included under two heads ; it aims to give instruction, either in what per- tains to morals, or in what pertains to science or art. In the earliest specimen of didactic poetry among the Greeks — the Works and Days of Hesiod — there is a combination of both ; the first book chiefly consisting of moral precepts, and the second of rules of husbandry, concluding however with a repetition oi precepts on the conduct of life. This production belongs to the period before Solon. The next productions, which we meet in the account of Grecian didactic POETRY. BUCOLIC. DIDACTIC. 165 poetry, consist wholly of moral precepts or sentences (yvwuai). From this circumstance, the writers have been called Gnomic poets. The poetry consists of pithy maxims, expressed with brevity and force. The metrical form may have been chosen principally for the sake of memory. Pythagoras, Solon, Theognis, Phocylides and Xenophanes, are the chief among the Gnomic poets. Fragments remain ascribed to each of these ; not all, however, considered gen- uine, especially the Goldei^Verses of Pythagoras, and the Exhortation of Pho- cylides. There was a peculiar species of composition, to which it may be proper here to allude, as another form of didactic poetry; viz. the fable or apologue (ano- 7.oyog and 7.oyoo). The most ancient Greek fables are two or three ascribed to Archilochus and Stesichorus, and one found in Hesiod. The most celebrated fables are those of ^Esop, who lived in the age of Solon. They were probably composed in prose. Socrates translated some of them into verse. They were collected in a body by Demetrius Phalereus, and a translation of them is said to have been made about the same time into elegiac verse. In the age of Augus- tus they were translated into the verse called Choliambics, by Babrius. This metrical version is supposed to have been the basis of the modern copies, which are in prose, and belong perhaps more properly to the subject of philosophy. On the Greek Gnomic Poetry ; Meiner's Gesch. d. Wissenchaften in Griechenland u. Rom. Lemgo 1781. 8. — Heyne's Pref. to Sentent. vetustiss. Gnom. poetarum Op. Lips. 1776. 2 vols. — J. Frobenius, Scriptores Gnomici &e. Bas. 1521.8. containing fragments of about seventy poets. — Brunck, Gnomici Poet. Grseci, cited below § 47 1. — U. H. Rohde, De veter. poetar. sapientia gnomica, &c. Havn. 1800. 8. On the Apologue or Fable generally ; Eschenburg, Entwurf, p. 94. — Gellert, Diss, de Poesi Apolog. eorumque scriptoribus. Lips. 1744. 4. — SwZzer's Allg. Theor. Art. Fabel. — Lessing\t Abhandlungen, in his Vier Buechern asopisch. Fabeln. Berl. 1777. 8. — On the Greek Fable ; J. M. Heusinger, Dissert, de gr. JEs. Fabulis. Ger. 1741. 8. — Eschenburg, Entwurf, &c. p. 102. — Schcdl, Hist. Lit. Gr. livre iii. ch. 9. § 32. The Alexandrine age presents several didactic poets. The first in chronological order were two Sicilians, Dicsearchus and Archestratus. The former wrote, in iambic verse, a geographical description of Greece. He was a disciple of Aristotle, and left also some philosophical pieces. The latter traversed many lands examining the subject of human food and nourishment, and gave the result of his experience and research in a poem entitled Gas- trology. At the very close of the period was Nicander, of Colophon, or of iEto- lia according to others. His two poems (called Qr^iay.lx, relating to venomous bites; and 'Aks^KpuQ/naxa, relating to other poisons) have more of poetic ele- gance than of scientific merit. His Georgics and Metamorphoses ( r £T£ooiot : - utra), both lost, are said to have furnished hints to Virgil and Ovid. But the first place in point of excellence belongs to Aratus, who flourished at the Macedonian Court, about 270 B. C. His astronomical poem is highly commended by the ancients. Cicero translated it into Latin verse. Aratus is the poet quoted by Paul before the Areopagus. (Acts xvii. 28.) In the next period, after the capture of Corinth, B. C. 146, there were also several writers belonging to the class now under notice ; but none of them of much celebrity. Among the principal were Babrius or Babrias and Oppian. The former has been already mentioned as author of a metrical version of the apologues of JEsop. The latter wrote on fishing and hunting ; a third poem, not extant, on folding, is also ascribed to him. The following are likewise mentioned : Apollodorus of Athens, who wrote a poetical chronology (Xqovix'u), and a description of the earth (r>~jg neyLoSog) ; Scymnus of Chios, and Dionysius of Charax, authors each of a Voyage of the World (Jlto^'y^ffic oly.ovuivr t g); He- liodorus, author of a poem entitled ' Ano/.viiy.a ; and Marcellus of Sida, in the time of the Antonines, who wrote a poem of forty-two books on medicine (/?»/S- ?.la iarqixa). After the seat of the Roman government was changed, there were, as has been mentioned, numerous inferior poets. Several of them would fall into the class of didactic poets, but they scarcely deserve to be named. Among them were Naumachius, author of a poem on astrology; Dorotheus, author of a poetical treatise on triangles, and another on the places of the stars ; and Manual Philes, who wrote on the peculiarities of animals (ZZtoi ts Trans, of Virg. Georg.— Suher's Allg. Theor. art. Lehrge- dicht. On the Greek Didactic Poets, Manso's Abh. in the Nachtr. zu Sulzer, B. iii. 49. and vi. 359.— Schmll, Hist. Litt. Gr. L. iii. ch. 8, 9. L. iv. 32. 52. L. vi. ch. 74. § 33. {i) Erotic Poetry. Under this denomination are included such poetic- al performances as refer particularly to the subject of love. It is some- times applied to a class of lyrical pieces, whichjBcere of an amatory char- acter (tuortixa ptltj)' Alcman, or Alcmaeon, who lived at Sparta, B. C. about 470, is regarded as the father of erotic poety in this sense of the phrase. Most of his poems were of a class called jrao&tvia, or praises of virgins. His songs were very popular with the ancients, and were sung by the Spartans at table with those of Terpander. Alcseus, Sappho, and Anacreon wrote pieces of the same description. But the term erotic is generally applied by critics to another class of writings ; viz. several productions of a later period, chiefly in prose, which had something of the nature of novels, or modern works of fiction. They were truly a species of romance, and properly therefore may be noticed as a distinct branch of literature. In this place we shall speak only of such authors as wrote in verse. There were three writers in the period after Constantine the Great, who composed poems, which may be justly ranked among the performances here described. The most eminent of them was Theodorus Prodromus a learned philosopher and theologian, in the beginning of the twelfth century, author of a great variety of poetical pieces. " Scrip- sit carmina" says Harles, " invita autem Minerva." The principal was his romance, in iambic verse, entitled the love of Rhodanthe and Dosicles. The other two were Constantine Manasses, and Nicetas Eugenianus ; both lived about the same time with Prodromus. The work of the former, the loves of Aristander and Callithea, is nearly all lost ; that of the latter, the loves of Drosilla and Charicles, in nine books, is extant. They were both in the verse called political. Schmll, Hist. Litt. Gr. livr. ii. ch. 5. livr.vi.ch. 74.—" On appelle ■politiques des vers de quinze syllables, dans lesquels on n'observe pas la quantite ; ils ont la cesure apres la huitieme syl- lable, et 1'accent sur l'avant derniere.' Cf. Hermann (on Metre), lib. ii. c. xxix. 26. § 34. (k) The Epigram. The term iniyqainia originally signified merely an inscription, and from this use the poetry so called derived its prevailing char- acter. The Greek epigram served for a motto on a pillar or an offering to a god, an explanation or memento under a painting, a panegyric on a statue or a monument, an epitaph on a grave-stone. Of course we could not expect it to be strikingly marked by that smartness of manner and sharpness of wit and point, which modern taste demands. It usually expressed a simple idea, a sentiment, a reflection, a regret, a wish; inspired by the accidental sight of a monument, an edifice, a tree or other object; or awakened by the recollection of something agreeable, melancholy, or terrible in the past. Here we propose to mention some of the authors of different ages to whom epigrams are ascribed. A few are referred to the time antecedent to Solon. Those ascribed to Homer are the most ancient, but their genuineness is doubted. One worthy of its reputation bears the name of JEsop. There are various epigrams belonging to the two periods between Solon and the Roman supremacy, some said to be from the most distinguished authors. Indeed most of the poets, it is probable, composed occasionally these little pieces. Anacreon, Erinna, JEschylus, Euripides, and especially Simonides of Ceos, may be named. The latter defeated ^Eschylus in competition for the prize-inscription at Thermopylae. — A single epigram is referred to Socrates ; one to Thucydides ; thirty to Plato, but without foundation. Three by the painter Parrhasius are preserved by Athenams. The Alexandrine age abounded in epigrammatists ; more than thirty are enumerated. The mosteminent were Callimachus, and Leonidas of Tarentum. The latter left a hundred epigrams, in the Doric dialect, among the best that are preserved. In the next period, the number of epigrammatists was still larger ; above forty writers are named between the fall of Corinth and the time of Constan- tine, and a great number of their pieces are extant. Among them is the poet Archias, less celebrated for his own productions than by the oration of Cicero POETRY. EPIGRAMS. ANTHOLOGIES. 167 in his behalf. Diogenes Laertius, the biographer, also has a place here. We have the largest number of pieces from Meleager and Lucilius. The latter, a contemporary of Nero, published two books of epigrams, of which more than a hundred remain, chiefly of a satirical cast. Some of the emperors amused themselves in writing poetry of this description; we have several pieces from Trajan. In this period, collections of epigrams began to be compiled and pub- lished under different titles. They are now called Anthologies, and will be described in the next section. After Constantine, it was chiefly in the epigram that the poets labored, or gained any distinction. Between forty and fifty different writers are mentioned, pagan and Christian. The more eminent among them were Gregory Nazian- zen (§ 292), Paul Silentarius, the consul Macedonia, and Agathias of Myri- na (cf. § 257J. Besides the epigrammatists that have been now alluded to under the differ- ent periods of Greek literature, the Anthologies contain the names of nearly one hundred others, whose epoch has not been ascertained. On the Greek epigrams ; F. Jacobs, Delectus Epigramm. Gracorum (a vol. of the Bibliotheca, cited § 7. 1.) in the Introduction. — Lessing, on epigrams, in his Vermischte Schriften (Melanges). Berl. 1771. 8 — Herder, in his Zerstreutc Blatter. Golha, 1785, 86. (Samml. I. II.)— Franc. Vavas- sor, De Epigrammate, in his Opera. Amst. 1709. fol C. Q. Scnntag, Hist. Poeseos Gr. brevi- oris, ab Anacr. usq. ad Meleag. ex. Anthol. Gr. adumbrata. Lips. 1785.— Scha.ll, livre iii. ch.16. livre iv. ch. 51. livre vi. ch. 72. § 3ot. Anthologies. The Greek Anthologies (Blumenlesen) are collections of small poems, chiefly epigrams, of various authors. Many of the pieces are re- markable for their beauty and simplicity in thought and their peculiar turns of expression. These collections began to be compiled during the decline of Greek literature. Several of these collections were made before the fall of Carthage, but seem to have been formed with more reference to the historical value of the inscriptions than to their poetical merit. The collection of Polemo Periegetes was of this early class, which are entirely lost. Next to these, the first of which we have any knowledge was made by Meleager of Gadara in Syria, B. C. nearly 100. It was entitled Zrtcpavog, the crown or garland, and contained the better pieces of forty-six poets, arranged alphabetically. The next was by Philippus of Thessalonica, in the time of Trajan, with the same arrangement. A little after, under Hadrian, about A. D. 120, a collection of choice pieces was formed by Diogenianus of Heraclea. About one hundred years later, Diogenes Laertius gathered a body of epigrams composed in honor of illustrious men ; from the variety of metres in them, it was styled riuitut- tqov. In the second or third century, Strato of Sardis published a compilation including most of the poets embraced in the anthology of Meleager, and some of those embraced in the work of Philippus, together with several others. It was entitled Bm9ttHj Movaa. But that which may be considered as the third Anthology was published in the sixth century by Agathias of Myrina, who has already been named as one of the more eminent epigrammatists after the time of Constantine. This bore the title of Ki'yJ.og, and consisted of seven books, into which the pieces were distributed according to their subjects. In the tenth century a fourth collection was made by Constantine Cephalas, of whom nothing else is known. In preparing it he made use of the preceding compi- lations, especially that of Agathias, but inserted also pieces of ancient authors not introduced in them. The epigrams and other pieces are arranged accord- ing to subjects, in fifteen sections. Finally in the fourteenth century, Maxi- mus Planudes, a monk of Constantinople, the same who collected the fables of iEsop, formed a fifth Anthology. Planudes arranged the pieces included in his collection in seven distinct books. The two last mentioned, that of Cephalas and that of Planudes, are the only Anthologies now extant. That of Planudes was first printed in 1494, and the collection of Cephalas was, after that, almost entirely forgotten. In 1606, a manuscript copy of Cephalas was found by Claude Saumaise (Claudius Sal- masius), in the library at Heidelberg. Of the Anthology of Planudes the following are the principal editions : — Hair. Etienne (Hear. Strnhanus), Par. 1566. 4.— Weckcl, Fnuikf.1600. fol.— An edition at Naples, 1796. 5 vols. 4. with an Italian translation. — Jerome de Bosch, Utrecht, 1795, 98. 3 vols. 4. with a translation in Latin verse by Hugo Orotius, and a supplement containing additional pieces ; De Bosch added 168 HISTORY OP GREEK LITERATURE. a 4th vol. of Notes, by himself and Claud. Sahnasius ; a 5th was published by D. J. Van Lennep, 1822. ("belle et bonne edition." Scholl.) The discovery of the manuscript copy of Cephalas excited much interest in the literary world. Salmasius made preparations for publishing an edition, but died without having accomplished (he work ; having delayed it from conscientious scruples, as is said, about publishing some of the amatory pieces. After his death, J. Ph. d' Orviile engaged in preparing for an edition of Cephalas ; but he also died without effecting it, and his papers passed to the library at Leyden. Some portions of the work of Cephalas were published, in the mean time, by J. Jensius, at Rot- terdam, 1742, and J. H. Leich, at Leipzic,1745. But after D' OrviMe, the next principal labor upon this Anthology was by J. J Reiske, who published his work under the title Anthologize gr. a C. Cephala condita? libri m. &c. Lips. 1754. 8. This was republished, with a valuable preface, by Thos. Warton, Oxf. 1766. 2 vols. 12. Reiske having declined editing the impure pieces which constituted the 12th section of Cephalas, they were published by Chr. Ad. Klotz, under the title Stratonis aliorumque vet. poet. gr. epigrammata eel. Altenb. 1764. 8. A more complete collection of Greek epigrams and small poems is found in Brunch, Analecta veterum poetarum Graecorum. Argent. 2d "edit. 1785. 3 vols. 8. Each piece is placed under the name of the author to whom it is ascribed. — A new edition was afterwards published by Fred. Jacobs, Anthologia Graeca, sive poetarum graecorum lusus, ex recensione Brunckii. Lips. 1794. 13 vols. 8. ; the first 4 vols, contain the text, more correct ; the 5th consists of various tables and references ; the remaing 8 contain a valuable commentary by Jacobs. — By the same, Anthologia Graeca, ad fidem cod. olim Palatini nunc Parisini, ex apographo Gothano edita, curavit, epi- grammata in cod. Pal. desiderata et annotat. critic, adjecit F. Jacobs. Lips. 1813, 17. 3 vols. 8. ("un corps complet des epigrammes grecques restantde l'antiquite." Scholl.)— The text of this edition is followed in the stereotype edition of Tauchnitz. Lipz. 1819. 3 vols. 12mo. — There are smaller collections : by A. F. Kanne. Halle, 1799. 8. ; A. Weichert. Meizen. 1823. 8. ; Melea- ger's Sinngedichte [epigrams], by Manso. Jena, 1789. 8. ; and by Gr,y 6 1) designated by the civil authorities. (Potter's Arch. Gnec. bk. i. ch. xv.) Scholl, Hist. Litt. Gr. livr. iii. ch. xi.— On the import of the chorus, SchlegeVs Dramat. Lit. lect. iii. — Heeren, Diss, de chori trag. Graec. natura. Gcett. 1785. A.—llgen, Chorus Grsec. qua- lis fuerit, &c. Erf. 1797. Q.— Vatry, On the tragic chorus in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vm. 199. — Franklin, Diss, on the Tragedy of the ancients. Lond. 1762.— On the music of the chorus j J. JV. Forkel, Allg. Gesch. der Musik. § 38. Thespis, of Icarus (a ward of Attica), contemporary with Solon and Pisistratus, is regarded as the inventor of tragedy. Much obscurity rests on the changes, which were introduced by this poet, as the work of the peripa- tetic Chamreleon of Heraclea, which treated of the subject, is lo^t. His first innovation appears to have been in relation to the chorus. Before Thes- pis, its actors were masked as Satyrs and indulged in the most licentious free- dom in amusing their auditors ; he assigned them a more decent part. He also introduced an actor whose recitals allowed intervals of rest to the chorus. Other events besides the exploits of Bacchus were likewise made the subject of representation. But Solon prohibited the exhibition of his tragedies as being useless fabrications. The performances of Thespis were no doubt rude. The stage is said to have been a cart, the chorus a troop of itinerant singers, the actor a sort of mimic, and the poem itself a motly combination of the se- rious and trifling, the ludicrous and the pathetic. — After twenty-five years, the prohibition was removed by Pisistratus, and Thespis reappeared with new glory. It was now, 537 B. C. according to the Parian marble, that he gained the prize in a tragic contest. Suidas gives the titles of four tragedies of this poet. There remain two fragments of doubt- ful authority, cited by Clemens Alexandrinus (Strom, v.) and Plutarch (De audiendis poetis), and a third found in Pollux (lib. vn. 13.) Phrynicus, of Athens, is the next name in the history of tragedy. He was a disciple of Thespis, and introduced some changes, particularly the use of 15 170 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE, the female mask. He employed however but one actor besides the chorus ', yet this actor represented different persons, by changing the dress and masks. He was the author of a tragedy, which Themistocles caused to be exhibited with great magnificence, and which bore away the prize. The memory of its success was perpetuated by an inscription. — The first author, whose trage^ dies are cited as having been committed to writing, was Chcerilus of Athens, about 500 B. C. It was from regard to him that the Athenians constructed their first theatre. The ancients attribute to him 150 pieces, all lost. He is to be distinguished from Chcerilus of Samos (§ 20), and from Chcerilus of Ia- sus, the contemporary of Alexander. § 39. The real father of tragedy was JEschylus of Eleusis, who flourished in the time of the Persian war, and fought in the battles of Marathon, Sala- mis, and Plateea. Before him, the fable formed but a secondary part, the epi- sode of tragedy ; he made it the principal part, by adding a second actor and speaker, and thus introducing a dialogue in which the chorus did not always take a share. Sophocles of Athens, a contemporary of iEschylus but 27 or 28 years younger, added a third speaker and sometimes even a fourth. Thus the importance of the chorus was diminished, and the dialogue engrossed the chief interest of the play. Under Sophocles, Greek tragedy received its final and perfect form. A third distinguished tragic writer, contemporary with the two just named, was Euripides, born 16 or 17 years later than Sophocles. Euripides added nothing to tragedy in respect to the external structure ; but in tragic interest he excelled both his precursors. The productions of these three authors were regarded by the Athenians as monuments of national glo- ry. The orator Lycurgus procured the enactment of a law, directing that an accurate and authentic copy of the tragedies of iEschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides should be deposited in the archives of the state, under the care of the magistrate called youiu/«T£i'e t>]$ nv/.so>c. This copy, it is said, was ob- tained by Ptolemy III., son and successor of Philadelphus king of Egypt, on a pledge of 15 talents, for the purpose of correcting by it the copies in use at Alexandria ; he chose to forfeit the money and retain the original manuscript, sending back to Athens a copy in its stead. Some have expressed doubts whether we possess the exact productions of the poets above mentioned, as they came from their fertile imaginations. Corrections and additions may have been made by persons called diarfy.svuaTai. Those of iEschylus are said to have been re- touched by Bion, Euphorion, and Philocles ; those of Sophocles, by his sons Iophon and Aris- ton ; and those of Euripides, by Cephisophorus.— — See Aug. Bcrckh,Grdic. Tragoedire principum iEschyli, Sophoclis, Euripidis, num ea qute supersunt et genuina omnia sint et forma primiti- va servata, &c. Heidelb. 1603. 8. The history of tragedy in Greece, so far as it is chiefly important, is com- paratively brief. iEschylus, as has been stated, was its real author, and its history included but two other names of any distinction ; Sophocles and Eu- ripides complete the list. These were nearly contemporary. iEschylus, at the age of 45 fought at the battle of Salamis ; Euripides was born at that place on the very day of the battle ; and Sophocles, the same or the next year, being 16 or 17 years old, led the choir of singers and dancers around the trophy erected to commemorate the same battle. Of their writings only about 30 plays remain to us. But their reputation rests on a basis more solid than the quantity of what they produced or time has spared. Perhaps, however, the plays now extant are valued the more because they are so few, being considered, as it were, the savings of a vast wreck. There was a rich abundance of dramatic works amona the Greeks. Pieces once exhibited were seldom again brought forward, and this circumstance may nave increased their number. Authors cite at least two hundred tragedies of the first order, and five hundred of the second ; and the number of inferior merit is still greater. — See tVulf &. Buttmann, Museum der Alterthumskunde, vol. i. § 40. Besides the three eminent tragic poets, the grammarians of Alexan- dria placed in their canon three others, viz. Ion of Chios, Achaeus of Eretria, and Agatho of Athens, nearly contemporary with the three whose names are eo illustrious. Only a few fragments of their works remain ; they may be found in the collection of Grotius (cf. § 43). The names of above twenty others are recorded as writers of tragedies before the time of Alexander ; but none of them are eminent, and nothing remains of their works but discon- nected fragments. Among them are Euphorion and Bion, sons of iEschylus, and Iophon, son of Sophocles. We find also in the catalogue, Critias and Theognis, two of the famous thirty tyrants. COMEDY. 171 In the period between Alexander and the capture of Corinth, there were a Few tragic writers, whom the critics of Alexandria ranked in their second canon, the first including the masters who wrote before the death of Alexan- der. Their second canon, called the tragic Pleiades, included seven poets, who lived in the times of the first Ptolemies. They were Alexander of JEto- lia, Philiscus of Corcyra, Sositheus, Homer the younger, iEantides, Sosipha- nes, and Lycophron. The first of these has been named among the elegiac, and the last among the lyric poets. The trifling fragments of these writers, now extant, are found in the collections of Frobenius (cf. § 31) and Grotius. Another poet, Timon, who for a while taught philosophy at Chalcedon, is said to have composed sixty tragedies. — Ptolemy Philadelphus, in order to en- courage the dramatic art, established theatrical contests like those at Athens. But the productions of the poets at Alexandria fell far short of those of Ath- ens in the preceding period. The tragedies were rather works for the cabinet than for the theatre, adapted for the amusement of princes and courtiers, or the inspection of cold critics, rather than for popular exhibition. They were productions of subtlety and artifice, but comparatively uninteresting and life- less. — After what is termed the Alexandrine age, nothing was produced in Greek tragedy. On the origin of Tragedy 5 Schneider, De origin, trag. Gr. Vratisl. 1817. 8. — Vatry, Recher- ches sur I'orig. et le prog, de la Tragedie, in Mem. de VAcad. tome xxm. xxx. xv. p. 255 ; xix. p. 219, of Paris ed. — Dr. Blair's Lect. xlv. — Marmontel, Poet, tome it. — Brumoy, Disc, sur I'o- rig. de la Trag. pref. to Theatre des Orecs.—Rich. Bentley, Resp. ad C. Boyle (Opusc. Philol.). On the history and character of Gr. Tragedy ; Jos. Barnes, Tract, de Trag. Vet. Grac. &c, in his ed. of Euripides. — Le Beau, Des Tragiques Gr., in Mem. de VAcad. xxxv. — J. J. H. Nast, Ohs. in rem trag. Grrec. Stuttg. 1778. — Barthelemy, Anacharsis, eh. lxix-lxxi.— A. Augen, De la Trag. Gr. &c, Par. 1792.— Brumoy, Theatre des Grecs, ed. Raoul Rochette. Par. 1820.— Schle- o-eVs Lectures on Dramat. Lit. (tr. bv Black.) Lond. 1815. Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. xn. 121 ss. —Theatre of the Greeks. Cambr. 1830. S.—Scholl, Hist. Litt. Gr. livre iii. ch. xi.— Cf. Bibl. Repository, No. xvin. p. 475. — Talfourd's Ion has been pronounced a successful imitation of the Greek tragedy. Cf. North Amer. Rev. April, 1837. § 41. (2) Comedy. Epicharmus of Cos, who was a professor of the Pytha- gorean philosophy at the court of Hiero, in Sicily, about 470 B. C, is usually considered as the first writer of comedy. The species cultivated by him is called Sicilian comedy, which the ancient writers distinguished from the Attic comedy. — Fifty comedies are ascribed to him, but the fragments preserved (found in the collection of Hertcl, cf. § 43,) scarcely enable us to judge of their character. Phormis, of Syracuse, was another writer in the same spe- cies. The pieces of Epicharmus are said to have been known and admired especially by the Athenians, and to have given a great impulse to the culti- vation of comedy among that people. (Barthelemy' s Anacharsis, ch. lxix.) Schbll gives the following account of the origin of Attic comedy. "Between Tragedy and Comedy in modern literature there is such an analogy that they are justly regarded as two species of the same genus. From this it has been imagined, that both had the same origin among the ancients. But it is not so. Tragedy grew out of the songs with which the cities of Greece celebrat- ed the festivals of Bacchus. Comedy, on the other hand, took its origin in the country. The wards or boroughs (d'/i/oi) of Attica were accustomed to unite in singing the phallic songs ((pulZixa), in which the most unrestrained licentiousness was allowed. The performers, drawn in cars, proceeded from borough to borough ; their numbers increased at every station ; and they strolled about the country until their excesses forced them to seek repose. Hence comedy derived its name from xwttt], a village. The two species of drama followed in their progress a different course. They were for a long time strangers to each other, and it was not till a late period that comedy adopted the improvements embraced by her sister. At length, however, the chorus, which had played the principal part, as in tragedy, lost its primitive importance, and it finally happened that comedy appeared on the stage with- out this accompaniment." Susarion of Megara, about 570 B. C, is described as traversing the territo- ry of Attica with an exhibition of these burlesque pieces, which constituted the beginnings of comedy. Crates, about 500 B. C, is said to have given to them a more complete and perfect form. From this time tragedy was not the enly representation attending the festivals of Bacchus; comedy was associ- ated with it as a novel spectacle. 172 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. Mythology furnished but few of the subjects of comedy in the character, which it first assumed after its introduction from the country to the city. It was a complete contrast to tragedy. Passing events, the politics of the day. the characters and deeds of leading chiefs, the civil and military officers, and in short every thing pertaining to public or private affairs, entered into the materials, with which it amused the hearers. It was therefore obviously lia- ble to great abuse. No citizen could be secure from attacks, which were not made by mere allusion, but more frequently by naming the person and por- traying his features upon the mask of the actor. It is this use of personal satire, which essentially characterizes what is called the old comedy. The grammarians of Alexander have ranked, as belonging to the old come- dy, six poets ; viz. Epicharmus, Cratinus, Eupolis, Aristophanes, Pherecrates, and Plato, called the comic, to distinguish him from the philosopher. The first has already been spoken of. Aristophanes is the only one of the rest of whom we have any whole pieces extant. The fragments of the others may be found in the collection of Grotius. The plays of Aristophanes justify and illustrate the character above ascribed to the old comedy. Besides these six poets, more than twenty others are recorded as authors in this kind of come- dy, of several of whom trifling fragments are preserved. See P. F. Kanngiesser, Die alte Komische Buehne in Athen. Breslau, 1817. Q.— Vatry, La vieille cornedie, Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxi. 245. § 42. The old comedy continued until the time of the Thirty, when, B. C. 404, a law was enacted which prohibited the use of living characters and real names, and also of the 7z<.toucurr£Z and the letters EPECt, supposed to refer toEresus. (a) J. Ch. Cramer,Diatribe de avy/QoriOuo> Sapphus et Anacreontis. Jen. 1755. 4. — H. F. M. Volger, Diatribe historico-crit. de Sapphus Poetriae vita et scriptis. Goth. 1809. 8. (b) Barthclcmifs Anacharsis, ch. iii Fr.O. fVelcker, Sappho von einem herschenden Vorurtheil befreyet. GStt.1816. 8. — De Hauteroche, Notice sur la courtisane Sappho d'Eresus. Par. 1822. — F. W. Richter, Sappho und Erinna, nach ihren Leben beschrieben. Quedl. 1833. 8.—Schbll, Hist. Lit. Gr. livre ii. ch. 5. 2. Sappho is said to have composed hymns, elegies, scolia, and epigrams, as well as odes. The two odes now extant are preserved, the one in Longinus and the other in Dionysius Halicarnasseus (de Compositione verborvm) as a specimen of soft and flowing style. Two or three epigrams are among the fragments otherwise preserved. 3. Editions. — B. — C. F. JYcuc, Gr. & Lat. Berl. 1827. 4. Other lyric fragments promised by him. Cf. Jahn's Jahrblicher, for 1828. vol. l. p. 389—433. F.—Princeps by H. Stephanus, (with Anacreon) Lut. Par. 1554. 4. — J J. C. Wolf. Hamb. 1733. 4. as 1st vol. of his Fragments of nine Greek poetesses. R. — 11. F. M. Volger. Lips. 1810. 8. — E. A. Mo?bius. Hannov. 1815. 8. — $ Same, as given in Bibliotlieca of Jacobs Sf Rost, with Anacreon, as below cited, the best for students. — Blomfeld, in the Mux. Grit, or Camb. Class. Researches, vol. i. Lond. 1813. ; this text highly valued. — The odes are found in most editions of Anacreon. The epigrams are Ju the Anthology of Jacobs. 4. Translations. — English. J. Addison, in the Works of Anacreon. Lond. 1735. 8. — Cf. Addison's Spectator, Nos. 223, 229. French. Dc Sivry, as cited $ 53. German. Ramlcr, and Ovcrbcck, cited § 59. 4. POETS. SAPPHO. SOLON. THEOGNIS. PHOCYLIDES. 1H3 § 55. Solon, the distinguished lawgiver of Athens, native of Sala- mis, and descendant of Codrus, lived B. C. 594. He wrote several poems. By one of them he aroused the Athenians to a war with the Megareans, in which he, as their general, subdued Salamis. After- wards he was appointed Archon at Athens, and this was the epoch of his legislation so much celebrated. We have a series of moral max- ims, in elegiac verse, ascribed to Solon. 1. Solon is said to have engaged in early life in trade, and in this pursuit to have visited Egypt and other foreign countries. On returning to Athens, he devoted himself to poetry and philosophy. After he was brought into pub- lic office, as above mentioned, and had established his laws, he again left Athens for ten years, for the sake of rendering them permanent. He returned and spent the remainder of life in literary pursuits, and is said to have done much in collecting and publishing the poems of Homer. Some accounts say that he died at Athens, others at Cyprus, at the age of 80. — His biography is given by two ancient writers, Plutarch and Diogenes Laertius. 2. Besides the poetical remains of Solon, there are some fragments of his laws extant, and a little piece on the pursuits of life. Diogenes Laertius also has recorded certain letters, said to have been written by Solon. 3. Editions B. — Fortlage. Lips. 1776. 8. ; the 2d vol. of a collection of Gnomic Poets. — * JV. Bachius (Bach). Bonnae, 1825. 8. F. — Princeps, by Gelenius, as cited § 53. 3. — The chief poetical fragments are in the collections of Brunch,Winterton, and others, cited § 47.2. For the fragments of Solon's laws, Sam. Petit, Leges Atticae. Par. 1635. fol. improved ed. by P. Wcsseling. Lugd. Bat. 1742. fol. 4. Translations English. — Of the Letters, in Savage's Collection, as cited § 152. 1 German. — Poet. Fragments, in G. C. Braun, Die Weisen von Hellas als Sanger. Mainz. 1822. 8. § 56. Theognis, born at Megara, lived in banishment at Thebes, about B. C. 550. There remain of his poetry 1238 verses, belong- to the class of yvtiuai (sententice) or maxims. 1m. They are simple verses or couplets, once probably forming parts of con- nected poems ; two poems, particularly, are said to have been composed by him. The portions extant are valued for their moral rather than their poetical character. 2. Theognis is said to have died B.C. 495. His verses are addressed, under the name of nanaivtosig, exhortations , chiefly to a young man to whom he gives counsel on the conduct of life. He has been reproached for the licentious na- ture of some of his sentiments ; yet nothing of this character appears in the fragments extant. He inculcates religious and filial duty, and recommends caution in the choice of friends. It is not improbable that some of the verses ascribed to Theognis are of later origin, although most of them are thought to be evidently of high antiquity. In 1815, or near that time, 159 verses, never printed, were discovered by Bekker, in a Alodena manuscript. These added make the whole number extant about 1400. 3. Editions B Imm. Bekker (with the translation by Grotius). Lpz. 1815. 8. — F. T. Welcker. Frankf. 18261 8. for the critic, rather than the student. He gives a new arrangement of text, which is opposed by G. Gra-fcnham, Theognis Theognideus, &c. Mulhuste (Muhlhau- sen). 1827. 4. F. — Princeps, by Aldus (with Hesiod), as cited § 51. 5. — The verses (ex- cept the 159) are found in Brunch's Gnomic Poets, Gaisford's Minor Poets (cited $ 47.) and other collections. On Theognis, cons. Quart. Rev. No. xcv. § 57. Phocylides, of Miletus, lived about B. C. 540. He belongs to the class of Gnomic Poets. Of the genuine, verses of Phocylides, only a few fragments are extant, preserved by Stobaeus. 1m. An ethical poem, called the Exhortation or Admonition (noltjua vov&yn- xov) in 217 verses, is ascribed to him (cf. § 31). It is allowed by the critics to be the work of a later author, perhaps a Christian of the second or third cen- tury. 2. The genuine remains of Phocylides are in Brunch's Analecta (cited § 35) and other collec- tions The Exhortation was first printed by Aldus (with the golden verses of Pythagoras, in C. Lascar's Greek Grammar), Ven.1495. 4. It is found in the collections mentioned (cf. § 47). It has been published separately several times ; best probably by J. A. Schier, Gr. & Lat. Leipz. 1751. 8.— Cf. Harles Brev. Not. Lit. Gr. p. 64. 184 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. § 58. Pythagoras, of Samos, probably lived between 550 and 500 B. C. He is celebrated as the founder of the Italian School of phi- losophy. The fragments called XQvo&JSmi, Golden Verses, which commonly pass under his name, are probably from some disciple be- longing to a later period. 1. Certain epistles, and a number of symbolical precepts (£*Qa anoif&iyuara) are also ascribed to him. The name of Pythagoras most properly belongs to the department of philosophy. Cf. § 170. 2. Editions.— B.—JE. G. Glandorf, Lips. 1776. 8.— J. G. Lindler, Gr. & Lat. Rudolst. 1810. 8. F. — Prhiceps, by Aldus, in C. Lascaris Erotemata (the same cited $57.2.) — P. Needham, (with the coinm. of Hierocles on the verses). Cant. 1709. 8.— J. A. Schicr, Lips. 1750. 8. The verses are found in the collections of Gnomic Poets already cited ; and in OrellVs Opuscula Grsecor. vet. sententiosa et moralia. Lips. 1819. 8. 3. Translations.^French.— Fabre de Olivet, (Gr. & Fr.) Par. 1813. 8. German.— G. Ch. Link, (in hexameter) Alt. 1780. 4. § 59. Anacreon lived about B. C. 536, a native of Teos in Ionia. He fled with his parents from Persian oppression, to Abdera in Thrace. Subsequently, he resided at Samos, under the protection of Polycrates the king, and afterwards at Athens, under Hippar- chus. He died in his native place, or at Abdera, in the 85th year of his age. He was a lyric poet, and wrote in that light kind of ode, of which love, social pleasures, and wine, form the subjects, and which from him has received the name Anacreontic. The collection of odes ascribed to him contains many belonging to other authors, some of whom were of a later age. The pieces are of unequal merit. Many of them are unworthy of the praise which the ancients bestowed on Anacreon, and which, beyond question, justly belongs to the rest on account of their vivacity, grace, and lyric beauty. 1. The time and manner of Anacreon's death are variously stated. Com- mon tradition reported that he died by suffocation, from swallowing a grape- stone, while in the act of drinking wine. This tradition is supposed by some to have originated from the bacchanalian character of his poetry. Herodotus (iii. 121.) and Plato (in Hipparchus) are the authorities for some of the facts stated above. — A learned life of Anacreon is given by Barnes, in his edition of this poet. 2. He is reputed to have written elegies and iambic poems in the Ionic dia- lect, besides scolia and epigrams. The odes which have been ascribed to him are 65 in number. The genuineness of most of them was denied in the middle of the 16th century, by Francis Robortcllus, one of the acutest critics of that age. Their credit having revived," it was again attacked at the commencement of the last century, by De Pauw. The same views were en- forced by Fischer at the close of the last century, since which time the opinion above stated by Eschenburg has generally prevailed. The opinion is confirmed by the fact that, with two ex- ceptions, none of the existing odes are known to be cited by any ancient author. 3. Editions B.— Jo. Frid. Fischer, Lips. 1753. 8. repr. 1776, and 1793, with additions.— R. Ph. Gr. Brunch, Strasb. 1780. 12. accurate.— J. Fr. Degen, Lips. 2d ed. 1821. 8. with a German translation, and other lyrical pieces. — F. Melhorn, Glogav. 1825. 8. learned ; with bold criti- cism ; commended by translator of Scholl. F. — Princeps, by H. Stephanus, Lutet. Paris. 1554. 4. Grrec— Morel $ R. Stephanus, Paris. 1556. 8.— Fabri ( Taiiaquil Faber,) Gr. et Lat. Sal- mur. 1660, 1690 — Barnes, Gr. et Lat. Cantab. 1705, 1721. 8.—Mattaire, Gr. et Lat. Lond. 1725, 1740. 4. rare.— Pauw, Gr. et Lat. Tr. Rhen. 1732. 4.—Spalletti, Gr. Rom. 1781-83. fol. very splendid. " Printed from ancient Ms. of the tenth century ; the type, comprehending the first sixteen pages, a facsimile of the Vatican Ms." — Bodoni, Parma. 1784. 8. handsome. Also, Gr. & Ital. 1793. A.— J. B. Gail, Gr. Lat. & Fr. Par. 1799. 4. with dissertations, musical adaptations, and engravings. 1801. 4 vols. 12 R. — Ed. Foster, Lond. 1802. 12. not professing to be critical ; but correct, with elegant engravings F. H. Bothe, Lpz. 1805. 12. more elegant than valuable. — J. H. Van Reenen, Amst. 1808. 8. as 1st vol. of a collection. — Scha-fer, Lpz. 1809. 8. it is the indifferent ed. of Born (1789) improved.— $ E. A. Mtebius, Hal. 1809. 8. This as given in the Bibliotheca of Jacobs is the best for common use. — C. CaseUius, (with Sappho) Flor. 1819. fol— C. G. Gumiclius, Upsal. 1824. 8 — T. Bergk, Lips. 1835. 8. The epigrams ascribed to Anacreon are found in the Anthology of Jacobs (cf. $35). 4. Translations.— English.— T. Stanley, Lond. 1683. 8. 1815. 12 —J. Addison, Lond. 1735. 12. — Fawkes, Lond. 1760. 12.— D. H. Urquhart, Lond. 1787. 8.— T. Moore, 1800. 4. 1818. 2 vols. 12. with the Greek text. Cf. Ed. Rev. vol. ii.— Edwards, Gr. & Angl. Lond. 1830. 12. French. —Dacier, Amst. 1699. 8.— Gail, above cited.— Saint Victor, Par. 1810. German.— Overbeck, POETS. PYTHAGORAS. ANACREON. PINDAR. 185 LUb. 1800. 8 Ramler, Berl. 1801. 8 — F. C. Brosse, Berl. 1806. 8.— A. Drexel, Landsh. 1816. 8. Italian.— Ch. Rodolfi, Venet. 1765. 8. 5. Illustrative. — P. C. Henrici, de .indole carminis Anacreontici. Alton. 1752. 4 De- gen, iiber d. Philos. des Anacreon. Elang. 1776. 8. — J. O. Schneider's Anmerkungen Uber den Anacreon. Leipz. 1770. 8. — Manso's Character of Anacreon in the Charaktere der vornehm- sten Dichter, cited § 47. — D. H. Urquhart. Dissert, on the Odes of Anacreon. Lond. 1790. 8. — Ford. Nolan, On the Greek Rose, as illustrating the imagery of the odes ascribed to Anacreon, &c, in Transactions of Royal Soc. of Literature, vol. 2d. Lond. 1834.— jF'. W. Richter, Anacreon nach seinem Leben geschrieben. Quedl. 1834. 8. § 60. Pindar, of Thebes in Baeotia, about B. C. 490, a lyric poet of the greatest celebrity. He wrote in the higher kind of lyric verse, employed to celebrate the triumphs of heroes and victors. He sung chiefly the praises of victors in the great public games of the Greeks. There now remain 14 Olympic, 12 Pythian, 11 Nemean, and 8 Isth- mian Odes. Many other Hymns and Pasans, Dithyrambics, Threni (Qq^ioi), and the like, are lost. Quintilian justly ranks Pindar first among the nine most distinguished lyric poets of the Greeks (cf. § 26). He is marked by his lofty sublimity, his bold energy of thought, his vivid and poetical imagination, and the flowing fullness of his diction. Horace gives a lyric description of his character (lib. iv. ode 2). 1. Pindar was early taught the arts of music and poetry. Lasus and Si- monides were his instructors. The Greeks related a story of him, that once, while he was a youth, as he threw himself upon the grass fatigued and sleepy, a swarm of bees deposited their honey on his lips, which prefigured the sweet- ness of his future poetry. In several instances he lost the prize in poetical contests with Corinna, who is, however, supposed to owe something to the charms of her person as influencing the feelings of the judges. He is said at last to have appealed from them to herself. From all other competitors he invariably bore away the prize. He enjoyed great honors while living. The conquerors at the public games counted it a great part of their glory to be celebrated in the verse of Pindar, for which they courted his person, and be- stowed on him the most liberal rewards. A statue was erected to him in Thebes and was standing in the time of Pausanias, six centuries afterwards. The house which he had occupied was spared by the Spartans, and at a later period by Alexander, when Thebes was laid in ruins. — The age which he at- tained is variously stated; some say 55, others 66, and others 86 years. For the incidents of Pindar's life we are chiefly indebted to Pausanias ; some circumstances are drawn from vElian, Plutarch, and others. Of the accounts by moderns, see Lives of the Po- eU, cited § 47.— Preface in Tourlefs Translation below cited — J. O. Schneider, Versuch uber Pindars Leben und Schriften. Strasb. 1774. 8. 2. The division of the odes into four classes is ascribed to Aristophanes of Byzantium. He selected, out of the general mass of Pindar's effusions, such as had reference, more or less directly, to victories gained at the great games of the Greeks ; yet some are found in the selection which do not refer spe- cially to any particular victory. Scholl remarks, that some of these odes seem to have been prepared to be rehearsed at the general triumph of the conquerors on the evening after the contest in the games, and others for the more private festival afterwards given to the individual victor, by his rela- tives and friends. — One of the Odes (Olymp. 7) is said by a scholiast to have been preserved in a temple at Athens, in letters of gold. — The more the odes of Pindar are studied, the more the reader will be impressed with the genius of the author. The abruptness of his transitions has often been a ground of censure, but with great injustice. In many cases, where a new topic is in- troduced with apparent violence, or, as might at first seem, only by a perfect- ly wild imagination, there is found, on a closer view, a very philosophical and logical connection. — There is much of an epic character in the use of histo- ry and mythology, which he so happily employs. The Doric dialect abounds in his language ; yet he does not confine himself to it, but adopts iEolic and other forms where strength, variety, or the peculiarity of his metre demands. C. W. Theop. Camcnz, Pindari ingenium, etc. Misenas, 1804. 4.— O. Hermann, deDial^cto Pindari Observationes. Lips. 1809. 4.— See also Lond. Quart. Rev. vol. v. & xvm.— SchSU, 16* 186 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. Hist. Litt. Gr. vol. i. p. 277.— Preface to West, cited below (5).— Fraguier and others, cited be- low (6). 3. Various forms of poetical composition, besides odes, were written by Pindar j as, in the words of Neander, " Paeanes, Dithyrambi, Scolia, Epitaphia, Encomia, Tkreni, Prosodim, Par- thcnia, Enthronismi, Bacchica, Daphnephorica, Hyporchemata, Dramata tragica, Epigrammata epica, etc." Very little, however, of all this remains. We have nothing entire except the odes. — Mich. Neander, Aristologia Pindarica Gibe co-Latin a. Basil, 1558. 4. Editions.— B.—Aug. Bockh, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1811-22. 2 vols. 4. Admirable.— C. G. Hcy- ne, Gr. & Lat. Lips. 1817. 3 vols. 8.—* L. Dissen. Gothae, 1830. 2 vols. 8. After Bockh's re- cension. The 1st vol. has the text, an introduction, and Muller's plans of Delphi and Olvm- pia. pp. 282. The 2d vol. consists of Latin notes, pp. 634. It is included in Rost's Biblibth- eca ; and is the best for the student. F —Princeps, the Aldine. Ven. 1513. 8. With the hymns of Callimachus. — Calliergi. Rome, 1515. 4. Cum Scholiis. First Greek book printed at Rome. — R. Stephanus. Par. 1560. 2 vols. 8.—Erasm. Schmid, Gr. & Lat. cum schol. Wittenb. 1616. 4 — \West8f Welsted, Gr. & Lat. Oxon. 1697. fol.—Foulis, Gr. & Lat. Glasg. 1744-54-70. 3 vols. 12. R. — D. Beck. Lips. 1810. 2 vols. 8. Not completed Fr. Thiersch, with a German trans- lation in Pindaric verse. Lpz. 1820. 2 vols. 8.— Tauchnitz. Stereot. Lpz. 1819. 12.—Huntingford, Gr. & Lat. Lond. 1814. 8. With an abridgment of Damm's Lex. Pindaricum.— CA. W. Ahl- wardt. Lips. 1820. 8. He contests with Bockh the priority of inventing a new metrical sys- tem for Pindar's verse. — i. Mezzanotte, Gr. & Ital. (met. &. prose.) Pisa, 1820. 4 vols. 8.— JYegris, Gr. with English notes. Lond. 1835. 12. 5. Translations. — English.— G. West. Lond. 1753. 2 vols. 8.— H. J. Pye, Six Odes (omitted by West). Lond. 1775. 8.— E. B. Greene. Lond. 1778. 4.— T. Banister. Lond. 1791. 8. — T. £, Girdlestone. Norw. 1810. 4.— A. Moore, with notes. Lond. 1822. 8. French.— T. Maurin. Par. 1617. 8.—L. C. Gin. Par. 1801. 8.—* R. Tourlet, Gr. & Fr. Par. 1818. 2 vols. 8. Ger- man.— F. Gedike, (pr.) Olympic and Pythian Odes. Berl. 1777-79. 2 vols. 8.— G. Fdhse,(met.) Penig. 1806. 2 vols. 8.—F. H. Bothe, (met.) Olympic Odes. Berl. 1808.— Thiersch, as above cited ; highly esteemed. Italian. — int. Jerocades. Nap. 1799. 8. Latin verse, J. Costa. Patav. 1808. 8. 6. Illustrative. — .ZEm. Porti, Lexicon Pindaricum. Han. 1606. — Damm, Lexicon Pindaricum. Berl. 1765 J. M. Duncan, Dammii Nov. Lex. cui substrata? sunt elucidationes Homericaa et Pindarica?. Lond. 1827. 4. — Rost published an improved edition of Duncan's. 1835. 4. Re- printed 1838. — Hermann, on the Pindaric Metres, in Heyne's edition, 3d vol. — Aug. Bockh, Ue- ber die Versmasse des Pind. Heidelb. 1809. 8.— J. C. Fr. Gbtschel, Mythologies Pindarica? Specimen. Erlang. 1790. A.—Blondel, Comparaison de Pindare et d'Horace. Par. 1673. 12. — Fraguier & Mass ieu, Sur Pindare, &.C. Mem. de V Acad, des Inscr. n. 33 ; iv. 502; v. 95; vi. 283, 354. — Also Sallier, in the same work, Mem. 4"c. iv. 486 ; x. 352 ; and De Chabanon, in the same, xxxn. 451 ; xxxv. 386; xxxvn. 91. — L. F. Tafel, Dilucidationes Pindarica?. Berl. 1827. 2 vols. 8. Good in explaining words. — Vam-illiers, Essai sur Pindare. Par. 1772. 12. — W. Con- greve, Discourse on the Pindaric One, in 3d vol. of his Works. Lond. 1753. 3 vols. 8. — Dawes, Miscellanea Critica. Lpz. 1800. 8. (Sect, ii.) §61. JEschylus, a native of Eleusis, in Attica, flourished about 490 B. C. He engaged in military service, and acquired glory in the battles of Marathon, Salamis, and Platsea. He afterwards re- tired to Sicily where he died. His merit was very great as a poet in the department of tragedy. Indeed he was, properly speaking, the author of tragedy, as he gave it greater unity of action, introduced the dialogue (although the chorus still retained an important place), employed a more dignified style, and imparted a more noble and ele- vated character to the external representation. Yet we notice a want of completeness and finish in his plays. His efforts to present ter- rific or shocking scenes, with bold and uncommon modes of thought and expression, sometimes lead him into what is exaggerated, ob- scure, or unnatural. Nor can we find in him the beauties belonging to a full and regular method. 1. The birth of iEschylus is dated B. C. 525, and his death, 456. He is said to have made his first public attempt, as a tragic author, at the age of 25, B. C. 499. Six years after the battle of Marathon, he gained his first tragic victory, and eight years after the battle of Plata>a, he gained again the prize for a tetralogy (cf. P. I. § G6). — Different accounts are given as to the reason of his removing to Syracuse in Sicily. Some ascribe it to his disgust at be- ing charged and tried before the Athenians for profanation of the mysteries in some of his plays, although he was acquitted. Others assign as the reason, his defeat in a poetical contest with Simonides, and in another with Soph- ocles. Schlegel suggests (Dram. Lit. lect. iv.) that he retired from appre- hensions of the hostility of the populace towards him, because he had highly recommended the Areopagus as holding a check upon democratic violence. See F. C. Petersen, De /Eschyli vita, etc. Havniaj, 1816. 8.— Life of JEsch. in Stanley's edi- tion, cited below (4). POETS. iESCHYLUS. SOPHOCLES. 187 2w. Of 75 or 90 tragedies, which he is said to have written, only seven re- main. These are entitled U^outj&svg Seoudjnig, Prometheus vinctus ; TUqocii, Versa; ^Ercra Inl Qi'fiag, Septem contra Thebas ; * Ay auiuvwv, Agamemnon ; XotjyoQoi, Choephori ; "Evpividtg, Eumenides, Furies; 'IxinSag, Supplices. 3. The plots of iEschylus are very simple. His characters are sketched boldly. A lofty and grave spirit reigns in his poetry. Terror is the predom- inant emotion. His Prometheus bound is called his master-piece. A. TV. SchlegeVs Lect. on Dramatic Lit. lect. iv.— Edingb. Rev. vol. xxvi. — Theatre of the Greeks, cited § 40. — Character e der vornehmsten Dichter, &c. von einer Gesellschaft von Ge- lehrten- Lips. 1792. vol. n. p. 391.— Lond. Quart. Rev. in. 389 ; v. 203 ; xxv. 4. Editions. — B.—C. G. Schiitz, Gr. & Lat. 4th ed. Halle, 1809-12. 5 vols. 8. Repr. Lond. 1823. 4 vols. 8. with Lat. vers. The editions of Schiitz have been highly lauded by some crit- ics ; but an English reviewer has spoken in a different tone. See Mus. Criticum, vol. i. p. 109. Cf. Dibdin's Introd. cited § 7 (9), vol. l. p. 241. — S. Butler, Gr. & Lat. Camb. 1809. 4 vols. 4. ; 8 vol3. 8. Cf. Edinb. Rev. vol. xix. — A. Wellauer. Lips. 1826-31. 3 vols. 8. the 3d vol. a Lexicon JEschyleum, called good by Hermann. Repr. Camb. 1827. 2 vols. 8. without the Lexicon. — C. J. BlonificW s editions of the separate tragedies are ranked very high, and said to give the purest text. The glossaries appended to each are highly prized. The reprint of Bloomfield, Lpz. 1823 s. contains additions. F. — Princeps, by Aldus. Ven. 1518. 8. — F. Robortellus. Ven. 1552. 8. — Turnebus. Par. 1552. 8. — Victorias (printed by H. Stephanus). Par. 1557. 4. — Th. Stanley, Gr. & Lat. Lond. 1663. fol. It was very celebrated ; the foundation of Butler's. Pauw, Gr. & Lat. Hag. Com. 1745. 2 vols. 4. "to be shunned." (Dibdin.) — Foulis, Gr. & Lat. 1746. 4. &. 12. — Porson. Glasg.1795. fol. with designs by Flaxman. — See on this, Pursuits of Literature, pt. ii. p. 42. — Dibdin, i. p. 242. — r R. — F. H. Bothe, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1805. 8. not highly esteemed (Dibdin). new ea. 1831. 2 Vols. 8. " too bold in criticism." — I. Scholefield. Camb.1808. 8. — $ Schdfer. Lpz.1812. 8. — Pfiugk. Gothae (begun) 1835, in Rost's Bibliotheca. — C. Schwenk, separate tragedies. Lpz. 1818 ss. 8. — Cf. N. Am. Rev. xxm. p. 505. 5. Translations. — English. R. Potter (blank verse). Norw. 1777. 4. 2d ed. imp. Lond. 1779. 2 vols. 8. — For D. A. falboys. (prose) Oxf. 1822. 8 French. F. J. G. de la Porte da Theil, • (with original & notes) Par. 1798. 2 vols. 8. also in new edition of Brumoy , s Theat. Gr. (by Raoul-Rochette) Par. 1820 ss. — Marquis de Pompignan. Par. 1770. 8 German. J.T.L. Danz. Lips. 1805. 1808. 2 vols. 8. " too much modernised." —Gottf. Fdhse. Lips.1809. 8. " defective." (Fuhrmann.) — C. Ph. Conz, (met.) Choephori, Ziir. 1811. 8. ; Persse, and the rest, Tub. 1815. 1820. "good." (Fuhrmann.) — * TV. von Humboldt, Agamemnon. Lpz. 1816. 4. — * Droyen. Berl. 1832. 2 vols. 8. Italian. M. Mallius (with Sophocles & Euripides). Rom. 1788. 8. 6. Illustrative. — J. Meursius, iEschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, sive de tragcediis eorum li- bri n r. Lug. Bat. 1619. ; also in Gronovii Thesaurus Gr. tome x. — J. A. Starch, de ^Eschylo et imprimis ejus tragcedia, qua? Prometheus vinctus inscripta est, libellus. Gbtt. 1763. 4. — H. Blumner, Ueber die Idee des Schicksals in d. Tragoedien iEschyl. Lpz. 1814. 8. — Car. Fr. TVunderlich, Observat. critical in ^Eschyli tragoedias, etc. Gbtt. 1809. 8.— G. Hermann, De versi- bus spuriis ap. iEschylum. Lips. 1814. 4. — Burneifs Tentamen de metris (ab yEschylo) in chor. cant, adhibitis. Lond. 1811. 8. Cf. Edinb. Rev. vol. xvm. — C. F. Bamberger, De car- minibus iEschyl. a partibus chori cantatis. Bruns. 1832. 8. — Vauvillicrs, on Mss. of ^Eschylua in the JYotices des Manuscrits, &c. vol. i. as cited P. I. § 108. 2.—M. G. Fdhse, Lexicon Grsecum «in Tragicos. Lpz.1830. 4. Commenced; a collection of scholia & glossa? from the ancient gram- marians and of modern notes. Apparatus Criticus ad JEschylum. Halle,1830. 1st vol. the com- mentary of Stanley. 2d vol. Abreschii Animadversiones. 3d vol. to contain notes from various authors.—/?. TV. Bcatson, Index Graecitatis ^Eschylea;. Cantab. 1830. 8. — R. H. Klauscn, Theo- logumena iEschyli. Berl. 1829. 8. — C. G. Haupt, (iuaestiones ^Eschyleae. Specimina i — iv. Lips. 1828-30. § 62. Sophocles, born at Colonus, near Athens, was the greatest author in Greek tragedy, and not without honor as a warrior. He flourished about 450 B. C. He improved the tragic stage by intro- ducing a third speaker, and by limiting the office of the chorus, which, with him, appears rather as a contemplative spectator, than a real participator in the action represented. His tragedies have the merit of a regular and judicious plan, a striking truth in characters, and a masterly and energetic expression and play of the passions. They are full of feeling and full of nature. lw.*Of a great multitude of plays composed by him, we possess only seven : viz. "'Aiag it aony ocpuoog, Ajax Flagellifer, Ajax bearing the lash ; c W.ty.TQct, Electra ; 'Otdlnovg Tvqarvog, (Edipus King ; 'Arriyovi;, Antigone ; 'OidiTtog inl Kos.unu), (Edipus at Colonus; Tqu/'lviui, The Trachinian tcomen ; i?.ox- t»;t?/c, Philoctetes. The third of these, (Edipus King, is esteemed as the best. 1. Sophocles was about 30 years younger than iEschylus, and about 16 older than Euripides (§ 39). In early youth, it is said, he was beautiful in person, and made rapid attainments. His father, Sophilus* was wealtliy, and fur- nished him with the best advantages for education. At the age of twenty-five he brought forward his first tragedy, for a prize. It was in a memorable dra- 188 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. matic contest, in which JEschylus was a candidate, and Cimon and his nine colleague-generals, after their victory over the Persians near the Eurymedon, were the judges. Sophocles received the prize by their decision, B. C. about 468. He won the first prize in such contests twenty times, while ^Eschylus gained this distinction but thirteen times, and Euripides but a still smaller number. The unnatural ingratitude of his family, in attempting to deprive him of his property on the charge of dotage, furnished him an opportunity to acquire new glory ; he read before the court his CEdipus at Colonus, which he had just composed. In admiration of the piece, the judges not only rejected the suit of the family, but escorted the poet from the place of trial to his own dwelling. He died about B. C. 405, not long before the defeat of the Athenians at iEgos-potamos. Discordant and marvelous tales are related of his death. See Oott. Eph. Lessing, Leben des Sophokles (ed. Eschenburg). 1790. 8. — Charactere der vornehmster Dichter (cited § 61.), vol. i v. p. 86 F. Schultz, De Vita Soph, commentatio. Bed. 1836. 8. 3. Different statements are made respecting the number of tragedies composed by Sophocles. Suidas makes it 123. It is commonly judged that the true number is about 70. Many of the plays, which were ascribed to him, are thought to have belonged to his son Iophon and grand- son Sophocles. — He was called by the ancients the Attic Bee, to designate the sweetness and grace which characterised his works. See Besenbeck, Diss, de ingenio Sophocles. Erlang, 1789. 4. — SchlegePs Dram. Lit. lect. iv Scholl, Hist. Lit. Gr. vol. n. p. 30. 4. Editions.-B.— R.F.Ph.Brunck,Gr. & Lat. Argen. 1786-9. 3 vols. 8. repr.often;best,Oxf.l820. 3 vols. 8. Lond. 1824. 4 vols. 8. — * C. G. A. Erfuhrdt. Lips. 1802-11. 6 vols. 8. each volume one play ; CEdipus Coloneus was supplied in a 7th vol. by Heller fy Dodcrlein, with a Lexicon, in 1825. — G. P. W. Schneider. Weim. 1823-27. 8 vols. 8. with German notes ; and a Sopho- klusches Wortervcrieichniss. 1830. 2 vols. 8. F. — Princeps, by Aldus. Ven. 1502. 8. — Junta (Francinus ed.), cum Schol. Flor. 1522, 1547. 4. — Turnebus (with the Schol. of Dem. Triclinius). Par. 1553. 4. — H. Stephanus. Par. 1568. 4. — Canterus. Antw. 1589. 12. Repr. Lugd. Bat. 1593. Johnson, Gr. & Lat. Cum Schol. Oxon. 1705. 2 vols. 8. 3d vol. Lond. 1746. Reprinted, Lond. 1758. & Eton. 1775. this last edit, by J. Tweedic is most correct. (Dibdin, n. p. 412 ) — Capparonier (finished by Fauvilliers), Gr. & Lat. Par. 1781. 2 vols. 4. R.—F. H. Bothe, Gr. • & Lat. Lpz. 1806. 2 vols. 8. repr. Gr. 1827.— G. H. Schdfer. Lpz. 1810. 2 vols. — 1| G. Hermann. Lpz. 1824. 7 vols. 12. The first 2 vols, by Erfurdt. Repr. Lond. 1826. 2 vols. 8. — E. Wander, Gothse (not finished), 1835. in RosVs Bibliotheca. — § F. JYeue. Lpz. 1831. 8. — |j P. Elmsley. Lond. 1826. 2 vols. 8. Repr. with additions, Lpz. 1827. Of the editions of single tragedies, a few only can be noticed. — Ajax. B. Stolberg (with Scaliger's metrical version). Wittenb. 1668. 8. — J. G. Hoerius. Wittenb.1746. 8.—* Ch. Aug. Lobeck, 2d ed. Lips. 1835. 8. — Electra. (Gr. Lat. & Ital.) Rom. 1754. 4.— G. Ant. Ch. Scheffler. Helmst. 1794. 8. — CEdipus Tyrannus. J. H. C. Barby. Berl. 1807. 8.— P. Elmsley. Oxf. 1811. 8. impr. Lpz. 1821. — S /. Stuart, with Engl, notes. Ando. 1836. 12. — Antigone. J. H. C. Barby. Berl. 1806. 8. — j| F. C. Wez. Lpz. 1830. 2 vols. 8. — CEdipus Coloneus. * C. Reisig. Jente, 1820. 8. and 2 vols, of Comment, crit. Jen. 1822. 8. — J. Brassc, with English notes. Lond. 1829. 12. (in same manner, other pieces.) — P. Elmsley. Oxf. 1823. 8. — Trachini^:. J. G. Ch.Hbpfner. Lips. 1791. 8. — L. J. Billerbeck. Hil- desb. 1801. 8. Philoctetes. Buttmann. Berl. 1822. 8. — * J. P. Mattliasi. Alt. 1828. 8. — G. Burgess, with Engl, notes. Lond. 1833. 8. 5. Translations. — English.— PA. Francklin (bl. ver.) Lond. 1759. 4. impr. ed. 1788. — P. Pot-* ter. Lond.1788. 4. — P. Dale. Lond.1824. 8. — For D. A. Talboys, (prose) Oxf.1824. 2 vols. 8. — P. W. C. Edwards, Gr. & Engl, prose (Antigone, CEdipus Rex, Philoctetes). Lond. 1824-27. 8. French.— Dupuy. Par.1762. 4.—Guil. de Rochefort. Par.1788. 2 vols. 8. German.— Count Stollbcrg. Hamb. 1823. 2 vols. 8. — * C. W. F. Solger. Berl. 1808. 8. new ed. 1824. 6. Illustrative. — * F. Ellendt, Lexicon Sophocleum. Regiom. (Kb'nigsb.) 1835. 2 vols. 8. — J. G. V. Frohlich, Kritische Versuche iiber Sophocles Tragbdien. Mun. 1824. 8. — B. W. Beatson, Index Graecitatis Sophocles. Cant. 1830. 8. § 63. Euripides was born at Sal amis, of Athenian parents, B. C. 480. He was instructed in rhetoric by Prodicus, and by Anaxagoras in phi- losophy. Socrates was his familiar friend. He died B. C. 406, at the court of Archelaus, king of Macedon. His talent for philosophy and eloquence appears in his tragedies, which are strikingly marked by sententious passages and pathetic scenes ; in this respect he some- times violates tragic dignity. An easy and regular method is found in all his pieces. His characters are designed with exactness, and are less ideal than those of Sophocles. With much fidelity and truth in expression, he unites great richness and fullness. Most of his plays, of which he composed at least seventy-five, are lost; seventeen or eighteen however remain, besides some fragments, and the Cyclops, which was a performance of Euripides belonging to the satyrical drama (§ 44). 1. Euripides remained at Athens until within a few years of his death. He went to Macedonia on the invitation of the kino- Archelaus. Several causes POETS. EURIPIDES. 189 are suggested as influencing him thus to retire ; domestic trials, the abuse and ridicule received from Aristophanes, and public prosecution on a charge of impiety. His death is said to have been occasioned by an attack of some fero- cious hounds, in which he was so mangled that he expired not long afterwards. He was seventy-five years bid. For the biography of Euripides, see (besides the works referred to in § 47.) his Life by Barnes y in Pref. to his edition below cited (5.), and by Moschopulus, Thomas Magister, and Au- lus Oellius, found in Musgrave's edition ; and the anonymous Life in Elmsley , s edition of the Bacchm. 2. Euripides is said by some to have composed 120 dramas. A catalogue of those lost is given by Fabric ius (a). Those which remain bear the following titles: r Exu(it], 'OfJiOTTjs, ifroiviooai, M.t\8tia, c Trcno7.vroc OTeyavytpooog, Hyppolytus Coronifer ," A7.y.i}OTis , AvSQouu/tj, c Ixindsg, The Female Suppliants, 5 Iipiyivsia •f iv \4vAidt, i Iiptyivsia ->j lv Tui'qoig, Towudeg, The Trojan Women, Bu%xai, The Female Bacchanals, c HQax?.tt$ai, c E?.ivt},^I deperditor. dram, reliquias. Lips. 1824. 8. — FY. Osann, Epist. ad Matthieeum, de nonnullis fabularum Euripidis deperd. titulis. in Wolfs lite- rar. Analekten (vol. 2d, p. 527). Berl. 1820. — In same work (Analekten, vol. 2d, p. 392), iiber den Prologus der Danaae (one of the fragments above named.) 4. Bdckh, Gracce tragcedia? principum, iEschylr, Sophoc. Eurip. num ea quss supersunt et genuina omnia sint, et forma primitiva servata, etc. Heidelb. 1808. 8.—Hardion, sur la tragedie de Rhesus, in Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. et B. Lett. torn. x. — Class. Journ. No. xliii. — On different plavs. Land. Quart. Rev. in. 167. vii. 441. lx. 348. xv. 117. 3. Ancient authors refer to a production of Euripides, styled ^Etcixi'^hov, a funeral song, in honor of Nicias and others, who perished in the fatal expe- dition of the Athenians against Syracuse. There exist also five letters ascribed to Euripides. The letters may be found in the editions of Barnes, Beck, and others. — See Scholl, n. p. 64. The genuineness of these letters is discussed in R. Bentleifs Dissert, upon the epistles of Phala- ris, &c. Lond. 1816. first published in Wotton , s Reflect, on Anc. and Mod. Learning. (Cf. P. I. $29.) — Comp. remarks of Beck in the Glasgow edition of Euripides, vol. vii. p. 720. 4. In comparing Euripides and the other two masters in Grecian tragedy, it may be said, that he ranks first in tragic representation and effect; Sophocles first in dramatic symmetry and ornament ; and ^Eschylus first in poetic vigor and grandeur. iEschylus was the most sublime ; Sophocles the most'beauti- ful; Euripides the most pathetic. The first displays the lofty intellect; the second exercises the cultivated taste ; the third indulges the feeling heart. Each, as it were, shows you a fine piece of sculpture. In JEschylus, it is a naked hero, with all the strength, boldness, and dignity of olden time. In Sophocles and Euripides, it may be perhaps the same hero ; but with the for- mer, he has put on the flowing robes, the elegant address, and the soft urban- ity of a polished age ; with the latter, he is yielding to some melancholy emo- tion, ever heedless of his posture or gait, and casting his unvalued drapery negligently about him. They have been compared by an illustration from an- other art : " The sublime and daring iEschylus resembles some strong and impregnable castle situated on a rock, whose martial grandeur awes the be- holder; its battlements defended by heroes, and its gates proudly hung with trophies. Sophocles appears with splendid dignity, like some imperial palace of richest architecture, the symmetry of whose parts and the chaste magnifi- cence of the whole, delight the eye, and command the approbation of the judg- ment. The pathetic and moral Euripides hath the solemnity of a Gothic tem- ple, whose storied windows admit a dim religious light, enough to show its high embowed roof, and the monuments of the dead, which rise in every part, impressing our minds with pity and terror at the uncertain and short duration of human greatness, and with an awful sense of our own mortality." {Potter.) On the character of Euripides and his writings, comp. Schlegel, Dram. Lit. lect. v. — Char, vomehmst. Dicht. (cited § 61.2) vol. v. p. 335.— Anacharsis, ch. lix.— Clodius, Versuche aus der Literatur und Moral. Th. l. p. 72 Fr. Jacobs, Animadvers. in Euripidem. Goth. 1790. 8. — Same, Curae Secundae in Eurip. Lips. 1796. 8. — Levesque, Sur les trois Poetes tragiques de la 190 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. Grece. Mem. de Vlnstitut, classe de Lit. et Beaux Arts. vol. i. p. 305. — F. A. Schneither, De Etr- ripide philosopho. Gron.1828. 8. Euripides is defended from the common charge of misogyny in the work styled Hinterlassene Papiere einesphilos. Landpredigers, herausgegeben von K. H. Heydenreich. Lips. 1798. 8. » 5. Editions. — B.— Variorum, Gr. & Lat. (publisher, Priestley.) Glasg. 1621. 9 vols. 8. very highly commended by Dibdin ; the text of each play drawn from the most eminent editor of that play. — Beck, Gr. &. Lat. Lips. 1778-88. 3 vols. 4 \ Matthice, Gr. & Lat. Lips. 1813-29. 9 vols. 8. vol.i — m. Text, iv — v. Scholia, vi — vni. Notes, ix. Fragments. F. — Princeps, by Aldus. Ven. 1503. 2 vols. 8. (or 12. Dibdin.) — There was an edition of four plays, perhaps earlier, but without date, printed at Florence. — Hervagius. Basil, 1537, 44, 51. (three editions) 2 vols. 8. — Oporinus, Gr. & Lat. Basil, 1562. fol. — Canterus. Antw. 1571. 12. — Commelin, Gr. &. Lat. Heidelb. 1597. 2 vols. 8. — P. Stephanus, Gr. & Lat. Genev. 1602. A. — % Barnes, Gr. &. Lat. Oxon. 4 vols. 4. differently estimated by critics. — Foulis, Gr. & Lat. Glasg. 1797. 10 vols. 12. R.— E. Zimmermann, Gr. & Lat. Francof. ad M. (Francfort) 1808-15. 4 vols. 8. — F. H. Bothe. Lips. 1825. 2 vols. 8. — R. Porson. (Hecuba, Orestes, Phcenissae, & Medea) Lond. 1822. 8. — Same, with notes by Hermann. Lips. 1824. 8. — A. J. E. Pfiugk, in Rost's Bibliotheca. To detail editions of single plays would take too much space. Among the most celebrated editors are, O.Hermann, B ace h 33. Lpz. 1823. Al cestis . Lpz. 1824. Hecuba. Lips. 1831. .fee. — P. Elmsley, Bacchae. Lips. 1822. Medea. Oxf. 1818. — L. C. Valckendr, P h ce n i s s ae . (rec. ed.) Lips.1824. — J. H. Monk, Hipp olytus. Camb.1829. (cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. vol. xv.) Alcestis. Camb.1818. The following should be noticed : J. R. Major. (Hecuba, Orestes, Phcenissae, &. Medea.) Lond. 1833. 8. with Engl, notes. — § T. D. Woolsey, Alcestis (with the Prometheus of iEschylus, and the Antigone & Electra of Sophocles), in his Selection of Greek Tragedies. Bost. 1837. 2 vols. 12. designed for Schools and Colleges. The Cyclops separately ; Hdpfner. Lips.1798. 8. — Cum notis variorum. Glasg. 1819. 8. Gr. & Lat. 6. Translations. — German.— F. H. Bothe. (met.) Berl. 1800. 5 vols. 8. (new edit. 1837.) French. — P. Prevost. Par. 1783. 3 vols. 8. and in Brumoy's Theatre des Grecs. English — R. Potter. Lond. 1783. 2 vols. 4. and later. — M. Woodhull. Lond. 1782. 4 vols. 8. 1802. 3 vols. 8. — T. W. C. Edwards, Gr. &. Eng. prose. (Medea, Hecuba, Phcenissa;, Alcestis.) Lond. 1821-24. 8. — By a member of the University, (prose.) Oxf. 1820-22. 2 vols. 8. including Hecuba, Orestes, Phcenissae, Medea, Hippolytus, & Alcestis. 7. Illustrative. — C. Fr. Amnion, Diss, de Eurip. Hecuba. Erl. 1788. 4. — Fr. JV. Morus, Prog, de Phoenissis Eur. Lips. 1771. 4. — H. Blumner, Ueber die Medea von Euripides. Lpz. 1790. 8. — Bouterwek, de philosophia Euripidea, &c. in the Commentt. class, hist, etphilos. Soc. Reg. Scientiar. torn. iv. and in Miscell. Qrac. Dram. Cambridge. — C. A. Bbttiger's prolusi- ones ii. de Medea Eurip. cum priscaj artis operibus comparata. Weim. 1802. 4. 4. W. Schle- gel, Compar. entre la Phedre de Racine et celle d'Euripide. Par. 1807. 8. — L. Racine &. Bat- teaux, in Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. &c. torn. vni. x. xlii. — Henr.Aug. Zeibisch, Disp. qua mos Graecorum infantes exponendi ex variis scriptor. antiq. maxime Euripidis lone illustratur. Wittenb.1753. 4. — R. P. Joddrell, Illustrations on the Alcestis, Ion, and Bacchae. Lond. 1789, 90. 3 vols. 8. § 64. Empedocles, of Agrigentum in Sicily, who nourished about B. C. 440, may be mentioned here as a didactic poet. He was one of the most eminent men in his native land, and distinguished as a phi- losopher and naturalist. That from ostentatious pride he threw him- self into the crater of vEtna, is a fable; he probably died while jour- neying in Peloponnesus. lu. A poem in three books, on the nature of things (TZeoi (pvoewg rdv orrtov) is ascribed to him by ancient authors. It was imitated by Lucretius, and a fragment of it still remains. Another poem, called the Sphere (2cpaiQa,) was ascribed to him, but it is undoubtedly from some later author. — 2. Other productions were ascribed to him, particularly a number of verses under the name of Ka6aouoi, and a poem called ' laruiy.bg /.oyog. Some have considered him as the author of the so called golden verses of Pythagoras. In philosophy he was a disciple of the Italic or Pythagorean school. His Life is given by Diogenes Laertius. For his philosophical views, see Enfield's Hist. Phil. bk. n. ch. xii. § 2. (vol. i. p. 430. Dub- lin, 1792.) — H. Ritter, in Wolf's Analekten, vol. n. p. 411. — Cousin's French Trans, of Ten- nemann's Hist. Phil. vol. l. $ 108. — B. H. C. Lommatisch, Die Weisheit des Empedocles, &c. Berl. 1830. 8. 2. Editions.— B.—Fr. W. Stun, Empedocles Agrigentinus, &c. Lips. 1805. 2 vols. 8. Con- taining his poetical fragments, and also a view of his life, character, writings, &.c. — 9. Peyron, Empedoclis et Parmenidis Fragmenta. Lips. 1810. 8. The poem of the Sphere was published by F. Morel (Par. 1584. 4), as the work of Dem. Triclinius, probably author of the copy that fell into the hands of Morel. Shortly after (1587. 4) a Latin translation by Q. Sept. Florent. Christianv-s.— The original and the translation by B. Hederich. Dresd. 1711. 4.— Both found also in Fabricius, (Hailes ed.) vol. i. p. 816. § 65. Aristophanes lived at Athens about B. C. 430. His native place is not certainly fyiown. He is the only comic poet of the Greeks, from whom any complete plays now remain. Aristophanes POETS. EMPEDOCLES. ARISTOPHANES. MENANDER. 191 possessed a very fertile genius, a lively wit, true comic power, and Attic elegance. We are obliged, however, to charge him with bit- ter personal satire, and ridicule of worthy men, especially of Socra- tes and Euripides. This, it is true, was in accordance with the char- acter of Grecian comedy at that time, as was also his abundant con- tempt for the common religious belief. His plays furnish a valuable means of learning the state of manners and morals among the Greeks in his age. 1. He was probably a native of Mg'ma,. He is supposed to have died about 380 B. C, at the age of 80. Nich. Frischlin, Life of Aristoph. prefixed to Kuster's edition (cited below). — Fuhrmann's Klein. Handbuch. p. 163. 2 u. Of more than fifty comedies written by him, only eleven are extant. They are styled 'A/aqvsig, the Acharnians ; 'Innilq, Knights; Nnfi?.ai r Clouds; 2(ptj%eg, Wasps; Eiqt\rri, Peace ; *'Oovi&tg, Birds ; Avaiarqurtj, Lysis- trata; Qtouoyoqiutovoai, Females keeping the festival QeouoyoQia (in honor of Ceres); Burqaxoi, Frogs; 'ExyJ.tjOiuiovoai, Females in Assembly ; ffl.ov- rog, Flutus, god of riches. 3. In the ^AyctQrsig, the author attacks Euripides, and in the Otouoyonia- Lovoai and Burqa/oi also brings him particularly into view. Tt is in the Nty- tflttl that Socrates is ridiculed ; many have supposed that the poet merely in- tended to ridicule, under the name of Socrates, the sophists in general, and that this play had little or no influence in reference to the trial and condem- nation of that philosopher. SchlegePs Dram. Lit. lect. vi. vol. i. p. 203.— Scholl, Hist. Lit. Gr. vol. n. p. 95.— Mitchell's Translation, Introduction. (Cf. Edinb. Rev. vol. xxxiv. North Amer. Rev. vol. xiv. London Quarterly, vol. xxm.) — Harles, de Consilio Aristoph. in scribend. comoed. Nubes inscripta. Erlang. 1767. — Remarks on Aristophanes, and that part of his life which relates to Socrates. Lond. 1786. 8.— For a view of the character of Aristophanes and his writings, we add Char- ■akt. vornehmst. Dicht. (cited $61. 2.) vol. vii. p. 113. — Lond. Quart. Rev. vol. ix. p. 141. — Boivin, in the Mem. de PAcad. des jnscr. iv. 549— Lebeau, in the samewk. xxx. 29, and Dutlieil, xxxix. 203. — Levesque, in Mem. de PInstitut, C 1 as s e de Lit. et Beaux Arts, vol. i. p. 344. 4. Editions. B.— * Imm. Bekker, Gr. & Lat. Lond. 1829. 5 vols. 8. With Scholia, vari- ous readings, and notes of different critics.— Brunck, Gr.& Lat. Strasb. 1783. 4 vols. 8. Repr. Oxf. 1811. 4 vols. 8. with the Lexicon Aristophaneum of ./. Sanxay, as 5th vol. — Inverniz, Beck y & Dindorf. Lips. 1795-1834. 13 vols. 8. Vol. l. if. Text; m-ix. Notes; x-xn. Scholia; xm. Latin version, with Mitchell's Proleg. F. — Princeps, by Aldus, (Marc. Musurus ed.) Ven. 1498. fol. cum Schol. (9 comedies.)— Junta. Flor. 1515. 8 ; 1525. 4. (ed. Francinus.) — Cratan- drus (ed. S. Orynceus.) Basil, 1532. 4. {First containing 11 comedies.)— Zannetti. Ven. 1538. 8.—Froben. Basil, 1547. fol.— Mc. Frischlin, Gr. & Lat. Francof. ad M. 1597. 8.— JEmil. Portus, Gr. & Lat. Aurel. Allobr. 1607. fol.—Lud. Kuster, Gr. &. Lat. Amst. 1710. fol. Very highly esteemed. — Bcrgler, rather P. Burman (with notes of S. Bcrgler and C. Dukcr), Gr. &. Lat. Luc. Bat. 1760. 2 vols. 4. R.—C O. Schutz. Lpz. 1821. 8. Commenced ; never fin- ished.— Schcefer. Lpz. 1818. 2 vols. 8.—F.H.Bothe. Lpz. 1830, '31. 4 vols. 8.— T. Mitchell, Acharnenses, Aves, & Vespac, with English notes. Lond. 1835. 8.— Editions of separate plays cannot here be cited. Melancthon, Hemsterhuis, Harles, Kuinbl, Hermann, Hcepfner, and Elmsley, are among the principal names. Beck, Wolf, and Reisig may be added. 5. Translations. — German.— J. H. Voss, with notes. Braunschw. 1821. 3 vols. 8. Com- mended by Fuhrmann. French.— L. Poinsinet de Sivry. Par. 1784. 4 vols. 8.— A. C. Bro- tier, in the Theatre des Grecs. Italian.— B. Sf P. Rositini. Ven. 1544. 8. English.— Th. Mitchell. Camb. 1817. 3 vols. 8. With valuable notes and preliminary dissertations.— Cwm- berland (and others), Of the Clouds, Plutus, Frogs, and Birds. Lond. 1812. 6. Illustrative.— .Reisio-, Conjectaneorum in Aristoph. Libb. n. Lips. 1816. 8.— P. F. Kann- giesser, cited $ 41.— J. 6. Willamow, de Ethopceia comica Aristoph. Berl. 1766. 8.— J. Floder, Diss, explicans Antiquites Aristophaneas. Ups. 1768. 4.— The fragment of Plutarch contain- ing a comparison of Aristophanes and Menander.— Aug. Seidlcr, de Aristoph. fragmentis. Halle, Sax. 1818. 4.— Class. Jour. No. xxvin.— C. A. Bottiger, Aristophanes impunitus Deo- rum irrisor. Lips. 1790. 8.— P. Dobree, Aristophanica Porsoni. Cant. 1820. 8.— C. Passow y Apparatus crit. ad Aristoph. Lips. 1828. 12.— J. Caravella, Index Aristophanicus, &c. Oxf. 1824. 8. — H. J. Rbtscher, Aristophanes und sein Zeitalter. Berl. 1827. 8. § 66. Menander, born at Athens about B. C. 342, one of the later comic poets of the Greeks. He wrote numerous comedies (§ 43), of which we possess only slight fragments. The loss of Menander is the more regretted on account of the praise bestowed on him by Quintilian (x. 1). Some idea of his manner may be obtained, how- ever, from the imitations of him in Terence. Philemon is usually named in connection with Menander, as a contemporary and rival. 192 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 1. Menander died at the age of about 50 ; Philemon, a native according to some of Sicily, but according to others of Cilicia, lived to the great age of 97 or 99. The former was rather a voluptuary ; the latter was particularly temperate. De Rochefort, on Menander, Mem. Acad, fnscr. vol. xlvi. p. 183. — SchlegeVs Dram. Lit. lect. vu.—Dnvlop, as cited P. I. § 109. 2. 2. Editions.— B.—^. C. Meinecke. Berl. 1823. 8. Fragments of Menander and Philemon ; with Bentley's emendations. They are found in the collections cited $ 43. That of Le Clerc occasioned a bitter literary war. (Scholl, in. p. 82. Harles, Int. i. p. 489. Brev. Not. p. 226. >— J. 6. Schneider. Vratisl. 1812. 8. With ^Esop's Fables. § 67. Lycophron, a poet and grammarian, born at Chalcis in Eu- boea, flourished in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus, B. C. about 284. His performance styled Vi;.^u?EiSvUta, some of which are probably not genuine, and also twenty-two smaller pieces, chiefly epigrams. He was the most distinguished of ancient authors in the department of pastoral poetry. Virgil followed him as a master and model, but was his inferior in simplicity and fidelity to nature. 1. We cannot assert what induced Theocritus to remove from Syracuse to Alexandria, where he certainly spent part of his life. Some have stated that certain satires composed by him against Hiero exposed him to the vengeance of that monarch. Where and when he died is not known, although it has been supposed, that he retured to Sicily and suffered a violent death from the vengeance of Hiero. — Cf. Life of Theocritus in Polwhcle cited below. 2. The nature of the Greek Idyl has already been exhibited (§ 30). The Idyls of Theocritus are not confined to pastoral subjects. Of the thirty as- cribed to him, only fifteen can properly be considered as bucolic or pastoral ; viz. the first 9 and the 11th, considered by all as genuine bucolics, and the 10th, 20th, 21st, 23d, and 27th, which maybe put in the same class. Five are mythological, viz. the 13th, 22d, 24th, 25th, and 26th. Three have been termed epistolary, 12th, 28th, and 29th, bearing a slight resemblance to the epistles of Ovid, but having less of the elegiac character. They are called lyric by Scholl. Tico may be denominated comic, the 14th and 15th. The latter, ^vfjaxovniut, the Syracvsan Gossips, has no more of the pastoral in its tone than a scene from Aristophanes. (Cf. § 46.) Two others may be styled panegyrical, the 16th and 17th. And there are two in the collection, 19th and 30th, which may properly enough perhaps be called Anacreontic, being mere sanitations of the lighter odes of Anacreon. The remaining one, 18th, is a POETS. THEOCRITUS. BION. MOSCHUS. 193 genuine epithalamium, according to its title, c E?.ivtjg iTciQakaiuog. — The rep- utation of Theocritus is built on his Idyls. The epigrams would scarcely have preserved his name from oblivion. — One piece of a peculiar character remains, termed the Stiqiytj consisting of 21 verses so arranged as to form a resemblance to the pipe of the god Pan. In the Alexandrine age there was a depraved fondness for such odd and fanciful devices, in which the poet's lines presented the form of eggs, axes, wings, or altars. E. Hepner, De Theoc. Idyll, generibus. Berl. 1836. 4. pp. 19.— E. Reinhold, De genuin. Theo. carminibus. Jen. 1819. 8. For the character of Theocritus, see Elton's Specimens of Clas- sic Poets.— Charact. der vorn. Dichter, i. p. 89. — C. W. Ahlwardt, zur Erklarung der Idyll. The- okrits. Rostach. 1792. 8. — Eichstasdt, Adumb. quaest. de carm. Theocr. indole ac virtutibus. Lips. 1794. 4. — Hardion, De Theocr. in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. iv. 520. 3. The epithalamium of Helen has been thought to resemble the Song of Solomon, and some have supposed that Theocritus imitated the latter. Scholl opposes this idea, although there are passages in the Idyls containing imagery which might have been drawn from the Scrip- tures. The Septuagint version was made in the time of Theocritus. Comp. Idyl. xxiv. 84, with Isaiah, lxv. 25 and xi. 6 ; Id. xviii. 26-28 with Sol. Song, i. 9 and vi. 10 ; Id. xx. 26 with Sol. Song, iv. 11 ; Id. xxiii. 23-26 with Sol. Song, viii. 6, 7.— See Scholl, vol. in. p. 146.— Mat- ter, Essai sur l'Ecole Alexandrie.— Ch. Fr. Staudlin, Theokrits Idyll, und das hohe Lied ver- glichen, in Paulas, Memorabilien, vol. it. p. 162. 4. Editions.— B.— Th. Kiessling, Gr. & Lat. Lips. 1819. 8. " Perhaps the very best, up to the time of its publication." Dibdin. — Jacobs. Halae, (commenced) 1824. 8. Promising to be most ample. — E. F. Wustemann. Gothae, 1830. 8. pp. 435, with notes on each page ; prepared with the assistance of Fr. Jacobs, and forming a volume of his Bibliotli. cited § 7. 1. " Best for Amer. student." — J. B. Gail. Par. 1795. 3 vols. 4. With French version, and plates. New ed. 1828. 2 vols. 8. and volume of plates, 4.— Of previous editions, the best are, Th. Warton, Oxf. 1770. 2 vols. 4, and L. C. Valckenaer, Gr. &. Lat. Lug. Bat. 1779. 8. repr. (ed. Heindorf,). Berl. 1810. 2 vols. 8. F.—Princeps, (18 Idyls, with Works and Days of Hesiod.) Milan, 1493. fol. time and place known only by conjecture. Dibdin. — Second, by Aldus, (with Hesiod.) Ven. 1495. fol.— Junta. Flor. 1515, 1540. 8.—Calliergus, cum schol. Rome, 1516. 8. Thought to be the second Greek book printed at Rome. — Morel. Par. 1561. 4. — H. Stephanas. Par. 1566. In Poet. Princ. cited § 47 t. and 1579. 12. Gr. & Lat. With Bion and Moschus.— D. Heinsius, Gr. & Lat. Heid. 1604. 4. Repr. Oxf. 1676. 8. Lond. 1729. 8. 1758. 8. Martinus, Gr. & Lat. Lond. 1760. 8.—Reiske, Gr. &. Lat. Lips. 1765. 2 vols. 4.—F. A. Stroth. Goths, 1780. 8. Particularly valued for its illustrations of terms and phrases pertaining to botany and natural history. Dibdin. 4th ed. by Stroth and Jacobs, (for schools.) Gothae, 1821. 8. — Bodoni (ed. B. Zamagna). Parma:, 1791. 2 vols. 8. With Latin version. " Edition du luxe." ScJibll. B.—Dahl. Lips. 1804. 8.—G. G. Schafcr. Lips. 1810. fol. Splendid ; on basis of Valckenar's. — L. F. Heindorf. Berl. 1810. 2 vols. 8. Including Bion and Moschus, with notes of Valcken'ar, Brunck, and Troup J. Geel. Amsterd. 1820. 8. — Th. Briggs, Poetae Bucol. Graeci. Cambr. 1821. 2 vols. 8. Theocr. Bion, & Mosch. with Lat. version. 5. Translations — German.— Finkcn stein, Arethusa. oder die bukol. Dichter des Alterthums. Berl. 1806. 8. Containing a Life of Theoc— J". H. Voss. Tubing. 1808. 8. French.— Cha- banmi. Par. 1777. 8.— Gin. Par. 1788. 2 vols. 8. Italian.—^. M. Salvini. Ven. 1718. 12. With annot. by Desmarais, Aret. 1754. 8. English. — E. B. Greene. Lond. 1767. 8. — R. Pol- whele, (with Bion and Mochus.) Lond. 1792. 2 vols. 8. § 69. Bion of Smyrna, and Moschus of Syracuse, were contem- porary with Theocritus, as is generally supposed. The Idyls of Moschus belong rather to descriptive than to pastoral poetry, proper- ly speaking ; they have more refinement, with less of natural simplic- ity, than the pieces of Theocritus. The Seizure of Eur opa is, the most beautiful. The Idyls of Bion contain elegant passages ;" but they savor too much of art, and are wanting in the freedom and nai- vete of Theocritus. His principal piece is the funeral song in honor of Adonis. 1. Some have placed the dates of these poets considerably later than the time of Theocritus. Their era is perhaps a matter of real doubt. — Manso, Abh. von. Bion's Leben,in his ed. cited below. 3. 2. There remain of Mosclyis four Idyls, and a few smaller pieces ; of Bion, besides the piece above named, only some short Idyls, and a fragment of a longer one. These pieces have usually been published in connection with those of Theocritus ; and anciently they were in fact confounded with them. Schcll, in. p. 175.— C. F. Grafc, EpistoUe crit. in Bucolicos Graecos. Petropoli. 1815. 4. 3. Editions.— B.— Jacobs, Gr. &. Lat. Gothae, 1795. 8.—J. C. F. Manso. Lpz. new ed. 1807. 8. Gr. &. Germ, with notes. The 1st ed. 1784. inferior.— With Theocritus. Lond. 1826. 2 vols. 8. Gr. & Lat. with Greek Scholia, and notes from Kiessling, Heindorf, Scc—Valckendr, with Theocritus, cited $ 68. 4. F.—Princeps, in Aldus, with Theocr. Ven. 1495. fol.— The first ed. of B. and M. separate from Theocr. was by Mckerckus. Brug. Fl. 1565. A.— Vulcanius, Gr. & Lat. with Callimachus. Antw. 1584. U.—Hcskin, Gr. &. Lat. Oxf. 1748 — Schier. Lips. 1752. — Wakefield. Lond. 1795. Without accents. 17 194 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 4. Translations. — German. — Manso, as just cited. French. — J. B. Gail. Par. 1794. 12. ■ — -English.— Greene and Polwhele, cited $68. 5. § 70. Cattimachus, of Cyrene in Lybia, nourished B. C. about 260. He was a historian and grammarian, at Alexandria, patron- ized by Ptolemy Philadelphus, and by him placed in the Museum. (Cf. P. I. § 74.) Of his many writings we have only six hymns, some smaller poems, and a considerable number of fragments. His hymns exhibit more of study and artificial effort, than of true poeti- cal spirit. Quintilian, however, ranks him as the first elegiac poet of the Greeks ; and he certainly was imitated by the Roman Pro- pertius. 1. The Hymns of Callimachus are in elegiac verse. Five are in the Ionic, one in the Doric dialect. That addressed to Ceres is judged the best. Be- sides these, he composed Elegies, which were regarded as the chief ground of his reputation ; but of which only fragments remain. Another class of his pieces consisted of Epigrams, of which nearly 80 remain. Strabo refers to his Iambics and Choliambics, and some fragments of these still exist. Among his poetical works are named also three little poems; viz. *A%xtai, on the causes of fable, custom, &c. ; 'ExuZtj, on the hospitality shown by an old fe- male to Theseus, on his way against the bull of Marathon ; and^7/9t$, a poem directed against one of his pupils charged with ingratitude. Many prose works were written by this grammarian and professed teacher ; r Y7iouvi' lt uura, Memoirs or Commentaries; Kriotic v t/fwv y.ai rcuZswv, Settlements of islands and cities; Qavuuaia, on the wonders of the world; Movotlov, an account of the Museum at Alexandria ; Tliva% 7nxvro8artorv ovyyoaituuTixir, a sort of uni- versal Tableau of Letters, in 120 books, containing an account of authors in every department, methodically arranged, the first example probably of a his- tory of literature. Some of those performances, which were styled Ji$uay.a'/.lai (§ 47), are also ascribed to him. All these works are lost. — Scholl, in. p. 109. — Porte Dutheil, in Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xxxix. 185. 2. Editions.— B.—Ernesti, Gr. & Lat. Lug. Bat. 1761. 2 vols. 8.—C. J. Blomfield, Lond. 1815. 8. — F>-. M. Volger, Lpz. 1817. 8. containing the Hymns and Epigrams ; a good school edition. Volgcr promised a grand edition of all the remains of Callimachus. — C. Gottlino-, Goth. 1835. 8. in Rost's Bibliotheca. — Valckendr's fragments of the Elegies, by Lutac, Leyd\ 1799.8. F. — Princeps, of J. Lascar, Flor. 1495. 4. in capitals ; called by Dibdin, the edition of Jllopa, be- ing the 4th of the 5 extremely rare works printed in capitals by L. Fr. de Alopa. — Frobcn, Ba- sil. 1532. 4.—Robortellus, Gr. &. Lat. Ven. 1555. 8. — H. Stephanus, Gr. & Lat. Genev. 1577. 4. — Fabcr (Anne le Fever afterwards Madame Dacier), Lutet. Paris. 1674. 8. Gr. &. Lat. Her first effort in editing.— % Groevius, Gr. & Lat. Ultraj. (Utrecht) 1697. 2 vols. 8.-7*. Bcntleu, Gr. & Lat. Lond. 1741. 8. Cf. Mas. Crit. ii. p. 150. Class. Jour. ix. p. 35.— Faults, Glasg. 1755. fol. — Bandini, Gr. Lat. &. Ital. Flor. 1763. 8.—Bodoni, Parm. 1792. fol. in capitals, with an Italian version . 3. Translations.— German.— C. Schwenk, Bonn. 1821. 8. — ihlwardt, (metrical) Berl. 1794. 8. French.— G. la Porte du Theil, Par. 1775. 8.— P. Rhadel, with Lat. vers. Par. 1808. 8. English.— JT. Doid, Lond. 1755. 4.— H. W. Tytler, Gr. & Eng. Lond. 1793. 4. 4. Illustrative. — C. G. Gbttliwr. Animadv. crit. in Callim. Epigrammata. Jen. 1811. 8 J. G. Zierlnir, Disp. de ingenio Callim. Hall. 1770. 4. — Nachtrage zu Suiter's Theorie, otherwise styled Charaktere der vornehmsten Dichtcr (cited $ 61. 2.) vol. n. p. 86. 5. Phdetas of Cos, in the time of Alexander the Great, is sometimes mentioned in connec- tion and comparison with Callimarhus (<$ 29). — The fragments of his Elegies were published separately by C. Ph.Kayscr, Coil. 1793. 8". § 71. Aratus of Soli, afterwards called Pompeiolis, in Cilicia, nourished B. C. about 278. At the request of Antigonus, king of Macedon, he wrote an astronomical poem under the title of frunousra y.ai Jiocjiuetai. It was not strictly an origiftal, as the request of the king his patron was, that he should clothe in verse two treatises, the ""EronTQuv and the tfiairvpsva, of Eudoxus. This poem is memorable on account of Cicero's metrical translation of it. Of this transla- tion, however, only slight fragments remain. It was translated into Latin verse also by Caesar Germanicus, and by Festus Avienus. That of Avienus and a part of the other are still extant. 1. The poem of Aratus was much esteemed by the ancients. Cf. Ov. Amor. POETS. ARATUS. CLEANTHES. APOLLONIUS RHODIUS. 195 i. 15. v. 16. Quint x. 1. 55. Although he is charged with knowing but little on the subject of astronomy, many of the mathematicians wrote com- mentaries on his work; four of these are yet in existence. Delambre (Hist. Astr. Anc. i. p. 74.) remarks that Aratus has preserved nearly all that the Greeks knew of the science, at least so far as it could be told in verse. Schall, iii. 137. 2. There are three anonymous lives of Aratus, besides the notice of Suidas. On the later didactic poets of the Greeks, Aratus, Nicander, and Oppian, we may refer to the Nacht. zu Sulzer (cf. § 70. 5.) vol. vi. p. 350. 3. Editions. — B. — T. O. Buhle, Gr. &. Lat. Lpz. 1793-1801. 2 vols. 8. containing the versions of Germanicus and Avienus ; also Leontius de Sphara. — F. Ch. MatthUe, Frankf. 1817. 8. with Eratosthenes, Dionysius, and Avienus. F. — Princrps, by Aldus, in the Astronomi Vcteres. Ven. 1499. 2 vols. fol. Cf. Scholl, i. p. 50. Intr.— Micylli, Gr. & Lat. Basil. 1535. fol.— Valderus, Bas. 1536. 4.— Colinceus, Par. 1540. 8.—G. Morell, Par. 1559. 2 vols. 4.— Orotius, Gr. & Lat. Leyd. 1600. 4. among the more prominent of early editions ; the editor at the time, but sixteen years of age.— J. Fell, Oxf. 1672. 8. with the KaTuOTsQtOiiol of Eratosthenes. Repr. Oxf. 1801.8. (Cf. § 215.)— Bandini, Gr & Lat. Flor. 1765. 8. with Ital. metr. vers, by Salvini. Not highly es- teemed. R. — Th. Foster, Lond. 1813. 8. value not known.— Abbe Halma, with French trans. Par. 1823. 4. with the version of Germanicus, and Scholia of Theon ; also the Catasterisms of Eratosthenes, and the sphere of Leontius.— J. H. Voss, Gr. &. Germ. Heidelb. 1824. 8.— Ch. Buttmann, Berl. 1826. 8.—/. Bckker, Berl. 1828. 8. 4. Translations. — French. — Halma, just cited. German.— Voss, just cited. — O. S. Falbe, in the Berlin Monatschrift, 1806. Feb. & Aug. 1807. Feb. ntuvT/.r l c from the circumstance that, in order to enable himself, being poor, to attend the schools of philosophy by day, he spent part of the night in draicing tcater, as a laborer in the gardens of the city. He is said to have died at the age of 80 or 90, by voluntary star- vation. The Hymn, which still keeps alive his memory, is in hexameter verse, and contains some exalted views of a Supreme Divinity. EnfieWs Hist. Philos. cited § 64. 2. Vol. i. p. '376.— Scholl, Gr. Litt. iii. 335.— Diog. Lacrl. Lives of Philosophers. 2. Editions. — B.— G. Ch. Monike, Cleanthes der Stoiker. Greifsw, 1814. 8. — H. H. Cludius. Gott. 1786. 8. Gr. &. Germ, with notes. — F. W. Sturz. Lips. 1785. 4. The Hymn was first published by Fulv. Ursinus, Carmina novem illust. feminarum, etc. Antw. 1568. 8. — Again in H. Stepliamis, Poesis Philos. cited § 47t. — In R.Cudworth, Intellect. Syst. of the Univ. Lond. 1678. fol. p. 432. with a Latin metrical version by Duport. — In Brunck's Analekta (cf. § 35) and Gnom. Poet. (cf. § 31) and in other collections. An English metrical version is given in West's Pindar, cited § 60. See J. F. H. Schwabe, Specimen theologise comparativffi, exhibens K/.suv&ovg iuvov sic Jia cum disciplina Christiana comparatum, etc. Jen. 1819. 4. § 73. Apollonius Rhodius, B. C. about 125, was a native of Nau- cratis, or perhaps of Alexandria, in Egypt. The name Rhodius was occasioned by his residence at Rhodes, where he for a time taught rhetoric. He was a pupil of Callimachus, and became the librarian at Alexandria. 1. A bitter enmity existed between Apollonius and Callimachus until the death of the latter. Apollonius is said to have retired from Alexandria to Rhodes, from mortification at having been hissed by the partisans of Callima- chus at the public reading of his Argonautics. It was at a subsequent period that he was appointed keeper of the Alexandrian library, being successor to Eratosthenes. There are four ancient biographies of Apollonius in Greek. 1. Welchert, Ueber das Leben und Gedicht des Apollonius von Rhodus. Meissen. 1821. 8. 2u. His chief work was an epic poem, 3 Anyoravxixu, on the Expedition of the Argonauts. He imitated Homer, with talents much inferior. His poem, however, evinces great application, and has some beautiful passages, particu- larly the episode on the passion of Medea. Yet in poetical genius and style he is rather surpassed by his imitator among the Romans, Valerius Flaccup. 3. The poem of Apollonius consists of four books or cantos. The critics do not agree in their estimate of its worth, nor as to the comparative merits of the Greek original and the Roman imitation by Valerius. Schbll pronounces the latter superior to its model, in agreement with the remark of Eschenburg above. But in the edition of Eschenburg's work published after his 196 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. death, the opposite is asserted. Scholl, vol.m. p. 117.— Groddeck, in the BiblioUiek der Altcn Literatur und Kunst. St. 2. p. 61. — Charaktere vornehmst. Dicht. vol. vi p. 199. — 0. Th. Bloch, Diss, de carm. epic. Apoll. Rhodii. Havn. 1792. 8.— Quintil. x. 1. 54. — D. Balfoordt, De Apollon. Rhodii laude poetica. Traj. 1825. 8.— A. Weichert, Ueber das Leben und Gedicht des Apol. von Rhodus. Lips. 1828. 8. 4. Editions. — B. — Wellauer. Lips. 1828. 2 vols. 8. — Schafer. Lips. 1810-13. 2 vols. 8. with Brunck's notes ; and scholia. — Beck, Gr. ; r r>>jTon varietur, relating to the mysteries of Eleusis, which he had been accused of violating. 204 HISTORY OP GREEK LITERATURE. 2. His discourses are in Reiske, vol. iv. — Bekker, vol. i. — Dobson, vol. i. — Cf. J. 0. Sluitcr f Lectiones Andocideae. Lug. B. 1804. 8. — Hauvtmann de Andocide, in Reiske, vol. viii. p. 535. See Quart. Rev. vol. xxix. p. 326. — MitfordPs Greece, ch. xxii. § 2. (vol. 4. p. 96. ed. Bost. 1823.) § 102. Lysias, a native of Athens, son of Cephalus from Syracuse, lived between 458 and 379 B.C. He was a teacher of rhetoric. Many years in the early part of his life he spent at Thurium in Magna Grae- cia. Above 200 discourses are said to have been written by him, all in advanced life; only 34 of them are extant. These justify the repu- tation he enjoyed on account of the beauty of his style and his power in convincing and persuading. Cicero (Brut. 9) gives him the praise of having almost attained the ideal of a perfect orator; yet he is infe- rior to Demosthenes in simplicity and energy. 1. The father of Lysias removed to Athens on the invitation of Pericles, and belonged to the class of inhabitants termed 11 iroixot , metics, or foreign residents. At the age of 15, Lysias went out with the colony established by the Athenians at Thurium. Here he remained 30 years studying and practicing oratory. He then returned to Athens, and in partnership with his brother Polemarchus vested some of his property in a manufactory of shields, in which above a hundred slaves were employed. The wealth of the brothers became so great, that they were included among the 300 richest men of the city, on whom was cast the burden of paying all the expenses of the state. Their wealth at last exposed them to the lawless avarice of the thirty tyrants. Polemarchus was condemned to drink hemlock. Lysias escaped by flight. On the overthrow of the thirty, he returned to Athens and spent the rest of his days in the employment of a rhetorician. He lived to the age of 81. For the life of Lysias, see Taylor's edit, cited below. — Mitford, vol. vi. p. 46. — J. Franz, Dis- sertatio de Lysia. Norirnb. 1828. 4. 2. His orations were written for the use of others, and he is said to have spoken but one himself, that against Erathosthenes. The ALyoc, InirUyioq, ox funeral oration over the Athenians who were slain under the command of Iphicrates, is considered his chef-d'oeuvre. 3. Editions. — B.— J. Taylor, Gr. and Lat. Lond. 1739. 4 The Princeps, by Aldus, cited § 99. Given in Reiske, 5th and 6th vols. — Bekker, 1st vol. — Dobson, 3d. Separately, Au- ger, Gr. and Lat. Par. 1783. 2 vols. 8.— Alter. Vien. 1785. 8. 4. Translations. — English.— J. Gillies. Lond.1778. 4. French.— Auger. Par. 1783. 8. J. Franz, Monarch. 1831. 8.—C. Fortzch. Lpz.1829. 8. German. — Some of the orations, in Wieland?s Att. Mus. Th.L— Cf. Harles, Brev. Not. p. 139. § 103. Isocrates was born at Athens about B. C. 436, and died B. C. 338. He was a scholar of Gorgias and Prodicus. From his diffidence and the weakness of his voice he rarely or never spake in public. But he acquired great honor by giving instruction in elo- quence, and contributed thereby to the perfection of the art. More than other rhetoricians, he encouraged attention to the harmony of language. In this lies the greatest excellence of his own discourses, which are distinguished rather for accuracy and polish, than native ardor and warmth. Yet his school marked an epoch in Grecian elo- quence. He wrote partly as a master for his scholars, and partly for the use of others. There are extant 21 orations ascribed to him. 1. In youth he was a companion of Plato, and like him was a great admirer of Socrates. He is said to have died, by voluntary starvation, in grief for the fatal battle of Chaeronea. There is an anonymous life of Isocrates, found in the 2d vol. of J. C. Orelli, Opuscula gra»c. vet. sententiosa ac moralia. Lips. 1819. 2 vols. 8. — G. B. Schirach, 2 Diss, de vita et genere scri- bendi Isocratis. Hal. 1765. 4. — F. G. Freytag, Orator, et rhetor, gisc. quibus status honoris causa posiue fuerunt, decas. Lips. 1752. 2. The most finished of his pieces is that styled IlartjYVQiy.b?, i. e. a discourse before all the assembled people ; it was pronounced at the Olympic games ; ad- dressed to all the Greeks, yet exalting the Athenians as entitled to the first rank among the states. This oration, with jive of the others, may be placed in the class of deliberative, av(iSovi.tvny.oi. Four may be termed encomiastic^ iyxwuiaatixoi ; among these is the Ilava&tjvaCxog, a eulogy on the Athenians, one of the best pieces of Isocrates, but imperfectly preserved. Eight belong to judicial cases, loyoi dixunxoi ; one of these, TTeoi rijq uvridooecoc, De permuta- tione, or on the exchanging of property, relates to his own personal affairs. — ORATORS. ISOCRATES. IS.EUS. LYCURGUS. 205 The remaining three are parcenetic, jtaoaivsTty.bi. One of these, TFoo? Jru6- \iy.or, is by some critics ascribed to another Isocrates. That styled iVixoxiiye, and sometimes Kvthjioc loyog, written for the use of Nicocles king of Salamis in Cyprus, is said to have procured from the prince in return a present of 20 talents. Besides these orations, there is a discourse against the Sophists, Kara tmv ooiptoroiv. An art of rhetoric, Ti/vr h is also quoted by Quintilian. Ten rpistles, likewise (cf.§156.2), are preserved as having been written by Isocrates. Scholl, ii. 208. — Mitford, vii. 212. — Abbe Vatry, Les Ouvrages d'Isocrate, Mem. Acad. Inscr. xiii. 162. — J. G. Strang, Krit. Bemerk. zu den Reden des Isokrates. Coin. 1831. 8. — P. J. A. Schmitz, Animadv. in Isoc. Panathenaicum. Marb. 1835. 4. 3. Editions.— B.— W. Lange. Halle, 1804. 8. — Coray. Par. 1807. 2 vols. 8. entirely in Greek, with a preface in modern Greek, on the language and education of the Greeks. F. — Princeps, of Dcmtr. Chalcondylas. Mediol.1493. fol. — In Aldus, Rhet. Grsec. cited § 99. — Hieron. Wolf, Gr. &, Lat. Bas. 1570. fol. — P. Stephanus, Gr. &. Lat. Genev. 1604. 8. — W. Battle, Gr. & Lat. Lond. 1749. 2 vols. 8.— Auger, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1781. 3 vols. 8. not very highly esti- mated by the critics.— Given also in Bekker, 2d vol. and Dobson, 3d vol. Separate portions. — Panegyricus; Morus. Lips. 1787. 8. impr. by Spolm. Lips. 1817. 8. — G. Dlndorf. Lips. ,?826. 8. — De Permutatione (incomplete until the discoveries of a modern scholar, Mus- toxydes. Cf. Scholl, ii. 263) ; ./. C. Orelli. Zur. 1814. 8. — De Pace; P.J. Leloup. Mogunt. J826. 8. — Areopagiticus & Evagoras; G. E. Benseler. Lpz. 1832, 34. 8. — S e 1 e c t orations. $ J. H. Bremius, in Rost^s Bibliotheca. 4. Translations. — English. — J, Gillies, in the work cited § 102. 4.— S. Toulmin. The oration to Demonicus, in Sermons to Youth. Lond. 1770. 8. — Young. The Orations and Epistles. Lond. 1752. 8. French. — Auger. Par. 1781. 3 vols. 8. German. — W. Lange. Berl. 1798. com- menced. — A. H. Christian, in the Coll. of New Translations, ed. by Osiandcr, Schwab, and Tafel. (Prose) Stuttg. 1837. § 104. Iscbus, a native of Chalcis in Euboea, but resident at Athens, was a scholar of Lysias and Isocrates, and the teacher of Demosthe- nes. Born about 400 B. C. he probably died in the former part of the reign of Philip. He took Lysias for his model, but excelled him particularly in dignity and elevation. 1. Of 50 orations by Isaeus extant in the time of Photius, only eleven now remain. They all relate to the subject of inheritances Q.oyoi yJ.r^iy.ol) , and contain much information respecting the laws of heirship at Athens, the cus- toms relative to the adoption of children, to testaments and bequests, and almost everything connected with the transferring of property. They present, also, a melancholy picture of the fraud and cruelty frequently indulged by guardians, executors, and contending heirs. The style is full of nerve. De- mosthenes is said to have chosen him as a master in preference to Isocrates, on account of this trait. — Cf. Quart. Rev. vol. xxvi. 2. Editions, — G. F. ScliSmann, Isasi Orationes XL Gryphisw. 1831. 8. Ten of the ora- tions are in Reiske, vol. vn. ; one of them, however, the inheritance of Cleonymus, was first pub- lished in full by A. Mai. Mil. 1815 ; the eleventh, the inheritance of Menccles, was published by Tyrwhitt. Lond. 1785, 8. — They are given in Bekker, 3d vol. — Dobson, 4th vol. 3. Translations. — French.— Auger (with Andocides and Lycurgus) Par. 1783. 8. Eng- lish. — Sir Wm. Jones. Oxf. 1779. and in his Works, 4th vol. with valuable notes. § 105. Lycurgus, descended from an ancient Athenian family, died at an advanced age, B. C. about 330. He was a pupil of Isocrates and Plato, and a friend of Demosthenes. He was warmly devoted to the interests of the commonwealth, and was rewarded with the honors of the state. Of his orations, 15 remained in the time of Plutarch; but only one has been preserved to us, that against Leocrates for his deserting Athens in her distress, after the battle of Chaeronea. His oratory was marked by strong moral feeling and patriotism, without much effort to be eloquent. 1. He fearlessly resisted all the claims of Philip and Alexander, and was one of the orators demanded by Alexander after the capture of Thebes. His children, to whom he left no property, were educated by the state. It is sup- posed that one of the inscriptions, which Fourmount caused to be copied ^t Athens, is an account of the administration of Lycurgus, in which he received and expended, according to the inscription, 13,900 talents. Cf. P. I. $ 90. 7 (c).— Scholl, ii. 219. — Auger, Sur Lycurgue, Mem. Acad, Inscr. vol. xlvi, 364. 18 206 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 2. The oration is in Reiske, 4th vol.— Bekker, 3d vol. — Dobson, 4th vol. — Separately, Haupt' mann. Lpz. 1753. 8. R.— A. G. Becker. Magd. 1821. 8. — § C. F. Heinrich. Bonn, 1821. 8. — < t G.Pinzger, Gr. & Germ. Lpz.1824.8. with valuable notes.— F.G.Kicssling-, Lycurgi Reliquite, Hal. 1834. 8. — E. Mdtzner. Berl. 1836. 8. § 106. Demosthenes was born B. C. 385, in the Attic borough Psea- nia, and died B. C> 322, in the island of Calauria, by poison self-ad- ministered, in order to escape the vengeance of Antipater. Isaeus was his master in rhetoric, but he received instruction also from Isocrates and Callistratus. 1 u. His celebrity was much greater than that of any other Grecian orator, on account of the fire, vehemence, and strength of his eloquence, which he especially exerted in rousing the Athenians to war with the Macedonians, and in defeating his rivals bribed by the latter. We have 61 orations of Demos- thenes, and 65 introductions, which are probably not all genuine. The charac- teristics of this orator Were strength, sublimity, and a piercing energy and force, aided by an emphatic and vehement elocution. His peculiarities, how- ever, sometimes degenerated into severity. 2. At the age of seven he lost his father. His guardians wasted his property, and at the age of 17 he appeared before the courts against them, and urged his own cause successfully. Thereby encouraged to speak before the assembly of the people, he failed entirely. He retired and studied and toiled in secret for many years. At the age of 25, he came forward again and commenced his brilliant career. At the age of 63, having been driven from Athens by the hostility of the Macedonian Anti- pater, and pursued to his retreat in the island of Calauria, he terminated his own life by poison. It is worthy of notice that Demosthenes and Aristotle were born and died in the same years. «— The life of Demosthenes is given by Plutarch ; and also in the Lives of the ten Attic orators, ascribed to him. There are also two other Lives, anciently written, and a eulogy by Libanins. (cf.\$128.) — For a eood View of his history, see Scholl, ii. p.224; and Heercn, transl, bv Bancroft, p. 276.— Cf. A. G.~Becker, Demosthenes als Staatsmann und Redner. Hal. 1816.2 vols'. 8. Quedl. 1833. — P. A. Zimmcrmann, De Demosthene reip. Athen. administratore. Berl. 1828. 8. — A. Bovllee, Vie de Demosthene, &c. Par. 1834. 8. very good. — But Ranke, in the Encyclopddie of Ensch & Gruber, Halle, 1818 ss. said to be better. 3. Seventeen of the orations belong to the class of deliberative ; 12 of these relate to the contests between Philip and the Greeks, 3 styled Olynthiacs, and 4 called Philippics, the rest of the 12 bearing different titles ; the whole 12 were spoken between B. C. 351 and 340. Fortytwo are judicial speeches ; 30 of these relate to private or individual interests, where the case was termed dixy ; among them are the 5 pronounced against his own faithless guardians, show- ing plainly the hand of Isaefts in their style : the other 12 relate to public or state affairs, where the case was termed xttTifyeftta ; among these was the ora- tion IIsqI OTtjcfiLtvov, in which Demosthenes defends Ctesiphon against the ac- cusation of iEschines, and in making the defence justifies his own policy in reference to Philip, notwithstanding the disastrous issue of the battle of Chae- ronea; it is considered as the best of his orations, and a master-piece of elo- quence. Only tico of the extant orations of Demosthenes belong to the kind called demonstrative, both of them probably spurious ; one is the eulogy (i.Ti- Tacpiog) upon those who fell at Chreronea. — We have also six letters of De- mosthenes, five of them written during his exile, to the people of Athens. Scholl, ii. 231. — Mitford, vol. vn. p.107. ed. Bost, 1823. — Rochefort, Oratory of Demosth. in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vols, xliii. 1. and xlvi. 66. 4. Editions. — B. — G. H. Schufer, Gr. ^d'/.iiavSqov cvv&^y.wv, 'and the first of the two against Aristogeiton. 6. Dinarchus was a native of Corinth, but passed his youth at Athens. He studied philosophy under Theophrastus, and became celebrated after the death of Demosthenes and Hyperides. He acquired wealth by composing orations for others. Of 64 orations, only three remain ; one of these is entitled Kara jJtj/.iooSivovg. They are given in the collections cited $ 99. 2. Separately. C. E. A. Schmidt. Lips. 1826. 8. Cf. Ruhnken, as cited § 99. 1.— Sclioll, n. 931. — C. Warm, Comm. in Dinarchi orationes. No- rimb. 1828. 8. III. — Sophists and Rhetoricians. § 103. The term Sophist, as has been mentioned (§ 92), was originally ap- plied in Athens to those who taught the art of speaking. One of the earliest that attained eminence in this profession, was Gorgias of Leontium in Sicily, about 430 B. C. Prodicus of Ceos, and Hippias of Elis, flourished in the same period. '-All these," observes Mitford, " are said to have acquired very con- siderable riches by their profession. Their success therefore invited numbers to follow their example ; and Greece, but especially Athens, shortly abounded 208 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. v. r ith those who, under the name of sophists, professors of wisdom, undertook to teach every science. The scarcity and dearness of books gave high value to that learning, which a man with a well stored and a ready and clear elocu- tion could communicate. None without eloquence could undertake to be in<- structors ; so that the sophists in giving lessons of eloquence were themselves the example. They frequented all places of public resort, the agora, the gym- nasia, and the porticoes, where they recommended themselves to notice by an ostentatious display of their abilities in disputation with one another, or with any who would converse with them. In the competition thus arising, men of specious rather than solid abilities would often gain the most extensive esti- mation. Many of them would take either side of any question, and it was gen- erally their glory to make the worse appear the better cause." § 109. It is easy from this account to see how the name of sophist should soon become a term of reproach, as it did, more particularly after the time of Socrates. The term rhetorician was also applied to the same class of teachers. But a distinction has been made between the two words, which seems to have a just foundation. The term rhetorician is applied to those who simply gave precepts in the arts of composition and oratory ; the term sophist to those who actually practiced the art of speaking. In this sense the name of sophists is given to all the speakers we read of after the decline of oratory as already ex- plained (§ 96). After the supremacy of Rome over Greece, and especially under the emperors, there was a great number of these. Their talents were confined to a limited sphere, to the exercises in the schools, or discourses, lec- tures, and declamations before promiscuous assemblies, which formed a part of the public amusements. Some of them traveled from city to city, like modern lecturers, and received a liberal pay for their services. The various performances in which they engaged, were distinguished by different names, applied for the purpose ; e. g. iis/.iTtj, a declamation carefully written, in which the writer bears an assumed character; oraraatg, a little discourse or address, in which the writer recommends himself to another; oyjdiacua, an extempo- raneous speech ; diu/.t^ig, a sort of dissertation, &c. § 110. Between Augustus and Constantine there were several distinguished authors, who may be properly classed among the sophists, as Dio Chrysosto- mus, Lucian, and Athenreus. Lesbonax and Herodes Atticus belong to the same class. The emperor Adrian often exercised his talents in such perform- ances as employed the sophists of the age. Polemo, iElius Aristides, and Flavius Philostratus, may also be mentioned ; the latter is spoken of as an eloquent speaker. In thg time of Constantine, and afterwards, there were also numerous au- thors, whom we must refer to this class. Among them Themistius, Himerius, and Libanius, are the most distinguished. The emperor Julian may be properly ranked here. Subsequent to these are found many names, but none of much celebrity, except such as are known by writings of another class, as Basilius Procopius, Theophylactus, and Theodoras Prodromus. (§ 80). — Scholl, livre vi. c. 77. § 111. By rhetoricians, in distinction from sophists, are meant, as has been stated (§109), those who gave precepts on eloquence rather than attempted to practice it. Rhetoric, or instruction in the art of eloquence, originated in Greece later than eloquence itself, as Cicero has justly remarked : eloqucn- tia non ex artifcio, sed artificivm ex eloqucntia natum. Empedocles is commonly considered as the first Greek rhetorician who taught the rules of oratory orally. His scholars Corax and Tisias, about 400 B. C. are said first to have committed such rules to writing. Gorgias the Sicilian, and those termed sophists generally in the flourishing age of Greek letters, taught the art oi oratory. Isocrates a pupil of Gorgias, and generally classed among the orators, was a distinguished teacher of rhetoric, and had the honor of forming in his sehool the greatest orators of Greece. Antiphon, also ranked among the ora- tors, was a teacher of rhetoric, and wrote a treatise which is quoted by the ancients. % Gamier, Sur 1'art oratoire de Corax, Mem. dcVInstitut Royal, Classe d">Hist. et Lit. Anc. vol. n . p. 44. § 112. In glancing at the list of Greek authors on the subject of rhetoric, we find Aristotle, the philosopher, and the teacher of Alexander, one of the RHETORICIANS. GORGIAS. ARISTOTLE. DEMETRIUS. 209 earliest. Demetrius Phalereus occurs next. (cf. § 97.) After him we find none important to notice until the time of Augustus, when we meet the names of Gorgias, who taught a school of rhetoric at Athens (but must not be con- founded with the Sicilian above mentioned), and Apollodorus and Theodorus, who had rival schools, the former at Pergamus, the latter at Rhodes. What- ever they wrote is lost. The principal author was Dionysius of Halicarnassus, known also as a historian. After Augustus the eminent writers were Hermogenes and Longinus. Many other names occur, as Aphthonius, Theon, Numenius, Menander, Minu- cianus, and Aspines, who all wrote on some of the topics of rhetoric; only in- considerable fragments, however, now remain. Of the vast mass of composi- tions by the ancients on the art of speaking and writing, but a small portion has come down to us. § 113. Before noticing more particularly individuals of the class now before us, we will give some general references. 1. On the Sophists.— Enfield, Hist. Philos. bk. ii. c. A.— Gillies, Hist. Greece, ch. 13.— L. Cre- sollii, Theatruni vet. Rhet. declam. i. e. Sophistarum, de eorum disciplina ac discendi docen- dique ratione. Par. 1620. 8. and in Gronovius, Thes. vol. x.— G. JV. Kriegk, Diss, de Sophista- rum eloquentia. Jen. 1702. 4.— The Protagoras of Plato.— Hardion, as cited §99. — T.G.Walch, Diss, de Praemiis vet. Sophistar. Rhetor. efOratorum. Jen. 1719. 4. 2. Collections of the remains of the rhetoricians. — Aldus, Rhetorcs Graci. 1508. 2 vols. fol. — Leo Allatius, Excerpta graec. Sophistarum et rhetorum declamationes. Rom. 1641. 8. — H. Stephaiius, Polemonis, Himerii, et alior. declamationes. Par. 1567. fol. — Th. Gale, Rhetores Selecti, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1676. 8. repr. (ed. J. F. Fisher) Lpz.1773. 8.—Ch. Wah, Rhe- tores Graci. Stutt. 1831-36. 9 vols. 8. The most important precepts of rhetoric, drawn from Greek and Roman authors, in F. A. JViedeburg, Proecepta rhetorica. Brunsw.1786. 8.— Cf. J. Ch. Th. Ernesti, Lexicon technologiae Graecorum rhetorics. Lips. 1795. 8. — See also Sulzer's Allg. Theorie, vol. iv. p. 45. § 114^. Gorgias, of Leontium in Sicily, a philosopher, statesman, orator and rhetorician, flourished at Athens about B. C. 430, as a teacher of eloquence. Cicero celebrates his oratorical talents, but charges him with too great attention to the rounding of his periods. We have two declamations (,«***r«u) ascribed to him; a eulogy on Helen, and an apology for Falamccles. Gorgias was greatly admired, and honored with a golden statue at Delphi. He is said to have died B. C. 400, aged 108. Eschenburg, in the original of the above, represents him as known at Athens in the Persian war ; the trans- lation is conformed to the more common statements. Cf. Mitford, ch. xviii. § 1. — Barthelemy, Anacharsis, ch. vii. — H. E. Foss, De Gorgia Leont. Hal. 1828. 8. The declamations are given in Rciske, cited $ 99. vol. vin.— Bekker,*vo\. v. — — Dobson's Oratores Attici. vol. iv. 666. § 115. Aristotle, born at Stagira in Macedonia, B. C. 385, went to Athens while young, and became one of the most distinguished pupils of Plato. He was subsequently the instructor of Alexander the Great, after which returning again to Athens he founded the Peripatetic sect in philosophy. He died in Chalcis, B. C. 32*2. lu. His name belongs especially to the history of philosophy (cf.§191), but is introduced here on account of his treatise on rhetoric. This consists of three books, and is a work of much merit. His treatise on poetry, also, may be properly mentioned here ; it is a fragment of a large work. 2. Editions. — The Rhetoric, in Mdus, cited above, § 113. 2. — Rhetoric & Poetry, in the edi- tions of Aristotle's whole works (cf. $ 191).— Also /. Bek'ker. Berl.1832. 8. good. R h e t or i ca ; Goulston, Gr. & Lat. Lond. 1619. 4. — Battie, Gr. & Lat. Camb. 1728. 8. repr. Oxf. 1809. 8. — T. Gaisford, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1820. 2 vols. 8. — De ArtePoetica; Harles, Gr. & Lat. Lips. 1780. 8. — Tynchitt, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1794 & 1827. 8.— Grdfenhan. Lpz. 1821. 8. 3. Translations. — French.— Mbe Batteux, Poetics, in Les Quatrcs Poctiques, d'Aristote, d'Vida, de Despreaux, avec remarques. Par. 1771. 8. — E. Gros, R het ori c ,.Gr. & Fr. Par. 1822. 8. English. — Poetics; H.J. Pyc. Lond. 1788. 8. — Th. Twining. Lond. 1789. 4. 1812. 2 vols. 8. — R h e t o r i c ; Crimiain. Loiid. 1816. 8. §116. Demetrius Phalereus, of Phalerum, one of the harbors of Athens, flourished B. C. about 300. He was a pupil of Theophrastus, and by his eloquence rose to distinction. Driven by Antigonus from 18* 210 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. the authority at Athens, which he received from Cassander (§ 97) and had enjoyed for several years, he retired to Alexandria, where he was patronized by Ptolemy Soter. But being banished by the next king, Ptolemy Philadelphus, to a distant province, he put an end to his life by the bite of an asp, B. C. 284. Many works were composed by him, which are lost. 1. Demetrius is said to have suggested to Ptolemy Soter the idea of founding the Library and Museum of Alexandria. The displeasure of Philadelphus was incurred by his having favored the claims of an elder brother to the throne. Bait amy, sur la vie Demetrius de Phalere, in Mem. de PAcad. dcs Insc. tom.vm. p.157. 2u. There is extant a treatise on elocution, Iltoi t-nuiptiag, which has been ascribed to him ; but its real author was perhaps a later Demetrius, who lived at Alexandria in the reign of the emperor Marcus Antoninus. It contains many ingenious and acute remarks on the beauties of composition, particularly on the structure of periods. 3. Among the lost works, are a treatise on the Ionians, one on the laws of Athens, and another on Socrates. A little piece on the Apothegms of the seven Sages, is preserved in Stobaius, as having been written by Demetrius. Scholl, in. 241. 4. The treatise Hiql fQurjvt'tag is given in Aldus, Gale, and Fischer, cited § 113 Sepa- rately ; J. Q. Schneider. Altenb. 1779. 8. with a commentary. — F. Goller. Lips. 1837. 8. § 117. Dionysius Halicamasseus, in the time of Augustus, cele- brated as a historian,, was also a rhetorician. He wrote several trea- tises, which may be properly classed in this department. lu. Two particularly merit notice here : a work Iltoi avr&iaBwg orouurov, de compositionc verborum, on the arrangement of words ; and anothar styled Tiyvn titjTOQixij, art of rhetoric, which has come to us in a very defective state. 2. Two other rhetorical pieces of Dionysius were 7W nal.uuov Xaoaxri^Qic, Characters of the ancients, still extant, and LJtQt r6iv * Arrtxtiv jitiT&Qtav imoftvti- it annuo i, Memoirs of the Attic Orators, in three parts, of which we have only the first and a fragment of the second. There are also several letters, in which he criticises the style and writings of different authors. Scholl, iv. 316. — Ch. Leuschner, Pro Dionysio Halicarn. ejusque in rhetoricam promeritis. Hirschb. 1752. 4. 3. Editions. — For those of his Works, see § 247. The pieces on the arrangement of words, and on rhetoric, were first published by Aldus, as'cited ft] 13.— De Compositionc verborum; J. Up- ton. Lond. 1702. 1748. 8. ; better, G. H. Schafer. Lpz. 1809. 8. — Fr. Goller. Jen. 1815. 8. — in French translation, with remarks, Abbe Battcux. Par.1788. 12.— Ars Rhetorica; fZ. A. Schott, Or. & Lat. Lpz. 1804. 8. — Characters of the Ancients ; first in H. Stephanus, Dion. Hal. scripta qusedam critica. Par. 1554. 8.—Hohoell, Gr. & Lat. Lond. 1778. 8. with a dissertation on the use of the middle verb.— On the Attic Orators; E. R. Mores. Oxf. 1781. 2 vols. 8. — The Letters, in Ch. G. Krilger, Dion. Hal. historiographica. Hal. 1823. 8. § 118. Dion, surnamed on account of his eloquence Chrysosto?nus (xqvooorouog} y lived in the 1st and beginning of the 2d century after Christ. His birth-place was Prusa in Bithynia. After following the pursuits of a sophist, he became at length a stoic philosopher. He fled from the cruelty of Dornitian into Thrace, but under Nerva and Trajan lived again at Rome, enjoying particularly the favor of the latter. Of his writings, we have 80 dissertations or declamations on various topics, displaying much rhetorical ability. He is, however, often deficient in simplicity, and his style wanting in brevity and clearness. 1. The titles of Dion's discourses are given in ScholVs History of Greek Literature. That styled c Foiiiay.l>g is pronounced his chef-d'oeuvre ; it con- demns the custom practiced by the Rhodians of using ancient statues with new inscriptions in honor of their contemporaries. — Scholl, iv. 210. 2. The best editions are C. Morel (printer), Gr. & Lat. Par. 1504, 1623. fol. With a Com- mentary of I. Casaubon, and notes of Fred. Morel. The translation is that of Kirchmayer or Naogeorgus, also published Basil, 1555. fol — J. J. Rciske. Lpz. 1784, 1798. 2 vols. 4. A Ger- man translationof 13 of the discourses is given in Rciskc's Hellas. Mitau. 1778. 8. — English, some of the discourses, G. Wakefield, Lond. 1800. 8. RHETORICIANS. DION. HERODES. jELITJS. LUCIAN. 211 § 119. Herodes Atticus, a native of Marathon in Attica, was a distinguished sophist in the age of the Antonines. He was appoint- ed consul at Rome, A. D. 141. We have from him only a single discourse and some fragments. 1. The full name was Tiberius Claudius Mticus Herodes. After obtaining his education and traveling abroad, he gave public lectures at Athens on elo- quence. Such was his reputation, that he was invited to Rome as teacher to Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. He died at Marathon, A. D. 185, at an advanced age. His life is given by Philostratus . — SchOll, iv. 228. 2. The remains of Herodes are given in Reiske, vol. viii.— In Dobson, vol. iv. p. 555.— Sep- arately, R. Fiorillo, Lpz. 1801. 8. — The inscriptions of Herodes have been already mentioned (P. I. '§92. 4). § 120. Mlius Aristides, of Hadrianopolis in Bithynia, lived at Smyrna in the second century, and was held in great estimation as a speaker. 1 u. There remain from him 54 declamations (utXtral), which evince a suc- cessful imitation of the ancient masters in Greek eloquence, but betray also in the author too high an idea of his own excellence. We have also from him some letters, and a treatise in two books, entitled LJsol no'Ainy.ov teal uys- /.ot;j liyov, " Du style politique et du style simple." 2. His contemporaries considered him as equal to Demosthenes, and he was honored with many statues. Some unedited pieces of Aristides were discovered by Mai in a palimpsest or rescript manuscript of the Vatican. — SchOll, iv. 234. 3. Editions. — works ; S. Jebb, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1720-30. 2 vols. 4.—* Q. Dindorf. Lips. 1829. 3 vols. 8. With notes and scholia. — The Princeps by E. Boninus (print. Ph. Junta), Flor. 1517. fol. containing 52 of the ucAtrut, with the anonymous scholia termed vnu&iong. — Canter, Gr. &Lat. Genev. 1604. 3 vols. 12. The two books on style, in Aldus, Rhetores Greec- cited § 113. — Separately, L. Nomnann. Upsal, 1688. 8. The discourse atrainst Leptincs ; first by J. Morell. Ven. 1788. 8.—F. A. Wolf. Halle, 1789. 8.— 6. H. Grauert. Bon. 1827. 8. with the oration of Demosthenes on the same subject. § 121. Lucian, of Samosata in Syria, flourished in the second cen- tury. He at first engaged in the business of an advocate at Antioch, but renounced it for the more congenial employment of a sophist, and finally professed to embrace philosophy. He is said to have been procurator of Egypt under Marcus Aurelius. He was neither a pa- gan nor a Christian, nor did he espouse any sect in philosophy. He was distinguished by acumen, lively wit, and a power at ridicule and satire, which he often indulged too freely and wantonly, against men and gods alike. 1 u. Most of the numerous pieces which we have from him are in the form of dialogues. His Dialogues of the Gods and Dialogues of the Dead are the most remarkable. His pure Attic and tasteful style is the more praiseworthy from the circumstance, that he was not a native Greek. 2. Leaving Antioch, Lucian traveled in Asia, Greece, Gaul, and Italy, de- livering his discourses in various places, and afterwards settled at Athens. It was in advanced life, that he was put in office under Aurelius. " One of the chief characteristics of Lucian," says Scholl, " is that species of originality which the English term humour." — It has been supposed by some, probably without foundation, that Lucian once embraced Christianity and afterwards apostatized. In the pieces styled Iltq'i ryjq Ubob'/qIvov Ts?.avri;g and <£>i/.6na- raig, he makes unsparing attacks upon Christians ; the genuineness of the latter piece has been doubted. Scholl, iv. 248, where is a brief analysis of his several pieces ; given also in Anthon's Lem- priere. — G. Wetzlare, De state, vita, scriptisque Luciani. Macb. 1832. 8. — Cf. J. M. Gessner, De setat. et auctore Dialogi, qui Philevatris inscribitur. Lips. 1730. 4.— Wieland, Geschichte des Philosophen Peregrinus. Lpz. 1791. 8. 3. Editions.— B.— Hcmsterhvis (with J. M. Gessncr 8f J. Reiti), Gr. & Lat. Amst. 1743. 3 vols. 4. To which is added as a 4th vol. the Lexicon Luciancum (not perfect) of C. R. Reitz. Ultraj. 1746. 4. (The edition of Schmid, Mitau, 1776-80. 8 vols. 8. is a reprint of Hemsterhuis, 212 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE, with a brief selection of notes ; the Bipont edition, 1789-93. 10 vols. 8. a reprint of the same, without the Lexicon. — /. G. Lehmann, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1822-31. 9 vols. 8. Another vol. con- taining a Lexicon has been expected. F. — Princeps, (neither printer nor editor known.) Flor. 1496. fob— Second, Aldus. Ven. 1503, 1522. fob— Between this and that of Hemsterhuis were several. Cf. Scholl, iv. 280 R.—Fr. Schmieder. Halle, 1810. 2 vols. 8. A good edi- tion of Greek text ; a promised commentary has never appeared.— F. V. Frit-.sche. Lpz. 1826. ss. 8. The Dialogues of the Gods, and several other pieces have appeared. This promises to be an excellent edition. Of editions of select parts we can name but few. — Seybold. Go- tlia. 1785. 8.— F. A. Wolf. Halle, 1791. 8.— Gehrich. Gotting. 1797. 8.— Dialogues of the Dead, by J. Gail. Par. 1806. — /. G. Lehmann. Lpz. 1813, 1826. 8. — Dialogue of the Gods, bv Lehmann. 1815. 8.— E. F. Poppo. Lpz. 1817. 6.— Lucius, or the Ass, by Courier. Par. 1818. 12.— §F. A. Ch. Grauf, Somnium. Berne, 1836. 8. — K. F. Hermann, Gluomodo Historiam scribere oporteat. Fran'kf. 1828. 8.—K. G. Jacob, Toxaris. Halle, 1825. 8. and Alexander, Cologn. 1828. 8. with notes. 4. Translations.— German. — C. M. Wieland. Lpz. 1788. 6 vols. 8. French.— J. JV. Belin de Ballu. Par. 6 vols. 8. English.— Th. Franklin. Lond. 1780. 2 vols. 4. — T. Can: Lond. 1773-98. 5 vols. 8. 5. Illustrative.— -Jortin, Remarks, in his Tracts, philological &.c. Lond. 1790. 8 — R. Porson, in his Tracts &c. by T. Kidd. Lond. 1815. 8.— J. C. Tiemann, Versuch uber Lucians Philos. und Sprache. Zerbst. 1804. 8. § 122. Hermogenes, of Tarsus, lived about the middle of the 2d century. He left a celebrated work on rhetoric, consisting of five parts, which was written when he was about 17 years old. At the age of 25, he lost memory, language, and understanding. 1. Hermogenes lived to advanced age in this state, a striking and melan- choly example both of the power and of the weakness of the human intellect. The account we have of him is drawn from Philostratus, Suidas, and Hesy- chius. — The parts of his Tkyvi] nr t rooix}j were 1. Tfooyvuvuouara, Preparatory Exercises ; 2. Utoi oruoewv, On the states of the question; 3. LJtoi svoioscov, On invention, the most valuable part of the work ; 4. JIsqI idetor, Be Formis ; 5. Jlsoi ua&6Sov dsivuTtjTo;, De ejfectu. This work was long used as a text-book in the schools of rhetoric, and several commentaries were written upon it. 2. Under the title which the first part of Hermogenes bears, there exist two separate rhetorical works of two later authors ; viz. the Ilooyvuruauara of Aphthonius, based upon or extracted from Hermogenes, and the IlQoyvuvuo- uura of Theon, explaining the principles of both the preceding. — Scholl, iv. 322, ss. 3. The 1st part of Hermogenes was published first by Heercn in the Bibl. der alten Lit. u. Kunst. viii. and ix. — Afterwards in Class. Journal (v.-vm.), 1812. — Separately; G. Vesen- meer. Nuremb. 1812. 8 Aug. Krchl, (with works of Priscian.) Lpz. 1819. 2 vols. 8. The other 4 parts were printed first by Aldus, as cited § 113. The best editions are J. Sturmius, Gr. & Lat. Strasb. 1570, '71. 4 vols. 8.— and G. Laurentius, Gr. l t^q xavrov Tvxijg, which is placed among his discourses. Sckiill, vi. 159. — See also Gibbon, Rom. Emp. ch. xxiv. — Tillcmont, Hist, des Empereurs, tome iv. p. 571. — Lardner, Heathen Testimonies, vol. iv. p. 576. 3. Scholl gives the Greek title? of above 60 of the Declamations. In the Rhetorical Examples are 13 sections, each devoted to examples of a separate kind. The Letters are about 2000 ; some of them to Christian Fathers ; Basil and Chrysostom both were pupils of Libanius. He left also Arguments to the Orations of Demosthenes, which are usually given in the editions of this orator. 4. There is no edition of the whole icorks of Libanius. The most complete edition of the Declamations is that of J. J. Reiske, AJtettb. 1791—97. 4 vols. 8. published after his death by his widow. It contains the Rhetorical Exercises. — Two additional discourses have been since published, one by Ch. Sicbenkees, in his Anecdota Grceca, Norimb. 1798. 8 ; the other by A. Mai, in his Fronto, Milan, 1815. 8 ; Rome, 1823.- The most complete edition of the Letters is that of J. Ch. Wolf. Amst. 1738. fol. — In the libraries of Spain are discourses and probably other Writings of Libanius hitherto unpublished. There is a German translation of 5 of the Dis- courses, by the wife of Reiske, in the Hellas, Lpz. 1791. IV. — Gramm avian s . § 129. Next to the rhetoricians, it will be proper to notice the writers called grammarians, rQauuuTixoi. This class included not only such as treated of the subjects now comprehended under mere grammar, but all who devoted themselves to any of the various branches of philology. (P, I. § 71.) This department of study began to be more specially cultivated in the period after Alexander, and particularly at Alexandria. It was in this period that cata- logues were first formed of authors regarded as classical ; these catalogues Were called canons. § 130. The works of these grammarians were of various kinds. Among them were the following; J loq&ojoeic, revisions of the text of classical au- thors ; 'YTtoitv^uaTu and *E%rry*\o»i$, commentaries ; Syiita, explanatory notes; Ztrr^fiaxa, Jioetc, investigations and solutions of particular difficulties ; D.^a- aai and J.iceic, which treated of dialectic and peculiar forms and single words ; Svfiuixta, collections of similar phrases and passages from different authors. Some wrote upon the subject of grammar in the most limited sense ; some upon different specific topics included in it, as syntax, metre, dialects, and the like. These authors undoubtedly exerted considerable influence upon the language and literature of their own and subsequent times ; and their works are of value to us, as containing much information respecting earlier periods and authors. § 131. The most distinguished that flourished before the fall of Corinth, B. C. 146, were Zenodotus, founder of the first school of grammar at Alex- andria, Aristophanes of Byzantium his disciple, and Aristarchus of Samo- thrace, a disciple of Aristophanes. The latter was especially celebrated, (cf. Hor. Art. Poet. 450) ; so that his name became a common designation for an eminent critic. Crates, Philemon, Artemidorus, and Sosibius are names which occur also in this period. That of Zoilus has been preserved as a com- mon name for a severe and captious critic ; he made himself notorious, in an age abounding with admirers of Homer, by his criticisms and declamations against that poet, and thus gained the epithet Homeromastix. Whatever the grammarians of this age composed, nothing remains to us but trivial and scat- tered fragments. — Scholl, livre iv. ch. xxxv. In the next period of Grecian literature, particularly after the time of Au- gustus, the list of grammarians is altogether larger. Only a few names can $16 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. here be given. Of those who may be called lexicographers, Apollonius sur- named the Sophist, Erotianus, Timaeus, and Julius Pollux are the principal. Tryphon, son of Ammonius, Phrynicus the Arabian, and iElius Moeris wrote on dialects. Among the scholiasts and commentators may be mentioned Pto- emy VII., Didymus, Apion, and Epaphrpditus. Of the writers on different topics of grammar, we may select Dionysius Thrax, Tryphon above named; Apollonius Dyscolus, and his son Herodianus, Arcadius of Antioch, author of a treatise on accents, and Hephasstion, whose Manual on Metres comprises nearly all that is known on the subject. Some of the above mentioned will be noticed separately. — Scholl, livre v. ch. lix. § 132. After the time of Constantine letters continued to be cultivated by the grammarians. Constantinople was now the seat of erudition. A sort of Uni- versity was founded here, in which all the branches of human knowledge were professedly taught. The teachers or professors were styled OlxovficvixoL A valuable library was also established. Philology in its various parts was among the sciences taught by the (ecumenical professors. These studies were not re- nounced with the destruction of the library and the decline of the royal college, but were continued with more or less attention until the final capture of the city by the Turks. The writers during this long period were very numerous ; only a few have acquired celebrity ; while many of their productions yet re- main in manuscript. The names and works of the most important authors will be given below. It may be proper to observe here, that the Greek literati, who fled from Constantinople on its capture in 1453, and exerted an important influence on the study of Greek letters in Italy and western Europe, belonged chiefly to the class denominated grammarians. Their labors, in their new asylums in the west, were chiefly of a philological character. Cf. § 7. 2. §133/. We shall place here some general references, and then pro- ceed to notice separately a few of the Grammarians. Lexicographical Collections. — Aldine, Dictionarium Gracum, &c. Ven. 1497. fol. — Dictionarium Gracum, &c. Ven. 1524. fol.— H. Stephanus, Glossaria duo e sinu vetustatis tj roauuciTixi) f Dio- nysius Thrax, who lived at Alexandria, B. C. about 60.— published in Fabricius, Bibl.Gr. (Har- tes ed. vol. vi.) — in Villoison, and Bekker, as cited § 133. § 136. yiElius Hcrodianus was a son of the Apollonius just men- tioned. He enjoyed the favor of the emperor Marcus Aurelius An- toninus, There was another person of the same name, who was a historian, and must not be confounded with the grammarian. 1m. Of many works written by the latter, the treatise Ilsal uoviloovg ?JUi»? appears to be the only one that has been preserved entire. 2. This treatise is found in Dindorf, as cited $133. — The titles of several other treatises are given by Schbll, v. 28. Fragments of some of which are given in Bekker, and Villoison, as cited § 133. and in O. Hermann, De emendanda ratione gram. Gr. Lips. 1801. 8. — The piece styled *E7CiueQiOuoi was published by Edw. H. Becker. Lond. 1819. 8. — Cf. Schbll, v. p. 27. § 137. Julius Pollux (for Polydeuces, no/.vdtvx^g^ of Naucratis in Egypt, flourished in ihe 2d century, at Athens. He was in profession a sophist, but is chiefly known by his Greek Dictionary. \u. It is entitled "Ovouaanxhv. This work is divided into 10 books, accord- ing to subjects. It is very useful, not only in illustrating Greek words and phrases, but also in explaining many subjects of general antiquities. 2. The following are some of the topics of the books respectively. 1. Gods, Kings ; Commerce, Mechanic Arts ; Houses ; Things relating to War ; Agri- culture. 2. Age of Men ; Members and parts of the Human Body. 3. Fam- ily Relations, Friends ; Travels ; Roads, Rivers. 4. Sciences. 5. Animals ; the Chase. 6. Repasts; Crimes. 7. Of various Trades. 8. Things relating to the administration of Justice. 9. Cities, Edifices, Money, Games. 10. Fur- niture, Utensils, &c. 3. Editions. — B. — W. Dindorf. Lpz. 1824. 2 vols. 8. " The 4th & 5th volumes comprise the entire hody of notes by the preceding editors." F. — Princeps, by Aldus. Ven. 1502. fol. — Junta- Flor. 1520. fol. — Seber. Francf. 1608. 4. with the Latin version first published bv Walthcr. Bas. 1541. 8.— T. H. Lcderlin f 7'. Hemsterhuis. Amst.1706. 2 vols. fol. with a valuable Preface by the latter, on the use of the Dictionary. 4. We have before named (§131) as lexicographers, in the period of Greek literature designated by the epithet Roman (§9), three authors besides Pollux : Apollonius Sophistes, in the time of Augustus, from whom we have a (a) Ho- meric Lexicon, Jt^eig r OinjQixai ; Erotian, in the time of Nero, from whom we have a (b) Glossary to Hippocrates ; Timams, who lived later, in the end of the 3d century, and from whom we have a (c) Platonic Lexicon, Aizsig n/.arwixui. (a) Published by Villoison. Par. 1773. 2 vols. 4.— by H. ToUius. Leyd.1788. 8. — (b) Published by Franz. Lpz. 1780. 8. — (c) Published by Ruhnken'. Leyd. 1754. 8. impr. repr. by W. A. Koch. Lpz. 1828. § 138. JElius Mozris, surnamed the Atticist, flourished about A. D. 190. His work, styled jiUts 3 ArnxSv «**' EUfrwv, is preserved. 1. Editions.— B — W. A. Koch. Lips. 1830, 8. with useful notes. F.— The first, by J. Hud- son. Oxf. 1712. 8. — next, J. Fischer. Lpz. 1756. 8. with the Lexicon of TiniEeus. — J. Pierson. Leyd. 1759. 8. J. Bekker (with Harpocration). Berl. 1833. 8. mere text. 2. Tryphon and Phrynicus the Arabian were mentioned (§131) in connec- tion with Mceris, as having also written on dialects. There are some remains from them noticed by Scholl (v. 11). The principal is the JJooTraoaoxevt) oo- ipiorixi), 'Apparatus soph istique,' of Phrynicus, in the latter part of the 2d cen- tury ; published by Bekker, as cited § 133. vol. I. § 139. Harpocration, of Alexandria, probably flourished as a con- temporary of Libanius, in the 4th century. He was the author of a Lexicon entitled MUh r£v dsxa r *»;Toowi , useful in reference to the Greek language generally, and the Attic orators in particular. Published by Aldus (with Ulpian's Comrrk) Ven. 1503. fol. — Blancard. Leyd. 1683. 4. — Bet- ter, by J. Gronov. Leyd. 1696. 4. — A new edition, Lips. 1824. 2 vols. 8. — Later, by J. Bekker. Berl. 1833. 8. §140. Hesychius lived at Alexandria, as is generally supposed, to- wards the close of the 4th century. He compiled a Greek Lexicon or 19 218 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. Glossary, from the more ancient grammarians, and illustrated his se- lections by examples from the best Greek authors. Additions were made to this work by later hands, among which are probably the nu- merous theological glosses (glosses sacrce). Perhaps, in its present state, it is the work as enlarged by some Christian author. Editions. — B. — ./. Alberti (completed by Ruhnken). Leyd. 1774-76. 2 vols?, fol. A kind of Sup- plement is the work of Nic. Schow. Lips.1792. 8. exhibiting the results of a collation of ' Albert? s edition with the only existing manuscript, that in the library of St. Mark at Venice. — A new edition has been expected from Gawford. F. — Princeps, by Aldus. Ven. 1514. fol. (ed. M. Muslims). — Junta. Flor. 1520. fol. — Schrevelius. Leyd. 1688. 4. — The glossm sacra were collected by J. C. G. Ernesti. Lpz. 1785. 8. with a Supplement, 1786. 8. See Schleusner, Observ. in Suid. et Hesychium. Wittemb. 1810. 4.—Schbll, vi. 282. 2. The author of the Lexicon must not be confounded with Hesychius of Miletus, in the 6th century, under Justinian, from whom we have some remains not very important. Published by J. Orelli. Lpz. 1820. S.— ScWll, vi. 404. vn. 75. § 141. Ammonius, of Alexandria, probably lived in the latter part of the 4th century. He is said to have been an Egyptian priest, and to have fled from Constantinople on the destruction of the pagan tem- ples. He was the author of a work entitled ntni opohop xai faatptyw z.^ewr. It is a work of some value in the criticism of words. It was published in Aldus, in the Dictionarium etc. cited § 133. — H. Stephanus, in Append, to his Thesaurus, cited $ 7. 3. — Given also in Scapula's Lexicon, cited $ 7. 3. — The best edition is Valckendr. Lug. Bat. 1739. 4. Repr. (ed. Scfidfer). Lpz. 1822. 8. — A good abridgment of Valckendr'' s, by C. F. Amman. Erlang.1787.8. A French translation, by A. Pillon. Par.1824. 8. There is a treatise by Ammonius, Ut a I ' AxvQo/.oy iaq ,On improper use of words, never printed, §142. Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople, died A. D. 891. He may be placed in the class of writers now under notice, although he was a man of letters in general, rather than a grammarian. 1 u. His ]\lv Exlfh &«y V. Obsopaus (printer Hervagius). Bas. 1534. 4. from a manuscript obtained from a soldier who took it at the pillage of the library of Matthias Corvinus, at Buda, in 1526. (Schdll, vi. 229.) — J. Comvielin. Heidelb. 1596. 8. with the Latin version of a Pole named Warsiewicki, first printed Bas. 1552. fol. — J. Bourdelot. Par. 1619. 8. erroneous. Repr. without correct. Lpz. 1772. 8. ed. Schmid. — The edition of Mitscherlich, Gr. &. Lat. in 2d vol. of the Scriptores Erotici, cited § 152. 2. is better The best is said to be by D. Coray. Par. 1804. 2 vols. 8. with notes, &c. all" in Greek. Repr. Lpz. 1805. 2 vols. 8. 2. Translations. — German.— Meinhard. Lpz. 1767. 2 vols. 8.— K. W. GaMling. Fran kf. 1822. 8. French.— Mercier, in the Biblioth. des Romans, cited $152. 2. English.— (Anonymous). Lond. 1791. 2 vols.. 12 — On Heliodorus, cons. Schdll, vi. 228. For. Quart. Rev. No. ix. § 161. Achilles Tatius was a native of Alexandria, but of an un- certain age, although commonly placed in the 3d century, before He- liodorus. His history is almost entirely unknown. 1 u. He composed a romance, in 8 books, entitled Ta xara Asvx'ircTcriv xai KZeiToyfirTa, or the story of Leucippe and Clitophon. It is not without inge- nuity and invention, and the style is agreeably animated, although its excel- lence is marred by frequent affectation of beauty and ornament. 2. Editions. — Princeps, by ./. Commelin (ed. Bonnvitius). Heidelb. 1601. 8. with Latin version of Croce (Cruceus) that had been previously published, and Longus. — Salmasius. Leyd.1640. 12. — B. Oottl. L. Boden. Lpz. 1776. 8.— Mitscherlich, as cited $152. 2.— Fr. Jacobs, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1821. 2 vols. 8. the best edition. 3. Translations. — German.— Ast # Gtildenapfel. Lpz.1802. 8. French. — Mercier, in 2d vol. of Biblioth. des Rom. cited $152. 2. — There are several others. English. — (Anonymous) Lond. 1720. 12. — See Scholl, vi. 232. — For. Quart. Rev. No. ix. — VMcmain, as cited $152. 2. § 162. Longus was a sophist of the 4th or 5th century. He is the best erotic writer of the Greeks (§151). His romance in 4 books, commonly called the Pastorals of Daphnis and Chloe, is an attrac- tive work, written with care, but sometimes too exact, and having some passages which are exceptionable on account of their freedom. 1. The period when this writer lived is wholly uncertain; the name is not mentioned by any ancient writer, and is by some supposed to have originated in mistake. The celebrated manuscript, now existing at Florence, does not name the author of the work, but bears the title Jtaftiaxcov *oom*<5v ?.6yoi - t'7? rov navrbg qn'oawc, On the nature of things. If genuine, it must have been written in the Doric dialect, and been changed into the common by some gramma- rian of subsequent times. Notwithstanding all its errors, it evinces much acumen, and contains some very valuable precepts upon edu- cation. Yet it is quite probably the work of a later author. 1. The question of the genuineness of this work has been much agitated. The conflicting opinions are examined by Rudolphi, in a Dissertation in his edition of the work. He ascribes it to Ocellus.— Scltoll, vol. u. p. 311. 2. Editions. Best ; Abbe Battcux, Gr. & Fr. Par. 1768. 3 vols. 12.— ./S. F. TV. Rudolphi. Lpz. 1801. 8. Gr. only. Early j Princeps. Par. 1539. 8.—L. Nogarola. Vcn. 1559. 4. with . version and notes. Repr. by Comrnelin, Heid. 1596. 8. — Th. Gale, in his Opuscula Mythologica. Cambr. 1571. 8. Later ; Marquis d'Argens (Dargensius). Berl. 1762. With French version and Commentary. § 186. Xenophon, an Athenian, was born B. C. 450, and died B. C. 356. Besides his great merit as a military commander, and as a historian, he is worthy of special notice as a philosopher, and one of the most excellent among the pupils of Socrates. The dis- crimination, solidity, precision, and mildness of manner so remark- able in his master, he acquired himself, and transfused into his writ- ings. From the writings of Xenophon especially, we may learn the true spirit of the Socratic philosophy (§ 171). 1. He was born at the borough Ercheia. While a youth his personal comeliness attracted the attention of Socrates, who one day accidentally met him in the street, and invited him to his lectures. He accompanied Socrates in the Peloponnesian war, and was saved by his master in the battle of Delium (P. I. §90. 6). At the age of 43, he engaged in the service of Cyrus the younger, and after the disastrous battle of Cunaxa, conducted the famous retreat of the Ten Thousand. Four or five years after his return to Greece, he entered into the service of Agesi- laus, king of Sparta, as a warrior. Incurring by this the displeasure of the Athenians, he was accused for his former connection with Cyrus, and banished. He was received into pro- tection by the Spartans, and enjoyed a pleasant retreat at Scillus, where he composed most of his works, and died at the age of 90. Mitford's Greece, ch. xxiii. xxviii. sect. 9, (p. 273, vol. v. ed. Bost. 1823.) — T. B. Gail, La vie de Xenophon. Par. 1795. 2 vols. 8.— C. G. Kriigtr, De Xenophontis vita quajstiones criticaj. Halle, 1822. 8. — F. Dclbr'uck, Xenophon ; zur Ret- tung seiner durch B. G. Niebuhr gefAhidten Ehre. Bonn, 1829. 8. 2. The works strictly belonging to the department of philosophy are 5 ; viz. 3 ^47iouvrjiiovivuara 2iwy.Qurovg, Memoirs of Socrates ; 2cm:QuTovg 5 \Jno?.oyiu nnbg rovg SixaoTug, apology of Socrates, not so much a defence from the charges laid against him as a justification of the motives which induced him to choose death ; > Oiy.ovouoiy.bg /.oyog, Discourse on economy, a treatise on mor- als applied to rural life ; the last two have been considered by some to have formed originally parts of the Memoirs; Svfinvaiov (pi?.oo6qxx)v, The Banquet of Philosophers, of peculiar excellence as to style, and designed to illustrate the purity of Socrates; e Iiqutv ij Tvnavrog, liiero or The Prince, comparing public and private life, with remarks on the art of governing. There are 6 other pieces, which may be mentioned here, although less strictly of a phi- losophical character; Tfsqi r IfC7tixng. c Imiaoyiy.og, Kvvijyirixog, JJoqot t[ Tleqi nooooSwv (On the Revenues of Attica), Juy.edaiitoviwv tio/.iteivc, and y A6- 20* 234 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. rp'aivov nolics'ia. The last two, however, may not be the productions of Xen- ophon ; although the former of them seems to be a grateful return for the asylum furnished to him on his banishment from Athens. His intercourse with the king of Sparta was the occasion of a eulogy styled, J6yog tig Ayr r oUaov. 3. Editions. — whole works.— B. — * J. G. Schneider, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1815. 6 vols. 8. Repr. Oxf. 1820-28. 6 vols. 8.— B. Weiske. Lpz. 1798-1804. 6 vols. 8.— Gail, Gr. Lai. & Fr. Par. x 1814—16. 11 vols, small 4. to which must be added a 12th vol. styled Rccherchez historiques &c. Par. 1821. 4.—$* F. A. Bornemann. Gott. 1828. (commenced) in Rosfs Bibliotheca. F.— The Princeps was Junta, Flor. 1516. fol. — Next, Aldus, Ven. 1525. fol. — Then Brubachius (with pref. by Ph. Melanchthon), Hal. Suev. 1540. 3 vols. 8. the first which actually contained all. —H. Stcphanus, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1581. fol.— Lcunclavius, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1635. fol.— Wells, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1703. 5 vols. 8.— Thieme, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1763. 4 vols. 8. memorabilia ; Best, Schneider, (ed. by Benwell.) Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1804. 2 vols. 8.—Schutz. Halle, 1822. 8. — T. Greenwood, Gr. & Lat. Lond. 1823. 8.— §A. Herbst. Halle, 1827. 8 apology, Zeune, (Zeunius.) Lpz. 1782. 8. With The Banquet, Hiero, Economy, and Agesilaus. — § T. A. Borne- mann, Gr. & Lat. Lips. 1824. With the Convivium or Banquet. banquet, Dindorf. Lpz. 1823. 8. polity of the Athenians and of the Lacedaemonians, Zeune. Lpz. 1778. 8. With the Revenues and the treatises on horses and the chase. — Of the Lacedaemonians,}./''. Haase. Berl. 1833. 8. with figures (rerum tacticarmn figurce). 4. Translations.— German.— Whole icorks, by A. Ch. <$- K. Borheck. Lemg. 1788-1808. 6 Th. 8. — Memorabilia, by 7. /. Hottinger. Zlir. 1819. 8. French. — Whole works, by Gail, cited above. English. — Memorabilia, by S. Fielding. — Banquet, by Wellwood. — Hiero, by R. Greaves. Lond. 1793. ^5. Illustrative.— F. W. Stun, Lexicon Xenophonteum. Lpz. 1801-4. 4 vols. 8. " Defec- tive." Hermann. — Rost, Worterbuch iiber Xenophons Memorabilien. Gotha, 1819. 8. — L. Dis- sen, De philosophia morali in Xenophontis de Socrate conimentariis have given the name of the " Thundering Legion." Whiston, in the last century, strenuously defended the story ; it was aa strongly controverted by Moyle. — Scholl, v. 193. Cf. Gibbon, Hist. Pv. Einp. i. 83; n. 42. (ed. N. Y.*1822.)— Miracle of the Thundering Legion ILc. Letters between Mr. Moyle and Mr. K. Lond. 1728. e.-^Thomas, Eloge de Marc-Aurelius. Par. 1773. 12. 2. The Princeps edition was by Xijiander, Gr. & Lat. Tigur. 1558. 8.— One of the best is Ga- taker'tr, Gf . &. Lat. Camb. 1G52. 4.— Stanhope's, Gr. & Lat. Lond. 1707. 8, and Wolfs, Gr. 6 Lat. Lpz. 1729. 8. are eood.— Better, Schulti, Gr. &. Lat. Schle.-w. 1802. 8. 3. Translations.— German.— Best, Schultz. Schlesw. 1799. 8. French — T. P. de Joly* Par. 1803. 13. English.— R. Graves. Bath, 1792. 8. Lond. 1811. 12.— J. Collier. Lond. 1702. 8. §197. Sextus Empiricus {'E^ntiQixbg, so called from his profession as a physician) was a Sceptic or Pyrrhonic philosopher, under Corn- modus, about A. D. 199. 1. He was a native of Mitylene, as Visconti (in his Tconographia cited P.I. $187) has inferred from a medal of that city. Very little is'known of his life. Jo/»(6Wi'.sTenneinann, sect.189. Scholl, vol. v. p. 202.— Cf. Stdud'lin, Geschichte und Geist des Skepticisinus. Lpz. 1794. 2 vols, a 2u. lie left a work in three books, comprising the theory and principles of the Sceptic sect, entitled JIvqomvuui c Y.ioTVTiwotig, ?• oxiTtrtxa c Ynoun'jiaTa; and another in eleven books against the Mathematicians, Jlnbg rovg Mu&^uan- xuvg arri(j(niriy.ol, or rather against those teachers who professed positive knowledge ; the last five being particularly opposed to the logicians and other philosophers. These works are very valuable in illustrating the history of philosophy, especially that of the Sceptical school. 3. The first ed. was printed at Paris, 1621. fol. — Latin versions of both works had been pre- viously published. The next ed. was bv Fabrkius. Lpz. 1718. fol. Another commenced by Jv, cijrocp&tyiiuTwv, vno6qx&v f in 4 books. They are perhaps more correctly considered as tico works : one, Eclogm physica et 240 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. cthicce, in 2 books ; the other, Sermones, also in 2 books. The whole collection is valuable, both on account of the contents in themselves and also of the nu- merous passages rescued from destruction only by being inserted therein. 2. John of Stobi cultivated the habit of reading with a pen in his hand. The selections which we have, were arranged, it is said, for the use of his son. Each chapter of the Eclogce and of the Sermones, has its title, under which the extracts are placed, the sources whence they are drawn being noted in the margin. More than five hundred authors are quoted, whose works have mostly perished. — SchOll, vn. 133. • 3. The best edition of the Eclogce is Heeren's, Gr. & Lat. Gott. 1792-1801. 4 vols. 8. with dis- sertations and notes. — Of the Discourses, Gaisford's J. Stobaei Florilegium. Oxf. 1822. 4 vols. 8. 2d ed. 1823-25. with the Lat. vers, of H. Grotius, prolegomena and notes.— of both, Fr. Fabrus (Favre, , books, of Lyons), Gr. & Lat. Gen ev. 1609. fol. — The poetical extracts were collected and edited by H. Grotius. Par. 1623. 4. with a translation in Latin verse. Cf. Scfuell, vn. 159. VII — Mathematicians and Geographers. § 202 m. The very name of Mathematics (ua&t' h uara, ua&tiuany.u) is an evi- dence that their scientific form originated among the Greeks*, although the Egyptians and various eastern nations, in earlier times, possessed arithmeti- cal, geometrical, and particularly astronomical knowledge. Arithmetic was in a very incomplete state in Greece before the time of Pythagoras. He was the first who considerably cultivated it ; but it was left especially to Euclid to treat the subject scientifically and unite with it the study of geometry. The elements of geometry the Greeks seem to have derived from the Phoeni- cians ; although the knowledge which Thales acquired in Egypt is not to be overlooked. The science was afterwards considered as a special means of improving the intellect, and an essential preparatory study for every philoso- pher. (Cf. § 175.) Hence its great estimation and high cultivation among the Greeks. There are many indications of the use and encouragement which the practical mathematics found among them, especially in connection with mechanical sciences, as Statics, Hydrostatics, and Hydraulics. That the Greeks applied mathematics to architecture, and with the most happy success, uniting the rigid principles of science with the rules of taste, We have sufficient proof in the descriptions of their temples, palaces, porticos, and other edifices, and in the still remaining monuments of that art. Astron- omy was introduced by Thales from Egypt. Pythagoras established several principles of this science. Other philosophers exhibited them in a written form. § 203. It is obvious, from what has been said, that mathematical studies in Greece can be traced back only to the two primary schools of philosophy, the Ionian founded by Thales, and the Italic by Pythagoras (§ 168). From the time of Pythagoras, mathematics, as has been suggested, formed an essential part of philosophy. In the Academy they were specially culti- vated ; this may be inferred from the inscription (cf. § 175) placed by Plato himself over the door of his school. To the philosophers of this sect the science is much indebted. But in the want of historical evidence, it is im- possible to give a definite account of the state of mathematical knowledge during the time preceding Alexander. The names of several mathematicians and astronomers are recorded. The most important are Archytas of Tarentum, inventor of various machines which astonished his contemporaries; Meton of Athens, author of the celebrated lunar cycle (cf. P. V. § 194) ; and Autoly- cus of Pitane, the most ancient mathematician whose works are preserved. The works of Autolycus were first published bv C. Raiuhfuss (Dasypodiu*). Strasb. 1572. 4. In Lat. trans, by /. Auria, Rome, 1587. 2 vols. 4." A fnisrment of a treatise by Archytas, on ■mathematical science, is found in Porphyry ; it was published by J. Gramm. Copenh. 1707. 4. — Cf. Plutarch, Bympoa. vii.. and Life of Marcellus. § 204. After the time of Alexander, mathematical studies became more MATHEMATICS AND GEOGRAPHY. 241 prominent than before. Mathematics were no longer merely a part of philos- ophy in general, but held the place of a science by themselves. They were cultivated in all the schools, which nourished in this period. The mathemat- ical school of Alexandria was rendered illustrious by the reputation of Eu- clid, who had a numerous class of disciples, and among them Ptolemy I., the king of Egypt. One of the most distinguished names in this period and in- deed in all antiquity, is that of Archimedes of Syracuse, celebrated not only for his successful research into abstract principles, but also for his curious and wonderful mechanical applications and inventions. A third memorable name adorns N this period, Apollonius of Perga, whose work on Conic Sections formed an epoch in the history of mathematics. Euclid, Archimedes, and Apollonius, with Diophantus, who lived in the third and fourth century after Christ, may justly be regarded as the great founders of mathematical science. Other names belong to the period between Alexander and the capture of Corinth ; as Heron of Alexandria, author of several treatises on branches of mechanics ; Athenseus and Biton, who wrote on military engines and missils ; and Philon of Byzantium, who wrote on the same subjects, and to whom is ascribed a work on the seven wonders of the world. Astronomy was cul- tivated with success in this period, and, according to some, an important in- fluence was exerted by the intercourse with the Babylonians in the expedi- tion of Alexander. Aristarchus of Samos, Eratosthenes of Cyrene, and Hip- parchus of Nicasa, are the principal authors of whom we have remains. Marcoz, Astronomie solaire d'Hipparque. Par. 1828. 8. — Wallis, Aristarchus. Oxf. 1688. 8. In the next period, i. e. between the fall of Corinth and the time of Con- stantine, we find no eminent authors in the pure mathematics. Several writ- ers on astronomical subjects are mentioned ; Claudius Ptolemy, in the age of the Antonines, was celebrated above all others. His system of astronomy, as is well known, was much in vogue, and exerted a great influence. Several authors on music, of whom fragments are still extant, are referred to this pe- riod ; some of them were among the mathematicians of the age ; their re- mains are found in the collection of Meibomius (cited § 208*. 1). — Cf. SckOll t livre vi. ch. xliv. § 205. Between the time of Constantine and the overthrow of Constantin- ople, the list of Greek mathematicians is much larger, but contains few names of great eminence. Diophantus, a contemporary of the emperor Ju- lian, and already mentioned as one of the four ancient fathers of mathemat- ics, is the most important. Pappus and Theon of Alexandria, at the close of the fourth century, may be mentioned next. Hypatia, a daughter of Theon, inherited her father's love of mathematical science ; she became a public teacher, and wrote several works which perished in the destruction of the Alexandrian library. Proclus the philosopher wrote on mathematics and as- tronomy. Leon of Constantinople, in the latter half of the ninth century, is spbken of by the Byzantine historians with much admiration. He was solic- ited by the Arabian Caliph, Al-mamoun, to remove to Bagdad ; the emperor Theophilus, refusing to permit this, opened a public place for Leon to give instruction, and bestowed many honors and privileges upon him. He has left nothing by which we can judge of his merits. We will add only the name of Anthemius of Tralles, in the sixth century, employed by Justinian to con- struct the church of St. Sophia, of which, however, he only laid the founda- tion, not living to complete the work. There remains a curious fragment of his work ITiqi Ttaoadvzwv /uj^avijuaTan'. — Cf. SchOll, livre VI. ch. xci. The fragment of Anthemius was published in the Mem. dc PAcad. fnscr. et Belles Lettres, vol. xlii. by Dupujj and separately, Par. 1774. 4. Respecting the celebrated Hypatia, see Me- nage, Hist. Mulier. Philosoph — Desvignoles, Dissert, in Bibl. German, vol. in. — Abbe Goujet, Lett, in Contin. des Memoires de Litt. by Desmoids, vol. v. vi. — Socrates, Hist. Eccles. vn. 15. § 206. On the subject of Geography, the knowledge of the Greeks was very limited and imperfect; yet they had writers on the subject, of much value in illustrating the condition of ancient countries. The earliest work extant is the Periplus of Hanno. Eccataus of Miletus, in his IleQu'jytjaig yijq, described the countries known at the time he wrote, in the reign of Darius, about 500 B. C. The Periplus of Scylax has been commonly referred to nearly the same period. The Anabasis of Xenophon may properly be men- 21 242 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE/ tioned among the geographical works anterior to the time of Alexander, bet- ing of great value in relation to upper Asia. Pytheas, of Massilia, a voyager and geographer, probably belonging to the same period, before Alexander, Was the author of two works, a description of the ocean and a Periplus. The little now known of them is derived from Strabo and Pliny. • ■■ It was not until the period between Alexander and the Roman supremacy, that geogra- phy was elevated to the rank of a science. The honor of effecting this is ascribed to Eratosthenes, a very eminent mathematician and scholar, who flourished at Alexandria, B.C. about 230. — Cf. SchOll, livre hi. ch. xviii. ; livre iv. ch. xlv. § 207. After the supremacy of Rome, greater advances were made in geo- graphical knowledge. The first distinguished geographer of this period is Strabo, born about 60 B. C, whose work styled rsoyQaipixu is a thesaurus- comprising nearly the whole history of geography from Homer to Augustus, with all then known upon the subject. The geographical poem of Diony- sius of Charax belongs to the age of Augustus. We have a fragment of a work on Parthia, by Isidorus of Charax ; published in the reign of Caligula. There are also some geographical pieces under the name of Arrian, who flour- ished in the reign of Hadrian and the Antonines. But a more important work is that of Pausanias belonging to the same age, and entitled, Itinerary of Greece. The most celebrated of all the ancient writers on geography was Claudius Ptolemy, already mentioned as a mathematician and astronomer about the middle of the second century after Christ. His system of geography re- mained the only manual in vogue for fourteen centuries. After Ptolemy, the history of Greek letters presents no author of much importance in this department of study. Before the time of Constantine, Agatharcides of Cni- dus, in the latter half of the 2d century, is said by Photius to have written several geographical works ; and some extracts are preserved by Photius, We have also a fragment of Dionysius of Byzantium in the second century, and a sort of geographical epitome by a certain Agathemerus, probably of the third century. Of the Byzantine geographers, or those subsequent to Con- stantine, we may mention as the principal, Marcianus of Heraclea in Pontus, Stephanus of Byzantium, and Cosmas the Egyptian monk. — Cf. SchOll, vok v. p. 275; vn. p. 33. § 208. There are some Greek writers on Tactics, who may be mentioned in this place. The most eminent is Onosander, or Onesander, who lived probably about the middle of the 1st century. He left a work on the military art, in a style remarkably pure for the age ; it was a source whence all the later writers on the subject drew materials. Polysenus, a native of Macedonia, a rhetorician or advocate of the 2d century, should probably be mentioned as next in rank, although his work is rather a historical collection of stratagems than a treatise on tactics. Apollodorus, an architect in the time of Trajan, left a work en- titled IIo?.ioqxt]Ttxcs, on military engines. The emperor Adrian is said to have composed a military treatise called 'ETTirtjSBv/na, a fragment of which is still ex- tant. Arrian and iElian also left works on the subject of Tactics. The empe- ror Mauritius, of the 6th century, wrote a treatise on the military art. There are also some treatises written at a later period, which it is not important to specify.— Cf. SchOll, vol. v. p. 261. vn. 67. § 208 1. We will now introduce some general references, and then speak of a few distinguished individuals, naming first the mathema- ticians and after them the geographers. 1. On the history of Mathematics among the Greeks, see references P. I. § 24. — L. Ludcr*, Pythagoras und Hypatia, oder die Mathematik der Alten. Lpz.1809. 8.—Delambre on the Aritli- nietic of the Greeks in Peyrard's Archimedes, cited <$ 210. 5. The principal mathematical Collections are, that of Tlievcnot, Vet. Mathemat. Opera. Par. 1693. fol. and that of Wallis, in 3d vol. of his Opera Math. Oxf. 1099. fol. The following collections of writers on subjects con- nected with mathematics may be cited.— Astronomical, by Aldus. Ven. 1429. fol. — By Petavius, Uranologion &c. Par. 1030. Amst. 1703. fol. — Musical, by Meursius. Lugd. Bat. 1016. 4. — By Mcibomius, Antiq. Mu*icre auctores, Gr. &. Lat. Amst. 1652. 2 vols. 4.— On Tactics, by Meursius, Gr, & Lat. Lug. Bat. 1613. 4. — P. Scrivcrms, Scriptores rei militaris. Vesal. 1670. 8. — Ji. H. Baumgdrtner, Saminl. aller Kriegsschriftsteller der Griech. ubersetzt &c. Mannh.1779. 2 vols. 4. 2. On the history of Geography among the Greeks, Gosselin, Geographie des Grecs. Par.1790. 3 Vols. 4. — Blair, cited P. I. § 27.— We may also refer to Malte Brun, and to Mannert and Ulcert, cited § 7-. 7 (b). The first collection of Minor Greek Geographers was that of Hwschcl. Augslu MATHEMATICIANS. EUCLID. ARCHIMEDES. 243 1600. 8.— The second, Oronovius. Leyd. 1627. 4.— The third, more complete, Hudson. Oxf.1698- 1712. 4 vols. 8 Much preparation for a new edition was made by Brcclow, before 1812. On his death his apparatus passed into the hands ofSpohn and Friedemann, from whom is expected an edition containing all the Greek Geographical remains, excepting those of the four authors some- times denominated Major, viz. Strabo, Pausanias, Ptolemy, and Stephen of Byzantium. — G. Bern- hardy, Geographi Groeci Minores, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1828. 8. not finished ; but very good. §209. Euclid lived at Alexandria B. C. about 300, in the time of the Egyptian king Ptolemy Soter. His native place is not known. He was a teacher of mathematics, particularly of geometry, in which branch he was the most distinguished scholar among the Greeks. lu. His Elements (Sroixtia), in 15 books, were drawn up with great ability, and in a very perspicuous manner. There are two Greek commentaries upon this work, by Proclus and Theon. The latter flourished at Alexandria, in the 4th century (§ 205), and it is only according to his revision of the work that we now possess the Elements of Euclid. The 14th and 15th books are ascribed, and with great probability, to Hypsicles, who lived about the middle of the 2d century. Besides the Elements, we have also several other mathematical pieces ascribed to Euclid. 2. The principal works allowed to be genuine are the Data (JtSoiiiva), con- taining geometrical theorems, and the Phenomena (ipaivoueva), relating to as- tronomy. — Schdll, in. 352. — Fuhrmann, Kl. Handb. p. 339. 3. There have been five editions of the Works of Euclid. — Privceps, by S.Grynceus. Bas.1533. fol. — Bas. 1559. fol. — C. Dasypodius (Rauchfuss), Gr. & Lat. Strasb. 1571. — D. Gregory, Gr. &; Lat. Oxf. 1703. fol.— Best of all, Peyrard, Gr. Lat. & Gall. Par. 1814. 3 vols. 4. — Of the Ele- ments, A.Caiano, Gr. & Lat. Rom. 1545. 2 vols. 8 — Ch. Melden. Leyd. 1673. 12.-7%. Haseldcn, (with the Data). Lond. 1732. 8.— Best, Camerer, Gr. & Lat. Berl. 1824. 8. (1st vol. containing 6 books of the Elements, with Excurs. and Plates.) 2d vol. continued by C. F. Haubcr.1726. —* J. C. JVeidc. Hal. 1825. 8. good, containing first 6 books, with 10th and 12th. — E. F. August. Berl. 1826-30. 2 vols. 8. critical text. 4. Translations. — There have been many editions of the Elements in Latin ; among the best, Bormann. Lpz.1769. 8,—S.Horsley. (12 bks). Oxf. 1802. 8. — English.— R.Simpson (bk.1-6, 11,12). Glasg. 1756. 4. and often reprinted.— J. Williamson (whole 15). Lond. 1781-88. 2 vols. 4. — Ger- man.—/. F. Lorenz. Hal. 1818. 8. — French. — Peyrard, above cited. § 210. Archimedes was born at Syracuse B. C. about 287, and was put to death by a soldier during the storming and capture of that city by the Roman general Marcellus, B. C. 212. He was celebrated especially for his skill in mechanics ; but his inventive genius en- riched almost every branch of mathematical science. 1. The sepulchre of Archimedes was near one of the gates of Syracuse, but was forgotten and almost overgrown with briars in the time of Cicero. It was discovered by the exertions of the latter, while Quaestor in Sicily, marked by a small pillar bearing an Iambic inscription and the figures of a cylinder and sphere. Melot, Vie d'Archimede, and Fraguier, Du tombeau d'Ar- chimede, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. n. 321. xiv. 128. 2 u. He acquired his greatest celebrity by discovering the relation between the Cylinder and Sphere, and by contriving several military engines, by the aid of which the Syracusans defended themselves for three years against the Romans. We have several works from him ; Hiol rfjg Zyaiqag xai Kv?.lv- Sqov, On the Sphere and Cylinder; Kifxlov utTQr t aic, The Measuring of the Cir- cle; JIsqL twv > 0^ovuivo)v, Of floating bodies ; Wauu'rtJ}q Arenarius, and others. In general it may be remarked, however, that we possess the works of Ar- chimedes only according to the recensions of Isidorus and his pupil Eutocius in the 6th century. 3. Polybius, Livy, and Plutarch, speak of the engines invented by Archimedes to harass the Romans, but say nothing of his destroying their fleet by means of reflecting-mirrors, or burning- glasses, contrived for setting fire to the vessels. Lucian is the first author who mentions the burning of the fleet, but he does not tell the means. Tzetzes and the writers of the Bas-Empire, state that it was by the aid of mirrors. The story has been treated as a mere fable, although the possibility of the thing has been proved by Bvffon. — Sclioll, in. 360. vn.57. — Cf. Foreign Rev. ]\o. i. p. 305. — Edinb. Rev. vol. xvm. — Lond. Quart. Rev. in. 89, 108.— Gibbon, Rom. Emp. iv. p. 74. ed. N,Yk. 1822, For an account of the magnificent vessel constructed under the care of Archimedes, for the king of Syracuse, see Scholl, vn. p. 446. cf. P. I. § 167. 2. 4. There have been four editions of the Works of Archimedes. — Princcps, by T. Gechauff (printer Hervag), Gr. & Lat. Bas.1544. fol. — Rivault (printer MorWl), Gr. & Lat. Par.1615.fol. repr. 1646. ed. Richard.^~Borelli. Messina, 1572. fol. repr. Palerm.1685. fol. — Best entirely, Abr. Robertson (begun by Tprelli), Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1792. fol. with the commentary of Eutocius Of the Dimcnsio circuH (with the Arenarius), Wallis. Oxf.1676. 8. — Arenarius, with Engl, transl. by G. Anderson. Lond. 1784. 8. & Translations. — German — Sturm (of the whole Works). Niirmb. 1670. fol. — Hauber, the 244 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. Sphere and Cylinder. Tub. 1798. S.—Kruger, the Arenarius. Cluedl. 1820. 8. French, Pey- rard, of whole Works. Par. 1807. 4. 1808. 2 vols. 8. § 211. Apollonius, surnamed Per genus from his birth-place Perga in Pamphylia, lived at Alexandria about B. C. 250, under Ptolemy Euergetes. He studied mathematics under those who had been pupils of Euclid. 1 u. As a writer he is known by his work on Conic Sections, Ktovixa 2roiytia, in 8 books. Only the first 4 books, however, are in the Greek ; the 3 next are in a Latin translation from an Arabian version, and the 8th exists only as re- stored by Halley from hints found in Pappus. 2. The 4th, 6th and 7th books of the Conic Sections were translated from the Arabian about the middle of the 18th century, by J. A. Borelli. — The other works of Apollonius were Hiql ^EjcaipCjv, De Tactionibus, or Contacts of lines and circles, and ^EtcItibSoi tojtol, Planes, which have come to us in a very mutilated state ; Ileal Nsvoewv, De Inclinationibus , of which scarcely anything remains; LTbq'c ;rwoiot> J Aitoroufjg, De Sectione Spatii, of which we have no- thing; and TTeQi Jtoyov y Ano-toii^g, De Sectione rationis, which is preserved in Arabic. 3. The only edition of the Conks is that of E. Halley, (begun by Gregory,) Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1710. fol. — Attempts have been made to restore some of the other treatises. — De Tactionibus ; by Camercr. Goth. 1795. 8. — By Haumann. Bresl. 1817. 8. — J. Lawson, the two books of A. con- cerning Tangencies, &c. Lond. 1795. 4. — On Planes, by R. Simpson. Glasg. 1749. 4. — On Incli- nations, by S. Horsley, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1770. 4. — By R. Barrow. Lond. 1799. 4. — De Sectione Spatii ; by E. Halley. Oxf. 1706. 8. with a Latin translation, from the Arabic, of the treatise De Sect, rationis. — By A. Richter, Des Apollonius zwei Bucher von Verhiltniss-schnitt (from the Latin of Halley). Elb. 1836. 8. § 212. Pappus, an Alexandrine philosopher and mathematician, flourished in the 4th century. His principal work, known to us, is entitled McAijfiemxasl ovraywyal, Mathematical Collections, in 8 books. 1. This work is chiefly interesting on account of the extracts it contains from mathematical writings, which are lost. Other works are ascribed to him ; as, a treatise on military engines, a commentary on Aristarchus of Samoa, a work on geography, &c. — Scholl, vn. 49. — dm. Quart. Rev. No. xxi. 2. Only fragments of the Greek text have yet been published. — A fragment of the 2d book was published by J. TVallis, in his ed. of Aristarchus of Samos. Oxf. 1688. 8. — The second part of the 5th book, by Eisenmann. Par. 1824. fol. — The preface to the 7th book, by Halley. Oxf. 1706. 8. (with a treatise of Apollonius, as cited §211. 3.) — Some lemmas from the 7th book, in Meibomius, Dialog, de Proportionibus. Hafn. 1G55. fol. A Latin version of 6 books (3-8), by Fr. Commandhii, an Italian mathematician of the 16th century, printed, Pesaro, 1583. fol. and (ed. Manolessius) Bolog. 1660. fol.— A fragment of the 4th book, not in this version, is given by Bredow, Epistolec Parisienses. Lpz. 1812. 8. § 213. Diophantus or Diophantes, of Alexandria, lived probably in the 4th century, under Julian. He composed an Arithmetic, >A^t&ftr t rixi^ in 13 books, of which 6 are now extant. A work styled iiiQi jcolvywvwv aQi&ii&v \ s also ascribed to him. 1. The Arithmetic of Diophantus is not only important as contributing to the history of Mathe- matics, by making known the state of the science in the 4th century, but it is also interesting to the mathematician himself, as it furnishes luminous methods for resolving various problems. It presents also the first traces of that branch of the science which was called Algebra, in honor of the Arabian Ocber, to whom its invention is ascribed. — Scholl, vn. p. 43. 2. A Latin version of all his remains was published by Xylander (Holzmann). Bas. 1575. fol. — The first edition of the text was by C. O. Bachct [de Meziriac), Gr. & Lat. Par. 1621. fol. — A German translation of the treatise LTsni no?.. uoi6. {von den Polygonal-zahlen) by Posclgcr. Lpz. 1810. 8.— Of the Arithmetic, by Schultz. Berl. 1822. 8. (containing also Poselger's.) § 214. Hanno, the first name we mention among the geographers, probably lived B. C: about 500. He was a Carthaginian general. lw. He is supposed to have written in the Punic language the Voyage, which, either during his life or shortly after, was translated into Greek, under the title JIsQinloog. What we possess is considered by some as only an ab- stract of a greater work. 2. The full title is "Avvvnog KaQx^orimv paou.im ntQinZoog r^r v;itQ ru; c JInayJ.fovg on\).ag Jiiftvx.on 1 ri]g y>}c ufowr ov y.ut urithjyav hro) rov Roorov reui- vtt 8t]7.ovvra rude. Hanno is represented as sent with a fleet of 60 vessels and 30,000 colonists to explore the western coast of Africa, and as having continued GEO GUAP HERS . JpANNO. ERATOSTHENES. STRABO. 245 g* his voyage until his store of provisions failed. How far lie proceeded (a) has been a theme of much discussion. — The age and authenticity of the Periplus have also been a subject (b) of dispute. (a)Rciuicll, Geogr. of Herodotus, §26.— Cf. Vierthalcr, on the Peripl. of Hanno. Salzb.1798. 8. (b)Dodwell, Diss, in Hudson's Geogr". Min. cited § 20«£. 2. — Bougainville, in the Mem, de VAcad: des Inscr. xxvi. and xxvm. 3. Editions. — Gelenius (with Arrian). Bas. 1533. A.—Berkel. (with Stcphanus Bi/zant.) Leyd. 1674. 12.— In Hudson, Gebg. Min.— Separately, /. H. Boklcr. Strasb. 1661.4.— Th. Falconer, with an Engl, transl. Oxf. 1797. 8. — J. L. Hug. 1808. 4. with a list of authors on the subject. — An Engl, transl. is given in Anthon's Lempriere, Hanno. 4. There is extant another Periplus of an early date, that of Scylax of Caryanda, placed by some B. C. about 500. — Cf. Scholl, ii. 193. — Tliis is fonnd in Hudson's collection. — Separately, by /. Vossius, Gr. & Lat. Amst. 1632. 4. Pytheas, of Massilia, at a later period, also vvrote a Periplus. — See Bougainville, La vie et les ouvrages de Pytheas de Marseille, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xix. p.l 46.— D'Anville, Navigation de Pytheas a Thule &c. in same Mem.cfc. xxxvu. 436. § 215. Eratosthenes, of Cyrene, flourished B. C. about 230. He was a pupil of Callimachus and the philosopher Ariston, and distin- guished as a mathematician and the first founder of scientific ge- ography. \u. He was also known as a poet, interpreter of the old comic writers, a chronologist, and author of popular philosophical writings. In youth he lived at Athens; afterwards at Alexandria, having the charge of its famous library. Of his numerous writings, pertaining to the mathematical sciences, we have only some imperfect fragments. These belong chiefly to the work entitled Tic ytvjYQacpoi'uiva, which consisted of 3 books, and contained the first attempt at the measurement of the earth. The loss of this work is much regretted, 2. In the 1st book, Eratosthenes treated of physical geography ; in the 2d, of mathematical; and in the 3d, of political. What remains is preserved chiefly by extracts made by Strabo. — A treatise called Karaartqia^ol, explaining the constcllutions, has passed under his name, but on various grounds it is con- sidered as not genuine. — Scholl, m. 375, 385. 3. Editions. — The fragments of Eratosthenes were published by Anchor. Gbtt. 1770. 4*v- More complete, Scidd. Gr7& Lat. Gbtt.1789. 8. — Most full, and best, Bernhardy, Eratosthenica. Berl. 1822. 8. The Catasterismi were published first bv J. Fell. Oxf. 1672. 8. Cf. § 71. 3. — . Gale, in his Opusc. Myth. Amst. 1688. 8.— Best, /. C. Schauback. Gbtt. 1795. 8. § 216. Strabo was born at Amasea in Pontus, and lived about the time of Christ, under Augustus and Tiberius. By his travels through Egypt, Asia, Greece, and Italy, he was the better qualified to write his great work on geography. \u. This is entitled rswyQaquy.a, and consists of 17 books. It is not a mere register of names and places, but a rich store of interesting facts and mature reflections, and is of great utility in the study of ancient literature and art. The first two books are a sort of general introduction ; the rest are occupied in descriptions of particular countries, their constitutions, manners, and re- ligion, interwoven with notices of distinguished persons and events. 2. The 3d book describes Spain and the neighboring islands ; the 4th, Gaul, Britain, and the islands adjacent, and the Alps with the tribes occupying them ; the 5th and 6th treat of Italy, concluding with a survey of the Roman power ; the 7th gives an account of the northern countries, and the nations; on the Danube ; the 8th, 9th, and 10th are devoted to Greece ; the next six, from the 11th to the 16th, contain an account of Asia ; and the 17th describes the countries of Africa. — The 7th book has come to us in an imperfect state ; the rest complete. — There is an abridgment or Chrestomathy of this work, made probably in the 10th century by some unknown Greek. There are also several collections of extracts from Strabo in manuscript. — Strabo wrote a, continuation of Polybius under the title of c Ynouv^uaxu 'Iotoqixu* Scholl. v. 278. — Lond. Quart. Rev. vol. v.— A, H. L. Heercn, De fontibus Geograpbicorum Straboms. Gbtt. 1823. 8. 3. Editions. — Princeps, (in red. Aldi.) Ven. 1516. fol,— Is. Casaubon, (2d ed. by Morel.) Par, 1620. fol. Gr. &. Lat. Considered good.- — tilmelovccn, (Jr. & Lat. Amst, 1707. fol. Repr. of Ca-- eaubon, with additional notes. — Siebenkecs, (continued by Tzschucke and Friedeviann,) Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1796-1819. 7 vols. 8,—Th. Falconer, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1807. 2 vols. fol. The most, ample ed. (yet censured.) Cf. Edinb. Rev. vol. xiv.— Class. Jour. \u4.b; vn.. 152, 445.— Coray* 21* 246 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. Par. 1816-19. 4 vols. 8. Best text ; preface and notes in Greek. The Chrestomathy is found in Hudson's Geograph. Min. cited § 206fci 2. 4. Translations.— German.— Penxel. Lemg. 1775-77. 4 vols. 8. — K. Kdrchcr, in the Collec. of New Transl. by Tafel, Osiander, $c. French. — La Porte du Theil and Coray, (under patron- age of Fr. Gov.) Par. 1805-14. 5 vols. 4. Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. vol. v. 273. § 217. Dionysius, of Charax in Persia, was a contemporary of Strabo. He was sent by Augustus into the East in order to prepare a description of those regions for the use of his adopted son. 1 u. We have from him a geographical treatise in Hexameter verse, enti- tled Uequ'iY^atg 'Oixovfiivtjs, a description of the habitable world. From the title of this piece he has received the surname of Periegetes. Cf. § 32. 2. We have a learned commentary on the Periegesis written by Eustathius. — The Periegesis is in the 4th vol. of Hudson, as cited § 208*. 2. with the Commentary. — Also in Matthim's Ara- tus, cited §71. 3. — Separately, an improved edition, Hudson, Oxf. 1717. 8. With H. DodicclVs Diss, de aetate et patria Dionysii. § 218. Claudius Ptolemmus, of Pelusium in Egypt, flourished in the middle of the 2d century, at Alexandria. He acquired great distinction in the sciences of geography, astronomy, and music. 1 u. Among the writings left by him, the two most important are the 31ty- u?.yj ovvru'zig, Great Construction, and the rtwyopttpix^ TcpfyijOic, a system of Geography. The former, consisting of 13 books, now called the Almagest, is the earliest formal system of astronomy. The latter, in 8 books, gives a ge- ographical account of countries and places, with a designation of their Lati- tude and Longitude, for which the labors of Mar inns of Tj 7 re had laid the foundation. Of the other works of Ptolemy now extant we mention particu- larly his Kavcov Baauioiv, Table of Kings, which is of much value in the de- partment of history and chronology. 2. The astronomical observations of Ptolemy were probably made in the Serapeinn, or tem- ple of Serapis, at Alexandria, and not in the Serapeum of Canopus. The name of Almagest is derived from the title which the Arabians gave to Ptolemy's astronomical work, to express their admiration. It was translated into the Arabic in the 9th century with tlie patronage and aid of Caliph Almamoun. From the Arabic it was translated into Spanish and into Latin, be- fore the Greek original was known in Europe. In the last book of the Geography, Ptolemy states the method of preparing maps, and here are found the first principles of projection. The lasting reputation of this work has been mentioned ($207). — Scltoll, vol. v. 240-260, 312-323. — Bonamy, Des Cartes geographiques des anciens &c. Mem. Acad. Jnscr. vol. xxv. p. 40. 3. Editions. — almagest ; Grijnmus, Gr. & Lat. Basil, 1538. fol. With the Comm. of Theon. — Hbbe Halma, Gr. & Fr. Par. 1813-15. 2 vols. 4. geography ; Princeps, Erasmus. Basil, 1533. fol. (There had previously been several editions of the Latin. Cf. Schbll, v. 319.) — Montanus, Gr. & Lat. Frankf. (and Amst.)1605. fol. With maps by G. Mercator, after those of Agathodcemon, an Alexandrine of the 5th century. — Better, P. Bertius. Leyd. 1618. fol. — Hal- ma. Par. 1828. 4. But containing only 1st book and part of 7th, with a French version. canon-; Periionius. Leyd. 1745. 8. — Halma. Par. 1820. 4. — The Hypothesis of the Planets, by Halma, Gr. & Gall. Par." 1820. 4. For other works of Ptolemy and editions, see Scholl, vol. v. p. 255 ss. § 219. Pausanias, according to some born at Ccesarea in Cappa- docia, perhaps however a native of Lydia, flourished in the 2d cen- tury. He traveled over Greece, Macedonia, Italy, and a>great part of Asia. 1 u. In advanced life, at Rome, in the reigns of Hadrian and the Antonines, he composed his Itinerary of Greece, f E/./.uSoc nsQiijyoic. It consists of 10 books, which are frequently named from the provinces described in them. The work is full of instructive details for the antiquarian, especially in refer- ence to the history of art, as the author makes a point of describing the prin- cipal temples, edifices, statues, and the like. This gives his work an interest it would not otherwise possess. 2. The style of Pausanias is rather negligent ; sometimes his descriptions are obscure ; but he displays much judgment and knowledge, and casts light on very many topics of history and mythology. — Scholl, v. 307. 3. Editions.— Princeps, by Aldus (ed. M. Musurus). Yen. 1516. fol.— Xylandcr. Frankf. 1583. fol.- Kuhn, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1696. fol.— Better, Facius. Gr. &. Lat. Lpz. 1794-97. 4 vols. 8.— /. Bekker. Berl. 1826. 2 vols. 8. Critical text.— Best, Siebclis, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1822-28. 5 vols. 8. 4. Translations. German. — h E. Goldliagcn. Berl. 1798. 5 vols. 8. French.— E. Clavier (and others). Par. 1814-20. 6 vols. With original Greek and notes. English — Th. Taylor. Lond. 1793. 3 vols. 8. Illustrated by Maps and views. MYTHOGRAPHERS. PAIwEPHATUS. HERACLITUS. 247 5. Illustrative. — F. S. C. Cdnig, De Paus. fide et auctoritate in historia, mythologia, artibus- que Grsecorum tradendis. Berl. 1832. 8. — Hcyne, Ueber den Kasten des Cypselus &c. nach dem Pausanias. Gott. 1770. 8. § 220 u. Stephanus of Byzantium was a grammarian and geographer, who lived towards the close of the 5th century. He wrote a copious grammatical and geographical Dictionary, called ''E&viy.u. Of the original work we have merely a fragment. There is an abridgment, however, ^E&viy.cov iriroui], styled also Utql 7co7.ttov, made by the grammarian Hermolaus in the time of Justinian. The best edition of the Epitome is that of A. Berkel (completed by Oronovius). Leyd. 1688. fol. Amst. 1725. fol. § 220. Cosmas Indicopleustes was a native of Alexandria, who died about A. D. 550. He traveled in Ethiopia and India. His geographical work, in 12 books, is entitled X^tariavixij roTcoyntupia. He supposed the earth to be of a plane surface, and in the form of a parallelogram ; and thought this to be the only view consistent with the representations of the Bible. His Topography is given in B. de Montfaucon, Collect. Nov. Patrum Gnec. Par. 1706. 2 vols, fol. Gr. &. Lat.— A Description of Plants and Animals of India is given in Tlievenot, Relations de Voyages Curieux (Par. 1666), as the work of Cosmas. — Cf. Gibbon, Rom. Emp. iv. 67, 428. § 221. Onesandcr and Polyainus have been named as prominent writers on military subjects. The work of the former is entitled ^xqurr^ixlg loyog, in 42 chapters. That of the latter is entitled ^rourr^^uariy.lx, in 8 books; it is highly recommended by Harwood, for beginners in Greek, on account of its easy style and entertaining matter. 1. Editions of -Onesander — First, by JV. Rigault, Gr. & Lat.» Par. 1599. 4. — JV. SchwebcL Nuremb. 1761. fol. with the French version of Zurlauben, and engravings of ancient military engines. — Coray. Par. 1822. 8. with Zurlauben's version, forming the 5th vol. of his Parerga de la Bibl. Hellenique. 2. Editions of Polycenus. — First, by /. Casaubon, Gr. & Lat. Lvons, 1589. 12.— Best, by Coray. Par. 1809. as the 1st vol. of his Bibl. Hcl There is an Engl, transl. by R. Shepherd. Lond.1793. 4. VIII. — Mythographers. § 221 u. The principal existing sources, whence the traditions and fables of the Greeks may be learned, are three; the poets, who bring forward mythical ideas and fabrications, either incidentally, or as the subjects of particular songs ; the historians, who weave into their narratives the popular faith and tales, and make known historical circumstances which serve to illustrate the same ; and finally the mythographers , who have made it their particular business to treat of mythological subjects and to present connected views or specific de- tails of the ancient fables. — Some of the principal writers of the latter class will be named in the following sections. The following Collections pertain to this subject. — Aldus (Fabulists). Ven. 1505. fol. — Th. Qale, Historic poeticee scriptores antiqui. Par. 1675. 8. — By same, Opuscula mythologica &c. Camb. 1671. 8.— Amst. 1688. 8. § 222. Palcephatus, an Athenian, probably lived about B. C. 320 ; some place him in the time of Homer, but without sufficient grounds. \u. His book IIsqI a7rior;5 twv 0£v (pvOBwg, in 35 sections. It is an attempt to solve the common fablos by the help of allegories, mostly of a forced and extravagant character. MYTHOGRAPHERS. HEPHJESTION. LIBERALIS. 249 2. Given in Gale, Opusc. Myth, cited § 221u. — Villoison left the Apparatus for a new edition ; now in the Royal Library of France. (Scholl, v. 179.)— On Cornutus see Enfield's Hist. Phil, bk. iii. ch. ii. §7. — D. Martini Disputatio de L. Ann. Cornuto. Lngd. Bat. 1825. 8. § 228. Hephcestion (cf. § 134), often called Ptolemaws son of He- phaestion, was a native of Alexandria, and lived in the 2d century under Trajan. 1m. His mythological work bore the title Jltol rfjg hg noXvuu&tiav naivijs (aroo'iag, Of new history pertaining to erudition; it consisted of 7 books, but we have only the brief extracts found in Photius. 2. Published by Gale, Hist. Poet, before cited.— By L. H. Teucher, with Canon and Parthcni- us. Lpz. 1802. 8.— Cf. Scholl, v. 43. § 229. Antoninus Liberalis, of whom little is known with cer- tainty, most probably lived in the 2d century under the Antonines. 1m. His Collection of metamorphoses, Mcra/ioqtpi»d*w away toy tj, is a com- pilation gathered from various writers, in 41 sections. The style is very un- equal, and shows that the author drew his materials from poetical sources. » 2. Contained in Gale, Hist. Poet. — Given by J. G. Walch, in his Phadrus. Lpz. 1713. 12. — Separately, Princeps by Xylander (Hohmann). Basil, 15G8. 8. — Munker, Gr. & Lat. 1676. 12. — Better, Verheyk, Gr. &. Lat. Leyd. 1774. 8 A school ed. by Teucher. Lpz. 1806. 8. With the Fables of Gabrias. Cf. § 184. 1. On Antoninus and other mythographers, see Bast, Lettre Critique ; in Lat. transl. by -Schafer. Lpz. 1809. 8. § 230. Sallustius, who was a Platonic philosopher in the time of Julian and Jovian, and was Consul A. D. 363, may be mentioned here. 1m. He must not be confounded with Sallust the Latin historian, nor with the Cynic of the same name in later times. He lived at Athens and Alexan- dria, and acquired much celebrity as a speaker. He has left a work entitled Utoi ■dsiov y.ai xoouov, On the gods and the icorld, in 21 chapters. It is per- haps a philosophical rather than mythological treatise, and seems to be direct- ed specially against the system of Epicurus. The author maintains the eter- nity of the world and the immortality of the soul. 2. published Jhrst by Naudaus, Gr. & Lat. Rome, 1G38. 12.— Gale, Opusc. Myth, above cited. —Formey, Gr. &. Fr. Berl. 1748. 8.— J. C. Orelli, Gr. &c Lat. Zur. 1821. 8.— The titles of the chaptersare given in Sclwll, vu. 80. German translation, by Schulthess. Zurich, 1779. 8. IX. — Historians and Biographers. § 231 u. In very early times the Greeks, like other nations of antiquity, had few, if any, regular historical records. The art of writing was not brought into that frequent and general use which is requisite for such purposes. Oral traditions, visible monuments, and commemorative festivals were the princi- pal means of transmitting a knowledge of important and interesting facts. The oral accounts were commonly thrown into the form of verse and song ; and thus the poets were the first historians. Their poems, in epic, lyric, and dramatic forms, presented the story of the fabulous and heroic ages, and were impressed on the memory in youthful education ; were sung at the festivals of the gods and the funeral celebrations of heroes, and afterwards circulated by means of written copies. When afterwards the use of writing became more common, and prose composition began to be cultivated, historical narra- tive was the first and principal application of it. Pherecydes, of the island Leros, and the three Milesians, Dionysius, Cadmus, and Hecataus, who lived between 550 and 500 B. C, are named as the earliest authors of history in prose. At this period truth and fable were more carefully distinguished ; the former was selected as the proper material for prose and history, and the latter was left to the sole use of the poet. Afterwards writers began to re- cord the history of their own times and connect it with the traditionary ac- counts of former ages. The art of writing was more sedulously cultivated. 250 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. The theory of historical composition was investigated and fixed on philo* eophical principles. Ere long, Greece possessed historians who are even to the present day viewed as masters in the art, in respect both of matter and manner. G. F. Creuzer, Historisch Kunst der Griechen. r Leipz. 1803. 8. — G. J. Vossius, De Historicte Gnecis. L. B. 1651. 4. — On early methods of preserving knowledge, Du Pin, (as cited § 240}, bk. i. sect. 2. — G. Hermann, De Hist. Gr. Primordiis, cited § 1. 2. § 232. It was in the earliest part of the period between Solon and Alexan- der, that historical compositions in prose began to be produced. Some of tha earliest writers were natives of Asia Minor. Such authors were termed ?.oyo~ yoa^oi, and their performances loyoyQay'iat. These authors, besides drawing from traditionary accounts and the works of poets, consulted all the monu- ents of antiquity ; inscriptions, altars, statues and edifices erected or consecrat- ed in connection with particular events. The logographies were the first fruit of this spirit of investigation. They were a kind of writing holding an inter- mediate place between epic poetry and veritable history. We have no entire specimen of them ; but there are many fragments, for which we are indebted to quotations made by historians and writers on mythology in later periods, by the scholiasts and some of the Christian Fathers. The works of the prose writers named in the preceding section belonged to this class. Cadmus ia mentioned by Pliny (Nat. Hist vn. 56) as the most ancient author of the kind. There are extant fragments of Pherecydes of Leros, Acusilaus of Ar- gos, Hecataeus of Miletus, Charon of Lampascus, Xanthus of Sardis, and Hellanicus of Mitylene. G. F. Creuzer, Hist. Grace, antiquiss. Pragmenta. Heidelb. 1806. 8. — Abbd Sevin, respecting Hecataeus and Charon, in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. et Belles Lett. vol. vi. p. 472; xiv. pi. f)6.— The fragments of Hellanicus collected and published by F. W. Sturz. Lpz. 1787. 8. — Those of Pherecydes and Acusilaus by the Same. Lpz. 1789. 8. 2d ed. Lpz. 1824. 4. § 233. The writers just mentioned are, however, scarcely entitled to the name of historians. Herodotus is the earliest Greek author who gave a fin- ished and connected form to the narration of interesting events, and wag with much justice styled by Cicero, the father of history. After him, and partly contemporary, were Thucydides and Xenophon. These three are the most eminent of all the Greek historians, and their works are among the most valuable remains of Greek prose composition. They all belong to the most brilliant period of Grecian literature. Their histories were chiefly occupied with Grecian affairs, and are the grand source of our knowledge respecting the Grecian states, in the periods to which they relate. There were sev- eral other historians before the time of Alexander, known to us only by a few fragments of their works, or by the judgment passed on them by ancient writers. The mo6t important of these were Ctesias, a contemporary of Xen- ophon, and Tkeopompus, who lived a little later. We have slight fragments, likewise, of Philistus of Syracuse, and Ephorus of Cumse in JEolia. The fracments of Philistus published by Giiller, in his De Situ et or. Syracusarum. Lips* 1818. 8. C£ Sevin, on Philetus, Mem. Acad. Inscr. xm. p. 1.— Of Ephorus, by M. Marx. Carslr* 1815. 8.— Of Tkeopompus, by R. H. E. Wickers. Leyd. 1829. 8. Cf. A. J.E. Pflu;. General History, consists of 40 books ; and is a universal history for the period of 53 years, from the begin- ning of the second Punic war to the reduction of Macedonia under Perseus, B. C. 167. We have only the first 5 books entire, and some fragments of the rest as far as the 17th. Polybius was the author of a new method of treating history, expressed by the term 'pragmatic. His details of military operations are more particular and interesting from his personal experience, in the military art. H'is style is not pure and classical, yet it is vigorous and manly, and evinces both learning and reflection. 2. " Polybius," says Scholl, " gave a new character to history, and created a new kind, Vhistoire raisonnte, or pragmatique (jiQayuarixi)'). Not content with merely relating events, he unfolds their causes, and explains their conse- quences. He paints characters and passes sentence upon actions. Thus he forms the judgment of his reader, and prompts the reflections which may pre- pare him for the administration of public affairs (,tou;'k«tu)." — Cf. Cicero de Or. ii. 5. — Of the books after the 17th we have no remains, except what is found in two meagre abridgments, which the emperor Constantine Porphyro- genitus caused to be made. — Polybius was born B. C. 205, and died B. C. 123. — Scholl, in. 226—230. 3. Editions.— B.—Schweigh'duser, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1789-95. 9 vols. 8. with a copious Lexicon. Repr. Oxf. 1823. 5 vols. 8. F. — Princeps, by Obsopeeus, Gr. & Lat. Hagan. 1530. fol. — Arlenivs, Gr. & Lat. Bas. 1549. fol Casavbon, Gr. &. Lat. Par. 1609, fol. highly commended. — Oronovius, Gr. & Lat. Amst. 1670. 3 vols. 8 Emesti, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1764. 3 vols. 8. 4. Translations. — German.— F. W. Beniken. Weim. 1820. 8. French.— V.Thuillier, with comment, of Chev. Folard. Par. 1727. G vols. 4. and with Suppl. Amst. 1753. 7 vols. 4. Eng- lish.— Hampton. Lond. 1772. 4 vols. 8. 1809. 3 vols. 8. Cf. Moss, ii. 530. 5. Illustrative. — Lipsius, Comment, ad Polybium, cited P. IV. § 275. — Reiske, Animadver- eiones ad Polybium. Lips. 1763. 8.— J. Moor, Criticisms on Polybius, &c. Glasg.1759. 12. — Dry- den's Character of Polybius, &c— See references, $ 531. 4. 256 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. § 246. Diodorus Siculus, of Argyrium, lived under Julius Caesar and Augustus. By his travels over a great portion of Europe and Asia, and also in Egypt, and by a diligent perusal of the earlier Greek and Latin historians, he prepared materials for his great historical work. lu. This is composed of 40 books, under the title of Bt^?.io&(xt) i■ Eyring, Gr. & Lat. Bipont, 1793-1807, 11 vols. 8.— Wesseling, Gr. & Lat. Amst. 1746. 2 vols. fol. F.—Princcps, by Obsopceus. Bas. 1539. 4. (bks. 16-20.)— H. Stephanus. Par. 1559. fol. (10 bks. 1-5 & 11-15.) — Rhodomann, Gr. & Lat. Han. 1604. fol. 4. Translations. — German Stroth fy Kaltwasser. Frankf. 1782-87. 6 vols. 8. French.— Abbe Terasson. Par. 1777. 7 vols. 12. English.— G. Booth. Lond. 1721. fol. § 247. Dionysius Halicarnasscus has been mentioned among the rhetoricians (§117). He lived 22 years at Rome, and there collected the materials for his Roman Archeology. lu. This work, > dQ%atQloy'ia Pwuaixt',, comprised 20 books, and was designed to make known to the Greeks the origin, history, and constitution of the Ro- mans. It extends from the building of the city to the beginning of the first Punic war. There are now extant only the first 11 books, and some fragments of the rest, in part recently discovered by Mai. The extant books bring the history to the year of Rome 312, B.C. 442. His narrative is not wholly im- partial, being often too favorable to the Romans, and his style is not unexcep- tionable. Yet we may obtain from this work the best insight of the Roman system and constitution, because the author was led, in explaining to the Greeks a novel and strange subject, to enter into particulars much more than the Roman writers needed to do. 2. We learn from Photius, that Dionysius made an abridgment of his work in 5 hooks. Mai supposed he had discovered this abridgment in a manuscript in the Ambrosian Library at Mi- lan j but the specimen published by him does not justify the opinion. — Schbll, vol. i v. 100. — K. L. Struve, Ueber die von A. Maius bekannt gemachten Bruchstlicke des Dionysius &c. Kbnigsb. 1820. 8. 3. There have been three editions of the whole works. — Princeps, that of Sylburg, Gr. & Lat. Frankf. 1586. 2 vols. fol. (there were editions in Latin earlier.) — Hudson, Gr. &. Lat. Oxf. 1704. 2 vols, fol.— Reiske, Gr. & Lat. 1774-77. 6 vols. 8.— A better edition wanted.— The arche- ology, R. Stephanus. Par. 1546. fol. (with other work?.)— Grinwi. Lpz. 1786. 8. (but containing only a part). — The fragment discovered in the Amb. Libr. was published by Mai. Mil. 1816. 4. Repr. Frankf. 1817. 8. 4. Translations of the Archmolog-y. — German.— Bender. Lemij. 1771-72. 2 vols. 8. French. — Jay if Bellanger. Par. 1723. 2 vol's. 4. 1806. 6 vols. 8. English.— Ed. Spelmau. Lond. 1758. 4 vols. 4. 5. Illustrative. — Petit-Radel, and Raoul-Rochette, on the authenticity of Dionysius &c. in the Mem. deVInstitut, Classe d> Hist, et Litt. Anc. vol. v. p.143. — Hooke, Observat. on Rom. Senate, Dionysius Halyc. &c. Lond. 1758. 4. — E. Stanley, Review of Hooke' s Observations &.c. Lond. 1758. 8. — P. F. Schulin, De Dionys. Hal. historico &x. Heidelb. 1821. 4. § 248. Flavins Joscphus, the Jew, was born at Jerusalem A. D. 37. He possessed a large knowledge of the world, united to much famili- arity with Greek learning. Belonging to the sect of the Pharisees, and being a descendant from the royal Asmonaean family, he held the prefecture of Galilaea with much reputation. He became a prisoner to Vespasian, but obtained his freedom and accompanied Titus during the siege of Jerusalem. Afterwards he lived at Rome. lu. His Jewish Wars, in 7 books, he wrote originally in Hebrew or Syro- Chaldaic, afterwards in Greek ( 'Jovda'Cx'^ ioroqia nt^t u/.wosuk) in order to present the work to the emperor. Subsequently he composed his Jewish An- tiquities ('IovdaCxij y Aoxig, also bears his name. — Scholl, iv. 166. v. 256, 306, 22* 258 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. 3. Editions. — whole works. The only edition, A. C. Borhcck. Lemg. 1792. 1811. 3 ro2s. S. not highly commended. — f.xped. of alex. Best, Schmicder, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1798. 8. J. E. EUendt. Kbnigsb. 1832. 2 vols. 8. Gr. only ; best text, with explanatory notes. i^dia, Schmie- der. Hal. 1788. 8. A good edition of both these together, Raphel (by Schmid), Gr. &. Lat. Amst. 1757. 2 vols. 8. — tactics. — Best, Blancard, Gr. & Lat. Amst. 1683. containing also the Peripli and Chase. The Peripli are also in Hudson, Geog. Mia. cited $ 208. 2. — The Chase in Zeune's Polit. of Xenophon, cited §186. 3. 4. Translations. Alexander's Expedition.— German.— Borheck. Frankf. 1790-92. 2 vols. 8. — French.— Chaussard. Par. 1802. 3 vols. 8. English. — I. Rook. Lond. 1729. rec. ed. 1814. 2 vols. 8. 5. Illustrative.— P. 0. Chys, Comment, geograph. in Arr. de Expedit. Alexandri. Lugd. 1828. 4. witli maps. 6. The Periplus of Xearchus, mentioned above, is found in Hudson,Geos.'Slin. referred to above. See W. Vincent, Voyage of Nearchus from the Indus &c. Lond.1797. 18101 3 vols. 4. Cf. P. I. § 27. § 251. Appianus of Alexandria flourished at Rome as a lawyer, in the 2d century, in the reigns of Trajan, Hadrian, and Antoninus Pius, and finally acquired the office of imperial procurator. 1 u. He wrote a Roman History/ Iaroo[a r Ptouaixif, in 24 books, of which we have only 11, with some fragments. It extends from the destruction of Troy to the time of Augustus. The order of narration is not chronological, but the events are arranged with reference to the countries or the nations particularly concerned ; thus in different divisions he treats of different wars, in which the Romans ware engaged, as e. g. the Punic, Parthian, Iberian or Spanish, Syrian, Mithridatic, &c. In this work much is borrowed from others, especially from Polybius and Plutarch. It is particularly serviceable in giving an idea of the Roman system of war and military affairs. 2. In his preface, Appian states the reason of his renouncing synchronism as a principle of historical arrangement; viz. the weariness occasioned by being obliged to turn the attention from province to province as the scene of events is changed ; to hurry, for example, from Car- thage to Spain, from Spain to Sicily, from Sicily to Macedonia, and thence again to Carthage. The style of Appian is formed on that of Polybius, but is inferior to it. He is charged with par- tiality in favor of the Romans. — Scholl, it. p. 173-176. — J. Schweighduser, On Appian, in his Opuscula Academica. Argent. 1806. 8. 3. Editions. — The best, Schweighduser, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1785. 3 vols. 8. F. — Princeps y by C. Slcphanus. Par. 1551. fol. — if. Stepfianus, Gr. & Lat. Gen. 1592. fol.— Tollius, Gr. &LaL Amst. 1670. 2 vols. 8. R — Schdfcr, in the Coll. of Tauchnitz. 4 vols. 18. 4. Translations. — German. — Dillenius. Frankf. 1793, 1800. 2 vols. 8. French. T. J. Combes-Daunous. Par. 1808. 3 vols. 8. English.— Davies. Lond. 1679. 1703. fol. § 252. Dion Cassius, surnamed Cocceianus, of Nicaea in Bithynia, lived at the close of the 2d and beginning of the 3d century, and was twice Roman Consul. 1 u. During along residence at Rome he made himself familiar with the his- tory of the Romans, on which he wrote a work in 8 Decades, or 80 books, ex- tending from iEneas to his own time, A. D. 229. The first 35 books, however, are lost, excepting some fragments ; we have the succeeding books, from the 36th to the 54th, almost entire, and the 55th in parts ; of the following, to the 60th, we have an abridgment by an unknown hand ; and the remaining 20 books are in the abridgment made by Xiphilinus in the 11th century. Dion details with much exactness, but his style is often too much labored, and he is sometimes unnecessarily minute. 2. His name was properly Cassius, and lie is said to have assumed the other as descended, by his mother, from Dion Chrysostomus (§118). Much of his life was spent in public official em- ployments. The remains of his work enable us to fill up many chasms in Roman history, and form our most important guide for the events of his own times. The abridgment by Xiphilinus, alluded to above, was drawn up by order of the emperor Michael Ducas, and extends from the 35th book to the end of the original.— Scholl, iv. 180-187, 3. Editions. — Best, Rrimar (begun by FabHcius), Gr. &. Lat. Hamb. 1750. 2 vols. fol. Some fragments published by Morelli (1728. 8.) were repr. (ed. Chardon la Rochctte) Par. 1800. in folio, in order to be joined with this edition. F. G. Stun, Gr. &. Lat. Lips. 1834-38. 9 vols. 8. with notes of Reimar and others. F. — Princeps, by R. Stephunus. Par.1548. fol. — H. Stephanus. Gr. & Lat. Gen. 1592. fol. — Lcunclavius, Gr. & Lat. Han. 1606. fol. 4. Translations. — German.— J. A. Wagner. Frankf. 1783-86. 5 vols. 8. English. — Manning. Lond. 1704. 2 vols. 8. § 253. Claudius jElianus, of Prasneste in Italy, was a sophist of the 3d century ; but he is usually ranked among the historians. lu. He is thus ranked on account of his work entitled Jlolxih] loroola, Va- rious history, in 14 books. It is a mere compilation of miscellaneous incidents, made without much close scrutiny or discrimination ; yet the narratives are very entertaining, although the style is unequal and sometimes affected. &*- BIOGRAPHERS. DIOGENES LAERTIUS. PHILOSTRATUS. 259 Iian also wrote a history of animals (§ 277). The work on Tactics, which some have ascribed to him, was probably from an earlier writer of the same name. 2. Although he was descended from Latin parents, and according to his own testimony never went beyond the borders of Italy, he acquired such a knowledge of the Greek language, that he was, according to Philostratus, con- sidered worthy of a rank among the purest Atticists, and according to Suidas, obtained the surname of MtUfpOoyyog {honey-voiced). — Besides the works above named, there are also ascribed to him 20 Letters on rural topics £ AyQoi- xai zTtiorolai), of but little value. — SchOll, iv.195. — Stollius, Int. in Hist. Lit. (Jena.) 1728. 3. Of the Var. History B.—Gi-onovius, Gr. & Lat. Amst. 1731. 2 vols. 4 F. Jacobs, Gr- only. Jena, 1830. 8. with notes. Principal earlier ; Sckeffcr, Gr. & Lat. Ardent. 1685. 8. — Perhonius, Gr. & Lat. Lug. Bat. 1701. 2 vols. 8. R.— Coray. Par. 1805. 8. with notes in an- cient Greek. — Liincmann. Gbtt. 1811. 8. The Letters are found in the collections of Aldua and Cujas, cited § 152. 1. Of the work on Tactics (hy the elder ^Elian A. D. 120), the best edition is that of S. Arcerius {Elzevir printer). Leyd. 1613. 4. The ichole works of both the iEIians were published by Oessner, Gr. & Lat. Tiguri (Zurich), 1556. fol. 4. Translations. — Various History.— German, by Meinecke. (iuedl. 1787. 8. French, by J. Dacier. Par. 1772. 8. English, by T. Stanley. Lond. 1665. 8. Tactics. — German, by Baumgdrtncr. Mannh. 1786. 4. § 254. Uerodianus the historian, not the same as JElius Uerodia- nus named among the grammarians (§136), lived at Rome towards the middle of the 3d century. 1m. He wrote the history of those emperors whose reigns he had seen, from the death of Marcus Aur. Antoninus to the accession of the younger Gordian, A. D. 180 — 238, T>js usra Muqxov paoiltiag [otoqIcu, in 8 books. It is exe- cuted with much frankness and love of truth, but with too little precision in respect to chronology. His style is pure, and in the discourses or addresses, which he has introduced, there is a great degree of nobleness and dignity, without excess of labored ornament. 2. The best edition of Herodian is that of G. W. Irmisch, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1789-1805. 5 vols. 8. (with a vast mass of notes.) — A better text is found in Wolf (Gr. only). Hal. 1792. 8. — A good ed. for common use is Weber (Gr. only). Lpz. 1816. 8. — Also G. Lange. Hal. 1824. 8. 3. Translations. — Latin. — Ing. Politian. Rom. 1493. fol. This was made by order of Inno- cent 8th, and was greatly admired and often reprinted. German. — J. G. Cunradi. Frankf. 1784. 8. English.— J. Hart. Lond. 1749. 8. French.— H. de Montgault. Par. 1712. 12. §255a. Diogenes Laertius flourished probably in the beginning of the 3d cen- tury. Little is known respecting his life. He left a work entitled JIsol (titan r.ul SoyuuTwv riov iv (pi?.oooip'trc ivdoy.iutinuvrov, in 10 books, which contains the biography of the principal philosophers of the various sects, and their most re- markable apothegms. The whole of the last book is devoted to Epicurus. The contents are stated by Schdll, vol. v. p. 226. 1. Editions. — B. — H. G. Hubner, Gr. &. Lat. Lips. 1828. 2 vols. 8. A commentary on the first 5 books, by same. Lips. 1830. 8. F. — Princcps, by Froben (the sons of). Bas. 1553. 4. — H. Stephanus, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1570-94. 2 vols. 8. — | M. Meibomius, Gr. & Lat. Amst. 1692. 2 vols. 4. — Longolius, Gr. &. Lat. (text of Jlleib.) Hof. 1739. 2 vols. 8. with engravings of heads. 2. Translations. — The work was first published in the Latin of Ambrosius (Traversari), before 1475. A 2d ed. Ven. 1475. fol. — Walter Barley, in the beginning of the 14th century, translated or closely followed Diogenes, in the work styled De vita ct.moribus philosopher -urn &c» which was printed at Cologne, 1472. 4. He is supposed by some to have had a better text of the original than is now possessed, (cf. Wolfs Analekt. Lit. ii. 227.) German.— E. A. Borheck. Vien. 1807. 2 vols. 8. French. — (Anonymous.) Amst. 1758. 3 vols. 12. Par. 1796. 2 vols. 8. English.— By several authors. Lond. 1688. 2 vols. 8. §255b. Flavius Philostratus the elder, from Lemnos, lived in the 3d century, and in the profession of sophist taught eloquence both a,t Athens and Rome. 1m. We have from him the Life of Apollonhis Tyanensis, 3 AnoU.wiov rod Tvavlwg /Sioc, in 8 books, full of the most extravagant encomiums, especially upon the miracles of Apollonius, who lived about A. D. 70. 2. It has been thought by many that Philostratus designed, in his biography of Apollonius, to ridicule the life and miracles of our Savior. In the time of Bioclesian, less than a century after Philostratus, his work was placed by Hieroclesof Nicomedia in opposition to the writings of the evangelists. The absurdity of this was afterwards exposed by Eusebius.— Huet, DemonsL. Evang. Prop. ix. c. 147.— ScMll, iv. 289— Cf. $ 287, 288. 3 m. There is also a work by him entitled Ely.oveg, in 2 books, containing 66 descriptions of paintings in a gallery, which was at Naples. — There is a work with the same title by Philostratus the younger, who was nephew to the for- 260 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. mer and also of Lemnos. It is in some respects valuable for artists, although wanting in precision and simplicity. The books on painting have received attention from modern writers. — There is a work on statues, by Callistratus, of an unknown era, which is usually joined with them. — Count Caylus, Mem. Acad. laser, torn. xxix. — Heyne, in his Opusc. Acad. vol. v. — Fr. Jacobs, Animad. in Cal- listrati statuas et Philost. imagines. Lips. 1797. 8. — Rehfues Uber den jiingern Philost. u. seine Gemlildbeschreib. Tub. 1800. 8. 4. We have other works by Philostratus. In a piece called 'HQta'iy.a, he gives the fabulous history of 21 heroes of the Trojan war. He has left also about 70 letters, and an epigram found in the Anthologies. But a more inter- esting and valuable work is his Lives of the Sophists, Bioi ooyiortov, in 2books. One book gives the biography of 26 philosophical sophists; the other, of 33 rhetorical sophists. It contains a fund of anecdotes illustrating the manners and morals of these ostentatious pretenders, and gives a vivid picture of the decline of genuine eloquence. — Scholl, iv. 190. 5. Editions. — Of the complete works, there have been two editions. — Morel. Par. 1608. fol. — Olearius. Lpz. 1709. fol. containing also Philostratus the younger. After the edition of Ole- arius, no part of Phil, was published (according to Scholl, i v. 296) until the Hcroica by Boissonade, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1806. 8. — Imagines, by F. Jacobs $ F. T. Welckcr. Lips. 1825. 8. containing also Callistratus on statues. Cf. O. J. Bekker, var. lect. et observ. in Philost. vit. Apollon. Sec. Heidelb. 1818 C. L. Kaijser, Not. crit. in Philost. Vit. Sophistarum. Heidelb. 1831. 8. 6. Translations. — German. — Whole works, by Scybold. Lemg. 1777. 2 vols. English. — Lives of Sophists, by Edw. Berwick. Lond. 1812. 8. Also Life of Apollonius. Cf. Land. Quart. Rev. in. 417. French.— Life of Apollonius, by Castillon. Berl. 1774. 4 vols. 12. §255c. Eunapius was a native of Sardis. He studied in Athens, and traveled in Egypt, and afterwards officiated in Lydia as a pagan priest. He is named here on account of his work entitled Biui ipi/.oooipow xai oo^jo-T<5v,which contains notices of 23 philosophers and sophists, who lived in his time, or not long be- fore. It betrays his hostility to the Christian system. — Cousin, Nouv. Fragm. Phil. (p. 200) cited §171. There have been four editions of Eunapius. — Princeps, by Ad. Junghe (Junius), Gr. & Lat. Antw. 1568. 8. — The last, and best, by J. F. Boissonade, Gr. only. Amst. 1822. 2 vols. 8. with notes.— Cf. Scholl, vn. 70. § 256. Zosimus flourished in the 5th century. He held the office of Comes Fisci at Constantinople. lu. His New History, Nia 'IotoqIcc, in 6 books, embraces the reigns of the emperors from Augustus down to A. D. 410. The style is pure, perspicuous, and not destitute of ornament. But he is by no means an impartial writer, and appears to have been strongly prejudiced against Christianity. 2. Polybius had exhibited the causes which contributed to the rise of Ro- man grandeur. Zosimus, in imitation of this distinguished writer, proposed to trace the causes of its decline. His object and plan were good, but he had not the requisite qualifications for the task. Among the causes he erroneously ranks the establishment of the Christian religion. — Scholl, vi. 338 — 348. 3. The best editions ; Reitcmeier, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1784. 8. (Fuhrmann.) — I. Bekker. Bonn. 1838. 8. in Nicbuhr's Corpus, cited §239a. — The first complete ed. was in Sylburg's collection, Script. Htst. Rom. Franc. 1590. 4. Translations. — German. — Scybold and Heyler. Frankf. 1802. 2 vols. 8. French, by Cousin. § 257. Procopius, a native of Ccesarea in Palestine, flourished in the 6th century, as a sophist and lawyer at Constantinople. He was a friend to Belisarius, and held for a long time the office of prefect of the Capital. 1m. He wrote a History of his own times, in 8 books, Ttov ■/.ah'' uvrov iotoqiw* (ii^/.ia ozTw. The work is divided into 2 tetrades, the first 4 books being called Persic, and the last 4 Gothic, including a period of 70 years, A. D. 482 — 552. The former portion describes the wars of the Romans, both with the Persians and with the Vandals and Moors in Africa ; and the latter, those with the Goths. He has left also a work styled > Avix8ora, which is a secret history of the Court of Constantinople under Justinian; and another called KrUiuura, Buildings, in 6 books, in which he describes the various works constructed or repaired by Justinian. His style has the merit of accuracy and clearness. 2. The Corpus of Byz. Hist, (cited § 239) includes the three works of Procopius, edit, by C. Maltret, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1662, 63. 3 vols, fol.— ed. by G. Dindorf, 1833. 3 vols. 8. in the Corpus $c. Cf. $ 239a — A German translation of the secret history, by J. P. Reinhard. Erlang. 1753. 8. HISTORIANS. PROCOP1US. ZONARAS. DARES. 261 § 258. Agathias, of Myrina in ^Eolis, has already been mentioned as an author of Epigrams and editor of an Anthology (§34, 35). Ho was a Christian jurist or advocate, of the Alexandrine school, and lived at Constantinople in the 6th century. 1m, We have from him a continuation of the history of Procopius, through 7 additional years, in a work entitled lleQi xr t g 'lovorniavov paoikslag, On th& reign of Justinian. 2. This work is divided into 5 books. His style has been thought to suffer from the author's habits as a poet. He speaks of himself as being especially- fond of poetry from his youth. His History derives much of its value from an account it contains of Persian institutions and usages drawn directly by him from Persian writings. — Scholl, vi. 377. — For. Rev. No. n. 3. The first edition was by B. Vulcanius, Gr. & Lat. Leyd. 1594. 4. — Included in the Corp. Byz. Par. 1660. fol. with his epigrams.— By B. O. JVicbuhr, Gr. & Lat. 1828. 8. in his ed. of the Corpus Byz. § 259. Zonaras (Johannes) flourished at Constantinople in the 11th and 12th centuries. He was raised to distinguished honors in the court of the emperor Alexius Comnenus, but resigned them and re- tired as a monk to Mt. Athos. lu. Of many works composed by him in the latter part of his life, we notice as belonging here his Annals, Xqovixot, in 18 books, including a general his- tory from the beginning of the world down to A. D. 1118. It consists of abridgments or extracts from larger works, and exhibits great inequality of style. The history of the Jews is given first, then that of the Greeks and of the Ro- man Republic, and lastly that of the Roman Empire. In the latter part he closely follows Dion Cassius. 2. Another work of Zonaras was an Exegesis on the Canons of the Apostles, Synods, and Fathers. He left also a Lexicon or Glossary, which is useful as a concomitant to that of He- eychius.— ScJioll, vi. 288, 358. vn. 241. 3. The Annals were first published by Wolf, Gr. & Lat. Bas. 1551. 3 vols, fol.— Repr. in Corp. Byz. Ducange, ed. 1686. The Exegesis is in Beveridge, Synodicon sive Pandect, canonum S. S. apost. concil. ab eccles. Grose, receptorum. 1672. 2 vols. fol. Lexicon, by Tittmann (cf. $142.4). Lpz. 1808. 3 vols. 4. § 260. Dares the Phrygian, and Dictys the Cretan, may be men- tioned in closing our list of names in the department of history. Their era is uncertain, and their value trifling. 1. Homer (II. v. 9) mentions Dares as a priest of Vulcan at Troy. JElian (Var. Hist. xi. 2.) states that an Iliad or history of the Trojan war by Dares was extant in his times ; yet this work was probably not from the Trojan priest, but the fabrication of some sophist. There is extant a work in Latin, entitled De excidio Troja kistoria, which has been taken for a translation made by Cornelius JYepos from the Greek of Dares. It is now admitted to be merely the prose outline of a poem in 6 cantos by Joseph Iscanius, who was an Eng- lish poet of the 12th century, born at Exeter in Devonshire, and called Isca- nius from Jsca the ancient name of Exeter, and sometimes Davonius from his native county. (Cambdens Britannia, p. 133. Publ. in Latin 1607. fol. English, by Gibson, 1617.) 2. There was a kindred fabrication in Greek, made by Praxis, in the name of Dictys Cretensis, who is said to have served in the Trojan war. and to have kept a journal (i(pt;ue<)is) of its events. The original Greek is lost; but there is a Latin version in 6 books. Cf. § 238, 522.— Scholl, iv. 107. 3. The pretended works of Dares and Dictys (§ 238) are supposed to have been the original source of the famous romance of chivalry by Guido dalle Colonne (de Columna), a Sicilian lawyer and poet of the 13th century. This romance, the second that was written of the chivalric class, was translated from the Latin into all the languages of Europe, and received with universal enthusiasm. The first romance of this class is traced to an eastern origin in a Persian tale of Alexander the Great, translated first into Greek and then into Latin.— Scholl, vn. 3-5. 194-96. —Fabricius, Biblioth. Lat. vol.i. p. 116.— W. Ouscley, on some extraordinary anecdotes of Alex- ander ; in the Transact, of the Roy. Soc. of Literature, vol. i. Lond. 1829. 4. Dares and Dictys have usually been published together. The first edition was printed, Milan,1477.— The best edition is that of Per izonius. Amst. 1702. 8. a reimp. of Madame Dacicr'a (Par. 1680. 4), and containing the poem of Joseph Iscanius (cf. § 522). — These works were translated in the 16th century into the Italian, French, and German. A Russian version was published, Mosc. 1712. 8. Cf. Fabricius, above cited, p. 112. 262 HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. X. — Writers on Medicine and Natural History. §261?/. The science of Medicine is founded essentially upon observation and experience, and is one of those which were but imperfectly understood in an- cient times. Indeed, from the nature of the case, it could not be brought to perfection until later periods. The same is true, to a considerable extent, of Natural History and Physics in general. Yet these sciences were pursued among the Greeks not without some zeal and success. But their success in them can by no means be compared with that which they enjoyed so peculiarly and happily in literature and the fine arts. At first the practice of medicine was limited almost wholly to the curing of external wounds. The great re- nown which Esculapius ('Aoy.l.ijTciog, cf. P. III. § 84.) and his descendants called the Asclepiades obtained, is a proof of the novelty and rarity of the heal- ing art in those times, in which in fact it was considered as a miraculous gift from the gods. The Asclepiades established several schools in medicine, of which those at Rhodes, Cos, and Cnidus were the most celebrated. It was not until a later period that the Greeks became acquainted with anatomy. Hip- pocrates was the first who investigated the science systematically, or wrote upon the subject. There is a brief collection of rules of health ascribed to the Asclepiades, entitled ' Aoy.7.r\7iict- d(ov vytiva naQayyi/.uara. Found in J. C. d'Aretin, Beytrage zur Gesch. der Lit. vol. ix. — and in Sclibll, Hist. Litt. Gr. vol. til. p.ll. §262. After Hippocrates, the physicians of the same period, between Solon and Alexander, seem to have in a great measure abandoned the guidance of experience, and plunged into the labyrinths of speculation. The school termed the Dogmatic was now established, which attempted to unite the theories of the philosophers with the principle of Hippocrates. The sons of Hippocrates are named among its founders. The most distinguished of this school were Diodes of Carystus in Eubcea, and Praxagoras of Cos. Of the medical writ- ings of the former we have have a few fragments. The fragments of Diodes are published in C. O. Kuhn, De Medicis Graecis &c. Lips. 1820. 4. — Cf. SchiiU, in. 402. § 263. It was by the physicians at Alexandria that the actual dissection of the human body was first attempted. Among the earlier physicians of the Al- exandrine school, the most distinguished were Herophilus and Erasistratus, who lived under the first Ptolemies, and were each the head of a class of fol- lowers. Among the adherents of the former soon arose the Empiric school, founded by Philinus of Cos, and Serapion of Alexandria. To this school most of the physicians of the period before the fall of Corinth attached themselves. They professed to follow the lessons of experience (iuTitiQla). — One of the most illustrious of the Empirics was Dioscorides, who will be noticed below (§ 271). We may mention also Apollonius of Citium, and Xenocrates of Aph- rodisium, as of some eminence. It was towards the close of this era that the medical art of the Greeks was introduced among the Romans, by Arcliaqathus ; it had been, at first, chiefly practiced by Greek slaves. The physician that seems to have acquired the highest celebrity at Rome, was Asclepiades of Bithynia, B. C. about 100. He may be assigned to the Empiric school, although lie professed to have pecu- liar notions of his own. C. F. H. Beck, De Schola medicorum Alexandria. Lips. 1810. 4.— Schbll, in. 404. v. 335. — The work of Xenocrates (on the nourishment furnished by aquatic productions), by Coray. Par. 1814. 8.— The remains of Asclepiades of B. were published by Oumpert, Asclep. Bith. Fragmenta. Vimar. 1794. 8. — The name of Asclepiades was borne by many different persons. Cf. Harless t Medicorum vet. Asclepiades dictorum lustratio &.c. Bon. 1328. § 264. In the period succeeding the fall of Corinth a new school arose, called the Methodic or Methodistic, founded B. C. about 90, by Themison of Laodicea, who was a disciple of Asclepiades, and fixed himself as a physician at Rome. The system was matured by Soranus of Ephesus, who practiced at Rome un- der Trajan and Hadrian with brilliant success, and has left several works. To this school belonged Criton, also celebrated in the time of Trajan, and Moschion, the reputed author of a work on Diseases still extant. — Within the limits of the same period, another medical sect was originated, the Eclectic, which is generally ascribed to Archigenes, another physician in the time of Trajan. Aretceus, whose works will be noticed below, was an eminent advocate MEDICINE AND NATURAL HISTORY. 263 of this school. Rufus of Ephesus was an eminent physician not assigned to any of the sects ; his works are still considered valuable. But the name which is most important, not only in the space between Augustus and Constantine, but in fact in the whole history of the Greek physicians, is that of Galen. With transcendant genius he broke from the restraints imposed by the different medical sects, and built a system for himself upon the ruins of them all, and became and continued for many centuries the oracle of the art. The works of Soranus are in Ant. Cocchi, cited below, § 269. — That of Moschion, separately, F. O. Dewez. Vienn. 1793. 8.— Those of Rufus, by W. Clinch. Lond. 1726. A.—Schall, v. 338. § 265. During the long period from Constantine to the capture of Constan- tinople, no progress was made in the science. Alexandria continued for a long time the chief seat for the theory and science of medicine, while Rome and Constantinople furnished ample fields for its practice. Most of those who attempted to write on the subject, contented themselves with commenting upon the works of Galen or some author of times previous to their own. They formed what is called the School of Galen, although they professed to be Eclec- tic, and to draw their principles from all the different sects. There are but few names which are specially deserving of mention. Oribasius, in the time of Julian, is the first writer of any note ; he has been called the ape of Galen, on account of borrowing so much from him; among his works was a medical compilation from preceding writers, made by order of Julian, and called 'E(i- douijy.ovTupipJi.og, from its comprising 70 books, 8 or 9 of which yet remain in Greek, and several others in Latin only. JEtius of Amida in Mesopotamia, was a physician at Constantinople, in the 6th century. He left a compilation from the earlier medical authors tinder the title of BifDAov taT(u*6r,in 16 books. Alexander, of Tralles in Lydia, flourished in the reign of Justinian, and after much travel practiced in Rome with great celebrity; his Therapeutics, Bip.iov .&sqcmtvTixbv, in 12 books, is extant. Paul of iEgina may also be mentioned as a practical physician, and as the author of a compilation entitled an Abridg- ment of all Medicine. We will add only the name of Constantine, surnamed the African, a native of Carthage. He studied among the Arabians, Chaldeans, and Persians, both medicine and astronomy, with the kindred sciences. Re- turning to the west after an absence of nearly forty years, he was regarded as a sorcerer, and finally retired, in a religious habit, to Salernum in Italy, where the monks of Mont-Cassin had established a medical school. Here he employed himself until his death, towards the close of the 11th century, in making known the Greek and Arabian medicine, and contributed much to the high celebrity which that school attained. An edition of Oribasius in Latin was published, Bas. 1537. 3 vols. 8. but not complete.— The works of Alexander are given in the collection of Holler (cf. $ 269).— The Latin version of JEtius by J. Cornarius and J. Montanus is also in Haller.—Paul ofJEg. was published by Remusmus. Baa. 1538. fol. There is an English version by F. Adams. — Constantine left numerous works, but in the Latin language— Schwtt, vn. 247 ss. §266w. Physics, or JYatural Science, formed a prominent object of many of the first Greek philosophers, and furnished subjects for some of the earliest didactic poems. The study of philosophy in later periods usually implied some attention to these branches. But for want of sufficient observation, and of the necessary helps, many errors were adopted and long retained in the Grecian schools. § 267. The merit of first treating these subjects systematically and scientifi- cally is universally ascribed to Aristotle. Alexander is said to have aided his studies in natural history with a princely liberality. Theopkrastus, the disciple and successor of Aristotle, pursued the same studies with considerable success. While Aristotle is called the father of Zoology, Theophrastus must be ac- knowledged to stand in the same relation to Mineralogy and Botany. — Among the Alexandrine scholars, the subjects of natural science seem to have obtained but comparatively little attention. This could not have been owing wholly to want of encouragement, because the Ptolemies are said to have expended con- siderable sums in procuring collections of what was curious in the three king- doms of nature. Antigonus of Carystus is the principal Alexandrine writer of whom we have remains pertaining to this department, and his work is chiefly a collection of marvelous stories, and not a description of natural objects. Nor under the Roman supremacy, from the fall of Corinth even to the time of 264 HISTORY OP GREEK LITERATURE. Constantine, do we find any manifest advancement. The chief writers were Dioscorides . who was distinguished as a botanist (nitorouog) as well as physi- cian, and Milan, who compiled a considerable work on the history of animals. The superstition and love of the marvelous, which prevailed both in this and in the preced- ing period, were probably a hindrance to the real progress of natural science. We may refer, as evidence of their influence, to the works of Melampus in the former, and Artcmidorus in the iatter. Melampus wrote on the art of divination in several branches, and also a work on Prog- nostics from the changes in the moon, which is yet in manuscript in the library of Vienna. — Arte- tnidorusleft aworkonthe Interpretation of dreams, * OvstooxoiTiy.lc, which, with all its absurd- ity, is of some value in illustrating mythology and the symbolical and allegorical figures of an- cient sculpture. It was published by" J. G. Reiff. Lpz. 1805. 2 vols. 8. — Cf. Schcell, m. 393 ss. v. 277 ss. § 268. Under the emperors of Constantinople, all the sciences connected with the study of nature were in a state of almost utter neglect ; in the whole time we do not meet with a single name of any eminence, nor one work of epecialjvalue. We find a treatise of Epipkanius, Ilsoi xStv 5u>$ty.a /.i&vr, Onthe 12 stones in the breastplate of the Jewish high-priest; and another, IIbqI iiAmr dwautwv, On the virtues of stones, by MichceL Psellus, in the 9th century. We have a large compilation on agriculture, entitled r$omovir.u, in 20 books, by Cassianus Bassus, in the 10th century. We have likewise a compilation on the veterinary art, in 2 books, entitled c l7V7viaTQixa, collected by an unknown writer, by order of the emperor Constantine VI. Porphyrogenitus. There are also several works, yet in manuscript, on Chemistry, or rather Alchemy, or the voix>] 'AxQuaoig, a work on general physics, in 3 books, and the History of Animals, LTbqI Zojvjv loroqiag, in 10 books. Some of the others ascribed to him are not genuine, or at least did not come from him in their present form; as e. g. the treatise LTbqL Qav^aoioiv 'Axovoiiutwv, On wonderful reports. 2. These treatises are found in the editions of A.'s works, $191. 2. History of Animals, by J.G.Schneider, Gr. & Lat. 1811. 4 vols. 8. very satisfactory. — Wonderful Reports, by J. Beckmann. Gb'tt. 1786. 4. — Three pieces pertaining to sleep and dreams, by G. A. Becker. Lpz. 1823. 8. — Meteor ologica, by J. G. Idcler, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1834. 2 vols. 8. A German Translation of the Hist, of Animals, by F. Struck. Frankf. 1816. 8. A. F. A. Wiegmann, Observ. zoologi- cae in Arist. Hist. Animalium. Lips. 1826. 4. § 275. Theophrastus also stands among the naturalists, as well as among the philosophers (§ 192). 1m. The works which place him here, are principally the following : Iltql tpvrwv tOToyiag, History of Plants, in 10 books ; LTsqI

q i a, a Thessalian festival dedicated to Jupiter, having some resemblance to the Saturnalia of the Romans. c S2q a ta, a general name applied to sol- emn sacrifices, which were brought to the gods in the different seasons, with a view to secure good weather. For a more complete enumeration, cf. Potter, Archseol. Griuca. — Cf. Larcher, on certain Greek festivals, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xlv. p. 412; and xlviii. p. 252. 2. " The festival called "ASiovia was celebrated in most of the cities of Greece. The solemnity continued two days. On the first, certain images or pictures of Adonis and Venus were brought forth with all the pomp and cere- monies used at funerals ; the women tore their hair, beat their breasts, and counterfeited other actions usual in lamenting the dead. This lamentation was called aStmiaaubt; or aSwv'm, and hence adoviav aytiv signifies the same as "*A8o)viv x?.aUiv, to weep for Adonis ; and the songs on this occasion were de- nominated aSortdia. With the images were also carried shells filled with earth, in which grew several sorts of herbs, particularly lettuces; in memory that Adonis was laid out on a bed of lettuces. These were called xijjiot, gar- dens ; and hence 'AdwvtSog xtrcot were proverbially applied to things unfruit- ful and fading, because those herbs were sown only so long before the festi- val as to be green at that time, and were presently cast out into the water. The flutes used on this day were called yiyyoiai from yiy/Qys, the Phoenician name of Adonis; the music, yiyyqaaubg ', and the songs were called yiyyQccvru. The sacrifice was denominated xadidna, because the days of mourning were called by that name. The second day was spent in all possible demonstrations of joy and merriment ; in memory, that by the favor of Proserpine, Venus obtained that Adonis should return to life, and dwell with her one half of every year. This fable is applied to the sun which produced the vicissitudes of summer and winter." Cf. P. III. § 47. — Banier, Culte d' Adonis, in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. vol. m. p. 98. 3. "The J iovv a ta were sometimes called by the general name of "Oq- ytct, which, though sometimes applied to the mysteries of other gods, more particularly belonged to those of Bacchus. They were also sometimes de- nominated Baxyji*. They were observed at Athens with greater splendor, and with more ceremonious superstition, than in any other part of Greece ; the years were numbered by them ; the chief archon had a share in their management ; and the priests who officiated were honored with the first seats RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 493 at public shows. At first, however, they were celebrated without splendor, being days set apart for public mirth, and observed only with the following ceremonies: — a vessel of wine adorned with a vine branch, was brought forth ; next followed a goat ; then was carried a basket of figs; and after all, the phalli. — At some of them, the worshipers in their garments and actions imitated the poetical fictions concerning Bacchus ; they put on fawns' skins, fine linen, and mitres; carried thyrsi, drums, pipes, flutes, and rattles; crowned themselves with garlands of ivy, vine, fir, and other trees sacred to Bacchus. Some imitated Silenus, Pan, and the Satyrs, and exhibited them- selves in comic dresses and antic motions; some rode upon asses ; and others drove goats to the slaughter. In this manner persons of both sexes ran about the hills and deserts, dancing ridiculously, personating men deranged in their intellects, and crying aloud, Euol Zuput, Eioi Bu/.ye, w ^laxyi-, 'Ivpaxys, or * la Buy.yz. The great festival, Jton'ota fisyu/.a, was sometimes called uarr/.u, or ru y.ar' aorv, because celebrated within the city of Athens, in the beginning of spring, in the month 'Eiaipipo'/.iojv. It was sometimes by way of eminence called J i o v v a i a, because it was the most celebrated of all festivals of Bacchus at Athens, and was probably the same as Jiovraia un/ai6reqa. The less, Jiovraia iuzo«, was sometimes called ra xar' ayyovg, because it was observed in the country. It was a sort of preparation to the former and greater festival, and was celebrated in autumn, in the month JTIoasiSshiv or raurjj.iwv. Some are of opinion, that it was the same as Jiovvoiu /.tjvai'u, which received its name from lijvbg, a wine-press." Cf. Scholl, Hist. Litt. Grecque, vol. if. p. 5, as cited P. II. $7. 9. — On festivals of Bacchus, see also P. III. $ 59 ; P. I. $ 66. 2. 4. " The 'E ?. £ v a L v i * was a solemnity observed by theCeleans and Phli- asians every fourth year; by the Pheneata;, the Lacedaemonians, Parrha- sians, and Cretans, but more especially by the Athenians, every fifth year, at Eleusis, a borough town of Attica. It was the most celebrated solemnity in. Greece, and was, therefore, by way of eminence, called ru uvart'^ta, the mys- teries, and ri/.ertj. It is said by some to have been instituted by Ceres her- self, when she had supplied the Athenians with corn in a time of famine. Some say that it was instituted by king Erectheus ; and others, by Eumolpus. It was divided into the uiy.qu and ii£yu).a u var i' t Qia, lesser and greater myste- ries ; and then the latter were in honor of Ceres, the former in that of her daughter Proserpine. Mixqu ^ivan'^ia, the lesser mysteries, were observed in the month 'Av&soTtjQiajv at Agra?, a place near the river Ilissus ; and the usyu?.a uvoTilQia, greater mysteries, were celebrated in the month Botjdoouitov, at Eleusis, a borough-town of Attica, from which Ceres was called Eleusinia. In later ages the lesser festival was used as a preparation to the greater, in which they could not be initiated till they had been purified at the former. About a year after purification at the lesser, they sacrificed a sow to Ce- res, and were admitted to the greater myteries, the secret rites of which (with the exception of a few known only to the priests) were openly revealed to them ; and hence they were called hpoooi and inonrai, inspectors. Persons of both sexes and of all ages were initiated at this solemnity. To neglect the initiation into these mysteries was considered a crime of a very heinous na- ture, and formed a part of the accusation for which Socrates was condemned to death. — All the Greeks might claim initiation into the mysteries ; but the people of every other nation were excluded by an ancient law ; and persons convicted of sorcery or of any atrocious crime, and especially if they had committed homicide, even though involuntarily, were debarred from these mysteries. The manner of initiation was as follows. The candidates, being crowned with myrtle, were admitted by night into a place\ called uvany.bg atjy.bg, the mystical temple, or uvarofiuxog ootibg, which was an edifice very capacious (P. III. § 63). At their entrance they washed their hands in holy water, and at the same time were admonished to present themselves with minds pure and undefiled, without which the external cleanness of the body would not be accepted. After this, the holy mysteries were read to them out of a book called nirqama, from jtirqa, a stone, because the book was only two stones cc 42 494 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. merited together. Then the priest who initiated them, and who was called [eaocpuvrtjc;, proposed to them certain questions, to which they returned an- swers. Soon after, they beheld strange and frightful objects : sometimes the place, in which they were, appeared bright and resplendent with light and ra- diant fire, and instantly was covered with pitchy darkness ; sometimes a hol- low sound was heard, and the earth seemed to groan beneath their feet. The being present at these sights was called aVroxpla, intuition. They were then dismissed in these words, Koyz, *Ofi7ca$. The garments in which they were initiated ware deemed sacred, and efficacious in averting evils and incan- tations. The hierophantes had three assistants : the first was called da Sov/o g, torch- bearer, to whom it was permitted to marry ; the second, y.r;$vc, the crier; and the third, 6 Irci (jbuw, from his ministering at the altar. f ItqotpuvTfjg is said to have been a type of the Great Creator of all things ; §a§ov%og, of the sun ; y.ijQv'i, of Mercury ; and 6 in'i (ionico, of the moon. There were also certain public officers whose business consisted in seeing that all things were performed according to Custom. Of these was {iaoi?.avg, the king, who was one of the archons, and who was obliged to offer prayers and sacrifices at this solemnity, and to observe that no indecency or irregu- larity was committed during the festival ; four tn iue% tjTaif curators, who were elected by the people ; and ten persons who assisted at this and some other solemnities, and who were called [bqotcoiol, from their offering sacrifices. This festival continued nine days, from the fifteenth to the twenty-third day of the month Botjd^ouiwv. During this time it was unlawful to arrest any man, or to present any petition ; and they who were found guilty of such, practices were fined one thousand drachms, or, as others say, put to death. On the fourth day of the festival, they made a solemn procession, in which the y.a?.a6iov, holy basket of Ceres, was carried in a consecrated cart, crowds of persons shouting as they went, Xatqs, JtytifTtQ (Hail, Ceres). After these, followed certain women called xiorocpoQoi, who carried baskets in which were contained carded wool, grains of salt, a serpent, pomegranates, reeds, ivy boughs, a sort of cakes called (p&otg, poppies, &c. — The fifth was called C H t&v ?.au7iuduiv ijiiiqa, the torch-day ; because, the night following, the men and women ran about with torches in their hands. It was also customary to dedicate torches to Ceres, and to contend who could present the largest ; and this was done in memory of the journey of Ceres, who sought Proserpine with a torch lighted at the flames of iEtna. — The sixth day was called "lax* yog, from Iacchus, the son of Jupiter and Ceres, who with a torch in his hand accompanied the goddess in her search after Proserpine. His statue, crowned with myrtle, and bearing a torch, was carried from the Ceramicus to Eleusis, in a solemn procession called "lax/og. — On the seventh day were sports, in which the victors were rewarded with a measure of barley, which was the first grain sown in Eleusis." Robinson, Archaeol. Gneca. — Cf. the references given P. III. §63. 5. The OsouocpoQia was a festival in honor of Ceres, surnamed Ssouo* tf.voog (legifera or lawgiver), because she was said to have first taught man- kind the use of laws. It was celebrated in many Grecian cities ; by the Spar- tans, the Thebans in Boeotia, the Syracusans in Sicily, and others. — "But ^he Athenians observed this festival with the greatest show of devotion; the worshipers were freeborn women (it being unlawful for any of servile condi- tion to be present), whose husbands were wont to defray the charges; and were obliged to do so, if their wives' portion amounted to three talents. These women were assisted by a priest called STtyarriipoQog, because his head was adorned with a crown ; and by certain virgins, who were kept under se- vere discipline, being maintained at the public charge in a place called Qsa- . fio(pootiov. The women were ciad in white apparel. — Three days at least were spent in making preparations. Upon the eleventh of Pyanepsion, the women, carrying books upon their heads, wherein the laws were contained, went to Eleusis, where the solemnity was kept; whence this day was called h 'AvoSog, the ascent. Upon the fourteenth the festival began, and lasted until the seventeenth. Upon the sixteenth they kept a fast, sitting upon the ground in token of humiliation ; whence the day was called i\ r »;(7Tfiu, a. fast." RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 495 Potter, Boyd's ed. p. 378. — On the fasts of the ancients, Morin, L'Usage du Jeune, chez les Anciens <&c. in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. vol. iv. p. 29. 6. "The Jlav a& t'jv aia was an Athenian festival in honor of Minerva, the protectress of Athens. It was first instituted by Erichthonius, who called it 3 A&t\vuia; and it was afterwards revived by Theseus, when he had united into one city all the Athenian people, and by him was denominated Iluradi} rata. Some are of opinion that it was the same as the Roman Quinquatria At first it continued only one day ; but it was afterwards prolonged several days, and celebrated with great magnificence. There were two solemnities of this name, one of which was called MtyaJ.a 7Iarad>'iraia, the Great Panathenaea, and was celebrated once in five years, beginning on the twenty-second of Hecatombaeon ; the other was denominat- ed Miy.ou Ilavu6tjvixia i the Less Panathenaea, and was observed every third year, or, as some think, every year, beginning on the twentieth or twenty- first of Thargelion. In the latter were three games, managed by ten presi- dents who were elected from the ten tribes of Athens, and who continued in office four years. On the first day was a race with torches, in which first foot- men and afterwards horsemen contended, and which was also observed in the greater festival. The second contention was svavdQ'uxg aywv, a gymnastic ex- ercise in which the combatants gave proof of their strength or manhood. The place of these games was near the river, and was called from the festival JJav- adi]vaiy.bv. The third was a musical contention instituted by Pericles ; the subject proposed was the eulogium of Harmodius and Aristogiton, and also of Thrasybulus, who had rescued the republic from the yoke of the tyrants by which it was oppressed. The poets also contended in four plays, which from their number were called rarqaloyiu. Besides these there was a contention at Sunium, in imitation of a sea-fight. (Cf. Herod, viii. 55. — Pausan. i. 27. § 2.) The victor in either of these games was rewarded with a vessel of oil and with a crown of the olives which grew in the Academy, and which were called uoQivct from uooog, death, or from uioog, a part. There was likewise a dance called Pyrrhichia, performed by boys in armor, who represented to' the sound of the flute the battle of Minerva with the Titans. No man was per- mitted to be present at these games in dyed garments, under a penalty to be imposed by the ayaivo&irtjg, president of the games. Lastly a sumptuous sac- rifice was offered, to which every Athenian borough contributed an ox ; of the flesh that remained, a public entertainment was made for the whole assembly ; and at this entertainment cups of an unusual size were employed. In the greater festival most of the same rites and ceremonies were ob- served, but with greater splendor and magnificence, and the addition of some other matters. In particular, at this solemnity was a procession, in which was carried the sacred ninlog, garment of Minerva. This nin?.og was woven by a select number of virgins, who were called iQyaany.ai, from tQyor, a work, and who were superintended by two of the u^tupoooi, and commenced their employment at the festival Xalxeia, which was on the thirtieth of Pyanepsion. The garment was white, without sleeves, and embroidered with gold : upon it were described the achievements of Minerva against the giants, of Jupiter, of the heroes, and of men renewed for valor and great exploits ; and hence men of courage and bravery were said to be a^ioi TtinXov, worthy of being portrayed on the garment of Minerva. The ceremonies attending the pro- cession with the niJcXoe were as follows. In the Ceramicus without the city, was an engine built for the purpose in the form of a ship, upon which the ■iiknlog was hung in the manner of a sail, which was put in motion by con- cealed machinery. The ninlog was thus conveyed to the temple of Ceres Eleusinia, and thence to the citadel, where it was placed upon Minerva's statue, which was layed on a bed strewed with flowers, and called ftXaxlg. This procession was composed of a great number of persons of both sexes, and of all ages and conditions. It was led up by old men, and, as some say, by old women, carrying olive branches in their hands ; and hence they were called -SvdJi.cxpoQoi, bearers of green boughs. After these came middle-aged men, who, armed with lances and bucklers, seemed only to respire war, and who were accompanied by the uhoixot, sojourners, carrying little boats as emblems of their being foreigners, and therefore called oxacpr^ponoi, boat- 496 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. bearers. Then followed the women, attended by the sojourners' wives, who were called vdonxqunoi, from carrying water-pots in token of servitude. These were followed by young men, who sang hymns in honor of the goddess, and who were crowned with millet. Next proceeded select virgins of high rank, whose features, shape, and deportment, attracted every eye, and who were called xavijifuooi, from their carrying baskets, which contained sacred utensils, cakes, and all things necessary for the sacrifices. These utensils were in the custody of one who, because he was chief manager of the public processions, was called ao/t&twnog. The virgins were attended by the sojourners' daugh- ters, who carried umbrellas and folding-chairs, and who were thence denomi- nated oy.iuSmpuQoi, umbrella-carriers, and dt(poo(poQot, seat-carriers. It is prob- able that that the rear was brought up by boys, who walked in coats used at processions, and were called jtavdainy.oL. The necessaries for this and other processions were prepared in a public hall erected for that purpose between the Pirsean gate and the temple of Ceres ; and the management of the whole business belonged to the vouocpi/.ay.sg, who were appointed to see that the an- cient customs were observed." Robinson. — Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. xiv. 517. Among the monuments of ancient art still in preservation are certain vases called Panathenaic Vases, as they are supposed from inscrip- tions on them to have been actually employed to contain the sacred oil bestowed upon victors in these games as a part of their prize. — See P. O. Bronsted, on the Panathenaic Vases; in the Transact, of the Roy. Soc. of Literature, vol. n. p. 102. Lond. 1834. — Dc Caylus, Vases dont les anciens faisoient usage dans les festives, in the Mem. Acad. Iiiscr. xxm. 342. § 78. The great public games of the Greeks were also a part of their religious customs. They were looked upon as sacred, and were originally established in honor of the gods. They were always be- gun and ended with sacrifices. It also entered into their design, and was their effect to render religion more attractive by association with sensible objects, to bring into nearer contact the several portions of Greece, and to stimulate and publicly reward superior talents. — The exercises of these games were of five sorts, and had therefore the common name nirtadXtv. They were running, leaping, wrestling, throwing the discus, and hurling the javelin, or boxing, which some put in the place of the contest with the javelin. See Burette, on these exercises, (la Lutte des anciens — Pugilat, Course, Disque &c.) in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. vol. m. p. 222 ss. § 79. The race (Sq6uog) was between fixed boundaries, the start- ing place (aa^dov/oi) had charge of the external arrangements, under the direction of a chief inspec- tor \a).VTuQX r l?r 1 u* Those, who wished to appear as combatants, were obliged to spend ten months at the Gymnasium in Elis, practicing the games and various prepara- tory exercises under the instruction of the judges, who were in the Olympic games especially termed 'EU.avo8ly.ai. The order in which they successively engaged in the contests was decided by lot. The prize was a crown or wreath of olive {y.vnvoc). — Among the Olympic victors, Alcibiades was one of the most celebrated ; the names of thirteen others Pindar has preserved to pos- terity by his Olympic odes. Statues were often erected to the conquerors in the grove of Jupiter. Their fame was spread the more widely on account of the vast multitudes of spectators, that flocked to the games from every part of Greece, and from Asia, Africa, and Sicily. Originally females were pot allowed to attend. The games were repeated every fifth year, in the month c Eyarou(iai(or, answering partly to July, and continued five days. They gave, rise to the custom of reckoning time and dating events by Olym- piads. Each Olympiad consisted of four years. The first Olympiad is gen- erally considered in Chronology as corresponding with the year 776 B. C. 2. One judge at first presided over the games ; afterwards two'; subsequent- ly there were 12 ; then 8, one from each tribe of the Eleans. The place, where these assembled and superintended the preparatory exercises (nooyvu- ruokiara) of the combatants, was called ' Eu'/.r^oSixaiov. They took the most solemn oaths to adjudge the prizes impartially. Although women were strict- ly excluded from witnessing these games at first, they were afterwards al- lowed not only to be present, but even to contend in them. 3. Much has been said respecting the various favorable influences which these games exerted in Greece. They are said to have promoted peace and harmony between the different sections and states, as they drew together spectators from every quarter, who thus constituted the great assembly (Uav- yyvQtg) of Greece. Olympia was in fact called nuyxoivog %(oQa, the common country of all. Hardihood and valor among the soldiery are also mentioned as natural effects of the various athletic exercises performed at them. They could not fail to stimulate to literary exertion, as they furnished poets, histo- rians and orators, with the best opportunities to rehearse their productions. Bancroft's Heeren, p. 129. — G. West's Diss, on the Olymyie games, in his Transl. of Pin- dar, cited P. II. § 60. 5. — Cf. Suker's Allg. Theorie, close of article Pindar. § 85. The Pythian games were celebrated upon the Crissaean plains, in the vicinity of Delphi, which was once called Pytho from the surname of Apollo. The games were sacred to this god, and were a commemoration of his victory over the Pythian serpent. They were instituted either by himself, or by Amphictyon or Diome- des. Originally they were held at the beginning of every ninth year (hvtaTijnlg), afterwards, like the Olympic, at the beginning of every fifth year (/7j?r«£r^n'c). The Pythiad was sometimes used as an era in chronology, but not commonly ; it appears to have been reckoned from the 3d year of the 49th Olympiad, B. C. 582. As a reward or RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. ' 499 prize the victors received certain apples sacred to Apollo, often also a crown of laurel. 1 u. The contests appear to have been at first only in music,' and to have been rewarded with silver, gold, or something of value. The song called JIv&iy.us vouog, which was performed in these contests, celebrated the victory of Apollo over the serpent ; it consisted of five or six distinct portions, which represented so many separate parts and steps in the undertaking and achieve- ment. Of the same import was the customary solemn dance, composed of five parts. 2u. All the exercises in use at the Olympic games were gradually intro- duced into the Pythian. The Amphictyuns had the oversight of them ; to these the candidates were required to present themselves. Nine conquerors are especially celebrated in the Pythian odes of Pindar. The spot where these games were held was a plain between Delphi and Cirrha, sacred to Apollo. § 86. The Nemcan games derived their name from Nemea, a city in Argolis between Cleonae and Phlius, in the vicinity of which they were celebrated. They were held every third year, so as to fall on every second and fourth Olympic year. It was never common to compute time by Nemeads. The superintendents and judges were selected from the neighboring cities, Argos, Corinth, and Cleonae, and were persons distinguished particularly for their love of justice. Their dress was black, because the games were first instituted as a funeral solemnity {hywv Iniruipio?) in honor of Opheltes, or Anchem- orus ; although others state, that they were instituted and dedicated to Jupiter by Hercules, after slaying the Nemean lion. The prize of the victor was a crown of parsley. Ten conquerors in the Neme- an games are celebrated by Pindar. Villoison, Les jeux Nemeans, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xxxvm. p. 29. § 87. The Isthmian games were so called from the place of their celebration, the Corinthian isthmus, or the neck of land joining Pelo- ponnesus with the continent. They were instituted in honor of Me- licertes, a son of Ino and Athamas, who under the name of Palcsmon was received by Neptune into the number of sea gods. Others rep- resent Theseus as the founder of the games, and Neptune as the god to whom they were consecrated. With the Corinthians, all the other states of Greece (except the Eleans, who were excluded by some dreadful execration,) united in celebrating these games. They were held at the beginning of every third year (rqur^ixol)] and were at- tended with the musical contests as well as those in all the athletic evercises. The prize was originally, and also in later times again, a crown of pine ; for a period between, it was a crown of dry parsley. The judges were at first selected from the Corinthians, afterwards from the Sicyonians. Pindar, in his Isthmian odes yet extant, has sung the praise of eight victors, mostly Pancratiasts, who gained the prize in wrestling and boxing at the same time. In our Plate XIII., are seen various forms of ancient crowns and garlands. Fig. 8. repre- sents the Isthmian crown ; fig. 9, the crown of myrtle ; fig. 10, the laurel. § 88. On account of the great estimation in which Athletics were held among the Greeks, and their intimate connection with religion and the interests of the state, the subject deserves a few additional remarks. lu. In the most general sense, the term included intellectual as well as 500 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. bodily exercises, pursued with earnestness and zeal ; but it, was commonly used to signify those more frequent and violent bodily exercises, which were so much practiced in Greece, especially at the games already described, and which were viewed as an essential part of education, and constituted a great object of the Gymnastic system. Many of those who had enjoyed full in- struction therein, made these exercises the main business of their life. Such were called a<rrui and aywviOTui. The teacher of the system or art was called yvfivaCT) t s and g,varaa/r t g, superintendent of Si^varbg, which was a cov- ered gallery where the exercises were performed in winter, and was so called from the floor being made smooth and level. Although the Athletae were not strictly in the service of the state, yet they received great honor. Their whole mode of life was conducted with reference to augmenting their bodily strength, and they submitted to many rigid precepts. In most of the exer- cises they were naked ; in casting the quoit and the javelin they wore a light covering. By frequent anointing, rubbing, and bathing, they rendered their bodies more strong and supple. In preparation for a combat, they covered themselves with dust or sand, in order that they might take better hold of each other, and avoid too great perspiration and exhaustion. Generally the ground, or surface of the area, on which they exercised, was wet and slippery. 2u. Before being permitted to enter this area, they were subjected to an ex- amination and a rigid preparation. For this purpose judges (ah.o&irai, aywvo- 6irai, c E?.?.uvoSiy.ai) were appointed, whose number was not always the same, who decided concerning the prize, and excited the combatants by animated exhortations. The rewards of the conquerors were the applause and admira- tion of the people, the public proclamation of their names, the laudatory song of the poet, the crown of victory, statues, solemn processions, banquets, and other privileges and advantages. Cf. P. I. §G4. — C. F. A. Hockheimer's Versuch eines Systems der Erziehung der Griechen, as cited P. II. $ 1. a work very instructive on this topic and on Grecian education generally. — John's Treatise on Gymnastics. Northampt. 1828. 8. — Amer. Quart. Rev. vol. lit. p. 125. — Bu- rette, Histoire des Athletes, in the ttst. de I' Acad, des loser, vol. l. p. 211. § 89. It has been already stated (P. I. § 66), that dramatic representations or theatrical performances, among the Greeks, belonged appropriately to relig- ious festivals; and had their origin, in fact, in religious ceremonies (P. II. § 36, 37, 47), particularly in the rites connected with the worship of Bacchus at Athens. Some account of the Greek theatres has also been given (P. I. § 235J. Besides what has been said in the sections referred to, a few remarks may be added properly in this place. 1. In their theatrical exhibitions the Greeks employed various mechanical contrivances. Among these were the following : the 0so?.oytiov, a platform concealed by clouds and supporting the gods in conversation ; the Mij/av/j andPthe rinarog, instruments employed to bring a god or other personage sud- denly upon the stage, or withdraw him or lift him into the skies; the Aim^at, ropes to enable him to walk apparently in the air ; Bqovrhiov and the Ksyav- roazoTciior, contrivances for imitating thunder and lightning. 2. The number of actors (vnoxqiral) in the whole of a play was of course various; but no more than three at once appeared on the stage (ay.tjrij in the part appropriated to speakers (loyeior). Although the author of the piece rep- resented was sometimes obliged to be one of the actors, yet those who were actors by profession were, as a class, of low character and loose morals. In order that the voices of the speakers might oe aided and the sound spread over the whole of the theatre, artificial helps were employed; among these were the brazen vessels (t]xiiu) resembling bells, which were placed in different parts of the structure. In the rude state of the art the features of the actor were concealed or altered by smearing the face with wine-lees, or by some rude disguise. iEschylus (P. II. § 39, 61), introduced the regular mask (.tooo- oj/ctiov perso?ia) ; which, ultimately, was formed of brass or some sonorous metal, or at least had a mouth so prepared as to increase the sound of the voice. There was a vast variety in the form, color, and appendages of the masks, so as to represent every age, sex, character, and condition ; no less than twenty- six classes of tragic masks are enumerated by Julius Pollux. The tragic mask often had a great elevation of the head and hair (called uyxog) to heighten the CIVIL AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 501 stature of the actor. For the same purpose, the tragic actor wore a very thick- soled boot (y.u&oorog, $ufiu$). On masques «Scc. cf. §23$.— Pompeii (as cited P. I. § 226) p. 211.— Schlea-d, on the Drama, lect. iii. — Mtmgez, stir les masques des Anciens, in the Mem. dc PInstitut, Classe aVHist. et Lit. Anc. vol. i. 256? vii. 85. — Same, (on use of masks for increasing the power of the voice) in the Mem. de PList., Classe de Lit. et Beaux Arts, vol. v. p. 89. 3. The Choir ( /oq'oq) was composed of performers wholly distinct from the actors ; yet, by its leader, it often took part in the dialogue. We have before alluded to the vast expense of maintaining the Chorus ; one great source of this expense was the dresses and decorations, which were of the most splendid kind. See P. II. $37, and the references there given. § 90. As the theatre was opened at sunrise, or even as soon as day-break, the spectators assembled very early in order to secure good seats, which, as the edifices were built at the public expense, were at first free for every per- son. In consequence of the contest for places, which this occasioned, a law was passed at Athens, under which a fee for admission was demanded. This was fixed, for a time at least, at two oboli. But under the influence ol Pericles, another law was also enacted requiring the proper magistrate to furnish from the public treasury the amount of this fee to every one, who applied for it that he might attend a dramatic performance. The money thus used was termed QewQ-ixU yQi[uuTa, and the magistrate, Tauiug roiv &ih)Qiy.(ov. The number of spectators was often very great (P. I. § 235). Barthelemy has given a vivid description of their crowding to the theatre. Travels ofAnachtrsis (as cited P. II. $ 153. 2), ch. xi. Cf. also ch. lxx.— Barthelemy, Nombre des pieces qu'on representoient en un jour a Athenes, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxxix. 172. — On Greek theatrical performances, cf. P. II. § 36-47.— Load. Qjiart. Rev. xn. 119.— J. Proudfit, in the Bibl. Repository, vol. i. of 2d Series, p. 449. (2) Civil Affairs. § 91. After what has been already said (§ 33 ss) of the original circumstances and constitution of the Greek states, we may confine ourselves now to their characteristics and peculiarities in later times. The account of the various changes of their constitution and the consequences thereof belongs to history rather than antiquities. The latter, properly considered, will treat chiefly of the civil regula- tions of the most flourishing republic, Athens, without overlooking those of the other considerable states, especially the Spartans, who were distinguished by many peculiarities from the Athenians, al- though they had also many points of resemblance. § 92. The early political changes at Athens have been mentioned (§ 39). After the kings, whose power was greatly circumscribed by the chiefs of noble families, and of whom Codrus was the seven- teenth and last (1068 B. C), the chief magistrates were the Archons. When these became despotic, Draco (624 B. C.) introduced a code of laws, which soon occasioned new troubles by their severity. Re- course was then had to Solon (594 B. C), who abolished all the laws of Draco, except the one respecting murder. Solon changed the form of government in many points, diminished very much the authority and power of the Archons, gave the people a share and voice in judicial inquiries, and thus transformed the aristocracy pre- viously existing into a mixed and moderate democracy. § 93. Originally the people had been divided into 4 tribes (yvkat), and also divided, according to their places of residence, into a num- ber of boroughs or wards (S^uoi). Each tribe likewise was subdivided into three curies (^outo/u/, Urt{) according to their consanguinity, and each of the curiae into families (yirt t , r^iuy.udeg). But Solon divided 502 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. the citizens according to their wealth into 4 classes ; 1. iiivray.oGco- fiiSiuvoi, those who gathered from their fields in moist and dry crops, at least 500 ptfiuvot; 2. 'innng, those whose grounds yielded 300 fiiSiuvoL, and who were able to maintain a war-horse (innog no?.t t uiort : r Qiog) ; 3. Zivyirat, those whose lands produced 200 (or 150) uidtuvoi, and who owned the space of one acre or ttvyog ; 4. 0>jts?, those who had any less income. All the citizens were admitted to the assembly of the people (§ 106), but only the first three of the above classes shared in the burdens and expenses of the state, and therefore they alone could receive offices, and from them alone the senate (povki,, <§ 107) was chosen, which at that time consisted of 400. Solon also advanced the authority of the Areopagus (§ 108), as he gave it juris- diction of the most criminal cases. § 94. Athens remained under these regulations only about 34 years. Then, even before the death of Solon, Pisistratus became sole master of the state, and notwithstanding all opposition, contin- ued such until his death, 528 B. C. His two sons, Hippias and Hip- parchus, succeeded him, These were soon stripped of their power; Hipparchus being slain by Harmodius, who was offended on account of his sister (Thuc. vi. 544) and was aided by his friend Aristo- giton : and Hippias being driven into banishment by the people. After this, the constitution received a new form under the influence of Clisthenes. The number of the tribes ( ( pv?.al) was now increased to ten. From each of these, 50 senators (poviavral) were yearly elected, so that the Senate consisted of 500. After this the power of the people was still more increased. Aristides effected the abolition of the law of Solon, which excluded from offices the lowest of the four classes of citizens. Pericles, with the assistance of Ephialtes, deprived the Areopagus of a great portion of its power ; he also occasioned many important changes in the constitution, which were gratifying to the lower class- es, and by which the democracy became less guarded and restrained, and the way was opened for the ochlocracy that soon followed. § 95. After various changes in the government, Athens was taken by Lysander, B. C. 404. The supreme power was then vested in the thirty tyrants, who were, however, deprived of their authority after three years, by Thrasybulus, and banished. In their stead decemviri (dsy.adov/oi) were instituted, who likewise abused their power, and were exiled, after the former democracy was restored. This form was retained unto the death of Alexander the Great, when it was overturned by Antipater, and the government vested in a certain number of nobles or chiefs. After the death of Antipater, Cassan- der committed the republic to a lieutenant, and under Demetrius Po- liorcetes it enjoyed again freedom and popular power. With some changes, this state of things continued until the time of Sulla, who in the Mithridatic war conquered Athens and subjected her to the Romans. The final destruction of the city happened towards the end of the 4th century by the hands of Alaric, king of the West- goths. § 96. Athens was the most beautiful and splendid city in Greece. Its circuit was about one hundred and seventy-eight stadia. One CIVIL AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 503 part of it was the citadel, which lay upon a steep rock; this at first constituted the whole city under the name of Cecropia, and was af- terwards termed Acropolis. The most remarkable buildings on the Acropolis were the noonvlaia, Propylcea, the ilaQ&tvwr, or temple of Minerva with the famous statue of this goddess by Phidias, and the joint temple of Neptune Erectheus and Minerva Polias. In the oth- er portion of the city, the temples of Vulcan, Venus Urania, The- seus, Jupiter Olympus, and the Pantheon sacred to all the gods, were among the most remarkable. Of the numerous covered porticos, the Pozcile (P. I. § 74) was the most renowned, and adorned with the most magnificent paintings and ornaments. The Odeum, built by Pericles and devoted to musical and literary exercises, has been before mentioned (P. I. § 235). The name of Ceramicus was given to two extensive spaces, one within and the other without the city, the former enriched with beautiful edifices, the latter used as a burial ground. There were several market places (tryoqal), with different names according to their specific uses. The Gymnasia also, and the Baths, the Stadium ascribed to Herodes Atticus, the Academy, the Cynosarges, the Hippodrome, and the Theatres, belong to the re- markable and interesting works which adorned the city of Athens. The three harbors, Pirasus, Munychia, and Phalerum, should like- wise be mentioned here. Some further account of the buildings and monuments of the city of Athens will be found in the portion of this work which gives an Epitome of Classical Geography. Cf. P. V. ^104- 116. — For a view of the Parthenon, see Plate XVI. fig. 1 ; in the same Plate, fig. 2. is the temple of the Winds ; fig.- 3, the temple of Theseus. — For a Plan of Athens, see Plate XXIX. § 97. The inhabitants of Athens and of the whole of Attica were either noUrai,free citizens, uiroiy.oi,free commoners, resident aliens or sojourners, or SovXot, slaves. The first class was the most rsspecta- ble, the last the most numerous. The number of resident foreigners, however, was not insignificant. The right of citizenship was, in the flourishing times of the republic, a high privilege, which was con- ferred only upon men of honorable descent and distinguished merit, and upon such not without difficulty, since the agreement of six thousand citizens was first requisite. Free born Athenians were those whose parents were born at Athens, or at least one of whose parents was born there; and those of the latter class held a lower rank, and privileges in some respects less than the former. 1 u. By Cecrops the Athenians were divided in four tribes (cf. § 93) as fol- lows ; 1. KtxQonlc, from his own name ; 2. 3 uivrvj(6o)v ; 3. ^Axraia; 4. LTa- ^a'/.'ia. To each of these tribes belonged several districts, boroughs, or wards (driiot), of which there were at length 174 in Attica, and which differed from £ach other in various points of manners and customs. The* names of the tribes were afterwards changed, and the number increased to ten (§ 94), fi- nally to twelve. The number of citizens, TtoXlrai, in the time of Pericles amounted to 14,040 ; and in the time of Demetrius Phalereus, according to a census taken by his direction, B. C. 309, the number was 21,000. 2. From the census of Demetrius, the whole population of Attica, includ- ing aliens (§ 98), women, children, and slaves (§ 99), has been estimated at 500,000. See Jlmer. Quart. Register, on populousness of Ancient Nations, vol. ix. p. 143.— Sainte Croix, Sur la population de l'Attique, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xlviii. p. 147. — And Lc Ironnc, in the Mem. de VInstitut, Classe A , Hist. et Lit. Anc. vol. vi. 165. On the 4>]uoi of Attrca, see W. M. Leake, in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature } a full account, with a good map. 5p4 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. § 98. The uiroixoi were those foreigners, or persons not natives of Attica, who became residents in the city or territory. They took no part in the government, being admitted neither to the assemblies of the people nor to public offices, but were subject to all the laws and usages of the land. They were obliged to select from the free citi- zens a patron or guardian (.roooTurtjc), in whose name they could manage business and maintain actions in the civil courts, and to whom they must tender certain services. Certain services to the state were also required of them, besides which an annual tribute (,u»ro£- y.iov) was exacted, ten or twelves drachms for each man, and six for each woman without sons, mothers with sons that paid being free from the tax. Sometimes exemption from taxation (uxiUiu) was conferred* upon individuals as a reward for meritorious services. Demetrius found, by his census, 10,000 of the class of foreign res- idents. The term ctrot was applied to foreigners remaining in the city or country for a short time only ; it was also applied reciprocally to persons who were mutually pledged, by former acquaintance, or in any other way, to treat each other with hospitality. — If a mctic neglected to pay the imposed tax, he was liable to be sold for a slave. Diogenes Laertius was actually sold, because he had not the means of paying it ; but was redeemed by Demetrius. Cf. Sainte Croix, Sur les Metoeques &c. in the Mem. de VJicad. Acs Inscr. vol. xlviii. p. 176. § 99. The slaves (dov?.oi) were of different sorts, those belonging to the public (dov/.oi typodioi), and those belonging to private citizens .{d&tTai). The latter were completely in the power of the master, and were often treated with great severity. Yet they sometimes pur- chased freedom by their own earnings, or received it by gift as a re- ward for merit. Public slaves also were often set at liberty, when they had rendered the state some valuable serviced Freedmen very seldom, if ever, obtained the rights of citizens, and were still termed dovloi. In general, the condition of the slaves in Attica, abject and miserable as it was, appears to have been in some respects less so, than in other states of Greece, especially in Lacedsemon. The slaves of Attica amounted to 400,000 in the time of Demetrius. At Athens slaves were not allowed to imitate freemen in the fashion of their dress or the cut of their hair ; their coats must be with one sleeve only (fTf- •Qouuoxaloi) and the hair cut in the servile form (difi£ avdoanodiodtjc). They could not properly bear the names of Athenian citizens, but must be called by some foreign or low name. They were allowed to bear arms only in ex- treme cases. The punishments inflicted were severe ; for common offences they were whipped (uuoTiyiaui) ; for theft or running away they were bound to a wheel and beaten (inl tqo/ov) ; for some crimes they were sentenced to grind in the mills (uvZwvtc) ; sometimes they received, upon their forehead or some other part, the brand with hot iron (oriyfta). In giving testimony in court they were also subject to torture ((iuoarog). — Yet at Athens the slaves could bring civil actions against their masters and others for violation of chas- tity and for unlawful severity (v^tmg diy.ij and ur/.lag Siy.yj). When greatly oppressed, they could also flee to the temple of Theseus, from which it was held as sacrilege to force them. Slaves carried on the whole business of the Athenians ; even the poorer citizens depended on them. There was a sale of slaves on the first day of every month by merchants (tniha/ioSoxuTcyj' 7.ot) ; usually announced by a crier standing on what was called the vender's stone (jiout^o /.i6og). The price varied according to their abilities. Many were skillful in the elegant arts, and versed in letters ; while others were only qualified to toil in the mines. PLATE XVI, 43 506 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. See Reitemeier, Geschiehte und Zustand der Sclaverey &c. (History of Slavery and Villa- nage in Greece.) Berl. 1789. — Bibl. Rtpos. and Quart. Observer, No. xvu. p. 138. §100. The magistrates at Athens were divided, in reference to the mode of their appointment to office, into three classes, the ^s/ootojjjtoi, the zAtowroi, and the Uiqiroi. The first named were chosen by the whole people raising the hand ; the second were appointed by lot by the Thesmothetae in the the temple of Theseus; and the last were chosen by particular portions of the people, by the tribes and the dis- tricts, from among their own number. — The magistrates were re- quired, on the expiration of their offices, to render an account of their administration to a tribunal, which was constituted by ten ac- countants (/.oyiorul) and ten directors or judges (ivbhei, called also i$£TaoTitl). In choosing the Archons and other magistrates by lot, the ordinary method was to put the names of the candidates, inscribed on brazen tablets (.uvuzia), into aa urn with black and white beans (xva/ioi) ; and those whose tablets were drawn out with white beans were elected. On Athenian magistrates, cf. Blanchard, in the Mem. de VAcad. des laser, vn. 51. §101. The most important magistrates were the Archons (l;o/orrig). There were usually nine Archons, chosen by lot (yj.ijourroi), but sub- jected to an examination as to their qualifications, before they were admitted to take the oath and enter their office. 1. The examinations of the Archons was twofold; one in the senate called ^Avuxoiotc, the other in the forum, called Joxiinxoia, before the Hcliastce (>/u- aarui § 110). Among the points of examination were, whether their ances- tors for three generations had been Athenian citizens, whether they had a competent estate, and whether they were free from bodily defects (ucpf/.stg). 2u. The first of the nine in rank was styled Archon by way of eminence, 6 * Aqxmv ; sometimes *' At*%u>v tTitbrvuoc, because the year was named from him. He attended to the domestic affairs of citizens, decided differences which arose between relatives, bad the care of widows, appointed guardians, and took the oversight of certain festivals and solemnities, and also of theatres. — -■ The second was called King, or archon king, Sgjpw ^aatltvq. To him were assigned certain duties pertaining to religious worship, which were originally performed by kings exclusively ; he was, in general, overseer of religious af- fairs. The third, named Polemarch, Tio/Juao^oc, attended to the domestic af- fairs of strangers and sojourners, performing the same duties in reference to them, which the first archon did for the citizens. In the time of the Persian war, he had an important share in managing military affairs. The six re- maining archons were called Tkcsmothetce (^eafio&irui), and were chiefly oc- cupied with legislative affairs; they also took cognizance of such judicial matters as did not fall under other jurisdiction. 3. The three principal archons usually selected each two assistants, called rruQeSnoi, assessors, who sat on the bench with the Archons, having been sub- jected to the same examinations with other magistrates, and being required to render in the same way an account (iv&irij) of their office. § 102. Another magistracy at Athens, was that of the Eleven, 6i -Evdsxa, ten of whom were taken one from each of the ten tribes, and the other was their secretary (yitayuaTevg). They were properly overseers of the prisons, and directed in the execution of capital punishments. In later times they were also called roieoqn/iaxtf. — These were different from the Phylarchi (r;.«o/o/), who were orig- inally the inspectors of the ten tribes, and afterwards commanders in war. The Demarchi (d/uan^oi) performed similar duties in relation to the districts (j/>o/). — The Jr£iaQx\atwg, as having charge likewise of the public expenditures. He was chosen by the people (znooToria) for four years. 1 u. There were many subordinate officers in the department of finance. One class consisted of such as attended to the collecting of the revenue, and to the previous arrangements. To this class belonged the Tto)J>.t]rai, ten in number, one from each tribe, having the care of whatever the state sold or leased; the nouxroQig, who received all fines imposed; the intyQaysig, who assessed the imposts and tributes ; the dtayoaytrc, who enrolled the names of families and individuals, and assessed to them their part in raising an extra- ordinary revenue ; the txZoysig, who collected the taxes, duties, rents, &c. TzhTivai were, properly, not officers, but such persons as took leases of public lands or other pubfc property, and paid the rent to the officers. — A second class consisted of such officers as kept the moneys collected, and distributed them for public uses. Of this class were the anodixrat, ten in number, chos- en by lot ; and the rau'iai roiv [tQoiv ynr^utwv, who had the care of the treas- ures in the temples (§ 28). — Such officers as were employed in keeping or examining the multifarious accounts of the department may be considered as a third class, including the ynauuarstg, clerks, and vnoy quit uar tig, under-clerks, and the atriyQaiptig, checking-clerks or auditors. Among the latter may be named particularly the avTiyqaiptvg r^g dioix^otwg, controller of the expen- diture. 2. Some of the causes of expenditure from the public treasury should be noted here. The public edifices and other works were built only at a very great expense, and could be preserved in order only at a great annual cost. Pericles expended many thousands of talents upon works of architecture in Athens. The festivals were another source of expense ; when we consid- er their number, and think of the cost of the sacrificial victims and offerings, the banquets, the processions {nounai), the theatrical, musical, and gymnas- tic entertainments, and the rich prizes sometimes bestowed, it is obvious that immense sums must have been expended in maintaining them. — Much was expended also in distributions or donations to the populace (dtavopal, (Wr v urtf ;$ (iov&i}$) received its full legality only by the vote of the assembly, and was then called em- phatically a decree, \pt' t (ptoua. Often, however, a decision of the senate with- out the confirmation of the assembly was in force for a year j at least it was 43* 510 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES, so in those cases in which, in order to avoid too frequent meetings, the people had granted an independent validity, 2. The people voted by stretching forth their hands (/siqotoviu), and some- times by a mode of balloting in which beans (y.rauoi) and stones (if>ijq>o() were cast into vessels prepared for the purpose (xuSot). — When the business was completed, the TJovruvtig dismissed the assembly. 6. F. Schumann, De Comitiis Atheniensium lib. III. Gryphisw. 1819. 8. § 107. The senate or higher council (,; h>a pov?.l) consisted, ac- cording to the arrangements of Clisthenes, of 500 ; and was there- fore styled the senate or council of the 500 ( } ) ^ovXl t row narnxy.ooiwv). In earlier times it consisted of 400, and in later of 600 members. 1m. The 500 were chosen annually by lot, 50 from a tribe, which furnished a ready division of the senate into ten equal parts. Each of these divisions,, containing 50 members, took charge of the public business for 35 or 36 days, in an order of rotation decided by lot; and the members of the division hav- ing this charge at any one period were called JIqvtuvhiq for the time, and the period itself was called Tlovrurtla. The 50 IJQ.vrurug were subdivided into 5 portions of 10 members. These portions attended to their business in rota- tion, each for a period of 7 days, and the members were called Tlyusdooi for that time, the name being taken from their sitting in the senate as presiding officers. From the Ilnusdnoi was elected the ""EjuoTuTyjg, who was at their head, and of course at the head of the senate, but held the place only for a single day. — It was the business of the TlyuTursig to assemble the senate, and propose the subjects of deliberation. They also conducted the meetings of the people, in which however they only presided in connection with nine Uqos^qoi, who were chosen out of the other divisions of the senate and had an 'EjriOTuTfjg at their head. The riQvTuvtig had a common hall, where they passed most of their time daily, called the Prytaneum (nyvravsior), near the senate-house (Bovs.eLor). 2u. The members of the senate expressed their opinions standing, after which the votes were taken. They received a drachma (3Qu^ui t ) per day for every day's attendance. The power of the senate was very great. 3. The senate commonly assembled every day, excepting festivals and days considered as unlucky. The senators were all required to take what was called the senatorial oath (rbv povl.tvTixbv vQy.or) to do nothing contrary to the laws. In voting, they cast each a black or white bean into the box or chest for the purpose : if the number of white exceeded that of the black, the de- cree or resolution was affirmed ; otherwise rejected. § 108. No court of justice in Greece was more celebrated than the Areopagus at Athens, Its name, > Aosilmayog, signifies Hill of Mars, and was derived from the circumstance, that the court was held on a hill so called, near the citadel. Others derive the name from the tradition, that the god Mars was the first criminal tried be- fore this tribunal. The time of its establishment is uncertain, but was very early, before the age of Solon, who did not institute it, but enlarged its jurisdiction and power. The members of this body QjigHonay&ai) were originally the most upright and judicious citi- zens of every condition, but after the modifications made by Solon, only such as had been elected Archons. Their office was held for life. All high crimes, as theft, robbery, assassination, poisoning, ar- son, and offences against religion, came before this court, which in- flicted in such cases death or fines. At first its sittings were only on the last three days of each month ; but afterwards they were more frequent, and at last daily ; they were always in the open air, and at night. 1 u. The sitting was opened with a sacrifice, upon which both the accuser and the accused took an cath with direful imprecations. Then, either per- CIVIL AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 511 sonally or by attorneys, they urged their cause; but no ornaments of rheto- ric, no attempts to move the passions, were ever allowed. After this the judges gave their decision by means of white or black stones. As the court always sat in the dark, the white pebbles were distinguished by holes bored in them. Two urns were used, one of wood to receive the white stones, which were votes to acquit the defendant, and one of brass to receive the black, which on the other hand were votes for his condemnation. The sen- tence was immediately put in execution. In early times the dignity and pu- rity of this tribunal stood very high ; but afterwards its character fell in the general corruption of morals. 2. In their oath (Siwuoaiu) the plaintiff and defendant swore by the furies (oiuvul 5fut). In the trial they were placed upon what were called the silver stones (aQyuQovg Xi8ov$), the plaintiff on that of Injury (v/fy*$), and the de- fendant on that of Impudence (avuidtux), or of Innocence (uruiria). — The bra- zen urn stood in front of the other, and was called o MfinQ«o6»rj also o y.iqiog, because votes cast into it declared the accusation valid; and 6 -fruitxTov, as ii decreed death. The wooden was termed 6 6niou>, 6 ixxvqog, or 6 t/Jov. Respecting the pebbles used in decisions, cf. Anthon , s Note to Potter, p. 71. On the Are- opagus and the other courts of Athens, see A. W. Heffler, Die Athenaische Gerichtsverfassung. Cceln, 1832. 8. M. H. E. Meir und O. F. Schomann, Der Attische Process. Vier Biicliei. Halle, 1824. 8. — ibbe Caitaye, L'Areopagus, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vn. 174. § 109. The 'Eifirai were also persons of distinguished merit, who constituted the court called 'Enl naUadlw from the statue of Miner- va (said by some to have been brought from Troy) in the temple, where it was held. Its origin is ascribed to Demophoon, a son of Theseus, and by others to Draco, who, if he did not first institute it, certainly modified it anew. The judges were fftij-one, selected from noble families, five from each tribe, and one appointed by lot, all over fifty years of age. Solon confirmed the powers of this court ; but referred to the Areopagus all the more important questions, leav- ing to the 'Eiptrai jurisdiction only over homicide, injuries followed by death, and the like. There were three other less important courts belonging to the class which had cognizance of actions concerning blood (ihi t«v o- rix $ v ). — The court 'Eni. Jtltpivlm was held in the temple of Apollo Delphinius, and took cognizance of cases where the defendants con- fessed the fact but pleaded seme justification. — The court 'Ev jjqv- ravilco was held at the Prytaneum (§ 107) and investigated cases of deaths by accidents, unknown agents, or persons that had escaped. — The court >Ev ofurror was held upon the sea-shore in the Piraeus, and heard the causes of such criminals as had fled out of their own country. — In all these courts the 'Eyirai presided and pronounced the sentence. § 110. Besides the courts already described, there was another class having jurisdiction only in civil cases (inl twv ;- 512 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. Qfov), and full power was given by them to the judges to investigate and decide the case. 1 u. When the accused did not deny the jurisdiction (naqayQaif'^) or request a delay (vTiouoala), both he and the accuser were put under oath. Then the parties deposited a sum of money as security (7Z(WT0vtfu), and proceeded to bring forward the cause. In doing this they were limited to a definite time, measured by a water-clock (xlttfritya). The decision was given in the same way as in the Areopagus (§ 108 J ; and the defendant, in case of a sentence of death, was given over to the " EvSixa (§ 102), and in case of fine, to the JlQuy.Toqtc or Ey./.oyiig (§ 104). If he could not pay the fine, he was cast into prison; and if he died in confinement, not only the disgrace, but the punish- ment also, fell upon his son. 2. The bailiff or deputy employed to summon (Tiqooxaliio&ai) the defend- ant before the Thesmothetae, or witnesses before the court, was termed x?.i' r ruiQ ; the oath of the plaintiff before the opening of the trial was called ti^o- wuoala, that of the defendant avToniooiu ; a name for both was Stumoaiu. Door- keepers {y.iyy.i. idtc) were appointed by a magistrate to guard the court from a crowd. The amount of the security-money was, as has been hinted (§ 103), in proportion to the amount at stake in the action. In trivial cases it was a drachm and called nuoaaruoic ; the deposite made by one who sued for goods confiscated by the state, or for inheritances of a certain kind, was termed nw ffaxura^ol^. If the plaintiff (Sitoxw) failed of proving the indictment (itria) against the defendant (ipn'yon), he paid a fine called IxofUlla. While the action (diw'ztc) was proceeding or was in suspense, a notice of it, inscribed on a brazen tablet, was hung up (ixx*io6txi) in one of the most public places of the city. The witnesses (uuuti'q(c) were all put under a solemn oath, which they took together at the altar erected in the court-room. Their testimony was called for by the advocates (awi'juQoi) as they wanted it in proceeding with their pleas. — See Sir JVm. Jones's Preface to Isseus (cf. P. II. § 104. 3). The office of the judges, iixaorat, resembled that of our jurymen; they were usually paid three oboli a day. The number of prosecutions and trials was very great. There were many in Athens who seem to have made it their business to discover grounds of accusation against the wealthy. These men gained the name of ovxotpurrai, a term which was first applied to such as pros- ecuted persons that exported figs («/io rov ovxu tpuiniv), a law prohibiting such exportation having been enacted at a time when their was a great scarc- ity of that fruit. Cf. Alitford, ch. xxxi. sect. 1. The judicial process was substantially the same in the various courts. — The other civil courts besides the Helicea, were those called IliXQu^varor, Totywvov, To Kutvov, To Ini Arxov, and To Mrfilyov. §111. In addition to the ten public courts, there was also a judi- cial body, called 6i rtaaaquxorra, consisting of 40 persons chosen by lot, who held their courts successively in the several districts of At- tica having cognizance of cases where the sum or value at stake did not exceed 10 drachmas. There was likewise a body of Arbitrators, JiouTi.Tal, consisting of 440 aged men, 44 from each tribe, holding office for a year, and authorized to settle minor controversies within their respective tribes, but subject to appeal. These were called Klqgpnroi, being chosen by lot. Disputing parties were allowed to choose arbitrators for themselves ; these were called SutXi^xr^oiot or xar' ijiiTQ07ct t Y Jiaixr,ral. Minor causes could not be entered in the superior courts, until they had been heard before some court of ar- bitrators. The number is stated by some at 40, and 4 from each tribe, by a different reading of the passage in Ulpian upon Demosthenes. Class. Journ. xxxix. 350. — Jif. H. Hu-'swaleker, Ueber den Schiedsrichter Di'iteten in Athen, und den Process von demselben. Jena, 1812. § 112. Actions or suits were divided into two classes, public (^ t '- CIVIL AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 513 xai Si]u6(fiai, xartjYOQiut), such as concerned the whole state, and pri- vate (dly.ai cdlut, and Siy.ai simply), which concerned only individuals. Of the former class were the following : r^aipi, an action for the highest crimes, as e. g. murder (^oioc), poison ((puQuaxur), arson (nvq- xailc), sacrilege ({tooovtia), and many others esteemed less heinous; truest;, an action for the crime of embezzling or in some way squan- dering public property ; "EvfeiZtg, an action against persons usurping prerogatives not belonging to them, or refusing trial although con- fessing guilt; 'Anaywy*,* an action against a criminal taken in the act ; 'Eipi'jr^iq, against a criminal found in concealment and there visited by a magistrate; > Avfyolqyla, against such as concealed a murderer, which allowed the relatives of the murdered person to seize three persons connected with the concealing party and retain them until further satisfaction ; *Ei (also *2oio$), a wooden collar, which bent down the head and neck ; the /out;, a kind of stocks, in which the feet or legs were made fast; the auric, a piece of wood to which the offender was bound as to a pillory ; and the tqo/1»c, a sort of wheel, applied to slaves who were bound to it and tortured: (7) , 7tuQa?.og tou^ijs) which was annually sent to the island Delos with a solemn sacrifice. § 116. Public rewards and honors were awarded to meritorious persons. Among these, were the following; (1) nooiSn'm, the front or Jirst seat, in the theatres, at the festivals and on all public occa- sions; (2) 'Eiy.MV, a statue, erected in a public place ; (3) Zrlyavoi, croicns, conferred by the senate, or the people, or by particular tribes and boroughs upon their own members ; these were most frequently a reward for valor and military skill ; (4) 'jtrUtla, exemption from taxes, which was of various degrees, but seldom extended to the con- tributions required for war and for the navy; (5) ziTrjOtg h Hqvtonnim t entertainment in the common hall, called Prytaneum ; originally limited to a single day ; but- afterwards daily and permanent in the case of some (utiairoi) ; it was an honor bestowed on the most worthy men, sometimes upon whole families, and was viewed as a high dis- tinction. After the death of such as had received special honors, their children and descendants enjoyed in some measure the benefit of the same. These honors were obtained with difficulty in the bet- ter times of the republic, but became quite common afterwards, and lost their salutary influence in a state of corrupted manners. § 117. No people of antiquity was so much celebrated for the wisdom of their laws as the Greeks. The first legislation in Greece is ascribed to Ceres and Triptolemus (P. III. § 61). Afterwards, Theseus, Draco, Solon, Clisthenes, and Demetrius Phalereus, were the most distinguished authors of the laws adopted by the Atheni- ans. The number of the Attic laws was constantly increased with CIVIL AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 515 the changing circumstances of the state. It was commonly the prov- ince of the nnvrursig to propose laws. A proposal adopted in the assembly was called either a decree, yfoioua, when it had only some specific application, or a laic, rLuog, when its obligation was univer- sal and unchanging. An ordinance of Solon required an annual revision of the laws, to ascertain what alterations or additions might be necessary. His own laws were inscribed on tables of wood (cf. P. I. § 53). If one wished to introduce a law, he named it to the JTqvtuv(is, who brought it before the senate ; if the senate approved, it was called a JjQo^or).tvuu ; it was written by the Tlnvravug upon a tablet, which was fixed up publicly at the statues of the * Eiiojvvuoi, some days before the meeting of the assembly > from this circumstance, it was also called nrtoyouiiua. It will not comport with the limits of this sketch to detail particular Athenian laws. -- These may be found in Sam. Petiti ad leges Atticas Commentar. (Cf. P. II. $ 55. 3), and in Jurisprudentia Romanna et Attica, T. iii. — Comp. Jo. Mcursii Themis Attica, L. B. 1624. 4. — • See also Potter's Archceologia Gneca, bk. i. ch. xxvi. The most remarkable laws of the Greeks generally are exhibited by Kbpke in Nitsch's.Be- Bchreibung &x. cited § 13. § 1 18. Next to Athens, Lacedsemon was the 'most flourishing of the Grecian states, and its most remarkable antiquities should be briefly noticed (§ 40). The province in which this city lay bore the same name, but was called also Lelegia, CEbalia, Laconia or Laconi- ca, and was the largest part of the Peloponnesus. The city of Lac- edaemon or Sparta was situated in an unbroken plain, on the river Eurotas, and was in early times, according to the direction of Ly- curgus, without walls. Its soil was fertile, and its internal plan and its edifices such as to be respectable, although they did not give a just idea of the power and resources of the state. On the civil constitution of this state, we may refer to /. K. F. Manso, Sparta, ein Versuch Tur Aufklaeiung der Geschichte und Verfassung dieses Staats. Leipz. 1800-1805. 3 vols. 8. — JSfttsch, Beschreibung &c. as cited § 13. — Muller, History and Antiquities of the Doric Race* Transl. by Tufnell <$* Lewis. Oxf. 1830. 2 vols. 8. — W. Drummond, Review of the Governments of Sparta and Athens. — On the topography of Sparta, see P. V. $ 126. § 119. In Lacedaemon the citizens were of two kinds, such as had received the rights of citizenship by inheritance from their parents, and such as had acquired them personally. They were together di- vided into 6 tribes, of which that of the Heraclidse was the first. Each of these was again sub-divided into five classes, called &{kti, making 30 in all. The presidents or leaders of these were called JTeQuaxTiii. The first class of citizens, being of free-born parents, and having complied with all the Spartan discipline, were called the ouotot, or equals; while the other class were termed vTiousiortg, inferiors, including freedmen and sons of freedmen, and all such as had not fully conformed to the Spartan discipline. The division into 6 tribes, above referred to, was made by Lycurgus. Some state 5 as the number, not considering the Heraclidce as a separate tribe. The others were the Atuvurai, so called from their residing near the marsh or mo- rass (Xluvtf) on the north side of the city; the KwooovqeCg, ho called from their vicinity to a branch of mount Taygetus termed Kwooov^u (dog's-tail) on account of its figure ; the Unavuiui ; the Mzoooarai ; and the AiyiiStn) who received this name because they resided near the tomb of iEgeus, Al- ytvg. Midler asserts, that in every Doric state there were three tribes, Hyl~ leis, Dymanes, Pamphyli, or Hyllean, Dymanatan, and P amp hylian ; and says, we cannot suppose the existence in Sparta of any other than these genuine Doric tribes. He represents each of these as divided into 10 o>Sul, and adds, that two and probably more, yet not all, of the mfiui of the Hyllean tribe must 516 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. have been Heraclida. (Hist, and Ant. of Dor. Race, as above cited, vol. If. p. 76, 79, 80.) There was another division of the Spartans, into 6 filnai, consisting only of such as were of a proper age for military service. — Robinson s ArchaeoL Grasc. p. 138. § 120. It is known, that the Spartans were obliged, on the birth of their children, to subject them to a close scrutiny as to their vigor and soundness of constitution, and to submit it to the decision of the presidents of the &pal, or clans, whether they were suitable to be preserved and raised ; a regulation designed to prevent a population of weak and sickly citizens. The education of the children was treated with the greatest care. All the citizens not only had equal rights, but also a community of goods and privileges. The lands were, by the laws of Lycurgus, equally apportioned among them. As soon as a child was bDrn, it was carried to a place called Lesche (Jiaxv) to be examined by the elders of the family or clan. If disapproved as having an imperfect frame or a weak constitution, it w T as cast into a gulf, called 'AnodiTui, near mount Taygetus. If approved, a share of the public lands was assigned to it, and it was taken back to the father's house and laid on a shield with a spear placed near it. The whole education was entrusted to the parent until the child reached the age of seven; then the regular public edu- cation (aj'or//,) commenced. The boys at this age were enrolled in the classes termed Agela (uyi/.cu or (iovai, herds) ; such as refused this lost the rights of citizenship ; none but the immediate heir to the throne was excepted ; the other sons of the kings were obliged to submit to the correction of the mas- ter (IIatdor6uoc). The discipline was more strict after the age of twelve. At about sixteen they were called oitisvrai. At eighteen they entered the class- es termed t(ft t 1oi, and about two years after received the appellation of ttQertg, and were admitted to the public banquets. At thirty they were ranked as men, tztjpoi, and were allowed to undertake public offices. — Midler, as cited § 118, vol. ii. p. 313. § 121. The slaves among the Lacedaemonians were treated with great cruelty (cf. § 99). There appears to have been but one class, viz. the Helots ('EO.utic), who according to the common account were derived from the maritime town Helos (' •E.'.og) captured by the Spartans. Others consider the name as derived from the verb ?/«, and signifying prisoners. The unhappy Messenians taken in the second Messenian war were incorporated among the Helots. 1 u. The Helots were required to cultivate the land, and perform the most laborious and dangerous services in war. They were exposed to every sort of abuse, and even to the murderous attack of the young Spartans, especially in the custom termed Kqv7irtia, which was an annual legalized hunt against these degraded subjects. Yet some among them, as a reward of distinguished merit, obtained liberty and citizenship, on occasion of receiving which they were crowned with garlands and led about the temples. They then were called i/rti'vuy.Toi, or aytTat, or vto8auo>Sets. The last epithet seems to have designated such as enjoyed more of civil rights, than the common freedmen, whose rank was far below that of the free-born. The number of slaves in this state was very large. 2. There was another class of inhabitants in the province of Lacedasmon, who although not slaves were yet held in a state of subjection by the Spar- tans. They were the natives of towns reduced by the latter to a tributary and dependent state; they were called Pcriceci (Jlt^ioiy.ot). Respecting these and the Helots, see MtiUer, vol. n. p. 17, 30. — Capperonicn, Sur l'esclavage des Hilote?-, in the Mem. Acad laser, xxm. 271. § 122. At the head of government were two kings or leaders (^jy-«-/*TU(), who must be certainly descended from the Heraclidae, CIVIL AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 517 and possess an unexceptionable exterior. They did not possess the full regal authority (^qftHttJUta), but a power limited by the laws, to which they were accustomed every month to swear obedience. In war their power was greatest. They had also the oversight of the worship of the gods, and sometimes performed the office of priests. In peace their chief civil prerogative was to preside in the senate and pro- pose the subjects for deliberation ; and each could give his vote on any ques- tion. Irt war the Spartan kings had unlimited command (aTQarij'/oc avroxQa-* two), and could even put to death without trial (I* /fioog vuiioj). Many dis- cussions grew out of the double monarchy (Siuo/^). The royal revenue was very great. Cf. Midler, n. p. 106. § 123. Lycurgus established a senate of 28 men, of blameless character, and upwards of GO years old, which was called ytnovoia, or ytqcovia. The members had an equal right of voting with the two kings, and rendered no account of the manner of discharging their office. —There were also 5 Ephori (fyooo<), who had an oversight of the whole state, and whose duty required them to assert the rights of the people against the kings. They were chosen from among the people, without reference to condition. — The BstSiuioi were a class of officers, who were placed over the ttp^ot, between the age of 18 and 20. The Ephori enjoyed a power which was called laorrQawoq, and were not required to give any account of their discharge of it ; but they were appoint- ed only for one year. Their tribunal (ttpoQttav) was in the forum. — The Bet- , tiiaiot were five in number, with a sixth as their niiinpvq. They had the in- spection of the gymnastic exercises, called n lax unarm, because performed in a spot surrounded with plane trees ; it was their province to decide disputes arising at the gymnasia. They had their tribunal or place of council also in the forum. The common name for the council-halls of these and. other mag- istrates was aoynu. § 124. The Spartans had other magistrates ; as the Nouoipi'?.ay.tg> who saw that the laws were maintained and executed ; the e Af>u6ovroi t to whom was entrusted the oversight of the women, to observe their lives and manners and direct their exercises ; the 'Efmik^qoi, who preserved order and decorum in assemblies of the people, and at- tended in general to the police of the forum or market ; the m'Giot* four in number, appointed by the kings, and employed to consult oracles; the ziqv^voi, who were also appointed by the kings, and had charge of the reception of strangers; the iiqoSixoi, who had the care of the young kings as tutors; the i7«»(Wo«o«, whose office was to oversee and manage the boys put under their care at the age of 7; the 'Anuoaxal, who were a sort of sheriffs in the city and province ; the noUuuQxoiy who under the kings superintended the affairs of war, and also attended to some matters of police in the city; the 'innay- jQirat, three officers, who commanded each a chosen band of 100 horsemen. § 125. The assemblies (ir.y.hjoiai) of the people were similar to those at Athens. In some of them only native citizens of Sparta met ; in others there were also delegates from the towns and cities belonging to the province Laconia ; in assemblies of the latter class were discussed all affairs of common interest and importance to the whole state. Originally the kings and senate had the power of con* vening the assemblies; it was afterwards vested in the Ephori, who 44 618 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. also presided in them. The votes were given by utterance of voice (po>} xul ov U'l'^pco), and the majority decided by the loudest acclama- tion, or by a subsequent division and counting of the two parties. The assembly composed only of the citizens of Sparta was called uueoa **- xhfola, and usually met once every month. Every citizen capable of bearing arms might attend, and, if above the age of 30, might speak. The meetings were originally in the open air, but at a later period were held in an edifice called oxiixg erected for the purpose. — The other assembly was called simply, or by way of eminence, iy.x?.r t oict. It consisted of the kings, the senators, the magistrates, and the deputies of Laconia. § 1^6. The assembly also, which was collected at the public and common meals and termed avaetria, (psidirta, and m)Aria, Was designed for the purpose of speaking upon matters of public importance. In this assembly, kings, magistrates, and certain citizens, met together in certain halls, where a number of tables were set, for fifteen persons each. No new member could be admitted to any table but by the unanimous consent of all belonging to the same. Every member contributed to the provisions from his own stores ; a specified quantity of barley meal or cakes (uatai), wine ? cheese, and figs, and a small sum of money for meat, was expected from each. A close union was formed between those of the same table. The regular meal was termed uix/.ov ; after this was a desert called iftuixXov. The men only were admitted ; small children were allowed to sit on stools near their fathers and receive a half share without vegetables (upuupuxtvoTu) ; the youth and boys ate in other companies. At table they sat or reclined on couches of hard oak. The chief dish was the black broth (fii?.ag Lvuug). — Midler, ii. 289. The Spartans had also another kind of solemn feast, called xoTtig, to which foreigners and boys were admitted along with the citizens. — Robinson, p. 159. The reader may be amused by the following passage from Sir Henry Blount, who traveled in Turkey, in 1634. " The Turks have a drink, called cauphe, made of a berry as big as a small bean, dried in a furnace and beat to powder, of a sooty color, in taste a little bitterish, that they sethe and drink, hot as may be endured ; it is good at all hours of the day, but espe- cially morning and evening, when to that purpose they entertain themselves two or three hours in cauphe-houses, which in Turkey abound more than inns and ale-houses with us. It is thought to be the old black broth used so much by the Lacedcemonians. It drieth ill humours in the stomach, comforteth the brain, never causeth drunkenness, nor any other surfeits, and is a harmless entertainment of good fellowship." § 127. Judicial actions were very summary among the Spartans* Eloquence found no place in them ; no advocates were employed ; every one was obliged to plead his own cause. There were three distinct jurisdictions, that of the kings, the senate, and the Ephori, each of which formed a tribunal for the decision of a certain class of questions. The most important questions and particularly all of a capital nature belonged to the senate. In minor disputes, the par- ties were allowed to choose arbitrators for themselves. Cf. Robinson, bk. ii. ch. xxii. — On the authority of the Ephori, M'uller, bk. hi. ch. vii. and bk. iii. ch. ii. $2 on the Spartan Courts. § 128. The punishments were various and in part similar to those at Athens. The most common mode of inflicting death was by strangling or suffocation. — Stealing was punished not so much for do a i the theft committed, as for the want of shrewdness and dexterity be- trayed by the offender in allowing himself to be detected. There were, on the other hand, various rewards and distinctions bestowed on persons of merit, both while living and after death. Strangling was effected by means of a rope (Pi>o/og, (touyxoc) ; it was al- ways done in the night and in a room in the public prison called Atxug. Death was also inflicted by casting the malefactor into the pit called Kuiudag ; this was always done likewise by night. Aristomenes the Messenian was cast into this, but survived the fall and effected an escape, which was considered CIVIL AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 519 as very wonderful. Cf. Mitford, ch. iv. sect. 4. Besides the punish- ments Zt t uia, ^Aniila, and Kvtpuv or y.loibg, mentioned among Athenian pen- alties (§ 113), the Spartans had Maariyv^oig, whipping, which the offender re- ceived as he was driven through the city, and KirrtjOig, goading, which was a similar punishment. Banishment, 4>t/y^, seems not to have been a regular punishment inflicted by sentence ; but was voluntary, and chosen in order to escape death or infamy (aripiu). — Cf. Midler, n. 235. Among the distinctions conferred on the meritorious, the TlQoiSqa, first seat in a public assembly, was highly honorable. Much value was attached to the olive-crown, 'EXaTttf axiipavog, as a reward for bravery, and to the thongs, Bati- kontg, with which victors in the contests were bound. But it was one of the highest honors of, the city to be elected into the number of the three hundred constituting the three chosen bands of horsemen (§ 124j, termed JoyuStg. To commemorate the dead, statues, cenotaphs (y.svoru(piu), and other monuments were erected. § 129. The legislation of Sparta had Lycurgus chiefly for its au- thor, and was marked by some strong peculiarities. The form of government was distinguished from that of all the other states by its union of monarchical with aristocratical and democratical traits. There were in Sparta no written laws; they were transmitted orally from one generation to another; on this account Lycurgus styled them £,;toui. They were not numerous, and were chiefly designed to promote bravery and hardihood, and hinder all luxury and volup- tuousness. Although they underwent many alterations in minor points, they retained their authority through a period of above 800 years. (Cf. Mueller, n. p. 97, 235.) § 130. Next to the states of Athens and Sparta, the island of Crete presents a constitution the most remarkable. It is here, as has been stated (§ 38), that we find the origin of the institutions of Ly- curgus. During the republican government which succeeded the monarchical, it was customary to elect ten officers annually as chief magistrates. These were called Cosmi, x 6ouot, and were taken only from particular families. Under them was a Senate, which was con- sulted only on important questions ; it consisted of 28 members, who for the most part had previously held the office of Cosmi. There was also an order of knights, who were required to keep horses at their own expense for the public use, and to serve in time of war. The power of popular assemblies was not great; they usually did nothing but confirm the decrees of the higher authorities. (Cf. Mueller, n. 99, 134.) § 131. The Cretan laws were in general wise, as appears from some traces of them found in different writers. — Like the Spartans, the citizens of Crete had public meals, which they called avdQua. — Slaves were treated with comparative mildness. 1. " Curiosity is excited," observes Mitford, "by that system of laws which, in an age of savage ignorance, violence, and uncertainty among surrounding nations, inforced civil order, and secured civil freedom to the Cretan people ; which was not only the particular model of the wonderful polity, so well known to us through the fame of Lacedaemon, but appears to have been the general fountain of Grecian legislation and jurisprudence ; and which con- tinued to deserve the eulogies of the greatest sages and politicians, in the brighest periods of literature and philosophy. See Sainte Croix, Des Anciens gouvernements federatifs, et legislation de Crete. Par. 1776. 2. Three different classes of dependents existed in the island ; the public bondmen, called by the Cretans ftrola) the slaves of individual citizens, 520 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. u(painr~Tai ; and the tributaries, ttt^xooi. Perhaps there was no Grecian state in which the dependent classes were so little oppressed as in Crete. In gen- eral, every employment and profession, with the exception of the gymnasia and the military service, was permitted to them. — Midler, as cited § 1]8, 11. 5. The name ardyeia is supposed to have been given to the public meals, be- cause, as at Sparta, men alone were admitted to the tables. A woman, how- ever had the care of tbe public tables at Crete. The Cretans were distin- guished by their great hospitality ; with every two tables for citizens there was one for foreigners. — Midler, II. 225. § 132. In Thebes, the principal city of Bceotia, a monarchical government existed until the death of Xanthus, and afterwards a re- publican. Yet this state did not rise to any great celebrity, at least not for a long time ; the cause was perhaps the whole national char- acter of the Thebans. Besides a proper senate, there were in Thebes Baeotarchs, Bo,orui) X ai, and Polemarchs, noUuuo/oi ; the former had the care of the civil affairs, and the latter of the military. — Bceotia was divided into four grand councils, or senates, whose decrees guided all the other magistrates. Merchants and mechanics were adopted as citizens, but never raised to any magistracy. The expo- sure of infants was not permitted, but if their parents were unable to maintain them, it was done by the state. Pausanias has recorded in his description of Bceotia many remarkable features of the later con- dition of the Theban state. Cf. Mitford, ch. v. sect. 1. — Raoul- Rochctte, Administration de l'Etat Federatif des Bogotiens, in the Mem. de V Iiistitut, Classe d'Hitf. ct Lit. Anc. vol. vm. p. 214. § 133. Of the internal constitution of Corinth but little is known. It was at first governed by kings, of whom the Sisvphida? and Bac- chiadae were the most distinguished. Afterwards, when, an aristo- cratical form was introduced, one chief magistrate was chosen yearly called LTnvrarig. He was supported by a senate, rtQuvola. The as- sembly of the people never had equal authority; their power was often very small. The city was once called Ephyra, and enjoyed a favorable situation upon the isthmus, which rendered it and its two harbors so famous on account of their navigation and commerce. It was destroyed by the Romans B. C. 146, but was afterwards rebuilt by Caesar, and became again very flourishing. — Syracuse and Cor- cyra were colonies of Corinth. The last city is specially remarka- ble, from the fact, that a dispute between itself and Corinth was the occasion of the Peloponnesian war. Syracuse was for a long time governed by 600 of the oldest men, called ytowuoot; but afterwards became enterely democratical until it was subjected to the Romans. — Cf. Mueller, as before cited, ii. p. 156. . § 134. Argos, like the other Grecian states, had in early times its kings. In later times, it was governed by the people divided into four tribes. It had its senate, and another body of magistrates con- sisting of 80 members, and a class of public officers called fyrwot, — Cf. Mueller, u. 144. 147. In the history of Mtolia we may mention as chiefly remarkable the league or confederacy between the cities of that district. This confederacy was called the Pancetolium. It had at Thermus an annual assembly or meeting, in which the magistrates were elected, and also a president of the confederacy, who was called or^ur^o?, and was at / w MILITARY AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 521 the same time chief military commander. This officer was subject to the assembly. The council of the Apocleti (ux6y.hiroi) was a dif- ferent body, who decided questions that arose in pressing emer- gencies. The cities of Acliaia also united themselves in a league, and held their common assemblies, twice a year at ^Egium. In these origin- ally presided one rqainiaTiv?, with two ^Toa-ri^oi ; and at a later pe- riod, one STQarfobg, besides whom there were ten J^uovqybi to attend to the public affairs of the confederacy. (3) Military Affairs. § 135. That warlike spirit which, as has been observed (§ 42), was a main trait in the national character of the early Greeks, was also conspicuous in their descendants of a later period. This is true of the Athenians, and more emphatically so of the Spartans, who were inured to hardship by their education, bound by their laws and their honor to conquer or die, and inspired by their whole national system with a love of war. These republics were accordingly the refuge and protection of the smaller states in their difficulties. The Thebans likewise, for a certain period, maintained the reputation of distinguished valor. Athens and Sparta, however, were always the rivals in this respect ; and although in the war with Xerxes they agreed, that Athens should command the Grecian fleet, and Sparta the land forces, yet they soon again fell into dissension, and the Spar- tans stripped the Athenians, for a time, of that naval superiority, for which the situation of Athens afforded the greatest advantages. § 13G. The armies of the Greeks consisted chiefly of free citizens, who were early trained to arms, and, after reaching a certain age, at Athens the twentieth year, were subject to actual service in war. From this duty, they were released only by the approaching weak- ness of age. At Athens the citizens were exempted from military service at the age of 40, except in cases of extreme danger. Some were also wholly exempted on account of their office or employment. Of those who w r ere taken into service, a written list or roll was made out, from which circumstance the levying was termed xarayQeupi,, or xaru/.oyo:. The warriors maintained themselves, and every free citi- zen considered it a disgrace to serve for pay ; for which the spoils of victory were, in some degree, a substitute. Pericles, however, intro- duced the payment of a stipend, which was raised, when necessary, by means of a tax on the commonwealth. At first foot-soldiers received two oboli a day ; afterwards four ; whence TtTQvipulov piog signified a soldier's life, and rtTQoi^oXittiv, to serve in war. The pay of a soldier in the cavalry, termed y.uTuoraaig, was a drachm a day ; a seaman received the same, with an allowance for a servant. On the methods of raising money at Athens for extraordinary expenses, see § 103, 104. On the military regulations, cf. Gamier, Sur les loix miiftaires des Grecs, in the Mem. Acad. Jiiscr. vol. xLv.p. 239. — Cf. § 42. § 137. It has already been remarked (§ 48), that the Grecian sol- diers were of three classes; footsoldiers or infantry, to jcsttxbv; the cavalry, r b i ( p> Xmtm ', and such as were borne in chariots, to l

o/r r fiuriur. The infantry comprised three kinds ; the inUnu t heavy 44* PLATE XVII MILITARY AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 523 armed, who carried a complete and full armor, and were distinguish- ed particularly by a large shield (»a?.ov) ; the mlraaritt, targeteers, who bore light arms, particularly a small shield (ntXrt}) ; and the \ptlol, light armed, who had no shield and used only missile weapons. — The war chariots were not much used after the introduction of cavalry. The chariots, termed dQerravtiifooot, were sometimes terribly destructive, be- ing armed with scythes, with which whole ranks of soldiers were sometimes cut down. In Plate XIV. fig. K, one of these chariots is presented, drawn by two horses which are pro- tected by a covering of mail. It may be worthy of remark here, that such chariots were used by the ancient Britons and Belgians, and are designated in the Roman writers by the terms coviui and MMtia (Lwtan. Phars. i. 426. — Tac. Agric. xxxvi. — Cms. Bell. Gall. iv. 33. — Mda, iii. 6). " The covinus was a terrible instrument of destruction, being armed with sharp scythes and hooks for cutting and tearing all who were so unhappy as to come within its reach." R. Henry, History of Great Britain, (first ed.) Lond. 1771-93.' 6 vols. 4. § 138. The cavalry of the Greeks was not numerous, and consist- ed only of citizens of the more respectable class, and such as were able (cf. § 93) to maintain their horses. The inmr?, therefore, at Athens as well as Sparta, held a high rank. Those, who wished to attain this rank, were first examined in respect to their bodily strength and other qualifications, by the senate and a Hipparch or Phularch (frr.Tuo^c, yvloQxij?) appointed for the purpose. They were called by various names according to the weapons of armor they used ; as, e. g., axQoSo?.tar'ut, who threw missiles ; doQaroyoooi, who carried spears or lances ; innorozorai, zvaroyooot, xovrocpooot, -&v{)eo(p6qoi } etc. The fol- lowing articles constituted their principal armor ; a helmet, broad plated girdle, breastplate, a large shield, cuishes, a javelin and sword. The horsemen, as well as the infantry, were distinguished into the heavy- armed, xuTu(f()uxTot, and light-armed, utj xarhupqaxroi. The former not only were defended by armor themselves, but also had their horses protected by plates of brass or other metal, which were named, from the parts of the horse covered by them, Ttqoftitioitliia, itfj&rtQrldia, jraQau^qidtu, T«oa;r/.ci h jcftiTiuSunxoi, the names being derived from the number of men commanded by them. § 141. The whole army was called organic; the front, uirwTtor or TtQtorog tvybg ; the wings, xigaru ; the rear, ottyu or^a/arog tvyvg. The smallest division, consisting of five men, was called a ntimug ; a ?.6/og contained from ten to a hundred men, according to different circum- stances ; and a ruiig, a hundred, or a hundred and twenty-eight. The Ta'ztg was also called ixurorTao/la. Each division of this sort had five attendants, who (Jxtuxtoi) did not serve in the ranks; viz. the arguroxi'^xz, who reported the officer's commands to the soldiers; the ai;ittiocpunog, who conveyed the ensigns, signals, or watchwords; the ouljiiyxTi,;, a trumpeter j MILITARY AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 525 the r/rf'ru'r^c, who supplied the members of the division with necessaries, and the <>vnay'og, whose business was to see that none of the numler were left behind. Some of the larger divisions; avvrayua, consisting of two Tu^ig, or 256 men; 7iirruy.oniun/iu, two a r tray itaru, or 512 men; yiliuoyiu, two of the last, or 10.24 men; AJt^wj/la, or TiJ.ug, twice the preceding, or 2048 men; u/.ayy«Qx'nx, or ^rQaTr t yiu sometimes, twice the Ti?.og, or 40G6 men; the commander of the latter was called rrrour^yoc. The term *I>^?.ay=. signifies sometimes a body of twenty-eight soldiers; sometimes a body of 4000, as just mentioned ; and sometimes any number of troops in general. Yet it is said, that a full or complete Phalanx contained four times the number included in the ijtx/.uyyan/iu, above named, i. e. 16,384 men. § 142. While the term (p ^ M yz is often used in a general sense for any number of soldiers, it is employed also to signify a peculiar order of arrangement in a rectangular form, which gave the body strength to resist a great shock ; the Macedonians were especially celebrated for using it to advantage. — The h,Su?.ov was the same with the Ro- man cuneus, an arrangement in the form of a wedge, in order to force a way more easily and further into the midst of an enemy. — Wheeling, turning, or facing, was called yj.ioig ; to the right, $nl cfuou, the spear being in the right hand ; to the left, fc*» uarndu, the shield being held in the left. Turning completely about was termed ustcc- jftri/,. — The Greeks possessed great skill and readiness in manoeu- vres, and had teachers of the art, wzn^i, who instructed the youth in the practice. Various forms were given to the yul.ayz, some of which were not rectangu- lar; as the tniy.uunlg (puXay$, which presented the form of a half moon, and was also called xv^rt] and y.uiXt]', qou^oftSl.q ipukuyz, which was in the figure of a diamond. In the phalanx, tvyoi signified the ranks, taken according to its length, ufy.og; ot'i/oi (also 7.o/oi) the files taken according to its depth, pu&oc. Another order of array for battle was the nZlrQior, brick, a rectangu- lar presenting its length to the enemy. The n t'oyog, tower, was the same form, with its width or the end of the rectangle towards the enemy. The nXalotvr seems to have been an exact square or nearly so. The KoikiuNolev was a fig- ure like the letter V, with the open part toward the enemy. The ui/ was in the form of an egg, according to which the Thessalians usually arranged their cavalry. The term is, however, generally used to signify simply a troop of horses ; sometimes a troop of 64. Two such troops constituted the inis.aoyla, 128 men, and eight of them the i/inan/iu, 512 men; four of the last named formed the TiXog of the cavalry, or 2048 men. Of the various terms applied to manoeuvring or evolutions we add only the following; tzi?.iyi/l>g, a countermarch, by which every soldier, one marching after another, changed the front for the rear, or one flank for another ; Sin- ?.a(7tuauog, an enlarging of the body, either by adding men or by extending the same number over a great space. It maybe remarked that among the Lacedaimonians, the whole army was divided into juoQuti which contained orig- inally only 400 men each, but afterwards a larger number and variable. Each fiunu consisted of 4 Xv/ot. The Trsrn^orrrt'c was one half of the /.t'/oc ; and one half of the 7nrrr l y.oaTi g was termed iro'uoria, including 25 men ; the lat- ter body is said by some to have contained thirty. tioo or thirty-six men. § 143. The declaration of war usually began with a demand made by the injured or offended party through deputies for reparation or satisfaction. Unexpected hostile invasion was viewed as unrighteous warfare; it was justified only by great and wanton injuries. The most respectable men were selected for the ambassadors and heralds, and their persons were regarded as sacred and inviolable. 1 u. The heralds (xi'^vxsg) carried a staff wound with two serpents (xjjou'x- 526 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. tiov,) and were usually charged only with messages of peace, while the am- bassadors or deputies (KQtnflstg) were accustomed also to threaten and to an- nounce war. The power of ambassadors was limited in different degrees at different times (§ 102). The leagues or agreements entered into were either (1) aitordi), a treaty of peace or mutual cessation from injuries, called also avrBilxtfo e ('(;//»•//- ; (2) iniiiu/ia, a treaty of mutual defence ; or (3)- tsvuua- X'ta, an alliance both defensive and offensive, in which the parties engaged to aid each other, not only when attacked, but also when they themselves com- menced the war. Such treaties were confirmed by the most solemn oaths, written upon tablets and placed in public view. Sometimes the parties ex- changed certain tokens or evidences (ai'ufioXa) of the compact. 2 m. Before actually declaring war, it was customary to consult an oracle. The war was commenced with sacrifices and vows. Scrupulous attention was also paid by the Greeks to omens and seasons. 3. An eclipse of the moon was a fatal sign; the Athenians would not march before the seventh day, ivrbg t^dvutjg, nor the Lacedtemonians until full moon. § 144. In addition to what has already been said (§48) on the construction of camps, it may be here remarked, that the form of them was often changed according to circumstances. The Laceda> monians, however, always adhered to the circular form in their camps, as well as their cities. The bravest troops were usually placed on the extremities or wings, and the weakest in the centre or interior. A particular part of the camp was appropriated for the worship of the gods, and for holding councils of war and military courts. The guards were divided into the day-watches, (pv?.axla ijitqirut, and the night-watches, avXaxm wxxtqtvai. The advanced posts, or outer guards, were called nQocpviax'ut. The nightly round of visiting the watch was called iipodsia, and those who performed it, nt^Lnoloi, and the guard-house, ntqmeXttw. § 145. Before a battle the soldiers were usually refreshed by eating and drinking, immediately after which the commanders ordered them to action. — When very near the point of engaging, the generals addressed the army in animating speeches, which often produced great effects. Then followed the sacrifice, the vow, and the war- song (naiav tu^an'^iog), a hymn to Mars. — The signs, used in the field were either otjutta, regular ensigns and standards, or ovpfioXa, particular signals, commonly understood or specially agreed upon for the occasion. 1 u. The special signals, ai'u(io?.vt, were either audible ((ponixu), such aa watch-words (ovv&ijiuru) ; or visible (oqutu), such as nodding the head, waving the hand, shaking the armor, and the like {niiQaavv&^uara.) The ovinia or standards were of various kinds ; some being merely a red or purple coat upon the top of a spear; others having an image of a bird, animal, or other object. The raising of the standard was a signal to commence battle, and the lowering of it to desist. Anciently the signal for battle was given by lighted torches being hurled by the persons appointed (TcvQcpoyoi). Afterwards it was done by blasts of sound, for which shells (y.o/Xoi) were first used, and then brazen trumpets (oa).niyyig) of several different kinds. 2u. The Lacedaemonians usually advanced to action by the sound of the flute; yet we must not imagine, that the marching of the Greeks was as regular and as conformable to music, as the modern. Most of them were rather in the habit of rushing to battle with impetuosity and clamor (JxXaXay fibg, avtt^). § 146. The art of besieging arose first in the later times of Greece, because the cities were not previously fortified with walls. Nor MILITARY AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 527 were the later Greeks, especially the Lacedaemonians, very much in the habit of laying regular sieges. The two principal points of pro- ceeding in the siege of a city, were the construction of the entrench- ment around it, and the gathering and use of military engines about it. Connected with these were efforts to scale the walls of the city by ladders (ijiifiafyai, xiluaxtc) and to undermine their foundations. — - An entrenchment around the city was called ttsqitujujuqs,, or ano- rtixicpog, and consisted usually of a double wall of stone or turf. In the space between the walls were shelters for the garrison and the sentinels. Above the walls were turrets or pinnacles, and after every tenth pinnacle a large tower was constructed, extending across from one wall to the other. The parapet of the wall was termed duquxiov. § 147. Most of the military engines of the Greeks (uu Y av«, kij^o- rai) were of a comparatively late invention, and seems to have been introduced first about the time of the Peloponnesian war. One of the principal was the ysA»>/ oyv;, for the protection of such as were undermining the walls. — Another instrument for similar purposes was called the y*< s <<>or, made of twigs of willow like the Roman vinca, and held by the soldiers over the head. 2u. The yoiua was a mound composed of various materials and raised very high, often above the besieged walls. — There were also moveable towers tcvq- yoi), made of wood and usually placed upon the yo'ua ; they were rolled on wheels and had often several stories, containing soldiers and engines. — The battering-ram (xoibg) was a strong beam with an iron head ffyjteljj in front resembling that of a ram, which the soldiers thrust against the enemy's walls; it was often hung by ropes to another beam, so that it could be thrust with greater force, and sometimes was placed on wheels and covered with a ysXwvt}. The xaTarciiTai were engines for hurling missiles, stones, and the like upon the enemy ; those which discharged arro\vs, being termed 6gv(it?.eCg, and those which cast stones, ZidoSoXoi or 7F«T(>«£ the largest of a ship's anchors was called itf>a, and hence (tdiZem liyy.voav it quv obtained its proverbial sense, to resort to the last refuge. The cables attached to the anchors, were niiauara, or y.din.loi ; ropes for towing were termed Qi'uura, 6?.y.oi; those for binding a vessel to the shore, ■nnvuri' j aia. — The y.iojrui and foeruoi, oars, having a broad part covered with metal (n?.drt;) f and hung upon pieces of wood called okakftot, by leathern thongs, too/toi. — - The [or6c(l6),mast, fixed in a hole (uso68ui)), in themiddle of the ship ; capa- ble of being taken down and put in a case (ioroduxij) ; having several parts, as irrfyra, roa'/i/loc, y.ao/^aiov, -d^oi^dxiov, iy.Qiov, iJ.uzdTt]. The y.touiai, or y.iQava (18), were the crosspieces or yards, fixed to the mast. The loria (17), sails (called also 66uvai, aQutrtt), including particular ones distinctively nam- ed, as inidnofiog, mizen-sail ; ay.drior, main-sail ; aoritivjv, top-sail j ^/.wr, sprite sail. — The souu, ■&(ui?.iog, ballast. — The (io?.ig, the lead for sounding. — - The y.oiToi, poles for pushing the vessels from rocks. — The dzio^id&Qui, bridges, or stairs, to pass from ship to shore, or from vessel to vessel (called also i7tt(ld8()at and avapd&nai). — The term onla was applied to the rigging" generally. — The y.d?.oi and ovovla were ropes, including tnirovoi, .rudig (19), 7iQo7vo5ig, fiioovQiat, tiqotovoi (SO^made at first of leathern thongs, afterwards of flax, hemp, and the like. 3 m. In vessels of war the front point, and sometimes the whole of the front part, was covered with iron. In early times these points or beaks (13) Were long and high ; afterwards they were made short and low, in order to pierce the vessels of the enemy below the water. From each side of the front were planks or pieces of wood, inwriStg, jutting" out, to protect the ship from the beaks ot the enemy. The war-vessels usually had wooden decks or coverings (yuTatpQuyuara 14) on which the soldiers stood, and also coverings or guards of hides or the like, which were extended on both sides (7rs(>i(pQuyutx- ra), to protect them from the waves and from the enemy's missiles. The usu- al sign of a war- vessel was a helmet, sculptured at the top of the mast. 4. The beaks are seen in fig, A. 13 ; and also in fig. b, which is a prow taken from a bass-re- lief at Rome, and which shows the ensign behind them, and the acrostolia above it. In fig. a, from an ancient coin, we have another prow, which has a trophy erected upon it. In fig. c, which is from the sculptures on the column of Antonine (cf.^P. I. § 188. 2), is a prow of another form. In rig. 4, we see a merchant vessel, managed by oars or sails ; in fig. 5, a war-vesseJ with oars alone, and in the early form of one bank only. The names of the various parts of a ship may be found, with explanations of every thing relating to this subject, in J. Scheffcri Diss, de Varietate navium, contained in T. Gronovii Thesaurus, &c. Vol. xi. as cited $ 13.— See also, by the same, Comment, de militia navali vete-: rum. Ups. 1654. 4 — Leroy, La marine des anciens Grecs, in the Jlrm. Acad. Liscr. Vol. xxxvm. p 542.— Potter's Arch. Grace, bk ii. eh. 14.— Robinson's, bk. iv. ch. 14. § 156. Originally the employments of the rowers and the combat- ants were not distinct, but the same persons performed the functions of both. In later times there was a division into three classes; (1) the rowers or oarsmen, ioircti, xamjAorat, who were also distinguished PLATE XVIII 532 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. by specific names, according to the rank of their bench, and their work and pay ; (2) the sailors, ravrai, who attended to all the other proper duties of the ship; (3) the marines, im$ictarog) were called SnariTat ; those in the middle, $vytrai (from Kvya') ; those in the lower tier or portion, SaXauixai ; those near the prow, TiQoxomot ; near the stern, i.rixmnot. Of the sailors, some (uoutiiarui) had the care of the sails ; others (ayoivo^urai) went aloft on the ropes to look out; others (jitaovavrai) were to supply the seamen with whatever was needed. There have been various theories to explain the manner in which the banks of rowers in the ancient gallies were arranged, in the different classes of ship9 termed Toii'/uig, Ttroijo£/c, TttvTi^tig, &,c^trireme, qiiadrireme, quinquireme, fyc. — The most common idea formerly was, that the benches were placed one above another. But there were gallies of seven, twelve, fif- teen and sixteen banks of oars ; Ptolemy Philopater built one of forty banks. If the benches were placed directly above each other, the oars in the upper benches must have been so long, as to be wholly useless. — Another solution is, that the banks were arranged in one continuous line along the side of the galley ; in a trireme, the first bank being in her bows, the second in her middle or waist, the third in her stern. But such an arrangement would require a huge length in the vessel of forty banks, or even twelve ; besides which, it is stated that the oars of a galley were not all of the same length. — It has been proposed to solve the difficulty by the suggestion that the galley received its denomination from the number of men pulling at the same oar ; the trireme would have three at one oar ; the quinquireme, five ; the original form having oneltank of ten oars arranged horizontally ; let these be divided into two banks of five oars each and arranged obliquely, and they will require but about half as much length ; this construction, according to his conjecture, is the bireme ; a trireme would have three of these oblique ascents or banks, each hank having five oars ; and thus a vessel might be built with any number of banks by only increasing its length, while no oar would be raised higher above the water, necessarily, than in a bireme. In Plate XVIII. fig. A, we have a view of a hexircme, or galley of six banks of oars, on his scheme ; the- Arabic numbers, 21,22, 23, designate the portion of the banks occupied respectively by the three classes of rowers above mentioned. See J. Holwell, Essay on the War Galleys of the Ancients, Lend. 1826. 8. — D. Le Roy, sur les navies employes par les anciens &c. in the Mem. de V Institut, Classe de Lit. et Beaux Arts, vol. i. 479, n. 141, 152.— Of Boyd's ed. of Potter, p. 526, as cited § 157. Among the principal instruments employed for naval battle were the following; duqararai^taxa, very long spears ; dqixavov, apiece of iron, formed like a sickle and fixed to the top of a long pole, in or- der to cut the sail-ropes of the hostile ship ; X tio otS^ou the grappling iron; aorraytc, large iron hooks attached to the mast of a vessel in such a manner that being thrown into the enemy's ships they seized and raised them up into the air. An instrument, called from its form the dolphin (i*l fb), was often used; it was made of iron or lead, and hung to the mast or sail-yards, and was thrown with great violence into an adverse ship, in order to pierce and sink it. — The means of defence against these instruments was to guard the ship by a strong covering of hides. § 158, Each fleet had officers of two sorts, such as had care of what pertained to the ships alone, and such as had care of the marines and all that pertained to warlike action. (1) The chief of- ficer, or admiral, was called vavaQxog y sometimes arUao X o;, or arqarr^bq ,- often there were several in equal command, often there was but a sin- gle one. The duration of his authority was decided by the people,, who abridged it or prolonged it at pleasure. Next to him were the MILITARY AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 533 commanders of individual ships, Tgojgagjroc ; the Lacedaemonians, however, had a sort of vice-admiral in their officer called i^ioxoitvg, (2) Of those, whose authority was confined to the care of the ships and the duties of the rowers or sailors, the principal were the follow- ing : the aQx i * v ? s % vt 'i rr i$, wno na d the care of the whole fleet ; the xvpiQvtrti?, who had the care of a single ship, and who himself kept the helm ; and the tvq won' g, or 7CQioQurtig 1 the next in command, hav- ing the care of every thing belonging to the forepart of the ship. There were also, in the second class, the following : TPtqoatUi}?, the mu- sician, whose notes cheered the rowers and regulated the strokes of their oars; xe?.evari l g ) who gave the word of command to them ; roi/aQ/og, who govern- ed the rowers on one side; ruvipvlaxeg, employed in guarding the ship from rocks and other dangers; nxuiae, who superintended the food; ta^aqsyg, who attended to the fires ; ).oyiari l g, who kept the ship's accounts. § 159. In the beginning of a sea-fight they sought first to lighten the ship of all superfluous and unnecessary burdens ; and to render sails, mast and every thing which was exposed to the violence of wind, as fast and safe as possible. Then the most favorable posi- tion and order of battle was selected, according to time, place, and circumstances. Sacrifices were next offered to the gods, and the commanders passed round in light boats from ship to ship, to ani- mate their men. The signal for the onset was now given; usually done by hanging a shield, or flag, from the mast of the vessel bear- ing the ruvccQxog ; while this signal was hanging, the battle went on. The mode of attack was similar to that of a siege ; the ships being drawn up in the form of a circle or semicircle or letter V. § 160. After a victory, they returned with the booty and captured vessels. All the cities which were in alliance with the victorious party, honored the successful general with crowns and garlands. With these it was also customary to adorn his vessel. Sometimes the wrecks of the enemy's ships were used for that purpose. These, as well as the better part of the spoils, were afterwards consecrated to the gods ; the rest being divided among the men engaged in the battle. A monument was usually raised to the victors, and was some- times adorned with wrecks, especially the ornamental parts (axQ6rta 1 a^owT^tu,) of the captured ships. — The most common punishments in the naval service were whipping with cords, and submersion, the offender being dragged in the water by a rope even till drowned. Such as refused to serve at sea, avavuu-/oi, were, at Athens, punish- ed with disgrace (fyrmla) together with their posterity. Deserters, Umovavxatt were scourged, or had their hands cut off. (4) Affairs of Private Life. § 161. r In glancing at the private life of the Greeks, we shall follow the same order as in speaking of the earlier period (§51-60), and be- gin with the subject of food. In later times, when riches more abound- ed, the food was less simple than before; the Lacedaemonians main- tained longest their strictness and frugality, no professed cook being suffered among them. Among the other nations, and especially the inhabitants of Sicily, the art of cooking was much more cultivated 45* 534 GTtECIAJf ANTIQUITIES. and practiced. The Athenians however lived to a great extent mod- erately, owing perhaps to the comparative unfruitfulness of the Attic territory. Water was the common drink, with which they were ac- customed to mingle wine. The wine sometimes received an addi- tion of myrrh (dhog uvQQivirijg,) or of barley meal (6tro$ ajzy/.yiTwuivog). The term employed to designate a drinking cup, xoot/Jo, is commonly de- rived from y.soaoao&ai, to mingle, indicating the prevalent custom of mixing water with wine. Potter states, that no certain proportion was observed in forming this mixture. A very common division of wines was into the 7io?.vcpoQoi or strong wines, bearing a large addition of water, and o?.tyo(puooi, weak wines. To drink unmixed icine, axQaTOTiiiiv, was described us synony- mous with 2v6iOTL7titir, to drink like a Scythian. — A common Homeric epi- thet for wine, is-ai&oip', sometimes ytqbyeios. (Cf. Hem,. II. i. 462, iv. 259.) — There were various sorts of wine, made from other substances besides the grape. Among the Greek wines from the grape, the earliest of which we have any distinct account, is the Maronean, probably produced on the coast of Thrace, a black sweet wine {Horn. Od. ix. 249). The Prwmnian was another of early celebrity, supposed by some to have its name from a hill in the island of Icaria, where it was produced. In later times, the Lesbian, Chian, and Thasian wines were considered to possess uncommon excellence. The wines of Rhodes and Crete, Cnidus and Cyprus, were also much esteemed. The Mendean wine, from Mende, is commended for a peculiar softness. The Greeks also used wines imported from different places in Asia and Egypt; an excellent kind was brought from Byblos in Phoenicia ; the Alexandrian, from the vicinity of Alexandria in Egypt, was highly valued. See Henderson' 's History of Ancient and Modern Wines. Lond. 1824. 4. — This work is adorned with several beautiful illustrations taken from antiques and relating to the use of wine. Cf. $ 331 b. § 162. The Greeks had usually two meals a day, viz. a breakfast, uy.oaTioua, uqioTov, the time of which was not fixed, and a main meal, oMttioj-, which was regularly towards evening. But they also partook of an evening meal, 6W»*ov or larciniauu, and an after-dish or supper,- Robinson remarks, that most authors speak of but three meals a day, and do not consider the deu.iruv as a separate meal from the Stynof, ; while others think that the Greeks had but two meals a day, the aoiarov and Soqrtoq. It seems certain, that uquttov was finally used to denote the dinner, and Ssittvov the supper, the latter being the principal meal. " There was little variety in the private life of the Athenians. All of them rose at daybreak, and spent a short time in the exercise of devotion. Soon after six in the morning, the judges (dicasts) took their seats on the tri- bunal, and those employed in agriculture, manufactures, or commerce, en- gaged in their different occupations. At mid-day, the more wealthy citizens, who by that time had commonly finished their serious business, refreshed themselves with a short sleep, and afterwards spent a few hours in hunting, or in the exercise of the palaestra, or in walking through the delightful groves on the banks of the Ilyssus and Cephisus : or more frequently in discussing with each other in the forum (agora,) the interests of the state, the conduct of the magistrates, and the news of the day. It was also during the afternoon, that the Athenians sometimes played xvpsia and Tveirtia ; two games, the first of which resembled hazard, and the other either backgammon or chess." — " During the day, the Athenians either took no food or only a slighft repast in private. At sun-set they sat down to supper, and considering the business of the day as over, devoted the evening to society and amusement) and often continued to a late hour in the night." § 163. In early times, entertainments were given only in honor of the gods on festival days ; afterwards they became very common. They were of two sorts : the Ulanbi, given by a single person, and the taaroc, provided at the expense of the party present. Entertain- PLATE XIX. "LTLFinrLnri 536 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. ments of the latter kind were generally the most frugal, orderly, and conducive to friendly feeling ; such as were invited free of expense, as poets, singers &c, were called aorupoZoi; the contribution of each other guest was termed avufio/.) n y.ura^o?.i r — The marriage feast, yuuoc, is sometimes considered as a third sort. — There were also public entertainments for a whole city, tribe, or fraternity, called cvao'ina, 7zavdai0iai, Stinva Sr lt uooice, cpQciTQixic, &LC. furnished by contribution, by the liberality of rich persons, or by the state. § 164. Before partaking of an entertainment, the Greeks always washed and anointed. The hands were also again washed (rltjjaodai) between the successive courses, and at the close of the feast (aTiovixp- uoSlu). In the early times the guests sat at the table (§52) ; in later times they reclined, but not always. The couches, prepared for the purpose, were more or less splendid, according to each one's taste and condition in life. Five usually, sometimes more, occupied a sin- gle couch. The guests took their places according to their proper rank, although often no exact order was observed. The Greeks at- tached a certain idea of sanctity to the table and the rights of the table. Three couches, xltvtu, were usually placed round the table, TQantia, one on each side, leaving the fourth side open to the servants ; hence originated the word ToixAiriov, triclinium ; they were covered with tapestry, ornojuara, and had pillows, nqoax9fpalaia i for the guests; they were often very costly, being highly ornamented with ivory and precious metals. Several persons usually reclining on the same couch, the first lay on the uppermost part, with his legs extended behind the back of the second, whose head was near the bosom of the first. — The tables were made of wood, highly polished [ttoxn. evioog) ; in the later periods, exceedingly costly, adorned with plates of silver and gold, and curiously carved images. § 165. At a regular and principal meal (as the Sunvov), the first course, kqotiouu, SsLtivov tcqooUuov, consisted generally of pungent herbs with olives, eggs, oysters, a mixture of honey and wine (tfrvfitlt), and the like. Then came the chief dish, more substantial and costly, y.scpa/.ij St'tnvov. Afterwards the desert, StvriQa xq«at*t), instrumental music, and dancing (oQxijOTvg), were accompaniments of almost every feast. The songs were in early times chiefly hymns to gods or heroes ; subsequently songs and dances of a wanton character were introduced. The most remarkable of the various songs used were those termed ax6?.ta. Athcnceus, L. x. c. 9, 10. Cf. JElian, Var. Hist. L. ii. c. 41.— Respecting the Ox.67.ia, see P. II. $27. 2. After the music and dancing, the guests often were invited to participate in various sports. In earlier times, the athletic games were practiced; but in the later ages, less violent exercises were more frequently chosen, among which playing at the xurra(iog seems to have been a favorite amusement. — Frequently there were entertainments or repasts, at which conversation and discourses were designed to form the principal amusement (ovunoota). Cf. P. I. § 69. Robinson, Arch. Graec. p. 524. — Lond. Quart. Rev. vol. xxiv. p. 421.— Ocdoyn, Plaisir3 de la table chez les Grecs, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. i. 54. § 168. The hospitality practiced by the early Greeks (§ 57) re- mained customary also in later times. The Cretans especially had the reputation of being hospitable ; the Athenians were termed ( pi- Ulivoi ; but the Spartans were less courteous to strangers. Hospi- tality was viewed as a religious duty, and several gods were supposed to take strangers under special protection, and to avenge all injuries done to them. 1m. It was customary, at the hospitable meal, first to present salt (&*iog a?.g) before the stranger, as a token perhaps of permanent friendship. The alii, ance contracted by mutual hospitality (nqo^tvia, to ofiorQantLov) was as sa- cred as that of consanguinity. The parties often exchanged tokens of it (avu^oXa) in friendly gifts (gtvtoc, &3n«, itvixlx), which were carefully preserved and handed down to posterity. Officers were publicly appointed, called tcq6$- tvoi, whose duty it was to receive all foreigners, coming on any public errand, to provide entertainment and lodging for them, and conduct them to the pub- lic spectacles and festivals. 2. Inns, however, appear to have existed in Greece in the later ages. Cf. Cic. De Divin. ii. 68. Simon, on the hospitality of the ancient3, in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. vol. in. p. 41. § 169. The dress of the Greeks did not undergo any very impor- tant changes ; at least the names used in the first period were still 538 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. applied to the principal garments in later times. Their clothing was more commonly made of uncolored white wool, sometimes of linen and cotton. Of the colors, which were given to dress, purple was the most esteemed. In. Coverings for the feet {vrcoSiliiara, ntSila) were used very early, but not universally ; they were of various forms. Hats (niZoi, nu'ax, nai&ia) were first introduced at a later period, designed chiefly as a protection against the weather. 2. The shoes were tied under the soles of the feet by thongs, Utuvrtg ; hence the terms vnotitiv and vnoJ.viiv, for putting on and taking off the shoes. The following were some of the varieties; aQ(iv?.ui, large and easy shoes, which came up to the ankle ; (tXavrat, shoes worn chiefly in the house ; $ia(ia&Qct, shoes common to men and women ; iu{Iutcu, shoes used by comedians ; xudoq- voi, shoes used by tragedians, buskins; xao^urlvai, coarse s,hoes worn by pea- sants ; y.QSTcidtg, a kind of slipper; supposed by some to be used by soldiers particularly; laxwnkai, ativyJ.uiStg, Spartan shoes of a r£d color; ntqaixalf shoes of a white color, generally worn by courtezans; 7r*o i^uo id* c, shoes worn by women of rank ; ouvSuXa, shoes anciently peculiar to heroines, consisting originally of a piece of wood bound to the sole of the foot. In our Plate XIX. are illustrations of various forms of ancient coverings for the feet and legs. Several, marked by the letter a, are from Mexican monuments ; those marked b, and c, are said to be Phrygian ; d, s, and t, are from Egyptian remains ; e, g, i, k, I, m, p, and q, are Greek and Roman sandals ; k and i having very rich ornaments for the instep attached to them; q having sharp iron nails underneath (used by warriors, it is supposed, so that an army marching with them must make a confused noise ; cf. Rosenmuller, Schol. in Vet. Test. Isai. ix. 5.) ; /, ?i, o, are Dacian ; h,j, v, are Persian ; r is the Turkish slipper made of morocco. 3. The military covering for the head was the helmet (§ 44). A broad- brimmed hat, termed niraaog, was used by young men (cf. Plate XTX. fig. 3). Women always wore upon their heads coverings or ornaments ; some of them were the following; aunv^, a. fillet, with which the hair was tied ; xuXv7itqu, a veil ; xo^deuvov, a covering which came down from the head to the should- ers ; y.ixoi'(pa?.oc, a net inclosing the hair ; luroa, a sort of cap or turban. The term uLtqcc is also applied to a kind of girdle worn by military men under the i^toou^. A form of the fillet used by women given to luxury was termed o-r«- (puvtj vyriVtj. The '6t>iviov, a cloak of coarse stuff, worn by philosophers and poor per- sons ; -caiv'ta, a sort of band used by females and passing over the breast; used also to signify an ornament for the head; (puiru/.tig, a cloak without sleeves for cold or rainy weather; y'/.avlg, a fine thin robe; yilltov, an orna- ment worn by women chiefly, upon the arms and hands, a bracelet. Robin- son's Arch. Gr. p. 541-46. PRIVATE LIFE IN THE LATER AGES. 539 The following is an incidental remark of Chateaubriand respecting the materials of ancient Clothing. " My host laughed at the faces that I made at the wine and honey of Attica ; but, &s some compensation for the disappointment, he desired me to take notice of the dress of the female who waited on us. It was the very drapery of the ancient Greeks, especially in the horizontal and undulating folds that were formed below the bosom, and joined the perpendic- ular folds which marked the skirt of the tunic. The coarse stuff, of which this woman's dress was composed, heightened the resemblance ; for, to judge from sculpture, the stuffs of the ancients were much thicker than ours. It Would be impossible to form the large sweeps observable in antique draperies with the muslins and silks of modern female attire ; the gauze of Cos, and the other stuffs which the satirists denominated woven wind, were never imitated by the chisel." Travels in Greece &c. p. 137 (N. Y. ed. 1814). Our Plate XX. contains several engravings illustrating ancient and Oriental female costume. In fig. a, which is Egyptian, we see a form of the veil ; similar to it is the veil in fig. g, which is taken from the French work L'Egyptc joior, the anointing room, This account of the rooms is according to Robinson, Arch. Grrec. p. 506. — For a more full account of ancient baths, see P. I. $ 241. 3. 2 m. The various ointments used had different names according to the modes and materials of their preparation. To such an extent did extravagance go in this repect, that it was sometimes necessary to check it by laws. At Spar- ta the selling of perfumed ointments was wholly prohibited, and in Athens men were not allowed to engage in it. &40 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 3. " Every part of the body had its appropriate unguent. To the feet and legs the Greeks applied ^Egyptian ointment ; the oil extracted from the palm was thought best adapted to the cheeks and breasts ; the arms were refreshed With balsam-mint ; sweet marjoram had the honor of supplying an oil for the eye-brows and hair, as-wild thyme had for the knee and kneck. — A nice dis- tinction divided perfumes into two kinds ; the first were a thicker sort and •applied more as salves or wax (/outuTtf) ; the others were liquid and poured over the limbs (alt i ft para). To indulge in the liquid ointment was thought to evince a feminine and voluptuous disposition ; but the sober and virtuous, it was allowed, might use the thicker sort without any impeachment of their good qualities." — Lond. Quart. Rev. xxiii. 263. 4 u. Some of the services connected with washing and anointing were per- formed by women ; in particular they washed and anointed the feet. It was the custom to kiss the feet of such as were highly esteemed. In illustration of this custom of kissing the feet, cf. Aristophanes, 2(fi;xtg, (p. 460. ed. Lug* cBat. 1624), and in New Test. Luke, vii. 38 ; John, xi. 2. § 171. The general construction of Greek houses has already been stated (§ 56). Perfect as was the art of architecture, particularly at Athens, it was applied to public buildings rather than private dwell- ings, which were mostly of an ordinary character. This was true also at Thebes, otherwise greatly celebrated for her superb architeo lure. Much more care was bestowed in ornamenting the interior apartments, especially the hall for eating, with rich furniture and utensils, and with elegant works of art (P. I. § 178). Besides, the custom of encompassing and bordering most of the public places or openings with colonnades, hindered a free view of the private houses, and rendered their beauty or splendor superfluous. The artists also found it to their honor and profit to construct the public ediffces in a style of superior magnificence. 1. The common term for the whole house was olxog ; the eating hall was Cfalled TQiy.llviov and soriarooiov ; the sleeping room, xoitojv. — Potter gives the following account of Grecian houses. " The men and women had dis- tinct apartments. The part in which the men lodged was towards the gate, and called uvSquv or avdQioving ; that assigned to the women, was termed yv- raixouv, ywcuxioviTtc, and was the most remote part of the house, and behind the av?.i n before which were other apartments denominated nQodouog and >roo- txi'/.tov. The women's chambers were called riytoi $a/.auot, as being placed at the top of the house (cf. § 56), for the lodgings of the women were usually in the highest rooms (ma, vmqZa). Penelope lodged in such a place, to which she ascended by a xllpa£ (Odyss. i. 330,)." — The terms avapaQubg, ava~ paQulg, ava^u6oa, and ava^a&Qov, are all used to designate a staircase, a flight of steps, or stairs. Although in general the private dwellings were of an orr dinary character, yet in the time of Demosthenes there were some, which were very costly and splendid. The houses of Sparta are said to have been more lofty and built with greater solidity than those at Athens. In our Plate XIX. fig. 1, is a plan of a Grecian house as given by Stuart (Dictionary of A»- chitecture). His account is as follows. " The Greek house had no atrium, but instead of it the peristyle was approached by a passage called thyroreum. On the side of the peristyle op- posite the entrance was a kind of vestibule called pastas ; the apartments on the right and left of which were termed severally thalamos and amphi-thalamos, and beyond them were the oed or halls. In the first peristyle were the triclinia in daily use, and the apartments of the do- mestics; this division of the house was called gyiueconitis. In the south portico of the greater peristyle, whicli was styled andronitis, were the pinacothecm and Cyiicene acus ; in the eastern-, the bibliotheca : in the western, the excdra .- and in the northern, the great acus, or banqueting- footn. The hospitalui consisted of triclinia and sleeping rooms for strangers and were on the right and left of the great oecus. There were courts or passages to these apartments called mesaulce. In the plan [Plate XIX.] a is the thyroreum; b, peristyle of the gynaconitis ; c, the pastas ; d, the great mcus ; c, stables ; /,/, courts ; g,g, g, porter's cclUe ; h, h, common triclinia; i, the thalamos ; j, the amphi-thalamos ; k, k, aci or halls ; I, I, the mesaultej m, m, the hospitalia ; n, the vestibule ; o, the great peristyle ; p, the bibliotheca ; q, q, the pinacothecce ; r, the Cyzicene opus ; s, the czedra." 2. A door (#t : oa, uvh]) was fastened by means of lock and key (xltlg) ; the PLATE XX. 542 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. key described by Homer seems to have been merely a bolt which was m^ved by a thong (ifiag) attached to it (Od. i. 442). In later times keys similar to the modern were in use. — Various articles of furniture are named. In the sleeping room was the bed, y.olrtj or 7.iyoq. ; this was often in the form of the sofa, about six feet long and three broad ; called also *AiW. The chair (-Soov 05), ewer (.too^oo;) and basin for washing (/.otrr/oior), mirror (xuronrooj ) and its case or stand (/.oyttor), clothes-chest (xtorq), ' t Q in silver, a coin, which was also called TsTQadqayuov, and seems to have been the one most generally in use among the Greeks. The arar^q in gold was equal in value to 20 dqa/uccl, in weight to 2, and was sometimes called dldqayuog, but was most generally termed yqvaovg. It received likewise other names from the places where, or the kings under whom, it was struck ; as e. g. Stater Daricus, Stater Crasi, &c. § 174. Various changes successively took place in the denomi- nations of Greek coins. There were changes also in the worth of these coins, both as to their actual contents and their relative value. Sometimes it was necessary to coin tin and iron for money. The Spartans were required by the laws of Lycurgus to use tin and iron, and did not depart from the custom until a late period. The com- mon ratio of value between gold and silver was as one to ten, but it was sometimes above ; as one to twelve and a half. There are many difficulties in the way of comparing Grecian money with modern, and thus obtaining a settled idea of the value of the for- mer. The Sqayju) equalled about 9d sterling. 544 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. Many specimens of the silver arar^o or rsTQudga/uov are still preserved ire collections. Letronne, having accurately examined 500 of them, and arranged them according to the centuries in which they were struck, deduced the mean weight of the old Attic tya/in}, coined B. C. 2 centuries and more; and the value, as thus derived, is stated at 17 cents, 5-93 mills of our currency. The later ^a/iii] is stated at 16 cents, 5-22 mills. Conger's Essay on the Measures, Weights and Moneys of the Greeks and Romans, in An- thonys ed. of Lempriere. — O. Grosse, Metrol. Tafeln iiber die alt. Masse &c. Roms und Griech- enlands (Von A. G. Kdstner) Brauns. 1792. 8. — F. Ch. Matthid, Uebersicht des rom. und griech. Mass — Gewichts— -und Munz— wesens. Frankf. 1809. 4.— J. F. Warm, De ponderuni, etc. rationibus apud Romauos et Grcecos. Lips. 1821. 8. § 175. In conection with the account of Grecian money, it is proper to speak of their systems of notation, or of denoting numbers. The more ancient method was quite simple. Six letters were used for the purpose, viz. for one, 1, perhaps from 3 Ia for Mia ; for five, IT, from 77«jt£ ; for ten, J, from Jixa ; for a hundred, 77, from Hixarov ; for a thousand, X, from Xi'J.ia ; and for ten thousand, M, from Mvoia. All numbers were expressed by combinations of these letters ; each combination signifying the sum of the numbers designat- ed by the letters separately ; e. g. 777 1 1 represented eight; A TI I, sixteen; J J, twentij &e. Sometimes they were combined so as to express the product, instead of the sum, of the separate letters; in such case, one of the letters was made large, and the other was written within it of a smaller size ; for example, p| (representing a 77 with aiin its bosom) signified 10 X 5, i. e. 50 : so a 77 with an 77 placed within it signified 100 X 5, or 500 ; and a J having M within it, signified 10,000 X 10, or 100,000 : this form of com- bination was chiefly confined to numbers involving 5 as a factor ; such num- bers were expressed by using a large 77 and writing the letter for the other factor in its bosom. This was the old Attic system, and is found on inscrip- tions ; it is seen in the Chronicon Parium (cf. P. I. § 91. 4.) But this method was superseded by another ; in which all the letters of the alphabet were employed, and also three signs in addition, viz. Bav,Ko7tna, and Saf.iiiL, mentioned in P. I. § 46. By this system, the first eight letters, from Alpha to Theta, expressed the units respectively from 1 to 9, Bav being in- serted after Epsilon, to signify 6 ; the second eight, from Iota to Pi, express- the tens ; the last (77) signifying 80, and Kunnu being used for 90 ; the next eight, from Rho to Qmega, expressed the hundreds ; 52 standing for 800, and 2af.ml being used for 900. The letters, when thus used to designate num- bers, were usually marked with a stroke above ; thus, t', 10; ■/.' , 20; y.p' 22. In order to express thousands, the eight first letters with Bad were again used, but with a stroke beneath ; thus ,6, 4,000; ,c, 6000 ; ;xtrt£, 20,432.— Cf. Robinson's Buttman, §2. — Bouillet, Diet. Class, (tableaux &c. N. 34.) § 176. The use of w eights was of early origin among the Greeks, as elsewhere. Grecian weights had the same names with their coins of money, a circumstance which seems clearly to point back to the custom of weighing uncoined gold and silver for purposes of ex- change. The proportions of the weights were different in different applications of them ; as, e. g. those of common merchandize did not in all respects correspond with those of the apothecary. The ofioUq is said to have been the smallest weight used, except by apothecaries or physicians, who used a weight, termed xsqutiot, about one fourth of the upo?.ug r and another, oituqiov, only one fourth of that. § 177. In speaking of the Greek measures, we may notice them as divided into measures of length, extent, or capacity. v 1 u. The names of the measures of length were taken, as was the case in most of the ancient nations, from members of the human body ; e. g. daxrv- l.oq, a finger's breadth; oniGautj, a span, hand's width, the distance from the- extremity of the thumb to that of the little finger ; novg, a foot. The Her- culean or Olympic foot was longer. The jefj^vg, a cubit, was the distance from the elbow to the extremity of the middle finger. 'Oyyvtu a fathom, was. the distance across the breast, between the extremities of the hands, the arms being extended (o§«yw) in a horizontal line.. PRIVATE LIFE IN THE LATER AGES. 545 2. Of measures including length and breadth, or measures of extent, the principal were the novg,ihe aoovoa, and the nJ.i&Qov. The novg was a square with each side one foot ; the uoovqgc, a square with each side 50 noStg ; and the nXi&oov, a square with a side of 108 nudtg j so that 2,500 nodtg made an aoovQa, and 4 uoovqoci dLTtlidoov. — The term othxqtLov seems to have been used to designate a measuring line. 3m. Measures of capacity had mostly the same names, whether applied to liquids or to things dry. The largest liquid measure was uErqijr^g, equal to about 8 gallons, and called also sometimes xudog, xsquimov, and au/;T>/, io Saturn. Some, however, take them in a contrary order, and ascribe vrcurt] to Saturn, and n.rti to the Moon. The tone or mode, which the musicians used in raising or depressing the sound was'called vouog ; and they were called v6~ fioi, as being laws or models by which they sang or played. There were four principal vouoi or modes ; the Phrygian, the Lydian, the Doric, and the Ionic. To these some add a fifth, which they call the iEolic, but which is not men- tioned by ancient authors. The Phrygian mode was religious; the Lydian, plaintive ; the Doric, martial ; the Ionic, gay and cheerful ; and the iEolic, simple. The mode used in exciting soldiers to battle was called "O tiog. — — - Afterwards, the termro/tot began to be applied to the hymns which were sung La those modes." 46* <**<&'£ OTIVEB 546 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES* Robinson, Arch. Grac. bk. v. ch. xxiii. — See Burette and Chabanon, on ancient music, 38 cited P. I. $63. § 180. " The music of the Greeks was either vocal or instrumental. The music of those who only played on instruments was called uovoty.}, \i<,V, t ; that of those who also sang to the instrument, uovaiy.i; utra ut?.ojdiac. The musi- cal instruments were divided into iunvevortt, wind instruments, and trrara or TsvQodsra, stringed instruments. The lyre, the flute, and the pipe, were the three principal instruments ; hut there were several others. — Of" the instru- ments to which chords or strings were applied, the most famous was the lyre, which was called in Greek xi&uqu and (pdouiyz, though some affect a distinc- tion between the harp and the lyre. At first, the strings were made of linen thread, and afterwards of the intestines of sheep. Anciently, the chords or strings were three in number, whence such lyre was called r^i/oo6og ; and the lyre with three strings is said by some to have been invented in Asia, a city of Lydia, whence it was sometimes denominated aolug. Afterwards, it was rendered more perfect by having seven strings, and hence was called tn- Taxoydog, sTtruipQoyyog, and snruy?.ojooog. They struck the strings sometimes with a bow, and sometimes only with the fingers ; and to play on this instru- ment was called in Greek xi&aQilur, xnoi'etv n?.)' t xTQo), or Jiwzhv, 8ax.Tv7.ioic zqovsiv, and fyaXkiiv. To learn to play well on the lyre, an apprenticeship of three years was necessary. This instrument was invented in Arcadia, which abounded with tortoises, of the shell of which the lyre was made. — The flute, avXbg , was a celebrated instrument. It was used in the sacrifices of the gods, at festivals, games, entertainments, and funerals. Minerva is said to have in- vented the straight, and Pan the oblique flute (jilayiavlog). Flutes were made of the bones of stags or fawns, and hence called rifatioi av/:ol , and the invention of making them of these materials is ascribed to the Thebans. They were also made of the bones of asses, and of elephants ; and likewise' of reed, box, and lotus. The Boeotians excelled all the other Greeks in play- ing on this instrument. — The pipe was called ai^tyz, and differed in sound from the flute. The tone of the pipe was sharp and shrill, and hence its sounds were called ?.sTira?.iav. On the contrary, the sound of the flute was grave, full, and mellow; and hence the flute was denominated paorpovftog.'" Besides the instruments already named, we may mention the following, arranged under the heads of stringed instruments, wind instruments, and in- struments of percussion. 1. Stringed instruments : va(tta, a sort of lute or lyre, said to have twelve strings (tiwdsxa ip&vyyovg) ; 7cr l xr'ig, another variety of the lyre, used by the Lydians ; payaSig, a lute with twenty strings ; aoxaQov, said to be of a square form and similar to the ipiBvqa ; *m'oa, an Asiatic lute often said to be of a melancholy tone, but perhaps without foundation ; it has been supposed that the strings were drawn over a sounding board, and in playing were struck with a plectrum (nl^xToov), like a modern violin; oa^pvxrj, sambuca (cf. Per- sius, Sat. v. 25), sackbut (cf. Dan. iii. 5), a harp of a triangular form, with four strings of acute sound, used in chanting iambics ; to iyiarov, a triangle with several strings of unequal length ; ij.:a?.ri' l Qiov, said to be like the uayuSic, and also used for any variety of the lyre ; ipilvQa, a Libyan instrument of a square form. In Plate XXI. are given various forms of stringed instruments. Fig, 1. is a triangular form of the harp or lyre, by some considered as the sambuca, by others as the trigonon. Fig. C presents a similar form ; this is taken from a representation of a religious festival found at Herculane- um (cf. Load. Quart. Rev. xvm. 87) ; it shows dancing and playing together. Fig. 10 is by some called the sambuca ; having four strings apparently over a sounding board. Fig. w is an old form of the lyre with three strings. Fig. 11 is another, given in Calmet as " Timotheus'a harp with nine strings." Fig. 4 is the ascaron as given by Montfaucon. Fig. 2 is a form of the lyre found on Egyptian monuments ; fig. e shows the mode of playing upon it. (For the Thes- pian lyre, see Plate II. fig. 6.) — In fig. 6 we have the kinura or violin, from Montfaucon. In fig. 7 is a similar instrument from Nicbuhr, in a side view ; a front view of it is given in fig. 8 ; having.//?-e strings of metal wire. Fig. 3 and fig. 5, also from Niebuhr, are given in Calmet, as other forms of the kinura or kinnor. Fig. 9 is taken from a sculpture at Thebes in Egypt, and seems to be the same instrument with three strings ; it has been supposed to represent the ' Hebrew shalishim played on by females in David's time (1 Sam. xviii. 6). In fig. /is seen a Persian violin and fiddler. 2. Wind instruments : ~i?.vuog, a kind of flute of Phrygian invention, usual- ly made of box-wood; yiyyqa or ytyYQi-U) a Phoenician pipe (§ 72.2), short, of PRIVATE LIFE IN THE LATER AGflS. 547 ft plaintive note ; p6ravXo$ f a flute used especially at nuptial festivals ; uay.av- log, a sort of bagpipe. It may be remarked, that there was a great variety of these instruments belonging to the class of pipes or flutes. The (fi'oiy'z, which is called also the pipe of Pan, is of great antiquity ; some suppose it to be the instrument mentioned by Moses (Gen. iv. 21, cf. Comprehensive Commentary) by the name of ugabh. It is still found in the east, in Turkey and Syria; with the number of its reeds varying, it is said, from jive to ticenty-fivc. A double flute is often mentioned, called also the right and left (cf. § 238) ; the right one, or that held in the right hand, is represented as shorter and having a higher tone than the left ; and both as blown by the performer at the same time. — There were several varieties likewise of the aal.myz, or trumpet ; as, ytoac, a Phrygian trumpet, or flute crooked like a horn ; xtQaxtvt n a trumpet of similar form, probably less crooked. — There seems also to have been, in the later times at least, a variety of musical instruments of the kind termed vdQccv/.ic, or water-organ. In Plate XXI. we have also represented a number of wind instruments. Fig. s is the pipe With seven reeds. Fig. y is the single flute as given by Pfeiffer, from JViebuhr. In fig. a we see a musician blowing the double flute ; it is taken from a representation found at Pompeii (cf. Pompeii, p. 260, as cited P. I. $226. 1). Fig. ii. presents also, as has been supposed, the double flute ; it is from a representation found at Herculaneum ; the two parts seem to be of equal length. (The same appears to be the case in the views given Plate XX. fig. h and i.) — Fig. n is the keras or horn, a form of the trumpet. Fig. t is another form, straight ; by some supposed to represent the silver trumpets used for assembling the Israelites in the wilderness (cf. Numbers, x. 2). Fig. B. shows a form of the Roman cornu. Fig. t presents a performer upon a sort of flute ; it is from an Egyptian monument. Fig. A. is taken from an ancient altar on which is sculptured the funeral pomp of Hector ; the figure here given leads the procession; it is a woman blowing a long flute With its extreme end fashioned like that of the trumpet ; a funeral pipe, used as an accompaniment to the threnc or funeral song (cf. Matt. xi. 17). See Galand, as cited § 282. 2. — A description of the hydraulis is given in A treatise of the mathe- matician Heron (cf. Thevenot, Vet. Math. Op., cited P. II. §40St. 1) ; a drawing designed after this description is found in ForkeVs Geschichte der Musik (cited P. I. § 63). Cf. Nov. L'oamu Soc. Reg. Gotting. vol. n. — J. Hawkins, History of Music. Lond. 1776. 5 vols. 4. 3. Instruments of percussion: some instruments of this class were also Used ; Trir.ruvov, a sort of kettle-drum, flat on one side and convex on the other, formed of wood with leather drawn over it ; much used at the festivals of Cybele and of Bacchus; y.i'upala, cymbals which were of metal (/uJ.xa) ; usually large and broad ; sometimes smaller so that two were held in each hand of the player, and such as are used by oriental dancing-women. The y.ojdiov was merely a little bell. The y.nora/.ov is described by some, as a sort of bell made of brass ; by others, as " made of a reed split in two and so fit* ted as to emit a sound from the touch." The osiotqov, sistrum, was properly an Egyptian instrument, used in the worship of Isis ; it consisted of an oval frame, with several bars of metal, which passed through it transversely, and being loose gave sounds when the instrument was shaken in the hand. A peculiar instrument was formed by placing metallic rings so as to move freely upon a metallic rod, which was sometimes in the form of a circle, sometimes of a triangle. Several instruments of percussion are exhibited in Plate XXI. Fig. iii. is the tympanum or drum ; in fig. h are the large cymbals, and in fig. i, the smaller, called castanets. Fig. o, differ- ent forms of the simple bell. Fig. iv. shows the triangle with rings : by it is a stick with a knob at the end, used perhaps in striking the rings. Fig. d presents the Persian drum, with the hands of the drummer. Fig. c is a Turkish female playing on a dulcimer (cf. Dan. iii. 10). — The sistrum is seen in fig. o, of Plate XX. On the musical instruments of the ancients, cf. Montfaucon, as cited P. III. qvy loy mtf opus Plirygium) was an art much cultivated. Curtains {ntqov^uara) and oth- er articles, richly embroidered (ftolvxiOTa), were wrought for private dwell- ings and for the temples (cf. § 28). A splendid work on Ancient Tapestry has recently been commenced at Paris, (1837,) and Is to be completed in 4 vols. fol. with cuts and engravings. § 182. The marriage state was much respected among the Greeks, and was promoted and guarded by the laws. In Sparta particularly, certain penalties were inflicted upon such as remained unmarried after a certain age. At Athens also, all who wished to be command- ers or orators, or to hold any public office, were required to have a family and own a real estate. Polygamy on the other hand was not permitted, although exceptions were made in some special cases. The age at which marriage should be allowed was also prescribed, a younger age being granted to females than to males; the latter at Athens, were forbidden to marry until they were thirty-five. At Spar- ta the usual age for men to marry was thirty, and for women twenty. Marriage between parties of near consanguinity was not allowed, or at least was generally viewed as improper and scandalous. The Athenians, however, were allowed to marry sisters by the same fath- er (6 u on urn love), although not those by the same mother (6uour t rQiovg). In most of the states, a citizen could marry only the daughter of a citizen ; yet there was sometimes an exception. 1. Adultery was punished, and in some cases with severity. Although po- lygamy was not generally allowed, concubinage was permitted without re- straint. Concubines {nallay.ihq) were usually captives or purchased slaves. Prostitution was exceedingly common, and favored even by the whole system of religious worship. In Athens the most distinguished statesmen and phi- losophers openly associated with females of dissolute morals {hra'iqui). The city of Corinth was still more famous for licentiousness. Respecting the prevalence of sensuality among the Greeks, cf. Bibl. Repos. vol. ii. p. 441. 2 1. When a virgin was sought in marriage, it was necessary first to con- sult the parents, and if they were not living, the brother or guardian (^t«'t^o- 77.0c). The betrothing was usually made in a formal manner by the father. The parties pledged to each other mutual fidelity, by kissing or by joining right hands. The bridegroom also bestowed on the bride a present as a pledge of his honor, called aqqa, ur, ^rijaToor. The giving of a dowry (rrootl, pfQvlj) with the bride was a custom in Greece generally. At Athens it was a legal and indispensable requisite, although the dowry was but small. In Sparta, however, Lycurgus nearly abolished the custom. In the settlement of the dowry, and the stipulations connected with it, witnesses were called in, and the husband delivered an acknowledgement or receipt (jToo\g). PRIVATE LIFE IN THE LATTER AGES. 551 Respecting Hades, cf. P. III. $32. It does not appear that the Greeks practiced the Egyptian custom of embalming the dead. — Dc Caylus, on the embalming of the Egyptians, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxm. 119. § l8ot. The funeral itself was termed fcxoptdj/, or ixcpoou, the carrying forth of the corpse, which at Athens was performed before sunrise, but elsewhere in the day time. In Greece, generally, young persons were buried at break of day or early morning twilight. The corpse was placed on a bier, or if the deceased had been a warrior, on a large shield, and the bearers carried it on their shoulders (aqdtjv (ptosiv), followed by the friends and relatives of both sexes. The procession was commonly on horseback, or in carriages ; it was a token of higher respect when all went on foot. — Sorrow for the deceased was manifested by solitary retirement, fasting, and silence, by wearing black ftnd sordid garments, by covering the head with ashes, and plucking off the hair, by cries of lamentation, and by funeral dirges. The latter were per- formed by musicians employed for the purpose (-d-Qfjvwv t£aQ xot) ; one was eung as the corpse was borne forward, another at the funeral pile, and a third at the grave ; they were called 6?.oipvQitoi', also luituoi, rul.euoi. Funeral chants are still common in Greece, termed myriologues. — See Mrs. Hemans, GreeK Funeral Chant, in her Poems. Bost. 1827. vol. it. p. 160. § 186. The custom of burning the corpse became universal among the later Greeks ; the ceremonies attending it have been chiefly men- tioned before (§ 31). 1 1. The ashes and bones were gathered (o(no?.6yiov) in an urn, and buried Commonly without the city, amid many blessings and prayers for their repose. The urns used for this purpose {y.a'/.nai, xaqvaxsg, ooro&tjxai, ooqoi, &c.) were* -made of different materials, Wood, stone, or precious metal, according to the rank and circumstances of the deceased. These Urns were sometimes en- closed in a sort of chest, which was formed of stone or other materials ; and to this chest, as well as to the urn, the term oaciy.oyayoq seems to have been dpplied. The body of Alexander was conveyed from Babylon to Alexandria in a splendid carriage, and his funeral there conducted with great pomp by Ptolemy. The Sarcophagus, in which the golden coffin or urn containing his remains was enclosed, is said to be now in the British Mu- eeum, having been discovered at Alexandria by the French in the expedition of Bonaparte and by them surrendered to the English. — E. D. Clarke, The tomb of Alexander. Camb. 1805. 8/ €f. also Clarke's Travels, vol. in. p. 164. ed. N. Y. 1815.— Quatr. de Quincy, Sur le char fune- raire qui transporte de Babylone en Egypte le corps d'Alexandre, in the Mem. de VAcad. its Inscr. Classe A'Hist. et Lit. Anc. vol. iv. p. 315, With a plate. Cf. C. de Caylus, in the Mem* ide VAcad. des Inscr. xxxi. 86. On the urns and vases found in sepulchres, cf. P. I. § 173. — On an alabaster Sarcophagus discovered at Thebes, in the tombs of the Kings, Lond. Quart. Rev. xvm. 369; xix. 192, 404, 2t. The solemnities of the funeral were concluded with an oration or eulo- gy, with games, repasts, and sacrifices and libations ; which, in many cases, were repeated on successive anniversaries. — In the case of such as had died in war, the oration at their funerals and at subsequent anniversaries of their decease, was viewed as so important, that the speaker for the occasion was appointed by the public magistrates. Thus Pericles was appointed, when the Athenians solemnized a public funeral for those first killed in the Peloponne- eian war (Thucyd. ii. 34) ; and Demosthenes, when the same honor was ren- dered to those who fell in the fatal battle of Chreronea (cf. MitfortTs Greece, ch. xlvii. sect. 6). For a very interesting view of the games and exercises performed in honor of the dead, the student is referred to the 23d book of the Iliad, where Homer gives an account of the funeral of Patroclus. Solemn games with rich prizes were instituted by Alexander in honor of his friend Hepha)9- tion at Ecbatana ; the whole ceremonies of the funeral were conducted with great magnifi- cence, according to Arrian (lib. vii). Diodorus Siculus speaks also particularly of Hephiestion's funeral pile. — Cf. Comte de Caylus, Le bucher d' Hephastion, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxxi, 76.— Quatr. de Quincy, on the same, in the Mem. de VInstitut, Classe d'HisL et Lit. Anc. iv.p, 395, with a plate. § 187. The sepulchral monuments of distinguished men were built often with great expense and splendor. Monuments were also fre- quently erected to them in other spots, where there ashes were not deposited. 552 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 1. In early times, the Creeks \Vere accustomed to place their dead ill repOS* itories, made for the purpose, in their own houses. Temples also were some* times made repositories for the dead ; especially for such as had rendered em j inent public services. But in later ages it became the gpneral custom to bury the dead without the cities and chiefly by the highways. Graves at first were mere openings dug in the earth, vjioyam. Soon there was a custom of paV* ing and arching them with stone. The place of interment was originally marked simply by a barrow or mound of earth (x< 7 nun Tombeau &c-. in the Mem. de VAcad. des Tnscr. l v. 648. — Arete dologia (as cited P. I. $243i 3), vol. xm. p> 280, on a Greek sepulchral Monument; with a plate. 3. Cenotaphs (xarortxcpia, xiV}\oia) Were monuments erected for the dead, which were not the repositories for their remains. They Were raised both fof persons who had never obtained a proper funeral, and also for such as had re- ceived funeral honors in another place. It was a notion of the ancients, that the ghosts of unburied persons could not be admitted into the regions of the blessed, without first wandering a hundred years in misery ; and if one per- ished at sea or where his body could not be found, the only way to procure repose for him was to build an empty tomb, and by certain rites and invoca- tions call his spirit to the habitation prepared for it. A common place of sepulture for many individuals was called noXvuvtyior* — The term xoiurrrt'tQiov, cemetery, appears to have been introduced by Chris- tians, in accordance with their faith, that the grave is but a temporary sleep* ing -place. 4. The custom of raising splendid monuments in honor of the dead at length led to such extravagance, that it became necessary to impose penal restraints. The splendor of the monument erected to Mausolus (cf. P. III. § 72) occa- sioned the word Mausoleum to be applied as a common name to such struc- tures. In our Plate XV. are some specimens of monumental structures. Fig. L represents a tomD of white marble, at Mourghab in Persia, corresponding to the ancient Pasargada ; it has com- monly been supposed to be the Tomb of Cyrus, which was erected by himself and visited by Alexander (cf. Arrian, vi. 29) ; some, however, declare it to be a more modern structure. — Morier, cited P. I. § 243. 3. •- — Fig. 2. represents a structure called Absalom's Pillar. In the time of Josephus there was a marble structure by this name, said to have been reared by Ab- salom (cf. 2 Sam. xviii. 18). The one here given is, however, no doubt comparatively recent. " The lower portion is quadrangular, standing detached from the living rock, from which it was hewn. Upon the four facades are cut Iortic pillars, above which is a frieze with Doric metopes and triglyphs. Over this basis rises a square piece of masonry, smaller; and the xvhole is crowned by a tall conical tower, finishing in a point." Fig. 3. givers a view of the Tomb of Cestius at Rome ; cf. P. I. $226. 1 : it is taken from Pronti, cited P. I. $243. 2. — Fig. 4. presents the gates of a tomb ; over them is a Greek inscription, Glycon and Hemera to the infernal gods ; Mercury, with his wand, is represented as in the act of closing or opening them, it being a part of his office to introduce departed spirits into Hades. This figure is given in Calmet, to illustrate the expression " gates of hades " in MatU xvi. 18. — Calmct, Dictionary <&<% vol. hi. p. 279. Chariest, 1813. ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. Introduction, § 188. It belongs to the topics of history and geography rather than antiquities, to describe the origin and progress of the Romans, and the extent of their empire. Yet a glance at these subjects, and a few remarks upon them, will aid in getting a better view of the Ro- man antiquities, and enable one to understand and appreciate more correctly the people and their more important peculiarities. Some preliminary notices of Rome and its empire will be given first, and then something respecting the Romans themselves. § 189. According to the common accounts of history, the city of Rome was founded 752 B. C. by Romulus and Remus, grand child- ren of the Alban king Numitor. It was situated not far from the mouth of the Tiber, in Latium, a province in middle Italy. In the beginning it was of small extent, confined to Mount Palatine, on which it was built. The number of inhabitants did not amount to 4,000. This more ancient part of the city was afterwards called op- pidum, while the better part, later built, was called w*bs, which be- came at length a general name for Rome. It was first peopled by some families from Alba Longa, and afterwards by various acces- sions (cf. P. I. § 109, 110) ; partly of the vagabond and worthless from the neighboring people of Italy. 1 u. The Capitoline Hill was occupied next after the Palatine, and at last five other mountains or hills were included in the city, and thence was de- rived the epithet septicollis. The first walls around the city were low and weak ; Tarquinius Priscus and Servius Tullius improved them. 2u. Among the principal events which greatly changed the appearance of the city were the capture and burning of it by the Gauls, 385 B.C., and the erection of numerous buildings in the reign of Augustus, and after the con- flagration under Nero. In the two last mentioned periods, Rome was very rapidly enlarged and adorned, and continued to be further improved under succeeding emperors down to the time of Honorius. In his reign occurred the capture and sack of Rome by the Goths under Alaric, A. D. 410. The city was in a great measure rebuilt by Theodoric. But by that disaster _, and the still greater devastations of the Gothic king Totila, A. D. 547, it lost much of its ancient splendor. It continued to wane during the ages following. 3 m. After all the exertions of the later popes to restore its former beauty, there is a vast difference between modern and ancient Rome. Of the latter we find only certain traces and monuments, and these are in part mere ruins and fragments. P. Macquier, Romische Jahrtmcher, oder chronol. Abriss der Gesch. Roms ; aus dem Franz. ■nit Anmerk. von C. D. Beck, Leipz. 1783. 8. —For a more particular notice of Rome and its topography, see P. V. § 51 ss. § 190. In the most flourishing period of Rome, at the close of the republic and beginning of the imperial monarchy, the population was 47 654 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. Very great. The number of citizens may be estimated at 300 thou- sand, and the whole number of residents at 2 millions and upwards, " Concerning the number of inhabitants in ancient Rome, we can only form conjectures. Lipsius computes them, in its most flourishing state, at four mil- lions." (Adam.) Tacitus (Annals, L. xi. c. 25) states, that by a census in the reign of Claudius the number of Roman citizens amounted to nearly 7 millions ; it is supposed that this number must have included the citizens in other places besides the city of Rome itself. — Gibbon has the following re- marks on the population of the Roman empire : " The number of subjects who acknowledged the laws of Rome, of citizens, of provincials, and of slaves, cannot now be fixed with such a degree of accuracy as the importance of the object would deserve. We are informed that when the emperor Claudius ex- ercised the office of Censor, he took an account of six millions nine hundred and forty-five thousand Roman citizens, who with the proportion of women and children must have amounted to about twenty millions of souls. The multitude of subjects, of an inferior rank, was uncertain and fluctuating. But after weighing with attention every circumstance which could influence the balance, it seems probable that there existed, in the time of Claudius, about twice as many provincials as there were citizens, of either sex and of every age ; and that the slaves were at least equal in number to the free inhabit- ants of the Roman world. The total amount of this imperfect calculation would rise to about one hundred and twenty millions of persons ; a degree of population which possibly exceeds that of modern Europe, and forms the most numerous society that has ever been united under the same system of government." De la Malic, Sur la population libre &c. de la Republ, Rom. in the Mem. de Vlnstilnt, Classe de Hist, et Lit. Anc. vol. x. 461. — Wallace, on the Numbers of Mankind, — Hume, Essay on the Populousness of anc. Nations. — Amcr. Quart. Register, vol. ix. 140. § 191. Originally the authority of Romulus extended scarcely six thousand paces beyond the city. But he and the succeeding kings considerably enlarged the dominion of Rome. During the time of the republic her empire was rapidly and widely spread, and at length, by numerous and important conquests, a great part of the known world was subjected to her sway. 1 u. In the reign of Augustus the limits of the Roman empire w T ere the Euphrates on the east, the cataracts of the Nile, the African deserts, and Mt. Atlas on the south, the ocean on the west, and the Danube and the Rhine on the north. Under some of the succeeding emperors, even these limits were transcended. The following countries were subject to Rome: in Asia; Colchis, Iberia, Albania, Pontus, Armenia, Syria, Arabia, Palsestina, the Bosphorus, Cappa- docia, Galatia, Bithynia, Cilicia, Pamphylia, Lydia, in short the whole of Asia Minor: in Africa; Egypt, Cyrenaica, Marmarica, Gsetulia, Africa Pro- pria, Numidia, and Mauretania : and in Europe ; Italia, Hispania, Gallia, the Alps, Rhaetia, Noricum, Illyricum, Macedonia, Epirus, Grsecia, Thracia, Mce- sia, Dacia, and Pannonia. In addition to these were a number of islands, from the Pillars of Hercules to the Black sea, to which Britain may be added. 2u. Augustus made a division of the whole empire into twelve parts. — The emperor Hadrian afterwards gave a new form to this division, and separated Italy, Spain, Gaul, Aquitaniaand Britannia, Illyricum, Thracia and Africa into provinces. — One of the last changes of this kind was made by Constantine the Great, who divided the empire into four Praefecturates, containing various dioceses and distinct provinces, for the government of which he appointed a number of new magistrates (§ 309. 2). The most complete description of the Roman Empire, and of its various changes, is found in Onuphrii Panvinii Romanum Imperium, in the Thesaurus Antiq. Rom. of Grccvius, vol. l. — Cf* Gibbon, Decl. and Fall &c. Ch. 1. § 192. In a few centuries the Romans acquired a greatness and power, which is altogether singular and the most remarkable in all history. INTRODUCTION. 555 lu. What in the highest degree contributed to this was their warlike char- acter, for which they were from their first origin distinguished. Bodily strength and superior prowess constituted the grand object of their wishes and efforts, and war and agriculture were their only pursuits. A great part of the people were directly occupied in their constant wars; the proportion of sol- diers compared with the rest of the citizens is estimated to have been as 1 to 8. All the early Romans felt an equal interest in defending their country, because the conquered territory was divided equally among them. In addi- tion to all this, much must be ascribed to their policy in the manner of main- taining their conquests, in the treatment of allies, and in arranging the gov- ernment of the provinces, and to the respect towards them awakened in other nations. 2u. To treat of these topics belongs to history ; yet a brief view of the principal revolutions in Roman affairs seems to be necessary for our object. § 193u. Romulus, the founder and builder of Rome, was the first king. According to the common accounts (not altogether certain, however,) six other kings succeeded him ; Kuma Pompilius, Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Martins, Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius, and Tarquinius Superbus ; men of active enterprize, who contributed to the growth and stability of the nation. The most remarkable circumstances or events, during the regal form of govern- ment, were the division of the people into Tribes, Curias, Classes, and Cen- turies ; the separation of Patricians and Plebeians ; the establishment of the senate, and of the religious worship ; the settlement of the mode of comput- ing time, of the military discipline, of the valuation and taxation ; and the in- troduction of coined money. In general it may be remarked, that the prin- ciples of the government under this first form were not strictly monarchical, but rather of a mixed character, and really laid the foundation of the subse- quent advantageous system of the republic. During this whole period, the Romans were involved in wars ; but this uninterrupted continuity of war con- tributed to their success, for they never would makepeace until they had con- quered. The regal government continued 244 years, and was abolished B. C. 509, because the last king, Tarquinius Superbus, had provoked the nobility by arrogant haughtiness ; and the people by heavy impositions. The immediate occasion of Tarquin's expulsion, and the abolition of the monarchy, is said to have been the vile abuse committed upon Lucretia, wife of Collatinus, by Sextps Tarquin- ius, the king's son Cf. Goldsmiths Rome by Pinnock ; p. 85. ed- Phila. 183S. § 194 m. Rome was now a free state, at first aristocratical, and then for a period governed more by the Plebeians, whose importance and power, sustain- ed by their tribunes, constantly increased. During this time the dominion of the Romans, as well as the vigor of their constitution was augmented; their legislation was judicious; and their morals comparatively rigid. For a con-r siderable period they maintained an elevated national character, in which sim- plicity and propriety of manners, a high spirit of enterprize, a strong sense of justice, daring boldness and self denial and the warmest patriotism, were prominent traits. — The most brilliant era in the Roman republic was the first half of the sixth century from the building of the city, and especially during the sixteen years of the second Punic war, at the close of which Rome was in possession of her greatest strength. But immediately after this, corruption of morals advanced with rapid steps. Among the various causes of this, we may mention the victories in Greece and Asia, the long residence of the le- gions and officers amidst the luxuries of the east, and at last the overthrow of Corinth and Carthage ; each of these things contributed to the unhappy re- sult. Through debauchery, luxury and effeminacy, the Romans now suffered a universal degeneracy of manners and morals, although they gained from their intercourse with the Greeks and the eastern nations an increase of knowledge and much polish and refinement in matters of taste. A valuable work on this subject is the following ; Chr. Meiners, Geschichte des Verfalls der Sitten und der Staatsverfassung der Rbmer. Leipz. 1782. 8.— Also by same, Geschichte des i Verfalls der Sitlen, Wissenschaften und Sprache der Rbmer in den ersten Jahrhunderten nach Ch. geburt. Wien und Leipzig. 1791. 8. — More minute, but especially instructive, is Ad. Fer- guson's Rise and Prog, of Rom. Republic, cited P. II. $296. 5. (f.) — On the state of morals in ancient Greece and Rome, Spirit of the Pilgrims, vol. iv. p. 6V9. § 195 m. Selfishness, avarice and lust of power were immediate consequen- peg of this degeneracy ; and became in turn causes of the most melancholy 556 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. disorders in the state, and of those civil wars, the leaders in which contended for the supreme authority. Octavius at last gained the point, and under the name of Augustus was the first possessor of the now established Imperial throne. His reign throughout was a flourishing period of Roman history. Some of his successors were worthy rulers. But much more effectual and more fatal was the influence of those emperors, who disgraced the throne by the lowest voluptuousness and vilest despotism ; under these, the already prevailing corruption was fully completed. Now arose in rapid succession the most violent and fatal internal commotions ; the right of the strongest tri- umphed over every thing, and although particular emperors endeavored to prop up the sinking dominion, it constantly drew nearer and nearer to final ruin. Goldsmith's Rome, and Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Cf. P. II. § 296. 5. ( f ). — Bridge's Roman Empire under Constantine the Great. § 196. It may be seen from this brief delineation of the Romans, that their history must be crowded with interesting and instructive incidents ; and that a familiar acquaintance with their constitution and customs must be highly useful. The utility of studying the Ro- man antiquities needs therefore no further recommendation. \u. But besides the indispensable importance of a knowledge of the antiqui- ties in order to understand properly the history of the Romans, there are other advantages, which render it worthy the attention of every lover of literature, and of every one, in fact, who is not wholly indifferent to intellectual refine- mentand taste. It is essential as a help in reading the distinguished Roman au- thors, whose writings are preserved, and in obtaining a correct idea of the va- rious works of Roman art. 2 m. The best sources, whence a knowledge of Roman antiquities may be drawn, are doubtless the Roman writers themselves, particularly the histor- ians. There are also several Greek writers valuable in this respect, as they lived among the Romans, and being strangers, many things must strike them as more important and remarkable than they might seem to the native citi- zens. Among the latter class of writers are Polybius, Dionysius, Strabo, Plutarch, Appian and Dion Cassius, and even some later writers, as Procopius, Zonaras, Lydus, &c. Some aid may be derived also from the writings of the Christian Fathers. 3 m. In modern times Roman antiquities have been formed into a sort of science. The materials drawn from the sources just named, and various others, have been digested into regular systems on the one hand, while, on the other, particular branches of the subject have been examined in more full detail. Yet this has perhaps never been done with sufficient knowledge of fact, or adequate or critical skill and discrimination ; the essential has not been sufficiently distinguished from the less important, nor the general and univer- sal from the particular and local; nor has there been suitable care to note the periods, in which the customs and principles were introduced, made preva- lent, or changed. These are defects, which we must notice rather than avoid in the brief treatise, upon which we now enter, and which cannot be fully re- moved without more labor than has hitherto been devoted to the subject. § 197. We mention here some of the principal writers on Roman antiquities. 1. The largest Collections of separate treat- § 240, vol. 3d. exhibits the writer son Roman ises are the two following ; Jo. Georg. Grcevi- us, Thesaurus Antiquitatum Romanarum ; c. fig. Traj. ad Rhen. 1694-99. 12 vols. fol. (For an account of the contents of this, see Ap- pendix to Kennett cited below). — .7. M. Pole- nus, Supplement to Grawius and Gronovius. Ven. 1737. 5 vols. fol. — Alb. Hcnr. de Sallen- gre, Novus Thesaurus antiq. Rom. Hag. Com. 1716—19. 3 vols. fol. Very useful on ac- count of its copiousness and its good references is Sam. Pitisci Lexicon Antiq. Roman. Hag. Com. 1737. 3. vol. fol. — As a system formally arranged may be mentioned, Jo. Rosini Antiq. Roman. Corpus absolutissimum, c. n. Tho. JJempstcri. Traj. ad Rhen. 1710. 4. (Ed. J. F. Reitiius.) Amst, 1743.4, Mcusel as cited Antiquities &c. 2. The best manuals. — Bas. Kennett, Roma) Antiquae Notitia, or the Antiquities of Rome, in two parts. Lond. 1731. 8. There have been many later editions ; first American, Phil. 1822. 8. — G. H. Nienport, Rituum, qui olim apud Romanos obtinuernnt, succincta ex- plicate. 14th ed. Bed. 1784. 8. — C. G. Swartz, Observationes ad Nicuportii Compendium an- tiquitatum Romanarum (ed. .#. M. jYagclJ. Altd. 1757. 8. — C. J. H. Haymann, Anmer- kungen iiber Nicuport's Handbuch der rom- ischen Alterthumer. Dresd. 1786. 8. — Chri.-i, Cellarius, Compendium Antiq. Rom. cum. ad- not. J. E. Im. Malckii. 2d ed. Hal. 1774. 8. — G C, Maternus von Cilano, Ausfuhrlicho Abhand- INTRODUCTION. 557 lung der rbmischen Alterthumer, herausgege- ben von G. C. Adler, Altona, 1775, 7b. 4 vols. 4. — C. G. Heijnii Antiquitas romana, inprimis juris romani. Gbtt. 1779. 8. — P. F. A. JSTttsk, Beschreibung des h'auslichen, wissenschaftli- chen, sittlichen, gottesdienstlichen, politi- schen und kriegerischen Zustandes der Rbmer, nach den verschiedenen Zeitaltern der Na- tion, by J. H. M. Ernestl, Erfurt, 1812. 2 vols. 8. — Same work abridged (by Ernesti). Erf. 1812. 8. — K. Pk. Muritz, AN&OY2A, oder Rom's Alterthumer. 1st part (of the sac- red rites of the Romans'), Berl. 1791, 1797. 8. 2d part (of the civil and private affairs), ed. by F. Ramback, Berl. 1796. Alexander Adam, Roman Antiquities &c. Edinb. 1791,8. Often reprinted. An improved ed. by James Boyd. Edinb. 1834. 12mo. Another ed. by J. R. Major, Oxf. 1837. 8. — Transl. into German with im- provements by ./. L. Meyer (3d ed). Erlang. 1818. 2 vols. 8. — J. K. linger, Sitten und Gebrauche der Rbmer. Wien. 1805, 6. 2 vols. 8. with plates. — G. G. Kopke, Antiquitates Romance, in xii. tab. descr. Berl 1808. — L. Schaojf, Antiquitaten und Arch'aologie der Griechen und Rbmer. (In his Encyclop. d. class. Altcrthumskunde). Magdeb. 1820. 8 — F. Crevt- zer, Abriss der rbmischen Antiquitaten zura Gebrauche bei Vorlesungen. Leipz. 1824. 8. Less extensive but useful and instructive is the following, J. H. L. Meierotlo, Ueber Sitten und Lebensart der Rbmer, in verschiedenen Zeiten der Republic. Berlin 1814. 8. (Ed. Ph. Bvttmann). — Worthy of mention also is, IVilcock's Roman Conversations, or Descrip- tions of the Antiquities of Rome. Lond. 1797. 2 vols. 8. The following are abridgments; Abriss der griech. und rbmisch. Alterthumer, von Chr. Fried. Haacke. Stendal, 1821. — Ro- man Antiquities, and Ancient Mythology, for Classical Schools : by Clis. K. DiUaway, Bos- ton, 1831. 2d ed. 1835.— Tkos. S. Can; Manual of Rom. Antiquities. Lond. 1836, 12. 3. We may also refer here to Montfaucon's Antiquite Expliquee, as illustrating by its plates and descriptions Rowan as well as Greek Antiquities (cf. § 13). — The following work contains many excellent delineations ; Rac- colta Tavole rappresent. i costumi religiosi, civili e militari degli antichi Egiziani, Etru- schi, Grecie Romani, tratti dagli antichi mon- umenti, — disegrate, ed incise in rame, da Lorenzo Rocckeggiani. 2 vols. 4. containing 100 plates each. As pertaining especially to the subject of costume, we add, Bardon, Costume des Anciens Peuples. Par. 1786. 2 vols. 4. — A. Lens, Le Costume, ou Essai sur les habillements et les usages de plus, peupl. de l'Antiquite, prouve par les monuments. Liege, 1776. 4. — Tkos. Hope, The costume of the Ancients, Lond. 1812. 2 vols. 8. with nu- merous engravings in outline. — Particularly, Maillot <$• Martin, Recherches sur les costumes, Jes moeurs &c. des anciens peuples &c. — orne de 296 planches, au trait. Par. 1804-6. 3 vols. 4. " The 1st volume contains, in great detail, the costume, manners &c. of the Romans, from Romulus to the last emperors of Constan- tinople. The engravings are taken from med- als and monuments of each epoch." 5. It is proper also to refer here to works il- lustrating the remains of Roman Antiquity. — See P. 1. $ 130, 138, 187, 188, 191, 226, 243. — W. Stukeley, Itinerarium Curiosum, &c. Lond. 1760. 2 vols, in one fol. with 200 copper plates ; containing notices of Roman monuments in England. — The Publications of the Institute di Correspondenza Archeologica, a society for archaeological correspondence, founded in Rome by several distinguished scholars and antiquaries. The Bulletino dclV Instituto, com- menced 1829, contains brief notices of new discoveries and new works with other articles of special interest. By the title of Monumenti Inediti, the annual volume of plates is desig- nated. The Annaii deW Instituto, the chief pub- lication, gives essays, reviews, and extended descriptions. Gerhard, Kestner, Raoul-Roch- ette, Bock, Panofka, Hirt, Muller, Millingen, <&c. have been contributors. 6. On various points, Lardner, Pauly, Weber, Fosbroke, &c. as cited § 13. 5. — LockkarVs Valerius, JSi/tocr's Pompeii, and Ware^s Letters from Palmyra, are fictions professing to ex- hibit the state of manners in the first centur- ies after Christ, § 198. We shall treat the Roman Antiquities, as we did the Greek 3 under four distinct branches; thus exhibiting separately the affairs of religion, civil government, war, and private life. (1) Religious Affairs. § 199. As the word religion is of Roman origin, it may be well to notice the ideas attached to this term in the Latin language. Orig- inally, religio seems to have signified every sort of serious and earn- est exertion, to which one was impelled by external or internal mo- tives. Afterwards, it was used chiefly to express the included idea of duty towards the Deity and towards fellow creatures; and the theory of this, as well as the practice, then took the name of religion. In the plural number, the word usually designates the regulations and prac- tices pertaining to the worship and propitiation of the Deity. And, in as much as the knowledge and practice of duty towards men and the Divine Being will lead to a certain permanent moral sensibility and conscientiousness of deportment, the word religio was also nat*. urally employed as comprehending in its meaning this correctness of morals. 558 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. § 200. In inquiring into the origin of the religion of the Romans, we must revert to the origin of the nation, already noticed (§ 188). There doubtless existed in Latium, long before the founding of Rome, various religious customs, and the worship of various divini- ties; and it is not easy to trace out their gradual rise and establish- ment. By the subsequent colonies from Greece, Elis, and Arcadia, this native religion received many additions and modifications ; hence the great similarity between the Greek and Roman systems of my- thology and worship (cf. P. III. § 8). In some particulars the Ro- man traditions differ from those of the Greeks, where the divinities and their chief attributes are the same. The Romans also adopted several religious usages not practiced by the Greeks, as e. g. in rela- tion to auguries and auspices, which were borrowed from the Etru- rians. To the latter source we may chiefly ascribe the great preva- lence of superstition in the earliest part of the Roman history. § 201. The religion of the Romans was, like that of the Greeks, intimately connected with their politics. It was often employed as a means of promoting secret designs of state, which the projectors knew how to render agreeable and desirable, by the help of supersti- tion. Thus the inclinations of the mass of the people were deter- mined by pretended oracles and signs. Many military enterprizes derived their most effective stimulus from this source; and not sel- dom it furnished the strongest motives to patriotic exertion, since love of country was held to be a religious duty. The pomp of the religious solemnities and festivals served to foster and to deepen sen- timents of awe and fear towards the gods, and thus contributed to the same end. The purpose and influence of the gods were consid- ered as effecting much in all events and transactions, and this belief was greatly confirmed by the artifice of the poets, who sought to im- part dignity to the incidents of their stories, by describing the inter- vention and agency of the gods therein. § 202. On the first establishment of the city, Romulus made it a prominent object to render the national religion a means of union between the various and discordant materials of which the first in- habitants were composed. Still more carefully was this object pur- sued by his successor Numa, who is viewed as the chief author of many of the religious usages of the Romans, which were in part, as has been suggested, borrowed from the Greeks and Etrurians. His pretended interviews with a supernatural being, the nymph Egeria, secured greater respect and success in his efforts. The fundamental principles of Numa's system, being retained, were afterwards carried out more fully and variously. — As knowledge and sound philosophy advanced among the Romans, the religious notions of the more in- telligent portion were gradually rectified and elevated ; but this was confined to a few, while the great mass adhered to the common faith, even in the period when the system became inconsistent and cum- brous by the deification of the emperors. On Numa, cf. P. II. <$ 447. — For a particular account of the cods worshiped by the Romans, we refer to the part (III.) of this work which treats of the subject of Mythology. The Roman division or classification of their gods is noticed in (P. III.) § 9. § 203. The great number of the Roman deities occasioned a large RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. TEMPLES. ALTARS. 559 number of temples, of which, as some assert, there were in Rome above four hundred (420). The name of temples, templa, however, properly belonged only to such religious buildings as were solemnly consecrated by the augurs ; by this circumstance, and also by a less simple style of architecture, they were distinguished from the cedes sacra, allhoHgh the names are often used interchangeably. Their form was almost entirely in Grecian taste, oblong rectangular oftener than round. It was customary to dedicate them with various cere- monies, on laying the foundation and on the completion of the build- ing, and also after a remodeling or repairing of it. — The principal parts of a temple were commonly the sanctuary (cclla sanctior, ady- tum), the interior, appropriated for the ceremonies of sacrifice, and the exterior or court, serving for various purposes. The temples however were often used, not only for religious solemnities, but also for meetings of the senate, select councils, and the like. They usu- ally stood in an open place, and were surrounded with pillars, or at least ornamented with them on the front. On the structure of ancient temples, cf. P. I. §234, and references there given. — Simon*, Temples de l'ancienne Rome, in the Mem. Acad. Iiucr. i. 199. — See P. V. § 58-60. — We may obtain an idea of the ceremonies at the dedication or consecration of a temple from Tacitus, Hist. iv. 53. — Cf. also Hookc's Rom. Hist. vol. x. p. 262, as cited P. II. $ 299. 7. § 204. The Romans adorned the interior of their temples, as did the Greeks, with statues of the gods, with other works of sculpture and painting, and with consecrated offerings of various kinds, called donaria. Every thing connected with a temple was held as sacred to the god or gods to whom it was devoted. — A general name for such places as were sacred to the gods, even if no buildings were there erected, was fanum. The word delubrum, on the other hand, had a more limited meaning, signifying properly only that portion of the temple where stood the images of the gods, one or more ; but it is often used in a more general sense. Small temples, or chapels, also places for worship without roofs and only guarded by a wall, were termed sacella. Among the groves (luci) consecrated to the gods, of which there were thirty-two in the city, those of Vesta, Egeria, Furina, and Juno Lucina were the most noted. § 205. Altars were sometimes erected apart from any temple, and were then inscribed merely with the name of the god to whom they were dedicated; usually, however, they were placed in temples. A distinction was made between altaria and arm ; the former were raised higher, and were used for offering the sacrificial victim ; the latter were lower, and were used in offering the prayer and libation. The former were more usually consecrated to the celestial gods, the latter, to the infernal. They stood one behind the other, and were so placed that the images of the gods appeared behind them. lu. There was also a third kind of altar, anclabris or enclalris, a sort of ta- ble, on which the sacrificial utensils were placed and the entrails of victims were laid by the Haruspices. The mensa sacra was something still different, a table on which incense was sometimes presented, and offerings not designed to be burned, as various articles of fruit and food. — Altars were sometimes made of metals, even of gold or some metal gilded, but more frequently of marble and other stones, commonly of a white color. Sometimes they were hastily formed of ashes, earth or turf, or the horns of victims. The form of altars was various, quadrangular oftener than round. Not unfrequently they were adorned with sculpture and image-work. 560 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. Different forms of altars are seen in our Plate XXII. fig. B, C, m. Fig. t is the enclabris. Fig. H is a representation of Solomon's altar of burnt offering (cf. 2 Chron. iv. 1) 5 given by Pri- deaux, as drawn according to accounts of the Rabbins ; copied and described in Calmct, Diet. &c. vol. in. p. 144, 357, ed. Chariest. 1813. — Fig. E is an altar erected as a sepulchral monu- ment, in honor of a Roman emperor ; it is highly ornamented with sculptures, and bears an inscription ; the letters d m stand for Diu Jhniibus. The elevations at the corners in this and in fig. H, show what is designated by the phrase ' : horns of the n/tor." — For various altars as sepulchral erections, see Montfauesm, (as cited P. III. § 12.) vol. v. and. Sappl. vol. v Roman altars have repeatedly been found in England. JLrchaolovia, as cited P. I. § 843. 3. vol. in. p. 118, 324. 2. It was common also to adorn altars with fillets or ribbons, and garlands of herbs and flowers. Altars and temples afforded a place of refuge among the Romans as well as Greeks (cf. § 66), chiefly for slaves from the cruelty of masters, for insolvent debtors and criminals, where it was impious to touch them, although contrivances might be employed (as e. g. kindling a fire around them) to force them away, or they might be confined there until they perished. § 206. A great variety of instruments and vessels, vasa sacra i were employed in the sacrifices offered to the gods. 1 u. The most important were the following : the axe (bipennis, securis, d, d), or club ( 'malleus, c), with which the victim was first struck ; knives for stabbing (cultri, e, e), and others, long, two-edged, for dividing the flesh and entrails (seccspitm) ; the censer (thuribulum, 1), and the box containing the substance burnt for incense (accrra or arcula thuraria, 5) 5 a vessel used in dropping the wine upon the sacrifices (guttus); a flat vessel in which the priests and others offering sacrifices tasted the wine (simjiuhnn, b) ; broad dishes or bowls (patera, i, 2), for wine and the blood of the victims ; an ob- long vase with one or two handles (c.apedo, capeduncula, capis, o, o) , vessels to hold the entrails (ullce extares) ; plates on which the entrails and flesh were brought to the altar (lances, disci, n) ; baskets, particularly to contain the fruit offered (canistra) ; small tables with three legs (tripodes) ; an instru- ment, having a tuft of hair, or the like, for sprinkling the sacred water (asper~ gilluvi, f); pans for the sacrificial fire (prarfericulaJ ; metallic candlesticks (candelabra, h) to which the lamps were attached. 2. The numerals and letters included in the parentheses with the Latin terms in the above specification, refer to the figures thus marked in our Plate XXII. The figures marked by the letters are drawn from JMontfaucon, vol. 11. p. 150. Those marked by the numerals are from Pompeii, p. 130, as cited P. I. §226. The Plate exhibits other articles of sacrificial ap- paratus ; fie. g shows the sacred fillet (vittaj, which was sometimes hung from the neck ; fig. 4 is a ladle (ligvla) ; fig. 3, a pitcher (urceus, culullus) used for the libations ; these figures, are taken from sculptured representations on an altar standing in the court of a temple found at Pompeii ; fig. B exhibits a scene from the same altar ; a magistrate in his robe is offering sacrifice ; he holds in his hand a patera ; the victim is led forward by the popa or evltarhu. who is naked to his waist with a wreath on his head ; behind the magistrate is a boy holding a vase or pitcher, and an older servant bearing a platter (discus) ; by his side is a musician blowing the flute, followed by lictors with their fasces ; in the back ground appear the pillars of the temple decorated with garlands. — Fig. m also represents a sacrifice ; given by Mont- faucon from an ancient coin ; the augur's wand (lituus) is seen in the hand of the principal person. — Fig. a, is the sacred trumpet (tuba) sounded at hecatombs and other sacrifices. — The group of articles included in fig. D is drawn from Egyptian monuments, and may serve to illustrate also Hebrew and likewise Greek and Roman sacred utensils. The observer will no- tice among them the shovel, the fork of several tines, knives, a vessel like the modern teapot, a fire-pan, jars, bowls, dishes, &c. cf. Exod. xxv. 29. § 207. The priests were very numerous, and were formed into certain common orders, or colleges. These were mostly established by the first kings ; Romulus established the Luperci, Curiones, Ha- ruspices ; Numa, the Flamines, Vestalcs, Salii, Augures, and Fecia- les. During the republic the Rex sacrorum and the Epuloncs were introduced; and under the emperors some others. — The Roman priests may be ranged in two general classes; those common to all the gods (omnium dcorum sacerdotes) ; and those appropriated to a particular deity (uni mi mini addicti). Of the former were the Pon- tifices, Augures, Quindecemviri sacris faciundis, Haruspices, Fratres Arvales, Curiones, Epulones, Feciales, Sodales Titienses, and Rex Sacrorum. Of the 'latter class were the Flamines, Salii, Luperci, Potitii, Pinarii, Galli, and Vestales. PLATE XXII 562 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. § 208. The first rank was held by the Pontifices, instituted by Numa, originally only one, subsequently four, then eight, and finally more even to fifteen. The chief of these was styled Pontifex Maxi- mus, who held the highest priestly office, dignity, and power. He was appointed at first by the kings, subsequently by the college (Col- legium) or whole body of Pontifices, but after 104 B. C. by the peo- ple. Sylla restored the right to the college, but it was again taken from them. All the other priests and the vestals were subject to the Pontifex Maximus. 1 u. He had the oversight of all religious affairs, the regulation of the fes- tivals and the solemnities connected therewith, and the keeping of the rec- ords of public transactions (annales). He was also judge in many questions of right. — His dress was a toga prcetexta, and his head-ornament a sort of cap made of the skin of a victim and called galerus. Augustus assumed this office himself as emperor, which was done likewise by his successors down to Gratian, who abolished it. 2. Those who held the office of Pontifex Maximus, are said to have resided in a public house called Regia (cf. § 213). — The hierarchy of the church of Rome is thought to have been established on the model of the Pontifex Max- imus and the college of Pontifices. L Bimard, Le Pontificat des Emper. Romains, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xn. 355 ; xv. 38. Cf. ix. 115. — On the Roman pontiffs &c. cf. Moyle's Works, vol. i. —Beaufort, Republique Ro- maine. § 209. The Augurs, in ancient times called auspices, derived their name from consulting the flight of birds, augurium, avigerium. They were introduced from Etruria by Romulus, and established as a reg- ular order by Numa. Their number was originally three, then four, afterwards nine, and finally increased by Sylla to fifteen. At first they were taken only from the Patricians, but after B. C. 300, in part from the Plebeians. Their chief was called Magister Collegii, and Augur Maximus. Their badges of office were a robe striped with purple (trabea), a crooked staff (lituus), and a conical cap (some- times called apex). Their principal business was to observe the flight and cry of birds (auspicium), from which they predicted fu- ture events. They also explained other omens and signs, derived from the weather, the lightning, and the observation of certain ani- mals, particularly of young fowls and the like. 1 u. In the camp auspices were taken ex acuminibus, i. e. prognostics were drawn from the glittering of the points of the spears by night, or from the ad- hesion of the lower points of the standard poles in the ground, where they were planted. The places where auspices were to be taken or holy edifices were to be erected, were consecrated by the Augurs. The order of Augurs continued until the time of Theodosius the Great. The public Augurs of the Roman people should be distinguished from the private Augurs of the em- perors. 2. The omens, signa, portenta, prodigia, from which the Augurs conjec- tured or pretended to foretell the future, have been classed in five divisions. (1) From birds; chiefly the flight of some (alites), such as eagles, vultures, and buzzards ; but also the chattering and singing of others (oscines) such as the owl (bubo), crow (corvus, comix), or cock (gallus). (2) From appearances in the heavens; as thunder, lightning, meteors, and the like. — For taking omens of either of these two kinds the augur stood on some elevated point (arx, templum) with his head covered with the Icena, a gown peculiar to the office ; after sacrificing and offering prayer, he turned his face to the east, and divided the heavens in four quarters (called templa) with his lituus, and wait- ed for the omen. A single omen was not considered significant ; it must he. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. CLASSES OF PRIESTS. 563 confirmed by another of the same sort. In whatever position the augur stood, ©mens on the left were by the Romans reckoned lucky, contrary to the notions of the Greeks (§ 75) ; the explanation given of this disagreement is, that both Greeks and Romans considered omens in the east as lucky ; but the Greek augur faced the north, and the lucky omens would be on his right, while the Roman augur usually faced the south, and therefore had the lucky omens on his left. It is certain, however, that omens on the left were sometimes called unlucky among the Romans, and the term sinister came to signify unpropi- tious, and dexter to mean propitious. (3) From chickens (pulli) kept in a coop for the purpose. The omen was taken early in the morning from their ac- tions when the augur threw crumbs of corn before them ; if they turned away from it, or ate reluctantly, it was an unlucky omen ; if they devoured greedily, very lucky. Taking this augury was called Tripudium, perhaps from the bounding of the corn when thrown to the fowls. (4) From quadru- peds, chiefly by observing whether they appeared in a strange place, or how they crossed the way, whether to the right or the left, and the like. (5) From various circumstances and events, which may be included under the term ac~ cidents ; among these were sneezing, falling, hearing sounds, seeing images, spilling salt upon the table, or wine upon one's clothes, and the like. Omens of this class were usually unlucky, and were called Dira. Kennctt, as cited § 197. 2, ch. iv. — Cf. Morin, Les Augurs, and Simon, Les Presages, in the Mem. de VAcad. dcs Iiiscr. i. 54 and 129. § 210. The Har us pices were the priests who inspected the entrails of animals offered in sacrifices, in order to ascertain future occur- rences ; they were called extispices. They appeared under Romu- lus and were established by him ; it is doubtful of what number their college consisted. For some time Etrurians only, and not Romans, discharged the duties of the office. It was borrowed from the Etru- rians directly, but seems to have been primarily of Asiatic origin ; the discovery of the art (Haruspicina) was ascribed by fable to Ta- pes, a son of Jupiter. The number of the Haruspices gradually was increased up even to sixty. Their overseer was styled Magister Pub- licus or Summus Haruspex. From the different modes and objects of their divination, they were divided into three classes, extispices, ful~ guratores, and prodigiatores. For, besides observing the entrails of victims and the various circumstances of the sacrifice, as the flame, smoke &c, they also were consulted in relation to lightning and places or buildings stricken by it, and they likewise explained prod- igies and dreams. 1 u. In examining the entrails, they observed chiefly their color, their mo- tion, and the condition of the heart, and when they could determine nothing from the appearances, they called them exta muta. On the other hand, the term litare was used to signify an auspicious sacrifice. 2. The college of Haruspices had their particular registers and records, as also the other religious orders had ; these seem to have been accounts of their observations, memorials of thunder and lightning, and ominous occurrences. • — Most of the ominous circumstances connected with sacrifices are alluded to by Virgil (Georg. iii. 486). § 211. The Epulones were priests, who attended on the feasts (epulco) of the gods. There were three first appointed, B. C. 197; by Sylla the number was increased to seven, called Septemviri Epu- lones, and by Caesar at last to ten. They had the care of what were called the Lectisternia, when couches were spread for the gods as if about to feast, and their images were taken down, and placed on the couches around the altars or tables loaded with dishes : the most im- portant of these was the annual feast in honor of Jupiter in the 564 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. Capitol. They were required to be present also at the sacred games to preserve good order. Very young persons, even those under six- teen, were often taken for this office ; yet it was so respectable, that even Lentulus, Caesar, and Tiberius performed its duties. Like the Pontifices, they wore a toga prcetexta. The viri epulares must not be confounded with the epulones; the former were not the priests, but the guests at the repasts spoken of. § 212. The Fcciales were a class of priests or officers existing long before the building of Rome, among the Rutulians and other Italian states. The order was introduced at Rome by Numa. It con- tinued to the beginning of the imperial authority, and consisted of twenty, sometimes of fewer, members. They may be considered as a body of priests, whose business chiefly related to treaties and agree- ments pertaining to peace and war. The highest in rank was called Pater patratus. It devolved upon him, or the Feciales under him, to give the enemy the warning, which preceded a declaration of war, and to make the declaration by uttering a solemn form (clarigatio), and hurling a spear (hasta sanguinea), into the enemy's limits. These priests were also the customary agents in effecting an armis- tice or cessation of hostilities. Their presence and aid was still more indispensable in forming treaties and at the sacrifices therewith con- nected. They were charged also with the enforcing of treaties, and the demanding of amends for their violation, and also with guarding the security of foreign ambassadors at Rome. § 213. The Rex sacrorum, or Rex sacrificulus, held an office, which was instituted first after the expulsion of the kings, and proba- bly derived its name from the circumstance, that originally the public sacrifices were offered by the kings themselves or under their imme- diate oversight. Perhaps, as Livy suggests, the office and name both arose from a desire, that the royal dignity might not be wholly forgot- ten. This priest had a high rank, and at sacrificial feasts occupied the first place, although his duties were not numerous, and consisted chiefly in superintending the public and more important sacrifices. He was also required at the beginning of every month to offer sacri- fice jointly with the Pontifex Maximus, to convoke the people (popu- lum calare), and make known the distance of the Nones from the Calends of the month then commencing. At the Comitia he offered the great public sacrifice, after which, however, he must withdraw from the forum, and conceal himself. His wife was called Regina sacrorum ; she was also a priestess, and offered sacrifices to Juno. His residence, freely granted to him, was also often termed Rcgia. The office continued until the time of Theodosius the Great. § 214. The name of Flamines was given in general to all such priests, as were devoted to the service of a particular deity. The most eminent of them was the Flamen Dialis, or chief priest of Jupiter. At the first institution of the order, there were but two be- sides this, viz. the Flamen Martialis and the Flamen Quirinalis. Afterwards the number rose to fifteen and still higher. They were divided into mqjorcs, who must be Patricians, and minores, who were taken also from the Plebeians. Their dress was a long white robe RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. CLASSES OF PRIESTS. 565 with a purple border (Icena), and a cap of conical form (apex) adorn- ed with a twig of olive. The Flamen Dialis had a liclor, and also a sella curulis and the toga pratexta; his wife was called Flamiiiica, and aided him in some parts of the worship on the festivals of Jupi- ter. This priest likewise held a seat in the senate, and enjoyed sev- eral other privileges, which were peculiar to the Flamines. Many ^duties and services were required of the Flamines, especially of the Flamen Dialis. They were distinguished by names derived from the god to whose service they were devoted, as Flamen Neptunalis, Flor- uits, Pulmonalis ; so of those belonging to a deified Caesar, as Fla- men August ali s> Flavialis, &c. §215. The Salii were priests of Mars Gradivus, and according to the common opinion had their name from dancing (satire), be- cause on certain festival days they passed about the city dancing, and singing songs in honor of Mars. They were first instituted by Nu- ma; the immediate occasion of their institution, according to the tradition, was the famous shield, Ancile, said to have been sent from heaven; this shield, and the eleven others made exactly like it in order to hinder its being stolen, which were all guarded by the Vest- als, were carried by the twelve Salii Palatini, when they made their circuit around the city. 1m. Their chief and leader in the procession was styled Prcesul, whose leap- ing was expressed by the verb amtruare, and the leaping of the others after him by redamlruare. They had their appropriate residence (curia Saliorum) npon the Palatine Hill. Besides the music which accompanied their dancing, they struck their shields together, and in that way noted the measure of their songs, which celebrated the praises of the god of war (ct\ P. I. § 114. 4.) and of Veturius Mamurivs, the artist who made the eleven shields. 2 m. The order was highly respected, and was rendered the more so by the accession of Scipio Africanus as a member, and some of the Emperors, espec- ially M. Aurelius Antoninus. Their term of service was not for life, but only for a certain period. — The Salii Collini or Quirinalcs were distinct from this body, and established by Tullius Hostilius. See T. Gutberlctki de Saliis Martis sacerdotibus apud Romatios liber singularis.Franequerae, 3704. 8.— Seidcl, De Saltat. sacr. vet. Rom. Beil. 1826. — A. JlpePs Metrik, Th. 2. p. 647. § 216. The Luperci, priests of Pan, were of Arcadian origin, and established by Romulus. Their name was derived from that designa- tion, which Pan received from his guarding the flocks against the wolf, Lupercus (ab arcendo lupos). His temple was from the same circum- stance called Lupcrcal, and his most celebrated festival at Rome, Lw- percalia. This festival began about the middle of February, and was re- garded as a season of expiation for the whole city. The Luperci, on this occasion, ran up and down the streets, naked excepting a girdle of goat's skin about the waist ; they carried in their hands thongs of the same material, with which they struck those whom they met ; the word to express the action was catomidiare. „ A peculiar efficacy was ascribed to these blows, particularly in rendering married women pro- lific. — There were three distinct companies (Sodalitates) of these priests; the Fabiani, Quintiliani, and Julii. The last were of later origin and took their name from Julius Cassar ; the others were named after individuals, who had been their chief or head priests. §217. The Galli were priests of Cybele the great mother of the gods, so called from the river Gallus in Phrygia, whose waters were 48 &6G ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. regarded as possessing singular virtues, rendering frantic those who drank it.) The circumstance of their being castrated is referred to the fable respecting Atys., At the festival of their goddess, celebratji in March, and called Hilaria (cf. P. III. § 21), these priests imitated the phrenzy of Atys by strange gestures, violent motions, and self- scourging and cutting. Their chief priest was termed Archigallus. The order was not highly respected. — i The Potitii and Pinarii, priests of Hercules, were not held in important estimation, although their pretended origin was traced to the age of the hero himself. The tradition was, that Hercules, during his residence in Italy with Evander, instructed in the rites of his worship the tribes or families bearing this name, which was afterwards retained by the priests. § 218. The Vestals, Virgines Vest ales, were an order of Priest- esses, of very early origin, devoted to the goddess Vesta. The con- stant preservation of the holyjire, and the guarding of the Palladium (P. III. § 43, 67), were the principal duties of the Vestals. They were first instituted by Numa, four in number ; two were added by Tarquinius Priscus or Servius Tullius, and the number ever after re- mained six. Their leader, the eldest, was called Vestalis or Virgo Maxima. They were selected (capere) between the age of six and ten, particular regard being had to their descent and their bodily vigor and perfection. They were obliged to continue in the office thirty years, unmarried. The first ten years were employed in learn- ing the rites, the second ten in performing them, and the rest in in- structing others. Negligence in any of their duties was severely punished. If any one violated her vow of chastity, she was buried alive in a place called Campus sccleratus, near the Porta Collina. Besides the two principal duties of these priestesses, they were ac- customed to offer certain sacrifices, whose precise object is unknown. They also had the care of some preparations and services connected with other sacrifices. They enjoyed great respect, and many privile- ges ; e. g. entire freedom from parental control ; authority to deliv- er from punishment a criminal, who accidentally met them; certain revenues of lands devoted to them ; the attendance of a lictor, when- ever they went out; a public maintenance, and release from the ob- ligation to take an oath. Their office was abolished under Theodo- sius, on account of its expense. § 219 a. A few words must be added respecting the other classes of priests before named (§ 207). The Quindecemviri sacris faciundis had the care of the Sibylline books (cf. § 226). The Fratres Arvales served especially at the festival, called Ambarvalia (P. III. § 63), when the fields were dedicated and blessed, these priests passing over them in procession (cf. P. I. § 114), with a crowd of attendants. The Curi- ones were thirty priests, who performed the sacred rites common to the several Curise (§ 251). The Sodales Titii or Tatii had their name from the Sabine king Titus Tatius : each tribe had seven of them- There were also Sodales Augustales, or priests in honor of Augustus. 1m. The priests had their assistants and servants (ministri). Among these were the waiting boys and maids, camilli and camilice ; the assistants of the priests who offered sacrifices, Jiaminii and Jfamince; the keepers of the tem- ples, aditui or ceditumni; those who brought the victims to the altars and slew RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. PRAYERS. SACRIFICES. 567 them, popa, victimarii and cuJtrarii. The tibicines, tubicines, fidicines, &c. who accompanied the sacrificial rites with music, formed likewise another fra- ternity. 2. The mystagogi were those who initiated others into mysteries ; the name is also given to those who showed to visiters the curiosities of the temples. By some late writers the priests were divided into three classes ; untis- tites, chief priests ; sacerdotes, ordinary priests ; and ministri, meanest priests. § 219 b. Respecting the emoluments* of the Roman priests little is known. When Romulus first divided the Roman territory, he set apart what was suffi- cient for the performance of sacred rites, and for the support of temples. Numa is said to have provided a fund for defraying the expenses of religion, and to have appointed a stipend for the vestals ; but there is no evidence, that the priests received any regular stipend or salary. Yet there can be no doubt that, in some way or other, sufficient provision was made for their support. Burigny, Les honneurs accordes aux pretres &c. in the Mem. Acad. Iiiscr. xxxi. 108. § 220. Of the vast multitude of religious customs among the Ro- mans, we will notice first some of those pertaining to their prayers to the gods. They prayed with the head covered or veiled (capite velato). They bowed themselves down to the ground, in this pos- ture moved around completely from right to left, placed their right hand on the mouth (adoratio), and directed their face towards the east, where the altars and images of the gods were placed. In a high- er degree of devotion they cast themselves upon their knees, or pros- trated the whole body upon the ground. They were accustomed to lay hold of the altar and to make offerings of meal and wife with their prayers. The prayer was not always offered with an audible voice. Public prayers (precationes) were made by a priest or a mag- istrate. The most solemn prayer of this kind was that before the Comitia, by the Roman consul. Thanksgivings (supplicationes) were also public and general, for the purpose of entreating, appeasing and praising the gods ; in which view the people made a solemn pro- cession to the temples. Public occasions of this sort were called supplicationes ad pulvinaria deorum ; these pulvinaria were cushion- like elevations or stools, on which were placed the statues of the gods. They were also termed supplicia, and were appointed in honor of particular deities, or of all the gods united. The prayers offered on these occasions were called obsecrationes, which term usually has ref- erence to the averting of danger. Burin-iiy, Lea prieres des Paiennes, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xlii. p. 27. — Morin, Baise- mains &c. (adoratio), in the same Mem. vol. ill. p. 69. § 221. The sacrifices of the Romans (sacrificia) were very various. They were offered either at stated times (stata, sole?inia), or on par- ticular occasions (ex accidente nata). Animal sacrifices were term- ed hostioi or victimce ; the original difference between these words, viz. that the former designated a sacrifice offered on going out against a foe, and the latter a sacrifice on returning victorious, is as little re- garded by the writers, as another distinction, which makes the form- er a smaller and the latter a greater sacrifice. lw. The animals must be without blemish, and were therefore previously selected. They were brought to the altar, ornamented, like the person offer- ing them, with garlands of flowers ; the horns of bullocks and rams were decked with gilt, and white fillets were hung over their necks. The willing approach of the victim was considered as a favorable omen ; reluctance and resistance on the other hand as unfavorable ; the act of bringing the victim forward was called admovere. The priests then commanded all the profane to 568 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES, depart, and another priest ordered silence (Unguis f arete). Then followed the prayer to the gods, and after it the offering of the victim. The knife and the altar were consecrated for the purpose, by sprinkling them with a mixture of salt and the meal of new barley or spelt roasted (mola salsa). The head of the- victim was sprinkled with the same, and this is what is properly expressed by the word immolare, although it is often synonymous with mactare. 2u. The cul tar ius, whose business was to kill the victim, having asked, Mgone P, and the consul, prretor or priest having answered, Hocage, thers struck the animal in the forehead with his axe or mallet ; another next cutor stabbed him in the throat, and a third caught the blood in a sacrificial vase. The entrails were then examined by the haruspex, and if they were found fa- vorable, were, after being cleansed, laid on the altar and burned. Sometimes the whole animal was burned (holocaustum) ; bat usually only apart, the rest being assigned to the sacrificial feast, or to the priests. Upon the burning flesh incense was scattered, and wine was poured out ; the latter constituted the libation, and was accompanied with a formal address to the deity, accwe libens. In early times milk was used in the libation instead of wine. After all came the feast, of which the priests and those who presented the sacrifice partook in common, and which was usually accompanied with music and danc- ing, and often followed with games. § 2*22. It was very common among the Romans to make vows (vota), which generally consisted in promises to render certain actual acknowledgements or returns, provided the gods should grant the re- quests of those making the vows. A person doing thus was said votafacere, concipere, suscipere, nuncupare, and was called voti reus ; to fulfTPthe promise was vota solvere, reddere; he who gained his wish was said to be voti damnatus, voti compos. Sometimes the thing desired wap itself termed votum. Often public vows were made for the benefit of the whole people ; these were considered as the most binding. The vow was usually written upon a wax-tablet, which was preserved in the temple of the god to whom it was made. 1m. Those who had survived shipwreck, especially, were accustomed to hang up in the temple of some god (Neptune often) pictures representing the circumstances of their danger and deliverance {tabula, votivai). Similar pic-, tures were sometimes carried about by them in order to obtain charitable re-, lief. 2 u. Among the vows of a private nature were those, which a person made to Juno Lucina or Genius, on a birth-day (vota natalitia) ; those made when boys, on passing from childhood, cut off their hair and dedicated it to Apollo (vota, capillitia) ; the vows of the sick in case of recovery ; the vows of those in shipwreck for escape j of those on journeys by land. It also became a cus-. torn for subjects to make vows for the welfare of their emperors, which were renewed after the fifth, tenth, or twentieth year of their reign, and therefore called quinquennia, decennalia, or vicennalia. H. Dodwell, de diebus veterum natalitiis, in his Pralect. Acad. Ox. 1692, 8. p. 153. § 223. The dedication of the temples, sanctuaries and altars (dcd^ icatio templi, § 203), was one of the religious solemnities of the Ro- mans. This was originally performed by the kings, afterwards by the consuls, and often also by two magistrates appointed for the purpose and called duumviri dedicandis tempKs. The senate must first de- cree the service ; the Pontifex maximus must be present at the sol- emnity and pronounce the form of dedication, which was accompa- nied with acclamations from the people. Sacrifices, games, and feasts then followed. 1m. Similar to this was the ceremony of consecration (consecratio) ; only, the latter expression was applied to a great variety of particular objects, e. g, statues, sacred utensils, fields, animals, &c, Resccration, on the other han,d, RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. LUSTRATIONS. OATHS. ORACLES. 569 was a private transaction, in which the people or individuals were freed from their vows ; this was also called religionc solvere. 2m. Execration was imprecating evil on an enemy. — Evocation of the gods was a solemn rite by which (cf.rto carmine) they called upon the gods of a be- sieged city (evocare) to take the side of the Romans} it was attended with sacrifices and consultation of the entrails. § 224. Expiation was a solemnity designed to appease offended gods, and the sacrifice or propitiatory offering was called piaculum. Much more frequent and various were the lustrations or purifica- tions (lustrationes), both public and private. 1?*. Public lustrations were occasionally connected with certain festivals ; the private were annually repeated in the month of February. — It was cus- tomary before the march of an army or the sailing of a fleet to appoint a lus- tration, not for reviewing the forces, but to purify them by sacrifices, 2. After the taking of the census, which was done at the end of every five years, a purifying sacrifice was made, consisting of a sow, a sheep, and a bull, which were carried round the whole assembly and then slain. The sacrifice was called suovetaurilia, and he who performed it was said conderc lustrum. The name lustrum is said to have been applied to it, because at that time all the taxes were paid by the farmers general to the censors (from luere to pay,); the term is also used to signify a space of five years, because the ceremony was performed always at the end of that period, The verb lustrare expressed the act of purifying, and as in doing this the victims were carried round, the word naturally obtained another meaning, viz. to go around x tQ survey. The lustrum was always made in the Campus Martins, § 225. The oaths (jusjurandum, juramentum) of the Romans, which were regarded as holy and inviolable, may be divided into public and private. The first were taken by the magistrates before the Tribunal (§ 243. 1.) often also by the whole senate, the generals, the whole army, all the citizens at the census, and every single sol-> dier. To the latter class belonged judicial oaths, and such as per-, tained to marriage. They were usually taken before the altars of the gods, who were thus invoked as witnesses ; not unfrequently sacrifices were at the same time offered. lu. Persons taking an oath in a prescribed form were said conccptis verbis jurare. 2u. What was called devotio consisted in a voluntary surrender of one'a self (devovere) to capital danger or to violent death, in order to rescue his country or the life of a person particularly dear. Sometimes the term was applied, when a conqueror assigned (devovebat) a captured city or army tQ destruction, or when an individual was punished. § 226. The Romans had no oracles themselves ; but in cases of importance, they resorted to those of Greece, particularly to the Delphic. Roman superstition, however, found nearer sources of in-> formation respecting the will and declarations of the gods. Besides i he use of their augurium and extispiscium, they had recourse to the Sibylline Books, or the pretended prophecies of the Sibyl of Cuma3. lu. These Books were received from the Sibyl by Tarquinius Superbus fsee P. II, § 16). They were kept with great care in a ston,e vault under ground in the Capitol, in the custody of the Quindecemviri sacris faciundis (§ 219). Jn important emergencies, in general disasters, when omens were in- auspicious, or circumstances were perplexing, they consulted the Sibylline predictions and endeavored thence to ascertain, how the offended deities could be appeased. 2i*. The burning of the Capitol, B. C. 84, occasioned the destruction of 43** 570 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. these books ; there were attempts to restore some parts of them from fragments and quotations. The pieces now extant under this name, however, are in all probability not genuine, but of later origin. § 227. The use of lots (sortes), in order to ascertain the result of an affair or undertaking, was very common with the Romans. They were small tablets or blocks (tali) of wood or metal, on which cer- tain words or marks were inscribed, which were kept in an apart- ment in the temple of Fortune. The most famous were those in the temple of this goddess at Prseneste, which in early times were very frequently employed. 1m. Those at Antium were also renowned; those at Care and Falerium disappeared, as it was pretended, miraculously. Sometimes lots of this sort were provided and kept for domestic use. Those, who foretold the future by means of lots, were called Surtilegi. — Cf. Cic. de Divinat. ii. 41. — Liv. xxi. 62. xx'u. 1. 2. Besides the use of lots and the practice of augury (§ 209), other arti- fices were employed among the Romans by those, who pretended to foretel the future. Some professed to do it by consulting the stars, and were called Jlstrologi Mathematici, or Genethliaci, and sometimes Chaldeei or Babylonii, as the art was first practiced in Chaldaea. Others professed to interpret dreams, Conjectores ; others to have an internal afflatus or inspiration, Harioli, Va- ticinatores. Insane persons were supposed to foreknow the future ; in which class were the Ceriti, those rendered insane by Ceres ; the Lymphati, rendered so by the water-nymphs ; Lunatici, by the moon ; Funatici, by the spirit of the Fauni, or of Faunus, the first builder of a fane (fanum). In short many of the Grecian arts of divination (§ 75) were practiced among the Romans. 3. Magical arts, although prohibited, seem to have been employed among the Romans; perhaps, however, chiefly by Greeks and other foreigners. Some passages in Horace clearly indicate that magical pretensions were open- ly avowed at Rome. Pliny speaks of magic as a most fraudulent art, that has had sway in all the world. — The Romans generally admitted the notion that certain persons had the power of fascinating others (fascinatio). by dart- ing an evil look upon them ; which the Greeks termed Banxur'iu (cf. § 75. 6). To avert such malignant influences, an amulet of some kind was sometimes worn on the neck, called fascinum (cf. P. III. § 88). See Archaologia (as cited P. I. § 243. 3.) vol. xix. p. 70, on an antique Bas-relief supposed to represent the fascination by the evil eye.— Class. Joumi. vol. xxx.vi. p. 1S5, on the magic of the Greeks and Romans.— Le Blond, sur Magie, in the Mem. de PlnsMut, C'lasse de Lit. et Beaux Arts. l. 81. — Bonamy and Blanchard, La Magie &c. in the Mem. Acad. Liscr.Yii. 23. XII. 49. Cf. Har. Epod. 5. and 17.— Plin. Hist, Nat. xxx. L § 228. The division of the year was made at Rome a care of the priests, and therefore falls under the head of religious affairs. With- out noticing the various changes in this, we may remark that Romu- lus, Numa, and Julius Csesar, were the authors of the principal meth- ods of dividing and computing the year. The month was divided into three parts by the Calends,. Nones and Ides, and in computing the days of the month, the Romans reckoned backwards from these three fixed points (P. V. § 191). \u. The day was reckoned from sunrise to sunset. This space was divided into twelve hours (horcej which of course were of different length at the dif- ferent seasons of the year ; hence the phrase hora hiberna. equivalent to liora brevissima. The night was likewise divided into twelve hours (P. V. § 187), and also into four watches (vigilia). The use of sun-dials (solaria), and of water-glasses (clepsydra), seems to have been introduced at a comparatively late period. 2. The dial is said to have been invented at Lacedsemon in the time of Cyrus the Great. The first one at Rome was set up B. C. about 260.— The clepsydra (xleipvdQa) w as invented at Alexandria, and carried thence to Ath- RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. DIVISION OF TIME. FESTIVALS. 571 ens and afterwards, B. C. about 160, introduced at Rome. " It was formed by a vessel of water, having a minute perforation in the bottom, through which the water issued (stealing out, uZixpig i'Svo) drop by drop, and fell into another vessel, in which a light body floated, having attached to it an index or graduated scale. As the water increased in the receiving vessel, the float- ing body rose, and by its regularly increising height furnished an approxima- tion to a correct indication of time." ( Bigelow's Technology, p. 365j — It was so constructed, that the orifice for letting out the water could be accom- modated to the varying length of the Roman hours. A servant was employed, whose business it was from time to time to examine the water-clock, and re- port the hour to his master. § 229. The Romans had a multitude of festival days, set apart for the service of the gods, and celebrated with sacrifices, banquets, and games. These were called dies fcsti. The days called dies fasti were those on which no assembly of the people or senate was held, but the praetor administered justice. Days, on which he could not do this, were termed nefasti. Days, of which only a part of each could be appropriated to business, were called inter cisi; those wholly resigned to business, profesti. Such as were considered in- auspicious were called dies religiosi ; among these they reckoned es- pecially the first days after the Calends, Nones, and Ides ; which they named postridiani. The festival days were termed also ferice, dies feriati, from the cessation of common business. lu. The Roman festivals were public or private. The public were either of regular occurrence (ferice. stativai), or annually fixed by the magistrates or priests (jus pontijicium). Private and domestic festivals, e. g. for birth-days and marriages, depended of course on the pleasure of the parties interested. 2. Feriee Nundinal were regular days, on which the people from the coun- try assembled to expose their various commodities for sale, market days ; called Nundinal, becau e they occupied every ninth day (Ov. Fast. i. 54). It was the business of the Pontifices to prepare annually a register called Kal- endarium, or Fasti Kalendures, in which the days were marked in each month and distinguished according as they belonged to the different classes above named ; and the various festivals were mentioned as they were to take place through the year. Couture, Les Fastes, in the Mem. Acad. Ivscr. i. 60. — De laNauze, Calendrier Romain, in the same, Mem. &c. vol.26, p. 219. — cf. Port Royal Lat. Gramm. — Ainsworth, Lat. Diet. § 230 £. Of the numerous Roman festivals, we will mention some of thepricipal in order of the months. January, 1st day. The festival of Janus, on the first day of the year, on which, in later times, the Consuls entered upon their office. The presents customary on this day were called strentB ; they were sent from clients to their patrons, from citizens to the magistrates, and from friends to one another. 9th. The Ag-onalia, also in honor of Janus. 11th and 15th. The Carmentalia, to the goddess Car- menta, an Arcadian prophetess, mother of Evander. 25th. The Sementinte, or festival of seed, accompanied with the Ambarvalia, which differed from the festival of the same name in May ; on which they passsd over the fields with the animals to be slain in sacrifice. 30th. The festival of Peace (Pax), first established by Augustus. 31st. The festi- val in honor of the Penates, or household gods. February. 1st. The Lucaria, in memory of the asylum formed by Romulus, or of the refuge (lucus) of the Romans after the sack of; Pan ($ 216). 17th. Quirinalia, to Romulus deified by th3 name Quirinus. 13th. Fera- lia, to the Manes, accompanied with a solemn expiation or purification of the city, called februatio, whence the name of the month it- self. It continued from the 18th to the end of the month, during which time presents were carried to the graves of deceased friends and relatives, and the living held feasts of love and reconciliation. 21st. Terminalia, to Term- inus, the god of boundaries. .March. On the first day, with which in early times the year began, a festival to Mars, on which the procession or war-dance of the Salii was made (§215) ; called also the festival of the shields; it lasted three days. 6th Vestalia, different from that held in June. 17th. Liberalia, to Bacchus, but different from the Bacchanalia. 19th. Quinquatria, to Minerva, named from its duration of five days ,• tile last day called TubUustrium, because the their city bv Brennus — This day was also ded-ltrumpets used in sacred rites were then purifi- icated to Juno Sospita. 13th. Faunalia, in ed. 23d. Hilana, to Cybele, whose sacred honor of Faunus and the Sylvan gods, repeated image wars during it sprinkled and purified j 5th December. 15th. Lupercalia, to Lycsean' called also Lavatio Matris Dcttm. 572 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. men. 15th. To Castor and Pollux. 23d. JVeptunalia. 25th. Furinaiia, to the goddess Furina. August. On the 1st da}' a festival to the goddess of Hope ; and gladiatorial sports and games in honor of Mars. 13th. To Diana. 17th. Pvrtmnanalia, to Portumnus, the god of harbors. 18th. Consualia, to Consus, the god of counsel or rather to Equestrian Nep- tune. The seizure of the Sabine women was commemorated the same day. 21st. Vina- lia (the second), or festival of the vintage to Jupiter and Venus. 23d. Futcanalia, to Vulcan as the god of fire, for security against conflagrations. 25th. Opeconsiva, to Rhea, or Ops, or fruit-bearing Earth. September. On the 1st day, to Jupiter Mai- mactes. 4th. Ludi Magni, or llomani, in the Circus, to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva; they lasted from the 4th day to the 12th. 13th. The ceremony of fixing a nail (clavus fg-endus) in the temple of Jupiter, by a dictator appoint- ed for the purpose, to avert contagious pesti- lence. 25th. To Venus Genctrix. 30th. Mtditrinalia, for tasting new wine before the vintage ; that this festival was sacred to a god- dess of health, named Meditrina, is as doubtful as the existence of the goddess herself. October. 12th. Jtmgvttatui, properly games in honor of Augustus, instituted after the close of his campaigns, particularly the Armenian, B.C. 19 or 20. 13th. Foniinalia, in which the public fountains were crowned with gar- lands. 15th. To Mars, chiefly a horse-race on the Campus Martius, at the end of which a horse was offered in sacrifice. 19th. The Armilustrium, or review-muster, celebrated on- ly by soldiers, and in full armor. November. 13th. A feast dedicated to Ju- piter, Epulum Jovis. 15th. Ludi Plebeii, in the theatre, or the circus ; they were also fre- quently held at other times not defined. December. 5th. Faunalia, kept by the peo- ple of the country, as the same in February was by the inhabitants of the city. 17th. Saturnalia, one of the most famous festivals of Rome, originally limited to a single day, after- wards extended over three, four, and more. It was a festival of leisure and general joy, in 30th. To Hercules and the M uses.! memory of the golden period in Italy under the On the first day the occupants of government of Saturn. During it slaves were April. On the 1st day, Veneralii, the festi- val of Venus, to whom the whole month was dedicated. (Cf. SchoU, Hist. Litt. Rom. vol. in. p. 24). 5th. Megalcsia, to Cybele, whose priests, the Galli (§'217), on tnis made their procession. 12th. Cerealia, to Ceres, attended with games. 15th. Furdicidia, to the goddess Tellus, for the purpose of averting a dearth or scarcity, on occasion of which Nu- ma instituted the festival ; each Curia furnish- ed a pregnant cow (fvrda) to be sacrificed to Tellus. 21st. Paldia, a rural, country festi- val, to Pales, goddess of cattle. 22d. Vin- alia, repeated in August, to consecrate to Ju- piter the growth of the vine in Italy. 23d. RubirraUa~to the god Robicus, that he might protect the grain from blighting (a rubigins). 28th. Floralia, to Flora, orChloris, attend- ed with games (cf. § 236).— 30th. The festival of the Palatine Vesta, instituted by Augustus. May. On the first day the" Festival to the Lares Pratstites, and the ceremonies by night to Bona Dea, performed by the vestals and wo- men alone. 2d. Compitalia, to the Lares in the public ways. 9th. Lsmuria, to the Lemures, or wandering spirits of deceased an- cestors and relatives on the father's side (P. III. $$ 110, 111). 15th. Fcstum Mercatorum, to Mercury, for merchants (P. III. $56). 23d. Vulcanalia, to Vulcan, called also Tubilustria from the purifying of the sacred trumpets. June. On the first day were several festi- vals, to Dea Carna, Juno JUoneta, Mars Ex- tra.nurancus, and Tempestas. 3d. The fes- tival to Bellona. 4th. To Hercules. 9th. Vestalia, to Vesta, in memory of the gift of bread to men. Food was sent to the VestaK- to be offered to the gods; and the asses, which turned the mills, were decked with gar- lands and led in procession. 10th. Matralia, to Matuta, celebrated by Roman matrons ; also a festival, on the same day, to Fortuna Virilis, by women ; and to Concordia. 13th. Quiitqua tria (parva), designed for the improvement and pleasure of those, who had the care of the mu- sic in the worship of the gods. 16th. Puri- fying of the temple of Vesta. 19th. To Summauus, i. e. probably to Pluto. 24th. To Fortuna Fortis, for people of the lower classes. July. hired houses changed their residence. 5th Ludi Api)llinarc.<, with sacrifices. 6th. To Female Fortune, in memory of Coriolanus with- drawing his army from the city (Liv. ii. 40) placed on a footing of equality with their mas- ters. 19th. Opalia, to the goddess of Ops. The Compitalia, to the Lares of the cross- ways, were often held shortly after the Satur- th. To Juno Caprotina, for young wo-jnalia, as well as in other months. § 231. The public games (ludi) among the Romans, as well as among the Greeks from whom the former borrowed them in part, were viewed as festival occasions in honor of the gods. These games were usually at the expense of the state, sometimes at the ex- pense of individuals, particularly the emperors. They were different in their character, as well as in the time and place of their celebra- tion. Many were held annually, or after a period of several years, at a time fixed or variable ; many also arose from particular occa- sions ; hence the variety in distinctive appellations; e. g., ludi stati, imperativi, instaurativi, votivi, quinquennalcs, decennales, seculares, lustrales, &,c. Names were given also in reference to their charac- ter, and the place where they were celebrated ; e. g., ludi circenses, capitolini, scenici, piscaturii, triumphales, funebres. Only the most famous of these games can here be noticed. § 232. The first to be mentioned are the Ludi Circenses, or by RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. FESTIVALS. GAMES. 57$ way of eminence Ludi Magni. They received their name from the Circus Mazimus, which was not merely a large free place, but, taken in its whole, formed a superb edifice ; it was a kind of theatre, com- menced by Tarquinius Priscus, and enlarged and adorned by Julius CaBsar as dictator. 1m. Its breadth was more than a stadium and its length was three and a half stadia (2187 feet). All around it were seats (fori) for spectators, so as to accommodate at least 150.000 persons. In the middle, extending length- wise, was a wall, called spina circi, 4 feet high, 12 broad, and 1 stadium in length. At each end of the wall were three pyramids on a single base, which were the goals (metce), around which the horses and chariots turned. The wall had many other oraments. The whole edifice also was highly ornament- ed ; it was altogether the largest of the kind, although there were in Rome eight other places for races and games, called Circi. At one end were 12 openings or parts separated by walls, called carceres, where the horses and chariots stood waiting for the signal to start. [Not far from the carceres, a whitened rope (alba linea) was drawn across the circus; one half of it mark- ing the commencement, and the other half the end, of the race.] Those who governed the chariots, were divided into certain classes (factiones or gregesj, distinguished by dresses of different colors. The whole circus was dedicated to the god of the sun. 2. Of the other structures of this class the following were the principal: the Circus Flamin- ius ; the Circus Mexandrinus ; the Circus Sallusticus ; the Circus Florialis, or Vaticanus, fin- ished by Nero in a splendid style, and signalized as the scene where numbers of the early Christians suffered martyrdom under that emperor ; the obelisk in the centre of the peristyle of St. Peter was taken from the spina of this circus ; the Circus CaracalLe ; the Circus Domi- tim. Oracius, as cited § 197. 1, vol. ix. ; and Polemis as there cited, vol. v. — Q. L. Bian- coni, Discrizione dei Circhi particolarmente di quello di Caracalla &c. Con note C. Fea. Ronx. 1780. fol. — Burgess, The Circus on the Appian Way. § 233 m. The Ludi Circenses were commonly held but once a year; some- times they were appointed on extraordinary occasions ; in both cases they were maintained at public cost. The solemn procession which preceded them, pompa circensis, moved from the Capitol. The images of the gods were borne in splendid carriages or frames (in thensis et ferculis), or on men's shoulders (in humeris), followed by a great train, on horseback or on foot, with the com- batants, musicians, &c. Sacred rites were then performed, and the games opened. The games or shows (spectacula) in the Circus were of four kinds ; chariot- races, with two or four horses ; contests of agility and strength, such as wrestling (lucta), boxing (pugilatus), throwing the discus (disci jactusj, leap- ing (saltus), and running (cursusj ; representations of sieges and of battles on foot and on horseback, including the Ludus Trojoz (Virg. JEn. v, 545) ; fight- ing of wild beasts (venatio). — To describe these particularly would exceed our limits. Many of the exercises, however, corresponded to those of the Greeks (cf. § 78, 83), The victors were rewarded with crowns and some- times with rich gifts in addition. The victor in the chariot-race received a palm-branch, which he bore in his hand. Fig. B, of Plate XIII., is a victorious Roman charioteer, with the palm in his right hand, and the reigns is his left ; he is closely girded about the chest and body. — — - Brottit-r, Le jeux du Cirque, in the Mem. de VJ$cad. des Iiiscr. vol, xlv. p. 4K7. — Mongez, Sur les animaux prome- nes ou tues dans les Cirques, in the Mem. de Plnstitut, Clause d'Hist. ct hit. Anc. vol. x. p, 360, At the time of the Ludi Magni, other spectacles were also exhibited, not in the Circus ; particularly the jYaumachia, or representations of naval battles. These originally were made in the sea, but afterwards in artificial basins or excavations made for the purpose and filled with water, which were also called JVaumachia. The vessels were usually manned by prisoners, malefactors, glaves, or conquered foes, and many lost their lives or were severely wounded. This spectacle was sometimes exhibited in the Circus Maximus, water being introduced into it for the purpose. § 234. The Ludi Sceculares, or centurial games, were solemnize^ with much ceremony. They were not celebrated exactly after the lapse of a century, but sometimes a little earlier, or a little later; 574 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. usually in the month of April. For this occasion long preparations were always made, the Sibylline books were consulted, and a sort of general purification or expiation of the whole city was previously made. Sacrifices were offered to all the gods, those of the infernal world as well as those of Olympus, and while the men attended ban- quets of the gods in their temples, the women assembled for prayer in the temple of Juno. Thank-offerings were also presented to the Genii. 1m. After the sacrifices, a procession advanced from the Capitol to a large theatre on the banks of the Tiber, where the games were exhibited, in honor of Apollo and Diana. On the second day the Roman matrons were collected to offer sacrifice in the Capitol. On the third, among other solemnities, a song of praise to Apollo and Diana was sung in the temple of Palatine Apol- lo, by a select band of young men and virgins, of Patrician rank. The car- men smculare of Horace was prepared to be thus sung, at the command of Augustus, in whose reign the games were celebrated. 2 m. To the religious solemnities, which were held for the purpose of secur- ing the safety of the whole state, were afterwards added various amusements, which rendered this a festival of universal hilarity. Among the diversions were pantomimes, histrionic plays, and the feats of jugglers (prcestigiatores), persons who seemed to fly in the air (petauristaj, rope-dancers CfunambulV, and the like. On the chronology of the secular games, Class. Journ. xvn. 351. § 235. The gladiatorial shows, Ludi Gladiatorii, were greatly admired in Rome. They were usually called Munera, as they would impart pleasure to the spectators, or bestow respect on those out of regard to whom they were held ; in the latter view they were ap- pointed, e. g. at the funerals, or in commemoration, of the deceased. 1 u. These shows were of Etrurian origin, and probably grew out of the ancient custom of sacrificing prisoners at funeral solemnities in honor of the departed. At Rome they were at first exhibited chiefly at funerals ; after- wards they were given by the iEdiles, Praetors, Quaestors, and Consuls in the amphitheatres, especially on the festivals of the Saturnalia and Quinquatria. The gladiators were supported at public expense. Their residence or place of instruction was called ludus, a name often given to any arena or building, where such exercises were learned or practiced ; their overseer was termed procurator, and their instructor, lanista. In the public spectacles, the combat was often carried to blood and even to death, unless the conquered gladiator begged his life of the crowd of spectators. The number of combatants was originally indeterminate, and until fixed by Caesar. The gladiators bore va- rious names according to their armor and their mode of fighting. 2. The gladiators termed secutores were armed with helmet, shield, and sword. They were usually matched with the retiarii, who were dressed in a short tunic with nothing on the head, bearing in the left hand a three-pointed lance (tridens), and in the right a net (retc) in order to throw it over the head of their adversary. The mirmillones were armed like Gauls, and took the name from the image of a fish on their helmet, and were usually matched with those termed thracts. The essedarii fought from chariots, and the andabatx on horseback. — It is to be observed that the term gladiatores included those who fought with beasts as well as those who fought with men ; although the former were termed distinctively bestiarii. 3. At first gladiators were wholly composed of criminals and slaves ; but afterwards free citizens of noble birth, and even women, fought on the arena. — An advertisement or public notice was put up by the person who intended to exhibit a gladiatorial show (editor), with an account of the combatants and sometimes a delineation or picture annexed. On the day of exhibition the gladiators were led along the arena in procession, and then matched for the contest. When a gladiator lowered his arms, it was a sign of being van- quished; his fate depended on the spectators; if they wished him to be saved, RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. GLADIATORIAL SHOWS. 575 • they pressed down their thumbs ; if to be slain, they turned up their thumbs (pollicem premebant or vertebantj. — Vast numbers of men and of brute ani- mals were destroyed. In the spectacles after the triumph of Trajan over the Dacians. it is said that 10,000 gladiators fought, and 11,000 animals were killed. These shows were prohibited by Constantine, but not fully suppressed until the time of Honorius. In Plate XXIII. are several figures illustrating this subject, which are taken from sculptures on a tomb found at Pompeii. Fig. 1 represents an equestrian combat ; the andabata are clothed in the short cloak (inducula), and armed with the lance, round buckler (parma), helmet with a vizor covering the face, and a sort of mail on the right arm Two gladiators on foot appear in figures 3 and 4. Each has the helmet and the subligaculum, a short apron fixed above the hipsby a girdle. Fig. 3 has armor on the right arm, and holds the scutum, or long shield ; on his right leg is a kind of buskin, and on his left the ocrea or greave ; the rest of the body is naked; he has lowered his shield as being vanquished, and raised his hand to implore mercy of the spectators. Fig. 4 is behind him, waiting for the signal from thein, whether to spare his antagonist or strike the death blow ; he carries a smaller shield, has armor upon his thighs and the high greaves upon his legs. — Fig. 6 presents a group of four gladiators ; two are fol- lowers (secutoresj, and two vet-men (rciiariij. One of the secutorcs is wounded in the leg, thigh, and arm, and, having id vain implored mercy of the spectators, he bends his knee ap- fiarently to receive from the sword of his comrade a more speedy death than would be likely rom the trident of his antagonist retiarius, who pushes him and seems thus to insult his con- quered rival. The other retiarius is waiting to fight in his turn with the secutor who is hasten- ing to end the sufferings of his wounded companion. The letters against two of the figures are the sculptured names of the persons represented, with the number of victories gained by tiiem on the arena. — The small figure with a lance in each hand is from a group on the sam» tomb representing a young bestiarius preparing himself to contend in the arena. — Fig. 5 is also from a sculpture on this tomb, representing a bull frantic with rage, with a lance driven through his breast, and rushing towards the man by whom he is wounded. — See Mazois, as cited P. I. $343. 2.— Pompeii, p. 291, as cited P. I. "§226. 1. — For minute details respecting gladiators, cf. J. Lipsius, Saturnalia, in his Works. Ant. 1637. 6 vols. fol. § 236. The Ludi Floralcs were united with the festival of the goddess Flora, held on the 28th of April (§ 230). They were insti- tuted at Rome, B. C. 24 ; afterwards they were discontinued for a period, but were renewed again in consequence of a sterility of fruit, which was viewed as the punishment for their omission. They last- ed from the day above mentioned to the evening of the 3d of May ; no sacrifices were offered ; those who engaged in the celebration wore garlands of flowers, and indulged in frequent banquetings, and often descended to extreme licentiousness. Parties for hunting and dancing were also formed ; and the cediles curules, who had the care of the plays, distributed vast quantities of peas and beans among the populace in the Circus. § 237 £. There were other games or sports (ludi), which we may just mention here. The Ludi Megalenses, in honor of Cybele, mother of the gods, celebrated with shows, and by mutual presents and entertainments (mutitare) between persons of the higher ranks. — The Ludi Cereales in the Circus, in the mem- ory of the rape of Proserpine, and the consequent sorrow of her mother Ce- res. — The Martialcs, dedicated to Mars Ultor, or the avenger. — The Apolli- nares, in honor of Apollo, and generally scenical. — The Capitolini, to Jupiter, in memory of his preserving the Capitol from the Gauls. — The Plebeii, in commemoration of the expulsion of the kings and the recovery of freedom. — The Consualcs, in honor of Neptune, and in memory of the seizure of the Sabine women. — Among the games occasioned by vows and called ludi vo- tivi, the principal were such as were promised and appointed by generals in war} among which may be ranked those already mentioned (§ 231), the quin- quennales, dccennales, &c. given by the emperors every five, ten, and twenty years. — To the class called extr aor dinar ii, belonged such as were held at fu- nerals, the Funebres, and those appointed by Nero for youth on completing their minority in age, the Juvenales. § 238. For exhibiting many of these games, especially the dra- matic (scenici) and gladiatorial, theatres and amphitheatres were used, — In the first ages, theatres were constructed merely of wood, $76 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. • and were taken down after being used. Afterwards they were built of stone, and sometimes of great size and splendor. Their con- struction was similar to that of Greek theatres ; one side or end had the form of a prolonged semicircle, for the spectators, and the other was rectangular for the stage and actors. The most famous theatre was that built B. C. 59 by the sedile M. Scaurus, at his own expense, partly of marble, and so capacious that 80,000 spectators could sit in it. The theatres of Pompey and Marcellus were also very large and celebrated ; the latter in part still remains. 1. The Roman theatre, like the Greek (cf. P. I. § 235), consisted of three parts, the scena, orchestra, and cavea; but the two latter are sometimes includ- ed under one (the cavea), because in the Roman the chorus and musicians were placed on the stage (or scena) ; and the rows of seats in the orchestra were occupied by the senators, foreign ambassadors, and specially distin- guished personages. The next fourteen rows of the cavea were assigned to the equites, and the rest of the people. Women occupied the portico sur- rounding the whole, by an arrangement of Augustus. — The stage, or portion allotted to the performers, had several parts distinguished by name ; one part was that to which the term scena (which is put sometimes for the stage as a whole) more appropriately belongs, the scene or scenery', the part sometimes concealed by a curtain (aulccum), which was fastened not at the top but at the bottom, and, when it was necessary to hide the scene, was drawn up by a machine for the purpose (called exostra) ; columns, statues, pictures, and va- rious ornaments of the most magnificent character were exhibited, according to the nature of the plays. The postscenium was a place behind the scene, where the actors changed their dresses, and the proscenium was the space in front of the scene. The place usually occupied by the actors when speaking was termed pulpitum (J.oyiior, § 89). A plan of the Roman theatre is given in our Plate VI. fig. 2. The upper half of the circle BHBH is the orchestra ; the circle is presented complete with the four equilateral triangles in- scribed, in order to show the manner of determining the places f r the scena, the postsce- nium, and the cunei; these triangles are inscribed so that their vertices fall severally on the ends of the diameters BB, HH ; then their other angles give the points and limits required ; the diameter (HH) of the orchestra was usually one third (or more) of the whole diameter of the theatre. The length given to the scene or stage was twice the diameter of the orchestra. 2. The principal forms of dramatic entertainment among the Romans have already been mentioned. See P. II. § 308-320. — Masks in great variety were used on the Roman stage as well as on the Grecian (cf. § 89). — Among the musical instruments employed were the flute, and the lyre or harp, and in later times the hydraulic organ, sometimes called cortina. The common ac- companiments of comedy were the flutes termed tibice dextra or by dice, and tibia sinistral or Serrano or J'yriai ; the terms pares and impares are also ap- plied to them. There has Ween some disagreement as to what these terms mean. It is most commonly supposed, that the musician used two flutes at once or a double flute ; that the sinistra had but few holes and sounded a sort of bass, while the dextra had more holes with sharper tones, and when these two were united they were termed impares, and took the other names because one was stopped by the left hand and the other by the right ; when two dex- tra: or two sinistra: were united and played upon by the musician, they were called pares. A painting found at Pompeii represents a flute-player blowing upon the double flute. See our Plate XXI. fig. a, and cf. § 180. 2. — Bbttigcr, Die Erfindung der f lote, in vol. it. of Wie- land's Attisches Museum. On theatres, plavs, masks , enjoying their old rights and customs, and joined to the Romans only by confederacy or alliance. (4.) The Prozincixe were foreign countries of larger extent, which, when conquered, were remodeled as to their govern- ments, at -the pleasure of the Romans. They were compelled to pay such taxes as were demanded, and subjected to the authority of governors annually sent out from Rome. The provinces were termed Praetorian or Proconsular according as Praetors or Proconsuls were governors ; provinces belonging to the emperor were governed by propraetors; those belonging to the senate, by proconsuls (cf. § 250J. These governors were often tyrannical and always oppressive ; and the provincial system became one of the most odious fea- ures in the Roman administration. For illustrations of this provincial tyranny, cf. Cicero's Orations against Wrres. — Middleton''.i Life of Cicero, vol. i. p. 94, as cited P. II. $ 404. l. — Burignij, on Gov. of Horn. Provinces in tike Mem. Acad. I user, xxvn.64. § 361. The judicial proceedings of the Romans included trials of public and private cases, criminal and civil. The former involved ■the general peace and security ; the latter, the claims and rights of individuals. The public or criminal trials (judicia publico) were either ordinary or extraordinary. — The latter were such as belonged not to any regular jurisdiction, or fixed time or place, but had a spe- cial day of trial assigned, or a special assembly of the people ap- pointed for them. Sometimes the people selected certain persons, as a sort of commissioners in cases of this kind ; such were the Duum- viri pcrduellionis or Quasitores. • — The ordinary public trials were also called qucestiones pcrpctuce, and were first established in the year B. C. 149, for the most common state offences. In these the Praetor presided (§ 243), by whom assistant judges (judices asscssores) were chosen annually, originally from the senate, then from the knights, and at last from all conditions. The judges were divided into sever- al decurice, from which the requisite number of them were taken by lot for each trial. Under the emperors the judges were appointed by themselves. lu. In all public trials a certain order of proceeding and a series of establish- 592 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. ed usages were observed. The plaintiff {actor, accusator) commonly spoke against the defendant (reus) ; the witnesses were then heard ; the opinion of the judges was given orally or in writing, and judgment was pronounced. The person acquitted could, when he had ground for it, bring his accuser to trial for slander (calumnia) ; the person condemned, on the other hand, was punished according to the law. 2. Public trials of a capital kind were held before the Comitia Centuri- eta; such as involved only the question of some minor punishment, before the Comitia Tributa. In these cases some magistrate must be the accuser. Having called an assembly, he announced that on a certain day he should ac- cuse the person of a certain crime ; doing this was expressed by the phrase dicere diem ; the person named must procure bondsmen (vades, prazdes) or be kept in custody to the day named ; on that day the magistrate made his accu- sation, which was repeated three times, each after one day intervening ; then a bill (rogatio), including the charge and the punishment proposed, was post- ed up for three market-days ; on the third market-day, the accuser again re- peated the charge, and the criminal or his advocate (adrocatus, pa tr onus) made a defence ; after which the Comitia was summoned, for acertain day, to decide the trial then by suffrages. On the judicial affairs of the Romans, the fullest authority is C. Sigonius de judiciis (in his Opp. vol. in. — Also in 2d vol. of Gravity cited $ 197). — Cf. Beaufort, Republique Romaine. Sd vol.— Dunlop, Rom. Lit. vol. n. p. 141, as cited P. II. § 299.8. §262. In private affairs, the accusation was commonly called pe- titio ; the plaintiff ^efr'for, and the defendant, is uncle petitur. The plaintiff could compel the other party to appear at court, not usually however without calling in some one as witness to the step (antesta- tio). If the defendant chose not to go, he must give security or bail (satisdare). The plaintiff himself stated the matter or object of his complaint (causa) ; if the defendant denied the thing charged, it led to a formal trial (actio). — There were two principal kinds of ac- tions; viz. actiones in personam, which related to the fulfilment of ob- ligations ; and actiones in ran, which related to the recovery of pro- perty in possession of another. The proceeding, in a case of the latter kind, was termed vinclicatio. All private trials belonged to the jurisdiction of the Prcetor. \u. The Prsetor named the judges, who, when the dispute was about the restitution of property, were called rccupcraiores. Often for this purpose a hun- dred or a hundred and five were appointed from the different tribes, called centumriralc judicium. The judges or jury, as well as the litigating parties, were put under oath. Then the action was carried forward orally, and after examination, judgment was pronounced, and provision made for its execution. It may be important to distinguish judges properly so called from arbitra- tors (arbitri causarum), who made awards in cases which were not to be de- cided on the exact principles of law but to be adjusted by accommodation, or by their best discretion ; such cases were termed causa fidei bona; et arbi- traria. 2u. The usual places for trials were, in public cases, the Forum or the Cam- pus Martins, and in private, other free places, or more frequently the Basilica: ("Cf. P. V. '§ 61). § 263. Among the principal penal offences, which demanded pub- lic trials, were the following ; Crimen majestatis, or an offence against the dignity and security of the state and its magistrates ; perdueUionis, Jiio-h treason against the freedom of the people ; pcculatus, embezzling in any way the public property, sacrilege, counterfeiting money, or falsifying records ; ambitus, bribery or corruption of the people to procure votes in an election ; rcpctiindrtrum, extortion, when a Praetor, Q,uaestor, or other provincial magistrate, made unjust exactions, for which compensation was demanded ; vis publico;, public violence, in> CIVIL AFFAIRS. OFFENCES AND PUNISHMENTS. 593 eluding conspiracies, personal assaults, and various similar offences. — There were various more private offences of which cognizance was taken in public trials ; e. g. crimen inter sicarios, assassination ; crimen vcneficii, poison ; parricidii, parricide ; falsi, forgery ; adul- ter ii & plagii, adultery and man-stealing. § 264. The punishments inflicted on those found guilty were vari- ous. The following were the principal ; damnum, mulcta, fines, which at first never exceeded thirty oxen and two sheep, or the value of them, but afterwards were increased;, vincula, imprisonment with bonds, which were cords or chains upon the hands and feet ; verbe- ra, blows inflicted on the free-born with the rods of the Lictors (virgis), upon slaves with whips (flagcllis) ; talio, satisfaction in kind, i. e. the punishment similar to the injury, e. g. an eye for an eye : infamia or ignominia, disgrace or infamy, which generally ren- dered the person incapable of enjoying public offices; exilium, ban- ishment, which was either voluntary or inflicted, and was attended with a deprivation of all honors. When the person was banished to no particular place, he was said to be intcrdictus ; when banished to a certain place, relcgaUis. The form termed deportatio was the most severe, as the persons were then sent into perpetual exile in distant and desolate places or islands. Two other punishments should be noticed ; servitus, slavery, into which offenders of a certain class were sold ; and mors, death, inflicted for heinous crimes. 1. Under the term vinexda were included several varieties ; as catena, chains ; boiai, cords or thongs ; manicce, manicles for the hands ; pedicce, fet- ters for the feet ; ncrvus, iron shackles for the neck ; columbar, a sort of stocks, a wooden frame with holes in which the feet were fastened and sometimes the hands. The confinement of criminals was either in prison, or in private custody under a soldier or officers (cf. Acts, xxviii. 16). The ancient state- prison of Rome, by the name of the Mamertine Prison, is still pointed out to travelers. In our Plate XXIV. fig. A is a cut showing a kind of stocks now used in the East, in which the criminal prostrate on his back is confined by his feet and hands ; it may serve to illustrate the Roman stocks above named. — Fig. B, of the same Plate, is a cut representing one of the stories of the Mamertine Prison. This structure is under a small edifice called the Church of St. Joseph ; it consists of two stories ; the lower one is called Tullianum, after Servius Tullius, who is said to have built it ; this is formed of heavy blocks of stone, arched over without ce- ment, and defying the assaults of time ; here Jmrurtha was stoned to death, and according to tradition Paul and Peter were imprisoned ; the dungeon presents a most appallimr appearance. Cf. Eu.it.acr, Tour &c. cited P. I. § 190. 1. —Fisk, Travels, &c. p. 300, as cited P. I. $ 185. 6. 2. The flagellum was made of leathern thongs or twisted cords fastened to the end of a stick, and sometimes loaded with pieces of iron or lead. The scutica was a simple thong or strap, and the jcrula a mere rod or stick. Cf. Hot. i. iii. 119. 3. The modes of inflicting death were various. Slaves were usually cruci- fied Ccruci affigcrc) ; others it was customary at first to hang (arbor i suspen- derej, afterwards to behead (securi percuterej, or to strangle in prison (stran- gulare), or to throw from the Tarpeian rock (de saxo Tarpeio dejicere), or cast into the sea or a river (projicere in profluentcmj . The latter mode was used in the case of parricide, or the murder of any near relative. The criminal was first whipped, then sewed up in a leather sack (culeus, cf. Dionys. Hal. iv. 62), sometimes along with a serpent, or an ape, or a dog and a cock, and then thrown into the water. — The bodies of executed criminals were not burned or buried, unless, as was sometimes permitted, their friends purchased the privilege of doing it; but were usually exposed before the prison, on cer- tain stairs (scahe) called gemonia or gewonii gradus ; down which they were dragged with a hook and cast into the Tiber. The innocent victims of popu- lar violence or civil war were sometimes thrust down these steps of infamy 50* 594 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. (Tac. Hist. iii. 74). Three other modes of capital punishment were also prac- ticed, especially under the emperors ; ad ludos, in which the criminals were obliged to fight with wild beasts in the amphitheatre (bestiariij, or with each other as gladiators ; ad melalla, in which the offenders were condemned to work in mines ; ad bestias, in which they were thrown to wild beasts to be devoured. These forms were often inflicted on those, who embraced and would not renounce Christianity. There was also another form, still more horrid, which was to wrap the offender in a garment covered with pitch and set it on fire ; thus Nero murdered the Christians, on whom he charged his own crime of burning Rome. § 265. The system of laws was in general very loose and indefi- nite in the early times of Rome. The kings, and likewise the first consuls, decided all cases according to their own judgment, or ac- cording to usage in similar instances. The abuses growing out of this state of things occasioned, according to the common accounts, the sending of three commissioners, B. C. 455, to Athens and Spar- ta in order to collect the laws of Solon and Lycurorus. They returned B. C. 453; and in the year following, ten patricians (§ 248. 3) were appointed to devise and propose a body of laws. 1 u. The laws proposed by the Decemviri were embodied at first in ten, then in twelve tables, and by the people in the Comitia Centuriata were adopt- ed and established as the ground and rule of all judicial decisions (cf. P. II. § 561). — To these were afterwards added many particular laws, which were usually named from their authors, the consuls, dictators, or tribunes who pro- posed them ; e. g. Lex Atinia, Lex Furia, &c. ; also from their contents; e. g. Leges agrarian, frumentariai, &c. 2 u. It was necessary, that every law proposed for enactment should be previously posted up in public for 17 days (per trinundinum), and then be submitted to the decision of the people in the Coinitia Centuriata, that they might adopt it (legem jubere, accipcre), or reject it (legem antiquare). When a previous law was abolished, they were said to abrogate it (legem abrogare). Laws thus adopted were engraved on brass, and lodged in the archives. — Under the emperors, however, their own ordinances had the force of laws, called Constitution.es principales, and including not only their formal edicts (edictaj, but answers to petitions (rescripta), judicial decisions (decrctaj, and commands to officers (mandata). 3. The several early collectiojis of Roman laws and usages have been be- fore mentioned (cf. P. II. § 561). Besides these collections and the constitu- tiones and leges above named, Roman law included also the plebiscita (§ 259), the senatus consulta (§ 257), and the jus honorarium (§243). It is obvious, therefore, that in the lapse of years the system of laws must have become exceedingly cumbrous and perplexing. The emperor Justinian first reduced the Roman law to something like order. Cf. P. II. § 569. § 266 u. One thing especially noticeable in the legislation and regular poli- cy of the Romans was their care to provide sufficient supplies of grain. A general scarcity, as in the year B. C. 440 and at other times, occasioned the appointment of a special officer to attend to the subject, called Prarfectus an- nona, although the iEdiles had previously been charged with this care, and it continued afterwards to be a duty of their office (§ 244). Augustus or- dained, that two men should be annually elected to perform this duty, duum- viri dividundo frumento. The annual contributions in grain, which were ex- acted of the provinces, served likewise to prevent the occurrence of a scarci- ty of bread, and the provincial officers, especially the Quaistors (§ 246), were required to attend carefully to the business. — In this respect, Egypt was the most productive province, and it was on account of its grain, that the annual voyage was made by the Alexandrine fleet, with which the African fleet was afterwards joined. The distribution of grain among the people, at a low rate, was practiced in Rome from the earliest times. § 267. The sources of income to the Roman treasury (cerarium), CrVIL AFFAIRS. REVENUE. COMMERCE AND ARTS. 595 and afterwards to the imperial exchequer (jiscus), were the tributa, taxes imposed on the citizens according to their property, or on the provinces as an annual tribute, and the vectigalia, which included all the other forms of taxes. There were three principal kinds or branches of the vectigalia ; the portorium, duties on exports and im- ports, the person taking lease of which was called manceps portuum ; decumes, tithes or tenth-parts of the produce; and the scriptura, or pasture tax, paid for feeding cattle on the public lands. There were also taxes on mines (especially the silver mines of Spain), and on salt, which yielded considerable revenue. Less important were the taxes on roads, on the value of freed slaves (vicesima, a twentieth), on aqueducts, on artisans, and the like. 1 u. The vectigalia were let by auction (locabantur sub hastaj. Those who hired or farmed them were called publicum, the rent or hire paid being called publicum ; they were usually Roman knights, who of course possessed prop- erty, and on taking the lease advanced a large sum, or gave landed securities (■praides). Leases of the revenues of whole kingdoms and provinces were often taken by several knights associated, who had in Rome a superintendent of the concern (magister societatis publicanoruui), with a subordinate one in each province or region (pro magister J , and a multitude of subalterns to collect the revenue, keep the accounts, &c. The publican* so often mentioned in the New Testament were of the class of subaltern col- lectors above described, who were guilty of great extortion in all the provinces. — Bouchard, Sur les Publicuins &c. in the Mem. Acad. Jnscrip. xxxvn. 241. 2. After the conquest of Macedonia the revenue from the provinces became so great, that the taxes previously assessed on Roman citizens were abolished. They were renewed again % by Augustus, and continued by his successors. Caracalla beston ed the name and privilege of Roman citizens on all free in- habitants of the empire, in order to increase the income from these taxes : this was done without lessening the taxes levied on them as provincial subjects. D. H. Hcg-ewisch, Ilistor. Versuch ubsrdie RSmischen Finanzen. Altona, 1804. 8. — R. Bos.se, Grundzuge des Finanzwesens im Rom. Staate. Braunschweig, 1803. 4. 2 bde. 8. — Cf. Gibbon, Rom. Emp. ch. vi. xvii. — On income from mines of Spain, Rollin, Anc. Hist. vol. i. p. 32, ed. N. Yk. 1835. § 268. Although commerce could not flourish much at Rome in early times, when the spirit of war and conquest engrossed every thing, yet there existed a body of merchants, who were Roman citi- zens. The Roman commerce was also extended, on the expulsion of the kings, by a treaty with the Carthaginians. Yet commercial pursuits were regarded as unbecoming for the higher classes, who nevertheless covertly and through agents not unfrequently engaged in them and indulged in speculations. They did this especially in connection with the slave-trade, which was very lucrative. \u. The merchants at Rome were styled uicrcatores ; those abroad in the provinces, negotiatores. There were also brokers and bankers (argentarii and mensarii), and contractors of various kinds, besides the publicum mentioned in the preceding section, whose contracts may be viewed as a sort of com- mercial transactions. Yet Rome never acquired a high rank among the states of antiquity in point of commerce. Dc Pastorct, Sur le commerce et le luxe des Romaines &c. Mem. de Plnstitut, Classe d'HiM. et Lit. Anc. Vol. iii. p. 285, Vol. v. p. 76. and vii. p. 125. — On commerce &c. among the Ro- mans, Gibbon, Fall of Rom. Emp. ch. ii. — The Hist, of Rom. Emp. (given in Lardncr's Cab. Cy- clopaedia) bk. iii. ch. 9. 2u. Other trades were still less reputable than commerce. The mechanics and artisans were slaves, or foreigners, although they sometimes acquired Roman citizenship. Under Numa there were formed certain corporations of them, or colleges (collegia), which afterwards became more respectable and 596 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. numerous. Of this kind were the collegia fabrorum, tignariorum, dendro- phororum, sagariorum, tabular iorum &c. The overseer of such a body was called prafectus; they had also their decuriones and magistri, whose office was usually for five years. They performed work for the state, or for indi- vidual citizens, who were not able to hold slaves. G. Pancirullus, De corporibus Artificum, in 2d vol. of Grcevius, cited § 197. 3. Several arts were nevertheless much cultivated.— It has been a question of some interest how far the ancients understood the making of gloss. Pliny (Hist. Nat. v. 19. xxxvi. 26.) states that the art originated in accident, on the banks of the river Belus ; and that glass ves- sels were first made in Sidon. It was known however in Egypt, for pieces of bine glass have been found in the tombs at Thebes, arid some of the mummies are decorated with glass. (Cf. Belzoni, cited P. I. $231. 1.) Lachrymatories and paters of glass have been discovered in the catacombs of the Greek island Milo (cf. Jones, vol. i. p. 60. as cited §341. 7). The allu- sions and comparisons of Virgil and Horace (cf. Virg. ^En. vii. 759. Hor. Od. i. xvii. 20. Hat. ii. iii. 222.) indicate an acquaintance with glass fvitrea) in a state of at least considerable per- fection. Colored glass is said to have been used in mosaic decorations (cf. P. I. § 220. 2.) in the time of Augustus. Imitations of gems were formed also by means of glass (cf. P. [. 210). The story related by Tacitus (Ann. v. 42.) of a vase of malleable glass shown to Tiberius, however incredible, shows that glass-making had been introduced at Rome. Numerous ves- sels of glass have been found at Pompeii (cf. §325). The celebrated Portland Vase has lately been pronounced to be glass (cf. P. I. § 173) ; this was found in the tomb of Alexander Severus, in whose reign a special tax was laid, A. D. 220, upon the glass makers of Home, who were then so numerous, it is said, as to require the assignment of a particular quarter of the city for the place of their labors. The art of pottery also was practiced by the Romans. This wa- early known among the Jews (Jerem. xvur. 3, A). The vessels found at Volaterrae and other places (cf. P. I. $ 173. 3.) prove its existence among the Etrurians and the Greeks in Italy. There can be no doubt it was early introduced among the Romans. According to Vi- truvius they made their watur-pipes of potter's clay. They established potteries in England ; vestiges of which, it is said, are *till discernible in some parts of the island, especially in Staf- fordshire, rf their vasamurrhina were porcelain (cf. P. [.$195.4.), the art must have reached a high degree of perfection ; some have attempted to shovv that these vessels were made of a transparent stone dug from the earth in the eastern part of Asia. — The manufacure of bricks (latere,* coctilesj was well understood. Bricks are found in very ancient Roman ruins, which are said to be superior to the modern both in solidity and beauty. — Cf. Lard iter's Cab. Cyclopaedia, vol. .on Porcelain and Glass. — S. Parkes, Chemical Essays &c. Lond. 1830. p. 304. 316. — Notices of Roman earthern vessels are found in TV. Skerry, Description of the discov- eries at Heraclea, translated y oars ; the second was often towed by ropes ; the third depended mostly on sails. These classes were called by various names. Ships of burden had the general name of naves onerarice ; they were commonly much inferior in size to modern trading vessels ; although some ships are mentioned of vast bulk, as that which brought from -Egypt the great obelisk in the time of Cali- gula, said to be about 1138 tons. Ships of war were often termed naves Ion- gat, being longer than others ; also rostrate, arata,from their beaks ; and par- ticularly triremes, quadriremes , fyc. from the number of benches of rowers in them severally. As many as ten banks are mentioned ; Livy (xlv. 35) speaks of a ship with 16 banks ; and Ptolemy Philopator is said to have built one with 40 banks. On the manner in which the benches were arranged in the Roman and Grecian galley we refer to $156. 2. The naves Liburnicce were light, fast-sailing ships, made after the model of the galley used by the Liburni, a people of Dalmatia addicted to piracy. — The phascli, or naves actuarial, were a kind of yacht or small bark, with few oars, also designed for expedition. — The Camarm were of a peculiar construc- tion, with two prows and rudders, one at each end, so that they could at pleas- ure be propelled either way without turning ; they could be covered with boards like the vaulted roof of a house. (Tac. Mor. Germ. 44.) Fig. 1, of Plate XVIII., is a specimen of the pkaselus. — Fig. 3 is the Liburnian galley. — Fig. 2 is the stern of a Roman vessel, from a painting at Pompeii ; it shows the two rudders, attached on each side, by bands, as on a pivot, so that the lower and larger ends could be raised out of water by lashing the upper ends down to the deck. Cf. Acts, xxvii. 40. See HolweXl S[ De Le Roy, as cited § 156. 2. It was recently announced that the port of Pompeii had been discovered, presenting its vessels thrown upon their sides, and covered and preserved by the volcanic matter. (Downfall of Babylon, Sept. 22, 1835, citing Lond. Lit. Oaz.J § 305. The great public reward of a Roman commander, who had gained an important victory by sea or by land, was the triumph, a pompous show, which was practiced even in the time of the kings. This honor, however, could be acquired only by those who were or had been Consuls, Dictators, or Praetors ; it was not awarded to Pro- consuls. Yet in later times there were some exceptions to this. He who claimed the honor of a triumph must have been also, not merely commander, but chief commander of the army, and the victo- ry must have been gained in the province assigned to the Consul or Praetor. The importance of the campaign and the victory, and its advantage to the state also came into consideration, and the general must have brought back his army to share with him in the glory of the triumph and accompany him in procession. If the victory con- sisted only in the recovery of a lost province, it was not honored with a triumph. § 306. The first solemnity which took place at Rome after a vic- tory, was a thanksgiving or supplicatio (§ 220). Then the general must apply to the senate in order to obtain a triumph. Permission, however, was often given by the people contrary to the will of the senate. A law or vote was always passed by the people permitting the general to retain his command (imperium) in the city, on the day of his triumph, because in other circumstances he was required to lay down his command before entering the city. The abuse of the honors of a triumph occasioned the enactment, B. C. 63, of the law called lex triumphalis Porcia, which prohibited a triumph, unless at least 5000 of the enemy had fallen in battle. § 307. A general enjoying this honor was not to enter the city un- til the day of his triumph, and his previous request to the senate must be made out of the city in the temple of Bellona. The ex- penses were usually defrayed from the public treasury, except in 52* 618 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. cases where a conqueror held a triumphal procession without public authority, as was sometimes clone on the Alban mountain. The ex- penses were commonly very great. Before a triumph, the general usually distributed presents to his soldiers and to others. — The Sen- ate went to meet the triumphing general as far as the gate by which he entered the city. 1 u. The order of the triumphal procession was as follows. First in the line, ordinarily, were the lictors and magistrates in a body. They were fol- lowed by the trumpeters and musicians of various kinds, the animals to bo offered in sacrifice, the spoils and booty taken from the enemy, the weapons and chariots of the conquered, pictures and emblems of the country reduced, the captive princes or generals, and other prisoners. Then came the con- queror himself, seated in a high chariot, drawn by four white horses, robed in purple, and wearing a wreath of laurel. He was followed by his numerous train, consisting partly of his relatives, but chiefly of his army drawn out in regular order. — The procession marched amid constant acclamations, through the whole city to the Capitol, where the victims were sacrificed, and a portion of the spoils of the victory were consecrated to the gods. Afterwards were feasting, merriment, spectacles, and games. Often the scenes of the triumph lasted several days. The pomp, expense, and luxury atttending them became constantly greater and greater, and the whole custom, on account of its fre- quent occurrence, and the great abuse of it by some of the emperors, was re- duced at last to a common and contemptible affair. — The first triumph for a victory at sea (triumphus navalis) was obtained by the Consul C. Duillius, after his memorable defeat of the Carthaginians, B. C. 261. 2. Respecting the pillar and inscription in honor of Duillius, see P. I. § 133. — For a fuller view of a triumphal display, read Plutarch's description of the triumph of Paulus /Emilius, after the capture of Perseus king of Macedonia. — See also the account of Aurelian's triumph in his Life by Vopiscus (cf. Gibbon, ch. xi). The last triumph recorded is that of Belisarius, at Constantinople, related by Procopius (cf. P. II. §257. — Gibbon, ch. xli.) § 308. There was an honor lower than that of a triumph, fre- quently bestowed on victorious generals, the opatio. This did not differ very much in form from the triumph ; the essential peculiarities were that the general entered the city not in a chariot, but on foot or on horseback, robed not in the trabea, but the prcctexta only, and at the Capitol did not offer bullocks in sacrifice, but a sheep (ovis). From the last circumstance, the name of the whole scene was prob- ably taken. The triumph on the Alban mount already alluded to (§ 307) was less pompous. It was held only by those to whom the senate had refused a triumph in the city, and to whom an ovation only had been awarded. The ceremonies were similar to those of a triumph in the city. The procession, it is supposed, marched to the temple of Jupiter Latiaris, situated on the mount. § 309. The Roman military system underwent various changes under the emperors. 1 u. By Augustus a standing army was established ; he also created an offi- cer called Prcefectus pratorio, who was placed over the troops constituting the imperial body-guard and the praetorian cohorts distributed in Italy. The Ro- man military service suffered by the new establishment. It soon became merely a system to support the authority of the emperors, not to promote the welfare of the country ; and to forward this end, many disorders and abuses on the part of the soldiers were overlooked. From the some cause, likewise, an unhappy line of distinction was drawn between the military and the other classes of citizens. The praetorian soldiers were, under the first emperors, divided equally into ten cohorts, containing 1000 men each. Under the later emperors they were entirely abolished, and 3500 Armenians enrolled in their stead ; these were divided into nine sckalcc r and commanded by the officer styled Magistcr ojfici- MILITARY AFFAIRS. SYSTEM UNDER THE EMPERORS. 61£ The legions, not including the auxiliaries, were under Augustus twenty-five, distributed among the provinces. Besides these he had the ten -praetorian co- horts just named, six city cohorts of one thousand each, and seven cohorts styled cohortes vigilum, which together amounted to 20,000 men. In after times, the number of troops was greatly increased, as well as the naval force. On the division of the empire, the western comprised sixty-two legions, and the eastern seventy. At the commencement of civil wars related by Tacitus in his History, there were thirty le- gions, distributed as follows; three in Britannia ; three in Hispania ; eight in Gallia, three of them being in the portion called upper Germany, and four in Lower Germany (cf. P. V. § 11) ; two in Pannonia : two in Dalmatia belonging to Illyricum ; two in Moesia ; four in Syria, with three more in Judea under Vespasian ; two in Egypt ; and one in Africa (cf. P. V. § 173). 2. The epithet praetorian, in the republic, was applied to the cohort which guarded the pavilion of the general. After the time of Augustus the praefect of the praetorian bands was usually a mere instrument of the emperor, and the office was conferred only on such as the emperors could implicitly trust. The appointment was made or the commission conferred by the emperor's de- livering a sword to the person selected. Sometimes there were two preetorian praefects. Their power was at first only military and small ; but it became very great, and finally trials were brought before them, and there was no ap- peal but by a supplication to the emperor. Marcus Aurelius committed this judicial honor to them, and increased their number to three. — The praetorian cohorts had a fortified camp at the city, without the wall, between the gates Viminalis and Esquilina. Under Vitellius 16 prastorian cohorts were raised, and four to guard the city. Severus new modeled the body and increased them to four times the ancient number. Constantine the Great finally sup- pressed them and destroyed their camp. (Boyd's Adam, p. 123, 485). 3. Important changes in the military system were made by Constantine. He appointed two general commanders for the wholy army, called Magistri mili- tia ; one of whom had command of all the cavalry, Magister equitum ; the other, of the whole infantry, Magister peditum. Constantine did not abolish the title of Prafectus prwtorio, when he suppressed the pratoriafn cohorts, as above mentioned ; but he changed the nature of the office, making it wholly a civil one, and dividing the care of the whole empire between four officers of this title; Prafectus prcctorio Orientis ; Prccf. prait. per Illyricum ; Prof, -prat, per Italian ; Prcef. prat. OaHiarum. The city of Rome also retained her special overseer, Prafectus urbis Roma ) and a similar officer, with greater authority, was appointed over Constantinople, which now became the seat of the empire, Prafectus urbis C'lnstantinnpolis. Under the four prefects were subordinate officers, whose authority was limited to particular dioceses, of which there were 13 ; one of them gov- erned by the officer styled Count of the diocese of the East ( Comes diaceseos Orientis); another consisting of Egypt, by an officer styled Prafectus JEgypti ; and the other 11 by officers, styled Vicarii or vice-prefects. The dioceses were subdivided into a great number of provinces, whose governors were of four different grades, termed proconsulcs, consulares, correctores, and pro- sides. 4. The empire was divided into eastern and western between the two sons of Constantine. In the western, the military jurisdiction continued to be vested in two commanders styled Magister equitum and Magister peditum. In the eastern, it was vested in officers styled Magistri militum, and the number of them was five in the time of Theodosius the Great, who shortly before his death, A. D. 395, united the empire in one ; it was divided again after his death and so continued until the final overthrow of the western, A. D. 476. The five Masters-general of the military each had command of several squad- rons (vexillationcs) of horse and several legions of soldiers (palatines comita- tenscs) and several corps of auxiliaries (auxilia) ; two of them had also under their command a naval force, consisting of 12 distinct armaments or fleets, 6 being assigned to each. There was likewise included under this military es- tablishment, in addition to the forces already mentioned, a large body of troops designed particularly to defend the frontiers, called sometimes borderers, and commanded by comites and duces, who seem to have been responsible to the officer, termed Qaaistor sacri palatii. — The Masters-general of the West had under their command forces of a similar description, including also troops de- signated specially for the defence of the frontier. There was a Magister mili- tum in Gaul, but subordinate to the two Masters-general. For a general view of the civil and military arrangements of the empire under Constantine and later emperors, see Gibbon, cb. xvii.— For more minute details, Tableau Systiwatique da Empires d> Orient ct d' Occident See. in 3d vol. of Scholl's Hist. Litt. llomaine. Cf. P. II. $ 571. 620 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. (4) Affairs of Private Life. § 310. In order to form a correct idea of the more private civil and social relations of the ancient Romans, it is important to notice the essential distinction, which existed between the freemen and the slaves. There were two classes of freemen, the free-born (ingenui), whose fathers were Roman citizens, and the free made (liberti) or freed men who had been enfranchised from servitude, and who did not always enjoy the rights of Roman citizens. The children of ther latter class were termed libertini and their grand-children ingenui, in early times ; at a later period the freed men were call liberti only with reference to their former master, receiving when spoken of otherwise the name libertini themselves, while their sons, if born after the fa- ther's manumission, were called ingenui. — The slaves were such by birth, verncB ; or by captivity in war ; or by purchase, mancipia. Of their different services, their treatment, and the ceremonies of their manumission we will speak below ( § 322 ). On the subjects belonging to the branch of Roman Antiquities upon which we now enter, we may refer to rf' Arnay de la vie privee des Romains. Lausanne 1760. 12. (Consisting chiefly of treatises in the Memoires de V Academic des Inscriptions.) Trans. Germ. Leipz. 1761.8. — Couture, La vie privee des Romains, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. i. 303. Montfaucon, Usages du siecle de Theodore le Grand, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xm. p. 474. — Sketches of the Domestic Manners of the Romans. Reprinted, Phil. 1822. 12. Cf. JV. Am. Rev. xvi. 163. §311. The Romans commonly had three names; the first was called the prcenomen and had reference simply to the individual who bore it; the second was called the nomen, and was the name of the race or clan (gens) ; the third was the cognomen, which designated the family (familia) : thus in Publius Cornelius Scipio; Scipio is the cognomen indicating the family name, Cornelius the nomen pointing out the clan or gens, to which the family belonged, and Publius the prcenomen marking the particular man. The distinction between gens and familia was, that the former was more general denoting a whole tribe or race, the latter more limited confined to a single branch of it. — The daughter commonly received the name of the tribe or race, e. g. Cornelia, and retained it, after her marriage. Sisters were dis- tinguished by adding to this name the epithets major and minor, or prima, secunda, tertia, &c. 1. Sometimes the Romans had a fourth name, which has been styled the agnomen ; this however was only an addition to the cognomen, and may be pro- perly included under it. — The order of the names was not invariably the same, although they usually stood as above stated. Under the emperors the proper name of the individual was frequently put last. 2 m. Even from the first establishment of the city, some among its heterogen- eous inhabitants were of noble descent, and the number of noble families was increased by the adoption of plebeians among the patricians. The following were some of the most distinguished races ; Fabia (gens), Junta, Antonia, Julia, JEmilia, Pompeia, Tullia, Horatia, Octavia, Valeria, Posthumia, Sulpicia, Claudia, Papiria, Cornelia, Manlia, Sempronia, Hortensia. It has been observed (P. II. $ 483), that the names of families were often derived from the em- ployment of an ancestor. Names were also applied to individuals by way of ridicule ; that which was at first a mere nickname, or sobriquet, became permanently attached to a person. — See Mahudel, De l'Autorite que les Sobriquets ou Surnoms burlesques peuvent avoir dans l'histoire, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xiv. p. 181. — On the Roman names, and illustrious families, see SchbU's Hist. Litt. Rom. vol. iv, p. 367, and references there given. — Gibbon, Dec. and Fall of R. Emp. ch. xxxi. — Boindin, Les noms dea Romains, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. 1.154. — Port Jioyal Latin Gram. bk. viu.ch. 1. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. FAMILIES. MARRIAGES. 621 § 312. The increase of these races was much promoted by mar- riages, in regard to which the Romans aimed to preserve a complete separation between plebeians and patricians, until B. C. 445. Mar- riage was held to be a duty of every Roman, and those who neglect- ed it were obliged to pay a fine or tax. Citizens were forbidden to marry strangers, except by permission specially granted. Certain de- grees of consanguinity were considered as interdicting marriage. Marriage took place at an early age among the Romans, the male being sometimes but fourteen and the female only in the twelfth year. 1m. The jus Quiritium conferred only on Roman citizens the right of marry- ing a free-born woman. To freed men this was prohibited, until the enact- ment of the Poppaean law (A. D. 9) ; by this law the free-born, excepting senators and their sons, were allowed to marry the daughters of freed men. The Lex Papia Pojrpcca was an enlarging and enforcement of the Lex Julia ' de maritandis or- dinikiis; ' by it whoever in the city had three children, in other parts of Italy four, and in the provinces five, was entitled to certain privileges ; while certain disabilities were imposed on those who lived in celibacy. This subject is alluded to by Horace, Carm. Saec. vs. 20. 2u. Between slaves there was no proper marriage (connubium), but only what was called contubcrnium. See Gierig; Excursus de Contuberniis Romanorum, in Lemaire'sYYmy, as cited P. II. $ 470, 4. vol. 2d. p. 231. iyrer, Diss, de jure connubiorum apud Romanos. Gbtt. 1737. § 313. The marriage was always preceded by a solemn affiance or betrothment, in which the father of the bride gave his assent (sti- •pulatio) to the request (sponsio) of the bridegroom. This compact and the ceremonies attending it were called sponsalia ; it often took place many years before the marriage, even in the childhood of the parties betrothed. The bridegroom was not always present at the betrothing, which was sometimes effected by means of letters, or by an empowered substitute. In early times the father's consent was necessary only for the daughter, but afterwards also for the son. The mutual consent of the parties was the most essential. Friends and relations were usually present as witnesses; the marriage contract was written and sealed (legitimes tabellm) ; the bride received from her betrothed a ring as a pledge of his fidelity ; and the whole cere- mony was concluded with a feast. § 314. In fixing the day of marriage care was taken to select one of those esteemed lucky or fortunate. The transference of the bride from her father's power to the hands of the husband was called con- ventio in manum, and was accompanied by a religious ceremony, and a sort of consecration by a priest (confarreatio.) Marriages contract- ed in this form were the most solemn and could not be dissolved so easily as in other cases. Two other forms or modes are mentioned ; one was by prescription (usus), the bride being taken home and liv- ing with the bridegroom for a year (usucapio) ; the other by a pur- chase (coemptio), in which each party gave to the other a portion of money, repeating certain words. § 315 m. On the day of marriage, the bride was adorned with a sort of veil or peculiar ornament of the head (luteum flammeum), and a robe prepared for the occasion, which was bound with the marriage girdle (cingiilum laneum). The sacrifice ordered on the marriage day was a sheep of two years age, pre- sented especially to Juno as the goddess of marriage. The conducting of the bride to the residence of the husband, which took place in the evening, was attended likewise with ceremonies. She was taken,. 622 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. as it were forcibly, from the arras of her mother, or if the mother was not living, of the next near relative. She went with a distaff (colus) in her hand, and was careful to step over or was lifted over the threshold of both houses, as it was ominous to touch it with the feet. She was supported by two youth. one on each side ; a third preceded her with a lighted torch or flambeau, and sometimes a fourth followed carrying in a covered vase Ccumerum) the bride's utensils (nubentis utensilia) and also various toys (crepundia). She bound the door posts of her new residence with white woollen fillets and anointed them with the fat of wolves (hence uxor, quasi unxor). She then stepped upon a sheepskin spread before the entrance, and called aloud for the bridegroom, who immediately came and offered her the key of the house, which she delivered over to the chief servant. Both now touched fire and water, as a symbol of pu- rity and nuptial fidelity. The house was already adorned with garlands of flowers, the work of the preceding day. After their arrival the marriage banquet (coena nujjtialis) was held, which was accompanied with music and song. The husband after supper scattered nuts among the youth and boys present. Finally the pair were conducted to the bed chamber, by the door of which the nuptial hymns (epithalamia) were sung by young men and maids. The next day the bride presented a thank offering to the gods, and the husband gave an evening entertainment (reputia), and distributed presents to the guests on their departure. § 316. Divorces (divortia) were, especially in latter times, quite common. When the espousals and the marriage had been solemnized in full formality especially with the confarreatio just described, par- ticular solemnities were requisite for a divorce, and these were called diffarreatio. In case of a less formal marriage contract, the di- vorce was called rcmancipatio or usurpatio. On account of the fre- quent abuses of divorce, it was restrained by law ; and properly the men only enjoyed the right. The formula, with which one dismissed his wife, was tuas res tibi habcto. Sometimes the separation took place before marriage, after the espousals, and then it was called re- pudium; the customary formula was as follows ; condition c tua non utor. If a woman was divorced without having been guilty of adul- tery, her portion or dowry was returned with her. The condition of females in Rome was similar to their condition in Greece (cf. § 181, 182). — On the regard to the sex as illustrated by the writings of Tibulltis, Ovid, Seneca &c. cf. Ram- dohr, Venus Urania. Lips. 1798. 8. The social elevation offemales is very justly ascribed, in a great degree, to Christianity. Buckminster's Sermons. Cf. Cashing, Social Influence of Chris- tianity, in Bibl. Repos. Sec. Series, vol. i. p. 195. § 317. Among the Roman customs connected with the birth of children, that was the most remarkable, which left it to the arbitrary will of the father, whether to preserve his new-born child, or leave it to perish. In reference to his decision of this point, the midwife al- ways placed it on the ground ; if the father chose to preserve it, he raised it from the ground, and was said tollere infant em ; this was an intimation of his purpose to educate and acknowledge it as his own. If the father did not choose to do this, he left the child on the ground, and thus expressed his wish to expose it (exponere) ; this ex- posing was an unnatural custom borrowed from the Greeks, by which children were left in the streets, particularly at the columna lactaria, and abandoned to their fate. Generally the power of the father was very great, but the mother had no share therein. This power ex- tended not only over the life of his children, but the father could three times sell his son and three times reclaim him, and appropriate all his gains as his own. Under the emperors, this power lost much of its rigor, by the regulation allowing the children to hold the in- heritance left by their mothers. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. DIVORCES. TREATMENT OF CHILDREN. 623 § 318w. The freeing of a son from the power of a father was eifected by what was called emancipation, or a fictitious thrice repeated selling of the son ', the freedom consequent upon this was termed manumissio legitima per vin~ dictum. The father and the son appeared together with the pretended pur- chaser, a friend of the first, and with a body of witnesses, before the tribunal of the praetor, and here the imaginary thrice repeated sale and thrice repeated manumission was completed with certain established usages, sometimes by only a double sale with a delay of the third. On the third sale, the purchaser was called pater jiduciariits ; in the first two, dominns. — The power of the father over his son was otherwise rarely terminated except by the death or banishment of the father ; it belonged to the peculiar rights of a Roman citizen (§ 260). By emancipation the son became his own master, and possessor of his own property, of which however he must give the father half as an ac- knowledgement for his freedom. § 319. Another custom among the Romans in respect to children was that of adoption (adoptio). In this, the actual father of a child renounced his own rights and claims, and committed them to another who received the child as his own. 1 u. The ceremony was performed before a magistrate, usually the praetor. The formalities were in part the same as in emancipation, which was always presupposed in adoption, and previously executed. Only in such a case, the son was sold to the adopting father but twice, and did not revert the third time to the real father. There was also sometimes a kind of adoption by will or testament {adoptio per testamentum) , in order to preserve a family from ex- tinction. In such case the person adopted received a considerable part of the estate left by the person adopting him, and bore his name after his death. 2 m. That, which was called arrogatio, differed from adoption only in the formalities connected. The former was not transacted, as was the latter, be- fore the praetor, but before the assembled people, in the Comitia Curiata, and by the aid of the High priest; neither was it limited to individuals, but often included a whole family. Upon the consent of the people to the arrangement, the person or persons adopted into a family took a solemn oath, that they Would remain faithful to the religion and worship of the family ; this was call- ed detestatio sacrorum. § 320 m. By what was called legitimation, a natural (naturalis) or spurious (spurius) child was declared to be legitimate (legitimus), and instated in all the rights of such. This affected, however, the relation of the child only to the father, not to other relatives, or to the whole family of the father. Such a child shared in the inheritance an equal portion with the lawful children. But this custom was not known to the early Romans ; it came first into prac- tice in the fifth century under Theodosius the second, and then scarcely at all in Rome itself, but in the municipial towns, where it was introduced to supply the want of the decuriones or members of the senate (§ 260. 3). For, as this office could be received only by sons of decuriones, and was also very burden- some, the fathers were allowed to transmit it to their natural sons, by them legitimated. § 321. Respecting the education of the Roman youth we have al- ready spoken, in treating of the Archaeology of Roman Literature (P. I. §§ 123 — 125). Here we only remark, that for a long time there were no public schools, but the youth received the necessary instruction from private or family teachers (pcedagogi). There were however those, who in their houses gave instruction to a number of youth together. The corporeal exercises, especially in the early times, were viewed by the Romans as a more essential object in edu- cation than the study of literature and science. They did not neg- lect however an early cultivation of the manners, and of noble feel- ings, especially patriotism, love of liberty, and heroic courage. § 322 £. The household of a Roman was collectively termed fami* 624 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. lia, but by this word was especially meant the body of slaves, of which there was often a large number. Persons in opulent circumstances had them sometimes to the amount of several thousands. The Ro- man women of rank usually had a numerous body of servants of both sexes. — The slaves of a family were divided into different classes or decuricB, according to their employments, and a particular registry of them was kept, which was, in some instances, read over every morn- ing. Their condition was very hard, and they were treated as mere chattels, rather than persons. " Slaves in Rome occupied every conceivable station, from the delegate superintending the rich man's villa, to the meanest office of menial labor or obsequious vice ; from the foster mother of the rich man's child, to the lowest ■degradation, to which woman can be reduced. The public slaves handled the oar in the galleys, or labored on the public works. Some were lictors ; some were jailors. Executioners were slaves ; slaves were watchmen, watermen and scavengers. Slaves regulated the rich palace in the city ; and slaves per- formed all the drudgery of the farm. Nor was it unusual to teach slaves the arts. Virgil made one of his a poet, and Horace himself was the son of an emancipated slave. — The merry Andrew was a slave. The physician, the surgeon, were often slaves. So too the preceptor and pedagogue ; the reader and the stage player ; the clerk and the amanuensis ; the architect and the smith ; the weaver and the shoe-maker ; the undertaker and the bearer of the bier ; the pantomime and the singer : the rope dancer and the wrestler, all were bondmen. The armiger or squire was a slave. You cannot name an occupation connected with agriculture, manufacturing industry, or public amusements, but it was a patrimony of slaves. Slaves engaged in commerce ; slaves were wholesale merchants ; slaves were retailers ; slaves shaved notes ; and the managers of banks were slaves." The following is a specification of some of the principal servants, such as are most frequent- ly mentioned : — 1. Of those employed in the house. The servus admissionalis received the per- sons who visited the master of the house, announced their names and conducted them in ; the scrvi cubicularii were a sort of valet or chamber servants, often enjoying the particular confi- dence of the master ; the t07isores and cinerarii were such as paid attention to the beard and hair of the masters ; the amanuenses and librarii were secretaries and copyists ; the anagnosUs were readers ; the vestiarii attended to the wardrobe ; the balncatores waited upon the master "at the bath ; the medici performed the duties of surgeons and physicians ; the nutritii and pmda- gogi took care of the children. — A multitude of servants were employed in waiting upon table at meals, and were designated from their several functions. Among these were, e. g. the scr' ««^ lectisterniator, couch spreader ; structor, arranger of dishes ; carptor or scissor, carver ; di- ribitor, distributer ; prmgustator, taster ; pocillator, cup-bearer ; detcrsor, table-wiper, &x. — ■ There were others performing another kind of house service ; e. g. the servus ostiarius, door- keeper ; atriensis, hall slave; dispensator or arcartus, keeper of the stores ; cellarius, pantry keeper ; pulmentarius, pottage-maker ; dulciarius, confectioner ; tadigcr, torch-bearer ; miliaria, cradle-rocker ; cosmcta, perfumer ; flabellifer, fan-carrier, &c 2. Others were employed out of doors ; the servus insularis, who had*the oversight over his master's buildings ; the servus a pcdibus, who went with errands ; the lecticarii, who carried the sedan or litter, &c. — A large number of slaves were kept at the manors or county seats, to see to the husbandry and fruits ; among these were the villici, stewards or superintendents ; aratores, ploughmen ; runcatores, Weed-pullers ; occatores, clod-breakers ; fwnisectorcs, hay-cutters ; vindemiatores, vintagers ; ju~ garii, ox-drivers ; opiliones, sheep-tenders ; piscatores, fish-catchers ; muliones, mule-drivers ; gallinarii, hen-keepers, &c. For a full list, see Blair's State of Slavery among the Romans. Edinb. 1833. 8. Cf. Am. Quart. Rev. vol. xv. 71. — On the employment of slaves, cf. Monger, sur les travaux publ. des Romain3, in the Mem. dc P Institut, Classe de Lit. ct Beaux Arts, i. 492. § 323. The slave trade formed among the Romans, as with most of the ancient nations, an important part of business. Slave mer- chants (venalitiarii) were always found attached to the Roman ar- mies, and importers of slaves (mangones) often came to Rome from Greece and Asia. There were various laws regulating this traffic ; which, however, were often left unexecuted, or were evaded by the arts of those engaged in it. For exposing to view slaves offered for sale, scaffolds (catastce) were erected in the market, and commonly small tablets were suspended from the necks of the slaves, stating their country, age, character, &c> The price varied very much ; it DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. SLAVES. HOUSES. 625 was sometimes above a thousand denarii. Of still greater value were such as possessed intellectual cultivation, and could be employed as leachers, readers, accountants, musicians and the like. § 324m. The liberating of slaves took place in several ways. The most ancient mode seems to have been by will, manumissio per testamentum, on the decease of the master. There were two other modes ; censu, and pervin- dictam ; the former was when the slave, with the master's consent, was en- rolled in the taxation-list as a freedman ; the latter was a formal and public •enfranchisement before the praetor. In the last case, the master appeared with his slave, before the tribunal, and commenced the ceremony by striking him with a rod (mndicia) ; thus treating him as still his slave. Then a pro- tector or defender (assertor libertatis) steps forward and requests the libera- tion of the slave, by saying hunc hominem liberum esse aio, jure Quiritium; upon which the master, who has hitherto kept hold of the slave, lets him go (e manu emittebat), and gives up his right over him, with the words, hunc hominem liberum esse volo. A declaration hy the praetor, that the slave should be free, formed the conclusion. To confirm this manumission, the freed slave sometimes went to Terracina and received in the temple of Feronia (P. 111. §91) a cap or hat (pileus) as a badge of liberty. The slave to be freed must not be under twenty years of age, nor the person setting him free under thirty. On the subject of Roman Slavery, see an able and interesting arrticle in the Biblical Reposi- tory and Qwarf. Obscrter, No. xx. Oct. 1835.— Burigny, Roman slaves and freedmen, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xxxv. p. 328, and xxxvn. p. 313.— Blair, cited § 322. § 325. The dwellings of the Romans were at first mere huts (casm) and during the first three centuries, even to the capture and plunder of the city by the Gauls, the houses were insignificant (P. I. § 241). On its being rebuilt, they were larger and more respectable. As luxury increased especially after the second Punic war, so the private dwellings (domus) became more and more costly and splendid, both within and without; although this was not universally the case. In the time of Augustus, there was great magnificence and extravagance in the building and ornamenting of houses. 1m. Among the principal ornaments of the larger houses and palaces were the following; the covering of the outer and inner walls with marble; the use of phengites ((peyylrijf) or transparent marble, in the place of the lapis specularis, which was commonly employed for windows ; mosaic work on the floors (pavimentd tesselata) ; and various decorations in ivory, marble, costly wood and precious stones, attached to the walls, ceiling and door posts. 2. The j)hencrites, according to Pliny (Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 22. 46), was discovered in Cappadocia in the time of Nero, and took this name from its translucency. — The lapis specularis waa found in Spain, Cyprus, Cappadocia, Sicily, and Africa ; it could be split into thin leaves, like slate, not above five feet long each. Windows (specularia) were formed of this substance, yet chiefly, it is supposed, in the better sort of houses. Boyd remarks, quoting the French translation of Adam, " it appears that this stone is nothing else than the talc of Muscovy." Launay (cited P. I. § 195. 2.) after comparing various allusions to it in Pliny and others, expres- ses in the following words his conclusion ; u que le lapis specularis des Anciens etoit notre gypse feuillete appelle Selcnite " (vol. i. 314). 3. Horn is said to have been used by the Romans for the windows fcorneum specular e) ; also paper and linen cloth ; originally they were mere openings (fenestra). It has not been generally supposed, that glass (cf. § 268. 3.) was manufactured at Rome before the time of Tiberius, nor thaL it was used for windows, until a much later period ; the first distinct mention of glass win- dows Cvitrea specularia), is said to be by Jerome in the middle of the 4th cen- tury (a) ; although mirrors (specula) of glass were much earlier. But glass windows are said to have been discovered (b) in the buildings at Pompeii. (a) Bcckmami's History of Inventions. — (b) " In the vaulted roof (of a room of the thcrmcB or baths) is a window, two feet eight inches high and three feet eight inches broad, closed by a single large pane of glass, two fifths of an inch thick, fixed into the wall, and ground on one side to prevent persons on the roof from looking into the bath : of this glass many frag- ments were found in the ruins. This is an evident proof, that glass windows were in use among the ancients. The leartied seem to have been generally mistaken on the subject of glass making among the ancients. The vast collection of bottles, vases, glasses and other utensils 53 626 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. discovered at Pompeii, is sufficient to show that the ancients were well acquainted with the art of glass blowing." It has been suggested, that these vessels may not have been manufac- tured in Italy, but imported from the East, especially from Tyre, the place where glass is sup- posed to have been first made. Another room belonging to the same baths, " was lighted by A Window 2 feet 6 inches high and 3 feet wide, in the bronze frame of which were found set four Very beatiful panes of glass fastened by small nuts and screws, very ingeniously contrived, with a view to remove the glass at pleasure." Pompeii, p. 162, as cited P. I. $ 226. 1. 4. Paintings in stucco on the walls, and fret- work (laquearia) on the ceil- ings, were among the decorations in Roman houses. The various ornaments Were frequently of a character exceedingly unfavorable to purity of mind. On architectural ornaments &c cf. P. I. $ 239. — On the Mosaic of the ancients, P. I. $ 167* 189,220. i . 5m. The names of the various parts of a Roman house are known to us much better than their exact design and use. The following were the principal parts. (I.) The vestibulum or fore-court, an open space between the house door" and the street. From this, one entered through the door or gate (janua) of the house into (2.) the atrium, aula or hall, in which on both sides were placed the images of ancestors in niches or cases {armaria). From this, one passed di- rectly through into (3.) the impluvium ; called also compluvium and cavadium, which was a court, commonly uncovered {subdivale) , where the rain water fell. In this was the proper dwelling house, which had two wings with a cov- ered colonnade or portico in front, in order to pass unexposed from one apart- ment to another of these side-buildings. Of these apartments the principal was (4.) the triclinium or dining room; the others were termed cellar, having distinctive names from their use ) as cella mnaria, coquinaria, penuaria &c. Besides these there were attached to the larger houses various other appendages } colonnades, baths, gardens, and the like. — In general, almost all the apartments were on the lower floor ; but detached houses or blocks, which were mostly oc- cupied by tenants on lease (and called insula), were higher and had more stories. As the population of Rome increased, the houses in the city were raised to such altitudes as to occasion danger, and a maximum of height Was established by law ; in the reign of Augus- tus it was enacted, that the height of private edifices should not exceed seventy feet from the ground.— Gibbon, vol. 3d. p. 216. ed. N. Y. 1822. 6. The gate or door {janua) was sometimes made of iron or brass often highly ornamented, and usually raised above the ground, so that steps were necessary to ascend to it. On festival occasions it was hung with green branch- es and garlands. It turned on hinges {cardines) and was secured by bars (obices, claustra), locks {sera) and keys {claves). Knockers {mar culi, mallei) or bells {tintinnabula) were attached to it. — In the atrium was anciently the kitchen {culina). Here also the mistress of the house and servants carried on the spinning and weaving. In this was the family hearth (focus) near the door, with a constant fire of coals, and the lares (cf. P. III. § 111) around it. The Roman houses, as well as the Greek, seem to have had no chimneys, but merely an opening in the roof to let off the smoke ; hence the epithet fumosce. applied to the images in the atrium ; to avoid smoke as much as possible, the wood was carefully dried and anointed with lees of oil. Portable hearths or furnaces were used for warming the different apartments. In later periods, houses were warmed by a furnace below with pipes passing from it to the rooms (Bcckmann's Hist, of Invention). — The atrium was sometimes divided, in later times, into different parts separated by curtains. — In the open court, or impluvium, was often, if not usually, a fountain. The apartments around it, excepting the dining room, were usually small and ill constructed, and pro- perly called cells. Those designed for sleeping were termed cubicula. The solarium was a room on the portico for taking the sun. — The covering or roof was protected by large tiles (tegula), and was generally of an angular form) the highest part was called fastigium, a term also used to designate the whole roof. — Under the better class of houses were very capacious cellars (cellarii) which were specially prepared for storing various sorts of wines. — Staircases do not appear to have been considered of much consequence ; they are found in the buildings at Pompeii. Fig. a of Plate XXV, represents a key found a Pompeii.— Fig. b. a bolt, found also at Pom- peii. Fig. l,in the same Plate, is a plan of a Roman house, given in Stuart's Diet, of Arch- itecture as according to Vitruvius ; " a, is the vestibulum ; b, the atrium ; c, the tablinum ; d, d, the ala; ; e, e, cells familiaricae ; /, cavsedium ; g, vernal triclinium, g, summer triclinium, g f winter triclinium ; iii, baths ; kklc, cubiculas ; w, pinacotheca 3 n, bibliotheca : o, peristyle j DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. ROUTING OF DAILY EMPLOYMENT. 627 g, Cyzicene cecus ; rr, courts of the offices ; s, exedra ; 1 1, gardens ; u, rooms for embroidery ; v v, sudatories." — On the Roman house, cf. Wilkins, Transl. of Vitruvius, cited P. 1. § 243. 4. — J. Minutolus de Roman, domibus, in Sallengre cited § 197. — Fr. M. Grapaldi de partibus ^Edi- um liber. Parm. 1506. 4. 7. Among the various articles of furniture mentioned are chairs Csellce), tables (menscej, couches (lecti), lamps Cluctrnccj, &c. — A great number of an- cient lamps have been found, particularly at Herculaneum and Pompeii ; of various forms and sizes, and different materials from the most common to the most costly ; many of them, especially those in bronze, are of the most beau- tiful workmanship. They were wrought into the most whimsical images and shapes ; and were attached to supports of various kinds, or suspended from the ceilings. Several specimens of ancient lamps are given in our Plate XXV, at the bottom ; in Nos. 1 and 3, they are suspended from a stand or branch ( lychnuchus ) ; in Nos. 2 and 4, they are placed upon a low tripod ; in No. 5, on a small erect pillar or stick (columella) called candelabrum. Fig. d, is a couch, from an Egyptian monument, showing the cushion or bed, and the pillow. H. H. Baber, Antique Vases, Lamps, Tombs, Urns, &c. Lond. 1836. 4. containing 170 Plates engraved by H. Moses ; with descriptions. — See also Montfaucon (,as cited P. II. § 13), vol. v. p. 202. — Le Jlntichi d'Ercolano, cited P. L § 243. 2. one vol. of which treats particularly on this subject. § 326. The villas, or country seats, of the Romans were much more splen- did usually than the houses within the city. A complete establishment of this kind included several parts. 1. The villa urbana was the chief edifice, with its courts, baths, porticos and terraces, for the residence of the lord. 2. The villa rustica was the name applied to the buildings designed to accommodate the steward (villicus), and numerous slaves of the establishment; and those for various kinds of live stock ; e. g. gallinarium, for hens ; aviarium, for bees ; suile, for swine &c. 3. The villa fructuaria was another part, including the structures designed for storing the various products of the farm ; as wine, corn, oil, and fruits, often comprehended under villa rustica. 4. The Aortas was the garden, upon which in later times great care was bestowed ; being planted with trees, shrubs and flowers, which were often trained into fantastic shapes by slaves called topiarii ; watered sometimes by means of pipes and aqueducts, adorned with walks and statues. 5. There was sometimes a sort of park, of many acres, chiefly designed for deer or other wild beasts, tkeriotropnium, in which was the fish-pond (piscina) and the oyster-bed (vivarium). Many of these villas, owned by distinguished Romans, are alluded to in the classics. Cicero had a beautiful one atTusculum, besides several in other places further from the city (Cf. Middletoris Life of Cicero, sect. xii). — Hortensius possessed sumptuous villas at Tusculum, Bauli and Laurentum ; the Piscina Mirabilis, a subterraneous edifice, vaulted and divided by four rows of arcades, under the promontory of Bauli, is supposed by some to have been the fish-pond of this distinguished orator. (Dunlop, Hist. Rom. Lit. ii. 128). In his Tus- culan villa he had a single painting, the Argonauts, by Cydias, for which he paid, according to Pliny (Nat. Hist. xxxv. 12) 144,000 sesterces, i. e. above $5,000. — Horace is supposed to have owned a villa at Tibur, not so splendid, yet affording a retreat delightful to the poet. (Anthorts Remarks in his ed. of Horace.) — Pliny (Ep. ii. 17), has given a description of one belonging to him- self at Laurentum, of great extent and grandeur. (Stuart's Dictionary of Architecture.) — But the villa of the emperor Adrian, near Tivoli, was proba- bly the most magnificent ever erected ; its buildings and plantations covered an area, it is said, of at least six miles in circumference ; its ruins have surviv- ed to modern time, and have furnished many of the finest remains of ancient art. (Cf. P. I. § 173, 188. — Stuart's Diet.) The excavations of Pompeii have brought to light a specimen of a villa just without the walls of the place, supposed to have belonged to one Diomedes. (See a lively description of it, in Johnson's Philos. of Trav. p. 235. as cited P. I. $ 190.)— Rob. Castell, The Villas of the Ancients illustrated. Lond. 1728. fol. — Sulzer's Theorie, i. 305. — On Remains of Roman villse discover- ed in England, Srchatologia (as cited P. I. % 243. 3.) vol. Tin. p. 363. vol. xvm. p. 203, and xix. 176. with plans. § 327. The manner of life among the Romans underwent many changes, in the course of their history. In the early periods these were favorable to their morals, but in later times highly injurious. Their constant prosperity exerted its influence on their feelings, and 628 p ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. these affected their private life and manners, their pursuits, social char- acter, and amusements. At first, and even down to the first Punic war, their domestic manners were characterised by simplicity in thought and action, and united with this there was moderation in the gratification of the senses, which they but seldom and sparingly in- dulged. From their primitive rudeness, they gradually advanced ill refinement and urbanity, and ere long passed into an opposite extreme. The more they became acquainted with the conveniences and plea- sures of the people they conquered, especially the Greeks and Asia- tics, and the more their riches and abundance increased in conse- quence of these conquests, the more prevalent became pride and luxury in private life. In place of their former heroic virtues, their bravery and self denial, now appeared effeminacy, vanity and idleness. Magnifi- cence in buildings, luxurious indulgence in food and liquors, fondness for dress and entertainments, followed of course. § 328. It is not easy to decide, what was certainly a uniform course of daily avocations, among a people presenting a great varie- ty in pursuits, conduct and manner of life. There was, however, a sort of regular routine in the succession of daily employments among the Romans, particularly with the more respectable and orderly citizens. 1m. The morning hours were appropriated to religious worship in the tem- ples, or their own houses. In the morning, also, persons of the lower class were accustomed to call upon their superiors with salutations, especially cli- ents upon their patrons. About the third hour (§ 228) the business of the courts, comitia, and other assemblies was commenced. Between this hour and noon were the promenades for pleasure or conversation in the porticos, the forum, and other public places. About the sixth hour or mid-day, they had a slight repast, after which it was customary to take a little rest or sleep. The afternoon was spent mostly in amusements and recreation, in visiting, bathing, and attending public spectacles. About the ninth or tenth hour was the usual time for the evening meal. See Pliny's interesting account (Epist. iii. 1) of the manner in which his friend Spurinna was accustomed to spend the day. Abbe, Couture, La vie privee des Romains, in Hist, de VAcad. des Inscr. vol. i. p. 303. 2. The following caustic remarks are from the work of Johnson (above named § 326). — " The private houses in Pompeii, and the house of Diomede, par excellence, show us at once how the people lived. Each family met, when they did meet, in the open court of the house — while the masters assembled, and might be said to live, in the public porticos and public hotels of the city ! Such was the state of society among the ancients ; arid if we examine the cafes and other public places of resort, some of them not the most moral or edifying, in Italy and Franco, at the present day, we shall find that the state of society in this respect, has not essentially changed. How the women and children contrived to pass their time at home, while their husbands and fathers were lounging in the porticos, the forums, the temples, and hotels, it is not easy to say ; but if we may judge by the figures and devices on their work-boxes, vases, flower-pots, lamps, amulets, and walls, we may safely conclude that, in their nanow and darksome cells, the pruriency (I dare not use the proper term) of their minds was at least com- mensurate with the inactivity of their bodies and the enervating influence of the climate." 3. The customary time of day for bathing, both at the public thermm (cf. P. I. § 241. 3.) and the more private balnea, was between 2 o'clock and dusk. Between 2 and 3 o'clock was con- sidered the most eligible time for the exercise and the bath. The baths wvrv usually closed at dusk ; some of the emperors allowed them to be open until 5 o'clock in the evening. The price paid for admission was a quadrans or quarter of an as; the charge for entrance was in- creased a hundred fold after 4 o'clock. Nero's baths were heated by 12 o'clock ; and Severus allowed the baths to he open before sunrise and even through the night, in summer. The rage for bathing seems to have continued until the removal of the seat of the empiie to Constantino- ple ; after which no new therma; were erected and the old gradually fell into decay. It ia worthy of remark, that the exercise of swimming was connected with the custom of bathing. " This art," it is said, " was held in such estimation by the Greeks and Romans, that, when they wished to convey an idea of the complete ignorance of an individual, they would say of him, that he neither knew how to read nor swim, a phrase corresponding with our familiar one, that a person knows not how to read or write. Attached to, and forming a part of the gym nasia and palajstrae, were schools for swimming ; according to Pliny, the Romans had basins in their private houses for the enjoyment of this exercise." (Bell, as cited P. I. $241. 3..)— Ameilhon, sur l'exercise du nageur chez les anciens, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. XXX run p. 11, and xl. p. 96. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. FOOD. EATING-HALLS. BANQUETS. § 329. The dinner of the Romans, or mid-day meal (prandium) was very frugal ; indeed it was not customary to prepare a table for it, and in the better times of the republic, those who took a formal meal at noon, were regarded as effeminate. The fifth hour, from 11 o'clock to 12 in modern reckoning, was the time assigned for it. The principal meal was held at evening (caina), and for this, par- ticularly, the guest-chambers or eating-halls (triclinia) were con- structed, which in the palaces and manors of the rich were very splendid. These apartments were also called, from the use made of them, camationes ; and among the lower classes, caznacula. lu. The table, being either quadrangular or rounded, had on three sides couches, each with three pillows, on which to support the arm in reclining. Nine persons (§ 52) were therefore accommodated at a table. The right of the middle couch or sofa was called locus consularis. Often seven places only were prepared, the whole of the middle couch being appropriated to some stranger or guest, by way of especial honor. Women were not accus- tomed to recline at table, but to sit. 2. The couch on the right hand was called summits lectus, the one placed at the head of the table was called medius lectus, while the remaining couch on the left was termed imus lectus. The post of honor on each was the central place, those who occupied the middle of each of the three couches being styled respectively, primus summi lecti, primus medii lecti, and primus imi lecti. The most honorable of these three places, and consequently of the whole en- tertainment, usually was the primus medii lecti. The least honorable was at the end of the left couch farthest from that called medius. As the guests all reclined on the same (the left) arm, the bodies of those on the opposite couches were extended in opposite directions ; on the right towards, on the left from, the middle couch. — The rounded table, or semi-circular, was used under the emperors, accommodating usually seven persons, and called Sigma, from the form C , and also Stibadium. The tables (mensa) were often highly orna- mented. The monopodium, was circular, with one foot; chiefly used by the sick ; the tripes (Hor. Sat. I. iii. 13, of the poorer people had three feet. The frames (spondee) and their supports (fulcra) were of wood, ivory, or some- times metal ; sometimes they were veneered with tortoise-shell ; on these was a sort of cushion which had in it stuffing (tomentum) of wool, feathers or the like ; and this was sometimes covered with a cloth (stragula) often of rich embroidery and purple dye. In Plate XXVIII, fig. 1, we have the ground plan of a summer triclinium in the small garden of the house of Sallust, found at Pompeii ; and also a view of the couches and the table in the centre. In the plan, A designates the summus lectus ; B, the medius ; C, the imus. The couch- es, in this instance, are of masonry, and were of course covered with cushions and tapestry. The round table in the centre was of marble. » 3. Before eating, the guests always washed their hands and used towels mantilia) for drying them. They were usually furnished each with a napkin (mappa) for wiping the hands while at the table. For bringing on and using the food (cihum) there were various articles of furniture, as dishes (lances, pa- trincB) and the like; but nothing like ourjork, it is supposed (cf. P. I. § 135. 2.) ; although the excavations at Pompeii have shown that the Romans were acquainted with many things, which have been considered as modern inven- tions. " The surprise which is excited by a survey of the various implements of domestic econo- my and luxury, employed by the ancients, as disinterred from the tomb of Pompeii, where they slept since the beginning of the Christian era, and as compared with those now in use, must be natural, else it would not be so universal. This surprise is not solely occasioned by the almost miraculous preservation of these objects during so many centuries. We are aston- ished (though I know not why) that the bakers of Pompeii had ovens for their bread, and could stamp their names on the loaves— that the cooks had pots, stew-pans, cullenders, moulds for Christmas-pies and twelfth cakes— that the aldermen and gourmands stowed their wines at the greatest distance from the kitchen and hot-bath — that the cafes had stoves for supplying mulled wines to their guests — that the apothecary's shop abounded in all kinds of 'Doctor's stuff,' a box of pills remaining to this day gilt, for the squeamish palate of some Pompeian fine lady — that the surgeon's room displayed a terrific ' armamentum chiruro-icum ' of torturing instruments ; among others, * Weiss's Dilator,' the boast of modern invention in 53* 630 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. the Strand— that the female toilets disclosed rouge, carmine, and other cosmetic?, with the hare's foot to lay them gracefully on the pallid cheek — that the masters and mistresses had little bells to summon the slaves ("for servants there were none) and that the asses, mules, and oxen had the same noisy instruments, to warn carts and wheelbarrows from entering the streets, where two vehicles could not pass at the same time— that play-bills, quack advertise- tisements, notices of sights, shows, >, running in a south-westerly direction, falls into the sea below Rome # The Etrurians was called by the Greeks, Tyrrheni ; they are said to have come originally from Lydia in Asia Minor, and to have preserved traces of their eastern origin, to a very late period. From them the Romans borrowed their ensigns of regal dignity, and many of their superstitious observances, for this people were remarkably addicted to auguries and soothsay- ing. Cf. P. I. § 109, § 173. § 38. Umbria was situated east of Etruria, and south of Cisalpine Gaul, from which it was separated by the Rubicon. The principal river of Umbria was the Metaurus (Metro), where Asdrubal was cut off by the consuls Livius and Nero while advancing to the support of his brother Hannibal. Its chief towns ; Ariminum (Rimini), the first town taken by Caesar, at the commence- ment of the civil war; Pesaurum (Pesaro) ; Senna Gallica (Senigaglia), built by the Galli Senones ; Camerinum ; Spoletium (Spoletto), where Hannibal was repulsed after his victory at Thrasymene. The memory of this repulse is still preserved in an inscription over one of the gates, thence called Porta di Fuga. " Here also is a beautiful aqueduct carried across a valley three hundred feet high," W. Fiske, p. 343, as cited P. I. $ 186. 6. 652 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY, § 39. P i c e n u m lay to the east of Umbria, on the coast of the Adriatic Its principal towns were Asculum (Ascoli), the capital of the province, which must not be confounded with Asculum in Apulia, near which Pyrrhus was defeated; Confiniurn (San Ferino), the chief town of the Peligni ; and Sulmo, the birth-place of Ovid. Ancona, retaining its ancient name, founded by a Grecian colony ; cljse to the harbor of this town is a beautiful triumphal arch erected in honor of Trajan; the pillars are of Parian marble, and still retain their pure whiteness and exquisite polish, as if fresh from the workmen's hands; the celebrated chapel of Loretto is near Ancona. South of Picenum and Umbria, were the territories of the Marsi and Sabi- ni. The former were a rude and warlike people ; their capital was Marru- bium, on the Lacus Fucinus : Julius Caesar vainly attempted to drain this lake; it was afterwards partially effected by Claudius Cassar, who employed thirty thousand men for eleven years, in cutting a passage for the waters through the mountains, from the lake to the river Liris. When every thing was pre- pared for letting off the waters, he exhibited several splendid naval games, shows, &c. ; but the work did not answer his expectations, and the canal, be- ing neglected, was soon choked up, and the lake recovered its ancient di- mensions. — The Sabine towns were Cures, whence the name Quirites is by some derived (cf. § 53); Reate, near which Vespasian was born ; Amiternum , the birth-place of Sallust ; Crustumerium, and Fidena. Mons Sacer, whither the plebeians of Rome retired in their contest with the patricians, was in the ter- ritory of the Sabines. In these countries were the first enemies of the Ro- mans, but about the time of Camillus the several small states in this part of Italy were subjugated. § 40. Latiura, the most important division of Italy, lay on the coast of the Tuscan sea, between the river Tiber and Liris ; it was called Latium, from lateo, to lie hid, because Saturn is said to have concealed himself there, when dethroned by Jupiter. The chief town was Rome (see $51 ss). Above Rome on the Tiber, stood Tibur (Tivoli), built by an Argive colony, a favorite summer residence of the Roman nobility, near which was Horace's favorite country seat (P. IV. § 326): south of Rome, Tusculum (Frescati), remarkable both in ancient and modern times, for the salubrity of the air and beauty of the surrounding scenery ; it is said to have been built by Telegonus, the son of Ulysses ; near it was Cic- ero *s celebrated Tusculan villa : east of Tusculum, Prmneste (Palestrina), a place of great strength both by nature and art, where the younger Marius perished in a subterranean passage, while attemping to escape, when the town was besieged by Sylla: south of Tusculum, Longa Alba, the parent of Rome, and near it the small towns Algidum, Paedum, and Gabii, betrayed to the Ro- mans by the well-known artifice of the younger Tarquin. — On the coast, at the mouth of the Tiber, stood Ostia, the port of ancient Rome, built by An- eus Martius ; south of this were Laurcntum, Lavinium (built by JEneas and called after his wife Lavinia), and Ardea, the capital of the Rutuli, where Ca- millus resided during his exile. South of these were the territories of the Volsci, early opponents of the Roman Power ; their chief cities were Antium, where there was a celebrated temple of fortune ; Suessa Pometia, the capital of the Volsci, totally destroyed by the Romans ; and Corioli, from the cap- ture of which Caius Marcius was named Coriolanus. South of the Volsci, were the town and promontory of Circeii, the fabled residence of Circe; Anxur (Terracina), on the Appian Way; the town and promontory Caieta, deriving its name from the nurse of JEneas who was there interred ; Formicc, near which Cicero was assassinated by command of Anto- ny ; and, at the mouth of the Liris, MinturncB, near which are the Pontine or Pomptine Marshes, in which the elder Marius endeavored to conceal himself when pursued by his enemies. The Pontine Marshes extended through a great part of Latium, and several ineffectual efforts have been made to drain them. The exhalations from the stagnant water have always made the surrounding country very unhealthy. — On the confines of Campania were Arpinum, the birth-place of Marius and Cicero, the rude soldier and the polished statesman; Aquinum, the birth-place of Juvenal ; and Sinuessa, celebrated for its mineral waters, originally called Sinope. EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. ITALIA. 653 § 41. The principal rivers of Latium were the Anio (TeveroneJ ; the Allia y on the banks of which the Gauls defeated the Romans with dreadful slaugh- ter ; and the Cremera, where the family of the Fabii, to the number of three hundred, were destroyed by an ambuscade, while carrying on war at their own expense against the Veierttes ; these three rivers fall into the Tiber ; the Litis (Gariglianoj, which divided Latium from Campania, falls into the Tus- can sea. — The principal lakes were named Lacus Albulus (Solfatara) re- markable for its sulphurous exhalations, and for the adjoining grove and ora- cle of Faunus; Lacus Regillus, near which Posthumius defeated the Latins, by the assistance of Castor and Pollux as the Romans believed; and Lacus Albanus, near which was Mount Albanus where the solemn sacrifices called Feriae Latinae were celebrated. The capital of Latium, in the reign of king Latinus, was Laurentum ; in the reign of JEne~ a?, Lavinium ; in the reign of Ascanius, Longa Alba ; but all these were eclipsed by the supe- rior grandeur of Rome. The several independent states were subdued by the Romans in the earlier ages of the republic. § 42. (2) Geography of the southern portion. The southern part of Italy was named Magna Groecia, from the number of Greek colonies that at differ- ent periods settled there. It was divided into Campania, Samnium, Apulia, Calabria, Lucania, and Bruttium. Campania, the richest and most fertile of the divisions of Italy, extend- ed along the shores of the Tuscan sea, from the river Liris to the river Sila- rus, which divided it from Lucania. The chief city was Capua, so named from its founder, Capys, celebrated for its riches and luxury, by which the veteran soldiers of Hannibal were en- ervated and corrupted. North of it were Teanum, celebrated for the mineral waters in its vicinity, and Venafrum, famous for olives. — South of Capua was Casilinum, where a garrison of Prenestines, after having made a most gallant resistance, and protracted the siege till they had endured the utmost extremity of famine, were at last compelled to surrender ; next to this was Liternum, at the mouth of the little river Clanius, where Scipio Africanus for a long time lived in voluntary exile. — Farther south was Cuma, founded by a colony from Chalcis in Euboea, the residence of the celebrated Cumean Sibyl, and near it the town and promontory Misenum, so named from Misenus, the trumpeter of iEneas, who was buried there. — Below the cape were Baia, fa- mous for its mineral waters ; Puteoli (Puzzoli), near which were the Phlegraei- campi, where Jupiter is said to have vanquished the giants; Cimmerium^ whose early inhabitants are said, by Homer, to have lived in caves. After these we come to Parthcnope or Neapolis, Naples. This beautiful city was founded by a colony from Cumse, and for a long time retained the traces of a Grecian original ; it was called Parthenope from one of the Sirens said to have been buried there. Close to the town is the mountain Pausilypus (PaUi silippo), through which a subterranean passage has been cut, half a mile in length and twenty-two feet wide ; neither the time of making nor the maker is known ; a tomb, said to be that of Virgil, is shown on the hill Pausilippo, — Between Naples and Mount Vesuvius were Hercula?ieum and Pompeii, de- stroyed by a tremendous eruption of that volcano, A. D. 79. The remains of these towns were accidentally discovered in the beginning of the last centu- ry, and the numerous and valuable remains of antiquity give us a greater sight into the domestic habits of the Romans than could previously be ob- tained. See references P. I. $242. 2. At the southern extremity of the Si- nus Puteolanus (bay of Naples), were Stabia, remarkable for its mineral wa- ters, and Surrentum, celebrated for its wines ; near the latter was the Pro- montorium Surrentinum or Athenaum (Capo della Minerva) ; east of Naples was A'ola, where Hannibal was first defeated, and where Augustus died ; in thesouth of Campania was Salernum (Salerno), the capital of the Picentini. § 43. The principal Campanian rivers were the Vulturnus (Vulturno) ; Se- ethus (Sebeto), now an inconsiderable stream, its springs being dried up by the eruptions of Mount Vesuvius; and the Sarnus (Sarno). — The principal lakes were the Lucrinus, which by a violent earthquake, A. D. 1538, was changed into a muddy marsh, with a volcanic mountain, Monte Nuovo de Cin- ere, in the centre ; and the Avernus, near which is a cave represented by Vir- gil as the entrance of the infernal regions. It was said that no birds could pass 55* 654 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. over this lake on account of the poisonous exhalations; whence its name, from a (not) and oong (a bird). Upon the invasion of the northern nations, Campania became the alternate prey of different barbarous tribes ; at length it was seized by the Saracens in the tenth century. " These were expelled by the Normans, under Tancred, who founded the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. § 44. East of Latium and Campania was Samniura, including the coun- try of the Hirpini. — The chief towns were Samnis, the capital ; Benevcntum (Benevento), at first called Maleventum, from the serverity of the winds, but when the Romans sent a colony here they changed the name, from motives of superstition ; near this town Pyrrus, king of Epirus, who had come to the as- sistance of the Samnites, was totally defeated by the Roman army, command- ed by Curius Dentatus; Caudium, near which are the Caudina; FutcuIce (For- chia d'Arpaia), a narrow and dangerous defile, in which the Roman army be- ing blocked up by the Samnite general, Pontius, were obliged to surrender on disgraceful conditions; and Alfeniai, remarkable for its manufactory of earth- en ware. — Among the Hirpini, were Equotuticum, whose unpoetical name is celebrated by Horace; Trixicum and Herdonia (Ordonia), on the borders of Apulia. — Near Herdonia was the celebrated valley of Amsanctus, surround- ed by hills, and remarkable for its sulphurous exhalations and mineral springs; on a neighboring hill stood the temple of Mephitis, the goddess who presided over noxious vapors, whence the valley is now called Moffeta. § 45. The principal rivers of Samnium were the Sabatas (Sabato), and Ca- lor (Calore), both tributary to the Vulturnus. The Samnites were descended from the same parent stock as the Sabines, and for many years contended with the Romans for the empire of Italy ; at length, after a war of more than seventy years, during which the Romans were frequently reduced to great, extremities, the for- tune of Rome prevailed, and the Samnites were almost totally extirpated, B. C. 272. § 46. Apulia, called also Daunia and Japygia, but now La Puglia, occu- pied the greater part of the east of Italy, extending from the river Frento to the Bay of Tarentum. Its chief towns : Teamim, named Apulum to distinguish it from a town of the same name in Campania ; Arpi, said to have been built by Diomede, after his return from the Trojan war; north of Arpi is Mount Garganus (Saint An- gelo), in the spur of the boot to which Italy is commonly compared ; east of Arpi were Uria, which gave the ancient name to the Sinus Urius, and Sipon- tum (Manfredonia), which gave the modern name (Gulf of Manfredonia) ; on the borders of Samnium, stood Luceria, celebrated for its wool ; Salapia (Sal- pe) ; and Asculum, called Apulum, to distinguish it from a town of the same, name in Picenurn. — Near the river Aufidus stood the village of Cannm, where Hannibal almost annihilated the power of Rome ; through the fields of Can- nce runs the small stream Vergeltus, which is said to have been so choked with the carcasses of the Romans, that the dead bodies served as a bridge to Hannibal and his soldiers. Canusium, a Greek colony, where the remains of the Roman army were received after their defeat. — Venusia (Venosa), near Mount Vultur, the birth-place of Horace ; Barium (Bari), where excel- lent fish were caught in great abundance ; and Egnatiai, on the Matinian shore, famous for bad water and good honey. The principal Apulian rivers were Cerbalus (Cerbaro), and Aufidus fOfan- to), remarkable for the rapidity of its waters ; both falling into the Adriatic. § 47. Calabria, called also Mesapia, lay to the south of Apulia, forming what is called the heel of the boot. Its chief towns, on the eastern or Adriatic side, were Brundusium (Brindisi), once remarkable for its excellent harbor, which was destroyed in the fifteenth century ; from this the Italians who wished to pass into Greece generally sailed ; Hydrantum (Otranto), where Italy makes the nearest approach to Greece ; Castrum Minerva (Cas- tro), near which is the celebrated Japygian cape, now called Capo Santa Ma- ria de Luca. On the west side of Calabria were Tarentum (Tarento), built by the Spartan Phalanthus,' which gives name to the Tarentine bay ; Rudiai, the birth-place of the poet Ennius ; and Callipolis (Gallipoli), built on an island and joined to the continent by a splendid causeway. The principal river of Calabria was the Galesus (Galeso), which falls into the bay of Tarentum. § 48. Lucania lay south of Campania, extending from the Tuscan sea to EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. ITALIA. 655 the bay of Tarentum ; in the middle ages the northern part was named Basili- cata, from the emperor Basil ; and the southern part was called Calabria-citra by the Greek emperors, to perpetuate the memory of ancient Calabria, which they had lost. The principal towns ; on the Tuscan sea, Pastum, near Mount Alburnus, celebrated in ancient times for its roses, and in modern for its beautiful ruins (cf. Eustace, cited P. I. § 190. 1, and Winckelmann, Histoire &c. vol. hi. p. 297, as cited P. I. § 324) ; near it, Velia or Elea, the birth-blace of Zeno, the inventor of logic, founded by a division of the Asiatic colony, who built Mar- seilles ; Buxentum, called by the Greeks Pyxus, on the Lausine bay ; and Laus, on a river of the same name, from which the Lausine bay is designated. — In the interior, were Minum, on the Tenagrus; Mcrnum, on the Silarus ; Grumcntum, on the Aciris ; and Lagaria, said to have been founded by Epeus, the framer of the Trojan horse. — On the shore of the Tarentine bay, were Meta- pontum, the residence of Pythagoras during the latter part of his life, and the head-quarters of Hannibal for several winters ; Heraclea, where the congress of the Italo-Grecian states used to assemble ; Sybaris, on a small peninsula, infa- mous for its luxury ; and Thurium, at a little distance, whither the Sybarites retired when their own city was destroyed by the people of Crotona. The plains where these once flourishing cities stood are now desolate ; the rivers constantly overflow their banks, and leave behind them muddy pools and un- wholesome swamps, while the few architectural remains contribute to the mel- ancholy of the scene by recalling to memory the days of former greatness. The principal rivers of Lucania were the Tanagrus (Negvo,) which, after sinking in the earth, breaks forth near the beautiful valley of Alburnus, and falls into the Tuscan sea ; Melpus (MelfaJ, which empties itself into the Laus Si?ms fGulf of Policastro, so called from the number of ruins on its shores) ; the Bradanus, a little rivulet, dividing Lucania from Calabria, and falling into the Tarentine bay ; the Aciris (Agv'iJ, and the Sybaris (Coscilej, small streams on the Tarentine coast. § 49. The south-west of Italy, below the Sybaris, was named Bruttio-tellus or Bruttium, but is now called Calabria-ultra. — The principal cities of the Bruttii, on the Tuscan sea, were Pandosia, where Alexander, king of Epi- rus, who waged war in Italy while his relative and namesake was subduing Asia, died ; Consentia fCosenzaJ, the capital of the Bruttii ; Terina, on the Si- nus Tcrirucus (Gulph of St Euphemia) ; and Vibo, or Hippo, called by the Romans Valentia fMonte heonej. — On the Sicilian strait, were the town and promontory Scyllamm CScyllaJ, whose dangerous rocks gave rise to the fable of the sea-monster Scylla (cf. P. III. § 117;; opposite to the celebrated whirlpool Charybdis on the coast of Sicily : Rhegium (Reggio), so .named by the Greeks, because they believed that, at some very remote period, Sicily was joined to Italy, and broken of here by some violent natural concussion ; it was founded by a colony from Calchis, in the island of Eubcea, and the sur- rounding country was celebrated for its fertility ; not far from Rhegium were the village and cape Lcucopetra, so named from the whiteness of its rocks, now Capo dcW Jlrnai. On the Tarentine bay were Petilia, the city of Philoctetes ; Crotona founded by some Achreans on their return from the Trojan war, where Pythagoras es- tablished his celebrated school of philosophy ; the people were so famous for their skill in athletic exercises, that it was commonly said " the last of the Crotoniates is the first of the Greeks " ; south of this was the Promontorium Lacinium, where a very celebrated temple of Juno stood, whence she is fre- quently called the Lacinian goddess; from the remains of this temple, the promontory is now called Capo della Colonne; Scylacaium (Squillace), founded by an Athenian colony on a bay to which it gives name ; Caulon fCostel Ve- tere), an Achaean colony, almost destroyed in the wars with Pyrrhus ; south of it, JYcryx (GeraceJ, near the Promontorium Zephyrium (Burzano), the capi- tal of the Locrians, who at a very early period settled in this part, of Italy. — The cape at the southern extremity of Italy was named Promontorium Hercw- lis now Spartivento. The principal rivers of the Bruttii were the Crathcs (Crati), and Ncmthcs CNeii), which received its name from the Achaean women having burned their husbands' ships to prevent their proceeding further in search of a settlement. 656 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. § 50. A great proportion of the Greeks who colonized the south of Italy, were generals, who on' their return from the Trojan wars, found that they had been forgotten by their subjects, and that their thrones were occupied by others. The intestine wars that almost continually devas- tated Greece, increased the number of exiles, who at different times, and under various lead- ers, sought to obtain in a foreign country, that tranquility and liberty that had been denied them at horned — These different states were internally regulated by their own laws ; but an annual congress similar to the Amphictyonic council of Greece, assembled at Heraclea, and united the several communities in one great confederacy. Sybaris seems to have been, at first, the leading state, but after a bloody war, it was destroyed by the jealousy of the people of Crotona ; the Sybarites did hot yield to despair ; five times tliey rebuilt their city, but at length it was leveled to the ground, and its wretched inhabi- tants, forced to relinquish their native place, built a new town at Thurium The Crotonia- tes did not long preserve their supremacy, for the vices of the Sybarites were introduced into their city, and they consequently fell an easy prey to the Locrians To secure their superior- ity, the Locrians entered into an alliance with the kings of Syracuse, who by this means ob- tained considerable influence in the south of Italy, until the attempt of the elder Dionysius to secure to himself a part of the country by building a wall from theTerinsan gulf to the Ionian sea, and still more the ingratitude of the younger Dionysius, gave them a distaste for the con- nection. — After breaking off their alliance with the Sicilians, the Locrians united themselves to the Romans ; during the war with Pyrrhus, they adhered to the fortunes of Rome with the most unshaken fidelity; but afterwards becoming justly alarmed at the restless ambition of their allies, they readily joined Hannibal. — It is remarkable, that in all the other ltalo-Grecian states the people embraced the Carthaginian side, while the nobles sided with the Romans, but among the Locrians the division of parties was directly the -contrary. The Tarentines ruled the shores of the Tarentine bay, but being enervated by riches and luxury, they were obliged to put themselves under the protection of Pyrrhus, kingof Epirus, to secure their city from "the Romans. After the disgraceful termination of Pyrrhus's Italian campaign, that monarch returned home, leaving a garrison in Tarentum, under the command of Milo~who betrayed the city to the Romans. After the termination of the second Punic war, these states, though acknowledging the so- periority of Rome, retained their own laws and private jurisdiction, even to the latest periods of the Roman empire. § 51. (3) The Topography of Rome. This city was originally, it is stated, nearly in the form of a square, and its whole perimeter was scarcely one mile. In the time of Pliny the wills were said to have been nearly 20 miles in cir- cuit. The wall built by Belisarius to resist the Goths, still remaining, is about 14 miles in circumference. — The Gates (Porta) of Rome were origin- ally four ; in the time of the elder Pliny, there were thirty-seven ; in the reign of Justinian only fourteen. The following were the most noted ; Porta Carmentalis, Collina, Tiburtina, Cadimontana, Latina, Capena, Flaminia, Os- tiensis. For a plan of ancient Rome, see our plate XXIX. § 52. Thirty-one great Roads centered in Rome. Some of the principal were Via Sacra, Appia, JEmilia, Valeria, Flaminia. These public roads " is- suing from the Forum traversed Italy, pervaded the provinces, and were ter- minated only by the frontiers of the empire." Augustus erected a gilt pillar in the middle of the forum, called Milliarium aureum (Tac. Hist. i. 27), from which distances on the various roads were reckoned. " This curious monu- ment was discovered in 1823." (Butler's Geogr. Class, p. 39.) " They usually were raised some height above the ground which they traversed, and pro- ceeded in as straight a line as possible, running over hill and valley with a sovereign con- tempt for all the principles of engineering. They consisted of three distinct layers of materi- als : the lowest, stones, mixed with cement, statumcn; the middle, gravel or small stones, ru~ dera, to prepare a level and unyielding surface to receive the upper and most important struc- ture, which consisted of large masses accurately fitted together. These roads, especially in the neighborhood of cities, had, on both sides, raised foot-ways, margines, protected by curb- stones, which defined the extent of the central part, agger, for carriages. The latter was bar- relled, that no water might lie upon it."—" The public roads were accurately divided by mile- stones. They united the subjects of the most distant provinces by an easy intercourse; but their primary object had been to facilitate the march of the legions." The advantage of receiv- ing the earliest intelligence, and of conveying their orders with celerity, induced the emperors to establish, throughout their extensive dominions, the regular institution of posts. Houses were every where erected only at the distance of five or six miles ; each of them was constantly provided with forty horses, and by the help of these relays, it was easy to travel a hundred miles in a day along the Roman roads. The use of the posts was allowed to those who claimed it by an imperial mandate ; but though originally intended for the public service, it was some- times indulged to the business or conveniency of private citizens." The most ancient and celebrated of all was the Appian way, called Regina Viarum, the Queen of Roads. It was constructed by the censor, Appius Claudius, in the year of the city 441, and extended from Rome to Capua. Afterwards it was continued to Brundusium, 360 miles. At Sinuessa it threw off a branch called the Domitian way, which ran along the coast to Baia;, Neapolis, Hercula- neum, and Pompeii. JV. Bergier, Hist, des grands chemins des Romains. Par. 1792. 2 vols. 4. — Z>' Anville, on the extent of ancient Rome and the grand roads leading from it, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol* xxx. p. 193. EUROPE. ITALIA. TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME. 657 § 53. There were eight principal bridges over the Tiber, which flowed through the city from the north ; Pons Milvius ; JElius, still standing ; Fa* bricius ; Cestius ; Palatinus or Senatorius, some arches of it still remaining;. Sublicius or JEmilius ; Jatiicularis, still existing; Triumphalis or Vaticanus. Rome was called Septicollis, from having been built on seven mountains or hills. These were Mons Palatinus, Capitolinus, Esquilinus, Cozlius, Aventi- nus, Quirinalis, Viminalis. The foundation or commencement of the city was made, according to the common accounts, on the Movs Palatinus or Palatium. Here Romulus had his residence. Here the emperors usually abode, and hence the term Palatium, palace, applied to designate a royal or princely dwelling. The hill first added was probably the Quirinalis, on which it has been supposed was a Sabine settlement called Quirium ; this addition being made when the union was formed between the Romans and Sabines, before the death of Romulus, and the Romans took the name of Quiritcs. The double Janus on the earliest coins is by some supposed to refer to this un- ion. JVext was added the hill Ctelius, on which a Tuscan settlement is supposed to have been planted. The other four hills were successively added, at least, before the close of the reign of Servius Tullius, sixth king of Rome. Two hills on the north of the Tiber were also connected with the city. The Janiculum was fortified by Ancus Martius, 4th king of Rome, as a sort of out-post and joined to the city by a bridge. The other the Vaticanus, so called perhaps from the predictions uttered there by soothsayers, votes, was added at a later period ; it was rather disliked by the ancients, but is now the principal place in Rome, being the seat of the Pope's palace, St. Peter's church, and the celebrated Vatican library. A tenth hill, Collis hortulorum, called also Pincius, was taken into the city by Aurelian. On the side of the Capitoline hill towards the Tiber was the Tarpeian Rock. Johnson says, fin his Philos. of Travel, cited P. I. $ 190), " of all that tremendous precipice, painted in such terrilfic colors, by Seneca, immcnsce altitudivis aspectus, only thirty feet of its summit now over- look the consolidated dust of ancient temples and the accumulated filth of modern hovels." — The spot was visited in 1829 by two American gentlemen, eminent scholars, one of whom writes, " after very cautious estimates we both judged the original height to have been about 80 feet, of which about 20 may be filled up, leaving about 60 for its present altitude." § 54. Rome was originally divided into four districts. From the time of Au- gustus there were fourteen. The last division is followed by most topographers, and affords the most convenient order for mentioning the objects worthy of notice in the city. The names of the districts were as follows ; I. Porta Ca- pena ; 2. Ccelimontium ; 3. Isis and Serapis or Moneta ; 4. Tcmplum Pads ox Via Sacra ; 5. Esquilina cum turri et colle Viminali ; 6. Alta Semita ; 7. Via Lata; 8. Forum Romanum ; 9. Circus Fiaminius ; 10. Palatium ; 11. Circus Mazimus; 12. Piscina Publica ; 13. Aventinus ; 14. Trans Tibcrim. To de- scribe only the most remarkable objects in each region or district would tres- pass on our designed limits, and we must be content with merely naming somo of them. A tabular statement of the objects included in the 14 regions is given in Kennetfs Antiqui- ties, ch. ii. as cited P. IV. § 197. 2 See O. C. Mlcr's ahsfurliche Beschreibung der Stadt Rom. Altona 1781. 4. with engravings. The basis, mainly, is the arrangement of Sextus Ru- fus and Publius Victor with the additions of Nardini and others. (Cf. Grcevii Thesaurus, vols. 3. and 4.) JVarrfmi's Italian original was published anew by jS. JVibby, Rome 1820. 4. with plates. — Descrizione di Roma Antica forma novamente con le Autorita di Bart. JWarlianiy Onof. Panvinio, &c. with plates. Rom. 1697. 2 vols. 4. — C. Fea, Nuova descrizione di Roma antica emoderna. Rom. 1820. 3 vols. 8. with plate3. — C. Burton, Monuments and Curiosities of Rome. Transl. into German by Sicklcr, Weim. 1823. 8. — Venuti, Descrizione topografia delle antichita di Roma, ed. by Visconti, 1803. — Buriress, Topography and Antiquities of Rome. Lond. 1831. 2 vols. 8. — Platner, Bunsen, Gerhard, fy Rostell, Beschreibung der Stadt Rom. Tubing. &. Stffttg. 1829-37. 3 vols, with a Bilderheft (or Number) of plates. — F. Blume, Iter Italicum. Halle. 1836. 4 vols. 8. On the remaining monuments of ancient Rome, c£ P. I. $ 186, 188, 191, 226, 243. § 55. There were large open places in the city, designed for assemblies of the people, and for martial exercises, and also for games, termed Campi. Of the nineteen, which are mentioned, the Campus Martius, was the largest and most famous. It was near the Tiber; thence called sometimes Tiberinus, but usually Martius, as consecrated to Mars. It was originally the property of Tarquin the Proud, and confiscated after his expulsion. In the later ages it was surrounded by several magnificent structures ; and porticos w r ere erected under which the citizens could exercise in rainy weather. It was also adorned with statues and arches. Comitia were held here ; and there were Septa or Ovilia (P. IV. § 259), constructed for the purpose. § 56. The main streets of the city were termed via;. On each side were connected blocks of houses and buildings ; these being separated by interve- ning streets and by lanes or alleys, would form separate divisions, or a sort of squares ; the portions occupied by buildings and thus separated were called Vici ; of these there were, it is said, 424. They had particular names; e. g. Vicus albus,jugarius, lanarius,, Tibertinus, Junonis, Minerva, 4"C- 658 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. § 57. The name of Fora was given to places where the people assembled for the transaction of business. Although at first business of every sort was probably transacted in the same place, yet with the increase of wealth, it be- came convenient to make a separation ; and the Fora were divided into two sorts, Civilia and Venalia. The Roman Fora were not like the ayoqai of the Greeks, nearly square, but oblong; the breadth not more than two thirds of the length ; the difference between the length and breadth of the chief Forum discovered at Pompeii is greater. Until the time of Julius Csesar there was but one Forum of the first men- tioned class ; that generally called Forum Romanum, or Forum simply, by way of eminence. This gave name to the 8th region (§ 54), and was between the Capitoline and Palatine hills ; it was 800 feet wide, built by Romulus, and adorned on all sides, by Tarquinius Priscus, with porticos, shops and other buildings. On the public buildings around the Forum great sums were expended in the architecture and ornaments ; so that it presented a very splendid and imposing spectacle ; here were the Basilica, Curice, and Tabula- rice ; temples, prisons, and public granaries ; here too were placed numerous statues, with other monuments. In the centre of the Forum was the place called the Curtian Lake, where Curtius is said to have plunged into a myste- rious gulph or chasm, and to have thus caused it to be closed up. On one side were the elevated seats (or suggestus, a sort of pulpits), from which mag- istrates and orators addressed the people ; usually called the Rostra ; because adorned with the beaks of ships, taken in a sea-fight from the inhabitants of Antium. Near by was the part of the Forum called the Comitium, where some of the legislative assemblies were held, particularly the Comitia Curiata. In or near the Comitium was the Puteal Mtii ; a puteal was a little space sur- rounded by a wall in the form of a square and roofed over ; such a structure was usually erected on a spot which had been struck with lightning. Not far from the Puteal Mtii was the Praetor's Tribunal, for holding courts. There was in the Forum, near the Fabian arch, another structure marking a place struck with lightning, the Puteal Libonis, near which usurers and bankers were accustomed to meet (Hor. Sat. II. vi. 35,). The milliarium in the Forum has already been mentioned CQ 52J. Besides this ancient Forum there were four others built by different emperors, and designed for civil purposes ; the Forum Julium, built by Julius- Cssar, with spoils taken in the Gallic war ; the Forum Aagtisti, by Augustus, adorned with the statues of the kings of Latium on one side and the kings of Rome on the other ; the Forum JVervce, begun by Domitian and fin- ished bf!*Nerva, having statues of all the emperors; and the Forum Trajani, by Trajan, the most splendid of all. The Fora Venalia were 14 in number ; among them the Forum Boarium, ox and cow market ; adorned with a brazen bull ; Piscarium, fish market ; 01- itorium, vegetable market ; Suarium, swine market, &c. § 58. In speaking of the temples of Rome, the first place belongs to the Capitolium. The Capitol was one of the oldest, largest, and most grand edifi- ces in the city. It was first founded by Tarquinius Priscus, and afterwards from time to time enlarged and embellished. Its gates wer^ brass and it was adorned with costly gilding ; hence the epithets aurea and fulgens applied to it. It was on the Capitoline hill in the highest part of the city, and was some- times called arx. The ascent from the forum to it was by 100 steps. It was in the form of a square extending about 200 feet on each side.. Its front was decorated with three rows of pillars, the other sides with two. — Three tem- ples were included in this structure ; that of Jupiter Capitolinus in the centre, one sacred to Minerva on the right, and one to Juno on the left. The Capitol also comprehended some minor temples or chapels, and the Casa Romuli, or cottage of Romulus, covered with straw. Near the ascent to the capitol was also the asylum, or place of refuge. This celebrated structure was destroyed or nearly so, by fire, three times ; first, in the Ma- rian war, B. C. 83, but rebuilt by Sylla ; secondly in the Vitellian war, A. D. 70, and rebuilt by Vespasian ; thirdly, about the time of Vespasian's death, after which it was rebuilt by Do- mitian with greater magnificence than ever. A few vestiges only now remain. § 59. The temple next in rank was the Pantheon, built by Marcus Agrippa, son-in-law of Augustus, and consecrated to Jupiter Ultor, or as its name im- ports to all the gods (navr&v d««r). It is circuTar in form and said to be 150 feet high and of about the same breadth within the walls, which are 18 feet thick. The walls on the inside are either solid marble or incrusted. The EUROPE. ITALIA. TOPOGRAPHY OP ROME. 659 front on the outside was covered with brazen plates gilt and the top with sil- ver plates ; but now it is covered with lead. The gate was of brass of extraor- dinary size and work. It has no windows, but only an opening in the top, of about 25 feet in diameter, to admit the light. The roof is curiously vaulted, void spaces being left here and there for the greater strength. " The vestibule is supported by sixteen Corinthian columns, fourteen feet in circumference, and thirty-nine feet in heighth, each shaft being an entire block of red orien- tal granite, having bases and capitals of white marble." The Pantheon is one of the most perfect of the ancient edifices remaining at Rome. It is now called the Rotunda, having been consecrated by pope Boniface 4th, A. D. 607, to the Virgin Mary and all the Saints. Dr. Adam, in his account of the Pantheon, says, " they used to ascend to it by 12 steps, but now they go down as many." On this point the gentleman mentioned in § 53, writes, " the statement that it was originally entered by seven steps is doubtless correct. At present one ascends two steps to enter it. The statement of twelve- steps of descent can only have been true four centuries ago, before the place anterior to the Pantheon was cleansed. This took place under Pope Eugene IV., who was elected in 1431." § 60. There were many other temples in ancient Rome (cf. P. IV. § 203), which cannot here be described. The temple of Saturn was famous particularly as serving for the public treasury • perhaps thus used because one of the strong- est places in the city; although some ascribed it to the tradition, that in the golden age, under Saturn, fraud was unknown. In this temple were also kept the public registers and records, among them the Libri Elepkantini, or ivory tables containing lists of the tribes. The temple of Janus was built or finished, at least, by Numa; a square edi- fice, with two gates of brass, one on each side ; which were to be kept open in time of war and shut in time of peace. So continually was the city engaged in wars, that the gates of Janus were seldom shut ; first, in the reign of Numa ; secondly at the close of the first Punic war, B. C. 241 ; three times in the reign of Augustus ; the last time near the epoch of Christ's birth ; and three times afterwards, once under Nero, once under Vespasian, and lastly, under Constantius, about A. D. 350. The gates were opened with formal ceremony ( Virg. JEn. vii. 707;. Sainte Croix, Sur la cloture der temple, de Janus, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xlix. p. 385. The temple of Apollo on the Palatine hill was celebrated on account of its library (P. I. § 126). — The temple of Vesta yet exists in a small circular church, on the side of the Palatine hill towards the Tiber. — Besides these, we may name the temple of Concord ; of the goddess of Peace (Pact (eterna) ; of Cas- tor and Pollux ; of Valor, built by Marcellus. The Romans were accustomed, like other ancient nations, to consecrate groves and woods to the gods. As many as 230 sacred groves (luci) are enu- merated, chiefly within the city of Rome. ' § 61. The Curia were public edifices, or parts of public edifices, and appro- priated, some of them for assemblies of the senate and civil councils, others for meetings of the priests and religious orders for the regulation of religious rites. To the former class the Senacula seem to have belonged. The follow- ing were among the Curise; viz. Curia Romana, Vetus, Hostilia, Vallensis, Pompeii, &c. The Basilica were buildings of great splendor, devoted to meetings of the senate, and to judicial purposes. Here counsellors received their clients, and here bankers also had rooms for transacting their business. There were four- teen of these buildings; among them, Basilica vetus, Constantiniana, Siciniana, Julia, &c. — Both the Basilicae and the Curiee were chiefly around the Forum. It should be remarked that the term Basilica was applied to many of the ancient Christian churches, because they so much resembled the Basilica just described. The earliest churches bearing this name were erected under Constantine. He gave his own palace on the Coelian hill to construct on its site a church, which is recognized as the most ancient Christian Basilica. Next was that of St. Peter on the Vatican hill, erected, A. D. 324, on the site and with the ruins of the temples of Apollo and Mars 5 it stood about 12 centuries, and was then pulled down by pope Julius 2d, and on its site has arisen the modern church of the same name. § 62. The Circi were structures appropriated to public spectacles, to races, and to fighting with wild beasts. They were generally oblong, having one end at right angles with the sides, and the other curved, and so forming near- ly the the shape of an ox-bow. A wall extended quite round, with ranges of 660 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. seats for the spectators. There were eight of these buildings, besides the Circus Maximus, described in another place (P. IV. § 232), situated in the vi- cinity of the Forum. We only add here, that this is said to have been en- larged after the time of Julius Caesar, so as to contain 260,000 persons. The Stadia were structures of a similar form, designed for contests in racing, but less in size and cost. — Hippodromi were of the same character and seem to have been sometimes built for private use. § 63. Ancient Rome had also a number of large edifices constructed for the purpose of dramatic exhibitions, and for gladiatorial shows. Those for the former use were termed theatra (cf. P. IV. § 238). The first, permanent, was that erected by Pompey, of hewn stone ; near this in the vicinity of the river were two others, that of Marcellus and that of Balbus ; hence the phrase ap- plied to them, tria theatra. — The structures designed for the gladiatorial shows were termed Amphitheatra (P. IV. § 239), of which the most remarkable was the Coliseum, still remaining, a most stupendous ruin. — The Odea were build- ings circular in form, and ornamented with numerous seats, pillars and statues, where trials of musical skill were held, and poetical and other literary com- positions were exhibited, after the manner of the Greeks (P.I. § 65;. Those established by Domitian and Trajan were the most celebrated. § 64. The buildings constructed for the purpose of bathing (balnea) were very numerous ; such as were of a more public character were called thermae. In the time of the republic the baths were usually cold. Maecenas is said to have been the first to erect warm and hot ones for public use. They were then called therma, and placed under the direction of the cedilcs. Agrippa, while he was sedile, increased the number of thermal to 170, and in the course of two centuries there were no less than 800 in imperial Rome. The thermal Diocletiani were especially distinguished for their extent and magnificence (cf. P. I. § 241. 3.) Those of Nero, Titus, Domitian, and especially Caracalla, were also of celebrated splendor. v § 65. The name of Ludi or schools was given to those structures, in which the various athletic exercises were taught and practiced ; those most frequent- ly mentioned are the Ludus Magnus, Matutinus, Dacicus, and JEmilius. There were also several structures for exhibiting naval engagements, called Kaw machia; as JYaumachia Jlugusti, Domitiani. (Cf. P. IV. $ 233.) Finally there were large edifices sacred to the nymphs and called Nymphaa ; one particularly noted, which contained artificial fountains and w T ater-falls, and was adorned with numerous statues of these imaginary beings. Cf. P. III. § ioi. § 66. The Porticos or Piazzas iporticus) were very numerous. These were covered colonnades, adorned with statues and designed as places for meeting and walking for pleasure. They were sometimes separate structures ; some- , times connected with other large buildings, such as basilicap, theatres and the like. The most splendid was that of Apollo's temple on Mount Palatine, and the largest, the one called Milliaria. Courts were sometimes held in porti- cos ; and goods also of some kinds were exposed for sale in them. Cf. P. L $ 237. The city was adorned with Triumphal arches (arcus triumphales), to the number of 36, having statues and various ornaments in bas-relief (T. I.$ 188). Some of them were very magnificent, as e. g. those of Nero, Titus, Trajan, Septimius Severus, and Constantine. These were of the finest marble, and of a square figure, with a large arched gate in the middle, and small one at the sides. § 67. There were single pillars or columns, columns, also erected to com- memorate particular victories, e. g. those of Duillius (cf. P. I. $ 133. 1;, Trajan, and Antoninus. The last two are still standing and are reckoned among the most precious remains remains of antiquity fcf. P. I. $ 188. 2). — With great labor, obelisks were removed from Egypt, of w r hich those still existing, hav- ing been conveyed there by Augustus, Caligula, and Constantius the second, are the most remarkablo. Innumerable also were the statues, which were found not only in the tem- ples, but also in many public places, in and upon large edifices. More than eighty of a colossal size are mentioned. EUROPE. ITALIA. TOPOGRAHY OF ROME. 661 There were likewise erected at Rome a few trophies, tropcBa. These were trunks of marble, sometimes of wood, on which were hung the spoils taken from the enemy, especially the weapons of war. There are two trunks of marble decorated like trophies, still remaining at Rome, and supposed to have been erected by Marius for his victories, over Jugurtha, and over the Cimbri. § 68. Among the memorable things of Rome, the Aqueducts, aquceductus, should be mentioned. Their design was to furnish the city with a constant sup- ply of water, and great expense was laid out in constructing and adorning them. There were 14 of the larger sort; the Aqua Appia, Marcia , Virgo, Claudia, Septimia and Alsictina, are the most known. The smaller reservoirs (lacus) were commonly ornamented with statues and carver's work. Some of the aqueducts brought water more than 60 miles, through rocks and mountains, and over valleys, supported on arches, sometimes above 100 feet high. The care of these origin- ally belonged to the asdiles ; under the emperors, particular officers were appointed for it, called curatores aquarum. R. Fabretti, De Aqua;ductibus veteris Roma?. Rom. 1680. 4. The Cloaca were also works of great cost and of very durable structure. They were a sort of sewers or drains, some of them very large, passing under the whole city, and discharging its various impurities into the Tiber. The principal was the Cloaca Maxima, first built by Tarquin- ius Priscus, cleansed and repaired by M. Astippa ; it was 16 feet broad and 30 feet high, formed of blocks of hewn stone. The Pantheon (§ 59) was over it ; and many private houses stood directly upon the cloaca?. (Stuart's Diet, of Arch.) These were under the charge of officers styled curatores cloacarum. § 69. Splendid tombs and monuments to the dead were sometimes erected (cf. P. IV. § 341). We may name here particularly the Mausoleum of Augustus of a pyramidical form, 385 feet high, with two Obelisks standing near it ; the Moles Hadriani; and the Tomb or Pyramid of Cestius (cf. P. I. § 226. P. IV. § 187.4J. § 70. The number of private buildings amounted, in the reign of Theodo- sius, to 48, 382; including the domus and the insula; the former of which classes comprised, according to Gibbon, the "great houses," and the latter the " plebeian habitations " (cf. P. IV. § 325). Among them were some of great splendor, partly of marble, and adorned with statues and colonnades. The more celebrated were the palaces of Julius Caesar, Mamurra, Junius Verus, Cicero, and Augustus, the golden house of Nero, the palace of Licinius Cras- sus, Aquilius, Catulus, JEmilius Scaurus, Trajan, Hadrian, &c. Before the conflagration of the city under Nero, the streets were narrow and irregular, and the private houses were incommodious, and some even dangerous from their imperfect architecture and the height of three lofty stories. In the time of Nero, more than two thirds of the city was burnt. Of the 14 districts, only 4 remained entire. The city was rebuilt with more regularity, with streets broader and less crooked (cf. Tac. Ann. xv. 43) ; the areas for houses were measured out, and the height restricted to 70 feet. § 71. The suburbs of ancient Rome were so extensive, that its neighborhood was almost one immense village ; but at present, the vicinity of Rome called Compacrna di Roma, is a com- plete desert. Modern Rome is built chiefly on the ancient Campus Martius. The accumula- tion of ruins has raised very sensibly the soil of the city, as is evident from what has been said •respecting the entrance of the Pantheon f§59), and the height of the Tarpeian rock (§ 53). § 72. We proceed now to what remains to be described in the south of Eu- rope fcf. § 27) ; and we might include the whole under the term Grcecia, taken in" a very comprehensive sense, in which it has sometimes been used. For it has been made to cover not only the Peloponnesus and Greece Proper, but also Epirus, Thessalia, Macedonia, and even Thracia. The victories of Philip having procured him a vote in the Amphictyonic council, his Thessalian and Macedonian dominions were consequently ranked among the Grecian states. The valor and policy of the Epirote kings procured the same honor for Epirus not long after ; and finally, Thrace was raised to the same dignity, when it became the habitation of the Roman emperors. But Groecia is rarely used in so large a sense ; and we shall first consider ancient Thrace separately, and include the other countries under Grcecia. Thracia was bounded on the north by the chain of mount Hsemus, which separated it from Moesia ; on the east by the Euxine sea, Thracian Bosphorus, and Hellespont, which divided it from Asia ; on the south by the JEgean sea; and on the west by the river Strymon, dividing it from Macedon. In conse- quence of the conquests of Philip, the river Nessus became the mutual bounda- 56 662 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Ty, of Thrace and Macedon, the intermediate district being annexed to the latter country. — The peninsula contained between the Bay of Melas, and the Hellespont was called Thracice Chersonesus ; celebrated in the wars be- tween Philip and the Athenians. § 73. The capital of Thrace, and at one time of the civilized world, was Byzantium, or Constantinopolis, built on the northeastern extremity of the Chersonese, called from its beauty Chrusoceras, or the golden horn. By whom this city was founded is a matter of dispute ; but it was greatly enlarged and beautified by Constantine the Great, who, in the fourth century of the Chris- tian era, transferred the seat of government hither from Rome. On the di- vision of the Roman empire, this city became the capital of the Greek or eastern part ; it retained this distinction for many years, until from the vices of the inhabitants, and the imbecility of their rulers, it was captured by the Turks, on the 29th of May, A. D. 1453. On the topography of Byzantium, Gibbon, ch. xvii. — James Dallaway, Constantinople ancienl and modern. — JYorth Arner. Rev. 16th vol. or 7th of New Series, p. 438. The other principal towns were, Salmydcssus (Midijeh), celebrated for ship- wrecks ; Thynia, a town and promontory, whence came the Thyni, who colon- ized Bithynia in Asia Minor ; Apollonia called afterwards Slzopolis (Sizeboli), and Mesembria, built by a colony of Megarensians; all on the Euxine sea. — Selymbria (Selibria), and Perinthus, or Hcraclea (Erekli), on the Propontis. — Cailipolis (Gallipoli),at the junction of the Propontis and Hellespont; the small towns Madytos and Cissa, near where the little river JEgos Potamos joins the Hellespont, the scene of the battle in which Lysander destroyed the naval power of the Athenians ; and Sestos (Zenunie), where Xerxes built his bridge of boats across the Hellespont. — Sestos and Abydos are also celebrate- ted for the loves of Hero and Leander. The possibility of swimming across the Hellespont was for a long time doubted, but it was performed by the late Lord Byron. On the bay of Melas, so named from the river Melas, that empties itself into it, were Cardia, destroyed by Lysimachus, to procure inhabitants for a new town ; Lysimachia, that he had built a little farther south ; and Eion, which was burned by its governor, Boges. — In the interior were Trajanopolis , built by Trajan; and Adrianopolis , its successful rival, built by Adrian, and now the second city of the Turkish empire. At the east mouth of Hebrus, stood JEnos, said to have been founded by ./Eneas, near the territory of the Cico- nes ; on the west side, Doriscus, where Xerxes reviewed his immense arma- ment after passing the Hellespont, and it is said that his army were so nu- merous as completetly to drain the neighboring river Lessus. At the mouth of the Nessus was Abdera, the birth-place of the philosopher Democritus, near which were the stables of Diomede, who is said to have fed his horses on human flesh. § 74. The principal rivers of Thrace were the Hebrus (Maritza), celebrated for the clearness and rapidity of its waters; JYessus (Nissar), and Strymon (Jamboli). — The principal mountains were Mount Haimus, extending from the Euxine sea in a western direction between Mcesia and Thrace ; Rhodope, extending from the Euxine sea to the sources of the Nessus ; and Pangaius 7 extending thence to the north of Macedon. It was on the Pangaus that the wonders ascribed to the lyre of Orpheus were said to have been performed (P. II. § 48). Two precipices of this mountain, now called Castagnas, ap- proach to the sea nearly opposite to the island Thasus, and form very narrow passages, which were defended by walls. — The principal seas and bays, ad- joining this extensive maritime country were Pontus Euxinus, Bosphorus Thracius, Propontis, Hellespontus, Melanis Sinus (Gulf of Saros), and Stry- monicus Sinus (Gulf of Contesse). § 75. Thrace was anciently possessed by several independent tribes, one of these, the Dol- onei, being hard pressed by the Absynthi, their neighbors, sent to Delphi to consult the ora- cle about the event of the war. The ambassadors were directed to choose as leader the per- son who should first invite them to his house. While passing through Athens they were hos- pitably entertained by Miltiades the son of Cypselus ; they immediately requested him to ac- company them to the Chersonesus, and Miltiades, having consulted the oracle at Delphi, ac- cepted the invitation. — On his arrival he was immediately created king, and the Absynthians Were soon after defeated. He fortified the Chersonesus by building the long walls across the Isthmus, and after a prosperous reign bequeathed the crown to his nephew Stesagoras. — Stes- EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. THRACIA. 663 agoras dying after a short reign, his brother Miltiades was sent from Athens by the Pisistratidse as his successor. He had not reigned long, when Darius king of Persia, sent a fleet of Phoeni- cians against the Chersonese, and Miltiades, unable to make any effective resistance, retired to Athens. — The Chersonese,after the defeat of the Persians, was principally possessed by the Athe- nians, who colonized all the coast. The interior of Thrace remained subject to the native princes, until the whole country was united to Macedon by Philip and Alexander. § 76. What remains to be described in Europe we shall include, as already- remarked (§ 72), under Gjcecia, using this name in what is commonly considered its most comprehensive sense (cf. P. IV. § 2). The extensive re- gion thus included in Grsecia presents four general divisions, which are obvi- ously suggested by the natural face of the country. The 1st is that part, which lies north of the chain of mountains called Cambunii, which are con- nected by the Stymphaei Montes with the Aero Ceraunii ; the 2d is the part between the Cambunii on the north, and another line of highlands and moun- tains on the south, which may be traced from the Sinus Maliacus on the east, to the Sinus Ambracius on the west ; in its eastern extremity it forms the pass of Thermopylae, and the chain is in this portion of it called (Eta ; as it stretches back in a northerly and then westerly direction, it is called Pindus ; this sends down a spur from the sources of the river Achelous to the Sinus Ambracius, where it forms another pass corresponding to that of Thermopylae on the east ; the 3d is the part between the mountains just traced and the gulfs on each side of the isthmus of Corinth, Sinus Corinthiacus , and Sinus Saron- icus ; and the 4th is the peninsula connected to the main by that isthmus. The first, is Macedonia; the second, Epirus and Thessalia; the third, Hellas; the fourth, Peloponnesus. § 77. (1) Macedonia, considered as including the first of the natural divisions above described, was bouned W. by the Mare Hadriaticum ; N. by Illyricum and Mcesia; E. by Thracia from which it was separated by Mt. Rhodope and the river Nestus flowing from Rhodope ; S. by the yEgaeum Mare, the Cambunii Montes and the other mountains forming the chain, al- ready mentioned, which terminates in the Aero Ceraunii on the western ex- tremity. In noticing the physical features of Macedonia, it will be observed that Mt. Hcemus and Mt. Rhodope, meeting on its N. E. corner, stretch along on its north in a single chain ; this was called Orhelus Mons ; a spur from Orbelus will be noticed running down south through Macedonia, and forming a con- nection with the Stymphcei, or Mons Stympha, already named, between the Cambunii and Aero Ceraunii. The waters east of this spur flow to the iEgean; those west of it, to the Hadriatic. § 78. The principal river of the west was the Drilo (Drino), which runs through lake Lychnidus, and empties into a bay of the Hadriatic, north of the point called JVymphamm Promontorium. — One of the most important places in this western portion was Apollonia, on the Hadriatic coast, celebrated in the Roman age of Greek Literature (P. II. § 9) for its cultivation, and said to be the place where Augustus acquired his knowledge of Greek, and finished his education. Another place is worthy of notice, Epidamnus, further north, called Dyrrachium by the Romans, the place where travelers from Italy to Greece generally landed. This portion, west of the spur, was taken from Illy- ricum by Philip (Rollin, B. 14. § 1). § 79. The country east of the spur is principally champaign. We notice three most considerable rivers ; the Haliacmon (Platemone), in the southern part, flowing east to the Sinus Thermaicns (Gulf of Thessalonica, or Saloni- chi) ; the Axius (Vardari), rising in the heights between Macedonia and Moe- eia, and running S. to the head of the same gulf, receiving on its way many tributaries, and uniting with the Erigon on the west before its discharge ; the Strymon, rising in Mt. Rhodope, and flowing to the Sinus Strymonicus (Gulf of Contessa). — Between the two gulfs or bays just named, was the peninsula sometimes called Chalcidice, and presenting peculiar features, having a cluster of mountains on its neck, and being split into three smaller peninsulas by two bays, the Toronaicus (G. of Cassandra), and the Singeticus (G. of Monte Sancto). The western of these smaller peninsulas was Pellena or Phlegra, the fabled scene of the battle between Jupiter and the Giants (Ov. x. 151) ; the eastern was marked by Mt. Athos, extending several leagues upon and pro- 664 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. jecting into the sea, and was celebrated for a canal said to be cut across its neck by Xerxes to avoid the passage around Mt. Athos, that passage having proved so fatal to the fleet of Darius. § 80. This portion of Macedonia had numerous subdivisions, many of which are not important, even if they could be accurately traced. Pceonia was in the northern part. The partbetAveen the Strymon and Nestus was called Edonis. The southern part on the west of the Sinus Thermaicus, was Pieria. Emathia was north of Pieria, and of the same gulf. Emathia was the most important province. In this was situated Edessa, the original capital of the country, on the Erigon ; also Pella, on the Lydias, subsequently made the capital by Amyntas, the father of Philip. Further east, on the Sinus Thermaicus, was Thermo;, afterwards called Thcssalonica, the place of Cicero's banishment, and the capital of the country as a Roman pro- vince ; here still remains an ancient structure (see Plate XXX), supposed by some to have been a Cabirian temple (cf. P. III. § 129). On the peninsula which has been described f§ 79>> were Potidaa, or Cassandria, on the neck of Pallene, celebrated for its splendor under king Cassander ; Olynthus, memora- ble for its siege by Philip, who after much labor captured it by treachery ; Chalcis, which gave name to the region ; Stagira f Stagrosj, on the eastern coast, the birth-place of Aristotle. — In Pieria, one of the most memora- ble places was Pydna fKitraj, where Olympias was murdered by Cassander, and where the Roman general Paulus iEmilius made a prisoner of Perseus the last king of Macedonia, B. C. 168. North of this, on the coast, was Met hone, at the siege of which Philip lost his right eye. — In Edonis were two im- portant towns ; Amphipolis , originally on an island in the river Strymc . an Athenian colony; Phiiippi, further east, near Mons Pangeeus, a branch from Rhodope. The latter was built by Philip, for the same purpose for which the Athenians built Amphi- polis ; to secure the valuable gold and silver mines found in this region. It is celebrated for the battle in which rrutus and Cassius were defeated by Augustus and Antony, B. C. 42 ; and memorable as the place where Paul and Silas, having been " thrust into the inner prison, with their feet fast in the stocks, at midnight sang praises unto God " (Acts, xvi. 25). Its site is still marked by ruins (Miss. Herald, Sept. 1836. p. 334;. — Like most of the Greceian cities, it was at the foot of a hill or mount on which was its Acropolis. A view of the Acropolis and of the plain below is given in our Plate XXXI. A traveler on horseback is advancing on the road from Neapolis to Phiiippi ; he is just passing a modern Turkish burying-ground on his right hand under a near hill ; the Acropolis, with its ruins, appears on the eminence beyond at the right; at the base of this eminence, was the lower city, on the south and southwest; farther to the south is an open plain ; the mountain on the left is the southern extremity of Pangaus. § 81. The kingdom of Macedonia was said to be founded by Caranus, a descendant of Her- cules, B.C. 814; but it did not acquire consequence until the'reign of Philip, who ascended the throne B. C.360. It has been stated, that 15U different nations or tribes were finally includ- ed within its 'Units. § 82. (2) Epirus and Thessalia, embraced in the second natural division pointed out (§ 76), are next to be noticed. Thessalia is described by Herodotus as a very extensive plain, embosomed in mountains. The Cambunii and Olympus were on the north ; Pelion and Ossa, on the east; Pindus, on the west; and (Eta, on the soutli : so that only the small portion of coast between the Sinus Pelasgicus and the Sinus Ma- liacus is without the guard of mountains : and even this has a guard a little in the interior, by Mt. Othrys, which strikes across from Pindus to Pelion. The extensive plains of Thessaly were peculiarly favorable to the breeding of horses ; and the Thessalians were the first who introduced the use of cav- alry, horses having been, at first, only used for draught. Hence, perhaps, arose the fable of the Centaurs, a people of Thessaly, who were supposed to have been half man and half horse. The Thessalian cavalry maintained their superiority to a very late period, and to them Philip was indebted for many of his victories. § 83. The northern part of Thessaly was called Pelasgiotis, from the Pel- asgi, an Asiatic wandering tribe, who are supposed to have been the first in- habitants of Greece (P. I. $ 33). The principal cities in Pelasgiotis were Larissa, the capital of the province ; Gomphi, destroyed by Ceesar ; Gonnus and Gyrtona, near the entrance of the vale of Tempe, so celebrated for its nat- ural beauties ; Scotussa, near which are some hills, called, from their shape, PLATE XXX. 1 . The Rotunda of Salonica, the ancient Thessalonica. It is supposed to have been a Cabirian Temple. By the Christians it was converted into a church of Paul and Peter. The Turks have turned it into a mosque; and erected the minaret, which appears attached to it, and in the gallery of which is seen a Muezzin, whose office is to announce from the gallery the hour of prayer. 2. A fountain for the Mussulman ablution before prayers. 56* 6Q6 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Cynos Cephale, where Philip was defeated by Quintus Flaminius ; and Phar- salus 7 nedLT which, in a plain called Pharsalia,Vompey was overthrown by Cffisar. The eastern part of Thessaly was named Magnesia; the most remarka- ble places were Sepias, a small village on a promontory of the same name, where the fleet of Xerxes received an omen of their final overthrow, being shattered in a storm ; Demetrius fVlooJ, built by Demetrius Poliorcetes, and which, from the commercial advantages of its situation, almost depopulated the neighboring towns ; Melibceu, the city of Philoctetes ; lolcos, the residence of Jason and Medea; Pagasce, where the ship Argo was built, from which the Sinus Pelasgicns is sometimes called Pagasams : Aphetce ^FetioJ, whence the Argonaut"c expedition sailed; Pherce, the residence of the tyrant Alexander; and Thebce, near the river Amphrysus, where Apollo fed the herds of king Admetus. In the southern parts of Thessaly were Mulia, which gives name to the Maliac bay ; Larissu, called Cremaste from its sloping situation, the capital of the kingdom of Achilles; Jllos, at the foot of mount Othrys, near which the combat between the Centaurs and Lapithae took place ; Phy- lace on the sea coast, the residence of Protesilaus ; Dorion, where the musical contest between Thamyris and the Muses took place ; Hypatu, famous for the magical arts of its women (Hor. Ep. 5 J ; Lamia, where Antipater was fruit- lessly besieged by the Athenians ; and Trachis (Ze'iton), celebrated for its des- 2>erate resistance when besieged by the Romans- § 84. The mountains have been mentioned above (§ 82 J. The most remark- able river was the Peneus, which passing the vale of Tcmpe falls into the JSgean sea. This river is said to have overflowed Thessaly, until Hercules opened a passage for the waters between mounts Olympus and Ossa. The principal inlets of the iEgean sea, on the Thessalian coast, were Sinus Pelas- gicns or Pagasceus fGulf of Volo), and Sinus Muliacus fGulf of ZeitonJ. § 85. The inundation of Thessaly, during the reign of Deucalion, is one of the first events recorded in profane history ; all the inhabitants, except Deucalion and his wife Pyrrha, are said to have been destroyed. Perplexed to discover by what means the human race might be re- stored they consulted the oracle of Themis, and were ordered to throw stones behind them ; those thrown by Deucalion became men and those by Pyrrha women. In this fable the history of some partial inundation seems to be confounded with the tradition of the universal deluge. The next remarkable occurrence was the A rgonautic expedition under Jason, aided by the bravest heroes of Greece, in the ship Argo (P. III. § 127 J. — Achilles was the most remarka- ble Thessalian prince after Jason ; he was the son of Peleus and the sea-nymph Thetis ; an oracle had foretold that he would perish if he accompanied the Greeks to Troy ; to prevent this, his mother concealed him at the court of Lycomedes, king of Scyros, by one of whose daughters he begat Pyrrhus, or Neoptolemus, afterwards king of Epirus. Achilles was at last discovered by Ulysses and brought to Troy, where he was slain by Paris, one of the sons of Priam. During the supremacy of Athens and Sparta. Thessaly seems to have been of little impor- tance. The greater part of it was annexed to Macedon by Philip and his successors. — It was cruelly devastated in the wars between the Romans and the Macedonian and Syrian kings ; it also suffered very severely in the civil wars between Caesar and Pompey. § 86. Under Epirus a greater extent than we have assigned to it is often included. We have suggested as its natural boundaries on the north the mountains Cambunii and Aero Ceraunii,and on the south, the Sinus Ambra- cius; but the region called Orestis between the Aero Ceraunii and the river Aous is commonly termed a province of Epirus ; and Jicurnuniu, within the proper limits of Hellas, is also often considered as another province. In all descriptions, it is separated from Thessaly by Mt. Pindus ; while the Mare Ionium bounds it on the west. Within the compass here given, it included the provinces Chaonia, Thesprotia, and Molossis. § 87. Chaonia was the portion under the Aero Ceraunii on the south, said to be named from Chaon, the brother of Helenus son of Priam. These mountains were so called from their summits («xoa) being often struck with lightning (xeoawug) ; they were remarkable for attracting storms, and were dreaded by mariners ; the rocks at the westerm extremity of their southern branch, Jlcro-Ccruunia, were called infamous (infames). — The principal towns were Oricum in the extreme north, on the coast between the branches of the mountains just mentioned; and Anchesmus also on the coast and in the extreme south of the province. Thesprotia extended on the coast from Chaonia to the Sinus Ambrucius (G. of Arta). Its principal places were, Buthrotum on the river Xanthus, near EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. GR^CIA. 667 which iEneas is said to have landed on his flight from Troy to Italy ; and Ephyra (a), on the river Acheron, flowing to the harbor called Glycis Limeu (yXvxvg ?.iu> i r). The river Acheron is joined at its mouth by the Cocytus. — These were ranked in the ancient mythology among the flumina inferorum, or infernal rivers; three others had the same rank ; the Styx, in Arcadia; the Lethe, in Bceotia probably ; and the Phlegethon, the location of which, as an actual river, is unknown, although it is represented sometimes as uniting with the Acheron. (a) Ephyra was subsequently called Cichyrus ; the ruins of its walls are said to be still visi- ble. — Hughes, Travels in Greece and Albania. Lond. 1820. 2 vols. 4. M o 1 o s s i s was east of Thesprotia, and north of the Sinus Ambracius. Its principal towns were Ambracia, the residence of the Epirote kings, on the river Aracthus or Arethon ; Dodona, famous for its oracle and temple of Jupi- ter (P. IV. § 71), and Passaro, where the kings of Epirus took the corona- tion oath. — The Molossian dogs were highly esteemed by the ancients. $ 88. We meet but casual mention of the Epirotes in history until the Macedonian Empire was divided after Alexander's death. It was then that this people, who had hitherto been looked on as barbarians, and held in subjection by the Macedonians, began to take a lead in the affairs of Greece. — The folly of Pyrrhus, who hoped by his victories' in the west, to rival the conquests of Alexander in the east, weakened their forces and diminished their authority. On the invasion of the Romans, the Epirotes adhered to the cause of Grecian liberty with a desperate fidelity, worthy of better success. When the conquest of their country had been achieved by Paulus iEmilius, enraged at their resistance, he ordered seventy of their cities to be destroyed, and 150,000 of the inhabitants to be sold as slaves ; an instance of atrocious re- venge scarcely to be parallelled in history. When the empire of Constantinople fell before the victorious arms of the Mahometans, the remnants of the Christian forces retreated to the fastnesses of the mountains of Suli and the town of Parga in this territory. — The Suliotes, after performing feats of valor only to be paral- lelled in the brighter days of Grecian freedom, were duped by Ali Pacha and treacherously mas- sacred ; and Parga, after many vicisitudes, fell under the power of Turkey. — For an account of Parga, cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. xxm. p. 111. § 89. (3) Our 3d division of Greece includes the portion between Mt. CEta and the large gulfs, Sinus Corinthiacus and Sinus Saronicus. It is what is properly termed Hellas, and is also called GrjEcia Propria. This division is washed on every side but the north by the sea. On the east are first the waters of Sinus Maliacus then of Sinus Opuntius and those between the main-land and Euboea, which are called in the narrowest place Euripus. Leaving these and drawing near the southern point of the country, you enter the Myrtoum Mare, and having passed that point, Sunium Promon- torium, with the splendid temple of Minerva in sight, you proceed up the Si- nus Saronicus (Gulf of Egina) ; at the end of which you must take a land car- carriage, but of 5 miles only, over the isthmus of Corinth (Hexa-Mili), when you reach the Sinus Corinthiacus (Gulf of LepantoJ. — This opens into Hel- las several bays, one at its eastern extremity called Halcyonium Mare, and an- other central and opening to the north called Sinus Crissams (Bay of Salona). — Continuing the survey of the coast of Hellas, you pass out of the Sinus Corinthiacus through the strait called Dardanelles of Lepanto between Rhium on the Peloponnesus, where is the tomb of Hesiod, and Antirrhium on the op- posite side. Issuing from this strait you enter and continue in the Mare Io- nium, till having gone through the artificial channel separating Leucas from the mainland, you turn round the Promontorium Actium and enter the Sinus Ambracius, which ends the tour, and the eastern extremity of which is not more than 70 miles distant, across the mountains, from the Sinus Maliacus^ where the imaginary tour began. § 90. If an observer could take an elevated station in the air, and thence look down upon Hellas, his eye would rest upon an almost countless number of hills and mountains, with rich vales, and small pure streams. At first its summits might seem to rise up over the country in disorder and confusion, but soon he would trace some obvious lines of connection. — He would per- ceive one line of summits stretching from Mt. (Eta at Thermopylae down par- allel to the eastern coast and to the island Euboea as far as to the strait Euri- pus. — He would observe another of more lofty and attractive summits pro- ceeding from Pindus (in about the centre between the Sinus Maliacus and Si- nus Ambracius) running quite southerly a short distance, and then sending off on its right a line of minor summits down to the western extremity of the Sinus Corinthiacus, but itself bending to the south-east, and at length verging 668 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. along the shore of that gulf to its eastern extremity and there connecting with the Geranii Montes and Mons Oncius on the isthmus, and with Mons Cith&rori, which proceeds directly east to the sea south of the straits of Euripus. — The part of this line joining Pindus includes probably the mountains in which the ancient Dryopes dwelt. The first part of the branch which it sends off to the west, is the Coras chain, and the termination of this branch at the gulf ia in the summits called Taphiassus and Chalcis. — In the main line bending to the south-east occur first Parnassus, which although of barren soil was cele- brated for its green valleys and shady groves suited for meditation ; then Hel- icon, with its fountain Hippocrene, sprung (according to fable) from the stamp- ing of Pegasus (cf. P. III. § 117./). — After this, as you turn eastward, ap- pears Cithmron, which has a summit in the eastern part, called Parnes. — In the territory south of these, were several summits, particularly, Pentelicus, famous for its marble, north-east from Athens ; Hymettus, celebrated for its honey, east and south-east of Athens ; Laurius containing the silver mines, in the southern extreme of Attica. — Aracynthus was a chain in iEtolia. § 91. Hellas contained eight small, but independant provinces or districts. These were, beginning on the west, Acarnania, JEtolia, Doris, Locris, Phocis, Boeotia, Meg arts, Attica. The two western districts Acarnania and JEtolia were very inferior to the rest in fame, although nature presented herself in a grander and sublimer as- pect than in some other districts. § 92. Acarnania was marked for its woods and forests, and its inhabit- ants were noted for their attachment to sensual pleasures. We have alluded (§ 76) to the natural boundaries between this district and Epirus, viz. the Si- nus Ambracius and the spur af mountains running from Pindus down to that bay. This line of highlands is now called Makrinoros, which name is also given to the narrow pass under their abrupt and steep termination near the bay, a pass similar to that of Thermopylae. The boundary between Acar- nania and the next district of Hellas, ^Etolia, is the river Achelous, rising among the valleys of Mt. Pindus and flowing to the Mare Ionium. Of the places in Acarnania, we mention Argos Amphilochius, on the river Inachus emptying at the eastern extremity of the Sinus Ambracius ; Anacto- rium on a peninsula forming the north-western corner of the district; Act mm a little further to the east, on the Promontory of the same name. At this place Augustus gained his great naval victory over Antony and Cleopatra, and to commemorate it, built a town called JSicopolis, and instituted games cele- brated every third year, called Actio,. — Leucas was on the northern point of the island Leucadia, which was a peninsula before the Peloponnesian war, but after that separated by an artificial channel. On the south part was a temple of Apollo on the Promontory Leucate, from which the despairing Sap- pho, is said to have thrown herself (cf. P. II. § 54). — Stratus, once its me- tropolis, was on the Achelous which is now called Aspro-potamo. § 93. iE t o 1 i a was east of Acarnania, separated by the river Achelous ; it is now called Flakia from a tribe of barbarians to whom the Greek emperors gave this province. Its other chief river was the Evenus (Fideri) falling into the Corinthian bay ; this and the Achelous are the largest rivers of Hellas. The following are the chief places ; Calydon on the Evenus, under Mt. Chalcis ; associated with the story of the Caledonian boar (destroyed by the son of the king of iEtolia), whose tusks were said to have been preserved in Greece until Augustus carried them to Rome as curiosities ; Thermus the ancient capital, in the interior or between the Evenus and Lake Trichonis. — JYau- pactus, on the Sinus Corinthiacus, under Mt. Taphiassus, was not included in the proper limits of iEtolia, but was given to this province by Philip of Mace- don ; it was said to have its name from vavg and Tt^yvvui, because the Herac- lidas built here their first ship to invade Peloponnesus. § 94. D o r i s , a very small district, lay under mount Pindus, between CEta on the east and the mountains of the Dryopes on the west, having Parnassus on the south-west and being separated from Phocis by elevated hills on the south-east ; thus wholly surrounded by mountains. It was called Doris from Dorus, son of Deucalion ancient monarch of Thessaly. It was a rocky, moun- tainous region. Its towns were situated on the river Pindus a branch of the- EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. HELLAS. 669 Cephissus, which also rises in the hills of Doris. From its four towns Pin- dus, Erineum, Boium and Cytinium, it was called Tetrapolis ; and sometimes Hexapolis, the two places Lilceum and Carphia being added § 95. L o c r i s consisted of two parts separated from each other. — The larger part was on the Sinus Corinthiacus having iEtolia on the west, and Phocis on the east (partly separated from it by the Sinus Crissceus). The in- habitants of this part were called Western Locri, or Locri Hesperii and Locri OzoIcb. Of the origin of the latter name, different accounts are given ; the people are said to have disliked the name exceedingly. One of their prin- cipal places was jimphissa, in the interior, where was a temple to Minerva. — JYaupuctus (§ 93) originally belonged to them. § 96. The other and smaller part of Locris was on the opposite coast of Hel- las, on the waters separating it from Euboea. It was north-east of Phocis and Bosotia, divided from them by a chain of mountains and extending from Mt. (Eta on the north to the Platanius, a small river flowing to the channel of Euboea and separating Locris from Bceotia, on the south. This part was inhabited by two tribes. — the Opuntii were in the southern region, so called from their principal city Opus, which gave name also to the bay adjacent, 5'i- nus Opuntius, containing a small island, Atalanta. The port of Opus, called Cynos, was north of it, on the bay. — The other tribe or people were the Ep- icnemidii, so named from Mt. Cnemis. On this there was a small town of the same name ; other places of note were JYaryx, the city of Ajax, son of Oileus ; Thronium ; and Anlhela, where the Amphictyonic council assembled annually in a temple of Ceres, or as she was called here, in allusion to the council, Thesmophora (the lawgiver). Close to Anthela were the ever-memorable straits of Thermopylae, deriving their name from some hot springs and fortified gates that were there. This celebrated pass, usually reckoned the key of Greece, is about sixty paces wide, and is situated between the ridge of Mount OZta and the Malian gulf, at the junction of the three countries, Locris, Phocis, and Thessaly. Here Leonidas, with a handful of men, bravely resisted the countless myriads of Persia, and died rather than violate the Spartan law, which forbade flight to the citizens. In the same place Antiochus, king of Syria, was defeated by the consul Acilius ; and during the late struggle for Grecian freedom, two sig- nal triumphs were obtained by the Greeks over their Turkish oppressors on the same inspiring spot. $ 97. Phocis extended between the two parts of Locris, from the Corin- thian gulf to the borders of Thessaly. The capital was Elatea, on the river Cephissus, the capture of which by Philip first awakened the attention of the Greeks to the dangerous ambition of the Macedonian monarch. West of Elatea was Delphi, on mount Parnas- sus, celebrated for the oracle of Apollo (P. IV. $ 72), and for the annual meet- ings of the Amphictyonic council (P. IV. § 105) held in the temple. It is now a mean village, called Castri. Parnassus (Haliocoro) had two summits, one sacred to Apollo, and one to Bacchus ; the town stood at the foot of the mountain, and the temple was built on a neighboring eminence (a), close to the fountain Castalia. Near the town, the Pythian games were celebrated, in memory of Apollo's victory over the serpent Python — Cirrha, on the small river Plistus, falling into the Corinthian gulf, was esteemed the port of Del- phi ; near this was Crissa, from which an inlet of the Corinthian gulf,and some- times the whole gulf, was called Crissaeus ; and Anticyra, celebrated for the production of hellebore. — The principal river of Phocis was the Cephissus, which is sometimes confounded with a river of the same name in Attica. (a) A view of Delphi and the heights of Parnassus is presented in the Frontispiece of this Manual, as given by Boca^e, in Barthelemy's Anacharsis. — A plan of Delphi, with explana- tions is found in Lissen'a Pindar, vol. ii. p. 628. as cited P. II. § 60. 4. $ 98. At the time of the Persian invasion, the Phocians strenuously exerted themselves for the common liberties of Greece ; in revenge, Xerxes despatched a large army to lay waste the country and plunder the temple of Delphi. The greater part of the men were destroyed by earth- quakes and lightning ; the inhabitants, encouraged by these appearances of a divine assist- ance, rose en masse, and completely destroyed the remainder About 280 B. C, a large body of Gauls, under the command of Brennus, invaded their country, and were defeated un- der circumstances similar to the defeat of Xerxes. § 99. B 03 o t i a occupied the north-east of Groecia propria, on the shores of the Euripus, a narrow strait, between the island of Euboea and the continent. 670 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. The capital was Thebes, built by Cadmus, the Phoenician, who first intro- dused letters into Greece. The city stood on the river Ismenus, and was or- namented with seven gates, whence it is called Heptapylos. It was the birth- place Of the demi-gods Hercules and Bacchus, of the poet Pindar, and of those illustrious warriors and statesmen, Pelopidas and Epaminondas. The citadel was, from its founder, called Cadmea. — South of this was Platcea, where the Persian army were totally destroyed by the united valor of the Athenians, Spartans, and Plateans ; it was afterwards destroyed by the Spar- tans in the Peloponnesian war. We mention also Leuctra, near lake Copias, where the Spartans were defeated by Epaminondas ; Coronea, near mount Helicon ; Charonea, where Philip having defeated the Athenians and The- bans, became absolute master of Greece ; Lebadea, remarkable for the temple of Trophonius ; and Orchomenus, near which was the Acidalian fountain, sa- cred to Venus. — Near the Corinthian gulf was Thespia, sacred to the MuseSj having a port named Creusa ; and Ascra, the birth-place of the poet Hesiod. — On the Euripus were Aulis, the rendezvous of the Grecian fleet in the Trojan expedition, and the scene of Tphigenia's sacrifice; Tanagra, where the celebrated poetess Corinna was born ; and Delium, a village, which de- rived its name from a temple of Apollo, built in imitation of that at Delos, and was the place where Socrates, in the Peloponnesian war, saved the life of his pupil Alcibiades. § 100. The chief mountains of Bceotia were Helicon, with the fountain Ag- anippe and Hippocrene, sacred to the Muses ; Pimpla, on the borders of Pho- cis, dedicated to the same divinities 5 Dirce, near Thebes ; and Cithceron, on the borders of Megaris, sacred to Bacchus. The people of Bceotia were usually described as naturally stupid, but with apparently little justice ; for it gave birth to many men of superior talents, and the barbarous custom of exposing children, common in the rest of Greece, was here totally prohibited. They have been accused of nourishing a deadly hatred for trifling causes. — In the heroic ages, Thebes seems to have been one of the most powerful of the Grecian states, but its history is so involved, that the dis- covery of the truth is very difficult. It certainly declined in after times ; probably the misfor- tunes and civil discords of the posterity of Cadmus had weakened the power and destroyed the spirit of the people. § 101. Megaris was a small territory, said not to be more than eight miles square, south of Mount Cithaeron, near the isthmus of Corinth. Its chief city was Megara, situated midway between Corinth and Athens, built on two cliffs not far from the the Sinus Saronicus ; its port was A r iscea, taken and destroyed by Pericles. The only other place of note was Crommyon, near the Scironian rocks ; these were said to be very dangerous, and to have derived their name from Sciron, a notorious pirate and robber. § 102. The remaining province of Hellas was Attica, east of Megaris, and south of Cithaeron. The district so named was of a triangular shape, not 30 miles wide at its base on the north and tapering until it terminates in the point called Sunium, projecting into the Myrtoum Mare, east of the Sinus Sa- ronicus (gulf of Engia). It was also called Acte (axrl,) from its maratime sit- uation. The capital was Mheiis, a more full description of which we shall give below. § 103. About ten miles north of Athens is Marathon, where the first Persian invaders, under the command of Datis and Artaphernes, were completely routed by the Athenians, commanded by Miltiades. North of this was the village Rhamnus, where a statue, formed of the marble that the Persians had brought to raise a trophy of their anticipated victory, was erected to the goddess Nemesis ; a little to the east was Phyle, a strong fort, which was oc- cupied by Thrasybulus, in his expedition against the thirty tyrants. On the Euripus was Delphinum, and Oropus, where there was a celebrated temple of Amphiaraus. Nearer to Athens, on the north side, wasAkraffi, where the Lacedaemonians encamped when they invaded Attica; and Decelia, which they fortified by the advice of Alcibiades. — East of Athens, was Brauron, where the statue of Diana, brought from Taurus by Orestes, was preserved until taken away by Xerxes ; a.nd* Sunium, a town and promontory at the south- eastern extremity of Attica, celebrated for a splendid temple of Minerva, .{from the ruins of which it is now called Cape Colonna), and is in modern limes remarkable as the scene of the shipwreck beautifully described by Falconer.— West of Athens was Eleusis, where the Eleusinian mysteries in EUROPE. TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. HELLAS. 671 honor of Ceres were celebrated. There are two remarkable temples at Eleu- sis; that of Ceres and that of Triptolemus. § 104. Topography of Athens. The city of Athens was founded by Ce- crops, an Egyptian, who led thither a colony from the banks of the Nile. At first, it was called Cecropia, from the name of its founder ; and afterwards 'A&fjvai, Athens, in honor of the goddess Minerva (whom the Greeks called 'A&tjrtj), because she was the protectress of the city. In its most flourishing state, it was one of the largest and most beautiful cities of Greece, and is said by Aristides to have been a day's journey in going around it; according to other and more exact computations, it was about one hundred and seventy- eight stadia, or rather more than twenty-two Roman miles ; and Dion Chry- 6ostom reckons it to have been two hundred stadia, about twenty-five Ro- man miles in circumference. — Col. Leake considers the ancient city to have been much larger than the modern, and estimates the circumference as not less than 19 miles at least, reckoning the sinuosities of the coasts and walls. — The number of gates is not know T n; thirteen are named by Robinson; the largest was called JItivIov, and was near the Ceramicus; the r leqa was that leading to Eleusis. For a plan of of Athens, see our Plate XXIX.— The description here given, is drawn chiefly from Robinson's Archasologia Grreca. § 105. Athens lies in a valley, extending from mount Pentelicus on the east to the Sinus Saronicus on the west, between mount Parnes on the north, and Hymettus on the south. In the plain of this beautiful valley thus sur- rounded by natural ramparts, we behold the very singular geological feature of six insular mountain rocks standing in regular succession, and gradually diminishing as you descend from Pentelicus westward to the sea. The one nearest the sea is called the hill of Musaius. On the next is the Acropolis of Athens. The one next to this on the east is Mt. Anchesmus, on the summit of which was a temple and statue in honor of Jupiter ; from this eminence an observer could survey the whole of Athens and its environs. — Two streams furnished their waters to the city. One was the llissus, which flowed to the east and south of the city, and which is supposed, from the appearance of its channel and from the allusions of the poets, to have been anciently much larger than it has been seen in modern times. The other, Ccphissus, was still smaller and ran on the other side. Athens may be described in two parts ; the Cecropia, built by Cecrops on the summit of the hill termed Acrop- olis (axQo7io?.tg), and called the upper city, i) avu ni>).ig; and the part built afterward, ij y.arco Tcol.tg, or the lower city. The hill or Acropolis as distinguished from the lower part is distinctly seen in the View given in our Plate immediately following the title-page ; which is taken from J. C. Hobhouse's Jour- ney through Albania and other provinces of Turkey viov rityog. The north wall was built many ages be- fore by Agrolas, or according to some, by Euryalus and Hyperbius, two brothers, who first taught the Athenians the art of building houses. This wall was de- nominated nt?.aoyiy.6v or IIsXaQyixov, from the Pelasgi,the name of its found- ers. This wall was beautified with nine'gates, from which it is sometimes called * EwcujtvZov ; but, though there were several lesser gates, there was one grand entrance into the citadel, the UqoTii'J.aia, to which the Athenians ascended by steps covered with white marble, and which was built by Peri- cles, at great expense. Over this entrance is one of those enormous slabs of marble, called " marble beams " by Wheeler , and to which Pausanias partic- ularly alluded, when, in describing the Propylrea, he says, that, even in his time, nothing surpassing the beauty of the workmanship, or the magnitude of the stones used in the building, had ever been seen. The inside of the citadel was ornamented with innumerable edifices, stat- ues, and monuments on which the ancient stories were fully described. The noble statues of Pericles, Phormio, Iphicrates, Timotheus, and other Atheni- an generals, were here intermingled with those of the gods. 672 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Here was the temple of Minerva, called Nixrj or Victory, constructed of white marble, and placed on the right of the entrance into the citadel. § 107. About the middle of the citadel was the stately temple of Minerva, called Parthenon, because that goddess preserved her virginity inviolate, or because it was dedicated by the daughters of Erechtheus, who were particu- larly called naodivoi, virgins. It was also denominated 'ExaruuTteSov, be- cause it was one hundred feet square. It was burnt by the Persians, but re- stored by Pericles, who enlarged it fifty feet on each side. It was of the Doric order, and built of that beautiful white marble, found in the quarries of Pentelicus, a mountain of Attica. Within this temple was the statue of Mi- nerva, so celebrated for its size, the richness of its materials, and the exquis- ite beauty of the workmanship. The figure, the work of Phidias, was twen- ty-six cubits high. This temple still remains a noble monument of antiquity, being 229 feet in length, 101 in breadth, and 69 in height. TSee Plate XVI. fig. 1. Cf. P. IV. $ 96. P. I. vS 190. 4 J Here also was the temple of Neptune, surnamed Erechtheus. This was a double building, and, besides other curiosities, contained the salt spring called 'E^tr^tiSf which was feigned to have sprung out of the earth from a stroke of Neptune's trident, when he contended with Minerva for the possession of the country. This part of the temple was consecrated to Neptune. The other part belonged to Minerva, surnamed Tloiiuq, the protectress of the city, and r/uvSyoooc, from one of the daughters of Cecrops of that name.* Here so late as the second century of the Christian asra, was the sacred olive-tree, which was said to have been produced by Minerva, and to have been as old as the foun- dation of the citadel. Here also was the image of the goddess, which was said to have fallen from heaven in the reign of Erichthonius, and which was guarded by dragons, called oixovqoi oipeig, and had a lamp always burning with oil, and an owl before it. The whole structure was called 'Eftix&ttov. Both these buildings still remain. The smaller edifice, which is an entrance to the other, js 29 feet in length, and 21 feet 3 inches in breadth. The larger is 63 1-2 feet in length, and 36 feet in breadth. The roof is supported by channeled Ionic pillars. Behind the temple ot Minerva stood the public treasury, which from its sit- uation was called 'OTtio&odouoc;, and in which, besides other public money, a thousand talents were deposited for any very great exigency of the state. In the citadel were also several other edifices, as the chapel of Jupiter 2~c y.tnautly.yig xi/vt^, from the pot- ter's art, which Was invented here by Corsebus. This extensive space was di- vided into two parts, one of which was situated within the city, and contain- ed a great number of temples, theatres, porticos, &c. ; the other was in the suburbs, was a public burying place, and contained the academy, and several other buildings. The academy and other gymnasia have been already mention- ed (P. I. § 74,64). § 112. ' Ayooui, forums, were very numerous ; but the most remarkable were the old and the new forum. The new forum was in a place called 'JEgrfo&r, which it is probable was near to the portico of Zeno. The old forum was situated in the Ceramicus within the city, and was called * Aoyala hyoQu. It was extremely spacious, and was decorated with buildings dedicated to the worship of the gods, or to the service of the state ; with others which sometimes afforded an asylum to the wretched, but which were often a shelter for the wicked; and with statues decreed to kings and individuals, who had merited well of the republic. In it were held the public assemblies of the people ; but every trade had a different place assigned as a market, and the forum was divided into different parts, according to the wares exposed for' sale. Thus Ki'yJ.og denotes the place where slaves were sold; 'A/.ipirorrwkig ityoqa, the bakers' market; Iyd-vuTiu/.ig Jtyooa the fish-mongers' market; JTwaixsla ayoou, the market for women's apparel. The time when goods were exposed to sale was called rr'.'.t^ovaa uyoQu, full market, from the great num-' ber of persons assembled ; and different hours of the day seem to have been appointed for the sale of different commodities. To this place the inhabitants resorted every day. The Scythians, kept in pay by the republic to maintain order, were encamped in the middle of the forum, Collectors also attended to receive the duties imposed on every thing that was sold, and magistrates to ■ superintend what passed. BovlevTtlQia were public halls, in which each company of tradesmen metj. and deliberated on matters relating to their trades. At Athens trade was very much encouraged ; and if any one reproached another, even the lowest citi- zen, with living by the profit of his traffic, he was liable to an action of' slander. § 113. Aqueducts were not common at Athens before the time of the Ro- mans ; and the want of them was supplied by wells, some of which were dug by private persons, and others at the public expense ; but as good water at Athens was extremely scarce, frequent quarrels arose among the citizens. Adrian laid the foundation of a stately aquedut which was finished by his successor Antoninus, and which was supported by Ionic pillars. The stadium was a large semicircle in which exercises were performed ; and for the accommodation of spectators, who resorted thither in great numbers, it was built with steps above each other, in order that the higher ranks might look over the heads of those placed below them. The most remarkable at Athens, and indeed in all Greece, was the stadium erected near the river Ilis- sus by Lycurgus, and afterwards enlarged by Herodes Atticus, one of the richest of the Athenians. It was built of Pentelic marble, with such magnifi- cence that Pausanias did not expect to be credited, even in his brief descrip- tion of this work, and says that it was a wonder to be taken for a mountain of of white marble upon the banks of the Ilissus. It was about 125 geometrical- faces in length, and 26 or 27 in breadth, and was therefore called a stadium/ EUROPE. HELLAS. TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 675 a measure in ordinary use among the Greeks, being the eighth part of a Ro- man mile. § 114. The Areopagus was a small eminence a little to the north-west of the Acropolis. On this, the court or senate of the Areopagus usually held its meetings. (Cf. P. IV. § 108). A space was leveled for the purpose on the summit of the rock ; and the steps which conducted to it, were cutout of the natural solid stone. There was originally neither enclosure nor roof; but mere- ly an altar to Minerva, and two stone seats for the accuser and defendant. The court was occasionally protected by a temporary erection. — The Pnyx, JTvic, was another eminence, opposite the Areopagus, not far from the citadel,celebrat- ed as the place where the Athenians held their assemblies. Almost the whole of the structure, as appears from a recent removal of the earth in this place, was an excavation of the rock. The foiia, on which theorators stood to address the people, was carved from the stone, and yet remains. Before this was a semi- circular area, of which the part most distant from the orator's stone consists of masonry. In the perpendicular surface of the rock, facing this area, are niches for votive tablets. § 115. Athens had theatres besides those termed Odea. One of the most celebrated was the theatre of Bacchus, capable of accommodating 30,000 spec- tators. (Cf. P. I. $235). This contained statues of many of the tragic and comic writers, and was the place, where the dramatic contests (P.I. § 66) were decided; it was near the Acropolis, at its south-east angle. Nothing of it is now seen except the circular sweep scooped in the rock for the seats. Above it, in the rock of the Acropolis, still appears a cavern or grotto, formerly term- ed the Cave of Bacchus, but now converted into a sort of chapel. — Close by this cavern stands a building, called the Choragic monument of Thrasyllus; having on its front three inscriptions recording dramatic victories obtained in the theatre. Over this building and higher up the rock are the two Columns of ike tripods, or Choragic pillars. There were several other edifices in Athens, erected for the same purpose ; one, exquisitely wrought, is near the eastern end of the Acropolis, commonly called the Lantern of Demosthenes, but proved by its inscription to be a choragic monument erected by Lysicrates. This edifice stood in the street of the tripods so called from the circumstance, that in it were erected (on choragic monuments or pillars, or otherwise located) numerous tripods, which had been obtained as prizes in the musical or theatri- cal contests (a). — North-east from the Acropolis, on this street of the tri- pods, was the Iluvrarslor, were was a public hall, and where the laws of Solon were deposited- Near it was the Bov?.tiov or senate-house. (a) See P. I. §66. — A view of the Monument of Thrasyllus is given in Plate VI., fig. C j and of that Lysicrates, in the same Plate, fig. A. § 116. Athens had three harbors for ships. — 1. IleiQaiivg, Pirceus, which belonged to the tribe of Hippothoontis, and was about 35 or 40 stadia distant from the city, before the building of the uaxoa rhlyn or l° n g walls. After that time, the Athenians, by the direction of Themistocles, rendered this their principal harbor. It contained three oouoi or docks. In this harbor were five porticoes, which being joined together formed a very large one, called on that account May.oa aro'a. The Piraeus also contained two forums. Here the pro- ductions of all countries were aecumulated ; and this was the market not of Athens only, but of all Greece. In this harbor three hundred galleys have sometimes been collected at once ; and it was sufficiently capacious to contain four hundred. The advantages of this place were first observed by Themis- tocles, when he devised the plan of giving a navy to Athens. Markets and magazines were presently erected, and an arsenal capable of furnishing every thing necessary for the equipment of a great number of vessels. — 2. Mov- rvy'ia, Munychia, which was a promontory not far distant from Piraeus, and extended not unlike a peninsula, and was well fortified both by nature and art. It received its name from a person called Munychus, who dedicated in this place a temple to Diana, surnamed Movwyia. — 3. <£>aP.j/oov, Phalerum, which belonged to the tribe Antiochis, and was distant from the city 35 stadia, or as «ome say only 20 stadia. This was the most ancient of the three harbors ; and from it Theseus is said to have sailed for Crete, and Mnestheus for Troy. For further details respecting the interesting objects in this renowned city, we refer to the 676 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. works cited P. I. $243. 1. ; P. II. $7. (b). —We may add Waddington , s Visit to Greece.— Hughes, Travels in Greece, &c. Lond. 1820. 2 vols. 4. — Kruse, Hellas, oder Darstellung des alten Griechenlandes, &c. Leipz. 1725. 3 vols. 8. In this work may be found an account of Lord Elgin's proceedings (cf. P. I. § 190. 4) ; also of the various modern works illustrating the remains of Grecian art in general. — Cf. Stuart's Diet, of Architect, under Athenian Architecture ; cf. also Chateaubriand's Travels, in Introduction. — E. D. Clarke, Travels in various countries, &.c. Part II. sect. 2. — Barthelennfs Anacharsis, ch. xii., a beautiful description. — W. M. Leake, Topography of Athens. Cf. Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature of the United King- dom, vol. in. p. 183. — Riendcker, Topographie von Athen (a German translation of Leake). Halle, 1829. With notes of Muller and Meier. — C. 0. Muller, De Munimentis Athenarum, &c. Gbtt. 1837. 4. With plates. — L. Bergmann, Die Alterthiimer von Athen, nach Stuart und Revett &c. Weimar, 1838. 80 plates. — Hiris Plan des Athen. —Ensch # Orubcr, Encyclopa- die, under Attika (written by Muller). — There is a glance at some of the most interesting ob- jects, in W. Colton, Visit to Constantinople and Athens. N. York, 1836. 12. ch. 18, 19. § 117. (4.) The Peloponnesus, the fourth division of Graecia (§ 76), re- mains to be noticed. In looking at the physical features of this peninsula, we perceive in the interior a circular chain of mountains, almost surrounding an included tract of country which was called Arcadia. From this circle of el- evated summits, various branches are sent off towards the sea; and we find a line running out to each of the principal promontories ; to Rhium Prom, at the entrance of the Sinus Corinthiacus ; to Chelonites Prom, on the western side of the peninsula; to Acritas Prom, west of the Sinus Messeniacus ; to Tama- rum, to Malea, and to Scyllceum, the other points, which occur in passing round the peninsula to the east. — Between these several mountains were fruitful valleys, watered by numerous streams descending from the mountains in eve- ry direction. § 118. This country was originally called Argia and Pelasgia, but after the conquests of Pelops was called the island of Pelops, TIi).o;io; r^aoz; it was also called Apia. Its present name, Morea, is said to be drawn from its re- semblance to a mulberry-leaf in shape, or from the number of mulberry-trees that it produces. — It may be considered in six divisions; Achaia, Argolis, Elis, Arcadia, Messenia, and Laconia. Sicyonia and Corinthia are sometimes added to these ; but they may be included under Achaia. § 119. Achaia, in the extent we have just given to it, includes the whole north coast of Peloponnesus, and the isthmus of Corinth, by which it is joined to Hellas. Exclusive of Sicyonia and Corinthia, it comprised twelve towns, each independent and possessed of its own little territory, which were from a very early time united in a sort of confederacy, called the Achaean league ; they were Dyme, Olenus, Pharae, Tritaea, Patra (now Patras), Rhype, JE>- gium, the place where the deputies of the league met, Helice, Bura, iEge, JEgina, and Pellene. In the resistance to the Romans made by the Achaean league in the later ages, the cities of Sicyon and especially Corinth took part. It was from the opposition made in Achaia, that the Romans, when Mummius reduced Greece to a subject province by the capture of Corinth, B. C. 146, applied the name Achaia to the whole country. § 120, Sicyon was the most ancient city of Greece, said to have been found- ed B. C. 2089. — But Corinth has obtained greater notoriety ; it was on the isthmus at nearly an equal distance from the Saronic and Corinthian gulfs- It was once called Ephyra. Its citadel was on a hill called Acro-Corinthus. It had two ports ; Lcchceum, on the Sinus Corinthiac?is, and Cenchrecc, on the Sinus Saronicus. Although destroyed by Mummius, it afterwards recovered its splendor, being rebuilt by Julius Caesar, and became more famous than be- fore for its luxury and licentiousness. The isthmus of Corinth was an important pass. Several attempts have been made, at different periods, to join these two seas by a canal, and from the fail- ure of them all, " to cut through the Corinthian isthmus " has become a pro- verbial expression for aiming at impossibilities. Here the Isthmian games, in honor of Neptune, were triennially celebrated ; and here a stand has frequent- ly been made against foreign invaders, the narrowness of the isthmus easily admitting of regular fortification. § 121. Argolis occupied the north-eastern extremity of the Peloponne- sus. Its chief town was Argos, on the river Inuchus, more celebrated in the heroic than the historic ages of Greece. When Perseus had accidently slain* his grandfather Acrisius, he transferred the seat of government to Myccnce ; this latter city retained its power to the end of the Trojan war ; but after the EUROPE. PELOPONNESUS. TOPOGRAPHY OF SPARTA. 677 tieath of Agamemnon, the Argives, through motives of jealousy, besieged, captured, and leveled it with the ground. — North of Argos was Ncmea, where Hercules slew the Nemean lion, and instituted the Nemean games in memory of his victory ; and Tirynthus a favorite residence of Hercules, whence he is frequently called the Tirynthian hero. — On the Argolic bay (Gulf di Napoli) were, JYauplla (Napoli di Romania), in ancient and modern times the principal port in these countries ; Epidaurus, remarkable for a cel- ebrated temple of ^Esculapius (P. III. § 84) ; and Troezene, whither the aged inhabitants of Athens retired when their city was burned by Xerxes. § 122. E 1 i s was a small province south of Achaia, on the coast of the Io- nian sea. Its chief town was Elis, the residence of king Salmoneus, who is said to have provoked the indignation of Jupiter, by his attempts to imitate thunder and lightning ; it was on the Pencils (Belvidere or Igliaco), a principal river of the province. Pisa, destroyed at a very remote period, was on the Mpheus (Rouphia), a larger river flowing from Arcadia. Not far from Pisa was Olym- pian, the place near which the Olympic games were celebrated. Olympia was the name not of a city, but of the sacred site near which the games were per- formed. Here was the grove Altis, with splendid monuments scattered in it ; the temple of Olympian Jupiter, with its celebrated statue (cf. P. III. §24) ; the Cronium or Hill of Saturn ; also a famous hippodrome and stadium. — Barthelemy, ch. xxxviii. as cited P. II. $ 153. 2 Choiscul-Gouffier, Sur l'Hippodrome d'Olympia, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xlix." p. 122. — Disserts Pindar, vol. n. p. 630, where is a plan with explanations. § 123. Arcadia occupied the centre of the Peloponnesus ; and being en- tirely devoted to agriculture, was said to be sacred to Pan. — Its principal towns were Tegma, the capital ; Orchomenus, near the lake Stymphalus, where Hercules destroyed the Harpies; Mantinea, where Epaminondas fell ; and Megalopolis, built by that general to repress the incursions of the Lacedaemo- nians. Near the ruins of Mantinea is Tripolitza, the present metropolis of the Morea. The mountains of Arcadia were greatly celebrated by the poets ; the prin- cipal were Cyllene, the birth-place of Mercury; Erymanthus, where Hercu- les slew an enormous boar ; Mamalus, sacred to the Muses ; Parthenius, where Atalanta resided ; Parrhasius and Lycams, sacred to Jupiter and Pan. From the hill Nonacris flowed the celebrated river Styx; its waters were said to be poisonous. $124. The south-western division of the Peloponnesus was Messenia, of which Messene, a strongly fortified town, was the capital; the citidal was called Ithome, and was supposed to be impregnable. — The other principal towns were Pylos, the city of Nestor, now called jYavarin ; Methone, where Philip defeated the Athenians ; and CEchalia or Erytopolis, conquered by Hercules. The Messenians, after a desperate resistance, were subdued by the Lacedremonians, and the greater part compelled to leave the country. Subsequently their city lay long in ruins ; but when Epaminondas had destroyed the supremacy of Sparta, he recalled the descendants of the exiles and rebuilt Messene. After his death, the Spartans again became masters of the coun- try, but did not expel the Messenians from their restored possessions. § 125. The south-eastern and most important division of the Peloponnesus was L a c o n i a. Its capital was Sparta, which we shall describe in the fol- lowing sections. The other towns of note were Jlmycla, on the Eurotas, the residence of Le- da ; Therapne, on the same river, the birth-place of Castor and Pollux; Gy- theum, the principal port of Laconia; Helos, whose inhabitants were enslaved by the Spartans ; and Sellasia, where the Achoeans, by the defeat of Cleome- nes, liberated the Peloponnesus from the power of Lacedsemon. The Sinks Laconicus (Gulf of Colochina), was bounded by the capes Ma- lea (St. Angelo), and T&narum (Matapan). Near Tsenarum was a cave rep- resented by the poets as the entrance into the infernal regions ; through this Hercules is said to have dragged up Cerberus. The Peloponnesian states were first subjected by Pelops ; but about eighty years after the Trojan war, the Heraclidje, or descendants of Hercules, returned to the Peloponnesus, and became masters of the different kingdoms. This event, which forms a remarkable epoch in Grecian history, took place 1104 B. C. § 126. Topography of Sparta. The city of Lacedsemon, which was an- ciently called Sparta, is said to have been built by king Lacedsemon, who gave 57* 678 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. , it the latter denomination from his wife Sparta, though he designated the country and the inhabitants from his own name ; but some think that this city received the appellation of Sparta from the Sparti, who came with Cadmus into Laconia. It was situated at the foot of mount Taygctus, on the west side of the river Eurotas, which runs into the Laconic gulf. It was of a circular form, and forty-eight stadia or six miles in circumference, and was surround- ed, to a great extent, with vineyards, olive or plane trees, gardens, and sum- mer-houses. Anciently the city was not surrounded with walls ; and its only defence was the valor of its inhabitants. Even in the reign of Agesilaus, and for the space of eight hundred years, this city was without any fortifications ; but af- ter it fell into the hands of tyrants, it was surrounded with walls, which were rendered very strong. It had however, some eminences, upon which soldiers might be posted in case of an attack. The highest of these eminences served as a citadel ; its summit was a spacious plain, on which were erected several sacred edifices. Around this hill were ranged five towns, which were sepa- rated from each other by intervals of different extent, and each of which was Occupied by the five tribes of Sparta. § 127. The great square or forum, ^Jyonu, in which several streets termi- nated, was embellished with temples and statues. It also contained the edi- fices, in which the senate, the ephori, and other bodies of magistrates assem- bled. Of these public edifices the most remarkable was the Portico of the Persians, which the Lacedaemonians erected after the battle of Platsea, at the expense of the vanquished, whose spoils they shared. The roof of this build- ing was supportedijy colossal statues of the principal officers in the army of Xerxes, who had been taken or killed in that battle, and who were habited in flowing robes. — The Scias was a building not far from the forum, in which assemblies of the people were commonly held. The Chorus was a part of the forum, where dances were performed in honor of Apollo in the Gj'mnopse- dian games. Upon the highest of the eminences stood a temple of Minerva, which had the privilege of asylum, as had also the grove that surrounded it, and a small house appertaining to it, in which king Pausanias was left to expire with hun- ger. The temple was built with brass (Xuly.'ioiy.oc). Within the building were engraven, in bas-relief, the labors of Hercules, and various groups of figures. To the right of this edifice was a statue of Jupiter, supposed to be the most ancient statue of brass in existence ; of the same date with the re- establishment of the Olympic games. The most ornamented place in Sparta, however, was the Pcecile, which, in- stead of being confined to a single gallery like that at Athens, occupied a ve- ry considerable extent. The Romans afterwards took away the superb paint- ings in fresco which had been employed to decorate the walk. — Farther ad- vanced in the city, appeared different ranges of Porticoes, intended only for the display of different kinds of merchandize. § 128. Columns and statues were erected for Spartans who had been crowned at the Olympic games ; but never for the conquerors of the enemies of their country. Statues might be decreed to wrestlers, but the esteem of the peo- ple was the only reward of the soldiers. It was not till forty years after the battle of Thermopylae, that the bones of Leonidas were conveyed to Sparta and deposited in a tomb near the theatre ; and at the same time also the names of the three hundred Spartans who had fallen with him, were first inscribed on a column. — The theatre was in the vicinity of the forum, and was con- structed of beautiful white marble. Not far from the tomb of Leonidas were those of Brasidas and Pausanias. Funeral orations and games were annually given near these monuments. Of the edifices and monuments of Sparta it may be remarked in general, that they were not distinguished for architectural beauty ; and the city had nothing imposing or splendid in its appearance. § 129. On the south side of the city was the r Ittttv^qouoc, or course for foot and horse races, some vestiges of which are still visible ; and a little distance from it was the Platanistas, or place of exercise for youth, shaded by beauti- ful plane-trees, and enclosed by the Eurotas on one side, by a small rivex EUROPE. ISLANDS OP THE ATLANTIC. 679 which fell into it on the other, and by a canal which opened a communication with both on the third. The Platanistas was entered by two bridges, on one of which was the statue of Hercules, or all-subduing force, and on the other that of Lycurgus, or all-regulating law. The place which served Sparta for a port or harbor, was Gytheium, rrdnor, situated west from the mouth of the Eurotas, and distant from Sparta 240 sta- dia according to Strabo, and 30 [300?] according to Polybius. It was early surrounded by strong walls, and had an excellent harbor, in which the fleets of Sparta rode in security, and where they found every requisite for their maintenance and security. The ruins of Sparta are found, under the name Palwochori or old town, about two miles dis- tant from the modern town Misitra, near a spot called Magoula. " The whole site," says Cha- teaubriand, " is uncultivated ; when I beheld this desert, not a plant adorned the ruins, not a bird, not an insect, not a creature enlivened them, save millions of lizards, which crawled without noise up and down the sides of the scorching walls. A dozen half wild horses were feeding here and there upon the withered grass ; a shepherd was cultivating a few watermel- ons in a corner of the theatre ; and at Magoula, which gives its dismal name to Lacedaemon, I observed a small grove of cypresses." On the topography and ruins of Sparta, see Chateau- briand's Travels (p. 94, ed. N. Y. 1814). — Le Roi, Monumensde la Grece. — Sir W. Qell, Itin- erary of the Morea. — Leake's Travels in the Morea. Lond. 1830. 3 vols. 8. — Cramer, Dodwell, 4-c, as cited P. II. §7. (b). (d) Islands belonging to Europe. § 130. It was mentioned ($8), that having considered the mainland, under three divisions, northern, middle, and southern, we might notice the islands together under a fourth. The European islands known to the ancients were in the Atlantic or Mediterranean ; of those in the Baltic they knew but little. We will speak first of those in the Atlantic. § 131. Of these, Bri tannia was the most important. It was scarcely known to exist before the days of Julius Caesar. Being peopled by success- ive migrations from Gaul, the Britons naturally aided the mother country when invaded, and thus provoked the vengeance of Rome. The south-west- ern shores are said to have been visited by the Phoenicians at a much earlier period ; and that enterprising people have been described as carryiug on an extensive trade for tin with Cornwall and the Scilly isles, which, from their abounding in that metal, were called the Cassiterides Insula or Tin islands. § 132. The enumeration of the several tribes and villages being a matter rather of curiosity than utility, we shall only notice a few of the more remark- able. — The Cantii occupied the south of the island; in their territory were Rutupicp (Richborough), celebrated for its oysters by Juvenal ; and PortusLe- manis fLymne), where Cassar landed B. C. 55. — The Trinobantes possessed the country north of the Cantii; their chief town was Londinum (London), the most flourishing Roman colony in Britain. — The Silures possessed South Wales, and appear to have been a very flourishing and warlike tribe. Carac- tacus, one of their kings, is celebrated for having bravely defended the liber- ties of his country; and for a long time baffled the utmost efforts of the Ro- mans : he was at length subdued by Ostorius Scapula, A. D. 51, and sent in chains to Rome. — On the eastern coast were the Iceni. whose queen Boadi- cea, having been cruelly abused by the Roman deputies, took up arms to avenge her own and her country's wrongs ; at first she obtained several victo- ries over her oppressors, but was finally defeated by Suetonius Paulinus, A. D. 61. — The north of England was possessed by the Brigantes, the most pow- erful and ancient of the British nations; their principal towns were Eboracum (York), and Isurium (supposed to be Aldborough), the capital of their tribe. § 133. Scotland was still less known than England ; five nations on the borders, known by the general name of Meatce, were subdued by Agricola ; and became nominally subject to the dominion of Rome. When Britain became a Roman province, it was divided into the five fol- lowing provinces; Britannia prima, comprising the eastern and southern di- vision of the country ; Flavia Casariensis, containing the western tribes ; Britannia secunda, which included all Wales ; Maxima Casdriensis. which contained the country between the former divisions and the river Tweed ; and Valejitia, occupied by the Meatae. 680 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. § 134. To repel the incursions of the Picts and Scots, who frequently laid waste the Roman settlements, several walls were built across the island. The first was erected by the celebrated Agricola, who completed the conquest of Britain. But this being found insufficient to restrain the incursions of the barbarians, the emperor Adrian erected a rampart of great strength and di- mensions. — It extended from JEstuarium Itunce, (Solway Firth), on the west- ern coast, to Segedunum (Cousin's House), a village north of Pons JElii (New Castle-upon-Tyne), on the eastern coast, a distance of about 70 miles. It consisted of a double rampart and ditch, and was strengthened by forts erect- ed at short intervals. — Twenty years after this, the emperor Antoninus re- built the wall of Agricola, which was nearly parallel to that of Adrian, and had been neglected after that was built, whence this is usually called the ram- part of Antoninus. § 135. But the last and greatest of these structures was the wall erested by the emperor Severus, A. D. 200. — It was situated a few yards north of the wall of Adrian, and was one of the strongest fortifications of antiquity. The wall was twelve feet wide and eight feet high, built of stone and cement; it was strengthened by eighteen stations or garrisons, thirty-one castles, and three hundred and twenty-four towers : the whole body of forces employed to garrison this immense range of fortification were ten thousand men, besides six hundred mariners, appointed to guard the points where the ramparts com- municated with the shore. § 136. The islands adjoining Britain were the Orcades (Orkneys), Hebrides (Western Isles), Mono, Taciti (Anglesea), Mono. Ccesaris (Man), Vectis (Isle of Wight), and Cassiterides (Scilly Isles). — Ireland was known to the an-> cients only by name, and was called Ierne Juverna, or H i b e r n i a. The Irish say that they are descended from a Scythian nation, and that at an early period. part of the country was colonized by the Phoenicians ; in proof of the latter, it has been urged that the specimens of the Punic language preserved by Plautus, are almost pure Irish, and that antique swords, found in the bogs of Ireland, have on analysis been proved to consist of materials, precisely similar to those of the Punic swords dug up by Sir \V. Hamilton in the field of Cannae. — Cf. P. II. § 352. 2. An island called T h u 1 e is frequently mentioned in the classical authors as the most distant known, but its situation has not been described, and therefore we cannot be certain what particular island was meant. Iceland, some of the Shetland isles, and Greenland, have been named by different modern writers (cf. $ 3;. § 137. In speaking of the islands in the Mediterranean, we begin in the western 'part. The Balearicts, deriving their name from the skill of the in- habitants in slinging and archery, were on the coast of Spain. Their names were Balearis major (Majorca), Balearis minor (Minorca), and Ebusus (Ivica). Between Spain and Italy are Corsica and Sardinia, separated by the Fretum Fossa; (Strait of Bonefacio). Corsica, called by the Greeks Cyrnos, was of little note in ancient times, but is celebrated for having given birth to Na- poleon Bonaparte. It contained two Roman colonies, Mariana planted by Marius, and Aleria by Sylla. North of Mariana was Matinorum Oppidinn (Bastia), the present capital of the island. — S a r d i n i a derived its name from Sardus, an African prince, said to be a son of Hercules, who at a very early period Jed a colony hither ; it was called by the Greeks Ichnusa, from its re- remblance to the human foot. Neither serpents or wolves were found in this island, and as we are told, only one poisonous herb, which caused those who eat of it to expire in a fit of laughter, and hence the expression, a Sardonic grin. The chief town was Calaris (now Cagliari). Both islands were long tributary to the Carthaginians, who were expelled by the Romans in the first Punic war. There were several small islands of no great importance on the coast of It- aly ; the chief were Una (Elba), which is of some interest, as the spot of Na- poleon's temporary banishment ; Prochyta ; and Caprece (Capri), infamous as the scene of Tiberius's unnatural debaucheries. § 138. S i c i 1 i a , the largest and most fertile of the Mediterranean islands, lies to the south of Italy, from which it is separated by the Fretum Siculum (Strait of Messina). — It was called Triquetra, or.Trinacria, from its triangu- lar shape, terminating in three promontories ; Pelorus (Faro), on the north; Pachynus (Passaro) on the south; and Liiyb&um (Boco), on the west. EUROPE. ISLANDS OF THE MEDITERRANEAN. 681 Syracusa (Siracusa) was the ancient capital of Sicily, and one of the most remarkable cities of antiquity. It was founded by a Corinthian colony led by Archias, and arrived at such a pitch of greatness that the circuit of its walls exceeded twenty miles. — It was divided into five parts, which were so large as to be esteemed separate towns ; viz. Ortygia, a small island, on which the Greeks originally settled ; Acradina facing the sea; Tycha, between that and the following division ; Neapolis, which stood on the great port; and Epipo- lae. — Syracuse had two ports, the lesser formed by the island Ortygia, and the greater at the mouth of the river Anapus, which here flows into a large bay, having the island at its northern, and the fort of Plemmyrium at its southern extremity. The celebrated prison of Latoma was cut out of the rock, by the tyrant Dionysius; in this was a cavern shaped like the human ear, so contrived as to transmit all sounds from below to a small apartment where the tyrant used to conceal himself, in order to overhear the conversa- tion of his victims ; it is now a very handsome subterraneous garden. — This city is remarkable for the defeat of the Athenians, in their fatal Sicilian expe- dition, and the formidable resistance made by the inhabitants when the town was besieged by Marcellus. This siege was protracted principally by the me- chanical contrivances of Archimedes. § 139. Some of the other considerable towns in Sicilia were Messana ; Le- ontium; Agrigentum, where the tyrant Phalaris resided; Lilybceum, Drepa~ num, Panormos (PalermoJ, Himera; JYaulochus, where the oxen of the sun were supposed to be kept ; Tricola, where Trypho and Athenis established the head quarters of a republic of slaves, and held out against the Roman power for several years. The principal Sicilian rivers are the Simcethus (Giaretta), celebrated for the production of amber; Asinarius, where the Athenian generals Nicias and De- mosthenes were taken prisoners by the Syracusans, and Helorus on the east- ern coast; on the south side were Camicus and Crimisus, with some smaller streams ; and on the north, the river Himera. — Mount Mtna, so celebrated for its volcano, occupies a great part of Sicily ; the poets feigned that the gi- ants, when defeated by Jupiter, were buried under this heap, and that the eruptions were caused by their efforts to relieve themselves. — The first in- habitants of Sicily were the Cyclopes and Laestrigons, a barbarous race of people, almost extirpated by the different Greek colonies, whom the commer- cial advantages of Sicily's situation induced to settle in this island. § 140. Near Lilybamm are three small islands called JEgates, opposite one of which, JEgusa, Lutatius Catulus defeated the Carthaginians in a great na- val engagement, and thus put an end to the first Punic war. ■ — North of Sici- ly were the Insula. JEolioe (Li pari islands), sacred to Vulcan; the largest is Lipara, which was once a place of great consequence ; the next in size is Strongyle (Stromboli), where iEolus is said to have imprisoned the winds, and where there is a celebrated volcano. Southeast of Sicily is Melite (MaltaJ, remarkable in ancient times for its cotton manufactories. Here St. Paul was shipwrecked in his voyage from Je- rusalem to Rome. — Malta was first peopled by the Phoenicians, who found this island a convenient station for commerce, on account of its excellent har- bor. — Near Malta is the small island Gaulos (Gozo). § 141. We notice next the Ionian Islands, on the western coast of Greece. Corcyra (Corfu) stood opposite that division of Epirus called Thesprotia, from which it was separated by a narrow strait, named Corcyrean. — It is called by Homer Scheria, or Phaacia, and he describes (in the Odyssey) the inhabitants as luxurious and indolent. — The principal town was Corcyra, near which were the celebrated gardens of Alcinous and Cassiope. Near the promontory Plialacrum was a remarkable rock, said to have been the ship which Ulysses received from Alcinous, to convey him to his native country, and which Neptune changed into a rock, as a punishment to the Phseacians for aiding Ulysses. Leucadia (Santa Maura) was originally a peninsula, and the isthmus was cut through by the Carthaginians to facilitate navigation. The chief town was Leucas, in earlier ages called JYericum, and the neighboring country Ne- ritis; it was founded by a Corinthian colony, and was joined to the continent 682 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. by a bridge, as the strait was here very narrow. — At the south-western ex- tremity of Leucadia was a high mountain, named Leucate, and a remarkable rock, called from its color Leucopetra, from which unfortunate lovers precipi- tated themselves into the sea. On the top of this rock was a temple of Apol- lo, where the victims offered sacrifices previously to taking the fatal leap. The Echinades (Curzolari) were a small cluster of islands at the mouth of the river Achelous, of which the most celebrated was Dulichium, part of the empire of Ulysses. — Near Dulichium was Ithaca (Thaki), the birth-place of Ulysses ; the capital was also called Ithaca, and stood at the foot of Mount JNTeritus. § 142. Cephalenia (Cephalonia) is the largest of the Ionian islands. — Its chief town was -Same, from whence the island was frequently called by that name ; there were three other towns of little consequence in the island ; from which circumstance it is called Tetrapolis. In this island are some ruins of Cyclopean structure. South of this was Zacynthus (Zante), with a capital of the same name, cele- brated for its fertility and beautiful groves. Herodotus declares that there was such an abundance of bitumen found here, that even the neighboring sea assumed prismatic hues, from the oily matter that floated on its surface. West of the Peloponnesus were the Strophades (Strivoli), at first called Plotai, the residence of the Harpies; and south of them, the island of Sphac- teria (Sphagice), taken by Cleon the Athenian, in the first Peloponnesian war. — South of the Peloponnesus was Cythera, or Porphyrce (Cerigo), sacred to Venus . It contained two excellent towns and harbors, Cythera and Scan- da, which the Lacedaemonians fortified with great care ; but the Athenians de- stroyed both in the first Peloponnesian war. § 143. We may include among the JEgean Islands all that remain to be noticed. The T hraci an islands occupy the northern part of the iEgean,and were named Thasus, Samothrace, and Imbrus. — Thasus (TasseJ, opposite the mouth of the Nessus, was in the earlier ages of Grecian history named iEth- ria. It produced wine and marble, and the inhabitants were at one time so powerful as to dispute the mastery of the sea with the Athenians, but after a severe contest of two years they were compelled to surrender at discretion. — Samothrace (Samandrachi) derived its name from Samos, by a colony from which it was first peopled. From this place Dardanus brought the worship of Cybele to Troy. — Imbrus (Embro) lies to the south of Samothrace. § 144. Tencdos stands at the entrance of the Hellespont, opposite the Troad. It contained but one city, and a celebrated temple of Apollo, here called Smin- theus, because he delivered the inhabitants from a plague of mice, called SmintliEe in the Phrygian language. South-west of this was Lcmnos (Stalimene), dedicated to Vulcan, who, when thrown out of heaven by Jupiter, is said to have fallen on this island. It contained two cities, Hephaestia or Vulcatia, and Murina. — Farther west, on the Macedonian coast, was Halonncsus (Droma), which is said to have been at one time defended by the valor of the women alone, when all the males were slain. South of these were Scidthus (Sciatia) ; Scopelos (Scope- la) ; and Scyros (Skiro), where Achilles was concealed by his mother Thetis, to prevent his going to the Trojan war. South of Tenedos, and opposite Ephesus, was Lesbos (Metelin), the birth- place of the philosopher Pittacus, the poets Arion and Alcceus, and the poetess Sappho; its chief towns were Methymna, celebrated for wine, and Mitylenc, from whence the island has derived its modern name. — South of this was Chios fScioJ, celebrated for its wine. The slaughter of the inhabitants of this island lately by the Turks excited great public sympathy. § 145. The largest island of the /Egean was Euboea (NegroponU, opposite the coast of Bceotia, from which it was separated by a narrow strait, called the Euripus. Into this strait Aristotle (P. II. § 115), according to the accounts of some, threw himself, in a fit of frenzy, because he was unable to explain the cause of its ebbing and flowing. The chief towns were Chalcis, joined to Au- lis in Bceotia, by a bridge across the Euripus ; Eretria, an Athenian colony, founded before the Trojan war ; Oreus, on the Euripus ; the town and prom- EUROPEAN ISLANDS. ASIA. 68$ ontory of Artemisium, in the northern part of the island, where the Greeks fained their first naval victory over the Persians ; and Carystus in the south; etween the promontories Gersestus and Caphareus, remarkable for the quar- ries of marble in the neighboring mountain Ocha. The history of Eubcea i§ hot very important, as the greater part was subjected to other Greek states. In the Saronic gulf were iEgina (Engia), aficiently iEnone, strongly for- tified by nature, and at one period the rival of Athens at sea. (On the mar-* bles discovered here, see P. 1. § 190). The ^ginetans were the most distin- guished of the Grecian allies at the battle of Salamis, and obtained the prize of valor. — Next to this is Salamis CElimU, the island of Telemon, father of AjaX and Teucer. Wear Salamis the Greek fleet, commanded by Euribia- des the Spartan, and Themistocles the Athenian, totally defeated the immense navy of Persia. — On the coast of the Peloponnesus wag Calauria (Toro). Where Demosthenes poisoned himself that he might not fall into the hands of Antipater, the successor ot Alexander the Great. § 146. South-east of Euboea was the large cluster of islands called the Cyclades, from their nearly forming a circle round the island of Delos. This island, also called Ortygia, is celebrated by the poets as the birth-place of Apollo and Diana. Near Mount Cynthhis stood the celebrated temple of the Delian god, to which pilgrimages were made from all parts of Greece. A sa- cred galley, [called Parcdvs (i; 7T.uQaP.og), was annually sent from Athens to Delos with a solemn sacrifice, and during its absence it was unlawful to pun- ish any criminal in Athens capitally. The other remarkable islands in this group were Myconus, Gyarus, and Seriphus, small islands whither the Romart emperors used to banish criminals ; Andros and Tenos, south-east of Eubcea; Ceos (Zea), and Helena, on the coast of Attica; Cythus, SipfmuS) and Melos (Milo), south of Ceos; Paros, celebrated for its white marble, the birth-place of the statuaries, Phidias and Praxiteles ; Kaxos, sacred to Bacchus, where Ariadne was ungratefully deserted by TheseUs ; los, where Homer was said to have been buried ; Thcra, and Anaphe* § 147. The islands in the eastern part of the jiEgean were called the Spor- ades, and more properly belonged to Asia, but they are enumerated here as they were possessed by the Greeks. The chief of these were Samos, sa- cred to Juno, the birth-place of Pythagoras ; Icaria, which gave name to the Icarian sea ; Patmos (Palmossa), where Saint John wrote the Revelations; Co*, the native country of Harpocrates ; Carpathus (Scarpanto), which gave name to the Carpathian sea; and Rhodus (RhodesJ. — This latter island Contained three cities, Lindus, Camyrus, and Rhodus; at the harbor of Rho- dus stood the Colossus, an enormous statue, dedicated to the sun (P. III. § 72). It held in one hand a light-house. This splendid statue was thrown down by an earthquake, and having long laid prostrate was broken up by the Sar- acens when they became masters of the island, in the seventh century. § 148. Creta (Crete or Candia), at the entrance of the iEgean, was the most celebrated island of ancient times ; it is said to have contained a hun- dred cities, the principal of which were Gnossus, near Mount Ida, on the north side of the island ; Gortina, on the opposite side where stood the cele- brated Labyrinth, built by Daedalus ; and Cydonia, by some esteemed the capital. The first inhabitants of Crete were the Idsi Dactyli, who lived near mount Ida, and exer-^ cised mechanical arts ; nearly contemporary with these were the Curetes, who directed their" attention to agriculture. — Minos, a descendant of Jupiter, was the legislator of Crete, and from his laws the institutions of Lycurgus are said to have been principally borrowed. The fabulous legends respecting this monarch, his wife Pasiphae, and his daughter Ariadne, are sufficiently known. — Cf. P. III. $ 117. (a). II. Of Asia. § 149. Asia, the largest and most populous of the divisions of the globe, is* celebrated as the birth-place of the human race ; the quarter where the tru3 684 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. God Was worshiped when the rest of the world was sunk in Superstitious* barbarism ; the scene of our Savior's life and sufferings ; and for the great monarchies, the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian ($ 211), which possessed extensive sway before the commencement of authentic European history. — - From Asia, the first principles of the arts and sciences were imported into Eu* rope, and there civilization had attained a high degree of perfection, before the western countries had emerged from barbarism. § 150. The countries of Asia may naturally be considered in two divisions, the Eastern and Western ; the boundary between them being the River Rha or Wolga, the Mare Caspium, and the mountains extending thence towards the Sinus Persicus. The Eastern division includes Scythia, Sinarum Regio, India, Persia, Media and Parthia, with the countries north of the mountains called Paro- pamisus. — The Western includes Sarmatia with the countries between the Mare Caspium and Pontus Euxinus, Armenia, Asia Minor, Syria, Ara« bia, and Mesopotamia with the countries in the Valley of the Tigris. (a) The Countries of the Eastern Division of Asia. § 151. Scythia was the name applied to all the northern and north-eastern part of Asia. Very little was known respecting it. It was divided into Scy- thia intra Imaum, and Scythia extra- lmaum, separated by the mountains called Imaus, now Belur Tag, which unite with the modern Altai on the north, and Himmaleh on the south. — Scythia extra ImaUm included the Regio Casia (Kashgar in Tartary), and the Regio Serica (the north-west part of China) ; in the latter was the city Sera, the thoroughfare of ancient commerce between eastern and western Asia. There has been much discussion respecting the real situation of the ancient Serica. — Cf. b'Anville, §■ Gosselin, sur la SeriqUe des Anciens, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xxxu. p. 573. & xux. p. 713. — Class. Journal, vol. vi. p. 204. vn. 32. — Anthon's Lempriere article Seres. The Sinje occupied the most eastern portion of Asia known to the ancients ; supposed to be the country now named Cochin China. Their capital was Thy- nts, on the Cotiaris, a branch of the Senus. i 152. India included the territory extending from the mountains called irt their northern part Parueti, on the west of the river Indus, to the river Seru3 or Menan, which empties into Magnus Sinus (Gulf of Siam). It was divided by the ancients into India intra Gangem, and India extra Gangem : the bound- ary between them being the Ganges, which discharged into the Sinus Gan- geticus (Bay of BengalJ. This country was but little known before the ex- pedition of Alexander. The southern part of India intra Gangem, or Hindos- tan, was called Promontorium Comaria (cape Comorin). Several places oil the coast were known. North of the river Chabctis (XaveryJ, was the Regid Arcati, the modern Arcot. — In India extra Gangem was the Autea Chersonc- sus (the peninsula of Malaya), its southern point being called Magnum Prom- mitorium ^now cape Romania^. § 153. Persia, in its more limited meaning, was the country lying east of the river Tigris between Media on the north and the Persian gulf on the south. But the name is sometimes, and is here, employed to comprehend the Whole territory south of the Paropamisus chain of mountains, from the Zagros Montes and the Tigris on the west to the Parueti and Arbiti Montcs separating it from India on the east. Thus it includes several provinces. Sus iana was the most western on the Tigris, containing the cities Ehj^ tnais and Susa ; the latter, called in the Bible Shushan, was the winter resi- dence of the Persian kings; it was situated upon the river Choaspes, which flowed from the Orontes mountains into the Tigris. — P e rsis was directly east of Susiana, bordering upon the Sinus Persicus, and corresponding to Per- sia in its limited and proper sense. Its capital was Persepolis, represented as a city of great splendor ; the royal palace was set on fire by the order of Alex- ander, when inflamed with wine and instigated by his mistress Thais. South- east from this was Pasargada, where Cyrus is said to have built a tomb for himself. A monument still exists, which has been called the tomb of Cyrus 5 cf. P. IV. § 187. 4. — ■■ The ruins of Persepolis still excite admiration. It was situated on a beautiful plain 6 miles PLATE XXXI. 58 6»b CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY, wide and 100 long from N. W. to S. E. which is now crowded with numerous village's"* -» Through this flowed the Araxes, now Bendemir or Bend Emir discharging into Lake Baktegi-' an. The principal ruin is the palace called by the natives Chchul-Minar, Chil-Minar, or She* hel-Minar, or palace of forty columns. — See a description, with plates, in Rob. Ker Porter' f Travels. — Cf. Herder, The Univ. History, 4-c. cited § 211. vi. The other provinces were C arm an i a (KermanJ, south-east of Persis, also bordering on the Sinus Persicus ; Gedrosia (now Mekran) lying on the" Erythrmum Mare and extending from Carmania to India; A rac h osia and Drangiana, which include the whole remaining territory on the north and east between Gedrosia on the south and the Paropamisus on the north. — This latter territory was watered by the Elymander, which, with tributaries from the mountains on the north, east and south, flowed into the Aria Palus, a lake or sea on its western limits ; the whole territory was often included under Aria, which properly belongs to the contiguous country north of the Paropamisus. § 154. Media was situated south of the Mare Caspium; its northern limit was the river Araxes flowing to that sea from Armenia. The portion lying on this river was formed into an independent kingdom, after the death of Alex- ander, by the satrap Atropates and thence called Atropat ene ; having as its capital Gaza, now Tauris or Tebriz. — The capital of Media was Ecbatana (now Hamadan, cf. Rennell, Geog. Herod. Sect. 11.) ; this was made the sum- mer residenceof the Persian and afterwards of the Parthian monarchs; here two tombs, with inscriptions in the Hebrew character, are still shown to trav- elers as those of Mordecai and Esther. Ragm or Rages was another place of some importance, mentioned in the apocryphal book of Tobit. § 155. Under Parthia we include the region lying at the south-eastern corner of the Caspian sea; between Media on the south and the river Oxus? (Gihon), flowing to the sea of Aral, on the north. It was originally but a part of Hyrcania, a province belonging to the Persian empire. By Arsaces, af- ter the time of Alexander, it was made the seat of a new state, which under his successors called Arsacida, grew into a considerable empire, and opposed effectual resistance to the Romans (§ 211. Tin.). One of its principal places was Nisaa (Nesa), on a northern branch of the river Ochus (Margab), which emp- ties into the Caspian. Hyrcania (Corcan) was a considerable place, on the small river Socanda. — But the royal residence of the Arsacidce was Hecatom-> pylos, in the south-western part ; although the later Parthian monarchs some- times resided at Ctesiphon on the Tigris. The remaining countries, between Parthia and Scythia, were Aria, Bactri- ana, and Sogdiana. — Aria was east of Parthia and Media, and north of the Paropamisus, although the name was often extended, so as to include (§ 153) a large region south of that chain of mountains. The principal place was Ar' tacoana (now Herat) . — Bactrianawas east of Aria and south of the river Oxus; its capital wag Zariaspa or Bactra (Balk), on a tributary of the Oxus. — Sogdiana includes the territory between the Oxus and the Jaxartes or Sir, corresponding nearly to the modern country Al-Sogd. Its chief place was Maracanda (Samarcand), on the Polytimetus, a branch of the Oxus. Cyrop- olis was a place founded by Cyrus on the Jaxartes. Various tribes occupied this region ; in the north-eastern part were the Sacai. (b) The Countries of the Western Division of Asia. § 156. Beginning on the northern limits we notice first S a r m a t i a , called Asiatica, to distinguish it from the country of the same name in Europe, from which it was separated by the river Tanais. Its boundary on the south was the Caucasus. It was inhabited by roving and uncivilized tribes ; particular- ly the Alani, and the Cimmerii ; from the latter, the strait connecting the Palus Mceotis with the Euxine received its name of Bosphorus Cimmericus. — South of Sarmatia, and between the Pontus Euxinus on the west, and the Mare Cas- pium or Hyrcanium on the east, were the three countries, Colchis, Iberia, and Albania. Colchis was on the Euxine ; one of its chief places was JEa, on the river Phasis (Faz-Reone). — Albania was on the Caspian, extending south as far as the river Cyrus (or Kur). An important place was one of the two celebrated passes of the Caucasus, called Pxjlce Albania or Caucasia, be-* ASIA. WESTERN DIVISION. ARMENIA. 687 tween a northern spur of the Caucasus and the Caspian, as is generally sup- posed; afterwards the strong city of Derbend. — Iberia was between Col- chis and Albania, a high valley, watered by the Cyrus and its numerous trib- utaries. The other celebrated pass of the Caucasus led from this valley over into the declivity of the Euxine ; it was the defile through which the river Aragus (Arakui) flows into the Cyrus ; it is now called Dariel. — These passes and others in the vicinity of the Caspian Sea, are sometimes termed Pylcc CaspicB) but the pass, properly so termed, is supposed to be the modern pass of Gurdock, about 90 miles from Teheran. On these passes, cf. Walckenuer, de Portes Caspiennes, Caucasiennes, et Albaniennes, &c, in the Mem. de I'Institut, Classe d'Hist. et Lit. Anc. vol. vn. p. 210, with a map. — Bibl. Repos- itory, No. xxn. p. 370. § 157. Armenia was immediately south of Colchis and Iberia, extending to mount Masius and the Carduchi Montes on the south, and from Media on the east to the northern branch of the Euphrates, which separated it from Asia Minor. It presents three great valleys, extending nearly east and west ; first, that on the north-east, watered by the Araxes, also called Phasis (now Aras), flowing to the Caspian ; second, the central, separated from the first by the chain of mountains in which is the summit called Ararat, and watered by the southern branch of the Euphrates, which rises in its eastern part and flows westerly, containing also the lake called Arsissa Palus ; third, the south-west- ern, smaller, separated from the central by the Niphates Montes, and watered by the Tigris, which rises in its western part and flows through it in an east- terly course. — Some of the principal places were Artaxata, on the Araxes, the ancient capital; Arza (Erze Roum), near the sources of the northern branch of the Euphrates ; Amida, on the Tigris near its source ; and Tigran- ocerta, taken by Lucullus in the Mithridatic war, and plundered of vast riches. The summit called Ararat is commonly supposed to be that on which Noah's ark rested ; this is said to have been ascended, for the first time, by Prof. Parrot in 1829. See Bibl. Repos. No. xxii. p. 390. § 158. Asia Minor is a term not used by classical authors, but invented in the middle ages. In general, the Roman writers confined the term Asia to the countries bordering on the Propontis and iEgean, and divided it into Asia intra Taurum and Asia extra Taurum. The large peninsula which is known by the name of Asia Minor, included a great number of petty states, whose boun- daries varied at different periods. — The northern provinces of Asia Minor, be- ginning at the iEgean Sea, were Phrygia Minor, Mysia, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, and Pontus. — The middle provinces were Lydia, Phrygia Major, Galatia, Lycaonia and Isauria, Cappadocia, and Armenia Minor. — The southern provinces were Caria, Lycia, Pisidia, and Pamphylia. $ 159. Phrygia Minor," or T r o a s, is celebrated for the Trojan plains at the entrance of the Hellespont. The lapse of ages has produced such changes, that modern travelers are not agreed about the situation of the city of Troy, called also Ilium. (Cf. P. II. $50 ; P. III. § 132.) It was built at some dis- tance from the sea, above the junction of the Scamander, or Xanthus, and Si- mois, two small streams, rising from mount Ida, and falling into the Helles- pont ; the citadel was called Pergamus, and was erected on a little hill includ- ed within the walls. The plain between the city and the sea was intersected by the rivers Scamander and Simois, and there the battles mentioned in the Iliad were fought. At the eastern extremity of the plain was the mount Ida, the summit of which was called Gargarus ; the west was bounded by the Hellespont, which here forms an extensive bay, between the promontory of Rhceteum on the north, and Sigeum on the south. Here lay the Grecian fleet, and at a little distance on the shore was the camp. Ajax was buried on the Rhffitean and Achilles on the Sigean promontory. Mysia, divided into Minor and Major, extended from the Hellespont to Bithynia. The principal towns of the former were Abydos and Lampsacus, dedicated to Priapus, celebrated for its wealth and luxury. — The principal city in Mysia Major was Cyzicus, situated on an island of the same name in the Proponti^, and joined by two bridges to the continent; celebrated for the gallant resistance it made when besieged by Mithridates ; near this is the riv- er Granicus, where Alexander defeated the army of Darius, and where Lu- cullus obtained an equally important victory over Mithridates. 000 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. $ 160. B i t h y n i a, at first called Bebrycia, lay between the Thracian Bos- phorus and the river Parthenias. Its chief towns were Apamea, at the mouth of the river Rhyndacus ; Nicomedia, on a gulf of the same name ; Chalcedon (Scutari), called the city of the blind, because its founders neglected the more eligible site Byzantium, at the opposite side of the Bosphorus ; Libijssa, where Hannibal was buried ; Calpas and Heraclea, on the Euxine ; Prusa, at the foot of Mount Olympus, where Hannibal for a short time found refuge with king Prusias j and A'icaa (Nice), where the first general council was assembled. Paphlagonia lay between the rivers Parthenias and Halys. The chief towns were Sinope (Sinube), the birth-place of Diogenes and capital of the kingdom of Mithridates ; and Carambis (Karempi), near a promontory of the same name, opposite the Criu-Metopon, a cape in the Tauric Chersonese. Pontus, the kingdom of the celebrated Mithridates, extended from the river Halys to Colchis. The principal towns were Amisus, near the Halys - r Eupatoria, on the confluence of the Iris and Lycus, named by Pompey Me- galopolis; Amasia, the birth-place of the geographer Strabo ; Themiscyra, on the river Thermodon, where the Amazons are supposed to have resided ; Ce- rasus, whence Lucullus brought the first cherry-trees that were seen ; n Eu- rope ; and Trapezus (Trebisond), on the borders of Colchis, greatly celebrated by the Romance-writers of the middle ages. Near the river Halys, the Lele- ges and Chalybes, famous for their skill in iron-works, resided. $ 161. Lydia, called also Maeonia, lay to the south of Phrygla Minor and Mysia, and to the east of the iEgean Sea. The northern part of the coast was called iEolia, and the southern Ionia, from the number of Greek colonies which settled there. — .ZEolia was colonized by the ./Eolians, soon after the termination of the Trojan war; its chief towns were Adramyttium, founded by an Athenian colony ; 'Pergamus (Bergamo), the capital of a small territory, greatly enlarged by the Romans after the defeat of Mithridates, and bequeathed to them by Attalus its last king ; its port was called Elea; between Llea and Adramyttium was Lyrnessus ; and Cana, a town built on a nromontory of the same name, near which are the iEginusan islands, where Conon, the Atheni- an admiral, completely defeated the Spartans. — Ionia, contained several re- markable cities, of which the principal were Smyrna, on the river Meles, near which Homer is said to have been born ; Clazomence, on a peninsula of the same name, celebrated for its wealth ; Erythrce, near mount Mimas, the resi-. dence of one of the Sibyls; Corycus, near which the fleet of Antiochus was defeated by the Romans; Teos, the birth-place of Anacreon. — South of the peninsula ot Clazomenae, were Colophon, on the river Halesus, celebrated for the grove of Claros, sacred to Apollo ; Ephesus, on the river Cayster, the most splendid of the Asiatic cities, now degenerated into a paltry village, remark- able for the splendid temple of Diana ; Mycale, opposite Samos, where the Persian fleet was totally destroyed by the Greeks ; Priene, on the Mceander, a river noted for its winding course ; and Miletus, the birth-place of Thales. — In the interior of Lydia was Sardis, the capital, situate at the foot of mount Tmolus, on the river Pactolus, a branch of the Hermus. Not far east from Sardis was Thijmbra, celebrated for the victory there gained by Cyrus over Croesus. On the Hermus was Magnesia, where Antiochus, king of Syria, was overthrown by the Romans. § 162. East of Lydia was P h ry g i a Major, extending from the river Ly- cus on the south to the Sangarius on the north. Its chief towns v.-ere Pes- sinus near the foot of mount Dindymus, sacred to Cybele, the mother of the gods, whose image was conveyed thence to Rome, at the end of the second Punic war (P. III. $21); Gordium, celebrated for the Gordian knot cut through by Alexander ; Apamea, on the river Marsyas, where Apollo flayed alive his musical competitor Marsyas ; Laodicca, celebrated in sacred history ; and Co- iossa, on the river Lycus. G a 1 at i a or Gallo-Graecia, lay north of Phry- gia, of which it originally formed a part. The chief towns Were Ancyra (An- goura), where Bajazet was defeated and made prisoner by Tamerlane ; Gan- gra, the residence of king Deiotarus, a great friend of Cicero ; and Tavium, the capital of the Trocmi. South-east of Phrygia were Isauria and Lycaonia. The principal towns of the former were Iraurce, the capital- Lystra and Derbe, mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles (xiv. 6). The prm- ASIA. WESTERN DIVISION. ASIA MINOR. 689 cipai town of the latter was Iconium. Both of these provinces were intersect- ed by the chain of Mount Taunts. § 163. Cappadocia lay between the Halys and the Euphrates. Its most remarkable towns were Comana, celebrated for a temple of Bellona, plundered by Antony ; Tyana, the birth-place of the impostor Apollonius ; and Mazaca, named by Tiberius. Ccesarea ad Argaum, to denote its situation at the foot of Mount Arg&us. —The north-eastern part of Cappadocia was known by the name of Lesser Armenia, and contained Cabira or Sebaste, a well fortified city captured by Pompey ; the strong fortress Kovus, where Mithridates kept his treasure ; and JSicopolis, built by Pompey, to commemorate his victory over Mithridates. — The Greeks described the Cappadocians as the worst of the three bad Kappas, or nations whose names began with that letter ; the other two were the Cretans and Cilicians. § 164. The south-western province of Asia Minor was Caria. Its chief towns were Halicarnassus, the capital, celebrated for having given birth to the historians Dionysius and Herodotus, and for the Mausoleum, a splendid monument, one of the seven wonders of the world, erected by Artemisia, queen of Caria, to the memory of her husband Mausolus ; Cnidus, in the pen- insula of Doris, sacred to Venus ; Alabanda, on the Maeander ; and Stratoni- cea, on the southern coast. Ly c i a lay to the east of Caria. Its chief towns were Telmessus, on a gulf of the same name ; Xanthus, celebrated for its obstinate resistance to Brutus, the inhabitants having destroyed themselves by fire to avoid surrendering ; and Patara, sacred to Apollo. — Near the gulf of Telmessus ran the chain of Mount Cragus, sacred to Diana; in this chain was the volcano Chim&ra, fabled by the poets to have been a monster sub- dued by Bellerophon (cf. P. III. § 117). Some hills at the Promontorium Sa- crum were usually esteemed the commencement of Mount Taurus, and a little beyond it is a part of the same ridge adjoining the sea, round which Alexan- der's army were compelled to march up to their middle in water. § 165. Next to Lycia were P i s i d i a and Pamphylia, two mountainous districts, whose boundaries are indeterminate. The chief towns of Pisidia were Antiochia ; Termcssus, the capital of the Solymi, a people mentioned by Homer ; and Crernna. a Roman colony. The principal towns in Pamphylia were Perga, the capital ; Aspcndus, on the river Eurymedon, near which Ci- mon defeated the Persian fleet ; a/id Coracesium, where Pompey destroyed the nest of pirates who had so long infested these seas. C i 1 i ci a lay to the east of Pamphylia, and south of Isauria, and was di- vided into two portions, the western called Tracheotis or rough, and the other Campestris or level. — The chief towns of Tracheotis were Selinus, where the emperor Trajan died ; Anamurium, opposite Cyprus ; and Seleucia (Selet- keh), on the river Calycadnus. — In Cilicia Campestris were Soli, a colony of the Athenians ; Tarsus, said to have received its name from one of the wings of the horse Pegasus being dropped there ; the birth-place of the Apos- tle Paul ; Tssus, where Alexander obtained his second triumph over the Per- sians ; and Alexandria (Scanderoon), erected by the conqueror to perpetuate the memory of his victory. — On the confines of Syria was the mountain Am- city, by Louis Philippe.— 2. The Pyramids, ranked by the Greeks among the seven wonders. They are numerous at Djiza, or Gize, near Cairo and the an- cient Memphis, and at Sacchara, 18 miles south of Gize. Those at Gize are the most celebrated. One of them has been open from the earliest times of which we have account. Several others have been opened in recent times. They all contain chambers evidently used for sepulchral purposes. (Cf. P. I. § 231. P. III. § 96. 3.) — 3. Catacombs. These are subterranean burying places. They are found in several places ; but the most remarkable are near Thebes, at a place now called Gournou, a tract of rocks at the foot of the mountains west of the Nile. The tombs are excavated in the rocks and ex- tend, it is said, over the space of two miles. From these, many mummies have been taken. — The labyrinth, which Herodotus considered more wonder- ful than the pyramids, included numerous subterranean chambers designed as repositories for the dead; over these was an immense pile of splendid buildings. Some ruins of this structure near lake Mceris (§ 176) have been discovered. — 4. Colossal images and statues. One of the most remarkable of the colossal images of the sphinx (cf. P. III. $ 117) is near the great pyramids. A very celebrated colossus is that commonly called the statue of Memnon (cf. P. I. § 169. 2. § 231. 1). — The Egyptian monuments are covered with inscrip- tions in Hieroglyphics (cf.P. I. $ 16). Much research has been employed in modern times upon Egyptian Antiquities and Remains. A new degree of interest was awakened in the whole subject by the celebrated expedition of Bonaparte in 1798. In this invasion of Egypt, he took with him a detachment of no h?3s than one hundred men who had cultivated the arts and sciences (savans) selected for the purpose. " This body, the first of the kind which ever accompanied an invading army, was liberally supplied with books, philosophical instruments, and all the means of prosecuting the several departments of knowledge." — The splendid work, published under the emperor's patronage and styled Description dc V Egypte, was the result of their labors (cf. P. I. § 169).— Many other valuable works illustrating the history and monuments of Egypt have been publish- ed during the present century, some from members of the company of savans above named. That of Denon holds a high rank ; entitled Travels in Upper and Lower Egypt during the Campaigns of Bonaparte; with folio plates.— The following works relate to this subject. Leigh's Travels in Egypt. — Behoni's Travels Tomard's Description de '1 Egypte. — Hamilton's JEzy -ptiaca. — Letronne, Recherches sur l'Egypte. — Russell's View of Ancient and Modern Egypt, in Harper's Fam. Library, No. xxxin. — J. Mwt, Memoires del' Expedition en Egypte, &c. Par. 1814. — J. O. Wilkinson, Topography of Thebes, and general View of Egypt. Lond. 1835. 8.— We may add, the Travels of Clarke, JVorden, Shaw, Pococke. Cf. Supplement to Encyclop. Britann. Article Egypt. — Lond. Quart. Rev. vol. xiii. 1. xvi. 1. xvii. 181. xix. 178. xxiv. p. 139 timer. Quart. Rev. No. vii. — For. Quart. Rev. Nos. xxxii. and xxxiii. — Am. BibL Rcpos. No. xxiii.— See also references given P. I. § 216. 1. § 230. 1. $ 238. 3. $ 243. 3.— A history of Pompey's Pillar is given in J. White's Egyptiaca, Part I. Oxf. 1821. $ 178. ./Ethiopia was the name given by the ancients very indefinitely to the country lying south of Egypt; the modern countries of Nubia and Abys- sinia particularly were included. — Various uncivilized tribes are represented as dwelling here in ancient times ; on the coast were the Troglodytes said tc inhabit caves of the earth. It seems also to have contained inhabitants equal- ly advanced in refinement with the Egyptians. The most important places were Napata, Meroe, Auxume, and Adulis. — Auxume fAxumJ was on one of the sources of the Astaboras (Tacazze), the east- ern branch of the Nile. Its ruins still exist. " In one square, Bruce found 40 obelisks, each formed of a single piece of granite, with sculptures and in- scriptions, but no hieroglyphics. One of the obelisks was 60 feet high." — Here was found the monument usually called the Inscription of Azum(cf. P. I. § 92. 5). — Adulis (Arkiko) was on a bay of the Sinus Arabicus ; having some celebrity from two inscriptions there found fcf. P. I. $ 92. 5J. — Meroe was on or near the Nile south of its junction with the Astaboras ; near the modern Shendy, as is supposed. It was the capital of a large tract between these rivers called by the same name, and was celebrated in ancient times, being the grand emporium of the caravan trade between Ethiopia and Egypt and the north of Africa. The remains of temples and other edifices of sand- stone still mark its site. — Xapata was farther north or lower down on the Nile, and was next in rank to Meroe. These regions have also been explored in modern times and splendid ruins have been found scattered along the valley of the Nile. The following are some of the sources of information on the subject. Bruce's Travels in Abyssinia, cited P. I. $ 118. 1. — Travels of Salt and Lord Valcntia; of Burckhardt; Franc. Gau (V. I. $243. 3), and especially of Cailliaud. — Cf. LonCL Quart. Rev. vol.xvi. 13. xix. 174. AFRICA. ETHIOPIA. LIBYA. tWO § 179. Under Libya we include the whole extent from JEgyptUs on the ■east to the Syrtis Minor (Gulf of Cabes), together with an indefinite portion on the south. The term was used by the ancient poets to signify Africa in general. In its strict and most limited sense, it included only the region be- tween Egypt and the Syrtis Major (Gulf of Sidra). — In the latter sense, it comprised on the coast only the two districts, Marmarica and Cyrenaica. We include under Lybia also the portion farther west called Regio Syrtica, from the two Syrtcs on the coast already named. Marmarica was on the east nearest to Egypt. The inhabitants were said to possess some secret charm against the poison of serpents ; some of them, named Psylli, made it their profession to heal such as had been bitten, by sucking the venom out of the wound. In an Oasis, now El Wah, south of Marmarica, stood the celebrated temple of Jupiter Ammon (P. IV. § 71), and near it the fountain of the sun, whose waters were said to be warm in the morning, cool at noon, hot in the evening, and scalding at midnight. Alex- ander, after having encountered great difficulties, succeeded in visiting this oracle, and was hailed by the priest as son of Jupiter. " Belzoni, previously to his leaving Egypt, made a tour to El Wan (the bushes), the northern Oasis. He found, as Hornemann had, the tops of the hills of the desert encrusted with salt, and wells of sweet water rising out of a surface overspread with masses of salt, as Herodotus related two-and-twenty centuries ago. He found also the remains of what has been considered as the temple of Jupiter Ammon ; but the natives were as jealous and as unwilling to let him see this ' work of the infidels,' as Hornemann had found them to be. The fine rivulet of sweet water, whose source this traveler describes as being in a grove of date trees, and which Brown was told by the people, was sometimes cold and sometimes warm, was also visited by Belzoni ; Who says he proved the truth of what is stated by Herodotus, that this spring is warm in the mornings and evenings, much more so at midnight, and cold in the middle of the day. Had Mr. Belzoni possessed a thermometer, he would have found that it was the temperature of the air which had changed, while that of the fountain of the sun remained the same." — Lond. Quart. Rev. xxni. 95. Cyrenaica,or Pentapolis (Barca), lay between Marmarica and the Syr- tis Major, or altars of the Phileni. It contained five cities ; Cyrene, founded by a Greek colony, the birth-place of the philosopher Carneades; Apollonia^ a celebrated sea-port ; Ptolemais, at first called Barce ; Arsino&, and Berenice or Hesperis, near which were the gardens of the Hesperides, famous for their golden apples, and the residence of the Gorgons, so celebrated in fable. (Cf. Ed. Rev. No. 95. p. 228). — West of this was Regio Syrtica, also called, from its three cities, Tripolitana (Tripoli) ; its cities were Leptis, called major, to distinguish it from a town of the same name, near Carthage ; (Ea, the present city of Tripoli ; and Sabrata, a Roman colony^ and Tysdrus, now Elgem. A people called by Homer the Lotophagi dwelt on this coast; he says, that they fed on the lotus, a fruit so delicious, that whoever tasted it immediately forgot his native country. On the coast were the Syrtes, two dan- gerous quicksands, which frequently proved fatal to hapless mariners; here, also, was the lake Tritonis sacred to Minerva. There are interesting ancient remains in these regions, particularly at Leptis and Cyrene. — > The situation of Cyrene is described as exceedingly beautiful. — " It is built on the edge of a range of hills, rising about 800 feet above a fine sweep of high table land, forming the summit of a lower chain, to which it descends by a series of terraces. The elevation of the lower chain may be estimated at 1000 feet ; so that Cyrene stands about 1800 feet above the level of the sea, of which it commands an extensive view over the table land, which, extending east and west as far as the eye can reach, stretches about five miles to the northward and then de- scends abruptly to the coast. Advantage has been taken of the natural terraces, to shape the ledges into roads leading along the face of the mountain, and communicating in some instan- ces by narrow flights of steps cut in the rock. These roads, which may be supposed to have been the favorite drives of the citizens of Cyrene, are very plainly indented with the marks of chariot wheels, deep furrowing the smooth, stony surface. The rock, in most instances rising perpendicularly from these galleries, has been excavated into innumerable tombs, generally adorned with architectural facades. The outer sides of the roads, where they descended from one range to another, Were ornamented with sarcophagi and monumental tombs; and the whole sloping space between the galleries was filled up with simular structures. These, as well as the excavated tombs, exhibit very superior taste and execution. In two instances, a simple sarcophagus of white marble, ornamented with flowers and figures in relief of exquis- ite workmanship, was found in a large excavation. In several of the excavated tombs were discovered remains of paintings, representing historical, allegorical, and pastoral subjects, ex- ecuted in the manner of those of Herculaneum and Pompeii. (Cf. P. I. § 226). — In the region of Cyrenaica are several caverns containing stalactites, presenting of course various fantastic shapes. It has been supposed that this fact, together with the existence of the ruins and ex- cavations in the vicinity of Cyrene, may have given rise to the story of the petrified city, of Which, under the name of Ras Sem, marvelous accounts have been related to travelers in Afri- ca." See Modern Traveler.— B eechy's Travels. — <— At Tysdrus are still found ruins of Ro- 696 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. man structures ) particularly of a spacious amphitheatre, " consisting formerly ef four rows of columns in tiers one above another, and sixty-four arcades." The inner area is said to be 300 feet in length and 200 in breadth ; and the whole circumference 1570 feet ; the height is estima- ted to have been at least 105 feet. The upper tier of columns is nearly fallen ; the three lower are preserved*. — See Rev. C. F. Ewald's Diary. A drawing is given in The Penny Magazine, Jan. 13. 1838. § 180. Next to Tripolitana was the province of Africa Propria, of which the capital was Carthago. This city was founded by a Tyrian colony, led by queen Dido, and by its extensive commerce became one of the most opulent cities of antiquity. Its citadel was called Byrsa, because it was said, that Di- do, on coming here, purchased as much ground as she could encompass with a Brqaa or hide, and then, having cut the hide into strips, took in the space originally covered by the city. — The other remarkable towns in this district were Tunes, or Tuneta (Tunis), where Regulus was defeated and taken prison- er ; Clupea, near the Promontorium Mercurii (Cape Bona) ; Adrumetum ; Thap- sus, where Ctesar defeated Scipio and Juba ; and Utica, where Cato the younger slew himself; near Utica was the river Bagradas, where Regulus slew an enormous serpent, that had destroyed many of his soldiers. § 181. Numidia was at one time divided into the kingdom of the Massyli, ruled by Massinissa, and that of the Massassyli, under the government of Sy- phax ; but after the third Punic war, they were united into one kingdom un- der Massinissa; the capital was Certa. The principal towns on the sea-coast were Tabraca, remarkable for its groves ; Hippo Regius, near the small river Rubricatus, the episcopal seat of Saint Augustine ; and Rusicade. In the in- terior were Vaga; Sicca; and Zama, where Hannibal was defeated by Scipio. On the confines of the desert were Thala, and Capsa. § 182. Mauritania was separated from Numidia by the river Ampsagas. — Its chief towns were Ccesarea, whence the eastern part was called C bb s a r i- ensis; and Tingis fTangiersJ, from which the western received the name T i n g i t a n a . This country extended from the river Ampsagas, separating it from Numidia, to some distance on the Atlantic coast. The Romans, after their conquest over these regions, planted in them numerous colonies, and constructed fortresses and roads, of which some traces yet remain. The most southern Roman settlement was that called Exploratio ad Mercurium, on the coast of the Atlantic. The waters west of this territory were named Oceanus Atlanticus, from the chain of mountains called Atlas, which bounded Maurita- nia on the south, and terminated at two different points on the coast, the northern ridge being termed Atlas Minor, and the southern Atlas Major. — Mons Abyla was the elevated summit near the strait connecting the Mediter- ranean and the Atlantic. This and Calpe on the European side formed the fabled pillars of Hercules (Herculis Columnar). § 183. All the remaining countries of the land may be included under Af- rica Interior, to which it is impossible to assign any definite boundaries. — The Gsetuli, and Garamantes, and other tribes, are represented as dwelling ■within it. The Nigritae, were placed about the river Niger. The Great Des- ert was called Deserta Libyce Interioris. — On the coast west of this were the Insulce Fortunatce ; called also Canaria, from the number of large dogs, as some suppose, found upon them, and thence their modern name, Canaries. — South of these were the Insula Hesperidurn, the modern Cape Verd islands, on which some have placed the gardens of the Hesperides (cf. § 179). — West of this coast the ancients also placed the island Atlantis, said to have existed once, and to have been afterwards submerged in the ocean. It was repre- sented as larger than Asia and Africa, and as very fertile and powerful. Some have considered the whole account of Atlantis as a mere fable ; others have conjec- tured that the Canaries, Madeira Isles and Azores, once formed parts of a vast island thus de- scribed ; and others have maintained that the land referred to must have been the continent of America. The latter opinion is maintained in an Essay entitled as follows ; An Attempt to show, that America must be known to the Ancients, <$"c. by an American Englishman, Pastor of u Church in Boston. Boston, New England, MDCCLXXIII. — Some have imagined that this island was situated in the Northern regions ; Bailly, Lettres sur l'Atlantide de Platon, &c. Pa- ris 1779. 8. See Malte Bran's Geography. — Bory de St. Vincent, Essay sur l'antique Atlan- lide. Par. 1804. 4. — The ancient story is given in the Critias or Atlanticus of Plato. INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. Preliminary Remarks. < § 184. Chronology treats of the computation of time and of the dates ot events. It is comparatively a modern science. Among the ancients there was scarcely any systematic attention to the subject. Yet it is a highly im- portant science. Accurate chronology is essential to all reasoning from his- torical facts; the mutual dependence and relations of events cannot be traced without it ; with the greatest propriety it has been called one of the eyes of history, while geography with equal propriety has been said to be the other. Chronology is also an important aid to the memory, if properly considered, in studying history and biography. In treating this subject, although our design requires a special reference to Classical Chronol- ogy, yet from the nature of the subject we must introduce some things, which belong rather to the science in general. We shall explain the Greek and Roman divisions of time and modes of computing it ; and endeavor to present all that the student will need as preparatory to a full study of the classical historians and of ancient history. Chronology maybe considered as consisting of two parts ; the first, meas- uring time and adjusting its various divisions; the second, fixing the dates of historical events and arranging them in order. /. — Of measuring time and adjusting its divisions. § 185. The most obvious measures and divisions of time are those suggested lo all men by the revolutions of the heavenly bodies. These are three ; days, months, and years ; the day from the revolution of the earth on her axis, or Ihe apparent revolution of the sun around her ; the month from the periodical changes in the moon ; the year from the annual motion of the earth in her or- bit round the sun. — These three divisions are not commensurate, and this has caused the chief embarrassment in the science of Chronology ; it has, in point of fact, been difficult so to adjust them with each other in a system of meas- uring time as to have the computed time and the actual time perfectly in agree- ment or coincidence. § 186. The day. This was undoubtedly the earliest division, and originally Was distinguished, it is likely, from the night; extending from sunrise to sun- set only. It was afterwards considered as including also the night, or time between sunset and sunrise. But the beginning of the day has been reckoned differently by different nations, for civil purposes ; at sunrise, by the Babylo- nians, Persians, Syrians and inhabitants of India; at sunset, by the Jews, Athenians, ancient Gauls, and Chinese ; at midnight, by the Egyptians, Ro- mans, and moderns generally. — Astronomers in their calculations consider the day as beginning at noon, after the manner of the Arabians according to Priestley. There have also been various modes of subdividing the day. — **■ The division of time into hours is very ancient : as is shown by Kircher (QEdip. iEgypt. t. ii. part 2). The most ancient hour is that of the twelfth part of a day. Herodotus observes that the Greeks learnt from the Egyptians [Babylonians, L ii. c. 109], among other things, the method of dividing the day into twelve parts ; and the astronomers of Cathay a still retain this meth- od. The division of the day into twenty-four hours was not known to the Ro- mans before the Punic war." (Tegg.j § 187. The Greeks, in the time of Homer, seem not to have used the di- vision into hours ; his poems present us with the more obvious parts of the E?M(pijfi6?.og, the huntress, because this was the month for hunting stags. — 10. Movwxiojr, April; in which sacrifices were offered to Diana Movvvx'ia, from the harbor of this name, in which she had a temple. — 11. Qaqyijiuov, May; in which month sacrifices were offered for the ripening of the earth's fruits. — 12. Sxioooyooiwv, June ; so called from a festival of the same name celebrated in this month, in honor of Minerva, Every month was divided into roiu fo/^^ix, three decades of days. The first of which was called inpog uo/ouivov or [orauivov, the decade of the beginning ; the second, utjvug usoovvrog, the decade of the middle ; and the third, fitjvog yBlv- ovrog, or mxvouivov, the decade of the end. The first day of the first decade was called reoutjvtu, because it happened on the new moon ; the second, Sevri- i>a ioraiiivov, and so on to Ssxurtj lorauirov, the tenth day of the month. The first day of the second decade, or the eleventh day, was called nqcjTt] usaovvrog, the first of the middle, or tt^wt// ittl Sixa, the first after ten; the second dsv- riyu usoovvTog, and so on to the twentieth day (sixug), or the last day of the second decade. The first day of the third decade was called TiQwrtj lit* elxudi, or tiqioti] (pQhovToc, and so on. The last day of the month was denominated by Solon * vt] xui via, the old and new, as one part of the day belonged to the old, and the other to the new moon. But after the time of Demetrius Polior- cetes, the last day of the month received from him the name of Jr^airqiagJ" (Cleaveland.) On the Attic months, cf. Classical Journal, ix. 324. 559. § 191. The Romans are said to have had under Romulus only 10 months; but Numa introduced the division into 12, according to that of the Greeks. — But as this formed only a lunar year, a little more than 11 days short of the solar year, an extraordinary month (mensis intercalaris, called also Macedo- nius) was to be inserted every other year. The intercalating of this and the whole care of dividing the year was entrusted to the Pontifices (P. IV. § 228), and they managed, by inserting more or fewer days, to make the current year longer or shorter as they for any reason might choose ; and this finally caused the months to be transposed from their stated seasons, so that the winter months were carried back into autumn, and the autumnal into summer {Cic. Leg. ii. 12). Julius Caesar put an end to this disorder, by abolishing the in- tercalation of months, and adopting a system which will be explained in speak- ing of the year (§ 192). — The names of the Roman months were the follow- ing ; Martins, March, from Mars, the supposed father of Romulus, in whose arrangement of the year this month was the first ; Aprilis, derived by some from the verb aperio, the month in which trees and flowers open their buds ; Maius, May, from Maia, mother of Mercury ; Junius, June, from Juno ; Quin- tilis, the fifth month, afterwards named Julius, July, from Julius Caesar; Sex- tili.s, sixth, afterwards Augustus, August, from Augustus Ceesar; September, 700 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. seventh month ; October, eighth ; November, ninth ; December, tenth ; Janua- rius, January, from Janus ; Februarius, February, so called from the purifi- cations Februa performed in this month (P. IV. § 230), being the last of the year. The Romans divided tbe month into three parts by the points termed Kalen- tke, or Calendce, Nonce, and Idus. The Calends were always the 1st of the month ; the Nones were the 5th, and the Ides the 13th of each month except- ing March, May, July and October; in which four months, the Nones fell on the 7th, and the Ides on the 15th day. In marking the days of the month, the Romans counted backwards from these three fixed points, including al- ways the day from which the reckoning began ; e. g. the last or thirty-first day of December was called the second from the Calends of January , pridie [ante] Kalendas Januarii ; the last day but one or 30th of December was called the third from or before the Calends of January, tertio [die ante] Kal. Jan.; and so on back to the 13th day, which was called Idus; the 12th was pridie Idus, and so on back to the 5th, which was the Nonce; the 4th, by this plan of reckoning, would be of course Pridie Nonas. Cf. La Nauze. as cited P. IV. § 229. 2. — The ancient Greeks and Romans had no division properly answering to our weeks ; although the former had their decade of days f$ 190; ; and the latter their nundinw, or market days occurring every ninth day (P. IV. § 229). But the Egyptians and oriental nations had a'week of seven days. This division (hebdomades) was in- troduced among the Romans, it is said, not far from the beginning of the 3d century after Christ. The days were named after the planets or pagan Gods ; D i e s Solis, Sunday ; ~Luntr, Monday ; Martis, Tuesday ; Mercurii, Wednesday ; Jovis, Thursday ; Veneris, Friday ; Satur- ni, Saturday. It is worthy of notice that our names for the days had a similar origin : as is seen by observing their Saxon derivation ; Sunnadag, Sun's day ; Mnnandag, Moon's day ; Tues- dag, day of Tuisco (i. e. Mars) ; Wodtnsdmg, day of Wodin or Odin, a northern deity ; Thorsdag, day of Thor, a deity answering to Jupiter ; Frigdag, day of Frisrga, the Venus of the north ; Saterdag, day of Saeter or Seater (i. e. Saturn, cf. P. III. § 15. J. § 192. The year. This division was probably not formed until some con- siderable advances had been made in astronomical science ; and it was long after its first adoption, before it attained to any thing like an accurate form. — The most ancient year, of which we know, was that consisting of 12 months supposed to contain 30 days each, thus amounting to 360 days. It has been conjectured, that this gave rise to the division of the ecliptic into 360 equal parts or degrees, which is still preserved. But it was soon found that this fell short of the actual year, or the time of a revolution of the earth ; and an addi- tion of 5 days was made, so that the year consisted of 365 days ; this is as- cribed to the Thebans. The Grecian year, however, as established by Solon and continued to the time of Meton and even after, consisted of 365 days and a quarter. The manner in which the Greeks made their computation by the lunar months to agree with the solar year, has already been explained ( % 189J. Cf. Gibert, L'annee Grecque, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xxxv. p. 133. The Roman year seems to have consisted of 365 days until the time of Jul- ius Caesar. The method employed by the Romans of previous ages to adjust their computation by lunar months to the solar year has also been mentioned (§ 191), and likewise the confusion, which resulted from it. This Caesar at- tempted to remedy (cf. P. II. § 528. 4). He instituted a year of 365 days 6 hours. To remove the error of 80 days, which computed time had gained of actual time, he ordered one year of 445 days (365 plus 80j, which was called the Year of confusion. And to secure a proper allowance for the 6 hours which had been disregarded, but which would amount in 4 years to a day, he directed that one additional day should be intercalated in the reckoning of every 4th year ; thus each 4th year would have 366 days, the others 365. — This is called the Julian year. In the Roman calender the intercalated day was placed after the 6th (sextus) of the Calends of March, and therefore called bissextus ; hence the phrase bissextile year still in use. But in this plan there was still an error. The day was intercalated too soon ; i. e. before a wlwle day had been gained ; because computed time, instead of gaining 6 hours a year, gained only 5 hours 48 m. 57 sec. and in 4 years would gain only 23 h. 15 m. 48 sec. ; so the intercalated day was inserted too soon by 44 minutes and 12 seconds ; of course computed time, by this plan, lost 44 m. 12 sec. every four years, or 11 m. 3 sec. every year. In 131 years this makes a loss of computed time, of one day ; i. e. computed time would be one day behind actual time. In A. D. 3582 this loss had amounted to ten days, and Pope Gregory 13th attempted to remedy the evil by a new expedient. This was, to drop the intercalary day or the bissextile, every 100th year excepting each 400th year. By the Julian year computed time loses 11 m. 3 sec. a year, whicti DIVISION OF TIME. THE YEAR. CYCLES. 701 makes about 19 hours in 100 years ; dropping the intercalary day on the 100th year makes up this loss of 19 hours, and gives also a gain of about 5 hours ; dropping it on the next 100th year cives another gain of 5 hours to computed time ; so of the third 100th year ; in this way com- puted time gains of actual time, in 300 years, 15 hours ; if on the next 100th year, i. e. the 4th, the intercalary day be inserted, computed time loses for that century 19 hours ; but to meet this loss, it had in the three preceding centuries gained 5 hours in each and in all 15 hours, so that the loss is only H9-15J 4 hours at the end of 400 years. By this method, the difference be- tween computed and actual time cannot amount to a day in 2500 years. In this system, called the Gregorian Calendar, the years 1600, 2000, 2400 are intercalary ; and the years 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200, 2300 &c. not. — The Gregorian year was immediately adopted in Spain, Por- tugal, and Italy ; and during the same year in France ; in Catholic Germany, in 1583 ; in Pro- testant Germany and Denmark, in 1700 ; in Sweden, 1753. In England it was adopted in 1752, by act of Parliament directing the 3d of September to be styled the 14th, as computed time had los't 11 days. This was called the change from Old to Neio Style. — In 1832, Russia was said to be the only country, where the Julian year or the Old Style wa3 used. It is, however, retained in the Greek and Armenian churches. fJl/ws. Herald, for Dec. 1835. p. 454J Different nations have begun the year at different seasons or months. The Romans at one time considered it as beginning in March, but afterwards in January. The Greeks placed its commencement in Hecatombsnon, at the summer solstice. The Christian clergy used to begin it at the 25th of March. The same was practiced in England and the American colonies until A. D. 1752, on the change from Old to New Style, when the first of January was adopted. § 193. In adjusting the different methods of computing time, or the division of time into days, months and years, great advantage is derived from the in- vention of Cycles. These are periods of time so denominated from the Greek yi'yj.og, a circle, because in their compass a certain revolution is completed. Under the term cycle we may properly include the Grecian Ohjmpiad, a pe- riod of 4 years ; the Octacteris, or period of 8 years ; and the Roman Lustrum, a period of 5 years : and also the Julian year, or period of 4 years as just de- scribed. The period of 400 years, comprehended in the system of Gregory already explained, may justly be termed the cycle of Gregory. — Besides these, it seems important to mention the Lunar Cycle, the Solar Cycle, the Cycle of Indiction, and the Julian Period. See F. Nolan, as cited below $ 205. — H. Dodwell, de veteribus Graecorum Romanorumque Cvclis ($"c. Dissert, decern. Lond. 1701. 4. — Niebuhr, on the Secular Cycle, in his Hist, of Rome. . vol. 1. p. 209. ed. Phil. 1835. § 194. The Lunar Cycle is a period of 19 years. Its object is to accommo- date the computation of time by the moon to the computation by the sun, or adjust the solar and lunar years. The nearest division of the year by months is into twelve; but twelve lunations (which make the lunar year) fall short of the solar year by about 11 days. Of course, every change in the moon in any year will occur eleven days earlier than it did on the preceding year; e. g. if in September of the present year full moon occurs on the 16th, the corres- ponding full moon of the next year will occur on the 5th of September. — Hence every year the various changes in the moon fall back as calculated by the days of the year. At the expiration of 19 years they occur again nearly at the same time. This Cycle was invented by Meton, an Athenian astronomer, who flourished about B. C. 430. Many attempts had before been made to adjust the solar and lunar years (§ 189), and this improvement was at the time received with universal approbation ; but not being perfectly accurate, it was afterwards corrected by Eudoxus, and subsequently by Calippus. The Cycle of Meton was employed by the Greeks to settle the time of their festivals ; and the use of it was discontinued, when these festivals ceased to be celebrated. " The Council of Nice, how- ever, wishing to establish some method for adjusting the new and full moons to the course of the sun, with a view of determining the time of Easter, adopted it as the best adapted for the purpose ; and from its great utility, they caused the numbers of it to be written on the calen- der in golden letters, which has obtained for it the name of the Golden Number." The name of Golden Number is still applied to the current year of the Lunar Cycle, and is always given in the Almanacs. § 195, The Solar Cycle is a period of 28 years. Its use is to adjust the days of the week to the days of the month and the year. As the year consists of 52 weeks and one day, it is plain that it must begin and end on the same day. Let the seven letters A, B, C, D, E, F, G, represent the seven days of the week, A being always applied to the first day of the year. Let January begin with Monday. Of course A will stand for Monday, and Sunday com- ing on the 7th day will be represented by G, the 7th letter. The year will end with Monday, as it began with it ; and A, the next year, will stand for Tuesday, and Sunday will be on the 6th day of the year, and be represented by F. Thus the year will commence one day later every common year, and Sunday will be represented successively by the letters taken in their retro- 59* 702 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY, grade order, G, F, E, &c. and if 52 weeks and one day were the exact year Of there were no leap year, the year would after seven years, again begin on Monday, the same day with the first year supposed. But the leap year, con- sisting of 52 weeks and two days, interrupts the regular succession every fourth year, and the return to the same day of the week is not effected until 4 times seven, i. e. 28 years. This Cycle is employed particularly to furnish a rule for finding Sunday, or to ascertain the Dominical Letter. Chronologers employ the first seven letters of the alphabet to designate the seven days of the week ; and the Dominical Letter for any year is the letter, which represents Sunday for that year. Tables are given for the purpose of finding it in chronological and astro- nomical books. § 196. The Cycle of Indiction is a period of 15 years. The origin and pri- mary use of this has been the subject of various conjectures and discussions. It seems to have been established by Constantine the Great, in the 4th centu- ry, as a period at the end of which a certain tribute should be paid by the dif- ferent provinces of the Empire. Public acts of the emperors were afterwards dated by the years of this cycle. The cycle, which has been perhaps most celebrated, is that which is termed the Julian Period, and was invented by Joseph Scaliger. Its object was to furnish a common language for chronologers, by forming a series of years, some term of which should be fixed, and to which the various modes of reck- oning years might be easily applied. To accomplish this, he combined the three cycles of the moon, sun, and indiction, multiplying 19, 28 and 15 into one another, which produces 7980, after which all the three cycles will return in the same order, every year taking again the same number of each cycle as before. Taking the several cycles as settled in the Latin church, and tra- cing them back, he found that the year when they would begin together was the year 710 before the creation as now dated, and that the first year of the Christian Era as now computed was 4714 of the Julian Period. This invention would be of great importance if we had no acknowledged epoch, or fixed year, from which to compute; but since we have such an epoch, it seems to be unnecessary. Its use is almost entirely superseded by the general adoption of the Christian era as a fixed standard. XI. — Of fixing the dates of historical events and arranging them in order. § 197. To arrange events methodically in the order of their occurrence, and assign the proper dates, is the second part of Chronology. In the consid- eration of this part we shall notice the following topics ; {A) The methods em- ployed to ascertain the dates of events, or the time when they occurred ; (JS) The epochs and eras which have been employed or are still in use ; (C) The systems of arrangement, and chronological tables and charts ; (D) The actual dates of the most prominent events in classical Chronology. § 198. (A) Methods employed to ascertain the dates of events. — Here we ob- serve, that the principal helps or sources are four. First, we will notice that- furnished by observations on generations of men or successions of Kings. — It has been supposed that the average length of a king's reign, or of a genera- tion of men, may be estimated by comparing a sufficient number of facts. — When this average is taken, and we are told by a writer how many genera- tions lived, or how many kings reigned, between two events, we can at once find the time between them; and if the date of either event is known, the date of the other will follow. This is the only Chronology of the earliest wri- ters, and is used in the Bible. The Egyptians, Greeks and Romans used \U Generally they reckoned a generation and a reign as of the same length ; three of them equal to 100 years. Sir Isaac Newton employed this means of ascertaining dates, and maintained that the average for reigns of kings is only 20 years ; and for generations, 29 or 30 years, if reckoned by eldest sons, and 33, if reckoned by others. On these principles he attempted to rectify an- cient chronology, giving to many events a date more recent than other au- thors. MEANS OF ASCERTAINING DATES. 703 It may be desirable to give a further explanation of this method by two illustrations, (a) The tlate of the return of the Heraclidae to Peloponnesus is disputed; but the date of the Battle of Thermopylae is settled, B. C. 480. Now between these two events there reigned at Sparta a succession of 17 kings ; 17 multiplied by 20 gives 340 years between the events, making the return of the Heraclidce B. C. (480 plus 340) 820 ; a date 280 years later than as given by other chronologers. — (b) The date of the Argonautic Expedition is disputed ; but the beginning of the Peloponnesian War settled, B. C. 431. Now it is found, that Hippocrates, living at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War, was descended the 18th from ^Esculapius by father's side, and 19th from Hercules by mother's side, and that ^Esculapius and Hercules were both Argonauts ; that is, there were 17 generations in one line and 18 in another, between the two events. Taking the medium 17 1-2 and multiplying by 29 gives 567 ; making the date of the Argonautic Expedition, B. C. [431 plus 567] 938; 326 years later than by other chronologers. ■ There are two grand objections to this method of ascertaining dates. First, the inaccura- cy and uncertainty of the average ; it cannot be very satisfactorily or exactly determined. Sec- ondly, the fact that ancient writers, in naming a succession of kings or giving a genealogy, often omit several of the series. This is done in Matthew, ch. i., for the sake of reducing the number of generations between the great epochs mentioned in the 17th verse, to exactly four- teen. § 199. A second help is found in celestial appearances and changes. This method is in general more safe and certain, as it depends on strict astronomi- cal principles perfectly settled. The appearances employed are eclipses and the precession of the equinoxes. (a) Eclipses. The ancients were very superstitious as to eclipses. Many are recorded, and mentioned as happening at the same time with important •events in history, and described so that they may be recognized by the astron- omer, who can calculate with perfect accuracy the time of every eclipse that has happened. We will give an illustration. Thucydides, in relating the attempt of the Athenians on the Syracusans, says, that Nicias, finding the Syracusans reinforced and himself in danger, deter- termined to sail out of the harbor of Syracuse ; but when everything was ready for sailing, the moon was eclipsed, for it was then full moon; by this appearance the Athenian soldier* were filled with alarm, and besought Nicias not to proceed ; and in consequence they almost to a man perished. This event is generally supposed to have been about B. C. 413. — Now it is found by calculation, that the moon was full at Syracuse the 27th day of August, B. C. 413, and that there must have been a total eclipse there, visible from beginning to end, and likely to produce on the soldiers the effect which Thucydides mentions. The date of the era of Nabonnassar, B. C. 747, is also determined by a record of an eclipse of the moon in Ptolemy's Almagest (cf. P. II. § 218). In Playfair's System of Chronology, cited P. II. $7. 7.(c), is a list of eclipses that wete observed before the Christian era. (b) Precession of the Equinoxes. The equinoxes, being the points where the equator crosses the ecliptic, are not precisely the same from year to year ; but they move backward (i. e. to the west) 50 seconds every year, or 1 degree in 72 years. If, then, the place of the equinox in the ecliptic at the time of any event is stated, we may determine the date of the event, by noticing how far the equinox has now receded from the place it then held, and allowing 72 years for a degree. The only objection to this method is the difficulty, per- haps impossibility, of deciding what point the equinoxes actually did occupy at the time of particular events in ancient history. Sir I. Newton applied this principle also to settle the time of the Argonautic Expedition. — A sphere, representing the heavens with the constellations, is said by fincient writers to have been formed for the Argonauts, by Chiron ; on this sphere, it is also said, the equinox was placed in the middle point of the sign Aries. In the year 1689, the equinox had gone back from that point 36 degrees 44 minutes ; this, allowing 72 years for a degree, gives a period of 2645 years between the year 1689 and the Expedition ; making it B. C. 955 ; nearly the same as by the calculation from generations by the same author. If it be stated how a star rises or sets in relation to the sun, the place of the equinox may be found, and dates ascertained in the way just mentioned. — Sir Isaac Newton and others have employed this to ascertain the time when Hesiod lived. In a passage in the Works and Darjs [vs. 564], Hesiod says, that Arc- turus rose at sunset, 60 days after the sun entered the winter solstice, a point 90 degrees dis- tant from the equinox. — But the place of the equinox cannot be settled with certainty in this way ; because it cannot be certainly known whether the ancient writer means his own time and residence or not, whether he means true or apparent rising, or even what constellation or star he means exactly. Cf. Costard, in the Philosophical Transactions, vol. xlviii. p. 2. § 200. A third help in the fixing of dates is found in the coins , medals , mon- uments, and inscriptions, which are preserved for the benefit of succeeding ages. These often throw great light upon historical events, and afford impor- tant aid in ascertaining the time of their occurrence. Interesting facts are sometimes first made known, and the period when they took place is often in- dicated, by the face of a medal, or the representations on a public monument. — Inscriptions are of still greater service. As one of the most valuable of these we must mention the chronicle of Paros, which fixes the date of the 704 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. chief events in Grecian history from Cecrops down to the time of Alexander. (See P. 1. $91.4.) § 201. The fourth source is furnished by the testimony of historians, who state the distance between events, or between events and an epoch. The ear- ly historians paid very little attention to the subject of chronology ; it was not until a comparatively late period, that they began to think of dates and distances of time. The principal fragments of the earlier writers, Eratosthe- nes, Apollodorus, and Thrasyllus, are still to be found in the Chronicon of Eu- sebius, and the Stromata of Clemens Mexandrinus. The writings of the By- zantine Chroniclers are also of service ; particularly the chronological work ('Ex?.oyl; Xuovoy{ja(flug) of Syncellus. Tt is chiefly from this and the above- mentioned work of Eusebius. that the details of the commonly received Chro- nology have been gathered. '(Cf. P. II. § 236, 239, 288 ; and below, $205.) § 202. (B) Epochs and Eras employed in Chronology. — It is essential to correct and exact chronology that there should be some fixed epoch, to which all events may be referred and be measured by their distance from it. But it is of comparatively little consequence what the epoch is, provided it is fixed and" acknowledged, as it is perfectly easy to compute in a retrograde manner the time before it, as well as in a direct manner the time after it. An epoch is distinguished from an era. Epoch is the point of time which is taken as a starting place from which to reckon, and taken usually because signalized by Bome important event. Era is the space of time, that follows the epoch ; the series of years computed from it. — The two terms may be interchanged as nearly synonymous, because every era has its epoch and every epoch its era. § 203. The following are the most important eras, which are noticed in Chronology. — (a) Era of Olympiads. The Greeks for a long time had no fixed epoch ; but afterwards reckoned by Olympiads, periods of 4 years. They began 776 B. C. — (b) Era, of Rome. The Romans often reckoned by lustrums, often by the year of the consul or the emperor. The building of the city was their grand epoch. This was 752 B.C. (It is placed by some 753 or 754.) — (c) Era of Nabonassar (or Belesis). Used by some historians ; the commencement of Nabonassar's reign at Babylon, 747 B. C. — (d) Era of the Seleucida:. From the reign of Seleucus and his descendants in Syria. The Jews chiefly used this. The Nestorians still compute from it. (Researches of Smith and Dicight, vol. II. p. 257.) It is usually dated 312 B. C. when Seleu- cus recovered Babylon, 10 years before the real commencement of the king- dom of Syria. — Cej Era of Diocletian. This was founded on the persecution of Christians in the reign of Diocletian. It was used by Christians until the Christian era was adopted. It began 284 A. D. — (f) The Christian Era ; Annus Domini; the year of our Lord. This era is founded on the birth of Christ, but chronologers are not agreed as to the year of his birth ; some placing it seven years before the received epoch, others four years. This, how- ever, is of no consequence as respects the utility of the era in chronology, because all, who adopt the Christian era, agree to call the same year by the same numerical date; all meaning (e. g.) identically the same year by A. D. 1836. The era began to be used about A. D. 360, according to some writers ; but others state that it was invented by Dionysius, a monk, A. D. 527. (Cf. Priestley's Lect. on Hist, xiv.) — (g) The Mahometan Era or Hegira ; found- ed on the flight of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, A. D. 622. — (h) The Persian Era, or Era of Yezdejerd; founded on the reign of a Persian king, named Yezdejerd, A. D. 632. Perhaps we should mention here the Era of the French Republic, which the revolutionists at- tempted to establish. This was introduced in 1793, with a formal rejection of the Sabbath and of the hebdominal week, and a novel arrangement and pedantic nomenclature of the months. The twenty-second of September was fixed as the beginning of the year. The year consisted of twelve "months of thirty days each; which were divided, not by weeks, but into three de- cades, or periods of ten days. As this would comprise but 360 days, five were added at the close of the last month of the year, called complementary days ; and at the close of every fourth or bissextile year, a sixth, called the day of the Republic. The cycle of the four years was termed the Franciade. The three months of A u t u m n were named Vindcmiaire, Brumaire, Frimaire ; those of Winter, .Mro.se, Plnviose, Ventose ; those of S p r i n g, Germinal, Florial, Prairial ; those of S u m m e r, Me.isidor, Thenmdor, Fructidor. This infidel calendar was used about twelve years. The Gregorian was restored January 1, 1806. §204. (C) Systems of Arrangement and Chronological Tables. — There is SYSTEMS OF ARRANGEMENT. 705 a great discrepancy between the various systems of chronology which have been advocated in different nations and at different times. Among the orien- tal nations there was a strong desire for the honor of the earliest antiquity, and hence each carried back its chronological dates into the regions of mere fable or absolute falsehood, and the Egyptians, Babylonians, Hindoos, and Chinese, present a list of events happening hundreds or thousands of years before the creation. Such systems need not be particularly noticed here. (Cf. P. I. § 21.) § 205. There are two systems, one derived from the Hebrew Scriptures and the other from the Septuagint Version, which are highly deserving of the student's attention. They differ from each other considerably ; that drawn from the Septuagint assigns to many events a date much more ancient than that which follows the Hebrew ; e. g. the former places the flood some hun- dred years further from the Christian era, and the Creation at least 600 years further from the Flood, than the latter. There has been much discussion among the learned, concerning the respective claims of these two systems. We only remark here, that the Hebrew chronology is generally adopted. The system of Archbishop Ushar is the basis of the principal systems for chronological tables and charts which are commonly used. The system of Usher is in general accordance with the evidence drawn from the Hebrew Bi- ble, the Arundelian Marbles, and the Chronicon of Eusebius. The system of Sir Isaac Newton has already been mentioned, and some of the methods em- ployed by him for fixing dates. This system assigns many important events, particularly of Grecian history, to periods considerably later than other systems. His chronology was at first received with some favor, but is not usually regarded, although Mitford adopts it. See Mit- ford's Hist. Greece, ch. iii. Append. — Cf. 'Shuckfurd>s Prof, and Sac. Hist. Conn. bk. vi. Pref. We have already given the titles of some of the most important helps on the subject of Chro- nology. Cf. P. H. $ 7. 7(c) j $ 299. 6. — For others we refer to Home's Intro, to Crit. Study of Holy Script, vol. n. p. 730. — A labored defence of the Septuagint Chronology is made by Rev. J. J. Jackson, in his Chronological Antiquities. — See also Fred. Nolan, on the antiquity and connection of the early cycles and their utility in settling the differences of chronologists, in Trans, of Royal Soc. of Literature, vol. III. Lond. 1837. — Loud. Quart. Rev. vol. v. p. 4. — A. B. Chapin, Agieement of the true Biblical, Egyptian, and Chaldean Chronologies. N. Haven. 1839. pp. 16. — Cf. Christ. Spect., June 1837, and Dec. 1838. § 206. Tables and charts are among the greatest facilities in the study of history and chronology. They bring before the eye, at a glance, what can be presented but gradually and slowly hy description; the locality of events and dates on the paper also helps to fix them more firmly in the memory. Every student ought to avail himself of the aid of a historical and chronological chart, either by purchase or (which is better) by actually forming one himself. $ 207. A great variety of plans for charts have been adopted, possessing greater or less de- grees of utility. — (a) One of the most simple and obvious plans is to form two perpendicu- lar columns; one for events of every kind ranged promiscuously in order of occurrence ; the oth- er for their corresponding dates. Sometimes a third column is added to this plan, for Biogra- phy. — (b) Another plan, of similar nature, but improved, is to form several perpendiculai columns ; one for dates, and each of the others for a class of events ; e. g. sovereigns in one, remarkable events in another, battles in another, &c. Such is the plan of Worcester's Charts. Both the plans mentioned may be marked for centuries by horizontal lines. — (c) A third plan is the contrivance of a sort of tree, whose branches represent nations ; and events are ranged in them according to their dates, the earliest at the bottom. Such is the plan of Eddy's Chro- nology delineated. Conquests by a nation may, in devices of this kind, be exhibited by one branch receiving others into itself, and the origin of new states by branches shooting out from others. — (d) A fourth plan is marked by the peculiarity of being divided into periods, limited on each side by prominent events. Such is Goodrich's Chart. — (e) A fifth plan, worthy of of notice, is that devised by Emma Willard, called " Perspective sketch of the course of Em- pire." It is essentially the Chronological Tree inverted ; the earliest events being placed at the top of the chart, and diverging lines being substituted instead of the trunk and branches. Light and shade are employed to indicate the comparative rank and culture of different na- tions. ( Willard' s At\a.s. Hartford, 1836.) But it is worthy of remark, that in all these plans there are two grand faults ; 1. equal length of time is not represented by equal spaces on the chart ; 2. duration is represented by perpen- dicular lines, while the horizontal line is altogether the most natural and most satisfactory rep- resentation. — (f) A sixth plan adopts these two important improvements, with the division into periods, and the several columns for different classes of events, allowing where the scale is large enough, each event to be located in its exact place in the line of time. The chief ob- jection to this method is the difficulty of using a scale sufficiently large to include all the im- portant events of some periods without increasing too much the size of the chart and render- ing it inconvenient for portable use. — (g) A seventh plan unites geography with the history and chronology. This method is exhibited in Priestley's " Specimen of a New Chart of Histo- ry," given in his Lectures on History. — (h) The device of a combination of streams or rivers is employed in a recent chart by /. /. Hitchcock, called History made visible, Phil. 1839, 54 inches by 27. 706 * CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. § 206. (D) Actual Dates of the most 'prominent events. Nothing occasions more perplexity and discouragement to the student in classical history, than the difficulty of remembering actual dates. Many have found this so great as to give over in despair. But, as has been repeatedly remarked, accurate chronology is essential to the utility, and it is no less so to the pleasure, oi reading history. And the difficulty complained of is by no means insuperable. Various expedients to aid the memory have been invented ($210); but on the whole, the writer knows of none better than to take a glance over the whole field of past time, select a few grand events which stand out as land- marks, associate these events with their dates, and commit them to memory with perfect exactness, making them as familiar as the letters of the alphabet. Any person of common capacity can do this ; and the student who wishes to lay any foundation at all for historical knowledge must do at least as much as this. This being done, he will find it comparatively easy to locate the va- rious events, which he may read about or learn from time to time, in their proper place between these grand events whose dates are thus fixed in the memory. § 209. With these views the following outline, in which it seemed desira- ble to include modern chronology, is offered to the student, to be perfectly committed to memory. The learner Is advised to draw it off on a roll of paper prepared for the purpose ; using a horizontal line to represent the flowing or progress of time. Let this Km be divided into equal spaces, each representing an equal length of time ; let the. dates of the events be distinctly- written exactly at the points in the line where they bclon? according to this equal division ; and let the events also be written directly above or under the dates. Brief Outline. Chronology is Ancient or Modern. Ancient includes the whole time before Christ, comprehending 4004 years. Modern includes the whole time since Christ. I. Ancient Chronology is divided into two portions by the Flood ; Ante- diluvian ages, the portion before the flood, and Postdiluvian ages, the portion after the flood. — The Antediluvian ages maybe considered as containing only one period ; the Postdiluvian ages as containing eight periods. The grand events and periods are the following. Of the Antediluvian ages, The one period is from Creation to Deluge Of the Postdiluvian ages, the 1st period, is from Deluge to Calling of Abraham 2d period, from Calling of Abraham to Escape of Israelites 3d period, from Escape of Israelites to Building of Temple 4th period, from Building of Temple to Founding of Rome 5th period, from Founding of Rome to Battle of Marathon 6th period, from Battle of Marathon to Reign of Alexander 7th period, from Reign of Alexander to Capture of Carthage B tith period, from Capture of Carthage to Coming of Christ. II. Modern Chronology is divided into three Idistinct portions by the Fall of Rome and the Fall of Constantinople ; Early Ages, the portion before the Fall of Rome ; Middle Ages, the portion between the Fall of Rome and the Fall of Constantinople ; Recent Ages, the portion since the Fall of Con- stantinople. — The early ages maybe considered as containing two periods ; the middle ages, five periods ; and the recent ages five periods. The grand events and periods are the following. Of the Early ages, the 1st period is from Christ to the Reign of Constantine A. D. 306 ; 2d period, from Reign of Constan. to Fall of Rome A. D. 476. Of the Middle ages, the 1st period is from Fall of Rome to Flight of Mahomet A.D. 622 2d period, from Flight of Mahomet to Crowning of CharlemagneA.D. 800 3d period, from Crown, of Charlem. to Landing of William A. D. 1066 4th period, from Landing of William to Overthrow of Saracens A.D. 1258 5th period, from Overthr. of Sarac. to Fall of Constantinople A.D. 1453 B. C, 4004, B. C. 2348. B c. 1921 B. c 1492 B c. 1004 B. c. 752 B. c. 490 B. c. 336 B. c. 146 ARTIFICIAL MEMORY. 707 Of the Recent ages, the 1st period is From Fall of Constantinople to Abdication of Charles Fifth A. D. 1556; 2d period, from Abdic. of Charles 5th to Restoration of Charles Second A. D. 1660) 3d period^ from Restor. of Charles 2d to Independence of UnitedStates A. D. 1776} 4th period, from Independ. of U. States to Downfall of Bonaparte A. D.1815} 5th period, from Downfall of Bonaparte to the Present Time. § 210. But it is perhaps due to the scholar to mention here some of the expedients, above al- luded to (§208), which have been devised to assist in the recollection of dates. We will briefly notice three different systems of artificial memory. 1. The first is that of Dr. Grey, whose Memoria Technica has generally met with the most favorable reception. " As this method " says Priestley, " is so easily learned and may be of such use in recollecting dates, I think all persons of a liberal education inexcusable, who will hot take the small degree of pains that is necessary to make themselves masters of it." The expedient is to substitute letters for figures, and form of these letters a syllable or word, and associate it with the name of the persons, the date of whose birth, reign, death or the like you Wish to remember,or with a prominent term or word connected with an event to be remembered. The following is Dr. Grey's substitution alphabet, in which each of the ten numerical characters has its consonant and its vowel or diphthong ; 1, a b ; 2, e d ; 3, t i ; 4, /, o ; 5, I u j 6,s au ; 7,poi) 8, k ei ; 9, n ou ; 0, z y. To remember the date of the founding of Rome by this system, substi- tute for 752 such letters as will, according to the above alphabet, represent 752 ; e. g.pud, and join the syllable thus formed to the word Rome or a part of the word, thus Rom-pud. The Very oddness and uncouthness of this combination will sometimes impress it on the memory. To remember the date of the Deluge 2348, we may form the word Del-etok ; of the battle of Marathon 490, Marath-ony, or Mara-/ouz. Where a series of dates of successive events are to be fixed in memory, this system recommends the uniting of the barbarous words thus formed in Hexameter verses ; which, however, the student must understand, are to be committed to memory ; these are called memorial lines. — See R. Gr e y's Memoria Technica, or Method of arti- ficial Memory. fWith L o w e's Mnemonics) Lond. 1812. 8. Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. ix. 125. 2. The second method is a system of topical memory, including also the substitution of let- ters for figures. The principle of the topical method is to conceive a certain number of places in a room, or in some limited space marked by sensible objects ; and conceive these places as arranged in a certain fixed order ; and then whatever successive events or objects one wishes to remember, throw, in imagination, some pictures of or concerning them, in their proper order, into these conceived places. Such is the principle of Feinaigle's Art of Memory. By this a four-sided room is divided into fifty ideal squares ; those who wish a more capacious memory may take also a second story having 50 squares more, numbered up to a hundred ; and one may go on so ascending through as many stories as he chooses. JVine squares are to be placed on the floor of the room, and nine on each of the four walls, thus making/orry-./r»e ; the other Jive on the ceiling above : the squares on the floor number from 1 to 9 ; the square numbered 10 is put on the ceiling over the wall supposed to be on your left hand, and the next nine squares from 11 to 19 are on the left hand wall under it ; the square 20 is on the ceiling over the wall opposite in front of you, and the next nine from 21 to 29 on that wall under it ,- the square 30, and the next nine from 31 to 39 are put in like manner on the right hand ; and the square 40, and the next nine from 41 to 49 behind you ; the remaining square 50 is placed in the centre of the ceiling. In each of these squares a picture of some visible object is located ; e. g. in 1, a pump ; in 2, a swan ; in 3, a man using a spade. This scheme of squares, numbers, and pictures is first to be committed to memory. Then if one would remember by aid of the system the date e. g. of the kings of England, he would create- in his mind a picture in connection with each one of them, throw these pictures in imagination into the squares in the exact order of the re- gal succession, and associate the picture pertaining to the king with the picture fixed in the square to which he falls ; in forming the new picture two things are important ; it should be so conceived as to have some casual or slight association suggesting the name of the king, and also suggesting at the same time a word or phrase, which is devised by the person along with the ideal picture, and which expresses the date according to an alphabet of letters substituted for figures. E. g. to remember the date of Henry 7th, it is said the ideal picture of 7 hens is a good one for the purpose ; the square to which he is assigned is 29 ; the picture fixed in this square fin the engraved illustration of the system^ is a woman spinning on a small wheel ; these two pictures then are to be somehow bound together, and it may be thus, the woman spinning sees 7 hens ; the next thihg is to form a word or phrase indicative of the date ; and by the alphabet adopted in this system, " The oa.kr&il" is such a phrase ; the remaining step in this process of storage in the memory is to bind the phrase to the pictures, which may be done by imagining that the woman spinning s e e s 7 hens on The oak rail.— The following is the substitution alpha- bet ; 1, b c ; 2, df; 3, g h f 4, j k z ,• 5, 1 ; b,mn; l,yq; 8,r s ; 9, t v ; 0, w x ; and 100, St , 1,000, Th : 100,000, Y. — See The New Art of Memory, founded on the principles of F e i n a i - gle, illustrated hy engravings. Lond. 1813. 8. 2d ed. Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. as above cited. It is worthy of remark here, that the ancients, particularly the Roman orators, made use of a system of topical memory. Quintilian gives an account of a system, in which the various ?arts of a spacious mansion are employed somewhat as the several squares in the method of 'einaigle. The things to be remembered were connected by association with certain types, and these being arranged in order were assigned to the different parts of the house ; " they assign " says he, " the first idea they wish to remember to the portico, the second to the hall ; then they go round the inner courts ; nor do they only commit these associatons to the bed* fcooms and antirooms, but even to the furniture. When they wish to recollect these as* 708 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. sociations they recur mentally to those places in order from thebeginhihg, and regain ever? sensible type, which they had entrusted to each particular spot, and this type at once sug- gests the idea connected with it." 3. The third system is the Efficacious Method of Mr. Halhcorth. In this plan a substitution of letters for figures is employed. Its peculiarity consists in this, that instead of forming mere barbarous and unmeaning words, like that of Grey, or words artificially associated with some image or picture, like that of Feinaigle, a significant sentence is formed, which states the event to be remembered and concludes with a word or phrase, that expresses something char- acteristic of the event, and at the same time, when interpreted according to the substitution alphabet, denotes the date. The alphabet of Hall worth is the following ,- 1, b c ; 2, df; 3, g, A, gh : 4, k 1 : 5, m n .• 6, p, r : 7, s sk .• 8, t, cht 9,bwj, Used as consonants ; 0, th ph ich, and also 7 x y z. In forming words the vowels are used, just as may be convenient, without having any significancy ; the consonants alone being considered in expressing a date ; thus church [chrch] signifies 868; troop [trj>], 866. To recollect by this method the date e.g. of the Flood, the following sentence is formed ; The deluge comes and men die guilty; the phrase die guilty expresses the date, as the consonants dglt represent 2348. — For greater conven- ience and scope in forming the characteristic phrases, the plan admits articles, prepositions, and conjunctions to be used, like the vowels, without significancy ; e. g. Abel fell a sacrifice to Cain's hate and sin: htsn, 3875. Mr. Hallworth has taught his system by lectures in dif- ferent parts of the country, and has published several little books in which its principles are explained and applied. — See T. Hallworth , s Efficacious Method of acquiring, retaining, and communicating Historical and Chronological Knowledge, N. Y. 1824. — Hallitorth's method applied to General Ancient History. — Also to Sacred History, &c. — History of the United States. § 211. We shall complete our design, in reference to the actual dates of events in ancient and classical history, by a rapid glance at the Chronology of the principal states of ancient times. — We will mention first those whose capitals -were in Asia. The principal Asiatic states or kingdoms were eight ; the Assyrian ; the Jeitiish ; the Trojan ; the Lydian ; the Phoenician ; the Persian ', the Syrian; and the Parthian. I. The Assyrian. This is considered as having commenced with the building of Babylon by Nimrod, B. C. 2217. The 1st period of its history may be that from Nimrod to Ninias, B. C. 1945. In this period reigned the celebrated queen Semiramis, mother of Ninias. Under her the empire gained its greatest extent ; reaching on the east to the sources of the Oxus and the In- dus, including Persia, Media and Bactriana : comprising on the West Ethiopia, Egypt, Syria and Asia Minor to the Mediterranean ; and limited on the north only by mount~Caucasus. and on the south by the deserts of Arabia. Generally, however, the Assyrian empire included only the three countries in the valley of the Euphrates and Tigris, viz. Mesopotamia, Assyria, and Babylonia. The 2d period may be that from Mnias to Sardanapalus. who died B. C. 747. This long period, of about 1200 years, is involved in great obscurity. During it 33 kings are said to have reigned.-* On the death of Sardajiapalus, three kingdoms were formed out of the empire ; the Assyrian, with Nineveh as its capital ; the Babylonian, With Babylon for its capi- tal ; and the Median, having Ecbactana for its capital. It may be proper, however, to consider the Assyrian monarchy as still continuing; and The 3d period may be that from Sardanapalus to Esarhaddon, B. C. 681. During this period of 66 years 4 kings reigned in Nineveh, of whom Esarhaddon was the last ; and 10 kings reigned at Babylon. During this time the Assyrian history was intimately connected with that of the Israelites. In the year B. C. 681, Esarhaddon united together two of the three kingdoms, viz. the Assyrian and Babylonian. The 4th and last period extends from Esarhaddon to Cyrus the Great, B. C. 636. At this time the united kingdom was subjected to Persia. — At the same time, also, Cyrus united to Persia the kingdom of Media, which had continued its separate existence from the death of Sardanapalus. For a general view of the Assyrian history ; RoUin's Ancient History, bk. iii. — Millot's Ele- ments of History, vol. i. p. 62. (Ed. Edinb. 1823. 5 vols. 8.) — The English Universal History. Lond. 1779-83. 50 Vols. 8. (18 vols. Ancient.) Vol. in. — Prideaux, Connection of the O. and N. Testament, (for the time from Sardanapalus to Cyrus.)— Berosus &x. in Cory, cited P. II. $ 236. — Heeren, Historical Researches into the Politics and Commerce of the Carthaginians, Ethio- pians, Egyptians, &c. Oxf. 1830. 2 vols. 8. Transl. from his Ideen, cited P. I. $ 171. — Saintc Croix, La ruine de Babylon, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. ilviii. p. 1. — ^For Assyria, and likewise for the several states and empires to be mentioned, we also refer to Heereri's States of Antiquity, cited $ 215. 6. — Cf. also Meusel, cited P. II. £ 240. II. The Jewish. The history of this nation begins with Abraham, B. C. 1921. It may be divided into eight periods. The 1st period extends from Abraham to the entrance into Canaan under Joshua, B. C. 1451. During this period they remained a nomadic nation. EIGHT PRINCIPAL STATES OF ASIA. 709 The 2d period includes the time from Joshua to the death of Samuel, B. C. 1060. During this period the nation was under the government of the judges and priests. Samuel was the last of the judges. Saul, the first king, was anointed as such some time before Sam- uel's death. The 3d period is from Samuel to the separation of the nation into the two kingdoms of Judah and Israel by the Revolt under Jeroboam, B. C. 975. This was the most flourishing period of the Jewish monarchy, marked by the reigns of Da vid and Solomon, and by the building of the Temple at Jerusalem, the capital. — Respecting these reigns, see Christ. Spectator, iv. 131 ; v. 528. The 4th period may include the history from the Revolt until the Restora- tion from the Babylonian Captivity, B. C. 536. The two kingdoms continued separate until their destruction by the Babylonians. The ten tribes of Israel, whose capital was Samaria, were carried into captivity by Salmanazar, B. C. 721 ; the two tribes of Judah, by Nebuchadnezzar, B. C. 606. During this time 19 kings reigned over Judah at Jerusalem. The seventy years of the captivity are dated from the conquest of Judah by Nebuchadnezzar. The 5th period reaches from the Restoration by Cyrus, to the Submission of the Jews to Alexander, B. C. 332. During this period the Jews had continued in a state of at least partial dependence on the throne of Persia. The 6th period is from Alexander to the Re-establishment of an independ- ent monarchy under the Maccabees, B. C. 168. After the death of Alexander and the division of his empire, made B. C. 301, the Jews were claimed by Syria and by Egypt, and exposed to the invasion or oppression of both. — The per- secution of Antiochus Epiphanes provoked the general revolt which led to the reestablishment of independence. . The 7th period is from the Maccabees until the time of the Roman interference under Pompey, B. C. 63. During this period the monarchy was maintained, but with many unhappy dissensions. The 8th and last period is from the first conquests of Pompey to the final Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, A. D. 70. For the Jewish history; the historical books of the O. Testament. — Berruyer, Histoire dn peuple de Dieu &c. Par. 1742. 10 vols. Q.—Basnage, Histoire des Juifs &c. Haye, 1716. 15 volg. 12. — Prideaux, Connect, of the O. and N. Testament. The French translation, said to be bet - ter than the English original, is entitled Histoire des Juifs et des peuples voisins depuis la de- cadence des Royaumes d'Israel et de Juda &c. Amst. 1725. 5 vols. 8. — J. L. Bauer, Handbuci -der Geschichte der Hebr. Nation &c. Niirnb. 1800. 2 vols. 8. valuable. — H. H. Milman, Histo- ry of the Jews. (Am. ed.) N. Y. 1830. 3 vols. 18. Cf. North Amer. Rev. vol. xxm. p. 234. — John, Hebrew Commonwealth. Transl. from German, by C. E. Stowe. And. 1828. 8. III. The Trojan. Its origin is involved in darkness and fables, but is placed as early at least as B. C. 1400. Of its chronology we can only say, that the state was destroyed by the Greeks in the reign of Priam, about B. C. 1184. y * The history of Troy consists of traditions preserved by the poets. Cf. P. III. § 132. — Mit- fords's Greece, ch. i. IV. The L y d i a n. This commenced about B. C. 1400. Three dynasties of kings are said to have reigned, yet little is known of the history until the reign of Crcesus ; and under him the kingdom was destroyed by Cyrus, B. C 536. The capital was Sardis. The kingdom was in the time of Croesus very rich and powerful ; its fate was decided by the battle of Thymbra. For the Lydian history ; The English Universal History, vol. iv. as above cited. — Freret, on *he battle of Thymbra, with a plate, in the Mem, de VAcad. des Inscr. vol. vi. p. 532. V. The P h 03 n i c i a n. This was in existence in the time of David, under a king named Abikal, B. C. 1050. The state continued until the Capture oj Tyre by Alexander, B. C. 332. Phoenicia seems not to have formed properly one state, but to have contained several cities tvith petty kings or princes, of which Tyre stood at the head. On the Phoenician history ; Sanconiathon &.c. cf. P. II. $238. — Rees, Cyclopaedia, under Pha- 60 710 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. nice. — Mignot, Sur les Pheniciens (several dissertations), in the Mem. Acad. Instf. vols, txxir -xjlii. — The English Univ. Hist. — Also 11th vol. of Hecren's Works. Gdtt. 1824. VI. The Persian. Its history is obscure and its power insignificant un- til the time of Cyrus the elder, B. C. 536. We maj> include the whole his- tory after this date in two periods. The 1st period extends from Cyrus to Xerxes, who invaded Greece, and was defeated in the famous Battle of Salamis, B. C. 480. In this period, under Darius Hystaspes, the father of Xerxes, the Persian empire attained its greatest extent ; reaching to the Indus on the east, to the Jaxartes and Mt. Caucasus on the? north, and including Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, and Libya. The capitals were Babylon, Susa y Ecbatana, and Persepolis (cf. § 153, 154, 170), the royal court being held sometimes in one and sometimes another of these places. The 2d period extends from Xerxes to the overthrow of the Persian empire by Alexander in the reign of Darius Codomannus, B. C. 331. About the middle of this period occurred the expedition of the younger Cyrus, described in the Anabasis of Xenophon ; Cyrus fell in the battle of Cunaxa, B. C. 401. — Alexander com- pleted the subjugation of Persia by the victory at Arbela, B. C. 331. For the Persian history ; Rollings Anc. Hist. bk. iv. and following. —Millofs Elements, voL i. p. 88, ed. before cited. — The Universal History, before cited, vol. iv, and ix. — Brissonius, de regno Persarum. 1591.8. — Hyde, Rliode, $c. cited P. II. $ 183. 3. — Herder's Persepolis in his Works. — Heeren, as above cited. — Grotefend, &c. cited P. I. § 18. 4. —J. B. Fraier, Hist/ of Persia, in Harper's Fam. Library, No. lxx. — Sir J. Malcolm, Hist, of Persia from the earli- est period &c. Lond. 1829. 2 vols. 8. 2d ed. VII. The Syrian; or the Kingdom of the Seleucida. This was one of the four monarchies formed out of the empire of Alexander. It was com- menced after the battle of Ipsus, by Seleucus Nicator, B. C. 301. We may include its history in two periods. The 1st period is from Seleucus Nicator to the time of the collision with the Romans in the reign of Antiochus the Great, B. C. 190. The capital of this kingdom was Antioch. The territory under its sway included the north- ern part of Syria ; all Asia Minor, except Bithynia ; Armenia, Media, Parthia, Bactriana, In- dia, Persia, and the vjJley of the Euphrates.— Antiochus was brought into a war with the Ro- mans especially by protecting Hannibal. His defeat, in the battle of Magnesia, B. C. 190, de- prived him of part of his territories and greatly weakened the kingdom. The 2d period extends from Antiochus the Great to the complete conquest of Syria by the Romans under Pompey, in the reign of Antiochus Asiati- cus, B. C. 69. In the first part of this period occurred the revolt of the Jews under the Maccabees, B. C. 168, in consequence of the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes. — The throne of this king- dom, on its overthrow by the Romans, had been held by 23 successive kings, most of them lawful heirs of the house of the Seleucidae. For the Syrian history ; Vaillant, Imperium Seleucidarum, cited P. L § 93. 1. — Frolich, An- nates rerum Syriee. Vienn. 1754. — The Universal Hist, above cited, vol. 8th of the Ancient. VIII. The Parthian; or the Arsacidcc. The Parthians occupying the country on the south-east corner of the Caspian, were subject to Persia when conquered by Alexander. On the division of his empire, they fell to the share of Seleucus JVicator. But under the 3d king of Syria they revolted and estab- lished an independent kingdom under Arsaces, B. C. 256. The Parthians were constantly at war with the Syrians, and afterwards with the Romans ; hut could not be conquered. They obtained dominion from Armenia to the Indian ocean, and from Syria to the river Indus ; including Bactriana, Persia, the coantries in the valley of the Euphrates, and Armenia. Their capital was Hecatompylos. The Parthian kingdom continued until the revolt of the Persians, who de- throned the Arsacidae, and established the kingdom of Modern Persia, A/ D. 223. For the Parthian history ; Vaillant, as cited P. I. $ 93. — C. F. Richter, Historisch-kritischetf Versuch iiber die Arsaciden-und-Sassaniden-Dynastie &c. Lpz. 1804. § 212. We will notice next the states, whose capitals were in Africa. Of these we have but two of importance ; the Egyptian and the Carthaginian. TWO STATES OF AFRICA. EGYPT AND CARTHAGE. 711 I. The Egyptian. The first king named in the Egyptian dynasty is Menes, generally supposed to be the same as Mizraim, son of Ham and grandson of Noah ; he settled in Egypt about B. C. 2200. With this date the real chronology of Egypt commences. A most absurd and ridiculous antiquity was assigned to this kingdom by two Egyptian works now lost ; one was the Old Chronicle, cited by Syncellus (§ 201) ; the other the work of Man«- tho, cited by Eusebius (cf. P. EL $ 236). The 1st period in the Egyptian history may be that extending from Menes to the Escape of the Israelites, B. C. 1492. Of this period profane history gives us no connected or satisfactory account. Most that can be relied on is to be drawn from the incidental notices found in the Bible. Some chronologera place the celebrated Sesostris at the close of this period ; some consider him to be the Pharaoh that was drowned in the Red Sea. The 2d period includes the time from the Exodus to the reign of Psammet- icus, B. C. 670, when the history begins to be authentic. No connected history has been preserved of this period, and we are here also much indebted for what we know, to the accounts in the Scriptures. —Twelve different governments under 12 different chiefs are said to have been united under Psammeticus. The 3d period extends from the time of Psammeticus to the conquest of Egypt by the Persian king Cambyses, son and successor of Cyrus, B. C.525. The Egyptian history now becomes more luminous. Herodotus is the principal authority. The art of writing and the use of the papyrus as a material were now common. The 4th period includes the portion of time from Cambyses to the conquest of Egypt by Alexander, B. C. 332. After the time of Cambyses Egypt had been made a Persian satrapy, and, with the exception of a few instances of revolt, in one of which the throne was partially re-established, had con- tinued subject to Persia until it now changed masters. The 5th period is from Alexander to the subjection of the country to the Romans, resulting from the victory of Augustus in the battle of Actium, B. C. 31. Alexander appointed Ptolemy, one of his generals, governor of Egypt ; and Ptolemy, after the death of Alexander, became king of the country B. C. 323, and commenced the dynasty of the Ptolemies, who retained the throne until Cleopatra, associating her fortunes with Antony, lost it by the success of her lover's rival. — Thebes and Memphis had been the capitals in the previous periods. In this, Alexandria, founded by Alexander, was made the seat of the new court. — Egypt remained a part of the Roman empire, until it was wrested away by the Sara- pens, A. D. 640. For the Egyptian history ; Rollin's Anc. Hist. bk. i.—Marsham, as cited P. II. $ 236.— CAanj- pollion le jeune, L'Egypte sous les Pharaons &x. Par. 1814. 2 vols. 8. (for period before Camby- ses.) —For the period after Alexander, Vaillant, Historia Ptolemaeorum, cited P. I. § 93. 1. — Champollion Figeac, Annales des Lagides &c. Par. 1819. 2 vols. 8. Cf. Mavors, Universal History, vol. i. (ed. N. Y. 1804. 25 vols. 12.) — Also the Universal History before cited, vol. |. and vin. — M. Russel, View of Egypt.— Cf. $ 177. II. The Carthaginian. The chronology of Carthage may be naturally divided into three periods. The 1st period is from its Foundation by Dido, B. C. 880, to the beginning of the wars of Syracuse in the time of the Syracusan king Gelon, B. C. 480. In this period the following points are worthy of notice; (a) the origin of the city Carthage, by a Tyrian colony under Dido, in whose story much fable is mingled ; (b) the pursuits of the people; commercial, like those of the Phoenicians ; they had intercourse by sea with Britain and Guin- ea, by caravans with the interior of Africa, and through Egypt with the eastern world ; (c) their conquests ; their commercial pursuits led them to seek possession of the islands and coasts of the Mediterranean, and they gained Sardinia, Corsica, the Baleares, also the Canary Isles and Madeira in the Atlantic, and many places in Spain, and the northern coast of Africa; the Chief conquests were effected by Mago, and his sons and grandsons ; (d) the form of govern- ment ; it was a republic, but of a strongly aristocractic character ; the executive consisting of two chief magistrates called Suffetes, and the legislative consisting of a Senate of select grand- ees, and an Assembly of the people ; as at Rome, there was a continual strife between a popu- lar and an aristocratic party ; (e) the revenue ; its sources were 1. tributes from the subject cities and states or tribes ; 2. customs paid on goods at Carthage and all the ports ; 3. proceeds of the mines in Spain. The 2d period extends from the beginning of the wars with Gelon of Syra- cuse to the beginning of the contests with Rome in the First Punic War, B.C. 264. The principal thing whieh marks the history of this period, is the long continued struggle to obtain complete possession of Sicily. The Carthaginians and Syracusans were involved in al- j#pst constant wars. 712 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGT. The 3d period is from the first war with the Romans to the final Destruc- tion of Carthage, B. C. 146. The contests between Rome and Carthage grew out of mutual ambition. Sicily, which botfa desired to own, furnished the occasion. — There were three wars called Punic ; each disastrous to Carthage. The first lasted 23 years. The second was marked by the bold invasion and splendid victories of Hannibal ; ended by the battle of Zama, B. C. 232. The third lasted only about three years, and terminated in the entire destruction of the state and city. Carthage had existed about 700 years. For the Carthaginian history ; Rollin's Anc. Hist. bk. ii. — Hendrich, De Republics Carthagi- niensium. 1664. — Heeren, as cited above. — The Universal History, vol. xv. of the Ancient. — Bottiger's Hist, of Carthage. Lond. 1837. with a map. § 213. The ancient states which were seated in Europe remain to be men- tioned. Without naming singly the various minor states, our object in this sketch will be accomplished by a glance at the Chronology of Greece and Rome. I. Of Greece. The whole extent of time to be considered is 1500 or 1600 years, from the permanent settlements in Greece to her final reduction to a Roman province. This whole space may be very conveniently and happily presented by a division into six successive periods, each limited by distin- guished events, and characterized by prominent circumstances. 1. The 1st period comprehends the whole history from the Dawn of civili- zation to the Trojan War, 1184 B. C, and from its peculiar characteristic may be denominated fabulous. Much which is related in the accounts of this period must be rejected as idle fiction ; yet a few important events may be selected and authenticated. — Civilization had its first impulse in the arrival of colonists from Egypt and Phoenicia, who laid the foundations of some of the principal cities, as Argos and Sicyon about 1800 years B. C. Little advancement was made, however, until, after the lapse of more than two centuries, other colonies were planted r at Athens by Cecrops and at Thebes by Cadmus, about the time of Moses (P. I. § 34). Between this time and the Trojan war considerable progress must have been made in cultivation. We find some of the peculiar institutions of the Greeks originating in this period ; particularly the oracles at Delphi and Dodona, the mtjsteries at Eleu- sis, and the four sacred games, the court of Areopagus at Athens, and the celebrated Amphictyonic Council. — The arts and sciences likewise received considerable attention. Letters had been introduced by Cadmus. Astronomy was sufficiently studied to enable Chiron to furnish the Argonauts with an artificial sphere exhibiting the constellations. The accounts of the siege of Thebes and that of Troy show that progress had been made in the various arts pertaining to war. — But the whole history of the period exhibits that singular mixture of barbarism with cultivation, of savage customs with chiv- alrous adventures, which marks what is called an heroic age. 2. The 2d period includes a much shorter space of time, extending from the Trojan war to the time when the regal jorm of government was abol- ished, about 1050 B. C. From the most important and characteristic circum- stances it may be called the period of colonization. The first governments of Greece were small monarchies, and they contin- ued such without encountering peculiar difficulties until after the Trojan war. Soon after this we find the country involved in fatal civil wars, in which the people, under a number of petty chieftains hostile to each other, suffered ex- tremely from calamity and oppression. These evils seem to have led to the change in the form of government, and the substitution of the popular in- stead of the regal system. The same evils also probably contributed to the spirit of emigration, which so strikingly marks the period. The emigrants who sought foreign settlements are distinguished as of three separate classes. The earliest were the JEolians, who removed from the Peloponnesus to the north-western shores of Asia Minor and founded several cities, of which Smyrna was the principal. The second were the Ianians, who went from At- STATES OF EUROPE. GREECE. 713 tica (originally called Ionia), and planted themselves in Asia Minor, south of the ./Eolians, where Ephesus was one of their chief cities. The third were the Dorians, who migrated to Italy and Sicily, and founded numerous flour- ishing settlements. Syracuse in Sicily became the most important. — In the period of colonization we notice the origin of the four principal dialects in the Greek language. (Cf. P. II. § 4.) 3. The 3d period comprehends the space (of five hundred and fifty years) from the abolition of monarchy to the Beginning of the Persian War, about 500 B. C. In this period two of the Grecian states are chiefly conspicuous, Athens and Sparta ; and from the special attention of these states to provide them- selves with a suitable political constitution and civil code, this portion of the history may be designated as the period of laws. « Sparta found in JLycurgus her lawgiver. His institutions gave a permanent' cast to her character, and were not abolished until the last ages of Greece. — Many years later, Athens received her constitution from the hands of Solon, who executed the task unsuccessfully attempted by Draco. (Cf. P. II. § 167; P. IV. § 8, 9.) — The other principal incidents in the history of this period are the repeated wars of Sparta with her neighbors the Messenians, and the usurpation of Pisistratus and the fate of his sons at Athens. — In the war Sparta at last was completely triumphant, but suffered much from the devot- ed skill and patriotism of Aristomenes the Messenian general. It was in this struggle that the Spartans were so much indebted to the lame poet of Athens, Tyrtseus. (Cf. P. II. § 53.) In the very time of Solon, Pisistratus contrived to obtain at Athens a sort of regal authority, which he transmitted to his two sons. The father used his power to promote the glory and welfare of the state. Of the sons one was assassinated at a public festival, and the other, being subsequently expelled, fled to Asia, and sought revenge by instigating the Persians to invade his na- tive country. 4. The 4th period extends from the beginning to the Close of the Persian War, 460 B. C. a space of almost 50 years. To this age the Greeks ever af- ter looked back with pride, and from its history orators of every nation have drawn their favorite examples of valor and patriotism. The Persian invasion called forth the highest energies of the people and gave an astonishing im- pulse to Grecian mind. It may properly be called the period of military glory. The design of subjugating Greece originated in the ambition of Darius the Persian king, the second in succession from Cyrus the Great. He found a pretext and occasion for the attempt in a revolt of his Greek subjects in Asia Minor, in which Sardis the capital of Lydia was pillaged and burnt. The war was carried on by three successive kings, Darius, Xerxes, and Artaxerxes, but on neither of them did it confer any glory ; while the battles of Marathon, Thermopylae, Salamis, Mycale, and Plataea secured immortal honor to the Greeks. — A succession of splendid names adorns the history of Athens du- ring this period. Miltiades, Themistocles, Aristides, Cimon, and Pericles, acted distinguished parts in the brilliant scene. Sparta also justly gloried in the self-sacrifice of Leonidas and his three hundred brave companions. — The period of the Persian war was the age of the highest elevation of the national character of the Greeks. Before it, there existed little union comparatively between the different states, and it was not till Athens had alone and success- fully resisted the strength of Persia at the battle of Marathon, that other states were aroused to effort against the common enemy. In the confederation which followed, Sparta was the nominal head, but the talents, which actually controlled the public affairs, were found in the statesmen of Athens. To Athens, therefore, the supremacy was necessarily transferred and before the close of the war she stood, as it were, the mistress of Greece. 5. The 5th period includes the portion from the close of the Persian war to 60* 714 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. the Supremacy of Philip, B. C. 337. At the beginning of this period the general affairs of Greece were in a highly prosperous condition, and Athens was unrivaled in wealth and magnificence under the influence of Pericles. — But a spirit of luxurious refinement soon took the place of the disinterested patriotism of the preceding age, and the manners of all classes became signal- ly marked by corruption and licentiousness. This may be designated as the period of luxury. The history of the period presents several subjects of prominent interest. — One of these is the protracted war between Athens and Sparta, termed the Peloponnesian. Pericles was still in power when it commenced, but he soon fell a victim to the terrible plague which desolated Athens. The unprinci- pled Cleon and the rash Alcibiades successively gained the predominant in- fluence. The war was continued with slight intermissions and various suc- cess, for nearly thirty years, and was ended by the battle of ^Egos Potamos B. C. 405, in which Lysander, the Spartan king and general, gained a final vic- tory over the Athenians. By this event Athens lost her supremacy in Greece and was deprived even of her own liberties. Her walls were thrown down, and a government of thirty tyrants imposed upon her citizens. To this, how- ever, the Athenians submitted but a few years. In 401 B. C. the Thirty were expelled. The same year was remarkable for Uco other events. The first was the ac- cusation of Socrates, one of the greatest and the best men of which paganism can boast. The trial for some reason was delayed several years, but the re- sult was utterly disgraceful to the city and to all concerned (cf. P. II. § 171). The other memorable event was the expedition of Cyrus the younger, the sa- trap of Lydia, against his brother the king of Persia. Ten thousand Greeks accompanied him in this enterprise. The march from Sardis to the Euphra- tes, the fatal battle of Cunaxa, and the labors and dangers of the 10.000 in re- turning to their homes, are recorded by Zenophon with beautiful simplicity. — The assistance, which the Greeks gave in this revolt of Cyrus, involved them in another war with Persia. Sparta had, by the result of the Pelopon- nesian war, gained the supremacy in Greece, and the other states, especially Athens, Thebes, Argos and Corinth, refused to aid her in the struggle which followed. They even united in a league against her, and Athens furnished the commander, to whom the Persians were indebted for the almost entire de- struction of the Spartan fleet. This war was terminated by a treaty, B. C. 387, which weakened and humbled Sparta, and was alike dishonorable to all the Greeks. The two states which had for ages been pre-eminent in Greece, Athens and Sparta, were now both depressed, and opportunity was afforded for a third, to seek the ascendancy. This for a short time was secured to Thebes, chiefly by the talents of two distinguished citizens, Pelopidas and Epaminondas. — But a war with Sparta shortly consummated her glory, and exhausted her ■strength ; she gained a brilliant victory in the final battle of Mantinea, 363 B. C. but was in the same instant ruined by the death of her general Epami- nondns. — The successive downfall of three principal states, Athens, Sparta, and Thebes, and the jealousies and dissensions connected therewith, reduced Greece to a miserable condition. The general corruption and licentiousness, already mentioned, increased the degradation. In a few years we find the Grecian states embroiled in the Phocian or Sacred war, B. C. 357. (Cf. P. IV. § 12.) This commenced in the jealousies between the Thebans and the Phocians. The Spartans and the Athenians, and ere long the Macedonians, became involved in it. Shortly after this contest was terminated, a new Sa- cred war arose, called the Amphissian ; in which the council of Amphicty- ons appointed Philip king of Macedon as general and leader of their confede- racy. Amid such dissensions, the ambitious Philip eagerly seized a favorable moment for entering the Grecian territories. At Athens the single voice of Demosthenes was lifted to warn the Greeks of his ultimate intentions, and to rouse them to united resistance. A feeble alliance with Thebes was ef- fected, but in vain. The battle of Chceronea, B. C. 337, made Philip the mas- ter of Greece. STATES OP EUROPE. GREECE. ROME. 715 6. The 6th period extends from the supremacy of Philip, gained by the bat- tle of Chaeronea, to the Capture of Corinth, 146 B. C. By the disastrous defeat at Chaeronea the genuine fire of the Grecian spirit was extinguished, and the subsequent history exhibits little else than the steps by which the country was reduced to a dependent province. We may therefore denomi- nate this the period of decline and fall. Alexander, who succeeded his father Philip as king of Macedon, and auto- crator of Greece, cast a sort of glory on the first years of this period by his ex- tensive conquests. Those, who love to trace the course of conquerors, will follow with interest his march from the Hellespont to the Granicus, to Issus, to Tyre, to the Nile, to the desert of Libya, to the Euphrates, and the Indus ; but every reader will regret his follies at Persepolis and be disgusted by his- beastly life and death at Babylon. — For twenty years after Alexander's death the vast empire he had formed was agitated by the quarrels among his gener- als. By the battle of Ipsus in Phrygia B. C. 301, these contests were termi- nated, and the empire was then divided into four kingdoms, one comprising Macedonia and Greece ; a second Thrace and Bithynia; a third Egypt, Lib- ya, Arabia, Palestine, and Coelosyria ; and a fourth called the kingdom of Syria, including all the rest of Asia even to the Indus. To the first of these the Grecian states belonged. Patriotic individuals sought to arouse their countrymen to cast off the Macedonian yoke ; but jeal- ousy between the states and the universal corruption of morals rendered their exertions fruitless. All that is really honorable and memorable in the proper affairs of the Greeks at this period, is found in the history of the Achaean league, — The Achaean league was originally a confederacy between 12 small cities of Achaia, established very early, when the Grecian states first assumed the popular instead of the regal form. It took scarcely any part in the per- petual conflicts between the other republics, and was neutral even in the Pel- oponnesian war. The Macedonian kings had dissolved it, but it was revived about 280 B. C. Subsequently it w r as enlarged, and Corinth became the head and capital. Un- der the presidency of Philopcemen, B. C. 200 to 180, it rose so high in power and reputation, that its alliance was sought by some of the governments of Asia. Had the other states at this time risen above the foul and mean spirit of envy, the independence of Greece might probably have been restored. But unhappily the Romans were requested by one of the states to aid them against the Macedonians. The Romans gladly embraced the opportunity, and shortly after this a Roman general led as a captive to grace his triumph the last king of Macedon, 167 B. C. Nothing but the Achaean league now preserved southern Greece from falling an instant prey to Roman ambition. The remaining vigor of the confederacy averted this destiny for twenty years ; then it came, under the pretext of just punishment for insult upon Roman ambassadors. The legions of Rome poured upon Achaia, Corinth was taken, and with all its wealth and splendor com- mitted to the flames and consumed to ashes. This completed the subjugation of the country, which became of course a province of Rome. The principal helps in the study of the Grecian history have been mentioned, P. II. § 7. 7. (rf). — A L'ood elementary work is Pinuoek's improved edition of Goldsmith's Histonj of Greece &c. Philad. 1836. 12. — A valuable text-book and guide to deeper research ; A. H. L. Heeren, States of Antiquity, translated from German by G. Bancroft, Northampt. 18*28. 8. — For the later periods of Grecian history ; J. Gast. Hist, of Greece from accession of Alexander tiil the final subjection to the Romans. Loud. 1782. 4. — Brcitcrbauch, Geschichte der AchAer und ihres Bundes. Lpz. 1782. § 214. II. Rome. The history of Rome extends through a space of more than 1200 years ; which may be divided, like the Grecian history, into six periods. 1. The 1st period includes the time from the Building of the City, B. C. 752, to the Expulsion of Tarquin, B. C. 509. It may be called the Period of the Kings, or of Regal Power. 716 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. The Roman historians have left a particular account of this period, begin- ning with the very founders of the city, Romulus and Remus, whose de- scent is traced from iEneas the hero of Virgil. But many have doubted whether this portion of the Roman history is entitled to much credit, and some have even contended that it is altogether fabulous. (P. II. § 510. ) — Seven kings are said to have reigned (P. IV. $ 193, 579). One of the most important events of this period, was a change in the constitution effected by the sixth king, Servius Tullius, introducing the Comitia Centuriata. He divided the citizens into classes, and subdivided the classes into centuries, making a much larger number of centuries in the richer classes than in the poorer. ( P. IV. § 252.) — The reign of the second king, Numa, is remembered, on account of his influence on the affairs of religion ; as he instituted many of the religious ceremonies and several classes of priests. — During the period of the kings, 244 years, the Roman territory was of very limited extent, and the people were often involved in war with the several states in their immediate vicinity. Tarquin the Proud, the last king, was engaged in the siege of an enemy's city only sixteen miles from Rome, when his son committed the outrage upon the person of Lucretia, which led to the banishment of the family and the over- throw of the regal government. 2. The 2d period extends from the expulsion of the Kings to the time when the Plebeians were admitted to the Offices of state, about 300 B. C. At the beginning of this period the government was a thorough aristocracy, but at the close of it had become a full democracy. It included over 200 years, and may be designated as the period of the Plebeian and Patrician contests, or of Party strife. Two consuls, chosen annually, first took the place of the king, and exer- cised almost precisely the same power. All offices of state were forbidden to the Plebeians or common people, and filled exclusively by Patricians or de- scendants from the Senators or Patres. — The first step in the undermining of the aristocracy was the Valerian Law, which allowed a citizen condemned to a disgraceful punishment to appeal from the magistrate to the people. Un- der the protection of this law, the people, discontented with their poverty and hardships, ere long refused to enrol their names in the levies, which the wars with neighboring states demanded. This difficulty led the Patricians to in- vent a new office ; that of Dictator (P. IV. § 248). But the dissatisfaction of the Plebeians was not to be thus removed. They united with the army and withdrew to Mt. Sacer, B. C. 493. Reconciliation was effected by creating the office of Tribunes, who were to be chosen annually, from the Plebeians, and to possess the power of a negative upon the decrees of the Consuls and even the Senate. (P. IV. § 245. ) — This arrangement only led to new dis- sensions, the Tribunes generally making it their object to oppose the Consuls and the Senate, and the Plebeian interest gradually encroaching upon the Pa- trician. — In a few years another fundamental change was effected. The important business of state had, from the time of king Servius Tullius, been - transacted at the Comitia Centuriata, or assemblies voting by centuries. It was now, B. C. 471, decided that such business might be transacted in the Comitia Tributa,ox assemblies voting by Tribes, in which the Plebeians held the control. The next office created at Rome seems to have originated in the jealousy between the two parties, the Patricians opposing, and the Plebeians favoring it. This was the Decemvirate, B. C. 451, which superseded. 4)oth consuls and tribunes, but continued only three years, and then the two ether offices were restored. — In a few years the people made another advance, the Sen- ate conceding, that six military tribunes, three Patrician and three Plebeian, might be substituted instead of the two consuls. — Another office was created during this period, the censorship ; two Censors being appointed to take the census of the people every five years, and to watch over the public morals. — But this office does not appear to have originated in party animosity ; nor had it any influence in healing the dissensions between the higher and lower or- ders (cf. P. IV. § 247,259). STATES OP EUROPE. ROME. 717 One grand object with the Plebeians yet remained unaccomplished. They were not eligible to the more important offices of the state, and to remove this disability they now bent all their energies. The struggle continued for many years, and occasioned much unhappy disturbance, but terminated in their complete success; as they gained admission to the consulship, the cen- sorship, and finally to the priesthood, and thus obtained a virtual equality with the Patricians about B. C. 300. During this period, so harassed by internal contests, Rome was engaged in frequent wars. Three of them are most noticeable. The first was with the Etrurians, under king Porsena, shortly after the expulsion of Tarquin, " a war fertile in exploits of romantic heroism." — The second was with the city Veii, a proud rival of Rome. It was at last taken by Camillus B. C. 390, after a siege of ten years. — The last was with the Gauls, who invaded Italy under Brennus, and are said to have taken Rome and burned it to the ground B. C. 385. Camillus, who had been forced by the clamors of the populace to go into retirement, unexpectedly returned, and put to speedy flight the barba- ian conquerors. 3. The 3d period in the Roman history extends from the final triumph of the Plebeians to the Capture of Carthage, B. C. 146. Rome had hitherto been distracted with intestine feuds and dissensions, and had extended her dominion over but a small extent of territory. The ad- mission of Plebeians to all the high offices of trust and distinction promoted the consolidation and strength of the republic, and the career of conquest was soon commenced. This may be remembered as the period of the Punic Wars, or of Foreign Conquests. The first important conquest was that of the southern part of Italy, which resulted from the war with the Samnites. Southern Italy was settled by Grecian colonies (§ 50), and contained at this time several cities flourishing, wealthy, and refined by letters and the arts. On their invitation, Pyrrhus the king of Epirus passed over from Greece with a large army and a train of elephants to aid them against the Romans, and was for a time successful, but finally, being totally defeated at the battle of Beneventum B. C. 274, fled pre- cipitately to his own dominions. The allied states and cities immediately submitted to Rome, who thus became mistress of Italy. She now began to look abroad for acquisitions, and the island Sicily be- came an object of desire. The pursuit of this object brought Rome into con* tact with Carthage, which was now flourishing and powerful. The Cartha- ginians had settlements in Sicily, and desired as well as the Romans the do- minion of the whole island. Hence sprang the first of the three Punic Wars. Sicily was chiefly settled by Greek colonies. These colonies preferred inde- pendence, but, situated between Rome on one side and Carthage on the other, were in no condition to resist both, and had only the alternative of joining one against the other. They chose the side of the Romans in the first Punio War, which began B. C. 264, and was ended B. C. 241, by a treaty exceeding- ly humiliating to Carthage. Sicily was made a Roman province, yet Syra- cuse, the principal city, was allowed to retain an independent government. — The tragic story of Regulus belongs to the first Punic War. After a peace of twenty-three years, the second Punic War began in the siege of Saguntum in Spain, by Hannibal, B. C. 218. Having taken this city, Hannibal crossed the Pyrenees and the Alps, and marched down upon Italy with a victorious army. The Romans were defeated in three engage- ments before the memorable battle of Cannae, in which they were completely conquered, and 40,000 of their troops left dead on the field. But after the battle of Cannae the Carthaginians gained no advantages. A king of Mace- don came to their aid in vain. — Scipio, a Roman general, having conquered Spain, passed over to Africa and carried the war to the very walls of Car- thage. Hannibal was recalled from Italy to defend the city, but was utterly defeated by Scipio in the battle of Zama, B. C. 202, by which the second Punic War ended even more disastrously than the first. In this war, Syra- cuse in Sicily took part with the Carthaginians, and was on that account be- 718 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. sieged by the Romans. It was ably defended by the scientific genius of Ar- chimedes, but at length taken by Mareellus, and made a part of the province of Sicily, B. C. 212. The result of the second Punic War may be considered as the occasion, which carried the Roman arms into Asia. Hannibal, after the battle of Zama, fled to the protection of Antiochus, king of Syria. This led to a war which compelled the king to cede to the Romans nearly the whole of Asia Minor, B. C. 190. — The interference of the king of Macedon, in the second Punic War, also furnished the ground for a war with him, which was the first step towards the conquest of Greece. A few years after, the Romans on the pre- tence of aiding the iEtolians, subjected Macedonia, B. C. 167. The Achaean league preserved the southern portions of the country a little longer ; but in twenty years these likewise fell under the dominion of Rome by the capture of Corinth, B. C. 146. Carthage fell the same year with Corinth. The Romans had waged a third Punic War, when the Carthaginians were greatly weakened by an unfortunate struggle with the Numidians. The third Punic War continued but about three years, and terminated in the entire destruction of Carthage, under cir- cumstances of aggravated cruelty and faithlessness on the part of the Ro- mans. 4. The 4th period extends from the Capture of Carthage and Corinth, to the establishment of the Imperial Government by the battle of Actium, B. C. 31. During this whole time the Roman history is a continued tale of domes- tic disturbances. This may justly, therefore, be termed the period ot the Civil Wars. The very commencement of the period is marked by the disturbances, which grew out of the attempts of the two Gracchi. They successively endeavored to check the growing corruption of the Senate, and to relieve the circumstan- ces of the people, but both fell victims to their own zeal and the hatred of their enemies, Tiberius 133, and Caius 121 B. C. Some have ascribed their efforts to ardent patriotism ; others to mere ambition. (Cf. Niebuhr's Rome, cited P. II. $ 299. 7.) Not long after the fall of Gracchus arose the Social War, by which the states of Italy demanded and obtained of Rome the rights of cit- izenship, B. C. 90. — Scarcely was this ended, when the Romans began again to imbrue their hands in each other's blood in the fierce war of Sylla and Ma- rius, rival leaders in the republic. Two horrible massacres signalized this contention. Sylla finally triumphed, and was made perpetual dictator, yet resigned his power at the end of four years, B. C. 78. The death of Sylla is soon followed by the famous conspiracy of Cataline, detected and subdued by the vigilance of Cicero, B. C. 62. Still Rome was distracted by parties, headed by ambitious men. — The first triumvirate, a temporary coalition between Pompey, Crassus and Caesar, re- pressed the flames of discord for a few years. Pompey had already added Syria to the Roman possessions ; Caesar soon added Gaul. Crassus lost his life in an attempt to conquer Parthia, B. C. 53. The death of Crassus broke the bond which held Caesar and Pompey together, and they hastened to deter- mine in the field of battle, who should be master of Rome. The contest was decided in the plains of Pharsalus in Thessaly, by the entire defeat of Pom- pey, B. C. 48. Pompey fled to Egypt, but was beheaded the instant he landed on the shore. For five years Caesar held the supreme power at Rome, but was assassinated in the Senate, by a company of conspirators headed by Brutus and Cassius, B. C. 43. A second triumvirate was now formed on the pretext of avenging this mur- der, between Antony, Lepidus, and Octavius, each aspiring to the power of Caesar. A horrid proscription sealed in blood this compact. A war with the party of the conspirators necessarily followed, and the battle of Philippi, B. C. 42, put an end to the hopes of Brutus and Cassiua, at the head of this party. Octavius, who was the nephew of Caesar, easily effected the removal of one member of the triumvirate, Lepidus, a man of feeble talents and insignifi- cant character. His other colleague, Antony, infatuated by love for Cleopa* tra the queen of Egypt, soon furnished a pretext for open hostility, and th© STATES OF EtjROPE. ROME. 710 Sate of battle again decided who Should be the master of Rome. The arma- Jnent of Antony and Cleopatra was wholly defeated by Octavius, at Actium, fi. C. 31. This battle subjected Egypt to Rome, and Rome, with all her pos- sessions, to the power of Octavius, by whom the Imperial government was finally established. The Roman history, from the fall of Carthage to the battle of Actium, pre- sents but a melancholy picture, a blood-stained record of sedition, conspiracy, and civil war. 5. We may include in a 5th period the time from the establishment of the Imperial Government to the reign of Constantine, A. D. 306. As Christiani- ty was introduced into the world in this period, and was opposed until the end of it by the Roman government, we may designate it as the period of the Pagan. Emperors. The reign of Augustus, the name taken by the first Emperor Octavius, has become proverbial for an age flourishing in peace, literature, and the arts. It is distinguished, also, for the birth of our Savior ; as the next reign, that of Tiberius, is, for his crucifixion and death. — The four reigns succeeding, viz. those of Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius and Nero, are chiefly memorable for the tyranny of the emperors, and the profligacy of their families artd favorites. On the death of Nero, A. D. 69, follows a year of dissension and bloodshed in which Galba, Otho, and Vitellius successively gained the Empire and lost their lives. — The Flavian family, Vespasian and his two sons, Titus and Do- mitian, next in order receive the supreme power. Titus is celebrated as the final conqueror of the Jews, whose obstinacy provoked him to rase their city to the ground, an event exactly fulfilling the predictions of Christ. His reign is memorable for the eruption of Vesuvius, which buried the cities Her- culaneum and Pompeii in ruins. Domitian, the last emperor of the family, provokes his own assassintion, A.D. 96. Passing the reigns of the feeble Nerva, the martial Trajan, and the peaceful Adrian, we arrive at a brilliant age in the imperial history, the age of the Antonines, extending from A. D. 138 to 180, a space of about forty years. Their reigns appear in the midst of the general sterility and desolation of the imperial history like the verdant oasis in the desert. Literature and the arts of peace revived under their benign influence. After the death of Marcus, A. D. 180, there follows a whole century of dis- order, profligacy, conspiracy and assassination. The army assumes the abso- lute disposal of the imperial crown, which is even sold at public auction to the highest bidder. Within the last fifty years of the time, nearly fifty em- perors are successively proclaimed, and deposed or murdered. — In the year" 284, Diocletian commenced his reign, and attempted a new system of admin- istration. The empire was divided into four departments or provinces, and three princes were associated with him, in the government. This system only laid the foundation for rivalship and contention in a new form, and in a fe\V years Maxentius and Constantine, sons of two of the princes associated with Diocletian, appealed to the sword to decide upon their respective claims to the imperial purple. The former fell in the battle, and Constantine secured the throne. This period is memorable in the history of Christianity. Under the Pagan Emperors, those who embraced the gospel were constantly exposed to perse- cution and suffering. Ten special persecutions are recorded and described, the Jirst under Nero A. D. 64, and the last under Diocletian, commencing A. D< 303, and continuing ten years, unto A. D. 313. But, notwithstanding these repeated efforts to hinder the progress of the gospel, it was spread during" this period throughout the whole Roman Empire. 6. The 6th period includes the remainder of the Roman history, extending: from the reign of Constantine to the Fall of Rome, when captured by the Heruli, A. D. 476. The reign of Constantine the Great imparts splendor to the commencement of this period. He embraced the Christian faith himself, and patronized it in the empire, as did also most of his successors ; on which account this may be called the period of the Christian Emperors. 720 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. One of the most important events of his reign, and one which had a great influence on the subsequent affairs of Rome, was the removal of the Govern- ment to a new seat. He selected Byzantium for his capital, and thither re- moved with his court, giving it the name of Constantinople, which it still bears. He left his empire to five princes, three sons and two nephews; the youngest son, Constantius, soon grasps the whole, A. D. 360. By the death of Constantius, his cousin Julian received the purple, which he was already on his march from Gaul to seize by force. The reign of Julian, styled the Apostate, is memorable for his artful and persevering attempts to destroy the Christian religion, and his unsuccessful efforts to rebuild the Temple of Jeru- salem, with the express purpose of casting discredit on the predictions of the Bible. From the death of Julian, A. D. 363, to the reign of Theodosius the Great, A. D. 379, the history presents little that is important to be noticed, except the jealousies between the eastern and western portions of the Empire, which grew out of the removal of the court to Constantinople. Theodosius was the last emperor who ruled over both. In 395 he died, leaving to his sons Arcadiue and Honorius separately the east and the west. — From this time the Eastern portion remained distinct, and its history no longer belongs to that of Rome. The Western portion languishes under ten successive emperors, who are scarcely able to defend themselves against the repeated attacks of barbarian invaders. At length, under Augustulus, the 11th from Theodosius, Rome is taken by Odoacer, leader of the Heruli, and the history of ancient Rome is terminated, A. D. 476. The whole of the period from Constantine to Augustulus is marked by the continued inroads of barbarous hordes from the north and the east. But the greatest annoyance was suffered in the latter part of the time, from three tribes, under three celebrated leaders ; the Goths, under Alaric ; the Vandals, under Genseric ; and the Huns, under Attila; the two former of which actual- ly carried their victorious arms to Rome itself (A. D. 410 and 455), and laid prostrate at their feet the haughty mistress of the world ; and the latter was persuaded to turn back his forces (A. D. 453) only by ignoble concessions and immense gifts. § 215. It may be proper to add here, that the Eastern Empire, called also the Greek Empire was sustained under various fortunes, for a period of al- most 1000 years after the overthow of the Western. After the fall of Rome nearly sixty different emperors had occupied the throne at Constantinople, when, A. D. 1202, that city was taken by the crusaders from France and Ven- ice. By this event the Greek emperors were forced to establish their court at Nicaea in Asia Minor. After the lapse of sixty years, their former capital was recovered : and, subsequently to this, eight different emperors held the scep- tre there ; although the empire was gradually reduced in strength and extent, until it consisted of but a little corner of Europe. Its existence was prolong- ed to A. D. 1453, when Constantinople fell into the hands of the Turks, who have retained it to the present day. For the principal works on the Roman history, see P. II. $299. 7. — We mention here ag valuable, Alex. Tras. Tytler's Universal History. Bost. 1835. 2 vols. 8. — The student in an- cient history will derive advantage also from B i g 1 a n d 's Letters on the study and use of His- torn, and Priestley's Lectures on History ; also Rilk's Prop'adeutik des historischen Studium*. Berl, 1811. 8. INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. A y Apaxioxo$, 94 3 ApaufiuxivoTa, 518 Apqa^ug, 113 A(iqaoada(lqa, 113 y Ayu7.uuTa, 92, 466, 552 y Ayi7.ai, 516 * Ayxvqa, 530 y Ay7.aia, 446 'Ayvicuol, 466 J ^yo^, 503, 509, 674 y Ayqiu>via, 491 'Ayxiuaxoi, 476 y Ayatyi;, 516 3 ^4yfat, 38 ^yiovo^rai, 38, 495, 500 y Adanag, 110 y ASauavTivog, 274 w ^<%, 416, 550 'AMrarot, 508, 528 "-^i/tov, 484 >AMvia, 491, 492 'Asia it oi, 514 'Adtiva, 420 J -4%at, 671 y A6tjrtj, 671 *^^ijTot, 500 v ^;.or, 496 ~Aix?.ov, 518 > ^to;.o?, 429,433 f AtQtroi, 506 'AioQtioig, 89 'AtOvuvijxai, 38 'AirtjTixlc, 486 '-iir/a, 512 '^i/iKiAeoTos, 482, 528 'jit&ii, 474 y Aiuqai, 500 y AxkoTqa, 548 y Axnaxi t g, 524 *Anomov i 474 y Axovricig, 497 y Axqurtiaua, 534 'AxQoaaig, 324, 329 'Axoopo/.iOTai, 523 y Axqo6iviu, 468, 528 y Axoou(pu7.ia, 34 'Axqoviu, 530, 533 y Axq6no7.ig, 671 y Axooar6?.ta, 463 *AxqoOTix*i$i 158 61 y AxQo)T)' t Qia, 533 ^xr^, 670 y A7.apuOTqog, 112 y A?.a?.ctyubg, 526 y A7.tiuu.aTu, 540 FAJEIOI, 48 y A7.iinT}jQiov, 133, 539 *.^P.e£jjT»;()ia, 474 y A7.ii-i(paQuaxa, 168 y A7.ivoouavTiia, 490 y A7.tj6i t g loToqia, 220 a ^;.,«a, 496 ".4*$ tfefos, 537 'wdfa^cf, 497 y A7.vTaQ%tig, 498 r ^;.<5a, 428, 491 *af/iaCo»«c, 450 y AuidvoTog, 110 5 Auiutov paoikiwg, 56 * Aiinvs, 538 5 Auipiyvtiitg, 424 * AipiTZTCOl, 523 y Au', 550 y Aqti07tayiTui, 510 '-^(moTrayos, 510 "^ijS, 421 "AqufTov, 534 5 Aqy.Ttia, 550 c AquuTiiu, 161 "J(ii(a, 496, 550 'AquiviOTai, 532 r AquooTai, 517 ' AquoOvvoi, 517 * AqoTqov, 542 "'Aqovqa, 545 " Aqiraysg, 532 "Aqnviai, 447 *-4&a, 548 'AqTipig, 418, 432 "AqTvvoi, 520 y AqxaytTui, 516 y Aqx*ia, 517 y Aqx&?ov, 484 Aqxnqwovvi], 485 5 Aqxibiwqog, 496 y Aqxiy-v^iqv)]Ti]g, 533 y AqxiTqix7.ivog, 536 *AqxovTtg, 506 5 ^4auv^or, 530 y Aoi(iiia, 513 "Aaxaqov, 546 "Aaxav7.og, 547 > Aax7.tiTciu8oiv, Sec. 262 "Aoxwua, 530 y Aonig, 474, 524 'AoTquTiVTOl, 528 3 AoTqaXioxog, 34 y A0vu(Jo7.oi, 536 y Ao(pd7.iog, 414 ^rtti«j 504, 514 y AT&Ldtg, 250 y ATipia, 513, 519, 533 722 INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. "AxQoirog, 446 *AvV, ly 540 *Avlo$, 496> 546 >Avxl n 526 ! 'Avxoxu(i$a?.oi, 174 > AvX0XQuX(x)Q,,5l7 i AvTou6Zoi, 528 *Avr6x6orsg, 21 ^AyauHoTuu, 520 *A *A(f.?.aora, 530 'AtpqoSittta, 492 i A(f{iodirr l , 422 ^urijs, 110 JBaiVij,. 538 £«*/«/, 485 JBax/sia, 492- Buxxog, 425 Bit). pig, 496- Barcxicfx^Qiov, 538 JBupa^oj', 514 Buourixov (?A&ov), 53' jBuffui-og, 504 .Buaulefs, 470 JS«0t*it;s, 494, 506, 536 JBuaxavia, 491, 570 -B, 496 jBuv, 30, 544 Bifiilloi, 486 BeiStaioi, 517 BtiiZontg, 519- ^;.r ; , 474 i BiXouuvrz'ux, 491' JB»>a, 675 jB/^lvUo?, 110 Bip.'iu taTQixa, 165 Btp.iov, 34,263. Bi(Ht07Ctjyot, 70 «(/?;. 05, 32, 34v 263 B0>j$Q0lltU)V, 699 ■Bonos', 469 ■Boiorap/cu, 520 Bo2ts, 530 Boupog, 491 Boupx%\ 634 Bouftvx'ia, 32: Bovai, 516 ■Bowdrrm, 48$ BovJ.tiov, 510 Bov/.ivTiy.hv, 133l 2?oW.5ut«i, 502 Bovltvxt'^iu, 674 .Bou^, 502, 510 £oi)?, 543 Bovaxgoipiidbv,. 30, 4& Bqupiiov, 496 BfJupsvrui, 38 BquvQioria, 492: JBoorTffor, 500 Uyarr^Toc, 490, BtJi>xog, 514 Bvoiog, 488 J?w^oi, 467, 484 Bwfibg, Tc5f dwiJexa, 404 J'a^.axToffTrovJa, 467 T'a i ui' l ?.iu, 161 TvtufjPAu, 413 rawUuv, 699 rauip.ioi -&BOI, 550- ,ra,uo5, 536, 550 /^(TT^tf, 529 raOTQOiiavTtict, 491 riyavog, 500 Z^ouxrai, 515 T^ovaltf, 517, 520 r^o»-,524, 527 JTtcoy^aytxu, 242 JTiuiuoqoi, 520 r»b)Ttovix'a, 264 i^S 7T*^tO(Jo5, 165 riyyQa, 546 rtyyQaauog, 492 JUat/S, 542 Z , Aavxw7i«5, 420- rivtpsiov, 33 ZV-woaui, 215 .TV»,'aiot, 550 JTvJjQi atavrbv, 488 JTvoiiiai, 165 JTvaitLiuVf 698 .Tovv7r£T«i*\ 467 -TV^yoreS, 449 JToyyonov, 450 rqaiKol, 459 JT^ui/uara ^otytxefot, 28, ' 49 T'quufiura ovinia, 369 JT^aitfiarivg, 170, 506,507; 508, 521 TQocunaTixoL, 41, 215, 332 rQuutuxTiaT^g, 41,73 ryeccpttov, 33 ryayii, 513 rgacptxr,, 120 />u{c:, 33, 123. .Tt%, 542 Tv?.iov, 476 rvuvuota, 37' rvfivaari'^iov^ 183 > rvuvuaT'^g, 500 rvuvocoiaQx' 101 ' 507 jTvuvixoi ayrovtg, 38 /"iivaixtfov, 481 rvvaixotv, 481, 540 Jadovxog, 494 daiuong, 447 dutuoro%ij7iToi, 490 JixiXQog, 536 Jutxxv).ioy7.vyict t 108 JaxxvXtoyXvqtoi, 116 //uxTvAtodijxai, 116 ^uxTtdov af(J«, 497. daxxvl.og, 244 davaxi], 550 Juipvrj, 486 Jacprt^poQia, 492 x JaipvtjyoQixa, 161* ^•Uq, 697 ..i/tiAii'ov, 534 Jtinvov, 534, 536 jjetnvoffotpioxal, 40" Jtxadovxoi, 502 */«*« 5 , 518 ^ftxao^ibg, 513 Jsxuip&ivol, 698 Jikxoi, 34 JtX(f)lv, 532 ^«Sto$, 490 JiTcuxit, 537 Jiqua, 529 Jtaubg, 513 JexfaitQu, 699 /^taj 492 JtluiXQXOl, 506 ^?/*>;t^, 427,428 Jtjim'jTQta, 492 Jtj/nionQuxa, 507 JtluiovQyoi, 521 ^uoi, 171, 501, 503: Jitfiooioi, 507 //»/«, 428 ^/iiiyP.i/qja, 90 jdiayqaiptig, 508 Jiu8r t ua, 470 Jiadootif, 508 Jtatw^iaxa, 133 JiaQi' t xt], 550 Jiaixtjx'ui, 512 4/«U«$i$, 208 Jia?.?.uxn' t Qtoi, 512-' JiuuaaxiywOig, 42 /Jiavouut, 508 JiaQxi if 517 Jtaoxtvixax'ui, 170, 1811 //icioruP.og, 132 Aiavlog, 496 JtSdoxBiv tyaua, 175 Jtdaoxul.iat, 175 JLSquxuoc, 543 Jdvqaupof, 161, 425 •dtinoltla, 492 ^x«i, 512, 504 Jixuia, 550 Jtxavixbi l.oyot, 204 J Jtxuoxai, 512: Jtxaaxt'^iov, 511 //«'*>;, 363, 504 ; J i xn ox a, 476 . d 11,1.0 x ut > ^23 Jiovvota, 39, 492J Jiorvaog, 425 Jiontxij, 484 i INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 723 Jioq&watig, 215 Aiooxoi'qia, 455 Aioaxovqoi, 455 AinXaoiaouoc, 525 4i7iTtqog, 132 Ainrvxa, 34 AinvXov, 671 Jiaxog, 497 Jitp&iQui, 32, 71 J'upqog, 410, 474 4iia(ioXia, 508 jdlbiXOiV, 512 Aiumooia, 510, 512 Jiw^ig, 512 Aoxiuaoia, 506 JuXiyog, 496 ^/ £yxti)««aOTtxot, 204 'Eyxajtiiov, 161 'fy^s^i^ov, 524 *Eyxog, 474 i Eyx Eixovix'u, 92 J £v, 123, 514 1 Ei?.u7ilvt), 534 'JBiAiWwia, 419 i Ei2.)]uaT7< 435,446 > £tfraj'y*/.«a, 513 > Etoo/t'i, 115 'Eioipoqal, 507, 508 '■ExitTvupaia, 492 r Exaroiipatcjr, 699 c £x«To i «|Sij, 467 'Exaroufloia, 413 r ExtfTuuntdov, 672 'Exdvo'ia, 435 'jftptayriai, 509, 517 i Exx?.tiaiaanxii iaroola, 272 ^ExxoimSij, 550 5 j5:x;.oyjr ? , 508 'ExCFTUTlXOl, 490 "Exrvna, 93 'Excpoqlx, 551 'EXui^g critpavog, 519 '-EP.uioflttfiop, 133 3 EXaioonovSa, 467 'EXcHptifioliafV, 699 3 £A*y£ta, 163 'Jttiyo;, 163, 164 'EXinoXig, 525 5 £/.«i;a£vtu, 492, 493 "£;.(*«<;, 538 r £/.;.u>'o\Qiov, 526 'EupoX^, 527 'ErfoXov, 525, 529 'EuiuiXtta, 169 *Eumtqia, 262 'Eu7ciXu)Qoi, 517 'Eunvsvara, 546 'Evdytouu, 469 "Eruotf, 528 "fv^tt^tj, 513 "£rthx«, 506, 512 'ErfloVfflUffTUl, 490 'JErroyfltroi, 698 '.Erred reuiloy, 671 'iivtmrviov, 490 'Erva,, 422,438 '.Erco/uoTta, 525 "£^«5(jat, 133 '.Ei-e/.tyiuoc, 525 >.E|«TaOTui, 506 "Estjfioi, 516 '£c>/y »/<*'?, 215 'E^iyijXtx^, 41 '-Et-ojfj^, 115 'EndixXov, 518 'Enaivog, 161 J -E/T£ tflochov, 168 ^£7r«i'iuxT0t, 516 'Emfiti&Qai, 527, 530 'EnificcTai, 532 'ii7r«yo»oi, 456 'EnifQixuuaTct, 47, 166, 528 'Eniyqayal, 552 'Emyqvufiig, 508 'EnidtixTixbg, 324 'E/ictftiijtiS, 39 Enidsinva, 536 'EniBaXdnia, 161 'EmdtxXdfitov, 550 fEnlxomoi, 529, 532 EniXaQx'ia, 525 Ercu.o'iuia, 161 'Ejvtfiu/'iu, 526 'EniiitXtjTaL, 550 Ercivixiov, 161 'Emoqxia, 487 'Eni^Qtifia, 172 'EjiiOeiwv, 530 'ErciaijUa, 30 'ErctOTdrtig, 509, 510 'EniaxoXai iqwrixai, 220 'EniOTo7.ivg, 533 'ETCio-zoXoyqd E(px6*lt, 672 'Epf/deior, 672 Mfyim/ff, 446 "jE^is, 433 'EotOXtxlj, 41 "Eqxog, 552 r 'Equa, 530 r Egua&ilrtj, 93 r 'Eq t uata, 492 r Enuatog Xi&og, 93 r Eout l ()axXt L j g, 93 r %«,; ? , 93, 424 *&?•*, 423 'Eqortixlx uiXi;, 166 'EontQioua, 534 f E\ 540 r Eaxtdxaq, 536 'Ea^uQivg, 533 ' Eg yitxoxoXXov , 34 'Extx'inui, 548 r ErtQoiovuira, 165 'ErtooudoxuXoi, 504 'ErvuoXoyixiv, 219 '■EvuyytAtx/y ar7r E(p>j(iiy.bv, 133 3 'E(pij(ioi, 516 f E(f)' l ytjOig, 513 'Ecptjutqlg, 261 >E(piu?.rtig, 490 ^ ^Eipinniov, 597 'Eipodtia 556 > E(pOQtlOV, 517 f "EyoQoi, 493, 517 ^E/tThj, 542 Z«uyfTo«, 502 Znfe, 410, 411 Z«i;$ a-rryios 416 Z^u'a, 513, 519 Z^nluara, 215 Zvya, 530 Zi;y/u, 413 Zuyrrai, 532 Zvyi ? , 524, 525 Zo)yQtx(pixi n 120 Zou'oq uD.ag, 518 Zwv;], 469, 474 ZojorrQsg, 529 ZcJOTqov, 538 'HSonxoi, 227 "HQuog, 48 'maxurtj, 530 f H?.ialu, 511 c H?.iaOTui, 506, 511 f '77/77ci s , 432, 697 0aP.aiuTai, 532 0a?.a i uog, 550 QdUict, 445, 446 ©uP./oi, 467 0a/.Xo(p6qoi, 495 0a varog, 448, 514 0u^y>/;.twv, 699 0avAcoW;*>?, 552 0j;^ta^a, 165 0»;T« ? , 482, 502 0£avfrai, 532 0Qa vog, 532 0^»;'vwy : "«ca5^oi, 551 0()iyxbg, 552 ? (Jro S , 39, 479, 542 0i;'«/;.«t, 447 0v,ui?.ri, 169 0vf.iiaua, 486 0i^a,'54O 0v 525 " Innaqx 01 ! 524 tlnnstg, 473, 502 r Inn lag fisitiov, 92 r InnodQouog, 678 ' InnolvTEia, 672 <, J7r7roroSorai, 523 "7^?, 433 'iGOlliTQtjTCC, 92 'ItfoTt/Qarros, 517 f 7;yo()tat, 206, 513 TCaTOTrT^a, 539, 542 Karoirux*}, 538 KavT>',Qia, 123 JCiisvar^, 533,616 tf^/T*?, 476, 496 INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 725 Kerala, 552 KtvoTuyia, 519, 552 JUvrijOig, 519 KivTQov, 597 Keqaia, 530 Ksqausixbg, 40 Xsquuiov, 545 Ktqag, 547 Kiqara, 34, 524, 530 KeQCLTLVt], 547 Kequtiov, 544 JCeQavr ooy.071 stov, 500 Ksqxidtg, 133 KiQua, 543 Kiornwoig, JCbotqov, 123 Kecpak}/ dsinvov, 536 JCiproi ^flwviaos, 492 JC»7e«S, 449 KrtQoiiavTBia, 491 KHPON02, 31 jr»Jdtf£, jtiftvttac, 468,471, 485, 507, 525, 537 KriqvxBiov, 525, 526 JTtyxaUec 512 Xiduga 546 Kutdiviov Tti%og, 671 Kiovtjdbv, 30 Kivvqa, 546 /nro;.;.a, 92 jf/dot, 524, 92, 112, 108 ^ii3og 7tqaT>\q, 504 ^oyutfeg, 519 Joyefov, 500, 576 Aoyia, 487 AoyiOTai, 506 Aoyiori t g, 533 Aoyoyqaipiai, 230 Abyoi OXvumxoi, 39 £|wT£^t^Oi, £(7a)T8Q- i*ot, 41 Aoifial, 467 ^oS/« s , 418, 489 Aovxiog -tY'Ovog, 220 AovTi'iQiov, 542 Aovrqbv, 539 Aoipstov, 542 Aocpog, 474 Aoxayoi, 524 ^o/o?, 524, 525 Avxaia, 434,492 Jvaeig, 215 ^fwcfiLcavog, 673 Mayu&g, 546 ikZuyava, 527 Mayvijxig ?A6og, 386 JViuyot, 491 MatTat, 518 Madi-para, 37, 240 Maiuaxrr^iojv, 699 Miarufog, 485 Maxqa oxiXyj, 672 Maxqal Ttirqai, 673 Mavrtia, 487 MavrBiaara, 487 Mavrixt), 490 MdtvTig, 158 ilia iriTijc, 534 >00V£ 1^0710^.01, 490 'Ovsioog, 448, 449,490 J Ovaiooo"xo7rot, 490 'Orouaonxbv, 217 'Owl, 111 'Ovvxiov, 111 'Ogvpeleig, 527 'Ond7.7.iog, 110 'OTrio^ockiuoc, 672 'Oniodoyqafpot, 34 ' 0/t;.a, 530 'OTcitrai, 521 c 07i7.iToSq6iioi, 496 c ' OttAov, 523 "Oqaua, 490 'Oqyag, 485 "O^yra, 492 'Oqyvid, 544 'Oqeixulxog, 92 "OqQiog, 545 >Oq6ond?.ti, 497 ° Oqxia Ttuvsiv, 487 "O^o?, 412J " Oqxog (iov).tvTixbg, 510 "Ooxog uiyag, 486 " Oquoi, 675 ° Oouog, 538 'Ojmdoua'rreis, 490 'Ooot, 390 " ' Oqvyua, 514 "'OqxtjOig, 37 " t^«a7r^f?,528 c Ptyi?, 497 r ?o/, 434 2xq6(piov, 538 2xQ(Duaxa, 536 ^ti;';.os. 33, 134 2vxo(puvxai, 512 ^j;.;.a(?oc, 34 Zt4u/te2a, 491, 526, 537 2vu(io?.} h 534 2vu(iov?.svTtxol, 204 2vu(iv>uoi, 484 2vuuax'iot,, 526 2viiuiy.xa, 215 2vuuoqiui 507 2vuTC?.iyuaxu, 93 2vun6oia, 40, 537 2\>(i7tOOii)CQx 9i 536 JSt/vdixoi, 507 ^f^'yo^, 507,512 2t/vd»;xtf, 526 ^tyfi^tara, 526 2yv+w>i, 484 JSfi/Vrayim, 525 JMfetyS, 546, 547 Svooitia, 518, 536 ^t/tfraff«g, 208 2tW!;;.og, 132 ^"(/laysTov, 468 ■5"JS2ta f ;S15 2 yoLVopUxai, 534 ^>xi t q, 672 Taiv'ia, 538 Taxxiy.oi, 525 Tov.arro?', 543 Tauiai xmv isqoir, 485 Tau lag, 533 Tauiag, nqooodov, 508, Twf $£u>(nx&h', 501 Ta'iiaqxoi, 524 SVItff, 524 Ta tme^ 0oi';.//r, 220 Tdipog, 552 Taxvyoclipoi, 35 Tiyeoi, 540 TiSqinnoi, 496 Tii/og vljxiov, &c. 672 Tf/.aKw?', 524 77;.*/, 507 ru<>$, 525 T £ ;i<3i>a«, 508 Tiusvog, 484 TsqUnxoQi], 445 Tt^a, 496 Ttooaqdxovxa, 512 TsxQi'iQsig, 532 T£Xqa, 536 Tqantionoibg, 536 Tqaiy.Uviov, 536, 540 TqUoyia, 39 TQinodsg, 468 TqinodrjCpoQixu,'' 161 Tq'movg XQtjOT>' t Qiog, 489 TQiroyivna, 420 Tqi/OQdog, 546 TQiwdLrig, 419 T^Traiov, 469, 528 TyoTtig, 529 Tqonoi, 530 Tqo X 6g, 513 TQi'mava, 527 Tv^pog, 552 Tvunara, 514 Tvunuvov , 547 IWii 436 r '.T&xntfo*, 110 "rfyauJUg, 547 c YdQicupoQoi, 469 c Y$(Jouavrsia, 490 c rtf()6rT7roK?a, 467 c Ydqo(puQoi, 537 r rutvatoi, 161, 550 *r/**os, 158, 160 f r^; /? 542 "rTrat^og, 132 C YtC)'jXOQI, 529 c TTftjQirtjg, 525 c 'l"7rrog, 448 c 1^7royata, 552 r Y7zoyQacplg, 123 r l"7ro5/ / 'u«Ta, 538 c Y7ioLa>uara, 530 r l"7ro>;af(JTov, 539 'Ytzoxqccti'iQiov, 48 'YrcoxQiTaL, 500 'I'VrouEtoras, 515 'YTto^ivt^iara, 215 e Ynouooia, 512 c Y7roQ/rjua, 161 'YjioOTiyui'j, 32 'Ytcutchx, 497 dWa?.ayYOiQXia?.}]Qor, 675 <&u?.xig, 529 &a?.?.ixa, 171 *(i;.o?, 474 avraaua, 490 txQuaxsi%uaTa, 137 tfrtyyirug, 625 stdiTia, 518 siya>r, 512 *»;,"'/> 436 0ofg, 494 t^i^Aiutfai, 161 <£>t;.iTta, 513 i?.ouetdi t g, 422 <&i?.oo6(pojv ovunooiov, 40 ?.oibg> 32 ffropi'jTWQ, 449 ot(iog, 417 (froivixi'jicc, 49 OVlXtoV, ITCI Twr, 511 6Qoi, 507 <£>oQTi]yol, 529 (Juroiai, 501 QccTQixlx, 536 Q£aTToi, iv, 443 ()vyLovvyv syyor, 548 #i/ y $, 513, 519 v?.axai, 526 <£>t;;.ti£;^S, 523 tfrvluqxoi, 506, 624 ff/<$«r, 111 Xa?.xioixog, 678 XaAxotfs, 543 Xaqior/jQia, 486 Xu(JtT€£, 446 XtioT>/ ?) 32 Xti^riov (iou(iuxlag, 32 JX£t(50TOV/jTOl, 506 JCE/^oTovta, 508, 510 .XstjJ oiStiQa, 532 JXsWcuura, 529 XrtcMwa, 161 Xtlwvif, 527 XtQviip, 468 JEyrfoxpf, 529 Xi/.tctQzia, 525 Xiriv, "479, 538 Xitwvjj, 419 Xla&a, 479, 538 Xoai, 467, 469 Xo£Vt£, 513, 545 Xoqsvtou, 169 XoQTjyia, 507 Xooi, 510 Vi&vQa, 546 iPuUt- 473, 523 WvxouavTila, 491 Wv/oOTaoicc, 417 '42/*ai, 515 'Sidstov, 133, 673 5 42c?o?, 163 5 'i2ta, 540 3 Si t Uo6tTSlV, 468 c S2oaxo7ria, 490 "fl^at, 435, 446 ^afa, 492 INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. Ablecti, 610, 612 Abraxas, 113 Accensi, 583, 608 Accipe libens, 563 Accusator, 592 Acerra, 560 Acetabulum, 601 Acidalia, 422 Acies, 607, 611, 616 Aclides, 614 Acta senatus, 369, publica, &.c. 369 Actia, 668 Actiones in person- am, in rem, 592 Actor, 592 Actuarial, 617 Actuarii, 569, 583 Actus quadratus, 601 Adamas, 110 Ad bestias &c. 594 Adjudicatio, 600 Admovere, 567 Adonia, 422 Adoptio, 623 Adoratio, 567 Adrastia, 435 Adscriptitii, 404, 608 Adulterii crimen, 593 Adversaria, 71 Advocatus, 592 Adytum, 559 iEcastor, 455 iEdepol, 455 JEdes sacrse, 436, 559 ^Ediles, 575, 580 JSditui, 101, 566 iEgeon,443 JEgis, 420 Aello, 447 ^Eneatores, 606 /Eolus, 433 yErarium,588, 594 Agaso, 610 Agelae, 516 Agger, 612, 614, 656 Agmen quadratum, pilatum &c. 611 Agmine, uno conti- nente, 608 Agnomen, 620 Agone, 568 Agonalia, 571 Agrimensores, 358, 596 Alae, 609, 610 Alba linea, 573 Alba Longa, 553 Alecto, 447 Aliptas, 140 Alites, 562 Altaria, 559 Alveus, 616, 631 Amanuensis, 71 Amaracus, 423 Ambarvalia, 428, 566, 571 Ambitus crimen, 592 Ambrosia, 426 Ambulacrum, 139 Amiculum, 634 Amor, 423 Amph'itrite, 414, 443 Amphora, 601, 632 Amtruare, 565 Amussis, 129 Anchora, 616 Ancile, 565 Ancilia, 421 Anclabris, 559 Anculas, 440 Ancyranum Monu- mentum, 80 Andabatas, 574, 575 Angusticlavia, 586, 634 Anima mundi,434 Annales, 366, 562 Annuli, 116, b37 Annulus aureus, 588 Annus Magnus, 366 Antennas, 616 Antesignani, 609 Antestatio, 592 Antistites, 507 Anubis, 442 Apaturia, 426 Apes, 596 Apex, 54, 562, 565 Apis, 441 Apodyterium, 139 Apotheca, 632 Aplustria, 616 Apparitores, 583 Arse, 559 Aratrum, 596 Arbiter bibendi, 630 Arbitri causarum, 592 Arbori suspendere,593 Afca, 639 Atchigallus, 410, 566 Archimagira, 630 Arcliimimus, 638 Arcula, 71 Arcula thuraria, 560 Arcus triumphales, 660 Area, 597 Arena, 578 Areopagus, 510 Argentarii, 595 Aries, 614 Armamenta, 616 Armamentum Chirur- gicum, 629 Armaria, 75, 626 Armiger, 624 Armillas, 60,7,637 Armilustrium, 572 Arrha hospitalis, 630 Arrogatio, 623 Artes liberales, 72 Arundo, 70 Arx, 562, 658 As, 598 Ascia, 129 Ascolia, 426 Aspergillum, 560 Asseres falcati, 614 Assertor libertatis,625 Assessores, 591 Astraea, 435 Astrologi, 570 Astronomicon, 310 365 Asyla, 485 Asvlum, 658 Atellanas, 282, 286 Atlantes, 137 Atramentum, 70, 122 Atria, 586 Atrium, 626 Atropos, 446 Atticum, 122 Auctio, 600 Augurale, 612 Augures, 560, 562 Augurium, 562, 569 Augustales, 566 Augustalia, 572 Aula, 626 Aulasum, 576 Aureus, 598 Aurora, 432 Auspices, 562 Autographus, 71 A vena, 596 Aviarium, 627 Avigerium, 562 Bacchas, 427 Bacchus, 425 Bacilli, 70 Balista, 614 Balistarii, 609 Balnea, 628, 660 Balneatores, 140, 624 Barritus, 606 Basilicas, 592, 658, 659 Batiolas, 633 Bellaria, 630 Bellona, 422, 438, 669 Berecynthia, 410 Beryllus, 110 Bes, 598 Bestiarii, 574, 594 Bibendi arbiter, 630 Bibliopola, 71 Bibliotheca, 71, 75 Biblus, 70 Bidens, 597 Bibrons, 409, 598 Bi gas, 597 Bigati,8l Bimater, 426 Bipennis, 560 Bisellium, 586 Bis millies, 600 Boias,592 Bombycina, 634 Bombyx, 634 Bona Dea, 410, 572 Boreas, 433 Brachia, 616 Brontes, 423 Bubo, 562 Bubona, 438 Buccinas, 604 Bulla, 636 Buris, 596 C. Caballi, 597 Cabiri, 455 Caduceus, 54, 425 Cadus, 632 Caelum, 129 Casrites, 651 Cassarum acta, 369 Cassia, 420 Calamus, 33, 70 Calcar, 597 Calceus, 116, 636 Calcei nigri coloris, 588 Calculi, 631 Caldarium, 139 Calendarium, Pras- nestinum, 80 Calices,633 Caligas, 636 Calliope, 445 Calones, 611 Calumnia, 592 Camarae, 617 Camilli & Camillas, 566 Campidoctores, C13 Campus Martius, 569, 589, 592, 657 Campus sceleratus, 566 Candelabra, 560, 627 Candidati, 579 Canistra, 560 Cantharus, 441 Canticum, 283 Can us, 407 Capedo, 560 Capeduncula, 560 Capillamentum, 636 Capillitia vota, 568 Capis, 560 Capita jugata, adversa & aversa, 112 Capite censi, 602 Capite velato, 567 Capitium, 634 Capitolium, 658 Capsa, 71, 75 Capsarii, 140 Capsum, 597 Caput, 598 Caput coenas, 630 Carbunculus, 110 Carceres, 573 Cardines, 626 Carenum, 631 Carmen seculare, 574 Saliare, 68 Carmentalia, 571 Carmine certo evocare, 569 Carnifex, 583 Carpentum, 597 Carptor, 630 Carruca, 597 Caryatides, 137 Casae, 625 Cassis, 606 Cassita, 293 Castalia, 445 Castra stativa,hiberna t &c. 611, 613 Catastas, 624 Catalecta Virgilii, 305 Catapulta, 614 INDEX OP LATIN WORDS. 7 31 Catena;, 607 Catena;, 593 Catervus, 285 Cathedra, 586 Catomidiare, 565 Causa, 592 Causae fidei bonae, 592 Cauteria, 123 Cavaedium, 626 Cavea, 132, 576 Celaeno, 447 Celeres, 602, 609 Cella, 132 Cellarii, 626 Cella sanctior, 559 Cella vinaria &c. 626, 632 Cenotaphia, 639 Censores, 582 Census equester, 586 Centauri, 450 Centesima usura, 598 centies &c. 690 Centum virale judici- um, 592 Centuriae, 603 Centuriata Comitia, 589,592 Centurio, 604 Cerae, 70 Ceraunia, 6 Cerberus, 451 Cereales, 575, 580 Cerealia, 428, 572 Ceres, 427 Ceriti, 570 Cerussa, creta, 637 Cessio in jure, 600 Cestus, 423 Chaldaei, 570 Charta, 71 Charta bombycina, 32 ; lintea, 32 Charybdis, 379 Chimaera, 378 Chirographum, 71 Chironomi, 287 Chirurgi, 610 Chlamydatae, 93 Chlamys, 634 Chloris, 437, 572 Chorodidascalus, 106 Cibum, 629 Cinerarium, 639 Cingulum laneum, 621 Cippi, 639, 49 Circinus, 129 Circuitio vigilum, 613 Circulus auri, 637 Circus Maximus, 573, 660 Circus Flaminius &c. 573 Cisium, 597 Cista, 590 Cives, 590 Civitates fcederatae,591 Claves, 626 Claviger, 409 Clarigatio, 564 Classiarii, 616 Classici, 585 Classicum, 606, 616 Clavus, 616, 634 Clavus figendus, 572 Clepsydra, 355, 570 Clima, 601 Clio, 445 Clitellarii, 597 Clotho, 446 Clypeats, 93 Clusius, 409 Coccus, 70 Codex Justin ianus,393 Codices, 59, 70 Codicilli, 71 Ccelus, 430 Coemptio, 621 Ccenacula, 629 Coena nuptialis, 622 Ccena recta, 631 Coenationes, 629 Cceus, 442 Cognomen, 620 Cohors, 604 Chortes vigitum, 619 Coliseum, 576 Collegia fabrorum &c. 595 Collegium, 562 Collina, 438 Collis hortulorum, 657 Collocatio, 637 Coloniae, 591 Colum, 631 Columbar, 593 Columbaria, 639 Columella, 627 Columnae, 660 Columna lactaria, 622 Columna rostrata, 79 Colus, 622 Comes dicecessps, 619 Comites, 619 Comitia, 589, 592, 685 Commentarii, 71 ; Pontificum, 366, Censorum, 367 Commissiones, 73 Compitalia, 572 Compluvium, 626 Concilia, 589 Conciones, 589 Conclamatio, 637 Concordia, 440, 572 Condere lustrum, 569 Conditorium, 639 Confarreatio, 621,622 Congius, 601 Conisterium, 140 Conjectores, 570 Connubium, 621 Conquisitio, 603 Conquisitores, 584 Conscriptio, 603 Consecratio, 568, 640 Gonsentes, 404 Consivius, 409 Constitutiones, 594 Constratum navis, 616 Consuales, 575 Consualia,576,414,572 Consulares, 619 Consul designatus, 579 Consules, 579 Contubernales, 612 Contubernium,612, 621 Conventio in manum, 621 Coqui, 630 Corbes, 631 Gorium, 71 Corneum speculare, 625 Cornicines, 606 Comix, 562 Cornua, 70,604, 616 Cornucopia, 54 Corona, 613 Corona castrensis, mu- ralis, civica, &c. 607 Corona, emptio sub, Correctores, 619 Corrigia, 636 Cortina, 576 Corvus, 562, 614, 616 Corybantes, 410 Coryphaeus, 175 Cosmi, 519 Cothurni, 636 Covinus, 523 Crates, 613 Crepidae, 636 Crepundia, 622 Creta, 71, 637 Crimen majestatis, peculatus, 584, 592 Crista, 606 Crius, 442 Cruci affigere, 593 Grystallus, 111 Cubicula, 626 Cucullus, 634 Gudo, 606 Guleus, 593, 601 Culina, 626 Cultrarius, 567, 560, 568 Culter, 596 Cultri, 560 Culullus, 560 Cumerum, 622 Cunei, 133, 576, 578 Cuneus, 608 Curias, 584, 658, 659 Curia Saliorum, 565 Curiones, 560, 566 Currus, 597 Cursus, 573 Cutis, 71 Cyanus, 110 Cyathus, 601 Cybele, 409 Cyclas, 634 Cylindri, 70 Cyllenius, 425 Cymbia, 633 Cyegetica, 309 Cynthia, 419 Dactyl iothecae, 116 Damnum, 593 Decennalia, 568 Decemviri, 583 Decreta, 594 Decumffi, 595 Decunx, 598 Decuria;, 591, 604, 609, 624 Decuriones, 101, 591, 596, 604, 609, 623 Dedicatio templi, 568 Definitiones, 388 Defrutum, 631 Delectus, 603 Deliberationes, 323 Delubrum, 559 Denarius, 84, 598 Dentale, 596 Dentata charta, 71 Deportatio, 593 Designatores, 578 Detestatio sacrorum, 623 Devotio, 569 Devovere, 569 Dexter, 563 Dianus, 409 Diaria, 71 Dicere diem, 592, 602 Dictator, 582 Dies comitiales, 589, festi, fasti &c. 571 Diespiter, 412 Diffarreatio, 622 Digesta, 388 Digitus, 600 Dii majorum et mino- rum gentium, 403 Diis Manibus, 560 Dimensum, 6O7 Dionysia, 426 Dioscuri, 455 Dioscuria, 455 Diosemeia, 3l0 Diota, 632 Diphthera, 71 Diploma, 34, 71 Dira,563 Disci, 560 Diribitores, 590 Disci jactus, 573 Diverbia, 283 Diurna, 369 Divortia, 622 Divus, 640 Dodrans, 598 Dolabra, 597 Dolia, 631 Dominus, 623 Domus, 625 Dona, 638 Dona militaria, 607 Donaria, 559 | Donatio, 600 Donativa, 607 Dryades, 444 Duces, 619 Duodena scripta, 631 Duplicarii, 607 Duumviri, 568, 583, 591,594,616 Dux, 611 Dyndymena, 410 E. Edicta, 594 Edictum, 391, 580, 588 Editiones Principes, 394 Editor, 574 Egeria, 559 Elatio, 637 Eleusinia, 428 Elysium, 416 Emporetica charta, 71 Emptio sub corona, 600 Enceladus, 443 Encaustum, 33 Enyalius, 421 Ephemerides, 71 Ephebium, 140 Ephialtes, 443 Ephippia, 597 Epibatse, 616 Epilaenia, 426 Epistola, 71 Epitaphium, 639 Epithalamia, 622 Epulae, 563 Epulares, 564 Epulones, 560,563 Epulum Jovis, 572 Equites, 612, 634 Equo publico merere, 588 Erato, 445 Erigone, 435 Erycina, 422 Essedae, 523 Essedarii, 574 Etymologicum mag- num, 219 Euripus, 578 Euryale, 449 732 INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. Eurus, 433 Foedera Regum, 367 Hades, 416 Intercisi dies, 571 Euterpe, 445 Foederatae civitates, Halcyoneus, 443 Intercolumnia, 134 Evocati, 612 591 Hamadryades, 444 Interdictus, 593 Excubiaa, 612 Foenum, 596 Harioli, 570 Interrex, 583 Exercitus, 613 Folium, 71 Harpagones, 616 Invidia, 440 Exilium, 593 Fontinaliif, 572 Harpocrates, 442 Iris, 433 Exodia, 286 Fora, 658 Haruspices, 560, 563 Irpex, 597 Exostra, 576 Foramina, 616 568 Isia, 441 Expediti, 609 Fordicidia, 572 Hasta pura, 607 Isis, 441 Exponere infantem, Fordo, 572 Hasta sanguinea, 564 Itineraria picta, &,c. 622 Forfex, 608 Hastati, 603, 606, 608 361 Exsculptae gemmae, 112 Fori, 573 612 Itio in partes, 588 Exsequiae, 637 Fortuna, 436 Hasta velitaris, 606 Exta muta, 563 Fortuna virilis, 572 Hasta, venire sub, 600 J Extispices, 563 Foruli, 75 Hebe, 413 Jactus Veneris, 631 Extraordinarii, 582,610 Forum, 592, 638, 658 Hecate, 418 Jaculatores, 609 Forus, 631 Heliotropia, 111 Janua, 409, 626 F. Fossa, 612 Helius, 430 Janus, 409, 598 Fabiani,565 Fraenum, 597 Hemina, 601 Janus bifrons, 598 Fabri, 610 Fratres Arvales, 68, Hercules, 453 Judices assessores, 591 Fabricae, 610 566 Hermae, 437 Judicia, 323, 591 Fabrtun, 584 Fraus, 440 Hermanubis, 442 Jugarii, 624 Factiones, 573 Frigidarium, 139 Hermeracles, 113 Jugerum, 601 Falarica, 614 Fritillus, 631 Hermes, 93, 113 Jugum, 596, 597 Falces murales, 614 Frontes, 70 Hexapla, 271 Julii, 565 Falcifer, 407 Frumentarii, 611 Hilaria, 410, 566, 571 Juno, 412, 571,572 Falsi crimen, 593 Fucus, 637 Hippodromi, 660 Junonalia, 413 Falx, 597 Fulcra, 629 Hippona, 438 Jupiter, 410, Termina- Fama, 436 Fulguratores, 563 Hippocrene, 445 lis, 437, Latiaris, Familia, 620, 623, 624 Fumarium, 632 Histriones, 282, 638 618 Fanatici, 570 Funambuli, 574 Hocage, 568 Juramentum, 569 Fanum, 570, 559 Funditores, 609 Holocaustum, 568 Jurare conceptis ver- Far, Farina, 596 Funes, 616 Homeromastrix, 215 bis, 569 Fasces, 579 Funus indictivum pub- Honor, 440 Jura provinciarum, Fasciae, 636 licum, 638 Honorati, 580 praefecturarum, Fascinatio, 570 Furiae, 447 Horae, 446, 570, 435 690 Fascinum, 437, 570 Furinalia, 447, 572 Hora hiberna, brevi3- Juris interpretes, 581 Fascinus, 282, 437 Fustuarium, 607 sima, 570 Jus honorarium, 580, Fasti Capitolini, 80 Hordeum, 596 594 Fasti dies, 571 G Hortator, 616 Jushospitii, 630 Fasti Magistratuum, Gaia, 409 Hortus, 627 Jus militiae, 602 366 Galea, 606 Horus, 441 Jus imaginum, 585 Fastigium, 626 Galericulum, 636 Hospes, 630 Jusjurandum, 569 Fauna, 449 Galerus, 562, 606 Hostiae, 557 Jus Papirianum, 389 Faunalia, 571, 572 Galli, 410, 565 Humanitatis studia, Flavianum, 389 Faunus, 449 Gallinarii, 624 18,73 ^Elianum, 389 Febris, 440 Gallinarium, 627 Hydra, 450 Pontincium, 571 Februa, 416 G alius, 562 Hygeia, 435 auiritium, 590,621 Februatio, 571 Gausape, 140 Hyperion, 442 Latii or Latinita- Feciales, 560, 564 Gemmae, 108 Hypocaustum, 139 tis, 590 Femoralia, 636 Gemmae diaglyphicae, Hypoga3a, 639 Civitatis &c. 590 Fenestra;, 625 insculptae, 112 Juturna, 438, 440 Feralia, 571 Gemma Veneris, 110 I Juvenales, 755 Ferentarii, 608 Gemonise, 593 Iapetus, 442 K V Feretrius, 412 Genethliaci, 570 Iaspis, 111 Feriae, 571, 653 Genii, 447 Idalia, 422 Kalendarium, 571 Feronia, 438 Genio indulgere, 447 Ignigena, 426 Ferreae manus, 616 Gens, 620 Ignis, 429 L Ferrum vivum, 386 Gens togata, 633 Ignominia, 582, 593 Labarum, 604 Ferula, 593 Gladiatores, 574 Ilithyia, 419 Labrum, 140 Festi dies, 571 Gladius, 606 Imagines, 93, 638 Lacerna, 634 Festum mercatorum, Gladius et liasta, 580 Imagines clypeatae, 93 Lachesis, 446 572, 425 Globus, 608 Immolare, 568 Lachrymae, 639 Fibula;, 607 Glossae Sacra;, 218 Impedimenta, 611 Laconicum, 140 Fides, 440 Glutinatores, 70 Imperator, 589 Lacunae, 212 Fides Graeca, 487 Grammaticus, 332 Imperium, 617 Lacunaria, 137 Fidicines, 567 Gradivus Mars, 421 Impluvium, 626 Lacus, 631 Figlina, 90 Graphium, 70 Inanes tumuli, 639 Lama, 562, 565, 634 Fiscinie, 631 Gratiae, 445 Inaures, 637 Lanceae, 606 Fiscus, 595 Greges, 573 Indigete.-, 404 Lances, 560, 629 Flagellis, 593 Grex, 285 Inducula, 575 Lanista, 574 Flagellum, 593, 597 Gromatice, 358 Indusium, 633 Lapis specularis, 625 Flaminire, 566 Grus, 614 Infamia, 593 Laquearia, 626 Flaminica, 565 Gubernaculum, 616 Inferiae, 640 Lararium, 448 Flamines,560,564,634 Gubernator, 616 Ingenui, 620 Lares, 443, 626 Flaminii, 566 Gustus, Gustatio, 630 Inscriptio, 47 Lares Praestites, 572 Flammeum luteum, Guttus, 560 Insigne, 616 Larix, 123 621 Gymnasia, 37, 45, 73 Instita, 634 Larvae, 447 Flora, 437 Institutiones, 388, 393 Laterculus, 611 Floralia, 438, 572, 575 H lnsulae, 626 Lateres coctiles, 596 Focus, 626 Habenae, 597 Intercedere, 581 Lacticlavia, 632 INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 733 tatettft, 681 J*atona, 434 Latus clavus, 588 Laudatio, 323,325,638 Laudationes funebres, 367 Lavacrum, 140 Lavatio Ma.tris Deo- ruin, 571 Laverna, 438 Lecti, 627 JLectica, 638 Lectisternia, 563 Lectus feral is, 637 Lectus summus, me- dius, iraus, 629 Legati, 584, 611 Legem accipere, jube- re, abregare, <&x» 594 Leges agrariae &c. 594 regia:, 367, 389 Legis actioiies, 389 Legitimus, 623 Lemures, 447 Lenturia, 572 Lethum, 449 Leucantlies, 407 Lex annalis, 579 Atinia, 594 Furia,594 Poppsea, 621 Porcia, 617 Julia 621 Liber, 426 Liberalia, 571 Liber, Libellus, 71 Liberti, Libertini, 620 Libitinarius, 637 Libra, 597, 601 Libra, 598 Libraria, 71 Librarii, 71, 611 Libri fataies, 158 Linfei, 366 Elephantini, 659 Lihurnicae, 617 Lictores, 579, 583 Ligo, 597 Ligula, 560, 601, 636 Limbus, 634 Linguis favete, 568 Lino obligare, 71 Linum, 596 Litare, 563 Litera, 71 Litera, minute, 69 i majusculas, 30 unciales, 60 Literati & Literatores, 73, 332 Litui, 604 Lituus, 54, 116, 560, 562, 606 Lixae, 610 Loculamenta, 75 lioculus, 71 Locus consularis, 629 Lora subjugia, 597 Lorica, 93, 606 Lucaria, 571 Lucerme, 627 Luci, 559, 659 Lvcina, 413,419 Lucta, 573 Luctus publicus, 640 Ludii, 638 Ludi, ApolIinares,418, 572, 575 Ludi circenses, 342, 572, 573 ljudi scenici, 67 Ludi osci, 283 seculares, 418, 573 magni, 572, 573 plebeii, 572, 575 gladiatorii. 574 rlorales, 575 megalenses, 575 capitolini, 575 votivi, 575 funebres, G40 Ludus, 574 Ludus Magnus vn, 15 Borghese Gladia'or, 103 Boston Latin School, 279 Botany, father oi ancient, 263 Boundaries of land, Roman, 94, 437, 358 Boxing, 497, 573 Brachma, Hindoo deity, 409, 412 Bread, inventor and god of kneading, 438 Breast-pin found at Pompeii, 637 Breathings, 31 Breviary of Alaric, 392 Briareus, 443 Bricks, Roman, 596 ; Babylo- nian, 14 Bride, Roman, 621 Bridges over the Tiber, 657 British Museum, 107 Brokers, Roman. 595, 653 Bronze of the ancients, 92 ; bronze vessels with ena- mels, 97 Broth, Spartan Hack, 518 Bruchion, 43 Bucolic poetrv, Greek, 164, 290; Roman Bularchus, his painting, 122 Bull, Farnese, statue of, 102 Burial-places, 469, 551, 638 Burial-rites, importance of among the ancients, 552 Burning of corpses, 551 Burning-glasses of Archime- des, 243 Busts, 93 ; of distinguished ancients, 104 Butterfly, ancient emblem of the soul, 11? Byzantine historians, 252 C. Cabiri, mvsteries of, 455 Cadmus, 22, 27, 30, 452 Caduceus of Mercury, 425 Ca;sar, Julius, 372 ; Germani- cus, 310 Calendar Roman, 371 Calends, 571, 700 Callimachus, 162, 164, 166, 194 Callinus, 163 Calliope, 445 Caliphs Arabian, patrons of learning, 44 Callisthenes, 251 Calpurnius, Titus Julius, 290, 318 : Flaccus, 324 Cambridge University, studies in, 152 Cameo, 111, 112, 118 Camp, Grecian, 526 ; Roman, 612; discipline of, 613 Campauian vases, 96 Capella, 296, 353 Canal of Claudius, 652 Caper, 334 Capital, 134, 137 GENERAL INDEX. 743 Capital trials, Roman, 592 Capitol, Roman, 101, 653 Capitolinus, 383, 657 Captives, treatment of, 477, 482, 527 Carmen Saliare, 68 Carneades, 342, 229 Carriages, Roman, 597 Carthaginians, History, 711 ; language of, 299 Caryatides, 137 Caspian gate or pass, 687 Castalia, 445 Castanets, 547 Casting, how differing from sculpture, 90 Castor and Pollux, 445 Catacombs, 694 Cato, M. Forcius, 362; oppos- ed to Greek philosophy, 67 384 ; Dionysius, 317 Catullus, 239, 290, 302 Cavaceppi as restorer of an- tiques, 102 Cavalry, Greek, 523, 664 J Ro- man, 609 Cebes, 234 Cecrops, 22, 452 Celsus, Aulus Cornelius, 386, 384 1 rejecter of Christian- ity, 272 Celtae, 65 Cement, used in Grecian sculpture, 92 Cenotaphs, 552 Censorinus, 335 Census Roman, 569 Censors, Roman, 582 Centaurs, 450, 664, 666 Centimani, 430 Cento, 302, 319 Centumvirate, 592 Centurial games, 573 Centuries, division of Romans into, 584 ; voting by, 590 Cephalas, 167 Ceraunia or thunder-stones, 6 Cerberus, 417, 451, 550, 677 Ceremonies of ancient wor- ship, 466, 468 ; nuptial,481 Ceres, 427 ; temple and statue of, found by Dr. Clarke, 428 ; festivals of, 493, 494 Cester or Chester, towns whose names end in, 613 Cestius, pyramid of, 126, 552 Cestus, girdle of Venus, 423 Chairs, 542 ; of state, 586 Champollion, interpreter of hieroglyphics, 51 Chariots, race in ,496 ; Grecian, 474 ; Roman, 597 Charisius, 337 Chariton, romancer, 224 Charming or fascinating, the power of, 570 Charon, 417, 550 Charybdis, 451 Chase, 480 Cherry-trees, whence brought, 688 Children, treatment of among Greeks, 481 ; at Sparta, 516 ; legitimate &c. 550 ; among Romans, 622, 623 Chil Minar, or palace of forty columns, 686 Chimasra, 450 Chimneys, 626 Chinese, system of writing, 13 architecture, 142 Chion,222 Chloris, 437 Choerilus, 159, 170 Choragic tripods, 39 Choragium, in mosaic, 106 Chorus,of Greek tragedy, 169, 501 ; of comedy, 172 ; part of the Spartan Forum, 678 Chrestomathies, or reading- books in study of languag- es, 150, 152, 279 Chrestus, 380 Christ, year of his birth, 704 ; his head on a gem, 118 ; life of in Greek hexame- ters, 198 Christian poets, early 271,290 Christian writings, in Greek, 268 ; in Latin, 394 Christianity, influence of on literature and society, 45, ■ 76 ; attacks of early pa- gans upon, and answers to them, 272 ; allusions to in classics, 380 Christians, how put to death by Romans, 594 ; philoso- phy of, 270 Chronicum Parium, 50 Chronology, classical &c. 155, 697 j systems of, 705 Chrysoloras, 219 Chrysostom, John, 45, 274 Chrysippus, 228 Churches called Basilicas, 659 Cicero, 323, 325, 330, 339, 346, 368, 600 Giceronianus, 327 Circensian games, 573 Cities principal Greek, 459 Citizenship, Roman, 596 Civil affairs of Greeks, 470, 501 ; of Romans, 578 Civil law, body of Roman, 393 Civilization, the natural state of man, 8 j original seats of, 9, 17 Classes of citizens at Athens, 502 ; Sparta, 515 ; Rome, 584, 620 Classic authors, origin of the phrase, 585 Classics, excellence of, 19 ; utility of studying, 18, 19 ; uniform editions or sets of, 394 Classical Journal, 20 Classical study, history of, 396 Claudian, Roman poet, 289, 290, 319 Claudius Mamertinus, 328 Cleanthes, 195,228 Clemens, Romanus, 269; Al- exandrinus, 272 CI eon, 200 Clermont, Bishop of, 342 Client and patron, 586 Climate and materials as af- fecting arcitecture, 127 Clio, 445 Glitagorus, 163 Clitodemus, 250 Clocks, 570, 693 Codex Alexandrinus, Vatica- nus, &c. 61; Gregorianus, &c. 392 Code of Theodoric, 392 Ccelus, 430 ; Coelus, Apicius, 358, 364 ; Aurelianus, 385 Coffins, 639 Cohorts, 604 Coins, Greek, 54, 57, 181, 543 ; Roman, 80, 598 ; their use in chronology, 703: num- ber of different ancient coins preserved, 57 ; col- lections of, 83 Cointus or Q,uintus, 197 Coliseum, 140 Collections, of manuscripts, 62, 85 ; medals and coins, 83 ; statuary, 106 ; en- graved gems, 116, 119 j of Greek poets, 173 Colleges or orders of Roman priests, 560 ; of artisans, 596 Colonies, planted in Greece, 21 ; planted in Italy, 65, 66 ; from Greece, 461, 688; of Rome, 591 Colors used by Greek painters 122 Colossal statues, 92, 95 Columella, 363 Commentaries, or auto-biogra- phies, 368 ; on the N. Tes- tament, early, 271 Column, of Duillius, 79, 618; of Trajan, &c. 105 Coluthus, 191 Comedy, Greek, 171 ; Roman, 285 Commerce,of Phoenicians, 26 j Greeks, 472, 542 ; of Ro- mans, 595; of Babylon, 542 Composite order, 136 Concubinage among the Greeks, 548 Conic sections, 244 Conon, mythographer, 248 Consecration, of Roman em- perors, 640, 456 ; of tem- ples &.c. 568 Constantine, Greek physician, 263 ; arch of, 105 ; Manas- ses, 166 ; of Carthage, 663 j the Great, his military system, 619 Constantinople, university of, 44, 316 ; situation and to- pography, 662 ; capture by the Turks, 46 ; tripod in its Hippodrome, 488 Consular army, 602, 610 Consuls, Roman, 579 Controversial works of early Christians, 271 Conversation, means of learn- ing language, 278 Convivial songs, 161, 163 Copper, used before iron, 476 ; Copyists, or Calligraphi, 34 Corinna, 162 Corinth, constitution of, 520 Corinthian order, 136 Cornelius Gallus, 291, 302 Cornelius Severus, 308 Corn, distribution of at Rome, 594 Cornice, 134 Cornutus, 248 Corpses, burning of, 551, 638 Cosmas, geographer, 53, 242 Cosmogony of the Greeks, 465 Costume, Grecian, 479, 537 ; Roman, 633 Cottage of Romulus, 658 Cotton, material for writing, 32 ; other use of, 539 Couches, for reclining at table, 536, 629 Courts, at Athens, 471, 510, 511,518; at Rome, 591 744 GENERAL INDEX. Country-seats of Romans, 627 Cow, symbol of Isis, 441 Cousin, on the first seats of civilization, 9 Covenants or leagues, 487 Crassus, wealth of, 600 Crete, early constitution &.c. 471,510 Crimes at Rome, 599 Crishna, Hindoo deity, 412,418 Critias, 200 Crowns, 470, 607 Ctesias, 250, 257 Culture of the Greeks, sources of, 26; causes aiding its advancement, 36 5 of the Romans ; 66 Cunaxa, battle of, 233 Cupid, 113, 423 Cursive letters, 30 Curtain, of the ancient thea- tre, 576, 468, 548 Curtius, Rufus, 379 Curule, officers, 586 ; chairs, 586 Cushites, 443 Cybele or Rhea, 409, 52, 91 ; priests of, 565 Cycles of the ancients, 701 Cyclic poets, 160, 161 Cyclopean architecture, 130, 682 Cyclops, 174, 423, 442 Cymbals, 547 Cynic philosophers, 227, 345 Cynosarges, 42 Cyrenaic sect, 227 Cyrene, remains of, 695 Cyrus the younger, 233 ; pal- ace of, 432 ; tomb of, 552 Cytheris, 287 D Daedalus, sculptor, 98, 113 ; labyrinth built by, 683 Daemons, 447 Dagon, house of, 129 Damasus, 290 Danaus, 22, 452 Dancing, at feasts, 157, 481, 537, 545 Daphnis, 164 Dares Phrygius, 261 Dates of ancient events, how ascertained, 702 Days, reckoning and division of &c. 570, 697 ; origin of the names of, 700 ; Roman manner of spending day, 628 Death, as a god, 448 ; punish- ment of, how inflicted bv Greeks, 514, 518 ; by Ro- mans, 593 Decemvirs, 583 Declamation by Roman ora- tors, 74, 322 Dedication of Roman temples, 568 Deification , of heroes, 452 ; of emperors, 640 Deities, classes of ancient, 403 5 peculiar to Romans, 437 Deliberative Oratory, 202, 204, 206, 323 Delphi, Apollo's temple at, 418 ; oracle of, 488 Delphin Classics, 395 Deluge, of Deucalion,666 ; tra- ditions of universal, 401 Demetrius Phalereus. 202, 209 Demi-gods, 403, 451 Demo, 250 Demonstrative Oratory, 202, 204, 206, 324 Demosthenes, 201, 206, 326 Dentels, 136 Departments, Greek authors classified under, 157 : Ro- man, 282 Deucalion, 452 Dexter, F. Lucius, 371 Dialfe, 570,698 Dialectic Sect, 227 Dialects, Greek, 146, 147, 154 Dialogistic method of instruc- tion, 41 Diana, 418 ; temple of, at Eph- esus, 132, 432 Diastole, 32 Dicaearchus, 165 Dice, playing with, 631 Dictator, Roman, 582 Dictionaries, Latin, 280; Greek, 153, 217 ; Classical, 154 ; Mythological, 406 I Dictys Cretensis, 261 Dicuil, 357 Didactic poetry, Greek, 164 ; Roman, 291 Digamma, 69 Dinarchus, 201, 207 Diodes, 262 Diocletian, his persecution and massacre of Chris- tians, 139, 719 Diodorus Siculus, 251, 256 Diodotus, 251 Diogenes, Laertius, sold as a slave, 504 ; his writings, 160, 252, 259 ; the Cynic, 227 Diomedes, 337 Dion, Chrysostomus, 210 ; Cassius, 258 Dionysia, 492 Dionysius, Halicarnasseus, 209, 210, 251, 256 ; Perie- getes, 165, 246 ; Cato, 317 Dionysius the tyrant, prison of, 681 Diophantus, 244 Dioscorides,265; curious man- uscript of, 61 Dioscuri, 455 Diphilus, 173, 298 Diploma, 71 Dirges, at funerals, 551 Disa, goddess of Germans, 441 Discipline, Lacedeemonian,42; military, 528 ; of Roman camps, 613 Diseases deified, 440 Dishes at a Roman supper, 630 Dispersion, of men by confu- sion of tongues, 5 Divination, art of, among Greeks, 469, 490 ; Ro- mans, 570 Divinity, Greek and Roman idea of, 404 Divorces, Roman, 622 Doctrinal treatise of early Christians, 272 Dodona, oracle of, 487 Dogmatic, school in medicine, 262 Doss of Molossis, 667 Domestic affairs, of Greeks, 479, 533 ; of Romans, 620 Dominical letter, 702 Donatus, yElius, 304, 336 Door-way, Egyptian, 130 Doric order 136 Dorotheus, 165 Dowry in marriage, 548 Draco, his laws, earliest writ- ten in Greece, 35, 501 Dramatic contests, 39 ; poe- try, 168, 282 Dramatic exhibitions, among. Greeks, 500, 168 ss ; Ro- mans, 282 ss, 576 j modern origin of, 287 Dreams, on interpretation of. 264, 490, 570 ; god of, 448 Dress of Greeks, 479.537 ; Ro- mans, 633 Drinking cups, 534, 537, 633 Druidical temple, 468 Drum, 547 Dryads, 444 Dwellings, Roman 625; Gre- cian, 540 Ear-rings, Roman, 637 Eating, Roman customs in, 629 Echinus, 136 Eclectic, sect in philosophy, 231, 346 ; school in medi- cine, 262 Eclipses in ancient times, 526, 703 Economists, Roman, 357 Edessa, school at, 44 Edessan epistles, 270 Edifices, remains of ancient, 140 Editions of classics, works on, 155 ; sets of, 394 Education among the Greeks, 37,41,145, 481; Romans, 72, 623 Egeria and Numa, 558 Egypt, cradle of the sciences, 18 ; productiveness of, 594 ; deities of, 441 ; Ge- ography of, 692 ; Chronol- ogy of, 705, 711 ; works on, 694 Egyptian inscriptions, 51, 52 ; sculpture, 95; Gem-engra- ving, 113, 114; painting, 122; architecture, 130, 137 ; gods, 441 El Wah, site of temple of Ju- piter, 695 Eleatic sect, 230 Elections at Rome, 590 Elegiac poetry, 168, 290 Elephanta, care of, 136, 137 Elephants used in war, 523 Eleusinian mysteries, 428, 493 Eleven, the Athenian magis- trates, 506 Eliac sect, 227 Elian inscription, 47 Eloquence, of Themistocles, Pericles, and Demosthe- nes, 200, 201 ; school of, at Rhodes, 202; Roman, 323 Elysium, 416 Elzevir editions, 395 Emancipation, of sons, 623; of slaves, 625 Emerald, gi*en by Ptolemy to LuculluY, 111 Empedoclcs, 190 Emperors deified, 440, 456, 640 Empire Roman, power of, 580 ; military system of, 618, 619; extent of, 554; di- vision of, 619 GENERAL INDEX. 745 Empiric school in medicine, 262 Eftipiricus Sextus, 238 Employments, under guardian deities, 438 ; of Greeks, 480 ; of Romans, 628 Encaustic, a method of paint- ing, 123 Enchorial, letters Egyptian, 51 Encomiastic orations, 20 1 Engines, military, 527, 613 Engraved gems, devices on, 112 Enniui Quintus, 288, 291, 297 En.jch, book of, 5,268 Entablature, 134 Entrails of victims, as prog- nostics, 563 Epaminondas, 199 Ephesus, Diana's temple at, 419 Ephori, 517 Ephorus, 259 Epic poetry, 159, 160, 288 Epicharmus, 171, 298 Epictetus, 237 Epicurean sect 230, 345 Epigenes, 168 Epigrams, Greek, 166, Ro- man, 293 Epiphanius, 264, 271 Epistles and Romances, 220, 338 Epistles or letters, form of Ro- man, 76 Equites or knights of Rome, 586 Eras and Epochs, 704 Erato, 445 Eratosthenes, 245 Erigone, 435 Erinna, 162 Eristic sect, 227 Erotian, 217 Erotic poetry, 166 ; tales, 221 Escurial, ancient paintings in, 126 Esoteric and exoteric doc- trines, 41 Etpocles and Polynices, 455 Etistas, 147 Etruscans, 65 ; plays of, at Rome, 67, 282 ; their sculp- ture and vases, 96 j their architecture, 137 Etymologicum Magnum, 219 Etymology, attention to, 278 Eucharis, 118 Euclid, 243 Eudocia, author of the Homer- ocentra, 198 ; of the Viola- rium, 219 Eugubian tables, 80 Euhemerus, 247 Eulogies over the dead, 551, 638 Eumathius, 224 Eumenius, 328 Eumolpus, 157 Eunapius, 260 Euphorion, 160,170,303 Eupolis, 172 Euripides, 164, 170, 188 Euryale, 449 Eusebius, 252, 272 Eustathius, 219, 224 Eutecnius, 196 Euterpe, 445 Eutropius, 351 Evil eye, superstition respect- ing, 570 Evolutions military, 525 v " Exercises of Roman camp, 613 Exergue, 57 Exhalations of Pontine marsh- es, 652 Expenses of religion at Ath- ens, 508 ; at Rome, 567 Expiation among the Romans, 569 Exposing of children, by Greeks, 190 ; by Romans, 622 Exsuperantius, 371 Fabius Pictor, 368 Fables, Mythological, sources of, 400 ; in Greek and Roman literature, 165, 292 ; Atellane, 282, 286 Fabulists Roman, 293 Falconer, shipwreck described by, 670 Falconius, 324 Fame, goddess of, 436 Families, Roman, 620 Family memoirs, 371 Fanatic, origin of the term,570 Farces, Greek, 174: Roman, 286 Farnese bull, 102 Farnesian columns, 53 Fasti, Capitolini, 80 Fasting among ancients, 495 Fate controling the gods, 405 Fates, 446 Father, power of the Roman, over his children, 622 Fathers, early Christian, 269 Fauns, 449 Faunus, grove and oracle of, 653 Feast of the gods, 563 Feasts, social, of Greeks, 480, 534; literary, 40; of Ro- mans, 629 Feet, covering for, 636 Females, state of in Greece, 481, 547 Feronia, 438 Fescennine verses, 282 Festivals, Greek, 491 ; Roman, 571 Festus, S. Pomponius, 336 ; S. Rufus, 382 Financial inscriptions, 49 Fire, use of unknown, 5; the Greek Fire, 264; the vestal, 429 Firmicus, 360 Fish-pond of Hortensius, 627 Fleece, Golden, of Golchis,455 Fleet, Grecian, 532 ; Roman 616 Flesh-brushes, or strigiles, 140 Flight of birds, ominous, 401 Flood state of knowledge and arts before, 4 Flora, 437 : statue of, 104 Florus L. Annaeus, 379 Flowers, goddess of, 437 Folio, 71 Food, in early ages, 6 ; of Greeks, 479, 534; Romans 630 Foot, means of determining the Roman, 601 Fortunatianus, 330 Fortune, goddess of, 436 Forums, at Rome, 6583 Ath ens, 674 Fountain of the sun, 695 Fourmont inscriptions, 47, 49, 205 Franciade. 704 Fratres Ar'vales, hymn of, 68 Free men and freed men, at Rome, 620 French Republic, era of, 704 Fresco-painting, 123 Fret-Work, 626 Frieze, 136 Frontinus Sextus Julius, 359 Fronto, 324, 341 Fulgentius, 365 Funeral ceremonies, Greek, 469, 550; Roman, 637; Songs, 291 ; eulogies, 371, 551,638; pile, 469, 638 Funeral orations, of Pericles and Demosthenes, 551 Furies, 446 Furnaces in Roman houses, 626 Furniture of houses, 627 Gabriel, stone of, 691 Gaetulius, 293 Galley, the Athenian, sacred, 683 Galen, 263, 265 Galleys, or war ships, 529, 616 Gallus Cornelius, 291, 302 Gamblers of Pompeii, 630 Games of the Greeks, 27, 37, 496; Olympic &c. 498,499 social, 537 ; Romans, 572 5 in honor of the dead, 551 j 640 Gardening, how ranked by the Greeks, 87, 90 ; god and goddess of, 437; of the Romans, 627 Gardens of Sallust, 374 Gargilius, 364 Gate of Lions, 131 Gates of Rome, 656 Gauls, Rome burnt by, 553 Gazette, Roman, 369 Geber, from whom Algebra took its name, 244 Gem engraving 108ss Gems, names of principal, 109 ; in Aaron's breastplate, 111, 113 ; genuine and ficti- tious, 116; largest of an- cient sculptured, 118, 119 ; illustrative of Mythology, 112, 403; appropriate to certain gods, 113 ; suppo- sed virtues of, 114 Geographers, Greek, 240 ss ; Roman, 356 ss Geographus Ravennas, 357 Geography, commencement of, 17 ; works on ancient, 154, 242, 280, 358 ; knowledge of Greeks in, 242, 356 ♦ epitome of classical, 643 Geometry, origin of, 17 Geoponics, 357 Germanicus, 310 Geryon, 450 Giants, 442 ; temple of, 132 Gladiator, Borghese, 1U3; dy- ing, 103 Gladiators, Roman, 574, 640 Glass, imitations of gems, 117 j painting of, 124 ,• how far used by Romans, 596, 625 Glossaries, Greek, 217, 218, 219 65 746 GENERAL INDEX. Gnomic poets, 165 Gods, Greek and Roman,mim- ber of, 401 ; classes of,403, 404 ; Egyptian admitted #mong the Romans, 441 Golden age, 409 ; number, 701 Gordian knot, 48 Gorgias, 207, 209 Gorgons, 449 Gothic Architecture, 142 Goths, Rome taken by, 553,720 Government, changes in form of Grecian, 459, 472, 501, 503, 519, 712 | of Roman, 579, 715 ; by Romans over conquered nations, 591 Graces, 446 Graici, and other names of an- cient Greeks, 459 Grain, kinds of, 596 ; distribu- tion of at Rome, 594 Grammar, as taught among the Greeks, 40 Grammars, Greek, 153 5 Lat- in, 279 Grammar schools, 73 Grammarians, Greek, 215; Roman, 332 Grapes, varieties of, 631 Gratius Faliscus, 309 Gravers on gems, ancient, 115 Grecian sculpture, four periods of, 99 Greece, first inhabitants, bar- barous, 21, 460, 470 ; colo- nies in, 21, 460; origin and perfection of lan- guage, 23, 25 ; causes of culture and improvement, 145, 157, 461 ; periods in the progress of iefinement, 464; extent of, 459, 661, 663; outline of the chro- nology of, 712; form of government in, 459, 460, 470 ; climate of, 145 ; mod- ern travelers in, 141 ; re- mains of ancient Archi- tecture in, 140 Grecian cities, 459 Greek antiquities, utility of, 462 ; writers on, 463 Greek language, study of in Europe, 46 ; importance of studying, 146 ; pronuncia- tion of, 147 Greeks, modern,47 ; education among the ancients, 145 Gregorian calender, 700 Gregorianus, 391 Gregorius Pardus or Corinthi- us, 219 Gregory Nazianzen, 45, 167, 274, 287 Grinding, method of, 481 Gromatic writings, 358 Groups, in statuary, 93 Groves sacred, 484, 559 Guest-chambers, 629 Gymnasia, Greek, 37, 42 ; Ro- man, 73 ; structure of the buildings, 133 Gymnastic art, 157, 500 H Habits domestic, of Romans, 628 Hades, 416, 552 Hadrian, patron of letters, 76 Hair, modes of dressing, 636 Hallirrhotius, 421 Hamilton's vases, 96 Hannibal, his passage of the Alps, 376 Hanno, 244 Harmodius and Aristogiton, 502 Harmonies of the Gospels, ear- ly, 271 Harpies, 447 Harpocrates, 113, 442 Harpocration, 217 Harps, 546 Harrowing, god of, 438 Head, coverings for, 538, 636 ; of Antinous, 103 Health, drinking of, 630 ; god- dess of, 436 Heathenism, moral influence of among Greeks and Ro- mans, 403 Hebe, 413 Hebrew, Grecian writings, 267 Hecatseus geographer 241 ; his- torian, 251 Hecate, 411 Hecatombs, 467 Hegemon, 173 Helicon, 157, 445 Heliodorus, 165, 223 Heliotrope, 111,118 Helius, 430 Hell, rivers of, 416 Hellanicus, 250 Hellenes, 22 Helmet, 474, 606 ; of Pluto, 416 Helots, 516 Helps, in studying Latin, 279; Greek, 152, 156 Hephoestion, 216, 249; friend of Alexander, 551 Heraclitean sect, 230 Heraclitus, 248 Heralds, 471, 564 Herculanean tablets, 150 ; rolls, 62 ; paintings, 126 Hercules, 453 ; statue of, Far- nese, 103 ; title of a piece written by Prodicus, 237 ; story of explained, 454 Herennius, 330 Hermanubis, 442 Hermas, 269 Hermes, busts so called, 93, 425, 437 ; Trismegistus, 424, 159 Hermesianax, 164 Hermogenes, 212 Hermogenianus, 392 Hero and Leander, 176 Herodes Atticus, inscriptions of, 53 ; fragments of, 211, Herod ian us, historian, 259 Herodotus, 39, 250, 253 Hermolaus, 247 Heroes, worship of, &c. 451, 458, 468 Heroic age, 451 ; manners of, 481 Hesiod, 164, 180 Hesychius, 217 Hexapla of Origen, 271 Hiero, ship built for him, 94 Hierocles, opposer of Chris- tianity, 259 Hieroglyphics, 28 51, 12 Hieromancy, 490 Hieronymus, 251, 371 Hilarion, 198 Hihaius, 290 Hills of Rome, 657 Himerius, 213 Hindoo pillar, 136 Hippias and Hipparchus, 502 Hippocrates, 202, 262 Hippocrene, 445, 451 Hipponax, 174 Historians, Greek, 249 ; Ro- man, 366 ; plan for read- ing ancient, 253 Historical paintings among the Greeks, 125 Historical records of nations, comparative antiquity of, 15,16 History, of principal ancient states, 708 ; illustrated by coins, 54 Homer, his allusions to state of society, 25 ; his works, &c. 159, 166, 174, 176 Homeridae, 160 Homerocentra, 198 Homilies, of early Greek fath- ers, 273 Honorius, 362 Horace, 289, 295, 306 ; com- pared with Persius and Juvenal, 316 Horsemanship, 477, 527 Horsemen or knights, 602 Horse-race, 496 Horses, for chariots and for carrying burdens, 597 Hortensius, 322, 368, 627 Horus, 159, 417, 441 Hosidius Geta, 285 Hospitality, Grecian, 537 ; Ro- man, 630 Hours, goddesses of, 446 ; of the day, 570 Household gods, 448 Household, Roman, 623, 624 Houses, Grecian, 480, 540 ; Roman, 625 Humanists, 18 Hunting, fishing, &c, 480 Hurdles, 613 Husbandry, Roman writers on, 357 Hybrias, 163 Hydra, 435 Hydraulic organ, 547, 576 Hydrophobia, 384 Hygeia, 435 Hyginus, 356, 358, 365 Hymenaeus, 423 Hymn of the Fratres Arvales, 68 Hymns, ancient, 158 Hypatia, female mathemati- cian, 241 Hyperides, 207, 201 Hyperion, 430 Hypodiastole, 32 Ibycus, 162 Ides, 570, 700 Idolatry, origin of, 400 Idyl, 290 Ignatius, 269 Iliac table, 161 Ilithyia, 413, 419 Ilium or Troy, 687 Images in temples, 559 Image-work, 90 Imperial history, writers of,382 Imperial government, Roman, 580 Imposture, literary, of Heer* kens, 284 5 Higuera^ 371 GENERAL INDEX. 747 Implements of agriculture, Roman, 596 Imprisonment, at Rome, 593 Inachus, 452 Indian mythology, its resem- blance to Greek, 403 Induction, cycle of, 702 Indo-Germanic languages, 23 Industry, arts of, 542 Inferior gods, 429 Infernal regions, entrance to, 653, 677 Inheritances at Athens, 205 Ink, used by Greeks, 33 ; Ro- mans, 70 Inns, 537, 480 Inscriptions, Greek, 47, 53 ; Roman, 77; on statues, 94 ; on gems, 112 ; on the pillar called Pompey's, 53; in ancient ^Ethiopia, 53 ; use of in chronology, 703 Institute, Royal of France, 20 Instruction, oral among Greeks, 35 ; of Greek phi- losophers, 41 ; in London university, 151 ; Cam- bridge University, 152; Halle Orphan-house, 152 Instruments, agricultural, 596; mechanical, 129 ; sacrifi- cial, 560 ; musical, 546,604 Intaglio, 112 Intelligence, means of con- veying among Greeks,528; Romans, 656 Interest, rate of at Rome, 598 Intermarriages at Rome, 585 Interlinear translations, 149 Ion of Chios, 170 Ionians,whence their name,24 Ionic order, 136 Ionic, school of philosophy ,225 Iotistae, 147 Irenaeus, 272 Iris, goddess of the rainbow, 413, 433 Irnerius, his law-school at Bo- logna, 393 Iron not used as early as cop- per, 6 Isa, Hindoo deity, 441 Iseeus, 201, 205 Iscanius, Joseph, 261 Isidorus Hispalensis, 337 Isis, Egyptian goddess, 419, 441 ; her head on Egyp- tian pillars, 137 ; table of, 441 ; temple of, discovered at Pompeii, 441 Isocrates, 201, 204 Istmian games, 499 Italic school, 226 Italica, mosaic of, 106 Italy, original population of, 65 ; geography of, 650 ; re- mains of ancient archi- tecture in, 141 Itineraries, Roman, 357, 361 Ivory ,use of by the ancients, 91 Ixion, 413, 417 Jamblichus, romancer, 221 ; philosopher, 239 Jannelli, on hieroglyphics, 12, 51 Janus, a Roman god, 409 Japhet, similar to Japetus, 443 Jason and Medea, 454 Jerome, of Cardia, 251 Jerome, St., 371 Jesus, letter describing his person, 382 Jewish chronology, outline of, 709 Job, book of, its antiquity, 15 John of Stobi, 239 Joseph Iscanius, 261 Joseph, son of Jacob, 442 Josephus, 251, 256 Journals at Rome, 360 Journals and Periodicals illus- trating classical literature, 20, 146 Juba, the younger, 356 Judas, sum for which he be- trayed the Savior, 84 Judea, symbol of her captivi- ty, 83 Judicial proceedings, Greek, 511 ; Roman, 591 Judicial oratory, Roman, 323 ; Greek, 202, 204, 206 Jugglers and rope-dancers, 574 Julian the Apostate, 76, 214 Julian period, 702 Julius Pollux, 217; Capitoli- nus, 383 ; Caesar, 372 jFir- micus, 360 ; Paulus, 391 Juno, 412 Jupiter, 410 ; Ammon, 488 ; temples of, 132, 658 ; stat- ue of in Olympia, 432 Jurisprudence, Roman, 388 Justice, courts of, 471, 511, 591 ; goddess of, 435 Justinian's code, 43, 393 Justinus, Roman historian, 381 Justin Martyr, 272 Juvenal, 295, 316 K Kaaba at Mecca, 691 Kalends, see Calends. Keys, ancient, 542 King, Roman priest so called, 564 Kings, power of the early Gre- cian, 470, 516 ; the Spar- tan, 517 ; the Roman, 555, 564, 578 ; ensigns of, 579 ; kissing the feet, 540 Knapp, theory of origin of words, 10 Knights, Roman, 586 Laberius, 287, 310 Labyrinth, Egyptian, 130, 693, 694 ; Cretan, 454 Lactantius, 346, 366 Lacedaemon, see Sparta. Lacedaemonian discipline, 42 Lachrymatories, 640 Ladrone isles, 5 Lampridius, 383 Lamps, ancient, 627 Language, origin of, 7, 10 ; of Adam and Noah, 23 ; Greek, 22, 44 ; pronuncia- tion of Greek, 147 ; abo- riginal of American, 25 ; origin of Latin, 67 ; Latin, how vitiated, 77; utility of studying, 277 ; how pro- nounced, 278; Latin and Roman discriminated, 67; similar to Latin now used in Wallachia, 649 Languages, families of Asiat- ic, 23 ; modes of teaching, 148, 278 Lanti vase, 105 Laocoon, statue of, 102 Lapithae, 450, 666 Lares and Penates, 448 Latona, 434 Lava-glass, 117 Law-schools, 77, 391, 393 Laws of Greece, early, 471 ; of Athens, 515 ; Sparta and Crete, 519 ; Rome, 594 Lawsuits, Athenian, 512 ; Spartan, 518 Lawyers, Roman, 388 Leaden tablets, for writing, 34, 49 Leaping, game of Greeks, 496, 573 Legal or judicial oratory of j Greeks, 202 Legend, of a coin, 57, 82 Legion, the Roman, 602 Legitimation, Roman, 623 Lenses, whether used by an- cients, 116 Lentulus Publius, letter of,382 Leocrates, 205 Leon, mathematician, 241 Leonidas, his tomb, 678 ; of Tarentum, 166 Letters, earliest use of, 15; form of Greek, 30 ; uncial and cursive, 30 ; on Greek coins, 58 ; resemblance of Greek and Roman, 66 ; on Roman coins, 82 ; Roman in manuscripts, 84 ; used to represent numbers, 544, 600; or epistles, Roman, 71 ; or epistles, amatory, 220 ; Socratic, 222 Levying,Roman system of,603 Lexicons, Greek, 153, 216 Libanius, 214 Libations, 467, 486, 568 Libraries,Greek,42 ; Roman,75 Licentiousness of the Greeks, 548 Life, private, of Greeks, 533 ; Romans, 620 Light troops, 523, 608 Linus, 157 Lipogrammatic Odessey, 198 Lippert's impressions of gems, 117 Literature, Greek, circum- stances favorable to, 145 ; its most brilliant period, 36 ; its decline, 43 ; places where cultivated, 43 ; val- ue of, 146 ; introductions to, 155 ; periods of, 156 : Roman, when it began to flourish, 71 ; its decline, 76, 277 ; periods of, 277, 281 ; where cultivated, 77; introductions to, 281 ; of modern Greeks, 47 Lithoglyphy, 108 ; earliest no- tice of the art, 113 ; among the Greeks, 115 Livius Andronicus, 296 ; Ti- tus, 375 Logographies, 250 London University, study of Greek and Latin in, 151 Longinus, 213 Longus, 223 Lots, used for learning the fa- ture, 490, 537 ; in choos- ing magistrates, 506 Lucan, 289, 313 748 GENERAL INDEX. Lucian, 211 Lucilius, 167 ; Junior, 292 ; Caius, 301 Lucretius, 301 Lucullus, patron of philoso- phy, 343 Luna, 432 Lupercus, 434 Lustrations, 466, 569 Luxury of Romans, 555, 598 Lycffium, 38, 42 Lycophron, 162, 192 Lycurgus, Attic orator, 201, 205 ; Spartan lawgiver, 225,461 Lydian coins, 56 Lydian history, 709 Lydus, 252 Lyre, 546 ; invention of, 425 Lyric poetry, 161,289 Lysander, 502 Lysias, 201, 204 M Macedonian coins, 56 Macrobius, 336 Magical arts, 491, 570 Magistrates at Athens, 506 ; Sparta, 517 ; Rome, 582 Magna Graecia, colonies in, 66 Makrinoros, pass of, 668 Mallius Theodorus, 334 Mamertine prison, 593 Mamertinus, 328 Man, his original state, 3, 8 Manetho, 251 Maniples in Roman army, 604 Manilius Marcus, 310 Manners, general of Romans, 628 Mantlets, 613 Manuel Philes, 165 Manumission of slave3, 625 Manii3 Manilius, 389 Manuscripts, classical, how lost, 46 ; forms of ancient, 34 ; Greek, 58, 63 ; num- ber of in European libra- ries, 63 ; Roman, 84 ss ; discovery of on revival of letters, 85 ; of Coluthus, facsimile of, 197; of Cluin- tus, 197 ; the most ancient existing, 61, 62, 85 Mantuan vase, 119 Marble, material for sculpture, 92 ; celebrated kinds, 92 Marbles, Arundelian, 50 ; of Cyzicus, 52 ; of CoIbert,52 Marcella,wife of Porphyry ,239 Marcellinus, 382 Marcellus, Nonius, 335 ; Em- piricus, 388 ; Sidetes, 165 Marching, Roman order of,611 Marcianus Capella, 353 Marcus Aurelius, statue of,104 Marines, 616 Market days at Rome, 571 Markets, 658 Marriages, Greek, 481, 548 ; Roman, 621 Mars, 421 Marseilles, schools at, 44 Martial 293, 315 Martialis Cargilius, 364 Martial rewards and punish- ments, 607 Masks, ancient, 501 Maternus Julius Firmicus, 360 Mathematicians, Greek, 240; Roman, 355 Mattius or Matius, 287, 310 Mausoleum, sepulchre of Mau- solus, 432, 552 Meals, Spartan, public, 518; Grecian generally, 534 ; Roman, 629 Measures and Weights, Gre- cian, 544 ; Roman, 600 Mechanical trades at Rome, 595 Medallions, 57, 81 Medals, utility of studying,54, 81 Medea, 455 Medicine, origin and history of, 16 ; Greek writers on, 262 ; Roman, 383 Medusa, 449 Megaric sect, 227 Mela Pomponius, 360 Melampus, 157, 264 Meleager, 167, 293 Melpomene, 445 Memnon, sounding statue of, 432; historian, fragments of, 251 Memory, system of artificial, 707 Menander, 172, 191, 300 Mendes, 434 Merchants, festival of, 572 j Roman, 595 Mercury, 424 ,• peculiar busts called by his name, 93 Messala Corvinus, 369 Metals, early use of, 6 ; as ma- terials for writing, 32, 34, 49 Metemphyschosis, 226 Methodic school in medicine, 262 Metics, or resident aliens at Athens, 204, 504 Metis, wife of Jupiter, 411 Meton, his Cycle, 240, 701 Metopes, 136 Metres, 154, 162 Metrical inscriptions, 49, 53 Michael Angelo, seal of, 118 Midas, tomb and inscription of, 48 ,• gift of Bacchus to, 426 Milesian tales, 220, 339, 352 Military Affairs, of Greeks, 473, 521 ; of Romans, 601 Milk in libations, 467 Mimes, Greek, 174,- Roman,286 Mimnermus, 164 Minaret, 142. Mineralogy, Theophrastus the father of, 263 Minerva, 420 ; festival of, 495; temples of, 132, 672, 678 Mines, 595, 664, 668, 679 Minos, 417, 452 Minotaur, 450, 454 Minstrels, in Greece, 27, 160 Mint, at Rome, 598 Minuscule writing, 69, 84 Mirrors, ancient, 117, 539 Mithras, 417, 453 Moderatus, 363 Modestus, 356 Modillions, 136 Mceris, lake of, 693 Mcero, 162 Molding, art of, 90 Molds, for casting coins, 82 Moloch, 409 Money, by whom first coined, 54 ; of the Greeks, 542, 543 ; the Romans, 598 Monograms, abbreviations, 31 Monolithal temples, 130 Months of Greeks and Romans 698, 699 Monument of Adulis and Ax- um, 53 Monuments to the dead, 551, 639 Monumentum Ancyranum, 80, 368 Moon, prognostics from, 264 Morals and manners in Rome, 555 Morpheus, 449 Mosaic, 94 ; remains of, 106, 124 Moschion, 263 Moschopulus, 219 Moschus, 164, 193 Moses, his account of creation 3 ; comparative antiquity of his writings, 15 Mosque at Cordova, 649 Mother of gods, 410 Mourning for the dead, 637, 638, 640 Mules, use of by Romans, 597 Mummies, 694 Municipal towns, Roman, 591 Murra or Murrhinum, vases of, 111,596 Murray, on origin of language, Mussa, 384 Musaeus, 160, 176 Museo Borboniro, 102 Museum at Alexandria, 42 Museum at Berlin, 118 Muses, 445 ; on the ring of Pyrrhus, 446 Music, in Greek education ,345 r 37, 481 : connected with poetry, 157, 169 ,• accom- paniment of banquets, 537 Musical instruments, 546,- in Roman army, 604 Musical contests, 38, 73 Muster or Review of Roman soldiers, 603 Mutules, 136 Myrtis, 162 Mysteries, 26 ; of Cabiri, 445 ; Elusinian, 493 Mysteries and moralities, 287 Mythic cycle, 160 Mythical personages connect- ed with the gods, 442 Mythographers, Greek, 247 j Roman, 364 Mythology, 399 ; utility of a knowledge of, 402 ; resem- blance between classical and oriental, 403, 410, 412 ; differences between Greek and Roman, 403 N. Narvius Cneius, 297 ^ Nail, ceremony of fixing in the temple of Jupiter, 572 Names of Romans, 357, 620 f of towns in England end- ing in cester, 613 Natural history among the Greeks, 264 ; Romans, 386 Naval affairs of Greeks, 472, 529, 542 ; of Romans, 616 Naval battle, 532, 616 Naumachins, 165 Nazarius, 328 Nearchus, 251, 258 Nemean games, 499 Nemesian, 317 Nemesis, 433 GENERAL INDEX. 749 Nepos Cornelius, 375 Neptune, 413 Nereids, 414 Nero, his tyranny, 719 ; his persecution of christians, 378 ; burning of Rome, 553 Netha, Egyptian deity, 421 New Testament, books of classified, 268; literary im- portance of, 269 ; Apocry- phal, 270 JVew-Platonists and Pythago- reans, 231 New-year's presents at Rome, 571 Nicander, 165, 196 Nicetas, 166 Nicolaus, 251 Nigidius Figulus, 355 Niobe, 456 ; and children, statues of, 102 Noah, language of, 23 Nobility, Roman, 586 Nones, 571, 700 Nonius Marcellus, 335 Nonnus, 160, 196 Nossis, 162 Notation, Greek, 544 ; Roman, 600 Novels or imperial edicts, 393 Novum Organum, 236 Nox, 433 Nubian inscriptions, 53 Numa, his influence at Rome, 342, 555, 558; fragments of his laws, 68 Numbers, designated by let- ters, Grecian, 544 ; Ro- man, 600 Nuptial celebrations, 481, 550, 621 Nymphis, 251 Nymphs, 444 Oases, Egyptian, Oaths, of Greeks, 693 486 ; of Ro- mans, 569, 602; Roman soldiers, 603 Obelisks, 130, 660, 693 Obituary inscriptions, 49 Obliteration of Alss.46 Obsequens Julius, 386 Ocellus Lucanus, 233 Occupations of men in early ages, 6 Odea, 133, 660, 674 QDconomists, 357 O3nomaus and Pelops, 450 Offences penal at Rome, 592 Offerings to the gods, 468 Official robe of magistrates, 633 Ogyges, 452 Ointments of the ancients, 539, 480, 140 Olbian decree, 50, 52 Old and new style, 701 Olen, Greek poet, 158 Olympic games, 498 Olympiodorus, 239 Olympus, 157 ; residence of the eods, 411 Omens, 562, 470 Onesander, 248 Onyx, a gem representing the apotheosis of Augustus, 118, 119 Opal, of Nonius, 111 Oplitodrome, 103, 496 Oppian, 165, 196 65* . Optatianus Porphyrius, 294 Oracles, 26, 469, 487, 489; Sib- yline, 158 Oratory and Orators, Greek, 199, 2; Roman, 321 ; among earlier christians, 277 Orders, in architecture, 134 Organ, musical instrument, 547, 576 Ori bas i us , Greek physician ,263 Oriental tales, 232 Origen, 273,274 Orion, 443 Orphan-house at Halle, stud- ies in, 152 Orpheus, 158, 176 Ornaments, architectural, 625, 626 ; personal of Romans, 637 f of architecture, 137 Orthography, Roman in early times, 69, 82 Oscan language, 67 Osiris, 441 Ostracism, 511 Ovation, 618 Ovid, 291, 292, 307 Ox, symbol of Osiris, 441 ; bones found in the Egyp- tian pyramid, 442 Pacatus Drepanus, 328 Pacuvius, 125, 299 Paduan coins, 82 Pagan fables, coincidence of with scripture, 401 Paganism and Popery, 456 Paidotribes, 37 Painted vases, 97 Painters, ancient, 124, 125 Painting, ancient, 120ss, ; ma- terials and instruments used in, 123 ; periods of in Greece, 124 ; remains of, 126,259,695 Palace, origin of the word, 657 Palaeography, 60 Palamion, 292, 333 Palsphatus, 247 Palimpsest Mss. 46 Palladium, 420 Palladias, 364 Pallas, statue of, 104 Palm, token of victory, 573 Pan, 434 ; priests of, 565 Panathenaja, 38, 495 Pandects, 393 Pandora, 424 Panegyrical oratory, 202, 321, 324 Panegyrists, Roman, 327 Panic, origin of the word, 434 Pantomime, 287 Paper, ancient, 32, 70 Papinianus, 391 Papirius, his collection of laws, 67, 389 Pappus, 244 Papyri, Egyptian, or manu- scripts, 62 Papyrus, material for writing on, 32 ; manner of prepar- ing it, 70 Paraphrase of John's gospel, 196 Paraenetic orations, 205 Parchment, 33 Parga, fate of, 667 Parian chronicle, 50 Parks of the Romans, 627 Farmenides, 200 Parnassus, 157, 445 Parodies, 173, 174 Parthenius, 248, 221 Parthenon, 420 Parthian history, 710 Pastes, or casts of gems, 117 Pastoral poetry, 164 Paterculus C. Velleius, 377 Patricians and plebeians, 583 Patronage, of letters by Ro- man emperors, 44, 76 Patrons and clients, 583, 631 Paul, Silentarius, 167 ; of ^Egina, 263 ,• the Apostle, 340 Paulus Diaconus, 381 Pausanius, 247 Peace, temple of Janus in time of, 409 Pedestal, 134 Pediment, 134 Pedo Albinovanus, 309 Pegasus, 451 Pelasgi, 21 ; in Italy, 65, 68 Pelopidas, 456 Pelops, 22, 452, 456 Pen, when first used, 33 Pencil, invention of, 33 Penny of the N. Test. 84 Pentateuch in Ms. 62 Pergamus, Greek literature at, 44 Pericles, oratorv of, 200 Peripatetics, 22*9, 345 Periplus, of Hanno, 244 Persecution of Christians, 378, 594, 719 Persephone, 416 Persepolis, ruins of, 137, 686 Perseus, 452 Persian sculpture, 96; Chro- nology, outline of, 710; kings, their residences, 684 Persius, 295, 311 Perspective, of ancients, 124 Pessinus, origin of the name, 410 Petalism,514 Petrarch, 85 ; his Africa, 314 Petrified City, 695 Petronius Arbiter, 352 Phasdrus, 293,; 311 Phalanx, Grecian, 525 Phalaris, 221 Phanodemus, 250 Pherecydes, 250 Phial of tears, 639, 640 Philanthropists, 19 Philemon, 173 Philetas, 162, 164 Philippus, 167 Philistion, 175 Philistus, 250 Philo, of Biblus, 252; Judceus, 253 Philochorus, 250 Philology, comparative, 22 Philosophy, favorite study of Greeks, 41 ; general view of the Greek, 224 ; Chris- tian, 240, 270, 346; Roman 342; authorities respect- ing ancient, 232 Philostratus, uncle and neph- ew, 252, 259 Phlegon, eclipse named by ,252 Phocylides, 183 Phcebus, 417 Phormis, 171 750 GENERAL INDEX. Phoenician history, 709 ; lan- guage and writings, 23; art, 96 Phoroneus, 452 Photius, 218 Phronto, 324, 341 Phrynicus, 169, 217 Phurnutus, or Cornutus, 258 Physicians, Greek, 264; Ro- man, 383 Physical science among Greeks, 263; Romans, 386 Pictor a. Fabius, 367 Picture, writing, 11 Pictures, earliest Greek, 122 ; ancient described by Phi- lostratus, 259 Pierus, 445 Pigments, of the ancients, 122, 123 Pilasters, 136 Pile, or Pyre, funeral, 469 Pillars, or columns, 53, 130, 134, 135, 137, 660 Pilpay, 233 Pindar, 162, 185 Pipe, of Pan,£c. 546, 547 Pisastratus, 200,502 Placidus, 366 Placitus, 385 Planudes, 167, 232, 354 Plastic arts, 87 Plato, his philosophy, 228, 234 ; his works, 234 Platonists, New, 236,346 Plautus, 285, 298 Plays, of the Greeks, 445 ; Ro- mans, 573, 631 ; Plebei- ans, 585 Pleiades, tragic, 171 ; the con- stellation, 424 Plinth, 134 Pliny, (the elder) his Natural history, 351, 386 ; account of gems, 111 Plinv C. Cheilitis, (the young- er), 324, 327, 340 Plotinus, 239 Plough, Grecian, 542 ; Roman 597 Plutarch, 237,251,257 Pluto, 416 Plutus,436 Poetry, origin and varieties of Greek, 157 ; of Latin, 282 ; mythic, 405 Poets, first philosophers of Greece, 224 ; influence on religion of Greeks,465; the Greek, 175 ; the Latin 296} early Christian, 271, 290 Polemarch at Athens, 506 Polemo Perigetes, 167 Polignac, his poem Anti-Lu- cretius, 301, 302 Pollio, Virgil's 4th eel. 305; C. Asinius, 369 ; Trebellius, 383 Pollux, Julius, 217; and Cas- tor, 455 Polyeenus, 248 Polybius, 250, 255 Polycarp, 269 Polycrates, signet of, 115 Polygamy, not allowed by the Greeks, 548 Polyhistor, work of Solinus, 361 Polyhymnia, 445 Polynices, 455 Pomona, 437 Pompeii, implements, &c. dis interred at, 126, 626, 627, 629 Pompeius, grammarian, 334 Pompey's Pillar, 136 Pomponius, Atticus, 368; Me- la, 360 Pomptine marshes, 652 Pontiffs, Roman, 5b2 Poor, at Athens, how support- ed, 508 ' Populace, Roman, 585 Population of Rome, 554 Fopulousness of ancient na- tions, 503, 554 Porphyrio, 334 Porphyry, 239 Porticos, 134, 660, 673, 678 Portland vase, 97, 596 Portraits and busts among Greeks, 125, 104 Posidonius, 251 Posts, on Roman roads, 656 Potamo, 231 Pottery, Roman, 596 Pound, Roman, 601 PraGriti, Hindoo goddess, 410 Praefects, 583 Praetorian soldiers, 618 Prators, Roman, 580 Prayers, of Greeks, 466 ; of Romans, 567 Praxilla, 162 Praxis, 261, 371 Praxiteles, 100 Preaching of first centuries, works on, 274 Precession of the equinoxes, means of settling dates, 703 Priem, palace of, 131 Priapus, 437 Priests and priestesses, Greek, 466, 485 ; imposture of, 487; Roman, 560; classes of them made by later writers, 567 Priscian, 371, 388 Prison of state, at Rome, 593 ; Sparta, 517 Prizes, in the musical contests &c. 38 ; funeral games,551 Prova Falconia, 318 Procession, at the Circensian games,573; triumphal, 618; funeral, 638 Proclus, 239 Proconsals, 583—- Procopius, 260 Proculus Sempronius, 390 Prodicus, 207 Professions, not separated an- ciently, 35, 40 Profiles on ancient medals, 54, 81 Prologue in comedy, 285 Pronunciation of Greek, 147; of Latin, 278 Propertius, 291,304 Property, among Romans, 600; basis bf division into clas- ses, 584 Proprietors, 584 """" Proqutestors, 5?4 Prose composition, applied first to history, 249, 250 Proserpine, 416, 433 Prosper, 371 Protocol, 34 Provinces, Roman, 554, 591 Provincial magistrates of Ro- mans, 583, 591 Prudentius, 29J, 319 Prytanes, at Athens, 510 Psellus, 2b4 Psyche, and Cupid, story of, 352 423 Ptolemy Claudius, 242, 246 Publicans of the J\ T ew Testa- ment, 595 Publius Syrus, 287, 309' Pulpit, eloquence of, 273 j ori- gin of the word, 576 Punctuation, ancient, 32, 60 Punic language, 299, 680 Punishments, Athenian, 51ft Spartan, 527 ; Roman,593 j of Roman soldiers, 607 Purifications, Greek, 466, 485 ; Roman, 569 Purple dye, its costliness, 633 Pygmies, 443 Pylades, 287 Pyramidal tablets for writing, 33 Pyramids, 130, 442, 694 Pyrgoteles, gem-engraver, 115 Pyrrhonists, 345 Pythagoras, founder of Italic school, 225; fragments of, 184 Pythagoreans, 345 Pytheas, 242, 245 Pythean games, 38, 498, 4© a Q.U33Stors, Roman, 581 (luinquatria, 420 Quintilian, 324, 331 Quintus, or Cointus, 160, 137 Quintus Ourtiua, 379 Quirites, rights of, 590 auoit, 497, 573 R Race, Grecian 496: Roman, 573 Races or families at Rome, 620" Raising a child, 622 Rama, Hindoo deity, 427 Ras Sem, the petrified city ,693 Readers, professed, 39, 73 Reading-books, or Selection*, in study of language, 150, Reed, instrument for writing, 33 w Reformation by Luther, 43 Refugees from Constantinople, 46, 153, 216 Rehearsals by ancient writer*. 39, 73 Religion of the Greeks, 464. 482 ; the Romans, 557 Repasts, of Greeks 479, 534 Revenue of Athens, 507 ; of Rome, 595 Reviewing in the study of languages, 150 Rewards at Athens,514 ; Spar- ta,519 ; of Roman soldiers, 607 ; Roman Generals, 617 Rhadamanthus, 417 Rhapsodists, 27,40, 160 Rhetoricians, discriminated from Sophists, 207, 208 % Roman, 328 Rhianus, 160 Rhodes, Greek letters at, 44 Riches, god of, 436 Riding on horseback, 477 Rights, of citizens and sub- GENERAL INDEX. 751 jects of Bome, 590, 591 Ring, of Gyges, 416 ; Polycra- tes, 115 Rings, gems, in, 115 Rites, of marriage, 550, 621 ; religious, 466, 486, 567 Rivers called infernal, 416 Roads, Roman, 656 Rolls, ancient form of books, 34, 70 j Herculanean, 62 Roman sculpture, 101 ; archi- tecture, 138 ; antiquities, 553; literature, 71, 76, 277 Romances, 220, 339 Romanesque, 142 Romans, origin of 65; their empire, 554, 715; most brilliant era, 555 Rome, foundation of,553 , gov- ernment of, 579 ; extent of empire, 554 ; luxury and decline, 555 ; classes or division of the people,584 ; authenticity of its early history, 66, 367 ; popula- iton, 554 ; topography 656 ; chronology of, 715 Rope-dancers, 574 Roscius, actor at Rome, 286 Rosetta stone or inscription ,51 Rotunda or Pantheon, 659 Rousseau, on invention of language, 10 Rowers, their benches in the ancient galley, 532 Royal Society of Literature, 20 Rubrick, from rubrica, 33 Rufinianus, 330 Rufus, physician, 263; histo- rian or geographer, 357 Runic wands, 33 Runners among the Greeks, 528 Running, one of the games, 496 Rural deities, 436 Rutilius Lupus, 331 Rutilius Numatianus, 320 Sabinus, Aulus,. 308 ; Masuri us, 390 9accas,231 Sacred poetry of Greeks, 158 Sacrifices, human, 409 ; of Greeks, 467, 486; R.omans, 560, 567; origin of, 467 Saddles and stirrups, 497 Salamator Memnon, statue of, 432 Sale by auction 600 Salic Hymns, 282 ; Priests, 585 Sallust, Roman historian, 373 Salustius, Greek mythogra- pher, 249 Salt token of friendship, 537 Salus, goddess of health, 436 Salvius Julianus, 391 Sammonicus, 387 Sanconiathon, 252 Sanscrit language, 24 Sappho, 162, 166, 182 Saracenic architecture, 142 Sardonic laugh, 680 Satire Roman, 295 Saturn, 407 Saturnian verse, 282 Satyre dramatic different from satire, 173, 174 Satyrs, 449 Scaevola, 389 Scaling ladders, 613 Scarabaei gems, 113 Sceptic philosophers, 230, 345 Sceptres, 579 Schiva, Hindoo deity, 427 Scholiasts, Greek, 153, 216 Schools, of painting and sculp- ture in Greece, 99, 124 ; of philosophy, 41, 225; of medicine, 262, 384. See Seminaries Scipio, tomb and inscription of, 298, 79; Africanus, his love of philosophy, 342, 343 Scironian rocks, 670 Scolion or skolion, 101 Scribonius Largus, 387 Scriptures, Sacred, in the Greek language, 267, 268 ; attested in Pagan fictions, 401 Sculptors, eminent Greek, 100 Sculpture, ancient, 90 ss ; ma- terials used in, 91 ; inven- tion of, 94 ; Asiatic, 96 ; among the Greeks,98 ; his- tory of in Greece, 99, 100 ; remains of, 102 Scvlax, 241,245 Scylla and Charybdis, 451 Scymnus, 165 Sea-fight, 616, 533 Scythian guards at Athens, 674 Seals, sculptured gems used for, 115 ; seal of Angelo, 118 ; of Polycrates, 115 Seatur, German deity, 407 Sects of Greek philosophy, 225 Sedulius, 320 Self-devotion, 569 Semele, 425 Seminaries of early Chris- tians, 45 ; of ancient Greeks, 42 ; Romans, 73,75 Semitic languages, 23 Sempronius Proculus, 390 Senate, Athenian, 510 ; Spar- tan, 517 ; Roman, 588 Seneca, L. Annreus, 284, 312, 340, 349, 386 ; M Annae- us, 33 Septimius, arch of, 105 Septuagint, origin of, 267 ; chronology of, 705 Sepulchres, Roman in Eng- land, 639 Sequester, 361 Serapis, 442 Serenus Septimius, 289 Serpent, emblem of health,436 Sertorian war, 649 Servius Sulpicius, lawyer, 390 Servius, commentator on Vir- gil, 304, 334 Sesterce, value of, 598 Seth, pillars of, 5 Sethus Simeon, 233 Seven, sages of Greece, 225 ; wonders of the world,241 Severus Cornelius, 308; Sanc- tus, 290 Sewers of Rome, 661 Sextus Empiricus. 238 Sextus Placitus, 385 Shaft, 134 Shield, a poem ascribed to lie- siod, 130 ; the sacred, 565 Shields, ancient, 474,524,606 ; making of, 204 ; of Hercu- les and Achilles, 475 Ships, Grecian, 476, 529 ; Ro- man, 616 Shipwreck, practice of those surviving, 568 Shoes, 538, 636 ; of horses, Short hand, Greek, 35 ; Ro- man, 70 Shows or spectacles at Rome, 573 Siamese, alphabet, 14 Sibyls, 158 ; books of, 569 Sidonian artists, 26 Sidonius Apollinaris, 342 Sieges, celebrated, 526, 613 Sigffian inscription, 48 Signals of battle, 526 Signets, 115, 116, 118 ; that of Polycrates, 115 Silence, god of, 442 Sileni, 449 Silenus, curious image of, 427 Silius Italicus, 269, 314 Silk, known to the ancients, 539, 634 Silver coins of Romans, 84 Simonides, 162, 164, 166, 174 Singing at feasts, 537 Sirens, 443, 444 Sisenna, 368 Sistrum, 547 Siva, Hindoo deity, 412 Skeleton, of priest found at Pompeii, 82 Skins, material for writing, 32 Slaves in Greece, 482, 504 ; at Sparta, 516 : Rome, 620, 624 ; patron goddess of th» freed, 433 ; trade in, 595, 624 ; republic of in Sicily, 681 Sleep, god of, 448 Sneezing, ominous, 470 Sobriquet or burlesque name, 620 Social entertainments, 534,631 Society, primitive state of, 8 Socrates, letters of, 181, 222; philosophy, 226 ; method of teaching, 41 Socratic gems, 114 Sofa-bed, 542 Sol, 430 ; statue of at Rhodes, 430 Solar Cycle, 701 Soldiers, classes of Grecian, 473, 521 ; of Roman 603, 604 ; load carried by Ro- man, 606, 613 Solinus C. Julius, 361 Solomon, Song of, 193 Solon, his poetry, 183 ; his In- fluence on Alhsns, 200, 225 ; fragments, 183 ; tab- lets of his laws, 32 Songs of the Greeks, 161. 163 Sophists, Greek, 207 ; lives of 260 Sophocles, 170, 187, 189 Sophronists, 37 Sophron, 174 Soranus, 263 Soul, state of after death, 416 j weighing of by Egyptians, 417 Sparta, under Lycurgus, 461 ; rival of Athens, 462 ; changes in government, 472 ■ system of education, 37 ; magistrates of 516 ; public meals, 518 ; constti- 752 GENERAL INDEX. tution, 515, 517 ; topogra- phy, 677 Spartianus, 383 Spectacles or shows, Roman, 573 Sphere of Chiron, 703 Sphinx, 451 Spintrian medals, 80 Spoils of war, how divided, 477, 528 Spoletto, aqueduct at, 651 Spurinna, 289 Spurs, 597 Stage, actors on Greek, 500 j parts of Roman, 576 Staircases, 626 Standards, military, Grecian, 526 ; Roman, 604 Statius, 456, 289, 314 Statues, 90 j ancient rude, 91 ; two most famous, 91, 100 ; Equestrian, 104; classifi- ed, 92 ; use frequent, 100 ; more numerous than paintings, 125 ; where placed,l01; found at Pom- peii, 633; at Herculane- um, 104 Stheno, 449 Stephens, family of printers, 394 Stephanus of Bvzantium, 248 Stesichorus, 162, 165 Stiletto, 71 Stirrups, 597 Stobaeus, 239 Stoic philosophy, 227, 344 Stone, used for tools, 6, 7 Stonehenge, 468 Storms, goddesses of, 447 Strabo, 242, 245 Strangers, treatment of by Greeks, 537 Strato, 167 Strophes, 162, 169 Stucco-painting, 626 Studying languages, methods of, 148, 278; in London University, 151 ; Boston Latin school, 279 Style, instrument for writing, Stvlobate, 134 Styx, 416 Suetonius, 380 Suidas, 218 Suliotes, bravery of, 667 Sulpicia, 296, Sulpicius Rufus, 390 Sun, the Fountain of, 695 ; Statue of at Rhodes, 432 Sun -god, 409; worship 430 Superior gods, 407 Suppers of the Romans, 630 Supplicants, 467 Survey of Roman empire, 356 Swimming among the an- cients, 628 Swords, 524 Syenite, 693 Symbolical, language of the Bible, 268 ; pictures, 11 Symbols, the origin of the Gre- cian gods, 26 ; on medals, 54, 83 Symmachus, 328, 341 Symposia, 40 Synagogues, Jewish, In Gre- cian cities, 268 Synchretistic philosophy, 231 ■Syracuse, constitution of, 520, topography of, 681 3yria, kingdom of, 710 Syriac N. T. Ms. copy of,34,62 T Table, Iliac, 161 ; of Isis, 441 ; ancient for eating, 536,629 Tables and charts, 705 Tables twelve, 59 4 Tablets, for writing, 32, 70 Tabula Peutingeria, 361 Tachygraphy, 35, 70 Tacitus C. Cornelius, 324, 378 Tactics, Greek writers on,242- Roman, 356, 358 Tantalus, 456 Tapestry, ancient, 548 Tarpeian Rock, 593, 657 Tartarus, 416 Tassie's casts of ancient gems, 117 Tatian, 272 Tauchnitz, classics printed by, 395 Taxes at Rome, 595 ; Athens, 507 Teachers in Greek schools, 42; at Rome, 73 Tears, preservation of, 639,640 Telesille, 162 Temples, ancient, 131 ; seven kinds of, 132 ; most cele- brated, 132; Grecian, 465, 468 ; in time of Homer, 467; Roman, 559, 658; dedication of, &c. 568 ; at Athens, 503 ; of Jupiter Ammon, 412, 695 ; of Isis, 441 ; Juno Lacinia, 655 Tents, of Greek soldiers, 477 Terence, 285, 300 Terentianus, Maurus, 292 Terminus, 437 Terpander, 163, 166 Terpsichore, 445 Tertullian, 346 Thales, founder of Italic school, 225 Tbaletas, 162 Thalia, 445 Thamyris, 157 Theatre, form of ancient, 132 ; remains, 133; performan- ces in, 175, 500 ; of Ro- mans, 576 ; of Greeks,500 ; views of early Christians respecting, 288 ; Theban war, heroes of, 455 Thebes, constitution of, 520 Themis, 411, 435 Themistius, 213 j Themistocle3, eloquence of, 200 ; letters of, 222 Theocritus, 164, 192 Theodorus Prodromus, 166, 198/ Gaza, 219.- Priscia- nus, 388 Theodosian Code, 392; table. 361 Theodulus, 219 Theognis, 183 Theogony, Greek, 465 Theomancy, 490 Theon, Greek sophist, 212 Theophilus, 272 Theophrastus, philosopher, 236; naturalist, 266 Theopompus, 250 Theromenes, 200 Theseus, 454; his temple at Athens, 673 Thespis, 169 J Thomas Magistor, 219 Thracian, school of poetry ,157 Thucydides, 250, 254 Thundering legion, 238 Thunder-stones, 6 Thyrsus, of Bacchus, 426 Tibullus, 291, 303 Timseus, of Locri, 235; the grammarian, 137 Timon, 171, 174 Titanides, 407 Titans, 442 Titles of ancient books, how written, 34 Titus, arch of, 105 Toilet, Grecian, 539; Roman, 637 Tomb, of Cyrus, &c, 552 , Roman at Pompeii, 639; at Cyrene, 695 ; of Virgil, 653 Tongues, confusion of, 5 Tone, or accent, in Greek, 147 Topography, of Rome, 656 ; of Athens, 503, 671 ; Sparta, 677 Torso, the statue, 103 Totila, Rome laid waste by, 553 Towers, ancient, 614, 616; Leaning tower of Pisa, 142 Towns, with names ending in Chester, 613 Trade, at Rome, 595; in slaves, 624 Traditions of mythology, 399 Tragedy, Greek, 169; Roman, 283 Transcribers, 35 Translation, practiced by Ro- man orators, 74 ; utility of the exercise of, 150 Translations of the classics, 395 Travels, of ancient scholars, 43,75 Treasury, Athenian, 508 ; Ro- man, 594 Treaties, 478, 564 Trebellius Pollio, 383 Trees, cultivated by Romans, 596 Trial, of persons accused, 510, 591 Triban, 33 Tribes, of Athens, 501, 502, 503 ; Sparta, 515 ; Rome, 584 Tribonian, Roman lawyer, 393 Tribunes, Roman, 581 Triglyphs, 136 Tripods consecrated to Apol- lo, 468, 48S, 489 ; street of, 675 Triremes, 529 Trismegistus, 159, 424 Tritons, 443 Triumph of Roman generate, 617 Triumvirate, 583, 598, 718 Trogus Pompeius, 381 Trojan history, 709 ; cycle,160 Trophies, 528, 469, 661 Trumpets, 547 Tryphiodorus, 160, 198 Tryphon, 217 Tubal-Cain, 424 Tultecan hieroglyphics, 12; architecture, 130 ' Tunnel of Pausilypus, 653 Turnus, Roman satirist, 290 Tusoan order, 136, 138 GENERAL INDEX. 753 Tusks of the Calydoniun boar, 668 Twelve Tabled, laws of, 67, 389, 594 Tympanum, 134 Tyrannio, his library, 74 Tyranny, Roman, over prov- inces, 591 Tyrants, the thirty, 502, 714 Tyrtseus, 163, 181 Tzetzes, 198, 219 U Ulpian, 391 Uncial characters, 30, 60 Unguentary vases, 112 Urania, 430 Uranus, 445 Urns, for depositing the ashes of the dead, 551, 639 Utensils, ancient, found at Pompeii, 82 ; represented on Egyptian monuments, 560 Valerianus, 385 Valerius, Flaccus, 195, 313; Maximus, 377 ; Probus, 333 ; Antias, 368 ; Julius, his account of Alexander, 251 362 Valley of Moffeta, 654 Valpy's classics, 395 Variorum classics, 395 Varius Lucius, 284, 288 Varnish, on ancient statues, 92 Varro, 75, 295,333, 334, 363,368 Vases, Tuscan, 96, 105, 125 ; murrhine, 111: Panathe- naic, 496 ; sacrificial, 560 Vegetius, 360, 385 Veils, 538 Velleius, Paterculus, 377 Vellum, for writing, 71 Venus, 422 ; de Medici, 103 ; temple of, at Paphos, 692 ; Anadyomene, 125, 423 Verginius, 287 Verres, his spoliations, 50, 101 Verrius Flaccus, 368 Vertumnus, 437 Vessels, for holding wine, 632; of war, 616; sacrificial,560 Vesta, 410, 428 Vestal virgins, 566, 429 Vestritius Spurinna, 289 Vibius Sequester, 361 Vices, deified, 440 Victims, in sacrifice, 568 Victor, Sextus Aurelius, 381 Victorinus, 330 Victory, rewards of, 617, 618 Vigils, or watches of Romans, 698 Villas, or country seats of Ro- mans, 627 Vindicianus, 385 Violet, robe of office, 633 Violin, ancient, 546 Virgil, 288, 290, 291, 304 Virgo, 435 Vishnu, Hindoo deity, 412 Virtues, deified, 440 Vitrum obsidianum, 117 Vitruvius, 359 Voconius, 324 Volateme, hypogea of, 97 Volutes, 136 Vopiscus Flavius, 383 Voyages, 241 ; imaginary, 220 Voting, Athenian mode of, 509, 510 ; Roman, 588, 590 Vows, 568 Vulcan, 423 Vulcanalia, 424 W Wages of Roman soldiers, 606 Walls,Roman in England, 680, 141 Wand of Apollo or Mercury, 425 War, heroes of the Theban, 455 ; of the Trojan, 456 ; affairs of among Greeks, 473, 521 ; Romans, 601 ; declarations of, 525, 564 ; the Sertorian, 649; of Troy, Bryant's view of it, 456 War-chariots, 523 War-engines, 613 War-galleys, 529, 616 Wards or boroughs of Attica, 501, 503 Watch-word, 613 Warwick vase, 105 Watches, divisions of the night, 612, 570, 698 Water-clock, 698 Wax, tablets of, 33 Wealth and luxury, instances of Roman, 600 Weapons or arms, of the an- cients, 474, 606 Wedgewood's imitations of antiques, 96, 117 Weeding, goddess of, 438 Week, known to Egyptians, 700 Weights and measures,Greek, 544 ; Roman, 597 Well of Syene, 693 Wind-instruments of music, 546 Wind, woven, 539 Windows, of Roman houses, 625 Winds, temple of, 673 Wines, of Greeks, 534 ; of Ro- mans, 631 ; history of, 534 Wine-cellars, 626, 632 Winfrid, 381 Winter-quarters, of Roman soldiers, 613 Wise men, the seven, 225 Wife of the Rex Sacrorum, and of the Flamen Dialis, 564, 565 Women, condition and em- ployments of among the Greeks, 481, 544; Romans, 628 Wonders of the world, seven, 432, 241 World, as known to the an- cients, 643 Wrestling, 497, 573 Writing, successive steps !n the invention of, 11 ; Mex- ican, 11 ; Egyptian, 12 ; Tultecan, 12; Persepoli- tan and Babylonian, 14; Chinese method of, 13 ; Cherokee, 14; Grecian, 30; materials used in, 32, 70 ; whether practiced in time of Homer, 35, 179 ; Latin terms respecting, 70, 71 Writing Greek and Latin, useful exercise, 150, 278 ; helps for, 154, 280 Writers, on value of the clas- sics, 19 ; on different top- ics of the Archaeology of Literature or Art, 20 ; on inscriptions, 47, 77 ; on coins and medals, 58, 83 ; on manuscripts, 61,63,85; on ^Esthetics, 89 ; on Tus- can remains, 97 ; on an- cient sculpture, 106, 107, 108; on engraved gems, 118, 119; on paintings a- mong the ancients, 126; on ancient architecture, 130, 132, 141 ; on branches connected with Greek lit- erature, 152 ss. ; Roman literature, 279 ss. ; mod- ern Greek literature, 51 ; on mythology, 406 ; on Greek antiquities, 463fc Roman antiquities, 556 ; Roman military affairs, 602 ; ancient weights and measures, 601 ; classical geography, 154, 280 ; chro- nology, 155, 280, 705 ; to- pography of Rome, 657; topography of Athens, 676; of Sparta, 677 ; Byzanti- um, 662 ,- Babylon and Nineveh, 491 ; see also references under specific subjects. Xenocrates, 262 Xenophon, of Ephesus, 224 j of Athens, historian, 233, 250,254 Xiphilinus, 258 Year, division of by the an- cients, 570, 700 Young, time of burying among the Greeks, 551 Zaleucus, 225 Zenobia, 213 Zenodotus, 215 Zodiac, of Denderah, 693 Zoilus, 215 Zonaras, 261 Zoology, father of, 263 Zoroaster, 159 Zosimus, historian, 260; of Egypt, 264 [uar;vEiisiT7] V ) ■ c's -e ^ CI o bk ^ F% i -e "z « Tv M 7t fi. V fry- A el****, t: Tm * . v> THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ONJHE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREA'SB TO 50 CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO ft.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. FEB 8 1938 FEfe 7 1 m ^J In j !94fl m - '9-f .'/ 1 40 fQS-»r-rr