UC-NRLF SB M37 EL SECONI The Fi separate!; TbeSe Sent fr Dl THAN JUST PUBLISHED. GIFT OF D i r be sold 1 Vol. Post 8w,, Illustrated. New York, 1851. $1 Sent free of carriage on receipt of the price. H, BAILLIEEE, 290 Broadway, NEW YORK, SYSTEM OF INSTRUCTION THE PRACTICAL USE THE BLOWPIPE GRADUATED COURSE OF ANALYSIS FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS AND ALL THOSE ENGAGED IN THE EXAMINATION OF METALLIC COMBINATIONS. NEW YOKE: II. BAIL LIE RE, 290 BROADWAY, AND 219 REGENT STREET, LONDON. PARIS: J. B. BAILLIERE ET TILS, RUE H A U T EFE UILLE, MADRID : C. BAILLY-BAILLI&RE, CALLE DEL PRINCIPE. 1858. ENTBRRD according to Act of Congress, in the year 1858, by C. E. B AILLIERE, In the Clerk s Office of the District Court of the United States, for the Southern District of New York. W. H. TINSON, Prii inA StereOtyper, 43 Centre Street. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PART I. PAGE 7 Preface, . The Use of the Blowpipe, ..... Utensils The Blowpipe, 12 The Oil Lamp, 22 The Spirit Lamp, 23 Charcoal Support 24: Plntinum Supports, 2 ^ Iron Spoons, 28 Glass Tubes, 28 Other Apparatus necessary, 31 THE REAGENTS, 34 Reagents of General Uso, 34 Carbonate of Soda, 34 Hydrate of Baryta, 35 Bi-sulphate of Potassa, 35 Oxalatc of Potassa, . . . . .36 Cyanide of Potassium, 36 256295 iv CONTENTS. THE REAGENTS (continued.) Nitrate of Potassa, ,37 Borax, 38 Microcosmic Salt, ,39 Nitrate of Cobalt, .40 Tin, 41 Silica, 42 Test Papers, . ....... 42 ESPECIAL REAGENTS, .43 Boracic Acid, 43 Fluorspar, 43 Oxalate of Nickel, 43 Oxide of Copper, 43 Antimoniate of Potassa, 44 Silver Foil, .44 Nitroprusside of Sodium, ,44 PART II. Initiatory Analysis, 47 Examination with the Glass Bulb, ....... 47 " in the Open Tube, 52 " upon Charcoal, 55 in the Platinum Forceps, . . . . . .01 in the Borax Bead, <> in Microcosmic Salt, . * . . . . 70 Table I. Colors of Beads of Borax and Microcosmic Salt, . .75 Table II. Behavior of Metallic Oxydes with Borax and Microcosmic Salt, 85 Examinations with Carbonate of Soda, 103 C O N T K NTS. PART III- PAGE Special Reactions, * A. METALLIC OXIDES : First Group. The Alkalies: Potassa, Soda, Ammonia, and Lithia, 110 Second Group. The Alkaline Earths : Baryta, Strontia, Lime, and Magnesia, Uo Third Group. The Earths: Alumina, Gluciua, Yttria, Thorina, and Zirconia, 1 Fourth Group. Cerium, Lanthanium, Didymium, Columbium, Niobium, Pelopium, Titanium, Uranium, Vanadium, Chro mium, Manganese, 1>2i Fifth Group. Iron, Cobalt, Nickel, 135 Sixth Group. Zinc, Cadmium, Antimony, Tellurium, . . 140 Seventh Group. Lead, Bismuth, Tin, Eighth Group. Mercury, Arsenic, .157 Ninth Group. Copper, Silver, Gold, 161 Tenth Group. Molybdenum, Osmium, . ... 165 Eleventh Group. Platinum, Palladium, Iridium, Rhodium, Ru thenium, 167 Non-Metallic Substances, 168 Tabular Statement of the Reactions of Minerals before the Blowpipe, 178 Carbon and Organic Minerals, .... .. - 181 Potassa, _; 184 Soda, 186 Baryta and Strontia, 1 9<) Lime, , 192 Magnesia, . . . 196 Alumina, 20() Silicates, 2u4 vi CON T E NTS. PAQK Tabular Statement, etc. (continued.) Uranium, 212 Iron, 214 Manganese, 222 Nickel and Cobalt, 226 Zinc, 232 Bismuth, 234 Lead, 238 Copper, . . 248 Antimony, .- 256 Arsenic, 260 Mercury, 262 Silver, 264 PREFACE. IT is believed the arrangement of the present work is superior to that of many of its predecessors, as a vehicle for the facili tation of the student s progress. While it does not pretend to any other rank than as an introduction to the larger works, it is hoped that the arrangement of its matter is such that the beginner may more readily comprehend the entire subject of Blowpipe Analysis than if he were to begin his studies by the perusal of the more copious works of Berzelius and Plattner. When the student shall have gone through these pages, and repeated the various reactions described, then he will be fully prepared to enter upon the study of the larger works. To progress through them will then be but a comparatively easy task. The arrangement of this little work has been such as the author and his friends have considered the best that could be devised for the purpose of facilitating the progress of the yjii PREFACE. student. Whether we have succeeded is left for the public to decide. The author is indebted to several of his friends for valuable contributions and suggestions. S. CINCINNATI, June, 1857. THE BLOWPIPE. Part First. 9 THE USE OF THE BLOWPIPE. PERHAPS during the last fifty years, no department of chem istry has been so enriched as that relating to analysis by means of the Blowpipe. Through the unwearied exertions of men of science, the use of this instrument has arrived to such a degree of perfection, that we have a right to term its use, " Analysis in the dry way/ in contradistinction to analysis "in the wet way." The manipulations are so simple and expeditious, and the results so clear and characteristic, that the Blowpipe analysis not only verifies and completes the results of analysis in the wet way, but it gives in many cases direct evidences of the presence or absence of many substances, which would not be otherwise detected, but through a troublesome and tedjous process? involving both -prolixity and time ; for instance, the detection of manganese in minerals. Many substances have to go through Blowpipe manipulations before they can be submitted to an analysis in the wet way, 1* 10 t {, / ; :T H; E B. i, o \y P i r E . The apparatus and reagents employed are compendious and small in number, so that they can be carried easily while on scientific excursions, a considerable advantage for mineralogists and metallurgists. The principal operations with the Blowpipe may be ex plained briefly as follows : (a.) By Ignition is meant the exposure of a substance to such a degree of heat, that it glows or emits light, or becomes red-hot. Its greatest value is in the separation of a volatile substance from one less volatile, or one which is entirely fixed at the temperature of the flame. In this case we only take cognizance of the latter or fixed substance, although in many instances we make use of ignition for the purpose of changing the conditions of a substance, for example, the sesqui-oxide of chromium (Cr 2 3 ) in its insoluble modification ; and as a preliminary examination fqr the purpose of ascertaining whether the subject of inquiry be a combination of an organic or inor ganic nature. The apparatus used for this purpose are crucibles of pla tinum or silver, platinum foil, a platinum spoon, platinum wire or tongs, charcoal, glass tubes, and iron spoons. (&.) Sublimation is that process by which we convert a solid substance into vapor by means of a strong heat. These vapors are condensed by refrigeration into the solid form. It may be termed a distillation of a solid substance. Sublimation is of great consequence in the detection of many substances ; for nstance, arsenic, antimony, mercury, etc. The apparatus used for the purposes of sublimation consist of glass tubes closed at one end. (c.) Fusion. Many substances when exposed to a certain degree of heat lose their solid form, and are converted into a liquid. Those substances which do not become converted into the liquid state by heat, are said to be infusible. It is a convenient classification to arrange substances into those which are fusible with difficulty, and those which are easily fusible. Very often we resort to fusion for the purpose of decomposing a 1 T 8 U S E . 11 substance, or to cause it to enter into other combinations, by which means it is the more readily detected. If insoluble sub stances are fused with others more fusible (reagents) for the purpose of causing a combination which is soluble in water and acids, the operation is termed unch ting. These substances are particularly the silicates andthe sulphates of the alkaline earths. The usual reagents resorted to for this purpose are carbonate of soda (NaO, CO 2 ), carbonate of potash (KO, CO 3 ), or still better, a mixture of the two in equal parts. In some cases we use the hydrate of barytes (BaO, HO) and the bisulphate of potash (KO, 2S0 3 ). The platinum spoon is generally used for this manipulation. Substances are exposed to fusion for the purpose of getting a new combination which has such distinctive characteristics that we can class it under a certain group ; or for the purpose of ascertaining at once what the substance may be. The re agents used for this purpose are borax (NaO, 2Br0 3 ) and the microcosmic salt (NaO, NIPO, PO 5 , HO). Charcoal and the platinum wire are used as supports for this kind of operation. (d.) Oxidation. The chemical combination of any substance with oxygen is termed oxidation, and the products are termed oxides. As these oxides have qualities differing from those which are non-oxidized, it therefore frequently becomes neces sary to convert substances into oxides ; or, if they are such, of a lower degree, to convert them into a higher degree of oxidation. These different states of oxidation frequently pre sent characteristic marks of identity sufficient to enable us to draw conclusions in relation to the substance under examina tion. For instance, the oxidation of manganese, of arsenic, etc. The conditions necessary for oxidation, are high temperature and the free admission of air to the substance. If the oxidation is effected through the addition of a sub stance containing oxygen (for instance, the nitrate or chlorate of potash) and the heating is accompanied by a lively defla gration and crackling noise, it is termed detonation. By this 12 THE BLOWPIPE. process we frequently effect the oxidation of a substance, and thus we prove the presence or the absence of a certain class of substances. For instance, if we detonate (as it is termed by the German chemists) the sulphide of antimony, or the sulphide of arsenic with nitrate of potash, we get the nitrate of antimony, or the nitrate of arsenic. The salts of nitric or chloric acid are determined by fusing them with the cyanide of potassium, because the salts of these acids detonate. (e.) Reduction. If we deprive an oxidized substance of its oxygen, we term the process reduction. This is effected by fusing the substance under examination with another which possesses a greater affinity for oxygen. The agents used for reduction are hydrogen, charcoal, soda, cyanide of potas sium, etc. Substances generally, when in the unoxidized state, have such characteristic qualities, that they cannot very readily be mistaken for others. For this reason, reduction is a very excellent expedient for the purpose of discerning and classifying many substances. B. UTENSILS. We shall give here a brief description of the most necessary apparatus used for analysis in the dry way, and of their use. The Blowpipe is a small instrument, made generally out of brass, silver, or German silver, and was principally used in ear lier times for the purpose of soldering small pieces of metals together. It is generally made in the form of a tube, bent at a right angle, buj;jy^thpi;it_j^ The largest one is about seven inches long, and the smallest about two inches. The latter one terminates with a small point, with a small orifice. The first use of the blowpipe that we have recorded is that of a Swedish mining officer, who used it in the year 1738 for chemical purposes, but we have the most meagre accounts of his operations. In 1158 another Swedish mining officer, by the name of Cronstedt, published his " Use of the Blowpipe in ITS USE. 13 Chemistry and Mineralogy," translated into English, in 1170, by Van Engestroem. Bergman extended its use, and after him Ghan arid the venerable Berzelius a * - ( (1S21). The blowpipe most generally used in chemical examinations is com posed of the following parts : (Fig. 1.) A is a little reservoir made aigjjgbt by grinding the part B into it. This re servoir serves the purpose of retaining the moisture with which the air from the mouth is charged. A small coni cal tube is fitted to this reservoir. This tube terminates in a fine ori fice. As this small point is liable to get clogged up with soot, etc., it is bet ter that it should be made of platinum, so that it may be ignited. Two of these platinum tubes should be supplied, differing in the size of the orifice, by which a stronger or lighter current of flame may be projected from it. Metals, such as brass or German sil ver, are very liable to become dirty through oxidation, and when placed between the lips are liable to im part a disagreeable taste. To avoid this, the top of the tube must be sup plied with a mouthpiece of ivory or horn C. The blowpipe here repre sented is the one used by Ghan, and approved by Berzelius. The trumpet mouthpiece was adopted by Plattner ; it is pressed upon the lips while blowing, which is less tiresome than holding the mouthpiece between the lips, although many prefer the latter mode. Dr. Black s blowpipe is as good an instrument and cheaper. 14 THE BLOWPIPE. It consists of two tubes, soldered at a right angle ; the larger one, into which the air is blown, is of sufficient capacity to serve as a reservoir. A chemist can, with a blowpipe and a piece of charcoal, determine many substances without any reagents, thus enabling him, even when travelling, to make useful investigations with means which are always at his disposal. There are pocket blowpipes as portable as a pencil case, such as Wollaston s and Mitscherlich s ; these are objectionable for continued use as their construction requires the use of a metallic mouthpiece. Mr. Casamajor, of New York, has made one lately which has an ivory mouthpiece, and which, when in use, is like Dr. Black s. The length of the blowpipe is generally seven or eight inches, but this depends very much upon the visual angle of the operators. A short-sighted person, of course, would I T S U 8 E . 15 require an instrument of less length than would suit a far- sighted person. The purpose required of the blowpipe is to introduce a fine current of air into the flame of a candle or lamp, by which a higher degree of heat is induced, and consequently combustion is more rapidly accomplished. By inspecting the flame of a candle burning under usual circumstances, we perceive at the bottom of the flame a por tion which is of a light blue color (a b), Fig. 2, which gra dually diminishes in size as it recedes from the wick, and disap pears when it reaches the perpendicular side of the flame. In the midst of the flame there is a dark nucleus with a conical form (c). This is enveloped by the illuminating portion of the flame (d). At the exterior edge of the part d we perceive a thin, scarcely visible veil, a, e, c, which is broader near the apex of the flame. The action of the burning candle may be thus explained. The radiant heat from the flame melts the tallow or wax, which then passes up into the texture of the wick by capillary attraction until it reaches the glowing wick, where the heat decomposes the combustible matter into carbo nated hydrogen (C 4 H 4 ), and into carbonic oxide (CO). While these gases are rising in hot condition, the air comes in contact with them and effects their combustion. The dark portion, c, of the flame is where the carbon and gases have not a sufficiency of air for their thorough combustion ; but gra dually they become mixed with air, although not then sufficient for complete combustion. The hydrogen is first oxidized or burnt, and then the carbon is attacked by the air, although par ticles of carbon are separated, and it is these, in a state of intense ignition, which produce the illumination. By bringing any oxidizable substance into this portion of the flame, it oxi dizes very quickly in consequence of the high temperature and the free access of air. For that reason this part of the flame is termed the oxidizing flame, while the illuminating por tion, by its tendency to abstract oxygen for the purpose of complete combustion, easily reduces oxidated substances 16 THE BLOW PIPE. brought into it, and it is, therefore, called the flame of reduc tion. In the oxidizing flama, on the contrary, all the carbon which exists in the interior of the flame is oxidized into carbonic acid (CO 2 ) and carbonic oxide (GO), while the blue color of the cone of the flame is caused by the complete combustion of the carbonic oxide. These two portions of the flame the oxidizing and the reducing are the principal agents of blowpipe analysis. If we introduce a fine current of air into a flame, we notice the following : The air strikes first the dark nucleus, and forc ing the gases beyond it, mixes with them, by which oxygen is mingled freely with them. This effects the complete combus tion of the gases at a certain distance from the point of the blowpipe. At this place the flame has the highest tempera ture, forming there the point of a b,ue cone. The illuminated or reducing portion of the flame is enveloped outside and inside by a very hot flame, whereby its own temperature is so much increased that in this reduction-flame many substances will undergo fusion which would prove perfectly refractory in a common flame. Tiie exterior scarcely visible part loses its form, is diminished, and pressed more to a point, by which its heating power is greatly increased. The Blast of Air. By using the blowpipe for chemical pur poses, the effect intended to be produced is an uninterrupted steady stream of air for many minutes together, if necessary, without an instant s cessation. Therefore, the blowing can only be effected with the muscles of the cheeks, and not by the exertion of the lungs. It is only by this means that a steady constant stream of air can be kept up, while the lungs will not be injured by the deprival of air. The details of the pro per manner of using the blowpipe are really more difficult to describe than to acquire by practice ; therefore the pupil is requested to apply himself at once to its practice, by which he will soon learn to produce a steady current of air, and to dis tinguish the different flames from each other. We would simply say that the tongue must be applied to the roof of the 1 T 8 U 8 K . IT inouth, so as to interrupt the coinmuuicatiou between the passage of the nostrils and the inouth. The operator now fills his mouth with air, which is to be passed through the pipe by compressing the muscles of the cheeks, while he breathes through the nostrils, and uses the palate as a valve. When the mouth becomes nearly empty, it is replenished by the lungs in an instant, while the tongue is momentarily withdrawn from the roof of the mouth. The stream of air can be continued for a long time, without the least fatigue or injury to the lungs. The easiest way for the student to accustom himself to the use of the blowpipe, is first to learn to fill the mouth with air, and while the lips are kept firmly closed to breathe freely through the nostrils. Having effected this much, he may introduce the mouthpiece of the blowpipe between his lips. By inflating the cheeks, and breathing through the nostrils, he will soon learn to *se the instrument without the least fatigue. The air is forced through the tube against the flame by the action of the muscles of the cheeks, while he continues to breathe without interruption through the nostrils. Having become acquainted with this process, it only requires some practice to produce a steady jet of flame. A defect in the nature of the combustible used, as bad oil, such as fish oil, or oil thickened by long stand ing or by dirt, dirty cotton wick, or an untrimmed one, or a dirty wickholder, or a want of steadiness of the hand that holds the blowpipe, will prevent a steady jet of flame. But frequently the fault lies in the orifice of the jet, or too smrall a hole, or its partial stoppage by dirt, which will prevent a steady jet of air, and lead to difficulty. With a good blowpipe the air projects the entire flame, forming a horizontal, blue cone of flame, which converges to a point at about an inch from the wick, with a larger, longer, and more luminous flame enveloping it, and terminating to a point beyond that of the blue flame. To produce an efficient flame of oxidation, put the point of the blowpipe into the flame about one third the diameter of the wick, and about one twelfth of an inch above it. This, 18 THE BLOWPIPE. however, depends upon the size of the flame used. Blow strong enough to keep the flame straight and horizontal, using the largest orifice for the purpose. Upon examining the flame thus produced, we will observe a long, blue flame, a 5, Fig. 3, which letters correspond with the same letters in Fig. 2. But this flame has changed its form, and contains all the combus tible gases. It forms now a thin, blue cone, which converges to a point about an inch from the wick. This point of the flame possesses the highest intensity of temperature, for there the combustion of the gases is the most complete. In the original flame, the hottest part forms the external envelope, but here it is compressed more into a point, forming the cone of the blue flame, and likewise an envelope of flame surround ing the blue one, extending beyond it from a to c, and present ing a light bluish or brownish color. The external flame has the highest temperature at d, but this decreases from d to c. If there is a very high temperature, the oxidation is not effected so readily in many cases, unless the substance is removed a little from the flame ; but if the heat be not too high, it is readily oxidized in the flame, or near its cone, If the current I T S U 8 E . 19 of air is blown too freely or violently into the flame, more air is forced there than is sufficient to consume the gases. This superfluous air only acts detrimentally, by cooling the flame. In general the operation proceeds best when the substance is kept at a dull red heat. The blue cone must be kept free from straggling rays of the yellow or reduction flame. If the analy sis be effected on charcoal, the blast should not be too strong, as a part of the coal would be converted into carbonic oxide, which would act antagonistically to the oxidation. The oxida tion flame requires a steady current of air, for the purpose of keeping the blue cone constantly of the same length. For the purpose of acquiring practice, the following may be done : Melt a little molybdeuic acid with some borax, upon a platinum wire, about the sixteenth of an inch from the point of the blue cone. In the pure oxidation flame, a clear yellowish glass is formed ; but as soon as the reduction flame reaches it, or the point of the blue cone touches it, the color of the bead changes to a brown, which, finally, after a little longer blowing, becomes quite dark, and loses its transparency. The cause of this is, that the molybdenic acid is very easily reduced to a lower degree of oxidation, or to the oxide of molybdenum. The flame of oxidation will again convert this oxide into the acid, and this conversion is a good test of the progress of the student in the use of the blowpipe. In cases where we have to sepa rate a more oxidizable substance from a less one, we use with success the blue cone, particularly if we wish to determine whe ther a substance has the .quality, when submitted to heat in the blue cone, of coloring the external flame. A good reduction flame can be obtained by the use of a small orifice at the point of the blowpipe. In order to produce such a flame, hold the point of the blowpipe higher above the wick, while the nozzle must not enter the flame so far as in the pro duction of the oxidation flame. The point of the blowpipe should only touch the flame, while the current of air blown into it must be stronger than into the oxidation flame. If we pro ject a stream, in the manner mentioned, into the flame, from 20 THE BLOWPIPE. the smaller side of the wick to the middle, we shall perceive the flame changed to a long, narrow, luminous cone, a b, Fig. 4, the end a of which is enveloped by the same dimly visible blue- ish colored portion of the flame a, c, which we perceive in the original flame, with its point at c. The portion close above the wick, presenting the dull appearance, is occasioned by the rising gases which have not supplied to them enough oxygen to con sume them entirely. The hydrogen is consumed, while the carbon is separated in a state of bright ignition, and forms the internal flame. Directly above the wick, the combustion of the gases is least complete, and forms there likewise, as is the case in the free flame, a dark blue nucleus d. If the oxide of a metal is brought into the luminous portion of the flame produced as above, so that the flame envelopes the substance perfectly, the access of air is prevented. The par tially consumed gases have now a strong affinity for oxygen, under the influence of the intense heat of that part of the flame. The substance is thus deprived of a part, or the whole, of its oxygen, and becomes reduced according to the strength of the affin- I T S U S K . 21 ity which the substance itself has for oxygen. If the reduction of a substance is undertaken on platinum, by fusion with a flux, and if the oxide is difficult to reduce, the reduction will be completely effected only in the luminous part of the flame. But if a substance be reduced on charcoal, the reduction will take place in the blue part of the flame, as long as the access of air is cut off ; but it is the luminous part of the flame which really possesses the greatest reducing power. The following should be observed in order to procure a good reduction flame : The wick should not be too long, that it may make a smoke, nor too short, otherwise the flame will be too small to produce a heat strong enough for reduction. The wick must be free from all loose threads, and from char coal. The blast should be continued for a considerable time with out intermission, otherwise reduction cannot be effected. For the purpose of acquiring practice, the student may fuse the oxide of manganese with borax, upon a platinum wire, in the oxidation flame, when a violet-red glass will be obtained ; or if too much of the oxide be used, a glass of a dark color and opaque will be obtained. By submitting this glass to the reduction flame, it will become colorless in correspondence to the perfection with which the flame is produced. Or a piece of tin may be fused upon charcoal, and kept in that state for a considerable time, while it presents the appearance of a bright metal on the surface. This will require dexterity in the opera tor ; for, if the oxidation flame should chance to touch the bright metal only for a moment, it is coated with an infusible oxide. COMBUSTION. Any flame of sufficient size can be used for blowpipe operations. It may be either the flame of a candle of tallow or wax, or the flame of a lamp. The flame of a wax candle, or of an oil lamp is most generally used. Sometimes a lamp is used filled with a solution of spirits of turpentine in strong alcohol. If a candle is used, it is well to cut the wick 22 THE BLOWPIPE. off short, and to bend the wick a little toward the substance experimented upon. But candles are not the best for blowpipe operations, as the radiant heat, reflecting from the substance upon the wax or tallow, will cause it to melt and run down the side of the candle ; while again, candles do not give heat enough. The lamp is much the most desirable. The subjoined figure, from Berzelius, is perhaps the best form of lamp. It is made of japanned tin-plate, about four inches in length, and has ITS USE. 23 the form and arrangement represented in Fig. 5. K is the lamp, fastened on the stand, S, by a screw, C, and is movable upwards or downwards, as represented in the figure. The posterior end of the lamp may be about one inch square, and at its anterior end, E, about three-quarters of an inch square. The under side of this box may be round, as seen in the figure. The oil is poured into the orifice, A, which has a cap screwed over it. C is a wick- holder for a flat lamp-wick, a is a socket containing the wick, which, when not in use, is secured from dirt by the cap. The figures B and a give the forms of the cap and socket. The best combustible for this lamp is the refined rape-seed oil, or pure sweet oil. When this lamp is in use, there must be no loose threads, or no charcoal on the wick, or these will produce a smoky flame. The wick, likewise, should not be pulled up too high, as the same smoky flame would be produced. THE SPIRIT-LAMP. This is a short, strong glass lamp, with a cap, B, Fig. 6, fitted to it by grinding, to prevent the cva- Fig. G. poration of the alcohol. The neck a contains a tube C, made of silver, or of tin plate, and which contains the wick. Brass 24: T H E B L O W P I P K . would not answer so well for this tube, as the spirits would oxidize it, and thus impart color to the flame. The wickholder must cover the edge of the neck, but not fit tight within the tube, otherwise, by its expansion, it will break the glass. It is not necessary that alcohol, very highly rectified, should be burnt in. this lamp, although if too much diluted with water, enough heat will not be given out. Alcohol of specific gravity 0.84 to 0.86 is the best. This lamp is generally resorted to by blowpipe analysts, for the purpose of experiments in glass apparatus, as the oily com bustibles will coat the glass with soot. Some substances, when exposed to the dark part of the flame,, become reduced and, in statu nascendi, evaporated ; but by passing through the exter nal part of the flame, they became oxidized again, and impart a color to the flame. The spirit flame is the most efficient one for the examination of substances the nature of which we wish to ascertain through color imparted to the flame, as that of the spirit-lamp being colorless, is, consequently, most easily and thoroughly recognized by the slightest tinge imparted to it. It is necessary that in operating with such minute quanti ties of substances as are used in blowpipe analysis, that they should have some appropriate support. In order that no false results may ensue, it is necessary that the supports should be of such a nature that they will not form a chemical combination with the substance while it is exposed to fusion or ignition. Appropriate supports for the different blowpipe experiments are charcoal, platinum instruments, and glass tubes. (a.) Charcoal. The value of charcoal as a support may be stated as follows : 1. The charcoal is infusible, and being a poor conductor of beat, a substance can be exposed to a higher degree of heat upon it than upon any other substance. 2. It is very porous, and therefore allows easily fusible sub stances (such as alkalies and fluxes) to pass into it, while other substances less fusible, such as metals, to remain unabsorbed. 3. It has likewise a great reducing power. I T S U 8 E. 25 The best kind of charcoal is that of pinewood, linden, ivillow, or alderwood, or any other soft wood. Coal from the firwood sparkles too freely, while that of the hard woods contains too much iron in its ashes. Smooth pieces, free from bark and knots, should be selected. It should be thoroughly burnt, and the annual rings or growths should be as close together as possible. If the charcoal is in masses, it should be sawed into pieces about six inches in length by about two inches broad, but so that the year-growths run perpendicular to the broadest side, as the other sides, by their unequal structure, burn unevenly. That the substance under examination may not be carried off by the blast, small conical concavities should be cut in the broad side of the charcoal, between the year-growths, with a conical tube of tin plate about two or three inches long, and one quarter of an inch at one end, and half an inch at the other. These edges are made sharp with a file. The widest end of this charcoal borer is used for the purpose of making cavities for cupellation. In places where the proper kind of charcoal is difficult to procure, it is economical to cut common charcoal into pieces about an inch broad, and the third of an inch thick. In each of these little pieces small cavities should be cut with the small end of the borer. When these pieces of charcoal are required for use, they must be fastened to a narrow slip of tin plate, one end of which is bent into the form of a hook, under which the plate of charcoal is pushed. In general, we use the charcoal support where we wish to reduce metallic oxides, to prevent oxidation, or to test the fusibility of a substance. There is another point to which we would direct the student. Those metals which are volatile in the reduction flame, appear as oxides in the oxidation flame. These oxides make sublimates upon the charcoal close in the vicinity of the substance, or where it rested, and by their pecu liar color indicate pretty correctly the species of minerals ex perimented upon. 26 THE BLOWPIPE. (Z>.) Platinum Supports. The metal platinum is infusible in the blowpipe flame, and is such a poor conductor of heat that a strip of it may be held close to that portion of it which is red hot without the least inconvenience to the fingers. It is necessary that the student should be cognizant of those sub stances which would not be appropriate to experiment upon if placed on platinum. Metals should not be treated upon platinum apparatus, nor should the easily reducible oxides, sulphides, nor chlorides, as these substances will combine with the platinum, and thus render it unfit for further use in analysis. (c.) Platinum Wire. As the color of the flame cannot be well discerned when the substance is supported upon charcoal, in consequence of the latter furnishing false colors, by its own reflection, to the substances under examination, we use plati num wire for that purpose, when we wish to examine those substances which give indications by the peculiar color which they impart to fluxes. The wire should be about as thick as No. 16 or 18 wire, or about 0.4 millimetre, and cut into pieces about from two and a half to three inches in length. The end of each piece is crooked. In order that these pieces should remain clear of dirt, and ready for use, they should be kept -in a glass of water. To use them, we dip the wetted hooked end into the powdered flux (borax or microcosmic salt) some of which will adhere, when we fuse it in the flame of the blowpipe to a bead. This bead hanging in the hook, must be clear and colorless. Should there not adhere a sufficient quantity of the flux in the first trial to form a bead sufficiently large, the hook must be dipped a second time in the flux and again submitted to the blowpipe flame. To fix the substance to be examined to the bead, it is necessary, while the latter is hot, to dip it in the powdered substance. If the hook is cold, we moisten the powder a little, and then dip the hook into it, and then expose it to the oxida tion flame, by keeping it exposed to a regular blast until the substance and the flux are fused together, and no further alter ation is produced by the flame. I T S U S E . 27 The platinum wire can be used except where reduction to the metallic state is required. Every reduction and oxidation experiment, if the results are to be known by the color of the fluxes, should be effected upon platinum wire. At the termina tion of the experiment or investigation, if it be one, to clean the wire, place it in water, which will dissolve the bead. (d.) Platinum Foil. For the heating or fusing of a substance, whereby its reduction would be avoided, we use platinum foil as a support. This foil should be of the thickness of good writing paper, and from two and a half to three inches long, by about half an inch broad, and as even and smooth as possi ble. If it should become injured by long use, cut the injured end off, and if it should prove too short to be held with the fingers, a pair of forceps may be used to grasp it, or it may be placed on a piece of charcoal (e.) Platinum Spoon. When we require to fuse substances with the acid sulphate of potash, or to oxidize them by detonation with nitrate of potash, whereby we wish to preserve the oxide produced, we generally use a little spoon of plati num, about from nine to fifteen millimetres * in diameter, and shaped as represented in Fig. 1. The handle of this spoon is Fig. 7. likewise of platinum, and should fit into a piece of cork, or be held with the forceps. (/.) Platinum Forceps or Tongs. We frequently are neces sitated to examine small splinters of metals or minerals directly in the blowpipe flame. These pieces of metallic sub stances are held with the forceps or tongs represented as in * The French millimetre is about the twenty -fifth part of an English inch. 28 THE BLOW PIPE. Fig. 8, where a c is formed of steel, and a a are platinum Fig. 8. bars inserted between the steel plates. At b b are knobs which by pressure so separate the platinum bars a a, that any small substance can be inserted between them. (g.) Iron Spoons. For a preliminary examination iron spoons are desirable. They may be made of sheet iron, about one-third of an inch in diameter, and are very useful in many examinations where the use of platinum would not be desirable. (h.) Glass Tubes. For the separation and recognition of volatile substances before the blowpipe flame, we use glass tubes. These should be about one-eighth of an inch in diame ter, and cut into pieces about five or six inches in length. These tubes should have both ends open. Tubes are of great value in the examination of volatile sub stances which require oxidizing or roasting, and heating with free access of air. Also to ascertain whether a substance under examination will sublimate volatile matter of a certain appearance. Such substances are selenium, sulphur, arsenic, antimony, and tellurium. These substances condense on a cool part of the tube, and they present characteristic appearances, or they may be recognized by their peculiar smell. These tubes must be made of the best kind of glass, white and difficult of fusion, and entirely free from lead. The substance to be examined must be put in the tube near one end, and exposed to the flame of the blowpipe. The end containing the sub stance must be held lower than the other end, and must be moved a little over the spirit-lamp before a draught of air is produced through the tube. It is a good plan to have a number I T S II 8 1C . 29 of these tubes on hand. After having used a tube we cut off that end of it which contained the substance, with a file, and clean it from the sublimate, either by heating it over the spirit-lamp, or with a piece of paper wound around a wire. It sometimes happens that the substance falls out of the tube Fig. 9. 30 THE BLOWPIPE. before it becomes sufficiently melted to adhere to the glass. To obviate this, we bend the tube not far from the end, at an obtuse angle, and place the substance in the angle, whereby the tube may be lowered as much as necessary. Fig. 9 will give the student a comprehension of the processes described, and of the manner of bending the tubes. (i.) Glass Tubes closed at one End. If we wish to expose volatile substances to heat, with the exclusion of air as much as possible, or to ascertain the contents of water, or other volatile fluids, or for the purpose of heating substances which will decrepitate, we use glass tubes closed at one end. These tubes must be about one-eighth of an inch wide, and from two to three inches in length. They should be made of white glass, difficult of fusion, and free from lead. They should be closed at one end, as figured in the margin, Fig. 10. Fig. 10. When a substance is to be examined for the purpose of I T S U 8 E . 31 ascertaining whether it contains combustible matter, as sulphur or arsenic, and where we wish to avoid oxidation, we use these tubes without extending the closed end, in order that there may be as little air admitted as possible, as is represented in tube B. But when a substance to be examined is to be tested for water, or other incombustible volatile matters, we employ tubes with little bulbs blown at one end, such as represented at tube A. Here there is room for a circulation of air at the bot tom of the tube, by which the volatile matter rises more easily. In some cases, it is necessary to draw the closed end out to a fine point, as in the tubes C and D. Either one or the other of these tubes is employed, depending upon the nature of the sub stance used. The sublimates condense at the upper part of the tube a, and can be there examined and recognized. These tubes, before being used, must be thoroughly dried and cleaned. In experimenting with them, they should not be exposed at once to the hottest part of the flame, but should be submitted to the heat gradually. If the substance is of such a nature that it will sublime at a low heat, the tube should be held more hori zontal, while a higher heat is attained by bringing the tube to a more vertical position. VARIOUS APPARATUS NECESSARY. Edulcorator or Washing Bottle. Take a glass bottle of the capacity of about twelve ounces, and close the mouth of it very tight with a cork, through which a short glass* tube is fitted airtight. The external end of this tube is drawn out to a point, with a very fine orifice. The bottle should be filled about half full of water. By blowing air into the bottle through the tube, and then turning it downwards, the com pressed air will expel a fine stream of water through the fine orifice with considerable force. We use this washing bottle, Fig. 11, for the purpose of rinsing the small particles of coal from the reduced metals. 32 THEBLOWPIP Fig. 11. Agate Mortar and Pestle. This mortar is used for the purpose of pulverizing hard substances, and for mixing fluxes. As this mortar will not yield to abrasion, there is no danger of any foreign matter becoming mixed with the substance pulverized in it. It should be cleaned after use with pumice stone. Steel mortars are very useful for the pulverization of hard bodies ; but for all those substances which require great care in their analysis, and which can be obtained in very minute quantity, the agate mortar alone should be used. A hammer made of steel is necessary. This should have the edge square. A small anvil, polished on the surface, is also required. It is frequently used to test the malleability of metals. A knife, for the purpose of ascertaining the hardness of mine rals. The student should also be provided with several three-edged files, and likewise with some flat ones. A microscope, an instrument with two lenses, or with such a combination of lenses, that they may be used double or single, ITS USE. S3 is frequently necessary for the examination of blowpipe experi ments, or the reaction of the fluxes. Common lenses, howso ever cheap they may be, are certainly not recommended. A microscope with achromatic lenses can now be purchased so cheap that there is no longer any necessity of procuring one with the common lens. Besides, there is no reliability whatever to be placed in the revelations of the common lens ; while on the contrary, the deceptive appearances which minute objects assume beneath such lenses are more injurious than otherwise. A small cheap set of magnifying glasses are all that is required for the purpose of blowpipe analysis, Fig. 12. Fig. 12. A small magnet should be kept on hand, for the purpose of testing reduced metals. Nippers, for the purpose of breaking off pieces of minerals for analysis, without injuring the entire piece, are indispensable, Fig 13. Fig. 18. A pair of scissors is required to trim the wick of the lamp? and for the trimming of the edge of platinum foil. 2* 34: THE BLOW PIPE. A small spatula should be kept for the purpose of mixing substances with fluxes. THE REAGENTS. Those substances which possess the property of acting upon other substances, in such a characteristic manner that they can be recognized, either by their color, or by their effervescence, or by the peculiar precipitation produced, are termed reagents. The phenomena thus produced is termed reaction. We use those reagents, or tests, for the purpose of ascertaining the presence or the absence of certain substances, through the peculiar phenomena produced when brought in contact with them. The number of reagents employed in blowpipe analysis is not great, and therefore we shall here give a brief description of their preparation and use. It is indispensably necessary that they should be chemically pure, as every admixture of a foreign sub stance would only produce a false result. Some of them have a strong affinity for water, or are deliquescent, and consequently absorb it greedily from the air. These must be kept in glass bottles, with glass stoppers, fitted air-tight by grinding. A. REAGENTS OF GENERAL USE. 1. Carbonate of Soda. (NaO, CO 2 ) Wash the bicarbonate of soda (NaO, 2C0 2 ) upon a filter, with cold water, until the filtrate ceases to give, after neutralization with diluted nitric acid (NO 5 ), a precipitate with nitrate of baryta, (BaO, NO 6 ), or nitrate of silver, (AgO, NO 5 ). That left upon the filter we make red hot in a platinum, silver, or porcelain dish. One atom of carbonic acid is expelled, and the residue is carbonate of soda. A solution of soda must not be changed by the addition of sulphide of ammonium. And when neutralized with hydro chloric acid, and evaporated to dryness, and again dissolved in water, there must be no residue left. I T 8 IT S E . 35 Carbonate of soda is an excellent agent in reduction, in consequence of its easy fusibility, whereby it causes the close contact of the oxides with the charcoal support, so that the blowpipe flame can reach every part of the substance under examination. For the decomposition and determination of insoluble sub stances, particularly the silicates, carbonate of soda is indis pensable. But for the latter purpose, we use with advantage a mixture of ten parts of soda and thirteen parts of dry car bonate of potash, which mixture fuses more easily than the carbonate of soda alone. 2. Hydrate of Baryta (BaO, HO). This salt is used some times for the detection of alkalies in silicates. Mix one part of the substance with about four parts of the hydrate of baryta, and expose it to the blowpipe flame. The hydrate of baryta combines with the silicic acid, and forms the super-basic silicate of baryta, while the oxides become free. The fused mass must be dissolved in hydrochloric acid, which converts the oxides into chlorides. Evaporate to dryness, and dissolve the residue in water. The silicic acid remains insoluble. The hydrate of baryta is prepared by mixing six parts of finely powdered heavy-spar (BaO, S0 3 ) with one part of char coal and one and a half parts of wheat flour, and exposing this mixture in a Hessian crucible with a cover to a strong and continuous red heat. The coaled chocolate-brown mass must be boiled with twenty parts of water, and, while boiling, there must be added the oxide of copper in sufficient quantity, or until the liquid will not impart a black color to a solution of acetate of lead (PbO, A). The liquid must be filtered while hot, and as it cools the hydrate of baryta appears in crystals. These crystals must be washed with a little cold water, and then heated at a low temperature in a porcelain dish until the crystal water is expelled. The hydrate of baryta melts by a low red heat without losing its water of hydration. 3. Bisulphate of Potassa (KO, 2S0 3 ). At a red heat the half of the sulphuric acid of this salt becomes free, and thus 36 THE BLOWPIPE. separates and expels volatile substances, by which we can recognize lithium, boracic acid, nitric acid, fluoric acid, bromine, iodine, chlorine ; or it decomposes and reveals some other compounds, as, for instance, the salts of the titanic, tantalic and tungstic acids. The bisulphate of potash is also used for the purpose of converting a substance into sulphate, or to free it at once from certain constituents. These sulphates are dis solved in water, by which we are enabled to effect the sepa ration of its various constituents. PREPARATION. Two parts of coarsely powdered sulphate of potash are placed in a porcelain crucible, and one part of pure sulphuric acid is poured over it. Expose this to heat over the spirit-lamp, until the whole becomes a clear liquid. The cooled mass must be of a pure white color, and may be got out of the crucible by inverting it. It must be kept in a fine powder. 4. Oxalate of Potassa (KO , 0). Dissolve bioxalate of pot ash in water, and neutralize with carbonate of potash. Evapo rate the solution at a low heat to dryness, stirring constantly towards the close of the operation. The dry residue is to be kept in the form of a powder. The oxalate of potash, at a low red heat, eliminates a consid erable quantity of carbonic oxide, which, having a strong affinity for oxygen, with which it forms carbonic acid, it is therefore a powerful agent of reduction. It is in many cases preferable to carbonate of soda. 5. Cyanide of Potassium (Cy, K). In the dry method of analysis, this salt is one of the most efficient agents for the reduction of metallic oxides. It separates not only the metals from their oxygen compounds, but likewise from their sulphur compounds, while it is converted through the action of the oxygen into carbonate of potash, or, in the latter case, combines with the sulphur and forms the sulphureted cyanide of potassium. This separation is facilitated by its easy fusibility. But in many cases it melts too freely, and therefore it is better to mix it, for blowpipe analysis, with an equal quantity of soda. This mixture has great powers of reduction, and it is easily ab- I T S U S E . 37 sorbed by the charcoal, while the globules of reduced metal are visible in the greatest purity. PREPARATION. Deprive the ferrocyanide of potassium (2KCy + FeCy) of its water by heating it over the spirit-lamp in a porcelain dish. Mix eight parts of this anhydrous salt with three parts of dry carbonate of potash, and fuse the mixture by a low red heat in a Hessian, or still better, in an iron crucible with a cover, until the mass flows quiet and clear, and a sample taken up with an iron spatula appears perfectly white. Pour the clear mass out into a china or porcelain dish or an iron plate, but with caution that the fine iron par ticles which have settled to the bottom, do not mix with it. The white fused mass must be powdered, and kept from the air. The cyanide of potassium thus prepared, contains some of the cyanate of potassa, but the admixture does not deteriorate it for blowpipe use. It must be perfectly white, free from iron, charcoal, and sulphide of potassium. The solu tion of it in water must give a white precipitate with a solution of lead, and when neutralized with hydrochloric acid, and evaporated to dryness, it must not give an insoluble residue by dissolving it again in water. 6. Nitrate of Potassa, Saltpetre (KO, NO 6 ). Saturate boil ing water with commercial saltpetre, filter while hot in a beaker glass, which is to be placed in cold water, and stir while the solution is cooling. The greater part of the salt petre will crystallize in very fine crystals. Place these crystals upon a filter, and wash them with a little cold water, until a solution of nitrate of silver ceases to exhibit any reaction upon the filtrate. These crystals must be dried and powdered. Saltpetre, when heated with substances easy of oxidation, yields its oxygen quite readily, and is, therefore, a powerful means of oxidation. In blowpipe analysis, we use it particu larly to convert sulphides (as those of arsenic, antimony, &c.) into oxides and acids. We furthermore use saltpetre for the purpose of producing a complete oxidation of small quantities of metallic oxides, which oxidize with difficulty in the oxidation 38 THE BLOWPIPE. flame, so that the color of the bead, in its highest state of oxi dation, shall be visible, as for instance, manganese dissolved in the microcosmic salt. 1. Biborate of soda, borax (NaO + 2B0 3 ). Commercial borax is seldom pure enough for a reagent. A solution of borax must not give a precipitate with carbonate of potassa ; or, after the addition of dilute nitric acid, it must remain clear upon the addition of nitrate of silver, or nitrate of baryta. Or a small piece of the dry salt, fused upon a platinum wire, must give a clear and uncolored glass, as well in the oxidation flame as in the reduction flame. If these tests indicate a foreign admixture, the borax must be purified by re-crystallization. These crystals are washed upon a filter, dried, and heated, to expel the crystal water, or until the mass ceases to swell up, and it is reduced to powder. Boracic acid is incombustible, and has a strong affinity for oxides when fused with them ; therefore, it not only directly combines with oxides, but it expels, by fusion, all other volatile acids from their salts. Furthermore, boracic acid promotes the oxidation of metals and sulphur, and induces haloid compounds, in the oxidation flame, to combine with the rising oxides. Borates thus made, melt generally by themselves ; but admixed with borate of soda, they fnse much more readily, give a clear bead. Borax acts either as a flux, or through the formation of double salts. In borax, we have the action of free boracic acid, as well as borate of soda, and for that reason it is an excellent reagent for blowpipe analysis. All experiments in which borax is employed should be effected upon platinum wire. The hook of the wire should be heated red hot, and then dipped into the powdered borax. This should be exposed to the oxidation flame, when it will be fused to a bead, which adheres to the hook. This should be then dipped into the powdered substance, which will adhere to it if it is hot ; but if the bead is cool, it must be previously moistened. Expose this bead to the oxidation flame until it ceases to I T S U S E . 39 change, then allow it to cool, when it should be exposed to the reduction flame. Look for the following in the oxidation flame : (1.) Whether the heated substance is fused to a clear bead or not, and whether the bead remains transparent after cooling. The beads of some substances, for instance those of the alkaline earths, are clear while hot ; but upon cooling, are milk-white and enamelled. Some substances give a clear bead when heated and when cold, but appear enamelled when heated intermittingly or with a flame which changes often from oxidation to reduction, or with an unsteady flame produced by too strong a blast. The reason is an incomplete fusion, while from the basic borate com pound a part of the base is separated. As the boracic acid is capable of dissolving more in the heat, a bead will be clear while hot, enamelled when cold, as a part in the latter instance will become separated. (2.) Whether the substance dissolves easily or not, and whether it intumesces from arising gases. (3.) Whether the bead, when exposed to the oxidation flame, exhibits any color, and whether the color remains after the bead shall have cooled, or whether the color fades. (4.) Whether the bead exhibits any other reaction in the reduction flame. The bead should not be overcharged with the substance under examination, or it will become colored so deeply as not to present any transparency, or the color light enough to discern its hue. 8. Microcosmic Salt Phosphate of Soda and Ammonia (NaO, NH*0 + P0 5 ). Dissolve six parts of phosphate of soda (2NaO, HO, PO 6 ), and one part of pure chloride of Ammonium (NH 4 C1.), in two parts of boiling water, and allow it to cool. The greatest part of the formed double salt crys tallizes, while the mother-liquid contains chloride of sodium, and some of the double salt. The crystals must be dissolved in as little boiling water as possible, and re-crystallized. These crystals must be dried and powdered. When this double salt is heated, the water and the ammonia, 40 THE BLOW PIPE. escape, while the incombustible residue has a composition simi lar to borax, viz., a free acid and an easily fusible salt. The effect of it is, therefore, similar to the borax. The free phos phoric acid expels, likewise, most other acids from their combi nations, and combines with metallic oxides. For supports, the platinum wire may be used, but the hook must be smaller than when borax is used, or the bead will not adhere. As for all the other experiments with this salt, the microscosmic salt is used the same as borax. 9. Nitrate of Cobalt. (CoO, NO 5 ). This salt can be pre pared by dissolving pure oxide of cobalt in diluted nitric acid, and evaporating to dryness with a low heat. The dry residue should be dissolved in ten parts of water, and filtered. The filtrate is now ready for use, and should be kept in a bottle with a glass stopper. If the pure oxide of cobalt cannot be procured, then it may be prepared by mixing two parts of finely powdered glance of cobalt with four parts of saltpetre, and one part of dry carbonate of potassa with one part of water free from carbonate of soda. This mixture should be added in suc cessive portions into a red-hot Hessian crucible, and the heat continued until the mass is fused, or at least greatly diminished in volume. The cooled mass must be triturated with hot water, a.nd then heated with hydrochloric acid until it is dissolved and forms a dark green solution, which generally presents a gelati nous appearance, occasioned by separated silica. The solution is to be evaporated to dryness, the dry residue moistened with hydrochloric acid, boiled with water, filtered and neutralized while hot with carbonate of ammonia, until it ceases to give an acid reaction with test-paper. This must now be filtered again, and carbonate of potassa added to the filtrate as long as a precipitate is produced. This precipitate is brought upon a filter and washed thoroughly, and then dissolved in diluted nitric acid. This is evaporated to dryness, and one part of it is dissolved in ten parts of water for use. The oxide of cobalt combines, with strong heat in the oxidation flame, with various earths and infusible metallic I T 8 U 8 E . 41 oxides, and thus produces peculiarly colored compounds, and is therefore used for their detection ; (alumina, magnesia, oxide of zinc, oxide of tin, etc.) Some of the powdered substance is heated upon charcoal in the flame of oxidation, and moist ened with a drop of the solution of the nitrate of cobalt, when the oxidation flame is thrown upon it. Alumina gives a pure blue color, the oxide of zinc a bright green, magnesia a light red, and the oxide of tin a bluish-green color ; but the latter is only distinctly visible after cooling. The dropping bottle, is the most useful apparatus for the purpose of getting small quantities of fluid. It is com posed of a glass tube, drawn out to a point, with a small orifice. This tube passes through the cork of the bottle. By pressing in the cork into the neck of the bottle, the air within will be compressed, and the liquid will rise in the tube. If now we draw the cork out, with the tube filled with the fluid, and pressing the finger upon the upper orifice, the fluid can be forced out in the smallest quantity, even to a fraction of a drop. 10. Tin. This metal is used in the form of foil, cut into strips about half an inch wide. Tin is very susceptible of oxidation, and therefore deprives oxidized substances of their oxygen very quickly, when heated in contact with them. It is employed in blowpipe analysis, for the purpose of producing in glass beads a lower degree of oxidation, particularly if the substance under examination contains only a small portion of such oxide. These oxides give a characteristic color to the bead, and thus are detected. The bead is heated upon char coal in the reduction flame, with a small portion of the tin, whereby some of the tin is melted and mixes with the bead. The bead should be reduced quickly in the reduction flame, for by continuing the blast too great a while, the oxide of tin separates the other oxides in the reduced or metallic state, while we only require that they shall only be converted into a sub-oxide, in order that its peculiar color may be recognized in the bead. The addition of too much tin causes the bead 42 T H E B L O W P I P K . to present an unclean appearance, and prevents the required reaction. 11. Silica (SiO 3 ). This acid does not even expel carbonic acid in the wet way, but in a glowing heat it expels the strongest volatile acids. In blowpipe analysis, we use it fused with carbonate of soda to a bead, as a test for sulphuric acid, and in some cases for phosphoric acid. Also with carbonate of soda and borax, for the purpose of separating tin from copper. Finely powdered quartz will answer these purposes. If it cannot be procured, take well washed white sand and mix it with two parts of carbonate of soda and two parts of car bonate of potassa. Melt the materials together, pound up the cooled mass, dissolve in hot water, filter, add to the filtrate hydrochloric acid, and evaporate to dryness. Moisten the dry residue with hydrochloric acid, and boil in water. The silica remains insoluble. It should be washed well, dried, and heated, and then reduced to powder. 12. TEST-PAPERS. (a.) Blue Litmus Paper. Dissolve one part of litmus in six or eight parts of water, and filter. Divide the filtrate into two parts. In one of the parts neutralize the free alkali by stirring it with a glass rod dipped in diluted sulphuric acid, until the fluid appears slightly red. Then mix the two parts together, and draw slips of unsized paper, free from alkali, such as fine filtering paper. Hang these strips on a line to dry, in the shade and free from floating dust. If the litmus solution is too light, it will not give sufficient character istic indications, and if too dark it is not sensitive enough. The blue color of the paper should be changed to red, when brought in contact with a solution containing the minutest trace of free acid ; but it should be recollected that the neutral salts of the heavy metals produce the same change. (b.) Red Litmus Paper. The preparation of the red litmus paper is similar to the above, the acid being added until a red color is obtained. Reddened litmus paper is a very sensitive reagent for free alkalies, the carbonates of the alkalies, alkaline I T S U S E . 43 earths, sulphides of the alkalies and of the alkaline earths, and alkaline salts with weak acids, such as boracic acid. These substances restore the original blue color of the litmus. (c.) Logwood Paper. Take bruised logwood, boil it in water, filter, and proceed as above. Logwood paper is a very delicate test for free alkalies, which impart a violet tint to it. It is sometimes used to detect hydrofluoric acid, which changes its color to yellow. All the test-papers are to be cut into narrow strips, and preserved in closely stopped vials. The especial employment of the test-papers we shall allude to in another place. B. ESPECIAL REAGENTS. 13. Fused Boracic Acid (BO 8 ). The commercial article is sufficiently pure for blowpipe analysis. It is employed in some cases to detect phosphoric acid, and also minute traces of copper in lead compounds. 14. Fluorspar (CaFl 2 ). This substance should be pounded fine and strongly heated. Fluorspar is often mixed with boracic acid, which renders it unfit for analytical purposes. Such an admixture can be detected if it be mixed with bi- sulphate of potassa, and exposed upon platinum wire to the interior or blue flame. It is soon fused, the boracic acid is reduced and evaporated, and by passing through the external flame it is reoxidized, and colors the flame green. We use fluorspar mixed with bisulphate of potassa as a test for lithia and boracic acid in complicated compounds. 15. Oxalate of Nickel (NiO, 0). It is prepared by dis solving the pure oxide of nickel in diluted hydrochloric acid. Evaporate to dryness, dissolve in water, and precipitate with oxalate of ammonia. The precipitate must be washed with caution upon a filter, and then dried. It is employed in blow pipe analysis to detect salts of potassa in the presence of sodium and lithium. 16. Oxide of Copper (CuO). Pure metallic copper is dis- 44 THE BLOWPIPE. solved in nitric acid. The solution is evaporated in a porcelain dish to dryness, and gradually heated over a spirit-lamp, until the blue color of the salt has disappeared and the mass presents a uniform black color. The oxide of copper so prepared must be powdered, and preserved in a vial. It serves to detect, in complicated compounds, minute traces of chlorine. It. Antimoniate of Potassa (KO, SbO 6 ). Mix four parts of the bruised metal of antimony, with nine parts of saltpetre. Throw this mixture, in small portions, into a red-hot Hessian crucible, and keep it at a glowing heat for awhile after all the mixture is added. Boil the cooled mass with water, and dry the residue. Take two parts of this, and mix it with one part of dry carbonate of potassa, and expose this to a red heat for about half an hour. Then wash the mass in cold water, and boil the residue in water ; filter, evaporate the filtrate to dry- ness, and then, with a strong heat, render it free of water. Powder it while it is warm, and preserve it in closed vials. It is used for the detection of small quantities of charcoal in com pound substances, as it shares its oxygen with the carbonaceous matter, the antimony becomes separated, and carbonate of potassa is produced, which restores red litmus paper to blue, and effervesces with acids. 18. Silver Foil. A small piece of silver foil is used for the purpose of detecting sulphur and the sulphides of the metals, which impart a dark stain to it. If no silver foil is at hand, strips of filtering paper, impregnated with acetate of lead, will answer in many cases. 19. Nitroprusside of Sodium (Fe Cy 6 , N0, 2Na). This is a very delicate test for sulphur, and was discovered by Dr. Playfair. This test has lately been examined with considerable ability by Prof. J. W. Bailey,, of West Point. If any sulphate or sulphide is heated by the blowpipe upon charcoal with the carbonate of soda, and the fused mass is placed on a watch-glass, with a little water, and a small piece of the nitroprusside of sodium is added, there will be produced a splendid purple color. This color, or reaction, will be produced from any substance contain- I T 8 U S E . 4:5 ing sulphur, such as the parings of the nails, hair, albumen, etc. In regard to these latter substances, the carbonate of soda should be mixed with a little starch, which will prevent the loss of any of the sulphur by oxidation. Coil a piece of hair around a platinum wire, moisten it, and dip it into a mixture of carbonate of soda, to which a little starch has been added, and then heat it with the blowpipe, when the fused mass will give with the nitroprusside of sodium the characteristic purple reaction, indicative of the presence of sulphur. With the proper delicacy of manipulation, a piece of hair, half an inch in length, will give distinct indications of sulphur. Preparation. The nitroprussides of sodium and potassium (for either salt will give the above reactions), are prepared as follows : One atom (422 grains) of pulverized ferrocyanide of potassium is mixed with five atoms of commercial nitric acid, diluted with an equal quantity of water. One-fifth of this quantity (one atom) of the acid is sufficient to transfer the ferrocyanide into nitroprusside ; but the use of a larger quan tity is found to give the best results. The acid is poured all at once upon the ferrocyanide, the cold produced by the mixing being sufficient to moderate the action. The mixture first assumes a milky appearance, but after a little while, the salt dissolves, forming a coffee-colored solution, and gases are disengaged in abundance. When the salt is completely dis solved, the solution is found to contain ferrocyanide (red prussiate) of potassium, mixed with nitroprusside and nitrate of the same base. It is then immediately decanted into a large flask, and heated over the water-bath. It continues to evolve gas, and after awhile, no longer yields a dark blue precipitate with ferrous salts, but a dark green or slate- colored precipitate. It is then removed from the fire, and left to crystallize, whereupon it yields a large quantity of crystals of nitre, and more or less oxamide. The strongly-colored mother liquid is then neutralized with carbonate of potash or soda, according to the salt to be prepared, and the solution is boiled, whereupon it generally deposits a green or brown precipitate, 46 THE BLOWPIPE. which must be separated by filtration. The liquid then con tains nothing but nitroprusside and nitrate of potash or soda. The nitrates being the least soluble, are first crystallized, and the remaining liquid, on farther evaporation, yields crys tals of the nitroprusside. The sodium salt crystallizes most easily. ( PLAYFAIR. ) As some substances, particularly in complicated compounds, a,re not detected with sufficient nicety in the dry way of ana lysis, it will often be necessary to resort to the wet way. It is therefore necessary to have prepared the reagents required for such testing, as every person, before he can become an expert blowpipe analyst, must be acquainted with the charac teristic tests as applied in the wet way. Part II. INITIATORY ANALYSIS. QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS refers to those examinations which relate simply to the presence or the absence of certain sub. stances, irrespective of their quantities. But before we take cognizance of special examinations, it would facilitate the progress of the student to pass through a course of Initiatory Exercises. These at once lead into the special analysis of all those substances susceptible of examination by the blowpipe. The Initiatory Analysis is best studied by adopting the following arrangement : 1. Examinations with the glass bulb. with the open tube. upon charcoal. in the platinum forceps. in the borax bead. in microcosmic salt. in the carbonate of soda bead. 8. Confirmatory examinations. 1. EXAMINATIONS WITH THE GLASS BULB. The glass of which the bulb is made should be entirely free from lead, otherwise fictitious results will ensue. If the bulb ^-^ 47 48 THE BLOWPIPE. be of flint glass, then by heating it, there is* a slightly iridescent film caused upon the surface of the glass, which may easily be mistaken for arsenic. Besides, this kind of glass is easily fusible in the oxidating flame of the blowpipe, while, in the reducing flame, its ready decomposition would preclude its use entirely. The tube should be composed of the potash or hard Bohemian glass, should be perfectly white, and very thin, or the heat will crack it. The tube should be perfectly clean, which can be easily attained by wrapping a clean cotton rag around a small stick, and inserting it in the tube. Before using the tube, see also that it is perfectly dry. The quantity of the substance put into the tube for exami nation should be small. From one to three grains is quite sufficient, as a general rule, but circumstances vary the quantity. The sides of the tube should not catch any of the substance as it is being placed at the bottom of the tube, or into the bulb. If any of the powder, however, should adhere, it should be pushed down with a roll of clean paper, or the clean cotton rag referred to above. In submitting the tube to the flame, it should be heated at first very gently, the heat being increased until the glass begins to soften, when the observations of what is ensuing within it may be made. If the substance be of an organic nature, a peculiar empy. reumatic odor will be given off. If the substance chars, then it may be inferred that it is of an organic nature. The matters which are given off and cause the empyreumatic odor, are a peculiar oil, ammonia, carbonic acid, acetic acid, water, cyano gen, and frequently other compounds. If a piece of paper is heated in the bulb, a dark colored oil condenses upon the sides of the tube, which has a strong empyreumatic odor. A piece of litmus paper indicates that this oil is acid, as it is quickly changed to red by contact with it. A black residue is now left in the tube, and upon examination we will find that it is charcoal. If, instead of the paper, a piece of animal substance INITIATORY ANALYSIS. 49 is placed m the bulb, the reddened litmus paper will be con verted into its original blue color, while charcoal will be left at the bottom of the tube. A changing of the substance, however, to a dark color, should not be accepted as an invariable indication of charcoal, as some inorganic bodies thus change color, but the dark substance will not be likely to be mistaken for charcoal. By igniting- the suspected substance with nitrate of potassa, it can quickly be ascertained whether it is organic or not, for if the latter, the vivid deflagration will indicate it. If the substance contains water, it will condense upon the cold portion of the tube, and may be there examined as to whether it is acid or alkaline. If the former, the matter under examination is, perhaps, vegetable ; if the latter, it is of an animal nature. The water may be that fluid absorbed, or it may form a portion of its constitution. If the substance contain sulphur, the sublimate upon the cold part of the tube may be recognized by its characteristic appearance, especially if the substance should be a sulphide of tin, copper, antimony, or iron. The hyposulphites, and several other sulphides, also give off sulphur when heated. The volatile metals, mercury and arsenic, will, however, sublime without undergoing decomposition. As the sulphide of arsenic may be mistaken, from its color and appearance, for sulphur, it must be examined especially for the purpose of determining that point. Selenium will likewise sublime by heat as does sulphur. This is the case if selenides are present. Selenium gives off the smell of decayed horse-radish. When the persalts are heated they are reduced to protosalts, with the elimination of a part of their acid. This will be indicated by the blue litmus paper. If some of the neutral salts containing a volatile acid be present, they will become decomposed. For instance, the red nitrous acid water of the nitrates will indicate the decomposition of the salt, especially if it be the nitrate of a metalic oxide. 3 50 T H E BLOWPIPE. If there is an odor of sulphur, then it is quite probable, if no free sulphur be present, that a hyposulphite is decomposed. If an oxalate be present, it is decomposed with the evolution of carbonic oxide, which may be inflamed at the mouth of the tube ; but there are oxalates that give t)ff carbonic acid gas, which, of course, will not burn. A cyanide will become decom posed and eliminate nitrogen gas, while the residue is charred. Some cyanides are, however, not thus decomposed, as the dry cyanides of the earths and alkalies. There are several oxides of metals which will sublime, and may be thus examined in the tube. Arsenious acid sublimes with great ease in minute octohedral crystals. The oxides of tellu rium and antimony will sublime, the latter in minute glittering needles. There are several metals which will sublime, and may be examined in the cold portion of the tube. Mercury condenses upon the tube in minute globules. These often do not present the metalic appearance until they are disturbed with a glass rod, when they attract each other, and adhere as small globules. Place in the tube about a grain of red precipitate of the drug stores and apply heat, when the oxide will become decomposed, its oxygen will escape while the vaporized mer cury will condense upon the cold portion of the tube, and may tfcere be examined with a magnifying glass. Arsenic, when vaporized, may be known by its peculiar alli aceous odor. Arsenic is vaporized from its metallic state, and likewise from its alloys. Several compounds which contain arsenic will also sublime, such as the arsenical cobalt. Place in the bulb a small piece of arsenical cobalt or "fly-stone," and apply heat. The sulphide of arsenic will first rise, but soon the arsenic will adhere to the sides of the tube. The metals tellurium and cadmium are susceptible of solution, but the heat required is a high one. This is best done upon charcoal. The perchloridc of mercury sublimes undecomposed in the bulb, previously undergoing fusion. INITIATORY ANALYSIS. 51 The prutockloride of mercury likewise sublimes, but it docs not undergo fusion first, as is the case with the corrosive sublimate. The ammoniacal salts all are susceptible of sublimation, which they do without leaving a residue. There are, however, several which contain fixed *acids, which latter are left in the bulb. This is particularly the case with the phosphates and borates A piece of red litmus paper will readily detect the escaping ammonia, while its odor will indicate its presence with great certainty. The halogen compounds of mercury, we should have mentioned, also sublime, the red iodide giving a yellow subli mate. The bulb is also a convenient little instrument for the pur pose of heating those substances which phosphoresce, and like wise those salts that decrepitate. Should the above reactions not be readily discerned, it should not be considered as an indication that the substances are not present, for they are frequently expelled in such combinations that the above reactions will not take place. This is often tho case with sulphur, selenium, arsenic, and tellurium. It fre quently happens, likewise, that these substances are in such combinations that heat alone will not sublime them ; or else two or more of them may arise together, and thus complicate the sublimate, so that the eye cannot readily detect either substance. Sometimes sulphur and arsenic will coat the tube with a metal- like appearance, which is deceptive. This coating presents a metallic lustre at its lower portion, but changing, as it pro gresses upward, to a dark brown, light brown, orange or yellow ; this sublimate being due to combinations of arsenic and sulphur, which compounds are volatilized at a lower temperature than metallic arsenic. If certain reagents are mixed with many substances, changes are effected which would not ensue with heat alone. Formiote of soda possesses the property of readily reducing metallic oxides. When this salt is heated, it gives off a quantity of carbonic oxide gas. This gas, when in the presence of a metal lic oxide, easily reduces the metal, by withdrawing its oxygen 52 THE BLOWPIPE. from it, and being changed into carbonic oxide. If a little fly- stone is mixed with some formiate of soda, and heated in the bulb, the arsenic is reduced, volatilized, and condenses in the cool portion of the tube. By this method, the smallest portion of a grain of the arsenical compound may be thus examined with the greatest readiness. If the residue is now washed, by which the soda is got rid of, the metallic arsenic may be obtained in small spangles. If the compound examined be the sulphide of antimony, the one-thousandth part can be readily detected, and hence this method is admirably adapted to the examination of medicinal antimonial compounds. The arsenites of silver and cop per are reduced by the formiate of soda to their metals, mixed with metallic arsenic. The mercurial salts are all reduced with the metal plainly visible as a bright silvery ring on the cool por tion of the tube. The chloride and nitrate of silver are com pletely reduced, and may be obtained after working out the soda, as bright metallic spangles. The salts of antimony and zinc are thus reduced ; also the sulphate of cadmium. The sublimate of the latter, although in appearance not unlike that of arsenic, can easily be distingushed by its brighter color. It is, in fact, the rich yellow of this sublimate which has led artists to adopt it as one of their most valued pigments. 2. EXAMINATIONS IN THE OPEN TUBE. The substance to be operated upon should be placed in the tube, about half an inch from the end, and the flame applied at first very cautiously, increasing gradually to the required tempe rature. The tube, in all these roasting operations, as they are termed, should be held in an inclined position. The nearer perpendicular the tube is held, the stronger is the draught of air that passes through it. If but little heat is required in the open tube operation, the spirit-lamp is the best method of applying the heat. But if a greater temperature is required, then recourse must be had to the blowpipe. Upon the angle of inclination of the tube depends the amount of air that passes I N i T i A T o K Y ANALYSIS. 53 through it, and therefore, the rapidity of the draught may be easily regulated at the will of the operator. The inclination of the tube may, as a general rule, be about the angle represented in Fisr 14. Fig. 14. The length of the tube must be about six inches, so that the portion upon which the substance rested in a previous examina tion may be cut off. The portion of the tube left will answer for several similar operations. When the substance is under examination, we should devote our attention to the nature of the sublimates, and to that of the odors of the gases. If sulphur be in the substance experi mented upon, the characteristic odor of sulphurous acid gas will readily indicate the sulphur. If metallic sulphides, for instance, are experimented upon, the sulphurous acid gas eliminated will readily reveal their presence. As it is a property of this gas to bleach, a piece of Brazil-wood test paper should be held in the mouth of the tube, when its loss of color will indicate the presence of the sulphurous acid. It often happens, too, that a slight deposition of sulphur will be observed upon the cool por- 54: THE BLOWPIPE. tion of the tube. This is particularly the case with those sul phides which yield sublimates of sulphur when heated in the bulb. Selenium undergoes but slight oxidation, but it becomes readily volatilized, and may be observed on the cool portion of the tube. At the same time the nose, if applied close to the end of the tube, will detect the characteristic odor of rotten horse-radish. Arsenic also gives its peculiar alliaceous odor, which is so characteristic that it can be easily detected. A few of the arsenides produce this odor. The sublimates should be carefully observed, as they indicate often with great cer tainty the presence of certain substances ; for instance, that of arsenic. The sublimate, in this case, presents itself as the arsenious acid, or the metallic arsenic itself. If it be the former, it may be discerned by aid of the magnifying glass as beauti ful glittering octohedral crystals. If the latter, the metallic lustre will reveal it. But it will be observed that while some of the arsenides are sublimed at a comparatively low temperature, others require a very high one. Antimony gives a white sublimate when its salts are roasted, as the sulphide, or the antimonides themselves, or the oxide of this metal. This white sublimate is not antimonious acid, but there is mixed with it the oxide of antimony with which the acid is sublimed. As is the case with arsenious acid, the anti monious acid may, by dexterous heating, be driven from one portion of the tube to another. Tellurium, or its acid and oxide, may be got as a sublimate in the tube. The tellurious acid, unlike the arsenious and anti monious acids, cannot be driven from one portion of the tube to another, but, on the contrary, it fuses into small clear globules, visible to the naked eye sometimes, but quite so with the aid of the magnifying glass. Lead, or its chloride, sublimes like tellurium, and, like that substance, fuses into globules or drops. Bismuth, or its sulphide, sublimes into an orange or brown- INITIATORY ANALYSIS. 55 Ish globules, when it is melted, as directed above, for tellu rium. The color of the bismuth and lead oxides are somewhat similar, although that of the latter is paler. If any mineral containing fluorine is fused, first with the microcosmic salt bead, then put into the tube, and the flame of the blowpipe be directed into the tube upon the bead, hydro fluoric acid is disengaged and attacks the inside of the tube. The fluoride of calcium, or fluorspar, may be used for this experiment. During the roasting, a brisk current of air should be allowed to pass through the tube, whereby unoxidized matter may be prevented from volatilization, and the clogging up of the sub stance under examination be prevented. 3. EXAMINATIONS UPON CHARCOAL. In making examinations upon charcoal, it is quite necessary that the student should make himself familiar with the different and characteristic appearances of the deposits upon the char coal. In this case I have found the advice given by Dr. Sherer to be the best ; that is, to begin with the examination of the pure materials first, until the eye becomes familiarized with the appearances of their incrustations upon charcoal. The greater part of the metals fuse when submitted to the heat of the blowpipe, and if exposed to the outer flame, they oxidize. These metals, termed the noble metals, do not oxidize, but they fuse. The metals platinum, iridium, rhodium, osmium and palladium do not fuse. The metal osmium, if exposed to the flame of oxidation, fuses and is finally dissipated as osmic acid. In the latter flame, the salts of the noble metals are reduced to the metallic state, and the charcoal is covered with the bright metal. We shall give a brief description of the appearance of the principal elementary bodies upon being fused with charcoal. This plan is that deemed the most conducive to the progress of the student, by Berzelius, Plattner, and Sherer. Experience 56 THE B L o w P i P E . has taught us that this method is the most efficient that could have been devised as an initiatory exercise for the student, ere he commences a more concise and methodical method of analy sis. In these reactions upon charcoal, we shall follow nearly the language of Plattner and Sherer. SELENIUM is not difficult of fusion, and gives off brown fumes in either the oxidation or reduction flame. The deposit upon the charcoal is of a steel-grey color, with a slightly metallic lustre. The deposit however that fuses outside of this steel-grey one is of a dull violet color, shading off to a light brown. Under the flame of oxidation this deposit is easily driven from one portion of the charcoal to another, while the application of the re ducing flame volatilizes it with the evolution of a beautiful blue light. The characteristic odor of decayed horse-radish distinguishes the volatilization of this metal. TELLURIUM. This metal fuses with the greatest readiness, and is reduced to vapor under both flames with fumes, and coats the charcoal with a deposit of tellurous acid. This deposit is white near the centre, and is of a dark yellow near the edges. It may be driven from place to place by the flame of oxidation, while that of reduction volatilizes it with a green flame. If there be a mixture of selenium present, then the color of the flame is bluish-green. ARSENIC. This metal is volatilized without fusing, and covers the charcoal both in the oxidizing and reducing flames with a deposit of arsenious acid. This coating is white in the centre, and grey towards the edges, and is found some distance from the assay. By the most gentle application of the flame, it is immediately volatilized, and if touched for a moment with the reducing flame, it disappears, tinging the flame pale blue. During volatilization a strong garlic odor is distincly percepti ble, very characteristic of arsenic, and by which its presence in any compound may be immediately recognized. ANTIMONY. This metal fuses readily, and coats the charcoal under both flames with antimonious acid. This incrustation is of a white color where thick, but of a bluish tint where it is INITIATORY ANALYSIS. 57 thin, and is found nearer to the assay than that of arsenic. When greatly heated by the flame of oxidation, it is driven from place to place without coloring the flame, but when vola tilized by the flame of reduction, it tinges the flame blue. As antimonious acid is not so volatile as arsenious acid, they may thus be easily distinguished from one another. When metallic antimony is fused upon charcoal, and the metallic bead raised to a red heat, if the blast be suspended, the fluid bead remains for some time at this temperature, giving off opaque white fumes, which are at first deposited on the surrounding charcoal, and then upon the bead itself, covering it with white, pearly crystals. The phenomenon is dependent upon the fact, that the heated button of antimony, in absorbing oxygen from the air, developes sufficient heat to maintain the metal in a fluid state, until it becomes entirely covered with crystals of antimonious acid so formed. BISMUTH. This metal fuses with ease, and under both flames covers the charcoal with a coating of oxide, which, while hot, is of an orange-yellow color, and after cooling, of a lemon-yel low color, passing, at the edges, into a bluish white. This white coating consists of the carbonate of bismuth. The subli mate from bismuth is formed at a less distance from the assay than is the case with antimony. It may be driven from place to place by the application of either flame ; but in so doing, the oxide is first reduced by the heated charcoal, and the metallic bismuth so formed is volatilized and reoxidized. The flame is uncolored. LEAD. This metal readily fuses under either flame, and incrusts the charcoal with oxide at about the same distance from the assay as is the case with bismuth. The oxide is, while hot, of a dark lemon-yellow color, but upon cooling, becomes of a sulphur yellow. The carbonate which is formed upon the charcoal, beyond the oxide, is of a bluish-white color. If the yellow incrustation of the oxide be heated with the flame of oxidation, it disappears, undergoing changes similar to those of 3* 58 THE BLOW PIPE. bismuth above mentioned. Under the flame of reduction, it, however, disappears, tinging the flame blue. CADMIUM. This metal fuses with ease, and, in the flame of oxidation, takes fire, and burns with a deep yellow color, giving off brown fumes, which coat the charcoal, to within a small distance of the assay, with oxide of cadmium. This coating exhibits its characteristic reddish-brown color most clearly when cold. Where the coating is very thin, it passes to an orange color. As oxide of cadmium is easily reduced, and the metal very volatile, the coating of oxide may be driven from place to place by the application of either flame, to neither of which does it impart any color. Around the deposit of oxide, the charcoal has occasionally a variegated tarnish. ZINC. This metal fuses with ease, and takes fire in the flame of oxidation, burning with a brilliant greenish-white light, and forming thick white fumes of oxide of zinc, which coat the charcoal round the assay. This coating is yellow while hot, but when perfectly cooled, becomes white. If heated with the flame of oxidation, it shines brilliantly, but is not volatilized, since the heated charcoal is, under these circumstances, insuffi cient to effect its reduction. Even under the reducing flame, it disappears very slowly. TIN. This metal fuses readily, and, in the flame of oxidation, becomes covered with oxide, which, by a strong blast, may be easily blown off. In the reducing flame, the fused metal assumes a white surface, and the charcoal becomes covered with oxide. This oxide is of a pale yellow color while hot, and is quite brilliant when the flame of oxidation is directed upon it. After cooling, it becomes white. It is found immediately around the assay, and cannot be volatilized by the application of either flame. MOLYBDENUM. This metal, in powder, is infusible before the blowpipe. If heated in the outer flame, it becomes gradually oxidized, and incrusts the charcoal, at a small distance from the assay, with molybdic acid, which, near the assay, forms INITIATORY ANALYSIS. 59 transparent crystalline scales, and is elsewhere deposited as a fine powder. The incrustation, while hot, is of a yellow color, but becomes white after cooling. It may be volatilized by heating with either flame, and leaves the surface of the char coal, when perfectly cooled, of a dark-red copper color, with a metallic lustre, due to the oxide of molybdenum, which has been formed by the reducing action of the charcoal upon the molyb. die acid. In the reducing flame, metallic molybdenum remains unchanged. SILVER. This metal, when fused alone, and kept in this state for some time, under a strong oxidizing flame, covers the charcoal with a thin film of dark reddish-brown oxide. If the silver be alloyed with lead, a yellow incrustation of the oxide of that metal is first formed, and afterwards, as the silver becomes more pure, a dark red deposit is formed on the char coal beyond. If the silver contains a small quantity of anti mony, a white incrustation of antimonious acid is formed, which becomes red on the surface if the blast be continued. And if lead and antimony are both present in the silver, after the greater part of these metals have been volatilized, a beautiful crimson incrustation is produced upon the charcoal. This result is sometimes obtained in fusing rich silver ores on charcoal. SULPHIDES, CHLORIDES, IODIDES, AND BROMIDES. In blowpipe experiments, it rarely occurs that we have to deal with pure metals, which, if not absolutely non-volatile, are recognized by the incrustation they form upon charcoal. Some compound substances, when heated upon charcoal, form white incrustations, resembling that formed by antimony, and which, when heated, may, in like manner, be driven from place to place. Among these are certain sulphides, as sulphide of potassium, and sulphide of sodium, which are formed by the action of the reducing flame upon the sulphates of potassa and soda, and are, when volatilized, reconverted into those sulphates, and as such deposited on the charcoal. No incrustation is, 60 THE B L o w P i P K . however, foiined, until the whole of the alkaline sulphate has been absorbed into the charcoal, and has parted with its oxy gen. As sulphide of potassium is more volatile than sulphide of sodium, an incrustation is formed from the former sooner than from the latter of these salts, and is considerably thicker in the former case. If the potash incrustation be touched witli the reducing flame, it disappears with a violet-colored flame ; and if a soda incrustation be treated in like manner, an orange- yellow flame is produced. Sulphide of lithium, formed by heating the sulphate in the reducing flame, is volatilized in similar manner by a strong blast, although less readily than the sulphide of sodium. It affords a greyish white film, which -disappears with a crimson flame when submitted to the reducing flame. Besides the above, the sulphides of bismuth and lead give, when heated in either flame, two different incrustations, of which the more volatile is of a white color, and consists in the one case of sulphate of lead, and in the other of sulphate of bismuth. If either of these be heated under the reducing flame, it disappears in the former case with a bluish flame, in the latter unaccompanied by any visible flame. The incrustation formed nearest to the assay consists of the oxide of lead or bismuth, and is easily recognized by its color when hot and after cooling. There are many other metallic sulphides, which, when heated by the blowpipe flame, cover the charcoal with a white incrustation, as sulphide of antimony, sulphide of zinc, and sulphide of tin. In all these cases, however, the incrusta tion consists of the metallic oxide alone, and either volatilizes or remains unchanged, when submitted to the oxidizing flame. Of the metallic chlorides there are many which, when heated on charcoal with the blowpipe flame, are volatilized and re- deposited as a white incrustation. Among these are the chlorides cf potassium, sodium, and lithium, which volatilize and cover the charcoal immediately around the assay with a thin white film, after they have been fused and absorbed into the charcoal, chloride of potassium forms the thickest de INITIATORY ANALYSIS. 61 and chloride of lithium the thinnest, the latter being moreover of a greyish- white color. The chlorides of ammonium, mercury, and antimony volatilize without fusing. The chlorides of zinc, cadmium, lead, bismuth, and tin first fuse and then cover the charcoal with two different incrusta tions, one of which is a white volatile chloride, and the other a less volatile oxide of the metal. Some of the incrustations formed by metallic chlorides dis. appear with a colored flame when heated with the reducing flame ; thus chloride of potassium affords a violet flame, chlo ride of sodium an orange one, chloride of lithium a crimson flame, and chloride of lead a blue one. The other metals mentioned above volatilize without coloring the flame. The chloride of copper fuses and colors the flame of a beauti ful blue. Moreover, if a continuous blast be directed upon the salt, a part of it is driven off in the form of white fumes which smell strongly of chlorine, and the charcoal is covered with incrustations of three different colors. That which is formed nearest to the assay is of a dark grey color, the next, a dark yellow passing into brown, and the most distant of a bluish white color. If this incrustation be heated under the reducing flame, it disappears with a blue flame. Metallic iodides and bromides behave upon charcoal in a similar manner to the chlorides. Those principally deserving of mention are the bromides and iodides of potassium and sodium. These fuse upon charcoal, are absorbed into its pores, and volatilize in the form of white fumes, which are deposited upon the charcoal at some distance from the assay. When the saline films so formed are submitted to the reducing flame, they disappear, coloring the flame in the same manner as the corresponding chlorides. 4. EXAMINATIONS IN THE PLATINUM FORCEPS. Before the student attempts to make an examination in the platinum forceps or tongs, he should first ascertain whether 62 THE BLOWPIPE. or not it will act upon the platinum. If the substance to be examined shall act chemically upon the platinum, then it should be examined on the charcoal, and the color of the flame ascertained as rigidly as possible. The following list of substances produce the color attached to them. A. VIOLET. Potash, and all its compounds, with the exception of the phosphate and the borate, tinge the color of the flame violet. Chloride of copper, ... .Intense blue. Lead, Pale clear blue. Bromide of copper, Bluish green. Antimony, Bluish green. Selenium, Blue. Arsenic, English green. C. GKEEN. Ammonia, Dark green. Boracic acid, Dark green. Copper, Dark green. Tellurium, Dark green. Zinc, Light green. Baryta. . Apple green. Phosphoric acid, Pale green. Molybdic acid, Apple green. Telluric acid, Light green. D. YELLOW. Soda, Intense yellow. Water, Fe.eble yellow. E. RED. Strontia, Intense crimson. Lithia, Purplish red. Potash, Violet red. Lime, Purplish red. INITIATORY ANALYSIS. 63 The student may often be deceived in regard to the colors : for instance, if a small splinter of almost any mineral be held at the point of the flame of oxidation, it will impart a very slight yellow to the flame. This is caused, doubtless, by the water contained in the mineral. If the piece of platinum wire is used, and it should be wet with the saliva, as is frequently done by the student, then the small quantity of soda existing in that fluid will color the flame of a light yellow hue. A. THE VIOLET COLOR. The salts of potash, with the exception of the borate and the phosphate, color the flame of a rich violet hue. This color is best discovered in the outer flame of the blowpipe, as is the case with all the other colors. The flame should be a small one, with a lamp having a small wick, while the orifice of the blowpipe must be quite small. These experiments should like wise be made in a dark room, so that the colors may be discerned with the greatest ease. In investigating with potash for the discernment of color, it should be borne in mind that the least quantity of soda will entirely destroy the violet color of the potash, by the substitution of its own strong yellow color. If there be not more than the two hundredth part of soda, the violet reaction of the potash will be destroyed. This is likewise the case with the presence of lithia, for its peculiar red color will destroy the violet of the potash. There fore in making investigations with the silicates which contain potash, the violet color of the latter can only be discerned when they are free from soda and lithia. B. THE BLUE COLOR. (a.) The Chloride of Copper. Any of the chlorides produce a blue color in the blowpipe flame, or any salt which contains chlorine will show the blue tint, as the color in this case is referable to the chlorine itself. There are, however, some 64 T H E B L O W P I P E . chlorides which, in consequence of the peculiar reactions of their bases, will not produce the blue color, although in these cases the blue of the chlorine will be very likely to blend itself with the color produced by the base. The chloride of copper communicates an intense blue to the flame, when fused on the platinum wire. If the heat be continued until the chlorine is driven off, then the greenish hue of the oxide of copper will be discerned. (b.) Lead. Metallic lead communicates to the flame a pale blue color. The oxide reacts in the same manner. The lead- salts, whose acids do not interfere with the color, impart also a fine blue to the flame, either in the platina forceps, or the crooked wire. (c.) Bromide of Copper. This salt colors the flame of a bluish-green color, but when the bromine is driven off, then we have the green of the oxide of copper. (d.) Antimony. This metal imparts a blue color to the blowpipe flame, but if the metal is in too small a quantity, then the color is a brilliant white. If antimony is fused on charcoal, the fused metal gives a blue color. The white subli mate which surrounds the fused metal, being subjected to the flame of oxidation, disappears from the charcoal with a bluish-green color. (e.) Selenium. If fused in the flame of oxidation, it imparts to the flame a deep blue color. The incrustation upon char coal gives to the flame the same rich color. (/,) Arsenic. The arseniates and metallic arsenic itself impart to the blowpipe flame a fine blue color, provided that there is no other body present which may have a tendency to color the flame with its characteristic hue. The sublimate of arsenious acid which surrounds the assay, will give the same blue flame, when dissipated by the oxidation flame. The platinum forceps will answer for the exhibition of the color of arsenic, even though the salts be arseniates, whose bases possess the property of imparting their peculiar color to the flame, such as the arseniate of lime INITIATORY ANALYSIS. 65 C. THE GREEN COLOR. (a.) Ammonia. The salts of ammonia, when heated before the blowpipe, and just upon the point of disappearing, impart to the flame a feeble though dark green color. This color, however, can only be discerned in a dark room. (b.) Boradc Add. If any one of the borates is mixed with two parts of a flux composed of one part of pulverized fluor spar, and four and a half parts of bisulphate of potash, and after being melted, is put upon the coil of a platinum wire, and held at the point of the blue flame, soon after fusion takes place a dark green color is discerned, but it is not of long duration. The above process is that recommended by Dr. Turner. The green color of the borates may be readily seen by dipping them, previously moistened with sulphuric acid, into the upper part of the blue flame, when the color can be readily discerned. If soda be present, then the rich green of the boracic acid is marred by the yellow of the soda. Borax, or the biborate of soda (NaO, 2BOs) may be used for this latter reaction, but if it be moistened with sulphuric acid, the green of the boracic acid can then be seen. If the borates, or minerals which contain boracic acid, are fused on charcoal with carbonate of potash, then moistened with sulphuric acid and alcohol, then the bright green of the boracic acid is pro duced, even if the mineral contains but a minute portion of the boracic acid. (c.) Copper. Nearly all the ores of copper and its salts, give a bright green color to the blowpipe flame. Metallic copper likewise colors the flame green, being first oxidized. If iodine, chlorine, and bromine are present, the flame is con siderably modified, but the former at least intensifies the color. Many ores containing copper also color the flame green, but the internal portion is of a bright blue color if the compound contains lead, the latter color being due to the lead. The native sulphide and carbonate of copper should be moistened 66 THE BLOWPIPE. with sulphuric acid, while the former should be previously roasted. If hydrochloric acid is used for moistening the salts, then the rich green given by that moistened with the sulphuric acid is changed to a blue, being thus modified by the chlorine of the acid. Silicates containing copper, if heated in the flame in the platinum forceps, impart a rich green color to the outer flame. In fact, if any substance containing copper be sub mitted to the blowpipe flame, it will tinge it green, provided there be no other substance present to impart its own color to the flame, and thus modify or mar that of the copper. (d.) Tellurium. If the flame of reduction is directed upon the oxide of tellurium placed upon charcoal, a green color is imparted to it. If the telluric acid be placed upon platinum wire in the reduction flame, the oxidation flame is colored green. Or if the sublimate be dissipated by the flame of oxidation, it gives a green color. If selenium be present, the green color is changed to a blue. (e.) Zinc. The oxide of zinc, when strongly heated, gives a blue flame. This is especially the case in the reducing flame. The flame is a small one, however, and not very characteristic, as with certain preparations of zinc the blue color is changed to a bright white. The soluble salts of zinc give no blue color. (/.) Baryta. The soluble salts of baryta, moistened, and then submitted to the reduction flame, produce a green color. The salt should be moistened, when the color will be strongly marked in the outer flame. The insoluble salts do not produce so vivid a color as the soluble salts, and they are brighter when they have previously been moistened. The carbonate does not give a strong color, but the acetate does, so long as it is not allowed to turn to a carbonate. The chloride, when fused on the platinum wire, in the point of the reduction flame, imparts a fine green color to the oxidation flame. This tint changes finally to a faint dirty green color. The sulphate of baryta colors the flame green when heated at the point of the reduc tion flame. But neither the sulphate, carbonate, nor, in fact, any other salt of baryta, gives such a fine green color as the INITIATORY ANALYSIS. 67 chloride. The presence of lime does interfere with the reac tion of baryta, but still does not destroy its color. (g.) Phosphoric Acid. The phosphates give a green color to the oxidation flame, especially when they are moistened with sulphuric acid. This is best shown with the platinum forceps. The green of phosphoric, or the phosphates, is much less intense than that of the borates or boracic acid, but yet the reaction is a certain one, and is susceptible of considerable delicacy, either with the forceps, or still better upon platinum wire. Sulphuric acid is a great aid to the development of the color, especially if other salts be present which would be liable to hide the color of the phosphoric acid. In this reaction with phosphates, the water should be expelled from them previous to melting them with sulphuric acid. They should likewise be pulverized. Should soda be present it will only exhibit its peculiar color after the phosphoric acid shall have been expelled ; therefore, the green color of the phos phoric acid should be looked for immediately upon submitting the phosphate to heat. (h.) Molybdic Acid. If this acid or the oxide of molybde num be exposed upon a platinum wire to the point of the reduction flame, a bright green color is communicated to the flame of oxidation. Take a small piece of the native sulphide of molybdenum, and expose it in the platinum tongs to the flame referred to above, when the green color characteristic of this metal will be exhibited. (i.) Telluric Acid. If the flame of reduction is directed upon a small piece of the oxide of tellurium placed upon char coal, a bright green color is produced. Or if telluric acid be submitted to the reduction flame upon the loop of a platinum wire, it communicates to the outer flame the bright green of tellurium. If the sublimate found upon the charcoal in the first experiment be submitted to the blowpipe flame, the green color of tellurium is produced while the sublimate is volatilized. If selenium be present the green color is changed to a deep blue one. 68 THE BLOW PIPE. D. YELLOW. - The salts of soda all give a bright yellow color when heated in the platinum loop in the reduction flame. This color is very persistent, and will destroy the color of almost any other substance. Every mineral of which soda is a constituent, give this bright orange-yellow reaction. Even the silicate of soda itself imparts to the flame of oxidation the characteristic yellow of soda. E. RED. (a.) Strontia. Moisten a small piece of the chloride of strontium, put it in the platinum forceps and submit it to the flame of reduction, when the outer flame will become colored of an intense red. If the salt of strontia should be a soluble one, the reaction is of a deeper color than if an insoluble salt is used, while the color is of a deeper crimson if the salt is moistened. If the salt be a soluble one, it should be moistened and dipped into the flame, while if it be an insoluble salt, it should be kept dry and exposed beyond the point of the flame. The carbonate of strontia should be moistened with hydro chloric acid instead of water, by which its color similates that of the chloride of strontium when moistened with water. In consequence of the decided red color which strontia commu nicates to flame, it is used by pyrotechnists for the purpose of making their " crimson fire." (b.) Lithia. The color of the flame of lithia is slightly inclined to purple. The chloride, when placed in the platinum loop, gives to the outer flame a bright red color, sometimes with a slight tinge of purple. Potash does not prevent this reaction, although it may modify it to violet ; but the decided color of soda changes the red of lithia to an orange color. If much soda be present, the color of the lithia is lost entirely. The color of the chloride of lithium may be distinctly produced before the point of the blue flame, and its durability may be INITIATORY ANALYSIS. 69 the means of determining it from that of lithium, as the latter, under the same conditions, is quite evanescent. The minerals which contain lithia, frequently contain soda, and thus the lat ter destroys the color of the former. (c.) Potash. The salts of potash, if the acid does not inter fere, give a purplish-red color before the blowpipe ; but as the color is more discernibly a purple, we have classed it under that color. (d.) Lime. The color of the flame of lime does not greatly differ from that of strontia, with the exception that it is not so decided. Arragonite and calcareous spar, moistened with hydro chloric acid, and tried as directed for strontia, produce a red light, not unlike that of strontia. The chloride of calcium gives a red tinge, but not nearly so decided as the chloride of strontium. The carbonate of lime will produce a yellowish flame for a while, until the carbonic acid is driven off, when the red color of the lime may be discerned. If the borate or phosphate of lime be used, the green color of the acids predominates over the red of the lime. Baryta also destroys the red color of the lime, by mixing its green color with it. There is but one silicate of lime which colors the flame red, it is the variety termed tabular spar. 5. EXAMINATIONS IN THE BORAX BEAD. In order to examine a substance in borax, the loop of the platinum wire should, after being thoroughly cleaned, and heated to redness, be quickly dipped into the powdered borax, and then quickly transferred to the flame of oxidation, and there fused. If the bead is not large enough to fill the loop of the wire, it must be subjected again to the same pro cess. By examining the bead, both when hot and cold, by holding it up against the light, it can be soon ascertained whe ther it is free from dirt by the transparency, or the want of it, of the bead. In order to make the examination of a substance, the bead TO THE BLOWPIPE. should be melted and pressed against it, when enough will adhere to answer the purpose. This powder should then be fused in the oxidation flame until it mixes with, and is tho roughly dissolved by the borax bead. The principal objects to be determined now are : the color of the borax bead, both when heated and when cooled ; also the rapidity with which the substance dissolves in the bead, and if any gas is eliminated. If the color of the bead is the object desired, the quantity of the substance employed must be very small, else the bead will be so deeply colored, as in some cases to appear almost opaque, as, for instance, in that of cobalt. Should this be the case, then, while the bead is still red hot, it should be pressed flat with the forceps ; or it may, while soft, be pulled out to a thin thread, whereby the color can be distinctly discovered. Some bodies, when heated in the borax bead, present a clear bead both while hot and cold ; but if the bead be heated with the intermittent flame, or in the flame of reduction, it becomes opalescent, opaque or milk-white. The alkaline earths are instances of this kind of reaction, also gluciua oxide of cerium, tantalic and titanic acids, yttria and zircouia. But if a small portion of silica should be present, then the bead becomes clear. This is likewise the case with some silicates, provided there be not too large a quantity present, that is : over the quantity necessary to saturate the borax, for, in that case, the bead will be opaque when cool. If the bead be heated on charcoal, a small tube or cavity must be scooped out of the charcoal, the bead placed in it, and the flame of reduction played upon it. When the bead is per fectly fused, it is taken up between the platinum forceps and pressed flat, so that the color may be the more readily discerned. This quick cooling also prevents the protoxides, if there be any present, from passing into a higher degree of oxidation. The bead should first be submitted to the oxidation flame, and any reaction carefully observed. Then the bead should be submitted to the flame of reduction. It must be observed that INITIATORY ANALYSIS. 71 the platinum forceps should not be used when there is danger of a metallic oxide being reduced, as in this case the metal would alloy with the platinum and spoil the forceps. In this case charcoal should be used for the support. If, however, there be oxides present which are not reduced by the borax, then the platinum loop may be used. Tin is frequently used for the purpose of enabling the bead to acquire a color for an oxide in the reducing flame, by its affinity for oxygen. The oxide, thus being reduced to a lower degree of oxidation, imparts its peculiar tinge to the bead as it cools. The arsenides and sulphides, before being examined, should be roasted, and then heated with the borax bead. The arsenic of the former, it should be observed, will act on the glass tube in which the sublimation is proceeding, if the glass should contain lead. It should be recollected that earths, metallic oxides, and metallic acids are soluble in borax, except those of the easily reducible metals, such as platinum or gold, or of mercury, which too readily vaporize. Also the metallic sulphides, after the sulphur has been driven off. Also the salts of metals, after their acids are driven off by heat. Also the nitrates and car bonates, after their acids are driven off during the fusion. Also the salts of the halogens, such as the chlorides, iodides, bromides, etc., of the metals. Also the silicates, but with great tardiness. Also the phosphates and borates that fuse in the bead without suffering decomposition. The metallic sul phides are insoluble in borax, and many of the metals in the pure state. There are many substances which give clear beads with borax both while hot and cold, but which, upon being heated with the intermittent oxidation flame, become enamelled and opaque. The intermittent flame may be readily attained, not by varying the force of the air from the mouth, but by raising and depressing the bead before the point of the steady oxidating flame. The addition of a little nitrate of potash will often greatly facilitate the production of a color, as it 72 THE BLOWPIPE. oxidizes the metal. The hot bead should be pressed upon a small crystal of the nitrate, when the bead swells, intumesces f and the color is manifested in the surface of the bead. 6. EXAMINATIONS IN MICROCOSMIC SALT. Microcosmic salt is a better flux for many metallic oxides than borax, as the colors are exhibited in it with more strength and character. Microcosmic salt is the phosphate of soda and ammonia. When it is ignited it passes into the biphosphate of soda, the ammonia being driven off. This biphosphate of soda possesses an excess of phosphoric acid, and thus has the property of dissolving a great number of substances, in fact almost any one, with the exception of silica. If the substances treated with this salt consist of sulphides or arse nides, the bead must be heated on charcoal. But if the substance experimented upon consists of earthly ingredients or metallic oxides, the platinum wire is the best. If the latter is used a few additional turns should be given to the wire in consequence of the greater fluidity of the bead over that of borax. The microcosmic salt bead possesses the advantage over that of borax, that the colors of many substances are better discerned in it, and that it separates the acids, the more volatile ones being dissipated, while the fixed ones combine with a portion of the base equally with the phosphoric acid, or else do not combine at all, but float about in the bead, as is the case particularly with silicic acid. Many of the silicates give with borax a clear bead, while they form with microcosmic salt an opalescent one. It frequently happens, that if a metallic oxide will not give its peculiar color in one of the flames, that it will in the other, as the difference in degree with which the metal is oxidized often determines the color. If the bead is heated in the re ducing flame, it is well that it should be cooled rapidly to prevent a reoxidatiou. Reduction is much facilitated by the employment of metallic tin, whereby the protoxide or the INITIATORY ANALPSIS. 73 reduced metal may be obtained in a comparatively brief time. The following tables, taken from Plattner and Sherer, will present the reactions of the metallic oxides, and some of the metallic acids, in such a clear light, that the student cannot very easily be led astray, if he gives the least attention to them. It frequently happens that a tabular statement of reactions will impress facts upon the memory when long detailed descrip tions will fail to do so. It is for this purpose that we subjoin the following excellent tables. TABLE I. A. BORAX. B. MICROCOSMIC SALT. 1. Oxydizing flame. 1. Oxydizing flame. 2. Reducing " 2. Reducing " 76 THE BLOWPIPE 3 d -s fl T3 I rS 3 illl C ,-rf O < i " .5 _ o= . illlllili""" g So^.S -a* .2 o 5 *S S c c .2 o> 1 S ^ fr o I ga g -C g .- TABLE I. A 1 1 .2 0* s <u i a s * g o ^ 3 ^ *-G <u pC .r-H i o c3 *F^ ^ r* &i & > S O | 1 1 2o P< ,Q "^ | & f ^ 3 || S ; I . flflll 1 s 3 S ^~ ^ SJl .> |s" o C >- T3 s !l 1 O O M Z2 O O ^ ^ d . M - 2 o o - o Q) ^ O O t>- ^ ^ O <D c^ o , T3 *O O . S c S - "^ ! >T3 X XX p eJ x " x "fl "" *p CO ^C be 1 t-T w C3 V* S * 1-2 ^ 1 1 I Hi flii J * ? A. fl -S >; g J| . J s " I iilM^l.if ^ -o - a tTg | .2 C - S -- i.^uiialiill f Nickel Manganese Didymium .1-3 cS ^5 o H 1 o o C*-j o^ S """"""* JS o - O ^H cc ^o (U ^ <o o o w OC >-.^ 11 15 *S .*3 3 S -------- HHSC >o \ o ! 83 ^ tn C * ? -4-3 -^ 2^ 0) p2 -t- 3 A (S|| | o 78 to I THE BLOWPIPE. iij Ill -t G III HO l - fe III I- II ,1 11, O .S - G -~ - o -S ^3 X jj X "H o> HO HO TABLE!. A 79 1 0.2 H W3-| | wl I o f fe "^ O^OO o , C^ O ^ ^2 *"^ "^ S Oj 1 r! "*} ^ .2 g 3 d b n ^ a> so . ^H a gj T3 fl _ -A- _ -^ g 5f"g s a a> JH to -2 Jj rO .- =5 ri ^ ^5 1 I- .2 S S *- 3 S o ^ t3 d> | 5 ; i l 1|3 i, I o Iff, iii 1 2 Ji "IJ 1 o> III OH o ^ O H ^PH O 1 - .11 o ^ ^c 3 ^ ^S fcc,o 2 o iu ^ 2 o ^ o o 1 a ^ 5* 4j ,2*1 .2 "^ _ h O ^|o rf X! O o CM O ||| o - - M S o 1-3 S -^ S ^ -3 ^--^^^^ -^ I CM O 1 fel 3 1^ 3 *s ,2*Bi "Tl^^^^^^JZ -P O 2 . P 3 O ^ -*--, ^, ^ r^ ^O ^ O EH ^PW O o *fi}| T3 II 0> .0 I a 0) ||f|| | 53 .2 o^*S| o * 80 THE BLOWPIPE i S o w B .-g ||| is c3 g K 0) 1 1 C S li .SS o 1 4t Z z B - s -a a jn g ^ * _cc "g o H ^ t-5 O <j CS3 ^ 1 g^OO S SeS .5 ^0- .2 -^ o - - - - TO JC-^OE-ipQc/ih-3S^K J - ( c5HO 111111 s " " " s 13 2 P- d p- .2 & o ,| o s .2 SI 1 1! in p ^ "-^ ^ -*^** O S p l ^* H *^ o ^.i i c J. 05 -2 3 S s 1 PQ O _r^ ^^ 01 2 ^ ,2 a s s t-. 13 * ^* 2 S *5 O fo ^ S 3 S "" .S ^ 3 - ~ ^ ^ .S os -2 "S S c3 f*^ s < - *! ~ ^S^f 05 ^ <c bd a ;s 1 111 I ll III 111 ill | || , 3 s . 12 X<iOHCQccljSO>HNHO ^PnHHHO I ,j oJ ra M 1 *8 O J ! *S TABLE I. B. 81 ils I I- Manganese Didymium. o, "-S" 111 ^5 a o ?|8 sSS" -: = s s = = 5 s e 3 If II I! SP l 82 THE BLOWPIPE. i aj gj C2 bC t* * ^ 3 IS .S 2 .S=a^ ^ J g 111 J5 *- d ^...^ll 4 t A__ ^ 5 tf 1 "2 t 3 3 OJ o> >~ M S a aj _ > ^ a - a - -*-2 "^ a S ^- .2s 3 ts o a ^ JS-S S c t" S -r! q . "p ^ B ^ i S ^3_> G^ *.2a .2 ^ _ >- 5 ^^ ^ ! ^ O -* K^ ^"5 L-J S -^ S ^ j> a^i^,, 55 <rfO < is- ^^ <5 2 O2o *cj .5- O ~r| o ^ 5 , .s * e - 8 1 ^ b S | 6 1 5 | S s.- s. -- o o - - - - 13 s S 3 l 3" 3 g S <4 1 g ii& -ji & fe fcC o 3 2 13 bco - 1 ?! m S ^ <y o eu ^ ^ r^ g 23^6 03 .3 r A 1 N HH ,0 Ol r<3 M 1 O < __ x ,J3 o 01 *7^ J3 a 1 a a c? ^ .2 | | J5 g I 5 I a ao -S a } i a j a & i S a ^ 1 . gi.||j|||| "3 ^ .- H a "o illllillllll. s-ili-" : - ~* "a? 13 ^^OPQ^^SO^SHd HO H * i < 3 1 ) w P 3 1 i S " 5 3 C TABLE I. A. 83 d m g g a *^g o T3 a a *8S S 3 SD ^ . .2 & 5 jlfl 1 ^ i" s 1 .2 . g 1 !_, u 3 S M W S g 1 1 s g?- 1 t>^ - o III Jl lll o- 3 ~ ^ ^ ^ c *- 1 o -*} ^M ^ ^M { *- | >.^-v.~.x. "Q .2 3)3 - 3 I i! j| lls O r^ *^-i O o - . - - - - o 1- - - 1 1 Is *S ^2 *5 o c^ ">^ ^^-^^^^^r^J O E-< O 1 d o n3 3 3 3 O ^O C3 o JA 1 p p i ^2 - - - ,3 a C3 *"" 1^1 2 ^ , IIP ||| i !> & g a a* |}js ij 5 S s h p^ lilillL 02 (S3 O i-3 P5 <} Jz; fcl Ll, Oi *-" "^ "^ o ^ ^ *-( o -<j c 2 5-1 0.2 3)3 3 2 ^ IJo-g || o o I ll 511 1 <D ^2 r^ SI E^ o o . >> -^^o fl r o % ci . ^* "*^ o r* 23 ^ s^ || 2 s c o> <D O i o =3 -3 S I|II| ^ s 8-1 3 CT TJ e3 T3 ^H OS O-^W g^ ^S TABLE II. 86 THE BLOWPIPE bJO S3 !B r o O> OQ o c5 o Q^ ^ S3 Bor J2 PH^:B "3 02 ^ <r 3 T3 q te S 9 . g ,-- s I -1 1 1-3 e ^Pc Sec c 0-23J5 - Mlpf ^.^ s i 2 rt S nto which oxid be h a e, n Dissolves in less glass, w sufficient oxi sent, may be opaque with mittent flame comes so spo TABLE II. 87 - rsliSI^ S *-5 ^5 ^3 d "~ ^ ~ ^Z bO O OSS . C c3 eS C3 o> 2| St 11 Ill s OQ ~3 Z O x tjc iC - 88 THE BLOWPIPE -!d!l&gs~i bO d S ^ rf g" to s ^ ^ with borax, but tensively colored. cooling the As less i During O O -*J O bJO -^ X2 X5 O bO d .9 - TABLE II. 89 S w o ~ PH .2 ^ 1 C5 **- Qj Q) r-< 5 1 & J I % .S 1-2 s 8 S ~ g * i bo aj S-Ji wc S ^lg d S! be 3 o^ ^ ^ ^ "S 1? "bb .2 c t o g 3 ^ x> .~ -^ ^ +j~ " a^s-? S ^ r^ ^ O trt H S S *- ? ^lllUP llflla^i o 3 ^ c o ^ g S lllsiilirli fl -S -S 5. 9 *{3 o o3 si| I S ^ C 2 S2 90 THE BLOWPIPE. s 3&Zs* . c3 efl i=JO H 1 in II a a 1 1 -a Illf |2 .a <D 2 a s -Q 3 CO ^ ^-^3 O -5 AH r^H "^ 1 g^-S o "** trt ^Illll 02 <D O S3 .2 1 ls S a &0 g ^j; ! "* a o & *& A .S .B ^ ^|g" 2 a .t3 .s d J f-G . o ^ fcO m M g -g a rfi "*! ^ o g .S ^ g ft cj 2 1 r-J OS T3 2 *S *o g DO o^^qs^ -* 3 Q Platinum 1 1 il] .rt ^ "S ^ .2 O fcc 3 .5 o p -J3 o 1 05 a |l|||l|j|t||| ^ -j eS Jj H w a c .2^co w ^ I l^ S jg."? .g ^ " ^^G^rg i-( WJ ^* "^ .S *^ ^^ O ^ ^ rr ^ o , o x o "S SS^ ^ G.2a^^ g 00 S ad 3 ^ F gc s ^|^^ r ^3|s j_l ^ O) O O <j) 1 M o ^ 1 | f |^ 1 ^ * f ^ I ~ I T l ^ <u .S Ii|tn|K|l|t| O ^.S OO-w to 1^ CJ 1 o/D.2 S ^ |f ||| 03 <4-l . O O> 3 O ^ 3 t| <D 00 M TABLE II. 91 *! d fe 0< 3 5 2 00 .3 c :-5 o js a .- - 13 t3 .^ -3 i., ^ "* z .a ~ ^ \ g p o ll * i % * o 3 metallic latilized charcoa *"/ 5 o 6 iffiiii III! 1 s h 4> if. ;_ _r: o 00 5 o o o 1 h>. || ls || 1 l| c ? 5 4 ja g 3 a d o Vf ^ g2 Z ,. s b 1 d "S -FH rf i& s^ M S -3 fl o 4) XI a S al^S 1 J qfd 5 a^ "^ oj tJ ^ q3 cj spontaneously ing. Dissolves re ., o rd d "H 11"- ~S3 ^ - 3 2 | Iliri intermittent fla a still larger a oxide it becom o o d o * jO 0) >-. o OQ IS 92 THE BLOWPIPE. O s * JS S "III 11 X! S 3 d g IIP 1 : iiif %% * ^ -bcs-S O M 15 x co O - TABLE II. 93 8 S -JS > ~ O CT 1 Igf! S "X ISil -fi "S c2 g ~ S S 5 s^ s o j - fe - Il 3f In- If THE BLOWPIPE bC 1 17=5 a os a 0> I crt be a . -. .2 XJ cj o cr ci .2 bo 1 TS o fce O S TABLE II 95 i - . II ^bbS Hill o* ;i r o fcD I) Sg- "g *.- ^i a>c <xig .a>c . <u fi 73 ^c.*^ g r a ^ T3 *"" R .s o -a 73 o -p ^ p .- .. ^(^ 06 96 THE BLOWPIPE. M -2 S S 5 - Is reduced wi ing dissolved ai collected into 5 charcoal. 1 . w" ClO if 2? a" ,2 - If IJ S 2 f S S o TABLE IT. 97 iiiiii S <S "* O O o o ftjtg . I ** eJ7 CJ Tl C-* J^ . g> s " 5S ^"2 gfl- ^i fl -- 3 S^rs*^ ^5 oj =S C ^^ O^ 5 o| rf S 8 1 W . T3 ^S -2.be e 3^2 ^ o .S <w d O O rQ C3 r3 O O d -3 n >S .15 d a ^.2 2 gls^-si 98 THE BLOWPIPE. pq fco a s w>2 -J *-i sv v ! ^ - s ra S :| g | s IP o 3 TABLE II. 99 .25 ^ "3 2 -C O CC ~ 0,0 t> . . OQ a s 13 rt 1-C o r^ Is S ^3 ,0 T3 faCsd O v** -gaQ 00^ 100 THE BLOWPIPE. 1 ooo^o^ ^ 11 ^ 53 -C oi a 3^1 -5 *" 3 -5 -^ ;* "S32 S-i ci cd | J ,3 g . 1 03 CC " d *c .s s .a s ^ ^ o "o ^ s d d S s 03 ^ d S ^"3 2 "S C 3 1 d 5 ? ^ 2" 1 S 5 1 2 =C "S 5 2 f"s||.2^1|| it! o .S nJ : iJ s ^|J g gsS ^2e!3fcCO -i3o^2.-tH X! 1 oj % 3.3 03 ^S ~ .; g ^ ^ ~*^ .2 K +r d 3 to O cc o d II **""* .S O *fe o o?5. o s ^^ ^ ^r-2 d S o .2 ^ S i2 "2 ^H o ^; ^ CQ o rT* 13 "S y> PQ o 1 -S o if rt .2 T a .a Ill Tc G> ^ S -2 S" e o ^ ^ g <a 1 J ^ *" f| S ^ ^ w ^^cS^| :rH 23t]o S So g 5 g fcc a 1 S | o^ ^ ? .2 g s 1 l^f jllff jjlfl . lP.j{| s d 1 ^ M S JJ^U -r J 1 * J^I^J-S ^ ej _J .a^?^~^ ^-^o.t^s^s^ -^ bJD "^ "S* S 73 ^ -u ^ a ft ft"" o J-. 2~ST3 cf ^ ^ S d 4 g g M d d d ^g^^gg^^o^ySo o H S !s -^ s o to +3 13 ftT3 f? *^3 73 a* ft ^3 S c3 x 2 eSjfl^^aS^A-gflg ^ <g -g-j o cq a at s~ l^"f ^H5 . ^1^1 >-*^* o r^ fl d bO ^ "" H d r*< ."tn C^ ^ 2 S ^ t> ^ "^ ^ (H .2 fi IltillfSlll :|i|i 0S O 0) ||l| 11 |S M tl 1 11 1 1 g *lliliiiill 5 !l!>! 1 2 TO O O a c ^ .2 . : / ^ TABLE I ^ I o 5 o .a .-g 1=1111 2 ^ J 1 1 rfl S 3 jiff s |*s 8 C frig BlU . 3 T ii -E BLOWPIPE w i O 1 1 <u I I a"S t^ +* S o lear ich, har and f re grey es Dissoes t colorle gla when reated coal, omes dull partic duce llurium l|: S I INITIATORY ANALYSIS. 103 t. EXAMINATIONS WITH CARBONATE OF SODA. The carbonate of soda is pulverized and then kneaded to a paste with water; the substance to be examined, in fine powder, is also mixed with it. A small portion of this paste is placed on the charcoal, and gradually heated until the moisture is expelled, when the heat is brought to the fusion of the bead, or as high as it can be raised. Several phenomena will take place, which must be closely observed. Notice whether the substance fuses with the bead, and if so, whether there is intu mescence or not. Or, whether the substance undergoes reduc tion; or, whether neither of these reactions takes place, and, on the contrary, the soda sinks into the charcoal, leaving the sub stance intact upon its surface. If intumescence takes place, the presence of either tartaric acid, molybdic acid, silicic, or tung- stic acid, is indicated. The silicic acid will fuse into a bead, which becomes clear when it is cold. Titanic acid will fuse into the bead, but may be easily distinguished from the silicic acid by the bead remaining opaque when cold. Strontia and baryta will flow into the charcoal, but lime will not. The molybdic and tungstic acids combine with the soda, forming the respective salts. These salts are absorbed by the charcoal. If too great a quantity of soda is used, the bead will be quite likely to become opaque upon cooling, while, if too small a quantity of soda is used, a portion of the substance will remain undissolved. These can be equally avoided by either the addition of soda, or the substance experimented upon, as may be required. As silica and titanic acid are the only two substances that produce a clear bead, the student, if he gets a clear bead, may almost conclude that he is experimenting with silica, titanic acid being a rare substance. When soda is heated with silica, a slight effervescence will be the first phenomenon no ticed. This is the escape of the carbonic acid of the carbonate of soda, while the silicic acid takes its place, forming a glass 104 THE BLOWPIPE. with the soda. As titanic acid will not act in the same man ner as silica, it can be easily distinguished by its bead not being perfectly pellucid. If the bead with which silica is fused should be tinted of a hyacinth or yellow color, this may be attributed to the presence of a small quantity of sulphur or a sulphate, and this sometimes happens from the fact of the flux containing sulphate of soda. The following metals, when exposed with carbonate of soda to the reducing flame, are wholly or partially reduced, viz. the oxides of all the noble metals, the oxides and acids of tungsten, molybdenum, arsenic, antimony, mercury, copper, tellurium, zinc-, lead, bis. muth, tin, cadmium, iron, nickel, and cobalt. Mercury and arsenic, as soon as they are reduced, are dissipated, while tellurium, bismuth, lead, antimony, cadmium, and zinc, are only partially volatilized, and, therefore, form sublimates on the charcoal. Those metals which are difficult of reduction should be fused with oxalate of potassa, instead of the carbonate of soda. The carbonic oxide formed from the combustion of the acid of this salt is very efficient in the reduction of these metals. Carbonate of soda is very efficient for the detection of minute quantities of manganese. The mixture of the carbonate of soda with a small addition of nitrate of potassa, and the mineral containing manganese, must be fused on platinum foil. The fused mass, when cooled, presents a fine blue color. 1. The following minerals, according to Griffin, produce beads with soda, but do not fuse when heated alone : quartz, agalmatolyte, dioptase, hisingerite, sideroschilosite, leucite, rutile, pyrophyllite, wolckonskoite. 2. The following minerals produce only slags with soda : allophane, cymophane, polymignite, seschynite, oerstedtite, titaii- iferous iron, tantalite, oxides of iron, yttro-tantalite, oxides of manganese, peroxide of tin (is reduced), hydrate of alumina, hydrate of magnesia, spinel, gahnite, worthite, carbonate of zinc, pechuran, zircon, thorite, andalusite, staurolite, gehlenite, chlorite spar, chrome ochre, uwarowite, chromate of iron, car bonates of the earths, carbonates of the metallic oxides, basic INITIATO R Y A N A LYSIS. 105 pho3phate of yttria, do. of alamina., do. of lime, persulphate of iron, sulphate of alumina, aluminite,- alumstone, fluoride of cerium, yttrocerite, topaz, corundum, pleonaste, chondrodite. 3. The following minerals produce beads with a small quan tity of soda, but produce slags if too much soda is added : phenakite, pierosmine, olivine, cerite, cyanite, talc, gadolinite, lithium-tourmaline. 1. The following minerals, when fused alone, produce beads. Of these minerals the following produce beads with soda : the zeolites, spodumene, soda-spodumene, labrador, scapolite, socialite (Greenland), elaeolite, mica from primitive lime-stone, black talc, acmite, krokidolite, lievrite, cronstedtite, garnet, cerine, helvine, gadolinite, boracic acid, hydroboracite, tincal, boracite, datholite, botryolite, axinite, lapis lazuli, eudialyte, pyrosmalite, cryolite. 2. The following minerals produce beads with a small quan tity of soda, but if too much is added they produce slags : okenite, pectolite, red silicate of manganese, black hydro-sili cate of manganese, idocrase, manganesian garnets, orthite, pyrorthite, sordawalite, sodalite, fluorspar. 3. The following minerals produce a slag with soda : brevi- cite, amphodelite, chlorite, fahlunite, pyrope, soap-stone (Cor nish) red dichroite, pyrargillite, black potash tourmaline, wol fram, pharmacolite, scorodite, arseniate of iron, tetraphyline, hetepozite, uranite, phosphate of iron, do. of strontia, do. of magnesia, polyhalite, hauyne. 4. The following metals are reduced by soda : tungstate of lead, molybdate of lead, vanadate of lead, chromate of lead, vauquelinite, cobalt bloom, nickel ochre, phosphate of copper, sulphate of lead, chloride of lead, and chloride of silver. The following minerals fuse on the edges alone, when heated in the blow-pipe flame : 1. The following produce beads with soda : steatite, meer schaum, felspar, albite, petalite, nepheline, anorthite, emerald, euclase, turquois, sodalite (Vesuvius), 2. The following minerals produce beads with a small quau- 106 THE BLOWPIPE. tity of soda, but with the addition of more produce slags : tabular spar, diallage, hypersthene, epidote, zoisite. 3. The following minerals produce slags only with soda : stilpnosiderite, plombgomme, serpentine, silicate of manga nese (from Piedmont), mica from granite, pimelite, pinite, blue dichroite, sphene, karpholite, pyrochlore, tungstate of lime, green soda tourmaline, lazulite, heavy spar, gypsum. The reactions of substances, when fused with soda in the flame of oxidation may be of use to the student. A few of them are therefore given. Silica gives a clear glass. The oxid e of tellurium and telluric acid gives a clear bead when it is hot, but white after it is cooled. Titanic acid gives a yellow bead when hot. The oxide of chromium gives also a clear yellow glass when hot, but is opaque when cold. Molybdic acid gives a clear bead when hot, but is turbid and white after cooling. The oxides and acids of antimony give a clear and colorless bead while hot, and white after cooling. Vanadic acid is absorbed by the charcoal, although it is not reduced. Tungstic acid gives a dark yellow clear bead while hot, but is opaque and yellow when cold. The oxides of manganese give to the soda bead a fine char acteristic green color. This is the case with a very small quan tity. This reaction is best exhibited on platinum foil. Oxide of cobalt gives to the bead while hot a red color, which, upon being cooled, becomes grey. The oxide of copper gives a clear green bead while hot. The oxide of lead gives a clear colorless bead while hot, which becomes, upon cooling, of a dirty yellow color and opaque. The following metals, when they are fused with soda on char coal, in the flame of reduction, produce volatile oxides, and leave an incrustation around the assay, viz. bismuth, zinc, lead, cadmium, antimony, selenium, tellurium, and arsenic. INITIATORY ANALYSIS. 107 Bismuth, under the reduction flame, yields small particles of metal, which are brittle and easily crushed. The incrustation is of a flesh color, or orange, when hot, but gets lighter as it cools. The sublimate may be driven about, the charcoal from place to place, by either flame, but is finally dissipated. While antimony and tellurium, in the act of dissipation, give color to the flame, bismuth does not, and may thus be distinguished from them. Zinc deposits an incrustation about the assay, which is yel low while hot, but fades to white when cold. The reduction flame dissipates this deposit, but not that of oxidation. All the zinc minerals deposit the oxide incrustation about the assay, which, when moistened with a solution of cobalt and heated, changes to green. Lead is very easily reduced, in small particles, and may be easily distinguished by its flattening under the hammer, unlike bismuth. It leaves an incrustation around the assay resem bling that of bismuth, in the color of it, and in the peculiar manner in which it lies around the assay. Cadmium deposits a dull reddish incrustation around the assay. Either of the flames dissipate the sublimate with the greatest readiness. Antimony reduces with readiness. At the same time it yields considerable vapor, and deposits an incrustation around the assay. This deposit can be driven about on the charcoal by either of the flames. The flame of reduction, however, pro duces the light blue color of the antimony. Selenium is deposited on the charcoal as a grey metallic- looking sublimate, but sometimes appearing purple or blue. If the reduction flame is directed on this deposit, it is dissi pated with a blue light. Tellurium is deposited on the charcoal as a white sublimate, sometimes changing at the margin to an orange or red color. The oxidation flame drives the deposit over the charcoal, while the reduction-flame dissipates it with a greenish color. Arsenic is vaporized rapidly, while there is deposited around 108 THE BLOWPIPE. the assay a white incrustation of arsenious acid. This deposit will extend to some distance from the assay, and is readily vol atilized, the reducing flame producing the characteristic allia ceous color. The following metals, or their compounds, are reduced when fused with soda on charcoal, in the flame of reduction. They are reduced to metallic particles, but give no incrustation, viz. nickel, cobalt, iron, tin, copper, gold, silver, platinum, tungsten, and molybdenum. The particles of iron, nickel, and cobalt, it should be borne in mind, are attracted by the magnet. The following substances are neither fused nor reduced in soda, viz. alumina, magnesia, lime, baryta, strontia, the oxide of uranium, the oxides of cerium, zirconia, tantalic acid, tho- rina, glucina, and yttria. Neither are the alkalies, as they sink into the charcoal. The carbonates of the earths, strontia, and baryta fuse. Part III. SPECIAL REACTIONS ; OR, THE BEHAVIOR OP SUBSTANCES BEFORE THE BLOWPIPE. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY may be termed the art of converting the unknown constituents of substances, by means of certain operations, into new combinations which we recognize through the physical and chemical properties which they manifest. It is, therefore, indispensably necessary, not only to be cogni zant of the peculiar conditions by which these operations can be effected, but it is absolutely necessary to be acquainted with the forms and combinations of the resulting product, and with every modification which may be produced by altering the con ditions of the analysis. We shall first give the behavior of simple substances before the blowpipe ; and the student should study this part thor oughly, by repeating each reaction, so that he can acquire a knowledge of the color, form, and physical properties in gene ral, of the resulting combination. There is nothing, perhaps, which will contribute more readily to the progress of the pupil, than thorough practice with the reactions recommended in this part of the work, for when once the student shall have acquired a practical eye in the discernment of the peculiar appearances 109 110 THE BLOWPIPE. of substances after they have undergone the decompositions produced by the strong heat of the blowpipe flame, together with the reactions incident to these changes, then he will have greatly progressed in his study, and the rest will be compara tively simple. A. METALLIC OXIDES. GROUP FIRST. THE ALKALIES: POTASSA, SODA, AMMONIA, AND LITHIA. The alkalies, in their pure, or carbonated state, render red dened litmus paper blue. This is likewise the case with the sulphides of the alkalies. The neutral salts of the alkalies, formed with the strong acids, do not change litmus paper, but the salts formed with the weak acids, render the red litmus paper blue; for instance, the alkaline salts with boracic acid. Fused with borax, soda, or microcosmic salt, they give a clear bead. The alkalies and their salts melt at a low red heat. The alka lies cannot be reduced to the metallic state before the blow pipe. They are not volatile when red hot, except the alkali ammonia, but they are volatile at a white heat. (a.) Potassa (KO). It is not found free, but in combina tion with inorganic and organic acids, as well in the animal as in the vegetable organism, as in the mineral kingdom. In the pure, or anhydrous state, or as the carbonate, potassa absorbs moisture, and becomes fluid, or is deliquescent, as it is termed. By exposing potassa, or its easily fusible salts (except the phos phate or borate), upon platinum wire, to the point of the blue flame, there is communicated to the external flame a violet color, in consequence of a reduction and reoxidation. This color, though characteristic" of all the potassa compounds, is scarcely visible with the phosphate or borate salts of that alkali. The admixture of a very little soda (g-^th) destroys the color imparted by the potassa, while the flame assumes a yellow color, characteristic of the soda. The presence of lithia changes the violet color of the potash into red. The silicates SPECIAL REACTIONS. Ill of potassa must exist in pretty large proportion before they can be detected by the violet color of the flame, and those minerals must melt easily at the edges. The presence of a little soda in these instances conceals the reaction in the potassa entirely. If alcohol is poured over potassa compounds which are pow dered, and then set on fire, the external flame appears violet- colored, particularly when stirred with a glass rod, and when the alcohol is really consumed. The presence of soda in lithia will, in this case likewise, hide by their own characteristic color, that of the potassa. The salts of potassa are absorbed when fused upon charcoal. The sulphur, bromine, chlorine, and iodine compounds of potassa give a white, but easily volatile sublimate upon the charcoal, around the place where the fused substance reposed. This white sublimate manifests itself only when the substance is melted and absorbed within the charcoal, and ceases to be visible as soon as it is submitted to the reducing flame, while the external flame is colored violet; sulphate of potassa, for instance, is reduced by the glowing charcoal into the sulphide. This latter is somewhat volatile, but by passing through the oxidation flame, it is again oxidized into the sulphate. This, being less volatile, sublimes upon the charcoal, but by expos ing it again to the flame of reduction, it is reduced and carried off to be again oxidized by its passage through the oxidation flame. Potassa and its compounds give, with soda, borax or micro- cosmic salt, as well when hot as cold, colorless beads, unless the acid associated with the alkali should itself produce a color. When borax is fused with some pure boracic acid, and sufficient of the oxide of nickel is added, so that the beads appear of a brown color after being cooled, and then the bead thus produced fused with the substance suspected to contain potassa, in the oxidation flame, the brown color is changed to blue. The presence of the other alkalies does not prevent this reaction. As it is not possible to detect potassa com pound with unerring certainty by the blowpipe flame, the 112 T H K B L O W P I P E. the wet method should be resorted to for the purpose of confirming it. The silicates of potassa must be prepared as follows, for ana lytical purposes by the wet way. Mix one part of the finely powdered substance with two parts of soda (free from potassa), and one part of borax. Fuse the mixture upon charcoal in the oxidation flame to a clear, transparent bead. This is to be exposed again with the pincers to the oxidation flame, to burn off the adhering coal particles. Then pulverize and dissolve in hydrochloric acid to separate the silica; evaporate to dryness, dissolve the residue in water, with the admixture of a little alcohol, and test the filtrate with chloride of platinum for pot" assa. (&.) Soda (NaO). This is one of the most abundant sub. stances, although seldom found free, but combined with chlorine or some other less abundant compound. Soda, its hydrate and salts manifest in general the same properties as their respective potash compounds ; but the salts of soda mostly contain crystal water, which leaves the salts if they are exposed to the air, and the salts effervesce. By exposing soda or its compounds upon a platinum wire to the blue flame, a reddish-yellow color is communicated to the external flame, which appears as a long brilliant stream and considerably increased in volume. The presence of potash does not prevent this reaction of soda. If there is too large a quantity of potash, the flame near to the substance is violet- colored, but the edge of the flame exhibits the characteristic tint of the soda. The presence of lithia changes the yellow color to a shade of red. When alcohol is poured over powdered soda compounds and lighted, the flame exhibits a reddish-yellow color, particularly if the alcohol is stirred up with a glass rod, or if the alcohol is nearly consumed. Fused upon charcoal, soda compounds are absorbed by the coal. The sulphide, chloride, iodide, and bromide of soda yield a white sublimate around the spot where the substance is SPECIAL REACTIONS. 113 laid, but this sublimate is not so copious as that of the potash compounds, and disappears when touched with the reduction flame, communicating a yellow color to the external flame. The presence of soda in compounds must likewise be confined bj reactions in the wet way. (c.) Ammonia (NH 4 0). In the fused state, and at the usual temperature, ammonia is a pungent gas, and exerts a reaction upon litmus paper similar to potash and soda. Ammonium is considered by chemists as a metal, from the nature of its behavior with other substances. It has not beesi isolated, but its existence is now generally conceded by all chemists. The ammonia salts are volatile, and many of them sublimate without being decomposed. The salts of ammonia, on being heated in the point of the blue flame, produce a feeble green color in the external flame, just previous to their being converted into vapor. But this color is scarcely visible, and presents nothing characteristic. When the ammonia salts are mixed with the carbonate of soda, and heated in a glass tube closed at one end, carbonate of ammonia is sublimed, which can be readily recognized by its penetrating smell of spirits of hartshorn. This sublimate will render blue a slip of red litmus paper. This can be easily done by moistening the litmus paper, and then inserting the end of it in the tube. By holding a glass rod, moistened with dilute hydrochloric acid, over the mouth of the tube, a white vapor is instantly rendered visible (sal ammoniac). (d.) Lithia (LiO). In the pure state, lithia is white and crystalline, not easily soluble in water, and does not absorb moisture. It changes red litmus to blue, and at a low red heat it melts. Lithia or its salts, exposed to the point of the blue flame, communicates a red color to the external or oxidation flame, in consequence of a reduction, sublimation, and re-oxidation of the lithia. An admixture of potash communicates to this flame a reddish-violet color, and the presence of soda that of a yellowish-red or orange. If the 114: THE BLOWPIPE. soda, however, is in too great proportion, then its intense yellow hides the red of the lithia. In the latter case the sub stance under test must be only imperfectly fused in the oxida tion flame, and then dipped in wax or tallow. By exposing it now to the reduction flame, the red color imparted to the external flame by the lithia becomes visible, even if a consider able quantity of soda be present. A particular phenomenon appears with the phosphate of lithia, viz., the phosphoric acid itself possesses the property of communicating to the flame a bluish-green color. By its combination with lithia it still exhibits its characteristic color, while the latter presents like wise its peculiar tint. Then we perceive a green flame in the centre of the flame, while the red color of lithia surrounds it. The silicates, which contain only a little lithia, produce only a slight hue in the flame, and often none at all. We have to mix one part of the silicate with two parts of a mixture com posed of one part of fluorspar and one and a half parts of bi- sulphate of potassa. Moisten the mass with water so that the mass will adhere, and then melt it upon a platinum wire in the reduction flame) when that of oxidation will present the red color of lithia. The Borates of lithia produce at first a green color, but it soon yields to the red of lithia. When alcohol is poured over lithia or its compounds, and inflamed, it burns with a deep red color, particularly if the fluid is stirred up with a glass rod, or when the alcohol is nearly consumed. This color presents the same modifications as the corresponding ones communicated to the blowpipe as mentioned above. The salts of lithia are absorbed by charcoal when fused upon it. The sulphide, bromide, iodide, and chloride of lithia pro duce upon the charcoal a greyish-white sublimate, although not so copiously as the corresponding compounds of potash and soda. This sublimate disappears when touched by the reduc tion flame, while the oxidation flanie gives the characteristic color of lithia, SPECIAL REACTIONS. 115 SECOND GROUP. THE ALKALINE EARTHS, BARYTA, STROXTIA, LIME, AND MAGNESIA. Iii the pure state, the alkaline earths are caustic, cause red litmus paper to become blue, and are more or less soluble in water. Their sulphides are also soluble. The carbonates and phosphates of the alkaline earths are insoluble in water. By igniting the carbonates, their carbonic acid is expelled, and the alkaline earths are left in the caustic state. The alkaline earths are not volatile, and their organic salts are converted, by igni tion, into carbonates. (a.) Baryta. (BaO). This alkaline earth does not occur free in nature, but combined with acids, particularly with car bonic and sulphuric acids. In the pure state, baryta is of a greyish-white color, presents an earthy appearance, and is easily powdered. When sparingly moistened with water, it slakes, becomes heated, and forms a dry, white powder. With still more water it forms a crystalline mass, the hydrate of baryta, which is completely soluble in hot water. Pure baryta is infusible ; the hydrate fuses at a red heat, without the loss of its hydratic water; if caustic baryta is exposed for too great a length of time to the flame, it absorbs water, origi nated by the combustion, and becomes a hydrate, when it will melt. Salts of baryta, formed with most acids, are insoluble in water ; for instance, the salts with sulphuric, carbonic, arsenic, phosphoric, and boracic acids. The salts of baryta, soluble in water, are decomposed by ignition, except the chlor ide. Carbonate of baryta loses its carfionic acid at a red heat, becomes caustic, and colors red litmus paper blue. By exposing baryta or its compounds upon a platinum wire, or a splinter of the substance held with the platinum tongs, to the point of the blue flame, a pale apple-green color is commu nicated to the external flame. This color appears at first very pale, but soon becomes more intense. This color is most visible 116 THE BLOWPIPE. if the substance is operated with in small quantities. The chloride of barium produces the deepest color. This color is less intense if the carbonate or sulphate is used. The presence of strontia, lime, or magnesia, does not suppress the reaction of the baryta, unless they greatly predominate. When alcohol is poured over baryta or its salts, and inflamed, a feeble green color is communicated to the flame, but this color should not be considered a characteristic of the salt. Baryta and its compounds give, when fused with carbonate of soda upon platinum foil, a clear bead. Fused with soda upon charcoal, it is absorbed. The sulphate fuses at first to a clear bead, which soon spreads, and is absorbed and converted while boiling into a hepatic mass. If this mass is taken out, placed upon a piece of polished silver and moistened with a little water, a black spot of sulphide of silver is left after wash ing off the mass with water. Borax dissolves baryta and its compounds with a hissing noise, as well in the flame of oxidation as in that of reduction. There is formed a clear bead which, with a certain degree of saturation, is clear when cold, but appears milk-white when overcharged, and of an opal, enamel appearance, when heated intermittingiy, or with a vacillating flame, that changes fre quently from the oxidating to the reducing flame. Baryta and its compounds produce the same reactions with microcosmic salt Baryta and its compounds fuse when exposed to ignition in the oxidizing flame. Moistened with the solution of nitrate of cobalt, and heated in the oxidation flame, it presents a bead, colored from brick-red to brown, according to the quantity used. This color disappears when cold, and the bead falls to a pale grey powder after being exposed awhile to the air. When heated again, the color does not appear until fusion is effected. If carbonate of soda is fused upon platinum wire with so much of the sesquioxide of manganese that a green bead is produced, this bead, when fused with a sufficient quantity of baryta, or its compounds, after cooling;, will appear of a bluish-green, or light blue color. SPECIAL REACTIONS. 117 (&.) Strontia (SrO). Strontia and its compounds are ana logous to the respective ones of baryta. The hydrate of strontia has the same properties as the hydrate of baryta, except that it is less soluble in water. The carbonate of strontia fuses a little at a red heat, swells, and bubbles up like cauliflower. This produces, in the blowpipe flame, an intense and splendid light, and now produces an alkaline reaction upon red litmus paper. The sulphate of strontia melts in the oxida- dation flame upon platinum foil, or upon^charcoal, to a milk- white globule. This fuses upon charcoal, spreads and is reduced to the sulphide, which is absorbed by the charcoal. It now produces the same reactions upon polished silver as the sulphate of baryta under the same conditions. By exposing strontia and its compounds upon platinum wire, or as a splinter with the platinum tongs, to the point of the blue flame, the external flame appears of an intense crimson color. The deep est red color is produced by the chloride of strontium, particu larly at the first moment of applying the heat. After the salt is fused, the red color ceases to be visible in the flame, by which it is distinguished from the chloride of lithium. The car bonate of strontia swells up and produces a splendid white light, while the external flame is colored of a fine purple-red. The color produced by the sulphate of strontia is less intense. The presence of baryta destroys the reaction of the strontia, the flame presenting the light green color oftthe baryta. If alcohol is poured over powdered strontia and inflamed, the flame appears purple or deep crimson, particularly if the fluid is stirred with a glass rod, and when the alcohol is nearly consumed. The insoluble salts of strontia do not produce a very intense color. Baryta does not prevent the reaction of the soluble salts of strontia, unless it exists greatly in excess. In the presence of baryta, strontia can be detected by the following process : mix some of the substance under examination with some pure graphite and water, by grinding in an agate mortar. Place the mixture upon charcoal, and expose it for a while to 118 THE BLOWPIPE. the reduction flame. The substance becomes reduced to sul phide of barium and sulphide of strontium, when it should be dissolved in hydrochloric acid. The solution should be evapo rated to dryness, redissolved in a little water, and enough alco hol added that a spirit of 80 per cent, is produced. Inflame the spirit, and if strontia is present, the flame is tinged of a red color. This color can be discerned more distinctly by moistening some cotton with this spirit and inflaming it. If strontia or its compounds are fused with a green bead of carbonate of soda and sesquioxide of manganese, as described under the head of baryta, a bead of a brown, brownish-green, or dark grey color is produced. Carbonate of soda does not dissolve pure strontia. The carbonate and sulphate of strontia melt with soda upon platinum foil to a bead, which is milk- white when cold, but fused upon charcoal they are absorbed. Strontia or its compounds produce with borax, or microcosmic salt, the same reactions as baryta. When they are moistened with nitrate of cobalt, and ignited in the oxidizing flame, a black, or grey infusible mass is produced. (c.) Lime, Oxide of Calcium (CaO). Lime does not occur free in nature, but in combination with acids, chiefly the car bonic and sulphuric. The phosphate occurs principally in bones. The hydrate and the salts of lime are in their pro perties similar to those of the two preceding alkaline earths. In the pure state, the oxide of calcium is white; it slakes* produces a high temperature, and falls into a white powder when sprinkled with a little water. It is now a hydrate, and has greatly increased in volume. The hydrate of lime is far less soluble in water than either those of baryta or strontia, and is less soluble in hot water than in cold. Lime, its hydrate and sulphide of calcium, have a strong alkaline reaction upon red litmus paper. Lime and its hydrate are infusible, but produce at a strong red heat a very intense and splendid white light, while the hydrate loses its water. The carbonate of lime is also infusible, but at a red heat the carbonic acid is expelled, and the residue becomes caustic, SPECIAL REACTIONS. 119 appears winter, and produces an intenser light. The sulphate of lime melts with difficulty, and presents the appearance of an enamelled mass when cold. By Cheating it upon charcoal it fuses in the reducing flame, and is reduced to a sulphide. This has a strong hepatic odor, and exerts an alkaline reaction upon red litmus paper. By exposing lime, or its compounds, upon platinum wire or as a small splinter of the mineral in the platinum tongs to the point of the blue flame, a purple color, similar to that of lithia and strontia, is communicated to the external flame, but this color is not so intense as that produced by strontia, and appears mixed with a slight tinge of yel low. This color is most intense with the chloride of calcium, while the carbonate of lime produces at first a yellowish color, which becomes red, after the expulsion of the carbonic acid. Sulphate of lime produces the same color, but not so intense. Among the silicates of lime only the tablespar (3CaO, 2Si0 3 ) produces a red color. Fluorspar (CaFl) produces a red as intense as pure lime, and fuses into a bead. Phosphate and borate of lime produce a green flame which is only charac teristic of their acids. The presence of baryta communicates a green color to the flame. The presence of soda produces only a yellow color in the external flame. If alcohol is poured over lime or its compounds and inflamed, a red color is communicated to the flame. The presence of baryta or soda prevents this reaction. Lime and its compounds do not. dissolve much by fusion with carbonate of soda. If this fusion is effected on charcoal, the carbonate of soda is absorbed^ and the lime remains as a half-globular infusible mass on the char coal. This is what distinguishes lime from baryta and strontia, and is a good method of separating the former from the latter. Lime and its compounds fuse with borax in the oxidizing and reducing flames to a clear bead, which remains clear when cold, but when overcharged with an excess or heated intermit, tiugly, the bead appears, when cold, crystalline and uneven, and is not so milk-white as the bead of baryta or strontia, produced under the same circumstances. . The carbonate of lime is dis- 120 THE BLOWPIPE. solved with a peculiar hissing noise. Microcosrnic salt dissolves a large quantity of lime into a clear bead, which is milky when cold. When the bead has been overcharged with lime, by a less excess, or by an intermittent flame, we will perceive in the bead, when cold, fine crystals in the form of needles. Lime and its compounds form by ignition with nitrate of cobalt, a black or greyish-black infusible mass. (d.) Magnesia (MgO). Magnesia occurs in nature in seve ral minerals. It exists in considerable quantity combined with carbonic, sulphuric, phosphoric, and silicic acids, etc. Magnesia and its hydrate are white and very voluminous, scarcely soluble in hot or cold water, and restores moistened red litmus paper to its original blue color. Magnesia and its hydrate are infusible, the latter losing its water by ignition. The carbonate of magnesia is infusible, loses its carbonic acid at a red heat, and shrinks a little. It now exerts upon red litmus paper an alkaline reaction. The sulphate of magnesia, at a red heat, loses its water and sulphuric acid, is entirely infusible, and gives now an alkaline reaction. The artificial Astrachanit (NaO, SO 3 + MgO, S0 8 + 4HO) fuses easily. When fused on charcoal, the greater part of the sulphate of soda is absorbed, and there remains an infusible mass. Magnesia and its compounds do not produce any color in the external flame, when heated in the point of the blue flame. The most of the magnesia minerals yield some water when heated in a glass tube closed at one end. Magnesia, in the pure state, or as the hydrate, does not fuse with soda. Some of its compounds are infusible likewise with soda, and swell up slightly, while others of them melt with soda to a slightly opaque mass. Some few (such as the borate of magnesia) give a clear bead with soda, though it becomes slightly turbid by cooling when saturated with magnesia, and crystallizes in large facets. Magnesia and its compounds give beads with borax and microcosmic salt similar to those of lime. By igniting mag nesia or its compounds very strongly in the oxidizing flame, SPECIAL REACTIONS. 121 moistening with nitrate of cobalt, and re-igniting in the oxidation flame, they present, after a continued blowing, a pale flesh-color, which is more visible when cold. It is indispensa ble that the magnesia compounds should be completely white and free of colored substances, or the color referred to cannot be discerned. In general the reactions of magnesia before the blowpipe are not sufficient, and it will be necessary to confirm its presence or absence by aid of reagents applied in the wet way. THIRD GROUP. THE EARTHS, ALUMINA, GLUCINA, YTTRIA, THORINA, AND ZIRCONIA. The substances of this group are distinguished from the pre ceding by their insolubility in water, in their pure or hydrated state that they have no alkaline reaction upon litmus paper, nor form salts with carbonic acid. The earths are not volatile, and, in the pure state, are infusible. They cannot be reduced to the metallic state before the blowpipe. The organic salts are destroyed by ignition, while the earths are left in the pure state, mixed with charcoal, from the organic acids. The most of their neutral salts are insoluble in water; the soluble neutral salts change blue litmus paper to red, and lose their acids when ignited. (a.) Alumina (APO 3 ). This earth is one of our most com mon minerals. It occurs free in nature in many minerals, as sapphire, etc.; or in combination with sulphuric acid, phos phoric acid, and fluorine, and chiefly silicates. Pure alum ina is a white crystalline powder, or yellowish-white, and amorphous when produced by drying the hydrate, separated chemically from its salts. Alumina is quite unalterable in the fire ; the hydrate, however, losing its water at a low red heat. The neutral salts of alumina, with most acids, are insoluble in water. Those soluble in it have an acid reaction upon litmus paper, changing the blue into red. 6 122 THE BLOWPIPE. The sulphates of alumina eliminate water when heated in a glass tube closed at one end. By ignition, sulphurous acid (SO 2 ) is given off, which can be recognized by its smell, and by its acid reaction upon blue litmus paper, when a small strip of it moistened is brought within the orifice of the tube; an infusible residue is left in the tube. The greater part of the alumina compounds give off water with heat; the most of them are also infusible, except a few phosphates and silicates. Pure alumina does not fuse with carbonate of soda. The sulphates, when exposed upon charcoal with soda to the reduc ing flame, leave a hepatic residue. The phosphates melt with a little soda, with a hissing noise, to a semi-transparent mass, but they are infusible with the addition of soda, and give only a tough mass. This is the case, likewise, with the silicates of alumina. Fluoride of aluminium melts with carbonate of soda to a clear bead, spreads by cooling, and appears then milk-white. Borax dissolves the alumina compounds slowly in the oxidizing and reducing flames to a clear bead, which is also clear when cold, or heated intermittingly with a vacillating flame. The bead is turbid, as well in the heat as the cold, when an excess of alumina is present. When the alumina compound is added to excess in the powdered form, the bead appears crystalline upon cooling, and melts again with great difficulty. Alumina and its compounds are slowly dissolved in the microcosmic salt to a bead, clear in both flames, and when hot or cold. When alumina is added to excess, the undissolved portion appears semi-transparent. Alumina melts with bisul- phate of potash into a mass soluble in water. When the pow dered alumina compounds are strongly ignited in the oxidizing flame, then moistened with nitrate of cobalt, and re-ignited in the oxidizing flame, an infusible mass is left, which appears, when cooled, of an intense blue color. The presence of colored metallic oxides, in considerable quantity, will alter or suppress this reaction. The silicates of the alkalies produce, in a very strong heat) or continued heat, with nitrate of cobalt, a pale SPECIAL REACTIONS. 123 blue color. The blue color produced by alumina is only dis tinctly visible by daylight; by candle-light it appears of a dirty violet color. (b.) Gludna. (G 2 3 ). Glucina only occurs in a few rare minerals, in combination with silica and alumina. It is white and insoluble in the pure state, and its properties generally are similar to those of alumina. The most of its compounds are infusible, and yield water by distillation. Carbonate of soda does not dissolve glucina by ignition. Silicate of glucica melts with carbonate of soda to a colorless globule. Borax and microcosmic salt dissolve glucina and its compounds to a color less bead which, when overcharged with glucina, or heated with the intermittent flame appears, after cooling, turbid or milk- white. Glucina yields, by ignition with nitrate of cobalt, a black, or dark grey infusible mass. (c,) Ytlria (YO) occurs only in a few rare minerals, and usually in company with terbium and erbium. Its reactions before the blowpipe are similar to the preceding, but for its detection in compounds it will be necessary to resort to analy sis in the wet way. (d.) Zirconia (Zr 2 3 ). This substance resembles alumina in appearance, though it occurs only in a few rare minerals. It is in the pure state infusible, and at a red heat produces such a splendid and vivid white light that the eyes can scarcely endure it. Its other reactions before the blowpipe are analo gous to glucina. Microcosmic salt does not dissolve so much zirconia as glucina, and is more prone to give a turbid bead. Zirconia yields with nitrate of cobalt, when ignited, an infusible black mass. To recognize zirconia in compounds we must resort to fluid analysis. (e.) Thor ma (ThO). This is the rarest among the rare minerals. In the pure state it is white and infusible, and will not melt with the carbonate of soda. Borax dissolves thoriua slowly to a colorless, transparent bead, which will remain so when heated with the intermittent flame. If overcharged with the thorina, the bead presents, on cooling, a milky hue. Micro- THE BLOWPIPE. cosmic salt dissolves the thorina very tardily. By ignition with nitrate of cobalt, thorina is converted into an infusible black mass. CLASS II. FOURTH GROUP. CERIUM, LANTHANIUM, DIDYMIUM, COLUMBIUM, NIO BIUM, PELOPIUM, TITANIUM, URANIUM, VANADIUM, CHROMIUM, MANGANESE. The substances of this group cannot be reduced to the metallic state, neither by heating them per se, nor by fusing them with reagents. They give by fusion with borax or micro- cosmic salt, colored beads, while the preceding groups give colorless beads. (a.) Cerium (Ce). This metal occurs in the oxidated state in a few rare minerals, and is associated with lanthanium and didymium, combined with fluorine, phosphoric acid, carbonic acid, silica, etc. When reduced artificially, it forms a grey metallic powder. (a.) Protoxide of Cerium (CeO). It exists in the pure state as the hydrate, and is of a white color. It soon oxidizes and becomes yellow, when placed in contact with the air. When heated in the oxidation flame, it is converted into the sesqui- oxide, and then is changed into light brick-red color. In the oxidation flame it is dissolved by borax into a clear bead, which appears of an orange or red while hot, but becomes yellow upon cooling. When highly saturated with the metal, or when heated with a fluctuating flame, the bead appears enamelled as when cold. In the reduction flame it is dissolved by borax to a clear yellow bead, which is colorless when cold. If too much of the metal exists in the bead, it then appears enamelled when cooled. Microcosmic salt dissolves it, in the oxidation flame, to a, clear bead, which is colored dark yellow or orange, but loses its color when cold. In the reduction flame the bead is color- SPECIAL REASONS. 125 less when either hot or cold. Even if highly saturated with the metal, the bead remains colorless when cold. By fusing it with carbonate of soda upon charcoal in the reduction flame, the soda is absorbed by the charcoal, while the protoxide of the metal remains as a light grey powder. (B.) Sesquioxide of Cerium (Ce 2 3 ). This oxide, in the pure state, is a red powder. When heated with hydrochloric acid, it produces chlorine gas, and is dissolved to a salt of the protoxide. It is not affected by either the flame of oxidation or of reduction; when fused with borax or microcosmic salt, it acts like the protoxide. It does not fuse with soda upon char coal. In the reduction flame it is reduced to the protoxide, which remains of a light grey color, while the soda is absorbed by the charcoal. (&.) Lanthanium (La.) This metal is invariably associated with cerium. It presents, in its metallic state, a dark grey powder, which by compression acquires the metallic lustre. The oxide of lanthanium (LaO) is white, and its salts are colorless. Heated upon charcoal, it does not change either in the oxidation flame or that of reduction. With borax, in the flame of oxidation or reduction, it gives a clear colorless bead. This bead, if saturated, and when hot, presents a yellow appear ance, but is clouded or enamelled when cold. With microcos mic salt the same appearance is indicated. It does not fuse with carbonate of soda, but the soda is absorbed by the char coal, while the oxide remains of a grey color. (c.) Didymium (D). This metal occurs only in combination with the preceding ones, and it is therefore, like them, a rare one. Oxide of Didymium (DO). This oxide is of a brown color, while its salts present a reddish-violet or amethyst color. The oxide is infusible in the oxidation flame, and in that of reduc tion it loses its brown color and changes to grey. With borax in the oxidation flame, it fuses to a clear dark red or violet bead, which retains its clearness when highly saturated with the oxide, or if heated with a fluctuating flame. 126 T H E B L O W P I P E . The reactions with rnicrocosmic salt are the same as with borax. It does not melt with carbonate of soda upon charcoal, but the oxide remains with a grey color, while the soda is absorbed by the charcoal. (d.) Columbium, (Tantalum -1 a). This rare metal occurs quite sparingly in the minerals tantalite, yttrotantalite, etc., as columbic acid. In the metallic state, it presents the appear ance of a black powder, which, when compressed, exhibits the metallic lustre. When heated in the air it is oxidized into columbic acid, and is only soluble in hydrofluoric acid, yielding hydrogen. It is oxidized by fusion with carbonate of soda or potash. Columbic Acid (Ta 3 3 ) is a white powder, and is infusi ble. When heated in the flame of oxidation or reduction, it appears of a light yellow while hot, but becomes colorless when cold. With borax, in the flames of oxidation and reduction, it fuses to a clear bead, which appears by a certain degree of saturation, of a yellow color so long as it continues hot, but becomes colorless when cold. If overcharged, or heated with an intermittent flame, it presents an enamel white when cool. It melts with microcosmic salt quite readily in both of the flames, to a clear bead, which appears, if a considerable quan tity of columbic acid be present, of a yellow color while hot, but colorless when cold, and does not become clouded if the intermittent flame be applied to it. With carbonate of soda it fuses with effervescence to a bead which spreads over the charcoal. Melted with more soda, it becomes absorbed by the charcoal. It yields, moistened with a solution of nitrate of cobalt, and exposed to the oxidation flame after continued blowing, an infu sible mass, presenting while hot a light grey color, but after being cooled that of a light red, similar to the color presented by magnesia under the same circumstances. But if there be some alkali mixed with it, a fusion at the edges will be mani fest, and it will yield by cooling a bluish-black mass. SPECIAL REACTIONS. 127 (.) Niobium (Ni). This metal occurs as niobic acid in columbite (tantalite). Niobic acid is in its properties similar to columbic acid. It is white and infusible. By heating it either in the flames of reduction or oxidation, it presents as long as it continues hot, a greenish-yellow color, but becomes white when cool. Borax dissolves it in the oxidation flame quite readily to a clear bead, which, with a considerable quantity of niobic acid, is yellow when hot, but transparent and colorless when cold. A saturated bead is clear when either hot or cold, but becomes opaque when heated intermittingly. In the flame of reduction, borax is capable of dissolving more of the niobic acid, so that a bead overcharged and opaque in the oxidation flame appears quite clear when heated in the flame of reduction. A bead overcharged in the flame of reduc tion, appears by cooling dim and bluish-grey. Microcosmic salt dissolves in the flame of oxidation a great quantity of it to a clear bead, which is yellow while hot, but colorless when cold. In the flame of reduction, and in presence of a considerable quantity of niobic acid, the bead appears while hot of a light dirty blue color, and when cold, of a violet hue ; but by the addition of more niobic acid, the bead, when hot, is of a dirty dark blue color, and when cold, of a transparent blue. In the presence of the oxides of iron, the bead is, while hot, of a brownish-red color, but changing when cool to a dark yellow. This acid fuses with an equal quantity of carbonate of soda upon charcoal, to a bead which spreads very quickly, and is then infusible. When fused with still more soda, it is absorbed. When moistened with nitrate of cobalt, and heated in the flame of oxidation, it yields an infusible mass which appears grey when hot, and dirty green when cold ; but if the heat has been too strong, it is fused a little at the edges, which present a dark bluish-grey color. Pelopium (Pe). This metal occurs as an acid in the mineral columbite (tantalite), and is very similar to the two preceding metals. 128 T H E B L O W P I P E . (/.) Pelopic Acid (PeO s ). This acid is white, and appears yellow when heated, but resumes its white color when cold. Borax dissolves it in the oxidation flame to a clear colorless bead, which appears, when overcharged and heated intermit- tingly, emanel-white when cold. This is likewise the case in the flame of reduction, but when overcharged the color is light grey, when the bead is cooled. Microcosmic salt dissolves it in the flame of oxidation, to a clear yellow bead, which loses its color when cold. In the reduction flame, when the bead is highly saturated, a violet- brown color is produced. In presence of the oxides of iron, the reactions are like those of niobic acid. With carbonate of soda, the reactions are similar to those of niobic acid. By heating with nitrate of cobalt, it yields a light grey infusible mass. (g.) Titanium (Ti). This metal occurs occasionally in the slags of iron works, in the metallic state, as small cubical crys tals of a red color. It is a very hard metal, and very infusible. Titanic acid occurs in nature crystallized in anatase, arkansite, brookite, and rutile. Titanium is harder than agate, entirely infusible, and loses only a little of its lustre, which can be regained by fusion with borax. It does not melt with carbon ate of soda, borax, or microcosmic salt, and is insoluble in every acid except the hydrofluoric. By ignition with saltpetre it is converted into titanic acid, which combines with the potassium, forming the titanate of potassium. Titanic Acid (TiO 2 ) is white, insoluble, and, when heated, it appears yellow while hot, but resumes upon cooling its white color. Borax dissolves it in the oxidation flame to a clear yellow bead, which when cool is colorless. When overcharged, or heated with the intermitting flame, it is enamel-white after being cooled. In the reduction flame, the bead appears yellow, if the acid exists in small quantity, but if more be added, then it is of an orange, or dark yellow, or even brown. The saturated bead, when heated intermittingly, appears when SPECIAL REACTIONS. 129 cold of an enamelled blue. By addition of the acid, and by heating the bead on charcoal in the reduction flame, it becomes dark yellow while hot, but dark blue, or black and opaque when cold. This bead appears, when heated intennittingly, of a light blue, and when cold, enamelled. Microcosmic salt fuses with it in the oxidation flame to a clear colorless bead, which appears yellow only in the presence of a quantity of titanic acid, though by cooling it loses its color. In the reduction flame this bead exhibits a yellow color when hot, but is red while cooling, and when cold of a beauti ful bluish-violet. If the bead is overcharged, the color becomes so dark that the bead appears opaque, though not presenting an enamel appearance. By heating the bead again in the oxi dation flame the color disappears. The addition of some tin promotes the reduction. If the titanic acid contains oxide of iron, or if some is added, the bead appears, when cold, brownish-yellow, or brownish-red. By fusion with carbonate of soda, titanic acid is dissolved with effervescence to a clear dark yellow bead, which crystal lizes by cooling, whereby so much heat is eliminated, that the bead, at the instant of its crystallization, glows with great brightness. A reduction to a metal cannot, however, be effected. By ignition with a solution of nitrate of cobalt in the oxidation flame, it yields an infusible yellowish-green mass. (h.) Uranium (U). This rare metal occurs in the form of protoxide along with other oxides, in the mineral pitch-Uende ; as peroxide in uranite and uran-mica, associated with phos phoric acid and lime. In the metallic state it presents the appearance of a dark grey mass, which is infusible, and remains unchanged when under water, or when exposed to dry air, but, when heated in the oxidation flame, it becomes oxidized, with lively sparkling, to a dark green mass, composed of the protoxide and peroxide. The protoxide of uranium (UO) is black, uncrystalline, or forms a brown powder. When exposed to heat it is converted partially into peroxide, when it has a dark green color. 130 THE BLOWPIPE. The peroxide, of uranium (U 2 3 ) is of an orange color, while its hydrate is of a fine yellow color, and in the form of a powder. The salts are yellow. By heating it in the oxidation flame, it acquires a dark green color, and is partly reduced to protoxide. In the reduction flame it presents a black appearance, and is there completely reduced to protoxide. Borax dissolves it in the oxidation flame to a clear dark yel low bead, which is colorless when cold, if the metal is not pre sent in great quantity. If more of the metal, or peroxide, be added, the bead changes to orange when hot, and light yel low when cold. When heated with the intermittent flame, it requires a large quantity of the peroxide to produce an enamel appearance in the cooled bead, In the flame of reduction the bead becomes of a dirty greeii color, being partly reduced to protoxide, and appears, with a certain degree of saturation, black, when heated intermittingly, but never enamelled. The bead appears on charcoal, and with the addition of tin, of a dark green color. It fuses with microcosmic salt in the oxidation flame to a clear yellow bead, which is greenish-yellow when cold. In the reduction flame it produces a beautiful green bead, which increases when cold. When fused upon charcoal with the addition of tin, its color is darker. Carbonate of soda does not dissolve it, although with a very small portion of soda it gives indications of fusion, but with still more of the soda it forms a yellow, or light-brown mass, which is absorbed by the charcoal, but it is not reduced to the metallic state. (i.) Vanadium (V). This very rare mineral is found in small quantity in iron-ores, in Sweden, and as vanadic acid in a few rare minerals. The metal presents the appearance of an iron-grey powder, and sometimes that of a silver-white mass. It is not oxidized either by air or water, and is infusible. Vanadic Acid (VO S ) fuses upon platinum foil to a deep orange liquid, which becomes crystalline after cooling. When SPECIAL REACTIONS. 131 fused upon charcoal, one part of it is absorbed, while the rest remains upon the charcoal and is reduced to protoxide similar in appearance to graphite. A small portion of it fuses with borax in the oxidation flame to a clear colorless bead, which appears, with the addition of more vanadic acid, of a yellow color, but changes to green when cold. In the reduction flame the bead is brown while hot, but changes, upon cooling, to a beautiful sapphire-green. At the moment of crystallization, and at a degree of heat by which at daylight no glowing of the heated mass is visible it begins to glow again. The glow spreads from the periphery to the centre of the mass, and is caused by the heat liberated by the sudden crystallization of the mass. It now exhibits an orange color, and is composed of needle crystals in a compact mass. Microcosmic salt and vanadic acid fuse in the oxidation flame to a dark yellow bead which, upon cooling, loses much of its color. In the reduction flame the bead is brown while hot, but, upon cooling, acquires a beautiful green color. Yanadic acid fuses with carbonate of soda upon charcoal, and is absorbed. (k.) Chromium (Cr) occurs in the metallic state only in a very small quantity in meteoric iron, but is frequently found in union with oxygen, as oxide in chrome iron ore, and as chromic acid in some lead ores. In the metallic state it is of a light grey color, with but little metallic lustre, very hard, and not very fusible. Acids do not act upon it, except the hydrofluoric; fused with nitre, it forms chromate of potassa. It is unaltered in the blowpipe flame. Sesquioxide of Chromium (Cr 3 3 ). This oxide forms black crystals of great hardness, and is sometimes seen as a green powder. Its hydrate (Cr a 8 + 6HO) is of a bluish-grey color. It forms with acids two classes of isomeric salts, some 132 THE BLOWPIPE. of which arc of a green color, and the others violet-red or ame thyst. The neutral and soluble salts have an acid reaction upon blue litmus paper, and are decomposed by ignition. Sesquioxide of chromium in the oxidation and reduction flames is uuchangable. When exposed to heat, the hydrate loses its water, and gives a peculiarly beautiful flame. In the oxidation flame borax dissolves the sesquioxide of chromium slowly to a yellow bead (chromic acid) which is yellowish green when cold. Upon the addition of more of the oxide, the bead is dark red while hot, but changes to green as it becorns cold. In the reduction flame the bead is of a beautiful green color, both while hot and when cold. It is here distinguished from vanadic acid, which gives a brownish or yellow bead while hot. With microcosmic salt it fuses in the oxidation flame to a clear yellow bead, which appears, as it cools, of a dirty-green color, but upon being cool is of a fine green color. If there be a superabundance of the oxide, so that the microcosmic salt cannot dissolve it, the bead swells up, and is converted into a foamy mass, in consequence of the development of gases. In the reduction flame it fuses to a fine green bead. The addition of a little tin renders the green still deeper. Sesquioxide of chromium fuses with carbonate of soda upon platinum foil to a brown or yellow bead, which, upon cooling, appears of a lighter color and transparent (chromate of sodium). When fused with soda upon charcoal, the soda is absorbed, and the green oxide is left upon it, but is never reduced to the metallic state. Chromic Add (CrO 3 ) crystallizes in the form of deep ruby red needles. It is decomposed into sesquioxide and oxygen when heated. This decomposition is attended with a very lively emission of light, but this is not the case if the chromic acid has been attained by the cooperation of an aqueous solu tion, unless the reduction is effected in the vapor of ammonia. Before the blowpipe chromic acid produces the same reactions as the sesquioxide. SPECIAL REACTIONS. 133 (/.) Manganese (Mn). This metal occurs in considerable abundance, principally as oxides, less frequently as salts, and sometimes in combination with sulphur and arsenic. It is found in plants, and passes with them into the animal body. In the metallic state, it is found frequently in cast iron and steel. It is a hard, brittle metal, fusible with difficulty, and of a light grey color. It tarnishes upon exposure to the air and under water, and falls into a powder. Protoxide of Manganese exists as a green powder ; as hydrate separated by caustic alkalies, it is white, but oxidizes very speedily upon exposure to the air. The protoxide is the base of the salts of manganese. These salts, which are soluble in water, are decomposed when heated in the presence of the air except the sulphate (MnO, SO 3 ), but if the latter is ex posed to ignition for awhile, it then ceases to be soluble in water, or at least only sparingly so. Sesquioxide of Manganese (Mn 2 3 ) Occurs very spar ingly in nature as small black crystals (Braunite) which give, when ground, a brown powder. When prepared by chemical process, it is in the form of a black powder. The hydrate occurs sometimes in nature as black crystals (manganite). By digestion with acids, it is dissolved into salts of the protoxide. With hydrochloric acid, it yields chlorine. The prot-sesquioxide of manganese (MnO + Mn a O s ) occurs sometimes in black crystals (hausmannite) . Prepared artifi cially, it is in the form of a brown powder. Peroxide of Manganese (MnO 2 ) occurs in considerable abundance as a soft black amorphous mass, or crystallized as pyrolusite, also reniforra and fibrous. It is deprived of a part of its oxygen when exposed to ignition. It eliminates a consi derable quantity of chlorine from hydrochloric acid, and is thereby converted into chloride of manganese (CIMn). Most of the manganese compounds which occur in nature yield water when heated in a glass tube closed at one end. The sesquioxide and peroxide give out oxygen when strongly heated, which can be readily detected by the 134: THE BLOWPIPE. increased glow which it causes, if a piece of lighted wood or paper is brought to the mouth of the tube. The residue left in the tube is a brown mass (MnO + Mn 2 3 ). When exposed to ignition with free access of air, all man ganese oxides are converted into (MnO-f Mn 2 3 ), but with out fusion. Such, at least, is the statement of some of the German chemists, although it will admit perhaps of further investigation. Manganese oxides fuse with borax in the oxidation flame to a clear and intensely colored bead, of a violet hue while hot, but changing to red as it cools. If a considerable quantity of the oxide is added, the bead acquires a color so dark as to become opaque. If such be the case, we have to press it flat, by which its proper color will become manifest. In the reduction flame the bead is colorless. A very dark colored bead must be fused upon charcoal with the addition of some tin. The bead must be cooled very suddenly, for if it cools too slowly, it then has time to oxidize again. This may be effected by pushing it off the platinum wire, or the charcoal, and pressing it flat with the forceps. The oxides of manganese fuse with microcosmic salt in the oxidation flame, to a clear brownish-violet bead, which appears reddish-violet while cooling. This bead does not become opaque when overcharged with manganese. As long as it is kept in fusion a continued boiling or effervescence takes place, produced by the expulsion of oxygen, in consequence of the fact that the microcosmic salt cannot dissolve much sesqui- oxide, while the rest is reduced to protoxide, is re-oxidated, and instantly again reduced. If the manganese is present in such a minute quantity as not to perceptibly tinge the bead, the color may be made to appear by the contact of a crystal of nitre while hot. The bead foams up upon the addition of the nitre, and the foam appears, after cooling, of a rose-red or violet color. In the reduction flame the bead sometimes becomes colorless. The oxides of manganese fuse with carbonate of soda upon SPECIAL REACTIONS. 135 platinum foil or wire, to a clear green bead, which appears bluish-green and partially opaque when cold (manganate of soda NaO + MnO 3 ). A very minute trace of manganese will produce this green color. The oxides of manganese can not be reduced upon charcoal with carbonate of soda before the blowpipe. The soda is absorbed, and (MnO + Mn 2 3 ) is left. GROUP FIFTH. IRON, COBALT, NICKEL. The oxides of this group are reduced to the metallic state when fused with carbonate of soda upon charcoal in the reduc tion flame. Metals when thus reduced form powders, are not fusible or volatile in the blowpipe flame, but they are attracted by the magnet. Furthermore, these oxides are not dissolved by carbon ate of soda in the oxidation flame, but they produce colored beads with borax and microcosmic salt. (a.) Iron. It occurs in great abundance in nature. It is found in several places in America in the metallic state, and it likewise occurs in the same state in meteors. It occurs chiefly as the oxide (red hematite, brown hematite, magnetic oxide, etc.), and frequently in combination with sulphur. Iron also forms a constituent of the blood. Metallic iron is of a grey color, and presents the metallic lustre vividly when polished. It is very ductile, malleable, and tenacious. It is very hard at common temperatures, but soft and yielding at a red heat. In dry and cold air, iron does not oxidize, but when the air is dry and moist, it oxidizes rapidly. This likewise takes place with great rapidity when the metal is heated to redness. When submitted to a white heat iron burns with brilliant scintillations. Protoxide of Iron (FeO). This oxide does not occur pure in nature, but in union with the peroxide of iron and other substances. It presents the form of a black powder, and has 136 THE B LO w P i P E. some metallic lustre, is brittle, and fuses at a high tempera ture to a vitreous looking mass. It is attracted by the magnet, and of course is susceptible of becoming magnetic itself. It forms with water a hydrate, but this passes so rapidly into a state of higher oxidation, that it is difficult to keep it in the pure state. Magnetic Oxide of Iron (FeO + Fe 2 3 ). This peculiar oxide is of a dark color, and is magnetic, so that tacks or small nails adhere to it when brought in contact with it. It is the variety of the oxide termed " loadstone." It is found fre quently crystallized in octahedrons in Scandinavia and other places. Magnetic oxide of iron is produced when red-hot iron is hammered. Sesquioxide of Iron (Fe 2 3 ). This oxide is found native in great abundance as red hematite and specular iron, crystallized in the rhombic form. In the crystalline state it is of a blackish- grey color, and possessed of the metallic lustre. When pow dered, it forms a brownish-red mass. When artificially prepared, it presents the appearance of a blood-red powder. It is not magnetic, arid has less affinity for acids than the protoxide. Its hydrate is found native as brown hematite. By exposing the peroxide of iron to the oxidation flame, it is not acted upon, but in the reduction flame it becomes reduced to the magnetic oxide. The oxides of iron are dissolved by borax in the oxidation flame to a clear dark-yellow or dark-red bead, which appears lighter while cooling, and yellowish when cold. In the presence of a very small quantity of iron, the bead appears colorless when cold. If the iron is increased, the bead is opaque while cooling, and of a dirty dark-yellow color when cold. In the reduction flame, and fused upon platinum wire, the bead appears dark green (FeO + Fe 2 3 ). By the addition of some tin, and fused upon charcoal, the bead appears bluish- green, or not unlike that of sulphate of iron. Microcosmic salt dissolves the oxides of iron in the oxidation flame to a clear bead, which, bv the addition of a considerable SPECIAL REACTIONS. 137 quantity of iron, becomes of an orange color while hot, but gets lighter while cooling, presenting finally a greenish hue, and gradually becoming lighter, till, when cold, it is colorless. If the iron is increased, the hot bead presents a dark red color, but while cooling a brownish-red, which changes to a dirty- green, and, when cold, to a brownish-red color. The decrease of the color during the transition from the hot to the cold state is still greater in the bead formed by the microcosmic salt. In the reduction flame no change is visible if the quantity of iron be small. By the addition of more iron, the hot bead appears red, and while cooling, changes to yellow, then green, and, when cold, is of a dull red. By fusing the bead on char coal with a small addition of tin, it exhibits, while cooling, a bluish-green color, but, when cold, is colorless. The oxides of iron are not dissolved in the oxidation flame by fusion with carbonate of soda. By ignition with soda upon charcoal in the reduction flame, they are absorbed and reduced to the metallic state. Cut out this portion of the charcoal ; grind it with the addition of some water in an agate mortar, for the purpose of washing off the carbon particles, when the iron will remain as a grey magnetic powder. (b.) Cobalt (Co) occurs in combination with arsenic and sulphur, and associated with nickel and iron. It is found occa sionally in combination with selenium, and there are a traces of it in meteoric iron. In the metallic state it is of a light, red dish-grey color, rather brittle, and only fusible at a strong white heat; at common temperatures it is unalterable by air or water. At a red heat, it oxidizes slowly and decomposes water; at a white heat it burns with a red flame. Cobalt is soluble in dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid by the aid of heat, whereby hydrogen is eliminated. These solutions have a fine red color.. Protoxide of Cobalt (CoO). It is an olive-green powder, but, by exposure to the air, it becomes gradually brown. Its hydrate is a rich red powder. The solution of its salts is red, but the aqueous solution is often blue. 138 T H E B L O W P I P E . When heated in the oxidation flame, the protoxide is con verted into the black proto-sesquioxide (CoO + Co 2 3 ). In the reduction flame it shrinks and is reduced without fusion to the metallic state. It is now attracted by the magnet and acquires lustre by compression. Borax dissolves it in the oxidation flame, and produces a clear, intensely colored blue bead, which remains transparent and of the same beautiful blue when cold. This blue is like wise manifest even if the bead be heated intermittingly. If the cobalt exists in considerable quantity, the color of the bead is so intense as to appear almost black. This reaction of cobalt is so characteristic and sensitive that it can detect a minute trace. With microcosmic salt the same reaction is exhibited, but not so sensitive, nor is the bead so intensely colored when cold as that with borax. By fusion with carbonate of soda upon a platinum wire, with a very small portion of cobalt, a bright red colored mass is produced which appears grey, or slightly green when cold. By fusion upon platinum foil the fused portion floats down from the sides, and the foil is coated around the undissolved part, with a thin, dark-red sublimate. When fused upon charcoal, and in the reduction flame, it is reduced with soda to a grey powder, which is attracted by the magnet, and exhibits the metallic lustre by compression. Sesquioxide of Cobalt (Co 3 3 ). It is a dark brown powder. Its hydrate (2HO + Co 2 3 ) is a brown powder. It is soluble only in acetic acid as the acetate of the sesquioxide. All other acids dissolve its salts to protoxide, the hydrochloric acid pro ducing chloric gas. By ignition in the oxidation flame, it is converted into the proto-sesquioxide (CoO + Co 2 3 ) and pro duces with reagents before the blowpipe the same reactions as the protoxide. (c.) Nickel (Ni). This metal occurs invariably associated with cobalt, and in analogous combinations, chiefly as the arse nical nickel. In the metallic state it is greyish, silver-white, SPECIAL REACTIONS. 139 has a high lustre, is hard, and malleable both cold and hot. At common temperatures, it is unalterable either in dry or moist air. When ignited, it tarnishes. It is easily dissolved by nitric acid, but very slowly by dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, producing hydrogen. Protoxide of Nickel (NiO). It is in the form of small grey ish-black octahedrons, or a dark, greenish-grey powder. Its hydrate is a green powder. Both are unalterable in the air, and are soluble in nitric, sulphuric, and hydrochloric acids, to a green liquid. The protoxide is the base of the salts of nickel, which in the anhydrous state are yellow, and when hydrated are green. The soluble neutral salts change blue litmus paper to red. By ignition in the oxidation flame, protoxide of nickel is unaltered. In the reduction flame and upon charcoal, it becomes reduced, and forms a grey adherent powder, which is infusible, and presents the metallic lustre by compression, and is magnetic. Borax dissolves it in the oxidation flame very readily to a clear bead, of a reddish-violet or dark yellow color, but yellow or light red when cold. If there is but a small quantity of the oxide present, it is colorless. If more of the oxide be present, the bead is opaque and dark brown, and appears, while cooling, transparent and dark red. By the addi tion of a salt of potassa (the nitrate or carbonate) a blue or a dark purple colored bead is produced. The borax bead, in the reduction flame, is grey, turbid, or completely opaque from the reduced metallic particles. After a continued blast, the bead becomes colorless, although the particles are not fused. If the nickel contains cobalt, it will now be visible with its peculiar blue color. Upon charcoal, and by the addition of some tin, the reduction of the oxide of nickel is easily effected, while the reduced nickel fuses with the tin. The oxide of nickel is dissolved by microcosmic salt in the oxidation flame to a clear bead, which appears reddish while hot, but yellow and sometimes colorless when cooling. If a considerable quantity of nickel be present the heated bead is of a brown color, but orange when cooled. In the reduction 140 THE BLOWPIPE. flame, and upon platinum wire, the color of the bead is orange when cold ; but upon charcoal, and with the addition of a little tin, the bead appears grey and opaque. After being submitted to the blowpipe flame all the nickel is reduced, and the bead becomes colorless. Carbonate of soda does not affect it in the oxidation flame, but in the reduction flame and upon charcoal, it is absorbed and reduced, and remains, after washing off the carbon, as a white metallic powder, which is infusible, and has a greater attraction for the magnet than iron. Sesquiozide of Nickel (Ni 2 3 ). It is in the form of a black powder, and does not combine with other substances, unless it is reduced to the protoxide. It exhibits before the blowpipe the same behavior as the protoxide. GROUP SIXTH. ZINC, CADMIUM, ANTIMONY, TELLURIUM. The substances of this group can be reduced upon charcoal by fusion with carbonate of soda, but the reduced metals are volatilized, and cover the charcoal with sublimates. (a.) Zinc (Zn). This metal is found in considerable abun dance, but never occurs in the pure metallic state, but in com bination with other substances, chiefly as sulphide in zinc blende, as carbonate in calamine, and as the silicate in the kieselzinc ore; also, with sulphuric acid, the "vitriol of zinc." Zinc is of a bluish-white color and metallic lustre, is crys talline and brittle when heated 400F., but malleable and duc tile between 200 and 300. It will not oxidize in dry air, but tarnishes if exposed to air containing moisture, first becomes grey, and then passes into the white carbonate. It decom poses in water at a glowing heat. It is dissolved by diluted acids, while hydrogen is eliminated. It melts at about 775, and distills when exposed to a white heat in a close vessel. When heated over 1000 in the open air, it takes fire, and burns with a bluish-white light, and with a thick white smoke of oxide of zinc. SPECIAL REACTIONS. 141 Oxide of Zinc (ZnO). In the pure state, oxide of zinc is a white powder, infusible, and not volatile. It is readily soluble in acids after being heated strongly. Its soluble neutral salts, when dissolved in water, change blue litmus paper to red. Its salts, with organic acids, are decomposed by ignition, and the carbonate of zinc remains. The oxide of zinc turns yellow by being ignited in the oxida tion flame, but it is only visible by daylight; this color changes to white when cold. It does not melt, but produces a strong light, and it is not volatile. It disappears gradually in the flame of reduction, while a white smoke sublimates upon the charcoal. This sublimate is yellow while hot, but changes to white when cold. The cause of this is, that the oxide is reduced, is volatilized, and re-oxi dized, by going through the external flame in the form of a metallic vapor. Borax dissolves oxide of zinc in the flame of oxidation easily to a clear bead, which is yellow while hot, and colorless when cold. The bead becomes, by the addition of more oxide, enam elled, while cooling. If the bead is heated with the intermit tent flame, it is milk-white when cold. When heated in the flame of reduction upon platinum wire, the bead at first appears opaque, and of a greyish color, but becomes clear again after a continued blast. When heated upon charcoal in the reduction flame, it is reduced to a metal; but, at the same moment, is volatilized, and sublimes as oxide of zinc upon the charcoal, about one line s distance from the assay. This is likewise the case with the microcosmic salt, except that it is more easily volatilized in the reduction flame. Carbonate of soda does not dissolve the oxide of zinc in the flame of oxidation. In the reduction flame and upon charcoal, the oxide of zinc is reduced to the metallic state, and is volatil ized with a white vapor of the zinc oxide, which sublimes on the charcoal and exhibits a yellow color while hot, and which 142 THE BLOWPIPE. changes to white when cold. By a strong heat the reduced zinc burns with a white flame. Moistened with a solution of cobalt oxide, and heated strongly in the flame of oxidation, zinc oxide becomes of a yellowish-green color while hot, and changes to a beautiful green color when cold. (ft.) Cadmium (Cd). This is one of the rare metals. It occurs in combination with sulphur in greenockite, and in some ores of zinc. It was detected first in the year 1818, and pre sents itself as a tin-white metal of great lustre, and susceptible of a fine polish. It has a fibrous structure, crystallizes easily in regular octahedrons, presenting often the peculiar arbores cent appearance of the fern. It is soft, but harder and more tenacious than tin; it can be bent, filed, and easily cut: it imparts to paper a color like that of lead. It is very malleable and ductile, and can be hammered into thin leaves. It is easily fused, and melts before it glows (450). At a temperature not much over the boiling point of mercury, it begins to boil, and distills, the vapor of the metal possessing no peculiar odor. It is unalterable in the air for a long time, but at length it tar nishes and presents a greyish-white, half metallic color. This metal easily takes fire when heated in the air, and burns with a brownish-yellow vapor, while it deposits a yellow sublimate upon surrounding bodies. It is easily soluble in acids with the escape of hydrogen, the solutions being colorless. Its salts, soluble in water, are decomposed by ignition in free air. Its soluble neutral salts change blue litmus paper to red. The salts, insoluble in water, are readily dissolved in acids. Oxide of Cadmium (CdO). This oxide is of a dark orange color. It does not melt, and is not volatile, not even at a very high temperature. Its hydrate is white, loses in the heat its hydratic water, and absorbs carbonic acid from the air when it is kept in open vessels. Cadmium oxide is unaltered when exposed upon platinum wire in the flame of oxidation. When heated upon charcoal in the flame of reduction it disappears in a very short time, while SPECIAL REACTIONS. 143 the charcoal is coated with a dark orange or yellow powder, the color of which is more visible after it is cooled. The por tions of this sublimate furthest from the assay present a visible iridescent appearance. This reaction of cadmium is so characteristic and sensitive that minerals (for instance, cala- rnine, carbonate of zinc) which contains from one to five per cent, of carbonate of cadmium, will give a dark yellowish ring of cadmium oxide, a little distance from the assay, after being exposed for a few moments to the flame of reduction. This sublimate is more visible when cold, and is produced some time previous to the reduction of the zinc oxide. If a vapor of the latter should appear, it indicates that it has been exposed too great a length of time to the flame. Borax dissolves a considerable quantity of cadmium oxide upon a platinum wire to a clear yellow bead, which, when cold, is almost colorless. If the bead is nearly saturated with the cadmium oxide, it appears milk-white when intermittingly heated. If the bead is completely saturated, it retains its opalescent appearance. Upon charcoal, and in the flame of reduction, the bead intumesces, the cadmium oxide becomes reduced to metal ; this becomes volatilized and re-oxidized, and sublimes upon the charcoal as the yellow cadmium oxide. In the oxidation flame, microcosmic salt dissolves a large quantity of it to a clear bead, which, when highly saturated and while hot, is yellowish colored, but colorless when cold. By complete saturation, the bead is enamel-white when cold. Upon charcoal, in the flame of reduction, the bead is slowly and only partially reduced, a scanty sublimate being produced on the charcoal. The addition of tin promotes the reduction. Carbonate of soda does not dissolve cadmium oxide in the oxidation flame. In the reduction flame, upon charcoal, it is reduced to metal, and is volatilized to a red-brown or dark, red sublimate of cadmium oxide upon the charcoal, at a little distance from the assay the charcoal presenting the character istic iridescent appearance. This reaction is still more sensitive if the cadmium oxide is heated per se in the reduction flame. 144 THE BLOWPIPE. Antimony (Sb). This metal is found in almost every coun try. It principally occurs as the tersulphide (SbS 8 ), either pure or combined with other sulphides, particularly with basic sulphides. Sometimes it occurs as the pure metal, and rarer in a state of oxidation as an antimonious acid and as the oxysul- phide. In the pure state, antimony has a silver-white color, with much lustre, and presents a crystalline structure. The commer cial and impure metal is of a tin-white color, and may fre quently be split in parallel strata. It is brittle and easily pulverized.-.. It melts at a low red heat (810), is volati lized at a white heat, and can be distilled. At common tem peratures it is not affected by the air. At a glowing heat it takes fire, and burns with a white flame, and with white fumes, forming volatile antimonious acid. Common acids oxidize antimony, but dissolve it slightly. It is soluble in aqua regia (nitro-hydrochloric acid). Sesquioxide of Antimony (Sb 2 8 ). In the pure state this oxide is a white powder, is fusible at a dull red heat to a yellow liquid, which, after cooling, is greyish-white and crys talline. If it is heated excluded from the air, it can be volatilized completely; it sublimes in bright crystals having the form of needles. It occurs sometimes in nature as white and very bright crystals. It takes fire when heated in the open air, and burns with a white vapor to antimonious acid. It fuses with the ter-sulphide of antimony to a red bead. It is distinguished from the other oxides of antimony by the readi ness with which it is reduced to the metallic state upon char coal, and by its easy fusibility and volatility. The sesquioxide is the base of some salts for instance, the tartar emetic. It is not soluble in nitric acid, but is soluble in hydrochloric acid. This solution becomes milky by the addition of water. A part of the salts of the sesquioxide of antimony are decomposed by ignition. The haloid salts are easily volatilized, without decomposition. Its soluble neutral salts change blue litmus paper to red, and are converted, by SPECIAL REACTIONS. admixture of water, into insoluble basic and soluble acid salts. Antimonious acid (antimoniate of sesquioxide of antimony, Sb 2 3 + Sb 2 B ) is of a white color, but, when heated, of a light yellow color, but changes to white again when cold. It is infusible and unaltered by heat. It forms a white hydrate, and both are insoluble in water and nitric acid. It is partly soluble in hydrochloric acid, with the application of heat. The addition of water causes a precipitate in this solution. Antimonic Acid (Sb 2 6 ). In the pure state this acid is a light yellow-colored powder. Its hydrate is white, and is iusoluble in water and nitric acid. It is sparingly soluble in hot concentrated hydrochloric acid. It forms salts with every base, some of which are insoluble, and others sparingly so. Notwithstanding that antimonic acid is insoluble in water, it expels the carbonic acid from the solutions of the carbonates of the alkalies. Antimonic acid and its hydrate changes moist- tened blue litmus paper to red. Behavior of Antimony and its Oxides before the, Blowpipe. Metallic Antimony fuses easily upon charcoal. When heated to glowing, and then removed from the flame, it continues to glow for awhile, and produces a thick white smoke. The vapor crystallizes gradually, and coats the assay with small crystals which iridesce like mother of pearl (sesquioxide of antimony). It is not volatile at the temperature of melted glass. Ignited in an open glass tube, it burns slowly with a white vapor, which condenses upon the cool part of the tube, and exhibits some indications of crystallization. This vapor consists of the sesquioxide, and can be driven by heat from one place to another, without leaving a residue. If the metallic antimony contains sulphide of antimony, there is a corresponding por tion of antimonious acid produced, which remains as a white sublimate after the sesquioxide is removed. T THE BLOWPIPE. Sesquitxide, of antimony melts easily, and sublimes as a white vapor. It may be prepared by precipitating and drying. When heated, it takes fire previous to melting, glows like tinder, and is converted into antimonious acid, which is now infusible. When heated upon charcoal in the flame of reduc tion, it is reduced to the metallic state, and partly volatilized. A white vapor sublimates upon the charcoal, while the external flame exhibits a greenish-blue color. Antimonious acid is infu sible, produces a strong light, and is diminished in volume when heated in the external flame, during which time a dense white vapor sublimes upon the charcoal. It is not, however, in this manner reduced to the metallic state like the sesqui- oxide. Antimonic add, when first heated, becomes white, and is converted into antimonious acid. Hydrated antimonic acid, which is originally white, appears at first yellow while giving off water, and then becomes white again, while oxygen is expelled, and it is converted into antimonious acid. The oxides of antimony produce, with blowpipe reagents, the following reactions : borax dissolves oxides of antimony in the oxidation flame in considerable quantity to a clear bead, which is yellow while hot, but colorless when cold. If the bead is saturated, a part of the oxide is volatilized as a white vapor. Upon charcoal, in the oxidation flame, it is completely vola tilized, and the charcoal is covered with a white sublimate. Heated upon charcoal in the reducing flame, the bead is of a greyish color, and partially, if not wholly opaque, from the pre sence of reduced metallic particles. A continued heat will volatilize them, and the bead becomes clear. The addition of tin promotes the reduction. Microcosmic salt dissolves the compounds of antimony in the flame of oxidation with intumescence, to a clear light-yellow colored bead, which when cold is colorless. Heated upon charcoal in the reduction flame, the bead is first turbid, but soon becomes transparent. The addition of tin renders the bead greyish while cooling, but a continued blast renders it SPECIAL REACTIONS. 14/T transparent. Soda dissolves the compounds of antimony upon platinum wire in the oxidation flame, to a clear colorless bead, which is white when cold. Upon charcoal, both in the oxidation and reduction flames, the antimony compounds are readily reduced to the metal, which is immediately volatilized, and produces a white incrust ation of oxide of antimony upon the charcoal. If the anti mony compounds are heated upon charcoal in the flame of reduction, with a mixture of carbonate of soda and cyanide of potassium (KCy), there are produced small globules of metallic antimony. At the same time, a part of the reduced metal is volatilized (this continues after the assay is removed from the flame) and re-oxidized. A white incrustation ap pears upon the charcoal, and the metallic globules are covered with small white crystals. If this white sublimate upon the charcoal is moistened with a solution of cobalt- oxide, and exposed to the reduction flame, a part of it is volatilized, while the other part passes into higher oxidation, and remains, after cooling, of a dirty dark-green color. (d.) Tellurium (Te). This is one of the rare metals. It occurs very seldom in the metallic state, but often with bis muth, lead, silver, and gold. Tellurium, in the pure state, is silver-white, very bright, of a foliated or lamellar structure, brittle, and easily triturated. It is inclined to crystallize. It is soluble in concentrated sulphuric acid without oxidation. The solution is of a fine purple color, and gives a precipitate with the addition of water. Tellurium in the Metallic form. By the aid of heat it is oxidized in sulphuric acid, a portion of the oxygen of the acid oxidizing the metal, while sulphurous acid gas escapes. This solution is colorless, and is tellurous acid, dissolved in sul phuric acid. It melts at a low red heat, and volatilizes at a higher temperature. If tellurium is heated with free access of air, it takes fire, and burns with a blue color, the flame being greenish at the edges, while a thick white vapor escapes, which hus a feeble acidulous odor. 148 THE BLOWPIPE. Tdlurous Add (TeO a ) is of a fine, granulous, crystalline or white earthy mass, which is partly soluble in water. The solution has a strong metallic taste, and an acid reaction upon litmus paper. Heated in a tube closed at one end until it begins to glow, it fuses to a yellow liquid which is colorless, crystalline, and opaque when cold. Beads of it remain usually transparent like glass. Heated upon platinum wire in the flame of oxidation, it melts, and is volatilized as a white vapor. When heated upon charcoal in the oxidation flame, it melts, and is reduced to the metallic state, but volatilizes and a sub limate of white tellurous acid is formed upon the charcoal. The edge of this deposit is usually red or dark-yellow. Heated upon charcoal in the flame of reduction, it is rapidly reduced, the external flame exhibiting a bluish-green color. Borax dissolves it in the oxidation flame upon platinum wire to a clear colorless bead which turos grey when heated upon charcoal, through the presence of reduced metallic particles. Upon charcoal, in the reduction flame, the bead is grey, caused by the reduced metal. After a continued blast, tellurium is completely volatilized, and the bead appears clear again, while a white sublimate is deposited upon the charcoal. With microcosmic salt, the same reactions are produced. With carbonate of soda, tellurous acid fuses upon platinum wire to a clear colorless bead, which is white when cold. Upon charcoal it is reduced, and forms tellur-sodium, which is absorbed by the charcoal, and metallic tellurium, which is volatilized, and deposits upon the charcoal a white incrusta tion (tellurous acid). If tellurous acid, finely powdered charcoal, and carbonate of soda are mixed together, and the mixture be well ignited in a closed tube, until fusion is effected, and a few drops of boiled water are brought into the tube, they are colored purple, indi cating the presence of tdlur-sodium. Telluric Add (TeO s ) forms six-sided prismatic crystals. It has not an acid, but rather a metallic taste. It changes blue litmus paper to red ; is slowly soluble in water, and rather S P K C I A L lv E A C T I O N S . 14:9 sparingly. Exposed to a high temperature, but not until glowing, the crystalline acid loses its water, and acquires an orange color, but still it preserves its crystalline form, although no longer soluble in water, and is in fact so much changed in its properties as to present the instance of an isomeric modifi cation. If telluric acid is heated gently in a closed tube, it loses water and turns yellow. Heated still more strongly, it becomes milk-white, oxygen is expelled, and it is converted into tellu- rous acid. The presence of oxygen can be recognized by the more lively combustion which an ignited splinter of wood undergoes when held in it. Telluric acid produces the same reactions with the blowpipe reagents as tellurous acid. SEVENTH GROUP. LEAD, BISMUTH, TIN. The oxides of these metals are also reduced to the metallic state by fusion with soda upon charcoal in the flame of reduc tion, but they are volatilized only after a continued blast, and a sublimate is thrown upon the charcoal. (a.) Lead (Pb). This metal occurs in considerable quanti ty in nature, chiefly as galena or lead-glance (sulphide of lead). Likewise, but more rarely, as a carbonate ; also as a sulphate, and sometimes combined with other acids and metals. In the metallic state, lead is of a bluish-grey color, high lus tre, and sp. gr. 11 4. It is soft, and communicates a stain to paper. It is malleable, ductile, but has very little tenacity. It melts at about 612. Exposed to the air it soon tarnishes, being covered with a grey, matter, which some regard as a suboxide (Pb 2 0), and others as simply a mixture of lead and protoxide. At a glowing heat it is oxidized to a protoxide, and at a white heat it is volatilized. It is insoluble in most acids. It is, how ever, soluble in nitric acid, but without decomposing water. (L.) Protoxide of Lead (PbO). It is an orange-colored powder, which melts at a glowing temperature, and forms a 150 THE BLOWPIPE. lamellar mass after cooling. Protoxide of lead absorbs oxygen from the atmosphere while melting, which is given off again by cooling. Being exposed for a longer while to the air, it absorbs carbonic acid and water, and becomes white on the surface. It is soluble in nitric acid and caustic alkalies. It forms with most acids insoluble salts. It is slightly soluble in pure water, but not in water which contains alkaline salts. This hydrate is white. (j3.) Red Oxide of Lead (Pb0 2 ,PbO). It forms a puce-colored powder. It is insoluble in caustic alkalies. Hydrochloric acid dissolves it and forms a yellow liquid, which is soon decomposed into chloride of lead and chlorine. It is reduced by ignition to the protoxide. (y.) Peroxide of Lead (PbO 2 ). It is a dark-brown powder. It yields with hydrochloric acid the chloride of lead and chlorine gas. When heated it liberates oxygen, and is reduced to the protoxide. Lead combinations give the following reactions before the blowpipe : Metallic lead tarnishes when heated in the oxidation flame, and is instantly covered with a grey matter, consisting of the protoxide and the metal. It fuses quickly, and is then co vered with a yellowish-brown protoxide until all the lead is converted into the protoxide, which melts to a yellow liquid. In the reduction flame and upon charcoal, it is volatilized, while the charcoal becomes covered with a yellow sublimate of oxide. A little distance from the assay, this sublimate appears white (carbonate of lead). Protoxide of lead melts in the flame of oxidation to a beautiful dark yellow bead. In the flame of re duction, and upon charcoal, it is reduced with intumescence to metallic lead, which is volatilized by a continued blast, and sub limates on charcoal, as mentioned above. Red oxide of lead turns black when heated in the glass tube closed at one end, and liberates oxygen, which is easily detected by the introduction of an ignited splinter, when a more lively combustion of the wood proves the presence of uncombiued oxygen. The red oxide in this case is reduced to the protoxide. SPECIAL REACTIONS. 151 Heated upon platinum foil, it first turns black, is reduced to the protoxide, and melts into a dark yellow liquid. In the reduc tion flame, upon charcoal, it is reduced to the metal with intu mescence. After a continued blast, a yellow sublimate of pro toxide is produced upon the charcoal, and at a little distance off, around this sublimate, a white one of carbonate of lead is pro duced. This sublimate disappears when touched by the flame of reduction, while it communicates an azure blue-tinge to the external flame. This is likewise the case with the peroxide of lead. The different oxides of lead produce with the blowpipe re agents the same reactions. Borax dissolves lead compounds with the greatest readiness upon platinum wire in the oxidation flame to a transparent bead, which is yellow when hot, but colorless after being cooled. With the addition of more of the lead oxide, it becomes opal escent. When heated by the intermittent flame, and with still more of the oxide, it acquires a yellow enamel after cooling. Heated upon charcoal, in the flame of reduction, the bead spreads and becomes opaque. After a continued blast, all the oxide is reduced with effervescence to metallic lead, which melts and runs towards the edges of the bead, while the bead again becomes transparent. Microcosmic Salt dissolves oxides of lead upon platinum wire in the flame of oxidation easily to a clear, colorless bead, which appears, when highly saturated, yellow while hot. A saturated bead becomes enamel-like after cooling. The bead appears in the flame of reduction, and upon charcoal, of a greyish color and dull. By the addition of more oxide, a yellow sublimate of protoxide is produced upon the charcoal. By the addition of tin, the bead appears of a darker grey, but it is never quite opaque. Carbonate of Soda dissolves oxide of lead in the flame of oxi dation upon platinum wire quite readily to a transparent bead, which becomes yellow when cooling, and is opaque. Upon char coal in the flame of reduction, it is rapidly reduced to metallic 152 THE BLOWPIPE. lead, which yields, after a continued blast, a yellow sublimate of oxide upon the charcoal. (b.) Bismuth (Bi). This metal occurs mostly in the metallic state, and less frequently as the sulphide. In the pure metallic state, it is of a reddish-white color and great lustre. It crys tallizes in cubes. It is brittle, and may be readily pulverize J. It melts at 476, and is volatilized at a white heat. It is solu ble in nitric acid, and forms the nitrate of bismuth. (a.) Oxide of Bismuth (Bi 2 O). This oxide is a light yellow powder, fusible at a red heat,, insoluble in caustic potash and ammonia. It is the base of the salts of bismuth. Its hydrate is white, and easily soluble in acids. The addition of water causes these solutions to become milky, because they are decomposed into a soluble acidulous and an insoluble basic salt of bismuth. (j3.) Peroxide of Bismuth (BiO 2 ) is a dark-colored powder, completely soluble in boiling nitric acid, and yielding oxygen ; produces, with hydrochloric acid, chlorine gas. It can be heated up to the temperature of 620 without being decom posed ; but, exposed to a temperature of 630 it yields oxygen. Mixed with combustible substances, it glows with brightness. (y.) Bismuthic Acid (Bi a 6 ) is a brown powder similar to the peroxide, but is converted by boiling nitric acid into a green, scarcely soluble substance (Bi 3 3 , Bi 8 6 ). Its hydrate is of a red color. BLOWPIPE REACTIONS. Metallic bismuth is converted, when exposed upon platinum wire to the flame of oxidation, into a dark brown oxide, which turns light yellow while cooling. It is slowly volatilized when heated, and a yellow sublimate of oxide is produced upon the charcoal. Oxide of bismuth melts upon platinum foil in the flame of oxidation very easily into a dark-brown liquid, which changes to a light yellow while cooling. By too strong a heat, it is reduced and penetrates the platinum foil. Upon charcoal, in the flame of oxidation and of reduction, it is reduced to metallic bismuth, which melts into one or more SPECIAL REACTIONS. 153 globules. By a continued blast they are slowly volatilized, and produce a yellow sublimate of oxide upon the charcoal, beyond which a white sublimate of carbonate of bismuth is visible. These sublimates disappear in the flame of reduction, but with out communicating any color to it. Borax dissolves oxide of bismuth upon platinum wire, in the flame of oxidation, easily to a clear yellow bead, which appears colorless after cooling. By the addition of more oxide, the hot bead becomes orange. It turns more yellow while cooling, and when cool is opalescent. Upon charcoal in the flame of reduc tion, the bead becomes turbid and greyish colored. The oxide is reduced with intumescence to the metallic state, and the bead becomes clear again. The addition of tin promotes the reduc tion. Microcosmic Salt dissolves oxide of bismuth upon platinum wire, in the flame of oxidation, to a yellow bead, which becomes colorless after cooling. By the addition of more oxide, the bead is yellowish-brown while hot, and colorless after cooling, but not quite transparent. This bead becomes enamelled when heated by the intermittent flame ; also, by the addition of still more of the oxide, after it is cooled. Upon charcoal, in the flame of reduction, and particularly with the addition of tin, the bead is colorless and transparent while hot, but while cooling becomes of a dark-gray color and opaque. Oxide of bismuth is reduced, by fusion with carbonate of soda, as well in the oxidating as in the reducing flame, instantly to metallic bismuth. As the above mentioned higher oxides of bismuth are con verted by ignition into oxide of the metal and free oxygen, they have the same behavior before the blowpipe. As bismuth occurs mostly in the metallic form, it is neces sary to know how to distinguish it from metals similar to it. Its brittleness distinguishes it from lead, zinc and tin, as they are readily flattened by a stroke of the hammer, while bismuth is broken to pieces. Bismuth, in this latter respect, 7* 154 THE BLOWPIPE. might perhaps be mistaken for antimony or tellurium ; but, by the following examination, it is easy to separate bismuth from antimony or tellurium. 1. Neither bismuth nor antimony sublimates when heated in a glass tube closed at one end. At a temperature which is about to fuse the glass, tellurium yields a small quantity of a white vapor (some tellurium is oxidized to tellurous acid by the oxygen of the air in the tube). After that, a grey metallic sublimate settles on the sides of the tube. 2. Heated in an open tube, antimony yields a white vapor, which coats the inside of the glass tube, and can be driven by heat from one part of the tube to another without leaving a residue. The metallic globule is covered with a considerable quantity of fused oxide. Tellurium produces, under the same circumstances, an intense vapor, and deposits on the glass a white powder, which melts by heat into globules that ruu over the glass. The metallic globules are covered by fused, transparent, and nearly colorless oxide, which becomes white while cooling. By a high temperature, and with little access of air, metallic tellurium sublimes with the deposition of a grey powder. Bismuth produces, under similar treatment, scarcely any vapor, unless it is combined with sulphur. The metal is enveloped by fused oxide of a dark yellow color, which appears light yellow after being cooled. It acts upon the glass, and dissolves it. 3. Upon charcoal, exposed to the blowpipe flame, the three metals are volatilized, and yield a sublimate upon the charcoal. That of antimony is white, while those of bismuth and tellurium are dark yellow. By exposing them to the flame of reduction, the sublimate of tellurium disappears and communicates an intense green color to the flame. The antimony incrustation gives a feeble greenish-blue color, while the sublimate of bis muth gives no perceptible color in the light. It is, however, worthy of notice that if the operation takes place in the dark, a very pale blue flame will be seen with the bismuth. (c.) Tin (Sn). This metal does not occur in nature in the SPECIAL REACTIONS. metallic state, very seldom in the sulphide, but chiefly in the oxide (tinstone). In the metallic state it is silver-white, pos sesses a very high lustre, is soft (but harder than lead), ductile, but has not much tenacity, and it is very malleable. The metal when it is cast gives a peculiar creaking noise when twisted or bent, which proceeds from the crystalline structure of the metal. This crystallization is quite clearly manifested by attacking the surface of the metal, or that of tin plate, with acids. Tin is very slightly tarnished by exposure to the air. It fuses at 442, and becomes grey, being a mixture of the oxide and the metal. At a high temperature even, tin is but little subject to pass off as vapor. It is soluble in aqua regia, and with the liberation of hydrogen, in hot sulphuric and hydro chloric acids, and in cold dilute nitric acid, without decom posing water, or the production of a gas, while nitrate of tin and nitrate of ammonia are formed. Concentrated nitric acid converts tin into insoluble tin acids. (a.) Protoxide of Tin (SnO) is a dark-grey powder. Its hydrate is white, and is soluble in caustic alkalies. When this solution is heated, anhydrous crystalline black protoxide is separated. The soluble neutral salts of tin-protoxide are de composed by the addition of water, and converted into acid soluble, and basic insoluble salts. When protoxide of tin is ignited with free access of air, it takes fire and is converted with considerable intensity into the acids, producing white vapors. This is likewise the case if it is touched by a spark of fire from steel. The hydrate of the prot oxide of tin can be ingnited by the flame of a candle, and glows like tinder. ((3.) Sesquioxide of Tin (Sn a 3 ) is a greyish-brown powder. Its hydrate is white, with a yellow tinge. It is soluble in aqua ammonia and in hydrochloric acid ; this solution forms with solution of gold the " purple of Cassius." (y.) Stannic Add (peroxide, SnO 5 ). This acid occurs in na ture crystallized in quadro-octahedrons, of a brown or an intense 156 T H K BLOWPIPE. black color, and of great hardness (tinstone ). Artificially pre pared, it is a white or yellowish-white powder. It exists in two distinct or isomeric modifications, one of which is insoluble in acids (natural tin-acid) while the other (tin-acid prepared in the wet way) is soluble in acids. By ignition the soluble acid is converted into the insoluble. Both modifications form hydrates. Reactions before the Blowpipe. Metallic tin melts easily. It is covered in the flame of oxidation into a yellowish-white oxide, which is carried off sometimes by the stream of air which propels the flame. In the reduction flame, and upon charcoal, melting tin retains its metallic lustre, while a thin sublimate is produced upon the charcoal. This sublimate is light-yellow while hot, and gives a strong light in the flame of oxidation, and turns white while cooling. This sublimate is found near to the metal, and cannot be volatilized in the oxida tion flame. In the flame of reduction it is reduced to metallic tin. Sometimes this incrustation is so imperceptible that it can scarcely be distinguished from the ashes of the charcoal. If such be the case, moisten it with a solution of cobalt, and expose it to the flame of oxidation, when the sublimate will exhibit, after cooling, a bluish-green color. Protoxide of tin takes fire in the flame of oxidation, and burns with flame and some white vapor into tin acid, or stannic acid. In a strong and continued reduction flame, it may be reduced to metal, when the same sublimate above mentioned is visible. The sesquioxide of tin behaves as the above. Stannic acid, heated in the flame of oxidation, does not melt and is not volatilized, but produces a strong light, and appears yellowish while hot, but changing as it cools to a dirty-yellow white color. In a strong and continued flame of reduction, it may be reduced likewise to the metallic state, with the produc tion of the same sublimate as the above. Borax dissolves tin compounds in the flame of oxidation, and upon platinum wire, very tardily, and in small quantity, to a transparent colorless bead, which remains clear after cooling. S v K c i A L REACTIONS. 157 and also when heated interrnittingly. But if a saturated bead, after being completely cool, is exposed again to the flame of oxidation, at a low red heat, the bead while cooling is opaque, loses its globular form, and exhibits an indistinct crys tallization. This is the case too in the flame of reduction, but if the bead is highly saturated, a part of the oxide is reduced. Microcosmic Salt dissolves the oxides in the flame of reduc tion very tardily in a small quantity to a transparent colorless bead, which remains clear while cooling. If to this bead ses- quioxide of iron is added in proper proportion, the sesquioxide loses its property of coloring the bead, but of course an excess of the iron salt will communicate to the bead its own charac teristic color. In the flame of reduction no further alteration is visible. Tin-oxides combine with carbonate of soda, in the flame of oxidation upon platinum wire, with intumescence to a bulky and confused mass, which is insoluble in more soda. Upon char coal, in the reduction flame, it is easily reduced to a metallic globule. Certain compounds of tin-oxides, particularly if they contain tantalum, are by fusion with carbonate of soda reduced with difficulty ; but by the addition of some borax, the reduc tion to the metallic state is easily effected. Tin-oxides exposed to the oxidation flame, then moistened with a solution of cobalt, and exposed again to the flame of oxidation, will exhibit, after having completely cooled, a bluish- green color. EIGHTH GROUP. MERCURY, ARSENIC. These two metals are volatilized at a temperature lower than that of a red heat, and produce, therefore, no reactions with borax and microcosinic salt. Their oxides are easily reduced to the metallic state. (a.) Mercury (Hg). This metal occurs in nature chiefly combined with sulphur as a bisulphide. 158 THE BLOWPIPE. It occurs still more rarely in the metallic form, or combined with silver, selenium, or chlorine. Mercury, in the metallic state, has a strong lustre, and is liquid at ordinary temperatures, whereby it is distinguished from any other metal. It freezes at 40 and boils at 620, but it evaporates at common temperatures. Pure mercury is unalterable. Upon being exposed to the air, it tarnishes only by admixture with other metals, turns grey on the surface, and loses its lustre. It is soluble in cold nitric acid and in concen trated hot sulphuric acid, but n<3t in hydrochloric acid. (X-) Protoxide of Mercury (Hg 2 0). It is a black powder, which is decomposed by ignition into metallic mercury and oxy gen. By digestion with certain acids, and particularly with caustic alkalies, it is converted into metallic mercury and per oxide. Some neutral salts of the protoxide are only partly soluble in water, as they are converted into basic insoluble and acid soluble salts. Protoxide of mercury is completely insoluble in hydrochloric acid. Its neutral salts change blue litmus paper to red. (/3.) Peroxide of Mercury (HgO). This oxide exists in two allotropic modifications. One is of a brick-red color, and the other is orange. Being exposed to heat, they turn black, but regain their respective colors upon cooling. They are decom posed at a high temperature into metallic mercury and oxygen. They yield with acids their own peculiar salts. Mercury, in the metallic form, can never be mistaken for any other metal in consequence of its fluid condition at ordinary temperatures. Exposed to the blowpipe flame, it is instantly volatilized. This is also the case with it when combined with other metals. The oxides of mercury are, in the oxidation and reduction flames, instantly reduced and volatilized. They do not produce any alteration with fluxes, as they are volatilized before the bead melts. Heated with carbonate of soda in a glass tube closed at one end, they are reduced to metallic mer cury, which is volatilized, and condenses upon a cool portion of SPECIAL REACTIONS. 159 the tube as a grey powder. By cautious knocking against the tube, or by rubbing with a glass rod, this sublimate cau be brought together into one globule of metallic mercury. Com pounds of mercury can be most completely reduced by a mix ture of neutral oxalate of potassa and cyanide of potassium. If the substance under examination contains such a small quan tity of mercury that it cannot be distinguished by volatilization, a strip of gold leaf may be attached to an iron wire, and intro duced during the experiment in the glass tube. The smallest trace of mercury will whiten the gold leaf in spots. (b.) Arsenic (As). This metal occurs in considerable quan tity in nature, chiefly combined with sulphur or metals. Arsenic, in the metallic state, is of a whitish-grey color, high lustre, and is crystalline, of a foliated structure, and is so brittle that it can be pulverized. It does not melt, but is volatilized at 356. Its vapor has a strong alliaceous odor. Arsenic sublimes in irregular crystals. By exposure to the air it soon tarnishes, and is coated black. Being mixed with nitrate of potassa and inflamed, it detonates with vehemence. Mixed with carbonate of potassa, it is inflamed by a stroke of the hammer, and detonates violently. Heated in oxygen gas, it is inflamed, and burns with a pale blue flame to arsenious acid. ((3.) Arsenious Acid (AsO 3 ). This acid crystallizes in octa hedrons, or, when fused, forms a colorless glass, which finally becomes opaque and enamel-like, or forms a white powder. It sublimes without change or decomposition. When heated for a longer while below the temperature of sublimation, it melts into a transparent, colorless, tough glass. The opaque acid is sparingly soluble in cold water, and still more soluble in hot water. It is converted, by continued boiling, into the transpa rent acid, which is much more soluble in water. Arsenious acid is easily dissolved by caustic potassa. It is also soluble in hydrochloric acid. This acid occurs associated with antimo- nious acid, protoxide of tin, protoxide of lead, and oxide of 160 THE BLOWPIPE. copper. It occurs likewise in very small quantity in ferrugi nous mineral springs. (y.) Arsenic Acid (AsO 5 ) is a white mass, which readily absorbs moisture and dissolves. It will not volatilize at a low red heat, nor will it decompose. Exposed to a strong heat, it is decomposed, yielding oxygen, and passing into arsenious acid. Reactions before the Blowpipe. Metallic arsenic, heated in a glass tube closed at one end, yields a black sublimate of a metallic lustre, and at the same time gives out the characteristic alliaceous odor. This is the case too with alloys of arsenic, if there is a maximum quantity of arsenic present. When heated in a glass tube open at both ends, metallic arsenic is oxidized to arsenious acid, which appears as a white crystalline sublimate on the sides of the glass tube. This deposit will occur at some distance from the assay, in conse quence of the great volatility of the arsenic. The sublimate can be driven from one place upon the tube to another, by a very low heat. Alloys of arsenic are converted into basic arseniates of metal oxides, while surplus arsenic is converted into arsenious acid, which sublimes on the tube. If too much arsenic is used for this experiment, a dark-brown incrustation will sublime upon the sides of the tube which will give an alli aceous smell. If this sublimate should be deposited near the assay, then it resembles the white sublimate of arsenious acid. Heated upon charcoal, metallic arsenic is volatilized before it melts, and incrusts the charcoal in the flame of oxidation as a white deposit of arsenious acid. This sublimate appears sometimes of a greyish color, and takes place at some dis tance from the assay. When heated slightly with the blow pipe flame, this sublimate is instantly driven away, and being heated rapidly in the reduction flame, it disappears with a S r K c i A L REACTIONS. 161 light blue tinge, while the usual alliaceous or garlic smell may be discerned. Arsenious acid sublimes in both glass tubes very readily, as a white crystalline sublimate. These crystals appear to be regu lar octahedrons when observed under the microscope. Upon charcoal it instantly volatilizes, and when heated, the character istic garlic smell may be observed. Arsenic acid yields, heated strongly in a glass tube closed at one end, oxygen and arsenious acid, the latter of which sub limes in the cool portions of the tube. Compounds of arsenic produce, in consequence of their volatility, no reactions with fluxes. Being heated upon charcoal with carbonate of soda, they are reduced to metallic arsenic which may be detected by the alliaceous odor peculiar to all the arsenic compounds when volatilized. NINTH GROUP. COPPER, SILVER, GOLD. These metals are not volatile, neither are their oxides. They are reduced to the metallic state, by fusion with carbonate of soda, when they melt to a metallic grain. The oxides of silver and gold are reduced per se to the metallic state by ignition. In the reduction of the oxides of this group, no sublimate is visible upon the charcoal, (a.) Copper (Cu). This metal occurs in the metallic state, also as the protoxide, and as oxides combined with acids in different salts (carbonate of copper as malachite, etc.) The sul phide of copper is the principal ore of copper occurring in nature. In the metallic state, copper is of a red color, has great lustre and tenacity, is ductile and malleable, and crystallizes in octa hedrons and cubes. It melts at a bright red heat, is more difficult than silver to fuse, but fuses more readily than gold. It absorbs oxygen while melting. There arises from its surface a fine dust of metallic globules, which are covered with the protoxide. The surface of the metal is likewise covered with 162 THE BLOWPIPK. the protoxide. Copper exposed to moist air tarnishes, and is converted into hydratic carbonate of copper. When ignited in the open air, it is soon covered with the brownish-red prot oxide. (%.) Protoxide of Copper (Cu O). This oxide occurs in nature, crystallized in octahedrons of a ruby-red color, of a lamellar structure, and transparent. Artificially prepared, it forms a powder of the same color. It is decomposed by dilute acids into salts of peroxide and metal. It is converted by igni tion, with free access of air, into peroxide. (j3.) Oxide of Copper (CuO). This oxide is a dark-brown or black powder. It is dissolved by acids, with a blue or green-colored solution. It is soluble in aqua ammonia, and the solution is of a dark blue color. Reactions before the Blowpipe. Oxide of copper exposed upon platinum wire to the inmost flame (the blue flame), com municates to the external flame a green color. Heated upon charcoal in the oxidation flame, it melts to a black ball, soon spreads over the charcoal, and is partially reduced. Exposed to the reduction flame, at a temperature which will not melt copper, it is reduced with a bright metallic lustre, but as soon as the blast ceases, the surface of the metal becomes oxidized, and appears dark brown or black. If the tempera ture is continued still higher, it melts to a metallic grain. Borax dissolves the oxide of copper in the flame of oxidation to a clear green-colored bead, even if the quantity of oxide be quite small, but by cooling, the bead becomes blue. In the flame of reduction upon platinum wire, the bead soon becomes colorless, but while cooling presents a red color (protoxide of copper). This bead is opaque, but, if too much of the oxide is added, a part of it is reduced to metal, which is visible by breaking the metallic grain. Upon charcoal, the oxide is reduced to the metal, and the bead appears colorless after cooling. With the addition of Borne tin, the bead becomes brownish-red and opaque after cooling. SPECIAL REACTIONS. 163 Microcosmic Salt dissolves oxide of copper in the flame of oxidation to a green bead, not so intensely colored as the borax bead. In the reduction flame the bead, if pretty well saturated, becomes dark-green while hot, and brownish-red when cool, opaque and enamel-like. If the oxide is so little that no reaction is visible, by the addition of some tin, the bead appears colorless while hot, and dark brownish-red and opaque when cold. Carbonate of Scda dissolves oxide of copper in the oxidation flame upon platinum wire, to a clear, green bead, which loses its color when cooling, and becomes opaque. Upon charcoal, it is reduced to the metal, the soda is ab sorbed by the charcoal, and the metallic particles melt with sufficient heat to a grain. (b.) Silver (Ag). This metal occurs in nature in the me tallic state, and in combination with other metals, particularly with lead. It also occurs as the sulphide in several mines. It crystallizes in cubes and octahedrons ; is of a pure white color, great lustre, is very malleable and ductile, and is softer than copper, but harder than gold. It is not oxidizable, neither at common temperatures nor at those which are considerably higher. It is soluble in dilute nitric acid, and in boiling con centrated sulphuric acid. (%.) Protoxide of Silver (Ag 2 0). It is a black powder. It is converted by acids and ammonia into oxide and metal. (|3.) Oxide of Silver (AgO). It is a greyish-brown or black powder, and is the base of the silver salts. With aqua ammonia, it is converted into the black, fulminating silver. (7.) Superoxide or Binoxide of Silver (AgO 2 ). This oxide occurs in black needles or octahedral crystals of great metallic lustre. It is dissolved by the oxygen acids with the disen gagement of oxygen gas. Behavior before the Blowpipe. When exposed to the flames of oxidation and reduction, the oxides of silver are instantly reduced to the metallic state. Borax dissolves silver-oxides upon platinum wire in the 16:1: THE BLOWPIPE. oxidation flame but partially, while the other portion is re duced, the bead appearing opalescent after cooling, in corres pondence to the degree of saturation. The bead becomes grey in the flame of reduction, the reduced silver melting to a grain, and the bead is rendered clear and colorless again. Microcosmic Salt dissolves oxides of silver in the flame of oxidation upon platinum wire to a transparent yellowish bead, which presents, when much of the oxide is present, an opales cent appearance. In the flame of reduction, the reaction is analogous to that of borax. By fusion with carbonate of soda in the oxidation and reduc tion flames, the silver oxides are instantly reduced to metallic silver, which fuses into one or more grains. (c.) Gold (Au). This metal occurs mostly in the metallic state, but frequently mixed with ores, and with other metals. Gold crystallizes in cubes and octahedrons, is of a beautiful yel low color, great lustre, and is the most malleable and ductile of all the metals. It melts at a higher temperature than cop per, gives a green colored light when fused, and contracts greatly when cooling. It does not oxidize at ordinary tempe ratures, nor when heated much above them. It is soluble in nitro-hydrochloric acid (aqua regia). (%.) Protoxide of Gold (Au 2 0). This oxide is a dark violet colored powder which is converted by a temperature of 540 into metallic gold and oxygen. It is only soluble in aqua regia. Treated with hydrochloric acid, it yields the chloride of gold and the metal. With aqua ammonia, it yields the ful minating gold, which is a blue mass and very explosive. (%.) Peroxide of Gold (Au 2 3 ). This oxide is an olive- green or dark brown powder, containing variable quantities of water. Decomposed at 530, it yields metallic gold and oxy gen. Reactions before the Blowpipe. Oxides of gold are reduced, in both the oxidation and reduction flames, to the metal, which fuses to grains SPECIAL REACTIONS. 165 Borax does not dissolve it, but it is reduced to the metallic state in this flux in either flame. The reduced metal fuses upon charcoal to a grain. Microcosmic Salt presents the same reactions as borax. When fused with soda, upon charcoal, the soda is absorbed, and the gold remains as a metallic grain. TENTH GROUP. MOLYBDENUM, OSMIUM. These metals are not volatile, and are infusible before the blowpipe; but some of their oxides are volatile, and can be reduced to an infusible metallic powder. (a.) Molybdenum (Mo) occurs in the metallic state ; also combined with sulphur, or as molybdic acid combined with lead. It is a white, brittle metal, and is unaltered by expo sure to the air. When heated until it begins to glow, it is converted into a brown oxide. Heated at a continued dull red heat, it turns blue. At a higher temperature, it is oxidized to molybdic acid, when it glimmers and smokes, and is converted into crystallized molybdic acid upon the surface. (%.) Protoxide of Molybdenum (MoO). This oxide is a black powder. (%.) Deut oxide of Molybdenum (MoO 2 ). This oxide is a dark copper-colored crystalline powder. Reactions before the Blowpipe. Metallic molybdenum, its protoxide and binoxide, are converted in the oxidation flame into molybdic acid. This acid fuses in the flame of oxidation to a brown liquid, which spreads, volatilizes, and sublimes upon the charcoal as a yellow powder, which appears crystalline in the vicinity of the assay. This sublimate becomes white after cooling. Beyond this sublimate there is visible a thin and not volatile ore of binoxide, after cooling; this is of a dark copper- red color, and presenting a metallic lustre. Heated in a glass tube, closed at one end, it melts to a brown mass, vaporizes and sublimates to a white powder upon a cool portion of the tube, Immediately above the assay, yel- 166 THE BLOWPIPE. low crystals are visible; these crystals are colorless after cool ing, and the fused mass becomes light yellow-colored and crys talline. Upon platinum foil, in the flame of oxidation, it melts and vaporizes, and becomes light yellow and crystalline after cool ing. In the reduction flame it becomes blue, and brown-colored if the heat is increased. Upon charcoal, in the reduction flame, it is absorbed by the charcoal; and, with an increase of the temperature, it is re duced to the metal, which remains as a grey powder after washing off the particles of charcoal. Borax dissolves it, in the oxidation flame, upon platinum wire easily, and in great quantity, to a clear yellow, which becomes colorless while cooling. By the addition of more of the molybdenic acid the bead is dark yellow, or red while hot, and opalescent when cold. In the reduction flame, the color of the bead is changed to brown and transparent. By the addition of more of the acid, it becomes opaque. Microcosmic Salt dissolves it in the oxidation flame, upon platinum wire, to a clear, yellowish-green bead, which becomes colorless after cooling. In the reduction flame the bead is very dark and opaque, but becomes of a bright green after cooling. This is the case likewise upon charcoal. Carbonate of Soda dissolves it upon platinum wire in the oxidation flame with intumescence, to a clear bead, which appears milk-white after cooling. Upon charcoal the soda and the molybdic acid are absorbed, the latter is reduced to the metallic state, the metal remaining as a grey powder after washing off the particles of charcoal. When molybdic acid, or any other oxide of this metal, is exposed upon platinum wire, or with platinum tongs, to the point of the blue flame, a yellowish- green color is communicated to the external flame. If also any of the compounds of molybdenum are mixed in the form of. a powder with concentrated sulphuric acid and alcohol, and the latter inflamed, the flame of the alcohol appears colored green. (c.) Osmium (Os). This metal occurs associated with pla- SPECIAL REACTIONS. 167 linura. It is of a bluish-grey color, and is very brittle. Ignited in the open air, it is oxidized to volatile osmic acid, which is possessed of a pungent smell, and affects the eyes. It communicates a bright white color to the flame of alcohol. Osmium oxide (OsO a ) is converted in the oxidation flame to osmic acid, which is volatilized with a peculiar smell, leaving a sublimate. In the reduction flame it is reduced to a dark-brown infusible metallic powder. It produces no reactions with fluxes. Car bonate of soda reduces it upon charcoal to an infusible metallic powder, which appears, after washing off the particles of char coal, of a dark-brown color. ELEVENTH GROUP. PLATINUM, PALLADIUM, IRIDIUM, RHODIUM, RUTHENIUM. These metals are infusible before the blowpipe. They are not volatile, nor are they oxidizable. Their oxides are, in both flames, reduced to a metallic and infusible powder. They give no reactions with fluxes, but are separated in the metallic form. These metals are generally found associated together in the native platinum, also with traces of copper, lead, and iron. The metal palladium is found native, associated with iridium and platinum. This metal generally occurs in greatest quan tity in Brazil. The metal rhodium is found along with platinum, but in very small quantities. Iridium occurs in nature associated with osmium, gold, and platinum, in the mines of Russia. Its great hardness has ren dered it desirable for the points of gold pens. In South America this metal is found native, associated with platinum and osmium. The latter metal, associated with platinum and indium, has been found in South America. As these metals will not oxidize or dissolve, they cannot be separated from each other by the blowpipe with the reagents peculiar to that species of analysis. It is true that colors may 168 THE BLOWPIPE. be discerned in the beads, but these tints proceed from the pre sence of small traces of copper, iron, etc. The ore of osmium and iridinm can be decomposed, and the former recognized by its fetid odor. This metal, strongly ignited in a glass tube with nitrate of potash, is converted to the oxide of osmium, which gives an odor not unlike the chlo ride of sulphur. As the metals of this group are very rare ones, especially the last four ones, we shall not devote an especial division to each of them. For a more detailed statement of their reactions, the student is referred to the large works upon blowpipe analysis. CLASS III. NON-METALLIC SUBSTANCES. 1. Water 2. Nitric Acid 3. Carbon 4. Phosphorus 5. Sul phur 6. Boron 7. Silicon 8. Chlorine 9. Bromine. 10. Iodine 11. Fluorine 12. Cyanogen 13. Seleninm. (1.) Water (HO). Pure distilled water is composed of one volume of oxygen, and two volumes of hydrogen gases ; or, by weight, of one part of hydrogen to eight parts of oxygen gases. Water is never found pure in nature, but possessing great solvent properties, it always is found with variable pro portions of those substances it is most liable to meet with, dis solved in it. Thus it derives various designations depending upon the nature of the substance it may hold in solution, as lime-water, etc. In taking cognizance of water in relation to blowpipe analy sts, we regard it only as existing in minerals. The examination for water is generally performed thus : the substance may be placed in a dry tube, and then submitted to heat over a spirit- lamp. If the water exists in the mineral mechanically it will soon be driven off, but if it exists chemically combined, the heat will fail to drive it off, or if it does, it will only partially SPECIAL REACTIONS. 169 effect it. The water will condense upon the cool portions of the tube, where it can be readily discerned. If the water exists chemically combined, a much stronger heat must be applied in order to separate it. Many substances may be perhaps mistaken for water by the beginner, such as the volatile acids, etc. (2 ) Nitric Acid (NO 6 ). Nitric acid occurs in nature in potash and soda saltpetre. These salts are generally impure, containing lime, as the sulphate, carbonate and nitrate, and also iron in small quantity. The soda saltpetre generally contains a quantity of the chloride of sodium. The salts containing nitric acid deflagrate when heated on charcoal. Substances containing nitric acid may be heated in a glass tube closed at one end, by which the characteristic red fumes of nitrous acid are eliminated. If the acid be in too minute a quantity to be thus distinguished, a portion of the substance may be intimately mixed with some bisulphate of potash, and treated as above. The sulphuric acid of the bisulphate combines with the base, and liberates the nitric acid, while the tube contains the nitrous acid gas. The nitrate of potassa, when heated in a glass tube, fuses to a clear glass, but gives off no water. When fused on platinum wire, it communicates to the external flame the characteristic violet color. When fused and ignited on charcoal, its surface becomes frothy, indicating the nitric acid. (3.) Carbon (C). Carbon is found in nature in the pure crystallized state as the diamond. It occurs likewise in several allotropic states as graphite, plumbago, charcoal, anthracite, etc. It exists in large quantities combined with oxygen as carbonic acid. The diamond, although combustible, requires too high a he at for its combustion to enable us to burn it with the blowpipe. When excluded from the air, it may be heated to whiteness without undergoing fusion, but with the free access of air it burns at a temperature of 703 C, and is converted into car bonic acid. If mixed with nitre, the potassa retains the car- 8 170 THE BLOWPIPE. bonic acid, and the carbon may be thus easily estimated. If a mineral containing carbonic acid is heated, the gas escapes with effervescence, or a strong mineral acid as the hydrochloric will expel the acid with the characteristic effervescence. (4.) Phosphorus, Phosphoric Acid (PO 5 ). This acid occurs in a variety of minerals, associated with yttria, copper, uranium, iron, lead, manganese, etc. Phosphoric acid may be detected in minerals by pursuing the following process: dip a small piece of the mineral in sulphuric acid, and place it in the plati num tongs: this is heated at the point of the blue flame, when the outer flame will become colored of a greenish-blue hue. This color will not be mistaken for those of boracic acid, cop per, or baryta. Some of the phosphoric minerals, when heated in the inner flame, will color the outer flame green. If alumina be present with the phosphoric acid, the following wet method should be adopted for the detection of the latter: the substance should be powdered in the agate mortar with a mixture of six parts of soda, and one and a half parts of silica. The entire mass should now be placed on charcoal, and melted in the flame of oxidation. The residue should be treated with boiling water, which dissolves the phosphate and the excess of carbonate of soda, while the silicate of alumina, with some of the soda, is left. The clear liquor is now treated with acetic acid, and heated over the spirit-lamp, and a small portion of crystallized nitrate of silver added; a lemon-yellow precipitate of phosphate of silver is quickly developed. Previous to the addition of the nitrate, the liquor should be well heated; other wise, a white precipitate of dipyrophosphate of silver will be produced. If the examination be of any of the metallic phosphides, the substances should be powdered in the agate mortar, and fused with nitrate of potassa on the platinum wire; the fused mass should be treated with soda in the same manner as any sub stance containing phosphoric acid. The metal and the phos phorus are oxidized, while the phosphate of potassa is fused, and the metallic oxide separates. SPECIAL REACTIONS. 171 (5.) Sulphur (S). Sulphur is found native in crystals It is frequently found associated with lime, iron, silica, carbon, etc., and combined extensively with metals. The principal acid of sulphur (the sulphuric, SO 3 ) occurs combined with the earths, the alkalies, and the metallic oxides. Native sulphur is recognized, when heated upon charcoal, by its odor (sulphurous acid) and the blue color of its flame. The compounds of sulphur may be detected by several methods. If the substance is heated in a glass tube, closed at one end, the yellow sublimate of sulphur will subside upon the cool por tions of the tube; if the substance should also contain arsenic, the sublimate will present itself as a light brown incrustation, consisting of the sulphide of arsenic. If the assay is heated in the open glass tube, sulphurous acid will thus be generated; but, if the gas is too little to be de tected by the smell, a strip of moistened litmus paper will indi cate the presence of the acid. The assay will give off sulphurous fumes if heated in the flame of oxidation. If the powdered substance is fused with two parts of soda, and one part of borax, upon charcoal, the sulphide of sodium is formed. This salt, if moistened and applied to a polished silver surface, will blacken it. The borax serves no other pur pose than to prevent the absorption of the formed sulphide of sodium by the charcoal. As selenium will blacken silver in the manner above indicated, the presence of this substance should be first ascertained, by heating the assay; when, if it be pre sent, the characteristic horse-radish odor will reveal the fact. Sulphuric acid may be detected by fusing the substance with two parts of soda, and one part of borax, on charcoal, in the flame of reduction ; the mass must now be wetted with water, and placed in contact with a surface of bright silver; when, if sulphuric acid be present, the silver will become blackened. Or the substance may be fused with silicate of soda in the flame of reduction. In this case, the soda combines with a por tion of the sulphuric acid, which is then reduced to the sul- 172 THE BLOWPIPE. pbide, while the bead becomes of an orange or red color, depending upon the amount of the sulphuric acid present. If the assay should, however, be colored, then the previous treat ment should be resorted to. (6.) Boron, Boradc Add (BO 3 ). This acid occurs in nature in several minerals combined with various bases, such as mag nesia, lime, soda, alumina, etc. Combined with water, this acid exists in nature as the native boracic acid; this acid gives with test paper prepared from Brazil wood, when moistened with water, a characteristic reaction, for the paper becomes completely bleached. An alcohol solution turns curcuma test paper brown. Heated on charcoal, it fuses to a clear bead; but, if the sulphate of lime be present, the bead becomes opaque upon cooling. The following reaction is a certain one: the substance is pulverized and mixed with a flux of four and a half parts of bisulphate of potassa, and one part of pulverized fluoride of calcium. The whole is made into a paste with water, and the assay is placed on the platinum wire, and submitted to the point of the blue flame. While the assay is melting, fluoboric gas is disengaged, which tinges the outer flame green. If but a small portion of boracic acid is present, the color will be quite evanescent. (7.) Silica, Silicic Acid (SiO 3 ). This acid exists in the greatest plenty, forming no inconsiderable portion of the solid part of this earth. It exists nearly pure in crystallized quartz, chalcedony, cornelian, flint, etc., the coloring ingredients of these minerals being generally iron or manganese. With microcosmic salt, silica forms a bead in the flame of oxi dation which, while hot, is clear, while the separated silica floats in it. A platinum wire is generally used for the purpose, the end of it being first dipped in the salt which is fused into a bead, after which the silica must be added, and then the bead submitted to the flame of oxidation. The silicates dissolve in soda but partially, and then with effervescence. If the oxygen of the acid be twice that of SPECIAL REACTIONS. 173 the base, a clear bead will be obtained that will retain its transparency when cold. If the soda be added in small quan tity, the bead will then be opaque. In the first instance, a part of the base which separates is re-dissolved, and, therefore, the transparency of the glass; but, if too large a quantity of the soda is added, the separation of the base is sufficient to render the assay infusible. (8.) Chlorine (Cl). Chlorine exists in nature always in combination, as the chlorides of sodium, potassium, calcium, ammonium, magnesia, silver, mercury, lead, copper, etc. The chlorine existing in metallic chlorides may be detected as follows: the wet way may be accomplished in the following manner. If the substance is insoluble, it must be melted with soda to render it soluble; if it be already soluble it must be dissolved in pure water, and nitrate of silver added, when the one ten-thousandth part of chlorine will manifest its presence by imparting a milky hue to the fluid. By the blowpipe, chlorine may be detected in the following manner: Oxide of copper is dissolved in microcosmic salt on the platinum wire in the flame of oxidation, and a clear bead is obtained. The substance containing the chlorine is now added, and heat is applied. The assay will soon be enveloped by a blue or purplish flame. As none of the acids that occur in the mineral kingdom give this reaction, chlorine cannot be con founded with them, for those which impart a color to the flame, when mixed with a copper salt, will not do so when tested in the microcosmic salt bead as above indicated. If the assay is soluble in water, the following method may be followed: a small quantity of sulphate of copper or iron is dissolved; a few drops of the solution is placed upon a bright surface of silver, and the metallic chloride added; when, if chlorine is present, the silver is blackened. If the chloride is insoluble in water, it must be rendered soluble by fusion upon a platinum wire with soda, and then treated as above.* * Plattncr. 174: THE BLOWPIPE. (9.) Bromine (Br). The bromide of magnesium and sodium exists in many salt springs, and it is from these that the bro mine of commerce is obtained. The metallic bromides give the same reactions on silver with the microcosmic bead and copper salt as the metallic chlorides. The purplish color which, how ever, characterizes the chlorides, is more inclined to greenish with the bromides. If the substance be placed in a flask or glass tube, and fused with bisulphate of potassa, over the spirit-lamp, sulphurous gas and bromine will be eliminated. Bromine will be readily detected by its yellow color and its smell. Bromine may be readily detected by passing a current of chlorine through the fluid, after which ether is added and the whole is agitated. The ether rises to the top, carrying with it the bromine in solution ; after being withdrawn, this ether is mixed with potassa, by which the bromide and bromate of potassa are formed. The solution is evaporated to dryness, the residue is fused in a platinum vessel, the bromate is decompos ed, while the bromide remains; this must be distilled with sul phuric acid and the binoxide of manganese. A red or brown vapor will then appear, indicating the presence of bromine; this vapor will color starch paste which may be put in the re ceiver on purpose of a deep orange color. If, to a solution containing a bromide, concentrated sulphuric or nitric acid be added, the bromine is liberated and colors the solution yellow or red. The hypochlorites act in the same manner. The bromine salts are coming into use extensively in photography, in consequence of their greater sensitiveness to the action of light than the chlorides alone. (10.) Iodine (I). This element occurs in salt-springs, generally combined with sodium; it also exists in rock-salt; it has likewise been found in sea-water, also in a mineral from Mexico, in combination with silver, and in one from Silesia, in combination with zinc. As sea-water contains iodine, we would consequently expect to find it existing in the sea-weeds, and it \s generally from the ashes of these that it is obtained in com merce. SPECIAL REACTIONS. 175 When the metallic iodides are fused with the microcosmic salt and copper, as previously indicated, they impart a green color to the flame. This color cannot be mistaken for the color imparted to the flame by copper alone. When the metallic iodides are fused in a glass tube, closed at one end, with the bisulphate of potassa, the vapor of iodine is liberated, and may be recognized by its characteristic color. Those min eral waters containing iodine can be treated the same as for bromine, as previously indicated, while the violet-colored vapor of the iodine can be easily discerned. The nitrate of silver is the best test for iodine, the yellow color of the iodide of silver being not easily mistaken, while its almost insolubility in am monia will confirm its identity. The chloride of silver, on the contrary, dissolves in ammonia with the greatest facility. The reactions of iodine are similar to those of bromine with concentrated sulphuric acid and binoxide of manganese, and with nitric acid: The iodine is released and, if the quantity be not too great, colors the liquid brown. If there be a consider able quantity of iodine present, it is precipitated as a dark colored powder. Either of these, when heated, gives out the violet-color of the iodine. With starch paste free iodine combines, producing a deep blue compound. If, however, the iodine be in very minute quantity, the color, instead of being blue, will be light violet or rose color. If to a solution of the sulphate of copper, to which a small portion of sulphurous acid has been added, a liquid containing iodine and bromine is poured in, a dirty, white precipitate of the subiodide of copper is produced, and the bromine remains in the solution. The latter may then be tested for the bromine by strong sulphuric acid. (11.) Fluorine (Fl). This element exists combined with sodium, calcium, lithium, aluminium, magnesium, yttrium, and cerium. Fluorine also exists in the enamel of the teeth, and in the bones of some animals. This element has a strong affinity for hydrogen, and, therefore, we find it frequently in 176 THE BLOWPIPE. the form of hydrofluoric acid. Brazil-wood paper is the most delicate test for hydrofluoric acid, which it tinges of a light yellow color. Phosphoric acid likewise colors Brazil paper yellow, but as this acid is not volatile at a heat sufficient to examine hydrofluoric acid, there can be no mistake. If the substance is supposed to contain this acid, it should be placed on a slip of glass, and moistened with hydrochloric acid, when the test paper may be applied, and the characteristic yellow color will indicate the presence of the fluorine. As hydrofluoric acid acts upon glass, this property may be used for its detection. The substance may be put into a glass tube, and sulphuric acid poured upon it in sufficient quantity to moisten it; a slight heat applied to the tube will develop the acid, which will act upon the glass of the tube. If the acid is retained in the mineral by a feeble affinity, and water be present, a piece of it may be put in the tube and heated, when the acid gas will be eliminated. The test paper will indicate its presence, even before it has time to act upon the glass. If the temperature be too high, fluosilicic acid is generated, and will form a silicious incrustation upon the cool portion of the tube. If the fluorine is too minute to produce either of the above reactions, then the following process, recommended by Plattner, should be followed : the assay should be mixed with metaphos- phate of soda, formed by heating the microcosmic salt to dull redness. The mass must then be placed in an open glass tube, in such a position that there will be an access of hot air from the flame. Thus aqueous hydrofluoric acid is formed, which can be recognized by its smell being more suffocating than chlorine, and also by the etching produced by the conden sation of vapor in the tube. Moist Brazil paper, applied to the extremity of the tube, will be instantly colored yellow. Merlet s method for the detection of this acid is the follow ing : * Pulverize the substance for examination, then triturate * Quoted by Plattner. SPECIAL REACTIONS. 177 it to an impalpable powder, and mix it with an equal part of bisulphate of potassa. Heat the mass gradually in a moderately wide test-tube. The judicious application of heat must be strictly observed, for if the operator first heats the part of the tube where the assay rests, the whole may be lost on account of the glass being shattered. The spirit-flame must be first applied to the fore part of the tube, and then made to recede slowly until it fuses the assay. After the mixture has been for some time kept in a molten state, the lamp must be withdrawn, and the part containing the assay severed with a file. The fore part of the tube must then be well washed, and afterwards dried with bibulous paper. Should the fluorine contained in the substance be appreciable, the glass tube, when held up to the light, will be found to have lost its transparency, and to be very rough to the touch. Great care should be observed not to allow this very corrosive acid to come into contact with the skin, as an ulcer will be the consequence that will be extremely difficult to heal. When hydrofluoric acid comes in contact with any silicious substance, hydrofluosilicic acid gas is always formed. (12.) Selenium (Se). This element occurs in combination with lead as the selenide, and with copper as the selenide of copper. It exists also combined with cobalt and lead, as the selenide of these metals ; also as the selenide of lead and mercury. The smallest trace of selenium may be detected by igniting a small piece of charcoal in the flame of oxidation, when the peculiar and unmistakable odor of decayed horse-radish will indicate the presence of "that element. An orange vapor is eliminated if the selenium be present in any quantity, while there is an incrustation around the assay of a grey color, with a metallic lustre. This incrustation frequently presents a red dish-violet color at its exterior edges, often running into a deep blue. If a substance containing selenium be placed in a glass tube, closed at one end, and submitted to heat, the selenium is sublimed, with an orange-colored vapor, and with the charac- 8* 178 THE BLOW PIPE. teristic odor of that substance. Upon the cool portions of the tube a steel-grey sublimate is deposited, and, beyond that, can be discerned small crystals of selenic acid. If the mineral be the seleniferous lead glance, sulphurous acid gas will be given off, and may be detected by the smell, or by a strip of moist ened litmus paper. If arsenic is present, heating upon charcoal will quickly lead to the determination of the one from the other. TABULAR STATEMENT OF THE REACTION S OF MINERALS BEFORE THE BLOWPIPE. In PART THIRD of this work, commencing at page 109, the student will find a sufficiently explicit description of the blow pipe reactions of those principal substances that would be likely to come beneath his attention. The following tabular statement of those reactions which we take from Scheerer and Blanford s excellent little work upon the blowpipe will be / of great benefit, as a vehicle for consultation, when the want of time or during the hurry of an examination precludes the attentive perusal of the more lengthy descriptions in the text. In the examination of minerals, before the student avails himself of the aid of the blowpipe, he should not neglect to examine the specimen rigidly in relation to its physical charac ters, such as its hardness, lustre, color, and peculiar crystalliza tion. It is where the difference of two minerals cannot be distinguished by their physical appearance, that the aid of the blowpipe comes in most significantly as an auxiliary. For instance, the two minerals molybdenite and graphite resemble each other very closely, when examined in regard to their physical appearance, but the blowpipe will quickly discriminate them, for if a small piece of the former mineral be placed in the flame of oxidation, a bright green color will be communi cated to the flame beyond it, while in the latter there will be no color. Thus, in a very short time, these two minerals can SPECIAL EEACTIONS. 1Y9 be distinguished from each other by aid of the blowpipe, while no amount of physical examination could determine that point. The blowpipe is equally an indispensable instrument in the determination of certain minerals which may exist in others as essential or non-essential constituents of them. For instance, should a minute quantity of manganese be present in a mineral, it must be fused with twice its bulk of a mixture of two parts of carbonate of soda, and one part of the nitrate of potassa, in the flame of oxidation upon platinum foil. The manganate of soda thus formed will color the fused mass of a bluish-green tint. Or a slight quantity of arsenic may be discerned by the fol lowing process recommended by Plattner : * one grain of the finely pulverized metal is mixed with six grains of nitrate of potassa, and slowly heated on the platinum spoon. By this means the metals are oxidized, while the arseniate of potassa is obtained. Then boil the fused mass in a small quantity of water in a porcelain vessel till all the arseniate is dissolved. The metallic oxides are allowed to subside, and the above solution decanted off into another porcelain vessel. A few drops of sulphuric acid are added, and the solution boiled to expel the nitric acid, after which it is evaporated to dryness. In this operation, the sulphuric acid should be added only in sufficient quantity to drive off the nitric acid, or, at the utmost, to form a bisulphate with the excess of potassa. When dry, the salt thus obtained is pulverized in an agate mortar, and mixed with about three times its volume of oxalate of potassa, and a little charcoal powder. The mixture is introduced into a glass bulb having a narrow neck, and gently warmed over a spirit-lamp in order to drive off the moisture, which must be absorbed by a piece of blotting-paper in the neck of the bulb. After a short time, the temperature is increased to a low red heat, at which the arsenious acid is reduced and the metallic arsenic sublimed, and which re-condenses in the neck of the * Quoted by Scheerer. 180 BEHAVIOR OF MINERALS. bulb. If there the arsenic be so small in quantity as to exhibit no metallic lustre, the neck of the bulb may be cut off with a file immediately above the sublimate, and the latter exposed to the flame of the blowpipe, when the arsenic is volatilized, and may be recognized by its garlic odor. If the presence of cadmium is suspected in zinc-blende, it may be detected by fusing a small piece of the blende upon charcoal in carbonate of soda. The peculiar bright yellow sublimate of the oxide of cadmium, if it be present, will not fail to indicate it. This incrustation can be easily distinguished from that of zinc. Thus, with the three illustrations we have given, the student will readily comprehend the great utility of the blow pipe in the examination of minerals. Although the following tables were not arranged especially for the last part of this work, still this arrangement is so good that by their consultation the student will readily comprehend at a glance what requires some detail to explain, and we feel no hesitation in saying that, although they are not very copi ous, they will not fail to impart a vast amount of information, if consulted with any degree of carefulness. The minerals given are such as are best known to English and American mineralogists under the names specified. For more detailed reactions than could be crowded into a table, the student will have to consult the particular substance as treated in Part Third. If this part is perused carefully previous to consulting the tables, these will be found eminently serviceable as a refresher of the memory, and may thus save much time and trouble. And, finally, we would certainly recommend the student, after he shall have gone through our little volume (if he is ambitious of making himself a thorough blowpipe analyst), to then take up the larger works of Berzelius and Plattner, for our treatise pretends to nothing more than a humble intro duction to these more copious and scientific works. BEFORE THE BLOWPIPE. 181 Mineral. Formula. Behavior in glass-bulb. on platinum foil. Diamond . . Graphite. . . Anthracite . . . Wallsend-coal C with some iron, silica, etc. C + xfl and some ash. C,H,N,0,S and ash. Cannel-coal , . Brown-coal . . Asphaltum . . . C,H,N,0,S and ash. C,H,N,0,S and ash. C-f H-J-0. Generally gives off water. Evolves water. Intumesces and gives off water and tarry matters which partly condense in bulb, and leave a porous coke. As the preceding, but gives off more tar. Gives off much water and tar, and leaves a porous cin der retaining the form of the original fragment. Fuses with ease affording an In fine powder is slowly consumed without residue in a strong oxidizing flame. Is slowly consumed leaving more or less ash, principally Fe O 3 . Is slowly consumed with the exception of a small quantity of ash. Takes fire under Blowpipe flame, and burns with a smoky flame, depositing much soot and leav ing a porous cinder which burns slowly and leaves a small ash. Similar to the pre ceding. If held to the lamp-flame, takes fire and burns for some seconds. Burns slowly and without flame, leav ing some ash. Takes fire and burns with a bright 182 BEHAVIOR OF MINERALS Continuation of page 181. Mineral. Formula. Behavior in glass-bulb. on platinum foil. Asphaltum C + H + 0. ELitcrite . C + H. Hachettine Ozokerite . . Amber. C + H. C + H. C + H + 0. empyreumatic oil having an alkaline reaction, and com bustible gases, and leaves a carbona ceous residue, which is entirely consumed under the blowpipe flame, ex cept a little ash. Fuses and gives off water having an acid reaction, naph tha and a tarry fluid, which chiefly condense in the neck of the bulb, and leave a light, pulverulent, carbo naceous residue. Fuses to a clear co lorless liquid, which solidifies on cooling and has a tallow- like smell. Fuses readily to a clear brown oily fluid, which solidi fies on cooling. Fuses with diffi culty, and affords water, an empyreu matic oil, and suc- cinic acid which condense in the flame and a thick smoke. Fuses, takes fire, and burns with a smoky flame, leav ing a carbonaceous residue, which un der the blowpipe flame, is quickly consumed, with the exception of the ashes. Fuses, takes fire, and burns with a bright flame until entirely consumed. As the preceding. Takes fire and burns with a yellow flame and a peculiar aro matic odor. BEFOKE THE BLOWPIPE. 183 Continuation of page 182. \TinpraT B e h a v i o r in glass-bulb. on platinum foil. Amber C-f H-f-0 neck of the bulb Mellite . . liF-f-^S leaving a shining black residue. Gives off water If On charcoal burns heated to redness, is carbonized, and gives a slight em- pyreumatic odor. to a white ash, which moistened with ni trate of cobalt and heated shows the alumina reaction. 184 BEHAVIOR OF MINERALS POTASH. I > e h a v i o ] r ,,. , i? i Mineral. Jb o nun la. (1) (2) (3) in glass-bulb. in open tube. on charcoal. Nitre iff Fuses readily Deflagrates to a clear li leaving a sa quid and with line mass, a strong heat which is ab boils with the sorbed into evolution of charcoal and oxygen. gives a sul phur reaction on silver. Polyhalite tS + lfiTgS Gives off Fuses to a red i 2(5aS -1- 2H water. dish bead, which in the reducing flame solidifies and shrinks to a hollow crust. BEFORE THE BLOWPIPE. 185 Continuation of page 184. Behavior (8) Special reactions. (4) in forceps. (5) in borax. (6) in mic. salt. CO with carb. soda. On platinum __ __ With bisul- wire fuses and phate of pot- colors the assa in the flame violet glass-bulb more or less evolves modified by nitrous fumes. lime and soda. On platinum Dissolves with As in borax. Fuses. The The alkaline wire fuses and ebullition to a alkalies are mass when colors the clear glass, absorbed by laid on silver flame yellow which is the charcoal gives a sul from a small quantity of soda. slightly co lored by iron, and when sa leaving the lime and mag nesia infusible phur reaction. turated be on the surface. comes opaque on cooling. 186 BEHAVIOR OF MINERALS SODA. Mineral. lTfYi*Tin1a ] 3 e h a v i o r .T U 1 IIlUl(i. (1) in glass-bulb. (2) in open tube. (3) on charcoal. Rock-salt NaCl. Fuses to a Fuses is ab clear liquid. sorbed by the charcoal and partially vola tilized incrust- ing the char coal around. Natron ... NaC-flofl: Fuses with Fuses and is the evolution absorbed into X of water. the pores of the charcoal. Soda-nitre .... *Ta Fuses, and if Deflagrates strongly heat and is ab ed evolves ni sorbed into trous fumes. the charcoal. Glauber-salt.. . ftaS-f-loB Fuses and Fuses, and is gives off water absorbed by having a neu the charcoal. tral reaction. The saturated charcoal laid upon silver gives the sul phur reaction. Glauberite .... frag -}- Ga S. Decrepitates Fuses to a with the evo clear bead, lution of more then spreads or less water, out ; the soda and when is absorbed strongly heat and the lime ed fuses to a left on the clear liquid. surface. Laid on silver, the fused mass gives a sul phur reaction. BEFORE THE BLOWPIPE. 187 SODA. (Continuation of page 186.) Behavior (8) C*~ ,, rt :~i (4 ) (5) (6) cn opecial reactions. in forceps. in borax. in mic. salt. with carb. soda. Fuses with _ _ Gives the great ease and chlorine reac colors the tions. flame yellow. Fuses and be Dissolves in haves as the acids with preceding. violent effer vescence. Deflagrates on _ In a glass-bulb platinum wire, with bisul- coloring the flame yellow. phate of pot- assa, gives the NO B -reaction. Fuses and co _ __ Gives the lors the flame S0 3 -reaction. yellow. Fuses easily Fuses easily As in borax. As alone on As in the pre to a clear and gives the charcoal. ceding. glass, color lime reaction. ing the flame yellow. 188 BEHAVIOR OF MINERALS SODA. (Continuation of page 187.) I t e h a v i o i (1) in glass-bulb. (2) in open tube. (8) on charcoal. fraB 2 -f-10fi Intumesces Cryolite. SNaFl -f- Al 2 Fl a with the evo lution of wa ter, and under a strong heat fuses. If heated so and fuses to a clear bead more or less colored by impurities. Fuses to a lim slightly and gives a trace of water. that the flame be allowed to play up the tube upon the mineral, fluo rine is evolv ed, which cor rodes the in terior of the tube. pid bead, which on cooling be comes a white enamel. If heated for some time, it bubbles, gives off fluorine and becomes infusible. BEFORE THE BLOWPIPE. 189 SODA. (Continuation of page 188.) Behavior (8) (4) (5) (6) CO Special reactions. in forceps. in borax. in mic. salt. with carb. soda. As on char Fuses to a Gives the coal. clear bead, boracic-acid- which be reaction. comes crys talline on cooling. Fuses, color Dissolves to a As in borax. Fuses to a If the alumina ing the flame clear bead, clear bead, residue ob yellow. which is ren then spreads tained be dered opaque out on the moistened with by a large charcoal, the cobalt solution addition. soda is ab and heated sorbed, and an strongly, it infusible mass assumes a of alumina beautiful blue remains. color. 190 BEHAVIOR OF MINERALS BARYTA AND STRONTIA. Mineral. Formula. Behavior (1) in glass-bulb. (2) in open tube. (3) on charcoal. Heavy-spar . . . BaS. Sometimes decrepitates and gives off more or less water. Fuses in the reducing name. Celestine SrS. Fuses to a milk-white bead. Witherite Bad Decrepitates more or less and evolves water. ~~~ Fuses, effer vesces, and is partially ab sorbed by the charcoal Strontianite .. . SrC. Becomes opaque. As in the for ceps. Barytocalcite. . BaC + CaC. As the pre ceding. In powder frits together, but does not fuse. B E F U It E THE BLOWPIPE. 191 BARYTA AND STRONTIA. (Continuation of page 190.) Behavior (8) Special reactions. (4) in forceps. (5) in borax. (6) in mic. salt. (7) with carb. soda. Fuses with Gives the As in borax. Fuses to a If fused with difficulty on baryta-reac clear bead ; potassa on pla edges. Colors tion. then spreads tinum, gives the outer flame out and is ab the S0 3 -reac- green. In the sorbed into tion. reducing flame the charcoal. forms BaS, The fused which fuses mass laid on readily. silver, gives the S-reac- tion. Colors the Gives the As in borax. Similar to the Similar to the flame crimson. strontia-reac- preceding. preceding. tion. Colors the Dissolves with As in borax. Fuses to a In dilute HC1 outer flame effervescence clear bead ; dissolves with intensely and gives the then spreads much effer green. baryta-reac out and passes vescence. tion. into the char coal. Exfoliates Resembles the As in borax. As the pre As the pre and becomes preceding. ceding. ceding. arborescent. The filaments glow brilliantly and fuse on the point. Colors the flame bril liantly crim son. Colors the Dissolves with As in borax, Fuses, and is As witherite. Maine green in effervescence. but the satu partially ab the centre and red towards In large quan tity gives a rated bead is milk-white. sorbed leaving the lime on the point. semi-crystal the surface. line bead. 192 BEHAVIOR OF MINERALS LIME. Mineral ] 3 e h a v i o r oriiiuni. CD (2) (3) in glass-bulb. in open tube. on charcoal. Gypsum . CaS + 2fi. Turns white In the reducin- giving off wa flame forms ter and being CaS, which has converted into an alkaline re plaster of action on test Paris. paper, and gives a sul phur-reaction when laid on silver and moistened. Apatite .... Ca J C1 4-3Ca 3 I 5 Occasionally \ja,f. f-wa J. decrepitates and gives off some water. Pharmacolite . . 6a , lg + 6a Gives off wa Fuses to an ter, and emits opaque bead an arsenical and emits a odor. strong smell > of arsenic. Cafl Turns white Turns white, and sometimes or brown if decrepitates- containing Strongly heat much iron or ed loses CO 2 manganese, and becomes and glows caustic. brilliantly. BEFORE THE BLOWPIPE. LIME. (Continuation of page 192.) 193 Behavior (8) Special reactions. (4) in forceps. (5) in borax. (6) in mic. salt. cn with carb. soda. Fuses with Dissolves to a As in borax. Behaves as Gives the difficulty to a clear bead, lime. The sulphuric- bead, coloring which gives alkaline mass acid-reaction. the flame red. the lime-reac laid on silver tion. and moistened gives the sul phur-reaction. IV. Dissolves easily Gives the Is infusible. With micro- Previously and when in lime-reaction. The alkali is cosmic salt and dipped in SO 3 some quantity absorbed, leav oxide of cop colors the gives an opa ing the lime per, gives the flame green, line bead. \ on the surface chlorine-reac afterwards of the char tion. With red. coal. microcosmic salt in the open tube evolves fluorine. Fuses to a Dissolves As in borax. Fuses, and translucent readily to a emits As. The violet colored bead strongly alkali is then bead, the color colored by absorbed by being due to cobalt, which the charcoal, cobalt Colors obscures the as in the pre the flame blue lime-reaction. ceding. at first, then faintly red. Glows bril Dissolves with As in borax. Fuses, and be Dissolves with liantly, color evolution of haves as other effervescence ing the flame CO 2 and when lime-salts. in cold HC1. red. Becomes caustic and pure gives the lime- reaction. shows a strong The bead is alkaline reac generally more tion. or less colored by iron and manganese. 194 BEHAVIOR OF MINERALS LIME. (Continuation of page 193.) I 1 e h a v i o i (1) in glass-bulb. (2) in open tube. (3) on charcoal. Fluorspar CaFl. Phosphoresces Fuses easily to with various colors, when heated in the dark. Some times decre pitates and gives a trace of water. Be comes opales cent. a clear bead, which becomes opaque on cooling, then loses fluorine, glows brilli antly and be comes infusi ble. BEFORE THE BLOWPIPE. 195 LIME. (Continuation of page 194.) Behavior (8) 1 Special (4) (5) (6) (T) reactions. in forceps. in borax. in mic. salt. with carb. soda. As on char Gives the As in borax. Fuses to a With micro- coal. Colors lime-reaction. clear bead, cosmic salt in the flame red. opaque on open tube gives cooling. With the fluorine- an addition of reaction. the alkali be haves as lime. 196 BEHAVIOR OF MINERAL MAGNESIA. I > e h a v i o i Mineral. Formula. (1) in glass-bulb. (2) in open tube. (3) on charcoal. Brucite figfi. Evolves water. Epsomite IVfgS* -f- 7ft. Evolves water Gives off HO having an and SO 3 , shines acid reaction brilliantly, and on test paper. becomes alka line and caus tic. Boracite {lgB a -f- 2lVIgB Occasionally Fuses with gives off a intumescence trace of to a white water. crystalline bead. Magnesite . . . g c. Sometimes gives off a Is infusible. With cobalt- small quantity solution, as of water. sumes a dusky flesh tint. BEFOKE THE BLOWPIPE. 197 MAGNESIA. (Continuation of page 196.) Behavior (8) Special reactions. (4) in forceps. (5) in borax. (6) in mic. salt. CO with carb. soda. V. Behaves as As in borax. Behaves as With nitrate magnesia. magnesia. of cobalt, gives Sometimes the magnesia- gives a faint reaction. iron-reaction. V. Behaves as As in borax. The alkali is The magne- As on char magnesia. absorbed leav siaii residue coal. ing the mag obtained on nesia on the treating with surface of the carbonate of charcoal. soda (7), as Gives the sul sumes a flesh- phur-reaction tint, when on silver. treated with cobalt. I. Fuses easily to As in borax. With a small As on char a clear bead, quantity of al coal. Colors which is crys kali fuses to the flame talline, when a clear bead green. containing crystalline on much of the cooling. With mineral, and a larger quan is usually tity gives a slightly tinted clear uncrys- by iron. tallizable bead. _ Behaves as As in borax. Fuses to a The magne- magnesia. bead, the soda sian residue Sometimes is then ab obtained by gives a slight iron-reaction. sorbed, leaving an infusible fusing with carbonate of mass of mag soda gives the nesia. magnesian- reaction with nitrate of cobalt. Dis solves with effervescence in warm HC1, 198 BEHAVIOR OF MINERALS MAGNESIA. (Continuation of page 197.) Behavior Minpral (1) (2) (3) in glass-bulb. in open tube. on charcoal. Mesitine spar. . (%Feiln)C. As magnesite. ___ Is infusible. Assumes a deep brown color. B E F O li E THE BLOWPIPE. 199 MAGNESIA. (Continuation of page 198.) Behavior (8) Special reactions. (4) in forceps. (5) in borax. (6) in mic. salt. CO with carb. soda. V. Gives the iron and manganese- reaction. As in borax. As magnesite, but the resi dual mats has a dark color from iron and manganese. Dissolves with effervescence in warm HC1. With carbo nate of soda and nitre gives a manganese- reaction. 200 BEHAVIOK, OF MINERALS ALUMINA. Behavior Mineral. Formula. (1) (2) () in glass-bulb. in open tube. on charcoal. Sapphire j Corundum > . . Emery ) t 2L Websterite . . . *lS + 9fl. Gives off water, Gives off wa and, when ter and SO 3 , heated to inci pient redness, leaving an in fusible mass. sulphurous acid. Native Alum. . w+m> Intumesces Intumesces + 24S. greatly and gives off much and becomes infusible. water. Strong ly heated, evolves SO 3 , which reddens litmus. Turquoise .... 3M+ at Evolves water, Turns brown, occasionally but remains > decrepitates infusible. and turns black. BEFORE THE BLOWPIPE. ALUMINA. (Continuation of page 200.) 201 Behavior (3) Special reactions. (4) in forceps. (5) in borax. (6) in mic. salt. co with carb. soda. r In fine pov,-- In fine powder der moistened dissolves with cobalt- V. slowly to a As in borax. solution and colorless heated as glass. sumes a blue - color. V. Behaves as As in borax. Yields an in Fused with alumina. fusible mass, potassa in pla which laid on tinum has no silver and action on sil moistened, ver. Cobalt- produces a solution pro black stain. duces the alu mina reaction. V. Dissolves and As in borax. The alkali is If not contain Colors the gives the iron absorbed into ing much iron flame violet and manga the charcoal, or manganese, if a potassa nese reaction, leaving an in gives an allu- alum yellow if these oxides fusible mass, mina reaction if soda be be present. which gives with nitrate present. Otherwise the the sulphur of cobalt. In bead is color reaction on other respects less. silver. as the preced ing. V. In the oxidiz As in borax. Intumesces, Gives the As on char ing flame, gives then fuses to phosphoric- coal. Colors a green bead, a semi-clear acid reaction. the outer due to copper glass colored flame green. and iron. In by iron. With reducing flame, more alkali, opaque red. yields an in fusible mass. 202 BEHAVIOR OF MINERALS ALUMINA. (Continuation of page 201.) ] 3 e h a v i o r (1) (2) (3) in glass-bulb. in open tube. on charcoal. Wavellite .... A1F +3(1*> Evolves water Exfoliates and +182.) and some fluo rine, which at turns white. tacks the glass. Spinel . &&1. BEFORE THE B L o w p i p E . 203 ALUMIXA. (Continuation of page 202.) Behavior (8) Qv^^^^l (4) (5) (6) cn fcpeciai reactions. in forceps. in borax. in mic. salt. with carb. soda. V. As alumina. As in borax. Forms an in With cobalt- As on char jenerally gives fusible white solution on coal. Colors also a slight mass. charcoal gives the outer iron reaction. the alumina flame green, reaction. especially if moistened with SO 3 . V. Gives a slight iron reaction. As in borax. Fuses partially and forms a With nitrate of cobalt gives porous mass. the alumina reaction. With nitre and carbonate of soda a slight manganese reaction. 204 BEHAVIOR OF MINERALS SILICATES. The presence of silica in a mineral can easily be ascertained by treating a small fragment in a bead of microcosmic salt. The bases will dissolve out with more or less difficulty in the salt, and the silica being insoluble will remain suspended in the bead, retaining the original form of the fragment. In borax, the silicates of lime and magnesia generally dissolve with con siderable ease, but those of alumina slowly and with difficulty. The silicates of lime are moreover frequently characterized by intumescence or ebullition, when heated in the forceps in the blowpipe flame. The minerals presenting this character are marked in the table. As the most convenient mode of classi fying the silicates for blowpipe examination, the following arrangement will be adopted : TABLE I. ANHYDROUS SILICATES. TABLE II. HYDROUS SILICATES. FUSIBILITY. I. Readily fusible to a bead. II. With difficulty fusible to a bead. III. Readily fusible on the edges. IV. With difficulty fusible on the edges. V. Infusible. a. Afford a fluid bead with carbonate of soda. b. Afford a fluid bead with but little of that salt, but with a larger quantity a slaggy mass. c. Afford a slaggy mass only. This classification of minerals, according to their fusibility and their behavior with carbonate of soda, was originally proposed by Berzelius, and a table of the principal oxidized minerals arranged according to these characters is given in his handbook of the blowpipe, and thence adopted, with some alterations by Plattner, in the very excellent and detailed work already many times cited. In the following general table I., the more important silicates only are included, and in table II. are enumerated in alphabetical order those which afford cha racteristic reactions. BEFORE THE BLOWPIPE. 205 TABLE I. Anhydrous Silicates. Fus. alon and with tfaC. I. a. b. c. II. a. Mineral, Axinite , Elaolite Garnet Oligoclase Scapolite Spodumene Asbestos to II Augite some var Epidote to III Hornblende some var. Sodalite to III Vesuvian . , Biaxial Mica to III. . . Hauyne Tourmaline to V. Labrador! te Lepidolite Ryacolite , Albite Augite some var. Actinolite Diopside Humboltilite Sahlite Tremolite yrope-. .... Formula. (SiB) NaSi-f^lSi 2 (Ca$a)*i a -f-23tlSi (LiNa) 3 Si 2 -f-4rSi 2 As Hornblende (CaMgFelVrn) 3 Si 2 (CaFe) 3 Si -f 2(Xl3Pen)gi (Ca&gFe) 4 -f (Sil) 3 Na 3 Si + 3lSi -f NaCl (KNa) 3 Si + 3lSi+tfaSi (CaN-aK)Si. (KNaL)F-f (XrFejS i 2 ? ^ 3 Si 2 Ca%Fe) 4 Si 3 3 Si 2 A.S Augite CaMg) 4 Si 3 CaMgFe) 3 Si + SlSi -f mCr? 206 BEHAVIOR OF M i N E R A L s Fus. alone and with tfaC. Mineral. Formula. III. a. b, Anorthite Nepheline Obsidian Orthoclase Petalite Pumice Gadolinite to V. Nephrite Wollastonite . . lolite . . IV. Beryl Diallage Hypersthene Fuchsite V. a. b. (Ca&gfraK) 3 Si -f 3(le)Si (YCeLaFeCa) 3 *Si Ca 3 Si 2 Lcucite Chondrodite Olivine Andalusite Chrysoberyl Kaynite Pycnite | Topaz i Zircon Staurolite . . (Mg,MgF) 4 (SiSiF 3 ) (MgFeCa) 3 Si Int. Int. Int. BEFORE THE BLOWPIPE. 207 Hydrous Silicates. Fus. alone and with NaC. Mineral. Formula. I. a. Analcinie. fra 3 Si 2 4-3 x .lSi 2 +6S Int. Apophyllite (K,KF) (Si,SiF 3 )4- 6CaSi -f 15S Tnt Brewsterite (SrBa)Si + SlSi 3 -f 5& Int. Chabasite (Ca Na K) 3 Si 9 + sXlSi" + 1 8fi Int. Lapis Lazuli . . Si S Si Pe Ca Na Laumonite Ca 3 Si 2 -f 3SlSi 2 -}- 12S Int Mesotype (NaCa)Si + SlSi -f 3^[ Int Natrolite NaSi -f- Sl Si + 2S Int Prehnite Scolezite Ca 2 Si+Sli + [ Ca Si -f 3tlSi + 331 Int. Int Thomsonite (CaNa) 3 Si -f- 33tlSi + 7S Int Datholite 2Ca 3 Si + B 3 Si 2 -f 3H Int Heulandite Ca Si -f- SlSi 3 -f- 5ll Int Stilbite CaSi -f SlSi 3 + 6fl Int b. Okenite Oa 3 Si 4 + 6fi Int Pectolite (CJaNa) 4 Si 3 4-l! (3 Saponite 2lirg 8 Si 2 4- SlSi + 10 or 6fl IT a Antrimolite o/p,,-fr\ c: _i_ KXic; i 1 Kfr b Harmatome Brevicite BaSi4-SlS 2 4-5fl "NTaSi _J_ Xi q i _|_ 9T*T Orthite f? 3 Si j_ ^Si 4- riT 9^ Tnt III. c Pitchstone 5: XT 3f?p Tvrp-lSTa "ft fl Talc to Y iCfo- 6 >( -;i 5 i o~Fr Chlorite q /TVTp-"RW 3 Si -l-^lIPe^ 3 Si 4- Qfi Pinite ^i Xl K?P "RT TVTo- "fl" 208 BEHAVIOR OF MINERA LS Fus. alone and with Sad Mineral. Formula. IV. a. Steatite ifrg 6 Si 5 -f- 4H c. Gilbertite Si l Fe IVTg fl T_J. Meerschaum IVIgSi -f- E[ int. Serpentine ]y[o- fl Si 4 _|- 6"[ V. a. Gismondine (CaK) 2 Si -f- 2XlSi + 9fl B E F O It E THE L O W P I P E 209 TABLE II. Analeime . . Andal isite, Apophrllite Axinite . . . Beryl Chabasite... Chondrodite Chrysoberyl Datholite . . . Diallage. . . . Fuchsite Gadolinite . . Hauyne Hypersthene Kvanite . . If transparent becomes white and opaque when heated, but on incipient fusion resumes its transparency and then fuses to a clear glass. When powdered and treated with cobalt solution on char coal, assumes a blue color. Fuses to a frothy white glass. Imparts a green color to the blowpipe flame, owing to the presence of boracic acid. This reaction is especially dis tinct, if the mineral be previously mixed with fluorspar and bisulphate of Sometimes gives a chromium reaction in borax and micro- cosmic salt. Fuses to a white enamel. Evolves fluorine in the glass tube, both when heated alone and with microcosmic salt. It sometimes also gives off a trace of water. Is unattacked by carbonate of soda. With nitrate of cobalt on charcoal the finely powdered mineral assumes a blue color. Fises to a clear glass and colors the flame green. Frequently gives off water in small quantity. Givss the chromium reaction with borax and microcosmic salt. That from Hitteroe, if heated in a partially covered plati num spoon to low redness, glows suddenly and bril liantly. Affords the sulphur reaction both on charcoal and wlu-u fused with potassa. It contains both sulphur and sul phuric acid. As Diallage. As Andalusite. 210 B E H A V I O It O F M I N K K A L 8 Lapis Lazuli Laumonite . Lepidolite, . Leucite . . . Meerschaum Okemte.. Oli vine .. Pectolite. Petalite.. Prehnite Pycnite. . Pyrope . . Scolecite. Scapolite Sodalite . , Fuses to a white glass, and when treated with carboiate of soda on charcoal, gives the sulphur reaction on silver. When strongly heated, exfoliates and curls up. Colors the blowpipe flame crimson, from lithia ; a!so gives the fluorine reaction with microcosmic salt. Some varieties, when treated with cobalt solution, assume a blue color. In the glass bulb frequently blackens and evolves an empy- reumatic odor due to organic matter. Wh3n this is burnt off, it again becomes white, and if moistened with nitrate of cobalt solution and heated, assurtes a pink color. Behaves as Apophyllite. Some varieties give off fluorine, when fused with micro- cosmic salt. Similar to Apophyllite. Imparts a slight crimson color to the flame, like Lepidolite. As Chabasite. Assumes a blue color, when treated with nitrate of cobalt. Gives the fluorine reaction with microcosmic salt. Gives the chromium reaction with borax and microcosmic salt. Similar to Laumonite, but more marked. Occasionally contains a small quantity of lithia, and colors the flame red when fused with fluorspar and bisulphate of potassa. If mixed with one-fifth its volume of oxide of copper, moistened to make the mixture cohere, and a small por tion placed upon charcoal and heated with the blue oxi dizing flame, the outer flame will be colored intensely blue from chloride of copper. BEFOKE THE BLOWPIPE. 211 Spodumene Stilbite Topaz Tourmaline Wollastonite Zircon When not too strongly heated, colors the blowpipe flame red, when more strongly, yellow. As Chabasite. When heated, remains clear. Otherwise as Pycnite. Gives the boracic acid reaction with flourspar and bisul- phate of potassa. Colors the blowpipe flame faintly red from lime. The colored varieties become white or colorless and trans parent, when heated. Is only slightly attacked by car bonate of soda. 212 BEHAVIOR OF MINERALS URANIUM. 1 J e h a v i o i Mineral Formula. (1) (2) (3) in glass-bulb. in open tube. on charcoal. Pitchblende... TO Evolves some Evolves SO 2 Gives off arse essentially. water and a and a white nical fumes. small quantity sublimate of of sulphur, arsenious acid. sulphide of arsenic and metallic arsenic. Uranium ochre GBP. Evolves water and assumes a V. In reducing red color. flame assumes a green color. (&+) Evolves water _ Fuses with in + 83. and becomes yellow and tumescence to a black bead opaque. having a semi- crystalline surface. Chalcolite (Cu + S 2 )^ As uranite. As uranite. + 82. BEFORE THE BLOWPIPE. 213 URANIUM. (Continuation of p. 212.) Behavior (8) Special (4) (6) (6) (V) reactions. in forceps. in borax. in mic. salt. with carb. soda. III. The roasted As borax. Infusible. Af Colors the mineral affords Also a small fords the cha flame blue be the uranium residue of racteristic Pb yond the assay, reaction. silica. incrustation, owing to the and sometimes presence of Pb. yields minute Sometimes also particles of Cu. green towards the point, due to Cu. Gives the As in borax. _ . uranium reaction. . Gives the As in borax. Forms an in Gives the PO 6 uranium fusible yellow reaction. reaction. slag. As uranite. In the oxidiz As in borax. In reducing As uranite. ing flame gives flame yields a a green bead, metallic bead which in the of Cu. reducing flame becomes of an opaque red, from Cu. 214 BEHAVIOR OF MINERALS IRON. "IT" 1 ] 3 e h a v i o r Mineral. Formula. (1) in glass-bulb. (2) in open tube. (3) on charcoal. Iron pyrites. . . FeS 2 . Gives a con siderable yel Sulphurous acid and some Gives off some sulphur, which low sublimate times arse- burns with a of sulphur, nious acid blue flame. and sometimes are evolved. Residue fuses sulphide of to a magnetic arsenic. Also bead. HS. Magnetic ) pyrites ) " fc fe. Evolves sul phurous acid. Fuses to a magnetic bead black on the surface, and with a yellow shining frac ture. Mispickel . . . FeAs-f-FeS 2 . A red subli Sulphurous and Gives off much mate of AsS 2 arsenious acids arsenic form is first formed are evolved, ing a white and then a the latter incrustation black subli forming a and fuses to mate of metal white subli a magnetic lic arsenic. mate. globule. Magnetic > Fe a 4 . iron ore \ Specular iron. . 1 Fe a 3 . Red haematite. BEFORE THE BLOWPIPE. 215 IRON". (Continuation of page 214.) Behavior (8) Special reactions. (4) in forceps. (5) in borax. (6) - in mic. salt. CO with carb. soda The roasted As in borax. Fuses to a mineral gives black mass, a strong iron which spreads reaction. out on char coal and gives the sulphur reaction on silver. - As iron pyrites As in borax. As iron pyrites As iron pyrites As in borax. As iron pyrites In the blue Gives the iron As in borax. flame, fuses reaction. on edges and remains mag netic. 1 V. As magnetic As in borax. ; In the blue iron ore. flame is con verted into Fe s 4 , and then behaves as the pre ceding. 216 BEHAVIOR OF MINERALS IROX. (Continuation of page 215.) I J e h a v i o i p Mineral. Formula. (1) in glass-bulb. (2) in open tube. (3) on charcoal. Gothite Pefi Evolves water Frank-Unite . . . (FeZnMii) Forms a white (iPe^tn) incrustation on the char coal, which moistened with cobalt solution as Ilmenite . 3ri and 3?e sumes a green color. Chromic iron . Lievrite 3(^eCa) 3 Si Occasionally -}-2eSi. gives off some water and black globule, which in the turns black. reducing flame becomes magnetic. Chloropal .... *eSi + 8fl. Decrepitates more or less, gives off much water and turns black. B E F O It K T H K B L O W P I P E . 2 IT IRON. (Continuation of page 216.) Behavior (8) Special reactions. (4) in forceps. (5) in borax. (6) in mic. salt. en with carb. soda. As specular As specular As in borax. iron. iron. V. Gives the iron As in borax. Affords a con Gives a strong In the blue and manga siderable white manganese flame fuses nese reaction. incrustation of reaction with on edges ZnO. nitre and car and becomes bonate of ivoiLi. magnetic. V. Gives the iron In oxidizing In reducing reaction. flame exhibits flame fuses on the iron reac edges and be tion. In re comes mag ducing flame netic. assumes a deep brownish red color. As the pre Dissolves As in borax. On platinum _ ceding. slowly and foil with nitre gives the and carbonate chromium of soda affords reaction. a yellow mass of chromate of potassa. I. Gives the iron Gives the iron Fuses to a Generally gives In reducing flame is reaction. and silica re actions. black opaque bead. the manganese reaction witli magnetic. nitre and c n 1 - bonatc of soda. V. Gives the iron Gives the iron Fuses to a Loses color reaction. and silica re transparent and turns actions. green glns.s. black. 218 B E II A V i O II O F M I JS E K A L S IKON. (Continuation of page 217.) Jb ormulti. I J e h a v i o i Mineral. (1) in glass-bulb. (2) in open tube. (3) on charcoal. Green earth . . Si,Fe,l,Na, jives off water . _ ,fl, etc. and becomes darker in color. Siderite FeC. Occasionally As in glass decrepitates. bulb. Gives off CO 2 and turns black and magnetic. Copperas FeS-f7fi. Gives off wa ter, and, when Evolves water and S0 a , Loses water and SO 3 , and strongly heat which may be is converted ed, SO 2 and recognized by into F"e. SO 3 , which its odor. redden litmus paper. Vivianite Fe lP + 811. Gives off water. Froth? up and then fuses to a grey metal lic bead. 1 BEFOKE THE BLOWPIPE 219 IROX. (Continuation of page 218.) Behavior (8) Special reactions. (4) in forceps. (5) in borax. (6) in mic. salt. cn with carb. soda V. As the pre As the pre Forms a In reducing flame fuses on ceding. ceding. slaggy mass. edges and co lors the outer flame yellow (N&) or violet (K). Behaves simi Gives the iron As in borax. Behaves as an In acid dis larly to the and sometimes oxide. With solves with magnetic manganese nitre and car effervescence. oxide. reaction. bonate of soda on platinum generally gives the manganese reaction. Gives off H The roasted As in borax. Forms sul If dissolved in and SO 2 , and then behaves as the magne mineral affords an iron reac tion. phide of so dium and oxide of iron. water, and a strip of silver- foil be intro tic oxide. The former is duced into the absorbed into solution, the the charcoal, metal remains and if cut out untarnished. and laid upon silver and moistened gives the S reaction. As on char coal. Singes Gives the iron reaction. As in borax. In reducing lame becomes flame green magnetic and ()- fuses to a black slaggy mass. 220 BEHAVIOR OF MINERALS IRON. (Continuation of page 219.) Mi n Ami ] 3 e h a v i o r JZuUt/Falc (1) in glass-bulb. (2) in open tube. (3) on charcoal. Iriphyline (FeMnLi) 3 . Gives off wa _ Fuses readily ter, having an to a black alkaline reac magnetic bead tion, and as with a metal sumes a me lic lustre. tallic lustre resembling graphite. Scorodite . 3Pels-f 4fl. Evolves water. Gives off water Emits arseni and AsO 3 . cal fume and in the reduc ing flame fuses to a magnetic mass having a me tallic lustre. Cube ore Fe 8 ls+3Pe 3 ls 2 Evolves much As the pre As the pre + 18fl. water. ceding. ceding. B E F O II E T HE B L O W P I P E . IRON. (Continuation of page 220.) Behavior (8) Q^rt^r.1 (4) (5) (6) W bpecial reactions. in forceps. in borax. in mic. salt. with carb. soda. I. Gives the iron Gives the iron Forms an in Gives the On platinum and manganese reaction which fusible porous manganese wire colors the reactions. overpowers mass, which reaction with flame crimson that of the under the re nitre and car (Li) and green manganese. ducing flame bonate of soda (1^), towards becomes mag on platinum the point fuses netic. foil. to a black magnetic bead. s I. The roasted As in borax. As alone on Gives the arse As on char mineral gives charcoal. nic reactions. coal. Colors an iron reac the outer flame tion. blue. ! As the pre As the pre As in borax. As the pre As the pre ceding. ceding. ceding. ceding. i 222 BEHAVIOE OF MINERALS MANGANESE. Mineral. Formula. J 3 e h a v i o p (1) (2) (3) in glass-bulb. in open tube. on charcoal. Manganblende MnS. Gives off SO 2 and becomes [s slowly roast ed and con greyish green verted into on surface. oxide. Pyrolusite .... fin. Frequently gives off a small quantity of water and, when strongly lieated, oxygen. Manganite. . . . MnH. Gives off much water. Psilomelane . . . (Ba,Ca,fig,K) Gives off water . . __ fin -f- S. and, when strongly heat ed, oxygen. Wad fin,Mn,fl, Gives off also water. Pb,Si, etc. I BEFORE T 11 E B L o w r i p E . 223 MANGANESE. (Continuation of page 222.) Behavior (8) Special reactions. (4) in forceps. (5) in borax. (6) in mic. salt. 0) with carb. soda. V. The roasted In the un- Forms a slaggy _ mineral gives roasted state, mass, which a strong man dissolves with laid on silver ganese reac much ebulli and moistened, tion. tion and de gives the sul tonation due phur reaction. to the elimi nation of sul phide of phos phorus. The bead then ex hibits the characteristic violet color of manganese. V. Gives the As in borax. Forms a . manganese slaggy mass. reaction. V. Exfoliates As the pre As in borax. As the pre slightly. ceding. ceding. Y. As pyrolusite. As in borax. As pyrolusite. Colors flame faintly green (Ba) and red towards^ the point (Ca). V. Colors flame Gives the manganese As in borax. As pyrolusite. Various ac cording to variously ac reaction, more composition. cording to its or less modi When strongly composition. fied by the heated and presence of ;hen moistened other oxides. las an alkaline reaction on red litmus paper. 224: BEHAVIOR OF MINERALS MANGANESE. (Continuation of page 223.) Behavior Mineral. Formula. (1) (2) () in glass-bulb. in open tube. on charcoal. Rhodonite. . . . &n 3 Si 2 . Gives off more _ Under a strong or less water. flame fuses to a brown opaque bead. Diallogite .... MnO. Frequently decrepitates and gives off If strongly heated and moistened has more or less an alkaline water. reaction on litmus paper due to the presence of Ca. Triplite (MnFe) 4 . 1 Generally gives off more or less water. BEFORE THE BLOWPIPE. 225 MANGANESE. (Continuation of page 224.) Behavior (8) Special reactions. (4) in forceps. (5) in borax. (6) in mic. salt. CO with carb. soda. II. In the oxidiz As in borax, With a small As on char ing flame gives but leaves an quantity of the coal. the manganese insoluble sili alkali fuses to reaction. In ceous skeleton. a black bead. reducing flame With a larger the iron reac quantity forms tion more or a slag. less intense. Y. Gives the As in borax. Forms an in In warm acid Frequently manganese fusible slag. dissolves with colors the and iron reac much effer flame slightly tions. vescence. red. I. Colors the Gives the As in borax. Forms an in outer blowpipe manganese fusible mass. flame green and iron reac c?>. tions. 10* 226 BEHAVIOR OF MINERALS NICKEL AND COBALT. Mineral. Formula. ] 3 e h a v i o r (1) in glass-bulb. (2) in open tube. (3) on charcoal. Millerite NiS. Evolves SO 2 . Fuses with much ebulli tion to a mag netic bead. Coppernickel... Ni 2 As. Gives off a Gives off much Fuses to a little AsO 3 . AsO 3 and magnetic bead, some SO 2 and with the evo falls to powder. lution of arse nic, which colors the flame blue. Smaltine CoAs. When strongly Gives a crys Gives off fumes heated gene talline subli of arsenic, and rally evolves mate of AsO 3 . fuses to a dark metallic Also some SO 2 . grey magnetic arsenic. bead, very brittle, colors flame blue. BEFORE THE BLOWPIPE. NICKEL AND COBALT. (Continuation of page 226.) 227 Behavior (8) Special reactions. (4) in forceps. ( 5 ) in borax. () in mic. salt. p) with carb. soda The roasted As in borax. Fuses to a mineral gives a nickel reac slaggy mass, which on sil tion, slightly modified by ver gives the sulphur reac small quanti tion. ties of iroii and copper. _ The arsenical If the residual ___ Affords a sub bead obtained bead which limate of me by fusing the has been tallic arsenic mineral on treated with when treated charcoal, if borax be fur with cyanide fused upon the same sup ther treated with microcos- of potassium. port with mic salt, the borax succes nickel reaction sively added will be obtain and removed, ed and some gives firstly an times a slight iron reaction, copper reac then cobalt if tion. present, and lastly nickel. _ As the pre Gives the co As the pre ceding, but the cobalt being in balt reaction, and after the ceding. large excess cobalt has requires some Deen removed, time for its that of nickel. perfect oxida tion, before ~ the nickel re action is ex hibited. B K ii A V I O K O F MINERALS NICKEL AND COBALT. (Continuation of page 22*7.) Mineral. Formula. Behavior (1) in glass-bulb. (2) in open tube. (3) on charcoal. Glance cobalt CoS 2 + CoAs. As the pre Gives off S ceding, but and As, and gives off more fuses to a SO 2 . magnetic bead. Colors flame blue. Nickel glance NiS 2 -f NiAs. Decrepitates and gives an As the pre ceding. As the pre ceding. orange color ed sublimate of AsS 3 . Ulmannite. . . . NiS 2 + Ni (AsSb) 2 . Gives a slight white subli mate of SbO 3 Gives off thick fumes of SbO 3 and SbO 5 with As glance co balt, but ac companied by and more or AsO 3 and SO 2 . dense fumes less AsS 3 . of SbO 3 . Cobalt pyrites (CoNiFe) (<3o $iFe)- When strongly heated gives off sulphur and becomes Gives off much SO 2 and a small quantitv of AsO 3 . In the reduc ing flame small fragments fuse with the evo brown. lution of sul phur to a mag netic bead having a bronze colored fracture. Emerald nickel fti3<j _|_ cfl. Gives off much water and turns black. BEFORE T H i; 1> L o w P i v K . NICKEL AXD COBALT. (Continuation of p. 228.) 229 Behavior (3) Special reactions. (4) in forceps. (5) in borax. (6) in mic. salt. (V) vith carb. soda. Gives a cobalt As in borax. Gives a sul As the pre and slight iron phur reaction ceding. reaction when of silver. treated as the preceding minerals. _ As copper Gives the As the pre As copper nickel. nickel reaction, ceding. nickel. occasionally somewhat obscured by , cobalt. As copper As the pre As the pre As copper nic nickel. ceding. ceding. kel generally, but arsenic is not always present. _ In the oxidiz As in borax, As glance As copper ing flame on but the reduc cobalt. nickel, but the charcoal gives tion of the amount of ar a violet colored nickel is more senic is usual glass. In the difficult than ly very small. reducing flame in the latter the nickel is re flux. duced and may be collected in a gold bead. When the nic kel is removed, the glass exhi bits a slight iron reaction while warm. Dissolves with As in borax. Forms a In warm dilute much efferves slaggy mass. HC1 dissolves cence and gives the nickel re with much effervescence. action. 230 BEHAVIOR OF MINERALS NICKEL AND COBALT. (Continuation of page 229.) Behavior Mineral. Formula. (1) (2) (3) in glass-bulb. in open tube. on charcoal. Cobalt bloom. . Co 3 ls -f- 83. Gives off Evolves arse water nical fumes and in the reducing flame fuses to a dark 1 grey bead of arsenide of cobalt. Earthy cobalt. . $Tn,Oo,<X Fe,S, etc. Gives off water. Emits a slight smell of arse nic, but does not fuse. BEFORE THE BLOWPIPE. NICKEL AND COBALT. (Continuation of page 230.) 231 Behavior (8) (4) (5) (6) CO Special reactions. in forceps. in borax. in mic. salt. with carb. soda. In the point Gives the co As in borax. _ Gives off* of the blue balt reaction. arsenic with flame fuses cyanide of and colors the potassium in outer flame glass tube. blue (As). Colors the In oxidizing As in borax. Forms an in With carbo flame blue. flame gives If a saturated fusible mass. nate of soda the cobalt re bead be treat and nitre on action which ed on char platinum foil, obscures those of Mn,Cu, etc. coal with tin in the reduc gives a strong manganese In reducing ing flame for reaction. flame occa a few^seconds, sionally gives the Cu reac the Cu reac tion is some tion. times obtained. 232 BEHAVIOR OF MINERALS ZINC. Mineral. I J e h a v i o i Formula. (1) in glass-bulb. (2) in open tube. (3) on charcoal. Zincblende . . . ZnS. Decrepitates Evolves SO V. strongly. and becomes In the reduc white or yel ing flame low if contain incrusts the ing iron. charcoal with ZnO; also with CdO, if that metal be present. Red oxide of 2n. In the reduc ing flame forms a thin incrustation of oxide of zinc on the charcoal. Electric calu- 22n 3 Si-f3ll. Gives off water _ miue and becomes white and opaque. Calamine 2nC. Gives off CO 2 As the red and becomes oxide. Some opaque. times also gives a cad mium and * . lead incrusta tion. B E F O E E THE B L O W T I P E . 233 ZIXC. (Continuation of page 232.) Behavior (8) Special reactions. (-1) in forceps (5) in borax. (6) in mic. salt. m with carb. soda. _ The roasted As in borax. As alone on mineral gives charcoal. a zinc reaction, Moreover co ind sometimes lors the flame a slight iron- blue. The reaction. fused alkali gives a S reac tion on silver. V. Generally gives a manganese As in borax. On charcoal, forms a thick With carbo nate of soda and slight incrustation and nitre on iron reaction of ZnO. platinum foil in addition to gives a man that of zinc. ganese reac tion. V. Dissolves to Dissolves to a With carbo a clear glass, clear glass, nate of soda which cannot which becomes alone is infu- be rendered opaque on sible. With 2 opaque by the cooling. Silica: parts of alkali intermittent remains in- and 1 of borax flame. soluble. fuses to a glass and sets free 2n, which incrusts the charcoal. V. Gives a zinc As in borax. Forms a thick Dissolves with reaction and incrustation much efferves frequently an of zinc, some cence in cold iron and man times also of acid. ganese reac fb and Co. tion. i 234: BEHAVIOR OF MINERALS BISMUTH. Mineral. Formula. Behavior (1) in glass-bulb. (2) in open tube. (3) on charcoal. Native bismuth Bi. Fuses and is Fuses to a converted into bead and in- a yellow oxide. crusts the charcoal with oxide. Bismuthine . . . BiS. Fuses with Fuses with ebullition and much spirting gives off S and and in the re SO 2 . ducing flame yields a me tallic bead and incrusts the charcoal, with oxide. Bismuthblende Bi Si 3 . Turns yellow __ Fuses \\ith and, when ebullition to a strongly heat brown globule ed, fuses. forming an incrustation of Si on the charcoal. BEFORE THE BLOWPIPE. 235 BISMUTH. (Continuation of page 234.) Behavior (8) Special reactions. (4) in forceps. (5) in borax. (6) in mic. salt. m with carb. soda. __ The oxide As in borax. _ formed upon charcoal gives the bismuth reactions. The oxide ob As in borax. As alone on tained upon charcoal The charcoal gives fused alkali the bismuth gives the sul reactions. phur reaction on silver. I. Gives the bis As in borax, Fuses to a Fuses with muth and also but leaves a yellow mass. ease to a yel an iron reac silicious ske The bismuth low bead, co tion. leton. is then reduced loring the to the metal outer flame lic state and bluish green, partially vola especially if tilized, incrust- moistened ing the char with HC1. coal beyond. This color is due to . 236 BEHAVIOR OF MINERALS BISMUTH. (Continuation of page 235.) Behavior Mineral. Form u.1 ci (1) (2) (3) in glass-bulb. in open tube. on charcoal. Tetradymite . . Bi,Te,S. Occasionally Fuses and Fuses to a decrepitates gives off white metallic bead, and then fuses, fumes, part of colors the forming a which pass up outer flame greyish white the tube and bluish green sublimate im part deposit (Te and Se) mediately immediately and incrusts above the above the the charcoal mineral frag mineral. This around with ment. latter if heated, the orange -Bi, fuses to clear beyond which drops (TeO 3 ). is a white in The mineral re crustation part sidue becomes ly consisting surrounded by of Te. fused Si, cha racterized by its yellow color. B E F O K E THE BLOWPIPE. 237 BISMUTH. (Continuation of page 236.) Behavior (8) Special (4) (5) (6) en reactions. in forceps. in borax. in mic. salt. with carb. soda. The yellow oxide obtained upon charcoal gives the bis- nuth reaction, and the white incrustation that of bis muth and tel luric acid. As in borax. [n the reducing flame yields a bead of me tallic bismuth, part of which is with part of the tellurium volatilized and incrusts the charcoal The fused alka- ine mass gives the sulphur reaction on silver. Also gives the tellu rium reaction with charcoal and carbonate of soda. around. 238 BEHAVIOK OF MINERALS LEAD. Mineral. Formula. Behavior (1) in glass-bulb. (2) in open tube. (3) on charcoal. Galena PbS. Generally de Gives off SO 2 , Fuses and is crepitates and and when reduced afford gives off a strongly heat ing a bead of small quantity ed, a white metallic lead, of sulphur. sublimate of and forming Pb,S. an incrustation of PbO on the charcoal. Co lors the outer flame blue. Clausthalite . . . PbSe. Decrepitates Forms a sub Gives off fumes slightly. limate of se smelling lenium, which strongly of is grey when selenium and thickly depo coloring the sited, and red flame blue. when thin. In the reduc ing flame fuses partially and incrusts the charcoal with Se and PbO. After some time a black infusible mass alone remains. Jaracsouite . . . Pb Sb*. Fuses and gives Fuses and Fuses with off some sul emits dense great ease phur, sulphide white fumes of evolving much of antimony SbO 3 , which SbO 3 and PbO, and antimony p juss o ff and which incrusts which con- redden blue the charcoal dense in the litmus Daoer. around the neck of the mineral. When bulb. the fumes have ceased, a small bead of me tallic lead remains. B E F O JB E THE BLOWPIPE. LEAD. (Continuation of page 238.) 239 Behavior (8) Special (4) (5) (6) cn reactions. in forceps. in borax. in mic. salt. with carb. soda. The oxide As in borax. As alone on formed upon charcoal gives the lead reac charcoal. The fused alkali gives a sul tion. phur reaction on silver. The infusible As in borax. With carbonate residue obtain of soda, or ox- ed upon char coal gives an iron and some alate of potash yields a metal lic bead, the times copper and cobalt re fused alkali laid upon sil action. ver and mois tened produces a stain similar to that pro duced by sul phur. The yellow incrustation formed upon charcoal gives the reaction of As in borax. As alone on charcoal. The fused alkali gives the sul phur reaction lead, and the on silver. ^ white those of antimony. i BEHAVIOK OF MINERALS LEAD. (Continuation of page 239.) Mineral. Formula. Behavior CD in glass-bulb. (2) in open tube. (3) on charcoal. Minium Pb 3 4 . _ Is reduced first to litharge (PbO) and then to metallic leac which forms the usual in crustation. Mendipitc .... ] PbCl -f- 2PbO. Decrepitates sliglitly and Fuses readily jand is reduced i assumes a to metallic yellow color. lead with the evolution of acid fumes. Forms a white incrustation of PbCl, and a yellow one of PbO. pb<3. Decrepitates, Is reduced to gives off CO 2 , metallic lead, turns yellow, incrusting .the and fuses. charcoal around with PbO. Anglesite PbS. Decrepitates In the oxidiz- and gives off ng flame fuses a small quan to a clear bead, tity of water. which becomes opaque on cooling. In ! reducing flame is reduced with much ebullition to i metallic bead and incrusts the charcoal around with PbO. B E F O K E THE BLOWPIPE. LEAD. (Continuation of page 240.) Behavior (8) Special reactions. (4) in forceps. (5) in borax. (6) in mic. salt. CO " with carb. soda. Colors the Gives the lead As in borax. As alone on outer flame reactions. charcoal. blue. As the pre ceding. As the pre ceding. As ia borax. As alone on charcoal. Gives the chlo rine reaction with CuO and . microcosmic , salt. As the pre Gives the lead As in borax. As alone on ^ In nitric acid ceding. reaction. charcoal. dissolves with much effer vescence. As the pre Gives the lead As in borax. Is reduced ceding. reaction and yielding a occasionally a metallic lead slight iron and bead. The manganese fused alkaline reaction. mass gives a sulphur reac tion on silver. !i 24:2 BEHAVIOR OF MINERALS LEAD. (Continuation of page 241.) Mineral. Formula. E (1) in glass-bulb. e h a v i o r (2) in open tube. (3) on charcoal. Pyromorphite PbCl-f 3Pb 3 P\ Decrepitates, and when strongly heat ed for some time, gives a slight white sublimate of PbCl. In oxidizing flame fuses to a bead having a crystalline surface on cooling, and forms a thin film of PbCl on the char coal. In re ducing flame fuses without reduction and on cooling as sumes a poly hedral form. Incrusts the . T charcoal slightly with PbO. Mimetene .... PbCl-f3Pb 3 ls As the pre ceding. Fuses, but less easily than the preceding, gives off AsO 3 and incrusts the charcoal with PbCl. Finally is re duced to a metallic bead and forms an incrustation of PbO. BEFORE THE BLOWPIPE. 243 LEAD. (Continuation of page 242.) Behavior (8) Special reactions. (4) in forceps. (5) in borax. (6) in mic. salt. (?) with carb. soda. Fuses and co . __ Is reduced Gives the chlo lors the flame yielding a rine reaction blue. metallic bead with microcos- and incrusting mic salt and the charcoal CuO. Also the with PbO. phosphoric acid reactions. As the pre The oxide * As iii borax. As the pre Gives the chlo ceding. formed on ceding. rine reaction. charcoal gives the lead reac tions. 24:4: BEHAVIOR OF MINERALS LEAD. (Continuation of page 243 ) j I J e h a v i o i Mineral. Formula. (i) (2) (3) in glass-bulb. in open tube. on charcoal. Vanadinite . . . PbCl-f3Pb 3 V ? As pyromor- phite. The powdered mineral fuses to a black shining mass, which in the educing flame affords a me tallic bead. Incrusts the charcoal first with a white film of PbCl and afterwards with PbO. Crocoisite *bOr. Decrepitates violently and Fuses and de tonates, yield issuuies a dark ing C 2 3 and color. metallic lead, and forming an incrustation of PbO on the charcoal. Molybdate of pbM. As the pre ceding. - Fuses and is partly absorb ed into the charcoal leav ing a globule of metallic lead, which is partially oxi dized and in- crusts the charcoal. BEFORE THE BLOWPIPE. 215 LEAD. (Continuation of page 244.) Behavior (8) Special reactions. (4) in forceps. (5) in borax. (6) in mic. salt. (?) with carb. soda. As pyromor- phite. Dissolves rea dily to a clear glass, which, In oxidizing flame is yellow while hot, be On platinum wire fuses to a yellow bead, With micro- cosmic salt and CuO, gives the in the oxidiz coming paler which is crys chlorine reac ing flame, is on cooling. talline on tion. If fused yellow while In reducing cooling. On in a platinum hot, and color- flame brown charcoal yields spoon with ess when cold. while warm, a button of from 3 to 4 In reducing and emerald metallic lead. times its vo flame becomes green when lume of K,S 2 opaque, and on cold. it forms a cooling green. fluid yellow mass having an orange co lor when cold. As pyromor- Dissolves rea As in borax. On platinum Treated as phite. dily and colors foil gives a above with the glass yel dark yellow K,S 2 forms a low while mass, which violet colored warm, and becomes paler mass, which green when cold. on cooling. On charcoal on solidifying becomes red (See Chromium yields a me dish and on reaction.) tallic button. cooling pale grey. As pyromor- Dissolves rea As in borax. Yields metallic Fused as above phite. dily and gives lead. with K,S 2 the molybdena forms a yellow reaction. mass, which becomes white on cooling. If this be dis solved in water and a piece of zinc intro duced into the > solution, the latter becomes \ blue. 246 BEHAVIOK OF MINERALS LEAD. (Continuation of page 245.) Mineral. Formula. Behavior (1) in glass-bulb. (2) in open tube. (3) on charcoal. Scheeletine . . . 4 PbW. Decrepitates more or less. Fuses to a bead incrust- ing the char coal with PbO. The bead on cooling is crys talline and has a dark metal lic surface. BEFORE THE BLOWPIPE. 247 LEAD. (Continuation of page 246.) Behavior (8) Special reactions. (4) in forceps. (5) in borax. (6) in mic. salt. w with carb. soda. As pyromor- phite. Dissolves to a clear colorless glass, which in the reducing flame becomes yellow, and on cooling grey and opaque. Dissolves to a clear colorless glass, which in the reducing flame assumes a dusky blue color. After a time becomes opaque. As the pre ceding. With carbo nate of soda and nitre gives the manganese reaction. 24:8 BEHAVIOR OF MINERALS COPPER. Minpral ] 5 e h a v i o r >.ll I ICI Ori (1) in glass-bulb. (2) in open tube. (3) on charcoal. Xative copper Cu _ _ Fuses to a brilliant me tallic bead, which on cool ing becomes covered with a coating of black oxide. Vitreous cop- Cu 3 S. Evolves SO 2 Fuses to a and when pul bead which verized and spirts consi gently heated derably and for some time gives off SO 2 . is converted When pulver into CuO. ized and gently roasted, is con verted into CuO. Copper pyrites uFe. Decrepitates, sometimes Evolves SO 2 and is finally Fuses readily with much j gives a subli converted into ebullition and mate of sulphur a dark red is magnetic and becomes mixture of on cooling. bronze colored Fe 2 b and on the surface. CuO. BEFOKE THE BLOWPIPE. 249 COPPER. (Continuation of page 248.) Behavior (8) Special reactions. (4) in forceps. (5) in borax. (6) in mic. salt. (?) with carb. soda. Fuses and co In the oxidiz As in borax. lors the outer ing flame dis flame blue. solves and then gives the cop per reactions. The roasted As in borax. In the reduc mineral gives ing flame is the copper re action, and decomposed, forming NaS sometimes and metallic also a slight copper. If the iron-reaction. former be cut out and laid upon silver, it gives the sul phur reaction. As the pre As the pre Yields a bead _ ceding ; but ceding, but of metallic when the cop the color in copper and per has been the oxidizing some magnetic removed by flame is green, oxide of iron, reducing on charcoal, the owing to the presence of which remains on the char bead shows a iron. coal. The strong iron fused alkali color. gives a sul phur reaction on silver. - 11* 250 BEHAVIOR OF MINERALS COPPER. (Continuation of page 249.) !.. -1 3 3 e h a v i o r Mineral. JL orniulii. (1) in glass-bulb. (2) in open tube. (3) on charcoal. Fahlerz .... (<3uAgFeZn) 4 Sometimes Fuses and gives Fuses to a (SbAs). decrepitates, fuses, and when off thick fumes of SbO 3 and bead, which fumes strongly very strongly SO 2 , also gene and incrusts heated, gives a rally AsO 3 , the charcoal red sublimate leaving a black with SbO 3 , of SbwithSb, infusible resi due If Hg and sometimes ZnO, which also sometimes a black subli be present, it is sublimed and cannot be volatilized. mate of Hg condenses in the tube in Emits a strong smell of and occasion small drops. arsenic. ally As. Tennantite . . . (uFe) 4 As. Decrepitates occasionally Evolves S and A*s, which con Fuses to a magnetic bead and gives a dense and form giving off ar red sublimate a white subli senical and in of As. mate. sulphurous fumes. Bournonite . . . (Pb 2 <3u)Sb. Decrepitates Evolves thick Fuses readily giving off sul- white fumes of and incrusts 3hur and, when .. the charcoal strongly heat 3b,Sb and with Sb and ed, Sb and Sb. Pbb. Also S. Pb leaving a dark colored bead. BEFORE THE BLOWPIPE. 251 COPPER. (Continuation of page 250.) Behavior (8) Special reactions. (4) in forceps. (5) in borax. (6) in mic. salt. CO with carb. soda _ The residue As the pre With this flux If the copper obtained on ceding. and a little bead obtained charcoal thor borax yields a by fusing upon oughly roaste( bead of metal carbonate of gives a copper lic copper ; on soda be cupel reaction, and silver, the al led with assay when the lat kaline mass lead, a silver ter has been gives a sul bead will be removed by phur reaction. obtained. Or if reduction upon dissolved in ni charcoal, an tric acid and a iron reaction. drop or two of HCC1 added, a white precipi tate of AgCl will be formed, which may be collected and reduced with carbonate soda upon charcoal. __ As the pre As the pre Yields a copper ceding. ceding. bead and metal lic iron in the form of a dark grey powder. The fused alkali gives the sul phur reaction. __ If the bead As with borax. Yields a bead obtained on of metallic cop charcoal be per and lead fused on that and incrusts support in the reducing flame the charcoal with Sb and with borax, a Pb. The alka light iron reac line mass laid tion is obtain on silver and ed, and after a moistened time a copper gives the sul reaction. phur reaction. 252 BEHAVIOB OF MINERALS COPPER, (Continuation of page 251.) Formula. I J e h a v i o r Mineral. CD in glass-bulb. (2) in open tube. (3) on charcoal. lied oxide of Cu 2 0. _ Is converted In the re due- copper into ttiG bl&ck * fl oxide CuO. reduced, form ing a bead of metallic cop per. Atacamite .... CuCl-}-3Cu Gives off much Fuses, colors 4-6^ water, having the flame blue, an acid reac forms a brown tion, on test and a pale paper, and grey incrusta forms a light tion on the grey sublimate charcoal, and of CuCl. is reduced to metallic cop per, leaving a small quantity of slag. Dioptase ..... Cu 3 Si a +3fl. Gives off water _ In the oxidiz and turns ing flame be black. comes black. In the reduc ing flame red. Malachite Gives off water Fuses to a and turns bead and with black. a strong flame is reduced to metallic cop per. BEFORE THE BLOWPIPE. 253 COPPER. (Continuation of page 252.) Behavior (8) Special reactions. (4) iu forceps. (5) in borax. (6) in mic. salt. (?) with carb soda. Fuses and co lors the flame Gives the cop per reaction. As with borax. Is reduced to a bead of me emerald green, tallic copper. or if previously moistened with HC1, blue. Fuses and co lors the outer Gives the cop per reactions. As with borax. Is reduced, yielding a bead j flame intensely of metallic blue and green copper. towards the point. V. Gives the cop As with borax. With a small Colors the per reactions. The silica re quantity of outer flame mains undis- carbonate of intensely solved. soda fuses to green. a bead, which on cooling is opaque and has a red frac ture. With more alkali forms a slag, containing little beads of reduced cop per. Fuses and co lors the outer Gives the cop per reaction. As in borax. Yields metal lic copper. Dissolves in HC1 with much , Ihune brilliant effervescence. ly green. 254: BEHAVIOR OF MINERALS COPPER. (Continuation of page 253.) I Behavior Mineral. Formula. (1) in glass-bulb. (2) in open tube. (3) on charcoal. Blue vitriol. . . . Cu-f5S. Intumesces, Strongly heat As in the glass- gives off water and becomes white. ed is decom posed, giving off SO 2 and bulb. Then fuses, coloring the outer flame being convert ed into CuO. green, and is reduced to me tallic copper and u. Libethenite . . . Cu 4 P"+2H. Gives off water Gradually heat and turns ed, turns black black. and fuses to a bead, having a. core of metal lic copper. Olivenite Cu 4 (ls5>)+fl. Gives off water. Fuses with de tonation and the evolution of arsenical fumes to a brittle regu- lus, brown ex ternally and having a white fracture. BEFORE THE BLOWPIPE. 255 COPPER. (Continuation of page 254.) Behavior (8) Special reactions. (4) in forceps. (5) in borax. (6) in mic. salt. (V) with carb. soda. Fuses and co The roasted As in borax. Yields metal- Gives the sul lors the outer flame blue. mineral gives the copper ic copper. The alkaline mass phuric acid reaction. reaction. laid on silver gives the S reaction. Fuses, but does not color the flame distinct Gives the cop per reaction. A.S in borax. With much of the alkali is decomposed, Gives the phos phoric acid reaction. ly. On cooling yielding me is black and tallic copper. crystalline. With small portions suc cessively add ed first fuses and then in- tumesces, fuses with a strong flame, and is then absorbed into the char coal, leaving metallic cop per. Fuses and co Gives a copper As in borax. Is reduced, Gives the arse lors the outer reaction. yielding me nic reactions. flame green. tallic copper. On cooling has a crystalline surface. 256 BEHAVIOR OF MINERALS ANTIMONY. ] 3 e h a v i o p All 11C Tell. TPonniilfl, (i) (2) (3) in glass-bulb. in open tube. on charcoal. Native anti- Sb. Fuses and, Fuses and gives Fuses and gives when strongly off dense white off dense white heated, volati fumes, which fumes, which lizes being re- are partly re- thickly incrust deposited in deposited on the charcoal the tube as a the tube. and color the dark grey sub Sometimes also blame blue limate. gives oif arse immediately nical fumes in beyond the small quantity. assay. Grey antimony SbS 3 . Fuses readily Fuses and gives Fuses and is and occasion off SO 2 , which partly absorb ally gives off passes off up ed by the a small quan the tube, and charcoal and tity of sulphur. dense white partly volati Strongly heat fumes of lized, incrust- ed forms a SbO 3 and SbO 5 , ing the char brown subli which are coal with the mate of SbS 3 partly deposit characteristic and SbO 3 . ed in the tube. white oxides. Colors the flame blue. Antimony blende 3b+Sb. Fuses easily, gives off first As the pre ceding. As the pre ceding. SbO 3 and af terwards an orange colored sublimate. Strongly heat ed, is decom posed and gives a black subli mate, which becomes brown on cooling. B E F o K E TUB BLOWPIPE. 257 ANTIMONY. (Continuation of page 256.) Behavior (8) Special reactions. (4) in forceps. (5) in borax. (6) in mic. salt. (?) with carb. soda. The oxide As in borax. The incrusta formed upon tion on the charcoal gives charcoal, if the antimony treated with reactions. nitrate of co balt assumes the character istic green color. As the pre ceding. As in borax. Fuses and is reduced, yield ing metallic As the pre ceding. antimony, which behaves as the preced ing mineral upon charcoal. The alkaline mass gives the sulphur reaction. As native As in borax. As the pre As native antimony. ceding. antimony. 258 BEHAVIOR OF MINERALS ANTIMONY. (Continuation of page 257.) J 3 e h a v i o r Mineral. Formula. (1) in glass-bulb. (2) in open tube. (3) on charcoal. White anti mony . . SbO 3 . Is sublimed and recon- As in the glass- bulb. Fuses with the evolution of densed in the neck of the tube. dense white fumes, which incrust the surface of the charcoal. In the reducing flame is partly reduced, yield ing metallic antimony. Colors flame blue. BEFORE THE BLOWPIPE. 259 ANTIMONY. (Continuation of page 258.) Behavior (8) (4) (5) (6) (V) reactions. in forceps. in borax. in mic. salt. with carb. soda. Fuses and is volatilized, coloring the outer flame Gives the antimony reaction. As in borax. In the reduc ing flame is reduced, yield ing metallic As native antimony. blue. antimony. .- ; . > ,.. -/.. 260 BEHAVIOK OF MINERALS ARSENIC. Mineral. I 5 e h a v i o i Jb orniuui. (1) in glass-bulb. (2) in open tube. (3) on charcoal. Native arsenic As. Sublimes with If gently heat Passes off as out fusion and ed in a good AsO 3 , which recondenses as current of air thinly incrusts a dark grey passes off as the charcoal metallic sub AsO 3 , which beyond the limate, some is partly con assay. times leaving densed as a a small residue. white subli mate in the upper part of the tube. AsS 2 . Fuses, enters Gently heated Fuses and into ebullition passes off as passes off as and is sub SO 2 and AsO 3 , arsenious and limed as a the latter of sulphurous transparent which is rede- acids. red sublimate. posited in the upper part of the tube. Orpiment AsS 3 . As the pre ceding, except As the pre ceding. As the pre ceding. that the sub limate is of a dark yellow color when cold. White arsenic AsO 3 . Sublimes with _ Sublimes and out fusion and is partly re- recondenses in condensed on white crystals. charcoal form ing a white incrustation. B E F o it E THE BLOWPIPE. 261 ARSEXIC. (Continuation of page 260.) Behavior (8) Special reactions. (*) in forceps. (5) in borax. (6) in mic. salt. en with carb. soda. Colors the _ _ flame blue. Fuses and co As on char lors the flame coal, except blue. that the S combines with the alkali forming NaS, which on sil ver gives the sulphur reac tion. As the pre ceding. As the pre ceding. Colors the Heated with flame blue. charcoal in a glass-tube sealed at one end, is reduced and metallic arsenic sub limes 262 BEHAVIOR OF MINERALS MERCURY. ITnrmiila ] B e h a v i o r Jiliiior3.1 C UI mulct. (1) in glass-bulb. (2) in open tube. (3) on charcoal. Native mercury Hg. Volatilizes with _ Is volatilized. little or no residue and recondenses in neck of bulb. Cinnabar . . . HffS. Volatilizes If gently heat Is volatilized -1-l.gKJ. sometimes ed is decom generally leav ieaving a sligh posed into ing a small earthy residue, metallic mer earthy residue. and recon cury, which denses as a volatilizes and 3lack sulphide recondenses in the upper part of the tube, and SO 2 , which passes off and is easily recog nized by its odor and teaching pro perties. Native amal- AgHg 2 . As native mercury, but The mercury volatilizes leaves a resi leaving the due of pure silver, which silver. fuses to a bead, and, in the oxidizing flame, incrusts the charcoal with its cha- racteri sti ^ oxide. B E F o it E THE BLOWPIPE. 263 MERCURY. (Continuation of page 262.) Behavior (8) Special reactions. (4) in forceps. (5) in borax. (6) in mic. salt. (V) with carb. soda. With carbo When in the nate of soda preceding ex and cyanide of potassium is decomposed and metallic periment the mercury has been entirely dissipated, the mercury vola alkaline resi tilized. due laid on 1 silver gives a sulphur reac tion. 1 264: BEHAVIOR OF MINERALS SILVER. Mineral. Formula. ] 3 e h a v i o r (1) in glass-bulb. (2) in open tube. (3) on charcoal. i Native silver. . Ag- _ _ Fuses and in a strong oxi dizing flame forms an in crustation of dark brown oxide on the charcoal. If any antimony be present, it- affords a crim son incrusta tion. Antimonial Gives off dense Fuses, fumes silver Ag Sb. white fumes strongly, form which are ing a white partly deposit ed in the tube. incrustation, and when the antimony is j nearly expelled^ a crimson one, a nearly pure silver bead remains. Silver glance. . AgS. Gives off sul phurous acid. Gives off SO 2 and is reduced to metallic sil ver. If impure, a small quan tity of slag also remains. | BEFORE THE BLOWPIPE. 265 SILVER. (Continuation of page 264.) Behavior (8) Special reactions. (4) in forceps. (5) in borax. (6) in mic. salt. (?) with carb. soda. Gives the sil ver reactions. As in borax. The incrusta tion formed on charcoal gives an anti mony reaction. As in borax. As alone on charcoal. The residual slag (if any) obtained upon charcoal gives an iron reac tion. As in borax. As alone on charcoal. The alkaline mass gives a sulphur reaction on polished silver. 12 266 BEHA.VIOK OF MINERALS SILVER. (Continuation of page 265.) Mineral. Formula. Behavior (1) (2) (8) in glass-bulb. in open tube. on charcoal. Stephanite .... Ag s Sb. Decrepitates, fuses and gives Fuses and i gives off SO 2 i Fuses and in- erusts the eha- i a slight subli and dense icoal with anti- mate of sul white antimo monious acid, phide of anti- nial fumes. leaving Ag mouy. with some an timony. If the flame be continued, a red iuerusta- i tion is formed I and finally a . bead of pure silver remains surrounded by a small slag. Pyrargyrite . . . Ag 3 Sb. Sometimes decrepitates, As the pre ceding. Fuses with much spirting fuses readily, and covers the and, when charcoal with j strongly heat- antimonial ed, gives a j fumes. When dark red sub- the residual limate of SbS a . AgS is heated for some time in the oxidiz ing flame, a bead of pure silver is ob tained. Proustite Ag 8 As. Fuses and at Gradually heat- As the pre- ! a low red heat ed it gives oft ceding, except affords a small AsO 3 and SO*, that a large sublimate of Sometimes also; quantity of AsS 3 . antimony AsO and but fumes. little SbO 3 are given off. 1 BEFORE THE BLOWPIPE. 267 SILVER. (Continuation of page 2CG.) Behavior (8) Special reactions. (4) in forceps. (5) in borax. (6) in mic. salt. (*) with carb. soda. The residual As in borax. The silver is slag obtained reduced and on the char coal gives an the antimony passes off in iron and cop dense fumes. per reaction. The fused al kali gives the sulphur-reac tion on silver. As the pre ceding. As stephanite, except that much arsenic i is given off and but little antimony. 268 BEHAVIOR OF MINERALS SILVER. (Continuation of page 267.) Behavior Mineral. Formula. (1) (2) (3) in glass-bulb. in open tube. on charcoal. Horn silver . . . AgCl. Fuses, but un _ Fuses readily dergoes no in the oxidiz further change. ing flame. In the reducing flame is slowly reduced yield ing metallic silver. BEFORE THE BLOWPIPE. 2C9 SILVER. (Continuation of page 268.) Behavior (8) ^snppinl (4) (5) (6) en opcClal reactions. in forceps. in borax. in mic. salt. with carb. soda. _ _ _ Is rapidly re If cut up into duced to me small pieces tallic silver. mixed with oxide of cop per and then heated before the oxidizing flame upon charcoal, it colors the flame blue. THE END, H. B A. ILL IE RE S CATALOGUE OF RECENT FOREIGN BOOKS CHEMISTRY, ELECTRICITY, PHYSICS, METEOKOLOGY, &a, &o. Accani. Treatise on the Art of Brewing. 12mo. London . . . . 2 T5 Treatise on Gas Lighting. Royal 8vo. 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London, 1856 . . . .1 62 Brown (A.) The Philosophy of Physics, or Process of Creative Development. 8vo. New York, 1854 . . . . . . . . 2 25 Cabart (C.) Lecons de Physique et de Chimie. 8vo., avec 2S planches. Paris, 1854 . 2 00 Cahours (A.) Lemons de Chimie Generate Elementaire, Professees a 1 Ecole Centrale des Arts et Manufactures. Avec gravures sur bois intercalees dans le texte, et planches. 2 vols., 18mo. Paris, 1855 . . . . . 3 00 Campbell. A practical Text-Book of Inorganic Chemistry, including the preparations of Substances, an<? their Qualitative and Quantitative Analyses, with Organic Analyses. 12mo. . . . . . . . 1 50 Caoutchouc. Manuels-Roret. Nouveau Manuel complet du Fabricant d Objets en Caoutchouc, en G-utta-Percha et en Gomme Factice; suivi de Documents Etendus sur la Fabrication des Tissus Impermeables, des Toiles Cirees et des Cuirs Vernis ; par M. Pau- lin Desormeaux. 1 vol., 12mo., avec planches. Paris, 1855 . . 1 00 Cavendish, Society s publications already published : GRAHAM S Chemical Reports and Memoirs. Scarce. GMELINS. Handbook of Chemistry. Vols. 1 to 10, 8vo. LEHMAN S Physiological Chemistry. 3 vols. and atlas. Life and Works of CAVENDISH. Life and Works of D ALTON. BISCHOFF. Chemical Geology. 2 volg. Subscription, $7 per annum. Chalmers (C.) Thoughts on Electricity, with notes of Experiments. 8vo., cloth. Edinburgh, 1851 . . . . . . . . 1 50 Chemical Technology ; or Chemistry applied to the Arts and to Manufactures. By Professor Knapp and Drs. Ronolds and Richardson. 3 vols., Svo. (vol. 1, 2nd edit.), illustrated with T76 woodcuts and 14 plates. London, 1848-55 . . . IS 00 The vols. can be had separately. Vol. 1. Fuel and its Applications (Coal, Gas, Oil, Spermaceti, &c ), and their application to purposes of illumination, Lighthouses, &c., Resin, Wax, Turpentine, Peut, Wood, Stoves, &c., Ac., in 2 parts, 8vo., with 433 engravings and 4 plate-?. Price $9 00. Vol. 2. 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Recueil de Memoires et de precedes nouveaux contenant la Photographic sur plaques metalliques et sur papier. 8vo., half bound, calf. Paris, 1847 . . 75 Chevalier (C.) Photographic sur Papier, Verre, et Metal. Galvanoplastie. Catalogue universel explicatif et illustre des appareils perfectionnes. Svo., avec 3 planches. Paris, 1856 . . ... . . . . C2 Chevallier. Dictionnaire des Alterations et Falsifications des Substances Alimentaires, Medicamenteues et Coimnerciales, avec 1 Indication des Moyens de les Reconnaitre. 2me edition, 2 vols., Svo. Paris, 1855 . . . . . . 3 25 Chevallier, Lamy. and Kobiquet. Dictionnaire raisonne des denominations Chhniques et Pharmaceutiques, contenant tous les termes employes en Chimie, &c., &c. 2me edit., tome ler. Paris, 1858 . " .. i . . . . .225 Chevreul. De la Baguette divinatoire, du Pendule, dit Explorateur, et des Tables Tour- nantes, au point de vue d Histoire, de la Critique et de la Methode Experimental*, Svo. Paris, 1854 .. . 1 25 The Principles of Harmony and Contrast of Colors, and their Application to the Arts. 12mo., 2nd edition. London, 1S55 . . . . .875 De la loi du Contraste simultane des Couleurs et de ses Applications. 8vo., et 4to. Atlas. Paris, 1889 ........ Very scarce. H. BaiUiere, 290 Broadway, .*". I*. Standard Scientific Works. C Jaudet. Nouvelles Recherches sur la difference entre les Foyers Visuels et Photogeniques. 8vo. Paris, 1851 . . . -. . . . .050 Treatise on the Manufacture of Coal Gas. 4to. London . . . 8 87 Codex* Pharmacopee Francaise, redigee par ordre du gouvernement, avec appendice therapeutique, par Cazenave. 8vo. Paris, 1837 . . . . . 2 50 In half calf . . . . . . . . . 8 00 Coloriste. Nouveau Manuel Complet du Coloriste, ou Instructions Simplifiees et elemen- taires pour l enluminure,le lavis etla retouche des gravures. Nouvelle edition. 18mo., avec 3 planches. Paris, 1856 . . . . P . 75 Colles. Nouveau Manuel de la Fabrication des Colles, comprenant la Fabrication des Colles de Matieres Vegetales, par M. Malpeyre. 12mo. Paris, 1856 . . . 50 Cooley (A. J.) Cyclopedia of Practical Receipts, and collateral information in the Arts. Manufactures, Professions, and Trades; including Medicine, Pharmacy, and Domestic Economy ; designed as a comprehensive supplement to the Pharmacopoeia, and general book of reference for the Manufacturer, Tradesman, Amateur, and heads of Families. 3rd edition. 8vo. London, 1S56 . . . . . . 8 00 Cooper (C.) Identities of Light and Heat ; of Caloric and Electricity. 8vo. Philadel phia, 1S43 . .... . T5 Cotte. Observations Meteorologiques. 4to. . . . . . 60 Coulomb* Methode de determiner 1 Inclinaison d une Aiguille Aimantee. 4to. . 25 Crabb (G. A.) Technical Dictionary ; or a Dictionary explaining the terms used in all Arts and Sciences. 12mo. London, 1851 . . . . .375 dimming, J. A Manual of Electro Dynamics. Svo. London, 1827 . . 1 50 Clindall ( J.) The Photographic Primer for the use of beginners in the Collodion process. Illustrated with a Photographic Picture. 2d edit. 12mo. London, 1856 . . 31 Cuvier. Analyse de ses Travaux sur la Physique et la Chimie. 4to. . . . 60 Daguin (P. A.) Traite Elementaire de Physique Theorique et Experimentale, avec les Applications a la Meteorologie et aux Arts Industriels. Tome ler. Avec 300 gravures sur bois intercalees dans le texte. Svo. Paris, 1856 . . . . 3 00 Dal ton (John), Life and Scientific Researches of. ByW. C.Henry. Svo. London, 1854 3 50 - Chemical Philosophy. 2 vols., Svo. London . .. . . 9 50 Daniel I ( J. F.) An Introduction to the Study of Chemical Philosophy ; being a prepa- 8 00 ratory view of the forces which concur to the production of Chemical Phenomena. 2nd edition. London, 1843 . . . . . . 7 21 Very scarce. David. (II.) Methode de Peinture appliquee uniquement a la Photographic de Portraits. 2nd edit., Svo. Paris, 1856 . . . . . . . 50 Davy (Sir H.) Chemical Philosophy. Svo. London . ;..*-. . .550 -- Account of the Safety Lamp for Miners. Svo. London . . . 1 50 See KNAPP S Technology. Delamotte (P.) The Practice of Photography : a Manual for Students and Amateurs. With a Calotype Frontispiece. 3d edition revised. 12mo. London, 1856 . . 1 37 - The Oxymel Process in Photography. 12mo. London, 1856 . . . 80 De la Rive (A.) A Treatise on Electricity in Theory and Practice. 2 vols., Svo. London, 1853-6 . . . . . . . . 14 00 - -- (A. A.) Traite d Elec ricite Theorique et applique. 2 vol., Svo., avec 260 pi. intercalees dans le texte. Pari.*, 1853-1856 . . . . .45*) Les nombreuses applications de 1 electricite aux sciences et aux arts, les liens qui Tunis- sent a toutes les autres parties des sciences physiques, ont rendu son etude indispen sable au chimiste aussi bien qu au physicien, au geologue autant qu au physiologiste, a 1 ingenieur comme au medecin; tous sont appeles a rencontrer 1 electricite sur leur route, tous ont besoin de se familiariser avec son etude. Personne mieux que M. de la Rive, dont le nom se rattache aux progres de cette belle science, ne pouvait pre senter 1 exposition des connaissances- acquises en electricite et de ses nombreuses applications aux sciences et aux arts. Desaiiis (P.) Legons de Physique, a 1 Usage des Aspirants aux Baccalaureats et aux Ecoles du Uouvernement. 2 vols. 12mo. Figures intercalees dans le texte . . 2 50 Deschamps. Art (! ) de Formuler, contenant: les Principes Elementaires de Phar- macie, etc. 1 vol., 19uio., avec 19 figures intercalees dans le texte. Paris . . 1 2A DescloJzea >x. Memoir-! sur la Cristallisation et la Structure Interieure du Quartz. 8vo., plus 4 pi. Paris, 1S56 ....... Deson^c. Traite de Photographic sur Toile, dernier Perfectionnement. Svo. Paris,lS55 15 Disdevi. Manual Operatoire de photographic sur collodion instantane. Svo. Paris, 1S54 75 -- Reiiseigueineuts Photographiques Indispensables a tous. Svo., de 3 feuilles. P;tns, 1S55 . . r . . . . . . . 1 2.5 Dodd (G.) The Curiosities of Industry and the Applied Sciences. Svo. Lon:lon, 1854 . 1 00 Iiornr, Nouveau Manuel Complet de dorure et d arsrenture par la methode e <vtrr>- chifnique et par simple immersion par M. M Selmi. de Valecourt, Malpeyre, etc. Nouv. edit , tfL-s auguientee, ornee de figures. !2mo. Paris, 1S56 . . l 50 SI. BieWiere, 29O Xlroadway, JV. I". Standard Scienli/lc Works. Dove (I?. W.) The Distribution of Heat over the Surface of the Globe, illustrated by Isothermal, Thermic Isabnormal, and other Curves of Temperature. 4to., with map. London, 1853 . I* . 5 00 Du Bois-Ileymond on Animal Electricity, by Bence Jones. 8vo. London, 1852 . 1 75 Duhamel de Monceau. Traite de la Fabrique des Manoeuvres pour les Vaisseaux ou Tart de la Corderie perfectionne. 4to. Paris, 1747 . . . . 3 00 Dubrunfaut. Art of Distillation and Rectification. 12mo. London. (Very Scarce) . a. ml Koussingault. The Chemical and Physiological Balance of Organic Nature: an Kssay. 12uio. . . . . . 1 00 Du Moiicel (Til.) Projection des Principaux Phenomenes de 1 Optique a 1 aide des ap- pareils de M. Duboscq. Svo. Paris, 1855 . . 50 p:\pose des Applications de 1 Electricite. Tome ler. Notions Technologiques 2me edit., 8vo., avec 8 pi. Paris, 1856. (Cette edition aura deux vols peut-etre meme trois) \ 25 Dumas (I.) Essai de Statique Chimique des Etres Organises. 2ine edit. Paris, 1842 . 100 Memoires de Chimie. Avec 7 Planches. Svo. Paris, 1843 . . . 1 50 Traite de Chimie appliquee aux Arts. 8 vols. and 4to atlas. Svo. Paris, 1828-46. Very scarce . . . . . . . 50 00 Edition de Bruxelles. 8 vols. and 4to atlas . . . . 30 00 Dunn (W.) History of the Steam Jet as applicable to the Ventilation of Coal Mines. Svo. 075 I> u plain (P.) Traite des Liqueurs et de la Distillation des Alcools, ou le Liquoriste et le Distillateur Modernes, contenant, etc. 2 vols., Svo. Versailles, 1856 . . . 8 75 Du rand (JPaug 1 .) Nouvelle Theorie Physique ou Etudes Analytiques sur la Physique et sur les actions Chimique fondamentales. Svo. Paris, 1S54 . . .75 Encres. Nouveau Manuel complet de la Fabrication des Encres, teUes que Encres a Ecrire, Chine, de Couleur a Marquer le Linge &c. 18mo. Paris, 1855 . . 1 00 Etoffes Imprimees. Nouveau Manuel Complet du fabricant d Etoffes Imprimees et du Fabricant des papiers peints, par L. S. le Normand. ISmo. Paris, 1856 . . 75 Exhibition of 1851 (Lectures on the Results of the Great,) delivered before the Society of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce (Dr. Whewell, Professor Ansted, and others). 2 vols., post 8vo., each . . . . . . . 2 25 Faraday (JF.) Chemical Manipulations, being Instructions to Students in Chemistry. Svo. London, 1827. (Very Scarce.) ..... about 7 50 Experimental Researches in Electricity. 3 vols., Svo. London, 1849-55. .1350 The Subject-matter of a Course of Six Lectures on the Non-metallic Elements. 12mo., cloth. London, 1853, . . . . . . 1 75 Fau (JT.) Douze lecons de Photographic. Description de precedes simples et faciles, au moyen desquels on obtient, presque infailliblernent, des epreuves sur verre et papier. 18rno. . . . . . . . . . 75 lya it et Chevalier. Manuel du Physicien preparateur, ou description d un cabinet de Physique. 2 vols., ISmo., with an atlas of 8S plates. Paris, 1853 . . . 8 75 Faucher (L.) Remarks on the Production of the Precious Metals, and on the Demoniti- zation of Gold in Several Countries of Europe. Svo. London, 1853, . . 75 Faure (J. J.) Analyse Chimique des Eaux du departement de la Gironde. Svo. Bor deaux, 1853 . . . . . . . . . 75 Figuier (I,.) L Alchimie et les Alchimistes ou Essai Historique et Critique sur la Philo- sophie llermetique. 2d edit. 12mo. Paris, 1856 . . . . . 1 00 Fraiieceur (Li. B) Elements de Technologie ou Description des precedes des Arts. Svo. 1 25 1 railfis (Ci. IV.) The Dictionary of Practical Receipts ; containing the Arcana of Trade and Manufacture, Domestic Economy, Pharmaceutical and Chemical Preparations, &c. Svo. London, 1856 . . , . . . . 2 50 Frose ill us (Dr.) Instruction in Chemical Analysis. Quantitative. 2d edit. Svo., cloth. 1S55 . . . . ... . . .45:) Instructions in Chemical Analysis. Qualitative. 4th edit. Svo., cloth . . 2 75 Fresenius et Sacc. Precis d Analyse Chimique quantitative. ISmo. Paris, 1845. (Epuine.) Precis d Analyse Chimique qualitative. 1 vol., 12mo., fig. Paris, 1847. (Epuiae.) Fyfe (A.) Elements of Chemistry. Svo. London . . . . . 7 25 Manual of Chemistry. 12mo. London . . . . . 2 12 Galloway (It.) The First Step in Chemistry : a New Method for Teaching the Elements of the Science. 2d edit. 12mo. London, 1855 . . . . .150 Manual of Qualitative Analysis. 12mo., cloth . . . . 1 12 Chemical Diagrams, on four large sheets . - . . . . 1 75 Galvanoplastie. Nouveau Manuel complet de Galvanoplastie, ou Elements d Electro- metallurgie; contenant 1 Art de reduire les metaux a 1 aide du tluide sralvanique, etc., par Smee. Augmente d apres MM. Jacoby, Spenctr. Eisner, etc. Ouvrage public par E. de Valicourt. 2 vols., ISmo. . . . . . . 1 25 II. Hxillifrc, 29O &roidway, JIT. JT, Standard Scientific Works. Oanot (A.) Traite Elementaire de Physique Experimentale et Appliquee, et de Bletcoro- logie, avec un recueil nombreux lie problemcs, illustre de 5UO gravures sur hois inter- calees dans le texte. 6e edition, auguientee de 582 gravures nouvelles. ISmo. Paris. 1S56 . . ..ir; Gas. Bvna pp s Chemical Technology, or Chemistry applied to the Arts: Fuel and its Application. 1vol. In 2 Parts. Stro. London, 1 806 . . . . 9 This is the most recent and complete work on the manufacture of Gas, &c. Gas L.i-litiilg (Journal Of). Published in London on the 10th of every month. Price per year . . . . . . . . . 8 11 5 Vols. are published. Gaudiii ( JI. A.) Traite Pratique de Photographic, expose complet des precedes rela- tife au Daguerreotype. 8vo., hf. bd. cf. Paris, 1844 . . . . 1 50 Gauss (C. F 1 .) Intensitas vis magnetica terrestris ad mensuram absolutum revocata. 4to. Gottinga}, 1833 . . . . . . . . 1 5( Gavarret ( J.) De la Chaleur produite par les Etres Vivants. 12mo., avec 41 figures dans le texte. Paris, 1855 . . . . . . . 1 5C Gcrliardt. Introduction a 1 Etude de la Chimie par le Systeme Unitaire. 12mo. Paris, 1S4S . . . . . . . . . . 1 0( Precis de Chimie Organique. 2 vjb.. Svo. Paris, 1S44 . . . 4 (K In half calf ... ..... 5 0( Traite de Chimie Organique. 4 vols., Svo. Paris, 1855-6 . . . 10 00 Ce Traite est une suite a Berzelius. Ce celebre chiiniste etant rnort avant d avoir pu terminer son ouvrage, M. Gerhardt, ancien professeur de chimie a Montpellier, s est charge de terminer son travail et de le mettre au courant de la science actuelle. Aide-memoire pour 1 Analyse Chimique. 12mo. Paris, 1852 . . . 75 Gerliardt et Chancel. Precis d Analyse Chimique. 12rno., avec 48 gravures. Paris, isoo . . . . . . . . . . 1 25 Glover (R.. IH.) A Manual of Elementary Chemistry : being a Class-book. Illustrated. 12mo. London, 1855 . . . . . . . . 2 00 Gmelin. Handbook of Chemistry. Vol. 1 to 6, Inorganic Chemistry . . . 14 00 " Vol. 7 to 10, Organic Chemistry, each vol. . . 4 50 The work will be completed in 12 vols. (Cavendish Society Publications.) Gocbet. Pharmaceutische AVaArenkunde, mit Illuminirten Kupfern. 2 vols., 4to. Eise nach, 1S50 . . . . . . . . . 10 00 Gore (G.) Theory and Practice of Electro-Deposition, including every known mode of depositing metals, etc. Svo. London, 1856 . . . . . 50 Gorham. Unfrequented Paths in Optics. Part 1. Light from a Pin-hole. Part 2. Light from a Fissure. Svo. London, 1855 . . . . . . 1 25 Graham. Elements of Chemistry ; including the application of the Science in the Arts. By T. Graham, F.R.S. L. & E., Professor of Chemistry at University College, London. 2d edition, entirely revised and greatly enlarged, copiously illustrated with Woodcuts. Vol. 1. 1S50 . . . . . . I 00 Vol. 2. London and New York, 185T . . . . . 4 00 This work, which ranks among the first on the subject, is now compltte. Chemical Catechism. Svo. London . . . . 4 75 Gregory (Wm.) Elementary Treatise on Chemistry. 12mo. Edinburgh, 1855 . 1 5j Handbook of Inorganic Chemistry. For the use of Students. 8d edition. 12mo. London . . . . . . . . . i 75 Handbook of Organic Chemistry, for the use of Students. 4th edition, corrected and much extended. 12mo. London, 1S56 . . . . . fc 62 Griffin. Treatise on the Use of the Blowpipe. 18mo. London. (Scarce.) Gritliii (J. J.) Chemical Recreation. Div. 1, post Svo. . . . . CO Griffith (T.) Chemistry of the Four Seasons. 12mo. London, 1858 . . .225 Grove (W. R.) On the Correlation of Physical Forces. 3d edit. Svo. London, 1855 . 2 25 Gruyer (li. A.) Principes de Philosophic Physique pour servir de base a la Mctaphy- sique de la Nature, et a la Physique Experimentale. Svo. Paris, 1845 . . 1 75 Gilitoourt. Histoire naturelle des drogues simples, ou Courg 1 histoire naturelle professe a 1 Ecole de Pharmacie, quatrieme edition, augmentee. 4 vo. , 8vo., avec 600 fig. inter- calees dans le texte. Paris, 1S49 . . . . . . 7 50 Half bound in Paris . . . . . . . 9 50 [Get ouvrage, que tous les pharmaciens considerent comme un Vade-mecum de pre miere necessite, parce que la grande exactitude apportee par 1 auteur dans la descrip tion dea drogues leur permet de distinguer les diverges especes et varietes qui se rencon- trent dans le commerce, ainsi que les falsifications qu on leur fait subir. Cette quatrieme edition a ete soumise a une revision generate, et les augmentations ont ete tellement importantes, qu on peut la considerer comme un ouvrage entierement neuf. C est un Cours complet d kistoire naturelle pharmaceutique et medicale, que les medecins consulteront toujours avec fruit.] Guitard. Histoire de 1 Electricite. 12mo. Paris, 1854 . . . . 1 00 Gumey. Lectures on Chemistry. 8ro. London . . . , , $ W U. BaiUiere, 29O ilrondiray, .r. * s . Standard Scientific Works. Hardy (12. TV. 55.) Incidental Remarks on some principles of Light ; being Part 8 of au fcssay ou Vision. 8vo. London, 1856 . . 1 00 llardwicli (T. I- .) A Manual of Photographic Chemistry, including the Practice of the Collodion Process. 2d edition. 12ino, cloth. London . . . 2 00 Harris (Stir W. S.) Rudimentary Treatise on Galvanism, and the general principles of Animal and Voltaic Electricity. 12mo., illustrated, cloth . .050 13 a * Mil ( l. 11.) Food and its Adulterations. With 159 illustrations. 8vo. London, 1855 . . . . . 8 M He atli. Photography. A New Treatise, theoretical and practical, of the Processes and Manipulations on Paper and Glass. Bvo. New York, 1855 . . . . 1 00 Hcdlt-y (John). Practical Treatise on the Working and Ventilation of Coal Mines; with suggestions for Improvements in Mining. 8vo., cloth . . . . 3 ~~> Kt mi all (T. M.) The Collodion Process. 4th edition. 12mo. London, 1S55 . &) Henry (W.) Elements of Experimental Chemistry. 2 vols., Svo. London . . 10 Hi Ilerling (A.) Traitede Photographic sur Collodion Sec. 2e edition. 12mo. Paris, 1856 050 Itigliloii. Treatise on the Electric Telegraph. 12mo. London, 1852 . . 60 ItiutU (l>r. A* .) The Harmonies of Physical Science in relation to the Higher Senti ments, with Observations on the Study of the Medical Sciences, and the Moral and Scien tific .Relations of Medical Lite. Fcap. Svo. London, 1853 . . . . 50 iloi-tcr (2- .) Nomenclature et classification chimiques, suivies d un lexique historique et synonymique comprenant les noms anciens, les formules, les noms nouveaux, le nom et la date de la decouverte des principaux produits de la chimie. 12mo., avec tableaux. Paris, 1S45 . . . . . . . . 75 Hoefer. Hist, de Chimie depuis les temps les plus recules jusqu a nos jours. 2 vols., Svo. Paris, 1842. (Very scarce.) ....... Hood (C.) A Practical Treatise on Warming Buildings by Hot Water, on Ventilation, Ac. 8d edition. Svo. London, 1855 . . . . . . 8 25 Hopkins (T.) On the Atmospheric Changes which produce Rain and Wind. 2d edit. Svo. . . . . . . . . . . 1 50 Hopkiuson (J.) 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