viNaojnva io <> O AUSHSAMn 3Hi WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORE • BOSTON • CHICAGO DALLAS • ATLANTA • SAN FRANOSCO MACMILLAN & CO., Limited LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Lm. TORONTO WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS A STUDY MADE FOR THE WOMEN'S EDUCATIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL UNION BY ELIZABETH KEMPER ADAMS, Ph.D. FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION IN SMITH COLLEGE AND ASSISTANT CHIEF, PROFESSIONAL SECTION, WAR-EMERGENCY U. S. EMPLOYMENT SERVICE THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1924 ./tK ri[hfs reserved PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OE AMERICA Copyright, 1921, By the WOMEN'S EDUCATIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL UNION Set up and Electrotyped. Published September, 1921 FERRIS PRINTING COMPANY NEW YORK CITY TO MARY MORTON KEKEW A LEADER OF UNFAILING VISION WHO MADE THIS BOOK POSSIBLE LIBRARY ,\ 1 r- T'df THcR COLLEGE SANf''*' A'goods field. Experiments 250 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS and progress are reported in the influential trade journal Women s Wear. Positions in department stores may be best secured through advertisement in this journal; through direct application to the employment departments of the various stores ; or, in the case of exceptionally well qualified persons, through the Retail Research Association, which sometimes advertises for executive workers for its members in the New York daily papers. The variety of responsible positions held by women in department stores is indicated by three employers' schedules returned by large stores in New England, the Middle West, and on the Pacific Coast. One says: "Almost every type of executive position in the store is or has been held by a woman. We have 172 men executives; 165 women execu- tives. We have various training methods, including a spe- cial training group for quick development of potential ex- ecutives. There are many executive positions with us where we consider women more efficient than men and vice versa. We have found that our women executives average practically as high as the men in permanency of employment. Among non-executives, we find that women are not as permanent as men, due mostly to their being in business for a livelihood until such time as they marry. . . . Undeniably a college woman is much more valuable as a result of her advanced education, but we have found that if an individual is of the right type, she will succeed, even with the handicap of lack of higher education. The war has undeniably given many women a chance to prove con- clusively that they are capable of bigger things than have commonly been entrusted to them in the past. Women are undoubtedly in industry to stay." Another says : "We have a woman assistant superinten- dent, assistants to other executives, an educational director. a welfare director, a service director, buyers, and assistants. We employ men and women in about the same numbers except in the five or six most important executive positions. We find that the efficiency varies with the individual, not the sex, except in the five or six most important positions, which are better filled by men. Both turnover and length of employment are approximately the same in both sexes. OFFICE AND MERCANTILE SERVICES 251 Comparison between college and non-college women is diffi- cult because of the small number of college women used. We think the percentage of success and failure about the same as among less educated women." Another says : "We have a woman advertising manager, a woman welfare director, and a woman training director, as well as women buyers and assistant buyers, floor man- agers, employment, stock, and office workers. The relative efficiency of men and women varies with the nature of the work. Men are physically better for certain classes of work, women, in general, are more efficient in detail work. We find that college women usually lack the practical ex- perience which the non-college women of their age have had." Women in department stores filling our schedules include four educational directors in establishments in New Eng- land, Pennsylvania, and the Middle West ; a buyer of coats and suits, a restaurant manager, a department head with a hundred people under her, in metropolitan eastern cities ; and three recreation and welfare workers not connected with organized personnel departments. Returns from four women in department store personnel work have been given in Chapter XL The educational directors' salaries ranged in 1918 from $1,560 to $2,500 with a median salary of $2,000; the buyer received $4,500, having begun in 1914 as a sales- woman at ten dollars a week; the restaurant manager re- ceived $3,120; the department head, $10,000; the recreation and "welfare workers from $1,040 for a beginner just out of college to $2,400. ^ Of the educational directors, three are college graduates, and one is a normal school graduate with college courses. All have had previous teaching experience ranging from one year to twelve years. Three are gradu- ates of the Boston School of Salesmanship, novv^ the Prince School; one has had courses in salesmanship in two uni- versity schools of business administration. The buyer was educated in a well-known private school. The restaurant manager taught for nine years before going into her present * For more recent salaries, see Positions of Responsibility in De- partment Store Organizations. Bulletin No. 5. Bureau of Voca- tional Information (1921). 252 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS occupation. The department manager is a college gradu- ate, who reached her present position through service as advertising writer and foreign buyer for the firm. She is one of the most successful women executives in the mer- cantile world. Of the three welfare workers, one is coun- selor of an employees' association, and is a married woman with considerable experience in social and recreation work with young people. She visits sick employees, organizes social activities, and does general welfare work throughout the store. The other two are young college graduates. One of them at the age of twenty-four has the title of "store matron." The other has charge of clubs for em- ployees, dramatics, gymnastics, and dancing. She has done some social case work and has also been an actress. These young women are in the department of training, which is in charge of a man. They are responsible to the manage- ment and not at all to the employees. Some of the comments are as follows : "I consider the policies and organization of my employer the most striking example that I know of industrial democracy." "Make yourself efficient, and no employer can long go without recognizing your ability. This is shown time and time again in store work." "Preserve a humble attitude at first, as the number of unthinkable things one may do wrong in a department store is very large. The red tape is terrible." "To do practical store work, gain the point of view of the salesperson." "Common sense, imagination, and a psychological study of the buying public are the keynotes. As a buyer, dress well, be neat, have a sense of humor, fall back on plain common sense when in doubt, mind your own business, and never be tired." Closely allied to the department store but with distinctive organization and problems are the great mail-order houses ; and in them, too, are openings for professional women, either already existing or to be won through intelligence and determination. The growing number of chain-store sys- OFFICE AND MERCANTILE SERVICES 253 terns affords another opportunity. Both these types of dis- tribution provide excellent business training for socially- minded women who wish to prepare themselves for posi- tions as managers, buyers, or other executives in true co- operative societies. Mail-order houses and chain-store systems also form a connecting link between "inside" and "outside" selling. Wholesale salesmanship and salesmanagement is a field into which few professional women have ventured, but which lies just before them. A study of the "Help Wanted" col- umns of any metropolitan daily shows that "saleswomen" means women behind the counter ; "salesmen" means in the large majority of cases men "on the road." A well-known firm engaged in the manufacture and distribution of watches is at present trying out a group of young college women as salesmanagers in experimental territory. They do not have any women regularly on the road, but have sent some out for periods of from two weeks to two months to get sales experience for their experimental branch work. With salesmanship and salesmanagement calling for a high type of worker and with opportunities for professional training offered by the university schools of business and by such organizations as the Carnegie Institute Bureau of Sales- manship Research, they offer a practical challenge to the woman who likes to prove her capacity in new lines of work.^ Women in business for themselves are not considered in this volume, since individual cases vary so greatly. But women in growing numbers are successfully managing busi- nesses of their own of many sorts. In addition to the requisite amount of capital, they need the same knowledge of business organization and administration, the same pro- fessional attitude toward its problems that are needed by the professional business woman on a salary. ^ See Eleanor Gilbert. The Ambitions Woman in Business (1916), Chapter 14. CHAPTER XIV COMMERCIAL SERVICES: BANKING, INSURANCE, PUBLIC UTIL- ITIES, REAL ESTATE Banking, insurance, public utilities, and real estate are specialized commercial services devised to facilitate the exchange, accumulation, and protection of property and the extension of credit. They are all concerned primarily with matters of finance and with the selling of special types of service. Although they are still for the most part under private corporation management, their public character and importance are indicated by the growing body of legislation for their control ; and the first two, as well as the third, might well be called "public utilities." This is as yet far less true of real estate, perhaps because land and buildings are thought of as tangible commodities, to be bought and sold individually like other commodities, and not as forms of common service. But since the war, there are signs that the public utility idea is extending to housing and to natural resources ; and real property plays a large part in the trans- actions of the other three services. Many savings banks and investment companies deal largely in mortgages. Banking, in which we are including the selling of bonds and other investment securities and also stock-broking, is a practically new occupation for women workers other than clerical. It has attracted of late somewhat more attention than it merits, since its opportunities for professional women to advance beyond a limited point are still problematical. But during the war many women replaced men in banks, and other women achieved success in selling "Liberty Bonds," so that bank ofiiicials have become aware of women as a labor supply, and are even encouraging them along certain lines. Before the war, one or two of the great metropolitan banks had begun to approach the women's colleges for a 254 SPECIAL COMMERCIAL SERVICES 255 small group of picked apprentices in the same way, although not to the same extent, that they were approaching the men's colleges. Since the war, they are employing young women just out of college in considerably larger numbers. Some of them are giving women definite training, and are "routing them through" the departments in order to initiate them into banking organization and processes. But there is a ten- dency to differentiate their training from that of young men of the same educational groups through giving them courses in stenography and typewriting. They are still looked upon largely as a supplementary labor supply to be prepared for the more recently developed and adjunct services in modern banking — librarianship, filing, personnel or "service" work, editorial work, statistical and other "re- search" work — rather than as part of the general supply of potential executive material. There is still a widespread feeling that they cannot deal directly with customers, al- though a number of exceptions have been made of late. The position of professional women in banking has, how- ever, reached the stage where it is likely to develop rapidly, and where the nature of that development will depend largely upon the attitude of women themselves. They need to realize clearly that modern banking is a highly technical profession, still preponderatingly a man's occupation ; to understand the possible lines of promotion and to expect it when, but only when, they have fully demonstrated capaicity. They need to cultivate a professional group spirit and to formulate professional standards and poHcies. For the present, they would probably do well to form asso- ciations or clubs of women professional bank workers as well as to join men's banking organizations to which they are eligible. The past few years have seen a remarkable development of the scope and methods of banking in the United States. The Federal Reserve system, which did not become opera- tive until late in 1914, provides for the first time a country- wide banking system through its twelve regional banks, with both large and small member banks sharing in man- agement. It ties the two hundred and thirty-three clear- ing-houses into something like a national clearance system', 256 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS both facilitates and stabilizes credits ; and furnishes a finan- cial machinery comparable to that of foreign countries, through which may be carried on our greatly extended share in international finance and international trade. The adop- tion of "trade acceptances" also fosters commercial dealings with other countries. The new generation of professional workers in banking will be required to have an active knowl- edge of world trade resources, world banking systems and practices, and modern banking methods, that were unknown except to a few far-sighted leaders before the war. A pro- fession long held to be conspicuously conservative is be- coming almost a profession in the making. A lecturer to classes of bank workers conducted by the American Institute of Banking says : "Every young man who goes into a bank . . . should make up his mind very early that the work is not easy and the only way he may succeed is to begin a systematic study of banking as a science. , . . Banking is a profession based upon scientific data. The physician cannot hope to learn medicine through experience and experiment upon his own body. . . . Many bankers, and especially the younger and inexperienced, de- ceive themselves with the idea that they can learn all they need to know by close application to their own immediate desks, counters, and communities. Just as the science of surgery and medicine is based upon the natural laws of the human body, so the science of banking grows out of eco- nomic laws that are at the basis of all business activity. . . . 'A successful banker is composed of about one-fifth ac- countant, two-fifths lawyer, three-fifths political economist, and four-fifths gentleman and scholar — total ten-fifths — double-size. Any smaller person may be a pawnbroker or a promoter, but not a banker.' " ^ A high official of the National City Bank of New York said in an address to Yale seniors on the topic of foreign banking: "If you have decided to go into the banking fiekl, then, no matter what bank you may start in or what posi- tion you may hold, plan your reading and your studies along lines that will make you a broader American. Study com- modity banking and foreign exchange. Go to the bottom *C. H. Wolfe. Elementary Banking (1915). SPECIAL COMMERCIAL SERVICES 257 of every foreign transaction that comes under your notice, and, of most importance, keep eternally at foreign lan- guages. A speaking knowledge of commercial Spanish French, and Russian will prove of greatest value to you in after life. If you have the language equipment and the practical knowledge of banking obtained even in a country bank, it will not be long before you will find your oppor- tunity. And right here, let me say that there is no better training school for foreign banking than the all-round ex- perience which a man can obtain in a country bank." ^ The National City Bank has for some years provided definite courses training young college men as managers of branch banks in foreign countries ; but has not yet extended these opportunities to college women. The financial institu- tions in this country in which women may be employed group themselves as commercial or general banks, national and state ; savings banks ; trust companies ; so-called private banks, which commonly do an investment business in bonds and staple stocks; and brokerage firms, buying and selling stocks and bonds on commission for customers. The Dis- trict Federal Reserve Banks and the District Federal Land Banks, which make long-term loans to farmers, are gov- ernment institutions. Credit unions, or people's cooperative banks, are authorized by law in several states, and are grow- ing in number. Building and loan associations are, in effect, cooperative banking institutions. The stock in trade of banks is surplus money, or capital, of which they are the depositaries, and which they lend at a fixed rate, part of which goes to depositors in the form of interest, part to stockholders, and part as a charge for service. Commercial banks deal only in what is called cir- culating or fluid capital, rented out as it were, for a brief period in the form of short-term loans. Savings banks and trust companies deal in certain kinds of fixed or investment capital, mortgages, bonds, and other amply secured and long-term loans. Banks are not allowed to invest deposi- tors' money in stocks, since these are purchased shares in a business, the returns from which fluctuate according to *W. S. Kies. Opportunities for Young Men in the Foreign Field (Pamphlet, 1916). 258 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS earnings. But banks frequently give advice to customers about their private investments in bonds and stocks. Some of them maintain closely related investment companies, such as the National City Company of the National City Bank. Some investment houses deal only in bonds, and are known as bond houses. Brokerage houses buy and sell stocks for customers on the stock exchange, and are thus connected with the speculative market as well as with the investment market. Before the war, Americans preferred to invest in stocks in spite of their greater risk, since they yield a higher rate of interest. But the various government war loans have accustomed them to the idea of investing in government and other bonds. With world-wide reconstruc- tion and development, there is likely to be even greater ex- pansion in the buying and selling of the bonds of govern- ments, cities, public utility corporations, and the like. The groups of workers essential to the conduct of a bank are (i) the administrative officers, chosen by the directors and responsible for the policies and general financial de- cisions of the bank — president, vice-president, and cashier; (2) the tellers who actually receive and pay out the de- positors' money; (3) the bookkeeping and clerical staff who attend to the recording and balancing of all financial transactions. In large institutions, these groups become major divisions with many departments. In the executive division will be such departments as loans, investments, credits, auditing, statistics, foreign exchange ; in the tellers' division, the paying tellers', the receiving tellers', the note tellers', the collection, and the transit departments ; in the bookkeeping division, the statem.ent or ledger department, the proof, filing, and stenographic departments. Large modern banks are maintaining research and information de- partments for their own staffs and for their customers, in which are to be found bank librarians, financial experts of many kinds, editors, and statisticians. Where many loans are made, the credit experts who investigate the borrower's financial standing and the character of his securities are of the highest importance. Where the bank's funds are invested largely in bonds, the bond expert appears, calling in the services of engineers, lawyers, and others. The bond de- SPECIAL COMMERCIAL SERVICES 259 partment of a great Chicago bank advertises : "In making the analysis of a recent proposition for a bond issue, we employed two lawyers, one accountant, two engineers, an expert in municipal government, a tax expert, an industrial organizer, in addition to our experts in credit and banking." Where there is a foreign department, there are experts in foreign trade and foreign securities. There are also experts in "floating" loans, domestic and foreign. Where there are hundreds of workers, the personnel or "service" department may be thoroughly organized; and there may be a definite education or training in service department, with a special instructional staff. An intensive study of Women in Banking in the City of Minneapolis was made between July and October, 1918, by the Woman's Occupational Bureau of that city. Before the war, about ninety per cent of the bank workers in Minneapolis were men; and the ten per cent of women were nearly all routine workers. "Probably not more than twenty women in April, 191 7, held positions of responsi- bility, such as private secretaries, managers or assistant managers of departments, and tellers. Fifteen months later, we find that over forty per cent of the employees are women, more than eighty of whom are employed as private secretaries, tellers, managers and assistant managers, . . . an increase of more than three hundred per cent in voca- tional opportunity for women." Women taken hurriedly into banks in the war emergency naturally did not do work equal to that of men who had received training in lower bank positions, and for the most part they received lower salaries. Moreover, the loss of experienced men clerks led to a great increase in the use of adding and bookkeep- ing machines. But the report is optimistic about the pro- fessional future for women in Minneapolis banks. "The banks are retaining women as part of their permanent work- ing force, . . . and they are recognized as a source of supply for promotion to positions of responsibility and salary. . . . Women have proved their value as bank em- ployees, and the normal expansion of business is absorbing a larger number of employees. . . . Tellers, managers and assistant managers of departments represent so far the 26o WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS ultimate vocational opportunity of women in banks. ... A college graduate of twenty-four who on August first was sorting mail ... in October had been promoted to a posi- tion as teller. ... In her former position she had learned the kind of work done in every department of the bank, the forms for listing various kinds of accounts, the listing, proving, and checking of items and the handling of checks and drafts — all excellent training for the work of teller. , . . Aside from the training through work connected with a specific job, woman employees of the large banks partici- pate in the training courses offered under the auspices of the American Institute of Banking." Before the war, professional women were beginning to be employed in New York banks as file supervisors, libra- rians, statisticians, employment or service managers for women employees, and to a small extent as managers of departments for women customers and as bond salesmen. At first, women coming into contact with possible customers were chosen largely because of attractive personality and wide social acquaintance, rather than because of any special training in banking. To-day, they are being increasingly selected from women of professional equipment and proved capacity. Within a year three New York City trust com- panies — one of them perhaps the largest in the world — have elected women assistant secretaries, corresponding to assistant cashier in a commercial bank. One of these, a college woman, had been for two years among the most successful bond salesmen of the institution, and before that had been connected for several years with a great pub- lic utility corporation. Another woman is assistant secre- tary-treasurer of a trust company in an adjacent town. A woman is manager of a southern clearing house. The employment of women trained in home economics as budget advisers in banks is described in Chapter VII. Bond houses, similar departments of the great banks, and general investment houses buy whole issues or large blocks of bonds and guaranteed stocks, and retail them to in- vestors. The National City Company says : "One of our functions is mercantile, and consists of distribution — get- ting investment securities from the interests issuing them SPECIAL COMMERCIAL SERVICES 261 to the banks, firms, or private investors who wish to buy them. Our other function is professional, and consists of appraising an investor's own special needs, and advising what securities will best meet his requirements with com- bined reference to maximum yield and safety. . . . The National City Company, like the great factories . . . manu- factures a commodity for national distribution. This com- modity is a complete service for you as an investor — and this requires a large army of officers and producers and large areas of floor-space." ^ The two main departments of an investment house are the buying department, which includes both actual trading in the great investment markets and research ; and the office, and field selling departments. All issues of bonds or stocks are carefully investigated before purchasing. A college woman connected with a New York investment house writes thus of the buying department: "Picture to yourself a group of scholarly pessimists, unwilling to be- lieve anything without documentary proof and trusting few besides themselves to compile the documents, always analyz- ing, always making allowance for a dark future, and you have the buying department. Very expert and very few in number the buyers are. Women with engineering train- ing and those who have shown originality in research in chemistry, geology, economics, or law might fitly apply for work in this department." - As yet, few women have been employed in this side of investment work; but there seems a chance here for the group with a war-derived knowledge of domestic and foreign trade, for the new oil and gas geologists (see p. 337), and for women with legal train- ing.^ "The statistical department, information department, or library, as it is variously called, is another branch of the buying department. Here are kept not only books, but financial manuals, periodicals, reports of corporations, files of clippings, circulars of other houses, and whatever ^Men and Bonds (Pamphlet, 1920). 'Elizabeth F. Cook. Opportunities for Women in finance. Jour- nal of Association of Collegiate Alumnc-e. Volume XI (t9I7-i9i8\ * See Women in the Law. Bureau of Vocational Information Bulletin Three, pp. 73-82. 262 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS else the buying or sales department is likely to need for quick reference. Many houses use the statistical depart- ment as the training school for their promising young men. Women, too, will generally find it the best door by which to enter, as well as the least obstructed. The work is val- uable as giving a comprehensive view of the business along with the best preparation for more specialized buying or selling work." ^ The National City Company says : "The research department ... is a tireless 'lookout.' . . . Our public utility files alone contain more than 20,000 folders." On the side of selling securities, a few bond houses, nota- bly the William P. Bonright Company, began to employ women as bond salesmen before the war. Women made excellent records as salesmen in the various "Liberty" and "Victory" loan "drives," particularly in the hotel and shop- ping districts ; and their position in this type of financial work seems assured. In New York they are attached to "up-town" branches of banks and investment houses, as well as doing outside selling, and are given the regular train- ing of securities salesmen. The idea at first was that they should sell particularly to women customers; but some of them have been equally successful with men. In fact, many men are looking for an investment expert, whether man or woman; while some women still have less business confi- dence in a woman than in a man. In most cases, salesmen are provided with a drawing account up to a cer- tain figure, and are then paid a commission on their sales. A few firms, however, think that better results are secured through paying a salary with some form of bonus or com- mission. The work requires the ability to approach and convince people, presence, dignity, objectivity, sagacity, and vigorous health. While some employers and some women think that "feminine charm" may be capitalized as a busi- ness asset, in the long run such an attitude probably loses more customers than it secures. Initial earnings in securities selling are small; but success or failure is quickly deter- mined, and for a woman who succeeds, the income may be practically what she determines to make it. Bond and se- ^ Elizabeth F. Cook. Opportunities for Women in Fiiiance. Jour- nal of A. C. A., Volume XI. SPECIAL COMMERCIAL SERVICES 263 curities selling is a valuable training for more important positions. Few women other than clerical have been em- ployed in brokerage firms ; but in rare cases, women have shown exceptional ability as traders in the speculative market. A good background for professional work in banks and other financial institutions is given through college courses in economics, banking and finance, and statistics. The uni- versity schools of commerce and business administration provide professional training through both regular and extension courses. New York University has a Wall Street Branch of its School of Commerce, Accounts, and Finance, designed for those employed in the financial dis- trict. A number of great banking institutions have their own education departments. Investment houses, such as the National City Company and the Henry L. Doherty Com- pany, conduct bond and securities schools for salesmen, to which women have been admitted. The American Institute of Banking has about 23,000 students in its various chapters. In 1918-1919 women were admitted as associate members. The standard course is three years in length, and is open to men and women employed in banks. The New York City Chapter has about 4,000 students, of whom some 200 are women. One woman was graduated in 1920, complet- ing the course in a little over two years. The National City Bank, which has worked out perhaps the most compre- hensive scheme of training in service for men says: "An extra effort was made to get college women — women of broad preliminary training and possessing great possibilities for success in positions of responsibility. These college graduates were immediately put to work learning type- writing and stenography. They also studied the corre- spondence files of the department to which they were to be sent. In a comparatively short time they were given an outline for simple letters which they were to write. When a letter came from a correspondent or a customer with ref- erence to his account, the entire folder of that correspon- dence was turned over to one of these girls. She digested the contents and wrote the reply. By selecting girls of real ability and splendid training, and entrusting to them real re- 264 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS sponsibilities (stenography and typewriting was merely a stepping stone), the bank is developing women who are not only expert letter writers, but who are learning to assume many responsibilities heretofore carried by officers." Women looking forward to professional work in banks are urged to meditate upon this last quotation. In general, they need a liking for figures and for financial relations and problems ; an ability to handle impersonal details without being swamped by them ; and above all an interest and belief in the modern financial system. Otherwise they may find themselves caught in a great machine with the operations of which they have no fundamental sympathy. Employment is likely to be secured through direct appli- cation to the employment or personnel departments of financial institutions; by replying to the not infrequent ad- vertisements of these organizations ; through the higher grade business employment agencies, such as the National Employment Exchange in New York and the Business Men's Clearing House in Chicago ; through higher institu- tions; and through the bureaus of occupations for trained women. Two large New York banks and five women in banking positions filled our schedules. One bank has two women department heads, two managers, fourteen secretaries, twelve stenographers, and a hundred and forty-four clerks. The other gives no figures, but reports women in executive, managerial, secretarial, stenographic, and typing positions. The first employs men and women in a fifty-fifty ratio in secretarial work; in a five to one ratio in clerical work. Promotion is based upon efficiency reports. "The women have proved equally faithful and more conscientious and painstaking than the men. They are paid the same salaries in everything but executive work. The comparatively few college women that we have employed have done conspicu- ously good work." Of the five women reporting, one is assistant secretary of a metropolitan trust company, promoted from the post of manager of the women's department ; one is assistant to the secretary of a regional branch of the Federal Land Bank; one is librarian and file clerk in a large New York SPECIAL COMMERCIAL SERVICES 265 firm of private bankers; one is financial statistician in an investment house; and one is custodian of the safe-deposit vault of a country town bank. One is a college graduate and a graduate of one of the best law schools ; the others are without college education, but express their regret at its lack. Salaries range from $900 to $2,700 with a median salary of $2,100. The Land Bank assistant says : "I dictate mail, open and distribute all mail, supervise clerks, supervise all applica- tions for loans, check amount of all loans approved, etc. . . . My employer prefers women clerks, says he gets more work with less friction and less talking. ... Be prompt. Be accurate. Don't 'guess you are right.' Take the time and trouble to be sure you are. ... I suppose by great effort a woman could become one of the officers." She reports no differences fn the pay of men and women in clerical positions. The librarian and file clerk was previously head stenog- rapher for the firm, and has held her present position for eight years, securing it after two years of service. She says : "A big filing position usually comes because you know the special business, and have common sense and a wide general knowledge. Do all work particularly dependably ; keep an open mind ; keep educating yourself ; have an inter- est in your work ; and don't be afraid of hard work and responsibility. I have taken special filing courses at Colum- bia University, and keep abreast with filing methods. . . . Bankers give men many more opportunities than they do women, but I have always been paid on an equal footing for what I did." The assistant secretary of a trust company says: "I am an executive officer of the company with the same rights and duties as the other assistant secretaries, who are all men. I never worked until I went to the trust company three years ago. In that time my salary has more tiian doubled." The custodian says: "I have entire charge of the safe- deposit vaults, and do some stenography and clerical work. I have worked at the teller's window, and have run the general ledger and the bookkeeper's ledger. My advice to 266 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS other women in banking is to be able to mind one's own business and to remember that we are servants of the PubHc." Reports of the occupations of members of the classes of 1917 and 1918 were furnished us during the summer of 1919 by Barnard, Mount Holyoke, Radcliffe, and Vassar Colleges. Nineteen graduates of 191 7 were reported as employed by banks or other financial institutions ; thirty- three graduates of 1918. Of fourteen graduates of one college, six were in clerical positions ; one investigate'd cus- tomers for the central files ; one was assistant collection teller in a southwestern bank, two were bond salesmen for a large New England banking and investment firm ; one was in the reference library of a New York trust company ; another was research assistant in the foreign trade bureau of the same institution, where she "helped American ex- porters to plan their foreign trade campaigns." One was in charge of the government bond work in a shipbuilding company. Another was director of a vacation savings club for working girls under the auspices of a middle-western trust and savings bank. Young college graduates are look- ing upon banking as the latest occupational adventure. Insurance is fundamentally the selling of financial pro- tection and provision for the future in return for periodic payments or "premiums" made by or in the name of the insured person or persons. To those buying insurance, it represents a form of thrift or saving, an investment at a low rate of interest, and a guaranty against sudden financial loss — by fire, accident, sickness, or death. An in- s-urance company is in one sense a great trust company, caring for the funds of all its policy holders and investing them safely. It is also a great loan agency, making loans to its policy holders on the basis of premiums paid. The organization of an insurance company is "much the same as that of any other corporation which has to do with the collecting, investing, and disbursing forms of money." But because its customers are many and widely scattered, and SPECIAL COMMERCIAL SERVICES 267 because its benefits are not immediate but future, and pay- ments are likely to lapse, the insurance company has to seek business far more than does the bank or investment house and to maintain a far larger force of outside sales- men or insurance agents as they are called. Moreover, to do business with justice and profit to both parties to the insurance contract, it must make elaborate calculations of the probabilities of various events — deaths at various ages and in various occupations ; sickness, injury, fires, wrecks, accidents and damages of all sorts. This is the actuarial side of insurance ; the actuary is the mathematical expert in the insurance field. Closely allied is the insurance statistician, who compiles "mortality," "morbidity," and other statistics. The modern life insurance medical depart- ment is fast becoming a public health department as well, employing not only medical examiners of insurance "risks" but health experts who fight for the reduction of disease and the prolongation of life. In the same way in property insurance, there is a constant effort to improve construction and to supply efficient inspection. As a great financial in- stitution with the character of its investments and opera- tions regulated by law, the insurance company likewise em- ploys many financial and legal experts, efficiency engineers, and so on. In many cases employing hundreds of people in its "home office" and other hundreds in the field, it requires department, office, and "sales" managers. It is organizing personnel services of various kinds — employ- ment, education, restaurant, club, and recreation facilities, buying and savings arrangements. The character of in- surance work also requires advertising, information, and research departments. The best known and oldest forms of insurance are life, fire, and marine insurance. But there are now practically no risks to life or property against which insurance is not procurable or contemplated. The idea of social insurance is becoming familiar in this country; and many people believe that every citizen should have the protection of in- surance, and that inequalities of hazard should be met at least partly by the state. Workmen's compensation laws have been passed within the past decade by some twenty-six 268 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS states. The War-Risk Insurance system for soldiers and sailors has brought the federal government into the insur- ance business on a large scale. Legislation for health insur- ance is being widely advocated. Old-age insurance, unem- ployment insurance, and maternity insurance, backed by the state, are still considered radical in the United States, but have a growing body of supporters. "Fraternal" or mutual benefit insurance societies have long existed. Nowadays many firms are taking out "group insurance" for their em- ployees. Not so long ago the term "insurance-agent" was used almost as contemptuously as "book-agent" or "canvasser." The old practice of paying commissions to any local per- son who wrote a little insurance as a side issue encouraged a class of persons to enter the business "who considered the interests neither of the company nor of the policy-holder, and very grave evils developed. The old type of agent . . . was simply ... a solicitor." ^ But the modern insurance company organizes, trains, and supervises its selling force according to the principles and methods used in the sell- ing of other essential commodities and services; so that insurance salesmanship is becoming more and more an occupation of professional standing, with a definite profes- sion technique and spirit and a definite group of professional problems calling for investigation. Companies vary in the organization of their agents. Some direct and supervise them entirely from the home office. Some appoint a general agent on a commission basis for a certain territory, respon- sible for results but with large control of the agents under him. Some have branch offices throughout the country in charge of salaried managers but with central administration and supervision. Insurance agents have in the past been paid almost exclusively on a commission basis, but as with bond salesmen, there is a tendency nowadays toward a combination of salary and commission. Many companies now have a women's department in both home and branch offices, in charge of women and with a corps of women agents organized to sell to women. Women agents, however, like women bond salesmen, are ' Warren M. Horner. Training of a Life Insurance Agent. SPECIAL COMMERCIAL SERVICES 269 successfully writing insurance for both men and women; and the time may not be far distant when separate "women's departments" will become obsolete. Apart from selling insurance as agents, women may enter the insurance field through the various "home" or "branch" office departments — actuarial, medical, legal, financial, per- sonnel, research, publicity. The work of an insurance actuary is perhaps the most diffi.cult and technical expert work to be found in the commercial world, and requires prolonged training and special mathematical aptitude. To become an actuary in the full sense of the term involves membership in one of the actuarial societies, such as the Actuarial Society of America or the American Institute of Actuaries, which are entered through passing a series of difficult examinations. Some insurance companies are will- ing to take a small number of picked young college women into their actuarial departments for training, but such op- portunities are limited. The growth of insurance com- panies, industrial insurance, and pension systems has in- creased the demand for actuaries ; but they are relatively few in number. The 1910 census gives 286 men and 10 women in the profession. Women doctors are to some extent medical examiners for women applicants for insurance, usually combining this work with other forms of practice. Some companies, not- ably the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, which does an enormous business in insuring industrial wage earners and others of small income, have gone into extensive pre- ventive public health work. For some years this com- pany has had an arrangement with visiting nurse asso- ciations by means of which its policy-holders receive nurs- ing care. It issues a large number of pamphlets on matters of health and living to its policy-holders. For several years it has been cooperating with the National Tuberculosis As- sociation in making an intensive health study and demonstra- tion in Framingham. Massachusetts, of which a series of reports have been recently issued. That public health work on the part of life insurance companies is not purely philan- thropic by no means lessens its value ; and it offers a field of professional and social interest to qualified women 270 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS and providing a unique opportunity to check up results The complicated field of insurance law offers an op- portunity to women lawyers who prefer salaried office posi- tions to independent practice.^ Insurance companies are also employing women statisticians, expert accountants, auditors, adjusters, advertising and editorial workers, and workers in various personnel services. But on the whole, they have not turned to college women as a source of pro- fessional labor supply to the extent of banks and public utility companies. Individually, however, college women are going into insurance in considerable numbers ; and the com- panies are becoming aware of them and their possibilities. Professional schools of commerce and business admin- istration offer courses on various types of insurance ; and the larger and more progressive companies conduct training courses for agents, and hold periodic conferences. They are beginning to cooperate with higher institutions in in- tensive courses for selected workers in their service. Such a course was carried on in 1919-1920 at the Carnegie In- stitute of Technology. Associations of insurance workers are for the most part open to both men and women ; and insurance women have formed associations of their own only when, as in Massachusetts, the men's associations do not admit them; or for some special purpose, as in New York, in order to join the Federation of Business and Professional Women's Clubs. Employment is as yet probably best se- cured through direct application. Our schedules give returns from two insurance com- panies, a life and an accident and indemnity company ; and from eight women in the insurance field. One firm employs fifty-seven women in the home office, of whom three occupy higher clerical positions of responsibility in the re- newal, loan, and group insurance departments respectively. Eight are stenographers, and the rest routine clerks and typists. The other employs no women except in routine clerical positions. It says : "We prefer men, for reasons too general for analysis. They are markedly more persistent than the average woman. . . . The war has greatly enlarged ^ See Women in the Law. Bureau of Vocational Information. Bulletin Three, pp. 73-81. I SPECIAL COMMERCIAL SERVICES 271 the scope, opportunity, and possibilities of women in busi- ness, and the demand will increase. . . . It is to be re- gretted that with the present demand . . . more women do not seem to understand or care to appreciate their respon- sible connection with the business undertaken by them. They need to develop a much more serious intent." Of the eight women, three are managers of women's departments in branch offices of large life insurance com- panies; one is assistant secretary of a western farmers' cooperative insurance association; one is an independent insurance and real estate broker ; another is connected with a similar agency; two are private secretaries to insurance executives. Three are college graduates; one is a normal school graduate. The three salaries reported ranged in 1919 from $1,200 to $1,800. The incomes from commis- sions or commissions and salary combined ranged from $3,800 to nearly $10,000. The managers secured employment as agents through direct application, and have reached their present positions through promotion. They supervise and instruct staffs of women agents, and help sell insurance, one of them to both men and women. Two are paid on a commission basis ; one receives a salary and commissions. A manager says : "For those trained in salesmanship, there is no limit to the amount they can earn. It is commission work, and depends absolutely upon individual effort and initiative. Our company has a thorough educational course and educational director ; and one can graduate and receive a diploma. The company circularizes fifty names a week for each agent, and through the answers puts agents in direct touch with live prospects. It keeps in personal touch with 'every agent through its 'efficiency staff.' " Another says : "Do not enter unless willing to work harder than in any other occupation. Health, backbone, and un- tiring energy are the first requisites." The real estate and insurance broker says: "I sell real estate, look after and manage apartment houses and busi- ness buildings; and sell life, fire, automobile, burglary, accident, and all kinds of insurance. ... I advise women going into this work to get a high-school or college educa- tion, to make plenty of friends, not a few, to get practical 272 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS business experience, and to study their particular subject so that they know it." Of the graduates of 1917 and 1918 of Barnard, Mount Holyoke, RadcHffe, and Vassar, eighteen are reported as in- surance workers of some sort. One young woman has re- cently taken a two months' course, given by one of the largest companies. Public utilities include principally telephone and tele- graph companies, light and power companies, and street and steam railways. For the most part they offer non- competitive service to a given community, and are under the regulation of special laws and in some states of public service boards or commissions. The Interstate Commerce Commission is a federal board. These services affect the daily convenience and comfort of the public, and they em- ploy large numbers of people in direct contact with the public, so that the problems of securing, training, and super- vising personnel are peculiarly important. For the same reasons and for the reason that their bonds and stocks are usually sound investments, they employ many advertising and publicity workers. As great service and financial cor- porations, they require executives and financial experts of many kinds. They likewise require many statisticians, com- puters, and efficiency engineers, and are in intimate relations with industries manufacturing their equipment and sup- plies, or maintain such industries themselves. Our schedules give replies from a great telephone cor- poration and from several branches of a subsidiary com- pany ; also from the Women's Service Section of the United States Railroad Administration, now discontinued with the return of the roads to corporation management. Six women return schedules — two in telephone companies, three in rail- roads, one in a gas company. The telephone corporation employs women in executive, technical, and higher clerical positions in its employment, instruction, technical, and development work. "For college women taking up instruction work in the traffic department there is a six months' course affording an opportunity for SPECIAL COMMERCIAL SERVICES 273 learning the detail of the work necessary to perform in- telHgently the work required of those engaged in instruc- tion or in the development of instruction courses and methods. . . . Practically all college women are doing work which gives abundant opportunity for initiative and the expression of their ideas. . . . The work itself is to a large extent being developed by them. . . . Generally speaking we do not employ men and women in comparable positions. During the war, however, we employed about fifteen college women for work which previously had been handled by men. . . . My impression is that college trained men are more stable in their employment. This is to be expected, as, generally speaking, women are more uncer- tain in their minds as to these newer lines of employment open to them, the relative advantages, etc. Furthermore, the lines of work themselves are not so fully established as those open to men. . . . From the economic standpoint, college women are more likely to be independent, and there- fore are more able to take the risk that may be involved in a change. . . . This one conclusion stands out rather clearly: that in established lines of work non-college trained women with company experience are preferable. In new lines of work requiring research and a greater degree of imagination and initiative, the college trained women excel. . . . Our experience has been that women who have re- ceived their training at coeducational institutions have done better in our work than those trained at other colleges. This seems to be due to the fact that they are able to elect courses closely related to business which are not available at most of the other colleges. It would appear also that conducting the work in classes with men is ad- vantageous if they later go into business. . . . Our opinion is that it is desirable for women to major in mathematics and economics and to take perhaps one of the exact sciences. It is especially advantageous to them to have training in exact thinking and reasoning. Economics gives a back- ground which is valuable for any one going into business, and perhaps is especially desirable for women in order that they may feel as much at home as possible. ... It would be good advice to trained women going into business to 274 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS recognize that it is still substantially a pioneer movement, and that they can help themselves and those who will follow them by persisting in the fields which they enter, having patience to develop them in a satisfactory manner, ... I have noted a certain roving tendency among a number of college-trained women." The manager of the Women's Service Section of the U. S. Railway Administration, which was established in the summer of 1918 to look after the interests of women employed by railway companies, reports that her office em- ployed four field agents, one statistician, and two stenog- raphers, practically all college women. With regard to the relative efficiency of men and women doing similar work, she says : "It depends on proper training and selection. Women are as efficient as men after gaining the same ex- perience. But objection is often made that women are absent more frequently, are less punctual, and have less ambition than men. There is, unfortunately, some truth in this criticism. Women need training in exactness, careful observation, and proper impersonal point of view. Women on the whole take criticism of their work too personally." This emphasis upon the need of impersonality recurs fre- quently. Salaries reported in public utilities work ranged in 1918 and 1919 from $1,440 to $5,000 with a median salary of $2,184. A college woman who is head instructor in the traffic department of a great telephone corporation, who has been a teacher and done graduate work in two uni- versities, and who majored in college in mathematics and chemistry, says : "I do administrative work, arranging sched- ules, classes, instructors' hours and duties ; and have general oversight of the instructional work. ... I came into this work with the knowledge that one college-trained woman had made a great success, and that others like her were needed. The size and reputation of the company were sufficient guarantee of advancement if one made good. I should like to have a better knowledge of English and his- tory, and I should like to be able to use stenography and typewriting as tools. College men and women are employed and given a six months' course before they are assigned to SPECIAL COMMERCIAL SERVICES 275 regular positions. Women are employed as operators, chief operators, and instructors. They report to men, who hold all the higher positions." A toll-traffic chief in a southwestern branch of the same company says : "I instruct, make studies of operating loads, position loads, and circuit loads ; and supervise the work of the department." A field agent for the Women's Service Section of the Railway Administration is a university woman with a year's graduate work in social research. She has been a teacher and a supervisor of evening schools for immigrants. She says : "I make investigations into the nature of the work of women railway employees, their rates of pay, etc., andi write reports of the same. The men agents in this work are empowered to make adjustments; our work is purely an inspection and investigation service. In work of this sort, be sure of your ability to meet people of all kinds, to put up with the hardships of almost constant travel, to write clearly and concisely of your impressions and investiga- tions. Keep in touch with the leading social, political, and industrial movements of the times." A woman of twenty-eight years of age reports that she has recently been promoted to the position of car dis- tributor on a southwestern railroad. She is a high school graduate with some college courses, and has been a book- keeper, statistician, and trainmaster's clerk. She says : "I fill orders for all classes of equipment for an entire division. If women can do the work, they have the same opportunity as men. The important thing is to use common, everyday reason and to be able to master any situation." While this is probably an isolated case, it shows that executive positions in railroad transportation are not a closed field to women of ability and ambition. A woman is director of women employees of the Pennsylvania Rail- road. The New York Central Railroad is employing some young college women as draftsmen. The four women's colleges mentioned above show twelve graduates of 191 7 and 1918 employed by public utilities companies in such capacities as computers, engineering as- sistants, draftsmen, and assistant auditors. 276 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS Like insurance, the real estate business has an unprofes- sional past, and it has not so largely lived it down. In many respects it is still a highly competitive and even speculative occupation. But the growth of large real estate organizations; the establishment of real estate boards and exchanges with regulations followed by reputable firms ; the fact that buying, selling, or renting real property are complicated matters in which the individual needs the serv- ices of experts to supply information and to render legal, financial, or other assistance — all tend to raise it to a pro- fessional level, and to develop among its leaders the group spirit, the continuing study of problems and techniques, and the regard for public interest which a profession demands. The essentially public character of buildings and their rela- tions to public welfare are recognized at least negatively by building codes and the inspections based upon them. Moreover, the housing shortage of all kinds due to the re- duction in building during the war and the war-time ex- perience in great military and industrial housing projects have focused attention upon the building and real estate expansion which is already upon us, and render it prob- able that it will be carried on with a greater regard than heretofore for sound city development and the interests of all groups in the population. There has never been so hopeful an opportunity for cooperation between those deal- ing with real estate as a business or profession and those concerned with housing and city and town planning from a social and civic point of view. The housing movement is described in Chapter VIII. Real estate is a form of brokerage with the real estate dealer or firm charging a commission for services. Where the company itself owns houses and land which it puts up for sale or rent, it is a form of merchandising. There is a definite "real estate market." Many real estate firms specialize in one kind of property, such as office buildings, apartment houses, factory sites, suburban residences, farm lands. Others specialize in some one neighborhood. Others do a general real estate business. Large firms have rent- ing, sales, mortgage and loan, legal, and other departments. Real estate transactions involve many legal and financial SPECIAL COMMERCIAL SERVICES ^yy matters connected with deeds, mortgages, loans, taxation, insurance. Companies or estates owning apartment houses, tenement houses, private houses, office buildings, employ- renting agents and rent collectors. They have many deal- ings with architects and engineers. It has been said that real estate requires a smaller amount of initial capital than any other comparable busi- ness. This is perhaps one reason why a good many women have gone into it in a modest way for themselves, and have sometimes built up considerable businesses, usually in resi- dential suburban property or in city apartments and houses. A number of women are apartment house agents ; a few are apartment house superintendents or managers. A large firm in New York concerned with the building of model tenements and workingmen's houses employs women pur- chasing agents, rent collectors, and resident superintendents. A woman has been in charge of the tenement properties of the Trinity Corporation. The Octavia Hill Association in Philadelphia has for years had women rent collectors and other workers. New York City has women tenement- house and fire-prevention inspectors. Outside of philanthropic or semi-philanthropic enter- prises, there have been few college or professional women in the real estate field. Some women have been left property to manage; others have begun as clerks or stenographers in real estate offices; others have found chance openings. In 1914 a study of opportunities for women in the real estate business in Boston and its suburbs was made by the Women's Educational and Industrial Union.^ It found that local real estate firms were not willing to employ women except as stenographers, and that to gain practical experi- ence in an office, a woman was obliged to use stenography as an "entering wedge." While there were a number of college men in the real estate business, no college women were found. Twenty-two women real estate brokers were interviewed, practically all in the field. It is probable that ac- cess to real estate offices in Boston is now less restricted. As yet, real estate workers have not formulated any re- * Opportunities for Women in the Business of Real Estate. Vo- cations for the Trained Woman. Part 2 (1914)- 278 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS quirements for professional training, although a recent con- vention discussed the professional character of the occupa- tion, and urged some form of public registration for its practitioners. Schools of business administration devote some attention to this field ; and the Young Men's Christian Association has offered courses for young men interested in becoming real estate agents, rent collectors, and so on. Training in law, finance, advertising, engineering, archi- tecture, salesmanship, and psychology are all valuable. Only three women in real estate returned our schedules : the real estate and insurance broker already described ; a woman in the managing department of a New York realty company; and a woman conducting a general real estate business of her own in a small western city. The man- ager is a married woman, a college graduate with two years of work in a law school, who entered the business because it was a family affair. She says : "I am a member of the firm, and act as agent or manager. I do renting, managing apartment houses, engaging help, ordering supplies, con- tracting for work to be done. Positions are secured through applying at real estate offices, advertising, and so on." CHAPTER XV INFORMATION SERVICES: JOURNALISM, PUBLISHING, ADVER- TISING, PUBLICITY The information services dealt v^ith in this chapter, though distinct, have many principles, methods, and atti- tudes of mind in common ; and workers pass easily from one to the other. All of them are, in a sense, forms of merchandising commodities known as news, information, literature, through the media of print and the graphic and visual arts, including in these days the motion-picture. Their common purpose is communication ; to produce changes in thoughts and feelings and consequently in conduct. The psychological principles involved are broadly those of sales- manship, although the powerful stimulations of bodily pres- ence and voice are lacking. On the other hand, the range of appeal is infinitely greater, and there is a greater em- phasis upon the effects of repetition, suggestion, and "mar- ginal attention." On the mechanical side, all of them, di- rectly or indirectly, produce manufactured articles — news- papers, books, magazines, bill-boards, catalogues, posters, films. As industries, they employ skilled industrial workers and managers and experts of various kinds. But the professional workers discussed here are concerned v/ith the collection, organization, and transmission of facts and ideas. They perform a "public utility" service ex- ceeding that rendered by railroad, telegraph and telephone, and power companies, and like them carry on a process of distribution essential to modern civilization. In a democ- racy, their professional obligations and professional oppor- tunities are second only to those of teachers. Although they market literature as they market stock re- ports, they are in no sense literary workers, and their occu- 279 28o WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS pations have little to do with literature proper, the creative interpretation of some aspect of life through the vehicle of language. Young literary aspirants are frequently under a romantic misapprehension in this respect, to their subse- quent disillusionment. A recent "vocational guidance" bul- letin says : "Literary work is not a profession. 'Writing' is a by-product of living. . . . The life of a nurse, a doctor, a teacher — each of these has developed more successful writers than has, for instance, a desk in an editorial office. The college graduate who wishes to write is likely to con- fuse the business of publishing the writings of others with an apprenticeship in creative work." ^ A reporter, an editor, a publisher, a writer of advertisements, may also be a producer of literature ; but the practice of his art lies out- side of his professional activities. To write themselves may help editors and publishers to estimate the literary quality of writings submitted to them. But in general they are successful because they are shrewd and experienced judges of their particular publics and of the literary and other qualities that will appeal to them and move them in certain directions. Journalism and publishing are closely related to advertis- ing not only because all three make a public appeal through the printed word but also because the newspaper and the magazine are among the most important advertising media, and have their advertising departments as they have their editorial departments. Two recent books on journalism de- vote considerable space to the advertising side of the news- paper. ^ Advertising is highly profitable to a publication ; most magazines could not be published without it. The charge is not infrequently made that the policy of a news- paper is controlled by its leading advertisers ; and a paper of high standing must be above reproach in this matter. The financial power of the advertising department is one of the modern dangers to the freedom of the press, even where there is no taint of corruption. The book is not a *Burges Johnson. "Literary Work," Journalism, Advertising (1919)- ^ James Melvin Lee. Opportunities in the Newspaper Business (1919). Don C. Seitz. Training for the Newspaper Trade (1916). INFORMATION SERVICES 281 particularly good medium for advertising, except of other publications by the firm. But it is a product which itself needs advertising, so that book publishers, like other manu- facturers, maintain departments for preparing and placing their advertising. During the war a distinction arose between ordinary ad- vertising and what has come to be known in a special sense as "publicity," concerned with the winning of public favor and support for specific organizations and causes — patriotic, philanthropic, educational, political. War-time examples are the appeals to the public of the Food Administration, the Treasury in its Liberty Loan campaigns, the Red Cross, and other "welfare" and relief organizations. After-war examples are the "drives" of the various colleges, the lavish activities of the Interchurch World Movement, the cam- paigns for the presidency, and the quieter and more con- tinuous efforts of charity organization and other benevolent societies dependent upon public interest. Practically all or- ganizations not maintained by public funds and many that are find it necessary to-day to have permanent publicity de- partments. In fact, two sorts of publicity have developed, each with its own techniques, the "drive" or "campaign" for a definite and limited period, with its "zones," "quotas," and "hundred per cent" memberships ; and the less spectacu- lar but not less skillful steady diffusion of information. There are unmistakable evidences of public weariness of the first method ; and the day is fast approaching for a gen- eral investigation of the value and validity of current pub- licity methods, and a determination of what constitutes legit- imate and what illegitimate publicity. There is a crying need for clear and fundamental ethical standards. The greatest danger inherent in modern publicity comes from the fact that much of it appears in the form of contributed articles, not in the form of paid advertisements ; and easily degenerates into an insidious kind of propaganda. During the last few years the enormous sums of money spent to shape public opinion have done more than the rigors and stupidities of official censorships to weaken public confi- dence in the independence and accuracy of the press. The growing use of advertising space by political parties, labor 282 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS organizations, civic, philanthropic, and educational bodies, has much to commend it, since the source and terms of the appeals are clearly understood. Abuses of advertising have been, and may be, controlled by law. But "inspired articles" exploit the public, and breed an ultimate distrust of the cause advocated and of the press itself. On the other hand, a democratic form of government and the complexities of modern industrial society require constant dissemination of information and the full presen- tation of various programs and points of view. Only thus can there be intelligent discussion and sound social progress. It has become only too easy to stigmatize the opinions of opponents as "propaganda" and to use the term only in a disparaging sense. There is a kind of publicity that is genuinely educational and necessary. It is based on a constant study of group psycholog)^ and a realization that people to-day suffer not so much from lack of knowledge as from a surplus of shifting and half-digested knowledge. It aims to select, organize, and present authentic informa- tion in such a fashion that its bearings upon individual conduct and public policy and welfare may become mani- fest. The ethical and social responsibilities of the press have long been recognized, if not always lived up to. It is coming to be seen that advertising and all forms of paid publicity must conform to similar standards. Closely allied to publicity are the "information" and "re- search" departments maintained by an increasing number of industrial, commercial, and social organizations, or estab- lished as independent bureaus supplying service. The pri- mary object of such departments is to collect and organize information needed by those conducting a business or other enterprise ; to study its methods of production or distribu- tion ; to keep actual customers or patrons informed of progress. The primary object of a publicity or advertising department is to reach a public as yet uninformed, who may become purchasers, contributors, political supporters, followers of new ideas and methods. An important function of the federal government is to serve as a central agency for research, information, and publicity of- an educational character. The Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, INFORMATION SERVICES 283 and Labor, and the Bureau of Education are striking ex- amples. The two kinds of service are often rendered by the same organization, akhough the methods employed and the professional workers concerned are different. There is some danger at present that their respective objects may not be clearly recognized, and that so-called information and research services may exist to exploit the public in one way or another. Professional w^orkers need to look carefully into the standing and backing of such services before becoming connected with them. "Research" has be- come a fashionable term in business. But many firms are recognizing that the authenticity and value of the facts which they set forth are a matter of social obligation as well as an important commercial asset. Journalism is professional work connected with the issu- ing of daily or weekly papers reporting and commenting edi- torially upon the news of the day; publishing, the work connected with the issuing of magazines, periodicals, and books ; advertising and publicity, the spreading of informa- tion for specific purposes. In journalism, the workers are reporters, who collect news at the source; copy writers, who put material turned in into shape for publication ; feature writers, who do work on special subjects or for special departments, such as the financial, sporting, or women's pages ; and editors of various kinds, who direct policies, select material, and interpret the news in editorial articles. There are also space writers or free-lance journalists, who are not salaried workers on the staff of any one paper but sell their work at so much a column or so much a hundred words to various papers or to newspaper syndicates, especially for "feature" departments or for Sunday magazine sections. The main types of newspaper are the metropolitan and large city daily paper, the small city daily, and the country or small town weekly. Like all periodicals they are required by law to state their owners and publishers. They represent all sorts of political, economic, and religious views; but 284 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS their chief object and obligation are to report the news as fully and fairly as possible. A metropolitan daily of the first class ^ has editorial, news, mechanical, and business departments, each in charge of a chief with a staff of edi- tors, managers, or foremen, and with a swarm of subordi- nates, reporters, special writers, correspondents, solicitors, clerks, skilled workmen, as the department requires. The editorial staff usually includes the editor-in-chief, the man- aging editor, the city editor, who has charge of securing news from a radius of from twenty-five to seventy-five miles ; the telegraph editor, the foreign editor, the night editor, and various assistants. The Sunday edition of the paper frequently has a separate staff, and combines many aspects of magazine publishing with journalism proper. In 1 91 8, there were some 23,000 newspapers and periodicals pubhshed in the United States and its insular possessions ; in 1914, there were 794 daily papers in large cities; 1,786 in small. By far the largest number of journalists begin as re- porters ; and reporters are the most numerous class of journalistic workers. Upon them falls "the chief burden of the trade," and they must possess above all "a heaven- born quality called 'the nose for news.' " Says Mr. Seitz : "Under present-day workings, the writing side is the least of the newspaper's troubles. Re-write men and trained copy readers shape up the stuff. The problem is to get it. That is the reporter's job." This may be a hard saying for the college graduate and other young persons with a pretty talent for writing. But schools and depart- ments of journalism as well as newspapers are insisting upon the fact that to be able to write does not of itself make a young man nor a young woman a journalist, desir- able as it is as an asset. The true reporter must have a thirst for experiences, however raw and trivial and inconsequent they may seem to be. He must seize upon the salient, and at the same time not warp the essential facts. He must be ready to live under orders, to jump from one thing to another as if he were catching a train, to admit no fatigue * See Don C. Seitz. Training for the Newspaper Trade. Chart of Newspaper Administration. INFORMATION SERVICES 285 and nO' discouragement. If he is a good reporter, he will have gained a cross-section and panoramic view of life that will stand him in good stead, whether he remain in the profession of journalism or not. On the other hand, experience as a newspaper reporter has its disadvantages, reflected in what is termed the journalistic type of mind — the mind that sees everything as a "story," that has little patience with more sober details and little consecutiveness. To quote Mr. Seitz again : "A reporter succeeds from the outset. He 'makes good' or fails promptly. His is not the experience of the young lawyer, doctor, or business man, slowly picking up his load. . . . Being a reporter is eminently a young man's job. He is always on assign- ments. . . . He must ever be alert and at the command of the relentless 'desk.' ... He has no hours, but must be ready on call. ... He must learn to write accurately and to think ahead of his pen. . . . The making of valuable ac- quaintances is an important factor. It has led to the gradu- ating of many reporters into other lines of success. There is always a chance for promotion outside of the profession, if the inside fails to open up." Clearly the life of a "straight reporter" is not an easy one for a young woman, however well qualified she may be; and she still sufifers from certain disabilities, notably in the matter of acquaintance just spoken of. But to the right type, the difficulties act as a challenge rather than as a deterrent; and there is no reason why she should not be a reporter if she has had sound training and advice, is prepared for hard work, physically, mentally, and morally, and is not too spendthrift of her energies. On some papers the practice persists of giving women society, club, and lecture assignments, or other supposedly easy and lady-like work. But the best training is to be found on papers which send out reporters on the assignments for which they are best fitted, or for which they happen to be available. Reporting is essentially an apprenticeship for other po- sitions on a newspaper in the department for which the individual shows special aptitude. It also leads to work on magazines of various kinds, on trade journals and "house organs," to advertising and publicity work, and, of late 286 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS years, to work on certain sides of the motion-picture busi- ness. Editorial positions for both men and women are far more limited in number and more difficult to obtain than are positions as reporters. But newspapers are on the look- out for reporters who show signs of possessing the "edi- torial sense," the ability to interpret and evaluate news and to present it effectively to the public. There are many kinds of assistantship in which they may be "tried out." But most minor editorial positions on a newspaper have as little to do with literature as has reporting, and are concerned almost wholly with selecting, "cutting" and other- wise editing reporters' "stories" and other "copy" and with supervising assignments. Such work, however, gives a valuable insight into the composition and operation of a great newspaper. It is usually a long road to appearance on the editorial page, except as everything on a paper moves quickly ; but exceptional ability is likely to win prompter recognition than in many other fields. It is said that to be of editorial "timber" a person must have a specialty, a hobby, about which he knows everything. A modern edi- torial worker needs a solid grounding in economics and poli- tics on both the theoretical and practical sides, a strong sense of the public obligations of the press, and a keen insight with respect to his particular public. A field of journalism to which both recent writers and the schools of journalism call attention is that of the coun- try or small town newspaper, usually a weekly. Here the young man or the young woman of education and intelli- gence with a lively interest in country people and country life and its problems, may learn at first hand the essentials of the newspaper business, may be a respected and im- portant member of the community, and may earn an income which, though moderate, will yield larger returns in com- fort and human satisfactions than a better income in the city. In journalism, as in banking, there are many advan- tages accruing from the all-around training furnished by serving an apprenticeship in a small place. Too many be- ginners look only to the overcrowded and specialized field of urban journalism. To buy a country newspaper of INFORMATION SERVICES 287 course requires some capital, although the price is often low; and it is not advisable to make such an investment without some newspaper experience on a salaried basis or at least a full course in journalism with special attention to country conditions. But a number of young men and a few young women of a high type have been investing in these properties with the determination to put the best of themselves and their education into them. Many country papers are down at the heels and small-minded affairs, car- ried on according to an outworn pattern. With the fran- chise and an understanding of the new movements in rural health, education, and living conditions, two young college women, let us say, might buy and run such a paper in a way that would be rich in returns to themselves and the community. There are many possibilities of cooperation with county farm-bureaus, schools, granges, churches, health authorities, Boy and Girl Scout organizations, and so on Both the Federal Public Health Service and the American Red Cross have extensive rural health programs, which a country newspaper could do much to furtlier. A major American problem is the improvement of the rural school. Until about ten years ago, training in journalism was secured by the method of practical experience, through be- ginning as a "cub reporter" on some city daily, as handy- man or even "printer's devil" on some country weekly. Natural aptitude and the lure of the work for the young and adventurous have played a greater part in drawing peo- ple into journalism than college education and schools of journalism. Even to-day there are those who hold that the newspaper is the only really effective school. But ex- perienced journalists have long felt this to be a wasteful and hit or miss method, and have advocated organized preparation comparable to that in law or medicine, with properly supervised practice, holding that the public in- fluence of the modern newspaper is too great to be as- sumed without a comprehensive knowledge of its standards, problems, and procedures. The Pulitzer School of Journal- ism of Columbia University was endowed as long ago as 1904 by a great New York editor and publisher who wrote of it : "In all my planning the chief end I had in view was 288 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS the welfare of the RepubHc." The Missouri Press Asso- ciation had long urged the establishment of the University of Missouri School of Journalism, which was opened in 1908, and was the first fully organized school. New York University, the University of Washington, the University of Wisconsin, and the University of Indiana also have im- portant schools or departments ; and many other universi- ties and colleges give instruction in journalism of a pre- professional or professional character. Some of the state institutions have special courses in agricultural journaHsm or in the country weekly, and offer short courses and "news- paper weeks" to the journalists of the state, quite as the agricultural colleges do to the farmers. They issue valu- able bulletins on journalistic topics.^ Academic training in journalism ranges from single elective courses in newspaper writing to four-year undergraduate courses and provisions for graduate work. In most schools of journaHsm, the first two years are devoted to academic work of a cultural char- acter; the last two years to technical courses and to ad- vanced training in economics, politics, history, sociology, and literature. The Pulitzer School of Journalism offers a course covering the last two years of the undergraduate curriculum, and admits graduates of other colleges to its second year, if they have had work equivalent to that of the first. It provides three traveling foreign scholarships of the value of $1,500 each to its graduates. Modern journalism makes so many demands upon its practitioners that it is difficult to suggest undergraduate courses of special pre-professional value. In addition to those just mentioned, psychology in its various applications is of fundamental importance, as is also anthropology for the light which it throws on racial "folkways." Enough experimental science should be taken to make clear its rela- tions to modern problems and techniques and to give re- spect for scientific methods and rigorous standards of fact and truth. At the University of California a faculty "com- mittee on journalistic studies" representing several depart- * See James Melvin Lee. Instruction in J ournalism. U. S. Bu- reau of Education. 1918. Bulletin No. 2\. Burges Johnson. "Lit- erary Work," Journalism, Advertising (1919). INFORMATION SERVICES 289 ments was established in 1919 to advise students looking forward to journalism as a career and to offer certain joint courses. Positions on newspapers are largely secured through rec- ommendation or direct application with specimens of work. A young woman may often sell some of her work to a "feature" department before receiving a regular appoint- ment to the staff. Helpful suggestions and advice from prominent journalists are given in a recent Oberlin College bulletin.^ Salaries in reportorial work are low to begin with ; but advancement comes quickly, if at all. The initial salary must be looked upon as an apprentice wage, giving the op- portunity for invaluable practical training. But if it is below the current cost of living, the newspaper, on its part, should recognize its obligation to furnish instruction, at least to the extent of "routing" the beginner through the various departments. In the rush of newspaper work, novices are usually left to sink or swim. Professor James Melvin Lee gives the following report on salaries within his personal knowledge on papers outside the metropolitan districts. They were presumably received in 19 18 by stu- dents of schools of journalism. "In the case of one hun- dred reporters who recently secured positions . . . ten were hired at a salary of $18 per week; thirty-eight at $20; twenty-six at $25 ; twenty-two at $30; and four at $35. . . . In the case of a dozen city editors who were hired during the same period, two secured $30; four $35 ; four $40; and two about $50 a week. The last figure quoted is about the average weekly salary of the managing editor of the daily published outside the larger cities. Such a managing edi- tor often has charge of the editorial page in addition to his other duties." During 191 9 "newspaper writers' unions" affiliated with the American Federation of Labor were formed in various cities. The Ncnv Republic ^ states that such a union in Bos- ton increased the average newspaper salary from $21 a * Vocational /Advice for College Students (1918). See also Voca- tions for Business and Professional Women (1919). 'August 6, 1919. 290 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS week to a minimum of $38 for reporters and $45 for desk men. Four city editors are members. In Rochester the union demanded $50 a week for experienced reporters. In New Haven, where demands were not granted, the news- paper men established a cooperative daily. Seattle has for some time had a daily, the Union Record, backed by organ- ized labor. Papers under cooperative and labor auspices are likely to increase in number. Five women filling our schedules in 1918 and employed by one middle-western and four eastern newspapers as re- porters, feature writers, and sub-editors received salaries ranging from $15 to $35 a week, from $790 to $1,820 a year, with a median salary of $25 a week or $1,300 a year. One receiving $25 had begun at $10 eighteen months before; an- other with considerable previous experience had begun at $25 seventeen months before. Only one is a college gradu- ate; the others are graduates of high or private schools. One has taken short courses in journalism and advertising at a neighboring university; two have had courses at busi- ness schools. Two have been on other papers ; one l^as taught ; one has been a secretary ; one a hospital social worker; one a librarian and traveling salesman. None of thern is over thirty-five. Their work includes regular re- porting with special reference to community activities in which women are concerned ; special articles on women and children; theater assignments; in one case writing the en- tire women's page; in the case of the sub-editor, writing special signed articles. Advice and comments are as follows: "Don't gossip. Don't allow yourself to grow stale. I should have mas- tered more modern languages, and should have studied government and economics." "It is a wonderful training for anyone. I should advise determination, courage, a good grasp of 'talking English,' a knowledge of typewriting sufficient to do 'copy' fairly quickly. College education or shorthand are not necessary. Get out before you become hardened or cynical. Use it as a road to something better." "If I had known that I was going to do newspaper work, I should have taken more intensive English training, and INFORMATION SERVICES 291 read all that could have been crammed in — novels, poetr}', history, everything written in books." "I do not advise newspaper work for the average woman. The work is hard, and the hours are not steady but leave you no leisure that you can depend on. There are about twenty men on this paper doing work comparable to mine. Their average salary is not so high. The really experi- enced newswriter, if a woman, is rather better paid than a man. On this paper men and women are frequently paid a bonus for an especially original idea." "Do not enter the work unless you have a 'nose for news' and love it. Work at knowing people, and be with the pub- lic as much as possible. In newspaper work, if one makes good, there is practically no sum which men and women alike cannot earn by working. ... I am the only woman on the reportorial staff with eight men, and I require no extras of any kind." "The only method that I know of to secure a position on a paper is to ask for it." "Show the sort of work you can do by bringing in a good story on some up to the minute activity. If an editor is familiar with the sort of work a writer does on some other paper, it helps. Keep after him ! !" Probably more women, especially among college gradu- ates, are attracted to the magazine field than to the field of newspaper work proper. Some of them' begin as journalists, and come over into magazine work through feature writing or through contributions to magazines. Others, however, enter magazine work directly. There is a difference of opinion as to the value of previous newspaper experience. As many women go into advertising, publicity, and motion- picture work from the newspaper as go into magazine work. The range of magazines and periodicals of various kinds is enormous and constantly growing, from the weeklies con- taining summaries of the news and comments upon it, thus touching the newspaper, through the "journals of opin- ion," the "literary" and "popular" monthlies, the "women's" and "household" magazines, the garden magazines, to 292 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS periodicals for every group and occupation, — agricultural and farm, motion-picture, musical, art, scientific, profes- sional, technical, and trade. The number and importance of trade journals are little recognized; but they run into the hundreds, and have a wide circulation. Over three hun- dred, including dailies, weeklies, and monthlies, are pub- lished in New York City alone. Some of them, like Print- ers' Ink, the Iron Age, Women's Wear, the Publishers' Weekly, are nationally influential. These publications pay good salaries, and are on the lookout for people who com- bine a good general education, newspaper or magazine ex- perience, and at least a preliminary knowledge of the par- ticular industry or trade concerned. More intimate knowledge can be acquired in service, possibly through work as an operative, or in some other department of the busi- ness. Trade journals often require statisticians and other technical workers. Another type of trade periodical is known as a "house organ," published by an individual firm or corporation for its employees and sometimes with their help, to give all members of the personnel information regarding the or- ganization as a whole and to develop general interest, good feeling, and "morale." ^ "House organs" have increased rapidly in number during the past few years, and are prop- erly part of the personnel work of an organization. Some of the most successful have been edited by women. W^here they are wholly in the hands of the management, they are not infrequently used as a means of influencing the minds of the workers with regard to political, economic, and so- cial questions. Of late, some of them have contained ex- ceedingly obvious reactionary propaganda. In taking a position on either a trade journal or a house organ, a pro- fessional woman should inform herself with regard to the views and policies of the industry or the firm. There is little satisfaction in attempting journalistic or editorial work on a publication with which one is fundamentally out of sympathy. The largest number of women editors and editorial writers are employed on the great "women's magazines," *See Robert E. Ramsey. Effective House Organs (1920). INFORMATION SERVICES 293 some of which have millions of subscribers, and carry an enormous amount of advertising. In a few cases, the edi- tors in chief are women. While it has been the fashion to smile at these magazines, and while they still contain much that is trivial, and also tend to set up false standards of living, they are becoming increasingly aware of certain public questions with which women are closely concerned, and are carrying on campaigns of educational propaganda in connection with public health, child-welfare, education, food, occupations, and so on. They afford a great popular medium for the dissemination of these and other construc- tive ideas. It would be interesting to see what would happen to their advertising if they undertook to push the coopera- tive movement, for instance. They often employ women professional experts to deal with the matters which they are actively furthering, and commonly pay salaries well above the average. Eleven women on magazines and periodicals who filled our schedules in 1918 received salaries ranging from $1,040 to $10,000, with a median salary of about $2,000. The next to the highest salary was only $2,600. They include the edi- tor in chief of a popular women's magazine, the editors of a denominational religious monthly and a "naval monthly," the office editor of a well-known general weekly, the asso- ciate editor of a journal of electricity, the assistant editor of a tax association monthly, the editor of a "women in business" department of an "efficiency'' magazine; the edi- tor of a "girls' page" in a leading magazine for young people. One woman is editor and publication manager of a technical journal of the popular type; another is owner and editor of a monthly publication for teachers ; another is circulation manager of a leading weekly devoted to social and civic betterment. Eight of these women are college graduates, four of eastern and four of western in- stitutions. Five have left college since 1912. One has taken courses in the school of journalism of a western state uni- versity; two have been on newspapers, one having been city editor for two years ; four have been promoted from subordinate positions on the same magazine ; one has been a trained librarian and organizer of business libraries; one 294 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS a trained secretary and statistician ; one a social and indus- trial investigator. The editorial work of these women involves selecting and editing articles, providing illustrations, planning the make- up of each issue and the "lay-out" of pages, pasting the "dummy" ; sometimes selecting the cover, proof-rea'ding, writing special articles and news notes. In some cases, they also have charge of advertising or manufacturing, attend- ing to all matters of buying paper, printing, and so forth. The circulation manager is in the business department. An editor of long experience says : "Learn to do some special thing well. Get a definite idea of what you can offer that will be of value to the concern. Most applicants, especially college women, merely state that they 'want to work on a magazine,' but have nothing special to offer." A successful young college woman says : "Less high- school methods in freshman courses in college would have been desirable and more stimulus to broaden my interests ; throughout college a definite emphasis of the connection be- tween college work and the activities of the world outside. ... I took the place of a man and at the same salary. , . . Sometimes one can get on the editorial staff of a magazine by writing articles for it. Usually, I think, the thing to do is to go and ask for a job, bringing introductions and recom- mendations if possible and presenting one's own qualifi- cations." Another who is associate editor of a technical journal says: "The ability to understand and form judgments on scientific subjects is of more use than actual technical train- ing. College editorial work is of use in securing a po- sition, although this side can be easily picked up. 'Loyalty to the paper' and enthusiasm in the work are most important in the eyes of the employer. Stenography and typewriting are of no value in this work. My association with my father, who is an engineer, and work on engineering books written by him have been most helpful; also my interest in mathematics, science, philosophy, economics, and English, and acquaintance with employers and women through vo- cational work done for the Association of Collegiate Alumnae. . . . On a technical journal a woman is not worth INFORMATION SERVICES 295 quite so much as a man (other things being equal) because she cannot join technical societies and keep in touch with people and happenings. Part of the 'good will' of the busi- ness is dependent upon the editor being good friends with everybody .... It would take years of acquiring acquaint- anceship in technical circles before a woman could handle such a journal independently." A woman who has been a superintendent of city and state training schools for teachers and for five years an elected county superintendent of schools in the Southwest, owns and edits a teachers' journal, and also runs a ranch. She says : "I edit all material contributed, write book reviews, solicit and arrange all advertising. I find my broad experience in educational work and in community work, city and rural, most helpful." Opportunities for women in the book publishing field are more limited than in connection with either newspapers or magazines. This is partly because publishing houses are themselves relatively few in number, partly because until recently, few women have been regularly connected with them except as secretaries to executives or routine clerks and stenographers. Some of the best-known firms are old and conservative ; in practically all of them men compose the firm and direct its policies. The National Board of Young Women's Christian Associations has its Woman's Press, and a bookshop in New York run by women has done a small amount of publishing. In the larger publishing houses within the past few years, a number of young college women have found a foothold, not through stenography and typing, but as junior assistants on the same basis as young college men. Two of them are now heads of children's depart- ments in long established and important firms. Other women hold responsible posts in both the editorial and ad- vertising departments. The publishing business, like others, is beginning to establish "research'' departments, which an- alyze sales, study population distribution and interests, and in other ways seek to apply the principles of scientific man- agement and cost accounting to an industry in which the 296 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS margin of profits is at best small and uncertain.^ It offers therefore some opportunities to women with training along these lines. It is undertaking more systematic advertising." For the young woman who has cast aside the fond belief that to secure a position with a publishing house means entering upon a literary career, but who has a keen in- terest in the making and marketing of books as well as in their contents and a lively curiosity about the reading habits of the public, there are at present genuine oppor- tunities in the book publishing field, although she will have to make them to a large extent. She must expect to begin at the bottom, but if she shows a capacity for hard and intelligent work, an unwillingness to receive special favors, and a fresh and resourceful mind, promotion will not be slow. With women forming so large a portion of the read- ing public, there is a real chance to help toward a better understanding of the reading requirements of different groups of women. It is too often assumed that they are predominantly a leisure and "consuming" element in the population. Unless she is of the secretarial type of mind, she need no longer use that mode of access to the occupa- tion. And she should clearly realize that nobody begins as a "reader" or book reviewer. These kinds of work are usu- ally done on a "piec'e-work" basis by experienced profes- sional persons. They are among the crumbs that commonly fall to college professors, or are entrusted to expert con- sultants or members of the firm. Women might well go more largely into the selling end of the book business, which is invaluable as training for its other aspects. As a business, its surroundings and associations are unusually agreeable, its subject-matter and problems of varied and challenging human significance. The main divisions of book-publishing are general pub- lishing, educational or text-book publishing, religious pub- lishing, and technical publishing. Some firms have all these departments. Within these fields publishers specialize in ^ See George P. Brett. Making of Many Books. Atlantic Monthly, October, 1920. ' See A. Edward Newton. A Slogan for Booksellers in the same issue. INFORMATION SERVICES 297 many ways, so that one comes to know the general character of books bearing certain imprints. So far, there has been no special form of training for publishing-house work other than a liberal education and actual experience in service. But it seems high time for publishers to put their heads to- gether and devise some sort of cooperative courses with neighboring universities rather than to leave the equipment of their personnel on the old-fashioned basis of "picking up a trade." Employment, save as secretaries, is still most frequently secured through direct application backed by in- troductions and recommendations. Ten publishers filled our schedules in 1919, including one general book publisher, one general magazine publisher, one publisher of business and educational journals, one of in- dexes, catalogues, and handbooks, two publishers of edu- cational books, two of religious books, two of trade books and periodicals. Three employed no women except in rou- tine clerical work; four employed them as office managers, accountants, and secretaries to executives; one educational publisher employed them as salesmen, and had a woman assistant manager of the foreign department ; a trade pub- lisher had a woman assistant salesmanager ; three employed them as proofreaders; one employed only women as in- dexers and cataloguers ; two mention editors. Some of the largest and oldest publishing houses made no reply. The comments range from paternal solicitude for women forced to leave their proper place, the home, to an avowal of the belief that political equality will bring an approach to eco- nomic equality between men and women. Opinions differ widelv as to the persistence and efficiency of women in the publishing business. "Men are much more persistent. Women get married and leave, or leave anyhow." "Our impression is that women are fully as efficient and persistent as men." "In regard to the relative efficiency of men and women doing similar work, we have reached the conclusion that it is 60-40 in favor of men." (This is written over an origi- nal 50-50!) A trade publisher says that he wants college women "every time." An educational publisher says that univer- 298 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS sity work fits better for business than brief professional or technical courses. Many publishers are also retail booksellers, maintaining shops for the purchase of their own publications and those of other firms. This allied field of retail bookselling is an attractive and promising one for women, especially if they have had previous experience in a publishing house, and thus know something of the book trade from the inside. Women are successful managers of large book departments in department stores. One in Chicago is particularly well known. The development of neighborhood and specialty bookshops — drama, poetry, children's, and so on — provides an opportunity that women are seizing. If business sense and professional spirit are brought to such enterprises, no great amount of capital is needed. Examples are the Gar- denside Bookshop in Boston, the Wayfarers' Bookshop in Washington, the Priscilla Guthrie Bookshop in Pittsburgh, the Sunwise Turn in New York. The proprietors of the latter establishment have been very successful in the heart of the hotel and terminal district, and are enthusiastic over the possibilities of the neighborhood bookshop as a place where people may drop in to read as well as to buy, and where an expert advisory book service may be given, such as cannot be supplied by a single publisher or by large firms. They would like to see women opening such book- shops throughout the country. There is a chance for in- tensive study of a neighborhood's reading needs ; and the small bookshop may come to be one of the substitutes for the saloon ! On the other hand, the idea runs contrary to the modern spirit of consolidation, and the pitfalls that beset the retail book dealer are many.^ The Bookshop for Boys and Girls of the Women's Educational and Industrial Union has been a delightful pioneer enterprise, which has a follower in the Children's Bookshop in New York. Talks to parents and others on reading for and about children and children's story-hours are among the activities of these establishments. During the summer of 1920 the Bookshop for Boys and Girls sent a motor "book caravan" on an an- ' See William H. Arnold. The Welfare of the Bookstore. At- lantic Monthly. August, 1919. INFORMATION SERVICES 299 nounced schedule through the New England summer-resort country.^ A Woman's National Book Association has re- cently been organized, open to all women engaged in mak- ing, selling, or creating a book.^ A few women of experi- ence have established themselves as readers and as au- thors' agents, reading, criticizing, and placing manuscripts with publishers. Others specialize in placing plays, and are known as play brokers. The motion-picture business also has its agents ; and in- dividual firms are employing an increasing number of edu- cated women in work allied to journalism and ad\\ertising. Young college women commonly begin as synopsis writers, making abstracts of stories or books suitable for filming. This is apprentice work, and does not pay highly. But it gives an insight into the requirements of a good motion- picture. A few young women who have shown aptitude have become "continuity writers," which means preparing the script from which the picture is actually taken, with detailed instructions for every stage and aspect. This means familiarity with the production studio. Women are also acting as assistants to the manager of the editorial de- partment, and are "title-writers" and reviewers of films. Much title-writing, however, is done by the staff as a group. There is a difference of opinion as to whether authors can satisfactorily cooperate in the making of scenarios ^ from their own writings. Most producers have relegated them to the background, but a few are seeking their active aid, even in continuity writing. There is a demand for sce- narios of more literary quality than is usually found at present; but the road to becoming a successful writer of scenarios is long and uncertain. Three universities, Har- * M^ary Frank. Caravaning with Books. The Bookman, Feb- ruary, 1 92 1. 'It is cooperating (1921) with the New York Booksellers' League in a plan for courses for workers in bookselling to be given by New York University and the New York Public Librar>'. ' See John Emerson and Anita Loos. How to Write Photo- Plays (1920). 300 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS vard, Columbia/ and the University of Pennsylvania, offer courses in scenario and other motion-picture writing. A few women have been assistant producers ; fewer, producers. The rise of the motion-picture business has been spec- tacular. It is estimated that it is now the fourth industry in the United States. It is emerging from its "wild-cat" stage and its practically exclusive control by theatrical producers. Its significance as a medium of com- munication as well as of recreation and its tremendous social appeal both for good and ill compel the serious attention of professional workers. The efficacy of the motion-picture as a medium of information to people of varied social groups and speaking different languages was abundantly shown during the war. There is coming to be a clear dis- tinction between "commercial" or theatrical films, shown in motion-picture houses, and educational and informational films supplied directly to schools, clubs, churches, factories, labor unions, prisons and reformatories, and so on, by such agencies as the Community Motion Picture Bureau and the Educational Film Corporation. A new Labor Film Service has been organized. As a result of overseas ex- perience in war-time, motion-picture "camionettes" are be- ing sent into country districts to provide both entertainment and instruction, reinforcing the work of the States' Re- lations and Public Health Services, the American Red Cross, and other agencies active in rural betterment. In addition to editorial, production, advertising, and cir- culating departments, all calling for expert workers of vari- ous kinds, motion-picture companies employ research work- ers in connection with settings, costumes, and the like, on a salaried or piece-work basis. Competition for positions is keen ; and professional women are only beginning to ap- pear in the work. Salaries for those who succeed are high. Title-writers are said to receive from $ioo to $250 a week ; continuity writers about $750 a month. An occupation de- veloping with such rapidity and capable of so many appli- cations offers much that is of interest to the professionally- minded woman, and may provide her with permanent satis- factions. (See Chapter XVI.) 'See Frances Taylor Patterson. Cinema Craftsmanship. (1920.) IJANTA BARBARA. CAU.r INFORMATION SERVTtES' '" 301 Advertising is an activity essential to modern methods of selling commodities and services, and so far as can be seen would be necessary under any system of large-scale pro- duction and distribution. It has emerged from a "patent- medicine" past, and is reaching the point where every ad- vertisement shall be a "specification of the character and a guaranty of the quality" of what is sold. Some of the great advertising companies refuse to sign contracts until they have made a careful investigation of the nature and usefulness of the product to be advertised. They stand back of their facts, and are beginning to develop a sense of social responsibility about "creating a market" for things that are superfluous or meretricious. But like other types of commercial enterprise, advertising is as yet only imper- fectly professionalized in the full sense ; and women going into it need to be sure that they can do so without doing violence to their social and ethical standards. It is highly important to know beforehand the attitude of the company with which they are identifying themselves. On the other hand, it is estimated that eighty-five per cent of retail buy- ing is in the hands of women; and professional women in advertising have an opportunity to study this consuming public more carefully than has yet been done and to di- rect it more wisely. Many firms consider that it is essential to employ women in connection with the advertising of goods appealing particularly to women ; but women are not limiting themselves to work with women. The two main types of advertising are local advertising, which is largely retail, and national advertising, which is largely by the manufacturer, producer, or wholesale dis- tributer. Department store advertising is an example of the first type; industrial advertising of special makes or brands of articles is the great example of the second type. Financial advertising, theatrical and motion-picture adver- tising, and book advertising partake of the nature of both. Retail or local advertisers practically always have their own advertising departments ; national advertisers are more likely to employ advertising firms or agencies ; many business or- ganizations make use of both. The media of advertising are many. The accepted carriers are the newspaper, the 302 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS magazine, the billboard or wall sign, the booklet or circular, the advertising letter. More recent are the electric sign and the motion-picture. Advertising to reach manufac- turers and large distributers is found chiefly in the journals of various trades and industries. The automobile, both the pleasure car and the truck, has increased the importance of outdoor display advertising. Much of it is abhorrent to the lover of rural or urban beauty ; and a problem in civic art is that of improving the aesthetic character of the bill- board and the permanent sign. Some of the war-time ex- amples give encouragement. Although many people have gone into advertising from the newspaper or magazine field, the actual writing of ad- vertising copy is only one part — and perhaps not the most important part — of the modern business of advertising. Especially in national advertising, campaigns and programs are based upon the most careful antecedent investigation of the nature of the article to be advertised, the amount of competition to be met in selling it, the distributions of population, the special groups to be appealed to, the best modes of approaching them, the costs and profits. All these matters have been reduced to a scientific basis, expressed in terms of statistics, graphs and charts. The workers re- quired must be trained in the best methods of commercial research, applied to the advertising field. They need large- mindedness and imagination as well as technical training. There is a chance for an originality which is not sensational nor eccentric. Workers are prone to follow certain success- ful methods in a sheeplike way; and even now the psychol- ogy of different buying publics is imperfectly understood. Advertising workers of professional character are of four main types: (i) Research workers, investigators, statisti- cians, etc. (2) Managers and agents; (3) Copy-writers, designers, and illustrators. (4) Solicitors, attached to pub- lications, who sell space to firms wishing to advertise. There are also "lay-out" workers, who plan the arrangement of advertising matter for magazines, newspapers, bill-boards, and so on; and space-buyers, who must know the adver-j tising value of different publications and their space rates. Some experienced women have become advertising con- INFORMATION SERVICES 303 sultants, preparing trade catalogues, circulars, and other matter.^ The research aspect of , advertising is the most recently developed, and is probably the most directly accessible and the most rewarding to professional women with training in economics, business administration, psychology, or some special field closely related to the commodities advertised, such as foods or textiles. Managerial positions are reached through securing a thorough knowledge of the business by serving in one or other of the subordinate positions and studying it in all its ramifications. Too much cannot be known of the product or products advertised. The adver- tisements of the organization and of others should be criti- cally compared; trade journals should be assiduously read. Some of the leading women advertising managers have reached their present positions through becoming connected with the company as stenographers ; but this is no longer a necessary nor in most cases a desirable approach. Some firms are taking on young college women as apprentices, and giving them experience on different sides of the busi- ness. It is sometimes well to begin with a small company or agency in order to secure this "all-around" training, but on the whole, the larger firms have the better organization and procedures. Many newspaper women have gone into advertising, and their training in compression and in writing salient head- lines has been of value. But there are certain ingrained newspaper habits which work against success in advertising. The advertisement is far less ephemeral than the news- paper paragraph ; it appeals to a specific group within the vague total known as "the public" ; its efficacy is constantly checked by the correlations of expenditures for advertising and receipts from sales ; it defeats its own end if it is in- correct or misleading. The rough and slapdash methods of the reporter will not do. Experience in actual salesman- ship either behind the counter or "on the road" is consid- ered of even greater value as training for the advertising business ; and beginners are often advised to serve an actual * See Eleanor Gilbert. The Ambitious IVotnan in Business (1916), Chapter 13. Advertising and the Woman Who Can Write. 304 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS apprenticeship as salesmen. They should at least be fa- miliar with the modern psychology of salesmanship and advertising, as set forth in such books as those of Dr. Walter Dill Scott. It is coming to be recognized also that more attention should be paid to the psychology and ethics of buying, the attitude of the actual purchaser and consumer. Advertising companies and departments usually maintain a small art force ; but much of the actual illustrating and designing is done on a piece-work basis by "free-lance" workers. It is important, however, for all advertising work- ers, especially copy writers and "lay-out" workers, to un- derstand the principles of design and spatial composition and, if possible, to have some knowledge of the psychologi- cal principles of space and color vision, the effect of dif- ferent forms and colors at varying distances and varying speeds.^ To study advertisements in street-cars, for in- stance, is to realize the deplorable lack of such knowledge. Almost equally important is a practical knowledge of print- ing and reproduction processes, styles of type, and so on. To secure this, it is often desirable to attend evening classes in printing and typography or even one of the "printers' schools," or to serve a while at the printers' trade. There are no schools of advertising of university grade, but most schools of commerce and business administration give courses in the subject, as do many departments of psychology. At least one great national advertising com- pany has its own training course, and has recently arranged for the cooperation of a leading university. Short courses for workers are given by extension departments, the Young Men's Christian Associations, and business institutes. Closely allied training is to be found in bureaus or depart- ments of wholesale and retail salesmanship (see p. 249). Positions are secured through direct application, or through advertisement in such trade journals as Printers' Ink and Advertising and Selling. Advice as to firms hospitable to the employment of women may be secured from bureaus of occupations or the Bureau of Vocational Information in 'See E. Sampson. Advertise! (1918). Frank Parsons. Princi- ples of Advertising Arrangement (1912). INFORMATION SERVICES 305 New York. Leagues and clubs of advertising women exist in eleven states; and women are admitted to some of the national advertising associations. Salaries in advertising range from $20 a week for be- ginners of good education who are learning the business to from $25 to $75 a week for copy writers; from $1,500 or $1,800 to $3,000 or $4,000 for assistant managers; from $4,000 to $10,000 or more for managers. Only a few women have reached the highest managerial salaries. Research workers receive from $1,500 for subordinates to $5,000 or more for directors of departments.^ Six women filling our schedules in 1918 and 19 19 reported salaries ranging only from $1,020 to $2,400 with a median salary of $1,410. Five are college graduates, four of recent classes. Three are assistant advertising managers in department stores in New England, the south, and California ; two are in advertising agencies, one an apprentice and one the secretary-treasurer of the company; and one is a copy writer and assistant to the advertising manager of a fuel gas company. Five graduates of 1917 and 1918 of an eastern college are in the advertising departments of department stores, one as man- ager, and in the research departments of a fashion and pattern company, of an associated drygoods corporation, and the commercial research division of a great popular publishing company carrying much advertising. The graduate of a western university says: "Our store is progressive. Modern methods are continually being in- stalled. The business is growing. Its department heads are mostly young men and women, and it is beginning to employ college trained people. In my general education, my courses in English, journalism, and psychology have been most helpful. Work on a newspaper gave me excellent training as an advertising writer. My knowledge of type and of how to write headlines has been most useful. There * Bureau of Vocational Information, Focatiotis for Business and Professional Women; also Bulletin No. 5. Positions of Responst- bility in Department Store Organizations (1921) ; also an unpub- lished study made in 1919-1920 bv the Employment Department of the New York City Branch of the Y. W. C. A. of 39 advertismg agencies and 16 advertising departments of companies and corpora- tions in the New York area. 3o6 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS are no salary differences here so far as sex is concerned. Every employee comes up for a salary increase every six months. Women considering advertising should be very sure that they wish tOy enter the profession, and be willing to work long hours and hard." The assistant in a fuel gas company says: "There is a splendid field for keen, alert, well-educated women in the advertising business in almost any branch, but they have to work inside and outside the office. ... I was given a chance to 'make good' and to develop the feminine view- point in gas-appliance advertising. I have found useful in my professional training detail work in printing, etc. I sometimes take on extra advertising work, such as copy or house organs." The distinctions between commercial advertising and pub- licity have already been set forth. It took the war to make them so explicit that separate publicity organizations and workers have appeared. PubHcity has to do with the win- ning of active public attention to a cause, institution, or- ganization, or movement, which will express itself in con- tributions, membership, volunteer aid, or other forms of carrying out the program suggested. Private organizations usually seek funds either directly or indirectly, or their pub- licity may be primarily educational, looking toward the shap- ing of public opinion in certain directions, such as publicity campaigns for improved schools, public health, or more en- lightened labor legislation. Political organizations aim at a publicity that will win votes, government departments, such as the United States Department of Agriculture, at widespread diffusion of useful information and improve- ment of specific conditions. Enormous amounts of money have been spent on publicity of late years. Labor organi- zations have learned the lesson, and are maintaining such elaborate publicity organizations as that of the Plumb Plan League in Washington. Publicity organizations are spe- cializing in college "drives," in civic activities of chambers of commerce, in philanthropic, religious, financial, and in- dustrial appeals. Publicity deals with the novel, the timely. INFORMATION SERVICES 307 It studies the public feeling of the moment, and is essen- tially a form of promotion. The professional requirements and standards of each publicity undertaking must therefore be carefully determined. Qualifications vary with the sub- ject-matter ; but twelve publicity agencies in New York City interviewed in connection with a survey of oppor- tunities for women in publicity work made by the employ- ment department of the Central Branch of the Young Women's Christian Association in 1920 agreed that from two to five years of newspaper experience, including actual reporting, was essential. Work on special "drives" or cam- paigns is temporary in the nature of the case ; but an increas- ing number of social and civic organizations are maintaining permanent publicity departments. Opinions vary as to whether workers in such departments should be trained journalists and advertising workers or trained workers in the special field. The facts and opinions presented should certainly be from first-hand and competent acquaintance. College and professional women are being employed by most publicity organizations or departments ; but the field is limited. A few experienced women are. setting up as publicity consultants. Salaries for experienced women are around $50 a week, and are said to be about ten per cent lower than those for men. CHAPTER XVI ART services: literature, drama, pageantry; architec- ture; OTHER FINE AND APPLIED ARTS Although the arts have long taken high rank among the professions and possess many of the fundamental pro- fessional attributes — disinterestedness, group spirit, and a public and social value increasingly recognized — the demands upon their practitioners are so exceptional, so individual, in many ways so immeasurable, that it is impossible to discuss professional women in the arts as in the other professions. On the other hand, the arts interpenetrate so many professions, and their contribution is so vitally needed in our modern social order, and falls so far short of what it might be, that any treatment of women professional workers would be incomplete without at least a general statement of their status and opportunities in these fields. Moreover, women workers have been numerous in both the fine and the applied arts, and nowhere else has their pro- fessional achievement been judged more wholly on its merits. In the fine arts particularly, this achievement depends upon a high degree of native endowment reinforced by the best modern training, favorable surroundings, and oppor- tunities for the practice of the art chosen. We no longer accept complacently the old idea that artistic ability finds its fullest expression through struggling with untoward circumstances. Without artistic ability the possession of technical skill does not bring success, and even when both are of a high order, the artist's road to an assured profes- sional position is long and difficult. It shows the strength of the art impulse and the depth of the artist's inner satis- factions that so many people are willing to face the dis- 308 ART SERVICES 309 appointments and uncertainties of the artist's career. In the applied arts there is room for more kinds and degrees of talent and technical equipment ; but here too, real preemi- nence is rare. In fact, the distinction between the fine and the applied arts is historic and practical rather than fixed and absolute. All arts are based on the same funda- mental principles, and all are more or less related to the crafts and industries and to the public and private conduct of life. Women contemplating entering any of the art pro- fessions need to be sure of their own artistic aptitude and to inform themselves thoroughly with respect to preparation and opportunities. No preparation other than the best is worth having. The fine arts are commonly said to include literature, drama, music, painting, and sculpture. Architecture is the great link between the fine and the applied arts, as it is between art and the engineering sciences. Closely related to it are landscape architecture and design, and city and town planning. Related in another way are interior decora- tion and design as applied to furniture, fabrics, wall-papers, carvings, tiles, glass, porcelain, metal and leather work, basketry, and other articles of interior use and ornament. Another group of design arts has to do with textiles and clothing, jewelry, lace, and embroidery. In another group are the art of book binding and the graphic arts, etching, engraving, printing, illustrating, poster making, and possibly artistic photography. The motion picture and the music rec- ord both have their artistic aspects and possibilities. The arts are also classified as the space arts and the time arts, with literature, the drama, and the dance partak- ing of the character of both. Fundamentally the effect pro- duced by any work of art, whether spatial or temporal, is due to certain combinations of pattern and rhythm which re- inforce old and deeply rooted organic and instinctive pat- terns and rhythms in human beings. This unusual degree of correspondence between the object and the organism pro- duces an effect at the same time of life-enhancement and of reconciliation, a sense of escape from conflict, limita- tion, and self-consciousness and the attainment for a brief space of a deeper insight and a fuller satisfaction than or- 3IO WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS dinary life affords. It is this correspondence which makes the work of art a direct and powerful source of emotion and suggestion and thus an agency of unique social value through its ability to transmit to a group of people com- mon feelings, moods, and attitudes of mind. Its definite subject-matter is subordinate to the kind of emotional re- sponse that it evokes. We are coming to see that with the complexities, special- izations, and separations of modern life, we need some- thing fundamental that shall bring people together, and furnish some interpretation of these things, some compen- sation for them, even if it cannot do away with them. Moreover, national prohibition and reductions in hours of labor compel us to face the urgent problems of the uses of leisure time. Art has a major role to play in any adequate program for public recreation. Its place in fac- tory production is more difficult to determine. But we are attacking the problems of industrial art with new vigor since the war, and are learning much from other countries. As has been said, professional work in journalism, pub- lishing, and advertising is commercial rather than literary, although it may give acquaintance with literary externals. The essence of literature as an art is the impulse to com- municate to others through one of the many literary forms — poem, play, short story, novel, essay, criticism, history — a fresh and individual interpretation of some aspect of hu- man life. This impulse is strengthened and embodied in appropriate literary form not through living in any sort of "literary atmosphere" but through thinking and feeling clearly and vividly and gaining insight into personality, situation, and the varieties of human experience. People do not begin as writers of Hterature, and no woman should expect to earn her living through authorship until she has made a name for herself as a writer. It is probably not desirable that she should. Most good writing is done in intervals of creative leisure. To look over a volume of IVho's Who to discover the occupations of contemporary writers is an informing exercise for a beginner. There are, ART SERVICES 311 however, certain literary and social tendencies of to-day which are likely to influence young women with genuine literary ability and modern outlook. Chief among these are current movements in poetry and the drama, both of which are showing vigorous life and commanding wide popular interest. The magazines a/e hospitable to really good verse and to good writing of other kinds. The course in play- writing given by Professor George P. Baker of Harvard Ujiiversity has led to similar courses of a pre-professional and professional character in other colleges. Not only college training in English but the general liberalizing and enriching of mind and experience that come through col- lege work and college personal contacts are a valuable back- ground for the young writer. Literature is no longer thought of as a matter of pure inspiration. The hterary artist, like other artists, has to serve an apprenticeship. A student with literary interests and aptitudes receives now- adays in college generous encouragement and assistance, and has varied opportunities to try herself out in college publications, prize contests, and the like. Outside of col- lege, the competition is severe. The social contribution of art in enabling people to share a concrete and satisfying experience has already been spoken of. We are coming to understand more clearly that full sharing must be active and not merely passive, a genuine participation. One of the great weaknesses of modern commercial recreation through the theater and the moving-picture is its passivity. It is the logical result of long hours and routine work, the recreation of tired and bored people. With greater leisure there is prospect of a wider demand for more active and more artistic types of recreation. The emotional appeals will not have to be so crude and so violent in order to overcome the inertia of fatigue. Gilbert Chesterton has lately observed character- istically : "To amuse oneself is a mark of gaiety, vitality, and love of life. To be amused is a mark of melancholy, surrender, and potential suicide." There have been efforts during the last few years to develop popular interest and participation in various arts through community pageants and folk-dancing, community singing, community drama, 312 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS exhibitions of community handicrafts, competitions and ex- hibitions in industrial design, traveling collections of pic- tures. The numerous parades during and after the war revealed the possibilities, good and bad, of civic decoration. Libraries, art museums, schools, social settlements, com- munity centers, city governments, have all been helping to show that art is not a luxury of the few — as it never has been until modern times — but a possession and an activity of the many. Only beginnings have been made. But in ten years the progress has been notable, and the next ten years promise far more comprehensive results. Of these various efforts to develop a social art, the growth of the civic and art drama, as distinct from the commercial drama, is most conspicuous. It has expressed itself in diverse ways, through little theaters, of which there are now more than fifty; special companies giving outdoor plays, like the Ben Greet Company and the Coburn Players ; per- formances under academic auspices, as in the Harvard Stadium and the University of California Greek Theater; plays written and performed by students or by other groups of amateurs or semi-amateurs ; neighborhood plays like those for which the little Neighborhood Theater in New York was designed ; community pageant and drama on a large scale like those composed and directed by Percy MacKaye. Hitherto the movement has been more or less scattered, amateur, at times a matter of pose. It has been a protest and a demonstration rather than an organized construc- tive movement. But it stands for a fundamental idea, and it gives every sign of becoming an increasingly impor- tant part of normal community life. It is intimately allied with the movement for stage setting and decoration in accordance with aesthetic and psychological principles and with modern movements in dancing and music, which are calling for the combined efforts of dramatists, poets, ac- tors, musicians, interpretative dancers, designers of settings and costumes, producers, directors, and managers. Pro- fessional women are serving in all these capacities, and are likely to be in increasing demand. There is still difficulty in securing really professional training except through ap- prenticeship and experience. The Carnegie Institute of ART SERVICES 313 Technology has been working out for several years a com- prehensive course in drama, festival, and stage setting; and there are a few standard schools of the drama, notably the American Academy of Dramatic Arts in New York, which has long been under the direction of Mr. Franklin H. Sargent. Madame Yvette Guilbert has recently opened a School of the Theater in New York. Professor Baker's course in play-writing and his dramatic workshop at Har- vard have been a veritable school of playwrights, and similar work at Vassar and in other institutions promises like results. There are various schools of classic, posture, and folk dancing. Experience in college and in settlement dramatic work and in music-school settlements has often proved of value. The National Board of Young Women's Christian Associations has established a department of pag- eantry and the drama; Community Service, Incorporated, a similar department. Rural community drama has been encouraged under the leadership of the College of Agri- culture of Cornell University, the State Agricultural College of North Dakota, and by other agencies. The Drama League of America with headquarters in Washington, a central dramatic bookshop, and branches and bookshops in various cities, fosters genuine dramatic interests of all kinds. Special efforts are being made to develop the dramatic in- terests and standards of children. This widespread and growing attention to the drama as a social and educational agency is providing opportunities for women in connection with settlement houses, community centers. Community Service, Incorporated, the Young Wom- en's Christian Associations, dramatic associations, civic the- aters, and to some extent in schools and colleges. Pageant directors usually do their work on a fee-charging basis; other workers may be employed on a salary. Both training and employment are still unstandardized, but the field chal- lenges the attention of women of artistic and social interests and equipment who are ready to throw in their lot with a significant movement and to help in shaping it. The relation of professional women to the commercial theater and even more to the whole motion-picture industry 314 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS is far more difficult to determine and to discuss in brief. Leaders of the stage have always stood for its artistic char- acter and ideals ; and many of them are in the full as in the popular sense "professionals," continually studying the problems of acting as one of the great arts. A woman seri- ously considering acting as a profession can probably do nothing better than first to study carefully what great actors past and present have said of the stage and possibly to con- sult some well-known actor or actress of high standards, who takes an interest in the training of beginners. A recent book on Training for the Stage strongly advocates a year or two of study in a good school of acting like the Ameri- can Academy of Dramatic Arts, and laments that we have no publicly supported schools, such as are common in European countries. "The dramatic profession is the only one in the United States in which the ignorant beginner is paid to be taught, and taught by a slow, laborious, con- fused method of picking his way through the mazes of theatrical experience, experimenting meanwhile before the paying public. The necessity for an educational policy for the actor, not only for his general culture and the technical requirements of his craft but for the development of all his personal powers and faculties, is slowly but surely ob- taining recognition. Indeed, the denial of the value of good educational preparation and systematic study calls in ques- tion the very right of acting to be termed an art or profes- sion." ^ The stock company no longer affords adequate training. The civic and art drama and the commercial drama are undoubtedly learning from each other. In the meantime the road to artistic success on the regular stage is long, difficult, and uncertain, with constant hard work under trying conditions and small and irregular financial returns. Only women whose ability can find no adequate satisfaction elsewhere, and who have both mental and phys- ical vigor and staying power, should attempt the actor's career. Successful women playrights are not uncommon ; and there are a few women dramatic agents and play- brokers. The woman dramatic critic is rare. Two women connected with one of the most successful 'Arthur ITornblow Training for the Stage (1916), p. 130. ART SERVICES 315 of the "little theater" ventures in New York filled our schedules in 1918. One, a graduate of a western university and of a well-known school of expression, was a producer and director of plays for the company, having full charge of the production of the play on the acting side and advising with the scenic director. The other has been vice-president of the company, play reader, and at times an actress. The director says: "There are comparatively no women producers. It has always been a theory of the theater that a man must direct, and it is hard to break in. I got in through the Little Theater Movement, which is much broader in regard to women. I attend all possible perform- ances of all kinds, and study production in this way. The only way to secure positions is to apply in person. It is very difficult unless you can show your work, or come highly recommended from well-known people. The whole theatrical game is a gamble !" The development of the motion-picture business has been so extraordinary, and is still so far from being fully evolved or stable that it is impossible to make assured state- ments or even prophecies about its professional and art aspects. It has hitherto been chiefly in the hands of pro- ducers recruited from the commercial spoken theater, and can be compared with that on its business side and with journalistic and advertising enterprises (see Chapter XV) rather than with the arts. Nevertheless, it has large artistic possibilities ; and its social appeal is so tremendous that it merits careful attention from those committed to the de- velopment of a modern popular art. Its psychology cannot be ignored any more than the psychology of the Sunday newspaper, the comic supplement, or billboard and electric advertising. It shares with them the drawback of being a passive and at the same time a highly stimulating kind of experience. But in spite of these limitations, its con- creteness, vividness, and accessibility give it high potential value as an educational and artistic medium. Its educa- tional use is being steadily developed ; and some of the leading writers of the day are studying its techniques. Some 3i6 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS of the great spectacular films have genuine artistic beauty, and have invited the cooperation of artists and other experts in their preparation. The recent gift by the head of the Eastman Kodak Company of three and a half million dol- lars to the University of Rochester to endow a great school to aid in the development of appreciation of the highest type of music in alliance with the highest type of motion picture may mark the beginning of their recognition as an art form. Hitherto professional women other than actresses have had little to do with the motion-picture business ex- cept as secretaries to directors, or as writers of synopses, scenarios, or motion-picture advertisements. But its grow- ing dependence upon historic and artistic research and upon methods worked out in the best modern pageantry and stage setting is likely to increase opportunities for women pro- fessionally trained along these lines. Professional musicians, painters, and sculptors secure their training through the best schools and masters in this country and abroad, and make their reputations and careers through the quality of their work. Unlike European coun- tries we have no publicly supported schools and fellowships for the encouragement of the fine arts, save in the case of a few museum schools under public control. But we are apparently entering upon a period of large private en- dowments for this purpose. In addition to the Eastman foundation already mentioned, the past year has seen the establishment of the Juillard Musical Foundation with an endowment estimated at from five to twenty million dollars and of the Louis Comfort Tiffany Art Foundation with an endowment of a million in addition to the donor's country estate and art collections. Both are primarily for the bene- fit of promising students of the respective arts. A collabora- tion of the arts in the public interest is seen in the recently inaugurated practice of giving a series of free concerts in the great city art museums, such as the Metropolitan Museum in New York and the Art Institute of Chicago, The three-year fellowships of the American Academy in Rome in painting, sculpture, architecture, and landscape ART SERVICES 317 architecture, of the value of $1,000 a year, are now for the first time open to women. There are also a few traveling fellowships in painting and music at $1,500 a year. There is a National Association of Women Painters and Sculptors. The most frequent salaried positions for women well equipped in the fine arts are to be found in teaching, par- ticularly in public schools, and in museums. Special train- ing in the teaching of art to children of various ages may be secured at such institutions as Teachers College of Columbia University, the School of Education of the Uni- versity of Chicago, and the Massachusetts Normal Art School. The new psychology of art teaching breaks down the sharp distinction between the fine and applied arts, and makes much of composition and pattern as appHed to articles made by the children themselves. There are also more limited opportunities in art schools and classes; and there is every prospect of a great impetus arising largely out of the war toward the teaching of industrial art as an important aspect of vocational education. The American Federation of Arts in 1918 passed a resolution urging the Federal Board for Vocational Education to encourage the development of this vocational field. ^ Grand Rapids, Michigan, a great furniture-making center, has estabhshed a school of art and industry as part of its public school system ; and there are other general or special schools such as the Rhode Island School of Design and the Massa- chusetts state-supported textile schools. Teachers of in- dustrial art are likely" to be in great demand. They should preferably have had some European training. Opportunities are developing in the fields of community and school group music. The war greatly increased the popularity of group singing under trained leaders; and al- though the majority of these leaders are men, there are places for women leaders in shops and factories where women are employed, in schools, settlements, community clubs of women, Girl Scout and Young Women's Christian *See Industrial Art, A National Asset: A Series of Graphic Charts. U. S. Bureau of Education. Industrial Education Circular, No. 3. May, 1919- 3i8 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS Association groups, prisons and reformatories for women, and so on. Architecture is the most thoroughly professionalized of the applied arts in which women have engaged. While the number of women architects is still small in comparison with the number of men, it has increased markedly in the last forty years. According to the federal census, there were seventeen women architects in the United States in 1880; three hundred and two in 1910. These, however, were less than one per cent of the total number of architects. The increase in the past ten years has probably been small. Only four women are reported by the Bureau of Education as receiving architectural degrees in 1916. Nevertheless many of the larger cities have women architects in success- ful independent practice ; and others are in salaried positions with architectural firms. Still others are using their archi- tectural training as an invaluable background for their work as interior decorators. The architectural profession has not been notably hospitable to the small body of women work- ers ; and it has been alleged that women architects are seriously at a disadvantage on the engineering and con- tracting sides of the work. This is a statement that cannot as yet be wholly disproved. But most of the best schools of architecture are open to women as well as to men, so that they may receive the same training. And a few women architects have handled without difficulty both the letting of contracts and the actual supervision of workmen. Many, however, have preferred office positions, and even with full architectural training have perhaps too often been content to serve as architectural draftsmen. An apprenticeship of this kind in a good office is, however, of value to every architect. In some states, practicing architects must be licensed. With the housing experience gained during the war and the urgency of present housing problems, espe- cially for industrial workers and other people of small in- comes, there seems a new opportunity for women architects to direct their attention to building for these groups and to the problem of community centers. There is also a chance ART SERVICES 319 to specialize in the remodeling of old houses, both in town and country. A woman architect in New York has done distinctive work in the making over of old-fashioned dwell- ings into attractive apartment houses. It is often said that there should be a woman architect in every office to pass upon the practical convenience and utility of all plans for private houses and public institutions. While this is un- doubtedly true, it by no means exhausts the range of pos- sibilities for women. They should follow their individual bent and the demands of the profession as freely as men. The professional training for architecture is long and severe ; but it appeals in so many ways that it is surprising that more women with tastes and aptitudes in these direc- tions do not choose it as a profession. There are probably more women landscape architects than architects proper; but not so many with a training which measures up to the highest standards. It is difficult to draw the line between the woman landscape architect, the woman landscape gardener, and even the simple con- sulting gardener. There are two small schools of land- scape architecture exclusively for women ; but women seri- ously considering this work vvill do well to consult the best authorities in the profession in regard to training. Several large universities give excellent courses.^ With the increase in country estates and the greater interest in formal land- scape treatment that is likely to follow our closer European contacts, there should be less uncertain opportunities for the thoroughly equipped woman in this profession. Large archi- tectural firms not infrequently have landscape architects on their staffs. It sometimes seems as if half the women of our ac- quaintance were becoming interior decorators ; and the term covers every type from women of prolonged professional training to amateurs adventuring in business on a small cap- ital of taste and encouragement from their friends. Voca- tions for Business and Professional IVomen says that "at * See Henry V. Hubbard and Theodora Kimball. Landscape Architecture — A Classification Scheme. Harvard University Press (1920). 320 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS the foot of the scale are those with Httle training who are not much more than shoppers" and at the other extreme women with from six to nine years of training who are recognizee? as experts. It is indeed a "profession in the making," and the present lively interest in the subject, stimulated by the popular magazines and the flood of art objects, art ideas, and art catchwords swelled by the war, is bringing into it in even greater numbers people without professional equipment or attitude. On the other hand, a number of experienced and well-established women decorators in New York have been working for several years toward a professional or- ganization and a formulation of standards of preparation, apprenticeship, and compensation. It is only through such efforts that the occupation can really acquire a professional status. It suffers from being so largely on the basis of in- dependent and competitive business, although there are sala- ried positions to be had with the larger firms and in the interior decorating departments of the great department stores and furnishing houses. As a whole, it is perhaps not unfair to say that it is at present more nearly on the basis of dressmaking than on the basis of a profession. Never- theless, many of the standard schools of art and design are giving courses of two or even three years in interior decorating, including the elements of architecture, the study of historic periods, design, color, ornament, furniture, tex- tiles. This training involves the working out of concrete problems or "projects" in decoration and the use of illus- trative materials in museums, available private collections, and commercial houses of reputation. The University of Minnesota is requiring the first two years' work in archi- tecture of its students of interior decorating. The Beaux- Arts Institute of Design in New York, in cooperation with the Society of Beaux Arts Architects, the Art Alliance of America, the National Sculpture Society, and the Society of Mural Painters, offers courses in architectural design interior decoration and industrial art design, sculpture, modeling of ornament, and composition in mural painting. At present, training in interior decorating has marked limitations on the business side — buying, marketing, making of specifications and contracts, estimating of costs — which ART SERVICES 321 might be done away with through practice and apprentice ar- rangements between the schools and interior decorating firms and departments of high standing. Apprenticeship to-day is on an individual and precarious basis with low pay, seasonal fluctuation of employment, and no assurance of training beyond what may be picked up. With the beginnings already made, interior decorating is at a point where it might easily progress through the further stages of professional evolution — organization of associa- tions ; formulation of educational standards and programs ; definition of apprenticeship ; standardization of salaries and fees ; possible registration of qualified workers ; holding of exhibitions and competitions. It has much to learn in these matters from the allied profession of architecture Interior decorators, like other modern workers, tend to spe- cialization in hangings, furniture, lighting arrangements, and so on. But to be truly professional, they must have an understanding of the principles and problems of their en- tire field. Of more permanent and recognized artistic importance is the work of the mural or decorative painter. There has been a marked development of this form of art in this country within recent years, and it is to be found in the arger private houses as well as in public buildings, hotels, and occasionally in churches. At least one woman mural painter, Miss Violet Oakley, has achieved distinction. The designing of stained glass is a related art. The decorative painter also frequently designs magazine covers and posters; and some of them are successful illustrators. The field of poster designing has been greatly enlarged by the war, and American posters have improved conspicuously in eflfective- ness and artistic character. They will undoubtedly continue to be used in many forms of publicity, and oiifer a prac- tically new opportunity to women of good modern training, originality, and understanding of the nature of popular ap- peal. Their recent artistic development is bound to im- prove the character of much billboard, display, and maga- zine advertising. Illustrating in both black and white and color is com- 322 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS monly divided into pictorial, including magazine, book, or newspaper illustrating, and commercial, including fash- ion drawing and the preparation of other drawings and sketches for trade catalogues, trade journals, and the ad- vertising sections of magazines and papers. The growth of the greeting-card industry has increased the demand for pictorial illustrations. Most of the art schools provide special courses in poster designing and illustrating. They are recognized forms of commercial art. Under this head- ing may also be included commercial photography, whicli is largely used in the reproduction of trade objects and models. A commercial artist is likely to need a supple- mentary knowledge of photographic processes and other forms of mechanical reproduction. The woman cartoonist is practically unknown, but there is no reason why she may not appear. Industrial art in the narrower sense has to do with the preparation of designs to be used in the processes of manufacturing by machinery. In the broader sense it in- cludes the crafts, the making by hand of artistic objects of daily use. Industrial designers prepare designs for textiles, especially for printed or woven patterns in silk or cotton ; for clothing ; for lace and embroidery ; for jewelry; for wall-paper, rugs and carpets; furniture, pot- tery, glass, and metal work. The war has made tremendous changes in industrial art, by throwing us upon our own resources and forcing manufacturers for the first time seri ously to study the reasons for European superiority in many fields. We are at the beginning of a new and active period. The industries are cooperating with the art schools and with the great museums. They are offering prizes in design competitions, and establishing scholarships and fellowships The Metropolitan Museum has within the past year ap pointed an associate in industrial arts, and held an indus trial art exhibit with special reference to textiles and cos tumes. The Art Alliance of America has conducted severa contests and exhibitions of industrial design with prizes! offered by the great trade paper, JVoinen's Wear, and by various manufacturers. Plans have been matured for a* comprehensive survey of our existing industrial art re ART SERVICES 323 sources by the National Society for Vocational Education in cooperation with art schools, art museums, and manu- facturers and looking to the development of a national pro- gram for the training of designers. Among industries to be studied are the costume trades, textiles, printing, jewelry, silverware, wall-paper, lighting fixtures, ceramics, furniture, and interior decoration. There is a corresponding activity in the field of the artistic handicrafts and a growing understanding of their bearing on artistic production as a whole. The National Society of Craftsmien has founded a school for the train- ing of workers, and advocates the establishment of such schools in connection with factories. In June 1919 the Art AlHance of America held an exhibition of the handicrafts of foreign-born workers, which attracted the attention of manufacturers. Through its artistic industries section, it is now organizing a system with neighborhood houses as centers for bringing these handicrafts into relations with manufacturers, wholesalers, and retailers, both as artistic products and as offering suggestions for designs. Individual social settlements have long encouraged and disposed of these foreign handicraft articles ; but this seems the first effort to bring them into the main stream of production. There have likewise been associations for fostering native handicraft industries, such as those of Deerfield, Massa- chusetts, and of the southern mountaineers. The Women's Educational and Industrial Union maintains a shop for ar- tistic handwork, and there are various societies of arts and crafts. The development of occupational therapy in hospitals has led in some cases to the production of articles of artistic merit and selling value. Occupational therapists, or teachers of crafts in hospitals, are dealt with in Chapter V. An Art Center has been incorporated in New York City for the promotion of industrial art, and has the backing of many associations of artists and art craftsmen. It is hoped that similar centers will be established in all the important manufacturing cities. From many different directions comes a demand which exceeds the supply for designers, craftsmen, and other work- ers in applied art. There are already many women in the 324 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS art occupations, some of them receiving high salaries. Among them are several research experts in textiles and other special art fields and a larger number who are expert craftsmen in jewelry, weaving, bookbinding, and other crafts. A number are in business for themselves. In the future women will undoubtedly have to meet higher pro- fessional standards and secure more thorough and pro- longed professional training. Besides teaching in art schools, general schools, and vocational schools, there is a prospect of positions as supervisors and instructors in factory schools and of young workers in service. The American Art Anniid, published by the American Federation of Arts, with headquarters in Washington, pre- sents a yearly survey of the range of art activities in this country. At the 1918 meeting of this association, the find- ing of positions for industrial art workers was discussed. The Art Alliance of America maintains in New York a placement bureau for this purpose, and is probably the best source of information and assistance. Salaries in applied art work are so unstandardized, and are changing so rapidly, that it is unsafe to give any figures. A designer with any training is likely to receive $25 a week to begin with; and $50 a week and up are received by workers of some experience. CHAPTER XVII TECHNICAL SERVICES: SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGIES) PSY- CHOLOGY ; STATISTICS The training acquired in university and college scientific laboratories, especially in bacteriology and other aspects of biology, chemistry, physics, psychology, and geology, and college training in mathematics and statistics have a direct relation to scientific and technical work in a variety of occupations. These subjects are distinctly instrumental in their applications ; and this chapter, accordingly, is not so much a discussion of a relatively independent field of pro- fessional employment as it is a discussion of the openings for scientifically and technically trained women in a number of fields. It connects closely with the chapters on health services, food and living services, personnel and industrial services, commercial services, library and museum services, and educational services. It bears intimately upon govern- ment services. As fast as any field of work develops agen- cies for investigation and research, it calls for women with one or other of these types of equipment. Before the war teaching was the major occupation of women trained in the sciences, although they had to meet a strong feeling, especially in high schools, that science de- partments were a man's province. But for at least ten years before 1914 a small but increasing number of women had been going into public and private health laboratories, federal departments, notably the Department of Agriculture, and in an experimental fashion, into industrial laboratories. When it became evident that the war was to be won to a large extent by scientists and engineers, and the actual and threatened shortage of men in these professions became acute, attention turned to the only other source of supply, 325 326 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS scientifically and technically trained women. It proved to be meager, for the number of really expert scientific women was small; there were practically no women engineers, in spite of an occasional graduate from an engineering school and few women draftsmen. The universities and colleges adapted their scientific training for women to some extent in the direction of war needs. Certain technical schools, such as the Carnegie Institute of Technology and the Case School of Applied Science, offered special courses in the summer and autumn of 1918 to train women as mechanical draftsmen and "engineers of tests" for the Ordnance De- partment. Others, like Drexel Institute, organized courses for dietitians and "laboratory' technicians." Some of the great industrial corporations, like the DuPont de Nemours Company, the General Electric Company, and the Eastman Kodak Company, working on war orders, took groups of young college women into their laboratories, giving them training in service courses in special branches of industrial chemistry, engineering, and optics. Government depart- ments called for women topographical draftsmen and map- makers ; the Bureau of Standards m.ade use of .women laboratory assistants in chemistry and physics. While many of these women were released at the end of the war, and while the total number employed has prob- ably been exaggerated, there is no doubt that their war- service accustomed industrial employers and government departments to the idea of women as laboratory and re- search workers. They are continuing to turn to the col- leges and the occupations bureaus for suitable candidates, especially in the fields of public health, industrial chemistry and physics, psychology, and statistics ; to some extent in engineering, in so far as it has to do with office and labora- tory procedures. They are retaining a number of women war-workers as permanent members of their force. An editorial article in the Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry,^ entitled The Wcxm-an Chemist Has Come to Stay, quotes the following estimate from the chief chemist of the Illinois Steel Company pi the women chemists in his laboratory during the war: "They learned ' March, 1919. I TECHNICAL SERVICES 12^ the work as quickly as any men of like training could have learned it. . . . They were and are careful, conscientious, reliable workers in the field of industrial chemistry, taking their turn at night work cheerfully, and so far as I can learn, contentedly. During the month of July, 1918, there were employed on iron and steel work thirty-one men and seven women. Total number of determinations made ... on iron and steel by women . . . 15.6 per cent of the total. Per cent of women employed, 18.5 — not quite their share; they were learning the work. During the month of October there were thirty-six men and an average of six and a half women . . . Total number of determinations made ... by women 16 per cent of the total. Percentage of women employed, 15.3. From this it is readily seen that as soon as the W'Omen learned the work they carried their share. . . . During the hot weather, when to sleep, for those working at night, was almost impossible, the percentage of women off duty was less than the men. The percentage off duty on account of sickness is not greater than the men. In fact, it has not equaled the men in our particular case, several of our men being on extended sick leave. Requests for days off duty by women . . . are not more than those of men." In another part of the same journal is a discussion of the over-supply of chemists called forth by an article in a preceding number urging unemployed chemists to return to the colleges and universities for more advanced train- ing and "to utilize their time in further education or even in teaching!" A professor of chemical engineering in a great university sends the following estimate of the value of graduate training in chemistry, which may well be taken to heart by women chemists and indeed by all women in science : "Some four years ago I attempted to arrive at an estimate of the value to the industries of men with gradu- ate training. The estimates were made in various terms by men experienced in the chemical industries. . . . The re- sults finally arrived at were : that a man with one year^ of graduate training is of approximately double the value of a man having only the bachelor's degree ; that with two years of graduate training he is three times as valuable ; and 328 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS that with the doctor's degree, ordinarily representing three years' graduate training, he is on an average five times as valuable as the man with only the bachelor's degree. Also it was the general opinion that for a given age the salaries paid, beyond that necessary for a bare living . . . were not far from . . . the ratio just mentioned." The importance of thorough training for women in sci- ence can hardly be too much emphasized at present, when as a result of taking on imperfectly and hastily trained women during the war, employers betray a tendency to look upon all women scientific workers as "technicians" and routine assistants rather than as professional workers in the full sense. Not only for their own careers but for the sake of others who may follow, scientific women need to have unimpeachable qualifications, to expect no favors, and to show marked tenacity and courage. They are still pioneers. As a result of the war, however, it seems to be admitted that a woman may fill any purely laboratory posi- tion for which she is equipped, even that of director. As yet she is not considered as in line for positions having to do with production, nor for those involving chemical or other scientific engineering. Thoroughly prepared women, while willing to begin at the bottom and to demonstrate their ability, should at the same time be on their guard against being used by employers to get expert work more cheaply done than by men, and should stand firmly for recognition and promotion on their record of work accomplished. There is professional as well as industrial "undercutting." But employers complain that women in laboratories are not al- ways willing to be held accountable for failures as well as for successes. Material collected in 1920 for a bulletin on The Woman Chemist^ shows salaries of fifteen chemists ranging from $1,450 to over $3,000, with a median salary of $2,000. Of twelve giving the date of taking their present positions, ten have entered upon the work since August, 191 7. Eleven out of the fifteen have received their highest degrees since * For the use of this material acknowledgment is due to the Bu- reau of Vocational Information. For further information, see The WoMian Chemist. Bulletin No. 4, 1921. TECHNICAL SERVICES 329 1914. Two have doctor's degrees ; five master of science degrees ; two master of arts ; six bachelor of science or bachelor of arts. No clear correlations between degrees and salaries emerge, although the medians increase slightly with the higher degrees. The highest salary is received by a woman holding the B. S. and M. S. degrees from two well-known western state universities. One Ph. D. at $2,500 is head of the testing and research laboratory of an eastern manufacturing company. She does not state her years of service. Another, who has just received her doctorate, is analytical and research chemist in a yeast company at $1,800. Others in industrial work include research chemists and assistants in electrical, carburundum, and rubber regenerat- ing companies; an analytical and research chemist in a glass- ware company; a consulting chemist in a jewelers* associa- tion, and a chemist in the dyestufifs technical laboratory and dyestufifs sales department of a great chemical industry. Two are in the federal Department of Agriculture, one in the Bureau of Chemistry, the other as a food and nutrition specialist in the States Relations Service in charge of in- vestigations on cereals and baking. One is director of the bureau of foods and drugs of a state board of public health, and has charge of the inspection of dairies, bakeries, and groceries, at a salary of $2,400. Two are in charge of the private laboratories of physicians, one also serving as a hospital clinical pathologist and bacteriologist.^ A bacteriologist filling our schedule is in charge of the diagnostic laboratory of a state department of health, her position involving diagnostic work, supervision of two as- sistant bacteriologists, two laboratory assistants, two clerks, and two office boys. She is a graduate of the Massachu- setts Institute of Technolog}% has done graduate work, and been a college instructor. She selects her assistants, who are college women, and recommends their appointment. In 1918 she received a salary of $2,000, which was higher than * The War Department Committee on Classification of Personnel prepared specifications in 1918 for over fifty kinds of chemists. See O. P. Hopkins. Wage a)id Salary Earners in Chemical In- dustries. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry. August I, 1919. 330 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS that paid to her predecessor, a man. A chemist in a safety razor company makes analyses of steel, brass, salts, and plating solutions. Some of the comments follow : "For the majority of women straight chemistry will not get them very far. The big thing in chemistry is chemical engineering, and few women would ever be fitted for that work, while routine chemistry would become very monoto- nous. . . . That would be the field to which most women would be assigned in a manufacturing plant." "Upon leaving college, the girl who has spent four years specializing in chemistry . . . considers herself as a chem- ist ; but she will find only the most rudimentary positions open to her. She should have discovered, however, along what branches of chemistry her interest lies, and for which great division of work — routine or research — she is best fitted. Many delude themselves upon this point. 'Routine' sounds dull and uninteresting, while 'research' has an adven- turous sound. . . . Neither is true. Work in one field is no more fascinating nor more wearying and vexatious than in the other. But . . . different kinds of people are required. The type of mind which will make a success of research is both logical and original. ... I am more and more im- pressed with the fact that the girl who wants to beat a man at his own game has to work hard to do it. I do not believe that this is because the man has any objection to women being chemists. I do not believe that men think they are necessarily better chemists than women. I have heard men give many reasons why they do not want women — any woman — in their laboratories. I never heard one mention that he thought they could not do the ordinary work. His objections are usually along the line that a laboratory is a dirty, unattractive place where hard work is done. Its natural inhabitants are men who smoke, and swear when things go wrong, and insist on such natural prerogatives of menfolks. They don't want women around because they will try to reform the place and make a par- lor of it. Once such suspicions are at rest, a rnan is usually ready to give a woman chemist a chance ; but the woman who takes such a job must remember that she is an innova- I TECHNICAL SERVICES 331 tion, an experiment. . , . And how do chances for men and women compare? In a broad way, I should say that their chances are equal so far as purely chemical positions go. For a man, success in dealing with chemical problems may mean that he is taken out of the laboratory and put in charge of production in a plant. That is in the nature of the work out of the question for the woman." "Chemistry is splendid for some women, absolutely hope- less for others. To be a success in chemistry a woman must of course be perfectly honest. You cannot slide or bluff results in an exact science. She must not be afraid of negative results. She should by all means be trained in a good coeducational institution where she will get a good, thorough course in the theories of chemistry and will also be constantly with men and learn their ways of thinking and reasoning, because she will in almost every case have to deal with men entirely when she takes a po- sition. ... I have found that people who have had the experience of making their living , . . before entering into a permanent position as a chemist are more reasonable and better fitted to deal with others. . . . My work is a wonder- ful training for any one who would care to go back into teaching and make chemistry a 'liver' subject than it has ever been imagined before. Some day I may, but not yet." "My position will improve, because soon we are to have another assistant. It seems an extremely advantageous time for women to pursue chemistry. Recently I have heard of many opportunities for women in technical laboratories, whereas two years ago I heard of only two such positions. In my general education my chemistry has proved most helpful directly, mathematics indirectly. I regret that I have been unable to pursue graduate study of chemistry. . . . The employers seem generally to use the method of communicating with the colleges when in need of chemists or with the employment bureau of the Chemists' Club in New York." "For bacteriological work, a thorough scientific training in biology and chemistry is necessary. A Ph. D. is desirable, more so, I think, than an M. D. degree." Present scientific and technological opportunities for the 332 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS young college graduate are illustrated by reports from Bar- nard, Mount Holyoke, Radcliffe, and Vassar Colleges, and the Margaret Morrison Carnegie School of the Carnegie Institute of Technology, as to the occupational distribution of the classes of 1917 and 1918. The five institutions report thirty workers in chemistry ; twenty-four in bacteriology, biology, and physiology; eighteen in engineering, drafting, and computing ; and six in applied physics. Seventeen chem- ists held industrial positions, of whom five were released from war industries after the armistice. Three were con- nected with the Mellon Institute for Industrial Research in Pittsburgh ; one did war research on explosives in a uni- versity laboratory ; three were in hospital or private diag- nostic and research health laboratories ; five were teachers or laboratory assistants in college departments of chemistry; one was teaching chemistry in a secondary school. Of the eight so-called engineers, four were working on switch- board specifications and problems for the General Electric Company, having been given a special course of training by the company; two were in the Western Electric Com- pany; and two were assistants in the engineering depart- ment of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company, receiving training in the allied Western Electric Company. It is difficult to tell how much of their work is laboratory testing and research and how much is drafting and com- puting. It is likewise difficult to distinguish between en- gineering workers and workers in industrial physics. Of the three reported as draftsmen, two were employed in the offices of the New York Central Railway Company, and one by the United States Bureau of Mines. Of the computers, seven were employed by the American Telephone and Telegraph Company or the Western Electric. Of the physicists, four were laboratory assistants in the Western Electric Company ; one was in the physical research labora- tory of a firm manufacturing tools ; two were in the Bureau of Standards of the federal Department of Commerce work- ing on thermal analysis and radio development respectively ; one was a lens inspector for the Signal Corps during the war, having received intensive training at the Bausch & Lomb factory and at the pjureau of Standards. I TECHNICAL SERVICES 333 Informal accounts of their work are graphic. A chemist says : "I have begun my career as an organic chemist in the synthetic chemistry department of the Company. . . . Our laboratory is the only one of its kind in the country, being composed entirely of girls with the exception of our director and his assistant. They are from various colleges and universities, such as Chicago, Bryn Mawr, Oberlin, and Vassar. . . . Our products are very valuable, and sold only in small quantities. Most of them have been Germany's exports until now." Another says: "I am assistant to the chemist of a color works. I take great pleasure in analyzing the chemical compositions of colors and in striking 'laboratory batches.' I recently helped the company to get a big order from the Bureau of Engraving and Printing because I succeeded in matching a sample of purple submitted for making three- cent stamps." Another reports: 'T am working with a dozen fellow chemists in the analytical department of a drug company. . . . We examine physically and chemically, and accept or reject, all materials purchased for manufacturing and all finished products of the company, and considering the fact that we put out 10,000 different preparations, we're busy." A bacteriologist in charge of the culture laboratory of a great museum of natural history says : "We have a col- lection of some six hundred organisms of all kinds and varieties, pathogenic and non-pathogenic. Our work is first of all to keep these alive and in pure culture. Then upon request we send transfers of these to accredited schools and colleges and research laboratories. The rest of our work is on a research problem." A "switchboard engineer" says : "This tremendous cor- poration has 23,000 employees in these works alone. I work in a rather large office — the Switchboard Sales Department. Our work is both engineering and commercial, and consists principally of drawing specifications for switchboards to control all sorts of electrical apparatus, and then making an estimate on these specifications. There is a wide varia- tion between the different jobs which come into the office, from a proposition for a switchboard to control a small 334 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS motor to requests for boards to control large power plants, railway terminals, or the electrical apparatus on a great battleship. ... So far, the company has been very generous in recognizing, financially and otherwise, any improvement on our part, and I feel that the chances for advancement are certainly as great as in any other line of business for any one who will stay in it." An engineering assistant in a telephone corporation says : "I plot curves, and I ink drawings, and I index millions of articles about radio-telegraphy and telephony for a card- catalogue, and I translate French articles about mercury arcs and the aidion, and I can use a slide-rule and a comp- tometer. . . . Three times a week the college girls in our department take a course in engineering at the Western Electric. In this way we are becoming better able to handle problems in telephone engineering and to apply our mathe- matics in correlation with electricity. About two months ago I was given an assistant to do my computing work." A physicist says: "I have a position in the physical research laboratory of a hammer manufacturing company, breaking the company's precedent, as they have not had a woman in the laboratory before. I am learning so much (especially how little I know) that I am ashamed to be drawing a salary. My work is never uninteresting, being research." Another says: "I am working in the engineering depart- ment of the National Lamp Works. There are three other college girls doing work here, one from Vassar and two from Smith. . . . The work our section does is planning illumination 'layouts' for buildings of all kinds, street light- ing, designing and testing lamps, etc. I have been studying residence lighting — they thought it more suitable for a girl than street lighting." Still another says : "I am in the Bureau of Standards, where my own particular job is research on insulating materials when subjected to radio frequencies. ... I have been doing some airplaning lately. We have been working on some landing problems of the air mail service, and I benefit from the experimental part, and go aloft to receive signals from our home field." I TECHNICAL SERVICES 335 Computing work in industries and public utilities is a new opening for college women. But they have long been employed as astronomical computers in the leading ob- servatories of the country, such as the Harvard University Observatory, the United States Naval Observatory at Washington, the Yerkes Observatory of the University of Chicago, and the Lick and Wilson Universities in Califor- nia. This work requires at least full undergraduate train- ing in astronomy and closely related courses in mathematics. Laboratory work in physics and chemistry is also desirable, and, as in all sciences, a reading knowledge of foreign lan- guages on the technical side. Such work may lead to re- search positions in observatories, and is an invaluable experience for later teaching in college and university de- partments of astronomy, if combined with graduate work. Positions either at observatories or as teachers of astronomy are few in number. The science has several aspects — mathe- matical astronomy, astro-physics, stellar astronomy. Stellar photography is a field in which some women have spe- cialized. Observatory salaries are not high, comparing with those paid college assistants and instructors and ranging from about $1,200 to $1,500 or $1,800. The recent report on proposed reclassification of salaries in the federal civil service in Washington ^ provides six classes of general astronomical worker : astronomical computer ; chief astro- nomical computer; assistant astronomer; associate astrono- mer; astronomer; and senior astronomer — and five classes of mathematical astronomer: junior, assistant, and associ- ate mathematical astronomer ; mathematical and senior math- ematical astronomer. Salaries in both groups range from $1,200 to $5,040. Specifications for astronomical computer and associate mathematical astronomer are as follows: COMPUTER Duties : To perform under immediate supervision, routine re- ductions in astronomy; and to perform related work as required. Examples: Reducing transit circle, equatorial, prime ^Report of Congressional Joint Commission. March 12, 1920. 336 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS vertical, alt-azimuth, and photographic observations ; com- puting ephemerides and the orbits of asteroids and comets. Qualifications : Training equivalent to that represented by graduation from an institution of recognized standing, with major work in mathematics, mechanics, astronomy, and related subjects; and ability to read scientific French or Ger- man, or an equivalent foreign language. Principal Lines of Promotion To: Assistant Astronomer, Chief Astronomical Com- puter. Compensation for Class Annual: $1,200, $1,320, $1,440, $1,560, $1,680, $1,800. ASSOCIATE MATHEMATICAL ASTRONOMER Duties : To perform, under general direction, either individually or with subordinates, specialized work in astronomical re- search which may or may not involve supervisory duties, but does not include the determination of policies ; and to perform related work as required. Examples : Revising tables of the sun, moon, and ma- jor planets ; making and revising star catalogues ; correct- ing elements of satellite orbits ; preparing data for eclipse and longitude expeditions ; discussing the work of such expeditions. Qualifications : Training equivalent to that represented by graduation with a degree from an institution of recognized standing, with major work in mathematics, mechanics, and related subjects, by not less than three years' graduate work, and by at least five years' professional experience in mathe- matical astronomy ; proven ability to conduct or direct re- search work in mathematical astronomy; ability to read scientific French or German, or an equivalent foreign language ; and to prepare for publication, in clear and con- cise English, manuscripts embodying the results of re- search work in astronomy. II TECHNICAL SERVICES 337 Principal Lines of Promotion From: Assistant Mathematical Astronomer. To: Mathematical Astronomer. Compensation for Class Annual : $3,240, $3,360, $3,480, $3,600, $3,720, $3,840. Another field of applied science partially at least opened to women by the war is that of geology and the closely allied subjects of geography and map-making. In the past, the amount of field work required has been held to dis- qualify women, although a few are surmounting that diffi- culty ; and intimate relations with civil and mining engi- neering have made them peculiarly masculine professions. But the exact knowledge of topographical and geological formations essential to military operations and the recent development of new oil, gas, and coal fields have greatly increased the amount and importance of office and labora- tory work. In this country, we are just learning the mean- ing of geography as a science in the European sense. A few women with college training in geology and geography are being employed in the offices of oil companies and of petro- leum and mining engineers. As usual in a new field, they are expected to begin in a clerical or semi-clerical capacity. An expert engineer, who is also professor in a university school of mines, writes as follows: "It is quite true that women who major in geology in college have a vocational opportunity with coal and oil companies and experts in these fields. Also that a knowledge of stenography, type- w^riting, and also bookkeeping gives a decided advantage in getting a start in such positions. I have been seeking women of this type and have not been able to obtain any. ... I know of six such workers in Oklahoma oil com- panies. The nature of the work so far has been to make what are called underground structure maps, using the data reported in the drilling of the wells, or in working on the appraisal of properties or on the rate of depletion in order to establish tax allowance. ... Let me add some sugges- 338 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS tions as to the selection of courses for such a person : physics, chemistry, geology, economics, accounting, stenog- raphy, typewriting, apflied mathematics, graphics, statistics, filing." Outside of engineering firms and industrial corporations, opportunities are to be found in the federal Geological Sur- vey, Bureau of Mines, and possibly the Coast and Geodetic Survey, as well as in various state geological surveys and bureaus of mines. Government service is excellent train- ing either for later industrial work or for teaching in col- leges or certain secondary schools. In general, the specifications of the scientific, technical, and statistical services given in the Reclassification Report will prove illuminating and helpful to women looking for- ward to work of any of these types and also to those en- gaged in training them. The subdivisions of each field are notable. The sciences are grouped under the biological science service and the physical science service. The first includes specifications for different classes of agronomists, anthropologists, apiculturists, archeologists, general and soil bacteriologists, aquatic and general biologists, seed botanists, systematic botanists, plant ecologists, entomologists, ethnolo- gists, horticulturists, microanalysts, microbiologists, mycolo- gists, nematologists, ornithologists, parasitologists, insect and plant pathologists, plant physiologists, pomologists, zoolo- gists! The second includes besides astronomers and geol- ogists, chemists, metallurgists, meteorologists, physicists, and soil scientists. The engineering service includes twenty- three different types of engineer, from aeronautical to topographical.^ The statistical service is divided into me- chanical tabulation, statistical clerical work, and statistical science. In all these services, professional workers are ranked as juniors, assistants, associates, full workers, senior workers, and chiefs or directors. Scientific and technical "aids" need have only a high-school education, and are not ranked as professional. Salaries for junior workers are set at from $i,8oo to $2,160; for assistants, from $2,400 to $3,- 000 ; for associates, from $3,240 to $3,840 ; for full workers, * See Report of Committee of Engineering Council on Classifica- tion and Compensation of Engineers (Pamphlet, 1919). TECHNICAL SERVICES 339 from $4,140 to $5,040. Salaries for senior workers and for chiefs are determined individually. While this report has not yet been adopted by Congress, it is based on careful study of current practices, and reorganization of govern- ment services is likely to follow the lines here laid down. Under existing conditions there are great variations in both titles and pay in the different departments of the fed- eral government. A number of women have held scientific and technical positions under the government. Since No- vember 5, 1919, all civil service examinations have been open to them, although appointing officers may specify whether they wish a man or a woman. Candidates for pro- fessional positions under Civil Service are usually not re- quired to present themselves for examination, but are rated upon sworn statements regarding their education and experience and sometimes upon brief written theses sub- mitted. To be put upon an eligible list by no means involves receiving an appointment ; but conditions are becoming more favorable to the appointment of women, and those who are thoroughly equipped will do well to qualify. Present sal- aries compare with those paid in colleges and schools. Dur- ing 1919, examinations were announced for junior chemist at a salary ranging from $1,200 to $1,400 a year and requir- ing college graduation with a major in chemistry; associ- ate chemist at a salary ranging from $1,800 to $2,500 and requiring a Ph.D. degree taken in one of eight specified fields of chemistry; physicist at a salary ranging from $2,000 to $2,800 and requiring a master's degree, with at least three years' work in physics and in mathematics through elementary differential equations ; assistant plant pathologist at a salary ranging from $1,620 to $2,040 and requiring college graduation with special courses in plant pathology and a year's experience in research or teaching; research assistant in agricultural geography at a salary ranging from $1,500 to $2,000 and requiring college gradua- tion with special courses in economics or agricultural ge- ography, a reading knowledge of two modern languages, and at least a year in economic, statistical, or geographical research; junigr engineer, Grade I. (civil, electrical, me- chanical, signal, structural, telegraph and telephone) at a 340 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS salary ranging from $1,320 to $1,680 and requiring profes- sional school graduation and a year's experience; assistant engineer of tests, at a per diem rate, requiring graduation from a mechanical engineering course with research work on strength of materials, particularly of steels, copper, and their alloys ; assistant and associate technologist at salaries ranging from $1,400 to $1,800 and from $2,000 to $2,800 re- spectively and requiring experience in either rubber, leather, paper, or textile technology and general physics, chemistry, and mathematics ; assistant valuation engineer and valua- tion engineer at salaries ranging from $2,500 to $3,600 and from $3,600 to $4,800 respectively, and requiring ability to estimate the value of mineral, or oil and gas, or timber, and the cost of the utilization and exploitation of such natural resources and the completion of professional courses in engineering, geology, or forestry. Similar openings exist under state and city civil service and in argicultural ex- periment stations. Drafting, apart from engineering, architecture, or geology, is a skilled trade or a sub-profession rather than a pro- fession proper. But in one or another of its many forms, it is a useful tool for women of good education who wish to gain a foothold in the technical sides of government service or of industry. Drafting is based on a sound knowl- edge of mechanical drawing; and draftsmen are of many varieties — aeronautical, architectural, commercial, electri- cal, mechanical, ship and boat, structural, topographical and hydrographical. ^ Opportunities for scientifically trained women are increas- ing in public and private health laboratories with the growth of the public health movement. Chemists, bacteriologists, and pathologists are thus employed. Much of the work is routine testing and analysis, and there is a tendency to use women without advanced scientific training as "laboratory technicians." But some of the state departments of public health, such as that of New York, have been taking on * See Report on Classification and Compensation of Engineers, Engineering Council (1919), under sub-professional service; also, Drafting. Opportunity Monograph. Federal Board for Vocational Education (1919). I TECHNICAL SERVICES 341 young college women with good preparation in undergrad- uate science as apprentices in training; and the schools of public health, such as the new School of Hygiene and Pub- lic Health of Johns Hopkins University, and the depart- ments at Harvard and Yale, are preparing women for the degrees of bachelor, master, or doctor of public health. There is a difference of opinion as to whether these women should also have a medical degree. For the present, at least, it is probably an advantage in their dealings with physicians. The Johns Hopkins school arranges with the medical school for the conferring of both degrees in five years. It offers six research fellowships with a stipend of $1,000. One or two women doctors have been city health officers, and a woman doctor is first assistant director of the great research laboratories of the New York City De- partment of Health. She has charge of three of the seven divisions of the Bureau of Laboratories, and has done dis- tinguished bacteriological research. A few women have specialized as anesthetists and roentgenologists. Here, too, the medical degree is necessary for an assured status. An occasional woman has become an expert in medical illus- trating and modeling. In other scientific fields, women hold positions in museums of natural history; in forest products laboratories, such as that at the University of Wisconsin; as seed analysts in large seed companies ; as textile analysts in a few mail-order houses and large department stores. One woman at least is food inspector and tester in a great hotel. There are surprisingly few women chemists in the laboratories of food- products companies, but they are being increasingly em- ployed in nutrition laboratories.^ With the growing opportunities for women in the sciences and technolo.eries, there are certain considerations to keep in mind: (i) The necessity of mathematics as an adjunct, including a knowledge of calculus and preferably some ' See Vocational Information. Leland Stanford Junior University Bulletin under Science and Applied Science. Vocations for Busi- ness and Professional Women, under Scientific Work. 342 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS training in statistical method. Ability to use the comptome- ter and the sHde-rule is a great advantage; (2) The im- portance of a scientific reading knowledge of modern lan- guages ; (3) The value of command of a related science. In industrial and engineering positions, chemistry, and phys- ics are often needed; in health, food, and nutrition labora- tory vi'ork, chemistry, bacteriolog}^ and physiology; (4) The desirability for scientific workers in industry, govern- ment service, or pubHc health, of an understanding of eco- nomic, industrial, and social conditions and problems. Pre- professional courses in these subjects should be taken in college; (5) The fact that if women are to win full pro- fessional status in these fields, they must not rest content with intensive courses provided by the industries or agencies themselves, invaluable as these are, but must secure thorough training of a graduate character in the best professional schools available. These are more and more cooperating with industries and other organizations in the giving of field and shop practice. Facilities for advanced scientific and technological train- ing are open to women in practically all coeducational insti- tutions ; but hitherto only a handful have availed themselves of them. In many, it is true, they have not been encouraged, and their subsequent careers have been regarded with indif- ference. A western school of mines replied to our inquiry: "We have only two women graduates. We have no infor- mation with regard to the work they have done." On the other hand, the dean of the College of Civil Engineering of Cornell University writes : "Up to the present time, but one young lady has ever graduated from here — in 1905. At the present time we have three young ladies pursuing our regular four-year course. In my mind there is no doubt but what office work in particular in engineering can be done by women as well as by men if they have a reasonably good training in mathematics." ^ Women should more largely apply for scientific, indus- * See S. C. R. Mann. A Study of Engineering Education (1918), Bulletin No. 11, Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Vocational Information. Leland Stanford Junior Uni- versity Bulletin, under Engineering. TECHNICAL SERVICES 343 trial, and technical fellowships for which they can qualify. Many industries maintain such fellowships at the larger universities ; others exist on various foundations. The Na- tional Research Council in Washington is awarding fellow- ships for advanced research, and serves as an information bureau regarding such opportunities and all matters relat- ing to scientific developments and applications. In 1919 the American Association for the Advancement of Science made a grant to a woman for a piece of research on the mortality statistics of college women. The Sarah Berliner Research Fellowship in science of the value of $1,000 is exclusively for women, and is administered by the Associa- tion of Collegiate Alumnae. Women should seek member- ship in appropriate scientific and technical societies. Positions are commonly secured through the colleges and professional schools and through application to organiza- tions known to favor the employment of women. Occa- sionally, advertisement in scientific or technical journals brings results. In chemistry, registration with the employ- ment bureau of the Chemists' Club in New York is ad- visable. The extraordinary development in recent years of labora- tory and observational psychology and its applications in the fields of education, delinquency, health and social services, commerce and industry, advertising and publicity, warrant its inclusion in a chapter devoted to the professional aspects of the sciences and technologies. This development has followed two main lines : the devising of mental tests and ratings of various sorts and the study of the concrete mani- festations and bases of human behavior, especially on its abnormal side. The first originated chiefly in the testing of children by the Binet-Simon intelligence scale; the sec- ond has a biological background, and represents contribu- tions from both psychologists and psychiatrists, the medical practitioners dealing with mental diseases. These two some- what unsympathetic groups are finding common ground in a modified Freudian psychology and in a constructive pro- gram for mental hygiene. Together they are coming to see 344 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS that the psychological problem is not merely the degree of mentahty, subnormal, normal, and supernormal, but also the kind of mentality — emotional and conduct stability, psy- chopathic trends, and the like. The army mental tests fur- nished a survey on a nation-wide scale of the distribution of persons of subnormal, average, and superior intelligence ;^ the treatment of "shell-shock" or "war-psychoses," the first large-scale popular demonstration of the principles of mod- ern psychiatry and mental hygiene. The results of both are being applied to many pressing social and economic prob- lems. Some understanding of these movements is coming to be expected of every professional worker, and there is bound to be an increasing demand for workers soundly trained in the principles and techniques of psychology and psychopathology. Of the various applications of psychology, the mental testing of school children is the oldest, beginning with the negative purpose of removing the feeble-minded from reg- ular classes in which they were only a hindrance and put- ting them into special classes or institutions,^ but developing into a positive study of their capacities, and leading to the grouping of children of all grades of intelligence and to special methods for the exceptionally bright as well as for the exceptionally dull. Many city school systems now main- tain psychological departments and psychological clinics. The first agency of the kind was established in 1898 by Professor Lightner Witmer of the Department of Psychology of the University of Pennsylvania. In other cities, school children are examined and tested at independent clinics uijder various auspices — in New York, for instance, at the Neurological Institute and the Cornell Clinic of Psychopathology; in Louisville, Kentucky, in the psychological clinic recently established jointly by the board of education and the feder- ated social agencies. This clinic examines both superior and inferior children for admission to special classes. In some cities clinics are combined with school vocational bureaus, ^ See C. E. Yoakum and R. M. Yerkes. Army Mental Tests (1920). Mental Hygiene. Passim 1918 — . * See Leta S. Hollingworth. The Psychology of Subnormal Children (1920). TECHNICAL SERVICES 345 as in Cincinnati, where Dr. Helen Bradford Woolley has made notable studies in the vocational psychology of young people. Psychological clinics have also long been maintained at such well-known schools for the feeble-minded as those at Waverley, Massachusetts, and Vineland, New Jersey. A more recent development is the establishment of school clinics in mental hygiene and the instruction of teach- ers and parents in its principles, as has been done in Balti- more by Dr. C. MacFie Campbell of Johns Hopkins Uni- versity, now of the Harvard Medical School, and in Worcester by Prof. William T. Burnham of Clark Univer- sity. The new realization of the importance of the mental and emotional experiences of childhood as determining mental health throughout life make this a field of work that demands extension and continuous study.^ It is still in its infancy. Psychologists are also attached to state and city boards and bureaus dealing with juveniles. Ohio has established a juvenile research bureau with a psychological staff. Wis- consin has a psychologist on its state department of educa- tion. Child welfare institutions and agencies of every sort are seeking psychological assistance. A special type of psychological work with minors has been that of the juvenile court and institutions for juvenile delinquents. In this field, Dr. William Healy, long director of the psychological laboratory of the Chicago juvenile court and now director of the Judge Baker Foundation in Boston, has been a distinguished leader. His work on the juvenile delinquent shows the intimate relations of mental defect and disorder to the whole matter of delinquency.- A number of juvenile courts now have psychologists attached to them. The demonstration through mental tests that mental and physical or chronological age often do not coincide, and that a seeming adult may have a mind of twelve years or less, has led to the application of these tests to delinquents, de- pendents, and unadjusted adults of all kinds, and especially *See Dr. William A. White. The Mental Hygiene of Child- hood (iQip)- "T/te Individual Delinquent (1915) ; Mental ConHicts and Miscon- duct (1917). 34^ WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS to wayward, border-line, or delinquent women and girls, who are a peculiar menace to society. Psychologists are attached to courts, prisons, and reformatories, to state prison commissions and boards of probation and parole, to pro- tective leagues, social and mental hygiene associations. With adults, as with children, it is coming to be seen clearly that adequate handling of the situation requires the cooperation of the psychologist, the psychiatrist, and the mental hygiene or psychiatric social worker. This new type of social worker is described in Chapter V. As yet, she is more commonly trained in social work than in psychology; but one of the most successful women in this field is a doctor of philosophy in psychology; and sound modern psychological training is likely to become a requi- site. Psychiatrists also lack training in psycholog}^ and are consequently too much inclined to consider the abnormal apart from the normal. But plans are now on foot for providing some training in both psychology and psychiatry for all medical students and simple, practical courses in psychology and psychopathology in schools of social work and nursing. Psychologists as well as psychiatrists are at- tached to the staffs of mental and psychopathic hospitals. In fact, every institution or organization concerned with the care of the sick needs an expert in psychology and mental hygiene, since all forms of disease and injury have their special mental and emotional aspects. This has been recog- nized by the War Department and the Red Cross, which have employed psychiatric social workers not only with mental cases proper but with other injured soldiers. The Red Cross has sent workers to the Smith School and other schools. The most recent applications of psychology are in the field of occupations and employment. "Personnel" oc "employ- ment" psycholog}' has to do especially with the devising of tests and techniques to determine special aptitudes, training, and fitness for employment and promotion, under the aus- pices of personnel or employment departments, as described in Chapter XI.^ In the larger sense, occupational or voca- * See Henry C. Link. Employment Psychology (1919). Per- sonnel System of the U. S. Army. Two vols. (1919). TECHNICAL SERVICES 347 tional psychology touches many sides of educational and social work : vocational guidance, vocational education, "labor turnover," and so on. Specific vocational tests are more difficult to devise than "general intelligence" tests, and have not been so satisfactorily worked out. There is a tendency to rely more upon objective "performance" or "trade" tests than upon psychological tests proper.^ There are still many problems to be dealt with in the psychology of professions and other occupations. But active research is going on in the entire field. With regard to industrial and other occupational maladjustments, hopeful beginnings of investigation have been made under the auspices of the Boston Psychopathic Hospital and the Engineering Founda- tion. Industrial mental hygiene clinics are advocated. Much more needs to be known regarding both the external con- ditions and the psychology of occupations before "vocational guidance" can be put on a sound basis. It has been too often a matter of pious hope or of blind acceptance of things as they are industrially. The applications of psychology to educational problems have long been a matter of theory, if not of practice. The fault has lain largely with the type of psychology offered. The newer psychology is making them effectual and valu- able. The uses of psychology in advertising, publicity, and salesmanship have been admirably pointed out and acted upon.2 The psychologist is coming to be a cooperating or consulting expert in practically all fields of social endeavor. He — or frequently she — assists the teacher, the judge, the doctor, the social worker, the employer, and the employed. "Americanization" work needs psychologists who are spe- cialists in the psycholog}' of racial groups and racial rela- tions. Health centers should include psychological and mental hygiene clinics, thus dissipating the distrust still felt for such clinics when under the auspices of mental hos- pitals or boards. Field workers in eugenics, who are trained chiefly at * See Henry C. Link. Employment Psychology (1919). Per- sonnel System of the U. S. Army. Two vols. (1919). *See Walter Dill Scott, Psychology of Advertising (1913). Harry A. Hollingworth. Advertising and Selling (1913). 348 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS the Eugenics Record Office of the Carnegie Station for Ex- perimental Evolution at Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, need a foundation in psychology as well as in zoology, since their work iconsists chiefly in securing farryly histories and data regarding the inmates of mental hospitals and institu- tions for the feeble-minded. The present interest in "mental tests" sometimes leads people to think that the planning and giving of such tests is the only work of the psychologist. It is important to remember that testing is one among many psychological techniques and fields. The person specializing in this work is known as a psychological examiner. A Report on the Qualifications of Psychological Examiners has been pre- pared by a committee of the American Psychological Asso- ciation, ^ and plans are under way for the certification by the Association of two grades of examiners: (i) those with the Ph.D. degree and (2) those with but one year of gradu- ate work. There is an Association of Clinical Psycholo- gists ; and a few women with this training are in independ- ent practice. In so new and so easily exploited a field, there is bound to be a "charlatan fringe," and psychologists them- selves, if not the state, are likely to devise some form of regulating such practitioners. Psychiatrists are very wary of the non-medical "psycho-analyst." No psychologist at this juncture can afiford professional training other than the best. Undergraduate courses, even those including laboratory work and training in testing, are sufficient only for routine or subordinate positions. Some- times a year or so of work of this type enables a young woman to give direction to her graduate study. The woman looking forward to a professional career as a psychologist should plan to secure a doctor's degree from one of the uni- versities which are leaders in this field. In certain types of work, she may find it advantageous also to have a medical degree. Workers intending to specialize in vocational guid- * Psychological Monograph Series (1921). See also J. E. W. Wallin. The Field of the Clinical Psychologist and the Kind of Training Needed by the Psychological Examiner. School and So- ciety. April 19, 1919. Vocational Information. Leland Stanford Junior University Bulletin, under Psychological Examiner. TECHNICAL SERVICES 349 ance, mental hygiene, social work, pers-onnel work, or teaching should have at least the psychological equipment represented by the master's degree, supplemented by courses in psychiatric social work, employment management, educa- tion, and so on. Undergraduate courses in social economy, biology, history, and government are an important pre- professional foundation. Positions in psychology are at present most commonly secured through the institutions and departments in which a worker has studied. These include teaching and labora- tory positions in colleges, and normal schools, which are becoming more numerous and often afford opportunity for further research. Direct application sometimes brings results, if done with knowledge of the field. There are civil service examinations for psychologists in some of the states for positions in state institutions or departments. Seven psychologists filled our schedules, and certain col- leges supplied information regarding graduates of 191 7 and 1918 in psychological work. Salaries reported ranged from $1,200 to $3,000 with a median salary of $2,100. Six out of the seven psychologists have the doctor's degree ; the other has a master's degree. Two are professors of psy- chology in universities. One of these has been clinical psychologist in a large hospital, and still gives some time to the work. The other has been director of an experimental psychological laboratory in connection with a reformatory for women, and was attached to the division of psychology of the Surgeon General's Office during the war. Two are connected with city departments of education, one as di- rector of a vocational bureau ; the other as assistant director of a department of child study. One is chief psychologist in a large state school for the feeble-minded; one gives mental tests to school children in a state bureau of juvenile research ; one is social service director of a state mental hygiene committee, doing special work with children. Comments are as follows: "Do not consider for a mo- ment a career in psychology without full professional equip- ment. Be sure that you have the innate capacity for suc- cess in a professional career. Take a doctor's degree in psychology. This means three years of training beyond the 350 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS B.A. degree. . . . From thirty to forty women consult me each year about entering upon a career in psychology. There are, in general, two discouraging features in these consulta- tions. In the first place, there are always some who are not fitted to enter upon a professional career of any kind. Either they lack ability, are unfortunate in personality, or are past the age for beginning. ... In the second place, there is an invincible amateurishness in the viewpoint of many, a desire to 'take up' something which can be learned in a year, and which will thereafter give them position and income. Very few seem willing to face real professional training as a sine qua non of a professional career in psy- chology. They labor under the erroneous impression that there must be some way of obtaining the rewards without paying the price of thorough preparation. This fatal ten- dency to fall short of what is necessary to success is due largely, in my judgment, to the uncertainty which women feel about choosing between (or possibly combining) mar- riage and vocation." "I would advise the highest possible training in psychol- ogy* pedagogy, and child hygiene ; practical experience in institutions for defectives ; conservative use of diagnosis ; and keeping in constant touch with new experimental (not applied) findings, as well as with clinical developments." Two women's colleges report eleven of their graduates of 1917 and 1918 in psychological work. Of these, three are college laboratory assistants; two are in the vocational bu- reau of a city school system ; two are giving psychological tests in hospital clinics ; one is psychological assistant in a state children's bureau ; one is research worker in a state school for the feeble-minded ; one is experimental psycholo- gist in a life insurance company; one is assistant psycholo- gist in a department store. One worker says : "All last year I was a laboratory as- sistant at the psychological laboratory of the vocational bureau of the board of education. We tested children for the special classes of the public schools — classes for de- fectives, for the backward, for the slow in learning to read, and rapidly moving classes for the brilliant. We also did psychological examining for the social agencies and for any I TECHNICAL SERVICES 351 one else who wanted it done. Boys are brought because they play hookey from school ; girls because they lose their tempers or like to stay out late. We also examine and try to advise many economic misfits." Statistical services may be briefly treated, although they are becoming increasingly important in all fields, in indus- try and commerce, in life insurance, in public utilities, as well as in economics, the sciences, and education. It is be- coming fashionable for workers to call themselves "statis- ticians," and there is need to emphasize the difference be- tween statistical clerks, who make routine tabulations and computations under direction, and statisticians proper. Only the latter are to be considered professional workers, al- though a woman of good education may profitably serve a "sub-professional" apprenticeship as a statistical clerk, and has an advantage if she is familiar with the operation of tabulating and punching machines. Familiarity with the techniques of "graphics" — the making of graphs and charts — is also valuable.^ The Reclassification Report, as has been said, divides gov- ernment statistical service into (i) mechanical tabulation, (2) statistical clerical work, and (3) statistical science. To illustrate the distinction between clerical and professional statistical work specifications are quoted for senior statisti- cal clerk and for associate statistician. SENIOR STATISTICAL CLERK (Agriculture, Finance, Transportation) . Duties : Under supen^ision, to perform one or more of the fol- lowing functions: (i) To supervise a small statistical clerical subdivision performing a single process or group ^ of simple related processes, according to general plans and instructions laid down by an official superior; (2) To perform statistical clerical work demanding a knowledge of the subject matter and the exercise of statistical judg- ment; — and to perform other related work. * See Allan C. Haskell. Hoiv to Make and Use Graphic Charts (1919). Willard C. Brinton. Graphic Methods for Prcscntiiuj Facts (1914). 352 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS Examples: Examining complicated reports, schedules, and other papers to determine their accuracy and to pre- pare them for tabulation ; making, independently, ordinary computations of averages, medians, and rates, including, when necessary, the use of computing machines, verify- ing tables where the process requires not only checking the accuracy of the copying and compiling of the figures, but their proper selection, combination, and tabulation. Common Qualifications: Training equivalent to that represented by graduation from high school ; not less than two years' experience in statistical clerical work, or one year's such experience and the completion of an elementary course in statistical methods in an institution of recognized standing; famil- iarity with adding, computing, and tabulating machines, slide rules, and other labor-saving devices used in statis- tical clerical work ; ability to plan ordinary table forms and to write explanatory notes ; accuracy, neatness, rapid- ity, and mental alertness. Special Qualifications: For each class in the group, thorough clerical knowl- edge of the subject matter to which the statistics involved relate, as indicated by the title of that class. Principal Lines of Promotion From : Junior Statistical Clerk. To : Principal Statistical Clerk. Compensation for Classes in Group Annual: $1,620, $1,680, $1,740, $1,800. ASSOCIATE STATISTICIAN Duties : To direct minor statistical inquiries along lines already established, wherein matters of policy regarding organiza- tion and management do not frequently arise or are de- cided by or on the advice of an administrative superior, and where the technique and methods of analysis have been standardized ; under general direction, to supervise the conduct of a minor investigation or part of a major TECHNICAL SERVICES 353 investigation, and to originate and suggest to administra- tive superiors plans of organization, management, tech- nique, and methods of analysis ; to carry on, independent- ly, or with assistants, statistical research not demanding at the outset broad and intensive knowledge of the subject or related subjects; and to perform related work as re- quired. Examples: Under general direction, supervising the regular collection and tabulation of statistics, and analyz- ing the results thereof relating to union wages, whole- sale prices, or to the production of cotton, truck, or other special crops ; planning and advising in respect to, and analyzing the results of censuses of important industries, such as iron and steel, or textiles ; preparing statistical memoranda or reports or sections or chapters in impor- tant statistical publications involving thorough individual research. Qualifications : Training equivalent to that represented by graduation with a degree from an institution of recognized standing, and by at least three years' graduate study in the field of economics, sociology, political science, statistics, mathe- matics, or other related subjects ; and either not less than two years' experience in statistics or related social sciences or success in independent original statistical, economic, or sociological research, as shown by writings and publica- tions. Principal Lines of Promotion From: Assistant Statistician. To: Statistician. Compensation for Class Annual: $3,240, $3,360, $3,480, $3,600, $3,720, $3,840. Advanced training in statistics is more and more in terms of special fields — vital statistics, educational statistics, social statistics, economic and industrial statistics.^ Even the ele- * See Melvin T, Copeland. Business Statistics (iQi?)- J- George Frederick. Business Research and Statistics (19-^0). Horace Se- crist. An Introduction to Statistics (1919) and Readings and Prob- lems in Statistical Methods (1920). 354 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS mentary college courses, usually given under the depart- ments of economics and mathematics, while they give a survey of all types of data which may be treated statistically, tend to assign statistical problems to students in the field of their major subjects. Opportunities for field work and apprentice work are beginning to be found in some of the great insurance, public utility, and other commercial and industrial organizations. The American Statistical Asso- ciation is the professional society. Positions are secured through civil-service examinations, through bureaus of oc- cupations, or through direct application. The true statis- tician, as distinct from the statistical clerk, is problem- minded as well as fact-minded, capable of planning investi- gations, devising effective tabulations, and interpreting re- sults. He belongs to professional associations, and pub- lishes statistical articles. Advance information regarding eleven women engaged wholly or partly in statistical work, received from the Bu- reau of Vocational Information, ^ shows a salary range of from $1,400 to $5,000, with a median salary of $2,400. Only one salary reported is below $2,000. Of these women, one has a doctor's degree in economics and sociology; two have the master's degree ; four have the bachelor's degree with special professional training of at least a year; two are without degrees, but have taken courses at a normal school, a university, and a college of law respectively. Three are employed by the federal government, of whom one is head of a division in the Bureau of Internal Revenue; one is in the Bureau of the Census, and one is in the Port and Zone Transportation Office in New York. Three are with sta- tistical and research organizations ; one is with a philan- thropic foundation; one is a statistical and economic research worker for the Young Women's Christian Associa- tion, one is head of the department of statistics and investi- gation of an advertising company, one is with a silk manu- facturing company, one assistant in the safety engineering department of a great chemical company, one is head of the research department of a great labor union. Several receiving the highest salaries had important statistical ex- * See Statistical Work for Women. Bulletin No. 2 (1921). 1 TECHNICAL SERVICES 355 perience during the war with the War Industries Board, the Shipping Board, and the Food Administration. One has done responsible work for the New York City Board of Estimate and Apportionment. Several say that women re- ceive as much as fifty per cent lower salaries than men, and are seldom employed in executive positions. One says that the best positions are to be found under the government or "on the Street." One advises statisticians to do a certain amount of their own tabulating in order to keep in personal touch with the data. Statisticians are frequently employed on a "piece-work" basis, in connection with surveys and other special investigations. Three women statisticians filling our schedules in 1918 and 1919 reported salaries of $1,500, $1,800, and $2,400. One is statistician for a national medical and health organi- zation; one is administrative assistant to a statistical execu- tive in the Shipping Board; one was chief of the section on war industries abroad of the Wa^ Industries Board, and assisted in preparing a report on international price com- parisons, part of a history of prices during the war. Two are college graduates, one with a master's degree and one with a secretarial course at Simmons College ; one has had special university courses in statistics. None of them is much over thirty. One says : "It would seem to me that a year's statistical work in government service is invaluable in learning sources and methods. I believe that a woman will advance farthest if she decides in what field she will apply her statistical knowledge, and does not consider statistics as ends in them- selves." Another says : "My chief prefers women to men in sta- tistical work, other than in important executive positions. I should advise women to take as much training as possible, of course, to have a liking for work and a willingness to work until all hours. A letter from an influential college instructor carries more weight than college credits, and a recommendation from a satisfied employer is worth any number of courses in training. Women are not a good in- vestment. They are too apt to marry." CHAPTER XVIII LIBRARY AND MUSEUM SERVICES Libraries and museums have, broadly speaking, a com- mon purpose : the procuring, housing, arranging, and render- ing accessible of materials for the information, aesthetic sat- isfaction, or recreation of the community or some of its component groups. Both deal with spatial objects, and have developed techniques of purchase, storage, classification, and identification. Both are giving increased attention to methods of exhibition and instruction. While the library is far in advance of the museum in the active distribution and circulation of its collections among the people, the museum is moving in this direction as far as the nature of museum objects permits. Both institutions are fundamentally edu- cational, and in the most enlightened instances are close students of their publics, allying themselves with other com- munity agencies of an educational character and making active efforts to reach and serve groups of different ages, races, occupations, and interests. They are thus centers of educational cooperation and publicity, and perform a social service the importance of which we are only coming to realize. Compared wath the learned professions and with teaching, librarianship is a young profession, dating back not more than thirty years. Like teaching it suffers from containing within its ranks many untrained or partially trained workers whose presence blurs professional standards and lowers the whole scale of professional salaries. There is an active movement among librarians at present looking to some sys- tem of professional standardization and certification. On the other hand, like most occupations that have struggled to achieve professional status, librarianship has been not un- 356 II LIBRARY AND MUSEUM SERVICES 357 fairly accused of a certain stiffness and overemphasis of mere techniques to the neglect of more fundamental pro- fessional characteristics. ^ This criticism has already an archaic ante-bellum sound. What the War Service Com- mittee of the American Library Association did for our soldiers and sailors at home and overseas, in cantonments and rest areas, on transports and on warships, is a noble record. What it did for the library profession in the way of increased flexibility and simplifying of methods and un- derstanding of American young people and hearty com- munity cooperation for definite ends, only the coming years will reveal. Since the end of the war, the Association has been conducting an active campaign to recruit young men and young women for librarianship, to raise salary stand- ards, and to extend free public library facilities to the sixty million Americans which it estimates are now without them. In spite of their inadequacy, however, libraries are so widely diffused throughout the United States that librarian- ship, like teaching, may be considered a "constant" rather than a "variable" occupation, to use the terms of Dr. Leon- ard P. Ayres.- Like teaching also, it is actually or practically a form of public service, since Hbraries are democratic institutions serving disinterestedly and impar- tially all elements in the community. Thirty-seven states have library commissions or state Hbraries with extension arrangements, to bring library facilities to country com- munities and to maintain common standards. These bodies have formed a League of Library Commissions. California and Indiana have especially good systems of county libraries. A banker of New York City has recently made a gift of eleven library buildings with a yearly in- come of a thousand dollars each on condition of an equal sum raised by taxation, for rural districts in northern New York. The new interest in rural problems makes the country library an institution of strategic importance, co- *See John Cotton Dana. The Changing Character of Libraries. Atlantic Monthly. April, 1918. * Constant and Variable Occupations in Bloomficld's Readings in Vocational Guidance (1914). 358 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS operating with the schools, the county farm bureaus, the agencies for rural health, and so on. Hitherto the salaries paid have been too small for such libraries to command professional librarians ; before long the state may see its way to supplementing local library funds. Motor vans are making a traveling library service possible. ^ The Board of Regents of the University of the State of New York, the state professional examining and licensing board, adopted in 1918 a system of grading and certifying high school librarians on principles analogous to those used with respect to teachers. The New York Library Associa- tion has drafted a plan for extending this system of stand- ardization and certification to public librarians in places with a population of 3,000 or over. It provides for four grades of certificate — life, five-year, three-year, and two- year, valid in communities of different sizes, and makes spe- cific requirements of general education, library training, and library experience. Various other states and the American Library Association have long been urging some such plan. Libraries may be classified as pubhc, institutional, special, and private. There are a few cooperative libraries, open only to members. The great majority are public, controlled by boards of trustees and supported wholly or partially by taxation. The tendency among benevolent citizens to pre- sent communities with expensive library buildings without funds for their maintenance and operation is fortunately giving way to the realization that the best library is the one most actively administered and most actively supported by the community. Librarians are likely in the near future to follow the lead of teachers in asking for representation upon boards of library control. Institutional libraries are no longer limited to universities, colleges, and professional schools. The high school library is a recent growth full of vigor and of special appeal to librarians qualified to deal with growing boys and girls. Modern hospitals for physical and mental diseases recognize the library as of definite ther- apeutic value; and there is a special association of hospi- tal librarians. Other institutions — prisons, reformatories, * See Wallace Meyer, Setting Books in Motion. Survey, May 20, 1920. LIBRARY AND AIUSEUM SERVICES 359 homes, settlements, maintain libraries as a necessary part of their equipment.^ The development of special libraries within compara- tively recent years has been amazing, and has been greatly accelerated by the w^ar. There is a Special Libraries Asso- ciation w^ith an organ of its own, affiliated with the Ameri- can Library Association. The older institutions of this type are the professional and society libraries, such as those of law, medicine, theology, genealogy, history. More recent are technological libraries, social service libraries, libraries of art, architecture, and music, libraries of agriculture, li- braries of legislative and municipal reference, libraries of government departments. A still more recent development is the library of the industrial or commercial firm or corpo- ration. There are bank libraries, public utility libraries, insurance libraries, libraries in industrial plants, libraries in department stores. These are technical or service libraries, and include not so much books as periodicals, reports, cata- logues, pamphlets, bulletins, newspaper clippings, plans, blue-prints, photographs, graphs and charts, sometimes even samples and models. They may even include motion-picture films and gramophone records. They are carried on in close relations with research and publicity departments, and are filing and clipping services as well as libraries in the more usual sense. There is a growing number of independent information services or bureaus of this sort supplying sta- tistical, financial, industrial, and trade information in various fields. There is also a group of industrial or commercial research bureaus. Women librarians attracted to a special field or eager to learn of the world of affairs from the inside find good opportunities in special library work. But for the most part they need some antecedent experience in a general library and some acquaintance with the subject mat- ter of the field they wish to enter. The growth of large fortunes in the United States has led to the collection of many fine private libraries, fre- quently along some special line of interest. Some of these * See F. R. Curtis. The Libraries of the American State and Na- tional Institutions for Defectives, Dependents, and Delinquents. University of Minnesota (1918). 36o WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS contain rare manuscripts and early printed books, and even shade into collections of the smaller art objects. The most famous of these libraries is that collected by the senior J. Pierpont Morgan, In some cases professional librarians are in charge, and assist in adding to the collections. In other cases they are called in to prepare special catalogues. Such librarians must be bibliographical experts and biblio- philes. Positions of this sort are exceptional, and have their limitations as well as their advantages. But an assistantship in a private library, if the opportunity offered, might be in- valuable as training, even if it did not appeal as a permanent career. During the war many professional librarians were drafted into the service of government departments and of indus- tries working on government contracts, to install and direct large filing systems. Salaries paid were markedly higher than in library work; and the combined appeals of patriotism and the pocketbook led to a serious shortage of librarians. Many employers prefer women with library training as file managers or head file clerks ; and the distinction between a business librarian and a filing expert is in practice often difficult to make. But librarianship and filing seem to have certain techniques in common rather than any identity of subject matter and interest. The librarian proper is drawn toward the profession because of a genuine interest in books and in what books stand for in human life. The me- chanics of their arrangement and distribution are for him or her only the means to an end. In the earlier stages of the evolution of modern business filing, librarians were the only workers with a technique that could be easily adapted to the new requirements. But to-day there are filing ex- perts ; there are good filing schools and courses ; and the makers of office and filing equipment are constantly study- ing these matters and putting out books of instruction and advice. A recent excellent booklet of this sort, issued by the Library Bureau, is entitled : Filing as a Profession for Women; and there is at least one periodical devoted to the discussion of filing questions. Whatever its present claims to the title of a profession, we must admit that filing was only a foster child of librarianship, and properly belongs with LIBRARY AND MUSEUM SERVICES 361 the rapidly enlarging group of commercial techniques and professions. This stand was unequivocally taken in 1918 by the Association of American Library Schools, after a com- mittee had investigated the requirements of indexing and filing in government offices. It was voted that indexing and filing are not library work, and that special courses to train workers for such positions should not be given during the summer sessions of library schools, even in war-time. It is nevertheless true that the war-time demand upon librarians for these services has had important results in defining the standards of the profession and in raising library' salaries at least toward an adequate professional level. Library workers are easily grouped as administrative and executive experts, as non-administrative experts, and as service-workers.^ The term "apprentice" in this profession is limited to a worker receiving training in a large library rather than at a library school. Such apprentice training prepares for work in tlie given library better than it does for broader and more genuinely professional librarianship. On the other hand, the importance of supervised practice as a part of training is increasingly recognized in this as in other professions ; and a year as a library ''interne" may soon be considered a requisite part of a library course. Too many library school graduates have been turned loose upon the smaller libraries better equipped to deal with catalogues than with people. Library administrators and executives include directors, "head librarians," as they are sometimes called, assistant directors, and those in charge of the several departments of a large library: heads of the catalogue, reference, and circu- lation departments, of the children's, art, medical, technologi- cal departments, and so on. They are experienced pro- fessional workers who plan policies, prepare budgets, select and supervise their stafifs, and decide upon the choice and purchase of books and other equipment, all under the final authority of the library board. IMost library directors hold periodic staff meetings. In this group fall also librarians of branch city libraries and traveling organizers and super- visors sent out by state library commissions. The non-ad- * See specifications of Massachusetts Librarian Group, pp. 49-5-- 362 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS ministrative group includes expert cataloguers and buyers, speciiHsts in rare books, in art, music, work with the blind, with foreigners, with children. Here, too, belong story- tellers for children, preparers of exhibits, and writers of special library bulletins, all workers having to do with the instructional and publicity side of the library. Service-work- ers include the younger librarians who are doing library woik of one kind and another under supervision. They are frequently "rotated" through the different departments to give them an understanding of the organization as a whole. In small libraries, of course, one or two people may perform all these various duties. There is much to be said for gen- eral experience in a library of this size. But every librarian should in addition become a specialist, either in some one library process or in the reading needs of some one group in the community. The librarian's work is often compared with the teacher's, and her longer hours, shorter vacations and frequently lower salary are dwelt upon. On the other hand, her responsibih- ties are less concentrated and more diversified. She js under no such strain as that of the classroom; she comes into pleasant and friendly relations with all types and groups in the community, old and young; she has many small chances and some large ones to show quick-wittedness and ingenuity ; she works with congenial people in attractive surroundings and in intimate contact with books and ideas. For those who care for both books and people, there is a steady satisfaction in bringing the two together. The dis- advantages in the way of salary are on the road to cor- rection. For librarians whose interests are chiefly scholarly and academic, there are positions in college and school li- braries ; for those who prefer the technical rather than the human sides of library work, there are positions as cata- loguers and expert tracers and buyers of books and other library materials. Full professional training for librarianship is increasingly secured through the recognized library schools, although certain public and university libraries maintain apprentice classes. Eleven schools make up the Association of Ameri- can Library Schools. TvvO, the New York State Library LIBRARY AND MUSEUM SERVICES 363 School at Albany and more recently the University of Illi- nois Library School, require a college degree for admission ; one, the Department of Library Science of Simmons Col- lege, combines library training with a four years' college course. The other schools require a good general education with a reading knowledge of modern languages, and prefer an antecedent college course. The ordinary course is one or two years in length. It is gaining in flexibility and in contact with actual library practices and problems. There is still much to be learned in the way of library psycholog}-, both urban and rural. A young woman considering librarj' work as a profession will do well to serve as a student as- sistant in her college library and as an apprentice or assist- ant in some public library during a summer vacation or two of her undergraduate course. Graduates of library schools usually secure their first po- sitions at least through these schools. Government and sometimes public library positions are filled through civil- service examinations. Employers of special and business librarians sometimes turn to professional employment bu- reaus. In the newer types of library work direct applica- tion is often successful; but is somewhat wasteful of time and effort. Librarianship is predominantly a salaried profession. A few expert librarians, cataloguers, and bibliographers have succeeded as consultants and library agents. Librarians are employed as cataloguers and indexers by such organizations as the American Library Association, and the H. W. Wilson Company. There are a few in library journalism and ad- vertising. The war shortage of librarians brought the matter of low salaries to a crisis. A circular letter sent out in April, 1918, to library trustees and librarians by the Association of American Library Schools stated that during 1917 19 per cent of the reference staff and 27 per cent of the circu- lation staff of the New York Public Library resigned to ac- cept better paid positions, with similar losses in Brooklyn, Cleveland and elsewhere. "The graduates of the Pratt In- stitute Library School, class of 1917, who have gone into library work, are getting an average salary of $845 ; those 364 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS who are in government and business positions are getting an average of $1,177." Recent figures from the New York State Library School show that salaries for professional librarians have risen markedly during the past three years. For the four years, 1913-1916, the average salary for those taking positions at the end of their first year's training was $830; for the three following years, 1917-1919, it was $891, $962, $1,020, respectively. Two-year students at comple- tion of the course received during 1913-1916 an average initial salary of $996. The average salary for the three fol- lowing years has been $1,131, $1,220, $1,341. Vocations for Business and Professional Women gives a salary range for all grades and types of librarians of $720 — $3,000.^ In individual instances salaries are much higher than this. The woman director of one of the best city public libraries in the country is said to receive a salary of $8,000. With the present cost of living no graduate of a standard library school should receive less than $1,000 in the country and $1,200 in the city. If she is, in addition, a college graduate, the figures should be $1,200 and $1,400. Salaries of the fourteen librarians filling our schedules in 1918 and 1919 ranged from $1,100 to $2,400, with a median of $1,500. Eight of these women are college graduates; four have had partial college courses; seven are graduates of library schools ; two have had apprentice courses in large university libraries. The highest salaries were those of the director of a middle-western public library, the librarian and registrar of a war-emergency government service-school, an educational and editorial expert in one of the most pro- gressive public libraries of the east. Salaries of $2,000 and * The Reclassification Report gives specifications for different classes of librarian in the Library of Congress, the District of Co- lumbia Public Library and high school libraries, and Departmental Libraries. Salaries proposed range from $1,200 to $4,000, not in- cluding the Librarian or Assistant Librarian of Congress or the Public Librarian. Salaries of junior library assistants are from $1,320 to $1,550; of assistants, from $1,560 to $1,920; of senior as- sistants and cataloguers and classifiers, from $1,980 to $2,340; of high school librarians, $1,200 to $1,500; of children's librarian, pub- lic library, from $1,620 to $1,800; of administrative librarian, depart- mental library, from $2,520 to $2,880; of chiefs of divisions, Library of Congress, $3,000 to $4,000. LIBRARY AND MUSEUM SERVICES 365 over were received by an assistant in a government depart- ment library and the librarian of the chemical library of a great chemical and explosives industry. Salaries of $1,500 and over were received by the assistant librarian of a great eastern art museum, and by the librarians of a medical and social organization of national scope and a national bureau concerned with social insurance. Salaries between $1,100 and $1,500 were received by a supervisor of cataloguers in a metropolitan public library of the East, by the librarian and editorial supervisor of a middle-western school of social work, by the librarian of an eastern organization for the economic and vocational advancement of women, by a custodian of rare books in a middle-western state uni- versity, by the head of the art department of a famous middle-western public library, by the medical and general librarian of an endowed mental hospital. Some of these salaries have no doubt been advanced since they were re- ported. The list of positions shows the variety of work in the profession. Some of the comments and suggestions of these women may be quoted: "Maintain as wide an acquaintance as possible with members of the same profession. Take as active a part as possible in the work of professional organi- zations, such as the American Library Association, the Spe- cial Libraries Association." "In advising women entering library work, I'd begin when they were in college, and advise them to take all the languages, history, and literature they could, though noth- ing comes amiss. Then they ought to have a year's ex- perience in a library and finally a course in a good library school." "Obtain a good general education, some business expe- rience, library school training, and experience with peo- ple." "Have a college degree, thorough training in languages and history of art. Love books, and be ready and willing to do detail and routine work." "Emphasize always the community value of the library. Be sure to realize the ideals and vision of the work before coming into it ; otherwise one might be submerged by its 366 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS drudgery and routine. In this case it would be impossible to succeed." "I would advise women librarians not to enter govern- ment service if they must go on the 'statutory roll' until some standardization of salaries and promotion systems is adopted." The large majority of librarians are women, but men hold most important administrative posts. Museum work is a more recently developed and a more restricted profession for women than librarianship. Pro- fessional training, positions, and salaries are all far less standardized. It is, however, expanding and gaining defi- nition under the influence of the newer conception of the museum as a social and educational agency comparable with the library. The old custodial idea of the museum as an august and seldom visited repository is rapidly vanishing, although it is still held by some conservative boards of museum trustees. Work in the modern type of museum appeals strongly to women who combine equipment in art, science, ethnology, industry, and the like, with interest in the social and psychological uses of collections illustrating these subject matters. Museums are broadly of two types, museums of art and museums of science and natural history. In smaller places the same building may house both types. Ethnological col- lections are increasing in importance, and have both scien- tific and artistic aspects. There are likewise commercial and industrial, historical, safety-appliance, social and civic museums. These last are often distinguished from exhi- bitions only by their more permanent character. They fre- quently originate through the preservation of collections as- sembled for exhibition purposes. Thus the Philadelphia Commercial Museum grew out of the Centennial Exposition of 1876; the Field Columbian Museum of Natural History in Chicago out of the World's Fair of 1893. The greatest art museum of the country is the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art; the greatest scientific museum is the New York American Museum of Natural History. But Boston, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Washington, Chicago, Baltimore,' and Buffalo have famous art museums ; and good museums I LIBRARY AND MUSEUM SERVICES 367 of lesser reputation exist in many other cities, and are in- creasing in number. The great government museums in Washington contain many unrivaled scientific and ethnolog- ical collections ; and there are some important state histori- cal and scientific museums. Museum workers include in the administrative group directors, curators, heads of departments, and their as- sistants ; in the group of non-administrative experts, spe- cialists in charge of the collection, preparation, exhibition, study, and description of museum objects of various sorts; in the instructional group, museum instructors, "docents," story tellers, preparers of bulletins, leaflets, study and read- ing lists, newspaper notices, organizers of special exhibits within the museum and of traveling exhibits to be sent to schools or to other communities. Women are doing practi- cally all these types of museum work, although most of those in administrative positions are assistants.^ The di- rector, however, of the Albright Art Gallery in Buffalo is a woman. The work itself is a valuable and unique form of training. Through it a few women have become recog- nized experts in textiles, design, the appraisal, collection and identification of art objects, and in certain scientific and ethnological fields. They write for technical, art, archeolog- ical, and scientific journals ; they prepare catalogues of spe- cial collections ; they are even foreign buyers, a field tragic- ally expanded through the dire blows to populations and property inflicted by the war. Only a few intrepid women have been field collectors of scientific materials. Art mu- seum experience furnishes an admirable background for some forms of interior decorating, for the designing of set- tings and costumes for plays, pageants, and motion pictures, for directing exhibits, even for certain types of display advertising. • There are no recognized schools of museum training other than museums themselves here and abroad, the various for- eign schools and institutes of art ^nd archeology, and the graduate departments of universities, especially those of art, archeology, anthropology and ethnology, and the various natural sciences. The intimate relations between great *See Margaret T. Jackson. The Museum (1917)- 368 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS European museums, higher schools of industrial art, and the artistic industries are only beginning in this country, although there are likely to be marked developments within the next few years. The Metropolitan Museum has re- cently appointed an associate in industrial arts "whose spe- cific business it is to help the manufacturer, dealer, de- signer, artisan, or manual craftsman in taking advantage of the privileges offered by the Museum." The National So- ciety for Vocational Education is undertaking a survey of all opportunities in the United States for training in the industrial arts.^ Some cooperative arrangements for training have existed between Teachers College of Colum- bia University and the Metropolitan Museum ; and several museums have undertaken somewhat experimentally the training of qualified young women as docents or instructors. But for the most part they look to the departments of uni- versities for the comparatively few highly trained begin- ners that they require. From this it follows that such positions are most fre- quently secured through the professors with whom a woman has studied. Direct application must be backed by their recommendations. The American Association of Museums, however, acts as a clearing-house of information with ref- erence to both positions and workers ; and is performing a valuable service in developing professional group spirit and professional standards of preparation and compensation. But the very nature of museum work tends to make its con- ditions and its practitioners individual and highly specialized. Salaries, in consequence, are unstandardized and fre- quently even lower than those of librarians and teachers, although professional requirements are higher. In many cases the chance to work in a special museum is so highly valued that an unduly low salary is accepted. Salaries of seventeen museum workers filling our schedules ranged in 1918 from $600 to $2,400, with a median salary of $1,060. These workers represented museums of almost every size and type. As a group they were older than the library * See Florence Levy. Art Education: An Investigation of the Traininq Available in New York City for Artists and Artisans (Pamphlet, 1917). I LIBRARY AND MUSEUM SERVICES 369 group, including four women over fifty, four between forty and fifty, and only three graduating since 1910. This re- flects to some extent the survival of the custodial type of museum worker, although four of the older women were college graduates. In all, eleven of the seventeen were col- lege women. Three had had considerable graduate work, and one was a doctor of philosophy in geology and paleon- tology. One was a graduate of Simmons College in library science ; another had had a year's apprenticeship in a large city library. An instructor in an art museum had studied painting in a famous Paris academy and bookbinding at the Doves bindery in London ; another instructor had made eleven trips to foreign countries, including two to Asia and one around the world. The assistant director of a large western art museum after leaving college studied at the American School for Classical Studies in Rome and in the museums of Germany, England, France, and Italy under masters of the profession. She served as a volunteer as- sistant in Berlin, and has command of French, German. Italian, Latin, and Greek. There was only one salary of $2,400, received by the director of an eastern children's mu- seum. ' The assistant director of a western art museum and a lecturer and docent in the fine-arts department and library school of a large endowed institute received $1,800; the assistant curator of a children's museum. $1,380; the di- rector of a small New England museum of natural histor}', an instructor in a great middle-western art museum, and an assistant in a great eastern scientific museum, $1,200. An- other assistant in this museum received $1,060. The director of an art gallery in a small eastern city, the head of the educational department of a well-known New England art museum, and the assistant to the curator in the public park museum of an eastern city received $1,000; the curator of a small state historical museum, the curator of books and public instruction in the natural history museum of a south- ern city, and the assistant in a children's museum $900. Be- low this fall an assistant in a Pacific coast ethnological museum and the registrar in the public museum of an eastern industrial city. The varieties of work performed in these positions can 370 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS be most aptly described through quotations from our sched- ules. The assistant director of an art museum says : "I assist the director in everything and take charge during his absence; edit bulletin, act as registrar and dean of the art school; accession all works of art; supervise cataloguing; arrange for transit of exhibitions ; hang exhibitions ; pre- pare material for catalogue, etc." An instructor writes: "As head of the educational de^ partment, I am required to supervise work with children, which includes drawing and modeling and a weekly story hour, with a yearly attendance of 7,000 children. Two paid assistants (one with college training) and several volunteer assistants help with this work. Secondly, I give talks on art, with or without stereopticon, to school classes, clubs, parent-teacher associations, church societies, etc. These are given without fee. Thirdly, I have supervision of the loan department, which includes photographs and lantern slides. Aid in selection and preparation of explanatory notes are part of my work. Fourthly, frequent articles on new acquisitions or on museum work for newspapers or the Museum Bulletin are asked for by the director. . . . This museum was a pioneer in work done directly with child vis- itors." In 1918 this worker received only $1,000 for these diverse services. She is not a college graduate. The curator of a small museum of natural history writes : 'T receive and install material, make special exhibits, con- duct lecture courses, prepare school-loan collections, assem- ble illustrative material for classes from the schools, gen- erally foster the affairs, of the museum." The assistant curator of a children's museum writes : "I give public lectures daily; teach wireless telegraphy; assist boys with electrical experiments ; do all of the photographic work of the museum." A scientific assistant in a department of a great natural history museum writes : "I accession all acquisitions in the department ; catalogue ; take care of collections ; do research pertaining to the collections ; make identifications ; and com- pile bibliographies." An assistant in geology and paleontology in the same mu- seum writes : "I carve plaster models of shells ; identify and LIBRARY AND MUSEUM SERVICES 371 classify fossils ; write exhibition labels ; plan exhibits, etc." Some of the comments on museum policy are worth quot- ing. "The director has made one of the most active small museums in the country out of a dead college collection of stuffed animals, and is producing a maximum of efficiency on a minimum of money." "The director is in line with all new and approved meth- ods, experiments, and discussions, and expects his staff to be." "Our poHcies are conservative, because a board of wealthy business men are not sensitive to the importance of pro- gressive policies in the education of young children." "It is very difficult for a museum to be really progressive because of the lack of competent and well-trained workers." Advice to prospective workers is as follows : An art mu- seum instructor writes : "It is useless work without travel in Europe and many years of research." Another writes : "Get training ahead of time. Be will- ing to work hard for experience and willing to take re- sponsibility regularly and in an emergency." A scientific assistant writes: "Do not enter into it with- out an understanding of what your work will be. Come as a specialist if possible. Take a purely business attitude toward the salary proposition, and take care not to get into a rut. It can easily be done in scientific pursuits — speaking for women. Men come as scientific specialists and there- fore demand more. They will not do routine work and women scientists have to. As routine workers your work does not speak loudly, and therefore is not paid for as the purely scientific work." One of the foremost women art museum experts in the country writes : "Learn all you can ; travel much ; use your eyes and ears carefully; be adaptable; go into the work for the love of it, not for the money or advantages in it. Don't hesitate to take volunteer positions first, and be prepared to spend years in 'breaking into' any museum position." An art museum curator writes: "Visit the best museums; study the arrangement of exhibits from all standpoints, es- pecially the artistic. Show-windows ^n the best stores are good guides sometimes." 372 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS Another writes : "Make your galleries valuable to the community ; make all visitors feel that you are personally interested in their getting the most out of their visits. Se- cure frequent and excellent exhibitions." CHAPTER XIX TEACHING AND OTHER EDUCATIONAL SERVICES Although teaching was the pioneer profession for women, and continues to make large demands upon their services, it has been purposely placed at the end of our survey of the professions, with no intention of minimizing its fundamental importance but in order to show the in- fluence upon it of recent professional movements and to help in determining its present position and prospects. For the past ten years teaching has been making a dimin- ishing appeal to professional women, partly on account of the opening to them of other professions, partly on account of conditions in teaching itself. This turning away from teaching was greatly accelerated by the war, and the coun- try is facing to-day a critical shortage of teachers of every grade and even more serious prospects for the fu- ture unless teachers of the highest type can be recruited in sufficient numbers. Fortunately, the very seriousness of the situation and the great national audit of our edu- cational resources and limitations made through the find- ings of the draft and the war-time demands for expert workers of all sorts have given us a new and vivid sense of the fact that education is a basic national obligation and teaching the most essential and "constant" form of public service. In spite of present discouragements, we are really on the threshold of the most constructive period in educa- tion that this country has ever known ; and women need to consider more carefully than ever before their professional opportunities and responsibilities with respect to t^eachingy and other educational services. The profession as a whole is taking stock of itself and recognizing how far in many respects it falls below professional standards. It is compar- ing itself with other professions and learning the meaning of their increasing self-direction and increasing educational 373 374 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS requirements and applications. All along the line, educa- tional institutions and the occupations are regarding each other with a new respect and beginning to recognize that they are distinct but supplementary aspects of a reciprocal process. The old contest between liberal and vocational education is coming to seem obsolete in the light of a better educational and social psychology. The changing attitude of the colleges is described in Chapter XXI. In all this new educational thinking the central emphasis is placed upon the teacher and upon the absolute necessity of adequate professional training. The untrained teacher, whether high school or college graduate, is no longer looked upon as in the full sense a professional worker. The present chapter can only outline in a broad way against the background of the other professions some of the opportunities, advantages, and disadvantages offered to women by teaching and other forms of educational service. It cannot be said too emphatically that women of high pro- fessional standing are nowhere needed more acutely than in every part of the teaching field. College women can no longer limit their interest to high schools, private secondary schools, normal schools, and colleges.^ They are needed in elementary schools, in vocational schools, in special schools and classes, not only as teachers but as supervisors, princi- pals, and superintendents. They are needed as visiting teachers, as vocational counselors, as teachers of foreign- ers, as psychological examiners of school children, as "ed- ucational directors" in industries and in department stores ; in Young Women's Christian Associations, in Girl Scout organizations, and other clubs of girls and women, in women's trade unions. They are needed as executive sec- retaries of public education associations, parent-teacher associations, educational leagues, boards, and commissions of all kinds. They are needed in educational investigation and research : to make school surveys and prepare school exhibits ; to collect and interpret educational statistics ; to study problems of curriculum and teaching, classroom per- formance tests, physical and mental tests and measurements ; * See Frank E. Spaulding. Do College Women Believe in Edu- cation F Vassar and Smith Quarterlies. November, 1920. I EDUCATIONAL SERVICES 375 standardizations along many lines. ^ Education and right teaching are back of and permeate every type of organized group effort. There is something bracing to self-respect about be- longing to a profession supported largely through pub- lic taxation and serving the community on the side of its normal growth, not on the side of its lapses and break- downs. Among the rights upon which modern society de- pends and which every democratic society must guarantee to its members — the right to truth, the right to justice, the right to health, the right to work, the right to leisure — the right to truth, for the transmission and enlargement of which the teaching profession is primarily responsible, is surely the most fundamental. Upon it depend all the other rights and the maintenance of the social order itself. In a large sense, all professions are educational as having to do with the progressive reconstruction of society, and only fully professional in so far as they are educational. The schools of a community, no matter how wretched they may be, are at least potentially its most democratic and hopeful civic asset. The other professions are to-day rallying around the school; the school is offering them its hospitality and asking their aid. With community centers and health and nutrition centers in the school or closely allied with it ; with visiting teachers going out to the homes and others teaching foreigners in the factories ; with libraries and museums and chambers of commerce and labor unions all cooperating with the school, no one can say that it is UQt an active civic and social agency, and that the teacher is not a social worker in the most constructive and least patronizing sense. The college graduate who wishes to work with girls has as fine an opportunity in the high school as in any philanthropic organization ; the college graduate who yearns to do "Amer- icanization work" can learn more of its problems through teaching in a school attended by the children of foreigners than she can ever learn outside of it ; the college graduate who would become an employment manager may well serve ' For an admirable brief statement of present-day opportunities in education, see Vocational Information, Leland Stanford Junior University Bulletin (1919)1 under Education. 376 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS at least an apprenticeship in the sort of school from which young factory workers are recruited; the college graduate who would understand the rural community may get her best chance for real insight — for country folk are not so "broken" to investigation as are city folk — through teaching in a country school. Instead of being the oldest and dullest of professions, as it sometimes seems to the young, teaching to-day gives promise of becoming one of the newest and most adventurous, with battles and conquests all along the line, all sorts of intellectual and moral "equivalents of war." But all the§e new opportunities and new outlooks in the old opportunities call for women with fine social intelligence, broad education, and command of the resources and tech- niques of their profession. If teaching is to rise to full pro- fessional stature, it must not be recruited from the ranks of the timid, the dull, or the lazy. Ten or fifteen years ago most college graduates of ability turned perforce to teaching; those of lesser ability followed. The movement for bureaus of occupations and college conferences on oc- cupations other than teaching, described in the next two chapters, began not in competition with teaching but in the effort to provide for those whose talents and inclinations lay in other directions and who often became teachers in default of other opportunities, to their own dissatisfaction and to the detriment of teaching itself. The claims of teach- ing as a profession for college women were assumed to be paramount and universally recognized. But nowadays the attraction of other occupations is so strong that teaching has become a discredited and almost forgotten occupation. to which young college graduates turn only as a stop-gap employment, or when they lack ambition or ability to go into anything else. College professors report that their ablest students laugh at the idea that they shall seriously prepare themselves for teaching as a career. Teaching no longer speaks for itself to college women. It has to be brought definitely to their attention like any other occupa- tion and to compete with them on its merits. So serious has the lack of young teachers of the best type become for the private schools that the Headmistresses' Association is asking women prominent in education to speak before the EDUCATIONAL SERVICES 377 students of the women's colleges on teaching as a profession. Thus not so long ago were presented the claims of banking or industry, chemistry or medical social service. The high schools are meeting similar difficulties ; and there is need of a careful study of the whole matter of the future supply of college teachers. In this fall of teaching from its former high estate as the major occupation for college women there is one obvious advantage. It calls attention to the fact that the modern college of liberal arts is not a pro- fessional school for teachers any more than it is for other professions. The college has preserved with respect to teachers its last vocational inheritance from the medieval university. But its function here as elsewhere is only pre- professional, and the preparation it offers is not sufficient by itself to place teaching fully on a par with other modern professions. The present disinclination to teaching, however, goes deeper than the competition of other professions, the lack of proper advertising, and even the lack of adequate pro- fessional training. The drop in the number and the caliber of those looking forward to teaching, the exodus from the ranks of those already in the profession, are signs that something is wrong with the profession itself. Much the same sort of thing has been happening in the fields of domestic service and farm labor. They show that the time is ripe for readjustment and reorganization throughout the entire range of teaching; and this is coming about. Its most obvious disadvantages have always been the low salaries paid and the slow and uncertain rate of advancement. In the old days these were supposed to be offset by security of tenure, social standing, long vacations, and congeniality of occupation. With the present high cost of living the finan- cial situation of teachers has become so desperate that it accounts wholly to many people for the present menacing shortage of workers in the profession. But other salaried professions are facing similar difficulties; and in all of them, as in teaching, vigorous steps are being taken to put the whole matter of remuneration and promotion on a sound- er and juster basis than ever before. (See Chapter III.) What amounts to a national campaign for increasing teach- 378 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS ers' salaries has been in progress, including the various great college "drives." ^ Its educational as well as its financial results are bound to be large. But low salaries are not the only disadvantage in the teaching profession. There is a growing realization on the part of successful teachers and other educational leaders throughout the country that a fundamental weakness of teaching as a profession lies in the fact that teachers have no share in determining the con- ditions under which their work is carried on. In the public school system they do not participate, as a rule, even in an advisory capacity, in the framing of educational and admin- istrative policies, the organization of the curriculum, the se- lection of superintendents, principals, and teachers, the choice of text-books, the establishment of salary-schedules and systems of promotion. Their responsibility is supposed to be limited to the class-room ; at most, to the faculty meet- ing and the individual school. In higher education, the situation is not very much better. Educational direction is exclusively in the hands of boards of education, boards of trustees, superintendents, principals, and presidents. Teach- ers are commonly not informed of what is going on until decisions have been reached, and sometimes not then. In no other profession have professional workers so little con- trol over matters that affect their own welfare and their re- lations to the public, although it is a danger inherent in all professions on a salaried basis. It is this lack of partici- pation in the enterprise of education rather than low salaries that accounts to thinking people for the precarious status of teaching as a profession and the turning away from it of the more vigorous and active-minded of the present generation. In this respect teaching is increasingly out of touch with the whole tendency and spirit of the modern occupational world. The old conception of academic freedom is negative and passive, a mere freedom from interference. It needs to become a positive conception of freedom through responsi- bility. Teachers are too often hired subordinates rather * A National Citizens' Conference on Education attended by the governors and educational authorities of many states was held in Washington, under the auspices of the U. S. Bureau of Education in May, 1920. EDUCATIONAL SERVICES 379 than professional workers. But here, too, there are signs of a new era. In both Great Britain and the United States they are asking for representation on boards of educational con- trol and for the formation of teachers' advisory- councils. The Committee on the Emergency in Education of the Na- tional Education Association has recommended that every school board should recognize the right of teachers to ap- pear before it, and that this right should be guaranteed by legislation. "Next to the provision of better salaries for teachers, nothing will do more to raise the status of the profession and make its service attractive to the kind of men and women that the schools need, than the adoption of a policy that will lift the classroom teacher above the level of a mere routine worker carrying out in a mechanical fashion plans and policies that are handed down from above." Successful teachers' councils exist in Boston, To- ledo, Washington, Cincinnati, Portland, Oregon, and other cities, and are being widely established. There seems no reason why teachers should not be represented on boards of education as they are beginning to be represented on col- lege boards of trustees. With both types of board, in any event, they should have organized channels of communica- tion and conference. The rapid increase of teachers' unions among all ranks from the elementary school to the univer- sity, whatever may be thought of its wisdom, at least re- veals a new initiative and a new group consciousness that are bound to give teachers better professional standing. These two major disadvantages of teaching, poor salaries and lack of professional control and responsibility, underlie its other disadvantages, low standards of professional train- ing and meager opportunities for professional improvement and personal and social life. A valuable study made under the auspices of the National Education Association ^ asserts that only about twenty-five per cent of the school teachers of the United States have had training extending even two years beyond the high school, that about four million chil- dren (or a fifth of those enrolled in elementary schools) are ' E. S. Evenden. Teachers' Salaries and Salary Schedules (1919), 9. 2. See also Know and Help Your Schools. Inquiry Number One. American City Bureau (1920). 38o WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS taught by teachers less than twenty-one years of age "with little or no high school training, with no professional prep- aration for their work, and who are, in a great majority of cases, products of the same schools in which they teach." Fully forty per cent of teachers are under twenty-five years of age, and the majority of teachers remain in the pro- fession less than five years. The "teaching turnover" in the smaller schools approaches that in the low-paid indus- tries. The United States Commissioner of Education in his report for 1918 does not venture to set as a practical mini- mum of preparation for teachers anything more than four years of high school and at least one year of professional training. The average of all teachers' salaries in 1918 was only $630.34. Dr. Evenden finds that salaries in 1918-1919 in 392 cities reporting showed a maximum of $2,200 and a median of $856 for teachers below the seventh grade ; a maximum of $2,300 and a median of $951 for teachers of the last two grades ; a maximum of $3,000 and a median of $1,224 for high school teachers. The Survey asked not long since: "Is Teaching a Sweated Trade?" A pungent article in the Atlantic ^ suggests that it is an occupation making use of child labor. From such facts it is obvious that the majority of teach- ers, like the majority of routine clerical workers, look upon their work as a stop-gap occupation, and are in no sense truly professional. The burdens of professional responsi- bility and leadership in education consequently fall to-day upon the twenty-five per cent of teachers with normal or college training and upon the institutions sending them forth. The day has gone by for the college graduate to think that she belongs as a teacher only in the secondary school or the college, and has no need of further preparation, for the normal graduate to think that she has no need of university courses. Crowded university summer schools testify that this latter idea is passing. A recent Carnegie Foundation report ^ urges that the name "normal school" be dropped, *A. R. Brubacker. Plain Talk to Teachers. Atlantic Monthly. December, IQ19. * The Professional Preparation of Teachers for American Public Schools. Bulletin Number Fourteen (1920). EDUCATIONAL SERVICES 381 and that these institutions be made an integral part of the system of professional schools attached to the state uni- versity. It also makes a strong plea for the professionally trained teacher to continue her work after marriage, point- ing out the value of such identification with the community. The fact that ninety per cent of the school population is in the elementary school and will go no further, and that the elementary school is thus the great public agency in matters of child health, child mental hygiene, and a true "Americanization" for both native and foreign born, makes it imperative to put the most thoroughly trained teachers at its service and incumbent upon the colleges and uni- versities to equip them adequately. To assist in raising the standards of teaching to a genu- inely professional level, Dr. Evenden suggests that initial salaries be based upon the amount of education, and that no differences be made between elementary and high school teach'ers. His salary schedule, proposed in 1919, is as fol- lows, with a reduction of $200 for cities under 25,000 in- habitants to correspond to their lower cost of living: AMOUNT MINIMAL ANNUAL MAXIMAL OF EDUCATION SALARY INCREASES SALARY Normal Diploma $1,200 6 x $100 $1,800 A. B. Degree $1400 10 x $100 $2,400 A. M. Degree $1,600 10 x $100 $2,600 Ph. D. Degree $2,000 10 x $100 $3,000 The United States Commissioner of Education has rec- ommended a minimum teachers' salary of $1,800, and the American Federation of Teachers a minimum of $2,000. All recent authorities agree that the financial and social distinctions between elementary and high school teachers must be done away with as rapidly as possible. Dr. Even- den's discussion of principles governing salary schedules and promotions is w^ell worth careful attention. Under his plan, teachers of the various degrees of educational prep- aration would be chosen as of old on the basis of individual fitness ; those with successful experience would begin at a salary above the minimum to which .their education entitled them. He has a special scale for heads of departments, 382 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS special supervisors, and principals, and suggests ways in which exceptional ability and service may fairly be re- warded above the maximum. As a practical measure of the cost of living in different communities, he asked super- intendents the cost of suitable board and room for a teacher. He presents an estimate made by an expert in living condi- tions of the percentage of salary at different levels that should go to these two items. SALARY Per cent for room and board $i,8oo 42 per cent $1,200 50 per cent $900 57 per cent Such a percentage might well be worked out for clothing, which is always a heavy item in a teacher's budget and the increased cost of which since 1914 has considerably exceeded that of food. The minimum budget prepared by the Bureau of Labor Statistics for a woman government clerk ^ pro- vides a convenient parallel, although it is on a meager scale. The importance of raising teaching to full professional status has never been so widely recognized, and popular in- terest in education has never been so widespread nor so little satisfied with things as they are. The high percentage of illiteracy discovered in the American forces during the war and the war-time agitation regarding non-English- speaking foreigners have led to a somewhat excessive con- centration upon the mere ability to speak, read, and write English. But these more superficial considerations have in their turn led to a fresh realization of the functions and pos- sibilities of education in a democracy made up of all the peoples of the earth. The "Smith-Towner" bill, now before Congress, creates a federal Department of Education with a secretary at its head sitting in the President's cabinet, in place of the present subordinate Bureau of Education in the Department of the Interior; authorizes the consolidation under it of the thirty-odd independent agencies under the federal government concerned in one way or another with education ; and allots one hundred million dollars a year to all states meeting certain educational standards for the ^Monthly Labor Revieiu. January, 1920. EDUCATIONAL SERVICES 383 abatement of illiteracy, native and foreign, the improvement of teachers' salaries and professional preparation, especially for rural schools, the encouragement of health education and health agencies. Provision is made for research in these fields. While many educators and students of affairs do not approve of the extremely specific requirements of this particular bill, nor of the principle of direct federal aid to the states for education, there seems to be general agree- ment that it w^ould be advisable to recognize the national importance of education by establishing a department of cabinet rank with appropriations of sufficient liberality to enable it to make continuous and thorough investigations and reports on the progress and character of education in the several states. The stimulating effect of such compara- tive studies, even when not made under public auspices, is illustrated by the famous Carnegie Foundation Report on Medical Education of ten years ago, and by Dr. Leonard P. Ayres's recent Index Number for State School Systems,^ showing their relative standing in certain respects for the last fi-fty years. Educational leaders are urging the creation of a presidential commission on education, similar to the President's Industrial Commission, to make a compre- hensive study and report before the passage of legislation by Congress, Education is traditionally and constitution- ally a matter for state control. But some method must be devised for correcting inequalities of educational op- portunity, which are almost as great within states as be- tween states, and for stimulating public interest and public support. With eighteen thousand school buildings closed and almost a million children deprived of existing educa- tional faciHties through lack of teachers ; with an estimated shortage of from thirty-five thousand to ninety thousand teachers for 1920-1921, including fifteen thousand high school teachers; with a lowering of already deplorably low standards of preparation — it is no wonder that there is talk of a national crisis in education." ^Russell Sape Foundation (1020). 'See J. A. H. Keith and William C. Baglev. The Nation and the Schools (1920), especially Chapters XVIII-XIX. W. D. Lane. The National Crisis in Education. Survey, May 29, 1920. 384 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS Meanwhile, there are many signs of popular interest and action. Massachusetts has passed a law providing more equal educational facilities throughout the state. The Arner- ican Federation of Labor has an enlightened and demo- cratic educational program, and advocates greater responsi- bility and independence for the teacher. A national com- mittee for chamber of commerce cooperation with the schools is made up of an equal number of chamber of com- merce secretaries and superintendents of schools, and has enlisted the cooperation of over four hundred chambers in an investigation of teachers' salaries and other educational problems.^ The American Army Educational Commission, which carried on the educational work for our overseas forces, recommends a permanent bureau of education as part of the machinery of the League of Nations, and says that "education has become the chief concern of statesmen." An Institute of International Education has been estab- lished in New York to facilitate the exchange of professors and students between Americ^an and European educational institutions, and to act as a clearing-house of educational information. It is administering a large number of ex- change fellowships and scholarships, among them the Rose Sidgwick Memorial Fellowship for British university women. Others are open to women. In view of the urgent and far-reaching demand for teach- ers adequately prepared to deal with the manifold and en- larging problems of modern education, the universities and colleges are confronted by new educational responsibilities. Greater numbers of teachers will be educated by them, and there will be closer relations of some kind between them and the normal and training schools. Professional training proper for teaching as for other professions is a function of the university and not of the college of liberal arts. Teachers College of Columbia University is on a graduate basis; Harvard University has just established a Graduate School of Education and Yale is doing likewise; the Uni- versity of Chicago and other universities have schools giv- ing the master's and doctor's degrees in this field. Many of the colleges have undergraduate departments and courses ^ Know and Help Your Schools (Pamphlet, 1920). EDUCATIONAL SERVICES 385 in education ; but their relation to professional training for teaching has never been made wholly clear. Some of them are doing excellent work; others are concessions to state requirements for teachers, and win little respect from either faculty or students. They are a hybrid sort of thing, neither truly professional nor truly liberal. But there is a legiti- mate place and a genuine need for pre-professional courses in education in the undergraduate curriculum, dealing with the school as one of the most important of modern social institutions, with the history of educational practices and ideals as related to social development, with the psychologi- cal trends and responses of the child that make him sus- ceptible of both right and wrong education, and with psy- chological measurements. Courses of this sort are certainly as liberalizing as courses in charities and corrections, indus- trial and political history, labor problems, and abnormal psychology. Students do not become aware of educational problems and the modern significance of education merely through going to college. Without such courses, they lack an element ol good citizenship ; and if they begin to teach without professional training, they are likely to inflict upon their pupils what has been termed "watered college or cold school." With these courses, they are far more likely to perceive the need of proper professional study. There is a good deal to be said for giving undergraduate courses in education not in a special department but in the several departments of history, sociology, and psychology in which they naturally fall, with some provision for coordinated administration. In addition to better salaries and better professional tram- ing, though dependent upon them, are certain other changes that must be made in the opportunities of a teacher in order to enable teaching not merely to hold its own but to take the leading position among the professions that its impor- tance warrants. Modern teachers must be of vigorous and growing personality with varied resources and contacts with life; and the conditions of their work must not be such as to shut them out from participation in the affairs of their day and their community. Teaching can no longer be a secluded and monotonous occupation. Moreover, it must be 386 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS clearly recognized that good modern teaching makes heavy demands upon the mental and physical energy of teachers, and requires various provisions for their reinvigoration. "Sabbatical years" are needed not only by college teachers but by teachers in ever}'' grade of the service ; and these leaves should not all be given according to one plan but according to various types of teacher and kinds of work. Teachers whose interest is primarily in research are prob- ably well served by the existing method; teachers who ex- pend themselves in notably good teaching are likely to re- quire shorter and more frequent leaves ; teachers whose abilities are markedly administrative need opportunities to see what others are doing. Sometimes part-time work for a year or a half-year will enable a teacher to finish a piece of writing or to serve on an outside committee. Exchanges of teachers between institutions, particularly when they are situated in different parts of the country, are growing in favor and bring new ideas and refreshment of spirit. There is much to be said for exchanges between college and secondary teachers. War-service has shown the ad- vantages of the teacher's taking up temporarily some other type of work, allied to his own field. Institutions are likely to continue and extend the practice of "lending" members of their faculties not only to the government but to social and industrial organizations. The introduction of the four- quarter system in both colleges and schools would further flexibility in these arrangements, and would make education more responsive to the needs of the times. Dr. Edwin F. Gay in an article entitled Does a University Career Offer No Future? points out the new position and the new function of higher institutions in national life. "They are now expected not only to transmit the store of usable knowledge but to add to it by research on all sides ; they are looked to increasingly for the training of teachers and administrators for the lower schools, thus bringing the university in closer touch with the great masses of the population ; they are under constant pressure to meet the new needs of a new industrial society by new, specialized instruction." Teachers of special subjects and of special groups are EDUCATIONAL SERVICES 387 increasing in number and importance, and are finding im- proved and widespread facilities for preparation. In con- nection with school systems are teachers of art, music, physical education, "manual training," "home economics," commercial subjects, kindergartens, as well as supervisors in these fields. There are teachers of retarded, defective, and exceptionally bright children ; teachers in technical and commercial high schools ; teachers in trade, agricultural, and other vocational schools ; teachers of applied arts and handi- crafts ; teachers of play, recreation, folk-dancing and pageantry; teachers of gardening and farming; teachers in factory "vestibule schools," in department stores, and in offices; teachers in institutions for the atypical; teachers of "occupational therapy"; teachers in reformatories and prisons ; teachers in professional schools ; teachers in various "extension systems" and classes for adults; teachers in "trade union colleges." Actual "shop" or "field" practice is coming to be considered a necessary part of their equipment, especially in order that they may supervise their students in such work. The Federal Board for Vocational Educa- tion, working through the states, is standardizing and co- ordinating the preparation of teachers in agriculture, trades, home economics, commerce, and retail salesmanship. The social bearings of modern education make it necessary for special teachers to have an adequate foundation of liberal education, as well as thorough training in their techniques and in the larger professional aspects of teaching. Teachers of "special classes" in the public schools, of trades and industries, of non-English-speaking children and adults both native and foreign-born, combine to a peculiar extent the functions of teacher and "social worker." But vocational advisers or counselors and visiting teacher.s^ or "home-and-school visitors" are the real "case workers" in the educational field. They need specific training and ex- perience in teaching and in certain aspects of social and industrial work, as well as familiarity with mental hygiene and at least the results of psychological tests. Although the work of one is primarily preventive and constructive and of the other remedial, their lines often cross ; and both have recourse to psychological and vocational laboratories 388 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS or clinics, such as the Cincinnati Vocation Bureau and the recently established psychological clinic in Louisville. Some university laboratories provide these facilities for the schools of the community. In vocational guidance, methods are still experimental and admittedly imperfect; but much active thinking has been generated by the war. It is an educational service of peculiar delicacy and difficulty. It may perhaps be most fruitfully regarded as one aspect of a continuous edu- cational guidance, which must be given by school and so- ciety in cooperation, and which must never harden into set practices. There is a tendency in the schools as well as in the colleges (discussed in Chapter XXI) to lay the chief educational emphasis upon vocational information through opening to the student the main fields of occupation,^ show- ing the vocational bearings of the curriculum, and mak- ing preliminary tests of ability and aptitude in order to give him a basis for handling himself wisely and objec- tively. Personnel specifications, dealt with in Chapter III, are an important aid. Actual placement is being made more and more through junior sections of public employment offices, special non-commercial bureaus, and personnel de- partments of industries, with which the school must be in close contact. But placement itself is not an educational function. The National Vocational Guidance Association is again active.^ Various universities have given courses in vocational guidance for teachers ; and many cities, notably Boston, Cincinnati, Chicago, Grand Rapids, Rochester, have vocational guidance systems of different sorts as part of their public school activities. Others have vocational guid- ance bureaus under private auspices. Settlement houses, the Christian Associations, and other agencies dealing with boys and girls and young people employ vocational advisers. The bureaus of occupations for trained women have laid great emphasis upon their function of guidance. A Bureau of Vocational Information has been established in New *See F. J. Allen. A Guide to the Study of Occupations (1921). ' See reports of committees on machinery of placement and com- munity organization for vocational guidance. Bulletin of National Committee of Bureaus of Occupations. February, 1920. EDUCATIONAL SERVICES 389 York by experienced college women. A bulletin of the United States Bureau of Education gives over nine hundred high schools reporting vocational guidance.^ Visiting teachers are to schools what medical social work- ers are to hospitals. They follow any child giving evidence of school or home difficulties into his home and neighbor- hood, and study and treat the situation as the class teacher is not able to do, bringing to bear all necessary cooperating agencies. About twenty cities employ these teachers under the board of education, including Worcester, Hartford, Rochester, Cleveland, Columbus, Chicago, and Minneapolis. In Boston, Philadelphia, and Kansas City they are main- tained in the public schools by private associations. New York has both methods. California in 191 5 passed a per- missive "home teacher" act authorizing school boards to send teachers into the homes to instruct mothers and chil- dren in the English language, household duties, and citi- zenship. This is primarily an "Americanization" measure. The National Association of Visiting Teachers and Home and School Visitors, organized in 1916, is now making a survey of the work of visiting teachers throughout the country. The Federal Children's Bureau indorses the work of the visiting teacher in connection with its campaign for keeping children in school ; and the mental hygienist finds her an invaluable aid. It is work that requires spe- cial professional and personal equipment, but has a high degree of social usefulness. It is distinct from the work of the attendance or truant officer in that its emphasis is on prevention. A visiting teacher should preferably have had classroom experience, but the case-hardened teacher is not suited to this work.' The school psychological examiner is discussed in Chapter XVII. Of other educational services, educational administra- tion grows most directly out of teaching, since it is com- monly as a teacher that the administrator tests his aptitude, * Vocational Guidance in Secondary Education. Bulletin 19, iqtS. See also Vocational Guidance and the Public Schools. Bulletin 24. 1918; John M. Brewer, The Vocational Guidance Movement (igi8) ; and Mever Blonmficld, Rcadinqs in Vocational Guidance (igi6>. •See David Holbrook. The Teacher Who Came Back. The Family. February, 192 1. 390 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS and the actual teaching experience is of inestimable value in dealing with administrative problems. But the princi- pal, superintendent, president or dean may likewise nowa- days secure special professional training in problems of administration. It is important, wherever possible, for the administrator to continue to do some teaching in order to keep in mind essential teaching problems and to retain actual contacts with students. Deans of women in coeduca- tional universities, whose position is sometimes ill-defined,^ need to insist upon a full position on the faculty and pref- erably upon a certain amount of teaching. Nothing so wins the respect of students for administrative officers. Men still occupy the larger number of administrative posts in education. But there are women in all the types of posi- tion mentioned above. In the west, nine women are state superintendents of education and very commonly county superintendents, of whom there are now some seven hun- dred and twenty. A woman state superintendent is presi- dent of the National Education Association ; a woman was for a number of years superintendent of schools in Chi- cago; another has recently become one in Los Angeles. Women city superintendents and high-school principals are likely to increase. There are of course many women heads of private schools. There are also administrative positions in connection with educational associations, local and national, and in con- nection with city and -state boards of education. A dozen cities or so, including New York, Buffalo, Philadelphia, Providence, Worcester, Chicago, Baltimore, and Richmond, maintain voluntary public education associations to study the operations of the local school system and to keep citi- zens informed and interested in their efficient administra- tion. Educational investigation and research are of many kinds and carried on under various auspices, public and private. The United States Bureau of Education in the Department * Sce_ Lois Flimban Alatthev/s. The Dean of Women (1916). There is a National Conference of Deans of Women meeting with the Department of Superintendence of the National Education Asso- ciation, and a Deans' Conference in connection with the biennial meetings of the Association of Collegiate Alumnae. EDUCATIONAL SERVICES 391 of the Interior has for many years performed a valuable service in collecting and distributing statistical and other information. It is cruelly limited by meager appropriations, but issues a useful series of bulletins and biennial statistical reports. Of late years, both it and the Children's Bureau of the Department of Labor have carried on campaigns for the improvement of child health through the schools. The Children's Bureau has also conducted a "Back to School" campaign. The Department of Agriculture and more re- cently the Department of Commerce have also engaged in important educational investigations. A recent estimate, however, finds that the federal government spends only one per cent of its annual appropriations for education and re- search. The American Council on Education, arising as a w^ar-emergency measure, represents the colleges, universi- ties, and professional schools at the capital, and acts as a medium of communication between them and the federal government. The National Education Association, repre- senting especially the public school systems of the country, likewise has a central office in Washington. Many state departments of education and a few large city school sys- tems, maintain bureaus of investigation and research. The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, the General Education Board of the Rockefeller Foundation, and the Department of Education of the Russell Sage Foundation conduct intensive educational investigations^ and are frequently called in as experts to make special surveys and studies for states, communities, and organiza- tions. The Carnegie Foundation has made a sur\'ey of the educational system of the state of Vermont, and its recent bulletin on the professional training of teachers is based on a study of the Missouri system of normal and training schools. The General Education Board issued in 1919 an eight-volume report on the Gary School Syston. The Education Survey in 25 small volumes, made in 1916 by the Cleveland Foundation, enlisted the cooperation of a large staff of experts. The new Commonwealth Foundation has made large appropriations for educational inquiry. The Bureau of Education has been invited to make a number of state surveys. Special studies are con- 392 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS stantly being made of problems of teaching and adminis- tration, and the scope of research in educational psychology is steadily widening. Demonstration and experimental schools are being established. A group of people in New York maintain a Bureau of Educational Experiments. These various forms of work have developed their own techniques, in which a worker must be trained. They call for people with the equipment of a doctor of philosophy in education. Sometimes those with a master's degree can gain training and experience as assistants on special studies. Much of this work is on a piece basis, and is consequently limited in duration. But there are a few salaried positions for experts in educational research in connection with edu- cational foundations, federal and state educational bureaus, boards, and commissions, and educational organizations. There are chances to become experts in some of the nev/er fields. Women as yet have had small place in educational research. In spite of the defections in late years, teaching is still the most important single profession for women; and it promises far more satisfactory professional opportunities in the near future than it has provided in the past. The 1910 census shows that of over seven hundred thousand women listed as professional, 66.4 per cent were teachers in colleges and schools. Women teachers were 28.9 per cent of all professional workers, 80 per cent of all school teachers, and 18 per cent of college teachers.^ Of college women at work in 1915 according to the Association of Collegiate Alumnae census, 70.5 per cent were teachers. The 1920 census will show losses from these figures, but by 1930 teaching may have become in a new sense the dominant profession for women. *A committee of the American Association of University Pro- fessors is looking into the distribution of men and women on uni- versity and college faculties. In this connection, see Cora F. Mc- Intire, A Venture in Statistics. Journal of Association of Col- legiate Alumnae, October, 1918, and Opportunities and Salaries of Women in the Teaching Profession in Nebraska in the same publi- cation, March-April, 1920. CHAPTER XX THE SECURING OF EMPLOYMENT BY WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS Professional education, professional associations, and professional employment are intimately connected, and must be considered as aspects of a single larger problem. That problem we are just beginning to formulate as the problem of professional relations and to attack concretely and con- structively as the industrial world has been attacking the problem of industrial relations. The two movements rep- resent attempts from different angles to arrive at some more satisfactory adjustment of working relations as a whole. They constantly touch and reinforce each other, and are likely to become progressively coordinated. It is too soon for either movement to forecast its development with assurance. But our thinking on all matters of employ- ment has been raised to an entirely new plane. During the war period there were three outstanding de- velopments affecting the employment of professional work- ers and arising out of the imperative and increasing war demand for experts of nearly every variety. First, the establishment of special personnel bureaus or departments by war-services of all kinds— governmental, patriotic, so- cial, industrial and commercial; second, the establishment under the federal Department of Labor in cooperation with the states of the War Emergency United States Employ- ment Service covering the country with some nine hundred offices, providing for every group of workers, and finally creating a special professional section for men and women ; third, the establishment of the War Department Committee on Classification of Personnel in the Army, already de- scribed in Chapter III, which listed, rated, and distributed officers and men required in military services, including 393 394 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS many professional workers. There were likewise a number of subsidiary undertakings of a professional character: registrations and distributions of workers made by the great professional organizations — the American Medical Associa- tion, the American Bar Association, the American Library Association, the American Chemical Society, the United En- gineering Societies — and by such organizations as the MiH- tary Training Camps Association, the Public Service Re- serve, and the Women's Committee of the Council of Na- tional Defence. The Intercollegiate Intelligence Bureau, or- ganized in Washington by a group of college officials and cooperating with higher educational institutions to recruit workers needed by the government, performed a useful service until early in 1918, when it was superseded by more comprehensive agencies. Shortly after the armistice the United States Bureau of Education estabhshed a special School Board Service Section to deal with actual and threat- ened shortages of teachers in colleges and schools. The Intercollegiate Community Service Association maintained an office in New York for the recruiting of college women for service overseas with the Red Cross, the Y. M. C. A. canteen service, and other welfare organizations. For some time before the war individual methods of securing professional employment and professional work- ers had been recognized as haphazard, wasteful, and gen- erally unsatisfactory ; and employment agencies and bureaus of various kinds for professional workers were growing in number. These are of two main types : agencies con- ducted for profit and agencies conducted under the auspices of professional or educational associations. Of the agen- cies on a money-making basis, the teachers' agencies have had the longest and on the whole the most respectable his- tory, although they have varied greatly in repute. Some of them have been organized on a country-wide scale, and are experienced in employment methods and in meet- ing the needs of teachers and schools. But the standard colleges and many of the better private schools seldom use them, preferring to deal directly with institutions and with applicants. More recent in origin are such agencies as the Newspaper Men's Exchange of Springfield, Massa- SECURING OF EMPLOYMENT 395 chusetts, the Engineers' Exchange in various cities, the Na- tional Employment Exchange of New York, the Business Men's Clearing House of Chicago, the nurses' registries. The employment agencies m.aintained by typewriter and other commercial machine companies place occasional pro- fessional workers. While many of these agencies are en- tirely honest, and have worked out employment techniques that are worthy of study, still they are businesses run for profit, and their incomes depending upon fees and com- missions, they are tempted to move people about rather than to consult the true professional interests of all concerned. As at present organized and supervised, they are open to many of the objections urged against fee-charging agencies for other groups of workers. In all of them lurks the danger of exploiting the individual's need of work and ignorance of where and how to find it. The professional worker's frequent distrust of fee-charging agencies is due to an unformulated notion that they are fundamentally unprofessional. Nevertheless, these agencies were the first to realize that the elaborate occupational structure of modern society de- mands some intermediary service which shall bring worker and employer together to their mutual advantage. For them to find each other individually has become increasingly diffi- cult. Several alternatives remain. The service may be rendered as a matter of private business, as is done by the agencies just described. It may be rendered by the several occupational groups, independently or jointly, as is done by the labor unions and by an increasing number of pro- fessions. It may be rendered as a matter of philanthropy, as is done by the Young Women's Christian Associations. It may be rendered as a matter of educational convenience or policy, as has been done by the colleges and profes- sional schools and, in a somewhat different sense, by the bureaus of occupations for trained women. It may be rendered as a necessary public service by the government, federal, state, and municipal, and paid for like public education, out of taxes. Employment bureaus maintained by professional asso- ciations are a comparatively recent development, and until 396 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS the war they were rather tentative affairs without much cooperation with one another or with other employment movements. One of the earhest and most efficient is the Employment Bureau of the Chemist's Club of New York. The United Engineering Societies likewise maintain an em- ployment bureau. The National Social Workers' Exchange was established in 191 7 with the backing of the National Conference of Social Work, and is actively working to raise professional standards. The Art Alliance of America has a bureau chiefly for workers in applied art. The national organizations of registered nurses had adopted before the war a policy of establishing their own nurses' registries ; and the Red Cross organized after the war a Bureau of Informa- tion for Nurses, with their cooperation, which acts in this capacity on a national scale. In fact, whether they have organized employment bureaus or not, all professional asso- ciations carry on employment work of an informal char- acter through professional publications, meetings, and per- sonal acquaintance of members. In associations of definite and limited membership, such as the American Association of Museums, or newly organized associations, such as the Industrial Relations Association of America, the secre- tary is frequently called upon to do more work of an em- ployment character than he has time, inclination, or often equipment to do. Many a college president or professor attends meetings of learned societies to see whether he can get wind of likely candidates for positions in his in- stitution or department. War developments, however, have taught many of the great professional organizations that employment work carried on informally, incidentally, and amateurishly is almost worse than useless. They are be- ginning to see that there is a new profession, employment service, with a growing body of principles and techniques, for which workers must be prepared before they can con- duct such undertakings successfully for any group of work- ers, professional, clerical, or industrial ; that essential as it is for each profession to confront and study its own employment problems, there are serious disadvantages in having each maintain an independent employment bureau, inevitably limited and yet overlapping. SECURING OF EMPLOYMENT 397 Professions no longer operate in isolation. Practically every important modern undertaking involves the closest sort of professional cooperation. The professions are increas- ingly conscious of their obligations to one another and to the public welfare. Professional associations have long maintained committees on education, which have had to do chiefly with the standards of professional schools and the subject-matter of professional curricula. In the future they are likely to concern themselves more intimately with the supply and distribution of young professional workers and to realize the vital connections between education and em- ployment. There are many problems common to all the professions; and there is crying need of some centralized machinery which shall study comparatively problemsof pro- fessional distribution, preparation, training in service, and so on, putting the experience of each profession at the dis- posal of the others. Such a system must focus upon the growing-point of all professions, the education, employ- ment, and supervision of the younger generation of workers, although it will likewise concern itself with workers of every degree of experience and competence. It may well be that with the establishment of such a system, profes- sional organizations would depute to it the actual place- ment of workers, and would organize their own bureaus as cooperating agencies concerned with problems of education and research within the several professions. There is still much to be learned regarding the surpluses and shortages in different professions and in different parts of the coun- try. Every profession needs a study of the number of its practitioners in each county or other local area of the coun- try as compared with the total population, along the lines of the survey of physicians made in 1918 by the American Medical Association. Such a study should include age- groups, professional and general education, employment on a salaried or independent basis, membership in professional associations; activities of these organizations.^ In 1910, college women were instrumental in inaugurat- ing the movement for city bureaus of occupations for trained women which has made a distinctive contnl)Ution to the present larger movement for some sort of nation-wide 398 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS professional employment service for both men and women. The first of these bureaus was established by the Women's Educational and Industrial Union of Boston, an institu- tion which had long been a leader in promoting the vocational and economic welfare of women. It was opened in Jan- uary, 19 lO, with Miss Laura Drake Gill, formerly Dean of Barnard College, as Director, and has been popularly known as the Boston Appointment Bureau, although its present official title is Bureau of Vocational Advice and Appoint- ment. Since 191 1 Miss Florence Jackson has been Direc- tor. In the autumn of that year a second bureau, the Inter- collegiate Bureau of Occupations for Trained Women, was opened in New York City through the cooperative efforts of the alumnae clubs and associations of eight women's colleges and the women graduates of Cornell University. In April, 1912, the Philadelphia Bureau of Occupations was established under the auspices of the Philadelphia Branch of the Association of Collegiate Alumnae and other organi- zations of women. The Chicago Collegiate Bureau of Oc- cupations followed in April, 1913, under the auspices of the Association of Collegiate Alumnae and various college clubs and associations. In 1914 the Virginia Bureau of Vocations for Women was established in Richmond, chiefly through the efforts of Dr. O. L. Hatcher. Its function is educational and advisory, and it does no placement. The year 1915 saw the establishment of the Los Angeles Bureau of Occupations of the Women's University Club, the Pitts- burgh Collegiate Vocational Bureau of the Pittsburgh Col- lege Club, and the Collegiate Alumnae Bureau of Occupa- tions in Kansas City, under the auspices of the local branch of that association. The Detroit Collegiate Bureau of Oc- cupations was established in 1916; the Cleveland and Denver Bureaus were established in 1917; the Minneapolis Woman's Occupational Bureau late in 1917, and the Saint Paul Voca- tional Bureau for Trained Women early in 1918. Although these bureaus were established, administered, and sup- ported separately and in various ways, they organized in 191 7 a National Committee of Bureaus of Occupations which has since held conferences twice a year for the dis- cussion of common problems and policies. SECURING OF EMPLOYMENT 399 The bureaus of occupations for trained women arose as a result of the growing incHnation of educated women to go into ocupations other than teaching, which became manifest in the decade between 1900 and 1910, and has since become so pronounced that teaching is to-day suf- fering from a dearth of recruits of the highest type. The 1915 census of college women showed that the percentage of those in non-teaching occupations increased from 29.2 per cent of all employed between 1890 and 1900 to 33.7 of all employed between 1900 and 1910. Our schedules sent to the colleges in the summer of 1919 asked for the initial occupations of the classes of 1907, 1912, 1917, 1918, 1919. Many colleges were unable during the vacation to furnish this information, and the returns for 1919 are so incomplete that they have not been used. Figures also from several of the minor colleges are too small to be fairly reduced to percentages. But the following table, based on returns from our schedules, indicates the trend especially during the two years of war. Undoubtedly the status of women in all professions will be substantially improved on account of the war-time experience with women workers. But the revelation of the primary national importance of education, the present acute shortage of teachers, and the extension of educational ideas and practices into the occu- pations themselves, are bound to raise the professional standing and strengthen the appeal of teaching. In the table little difference is to be observed between the liberal arts colleges and the institutions providing vocational train- ing, although individual institutions vary considerably in their distribution of graduates in teaching and non-teaching occupations. Before the establishment of the bureaus of occupations and during their earlier history, there was general ignorance and uncertainty regarding the opportunities for educated women in occupations other than teaching, the actual range and character of these occupations, the training required for them, and the specific modes of securing employment in them. While there was a similar lack of organized in- formation for educated men, the situation for them was rendered far less difficult through the assured position of 400 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS Percentage Table of Initial Occupations of Women Graduates OF Representative Institutions Institutions bo n IS o a V «5 a 00 bo .s a in c .2 >- & 00 tn C .2 ut it behooves women to remember that they are relatively new members of the professions, for the most part greatly in the minority, and not to attach too great importance to the resentment — frequently unintentional — that always manifests itself in one form or another over the introduc- tion of new workers into any group. Professional women as yet have not gone extensively into independent practice. Although this has perhaps been due chiefly to financial inexperience and timidity, it may be 442 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS that it represents an advantage rather than a limitation, since it ranges them definitely on the side of public service in one form or another instead of on the side of a kind of professional competition that is coming to seem outworn. It disentangles them from old professional conventions and rivalries, and puts them at the service of various social groups. Where they are setting up for themselves, they seem to be doing it in the modern spirit of group consulting practitioners. The various methods of securing salaried employment and the prospects of some form of nation-wide professional employment service have been discussed in Chapter XX and elsewhere. But no reliance upon such services can take the place altogether of individual initiative and direct applica- tion to employers. This is in itself a valuable part of pro- fessional training. With the growth of modern personnel departments in organizations and firms, proper direct appli- cation is bound to become less haphazard and wasteful. The problem of professional women and marriage has been discussed briefly in Chapter II. With our enlarging views of both, the two things are coming to seem less mu- tually exclusive. It would be disastrous, if it were not futile, to ask women to choose between professional ca- reers and marriage. More and more, professional women are marrying; more and more, married women are profes- sional. Neither status is fundamentally incompatible with the other, in spite of innumerable practical difficulties. In the future, professional men may be expected to make adjustments as well as professional women. What has been said of the development of group practice indicates one line of modification. But whether she continues her pro- fessional work actively or not, the modern woman with professional training and experience is bound to make them felt for the public good in the home and the community. SELECTED AND ANNOTATED READING LIST This list is not a bibliography. It merely calls attention to some of the more recent or distinctive publications. More detailed references are to be found in the text. The material on professional occupations is scattering, and recent events render much of it obsolete. Some of the studies of opportunities for v^^omen are more detailed than anything existing for men. But the new interest in better professional adjustments is manifesting itself in efforts to provide specific occupational information for young men. Women may well consult this material more freely than they have done in the past, in order to secure a juster and broader understanding of the actual situation and develop- ments in the several professional fields. There is, more- over, a tendency toward describing professions in terms of both men and women workers, which is to be commended, and needs to be strengthened. In fact, there is need of much more thorough comparative studies of professions and professional psychology. Professional scliools and pro- fessional associations are beginning to recognize the im- portance of analyzing the careers of their graduates and members, of cooperating more closely with employers and workers, and of exchanging information among the pro- fessions. At present, much of the most useful material is to be found in pamphlets, reports, catalogues, and periodi- cals, rather than in books. Four main groups of material may conveniently be dis- tinguished. I. PUBLICATIONS DESIGNED PRIMARILY FOR MEN BUT USEFUL FOR women: There are few books for men dealing with professions in general. 443 444 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS Vocational Guidance for the Professions, by Edwin Tenney Brewster, Rand, McNally Company (1917), is a popular handbook, addressed chiefly to high school students. Occupations, A Text-Book in Vocational Guidance, by Enoch B. B. Gowin and William A. Wheatley, Ginn and Company (1916), includes brief descriptions of occupations of a professional char- acter. A Guide to the Study of Occupations, by Frederick J. Allen, Harvard University Press (1921), promises to be valuable. The current demand for occupational information is indicated by the appearance of several series of books on professions and allied occupations. Each volume is a brief popular treatment of a given occupation, based on little special investigation but written by a well-known practi- tioner in the field described. Volumes even in the same series vary greatly in merit and in the amount of informa- tion given. The Training Scries, published by the J. B. Lippincott Company, includes Training of a Salesman, by William Maxwell; Training for the Electrical Railway Business, by C. P. Fairchild ; Training for the Newspaper Trade, by Don C. Seitz; Training for the Stage, by Arthur Hornblow ; Training and Rewards of the Physi- cian, by Dr. Richard C. Cabot; Training of a Forester, by Gifford Pinchot; Training of a Life Insurance Agent, by Warren M. Horner; Training and Rewards of a Lawyer, by Harlan F. Stone, is announced. The Opportunity Series, published by Harper and Brothers, con- tains brief volumes on Opportunities in Chemistry, by Ellwood Hendrick — very slight; in Farming and Out of Doors, by Edward Owen Dean — of practical value; in Merchant Ships, by Nelson Col- lins; in the Newspaper Business, by James Melvin Lee — also good; in Aviation, by Arthur Sweetzer; in Engineering, by Joseph M. Horton. The Young Man and Vocations Series, which the Macmillan Com- pany is beginning, is to include the following volumes: The Young Man and the Law, by Judge Simeon E. Baldwin ; The Young Man and the Ministry, by Rev. Charles R. Brown; The Young Man and Teaching, by Dean Henry Parks Wright ; The Young Man and Medicine, by Dr. Lewellys F. Barker; Tlie Young Man and Banking, by Frank A. Vanderlip; The Young Man and Meclianical Engineer- ing, by Lester P. Breckinridge ; The Young Man and Electrical Engineering, by Charles F. Swain; The Young Man and Civil Engineering, by George F. Swain ; The Young Man and Farming, by L. H. Bailey; The Young Man and Government Service, by Wil- liam H. Taft. The two volumes which have appeared. The Young Man and the Lazv and The Young Man and Teaching (1920), are written by distinguished elders. I SELECTED AND ANNOTATED READING LIST 445 The Opportunity Monographs, issued during 1919 by the Federal Board for Vocational Education in its Vocational Rehabilitation Series for disabled soldiers, are brief pamphlets largely derived from published material but containing considerable concrete in- formation. Monographs dealing with occupations of professional character are Forestry Pursuits; Employment Management; The Law as a Vocation; Journalism as a Vocation; Farm Management as a Vocation; Teaching as a Vocation; General Farming as a Vocation; Commercial Occupations. Personnel Systcfn of the United States Army, Two Volumes, Government Printing Office (1919), gives a detailed account of the significant work done during the war by the Army Committee on Classification of Personnel of the War Department. It contains a number of professional specifications, and is of value to all persons concerned with the selection and placement of professional workers. Trade Specifications and Index of Professions and Trades in the Army, Third Edition (November, 1918), is a manual issued by this Committee, containing occupational classifications and many professional specifications. Army Mental Tests, by Robert M. Yerkes and Clarence S. Yoakum, Henry Holt and Co. (1920), describes the parallel under- taking of giving group intelligence tests to the army. The Harvard Bureau of Vocational Guidance has issued or sponsored several books on professional occupations and voca- tion guidance, including The Law as a Vocation, second edition (1919) ; Advertising as a Vocation, Macmillan Co. (1919); Busi- ness Employments, Ginn and Company (1916) and A Guide to the Study of Occupations (1921), all by Frederick J. Allen; The I'oca- tional Guidance Movement, by John M. Brewer, Macmillan Com- pany (1918) ; and Readings in Vocational Guidance, by Meyer Bloomfield, Ginn and Company (1916). A Study of Engineering Education, by Charles Riborg Mann, Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, Bulletin Number Eleven (1918), throws light on newer movements in these professions, and is suggestive for all concerned with professional education. Report of Committee of the Engineering Council on Classification and Compensation of Engineers (Pamphlet, 1919) contains much with respect to salaries and grades that is useful for other pro- fessions. II. PUBLICATIONS DESIGNED FOR BOTH MEN AND WOMEN : Vocational Advice for College Students, Bulletin of Oberlin Col- lege, New Series 142, May, 1918, contains brief descriptions of the occupations, arranged alphabetically, including statements from members of the faculty of pre-professional and professional courses offered at Oberlin, and professional courses elsewhere ; letters of advice from practitioners of the several professions, and bibliogra- 446 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS phies of material on the professions to be found in the Oberlin libraries. Some of the newer professions, such as employment management or personnel service, are not dealt with; the treatment of the sciences and psychology is inadequate. Advertising, journal- ism and publishing, the ministry and other religious occupations, including missionary work and service under the Young Men's and Young Women's Christian Associations, are particularly well described. Vocational Infortnation, prepared by the Committee on Voca- tional Guidance, Leland Stanford Junior University Bulletin, Third Series, Number 22, June, 1919, is more detailed than the Oberlin bulletin, although lacking the concrete interest of advice from those in the professions. Its accounts of agriculture, the commercial occupations, education, including psychological examining, engineer- ing, medicine and public health, science and applied science are particularly good. Its references are useful. The Report of the Congressional Joint Committee on Reclassi- fication of Salaries in the Washington Civil Service, Government Printing Office, March, 1920, contains specifications of positions on the basis of duties and qualifications, and schedules of compensa- tion for the respective classes. Its findings with respect to present conditions in the Civil Service, comparison with non-governmental employments, and recommendations looking to the establishment of the Civil Service Commission as a modern central personnel agency for the government are of great value for all persons interested in matters of occupations and employment. State and city reclassifications, such as those of New York State and City, Massachusetts, Ohio, Illinois, and the recent Canadian Civil Service Reclassification, are also valuable. Employment Psychology, by Henry C. Link, Macmillan Company (1919), gives the results and techniques of vocational psychological tests without making extravagant claims. Recent publications on the professional aspects of industry and commerce are almost too numerous to mention, but the following titles will be found useful : Scientific Management and Labor, by R. F. Hoxie, D. Appleton and Company (1915). The Works Manager To-day, by Sidney Webb. Longmans, Green and Company (1917). Modern Industrial Movements, edited by Daniel Bloomfield. H. W. Wilson Company (1919). The Administration of Industrial Enterprises, by Edwin D. Jones. Longmans, Green and Company (1916). When the Workmen Help You Manage, by W. R. Bassett. Cen- tury Company (1919). What Is on the Worker's Mind, by Whiting Williams. Charles Scribner's Sons (1920). 1 SELECTED AND ANNOTATED READING LIST 447 Personnel Administration, by Ordway Tead and Henry C. Met- calf, McGraw-Hill Book Company (1920), is probably the fullest account of principles and methods in the field of industrial rela- tions. The Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the National As- sociation of Employment Managers (now called The Industrial Relations Association of America), (May, 1919, 1920) and the journal of the Association, Personnel, give current information and discussion. Employment Management Series (Nine Bulletins, 1919-1920), Federal Board for Vocational Education, is prepared by experts. Commercial Research, by C. S. Duncan. Macmillan (Tompany (1919). Business Research and Statistics, by J. G. Frederick. D. Appleton and Compattiy (1920). Business Statistics, by Melvin T. Copeland. Harvard University Press (1917). An Introduction to Statistics (1917), and Readings and Problems in Statistical Methods (1920), by Horace Secrist. Macmillan Company. Allan C. Haskell. How to Make and Use Graphic Charts. Codex Book Company, Ipc. (1919). Graphic Methods for Presenting Facts, by Willard C. Brinton. Engineering Publishing Company (1914). Other publications bearing on the subject-matter of the several chapters are : Organized Efforts for the Improvement of Methods of Adminis- tration in the United States, by Gustavus A. Weber. D. Appleton and Company (1919). Americanization Studies Made Under the Auspices of the Car- negie Corporation of New York, Allen T. Burns, Director. Eleven volumes. Harper and Brothers (1920-1921). Advertise! By E. Sampson. D. C. Heath and Company (1918). Principles of Advertising Arrangement, by Frank Parsons. Prang Company (1912). Attention I'alue of Advertisements. New York University Bu- reau of Business Research (Pamphlet, 1920). Effective House Organs, by Robert E. Ramsey. D. Appleton and Company (1920). A. B. C. of Exhibit Planning, by E. G. and M. S. Routzahn. Survey and Exhibit Series. Russell Sage Foundation (1919). Traveling Publicity Campaigns, by Mary S. Routzahn. Same Series (1920). Community Drama and Pageantry, by Mary P. Beegle and Jack A. Crawford. Yale University Press (1916). Community Drama, by Percy Mackaye. Houghton Mifflin Com- pany (1917). 448 WOMEN PROFESSIONAL WORKERS Patriotic Drama in Your Town, by Constance D. Mackaye. Henry Holt and Company (1918). The Little Theatre in the United States, by same author. Henry Holt and Company (1917). The Open-Air Theatre, by Sheldon Cheney. Mitchell Kennerlejir 32, 335-341, 343; salaries and comments, 2^2^32'^, 333- 334, 335. 338-341. "Labor turnover" in professions, 176, 179, 380; of women versus men, 18, 33-34, 203-206, 233, 250, 273-274, 297-298. Landscape architecture. See Architecture. Law and lawyers, 62-63, 71-78; less socialized than medicine, 71; training for, 71-73, 75; types, 75; opportunities for INDEX 463 women, 73-75; salaries and comments, 75-77. Leaves of absence, 16, 385-386. Leisure time, uses of, 138, 145- 147, 220, 310. See Adult edu- cation. Liberal and vocational educa- tion. See Colleges of Liberal Arts. Library work and librarians, 356-366; distinguished from filing, 238-239, 360^361 ; effect of war on, 357; types, 357- 360; grades, 49-52, 361-362, 364; salaries and comments, 363-365. Literary work and workers, literature an art not journal- ism, 279-280, 284, 296, 309, 310-311. Magazine work and workers, 284-285, 291-295. Mail-order houses, 204, 252, 253, 341. Map making. See Drafting. Marriage and professional women, 18, 31-33, 203-206, 233, 250, 273-274, 297-298, 350, 381, 438, 442. Mathematics, professional uses of, 211, 236-238, 242, 264, 267, 331-340, 34T, 353. Mechanical drawing. See Draft- ing. Medical social work, 94-96. Medicine and medical workers, 62-71, 83-85^ 90, 97, 102, 212- 213;^ social ideas in, 6. 62, 65, 6y\ improved standards in, 63, 65 ; opportunities for women in, 64-68; training, 68-69; salaries and comments, 69-71 ; nursing and, 86-92; hospital social work and, 94-99, 121. Men and women in professions, 18-23, 24, 25, 27, 28-35, 63-64, 68, 71-72, 76, 78-79, 81-S2, 106, 109, 135-137, 153-155. 170-171. 173-174, 180-181, 186, 191, 193, 199, 203-206, 217, 226-227, 22:^, 233, 238, 253, 254-255, 257, 261, 262-263, 270-271, 272-275, 277- 278, 284-285, 286-287, 291, 294- 295. 297, 300, 301, 305-306, 308, 316, 318, 325, 326-327, 328, 330- 331, 334. 337, 341. 342. 350, 354- 355. 367, 390. 392. 393, 399-401, 404, 405, 406, 410, 414, 420, 431, 432, 435, 438-439, 440, 441, 442. Mental hospitals, workers in, 66, 67, 70-71, 94-95, 97, 99-100, 346. 347. 358-359. Mental hygiene and workers in, 16-17, 65-66, 67, 70, 83, 84, 85, 89. 91, 94-95, 96--99, 100, 102, 158-159, 162, 163, 164, 190, 212, 225-226, 343-344. 344-347, 387 ; National Committee for Men- tal Hygiene, 67, 83, 96, 97, 99, 415. Mental tests. See Tests. Mercantile work and workers, 223-224, 232-233, 247-253, 260- 263, 268-269. Ministry and work in, 62, 63, 78-82. Missionary work and workers, 797^0. Motion-picture work and work- ers, 279, 292, 299-300, 3". 315- 316. See Advertising and Art. Museum work and workers, 317. 333, 341. 356. 366-372. Music, work in, 311, 316, 317- 318. See Art. National Committee of Bureaus of Occupations, 31, 398, 402, 403. 405. 408. National Committee for Mental Hygiene, 67, 83, 96, 97, 99, ^415. National Federation of Business and Professional Women's Clubs, 30-31, 235-236, 408-^09. National Research Council, 26, 415-416. 464 INDEX National Social Unit Organiza- tion, 84, 138, 139-140. National Social Workers' Ex- change, 164, 179, 396, 408. Newer occupations, profes- sional status of, I, 4, 14- 15, 65, 73-74, 81, 83-84, 89-90, 91, 94-102, 104, 106-107, 112, 117-119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 127, 128-129, 130, 134, 135, 137, 141, 142-143, 145, 147, 149- 150, 178, 185-186, 190, 202-203, 206-209, 218-220, 235, 236, 249, 254, 260, 269, 272, 276, 277, 281, 295-296, 299-300, 303, 328, 332, 336-337, 375-376, 387, 389. Newspaper work and workers. See Journalism. Nursing and nurses, 83, 85, 86- 94, 95-96, 98, loi, 213; pro- fessional status of, 86-87, 90, 91 ; training schools and teach- ing in, 87—89; three types of nurses professional, 89-92; salaries and comments, 92-94. Nutrition work and workers, 83, 85, 103-104, 117-119, 120- 122, 123— 125. See Home eco- nomics. Occupational therapy and thera- pists, 83, 99-100, 323. See Men- tal hygiene. Oflfice managers and organizers, 233-234- Oflfice work and workers, 223- 247; psychology of, 225-226; clerical and professional workers, 226 ; stenographers and secretaries, 226-232 ; cor- respondents, 232-233 ; oflfice managers and organizers, 233— 234, 235-236 ; accountants, 236- 238; filing experts and busi- ness librarians, 238-239; train- ing, 240-242 ; salaries and comments, 243-247. See Com- mercial work. Organizers, 135, 160, 219, 236. "Outside" selling and salesmen, 128, 205, 234, 253, 262-263, 266, 271. Parish visitors and workers. See Religious work. Pathologists, 48, 66, 67-68, 70- 71,. 339, 340, 341. Persistence in employment. See Labor turnover. Personnel, Army Committee on Classification of. See Classi- fication of Personnel, Army Committee on. Personnel specifications. See Specifications. Personnel work and workers, 156, 185-200, 206, 211, 214, 224, 242, 248, 260, 264, 267 ; descrip- tion of, 185-190; training, 191- 192; salaries and comments, 192-200. Physical education and workers in, 83, 100-102. Placement, not primarily an education function, 397, 408, 412, 419-420. Play and playground workers. See Physical education and recreation. Political work and workers, 7Z- 7S, 135-137. Practice work, "field" and "shop," as part of professional training, 46, 88-89, 106, 120, 166, 167-168, 169-170, 175-177, 191, 213-214, 216-217, 231-232, 234, 248, 387, 418, 4357436. Pre-professional courses in med- icine, 64, 68-69 ; law, 72), 75 ; nursing, 86-87, 91-92, 93 ; psy- chiatric social work, 98-99; health work, 102; agriculture, 114; home economics, 118-119, 131 ; social work, 169, 170-171 ; indu9:trial work, 205, 216, 221- 222; commercial work, 2J^2; banking, 256-257, 263; public utilities, 273; journalism, 288, INDEX 465 290-291 ; editorial work, 294 ; chemistry, 327-328, 330-33I ; geology, 337; all sciences, 341 ; psychology, 348; statistics, 350-351; teaching, 2>-/-j, 380, 381, 384-385, 387; source of term, 412; A. C. A. commit- tee on, 426; under-graduate pre-professional choices, 430- 432, 435. Private practice. See Consult- ants, Group practice. Inde- pendent practice. Professional, uses of term, i, 3; ethics, 2, 6, 15, 189, 193, 208, 217, 264, 281, 282, 301, 304, 438- 441 ; workers, distinguished from non-professional, 7-1 1, 15-17; types of, 8, 25, 34; grades of, 34, 60-61 ; women, criticisms of, 18-19; sugges- tions for, 430-442. Professional relations, 393 ; with other groups of workers, 6, 13, 20, 32; among professions, 6-7, 414-418; appointment bureaus as bureaus of, 412- 414, 421-422, 425, 429. Professions, definitions and criteria of, i— 17; social charac- ter and origins of, 5, 6, 11, 13; classifications of, 12-15. 46-49, 338; new spirit in, i, 6, 20, 34, 416-418. See Democracy. Promotion, system.s of, 36, 42-^5, 234. 439- , . . P.sychiatry and psychiatrists, 66, 67, 343, 345, 346. See Mental hygiene. Psychiatric social workers, 96- 100. Psychological clinics, 344, 34S> 347, 387-388. Psychological tests. See Tests. Psychology and psychologists, of professions, 13, 43, 80, 89, 99-100, 117, 124-125, 157-159. 225-226, 229-230, 279, 288, 304, 308, 309-310, 311-312, 315; anfl medicine, 67, 343, 346; types, 344-347, 348; training, 347- 348; salaries and comments, 349-350. Public health and workers in, 62, 64, 65-67, 83-86, 88-89. 90- 91, 212-213. See Medicine, Mental hygiene, Nursing, Nu- trition work, etc. Publicity work and workers, in various professions, 129-130, 132, 177-178, 239, 242, 245. 261-262, ^"^ ; distinguished from advertising, 281-283, 306- 307; information services, 165, 279, 282-283, 359; vocational information, 378, 420-429. Public utilities and workers in, 104, 254, 272-275. Publishing work and workers, 295-298; not literary work, 296; secretarial approach no longer necessary, 295-296: types, 296-297 ; comments, 297-298. Quantity feeding work and workers, 104, 124-128. See Home economics and Nutri- tion work. Rating scales. See Promotion, systems of, and Scott Rating Scale. Real estate and workers in, 254, 276-277. See Architecture and Housing. Reclassifications of civil service positions, 45-471 152-154. Zyj- 338. See Civil Service. Recreation, loo-ioi, 134, 137- 139, 145-147, 310. 311-313. 315. 317-318. See Leisure time and Physical education. Recruiting of workers, 179. 224, yiZ^ 396, 397. 418, 419. 429- Religious work and workers, 78- 82. Research and workers in. 25-27. 34, 61, 67-68, 74, 86, 129-130. 466 INDEX 132, 142-143, 178, 201-202, 2I0l- 211, 216-219, 240-242, 24s, 250, 258, 261-262, 267, 29s, 303, 325, 327-328, 330-331, 334, 33&-340, 342-343, 374, 389-390, 390-391, 392. Roentgenologists, 64, 341. Rural work and workers, 86, 91, 106-107, 110-112, 175, 286-287, 357-358, 376, 383, 387. Salaries, standardizations of, 45, 58-61 ; recent studies of, 47, 59-60; at "existence," "thrift" and "culture" levels, 60; in medicine, 69-70; law, 76-77; nursing, 92-93 ; hospital social work, 97; home demonstration work, 108; farm and garden management, 112-113; commu- nity and civic, 150; civil serv- ice, federal, state, municipal, 49-52, 53-58, 155, 335-340, 351- 353 ; social work, 179-183 ; per* sonnel work, 192-194, 197; in- dustrial work, 221 ; account- ancy, 237—238; secretarial and other office work, 243-246; re- tail stores, 251; bank work, 265; insurance, 271; public utilities, 274; journalism, 290, 293; motion-picture work, 300; advertising, 305 ; designing, 324; sciences, 53-58, 328-329, 335. 338, 339; psychology, 349; statistics, 352, 353 ; library work, 49-52, 363, 364; museum work, 368, 369, 380-382. Salesmanship, 128, 205, 234, 247- 253, 262-263, '^^ Scientific work and workers, 26, 53-58, 67, 325-343; training, 325-328, 341-342; types, 329- 330, 332, 335-341 ; salaries and comments, 53-58, 32&-329, 330- 331, ZZZ-ZU, 335, 338-339, 342- 343. Scott Rating Scale, 37, 41-43. Secretarial work and secretaries. 19, 227-232, 241-242, 244-247, 437. See Office work. Securing employment. See Em- ployment, modes of securing. Social hygiene work and work- ers, 65, 67, 102. Smith-Towner Bill, 382-383. Social work and workers, 94—99, 121, 133-134, 15^184, Z7S-Z1^, 387-389; a group of occupa- tions, 156; changing relations of, 156-157; professional char- acter and status of, 157-161 ; mass work and case work, 159-163; types, 163-166; train- ing and graduates of worker, 172; numbers, salaries, and comments, 173-184; education and, 175-176, 375-376, 387-389. Special libraries, 238-239, 261- 262, 359. See Library work. Specifications, professional, 15, 36-61, 199-200, 335-336, 351- 353, 388, 407, 417; professional importance of, 36-37, 45-46; cooperation of industries and colleges in, 15, 45-46; speci- mens of, 37-40, 49-59, 335- 2>Z^, 35 1-353- . See Committee on Classification of Personnel. Statistical work and statisticians, 178, 221, 240, 302, 350-354. Story tellers, 298, 367. Surveys, 86, 91, 142-143, 164, 178, 391. See Research and Ex- hibits. Teaching and teachers, 373-392 ; fundamental importance of, 373-375 ; social character of, 175-176, 374-375, 387, 389; new spirit and outlooks in, 375-376 ; reasons for drift away from, 376—381 ; new measures pro- posed, 381-384; professional training, 384-386; types, 374- 375, 386-388; educational ad- ministration, 389-390 ; educa- tional research, 390-392. INDEX 467 Technological work and work- ers, 326, 331-332, 333-334, 33&- 339, 340, 341-342. See Scien- tific work. Tests, psychological, general and special intelligence; per- formance or trade ; vocational, 43-45, 175-176, 188, 191, 199- 200, 387-388, 421-422, 433434- Textile experts, 117, 130, 341. Trade journals, work on, 292. Trade unions, and professional workers, 27-28, 30, 31, 189, 201, 215, 217, 219-220, 225, 375, 379.. Training in service, 163, 166- 167, 176, 179, 241-242, 387, 417- 418. Vacations, educational uses of, 46, 88, 170-171, 213-214, 411, 435-436. Visiting teachers, 374, 375, 387, 389. Vocational advisers or counsel- ors, 374, 423-425. See Voca- tional guidance. Vocational bureaus, 388, 389. See Bureaus and occupations. Vocational conferences, 42^ 423. Vocational guidance, 388-389, 428; a part of educational guidance, 388, 411-412, 414; in colleges, through appoint- ment bureaus, 412-414, 418- 422; faculty, student, and alumnse advisers, 411-414, 420, 425-426 ; courses in, 388, 425 ; relation with outside informa- tion and placement services, 428-430. Vocational teaching and teach- ers, 104, 241, 374-375, 386-388, 407. Women. See Men and women and Professional women. Women's Educational and In- dustrial Union, 231, 277, 398, 401, 404, 405, 423. Young Women's Christian Asso- ciations, 30, 58-59, 78, 79-80, loi, 120, 125, liiS, 167, 182, 395, 409- ll^ ,fp " yiNiUinr^ iu SANTA BARBARA ", " JO Axvaen jhi » u ==f^ €0 i-iS UFt iS83AiNn am • \ O VIN«OJItO«> A / « kANlA lAUAKA ' \ o vDvsiiva viNws as F-P^ o Of CAllFOHNlA o "■T" f £D f rs