UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SANTA CRUZ .ea rn HARPER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA f UNITED STATES HISTORY FROM 458 A.D. TO 1909 BASED UPON THE PLAN OF BENSON JOHN LOSSINQ, LL.D. SOMETIME EDITOR OF " THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL RECORD " AND AUTHOR OF " THE PICTORIAL FIELD-BOOK OF THE REVOLUTION " ' ' THE PICTORIAL FIELD- BOOK OF THE WAR OF l8l2" ETC., ETC., ETC. WITH SPECIAL CONTRIBUTIONS COVERING EVERY PHASE OF AMERICAN HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT BY EMINENT AUTHORITIES, INCLUDING JOHN FISKE. THE AMERICAN HISTORIAN WM. R. HARPER, Ph.D., LL.D., D.D. PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, Ph.D. PROF. OF HISTORY AT HARVARD JOHN B. MOORE. PROF. OF INTERNATIONAL LAW AT COLUMBIA JOHN FRYER, A.M., LL.D. PROF. OF LITERATURE AT UNIV. OF CALIFORNIA WILLIAM T. HARRIS, Ph.D., LL.D. U. S. COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION WOODROW WILSON, Ph.D., LL.D. PRESIDENT OF PRINCETON UNIVERSITY GOLDWIN SMITH, D.C.L., LL.D. PROF. OF HISTOR Y UNIV. OF TORONTO MOSES COIT TYLER, LL.D. PROF. OF HISTORY AT CORNELL EDWARD G. BOURNE, Ph.D. PROF. OF HISTORY AT YALE R. J. H. GOTTHEIL, Ph.D. PROF. OF SEMITIC LANGUAGES AT COLUMBIA ALFRED T. MAHAN, D.C.L., LL.D. CAPTAIN UNITED STATES NAVY (Retired) ETC., ETC., ETC., ETC. WITH A PREFACE ON THE STUDY OF AMERICAN HISTORY BY WOODROW WILSON, PH.D., LL.D. PRESIDENT OF PRINCETON UNIVERSITY AUTHOR OF "A HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE," ETC., ETC. WITH ORIGINAL DOCUMENTS, PORTRAITS, MAPS, PLANS, &t. COMPLETE IN TEN VOLUMES VOL. I HARPER & BROTHERS PUBLISHERS NEW YORK ... LONDON Copyright, 1905, by HARPBR & BROTHERS. Copyright, 'i 901, by HARPER & BROTHERS. All rights reserved. WRITERS ON SPECIAL SUBJECTS Historians and Scholars LYMAN ABBOTT, D.D., LL.D., AUTHOR, AND EDITOR OF The Outlook, NEW YORK. EDWARD GAYLORD BOURNE, PH.D., PROFESSOR OF HISTORY AT YALE UNI- VERSITY. RICHARD T. ELY, A.M., PH.D., LL.D., PROFESSOR OF POLITICAL ECONOMY AT THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. FREDERICK WILLIAM FARRAR, DEAN OF WESTMINSTER ABBEY. JOHN FISKE, FORMER PROFESSOR OF PHILOSOPHY AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY, AUTHOR OF " AMERICAN POLITICAL IDEAS," ETC. JOHN FRYER, A.M., LL.D., PROFESSOR OF LITERATURE AT THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. CARDINAL GIBBONS, THE HEAD OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH IN AMERICA. WASHINGTON GLADDEN, D.D., LL.D. EDWIN LAWRENCE GODKIN, A.M., D.C.L., FORMER EDITOR OF THE NEW YORK Evening Post. RICHARD J. H. GOTTHEIL, PH.D., PROFESSOR OF SEMITIC LANGUAGES AT COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY. WILLIAM R. HARPER, PH.D., LL.D., D.D., PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO. ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, PH.D., PROFESSOR OF HISTORY AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY. ' JOSIAH GILBERT HOLLAND, EDITOR AND AUTHOR. THE MOST REVEREND JOHN IRELAND, ARCHBISHOP OF ST. PAUE,. JOHN B. MOORE, LL.D., PROFESSOR OF INTERNATIONAL LAW AND DIPLOMACY AT COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY. GOLDWIN SMITH, D.C.L., LL.D., PROFESSOR OF HISTORY AT THE UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO. MOSES COIT TYLER, A.M., L.H.D., LL.D., FORMER PROFESSOR OF HISTORY AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY. WOODROW WILSON, PH.P,, LL,P V PRESIDENT OF PRINCETON UNIVERSITY. i Statesmen and Publicists JAMES G. ELAINE, FORMER SECRETARY OF STATE OF THE UNITED STATES. HENRY SHERMAN BOUTELL, A.M., MEMBER OF CONGRESS FROM ILLINOIS. WILLIAM M. EVARTS, FORMER UNITED STATES SENATOR FROM NEW YORK. JOHN W. FOSTER, LL.D., FORMER SECRETARY OF STATE OF THE UNWED STATES. WILLIAM E. GLADSTONE, FORMER PRIME MINISTER OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. BENJAMIN HARRISON, FORMER PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES. GEORGE FRISBIE HOAR, LL.D , UNITED STATES SENATOR FROM MASSACHU SETTS. HENRY CABOT LO.DGE, UNITED STATES SENATOR FROM MASSACHUSETTS. JOHN TYLER MORGAN, UNITED STATES SENATOR FROM ALABAMA. JUSTIN S. MORRILL, FORMER UNITED STATES SENATOR FROM VERMONT. EDWARD J. PHELPS, LL.D., FORMER UNITED STATES MINISTER TO THE COURT OF ST. JAMES. THOMAS B. REED, FORMER SPEAKER OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. WILLIAM F. WHARTON, FORMER ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF STATE OF THE UNITED STATES. HENRY WHITE, SECRETARY OF THE AMERICAN EMBASSY TO GREAT BRITAIN. HIS EXCELLENCY WU TING FANG, CHINESE MINISTER TO THE UNITED STATES. Scientists and Specialists OSCAR P. AUSTIN, CHIEF OF THE UNITED STATES BUREAU OF STATISTICS. A. E. BOSTWICK, SUPERINTENDENT OF THE CIRCULATING BRANCH OF THE NEW YORK PUBLIC LIBRARY. THOMAS C. CLARKE, PAST PRESIDENT OF THE SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. CHARLES H. CRAMP, HEAD OF THE SHIP-BUILDING FIRM OF WILLIAM CRAMP AND SONS. JOHN HANDIBOE, JOURNALIST. WILLIAM T. HARRIS, PH.D., LL.D., COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION FOR THE UNITED STATES. JOHN P. HOLLAND, THE INVENTOR OF THE HOLLAND SUBMARINE BOAT. W. H. HOTCHKISS, CHAIRMAN EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF REFEREES IN BANKRUPTCY. RAMON REYES LALA, THE FILIPINO AUTHOR AND LECTURER. SIR HIRAM STEVENS MAXIM, C.E., M.E., THE INVENTOR OF THB MAXIM GUN. HERBERT PUTNAM, LITT.D., LIBRARIAN OF THE CONGRESS OP THB UNITBD STATES. HARRY PERRY ROBINSON, EDITOR OF THE RtMway Age. HAMLIN RUSSELL, POLITICAL ECONOMIST. ELIZABETH CADY STANTON, AUTHOR AND ESSAYIST. it FREDERICK W. TAYLOR, SECRETARY OP THE FARMERS' INSTITUTE MANAGERS. ELIHU THOMSON, A.M., PH.D., ELECTRICIAN, CHEVALIER AND OFFICER OF THE LEGION OF HONOR. Men of Action LORD CHARLES BERESFORD, C.B., REAR-ADMIRAL R.N., AUTHOR OF " THE BREAK-UP OF CHINA." J. H. GIBBONS, LIEUTENANT UNITED STATES NAVY, A WRITER ON NAVAL SUB. JECTS. FRANCIS V. GREENE, MAJOR-GENERAL LATE UNITED STATES VOLUNTEERS. ALFRED T. MAHAN, D.C.L., LL.D., CAPTAIN UNITED STATES NAVY (Retired). NELSON A. MILES, LIEUTENANT-GENERAL U.S.A., COMMANDING UNITED STATES ARMY. lii CONTRIBUTIONS BY SPECIALISTS Historical Essays AMERICA'S SHARE IN WESTMINSTER ABBEY, BY DEAN FARRAR. AN APPRECIATION OF THE LIFE AND CHARACTER OF CHARLES SUM- NER, BY GEORGE F. HOAR, UNITED STATES SENATOR FROM MASSA CHUSETTS. DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE IN THE LIGHT OF MODERN CRITICISM, BY MOSES COIT TYLER, A.M., L.H.D., LL.D., FORMER PROFESSOR OF AMER ICAN HISTORY AT CORNELL. DEMOCRACY IN THE UNITED STATES, BY WOODROW WILSON, PH.D., LL.D., PRESIDENT OF PRINCETON UNIVERSITY. LIFE AND CHARACTER OF WILLIAM HENRY SEWARD, BY RICHARD GRANT WHITE. MANIFEST DESTINY, BY PROFESSOR JOHN FISKE. THE BUDDHIST DISCOVERY OF AMERICA BY HUI SHEN, BY JOHN FRYER, A.M., LL.D., PROFESSOR OF LITERATURE AT THE UNIVERSITY OF CALI FORNIA. THE CAPTURE OF FORT WILLIAM AND MARY, BY BALLARD SMITH. THE FEDERAL UNION, BY PROFESSOR JOHN FISKE. THE FUTURE OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY, BY ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, PH.D., PROFESSOR OF HISTORY AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY. THE TOWN MEETING, BY PROFESSOR JOHN FISKE. Political AN ANGLO-AMERICAN UNDERSTANDING, BY REV. LYMAN ABBOTT, D.D., LL.D. ANNEXED TERRITORY, BY BENJAMIN HARRISON, FORMER PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES. CHINA AND THE POWERS, BY LORD CHARLES BERESFORD, REAR-ADMIRAL ROYAL NAVY OF GREAT BRITAIN. CHINESE-AMERICAN RECIPROCITY, BY His EXCELLENCY Wu TING FANG, CHINESE MINISTER TO THE UNITED STATES. iv CONSULAR SERVICE, BY HENRY WHITE, SECRETARY OF THE EMBASSY A-t LONDON, AND BY WILLIAM F. WHARTON, FORMER ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF STATE. FREE TRADE, BY THE RT. HON. WILLIAM EWART GLADSTONE, FORMER PRIMB MINISTER OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. FREE TRADE AND PROTECTION, BY JUSTIN SMITH MORRILL, FORMER UNITED STATES SENATOR FROM VERMONT. PROTECTION OR FREE TRADE, BY JAMES G. ELAINE, FORMER SECRETARY OF STATE OF THE UNITED STATES. THE ALASKAN BOUNDARY QUESTION, BY JOHN B. MOORE, LL.D., PROFESS OR OF INTERNATIONAL LAW AND DIPLOMACY AT COLUMBIA UNIVER SITY. THE BERING SEA ARBITRATION, BY JOHN W. FOSTER, FORMER SECRETARY OF STATE. THE FEDERAL CONTROL OF ELECTIONS, BY HENRY CABOT LODGE; UNITED STATES SENATOR FROM MASSACHUSETTS. THE FEDERAL ELECTION BILL, BY THOMAS BRACKETT REED, FORMER SPEAK ER OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. THE NICARAGUA CANAL, BY JOHN TYLER MORGAN, UNITED STATES SENATOR FROM ALABAMA. THE NICARAGUA CANAL, BY THOMAS B. REED, FORMER SPEAKER OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. THE STATES AND THE POPULAR VOTE IN PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS, BY JOHN HANDIBOE, JOURNALIST. THE SUPREME COURT, BY EDWARD J. PHELPS, LL.D., FORMER MINISTER TO THE COURT OF ST. JAMES. UNITED STATES COLONIAL CIVIL SERVICE, BY EDWARD GAYLORD BOURNE, PH.D., PROFESSOR OF HISTORY IN YALE UNIVERSITY. THE UNITED STATES SENATE, BY EX-SENATOR WILLIAM A. PEFFER THE SPEAKER OF THE HOUSE, BY GEN. A. W. GREELY. HOW THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES DOES BUSINESS, BY THOMAS BRACKETT REED, EX-SPEAKER. Educational AMERICAN PUBLIC EDUCATION, BY DOCTOR JOSIAH GILBERT HOLLAND. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES, BY WILLIAM T. HARRIS, PH.D., LL.D., UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. FREE PUBLIC LIBRARIES, BY HERBERT PUTNAM, Lrrr.D., LIBRARIAN OF CONGRESS. NEW YORK PUBLIC LIBRARY, BY A. E. BosTWiCK, OF THE NEW YORK PUB LIC LIBRARY. THE CARE OF DEPENDENT CHILDREN, BY HENRIETTA CHRISTIAN WRIGHT. UNIVERSITY EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES, BY WILLIAM R. HARPER, PH.D., LL.D., D.D., PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO. V Military and Naval NARRATIVE OF THE BATTLE OF MANILA BAY, BY RAMON REYES NARRATIVE OF THE NAVAL BATTLE OF SANTIAGO, BY HENRY CABOT LODGE, UNITED STATES SENATOR FROM MASSACHUSETTS. NAVAL SHIPS, BY ALFRED T. MAHAN, D.C.L., LL.D., CAPTAIN UNITED STATES NAVY (Retired). THE BATTLE OF SAN JUAN, BY PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT. THE BUILDING AND MAINTAINING OF WAR-SHIPS ON THE GREAT LAKES, BY HENRY SHERMAN BOUTELL, MEMBER OF CONGRESS FROM ILLINOIS. THE GREAT LAKES AND THE NAVY, BY LIEUTENANT J. H. GIBBONS, U.S.N. THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, BY MAJOR-GENERAL F. V. GREENE. THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR, BY LIEUTENANT-GENERAL NELSON A. MILES, U. S. A. COMMANDING. Scientific ELECTRICITY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY, BY PROFESSOR ELIHU THOMSON, A.M., PH.D., CHEVALIER AND OFFICER OF THE LEGION OF HONOR. ENGINEERING IN THE UNITED STATES, BY THOMAS C. CLARKE, PAST PRESIDENT OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. EXPLOSIVES FOR LARGE GUNS, BY SIR HIRAM STEVENS MAXIM, INVENTOR OF THE MAXIM GUN. INVENTION OF THE STEAMBOAT, BY CHANCELLOR ROBERT R. LIVINGSTON, WITH LETTERS BY ROBERT FULTON. THE HOLLAND SUBMARINE BOAT, BY JOHN P. HOLLAND INVENTOR OF THE HOLLAND SUBMARINE BOAT. Industrial and Economic A CENTURY OF COMMERCE, BY O. P. AUSTIN, CHIEF OF THE UNITED STATES BUREAU OF STATISTICS. AMERICAN VERSUS FOREIGN NEWSPAPERS, BY E. L. GODKIN, A.M., D.C.L. BANKRUPTCY, BY HON. W. H. HOTCHKISS, CHAIRMAN OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF REFEREES IN BANK RUPTCY. BIMETALLISM, BY WILLIAM M. EVARTS, FORMER UNITED STATES SENATOR FROM NEW YORK. FARMERS' INSTITUTES, BY FREDERICK W. TAYLOR, SECRETARY OF THE FARMERS' INSTITUTE MANAGERS. PAUPERISM IN THE UNITED STATES, BY RICHARD T. ELY, A.M., PH.D., LL.D., PROFESSOR OF POLITICAL ECONOMY AT THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. THE INDIAN PROBLEM, BY REV. LYMAN ABBOTT, D.D., LL.D. THE NAVIGATION ACTS. A TREATISE ON THE CAUSES WHICH LED UP TO THE PASSING OF THESE ACTS AND THE RESULTS, DIRECT AND INDIRECT, WHICH THEY ACCOMPLISHED, BY CHARLES H. CRAMP. THE SINGLE TAX, BY HAMLIN RUSSELL. THE STATE REGULATION OF RAILWAYS, BY H. P. ROBINSON, EDITOR OP The Railway Age. Religious FREE THOUGHT, BY PROFESSOR GOLDWIN SMITH, D.C.L., LL.D., AUTHOR OF " THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES." JEWS AND JUDAISM, BY PROF. R. J. H. GOTTHEIL, PH.D. PROTESTANT CHURCHES, BY REV. WASHINGTON GLADDEN, D.D. THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH, BY CARDINAL GIBBONS, HEAD OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH IN AMERICA. ORIGINAL DOCUMENTS, TREATIES, JOURNALS, PROCLAMATIONS, AND NARRATIVES FROM 1 ORIGINAL SOURCES Original Documents MAGNA CHARTA, TEXT OF THE CHARTER BETWEEN KING JOHN AND His BAR ONS, IN 1215, WHICH IS THE BASIS OF INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS. THE DUTCH DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE ON JULY 26, 1581. THE PETITION OF RIGHTS AND LIBERTIES, 1628. THE GRAND REMONSTRANCE, 1641. A PROTEST BY THE HOUSE OF COMMONS AGAINST THE ACTS OF CHARLES I. THE AGREEMENT OF THE PEOPLE, 1647. AN AGREEMENT SETTLED IN 1648 IN ENGLAND LIMITING POWER OF RULERS AND MEMBERS OF PAR LIAMENT. INSTRUMENT OF GOVERNMENT, 1653. ACT OF PARLIAMENT MAKING CROM WELL PROTECTOR OF ENGLAND. THE BILL OF RIGHTS, 1689, DECLARING THE RIGHTS OF INDIVIDUALS AND DEFINING THE POWER OF THE KING OF ENGLAND. QUEEN ELIZABETH'S CHARTER TO SIR WALTER RALEIGH FOR DISCOV ERY AND COLONIZATION IN AMERICA. THE STAMP ACT, 1765. THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION, 1775. THE FIRST UNION OF THE COLO NIES. THE MECKLENBURG DECLARATION. A DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE OF ENGLAND SAID TO HAVE BEEN MADE BY CITIZENS OF NORTH CAROLINA PRIOR TO THE DECLARATION OF 1776. THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. ARTICLES OF CAPITULATION, YORKTOWN, 1781. THE ORDINANCE OF 1787. PASSED BY CONGRESS, FREEING THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY FROM SLAVERY, ETC. THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. THE VIRGINIA RESOLUTIONS OF 1798- THE KENTUCKY RESOLUTIONS OF 1798- CONSTITUTION OF THE SOUTHERN CONFEDERACY. COMPLETE TEXT. viii THE CUBAN CONSTITUTION OF 1901. THE DECREE OF AUTONOMY AND DOC UMENTARY HISTORY OF NEGOTIATIONS PRECEDING THE WAR WITH SPAIN. Journals and Narratives THE NORTHMEN'S VOYAGES TO VINLAND. FIRST NARRATED IN THE "HAUSBOK," WRITTEN ABOUT 1305. AMERICUS VESPUCIUS. THE JOURNAL OF His VOYAGES TO AMERICA, WITH DETAILS OF His FIRST SIGHT OF LAND. CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. JOURNAL OF His FIRST VOYAGE TO AND DIS COVERY OF AMERICA. CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. His REPORT TO KING FERDINAND AND QUEEN ISABELLA OF His SECOND VOYAGE, WITH THE REPLIES OF THEIR MAJES TIES TO His REQUESTS. FERDINAND COLUMBUS. NARRATIVE OF His FATHER'S VOYAGES TO AMERICA. VERRAZZANO. His NARRATIVE OF A VOYAGE TO NORTH AMERICA, 1524. CABEZA. JOURNAL OF His TRIP THROUGH NEW MEXICO DURING THE YEAR 1528. CORONADO. RELATION OF His JOURNEY IN 1540 THROUGH WHAT is Now THE SOUTHWESTERN PART OF THE UNITED STATES. PHILIP AMIDAS. JOURNAL OF His VOYAGES TO VIRGINIA IN 1584 AND His OBSERVATIONS ON THE NEW LAND. JOURNAL OF HENRY HUDSON'S DISCOVERY OF THE HUDSON RIVER, BY ROBERT JUET. CORTEZ'S ACCOUNT SENT TO CHARLES V. OF HIS JOURNEY THROUGH MEXICO. THE SETTLEMENT OF NEW SWEDEN, BY REV. I. ACRELIUS, 1638. THE FIRST GERMAN SETTLEMENTS IN PENNSYLVANIA, BY FRANCIS DANIEL PASTORIUS, ESQ., 1683. GOVERNOR HUTCHINSON'S ACCOUNT OF THE BOSTON TEA-PARTY. LAFAYETTE. His NARRATIVE OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION COVERING THE PERIOD WHILE HE WAS IN AMERICA. GEORGE ROGERS CLARK. NARRATIVE OF His CAPTURE OF VINCENNES IN 1779, FROM His MEMOIRS. THOMAS JEFFERSON. ACCOUNT OF MERIWETHER LEWIS'S LIFE AND EX PEDITION. (LEWIS AND CLARK.) THE ASCENT OF FREMONT'S PEAK, 1842, BY JOHN C. FREMONT. ADMIRAL DAVID PORTER'S ACCOUNT OF THE SINKING OF THE " ALBE- MARLE;" BY WILLIAM B. GUSHING. Treaties, Proclamations, Bills, and ^Papers TEXT OF THE ALASKAN BOUNDARY TREATY CONVENTION, 1834. BE- TWEEN ENGLAND, RUSSIA, AND THE UNITED STATES, AND THE MODUS VIVENDI OF 1899. fat THE CLAYTON-BULWER TREATY. TREATY INVOLVING THE CONTROL OF AN ISTHMIAN CANAL BETWEEN NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA. TREATY OF WASHINGTON IN RELATION TO ALABAMA CLAIMS. THE TREATY WITH SPAIN, DECEMBER 10, 1898, ENDING THE SPANISH- AMERICAN WAR. SAMOA: TREATY OF WASHINGTON ANNEXING THE SAME, DECEMBER 2, 1899. TREATY OF THE COURT OF INQUIRY ON INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION, 1899-1901. THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. PRESIDENT HARRISON'S MESSAGE, SENATOR FOSTER'S LETTERS, AND THE TREATIES OF 1893 AND 1897, TOGETHER WITH THE RESOLUTIONS OF ANNEXATION IN 1898. ALIEN AND SEDITION LAWS OF 1798. JOINT RESOLUTION OF CONGRESS ANNEXING TEXAS, JULY 4, 1845. TEXAS ORDINANCE AND JOINT RESOLUTION, 1845. FERNANDO WOOD'S MESSAGE SUGGESTING THE SECESSION OF NEW YORK CITY, 1861. THE FORCE BILL OF 1871. THE EDMUNDS AND THE EDMUNDS-TUCKER ACTS AGAINST MORMONISM. 1882 AND 1887. THE IMMIGRATION ACT OF 1891. LIMITING IMMIGRATION BY AN EDUCATIONAL AND FINANCIAL TEST. THE DINGLEY TARIFF OF 1897. THE GOLD STANDARD ACT, 1900. ACT OF CONGRESS ESTABLISHING GOLD STANDARD AFTER THE DEFEAT OF THE DEMOCRATIC SILVER PLAT FORM. NATURALIZATION LAWS IN ALL THE STATES. THE LAWS OF THE STATES RELATING TO THE ELECTIVE FRANCHISE. STATE LAWS ON EXEMPTION FROM TAXATION. DIVORCE LAWS. LEGISLATION UPON THIS SUBJECT THROUGHOUT THE STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNION. THE LETTERS OF JOHN BROWN. GIVING IN His OWN WORDS His VIEWS AND CREED. JEFFERSON DAVIS'S DOCTRINE OF STATE RIGHTS. THE GRANT-LEE CORRESPONDENCE, INVOLVING THE TERMS OF SUR RENDER OF THE CONFEDERATE ARMY, 1865. THE IMPEACHMENT PROCEEDINGS AGAINST PRESIDENT JOHNSON. JOHN A. LOGAN ON THE CASE OF GENERAL FITZ-JOHN PORTER. GENERAL GRANT ON THE CASE OF GENERAL FITZ-JOHN PORTER. GENERAL McCLELLAN'S ACCEPTANCE OF THE NOMINATION TO THE PRESIDENCY. GENERAL MERRITT. REPORT ON THE CAPTURE OF THE CITY OF MANILA. GENERAL MAcARTHUR. PROCLAMATION TO THE FILIPINOS, PROMULGATED IN 1900. THE LAST PROCLAMATION AND THE UNCONDITIONAL SUBMISSION OF AGUINALDO. MAJOR ANDRE. POEM, " Cow CHACE." WRITTEN IN RIDICULE OF GENERAL WAYNE AT ELIZABETHTOWN, 1780. VENEZUELA ARBITRATION AWARD, OCT. 3, 1899. BILLS VETOED BY THE PRESIDENTS, 1792-1898. THE WHEELER COMPROMISE, 1875. THE FUGITIVE SLAVE LAW, 1850. THE OSTEND MANIFESTO. FRANCIS HOPKINS. POEM, " THE BATTLE OF THE KEGS/' A MOCK-HEROIC POEM CALLED FORTH BY AN EPISODE OF THE REVOLUTION, THE HAY-PAUNCEFOTE TREATY, 1902, EPOCH-MAKING ORATIONS AND ADDRESSES JAMES OTIS'S SPEECH AGAINST WRITS OF ASSISTANCE, 1761. JOHN HANCOCK'S ARRAIGNMENT OF GREAT BRITAIN IN 1774. PATRICK HENRY'S "LIBERTY OR DEATH" SPEECH, 1775. EDMUND BURKE'S ORATION ON CONCILIATION OF THE COLONIES IN 1775. FISHER AMES'S SPEECH IN FAVOR OF JAY'S TREATY, IN CONGRESS, APRIL 28, 1795. JOSIAH QUINCY. ADDRESS ON THE EMBARGO, 1808. JOHN QUINCY ADAMS'S EULOGY OF LAFAYETTE. GENERAL HENRY LEE. FUNERAL ORATION ON GEORGE WASHINGTON. ROBERT YOUNG HAYNE'S SPEECH ON FOOTE'S RESOLUTION ON SECES SION, 1830. DANIEL WEBSTER'S REPLY TO HAYNE. WENDELL PHILLIPS'S ADDRESS ON THE FREEDOM OF THE PRESS IN 1837, AND THE WAR FOR THE UNION, 1861. JUBILEE OF THE CONSTITUTION, 1839. DELIVERED BY JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. THOMAS HART BENTON. SPEECH ON THE ANNEXATION OF TEXAS IN 1844. THOMAS CORWIN. ORATION ON THE WAR WITH MEXICO, AGAINST VOTING FUNDS TO CARRY IT ON. CALHOUN'S SPEECH ON THE RIGHT OF SECESSION. HENRY CLAY'S ORATION ON THE CONSEQUENCES OF SECESSION, 1850. LOUIS KOSSUTH. SPEECH IN FANEUIL HALL IN 1852, DURING His FAMOUS VISIT TO THE UNITED STATES. CHARLES SUMNER'S PROTEST AGAINST SLAVERY, MAY 25, 1854. STEPHEN A. DOUGLAS'S SPEECH ON THE KANSAS-NEBRASKA BILL. PRESTON SMITH BROOKS'S DEFENCE OF HIS ATTACK ON CHARLES SUMNER. CHARLES SUMNER, ADDRESS BY. THE CRIME AGAINST KANSAS. THEODORE PARKER, ADDRESS BY. THE DANGERS OF SLAVERY. JEFFERSON DAVIS. INAUGURAL ADDRESS TO THE CONFEDERATE STATES IN 1861. BENJAMIN F. BUTLER. FAREWELL TO THE CITIZENS OF NEW ORLEANS IN 1862. ALEXANDER H. STEPHENS. ORATION AT SAVANNAH ON SLAVERY AS THE CORNER-STONE OF THE CONFEDERACY. xii STEPHEN A. DOUGLAS'S SPEECH OPENING THE FAMOUS LINCOLN-DOUG- LAS DEBATE. ABRAHAM LINCOLN'S REPLY TO STEPHEN A. DOUGLAS. HENRY WARD BEECHER'S SPEECH AT LIVERPOOL ON SLAVERY, 1863. EDWARD EVERETT. ORATION ON THE OPENING OF THE NATIONAL CEMETERY AT GETTYSBURG, 1863. GEORGB BANCROFT. FAMOUS ORATION ON THE DEATH OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. HORACE GREELEY. ACCEPTANCE OF THE PRESIDENTIAL NOMINATION IN 1872. ROSCOE CONKLING. RENOMINATION OF GENERAL ULYSSES S. GRANT FOR A THIRD TERM IN THE PRESIDENCY. WILLIAM LLOYD GARRISON. ORATION ON THE LESSONS OF INDEPENDENCE DAY, DELIVERED JULY 4, 1876. L. Q. C. LAMAR'S ADDRESSES ON THE SILVER BILL OF 1878 AND THE RACE PROBLEM OF 1876. CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS. SPEECH ON THE ANNIVERSARY OF INDEPEN DENCE DAY AND OF THE BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG. WILLIAM MAXWELL EVARTS. SPEECH ON BIMETALLISM, AT THE PARIS CONFERENCE IN 1881. GEORGE WILLIAM CURTIS. ORATION ON THE EVILS OF THE SPOILS SYSTEM, DELIVERED l88l. JAMES G. BLAINE. ORATION ON JAMES A. GARFIELD, FEBRUARY 27, 1882. HENRY W. GRADY. ORATION ON THE NEW SOUTH, DELIVERED IN NEW YORK, 1886. ROBERT G. INGERSOLL. EULOGY ON THOMAS PAINE. JOHN JAMES INGALLS. EULOGY ON SENATOR BENJAMIN H. HILL. HENRY CABOT LODGE. SPEECH ON RESTRICTION OF IMMIGRATION, 1891. CHAUNCEY MITCHELL DEPEW. WASHINGTON CENTENNIAL ORATION. WILLIAM JENNINGS BRYAN. ORATION ON " THE CROSS OF GOLD/' AT THE CHICAGO DEMOCRATIC CONVENTION OF 1896. JUSTIN SMITH MORRILL. SPEECH ON THE REMONETIZATION OF SILVER, 1898. JOHN TYLER MORGAN. SPEECH ON THE NICARAGUA CANAL. ARCHBISHOP IRELAND. LAFAYETTE AND AMERICA. JULY 4, 1900. THEODORE ROOSEVELT. ADDRESS IN MINNEAPOLIS, SEPTEMBER 2, 1901. WILLIAM McKINLEY. ADDRESS IN BUFFALO, SEPTEMBER 5, 1901. JOHN COTTON'S SERMON, " GOD'S PROMISE TO HIS PLANTATIONS." PROTEST AGAINST TAXATION, 1764, BY SAMUEL ADAMS. STEPHEN HOPKINS'S GRIEVANCES OF THE AMERICAN COLONIES, 1765. RIGHTS OF THE COLONISTS, 1772, BY SAMUEL ADAMS. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN'S VINDICATION OF THE COLONIES, 1775. THE FIRST PRAYER IN THE CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES. DE LIVERED BY DOCTOR DUCHIE. ALEXANDER HAMILTON'S REPORT ON THE COINAGE IN 1791. EDWARD LIVINGSTON'S PLEA FOR THE ABOLITION OF CAPITAL PUNISH MENT. DEFECTS OF THE UNITED STATES ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION, BY RICHARD RUSH. xui JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER. NARRATIVE OF THE ANTI-SLAVERY CON VENTION, 1833. THE NEWBURG ADDRESS AND WASHINGTON'S REPLY, 1783. ROBERT CHARLES WINTHROP. CENTENNIAL ORATION, 1876. ALEXANDER STEPHENS. SAVANNAH ADDRESS, 1861. JAMES WILSON. VINDICATION OF THE AMERICAN COLONIES, 1775. PRESIDENTIAL MESSAGES AND PROCLAMATIONS GEORGE WASHINGTON. FAREWELL ADDRESS, CONTAINING THE GERMS OF WHAT AFTERWARDS BECAME KNOWN AS THE MONROE DOCTRINE. FIRST AND SECOND INAUGURAL ADDRESSES. SEVERAL ADDRESSES TO THE CHURCHES IN THE UNITED STATES. LETTERS ON THE CONSTITUTION TO JAY, MADISON, KNOX, PATRICK HENRY, ETC. JOHN ADAMS. MESSAGE ON THE THREATENING ATTITUDE OF FRANCE, MAY 16, 1797 THOMAS JEFFERSON. FIRST INAUGURAL ADDRESS. JAMES MADISON. FAMOUS MESSAGE ON BRITISH AGGRESSIONS. MESSAGE ON THE TREATY OF PEACE, FEBRUARY 15, 1815. PROCLAMATION DECLARING WAR AGAINST ENGLAND. JAMES MONROE. MESSAGE TO CONGRESS, DECEMBER 22. 1822, DECLARING WHAT IS KNOWN AS THE MONROE DOCTRINE. JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. MESSAGE TO THE SENATE ON A PAN- AMERICAN UNION. ADDRESS ON THE JUBILEE OF THE CONSTITUTION, 1826. ANDREW JACKSON. PROCLAMATION IN RELATION TO THE QUESTION OF NUL LIFICATION. MARTIN VAN BUREN. MESSAGE ON THE PANIC OF 1837. WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. INAUGURAL ADDRESS AT WASHINGTON, 1841. JOHN TYLER. MESSAGE TO CONGRESS CONCERNING THE BOUNDARY -LINE BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA. MESSAGE ON NEGOTIATIONS WITH GREAT BRITAIN ON THE UNITED STATES NORTHERN BOUNDARIES. MESSAGE ON THE ANNEXATION OF TEXAS, APRIL 22, 1844. JAMES K. POLK. SPECIAL MESSAGE IN REGARD TO THE MEXICAN WAR. INAUGURAL ADDRESS DELIVERED AT WASHINGTON, 1845. ZACHARY TAYLOR. MESSAGE ON THE CENTRAL AMERICAN STATES, MARCH 1850. (ON NICARAGUA AND PANAMA CANALS.) MESSAGE CONCERNING THE STATUS OF CALIFORNIA, NEW MEXICO, AND TEXAS (JUNE 23, 1850). MILLARD FILLMORE. MESSAGE ON THE TEXAS BOUNDARY CONTROVERSY, 1850. FRANKLIN PIERCE. SPECIAL MESSAGE ON KANSAS, 1856. JAMES BUCHANAN. MESSAGE TO CONGRESS ON THE PROSPECTS OF CIVIL WAR. ABRAHAM LINCOLN. PROCLAMATION FREEING ALL THE SLAVES IN THE UNITED STATES. ABRAHAM LINCOLN. ADDRESS DELIVERED AT THE COOPER INSTITUTE, 1860. FIRST AND SECOND INAUGURAL ADDRESSES, AND THE SPEECH AT GETTYS BURG, 1865. ANDREW JOHNSON. ANSWER TO THE ARTICLES OF IMPEACHMENT, 1868. ULYSSES S. GRANT. DEFENCE OF GENERAL FITZ-JOHN PORTER. FIRST INAUGURAL ADDRESS, 1869. LAST MESSAGE TO CONGRESS, 1876. ADDRESS AT THE CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION, 1876. RUTHERFORD B. HAYES. INAUGURAL ADDRESS AT WASHINGTON, 1877. MESSAGE ON MILITARY INTERFERENCE IN ELECTIONS. JAMES A. GARFIELD. INAUGURAL ADDRESS AT WASHINGTON, 1881. ADDRESS ON THE WESTERN RESERVE. CHESTER A. ARTHUR. MESSAGE VETOING THE CHINESE IMMIGRATION BILL IN 1882. GROVER CLEVELAND. PROCLAMATION, SEPTEMBER 27, 1894, OF AMNESTY TO THE MORMONS. TARIFF MESSAGE OF 1887, AND MESSAGE ON THE VENEZUELAN BOUN DARY QUESTION, 1895. BENJAMIN HARRISON. INAUGURAL ADDRESS DELIVERED AT WASHINGTON, 1889. WASHINGTON CENTENNIAL ADDRESS, 1889. WILLIAM McKINLEY. SECOND LETTER OF ACCEPTANCE, 1900, REVIEWING THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES FROM 1896 TO 1900. SECOND INAUGURAL ADDRESS AT WASHINGTON, 1901. THEODORE ROOSEVELT. MESSAGE TO CONGRESS, DECEMBER 3, 1901. SPECIAL TOPICS NEW NETHERLANDS. THE BEGINNING AND GROWTH OF THE COLONY. THE AMERICAN INDIAN. LEGISLATION GOVERNING INDIANS. THE PANAMA CANAL. ATTEMPTS THAT HAVE BEEN MADE TO PIERCE THE ISTHMUS OF PANAMA. LABOR ORGANIZATIONS. THE HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF LABOR UNIONS AND THEIR WORK. CONFEDERATE STATES OF AMERICA. GENERAL SKETCH OF THE COMPO SITION OF THE CONFEDERACY. COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES. THE BIRTH, GROWTH, AND PRESENT STATE OF OUR COMMERCE (WITH TABLES). ABOLITION AND THE ABOLITIONISTS. ACQUISITION OF TERRITORY. ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS. THE CABINETS OF THE PRESIDENTS SINCE 1789. THE CENSUS OF 1900 (WITH COMPARATIVE TABLES). AMERICA'S PART IN THE SUGGESTED PARTITION OF CHINA. DIPLOMATIC SERVICE OF THE UNITED STATES. THE DEBT OF THE UNITED STATES FROM 1791 TO 1901. WASHINGTONIANA. MONETARY REFORM. THE INDIANAPOLIS CONFERENCE. RELIGION IN THE UNITED STATES (WITH TABLES). CHRONOLOGY OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR, 1775-83. CHRONOLOGY OF THE EVENTS OF THE CIVIL WAR. THE WAR WITH SPAIN A COMPLETE CHRONOLOGY. SAMPSON'S AND SCHLEY'S REPORTS ON THE NAVAL BATTLE OF SANTIAGO. CHRONOLOGY OF THE PHILIPPINE INSURRECTION. ARMY. A CHRONOLOGICALLY CLASSIFIED STATEMENT OF THE BIRTH AND GROWTH OF THE ARMY OF THE COLONIES AND OF THE UNITED STATES. NAVY. CHRONOLOGICAL SKETCH OF THE AMERICAN NAVY, FROM REVOLU TIONARY TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY, WITH A LIST OF ALL THE VES SELS IN THE UNITED STATES NAVY ARRANGED BY CLASSES. PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS, 1789-1901. POPULAR AND ELECTORAL, VOTES. PRESIDENTIAL ADMINISTRATIONS, 1789-1901. POLITICAL PARTIES IN THE UNITED STATES. PLATFORMS OF THE MINOR POLITICAL PARTIES. LIST OF THE HIGHER OFFICIALS OF THE UNITED STATES FEDERAL GOVERNMENT EXECUTIVE, LEGISLATIVE, AND JUDICIAL, 1902. AMERICAN LEARNED SOCIETIES. A LIST OF ALL THE MOST IMPORTANT. AMERICAN LABOR ARBITRATION (NATIONAL Civic FEDERATION). A HIS TORY OF THE MOVEMENT AND A LIST OF ALL THE MEMBERS. TARIFF LEGISLATION, 1789-1900. TREATIES OF THE UNITED STATES. UNITED STATES. EACH OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNION is TREATED IN A SEPARATE ARTICLE, WITH A CHRONOLOGY OF THE CHIEF EVENTS FROM ITS FIRST DISCOVERY OR SETTLEMENT IN EACH CASE THIS ARTICLE HAS BEEN VERIFIED BY THE GOVERNOR OF THE STATE OR TERRITORY, His REPRESENTATIVE, OR THE HISTORICAL SOCIETY. IN ADDITION TO THESE, THERE is A CHRONOLOGY OF THE UNITED STATES FROM 1492 TO 1902, AND A PRELIMINARY LIST OF THE EARLY DISCOVERERS AND EXPLORERS. CONFEDERATE STATES OF AMERICA. GIVING THE NAMES OF ALL THE MEMBERS OF THE PROVISIONAL CONGRESS, THE SENATORS OF EACH STATE, THE FULL LIST OF GENERALS ABOVE THE RANK OF BRIGADIER- GENERALS, AND MANY IMPORTANT LISTS AND STATISTICS. XV111 LIST OF PLATES PRESIDENT JOHN ADAMS ... .... . . Frontispiece PRESIDENT J. Q. ADAMS . . . . . , . . . .Facing page 48 THE FLEET OF COLUMBUS APPROACHING THE NEW WORLD ..... . | " "112 PRESIDENT C. A. ARTHUR ..".'. . . . . . " 224 THE BOSTON MASSACRE, MARCH 5, 1770 . . . 380 PRESIDENT JAMES BUCHANAN . ... . . *. " 432 VIEWING THE BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL .... " 444 MAPS UNITED STATES, SHOWING ACQUISITION OF TERRI TORY .' . . . . . .Facing page 16 ALASKA . . . V | ., . " " 78 PREFACE THE SIGNIFICANCE OF AMERICAN HISTORY BY WOODROW WILSON, PH.D., LL.D., President of Princeton University THE study of American history has changed its whole tone and aspect within a generation. Once a plain and simple tale, though heroic withal, of a virgin continent discovered in the West, new homes for the English made upon it, a new polity set up, a new nation made of a sudden in the hot crucible of war, a life and a government apart, a thing isolated, singular, original, as if it were the story of a separate precinct and parish of the great world, the history of the United States has now been brought at last into perspective, to be seen as what it is, an integral portion of the general history of civilization; a free working-out upon a clear field, indeed, of selected forces generated long ago in England and the old European world, but no irregular invention, no histrionic vindication of the Eights of Man. It has not lost its unique significance by the change, but gained, rather, a hundred fold both in interest and in value. It seemed once a school exercise in puritan theory and cavalier pride ; it seems now a chapter written for grown men in the natural history of politics and society, a perfect exposition of what the European civilization of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was to produce in the nineteenth century. What formerly appeared to be only a by-product of the creative forces of society is now clearly enough seen to be the epitome of a whole age. We see it all, now that America, having come out of her days of adolescence and preparation, has taken her place among the powers of the world, fresh and still in her youth, but no stranger among the peoples, a leader, rather, and pace-maker in the wide field of affairs. The history of the United States is modern history in broad and open analysis, stripped of a thousand elements which, upon the European stage, confuse the eye and lead the judgment astray. It spans a whole age of the xxi PBEFACE world's transformation, from the discoveries, the adventure, the romance of the sixteenth century, with its dreams of unbounded wealth in the far Indies and marvels at the ends of the earth, to the sober commerce and material might of the twentieth, with its altered dreams, of a world mastered, if not united, by the power of armed fleets patrolling it from end to end, in the interests of peace and European and American trade. At its outset American history discloses a novel picture of men out of an old world set upon the coasts of a new to do the work of pioneers, without suitable training either of thought or hand, men schooled in an old civiliza tion, puzzled, even daunted, by the wilderness in which they found them selves as by a strange and alien thing, ignorant of its real character, lacking all the knowledge and craft of the primitive world, lacking everything but courage, sagacity, and a steadfast will to succeed. As they pushed their gigantic task they were themselves transformed. The unsuitable habits of an old world fell away from them. Their old blood bred a new stock, and the youth of the race to which they belonged was renewed. And yet they did not break with the past, were for long scarcely conscious of their own transformation, held their thoughts to old channels, were frontiersmen with traditions not of the frontier, traditions which they cherished and held very dear, of a world in which there were only ancient kingdoms and a civiliza tion set up and perfected time out of mind. Their muscles hardened to the work of the wilderness, they learned woodcraft and ranged the forests like men with the breeding, the quick instincts, the ready resource in time of danger of the Indian himself, and yet thought upon deep problems of re ligion, pondered the philosophy of the universities, were partisans and fol lowers of statesmen and parties over sea, looked to have their fashions of dress sent to them, with every other old-world trapping they could pay for, by the European ships which diligently plied to their ports. Nowhere else, perhaps, is there so open and legible a record of the stiffness of thought and the flexibility of action in men, the union of youth and age, the dominion of habit reconciled with an unspoiled freshness of bold initiative. And with the transplantation of men out of the old world into a wilder ness went also the transplantation of institutions, with the same result. The new way of life and association thrust upon these men reduced the com plex things of government to their simples. Within those untouched forests they resumed again, as if by an unconscious instinct, the simple organization of village communities familiar to their race long centuries before, or here and there put palisades about a group of huts meant to serve for refuge and fortress against savage enemies lurking near at hand in the coverts, and lived in their " hundreds " again under captains, to spread at last slowly into counties with familiar sheriffs and quarter-sessions. It was as if they had PREFACE brought their old-time polity with them, not in the mature root nor even in the young cutting, but in the seed merely, to renew its youth and yield itself to the influences of a new soil and a new environment. It was drawn back to its essential qualities, stripped of its elaborate growth of habits, as they themselves -were. All things were touched, as it were, by the light of an earlier age returned. The study of American history furnishes, as a conse quence, materials such as can be found nowhere else for a discrimination between what is accidental and what is essential in English political practice. Principles developed by the long and intricate processes of the history of one country are here put to experimental test in another, where every element of life is simplified, every problem of government reduced to its fundamental formulae. There is here the best possible point of departure, for the student who can keep his head and who knows his European history as intimately as he knows his American, for a comparative study of institutions which may some day yield us a sane philosophy of politics which shall forever put out of school the thin and sentimental theories of the disciples of Eousseau. This is the new riches which the study of American history is to afford in the light that now shines upon it : not national pride merely, nor merely an heroic picture of men wise beyond previous example in building States, and uniting them under a government at once free and strong, but a real under standing of the nature of liberty, of the essential character and determining circumstances of self-government, the fundamental contrasts of race and social development, of temper and of opportunity, which of themselves make governments or mar them. It may well yield us, at any rate, a few of the first principles of the natural history of institutions. The political history of America was the outcome of a constitutional struggle which concerned Englishmen in England no less deeply than it concerned Englishmen in the colonies, a struggle whose motives were com pounded both of questions of conscience and of questions of civil liberty, of longings to be free to think and of longings to be free to act. And English men on the two sides of the sea were not wholly divorced in the issue of that struggle. Not America alone, but the power to rule without principle and restraint at home as well, was once for all cut off from the crown of England. But there was sharp contrast, too, between the effects wrought in England and the effects wrought in America. On one side the sea an ancient people won their final battle for constitutional government ; on the other side a new people was created, a people set free to work out a new experience both in the liberty of its churches and in its political arrangements, to gain a new consciousness, take on a distinctive character, transform itself from a body of loosely associated English colonies into a great commonwealth, not Eng lish nor yet colonial merely, but transmuted, within little more than a xxiii PREFACE generation, into a veritable nation, marked out for an independent and striking career. At the Eevolution the American States did hardly more than disengage themselves from the English dominion. Their thoughts, their imagina tions, were still held subject to policy and opinion over sea. By the close of the War of 1812, these last, impalpable bonds were also thrown oft'. American statesmen had got their freedom of thought, and, within a genera tion, were the leaders of a nation and a people apart. One has only ic contrast the persistent English quality and point of view of the English colonies of to-day, self-governing communities though most of them are, which have led their own lives for generations together under parliaments and ministers of their own free choosing, with the distinctive character of the United States to realize how much of the history of nations is spiritual, not material, a thing, not of institutions, but of the heart and the imagination. This is one of the secrets American history opens to the student, the deepest of all secrets, the genesis of nationality, the play of spirit in the processes of history. Of course the present separateness and distinctive character of the United States among the nations is due in part to the mixture of races in the make up of their people. Men out of every European race, men out of Asia, men out of Africa have crowded in, to the bewilderment alike of the statesmen and of the historian. An infinite crossing of strains has made a new race. And yet there is a mystery here withal. Where, when, in what way, have our institutions and our life as a people been turned to new forms and into new channels by this new union and chemistry of bloods? There has been no break in our constitutional development. Nothing has been done of which we can confidently say, This would not have been done had we kept the pure Saxon strain. All peoples have come to dwell among us, but they have merged their individuality in a national character already formed; have been dominated, changed, absorbed. We keep until now some of the char acteristic differences of organization and action transplanted to this conti nent when races were separate upon it. We single out the Dutch element in the history of New York, the French element in the history of Louisiana, the Spanish influence in the far West. But these things remain from a time when Dutch and French and Spanish had their seats and their power apart and were independent rivals for the possession of the continent. Since they were fused they have given us nothing which we can distinguish as their own. The French who have come to us since that final settlement on the heights of Quebec have contributed nothing distinctive to our civilization or our order of government. The Dutch who have been immigrants amongst us since New Netherlands became New York have no doubt strengthened our -^iV J PREFACE stock, but they have adopted our character and point of view. No foreign stock long keeps its identity in our affairs. The fact should a little daunt those who make much of physical heredity and speak of the persistence of race characteristics as a thing fixed and inva riable, if they are to apply their theory to communities which are dominated by one and the same national idea, and fused to make a common stock. It is where races act separately that they act in character and with individual distinction. In this again the history of the United States demonstrates the spiritual aspects of political development. Nations grow by spirit, not by blood; and nowhere can the significant principle of their growth be seen more clearly, upon a more fair and open page, than in the history of the United States. It is this principle which throws a light as if of veritable revelation upon the real nature of liberty, as a thing bred, not of institutions nor of the benevolent inventions of statesmen, but of the spiritual forces of which institutions themselves are the offspring and creation. To talk of giving to one people the liberties of another is to talk of making a gift of character, a thing built up by the contrivance of no single generation, but by the slow providence which binds generations together by a common training. From whatever point of view you approach it, American history gives some old lesson a new plainness, clarification, and breadth. It is an off shoot of European history and has all its antecedents on the other side of the sea, and yet it is so much more than a mere offshoot. Its processes are so freshened and clarified, its records are so abundant and so accessible, it is spread upon so wide, so open, so visible a field of observation, that it seems like a plain first chapter in the history of a new age. As a stage in the economic development of modern civilization, the history of America consti tutes the natural, and invaluable, subject-matter and book of praxis of the political economist. Here is industrial development worked out with in comparable logical swiftness, simplicity, and precision, a swiftness, sim plicity, and precision impossible amidst the rigid social order of any ancient kingdom. It is a study, moreover, not merely of the make-up and setting forth of a new people, but also of its marvellous expansion, of processes of growth, both spiritual and material, hurried forward from stage to stage as if under the experimental touch of some social philosopher, some political scientist making of a nation's history his laboratory and place of demon stration. The twentieth century will show another face. The stage of America grows crowded like the stage of Europe. The life of the new world grows as complex as the life of the old. A nation hitherto wholly devoted to do mestic development now finds its first task roughly finished and turns about to look curiously into the tasks of the great world at large, seeking its special XXV PREFACE part and place of power. A new age has come which no man may forecast. But the past is the key to it; and the past of America lies at the centre of modern history. PRINCETON, NEW JERSEX. The American School of Historical Writers By ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, Professor of American History at Harvard University, and author and editor of many works on American History AMERICAN HISTORY is fortunate not only in the romantic setting of its earlier periods, and in the succession of great events, momentous to man kind, but quite as much in the interest of Americans to record and to de scribe the development of their own country. Before the reader and the student can come into contact with his ancestors, a cohort of men must clear away the obscuring noteless facts, and must leave standing the men and women of might and influence in the history of the United States. Now hundreds of chroniclers, scores of zealous investigators, and a throng of secondary writers have taken part in the work of making their country known to itself. Looking over the whole field of American historiography, it is easy to recognize a succession of literary impulses ; first come the narratives of such discoverers and explorers as Champlain, written with many different pur poses, but much alike in the freshness and life which they put into their story. A few years later, in the first half of the seventeenth century, arise a group of writers of whom Winthrop is a type, builders of commonwealths, who have left us a heritage of wisdom on the conditions of colonization. About the beginning of the eighteenth century we find conscious historians piecing together conditions and records, and trying to see the meaning and proportions of previous events; they reach from Cotton Mather to Hutch- inson. Just after the Eevolution, a new national self-consciousness led to several efforts to tell at some length the history of that great struggle. The beginnings of the literary period of American history, about 1830, included new and ambitious attempts to compress the whole history of the country into one systematic work : in this period George Bancroft is the most signifi cant name. Since the Civil War a new school of historians has arisen, for G xxvii HISTORICAL WRITERS the most part choosing limited periods and treating them intensively; of these Henry Adams is a type. At the outset must be made clear the distinction between the recorders of events and the critical analytic writers ; the first, men like Columbus, are al ways a part of the event which they describe ; while the second may look back ward from a distance of ctnturies, as did John Fiske; but at both extremi ties of our national history we find some writers who combine first-hand and contemporary knowledge with the power to see the spirit animating the body politic ; such were Bradford almost three centuries ago, and Ropes and Von Hoist to-day. To enumerate all the good servants of America in either category is impossible; but the best and the typical may be selected. The first discoverers and explorers not only laid the foundation on which later generations of writers have built; they also left us narratives which, in directness, simplicity, and elevation of thought, make them comparable with Herodotus and the Venerable Bede. What may be called the first school of American historians is made up of those who themselves felt the sting of the salt spray ; heard the breakers beating upon mysterious shores ; saw the painted savages come down to view the great white-winged monsters from which came forth a race of white men of incalculable wealth and unearthly powers; smelt the land odors from uncleared forests; and brought home pearls and beavers and savage captives. The letters of Columbus, despite some ignoble boasting and a certain sordidness which ill became so great a man, were memorials of a splendid achievement worthy of handing down to his children's children. the narratives of Gomara and Pizarro on the conquest of Mexico and Peru give an unfading picture of the harsh, con quering race, and of that heroic spirit through which a handful overcame a multitude. The Gentleman of Elvas somehow appeals to the native Amer ican sense of humor when he tells us how De Soto was hemmed in between the Mississippi and his enemies ; " and on both sides there were many Ind ians, and his power was not now so great, but that he had need to help himself rather by flight than by force." The narratives of the first English explorers have the same quality of virility, intensity, and undaunted spirit. Doubtless Sir Francis Drake was a gentleman who could make a good deal of trouble to-day on a twenty-knot ship in the midst of an enemy's commerce, and he would hardly understand the niceties of the law of contraband of war; but who can help enjoying his rollicking voyage to the Pacific, with its store of unctuous enumerations of plunder : " a silver chalice, two cruets, and one altar cloth " ; " thirteen bars of silver, each weighing four hundred ducats, Spanish "; " eight llamas, or sheep of Peru, every one of which sheep had on its back two bags of leather, xxviii HISTORICAL WRITERS each bag containing fifty pound weight of fine silver"; "a chest full of royales of plate and goodly stores of silks and linen cloth " ; " great riches as jewels and precious stones"; "thirteen chests full of royales of plate, fourscore pound weight of gold, and six-and-twenty ton of silver." What adventurous boy would not to-day be proud to share the life of such a pirate, and to revel in the riches of perfidious Spain ? Nor do the voyagers have all the romance of history to themselves. While the English language lives will live honest John Smith, who has been so painfully misunderstood because his historical novel, although carefully studied on the spot and singularly accurate in its setting, came early to be accepted, and has many times been criticised, as though it were sober history. It is fortunate for later generations that so many of the early worthies could either handle the pen themselves, or had a companion or scrivener to set down in order the details of whatever was strange in scenery, in inhabitants, in wild animals, and in products. Nowadays we do not realize the absolute novelty of the new world, for nowadays no part of the world is remote, except perhaps the Antarctic continent. The sense of discovery was very stimulating : men like Champlain could with equal ease explore, fight, found communities, and write the most engaging narrative; heroes like Father Jogues have left us not only a most complete account of the natives of America, but an imperishable record of the superiority of soul over such accidents as tomahawks and bone-breaking gauntlets, and red-hot coals. In real richness, variety, and romance, American history is full, even when we compare it with the contemporary accounts of European countries; and we know actually more of the conditions, the standards, and the social life of the American Indians in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries than we know of the life of the English, French, or German peasantry of that time. What wonder if the early writers were a little hampered by the attempt to describe a new barbarism in terms of an old civilization? % Why should not the early historian make an " emperor " out of a naked savage who had at least the physical power to sweep the Europeans off the new continent if he chose ? Was it not natural that " kings " and " princesses " and " noble men" should stalk out of lodges that really held unclean and untrust worthy savages? To Virginia, to New Amsterdam, to New England, the Indians were a mighty military power, often superior in battle, and all but victorious in the great campaign which lasted more than a hundred years. If the red man had had the musket, and the white man the bow and arrow, we should to-day be writing the history of the "United States " as the lion" would have painted it." In these contemporary narratives, many of them interfused with fancy, and few recognizing the real squalor, degradation, and sinfulness of savage life, we have a great cycle of historical material HISTORICAL WRITERS told in the simplest historical fashion; and this is the first school of writers of American history. As soon as English colonization actually begins, we find a second group of writers of whom two, Bradford and Winthrop, stand pre-eminent; men who recorded the annals of the time in the full faith that we to-day should carefully read them, and should find disclosed in them the soul of the earliest commonwealths. It is of great significance that throughout the colonies, and especially in New England, there were highly educated men capable of leaving a record, reasonably accurate, and phrased in the big, broad, rugged English of the time. If one of the objects of the historian is to dis cover motives, what can be more significant than Bradford's long and ana lytic account of the reasons for the foundation of Plymouth plantation ? The opening words of the * Of Plimoth Plantation " seem like the stately gate way to an epic. " And first of the occasion and inducements thereunto, the which that I may truly unfold I must begin at the very root and rise of the same. The which I shall endeavor to manifest in a plain style with sincere regard unto the simple truth in all things, at least as near as my slender judgment can attain the same." In this manuscript, covering the period 1608-1645, so carefully written, so long preserved, used by Prince, Hubbard, Cotton Mather, and Hutchinson, to disappear, and to come to light again in the palace of the Bishop of London at Fulham, almost in our own day in this precious memorial, we have the first attempt at a consciously reasoned history of America. Bradford tells only that part which he knew; he de pended upon his own memory and the immediate communications of his friends ; but the book is a remarkable account of what we now call the con stitutional history of the community. Indeed, there is much in Bradford to reward the student of mankind, the sociologist, the economist, the lawyer, the ecclesiastical historian, and the lover of picturesque narrative. Here wt have the foundations of an English colony and the growth of its polity, the slow building of the walls of a government which was at the same time a municipality; here we read of Indian wars, stratagems, powwows, and peace makings; here is the record of an important experiment in communism, ending like all such experiments in the final parceling out to individuals of such territory and property as was left. We learn something of what emigrants' food and quarters were on board ship, while crossing the Atlantic ; we have an insight into fisheries and agriculture and trade, and interest and profit at " the rate of cento per cento " ; and in the midst of affairs we have the splendid story of calm, resolute, unshrinking men, slowly piecing together \ political community and preparing tne way for the later United States. The other great historical writer of this period, John Winthrop, is far less HISTORICAL WRITERS systematic and argumentative. An annalist and yet possessed of a keen sense of selection, in the midst of much that is trivial and some things that reveal the intense Puritan curiosity about things better left undisturbed, he still deals in the main with the imposing problems of free government. The staples of his history are the interplay of man against man, of class with class, the rivalries of the grave magistracy with the pushing General Court ; the final compromise by which a legislature of two houses was organ ized in Massachusetts. In his story of the period from 1630 to 1648, he gives us not simply crude materials, but a description of the farthermost bases of American political ideas, as worked out on American soil. Bradford and Winthrop are by no means the only men of that period who deal with events as the warp and woof of a systematic narrative. Cap tain Edward Johnson, in his Wonder Working Providence of Sion's Saviour, published in 1654, essays what he calls a History of New Eng land, from those beginnings "when England began to decline in religion like lukewarm Laodicea," till "these soldiers of Christ first stood on this western end of the world." But Johnson and other writers of similar worthy purposes had neither the literary skill nor the sense of continuity for which Bradford and Winthrop are remarkable. No others left a well- founded and well-knit narrative extending over so many years. No others felt so clearly that they were both upbuilders and recorders of their own upbuilding . For the inner life of most of the New England settlements besides Plym outh and Massachusetts, there is a painful dearth of contemporary narrative. The histories of Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New Hampshire have to be pieced out of scattered and minute references in journals and public records. It is much the same in the middle and southern colonies; except for the vivacious accounts of the settlers of the Jerseys and Pennsylvania, written by Gabriel Thomas and others, there is hardly any contemporary history of the middle colonies, though much material for 'history. On the founda tions of Virginia and Maryland there are interesting contemporary notices by Strachey, John Smith, Wingfield, White, and others; but no man writes with the feeling that he is drawing out the real meaning of the events which he describes, for the use of later generations ; no man foresees the oak which is to spring from his acorn. The separate history of the Carolinas came much later and must be collated from many scattered narratives. When Georgia was founded in the eighteenth century, the historical sense was more developed, and of that eolony there are several excellent contemporary ac counts. We must leap across more than half a century from the end of Bradford nzi HISTORICAL WRITERS and Winthrop's histories to reach a third school made up of local historians and annalists, most of whom have now become simply material for later writers. Of these the first and the worst is Cotton Mather, whose magnum opus is the Magnolia Christi Americana, or the Ecclesiastical History of New England, first published in 1702. It would be hard to cap this sin gular production for whimsicality, variety of contents, and treatment; it is everything except history. To Cotton Mather's mind nothing came amiss : tradition, rumor, gossip, memory, experiences, every-day facts, were all equally put to his service. So far as a naturally keen and well-practised memory could go, he sounded and verified these various sources, but it was not in his mind to reject a statement because he could not show it to be probably true. The make-up of the book is a monument to the perverted learning of the time. Anagrams, prefatory poems, attestations, introductory poems, general introductions, epitaphs, old sermons pitchforked in, little biographies, contemporary letters, squibs, polemic pamphlets, dialogues, prophecies, the last dying speeches of criminals, wonderful prodigies, and " remarkables " of Indian wars all was fish that came to Mather's net; and it is one of the tasks of the present-day historian to delve in the many fonts of type of this ponderous book in order to discover how much is truth, how much prejudice, and how much downright error. Contemporary with Mather is the first really good local history. Beverley's History of Virginia, published about 1705 ; and it is worth noting that Bev- erley had in his mind the modern conception that history includes a view of the social conditions and standards of the time. He makes it his business not only to describe the foundings of the commonwealth of Virginia, for which he had to depend on material made by others, but also to tell us of the products, the social institutions, the education, and the labor system of his time. Here we have really the first example of an American history, written not from personal experiences, or from the memory of those who had gone through such experiences, but from printed and even written records, or at least from a restatement of such printed narratives as he could find. Beverley set an example which unfortunately was followed by few writers of his century. To be sure there are some other agreeable books of the same kind: Smith's History of New Jersey, published in 1765; William Smith's History of New York, written in the eighteenth century, though not pub lished till many years later; Stith's Virginia (to 1624), published in 1747; and several ecclesiastical histories of merit, especially Neal and Backus. But these writers are independent of each other, are local and had but a limited circle of readers. One man deserves to be specially noticed because he made it his task to accumulate small details, and was the first to estab lish many of the accepted conventions of American history. Thomas Prince, xxxii HISTORICAL WRITERS in the preparation of his Annals, published from 1736 to 1755, made a collection of documents which served him as the basis for a chronological conspectus of the history of New England, which, unluckily, reached only to 1633. Like his follower, Abiel Holmes, he has long since been forgotten, except by specialists; the work of both Prince and Holmes was that of laying rough stones which are hidden out of sight by the finished structure. The first general historian of America upon the model of the three great contemporary English writers, Hume, Eobertson, and Gibbon, was Thomas Hutchinson in his History of Massachusetts Bay. An official, a man of prop erty, of high connections, much experiences in town and colonial government, he began to publish in 176-1. His second volume was published three years later, when the storm-cloud of the Revolution was already gathering. A third volume, which includes the unhappy history of the pre-revolutionary controversies, did not appear till long after his death. In Hutchinson as in Prince, we have a study of historical sources, though very limited in kind; he seems scarcely to have known that there were manuscript records of the lower house of the Massachusetts legislature, and his history is directly founded on private papers and the records of the governor and council. What is really important in Hutchinson is his attempt to write a history in a narrative form, covering a century and a half, which should deal with events in their right proportions, and in which he should also apply the same methods of judgment and segregation to a period within which he had himself lived. Nobody now reads Hutchinson for his style, and his account of early Massachusetts is long since surpassed, but the experience of the trained public man gives a permanent value to his conclusions, and his is dis tinctly a genuine historian's work. Among the evidences of a quickened national consciousness was the growth of a new school of historians immediately after the Revolution. Among them were several notable historians of a single commonwealth Proud's Pennsylvania, TrumbulPs Connecticut, Burk's Virginia, and far the best of them all Belknap's New Hampshire. At the same time arose several conscientious and hard-working writers, who wrought upon the history of their country, taking into view not a colony nor a section, but the whole nation; and they also conceived the modern idea of choosing a limited field and treating it with thoroughness and in detail. Of these the most notable are Ramsay, Mercy Warren, and Timothy Pitkin. Dr. Ramsay, whose book, published in 1811, describes much of the military side of the Revolution, and includes an invaluable discussion of the effects of that great struggle on the political and social life of Americans. Mercy Warren was the first woman to publish a narrative history, which, however one-sided, was written xxxiii HISTORICAL WRITERS by an eye-witness, and that eye-witness a woman of high education and great spirit. It was this able person, called by her friends the Marcia of the American Eevolution, who ventured to attack the great John Adams and accused him of leaning towards monarchism. Better than all the others is honest Pitkin, whose history, published in 1828, covers with clearness and insight the history of the foundation of the American republic from 1763 to 1797, with a few foot-notes referring to the scanty sources available at that time. Pitkin had a strong liking for statistics, and his books remained until up to a few years ago almost the only well-thought discussion of the political and economic conditions of the colonies, as a background for a discussion of the causes of the Kevolution. Besides these important studies of material at first-hand, the great libra ries contain many so-called histories of the United States, published in the first third of the nineteenth century. It seems to have been a habit of the New England country clergy to combine with the country newspapers to produce a history; the parson furnished scissors, paste, and circumambient rhetoric, and produced a manuscript chiefly out of extracts from his prede cessors; the printer set it up on the off days when the week's paper was printed and copy for the next had not yet appeared. This process, not un known in later and wiser generations, adds nothing to American histori ography and needs no further description. Although up to 1830 there had appeared no account of the development of America which is now read as a classic, and still less any first-hand Amer ican history of a foreign country the foundations were laying upon which historians might safely build. During the whole time from the beginning of the Eevolution down, materials were being collected and made available, without which the work of Hildreth and Bancroft would have been impos sible. It is the happy fortune of America that the great men of the revo lutionary period either kept copies of their letters or wrote such important documents that they were preserved by those who received them. In the letters of Washington and Franklin, of John Jay, of Jefferson, of Madison, of Monroe, and a score of other revolutionary worthies, we find the true spirit of their times, and in 1791, Dr. Jeremy Belknap, himself the author of the excellent history of New Hampshire, founded in Boston the Massa chusetts Historical Society, the first in time of a long series of public-spirited organizations, whose aim it has been to collect memorials which would other wise perish, and to put them in permanent form for later generations. Our ancestors have always been rather tenacious of public records, partly because of the importance of such evidence in settling questions of property, and partly from an instinctive feeling that what they were doing was worth remembrancing. It is this sense of doing something worth while which suit HISTORICAL WRITERS finds expression in the famous resolutions of the Cambridge town meeting in 1765: "that this vote be recorded in the town book that the children yet unborn might see the desire their ancestors had for their freedom and hap piness." Accident, neglect, the Revolutionary War, caused the loss of many precious records, especially in the South, but enough remained to make an almost inexhaustible mine for the antiquary and investigator. Three dif ferent influences were brought to bear side by side with each other to effect the publication of historical material : the historical societies ; the state gov ernments, in many cases animated by the societies ; and the strong historical spirit of a few investigators. Of these latter, the chief is Jared Sparks, who published his edition of the Writings of Washington in 1836, followed by his Franklin's Works, and by his Correspondence of the American Revolution; he also established a series of brief biographies, all of them edited and several written by Mr. Sparks. It is hard to overestimate the influence of this man, endued as he was with an immense capacity to take advantage of his great opportunities. According to the historical canons of his time he was a most intelligent editor; he thought it his duty to correct the mis takes of grammar or expression in the originals before him, so that he might more clearly bring out the sense ; and it wounded him that the Father of his Country should misspell. Sparks's editions, therefore, overlay the originals with literary shellac and varnish, but he does not conceal the original grain. Himself a conscientious investigator, a careful historical writer, he combines within his own achievements three historical triumphs: he opened up great >vidences of truth; he was the first exemplar of the co-operative method of ivriting history ; and he was himself no mean author. Upon the foundations thus laid, and infused with that lively national spirit which began to be distinctly felt after the War of 1812, there now appears a writer who had a combination, almost unexampled in America up to that time, of an historian's qualities: ambition, training, wealth, social 2onnections, political experience, and an intense desire to write a history of his country from its earliest beginnings down to the end of his own time. That man was George Bancroft, who, beginning his self-imposed task about 1830, in 1883 was still systematically engaged on it. A whole cycle of national history had passed by between the beginning and end of his work, and his fifty years of labor was enough only to bring him from the discovery of America down to the adoption of the federal Constitution in 1788. Here at least was a different conception of history, so different from those who preceded him that he became the founder of a new school. Besides a capacity for vast labor, Bancroft created a machinery for the assembling of material up to that time unknown in America : he sent all over the world XXXV HISTORICAL WRITERS for transcripts of documents ; he collected a valuable library ; as Secretary of the Navy under Polk, he had opportunities for intimate acquaintance with the archives of the federal government; he wrote patiently, and repeat edly rewrote his own work, which in its most elaborated form includes twelve good-sized volumes. That Bancroft is to-day rather the companion of the scholar than of the patriot reader is not strange; he began and carried on his work in the midst of an atmosphere of what may be called professional history; his intellectual predecessor was Eobertson; his intellectual compeers were Macaulay and Frescott. He wrote to be read and chose the style which most attracted readers half a century ago; he wrote to justify his fathers for the Revolution, and his mind was quicker to grasp the grievances of the colonies than the difficulties of the English ad ministration. A sincere and honest man whose public service has been enor mous, Bancroft is now neglected by readers, and his example is avoided by writers. It is unfortunate for Bancroft's permanent fame that a considerable part of his work has no foot-notes ; his reason was that other people followed him on his authorities, without giving him credit; he thus cut off not only a means of checking his conclusions, but also a useful aid to inquirers. Ban croft has often been charged with rearranging and docking his quotations. His habit of referring to many materials available only in his own collection of transcripts makes it difficult to examine this charge, but where he refers to printed materials he does not seem consciously to have altered the sense of a quotation by omission or transposition. Side by side with Bancroft is a writer much less known and much less appreciated, who nevertheless has deserved well of his countrymen Eichard Hildreth, who attempted the same task as Bancroft, and in six volumes, the last of them published in 1856, brought down his history from the earliest colonial times to 1820. In many respects Hildreth more nearly approaches to the modern standard of the historian than any one who preceded or accom panied him. He has such a grasp of facts and so well knows how to assemble them, and to discriminate among them, that almost any event of large im portance that has happened in our history is mentioned in his volumes. He, too, had his thesis to prove; strongly federalist in sympathy, his later vol umes are to a considerable degree a justification of the Hamiltonian theory of government; and like Bancroft, he does not see fit to append those foot notes which are a restraint upon a writer, an opportunity to examine his ground, and a useful equipment for later investigators. Only one other general history of the United States in the period from 1830 to 1860 need be mentioned here. Tucker's History of the United States, published in 1857 and covering the period from 1774 to 1841, is the only work of the kind written by a Southern man. Just why most of the HISTORICAL WRITERS history-writing down to the Civil War was done by New England men is not easy to discover; traditional interest in history, good libraries, the in fluence of a live State historical society, the nearness of a book-buying public, the close connection between literary and public life these are some of the reasons. Tucker aimed to look at our history from a different angle, but he has little of the method or style of the trained historian, he does not attract the reader, and is less quoted than his careful work deserves. So far, most of the interest of American writers had been given to their own country ; it was a mark of a growth in cosmopolitanism when two writers chose for their themes fields of European history, though in both cases there was a connection with American history in its wider aspects. Prescott chose first the Spaniards in America, and then the Spanish monarchy in the six teenth century. In his time he was considered one of the safest as well as one of the most brilliant historical writers. Brilliant he is, and he chose for his theme the romantic period which connected European civilization with the earliest phases of American history. His Ferdinand and Isabella, his Conquest of Peru, his Conquest of Mexico, his Charles V., his Philip II., published during the two decades from 1837 to 1858, were read with interest and enthusiasm by scholars, business men, and school-boys, just as Macaulay was read at the same time both in England and America. In every way he is a notable figure, this man almost blind, working patiently year after year in his Boston library and slowly committing to the press his beautifully written volumes, which are still among our best historical works, although the meth ods of the author and his judgment of his sources are no longer accepted as final. Motley came a little later, choge a similar theme, but without a direct con nection with American history. His Dutch Republic, his United Nether lands, his John of Barneveld, have been sources of inspiration to thousands of readers; and if the maturer stiident now searches them in vain for any insight into the organization of the marvellous military people whom he described ; if he finds little about their colonies and nothing about their gov ernment; if he learns not the source of their wealth, nor the secret of their national persistence, he does get a striking picture of the heroism of the later- day Athenians contending against the Persians of the sixteenth century. Motley was really not an historian, but a describer of mighty historic deeds. Motley began to publish in 1856, and continued long after the Civil War, but he belongs to the ante-bellum school, and that school, notwithstand ing its great services, had as yet treated history only in partial fashion. Ma terials were collected and much learning was expended in explaining and an notating them and in brief articles and papers founded upon them. Upon the other side, several ambitious attempts had been made to give in one con xxxvii HISTORICAL WRITERS spectus an account of what was most noteworthy in the whole history of the nation. A school of biographers had also arisen, some of whom had pub lished elaborate works like the painfully minute Eives's Madison; or history was grouped about the life of one individual as in Marshall's Washington, or Irving's Columbus. As yet, however, there was little grouping of great masses of related facts in monographs, and few examples of historians who took a brief period as their whole field. For some years after the Civil War, Motley and Bancroft were still the noted American historians, and the development of a new spirit in history is due first of all to the achievements of another writer, whose work, though begun long before, was ended only in 1885. Francis Parkman is the greatest of all the writers who have ever made America their theme or have written as American scholars, and his greatness depends upon three qualities rarely brought together in one man ; he was a matchless investigator, a man of the most unflinching tenacity, and somehow he knew how to write so that men loved to read him. His method was that of the special field, long enough in his case, but narrow in geographical dimensions. He wrote upon what he himself called " the history of the woods," upon the century and a half of hostile contact between the French colonists and the English colonists, ac centuated by the fierce savages who were between them. Back of the romance of history was the romance of Parkman's own life. One of the most unassuming and modest men who ever lived, he went on his way without seeming to know that he was a hero ; but in an autobiographical fragment, drawn up in 1868, he has revealed the inner man. At the age of eighteen he had formed the splendid plan of his history, all of which he lived to complete, and while still a young man he made that adventurous overland trip to Oregon, which is faithfully commemorated in his Oregon Trail, published in 1851, an account of a journey intended to give him an " inside view of Indian life." He returned with a physique naturally feeble, further weakened by the hardships of the prairie, and resulting in a state which he describes as follows : " The conditions were threefold : an extreme weakness of sight, disabling him even from writing his name except with eyes closed; a condition of the brain prohibiting fixed attention except at occasional and brief intervals; and an exhaustion and total derange ment of the nervous system, producing of necessity a condition of mind most unfavorable to effort." After 1851, he says that there had not been "any waking hour when he has not been in some degree conscious of the presence of the malady"; although later "the con dition of the sight has so far improved as to permit reading, not exceeding, on an average, five minutes at a time. ... By reading that amount and xxxviii HISTORICAL WRITERS then resting for an equal time, this alternative process could generally be continued for about half an hour, then, after a sufficient interval, it would be repeated, even three or four times in the course of the day." It was thus that large parts of his literary monument were prepared ; and the difficulties but enhanced the result, for they make it evident that it is not the fascination of the subject, nor the pleasure of breaking new ground, nor the careful prep aration of material that fix Parkman as the greatest of all American his torians, but the soaring spirit, which had its message to tell and could not be fettered. Parkman is a kind of bridge between the older and the newer school of his torians, for he began with the same traditions as Bancroft and Hildreth, and he furnished a model and an impetus for Henry Adams, McMaster, Winsor, Ehodes, and Roosevelt. Before describing the more recent group of writers, most of them still living, it is necessary to show what an awakening came over the country in historical matters during and after the Civil War. If it be true that interest in athletic sports and open-air life is to be traced from the Virginia and Georgia campaigns, it is equally true that, just as in the post-revolutionary period, the country awoke after 1865 to a new sense of the dignity and importance of its own history and institutions. This con sciousness took form in various directions : first, in the systematic training of young men to be writers and teachers of history; second, in the appearance of a new literature of carefully wrought monographs, resembling though usually superior to the German doctors' dissertations; and third, in the devo tion of their lives to historical writing by a new series of historians. Most of the elder historical schools in America from the days of Bradford and Winthrop down to Hildreth and Palfrey were made up of college-bred men; and most of the writers are grouped about one little New England college. Winthrop was a founder of Harvard ; Hutchinson, a graduate, Ban croft, Hildreth, Parkman, Belknap, Prescott, Motley, were its sons; Jared Sparks, its president. And yet that college made no effort, and no other college made effort, to train young men in historical methods, and very little was done to instruct them in historical data. Each successful writer was his own teacher, and handed down few traditions. In several of the colleges were intelligent and highly educated men, who taught history by hearing formal recitations from a dull text-book ; but the creative and inspiring side of teaching commonly went into mental and moral philosophy. Early in the seventies arose two fishers of men, Charles Kendall Adams in the University of Michigan, and Henry Adams in Harvard University, and about the same time began a new system of graduate instruction in Johns Hopkins University, where for twenty-five years Herbert B. Adams wag xxxix HISTORICAL WRITERS the inciter of historical teachers and writers. All these men, and others who speedily followed them, made it their task, not only to inform their students, but also to make them searchers for truth. Henry Adams had the habit on the first day of the term of deliberately frightening out of his course all but the most eager and undaunted students; and from the residuum he built up an enthusiastic company of able young men. He edited and published a volume of essays on Anglo-Saxon Law, prepared under his guidance by students whose names have since been attached to many more formal works ; but he grew tired of enforcing historical truths through other people, and he withdrew to the ten years' labor of preparation of his masterpiece. Charles Kendall Adams, at the University of Michigan, introduced with some useful modifications the German seminary method, and he also sent out students imbued with his methods, to be college professors and presidents. This was also the method steadily and effectively applied at Johns Hopkins, and the young men trained there have been widely distributed throughout the country. In 1877, Justin Winsor came to Harvard, and so long as he lived he was the greatest force for historical learning in his university. This remarkable man in many ways resembled Sparks ; he was a great organizer, and as libra rian of the Boston Public Library and of the Harvard College Library fur nished models to the world of libraries in which the main purpose was to have books used. As an editor and historical writer he has left three series and various independent volumes; but one of his greatest services to learning was his untiring interest in the young men and young women, students of history, who came under his influence. Himself a man of method and ac customed to deal with great masses of material and to draw from them his conclusions, he infused into all those who came into contact with him the spirit of scientific historical work. Perhaps Mr. Winsor's chief claim to eminence in his craft was his profound acquaintance with practical bibli ography, not only a knowledge of books, but a consciousness of what books are important, a power of discrimination ; and upon the period of American history from discovery to the War of 1812, his Narrative and Critical His tory is an example of broad scholarship applied with high intelligence to the service of science. Although he gave but few college courses, Mr. Win sor was in effect a teacher and a trainer, as well as a librarian and an author, and he drew into his co-operative labors the most ardent young men. Mr. Winsor's labors were to a large degree monographic. He secured from various other people short studies of episodes and movements, all founded upon a minute study of sources, and each annotated by the author and supplemented by Mr. Winsor's own unfathomable learning, with precise zl HISTORICAL WRITERS references to the original material. Similar monographic work has for twenty years been going on all over the country and particularly in the uni versities. Following the example of Johns Hopkins, other universities after 1880 founded special graduate schools and developed systematic instruction and preparation looking towards the degree of Ph.D. The fledgling doctors were expected to write theses, and their results, in most cases printed, con stituted a new stratum in the historical materials of America. In many instances they were published in separate volumes, like Woodrow Wilson's Congressional Government; others were grouped in various series, of which the oldest is the Johns Hopkins Studies, comprising a volume every year since 1883, and thus has been furnished an opportunity of reaching the world on a subject which did not stimulate the ordinary publisher, or commend itself to the magazine editor. Later, other institutions took up the system: Columbia University, the University of Pennsylvania, the University of Michigan, the University of Wisconsin, the University of Nebraska, Cornell University, Brown Univer sity, Harvard University, and other institutions have taken the responsibility for the publication of single or grouped studies, often representing the well- directed labor of several years. Here many historical writers who have later blossomed out into more general literary work have tried their prentice hands; here young men and young women have the opportunity to put upon record evidence of their power to deal with historical subjects, an evidence often of much service to them through the effect which it may have upon the mind of the college presidents and other grandees who have the power to hold out the golden sceptre. In such monographs the residuary results, drawn from the distilling of great masses of otherwise undigested material, are made available for other writers. The stream of such publications goes on unceasingly, and their character tends to improve as the opportunities for study and for direction from older men increase. The better writers out grow their doctor's theses, and sometimes wonder that their judgments were ever so crude; but the result is an opening up of fields of great importance which had long remained untilled. For example, until a few years ago there was nowhere to be found any account, based upon the sources, of Presidential elections, of the Speakership of the House of Eepresentatives, or of the Senate, or of the veto power, or of Congressional committees, or of the actual system for nomination for office ; the student of American institutions has now the benefit of careful studies in all these subjects: and it is worth noting that within this field of practical politics some of the best work of collecting and generalizing from the scat tered materials has been done by women. Twenty years ago there was almost nothing in the way of careful, first-hand studies of the slavery ques- ztt HISTORICAL WRITERS tion; now we have able monograpns on various individual commonwealths, on fugitive slaves, on slavery in the District of Columbia, on the slave-trade, and on the underground railroad nearly every one a result of scientific study under the direction or impetus of college teachers. The system of monographs has done much to make the conditions and the merits of historical writing widely known. Where half a century ago one man knew how to write an acceptable historical narrative, forty persons have now had some experience. One of the influences which has done much to stimulate investigation in limited topics has been the American Historical Association, founded in 1884. In its two functions of holding meetings at which younger men are brought into association with older writers, and of printing an annual report in which shorter or longer papers may be printed and distributed to an impatient world, the Association has made the path of young writers easier; and its list of presidents has included most of the foremost historical writers of the time. The most widely known and most useful series of monographs, a revival of Sparks's idea of brief biographies by experts, is the widely read American Statesman Series, which is edited, and of which several volumes have been written by John T. Morse, Jr. Similar to it in scope are the American Men of Letters, Makers of America, Beacon Biographies and other like combina tions, all in principle an attempt to tell the story of a brief period through the lives of public men who stood for a dominant idea. Under modern conditions one of the measures of the interest in a science is the kind of journals which are created to represent it. In many respects the publications of the various state and local historical societies have for more than a century been sober periodicals ; besides the more special issues of Collections, such societies annually print Transactions, or Records which contain briefer and less imposing matter, and in several cases, as for ex ample the Pennsylvania Historical Society, this publication has not only the character but the form of a magazine. From the founding of Carey's American Museum, in 1787, and especially after the establishment of the North American Review, in 1815, there has always been a medium for his torical articles, often elaborate enough to be monographs. Not till 1857 was there a periodical devoted entirely to history ; Dawson's Historical Mag- azine, which kept up a respectable existence till 1875. Then followed the Magazine of American History from 1877 to 1896. These were both private enterprises, which were able to get very little aid and comfort from the established historical writers of the time, and they received little that was significant from the new race of monographists. In 1895, a journal was founded under the title of the American Historical Review, with the express purpose of uniting scattered historical forces, of Utt HISTORICAL {WRITERS dealing with all fields and phases of history, and of offering an opportunity for the publication of the result of the latest scholarships. Through a re lation established with the American Historical Association in 1898, the circulation and influence of this review were much increased, and history remains one of the few great fields of learning in America on which rival universities have not established rival and struggling journals. The illustrated magazines of the time, and the political reviews also give scope for historical articles, often of great excellence, by able hands, and in many cases drawn out into a series which eventually becomes a book. No historical writer, young or old, need suffer for a medium through which to make his conclusions known, provided he really has conclusions worth draw ing; and in the pages of the special and general periodicals future writers of history will find a fund of valuable materials. The connection of history with universities has had some admirable effects; among them has been an intimate relation between the profession of teaching history and the profession of writing history. The American historians of half a century ago were, with few exceptions, litterateurs, men of private station and of private means, who gave up a large part of their lives to historical writing for the love of scholarly occupation and the hope of fame. The collection of materials was a tedious and expensive task ; they were the men who had the time and money to travel afar, in order to get the proper horizon, and to make some acquaintance with other countries and languages. In the Sparks manuscripts, in the Parkman manuscripts and the Bancroft manuscripts, are many extracts copied from records not avail able in print. A man sat down to write a history as he now sits down to found a review, with ambition as a frontlet and with money in his pocket. Sometimes good Uncle Sam gave them a diplomatic position in which they might pursue their investigations ; thus Prescott was made Minister to Spain, Motley to the Netherlands, Bancroft to Germany. The growth of scientific instruction in history has developed a new race of historical writers who have gone forth to supersede the older type ; among the present best-known American writers upon history, McMaster is a pro fessor in a university, Schouler is a lecturer in a university, Charles Francis Adams is a most ardent overseer of a college, John Fiske was once an in structor in history in a college and a college librarian, Von Hoist was a pro fessor, Moses Coit Tyler was a professor, and Winsor was a college librarian. This academic connection is the more striking when we remember that in pure literature the most noted writers to-day have mostly come up outside university precincts and are little associated with college life. Some reasons for the taking up of formal history by college men are ob vious; since the scientific basis of history has become recognized, history i D xliii HISTORICAL WRITERS more likely to be undertaken by those who have had a scientific training and a scientific opportunity. From the other direction, the publication of an excellent history often leads to a call which for the rest of a man's days connects him with some college; thus McMaster's first volume led to his transference from an instructorship in mathematics to a professorship in American history. It has become a tradition that the university professor of history ought to have part of his time for literary duties, and he often has the use of superior libraries. Perhaps the best explanation is simply that preparation for classes and preparation for publication run on all fours with each other ; and the enthusiasms of both pursuits are alike. All explanations, however, fail to account for the fact that among the many American teachers of ancient, mediaeval, continental, and English history, hardly a single one is at work on a magnum opus in his own field; so far, text-books, brief histories, or an account of an episode, are all that have been exhibited. While Doyle and Lecky and Trevelyan place them selves among the best writers on American affairs, what American professor has undertaken a history of England, or of any part of it, as a life-long task ? The few considerable pieces of such work do not come from the universities at all : Henry C. Lea is a publisher ; Hannis Taylor's England, James Breck Perkins's France, Tom Watson's bizarre France, a kind of etherealized Georgia, are written by hard-working lawyers or politicians; William R. Thayer has made Italian history his theme, and Professor Charles M. Andrews is author of a history of modern Europe ; while Professor Sloane's best-known work is his Napoleon; they alone of American historians of Europe are in close touch with universities. Two remarkable exceptions must be noted to the general rule, that the more noted living writers of history are given up to American history. Captain Mahan has so far chosen to write chiefly on the naval history of Great Britain; but aside from the interest of the trained naval officer in that country which has taught the world most about fighting at sea, he has really in mind a principle of national polity which he thinks his countrymen ought to keep in mind; he is an American writing for the instruction, first of all, of America, and then of all mankind. Henry C. Lea, in his studies of eccle- siasticism, and especially in his History of the Inquisition, has shown a rare cosmopolitan spirit. In general it is safe to say that the chief interest of American historical writers is in the affairs of their own country, and almost all the living writers give themselves up to a distinct and limited area. Perhaps no competent scholar will ever write a complete history of America from the sources; the last attempt was Winsor's, and he was unable, even by his skilful use of the co-operative method, to get much beyond the beginning of the nineteenth xliv HISTORICAL WRITERS century. Each man now assumes that he may begin on the foundations laid by somebody else. John Fiske has, in his own method, traversed the ground of Bancroft and Hildreth, to the adoption of the Constitution. Edward Eggleston has chosen the era of commonwealth building. James Schouler has written a history in six volumes, extending from the end of the Kevolu- tion to the end of the Civil War. Professor McMaster has chosen the same beginning, and appears to look forward to about the same date for his end. Rhodes has chosen to begin at 1850, long enough before the Civil War, so that he may make plain the reason for that titanic struggle, and he expects to bring the work down to a point near the present day. Henry Adams chose the sixteen years, 1801-1817, from the inauguration of Jefferson to the end 0f Madison's administration, and having finished that period has apparently abandoned further historical writing. No attempt has been made in this article to enumerate all the good writers in or on America, for the aim is to describe tendencies and not men; and prophecies as to what is to be accomplished by the fledglings would only cause distrust in the prophet's judgment. It is, however, safe to say that, through a long process of development, in which the recorders of history and the critics of historical events have united to bring together a vast body of materials, we have now reached a point where there is a permanent body of active, highly trained, ambitious writers of history who, with the aid of the monographers, the patient earth-worms who prepare soil to bear fruit, constitute what may not unreasonably be called the American School of His torical Writing. One of the leading spirits in this favored present was the late John Fiske. Gibbon is like the march of an army ; legion after legion, cohort after cohort, trumpets fanfaring at regular intervals, horses cavalcading, all glowing in shining armor; perhaps Fiske might be compared to a holiday procession, men singers and women singers, both young men and maidens, flutes, harps, and psalteries, and children dancing in the rear. There is a wholesome, sunny serenity about his volumes ; he does not go very deeply into the Welt- schmerz, but he tells the story so that he who runs may read. His books are the books of the prosperous man, who likes to see the evidence of healthy growth in his country. Perhaps illustration may be clearer than statement on this point. Five living writers of American history stand out plainly as the present heads of their craft : Herman von Hoist, Henry Adams, Henry C. Lea, Alfred T. Mahan, and James Ford Khodes; what they do is the best that is now being done. Von Hoist has finished his labor of thirty years, on what is substantially a history erf tfie slavery contest from 1828 to 1860. He fights the battle HISTORICAL WRITERS over again, for he loves intensity. His chief service has been to bring home to Americans the inevitableness of a contest, after the traditional principles of free government were so violently contradicted by slavery. A good hater, a powerful hitter, Von Hoist has done much to break in pieces the con ventional apotheosis of our public men, and to lead us to see the real elements of the Civil War. Henry Adams seems to have given up historical writing; a man of in dependent fortune, he likes to diverge around the world and to give sage advice to young politicians. He need never put pen to paper again in order to assure his reputation as one of the world's great historical narrators. It is his forte to be at the same time scientific, careful, and imaginative, to penetrate the intricacies of complex characters, to seize the spirit of bygone times; his is the study of motive, the discerning of guiding principles of national character. He has almost a lordly disregard of his own foot-notes; he gives a reference, not because he feels the need of a backer, but because he has so many reserves that he may give them or withhold them as he pleases. His style, less absorbing than Parkman's, is equally limpid, almost equally effective. Henry C. Lea has chosen a theme apparently remote from our participa tion : his three great works are histories of the monastic orders, of torture, and of the Inquisition. Steady, sane, infinitely painstaking, resolute, and impartial, he is a model of the careful habits of the business man applied to the ascertaining of historical truth ; his books are interesting, they are just, they are permanent. In interest of subject, in insight of investigation, in the power to reach and state conclusions, and in style, he stands among the best of American historical writers, and exemplifies the value of the study of other peoples and their civilization. Captain Mahan is the only American military or naval officer to win dis tinction as an historical writer. His theme in all his books is the Sea Power, the strength of the naval country: to impress that power on the reader he masses his argument and illustrations ; and he has carried the world ; he has altered the purposes of mankind. Rhodes is the latest knight to besiege the enchanted castle of literary fame, and he is the only one of the four who reveals the intellectual forces that lie outside the colleges; only a short time a college student, never a college teacher, brought up to business in a bustling Western city, he has wooed both Lady Fortune and the muse of history, and both have smiled upon him. His most characteristic merits are his care, his impartiality, his clear and read able style, and, above all, his ability to discover the ruling motives of a people in a time of passionate stress. The impression made upon the observer of historical writing is hopeful, xlvi HISTORICAL WRITERS Our greatest historian, Parkman, lives only in his imperishable books; but leaving him out, there has never been an American historian equal to the best living writers in training, in conception of what historical research means, in discrimination, in insight, or in genuine historical style. Where are the poets to replace Lowell and Longfellow and Whittier? Where are the es sayists to equal Emerson ? Where the novelists to measure height with Haw thorne ? Yet in historical writing the authors of the golden age give way to the present American School in popularity among readers, and in usefulness to scholars; and perhaps some day a new generation of authors may arise to whom the historians of this quarter-century will give God-speed. HARPERS' ENCYCLOPEDIA OF UNITED STATES HISTORY Al, a symbol used in the record of reports induced the United States American and foreign shipping and in ment to establish a weather bureau. He Lloyd's Register of British and Foreign was appointed meteorologist to the UWTTED Shipping, in rating vessels for insurance. STATES SIGNAL SERVICE (q. v.) in 1871, Al is the highest. Hence Al is used of and in 1879 became meteorologist to the the highest mercantile credit, and, collo- UNITED STATES WEATHER BUREAU ( q. v. ) . quially, Al is first-class, first-rate. Abbett, LEON, statesman; born in A. B. Plot. See page 11. Philadelphia, Pa., Oct. 8, 1836; removed Abbadie, M. D', royal governor; born to New Jersey in 1859; member of the about 1710; came to America in 1763 to State Assembly 1869-70, and Senate take charge of a variety of business inter- 1875-78; elected governor of New Jersey, ests that King Louis XV. had established 1883 and 1889; appointed judge of the in New Orleans, and also to exercise the New Jersey Supreme Court in 1893. He authority of military commander of the died in Jersey City, Dec. 4, 1894. province. Owing to the sale of Louisiana Abbey, EDWIN AUSTIN, painter; born to Spain, he was directed in 1764 to turn in Philadelphia, April 1, 1852; was edu- over his command to a Spanish official, cated at the Philadelphia Academy of Fine He was a man of noble impulses, had pro- Arts, and in 1871 entered the publish- tected the Indians, caused the masters to ing house of Harper & Brothers, for which treat their slaves more kindly, and in he went to England in 1878. He became many ways had endeared himself to the widely noted for his book illustrations, people of the province. The surrender of and in 1890 exhibited his first painting, his command to those whom he regarded A May Day Morning. He was elected a as enemies grieved him so seriously that member of the Royal Academy in 1898, of he died Feb. 4, 1765. See LOUISIANA; the Royal Water Color Society in London, NEW ORLEANS. and of the National Academy of Design in Abbe, CLEVELAND, meteorologist; born 1902. He was an American juror on in New York, Dec. 3, 1838. He was grad- painting at the Paris Exposition of 1900. uated at the College of the City of New The last of his notable works in the York in 1857; studied astronomy with United States was the design of a series Brunnow at Ann Arbor, Mich., and with of paintings illustrating the Holy Grail Gould at Cambridge, Mass.; and, after for the walls of the new Public Library serving four years in the United States in Boston. In March, 1901, he was eom- Coast and Geodetic Survey, he became missioned by King Edward VII. to paint director of the Cincinnati Observatory the scene of his coronation in Westeain- in 1868. The value of his local weather ster Abbey. I. A 1 ABBOT ABBOTT Abbot, BENJAMIN, educator ; born, " Certainly, sir ; that is what I came into 17G2. lie was graduated at Harvard in the service for." He was then ordered tc 1788. Phillips Academy, Exeter, N. H., enter the British lines as a spy and de- was conducted by him until 1838. Among stroy a number of spars which had been his pupils were George Bancroft, Lewis stored at Sorel. For his success in this Cass, Edward Everett, John G. Palfry, dangerous exploit and for his bravery in Jared Sparks, and Daniel Webster. He the engagement at Cumberland Head on died in Exeter, N. H., Oct. 25, 1849. Sept. 11, 1814, he received a sword of Abbot, EZRA, theologian; born in Jack- honor from Congress and was commis- son, Me., April 28, 1819. He was gradu- sioned a lieutenant. He was given charge ated at Bowdoin College in 1840, became of the pirate ship Mariana in 1818; pro- associate librarian at Harvard College in moted commander in 1838; and in the 1856, and from 1872 till his death was following year was given command of the Professor of New Testament Literature Boston navy-yard. During Commodore and Interpretation at the Cambridge Perry's expedition to Japan in 1852 Abbot Divinity School. He was a member of commanded the Macedonian, and later was the American Committee of New Testa- appointed flag-officer of the squadron. He ment Revisers, was one of the editors of died in Hong-Kong, China, Dec. 14, 1855. the American edition of Smith's Bible Die- Abbott, BENJAMIN VAUGHAN, legal tionary, and published numerous works in writer; born in Boston, Mass., June 4, Biblical criticism. He was especially distin- 1830. He was graduated at the New York guished in the line of Greek scholarship. He University in 1850; was admitted to the died in Cambridge, Mass., March 21, 1884. bar two years afterwards; and, after en- Abbot, HENRY LARCOM, military en- gaging in general practice with his broth- gineer; born in Beverly, Mass., Aug. 13, er Austin for several years, applied him- 1831. He was graduated at the United self to a compilation of works on legal States Military Academy in 1854, entered subjects. Alone, or in conjunction with the Corps of Engineers, in which he his brother, he compiled nearly 100 reached the rank of colonel, and was re- volumes of digests, reports, legal treatises, tired in 1895. In the Civil War he com- and other allied works, including Dic- manded the siege artillery of the armies tionary of Terms in American and Eng- operating against Richmond, designed the lish Jurisprudence, National Digest, and systems of submarine mine defences and a revison of the United States Statutes. of mortar batteries for the government, He died in Brooklyn, N. Y., Feb. 17, 1890. and was brevetted major-general of volun- Abbott, CHARLES CONRAD, naturalist; teers and brigadier-general U. S. A. After born in Trenton, N. J., June 4, 1843. his retirement he designed the new harbor He was graduated at the Medical De- at Manitowoc, Wis., and was a member of partment of the University of Pennsyl- the Technical Committee of the New vania in 1865; spent several years in mak- Panama Canal Co. His publications in- ing a valuable collection of archaeological elude Siege Artillery in the Campaign specimens, which he presented to the Pea- Against Richmond; Experiments to De- body Museum at Cambridge, Mass.; and vclop a System of Submarine Mines; and was an assistant in that institution in Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi, 1876-89. Among his publications are The the last in co-operation with General Stone Age in New Jersey; A Naturalist's Humphreys. He received the degree of Rambles About Home; several volumes on LL.D. from Harvard, and became a mem- bird life, and a number of novels, ber of many scientific societies. Abbott, EDWARD, fourth son of Jacob Abbot, JOEL, naval officer; born in Abbott, was born July 15, 1841; was grad- Westford, Mass., Jan. 18, 1793; entered uated at the University of the City of the navy as midshipman at the beginning New York in 1860. During 1862 and of the War of 1812; served first on the 1863 he was connected with the Sanitary frigate President, and next on Lake Cham- Commission of the Army of the Potomac, plain with Commodore Macdonough, who He was a Congregational minister from when he asked Abbot if he were ready to 1863 to 1878, when he entered the Protes- die for his country received the reply: tant Episcopal Church. Among his pub 2 ABBOTT liahed writings are Paragraph Histories of the Revolution; Revolutionary Times; United States, etc. Abbott, HORACE, manufacturer; born in Sudbury, Mass., July 29, 1806. He built the first rolling-mill in the United States, and supplied the armor plates for the Monitor, Roanoke, Agamenticus, Mo- nadnock, etc. He died Aug. 8, 1887. Abbott, JACOB, writer for youth; born in Hallowell, Me., Nov. 14, 1803. He was graduated at Bowdoin College in 1820, and at Andover Theological Seminary in 1825. From 1825 to 1829 he was Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in Amherst College. He chose the pursuit of literature in the attractive and useful field of affording instruction to the young. One of the earliest of his almost 200 volumes printed was The Young Chris tian, issued the year of his gradu- tion at Andover. His books are remark able for their wealth of information, their absolute purity of tone and expression, and for their wonderful attractiveness for the young of both sexes. Few men have done so much for the intellectual and moral training of the young for lives of usefulness as Jacob Abbott. His interest in young people never abated through a long and laborious life. His later years were spent upon the old homestead at Farmington, Me., significantly called " Few Acres," for its area of land was small and it was cultivated and adorned by the hands of its owner. Here he died, Oct. 31, 1879. Abbott, JOHN STEVENS CABOT, histo rian; born in Brunswick, Me., Sept. 18, 1805; brother of Jacob; was graduated at Bowdoin College in 1825, and at Andover Seminary; was ordained as a Congrega tional minister in 1830, and held several pastorates in Massachusetts till 1844, after which he applied himself wholly to literature. Among his notable works are The French Revolution of 1189; The His tory of Napoleon Bonaparte; Napoleon at St. Helena; The History of Napoleon III.; The History of the Civil War in America; A Romance of Spanish History; and The History of Frederick II., called Frederick the Great. He died in Fair Haven, Conn., June 17, 1877. Abbott, LYMAN, clergyman and editor; born in Roxbury, Mass., Dec. 18, 1835; third son of Jacob; was graduated at the University of the City of New York in 1853; was admitted to the bar there, and for a time practised in partnership with his brothers Benjamin Vaughan and Aus tin. Subsequently he studied theology with his uncle, John Stevens Cabot, and was ordained as a Congregational minister in 1860. He was secretary of the Freed- nien's Commission in 1865-68; became edi tor of the " Literary Record " in Harper's Magazine, and conductor of the Illus trated Christian Weekly; and for a time was associated with HENRY WARD BEECHER (q. v.) in the editorship of The Christian Union. In 1888 he succeeded Mr. Beecher as pastor of Plymouth Church, Brooklyn. In 1898 he resigned and took full editorial charge of The Outlook, formerly The Christian Union. Among his publications is A Dictionary of Religious Knoicledg*. See INDIAN PROB LEM, THE. An Anglo-American Understanding. Dr. Abbott in 1898 suggested the follow ing as the basis of an Anglo-American un derstanding: ^___^ The American people wisely attach great importance to Washington's " Farewell Address," and give deserved weight to his counsels. Not one of those counsels has been more influential and more safe-guard ing than his admonition to his country men to avoid entangling alliances with European nations. Yet Americans must not forget that changes wrought by human progress make inapplicable in one century advice which was wise in the preceding century; that if there be peril to a nation in recklessly advancing along strange paths to an unknown future, there is also danger to a nation in fastening itself too firmly to its past traditions, and refusing to itself permission to recognize changes of conditions which necessitate changes of policy. It is because Spain adheres to the traditions of the sixteenth century, and England has from time to time departed from those traditions, using them as a guide towards the future, not as a prohibi tion to progress, that Spain has sunk from a first-class to a fourth-class power, while England still remains a leader among the nations of the world. When Washington issued his " Farewell Address," the United States was a feeble 3 ABBOTT, LYMAN nation, composed of thirteen colonies, just emancipated from foreign domination. It look as many weeks to go from the north ern to the southern border of this nation as it now takes days. The States had not yet been welded into a united nation, and were separated from one another not only by time and distance, but by jealousy and rivalry. The union of the States had not passed beyond the experimental stage. The Constitution of the United Suites was still on trial. All west of the Alleghanies was an untrodden, and for the most part un known, wilderness. The population, even along the seaboard, was scanty; the cities were few and small; there was no com merce and little manufactures. In 1809 Jefferson presented to the country his ideal on the subject of manufactures and commerce : " Manufactures sufficient for our consumption, of what we raise the raw material ( and no more ) ; commerce suffi cient to carry the surplus produce of agri culture beyond our own consumption, to a market for exchanging it for articles we cannot raise (and no more)." A vast and little - known and little - travelled ocean separated us from Europe. Under these circumstances to engage in European strifes, to aid France against Great Brit ain, to concern ourselves with the balance of power, to undertake, directly or indi- rectly, to promote the battles of democracy in the old world, to assume to judge that our as yet unproved institutions were the best for countries other than our own, and to rush into the hazard of a foreign war by the unrestrained expression of our sym pathies with democratic uprisings would have been foolish indeed. These were the entangling alliances against which Wash ington admonished his countrymen, and we may say that his admonition against such entangling alliances it were well for us to heed, if necessity should arise, even now. But since Washington's " Farewell Ad dress " the world has moved, and America has moved most rapidly of ail the world. It takes us little, if any, longer to cross from our eastern seaboard to Europe's western seaboard than from our eastern to our western boundary. The cable enables us to converse with Liverpool as readily a with Chicago or San Francisco. The prices of wheat in Liverpool determine the prices in our produce exchangee. Com merce, though unfortunately under foreign flags, is carrying the produce of our coun try into all the markets of the world. Our manufacturers compete with those of the oldest civilizations. The question whether we can establish a currency of our own, disregardful of the financial standards of the civilized world, has been raised and answered emphatically in the negative. Our territory has extended un til it nearly equals in dimensions that of the old Roman Empire in its palmiest days. Our population has not only in creased in numbers, but become hetero geneous in character. We are no longer an Anglo-Saxon colony, emerging into statehood. We are Scandinavian, Ger man, Hungarian, Pole, Austrian, Italian, French, and Spanish; all the nations of the earth are represented, not only in our population, but in our suffrages. What ever interests Norway and Sweden, Hol land and Belgium, Germany, Italy, France, or England, interests our people, because from these countries respectively multi tudes of our people have come. Mean while, our growth, and still more the test to which we have been subjected by foreign war and by civil war, have done much to demonstrate the stability of institutions which, a hundred years ago, were purely experimental and largely theoretical. Other lands have caught inspiration from our life; the whole progress of Europe has been progress towards democracy whether in England, Spain, Italy, Austria-Hungary, Germany, France, or Scandinavia. The difference in the history of these national ities, during the nineteenth century, has been a difference not in the direction in which their life has tended, but in the rapidity with which it has moved. The yoke of Bourbonism is broken forever; the Holy Alliance will never be reformed. Politically, socially, industrially, and even physically, the United States and Europe have been drawn together by the irresist ible course of events. We are identified with the civilized world, interested in its problems, con cerned in its progress, injured in its dis asters, helped by its prosperities. The time has therefore passed when the United States can say, " We are sufficient unto ourselves; we will go our way; the rest of ABBOTT, LYMAN the world may go its way." The question is not, " Shall we avoid entangling al liances?" We are entangled with all the nations of the globe; by commerce, by manufactures, by race and religious affilia tions, by popular and political sympathies. The question for us to determine is not whether we shall live and work in fellow ship with European nations, but whether we shall choose our fellowship with wise judgment and definite purpose, or whether we shall allow ourselves to drift into such fellowships as political accident or the changing incidents of human history may direct. I am glad of the opportunity to urge on American citizens the former course. I believe that the time has come when we ought, as a nation, to recognize the fact that we are not merely an American na tion, but a world nation; when we ought to take our place, with clear and definite understanding that we are doing so, among the nations of the world; when we ought to form clearly to ourselves our national purpose, and seek such affiliations as will promote that purpose. It is for this rea son that, though I am, on principle and after much consideration, a bimetallist, I believe that the nation did wisely in re jecting the free coinage of silver, and is doing wisely in attempting to conform its currency to the currency of the other com mercial nations of the globe. It is for this reason that I think Mr. Elaine proved himself statesmanlike in his organization of a Pan-American Congress, although its immediate results appear to have been comparatively insignificant. It is for this reason I think the nation should foster by appropriate measures every attempt to unite the New World with the Old, whether by cable, for the transmission of intelligence, or by commercial lines for the transmission of the products of our industry and our mails. It is for this reason I think we ought to seize the op portunity offered to us to constitute a per manent tribunal to which international questions might be referred, as of course, for settlement, and especially ought to have seized the opportunity for the or ganization of such a tribunal for the de termination of national questions between Great Britain and the United States. It is for this reason I urge the establishment of a good understanding between the United States and Englanu, in the hope that in time it will grow to a more formal alliance civic, commercial, and industrial, rather than naval or military and yet an alliance that will make us, for the pur poses of our international life, one people, though not politically one nation. There are three reasons which suggest the wis dom of the establishment and maintenance of such good understanding and the hope of such possibly more formal alliance with our kin beyond the sea. 1. Though our commercial interests are not identical with those of Great Britain, our commercial principles are. England and the United States are competitors and rivals in the markets of the world; but commerce is full of demonstration of the fact that men may be competitors and rivals and yet friends and allies. What is true of men is true of nations. All that the people, either of England or the United States, ask, is a free field and no favors. We have proved ourselves quite competent to compete with any nation, if only the chance for competition is offered us. The great amorphous, ill-organized empire of China is dropping to pieces; Germany, France, England, and Japan, are all seek ing ports of entry through which to push, by commercial enterprises, the products of their industry upon people hitherto so lit tle civilized as to want but little. In this competition between foreign nations, Eng land and Japan have stood, apparently alone, for a free and untrammelled com merce. If the official statements in Par liament may be trusted, England has won by diplomacy this commercial freedom, which perhaps Germany, and almost cer tainly Russia, would have been disinclined to grant. It is impossible that there is no need for us to join formally in a com mercial alliance with Japan and Great Britain to insist upon this principle of un trammelled commerce; but if we need not do so, it is only because there is force enough in England to secure it without our aid. In the endeavor to secure it, Eng land is entitled not only to our sympathy, but to the expression of our sympathy. She is entitled not only to our good wishes, but to our moral support. The United States is quite as much interested as Eng land in the opening of trade with China, ABBOTT, LYMAtf if not even more interested. Our western sea-coast is as yet undeveloped ; our eastern trade is yet in its infancy. When the un numbered millions of China shall wake up, when they shall begin to feel the vivifying influence of civilization, when they begin to demand railroads and telegraphs, bicy cles and buggies, elevators and electric lights, cars for their streets, mills for their water-courses, agricultural implements for their farms, carpets for their floors, pianos and cabinet organs for their boys and girls, in short, the conveniences and comforts of modern civilization for their awakening population, it will be alike our interest, our right, and our duty to have a free op portunity to share in the work of provid ing them with this equipment of a higher life. What is so evident respecting China that the dullest of vision may see it, is equally, though as yet less evidently, true of other great unreached populations. The United States is only less interested than Great Britain in the larger life of India; and in the civilization of Africa, which still seems remote, but not so remote as it did before the travels of Livingstone and Stanley, and which, when it comes, will add a new incentive to the fruitful industry of our mills, as well as of English mills, if we are wise in our statesmanship to forecast the future and to provide for it. If England and America join hands in a generous rivalry, they can lead the world commercially. On that road lies our highway to national prosperity. 2. Political advantages as well as com mercial advantages call on us to establish and maintain a good understanding with Great Britain, and to be ready to formu late that good understanding in a more definite alliance whenever the occasion shall arise which necessitates it. The Cuban revolution and the consequent em- broglio with Spain, threatening as I write to break out any hour into war, illustrate the difficulty of avoiding altogether col lisions with foreign powers. This is the most pressing and immediate illustration, but not the only one. We have interests in Turkey which have been strangely dis regarded, though not overlooked. Ameri can property has been destroyed, the peace of American citizens disturbed and their lives threatened. Turkey is far away, and it has been difficult, perhaps impossible. so to press our claims upon the Porte as to secure satisfaction for the outrages per petrated with its connivance, if not by its authority. The injuries to our commerce inflicted by Algerine pirates, our long en durance of those injuries, and our final naval warfare against the marine maraud ers, are matters of familiar American history. With Americans not only travel ling everywhere on the globe, but settling and engaging in business wlierever there is business to be done, no one can foresee when an international complication may arise, involving strained relations between ourselves and some other nationality. It would be no small advantage under such circumstances to have established such re lations with Great Britain that she would be our natural friend, would give to us her moral support, and would, perhaps, in case of exigency, lend support that would be more than moral. I am not considering in this article the practicability of such a relationship. I do not stop to discuss the question whether Great Britain would b likely to enter into it with us, or whether we should be likely to enter into it with Great Britain. Writing for American, not for English, readers, I do not attempt to point out the advantages to Great Britain as well as to ourselves. My object is simply to show that there would be a real, a tangible, a practical advantage, one that can be measured in dollars and cents, in the establishment of such relationship be tween these two great Anglo-Saxon com munities, that they would be recognized by the civilized world as standing together in amity, making a common cause, not against the rest of the world, but in favor of one principle to which they are alike committed, and in which they arc alike interested the principle expressed by the one word, liberty. It may be assumed that the United States will never desire to encroach upon the territory of any European power ; that, if it comes into the peril of war, it will be not through its desire to colonize on uncivilized territory, nor its desire to seize upon some fragment of civilized territory belonging to another nation, but from its passion for liberty; a passion sometimes exhibited in strong national sympathy for a struggling people such as the Cubans, sometimes in the strong determination to fi ABBOTT, LYMAN preserve the liberty of our own people, as in our war against the Algerine pirates. If England and America were thus to stand together for liberty it would be diffi cult to form a combination which could withstand them so long as they were moderate, just, and rational in their de mands. 3. Both the commercial and the political advantages of such a good understanding, growing into a formal alliance as is here suggested, are dependent upon the moral advantage to the world which would grow out of it. It is true that in a sense the United States is neither a Christian nor an Anglo-Saxon nation. It is not officially Christian, if thereby is meant a nation which gives political or financial advan tage to one religion or another. It is not Anglo-Saxon, if thereby is meant a nation which sets itself to confer political power upon one race over another. But though it is officially neither Christian nor Anglo- Saxon, it is practically both. Its ethical standards are not those of Mohammedan ism or Confucianism, but those of Chris tianity. Its ruling force in the country, educational, political, and, on the whole, commercial, is not Celtic, nor Sclavic, nor Semitic, nor African, nor Mongolian, but Anglo-Saxon. Thus in its religious spirit, though not altogether in its religious in stitutions, in its practical leadership, though not in the constituent elements of its population, and in its national history and the genesis of its political institu tions, the United States is of kin to Great Britain. The two represent the same es sential political ideals; they are both democratic; they both represent the same ethical ideals; they are Christian; and they both represent the same race leader ship; they are Anglo-Saxon. In so far as their conjoint influence dominates the world, it will carry with it a tendency towards liberty in the political institutions organized, a tendency towards Christianity ill the ethical spirit of the society created, and a tendency towards that energy, that intelligence, and that thrift which are the characteristics of the Anglo-Saxon race in the life promoted. It is from the combina tion of these three elements in society political liberty, Christian ethics, Anglo- Saxon energy that what we call civiliza tion proceeds. And it is out of this civ ilization thus inspired by Anglo-Saxon energy, thus controlled by Christian ethics, and thus given opportunity for growth by political liberty that industrial prosper ity, commercial wealth, and human earthly well-being are founded. Thus the moral ad vantages of such a good understanding be tween Great Britain and the United States as is here suggested are more important than the commercial and political advan tages, because the commercial and politi cal advantages are dependent upon the moral. It is indeed impossible to separate them, except in statements and for the convenience of clear thinking. Great Britain and the United States cannot com bine to promote the commercial prosperity of either nation, or the political protection of the citizens of either in communities less free than their own, except as they combine to promote that world civilization which is founded on political liberty, Christian ethics, and Anglo-Saxon energy. Let Great Britain and the United States work together for the world's civilization, and, on the one hand, no reactionary forces can withstand their combined influence; and on the other, no imagination can esti mate the pecuniary and the political ad vantages, first to these two nations, and next to the whole world, which would come from such a combination. Whoever in either country sows discord between the two is, whether he knows it or not, the political and commercial enemy of both countries, and the enemy of the world's civilization. Thus far I have suggested only " a good understanding," because this is immedi ately practicable, yet I have in my imagi nation an ideal towards which such a good understanding might tend, but which would far transcend anything suggested by that somewhat vague phrase. Let us suppose, then, that Great Britain and the United States were to enter into an alli ance involving these three elements: first, absolute reciprocity of trade; second, a tribunal to which should be referred for settlement, as a matter of course, all questions arising between the two na tions, as now all questions arising between the various States of this Union are referred to the Supreme Court of the United States; third, a mutual pledge that an assault on one ABENAKES ABERT should be regarded as an assault on both, army; was made major-general in 1756, so that as towards other nations these two lieutenant-general in 1759, and general in would be united as the various States of 1772. He came to America in 1756, where this Union stand united towards all other he held the chief military command until States. Such an alliance would include the arrival of Lord Loudoun. After the not only our own country and the British departure of that officer, Abercrombie re- Isles, but all the colonies and dependencies sumed the command. In July, 1758, he of Great Britain Canada, Australasia, attacked TICONDEROGA (q. v.) with a large and in time such provinces in Asia and force, but was repulsed with a loss of Africa as are under British domination about 2,000 men. He was succeeded by and administration. It would unite in the General Amherst in September following; furtherance of a Christian civilization all returned to England in 1759, and became the Anglo-Saxon peoples, and all the peo- a member of Parliament, wherein he ad- ples acting under the guidance and con- vocated the obnoxious measures that led trolling influence of Anglo-Saxon leaders, to the War of the Revolution in 1775. It would gradually draw into itself other He died April 28, 1781, while Governor of peoples of like minds though of foreign Stirling Castle. race, such as, in the far East, the people Abercrombie, JAMES, military officer; of Japan. It would create a new con- son of Gen. James Abercrombie. He federation based on principles and ideas, had served on the staff of General Am- not on tradition, and bounded by the pos- herst, in America, and was commissioned sibilities of human development, not by a lieutenant in the British army in March, geographical lines. It would give a new 1770. While leading the British Grena- significance to the motto "E Pluribus diers in the battle of Bunker (Breed) Hill, Unum," and would create a new United June 17, 1775, he was mortally wounded, States of the World, of which the United dying in Boston on the 24th. See BUNKER States of America would be a component HILL. part. Who can measure the advantage to Abercrombie, JOHN JOSEPH, military liberty, to democracy, to popular rights officer; born in Tennessee in 1802; was and popular intelligence, to human graduated at the United States Mili- progress, to a free and practical Christian- tary Academy in 1822. Entering the 1st ity, which such an alliance would bring Infantry, he was its adjutant from 1825 with it? Invincible against enemies, il- to 1833. Serving in Florida and Mexi- limitable in influence, at once inspiring co, he was promoted to brevet lieu- and restraining each other, these two na- tenant-colonel for gallantry in the battle tions, embodying the energy, the enter- of Monterey, where he was severely wound- prise, and the conscience of the Anglo- ed. He was commissioned lieutenant- Saxon race, would by the mere fact of colonel in May, 1852, and colonel in Feb- their co-operation produce a result in ruary, 1861, and was brevetted brigadier- human history which would suppress all general, U. S. A., March 13, 1865. In that present imagination can conceive or June following he retired. He was a brig- present hope anticipate. See ANGLO- adier-general of volunteers in the Civil AMERICAN LEAGUE. War, and commanded a brigade in Patter- Abenakes, or Abnakis ("Men of the son's division on the Upper Potomac in Eastern Land"), a group of ALGONQUIAN 1861. He was transferred to Bank's divi- (q. v.) tribes of Indians, originally occu- sion in July. Early in 1862 he joined the pying the territory now included within Army of the Potomac, and was slightly the State of Maine. They included the wounded in the battle of FAIR OAKS (q. v.). Penobscot, Norridgewock, and Arosgunta- He died in Roslyn, N. Y., Jan. 3, 1877. cook families, and in the disturbances of Abert, JOHN JAMES, military engi- the day adhered to the French, whose mis- neer; born in Shepherd stown, Va., Sept. sionaries converted most of them to 27, 1778; was graduated at the United Christianity. States Military Academy in 1811; soon Abercrombie, JAMES, military officer; afterwards resigned; studied law, and was born at Glassaugh, Scotland, in 1706. In admitted to the bar; (served as a private 1746 he became a colonel in the British soldier in the defence of the national capi- 8 ABINGDON ABOLITIONISTS tal in the War of 1812, and in 1814 was re-appointed to the army as a topographi cal engineer, becoming chief of the corps in 1838. He was associated with the con struction of many of the early national works of engineering, and was one of the organizers of the National Institute of Science, which was merged into the SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION (q. v.). He died in Washington. D. C., Dec. 27, 1863. Abingdon, a town in Washington county, Va., 315 miles southwest of Rich mond. It has valuable deposits of salt, iron, and gypsum, and is noted as being the place from which the greater part of the salt used in the Southern States and the Confederate army during the Civil War was obtained. Burbridge's division of Stoneman's cavalry defeated the Con federates under Echols, and captured the town, Dec. 15, 1864. y Abolition. During the early years of our national history, abolition was a de sire rather than a purpose, and most humane and thinking men, North and South, were abolitionists. Previous to the meeting of the first Continental Con gress, in 1774, many of the colonies had made protests against the further impor tation of slaves, and at least two of them, Virginia and Massachusetts, had passed resolutions abolishing the traffic. The Quakers, or Society of Friends, had, since 1760, made slave-holding and slave-trading a matter of church discipline. The War for Independence, and the adoption of the Constitution, in 1787, which included the compromise resolution that provided for the continuation of the slave-trade, by per mission, until 1808, caused very little change in the sentiment of the people, and all hoped that in some way, not yet imagined, the gradual and peaceful aboli tion of slavery would be accomplished. In 1777, Vermont, not yet admitted to the Union, formed a State constitution abolishing slavery. Like constitutions were adopted by Massachusetts, including Maine, in 1780, and by New Hampshire in 1783. Gradual abolition was secured by statute in Pennsylvania in 1780, in Rhode Island and Connecticut in 1784, in New York in 1799, and in New Jersey in 1804. Abolition of slavery in the Northwest Ter ritory, north of the Ohio and east of the Mississippi, including the present States 9 of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wis consin, and part of Minnesota, was secured by the Ordinance of 1787. In 1807, Con gress passed an act for the abolition of the slave-trade on Jan. 1, 1808. Slavery in part of the Louisiana Purchase, including the present States of Iowa, Oregon, Kan sas, Nebraska, part of Colorado, and part of Minnesota, was abolished by the MIS SOURI COMPROMISE (q. v.), whose validity was rejected by the Supreme Court (see DRED SCOTT DECISION) ; but the provision for abolition was embodied in the consti tutions of these States as they were severally admitted. In course of time gradual abolition took effect in the States which had adopted it by statute, and in 1850 slavery as an institution had practi cally disappeared from them. Slavery was finally abolished from all the territory of the United States by the Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln and the adoption of the Thirteenth Amendment to the national Constitution, in 1863-65. See CONSTITUTION, NATIONAL; EMANCIPA TION PROCLAMATIONS. Abolitionists. The first society estab lished for promoting public sentiment in favor of the abolition of slavery was formed in Philadelphia on April 14, 1775, with Benjamin Franklin as president and Benjamin Rush as secretary. John Jay was the first president of a society for the same purpose formed in New York, Jan. 25, 1785, and called the " New York Manumission Society." The Society of Friends, or Quakers, always opposed sla very, and were a perpetual and active abo lition society, presenting to the national Congress the first petition on the subject. Other abolition societies followed in Rhode Island in 1786, in Maryland in 1789, in Connecticut in 1790, in Virginia in 1791, and in New Jersey in 1792. These societies held annual conventions, and their opera tions were viewed by the more humane slave-holders with some favor, since they aimed at nothing practical or troublesome, except petitions to Congress, and served aa a moral palliative to the continuance of the practice. The abolition of the African slave-trade by Great Britain in 1807, and by the United States in 1808, came as a great relief to the abolition societies, which had grown discouraged by the evi dent impossibility of effecting anything in ABOLITIONISTS the South, and were now ready to accept this success as the limit of possibility for the present. In 1801, Thomas Jefferson and Gov. James Monroe, of Virginia, had considerable correspondence on the subject of colonizing free blacks outside of the country. In the autumn of 1816, a society for this purpose was organized in Princeton, N. J. The Virginia Legislat ure commended the matter to the govern ment, and in December, 1816, the "Na tional Colonization Society " met in Wash ington. Its object was to encourage eman cipation by procuring a place outside of the United States, preferably in Africa, to which free negroes could be aided in emi grating. Its indirect object was to rid the South of the free black population, which had already become a nuisance. Its branches spread into almost every State, and for fourteen years its organization was warmly furthered by every philan thropist in the South as well as in the North. It is noteworthy that, though the society made no real attack upon slavery, as an institution, nearly every person, noted after 1831 as an abolitionist, was be fore that year a oolonizationist. At first free negroes were sent to the British col ony of Sierra Leone. In 1820, the society tried and became dissatisfied with Sher- brook Island, and on Dec. 15, 1821, a per manent location was purchased at Cape Mesurado. In 1847, the colony declared it self an independent republic under the name of LIBERIA (q. v.), its capital being Monrovia. Itwas in 1830 that the abolitionist move ment proper began. In 1829-30, William Lloyd Garrison engaged with Benjamin Lundy in publishing The Genius of Uni versal Emancipation, in Baltimore. Gar rison's first efforts were directed against the Colonization Society and gradual abo lition. He insisted on the use of every means at all times towards abolition with out regard to the wishes of slave-owners. The effects were almost immediately ap parent. Abolition, with its new elements of effort and intention, was no longer a doctrine to be quietly and benignantly dis cussed by slave-owners. On Jan. 1, 1831, Garrison began publishing The Liberator, in Boston; the New England Anti-Slavery Society was formed Jan. 1, 1832; in 1833 Garrison visited England, and secured 10 from Wilberforce, Zachary Macaulay, Dan iel O'Connell, and other English abolition ists^ condemnation of the colonizationists. In December, 1833, the American Anti-Sla very Society was organized, in Philadel phia, by an abolition convention of which Beriah Green was president and Lewis Tappan and John G. Whittier secretaries. From this time the question became of national importance. Able and earnest men, such as Weld, May, and Phillips, journeyed through the Northern States as the agents of the National Society, founding State branches and everywhere lecturing on abolition, and were often met by mob violence. In Connecticut, in 1833, Miss Prudence Crandall, of Canterbury, opened her school for negro girls. The Legislature, by act of May 24, 1833, for bade the establishment of such schools, and imprisoned Miss Crandall. Being set at liberty, she was ostracized by her neigh bors and her school broken up. For a year George Thomson, who had done much to secure British emancipation in the West Indies, lectured throughout the North. He was mobbed in Boston, and escaped from the country in disguise, in November, 1835. On Nov. 7, 1837, ELIJAH P. LOVEJOY (q. v.), a Presbyterian minis ter, who had established an abolition news paper in Alton, 111., was mobbed and shot to death. These occurrences did not cease entirely until the beginning of the Civil War, in 1861. In the South rewards were offered for the capture of prominent abo litionists, and a suspension of commercial intercourse was threatened. The Southern States objected to the use of the mails for the circulation of anti-slavery litera ture. A bill forbidding such use was voted on in Congress, but lost, and in its stead the care of abolition documents was left, with final success, to the postmasters and the States. The Garrisonian aboli- tionists were always radical. They criti cised the Church, condemned the Consti tution, refused to vote, and woman's rights, free love, community of property, and all sorts of novel social ideas were espoused by them. In 1838 the political abolitionists, including Birney, the Tap- pans, Gerrit Smith, Whittier, Judge Jay, Edward Beecher, Thomas Morris, and others seceded, and in 1840 organized the American and Foreign Anti-Slavery ABOVILLE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Society, and under this name prosecuted ford. After the committee had exonerated their work with more success than the the Secretary, Mr. Edwards was recalled original society. In 1839-40 the LIBERTY to substantiate his charges, but failed to PARTY (q. v.) was formed, and in the do so. This episode became known as the Presidential election of 1844 Birney and A. B. Plot. Morris received 62,300 votes, most of which Abraham, HEIGHTS OB PLAINS OF, near would have gone to Clay, and thus made Quebec, named from Abraham Martin, possible the election of Polk, the annexation who owned a piece of land there in the of Texas, and the addition of an immense early times of the colony. On this plateau amount of slave territory to the United was fought a battle between French and States. In the next two Presidential elec- English, Sept. 13, 1759, gaining Canada tions the abolitionists voted with the FREE- for the English. Both commanders, Mont- SOIL PARTY (q. v.), and after 1856 with the calm and Wolfe, were killed, the latter at Eepublicans, though rather as an auxiliary the moment of victory. See CANADA; than as an integral part of the party. MONTCALM DE ST. VERAN; WOLFE, JAMES. During the period 1850-60 the most active Academy of Arts and Sciences, exertions of the abolitionists were cen- AMERICAN, an organization founded in tred in assisting fugitive slaves to reach Boston in 1778 for the encouragement of places of safety in Canada (see FUGITIVE arts and sciences; has published Me- SLAVE LAW and UNDERGROUND RAILWAY), m.oirs since 1785, and Proceedings since! The result of the Civil War (1861-65) 1846. was the total abolition of slavery in all Academy of Design, NATIONAL, an art the States. Soon after the adoption of the institution founded in New York City in Thirteenth Amendment, the publication of 1826; originally occupying a building on The Liberator ceased and the Anti-Slavery the corner of Fourth Avenue and Twenty- Society dissolved, as natural results. third Street, which was sold in 1895, and Aboville, FRANCOIS MARIE, COUNT D', a new structure was begun on Amsterdam military officer; born in Brest, France, in Avenue and One Hundred and Ninth January, 1730; came to America with the Street. The academy conducts schools in rank of colonel during the Revolutionary various branches of the fine arts, and War, and at the siege of Yorktown com- holds semi-annual exhibitions at which a manded Rochambeau's artillery. In 1788 number of valuable prizes are awarded, he was commissioned a brigadier-general; The members consist of academicians and in 1792 was commander of the French associates, each of whom must be an artist Army of the North; and in 1807 became of recognized merit. The associates, who governor of Brest with the rank of lieu- are entitled to use the letters A.N.A. after tenant-general. He supported the cause their names, are chosen from the general of the Bourbons and after the Restoration body of the artists, and the academicians, was made a peer. He died Nov. 1, 1817. who may use N.A., are elected from the A. B. Plot. On April 19, 1824, Ninian associates. Approved laymen may become Edwards, a former United States Senator fellows on payment of a fee. The schools from Illinois, presented an address to the are open to both sexes, are free, and open Congress, preferring charges against Will- from the first Monday in October in each iam H. Crawford, then Secretary of the year till the 1st of June following. Treasury and a candidate for the Presi- Academy of Natural Sciences, an in- dency. The address was accompanied by stitution in Philadelphia, Pa.; founded in letters, reflecting on the integrity of Sec- 1812; has published Journals since 1817, retary Crawford, signed A. B. The House and Proceedings since 1841 ; and is noted appointed a committee of seven to inves,- for its very large collection of specimens tigate the charges, and on May 25 the in natural history. committee submitted a report exonerating Academy of Sciences, NATIONAL, an Secretary Crawford. While on his way to institution incorporated by act of Con- Mexico, to which he had been sent on a gress March 3, 1863; comprising active public mission, Mr. Edwards acknowledged and honorary members and foreign asso- the authorship of the letters and also made ciates. ' Under the act of incorporation it new accusations against Secretary Craw- is the duty of the academy to investigate, 11 ACADEMY ACADIA examine, experiment, and report upon any Great Britain. " Better," said the Jesuits, subject of science or art submitted to it " surrender your meadows to the sea and by any department of the national gov- your treasures to the flames than, at the ernment, the expense of such investigations peril of your souls, to take the oath of al- being paid from appropriations for the legiance to the British government." So purpose. the priests, with which Canada furnished Academy, UNITED STATES MILITARY, them, and on whom they implicitly relied, See MILITARY ACADEMY. disturbed the peace and led them on to Academy, UNITED STATES NAVAL. See their ruinous troubles. At one time they NAVAL ACADEMY. would resolve to flee to Canada ; at another Acadia, or Acadie, the ancient name of the love of their homes would make them NOVA SCOTIA (q. v.) and adjacent regions, resolve to remain. The haughtiness of It is supposed to have been visited by Se- British officers aided the priests in foment- bastian Cabot in 1498, but the first at- ing disaffection. The English despised the tempt to plant a settlement there was by Acadians because they were helpless in De Monts, in 1604, who obtained a charter their lack of knowledge of English laws, from the King of France for making set- and they were continually robbed of their tlements and carrying on trade. In that rights and property by English officials, charter it is called Cadie", and by the early Was any of their property demanded for settlers it was known as L'Acadie". A set- the public service, they were " not to be tlement was made at a place named Port bargained with for payment"; so the Royal (now Annapolis), by Poutrincourt, orders ran. Under various pretences they a bosom friend of De Monts, but it was were continually shorn, yet they meekly broken up in 1613, by Argall, from Vir- submitted to the tyranny of their masters. ginia. These French emigrants built cot- The English officers were authorized to tages sixteen years before the Pilgrims punish Acadians for what they might deem landed on the shores of New England, misbehavior, at their discretion, and, if When English people came, antagonisms British troops should be annoyed by them, arising from difference of religion and they might inflict vengeance on the nearest nationality appeared, and, after repeated Acadians " whether guilty or not." Final- struggles between the English and French ly, persuaded by the French government for the possession of Acadia, it was ceded and their priests, the Acadians abandoned to Great Britain by the treaty of Utrecht nearly all the peninsula, and settled them- in 1713. But for many years not a dozen selves in a fertile region on the isthmus be- English families were seen there. The de- tween the northern extremity of the Bay of scendants of the early French settlers oc- Fundy and Northumberland Strait. The cupied the land, and were a peaceable, object of the movement was to make them pastoral people, who never engaged in the form a barrier against the encroachments forays of the French and Indians along of the English. There the French built the New England frontiers. They were two forts, the principal of which was Beau attached to their fatherland and their Sejour, on the Bay of Fundy, where the religion, and they refused to fight against isthmus is only 15 miles wide. In June, the former or abjure the latter. This at- 1755, a land and naval armament came titude was accorded to them by solemn from Boston, landed at the head of the agreements, and they were known as Bay of Fundy, captured the forts, and " French Neutrals." They were happy in took military possession of the country of their neutrality, and in their isolation the French Neutrals. The French soldiers they formed one great and loving family, were sent to Louisburg, and the Acadians Pure in morals, pious without bigotry, who had been forced into the French ser- honest, industrious, and frugal, they pre- vice were granted an amnesty. They read- sented an outline picture of Utopia. ily took an oath of allegiance, expected When New-Englanders began to colonize forbearance, and went on quietly cultivat- Npva Scotia vigorously, their priests, fired ing their land. But the exasperation of with zeal for the Church, disturbed their the people of New England, because of the repose by dread of " heretics " and warn- horrible forays of the French and Indians ings not to take the oath of allegiance to on their frontiers, had to be appeased, and 12 ACADIA vengeance was inflicted upon these inno- ing hymns, while on each side of the sad cent people. It was resolved to banish the procession was a row of women and chil- French Neutrals from their country, dren on their knees, imploring blessings Governor Shirley had proposed it years upon the heads of dear ones. They were before, in order to supply their place with all finally distributed in the various Eng- Protestants; and the British government lish colonies. Many families, separated had promoted emigration thither, that a at the outset by the cruel arrangements strong admixture of Protestants might for their transportation, were never re- neutralize the efforts of the priests to united; and for a long time the colonial make the Acadians disloyal. Now Shir- newspapers contained advertisements seek- ley's scheme was adopted, and General ing information about fragments of dis- Winslow, who commanded the invaders, membered families. They were dropped was made the executor of it. along the shores of the English colonies, It was believed by the English that if from the Penobscot to the Savannah, with- the Acadians were permitted to go to out resources, and ignorant of the Ian- Canada or Cape Breton, they would thus guage of the people among whom they were strengthen the enemies of the English ; thrust, excepting in South Carolina, where to distribute them would destroy their the Huguenot families treated them with strength and prevent attempts to return, great kindness. They abhorred the alms- To accomplish this, a disgraceful artifice house and dreaded service in English was employed. The English authorities families. They yearned intensely for their issued a proclamation, ordering " both old native land and kindred in language and and young men, as well as all the lads of religion. Many wandered through the ten years of age," to assemble on Sept. 5, forests to Canada and Louisiana men, 1755, at designated places. They obeyed, women, and children sheltered in bush- The proceedings at one place afford a fair camps and kindly cared for by the Indians, picture of those at all others. At Grand- that they might rest under French do- Pr6, 418 unarmed men and youths were minion. Some families went to sea in assembled, and marched into the church, open boats, to find their way back to There General Winslow told them they Acadia; and, coasting along the shores of had been called together to hear the de- New England, were there met by orders cision of the King of England in regard to from Nova Scotia to stop all returning the French inhabitants of the province, fugitives. Many touching stories of par- " Your lands and tenements," he said, ents seeking their children, husbands their " cattle of all kinds, and live-stock of all wives, and lovers their affianced have been sorts, are forfeited to the crown, and you, related. It is a sad, sad story of man's yourselves, are to be removed from this inhumanity to man. his province. I am, through his Majesty's Even in their bitter exile the Acadians goodness, directed to allow you liberty to were subjected to the hatred and cruelty carry off your money and household goods, of English officials. When LORD LOUDOUN as many as you can, without discommod- (q. v.) was commander-in-chief in Amer- ing the vessels you go in. You are now ica, some of the Acadians settled in Penn- tJie King's prisoners" sylvania ventured to address a respectful Every household in Grand-Pre 1 was filled petition to him. Offended because the with consternation. At Grand-Pr alone document was in the French language, the 1,923 men, women, and children were driv- Earl seized five of the leading men who en on board British vessels at the point signed the petition, and who had been per- of the bayonet. Fully 2,000 were thus sons of wealth and distinction in Acadia, expelled from their homes in Acadia. The and sent them to England, with a request men and boys assembled at the church that, to prevent their being troublesome went first; the sisters, wives, and in the future, they should be consigned to daughters had to wait for other trans- hard service as common sailors in the ports. They marched from the church to royal navy. The King seems to have ap- the water's edge, some in sullen despair, proved the measure; and the Lords of others with hands clasped and eyes uplift- Trade, when the desolation of Acadia was ed, praying and weeping, and others sing- made complete, congratulated the profligate 13 ACCAULT ACLAND monarch that the zeal of the governor of Nova Scotia, who had driven them away, had been " crowned with entire success." Exquisitely cruel was the treatment these poor people received at the hands of their conquerors. The method employed to le gally dispossess the Acadians of their cov eted lands was most disgraceful. They had taken the oath of allegiance, but refused to take an oath that they would tear arms against the French if required, and prac tically abjure their religion. Exemption from this had been solemnly promised them. The governor of Nova Scotia re ferred the matter to the chief-justice of the province as a technical question in law, whether one who refuses to take all required oaths could hold lands in the British dominions. The chief-justice de cided against the Acadians, and it was determined to take their lands away from them and distribute them among the Eng lish colonists. The French government asked leave for the Acadians to take with them their effects and to settle where they chose. " No," replied their masters, " they are too useful subjects to be lost; we must enrich our colonies with them.*' Unfort unately for the poor people, some of their best men presented a petition to the gov ernor at Halifax. He would not receive it, and demanded that they should imme diately take the oaths required before the council. " We will do as our people may determine," they meekly replied, and asked permission to return home and consult them. The next day, perceiving the peril ous position of their people, they offered to take the oaths. " By a law of the realm," said the governor, "Roman Cath olics who have once refused to take the oaths cannot be permitted to do so after wards, and are considered Popish recu sants." They were cast into prison, and the chief-justice decided that all the French inhabitants hundreds of innocent families who were ignorant of all these proceedings were "rebels and Popish re cusants," and stood in the way of " Eng lish interests" in the country, and that they had forfeited all their possessions to the crown. So their doom was sealed. See Longfellow's Evangeline. Aecault, MICHAEL, explorer; was with La Salle when the latter discovered the Mississippi Rivec. Later, with Louis HENNEPIN (q. v.), in the summer of 1679, he was sent by La Salle to explore the sources of the Mississippi. They went up the river as far the Falls of St. Anthony, where they were captured by Indians, but were rescued by Daniel Duluth, a French officer. In a few months they succeeded in reaching the trading- station at Green Bay. Acerraderos, a town in the province of Santiago, Cuba, on the Caribbean Sea, a few miles west of the entrance to the har bor of Santiago. It was here that General Garcia, the commander of the Cuban army, established his camp just before the opening of the Santiago campaign in 1898. The United States fleet arrived off Santiago on June 21, and as soon as pos sible General Shafter and Admiral Samp son went ashore and arranged with Gen eral Garcia for the co-operation of the Cubans under his command. The land ing of the United States troops and the operations of the American army from that time till the surrender of Santiago were greatly facilitated by General Garcia and his army. See DAIQUIRI. Acland, JOHN DYKE, military officer; MAJ. JOHN DYKE ACLAND. was with Burgoyne in his invasion of northern New York in 1777, and at the ACQUIA CREEK ACQUISITION OF TERRITORY CHRISTINA HARRIET ACLAXD. me \irne he was a member of Parlia ment. Jn the battle of Saratoga (Oct. 7, 1777) he was severely wounded shot through the legs and made a prisoner. Taken to the American headquarters on Bemis's Heights, his devoted wife, Lady Harriet, was permitted to pass through the lines and attend him. She was kindly received and treated by the American officers, and their bearing towards their wounded prisoners excited the major's gratitude and warm esteem. After his return to England he was provoked to give the lie direct to Lieutenant Lloyd, at a dinner-party, because the latter cast as persions upon the Americans. A duel en sued on Bampton Downs. The major was unhurt, but a severe cold, which he con tracted at the time of the duel, culmi nated in a fever which caused his death at his seat at Pixton, Somersetshire, Oct. 31, 1778. His wife, Christina Harriet Caroline Fox, was a daughter of the first Earl of Ilchester; was born in 1750; mar ried John Dyke Acland in 1770; and died near Taunton, England, July 21, 1815. Acquia Creek. See AQUIA CBEEK. ACQUISITION OF TERRITORY Acquisition of Territory. The origi- aal territory of the United States as ac- knowledged by the treaty with Great Britain, in 1783, consisted of the follow- ing thirteen States: New Hampshire, Mas- sachusetts Bay, Rhode Island and Provi- dence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. The boundaries of many of these States, as constituted by their charters, extended to tae Pacific Ocean; but in practice they ceased at the Mississippi. Beyond that river the territory belonged, by discovery and settlement, to the King of Spain, All the territory west of the present boundaries of the States was ceded by them to the United States in the order named: Virginia, 1784; Massachusetts, 1785; Connecticut, 1786 and 1800; South Carolina, 1787; North Carolina, 1790; Georgia, 1802. This ceded territory com- prised part of Minnesota, all of Wiscon- sin, Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio (see NORTHWEST TERRITORY), Tennessee, and a great part of Alabama and Mississippi. Vermont was admitted as a separate State in 1791; Kentucky, then a part of Vir- ginia, in 1792; and Maine, till that time claimed by Massachusetts, in 1820. Louisiana Purchase. Spain's restric- tion of the navigation of the Mississippi, the great natural commercial artery oi the American continent, was a great an- noyance to the settlers on the western slopes of the Alleghanies. It was not un- til Oct. 17, 1795, and after many attempts, that Thomas Pinckney succeeded in nego- tiating a treaty of friendship, boundaries, and navigation. On Oct. 1, 1800, by the treaty of St. Ildefonso, Spain retroceded to France the vast province of Louisiana. Bonaparte's design to revive, in New Or- leans, the former colonial glories of the French monarchy more and more menaced the United States; navigation was again closed; and in Congress, James Ross, Sen- ator from Pennsylvania, introduced reso- lutions authorizing the President to call out 50,000 militia and to take possession of New Orleans. Instead of this, Con- 15 ACQUISITION OF TERRITORY gress appropriated $2,000,000 for the pur chase of the city, and sent James Monroe, as minister extraordinary, to co-operate with Livingston, minister to France, in the proposed purchase. April 11, 1803, Livingston, who had already begun nego tiations for the purchase of New Orleans, was suddenly invited by Napoleon to make an offer for the whole of Louisiana. On the following day Monroe arrived in Paris, and the two ministers decided to offer $10,000,000. The price was finally fixed at $15,000,000, one-fourth of it to consist in the assumption by the United States of $3,750,000 worth of claims of American citizens against France. The treaty was in three conventions to se cure the cession, to ascertain the price, to stipulate for the assumption of the claims all signed the same day, April 30, 1803, by Livingston and Monroe on one part, and Barbe"-Marbois on the other. This vast purchase added 1,1?1,931 square miles to the territory of the United States, including Alabama and Mississippi south of the parallel of 31; all of Lou isiana, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Indian Terri tory, Missouri, Nebraska, Iowa, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Montana; Minnesota, west of the Mississippi; Colo rado and Wyoming, east of the Rocky Mountains; and Kansas, with the excep tion of the southwestern corner. The western boundary was not finally settled until after the purchase of Florida, in 1819. Florida Purchase. The boundary be tween Louisiana and Florida had been long in dispute, Spain claiming all that territory south of the parallel of 31 and east of the Mississippi River, and the United States fixing it at the Perdido River, the present boundary between Flor ida and Alabama. In 1810, the people of west Florida met at Baton Rouge and de clared themselves independent, and Gov ernor Claiborne, of the Territory of Or leans, was sent by the President to take possession; in 1812 the Pearl River was made the eastern boundary of Louisiana, and the remainder of west Florida was annexed to Mississippi Territory; in 1813 the fort and city of Mobile were taken by General Wilkinson. During this period a determination of gaining east Florida had been growing rapidly, and Congress, by acts passed in secret, in January and March, 1811, had authorized the President to take temporary possession. In 1818, during the Seminole War, be ing annoyed by Spanish assistance given to the Indians, Jackson raided east Florida, captured St. Marks and Pen- sacola, and hanged Arbuthnot and Am- brister, two British subjects who had given aid and comfort to the Indians. This demonstrated so completely that Florida was at the mercy of the United States that the Spanish minister at Washington signed a treaty, on Feb. 22, 1819, by which Spain ceded Florida, in return for the payment of claims of American citizens against Spain, amounting to $5,000,000. The ratification by Spain was not secured till 1821, Spain attempting to obtain the refusal of the United States to recognize the independence of the revolted Spanish- American colonies. The territory pur* chased comprised 59,268 square miles. Oregon. The treaty with Spain ir 1821 settled the western boundary of the Louisiana purchase as follows : " Begin ning at the mouth of the Sabine, in the Gulf of Mexico; up the west bank of the Sabine to the thirty-second degree of north latitude; thence north to the Red River; along the south bank of the Red River to the one-hundredth degree of longitude east from Greenwich; thence north to the Ar kansas ; thence along the south bank of the Arkansas to its source ; thence south or north, as the case may be, to the forty- second degree north latitude, and along that parallel to the Pacific Ocean." This put out of dispute the territory comprising the present States of Washington, Oregon, Idaho, and the western part of Wyoming, claimed by the United States on the grounds of discovery (1792), exploration (1805), and settlement (1811). The boundary between the States of Washing ton and Idaho, on one side, and Canada, on the other, was finally determined in 1848. Texas. In 1833, Texas, then a part of the Mexican Republic, refused to remain a part of Coahuila, and on April 1 formed a Mexican State constitution of its own. The greater part of its popula tion had emigrated from the southwestern part of the United States, and, on the abolishment of the St* f e constitutions, in 16 vl D Romney, care we can for the future, to avoid both H ythe, Sandwich, Hastings, with the the danger of returning into a slavish Towns of Rye and Winchelsea, 3. condition and the chargeable remedy of SUSSEX, with the Boroughs, Towns, and Par- another war: for as it cannot be imagined ^J**^ S&SSfS' L^s that so many of our countrymen would thereof, 1. have opposed us in this quarrel if they SOUTHAMPTON COUNTY, with the Boroughs, had understood their own good, so may we Towns ' and Parishes therein, except such hopefully promise to ourselves, that .hen %^%3 anT L fbW?ies The^tTl our common rights and liberties shall be Southampton Town and the County there- cleared, their endeavours will be disap- of ! pointed that seek to make themselves ""^SET^^^rS 1 , *?1 our masters. Since therefore our former Dorchester 1. oppressions and not-yet-ended croi'blea, DEVONSHIRE/ with the Boroughs, Towns, and have been occasioned either by want of Parishes therein, except such as are here- frequent national meetings in council, or SS&SfzffSjSSfl? 2 ! *"**' * ' by the undue or unequal constitution CORNWALL, with the Boroughs, Towns, and thereof, or by rendering those meetings Parishes therein, 8. ineffectual, we are fully agreed and re- SOMERSETSHIRE, with the Boroughs Towns, , , ~ ' .... J ?, .. , . and Parishes therein, except such as are solved, God willing, to provide, that here- hereunder named, 8 ; Bristol, 3 ; Taunton- after our Representatives be neither left Dean, 1. to an uncertainty for times nor be un- WILTSHIRE, with the Boroughs, Towns, and equally constituted, nor made useless to Zufy'l ' ^^ Salisbury ' 7; Sal ' the ends for which they are intended. BERKSHIRE^ with the Boroughs. Towns, and In order whereunto we declare and Parishes therein, except Reading, 5 ; Read- aeree too, 1. 6 T1 . ' ,, , , ,, . SURREY, with the Boroughs. Towns, and First, that, to prevent the many mcon- Parishes therein, except Southwark, 5 ; veniences apparently arising from the Southwark, 2. long continuance of 'the same persons in MIDDLESEX, with the Boroughs, Towns, and surireme anthoritv this nrpqpnt Parlia Parishes therein, except such as are here- B authority, this present Farlia- under namedt 4 . London> 8 ; Westminster ment end and dissolve upon, or before, and the Duchy, 2. the last day of April, 1649. HERTFORDSHIRE, with the Boroughs, Towns, Secondly that the people of England Bv 'S%? h & the Borough, (being at this day very unequally dis- Towns, and Parishes therein, 6. 62 AGREEMENT OF THE PEOPLE OXFORDSHIRE, with the Boroughs, Towns, oughs, Towns, and Parishes therein, except and Parishes therein, except such as are Durham and Gateside, 3 ; Durham City, 1. hereunder named, 4 ; Oxford City, 2 ; Ox- NORTHUMBERLAND, with the Boroughs, Towns, ford University, 2. and Parishes therein, except such as are GLOUCESTERSHIRE, with the Bosgughs, Towns, hereunder named, 3 ; Newcastle upon Tyne and Parishes therein, except Gloucester, 7 ; and the County thereof, with Gateside, 2 ; Gloucester, 2. Berwick, 1. HEREFORDSHIRE, with the Boroughs, Towns, CUMBERLAND, with the Boroughs, Towns, and and Parishes therein, except Hereford, 4; Parishes therein, 3. Hereford, 1. WESTMORELAND, with the Boroughs, Towns, WORCESTERSHIRE, with the Boroughs, Towns, and Parishes therein, 2. and Parishes therein, except Worcester, 4 ; Worcester, 2. WALES WARWICKSHIRE, with the Boroughs, Towns, ANGLESEA, with the Parishes therein 2 and Parishes therein, except Coventry, 5 ; BRECKNOCK, with the Boroughs and Pair- Coventry, 2. ishes therein 3 NORTHAMPTONSHIRE, with the Boroughs, CARDIGAN, with the Boroughs and Par- Towns, and Parishes therein, except North- ishes therein 3 ampton, 5 ; Northampton, 1. CARMARTHEN, with the Boroughs and Par- BEDFORDSHIRE, with the Boroughs, Towns, ishes therein 3 and Parishes therein, 4. CARNARVON, with the Boroughs and Par- CAMBRIDGESHIRE, with the Boroughs, Towns, ishes therein 2 and Parishes therein, except such as are DENBIGH, with the Boroughs and Par- hereunder particularly named, 4 ; Cam- ishes therein 2 bridge University, 2 ; Cambridge Town, 2. FLINT, with the Boroughs and Parishes ESSEX, with the Boroughs, Towns, and Par- therein 1 ishes therein, except Colchester, 11 ; Col- MONMOUTH, with the Boroughs and Par e/tester, 2. ishes therein 4 SUFFOLK, with the Boroughs, Towns, and GLAMORGAN, with the Boroughs and Par- Parishes therein, except such as are here- ishes therein 4 after named, 10 ; Ipswich, 2 ; St. Edmund's MERIONETH, with the Boroughs and Par- Bury, 1. ishes therein 2 NORFOLK, with the Boroughs, Towns, and MONTGOMERY, with the Boroughs and Parishes therein, except such as are here- Parishes therein 3 under named, 9 ; Norwich, 3 ; Lynn, 1 ; RADNOR, with the Boroughs and Parishes Yarmouth, 1. therein 2 LINCOLNSHIRE, with the Boroughs, Towns, PEMBROKE, with the Boroughs, Towns, and Parishes therein, except the City of and Parishes therein 4 Lincoln and the Town of Boston, 11 ; Lin coln, 1 ; Boston, 1. Provided, that the first or second Rep- RUTLANDSHIRE, with the Boroughs, Towns, resentative may, if they see cause assign H^.rofsH.H^with- the Boroughs, |he remainder of the 400 representers, not Towns, and Parishes therein, 3. hereby assigned, or so many of them as LEICESTERSHIRE, with the Boroughs, Towns, they shall see cause for, unto such counties aad^Pa^rishes therein, except Leicester, 5; as shall appear in this present distribu- NoTT^NralMSHiRE, with the Boroughs, t j on to ha less than their due P r P r - Towns, and Parishes therein, except Not- tion. Provided also, that where any city tingham, 4 ; Nottingham, 1. or borough, to which one representer or XTsth" r lV h cep7 U !, h e S ^ T'C d m re '?.- a'-" be found in a due T)y t 1. proportion, not competent alone to elect a STAFFORDSHIRE, with the City of Lichfield, representer, or the number of representers the Boroughs, Towns, and Parishes there- assigned thereto, it is left to future Rep- SHROPSHIRE, with the Boroughs, Towns, and ^entatives ^ Assign such a number of Parishes therein, except Shrewsbury, 6 ; parishes or villages near adjoining to such Shrewsbury, l. city or borough, to be joined therewith in CHESHIRE, with the Boroughs, Towns, and the elections, or may make the same pro- Parishes therein, except Chester, 5 ; Ches- .. , , J t er 2 portionable. LANCASHIRE, with the Boroughs, Towns, and Thirdly. That the people do, of course, Parishes therein, except Manchester, 6 ; choose themselves a Representative once in tSSSf^SfS: Boughs,' Towns, and two **?*?* *J U "* *" *"* PUrP 3e Parishes therein, except such as are here- u P on the first Thursday in every second after named, 15; York City and the County May, by eleven in the morning; and the thereof, 3; Kingston upon Hull and the Representatives so chosen to meet upon County thereof, 1; Leeds Town and Par- th( f gecond Thursdav in the June f^. DURHAM COUNTY PALATINE, with the Bor- ing, at the usual place in Westminster, or 63 AGREEMENT OF THE PEOPLE such other place as, by the foregoing Rep resentative, or the Council of State in the interval, shall be, from time to time, ap pointed and published to the people, at the least twenty days before the time of elec tion: and to continue their sessions there, or elsewhere, until the second Thursday in December following, unless they shall ad journ or dissolve themselves sooner; but not to continue longer. The election of the first Representative to be on the first Thursday in May, 1649 ; and that, and all future elections, to be according to the rules prescribed for the same purpose in this Agreement, viz. 1. That the electors in every division shall be natives or denizens f England; not persons receiving alms, but such as are assessed ordinarily tow ards the relief of the poor; no servants to, and receiving wages from, any partic ular person; and in all elections, except for the Universities, they shall be men of twenty-one years of age, or upwards, and housekeepers, dwelling within the division for which the election is: provided, that (until the end of seven years next ensuing the time herein limited for the end of this present Parliament) no person shall be ad mitted to, or have any hand or voice in, such elections, who hath adhered unto or assisted the King against the Parliament in any of the late wars or insurrections; or who shall make or join in, or abet, any forcible opposition against this Agree ment. 2. That such persons, and such only, may be elected to be of the Repre sentative, who, by the rule aforesaid, are to have voice in elections in one place or other. Provided, that of those none shall be eligible for the first or second Repre sentative, who have not voluntarily assist ed the Parliament against the King, either in person before the 14th of June, 1645, or else in money, plate, horse, or arms, lent upon the Propositions, before the end of May, 1643; or who have joined in, or abbetted, the treasonable engagement in London, in 1647; or who declared or en gaged themselves for a cessation of arms with the Scots that invaded this nation the last summer; or for compliance with the actors in any insurrections of the same summer; or with the Prince of Wales, or his accomplices, in the revolted fleet. Provided also, that such persons as, by the rules in the preceding Article, are not capable of electing until the end of seven years, shall not be capable tc be elected until the end of fourteen years next ensuing. And we desire and recom mend it to all men, that, in all times, the persons to be chosen for this great trust may be men of courage, fearing God and hating covetousness ; and that our Rep resentatives would make the best provi sions for that end. 3. That whoever, by the rules in the two preceding Articles, are incapable of electing, or to be elected, shall presume to vote in, or be present at, such election for the first or second Rep resentative; or, being elected, shall pre sume to sit or vote in either of the said Representatives, shall incur the pain of confiscation of the moiety of his estate, to the use of the public, in case he have any visible estate to the value of 50, and if he has not such an estate, then shall in cur the pain of imprisonment for three months. And if any person shall forcibly oppose, molest or hinder the people, capa ble of electing as aforesaid, in their quiet and free election of representers, for the first Representative, then each person so offending shall incur the penalty of confis cation of his whole estate, both real and personal; and, if he has not an estate to the value of 50, shall suffer imprison ment during one whole year without bail or mainprize. Provided, that the offender in each case be convicted within three months next after the committing of his offence, and the first Representative is to make further provision for the avoiding of these evils in future elections. 4. That to the end all officers of state may be cer tainly accountable, and no faction made to maintain corrupt interests, no member of a Council of State, nor any officer of any salary-forces in army or garrison, nor any treasurer or receiver of public money, shall, while such, be elected to be of a Representative; and in case any such election shall be, the same to be void. And in case any lawyer shall be chosen into any Representative or Council of State, then he shall be incapable of prac tice as a lawyer during that trust. 5. For the more convenient election of Represent atives, each county, wherein more than three representers are to be chosen, with the town corporate and cities, if there be any, lying within the compass thereof, to AGREEMENT OF THE PEOPLE which no representers are herein assigned, so many, and such parts as are afore- shall be divided by a due proportion into mentioned, and shall set forth the bounds so many, and such parts, as each part may of such divisions; and shall, in every elect two, and no part above three rep- county, city and borough, where any rep resented. For the setting forth of which resenters are to be chosen, and in every divisions, and the ascertaining of other such division as aforesaid within the City circumstances hereafter expressed, so as to of London, and within the several coun- make the elections less subject to confu- ties so divided, respectively, appoint one sion or mistake, in order to the next Rep- place certain wherein the people shall resentative, Thomas Lord Grey of Groby, meet for the choice of the representers; Sir John Danvers, Sir Henry Holcroft, and some one fit person, or more, inhabit- knights; Moses Wall, gentleman; Samuel ing within each borough, city, county or Moyer, John 'Langley, Wm. Hawkins, division, respectively, to be present at the Abraham Babington, Daniel Taylor, Mark time and place of election, in the nature Hilsley, Rd. Price, and Col. John White, of Sheriffs, to regulate the elections; and citizens of London, or any five or more of by poll, or otherwise, clearly to distin- them, are intrusted to nominate and ap- guish and judge thereof, and to make re- point, under their hands and seals, three turn of the person or persons elected, as is or more fit persons in each county, and in hereafter expressed; and shall likewise, in each city and borough, to which one rep- writing under their hands and seals, make resenter or more is assigned, to be as certificates of the several divisions, with Commissioners for the ends aforesaid, in the bounds thereof , by them set forth, and of the respective counties, cities and bor- the certain places of meeting, and persons, oughs ; and, by like writing under their in the nature of Sheriff, appointed in them hands and seals, shall certify into the Par- respectively as aforesaid ; and cause such liament Records, before the llth of Feb- certificates to be returned into the Parlia- ruary next, the names of the Commission- ment Records before the end of April next ; ers so appointed for the respective coun- and before that time shall also cause the ties, cities and boroughs, which Commis- same to be published in every parish sioners, or any three or more of them, for within the counties, cities and boroughs the respective counties, cities and bor- respectively; and shall in every such oughs, shall before the end of February parish likewise nominate and appoint, by next, by writing under their hands and warrant under their hands and seals, one seals, appoint two fit and faithful persons, trusty person, or more, inhabiting there- or more, in each hundred, lathe or wapen- in, to make a true list of all the persons take, within the respective counties, and within their respective parishes, who, ac- in each ward within the City of London, cording to the rules aforegoing, are to to take care for the orderly taking of all have voice in the elections ; and expressing voluntary subscriptions to this Agreement, who amongst them are, by the same rules, by fit persons to be employed for that pur- capable of being elected ; and such list, pose in every parish; who are to return with the said warrant, to bring in and re- the subscription so taken to the persons turn, at the time and place of election, that employed them, keeping a transcript unto the person appointed in the nature of thereof to themselves; and those persons, Sheriff, as aforesaid, for that borough, keeping like transcripts, to return the city, county or division respectively; original subscriptions to the respective which person so appointed as Sheriff, be- Commissioners by whom they were ap- ing present at the time and place of elec- pointed, at, or before, the 14th day of tion; or, in case of his absence, by the April next, to be registered and kept in space of one hour after the time limited the chief court within the respective cities for the peoples' meeting, then any person ind boroughs. And the said Commission- present that is eligible, as aforesaid, whom ers, or any three or more of them, for the the people then and there assembled shall several counties, cities and boroughs, re- choose for that end, shall receive and keep spectively, shall, where more than three the said lists and admit the persons there- representers are to be chosen, divide such in contained, or so many of them as are counties, as also the City of London, into present, unto a free vote in the said elec- l. E 65 AGREEMENT OF THE PEOPLE tion; and, having first caused this Agree ment to be publicly read in the audience of the people, shall proceed unto, and reg ulate and keep peace and order in the elec tions; and, by poll or otherwise, openly distinguish and judge of the same; and thereof, by certificate or writing under the hands and seals of himself, and six or more of the electors, nominating the person or persons duly elected, shall make a true return into the Parliament Records within twenty-one days after the election, under pain for default thereof, or, for making any false return, to forfeit 100 to the public use; and also cause indent ures to be made, and unchangeably sealed and delivered, between himself and six or more of the said electors, on the one part, and the persons, or each person, elected severally, on the other part, expressing their election of him as a representer of them according to this Agreement, and his acceptance of that trust, and his prom ise accordingly to perform the same with faithfulness, to the best of his understand ing and ability, for the glory of God and good of the people. This course is to hold for the first Representative, which is to provide for the ascertaining of these circumstances in order to future Repre sentatives. Fourthly. That 150 members at least be always present in each sitting of the Representative, at the passing of any law or doing of any act whereby the people are to be bound; saving, that the num ber of sixty may take a House for debates or resolutions that are preparatory there unto. Fifthly. That the Representative shall, within twenty days after their first meet ing, appoint a Council of State for the managing of public affairs, until the tenth day after the meeting of the next Repre sentative, unless that next Representative think fit to put an end to that trust soon er. And the same Council to act and pro ceed therein, according to such instruc tions and limitations as the Representa tive shall give, and not otherwise. Sixthly. That in each interval between biennial Representatives, the Council of State, in case of imminent danger or ex- treme necessity, may summon a Represent ative to be forthwith chosen, and to meet; so as the Session thereof continue not above eighty days; and so as it dissolve at least fifty days before the appointed time for the next biennial Representa tive; and upon the fiftieth day so preced ing it shall dissolve of course, if not oth erwise dissolved sooner. Seventhly. That no member of any Rep resentative be made either receiver, treas urer, or other officer during that employ ment, saving to be a member of the Coun cil of State. Eighthly. That the Representatives have, and shall be understood to have, the supreme trust in order to the preservation and government of the whole; and that their power extend, without the consent or concurrence of any other person or per sons, to the erecting and abolishing of Courts of Justice and public offices, and to the enacting, altering, repealing and declaring of laws, and the highest and final judgment, concerning all natural or civil things, but not concerning things spiritual or evangelical. Provided that, even in things natural and civil, these six particulars next following are, and shall be, understood to be excepted and reserved from our Representatives, viz. 1. We do not empower them to impress or constrain any person to serve in foreign war, either by sea or land, nor for any military ser vice witnin the kingdom; save that they may take order for the forming, training, and exercising of the people in a military way, to be in readiness for resisting of foreign invasions, suppressing of sudden insurrections, or for assisting in execu tion of the laws; and may take order for the employing and conducting of them for those ends; provided, that, even in such cases, none be compellable to go out of the county he lives in, if he procure an other to serve in his room. 2. That, after the time herein limited for the commence ment of the first Representative, none of the people may be at any time questioned for anything said or done in relation to the late wars or public differences, other wise than in execution or pursuance of the determinations of the present House of Commons, against such as have adhered to the King, or his interest, against the peo ple ; and saving that accomptants for pub lic moneys received, shall remain account able for the same. 3. That no securities given, or to be given, by the public faith AGBEEMENT OF THE PEOPLE of the nation, nor any engagements of the public faith for satisfaction of debts and damages, shall be made void or invalid by the next or any future Representative; except to such creditors as have, or shall have, justly forfeited the same: and sav ing, that the next Representative may con firm or make null, in part or in whole, all gifts of lands, moneys, offices, or other wise, made by the present Parliament to any member or attendant of either House. 4. That, in any laws hereafter to be made, no person, by virtue of any tenure, grant, charter, patent, degree or birth, shall be privileged from subjection thereto, or from being bound thereby, as well as others. 5. That the Representative may not give judgment upon any man's person or estate, where no law hath before provided; some only in calling to account and punishing public officers for abusing or failing in their trust. 6. That no Representative may in any wise render up, or give, or take away, any of the foundations of com mon right, liberty, and safety contained in this Agreement, nor level men's estates, destroy property, or make all things com mon; and that, in all matters of such fundamental concernment, there shall be a liberty to particular members of the said Representatives to enter their dissents from the major vote. Ninthly. Concerning religion, we agree as followeth: 1. It is intended that the Christian Religion be held forth and rec ommended as the public profession in this nation, which we desire may, by the grace of God, be reformed to the greatest purity in doctrine, worship and discipline, according to the Word of God; the in structing the people thereunto in a public way, so it be not compulsive; as also the maintaining of able teachers for that end, and for the confutation or discovering of heresy, error, and whatsoever is con trary to sound doctrine, is allowed to be provided for by our Representatives; the maintenance of which teachers may be out of a public treasury, and, we desire, not by tithes: provided, that Popery or Prel acy be not held forth as the public way or profession in this nation. 2. That, to the public profession so held forth none be compelled by penalties or otherwise; but only may be endeavoured to be won by sound doctrine, and the example of a good conversation. 3. That such as profess faith in God by Jesus Christ, however differing in judgment from the doctrine, worship or discipline publicly held forth, as afore said, shall not be restrained from, but shall be protected in, the profession of their faith and exercise of religion, ac cording to their consciences, in any place except such as shall be set apart for the public worship; where we provide not for them, unless they have leave, so as they abuse not this liberty to the civil in jury of others, or to actual disturbance of the public peace on their parts. Neverthe less, it is not intended to be hereby pro vided, that this liberty shall necessarily extend to Popery or Prelacy. 4. That all laws, ordinances, statutes, and clauses in any law, statute, or ordinance to the con trary of the liberty herein provided for, in the two particulars next preceding con cerning religion, be, and are hereby, re pealed and made void. Tenthly. It is agreed that whosoever shall, by force of arms, resist the orders of the next or any future Representa tive (except in case where such Repre sentative shall evidently render up, or give, or take away the foundations of com mon right, liberty, and safety, contained in this Agreement), he shall forthwith, after his or their such resistance, lose the benefit and protection of the laws, and shall be punishable with death, as an ene my and traitor to the nation. Of the things expressed in this Agreement: the certain ending of this Parliament, as in the first Article; the equal or proportion able distribution of the number of the rep- resenters to be elected, as in the second; the certainty of the people's meeting to elect for Representatives biennial, and their freedom in elections; with the cer tainty of meeting, sitting and ending of Representatives so elected, which are pro vided for in the third Article; as also the qualifications of persons to elect or be elected, as in the first and second particu lars under the third Article; also the certainty of a number for passing a law or preparatory debates, provided for in the fourth Article; the matter of the fifth Article, concerning the Council of State, and of the sixth, concerning the calling, sitting and ending of Representatives ex traordinary; also the power of Represent' 67 AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS atives to be, as in the eighth Article, and established one or more of these industrial limited, as in the six reserves next follow- colleges, with ample equipments, in which ing the same: likewise the second and persons of both sexes may equally enjoy third Particulars under the ninth Article the benefits of the institution. Eacli concerning religion, and the whole matter student is paid a stipulated sum of money of the tenth Article; all these we do ac- for every hour of labor 'given to the in- count and declare to be fundamental to stitution; and by this means students our common right, liberty, and safety: and are materially aided in defraying the ex- therefore do both agree thereunto, and re- penses of their education, solve to maintain the same, as God shall At the close of the school year 1898-99, enable us. The rest of the matters in this there were in the several States and Terri- Agreement we account to be useful and tories a total of fifty agricultural and me- good for the public; and the particular chanical colleges for white students, and circumstances of numbers, times, and fourteen for the colored race. The receipts places, expressed in the several Articles, of the year were: From the federal gov- we account not fundamental; but we find eminent under the original and subse- them necessary to be here determined, for quent acts of Congress, $1,769,716, from the making the Agreement certain and State and Territorial treasuries, $2,570,- practicable, and do hold these most con- 427; and from other sources, $1,852,873 venient that are here set down; and there- a total of $6,193,016. There were 2,655 fore do positively agree thereunto. By men and 312 women teachers, 26,121 men the appointment of his Excellency the and 9,337 women students, 4,390 students Lord-General and his General Council of in the purely agricultural course, and Officers. 6,730 students in the four engineering Agricultural Colleges. In 1857, the courses. The expenditures were $4,544,- late Justin S. Morrill, then Chairman of 376. the Committee on Agriculture of the na- Agricultural Experiment Stations, tional House of Representatives, intro- The United States appropriates about duced a bill appropriating to the several $15,000 yearly to each of the States and States a portion of the public lands for Territories which have established such the purpose of encouraging institutions for stations. The first was that of Middle- the advancement of agriculture and the town, Conn., in 1875. There are now sixty mechanic arts. The bill lingered in Con- such stations, of which fifty-four receive gress (having been vetoed by President financial aid from the United States. Buchanan) until July, 1862, when it be- Agricultural Implements. The United came a law. The act provided that each States for many years has led the world in State should receive a quantity of land the invention and use of appliances for equal in value to $30,000 for each of its tilling the soil. The extension of farming Senators and Representatives in Congress to large areas, as in Minnesota, Nebraska, under the census of 1860, to establish at and the Dakotas, where farms of 50,000 least one college in each State where " all acres are not unusual, has called for quick- the needful sciences for the practical avo- er means of ploughing, sowing, and reaping cations of life " should be taught, and than is possible by hand. Hence inventive " where agriculture, the foundation of all genius has recognized the new conditions present and future prosperity, may look and provided ploughs, seeding-machines, for troops of earnest friends studying its cultivators, reapers, binders, and other ap- familiar and recondite economies." It pro- paratus operated by horse and steam-pow- vided that all expenses of location, man- er. The invention of the mowing-ma- agement, taxation, etc., should be paid by chine is coeval, in our country, with the the respective State treasurers, that the reaping-machine. The " Manning " mower entire proceeds of the sales of the land was invented in 1831. That and the may forever remain undiminished, and " Ketcham " (1844) held the place of su- that every State receiving the grant must perior excellence until about 1850, when provide an institution within five years other inventors had made improvements, from the date of filing its acceptance of In 1850 less than 5,000 mowing-machines the grant. Every State in the Union has had been made in our country. Within AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS a quarter of a century afterwards a mow ing-machine was considered indispensable to every farm. The American machines are the best in the world, and are sold all over Europe and South America. The plough used in this country during the colonial period was made of wood, covered with sheet-iron, the share being of wrought-iron. In 1793, Thomas Jefferson, who had been experimenting on his Vir ginia farm, invented an improved mould- board, which would turn a furrow with out breaking it. In 1797, Charles New- bold, of Burlington, N. J., invented a cast- iron plough, and spent about $30,000 in perfecting it. It proved a great loss and failure to him, however, for the report spread among the farmers that the new plough " poisoned the soil, ruined the crops, and promoted the growth of rocks " ; and, as they refused to use it, the manufacture of the new invention ceased. About 1804 Daniel Peacock patented a plough having its mould-board and landside of cast-iron and separate, while its share was of wrought-iron, edged with steel. Jethro Wood, of Scipio, N. Y., patented improve ments on this in 1819, and the prejudice against new inventions among farmers having somewhat abated, he did a very successful business as a maker of these implements, and his plans have been the basis of most all those of modern construc tion. The first steam-plough in the Unit ed States was patented by E. C. Bellin ger, of South Carolina, in 1833, but did not come into practical use until much later. Perhaps the "Great Plough," invented by Daniel Webster, which was twelve feet long, drawn by four yoke of oxen, and turned a furrow two feet wide and one foot deep, may be regarded as the un wieldy precursor of the admirable and efficient sulky ploughs of later times. The value of inventive genius to the farmer, however, is not shown as much in the im provements of the plough as in the mowers and reaping-machines which to-day take the places of sickle, scythe, and cradle, laboriously wielded by our forefathers. The first reaping-machine in America was patented in 1803 by Richard French and John J. Hankins. One wheel of the ma chine ran in the grain, and the cutting was done by a number of scythes which re volved on a pivot. It did not prove very successful. Two or three other like ma chines were patented in the following twen ty-five years. In 1831 the Manney mower was patented, which was the first success' ful machine of the kind. In 1833, Mr. Obed Hussey, of Cincinnati, 0., patented a reaper, with saw-toothed cutters and guards, which was immediate ly put into practical operation, and proved thoroughly satisfactory. In 1834, Cyrus H. McCormick, then of Virginia, and late of Chicago, took out the first patent on his reaper, which has since come into such general use. This reaper, with improve ments patented in 1845 and 1847, received the first prize at the World's Fair of 1851, where American reapers were first intro duced to the notice of Europeans. At the International Exhibition at Paris, in 1855, American reapers were brought into com petition with others, each machine being allowed to cut an acre of standing oats near Paris. The American reaper did its work in twenty-two minutes, the English in sixty, and an Algerian in seventy-two. It used a cutter similar to that of Hus- sey's machine, its main features being the reel, the divider, the receiving platform for the grain, and the stand for the raker. American reaping-machines are now used all over Europe where cereals abound. The automatic rake was patented by a Mr. Seymour, of Brockport, N. Y., in 1851, and in 1856 Mr. Dorsey, of Maryland, patented the revolving rake, which was improved upon by Samuel Johnston, of Brockport, in 1865. The first self-binder was patented by C. W. and W. W. Marsh in 1858. The first threshing-machine used heve was largely modelled after the invention If said American chief should j refuse Don Emilio Aguinaldo y Famy, President of to make the exchange requested, the Ameri- the Philippine Republic, Captain-General, can prisoners shall be shot, whatever be their and General-in-Chief of her army : number, which punishment is fixed in the Heart-broken groans of the oppressed and Spanish penal code, which we have adopted of their unfortunate families, and energetic for those who attack our national integrity, protests from the entire people of the Philip- if in four days after the exchange requested pines, come to my far-off camp on account of the execution of some Filipino sentenced by the unheard-of cruelties and scornful vio- the Americans should be announced, latiors of the most elementary laws of war Article II. Preference should also be given committed by the imperialists who, under pre- in exchange of prisoners to deported Filipinos, text of some American having been killed, and to those who have rendered signal service hang their prisoners of war by means which to the cause of our independence, are both repugnant and inhuman, the agony Article III. The promoters of the so-called lasting about fifteen minutes, according to Federal party shall be submitted as traitors the press of Manila, or otherwise submitting to a most summary court-martial, and those them to unheard-of tortures, according to the who stimulate the invaders to pursue and official communications from my various com- prosecute our fellow-countrymen who do not manding generals ; and if this were not wish to Identify themselves therewith shall sufficient, the military governor of the In- be punished with special severity, and after vading army has proclaimed martial law, those who are guilty have been sentenced, placing beyond the protection of law not they shall be captured and punished wherever only Filipinos under arms, but also all peace- they may be, and by any means which may be ful residents, whom they arrest and deport possible. without giving them a hearing, almost al- "Article IV. The commanding generals and ways for no other purpose than to loot their all guerilla chiefs in their respective dis- houses and treasures, or to await a ransom or tricts are entrusted with and responsible for bribe for their liberty. a speedy execution of this general order. 73 AGUINALD0 ALABAMA See ATKINSON, EDWARD; LUZON; MA- NJLA . PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. FBKHEBICK CRAYTON, mill- 5 b rn m . Woodstock Vt Sept ; was appointed a first lieutenant and assistant surgeon in the United States army . in 1R 1 Q 8 . 74j P"*"} T-T/.f ^' m , 1891; . COl n ffl el a ? d ^ ie 4 f **? ***' an P ^."I War De P art ' 1892; and brigadier-general m He mve " tcd and > ntr ced Given In the capital of the republic on Jan. 17, 1901. E. AGUINALDO. There is a seal in purple ink, consisting of a sun and three stars, and the words" "Philippine Republic, Office of the Presi' dent ^ J Address of Snbmission.-AHeT his capt- ure Aguinaldo was fully informed of the actual situation in all parts of the archi- pelago, not only by the United States mill- tary? naval, and civil authorities, but by ' , many of his former generals and support- mdex-record card system by the use of ers who had surrendered. He was thus J hlch the &***%* ****** , f an f li 8 1 ; led to issue the following address to the ?**& ^ ' mmediat f \ trac * d - ^bout Filipinos, which was published in Manila 50,000,000 of these cards have been placed on A ril 19- n ' a tneir introduction has resulted in a yearly saving of more than $400,000. " I believe I am not in error in presuming In 1898 he succeeded Gen. George W. that the unhappy fate to which my adverse Davig as SU p erv isor of the publication of fortune has led me is not a surprise to those , ^us^i j t ^ ns-si \*7 who have been familiar with the progress of the official records of the Civil War. the war. The lessons taught with a full Aitken, ROBERT, publisher; born in meaning, and which have recently come to Scotland in 1734; arrived in Philadelphia my knowledge, suggest with irresistible force . 17fi q. was a practical nrinter and nub- that a complete termination of hostilities in 1/by, was a pract ,er, ana pui and lasting peace are not only desirable, but lished the Pennsylvania Magazine,or Amer- absolutely essential to the welfare of the ican Monthly Museum, 1775-76. He was Philippine Islands. a warm Whig, and was thrown into prison "The Filipinos have never been dismayed b the Britigh in 1777 He i ssue( i the first at their weakness, nor have they faltered in * . . ,- QO following the path pointed out by their forti- American edition of the Bible in 1782. tude and courage. The time has come, how- He died in Philadelphia in July, 1802. ever, in which they find their advance along Aix-la-Chapelle Treaty. See Louis- this path to be impeded by an irresistible force which, while it restrains them, yet en- KU - lightens their minds and opens to them an- Akerman, AMOS TAPPAN, statesman; other course presenting them the cause of born in New Hampshire in 1823. Served peace This cause has been joyfully em- . th Confeder ate army. He was United braced by the majority of my fellow-coun- -,.,.. /-, -, aa trymen, who have already united around the States district attorney for Georgia, 1866- sovereign banner of the United 70; Attorney-General of the United States 1870-72. He died Dec. 21, 1880. Alabama. The soil of this State was glorious States. " In this banner they repose their trust, and believe that under its protection the Filipino people will attain all those promised first trodden by Europeans in 1540. These liberties which they are beginning to enjoy. were the followers of DE SOTO (q. v.). In The country has declared unmistakably in no2 Bienville the French governor of favor of peace. So be it. There has been *V T , enough blood, enough tears, and enough Louisiana, enter desolation. This wish cannot be ignored by ed Mobile Bay the men still in arms if they are animated by an( j built a for! a desire to serve our noble people, which has , , . thus clearly manifested its will. So do I an l n 8' respect this will, now that it is known to me. " After mature deliberation, I resolutely proclaim to the world that I cannot refuse -r>: vpr to heed the voice of a people longing for peace nor the lamentations of thousands of families yearning to see their dear ones en joying the liberty and the promised gen erosity of the great American nation. house mouth at the of Dog In 1711 the French founded Mobile, STATE SEAL OF ALABAMA. and there a col- siLjr ui me great Aiueriirciii iiauuii. By acknowledging and accepting the on 7 prospered sovereignty of the United States throughout for a while. Ne- the Philippine Archipelago, as I now do, and g TO slaves were Heve U that n i am^servln 1 Thee^nT^'beloved first Brought * n t * n ^ s colony by three country. May happiness be thine." French ships of war in 1721. By the 74 ALABAMA treaty of 1763 this region was transferred the State was represented. William by France to Great Britain. Alabama Brooks was chosen president. There was formed a portion of the State of Georgia, a powerful infusion of Union sentiment but in 1798 the country now included in in the convention, which endeavored to the States of Alabama and Mississippi postpone a decision, under the plea of the was organized as a Territory called Mis- desirableness of co-operation. A commit- sissippi. After the Creeks disappeared tee of thirteen was appointed to report an (see CREEK INDIANS) the region of Ala- Ordinance of Secession. It was submitted bama was rapidly settled by white people, on the 10th. It was longer than any oth- and in 1819 it entered the Union as a er already adopted, but similar in tenor. State. The slave population increased They assumed that the commonwealth, more rapidly than the white. In the Dem- which had been created by the national ocratic National Convention that was held government first a Territory, and then a at Charleston in 1860 the delegates of Ala- State (1819), had "delegated sovereign bama took the lead in seceding from the powers" to that government, which were convention. now " resumed and vested in the people of In October of that year, Herschell V. the State of Alabama." The convention Johnson, the candidate for Vice-President favored the formation of a confederacy on the Douglas ticket, declared, in a speech of slave-labor States, and formally invited at the Cooper Institute, New York, that the others to send delegates to meet those Alabama was ripe for revolt in case Mr. of Alabama, in general convention, on Lincoln should be elected; that it was Feb. 4, at Montgomery, for consulta- pledged to withdraw from the Union, and tion on the subject. The convention was had appropriated $200,000 for military not harmonious. Union men were not to contingencies. The governor suggested se- be put down without a struggle. There cession at the beginning of November ; and was a minority report on Secession ; and in December, 1860, the conference of the some were for postponing the act until Methodist Church, South, sitting at Mont- March 4, with a hope of preserving gomery, declared " African slavery as it the Union. Nicholas Davis, from north- existed in the Southern States of the ern Alabama, declared his belief that the republic, a wise, beneficent, humane, and people of his section would not submit to righteous institution, approved of God, any disunion scheme, when YANCEY and calculated to promote, to the highest (q. v.) denounced him and his fellow-citi- possible degree, the welfare of the slave ; zens of that region as " tories, traitors, that the election of a sectional President and rebels," and said they "ought to be of the United States was evidence of the coerced into submission." Davis was not hostility of the majority to the people of moved by these menaces, but assured the the South, and which in fact, if not in Confederates that the people of his section form, dissolves the compact of union be- would be ready to meet their enemies on tween the States." Northern Alabama the line and decide the issue at the point was opposed to the movement. of the bayonet. The final vote on the Elections for members of a State con- Ordinance of Secession was taken at vention in Alabama were held Dec. 24, 2 P.M. on Jan. 11, and resulted in sixty- 1860, and as in some of the other States, one yeas to thirty - nine nays. An im- the politicians were divided into " Seces- mense mass-meeting was immediately held sionists" and " Co-operationists." The in front of the State-house, and timid latter were also divided ; one party wish- " co-operationists " assured the multitude ing the co-operation of all the slave-labor that their constituents would support the States, and the other caring only for the ordinance. A Secession flag, which the co-operation of the cotton-producing women of Montgomery had presented to States. The vote for all but ten counties the convention, was raised over the capi- was, for secession, 24,445 ; and for co-oper- tal. In Mobile, when the news reached ation, 33,685. In the ten counties, some that city, 101 guns were fired in honor of were for secession and some for co-opera- Alabama, and fifteen for Florida. At tion. In the convention assembled at night the city blazed with fireworks, the Montgomery, Jan. 7, 1861, every county in favorite pieces being the Southern Cross 75 ALABAMA Including the present States of Alabama and Mississippi. and the Lone Star. The convention had tuted remained in force until superseded voted against the reopening of the slave- by military rule in 1867. In November of trade, and adjourned on Jan. 30, 1861. that year a convention formed a new con- A week before the Secession Ordinance stitution for the State, which was ratified was adopted, volunteer troops, in accord- Feb. 4, 1868. State officers and members ance with an arrangement made with the of Congress having been duly chosen, and governors of Louisiana and Georgia, and all requirements complied with, Alabama by order of the governor of Alabama, had became entitled to representation in Con- seized the arsenal at Mount Vernon, about gress; and on July 14, 1868, the military 30 miles above Mobile, and Fort Mor- relinquished to the civil authorities all gan, at the entrance to Mobile Har- legal control. The Fourteenth and Fif- bor, about 30 miles below the city. The teenth Amendments to the national Con- Mount Vernon arsenal was captured by stitution were ratified by Alabama, the four Confederate companies commanded by latter Nov. 16, 1870. Population in 1890, Captain Leadbetter, of the United States 1,508,073; in 1900, 1,828,697. See UNITED Engineer Corps, and a native of Maine. STATES ALABAMA, in vol. ix. At dawn (Jan. 4, 1861) they surprised Captain Reno, who was in command of GOVERNORS OF THE MISSISSIPPI TERRITORY, the arsenal, and the Alabama Confederates thus obtained 15,000 stands of arms, 150,- 000 pounds of gunpowder, some cannon, and a large quantity of munitions of war. The Alabama Senators and Representa- David Holmes. tives withdrew from Congress Jan. 21, 1861. On March 13, a State convention ratified the constitution adopted by the Wm.WyattBibb | Mar. MIT to Nov. 1819 Confederate Congress. The authorities of GOVERNORS OF THE STATE OF ALABAMA. the State seized the national property ^ m . wy&tt Bibb within its borders, and sent troops to Flor- Thomas Bibb. ida to assist in capturing Fort Pickens Israel Pickens. r..i... xi. ..,,,1... and other public works there. Alabama sent a commissioner to Washington as an saml. B."Moore! ambassador, but he was not received. Dur- John Gayle. ing the war that ensued, Alabama bore her Clement . Clay, share of the burden, and her cities and plantations suffered from the ravages of the conflict. Wilson's cavalry raid through Joshua L. "Martin. the State caused great destruction of Reuben chapman. property. During the war Alabama fur nished 122,000 troops to the Confederate Andrew B ' Moore! army, of whom 35,000 were killed or John Gill Shorter. wounded. Montgomery, in the interior of Thomas H. Watts. NAMES. TERM OF OFFICE. Wm^cT^lfiborne 1799 to 1801 1801 " 1865 Robt. Williams 1805 " 1809 David Holmes... 1809 " 1817 GOVERNOR OF THE TERRITORY OF ALABAMA. bb July 1820 " Nov., 1891 Nov 1821 1825 hy . " 1825 (i 11 18 1 *) ore " 1829 " Mar., 1831 Mar 1831 " Nov 1831 Nov 1831 W> Clay " 1835 " July, 1837 July 1837 " Nov 1837 tagby Nov 1837 <( 1S11 atrick " 1841 U It 1845 Martin " 1845 11 1847 ipman " 1849 " 1853 II (( {( (( 1849 1853 1857 Moore " 1857 u tc 1861 horter " 1861 (( 41 1863 Watts... " 1863 " Apr., 1865 the State, was the Confederate capital un- Interregnum of two months. til July, 1861, when the seat of govern- JjJJ?* PM-OM ment was removed to Richmond. At the ^ l '^ 'g^jfjjj 11 close of the war a provisional governor Robt. B. Lindsay for Alabama was appointed (June 21, David B. Lewis 1865), and in September a convention re- Geo. S.^Housum ordained the civil and criminal laws, ex- Edward^ N^'Neai cepting such as related to slavery; de- Thomas Seay !!!!! clared the Ordinance of Secession and the Thomas G. Jones State war-debt null; passed an ordinance William c. Gates against slavery; and provided for an elec- ^T^mtoM*".'.*.''! tion of State officers, who were chosen in w] n.Jeiks....' .'."!." ... November. The government thus consti- Bn)Xton " Comer 76 June, 1865 to Dec., 1865 Dec., 1865 " July, 1868 July, 1868 " Nov., 1870 " 1872 " 1874 " 1878 " 1882 " 1886 " 1890 " 1896 1900 June, 1901 Jan , I'.'O? Nov., 1870 " 1872 " 1874 " 1878 " 1882 " 1886 41 1890 " 1894 " 1896 " 1900 June, 1901 Jan., 1907 Jan., 1911 ALABAMA ALABAMA CLAIMS UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM THE STATE OF ALABAMA. NAMES. No. of Congress. Date. William R. Kiug John W. Walker. William Kelley Henry Chambers Israel Pickens John McKinley 16th to 28th IGth " 17th 17th " 19th 19th 19th to 20th 19th " 22d 1819 to 1844 1819 " 1822 1823 " 1825 1825 " 1826 1826 1826 to 1831 Gabriel Moore Clement C. Clay Arthur P. Bagby 22d " 25th 25th " 27th 27th " 30th 28th ' 30th 1831 " 1837 1837 " 1841 1841 ' 1848 1844 ' 1848 William R. King Benj. Fitzpatrick Jeremiah Clemens. .. Clement C. Clay, Jr. . . 30th " 32d 30th " 36th 31st " 33d 33d " 36th 1848 1852 1848 ' 1861 1849 ' 1853 1853 " 1861 37th, 38th, and 39th Congresses vacant. 40th to 46th 1868 to 1879 40th " 42d 1868 ki 1871 42d " 45th 1872 " 1877 45th " 59th I 1877 " 1907 47th " 55th 1880 " 1897 55th " 59th I 1897 " 1907 George E. Spencer Williard Warner George Goldthwaite John T. Morgan James L. Pugh Edmund W. P Alabama, THE, Confederate man-of- war; a British vessel, manned chiefly by British subjects at a British port; armed with British cannon, and provided with coal and other supplies from British soil. She had no acknowledged flag, nor recog nized nationality, nor any accessible port to which she might send her prizes, nor any legal tribunal to adjudge her captures. She was commanded by Raphael Semmes, a native of Maryland, and roamed the seas, plundering and destroying vessels belong ing to American citizens. Her command er avoided contact with American armed vessels, but finally encountered the Kear- Alabama was accompanied by a Frencr frigate to a point beyond the territorial waters of France. At a distance of 7 miles from the Cherbourg breakwater, the Kearsarge turned and made for the Con federate cruiser, when, within 1,200 yards of her, the latter opened fire. After re ceiving two or three broadsides, the Kear sarge responded with telling effect. They fought for an hour, the steamers moving in a circle. At the end of the hour the Alabama was at the mercy of her antag onist, her flag down, and a white fia p displayed over her stern. Respecting this. Winslow ceased firing. Two minutes af terwards the Alabama fired two gun^ at the Kearsarge, and attempted to run to the protection of the French neutral waters, not more than 3 miles distant. Winslow opened fire again, and very soon a boat came to his vessel from the Ala bama, saying she had surrendered and was fast sinking. Just then the Deerhound passed by, when Winslow humanely asked her owner to assist him in saving the crew of the Alabama, which, in twenty minutes, went to the bottom of the sea. The Kear f.arge rescued sixty-five of the crew; the Deerhound picked up Semmes, his officers, and a few mariners, and carried them away from the lawful custody of Winslow, to England. There Semmes was received with great honor. The Kearsarge had three men badly wounded one of them mortally. The Alabama had nine men killed and twenty-one wounded. See AR BITRATION, TRIBUNAL OF; JOINT HIGH COMMISSION ; KEARSARGE. Alabama Claims, THE, a series of claims against Great Britain for losses sustained by the United States through depredations on her commerce by Con federate vessels fitted out or supplied in English ports. As finally presented they were as follows: Loss. No. of Vessels Destroyed. Alabama .'... 68 $6,547,60986 Boston 1 400.00 Chickamauga 3 95,65485 Florida 38 3,698.609.34 Georgia 5 383,976.50 Nashville 1 69,536.70 Retribution 2 20,334.52 Sallie 1 5,540.00 sarge, Capt. John A. Winslow, off Cher- j^ doah -''\- -;;;;;; *J ;;;;;;;. "". M ?o6%.83 bourg, France, in the summer of 1864. On Tallahassee...'.'...'.'..'.'.'. 17 579J955.55 June 19 Semmes went out of the harbor For losses from increased war premiums. . 1,120,795.15 $19,021,428.61 THE ALABAMA. of Cherbourg to fight the Kearsarge. The 77 ALABAMA LETTER ALASKA See ARBITRATION, TRIBUNAL OF; JOINT HIGH COMMISSION. Alabama Letter, THE. Henry Clay, Whig candidate for President in 1844, had a fair prospect for election when his letter to a friend in Alabama, on the an nexation of Texas, appeared in the North Alabamian, on Aug. 16. It was repre sented by his adversaries as a complete change of policy on his part. The Whig campaign became " defensive " from this time, and resulted in defeat. See CLAY, HENRY. Alamo, FORT, a structure in San An tonio, Tex.; erected for a mission build ing in 1744; used for religious purposes till 1793, when, on account of the great strength of its walls, it was converted into a fort. In the struggle by Texas for iudependence, the most sanguinary and heroic conflict of the border warfare, which merged into the Mexican War, oc curred there a conflict which for years was familiar to Americans as the Ther mopylae of Texas. The fort was about an acre in extent, oblong, and surrounded by a wall 8 or 10 feet in height by 3 feet in thickness. A body of Tex- ans, under the command of Col. William Barrett Travis, retired into the fort early in 1836, upon the dismantling of San An tonio by Sam Houston, and then Santa Ana, with a large force, invested the fort Feb. 23. The Texans numbered only 140 men, while the Mexican army was 4,000 strong. The enemy took possession of the town, then erected batteries on both sides of the river, and for twenty-four hours bombarded the fort, during which, it is stated, over 200 shells were discharged into it, but without injuring a man. The attacking forces made several vigorous assault* on the fort, but were repulsed in each case. The commander of the be leaguered garrison sent many couriers to San Felipe for assistance, but only a hand ful of men succeeded in reaching the fort. As the siege progressed provisions grew scarce, and the defenders of Alamo, worn by the labors of the defence and broken in health, although not in spirits, were hourly becoming less able to hold their posts. March 6 a combined attack was made by the entire forces of the besiegers; twice they assaulted the posts, and were as often driven back with heavy loss by the Texan troops. A hand-to-hand en counter ensued, which the Texans, few and feeble, were unable to sustain, and but six of their devoted band remained. Among this number was the famous Davy Crockett, who, with the others, surren dered, under promise of protection; but when they were taken before Santa Ana were, upon his command, instantly cut to pieces, Crockett having been stabbed by a dozen swords. Other barbarities were committed, such as collecting the bodies of the slain in the centre of the Alamo, and, after horribly mutilating the re mains, burning them. Only three persons, a woman, a child, and a servant, were spared. A few weeks after Santa Ana was routed with immense loss, and him self captured in the battle of San Jacinto, where the Texans raised the war cry, "Remember the Alamo!" It is estimated that during the siege of Fort Alamo the Mexican losses aggregated over 1,600 men. For many years, indeed until the close of the Mexican War, the Texans only needed to be roused to deeds of valor by the recollection of the massacre at the Alamo, and dearly did the neighboring republic pay for the butchery by Santa Ana and his forces. ALASKA Alaska, an unorganized Territory of population, according to revised census re- the United States, formerly known as port of 1890, 32,052; population, according " Russian America "; occupying the region to 1900 census, 63,592; seat of admin- of the extreme northwestern portion of istration, Sitka. The Russians acquired North America; lying north of the paral- possession of this Territory by right of lei of lat 50 40' N., and west of the merid- discovery by Vitus Bering, in 1741. He ian of long. 140 W. ; also including many discovered the crowning peak of the Alas- islands lying off the coast; area, land and ka mountains, Mount St. Elias, on July water surface, 1900, 590,884 square miles; 18. That mountain rises to a height of 78 Portion of ALEUTIAN I Same Scale as Main M ENGRAVED BY (OBMAY * CO. .N.Y ALASKA 18,024 feet above the sea. Other notable able discoveries of gold in the neighbor- altitudes, as ascertained by the United States Meteorological Survey and an nounced in 1900, are: Blackburn Moun tain, 12,500 feet; Black Mountain, 12,500 feet; Cook Mountain, 13,750 feet; Crillon Mountain, 15,900 feet; Drum Mountain, 13,300 feet; Fairweather Mountain, 15,292 feet; Hayes Mountain, 14,500 feet; Iliam- na Peak, 12,066 feet; Kimball Mountain, 10,000 feet; Laperouse Mountain, 10,750 feet; Lituya Mountain, 11,852 feet; Mount McKinley, 20,464 feet; Sanford Mountain, 14,000 feet; Seattle Mountain, 10,000 feet; Tillman Mountain, 13,300 feet; Vancouver Mountain, 15,666 feet; and Wrangel Moun tain, 17,500 feet. The entire coast - line measures over 4,000 miles, taking into account the smaller indentations. The climate in some parts is most agreeable. In the interior are numerous lakes. Its valleys are fertile; its streams abound with fish and its for ests with game; and its islands have af forded the most extensive and richest fur- seal fishing in the world. Sitka, or New Archangel, the capital of Alaska, is the old est settlement. It was founded by Russian fur-traders in the nineteenth century. The country was a sort of independent prov ince, under the rule of the Russian- Amer ican Fur Company, to whom it was grant ed by the Emperor Paul in 1799. It was invested with the exclusive right of hunt ing and fishing in the American waters of the Czar. The charter of the company expired in 1867, when the government de clined to renew it. In 1865-67 the coun try was explored by a scientific corps sent out by the United States to select a route for the Russo-American telegraph line a project which was abandoned in conse quence of the successful laying of the At lantic cable. Early in 1867 negotiations were begun for the purchase of the Terri tory, and a treaty to that effect was com pleted by the exchange of ratifications at Washington, D. C., on June 20, 1867. The price paid was $7,200,000. In October Gen. Lovell H. Rousseau, a commissioner for the purpose, formally took possession of the region. The Territory remained under military government till 1884, when a district government was established and a land office opened. This form of admin istration proved adequate till the remark- 79 hood of the Klondike and Yukon rivers, in 1897, attracted thousands of miners to those regions, and soon made necessary larger means of communication. A num ber of bills were introduced into Congress for the purpose of providing the Territory with the form of government prescribed for the other Territories; but up to the time of writing the only movements in this direction were the extension of a number of laws of Oregon to the Territory; a gradual increase in the number of execu tive officers ; and the creation by the Presi dent, in 1900, of a new military depart ment comprising the entire Territory. While it was long believed that the Ter ritory possessed vast riches in minerals, the chief industries were those connected with sealing and salmon-fisheries till about 1895. In that year the United States government organized the first ex pedition to make a thorough investigation of the mineral properties. The geological survey has since been continued with most fruitful results, and early in 1900 the Director of the Survey completed plans for thorough surveys and explorations by both geological and topographical experts, es pecially to supplement the important work of his bureau in 1898, and to acquire a fuller knowledge of the remarkable Cape Nome district and its extension in the Seward Peninsula. This work was expect ed to occupy several years. As a result of explorations prior to 1900, mining operations on a large scale were undertaken, first in the neighborhood of the boundary-line between the United States and the British possessions, and then, as other fields were disclosed, along the coast section and on some of the near by islands. During the season of 1899 the last-mentioned region gave indications of outrivalling the famous Klondike and Yukon fields. The rush of miners to the interior fields, and the indiscriminate staking of claims, soon led to a conflict between the American and Canadian min ers concerning the boundary-line. Both parties claimed territorial rights to the richest fields then known, and to avoid a state of anarchy that seemed imminent, the United States and the Canadian au thorities undertook, first, a separate, and then a joint, survey of the region in dis- ALASKA pute. Each party naturally claimed more lations for the protection of the revenue territory than the other was willing to as the Canadian government * may pre- concede, and, as a result, the delimitation scribe, to carry with them over such part of the boundary was made one of the sub- or parts of the trail between the said jects for determination by the ANGLO- points as may lie on the Canadian side AMERICAN COMMISSION (q. v.) appointed of the temporary line such goods and in 1898 for the purpose of negotiating a articles as they desire, /without being plan for the settlement of all matters required to pay any customs duties on in controversy between the United States such goods and articles; and from said and Canada. The commission, after sev- junction to the summit of the peak east eral sessions in Canada and the United of the Chilkat River, marked on the afore- States, failed to reach an agreement on said map No. 10 of the United States the matters submitted to it, and in 1899 Commission with the number 5,410 and a modus vivendi was signed by the on the map No. 17 of the aforesaid Brit- representatives of both governments, ish Commission with the number 5,490. This agreement fixed the boundary provi- On the Dyea and Skagway trails, the sionally, and went into operation on Oct. summits of the Chilkoot and White 20, Under the agreement no part of its passes. territory was surrendered by the United Jt is understood, as formerly set forth States, and none of the rights of either in communications of the Department of government were prejudiced by it. State of the United States, that the citi- Modus Vivendi of 1899. The following zens or subjects of either power found by is the text of the agreement: this arrangement within the temporary jurisdiction of the other shall suffer no It is hereby agreed between the gov- diminution of the rights and privileges ernments of the United States and Great which they now enjoy. Britain that the boundary-line between The government of the United States Canada and the Territory of Alaska, in will at once appoint an officer or officers, the region about the head of Lynn Canal, in conjunction with an officer or officers to shall be provisionally fixed, without preju- be named by the government of her Bri- dice to the claims of either party in the tannic Majesty, to mark the temporary permanent adjustment of the interna- line agreed upon by erection of posts, tional boundary, as follows: stakes, or other appropriate temporary In the region of the Dalton Trail, a marks. line beginning at the peak west of Porcu- Alaska in Transition. After the United pine Creek, marked on the map No. 10 of States obtained possession of the Terri- the United States Commission, Dec. 31, tory the sealing industry was for several 1895, and on sheet No. 18 of the British years prosecuted with a vigor that led to Commission, Dec. 31, 1895, with the num- such a decrease in the number of seals ber 6,500; thence running to the Klehini that the government was obliged to enact (or Klaheela) River in the direction of stringent laws for the conservation of the the peak north of that river, marked 5,020 seals, in order to check the indiscriminate on the aforesaid United States map and slaughter and prevent the total destruc- 5,025 on the aforesaid British map; tion of the industry. These laws, how- thence following the high or right bank ever, have been constantly violated, with of the said Klehini River to the junction the result that the fur - seal has been thereof with the Chilkat River, a mile nearly exterminated in these waters, and a half, more or less, north of Klu- Some compensation for this loss has been kwan provided that persons proceeding found in a remarkable increase in the to or from Porcupine Creek shall be freely supply of food fishes, permitted to follow the trail between Large as was the knowledge of Alaska the said creek and the said junction of and its manifold interests and resources the rivers, into and across the Territory that had been acquired up to 1900, much on the Canadian side of the temporary of its vast expanse remained practically line wherever the trail crosses to such an unknown region, depending upon the side, and subject to such reasonable regu- government surveys then in progress and 80 ALASKA ALASKAN BOUNDABY the resistless pushing forward of gold- Alaskan Boundary, THE. PROF. J. hunters for the disclosure of new wonders B. MOORE (q. v.) contributes the follow- and material attractions. The entire ing discussion of the conflicting claims ; region on both sides of the boundary-line of the United States and Canada in re- was in a transition state, and both the lation to the boundary-line. United States and the Canadian govern ments, aided by commercial and religious In his message of Dec. 2, 1872, Presi- organizations, were pushing forward, as dent Grant, referring to the settlement of rapidly as the face of the country would the San Juan Water Boundary, remarked permit, the advantages of civilization that this award left us, " for the first hitherto unknown in that bleak region, time in the history of the United States Early in 1898 an aerial railway was con- as a nation, without a question of dis- structed over the Chilkoot Pass to Lake puted boundary between our territory Linderman, a unique enterprise that short- and the possessions of Great Britain on ened the time between tidewater and the this continent." In making this state- headwaters of the Yukon River from a ment, President Grant was not unmindful month to a day, and removed the perils of the fact that the boundary between the and hardships of former travels. At the British possessions and Alaska, as denned end of that year the first section of the in the treaty between Great Britain and first railroad built in Alaska was com- Russia of 1825, had not been surveyed and pleted. This was the White Pass and marked. No dispute in regard to this Yukon Railroad, projected to extend from line had then arisen; and, with a view to Skagway to Fort Selkirk. The section prevent the occurrence of any, he made ended at Summit, the highest point of the the following recommendation: divide. The road was completed through to Lake Bennett in 1899. At the same "Experience of the difficulties attend- time the Canadian government had se- ing the determination of our admitted line lected five routes for railways in the of boundary, after the occupation of the Yukon region, which it was thought might Territory and its settlement by those owing be provided with sea-coast outlets in the allegiance to the respective governments, territory of the United States. points to the importance of establishing, After the failure of the ANGLO-AMER- by natural objects or other monuments, ICAN COMMISSION (q, v.) to settle the the actual line between the territory ac- boundary contention, a special commis- quired by purchase from Russia and the sion was appointed under a treaty signed adjoining possessions of her Britannic in Washington, D. C., Jan. 24, 1903. This Majesty. The region is now so sparsely body assembled in London on Sept. 3, fol- occupied that no conflicting interests of lowing, heard final arguments on October individuals or of jurisdiction are likely to 9, reached a decision on Oct. 17, and made interfere to the delay or embarrassment its award Oct. 20, granting to the United of the actual location of the line. If de- States all of its contentions excepting that ferred until population shall enter and for the Portland Canal, which was given occupy the Territory, some trivial contest to Canada. The award deprived Canada of neighbors may again array the two of access to the sea over a long stretch of governments in antagonism. I therefore coast-line, and of a free passage up the recommend the appointment of a commis- Lynn Canal to the Yukon. See UNITED sion, to act jointly with one that may be STATES ALASKA, in vol. ix. appointed on the part of Great Britain, GOVERNORS OF THE TERRITORY. * determine the line between our Terri- tory of Alaska and the coterminous pos- MILITART GOVERNOR. sessions of Great Britain." Gen. Lovell H. Rousseau 1867 By correspondence published in the CIVIL GOVERNORS. Canadian Sessional Papers, this recom- John H. Kinkead 1884-85 mendation appears to have been inspired Alfred P. Swineford 1885-89 by representations, originating with the Lyman E. Knapp 1889-93 J , James Slieakley. 1893-97 government of Canada, and communicated John G. Brady 1 897- through the British minister at Wash- I. F 81 AEASKAN BOUNDARY Ington, as to the desirableness of definitely marking the boundary. No action upon the recommendation was taken; but an estimate then made by United States offi cials as to the probable cost and duration of the task of surveying and marking the line as laid down in the treaty placed the cost at about $1,500,000 and the time at nine years for field operations and at least an additional year for office work. In January, 1886, the minister of the United States in London, a-cting under instructions, proposed the appointment of a joint commission, which should designate and establish the boundary-line, or else report such data as might afford a basis for its establishment by a new treaty. The Dominion government, to whom this pro posal was referred, expressed the opinion that a preliminary survey was " preferable to a formally constituted joint commis sion," and suggested that such a- survey "would enable the two governments to establish a satisfactory basis for the de limitation of the boundary, and demon strate whether the conditions of the con vention of 1825 are applicable to the now more or less known features of the coun try." Early in 1888 several informal con ferences were held in Washington between Prof. W. H. Ball, of the United States Geological Survey, and Dr. George M. Dawson, of Canada, for the purpose of dis cussing the boundary and elucidating, so far as the information then in existence enabled them to do, the questions which might be involved in it. The result of these conferences was communicated to Congress. A further step was taken in the con vention between the United States and Great Britain of July 22, 1892, by which it was agreed that a coincident or joint survey should be made "with a view to ascertainment of the facts and data neces sary to the permanent delimitation of the said boundary-line in accordance with the spirit and intent of the existing treaties in regard to it between Great Britain and Russia and between the United States and Russia." The time for the report of the commissioners under this stipulation was extended by the supplemental convention of Feb. 3, 1894, to Dec. 31, 1895. Joint surveys and a joint report were made, but no recommendations as to the boun dary. By the protocol of May, 1898, it waa agreed that the joint international com mission to be organized thereunder should endeavor to adopt " provisions for the de limitation and establishment of the Alaska-Canadian boundary by legal and scientific experts if the commission shall so decide, or otherwise." Under this clause, it is understood that the commis sion has failed to reach an agreement, and the question still remains open. It is our purpose to disclose, in general outlines, in what the dispute consists. By a ukase dated July 8, 1799, the Em peror Paul I. of Russia, having in view the benefits resulting to his empire from the hunting and trading carried on by Russian subjects "in the northeastern seas and along the coasts of America," conceded to the Russian-American Com pany the right to "have the use of all hunting-grounds and establishments now [then] existing on the northeastern (sic) coast of America, from the . . . 55th degree [of north latitude] to Bering Strait," as well as the right " to make new discoveries not only north of the fifty- fifth degree," but farther to the south, and " to occupy the new lands discovered, as Russian possessions," if they were not previously occupied by or dependent upon another nation. Still further privileges were granted to the Russian-American Company by the famous ukase issued by the Emperor. Alexander, Sept. 7, 1821, by which the pur suit of commerce, whaling and fishing, and of all other industry, on all islands, ports, and gulfs, " including the whole of the northwest coast of America, beginning from Bering Strait to the 51st degree of northern latitude," was exclusively granted to Russian subjects, and foreign vessels, except in case of distress, were forbidden " not only to land on the coasts and islands belonging to Russia, as stated above, but also to approach them within less than 100 Italian miles." This extension by Russia of her claim of dominion on the northwest coast of America from the 55th parallel of north latitude down to the 51st, coupled with the new claim of exclusive ma rine jurisdiction of 100 Italian miles ALASKAN BOUNDARY along the coast, called forth protests both convention signed at St. Petersburg on from the United States and from Great Feb. 28, 1825, which will hereafter be re- Britain. Both these powers claimed ter- f erred to as the convention of 1825. This ritory north of the 51st parallel, as convention defines, in Articles III. and IV., well as the right freely to navigate the the boundary between Alaska and the ocean and to fish and trade with the British possessions as it exists to-day. The natives on unoccupied coasts. Russia met treaty of 1867, ceding Alaska to the their protests with an offer of negotiation. United States, describes the eastern limits This offer was accepted. In the negotia- of the cession by incorporating the defini tions which ensued, Russia was represent- tion given in the convention of 1825. This ed by Count Nesselrode, minister for for- convention was signed only in French, eign affairs, and M. Poletica. Great Brit- which is therefore the official text; but ain was represented first by Sir Charles there accompanies it, in the British pub- Bagot, and then by Stratford Canning ; lications, an English " translation," which the United States by Henry Middleton. in the main fairly reproduces the original. The United States and Great Britain at These texts, so far as they relate to the one time entertained the intention of act- boundary, are as follows: ing jointly, but, finding that their terri torial claims were to some extent conflict- ///. La ligne de " III. The line of ing, they carried on their negotiations with demarcation entre les demarcation between Russia senaratelv Possessions des Hautes the Possessions of the Kussia separately. Parties Contractantes High Contracting The negotiations between the United 8ur i a cdte du Conti- Parties upon the States and Russia ended in a convention, nent et les lies de Coast of the Conti- signed at St. Petersburg, April 17, 1824, V^meriqueN or d Quest nent and the Islands . , . , i. * j A .LI. sera tracee ainsi qu'il of America to the which will hereafter be referred to as the suit: _ North-West, shall be convention of 1824. As to the territorial drawn in the follow- ouestion, it was agreed that no establish- . * D & mann er : , f , ,, ., A partir du Point "Commencing from ment should be formed by the United te p j us meridional de the southernmost States on the northwest coast north of Vile dite Prince of point of the Island lat. 54 40' N., nor bv Russia south of that Wales, lequel Point se called Prince of parall.1. As to navigation, fishing, and &"*" JSTllStVSS trading, the right of navigation and of gr e 40 minutes de allel of 54 degrees fishing in the Pacific Ocean was acknowl- latitude Nord, et en- 40 minutes, North edged unqualifiedly and in perpetuity; and J"^ "^ ' gg^-jnj-tjjg it was agreed that during a term of ten i ongitu de Quest (Me- Degree of West Longi- years the ships of both powers might fre- ridien de Greenwich) , tude (Meridian of quent "the interior Seas, Gulfs, Harbors, to <** Ii 9 ne remon- Greenwich), the said and Creeks upon the coast" in question, &-*&& " SSS? tS for the purpose of fishing and trading with land Channel, jusqu'au Channel called Port- the natives. No resort, however, was to Point de la terre land Channel, as far be made by citizens of the United States p-^** <* SalLf % *S to any point where there was a Russian tude Nord: de ce der . strikes tne 56th De . establishment, without the permission of nier point la ligne de gree of North Lati- the governor; and a reciprocal rule was demarcation suivra la tude; from this last to be observed bv Russian siihippfs as to Cr6te de8 monta 9 ne8 mentioned Point the by Kussian subjects as to 8itu g e8 pa ralUlement line of demarcation United btates establishments. From the a la Cdte, jusqu'au shall follow the sum- commerce permitted by the convention, point d'intersection mit of the mountains fire-arms and liquors were excluded. 'inter section du the point of intersec- visible into two distinct sections, first, the 141me degr6 de longi- tion of the 141st de- line from the southernmost point of Prince tude Quest, se trouve- gree of West Longi- of Wa les Island, through Portland Chan- P t* i^% bfat SMSS of nd and along the summit of the moun- rines de I'Ocean, la more than ten marine tains parallel to the coast, to the point of limite entre lea Po*- leagues from the intersection of the 141st meridian of longi- ITtriisi^T* twe e e a n' % BrttS tude ' and > second > the line from this P oint mentionnee ci-dessus Possessions and the to the Arctic Ocean. With the latter sec- comme devant appar- line of Coast which tion, which is merely a meridian line, and tcnir d la Russie, ' to belong to Rus- Rg t() which the United Sta tes and Cana- sera formee par une sia as above men- ,.,., -j ,, j- r ligne paralUle aux tioned, shall be form- dian surveys exhibit no considerable dif- sinuosites de la C6te, ed ^ a 1Ine parallel ference, we are not now concerned. The et qui ne pourra ja- Jj> th . e windings of the sect i on as to wh i ch ma terial differences mais en etre eloignee C & ?*' and which nr : apn i Q t] 1P fi r 60 O nly a strip, never exceeding 30 miles in depth ; and this strip, in the absence of such an arrangement as has just been mentioned (the aforesaid lease), renders the interior comparatively use- less to England." 88 ALASKAN BOUNDARY ALBANY the 56th degree any stronger. The " line," after ascending " Portland Chan nel, as far as the point of the continent where it strikes the 56th degree of north latitude," is required from " this last-mentioned point " to follow " the summit of the mountains." If this were intended as a complete description, cover ing every foot or mile of the boundary, and if the " it " of the treaty were intend ed to refer to the channel and not to the line, then Portland Channel evidently was supposed to have performed the remark able feat of climbing to the summit of the mountains. But, obviously, it was the 'line" which was to "strike" the 56th parallel and reach the summit of the mountains. The drawing of the line through Port land Channel, whose outlet into the sea appeared on the map in the same latitude as the southernmost point of Prince of Wales Island, was part of the plan of al lowing to Russia, in return for her aban donment of abnormal jurisdictional claims and her concessions in respect of trade, a strip of territory on the mainland as a barrier between her islands and the Brit ish possessions in the interior. We have seen how the representatives of Great Britain successively proposed as the southern boundary the line of 57 30', then a line through " Chatham Straits to the head of Lynn Canal," then a line drawn from west to east " through the middle of the channel which sepa rates the islands of Prince of Wales and Duke of York from all the isl ands to the north " till it should touch the mainland, and then a line drawn north ward through Clarence Strait and thence eastward to the mainland through the strait separating Prince of Wales and Duke of York islands from the islands to the north, and how they finally accepted the line through Portland Channel, on which Russia, for the purpose of preserv ing for her islands a protective barrier on the coast of the mainland, had firmly and finally insisted. But, while we have shown how the gen eral principles of the boundary were set tled, it yet remains to adjust the line and mark it. For this purpose it is conceded that something more than the general de scriptions of the treaty is requisite. To meet this defect, various plans have been suggested, and there may be room for the adjustment of common interests. The dis covery of gold in the Klondike region has intensified the desire of Canada- for an out let on Lynn Canal. This desire, if con sidered upon grounds of mutual interest and convenience, rather than of treaty right, is worthy of attention, since the coast must profit by the development of the interior. It has been suggested that a lease be granted of a narrow strip of land in that quarter, as an outlet on the sea. The same object might, perhaps, be attained by assimilating one or more of the portages, for instance, that by way of the Chilkoot Pass, the principal Klondike route, to a stream of water and treating it as an international highway. By Arti cle II. of the Webster-Ashburton Treaty, it was stipulated that " all the water * com munications and all the usual portages along the line [of boundary] from Lake Superior to the Lake of the Woods, and also Grand Portage, from the shore of Lake Superior to the Pigeon River, as now actually used, shall be free and open to the use of the citizens and subjects of both countries." But whatever plan may be adopted, it is obvious that, if the end can be attained without the sacrifice of clear national rights, the boundary should not be left unsettled, but should, in the interest of trade and industry, of the administra tion of justice, and of international amity, be finally adjusted and marked. Albans, ST. See ST. ALBANS ; VERMONT. Albany, city and capital of the State of New York; the oldest existing town within the domain of the original thirteen States; was first settled by Dutch traders in 1614, who built a trading-house on Castle Island, a little below the site of Albany, and eight years afterwards Fort Orange was built on that site. The set tlement was called Fort Orange at first, then Beverswyck; and after the Province of New Netherland passed into the posses sion of the English it was called Albany, the second title of Duke James, afterwards James IT. of England. Albany is yet full of the descendants of its early settlers, and has a large present importance by reason of its trade relations with the Western and Southern States, promoted by its ex ceptional shipping facilities by river, rail- 89 ALBANY road, and canal. In 1890 the population southern colonies, which were not immedi- was 94,923; in 1900, 94,151. ately exposed to hostilities, might be Albany is especially noted in history be- obliged to contribute in a just proportion qause of the colonial conventions held towards the expense of protecting the in- there. The following is a synopsis of their land portions of New York and New Eng- most important transactions: land. Clinton and Shirley signed and ap- First Colonial Convention. Thoroughly proved of the memorial, which was sent alarmed by the opening hostilities of the with it to the Board of Trade and Plan- French and Indians on the frontiers, the tations. colonies of Massachusetts, Plymouth, and Third Colonial Convention. The kindly Connecticut sent commissioners to Albany attitude manifested towards the French by to hold a conference with the chiefs of the the Six Nations excited the jealousy and Five Nations, all of whom, excepting the alarm of the English, especially of Govern- Mohawks, had renewed their covenant of or Clinton, of New York. As yet, the friendship with the English. This cove- Iroquois had never recognized the claim nant was renewed June 27, 1689, previous of the English to dominion over their to the arrival of Count Frontenac in land, and they were free to act as they Canada. The commissioners held the con- pleased. Clinton called a convention of ference in September following. They representatives of the several English- tried to persuade the Five Nations to en- American colonies at Albany, and invited gage in the war against the Eastern Ind- the Six Nations to send representatives to ians. They would not agree to do so, but meet with them. Only Massachusetts, ratified the existing friendship with the Connecticut, and South Carolina chose to English colonies. " We promise," they incur the expense. Delegates from these said, "to preserve the chain inviolably, colonies met the chiefs of the Six Nations and wish that the sun may always shine (July 5, 1751) and made a treaty of in peace over all our heads that are com- friendship. The " King " of the Catawbas prehended in the chain." and several chiefs accompanied the South Second Colonial Convention. In the Carolina delegate (William Bull), and a summer of 1748, when news of the pre- peace between that Southern nation and liminary treaty of peace reached the col- the Iroquois was settled at the same time, onies, a convention or congress of colonial Fourth Colonial Convention. There governors was called at Albany for a two- were indications that the Six Nations, in fold purpose: (1) to secure a colonial fluenced by French emissaries, were becom- revenue, and (2) to strengthen the bond ing alienated from the English. The of friendship between the Six Nations and colonists were uneasy, and the British their neighbors in the West, and the Eng- government, acting upon the advice of the lish. Only Governors Clinton and Shirley, royal governors in America, sent a circular two able commissioners from Massachu- letter to all the colonial assemblies, pro- setts, and one (William Bull) from South posing the holding of a convention at Carolina, were present. With the latter Albany, to be composed of committees came the grand sachem and some chiefs from the several legislatures and repre- of the Catawbas, a nation which had long sentatives of the Six Nations. Seven of waged war with the Iroquois. There was the assemblies responded, and on June 19, an immense number of the Six Nations 1754, twenty-five delegates assembled in present. The royal governors failed to the old City Hall at Albany. James De gain anything for themselves in the way Lancey, acting governor of New York, pre- of a revenue, but satisfactory arrange- sided, and he was authorized by the Vir- ments with the Indians, including the ginia legislature to represent that colony tribes along the southern borders of Lake in the convention. The chiefs of the Six Erie, were made. At that conference the Nations were there in great numbers, of commissioners from Massachusetts (An- whom "King Hendrick," of the Mohawks, drew Oliver and Thomas Hutchinson) pre- was leader. To the Indians De Lancey sented a memorial for adoption, praying first spoke, and Hendrick responded in the King so far to interpose as that, while words of bitter reproof of the English for the French remained in Canada, the more their neglect of preparations for danger. 90 ALBANY ALBEMARLE SOUND " Look at the French," he said ; " they are men; they are fortifying everywhere; but, we are ashamed to say it, you are like women, bare and open, without any forti fications. It is but one step from Canada hither, and the French may easily come and turn you out-of-doors." But the busi ness with the Six Nations was closed amicably and satisfactorily by a treaty of friendship. The Massachusetts delegation was authorized to propose a measure quite as important as a treaty with the Indians. It was an invitation for the convention to consider the question whether a union of the colonies for mutual defence was not desirable; and they were empowered to agree to articles of union or confederation. The proposition was favorably received, and a committee, composed of one dele gate from each colony, was appointed to draw up a plan. The fertile brain of Dr. Benjamin Franklin, a delegate from Penn sylvania, had conceived a plan before he went to the convention. It was reported by the committee and adopted by the con vention, the Connecticut delegates alone dissenting. It proposed a grand council of forty-eight members, to be chosen by the several assemblies, the representatives of each colony to be, in number, in propor tion to the contribution of each to the general treasury. No colony was to have more than seven or less than two members. This congress was to choose its own speaker and have the general management of all civil and military affairs, and to enact general laws in conformity to the British Constitution. It proposed to have a president-general, appointed and paid by the crown, who should have a negative or veto power on all acts of the congress, and to have, with the advice and consent of the congress, the appointment of all mili tary officers, and the entire management of Indian affairs; the civil officers to be appointed by the congress with the ap proval of the president-general. This plan of government bore a strong resemblance to our national Constitution, which Frank lin assisted in framing more than thirty years afterwards. This plan was sub mitted to the Lords of Trade and Planta tions. They did not approve of it, nor recommend it to the King for considera tion. They thought there was too much democracy in it. The assemblies did not favor it, because they thought there was too much prerogative in it. So it was rejected. Albany Plan of Union, 1754. See ALBANY (Fourth Colonial Convention). Albany Regency, a name popularly given to a few active and able New York men of the Democratic party, between 1820 and 1854, who, in a great degree, con trolled the action of their party in the State and in the Union. Among the lead ing members were Martin Van Buren, William L. Marcy, Silas Wright, Edwin Croswell, Benjamin F. Butler, Azariah C. Flagg, and Dean Richmond. See HUNKERS. Albay, the name of a province in the extreme southeastern part of the island of Luzon, Philippines; noted as being the richest hemp-growing district on the isl and. In January, 1900, in order to put a stop to the surreptitious shipping of the products of the hemp-growing sections of the archipelago, a new military district was created by the United States authori ties, comprising both this province and Catanduanes Island, situated directly north of Logonoy Bay. Brig.-Gen. William A. Kobbe", U. S. V., was appointed gov ernor of this district and given tentative authority also over Samar and Leyte islands. He had several encounters with the Filipino insurgents before he secured control of his new district, and immedi ately after establishing his authority he formally occupied and opened to trade the various hemp ports under his jurisdiction, which was subsequently extended over the entire hemp-growing district. Albay is also the principal town and port of the province. Albemarle Sound, BATTLE IN. In the Civil War, the Confederate general Hoke, after capturing Plymouth, proceeded to Newbern and demanded its surrender. The commander of the Albemarle, a powerful " ram," started out on Albemarle Sound to assist Hoke, when his vessel encoun tered (May 5, 1864) the Sassacus, Lieut.- Com. F. A. Rose, one of Capt. Melancton Smith's blockading squadron in the sound. The Albemarle was heavily arm ed with Brooks and Whitworth guns. After a brief cannonade the Sassacus struck the monster a blow which pushed it partly under water and nearly sank it. When the " ram " recovered, the two ves- 91 ALBEMABLE ALCOTT sels hurled 100-lb. shot at each other at ing and his companions leaped into the a distance of a few paces. Most of those water, but only one besides the commander from the Sassacus glanced off from the escaped drowning or capture. Gushing Albemarle like hail from granite. Three swam ashore, crept into a swamp, and was of the shots from the Sassacus entered a found and cared for by some negroes. The part of the "ram" with destructive effect, torpedo had destroyed the Albemarle, and and at Yhe same moment the Albemarle she settled down in the mud in Plymouth sent a 100-lb. Brooks bolt through one Harbor. Plymouth was recaptured (Oct. of the boilers of the Sassacus, killing three 31) by a squadron under Commodore Ma- men and wounding six. The vessel was comb, with some prisoners and valuable filled with scalding steam and was un- stores. See CUSHING, WILLIAM BARKER. manageable for a few minutes. When the Albert Edward, PRINCE OF WALES. smoke and vapor passed away, the Albe- See EDWARD VII. rnarle was seen moving towards Plymouth, Albion, NEW. The name given by SIR firing as she fled. The Sassacus slowly FRANCIS DRAKE (q. v.) to CALIFORNIA followed, but finally desisted for want of (q. v.) when he took possession in 1577. steam. Hoke fell back from Newbern. Albright, JACOB, clergyman ; born near Albemarle, THE, a powerful Confed- Pottstown, Pa., May 1, 1759. In youth crate iron-clad vessel that patrolled the he was a tile-burner, but entered the waters off the coast of North Carolina dur- Methodist ministry in 1790. He made many converts, almost exclusively among the Germans, and in 1800 a separate Church organization was formed for them, Albright becoming their first presiding elder. He was appointed bishop in 1807. His denomination is known as the EVAN GELICAL ASSOCIATION (q. v.). He died in 1808. Alcott, AMOS BRONSON, educator; born in Wolcott, Conn., Nov. 29, 1799. He became a successful teacher of an infant school in his native State. Eemoving to Boston, he soon became conspicuous as a ing a part of the Civil War. Late in Oc- teacher of the very young. He finally set- tober, 1864, Lieut. W. B. Gushing, a daring tied in Concord, Mass., where he studied young officer of the United States navy, natural theology and the best methods for undertook to destroy it. It was lying at producing reforms in diet, education, and Plymouth, behind a barricade of logs civil and social institutions. By invita- 30 feet in width. With a small steam- tion, he went to England in 1842, to teach launch equipped as a torpedo-boat, Cush- at "Alcott House," a name given to a ing moved in towards Plymouth on a dark school at Ham, near London. Returning night (Oct. 27), with a crew of thirteen to America, with two English friends, he officers and men, part of whom had volun- attempted the founding of a new com- teered for this service. The launch had munity, calling the farm "Fruit Lands." a cutter in tow. They were within 20 It was a failure, and in 1840 he again yards of the " ram " before they were dis- went to Concord, where he afterwards re covered, when its pickets began* firing. In sided, living the life of a peripatetic phi- the face of a severe discharge of musketry, losopher, conversing in cities and in vil- Cushing pressed to the attack. He drove lages, wherever invited, on divinity, hu- his launch far into the log barricade, low- man nature, ethics, as well as on a great ered his torpedo boom, and drove it direct- variety of practical questions. He was one ly under the overhang of the " ram." The of the founders of the school of transcen- mine was exploded, and at the same mo- dentalists in New England, and after re- ment one of the guns of the Albemarle turning to Concord became dean of the hurled a heavy bolt that went crashing famous Concord School of Philosophy. He through and destroying the launch. Cush- died March 4, 1888. 92 RAM ALBKMARLE. ALCOTT ALBEIT Alcott, LOUISA MAY, author; born in Philadelphia, Pa., Nov. 29, 1832; daughter of Amos Bronson Alcott. In 1862 she volunteered as a nurse, and for months labored in the military hospitals. In 1868 she published Little Women, which almost immediately made her famous. Her other works are, Flower Fables, or Fairy Tales; Hospital Sketches; An Old-Fashioned Girl; a series called Aunt Jo's Scrap Bag, con taining My Boys, Shawl Straps, Cupid and Chow-Chow, My Girls, Jimmy's Cruise in the Pinafore, and An Old-Fashioned Thanksgiving; Work, a Story of Experi ence; Eight Cousins; Rose in Bloom; Sil ver Pitchers; Under the Lilacs; Jack and Gill; Moods; Proverb Stories; Spinning- Wheel Stories; Lulu's Library, etc. She died in Boston, Mass., March 6, 1888. Alden, HENRY MILLS, editor; born in Mount Tabor, Vt., Nov. 11, 1836; was graduated at Williams College in 1857, and at Andover Theological Seminary in 1860. In the winter of 1863-64 he de livered before the Lowell Institute of Bos ton a series of twelve lectures on The Structure of Paganism; 1863-69 he was managing editor of Harper's Weekly, and in 1869 became editor of Harper's Maga zine. He is the author of The Ancient Lady of Sorrow, a poem; God in His World; A Study of Death; and (with A. H. Guernsey) of Harper's Pictorial His tory of the Great Rebellion. Alden, JAMES, naval officer; born in Portland, Me., March 31, 1810; became a midshipman in 1828; lieutenant in 1841; commander in 1855; captain, Jan. 2, 1863; commodore, July 25, 1866; and rear-ad miral, June 19, 1871. He was a partici pant in the South Sea Exploring Expedi tion under Lieutenant Wilkes, and served under Commodore Conner on the Gulf coast of Mexico during the war with that country. He was active in the reinforce ment of Fort Pickens; in the expedition against Galveston; as commander of the Richmond in the passage of Forts Jackson and St. Philip ; in the capture of New Or leans; and at Vicksburg, Port Hudson, Mobile Bay, and Fort Fisher. He was ap pointed chief of the Bureau of Navigation and Detail in 1869, and, after his promo tion to rear-admiral, commander of the European squadron. He died in San Fran cisco, Cal., Feb. 6, 1877. Alden, JOHN, a "Pilgrim Father"; born in England in 1599; was employed as a cooper in Southampton, and, having been engaged to repair the Mayflower while awaiting the embarkation of the Pilgrims, concluded to join the company. It has been stated that he was the first of the Pilgrim party to step on Plymouth Rock, but other authorities give this honor to Mary Chilton. Alden settled in Duxbury, and in 1621 was married to Priscilla Mul- lins. For more than fifty years he was a magistrate in the colony, and outlived all the signers of the Mayflower compact. He died in Duxbury, Sept. 12, 1687. The circumstances of his courtship inspired Longfellow to write The Courtship of Miles Standish. They were as follows: The dreadful famine and fever which de stroyed one-half of the Pilgrims at New Plymouth during the winter and spring of 1621 made a victim of Rose Standish, wife of Capt. Miles Standish. Her hus band was then thirty-seven years of age. Not long after this event the brave little captain was smitten by the charms of Priscilla Mullins, daughter of William Mullins, who was a passenger on the May flower. Priscilla had then just bloomed into young womanhood, and Standish sent young John Alden to ask the hand of the maiden in marriage. The ambassador went to her father and discreetly and mod estly performed the duties of his mission The father readily gave his consent, and added, " But Priscilla must be consulted." She was summoned to the room, where sal young, graceful, almost courtly, ruddy- faced John Alden, whom she knew well. The ambassador of love repeated his mes sage, and when Priscilla asked, " Why does he not come himself?" and was an swered, " He is too busy," the indignant maiden declared that she would never marry a man who was "too busy" to court her. She said (in the words of Longfellow) : " ' Had he waited awhile, had only showed that he loved me, Even this captain of yours who knows? at last might have won me, Old and rough as he is ; but now it never can happen.' " John Alden pressed the suit of Standiah, when 93 ALDRICH ALEXANDER Archly the maiden smiled, and, with eyes overrunning with laughter, Said, in a tremulous voice, * Why don't you speak for yourself, John?'" Young Alden blushed, bowed, and retired, for he was faithful to his trust. His visit was soon repeated, and it was not long before the nuptials of John Alden and Priscilla Mullins were celebrated by the whole community, excepting Captain Stan- dish, who could not readily forgive the weakness (for he knew it was not perfidy) of his young friend in surrendering at the first assault from the eyes and lips of the maiden. Aldrich, CHARLES, historian; born in Ellington, N. Y., Oct. 2, 1828; was edu cated at Jamestown Academy, N. Y. On June 29, 1857, he established The Freed- man, a newspaper in Webster City, la. For several years between 1860 and 1870 he was chief clerk of the Iowa House of Representatives, and in 1882 was a mem ber of that body; in 1875 served with the United States Geological Survey in the Rocky Mountains; and in 1892 established the Historical Department of Iowa, of which he afterwards was made curator and secretary. Aldrich, NELSON WILMARTH, states man? born in Foster, R. I., Nov. 6, 1841; president of the Providence common coun cil, 1871-73; member of the Rhode Isl and House of Representatives, 1875-76, serving the latter year as speaker; mem ber of Congress, 1878-82; United States Senator, 1881 to the present time. Aldrich, THOMAS BAILEY, author and editor; born in Portsmouth, N. H., Nov. 11, 1836; entered upon mercantile life at an early age, and at the same time en gaged in writing verses for the New York journals. In 1856 he joined the staff of the Home Journal. He edited Every Sat urday, and contributed largely to period ical publications. From 1881 to 1890 he was the editor of the Atlantic Monthly. He died in Boston, March 19, 1907. Aleutian, or Aleutan, ISLANDS, a group in the North Pacific Ocean, stretch ing in a row from the peninsula of Alaska towards the shores of Kamchatka. They belong to the Territory of Alaska. These islands were discovered by Bering in 1728, and are about 150 in number. A few of them are inhabited, chiefly by Eskimos. The population is estimated at nearly 6,000. Russian missionaries have con verted them to Christianity, and they are chiefly engaged in the various fisheries. The islands are volcanic and rocky, and agriculture is unknown there. Alexander, an American Indian king. MASSASOIT (q. v.) died in 1660. Three or four years before his death he took his two sons, Wamsutta and Metacornet, to Plym outh, Mass., and asked that both should receive English names. The oldest was reamed Alexander, and the second Philip. Alexander succeeded his father as chief sachem of the Wampanoags. In 1661 he was compelled to go to Plymouth a prison er, on suspicion of being leagued with the Narragansets in hostile designs against the English. The suspicion was not sustained by evidence. On his way to Plymouth the chief was taken suddenly ill, and in a few hours died, it was said of a fever brought on by rage and mortification. His young wife, who became the squaw sachem Wita- mo, believed he had been poisoned by the English. This event soured the minds of Philip and his followers towards the Eng lish, and was one of the indirect causes which led to King Philip's War. See PHILIP. Alexander, ARCHIBALD, theologian ; born in Augusta (now Rockbridge) county, Va., April 17, 1772; was of Scotck descent, and became teacher in a Virginian family at the age of seventeen years. In 1791 he entered the ministry as an itiner ant missionary in his native State. In 1789 he became president of Hampden-Sid- ney College; left it in 1801; married a daughter of Rev. Mr. Waddell, the cele brated " blind preacher " in Virginia, and afterwards (1807) became pastor of a Presbyterian church in Philadelphia. In 1810 he was elected president of Union College, Georgia, but did not accept it. On the establishment of the Theological Semi nary at Princeton, N. J., in 1811, Dr. Alex ander was chosen its first professor, which position he held until his death, Oct. 22, 1851. Among his numerous writings his Outlines of the Evidences of Christianity, used as a text-book in several colleges, is most extensively known. It has passed through many editions in various lan guages. Alexander, BARTON STONE, military 04 ALEXANDER engineer; born in Kentucky in 1819; was the part which he took in that famous graduated at the Military Academy at trial he was arbitrarily excluded from West Point in 1842. He was made second the bar, but was reinstated in 1737. He lieutenant of engineers in 1843, and cap- was associated with Franklin and others tain in 1856. For services at the battle in founding the American Philosophical of Bull Run, July, 1861, he was brevetted Society. He was the father of William major, and in March, 1863, was commis- Alexander, known as Lord Stirling, a sioned major of the engineer corps. For general in the Continental army. He meritorious services during the Civil War, died in New York City, April 2, 1756. he was brevetted brigadier - general in Alexander, WILLIAM, called Lord Stir- March, 1865. Active during the war, he ling, military officer; born in New York was consulting engineer in Sheridan's City in 1726; was a son of Secretary army in the Shenandoah Valley, and was Alexander of New Jersey. His mother at the Battle of Cedar Creek, Oct. 19, was the widow of David Provoost, a 1864. After the war he spent two years wealthy merchant of the city of New in charge of the construction of public York. Attached to the commissariat of works in Maine. He died in San Fran- the army, he attracted the notice of Gen- cisco, Cal., Dec. 15, 1878. Alexander, EDWARD PORTER, engineer; born in Washington, Ga., May 26, 1835; was graduated at the United States Mili tary Academy, and commissioned a second lieutenant in the United States Engineer Corps in 1857; resigned and entered the Confederate army in 1861; served with the Army of Northern Virginia from the beginning to the close of the war, attain ing the rank of brigadier-general and chief of ordnance. In 1866-70 he was Pro fessor of Mathematics and Engineering in the University of South Carolina; in 1871-92 engaged in railroad business; and in 1892-94 was a member of the Boards on Navigation of the Columbia River, eral Shirley, and was for three years his Ore., and on the ship-canal between Chesa- aide-de-camp and private secretary. He peake and Delaware bays. Subsequently he went to England and Scotland in 1755, was engineer - arbitrator of the boundary and before his return he prosecuted his survey between Costa Rica and Nicaragua, claim to the earldom of Stirling, but was Alexander, JAMES, an active public unsuccessful. He spent much of his fort- man in the province of New York, to une in the matter. It was generally which he emigrated from Scotland in believed that he was the rightful heir 1715, where he was born in 1690. He had to the title and estates, and he assumed fled from Scotland because of his peril the title of Lord Stirling, by which he there as an adherent of the " Young Pre- was ever afterwards known in America, tender." He was accompanied by William When the quarrel with Great Britain be- Smith, afterwards chief-justice of the gan in the colonies Lord Stirling es- province and its historian. He was made poused the cause of the patriots. In 1775 surveyor-general of New Jersey and New he was appointed a colonel, and in March, York, was secretary of the latter colony, 1776, was commissioned a brigadier-gen- and attained eminence in the profession eral in the Continental army. When Gen- of the law. As attorney-general of the eral Lee went South, Lord Stirling was province and occupant of other important placed in command of the troops in and positions, he became distinguished. He around the city of New York. After con- was one of the able counsel who defended spicuous service in the battle of Long Isl- the freedom of the press in the person of and (Aug. 27, 1776) he was made a John Peter Zenger in 1735. Because of prisoner, but was soon exchanged; and in 95 LORD STIRLING. ALEXANDER-ALEXANDER VI. 1777 he was commissioned by Congress a major-general. He fought with Washington on the Brandy wine on Sept. 11, 1777, and was specially distinguished at Germantown and Monmouth, commanding the left wing of the American army in the last-named engagement. He was one of the most faithful of Washington's soldiers during the war. William Alexander married a daughter of William Livingston, of New Jersey, and had been, like his father, sur veyor-general. He was also an excellent mathematician and astronomer. He was one of the founders of the New York So ciety Library, and also of King's College (now Columbia University). Alexander Humphreys, born in Birmingham, Eng land, in 1783, claimed the earldom of Stir ling. In 1824 he obtained the royal license to assume the name of Alexander, because he had a maternal grandfather of that name, and his deceased mother was a great-great-granddaughter of John Alexander, fourth son of William Alex ander, the last earl of Stirling, and all in termediate heirs had become extinct. For a short time he exercised the privileges of an earl, and he even claimed vast pos sessions in Nova Scotia; but after a legal investigation he was stripped of his titles and pretensions, and in 1839 he sank into oblivion. Many of the original surveys in New Jersey made by William Alexander and his father are now in the possession of the New Jersey Historical Society, and are frequently consulted by lawyers to quiet titles to real estate. William Alex ander died in Albany/N. Y., Jan. 15, 1783. Alexander, SIB WILLIAM, patentee of Nova Scotia, and a poet and court favor ite, to whom James I. and Charles I. were ranch attached. He was born at Menstrie, Scotland, in 1580. He became the author of verses when he was fourteen years old, and was cherished by Scotchmen as a descendant of the Macdonalds. His Au rora contained more than one hundred sonnets, songs, and elegies which dis played the effects of ill - requited love. When the Council for New England per ceived the intention of the French beyond the St. Croix to push their settlements westward, they granted to Sir William (who had been knighted in 1614) all of the territory now known as New Bruns wick and Nova Scotia, excepting a part of Acadia proper; and the King confirmed it, and issued a patent Sept. 10, 1621. The territory granted was called Nova Scotia New Scotland and it was given to Sir William and his heirs in fee with out conditions. It was erected into a royal palatinate, the proprietor being invested with the rights and powers of a count- palatine. It was designed to settle the territory with Scotch emigrants, who should form a barrier against French en croachments. A colony was accordingly planted, and Sir William held possession ten years before he was displaced by the French. In 1625 Charles I. (who had just suc ceeded his deceased father), in order to help Sir William plant a successful col ony or sell the domain in parcels, created the order of " Baronets of Nova Scotia," the title to be conferred upon purchasers of large tracts of land there. He also gave the proprietor the privilege of coin ing base copper money. In 1626 Sir Will iam was appointed Secretary of State for Scotland, Keeper of the Signet in 1627, Commissioner of the Exchequer in 1628, also Lord of Canada. In 1630 he was created Viscount Stirling, and in 1633 Earl of Stirling and Viscount of Canada. In 1628 the Council for New England gave him a grant of territory, which included a part of Long Island, opposite Connecti cut; but he was not able to manage his colonization schemes in Nova Scotia, and he sold his domain to the French. He died in London, Sept. 12, 1640. Lord Stir ling's title expired with the fifth earl (1739), but other claimants appeared afterwards. See ACADIA. Alexander VI., POPE. Rodrigo Len- zuolo; son of Isabelle Borgia and nephew of Pope Calixtus III.; was born in Valen cia, Spain, Jan. 1, 1431; studied law; was appointed a cardinal by his uncle before he was twenty-five years old; made arch bishop of Valencia in 1458; elected Pope, after the death of Pope Innocent VIII., Aug. 11, 1492; was crowned under the title of Alexander VI., with great pomp and solemnity, Aug. 26, 1492; and died Aug. 18, 1503. He issued the bull dividing the New World between Spain and Portugal. On the return of Columbus from his first Toyage of discovery, the Portuguese, ALEXANDRIA who had previously explored the Azores institutions, and has important manu- aiid other Atlantic islands, instantly facturing industries. In 1890 the popula- claimed a title to the newly discovered tion was 14,339; in 1900, 14,528. lands, to the exclusion of the Spaniards. In August, 1814, while the British were Simultaneous with the order given to making their way across Maryland tow- Columbus at Barcelona to return to His- ards Washington, apportion of the British paniola, an ambassador was sent to Rome fleet, consisting of two frigates of thirty- to obtain the Pope's sanction of their six guns and thirty-eight guns, two rock- claims to the regions discovered, and to et-ships of eighteen guns, two bomb-ves- make a conquest of the West Indies. Alex- sels of eight guns, and one schooner of ander assented without much hesitation two guns, sailed up the Potomac under the to the proposal, and, on May 3, 1493, he charge of Commodore Gordon, of the Sea issued a bull, in which he directed Horse, and easily passed the guns of Fort that a line supposed to be drawn from Washington, the defences of which the pole to pole, at a distance of 100 government had neglected. The British leagues westward of the Azores, should squadron appeared before the fort (Aug. serve as a boundary. All the coun- 27), when the commander blew up the tries to the east of this imaginary line, magazine and fled. The squadron passed not in possession of a Christian prince, and anchored in front of Alexandria, he gave to the Portuguese, and all west- prepared to lay the city in ashes with ward of it to the Spaniards. On account bombs and rockets if demands were not of the dissatisfaction with the Pope's par- complied with. There was no effective tition, the line was fixed 270 leagues force at Alexandria to oppose the in- farther west. Other nations of Europe vaders, for the able-bodied men and heavy subsequently paid no attention to it, guns had been called to the defence of but sent colonies to the Western Con- Washington. They were powerless, and tinent without the leave of the sover- were compelled to submit. The invader eigns of Spain or the Pope. A little contented himself with burning one more than a century afterwards the Eng- vessel and loading several others with lish Parliament insisted that occupancy plunder, for he became in too great a confers a good title, by the law of na- hurry to depart to wait for the hidden tions and nature. This remains a law of merchandise and the raising of the scut- nations. Portugal soon disregarded the tied vessels. The squadron sailed down PORT WASHINGTON. Pope's donation to Spain, and sent an ex- the Potomac, annoyed all the way by bat- pedition to North America in 1500. teries and the militia on the shore, the Alexandria, city, port of entry; on former quickly constructed and armed the Potomac River, here a mile wide and with heavy guns from vessels sent by Corn- providing an excellent harbor, and 6 miles modore Rogers from Baltimore, and also below Washington, P. C. The city con- others sent down from Washington. The tains a number of high-grade educational British squadron, having an aggregate of I. G 97 \ ALEXANDRIA, LA. ALGER 173 guns, passed out safely into Chesa- Alger, HORATIO, author; born in Re- peake Bay on Sept. 5. vere> Mass., Jan. 13, 1834; graduated at In the Civil War the city was occupied Harvard in 1852. After spending several by National troops on May 25, 1861, and years in teaching and journalism he was the same day COL. EPHRAIM ELMER ELLS- ordained as a Unitarian minister in 1864. WORTH (q. v.), commanding the llth New He removed to New York City in 1866. York Volunteers (Fire Zouaves), was He published Bertha's Christmas Vision; killed as he was descending from the roof nothing to Do, a poem; Frank's (7am- of the Marshall House, where he had paign, or, What a Boy Can Do; Helen hauled down a Confederate flag, by James Ford, a novel ; a volume of poems ; Ragged T. Jackson, the keeper of the hotel. Dick; Luck and Pluck; Tattered Tom; Alexandria, La. See RED RIVEB Frank and Fearless; His Young Bank EXPEDITION. Messenger, etc. He died in Natick, Mass., Alexandria Conference. George Mason July, 18, 1899. and Alexander Henderson, of Virginia, Alger, RUSSELL ALEXANDER, ex-Secre- and Daniel Jenifer, Thomas Stone, and tary of War : born in Lafayette, O., Feb. 27, Samuel Chase, of Maryland, were com- 1836; worked on a farm for years earning missioned in 1785 to treat concerning the jurisdiction of the waters between the two States. Their report led to the ANNAP OLIS CONVENTION OF 1786 (q. v.). Alexandria Government. See VIB- GTNIA, 1867. Alfonso XIII., King of Spain ; born in Madrid, May 17, 1886, after his father's death; son of the late King Alfonso XII. and Maria Christina, daughter of the late Carl Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria. His mother became Queen Regent during his minority, and after the destruction of the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay she made strenuous though unavailing efforts to in duce both the Pope and the principal countries of Europe to intervene in the hope of speedily closing the war between the United States and Spain. Alger, CYRUS, inventor; born in West Bridgewater, Mass., Nov. 11, 1781 ; became an iron-founder early in life. In 1809 money to defray the expenses of his edu- he founded in Boston the works which cation. He was admitted to the bar in since 1817 have been known as the South 1859, but was forced by ill health to give Boston Iron Company. During the War up practice. When the Civil War broke of 1812 he supplied the government with out he entered the Union army as a cap- a large number of cannon-balls. He de- tain, and became brevet major-general vised many improvements in the construe- of volunteers. After the war he entered tion of time-fuses for bomb-shells and the lumber business, in which he acquired grenades. In 1811 he invented a method a large fortune. He was governor of Michi- of making cast-iron chilled rolls, and in gan in 1885-87; was a candidate for the 1822 designed the cylinder stove. The Republican Presidential nomination m first perfect bronze cannon, the first gun 1888; was commander-in-chief of the Grand ever rifled in the United States, and the Army in 1889-90; and became Secretary largest gun of cast-iron, the" Columbiad" of War in 1897. During the American- mortar, that had been cast in the country, Spanish War in 1898 he was subjected to were turned out at his foundry under his public censure on account of alleged short- personal supervision. He died in Boston, comings in the War Department. He re- Feb. 4 1856. signed in 1899; was appointed United ALGER ALGIERS States Senator in 1902, and elected in the vessels of any nation against Algerine 1903; author of The American-Spanish corsairs. This was for the purpose of in- War. He died in Washington, Jan. 4, 1907. juring France. The pirates were imme- Alger, WILLIAM ROUXSEVILLE, clergy- diately let loose upon commerce. David man and author; born in Freetown, Mass., Humphreys, who had been sent to Algiers Dec. 30, 1822; graduated at Harvard by the government of the United States Theological School in 1847; held charges to make arrangements for the release of in Boston, New York, Denver, Chicago, American commerce from danger, was in- and Portland, Me., subsequently making suited, by the Dey. Humphreys wrote, his home in Boston. His publications in- " If we mean to have commerce, we must elude: Symbolic History of the Cross; have a navy." Meanwhile the United History of the Doctrine of a Future Life; States were compelled to pay tribute to The Genius of Solitude; The Friendships the Dey to keep his corsairs from Ameri- of Women; Poetry of the Orient; Life of can commerce. Edwin Forrest; etc. He died in Boston, From 1785 until the autumn of 1793, Feb. 7, 1905. when Washington called the attention of Algiers, one of the former Barbary Congress to the necessity of a navy, the States on the northern coast of Africa, Algerine pirates had captured fifteen stretching west from Egypt to the Atlan- American vessels and made 180 officers tic Ocean; bombarded and captured by and seamen slaves of the most revolting the French in 1830, and held under French kind. To redeem the survivors of these military control till 1871, when a French captives, and others taken more recently, civil administration was established. All the United States government paid about of Algeria is now considered a part of $1,000,000 in ransom - money. In the France rather than a colony. The city of autumn of 1795 the government was corn- Algiers, under French domination, is the pelled to agree, by treaty, to pay to capital of the department and colony, is the Dey of Algiers an annual tribute for well equipped with educational institu- the relief of captured seamen, according tions, and has become as orderly as any to long usage among European nations, place in France. The population in 1891 It was humiliating, but nothing better was 82,585. could then be done, and humanity demand- The Barbary States derived their name ed it. In 1812 the Dey, offended because from the Berbers, the ancient inhabitants, he had not received from the American From their ports, especially from Algiers, government the annual tribute in precise- went out piratical vessels to depredate ly such articles as he wanted, dismissed upon the commerce of other peoples. So the American consul, declared war, and early as 1785 two American vessels had his corsairs captured American vessels and been captured by these corsairs, and their reduced the crews to slavery. The Amer- crews (twenty-one persons) had been held' ican consul Mr. Lear was compelled to in slavery for ransom. The Dey, or ruler, pay the Dey $27,000 for the security of of Algiers demanded $60,000 for their re- himself and family and a few other Amer- demption. As this sum would be a prec- icans there from horrid slavery. Deter- edent, other means were sought to obtain mined to pay tribute no longer to the in- the release of the captives. In a message, solent semi-barbarian, the American gov- in 1790, President Washington called the eminent accepted the Dey's challenge for attention of Congress to the matter, but war, and in May, 1815, sent Commodore the United States were without a navy Decatur to the Mediterranean with a to protect their commerce. For what pro- squadron to humble the Dey. Decatur tection American vessels enjoyed they were found the Algerine pirate-fleet cruising for indebted to Portugal, then at war with Al- American vessels. He played havoc with giers. In 1793 the British government the corsairs, entered the Bay of Algiers made a secret arrangement with that of (June 28), demanded the instant sur- Portugal, whereby peace with Algiers was render of all American prisoners, full in- obtained. In that arrangement it was demnification for all property destroyed, stipulated that for the space of a year and absolute relinquishment of all claims Portugal should not afford protection to to tribute from the United States there- 9d ALGONQUIAN INDIANS after. The terrified Dey complied with Miami or Maumee, on Lake Erie, and the the demand. See DECATUB, STEPHEN. watershed between the Wabash and Kas- Algonquian, or Algonkian, Indians, kia rivers. The English and the Five Na- the most powerful of the eight distinct Ind- tions called them the Twigh twees. The ian nations found in North America by the Kickapoos were on the Wisconsin River Europeans in the seventeenth century. It when discovered by the French. The Illi- was composed of several tribes, the most wots formed a numerous tribe, 12,000 important of which were the Ottawas, strong, when discovered by the French. Chippewas, Sacs and Foxes, Menomonees, They were seated on the Illinois River, Miamis, Pottawattomies, Kickapoos, Illi- and composed a confederation of five nois, Shawnees, Powhatans, Corees, Nan- families namely, Kaskaskias, Cahokias, ticokes, Lenni-Lenapes or Delawares, Mo- Tamaronas, Michigamies, and Peorias. The hegans, the New England Indians, the Shaivnees occupied a vast region west of Abenakes, and Micmacs. There were the Alleghany Mountains, and their great smaller independent tribes, the principal council-house was in the basin of the Cum- of which were the Susquehannas in Penn- berland River. The Powhatans consti- sylvania; the Mannahoacs in the hill- tuted a confederacy of more than twen- country between the York and Potomac ty tribes, including the Accohannocks and rivers ; and the Monacans, on the head- Accomacs, on the eastern shore of Chesa- waters of the James River, Virginia. All peake Bay. The confederacy occupied the of these tribes were divided into cantons region in Virginia consisting of the navi- or clans, sometimes so small as to afford gable portion of the James and York a war-party of only forty men. The do- rivers, with their tributaries. The Corees main of the Algonkians covered a vast re- were south of the Powhatans, on the At- gion, bounded on the north and northeast lantic coast, in northern North Carolina. by the Eskimos; on the northwest by the The Cheraws and other small tribes occu- Knistenaux and Athabascas; on the west pied the land of the once powerful Hat- by the Dakotas; on the south by the teras family, below the Corees. The Nan- Catawbas, Cherokees, Mobilians, and Nat- ticokes were upon the peninsula between chez; and on the east by Nova Scotia, the Chesapeake and Delaware bays. The West of the Mississippi, the Blackfeet and Lenni-Lenapes, or Delawares, comprised Cheyennes are regarded as a family of the powerful families namely, the Minsis and Algonkians. The original land of the Delawares proper. The former occupied Ottawas was on the west side of Lake the northern part of New Jersey and a Huron; but they were seated upon the portion of Pennsylvania, and the latter Ottawa River, in Canada, when the French inhabited lower New Jersey, the banks discovered them, and claimed sovereignty of the Delaware River below Trenton, and over that region. The Chippewas and the whole valley of the Schuylkill. The Pottawattomies were closely allied by Ian- -Hohegans were a distinct tribe on the east guage and friendship. The former were side of the Hudson River, and under that on the southern shores of Lake Superior; name were included several independe'nt the latter occupied the islands and main- families on Long Island and the country land on the western shores of Green Bay between the Lenni-Lenapes and the New when first discovered by the French. In England Indians. The New England Ind- 1701 they seated themselves on the south- ians inhabited the country from the Con- ern shores of Lake Michigan. necticut River eastward to the Saco, in The Sacs and Foxes are really one tribe. Maine. The principal tribes were the They were found by the French, in 1680, Narragansets on Rhode Island; the Poka- at the southern extremity of Green Bay. nokets and Wampanoags on the eastern The Menomonees are among the few Ind- shore of Narraganset Bay and in a portion ian tribes who occupy the same domain as of Massachusetts; the Massachusetts in when they were discovered by Europeans the vicinity of Boston and the shores in 1699. That domain is upon the shores southward; and the Pawtuckets in the of Green Bay, and there the tribe remains, northeastern part of Massachusetts, em- The Miamis and Piankeshaws inhabited bracing the Pennacooks of New Hamp- that portion of Ohio lying between the shire. The ABENAKES (q. v.) were east- 100 AMEN AND SEDITION LAWS ALIQtJlPPA ward of the Saco. Their chief tribes were with the connivance or instigation of a the Penobscots, Norridgewocks, Androscog- certain eminent personage," meaning Pres- gins, and Passamaquoddies. For further ident Adams. details of the principal tribes, see their On July 14, 1798, an act was passed for respective titles. the punishment of sedition. It made it a Alien and Sedition Laws, Up to 1798 high misdemeanor, punishable by a fine the greater part of the emigrants to the not to exceed $5,000, imprisonment from United States since the adoption of the six months to five years, and binding to national Constitution had been either good behavior at the discretion of the Frenchmen; driven into exile by political court, for any person unlawfully to corn- troubles at home, or Englishmen, Scotch- bine in opposing measures of the govern- men, and Irishmen, who had espoused ment properly directed by authority, or ultra-republican principles, and who, fly- attempting to prevent government officers ing from the severe measures of repres- executing their trusts, or inciting to riot sion adopted against them at home, and insurrection. It also provided for the brought to America a fierce hatred of the fining and imprisoning of any person government of Great Britain, and warm guilty of printing or publishing " any admiration of republican France. Among false, scandalous, and malicious writings these were some men of pure lives and against the government of the United noble aims, but many were desperate po- States, or either House of Congress, or the litical intriguers, ready to engage in any President, with intent to defame them, or scheme of mischief. It was estimated to bring them into contempt or disre- that at the beginning of 1798 there' were pute." This was called the Sedition Law. 30,000 Frenchmen in the United States These laws were assailed with great vigor organized in clubs, and at least fifty thou- by the Opposition, and were deplored by sand who had been subjects of Great some of the best friends of the adminis- Britain. These were regarded as danger- tration. Hamilton deprecated them. He ous to the commonwealth, and in 1798, wrote a hurried note of warning against when war with France seemed inevitable, the Sedition Act (June 29, 1798) to Wol- Congress passed acts for the security of cott, while the bill was pending, saying: the government against internal foes. By " Let us not establish a tyranny. Energy an act (June 18, 1798), the naturaliza- is a very different thing from violence, tion laws were made more stringent, and If we take no false step, we shall be es- alien enemies could not become citizens at sentially united; but if we push things all. By a second act (June 25), which to the extreme, we shall then give to par- was limited to two years, the President ties body and solidity" Nothing contrib- was authorized to order out of the country uted more to the Federalist defeat two all aliens whom he might judge to be dan- years later than these extreme measures, gerous to the peace and safety of the See KENTUCKY; NATURALIZATION. United States. By a third act (July 6), Aliens. See NATURALIZATION. in case of war declared against the United Aliquippa, an Indian queen who dwelt States, or an actual invasion, all resident at the confluence of the Monongahela and aliens, natives or citizens of the hostile Youghiogheny rivers at the time of nation, might, upon proclamation of the Washington's expedition to Fort Le Boeuf President, issued according to his discre- (1753). She had complained of his neg- tion, be apprehended and secured or re- lect in not calling on her on his outward moved. These were known as Alien Laws, journey, so he visited her in returning. The President never had occasion to put With an apology, he gave the queen a them in force, but several prominent coat and a bottle of rum. "The latter," Frenchmen, who felt that the laws were Washington wrote, "was thought the aimed at them, speedily left the United much better present of the two," and har- States. Among these was M. Volney, who, mony of feeling was soon restored. Ali- in the preface of his work, A View of the quippawas a woman of great muscular and Soil and Climate of the United States, mental strength, and had performed such complained bitterly of " the public and brave deeds that she was held in reverence violent attacks made upon his character, by the Indians of western Pennsylvania. 101 ALISON ALLATOONA PASS Alison, FRANCIS, patriot and educator; born in Donegal county, Ireland, in 1705; came to America in 1735; and in 1752 he took charge of an academy in Philadelphia. From 1755 until his death he was Vice- provost and Professor of Moral Philosophy of the College of Pennsylvania. His chief claim to honor among men is that he was the tutor of a large number of Americans who were conspicuous actors in the events of the Revolution that accomplished the in dependence of the United States of America. He died in Philadelphia, Nov. 28, 1779. Allatoona Pass, a locality in Bartow county, Ga., about 40 miles northwest of Atlanta, having large historical in terest because of the important military operations in 1864. The Confederates, re treating from Resaca, took a position at Allatoona Pass. Sherman, after resting his army, proceeded to flank them out of their new position. J. C. Davis's division of Thomas's army had moved down the Oostenaula to Rome, where he destroyed important mills and foundries, and capt ured nearly a dozen guns. He left a garrison there. Meanwhile Sherman had destroyed the Georgia State Arsenal near he made a bold push, by Sherman's or der, to secure possession of a point neai New Hope Church, where roads from Ack- worth, Marietta, and Dallas met. A stormy night ensued, and Hooker could not drive the Confederates from their position. On the following morning Sher man found the Confederates strongly in trenched, with lines extending from Dallas to Marietta. The approach to their in- trenchments must be made over rough, wooded, and broken ground. For several days, constantly skirmish ing, Sherman tried to break through their lines to the railway east of the Allatoona Pass. McPherson's troops moved to Dal las, and Thomas's deployed against New Hope Church, in the vicinity of which there were many severe encounters, while Schofield was directed to turn and strike Johnston's right. On May 28 the Con federates struck McPherson a severe blow at Dallas; but the assailants were re pulsed with heavy loss. At the same time, Howard, nearer the centre, was re pulsed. Sherman, by skilful movements, compelled Johnston to evacuate his strong position at Allatoona Pass (June 1, 1864). ALLATOONA PASS. Adairsville. The Nationals proceeded to The National cavalry, under Garrard and gather in force at and near Dallas. John- Stoneman, were pushed on to occupy it, ston was on the alert, and tried to prevent and there Sherman, planting a garrison, this formidable flank movement. Hook- made a secondary base of supplies for his er's corps met Confederate cavalry near army. Johnston made a stand at the Pumpkinvine Creek, whom he pushed Kenesaw Mountains, near Marietta; but across that stream and saved a bridge they Sherman, who had been reinforced by two had fired. Following them eastward 2 divisions under Gen. Frank P. Blair (June miles, he (Hooker) found the Confeder- 8), very soon caused him to abandon that ates in strong force and in battle order, position, cross the Chattahoochee River, A sharp conflict ensued, and at 4 P.M. and finally to rest at Atlanta. 102 ALLATOONA PASS -ALLEN After the evacuation of Atlanta (Sept. ers, with about 800 small-arms. The 2, 1864), Sherman and Hood reorganized Nationals lost 707 men. The famous their armies in preparation for a vigorous signal of General Sherman was subse- fall campaign. Satisfied that Hood in- quently made the title of one of Ira D. tended to assume the offensive and prob- Sankey's most thrilling hymns, which has ably attempt the seizure of Tennessee, been sung the world over. Sherman sent Thomas, his second in com- Allegiance, OATH OF. See OATHS. mand, to Nashville, to organize the new Allen, CHARLES HERBERT, adminis- troops expected to gather there, and to trator; born in Lowell, Mass., April 15, make arrangements to meet such an 1848; was graduated at Amherst College emergency. Thomas arrived there Oct. 3. in 1869; and became a lumber merchant Meanwhile the Confederates had crossed at Lowell. He served in both Houses of the Chattahoochee, and by a rapid move- the Massachusetts legislature; was a Re- ment had struck the railway at Big publican member of Congress in 1885-89; Shanty, north of Marietta, and destroyed defeated as Republican candidate for gov- it for several miles. A division of in- ernor of Massachusetts in 1891; became fantry pushed northward and appeared Assistant Secretary of the Navy in May, before Allatoona, where Colonel Tourtel- 1898; was appointed the first American lotte was guarding 1,000,000 National ra- governor of Porto Rico in April, 1900; tions with only three thin regiments, and resigned in July, 1901. Sherman made efforts at once for the de- Allen, ETHAN, military officer; born in fence of these and his communications. Litchfield, Conn., Jan. 10, 1737. In 1762 Leaving Slocurn to hold Atlanta and the he was one of the proprietors of the iron- railway bridge across the Chattahoochee, works at Salisbury, Conn. In 1766 he he started on a swift pursuit of Hood went to the then almost unsettled domain with five army corps and two divisions of between the Green Mountains and Lake cavalry. He established a signal station Champlain, where he was a bold leader of on the summit of Great Kenesaw Moun- the settlers on the New Hampshire grants tain, and telegraphed to General Corse, at in their controversy with the authorities Rome, to hasten to the assistance of of New York. (See NEW HAMPSHIRE.) Tourtellotte. Corse instantly obeyed ; and During this period several pamphlets were when the Confederates appeared before written by Allen, in his peculiar style, Allatoona, at dawn (Oct. 5), he was there which forcibly illustrated the injustice of with reinforcements, and in command. The the action of the New York authorities. Confederates were vastly superior in num- The latter declared Allen an outlaw, and bers, and invested the place. After can- offered a reward of 150 for his arrest, nonadlng the fort two hours, their leader He defied his enemies, and persisted in (General French) demanded its surrender, his course. Early in May, 1775, he led a Then he assailed it furiously, but his few men and took the fortress of Ticon- columns were continually driven back, deroga. His followers were called " Green The conflict raged with great fierceness; Mountain Boys." His success as a par- and Sherman, from the top of Kenesaw, tisan caused him to be sent twice into heard the roar of cannon and saw the Canada, during the latter half of 1775, smoke of battle, though 18 miles dis- to win the people over to the republican tant. He had pushed forward a. corps cause. In the last of these expeditions he (23d) to menace the Confederate rear, attempted to capture Montreal, and by signal - flags on Kenesaw he said With less than 100 recruits, mostly to General Corse at Allatoona, "Hold Canadians, Colonel Allen crossed the St. the fort, for I am coming." And when Lawrence, Sept. 25, 1775. This was done Sherman was assured that Corse was at the suggestion of Col. John Brown, there, he said, "He will hold out; I know who was also recruiting in the vicinity, the man." And so he did. He repulsed and who agreed to cross the river at the the Confederates several times; and when same time a little above the city, the at- they heard of the approach of the 23d tack to be made simultaneously by both Corps, they hastily withdrew, leaving parties. For causes never satisfactorily behind them 230 dead and 400 prison- explained, Brown did not cross, and dis- 103 ALLEN aster ensued. Gen. Robert Prescott was she sailed from Quebec the humane cap- in command in the city. He sallied out tain struck off his irons. He was con- with a considerable force of regulars, lined seven weeks in Pendennis Castle in Canadians and Indians, and after a short England, when he was sent to Halifax, skirmish made Allen and his followers and thence to New York, where he was prisoners. When Prescott learned that exchanged in the spring of 1778, and re turned home, where he was received with joy and honors. He was invested with the chief command of the State militia. Congress immediately gave him the com mission of lieutenant-colonel in the Con tinental army. When, in the course of the war, Vermont assumed and main tained an independent position, a fruitless attempt was made by Beverly Robinson to bribe Allen to lend his support to a union of that province with Canada. He was supposed to be disaffected towards the re volted colonies, and he fostered that im pression in order to secure the neutrality of the British towards his mountain State until the close of the war. As a member of the legislature of Vermont, and as a delegate in Congress, he secured the great object of his efforts namely, the ultimate recognition of Vermont as an independent State. He removed to Burlington before the close of the war, and died there Feb. 13, 1789. In 1894 the United States gov ernment established a new military post 5 miles from Burlington and named it after him. See ETHAN ALLEN, FORT. Allen, ETHAN, lawyer; born in Mon- mouth county, N. J., May 12, 1832; was graduated at Brown University in 1860. At the beginning of the Civil War he raised a brigade of troops, but did not enter the service. In 1861-69 he was deputy United States attorney for the Southern District of JSTew York; in 1870- 90 practised law in New York City; and in the Presidential campaign of 1872 was chairman of the National Liberal Repub lican Committee. Subsequently he was president of the Cuban League of the United States. He is the author of Washington, or the Revolution, a history of the American Revolution in dramatic Allen was the man who captured Ticon- form. deroga, he treated him very harshly. He Allen, HENRY WATKINS, military offi- was bound hand and foot with irons, and cer; born in Prince Edward county, Va., these shackles were fastened to a bar of April 29, 1820; became a lawyer in Mis- Iron 8 feet in length. In this plight sissippi ; and in 1842 raised a company to he was thrust into the hold of a vessel to fight in Texas. He settled at West Baton be sent to England, and in that condi- Rouge, La., in 1850; served in the State tion he was kept five weeks; but when legislature; was in the, Law School at 104 ALLEN Cambridge in 1854; and visited Europe in 1859. He took an active part with the Confederates in the Civil War, and was at one time military governor at Jackson, Miss. In the battle of Shiloh and at Baton Rouge he was wounded. He was commissioned a brigadier-general in 1864, but was almost immediately elected gov ernor of Louisiana,, the duties of which he performed with great ability and wis dom. At the close of the war he made his residence in the city of Mexico, where he established the Mexican Times, which he edited until his death, April 22, 1866. Allen, IRA, military officer; a younger brother of Ethan; born in Cornwall, Conn., April 21, 1751. He was an active patriot, and took a distinguished part in public affairs in Vermont, his adopted State, where he served in the legislature, and was secretary of state, surveyor-gen eral, and a member of the council. He was a military leader in the war for inde pendence, and was one of the commission ers sent to Congress to oppose the claims of neighboring provinces to jurisdiction in Vermont. He effected an armistice with the British in Canada in 1781, and by so doing brought about a settlement of the controversy with New York. As senior major-general of the State militia in 1795, he went to Europe to purchase arms for his commonwealth, and on his way homeward with muskets and cannon he was captured, taken to England, and charged with being an emissary of the French, and intending to supply the Irish malcontents with arms. After long liti gation the matter was settled in Allen's favor. He wrote a National and Political History of Vermont, published in London in 1798, and died in Philadelphia, Jan. 7, 1814. Allen, JAMES LANE, author; born in Kentucky in 1849; was graduated at Transylvania University; taught in the Kentucky University, and later became Professor of Latin and Higher English in Bethany College, West Virginia. Since 1886 he has been engaged in authorship. His publications include Flute and Vio lin; The Blue Grass Region, and Other Sketches of Kentucky; John Gray, a novel; The Kentucky Cardinal; After math; A Summer in Arcady ; The Choir Invisible, etc. Allen, JOEL ASAPH, zoologist; born in Springfield, Mass., July 19, 1838; studied zoology at the Lawrence Scientific School. In 1865-71 he was a member of scientific expeditions to Brazil, the Rocky Moun tains, and Florida; in 1870-85 was as sistant in ornithology at the Museum of Comparative Zoology in Cambridge. He was president of the American Ornitholo gists' Union in 1883-90, and since 1885 has been curator of the department of vertebrate zoology in the American Muse um of Natural History in New York. Professor Allen edited the Bulletin of the Nuttall Ornithological Club, and was au thor of Monographs of North American Rodents (with Elliott Coues) ; History of North American Pinnipeds, etc. Allen, ROBERT, military officer; born in Ohio, about 1815; was graduated at West Point in 1836, and served with distinction in the war with Mexico. He was a very useful officer in the Civil War, and at tained the rank of brigadier-general, and brevet major - general of volunteers. He was stationed at St. Louis, where his ser vices were of great value during the war. At its close he was made assistant quar termaster-general (1866), and afterwards chief -quartermaster of the division of the Pacific. He died in Switzerland, Aug. 6, 1886. Allen, WILLIAM, jurist; born in Phila delphia about 1710; married a daughter of Andrew Hamilton, a distinguished law yer of Pennsylvania, whom he succeeded as recorder of Philadelphia in 1741. He assisted Benjamin West, the painter, in his early struggles, and co-operated with Benjamin Franklin in establishing the College of Pennsylvania. Judge Allen was chief -justice of that State from 1750 to 1774. A strong loyalist, he withdrew to England in 1774. In London he published a pamphlet entitled The American Crisis, containing a plan for restoring American dependence upon Great Britain. He died in England in September, 1780. Allen, WILLIAM, educator and author; born in Pittsfield, Mass., Jan. 2, 1784; graduated at Harvard College in 1802. After entering the ministry and preaching for some time in western New York, he was elected a regent and assistant libra rian of Harvard College. He was presi dent of Dartmouth College in 1817-20, and 105 ALLEN ALLIBONE of Bowdoin College in 1820-39. He was the author of Junius Unmasked; a supple ment to Webster's Dictionary; Psalms and Hymns; Memoirs of Dr. Eleazer Wheelock and of Dr. John Codmand; A Discourse at the Close of the Second Century of the Settlement at Northampton, Mass.; Wun- nissoo, or the Vale of Housatonnuck, a poem; Christian Sonnets; Poems of Naza reth and the Cross; Sacred Songs; and nu merous pamphlets, and contributed bi ographical articles to Sprague's Annals of the American Pulpit. He also prepared the first edition of the American Biograph ical and Historical Dictionary. He died in Northampton, Mass., July 16, 1868. Allen, WILLIAM HENRY, naval officer; born in Providence, R. I., Oct. 21, 1784; entered the navy as a midshipman in April, 1800, and sailed in the frigate George Washington to Algiers. He after- WILLIAM I1KNRY ALLKN. wards went to the Mediterranean in the Philadelphia, under Barren; then in the John Adams, under Rodgers; and in 1804 as sailing-master to the Congress. He was ii the frigate Constitution in 1805 ; and in 1807 he was third lieutenant of the Chesapeake when she was attacked by the Leopard. It was Lieutenant Allen who drew up the memorial of the officers of the Chesapeake to the Secretary of the Navy, urging the arrest and trial of Bar- ron for neglect of duty. In 1809 he was made first lieutenant of the frigate United States, under Decatur. He behaved brave ly in the conflict with the Macedonian; and after her capture took her safely into New York Harbor, Jan. 1, 1813. In July, 1813, he was promoted to master- commandant while he was on his voyage in the brig Argus, that took W. H. Craw ford, American minister, to France. That voyage ended in a remarkable and suc cessful cruise among the British shipping in British waters. After capturing and destroying more than twenty British mer chantmen, his own vessel was captured; and he was mortally wounded by a round shot (Aug. 14), and died the next day at Plymouth, England, whither he was con veyed as a prisoner. Allen, WILLIAM VINCENT, politician; born in Midway, O., Jan. 28, 1847; was educated in the common schools and Up per Iowa University; served as a private soldier in the Union army during the Civil War. In 1869 he was admitted to the bar. In 1891 he was elected judge of the Ninth Judicial District Court of Ne braska, and in 1892, United States Sena tor from Nebraska, as a Populist. In the special session of Congress in 1893 he held the floor with a speech for fifteen consecu tive hours, and in 1896 was chairman of the Populist National Convention. See PEOPLE'S PARTY; POPULISTS. Allerton, ISAAC, a Pilgrim Father; born in England about 1583; was the fifth man who appended his name to the con stitution of government signed in the cabin of the Mayflower. He survived the terrors of the first winter at Plymouth, and afterwards became the active agent of the settlers in negotiating the purchase of the domain from the Indians for the London merchants who furnished money for the enterprise. He was a successful trader, and became one of the founders of the commerce of New England. He finally made New Amsterdam (now New York) his chief place of residence, and traded principally in tobacco. He was chosen one of the Council of Eight Men. He died in New Haven in 1659. Alliance, FARMERS'. See FARMERS' ALLIANCE. Allibone, SAMUEL AUSTIN, bibliogra pher; born in Philadelphia, April 17, 1816. He was the author of A Critical 106 ALLISON ALMAGRO Dictionary of English Literature and Marquette at Kaskaskia, 111., Allouez British and American Authors, Living sought to make his permanent field of la- and Deceased, from the Earliest Ac- bor; but when La Salle, the bitter oppo counts to the Latter Half of the Nine- nent of the Jesuits, approached in 1679, he teenth Century. This work is in 3 retired. Returning to the Miamis on the volumes royal octavo, and exhibits evi- St. Joseph's River, he labored for a while, dence of great care, industry, good judg- and died, Aug. 27, 1689. The contribu- ment, most extensive research, and im- tions of Father Allouez to the Jesuit Re- niense labor in its preparation. Dr. Alii- laiions are most valuable records of the bone spent many years in gathering and ideas and manners of the Indians, arranging his materials. The volumes Allston, WASHINGTON, a distinguished were published in 1859, 1870, and 1871. painter; born in Waccamaw, S. C., Nov. 5, The work contains notices of 47,000 au- 1779; was graduated at Harvard College thors, with forty classified indexes of sub jects. Dr. Allibone contributed articles to the North American Review, the Evangelical Review, and other periodicals, and was the author of some religious con troversial essays. He also privately print ed and circulated a number of tracts. He was librarian of the Lenox Library in New York City at the time of his death, Sept. 2, 1889. Allison, WILLIAM BOYD, statesman; born in Perry, O., March 2, 1829; was edu cated at Alleghany and Western Reserve Colleges ; admitted to the bar and prac tised in Ohio until 1857, when he removed to Dubuque, la. In 1860 he was a dele gate to the Chicago Convention. During the Civil War he was active in raising troops for the Union army. In 1862 he was elected to Congress as a Republican, and was re-elected three times. In 1873 he was elected to the United States Sen ate, and has since held the seat by re- elections. He has been a conspicuous can didate for the Republican Presidential in 1800; went to Europe the next year to nomination several times, and his name is study art, and remained eight years abroad, associated with that of RICHARD P. BLAND His numerous works of art exhibit great (q. v.) in the history of the Silver Act of power in delineating the pictures of a 1877-78. He died in Dubuque, Aug. 4, fertile imagination. His skill as a color- 1908. See .BLAND SILVER BILL. ist earned him the title of "The Ameri- Allouez, CLAUDE JEAN, one of the earli- can Titian." He died in Cambridge, Mass., est French missionaries and explorers of July 9, 1843. the country near the Great Lakes; born Almagro, DIEGO DE, a Spanish con- in 1620. After laboring among the Ind- queror of Peru, and principal associate of ians on the St. Lawrence several years, Pizarro; born about 1464. Almagro, Pi- he penetrated the Western wilds and es- zarro, and a priest named Luque under- tablished a mission on the western shores took the conquest of Peru, and effected it, of Lake Michigan, where he heard much with a small force, in 1533. Almagro was about the Mississippi River, and made appointed governor of what is now Chile notes of what he learned concerning it. in 1534, extending his conquests into that He explored Green Bay, and founded a region in 1535. He and Pizarro became mission among the Foxes, Miamis, and bitter enemies. He conquered Cuzco, the other tribes there. A mission begun by ancient capital of Peru. In a decisire 107 WASHINGTON ALLSTON. ALMANACS AMBASSADOR battle near that place, in 1538, Almagro superior court of that city; and in 1893- was defeated, made prisoner, and put to 97 was governor of Illinois. His action death by order of Pizarro, in July, 1538. in pardoning (June 27, 1893) Fielden, Almagro was profligate, perfidious, and Schwab, and Ncebe, who had been im- cruel. His barbarous treatment of the prisoned for complicity in the Hayinarket inca Atahualpa covered his name and atrocity by alleged anarchists, excited fame with infamy. The inca's son rallied strong and general criticism (see ANAR- inen, who assassinated Pizarro, July 26, CHISTS; SOCIALISM). His publications 1541, and these were excuted by order of include Our Penal Machinery and its Vic- the Viceroy of Peru in 1542. tims; Live Questions; Oratory, etc. He Almanacs, AMERICAN. No copy is died in Joliet, 111., March 12, 1902. known to exist of the almanac of '1639, Alvarado, PEDRO DE, a Spanish conquer- the first published in America, calculated or in America; born in Badajos, Spain, for New England by William Pierce, about 1485. Sailing from Spain to Cuba, mariner; another, the Boston Almanac, in 1518, he accompanied Grijalva on his by John Foster, 1676. William Bradford exploring expedition along the Gulf coasts, at Philadelphia published an almanac of Alvarado made explorations and discov- twenty pages, 1685, commonly received as eries on the coast of California, and was the first almanac published in the colo- killed in a skirmish with the natives in nies; a copy from the Brinley library sold New Galicia, June 4, 1541. in New York, March, 1882, for $555. Alvey, RICHARD HENRY, jurist; born in Alsop, RICHARD, a witty poet and essay- St. Mary's county, Md., in March, ist; born in Middletown, Conn., Jan. 23, 1826; was educated in St. Mary's 1761. He is best known in literature as College; admitted to the bar in 1849. the principal author of a series of bur- He was elected a Pierce Presidential lesque pieces, begun in 1791 and ended in elector in 1852, and a member of the 1805, entitled, in collective form, The Echo. Maryland State Constitutional Conven- They were thus published in 1807. Dwight, tion in 1867. He served as chief judge Hopkins, and Trumbull were associated of the Fourth Judicial Circuit, and as with Alsop in the production of The Echo, a justice of the Maryland Court of Ap- which, from a work provocative of mirth, peals in 1867-83, and as chief-justice of became a bitter political satirist of the that court in 1883-93. On Jan. 1, 1896, Democratic party. He wrote a Monody President Cleveland appointed him a mem- on the Death of Washington, in heroic ber of the VENEZUELAN BOUNDARY COM- verse, which was published in 1800. Al- MISSION (q.v.). sop ranked among the " Hartford Wits " Ambassador, the title of the highest at the close of the eighteenth century. He diplomatic officer. In the days immedi- died in Flatbush, L. I., Aug. 20, 1815. ately preceding the establishment of the Alta California, the name formerly ap- American Republic the officers who were plied to Upper, or New, California, now sent to Europe on diplomatic missions a State in the American Union, to dis- were officially termed commissioners. On tinguish it from Lower, or Old, Califor- June 1, 1785, when Marquis Carmarthen ma, now a territory of Mexico. The name introduced John Adams to the King of California was first applied solely to what Great Britain, he designated the Ameri- is now known as Lower California. can representative as "Ambassador Ex- Altgeld, JOHN PETER, lawyer; born in traordinary from the United States of Germany, Dec. 30, 1847; was brought America to the Court of London." When to the United States in infancy by his the American diplomatic service was per- parents, who settled near Mansfield, O.; manently organized, the title of the high- received a public school education; en- est representative was made "Envoy Ex- tered the Union army in 1863, and served traordinary and Minister Plenipotenti- till the close of the war. In 1869 he was ary," subordinate representatives being admitted to the Missouri bar; in 1874 given the title of " Ministers " or " Minis- was elected State attorney of Andrew ters Resident." In 1893 Congress passed county, Mo. ; in the following year removed an act providing that whenever a foreign to Chicago- in 1886-91 was judge of the government elevated its representative at 108 AMBBISTER AMENDMENTS OF THE CONSTITUTION Washington to the rank of an ambassador, Amelia Island, an island at the mouth the United States government would raise of the St. Mary River, near the boundary its representative to that foreign govern- between Georgia and Florida. In the sum- ment to the same rank. Under this law mer of 1817 Gregor McGregor, styling the American representatives to France, himself " Brigadier-general of the armies Great Britain, Italy, Mexico, and Russia of New Granada and Venezuela, and gen- have been raised to the higher rank, and eral-in-chief employed to liberate the prov- are known officially as Ambassadors Ex- inces of both the Floridas," commissioned traordinary and Plenipotentiary. Ambas- by the supreme councils of Mexico and sadors, in addition to the usual privileges South America, took possession of this accorded representatives of foreign govern- island. His followers were a band of ad- ments, have the special one of personal venturers which he had collected in audience with the head of the State to Charleston and Savannah; and when he which they are accredited. took possession he proclaimed a blockade Ambrister. See ABBUTHNOT. of St. Augustine. In the hands of these Ambulance Service. The benevolent desperadoes the island was soon converted work of the Volunteer Refreshment Sa- into a resort of buccaneering privateers loons of Philadelphia during 1861-65 was under the Spanish- American flag, and a depot for smuggling slaves into the United States. Another similar establishment had been set up on Galveston Island, off the coast of Texas, under a leader named Aury. This establishment was more im portant than that on Amelia Island, as well on account of numbers as for the greater facilities afforded for smuggling. It was a second Barataria, and to it some of the old privateers and smugglers of Lafitte's band of Baratarians resorted, supplemented by a good work carried on Under a secret act, passed in 1811, and wholly by the firemen of that city. When first made public in 1817, the President sick and wounded soldiers began to be took the responsibility of suppressing brought to the hospitals in Philadel- both these establishments. Aury had phia, the medical department found it joined McGregor with the Galveston des- difficult to procure proper vehicles to con- peradoes, and their force was formida- vey them from the wharves to theii des- ble. The President sent Captain Henly, tination. The distress caused by delays in the ship John Adams, with smaller and inconvenient conveyances the sympa- vessels, and a battalion of Charleston thetic firemen attempted to alleviate. An artillery under Major Bankhead, to arrangement was made for the chief of take possession of Amelia Island, the department to announce, the arrival McGregor was then at sea, leaving of a transport by a given signal, when the Aury in command of the island. He was firemen would hasten to the landing-place summoned to evacuate it; and on Dec. with spring-wagons. Finally, the " North- 23 the naval and military commanders, ern Liberties Engine Company " had a fine with their forces, entered the place and ambulance constructed. More than thirty took quiet possession. Aury left it in other engine and hose companies followed February, and so both nests of pirates their example, and the suffering soldiers and smugglers were broken up. At were conveyed from ship to hospital with the same time there was much sympa- the greatest tenderness. These ambu- thy felt in the United States for the lances cost in the aggregate over $30,000, revolted Spanish - American colonies, and, all of which was contributed by the fire- in spite of the neutrality laws, a num- men. The number of disabled soldiers ber of cruisers were fitted out in American who were conveyed on these ambulances ports under their flags, during the war was estimated at more Amendments of the Constitution. See than 120,000. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 109 PHI-LADELPHIA FIREMEX'S AMBULANCE. AMERICA, DISCOVERERS OP America, DISCOVERERS OF. About the year 860 Noddodr, an illustrious sea- rover, driven by a storm, discovered Ice land, and named it Snowland. Not many years afterwards Earl Ingolf, of Norway, sought Iceland as a refuge from tyranny, and planted a colony there. Greenland was discovered by accident. One of the early settlers in Iceland was driven west ward on the sea by a storm, and discovered Greenland. To that retreat Eric the Red was compelled to fly from Iceland, and, finding it more fertile than the latter, named it Greenland, made it his place of abode, and attracted other Northmen thither. Among Eric's followers was a Norwegian, whose son Bjarni, or Biarne, a promising young man, trading between Norway and Iceland, and finding his fa ther gone with Eric, proposed to his crew to go to his parent in Greenland. They were driven westward, and, it is believed, they saw the American continent in the year 986. The sons of Eric heard the stories of Bjarni, and one of them, Lief, sailed in search of the newly discovered land, and found it. See UNITED STATES. While there continues to be much doubt concerning the authenticity of claims put forth in behalf of extremely early dis coverers, there are unquestioned histori cal records of America for the space of over 500 years. It was undoubtedly dis covered by Northern navigators early in the eleventh century, and the colony of the son of a Welsh prince, MADOC (q. v.), probably landed on the North American continent about the year 1170. There is no evidence that the Northmen saw mere than the coasts of Labrador and New England possibly Newfoundland ; and the landing-place of Madoc is wholly conjectural. On Oct. 11, 1492, Christo pher Columbus discovered one of the Ba hama Islands, east of Florida, but not the continent. In the summer of 1498 Sebas tian Cabot (commissioned by King Henry VII. of England), who sailed from Bristol in May with two caravels, discovered the North American continent at Labrador. He was seeking a northwest passage to "Cathay," and, being barred from the Polar Sea by pack-ice, sailed southward, discovered Labrador, and possibly went along the coast as far as the Carolinas. He discovered and named Newfoundland, and found the treasures of codfishes in the waters near it. On Aug. 1 the same summer Columbus discovered the con tinent of South America, near the mouth of the Orinoco River. Americus Vespucius, a Florentine, and an agent of the de' Medici family of Flor ence, was in Spain when the great discov ery of Columbus was made. In May, 1499, Vespucius sailed from Spain with Alonzo de Ojeda as an adventurer and self-consti tuted geographer for the new-found world. They followed the southern track of Co lumbus in his third voyage, and off the coast of Surinam, South America, they saw the mountains of the continent. That was a year after Columbus first saw the continent of America. On his return, in 1500, Vespucius gave an account of the voyage in a letter to Lorenzo de' Medici (for text of letter, see AMERICUS VESPU CIUS ) . He made other voyages, and in a letter to Rene", Duke of Lorraine, written in 1504, he gave an account of his four voyages, in which he erroneously 09. ted the time of his departure on his first voyage May 29, 1497, or a year or more before Columbus and Cabot severally discovered the continent of North and South Amer ica. In 1505 a narrative of his voyages to America was published at Strasburg, entitled Americus Vesputius de Orbe Ant- arctico per Regum Portugalliae Pridem Juventa. From that publication, bearing the untrue date of his first voyage, Vespu cius acquired the reputation of being the first discoverer of America. Alluding to that false date and the statements under it, the learned and conscientious Charle- voix wrote that " Ojeda, when judicially interrogated, gave the lie direct to the statement." And Herrera, an early Span ish historian, accuses Vespucius of pur posely falsifying the date of two of his voyages, and of confounding one with the other, "in order that he might arrogate to himself the glory of having discovered the continent." Finally, when Columbus was dead, and no voice of accusation or denial could escape his lips, the narra tives of Vespucius were published at St. Diey, in Lorraine, then, as now, a German frontier province. At that time Vespucius was in correspondence with a learned Ger man school -master named WaldseemiilleT (Wood-lake-miller), who was a corre- 110 AMERICA, DISCOVERERS OF spondent of the Academy of Cosmography search of a passage to India, and diseor- at Strasburg, founded by the Duke of ered Central America. In 1506 John Lorraine. Waldseemiiller suggested to the Denys, of Honfleur, explored the Gulf of members of that institution, under whose St. Lawrence. Two years later Thomas auspices the narrative of Vespucius had Aubert, a pilot of Dieppe, visited, it is been published, the name of " America " believed, the island of Cape Breton, and for the Western Continent, in compliment gave it its name. He carried some of the to the reputed discoverer. This proposi- natives with him to France. In 1518 the tion was published, with approval, in a Baron de Leri, preparatory to the settle- work entitled Cosmographice Rudimenta, ment of a. colony on Sable Island, left in 1507. It is believed that this action some cattle there, whose progeny, four- was taken at the request or suggestion score years afterwards, gave food to un- of Vespucius; at any rate, he is respon- fortunate persons left on the island by the sible for the fraud, for it was published Marquis de la Roche. Six years later, seven years before the death of the Flor- Juan Ponce de Leon, an old Spanish noble- entine, and he never repudiated it. " Con- man, sailed from Porto Rico, in the West sidering the intimacy of the two parties," Indies, of which he was governor, in search says the learned Viscount Santerem, of an island containing a fabled fountain " there is no doubt that the geographer of youth. He did not find the spring, but was guided by the navigator in what he discovered a beautiful land covered with did." The name of America was given in exquisite flowers, and named it Florida, honor of Americus Vespucius, for whom In 1520 Lucas Vasquez de Allyon, a a fraudulent claim to be the first dis- wealthy Spaniard, who owned mines in coverer of the Western Hemisphere was Santo Domingo, voyaged northwesterly made, and it was done at the suggestion from that island, and discovered the coast of a German school-master. Both Colum- of South Carolina. Meanwhile the Span- bus and Cabot were deprived of the right- iards had been pushing discoveries west- ful honor. See AMERICA, DISCOVERY OF. ward from Hispaniola, or Santo Domingo. In 1499, Vincent Yanez Pinzon sailed Ojeda also discovered Central America, from Palos with his brother and four In 1513 Vasco Nunez de Balboa discovered caravels, and, reaching the coast of South the Pacific Ocean from a mountain sum- America, discovered the great river mit on the Isthmus of Darien. Francisco Amazon in the spring of 1500. Before Fernandez de Cordova discovered Mexico Pinzon's return, Pedro Alvarez Cabral, in 1517. Pamphila de Narvaez and Fer* sent by Emanuel, King of Portugal, while dinand de Soto traversed the country bor on an exploring expedition discovered Bra- dering on the Gulf of Mexico, the former zil, and took possession of it in the name in 1528, and the latter in 1539-41. In the of the crown of Portugal. It was within latter year De Soto discovered and crossed the territory donated by the Pope to the the Mississippi, and penetrated the coun- Spanish monarchs. (See ALEXANDER VI.) try beyond. This was the last attempt of A friendly arrangement was made, and the Spaniards to make discoveries in it was ultimately agreed that the King of North America before the English ap- Portugal should hold all the country he peared upon the same field, had discovered from the river Amazon to It is claimed for Giovanni da Ver- the river Platte. On the announcement of razano, a Florentine navigator, that he the discoveries of Cabot in the Northwest, sailed from France with four ships, in King Emanuel of Portugal sent Gaspard 1524, on a voyage of discovery, and that Cortereal, a skilful navigator, with two he traversed the shores of America from caravels on a voyage of discovery towards Florida to Nova Scotia. He is supposed the same region. He saw Labrador, and to have entered Delaware Bay and the har- possibly Newfoundland, and went up the bors of New York, Newport, and Boston, coast almost to Hudson Bay; and it is be- and named the country he had discovered lieved that he discovered the Gulf of New France. Jacques Cartier discovered St. Lawrence. In 1504 Columbus, in a the gulf and river St. Lawrence in 1534, fourth voyage to America, sailed with four and, revisiting them the next yaar, gave caravels through the Gulf of Mexico, in them that name, because the day when he 111 AMERICA, DISCOVERY OF entered their waters was dedicated to St. and explored by French traders and Jesuit Lawrence. In 1576 Sir Martin Frobisher missionaries in the seventeenth century, went to Greenland and Labrador, and So early as 1640 the former penetrated the coasting northward discovered the bay that western wilds from Quebec. Father Al- bears his name. Huguenot adventurers louez set up a cross and the arms of from South Carolina, floating on the France westward of the lakes in 1665. ocean helplessly, were picked up, taken to Father Marquette, another Jesuit mis- England, and by the stories which they sionary, pushed farther in 1673, and dis- told of the beautiful land they had left, covered the upper waters of the Missis- caused Queen Elizabeth to encourage voy- sippi. Father Hennepin, who accom- ages of discovery in that direction. Sir panied La Salle, explored the Mississippi Walter Raleigh, favored by the Queen, sent in a canoe from the mouth of the Illinois two ships, commanded by Philip Amidas River, northward, in 1680, and discovered and Arthur Barlow, to the middle regions and named the Falls of St. Anthony. A of the North American coast. They dis- little later Robert Cavelier de la Salle, covered Roanoke Island and the main an enterprising young trader, penetrated near, and in honor of the unmarried Queen to the Mississippi, and afterwards visited the whole country was named Virginia, the coast of Texas from the sea and plant- In 1602 Bartholomew Gosnold, sailing ed the germ of a colony in Louisiana. See from England directly across the Atlantic, AMERICUS VESPUCIUS ; CABEZA DE VACA ; discovered the continent on May 14, near CABOT, SEBASTIAN; COLONIES; COLUMBUS, Nahant, Mass., and sailing southward also CHRISTOPHER; VERRAZANO, GIOVANNI DA; discovered a long, sandy point, which he Hm SHEN ; VASQUEZ DE ALLYON. named Cape Cod, because of the great America, DISCOVERY OF. Ferdinand number of that fish found there. He also Columbus was an illegitimate son of the discovered Nantucket, Martha's Vineyard, great admiral by Dona Beatrix Hen- and the Elizabeth Islands. In 1604 Mar- riques; was born in Cordova Aug. 15, tin Pring discovered the coast of Maine. 1488: became a page to Queen Isabella Again the French had turned their at- in 1498; accompanied his father on the tention to North America. M. de Chastes, fourth voyage, in 1502-4; passed the lat- governor of Dieppe, having received a ter part of his life principally in literary charter from the King of France to form pursuits and in accumulating a large li- a settlement in New France, he employed brary; and died in Seville July 12, 1539. Samuel Champlain, an eminent navigator, Among his writings was a biography of to explore that region. He sailed from his father, which was published in Italian, Honfleur in March, 1603, went up the St. in Venice, in 1571. The original of this Lawrence in May to Quebec, and, return- work, in Spanish, together with that of ing to France, found De Chastes dead, and his history of the Indies, is lost, although the concession granted to him trans- a considerable portion of his collection of ferred by the King to Pierre du Gast, volumes in print and manuscript is still Sieur de Monts, a wealthy Huguenot, who preserved in the Seville Cathedral. Be- accompanied Champlain on another voy- cause of the loss of the original manu- age to the St. Lawrence the next year, script of the biography, its authenticity In 1608 he went up the St. Lawrence has been called into question, and has again; and the following summer, while formed the basis for quite a spirited con- engaged in war with some Hurons and troversy by historians, with the result that Algonquins against the Iroquois, he dis- the general belief in the genuineness of covered the lake that bears his name in the biography has not been seriously northern New York. At the same time, shaken. If it did not settle the doubt, Henry Hudson, a navigator in the employ the controversy had the effect of call- of the Dutch East India Company, en- ing a larger degree of attention to the tered the harbor of New York (Septem- biography than it would have had other- ber, 1609) and ascended the river that wise. bears his name as far as Albany. Tli In this biography Ferdinand gave a nar- region of the Great Lakes and the upper rative of the discovery of America by his valley of the Mississippi were discovered father, which is herewith reproduced: 112. AMERICA, DISCOVERY OF All the conditions which the admiral demanded being conceded by their Catholic majesties, he set out from Granada on the 21st May 1492, for Palos, where he was to fit out the ships for his intended ex pedition. That town was bound to serve the crown for three months with two cara vels, which were ordered to be given to Columbus; and he fitted out these and a third vessel with all care and diligence. The ship in which he personally embarked was called the St. Mary; the second vessel named the Pinta, was commanded by Martin Alonzo Pinzon; and the third named the Nina, which had square sails, was under the command of Vincent Yanez Pinzon, the brother of Alonzo, both of whom were inhabitants of Palos. Being furnished with all necessaries, and having 90 men to navigate the three vessels, Co lumbus set sail from Palos on the 3d of August 1492, shaping his course directly for the Canaries. During this voyage, and indeed in all the four voyages which he made from Spain to the West Indies, the admiral was very careful to keep an exact journal of every occurrence which took place; al ways specifying what winds blew, how far he sailed with each particular wind, what currents were found, and every thing that was seen by the way, whether birds, fishes, or any other thing. Although to note all these particulars with a minute relation of every thing that happened, shewing what impressions and effects answered to the course and aspect of the stars, and the differences between the seas which he sail ed and those of our countries, might all be useful ; yet as I conceive that the rela tion of these particulars might now be tiresome to the reader, I shall only give an account of what appears to me neces sary and convenient to be known. On Saturday the 4th of August, the next day after sailing from Palos, the rudder of the Pinta broke loose. The admiral strongly suspected that this was occasioned by the contrivance of the master on purpose to avoid proceeding on the voyage, which he had endeavoured to do before they left Spain, and he therefore ranged up along side of the disabled ves sel to give every assistance in his power, but the wind blew so hard that he was unable to afford any aid. Pinzon, how ever, being an experienced seaman, soon made a temporary repair by means o'l ropes, and they proceeded on their voyage. But on the following Tuesday, the weather becoming rough and boisterous, the fast enings gave way, and the squadron was obliged to lay to for some time to renew the repairs. From this misfortune of twice breaking the rudder, a superstitious person might have foreboded the future disobedience of Pinzon to the admiral; as through his malice the Pinta twice sep arated from the squadron, as shall be afterwards related. Having applied th~ best remedy they could to the disableu state of the rudder, the squadron contin ued its voyage, and came in sight of the Canaries at day-break of Thursday the 9th of August; but owing to contrary winds, they were unable to come to anchor at Gran Canaria until the 12th. The ad miral left Pinzon at Gran Canaria to en deavour to procure another vessel instead of that which was disabled, and went him self with the Nina on the same errand to Gomera. The admiral arrived at Gomera on Sunday the 12th of August, and sent a boat on shore to inquire if any veisel could be procured there for his purpose. The boat returned next morning, and brought intelligence that no vessel was then at that island, but that Dona Beatrix de Bobadilla, the propriatrix of the island, was then at Gran Canaria in a hired ves sel of 40 tons belonging to one Gradeuna of Seville, which would probably suit his purpose and might perhaps be got. He therefore determined to await the arrival of that vessel at Gomera, believing that Pinzon might have secured a vessel for himself at Gran Canaria, if he had not been able to repair his own. After wait ing two days, he dispatched one of his peo ple in a bark which was bound from Go mera to Gran Canaria, to acquaint Pinzon where he lay, and to assist him in repair ing and fixing the rudder. Having wait ed a considerable time for an answer to hia letter, he sailed with the two vessels from Gomera on the 23d of August for Gran Canaria, and fell in with the bark on the following day, which had been detained all that time on its voyage by contrary winds. He now took his man from the bark, and sailing in the night past the isl- I. H 113 AMERICA, DISCOVERY OF and of Teneriffe, the people were much as- honour by the discovery. To lessen the tonished at observing flames bursting out fear which they entertained of the length of the lofty mountain called El Pico, or the of way they had to sail, he gave out that Peak of Teneriffe. On this occasion the they had only proceeded fifteen leagues admiral was at great pains to explain the that day, when the actual distance sailed nature of this phenomenon to the people, was eighteen; and to induce the people by instancing the examrJp of Etna and to believe that they were not so far from several other known volcanoes. Spain as they really were, he resolved to Passing by Teneriffe, they arrived at keep considerably short in his reckoning Gran Canaria on Saturday the 25th Au- during the whole voyage, though he care- gust; and found that Pinzon had only got fully recorded the true reckoning every in there the day before. From him the day in private. admiral was informed that Dona Beatrix On Wednesday the twelfth September, had sailed for Gomera on the 20th with having got to about 150 leagues west of the vessel which he was so anxious to ob- Ferro, they discovered a large trunk of a tain. His officers were much troubled at tree, sufficient to have been the mast of a the disappointment; but he, who always vessel of 120 tons, and which seemed to endeavoured to make the best of every oc- have been a long time in the water. At currence, observed to them that since it this distance from Ferro, and for some- had not pleased God that they should get what farther on, the current was found this vessel it was perhaps better for them ; to set strongly to the north-east. Next as they might have encountered much op- day, when they had run fifty leagues position in pressing it into the service, and farther westwards, the needle was observed might have lost a great deal of time in to vary half a point to the eastward of shipping and unshipping the goods, north, and next morning the variation Wherefore, lest he might again miss it was a whole point east. This variation of if he returned to Gomera, he resolved to the compass had never been before ob- make a new rudder for the Pinta at Gran served, and therefore the admiral was Canaria, and ordered the square sails of much surprised at the phenomenon, and the Nina to be changed to round ones, concluded that the needle did not actually like those of the other two vessels, that point towards the polar star, but to some she might be able to accompany them with other fixed point. Three days afterwards, less danger and agitation. when almost 100 leagues farther west, he The vessels being all refitted, the ad- was still more astonished at the irregu- miral weighed anchor from Gran Canaria larity of the variation; for having ob- on Saturday the first of September, and served the needle to vary a whole point arrived next day at Gomera, where four to the eastwards at night, it pointed di- days were employed in completing their rectly northwards in the morning. On the stores of provisions and of wood and wa- night of Saturday the fifteenth of Sep- ter. On the morning of Thursday the tember, being then almost 300 leagues west sixth of September, 1492, the admiral took of Ferro, they saw a prodigious flash of his departure from Gomera, and com- light, or fire ball, drop from the sky into menced his great undertaking by standing the sea, at four or five leagues distance directly westwards, but made very slow from the ships towards the south-west, progress at first on account of calms. On The weather was then quite fair and se- Sunday the ninth of September, about rene like April, the sea perfectly calm, day-break, they were nine leagues west the wind favourable from the north-east, of the island of Ferro. Now losing sight and the current setting to the north-east. of land and stretching out into utterly The people in the Nina told the ad- unknown seas, many of the people express- miral that they had seen the day before a ed their anxiety and fear that it might heron, and another bird which they called be long before they should see land again ; Rdbo-de-junco. These were the first birds but the admiral used every endeavour to which had been seen during the voyage, comfort them with the assurance of soon and were considered as indications of ap- finding the land he was in search of, and preaching land. But they were more raised their hopes of acquiring wealth and agreeably surprised next day, Sunday siy- 114 AMERICA, DISCOVERY OP teenth September, by seeing great abun- torn. The current was now found to set dance of yellowish green sea weeds, which to the south-west. appeared as if newly washed away from On Thursday the twentieth of Septem- some rock or island. Next day the sea her, two alcatrazes came near the ship weed was seen in much greater quantity, about two hours before noon, and soon and a small live lobster was observed afterwards a third. On this day likewise among the weeds: from this circumstance they took a bird resembling a heron, of a many affirmed that they were certainly black colour with a white tuft on its head, near the land. The sea water was after- and having webbed feet like a duck. wards noticed to be only half so salt as Abundance of weeds were seen floating in before; and great numbers of tunny fish the sea, and one small fish was taken, were seen swimming about, some of which About evening three land birds settled on came so near the vessel, that one was kill- the rigging of the ship and began to ed by a bearded iron. Being now 360 sing. These flew away at day-break, leagues west from Ferro, another of the which was considered a strong indication birds called rabo-de-junco was seen. On of approaching the land, as these little Tuesday the eighteenth September, Mar- birds could iiot have come from any far tin Alonzo Pinzon, who had gone a-head distant country; whereas the other large of the admiral in the Pinta, which was fowls, being used to water, might much an excellent sailer, lay to for the admiral better go far from land. The same day an to come up, and told him that he had alcatraz was seen. seen a great number of birds fly away Friday the twenty-first another alca- westwards, for which reason he was in traz and a rabo-de-junco were seen, and great hopes to see land that night; Pin- vast quantities of weeds as far as the eye zon even thought that he saw land that could carry towards the north. These ap- night about fifteen leagues distant to the pearances were sometimes a comfort to northwards, which appeared very black the people, giving them hopes of nearing and covered with clouds. All the people the wished-for land; while at other times would have persuaded the admiral to try the weeds were so thick as in some meas- for land in that direction; but, being ure to impede the progress of the vessels, certainly assured that it was not land, and and to occasion terror lest what is fabu- having not yet reached the distance at lously reported of St. Amaro in the frozen which he expected to find the land, he sea, might happen to them, that they would not consent to lose time in alter- might be so enveloped in the weeds as ing his course in that direction. But to be unable to move backwards or for- as the wind now freshened, he gave or- wards; wherefore they steered away from ders to take in the top-sails at night, those shoals of weeds as much as they having now sailed eleven days before could. the wind due westwards with all their Next day, being Saturday the twenty- sails up. second September, they saw a whale and All the people in the squadron being several small birds. The wind now veered utterly unacquainted with the seas they to the south-west, sometimes more and now traversed, fearful of their danger at sometimes less to the westwards; and such unusual distance from any relief, though this was adverse to the direction and seeing nothing around but sky and of their proposed voyage, the admiral to water, began to mutter among themselves, comfort the people alleged that this was and anxiously observed every appearance, a favourable circumstance; because among On the nineteenth September, a kind of other causes of fear, they had formerly sea-gull called Alcatraz flew over the ad- said they should never have a wind to miral's ship, and several others were seen carry them back to Spain, as it had always in the afternoon of that day, and as the blown from the east ever since they left admiral conceived that these birds would Ferro. They still continued, however, to not fly far from land, he entertained hopes murmur, alleging that this southwest of soon seeing what he was in quest of. wind was by no means a settled one, and He therefore ordered a line of 200 fathoms as it never blew strong enough to swell to be tried, but without finding any bot- the sea, it would not serve to carry them 115 AMERICA, DISCOVERY OF oack again through so great an extent of for himself against them. Some even pro- sea as they had now passed over. In spite ceeded so far as to propose, in case the of every argument used by the admiral, admiral should refuse to acquiesce in their assuring them that the alterations in the proposals, that they might make a short wind were occasioned by the vicinity of end of all disputes by throwing him over- the land, by which likewise the waves were board; after which they could give out prevented from rising to any height, they that he had fallen over while making his were still dissatisfied and terrified. observations, and no one would ever think On Sunday the twenty-third of Septem- of inquiring into the truth. They thus ber, a brisk gale sprung up W< N. W. with went on day after day, muttering, com- a rolling sea, such as the people had plaining, and consulting together; and wished for. Three hours before noon a though the admiral was not fully aware turtle-dove was observed to fly over the of the extent of their cabals, he was not ship ; towards evening an alcatraz, a river entirely without apprehensions of their in- fowl, and several white birds were seen constancy in the present trying situa- flying about, and some crabs were ob- tion, and of their evil intentions towards served among the weeds. Next day an- him. He therefore exerted himself to the other alcatraz was seen and several small utmost to quiet their apprehensions and birds which came from the west. Num- to suppress their evil design, sometimes bers of small fishes were seen swimming using fair words, and at other times fully about, some of which were struck with resolved to expose his life rather than harpoons, as they would not bite at the abandon the enterprize; he put them in hook. mind of the due punishment they would The more that the tokens mentioned subject themselves to if they obstructed above were observed, and found not to be the voyage. To confirm their hopes, he re- followed by the so anxiously looked-for capitulated all the favourable signs and land, the more the people became fearful indications which had been lately ob- of the event, and entered into cabals served, assuring them that they might against the admiral, who they said was soon expect to see the land. But they, desirous to make himself a great lord at who were ever attentive to these tokens, the expense of their danger. They repre- thought every hour a year in their anxiety sented that they had already sufficiently to see the wished-for land, performed their duty in adventuring far- On Tuesday the twenty-fifth of Septem- ther from land and all possibility of sue- ber near sun-set, as the admiral was dis- cour than had ever been done before, and coursing with Pinzon, whose ship was then that they ought not to proceed on the very near, Pinzon suddenly called out, voyage to their manifest destruction. If " Land ! land, Sir ! let not my good news they did they would soon have reason to miscarry;" and pointed out a large mass repent their temerity, as provisions would in the S. W. about twenty-five leagues dis- soon fall short, the ships were already tant, which seemed very like an island, faulty and would soon fail, and it would This was so pleasing to the people, that be extremely difficult to get back so far they returned thanks to God for the pleas- as they had already gone. None could ing discovery; and, although the admiral condemn them in their own opinion for was by no means satisfied of the truth now turning back, but all must consider of Pinzon's observation, yet to please the them as brave men for having gone upon men, and that they might not obstruct the such an enterprize and venturing so far, voyage, he altered his course and stood in That the admiral was a foreigner who had that direction a great part of the night, no favour at court; and as so many wise Next morning, the twenty-sixth, they had and learned men had already condemned the mortification to find the supposed land his opinions and enterprize as visionary was only composed of clouds, which often and impossible, there would be none to put on the appearance of distant land; favour or defend him, and they were sure and, to their great dissatisfaction, the to find more credit if they accused him of stems of the ships were again turned di- ignorance and mismanagement than he rectly westwards, as they always were un- would do, whatsoever he might now say less when hindered by the wind. Con- 116 AMERICA, DISCOVERY OF tinuing their course, and still attentively watching for signs of land, they saw this day an alcatraz, a rabo-de-junco, and other birds as formerly mentioned. On Thursday the twenty-seventh of Sep tember, they saw another alcatraz coming from the westwards and flying towards the east, and great numbers of fish were seen with gilt backs, one of which they struck with a harpoon. A rabo-de-junco likewise flew past; the currents for some of the last days were not so regular as before, but changed with the tide, and the weeds were not nearly so abundant. On Friday the twenty-eighth all the vessels took some of the fishes with gilt backs; and on Saturday the twenty-ninth they saw a rabo-de-junco, which, although a sea-fowl, never rests on the waves, but always flies in the air, pursuing the alca- trazes. Many of these birds are said to frequent the Cape de Verd islands. They soon afterwards saw two other alcatrazes, and great numbers of flying-fishes. These last are a-bout a span long, and have two little membranous wings like those of a bat, by means of which they fly about a pike-length high from the water and a musket-shot in length, and sometimes drop upon the ships. In the afternoon of this day they saw abundance of weeds lying in length north and south, and three alcatrazes pursued by a rabo-de-junco. On the morning of Sunday the thirtieth of September four rabo-de-juncos came to the ship; and from so many of them com ing together it was thought the land could not be far distant, especially as four alcatrazes followed soon afterwards. Great quantities of weeds were seen in a line stretching from W. N. W. to E. N. E. and a great number of the fishes which are called Emperadores, which have a very hard skin and are not fit to eat. Though the admiral paid every attention to these indications, he never neglected those in the heavens, and carefully observed the course of the stars. He was now greatly surprised to notice at this time that the Charles wain or Ursa Major constellation appeared at night in the west, and was N. E. in the morning: He thence conclud ed that their whole night's course was only nine hours, or so many parts in twenty- four of a great circle; and this he ob served to be the case regularly every night. It was likewise noticed that the compass varied a whole point to the N. W. at nightfall, and came due north every morning at day-break. As this unheard-of circumstance confounded and perplexed the pilots, who apprehended danger in these strange regions and at such an un usual distance from home, the admiral en deavoured to calm their fears by assign ing a cause for this wonderful phenome non: He alleged that it was occasioned by the polar star making a circuit round the pole, by which they were not a> little satisfied. Soon after sunrise on Monday the first of October, an alcatraz came to the ship, and two more about ten in the morning, and long streams of weeds floated from east to west. That morning the pilot of the admiral's ship said that they were now 578 leagues west from the island of Ferro. In his public account the admiral said they were 584 leagues to the west; but in his private journal he made the real dis tance 707 leagues, or 129 more than was reckoned by the pilot. The other two ships differed much in their computation from each other and from the admiral's pilot. The pilot of Nina in the afternoon of the Wednesday following said they had only sailed 540 leagues, and the pilot of the Pinta reckoned 634. Thus they were all much short of the truth; but the admiral winked at the gross mistake, that the men, not thinking themselves so far from home, might be the less dejected. The next day, being Tuesday the second of October, they saw abundance of fish, caught one small tunny, and saw a white bird with many other small birds, and the weeds appeared much withered and almost fallen to powder. Next day, seeing no birds, they suspected that they had passed between some islands on both hands, and had slipped through without seeing them, as they guessed that the many birds which they had seen might have been passing from one island to another. On this ac count they were very earnest to have the course altered one way or the other, in quest of these imaginary lands. But the admiral, unwilling to lose the advantage of the fair wind which carried him due west, which he accounted his surest course, a-nd afraid to lessen his reputation by deviating from course to course in scare)* 117 AMERICA, DISCOVERY OF of land, which he always affirmed that he well knew where to find, refused his con sent to any change. On this the people were again ready to mutiny, and resumed their murmurs and cabals against him. But it pleased God to aid his authority by fresh indications of land. On Thursday the fourth of October, in the afternoon, above forty sparrows to gether and two alcatrazes flew so near the ship that a seaman killed one of them with a stone. Several other birds were seen at this time, and many flying-fish fell into the ships. Next day there came a rabo-de-junco and an alcatraz from the westwards, and many sparrows were seen. About sunrise on Sunday the seventh of October, some signs of land appeared to the westwards, but being imperfect no person would mention the circumstance. This was owing to fear of losing the re ward of thirty crowns yearly for life which had been promised by their Catho lic majesties to whoever should first dis cover land; and to prevent them from calling out land, land, at every turn with out just cause, it was made a condition that whoever said he saw land should lose the reward if it were not made out in three days, even if he should afterwards actually prove the first discoverer. All on board the admiral's ship being thus fore warned, were exceedingly careful not to cry out land upon uncertain tokens; but those in the Nina, which sailed better and always kept ahead, believing that they certainly saw land, fired a gun and hung out their colours in token of the discov ery; but the farther they sailed the more the joyful appearance lessened, till at last it vanished away. But they soon after wards derived much comfort by observing great flights of large fowl and others of small birds going from the west towards the south-west. Being now at a vast distance from Spain, and well assured that such small birds would not go far from land, the admiral now altered his course from due west which had been hitherto, and steered to the south-west. He assigned as a rea son for now changing his course, although deviating little from his original design, that he followed the example of the Portu guese, who had discovered most of their islands by attending to the flight of birds, and because these they now saw flew al most uniformly in one direction. He said likewise that he had always expected to discover land about the situation in which they now were, having often told them that he must not look to find land until they should get 750 leagues to the west wards of the Canaries; about which dis tance he expected to fall in with Hispani- ola which he then called Cipango; and there is no doubt that he would have found this island by his direct course, if it had not been that it was reported to extend from north to south. Owing there fore to his not having inclined more to the south he had missed that and others of the Caribbee islands whither those birds were now bending their flight, and which had been for some time upon his larboard hand. It was from being so near the land that they continually saw such great num bers of birds; and on Monday the eighth of October twelve singing birds of various colours came to the ship, and after flying round it for a short time held on their way. Many other birds were seen from the ship flying towards the south-west, and that same night great numbers of large fowl were seen, and flocks of small birds proceeding from the northwards, and all going to the south-west. In the morn ing a jay was seen, with an alcatraz, sev eral ducks, and many small birds, all fly ing the same way with the others, and the air was perceived to be fresh and odor* iferous as it is at Seville in the month of April. But the people were now so eager to see land and had been so often dis appointed, that they ceased to give faith to these continual indications; insomuch that on Wednesday the tenth, although abundance of birds were continually pass ing both by day a-nd night, they never ceased to complain. The admiral upraided their want of resolution, and declared that they must perish in their endeavours to discover the Indies, for which he and they had been sent out by their Catholic maj esties. It would have been impossible for the admiral to have much longer withstood the numbers which now opposed him; but it pleased God that, in the afternoon of Thursday the eleventh of October, such manifest tokens of being near the land appeared, that the men took courage and 118 AMERICA, DISCOVERY OF rejoiced at their good fortune as much as they had been before distressed. From the admiral's ships a green rush was seen to float past, and one of those green fish which never go far from the rocks. The people in the Pinta saw a cane and a staff in the water, and took up another staff very curiously carved, and a small board, and great plenty of weeds were seen which seemed to have been recently torn from the rocks. Those of the Nina, besides similar signs of land, saw a branch of a thorn full of red berries, which seemed to have been newly torn from the tree. From all these indications the admiral was convinced that he now drew near to the land, and after the evening prayers he made a speech to the men, in which he reminded them of the mercy of God in hav ing brought them so long a voyage with such favourable weather, and in comfort ing them with so many tokens of a suc cessful issue to their enterprize, which were now every day becoming plainer and less equivocal. He besought them to be exceedingly watchful during the night, as they well knew that in the first article of the instructions which he had given to all the three ships before leaving the Canaries, they were enjoined, when they should have sailed 700 leagues west with out discovering land, to lay to every night, from midnight till daybreak. And, as he had very confident hopes of discovering land that night, he required every one to keep watch at their quarters; and, be sides the gratuity of thirty crowns a-year for life, which had been graciously prom ised by their sovereigns to him that first saw the land, he engaged to give the fort unate discoverer a velvet doublet from himself. After this, as the admiral was in the cabin about ten o'clock at night, he saw a light on the shore; but it was so un steady that he could not certainly affirm that it came from land. He called to one Peter Gutierres and desired him to try if he could perceive the same light, who said he did; but one Roderick Sanchez of Segovia, on being desired to look the same way could not see it, because he was not up time enough, as neither the admiral nor Gutierres could see it again above once or twice for a short space, which made them judge it to proceed from a candle or torch belonging to some fisherman or traveller, who lifted it up occasionally and lowered it again, or perhaps from people going from one house to another, because it appeared and vanished again so suddenly. Being now very much on their guard, they still held on their course until about two in the morning of Friday the twelfth of October, when the Pinta which was always far a-head, owing to her su perior sailing, made the signal of seeing land, which was first discovered by Rod erick de Triana at about two leagues from the ship. But the thirty crowns a-year were afterwards granted to the admiral, who had seen the light in the midst of darkness, a type of the spiritual light which he was the happy means of spread ing in these dark regions of error. Being now so near land, all the ships lay to; every one thinking it long till daylight, that they might enjoy the sight they had so long and anxiously desired. When daylight appeared, the newly dis covered land was perceived to consist of a flat island fifteen leagues in length, with out any hills, all covered with trees, and having a great lake in the middle. The island was inhabited by great abundance of people, who ran down to the shore filled with wonder and admiration at the sight of the ships, which they conceived to be some unknown animals. The Chris tians were not less curious to know what kind of people they had fallen in with, and the curiosity on both sides was soon satis fied, as the ships soon came to anchor. The admiral went on shore with his boat well armed, and having the royal standard of Castile and Leon displayed, accompanied by the commanders of the other two ves sels, each in his own boat, carrying the particular colours which had been allotted for the enterprize, which were white with a green cross and the letter F. on one side and on the other the names of Ferdi nand and Isabella crowned. The whole company kneeled on the shore and kissed the ground for joy, returning God thanks for the great mercy they had experienced during their long voyage through seas hitherto unpassed, and their now happy discovery of an unknown land. The admiral then stood up, and took formal possession in the usual words for their Catholic majesties of this island, io 119 AMERICA, DISCOVERY OF which he gave the name of St. Salvador, edge. Neither had they any knowledge All the Christians present admitted Co- of iron; as their javelins were merely lumbus to the authority and dignity of constructed of wood, having their points admiral and viceroy, pursuant to the com- hardened in the fire, and armed with a mission which he had received to that piece of fish-bone. Some of them had effect, and all made oath to obey him as scars of wounds on different parts, and the legitimate representative of their being asked by signs how these had been Catholic majesties, with such expressions got, they answered by signs that people of joy and acknowledgement as became from other islands came to take them their mighty success; and they all im- away, and that they had been wounded plored his forgiveness of the many af- in their own defence. They seemed inge- f rents he had received from them through nious and of a voluble tongue; as they their fears and want of confidence. Num- readily repeated such words as they once bers of the Indians or natives of the isl- heard. There were no kind of animals and were present at these ceremonies ; and among them excepting parrots, which they perceiving them to be peaceable, quiet, and carried to barter with the Christians simple people, the admiral distributed among the articles already mentioned, and several presents among them. To some in this trade they continued on board the he gave red caps, and to others strings of ships till night, when they all returned to glass beads, which they hung about their the shore. necks, and various other things of small In the morning of the next day, being value, which they valued as if they had the 13th of October, many of the natives been jewels of high price. returned on board the ships in their boats After the ceremonies, the admiral went or canoes, which were all of one piece hol- off in his boat, and the Indians followed lowed like a tray from the trunk of a tree ; him even to the ships, some by swim- some of these were so large as to contain ming and others in their canoes, car- forty or forty-five men, while others were rying parrots, clews of spun cotton yarn, so small as only to hold one person, with javelins, and other such trifling articles, many intermediate sizes between these to barter for glass beads, bells, and other extremes. These they worked along with things of small value. Like people in the paddles formed like a baker's peel or the original simplicity of nature, they were all implement which is used in dressing hemp, naked, and even a woman who was among These oars or paddles were not fixed by them was entirely destitute of clothing, pins to the sides of the canoes like ours; Most of them were young, seemingly not but were dipped into the water and pulled above thirty years of age; of a good backwards as if digging. Their canoes are stature, with very thick black lank hair, so light and artfully constructed, that if mostly cut short above their ears, though overset they soon turn them right again some had it down to their shoulders, tied by swimming ; and they ' empty out the up with a string about their head like water by throwing them from side to side women's tresses. Their countenances were like a weaver's shuttle, and when half mild and agreeable and their features emptied they lade out the rest with dried good; but their foreheads were too high, calabashes cut in two, which they carry which gave them rather a wild appear- for that purpose. ance. They were of a middle stature, This second day the natives, as said plump, and well shaped, but of an olive before, brought various articles to barter complexion, like the inhabitants of the for such small things as they could pro- Canaries, or sunburnt peasants. Some cure in exchange. Jewels or metals of any were painted with black, others with kind were not seen among them, except white, and others again with red ; in some some small plates of gold which hung the whole body was painted, in others only from their nostrils; and on being ques- the face, and some only the nose and eyes, tioned from whence they procured the gold, They had no weapons like those of Europe, they answered by signs that they had it neither had they any knowledge of such; from the south, where there was a king (or when our people shewed them a naked who possessed abundance of pieces and eword, they ignorantly grasped it by the vessels of gold; and they made our people 120 AMERICAN ARCHIVES AMERICAN LEARNED SOCIETIES to understand that there were many other islands and large countries to the south and south-west. They were very covetous to get possession of any thing which belonged to the Christians, and being themselves very poor, with nothing of value to give in exchange, as soon as they got on board, if they could lay hold of any thing which struck their fancy, though it were only a piece of a broken glazed earthen dish or porringer, they leaped with it into the sea and swam on shore with their prize. If they brought any thing on board they would barter it for any thing whatever belonging to our people, even for a piece of broken glass; insomuch that some gave sixteen large clews of well spun cotton yarn, weighing twenty - five pounds, for three small pieces of Portuguese brass coin not worth a farthing. Their liber ality in dealing did not proceed from their putting any great value on the things themselves which they received from our people in return, but because they valued them as belonging to the Christians, whom they believed certainly to have come down from Heaven, and they therefore earnestly desired to have something from them as a memorial. In this manner all this day was spent, and the islanders as before went all on shore at night. American Archives. See FORCE, PETER. American Association, THE. On Oct. 20, 1774, the first Continental Congress adopted a " non-importation, non-consump tion, and non-exportation agreement," ap plied to Great Britain, Ireland, the West Indies, and Madeira, by which the inhabi tants of all the colonies were bound to act in good faith as those of certain cities and towns had already done, under the penalty of the displeasure of faithful ones. The agreement was embodied in fourteen articles, and was to go into effect on the 1st of December next ensuing. In the sec ond article, the Congress struck a blow at slavery, in the name of their constitu ents, declaring that, after the 1st day of December next ensuing, they would neither import nor purchase any slave imported after that date, and they would in no way be concerned in or abet the slave- trade. Committees were to be appointed in every county, city, and town to enforce compliance with the terms of the associa- 121 tion. They also resolved that they would hold no commercial intercourse with any colony in North America that did not accede to these terms, or that should thereafter violate them, but hold such recusants as enemies to their common country. The several articles of the asso ciation were adopted unanimously, except the one concerning exportations. The South Carolinians objected to it, because it would operate unequally, and insisted upon rice being exempted from the re quirement concerning non - exportation. When the article was adopted, all but two of the South Carolina delegation seceded. Gadsden and another, in the spirit of Henry, declared that they were not " South Carolinians," but " Americans." The se- ceders were brought back, and signed the articles of association after a compromise was agreed to, which allowed their colony to bear no part of the burden of sacrifice imposed by the association. Short letters were addressed to the colonies of St. John (now Prince Edward's), Nova Scotia, Georgia, and the two Floridas, asking them to join the association. Measures were taken in various colonies for en forcing the observance of the American Association. Philadelphia set the exam ple (Nov. 22). New York followed (Nov. 23 ) . Other provinces took measures to the same effect. American Bible Society. See BIBLE SOCIETY. American Colonization Society. See COLONIZATION SOCIETY, AMERICAN. American Learned Societies, most of which are located or have branches in New York City: ACTUARIAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA. Organized in 1889 for the purpose of promoting actu arial science. Membership, 130. ALASKA GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY. Organized 1898. Membership, 1,200. AMERICAN ACADEMY OF MEDICINE. Present membership, 834. AMERICAN ACADEMY OF POLITICAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCE. Founded 1889. Members, 2,100. AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETY. Domestic membership restricted to 140. AMERICAN ASIATIC ASSOCIATION. To pro mote the trade and commercial interests of the citizens of the United States in Asia and Oceanica. Membership, 260. AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCE MENT OF SCIENCE. Chartered in 1874, be^ ing a continuation of the American Asso ciation of Geologists and Naturalists, or ganized in 1840. Membership, 3,000. AMERICAtf-LEAKJtfED SOCIETIES AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION. Each State is AMERICAN PHYSICAL SOCIETY. represented by one vice-president. Mem- AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION. bership about 1,700. Organized in 1878. Organized in 1892 for " the advancement AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY. The society of psychology." Membership, 120. was organized in 1876. Membership, 1,897. AMERICAN PUBLIC HEALTH ASSOCIATION. AMERICAN CLIMATOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION. AMERICAN SOCIAL SCIENCE ASSOCIATION. AMERICAN DERMATOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION. New York City. Founded in 1865. AMERICAN DIALECT SOCIETY. Organized in AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. 1889. Membership about 325. AMERICAN ECONOMIC ASSOCIATION. The ob jects are the study of economic sciences. AMERICAN ELECTRO-THERAPEUTIC SOCIETY. In- New York City. Has 2,500 members, stituted in 1852. AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CURIO COLLECTORS. Membership, 300. AMERICAN ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Organ- AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGI NEERS. Total membership, 2,064. The so ciety was chartered in 1881. Member- AMERICAN STATISTICAL ASSOCIATION. Mem bership, 556. Organized 1839. AMERICAN SURGICAL ASSOCIATION. ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF (New York Society). AMERICA ized 1859 ; incorporated 1862. ship, 140. AMERICAN FISHERIES SOCIETY. Organized AMERICAN SOCIETY OF NATURALISTS. December, 1870. Membership about 275. AMERICAN FOLK-LORE SOCIETY. Organized in 1888. Publishes American Folk-lore. AMERICAN FORESTRY ASSOCIATION. AMERICAN GENEALOGICAL SOCIETY. Object The promotion of the study of American ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN ANATOMISTS. genealogy. ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN PHYSICIANS. AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY. - New ASTRONOMICAL AND PHYSICAL SOCIETY York City. Organized in 1852. Member ship, 1,200. AMERICAN GYNECOLOGICAL SOCIETY. AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. Found ed 1884 ; incorporated by Congress 1889. Membership, 1,600. AMERICA. BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA. GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA. SoJety founded in 1888. Has 245 fellows. Pub lishes Bulletin of the Geological Society of America. AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTS. The NATIONAL ACADEMY OF DESIGN. New York institute has 26 chapters, 399 fellows, 300 City. Founded in 1826. 92 National associates, 58 corresponding and 69 hon- Academicians : 70 associates, orary members. Organized in 1857. NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. The acad- AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF ELECTRICAL ENGI- emy, incorporated by act of Congress, NEERS. New York. Membership, 1,350. March 3. 1863. There are at present 89 AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF HOMOEOPATHY. members and 28 foreign associates. Organized in 1844, and is the oldest med- NATIONAL ARTS CLUB. New York City. Or- ical organization in the United States. ganized in 1899. Membership, 2,000. NATIONAL DENTAL ASSOCIATION. AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING ENGINEERS. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. Membership, 2,897. Organized in 1871. AMERICAN LARYNGOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION. Wash ington, D. C. 2,800 active members and about 10,000 associates. AMERICAN LIBRARY ASSOCIATION. Organized NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY. Washing- In 1876. Incorporated in 1879. Member- ton, D. C. It publishes a monthly maga zine. York NEW YORK ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY. The Zoo logical Park is under the management of the society. ship over 1,000. zine. There are 2,500 members. AMERICAN MATHEMATICAL SOCIETY. New NATIONAL SCULPTURE SOCIETY. New York City. Membership, 375. The society City. Incorporated in 1896. publishes two journals. AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION. Publishes a weekly journal. Membership over 11,000. AMERICAN MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY. Organ- SCIENTIFIC ALLIANCE OF NEW YORK. The ized 1878 ; incorporated 1891. Membership, Council of the Scientific Alliance is com- 300. posed of three delegates from each of eight AMERICAN NEUROLOGICAL ASSOCIATION. New scientific societies. York City. SOCIETY FOR THE PROMOTION OF AGRICULT- AMERICAN NUMISMATIC AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL URAL SCIENCE. SOCIETY. Membership, 300. SOCIETY OF AMERICAN ARTISTS. New York AMERICAN OPTHALMOLOGICAL SOCIETY. City. Annual exhibition. Members, 110. AMERICAN ORIENTAL SOCIETY. Organized SOCIETY OF AMERICAN AUTHORS. Object Sept. 7, 1842, for the cultivation of learn- The advancement of the interests and the ing in the Asiatic, African, and Polynesian protection of the rights of authors. Mem- languages. Membership, 380. bership over 400. AMERICAN ORNITHOLOGISTS' UNION. Mem- SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY (New York Section). Membership, 871. SOCIETY OF NAVAL ARCHITECTS AND MARINE ENGINEERS. Object The promotion of the bership, 734. AMERICAN ORTHOPEDIC ASSOCIATION. AMERICAN PHILOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION. Membership about 550. AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. Phila delphia. Object For promoting useful art of ship-building, commercial and naval. Incorporated. Headquarters, New York City. Membership, 775. knowledge. Founded in 1743. Has 200 UNIVERSITY EXTENSION SOCIETY. Philadel- resident and 300 non-resident members. phia. Incorporated in 1892. 122 AMERICAN NATIONAL ARBITRATION BOARD American National Arbitration States; Cornelius N. Bliss, former Secre- Board. The industrial department of tary of the Interior; Charles Francis the National Civic Federation called a Adams, president of the Union Pacific conference of the leading capitalists and Railroad; Bishop Henry C. Potter, of labor representatives to meet in New New York; Archbishop John Ireland, of York City Dec. 16, 1901. On Dec. 17 St. Paul; Charles W. Eliot, president of the meeting appointed thirty-six repre- Harvard University; Franklin Macveagh, sentative men to form a permanent board wholesale grocer, of Chicago; James H. of arbitration. The men selected were: Eckels, bank president, Chicago; John J. To Represent Capital. Marcus A. McCook, lawyer ; John G. Milburn, law- Hanna, United States Senator; Charles yer, of Buffalo; Charles J. Bonaparte, M. Schwab, president of the United States of Baltimore; Oscar S. Strauss, mer- Steel Corporation; S. R. Callaway, presi- chant, and former minister to Turkey; dent of the American Locomotive Com- secretary of the commission, Ralph M. pany; Charles A. Moore, president of the Easley, of the National Civic Federa- American Tool Company; John D. Rocke- tion. feller, Jr., Standard Oil Company; H. H. The committee met Dec. 18 and passed Vreeland, president of the Metropolitan the following resolutions: Street Railway; Lewis Nixon, owner of That this committee shall be known the Crescent Ship-yard, Elizabethport, N. as the Industrial Department of the Na- J. ; James A. Chambers, president of the tional Civic Federation. American Glass Company, Pittsburg; That the scope and province of this William H. Pfahler, president of the Na- department shall be to do what may seem tional Stove Manufacturers' Association, best to promote industrial peace; to be Philadelphia; Julius Kruttschnitt, as- helpful in establishing rightful relations si stan t to the president of the Southern between employers and workers; by its Pacific Railroad; E. P. Ripley, president good offices to endeavor to obviate and of the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe prevent strikes and lockouts; to aid in re- Railroad; Marcus M. Marks, president of newing industrial relations where a rupt- the National Association of Clothing Man- ure has occurred, ufacturers. That at all times representatives of To Represent Labor. Samuel Gompers, employers and workers, organized or un- president of the American Federation of organized, should confer for the adjust- Labor; John Mitchell, president of the ment of difficulties or disputes before an United Mine Workers of America; Frank acute stage is reached, and thus avoid P. Sargent, grand-master of the Brother- or minimize the number of strikes and hood of Locomotive Firemen; Theodore P. lockouts. Shaffer, president of the Amalgamated That mutual agreements as to condi- Association of Iron, Steel, and Tin Work- tions under, which labor shall be perform ers; James J. Duncan, first vice-presi- ed should be encouraged, and that when dent of the American Federation of La- agreements are made the terms thereof bor; Daniel J. Keefe, president of the should be faithfully adhered to, both in International Association of Longshore- letter and spirit, by both parties, men; Martin Fox, president of the Iron That this department, either as a Moulders of America; James E. Lynch, whole or a subcommittee by it appointed, president of the International Typograph- shall, when required, act as a forum to ical Union; E. E. Clark, grand conductor adjust and decide upon questions at issue of the Association of Railway Conductors ; between workers and their employers, pro- Henry White, secretary of the Garment vided in its opinion the subject is one Workers of America; Walter Macarthur, of sufficient importance, editor of the Coast Seamen's Journal of That this department will not consider San Francisco; James O'Connell, presi- abstract industrial problems, dent of the International Association of That this department assumes no Machinists. power of arbitration unless such powers To Represent the Public. Grover be conferred by both parties to a dis- Cleveland, former Presides!; of the United pute. 123 AMERICAN PART'S -AMERICA'S CUP That this department shall adopt a set a site given by the Greek government, and of by-laws for its government. is valued, together with its grounds, at Senator Hanna was chosen chairman. $46,000. The endowment is about $50,000. The other officers are: Samuel Gompers Aside from the study of known remains of and Oscar Strauss, vice-chairmen; Charles Greek art and civilization, the school has A, Moore, treasurer, and Ralph M. Easley, engaged in independent excavations at secretary. Eretria and Argos, with valuable results. American Party, a political organi- Associated with it are similar institu- zation, founded in 1854, the members of tions supported by the German, English, which became known as " Know-nothings," French, and Greek governments, because in their endeavors to preserve the American System, a phrase used to secrecy of their movements they were in- express the policy of protection to home structed to reply " I don't know " to any industries by means of duties on imports; question asked in reference to the party. ' applied by Henry Clay to his scheme for It was at first a secret political organi- protective duties and internal improve- zation, the chief object of which was the ments, which resulted in the enactment of proscription of foreigners by the repeal the tariff bill of 1824. See FREE TRADE; of the naturalization laws of the United PROTECTION. States, and the exclusive choice of Ameri- America's Cup, the popular name of a cans for office. The more radical members yachting trophy originally called the of the party advocated a purely American Queen's Cup, which was offered by the school system, and uncompromising oppo- Royal Yacht Squadron of England in a sition to the Roman Catholics. Such nar row views were incompatible with the gen erosity and catholic spirit of enlightened American citizens. In 1856 they nomi nated ex-President Fillmore for the Presi dency, who received 874,534 popular and eight electoral votes ; made no nominations in 1860, but united with the Constitu tional Union party, whose candidates, Bell and Everett, received 590,631 popular and thirty-nine elctoral votes; reappeared with a ticket in 1880, which received 707 popular votes; and again in 1888, when 1,591 votes were cast for the party candi dates in California; and have made no nominations since. See KNOW-NOTHING PARTY. American Protective Association, a secret organization which acquired noto riety first in 1890-95, and according to popular belief was opposed to the Catho lic Church. According to W. J. H. Tray- nor, its president, " it is neither a religious body nor an institution adverse to the re ligion, per se, of any person, sect, or faith." American School of Classical Stud ies, an institution founded in Athens, Greece, in 1882. It is a branch of the Archaeological Institute of America, and AMERICA'S CUP. is supported through an independent com mittee of representatives from a number competition open to the yachts of all na- of American colleges, each of which con- tions in 185i. The cup was won by the tributes $250 a year for this purpose. It Boston - built schooner - yacht America. was erected by private subscriptions, upon Since then there were challenge contest* 1 124 AMERICTTS VESPUCITJS in 1870, 1871, 1876, 1881, 1885, 1886, 1887, 1893, 1895, 1899, 1901, and 1903, and in each instance the cup was defended with success. In 1895, Lord Dunraven's yacht, Valkyrie, after having been de feated in one race, won the second, but was deprived of the victory because of a foul. The Englishman claimed that he had been cheated, and refused to race again. He charged the American yachts men with unsportsmanlike conduct, and visited this country to press his charges. His complaints were dismissed and he was dropped from the list of members of the New York Yacht Club, under whose auspices the races had been held. One of the most notable of the several contests was that in 1903, when Sir Thomas Lipton sailed the Shamrock III. against the American de fender Reliance. The contest was charac terized by the highest type of international courtesy and good feeling, although the Shamrock III. had a series of mishaps and in the third race was unable to finish. AMEBICITS VESPUCITTS Americus Vespucius, navigator; born year before), passed along the coast 01 in Florence, March 9, 1451. When Colum- Venezuela, crossed the Caribbean Sea to bus was in Seville preparing for his second Santo Domingo, kidnapped some natives voyage, Vespucius was there as a commer- of the Antilles, and returned to Spain in cial agent of the Medici family of Flor- June, 1500, and sold his victims for slaves ence, and he became personally acquainted to Spanish grandees. In May, 1501, Ves- with the discoverer. That acquaintance pucius, then in the service of the King of Portugal, sailed on his second voyage to America, exploring the coast of Brazil. In 1503 he commanded a caravel in a squad ron destined for America, but parted com pany with the other vessels, and off the coast of Brazil discovered the Bay of All- Saints. He then ran along the coast 260 leagues, and, taking in a cargo of Brazil wood, returned to Lisbon in 1504. He entered the Spanish service again in 1505, was made chief pilot of the realm, and again voyaged to America. In 1504 Ves pucius, in a letter to the Duke of Lor raine, gave an account of his four voy ages to the New World, in which was '' given the date of May 29, 1497, as the time when he sailed on his first vova s e - That was a year earlier than the discovery of the continent of South America by Co lumbus and of North America by Cabot, and made it appear that Vespucius was inspired the Florentine with an ardent dc- the first discoverer. After the death of sire to make a voyage to the newly found Columbus, in 1506, a friend of Vespucius continent, and he was gratified when, in proposed to the Academy of Cosmography 1499, he sailed from Spain with Alonzo at Strasburg, upon the authority of the de Ojeda as an adventurer and self-con- falsely dated letter, to give the name stituted geographer of the expedition. "America" to the Western Continent in Ojeda followed the track of Columbus in compliment to its "first discoverer." It his third voyage, and discovered moun- was done, and so Columbus and Cabot were tains in South America when off the coast both deprived of the honor of having their of Surinam. He ran up the coast to the names associated with the title of this mouth of the Orinoco River (where Co- continent by fraud. Vespucius died in lumbus had discovered the continent the Seville, Feb. 22, 1512. 125 AMERICUS VESPUCIUS. AMEBICUS VESPUCIUS His First Voyage. He started from Cadiz on May 10, 1497, and returned to that city on Oct. 15, 1498. His letter to Pier Soderini, gonfalonier of the repub lic of Florence, is as follows: Magnificent Lord. After humble rever ence and due commendations, etc. It may be that your Magnificence will be sur prised by (this conjunction of) my rash ness and your customary wisdom, in that I should so absurdly bestir myself to write to your Magnificence, the present so-prolix letter; knowing (as I do) that your Magnificence is continually employed in high councils and affairs concerning the good government or this sublime Re public. And will hold me not only pre sumptuous, but also idly-meddlesome in setting myself to write things, neither suitable to your station, nor entertaining, and written in barbarous style, and out side of every canon of polite literature: but my confidence which I have in your virtues and in the truth of my writing, which are things (that) are not found written neither by the ancients nor by modern writers, as your Magnificence will in the sequel perceive, make me bold. The chief cause which moved (me) to write to you, was at the request of the present bearer, who is named Benvenuto Ben- Tenuti our Florentine (fellow-citizen), very much, as it is proven, your Magnifi cence's servant, and my very good friend: who happening to be here in this city of Lisbon, begged that I should make com munication to your Magnificence of the things seen by me in divers regions of the world, by virtue of four voyages which I have made in discovery of new lands; two by order of the king of Castile, King Don Ferrando VI., across the great gulf of the Ocean-sea, towards the west: and the other two by command of the puissant King Don Manuel King of Portugal, towards the south: Telling me that your Magnificence would take pleasure thereof, and that herein he hoped to do you ser vice: wherefore I set me to do it: because I am assured that your Magnificence holds me in the number of your servants, remem bering that in the time of our youth I was your friend, and now (am your) ser vant: and (remembering our) going to hear the rudiments of grammar under the fair example and instruction of the ven erable monk friar of Saint Mark Fra Giorgio Antonio Vespucci : whose counsels and teaching would to God that I had fol lowed: for as saith Petrarch, I should be another man than what I am. Howbeit soever, I grieve not: because I have ever taken delight in worthy matters: and al though these trifles of mine may not be suitable to your virtues, I will say to you as said Pliny to Maecenas, you were some time wont to take pleasure in my prat- tlings: even though your Magnificence be continuously busied in public affairs, you will take some hour of relaxation to con sume a little time in frivolous or amusing things: and as fennel is customarily given atop of delicious viands to fit them for better digestion, so may you, for a relief from your so heavy occupations, order this letter of mine to be read: so that they may withdraw you somewhat from the continual anxiety and assiduous re flection upon public affairs: and if I shall be prolix, I crave pardon, my Magnificent Lord. Your Magnificence shall know that the motive of my coming into this realm of Spain was to traffic in merchandise: and that I pursued this intent about four years: during which I saw and knew the inconstant shif tings of Fortune: and how she kept changing those frail and transi tory benefits; and how at one time she holds man on the summit of the wheel, and at another time drives him back from her, and despoils him of what may be called his borrowed riches: so that, know ing the continuous toil which man under goes to win them, submitting himself to so many anxieties and risks, I resolved to abandon trade, and to fix my aim upon something more praiseworthy and stable: whence it was that I made preparation for going to see part of the world and its wonders: and herefor the time and place presented themselves most opportunely to me: which was that the King Don Fer rando of Castile being about to despatch four ships to discover new lands towards the west, I was chosen by his Highness to go in that fleet to aid in making discov ery : and we set out from the port of Cadiz on the 10 day of May 1497, and took our route through the great gulph of the Ocean-sea: in which voyage we were eighteen months (engaged) : and discor- 126 AMEBICUS VESPUCIUS ered much continental land and innumer able islands, and great part of them in habited; whereas there is no mention made by the ancient writers of them: I believe, because they had no knowledge thereof: for, if I remember well, I have read in some one (of those writers) that he con sidered that this Ocean-sea was an un peopled sea: and of this opinion was Dante our poet in the xxvi. chapter of the Inferno, where he feigns the death of Ulysses: in which voyage I beheld things of great wondrousness as your Magnificence shall understand. As I said above, we left the port of Cadiz four con sort ships: and began our voyage in direct course to the Fortunate Isles, which are called to-day la gran Canaria, which are situated in the Ocean-sea at the extremity of the inhabited west, (and) set in the third climate: over which the North Pole has an elevation of 27 and a half degrees beyond their horizon: and they are 280 leagues distant from this city of Lisbon, by the wind between mezzo di and libeccio : where we remained eight days, taking in provision of. water, and wood and other necessary things: and from here, having said our prayers, we weighed anchor, and gave the sails to the wind, beginning our course to westward, taking one quarter by south-west: and so we sailed on till at the end of 37 days we reached a land which we deemed to be a continent: which is distant westwardly from the isles of Canary about a thousand leagues beyond the inhabited region within the torrid zone : for we found the North Pole at an ele vation of 16 degrees above its horizon, and (i* was) westward, according to the shew ing of our instruments, 75 degrees from the isles of Canary: whereat we anchored with our ships a league and a half from land: and we put out our boats freighted with men and arms: we made towards the land, and before we reached it, had sight of a great number of people who were going along the shore: by which we were much rejoiced : and we observed that they were a naked race: they shewed them selves to stand in fear of us: I believe (it was) because they saw us clothed and of other appearance (than their own): they all withdrew to a hill, and for what soever signals we made to them of peace and of friendliness, they would not come to parley with us: so that, as the night was now coming on, and as the ships were anchored in a dangerous place, being on a rough and shelterless coast, we decided to remove from there the next day, and to go in search of some harbour or bay, where we might place our ships in safety: and we sailed with the maestrale wind, thus running along the coast with the land ever in sight, continually in our course observing people along the shore: till after having navigated for two days, we found a place sufficiently secure for the ships, and anchored half a league from land, on which we saw a very great num ber of people: and this same day we put to land with the boats, and sprang on shore full 40 men in good trim: and still the land's people appeared shy of converse with us, and we were unable to encourage them so much as to make them come to speak with us: and this day we laboured so greatly in giving them of our wares, such as rattles and mirrors, beads, spalline, and other trifles, that some of them took confidence and came to discourse with us: and after having made good friends with them, the night coming on, we took our leave of them and returned to the ships: and the next day when the dawn appeared we saw that there were infinite numbers of people upon the beach, and they had their women and children with them: we went ashore, and found that they were all laden with their worldly goods which are suchlike as, in its (proper) place, shall be related: and be fore we reached the land, many of them jumped into the sea and came swimming to receive us at a bowshot's length (from the shore), for they are very great swim mers, with as much confidence as if they had for a long time been acquainted with us: and we were pleased with this their confidence. For so much as we learned of their manner of life and customs, it was that they go entirely naked, as well the men as the women. . . . They are of medium stature, very well proportioned: their flesh is of a colour that verges into red like a lion's mane: and I believe that if they were clothed, they would be as white as we: they have not any hair upon the body, except the hair of the head which is long and black, and especially in the women, whom it renders handsome ; in 127 AMERICTTS VESPUCITTS aspect they are not very good-looking, be cause they have broad faces, so that they seem Tartar-like: they let no hair grow on their eyebrows, nor on their eyelids, nor elsewhere except the hair of the head: for they hold hairness to be a % filthy thing: they are very light-footed in walk ing and in running, as well the men as the women : so that a woman recks nothing of running a league or two, as many times we saw them do: and herein they have a very great advantage over us Christians: they swim (with an expertness) beyond all belief, and the women better than the men: for we have many times found and seen them swimming two leagues out at sea without anything to rest upon. Their arms a-re bows and arrows very well made, save that (the arrows) are not (lipped) with iron or any other kind of hard metal: and instead of iron they put animals' or fishes' teeth, or a spike of tough wood, with the point hardened by fire: they are sure marksmen for they hit whatever they aim at: and in some places the women use these bows : they have other weapons, such as fire-hardened spears, and also clubs with knobs, beautifully carved. Warfare is used amongst them, which they carry on against people not of their own language, very cruelly, without grant ing life to anj one, except ( to reserve him) for greater suffering. When they go to war, they take their women with them, not that these may fight, but because they carry behind them their worldly goods, for a woman carries on her back for thirty or forty leagues a load which no man could bear: as we have many times seen them do. They are not accustomed to have any Captain, nor do they go in any ordered array, for everyone is lord of himself: and the cause of their wars is not for lust of dominion, nor of extend ing their frontiers, nor for inordinate covetousness, but for some ancient enmity which in by-gone times arose amongst them: a-nd when asked why they made war, they knew not any other reason to give than that they did so to avenge the death of their ancestors, or of their par ents: these people have neither King, nor Lord, nor do they yield obedience to any one, for they live in their own liberty: and how they be stirred up to go to war is (this) that when the enemies have slain or captured any of them, hU oldest kins man rises up and goes about the highways haranguing them to go with him and avenge the death of such his kinsman: and so are they stirred up by fellow-feel ing: they have no judicial system, nor do they punish the ill-doer: nor does the father, nor the mother chastise the chil dren: and marvellously (seldom) or never did we see any dispute among them: in their conversation they appear simple, and they are very cunning and acute in that which concerns them: they speak little and in a low tone: they use the same articulations as we, since they form their utterances either with t-he palate, or with the teeth, or on the lips: except that they give different names to things. Many are the varieties of tongues: for in every 100 leagues we found a change of 'language, so that they are not understandable each to the other. The manner of their living is very barbarous, for they do not eat at certain hours, and as oftentimes as they will: and it is not much of a boon to them that the will may come more at midnight than by day, for they eat at all hours: and they eat upon the ground without a table-cloth or any other cover, for they have their meats either in earthen basins which they make themselves, or in the halves of pumpkins: they sleep in certain very large nettings made of cotton, suspended in the air: and although this their (fashion of) sleeping may seem un comfortable, I say that it is sweet to sleep in those (nettings) : and we slept better in them than in the counterpanes. They are a people smooth and clean of body, because of so continually washing themselves as they do. . . . Amongst those people we did not learn that they had any law, nor can they be called Moors nor Jews, and (they are) worse than pagans: because we did not observe that they offered any sacrifice: nor even had they a house of prayer: their manner of living I judge to be Epicurean: their dwellings are in common: and their houses (are) made in the style of huts, but strongly made, and constructed with very large trees, and covered over with palm-leaves, secure against storms and winds: and in some places (they are) of so great breadth and length, that in one single house we found there were 600 128 AMEBICFS VESPUCIUS souls: and we saw a village of only thir- ours that we marvelled how any one es teen houses, where there were four thou- caped: for many times I saw that with sand souls: every eight or ten days they a man sick of fever, when it heightened change their habitations: and when asked upon him, they bathed him from head why they did so: (they said it was) be- to foot with a large quantity of cold cause of the soil which, from its filthiness, water: then they lit a great fire around was already unhealthy and corrupted, and him, making him turn and turn again that it bred aches in their bodies, which every two hours, until they tired him and seemed to us a good reason; their riches left him to sleep, and many were (thus) consist of birds' plumes of many colours, cured: with this they make use of dieting, or of rosaries which they make from fish- for they remain three days without eat- bones, or of white or green stones which ing, and also of blood-letting, but not they put in their cheeks and in their lips from the arm, only from the thighs and and ears, and of many other things which the loins and the calf of the leg: also we in no wise value: they use no trade, they provoke vomiting with their herbs they neither buy nor sell. In fine, they which are put into the mouth: and they live and are contented with that which use many other remedies which it would nature gives them. The wealth that we be long to relate: they are much vitiated enjoy in this our Europe and elsewhere, in the phlegm and in the blood because such as gold, jewels, pearls, and other of their food which consists chiefly of riches, they hold as nothing: and although roots of herbs, and fruits and fish: they they have them in their own lands, they have no seed of wheat nor other grain : and do not labour to obtain them, nor do they for their ordinary use and feeding, they value them. They are liberal in giving, have a root of a tree, from which they for it is rarely they deny you any- make flour, tolerably good, and they call thing: and on the other hand, liberal in it luca, and another which they call asking, when they shew themselves your Gazabi, and another Ignami: they eat lit- friends. . . . When they die, they use tie flesh except human flesh: for your divers manners of obsequies, and some Magnificence must know that herein they they bury with water and victuals at their are so inhuman that they outdo every heads: thinking that they shall have custom (even) of beasts; for they eat all (whereof) to eat: they have not nor do their enemies whom they kill or capture, they use ceremonies of torches nor of lam- as well females as males with so much entation. In some other places, they savagery, that (merely) to relate it ap- use the most barbarous and inhuman pears a horrible thing: how much more so burial which is that when a suffering or to see it, as, infinite times and in many infirm (person) is as it were at the last places, it was my hap to see it: and they pass of death, his kinsmen carry him into wondered to hear us say that we did not a large forest, and attach one of those eat our enemies: and this your Magnifi- nets of theirs, in which they sleep, to cence may take for certain, that their two trees, and then put him in it, and other barbarous customs are such that ex- dance around him for a whole day: and pression is too weak for the reality: and when the night comes on they place at as in these four voyages I have seen so his bolster, water with other victuals, so many things diverse from our customs, that he may be able to subsist for four or I prepared to write a common-place-book six days: and then they leave him alone which I name LE QTJATTRO GIOKNATE: in and return to the village: and if the sick which I have set down the greater part man helps himself, and eats, and drinks, of the things which I saw, sufficiently in and survives, he returns to the village, and detail, so far as my feeble wit has allowed (friends) receive him with ceremony: but me: which I have not yet published, be- few are they who escape: without receiv- cause I have so ill a taste for my own ing any further visit they die, and that is things that I do not relish those which I their sepulture: and they have many have written, notwithstanding that many other customs which for prolixity are not encourage me to publish it: therein every - related. They use in their sicknesses va- thing will be seen in detail: so that I vious forms of medicines, so different from shall not enlarge further in this chapter* I. I 129 AMERICTTS VESPTTCIUS as in the course of the letter we shall come to many other things which are particu lar: let this suffice for the general. At this beginning, we saw nothing in the land of much profit, except some show of gold: I believe the cause of it was that we did not know the language: but in so far as concerns the situation and condition of the land, it could not be tetter: we de cided to leave that place, and to go fur ther on, continuously coasting the shore: upon which we made frequent descents, and held converse with a great number of people: and at the end of some days we went into a harbour where we underwent very great danger: and it pleased the Holy Ghost to save us: and it was in this wise. We landed in a harbour, where we found a village built like Venice upon the water: there were about 44 large dwell ings in the form of huts erected upon very thick piles, and they had their doors or entrances in the style of drawbridges: and from each house one could pass through all, by means of the drawbridges which stretched from house to house: and when the people thereof had seen us, they appeared to be afraid of us, and immedi ately drew up all the bridges: and while we were looking at thic strange action, we saw coming across the sea about 22 canoes, which are a kind of boat of theirs, constructed from a single tree: which came towards our boats, as they had been surprised by our appearance and clothes, and kept wide of us: and thus remaining 1 , we made signals to them that they should approach us, encouraging them with every token of friendliness; and seeing that they did not come we went to them, and they did not stay for us, but made to the land, and, by signs, told us to wait, and they should soon return: and they went to a hill in the background, a-nd did not delay long: when they returned they led with them 16 of their girls, and en tered with these into their canoes, and came to the boats: and in each boat they put 4 of the girls. That we marvelled at this behaviour your Magnificence can imagine how much, and they placed them selves with their canoes among our boats, coming to speak with us: insomuch that we deemed it a mark of friendliness: and while thus engaged, we beheld a great number of people advance swimming towards us across the sea, who came from the houses: and as they were drawing near to us Avithout any apprehension; just then there appeared at the doors of the houses certain old women uttering very loud cries and tearing their hair to ex hibit grief: whereby they made us suspi cious, and we each betook ourselves to arms: and instantly the girls whom we had in the boats, threw themselves into the sea, and the men of the canoes drew away from us, and began with their bows to shoot arrows at us: and those who were swimming each carried a lance held, as covertly as they could, beneath the water: so that, recognizing the treachery, we engaged with them, not merely to de fend ourselves, but to attack them vigor ously, and we overturned with our boats many of their almadie or canoes, for so they call them, we made a slaughter (of them), and they all flung themselves into the water to swim, leaving their canoes abandoned, with considerable loss on their side, they went swimming away to the shore: there died of them about 15 or 20, and many were left wounded: and of ours 5 were wounded, and all, by the grace of God, escaped (death) : we captured two of the girls and two men: and we pro ceeded to their houses, and entered there in, and in them all we found nothing else than two old women and a sick man: we took away from them many things, but of small value: and we would not burn their houses, because it seemed to us (as though that would be) a burden upon our conscience: and we returned to our boats vith five prisoners: and betook ourselves to the ships, and put a pair of irons on the feet of each of the captives, except the little girls: and when the night came on, the two girls and one of the men fled away in the most subtle manner possible: and the next day we decided to quit that harbour and go further onwards: we pro ceeded continuously skirting the coast, (until) we had sight of another tribe dis tant perhaps some 80 leagues from the former tribe: and we found them very different in speech and customs: we re solved to cast anchor, and went ashore with the boats, and we saw on the beach a great- number of people amounting prob ably to 4,000 souls: and when we had reached the shore, they did not stay for us, 130 AMEBICUS VESFTTCITTS but betook themselves to flight through the forests, abandoning their things: we jumped on land, and took a pathway that led to the forest: and at the distance of a bow-shot we found their tents, where they had made very large fires, and two (of item) were cooking their victuals, and roasting several animals and fish of many kinds : where we saw that they were roast ing a certain animal which seemed to be a serpent, save that it had no wings, and was in its appearance so loathsome that we marvelled much at its savageness: Thus went we on through their houses, or rather tents, and found many of those ser pents alive, and they were tied by the feet and had a cord around their snouts, so that they could not open their mouths, as is done (in Europe] with mastiff-dogs so that they may not bite: they were of such savage aspect that none of us dared to take one away, thinking that they were poisonous : they are of the bigness of a kid, and in length an ell and a half: their feet are long and thick, and armed with big claws: they have a hard skin, and are of various colours: they have the muzzle and face of a serpent: and from their snouts there rises a crest like a saw which ex tends along the middle of the back as far as the tip of the tail: in fine we deemed them to be serpents a-nd venomous, and (nevertheless, those people) ate them: we found that they made bread out of little fishes which they took from the sea, first boiling them (then) pounding them, and making thereof a paste, or bread, and they baked them on the embers: thus did they eat them: we tried it and found that it was good: they had so many other kinds of eatables, and especially of fruits and roots, that it would be a large matter to describe them in detail: and seeing that the people did not return, we decided not to touch nor take away anything of their, so as better to reassure them : and we left in the tents for them many of our things, placed where they should see them, and returned by night to our ships: and the next day, when it was light we saw on the beach an infinite number of people: and we landed: and although they ap peared timorous towards us, they took courage nevertheless to hold converse with us, giving us whatever we asked of them: and shewing themselves rery friendly towards us, they told us that those were their dwellings, and that they had come hither for the purpose of fishing: and they begged that we would visit their dwellings and villages, because they desired to receive us as friends: and they engaged in such friendship because of the two captured men whom we had with us, as these were their enemies: insomuch that, in view of such importunity on their part, holding a council, we determined that 28 of us Christians in good array should go with them, and in the firm re solve to die if it should be necessary: and after we had been here some three days, we went with them inland: and at three leagues from the coast we came to a vil lage of many people and few houses, for there were no more than nine (of these) : where we were received with such and so many barbarous ceremonies that the pen suffices not to write them down: for there were dances, and songs, and lamentations mingled with rejoicing, and great quanti ties of food: and here we remained the night: . . . and after having been here that night and half the next day, so great was the number of people who came wondering to behold us that they were beyond counting: and the most aged begged us to go with them to other vil lages which were further inland, making display of doing us the greatest honour: wherefore we decided to go: and it would be impossible to tell you how much honour they did us: and we went to sev eral villages, so that we were nine days journeying, so that our Christians w4o had remained with the ships were already apprehensive concerning us: and when we were about 18 leagues in the interior of the la-nd, we resolved to return to the ships: and on our way back, such was the number of people, as well men as women, that came with us as far as the sea, that it was a wondrous thing: and if any of us became weary of the march, they car ried us in their nets very refreshingly: and in crossing the rivers, which are many and very large, they passed us over by skilful means so securely that we ran no danger whatever, and many of them came laden with the things which they had given us, which consisted in their sleeping-nets, and very rich feathers, many bows and arrows, innumerable 131 AMEBICUS VESPUCIUS popin-jays of divers colours: and others brought with them loads of their house hold goods, and of animals: but a greater marvel which I tell you, that, when we had to cross a river, he deemed himself lucky w"ho was able to carry us on his back: and when we reached the sea, our boats having arrived, we entered into them : and so great was the struggle which they made to get into our boats, and to come to see our ships, that we marvelled ( thereat ) : and in our boats we took as many of them as we could, and made our way to the ships, and so many (others) came swimming that we found ourselves embarrassed in seeing so many people in the ships, for there were over a- thousand persons all naked and unarmed : they were amazed by our (nautical) gear and con trivances, and the size of the ships: and with them there occurred to us a very laughable affair, which was that we de cided to fire off some of our great guns, and when the explosion took place, most of them through fear cast themselves (into the sea) to swim, not otherwise than frogs on the margins of a pond, when they see something that frightens them, will jump into the water, just so did those people: and those who remained in the ships were so terrified that we regretted our action: however we reassured them by telling them that with those arms we slew our enemies: and when they had amused themselves in the ships the whole day, we told them to go away because we desired to depart that night, and so sepa rating from us with much friendship and love, they went away to land. Amongst that people and in their land, I knew and beheld so many of their customs and ways of living, that I do not care to enlarge upon them: for Your Magnificence must know that in each of my voyages I have noted the most wonderful things, and I have indited it all in a volume after the manner of a geography: and I entitle it " Le quattro Giornate" : in which work the things are comprised in detail, and as yet there is no copy of it given out, as it is necessary for me to revise it. This land is very populous, and full of inhabi tants, a-nd of numberless rivers, (and) animals: few (of which) resemble ours, excepting lions, panthers, stags, pigs, goats, and deer: and even these have some dissimilarities of form: they have no horses nor mules, nor, saving your rever ence, asses nor dogs, nor any kind of sheep or oxen: but so numerous are the other animals which they have, and all are savage, and of none do they make use for their service, that they could not be count ed. What shall we say of others (such as) birds? which are so numerous, and of so many kinds, and of such various-col oured plumages, that it is a marvel to be hold them. The soil is very pleasant and fruitful, full of immense woods and forests: and it is always green, for the foliage never drops off. The fruits a-re so many that they are numberless and en tirely different from ours. This land is within the torrid zone, close to or just under the parallel described by the Tropic of Cancer: where the pole of the horizon has an elevation of 23 degrees, at the ex tremity of the second climate. Many tribes came to see us, and wondered at our faces and our whiteness : and they asked us whence we came: and we gave them to un derstand that we had come from heaven, and that we were going to see the world, and they believed it. In this land we placed baptismal fonts, and an infinite (number of) people were baptised, and they called us in their language Carabi, which means men of great wisdom. We took our de parture from that port: and the province is called Lariab: and we navigated along the coast, always in sight of land, until we had run 870 leagues of it, still going in the direction of the maestrale (north west) making in our course many halts, and holding intercourse with many peo ples: and in several places we obtained gold by barter but not much in quantity, for we had, done enough in discovering the land and learning that they had gold. We had now been thirteen months on the voyage: and the vessels and the tackling were already much damaged, and the men worn out by fatigue: we decided by gen eral council to haul our ships on land and examine them for the purpose of stanch ing leaks, as they made much water, and of caulking and tarring them afresh, and (then) returning towards Spain: and when we came to this determination, we were close to a harbour the best in the world: into which we entered with our vessels: where we found an immense num- 132 AMEBICUS VESPUCIUS her of people: who received us with much land: where we found (assembled) about friendliness: and on the shore we made 400 men, and many women, and all naked a bastion with our boats and with barrels like the former (peoples). They were of and casks, and our artillery, which com- good bodily presence, and seemed right manded every point: and our ships hav- warlike men: for they were armed with ing been unloaded and lightened, we drew their weapons, which are bows, arrows, them upon land, and repaired them in and lances: and most of them had square everything that was needful : and the wooden targets and bore them in such wise land's people gave us very great assist- that they did not impede the drawing of ance: and continually furnished us with the bow: and when we had come with our their victuals: so that in this port we boats to about a bowshot of the land, they tasted little of our own, which suited our all sprang into the water to shoot their game well: for the stock of provisions arrows at us and to prevent us from leap- which we had for our return-passage was ing upon shore: and they had all their little and of sorry kind: where (i.e., there) bodies painted of various colours, and we remained 37 days: and went many (were) plumed with feathers: and the in- times to their villages where they paid terpreters who were with us told us that us the greatest honour: and (now) de- when (those) displayed themselves so siring to depart upon our voyage, they painted a-nd plumed, it was to betoken that made complaint to us how at certain times they wanted to fight: and so much did of the year there came from over the sea they persist in preventing us from land- to this their land, a race of people very ing, that we were compelled to play with cruel, and enemies of theirs: and (who) our artillery: and when they heard the ex- by means of treachery or of violence slew plosion, and saw one of them fall dead, many of them, and ate them: and some they all drew back to the land: wherefore, they made captives, and carried them away forming our council, we resolved that 42 to their houses, or country: and how they of our men should spring on shore, and, could scarcely contrive to defend them- if they waited for us, fight them: thus selves from them, making signs to us that having leaped to land, with our weapons, (those) were an island-people and lived they advanced towards us, and we fought out in the sea about a hundred leagues for about an hour, for we had but little ad- away: and so piteously did they tell us vantage of them, except that our arbalas- this that we believed them: and we prom- ters and gunners killed some of them, and ised to avenge them of so much wrong: they wounded certain of our men: and and they remained overjoyed herewith: this was because they did not stand to re- and many of them offered to come along ceive us within reach of lance-thrust for with us, but we did not wish to take them sword-blow: and so much vigour did we for many reasons, save that we took seven put forth at last, that we came to sword- of them, on condition that they should play, and when they tasted our weapons, come (i. e., return home) afterwards in they betook themselves to flight through (their own) canoes because we did not de- the mountains and the forests, and left us sire to be obliged to take them back to conquerors of the field with many of them their country: and they were contented: dead and a good number wounded: and and so we departed from those people, for that day we took no other pains to leaving them very friendly towards us: pursue them, because we were very weary, and having repaired our ships, and sailing and we returned to our ships, with so for seven days out to sea between north- much gladness on the part of the seven east and east: and at the end of the men who had come with us that they seven days we came upon the islands, could not contain themselves (for joy) : which were many, some (of them) in- and when the next day arrived, we beheld habited, and others deserted: and we coining across the land a great number anchored at one of them: where we saw of people, with signals of battle, continu- a numerous people who called it Iti: and ally sounding horns, and various other having manned our boats with strong instruments which they use in their wars : crews, and (taken ammunition for) three and all (of them) painted and feathered, cannon-shots in each, we made for so that it was a very- strange sight to be- 133 AMEBICUS VESPUCIUS hold them: wherefore all the ships held council, and it was resolved that since this people desired hostility with us, we should proceed to encounter them and try by every means to make them friends: in case they would not have our friendship, that we should treat them as foes, and so many of them as we might be able to capt ure should all be our slaves: and having armed ourselves as best we could, we ad vanced towards the shore, and they sought not to hinder us from landing, I believe from fear of the cannons: and we jumped on land, 57 men in four squadrons, each one (consisting of) a captain and his company: and we came to blows with them: and after a long battle (in which) many of them (were) slain, we put them to flight, and pursued them to a village, having made about 250 of them captives, and we burnt the village, and returned to our ships with victory and 250 prisoners, leaving many of them dead and wounded, and of ours there were no more than one killed, and 22 wounded, who all escaped (i. e., recovered), God be thanked. We arranged our departure, and seven men, of whom five were wounded, took an island- canoe, and with seven prisoners that we gave them, four women and three men, re turned to their (own] country full of gladness, wondering at our strength: and we thereon made sail for Spain with 222 captive slaves: and reached the port of Calis (Cadiz] on the 15th day of October, 1498, where we were well received and sold our slaves. Such is what befell me, most noteworthy, in this my first voyage. His Third Voyage. The following is his account of his third voyage, as detailed in letters to (1) Pier Soderini, and (2) Lo renzo Pietro Francesco de' Medici. 1. Being afterwards in Seville, resting from so many labors that I had endured during these two voyages, and intending to return to the land of pearls, Fortune showed that she was not content with these my labors. I know not how there came into the thoughts of the Most Se rene King Don Manuel of Portugal the wish to have my services. But being at Seville, without any thought of going to Portugal, a messenger came to me with a letter from the Royal Crown, in which I was asked to come to Lisbon, to confer with his Highness, who promised to show me favor. I was not inclined to go, and I despatched the messenger with a reply that I was not well, but that, when I had recovered, if his Highness still wished for my services, I would come as soon as he might send for me. Seeing that he could not have me, he arranged to send Giuliano di Bartholomeo di Giocondo for me, he being in Lisbon, with instructions that, come what might, he should bring me. The said Giuliano came to Seville, and prayed so hard that I was forced to go. My departure was taken ill by many who knew me, for I left Castile where honor was done me, and where the King held me in good esteem. It was worse that I went without bidding farewell to my host. When I was presented to that King, he showed his satisfaction that I had come, and asked me to go in company with three of his ships that were ready to depart for the discovery of new lands. As the request of a king is a command, I had to consent to whatever he asked; and we sailed from this port of Lisbon with three ships on the 10th of March, 1501, shaping our course direct for the island of Grand Canary. We passed without sighting it, and continued along the west coast of Africa. On this coast we made our fishery of a sort of fish called parchi. We remained three days, and then came to a port on the coast of Ethiopia called Besechiece, which is within the Torrid Zone, the North Pole rising above it 14 30', situated in the first climate. Here we remained two days, taking in wood and water; for my intention was to shape a course towards the south in the Atlantic Gulf. We departed from this port of Ethiopia, and steered to the south-west, taking a quarter point to the south until, after sixty-seven days, we came in sight of land, which was 700 leagues from the said port to the south-west. In those sixty-seven days we had the worst time that man ever endured who navigated the seas, owing to the rains, perturba tions, and storms that we encountered. The season was very contrary to us, by reason of the course of our navigation being continually in contact with the equi noctial line, where, in the month of June, 134 AMEBICUS VESPUCITTS it is winter. We found that the day and returned to the ships to wait for them, the night were equal, and that the shadow Nearly every day people came to the beach, was always towards the south. but they would not speak with us. On the It pleased God to show us a new land seventh day we went on shore, and found on the 17th of August, and we anchored that they had arranged with their women; at a distance of half a league, and got for, as we jumped on shore, the men of the our boats out. We then went to see the land sent many of their women to speak land, whether it was inhabited, and what with us. Seeing that they were not re- it was like. We found that it was inhab- assured, we arranged to send to them one ited by people who were worse than ani- of our people, who was a very agile and mals. But your Magnificence must under- valiant youth. To give them more conn- stand that we did not see them at first, dence, the rest of us went back into the though we were convinced that the coun- boats. He went among the women, and try was inhabited, by many signs observed they all began to touch and feel him, won- by us. We took possession for that Most dering at him exceedingly. Things being Serene King, and found the land to be very so, we saw a woman come from the hill, pleasant and fertile, and of good appear- carrying a great stick in her hand. When ance. It was 5 to the south of the equi- she came to where our Christian stood, she noctial line. We went back to the ships; raised it, and gave him such a blow that and, as we were in great want of wood and he was felled to the ground. The other water, we determined, next day, to return women immediately took him by the feet, to the shore, with the object of obtaining and dragged him towards the hill. The what we wanted. Being on shore, we saw men rushed down to the beach, and shot at some people at the top of a hill, who were us with their bows and arrows. Our peo- looking at us, but without showing any in- pie, in great fear, hauled the boats towards tention of coming down. They were naked, their anchors, which were on shore; but, and of the same color and form as the owing to the quantites of arrows that others we had seen. We tried to induce came into the boats, no one thought of them to come and speak with us, but did taking up their arms. At last four not succeed, as they would not trust us. rounds from the bombard were fired at Seeing their obstinacy, and it being late, them ; and they no sooner heard the report we returned on board, leaving many bells than they all ran away towards the hill, and mirrors on shore, and other things in where the women were still tearing the their sight. As soon as we were at some Christian to pieces. At a great fire they distance on the sea, they came down from had made they roasted him before our the hill, and showed themselves to be much eyes, showing us many pieces, and then astonished at the things. On that day eating them. The men made signs how we were only able to obtain water. they had killed the other two Christians Next morning we saw from the ship and eaten them. What shocked us much that the people on shore had made a great was seeing with our eyes the cruelty with smoke ; and, thinking it was the signal to which they treated the dead, which was an us, we went on shore, where we found that intolerable insult to all of us. many people had come, but they still kept Having arranged that more than forty at a distance from us. They made signs of us should land and avenge such cruel to us that we should come inland with murder and so bestial and inhuman an them. Two of our Christians were, there- act, the principal captain would not give fore, sent to ask their captain for leave his consent. We departed from them un to go with them a short distance inland, willingly, and with much shame caused to see what kind of people they were, and by the decision of our captain, if they had any riches, spices, or drugs. We left this place, and commenced The captain was contented, so they got our navigation by shaping a course be- together many things for barter, and part- tween east and south. Thus we sailed ed from us, with instructions that they along the land, making many landings, should not be more than five days absent seeing natives, but having no intercourse as we would wait that time for them. So with them. We sailed on until we found they set out on their road inland, and we that the coast made a turn to the west 135 AMEBICUS VESPUCITTS when we had doubled a cape, to which we the voyage, and having seen that there gave the name of the Cape of St. Angus- was no mining wealth whatever in that tine. We then began to shape a course land, we decided upon taking leave of it, to the south-west. The cape is distant and upon sailing across the sea for some from the place where the Christians were other part. Having held a consultation, murdered 150 leagues towards the east, it was decided that the course should be and this cape is 8 from the equinoctial taken which seemed good to me; and the line to the south. In navigating, we saw command of the fleet was intrusted to me. one day a great multitude of people on I gave orders that the fleet should be sup the beach, gazing at the wonderful sight plied with wood and water for six months, of our ships. As we sailed, we turned such being the decision of the officers of the ship towards them, anchored in a good the ships. Having made our departure place, and went on shore with the boats, from this land, we began our navigation We found the people to be better condi- with a southerly course on the 15th of tioned than those we had met with be- February, when already the sun moved fore; and, responding to our overtures, towards the equinoctial, and turned tow- they soon made friends, and treated with ards our Hemisphere of the North. We us. We were five days in this place, and sailed so far on this course that we found found canna fistola very thick and green, ourselves where the South Pole had a and dry on the tops of the trees. We de- height above our horizon of 52, and we termined to take a pair of men from this could no longer see the stars of Ursa place, that they might teach us their Minor or of Ursa Major. We were then language, and three of them came volun- 500 leagues to the south of the port tarily to go to Portugal. whence we had departed, and this was on Lest your Magnificence should be tired the 3rd of April. On this day such a tem- of so much writing, you must know that, pest arose on the sea that all our sails on leaving this port, we sailed along on a were blown away, and we ran under bare westerly course, always in sight of land, poles, with a heavy southerly gale and a continually making many landings, and tremendous sea, the air being very tern- speaking with an infinite number of peo- pestuous. The gale was such that all the pie. We were so far south that we were people in the fleet were much alarmed, outside the Tropic of Capricorn, where the The nights were very long, for the night South Pole rises above the horizon 32. we had on the 7th of April lasted fifteen We had lost sight altogether of Ursa Mi- hours, the sun being at the end of Aries, nor and Ursa Major, which were far below and in that region it was winter, as your and scarcely seen on the horizon. We Magnificence will be well aware. Sailing guided ourselves by the stars of the South in this storm, on the 7th of April we came Pole, which are numerous and much larger in sight of new land, along which we ran and brighter than those of our Pole. I for nearly 20 leagues, and found it all a traced the figure of the greater part of rocky coast, without any port or inhabi- those of the first magnitude, with a dec- tants. I believe this was because the cold laration of their orbits round the South was so great that no one in the fleet could Pole, and of their diameters and semi- endure it. Finding ourselves in such per- diameters, as may be seen in my FOUB il, and in such a storm that we could VOYAGES. We sailed along that coast for scarcely see one ship from another, owing 750 leagues, 150 from the cape called St. to the greatness of the waves and the A tigustine to the west, and 600 to the blinding mist, it was agreed with the prin- south. cipal captain that a signal should be made Desiring to recount the things I saw on to the ships that they should make for that coast, and what happened to us, as land, and then shape a course for Por- many more leaves would not suffice me. tugal. This was very good counsel, for it On the coast we saw an infinite number is certain that, if we had delayed another of trees, brazil wood and cassia, and those night, all would have been lost ; for, as we trees which yield myrrh, as well as other wore round on the next day, we were met marvels of nature which I am unable to by such a storm that we expected to be recount. Having now been ten months on swamped. We had to undertake pilgrim- 136 AMEKICUS VESPUCIUS ages and perform other ceremonies, as is a continent in that southern part, more the custom of sailors at such times. We populous and more full of animals than ran for five days, always coming towards our Europe or Asia or Africa, and even the equinoctial line, where the air and sea more temperate and pleasant than any became more temperate. It pleased God other region known to us, as will be ex- to deliver us from such peril. Our course plained further on. I shall write succinct- was now between the north and north-east, ly of the principal things only, and the for our intention was to reach the coast things most worthy of notice and of being of Ethiopia, our distance from it being remembered, which I either saw or heard 300 leagues, in the Gulf of the Atlantic of in this new world, as presently will be- Sea. By the grace of God, on the 10th come manifest. day of May, we came in sight of land, We set out, on a prosperous voyage, where we were able to refresh ourselves, on the 14th of May, 1501, sailing from the land being called La Serra Liona. We Lisbon, by order of the aforesaid King, were there fifteen days, and thence shaped with three ships, to discover new countries a course to the islands of the Azores, towards the west; and we sailed towards which are distant nearly 750 leagues from the south continuously for twenty months, that Serra. We reached the islands in the Of this navigation the order is as follows: end of July, where we remained fifteen Our course was for the Fortunate Islands, days, taking some recreation. Thence we so called formerly, but now we called them departed for Lisbon, distant 300 leagues the Grand Canary Islands, which are in to the west, and arrived at that port of the third climate, and on the confines of Lisbon on the 7th of September, 1502, may the inhabited west. Thence we sailed God be thanked for our salvation, with rapidly over the ocean along the coast of only two ships. We burnt the other at Africa and part of Ethiopia to the Ethi- Serra Liona, because she was no longer opic Promontory, so called by Ptolemy, seaworthy. We were employed on this which is now called Cape Verde, and by voyage nearly fifteen months; and for the Ethiopians Biseghier, and that coun- eleven days we navigated without seeing try Mandraga, 13 within the Torrid Zone, the North Star, nor the Great or Little on the north side of the equinoctial line. Bears, which they call el corno, and we The country is inhabited by a black race, were guided by the stars of the other Pole. Having taken on board what we required, This is what I saw on this voyage. we weighed our anchors and made sail, taking our way across the vast ocean tow ards the Antarctic Pole, with some west- March (or April}, 1503. ing . From the day when we left the be- Alberico Vesputio to Lorenzo 'Pietro de' fore-mentioned promontory, we sailed for Medici, salutation. In past days I wrote the space of two months and three days, very fully to you of my return from the Hitherto no land had appeared to us in new countries, which have been found and that vast sea. In truth, how much we had explored with the ships, a-t the cost, and suffered, what dangers of shipwreck, I by the command, of this Most Serene King leave to the judgment of those to whom of Portugal ; and it is lawful to call it a the experience of such things is very well new world, because none of these countries known. What a thing it is to seek un- were known to our ancestors, and to all known lands, and how difficult, being ig- who hear about them they will be entirely norant, to narrate briefly what happened! new. For the opinion of the ancients was It should be known that, of the sixty- that the greater part of the world beyond seven days of our voyage, we were navi- the equinoctial line to the south was not gating continuously forty-four. We had co- land, but only sea, which they have called pious thunderstorms and perturbations, the Atlantic; and, if they have affirmed and it was so dark that we never could that any continent is there, they have see either the sun in the day or the moon given many reasons for denying that it is at night. This caused us great fear, so inhabited. But this their opinion is false, that we lost all hope of life. In these and entirely opposed to the truth. My most terrible dangers of the sea it pleased last voyage has proved it, for I have found the Most High to show us the continent 137 AMEBICTJS VESPUCOTS and the new countries, being another un known world. These things being in sight, we were as much rejoiced as any one may imagine who, after calamity and ill- fortune, has obtained safety. It was on the 7th of August, 1501, that we reached those countries, thanking our Lord God with solemn prayers, and celebrating a choral Mass. We knew that land to be a continent, and not an island, from its long beaches extending without trending round, the infinite number of in habitants, the numerous tribes and peo ples, the numerous kinds of wild animals unknown in our country, and many others never seen before by us, touching which it would take long to make reference. The clemency of God was shown forth to us by being brought to these regions; for the ships were in a leaking state, and in a few days our lives might have been lost in the sea. To Him be the honor and glory, and the grace of the action. We took counsel, and resolved to navi gate along the coast of this continent tow ards the east, and never to lose sight of the land. We sailed along until we came to a point where the coast turned to the south. The distance from the landfall to this point was nearly 300 leagues. In this stretch of coast we often landed, and had friendly relations with the natives, as I shall presently relate. I had forgotten to tell you that from Cape Verde to the first land of this continent the distance is near ly 700 leagues; although I estimate that we went over more than 1,800, partly owing to ignorance of the route, and part ly owing to the tempests and foul winds which drove us off our course, and sent us in various directions. If my companions had not trusted in me, to whom cosmog raphy was known, no one, not the leader of our navigation, would have known where we were after running 500 leagues. We were wandering and full of errors, and only the instruments for taking the alti tudes of heavenly bodies showed us our position. These were the quadrant and astrolabe, as known to all. These have been much used by me with much honor; for I showed them that a knowledge of the marine chart, and the rules taught by it, are more worth than all the pilots in the world. For these pilots have no knowledge beyond those places to which they have often sailed. Where the said point of land showed us the trend of the coast to the south, we agreed to continue our voyage, and to ascertain what there might be in those regions. We sailed along the coast for nearly 500 leagues, often going on shore and having inter course with the natives, who received us in a brotherly manner. We sometimes stay ed with them for fifteen or twenty days continuously, as friends and guests, as I shall relate presently. Part of this conti nent is in the Torrid Zone, beyond the equinoctial line towards the South Pole. But it begins at 8 beyond the equinoctial. We sailed along the coast so far that we crossed the Tropic of Capricorn, and found ourselves where the Antarctic Pole was 50 above our horizon. We went towards the Antarctic Circle until we were 17 30' from it, all of which I have seen, and I have known the nature of those people, their customs, the resources and fertility of the land, the salubrity of the air, the positions of the celestial bodies in the heavens, and, above all, the fixed stars, over an eighth of the sphere, never seen by our ancestors, as I shall explain below. As regards the people: we have found such a multitude in those countries that no one could enumerate them, as we read in the Apocalypse. They are people gen tle and tractable, and all of both sexes go naked, not covering any part of their bodies, . . . and so they go until their deaths. They have large, square-built bodies, and well proportioned. Their col or reddish, which, I think, is caused by their going naked and exposed to the sun. Their hair is plentiful and black. They are agile in walking, and of quick sight. They are of a free and good-looking ex pression of countenance, which they them selves destroy by boring the nostrils and lips, the nose and ears; nor must you be lieve that the borings are small, nor that they only have one, for I have seen those who had no less than seven borings in the face, each one the size of a plum. They stop up these perforations with blue stones, bits of marble, of crystal, or very fine alabaster, also with very white bones and other things artificially prepared ac cording to their customs, which, if you could see, it would appear a strange and monstrous thing. One had in the nostrils 138 AMEBICUS VESPUCITTS and lips alone seven stones, of which some air. Unless they meet with violent deaths, were half a palm in length. It will as- their lives are long. I believe this is be- tonish you to hear that I considered that cause a southerly wind is always blowing, the weight of seven such stones was as a south wind to them being what a north much as sixteen ounces. In each ear they wind is to us. They are expert fisher- had three perforations bored, whence they men, and the sea is full of all kinds of had other stones and rings suspended, fish. They are not hunters. I think because This custom is only for the men, as the here there are many kinds of wild animals, women do not perforate their faces, but principally lions and bears, innumerable only their ears. . . . serpents, and other horrible creatures and They have no cloth, either of wool, deformed beasts, also because there are flax, or cotton, because they have no need vast forests and trees of immense size, of it; nor have they any private prop- They have not the courage to face such erty, everything being in common. They dangers naked and without any defence, live amongst themselves without a king or The land is very fertile, abounding in ruler, each man being his own master, and many hills and valleys and in large rivers, having as many wives as they please. . . . and is irrigated by very refreshing springs. They have no temples and no laws, nor are It is covered with extensive and dense they idolaters. What more can I say? forests, which are almost impenetrable, They live according to nature, and are and full of every kind of wild beast, more inclined to be Epicurean than Stoic. Great trees grow without cultivation, of They have no commerce among each other, which many yield fruits pleasant to the and they wage war without art or order, taste and nourishing to the human body; The old men make the youths do what and a great many have an opposite effect, they please, and incite them to fights, in The fruits are unlike those in our coun- which they mutually kill with great cruel- try; and there are innumerable different ty. They slaughter those who are capt- kinds of fruits and herbs, of which they ured, and the victors eat the vanquished; make bread and excellent food. They also for human flesh is an ordinary article of have many seeds unlike ours. No kind food among them. You may be the more of metal has been found except gold, in certain of this, because I have seen a man which the country abounds, though we eat his children and wife; and I knew a have brought none back in this our first man who was popularly credited to navigation. The natives, however, assur- have eaten 300 human bodies. I was ed us that there was an immense quantity once in a certain city for twenty-seven of gold underground, and nothing was to days, where human flesh was hung up be had from them for a price. Pearls near the houses, in the same way as we abound, as I wrote to you. expose butcher's meat. I say further that If I was to attempt to write of all the they were surprised that we did not eat species of animals, it would be a long and our enemies, and use their flesh as food; tedious task. I believe certainly that our for they say it is excellent. Their arms Pliny did not touch upon a thousandth are bows and arrows; and, when they go part of the animals and birds that exist to war, they cover no part of their bodies, in this region; nor could an artist such as being in this like beasts. We did all we Policletus succeed in painting them. All could to persuade them to desist from the trees are odoriferous, and some of their evil habits, and they promised us to them emit gums, oils, or other liquors. If leave off. . . . they were our property, I do not doubt They live for 150 years, and are rarely but that they would be useful to man. sick. If they are attacked by a disease, If the terrestrial paradise is in some part they cure themselves with the roots of of thip land, it cannot be very far from some herbs. These are the most note- the coast we visited. It is, as I have told worthy things I know about them. you, in a climate where the air is tem- The air in this country is temperate perate at noon, being neither cold in win- and good, as we were able to learn from ter nor hot in summer, their accounts that there are never any The sky and air are serene during a pestilences or epidemics caused by bad great part of the year. Thick vapors, 139 AMEBICUS VESPUCIUS with fine rain falling, last for three or four hours, and then disappear like smoke. The sky is adorned with most beautiful signs and figures, in which I have noted as many as twenty stars as bright as we sometimes see Venus and Jupiter. I have considered the orbits and motions of these stars; and I have measured the circum ference and diameters of the stars by a geometrical method, ascertaining which were the largest. I saw in the heaven three Canopi, two certainly bright and the other obscure. The Antarctic Pole is not figured with a Great Bear and a Little Bear, like our Arctic Pole, nor is any bright star seen near it, and of those which go round in the shortest circuit there are three which have the figure of the orthog- onous triangle, of which the smallest has a diameter of 9 half-degrees. To the east of these is seen a Canopus of great size, and white, which, when in mid-heaven, has this figure: * s s S S S 8 8 8 S 8 8 S 8888 canopus * * After these come two others, of which the half-circumference, the diameter, has 12 half -degrees ; and with them is seen another Canopus. To these succeed six other most beautiful and very bright stars, beyond all the others of the eighth sphere, which, in the superficies of the heaven, have half the circumference, the diameter 32, and with them is one black Canopus of immense size, seen in the Milky Way, and they have this shape when they are on the meridian: S 8 8888 888888 I have known many other very beautiful stars, which I have diligently noted down, vertex and have described very well in a certain of their little book describing this my navigation, which at present is in the possession of These are the most notable things that that Most Serene King; and I hope he will I have seen in this my last navigation, or, 140 restore it to me. In that hemisphere 1 have seen things not compatible with the opinions of philosophers. Twice I have seen a white rainbow towards the middle of the night, which was not only observed by me, but also by all the sailors. Like wise we often saw the new moon on the day on which it is in conjunction with the sun. Every night, in that part of the heavens of which we speak, there were in numerable vapors and burning meteors. I have told you, a little way back, that, in the hemisphere of which we are speak ing, it is not a complete hemisphere in re spect to ours, because it does not take that form so that it may be properly call ed so. Therefore, as I have said, from Lisbon, whence we started, the distance from the equinoctial line is 39 ; and we navigated beyond the equinoctial line to 50, which together make 90, which is one quarter of a great circle, according to the true measurement handed down to us by the an cients, so that it is manifest that we must have navigated over a fourth part of the earth. By this reasoning, we who inhabit Lisbon, at a distance of 39 from the equi noctial line in north latitude, are to those who live under 50 beyond the same line, in meridional length, angularly 5 on a transverse line. I will explain this more clearly: a perpendicular line, while we stand upright, if suspended from a point of the heavens exactly vertical, hangs over our heads; but it hangs over them side ways. Thus, while we are on a right line, they are on a transverse line. An or thogonal triangle is thus formed, of which we have the right line; but the base and hypothenuse to them seems the vertical line, as in this figure it will appear. This will suffice as regards cosmography. Them. AMES as I call it, the third voyage. For the served in the campaigns on the Peninsula other two voyages were made by order of in 1862. At Chancellorsville he led a the Most Serene King of Spain to the brigade, also at Gettysburg, in 1863, and west, in which I noted many wonderful before Petersburg, in 1864, he command- works of God, our Creator; and, if I ed a division. In the expedition against should have time, I intend to collect all Fort Fisher, near the close of that year, he these singular and wonderful things into commanded a division of colored troops, a geographical or cosmographical book, and afterwards led the same in North that my record may live with future gen- Carolina. In the spring of 1865 he was erations; and the immense work of the brevetted major-general of volunteers and omnipotent God will be known, in parts brigadier-general, U. S. A. In 1871 he still unknown, but known to us. I also was a representative of Mississippi in the pray that the most merciful God will United States Senate; was governor in prolong my life that, with His good 1874; and was appointed a brigadier-gen- grace, I may be able to make the best dis- eral of volunteers June 20, 1898, serving position of this my wish. I keep the through the war with Spain, other two journeys in my sanctuary; and, Ames, FISHER, orator and statesman; the Most Serene King restoring to me the born in Dedham, Mass., April 9, 1758; was third journey, I intend to return to peace graduated at Harvard College in 1774; and my country. There, in consultation taught school until 1781; then began the with learned persons, and comforted and practice of law; and soon displayed rare aided by friends, I shall be able to com- oratorical powers. He wrote political plete my work. essays for Boston newspapers, over the I ask your pardon for not having signatures of " Brutus " and " Camillus." sooner been able to send you this my last In Congress from 1789 until 1797 he was navigation, as I had promised in my for- always distinguished for his great business mer letters. I believe that you will under- talent, exalted patriotism, and brilliant stand the cause, which was that I could oratory. Ardently devoted to Washing- not get the books from this Most Serene ton, personally and politically, he was King. I think of undertaking a fourth chosen by his colleagues to write the ad- voyage in the same direction, and promise dress to the first President on his retiring is already made of two ships with their armaments, in which I may seek new re gions of the East on a coast called Africus. In which journey I hope much to do God honor, to be of service to this kingdom, to secure repute for my old age ; and I ex pect no other result with the permission of this Most Serene King. May God permit what is for the best, and you shall be in formed of what happens. This letter was translated from the Italian into the Latin language by Jo- cundus, interpreter, as every one under stands Latin who desires to learn about these voyages, and to search into the things of heaven, and to know all that is proper to be known; lor, from the time the world began, so much has not been FISHKR AMKS. discovered touching the greatness of the earth and what is contained in it. from office in 1797. After leaving Congress Ames, ADELBERT, military officer; born he devoted himself to the practice of his in Rockland, Me., Oct. 31, 1835; was grad- profession; but finally, on account of de- uated at West Point in 1861 ; and for his clining health, gave it up to engage exclu- gallant conduct in the Battle of Bull sively in agricultural pursuits. In 1804 Hun (1861) was brevetted major. He he was chosen president of Harvard Col- 141 AMES lege, but declined the honor. He received the degree of LL.D. from that institution. His orations, essays, and letters were col lected and published in 1 volume, with a biographical sketch by Rev. Dr. Kirk- land, in 1809. So powerful was his great speech in Congress in favor of Jay's Treaty, on April 28, 1795, that an oppo sition member moved to postpone the deci sion of the question that they might not " vote under the influence of a sensibility which their calm judgment might con demn." He died in Dedham, July 4, 1808. Speech on Jay's Treaty. The following are extracts from his speech made on April 28, 1796: The treaty is bad, fatally bad, is the cry. It sacrifices the interest, the honor, the independence of the United States, and the faith of our engagements to France. If we listen to the clamor of party intem perance, the evils are of a number not to be counted, and of a nature not to be borne, even in idea. The language of passion and exaggeration may silence that of sober reason in other places ; it has not done it here. The question here is whether the treaty be really so very fatal as to oblige the nation to break its faith. I ad mit that such a treaty ought not to be executed. I admit that self-preservation is the first law of society, as well as of individuals. It would, perhaps, be deemed an abuse of terms to call that a treaty which violates such a principle. I waive, also, for the present, any inquiry, what departments shall represent the nation, and annul the stipulations of a treaty. I content myself with pursuing the inquiry, whether the nature of this compact be such as to justify our refusal to carry it into effect. A treaty is the promise of a na tion. Now, promises do not always bind him that makes them. But I lay down two rules, which ought to guide us in this case. The treaty must appear to be bad, not merely in the petty details, but in its character, principle, and mass. And in the next place, this ought to be ascertain ed by the decided and general concurrence of the enlightened public. I confess there seems to be something very like ridicule thrown over the debate by the discussion of the articles in detail. The undecided point is, shall we break our faith? And while our country and en lightened Europe await the issue with more than curiosity, we are employed to gather piecemeal, and article by article, from the instrument a justification for the deed by trivial calculations of com mercial profit and loss. This is little worthy of the subject, of this body, or of the nation. If the treaty is bad, it will appear to be so in its mass. Evil, to a fatal extreme, if that be its tendency, re quires no proof; it brings it. Extremes speak for themselves and make their own law. What if the direct voyage of Amer ican ships to Jamaica, with horses or lum ber, might net 1 or 2 per centum more than the present trade to Surinam would the proof of the fact avail anything in so grave a question as the violation of the public engagements? . . . Why do they complain that the West Indies are not laid open? Why do they lament that any restriction is stipulated on the commerce of the East Indies? Why do they pretend that, if they reject this and insist upon more, more will be accomplished? Let us be explicit more would not satisfy. If all was grant ed, would not a treaty of amity with Great Britain still be obnoxious? Have we not this instant heard it urged against our envoy that he was not ardent enough in his hatred of Great Britain? A treaty of amity is condemned because it was not made by a foe and in the spirit of one. The same gentleman, at the same instant, repeats a very prevailing objection, that no treaty should be made with the enemy of France. No treaty, exclaim others, should be made with a monarch or a des pot; there will be no naval security while those sea-robbers domineer on the ocean; their den must be destroyed; that nation must be extirpated. I like this, sir, because it is sincerity. With feelings such as these we do not pant for treaties. Such passions seek nothing, and will be content with nothing, but the destruction of their object. If a treaty left King George his island, it would not answer; not if he stipulated to pay rent for it. It has been said the world ought to rejoice if Britain was sunk in the sea; if where there are now men and wealth and laws and liberty, there was no 142 AMES more than a sand-bank for sea monsters would, however loath, soon find themselves to fatten on, a space for the storms of the obliged to make justice, that justice under ocean to mingle in conflict. . . . which they fell, the fundamental law of What is patriotism? Is it a narrow their state. They would perceive it was affection for the spot where a man was their interest to make others respect born? Are the very clods where we tread and they would, therefore, soon pay some entitled to this ardent preference because respect themselves to the obligations of they are greener? No, sir, this is not the good faith. character of the virtue, and it soars It is painful I hope it is superfluous higher for its object. It is an extended to make even the supposition that self-love, mingled with all the enjoyments America should furnish the occasion of of life, and twisting itself with the mi- this opprobrium. No, let me not even nutest filaments of the heart. It is thus imagine that a republican government, we obey the laws of society, because they sprung, as our own is, from a people en- are the laws of virtue. In their authority lightened and uncorrupted, a government we see not the array of force and terror, whose origin is right, and whose daily but the venerable image of our country's discipline is duty, can, upon solemn de- honor. Every good citizen makes that bate, make its option to be faithless honor his own, and cherishes it not only can dare to act what despots dare not as precious, but as sacred. He is will- avow, what our own example evinces, the ing to risk his life in its defence, and te states of Barbary are unsuspected of. No, conscious that he gains protection while let me rather make the supposition that he gives it. For, what rights of a citizen Great Britain refuses to execute the will be deemed inviolable when a state treaty after we have done everything to renounces the principles that constitute carry it into effect. Is there any lan- their security? Or if his life should not guage of reproach pungent enough to ex- be invaded, what would its enjoyments be press your commentary on the fact? What in a country odious in the eyes of would you say, or, rather, what Would strangers and dishonored in his own? you not say? Would you not tell them, Could he look with affection and venera- wherever an Englishman might travel, tion to such a country as his parent? The shame would stick to him he would dis- sense of having one would die within him ; own his country? You would exclaim: he would blush for his patriotism, if he " England, proud of your wealth and ar- retained any, and justly, for it would be rogant in the possession of power, blush a vice. He would be a banished man in for these distinctions, which become the his native land. I see no exception to the vehicles of your dishonor." Such a na- respect that is paid among nations to tion might truly say to corruption, " Thou the laws of good faith. If there are cases art my father " ; and to the worm, " Thou in this enlightened period when it is vio- art my mother and my sister." We should lated, there are none when it is decried, say of such a race of men, their name is a It is the philosophy of politics, the re- heavier burden than their debt. . . . ligion of governments. It is observed by Ames, HERMAN VANDEWBUBG, his- barbarians a whiff of tobacco smoke or torian; born in Lancaster, Mass., Aug. a string of beads gives not merely a bind- 7, 1865; was graduated at Amherst Col- ing force but sanctity to treaties.. Even lege in 1888 and later studied in Ger- in Algiers a truce may be bought for many. In 1891-94 he was an instructor money, but, when ratified, even Algiers in History at the University of Michigan; is too wise or too just to disown and an- in 1896-97 occupied a similar post in nul its obligation. Thus we see neither Ohio State University; and in the latter the ignorance of savages nor the principles year accepted the chair of American Con- of an association for piracy and rapine stitutional History in the University of permit a nation to despise its engage- Pennsylvania. He is author of The Pro- ments. If, sir, there could be a resur- posed Amendments to the Constitution rection from the foot of the gallows, if of the United States, for which he wap the victims of justice could live again, awarded the prize of the American collect together and form a society, they torical Association in 1897. 143 AMES AMIDAS Ames, OAKES, manufacturer; born in in person, in 1759, that drove the French Easton, Mass., Jan. 10, 1804; received a from Lake Champlain. The next year public school education; became thor- he captured Montreal and completed oughly familiar with the manufacture of the conquest of Canada. For these acts shovels, etc. Subsequently he became a he was rewarded with the thanks of member of the firm of Oliver Amos & Parliament and the Order of the Bath. Sons. When the Union Pacific Railroad In 1763 he was appointed governor of Vir- was being built the firm held large con- ginia. The atrocities of the Indians in tracts which afterwards were transferred May and June of that year aroused the to a corporation known as the Credit anger and the energies of Sir Jeffrey, and Mobilier of America, of which Oakes he contemplated hurling swift destruction Ames became one of the largest stockhold- upon the barbarians. He denounced Pon- ers. In 1862-73 he was a member of Con- tiac as the " chief ringleader of mis- gress from Massachusetts. His connection chief'*; and, in a proclamation, said, with the Credit Mobilier, including an al- " Whoever kills Pontiac shall receive legation of having improperly given stock from me a reward of 100" ($500). He to several members of Congress, was in- bade the commander at Detroit to make vestigated by a committee of the House public proclamation for an assassin to of Representatives and he was censured pursue him. He regarded the Indians as by that body. He died in North Easton, " the vilest race of creatures on the face Mass., May 8, 1873. See CREDIT Mo- of the earth; and whose riddance from it BIT.TER. must be esteemed a meritorious act, for Ames, OLIVER, statesman; born in the good of mankind." He instructed his Easton, Mass., Feb. 4, 1831; educated at officers engaged in war against them to Brown University ; member of the State " take no prisoners, but to put to death all Senate, 1880-81; lieutenant-governor, that should fall into their hands." Sir 1882-84. He died in North Easton, Jeffrey was made governor of the island Mass., Oct. 22, 1895. of Guernsey in 1771; created a baron in Amherst, SIR JEFFREY, military offi- 1776; was commander-in-chief of the cer; born in Kent, England, Jan. 29, forces from 1778 to 1795; and became 1717; became an ensign in the army in field-marshal in July, 1796. He died Aug. 1731, and was 3, 1797. aide to Lord Amherst College, an educational insti- Ligonier and tution in Amherst, Mass., founded in the Duke of J821; incorporated in 1825. The funds Cumberland, for the construction of its buildings and In 1756 he was for its endowments have been furnished promoted to by gifts of individuals, with the exception major - gener- of $50,000 given by the State. The Chris- al and given tian men and women of Massachusetts the command have built it up and chiefly sustain it. of the expedi- The declared object of its founders was tion against "the education of young men for minis- sra JEFFREY AMHERST. Louisburg in terial and missionary labor." In 1899 it 1758, which re- had thirty-six professors and instructors, suited in its capture, with other French u80 students, buildings that cost over strongholds in that vicinity. In Septem- $400,000, and valuable art and scientific ber, that year, he was appointed command- collections. The Rev. George Harris D.D., er-in-chief in America, and led the troops was elected its president in that year. AMIDAS, PHILIP Amidas, PHILIP, navigator; was of a sent two ships to America in 1584, the Breton family in France, but was born chief command was given to Arthur Bar- in Hull, England, in 1550. When Raleigh low, who commanded one of the vessels, 144 AMIDAS, PHILIP and Philip Amidas the other. They were sake, remember unto you the diurnall directed to explore the coasts within the of our course, sayling thither and return- parallels of lat. 32 and 38 N. They ing; onely I have presumed to present touched at the Canary Islands, the West unto you this briefe discourse, by which Indies, and Florida, and made their way you may judge how profitable this land is northward along the coast. On July 13, likely to succeede, as well to your selfe, by 1584, they entered Ocrakoke Inlet, and whose direction and charge, and by whose landed on Wocoken Island. There Bar- servantes this our discoverie hath beene low set up a small column with the Brit- performed, as also to her Highnesse, and ish arms rudely carved upon it, and took the Commonwealth, in which we hope your formal possession of the whole region in wisdome wilbe satisfied, considering that the name of Queen Elizabeth, as he waved as much by us hath bene brought to light, the English banner over it in the presence as by those smal meanes, and number of of the wondering natives. They spent men we had, could any way have bene e several weeks in exploring Roanoke Island pected, or hoped for. and Pamlico and Albemarle sounds. On The tenth of May we arrived at the Roanoke Island the Englishmen were en- Canaries, and the tenth of June in this tertained by the mother of King Wingini, present yeere, we were fallen with the who was absent, and were hospitably re- Islands of the West Indies, keeping a more ceived everywhere. After getting what in- Southeasterly course then was needefull, formation they could about the neighbor- because wee doubted that the current of ing main, and inspired by the beauties the Bay of Mexico, disbogging betweene the of nature around them, the navigators re- Cape of Florida and Havana, had bene of turned to England, attended by Manteo greater force than afterwards we found it and Wanchese, two Indian chiefs. The to bee. At which Islands we found the former was afterwards created " Lord of ayre very unwholesome, and our men grew Roanoke," and was the first and last for the most part ill disposed: so that American peer of England created. The having refreshed our selves with sweet glowing accounts given by Amidas and water, & fresh victuall, we departed the Barlow of the country they had discov- twelfth day of our arrivall there. These ered captivated the Queen, and she named islands, with the rest adjoining, are so the region, as some say, in allusion to well knowen to your selfe, and to many her unmarried state, Virginia; others others, as I will not trouble you with the say it was in allusion to the virgin rememberance of them, country. Amidas was in the maritime The second of July we found shole service of England long afterwards; water, wher we smelt so sweet, and so and a few years after his voyage to Vir- strong a smel, as if we had bene in the ginia he commanded an expedition to midst of some delicate garden abounding Newfoundland. He died in England in with all kinde of odoriferous flowers, by 1618. which we were assured, that the land First Voyage to Roanoke. The follow- could not be farre distant: and keeping ing is the narrative of the first voyage to good watch, and bearing but slacke saile, Roanoke by Amidas (or Amadas) and the fourth of the same moneth we arrived Barlow, written by the latter: upon the coast, which we supposed to be a continent and firme lande, and we sayled "The 27 day of Aprill, in the yeere of along the same a hundred and twentie our redemption, 1584, we departed the English miles before we could finde any West of England, with two barkes well entrance, or river issuing into the Sea. furnished with men and victuals, having The first that appeared unto us, we entred, received our last and perfect directions though not without some difficult!*, & by your letters, confirming the former in- cast anker about three harquebuz-shot structions, and commandments delivered within the havens mouth on the left hand by your selfe at our leaving the river of of the same; and after thanks given to Thames. And I think it is a matter both God for our safe arrivall thither, we man- unnecessary, for the manifest discoverie of ned our boats, and went to view the land the Countrey, as also for tediousnesse next adjoyning, and to take possession of I. K. 145 AMIDAS, PHILIP the same, in the right of the Queenes most excellent Majestic, and rightfull Queene, and Princess of the same, and after de livered the same over to your use, accord ing to her Majesties grant, and letters patents, under her Highnesse great seale. Which being performed, according to the ceremonies used in such enterprises, we viewed the land about us, being, whereas we first landed, very sandie and low tow ards the waters side, but so full of grapes, as the very beating and surge of the Sea overflowed them, of which we found such plentie, as well there as in all places else, both on the sand and on the greene soile on the hils, as in the plaines, as well on every little shrubbe, as also climing towardes the tope of high Cedars, that I thinke in all the world the like abundance is not to be found; and my selfe having seene those parts of Europe that most abound, find such difference as were in credible to be written. We passed from the Sea side towardes the toppes of those hilles next adjoyning, being but of meane higth, and from thence wee behelde the Sea on both sides to the North, and to the South, finding no ende any of both wayes. This lande laye stretching it selfe to the West, which after wee found to bee but an Island of twentie miles long, and not above sixe miles broade. Under the banke or hill whereon we stoode, we behelde the valleys replenish ed with goodly Cedar trees, and having dis charged our harquebuz-shot, such a flocke of Cranes (the most part white), arose under us, with such a cry redoubled by many ecchoes, as if an armie of men had showted all together. This Island had many goodly woodes full of Deere, Conies, Hares, and Fowle, even in the middest of Summer in incredi ble abundance. The woodes are not such as you finde in Bohemia, Moscouia, or Hercynia, barren and fruitless, but the highest and reddest Cedars of the world, farre bettering the Cedars of the Agores, of the Indies, or Lybanus, Pynes, Cypres, Sassaphras, the Lentisk, or the tree that beareth the Masticke, the tree tha* beareth the rine of blacke Sinamon, of which Mas ter Winter brought from the streights of Magellan, and many other of excellent smell and qualitie. We remained by the side of this Island two whole dayes before we saw any people of the Countrey: the third day we espied one small boate row ing towardes us having in it three per sons: this boat came to the Island side, foure harquebuz-shot from our shippes, and there two of the people remaining, the third came along the shoreside towards us, and wee being then all within boord, he walked up and downe upon the point of the land next unto us: then the Master and the Pilot of the Admirall, Simon Fer- dinando, and the Captaine Philip Amadas, my selfe, and others rowed to the land, whose comming this fellow attended, never making any shewe of fear or doubt. And after he had spoken of many things not understood by us, we brought him with his owne good liking, aboord the ships, and gave him a shirt, a hat & some other things, and made him taste of our wine, and our meat, which he liked very wel: and after having viewed both barks, he departed, and went to his owne boat againe, which hee had left in a little Cove or Creeke adjoyning: assoone as hee was two bow shoot into the water, hee fell to fishing, and in lesse than halfe an houre, he had laden his boate as deepe as it could swimme, with which hee came againe to the point of the lande, and there he divided his fish into two parts, point ing one part to the ship, and the other to the pinnesse: which, after he had, as much as he might, requited the former benefites received, departed out of our sight. The next day there came unto us di vers boates, and in one of them the Kings brother, accompanied with fortie or fiftie men, very handsome and goodly people, and in their behaviour as mannerly and civill as any of Europe. His name was Granganimeo, and the king is called Win- gina, the countrey Wingandacoa, and now by her Majestie Virginia. The manner of his comming was in this sort: hee left his boates altogether as the first man did a little from the shippes by the shore, and came along to the place over against the shipes, followed with fortie men. When he came to the place, his servants spread a long matte upon the ground, on which he sate downe, and at the other ende of the matte foure others of his companie did the like, the rest of his men stood round about him, somewhat a farre off: when we 146 AMIDAS, PHILIP came to the shore to him with our weap- a copper kettle for fiftie skins woorth fifty ons, hee never mooved from his place, nor Crownes. They offered us good exchange any of the other foure, nor never mis- for our hatchets, and axes, and for knives, trusted any harme to be offered from us, and would have given any thing for but sitting still he beckoned us to come swordes: but wee would not depart with and sit by him, which we performed: and any. After two or three dayes the Kings being set hee made all signes of joy and brother came aboord the shippes, and welcome, striking on his head and his dranke wine, and eat of our meat and of breast and afterwardes on ours to shew our bread, and liked exceedingly thereof: wee were all one, smiling and making and after a few days overpassed, he shewe the best he could of al love, and brought his wife with him to the ships, familiaritie. After hee had made a long his daughter and two or three children: speech unto us, wee presented him with his wife was very well favoured, of meane divers things, which hee received very joy- stature, and very bashfull: shee had on fully, and thankefully. None of the com- her backe a long cloake of leather, with pany, durst speake one worde all the time : the f urre side next to her body, and before only the foure which were at the other her a piece of the same: about her fore- ende, spake one in the others eare very head she had a bande of white Corall, and softly. so had her husband many times: in her The King is greatly obeyed, and his eares shee had bracelets of pearles hanging brothers and children reverenced: the down to her middle, whereof wee delivered King himself in person was at our being your worship a little bracelet, and those there, sore wounded in a fight which hee were of the bignes of good pease. The rest had with the King of the next countrey, of her women of the better sort had pen- called Wingina, and was shot in two dants of copper hanging in either eare, and places through the body, and once cleane some of the children of the Kings brother through the thigh, but yet he recovered: and other noble men, have five or sixe in by reason whereof and for that hee lay at either eare: he himselfe had upon his head the chief towne of the countrey, being a broad plate of golde, or copper, for being sixe dayes journey off, we saw him not at unpolished we knew not what mettal it all. should be, neither would he by any means After we had presented this his brother suffer us to take it off his head, but feeling with such things as we thought he liked, it, it would bow very easily. His apparell wee likewise gave somewhat to the other was as his wives, onely the women weare that sat with him on the matte : but pres- their haire long on both sides, and the ently he arose and tooke all from them men but on one. They are of colour yel- and put it into his owne basket, making lowish, and their haire black for the most signes and tokens, that all things ought part, and yet we saw children that had to bee delivered unto him, and the rest very fine auburne and chestnut coloured were but his servants, and followers. A haire. day or two after this, we fell to trading After that these women had bene there, with them, exchanging some things that there came downe from all parts great we had, for Chamoys, Buffe, and Deere store of people, bringing with them skinnes: when we shewed him all our leather, corall, divers kindes of dies, veryf packet of merchandize, of all things that excellent, and exchanged with us: but he sawe, a bright tinne dish most pleased when Granganimeo the kings brother was him, which hee presently tooke up and present, none durst trade but himselfe: ex-F clapt it before his breast, and after made cept such as weare red pieces of copper a hole in the brimme thereof and hung it on their heads like himselfe: for that is about his necke, making signes that it the difference betweene the noble men, and would defende him against his enemies the gouvernours of countreys, and the arrowes: for those people maintaine a meaner sort. And we both noted there, deadly and terrible warre, with the people and you have understood since by these and King adjoyning. We exchanged our men, which we brought home, that no tinne dish for twentie skinnes, woorth people in the worlde cary more respect to twentie Crowneg, or twentie Nobles: and their King, Nobilitie, and Governours, J47 AMIDAS, PHILIP than these do. The Kings brothers wife, the day and performed his promise. He when she came to us, as she did many sent us every day a brase or two of fat times, was followed with forty or fifty Bucks, Conies, Hares, Fish and best of the women alwayes: and when she came into world. He sent us divers kindes of fruites, the shippe, she left them all on land, sav- Melons, Walnuts, Cucumbers, Gourdes, ing her two daughters, her nurse and one Pease, and divers rootes, and fruites very or two more. The kings brother alwayes excellent good, and of their Countrey kept this order, as many boates as he corne, which is very white, faire and well would come withall to the shippes, so tasted, and groweth three times in five many fires would he make on the shore moneths: in May they sow, in July they a farre off, to the end we might understand reape ; in June they sow, in August they with what strength and company he ap- reape; in July they sow, in September preached. Their boates are made of one they reape: onely they caste the corne tree, either of Pine or of Pitch trees: a into the ground, breaking a little of the wood not commonly knowen to our people, soft turfe with a wodden mattock, or pick- nor found growing in England. They have axe; our selves prooved the soile, and put no edge-tooles to make them withall: if some of our Pease in the ground, and in they have any they are very fewe, and tcnne dayes they were of fourteene ynches those it seemes they had twentie yeres high: they have also Beanes very faire of since, which, as those two men declared, divers colours and wonderfull plentie: was out of a wrake which happened upon some growing naturally, and some in their their coast of some Christian ship, being gardens, and so have they both wheat and beaten that way by some storme and out- oates. ragious weather, whereof none of the The soile is the most plentifull, sweete, people were saved, but only the ship ; fruitfull and wholesome of all the worlde: or some part of her being cast upon the there are above fourteene severall sweete sand, out of whose sides they drew the smelling timber trees, and the most part nayles and the spikes, and with those of their underwoods are Bayes and such they made their best instruments. The like: they have those Okes that we have, manner of making their boates is thus: but farre greater and better. After they they burne down some great tree, or take had bene divers times aboord our shippes, such as are winde fallen, and putting my selfe, and seven more went twentie gumme and rosen upon one side thereof, mile into the River, that runneth towarde they set fire into it, and when it hath the Citie of Skicoak, which River they call burnt it hollow, they cut out the coale Occam: and the evening following wee with their shels, and ever where they came to an Island which they call Roa/- would burne it deeper or wider they lay noak, distant from the harbour by which we on gummes, which burne away the timber, entred, seven leagues: and at the North and by this means they fashion very fine end thereof was a village of nine houses, boates, and such as will transport twentie built of Cedar, and fortified round about men. Their oares are like scoopes, and with sharpe trees, to keepe out their ene- many times they set with long poles, as mies, and the entrance into it made like the depth serveth. a turnepike very artificially; when wee The Kings brother had great liking came towardes it, standing neere unto the of our armour, a sword, and divers other waters side, the wife of Granganimo the things which we had: and offered to lay a Kings brother came running out to meete great boxe of pearls in gage for them: but us very cheerfully and friendly, her hus- we refused it for this time, because we band was not then in the village; some of would not make them knowe, that we es- her people shee commanded to drawe our teemed thereof, untill we had understoode boate on shore for the beating of the in what places of the countrey the pearle billoe : others she appointed to carry us on grew: which now your Worshippe doeth their backes to the dry ground, and others very well understand. to bring our oares into the house for feare He was very just of his promise: for of stealing. When we were come into the many times we delivered him merchandize utter roome, having five roomes in her upon his worde, but ever he came within house, she caused us to sit downe by a, 148 AMIDAS, PHILIP great fire, and after tooke off our clothes and washed them, and dryed them againe: some of tht women plucked off our stock ings and washed them, some washed our feete in warme water, and she herselfe tooke great paines to see all things ordered in the best maner shee could, making great haste to dresse some meate for us to eate. After we had thus dryed ourselves, she brought us into the inner roome, where shee set on the boord standing along the house, some wheate like furmentie, sodden Venison, and roasted, fish sodden, boyled and roasted, Melons rawe, and sodden, rootes of divers kindes and divers fruites: their drinke is commonly water, but while the grape lasteth, they drinke wine, and for want of caskes to keepe it, all the yere after they drink water, but it is sodden with Ginger in it and blacke Sinamon, and sometimes Sassaphras, and divers other wholesome, and medicinable hearbes and trees. We were entertained with all love and kindnesse, and with much bountie, after their maner, as they could possibly devise. We found the people most gentle, loving and faithfull, voide of all guile and treason, and such as live after the manner of the golden age. The people onely care howe to defend themselves from the cold in their short winter, and to feed themselves with such meat as the soile affoordeth : there meat is very well sodden and they make broth very sweet and sa- vorie: their vessels are earthen pots, very large, white and sweete, their dishes are wooden platters of sweet timber: within the place where they feede was their lodging, and within that their Idoll, which they worship, of whome they speake in credible things. While we were at meate, there came in at the gates two or three men with their bowes and arrowes from hunting, whom when wee espied, we be- ganne to looke one towardes another, and offered to reach our weapons: but as soone as shee espied our mistrust, shee was very much mooved, and caused some of her men to runne out, and take away their bowes and arrowes and breake them, and withall beate the poore fellowes out of the gate againe. When we departed in the evening and would not tary all night she was very sorry, and gave us into our boate our supper halfe dressed, pottes and all, and brought us to our boate side, in which wee lay all night, remooving the same a prettie distance from the shoare: shee perceiving our jealousie, was much grieved, and sent divers men and thirtie women, to sit all night on the banke side by us, and sent us into our boates five mattes to cover us from the raine, using very many wordes, to entreate us to rest in their houses : but because wee were f ewe men, and if wee had miscarried, the voyage had bene in very great danger, wee durst not adventure any thing, although there was no cause of doubt: for a more kinde and loving people there can not be found in the worlde, as farre as we have hitherto had triall. Beyond this Island there is the maine lande, and over against this Island falleth into this spacious water the great river called Occam by the inhabitants, on which standeth a towne called Pomeiock, & sixe days journey from the same is situate their greatest citie, called Skicoak, which this people affirme to be very great: but the Savages were never at it, only they speake of it by the report of their fathers and other men, whom they have heard affirme it to bee above one houres journey about. Into this river falleth another great river, called Cipo, in which there is found great store of Huskies in which there are pearles: likewise there descendeth into this Occam, another river, called Nomo- pana, on the one side whereof standeth a great towne called Chawanook, and the Lord of that towne and countrey is called Pooneno: this Pooneno is not subject to the King of Wingandacoa, but is a free Lord : beyond this country is there another king, whom they cal Menatonon, and these three kings are in league with each other. Towards the Southwest, foure dayes journey is situate a towne called Sequotan, which is the Southermost towne of Wingandacoa, neere unto which, sixe and twentie yeres past there was a ship cast away, whereof some of the people were saved, and those were white people whom the countrey people preserved. And after ten days remaining in an out Island unhabited, called Wocokon, they with the help of some of the dwell ers of Sequotan fastened two boates of the countrey together & made mastes unto 149 AMIDAS, PHILIP them and sailes of their shirtes, and hav- Piemacum, and the Lord of Secotan, as ing taken into them such victuals as the these men which we have brought with us countrey yeelded, they departed after to England, have given us to understand: they had remained in this out Island 3 but there remaineth a mortall malice in weekes: but shortly after it seemed they the Secotanes, for many injuries & slaugh- were cast away, for the boates were found ters done upon them by this Piema- npon the coast cast a land in another cum. They invited divers men, and thirtie Island adjoyning: other than these, there women of the best of his countrey to their was never any people apparelled, or white towne to a feast: and when they were al- of colour, either scene or heard of amongst together merry, & praying before their these people, and these aforesaid were Idoll, which is nothing els but a meer il- seene onely of the inhabitantes of Secotan, lusion of the devill, the captaine or Lord which appeared to be very true, for they of the town -came suddenly upon the, and wondred marvelously when we were slewe them every one, reserving the women amongst them at the whitenes of our and children: and these two have of ten- skins, ever coveting to touch our breasts, times since perswaded us to surprise Pie- and to view the same. Besides they had macum in his towne, having promised and our ships in marvelous admiration, & all assured us, that there will be found in it things els were so strange unto them, as it great store of commodities. But whether appeared that none of them had ever scene' their perswasion be to the ende they may the like. When we discharged any piece, be revenged of their enemies, or for the were it but an hargubuz, they would trem- love they beare to us, we leave that to the ble thereat for very feare and for the tryall hereafter. strangenesse of the same: for the weapons Beyond this Island called Roanoak, arc which themselves use are bowes and ar- maine Islands, very plentifull of fruits and rowes: the arrowes are but of small canes, other naturall increases, together with headed with a sharpe shell or tooth of a many townes, and villages, along the side fish sufficient ynough to kill a naked man. of the continent, some bounding upon the Their swordes be of wood hardened: like- Islands, and some stretching up further vise they use wooden breastplates for into the land. their defence. They have beside a kinde When we first had sight of this coun- of club, in the end whereof they fasten trey, some thought the first land we saw the sharpe horns of a stagge, or other to bee the continent: but after we entred beast. When they goe to warres they into the Haven, we saw before us another cary about with them their idol, of whom mighty long Sea: for there lyeth along they aske counsel, as the Romans were the coast a tracte of Islands, two hundreth woont of the Oracle of Apollo. They sing miles in length, adjoyning to the Ocean songs as they march towardes the battell sea, and betweene the Islands, two or in stead of drummes and trumpets: their three entrances: when you are entred be- warres are very cruell and bloody, by rea- tweene them, these Islands being very son whereof, and of their civill dissen- narrow for the most part, as in most tions which have happened of late yeeres places sixe miles broad, in some places amongst them, the people are marvelously lesse, in few more, then there appeareth wasted, and in some places the countrey another great sea, containing in bredth in left desolate. some places, forty, and in some fifty, in Adjoyning to this countrey aforesaid some twenty miles over, before you come called Secotan beginneth a countrey called unto the continent: and in this inclosed Pomouik, belonging to another king whom Sea there are above an hundreth Islands they call Piamacum, and this king is in of divers bignesses, whereof one is sixteene league with the next king adjoyning miles long, at which we were, finding it a towards the setting of the Sunne, and the most pleasant and fertile ground; replen- countrey Newsiok, situate upon a goodly ished with goodly Cedars, and divers oth- river called Neus: these kings have mor- er sweete woods, full of Corrants, of flaxe, tall warre with Wingina* king of Wingan- and many other notable commodities,which dacoa: but about two yeeres past there we at that time had no leasure to view was a peace made betweene the King Besides this island there are many, as I 150 AMISTAD AMMIDOWN have sayd, some of two, or three, or foure, of S. S. Jocelyn, Joshua Leavitt, and of five miles, some more, some lesse, most Lewis Tappan, was appointed in New York beautifull and pleasant to behold, replen- to solicit funds and employ counsel to ished with Deere, Conies, Hares and divers protect the rights of the negroes. After a beasts, and about them the goodliest and great struggle the court, through Justice best fish in the world, and in greatest Story, pronounced them free. Their re- abundance, turn to Africa founded the Mendi mis- Thus, Sir, we have acquainted you sion. with the particulars of our discovery made Ammen, DANIEL, naval officer ; born this present voyage, as farre foorth as the in Brown county, O., May 15, 1820; en- shortnesse of the time we there continued tered the navy as a midshipman in 1836. would affoord us to take viewe of: and so In 1861-62 he commanded the gunboat contenting our selves with this service at Seneca in the South Atlantic blockading this time, which wee hope here after to fleet. His bravery was conspicuous in the inlarge, as occasion and assistance shalbe battle of Port Royal, Nov. 7, 1861. Later, given, we resolved to leave the countrey, under Dupont's command, he took part in and to apply ourselves to returne for Eng- all the operations on the coasts of Georgia land, which we did accordingly, and ar- and Florida. In the engagements with rived safely in the West of England about Fort McAllister, March 3, 1863, and with the middest of September. Fort Sumter, April 7, 1863, he commanded And whereas wee have above certified the monitor Patapsco. In the attacks on you of the countrey taken in possession Fort Fisher, in December, 1864, and Janu- by us to her Majesties use, and so to yours ary, 1865, he commanded the Mohican. by her Majesties grant, wee thought good He was promoted to rear-admiral in 1877, for the better assurance thereof to record and was retired June 4, 1878. Afterwards some of the particular Gentlemen & men he was a member of the board to locate of accompt, who then were present, as wit- the new Naval Observatory, and a repre- nesses of the same, that thereby all occa- sentative of the United States at the Inter- sion of cavill to the title of the countrey, oceanic Ship Canal Congress in Paris, in her Majesties behalfe may be prevented, He designed a cask balsa to facilitate which otherwise, such as like not the ac- the landing of troops and field artil- tion may use and pretend, whose names lery; a life-raft for steamers; and the are: steel ram Katahdin. His publications in- Master PHILIP AMADAS,) . elude The Atlantic Coast in The Navy in Master ARTHUR BARLOW, } ^ a P tCt ies - the Civil War Series; Recollections of William Greenvile, John Wood, James Grant; and The Old Navy and the New. /Jrowewich, Henry Greene, Benjamin He died in Washington, D. C., July 11, Wood, Simon Ferdinando, Nicholas Pet- 1898. man, John Hewes, of the companie. Ammidown, EDWARD HOLMES, mer- We brought home also two of the Sav- chant; born in Southbridge, Mass., Oct. ages, being lustie men, whose names were 28, 1820; was graduated at Harvard Col- Wanchese and Manteo. lege in 1853. After travelling for several Amistad, CASE OF THE. A Portuguese years in the United States and Europe he slaver landed a cargo of kidnapped Afri- engaged in mercantile business in New cans near Havana; a few days afterwards York City in 1860; later became a direc- they were placed on board the Amistad tor in several banks, insurance companies, to be taken to Principe. On the voyage etc. In 1881 he was elected president of the negroes, led by Cinque, captured the the American Protective Tariff League; vessel, but killed only the captain and and in 1882 chairman of the Metropolitan the cook. They then ordered the white Industrial League. In 1890 President crew to take the ship to Africa; but the Harrison appointed him a commissioner sailors brought her into American waters, for the World's Columbian Exposition, but where she was seized by Lieutenant Ged- he declined the post. He is the author of ing, of the United States brig Washington, numerous political articles, including and brought into New London, Conn., National Illiteracy; Capital and Labor; Aug. 29, 1839. A committee, consisting etc. 151 AMNESTY PROCLAMATIONS Amnesty Proclamations. As a conse- excepting as to slaves, and in property quence of the secession of the Southern cases where rights of third parties shall States and the war that ensued, four very have intervened, and upon the condition important amnesty proclamations were is- that every such person shall take and sued by Presidents of the United States, subscribe an oath, and thenceforward The first one was by President Lincoln, keep and maintain such oath inviolate; Dec. 8, 1863. The text of the proclama tion is as follows: and which oath shall be registered far permanent preservation, and shall be of the tenor and effect following, to wit: President Lincoln in 1863. Whereas, j > t do solemnly swear, in pres- in and by the Constitution of the United ence of Almighty God, that I will henceforth States, it is provided that the President * aith 5, u "y sPPort. ?*?<*, and defend the , Constitution of the United States, and the " shall have power to grant reprieves and union of the states ther eunder ; and that I pardons for offences against the United will in like manner abide by and faithfully States, except in cases of impeachment"; support all acts of Congress passed during and whereas a rebel.ion now exists where- % ve *^ '* ^e^ by the loyal State governments of several modified, or held void by Congress, or by de- States have for a long time been subvert- cision of the Supreme Court ; and that I will, ed, and many persons have committed and in 1Ike manner, abide by and faithfully sup- J ..f . ,, port all proclamations of the President made are now guilty of treason against the durlng the exlsting rebellion having reference United States; and whereas, with refer- to slaves, so long and so far as not modified ence to said rebellion and treason, laws or declared void by decision of the Supreme have been enacted by Congress declaring Court - So hel P me God '" forfeitures and confiscation of property The persons excepted from the benefits and liberation of slaves, all upon terms of the foregoing provisions are: all who and conditions therein stated; and also are, or shall have been, civil or diplomatic declaring that the President was thereby officers or agents of the so-called Confed- authorized at any time thereafter, by proc- erate government ; all who have left ju- lamation, to extend to persons who may dicial stations under the United States to have participated in the existing rebellion, aid the rebellion ; all who are, or shall in any State or part thereof, pardon and have been, military or naval officers of amnesty, with such exceptions and at such said so-called Confederate government, times and on such conditions as he may above the rank of colonel in the army, or deem expedient for the public welfare; of lieutenant in the navy; all who left and whereas the congressional declaration seats in the United States Congress to aid for limited and conditional pardon accords the rebellion; all who resigned commis- with well-established judicial exposition of sions in the army or navy of the United the pardoning power; and whereas, with States, and afterwards aided the rebel- reference to said rebellion, the President lion; and all who have engaged in any of the United States has issued several way in treating colored persons, or white proclamations with provisions in regard to persons in charge of such, otherwise than the liberation of slaves; and whereas it is lawfully as prisoners of war, and which now desired by some persons heretofore persons may have been found in the engaged in said rebellion to resume their United States service as soldiers, seamen, allegiance to the United States, and to re- or in any other capacity, inaugurate loyal State governments with- And I do further proclaim, declare, and in and for their respective States. There- make known, that whenever, in any of the fore, States of Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana, I, Abraham Lincoln, President of the Mississippi, Tennessee, Alabama, Georgia, United States, do proclaim, declare, and Florida, South Carolina, and North Caro- make known to all persons who have, di- lina, a number of persons, not less than rectly or by implication, participated in one-tenth in number of the votes cast in the existing rebellion, except as herein- such State at the Presidential election of after excepted, that a full pardon is here- the year of our Lord 1860, each having by granted to them, and each of them, taken the oath aforesaid, and not having with restoration of all rights of property, since violated it, and being a qualified 152 AMNESTY PROCLAMATIONS voter by the election law of the State ex- subverted, a mode in and by which the isting immediately before the so-called act national authority and loyal State gov- of secession, and excluding all others, ernments may be re-established within shall re-establish a State government said States, or in any of them; and, while which shall be republican, and in nowise the mode presented is the best the execu- contravening said oath, such shall be rec- tive can suggest, with his present impres- ognized as the true government of the sions, it must not be understood that no State, and the State shall receive there- other possible mode would be acceptable, under the benefits of the constitutional Given under my hand, at the city of provision which declares that the " United Washington, the 8th day of December, A.D. States shall guarantee to every State in 1863, and of the independence of the this Union a republican form of govern- United States of America the eighty- ment, (i.fld shall protect each of them eighth. ABRAHAM LINCOLN. against invasion; and, on application of President Johnson in 1865. The second the legislature, or the executive (when one was issued by President Johnson, under the legislature cannot be convened), date of May 29, 1865, and was the begin- against domestic violence." ning of the reconstruction measures. The And I do further proclaim, declare, and following is the text: make known that any provision which may be adopted by such State government Whereas, the President of the United in relation to the freed people of such States, on the 8th day of December, 1863, State, which shall recognize and declare did, with the object of suppressing the ex- their permanent freedmen, provide for isting rebellion, to induce all persons to their education, and which may yet be lay down their arms, to return to their consistent, as a temporary arrangement, loyalty, and to restore the authority of with their present condition as a labor- the United States, issue proclamations of- ing, landless, and homeless class, will not fering amnesty and pardon to certain per- be objected to by the national executive, sons who had directly or by implication And it is suggested as not improper that, engaged in said rebellion; and in constructing a loyal State government Whereas, many persons who had so in any State, the name of the State, the engaged in the late rebellion have, since boundary, the subdivisions, the constitu- the issuance of said proclamation, failed tion, and the general code of laws, as be- or neglected to take the benefits offered fore the rebellion, be maintained, subject thereby; and only to the modifications made necessary Whereas, many persons who have been by the conditions hereinbefore stated, and justly deprived of all claims to amnesty such others, if any, not contravening said and pardon thereunder, by reason of their conditions, and which may be deemed ex- participation directly or by implication pedient by those framing the new State in said rebellion, and continued in hos- government. tility to the government of the United To avoid misunderstanding, it may be States since the date of said proclamation, proper to say that this proclamation, so now desire to apply for and obtain am- far as it relates to State governments, nesty and pardon: has no reference to States wherein loyal To the end, therefore, that the author- State governments have all the while been ity of the government of the United maintained. And for the same reason, it States may be restored, and that peace, may be proper to further say that and order, and freedom may be estab- whether members sent to Congress from lished, I, Andrew Johnson, President of any State shall be admitted to seats, con- the United States, do proclaim and de- stitutionally rests exclusive with the clare, that I hereby grant to all persons respective Houses, and not to any extent who have directly or indirectly partici- with the executive. And still further, that pated in the existing rebellion, except as this proclamation is intended to present hereafter excepted, amnesty and pardon, to the people of the States wherein the with restoration of all rights of property, national authority has been suspended, except as to slaves, except in cases where and loyal State governments have been legal proceedings under the laws of the 153 AMNESTY PROCLAMATIONS United States, providing for the confisca- the United States, and passed beyond the tion of property of persons engaged in Federal military lines into the so-called rebellion, have been instituted, but on the Confederate States for the purpose of condition, nevertheless, that every such aiding the rebellion. person shall take and subscribe to the 11. All persons who have engaged in following oath, which shall be registered, the destruction of the commerce ol the for permanent preservation, and shall be United States upon the high seas, and all of the tenor and effect following, to wit: persons who have made raids into the United States from Canada, or been en- gaged in destroying the commerc. of the forth support, protect, and faithfully defend United States on the lakes and rivers that the Constitution of the United States, and separate the British provinces from the will, in like manner, abide by and faithfully United States. support all laws and proclamations which 10 AII - i. have been made during the existing re- 12 ' A11 persons who, at a time when bellion with reference to the emancipation they seek to obtain the benefits hereof by of slaves. So help me God." taking the oath herein prescribed, are in military, naval, or civil confinement or The following classes of persons are custody, or under bond of the military or excepted from the benefits of this procla- naval authorities or agents of the United mation: States as prisoners of any kind, either be- 1. All who are or have been pretended fore or after their conviction. diplomatic officers, or otherwise domestic 13. All persons who have voluntarily or foreign agents of the pretended Con- participated in said rebellion, the esti- federate States. mated value of whose taxable property is 2. All who left judicial stations under over $20,000. the United States to aid in the rebellion. 14. All persons who have taken the 3. All who have been military or naval oath of amnesty as prescribed in the Presi- officers of the pretended Confederate gov- dent's proclamation of Dec. 8, 1863, or crnment above the rank of colonel in the the oath of allegiance to the United States army, and lieutenant in the navy. since the date of said proclamation, and 4. All who have left their seats in the who have not thenceforward kept the Congress of the United States to aid in same inviolate; provided, that special ap- the rebellion. plication may be made to the President 5. All who have resigned or tendered for pardon by any person belonging to the resignation of their commissions in the excepted classes, and such clemency the army and navy of the United States to will be extended as may be consistent with evade their duty in resisting the rebel- the facts of the case and the peace and lion. dignity of the United States. The Sec- 6. All who have engaged in any way in retary of State will establish rules and treating otherwise than lawfully as pris- regulations for administering and record- oners of war persons found in the United ing the said amnesty oath, so as to insure States service as officers, soldiers, sea- its benefits to the people, and guard the men, or in other capacities. government against fraud. 7. All persons who have been or are In testimony whereof,- I have hereunto absentees from the United States for the set my hand, and caused the seal of the purpose of aiding the rebellion. United States to be affixed. 8. All military or naval officers in the Done at the city of Washington, this rebel service who were educated by the the 29th day of May, 1865, and of the in- government in the Military Academy at dependence of America the 89th. West Point, or at the United States Naval ANDREW JOHNSON. Academy. President Johnson in 1868. In this 9. All persons who held the pretended year President Johnson issued two such offices of governors of the States in in- proclamations. The first dated July 4, surrection against the United States. pardoning all persons engaged in the Civil 10. All persons who left their homes War except those under presentment or within the jurisdiction and protection of indictment in any court of the United 154 AMNESTY PROCLAMATIONS States having competent jurisdiction, was corpus, and the right of trial by jury- such encroachments upon our free institu tions in time of peace being dangerous te public liberty, incompatible with the indi vidual rights of the citizens, contrary to the genius and spirits of our republican form of government, and exhaustive of the national resources; And whereas, it is believed that am nesty and pardon will tend to secure a complete and universal establishment and prevalence of municipal law and order, in conformity with the Constitution of the United States, and to remove all appear ances or presumptions of a retaliatory or vindictive policy on the part of the government, attended by unnecessary dis qualifications, pains, penalties, confisca tions, and disfranchisements ; and on the contrary, to promote and procure complete fraternal reconciliation among the whole people, with due submission to the Con stitution and laws; Now, therefore, be it known that I, Andrew Johnson, President of the United States, do, by virtue of the Constitution and in the name of the people of the United States, hereby proclaim and de clare, unconditionally and without reser vation, to all and to every person who di rectly or indirectly participated in the late insurrection or rebellion, excepting such person or persons as may be under presentment or indictment in any court of the United States having competent juris diction, upon a charge of treason or other felony, a full pardon and amnesty for the offence of treason against the United States, or of adhering to their enemies during the late Civil War, with restora tion of all rights of property, except as to slaves, and except also as to any property of which any person may have been legal ly divested under the laws of the United States. In testimony whereof I have signed these presents with my hand, and have caused the seal of the United States to be hereunto fixed. Done at the city of Washington, the fourth day of July, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and six ty-eight, and of the Independence of the United States of America the ninety- third. ANDREW JOHNSON. The second, issued Dec. 25, proclaimed as follows: Whereas, in the month of July, A.D. 1861, in accepting the conditions of civil war, which was brought about by insur rection and rebellion in several of the States which constitute the United States, the two Houses of Congress did solemnly declare that the war was not waged on the part of the government in any spirit of op pression, nor for any purpose of conquest or subjugation, nor for any purpose of overthrowing or interfering with the rights or established institutions of the States, but only to defend and maintain the supremacy of the Constitution of the United States, and to preserve the Union with all the dignity, equality, and rights of the several States unimpaired; and that, so soon as these objects should be accomplished, the war on the part of the government should cease; And whereas, the President of the United States has heretofore, in the spirit of that declaration, and with the view of securing for its ultimate and complete effect, set forth several proclamations, offering amnesty and pardon to persons who had been or were concerned in the aforesaid rebellion, which proclamations, however, were attended with prudential reservations and exceptions then deemed necessary and proper, and which proclama tions were respectively issued on the 8th day of December, 1863, on the 26th day of March, 1864, on the 29th day of May, 1865, and on the 7th day of September, 1867; And whereas, the said lamentable Civil War has long since altogether ceased, with an acknowledged guarantee to all the States of the supremacy of the federal Constitution and the government there under; and there no longer exists any reasonable ground to apprehend a re newal of the said Civil War, or any foreign interference, or any unlawful re sistance by any portion of the people of any of the States to the Constitution and laws of the United States; And whereas, it is desirable to reduce the standing army, and to bring to a speedy termination military occupation, martial law, military tribunals, abridg ment of freedom of speech and of the press, and suspension of th* privilege of habeas 155 AMNESTY PROCLAMATIONS ANARCHISTS unconditionally a full pardon and am- Done at the city of Washington, the nesty. It was as follows: twenty-fifth day of December, in the year of our Lord, one thousand eight hundred Whereas, the President of the United and sixty-eight, and of the Independence States has heretofore set forth several of the United States of America the nine- proclamations offering amnesty and par- ty-third. ANDREW JOHNSON. don to persons who had been or were con- Anaesthesia. See MORTON, WILLIAM cerned in the late rebellion against the THOMAS GREEN. lawful authority of the government of the Anarchists. The battle on the part of United States, which proclamations were society against the anarchists in the severally issued on the 8th day of De- United States may be said to have been cember, 1863, on the 6th day of March, fought and won. From the close of the 1864, on the 29th day of May, 1865, on Civil War up to 1886, the number of anar- the 7th day of September, 1867, and on chists in the country constantly increased, the 4th day of July in the present year; The organization is supposed to have had and, its origin in Russia, the object of its exist- Whereas, the authority of the fed- ence being apparently to secure greater eral government having been re-established freedom for the people through the as- in all the States and Territories within sassination of those government officers, the jurisdiction of the United States, it is most notably the Czar, who to the popular believed that such prudential reservations notion embodied tyranny. The members and exceptions, as at the dates of said of anarchist bands knew but five of several proclamations were deemed neces- their fellows, though the society at one sary and proper, may now be wisely and time is said to have had over 40,000 justly relinquished, and that a universal members. The members were divided amnesty and pardon, for participation in into groups of six, one member of each said rebellion, extended to all who have group communicating with one of another, borne any part therein, will tend to secure thus forming a great chain, but diminish- permanent peace, order, and prosperity ing the fear of traitors. The oaths of the throughout the land, and to renew and members are said to be of a most terrible fully restore confidence and fraternal feel- character. From its original inception ing among the whole people, and their anarchism soon changed until the members respect for and attachment to the national of the society in all lands were regarded government, designed by its patriotic as standing solely for the overthrow of founders for the general good: existing institutions. The growth of the Now, therefore, be it known that I, society in this country began to alarm Andrew Johnson, President of the United police officials. The agitators kept busy States, by virtue of the power and author- among the unemployed masses in all the ity in me vested by the Constitution, and large cities. Dire predictions were made in the name of the sovereign people of the when on May 4, 1886, an anarchistic meet- United States, do hereby proclaim and de- ing in Chicago resulted in such a disturb- clare unconditionally and without reser- ance that the people became aroused and vation, to all and to every person who di- anarchy received a death-blow. On the rectly or indirectly participated in the night of May 4, a great number of an- late insurrection or rebellion, a full par- archists held a meeting in Haymarket don and amnesty for the offences of trea- Square, Chicago. The city was in a rest- son against the United States, or of ad- less state at the time because of frequent hering to their enemies during the late labor troubles. One of the speakers waved Civil War, with restoration of all rights, a red flag and shouted to the people to get privileges, and immunities under the Con- dynamite and blow up the houses of the stitution and the laws which have been rich. At these words a small body of police made in pursuance thereof. charged the anarchists. Suddenly a dy- In testimony whereof I have signed namite bomb was thrown at the officers, these presents with my hand, and have and five officers and four civilians in the caused the seal of the United States to be crowd were killed. Seven of the leading hereunto affixed. anarchists were arrested, and after a trial 156 ANDERSON were condemned to death. The sentences of two of them were afterwards commuted to life imprisonment, but in 1894 they were pardoned by Governor Altgeld. One of the anarchists committed suicide while in prison and four were hanged. On Dec. 9, 1893. Auguste Vaillant attempted to throw a bomb at M. Dupuy during a ses- sion of the French Chamber of Deputies, but it struck the gallery, and, exploding, wounded four deputies and many spec- tators. On April 4, 1900, an unsuccessful attempt was made to kill the Prince of Wales, now King Edward VII., at Brus- sels. The following is a list of recent assassinations by anarchists: Sadi Carnot, president of France, by Sante Ironimo Caserio, an Italian, at Lyons, June 24, 1894; Canovas del Castillo, prime minister of Spain, by Golli, an Italian, at Santa Agiieda, April 22, 1897; Elizabeth, em- press of Austria, by Luchini, an Italian, at Geneva, Sept. 10, 1898; Humbert, king of Italy, by Angelo Bresci, an Italian, at Monza, Italy, July 29, 1900; William McKinley, president of the United States, by Leon Czolgosz, at Buffalo, N. Y., shot Sept. 6, died Sept. 14, 1901. The act approved by Congress, May 27, 1908, ex- cluded from the United States mails any matter of a character tending to in- cite arson, murder, or assassination, or acts of an indecent character. Sp& ALTGELD, JOHN PETER; SOCIALISM. Anderson, ALEXANDER, the first en- graver on wood in America; born in New York, April 21, 1775. His father was a Scotchman, who printed a Whig newspaper in New York, called The Constitutional Qazette, until he was driven from the city by the British in 1776. After the yellow fever in 1798, he abandoned the practice of medicine and made engraving his life profession. Having seen an edition of Bewick's History of Quadrupeds, illus- trated with wood-engravings by that mas- ter, Anderson first learned that wood was used for such a purpose. From that time he used it almost continuously until a few months before his death, in Jersey City, N. J., Jan. 17, 1870. A vast number of American books illustrated by Anderson at- test the skill and industry of this pioneer of the art of wood-engraving in America. Anderson, EDWIN HATFIELD, librarian; born in Zionsville, Ind., Sept. 27, 1861; graduated at Wabash College in 1883; appointed librarian-in-chief of the Car- negie Library, Pittsburg, Pa., in 1895. Anderson, FORT, North Carolina. At- tacked simultaneously on Feb. 18, 1865, by Admiral Porter with fifteen vessels and by the army under Schofield and Terry. The garrison of 6,000 Confederates under Hoke fled late in the day. Anderson, LARZ, diplomatist; born in Paris, France, Aug. 15, 1866; gradu- ated at Harvard College in 1888; spent two years in foreign travel; was appoint- ed second secretary of the United States legation and embassy in London in 1891- 93, and first secretary of the embassy in Rome in 1893-97. During the war with Spain he served as a captain and adjutant - general of United States vol- unteers. Anderson, MARTIN BREWER, educator; born in Brunswick, Me., Feb. 12, 1815; was of Scotch descent on his father's side; was graduated at Waterville*(now Colby) College in 1840; and in 1850 became editor and part proprietor of the New York Re- corder, a Baptist publication. A univer- sity having been established at Rochester by the Baptists, he was called to the presi- dency of it in 1853, and held the office till 1889. In 1868 he was offered the presi- dency of Brown University, but declined it. He was one of the most efficient incor- porators and earlier trustees of Vassar College. He died Feb. 26, 1890. Anderson, RASMUS BJORN, author and diplomatist; born in Albion, Wis., of Nor- \vegian parentage, Jan. 12, 1846; was graduated at the Norwegian Lutheran Col- lege in Decorah, la., in 1866; was Profes- sor of Scandinavian Languages and Litera- ture at the University of Wisconsin in 1875-84, and United States minister to Denmark in 1885-89. He is author of Norse Mythology; Viking Tales of the North; America Not Discovered "by Colum- "bus; The Younger Edda; First Chapter of Norwegian Immigration; several works in Norwegian; and also many translations of Norse writings. Anderson, RICHARD HERRON, military officer ; born in South Carolina, Oct. 7, 1821 ; was graduated at West Point in 1842. He served in the war with Mexico; and in March, 1861, he left the army and became a brigadier-general in the Confed- 157 ANDERSON erate service. He was wounded at Antie- tarn; commanded a division at Gettys- burg; and was made lieutenant-general in 1864. He died in Beaufort, S. C., June 26, 1879. Anderson, ROBERT, defender of Fort Suinter in 1861; born near Louisville, Ky., June 14, 1805. He was a graduate of West Point Military Academy, and entered the artillery. He was instructor for a while at West Point. He served in the BLACK HAWK WAR (q. v.), and in Flori- da. In May, 1838, he became assistant ad- jutant-general on the staff of General Scott, and accompanied that officer in his campaign in Mexico, where he was severely Bounded in the battle of EL MOLING DEL REY (q. v.). In 1857 he was commission- ed major of artillery. In October, 1860, Secretary Floyd removed Colonel Gardiner from the command of the defences of Charleston Harbor, because he attempted to increase hjs supply of ammunition, and Major Anderson was appointed to succeed him. He arrived there on the 20th, and was satisfied, by the tone of conversation and feeling in Charleston, and by the military drills going on, that a revolution was to be inaugurated there. He commu- nicated his suspicions to Adjutant-Gen- eral Cooper. In that letter Anderson an- ROBERT ANDERSON. nounced to the government the weakness of the forts in Charleston Harbor, and urged the necessity of immediately strengthening them. He told the Secre tary of War that Fort Moultrie, his head quarters, was so weak as to invite attack. "Fort Sumter and Castle Pinckney," he said, " must be garrisoned immediately, if the government determines to keep com- mand of this harbor." Fort Sumter, he said, had 40,000 Ib. of cannon powder and other ammunition, but was lying corn- pletely at the mercy of an enemy. He in- formed the Secretary of evident prepara- tions for a speedy seizure of the defences of the harbor by South Carolinians. Gen- eral Scott, aware of the weakness of the Southern forts, urged the government, from October until the close of December, to reinforce those on the coasts of the slave States. But nothing was done, and Anderson, left to his own resources, was compelled to assume grave responsibilities. He began to strengthen Castle Pinck- ney, near the city, and Fort Moultrie. When the South Carolina ordinance of secession had passed, menaces became more frequent and alarming. He knew that the convention had appointed commissioners to repair to Washington and demand the surrender of the forts in Charleston Har- bor, and he was conscious that the latter were liable to be attacked at any moment. He knew, too, that if he should remain in Fort Moultrie, their efforts would be successful. Watch-boats were out contin- ua lly spying his movements. He had ap- plied to the government for instructions, but received none, and he determined to leave Fort Moultrie with his garrison and take post in stronger Fort Sumter. This he did on the evening of Dec. 26. The vigilance of the Confederates had been eluded. They, amazed, telegraphed to Floyd. The latter, by telegraph, ordered Anderson to explain his conduct in acting without orders. Anderson calmly replied that it was done to save the government works. In Sumter, he was a thorn in the flesh of the Confederates. Finally they attacked him, and after a siege and furi ous bombardment, the fort was evacuated in April, 1861. In May, 1861, he was ap pointed a brigadier-general in the regu lar army, and commander of the Depart ment of the Cumberland, but failing health caused him to retire from the service in 1863, when he was brevetted a major-gen- eral. In 1868 he went to Europe for the benefit of his health, and died in Nice, France, Oct. 27, 1871. See PICKENS, FORT; SUMTER, FORT. Anderson, THQMAS MCARTHUB, sol- ANDERSONVILLE ANDRE dier; born in Chillicothe, O.,Jan. 22, 1836; by Montgomery, at St. Johns (Nov. 2 ; entered the army as a private during the 1775), and was sent to Lancaster, Pa. Civil War, and rose to be brigadier-gen- In December, 1776, he was exchanged, and eral, March, 1899. He commanded the promoted to captain in the British army. 1st division, 8th army corps, in the first He was appointed aide to General Grey expedition to the Philippines. in the summer of 1777, and on the depart- Andersonville. See CONFEDERATE ure of that officer he was placed on the PRISONS. staff of Sir Henry Clinton, by whom he Andrade, JOSE, diplomatist; born in was promoted (1780) to the rank of ma- Merida, Venezuela, in 1838; studied law jor, and appointed adjutant-general of the in Columbia College; was successively British forces in America. His talents treasurer, secretary, and governor of the were appreciated, and wherever taste was state of Zulia in 1880-84; representative to be displayed in any arrangements, the for the same state in the National House matter was left to Andre. He was the of Representatives in 1884-88; and was chief actor in promoting and arranging appointed plenipotentiary to settle the the Mischianza, and took a principal part claims of France against Venezuela in in all private theatrical performances. 1888. In 1889-90 he represented Venez- Sir Henry employed him to carry on the uela in Washington, D. C., as a mem- correspondence with Arnold respecting the ber of the Venezuelan and Marine Com missions; was also a delegate to the In ternational Maritime Conference, and to the Pan-American Congress; in 1893 served in the National Assembly which framed the new constitution of Venez uela; and in the same year was appoint ed minister to the United States. In 1895 he was a member of the United States and Venezuela Claims Commission in Wash ington. On Feb. 2, 1897, he signed the treaty of arbitration between Venezuela and England to arrange the boundary dis pute; the same year was a delegate to the Universal Postal Congress in Wash ington; and in 1899 was appointed envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotenti ary to Great Britain. Andre, JOHN, British military officer; born in London in 1751; was the son of a Genevan, who was a merchant in London, betrayal of his country. Having held a After receiving an education at Geneva, personal interview with the traitor, he young Andre returned, and entered a mer- was returning to New York on horseback, cantile house in London when he was when he was arrested, near Tarrytown, eighteen years of age. He was a youth conveyed to Tappan, in Rockland county, of great genius painted well and wrote nearly opposite, tried as a spy, and was poetry with fluency. His literary tastes condemned and executed, Oct. 2, 1780. brought to him the acquaintance of lit- In March, 1901, Lord Grey, in examin- erary people. Among these was the poet- ing a lot of family papers that had not ess, Anna Seward, of Lichfield, to whose been disturbed since the close of the Revo- cousin, Honora Sneyd, Andre" became lutionary War, discovered what was be- warmly attached. They were betrothed, lieved to be the original diary of Major but their youth caused a postponement of Andre", in which is given a narrative of their nuptials, and Andre" entered the the campaign of 1777-78 day by day. army and came to America, in 1774, as The story of Major Andre's career, in lieutenant of the Royal Fusil eers. With connection with the complot of SIR HENRY them, in Canada, he was taken prisoner CLINTON and GEN. BENEDICT ARNOLD 159 JOHN ANDRK. ANDRtf, JOHN (qq. 1?.), occupies a conspicuous place in our history, and sympathy for the offend- er, not unmixed with denunciations of the court of inquiry that condemned him, have been abundant, and not always wise or WASHINGTON'S HEADQUARTERS AT TAPPAN. just. The court that condemned him saw clearly, by his own confession, that he de served the fate of a spy; and if they had been swayed by other motives than those of justice and the promotion of the public good, they had full justification in the commander-in-chief course of the British officers in pursuit of the British policy tow ards the Americans. Scores of good men, not guilty of any offence but love of country and defence of their rights, had been hanged by the positive orders of Corn- wallis in the South; and Sir Henry Clinton himself, who ungener ously attributed the act of the board of inquiry in condemning Andre", and of Washington in approving the sentence, to " personal rancor," for which no cause ex isted, had approved of ten-fold more "in humanity " in the acts of his suborni- nates. One of them wrote to Clinton, " I with us, and afterwards joined the enemy, shall be immediately hanged." This in cluded all officers and men, even those, as in South Carolina, where this subal tern was serving, who had been forced into the royal service. This order Clinton approved, and sent it to Secretary Germain. That sec retary answered Clinton's letter, saying, " The most disaffected will now be convinced that we are not afraid to punish." The order was rigorously executed. Men of great worth and purity were hanged, without the forms of a trial, for bearing arms in defence of their liberty; Andre was hanged, after an impartial trial, for the crime of plotting and abetting a scheme for the enslavement of 3,000,000 people. He deserved his fate according to the laws of war. It was just towards him and merciful to a nation. Cicero justly said, in regard to Catiline, " Mercy towards a traitor is an injury to the state." Andre was treated with great consideration by Washington, whose headquarters at Tap- pan were near the place of his trial. The supplied the former THB CAPTOR8 , MEDAIfc with all needed refreshments for his table. Washington did not have a personal in- terview with Andre", but treated him as have ordered, in the most positive manner, leniently as the rules of war would allow. that every militiaman who has borne arms The captors of Major AndrS were John 160 ANDRE ANDREWS Paulding, David Williams, and Isaac Van Wart. Washington recommended Con gress to reward them for their fidelity. They were each presented with a silver medal, and they were voted a pension of $200 a year each in silver or its equiva lent. Monuments have been erected to the memory of the captors to Paulding, in St. Peter's church-yard, near Peekskill; to Van Wart, by the citizens of Westchester county, in 1829, in the Presbyterian church-yard at Greenburg,of which church the captor was an active officer and chor ister for many years; and to Williams, in Schoharie county, N. Y. The King caused a monument to be placed in Westminster Abbey to the mem ory of Andre". It seems to be quite out of place among the " worthies " of England, for he was hanged as a spy, and was a plotter for the ruin of a people struggling for justice. But his monarch honored him for an attempted state service, knighted his brother, and pensioned his family. His Andrew, JOHN ALBIOI*-, war governor of Massachusetts; was born in Windb^ai, ANDRE'S MONUMENT IN WESTMINSTER ABBEY. remains were at first interred at the place of his execution, and in 1821 were ex humed and conveyed to England. A mon ument was erected at the place of his exe cution to commemorate the event by the late Cyrus W. Field, but it was soon after wards blown up by unknown persons. JOHN A. ANDREW. Me., May 31, 1818; was graduated at Bow- doin College in 1837, and became conspic uous as an anti-slavery advocate. He was chosen governor of Massachusetts, in 1860, by the largest popular vote ever cast for any candidate for that office. Foreseeing a conflict with the Confederates, he took means to make the State militia efficient; and, within a week after the President's call for troops, he sent five regiments of infantry, a battalion of riflemen, and a battery of artillery to the assistance of the government. He was active in raising troops during the war and providing for their comfort. An eloquent orator, his voice was very efficacious. He was re- elected in 1862, and declined to be a can didate in 1864. He died in Boston, Mass., Oct. 30, 1867. Andrews, CHARLES MCLEAN, historian; born at Wethersfield, Conn., Feb. 22, 1863; was graduated at Trinity College, Hart ford, in 1884; and was called to the Chair of History in Bryn Mawr College in 1889. His publications include The River Towns of Connecticut; The Old English Manor; The Historical Development of Modern Europe; and articles in reviews and his torical periodicals. Andrews, CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS, law yer and diplomatist; born in Hillsboro, N. H., Oct. 27, 1829; was educated at the Harvard Law School; admitted to the Massachusetts bar in 1850, and later set- I. t. 161 ANDREWS ANDROS tied in St. Cloud, Minn. In the Civil War Andrews, LORRIN, missionary ; born in he rose from the ranks to brevet major- East Windsor, Conn., April 29, 1795; was general in the Union army. In 1869-77 educated at Jefferson College and Prince- he was United States minister to Norway ton Theological Seminary. In 1827 he and Sweden, and in 1882-85 consul-gen- went to the Hawaiian Islands as a mis- eral to Rio de Janeiro. He has published sionary, and founded there, in 1831, the a History of the Campaign of Mobile; Lahainaluna Seminary, which subsequent- Brazil, Its Conditions and Prospects; Ad- ly became the Hawaii University, where ministrative Reform, etc. he passed ten years as a professor. In Andrews, ELISHA BENJAMIN, educa- 1845 he was appointed a judge and secre- tor; born in Hinsdale, N. H., Jan. 10, tary of the privy council. His writings 1844; graduated at Brown University in include a translation of a portion of the 1870, and at Newton Theological Institute Bible into the Hawaiian language; several in 1874; was president of Brown Univer- works on the literature and antiquities of sity in 1889-98; superintendent of the Chi- Hawaii, and a Hawaiian dictionary. He cago Public Schools in 1898-1900; and in died Sept. 29, 1868. the last year became chancellor of the Andrews, STEPHEN PEARL, author; University of Nebraska. He is author of born in Templeton, Mass., March 22, 1812. History of the United States; An Honest After practising law in the South, he Dollar, a Plea for Bimetallism, etc. settled in New York in 1847, and be- Andrews, ETHAN ALLEN, educator; came a prominent abolitionist. He gave born in New Britain, Conn., April 7, 1787; much attention to phonographic reporting, was Professor of Ancient Languages at the and to the development of a universal University of North Carolina in 1822-28; philosophy which he named " Integralism," and editor (with Jacob Abbott) of the Re- and to a universal language named " Al- ligious Magazine, but was chiefly engaged wato." He was author of numerous works in compiling classical text-books. In 1850 relating to these subjects, besides Compari- he edited the well-known Latin-English son of the Common Law with the Roman, Lexicon, based on Freu.id; and Andrews' French, or Spanish Civil Law on Entails, and Stoddard's Latin Grammar. He died etc.; Love, Marriage and Divorce; The March 4, 1858. Labor Dollar; Transactions of the Collo- Andrews, GEORGE LEONARD, military quium (an organization established by officer; born in Bridgewater, Mass., Aug. himself and friends for philosophical dis- 31, 1828; was graduated at West Point in cussion), etc. He died in New York, May 1851, entering the engineer corps. He re- 21, 1886. signed in 1855. In 1861 he became first Andros, SIR EDMUND, born in London, lieutenant-colonel and then colonel of the Dec. 6, 1637. In 1674 he succeeded his 2d Massachusetts Regiment. He was made father as bailiff of Guernsey Island. In brigadier - general in 1862, and led a bri- the same year he was appointed govern- gade in Banks's expedition in Louisiana or of the province of New York. He and against Port Hudson in 1863. He administered public affairs wholly in the assisted in the capture of Mobile, and interest of his master, the Duke of York, was appointed Professor of French at His private life was unblemished; but West Point Feb. 27, 1871; was retired such was his public career that he ac- Aug. 31, 1892; and died April 4, 1899. quired the title of "tyrant." Andros Andrews, JOHN NEWMAN, military became involved in serious disputes with officer; born in Wilmington, Del., Sept. the colonists. In 1680 he deposed Philip 16, 1838; was graduated at the United Carteret, and seized the government of States Military Academy in 1860; pro- East Jersey. The next year he was re- moted first lieutenant in 1861; colonel, called, and retired to Guernsey, after in 1895; and was retired April 1, 1899. having cleared himself of several charges From June 3, 1898, to Feb. 24, 1899, he that had been preferred against him. The was a brigadier - general of volunteers. New England governments were consoli- After the Civil War he served in a num- dated in 1686, and Andros was appointed her of Indian campaigns, and in 1898 governor - general. Under instructions, through the war with Spain. he forbade all printing in those colonies, 162 ANDROS ANGLICAN CHURCH He vas authorized to appoint and remove his own council, and with their consent to enact laws, levy taxes, and control the militia. These privileges were exercised in a despotic manner, and his government became odious. He attempted to seize the charter of Connecticut, but failed. New York and New Jersey were added to his jurisdiction in 1688. In the former he succeeded the clear headed and right-minded Governor Don- gan. He entered New York City early in August, with a viceregal commission to rule that province in connection with all New England. He had journeyed from Boston, and was received by Colonel Bay ard's regiment of foot and horse. He was entertained by the loyal aristocracy. In the midst of the rejoicings, news came that the Queen, the second wife of James II., had given birth to a son, who became heir to the throne. The event was cele brated, on the evening of the day of the arrival of the intelligence, by bonfires in the streets and a feast at the City Hall. At the latter, Mayor Van Cortlandt be came so hilarious that he made a notable display of his loyalty to the Stuarts by setting fire to his hat and periwig, and waving the burning coverings of his head over the banquet on the point of his straight-sword. When news came to Bos ton of the revolution in England, Gov ernor Andros affected to disbelieve it, and imprisoned those who brought it. With the people the "wish was father to the thought," and they gave credence to the rumor and arranged a popular insurrec tion. A mob gathered in the streets of Boston. The sheriff who attempted to dis perse them was made a prisoner; so also was the commander of the frigate Rose as he landed from his boat. The militia assembled in arms at the town-house under their old officers. Andros and his council withdrew in alarm to a fort which crowned an eminence still known as Fort Hill. Simon Bradstreet, a former govern or, then eighty-seven years of age, was seen in the crowd by the militia, and im mediately proclaimed the chief magistrate of the redeemed colony. The magistrates and other citizens formed themselves into a council of safety. The ready pen of Cot ton Mather wrote a proclamation, and An dros was summoned to surrender. A barge sent from the Rose to take off the gov ernor and his council was intercepted and captured. Andros yielded, and, with the royal ex-President Dudley, Randolph, and his other chief partisans, was imprisoned (April 18, 1689). Andros, by the conniv ance of a sentinel, escaped to Rhode Isl and, but was brought back. In July fol lowing he was sent to England, by royal order, with a committee of his accusers, but was acquitted without a formal trial. Andros was appointed governor of Vir ginia in 1692, where he became popular; but, through the influence of Commissary Blair, he was removed in 1698. In 1704-6 he was governor of Guernsey. He died in London, Feb. 24, 1714. Angell, JAMES BUKRILL, educator and diplomatist; born in Scituate, R. I., Jan. 7, 1829; was graduated at Brown Univer sity in 1849; Professor of Modern Lan guages and Literature at Brown Univer sity in 1853-60; president of the Univer sity of Vermont in 1866-71; and since 1871 president of the University of Michi gan. In 1880-81 he was United States minister to China; in 1887 a member of the Anglo-American Commission on Cana dian Fisheries; in 1896 chairman of the Canadian-American Commission on Deep Waterways from the Great Lakes to the Sea; and in 1897-98 United States min ister to Turkey. He is author of numer ous addresses and magazine articles. Anglican Church. The earliest Angli can congregation in New England was or ganized in 1630, when about 1,000 emi grants arrived in Massachusetts from England, under the leadership of John Winthrop, who had been appointed gov ernor under the royal charter. Winthrop brought the charter with him. On the day before they sailed from the Isle of Wight the leaders sent an address to "the rest of the brethren in and of the Church of England," and spoke of that Church with affection as their "dear mother." This was to correct a " misreport " that the emigrants intended to separate from the Church. Notwithstanding this dutiful ad dress, when they set foot on American soil a sense of freedom overcame their al legiance, and, following the example of the " Plymouthians " and Endicott, they established separate churches and chose their own officers. Without any express 163 ANGLO-AMERICAN COMMISSION ANNAPOLIS renunciation of the authority of the Church of England, the Plymouth people had laid aside its liturgy and rituals. En- dicott followed this example at Salem, and had the sympathy of three "godly min isters" there Higginson, Skelton, and Bright ; also of Smith, a sort of interloper. A church was organized there the first in New England, for that at Plymouth was really in a formative state yet. All of the congregation were not prepared to lay aside the liturgy of the Church of England, and two of them (John and Samuel Browne) protested, and set up a separate worship. The energetic Endicott promptly arrested the "malcon tents " and sent them to England. Fol lowing up the system adopted at Salem, the emigrants, under the charter of 1630, established Nonconformist churches wher ever settlements were planted Charles- town, Watertown, Boston, Dorchester, etc. At Salem the choice of minister and teach er was made as follows : " Every fit mem ber wrote in a note the name whom the Lord moved him to think was fit for pas tor," and so likewise for teacher. Skelton was chosen for the first office, Higginson for the second. When they accepted, three or four of the gravest members of the church la/'d <;heir hands upon Mr. Skelton and Mr. Higginson, using prayer therewith. Such was the first New England ordina tion. See PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL CHURCH ; REFORMED EPISCOPAL CHURCH. Anglo- American Commission, a joint commission appointed by the United States and the British governments in 1898 for the purpose of preparing a plan by which the controversial questions pending be tween the United States and Canada might be definitely settled. As originally constituted the American members were: United States Senators Fairbanks and Gray, Congressman Dingley, ex-Secretary of State Foster, and Reciprocity Commis sioner Kasson; and the British members: Lord Herschell, Sir Wilfred Laurier, Sir Richard Cartwright, Sir Louis H. Davies, and Mr. J. Charlton, a member of the Dominion Parliament. Of these commis sioners, Congressman Dingley died Jan. 13, 1899, and Lord Herschell, March 1, 1899. The questions assigned to the com mission for consideration were as follows : Seal-fisheries of Bering Sea; fisheries off Atlantic and Pacific coasts; Alaska- Canadian boundary; transportation of merchandise by land and water between the countries; transit of merchandise from one country to be delivered in the other beyond the frontier; alien labor laws; mining rights of citizens or subjects of each country within the territory of the other; readjustment and concession of cus toms duties; revision of agreement of 1817 respecting naval vessels on the lakes; definition and marking of frontier; con veyance of prisoners through each other's territory; reciprocity in wrecking and salvage rights. Several sessions were held in Canada and in Washington without practical results. Anglo-American League, THE, a soci ety founded at Stafford House, London, England, July 13, 1898, for purposes in dicated in the following resolution : " Con sidering that the peoples of the British Empire and of the United States of Amer ica are closely allied in blood, inherit the same literature and laws, hold the same principles of self-government, recognize the same ideas of freedom and humanity in the guidance of their national policy, and are drawn together by strong common in terests in many parts of the world, this meeting is of opinion that every effort should be made, in the interest of civiliza tion and peace, to secure the most cordial and constant co-operation between the two nations/' British subjects and citizens of the United States are eligible to member ship. A representative committee was ap pointed with the Right Hon. James Bryce, M. P., as chairman. Anglo-American Understanding, BA SIS OF AN. See ABBOTT, LYMAN. Annapolis, city, county seat of Anne Arundel county, and capital of the State of Maryland; on the Severn River, 20 miles south by east of Baltimore; is the seat of the United States Naval Academy and of St. John's College; population in 1890, 7.604; 1900, 8,402. Puritan refugees from Massachusetts, led by Durand, a ruling elder, settled on the site of Annap olis in 1649, and, in imitation of Roger Williams, called the place Providence. The next year a commissioner of Lord Baltimore organized there the county ot Anne Arundel, so named in compliment to Lady Baltimore, and Providence was call* 164 ANNAPOLIS ed Anne Arundel Town. A few years later tablished in the colonies without the aid it again bore the name of Providence, and of Parliament. The Congress then re- became the seat of Protestant influence solved unanimously that it was the opin- and of a Protestant government, disputing ion of its members that it should be pro- the legislative authority with the Roman posed to his Majesty's ministers to "find Catholic government at the ancient capital, out some method of compelling " the colo- St. Mary's. In ,1694 the latter was aban- nists to establish such a public fund, and doned as the capital of the province, and for assessing the several governments in the seat of government was established proportion to their respective abilities. At on the Severn. The village was finally once all the crown officers in America sent incorporated a city, and named Annapolis, voluminous letters to England, urging in honor of Queen Anne. It has remained such a measure upon the government, the permanent political capital of Mary- On July 26, 1775, a convention assem- land. It was distinguished for the re- bled at Annapolis, and formed a tempo- finement and wealth of its inhabitants and rary government, which, recognizing the extensive commerce, being a port of entry Continental Congress as invested with a long before the foundations of Baltimore general supervision of public affairs, man- were laid. aged its own internal affairs through a On the morning of Oct. 15, 1774, a vessel provincial Committee of Safety and sub- owned by Anthony Stewart, of Annapolis, ordinate executive committees, appointed entered the port with seventeen packages in every county, parish, or hundred. It of tea among her cargo, assigned to Stew- directed the enrolment of forty companies art. When this became known, and that of minute-men, authorized the emission of Stewart had paid the duty on the tea, the over $500,000 in bills of credit, and ex- people gathered, and resolved that the tended the franchise to all freemen having plant should not be landed. Another a visible estate of 210, without any dis- meeting was appointed, and the people tinction as to religious belief. The con- declared that ship and her cargo should vention fully resolved to sustain Massa- be burned. Stewart disclaimed all inten- chusetts, and meet force by force if neces- tion to violate non-importation agree- sary. ments, but the people were inexorable. Gen. B. F. Butler was in Philadelphia They had gathered in large numbers from on April 19, 1861, when he first heard of the surrounding country. Charles Carroll the assault on Massachusetts troops in and others, fearing mob violence, advised Baltimore. He had orders to go to Wash- Stewart to burn the vessel and cargo with ington through Baltimore. It was evident his own hands, which he did. The vessel that he could not do so without trouble, was run ashore and destroyed, when the and he took counsel with Gen. Robert people cheered and dispersed. This was Patterson, the commander of the Depart- the last attempt at importation of tea ment of Washington. He also consulted into the English-American colonies. Commodore Dupont, commander of the On April 14, 1755, General Braddock navy-yard there, and it was agreed that and Commodore Keppel, with Governors the troops under General Butler should go Shirley, of Massachusetts; De Lancey, of from Perryville, on the Susquehanna, to New York; Morris, of Pennsylvania; Annapolis, by water, and thence across Sharpe, of Maryland, and Dinwiddie, of Vir- Maryland, seizing and holding Annapolis ginia, held a congress at Annapolis. Brad- Junction by the way. Butler laid before dock had lately arrived as commander-in- his officers a plan which contemplated chief of the British forces in America. Un- seizing and holding Annapolis as a means der his instructions, he first of all directed of communication, and to make a forced the attention of the government to the ne- march with a part of his troops from that cessity of raising a revenue in America, port to Washington. He wrote to the He expressed astonishment that no such governor of Massachusetts to send the fund was already established. The gov- Boston Light Artillery to Annapolis, and ernors told him of their strifes with their the next morning he proceeded with his respective assemblies, and assured Brad- troops to Perryville, embarked in the dock that no such fund could ever be es- powerful steam ferry-boat Maryland, and 165 ANNAPOLIS ANNE at a little past midnight reached Annap olis. The town and Naval Academy were in the hands of the Confederates, and were all lighted up in expectation of the arrival of a body of Confederates, by water, from Baltimore, to assist them in seizing the venerable and venerated frigate Constitu tion, lying there, and adding her to the Confederate navy. The arrival of these troops was just in time to save her. Many of Butler's troops were seamen at home, and these assisted in getting the Constitution to a place of safety beyond the bar. Governor Hicks was at Annapo lis, and advised Butler not to land North ern troops. "They are not Northern troops," said Butler. "They are a part of the whole militia of the United States, obeying the call of the President/' This was the root of the matter the idea of nationality as opposed to State supremacy. He called on the governor and the mayor of Annapolis. To their remonstrances against his landing and marching through Maryland, Butler replied that the orders and demands of his government were im perative, and that he should land and march on the capital as speedily as possi ble. He assured them that peaceable citi zens should be unmolested and the laws of Maryland be respected. On the 22d the New York 7th Regi ment, Colonel Lefferts, arrived at Annapo lis on a steamer. All the troops were landed and quartered at the Naval Acad emy. The Confederates, meanwhile, had torn up the railway, taken the locomotives to pieces, and hidden them. Terrible stories reached Butler of a great force of Confederates at Annapolis Junction. He did not believe them, and moved on, after taking formal military possession of An napolis and the railway to Annapolis Junction. Two Massachusetts companies seized the railway station, in which they found a disabled locomotive concealed. " Does any one know anything about this machine?" inquired Butler. "Our shop made that engine, general," said Charles Homans, of the Beverly Light Guard. " I guess I can put her in order and run her." *'Do it," said the general; and it was soon done, for that regiment was full of engineers and mechanics. It was a re markable regiment. Theodore Winthrop said that if the words were giveq, " Poets, to the front!" or, "Painters, present arms!" or, "Sculptors, charge bayonets!" there would be ample responses. The hidden rails were hunted up and found in thickets, ravines, and bottoms of streams, and the road was soon in such a condition that the troops moved on, on the morning of the 24th, at the rate of about one mile an hour, laying the track anew and building bridges. Skirmishers went ahead and scouts on the flanks. The distance to the Junction from Annapolis was 20 miles. They saw none of the terrible Marylanders they had been warned against. The troops reached Annapolis Junction on the morning of the 25th, when the 7th Regiment went on to Wash ington and the Massachusetts regiment remained to hold the railroads. Other troops arrived at Annapolis, and General Scott ordered Butler to remain there, hold the town and road, and superintend the forwarding of troops to Washington. The " Department of Annapolis " was created, which embraced the country 20 miles on each side of the railway to within 4 miles of the capital. See BALTIMORE. Annapolis Convention, 1786. See ALEXANDRIA; CONSTITUTION OF THE UNIT ED STATES. Anne, QUEEN, second daughter of James II. of England; born at Twicken ham, near London, Feb. 6, 1664. Her parents became Roman Catholics ; but she, educated in the principles of the Church of England, remained a Protestant. In 1683 she was married to Prince George of Den mark. She took the side of her sister Mary and her husband in the revolution that drove her father from the throne. She had intended to accompany her father in his exile to France, but was dissuaded by Sarah Churchill, chief lady of the bed chamber (afterwards the imperious Duch ess of Marlborough) , for whom she always had a romantic attachment. By the act of settlement at the accession of William and Mary, the crown was guaranteed to her in default of issue to these sovereigns. This exigency happening, Anne was pro claimed queen (March 8, 1702) on the death of William. Of her seventeen chil dren, only one lived beyond infancy Duke of Gloucester who died at the age of eleven years. Feeble in character, but very amiable, Anne's reign became a con- 166 ANNE spicuous one in English history, for she the German Empire against France was was governed by some able ministers, and renewed. Soon afterwards, chiefly because she was surrounded by eminent literary of the movements of Louis above mention- men. Her reign has been called the " Au- ed, England declared war against France, gustan Age of English Literature." The and their respective colonies in America Duke of Marlborough, the husband of her took up arms against each other. The bosom friend, was one of her greatest war lasted eleven years. Fortunately, the Five Nations had made a treaty of neu trality (Aug. 4, 1701) with the French in Canada, and thus became an impassable barrier against the savages from the St. Lawrence. The tribes from the Merrimac to the Penobscot had made a treaty of peace with New England (July, 1703) ; but the French induced them to violate it; and before the close of that summer a furi ous Indian raid occurred along the whole frontier from Casco to Wells. So indis criminate was the slaughter that even Quakers were massacred. The immediate cause of this outbreak seems to have been an attack upon and plunder of the trading-post of the young Baron de Castine, at the mouth of the Penobscot. In March, 1704, a party of French and Indians attacked Deerfield, on the Connecticut River, killed forty of the inhabitants, burned the village, and car ried away 112 captives. Similar scenes occurred elsewhere. Remote settlements military leaders. A greater part of her were abandoned, and fields were cultivated reign was occupied in the prosecution of only by armed parties united for common the War of the Spanish Succession, known defence. This state of things became in- in America as " Queen Anne's War." She supportable, and in the spring of 1707 died Aug. 1, 1714. Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and New The treaty of Ryswick produced only a Hampshire prepared to chastise the Ind- lull in the inter-colonial war in America, ians in the east. Rhode Island had It was very brief. James II. died in not suffered, for Massachusetts sheltered France in September, 1701, and Louis that colony, but the inhabitants humanely XIV., who had sheltered him, acknowl- helped their afflicted neighbors. Connec- edged his son, Prince James (commonly ticut, though threatened from the north, known as The Pretender), to be the lawful refused to join in the enterprise. Early heir to the English throne. This natural- in June (1707), 1,000 men under Colonel ly offended the English, for Louis had ac- Marsh sailed from Nantucket for Port knowledged William as king in the Rys- Royal, Acadia, convoyed by an English wick treaty. The British Parliament had man-of-war. The French were prepared also settled the crown on Anne, so as to for them, and only the destruction of prop- secure a Protestant succession. The Eng- erty outside the fort there was accomplish- lish were also offended because Louis had ed. The war continued, with occasional placed his grandson, Philip of Aragon, on distressing episodes. In ' September, 1710, the Spanish throne, and thus extended an armament of ships and troops left Bos- the influence of France among the dynas- ton and sailed for Port Royal, in connec- ties of Europe. On the death of William tion with a fleet from England with troops III. (March 8, 1702) Anne ascended the under Colonel Nicholson. They captured throne, and on the same day the triple Port Royal and altered the name to An- alliance between England, Holland, and napolis, in compliment to the Queen. 167 QCEEN ANNS. ANNE ANNEXED TERRITORY ACADIA (q. v.) was annexed to England, under the old title of Nova Scotia, or New Scotland. The following year an expedition moved against Quebec. Sir Hovenden Walker ar rived at Boston (June 25, 1711) with an English fleet and army, which were joined by New England forces; and on Aug. 15 fifteen men-of-war and forty transports, bearing about 7,000 men, departed for the St. Lawrence. Meanwhile, Nicholson had proceeded to Albany, where a force of about 4,000 men were gathered, a por tion of them Iroquois Indians. These forces commenced their march towards Canada Aug. 28. Walker, like Braddock nearly fifty years later, haughtily refused to listen to experienced subordinates, and lost eight ships and about 1,000 men on the rocks at the mouth of the St. Law rence on the night of Sept. 2. Disheart ened by this calamity, Walker returned to England with the remainder of the fleet, and the colonial troops went back to Boston. On hearing of this failure, the land force marching to attack Montreal retraced their steps. Hostilities were now suspended, and peace was concluded by the treaty of Utrecht, April 11, 1713. The eastern Indians sued for peace, and at Portsmouth the governors of Massachu setts and New Hampshire made a cove nant of peace (July 24) with the chiefs of the hostile tribes. A peace of thirty years ensued. Anne, FORT, a military post in New York in the Revolutionary War. When the British took possession of Ticonderoga (July 6, 1777), Burgoyne ordered gun boats to pursue the bateaux laden with stores, etc., from the fort. The boom- bridge barrier across the lake there was soon broken, and the pursuing vessels overtook the fugitive boats near Skenes- borough, and destroyed them and their contents. Colonel Long, in command of the men in them, escaped with his people and the invalids, and, after setting fire to everything combustible at Skenesborough (now Whitehall), they hastened to Fort Anne, a few miles in the interior, followed by a British regiment. When near the fort, Long turned on his pursuers and routed them ; but the latter being reinforced, Long was driven back. He burned Fort Anne, and fled to Fort Edward, on the Hudson. Annexations. See ACQUISITION OF TERRITORY. ANNEXED TERRITORY Annexed Territory, STATUS OF. The were further, by their situation, climate, following is a consideration of the rela- and soil, adapted to the use of an increas- tions to the United States of the several ing American population. We have now Territories that were annexed to it, writ- acquired insular regions, situated in the ten by ex-President Benjamin Harrison: tropics and in another hemisphere, and hence unsuitable for American settlers, A legal argument upon this subject is even if they were not, as they are, already quite outside of my purpose, which is to populated and their lands already largely consider in a popular rather than a pro- taken up. fessional way some of the questions that We have taken over peoples rather arise, some of the answers that have been than lands, and these chiefly of other race proposed, and some of the objections to stocks for there are " diversities of these answers. tongues." The native labor is cheap and We have done something out of line with threatens competition, and there is a total American history, not in the matter of ter- absence of American ideas and methods of ritorial expansion, but in the character life and government among the eight or of it. Heretofore the regions we have more millions of inhabitants in the Philip- taken over have been contiguous to us, pines. We have said that the Chinese will save in the case of Alaska and, indeed, not " homologate " ; and the Filipinos will Alaska is contiguous, in the sense of being certainly be slow. Out of the too-late near. These annexed regions were also, at contemplation of these very real and se- the time of annexation, either unpeopled or rious problems has arisen the proposition very sparsely peopled by civilized men, and to solve them, as many think, by wresting 168 ANNEXED TERRITORY our government from its constitutional be to Congress to limit the use of the basis; or at least, as all must agree, by power. the introduction of wholly new views of the The islands of Hawaii, of Porto Rico, status of the people of the Territories, and and of the Philippine Archipelago have of some startlingly new methods of deal- been taken over, not for a temporary pur- ing with them. It is not open to question, pose, as in the case of Cuba, but to have I think, that, if we had taken over only and to hold forever as a part of the region the Sandwich Islands and Porto Rico, over which the sovereignty of the United these new views of the status of the people States extends. We have not put our- of our Territories, and these new methods selves under any pledge as to them at of dealing with them, would never have least, not of a written sort. Indeed, we been suggested or used. have not, it is said, made up our minds The question of the constitutional right as to anything affecting the Philippines, of the United States to acquire territory, save this that they are a part of our as these new regions have been acquired, national domain, and that the inhabitants must, I suppose, be taken by every one to must yield obedience to the sovereignty of have been finally adjudged in favor of that the United States so long as we choose to right. The Supreme Court is not likely hold them. to review the decision announced by Chief- Our title to the Philippines has been Justice Marshall. impeached by some upon the ground that It is important to note, however, that Spain was not in possession when she con- the great chief-justice derives the power veyed them to us. It is a principle of to acquire territory by treaty and con- private law that a deed of property ad- quest, from the Constitution itself. He versely held is not good. If I have been says: ejected from a farm to which I claim " The Constitution confers absolutely on title, and another is in possession under the government of the Union the powers a claim of title, I must recover the posses- of making war and of making treaties; sion before I can make a good convey- consequently that government possesses ance; otherwise I sell a lawsuit and not the power of acquiring territory either by a farm, and that the law counts to be conquest or by treaty." immoral. It has not been shown, how- While this decision stands, there is no ever, that this principle has been incor- room for the suggestion that the power porated into international law; and, if of the United States to acquire territory, that could be shown, there would still be either by a conquest confirmed by treaty, need to show that Spain has been ef- or by a treaty of purchase from a nation fectively ousted. with which we are at peace, is doubtful, It is very certain, I suppose, that if and as little for the suggestion that this Great Britain had, during our Revolution- power is an extra-constitutional power, ary struggle, concluded a treaty of cession The people, then, have delegated to the of the colonies to France, we would have President and Congress the power to ac- treated the cession as a nullity, and con- quire territory by the methods we have tinued to fight for liberty against the used in the cases of Porto Rico and the French. No promises of liberal treatment Hawaiian and Philippine Islands. But by France would have appeased us. some have suggested that this power to ac- But what has that to do with the Philip- quire new territory is limited to certain pine situation? There are so many points ends: that it can only be used to acquire of difference. We were Anglo-Saxons! territory that is to be, or is capable of We were capable of self-government. And, being, erected into States of the Union, after all, what we would have done under If this view were allowed, the attitude the conditions supposed has no bearing of the courts to the question would not be upon the law of the case. It is not to be much changed; for they could not inquire doubted that any international tribunal as to the purpose of Congress, nor, I sup- would affirm the completeness of our legal pose, overrule the judgment of Congress title to the Philippines. as to the adaptability of territory for the The questions that perplex us relate to creation of States. The appeal would the status of these new possessions, and 169 ANNEXED TER-BITOBY to the rights of their civilized inhabitants may be abrogated by a later treaty, we do who have elected to renounce their alle- not know; but we do know that neither giance to the Spanish crown, and either a statute nor a treaty can abrogate the by choice or operation of law have become Constitution. American somethings. What? Subjects If the Constitution leaves the question or citizens? There is no other status, open whether the inhabitants of Porto since they are not aliens any longer, unless Rico shall or shall not upon annexation a newspaper heading that recently attract- become citizens, then the President and ed my attention offers another. It ran the Senate may exercise that discretion thus: "Porto Ricans not citizens of the by a treaty stipulation that they shall United States proper" Are they citizens or shall not be admitted as citizens; but of the United States improper, or improp- if, on the other hand, the Constitution er citizens of the United States ? It seems gives no such discretion, but itself con- clear that there is something improper, fers citizenship, any treaty stipulation To call them " citizens of Porto Rico " is to the contrary is void. To refer to the to leave their relations to the United treaty in this connection is to beg the question. relations States wholly undefined. Now, in studying the questions whether If we seek to justify the holding of the new possessions are part of the United slaves in a territory acquired by treaty, States, and their free civilized inhabitants or the holding of its civilized inhabitants citizens of the United States, the Consti- 'in a condition less favored than that of tution should, naturally, be examined first, citizenship, by virtue of the provisions Whatever is said there is final any of a treaty, it would seem to be necessary treaty or act of Congress to the contrary to show that the Constitution, in the one notwithstanding. The fact that a treaty case, allows slavery, and, in the other, a must be constitutional, as well as an act relation of civilized people to the govern- of Congress, seems to have been overlooked inent that is not citizenship, by those who refer to the treaty of cession Now the Constitution declares ( Four- as giving to Congress the right to gov- teenth Amendment) that " all persons born ern the people of Porto Rico, who do not or naturalized in the United States, and retain their Spanish allegiance, according subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are to its pleasure. Has the Queen Re- citizens of the United States." This dis- gent, with the island, decorated Congress poses of the question, unless it can be with one of the jewels from the Spanish maintained that Porto Rico is not a part crown? of the United States. In Pollard vs. Hogan, 3 Howard, the But the theory that any part of the court says: Constitution, of itself, embraces the Terri- " It cannot be admitted that the King tories and their people is contested by if Spain could by treaty,, or otherwise, many. Congress seems to have assumed impart to the United States any of his the negative, though among the members royal prerogatives; and much less can it there was not entire harmony as to the be admitted that they have capacity to re- argument by which the conclusion was ceive or power to exercise them.'* reached. It is contended, by most of those A treaty is a part of the supreme law who defend the Porto-Rican bill, that the of the land in the same sense that an act Constitution expends itself wholly upon of Congress is, not in the same sense that that part of the national domain that has the Constitution is. The Constitution of been organized into States, and has n ref- the United States cannot be abrogated or erence to, or authority in, the Territories, impaired by a treaty. Acts of Congress save as it has constituted a government su- and treaties are only a part of the preme law of the land" when they pur- to rule over them. No one contends that every provision sue the Constitution. The Supreme Court of the Constitution applies to the Terri- has decided that a treaty may be abro- tories. Some of them explicitly relate to gated by a later statute, on the ground the States only. The contention of those that the statute is the later expression who opposed the Porto-Rican legislation of the sovereign's will. Whether a statute is that all of those general provisions of 170 ANNEXED TERRITORY the Constitution which impose limitation upon the powers of the legislative, execu tive, and judicial departments must ap ply to all regions and people where or upon whom those powers are exercised. And, on the other hand, those who deny most broadly that the Constitution applies to the Territories seem practically to al low that much of it does. The power of appointment and pardon in the Terri tories, the confirmation of Territorial of ficers, the methods of passing laws to gov ern the Territories, the keeping and dis bursement of Federal taxes derived from the Territories, the veto power, and many other things, are pursued as if the Con stitution applied to the cases. But, in theory, it is claimed by these that no part of the Constitution applies except the Thirteenth Amendment, which prohibits slavery, and that only because the prohibition expressly includes " any place subject to their jurisdiction." This amendment was proposed by Congress on Feb. 1, 1865 the day on which Sherman's army left Savannah on its northern march ; and the words " any place sub ject to their jurisdiction " were probably added because of the uncertainty as to the legal status of the States in rebellion, and not because of any doubt as to whether Nebraska, then a Territory, was a part of the United States. The view that some other general limita tions of the Constitution upon the powers of Congress must relate to all regions and all persons was, however, adopted by some members of the Senate Committee in the report upon the Porto-Kican bill, where it is said: " Yet, as to all prohibitions of the Con stitution laid upon Congress while legis lating, they operate for the benefit of all for whom Congress may legislate, no mat ter where they may be situated, and with out regard to whether or not the provisions of the Constitution have been extended to them; but this is so because the Congress, in all that it does, is subject to and gov erned by those restraints and prohibitions. As, for instance, Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of relig ion, or prohibiting the free exercise there of; no title of nobility shall be granted; no bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed; neither shall the validity of contracts be impaired, nor shall prop erty be taken without due process of law; nor shall the freedom of speech or of the press be abridged; nor shall slavery exist in any place subject to the jurisdiction of the United States. These limitations are placed upon the exercise of the legis lative power without regard to the place or the people for whom the legislation in a given case may be intended." That is to say, every general constitu tional limitation of the powers of Congress applies to the Territories. The brief schedule of these limitations given by the committee are all put in the negative form, " Congress shall not " ; but surely it was not meant that there may not be quite as effective a limitation by the use of the affirmative form. If a power is given to be used in one way only, all other uses of it are negatived by necessary implication. When it is said, " All duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States," is not that the equivalent of " No duty or excise that is not uniform shall be levied in the United States " ? And is not the first form quite as effective a limitation of the legis lative power over the subject of indirect taxation as that contained in the fourth clause of the section is upon the power to lay direct taxes? In the latter the negative form is used, thus: " No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census of enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken." This discrimination between express and implied limitations, benevolently attempt ed to save for the people of the Terri tories the bill of rights provision of the Constitution, will not, I think, endure discussion. There are only three views that may be offered, with some show of consistency in themselves. First. That Congress, the executive, and the judiciary are all created by the Con stitution as governing agencies of the nation called the United States ; that their powers are defined by the Constitution and run throughout the nation; that all the limitations of their powers attach to every region and to all civilized people under the sovereignty of the United States, 171 ANNEXED TERRITORY unless their inapplicability appears from the national government are severely re- the Constitution itself; that every guaran- strained. We read that Congress shall have tee of liberty, including that most essen- power, and again that Congress shall not tial one, uniform taxation, is to be allowed have power. But neither these grants nor to every free civilized man and woman these inhibitions have, it is said, any rela- who owes allegiance to the United States; tion to the Territories. Against the laws that the use of the term " throughout the enacted by the Congress, or the acts done United States " does not limit the scope by the executive, there is no appeal, on be- of any constitutional provision of the half of the people of the Territories, to any States that would otherwise be applicable written constitution, or bill of rights, or to the Territories as well; but that these charter of liberty. We offer them only words include the widest sweep of the na- this highly consolatory thought: a nation tion's sovereignty, and so the widest limit of free Americans can be trusted to deal of congressional action. benevolently with you. Secondly. That the term "The United How obstinately wrong we were in our States " defines an inner circle of the na- old answer to the Southern slave-holder ! tional sovereignty composed of the States It is not a question of kind or unkind alone; that, whenever these words are used treatment, but of human rights; not of the in the Constitution, they must be taken good or bad use of power, but of the to have reference only to the region and to power, we said. And so our fathers said, the people within this inner circle; but in answer to the claim of absolute power that, when these words of limitation are made on behalf of the British Parliament, omitted, the constitutional provision must, As to the States, the legislative power of unless otherwise limited, be taken to in- Congress is "all legislative powers herein elude all lands and people in the outer granted." (Art. 1, sec. 1.) As to the circle of the national sovereignty. Thirdly. That the Constitution has rela- Territories, it is said to be all legislative power all that any parliament ever had tion only to the States and their people; or ever claimed to have, and as much that all constitutional limitations of the more as we may claim for there can be powers of Congress and the executive are no excess of pretension where power is ab- to be taken to apply only to the States and solute. No law relating to the Territories, their citizens; that the power to acquire passed by Congress, can, it is said, be de- territory is neither derived from the Con- clared by the Supreme Court to be in stitution nor limited by it, but is an in- operative, though every section o. it herent power of national life; that the should contravene a provision of the Con- government we exercise in the Territories stitution. is not a constitutional government, but an An outline of a possible law may aid absolute government, and that all or any us to see more clearly what is involved : of the things prohibited by the Constitu- Sec. 1. Suspends permanently the writ tion as to the States, in the interest of of habeas corpus in Porto Rico, liberty, justice, and equality, may be done Sec. 2. Declares an attainder against all in the Territories; that, as to the Terri- Porto Ricans who have displayed the tories, we are under no restraints save Spanish flag since the treaty of peace, such as our own interests or our benevo- Sec. 3. Grants to the native mayors of lence may impose. Ponce and San Juan the titles of Lord I say " benevolence " ; but must not that Dukes of Porto Rico, with appropriate quality be submerged before this view of crests. the Constitution is promulgated? It seems Sec. 4. Any Porto Rican who shall speak to have had its origin in a supposed com- disrespectfully of the Congress shall be mercial necessity, and we may fairly con- deemed guilty of treason. One witness elude that other recurring necessities will shall be sufficient to prove the offence, and guide its exercise. Is it too much to say on conviction the offender shall have his that this view of the Constitution is tongue cut out; and the conviction shall shocking! work corruption of blood. Within the States, it is agreed that Sec. 5. The Presbyterian Church shall be the powers of the several departments of the established Church of the island, and 172 ANNEXED TERRITOBY no one shall be permitted to worship God after any other form. Sec. 6. All proposed publications shall be submitted to a censor, and shall be printed only after he has approved the same. Public meetings for the discussion of public affairs are prohibited, and no petitions shall be presented to the govern ment. Sec. 7. No inhabitant of Porto Rico shall keep or bear arms. Sec. 8. The soldiers of the island garri son shall be quartered in the houses of the people. Sec. 9. The commanding officer of the United States forces in the island shall have the right, without any warrant, to search the person, house, papers, and ef fects of any one suspected by him. Sec. 10. Any person in Porto Rico, in civil life, may be put upon trial for capital or other infamous crimes upon the infor mation of the public prosecutor, without the presentment or indictment of a grand jury; may be twice put in jeopardy for the same offence; may be compelled to be a witness against himself, and may be deprived of life, liberty, or property with out due process of law, and his property may be taken for public uses without com pensation. Sec. 11. Criminal trials may, in the dis cretion of the presiding judge, be held in secret, without a jury, in a district pre scribed by law after the commission of the offence, and the accused shall, or not, be advised before arraignment of the nat ure or cause of the accusation, and shall, or not, be confronted with the witnesses against him, and have compulsory process to secure his own witnesses, as the presid ing judge may in his discretion order. Sec. 12. There shall be no right in any suit at common law to demand a jury. Sec. 13. A direct tax is imposed upon Porto Rico for Federal uses without regard to its relative population; the tariff rates at San Juan are fixed at 50 per cent., and those at Ponce at 15 per cent, of those levied at New York. New Mexico, or Arizona, or Oklahoma might be substituted for Porto Rico in the bill ; for, I think, those who affirm that the Constitution has no relation to Porto Rico do so upon grounds that equally apply to all other Territories. Now, no one supposes that Congress will ever assemble in a law such shocking pro visions. But, for themselves, our fathers were not content with an assurance of these great rights that rested wholly upon the sense of justice and benevolence of the Congress. The man whose protection from wrong rests wholly upon the benevo lence of another man or of a congress, is a slave a man without rights. Our fathers took security of the governing departments they organized ; and that, notwithstanding the fact that the choice of all public officers rested with the people. When a man strictly limits the powers of an agent of his own choice, and exacts a bond from him, to secure his faithfulness, he does not occupy strong ground when he insists that another person, who had no part in the selection, shall give the agent full powers without a bond. If there is anything that is character istic in American constitutions, State and national, it is the plan of limiting the powers of all public officers and agencies. " You shall do this; you may do this; you shall not do this" is the form that the schedule of powers always takes. This grew out of our experience as English colonies. A government of unlimited legislative or executive powers is an un- American government. And, for one, I do not like to believe that the framers of the national Constitution and of our first State constitutions were careful only for their own liberties. This is the more improbable when we remember that the territory then most likely to be acquired would naturally be peopled by their sons. They cherished very broad views as to the rights of men. Their philosophy of liberty derived it from God. Liberty was a Divine gift to be claimed for ourselves only upon the condi tion of allowing it to " all men." They would write the law of liberty truly, and suffer for a time the just reproach of a de parture from its precepts that could not be presently amended. It is a brave thing to proclaim a law that condemns your own practices. You assume the fault and strive to attain. The fathers left to a baser generation the attempt to limit God's law of liberty to white men. It is not a right use of the fault of slavery to say that, because of it, 173 ANNEXED TEBBITOBY our fathers did not mean "all men." It was one thing to tolerate an existing con dition that the law of liberty condemned, in order to accomplish the union of the States, and it is quite another thing to create a condition contrary to liberty for a commercial profit. In a recent discussion of these questions, sent me by the author, I find these con solatory reflections : " And yet the inalien able rights of the Filipinos, even if not guaranteed by the Constitution, are amply secured by the fundamental, unwritten laws of our civilization." Does this mean that the specific guarantees of individual liberty found in our Constitution have be come a part of "our civilization," and that they apply in Porto Rico and the Philippines in such a sense that, if there is any denial of them by Congress or the executive, the courts can enforce them and nullify the law that infringes them? If that is meant, then as to all such rights this discussion is tweedledum and tweedle- dee the Constitution does not apply, but all these provisions of it are in full force, notwithstanding. Perhaps, however, it should be asked further, whether the rule of the uniform ity of taxation is a part of the " law of our civilization"; for, without it, all property rights are unprotected. The man whose property may be taxed arbitrarily, without regard to uniformity within the tax district, and without any limitation as to the purposes for which taxes may be levied, does not own anything; he is a tenant at will. But if these supposed " laws of our civ ilization " are not enforcible by the courts, and rest wholly for their sanction upon the consciences of presidents and congresses, then there is a very wide difference. The one is ownership, the other is charity. The one is freedom, the other slavery however just and kind the master may be. The instructions of the President to the Taft Philippine Commission seem to allow that any civil government under the au thority of the United States that does not offer to the people affected by it the guarantees of liberty contained in the Bill of Rights sections of the Constitution is abhorrent. Speaking of these, he said : " Until Congress shall take action, I di rected that, upon every division and branch of the government of the Philip pines, must be imposed these inviolable rules : " * That no person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due proc ess of law; that private property shall not be taken for public use without just compensation; that in all criminal prose cutions the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, to be in formed of the nature and cause of the accu sation, to be confronted with the witnesses against him, to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance, of counsel for his defence ; that excessive bail shall Hot be re quired, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishment inflicted; that no person shall be put twice in jeop ardy for the same offence, or be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself; that the right to be se cure against unreasonable searches and seizures shall not be violated ; that neither slavery nor involuntary servitude shall exist except as a punishment for crime; that no .bill of attainder, or ex post facto law shall be passed; that no law shall be passed abridging the freedom of speech or of the press, or of the rights of the people to peaceably assemble and petition the government for a redress of griev ances; that no law shall be made respect ing the establishment of religion, or pro hibiting the free exercise thereof, and that the free exercise and enjoyment of relig ious profession and worship without dis crimination or preference shall forever be allowed.' " The benevolent disposition of the Presi dent is well illustrated in these instruc tions. He conferred freely "until Con gress shall take action " upon the Fili pinos, who accepted the sovereignty of the United States and submitted themselves to the government established by the Com mission, privileges that our fathers only secured after eight years of desperate war. There is this, however, to be noted, that our fathers were not content to hold these priceless gifts under a revocable license. They accounted that to hold these things upon the tenure of another man's benevo lence was not to hold them at all. Their battle was for rights, not privileges for a Constitution, not a letter of instructions. 174 ANNEXED TERRITORY The President's instructions apparently proceed upon the theory that the Filipinos, after civil government has superseded the military control, are not endowed under our Constitution, or otherwise, with any of the rights scheduled by him; that, if he does nothing, is silent, some or all of the things prohibited in his schedule may be lawfully done upon, and all the things allowed may be denied to, a people who owe allegiance to that free constitutional government we call the United States of America. It is clear that those Porto Bicans who have not, under the treaty, declared a purpose to remain Spanish subjects, have become American citizens or American subjects. Have you ever read one of our commercial treaties with Great Britain or Germany, or any other of the kingdoms of the world? These treaties provide for trade intercourse, and define and guaran tee the rights of the people of the respec tive nations when domiciled in the terri tory of the other. The descriptive terms run like this: "The subjects of her Britannic Majesty " on the one part, and " the citi zens of the United States" on the other. Now, if the commercial privileges guaran teed by these treaties do not, in their present form, include the Porto Ricans who strewed flowers before our troops when they entered the island, we ought at once to propose to our "Great and Good Friends," the kings and queens of the earth, a modification of our conven tions in their behalf. Who will claim the distinction of pro posing that the words " and subjects " be introduced after the word "citizens"? There will be no objection on the part of the king, you may be sure; the modifica tion will be allowed smilingly. We have never before found it necessary to treat the free civilized inhabitants of the Territories otherwise than as citizens of the United States. It is true, as Mr. Justice Miller said, that the exclusive sovereignty over the Territories is in the national government; but it does not follow that the nation pos sesses the power to govern the Territories independently of the Constitution. The Constitution gives to Congress the right to exercise "exclusive legislation" in the District of Columbia ; but " exclusive " is not a synonyme of " absolute." When the Constitution says that " treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort," there is a limitation of the legislative power; and it necessarily ex tends to every venue where the crime of treason against the United States may be laid, and to every person upon whom its penalties may be imposed. This constitutional provision defining the crime of treason and prescribing the necessary proofs is a Bill of Rights pro vision. In England, under Edward II., " there was," it was said, " no man who knew how to behave himself, to do, speak or say, for doubt of the pains of such treasons." The famous statute of Edward III., defining treasons, James Wilson de clares, " may well be styled the legal Gib raltar of England." (Wilson's Works [Andrews] vol. ii., p. 413.) Mr. Madison, speaking. of this section of the Constitution, says in the Federalist : " But as new-fangled and artificial trea sons have been the great engines by which violent factions, the natural offspring of free government, have usually wreaked their malignity on each other, the conven tion have with great judgment opposed a barrier to this peculiar danger, by insert ing a constitutional definition of the crime," etc. Mr. Madison believed that there was a real danger that statutes of treason might be oppressively used by Congress. What have we been doing, or what have we a purpose to do, that we find it necessary to limit the safeguards of liberty found in our Constitution, to the people of the States? Is it that we now propose to acquire territory for colonization, and not, as heretofore, for full incorporation? Is it that we propose to have crown colonies, and must have crown law? Is it that we mean to be a world power, and must be free from the restraints of a Bill of Rights? We shall owe deliverance a sec ond time to these principles of human liberty, if they are now the means of delivering us from un-American proj ects. The particular provision of the Consti tution upon which Congress seems to have balked, in the Porto Rican legislation, was 175 ANNEXED TEBBITOBY a revenue clause viz., the first paragraph of sec. 8 of art. 1, which reads: "The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and ex cises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defence and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States." There was only one door of escape from allowing the application of this clause to Porto Rico. It was to deny that the Territories are part of the United States. It will be noticed that the descriptive term "The United States" is twice used in the one sentence once in the clause denning the purposes for which only du ties and imposts may be levied, and once in the clause requiring uniformity in the use of the power. Is there any canon of construction that authorizes us to give to the words "The United States" one meaning in the first use of them and an other in the second? If in the second use the Territories are excluded, must they not also be excluded in the first? If the rule of uniformity does not apply to the Ter ritories, how can the power to tax be used in the United States, to pay the debts and provide for the defence and general wel fare of the Territories? Can duties be levied in New York and other ports of the States, to be expended for local purposes in Porto Rico, if the island is not a part of the United States? Are the debts that may be contracted by what the law calls the body politic of " The People of Porto Rico " for local pur poses, part of the debt of the United States notwithstanding that the island is no part of the United States and the people are not citizens of the United States? But some one will say that the island is one of our outlying defences, and that fortifications and naval stations and public highways there are necessary to the " common defence." Well, is it also true that education and poor relief, and fire and police and health protection, and all other agencies of local order and better ment in Porto Rico, are included in the words " the general welfare of the United States"? It would seem that a region of which it can be said that its general welfare is the general welfare of the United States, must be a part of the United States, and its people citizens oi the United States. For the first time Congress has laid tariff duties upon goods passing from a Territory into the States. The necessity for this radical departure from the estab lished practice of the government seems to have been to find a safe basis for the holding and governing of regions, the free introduction of whose products might af fect the home industries unfavorably, and the admission of whose people to citizen ship might imply future Statehood or at least the right of migration ahd settlement in the States of an undesirable population. That the diversity of tongues in the Phil ippines, and the utter lack of the Ameri can likeness in everything there, presented strong reasons against the acquisition of the islands, I freely admit. It must also be conceded that when, as we are told, Providence laid upon us the heavy duty of taking over and govern ing these islands, it was very natural that we should seek to find a way of governing them that would save us from some of the unpleasant consequences which a discharge of the duty in the old way involved. But do we not incur a greater loss and peril from that new doctrine, that our Congress and executive have powers not derived from the Constitution, and are subject to no restraint or limitations in the Ter ritories, save such as they may impose upon themselves? Are the civil rights of the dwellers on the mainland well secured against the in sidious under-wear of greed and ambition, while we deny to the island dwellers, who are held to a strict allegiance, the only sure defence that civil rights can have - the guarantees of constitutional law? Burke saw in the absolute powers claimed for Parliament, in the American colonies, danger to the liberties of Parliament it self. As so often quoted, he said: " For we are convinced, beyond a doubt, that a system of dependence which leaves no security to the people for any part of their freedom in their own hands, cannot be established in any inferior member of the British Empire without consequently destroying the freedom of that very body in favor of whose boundless pretensions such a scheme is adopted. We know and feel that arbitrary power over distant re- 176 ANNEXED TERRITORY gions is not within the competence, nor to be exercised agreeably to the forms or consistently with the spirit, of great popu lar assemblies." Are we, in this day of commercial car nival, incapable of being touched by such considerations, either in our fears or in our sense of justice? Is it not likely to be true that the moral tone of the repub lic our estimation of constitutional lib erty will be lessened by the creation of a body of civilized people over whom our flag waves as an emblem of power only? The flag cannot stand for the benevolent policies of an administration. It stands for more permanent things for things that changing administrations have no power to change. Is it not in the nature of a mockery to raise the flag in Porto Rico and bid its hopeful people hail it as an emblem of emancipation, while the governor we have sent them reads a proc lamation, from the foot of the staff, an nouncing the absolute power of Congress over them? How would the pioneers of the West have regarded a declaration that they were not citizens of the United States, or a duty laid upon the furs then sent to the States, or upon the salt and gunpowder sent from the States in exchange, even if a preference of eighty-five per cent, had been given them over the people of Canada ? It is safe to say that no such interpre tation of the Constitution, or of the rights of the people of a Territory, will ever be offered to men of American descent. If the Constitution, so far as it is ap plicable, attaches itself, whether Congress will or no, to all territory taken over as a part of the permanent territory of the United States, it is there to stay as funda mental law. But if it is not so, an act of Congress declaring that the Constitution is " extended " is not fundamental law, but statute law, and may be repealed ; and is repealed by implication, pro tanto, when ever Congress passes a law in conflict with the provisions of the "extended" Consti tution. If the Constitution as such, as fundamental law, is extended over new ter ritory, it must be the result of an act done an act the effect of which is in it self, not in any accompanying declara tion. If the act of annexation does not carry the Constitution into a Territory, I can think of nothing that will, save the act of admitting the Territory as a State. The situation of the Porto Rican peo ple is scarcely less mortifying to us than to them; they owe allegiance but have no citizenship. Have we not spoiled our career as a delivering nation? And for what? A gentleman connected with the beet-sugar industry, seeing my objections to the constitutionality of the law, and having a friendly purpose to help me over them, wrote to say that the duty was ab solutely needed to protect the beet-sugar industry. While appreciating his friendli ness, I felt compelled to say to him that there was a time for considering the ad vantages and disadvantages of a commer cial sort involved in taking over Porto Rico, but that that time had passed, and to intimate to him that the needs of the beet-sugar industry seemed to me to be ir relevant in a constitutional discussion. The wise man did not say there was a future time for everything; he al lowed that the time for dancing might be altogether behind us, and a less pleasant exercise before us. We are hardly likely to acquire any territory that will not come at some cost. That we give back to Porto Rico all of the revenue derived from the customs we levy does not seem to me to soften our dealings with her people. Our fathers were not mollified by the suggestion that the tea and stamp taxes would be ex pended wholly for the benefit of the colo nies. It is to say : " We do not need this money; it is only levied to show that your country is no part of the United States, and that you are not citizens of the United States, save at our pleasure." When trib ute is levied and immediately returned as a benefaction, its only purpose is to de clare and maintain a state of vassalage. But I am not sure that the beet-sugar objection is not more tenable than another, and probably more controlling considera tion, which ran in this wise : " We see no serious commercial disadvantages, and no threat of disorder, in accepting Porto Rico tc be a part of the United States in that case it seems to be our duty; but we have acquired other islands in the Orient, of large area, populated by a turbulent and rebellious people; and, if we do by the I. M 177 ANNEXED TEBKITOBY Porto Ricans what our sense of justice and of their friendliness prompts u to do, some illogical person will say that we must deal in the same way with the Phil ippines. And some other person will say that the free intercourse was not given by the law but by the Constitution." I will not give a license to a friend to cut a tree upon my land to feed his winter fire, because my enemy may find in the license a support for his claim that the wood is a common! If we have confidence that the Constitu tion does not apply to the Territories, surely we ought to use our absolute power there with a view to the circumstances at tending each call for its exercise. Not to do this shows a misgiving as to the power. The questions raised by the Porto Rican legislation have been discussed chiefly from the stand - point of the people of the Territories; but there is another view. If, in its tariff legislation relative to merchandise imported into the Terri tories and to merchandise passed from the Territories into the States, Congress is not subject to the law of uniformity pre scribed by the Constitution, it would seem to follow that it is within the power of Congress to allow the admission to Porto Rico of all raw materials coming from other countries free of duty, and to admit to all ports of the " United States proper," free of duty, the products manufactured from these raw materials. As the people of the " United States proper " choose the Congressmen, there may be no great alarm felt over this possibility; but it is worth while to note that a construction of the Constitution adopted to save us from a competition with the Territories on equal grounds is capable of being turned against us and to their advantage. The courts may not refuse to give to the explicit words of a law their natural meaning, by reason of the ill consequences that may follow; but they may well take 'account of consequences in construing doubtful phrases, and resolve the doubts so as to save the purpose of the law makers, where, as in the case of the consti tutional provision we are considering, that purpose is well known. They will not construe a doubtful phrase so as to allow the very thing that the law was intended to prevent. These constitutional questions will soon be decided by the Supreme Court. If the absolute power of Congress is affirmed, we shall probably use the power with dis crimination by " extending " the Consti tution to Porto Rico, and by giving to its people a full territorial form of govern ment, and such protection in their civil rights as an act of Congress can give. If the court shall hold that the Constitution, in the parts not in themselves inapplicable, covers all territory made a permanent part of our domain, from the moment of annex ation and as a necessary part of the United States, then we will conform our legislation, with deep regret that we as sumed a construction contrary to liberty, and with some serious embarrassments that might have been avoided. There has been with many a mistaken apprehension that, if the Constitution, of its own force, extends to Porto Rico and the Philippines, and gives American citi zenship to their free civilized people, they become endowed with full political rights; that their consent is necessary to the va lidity and rightfulness of all civil adminis trations. But no such deduction follows. The power of Congress to legislate for the Territories is full. That is, there is no legislative power elsewhere than in Con gress, but it is not absolute. The conten tion is that all the powers of Congress are derived from the Constitution including the power to legislate for the Territories and that such legislation must necessarily, always and everywhere, be subject to the limitations of the Constitution. When this rule is observed, the consent of the people of the Territories is not nec essary to the validity of the legislation. The new Territory having become a part of the national domain, the people dwell ing therein have no reserved legal right to sever that relation, or to set up therein a hostile government. The question whether the United States can take over or continue to hold and govern a Territory whose people are hostile, is not a question of constitutional or international law, but of conscience and historical consistency. Some one must determine when and how far the people of a Territory, part of our national domain, can be entrusted with governing powers of a local nature, and when the broader powers of statehood 178 ANNEXED TERRITORY shall be conferred. We have no right to judge the capacity for self-government of the people of another nation, or to make an alleged lack of that faculty an excuse for aggression; but we must judge of this matter for our Territories. The interests to be affected by the decision are not all local; many of them are national. These questions are to be judged liberal ly and with strong leanings to the side of popular liberty, but we cannot give over the decision to the people who may at any particular time be settled in a Territory. We have, for the most part, in our history given promptly to the people of the Terri tories a large measure of local government, and have, when the admission of a State was proposed, thought only of boundaries and population. But this was because our Territories have been contiguous and chiefly populated from the States. We are not only at liberty, however, but under a duty, to take account also of the quality and disposition of the people, and we have in one or two instances done so. The written Constitution prescribes no rule for these cases. The question whether the United States shall hold conquered territory, or territory acquired by cession, without the consent of the people to be affected, is quite apart from the question whether, having acquired and incorporated such territory, we can govern it otherwise than under the limitations of the Consti tution. The Constitution may be aided in things doubtful by the Declaration of Indepen dence. It may be assumed that the frame of civil government adopted was intend ed to harmonize with the Declaration. It is the preamble of the Constitution. It goes before the enacting clause and de clares the purpose of the law; but the pur pose so expressed is not the law unless it finds renewed expression after the enacting clause. We shall be plainly recreant to the spirit and purpose of the Constitu tion if we arbitrarily deny to the people of a Territory as large a measure of popu lar government as their good disposition and intelligence will warrant. Neces sarily, the judgment of this question, how ever, is with Congress. The Constitution prescribes no rule could not do so and the courts cannot review the discretion of Congress. But we are now having it dinned into our ears that expansion is the law of life, and that expansion is not practicable if the Constitution is to go with the flag. Lord Salisbury, some years ago, stated this supposed law of national life. In a recent address, Mr. James Bryce says, by way of comment: " He thinks it like a bicycle, which must fall when it comes to a stand-still. It is an awkward result of this doctrine that when there is no more room for expan sion and a time must come, perhaps soon, when there will be no more room the Empire will begin to decline." If Great Britain, with her accepted methods of territorial growth, finds the problem of growth by expansion increas ingly hard, it will be harder for us, for we are fettered by our traditions as to popu lar rights, at least if not by our Consti tution. But expansion is not necessarily of a healthy sort; it may be dropsical. If judgment is passed now, the attempted conquest of the Boer republics has not strengthened Great Britain. She has not gained esteem. She has not increased her loyal population. She has created a need for more outlying garrisons already too numerous. She has strained her military and financial resources, and has had a revelation of the need of larger armies and stronger coast defences at home. The re cent appeal of Lord Salisbury at the Lord Mayor's banquet for more complete island defences is most significant. Did the South African war furnish a truer measure of the Empire's land strength than the famil iar campaigning against half-savage peo ples had done? The old coach, with its power to stand as well as to move, may, after all, be a safer carriage, for the hopes and interests of a great people, than the bicycle. Some one will say, increasing years and retirement and introspection have broken your touch with practical affairs and left you out of sympathy with the glowing prospects of territorial expansion that now opens before us; that it has always been so; the Louisiana and the Alaskan pur chases were opposed by some fearful souls. But I have been making no argument against expansion. The recent acquisi tions from Spain must present widely dif- 179 ANTHON ANTIETAM ferent conditions from all previous acqui- duced about fifty volumes, consisting chier sitiona of territory, since it seems to be ly of the Latin classics and aids to clas admitted that they cannot be allowed to sical study. All of his works were repub become a part of the United States without lished in England. His larger works arc a loss that overbalances the gain; that we a Classical Dictionary and a Dictionary of can only safely acquire them upon the con- Greek and Roman Antiquities. When he dition that we can govern them without was made rector of the grammar-school any constitutional restraint. he conferred on the public schools of his One who has retired from the service, native city six free scholarships. He died but not from the love of his country, must in New York, July 29, 1867. be pardoned if he finds himself unable to Anthony, HENRY BOWEN, statesman; rejoice in the acquisition of lands and born in Coventry, R. I., April 1, 1815; forests and mines and commerce, at the graduated at Brown University in 1833; cost of the abandonment of the old Ameri- editor of the Providence Journal, 1838- can idea that a government of absolute 63; elected governor of Rhode Island powers is an intolerable thing, and, under in 1849 and in 1850; United States Sen- the Constitution of the United States, an ator from Rhode Island, 1859-84; thrice impossible thing. The view of the Con- elected president pro tern, of the Senate, stitution I have suggested will not limit He died in Providence, R. I., Sept. 2, 1884. the power of territorial expansion; but it Anthony, SUSAN BROWNELL, American will lead us to limit the use of that reformer; born in South Adams, Mass.> power to regions that may safely become Feb. 15, 1820. She was of Quaker parent- a part of the United States, and to peoples age, and received her education at a whose American citizenship may be allow- Friends' school in Philadelphia. From 1835 ed. It has been said that the flash of to 1850 she taught school in New York. Dewey's guns in Manila Bay revealed to In 1847 she began her efforts in behalf the American people a new mission. 1 of the temperance movement; in 1852 like rather to think of them as revealing she assisted in organizing the Woman's the same old mission that we read in the New York State Temperance Society. In flash of Washington's guns at York- 1854-55 she held meetings in behalf of town. female suffrage. She was a leader in the God forbid that the day should ever anti - slavery movement, and an early come when, in the American mind, the advocate of the coeducation of women, thought of man as a " consumer " shall Greatly through her influence, the New submerge the old American thought of York legislature, in 1860, passed the act man as a creature of God, endowed with giving married women the possession of "inalienable rights." their earnings and the guardianship of Anthon, CHARLES, scholar and edu- their children. In 1868, with Mrs. E. C. cator; born in New York, Nov. 19, 1797. Stanton and Parker Pillsbury, she began His father, a surgeon-general in the Brit- the publication of the Revolutionist, a ish army, settled in New York soon after paper devoted to the emancipation of wom- the Revolution. Charles graduated at Co- en. In 1872 she cast test ballots at the lumbia College in 1815, was admitted to State and congressional elections in Roch- the bar, and in 1820 was made professor ester, N. Y., and was indicted and fined of languages in his alma mater. Pro- for illegal voting. She died in Rochester, fessor Anthon was the author of many N. Y., March 13, 1906. books connected with classical studies. Antietaxn, BATTLE OP. After the sur- He was made the head of the classical de- render of Harper's Ferry, Sept. 15, 1862, partment of the college as successor of Lee felt himself in a perilous position, for Professor Moore in 1835, having served as General Franklin had entered Pleasant rector of the grammar-school of the college Valley that very morning and threatened for five years. Professor Anthon was the severance of his army. Lee at once very methodical in his habits. He retired took measures to concentrate his forces, at ten o'clock and rose at four, and per- He withdrew his troops from South Moun- formed much of his appointed day's work tain and took position in the Antietam before breakfast. By industry he pro- valley, near Sharpsburg, Md. Jackson, by 180 ANTIETAM swift marches, had recrossed the Potomac with heavy loss, beyond a line of woods, and joined Lee on Antietam Creek. When It was at this time, when Hooker ad- the Confederates left South Mountain, Me- vanced, that Jackson was reinforced. The Clellan's troops followed them. Lee's Confederates swarmed out of the works plans were thwarted, and he found himself and fell heavily upon Meade, when Hooker compelled to fight. McClellan was very called upon Doubleday for help. A bri- cautious, for he believed the Confederates gade under General Hartsuff pressed for- Were on his front in overwhelming num- ward against a heavy storm of missiles, bers. It was ascertained that Lee's army and its leader was severely wounded, did not number more than 60,000. McClel- Meanwhile Mansfield's corps had been or- tan's effective force was 87,000. McClel- dered up, and before it became engaged lan's army was well in hand (Sept. the veteran leader was mortally wounded. 16), and Lee's was well posted on the The command then devolved on General heights near Sharpsburg, on the west- Williams, who left his division in the care ern side of Antietam Creek, a sluggish of General Crawford, and the latter seized stream with few fords, spanned by four a piece of woods near by. Hooker had stone bridges. On the right of the lost heavily; Doubleday's guns had si- National line were the corps of Hook- lenced a Confederate battery ; Ricketts was er and Sumner. In the advance, and struggling against constantly increasing near the Antietam, General Richardson's numbers on his front; and the National division of Sumner's corps was posted, line began to waver, when Hooker, in the On a line with this was Sykes's (reg- van, was wounded and taken from the ular) division of Porter's corps. Farther field. Sumner sent Sedgwick to the sup- down the stream was Burnside's corps. In port of Crawford, and Gordon and Rich- front of Sumner and Hooker were bat- ardson and French bore down upon the teries of 24-pounder Parrott guns. Frank- Confederates more to the left, lin's corps and Couch's division were far- The Nationals now held position at the ther down the valley, and the divisions of Bunker Church, and seemed about to grasp Morrell and Humphrey, of Porter's corps, the palm of victory ( for Jackson and Hood were approaching from Frederick. A de- were falling back), when fresh Confeder- tachment of the signal corps, under Major ate troops, under McLaws and Walker, Myer, was on a spur of South Mountain. supported by Early, came up. They pene- As McClellan prudently hesitated to at- trated the National line and drove it back, tack, the Confederates put him on the de- when the unflinching Doubleday gave them fensive by opening an artillery fire upon such a storm of artillery that they, in the Nationals at dawn (Sept. 16, 1862). turn, fell back to their original position. He was ready for response in the course of Sedgwick, twice wounded, was carried the afternoon, when Hooker crossed the from the field, and the command of his Antietam with a part of his corps, com- division devolved on Gen. O. 0. Howard, manded by Generals Ricketts, Meade, and Generals Crawford and Dana were also Doubleday. Hooker at once attacked the wounded. Franklin was sent over to as- Confederate left, commanded by " Stone- sist the hard-pressed Nationals. Forming wall Jackson," who was soon reinforced on Howard's left, he sent Slocum with his by General Hood. Sumner was directed division towards the centre. At the same to send over Mansfield's corps during the time General Smith was ordered to retake night, and to hold his own in readiness the ground on which there had been so to pass over the next morning. Hooker's much fighting, and it was done within first movement was successful. He drove fifteen minutes. The Confederates were back the Confederates, and his army rest- driven far back. Meanwhile the divisions ed on their arms that night on the ground of French and Richardson had been busy, they had won. Mansfield's corps crossed The former received orders from Sumner in the evening, and at dawn (Sept. 17) the to press on and make a diversion in favor contest was renewed by Hooker. It was of the right. Richardson's division, corn- obstinate and severe. The National bat- posed of the brigades of Meagher, Cald- teries on the east side of the creek greatly well, and Brooks (who had crossed the assisted in driving the 'Confederates away, Antietam at ten o'clock), gained a good 181 ANTIETAM ANTI-EXPANSIONISTS position. The Confederates, reinforced by ed his losses at 12,460 men, of whom 2,010 fresh troops, fought desperately. Finally, were killed. He estimated Lee's loss as Richardson was mortally wounded, and much greater. The losses fell heavily Gen. W. S. Hancock succeeded him in upon certain brigades. That of Duryee command, when a charge was made that retired from the field with not more than drove the Confederates in great confusion, twenty men and four colors. Of the bri- Night soon closed the action on the Na- gades of Lawton and Hays, on the Con- tional right and centre. General Meagher federate side, more than one-half were had been wounded and carried from the lost. On the morning of the 18th both field, when the command of his troops de- parties seemed more willing to rest than volved on Colonel Burke. During the to fight; and that night Lee and his fierce strifes of the day Porter's corps, with artil lery and Pleasonton's cav alry, had remained on the east side of the stream, as a reserve, until late in the afternoon, when McClellan sent over some brigades. On the morning of the 17th the left, under Burn- side, engaged in a desper ate struggle for the pos session of a bridge just be low Sharpsburg. That commander had been or dered to cross it and at tack the Confederates. It was a difficult task, and Burnside, exposed to a raking fire from the Con federate batteries and an enfilading fire from sharp shooters, was several times repulsed. Finally, at a little past noon, shattered army stole away in the darkness, two regiments charged across the bridge recrossed the Potomac at Williamsport, and drove its defenders away. The divi- and planted eight batteries on the high sions of Sturgis, Wilcox, and Rodman, and Virginia bank that menaced pursuers. Scammon's brigade, with four batteries, There had been a very tardy pursuit. At passed the bridge and drove the Confeder- dark on the evening of the 19th, Porter, ates almost to Sharpsburg. A. P. Hill, who was on the left bank of the river, with fresh troops, fell upon Burnside's ordered Griffin to cross the stream with left, mortally wounding General Rodman, two brigades and carry Lee's batteries, and driving the Nationals nearly back He captured four of the guns. On the to the bridge. Gen. O'B. Branch, of North next morning (Sept. 20) a part of Por- Carolina, was also killed in this encounter, ter's division made a reconnoissance in The Confederates were checked by Nation- force on the Virginia side, and were as- al artillery on the eastern side of the sailed by Hill in ambush, who drove them stream, and, reserves advancing under across the Potomac and captured 200 of Sturgis, there was no further attempt the Nationals. Maryland Heights and to retake " the Burnside Bridge," as it was Harper's Ferry were retaken by the Union called. Hill came up just in time to save troops. Lee's army from destruction. Anti-Expansionists, an old phrase in Darkness ended the memorable struggle American political history which was res- known as the Battle of Antietam. The urrected during the Presidential cam- losses were very severe. McClellan report- paign of 1900, and applied to those who 182 BURNSIDK BRIDGE," ANTIETAM CREEK. ANTI-EXPANSIONISTS were opposed to the extension of American territory which had been brought about during the first administration of Presi dent McKinley, principally as a result of the war with Spain in 1898. The adminis tration was charged not only by its Demo cratic opponents, but by many able men in the Republican party, with expansionist or imperialist tendencies considered for eign to the national policy of the country. While those who opposed the territorial expansion which had been accomplished, and also was pending, in the matter of the future of the Philippine Islands, were not sufficiently strong to organize an indepen dent political party, the large number of them within and without the Republican party created a sharp complication in the Presidential campaign. The position of the two great parties on this issue is shown in the following extracts from the platforms adopted at their respective na tional conventions. In the Republican platform the Philip pine problem was treated as follows: "In accepting by the treaty of Paris the just responsibility of our victories in the Spanish War, the President and the Senate won the undoubted approval of the American people. No other course was possible than to destroy Spain's sover eignty throughout the Western Indies and in the Philippine Islands. That course created our responsibility before the world, and with the unorganized popula tion whom our intervention had freed from Spain, to provide for the maintenance of law and order, and for the establishment of good government and for the perform ance of international obligations. Our au thority could not be less than our responsi bility, and wherever sovereign rights were extended, it became the high duty of the government to maintain its authority, to put down armed insurrection, and to con fer the blessings of liberty and civilization upon all the rescued peoples. The largest measure of self-government consistent with their welfare and our duties shall be secured to them by law." The Democratic platform contained two declarations on the subject, the first favor ing a qualified expansion as follows : "We are not opposed to territorial ex pansion when it takes in desirable terri tory which can be erected into States in the Union, and whose people are willing and fit to become American citizens. We favor expansion by every peaceful and le gitimate means. But we are unalterably opposed to the seizing or purchasing of distant islands, to be governed outside the Constitution, and whose people can never become citizens. We are in favor of ex tending the Republic's influence among the nations, but believe that influence should be extended, not by force and violence, but through the persuasive power of a high and honorable example. The importance of other questions now pending before the American people is in nowise diminished, and the Democratic party takes no back ward step from its position on them, but the burning issue of imperialism growing out of the- Spanish War involves the very existence of the republic, and the destruc tion of our free institutions. We regard it as the paramount issue of the cam paign." In the matter of the Philippine problem, the platform made the following declara tion: " We condemn and denounce the Philip pine policy of the present administration. It has involved the republic in unneces sary war, sacrificed the lives of many of our noblest sons, and placed the United States, previously known and applauded throughout the world as the champion of freedom, in the false and un-American position of crushing with military force the efforts of our former allies to achieve liberty and self-government. The Filipi nos cannot be citizens without endangering our civilization; they cannot be subjects without imperilling our form of govern ment, and as we are not willing to sur render our civilization or to convert the republic into an empire, we favor an im mediate declaration of the nation's pur pose to give to the Filipinos, first, a stable form of government; secondly, indepen dence; and third, protection from outside interference, such as has been given for nearly a century to the republics of Cen tral and South America. The greedy com mercialism which dictated the Philippine policy of the Republican administration attempts to justify it with the plea that it will pay, but even this sordid and un worthy plea fails when brought to the test of facts. The war of criminal aggres- 183 ANTI-FEDERAL PARTY ANTI-MASONIC PARTY sion against the Filipinos, entailing an saw in the adoption of the Constitution annual expense of many millions, has al- the only salvation for the young Repul> ready cost more than any possible profit lie, and voted with the Federalists in this that could accrue from the entire Philip- contest; but, after the Constitution had pine trade for years to come. Further- been adopted, it was natural that these more, when trade is extended at the ex- men should aim at a construction of its pense of liberty, the price is always too terms which should not give the new gov- high." See also ACQUISITION OF TEBRI- ernment extensive power. These tempo- TOBY; ANNEXED TERRITORY, STATUS OF; rary Federalists, in about 1791-93, united ATKINSON, EDWARD; BRYAN, WILLIAM with the old Anti-Federalists, and the JENNINGS; IMPERIALISM. ^ party that had absolutely opposed the Anti-Federal Party. At the close of Constitution, through fear of a strong the war for independence the mass of the central government, now became, through population was agricultural and demo- the same fear, the champions of the exact cratic, and devoted to the advancement of and literal language of the Constitution, their separate commonwealths, the legislat- and the opponents of every attempt to ex- iires of which, under the Articles of Con- tend its meaning by ingenious interpre- federation (see CONFEDERATION, ARTICLES tations of its terms. The former party OF), had seized upon the powers which the name was no longer applicable, and in King had abandoned, and which the na- 1792, through the influence of Jefferson, tional popular will was not yet sufficiently it began to be called a " Republican " educated to assume. In the years from party, in opposition to the " Monarchical " 1780 to 1787, in spite of lawlessness and Federalists. It soon adopted this name, bad government, great development had in 1793, which was afterwards lengthened taken place in the United States. The into the Democratic - Republican party, commercial and creditor classes, and the See DEMOCRATIC PARTY. Southern property owners, who had learn- Anti-Masonic Party. In 1826 William ed their weaknesses and their needs, united Morgan, a citizen of western New York, for the control of the convention, in 1787, announced his intention to publish a book under the leadership of Hamilton, and a in which the secrets of freemasonry were few other of the advanced thinkers, and to be disclosed. It was printed at Bata- formed the nucleus of what was soon to be via, N. Y. On Sept. 11 Morgan was called the Federal party. As the old gov- seized at Batavia, upon a criminal charge, ernment had been strictly federal, or by a company of men who came from league, in its nature, it would seem nat- Canandaigua. He was taken to that place, ural that its supporters should be called tried and acquitted on the criminal charge, federalist, and Gerry, of Massachusetts, but was immediately arrested on a civil and a few others made some effort to secure process for a trifling debt. He was cast this party title, and give their opponents into jail there, and the next night was dis- that of anti-federalists or nationalists, charged by those who procured his arrest, But the object of the Constitution was to taken from prison at nine o'clock at night, secure a strong federal government ; and and at the door was seized and thrust into all who were opposed to this new feature a carriage in waiting, which was driven of American politics at once accepted rapidly towards Rochester. He was taken the name of Anti-Federalists, and opposed by relays of horses, by the agency of several the ratification of the Constitution, inside individuals, to Fort Niagara, at the mouth and outside of the conventions. In Rhode of the Niagara River, and deposited in the Island and North Carolina this opposition powder magazine there. It was known was for a time successful, but in all the that the freemasons had made violent at- other States it was overcome, though in tempts to suppress Morgan's announced Pennsylvania there were strong protests book, and this outrage was charged upon of unfair treatment on the part of the the fraternity. A committee was appoint- Federalists. Many prominent men, such ed, at a public meeting held at Batavia, as Edmund Randolph, Robert R. Living- to endeavor to ferret out the perpetrators ston, Madison, and Jeff erson, while opposed of the outrage. They found evidences of by nature to a strong federal government, the existence of what they believed to be 184 ANTI-MISSION BAPTISTS ANTIQUITIES STONE IDOL AT COPAN, 13 FEET IN HEIGHT an extended conspiracy, with many agents and powerful motives. Similar meetings were held elsewhere. Public excitement became very great and wide-spread; and a strong feeling soon pervaded the public mind that the masonic institution was re sponsible for the crime. The profound mystery in which the affair was involved gave wings to a thousand absurd rumors. Mutual criminations and recriminations became very violent, and entered into all the religious, social, and political rela tions. A very strong anti-masonic party was soon created, at first only social in its character, but soon it became political. This feature of the party first appeared at town-meetings in the spring of 1827, where it was resolved that no mason was worthy to receive the votes of freemen. A polit ical party for the exclusion of masons from public offices was soon spread over the State of New York and into several other States, and ran its course for several years. In 1832 a National Anti-Masonic Convention was held at Philadelphia, in which several States were represented, and William Wirt, of Virginia, was nominated for the office of President of the United States. Although the party polled a con siderable vote, it soon afterwards disap peared. The fate of Morgan after he reached the magazine at Fort Niagara was never positively revealed. Anti - Mission Baptists, variously known as Primitive, Old School, and Reg ular Baptists; called Anti-Mission Bap tists because of their opposition, begun about 1840, to the establishment of Sun day-schools, missions, colleges, or theolog ical schools. They hold that these institu tions make the salvation of men dependent upon human effort rather than upon Divine grace. In 1899 they reported 2,130 ministers, 3,530 churches, and 126,000 members. Anti-Poverty Society. See GEOBGE, HENRY; SINGLE TAX. Antiquities, AMERICAN. A greater portion of objects which constitute Ameri can antiquities consist of the architectural and other remains of the handiwork of the aborigines who inhabited the continent be fore any of the present races appeared here and subjugated or displaced them; also the ruins occasioned by the Spanish 185 ANTI-BENT PARTY APACHE INDIANS conquest. These are chiefly, in Central the operation of law and the payment of and South America, ruined temples, and, rent in the entire district. The attempt in North America, rude earthworks, now to serve process by military aid, the so- overgrown with venerable forest trees called Helderberg War, was unsuccessful, which attest their antiquity. In connec- In 1847 and 1849 the anti-renters showed tion with those in the more southern re- a voting strength of 5,000, adopting a gions, there are remains of elaborate carv- part of each party ticket. In 1850 the ings and ornamental pottery. There are legislature directed the attorney-general many features in common between the to bring suit against Harmon Livingston temples and other works of art in Mexico, to try title. The suit was decided in Liv- Central America, and Peru. The explora- ings ton's favor, November, 1850, but a tions of Stephens and Catherwood ( 1840- compromise was effected, the owners sell- 43) revealed to the world vast remains of ing the farms at fair rates, and the ten- cities in Central America, which were ants paying for them. Most of Rensse- doubtless inhabited at the period of the laerswyck was sold, and of Livingston conquest, 350 years ago. There they found Manor, which at one time contained carved monoliths and the remains of high- 162,000 acres of choice farms, only a small ly ornamented temples. The monoliths at portion now remains in the possession of Copan some antiquaries are disposed to the family. rank, as to use, with those ruder ones at Anti-Slavery Party. See FREE-SOIL Stonehenge, in England, and older ones in PARTY; REPUBLICAN PARTY. Arabia. The remains of Aztec art in Anti-Slavery Society, AMERICAN, an Mexico attest the existence of a high de- organization founded in Philadelphia, Pa., gree of civilization there at the period of in 1833, by delegates from several State their structure. So, also, the ruins of the and city societies in the Northern and Temple of the Sun, at Cuzco, in Peru, tell Eastern States, the first local one hav- of great advancement in the arts under ing been established in Boston, Jan. 16, the empire of the Incas. These remains 1832, under the leadership of William occupy a living place on the borders of the Lloyd Garrison. The presidents of the historic period, but the mounds in North national society were Arthur Tappan, America, showing much mathematical Lindley Coates, William Lloyd Garri- skill in their construction and ingenuity son, and Wendell Phillips, and in its in their contents, have hitherto eluded the membership were the leading abolitionists keen skill of antiquaries, who have sought of the day. The members, individually, in vain among prehistoric mysteries for a were subjected for many years to mob clew to the origin of the people who made violence, and the feeling in the South them. See Hui SHEN; MOUND-BUILDERS, against the society was exceedingly bitter. Anti-Bent Party. The greater part of The members heroically kept together, Columbia, Rensselaer, Greene, Delaware, in spite of persecution and personal as- and Albany counties in the State of New sault, till April 9, 1870, when, on the York belonged to manors, the grants of adoption of the Thirteenth Amendment to which had been made to " patroons " by the national Constitution, the main so- the Dutch West India Company, and re- ciety was disbanded. See COLONIZATION newed by James II., the principal ones SOCIETY, AMERICAN; LIBERIA. being Rensselaerswyck and Livingston Apache Indians, a branch of the Manor. The tenants had deeds for their Athabascan stock. They are mostly wan- farms, but paid an annual rental instead derers, and have roamed as marauders of a principal sum. Dissatisfaction with over portions of Texas, New Mexico, and this state of affairs had begun to show it- Arizona, in the United States, and several self as early as 1790, and when, in 1839, of the northern provinces of Mexico. Stephen Van Rensselaer, who had allowed Wanderers, they do not cultivate the soil, much of his rent to remain in arrears, and have only temporary chiefs to lead died, the tenants refused to pay rents to them. Civil government they have none, his successor, disguised themselves as Divided into many roving bands, they re- " Injuns," and for ten years carried on a sisted all attempts by the Spanish to civ- reign of terror that practically suspended ilize and Christianize them, but constant- 186 APALACHE APPOMATTOX COURT-HOUSE ly attacked these Europeans. So early as United States ships Trenton (flag-ship) 1762, it was estimated that the Apaches and Vandalia, and the German men- had desolated and depopulated 174 min- of- war Eber, Adler, and Olga, and drove ing towns, stations, and missions in the ashore the United States steamer Nipsic. province of Sonora alone. For fifty years The Calliope (British) was the only man- a bold chief Mangas Colorado led pow- of-war in the harbor that succeeded in erful bands to war; and since the annexa- escaping to sea. The town and its vicinity tion of their territory to the United were the scene, in 1899, of a series of fatal States, they have given its government riots, growing out of the claims of Ma- taafa and Malietoa. Tanus to the king ship. Several American and British naval Though fierce in war, they never scalp or officers were killed or wounded, April 1> torture their enemies. A Great Spirit in subduing the native mob. is the central figure in their simple sys- Appleton, NATHAN and SAMUEL, mer- tem of theology, and they reverence as chants and philanthropists; brothers; sacred certain animals, especially a pure born in New Ipswich, N. H., in 1779 and white bird. In 1900 the members of the 1766 respectively; engaged in the cotton tribe in the United States were classified manufacturing business, as partners ; were as Coyotera, Jicarilla, Mescalero, San Car- founders of the city of Lowell, Mass., los, Tonto, and White Mountain Apaches, which grew up around their many mills, and were located in Arizona, New Mexico, Both were widely known for their benevo- more trouble than any of the Western Indians. Colorado was killed in 1863. and Oklahoma. They numbered 6,113. Apalache, Apalacha, Apalachi, or lence. Nathan set up the first power loom in the United States, in his Waltham mill. Appalachee, various forms of the name Nathan died in 1861; Samuel, in 1853. of a tribe of North American Indians who Appomattox Court - House, the seat dwelt in the vicinity of St. Mark's River, of government of Appomattox county, Va., Florida, with branches extending north- about 25 miles east of Lynchburg; famous ward to the Appalachian range. They as the scene of the surrender of General were known, his torically, as far a - back as 1526. The settlements* of the tribe were men tioned in a peti- tion to King Charles II., of Spain, in 1688, and it is believed that the tribe became broken up and scattered about 1702, the members becoming absorbed in other tribes. Apia, the prin cipal town and commercial port of the Samoan Isl ands, in the South Pacific Ocean, situ ated on the north coast of the island of Upolu. The harbor is small, but, Lee to General Grant. The Army of ordinarily, a safe one. In March, 1889, Northern Virginia was reduced by famine, the island and harbor were swept by disease, death, wounds, and capture to a M'LBAN'S HOUSE, THK PLACE OF LEE'S SURRENDER. a terrific hurricane, which wrecked the feeble 187 few. These struggled against APPOMATTOX COURT-HOUSE APPROPRIATIONS BY CONGRESS enormous odds with almost unexampled fortitude, but were compelled to yield to overwhelming numbers and strength. On April 8, a portion of Sheridan's cavalry, under General Custer, supported by De- vine, captured four Confederate supply- trains at Appomattox Station, on the Lynchburg Railroad. Lee's vanguard ap proaching, were pushed back to Appomat tox Court-House, 5 miles northward near which was Lee's main army losing twen ty-five guns and many wagons and prison ers. Sheridan hurried forward the remain der of his command, and on that evening he stood directly across Lee's pathway of retreat. Lee's last avenue of escape was closed, and on the following day he met General Grant at the residence of Wilmer McLean, at Appomattox Court-House, to consummate an act of surrender. The two commanders met, with courteous recogni tion, at 2 P.M., on Palm Sunday (April 9). Grant was accompanied by his chief of staff, Colonel Parker; Lee was attend ed by Colonel Marshall, his adjutant-gen eral. The terms of surrender were discussed and settled, in the form of a written proposition by Grant, and a written ac ceptance by Lee, and at 3.30 P.M. they were signed. The terms prescribed by the suggestion of Lee, agreed to allow such cavalrymen of the Confederate army as owned their own horses to retain them, as they would, he said, need them for tilling their farms. Lee now returned to Richmond, where his far.ily resided. He had started on that campt.Agn with 65,000 men, and he returned alone; and for a month afterwards he and his family were kindly furnished with daily rations from the national commissariat at Richmond. Lee had lost, during the movements of his army from March 26 to April 9, about 14,000 men killed and wounded, and 25,- 000 made prisoners. The number of men paroled was about 26,000, of whom not more than 9,000 had arms in their hands. About 16,000 small-arms were surrendered, 150 cannon, 71 colors, about 1,100 wagons and caissons, and 4,000 horses and mules. See LEE, ROBERT EDWARD. Apportionment, CONGRESSIONAL, the popular name of a bill enacted by Congress after every enumeration of the inhabitants of the republic or the decennial census, determining the total number of members to be sent to the House of Representa tives from each State of the Union. The ratio of representation, since the founda tion of the government, has been as fol lows: Prom it 1789 to 1793 as provided by the United States Constitution 1793 1803 1813 1823 1833 1843 1853 1863 1873 1883 1893 1903 1803 based on the United States Census of 1790 1813 1823 1833 1843 1853 1863 1873 1883 1893 1903 1913 1800 1810 3820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 30,000 33,000 33,000 35,000 40,000 47,700 70.680 93,423 127,381 131,425 151,911 173,901 194,182 Grant were extraordinary, under the cir- Appropriations by Congress. The cumstances, in their leniency and mag- Congress of the United States makes ap- nanimity, and Lee was much touched propriations for the expenses of the gov- by them. They simply required Lee and ernment for each fiscal year ending June his men to give their parole of honor 30. The following is a list of the different that they would not take up arms objects for which the appropriations are against the government of the United made: States until regularly exchanged; gave to the officers their side-arms, baggage, and private horses; and pledged the faith of the government that they should not be punished for their treason and re bellion so long as they should respect that parole and be obedient to law. Grant, at Deficiencies. Legislative, executive, and judicial. Sundry civil. Army. Navy. Indian. River and harbo--. Forts and fortifications. Military Academy. Post-office Department. Pensions. Consular and Diplomatic. Agricultural Department District ol Columbia. Miscellaneous. 188 AQUEDUCTS-AQUIA CHEEK The accompanying table will show that called out the militia of that State, ap- the total amount of appropriation in- pointing no fewer than twenty places as creases with each Congress. points of rendezvous, one-fourth of which APPROPRIATIONS BY CONGRESS, 1897-1904. 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1903 1903 1904 $13,900,106 $8,594,447 $347,165,001 $46,882,724 $13,767,008 $13,289,314 $24,944,124 $19,651,968 Legislative, Executive, and Judicial 21,519,751 21,690,766 21,625,846 23,394,051 24,175,652 24,594,968 25,396,683 27,598,653 Sundry Civil 29,812,113 34,344,970 33,997,752 39,381,733 49,594,309 54,574,285 54,394,601 61,763 709 Support of the Army Naval Service 23,278,403 30,562,661 7,390,497 23,129,344 33,003,234 7,674,120 23,193,392 56,098,783 7,673 854 80,430,204 48,099,969 7 504 775 114,220,095 61,140,916 8,197,989 115,784,049 78,101,791 9,747 471 91,730,136 78,856,263 8,986,028 77,888,752 81,876.791 8 540 406 Rivers and Harbors Forts and Fortifications Military Academy 15,944,147 7,377,888 449,562 Indefinite. 19,266,412 9,517,141 479,572 Indefinite. 14,492,459 9,377,494 458,689 Indefinite 25,100,038 4,909,902 575,774 Indefinite. 16,175.605 7,383,628 674,306 Indefinite. 7,046,623 7,364,011 772,653 Indefinite. 32,540,199 7,298,955 2,627,324 Indefinite. 20,228,150 7,188,416 652,748 Indefinite Pensions. 141,308,580 141,263,880 141,233,830 145 233,830 145,245 230 145,245,230 139,842,230 139 847 600 Consular and Diplomatic Agricultural Department District of Columbia . . . 1 ,643,559 8,255,582 6,900,319 1,695,308 3,182,902 6,186 991 1,752,208 3,509,202 6,426 880 1,714,533 3,726,022 6 834 535 1,771,168 4,023,500 7,577,369 1,849,428 4,582,420 8,602,269 1,987,483 5,208,960 8,544,469 1,968,250 6,978,160 8 638 097 423 304 1 150 464 6 044 898 28 721 653 3 205 362 7 961 140 4,081,747 3 026 064 Totals $302,786,386 $311,179,557 $673,050 293 $462 509,750 $457,152,142 $479,366,657 $486 439 306 $464 846 770 Aqueducts. Artificial channels or con duits for conveying water, especially for supplying large cities. The Greeks and Romans constructed enormous works of this kind, some of which are still in ex istence after continuous use of over 2,000 years. The best preserved Greek aqueduct is the one still in use at Syracuse. The most famous Roman aqueducts were the Aqua Apia, 10 miles in length; the Aqua Martia, 60 miles; the Aqua Julia, 15 miles, and the Aqua Claudia, 46 miles. With the exception of the Claudia, all these were constructed before the birth of Christ. Among the most important aque ducts in the United States are the fol lowing: The old Croton, New York City, built 1837-42, length, 38*4 miles, capacity, 100 million gallons daily. The new Cro ton, built 1884-90, length 30y 2 miles, ca pacity, 250 million gallons daily. Wash ington Aqueduct, built 1852-59, two 4- foot pipes. Boston, from Sudbury River, built 1875-78, length, 16 miles. Balti more, from Gunpowder River, built 1875- 81, length, 7 miles. The Sutro tunnel, 4 miles long, constructed to drain the Corn- stock Lode, Nevada, at a depth of 1,600 feet. It was chartered February 4, 1865, and completed June 30, 1879. Many im portant works for the purpose of irriga tion are now under construction in the Western States of the Union. Aqnla Creek, ENGAGEMENT AT. Alarm ed by the gathering of troops at Wash ington, Governor Letcher, of Virginia, by command of the Confederate government, were west of the mountains, for the Con federates were threatened by Ohio and Indi ana volunteers. His proclamation was is sued May 3, 1861. Batteries were erected on the Virginia branch of the Potomac, be low Washington, for the purpose of ob structing the navigation of that stream and preventing supplies reaching Wash ington that way. At the middle of May, Capt. J. H. Ward, a veteran officer of the navy, was placed in command of a flotilla on the Potomac, which he had organized, composed of four armed pro pellers. On his way to Washington from Hampton Roads, he had captured two schooners filled with armed Confed erates. He then patrolled that river, reconnoitring the banks in search of bat teries which the Virginians had con structed. On the heights at Aquia Creek (the terminus of a railway from Rich mond), 55 miles below Washington, he found formidable works, and attacked them, May 31, with his flag-ship, Thomas Freeborn, and the gunboats Anacosta and Resolute. For two hours a sharp conflict was kept up, and the batteries were si lenced. Ward's ammunition for long range was exhausted, and on the slacking of his fire the batteries opened again. Unable to reply at that distance, Ward withdrew, but resumed the conflict the fol lowing day, in company with the Pawnee, Capt. S. C. Rowan. The struggle last ed more than five hours. Twice the bat teries on shore were silenced, but their fire was renewed each time. The Pawnee 189 AQUIDAY ARBITRATION was badly bruised, but no person on board the Arkansas and Platte rivers. They of her nor on Ward's flotilla was killed. were great hunters, and fifty years ago The native numbered 10,000 souls. With the disap pearance of tl'e buffalo they have rapid- Aquiday, or Aquetnet. name of Rhode Island. Arapahoe Indians, one of the five ly decreased, tribes constituting the Blackfeet confed- bering 1,011, was located in Oklahoma, eracy, residing near the headwaters of and a second, numbering 829, in Wyoming. In 1900 one branch, num- ARBITHATIQN Arbitration, INTERNATIONAL. In 1897 land or the United States could demand the friends of arbitration the world over a review of the award. In that case a were exceedingly depressed over a defeat tribunal of five members was to be formed which the principle sustained at the hands in the same manner as the smaller one, of the United States Senate. By a close and King Oscar was still to be referee, vote on April 13, the Senate rejected in Boundary questions were to be submitted toto a measure providing for the arbitra- to a tribunal of six members, and the tion of all disputes that may arise be- award must be unanimous. In case this tween the United States and Great Brit- could not be secured, the countries were ain. This general arbitration measure to agree to adopt no hostile measures un- arose from the Venezuela trouble. On til the mediation of two or more friendly March 5, 1896, Lord Salisbury submitted powers had been invoked. The treaty was to Secretary Olney a suggested treaty in to remain in force five years. The failure regard to the Venezuelan matter. On of the treaty does not mean that the April 11, Secretary Olney proposed a few United States is averse to arbitration as amendments to the treaty, and also sug- a means of settling national difficulties, gested that a general treaty for the arbi- This country has always been foremost tration of all difficulties might be con- in that line. But circumstances were eluded along the same lines. The draft of against the measure at that time. At the this general treaty was made public Jan. very moment Great Britain was negotiat- 13, 1897, and at once the project became ing the treaty with the United States, her the subject of debate here and abroad. In war-ships were firing upon the patriots of England the proposed treaty was cordially Crete. One of the great forces in the received and promptly ratified and sent United States in favor of arbitration is to this country. In the United States there the International Peace Society, originally was a great conflict of ideas concern- formed in England. Its first great con ing the measure. The treaty provided vention was held in London in 1851. The for the arbitration of all matters in dif- submission of the Venezuelan question to ference between the countries which could arbitration marked the eighteenth question not be adjusted by diplomatic correspond- that had thus been disposed of by the ence. Matters involving pecuniary claims United States and the twenty-sixth that to the maximum extent of $500,000 were England had thus submitted. See BERING to be settled by a board of three arbi- SEA ARBITRATION ; ARBITRATION, TRIBUNAL trators, composed of a. juror of repute se- OF, FOR "ALABAMA CLAIMS"; "VENE- lected one by each country, these two to ZTJELA" and "CLEVELAND, GROVER" for agree upon a third. If the two arbitrators VENEZUELA ARBITRATION, etc. failed to agree upon a third, he was to Arbitration, INTERNATIONAL COURT OF, be selected by King Oscar of Sweden. In a court for the arbitration of disputes respect to matters involving a larger sum, between nations, provided by the Uni- or in respect to territorial claims, the versal Peace Conference at The Hague in matter was first to go before a board con- 1899, and made operative by the adhe- stituted as above described, and if the sion of the signatory nations and the three arbitrators came to a unanimous appointment by them of members of the decision their report was to be final. But court. if they were not unanimous, either Eng- The Arbitration Treaty consists of six- 190 ARBITRATION ty-one articles, divided into four titles: First, On the Maintenance of General Peace, consisting of one declaratory arti cle; secondly, On Good Offices and Media tion; thirdly, On International Commis sions of Inquiry; fourthly, On Inter national Arbitration. The following is a summary of the treaty: Article 1. With the object of preventing, as far as possible, recourse to force in inter national relations, the signatory powers agree to use all endeavors to effect by pacific means a settlement of the differences which may arise among them. Article 2. The signatory powers decide that in cases of serious differences or conflict they will, before appealing to arms, have recourse, so far as circumstances permit, to the good offices or mediation of one or several friendly powers'. Article 3. Independently of this, the sig natory powers deem it useful that several of the powers not committed to the arbitra tion scheme shall, on their own initiative, offer, as far as circumstances permit, their good offices or mediation to the contending states. The right of offering their good offices belongs to powers not connected with the conflict, even during the course of hos tilities, which act can never be regarded as an unfriendly act. Article 4. The part of mediator consists In reconciling conflicting claims and appeas ing resentment which may have arisen be tween contending states. Article 5. The functions of mediator cease from the moment it may be stated by one of the contending parties, or by the mediator himself, that the compromise or basis of an amicable understanding proposed by him has not been accepted. Article 6. Good offices and mediation have the exclusive character of counsel, and are devoid of obligatory force. Article 7. The acceptance of mediation unless otherwise stipulated, may have the effect of interrupting the obligation of pre paring for war. If the acceptance super venes after the opening of hostilities it shall not interrupt, unless by a convention of a con trary tenor, military operations that may be proceeding. Article 8. The signatory powers agree in commending the application of special media tion in the event of threatened interruption of peace between members. Contending states may each choose a power to which they will intrust the mission of entering into a negoti ation with a power chosen by the other side with the object of preventing a rupture of pa cific relations, or, in the event of hostilities, of restoring peace. Articles 9 to 14 provide for the institu tion of an international commission of inquiry for the verification of facts in cases of minor disputes not affecting the vital interest or honor of states, but im possible of settlement by ordinary diplo macy. The report of an inquiry commis sion will not force an arbitral judgment, leaving the contending parties full liberty to either conclude an amicable arrange ment on the basis of the report or have recourse ulteriorly to mediation or arbi tration. Articles 15 to 19 set forth the general object of and benefits it is hoped to derive from the arbitration court, and declare that signing the convention implies an un dertaking to submit in good faith to ar bitral judgment. The summary of the proposed treaty continues: Article 20. With the object of facilitating an immediate recourse to arbitration for in ternational differences not regulated by dip lomatic means the signatory powers undertake to organize in the following manner a per manent court of arbitration, accessible at all times and exercising its functions, unless oth erwise stipulated, between the contending parties in conformity with the rules of pro cedure inserted in the present convention. Article 21. This court is to have compe tency in all arbitration cases, unless the con tending parties come to an understanding for the establishment of special arbitration jurisdiction. Article 22. An international bureau estab lished at The Hague and placed under the di rection of a permanent secretary-general will serve as the office of the court. It will be the intermediary for communications concern ing meetings. The court is to have the cus tody of archives and the management of all administrative affairs. Article 23. Each of the signatory powers shall appoint within three months of the ratification of the present article not more than four persons of recognized competence In questions of international law, enjoying the highest moral consideration, and prepared to accept the functions of arbitrator. The per sons thus nominated will be entered as mem bers of the court on a list, which will be com municated by the bureau to all the signatory; powers. Any modification of the list will be > brought by the bureau to the knowledge of the signatory powers. Two or more powers may agree together regarding the nomination of one or more members, and the same person may be chosen by different powers. Members of the court are to be appointed for the term of six years. The appointments are renew able. In case of the death or resignation of a member of the court, the vacancy Is to be filled in accordance with the regulations made for the original nomination. Article 24. The signatory powers who de sire to apply to the court for a settlement of differences shall select from the general list a number of arbitrators, to be fixed by agree ment. They will notify the bureau of their intention of applying to the court, and give 191 ARBITRATION the names of the arbitrators they may have selected. In the absence of a conven tion to the contrary an arbitral tribunal is to be constituted in accordance with the rules of Article 1. Arbitrators thus nominated to form an arbitral tribunal for a matter or question will meet on the date fixed by the contending parties. Article 25. The tribunal will usually sit at The Hague, but may sit elsewhere by con sent of the contending parties. Article 26. The powers not signing the convention may apply to the court under the conditions prescribed by the present conven tion. Article 27. The signatory powers may consider It their duty to call attention to the existence of the permanent court to any of their friends between whom a conflict is threatening, which must always be regarded as a tender of good offices. The United States delegates attached to their acceptance of Article 27 the follow ing declaration: "Nothing contained in this convention shall be so construed as to require the United States of America to depart from its traditional policy of not intruding upon, interfering with, or en tangling itself in the political questions or internal administration of any foreign state; nor shall anything contained in said convention be so construed as to re quire the relinquishment by the United States of America of its traditional atti tude towards purely American questions." Article 28. A permanent council, composed of the diplomatic representatives of the sig natory powers residing at The Hague and the Netherlands Foreign Minister, who will ex ercise the functions of president, will be con stituted at The Hague as soon as possible after the ratification of the present act. The council will be charged to establish and or ganize an international bureau, which will remain under its direction and control. The council will notify the powers of the consti tution of the court and arrange its installa tion, draw up the standing orders and other necessary regulations, will decide questions likely to arise in regard to the working of the tribunal, have absolute powers concern ing the appointment, suspension, or dismissal of functionaries or employees, will fix the emoluments and salaries, and control the gen eral expenditure. The presence of five mem bers at duly convened meetings will consti tute a quorum. Decisions are to be taken by a majority of the votes. The council will ad dress annually to the signatory powers a re port of the labors of the court, the working of its administrative services, and of Its expendi ture. Article 29. The expenses of the bureau are to be borne by the signatory powers In the proportion fixed for the International Bureau of the Universal Postal Union. Article 30. The powers who accept arbi tration will sign a special act, clearly defining the object of the dispute, as well as the scope of the arbitrators. The powers' act confirms the undertaking of the parties to submit in good faith to the arbitration judgment. Article 31. Arbitration functions may be conferred upon a single arbitrator, or on sev eral arbitrators designated by the parties at their discretion, or chosen from among the members of the permanent court established by the present act. Unless otherwise decided, the formation of the arbitration tribunal Is to be effected as follows: Each party will ap point two arbitrators, who will choose a chief arbitrator. In case of a division, the selection is to be intrusted to a third power, whom the parties will designate. If an agreement Is not effected in this manner, each party is to designate a different power, and the choice of a chief arbitrator is to devolve upon them. Article 32. When an arbitrator is a sover eign, or head of a state, the arbitral proce dure depends exclusively on his august deci sion. Article 33. The chief arbitrator is presi dent do jure. When the tribunal does not contain a chief of arbitration, the tribunal may appoint its own president. He may be designated by the contending parties, or, falling this, by the arbitration tribunal. Articles 34 to 50 provide for the ajK pointment of councillors, the selection of the languages to be employed, and the rules of procedure in the court, whose sittings are to be behind closed doors. Article 51 provides that a judgment agreed to by a majority vote is to be set forth in writing, giving the full rea sons, and is to be signed by each member, the minority recording its dissent and signing it. Articles 52 and 53 direct that the decision of the court shall be read at a public sitting in the presence of the agents or counsel of the contending par ties, who shall finally decide the matter at issue and close the arbitration proceed ings. The concluding clauses relate to the re vision of proceedings in the case of the discovery of a new fact, and provide that each power shall bear its own expenses and agreed share of the cost of the tri bunal without reference to the penalties imposed. See PEACE CONFERENCE. The Senate of the United States having ratified the arbitration treaty, President McKintey appointed the American mem bers of the court in 1900 (see below). On Feb. 1, 1901, fifteen nations, em bracing all the maritime powers, had ap pointed their members. The official roster then was as follows: 192 ARBITRATION AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. Jonkheer A. F. de Savornin Lohman, ex- Count Frederic ScbSnborn, LL.D., president Minister of the Interior, ex-Professor of of the Imperial Royal Court of Adminis- the Free University of Amsterdam, trative Justice. Jonkheer G. L. M. H. Ruis de Beerenbrouck, Mr. D. de Szilagyl, ex-Minister of Justice. Count Albert Apponyl, member of the Cham ber of Magnates. Mr. Henri Lammasch, member of of Lords. BELGIUM. Mr. Beernaert, Minister of State. Baron Lambermont, Minister of State. The Chevalier Descamps, Senator. ex-Minister of Justice, Commissioner of the Queen in the Province of Limbourg. PORTUGAL. Count de Macedo, Peer of the Realm, ex- Minister of Marine and Colonies, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary at Madrid. RUMANIA. j.v Mr. Theodore Rosetti, Senator, ex-President Mr. Rolin Jacquemyns, ex-Minister of the In- of the m h Court of Cassation and Jus . terior - tlce. DENMARK. Mr. Jean Kalindero, Administrator of the Prof. H. Matzen, LL.D., Professor of the Crown Domain, ex-Judge of the High Court Copenhagen University. of Cassation and Justice. Mr. Eugene Statsco, ex-President of the Sen ate, ex-Minister of Justice and Foreign Af- FRANCE. Mr. L6on Bourgeois, ex-President of the fairs. Cabinet Council. Mr. Jean N. Lahovari, Deputy, ex-Envoy Ex- Mr, de Laboulaye, ex-Ambassador. traordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, Baron Destournelles de Constant, Minister ex-Minister of Foreign Affairs. Plenipotentiary, Deputy. RUSSIA. Mr. N. V. Mouravieff, Minister of Justice, Ac tive Privy Councillor, Secretary of State. GERMANY. Mr. C. P. Pobiedonostzeff, Attorney-General of Mr. Blngner, President of the Imperial High the Most Holy Synod, Secretary of State. Court at Leipsic. Mr. E. V. Frisch, President of the Department of Legislation of the Imperial Council, Secretary of State. Mr. Louis Renault, Professor In the Faculty of Law at Paris. Mr. von Frantzius, Solicitor of the Depart ment of Foreign Affairs. Mr. von Martitz, Associate Justice of the Mr. de Martens, Privy Councillor, permanent Superior Court of Administrative Justice In Prussia. Mr. von Bar, Professor of Law at Gottingen University. member of the Council of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the SPAIN. The Duke of Tetuan, ex-Minister of Foreign Affairs, Senator of the Kingdom, Grandee of Spain. The Right Honorable Lord Pauncefote of Mr. Bienyenido Oliver, Director-General of Preston, Ambassador at Washington. the Ministry of Justice, ex-Delegate of The Right Honorable Sir Edward Baldwin Malet, ex-Ambassador. GREAT BRITAIN. The Right Honorable Sir Edward Fry, mem ber of the Privy Council. Professor John Westlake. ITALY. Count Constantin Nlgra, Senator of the Kingdom. Jean Baptiste Pagano Guarnaschelll, First President of the Court of Cassation at Rome. Count Tornielli Brusatl dl Vergano, Ambas sador to Paris. Commander Joseph ZanardelH, Attorney at Law, Deputy to the National Parliament. Spain to the Conference on Private Inter national Law at The Hague. Dr. Manuel Torres Campos, Professor of In ternational Law at the University of Grenada, associate member of the Institute of International Law. SWEDEN AND NORWAY. Mr. S. R. D. K. d'Olivecrona, member of the International Law Institute, ex-Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the King dom of Sweden, Doctor of Laws and Let ters at Stockholm. Mr. G. Gram, ex-Minister of State of Norway, Governor of the Province of Hamar, Nor way. UNITED STATES. Mr. Benjamin Harrison, ex-President of the United States. JAPAN. Mr. I. Motono, Envoy Extraordinary and Min ister Plenipotentiary at Brussels. Mr. Melville W. Fuller, Chief-Justice of the Mr. H. Willard Denison, Law Officer of the United States. Mr. John W. Griggs, Attorney-General of the United States. Mr. George Gray, United States Circuit Minister for Foreign Affairs at Toklo. NETHERLANDS. Mr. T. M. C. Asser, member of the Council Judge. of State, ex-Professor of the University of First Secretary of the Court J. J. Rochus- Amsterdam. sen. Mr. F. B. Conlnck Llefsting, President of the Second Secretary of the Court Jonkheer W. Court of Cassation. Roell. I. N 193 ARBITRATION ARBUTHNOT AND AMBBISTEB _ TOTT dent of the Swiss Confederation each to THE ADMINISTRATIVE COUNCIL. . arb j trator> The Emperor Rp _ The Administrative Council consists of pointed Baron d'ltazuba, the King chose the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Count Frederick Sclopis, and the President Netherlands and the diplomatic represen- o f the Swiss Confederation appointed tatives at The Hague of the ratifying James Staempfli. J. C. Bancroft Davis powers. was appointed agent of the United States, and Lord Tenterden that of Great Britain. < *Z$S?Tgr t SSSk'cSSt Th several genUemenforn.ed the "Tri- Utrecht and a member of the First Cham- bunal of Arbitration." They assembled at ber of the States-General. Geneva, Switzerland, Dec. 15, 1871, when Count Sclopis was chosen to preside. After The Permanent Court was organized two meetings they adjourned to the mid- Jan. 30, 1901, and on April 14 following e taken from the deck; but soon becoming unconscious from loss of blood, he was taken to the cockpit, and died the next day. The men of the Argus, weakened by too free use of captured wine the night before, did not fight with their usual vigor, yet they handled the vessel admirably. Lieut. W. Howard Allen was left in chief command. Very soon the Argus became so badly in jured that she began to reel. All her braces were shot away, and she could not be kept in position. The Pelican at length crossed her stern, and raked her dreadfully; and at the end of twenty-five minutes from the beginning of the action the Argus became unmanageable. Yet she fought on feebly twenty minutes longer, when she was compelled to sur render, the Sea-Horse, the Pelican's con sort, having hove in sight. The Argus lost, in killed and wounded, twenty-three men; the Pelican lost seven men. Arid Regions. See IRRIGATION. Arista, MARIANO, a Mexican military officer; born at San Luis Potosi, July 26, 1802. Receiving a military education, he served in the Spanish army until June, 1821, when he joined the Mexican revolu tionists. He rose rapidly to the rank of brigadier-general; and in June, 1833, he was made, by SANTA ANA (q. v.) , second in command of the Mexican army. Join ing another leader in an unsuccessful re volt, he was expelled from Mexico, and came to the United States. In 1835 he returned, and was restored to his rank in the army, and made Judge of the Supreme Tribunal of War. He was taken prisoner by the French at Vera Cruz (Dec. 5, 1838), but was soon released on parole. In 1839 he became general-in-chief of the northern division of the army, and re ceived the " Cross of Honor " for defeating insurgents. Though only a military com- mander, he was for some time the real ruler of Mexico when Herrera was Presi dent in 1844. Commanding at the battles of PALO ALTO and RESACA DE LA PALMA (q. v.) in May, 1848, he was appointed Minister of War a month later. Within two years he suppressed seventeen revolts in Mexico; and in 1850 he was elected President of his native country. He re signed the government in July, 1853. Banished from his country by his enemies, he made a voyage to Europe; and died there on the day when Santa Ana, who had usurped his seat, was compelled to fly from the city of Mexico, Aug. 7, 1855. Aristocracy, in a political sense, a gov ernment exercised by the best citizens in the community, which in olden times meant the nobles. The word in time came to be applied to those people in a country who were superior to the rest of the com munity in any marked respect; hence, there were the aristocracies of rank, of intellect, of knowledge, and of high moral feeling. An aristocrat was a member of such a governing class in a nation, or one of especially high rank who was not con nected with actual administration. In the United States there is no recognition of an aristocracy of birth; yet in the early days of the country the social and official lines were naturally very closely drawn, and for a time the public men of the day were divided into the classes of aristocracy and democracy, using the lat ter word in the sense of representing all the people. The word oligarchy was also applied to the aristocracy, and originally meant both a form of government in which the supreme power was vested in the hands of a small exclusive class, and also the members of such a class. In lat ter years the word oligarchy came to be applied to a body of people outside of political life who aspired to or had con trol of the management of a large inter est, such, for instance, as certain leaders in the Congregational Church in the early history of Connecticut. Arizona, a Territory in the extreme southwestern portion of the republic, lying on the border of Mexico. The region was early known to Spanish explorers. As early as 1526, Don Jose" de Vasconcellos, a follower of Cortez, crossed the centre of 199 ARIZONA ARKANSAS this Territory Cowards the Great CaQon, the only pure, original stock. See UNITED and the region was afterwards visited by STATES ARIZONA, in vol. ix. other Spanish explorers. They then, as we do now, found on the river-banks ruina -OB8 op THE TEBE.TOBY.^ of cities which seemed to have existed R. c. McCormlck... TjL867G9 for centuries. These, with regular fortifi- A. P. K. Safford ."..I!...."!!! ! 1870-77 cations, reservoirs, and canals, show that ^J n ^oyt 1878 the country was once inhabited by an en- Frederick iuttte*! ! '. .' ! ' ! ""-8? terprising and cultivated people. There C. Meyer Zulick '.".'.'.'.'. .'!!.'.'.'!!.'.' 1885-89 are found walls of solid masonry, usually Lewis Wolfley 1889-01 two stories in height. It is estimated that gj^ when it formed a part of Mis- region, and some of the northern portion souri Territory. It was erected into a remains unexplored. Population in 1890, Territory in 1819, with its present name, 59,691 ; in 1900, 122,212. an d remained under a territorial govern- To one of the pioneer explorers of the ment until 1836. Its first territorial Arizona region the Zuni Indians gave the legislature met at Arkansas Post in 1820. following account of their origin as pre- On June 15, 1836, Arkansas was admitted served in their traditions. Their legend into the Union as a State, relates that in the beginning a race of In 1861 the people of Arkansas were at- men sprang up out of the earth, as plants tached to the Union, but, unfortunately, arise and come forth in the spring. This the governor and most of the leading poli- race increased until they spread over the ticians of the State were disloyal, and no whole earth, and, after continuing through effort was spared by them to obtain the countless ages, passed away. The earth passage of an ordinance of secession. For then remained without people a great this purpose a State convention of dele- length of time, until at length the sun gates assembled at the capital (Little had compassion on the earth, and sent a Rock) on March 4, 1861. It was composed celestial maiden to repeople the globe, of seventy-five members, of whom forty This young goddess was called Arizonia, were such stanch Unionists that it was the name signifying " Maiden Queen." evident that no ordinance of secession This Arizonia dwelt upon the earth a great could be passed. The friends of seces- length of time in lonely solitude, until at sion then proposed a plan that seemed a certain time, while basking in the sun- fair. A self-constituted committee re- beams, a drop of dew from heaven rested ported to the convention an ordinance pro- upon Arizonia, who in due time blessed the viding for an election to be held on the world with twins, a son and a daughter, first Monday in August, at which the and these became the father and mother legal voters of the State should decide, by of the Zuni Indians, and from this tribe ballot, for " secession " or " co-operation." arose all other races of men, the black, If a majority should appear for " seces- white, olive, and all other clay-colored sion," that fact would be considered in the men being merely apostate offshoots from light of instructions to the convention to this original tribe, and the Zunis being pass an ordinance to that effect; if for 200 ARKANSAS STATE SEAL OF ARKANSAS. "co-operation," then measures were to be on its soil (see PEA RIDGE). On Oct. used, in conjunction with the border 30, 1863, a meeting of loyal citizens, rep- slave States " yet in the Union," for the resenting about settlement of existing difficulties. The twenty coun- next session of the convention was fixed ties, was held for Aug. 17. The proposition seemed so at Fort Smith, fair that it was adopted by unanimous to take meas- vote, and the convention adjourned, sub- ures for reor- ject to the call of its president, who was ganizing the known as a Union man. State govern- Taking advantage of the excitement in- ment. In Janu- cident to the attack on Fort Sumter and ary following, a the President's call for troops, the gov- convention, com- ernor (Rector) and his disloyal associ- posed of repre- ates adopted measures for arraying Ar- sentatives o f kansas among the " seceded States." In forty-two coun- violation of the pledge of the convention ties, assembled at Little Rock, and framed that the whole matter should be deter- a loyal constitution, which was ratified mined by the people in August, the gov- by the people in March, 1864. In April a ernor induced the president of the conven- State government was organized. In 1867 tion to call that body together on May 6. military rule was established in Arkansas, It met on that day. Seventy delegates which, with Mississippi, constituted a mili- were present. An ordinance of secession, tary district. A new constitution was previously prepared, was presented to it framed by a convention at Little Rock, at three o'clock in the afternoon, when the Jan. 7, 1868, and was ratified by a small hall in which the delegates met was majority in March. By act of June 22 crowded by an excited multitude. It was Congress provided for representation in moved that the " yeas " and " nays " on that body, and the administration of the the question should be taken without de- government by the civil authority. Popu- bate. Though the motion was rejected by lationin 1890, 1,125,385; in 1900, 1,311,564. a considerable majority, the president de- See UNITED STATES ARKANSAS, in vol. ix. clared it carried. Then a vote on the or dinance was taken. There seemed to be TERRITORIAL GOVERNORS OF ARKANSAS. a majority against it; but the president James MI1Ier .................. wSSTSs arose and earnestly exhorted the Union- George Izard ................. 1825 " 1829 ists to change their votes, which they did, John Pope ................... 1829 " 1835 as they perceived a determination on the wmi am S. Fulton ............. 1835 " 1836 part of the crowd of spectators to compel STATE GOVERNORS OF ARKANSAS. them to do so. The place (the hall of James S. Conway ............. 1836 to 1840 the House of Representatives) was dense- Archibald Yell ................ 1840 " 1844 ly packed with human beings. As each ^ muel i da J? s ................ 18 , 44 . vote was given ther, was a "solemn still- J^. lo^HEE ! iJIS llll ness, and one Union man after another Ellas N. Conway .............. 1852 " 1860 prefaced his vote by some stirring senti- Henry M. Rector .............. 1860 " 1862 ment in favor of the South. When the J^ltoSft result was announced-69 for the ordi- Powell Clayton' nance, to 1 against it there was tremen- Orzo H. Hadley ............... 1871 dous cheering. The negative vote was Elisha Baxter ... ............. 1872 given by Isaac Murphy" who was the ^TmU^^^. '.'.lift Union governor of Arkansas in 1864. Thos. J. Churchill. . ........ 1881 Meanwhile the State authorities had Jas - H - Berr y ...... ' ........ 1883 seized the national property in the State. f g*f .............. Jffjj . During almost the whole period of the Wm. M.' Fishback . Y. Y.Y ! !.'! .' .Yl893 " 1895 war, National or Confederate troops occu- James P. Clarke ............... 1895 " 1897 pied the State; and one of the most hotly ? a iel w - Jones ............... 1897 " 1901 0-ontested battles of the war was fought JSfST^u! 1 ' .V.'.:: ".Y.Y.i.Y/AloS '' 1909 201 1864 1868 1871 1872 1874 1876 1881 1883 1885 1889 1893 ARKANSAS POST ARMISTEAD UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM THE STATE OF nervous system that he sank under it and ARKANSAS. d ied, Jan. 30, 1793. NAMES. William S. Fulton.. Ambrose H. Sevier. Chester Ashley Solon Borland. ..... Wm. K. Sebastian.. Robert W. Johnston No. of Congress. 24th to 28th 24th 28th 30th 30th 33d 37th, 38th, and 39th Congresses vacant. Alexander McDonald. . . Benj. F. Rice Powell Clayton Stephen W. Dorsey Augustus H. Garland.. James D. Walker James K.Jones James H. Berry James P. Clarke Arkansas Post. 40th to 42d 40th 4'2d 44th 45th 46th 49th 49th 68th 30th 30th 33d 36th 36th Armenians, a Christian people occu- the hi g h plains and valleys of a 43d 45th 46th 49th 49th 67th 1836 to 1844 8 country east of Asia Minor and northeast 1848 " 1853 of Svria > estimated as numbering from 1848 " 1861 3,000,000 to 5,000,000 people. In the 1861 spring of 1894 the Turks claimed that ___ g| the Armenians were preparing to revolt 1868 l 1873 a S ainst the Kurds, and, in fact, several 1871 " 1877 conflicts did take place between these 1877 1885 P e P le ' Turkish troops were sent to aid 1879 " 1885 the Kurds and suppress the Armenians, 1885 " 1903 and then began a long list of massacres 1885 ' - 1*1 , , . . 1903 " which aroused the whole world. On Feb. See HINDMAN, FORT. 20, 1896, CLARA BARTON (q. v.), of the Arkansas, THE, a Confederate " ram," Red Cross Society, sailed from New employed chiefly on the Yazoo River, above York for Armenia, and took charge of the Vicksburg. Farragut sent three armored relief work of this country. While the vessels about the middle of July, 1862, governments seemed powerless to aid the to attack her. Six miles up the stream Armenians, the citizens of this country they found and assailed her; but she re- made generous subscriptions for the suf- pulsed the attack, and took shelter under ferers. Three ship - loads of goods were the batteries at Vicksburg. Another at- sent from this country and over $600,- tempt to capture her was made on July 000 in money. The inaction of the 22 by the Essex (Captain Porter) and the European powers during these outrages Queen of the West. Again the attempt must always be regarded with amaze- was unsuccessful. After the repulse of ment. As to the total number of Ar- the Confederates at Baton Rouge, early menians butchered, only a conjecture in August, Porter, with the Essex and two can be formed. Not until the beginning of other gunboats, went in search of the 1897 did the massacre cease. The total Arkansas, and found her 5 miles above number of victims is generally conceded that city. A sharp engagement ensued, to have been over 50,000. Out of 3,300 The Arkansas became unmanageable, when Armenian villages, it is estimated that her crew ran her against the river-bank, 2,500 were destroyed. Besides the people set her on fire, and she was blown up. killed in massacres, it is estimated that Armand, CHARLES TEFFIN, MARQUIS DE the ravages committed by the Turks LA ROUARIE, French military officer; born caused 75,000 Armenians to die of star- near Rennes, in 1756; came to America vation. Jan. 27, 1896, Congress passed in 1777, and entered the Continental army concurrent resolutions calling upon the as a volunteer. He received the commis- European powers to stop the massacres, sion of colonel, and commanded a small and to secure the Christians the rights corps, to which was attached a company to which they were entitled. The Sultan of cavalry who acted as the police of of Turkey, under great pressure, promised camps. He was an exceedingly active offi- reforms. A vast amount of mission prop- cer, and was highly esteemed by Wash- erty was destroyed, and claims for in- ington. In February, 1780, his corps was demnity were presented by all the powers, incorporated with that of Pulaski, who few of which have been paid. That of the was killed at Savannah a few months be- United States, after uncompromising press- fore. In March, 1783, his services through- ure on the part of its ambassadors, was out the war from 1777 were recognized, settled in December, 1900, by the placing and he was created a brigadier-general, of the order for a war-ship in this country, Returning to France, he took part in the and including the amount of the indemnity Revolution there, and was for a time a in the contract price, prisoner in the Bastile. The execution Armistead, GEORGE, military officer; of Louis XVI. gave such a shock to his born in New Market, Caroline co., Va., 202 ARMISTEAD ARMSTRONG THE ARMISTEAD VASE. April 10, 1780; entered the army as second Maximilian Godefroy, in memory of all lieutenant in 1799. In 1813 he held the the defenders of Baltimore, rank of major in the 3d Artillery, and was distinguished at the capture of Fort George. His gallant defence of Fort McHenry in Sep tember, 1814, won for him immortal honors. He had five brothers in the military service in the second war for in dependence three in the regular army and two in the militia ser vice. Because of his bravery in defending Baltimore, he was bre- vetted a lieutenant- colonel; and the citi zens presented him with an elegant silver service in the form of a vase fashioned like a bombshell, with gob lets and salver. After his death at Armistead, LEWIS ADDISON, military Baltimore, April 25, 1818, a fine marble officer; born in Newbern, N. C., Feb. 18, 1817; entered the United States army as lieutenant in 1839; served throughout the Mexican War; resigned in 1861 to join the Confederate army. He was mortally wounded while leading his brigade in Pickett's charge at Gettysburg, and died in the Federal hospital, July 3, 1863. Armour, PHILIP DANFORTH, philan thropist; born in Stockbridge, N. Y., May 16, 1832; received a public school educa tion. In 1852-56 he was a miner in Cali fornia; in 1856-63 engaged in the commis sion business in Milwaukee, Wis. In 1892 he built the Armour Institute of Technol ogy in Chicago at a cost of $1,500,000, and in the same year endowed it with $1,400,- 000; in 1898 he increased this endowment by $500,000; and in 1899 made another addition of $750,000. He died in Chicago, Jan. 6, 1901. Armstrong, JOHN, military officer; born in Carlisle, Pa., Nov. 25, 1758. While a student at Princeton, in 1775, he became a volunteer in Potter's Pennsylvania regi ment, and was soon afterwards made an aide-de-camp to General Mercer. He was afterwards placed on the staff of General monument was erected there to his GEOEGE ARMISTEAD. memory, and the grateful citizens also erected a large monument, designed by Gates, and remained so from the begin 203 ARMSTRONG ABMY ning of that officer's campaign against cincts of the old Livingston Manor on the Burgoyne until the end of the war, hav- Hudson, and devoted himself to agricult- ing the rank of major. Holding a facile ure. He was a member of the national pen, he was employed to write the famous Senate from 1800 to 1804, and became United States minister at the French Court in the latter year, succeeding his brother- in-law, Chancellor Livingston. He was commissioned a brigadier-general in July, 1812, and in January, 1813, became Secre tary of War in the cabinet of President Madison. His lack of success in the opera tions against Canada, and at the attack upon a-nd capture of Washington in 1814, made him so unpopular that he resigned and retired to private life. He died at Red Hook, N. Y., April 1, 1843. General Armstrong wrote Notes on the War of 1812, and Lives of Generals Montgomery and Wayne for 8 parks' s American Biog raphy; also a Review of Wilkinson's Memoirs, and treatises on agriculture and gardening. Armstrong, SAMUEL CHAPMAN, founder of the Hampton Normal and Industrial In stitute; born in Wailuku, Hawaii, in 1839. Newburgh Addresses. They were power- He was educated in Oahu College, Hono- fully and eloquently written. After the lulu, and Williams College (U. S.), where war he was successively Secretary of State he was graduated in 1862; fought with dis- and Adjutant-General of Pennsylvania; tinction in the Civil War, and afterwards and in 1784 he conducted operations became interested in the education of poor against the settlers in the Wyoming Val- colored people; and founded Hampton ley. The Continental Congress in 1787 Institute in 1868. After ten years of appointed him one of the judges for the successful administration, the government Northwestern Territory, but he declined, arranged to have Indian children admitted Two years later he married a sister of in 1878, and since that time the school Chancellor Livingston, removed to New has successfully taught members of both "iork, purchased a farm within the pre- races. He died in 1893. JOHN ARMSTRONG. ABMY Army. The military system of the infantry, cavalry, and artillery. An act United States is based upon volunteer was passed early in 1795 which empow- armies, raised as occasion may require, ered the President, in case of invasion, or A small standing army is kept up for the imminent danger thereof, to call forth support of good order and for safety the militia of the State or States most against incursions of barbarians on the convenient to the place of danger. He borders of expanding settlements; and a was also empowered, in case of insurrec- well-regulated militia, under the control tion, or when the laws of the United of the respective States, forms an ample States should be opposed by a combina- body of citizen soldiery. The first act for tion too powerful to be suppressed by the the enrolment in the militia of all able- ordinary course of judicial proceedings, bodied white men of eighteen and under to call out the militia. The Civil War forty -five years of age was passed by gave full examples of the working of our Congress in 1792. This act provided military system. When combinations in that in the organization there should be the slave States became too powerful for 204 ABMY the civil authorities to oppose, the Presi- DIVISION OF THE PHILIPPINES. Consisting dent of the United States called for 75,000 f * ne Departments of Northern Luzon, militia (designating the number required SSXJlTL'tl^^rbScnSlS irom each State) to suppress them. As States by Spain ; headquarters, Manila, P. I. soon as the various regiments from the Commander, Maj.-Gen. Arthur Mac Arthur. States were mustered into the service of . DEPARTMENT OF NORTHERN LUZON In- JT TT ., T o^ i eludes all that part of the Island of Luzon the United States they were no longer nor th of Laguna de Bay and the province of under the control of their respective State Laguna, the same being the provinces of governments, but of that of the national Abra ' Bontoc, Benguet, Bataan, Bulacan, Ca- government^* were assigned to brigades, gj? ^^^^^^fn^ ^ divisions, corps, and armies, according to Nueva Vizcaya, Nueva Ecija, all that portion the requirements of the service. They of Manila north of the Pasig River, Principe, were then entirely supported by the na- Bj^JI'St^^ tional government. All their general and Archipelago north of Manila Bay and the staff officers were commissioned by the provinces above named ; headquarters, Manila, President, and no officers, after having p - * Commander, Maj.-Gen. Lloyd Wheaton. been mustered into the service of the Unit- e.^^Snd^f ST^aT T ed States, could be dismissed by the State maining part of the Island of Luzon, the same authorities. During the Civil War, from including the following provinces : Albay, Ba- first to last, 2,690,401 men, including re- ^?^t~^ SSfW'^ mforcements, were enrolled, equipped, and and Tayabas, and all islands of the Philip- organized into armies. The regular army pine Archipelago which lie south of the south during that war was raised to some- ?e of the Department of Northern Luzon, as thing over 50,000 men, but was reduced, ^o, andnS o^^^l^^l at its close, to 30,000 men. The standing wardly through the West Pass of Apo to the army in 1890 numbered 25,220 men, twelfth parallel of north latitude; thence and was mainlv used in ffarrisoninff the easterl y alon S said parallel to 124 10' east of ,onmg tne Greenwlch> but i ncluding tne entire Island of permanent fortifications, protecting the Masbate; thence northerly through San Ber- routes of commerce across the conti- nardino Straits ; headquarters, Manila, P. I. nent, and preserving order among the Commander, Maj.-Gen. John C. Bates. T ,. , ., f ,, -./r- DEPARTMENT OF THE VISAYAS. Includes Indian tribes west of the Mississippi all islands (except Ig , and of gamar) goutn Qf River. the southern line of the Department of South- The Army in 1901. The organization ern Luzon and east of long. 121 45' east of nf the rpcrnl*r nrmv nn thp nprmaTipTit Greenwich and north of the ninth parallel of I latitude, excepting the Island of Mindanao and peace basis of one soldier to each 1,000 all is i a nds east of the Straits of Surigao ; of population, under the act of Congress headquarters, Iloilo, P. I. Commander, Brig.- of Feb. 2, 1901, was announced in the Gen - Robert P. Hughes. general order of Mav 13 1901- DEPARTMENT OF MINDANAO AND JOLO. In- .1 may ia, ju cludeg aH the remaining islands of the Philip. Cavalry, 15 regiments ( 12 troops of 85 plne Archipelago ; headquarters, Zamboanga, men), with band, etc.; total, 15,840. P. I. Commander, Brig.-Gen. William A. Kobbe". Artillery, 126 companies of 109 men DEPARTMENT OF ALASKA Territory of , OA u f+ ' f 1 K(\ -^ Alaska ; headquarters, Fort St. Michael, Alas- each; 30 batteries of 160 men each; with fca Commander, Brig.-Gen. George M. Ran- bands, etc.; total, 18,862. dall. Infantry, 30 regiments (12 companies DEPARTMENT OF CALIFORNIA. States of ~f IC\A \ uik iw*.;i * *^i QQ California and Nevada, the Hawaiian Islands of 104 men), with bands, etc.; total, 38,- ftnd their dependencies; headquarters, San Francisco, Cal. Commander, Maj.-Gen. Will- Engineers, 3 battalions (4 companies of iam R. Shatter. 104. TTIPTI^ with haTiflR pfn total 1 9R2 DEPARTMENT OF THE COLORADO. States Of men), wit M, etc.; total, i,zz. Wyoming (exc ept so much thereof as is em- staff department, signal corps, etc., braced in the Yellowstone National Park), 2,783. Colorado, and Utah, and the Territories of Total number of enlisted men, 77,287. Arizona and New Mexico ; headquarters, Den- Under the act of March 4, 1899, mill- ^^ Commander ' Brig.-Gen. Henry C. tary divisions and departments were re- DEPARTMENT OF THE COLUMBIA. States of organized as follows: Washington, Oregon, Idaho (except so much of the latter as Is embraced in the Yellow- HEADQUARTBRS OF THB ARMY. Commander? stone National Park) ; headquarters, Van- Lient.-Gen. Nelson A. Miles, Washington, D. C. couver Barracks, Wash. Commander, * 205 C ARMY DEPARTMENT OF CUBA. Consisting of the provinces of the Island of Cuba; headquar ters, Havana, Cuba. Commander, Brig,-Gen. Leonard Wood. DBPABTMENT OF DAKOTA. States of Minne sota, North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, and so much of Wyoming and Idaho as is embraced in the Yellowstone National Park ; headquarters, St. Paul, Minn. Commander, Brig.-Gen. James F. Wade. DEPARTMENT OF THE EAST. New England States, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylva nia, Delaware, Maryland, District of Co lumbia, West Virginia, Virginia, North Caro lina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Ala bama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, and District of Porto Rico, embracing Porto Rico and ad jacent islands ; headquarters, Governor's Isl and, N. Y. Commander, Maj.-Gen. John R. Brooke. DEPARTMBNT OF THE LAKES. States of Wisconsin, Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee ; headquarters, Chicago, 111. Commander, Maj.-Gen. Elwell S. Otis. DEPARTMENT OF THE MISSOURI. States of Iowa, Nebraska, Missouri, Kansas, and Ar kansas, the Indian Territory, and the Terri tory of Oklahoma ; headquarters, Omaha, Neb. Commander, Brig.-Gen. Fitzhugh Lee. DEPARTMENT OF TEXAS. State of Texas ; headquarters, San Antonio, Tex. Command er, Col. Chambers McKibbin, 12th Infantry. An act of Congress of June 6, 1900, re organized the regular army and re-estab lished the grade of lieutenant-general by the following provision : " That the senior major-general of the line commanding the army shall have the rank, pay, and allow ances of a lieutenant-general." In his annual message to Congress, Dec. 3, 1900, President McKinley urged a provision for increasing the army in order to maintain its strength after June 30, 1901, when it would be reduced according to the act of March 4, 1899. He detailed the employ ment of the various branches of the army, and asked for authority to increase the total force to 100,000 men, as was pro vided in the temporary act of 1899. A bill to carry out the President's recom mendation was introduced in Congress; was adopted by the Senate, where it origi nated, Jan. 18, 1901 ; and the House adopt ed the conference report on the bill Jan. 25, following. Under this bill the Presi dent, on Feb. 5, sent to the Senate the fol lowing nominations for the reorganized army: TO BE LIEUTENANT-GENERAL. Maj.-Gen. Nelson A. Miles. TO BE MAJOR-OBNHJRAL3. Brig.-Gen. Samuel B. M. Young, TJ. 8. A. Col. Adna R. Chaffee, 8th Cavalry, U. S. A, ( Major-General, U. S. V.). Brig.-Gen. Arthur MacArthur, U. S. A. (Major-General, U. S. V.). TO BE BRIGADIER-GENERALS. Col. John C. Bates, 2d Infantry, U. S. A, (Major-General U. S. V.). Col. Lloyd Wheaton, 7th Infantry, U. S. A. (Major-General, U. S. V.). Col. George W. Davis, 23d Infantry (Brig adier-General, U. S. V.). Col. Theodore Schwan, Assistant Adjutant- General, U. S. A. (Brigadier -General, U. S. V.). Col. Samuel S. Sumner, 6th Cavalry, U. S. A. Capt. Leonard Wood, Assistant Surgeon, U. S. A. (Major-General, U. S. V.). Col. Robert H. Hall, 4th Infantry, U. S. A. (Brigadier-General, U. S. V.). Col. Robert P. Hughes, Inspector-General, U. S. A. (Brigadier-General, U. S. V.). Col. George M. Randall, 8th Infantry, U. S. A. (Brigadier-General, U. S. V.). Maj. William A. Kobbe, 3d Artillery, U. S. A. (Brigadier-General, U. S. V.). Brig.-Gen. Frederick D. Grant, U. S. V. Capt. J. Franklin Bell, 7th Cavalry, U. S. A. (Brigadier-General, U. S. V.). Continental Army. On the morning after the affair at Lexington and Con cord (April 20, 1775), the Massachusetts Committee of Safety sent a circular letter to all the towns in the province, saying: " We conjure you, by all that is dear, by all that is sacred ; we beg and entreat you, as you will answer it to your country, to your consciences, and, above all, to God himself, that you will hasten and arrange, by all possible means, the enlistment of men to form the army, and send them forward to headquarters at Cambridge with that expedition which the vast im portance and instant urgency of the affair demands." This call was answered by many people before it reached them. It arose spontaneously out of the depths of their own patriotic hearts. The field, the workshop, the counter, the desk, and even the pulpit, yielded their tenants, who hur ried towards Boston. Many did not wait to change their clothes. They took with them neither money nor food, intent only upon having their firelocks in order. The women on the way opened wide their doors and hearts for the refreshment and en couragement of the patriotic volunteers, and very soon all New England was rep resented at Cambridge in a motley host of full 20,000 men. On the afternoon of the 20th (April) Gen. Artemas Ward as sumed the chief command of the gathering 206 ARMY rolunteers. The Provincial Congress Washington was then a little past forty- labored night and day to provide for their three years of age. He left Philadelphia organization and support. The second for Cambridge a week later, where he ar- Continental Congress convened at Phila- rived on July 2; and at about nine o'clock delphia (May 10), and on June 7, in a on the morning of the 3d, standing in the resolution for a general fast, had spoken shade of an elm-tree in Cambridge, he for the first time of " the twelve united formally assumed the command of the colonies." Gen. Artemas Ward, of Massa- army, then numbering about 16,000 men, chusetts, the senior in command of the all New-Englanders. The following were provincial militia, assumed the chief com- appointed his assistants: Artemas Ward, mand of the volunteers who gathered near Charles Lee, Philip Schuyler, and Israel Boston after the skirmishes at Lexington Putnam, major-generals; and Seth Pome- and Concord. He was good, but aged, and roy, Richard Montgomery, David Wooster, not possessed of sufficient military ability William Heath, Joseph Spencer, John or personal activity to make an energetic Thomas, John Sullivan, and Nathaniel commander of a large army. The Provin- Greene, brigadier-generals. Horatio Gates cial Congress of Massachusetts appre- was appointed as adjutant-general. The hended the melting-away of the army pay of a major-general was fixed at $166 gathered at Cambridge unless a more effi- a month; of a brigadier-general, $125; of cient leader might be found, and, to avoid the adjutant-general, $125; commissary- giving offence, they asked the Continental general of stores a-nd provisions, $80; Congress to assume the regulation and di- quartermaster-general, $80; deputy quar- rection of that army. Joseph Warren, in termaster-general, $40; paymaster-general, a private letter to Samuel Adams, wrote $100; deputy paymaster-general, $50; that the request was to be interpreted as chief - engineer, $60 ; assistant engineer, a desire for the appointment of a new $20; aide-de-camp, $33; secretary to the chief commander of all the troops that general, $66; secretary to a major-general, might be raised. Just then the news ar- $33; commissary of musters, $40. Wash- rived of the approach of reinforcements irjgton found an undisciplined force, and for Gage, under Generals Clinton, Howe, immediately took measures to bring order and Burgoyne, and Congress felt the im- out of confusion. Congress had provided portance of acting promptly. At the sug- for one adjutant-general, one quartermas- gestion of John Adams, the army was ter-general and a deputy, one commissary- adopted as a continental one; and, at the general, one paymaster-general and a suggestion of the New England delegation, deputy, one chief -engineer and two assist- Thomas Johnson, of Maryland, nominated ants of the grand army, and an engineer George Washington, of Virginia, for com- and two assistants for the army in a mander-in-chief of the armies of the in- separate department; three aides-de-camp, choate republic. He was elected (June 15, a secretary to the general and to the ma- 1775) by unanimous vote, and on the jor-generals, and a commissary of musters, following morning John Hancock, presi- Joseph Trumbull, son of the governor of dent of Congress, officially announced to Connecticut, was appointed commissary- Washington his appointment. The Vir- general; Thomas Mifflin, quartermaster- ginia colonel arose and, in a brief and general ; and Joseph Reed, of Philadelphia, modest speech, formally accepted the was chosen by Washington to the impor- office. After expressing doubts of his tant post of secretary to the commander- ability to perform the duties satisfac- in-chief. torily, he said, " As to pay, sir, I beg Soon after Washington took command leave to assure the Congress that, as no of the army the legislature of Massa- pecuniary consideration could have tempt- clmsetts and the governor of Connecticut ed me to accept the arduous employment at applied to him for detachments from the the expense of my domestic ease and hap- army for the protection of points on their piness, I do not wish to make any profit respective sea-coasts exposed to predatory from it. I will keep an exact account of attacks from British cruisers. Wash- my expenses. Those, I doubt not, they ington, in a letter dated July 31, 1775, an- will discharge, and that is all I desire." swered these appeals with a refusal, after 207 ABMY giving satisfactory reasons for his de- miah Wadsworth, of Connecticut, com- cision. He pointed out the danger to be missary-general; Colonel Scammel, of Ne\v apprehended by scattering the army in de- Hampshire, adjutant-general; and Baron tachments. He said the matter had been de Steuben, a Prussian officer, inspector- debated in Congress, and that they had general. To allay discontents in the army come to the wise conclusion that each because of the great arrearages of the province should defend itself from small soldiers' pay, auditors were appointed to and particular depredations. It was then adjust all accounts; and each soldier who established as a rule, that attacks of the should serve until the end of the war was enemy at isolated points along the coast promised a gratuity of $80. The officers '*" must be repelled by the militia in the were promised half-pay for seven years vicinity," except when the Continental from the conclusion of peace, army was in a condition to make detach- In the spring of 1779, on the report of ments without jeoparding the common a committee of Congress, that body pro- cause, ceeded to a new organization of the army. In October, 1775, a committee of Con- Four regiments of cavalry and artillery, gress visited the camp at Cambridge, and, hitherto independent establishments raised in consultation with Washington and at large, were now credited towards the committees of the New England colonies, quota of the States in which they had been agreed upon a plan for the reorganization enlisted. The State quotas were reduced of the besieging army. It was to consist to eighty battalions: Massachusetts to of twenty-six regiments, besides riflemen furnish fifteen; Virginia and Pennsyl- and artillery. Massachusetts was to fur- vania, eleven each ; Connecticut and Mary- nish sixteen; Connecticut, five; New land, eight each; the two Carolinas, six Hampshire, three; and Rhode Island, two each; New York, five; New Hampshire in all about 20,000 men ; the officers to and New Jersey, three each ; Rhode Island, be selected out of those already in the two; and Delaware and Georgia, one each, service. It was easier to plan an army Congress allowed $200 bounty for each than to create one. According to a return recruit, and the States made large addi- submitted to Congress, the Continental tional offers; but the real amount was army, on the day when the Declaration of small, for at that time the Continental Independence was adopted, consisted of paper money had greatly depreciated. It 7,754 men present fit for duty, including was found necessary to replenish the reg- one regiment of artillery. Their arms iments by drafts from the militia. The were in a wretched condition. Of nearly whole force of the American army, ex- 1,400 muskets, the firelocks were bad; elusive of a few troops in the Southern de- more than 800 had none at all; and 3,827 partment, consisted, late in the spring of more than half the whole number of 1779, of only about 8,600 effective men. infantry had no bayonets. Of the militia At that time the British had 11,000 at who had been called for, only 800 had New York and 4,000 or 5,000 at Newport, joined the camp. With this force Wash- besides a considerable force in the South, ington was expected to defend an extended In 1780 a committee of Congress, of which line of territory against an army of General Schuyler was chairman, were about 30,000 men. long in camp, maturing, with Washing- During the encampment at Valley Forge ton, a plan for another reorganization of a committee of Congress spent some time the army. Congress agreed to the plan, with Washington in arranging a plan for The remains of sixteen additional battal- the reorganization of the army. By it ions were to be disbanded, and the men each battalion of foot, officers included, distributed to the State lines. The army was to consist of 582 men, arranged in was to consist of fifty regiments of foot, nine companies ; the battalion of horse and including Hazen's, four regiments of ar- artillery to be one-third smaller. This tillery, and one of artificers, with two would have given the army 60,000 men; partisan corps under Annard and Lee. but, in reality, it never counted more than There were to be four other legionary half that number. General Greene was corps, two- thirds horse and one- third foot appointed quartermaster general ; Jere- All new enlistments were to be "for the 208 ABMY war." The officers thrown out by this new arrangement were to be entitled to half-pay for life. The same was promised to all officers who should serve to the end of the war. The army, as so arranged, would consist of 36.000 men; never half that number were in the field. At the beginning of 1781 the sufferings of the Continental soldiers for want of food and clothing was almost unbearable, and there were signs of a prevailing mutinous spirit. Washington knew well their intense suffering and equally intense patriotism, and deeply commiserated their condition. He knew they could be trusted to the last moment, and deprecated the conduct of those who suspected a muti nous spirit in the whole army, and mani fested their distrust. When General Heath, with his suspicions alert, employed spies to watch for and report mutinous expressions, Washington wrote to him: " To seem to draw into question the fidelity and firmness of the soldiers, or even to express a doubt of their obedience, may occasion such a relaxation of dis cipline as would not otherwise exist." The condition of the army was most wretched. A committee of Congress reported that it had been " unpaid for five months ; that it seldom had more than six days' provisions in advance, and was on several occasions, for sundry successive days, without meat; that the medical department had neither sugar, coffee, tea, chocolate, wine, nor spirituous liquors of any kind; and that every department of the army was with out money, and had not even the shadow of credit left." The clothing of the sol diers was in tatters, and distress of mind and body prevailed everywhere in the ser vice. No wonder that some of the soldiers, who believed that their term of service had expired, mutinied, and marched towards Philadelphia to demand redress from the Congress. It was expected that the immediate dis banding of the army would follow the proclamation of peace. A definitive treaty had not yet been negotiated, and British troops still held New York City. It would not be safe, under such circumstances, to actually disband the army. The Congress therefore decided that the engagements of men enlisted for the war were binding till the treaty of peace was definitely ratified. On the recommendation of Washington orders were issued for granting furloughs or discharges at the discretion of the com- mander-in-chief. Greene was authorized to grant furloughs for North Carolina troops; and the lines of Maryland and Pennsylvania serving under him were or dered to march for their respective States. Three months' pay was to be furnished the furloughed soldiers. They were also to keep their arms and accoutrements as an extra allowance. The furloughs amount ed to discharges. Few of the recipients ever returned, and so a great portion of the army was gradually disbanded before the definitive treaty was concluded in Sep tember. A remnant of the Continental army remained at West Point under Knox until the British evacuated New York (Nov. 25, 1783). After that event they all received their discharge. The following shows the number oif troops furnished by each State for the Continental army: New Hampshire 12,947 Massachusetts 67,907 Rhode Island 5,908 Connecticut 31,939 New York 17,781 New Jersey 10,726 Pennsylvania 25,678 Delaware 2,386 Maryland 13,912 Virginia 26,678 North Carolina 7,263 South Carolina 6,417 Georgia 2,679 Total 231,771 The Army in 1808-15. Jefferson'! policy had always been to keep the army and navy as small and inexpensive as pos sible. The army was reduced tj a mer frontier guard against the Indians. In 1808 the aspect of international affairs was such as to demand an increase of the military strength of the republic, and the President asked Congress to augment the number and efficiency of the regular army. They did so, though the measure was strongly opposed by the Federalists. There was a rising war-spirit in the land. A bill to raise seven new regiments was passed by a vote in the House of ninety- eight to sixteen. Other provisions for war followed. The sum of $1,000,000 was placed at the disposal of the President for the erection of coast and harbor de- 20fl ARMY fences. Another sum of $300,000 was ap- termaster-general (April 3), and Alexan propriated for the purchase of arms, and der Smyth, of Virginia, was made in- $150,000 for saltpetre to make gunpowder, specter-general (March 30) each bearing The President was also authorized to call the commission of a brigadier-general, upon the governors of the several States Thomas Gushing, of Massachusetts, was to form an army, in the aggregate, of appointed adjutant-general with the rank 100,000 militia, to be immediately organ- of brigadier-general. James Wilkinson, of ized, equipped, and " held in readiness to Maryland, the senior brigadier-general in march at a moment's warning " when the army, was sent to New Orleans to re called for by the chief magistrate in lieve Wade Hampton (then a brigadier- other words, 100,000 minute-men. The general), who was a meritorious subaltern President was authorized to construct ar- officer in South Carolina during the Revo- senals and armories at his discretion ; and lution. Alexander Macomb of the en- $200,000 were placed at his disposal for gineers one of the first graduates of the providing equipments for the whole body of United States Military Academy was pro- the militia of the republic. About $1,000,- moted to colonel, and Winfield Scott, Ed- 000 were appropriated to pay the first ward Pendleton Gaines, and Eleazer W. year's expenses of the seven new regiments. Ripley were commissioned colonels. Altogether the government appropriated in In the summer of 1812, Gen. Joseph 1808 about $5,000,000 for war purposes. Bloomfield was sent to Lake Champlain Efforts to increase the navy failed. Men with several regiments, and on September were needed for the additional 188 gun- 1 he had gathered a-t Plattsburg about boats, the construction of which was au- 8,000 men regulars, volunteers, and thorized in December, 1807. Nothing was militia besides small advanced parties at done until January, 1809, when the Presi- Chazy and Champlain. General Dearborn dent was authorized to equip three frigates took direct command of this army soon and a sloop-of-war. afterwards, and about the middle of No- In organizing the military forces for vember he made an unsuccessful attempt war in 1812 the following appointments to invade Canada. No other special mili- were made: Henry Dearborn, a soldier tary movements occurred in that quarter of the Revolution, collector of the port until the next year. Gen. Wade Hampton of Boston, late Secretary of War, and then succeeded Bloomfield in command on Lake sixty years of age, was appointed (Febru- Champlain, and in the summer of 1813 ary, 1812) first major-general, or acting he was at the head of 4,000 men, with his commander-in-chief of the armies in the headquarters at Burlington, Vt. This field, having the Northern Department force composed the right wing of the under his immediate control. Thomas Army of the North, of which General Pinckney, of South Carolina, also a soldier Wilkinson was commander-in-chief. There of the Revolution, was appointed (March, was such personal enmity between these 1812) second major-general, and placed in two commanders that the public service command of the Southern Department, was greatly injured thereby. The Secre- Joseph Bloomfield (governor of New Jer- tary of War (Armstrong) was preparing sey), James Winchester (of Tennessee), to invade Canada by way of the St. Law- John P. Boyd (of Massachusetts), and rence, and, fearing the effects of this en- William Hull (then governor of the Ter- mity, transferred the headquarters of the ritory of Michigan) were commissioned War Department to Sackett's Harbor, at (April 8, 1812) brigadier-generals. The the east end of Lake Ontario, that he might same commission was given (June) to promote harmony between these testy old Thomas Flournoy, of Georgia. John Arm- generals. In arranging for the expedition strong, of New York, was also commis- down the St. Lawrence, Armstrong direct- sioned (July 4) a brigadier-general to ed Hampton to penetrate Canada tow- fill a vacancy caused by the recent death ards Montreal by way of the Sorel River, of Gen. Peter Gansevoort. This was soon Instead of obeying the order, Hampton followed (July 8) by a like commission marched his troops to the Chateaugay for John Chandler, of Maine. Morgan River, and at Chateaugay Four Corners Lewis, of New York, was appointed quar- he tarried twenty-six days awaiting orders. 210 ARMY Finally he was ordered to descend the fused to meet Wilkinson at St. Regis, as Chateaugay and meet Wilkinson at its the latter had requested after the battle mouth. He moved forward late in Oc- at Chrysler's Field. Wilkinson directed tober, when he was confronted by Lieu- Hampton to join the camp at French tenant-Colonel De Salaberry, near the Mills. This order, also, he disobeyed, and junction of Outard Creek and the Cha- retired to Plattsburg with his army of teaugay, where Hampton encamped and 4,000 men. was overtaken by his artillery. De Sala- Army of Occupation, 1845-46. When berry was encamped with a force about the annexation of Texas caused warlike 1,000 strong, and Sir George Prevost and preparations in Mexico, Gen. Zachary General De Watteville were within bugle- Taylor was ordered to proceed to a point call. Hampton resolved to dislodge De near the frontier between the two coun- Salaberry, and sent a force under Col. tries to defend Texas from invasion. Tay- Eobert Purdy on the evening of Oct. 25 to lor was then in command of the Depart- force a ford and fall upon the British rear, ment of the Southwest. In a letter of in- Purdy lost his way in a hemlock swamp, structions from the War Department, he Meanwhile Hampton put 3,500 of his was told, " Texas must be protected from men in motion under Gen. George Izard, hostile invasion; and for that purpose who moved to the attack at two o'clock in you will, of course, employ to the utmost the afternoon. De Salaberry came out extent all the means you possess or can with a- few Canadians and Indians, but command." He at once repaired to New finding overwhelming numbers in front of Orleans with 1,500 men (July, 1845), him he fell back to his intrenched camp, where he embarked, and early in August Firing was now heard on the other side of arrived at the island of St. Josephs on the river. Purdy, who had neglected to the Texan coast, whence he sailed for post pickets, had been surprised, his Corpus Christi, near the mouth of the troops flying to the river. Several of his Nueces, where he established his head- officers and men swam across, and bore quarters. There he was soon afterwards alarming news of a heavy force approach- reinforced by seven companies of infan- ing. Instead of such a force approach- try under Major Brown and two volunteer ing, those who had attacked Purdy had companies under Major Gaily. With these fled at the first fire ; and so the belligerents forces he remained at Corpus Christi un- were in the ridiculous predicament of til the next spring, when the camp at that running away from each other. De Sala- place was broken up (March 8, 1846), and berry now tried a clever trick. He posted the Army of Occupation proceeded to buglers at some distance from each other, Point Isabel, nearer the Rio Grande, and when some concealed provincial mi- When approaching Point Isabel, Taylor litia> opened fire almost upon Hampton's was met by a deputation of citizens, flanks, the buglers sounded a charge, and presented with a protest, signed Hampton was alarmed, for the position by the Prefect of the Northern Dis- of the buglers indicated an extensive trict of the Department of Tamau- Eritish line, and he supposed a heavy force lipas, against the presence of his army, was about to fall upon his front and flank. But he pressed forward to Point Isa- He immediately sounded a> retreat and bel, whence, with a larger portion of withdrew to his old quarters at Chateau- his army, he proceeded to the Rio Grande gay Four Corners, annoyed all the way by opposite Matamoras, arriving there on the fire of Canadian militia. There this March 29. There he began the erection inglorious campaign ended. The Ameri- of defensive works; and so the Army of cans lost in the affair fifteen killed and Occupation in Texas assumed a> hostile twenty-three wounded. The British lost attitude towards the Mexicans. See in killed, wounded, and missing, twenty- MEXICO, WAR WITH. five. "No officer," said a distinguished Army in the Civil War. When Mr. general of the United States army, "who Lincoln entered upon the duties of Presi- had any regard for his reputation, would dent (March 4, 1861) the total regular voluntarily acknowledge himself as hav- force of the army was 16,000 men, and ing been engaged in it." Hampton re- these were principally in the Western 211 ARMY States and Territories, guarding the fron- tier settlerg against the Indians. The forts and arsenals on the seaboard, espe- daily within the slave States, were so weakly manned, or not manned at all, that they became an easy prey to the Confederates. The consequence was that they were seized, and when the new ad- ministration came into power, of all the fortifications within the slave States only Fort Monroe, in Virginia, and Forts Jeffer- son, Taylor, and Pickens, on the Gulf coast, remained in possession of the government, The seized forts were sixteen in number, They had cost the government about $6,000,000, and had an aggregate of 1,226 guns. All the arsenals in the cotton-grow' ing States had been seized. Twiggs had surrendered a portion of the National army in Texas. The army had been put so far out of reach, and the forts and ar- senals in the North had been so stripped of defenders, by Floyd, Buchanan's Secre- tary of War, that the government was threatened with sudden paralysis. On the day after the battle of BULL RUN (q. v.), General McClellan, then in western Virginia, was summoned to Washington and placed in charge of the shattered army there. The Departments of Washington and of Northeastern Virginia were ere- ated and placed under the command of McClellan. The Department of the Shen- andoah was also created, and Gen. N. P. Banks was placed in command of it, re- lieving Major-General Patterson. Me- Clellan turned over the command of the troops in western Virginia to General Rosecrans, and on July 27 he entered with zeal upon the duty of reorganizing the army in the vicinity of the national capi- tal. He brought to the service youth, a spotless moral character, robust health, untiring industry, a good theoretical military education, the prestige of recent success, and the unlimited confidence of the loyal people. Having laid a broad moral foundation for an efficient army or- ganization, he proceeded with skill and vigor to mould his material into perfect symmetry. So energetically was this done that at the end of fifty days an army of at least 100,000 men, well organized, officered, equipped, and disciplined, were in and around Washington. At that time the entire force in his department included 152,000 soldiers. By March 1, 1862, that number was so increased that when, at that time, the forces were put in motion, having been thoroughly drilled and dis- ciplined, the grand total of the army was 222,000, of which number about 30,000 were sick or absent. It was called the " Grand Army of the Potomac." General McClellan left Washington for Fort Monroe, April 1, 1862, with the greater part of the Army of the Potomac, leaving for the defence of the capital and other service more remote 75,000. Very soon there were 120,000 men at FortMon- roe, exclusive of the forces of General Wool, the commander there. A large por- tion of these moved up the Peninsula in two columns, one, under Gen. S. P. Heint- zelman, marching near the York River; the other, under General Keyes, near the James River. A comparatively small Con- federate force, under Gen. J. B. Magruder, formed a fortified line across the Penin- sula in the pathway of the Nationals. The left of this line was at Yorktown, and the right on the Warwick River, that falls into the James. In front of this line McClellan's continually augmenting army remained a month, engaged in the tedious operations of a regular siege, under the direction of Gen. Fitz-John Porter, skir- mishing frequently, and, on one occasion, making a reconnoissance in force that was disastrous to the Nationals. On May 3, Magruder, who had resorted to all sorts of tricks to deceive and mislead the Na- tionals, wrote to Cooper, of the Confeder- ate War Department: " Thus, with 5,000 men, exclusive of the garrison, we stopped and held in check over 100,000 of the enemy." McClellan now began those ap- preaches towards Richmond which result- ed in the Seven Days' battles near that city. When the battle of FREDERTCKSBTJRG (q. v.) had ended, there was much feeling against General Burnside on the part of the officers of the Army of the Potomac who had participated in it. An order re- ceived by Burnside, just as he was pre- paring for other active operations, from the President (Dec. 30, 1862), directing him not to enter upon further operations without his (the President's) knowledge, satisfied him that enemies in his own army were at work against him. Burnside hast- 212 ARMY ened to Washington for an explanation, when he learned that general officers of his army had declared that such was the feeling among the troops against him that the safety of the army would be imperilled by a movement under his direction. He believed there was a secret conspiracy among the officers for his removal. He re turned to the army, determined to do what he might to retrieve the disaster at Fredericksburg, but was soon induced to return to Washington, bearing a general order for the instant dismissal or relief from duty of several of the generals of the Army of the Potomac, whom he charged with " fomenting discontent in the army." Generals Hooker, Brooks, and Newton were designated for instant dis missal; and Generals Franklin, W. F. Smith, Cochran, and Ferrero, and Lieut.- Col. J. H. Taylor were to be relieved from duty in that army. Generals Franklin and Smith had written a joint letter to the President (Dec. 21) expressing their opinion that Burnside's plan of opera tions could not succeed, and substantially recommending that McClellan should be reinstated in command. Burnside was competent to issue the order for such dis missal and relief on his own responsibility, but he submitted it to the President. The latter was perplexed. He talked with Burnside as a friend and brother, and it was finally arranged that the general should be relieved of the command of the Army of the Potomac and await orders for further service. Ma j. -Gen. Joseph Hooker was appointed Burnside's successor. In making this ap pointment the President wrote a fatherly letter to Hooker, in which, after speaking of his many excellent qualities as a sol dier, he referred to his (Hooker) having been, with others, to blame for too freely criticising the military conduct of Burn- side, and so doing a greaA wrong to him. He reminded Hooker that he would now be open to such criticism, but that he (Lincoln) would do what he might to suppress it, for little good could be got out of an army in which such a spirit pre vailed. The army was then lying, weak and demoralized, at Falmouth, opposite Fredericksburg. From January until April (1863) Hooker was engaged in pre paring for a vigorous summer campaign. His forces remained in comparative quiet for about three months, during which time they were reorganized and disciplined, and at the close of April his army numbered 100,000 effective men. General Lee's army, on the other side of the river, had been divided, a large force, under General Long- street, having been required to watch the movements of the Nationals under Gen eral Peck in the vicinity of Norfolk. Lee had in hand about 60,000 well-drilled troops, lying behind strong intrenchments extending 25 miles along the line of the Rappahannock River. Hooker had made important changes in the organiza tion of the army, and in the various staff departments; and the cavalry, hitherto scattered among the three grand divisions into which the six corps of the army had been consolidated two corps in each and without organization as a corps, were now consolidated and soon placed in a state of greater efficiency. To improve them he had sent them out upon raids within the Confederate lines, and for several weeks the region between Bull Run and the Rapidan was the theatre of many daring cavalry exploits. To give more efficiency to the troops covering Washington in 1862, they were formed into an organization called the " Army of Virginia," and placed under the command of Ma j. -Gen. John Pope. Gen eral Halleck was then general-in-chief of all the armies, with his headquarters at Washington. The corps of the new army were commanded, respectively, by Generals McDowell, Banks, and Sigel. When Mc Clellan had retreated to Harrison's Land ing and the Confederate leaders were satis fied that no further attempts would then be made to take Richmond, they ordered Lee to make a dash on Washington. Hear ing of this, Halleck ordered Pope, in the middle of July, to meet the intended in vaders at the outset of their raid. General Rufus King led a troop of cavalry that destroyed railroads and bridges to within 30 or 40 miles of Richmond. Pope's troops were posted along a line from Fredericksburg to Winchester and Har per's Ferry, and were charged with the threefold duty of covering the national capital, guarding the valley entrance into Maryland in the rear of Washing ton, and threatening Richmond from 213 ARMY the north as a diversion in favor of TROOPS FURNISHED THE GOVERNMENT DURING McClellan. THE CIVIL WAR FROM 1861 TO 1865. When General Grant began his march Under call of April 15, 1861, for against Richmond (May, 1864), Gen. 75,000 men for three months. .. 91,81tf Benjamin F. Butler was in command of ^0,0^0 ' men M f^ V^ontn^ the Army of the James, and was directed one year, two years, three years. 700,680 to co-operate with the Army of the Po- Under call of July 2, 1862, for 300,- tomac. Butler prepared to make a vig- 000 men for three years orous movement against Richmond from ^o^ men f or nfne 'mont^s^. 1 '~ the south, while Grant moved from the Under proclamation, June 15, 1863, north. Butler's effective force was about men for six months 40,000 men when he was ordered to ad- ^^udin^drafte^ 'men o? 6 1863?~ vance. It was composed chiefly of the and ca n F of Feb.. i f ig64, for 18th Army Corps, commanded by Gen. W. 500,000 for three years 317,092 F. Smith, and the 10th Corps, under Gen. Un d n n *! JI"??:.- 1864 ' for Q. A. Gillmore, who arrived at Fort Monroe May 3. Butler successfully de ceived the Confederates as to his real in- 421 ' 465 87,588 16,361 in between April 23 and July 18, 1864 . tentUm. by making a demonstration tow- "* ( ( re 83,612 ards Richmond by way of the York River and the Peninsula, along McClellan's line of march. On the night of May 4, Butler's army was embarked on transports and conveyed around to Hampton Roads; and at dawn the next morning 35,000 troops, Other troops furnished by States accompanied by a squadron of war vessels under Admiral Lee, were rapidly ascend ing the James towards City Point, at the mouth of the Appomattox. At the same time, Gen. A. V. Kautz, with 3,000 cav alry, moving swiftly from Suffolk, south of the James, struck the Weldon Railway south of Petersburg, and burned a bridge over Stony Creek, while Col. R. M. West, tlon * with 1,800 cavalry (mostly colored men), moved froni Williamsburg up the north credits of previous calls) for one year, two years, three years, and four years 385,163 Under call of Dec. 19, 1864, for 300,000 men for one year, two years, three years, four years. . . 211,752 and Territories which, after first call, had not been called upon for quotas when general call for troops was made 182,357 r special authority granted May and June, 1862, New York, Il linois, and Indiana furnished for three months 15,007 Total 2,772,408 86,724 Grand total 2,859,132 bank of the James keeping abreast of Aggregate reduced te a three years , ' the grand flotilla. The bewildered Con- standard 2,320,272 federates made no serious opposition to these movements. A division of National ACTUAL STRENGTH OF THE ARMY BETWEEN JAN. troops took quiet possession of City Point (May 5) and the war vessels took a posi tion above the mouth of the Appomattox. At the same time a heavy force landed on a triangular piece of land between the James and Appomattox, called Bermuda j a " n \ Hundred, and there established an in- Jan. trenched camp. In the space of twenty- J an - Date Regulars. Volunteers. Total. Jan. 1, 1860. .16,435 16,435 Jan. 1, 1861. .16,367 16,367 July 1, 1861. .16,422 170,329 186,751 Jan. 1, 1862. .22,425 553,492 575,917 March 31, 1862. .23,308 613,818 637,126 Jan. 1, 1863. .25,463 892,728 918,191 Jan. 1, 1864. .24,636 836,101 860,737 Jan. 1, 1865. .22,019 937,441 959,460 March 31, 1865. .21,669 958,417 980,086 1865 1,000,516 four hours, Butler gained an important May foothold within 15 miles of Richmond in a straight line, and only about 8 Disbanding of the Union Armies. miles from Petersburg. The movement The soldiers of the great armies that con- produced great consternation at Rich- fronted Lee and Johnston in Virginia and mond; but before Petersburg could be se- North Carolina, and concfuered them, were riously threatened by Butler, Beauregard marched to the vicinity of the national wag there with troops from Charleston. capital, and during two memorable days 214 ARMY ARNOLD (May 22 and 23, 1865), moved through nalia- of war, transformed in the space of that city, with tens of thousands of moist- 150 days into a vast army of citizens, en- ened eyes gazing upon them, and passed gaged in the pursuits of peace. See CIVIL in review before the chief magistrate of WAR, THE; LEE, ROBERT EDWARD. the nation and his ministers. Then began the work of disbanding the armies by mus- Army War College. A department of the United States military educational tering out of service officers and men. On establishment, authorized by Congress in June 2 Lieutenant-General Grant, the gen- eral-in-chief of the National armies, issued ]900, Brig.-Gen. William Ludlow being the chief of the board that drafted the the following address to them: "Soldiers regulations. The object is to unify the of the Armies of the United States, By systems of instruction at the four exist- your patriotic devotion to your country in ing service institutions; to develop these the hour of danger and alarm, your mag- systems; and to give opportunity for the nificent fighting, bravery, and endurance, most advanced professional study of mili- you have maintained the supremacy of tary problems. The officers of the college the Union and the Constitution, over- exercise supervision over the course of thrown all armed opposition to the en- study in each of the service schools, and forcement of the laws and of the procla- over all civil institutions to which the mation forever abolishing slavery the government details an officer for military cause and pretext of the rebellion and instruction. The faculty of the college opened the way to the rightful authorities study the military organizations of the to restore order and inaugurate peace on United States, with regard to a complete a permanent and enduring basis on every understanding of its efficiency, and con- foot of American soil. Your marches, stitute an advisory board to which the sieges, and battles, in distance, duration, Secretary of War can turn at any time resolution, and brilliancy of results, dim for recommendations as to any point in the the lustre of the world's past military mechanism of the whole military service, achievements, and will be the patriot's Arnold, ABRAHAM KERNS, military offi- precedent in defence of liberty and right cer; born in Bedford, Pa., March 24, 1837; in all time to come. In obedience to your graduated at the United States Mili- country's call, you left your homes and tary Academy and brevetted a second families, and volunteered in her defence, lieutenant in 1859 ; colonel of the 8th Cav- Victory has crowned your valor and se- airy in 1891. He served through the Civil cured the purpose of your patriotic hearts ; War with distinction, and was awarded a and with the gratitude of your countrymen congressional medal of honor for excep- and the highest honors a great and free tional bravery in the engagement at nation can accord, you will soon be per- Davenport Bridge, North Anna River, Va., mitted to return to your homes and fami-- May 18, 1864. After the Civil War he lies, conscious of having discharged the served in the Indian country. On May 4, highest duty of American citizens. To 1898, he was commissioned a brigadier- achieve these glorious triumphs and se- general of volunteers, and served through cure to yourselves, your fellow- country- the American-Spanish War. He was dis- men and posterity the blessings of free charged from the volunteer service May institutions, tens of thousands of your 12, 1899. He died Nov. 23, 1901. gallant comrades have fallen, and Arnold, BENEDICT, pioneer; born in sealed the priceless legacy with their England, Dec. 21, 1615; emigrated to blood. The graves of these a grateful Providence, R. L, about 1635; president nation bedews with tears, honors their of the colony, 1657; assistant in 1660; memory, and will ever cherish and sup- again president in 1662. Under the royal port their stricken families." The dis- charter he was elected governor of Rhode banding of this army went steadily Island five times. He died June 20, 1678. on from June 1, and by the middle of Arnold, BENEDICT, military officer; autumn 786,000 officers and men were born in Norwich, Conn., Jan. 14, 1741. As mustered out of the service. were born in Norwich, Conn., Jan. 14, 1741. The wonder- a boy he was bold, mischievous, and quar- ful spectacle was exhibited of vast armies relsome. Apprenticed to an apothecary, of men, surrounded by all the parapher- he ran away, enlisted as a soldier, but de 215 ARNOLD, BENEDICT serted. For four years (1763-67) he was morasses, until they reached the Dead a bookseller and druggist in New Haven, River. The stream flowed placidly on the Conn., and was afterwards master and summit of the water-shed between the St. supercargo of a vessel trading to the West Lawrence and the Atlantic, and they moved pleasantly over its bosom until they encamped at the foot of a high moun tain capped with snow. Sickness and de sertion now began to reduce the number of effective men. October was passing away. Keen blasts came from the north. A heavy rain fell, and the water, rushing from the hills, suddenly filled the Dead River to its brim and overflowed its banks. Some of the boats were over turned and much provision was lost or spoiled. Food for only twelve days re mained. A detachment was sent to get a supply, but did not return. The floods began to freeze and the morasses became almost impassable. Through ice-cold wa ter they were frequently compelled to wade; even two women, wives of soldiers, Indies. Immediately after the affair at endured this hardship. At length they Lexington, he raised a company of volun- reached the ChaudiSre River, that empties teers and marched to Cambridge. There into the St. Lawrence. Starvation threat ened. Seventy miles lay between them and Sertigan, the nearest French set tlement. Leaving his troops on the banks of the upper ChaudiSre, Arnold and fifty-five men BIRTHPLACE OP BKNEDICT ARNOLD. he proposed to the Massachusetts Com mittee of Safety an expedition against Fort Ticonderoga, and was commissioned a colonel. Finding a small force, under Colonels Easton, Brown, and Allen, on the same errand when he reached western Massachusetts, he joined them without command. Returning to Cambridge, he was placed at the head of an expedition for the capt ure of Quebec. He left Cambridge with a little more than 1,000 men, composed of New England musketeers and riflemen from Virginia and Pennsylvania, the latter under Capt. Daniel Morgan. He sailed from Newburyport for the Kennebec in the middle of September, 1775. They rendez voused at Fort Western, on the Kennebec River, opposite the site of the present city of Augusta, Me., and on the verge of a wilderness uninhabited except by a few Indian hunters. At Norridgewock Falls their severe labors began. Their bateaux were drawn by oxen, and their provisions were carried on their backs around the falls a wearisome task often repeated as ^^^ll^s^ started down the river for Sertigan to obtain food. Two or three boats had been wrecked just before their depart ure, and much of their scanty supply of food was lost. Ar nold and his party reached the settle ment. Indians were sent back with pro visions and as guides for the rest of the troops to the settlement. When the forces were join- they pressed towards the head-waters of the Kennebec, often wading and pushing ed they moved towards the St. Lawrence; their bateaux against swift currents. At and on Nov. 9, in a heavy snow - storm, length they left that stream and traversed they suddenly appeared at Point Levi, op- tangled ravines, craggy knolls, and detp posite Quebec, only 750 in number. It 216 , BENEDICT was almost two months after they left Cambridge before they reached the St. Lawrence. Their sufferings from cold and hunger had been extreme. At one time they had attempted to make broth of boiled deer - skin moccasins to sustain life, and a dog belonging to Henry (afterwards General) Dearborn made savory food for them. In this expe dition were men who afterwards became famous in American history Aaron Burr, R. J. Meigs, Henry Dearborn, Daniel Mor gan, and others. Arnold assisted Montgomery in the siege of Quebec, and was there severely wounded in the leg. Montgomery was killed, and Arnold was promoted to briga dier-general (Jan. 10, 1776), and took command of the remnant of the Ameri can troops in the vicinity of Quebec. Suc ceeded by Wooster,he went up Lake Cham- plain to Ticonderoga, where he was placed in command of an armed flotilla on the lake. With these vessels he had disas trous battles (Oct. 11 and 13, 1776) with British vessels built at St. Johns. Arnold was deeply offended by the appointment, by Congress, early in 1777, of five of his juniors to the rank of major-general. He received the same appointment soon after wards (Feb. 7, 1777), but the affront left an irritating thorn in his bosom, and he was continually in trouble with his fellow- officers, for his temper was violent and he was not upright in pecuniary transac tions. General Schuyler admired him for his bravery, and was his abiding friend until his treason. He successfully went to the relief of Fort Schuyler on the up per Mohawk (August, 1777), with 800 volunteers; and in September and October following he was chiefly instrumental in the defeat of Burgoyne, in spite of Gen eral Gates. There he was again severely wounded in the same leg, and was dis abled several months. When the Brit ish evacuated Philadelphia (June, 1778) Arnold was appointed commander at Phil adelphia, where he married the daughter of a leading Tory (Edward Shippen), lived extravagantly, became involved in debt, was accused of dishonest official conduct, and plotted his treason against his coun try. To meet the demands of importu nate creditors, he engaged in fraudulent transactions, for which his official posi tion gave him facilities, and charges of dishonesty and malpractice in office were preferred against him before the Continen tal Congress. A tribunal before which he was tried convicted him, but sentenced him to a reprimand only by the commander-in- chief. Washington performed the duty with great delicacy, but the disgrace aroused in the bosom of Arnold a fierce spirit of revenge. He resolved to betray his country, and, making treasonable over tures to Sir Henry Clinton, kept up a correspondence on the subject for a long time with MAJ. JOHN ANDRE (q. v.) , the adjutant-general of the British army. This correspondence was carried on mutually under assumed names, and on the part of Arnold in a disguised hand. Feigning great patriotism and a desire to serve his country better, he asked for, and, through the recommendation of General Schuyler and others, obtained the command of the important post of West Point and its de pendencies in the Hudson Highlands. He arranged with Major Andre" to surrender that post into the hands of a British force which Sir Henry might send up the Hud son. For this service he was to receive the commission of a brigadier-general in the British army and nearly $50,000 in gold. He made his headquarters at the house of Beverly Robinson, a Tory, op posite West Point, and the time chosen for the consummation of the treason was when Washington should be absent at a conference with Rochambeau at Hartford. Arnold and Andre" had negotiated in writing; the former wished a personal interview, and arrangements were made for it. Andre" went up the Hudson in the British sloop - of - war Vulture to Teller's (afterwards Croton) Point, from which he was taken in the night in a small boat to a secluded spot near Haverstraw, on the west side of the river, where, in bushes,, he met Arnold for the first time. Before they parted (Sept. 22, 1780) the whole matter was arranged: Clinton was to sail up the river with a strong force, and, after a show of resistance, Arnold was to sur render West Point and its dependencies into his hands. But all did not work well. The Vulture was driven from her anchor age by some Americans with a cannon on Teller's Point, and when Andre", with Arnold, at Joshua H. Smith's house, abore 217 ARNOLD, BENEDICT Haverstraw, looked for her in the early mander (Colonel Jameson) did not seem morning she had disappeared from sight, to comprehend the matter, and unwisely He had expected to return to the Vulture allowed Andre" (who bore a pass from after the conference was over ; now he was Arnold in which he was called " John compelled to cross the river at King's Anderson") to send a letter to Arnold Ferry and return to New York by land, telling him of his detention. Washington FAC-S1MILE OF ARNOLD'S DISGUISED HANDWRITING. FAC-8IMILK OF A PORTION OF ONE OF ANDRE'S LETTERS. He left his uniform, and, disguised in returned from Hartford sooner than he citizen's dress, he crossed the river tow- expected. He rode over from FisbJkill ards evening with a single attendant, towards Arnold's quarters early in the passed through the American works at morning. Two of his military family Verplanck's Point without suspicion, spent (Hamilton and Lafayette) went forward the night not far from the Croton River, to breakfast with Arnold, while Washing- and the next morning journeyed over the ton tarried to inspect a battery. While Neutral Ground on horseback, with a full they were at breakfast Andrews letter was expectation of entering New York before handed to Arnold. With perfect self-pos- night. Arnold had furnished him with session he asked to be excused, went to papers revealing the condition of the high- his wife's room, bade her farewell, and, land stronghold. At Tarrytown, 27 miles mounting the horse of one of his aides from the city, he was stopped (Sept. 23) that stood saddled at the door, rode swift- and searched by three young militiamen, ly to the river shore. There he entered who, finding those papers concealed under his barge, and, promising the oarsmen a the feet of Andre" in his boot, took him to handsome reward if they would row the the nearest American post. The com- boat swiftly, escaped to the Vulture. 218 ARNOLD, BENEDICT Soon after his flight to the British army, when, after destroying a large quantity Arnold published an Address to the In- of public and private stores there and in habitants of America, in which he at- the vicinity (Jan. 5, 1781), he withdrew tempted to gloss over his treason by abus- to Portsmouth, opposite Norfolk, and ing the Congress and the French alliance, made that place his headquarters for a He also published a Proclamation to the while. Earnest efforts were made to capt- Officers and Soldiers of the Continental ure the marauder, but in vain. Jefferson Army, in which as an inducement to offered $25,000 for his arrest, and Wash- desert he offered $15 to every private, and ington detached Lafayette, with 1,200 men, to the officers commissions in the British drawn from the New England and New Jersey levies, who marched to Virginia for that purpose and to protect the State. A portion of the French fleet went from Ehode Island (March 8) to shut Arnold up in the Elizabeth River and assist in capturing him. Steuben, who was recruit ing for Greene's army in Virginia, also watched him. The effort failed, for Arnold Was vigilant and extremely cautious. He knew what would be his fate if caught. " What would the Americans do with me, if they should catch me?" Arnold in quired of a young prisoner. " They would cut off and bury with military honors your leg that was wounded at Saratoga, and hang the rest of you," replied the young American soldier. General Phil lips joined Arnold (March 26) with more than 2,000 men, and took the chief com mand. The traitor accompanied him on another expedition up the James River, in April, and then returned to New York, for Cornwallis, who came into Virginia from North Carolina, refused to serve with him. When Sir Henry Clinton found that the army according to their rank and the allied armies were actually going to Vir- number of men they might bring with ginia, he tried to alarm Washington by them. Virginia had generously sent her threats of marauding expeditions. He best troops to assist the Carolinians in sent Arnold, with a- band of regulars and their attempt to throw off the yoke laid Tories, to commit atrocities in Connecti- upon their necks by Cornwallis. To call cut. Arnold crossed the Sound, from Long these troops back from Greene's army, Island, and on Sept. 6, 1781, landed his the British, at the close of 1780, sent Ar- troops on each side of the Thames, below nold into Virginia with a marauding party New London. He plundered and burned of British and Tories, about 1,600 in num- that town, and a part of his force took ber, with seven armed vessels, to plunder, Fort Griswold, opposite, by storm. It distress, and alarm the people of that was gallantly defended by Colonel Led- State. In no other way could Arnold be yard and a garrison of 150 poorly armed employed by his master, for respectable militiamen. Only six of the garrison were British officers refused to serve with him killed in the conflict, but after the sur- in the army. He arrived at Hampton render the British officer in command Roads on Dec. 30, 1780. Anxious to dis- (Colonel Eyre) murdered Ledyard with tinguish himself, he immediately pushed his sword, and, refusing to give quarter to up the James River as far as Richmond, the garrison, seventy-three were massacred. 219 BENEDICT ARNOLD. ARNOLD AfW? Then the wounded were placed in a bag- the unsettled boundary between Maine and gage-wagon and sent down the slope New Brunswick nearly led to active hos- towards the river, with the intention of tilities on the Aroostook River. Maine drowning them in the stream at its foot, sent armed men to erect fortifications, and but the vehicle was caught by an apple- Congress authorized the President to re- tree. The cries of the sufferers could be sist the encroachments of the British, heard above the crackling of the burning General Scott arranged a truce and joint town by persons across the river. With occupation. The boundaries were finally this atrocious expedition the name of adjusted by treaty, Aug. 9, 1842. See Benedict Arnold disappears from the ASHBURTON, LORD; MAINE; WEBSTER, records of our history. DANIEL. Arnold went to England at the close of Arroyo, a seaport in the district of the war, where he was despised and Guayama, in the southeastern part of the shunned by all honorable men. He was island of Porto Rico. It is on a bay of afterwards a resident of St. John, New the same name, and has a population of Brunswick, engaged chiefly in trade and about 1,200. Its trade with the United navigation, but was very unpopular. He States prior to the war with Spain was was there hung in effigy. His son, James annually from 7,000 to 10,000 hogsheads of Robertson (an infant at the time of his sugar, 2,000 to 5,000 casks of molasses, and father's treason), became a lieutenant- 50 to 150 casks and barrels of bay-rum, general in the British army. Arnold's Arsenals. In 1901, arsenals, armories, second wife, whom he married when she and ordnance depots were established at was not quite eighteen years of age, sur- the following places: Arsenals Alle- vived him just three years. Arnold died gheny, Pa.; Augusta, Ga. ; Benicia, Cal.; in obscurity, but in comfortable pecuniary Columbia, Tenn. ; Fort Monroe, Va. ; circumstances, in Gloucester Place, Lon- Frankford, Pa.; Indianapolis, Ind. ; Ken- don, June 14, 1801. nebec (Augusta), Me.; New York (Gov- Arnold, FRANZ. See LIEBER, FRANCIS, ernor's Island), N. Y.; Rock Island, 111.; Arnold, RICHARD, military officer ; born San Antonio, Tex. ; Watertown, Mass. ; in Providence, R. I., April 12, 1828; was and Watervliet, N. Y. Armory Spring- graduated at West Point in 1850. He field, Mass. Powder Depots St. Louis, served in Florida, California, at the bat- Mo., and Dover, N. J. Ordnance Proving tie of Bull Run, on the Peninsula, and Ground Sandy Hook (Fort Hancock), was made chief of artillery of Banks's N. J. expedition in November, 1862. At Port Art, METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF, New Hudson and in the Red River campaign he York City, founded by the action of a rendered important service; also in the public meeting held at the Academy of capture of Fort Fisher, and of Fort Mor- Music in November, 1869. In April, 1870, gan, near Mobile. He was brevetted ma- a charter was obtained from the legislat- jor-general United States army in 1866. ure "for the purpose of establishing a He died on Governor's Island, New York, museum and library of art; of encourag- Nov. 8, 1882. ing and developing the study of the fine Arnold, SAMUEL GREENE, legislator arts; of the application of art to manu- and author ; born in Providence, R. I., facture and to practical life ; of advancing April 12, 1821. He was graduated at the general knowledge of kindred subjects; Brown University in 1841. After exten- and to that end of furnishing popular in- sive travel in Europe, the East, and South struction and recreation." Later the leg- America, he became, in 1852, lieutenant- islature authorized the Park Department governor of Rhode Island. In 1861 he to erect a two-story fire-proof building for took the field in command of a battery its use in Central Park, the cost not to of artillery. He was lieutenant-governor, exceed $500,000, and also to set apart a 1861-62, and United States Senator in tract of eighteen and a half acres in the 1863. He was the author of a History of eastern part of the Park between Eightieth Rhode Island. He died in Providence, and Eighty-fifth streets. The Museum was Feb. 12, 1880. formally opened by the President of the Aroostook Disturbance. In 1837-39 United States, March 30, 1880. An addi- 220 ARTESIAN WELLS ARTHUR tion on the south side and one on the north were made in 1894, increasing the total ground area from 233 by 104 feet to 233 by 344 feet. In 1897 a further ex- sion was authorized, for which an ap propriation of $1,000,000 was made. Artesian Wells, wells formed by bor ing through upper soil to strata contain ing water which has percolated from a higher level, and which rises to that level through the boring- tube. The following are some of the deepest wells in the United States: River, from 800 to 1,600 feet deep, afford ing a bountiful supply of pure water. The water from great depths is always warmer than at the surface. One of the most remarkable attempts to sink an artesian well in the United States was made in Galveston, Tex. A depth of 3,070 feet and 9 inches was reached, without penetrating any rock or finding water. After the contractors had reached a depth of 3,000 feet, which was the limit stipulated in their contract, they were paid $76,000, and the work was Location. Depth. Bored. Remarks. St. Louis, Mo St. Louis, Mo 2,197 ft. 3,843 1849-52 1866-70 108,000 gallons daily. Salty. Does not rise to the surface. Salty. Louisville, Ky 2,086 1856-57 330,000 gallons dailv. Mineral Columbus O 2 775% " Water saline 91 Pahr * no force Charleston, S. C 1,250 1848 28,800 gallons daily. Saline. South Dakota, sometimes called the officially abandoned in 1892, the contrac- " Artesian State," has many powerful ar- tors carrying the work a few feet further tesian wells in the valley of the James as a matter of curiosity. See IRRIGATION. ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN Arthur, CHESTER ALAN, twenty-first President of the United States, from Sept. 19, 1881, to March 4, 1885; Republican; born in Fairfield, Vt., Oct. 5, 1830; was graduated at Union College in 1848; studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1854; and became a successful prac titioner. He gained much celebrity in a suit which involved the freedom of some slaves, known as the " Lemmon case." He procured the admission of colored persons to the street-cars of New York City by gaining a suit against a railway company in 1856. Mr. Arthur did efficient service during the Civil War as quartermaster- general of the State of New York. In 1872 he was appointed collector of the port of New York, and was removed in 1878. In 1880, he was elected Vice-Presi dent, and on the death of President Gar- field, Sept. 19, 1881, he became Presi dent. He died in New York City, Nov. 18, 1886. Veto of Chinese Immigration Bill. On April 4, 1882, President Arthur sent the following veto message to the Senate: To the Senate, After a careful consid eration of Senate Bill No. 71, entitled " An act to execute certain treaty stipu lations relating to Chinese," I herewith return it to the Senate, in which it origin ated, with my objections to its passage. A nation is justified in repudiating its treaty obligations only when they are in conflict with great paramount inter ests. Even then all possible reasonable means for modifying or changing these obligations by mutual agreement should be exhausted before resorting to the su preme right of refusal to comply with them. These rules have governed the United States in their past intercourse with other powers, as one of the family of na tions. I am persuaded that if Congress can feel that this act violates the faith of the nation as pledged to China, it will concur with me in rejecting this particu lar mode of regulating Chinese immigra tion, and will endeavor to find another which shall meet the expectations of the people of the United States without coming in conflict with the rights of China. The present treaty relations between that power and the United States spring from an antagonism which arose between ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN our paramount domestic interests and our previous relations. The treaty commonly known as the Burlingame treaty conferred upon Chinese subjects the right of volun tary emigration to the United States for the purposes of curiosity or trade, or as permanent residents, and was in all re spects reciprocal as to citizens of the United States in China. It gave to the voluntary emigrant coming to the United States the right to travel there or reside there, with all the privileges, immuni ties, or exemptions enjoyed by the citi zens or subjects of the most favored na tion. Under the operation of this treaty it was found that the institutions of the United States and the character of its peo ple and their means of obtaining a live lihood might be seriously affected by the unrestricted introduction of Chinese labor. Congress attempted to alleviate this con dition by legislation, but the act which it passed proved to be in violation of our treaty obligations, and, being returned by the President with his objections, failed to become a law. Diplomatic relief was then sought. A new treaty was concluded with China. Without abrogating the Burlingame treaty, it was agreed to modify it so far that the government of the United States might regulate, limit, or suspend the com ing of Chinese laborers to the United States, or their residence therein, but that it should not absolutely prohibit them, and that the limitation or suspen sion should be reasonable, and should apply only to Chinese who might go to the United States as laborers, other classes not being included in the limita tions. This treaty is unilateral, not re ciprocal. It is a concession from China to the United States in limitation of the rights which she was enjoying under the Burlingame treaty. It leaves us by our own act to determine when and how we will enforce those limitations. China may, therefore, fairly have a right to ex pect that in enforcing them we will take good care not to overstep the grant, and to take more than has been conceded to us. It is but a year sijice this new treaty under the operation of the Constitution, became part of the supreme law of the land; and the present act is the first at tempt to exercise the more enlarged pow ers which it relinquishes to the United States. In its first article, the United States is empowered to decide whether the coming of Chinese laborers to the United States, or their residence therein, affects or threatens to affect our inter ests, or to endanger good order, either within the whole country or in any part of it. The act recites that " in the opin ion of the government of the United States the coming of Chinese laborers to this country endangers the good order of certain localities thereof." But the act itself is much broader than the recital. It acts upon residence as well as immigra tion, and its provisions are effective throughout the United States. I think it may fairly be accepted as an expression of the opinion of Congress that the coming of such laborers to the United States, or their residence here, affects our interests and endangers good order through the country. On this point I should feel it my duty to accept the views of Congress. The first article further confers the power upon this government to regulate, limit, or suspend, but not actually to pro hibit, the coming of such laborers to or their residence in the United States. The negotiators of the treaty have recorded with unusual fulness their understanding of the sense and meaning with which these words were used. As to the class of persons to be affected by the treaty, the Americans inserted in their draft a provision that the words " Chinese laborers " signify all immigra tion other than that for " teaching, trade, travel, study, and curiosity." The Chi nese objected to this that it operated to include artisans in the class of laborers whose immigration might be forbidden. The Americans replied that they could not consent that artisans shall be excluded from the class of Chinese laborers, for it is this very competition of skilled labor in the cities, where the Chinese labor immi gration concentrates, which has caused the embarrassment and popular discon tent. In the subsequent negotiations this definition dropped out, and does not ap pear in the treaty. Article II. of the treaty confers the rights, privileges, immunities, and exemptions which are accorded to citizens and subjects of the most favored 222 ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN nation upon Chinese subjects proceeding cellencies to the end that a limitation to the United States as teachers, students, either in point of time or numbers may merchants, or from curiosity. The Amer- be fixed upon the emigration of Chinese ican Commissioners report that the Chi- laborers to the United States." At a sub- nese government claimed that in this sequent interview they said that " by limi- <*rticle they did, by exclusion, provide that tations in number they meant, for example, nobody should be entitled to claim the that the United States, having, as they benefit of the general provisions of the supposed, a record of the number of im- Burlingame treaty but those who might migrants in each year, as well as the total go to the United States in those capaci- number of Chinese now there, that no more ties or for those purposes. I accept this should be allowed to go in any one year as the definition of the word " laborers " in future than either the greatest number as used in the treaty. which had gone in any year in the past, As to the power of legislating respect- or that the total number should never be ing this class of persons the new treaty allowed to exceed the number now there, provides that we " may not absolutely pro- As to limitation of time, they meant, for hibit" their coming or their residence, example, that Chinese should be allowed The Chinese commissioners gave notice in to go in alternate years, or every third the outset that they would never agree to year, or for example, that they should a prohibition of voluntary emigration, not be allowed to go for two, three, or Notwithstanding this, the United States five years." At a subsequent conference commissioners submitted a draft in which the Americans said : " The Chinese corn- it was provided that the United States missioners have in their project explicitly might " regulate, limit, suspend, or pro- recognized the right of the United States hibit " it. The Chinese refused to accept to use some discretion, and have proposed this. The Americans replied that they a limitation as to time and number. This were willing to consult the wishes of the is the right to regulate, limit, or suspend." Chinese government in preserving the In one of the conferences the Chinese principle of free intercourse between the asked the Americans whether they could people of the two countries as established give them acy idea of the laws which by existing treaties, provided that the right would be passed to carry the powers into of the United States government to use execution. The Americans answered that its discretion in guarding against any this could hardly be done; that the possible evils of immigration of Chinese United States government might never laborers is distinctly recognized. There- deem it necessary to exercise this power, fore, if such concession removes all difn- It would depend upon circumstances. If culty on the part of the Chinese com- Chinese immigration concentrated in cities, missioners (but only in that case), the where it threatened public order, or if it United States commissioners will agree confined itself to localities where it was to remove the word " prohibit " from their ail injury to the interests of the American article and to use the words "regulate, people, the government of the United limit, or suspend." The Chinese reply to States would undoubtedly take steps to this can only be inferred from the fact that prevent such accumulations of Chinese, in the place of an agreement, as proposed If, on the contrary, there was no large by our commissioners, that we might pro- immigration, or if there were sections of hibit the coming or residence of Chinese the country where such immigration was laborers, there was inserted in the treaty clearly beneficial, then the legislation of an agreement that we might not do it. the United States under this power would The remaining words, "regulate, limit, be adapted to such circumstances. For and suspend," first appear in the Ameri- example, there might be a demand for can draft. When it was submitted to Chinese labor in the South and a surplus the Chinese they said : " We infer that of such labor in California, and Congress of the phrases regulate, limit, suspend, might legislate in accordance with these or prohibit, the first is a general expres- facts. In general, the legislation would sion referring to the others. . . . We are be in view of and depend upon circum- entirely ready to negotiate with your Ex- stances of the situation at the moment 223 ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN such legislation became necessary. The Chinese commissioners said this explana tion was satisfactory; but they had not intended to ask for a draft of any special act, but for some general idea of how the power would be exercised. What had just been said gave them the explanation which they wanted. With this entire accord as to the mean ing of the words they were about to em ploy, and the object of the legislation which might be had in consequence, the parties signed the treaty, in Article I. of which " the government of China agrees that the government of the United States may regulate, limit, or suspend such com ing or residence, but may not absolutely prohibit it. The limitation or suspension shall be reasonable, and shall apply only to Chinese who may go to the United States as laborers, other classes not being included in the limitations. Legislation taken in regard to Chinese laborers will be of such a character only as is necessary to enforce the regulation, limitation, or suspension of immigration." The first section of the act provides that " from and after the expiration of sixty days next after the passage of this act, and until the expiration of twenty years next after the passage of this act, the coming of Chinese laborers be, and the same is hereby, suspended; and during such suspension it shall not be lawful for any Chinese laborer to come, or hav ing so come after the expiration of said sixty days, to remain within the United States." The examination which I have made of the treaty and of the declarations which its negotiators have left on record of the meaning of its language leaves no doubt in my mind that neither contracting party in concluding the treaty of 1880 contem plated the passage of an act prohibiting immigration for twenty years, which is nearly a generation, or thought that such a period would be a reasonable suspension or limitation, or intended to change the provisions of the Burlingame treaty to that extent. I regard this provision of the act as a breach of our national faith, and being unable to bring myself in harmony with the views of Congress on this vital point, the honor of the country constrains me to return the act with this objection to its passage. Deeply convinced of the necessity of some legislation on this subject, and con curring fully with Congress in many of the objects which are sought to be accom plished, I avail myself of the opportunity to point out some other features of the present act which, in my opinion, can be modified to advantage. The classes of Chinese who still enjoy the protection of the Burlingame treaty are entitled to the privileges, immuni ties, and exemptions accorded to citizens and subjects of the most favored nation. We have treaties with many powers which permit their citizens and subjects to reside within the United States and carry on business under the same laws and regulations which are enforced against citizens of the United States. I think it may be doubted whether pro visions requiring personal registration and the taking out of passports which are not imposed upon natives can be required of Chinese. Without expressing an opin ion on that point, I may invite the atten tion of Congress to the fact that the sys tem of personal registration and passports is undemocratic and hostile to the spirit of our institutions. I doubt the wisdom of putting a-n entering wedge of this kind into our laws. A nation like the United States, jealous of the liberties of its citizens, may well hesitate before it incorporates into its polity a system which is fast disappearing in Europe be fore the progress of liberal institutions. A wide experience has shown how futile such precautions are, and how easily pass ports may be borrowed, exchanged, or even forged by persons interested to do so. If it is, nevertheless, thought that a passport is the most convenient way for identifying the Chinese entitled to the protection of the Burlingame treaty, it may still be doubted whether they ought to be required to register. It is certain ly our duty, under the Burlingame treaty, to make their stay in the United States, in the operation of general laws, upon them, as nearly like that of our own citizens as we can consistently with our right to shut out the laborers. No good purpose is served in requiring them to register. 224 ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN My attention has been called by the Blessed with an exceptional climate, en- Chinese minister to the fact that the joying an unrivalled harbor, with the bill as it stands makes no provision for riches of a great agricultural and mining the transit across the United States of State in its rear, and the wealth of the Chinese subjects now residing in foreign whole Union pouring into it over its lines countries. I think that this point may of railroad, San Francisco has before it well claim the attention of Congress in an incalculable future if our friendly and legislating on this subject. amicable relations with Asia remain un- I have said that good faith requires us disturbed. It needs no argument to show to suspend the immigration of Chinese that the policy which we now propose to laborers for a less period than twenty adopt must have a direct tendency to re- years. I now add that good policy pointe pel Oriental nations from us, and to drive in the same direction. their trade and commerce into more friend- Our intercourse with China is of recent ly hands. It may be that the great and date. Our first treaty with that power paramount interest of protecting our is not yet forty years old. It is only labor from Asiatic competition may jus- since we acquired California and estab- tify us in a permanent adoption of this lished a great seat of commerce on the policy; but it is wiser in the first place Pacific that we may be said to have to make a shorter experiment with a view broken down the barriers which fenced hereafter of maintaining permanently only in that ancient monarchy. The Bur- such features as time and experience may lingame treaty naturally followed. Under commend. the spirit which inspired it, many thou- I transmit herewith copies of the papers sand Chinese laborers came to the Unit- relating to the recent treaty with China ed States. No one can say that the coun- which accompanied the confidential mes- try has not profited by their work. They sage of President Hayes to the Senate of were largely instrumental in constructing Jan. 10, 1881, and also a copy of the the railroads which connect the Atlantic memorandum respecting the act herewith with the Pacific. The States of the Pa- returned, which was handed to the Secre- cific slope are full of evidences of their tary of State by the Chinese minister in industry. Enterprises profitable alike to Washington. CHESTER A. ARTHUR. the capitalist and the laborer of Cau- EXECUTIVE MANSION, WASHINGTON, casian origin would have been dormant April 4, 1882. but for them. A time has now come when it is supposed they are not needed, and MEMORANDUM. when it is thought by Congress, and by 1. The time fixed in the bill, namely, those most acquainted with the subject, twenty years, is unreasonable. The lan- that it is best to try to get along without guage of Article I. that " laborers " shall them. There may, however, be other sec- not be absolutely prohibited from coming tions of the country where this species of to the United States and that the " sus- labor may be advantageously employed pension shall be reasonable," as well as without interfering with the laborers of the negotiations, indicate that a brief our own race. In making the proposed period was intended. experiment it may be the part of wis- The total prohibition of the immigra- dom, as well as of good faith, to fix the tion of Chinese laborers into the United length of the experimental period with States for twenty years would, in my reference to this fact. opinion, be unreasonable, and a violation Experience has shown that the trade of of the meaning and intent of the treaty, the East is the key to national wealth 2. The inclusion of " skilled labor " in and influence. The opening of China to the bill is an addition to the words and in- the commerce of the whole world has bene- tent of the treaty. It will operate with fited no section of it more than the harshness upon a class of Chinese mer- States of our own Pacific slope. The chants entitled to admission to the United State of California and its great mari- States under the terms of the treaty, time ports especially have reaped enor- The shoe merchants and cigar merchants mous advantages from this source, of China manufacture the goods they sell I. r 225 ARTHUBr-ASGILL at their places of business, and to shut 30, 1775, and extended March 20, 177(5; out the " skilled labor " they need would enacted again, with little alteration, April practically shut them out as well, since it 10, 1806. Some additions were made from would prevent them from carrying on 1861-65, and in 1874 they were codified as their business in this country. The laun- section 1,342 of the Revised Statutes of dryman, who keeps his shop and has a the United States. small capital with which to prosecute his Artillery. See EXPLOSIVES FOR LARGE trade, cannot in any sense be included in GUNS; ORDNANCE. the class of " laborers," and the merchant Arts. See FINE ARTS ; MECHANIC tailor comes in the same category. ARTS; TECHNOLOGY, INSTITUTES OF. 3. The clauses of the bill relating to Asboth, ALEXANDER SANDOR, military registration and passports are a vexatious officer; born in Hungary, Dec. 18, 1811. discrimination against Chinese residents He had served in the Austrian army, and and immigrants, when Article II. provides at the outbreak of the revolution of 1848 explicitly that they shall be entitled to all he entered the inpurerent army of Hungary, the privileges conceded to the subjects of He accompanied Kossuth in exile in Tur- the most favored nation. The execution key. In the autumn of 1851 he came to of these provisions of the bill will cause the United States in the frigate Missis- irritation, and in case of the loss of the sippi, and became a citizen. When the passport or certificate of registration, Chi- Civil War broke out in 1861 he offered his nese residents entitled to remain may be services to the government, and in July forcibly expelled from the country. 4. If the bill becomes a law it will leave he went as chief of Fremont's staff to Mis souri, where he was soon promoted to the impression in China that its govern- brigadier-general. He performed faith- ment strangely misunderstood the char- ful services until wounded in the face and acter of the treaty, or that the Congress one arm, in Florida, in a battle on Sept. has violated some of its provisions, and 27, 1864. For his services there he was this will tend to prejudice the intelligent brevetted a major-general in the spring of classes against the United States govern- 1865, and in August following he resigned, ment and people, whom they now greatly and was appointed minister to the Ar- admire and respect. gentine Republic. The wound in his face 5. There is no provision in the bill for caused his death in Buenos Ayres, Jan. the transit across the United States of 21, 1868. Chinese subjects now residing in foreign Asbury, FRANCIS, first bishop of the countries. Large numbers of Chinese live Methodist Episcopal Church in America; in Cuba, Peru, and other countries, who born at Handsworth, Staffordshire, Eng- cannot return home without crossing the land, Aug. 26, 1745. In his twenty- third territory of the United States or touching year he became an itinerant preacher un- at San Francisco. To deny this privi- der the guidance of John Wesley, and lege, it seems to me, is in violation of in- came to the United States in 1771. The ternational law and the comity of na- next year Wesley appointed him general tions, and if the bill becomes a law it will superintendent of the Methodist churches in this respect result in great hardship in America, and he held that office until to many thousands of innocent Chinese in the close of the Revolution, when the foreign countries. Methodists here organized as a body sepa- Arthur, PETER M., labor leader ; born rate from the Church in England. Mr. As- in Scotland about 1831; emigrated as a bury was consecrated bishop by Dr. Coke of the in 1784. After that, for thirty-two years, he travelled yearly through the United States, ordaining not less than 3,000 min- boy to America; elected chief locomotive engineers in 1876. Articles of Confederation. See CON FEDERATION, ARTICLES OF. isters, and preaching not less than 17,000 Articles of War. In the United States, sermons. He died in Spottsylvania, Va., Congress only can make articles of war. March 31, 1816. These have been tesed on the English Asgill, SIR CHARLES, British military articles and mutiny act. They were first officer; born in England, April 7, 1762. adopted by the Continental Congress, July He was among the troops under Corn- 226 ASGILL ASHBURTON wallis surrendered at Yorktown, where he fer. He was demanded of Sir Henry Clin- held the position of captain. Late in 1781, ton. Congress authorized retaliation, Capt. Joseph Huddy, serving in the New and from among several British officers, Jersey line, was in charge of a block-house prisoners of war, Capt. Charles Asgill was on Toms River, Monmouth co., N. J. There chosen by lot, to be executed immediately, he and his little garrison were capt- Washington postponed the execution until ured in March, 1782, by a band of refu- he should hear from Clinton about the gee loyalists sent by the " Board of As- surrender of Lippincott. Clinton at once sociated Loyalists " of New York, of condemned the action of Lippincott, and which ex-Governor Franklin, of New Jer- ordered (April 26) the Board of Asso- sey, was president, and taken to that city, ciated Loyalists not to remove or ex- On April 8, these prisoners were put in change any prisoners of war without the charge of Capt. Richard Lippincott, a New authority of the commander-in-chief. He Jersey loyalist, who took them in a sloop caused the arrest of Lippincott for trial, to the British guard-ship at Sandy Hook, who claimed that he acted under orders There Huddy was falsely charged with be- of the Board of Associated Loyalists, ing concerned in the death of Philip Franklin tried to get him to sign a paper that he had acted without their orders or approbation, but he stoutly refused, and was acquitted. Sir Guy Carleton succeed ed Clinton, and he promised that further inquiry in the matter should be had. Meanwhile months elapsed and the execu tion was postponed. Lady Asgill appealed to the king in behalf of her only son. She also wrote to the King and Queen of France asking them to intercede with Washington. She also wrote a touching letter to Washington, who was disposed to save the young officer, if possible. The King and Queen of France did intercede, and on Nov. 5, 1782, Congress resolved, " That the commander-in-chief be, and hereby is, directed to set Captain Asgill at liberty." It was done. The case of young Asgill had created an intense in terest in Europe, and, on the arrival of every ship from America at any European port, the first inquiry was about the fate of Asgill. In 1836, Congress granted to White, a desperate Tory, who was killed Martha Piatt, only surviving child of while trying to escape from his guard. Captain Huddy, then seventy years of age, While a prisoner, Huddy was taken by $1,200 in money and 600 acres of land, the Lippincott to a point at the foot of the " amount due Captain Huddy for seven Navesink Hills, near the present light- years* service as captain of artillery." As- houses, and there hanged. Lippincott af- gill succeeded to the title and estate of his fixed a label to the breast of the murdered father, and rose to the rank of general in Huddy, on which retaliation was threat- the British army. He died in London, ened, and ending with the words, " Up 3v\y 23, 1823. Madame de Sevinge" made goes Huddy for Philip White 1" the story of Captain Asgill the ground- This murder created intense excitement work of a tragic drama, at Freehold, N. J., where Huddy was Ashburton, ALEXANDER BARING, LORD, buried, and the leading citizens petitioned English diplomatist; born in England, Washington to retaliate. A council of his Oct. 27, 1774; son of Sir Francis Baring, officers decided in favor of retaliation, and an eminent merchant ; was employed, in that Lippincott, the leader, ought to suf- his youth, in mercantile affairs, in the 227 OAPT. CHARLES ASGILL. ASHBY ASIA United States, and married an American pox, which he had contracted in prison, wife. In 1810 he became the head of his in Sampson county, N. C., Oct. 24, 1781. father's business house; in 1812-35 sat Ashmun, GEORGE, statesman; born in in Parliament, and in 1835 was raised to Blandford, Mass., Dec. 25, 1804; grad- the peerage under the title of Baron Ash- uated at Yale in 1823; elected member of burton. The unsettled condition of the the State legislature 1833 to 1841 ; member Northeastern boundary question led Sir of Congress 1845 to 1851 ; president of the Robert Peel to send Baron Ashburton to Chicago convention which nominated Lin- the United States, as being widely ac- coin for President in 1860. He died in quainted with American affairs. Here he Springfield, Mass., July 17, 1870. concluded, Aug. 9, 1842, with Daniel Web- Ashmun, JEHUDI, missionary; born in ster, the " Webster-Ashburton Treaty," Champlain, N. Y., in April, 1794; grad- which settled the northeastern boundary uated at Bowdoin College in 1816. He between the United States and the Brit- was sent with a reinforcement to Li- ish dominions. For this achievement he beria in 1822, where he acted as legislator, was accorded, in both Houses of Parlia- soldier, and engineer in constructing for- ment, a complimentary vote of thanks, tifications. He died in Boston, Mass., and an earldom was offered him, which Aug. 25, 1828. he declined. He was privy councillor, Asia, THE, the name of the British a trustee of the British Museum, and re- man-of-war which brought Governor Try- ceived the D.C.L. degree from Oxford, on to New York (June, 1775), and anchor- He died in Longleat, England, May 13, ed off the Battery, foot of Broadway. A 1848. See WEBSTER, DANIEL. party led by John Lamb, a captain of ar- Ashby, TURNER, military officer; born tillery, proceeded, on the evening of Aug. in Rose Hill, Fauquier co., Va., in 1824. 23, to remove the cannons from that bat- When the Civil War began he raised a tery and the fort (for war seemed inevi- regiment of Confederate cavalry, which table) and take them to a place of safety, soon became celebrated. He covered the There was, also, an independent corps, un- retreat of " Stonewall " Jackson from at- der Colonel Lasher, and a body of citizens, tacks by General Banks and General Fre"- guided by Isaac Sears. The captain of mont, skirmishing with the vanguard of the Asia, informed of the intended move- each; and he was made a brigadier-gen- ment, sent a barge filled with armed men eral in the Confederate army in 1862. to watch the patriots. The latter, in- He was killed in an encounter preced- discreetly, sent a musket-ball among the ing the battle of Cross Keys, June 6, men in the barge, killing and wounding 1862. several. It was answered by a volley. Ashe, JOHN, military officer; born in The Asia hurled three round shot ashore Grovely, Brunswick co., N. C., in 1720; in quick succession. Lamb ordered the was in the North Carolina legislature for drums to beat to arms; the church-bells several years, and was speaker in 1762- in the city were rung, and, while all was 65. He warmly opposed the Stamp Act; confusion and alarm, the war-ship fired assisted Governor Tryon in suppressing the a broadside. Others rapidly followed. Regulator movement in 1771, but soon af- Several houses were injured by the grape terwards became a zealous Whig. He was and round shot, and three of Sears's party an active patriot, and because he led 500 were killed. Terror seized the inhabitants men to destroy Fort Johnson he was de- as the rumor spread that the city was to nounced as a rebel. Raising and equip- be sacked and burned. Hundreds of men, ping a regiment at his own expense, he women, and children were seen, at mid- was appointed brigadier-general of the night, hurrying from the town to places Wilmington District in April, 1776. He of safety. The exasperation of the citi- joined Lincoln in South Carolina in zens was intense; and Tryon, taking coun- 1778; and after he was defeated at Brier sel of his fears, took refuge on another Creek, in March, 1779, he returned home, vessel of war in the harbor, whence, like General Ashe suffered much at the hands Dunmore, he attempted to exercise au- of the British at Wilmington after the thority as governor. Among the citizens battle at Guilford, and died of small- led by Sears was Alexander Hamilton, ASSAY OFFICESASTORIA then a student in King's College, eighteen years of age. The cannon were removed from the battery and fort, and did good service in the patriot cause afterwards. Assay Offices in the United States are government establishments where the precious metals are officially tested to determine their purity. In 1901 these offices were located in New York City; BoisS City, Idaho; Helena, Mont.; Den ver, Col.; Seattle, Wash.; San Francisco, Cal. ; Charlotte, N. C. ; and St. Louis, Mo. See COINAGE. Assessment of Taxes. See GEORGE, HENRY; SINGLE TAX. Assignment. See BANKRUPTCY LAW. Assiniboine Indians, a branch of the Dakota family, inhabiting each side of the boundary-line between the United States and British America in Montana and Manitoba. In 1871 their number in the United States was estimated at 4,850, and in 1900 there were 1,316, nearly equally divided at the Fort Peck and Fort Bel- knap agencies in Montana. Assumption. In 1790 Hamilton pro posed that the general government as sume the debts of the thirteen colonies. Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, and South Carolina opposed the plan, while New Hampshire, Pennsyl vania, Virginia, Maryland, Georgia, and North Carolina favored it. Southern support was secured by agreeing to fix the national capital on the Potomac. By the act passed Aug. 4, 1790 the State debts, amounting to $21,500,000, were as sumed by the general government. Astor Family. John Jacob, the found er, was born in Waldorf, Germany, July 17, 1763. He remained in London until he was twenty, when he began the fur business in New York. He built up a vast fur-trade with the Indians, extending his business to the mouth of Columbia River, on the Pacific coast, where he found ed the trading station of Astoria in 1811. By this and other operations in trade, and by investments in real estate, he accumu lated vast wealth. He bequeathed $400,- 000 for establishing a library in the city of New York, which for many years was known by his name, and now forms a part of the New York Public Library. He died in New York City, March 29, 1848. His son WILLIAM BACKHOUSE; born JOHN JACOB ASTOR. Sept. 19, 1792; educated at the universities of Heidelberg and Gottingen. He added to the endowment of the Astor Library, and gave largely to public charities. He died Nov. 24, 1875. JOHN JACOB, son of William B. ; born June 10, 1822; served on the staff of Gen eral McClellan during the Civil War; promoted brigadier-general for meritorious services during the Peninsular campaign, 1865; declined the post of United States minister to England, 1876; added largely to the Astor Library and other public purposes. He died Feb. 22, 1890. WILLIAM, son of William B.; born July 12, 1830; bequeathed $50,000 to the Astor Library, and $150,000 to other public in stitutions. He died April 25, 1892. WILLIAM WALDORF, grandson of Will iam B.; born March 31, 1848; United States minister to Italy, 1882-85; removed to England in 1891, and became a British subject. JOHN JACOB, son of William; born July 13, 1864; served on the staff of General Shafter during the war with Spain. Astoria, a city in Oregon, at the mouth of the Columbia River, founded in 1810 by JOHN JACOB ASTOB (q. v.). In 1900 the population was 8,381. See OBEGON. 22U ASTOB LIBRARY ATLANTA Astor Library. See NEW YORK PUBLIC LIBRARY. Astor Place Riot. See FORREST, EDWIN; MACREADY, WILLIAM CHARLES. Asylums. See SOLDIERS' HOMES. Athabasca Indians, a nation of North American Indians divided into two great families, one bordering on the Eskimos in the Northwest, and the other stretching along the Mexican frontier from Texas to the Gulf of California. The domain of the Northern family extends across the continent from Hudson Bay to the Pacific Ocean. There are some smaller bands of the same nation, scattered along the Pa cific coast from Cook's Inlet to Umpqua River, in Oregon. The Northern family is divided into a large number of tribes, none of them particularly distinguished. The population of the Northern family is esti mated at 32,000, that of the scattered bands at 25,000, and the Southern family at 17,000. The latter includes the Navajos and those fierce rovers, the Apaches, with which the government of the United States has had much to do. The Southern family also includes the Lipans on the borders of Texas. The Athabascans are distinguished for their heavy beards, short hands and feet, and square, massive heads. They de rive their name from Lake Athabasca, in British North America, in lat. 59 N., and half-way between Hudson Bay and the Rocky Mountains. They claim to have come from the West, over a series of isl ands, and from a land covered with snow. Some observers trace in their language and features a resemblance to the Tartar grace. Atherton Gag, THE, the name applied to a resolution introduced into the na tional House of Representatives by Charles G. Atherton, of New Hampshire, provid ing that all petitions and papers relating to the subject of slavery should be "laid on the table without being debated, print ed, or referred." The resolution, which was designed to prevent discussion of the slavery question, was passed Dec. 11, 1838, and was rescinded in 1845. Atkinson, EDWARD, economist; born in Brookline, Mass., Feb. 10, 1827; was edu cated in private schools and at Dartmouth College; and is most widely known by his numerous publications on economic sub jects, treating of banking, competition, cookery, mechanic arts, the tariff, insur ance, etc. He invented an improved cook ing - stove called the " Aladdin Cooker." Soon after Dewey's victory in Manila Bay, Mr. Atkinson became vice-president of the Anti-Imperialist League, and when it was evident that the United States would retain the Philippine Islands, the League produced three tracts, entitled Criminal Aggression by Whom? The Hell of War and Its Penalties; and The Cost of the National Crime. Gen. Elwell S. Otis, commander of Mie United States troops in the Philippines, early in 1899 notified the War Department that several seditious tracts, mailed in the United States, had been received by many officers and men in his command. After investigation in structions were given to the Postmaster- General to inform Mr. Atkinson and all postmasters in the United States that the mails would be closed to further trans mission of the publications. In justifica tion of his action, Mr. Atkinson declared that the tracts referred to were reprints from government publications and as such were rightfully entitled to circulation through the mails. Mr. Atkinson's pub* lications include The Distribution of Prod ucts: Industrial Progress of the Nation* The Science of Nutrition; Taxation and Work; Every Boy His Own Book, etc. He died in Boston, Mass., Dec. 11, 1905. See ACQUISITION OF TERRITORY; ANNEX; ED TERRITORY, STATUS OF ; ANTI - EXPAN SION; IMPERIALISM. Atlanta, city, county - seat of Fulton county, and capital of the State o* Georgia; 171 miles north by west of Au gusta ; popularly known as " The Gata City"; is noted for the historical events of which it was the centre, for its exten sive commercial and manufacturing inter ests, and for its educational institutions. In its suburbs is Fort McPherson, one of the most complete of the modern military posts in the country. Cotton expositions were held here in 1881 and 1895. The population in 1890 was 65,533; in 1900, 89,872. In the Civil War the main National and Confederate armies remained quiet in their camps after their arrival at the Chatta- hoochee until the middle of July, 1864 Sherman was 8 miles from tLe cU,y. Oh- the 17th he resumed offensive and active 230 ATLANTA operations, by throwing Thomas's army troops in front of Sherman to hold them, across the Chattahoochee, close to Scho- and, by a night march to the flank and field's right, with directions to move for- rear of the Nationals, struck them a severe ward. McPherson moved against the rail- and unexpected blow. It fell with heavi- way east of Decatur, and destroyed (July est force on the division of Gen. G. A. 18) 4 miles of the track. Schofield seized Smith, of Blair's corps. McPherson had Decatur. At the same time Thomas crossed ridden from Sherman to Dodge's moving Peach-tree Creek, on the 19th, in the face column, and had entered a wood almost of the Confederate intrenchments, skir- alone, for observation, in the rear of mishing heavily at every step. At this Smith's column. At that moment Hardee juncture, General Rousseau, who had charged upon the Nationals, and his men swept through Alabama and northern Georgia, joined Sherman with 2,000 cavalry. On the 20th the National armies had all closed in, converging towards Atlanta, and at 4 P.M. the Confederates, under Hood, made a sor tie, and struck Hooker's corps with great strength. The Confederates were re pulsed and driven back to their intrenchments. The entire National loss in this conflict was 1,500 men; Sherman estimated that of the Confederates at not less than 5,000 men. Hood left on the field 500 dead, 1,000 severely wounded, and many prisoners. On the morning of the 21st the Confederates had abandoned their position on the south side of Peach- tree Creek, and Sherman believed they were evacu ating Atlanta. He pressed on towards the town in a narrow semicircle, when, at the average distance of 2 miles from it, the Nationals were were pouring into a gap between Blair and confronted by an inner line of intrench- Dodge. McPherson had just given an or- ments much stronger than the one just der from his place in the wood for a bri- abandoned. Behind these swarmed a Con- gade to fill that gap, when the bullet of a federate host. On the 22d, McPherson sharp-shooter killed him. His body was re moved from Decatur to assail this strong covered during the heat of the battle that line ; Logan's corps formed his centre, ensued. Logan immediately took command Dodge's his right, and Blair's his left. The of the Army of the Tennessee. At that latter had driven the Confederates from moment the battle was general all along a commanding eminence the evening be- the line, and raged fiercely for several fore, and the Nationals proceeded to plant hours. At 4 P.M. there was a brief lull in a battery upon it. the contest. Then 51 charge of the Con- Hood had left a sufficient number of federates broke Logan's line, pushed back 231 THE FORTIFICATIONS AROUND ATLANTA. ATLANTA ATLANTIC TELEGBAPH a brigade in much disorder, and took pos- On the 25th all of Sherman's munitions session of two important batteries. Sher- of war, supplies, and sick and wounded man ordered up reinforcements, and Lo- men were sent to his intrenched position gan soon recovered the ground lost. Very on the Chattahoochee, the siege of At- soon the Confederates gave way and fell lanta was raised, and the Nationals began back to their defences. a grand flanking movement, which events The losses on both sides were heavy, had delayed, and which finally caused That of the Nationals was 3,722, of whom Hood to abandon the coveted post, cross about 1,000 were prisoners. Generals the Chattahoochee, and make a formidable Thomas and Schofield having well closed raid upon Sherman's communications, up, Hood was firmly held behind his inner The Nationals entered Atlanta as victors line of intrenchments. Sherman concluded on Sept. 2, 1864, and the national flag was to make a flank movement, and sent Stone- unfurled over the court-house. Two days man with about 5,000 cavalry, and Me- afterwards, Sherman issued an order for Cook with another mounted force, includ- the inhabitants to leave the town within ing Rousseau's cavalry, to destroy the five days, that the place might be appropri- railways in Hood's rear. McCook per- ated to military purposes. He deemed the formed his part well, but Stoneman, de- measure humane, under the circum- parting from Sherman's instructions, did stances, for he expected the Confeder- not accomplish much. Simultaneously ates to attack him there. To a remon- with these raids, Slocum began (July 27) strance by Hood, he replied. "God will a flanking movement from Atlanta. Hood judge me in good time, and He will pro- had penetrated Sherman's design, knew nounce whether it be more humane to of changes in his army, and acted prompt- fight with a town full of women and the ly. Under cover of an artillery fire, he families of a brave people at our backs, or moved out with the larger part of his to remove them in time to places of safety army (July 28), with the expectation of among their own friends." In a few days finding Howard's forces in confusion. He Atlanta was thoroughly evacuated by the was mistaken, and disastrous consequences civilians. followed. He threw heavy masses of his Atlantic Ocean. See COAST AND GEO- troops upon Logan's corps on Howard's DETIC SURVEY, UNITED STATES. right, and was met by a fire that made Atlantic Telegraph. In 1843 (Aug. fearful havoc in their ranks. They re- 10), Prof. Samuel F. B. Morse, who had coiled, but returned to the attack again endowed the electro-magnetic telegraph and again. The battle raged fearfully with intellectual power, in a letter to the from noon until about 4 P.M., when the Secretary of the Treasury of the United Confederates retired to their intrench- States, remarked, after alluding to recent ments, leaving several hundred of their experiments, "The practical inference dead on the field. Hood's entire loss in from this law is, that a telegraphic com- this struggle was about 5,000 men; that munication on my plan may, with cer- of the Nationals did not exceed 600. Lo- tainty, be established across the Atlantic, gan captured 2,000 muskets, and took 233 Startling as this may now seem, the time prisoners. Sherman extended his right 'will come when this project will be real- along an intrenched line to the junction ized." Almost eleven years afterwards an of two railways at East Point, over which attempt was made to establish telegraphic came the supplies for Atlanta and Hood's communication between America and Eu- army; and the latter, extending a parallel rope by means of an insulated metallic line of works, stood on the defensive, cable under the sea. Cyrus W. Field, a Sherman's long-range guns kindled de- New York merchant, was applied to for structive fires in Atlanta. At length Hood, aid in completing a land line f telegraph who had lost half his infantry in rash en- on the Morse plan, then in the course of counters, in sheer desperation sent out construction across Newfoundland about Wheeler with his cavalry to break up 400 miles. The question occurred to him, Sherman's communications and capture "Why not carry the line across the supplies. Kilpatrick made a successful ocean?" and with his usual pluck and en counter-movement. ergy he proceeded to the accomplishment 232 ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH of such an enterprise. On March 10, 1854, the success of the enterprise by which the five gentlemen met at the house of Mr. two countries were connected by such a Field, on Gramercy Park, New York, and mysterious tie. The Queen hoped that it signed an agreement for an association would " prove an additional link between called " The New York, Newfoundland, and the nations, whose friendship is founded London Telegraph Company." They ob- upon their common interest and reciprocal tained from the legislature of Newfound- esteem." To this the President cordially land a charter guaranteeing an exclusive responded, and asked : " Will not all na- right, for fifty years, to establish a tele- tions of Christendom spontaneously unite graph from the American continent to that in the declaration that it shall be for- island, and thence to Europe. These gen- ever neutral, and that its communications tlemen were Peter Cooper, Moses Taylor, shall be held sacred in passing to their Marshall O. Roberts, Chandler White, and places of destination even in the midst of Cyrus W. Field. Twenty-five years after- hostilities?" Bonfires and illuminations wards, all but one (Mr. White) were liv- throughout the Union followed these com ing, and again met in the same room, and munications. The London Times said around the same table whereon that asso- (Aug. 6, 1858), "Since the discovery of ciation was signed, with the same attor- Columbus, nothing has been done in any ney of the association then engaged, degree comparable to the vast enlargement David Dudley Field. which has thus been given to the sphere Mr. Cooper was chosen president of the of human activity." In a very short time company. Mr. Field procured a cable in the cable ceased to work, and it was pro- England to span the waters between Cape nounced a failure. It was even intimated Ray and Cape Breton Island. It was sent that the reputed despatches were only part out in 1855, and was lost in an attempt of a huge fraud. Mr. Field's faith never to lay it. It was recovered, and was sue- faltered, though discouragements that cessfully laid in 1856. The same year Mr. would have paralyzed the energies of most Field organized in London the " Atlantic men were encountered. He crossed the At- Telegraph Company " to carry the line lantic several times to resuscitate the corn- across the ocean. Mr. Field subscribed pany. The cable had cost $1,256,250, and for one-fourth of the stock of the com- the expenses of the company up to Dec. pany. The American and British govern- 1, 1858, amounted to $1,834,500. The ments gave them aid in ships, and during Civil War broke out in 1861, and it was 1857 and 1858 expeditions were at sea, not until 1865 that another expedition to laying a cable across the ocean to lay a cable was fitted out. The Great Valentia on the western coast of Ire- Eastern then carried an improved cable, land. Twice, in 1857, the attempt While laying it, a sudden lurch of the ship failed, but was successful the follow- snapped the line, and it was lost. The ing year. Two vessels, with portions of company was discouraged. Mr. Field the cable, met in mid-ocean, July 28, 1858. went to Thomas Brassey, a great and The portions were spliced, and they sailed liberal English capitalist, and told him for Ireland and Newfoundland respective- that the Atlantic Telegraph Company had ly, and succeeded in laying a continuous suddenly come to a stand-still. "Mr. line across the Atlantic. It was 1,950 Field," said Mr. Brassey, " don't be dis- miles in length, and traversed water two- couraged; go down to the company and thirds of the distance over 2 miles in tell them to go ahead, and, whatever the depth. These wonderful facts were com- cost, I will bear one-tenth of the whole." municated by Mr. Field, by telegram, That company and the " Telegraph Con- f rom Trinity Bay, Newfoundland, on Aug. struction and Maintenance Company " 5, 1858, and created intense interest all joined in forming a new association known over the country. % as the " Anglo-American Telegraph Com- The first public messages across the At- pany," with a capital of $3,000,000. An- lantic were transmitted, Aug. 16, 1858, by other cable was laid, and permanent elec- Queen Victoria to President Buchanan, trie communication between Europe and and by him in an immediate reply, in America was established July 27, 1866. which they congratulated each other on After twelve years of hard and anxious 233 AT LEE AUCHMUTY labor, during which time Mr. Field crossed the ocean nearly fifty times, he saw the great work accomplished. He had been nobly aided by men in Europe and Amer ica. Congress voted him the thanks of the nation and a gold medal, while the Prime Minister of England declared that it was only the fact that he was a citizen of an other country that prevented his receiving high honors from the British government. The glory of his achievement transcends all that man could bestow. See CABLES, OCEAN ; FIELD, CYBUS W. At Lee, SAMUEL JOHN, military offi cer; born in Pennsylvania, in 1738. He commanded a company of Pennsylvanians in the French and Indian War. Entering the Continental army, Pennsylvania line, he commanded a battalion in the battle of Long Island, Aug. 27, 1776, where he was made prisoner and remained some time in the hands of the British. After wards he was appointed a commissioner to treat with the Indians. He was a mem ber of the Continental Congress from 1778 to 1782. He died in Philadelphia, Novem ber, 1786. Atlixco, BATTLE AT. General Lee marched from Puebla (Mexico) in Oc tober, 1847, to attack the Mexican Gen eral Rea, of Santa Ana's army, at Atlixco, 30 miles from that place. Lane's cavalry first encountered Rea's advanced guard, and skirmished until the arrival of his infantry, when the Mexicans fell back tow ards Atlixco, keeping up a running fight. Less than 2 miles from that place their main body was discovered (Oct. 18, 1847). Lane's cavalry dashed in among them and drove them into a thick chaparral, which the horses could not enter. The cavalry dismounted, entered the thicket, and there a long and fierce hand-to-hand encounter ensued. The rest of the Americans com ing up, the Mexicans were forced into the town, when Lane's artillery, posted on a hill, cannonaded the place most severely by the light of the moon. The Mexicans were driven away with much loss. At Atlixco Santa Ana's troops finally deserted him, and he fled alone towards the coast. So ended the active hostilities of the Mexi can War. Attainder, ACTS OF, in English law, punishing a person by declaring his " blood attainted," and involving forfeiture of property, have been numerous. Two wit nesses in cases of high treason were neces sary where corruption of blood was in curred, unless the party accused confess or stand mute. In the United States the Constitution explicitly says: "No bill of attainder shall be passed, and no attainder of treason, in consequence of a judicial sentence, shall work corruption of blood or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted." Attakappa Indians, a tribe found on the borders of the Gulf of Mexico, west of the Mississippi River, in southern Lou isiana and eastern Texas. The Choctaws named them Attakappas, or Man-eaters. The French were the first Europeans who discovered them; and the Attakappas aid ed the latter in a war with the Natchez and Chickasaws. When Louisiana- was ceded to the United States in 1803, there were only about 100 of this nation on their ancient domain, near Vermilion Bay ou, and they had almost wholly disap peared by 1825. What their real name was, or whence they came, may never be known. Their language was peculiar, com posed of harsh monosyllables. Attiwandaronk Indians, members of the family of the Hurons and Iroquois, named by the French the Neutral Nation. In early times they inhabited both banks of the Niagara River, but were mostly in Canada. They were first visited in 1627 by the Recollet Father Daillon, and by Bre"beuf and Chaumonot in 1642. The Iroquois attacked them in 1651-53, when a part of them submitted and joined the Senecas, and the remainder fled westward and joined the remnant of the fallen Hu rons on the borders of Lake Superior. Attorney-General of the United States. See CABINET, PRESIDENT'S. Attu, one of the Aleutian Islands, the most westerly point of the United States. It lies 400 miles from Kamchatka. Call ing Attu the western extremity of the United States, the city of San Francisco, Cal., is near the middle of its geographical extent east and west, the territories of the United States stretching through 120 de grees of longitude. Auchmuty, RICHARD TYLDEN, philan thropist; born in New York City, in 1831; became an architect, and for many years was associated in practice with Jamee 234 AUDENBIED AUCKW8TA Renwick. He served in the Union army during the war, and after its close he re fused several public offices, retired from business and applied himself to works of benevolence. In 1881 he and his wife established the New York Trade Schools, on a plan entirely original, at a cost of $250,000. J. Pierpont Morgan made the success of this institution permanent by giving it an endowment of $500,000 in 1892. He died in Lenox, Mass., July 18, 1893. Audenried, JOSEPH GRAIN, military officer; born in Pottsville, Pa., Nov. 6, 1839; graduated at West Point in 1861; served throughout the Civil War; lieuten ant-colonel for gallant conduct in the At lanta campaign, 1865; colonel of staff in 1S69. He died in Washington, June 3, 1880. Auditor, under the United States gov ernment, the title of an officer having charge of various branches of public ac counts. Each of the departments has one such officer, with a deputy. See CABINET, PRESIDENT'S. Audubon, JOHN JAMES, ornithologist; born in New Orleans, May 4, 1780; was the son of a French admiral. Educated at Paris, he acquired much skill as an artist JOHN JAMKS (From an old print.) under the instruction of the celebrated David. At the age of seventeen years he began to make a collection of drawings of the birds of America, and became a most devoted student of the feathered tribes of our country. So early as 1810 he went down the Ohio River with hia wife and child in an open boat, to a con genial spot for a forest home. He visited almost every region of the United States. In some of his Western excursions, Wil son, the ornithologist, was his companion. In 1826 he went to Europe to secure sub scriptions to his great work, The Birds of America. It was issued in numbers, each containing five plates, the subjects drawn and colored the size and tints of life. It was completed in 4 volumes, in 1838. Of the 170 subscribers to the work, at $1,000 each, nearly one-half came from England and France. He also prepared a work entitled Ornithological Biogra phies, and had partly completed a work entitled Quadrupeds of America, when he died. His two sons, who inherited his tastes and much of his genius, finished this work, which was published in 1850. His residence, in the latter years of his life, was on the banks of the Hudson, not far from Washington Heights. He died in New York City, Jan. 27, 1851. Auger, CHRISTOPHER COLON, military officer; born in New York July 10, 1821; was graduated at West Point in 1843. He served as aide-de-camp to Generals Hopping and Gushing in the war with Mexico, and in 1861 was made a brigadier- general of volunteers, after serving under McDowell. He took command of a division under Banks, and was wounded at the battle of Cedar Mountain, Aug. 9, 1862; the same month he was made major-gen eral of volunteers. In November, 1862, he reported to General Banks for ser vice in a Southern expedition, and was very active in the siege and capture of Port Hudson. From October, 1863, to Au gust, 1866, he had command of the Depart ment of Washington, and in 1867 he was assigned to the Department of the Platte. In 1869 he was made brigadier-general U. S. A., and in 1885 was retired. He died in Washington, D. C., Jan. 16, 1898. Augusta, city and county-seat of Rich mond county, Ga.; on the Savannah River at the head of steamboat navigation; 120 miles northwest of Savannah. It is one of the largest and most progressive manu facturing cities in the South. It was founded by English settlers under Ogle- thorpe, and received the name of an Eng lish princess. In 1817 it was incorporated 235 AUSTIN AUTOMATIC GUN a city, and was for many years the most which he called San Felipe de Austin. important inland place in the State. The Austin was given almost absolute power population in 1890 was 33,300; in 1900, over his colony; but his government was 39,441. wise and, on the whole, quite successful. .When Cornwallis proceeded to subju- In 1833 the people of Texas framed a gate South Carolina, he sent Lieutenant- State constitution, which Austin took to Colonel Brown, a Tory leader, to hold Au- the city of Mexico for ratification by the gusta. Over this garrison Pickens and National government. While there he Clarke had kept watch, and when, on May wrote a letter to the municipal authorities 20, 1781, they were joined by Lee and his of Bexar, advising the Texans to organize legion, they proceeded to invest the fort a government of their own. For this there. They took Fort Galphin, 12 miles Austin was arrested while on his way below, on the 21st, and then an officer was home, taken back to Mexico, and detained sent to demand the surrender of Augusta, from early in 1834 till the summer of Lieutenant-Colonel Brown was one of the 1835. On his return to Texas he joined most cruel of the Tories in that region, the revolution; became commander-in-chief and the partisans were anxious to make of the Texas army; and was appointed him a prisoner. He refused to surrender, commissioner to the United States. As A regular siege began May 23, and con- commissioner he did Texas good service, tinned until June 4, when a general as- In the fall of 1836 he was a candidate for sault was agreed upon. Hearing of this, President of the new republic, but was de- Brown proposed to surrender, and the feated by Sam Houston. He was ap- town was given up the next day. In this pointed Secretary of State by Houston, siege the Americans lost fifty - one men and was engaged in negotiations to obtain killed and wounded; and the British lost official recognition of the independence of fifty-two killed, and 334, including the Texas by the United States, when he died, wounded, were made prisoners. For sev- Dec. 27, 1836. eral years after the war it was the capital Australian Ballot. See BALLOT RE- of Georgia. It was garrisoned by Con- FORM. federate troops during the Civil War, and Automatic Gun, a light mounted was twice threatened by Sherman in his breech-loading gun, so constructed that marches from Atlanta to the sea and the power in the recoil of each shot dis- through South Carolina. charges the empty cartridge case, reloads, Austin, OSCAR PHELPS, statistician; and returns the gun to its firing position, born in Illinois; engaged from early life In the Maxim gun, invented by Hiram S. as a contributor, reporter, editor, and Maxim, the constant pressure upon the Washington correspondent for metropoli- trigger keeps it in firing action till all tan newspapers. In 1892 and 1896 he of its ammunition is discharged. A hun- edited the campaign documents for the dred or more cartridges, the number de- Republican National Committee, and in pending upon the size of the gun, are May, 1898, was appointed chief of the strung on a belt and are directly fed into Bureau of Statistics of the United States the ammunition box. There are two calibres Treasury Department. He is author of of the Maxim gun: the first being the Uncle Sam's Secrets; Uncle Sam's Sol- size of an ordinary rifle and easily held diers; Colonial Systems of the World; out at arm's length; the second fires a Submarine Telegraphs of the World, etc. one-pound ball. Both of these guns can See COMMERCE, A CENTURY OP. fire several hundred shots a minute, the Austin, STEPHEN FULLER, colonist; first about 700. The Colt gun is also born in Austinville, Va., Nov. 3, 1793, son fully automatic. It has but a single of Moses Austin of Connecticut, who in barrel, which, owing to its thickness, does 1820 received from Mexico permission to not heat quickly, and consequently does colonize 300 families in the province of not need a water-jacket. The barrel is at- Texas. Moses Austin died June 10, 1821 ; tached to a breech casing, and the belts but his son Stephen was recognized as heir are either contained in boxes or may rest to the grant. In December, 1821, he estab- on the ground. When fastened to the lished on the Brazos River a settlement casing, the boxes move with it. 236 ATTTTOSE AVEBELL Auttose, BATTLE OF. Late in Novem- man utterly destroyed the arsenal, with her, 1813, the Creek country was invaded all the valuable public property of the by troops from Georgia. A cry for Confederates there. Moving on, Sherman help from the settlers among the Creeks in accordance with his usual plan, made had come to the ears of the Geor- movements to distract his adversary. He gians, when Gen. John Floyd, at the head sent Slocum with four divisions of the of 950 militia of that State and 450 friend- left wing, preceded by cavalry, towards ly Indians, guided by Mordecai, a Jew Averasboro and the main road to Raleigh; trader, entered the region of the hostiles while two divisions of that wing, with the from the east. Crossing the Chattahoo- train, took the direct road to Goldsboro. chee, he pushed on towards the Tallapoosa, Howard moved with four divisions on the where he was informed that a large num- right, ready to assist the left if necessary, ber of hostile Indians had gathered at the It was a terrible march over quagmire village of Auttose, on the " Holy Ground/' roads, made so by incessant rain. They on which the prophets had made the bar- had to be corduroyed continually. Slocum barians believe no white man could set found Hardee intrenched near Averasboro foot and live. It was on the left bank with about 20,000 men. General Williams, of the Tallapoosa, about 20 miles above with the 20th Corps, took the lead in mak- its confluence with the Coosa. Floyd en- ing an attack, and very soon he broke the camped unobserved near the town on the Confederate left wing into fragments and evening of Nov. 28, and at dawn he ap- drove it back upon a second and stronger peared before the village with his troops line. Ward's division pushed the fugitives arrayed for battle in three columns. He and captured three guns and 217 men; also had two or three field-pieces. There and the Confederates left 108 of their dead were two towns, one below the other. The on the field. Kilpatrick was just securing towns were simultaneously attacked, and a footing on the road to Bentonville a general battle ensued. After a brief when he was furiously attacked by contest, the roar of artillery and a furious McLaw's division, and, after a hard fight, bayonet charge made the Indians fall back was pushed back. Then the whole of in terror to whatever shelter they could Slocum's line advanced, drove Hardee find. Their dwellings, about 400 in num- within his intrenchments, and pressed him ber, were burned, and the smitten and so heavily that on the dark and stormy dismayed barbarians were hunted and night of March 16, 1865, he retreated butchered with fiendish cruelty. It was to Smithfield. Slocum lost in the bat- estimated that fully 200 of the Indians tie seventy-seven killed and 477 wounded, were murdered. Floyd lost eleven men Hardee's loss was estimated at about the killed and fifty- four wounded. He had same. Ward pursued the fugitives through marched 120 miles, laid waste the town, Averasboro, but soon gave up the chase, and destroyed the inhabitants in the space Averell, WILLIAM WOODS, military offi- of seven days. cer; born in Cameron, N. Y., Nov. 5, Averasboro, BATTLE OF. On his march 1832; graduated at West Point in 1855. from Fayetteville to Goldsboro, Sherman's Entering the Mounted Rifles, he distin- forces were menaced by the Confederates, guished himself in New Mexico by the and Kilpatrick had several skirmishes with surprise and capture of a body of Ind- Wheeler and Hampton. He had struck ians. In that warfare he was severely the rear of Hardee's column (March 8, wounded. Soon after the breaking out of 1865) in its retreat towards Fayetteville. the Civil War he was chosen colonel of a He had fought Hampton, and was defeat- regiment of Pennsylvania cavalry, and ed, losing many men (who were made became brigadier-general of volunteers in prisoners) and guns. Kilpatrick barely September, 1862. He had taken an active escaped on foot in a swamp, where he part in the battles on the Peninsula and rallied his men. They fell upon Hampton, in Pope's campaign in July and August, who was plundering their camp, routed 1862. He reinforced Pleasonton in the ad- him, and retook the guns. Hampton had vance after the battle of Antietam, and was captured 103 Nationals and killed or afterwards very active in Virginia, espe- wounded eighty. At Fayetteville, Sher- dally in the mountain regions, in 1863i 237 AVEBELL AVEBT5T WILLIAM WOODS AVERELL. There had been comparative quiet in of all arms, and moved southward, driving that region after the close of 1861 until Confederates under Gen. " Mudwall " (W. the summer and fall of 1863, when Gen- S.) Jackson to a post on the top of Droop eral Averell, with a cavalry force, made Mountain, in Greenbrier county ; stormed extensive raids in that mountainous coun- them (Nov. 6, 1863), and drove them into try. Before the close of that year he Monroe county, with a loss of over 300 had nearly purged western Virginia of men, three guns, and 700 small-arms, armed Confederates, and seriously inter- AverelPs loss was about 100 men. rupted railway communication between the West Virginia was now nearly free 6f armed Confederates, and Averell started, in December, with a strong force of Vir ginia mounted infantry, Pennsylvania cav alry, and Swing's battery, to destroy rail way communications between the armies of Lee in Virginia and Bragg in Tennessee. He crossed the mountains amid ice and snow, and first struck the Virginia and Tennessee Railway at Salem, on the head waters of the Roanoke River, where he de stroyed the station-house, rolling-stock, and Confederate supplies. Also, in the course of six hours his troops tore up the track, heated and ruined the rails, burned five bridges, and destroyed several cul verts over the space of 15 miles. This raid aroused all the Confederates of the mountain region, and seven separate com mands were arranged in a line extending from Staunton to Newport to intercept armies of Lee and Bragg. Col. John Tol- the raider. He dashed through this line land had led a cavalry raid in these moun- at Covington in the face of some oppo- tain regions in July, 1863. He made a sition, destroyed the bridges behind him, descent upon Wytheville, on the Virginia and one of his regiments, which had been and Tennessee Railway, where his force cut off from the rest, swam the stream was roughly handled by Confederates, and joined the others, with the loss of Tolland was killed, and his command re- four men drowned. Averell captured turned to the Kanawha. In a ride of during the raid about 200 men. " My about 400 miles, during eight days, they command," he said in his report (Dec. had suffered much, and lost eighty-two 21, 1863), "has marched, climbed, slid, men and 300 horses. A little later General and swam 340 miles since the 8th inst." Averell started from Tygart's Valley; pass- He reported a loss of six men drowned, ed through several counties southward; five wounded, and ninety missing, drove Confederates over Warm Spring He performed gallant service under Mountains; destroyed saltpetre - works ; Hunter, Sigel, and Sheridan in the Shen- menaced Stauntom, and was confronted andoah Valley in 1864; and was brevetted by a large force of Gen. S. Jones's com- major-general of volunteers in March, mand near White Sulphur Springs, where 1865. The same year he resigned his com- a conflict for Rock Gap occurred, and last- mission of captain in the regular army, ed the greater part of Aug. 26 and 27. He was consul-general at Montreal in Averell was repulsed, and made his way 1866-69. In 1888, by special act of Con- back to Tygart's Valley, having lost 207 gress, he was reappointed a captain in men and a Parrott gun, which burst dur- the army, and soon afterwards was ing the fight. The Confederates lost 156 retired. He died in Bath, N. Y., Feb. 3, men. Much later in the year Averell made 1900. another aggressive movement. He left Avery, SAMUEL PUTNAM, benefactor; Beverly early in November with 5,000 men born in New York City, March 17, 1822; 238 AVERY AZTECS began his business career as a copper- the Wright Brothers, Dec. 17, 1903. It plate and wood engraver; in 1865 became would be impracticable to give the whole an art publisher and dealer; and retired story, but the latest results can be given in 1888. He was a founder of the Metro- in brief form. Flights during 1909 num- politan Museum of Art, and is a life bered many thousands, with an astonish- member of the American Geographical ingly small number of casualities. Exhi- Society, American Historical Society, bitions were given in Paris, London, American Zoological Society, and Ameri- Frankfort, Reims, Blackpool, Doncaster, can Museum of Natural History. He has New York, etc. Bleriot flew across the also been president of the Grolier Club, Channel from France to England, July 13, and of the Sculpture Society. In 1891 he and William Wright made the spectacular and his wife established the Avery Ar- flight from Governor's Island to Grant's chitectural Library in Columbia Univer- Tomb and back without a stop, imme- sity, in memory of their deceased son. diately over the English, French, German, In 1900 he gave to the NEW YORK PUBLIC etc., war vessels, which were anchored in LIBRARY (q. v.) a collection of photo- the Hudson River on Oct. 4, during the graphs, lithographs, and etchings, amount- great Hudson-Fulton Celebration. The ing in all to over 17,500 pieces, and, with distance was twenty-one miles, and the this collection, a large number of art time from starting to return to Govern- volumes. He died Aug. 12, 1904. or's Island, thirty-three minutes. At the Avery, WAIGHTSTILL, lawyer; born in Los Angeles exhibition Paulhan made Groton, Conn., May 3, 1745; studied law many records. One of height, having in Maryland, and began its practice in ascended about four thousand feet; an- Mecklenburg county, N. C., in 1769. He other a flight from Los Angeles to the Pa- was prominent there among the opposers cific Ocean and back (Jan. 18, 1910), a of the obnoxious measures of the British distance of forty-seven miles in all, in Parliament bearing on the colonies, and less than sixty- three minutes, was one of the promoters and signers of Ayres. ROMEYN BECK, military officer; the famous " Mecklenburg Declaration of born in East Creek, N. Y., Dec. 20, 1825 ; Independence." He was a delegate to was graduated at West Point in 1847. He the Provincial Congress at Hillsborough served in the artillery in the war with in 1775 which organized the military Mexico, and commanded a battery in the forces of the State; and in the sum- battle of Bull Run. In October, 1861, he mer of 1776 he joined the army, under became chief of artillery of Gen. W. F. General Rutherford, in the Cherokee coun- Smith's division, and soon afterwards of try. He was a commissioner in framing the 6th Corps. He was in the campaign the treaty of Holston, which effected peace on the Peninsula, and the chief battles on the Western frontier. Mr. Avery was afterwards in Virginia and Maryland. He active in civil affairs; and in 1779 was served with distinction through the Rich- colonel of the county militia, serving with mond campaign of 1864-65; was brevetted great zeal during the British invasion of major-general of volunteers in March, North Carolina. He removed to Burke 1865; promoted to colonel of the 3d Ar- county in 1781, which he represented in tillery, July 18, 1879; and died in Fort the State legislature many years. He Hamilton, N. Y., Dec. 4, 1888. was the first State attorney-general " of Aztecs. The most probable that is, North Carolina. He died in Burke county, the least unlikely traditions represent N. C., March 15, 1821. that the Nahuatlecas, the great family of Aviation. Flying by means of " hea- which the Aztecs were a tribe or nation, vier-than-the-air " machines. Hundreds displaced a people of much higher culture, of types have been constructed from the and of whose civilization that of the days of Besnier and Degen to Lilienthal, Aztecs was only a rude reflection. Tradi- but all were failures, as human power was tion represents the seven tribes of the too weak, and steam required the carry- Nahuatlecas as emerging from seven cav ing of an engine and fuel. The invention erns in the region called Aztlan, possibly of the gasoline motor solved the problem. Arizona and New Mexico. See CORTEZ; The first successful flight was made by MONTEZUMA; VELASQUEZ. 239 Various universities con- Babbitt, ISAAC, inventor ; born in Taun- lege, and he was very efficient in the or- ton, Mass., July 26, 1799. About 1831 he ganization of that institution. He visited made, in Taunton, the first Britannia-ware Europe to study various institutions of manufactured in the United States, and in learning there; and in 1839 he published 1839 he invented the anti-friction metal a Report on the European System of Edu- which bears his name. Congress gave him cation. In 1841 he became the first prin- $20,000 for his invention; and he took cipal of the Philadelphia High School; out patents in England (1844) and Rus- and in 1843 he was appointed superintend- sia (1847). He died in Somerville, Mass., ent of the United States Coast Survey. May 26, 1862. His services in this field were of the high- Babcock, KENDRIC CHARLES, educator; est importance, born in South Brookfield, N. Y., Sept. 8, 1864; was graduated at the University of Minnesota in 1889; and became professor of history in the University of California in 1894. Babuyan Islands, a group of small islands in the Balintang Channel, between Formosa and the northern extremity of the island of Luzon in the Philippines. The principal one is Claro Babuyan. These islands are also known as Madjicosima Islands, and administratively were con nected in the past with the Loo-Choo Isl ands. The population in 1898 was sup posed to be about 12,000. See LUZON; PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. Bache, ALEXANDER DALLAS, physicist; born in Philadelphia, Pa., July 19, 1806; was a great-grandson of Dr. Franklin, and was graduated at the United States Mili tary Academy with high honor in 1825, receiving the appointment of lieutenant of engineers, and remaining in the acad emy awhile as assistant professor. Two years he was under Colonel Totten in the construction of military works in New- ferred upon him the honorary degree of port, where he married Miss Fowler, who, LL.D. He published several scientific es- as his wife, was his great assistant in as- says; was a member of the Light-house tronomical observations. He resigned from Board ; a regent of the Smithsonian Insti- the army in 1827, and from that time until tution, and active in various public la- 1832 he was a professor in the Univer- bors. Dr. Bache bequeathed $42,000 to sity of Pennsylvania. Ardently devoted to the Academy of Natural Science in Phila- scientiflc pursuits, he made important dis- delphia, for the promotion of researches ooveries. In 1836 he was chosen president in physical and natural science, by assist- of the board of trustees of Girard Col- ing experimenters and observers. He died 240 ALKTA5DKR DALLAS BACHR. BACHE BAOON in Newport, R. I., Feb. 17, 1867. See Bachman, JOHN, naturalist; born in COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY. Dutchess county, N. Y., Feb. 4, 1790. He Bache, FRANKLIN, chemist; born in was pastor of a Lutheran church at Philadelphia, Pa., Oct. 25, 1792; became Charleston, S. C., in 1815-74; but is best Professor of Chemistry at the Philadel- known from his association with Audu- phia College of Pharmacy and at the Phil- bon in the preparation of his great work adelphia Medical College; published Sys- on ornithology. He contributed the most tern of Chemistry for Students of Medi- of the text on the quadrupeds of North cine, and was associated with Professor America, which Audubon and his sons il- Wood in compiling Dispensatory of the lustrated. He died in Charleston, S. C., United Slates. He died in Philadelphia, Feb. 25, 1874. Pa., March 19, 1864. Bacolor, a town in Luzon, Philippine Bache, GEORGE M., naval officer; born Islands, on the road from Manila to Tar- in the District of Columbia, Nov. 12, lac; about 30 miles northwest of the 1840; was graduated at the Naval Acad- former city. During the British invasion emy in 1860. He became lieutenant in of the Philippines, in 1762, it was for 1862; lieutenant-commmander in 1866; some time the capital of the group, the and commander in 1875; and was retired Spaniards, under fear lest the city of April 5, 1875. He commanded an iron- Manila should be bombarded, hastily re- clad gunboat on the Mississippi early in moving their seat of government. The the Civil War, and behaved with great town attracted considerable attention in bravery before Vicksburg. He was after- 1899 because of the United States mili- wards in command of a little squadron of tary operations against the Filipino in- gunboats in a spirited action near Claren- surgents and the remarkable chase after don, Ark., in June, 1864. He died in Aguinaldo through that section of Luzon. Washington, D. C., Feb. 11, 1896. See AGUINALDO, EMILIO; LUZON. Bache, HARTMAN, engineer; born in Bacon, DELIA, author; born in Tall- Philadelphia, Pa., Sept. 3, 1798; was inadge, 0., Feb. 2, 1811; a sister of Dr. graduated at West Point in 1818, and LEONARD BACON (q. v.) . She published while in the army served continuously as in 1857 The Philosophy of Shakespeare's a topographical engineer, on surveys for Plays, in which she put forth the hy- harbor and river improvements, coast de- pothesis that these plays were not writ- fence, roads, and canals. On March 3, ten by Shakespeare, but by Sir Francis 1865, he was promoted to brigadier-gen- Bacon. She died in Hartford, Conn., eral, the highest rank in the engineer Sept. 2, 1859. corps, and in 1867 was retired. His most Bacon, JOHN MOSBY, military officer; important engineering works were the born in Kentucky, April 17, 1844; en- construction of the Delaware breakwater listed as a private Sept. 22, 1862; was and the successful application of iron commissioned a brigadier-general of vol screw-piles in the building of foundations unteers May 4, 1898; subdued the Chip- of light-houses upon coral-reefs and sandy pewas during the outbreak of 1898; and shoals. He died in Philadelphia, Pa., Oct. served in Cuba during the American- 8, 1872. Spanish War. Bache, SARAH, philanthropist; born in Bacon, LEONARD, clergyman; born in Philadelphia, Pa., Sept. 11, 1744; daugh- Detroit, Mich., Feb. 19, 18$2; gradu- ter of Benjamin Franklin and wife of ated at Yale in 1820, and at Andover Richard Ba<;he; was distinguished Theological Seminary in 1824, and con- throughout the Revolutionary War for nected with Yale Divinity School for her efforts to relieve the condition of many years, and lecturer on American the American troops, collecting money, Church History. He was one of the ed- purchasing medicines and other supplies, itors of the Independent for several years, and directing nearly 3,000 women in the and author of Select Practical Writings work of making clothing and other neces- of Richard Baxter; Thirteen Dicours&s sities for the army. She also performed on the Two Hundredth Anniversary of the valuable service in the hospitals as a First Church in New Haven; Slavery Dis- nurse. She died Oct. 5, 1808. cussed; Genesis of the New England i. Q 241 BACON Churches, etc. He died in New Haven, republicans were very indignant. Rebel- Conn., Dec. 24, 1881. lious murmurs were heard everywhere in Bacon, NATHANIEL, patriot; born in the colony; and the toiling people were Suffolk, England, Jan. 2, 1642. He was taught to regard the aristocracy as their educated at the Inns of Court, London; enemies, and so the majority of them came to America with a considerable fort- were. Having a majority in the legis- jne in 1670; settled in Gloucester county, lature of the colony, they ruled without Va., and owned a large estate high up on any regard for the happiness of the people, the James River. A lawyer by profession Everything for the public good was neg- ind eloquent in speech, he easily exercised lected. There were no roads or bridges great influence over the people. He became in Virginia ; and the people were com- a member of the council in 1672. He was pelled to travel along bridle-paths on a republican in sentiment; and, strongly land, and to ford or swim the streams, opposing the views and public conduct of They journeyed on the water in canoes or Governor Berkeley, the stanch loyalist, he boats, and endured many hardships. The stirred up the people to rebellion. Berke- working-people lived in log-cabins with un- ley, who was very popular at first, had be- glazed windows. There were no villages, come tyrannical and oppressive as an un- At the time, Jamestown, the capital, con- compromising royalist and rigorous exec- sisted of only a church, a State-house, and utor of his royal master's will. At the eighteen dwellings; and, until lately, the same time republicanism had begun a Assembly had met in the hall of an ale- vigorous growth among the people of Vir- house. This was about seventy years after ginia; but it was repressed somewhat by a the founding of the colony, when it con- majority of royalists in the House of Bur- tained 50,000 inhabitants. The large land- gesses; and the council were as pliant owners the aristocracy meanwhile were tools of Berkeley as any courtiers who living in luxury in fine mansions, in paid homage to the King. The governor sight of some beautiful river, surrounded rigidly enforced navigation laws oppres- by negro slaves and other dependants, and sive to colonial commerce; and the mar- enjoying a sort of patriarchal life. The riage laws, and the elective and other governor was clamoring for an increase franchises, were modified, abridged, or of his salary, while his stables and fields abolished. The Church of England was had seventy horses in them, and flocks of made supreme, and was an instrument of sheep were on his great plantation, called persecution in the hands of the dominant " Green Spring." The tendency of such party, in attempts to drive Baptists, a state of society was obvious to every re- Quakers, and Puritans out of Virginia, fleeting mind. Stimulated by these oppressions, repub- It was at this juncture that Bacon licanism grew vigorously in Virginia, and arrived in Virginia, and espoused the the toilers and righteous men of the a-ris- cause of the republicans. In the summer tocracy soon formed a powerful republican of 1675 the Indians, seeing their domain party that threatened ere long to fill the gradually absorbed by the encroaching House of Burgesses with men of their white people, in their despair struck a creed. Berkeley, having a pliant majority heavy blow. As they swept from the of the cavalier class in the Assembly, sane- North through Maryland, John Washing- tioned unjust and arbitrary decrees of the ton, grandfather of the first President of King, who gave to profligate court favor- the United States, opposed them with a ites, first large tracts of land, some of it force of Virginians, and a fierce border war cultivated, in Virginia; and, finally, in ensued. Berkeley, who had the monopoly 1673, he gave to two of them (Lord Cul- of the fur - trade with the barbarians, pepper and Earl of Arlington) "all the treated the latter leniently. Six chiefs, dominion of land and water called Vir- who had come to camp to treat for peace, ginia " for thirty years. were treacherously slain by Englishmen. The best men in the colony of both The wrathful savages strewed their path- parties, alarmed by this proceeding, sent way, in the country between the Rappa- a committee with a remonstrance to the hannock and James rivers, with the dead King, but the mission was fruitless. The bodies of ten Englishmen for every chief 242 BACON that was treacherously murdered, and fore the insurgent chief, and baring his blackened its face with fire. The supine- bosom, exclaimed, "Shoot! shoot! it is a ness of the governor increased the sense fair mark!" Bacon said, respectfully, of insecurity among the people, and a " Not a hair of your head shall be hurt ; deputation headed by Bacon petitioned we have come for our commissions to him for leave to arm and protect them- save our lives from the Indians." The selves. Berkeley, having reason, as he governor, influenced by his judgment when thought, to suspect Bacon of ambitious his anger had cooled, or by his fears, not rather than patriotic motives (for he had only signed the commission, but joined been engaged in an insurrection before), his council in commending Bacon to the refused to grant this prayer. King as a zealous, loyal, and patriotic At this Bacon took fire. He knew the citizen. That was done on July 4, 1676, hidden cause of the refusal, and he at just 100 years before the famous Declara- once proclaimed that he was ready to lead tion of Independence, written by a Vir- the people against the approaching in- gin ia " rebel," THOMAS JEFFERSON (q. 1?.), vaclers without permission, if another proclaimed the English-American colonies white person should be murdered by them. " free and independent States." Very soon news reached him that some on Bacon, so encouraged, immediately his own plantation, near (present) Rich- marched against the Indians. The faith- mond, had been slain. He summoned the less governor, relieved of his presence, people to a consultation. Mounting a crossed the York River, called a conven- stump, he addressed them with impas- tion of the inhabitants of Gloucester sioned eloquence, denounced the governor, county, and proposed to proclaim Bacon and advised his hearers to take up arms a traitor. The convention refused to in their own defence. They were soon em- do so, when the haughty baronet issued bodied in military force, and chose Bacon such a proclamation on his own respon- as their general. He asked the governor sibility, in spite of their remonstrances, to give him a commission as such, but The news of this perfidy reached Bacon was refused; and Bacon marched against at his camp on the Pamunky River. He the Indians without it. Before he had addressed his followers with much reached York River, the governor pro- warmth, saying, " It vexes me to the heart claimed him a rebel, and ordered his fol- that, while I am hunting the wolves and lowers to disperse. A greater portion of tigers that- destroy our lands, I should them followed Bacon's standard, and the myself be pursued as a savage. Shall per- expedition pushed forward; while the sons wholly devoted to their King and lower settlements arose in insurrection, country men who hazard their lives and demanded an immediate dissolution against the public enemy deserve the ap- of the aristocratic Assembly. The Ind- p'ellation of ' rebels ' and ' traitors ' ? The ians were driven back to the Rappahan- whole country is witness to our peaceable nock, a new Assembly was chosen, and behavior. But those in authority, how Bacon was elected to a seat in the House have they obtained their estates? Have of Burgesses from Henrico county. they not devoured the common treasury? The new House represented the popular What arts, what sciences, what learning will. They gave Bacon a commission as have they promoted? I appeal to the general, but Berkeley refused to sign it. King and Parliament, where the cause of Some of the Assembly supported the gov- the people will be heard impartially." ernor in the matter, when Bacon, fearing Under the circumstances, Bacon felt him- treachery, retired to the " Middle Planta- self compelled to lead in a revolution. He tion" (now Williamsburg), where 500 invited the Virginians to meet in conven- followers proclaimed him commander- tion at the Middle Plantation. The best in-chief of the Virginia forces. With men in the colony were there. They de- these he appeared at Jamestown, and bated and deliberated on a warm August demanded his commission. Regarding day from noon until midnight. Bacon's the movement as revolutionary, the gov- eloquence and logic led them to take an ernor again refused to sign it. The sturdy oath to support their leader in subduing old cavalier went out in great anger be- the Indians and in preventing civil war; 243 BACON and again he went against the barbarians. The governor, alarmed by the proceedings at the Middle Plantation, fled, with his council, to the eastern shore of Chesa peake Bay, where, by promises of booty, he tried to raise an army among the in habitants and the seamen of English ves sels there. William Drummond, who had been the first governor of North Carolina, with his brave and patriotic wife, Sarah, was then with Bacon. Mrs. Drummond did much to incite the Virginians to go on in the path of revolution, and she was denounced as " a notorious, wicked rebel." Her husband proposed to Bacon to pro claim government in the colony abdicated by Berkeley on account of his act. It was suggested that a power would come from England that would ruin the republicans in the colony. Sarah snatched up a small stick from the ground, and exclaimed, " I fear the power of England no more than a broken straw. The child that is unborn THB OLD CHURCH TOWKR AT JAMESTOWN, IN 1850. shall have cause to rejoice for the good that will come by the rising of the coun try." The proclamation of abdication was made, on the ground that the governor was fomenting civil war; and writs were issued for a representative convention. Meanwhile Berkeley had gathered a motley host of followers incited by prom ises of plunder; proclaimed the freedom of the slaves of " rebels"; was joined by some Indians from the eastern shore, and the English ships were placed at his ser vice. With this army, commanded by Major Beverly, the governor sailed with five ships and ten sloops, and landed at Jamestown early in September, 1676, where, after piously offering thanksgiving in the church, he proclaimed Bacon a traitor. Bacon was surprised, for he had then few followers in camp; but his ranks swelled rapidly as the news went from plantation to plantation. At the head of a consider able host of patriotic Virginians, he marched towards Jamestown, seizing by the way as hostages the wives of loyalists who were with Berkeley. The republicans appeared before the capital on a moonlit evening, and cast up intrenchments. In vain the governor urged his motley troops to attack them; they were not made of stuff for soldiers. Finally, the royalists stole away in the night, and com pelled the indignant governor to follow them, when Bacon entered Jamestown, and as sumed the reins of civil power. Very soon he was startled by a rumor that the royalists of the upper counties were com ing down upon him. In a council of war it was agreed to burn the capital. The torch was applied at the twilight of a soft September day, and the next morning nothing was left but the brick tower of the church and a few chimneys ( see JAMESTOWN ) . Then Bacon hastened to meet the approaching royalists, who, not disposed to fight, desert ed their leader and joined the "rebels." At the same time the royalists of Glouces ter yielded their allegiance to Bacon, and he resolved to cross the Chesapeake and drive the royalists and Berkeley from Virginia. His plans were suddenly frustrated by a foe deadlier than the malignity of the royalists who opposed him. The malaria from the 244 BACON'S REBELLION BAD LANDS marshes around Jamestown in Septem ber had poisoned his blood, and on Oct. 11, 1676, he died of malignant fever. His followers made but feeble resistance there after; and before November Berkeley re turned to the Peninsula and resumed the functions of government at the Middle Plantation, which was made the capital of Virginia (see WILLIAMSBURG). Bacon had failed ; yet those " do not fail who die in a good cause." His name is embalmed in history as a rebel; had he succeeded, he would have been immortalized as a pa triot. The rebellion cost the colony $500,- 000. See BERKELEY, SIR WILLIAM. Bacon, ROBERT, appointed Assistant Sec retary of State, Oct. 1, 1905, succeeded Elihu Root as Secretary, Jan. 25, 1909. Bacon's Rebellion. See BACON, NA THANIEL. Bad Axe, BATTLE AT. See BLACK HAWK. Badeau, ADAM, military officer; born in New York, Dec. 29, 1831; served on the staff of General Sherman early in the Civil War; was severely wounded at Port Hudson; became General Grant's mil itary secretary in January, 1864; aide-de camp to the general of the army in March, 1865; retired in 1869, holding the rank of brevet brigadier-general, U. S. V. He was consul-general in London in 1870-81, and was consul-general in Havana in 1882- 84. He published Military History of U. 8. Grant; Grant in Peace, etc. He died in Ridgewood, N. J., March, 19, 1895. Badgar, OSCAR CHARLES, naval officer; born in Windham, Conn., Aug. 12, 1823; served throughout the Mexican and Civil wars; retired as commodore in 1885; died June 20, 1899. Badger, GEORGE EDMUND, statesman; born in Newbern, N. C., April 13, 1795; member of the State legislature, 1816-20; judge of the North Carolina Superior Court, 1820-25; appointed Secretary of the Navy by President Harrison, 1841; United States Senator, 1846-55; opposed secession of North Carolina in 1861. He died in Raleigh, N. C., May 11, 1866. Badger State, a name popularly given to the State of Wisconsin on account of the number of badgers found there by the early settlers. Bad Lands, THE, "Mauvaises Terres," of the old French fur-traders' dialect, are an extensive tract in the Dakotas, Wyo* ming, and northwestern Nebraska, between the North Fork of the Platte and the South Fork of the Cheyenne rivers, west, south, and southeast of the Black Hills. It lies mostly between long. 103 and 105 N., with an area as yet not perfectly de fined, but estimated to cover about 60,000 square miles. There are similar lands in the Green River region, of which Fort Bridger is the centre, and in southeastern Oregon. They belong to the Miocene period, geologically speaking. The surface materials are for the most part white and yellowish indurated clays, sands, marls, and occasional thin beds of lime and sand stone. The locality is fitly described as one of the most wonderful regions of the globe. It is held by geologists that dur ing the geological period named a vast fresh-water lake system covered this por tion of our continent, when the compara tively soft materials which compose the present surface were deposited. As these lakes drained off, after the subsidence of the plains farther east, resulting in the formation of the Missouri Valley, the orig inal lake beds were worn into canyons that wind in every conceivable direction. Here and there abrupt, almost perpendicular portions of the ancient beds remain in all imaginable forms, some resembling the ruins of abandoned cities. " Towers, spires, cathedrals, obelisks, pyramids, and monu ments " of various shapes appear on every side, as far as the eye can range. Dr. Hayden, the earliest explorer of this re gion, said : " Not unf requently the rising or setting sun will light up these grand old ruins with a wild, strange beauty, re minding one of a city illuminated in the night, as seen from some high point. The harder layers project from the sides of the canyons with such regularity that they appear like seats of some vast weird amphitheatre." Through all this country rainfall is very light; the earth absorbs the most of what rain does fall, and water and grass are very scanty. The surface- rock is so soft that it disintegrates rap idly, covering the lower grounds in many places to a depth of several feet with a soft, powdery soil into which animals sink as in snow, while when wet it becomes a stiff mud of impassable depth. These lands are plainly unsuited for agriculture, 245 BAFFIN BAILEY and with rare exceptions, here and there, Bahama Islands, THE, were granted by are of little value for grazing purposes. Charles II. (1667) to the eight courtiers They are, however, one of the most aston- to whom he granted the Carol inas. They ishing treasuries of fossil remains to be had sent William Sayle to bring them found anywhere. The soft clayey deposits some account of the Carolina coast. His are in some places literally filled with the vessel was driven by a storm among the bones of extinct species of the horse, rhi- Bahama Islands. There he gained much noceros, elephant, hog, camel, a deer that knowledge of them, especially of New strongly resembled a hog, sabre-toothed Providence, which had a good harbor. On lions, and other marvellous creatures, his return to England, King Charles gave which have rendered this section of the a patent for the Bahamas to the proprie- earth a study of the highest interest to tors of Carolina. At that time these isl- geologists of all lands. ands were uninhabited, and the group was Baffin, WILLIAM, navigator; said to a favorite resort for buccaneers. In have been born in London about 1584. He 1776 Commodore Hopkins captured Ne\V made voyages to West Greenland in 1612- Providence, but soon abandoned it as un- 15, and to Spitzbergen in 1614. In 1610 tenable. During our Civil W T ar the isl' he commanded a vessel which reached, it ands were the headquarters of the block- is said, lat. 81 30' N., and is supposed to ade-runners, which were chiefly British have ascertained the limits of the great ships. See BLOCKADE-KUNNERS. bay that bears his name. He was the Bailey, GUILDFORD DUDLEY, military author of two books, in the first of which officer; born at Martinsburg, Lewis co., he gave a new method of discovering 'the N. Y., June 4, 1834; was graduated at longitude at sea by an observation of the West Point in 1856, and entered, as stars. He was killed by the Portuguese lieutenant, the 2d Artillery, then sta=. at the siege of Ormuz, May 23, 1622. tioned at Fort Ontario, Oswego, N. Y., Bagley, WORTH, naval officer; born in where, in 1858, he married a daughter Raleigh, N. C., April 6, 1874; was gradu- of Col. G. W. Patten, U. S. A. He was ated at the United States Naval Academy afterwards stationed at Fort Leavenworth, in 1895. After serving two years on the Kan., and when the Civil War began he Montgomery, Texas, and the Maine, he was was acting adjutant of the post at Fort made ensign July 1, 1897. He was a short Brown, Texas, whose commander, Captain time on the Indiana, and then became the Stoneman, refused to surrender to the executive clerk of Capt. Charles D. Sigs- Confederates of Texas in obedience to the bee on the Maine. In November, 1897, orders of General Twiggs. Captain Stone- he was appointed inspector of the new tor- man chartered a steamboat, and, after pedo-boat Winsloiv, and when she went securing the most valuable public prop- into commission on Dec. 28, he was made erty there, evacuated the fort and sailed her executive officer, under Lieut. J. B. for New York, where he arrived March Bernadou, her commander. In April, 1898, 15, 1861. Soon afterwards Lieutenant the Winslow was with the fleet mobilized Bailey was sent with reinforcements for for operations in Cuban waters. On the Fort Pickens. His mission was success- morning of May 11 she prepared, with ful. Sickness finally compelled him to the Hudson and Wilmington, to force an return to New York to recruit his entrance to the harbor of Cardenas. She strength. Soon afterwards he was re- was fired upon by one of several Spanish quested by Governor Morgan to organize gunboats, and immediately there was a a State regiment of light artillery, of general engagement. The Winslow was which he was made colonel. With these soon disabled, and was with difficulty troops, which he had well disciplined at hauled out of range of the Spanish guns. Elmira, he went to Washington, and in Just as the engagement ended, Ensign the spring of 1862 he joined the Army Bagley and four sailors were killed by a of the Potomac at Fort Monroe. At shell, he being the* first American naval the battle of FAIR OAKS, or SEVEN PINES officer to fall in the war with Spain. (q. v.) , Colonel Bailey was in General Bagot - Rush Treaty. See RUSH- Casey's division. When the sudden and BAGOT. furious attack was made, the infantrj 246 BAILEY- BAINBRIDGE fell back, leaving Colonel Bailey's battery Bailey, THEODORUS, naval officer; born exposed. Instead of retreating and leav- in Chateaugay, Franklin co., N. Y., April ing his guns in the hands of the Confed- 12, 1805; entered the navy as midship- crates, he determined to make their spoils man in January, 1818, and was captain in useless to them. Leaping from his horse, 1855. In July, 1862, he was made corn- he was in the act of spiking one of the modore, and in July, 1866, rear-admiral guns with his own hand, when the bullet on the retired list. In 1861 Captain of a sharp-shooter penetrated his brain, Bailey was in command of the Colorado, and he fell dead, May 31, 1862. in the Western Gulf squadron, and was Bailey, JOSEPH, military officer ; born second in command of the expedition under in Salem, O., April 28, 1827; entered the Butler and Farragut up the Mississippi Union army as a private in 1861 ; acquired to capture New Orleans, in the spring of great fame by his skill in damming the Red 1862. His vessel was too large to pass River at Alexandria (May, 1864), by the bar, and taking what men and guns which the squadron of iron-clad gunboats, he could spare, he went up the river in his under Admiral Porter, was enabled to boats as a volunteer, and assumed the com pass down the rapids there when the water mand of the first division. He led in the was low. He had been a lumberman in desperate attack on Fort St. Philip, Fort Wisconsin, and in that business had Jackson, and the Confederate flotilla. It learned the practical part which he used was one of the most gallant naval opera- in his engineering at Alexandria, where tions of the war; and Admiral Farragut he was acting chief-engineer of the 19th specially commended Captain Bailejs. as Army Corps. Other engineers said "his the leader in that attack. In 1862 he was proposition to dam the river was absurd, in command of the Eastern Gulf squad- but in eleven days the boats, by his ron, and was successful in breaking up method, passed safely down. For this blockade-running on the Florida coast. He achievement he was promoted to colonel, captured about 150 of those vessels in the brevetted brigadier-general, voted the space of a year and a half. In 1865-67 he thanks of Congress, and presented with was in command of the navy-yard at a sword and $3,000 by the officers of the Portsmouth. He died in Washington, D. fleet. He settled in Missouri after the war, C., Feb. 10, 1877. where he was a formidable enemy of the- Bailey, WILLIAM HENRY, lawyer; born " bushwhackers," and was shot by them in in Pasquatauk county, N. C., Jan. 22, Nevada, in that State, on March 21, 1867. 1831 ; was elected and appointed to many Bailey, JOSEPH WELDEN, legislator; offices in his native State; removed to born in Copiah county, Miss., Oct. 6, 1863; Texas in 1891; is the author of The Ef- was admitted to the bar in 1883; became feet of Civil War Upon the Rights of a Democratic district elector in 1884; re- Persons and Property; Conflict of Ju- moved to Gainesville, Tex., and there dicial Decisions, etc. engaged in general practice in 1885; and Bainbridge, WILLIAM, naval officer; was Presidential elector at large in 1888. born in Princeton, N. J., May 7, 1774. At He was elected representative in Congress the age of sixteen years he went to sea, from the 5th Texas District in 1891, and and at nineteen commanded a ship. On by re-elections held his seat till March 4, the reorganization of the navy in 1798 he 1901, when he entered the United States was appointed a lieutenant. He and his Senate as successor to Horace Chilton, vessel amj crew were captured in the West having been elected on Jan. 23, preceding. Indies by a French cruiser in September In 1897, on the organization of the 55th of that year, but were released in Decem- Congress, he was the Democratic nominee ker, when, returning home, he was pro- for Speaker of the House, and a minority moted to the command of a brig. In May, member of the Committee on Rules. In 1800, he was commissioned a captain, and the Senate he was a member of the com- in the ship Washington he carried tribute mittees on Fisheries, Foreign Relations, from the United States to the Dey of Al- Privileges and Elections, Relations with giers, by whom he was treated with much Canada, Revision of the Laws, Territories., insolence. By threats of capture and a and the Census. declaration of war by the Algerine ruler, 247 BAINBRIDGE BAIRD be was compelled to take an embassy to Constantinople for that petty despot. On his return, with power given him by the WILLIAM 1U INK KIDi; I Sultan, Bainbridge frightened the insolent Dey, compelling him to release all Chris tian prisoners then in his possession. He returned to the United States in 1801, and command of the Philadelphia, one of Treble's squadron. On Oct. 11 the Phila delphia struck on a rock nea-r Tripoli, and was captured, with her commander and crew. At Tripoli Bainbridge and 315 of his men remained prisoners about nine teen months. On his return to the United States, he was received with great respect, and in the reorganization of the navy, in 1806, he became the seventh in the list of captains. Having obtained the rank of commodore, Bainbridge was appointed to the command of a squadron (September, 1812) composed of the Constitution (flag ship), Essex, and Hornet, and sailed from Boston in October. Off the coast of Brazil the Constitution captured the British frig ate Java (Dec. 26) ; and for this exploit the commodore received the thanks of Con gress and a gold medal. Other honors were bestowed upon him. In 1815 he was appointed to the command of a squadron of twenty sail, destined for ALGIERS ( q. v. ) , but peace was concluded before it reached the Mediterranean. He settled disputes with the Barbary States; and he again commanded in the Mediterranean in 1819- 21. From that time he was almost con stantly employed in service on shore, be ing at one time president of the Board of Navy Commissioners. He died in Phila- BAIN BRIDGE MKDAL, he was again sent to the Mediterranean delphia, Pa., July 28, 1833, and in that with the frigate Essex. Upon the decla-ra- city was buried in Christ church-yard, tion of war against the United States by Baird, ABSALOM, military officer; born Tripoli, in 1803, Bainbridge was put in in Washington, Pa., Aug. 20, 1824; was 248 BAIRD EAK graduated at West Point in 1849, having books upon the Huguenots. He died in studied law before he entered the military academy. He was ordered to Washington, BAINBRIDGE'S MONUMBNT. D. C., in March, 1861, and in May was made assistant adjutant-general. He be came aide to General Tyler in the battle of Bull Run, and in November was made assistant inspector-general, with the rank of major. In March, 1862, he became General Keys's chief of staff; and in April he was made brigadier-general of volunteers, and sent to Kentucky. He commanded a division under General Granger in April, 1863, and was after wards active in northern Georgia and in the Atlanta campaign. In Sherman's march to the sea he commanded a division of the 14th Army Corps, and also in the advance through the Carolinas. He was brevetted major - general, U. S. A., in March, 1865; promoted brigadier-general and inspector-general in 1885; and re tired in 1888. Baird, HENRY MARTYN, educator; born in Philadelphia, Pa., Jan. 17, 1832; be came Professor of Greek in the New York University in 1859 j wrote a number of 1906, Yonkers, N. Y., Nov. 11. Baird, SPENCER FULLERTON, scientist; born in Reading, Pa., Feb. 3, 1823; was graduated at Dickinson College in 1840. In 1850 he was appoint ed assistant secretary to the Smith sonian Institution. He held that office until the death of Prof. JO SEPH HENRY (q. v.) in 1878, when he succeeded to the office of secre tary, which he held until his death, on Aug. 19, 1887. Professor Baird published several works on natural history. In 1871 he was placed at - the head of the United States Fish Commission. He died in Wood's Holl, Mass., Aug. 19, 1887. Baker, EDWARD DICKINSON, mil itary officer; born in London, Eng land, Feb. 24, 1811. His family came to the United States when he was a young child, and settled first in Philadelphia and afterwards (1825) in Illinois. Young Baker chose the law for a vocation, and entered upon its practice in Green county, 111. In 1837, while residing in Springfield, he was elected to the legislature. He was a State Sena tor in 1840-44, and then a member of Congress until the beginning of the war with Mexico. In that war (1846-47) he served as colonel of Illinois EDWARD DICKINSON BAKER. volunteers, and was again elected to Con gress in 1848. He settled in California in 249 BAKERBALBOA 1852, where he became distinguished in in Woodbury, Conn., about 1740. He his profession, and as an orator in the went to the New Hampshire Grants in ranks of the REPUBLICAN PARTY (q. v.). 1764, before the Aliens took up their In 1859 he removed to Oregon, where abode there. He was a soldier in the he was elected United States Senator French and Indian War, and was in the in 1860. He was in that service at the fierce battle at Ticonderoga in 1758. He outbreak of the Civil War, when he settled at Arlington, on "the Grants," raised a body of troops in New York and and was very active with Ethan Allen in Philadelphia. Those of Pennsylvania resisting the claims of New York to Ver- were called the " 1st California Regi- mont territory. Baker was arrested, and ment." Declining to be appointed gen- was cruelly treated while a prisoner, by eral, he went into the field as colonel at the New-Yorkers. The government of the head of his regiment. While fighting that province had outlawed him and set at Ball's Bluff, in Virginia, he was shot a price upon his head. Captain Baker dead, Oct. 21, 1861. See BALL'S BLUFF, was with Allen when he took Ticonde- BATTLE OF. roga, in May, 1775. He was killed, while Baker, LAFAYETTE C., detective; born on a scout in the Continental service, by in Stafford, N. Y., Oct. 13, 1826; was a the Indians on the Sorel, the outlet of member of the vigilance committee in Lake Champlain, in August, 1775. San Francisco in 1856; offered his ser- Balance of Trade, a phrase employed vices to the federal government in 1861; in commerce to express the difference be* and was sent to Richmond, where he sue- tween the value of a country's exports ceeded in collecting much information, and its imports. When the exports of a and returned to Washington within a country exceed its imports the balance of month. While in Richmond he was ar- trade is popularly said to be in favor of rested and imprisoned as a spy, and had that country. Leaving to others the dis- several interviews with the President of cussion of the controversial questions as the Confederacy. When the secret-service to whether free-trade or protection is best bureau was transferred to the War De- for a country, and whether a decrease in partment, he was appointed its chief, importations indicates an increase in the with the rank of colonel, and subsequent- prosperity of a country through larger ly was promoted brigadier-general. When local productions, attention is here President Lincoln was shot by Booth, called to the fact that in recent years General Baker organized pursuit, and the United States has exported much was present at Booth's capture and death, more than it imported. For the fiscal He published History of the United States year ending June 30, 1900, the official Secret Service. He died in Philadelphia, statistics of the United States Treasury Pa., July 2, 1868. Department showed for these two move- Baker, MARCUS, cartographer; born in rnents of merchandise the following: Ex- Kalamazoo, Mich., Sept. 23, 1849; was ports, domestic, $1,370,476,158; foreign, graduated at the University of Michigan $23,710,213; a total of $1,394,186,371; in 1870. He became connected with the total imports, $849,714,670; showing a United States Coast and Geodetic Survey balance in merchandise of $544,471,651. in 1873; and with the United States Geo- During the same period the trade in logical Survey in 1886. He has made ex- gold and silver coin and bullion was: Ex tended explorations in Alaska and on the ports, $106,978,504; imports, $78,066,154; Pacific coast, and was the cartographer showing a balance in this trade in favor of the Venezuelan Boundary Commission, of the United States of $28,912,350; mak- In 1900 he was secretary of the United ing the balance of all trade, or the excess States Board on Geographic Names. He of exports over imports, during that fiscal has published many geographical and year, $573,384,001. See COMMERCE; FREE mathematical monographs, and, with TRADE; PROTECTION. Prof. William H. Dall, brought out the Balboa, VASCO NUNEZ DE, discoverer Alaska Coast Pilot. of the Pacific Ocean; born in Xeres de Baker, REMEMBER, a captain of los Caballeros, Spain, in 1475; went to 14 GREEN MOUNTAIN BOYS" (q. v.) ; born Santo Domingo in 1501; and thence to 250 BALBOA BALDWIN the Isthmus of Darien in 1510. Pope ALEXANDER VI. (q. v.) gave to the Span- ish crown, as God's vicegerent on the earth, all lands that lay 300 leagues westward of the Azores in fact, all of America. Ferdinand of Spain divided Central America, whose shores Colum- bus had discovered, into two provinces, over one of which he placed as governor Ojeda, the navigator, and over the other Diego de Nicuessa, with Bachelor Enciso as lieutenant. Nunez, deeply in debt in Santo Domingo, escaped from his cred- itors by being carried in a provision-cask on board Enciso's ship. When she had weighed anchor Nunez came from his cask. Enciso, angered by the deception, threatened him, but became reconciled. At Darien, where the seat of government was to be established, Nunez, taking ad- vantage of the discontent of the Span- iards, headed a revolt. When Nicuessa came, they defied him and sent him adrift in a crazy vessel; and Enciso, seeing no chance for subduing the insurgents, went back to Spain with loud complaints against Nunez, and the Spanish govern- ment sent out Davila, with a fleet and troops, as governor of Darien. Meanwhile Nunez had become a great discoverer. The cacique, or Indian ruler, of a neighboring district, named Caveta, had treated two Spaniards with great kindness, who requited his hospitality by advising Nunez to attack and plunder him, for he had much gold. While the people of Caveta's village were slumbering, Nunez and his followers entered it and carried off the cacique and his whole family and others, and, with considerable booty, returned to Darien. Caveta and Nunez soon became friends. The former gave his young and beautiful daughter to the Spanish adventurer as his wife, and she acquired great influence over her hus- band. While visiting a powerful cacique, a friendly neighbor of Caveta, Nunez was told that beyond the mountains was a mighty sea that could be seen from their summits, and that the rivers that flowed down the slopes of the mountains on the other side abounded with gold; also that along the coast of that sea was a country where gold was as plentiful as iron. This story was confirmed by others, and finally Nufiez, with nearly 200 men and a number of bloodhounds, set out for the tops of th$ mountains. On Nov. 26, 1513, Nunez and his men were near the bold rocky summit of a mountain. The leader ascended it alone, when he beheld a mighty sea. It was the Pacific Ocean. On that summit he and his followers set up a huge cross, and then descended to the shore of the sea. Wading into its waters, Nunez took formal possession of the great ocean in the name of his sovereign. After that he made voyages along its coast, and heard tidings of Peru, where the Incas, or rulers, drank out of golden vessels. After Davila came, Nufiez was falsely accused of traitorous intentions by his jealous suc- cessor and rival, and he was beheaded at Acla, near Darien, in 1517. So perished the discoverer of the Pacific Ocean. Balcarres, ALEXANDER LINDSAY, EARL, British military officer; born in Scotland in 1752; served three years in America rnder Carleton and Burgoyne, and was captured with the latter at Saratoga. At the battle of Hubbardton, where he was wounded, thirteen balls passed through his clothes. He was made major-general in 1793; lieutenant-governor of Jamaica in 1794; general in 1803; and subsequent- 1.Y one of the representative peers from Scotland. He died in London, March 27, 1825. Balch, GEORGE BEALL, naval officer; born in Tennessee, Jan. 3, 1821. He en- tered the navy in 1837; engaged in the war against Mexico, and was wounded in a naval engagement at Shanghai, China. He was engaged actively and successfully in the South Atlantic blockading squad- rons and in other naval operations. He became rear-admiral in 1878, and retired in 1883. Baldwin, ABRAHAM, legislator; born in Guilford, Conn., Nov. 6, 1754; originated the University of Georgia, and was its president for several years; was a dele- gate to the Continental Congress in 1785- 88, and a member of the Constitutional Convention in 1787. In 1789-99 he was a Representative in Congress, and was then elected to the United States Senate, of which he was president pro tern, in 1801-02. He died in Washington, D. C., March 4, 1807. Baldwin, CHARLES H., naval officer; bori? in New York City, Sept. 3, 1822; en- BALDWIN BALLOONS IN WAR tered the navy in 1839; served through the capture of New York in 1776, and was Mexican War on the frigate Congress; brevetted major in November following, commanded the steamer Clifton of the Served under Lord Cornwallis in Pennsyl- mortar flotilla at the passage of Forts vania and the Carol inas; and was in com- Jackson and St. Philip below New Orleans, mand at Charleston in 1781, when he re- and in the first attack on Vicksburg, both luctantly obeyed the command of Lord in 1862; was promoted rear-admiral in Rawdon to execute LIAAC HAYNE (q. v.). 1883; and was the official representative He was then lieutenant-colonel. He was of the United States at the coronation of made colonel and a-'de - de - camp to his the Emperor of Russia. He died in New king in 1782, a nmjor-general in 1793. York City, Nov. 17, 1888. lieutenant-general in 1798, and general Baldwin, HENRY, historian; born in in 1803. He died i.n Dunbog, Oct. 10, New York City, Feb. 1, 1832; was elected 1823. by the convention of Patriotic Organ- Ball, THOMAS, sculptor; born in izations in Chicago in 1891 to verify "all Charlestown, Mass., June 3, 1819; edu- the facts of American history" and to cated at Mayhew School, Boston. In collect a Library Americana to be de- 1840-52 he applied himself to painting, posited at Washington. He has devoted but in 1851 undertook sculpture. He made his entire time to this work. the equestrian statue of Washington in Baldwin, THEODORE A., military officer ; Boston, the statue of Daniel Webster in born in New Jersey, Dec. 31, 1839; en- Central Park, New York, and others. Hon- tered the army in 1862; served through orary fellow of the National Sculptors' the Civil War; became lieutenant-colonel, Society in 1896. Author of My Three- 10th United States Cavalry, in 1896; was Score Years and Ten: an Autobiography. a brigadier-general of volunteers in the Ballinger, RICHARD A., born in Boones- American-Spanish War; and was pro- boro, Iowa, July 9, 1858, admitted to the moted to colonel of the 7th United States bar of Washington, 1890, appointed Sec- Cavalry, May 6, 1899. retary of the Interior by President Taft Baler, a town in the eastern part of in 1909. Luzon, Philippine Islands, nearly midway Balloons in War. At the beginning between Balintang Channel and Bernar- of the Civil War the telegraphic oper- dino Strait, and directly north of a notable ations of the army were intrusted to mountain of the same name. In 1898-99 Maj. Thomas T. Eckert. In this connec- the Filipino insurgents besieged a Span- tion T. S. C. Lowe, a distinguished aero- ish garrison here for nearly a year, the naut, was employed, and for some time Spanish commander declining to surrender balloons were used with great efficiency the place even when directed to do so by in reconnoitring, but later in the progress orders from Madrid. The garrison took of the war they fell into disuse. At the possession of the native church, fortified height of 500 feet above Arlington House, it, and held possession till their supplies opposite Washington, D. C., Mr. Lowe gave out, when they surrendered, and, in telegraphed to President Lincoln as fol- recognition of their exceptional heroism, lows, in June, 1861 : " Sir, from this point were allowed to march out of the place of observation we command an extent of with all the honors of war, July 2, 1899. country nearly 50 miles in diameter. I The town was occupied and garrison- have, pleasure in sending you the first ed by United States troops in March, telegram ever despatched from an aerial 1900. station, and acknowledging indebtedness Balfour, NISBET, British military offi- to your encouragement for the opportu- cer; born in Dunbog, Scotland, in 1743. He nity of demonstrating the availability of was a son of an auctioneer and bookseller the science of aeronautics in the service in Edinburgh; entered the British army of the country." After sending the above as an ensign in 1761; commanded a com- despatch, Mr. Lowe was invited to the pany in 1770; was wounded at the battle Executive Mansion and introduced to Gen- of Bunker Hill in June, 1775, and again eral Scott; and he was soon afterwards in the battle of Long Island. He was employed in the military service. When sent home with despatches after the in use, the balloon was kept under control 252 BALLOT REFORM BALL'S BLTTFF by strong ropes. During the Franco- enacted laws providing for ballot reform. Prussian War (1870-71) balloons were The method of voting prescribed by most freely used by both parties. Gambetta o f these enactments was essentially that and other French authorities passed sue- known as the Australian system, from cessfully over the investing lines of Ger- the fact of its having originated in South mans. In the Santiago campaign in Cuba, Australia some thirty-five years previous- in 1898, an observation balloon was ope- ly. it was adopted in England in 1872. rated by men of the U. S. Signal Service, its primary object is to secure absolute se'- Several successful ascensions were made, crecy in voting. Its peculiar and essential and messages describing the situation of features are, first, an official ballot, and, the Spaniards were transmitted to General second, privacy in voting. By an official Shafter's headquarters. The Santiago bal- ballot is meant a ticket which has been loon rendered good service at a critical printed and furnished by State or local time, but was destroyed by a Spanish shot, authorities, and is given to the voter by There has been a constant advance in a special official. Privacy in voting is the science of ballooning. The " dirigi- secured by different means, such as vot- ble" balloons, of which each nation pos- ing booths, enclosed stalls, and other de- sesses several, differ from each other in de- vices for concealing the voter from view, tails. On July 1, 1908, Count Zeppelin The good effects of this system were im- sailed from Lake Constance, with the an- mediately apparent in the States where nounced determination to go to Luzerne, it was adopted, promoting good order and Basel, Strasburg,, Mainz, Stuttgart, back decency at the polls, and greatly dimin- to the starting-point. Three-fourths of the ishing the opportunities for fraud and in- journey was made at the rate of thirty timidation. In the system in vogue in miles an hour, but the balloon burst dur- most States the names of all candidates ing a severe storm and was destroyed, are on a single ticket, and the voter in- A popular subscription in Germany yielded dicates his choice by a cross ( X ) . This $1,600,000. Zeppelin then built several system in the Presidential election of 1896 machines. May 24, 1909, he sailed from was used in thirty-six States, and seems Constance for Berlin, four hundred and likely to be universally adopted. Various thirty- three miles away, but was obliged voting machines have been tried since 1890, to return when near Berlin, as his fuel but none have as yet proven sufficiently gave out. He travelled eight hundred miles satisfactory to warrant their general use. out and back. On Aug. 27 he made anoth- Ballou, MATUBIN MURRAY, journalist; er and a successful trip to Berlin and back, born in Boston, Mass., April 14, 1820; was a distance of over nine hundred miles, educated in the Boston High School. In Germany now has a fleet of Zeppelin bal- 1838 he entered journalism on the Olive loons, all of the "rigid" type, and also Branch, a weekly. Later he became pro- a number of Gross balloons, " semi-rigid," prietor and editor of Ballou's Monthly and and ParsevaFs " flexible " type. Gleason's Pictorial. He became one of The U. S. Government is inclined to the founders of the Boston Daily Globe await the results of European develop- in 1872, and for many years was its ments. chief editor. He also had a part or On Dec. 17, 1908, Roy Knabenshue whole interest in Ballou's Pictorial; proved the practicability of destroying The Flag of Our Union, and the Bos- cities by bombs from balloons by drop- ton Sunday Budget. His works include ping bags of confetti from his balloon Due West; Due South; Due North; over Los Angeles in the night-time. See Under the Southern Cross; The New El AVIATION. Dorado; Aztec Land; The Story of Malta; Ballot Reform. The agitation in Equatorial America; Biography of the favor of a system of election laws which Rev. Hosea Ballou. He died in Cairo, should prevent corruption, bribery, and Egypt, March 27, 1895. intimidation at the polls began in the Ball's Bluff, BATTLE AT. In October, United States in 1887. Four years there- 1861, a National force, commanded by after twenty-eight out of the forty-eight Gen. Charles P. Stone, was encamped be- State and Territorial legislatures had tween Edward's and Conrad's ferries, on 253 BALL'S BLUFF the MaryJnnd side of the upper Potomac, while the left wing of the Confederate army, under General Evans, lay at Lees- burg, in Virginia. Misinformation had caused a belief that the Confederates had left Leesburg at a little past the middle of October, when General McClellan or dered General McCall, who commanded the advance of the right of the National forces in Virginia, to move forward and occupy Drainesville. At the same time he ordered General Stone to co-operate with General McCall, which he did by &&&*V MAP OP BALL'S BLUFP. making a feint of crossing the river at the two ferries above named on the afternoon of Sunday, Oct. 20. At the same time part of a Massachusetts regiment, under Colo nel Devens (see DEVENS, CHARLES), was ordered to take post upon Harrison's Isl and, in the Potomac, abreast of Ball's Bluff. Devens went to the island with four companies in flat-boats taken from the Chesapeake and Ohio canal. About 3,000 men, under COL. EDWARD D. BAKER (q. v.) , of the national Senate, acting as brigadier-general, were held in readiness as a reserve in case of a battle. With that reserve was a fine body of Pennsyl- vanians known as the " 1st California Regiment." These movements of the Na tionals caused an opposing one on the part of the Confederates, who had watched their antagonists with keen vigilance at a point of concealment not far off Misin formed as to the position of the Confeder ates and supposing McCall to be near enough to give aid if necessary, Stone, on the morning of the 21st, ordered some Massachusetts troops under Colonels Lee and Devens to cross to the Virginia shore from Harrison's Island to reconnoitre. They did not find the foe in the neighbor hood. General Evans, unperceived, lay not far off; and riflemen and cavalry were hover ing near and waiting a favorable oppor tunity to strike Devens, who, leaving a part of Lee's command near the Bluff, had advanced to near Leesburg. After a skir mish, in which he lost one man killed and nine wounded, he fell back towards the Bluff. While halting in an open field, he received orders from Stone to remain there until support could be sent him. His en tire force consisted of only 600 men. They were very soon attacked by the Confeder ates. It was a little past noon. Pressed by overwhelming numbers, Devens fell back to avoid being flanked. Meanwhile Colonel Baker had been pressing forward from Conrad's Ferry to the relief of the assailed troops. Ranking Devens, he had been ordered to Harrison's Island, with discretionary powers to reinforce the party on the Virginia main or to withdraw all the troops to the Maryland side of the river. He concluded to go forward, sup posing the forces of McCall and others to be near. He was ignorant of the fact that General McClellan had ordered Mc Call to fall back from Drainesville. On reaching the field of conflict, Baker took the chief command of all the forces on the Bluff, about 1,700 strong. Very soon afterwards, while he was in the thick est of the fight encouraging his men, a bullet pierced his brain and he fell dead. The battle had lasted two hours. His troops, unsupported by others, were crushed by superior numbers. Pressed back to the verge of the Bluff, which there rises more than 100 feet above the river, they fought desperately for a while at twi light, for they had no means for crossing the swollen flood. They were soon over powered. Some had been pushed down the declivity. Many were made prisoners, and many perished in trying to escape by swimming in the dark. Some were shot in the water, and others were drowned. A flat-boat laden with the wounded was riddled with bullets and sank. In this affair the Nationals lost, in killed, wound ed, and prisoners, fully 1,000 men. The Confederates lost 153 killed. The num ber of their wounded is unknown. 254 BALTIMORE Baltimore, city, port of entry, commer- road, including the great trunk arteries, cial metropolis of Maryland, and sixth the Pennsylvania, the Baltimore & Ohio, city in the United States in population and the Wabash, connect it with every im- according to the Federal census of 1900; portant city on the continent. The prin- on the Patapsco River fourteen miles cipal business streets prior to the fire from its entrance into Chesapeake Bay; were Baltimore, extending east and west, about 200 hundred miles from the Atlan- Lexington, Howard, North Eutaw, North tic Ocean and thirty-eight miles north- Charles, Hanover, and South Howard east of Washington, D. C.; popularly streets, and Hopkins Place, and the most known as the " Monumental City " ; popu- attractive residential section was that lation, 1900, 508,957; 1905 (estimated), bounded by Biddle, Calvert, and Frank- 541,000. It is situated on an attractive lin streets, and Park Avenue, harbor, having an inner basin and an The general plan for the rebuilding of outer bay, the latter defended by the his- the burned section provided for that lo- toric Fort McHenry. In the development cality and its vicinity the straightening of its commercial interests the city has and widening of a number of important been retarded greatly, particularly under thoroughfares, the introduction of a more the business pressure of the last ten imposing style of architecture for public years, by the lack of sufficient depth of and business buildings, and a scenic em- water to permit the approach of steam- bellishment of convenient spots; hence the ships directly to the wharves and by the Baltimore of the very near future will restricted limits of the wharves them- have a much different appearance from selves. In the rebuilding of the city after the one that was baptized with fire in the fire of February, 1904, the need of 1904. improved harbor facilities was recognized, The public utilities include 430 miles and a system of water-front changes was of streets, of which 381 miles are paved; planned that will eventually allow the annual cost of cleaning, about $197,000; largest ocean steamers to be docked 43% miles of sewers; gas and electric within three miles of the business centre lighting piants, owned by the city and of the city. costing annually about $296,000; a police Prior to the fire, ships bearing 5,000 department of 985 men, costing about tons of cargo could not go within a mile $1,108,000; a fire department of 460 men, of the upper or city end of the harbor, costing about $523,000 ; and a water-works The new system involves the deepening of system, owned by the city, with 670 miles the channel and the construction of new of mains, having a daily storage capacity wharves ranging in length from 550 to of 120,000,000 gallons and an average 1,450 feet, and in width from 150 to 210 daily consumption of 63,000,000 gallons, feet, each slip being 150 feet wide, the and costing $12,000,000. The principal larger piers being thus able to accommo- railroads pass through the city by a sys- date two steamships on each side at the tern of tunnels or subways, and in the same time. To further promote shipping Baltimore & Ohio tunnel trains are the streets along the water front will be operated by electricity. The Baltimore reconstructed so as to range in width & Potomac tunnel is 6,969 feet long, the from 60 to 150 feet each. The value of Union tunnel, 3,410 feet; both were com- this improvement, as well as its necessity, pleted in 1873, at a cost of $4,500,000. will appear more vividly in the light of The belt-line tunnel of the Baltimore & the commercial statistics that are given Ohio Railroad extends under Howard further on. Street for its entire length, and thence Public Interests. The city has an area continues north of Huntington Avenue, of 30*4 square miles, and is divided for and along the north side of the city. It administrative purposes into twenty-four furnishes the city with a rapid-transit wards. It was originally laid out in half- system and enables the railroad to make acre lots, and its streets are mostly on the direct connection with Philadelphia with- rectangular plan. Jones's Falls, a small out the delays and annoyances of stream spanned by handsome bridges, tra- ferriage. Terses the city, and several lines of rail- Baltimore takes much pride in its 255 BALTIMORE m beautiful public parks and squares. Of 164, of which all excepting $15,288 was thirteen parks proper the largest is Druid from domestic sources home productions; Hill, 671% acres in extent, a model of making a total foreign trade of $103,181,- rural beauty, that cost about $700,000. 952. The largest amounts of imports were Clifton Park contains 254% acres and cost from England, $6,163,884, and Germany, over $700,000; Patterson Park, 106 acres, $3,964,635; and the largest shipments cost $310,000; Carroll Park, 64% acres, were to England, $24,328,177; Germany, cost $189,000; Wyman's Park, 45 acres, $22,684,236; and the Netherlands, $12,- 767,692. In both trades the shipping entrances were : Amer ican sailing-vessels, 74, tonnage, 26,233 ; foreign sailing-vessels, 38, ton nage, 33,885; American steam - vessels, 10, ton nage, 1,135,609; total steam-vessels, 550, ton nage, 1,135,609; total vessels, 672; total ton nage, 1,246,713. Manufactures. Ac cording to the United States Census of 1900 there were in the city 6,359 manufacturing and mechanical indus tries, which were oper ated on a total capital of $117,062,459; em- donated; Gwynns Falls Park, 29 acres, ployed 78,738 wage-earners; paid for cost $16,000; and Riverside Park, 17% wages, $29,220,460, and for materials used acres, cost $78,000. in manufacturing, $87,175,134; and had a The assessed property valuations in combined product valued at $161,249,240. 1904 were: Real estate, $264,160,549; per- In the period 1890-1900 the increase in sonal, $87,804,498; total, $351,965,047; number of establishments was 20.8 per tax rate, $22.85 per $1,000; net public cent. ; in amount of capital, 26.2 per cent. ; debt, $7,819,000; and annual cost of main- of expenses, 65.4 per cent.; of materials, taining the city government, $10,142,725. 18.2 per cent.; and of value of products, Commerce. Notwithstanding the dis- 13.8 per cent. The principal industries tance of the city from the ocean and its with the value of products were the manu- present restricted facilities, previously facture of men's clothing (in factories), indicated, Baltimore has a large general $17,290,825; tobacco in various forms, trade promoted by its railroad and coast- $9,576,455; fruit and vegetable canning wise communications and a volume of and preserving, $8,477,178; foundry and foreign trade capable of much expansion machine-shop products, $6,119,973; whole- under more favorable conditions. The ex- sale slaughtering and meat-packing, $5,- tent of the latter trade is suggestively 308,334; bread and bakery products, $3,- told in the statistics prepared in the 811,524; fertilizers, $3,752,329; shirts, United States Department of Commerce $3,686,675; railroad cars, $3,529,959; and Labor for the fiscal year ending June malt liquors, $2,934,028; furniture (in 30, 1904. They show that the total im- factories), $2,690,610; oyster canning, ports of merchandise at this port aggre- $2,364,968; flour and grist mill products, gated in value $20,345,788, of which $2,321,998; and lumber and planing-mill .$9,287,289 were dutiable; and the exports products, $1,809,068. of merchandise were valued at $82,836,- Banking. Besides its State and sav- 25,6^ MEETING- PLACK OF CONGRESS IN BALTIMORE IN 1776 BALTIMORE ings-banks and loan and trust companies, of the McDonough School for Poor Boys; Baltimore has eighteen national banks, and in the vicinity of the Washington \*hich, on Sept. 4, 1904, reported an Monument are bronze statues of Chief - aggregate capital of $11,790,700; surplus, Justice Taney and George Peabody, the $6,472,200; dividends, $471,874; deposits, Barye bronzes of "Peace," "War," $49,695,751; outstanding circulation, $4,- "Force," and "Order," a colossal lion, 524,000 ; loans and discounts, $48,755,586 ; and a tribute to " Military Courage." On and liabilities and assets balancing at the grounds of the Samuel Ready Orphan $92,687,945. The exchanges at the United Asylum is an obelisk of stuccoed brick, States clearing-house here in the year end- said to be the oldest memorial of ing Sept. 30, 1903, were $1,169,531,519; Christopher Columbus in the New World, in 1904, $1,097,603,459; the decrease and at the Westminster Presbyterian being due to the withdrawal of large de- Church are the grave and tomb of Edgar posits and a curtailment of banking by Allan Poe. business men and others who began re- Notable Buildings. The City Hall occu- building immediately after the fire. pies the square bounded by Holliday, Lex- Momiments. Contrary to a long-pre- ington, North, and Fayette streets; is vailing belief, the city derived its popular built of marble in the composite style of name not from the number of monuments architecture; was completed in 1875; and in it, but from the Washington Monu- cost $2,271,135. It has a ground area of ment, one of the earliest memorials of its 225 by 140 feet, is four stories high, and kind to " the Father of his Country," be- from its French roof rises an iron dome gun in 1815 and completed in 1830. It 260 feet high. Two hundred and fifty stands at the intersection of Mount Ver- feet above the sidewalk is a balcony from non and Washington places, on a site 100 which a grand view of the city and its feet above tidewater, and consists of a surroundings may be had. On the block base sixty feet square and thirty-five feet bounded by St. Paul, Calvert, Lexington, high, a Doric shaft 130 feet in height, and and Fayette streets is the Court House, a surmounting statue of Washington six- completed in 1899 at a cost of about teen feet high. The main construction is $3,000,000. The United States Govern- of brick, with an outer shell of marble, ment Building, a plain but imposing and cost $200,000. The most interesting granite structure, occupies the block monument from a local historical view- bounded by Calvert, Fayette, North, and point is the Battle Monument in Monu- Lexington streets. The City Hall, Court ment Square, a structure erected in 1815 House, and United States Government as a memorial to the citizens who were Building are at the edge of the burned killed while defending the city from the district. The Masonic Temple on Charles British in the preceding year. It com- Street near Saratoga; the Odd Fellows' prises a square base twenty feet high, Hall on the corner of Cathedral and Sara- with an Egyptian door on each side bear- toga streets; the Young Men's Christian ing inscriptions and representations of the Association Building on the corner of battle, a column eighteen feet high with Charles and Saratoga streets; and the encircling bands containing the names of Merchants' Shot Tower (216 feet high the fallen, and a surmounting female and from 40 to 20 feet in diameter), on figure in marble. the corner of Front and Fayette streets The Wildey and Ridgely monuments are conspicuous among the buildings of commemorate the founder of American non-civic use. There are numerous com- Odd-Fellowship and the long-time secre- mercial, exchange, banking, insurance, tary of its Sovereign Grand Lodge. The newspaper, and other class buildings. The Wells and McComas Monument was erect- station of the Baltimore & Ohio Rail ed to the memory of the two youths who road Company was destroyed by the fire; shot the British commander, General Ross, but the company at once announced its on Sept. 12, 1814. Druid Hill Park has intention of putting up a superior build- statues of Columbus, Washington, and ing at a cost of $2,000,000. At the Sir William Wallace; Greenmount Ceme- entrance to the harbor stands the historic tery, one of John McDonough, the founder Fort McHenry, a building of no pro- 257 BALTIMORE tective value to-day, but one that the citi- fice; the Associate Reformed, Maryland zens wish the National Government to re- Avenue and Preston Street, is a Roman- tain as a memorial of the stirring days of esque gray stone; the First Methodist 1812. Other buildings that call for Episcopal, St. Paul and Twenty-second special mention are noted further on, streets, is a Venetian stone with lofty under their distinctive classifications. campanile; the Corpus Christi (Roman Churches. As the first city in the Catholic), on Mount Royal Avenue, is United States in historical relation to the decorated Gothic; and the Eutaw Place Roman Catholic Church and the seat of Baptist, Eutaw and Dolphin streets, is several of its Plenary Councils, Baltimore noticeable for its marble spire, 186 feet invites special attention to its Cathedral, high. Four synagogues of stone display its most celebrated religious edifice. It is elaborate architectural treatment, built of granite in the form of a cross, Education. -^-Qn Jan. 1, 1904, there were on the corner of Mulberry and Cathedral in the city 110 public schools of various streets, is 190 feet long, 177 feet wide at grades, with 1,689 teachers and 67,368 the extremities of the arms of the cross, enrolled pupils, and the cost of maintain- and 127 feet high from the floor to the ing the system during the previous year top of the cross on its dome. There are was $1,348,476. These schools occupied two tall towers at its west end, surmount- 125 buildings, and all excepting twenty - ed by Saracenic cupolas. Besides a great one were owned by the city. It is inter- organ, once the largest in the country, it esting to note that Baltimore was the contains a painting of " The Descent from first American city to introduce into its the Cross," presented by Louis XVI., and public-school system a high school for another representing " St. Louis Burying girls exclusively. Having been from the his Officers and Soldiers Slain before first the seat of the primacy of the Tunis," presented by Charles X. of France. Roman Catholic Church in the United The First Presbyterian Church, on Park States, the city has a well-established and Avenue and Madison Street, has a spire thoroughly adequate system of parochial 268 feet high and side towers 78 and 128 schools, with upward of 15,000 pupils, feet high, respectively, and has an ex- Foremost among the higher educational ceedingly ornate interior. St. Paul's institutions is the university erected Protestant Episcopal Church, Charles and through the munificence of the late Johns Saratoga streets, is the oldest church of Hopkins and bearing his name. His gift that denomination in the city, and is a for the university consisted of his beauti- type of Romanesque architecture, while ful estate of Clifton (330 acres of Grace Church, Monument and Park ground), 15,000 shares of the common streets, and Emanuel Church, Read and stock of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, Cathedral streets, both Protestant Epis- of which the par value was $1,500,000, copal, the first of red sandstone, the other and other securities valued at $750,000, of marble, are built in the Gothic style, the whole having a value in round num- The churches of St. Alphonsus, Saratoga bers of $3,500,000. A like sum was set and Park streets, St. Vincent de Paul, on apart for the erection and endowment of North Front Street, and St. Ignatius the hospital which also bears his name. Loyola, Calvert and Read streets, all A Board of Trustees to manage the Roman Catholic, are noted for their ex- properties was incorporated in 1867, and quisite decorations. in 1874, after the death of the founder, it Next to the Cathedral, the Unitarian proceeded to the organization of the work Church, on North Charles and Franklin intrusted to it. In 1876 the university streets, is unquestionably the most im- was opened in temporary quarters, and in posing structure of its class in the city. May, 1889, the hospital was opened in It has a frontal colonnade showing four buildings that cost nearly $2,000,000. Tuscan columns and two pilasters, form- In operation the university and hospital ing the arcades, and a portico with five are intimately connected, as it was the bronze doors. The Brown Memorial wish and purpose of the founder that the Church (Presbyterian), Park and La- hospital should ultimately form a part of fayette avenues, is a Gothic marble edi- the medical school of the university. 258 BALTIMORE Accordingly, when the latter was opened consulted only on the premises. The ample provision was made for instruction Enoch Pratt Free Library, founded by the in those studies which lead up naturally late citizen whose name it bears, is a to the professional study of medicine. Romanesque building of white marble, On the subsequent gift of $500,000 by the with a tower 98 feet high rising from the women of Baltimore, of which Miss Mary E. Garrett contributed $350,- ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^g^a^B 000, the trustees in 1893 opened the Johns Hopkins Medical School, to which women are admitted on the same terms as men. The university has thoroughly equipped chemical, physical, geological, and biological laboratories, and an astronomical ob servatory; issues historical and scien tific monographs and other publica tions that have attained high repute in this country and in Europe; and adheres closely to its principal object the higher education of post-gradu ates. Other high-grade institutions are the University of Maryland, founded in 1807, and housed in a building modelled after the Pantheon in Rome ; Loyola College (Roman Catholic), opened in 1852; Morgan College (Methodist Episcopal), opened in 1876; St. Joseph's and St. Mary's seminaries (Roman Catholic), opened in 1888 and 1792, respectively; Balti more Medical College (1881); Balti more University School of Medicine (1883); College of Physicians and Surgeons (1872); Maryland Medical Col- centre of the fagade, on Mulberry Street, lege (1898) ; University of Maryland Medi- It has several branch stations in con- cal College ( 1807) ; Southern Homoeopathic venient parts of the city, is general in Medical College (1891); and Woman's character, and has about 220,000 volumes Medical College (1882) ; schools of dentis- on its shelves. Johns Hopkins University try and pharmacy; Baltimore Manual La- has a regular collegiate library of 110,000 bor School, Polytechnic Institute, Samuel volumes and a medical library of 8,000. Ready School, and McDonough School, all The oldest libraries are those of St. Mary's for manual training; thirteen training Seminary (1792) and the Baltimore schools for nurses, connected with the Monthly Meeting of Friends (1799). various hospitals; Woman's College of Benevolence. The philanthropic activi- Baltimore (Methodist Episcopal), opened ties of the city are represented by a large in 1888; and Notre Dame of Maryland number of excellent institutions, support- ( Roman Catholic), opened in 1873 the ed by State, county, municipal, religious, last two for women exclusively. and other organizations, and by private Baltimore has about fifty libraries of foundations, several of the most extensive all classes. In the Peabody Institute, being located within a few miles of the facing the Washington Monument on the city limits. The State Insane Asylum, a south, founded and endowed by the late group of granite buildings, is near Catons- George Peabody, are accommodations for ville (6 miles) ; the Shepard-Pratt Asy- advanced students and a general reference lum for the Insane is near Towsontown library of about 148,000 volumes, to be (7 miles) ; the Bay View Asylum or Alms- 259 JOHNS HOPKINS. BALTIMORE house is on the Philadelphia road near lowing year it was officially laid out and the outskirts; the Mount Hope Retreat named Baltimore in honor of Cecil Cal- for the insane is on the Reistertown road; vert (see BALTIMORE, LORDS). The terri- and the McDonough School for Poor Boys, tory covered by the town was that now founded by John McDonough of New Or- bounded approximately by Liberty, Sara- leans, and the cottages of the Thomas toga, and Frederick streets and the Basin Wilson Sanitarium for sick children, are or inner harbor. Two years later Jones's within a short distance of the city. The Town, subsequently Old Town, east of the Baltimore Orphan Asylum, founded in falls, was laid out. The first parish 1801, is on Strieker Street; St. Paul's church, on the site of the present corner Orphan Asylum is on Charles and Twenty- of Saratoga and Charles streets, was be- fourth streets; the Henry Watson Chil- gun in 1730 and finished in 1739. In 1745 dren's Aid Society is in the Wilson Build- Baltimore began its course of expansion ing; the Maryland Institution for the In- by having Jones's Town incorporated with struction of the Blind is a fine marble it, and in 1753 it was again enlarged building on North Avenue; the Episcopal by the absorption of thirty-two acres of Church Home is on Broadway near Balti- what was known as Coles's Harbor. At more Street; the Samuel Ready Orphan this time Baltimore Town contained 25 Asylum is on the eastern limits; and the houses and 200 inhabitants. Charles Car- Home for Incurables and the United roll erected Mount Clare house, using States Marine Hospital are in the north- imported brick, in 1754, and the town re- ern section. In all there are about ceived its first immigrants a body of seventy-five asylums, hospitals, orphan- Acadian exiles. The year 1768 was one ages, and homes for various classes of of large political significance, the town human misfortune and affliction. being then constituted the county - seat. Baltimore is fortunate in having many The first issue of the first newspaper, the public - spirited citizens of great wealth, Maryland Journal and Baltimore Adver- such as Henry Walters, who admits the tiser, came from the press on Aug. 20, public at stated intervals to the wonder- 1773, and in the same year a stage route ful art - galleries formed by his father, to Philadelphia was opened, the first William T. Walters. Methodist meeting-house was erected, and History. Under authority of an act the first display of popular benevolence of the Assembly, Aug. 8, 1729, a town of was made, the citizens sending a goodly sixty acres was created, and in the fol- supply of corn, rye, and bread to the poor of Boston. In 1775 the town contained 564 houses and 5,934 inhabitants. During the Revolutionary War period the town escaped the horrors of hostile strife, yet had several exciting incidents connected therewith. The Continental Congress was in session here from Dec. 20, 1776, to Jan. 20, 1777, sitting in the hall on the corner of Baltimore and Liberty streets. On March 25, 1777, a political riot occurred, caused by a body of members of the Whig Club, excited by an article in the Maryland Journal prais ing King George and the British Parlia ment, storming Mr. Goddard, the editor, in his office. In March of the following year Count Pulaski organized his famous corps here. The first connection between the town and the national government was made in 1780, when a custom-house was erected. In 1781 the paving of the WILLIAM T WALTBRS. streets was begun ; in 1784 the streets 260 BALTIMORE were first lighted with oil-lamps; on Oct. be so improved was Peale's Museum, in 5, 1786, the first destructive flood occur- 1816. The city had its first serious visita- red; in 1791 the Bank of Maryland was tion of fire on June 23, 1822, three lum- organized; and in the summer of 1794 the ber-yards and from twenty-five to thirty town was first visited by an epidemic buildings, mostly warehouses, being yellow fever. A second epochal year was burned. An evidence of the financial pros- 1796, when, on Dec. 31, the town was in- perity of the citizens in this period is corporated as a city. It then had 20,000 shown by the fact that in March, 1827, inhabitants. James Calhoun, the first when subscription books for stock of the mayor, was elected Jan. 16, 1797. Water Baltimore & Ohio Railroad were opened, was first supplied through cast-iron pipes 22,000 persons subscribed $4,178,000. in May, 1807. This popular expression of confidence The part borne by Baltimore in the war both in the promoters and the project was of 1812-15 began on June 12, 1812, when so effective that on July 4 of the follow- a mob attacked the office of the Federal ing year the foundation-stone of the rail- Republican, because of the publication in road was laid by the Masonic Grand it of an article denouncing the declaration Lodge of Maryland, assisted by the ven- of war against England. On July 27 fol- erable Charles Carroll, of Carrollton. lowing, the mob resumed the attack and Baltimore celebrated the centennial of destroyed the office and its contents. On its official creation, Aug. 8, 1829, and in Sept. 12, 1814, a British force, under Gen. the following month dedicated its first Robert Ross, advanced against the city, public school. It had its second epidemic They were met by a defensive column at this time of cholera in 1832; its first North Point, where an engagement was bank failure in 1835; its fourth riot, be- fought in which the British commander cause of the bank failure, in 1835; and was killed. Finding the city much more its second freshet at Jones's Falls in 1837, strongly fortified than they had antici- when nineteen lives were lost, and Harri- pated, the British soldiers retired from son and Frederick streets were flooded to their position, leaving the task of punish- the depth of ten feet. Foreign commer- ment to their fleet, which bombarded Fort cial intercourse began on May 20, 1838, McHenry unsuccessfully on the following when the City of Kingston, the first day. During the attack on the fort steam-vessel from Baltimore to Europe Francis Scott Key, a witness of the ac- direct, left the port. The principal oc- tion, composed " The Star-spangled Ban- currences in the next ten years were the ner," and it was printed in the Balti- explosion of the boiler of the steamer more American and Daily Advertiser on Medora, just as she was about to start on Sept. 21, 1814. The corner-stones of the her trial trip, April 15, 1842, in which Washington and Battle monuments were twenty-seven persons lost their lives and laid in 1815, the latter on the anniversary forty were injured, and the reception of of the North Point engagement. the first magnetic telegraph communica- Another increase in the area of the city tion from Washington, " What hath God was made in 1816, when a number of wrought," May 27, 1844. On May 28, precincts with a combined population of 1848, the city was visited by another con- 16,000 were annexed. On Aug. 8, 1817, flagration, breaking out in a cotton- a freshet at Jones's Falls overflowed the factory in Lexington Street, and destroy- " Meadows" section to a depth of from ing sixty dwellings. The next five years ten to fifteen feet. American Odd-Fellow- marked the death of Edgar Allan Poe ship had its birth in Baltimore on April (1849), the arrival of Jenny Lind (1850), 13, 1819, when Washington Lodge, No. 1, the reception of Louis Kossuth (1851), was organized at Fell's Point through the and the arrival from Louisville, Ky., of efforts of Thomas Kildey. The lodge re- the remains of Junius Brutus Booth ceived its charter from Duke of York (1852). The most serious calamity oc- Lodge, of Preston, England, in February curred on July 4, 1854, when thirty per- following. In 1820 the first public build- sons were killed and about 100 injured by ing and the first private house were light- a collision of an excursion with an accom- ed with gas; the first building of all to modation train near the Relay House. 261 BALTIMORE On June 18, 1860, the adjourned Con vention of Democratic delegates who had first assembled in Charleston, S. C., met in Baltimore under the chairmanship of Caleb Gushing. A number of delegates who had withdrawn from the Charleston Convention and reassembled in Richmond claimed the right to sit in the Baltimore Convention, and the chairman, declining to decide the delicate question, referred it to the Convention. This action precipi tated an acrimonious debate. The case of the contesting delegates was referred to the Committee on Credentials, which, owing to diversities of opinion, submitted two reports on the 21st, which gave rise to another heated debate and the advocacy of the reopening of the slave trade. On the following day the majority report was adopted; the places of most of the seceders, who were unseated, were filled by Douglas men: another withdrawal of Southern delegates occurred; and finally Mr. Gushing and a majority of the Massa chusetts delegation also withdrew. Gov ernor David Tod, of Ohio, succeeded Mr. Gushing as chairman, and the Convention proceeding to ballot for a Presidential candidate, Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois, was nominated for President, and Herbert V. Johnson, of Georgia, for Vice-President. The Convention adjourned on June 23. Because of subsequent events it may be noted here that when the larger part of the Massachusetts delegation withdrew from the Convention Benjamin F. Butler explained the action in the following vigorous language : " We put our with drawal before you upon the simple ground, among others, that there has been a withdrawal, in part, of a majority of the States, and, further (and that, per haps, more personal to myself), upon the ground that I will not sit in a convention where the African slave trade which is piracy by the laws of my country is ap provingly advocated." The results of the Baltimore Conven tion thickened rather than cleared the political atmosphere. Party and sectional feelings were alike stirred to fever heat, and the election of Abraham Lincoln furnished the fuel on which the flames soon burst forth. Early in January, 1861, Governor John A. Andrew, of Massachu setts, tendered a body of State troops to the national government for its protec tion. Fort Sumter was attacked, and on the day that the President's call for volunteers was issued, Governor Andrew was telegraphed to send twenty com panies of militia to Washington immedi ately. Four regiments were at once bri gaded and placed under the command of Benjamin F. Butler, just commissioned a brigadier-general. On Jan. 16, United States Senator Wilson telegraphed from Washington for four regiments. They were in readiness to start directly the necessary order was received, and the 6th Regiment, under Colonel Jones, was de spatched first, by way of New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore. The regi ment at this time consisted of thirteen companies, two having been added to the original force. News of the approach of these troops, followed by details of the destruction of the arsenal and armory at Harper's Ferry, created intense excitement in Balti more, and by the time the train bearing the Massachusetts soldiers reached the President Street station near noon on April 19, a crowd of about 500 excited men were waiting to receive them. While horses were being attached to the cars to draw them to the Camden Street station this crowd was increased to about 2,000 men, who followed the cars to the station, where another large one had gathered. On reaching Pratt Street the crowd began shouting for Jefferson Davis and the Southern Confederacy, and when near the corner of Gay Street, where there was a large heap of stones, they broke loose from all restraint and hurled these missiles on the soldier-laden cars as they passed. Every window was de molished, and several soldiers were in jured. Failing to tear up the track, the crowd made a barricade across the street. The troops back of this, comprising four com panies, then alighted from the cars for the purpose of marching the remaining distance to the Camden Street station. As they started in close order, the crowd, led by a man bearing a Confederate flag on a pole, fell upon them, shouting that they should never pass through the city alive, and hurling bricks and stones into their ranks. The troops then began ad- 262 BALTIMORE vancing on the "double quick"; the at- he replied in substance: "I must have tack became more furious; several soldiers troops for the defence of the capital, were knocked down and robbed of their The Carolinians are now marching across guns ; suddenly shots began to be fired Virginia to seize the capital and hang me. from the crowd. Up to this time the What am I to do? I must have troops, I troops had offered no resistance, but when say; and as they can neither crawl under it was evident that the crowd was deter- Maryland nor fly over it, they must come mined on wholesale murder in order to across it." Several delegations failed to prevent the passage of the troops, the swerve the President from his determina- latter prepared to defend themselves. tion, and, finding this scheme fruitless, On reaching Gay Street, where the the authorities planned other measures crowd had increased to 10,000 men, the to accomplish their purpose, but were troops turned and fired at random into frustrated by General Butler, who, ascer- their assailants. This greatly intensified taining that Baltimore was in his depart- the excitement. The mayor tried in vain ment, organized an expedition that took to quell the riot, and the troops were left possession of the Relay House on the to fight their way through to the station. Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, nine miles The severest of the fighting was in Pratt from the city, on the morning of May 5. Street, between Gay and Bowley's wharf, An immense Union meeting had been held near Calvert Street. From the beginning in the city on the previous evening, and of the riot till the troops reached the from its leaders General Butler obtained Camden Street station, three of their such full information concerning local number were killed outright, one mor- conditions that he was enabled to inaugu- tally wounded, eight were seriously in- rate energetic measures at once. On jured, and several others slightly. Nine May 14 by a feint movement of troops he citizens were killed, but how large the took possession of the city and established number of wounded was will never be his headquarters on Federal Hill. Soon known. As the train proceeded on its afterward the President commissioned journey it was followed by the crowd him a major-general and assigned him to for more than a mile, and was frequently the command of a more extended military fired into from the hills on the way. The district the Department of Virginia, troops reached their destination that even- which included Fort Monroe, ing, and were quartered in the Senate General Butler was succeeded in corn- Chamber, mand of the Department of Annapolis, A meeting of some State and city with headquarters in Baltimore, by Gen. officials was held the night of the riot, Nathaniel P. Banks, who, in June, became and Governor Hicks was besought for per- satisfied that Marshal Kane and the mission to destroy the bridges on lines of Board of Police were in league with the railroad over which it was believed other Confederates in a combination to assist troops might be transported to Washing- General Beauregard to seize the national ton. Governor Hicks refused, but Mar- capital by preventing the passage of shal Kane, Mayor Brown, and President Union soldiers through the State and aid- Howard of the Board of Police, organ- ing Marylanders to cross into Virginia to ized gangs of men, who destroyed the the Confederate army. General Banks Canton, Gunpowder, Bush, and Cockeys- arrested Marshal Kane and the police ville bridges, and cut all telegraph wires commissioners, organized a new police leading out of the city, excepting the one force of loyal men, and soon had the city to Harper's Ferry, then held by the Con- under effective control, federates. Thus all communication by On July 25, 1873, the city was visited railroad and telegraph between the na- by a conflagration in which two churches, tional capital and the Northern States three school-houses, and 108 other build- was severed. ings were destroyed, causing a loss of The State and city authorities then $750,000, and on Sept. 2, 1888, another undertook to obtain a pledge from the fire, in Hopkins Place, caused a property President that no more troops should be loss of $2,000,000, and the lives of several permitted to pass through the city, but firemen. Its greatest disaster by fire, 263 BALTIMORE however, occurred on Fefc. 7-8, 1904, when a territory measuring twelve by nine full city blocks and extending for more than a mile of water front was left in smoking ruins. The fire was in the business sec tion, and only the City Hall, Court House, and United States Government Building escaped. A remarkable feature of the disaster was the fact that the casual ties were limited to one fireman killed and less than fifty persons injured. In the adjustment of insurance claims the property loss was placed at $45,- 000,000, and the insurance loss at about $30,000,000. Baltimore, LORDS. I. GEORGE CALVERT, born about 1580, at Kipling, Yorkshire, Eng. ; was graduated at Oxford ; travelled on the Continent; became secretary of Robert Cecil; married Anne Minne in 1604; was a clerk of the privy council; was knighted in 1617; became a secretary of state soon afterwards, and in 1620 was granted a pension of $5,000 a year. When, in 1624, he publicly avowed himself a Roman Catholic, he resigned his office, but King James retained him in the privy council; and a few days before that mon arch's death he was created Baron of Bal timore in the Irish peerage. Calvert had already entered upon a colonizing scheme. In 1620 he purchased a part of Newfound land, and was invested with the privileges and honors of a count - palatine. He called his new domain Avalon, and, after spending about $100,000 in building ware houses there, and a mansion for himself, he went thither in 1627. He returned to England the following spring. In the spring of 1629 he went again to Avalon, taking with him his wife and unmarried children. The following winter was a severe one, and he began to contemplate a desertion of the domain on account of the rigorous climate. He sent his children home. In the autumn he actually aban doned Newfoundland, and with his wife and retainers sailed to Virginia, where, because he refused to take the oath of al legiance, he was ordered away by Governor Harvey. His wife and retainers remained there during the winter. Going from there in the spring, it is supposed he ex plored the shores of Chesapeake Bay, and chose that region for a settlement. In 1632, Lord Baltimore obtained a charter from Charles I. of the territory on the Chesapeake now forming the State of Maryland. " What will you call the coun try?" asked the King. Baltimore referred the matter to his Majesty. " Then let us name it after the Queen" (Henrietta Maria), said Charles, "and call it Mari ana." The expert courtier dissented, be cause that was the name of a Spanish his torian who taught that " the will of the people is higher than the law of tyrants." Still disposed to compliment the Queen, the King said, " Let it be Terra Maries Mary's Land." And it was named Mary land. Before the great seal of England was affixed to the charter, Lord Baltimore died, April 15, 1632, and was succeeded by his son Cecil. II. CECILIUS or CECIL CALVERT, second Lord Baltimore, was born about 1605. Very little is known of his early life. When he was about twenty years of age CECIL CALVERT, LORD BALTIMORB. he married Anne, the beautiful daughter of the Earl of Arundel, who was one of the most influential Roman Catholics in the realm. On the death of his father, the charter for Maryland was issued to Ce- cilius, his eldest son and heir, June, 1632; and he immediately prepared to sail for the Chesapeake with a colony. When he was about ready to depart, he changed his mind, and sent his brother Leonard, as 264 BALTIMORE governor, with his brother George, and two assistants and counsellors, Jeremy Hawley and Thomas Cornwallis, both Protestants. The whole company, who sailed in two vessels the Ark and Dove numbered over 300, according to Lord Baltimore, who wrote to his friend Went- worth (afterwards the unfortunate Earl of StrafFord: "By the help of some of your lordship's good friends and mine, I have sent a hopeful colony into Maryland, with a fair and favorable expectation of good success, without any great prejudice to my self, in respect that many others are joined with me in the adventure. There are two of my brothers, with very near twenty other gentlemen of very good fashion, and 300 laboring men." As most of the latter took the oath of allegiance before sailing, they were probably Protestants. Father Andrew White, a Jesuit priest, accom panied the expedition. They sailed from the Isle of Wight, and took the tedious southern route by way of the Canaries. The vessels were separated by a furious gale, but met at Bermuda, whence the emigrants went to the Chesapeake, found ed a settlement, and established a govern ment under the charter, which was near ly the same in form as all charters then granted (see MARYLAND). It conferred on the proprietor absolute ownership of the territory, and also the civil and ec clesiastical power of a feudal nature. En tire exemption from taxation was con ceded to the colonists. As an acknowledg ment that the original title to the land was still in the possession of the crown, the proprietor was required to pay to the King the tribute of two Indian arrows. Cecil was a member of Parliament in 1634, but mingled very little in public affairs afterwards. He never came to America, but managed his province by deputies forty-three years. His course towards the colonists was generally wise and concilia tory, because it was profitable to be so. In religion and politics he was very flexible, being quite indifferent to either, and he did very little for the religious and intel lectual cultivation of the colonists. Nega tively good, he was regarded with great re spect by all parties, even by the Indians. He died in London, Nov. 30, 1675. III. CHARLES CALVERT, third Lord Bal timore, succeeded his father as lord pro prietor of Maryland in 1675. He was born in London in 1629; appointed governor of Maryland in 1661; and married the daughter of Hon. Henry Sewall, whose seat was on the Patuxent river. After the death of his father he visited England, but soon returned. In 1684 he again went to England, and never came back. He was suspected of favoring King James II. after the Revolution, and was outlawed for treason in Ireland, although he was never in that country. The outlawry was re versed by William and Mary in 1691. Charles Lord Baltimore was thrice mar ried, and died in London, Feb. 24, 1714. IV. BENEDICT LEONARD CALVERT, fourth Lord Baltimore, succeeded his father, Charles, in 1714. In 1698 he married Lady Charlotte Lee, daughter of the Earl of Lichfield (granddaughter of the notori ous Duchess of Cleveland, the favorite mistress of Charles II.), from whom he was divorced in 1705. Benedict publicly abjured the Roman Catholic faith in 1713, and died in 1715, only thirteen months after the death of his father. V. CHARLES CALVERT II., son of Bene dict, and the fifth Lord Baltimore, was born Sept. 29, 1699, and was an infant in law when he succeeded to his father's title. In July, 1730, he married the widow Mary Janssen, youngest daughter of Gen. Theodore Janssen. His life was spent chiefly in England. In 1731 he was ap pointed gentleman of the bedchamber to the Prince of Wales, and soon afterwards was elected Fellow of the Royal Society. He was in Parliament in 1734, and in 1741 was appointed Junior Lord of the Admiralty. In the spring of 1741 he was appointed cofferer to the Prince of Wales and surveyor-general of the Duchy lands in Cornwall. After having ruled Mary land in person and by deputy more than thirty years, he died April 24, 1751, at his home in London. VI. FREDERICK CALVERT, sixth and last Lord Baltimore, was born in 1731, and succeeded to the title of his father, Charles Calvert II., in 1751. He married Lady Di- iana Egerton, youngest daughter of the Duke of Bridgewater, in 1753. He led a disreputable life, and died at the age of forty, at Naples, Sept. 14, 1771. Yet he was a patron of literature and a friend and companion of the Earl of Chatham 265 BANCROFT (Pitt). In 1767 he published an account of his Tour in the East. He was a pre tentious author of several other works, mostly of a weak character. Lord Fred erick bequeathed the province of Mary land, in tail male, to Henry Harford, then a child, and the remainder, in fee, to his sister, the Hon. Mrs. Norton. He left an estate valued at $5,000. The last representative of the Baltimore family was found in a debtors' prison in England, in 1860, by Col. Angus McDon ald, of Virginia, where he had been con fined for twenty years. Henry Harford was the last proprietor of Maryland. See CALVERT, LEONARD. Bancroft, EDWARD, naturalist; born in Westfield, Mass., Jan. 9, 1744; was a pupil of SILAS DEANE (q. v.) when the latter was a school-master. His early education was not extensive. Apprenticed to a me chanic, he ran away, in debt to his master, and went to sea; but returning with means, he compensated his employer. Again he went to sea; settled in Guiana, South America, as a physician, in 1763, and afterwards made his residence in Lon don, where, in 1769, he published a Nat ural History of Guiana. He became a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, and Fellow of the Royal Society. While Franklin was in England on a diplomatic mission, Dr. Bancroft became intimate with him; and through the influence of the philosopher became a contributor to the Monthly Review. He was suspected by the British government of participa tion in the attempt to burn the Ports mouth dock-yards, and he fled to Passy, France. Soon afterwards he met Silas Deane, his old teacher, in Paris, and of fered to assist him in his labors as agent of the Continental Congress. His ways were sometimes devious, and Mr. Bancroft, the historian, accuses him of being a spy in the pay of the British government, and of making a dupe of Deane. After the peace, Dr. Bancroft obtained, in France, a patent for the exclusive importation of the bark of the yellow oak, for the dyers, and afterwards he obtained a similar pat ent in England. Dr. Bancroft never re turned to America. He died in England, Sept. 8, 1820. Bancroft, FREDERIC, historian; born in Galesburg, 111., Oct. 30, 1860; was gradu ated at Amherst College in 1882; ap pointed chief of the Bureau of Rolls and Library, Department of State, Washing ton, D. C., in 1888; has lectured on histor ical and diplomatic subjects; contributed many articles to the press; and published Life of William H. Seward; The Negro in Politics, etc. BANCROFT, GEORGE Bancroft, GEORGE, historian; born in avidity whatever was taught in them, but Worcester, Mass., Oct. 3, 1800; son of made history a specialty. His chief Rev. Aaron Bancroft, a distinguished Uni- tutors there were Heeren, Eichhorn, and tarian clergyman and pioneer in "liberal Blumenbach. At Berlin he became inti- Christianity." He graduated at Harvard mate with Wilhelm von Humboldt and in 1817; studied at the German univer- other eminent scholars and philosophers, sities, and received, at Gottingen, the At Heidelberg he spent some time in the honorary degree of Doctor of Philosophy study of history with Schlosser; and in when he was only twenty years of age. He Paris he made the acquaintance of Alex- resided some time in Berlin in the society ander von Humboldt, Cousin, and others. of distinguished scholars, and on his re- At Rome he formed a friendship with turn home, in 1822, he became a tutor of Chevalier Biinsen; he also knew Niebuhr. Greek in Harvard University. He pub- While engaged in the Round Hill School, lished a volume of poems in 1823, and in Mr. Bancroft completed the first volume 1824 a translation of Heeren's Politics of of his History of the United States, which Ancient Greece. In 1823, in conjunction was published in 1834. Ten volumes of with J. G. Cogswell, he established the this great work were completed and pub- celebrated " Round Hill School," at North- lished in 1874, or forty years from the ampton, Mass. While in the German uni- commencement of the work. The tenth versities, Mr. Bancroft studied with volume brings the narrative down to the 266 BANCROFT, GEORGE conclusion of the preliminary treaty of ing to the United States in 1849, he made peace in 1782. In 1838 President Van his residence in New York City, where he Buren appointed Mr. Bancroft collector prosecuted his historical labors. He was of the port of Boston. He was then en- engaged in this work until 1867, when he gaged in delivering frequent political ad- was appointed, by President Johnson dresses, and took a deep interest in the (May 14), minister to Prussia, and ac- philosophical movement now known as cepted the office. In 1868 he was accred- " transcendentalism." He was a Demo- ited to the North German Confederation, crat in politics, and in 1840 received the and in 1871 to the German Empire. In nomination for governor of Massachusetts, August, 1868, Mr. Bancroft received from but was not elected. In 1845 President the University of Bonn the honorary de- Polk called Mr. Bancroft to his cabinet gree of "Doctor Juris"; and in 1870 he as Secretary of the Navy, and he sig- celebrated the fiftieth anniversary of the reception of his first degree at G6t- tingen. Mr. Bancroft was a contributor of numerous essays to the North Amer ican Review. In 1889 he published Mar tin Van Buren to the End of his Public Career, which he had written many years before. His History of the United States has been translated into several lan guages. In 1882 he published a History of the Formation of the Constitution in 2 volumes. This completed his great work, in accordance with his original plan. He died Jan. 17, 1891. The Death of Lincoln. On April 25, 1865, Mr. Bancroft delivered the following oration on the death of President Lincoln, in New York City, at a great gathering in Union Square, after the remains of the murdered President had started for Chi cago: Our grief and horror at the crime which has clothed the continent in mourn ing find no adequate expression in words, and no relief in tears. The President of GKORGE BANCROFT, LL.D. the United States of America has fallen by the hands of an assassin. Neither the nalized his administration by the estab- office with which he was invested by the lishment of the Naval Academy at An- approved choice of a mighty people, nor napolis. While Secretary of the Navy he the most simple-hearted kindliness of nat- gave the order to take possession of Cali- ure, could save him from the fiendish fornia, which was done by the navy; and passions of relentless fanaticism. The while acting temporarily as Secretary of wailings of the millions attend his remains War he gave the order for General Tay- as they are borne in solemn procession lor to cross the Rio Grande and invade over our great rivers, along the seaside, the territory of Mexico. In 1846 Mr. beyond the mountains, across the prairie, Bancroft was sent as United States min- to their resting-place in the valley of the ister plenipotentiary to England, and in Mississippi. His funeral knell vibrates 1849 the University of Oxford conferred through the world, and the friends of free- upon him the honorary degree of Doctor dom of every tongue and in every dime of Civil Law. During this residence in are his mourners. Europe he perfected his collection of ma- Too few days have passed away since terials for his history, visiting the public Abraham Lincoln stood in the flush of archives and libraries at Paris. Return- vigorous manhood to permit any attempt 267 BANCROFT, GEORGE at an analysis of his character or an phere is purer than ever before, and the exposition of his career. We find it hard insurrection is vanishing away; the coun* to believe that his large eyes, which in try is cast into another mould, and the their softness and beauty expressed noth- gigantic system of wrong, which has been ing but benevolence and gentleness, are the work of more than two centuries, is closed in death; we almost look for the dashed down, we hope, forever. And as pleasant smile that brought out more to himself personally, he was then scoffed vividly the earnest cast of his features, at by the proud as unfit for his station, which were serious even to sadness. A and now against usage of later years, few years ago he was a village attorney, and in spite of numerous competitors, he engaged in the support of a rising family, was the unbiased and undoubted choice unknown to fame, scarcely named beyond of the American people for a second term his neighborhood; his administration of service. Through all the mad business made him the most conspicuous man in of treason he retained the sweetness of a his country, and drew on him first the most placable disposition; and the slaugh- astonished gaze, and then the respect and ter of myriads of the best on the battle- admiration of the world. field, and the more terrible destruction of Those who come after us will decide our men in captivity by the slow torture how much of the wonderful results of his of exposure and starvation, had never been public career is due to his own good com- able to provoke him into harboring one mon-sense, his shrewd sagacity, readiness vengeful feeling or one purpose of cruelty. of wit, quick interpretation of the public How shall the nation most completely mind, his rare combination of fixedness show its sorrow at Mr. Lincoln's death? and pliancy, his steady tendency of pur- How shall it best honor his memory? pose; how much to the American people, There can be but one answer. He was who, as he walked with them side by side, struck down when he was highest in its inspired him with their own wisdom and service, and in strict conformity with duty energy; and how much to the overruling was engaged in carrying out principles af- laws of the moral world, by which the self- fecting its life, its good name, and its re- ishness of evil is made to defeat itself, lations to the cause of freedom and the But after every allowance, it will remain progress of mankind. Grief must take the that members of the government which character of action, and breathe itself preceded his administration opened the forth in the assertion of the policy to gates to treason, and he closed them; which he fell a victim. The standard that when he went to Washington the which he held in his hand must be uplift- ground on which he trod shook under ed again higher and more firmly than be- his feet, and he left the republic on a fore, and must be carried on to triumph, solid foundation; that traitors had seized Above everything else, his proclamation public forts and arsenals, and he recovered of the first day of January, 1863, declar- them for the United States, to whom they ing, throughout the parts of the country belonged ; that the capital, which he found in rebellion, the freedom of all persons the abode of slaves, is now the home only who had been held as slaves, must be of the free; that the boundless public do- affirmed and maintained, main which was grasped at, and, in a Events, as they rolled onward, have re- great measure, held, for the diffusion of moved every doubt of the legality and slavery, is now irrevocably devoted to free- binding force of that proclamation. The dom; that then men talked a jargon of a country and the rebel government have balance of power in a republic between each laid claim to the public service slave States and free States, and now the of the slave, and yet but one of the two foolish words are blown away forever by can have a rightful claim to such service, the breath of Maryland, Missouri, and That rightful claim belongs to the United Tennessee; that a terrible cloud of politi- States, because every one born on their cal heresy rose from the abyss, threaten- soil, with the few exceptions of the chil- ing to hide the light of the sun, and under dren of travellers and transient residents, its darkness a rebellion was growing into owes them a primary allegiance. Every indefinable proportions; now the atmos- one so born has been counted among those 268 BANCROFT, GEORGE represented in Congress; every slave has ever been represented in Congress; im perfectly and wrongly it may be but still has been counted and represented. The slave born on our soil always owed al legiance to the general government. It may in time past have been a qualified allegiance, manifested through his master, as the allegiance of a ward through his guardian, or of an infant through its parent. But when the master became false to his allegiance, the slave stood face to face with his country; and his allegi ance, which may before have been a quali fied one, became direct and immediate. His chains fell off, and he rose at once in the presence of the nation, bound, like the rest of us, to its defence. Mr. Lincoln's proclamation did but take notice of the already existing right of the bondman to freedom. The treason of the master made it a public crime for the slave to continue his obedience; the treason of a State set free the collective bondmen of that State. This doctrine is supported by the analogy of precedents. In the times of feudalism the treason of the lord of the manor deprived him of his serfs; the spurious feudalism that existed among us differs in many respects from the feudal ism of the Middle Ages, but so far the precedent runs parallel with the present case; for treason the master then, for treason the master now, loses his slaves. In the Middle Ages the sovereign ap pointed another lord over the serfs and the land which they cultivated ; in our day the sovereign makes them masters of their own persons, lords over themselves. It has been said that we are at war, and that emancipation is not a belligerent right. . The objection disappears before analysis. In a war between independent powers the invading foreigner invites to his standard all who will give him aid, whether bond or free, and he rewards them according to his ability and his pleasure, with gifts or freedom ; but when, at peace, he withdraws from the invaded country, he must take his aiders and com forters with him ; or if he leaves them behind, where he has no court to enforce his decrees, he can give them no security, unless it be the stipulations of a treaty. In a civil war it is altogether differ ent. There, when rebellion is crushed, the old government is restored, and its courts resume their jurisdiction. So it is with us; the United States have courts of their own, that must punish the guilt of trea son and vindicate the freedom of persons whom the fact of rebellion has set free. Nor may it be said that, because sla very existed in most of the States when the Union was formed, it cannot rightfully be interfered with now. A change has taken place, such as Madison foresaw, and for which he pointed out the remedy. The constitutions of States had been trans formed before the plotters of treason car ried them away into rebellion. When the federal Constitution was framed, general emancipation was thought to be near ; and everywhere the respective legislatures had authority, in the exercise of their or dinary functions, to do away with slavery. Since that time the attempt has been made, in what are called slave States, to render the condition of slavery perpetual; and events have proved, with the clear ness of demonstration, that a constitution which seeks to continue a caste of heredi tary bondmen through endless generations is inconsistent with the existence of re publican institutions. So, then, the new President and the people of the United States must insist that the proclamation of freedom shall stand as a reality. And, moreover, the people must never cease to insist that the Constitution shall be so amended as ut terly to prohibit slavery on any part of our soil forevermore. Alas! that a State in our vicinity should withhold its assent to this last beneficent measure; its refusal was an en couragement to our enemies equal to the gain of a pitched battle, and delays the only hopeful method of pacification. The removal of the cause of the rebellion is not only demanded by justice; it is the policy of mercy making room for a wider clemency; it is the part of order against a chaos of controversy; its success brings with it true reconcilement, a lasting peace, a continuous growth of confidence through an assimilation of the social con dition. Here is the fitting expression of the mourning of to-day. And let no lover of his country say that this warning is uncalled for. The cry BANCROFT, GEORGE is delusive that slavery is dead. Even Heaven has willed it that the United now it is nerving itself for a fresh strug- States shall live. The nations of the gle for continuance. The last winds from earth cannot spare them. All the worn- the South waft to us the sad intelligence out aristocracies of Europe saw in the that a man who had surrounded himself spurious feudalism of slave-holding their with the glory of the most brilliant and strongest outpost, and banded them- most varied achievements, who but a selves together with the deadly enemies week ago was counted with affectionate of our national life. If the Old World pride among the greatest benefactors of his will discuss the respective advantages of country and the ablest generals of all oligarchy or equality; of the union of time, has initiated the exercise of more Church and State, or the rightful free- than the whole power of the executive, dom of religion; of land accessible to the and under the name of peace has, perhaps many, or land monopolized by an ever- unconsciously, revived slavery, and given decreasing number of the few, the United the hope of security and political power States must live to control the decision to traitors, from the Chesapeake to the by their quiet and unobtrusive example. Rio Grande. Why could he not remember It has often and truly been observed the dying advice of Washington, never to that the truth and affection of the masses draw the sword but for self-defence or gather naturally round an individual ; the rights of his country, and when if the inquiry is made, whether the man drawn, never to sheathe it till its work so trusted and beloved shall elicit from should be accomplished? And yet, from the reason of the people, enduring in- this ill-considered act, which the people stitutions of their own, or shall sequester with one united voice condemn, no great political power for a superintending dy- evil will follow save the shadow on his nasty, the United States must live to own fame, and that, also, we hope, will solve the problem. If a question is raised pass away. The individual, even in the on the respective merits of Timoleon, or greatness of military glory, sinks into Julius Csesar, or Washington, or Napo- insignificance before the resistless move- Icon, the United States must be there to ments of ideas in the history of man. call to mind that there were twelve No one can turn back or stay the march Caesars, most of them the opprobrium of of Providence. the human race, and to contrast with No sentiment of despair may mix with them the line of American Presidents. our sorrow. We owe it to the memory of The duty of the hour is incomplete, the dead, we owe it to the cause of popu- our mourning is insincere, if, while we lar liberty throughout the world, that the express unwavering trust in the great sudden crime which has taken the life of principles that underlie our government, the President of the United States shall we do not also give our support to the not produce the least impediment in the man to whom the people have intrusted smooth surface of public affairs. This its administration. great city, in the midst of unexampled Andrew Johnson is now, by the Con- emblems of deeply seated grief, has BUS- stitution, the President of the United tained itself with composure and mag- States, and he stands before the world as nanimity. It has nobly done its part in the most conspicuous representative of guarding against the derangement of the industrial classes. Left an orphan business or the slightest shock to public at four years old, poverty and toil were credit. The enemies of the republic put his steps to honor. His youth was not it to the severest trial; but the voice of passed in the halls of colleges; neverthe- f action has not been heard; doubt and less he has received a thorough political despondency have been unknown. In education in statesmanship, in the school serene majesty the country rises in the of the people, and by long experience of beauty and strength and hope of youth, public life. A village functionary; mem- and proves to the world the quiet energy ber successively of each branch of the Ten- and the durability of institutions grow- nessee legislature, hearing with a thrill ing out of the reason and affections of of joy the words, "the Union, it must the people. be preserved"; a representative in Con- ) 270 BANCROFT BANK OF THE UNITED STATES gress for successive years; governor of Bancroft, HUBERT HOWE, historian; the great State of Tennessee, approved born in Granville, 0., May 5, 1832. He en- as its governor by re-election ; he s was gaged in the book business in California, at the opening of the rebellion a Senator and, after retiring, continued to develop from that State in Congress. Then at his large and valuable library. He made the Capitol, when Senators, unrebuked a specialty of the Pacific coast of North by the government, sent word by tele- America. Books, manuscripts, maps, nar- gram to seize forts and arsenals, he ratives personally related by Californian alone from that Southern region told pioneers, all formed the sources of his them what the government did not vast series of histories of the Pacific re- dare to tell them, that they were trai- gions. In the labor of indexing, collect- tors, and deserved the punishment of ing, and writing, Mr. Bancroft employed treason. Undismayed by a perpetual collaborators to a greater extent than is purpose of public enemies to take his usual. Up to 1900 he had published 39 life, bearing up against the still greater volumes in his historical series, covering trial of the persecution of his wife the western part of North America. His and children, in due time he went back working library comprised 60,000 volumes, to his State, determined to restore it to Bandelier, ADOLPH FRANCIS ALPHONSE, the Union, or die with the American flag archaeologist; born in Berne, Switzerland, for his winding sheet. And now, at the Aug. 6, 1840; came to the United States call of the United States, he has returned in youth; and became noted for ethnologi- to Washington as a conqueror, with Ten- cal and historical researches in Central nessee as a free State for his trophy. It America, Mexico, New Mexico, Arizona, remains for him to consummate the vin- Ecuador, Peru, Chile, etc., for the Archaeo- dication of the Union. logical Institute of America, and the Amer- To that Union Abraham Lincoln has ican Museum of Natural History, fallen a martyr. His death, which was Bangor. See HAMPDEN, ACTION AT. meant to sever it beyond repair, binds Bank of North America. It was soon it more closely and more firmly than ever, perceived that under the new government, The blow aimed at him was aimed, not at based on the Articles of Confederation the native of Kentucky, not at the citizen (see CONFEDERATION, ARTICLES OF), the of Illinois, but at the man who, as Presi- Congress had no power, independent of the dent, in the executive branch of the gov- several States, to enforce taxation. Rob- ernment, stood as the representative of ert Morris, then Superintendent of Fi- every man in the United States. The nance (Secretary of the Treasury), pro- object of the crime was the life of the posed the establishment of a bank at Phil- whole people, and it wounds the affec- adelphia, to supply the government with tions of the whole people. From Maine to money, with a capital of $400,000. The the southwest boundary of the Pacific, it promissory notes of the bank were to be makes us one. The country may have a legal-tender currency, to be received in needed an imperishable grief to touch its payment of all taxes, duties, and debts inmost feeling. The grave that receives due the United States. The plan was ap- the remains of Lincoln receives the cost- proved by the Congress (May 26, 1781), ly sacrifice to the Union; the monument and this financial agent of the government which will rise over his body will bear was chartered by the Congress Dec. 31. witness to the Union; his enduring mem- The capital stock was divided into shares ory will assist during countless ages to of $400 each, in money of gold or silver, bind the States together, and to incite to be procured by subscriptions. Twelve to the love of our one undivided, indivis- directors were appointed to manage the ible Country. Peace to the ashes of our affairs of the bank, which was entitled departed friend, the friend of his coun- by the Congress "The President, Direc- try and of his race. He was happy in tors, and Company of the Bank of North his life, for he was the restorer of the re- America." That corporation furnished ade- public; he was happy in his death, for his quate means for saving the Continental martyrdom will plead forever for the union army from disbanding, of the States and the freedom of man. Bank of the United States. Alexander 271 BANK OF THE UNITED STATES Hamilton, observing the prosperity and era % per cent, premium over the par usefulness to the commercial community value. and the financial operations of the govern- The finances of the country were in a ment, of the Bank of North America, wretched state at the close of the war, Bank of New York, and Bank of Massa- in 1815. The local banks had all suspend- chusetts, which held the entire banking ed specie payments, and there was very capital of the country before 1791, recom- little of other currency than depreciated mended the establishment of a govern- bank-notes. There was universal dissatis- ment bank in his famous report on the faction, and the people clamored for an- finances (1790), as Secretary of the Treas- other United States Bank as a- cure for ury. His suggestion was speedily acted financial evils. One was chartered in the upon, and an act for the purpose was spring of 1816 (April 3). A bill to that adopted Feb. 8, 1791. President Wash- effect had been vetoed by President Madi- ington asked the written opinion of his son in January, 1815; now it received cabinet concerning its constitutionality, his willing signature. Its charter was They were equally divided. The Presi- for twenty years, and its capital was dent, believing it to be legal, signed the $35,000,000, of which amount the United bill, and so made it a law. The bank re- States subscribed $7,000,000, and the re ceived a charter, the existence of which maining $28,000,000 by individuals. The was limited to twenty years. It soon creation of this bank compelle/i the State went into operation, with a capital of banks to resume specie payments or wind $10,000,000, of which amount the govern- up. Many of them were aided in resump- ment subscribed $2,000,000 in specie and tion by the great bank, but many, after a $6,000,000 in stocks of the United States, struggle more or less prolonged, closed The measure was very popular. The their doors. Of the 246 State banks, with shares of the bank rose to 25 and 45 an aggregate capital of about $90,000,000 per cent, premium, and it paid an av- in 1816, a very large number were com- erage dividend of Sy a per cent, on its pelled to go into liquidation. From 1811 capital. The shares were $400 each. The to 1830 165 banks, with a capital of bank was established at Philadelphia, $30,000,000, closed their business, and with branches at different points. In the loss of the government and of individ- 1808 or three years before the char- uals by these banks was estimated at ter would expire application was made $5,000,000, or one-sixth of their capital. to Congress for its renewal. A sort of The second United States Bank went into bank mania had succeeded the original operation in Philadelphia, in 1817, to con- establishment of the institution, and local tinue until March, 1836. In it were de- banks rapidly increased. They became posited the funds of the government, the favorites of the people, for they furnished use of which gave the bank great facilities business facilities that were of great im- for discounting, and so aiding the commer- portance to the whole commercial com- cial community. It soon controlled the munity. This local bank interest combined monetary affairs of the country ; and when to prevent a renewal of the charter of the General Jackson became President of the United States Bank, on the grounds, first, United States, in 1829, he expressed his that it was unconstitutional ; second, that decided hostility to the government bank, too much of the stock was owned by for- as a dangerous institution. He began a eigners; and, third, that the local banks war upon it, which ended in its destruc- better accommodated the public. Though tion. In his first annual message to Con- the Secretary of the Treasury (Gallatin) gress (December, 1829), he took strong reported in favor of a renewal of the char- ground against a renewal of the charter, ter, nothing was done by Congress until which would expire in 1836. His reasons within a few weeks before the time when were that it had failed in the fulfilment the bank would cease to exist. The bill of the promises of its creation namely, for its recharter was defeated by the to establish a uniform and sound cur- casting vote of the Vice-President (George rency for the whole nation; and, also, Clinton) in the Senate, and the bank that such an institution was not author- closed its affairs, giving to the stockhold- ized by the national Constitution. Again, 272 BANKRUPTCY LAWS in his annual messages in 1830 and 1831, he attacked the bank, and renewed his ob jections. At the close of 1831 the proper officers of the bank petitioned, for the first time, for the renewal of its charter. The petition was presented in the Senate Jan. 9, 1832, and on March 13 a select com mittee, to whom it was referred, reported in favor of renewing the charter for fifteen years. Long debates ensued, and finally A bill for rechartering the bank passed both Houses of Congress the Senate on June 11, by 28 against 20, and the House of Representatives, July 3, by a vote of 107 against 85. The President vetoed it, and as it failed to receive the constitution al vote of two-thirds of both Houses, the bank charter expired by limitation in 1836. The commercial community, regarding such an institution as essential to their prosperity, were alarmed, and prophecies of panics and business revulsions, every where uttered, helped to accomplish their own speedy fulfilment. Again, in his an nual message (December, 1832), Jack son's hostility to the bank was manifested by a recommendation to remove the public funds in its custody, and a sale of the stock of the bank belonging to the United States. Congress, by a decided vote, re fused to authorize the measure; but after the adjournment of that body the Presi dent assumed the responsibility of per forming the act. He directed the Secre tary of the Treasury (William Duane) to withdraw the government funds about $10,000,000 from the bank, and deposit them in certain State banks. The Sec retary would only consent to appoint an agent to inquire upon what terms the local banks would receive the funds on deposit. Then the President gave him a peremp tory order to remove them from the bank. Duane refused compliance, and was dis missed from office. His successor, Roger B. Taney (afterwards Chief -Justice of the United States), obeyed the President, and in October, 1833, the removal was accom plished. The effect produced was wide spread commercial embarrassments and distress. The business of the country was plunged from a height of prosperity to the depths of adversity, because its in timate connection with the national bank rendered any paralysis of the operations of that institution fatal to commercial activity. The vital connection of the bank with the business of the country, evidenced by the confusion, confirmed the President's conviction of the danger to be apprehended from such an enormous moneyed institution. Failing to have its charter renewed, the operations of the bank expired by limita tion in March, 1836. It was rechartered the same year by the legislature of Penn sylvania, with the same capital. It was compelled to suspend specie payments, with all the local banks, in 1837, and again in 1839; and in February, 1840, it made a final suspension, and closed up its affairs. There remained nothing for the stockholders. The entire capital had been spent, and widespread distress was the consequence. BANKRUPTCY LAWS, PAST AND PRESENT Bankruptcy Laws, PAST AND PRESENT, sonable expression that it is not only the WILLIAM H. HOTCHKISS (g. v.) con- debtor that dies who is relieved of all tributes the following article on the sub- debts, but that the unfortunate and the ject of bankruptcy: unwise may begin again on this side of the grave. The passage of the bankruptcy law, ap- For more than twenty-five centuries the proved July 1, 1898, was effected by a vote law-makers of the world have been legis- of 43 to 13 in the Senate, and 134 to 53 la ting on bankruptcy. Draco, the pioneer, in the House. It was, necessarily, a com- made it, with laziness and murder, pun- promise, since it was the result of agita- ishable by death. Quite naturally there tion which had been continuous since the followed an age of the absconding debtor, repeal, twenty years before, of its dis- Solon modified these ancient laws, and credited and unpopular predecessor. The even abolished enslavement for debt; but law as a whole must be accepted as a rea- the bankrupt and the bankrupt's heirs for- i. s. 273 BANKRUPTCY LAWS feited their rights of citizenship. The noble Roman and his Twelve Tables were more draconic than Draco. Gibbon tells us that: "At the expiration of sixty days the debt was discharged by the loss of liberty or life; the insolvent debtor was either put to death, or sold into foreign slavery beyond the Tiber; but if several credit ors were alike obstinate and unrelenting, they might legally dismember his body, and satiate their revenge by this horrid partition." In the time of Caesar, Roman juris prudence and civilization had so develop ed that the debtor, by the famous cessio bonorum, might at least escape slavery, and in most cases retain his civil rights; and about a century later our modern idea of a discharge to the honest debtor who gives up his all was graven on their laws. Shylock's savage rights may well speak for the laws of the Middle Ages, whose statutes were little better than a trans parent palimpsest of the Twelve Tables of Rome. French laws have followed the Latin model, and, while somewhat modern ized, even yet visit a degree of disgrace upon the unfortunate trader which would not long be tolerated by an Anglo-Saxon legislature. Since 1542 about forty bankruptcy laws and a number of insolvent - debtor acts have been passed in England. In the United States the statute of 1898 is the fourth of a series of national laws, the others being named from the years 1800, 1841, and 1867; while, in many of the States, and from their very beginning, insolvency statutes of local application and vastly divergent provisions have been on the books. In view of the interest in the subject, the following chronology may be valu able. We take the English statutes first: 1. The statute of 1542 was aimed at absconding or concealed debtors only. It made them criminals, deprived them of their property without giving them a dis charge, and left them to the tender mer cies of their creditors. It was followed by a number of similar laws, enlarging its scope and changing its procedure. 2. By the statute of 1706 debt was no longer treated as a crime, and provision was for the first time made for a dis charge. 3. The statute of 1825, in the reign of George IV., for the first time recog nized voluntary bankruptcies. 4. The statute of 1830 abolished com missioners in bankruptcy, put the admin istration of estates into the hands of the court, and created the official receiver. 5. The statute of 1861 made it pos sible for the non-trader, who had been protected by the insolvent-debtor acts for about fifty years, to take advantage of or to be proceeded against under the general bankruptcy laws. 6. The statute of 1869 introduced in England the now well - understood prin ciple of fraudulent preferences. 7. The statute of 1883, as amended by that of 1890, for the first time distin guished between a fraudulent bankruptcy and one due solely to misfortune. It is drastic in its penalties. In the United States, we find that: 1. The statute of 1800 was copied from the English law of that time, and did not provide either for voluntary bank ruptcy or for non-traders coming within its terms. It was repealed in December, 1803. 2. The statute of 1841, said to have been largely the work of Daniel Webster, intro duced the idea of voluntary bankruptcy into our national jurisprudence. It was in force but eighteen months, being re pealed by the Congress that passed it. 3. The statute of 1867 was framed largely on the Massachusetts insolvency law of 1838. It provided for both volun tary and involuntary bankruptcy, and went almost to the extreme in its enu meration of acts of bankruptcy and in its restrictions on the granting of discharges. This law permitted tedious delays and excessive fees. It remained in force until September, 1878. 4. The statute of 1898 established a new meaning for " insolvency." Bankruptcy laws should have three pur poses: 1. The surrender of the debtor's estate without preferences. 2. Its cheap and expeditious distribution pro rata among all creditors. 3. The discharge of the debtor from liability to pay provable debts with property which he may after wards acquire. 274 BANKRUPTCY LAWS Who May Become a, Bankrupt? The payment of commercial paper. The Ne!< limitation to traders has already been son bill went to the other extreme and mentioned. Our law of 1841 extended made fraudulent transfers and voluntary the meaning of the term " trader " so preferences while insolvent the only acts that, in involuntary bankruptcies, it in- of bankruptcy. eluded bankers, brokers, factors, under- The law of 1898 declares that he writers, and marine insurers. All classes only is insolvent the aggregate of whose of persons could become bankrupts in Eng- property shall not, at a fair valuation, land after 1861; and the like rule re- be sufficient in amount to pay his ceived expression in our law of 1867, with debts. a single exception. The law of 1898 pro- What Is a Preference? This is a com- hibits involuntary proceedings against paratively recent development of the law farmers and wage-earners. of bankruptcy. The earliest regulation is Its provisions relative to corporations that of 16UO, in Scotland, which annulled are equally indicative of prevailing con- preferences made within two months of ditions. The law of 1841 was limited to bankruptcy. The common law permitted natural persons. That of 1867 was made preferences, and debts in favor of wives applicable to all moneyed, business, and and female relatives in general were a commercial corporations. The law of 1898 refuge frequently found by the failing limited the operation of the law to cor- debtor. Our State insolvency laws, most porations engaged principally in manu- of them sanctioning limited preferences, facturing, trading, printing, publishing, have proved but invitations to defraud, or mercantile pursuits. The preferring debtor has become one of What Are Acts of Bankruptcy? In the the evils of our civilization, as was the United States this has been the kernel absconding debtor of that of two cen- of the controversy. Our laws have an- turies ago. swered the question in widely differ- Beginning in 1849, in England, and in ent ways. Our laws down to and in- 1841, in the United States, preferences eluding that of 1867 have been equally have been interdicted by law. The Eng- mindful of the commercial runaway. The lish statute made them void if intended law of 1898, however, omits this cause to defeat or delay creditors, entirely. Our statutes, again, evidence the swing- The present bankruptcy law of England ing of the pendulum. That of 1800 did gives eight acts of bankruptcy, three predi- not inhibit such transactions ; that of cated on fraud coupled with insolvency, 1841 made the giving of preferences ground three of a voluntary character showing in- for refusing a discharge. The law of 1867 solvency, and two others which are relics compelled creditors to prove knowledge of the old rules against fleeing the realm on the part of the person preferred that or concealing property. the act was in fraud of the bankruptcy Our law of 1841 denned but five acts law; in short, it practically required of bankruptcy, all predicated on fraud, proof of collusion by the creditor. Under The law of 1867, in addition to the cus- the new law, a preference seems to be ternary grounds, specified as one of its one thing if asserted in a voluntary pro- ten acts of bankruptcy, fraudulent de- ceeding, and another if alleged as an ac| fault in payment of commercial paper by of bankruptcy on which an involuntary merchants, traders, and manufacturers, proceeding is to stand. In both cases, The law of 1898, however, goes back to the preference must have been made with- the side of leniency again. It enumerates in four months of the filing of the bank- five acts of bankruptcy, two of them in- rupt's petition. But, in the former, the volving fraud on the part of the bank- proof need not go further, in any but rupt, one constructive fraud, and two exceptional cases, than to show that the which are expressed by the paradox that act will result in giving one creditor more by them a debtor may go into involuntary than others, and that such creditor had bankruptcy voluntarily. The Torrey bill reasonable cause to believe that by the enumerated nine acts of bankruptcy, in- act the debtor intended to prefer him; eluding default for thirty days in the while, in the latter, not only insolrency 275 BANKRUPTCY LAWS which, as we have seen, is difficult of proof but intent to prefer, must be shown. When May a Discharge Be Refused? In nothing else does the English bank ruptcy system differ from our own as much as in this. No discharge was grant ed a debtor until the reign of Anne. A little later, not only a discharge, but al lowances on dividends, varying from 3 to 10 per cent., were granted to the bank rupt in order that he might get a fresh start; a provision which also appears in our bankruptcy law of 1800. Until a comparatively recent period, the discharge was of no value unless signed by a speci fied number of creditors, which rule seems still to prevail in France. Since 1832 discharges in England have been in the discretion of the court, subject to some rather drastic limitations of a punitive character. This discretion has been abused; and yet the present English law permits discharges to be refused for nu merous reasons, such as the debtor's con tinuance in business after knowing him self to be insolvent, failure to pay divi dends of at least 50 per cent., rash and hazardous speculations, unjustifiable ex travagance in living, culpable neglect of business affairs, and failure to account satisfactorily for losses. While the list of objections to discharges in England is on the increase, here it is growing smaller and smaller. In 1800, among other restrictions, the bankrupt was not entitled to a discharge unless he paid 75 cents on a dollar. In 1841 a majority of creditors in number and value might prevent the discharge by filing a written dissent thereto. The law of 1867, as amended in 1874, refused a discharge to voluntary bankrupts who did not pay 30 per cent, on claims proved, except with the assent of one - fourth of their creditors in number and one - third in value; and it enumerated ten acts, the commission of which might deprive him of his discharge. The law of 1898 abolishes the semi- control of creditors over discharges, and allows a certificate to be withheld only when the debtor has committed one of the felonies enumerated in the law, or when he has fraudulently failed to keep, or in contemplation of bankruptcy has destroyed or concealed, his books of ac count. Not even a fraudulent preference is objection to a discharge. What Is the Least Expensive and Most Expeditious Procedure? Probably nine- tenths of the criticism of bankruptcy leg islation has been directed to details of procedure. In England, for more than half a century, the lines were drawn for or against officialism. Prior to 1831 bankrupt estates were administered by three commissioners, largely controlled by the creditors. From that time down to 1869 the courts administered through their assignees. Then, for a decade or more, creditors took hold again and made a mess of it. The present law is a com promise, an official of the Board of Trade being in charge until the creditors get to gether and determine on action. In the United States the administration of bankruptcy laws has too often been odorous from nepotism and onerous with costs. The present law is intended to avoid these criticisms. Rapidity in ad ministration is commanded in words and compelled in practice, by making the pay ment of fees contemporaneous with the winding up of the estate. The fees them selves are small, while but one reasonable bill of costs can be allowed the bank rupt's lawyers, and any payments made to them by way of advances for legal ser vices are subject to scrutiny. Bankruptcy courts, presided over by referees having broad judicial powers, are established in every county. Indeed, bankrupts and creditors could not well have a procedure which is simpler, less expensive, or more favorable to themselves. In many quarters the law of 1898 and its purpose are thought typical of man's increasing humanity to man. The bank rupt will always be with us; so will the creditor. The former needs protection against the latter; the creditor can take care of himself. Thus many a good citi zen may find comfort in the reflection that, if we have gone far towards pre venting involuntary bankruptcy, it 1ms been that our laws might be just rattier than severe, and expressive of the prin ciple that a score of rascals had better go unpunished rather than that o%ie hon est man should suffer oppression. This is the spirit of the age. 276 BANKS, NATIONAL Old things are passing away. Sympathy sits where sternness sat. The nimble debtor is no longer part of a tragedy. He belongs to a serio-comic drama in stead. Bankruptcy is not a crime, but a condition; not always a disgrace, but rather a disease; and present laws, while providing relief for him who owes, seem but negatively valuable to him who owns. Banks, NATIONAL. The plan of the national banks is believed to have orig inated with Salmon P. Chase, when Secre tary of the Treasury. In his report for December, 1861, he recommended the gradual issue of national bank-notes, se cured by the pledge of United States bonds, in preference to the further issue of United States notes, $50,000,000 of which had been issued during the previous year. A bill was soon after prepared in accordance with the Secretary's views, and printed for the use of the committee of ways and means, but it was not reported, and on July 8 following, Thaddeus Ste vens, the chairmen of the committee, sub mitted the bill with an adverse report. The immediate necessities of the govern ment compelled the further issue of legal- tender notes, and the consideration of the bank act was deferred. In his report for 1862, Mr. Chase again urged the passage of the national bank bill, and President Lincoln also recommended it in his mes sage. The principal reason why Mr. Chase advocated this system was because he thought it would greatly facilitate the negotiation of the United States bonds; in other words, make it much easier for the government to borrow money. It was also claimed that it would secure for the people in all parts of the country a cur rency of uniform security and value, and protect them from loss in discounts and exchanges advantages which were regard ed as of much importance then, after the experience people had had with State banks whose issue was good in Pittsburg and worthless in Cleveland, and vice versa, and might be stable in either place one day and worthless the next, to say nothing of the annoyance of carrying $100 as many miles and finding it only rated at $40. Still, there was much opposition to the national bank bill. Early in 1868 it was introduced into the Senate by Mr. Sherman, and referred to the finance committee, from which it was reported by him Feb. 2, and ten days later passed by a vote of 23 to 21. On the 20th of the same month it also passed the House of Representatives by a vote of 78 to 64. When the bill was revised and again brought before Congress for passage, in June, 1864, the vote in the Senate was 30 in favor and 9 against the bill. It was claimed at the time this bill was under discussion, and has been even more strong ly urged since by certain classes, that all the advantages of stability and uniformity of currency could be even better secured through a government issue of notes, with out the danger of the creation of a great money monopoly. There was a strong ob jection, however, on the part of many whose opinions had great influence against thus making the government, as it were, the one bank of issue for the country. Secretary Chase issued legal-tender notes, it is true, and thus saved the govern ment at a most critical time from seri ous financial embarrassment. He de fended the act as one required by the grave exigency existing rather than as the inauguration of a sound financial policy. In January, 1875, Congress passed an act providing for the resumption of spe cie payments on Jan. 1, 1879. As that time approached there were preliminary movements towards that end, such as re deeming the fractional curency with silver (1876), by which a large amount of the latter coin was put into circulation. There was a very strong opposition to re sumption at that time, and prophets of evil foretold infinite disasters to the busi ness of the country. It was declared that the demand for gold would be greater than the supply; but when the day came, and the clerical force of the Sub-Treasury in New York was increased in order to fa cilitate the paying out of gold for " green backs " presented, they had nothing to do. There was actually more gold paid in than was paid out. From that hour the busi ness of the country permanently revived for the first time since the great revulsion sf 1873. By act of Congress, March 3, 1883, the taxes on capital and deposits of banks, bankers, and national banking associa- 277 BANKS, SAVINGS BANKS, N. P. tions, excepting such as were already due, ings banks elsewhere, and building and were repealed, and also the stamp tax on loan associations, as well as loan and bank-checks, drafts, orders, and vouchers, trust companies, also act practically as the latter provision to take effect on savings banks. July 1, 1883. The act of Feb. 25, 1863, Banks, STATE. Official reports cover- limited the period of existence of the ing the various banks organized under national banks to twenty years; but an State and Territorial charters for the act of July 10, 1882, provided for the ex- banking year ending at various periods in tension of the charters of all national 1903, gave the following summaries: Num- banks under prescribed conditions for ber of banks, 5,962; capital, $302,264,497; twenty years more, and under this act deposits, $1,814,570,163; surplus, $129,647,- many banks reorganized for the longer 875; and resources, $2,491,428,760. Sec- period. In the war revenue act of 1898 tionally, the largest number of such banks a stamp tax of two cents was imposed were in the Middle States, 2,120; the on every bank-check, and in March, 1900, Western States ranked second, with 1,661; the President approved a new currency the Southern States third, with 1,442; the act which established the gold dollar as Eastern States fourth, with 355; the the standard unit of value, permitted Pacific States fifth, with 341; and the national banks to be organized in places New England States sixth, with 21. of 3,000 population or less with a capital Banks, WILD-CAT, a designation of a of $25,000, instead of $50,000, the previous class of banks in various parts of the coun- minimum, and provided that banks might try, and especially in the Western States, issue circulation on all classes of bonds founded prior to the enactment of the na- deposited up to the par value of the bonds, tional banking law. This peculiar desig- instead of to 90 per cent, of their face nation was originally applied to a number value as before. of banks organized under State charters National banking statistics for the year in Michigan, because their notes of cir- ending Oct. 31, 1903, as officially reported, culation contained upon their face the contained returns from 5,147 such banks, picture of a panther. Many of these banks These reported an aggregate capital of very soon became unsound, and when it $764,420,314; loans and discounts, $3,481,- was found that their notes were worthless 446,772; outstanding circulation, $419,- these banks became the type of a worth- 610,683; individual deposits, $3,305,900,- less currency, and all money and banks 000; and combined resources exceeding of doubtful value became known as wild- $6,000,000,000, the largest amount ever cats. This designation in time was ex- reported. See CIRCULATION, MONETARY; tended to a large number of insurance COINAGE; CURRENCY; U. S. BANKS. companies, especially in Illinois. See Banks, SAVINGS. The savings banks in BANK OF THE UNITED STATES; GRAVE- the United States are divided into two YARD INSURANCE. classes the mutual and the stock. In Banks, NATHANIEL PRENTISS, military 1903 the mutual savings banks numbered officer; born in Waltham, Mass., Jan. 30, 657, and had 6,116,594 depositors, and 1816. His early education was obtained $2,720,106,754 in resources, and held sav- at a common school. He became a lawyer ings deposits aggregating $2,512,468,458. and Democratic orator: edited a newspa- The stock savings banks numbered 421, per in Waltham and Lowell; and during and had an aggregate capital of $20,116,- the administration of President Polk held 660, 557,643 depositors, and $337,042,450 office in the Boston Custom-house. In in resources, and held $303,014,648 in de- 1849 he was a member of the Massachu- posits. The aggregate of the two kinds setts legislature, and speaker 6f the of savings banks was: Total number, Lower House in 1851-52. He was presi- 1,078; depositors, 6,674,237; resources, dent of the State Constitutional Conven- $3,057,149,204; and combined deposits, tion in 1853, and a member of Congress $2,815,483,106. In several of the States, in 1853-57, separating from the Demo- particularly in Massachusetts, organiza- cratic party on the question of slavery; tions called co-operative banks to a large and, after a long contest, was elected extent take the place of the ordinary sav- speaker of the House of Representatives 278 BANNEKER BAPTIST CHURCH in 1855. Mr. Banks was chosen governor Bannock Indians, a tribe of North of Massachusetts in 1858, and served until 1861. When the Civil War broke out he NATHANIEL PRKNTISS BANKS. was president of the Illinois Central Rail road. Offering his services to President Lincoln, he was made a major-general of volunteers May 16, 1861, and appointed to command the Annapolis military district. General Banks was an active and skilful leader in various battles during the war in Virginia and in the region of the lower Mississippi and Red rivers. In 1865-73, 1875-77, and 1889-91 he was a Represent ative in Congress, and subsequently he was United States marshal. He died in Wal- Cham, Sept, 1, 1894. Banneker, BENJAMIN, a negro mathe matician; born in Maryland, Nov. 9, 1731. He taught himself mathematics ; and for many years, while engaged in daily labor, made the necessary calculations for and published an almanac for Maryland and the adjoining States. Mr. Jefferson pre sented one of his almanacs to the French Academy of Sciences, where it excited wonder and admiration, and the African Almanac became well known to the scien tific circles of Europe. In 1790 he was employed by the commissioners in the sur vey of the boundaries of the District of Columbia. His grandmother was an Eng lishwoman, who purchased a small plan tation in Maryland, bought two slaves from a ship just from Africa, and married one of them. He died in Baltimore, in October, 1806. American Indians, sometimes called the "Robber Indians." It was divided into two distinct branches: the first inhabited the region between lat. 42 and 45 and reaching from long. 113 to the Rocky Mountains; the second claimed all of the southwestern part of Montana. The first branch was the more numerous. In 1869 the Bannocks of the Salmon River num bered only 350, having been reduced by small-pox and invasions of the Blackfeet. In that year about 600 of the Southern tribe were settled on the Wind River reser vation, and in the same year 600 more were sent to the Fort Hall reservation. Most of the latter afterwards left the res ervation, but returned with the Shoshones and the scattered Bannocks of the south ern part of Idaho in 1874. In 1900 the Bannocks were reduced to 430 at the Fort Hall agency, and eighty-five at the Lemhi agency, both in Idaho. Baptist Church, a flourishing denomi nation of evangelical Christians who differ from others in respect to the mode of administering the rite of baptism. They reject sprinkling, and hold that immersion of the whole body is the only valid mode of baptism, and essential to its specific spiritual purpose; a mode, they claim, that was universally practised through out Christendom for 1,300 years. Their Church government is democratic. Their writers trace their origin to the third century; and they have ever been the champions of civil and religious liberty. Until the Quakers arose, at the middle of the seventeenth century, they stood alone in the advocacy of " soul-liberty." There were none in America when Roger Will iams founded Providence. Before he left England he had been under the teachings of Baptists there, some of whom had been refugees from persecution in Holland. These had instituted baptism among them selves by authorizing certain of their mem bers to be administrators of the rite. Cast out from the Congregational churches in Massachusetts, Williams conceived the idea of forming a Baptist Church in his new home in Providence, after the man ner of the refugees in Holland, but in a more simple form. In March, 1639, Eze- kiel Holliman, a layman, first baptized Williams, and then Williams baptized 279 BARAGA BARCLAY Holliman and " some ten more." These men then formed a Baptist Church there. But Williams did not remain a Baptist long. He very early doubted the validity of Holliman's baptism, and consequently of his own. He believed " a visible suc cession of authorized administrators of baptism" to be necessary to insure its validity, and in the course of two months he withdrew from the Church, and never rejoined it. But the Church and its prin ciples remained, and the colony embodied in its first code of laws (1637) a provision .for perfect toleration in matters of re ligion. In 1764, when numbering only about 5,000 members in all America, the Baptists established their first college in Rhode Island (see BROWN UNIVERSITY). With one exception, the Baptists are the largest denomination of evangelical Chris tians in the United States. It is said that the first article of the amendments to the national Constitution, guaranteeing religious liberty (offered in 1789), was in troduced chiefly through the influence of the Baptist denomination. The Baptist Church in 1900 was divided into the Regular Baptist, North; Regular Baptist, South; and Regular Baptist, Colored. Besides these there were ten other Church organizations so closely al lied with the Regular Baptist Church as to be officially grouped with the Regular Church. Reports for 1899 gave the fol lowing summaries for the thirteen Bap tist bodies: Ministers, 33,088; churches, 49,721; and members, 4,443,628. The Northern and Southern branches of the Regular Baptist Church had 14,409 min- .isters, 27,893 churches, and 2,586,671 members; and the Regular Baptist Church, Colored, had 14,000 ministers, 15,- 000 churches, and 1,555,324 members. The largest of the other bodies was the Primi tive Baptist Church, which reported 2,130 ministers, 3,530 churches, and 126,000 members. The Freewill Baptist Church followed, with 1,312 ministers, 1,517 churches, and 85,242 members. Baraga, FREDERICK, clergyman ; born in Carniola, Austria, June 29, 1797; in 1830 determined to devote his life to the con version of Indians in the United States; settled among the Ottawas in Michigan. In 1856 he was appointed Bishop of Mar- quette. In addition to translating prayer- books, hymn-books, catechisms, etc., into the Indian language, he wrote in German the History, Character, Manners, and Customs of the North American Indians. He died in Marquette, Mich., Jan. 19, 1868. Barbary States. Se ALGIEBS. Barber, FRANCIS, military officer; born in Princeton, N. J., in 1751; was gradu ated at the College of New Jersey in 1767, and became rector of an academy at Eliza beth, N. J., and pastor of the Presbyterian Church there in 1769. Leaving these posts, he joined the New Jersey line in the Con tinental army as major, in February, 1776. In November he was made a lieu tenant-colonel, and was afterwards assist ant inspector-general under Baron Steu- ben. He was active in several battles, and was wounded in the battle of Newtown. In 1781 he was successful in quelling the mutiny of Pennsylvania and New Jersey troops. He was with the army at New- burg in 1783, where he died, Feb. 11, the same year. Barber, JOHN WARNER, historian; born in Windsor, Conn., Feb. 2, 1798; wrote many books, including Historical Collec tions of Connecticut, New York, New Jer sey, Virginia, 'and Ohio; History and Antiquities of New England, New York, and New Jersey, etc. Much of his work was done in co - operation with HENRY HOWE (q. v.}. He died in New Haven, in June, 1885. Barbour, JAMES, statesman; born in Orange county, Va., June 10, 1775; mem ber of the Virginia board of delegates, 1796-1812; governor, 1812; United States Senator, 1815; Secretary of War, 1825; minister to England, 1828. He died in Orange county, Va., June 8, 1842. Barbour, PHILIP PENDLETON, jurist; born in Orange county, Va., May 25, 1783; member of Congress from 1814 to 1825 and 1827 to 1830; speaker of the House, 1821; judge of the United States circuit eourt of the eastern district of Virginia, 1830 to 1836; justice of the United States Supreme Court, 1836-41. He died in Washington, D. C., Feb. 24, 1841. Barclay, ROBERT, author; born in Gor- donston, Scotland, Dec. 23, 1648. Barclay made journeys in England, Holland, and Germany with W T illiam Penn. He was one of the proprietors of east Jersey, and in 80 BARD BARKER 1682 he was appointed its governor (see Captain Carlsen, after a lapse of 274 NEW JERSEY) ; but he exercised the office years, found Barentz's winter quarters by a deputy. He died in Ury, Oct. 13, undisturbed in 1871; and some of the 1690. navigator's journals were recovered in Bard, JOHN, physician; born in Bur- 1876. lington, N. J., Feb. 1, 1716; was of a Barker, ALBERT SMITH, naval officer; Huguenot family, and was for seven years born in Massachusetts; entered the navy a surgeon's apprentice in Philadelphia, in 1859; served under Farragut in the Establishing himself in New York, he soon bombardment and passage of Forts Jack- ranked among the first physicians and son and St. Philip; and in an attempted surgeons in America. In 1750 he assisted passage of Port Hudson his vessel was Dr. Middleton in the first recorded dissec- blown up, after which he took part in tion in America. In 1788 he became the the siege of that post on the Mononga- first president of the New York Medical hela. He was actively employed through- Society; and when, in 1795, the yellow out the Civil War; was promoted to fever raged in New York, he remained at captain in 1892; commanded the cruiser his post, though then nearly eighty years Neivark in the American-Spanish War of age. He died in Hyde Park, N. Y., (1898); succeeded Capt. CHARLES EDGAR March 30, 1799. CLARK (g. v.) as commander of the fa- Bard, SAMUEL, physician; born in mous battle-ship Oregon after the close of Philadelphia, April 1, 1742; son of Dr. the war; and became a rear-admiral in John Bard; studied at the University of 1899. Edinburgh, where he passed about three Barker, JACOB, financier ; born on Swan years, and was an inmate of the family Island, Kennebec co., Me., Dec. 7, 1779; of Dr. Robertson, the historian. Having was of a Quaker family, and related by graduated as M.D. in 1765, he returned blood to the mother of Dr. Franklin. He home, and began the practice of medicine began trade in New York when quite in New York City with his father. He organized a medical school, which was connected with King's (Columbia) Col lege, in which he took the chair of physic in 1769. In 1772 he purchased his father's business. He caused the estab lishment of a public hospital in the city of New York in 1791, and, while the seat of the national government was at New York, he was the physician of President Washington. He was also appointed president of the College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1813. While combating yellow fever in New York in 1798, he took the disease, but by the faithful nurs ing of his wife he recovered. Dr. Bard was a skilful horticulturist as well as an eminent physician. He died May 24, 1821. Barentz, WILLEM, navigator; born in Holland; commanded exploring expedi tions to Nova Zembla and Spitzbergen in 1594-97. His first expedition was an attempt to find a passage through the JACOB BARKER. Arctic Ocean to China, in which he reached lat. 78 N. On his third and last young, and at twenty-one he owned four expedition, in 1596-97, he reached lat. ships and a brig, and was largely engaged 80 11' N., and discovered Spitzbergen. in commercial transactions. As a State He died near Nova Zembla, June 20, 1597. Senator, and while sitting in the Court 281 BAKKER BARLOW of Errors, he gave an opinion in an in- the Peninsula in 1862. In the battle of surance case in opposition to Judge Kent, Antietam he captured two stands of and was sustained by the court. During colors and 300 men, and was soon the War of 1812 his ships were all capt- afterwards wounded and carried off the ured. Being in Washington, D. C., dur- field for dead. He was made brigadier- ing its sack by the British (August, general in September, and he commanded 1814), he assisted Mrs. Madison in sav- a division in the battle of Chancellors- ing Stuart's portrait of Washington, then ville in May, 1863. He was wounded at hanging in the President's house, which Gettysburg, and was also distinguished was set on fire a few hours later. Barker in the Richmond campaign in 1864. He was a banker, a dealer in stocks, and a rendered essential service in the final general and shrewd financier for many struggle that ended with the surrender of years. He finally established himself in Lee; was mustered out of the service New Orleans in 1834, where he was ad- in 1865 with the rank of major-general ; mitted to the bar as a lawyer, and soon was secretary of state of New York in became a political and business leader 1865-68; United States marshal in 1868- there. He made and lost several fortunes 69; and attorney-general of New York in during his long life. The Civil War 1871-73. He died in New York City, Jan. wrought his financial ruin, and late in 11, 1896. 1867 he was again in bankruptcy, at the Barlow, JOEL, poet; born in Reading, age of eighty-eight years. He died in Conn., March 24, 1754; was graduated at Philadelphia, Dec. 26, 1871. Yale College in 1778; studied theology and Barker, JOSIAH, shipbuilder; born in was licensed a Congregational minister; Marshfield, Mass., Nov; 16, 1763; served and from 1778 to 1783 was a chaplain in at intervals throughout the Revolution in the army, writing patriotic songs and ad both the army and the navy. He estab- dresses to keep up the spirits of the sol- lished a ship-yard in 1795 in Charles- diers. When the army was disbanded town, Mass., where he built, as United (1783) he settled at Hartford, where he States naval constructor, the Virginia, began to study law, and was admitted to Warren, Cumberland, and other men-of- the bar in 1785. He had tried book-sell- war, and rebuilt the Constitution. He died in Charlestown, Mass., Sept. 23, 1843. Barker, WHARTON, banker; born in Philadelphia, Pa., May 1, 1846; was graduated at the University of Pennsyl vania in 1866, after having served in the Union army in the Civil War; founded the banking firm of Barker Brothers & Co., which in 1878 was appointed finan cial agent in the United States of the Russian government, and supervisor of the building of four cruisers for its navy; and was the Presidential nominee of the Middle-of-the-Road or Anti-Fusion Peo ple's party, in 1900. Barlow, ARTHUR, navigator; born about 1550; died about 1620. See AMIDAS. JOEL BARLOW - Barlow, FRANCIS CHANNING, military officer; born in Brooklyn, N. Y., Oct. 19, ing; and, in 1792, he established a weekly 1834; was graduated at Harvard Univer- newspaper, entitled the American Mercury, sity in 1855. After serving as a three published at Westford. His poetic talents months' man, at the beginning of the becoming widely known, he was requested Civil War, he became a lieutenant-colonel by several Congregational ministers to re- of a New York regiment, and as colonel vise the phraseology of Watts's hymns. distin Jan. 15, 1865 Hatcher's Run (Va.) Feb. 5, " Averasboro (N. C.) Mar. 16 " Bentonville (N. C.) Mar. is' " Five Forks (Va.) . .Mar. 31 and April 1 " Petersburg (Carried by As sault) April 2, " Appomattox Court - House (near) April 9, " Mobile (Capture of) April 8-12, WAR WITH SPAIN. Destruction of Spanish fleet In Manila Bay May 1, 1898 Bombardment of San Juan, Porto Rico May 12, " Bombardments of forts, San tiago de Cuba May 31, ' Daiquiri, Cuba June 21-22, " Juragua, Cuba (Capture) June 24, " Las Guasimas, Cuba June 24, " El Caney, Cuba July 1, San Juan Hill, Cuba July 2, " Destruction of Spanish fleet off Santiago July 3, " Santiago (Military and Naval Bombardment) July 10-17, " Nipe Harbor, Cuba July 21, " Guanica. Porto Rico July 25, " Ponce, Porto Rico July 28, " Malate, Philippine Islands July 31, " Manila (Occupied) Aug. 13, " Filipinos begin war on Ameri cans peb. 4, 1899 Capture of Aguinaldo ends in surrection Mar. 23,1901 There has been, from colonial times, des ultory warfare quite frequently between the English-American colonists and the Indian tribes. The most formidable of these encounters were the Pequod War, the Esopus War, King Philip's War, Pontiac's 297 BATTLE-SHIPS BAXTER War, the Creek and Seminole War, and wars with the Sioux. There should also be included in the list of wars of the Unit ed States the long series of operations against the Filipino insurgents following the ratification of peace in 1899. Details of the most important of all of the above events will be found under their respective titles. Battle-ships, the highest and heaviest class of war vessels, designed for sea- fighting in line of battle, and provided with the most invulnerable armor and the heaviest guns, differing in this respect from the armored and unarmored class of cruisers, in which the qualities of pro tection and armament do not so largely sachusetts, Oregon, and Texas, the first seven being rated as first-class battle ships, the last as second-class. At the same period there were under construction, or authorized to be constructed, the following vessels, all of the first class: Illinois, Wis consin, Maine, Missouri, Ohio, Georgia, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Rhode Island. During the summer of 1899 the Kearsarge and Kentucky were put in commission, the former being made the flag-ship of the new European squad ron, and the latter being sent to impress the Sultan of Turkey with the desirability of paying some American claims. What was denominated by the Secretary of the Navy the " greatest industrial event U. S. BATTLE SHIP KKARSARGK. preponderate. In a fleet of modern war ships the battle-ship is the unit of strength and is expected to give and re ceive the hardest blows. In the reconstruction of the United States navy, large attention has been given to this class of vessels, and the results of the remarkable triumph off Santiago de Cuba have been used as a justification for giving the navy the most thorough possible equipment in this line of fighting ships. At the beginning of 1901 the following battle-ships were in service: Alabama, Kearsarge, Kentucky, Iowa, Indiana, Mas- this or any other country had ever seen " occurred in Washington, Dec. 7, 1900, when bids were opened for the construction of eleven new armored fighting ships, to cost an aggregate of about $50,000,000. The vessels authorized were sheathed bat tle-ships, for which Congress limited the cost to $4,250,000 each; unsheathed bat tle-ships, limit of cost, $4,000,000 each; and armored cruisers, limit of cost, $3,- 600,000. See NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES. Baxter, JAMES PHINNEY, author; born in Gorham, Me., March 23, 1831; has been mayor of Portland, Me., several 298 BAYAMON BAYARD times ; and Is the author of British In- the Senate when war was declared against vasion from the North; Sir Ferdinando Great Britain in 1812. In May, 1813, he Gorges and His Province of Maine, etc. left the United States on a mission to St. Bayamon, a province on the north Petersburg, to treat for peace with Great coast of Porto Rico; bounded on the east by that of Humacao, on the south by those of Ponce and Guayama, and on the west by that of ARECIBO (q. v.). The chief city and seaport is SAN JUAN (q. i?.), the fortifications of which were several times bombarded by a portion of the fleet under Admiral Sampson in 1898. The city was also the objective point of the military expedition under Gen. N. A. MILES (q. v.), which was stopped on its triumphal march by the signing of the protocol of peace. The formal transfer of the island to the United States also took place in this city. Bayard, GEORGE DASHIELL, military officer; born in Seneca Falls, N. Y., Dec. 18, 1835; was graduated at West Point in 1856, and entered the cavalry corps. Early in April, 1861, he was made brig adier-general of volunteer cavalry, and was attached to the Pennsylvania Re serves. He participated in the battles fought by that body; served under Mc Dowell and Pope in Virginia; and, after the battle of Antietam Creek, commanded a cavalry brigade. He was chief of cav- Britain under Russian mediation. The airy of the 3d Army Corps, and was en- mission was fruitless. In January, 1814, gaged in the battles of Cedar Mountain, he went to Holland, and thence to Eng- Manassas, and in the defence of Washing- land. At Ghent, during that year, he, ton, D. C. In the battle of Fredericks- with J. Q. Adams, Clay, Gallatin, and burg, where he fell, Dec. 14, 1862, he was Russell, negotiated a treaty of peace with attached to Franklin's corps. England. He was preparing to go to Bayard, JAMES ASHTON, statesman; England as a commissioner under the born in Philadelphia, July 28, 1767; of treaty, when an alarming illness seized Huguenot descent; was graduated at him, and he returned home early in 1815. Princeton in 1784; studied law under He died soon after his arrival, Aug. 6. Gen. Joseph Reed; was admitted to the Bayard, NICHOLAS, colonial executive; bar in 1787, and, settling in Delaware, born in Alphen, Holland, in 1644. His soon acquired a high reputation as a law- mother was a 'sister of Governor Stuy- yer. Mr. Bayard was a member of Con- vesant, the last Dutch governor of New gress from 1797 to 1803, and a conspicu- Netherland, whom she accompanied to ous leader of the Federal party. In 1804 America in 1647, with her three sons and he was elected to the United States Sen- a daughter. The old Bayard mansion in ate, in which he distinguished himself in New York City, on the Bowery, was con- conducting the impeachment of Senator verted into a pleasure garden in 1798. Blount. He was chiefly instrumental in The Astor Library is built on a part of securing the election of Jefferson over the estate. Under the second English Burr in 1800; and made, in the House of regime, in 1685, Bayard was mayor of Representatives, in 1802, a powerful de- New York, and a member of Governor fence of the existing judiciary system, Dongan's council. In 1698 Col. Bayard which was soon overthrown. He was in went to England to clear himself of the 299 JAMES ASHTON BAYARD. BAYARD BEACH imputation of complicity in the piracy The Confederates soon rallied and drove of Captain Kidd, having been accused by him back. Another part of the attacking the Leisler faction of both piracy and a force was driven back, and the attempt scheme to introduce slavery. He was failed. tried before Chief -Justice Atwood and' Baylor, GEORGE, military officer; born sentenced to death. The proceedings, in Newmarket, Va., Jan. 12, 1752. Soon however, were annulled by an order-in- after Washington's arrival at Cambridge council, and he was reinstated in his prop- in 1778, he appointed (Aug. 15) young erty and honors. He died in New York Baylor as his aide. He was a participant City, in 1707. in the battle at Trenton, and carried the Bayard, THOMAS FRANCIS, diploma- news of the victory to Congress, when tist; born in Wilmington, Del., Oct. 29, that body presented him with a horse ca- 1828; grandson of James A. Bayard; was parisoned for service, and made him admitted to the bar at Wilmington in colonel of dragoons (Jan. 8, 1777). On 1851, and served as United States Dis- the night of Sept. 27, 1778, his troop of trict Attorney. From 1869 to 1885 he was horse, lying in barns, unarmed, near old United States Senator from Delaware, Tappan, were surprised by the British, who and foremost among the leaders of the fell suddenly upon the sleeping troopers. Democratic side. He was a member of The latter, without arms and powerless, the Electoral Commission in 1877, and asked for quarter. General Grey had given was for a while president pro tern, of special orders not to grant quarter, and the Senate. In 1880 and 1884 Senator out of 104 prisoners sixty-seven were Bayard's prominence in the party brought killed or wounded. Baylor was wounded his name before the National Democratic and made prisoner. He died in Bridge- Convention, but he failed of securing the town, Barbadoes, in March, 1784. prize, though receiving many votes. Pres- Bayonne Decree. See EMBARGO. ident Cleveland called him in 1885 to the Bayou Teche Expedition. See RED office of Secretary of State, where he re- RIVER EXPEDITION. mained until 1889, and in President Bay State, the popular name of Massa- Cleveland's second administration he was chusetts, the colonial corporate title of first minister and then AMBASSADOR which was "The Massachusetts Bay." (q. v.) to Great Britain. He died in This name it bore until the adoption of Dedham, Mass., Sept. 28, 1898. the national Constitution in 1788. Baylis's Creek, BATTLE AT. Gen. W. Beach, ALFRED ELY, inventor; born in S. Hancock proceeded to attack the Con- Springfield, Mass., in 1826; was educated federates in front of Deep Bottom on the at Monson Academy, Mass., and under his James River, Aug. 12, 1864. His whole father (Moses, an early proprietor of the force was placed on transports at City New York Sun) acquired a practical Point, and its destination reported to be knowledge of newspaper work. In 1846 Washington. This was to deceive the (with Orson D. Munn) he established the Confederates. That night it went up the Scientific American, and for nearly fifty James River; but so tardy was the de- years was its editor. In 1852 he perfected barkation that the intended surprise of a typewriting machine which was award- the Confederates was not effected. Han- ed a gold medal by the American Insti- cock pushed some of his troops by Mai- tute. Later he invented the system of vern Hill to flank the Confederates' de- underground pneumatic tubes, through fence behind Baylis's Creek, while 10,000 which letters were carried from street men were sent, under Gen. F. C. Barlow, lamp-posts to the central post-office. In to assail their flank and rear. There were 1867 he placed on exhibition in the Ameri- other dispositions for attack; but the de- can Institute the working model of a por- lay had allowed Lee to send reinforce- tion of an elevated railway, which met men%i, for the movement seemed to with so much favor that he planned a threaten Richmond. On the morning of similar system of underground railways the 16th, General Birney, with General for New York. In 1869, under the author- Terry's division, attacked and carried the ity of the legislature, he began the con- Confederate lines, and captured 300 men. structiou of a railway under Broadway 300 BEAKMAN BEAUMONT between Murray and Warren streets, the and held the rank of commodore in th excavation of the tunnel being made by a French navy, and lieutenant-general of the hydraulic shield of his own invention, naval army. On the breaking out of war This shield was subsequently used in bor- with England (1745), he built the fortress ing several well-known tunnels in the of Crown Point, which was afterwards en- United States, Canada, and Europe. He larged and strengthened by Aniherit. He died in New York City, Jan. 1, 1896. died June 12, 1749. Beakman, DANIEL FREDERICK, soldier; Beaumarchais, PIERRE AUGUSTIN CA- born in New Jersey about 1760; enlisted EON I>E, author; born in Paris, Jan. 24, in 1778, and served throughout the Revo- 1732; the son of a watch-maker. In 1761 lutionary War; was the last surviving he purchased a commission as secretary pensioner of that war. In 1867 Congress to the King, a sinecure which conferred granted him a pension of $500 for life, noble rank on its possessor, and the name He died in Sandusky, N. Y., April 5, of Beaumarchais, which he had assumed, 1869. was legally confirmed. Entering into mer- Beall, JOHN YOUNG, naval officer; born cantile speculations, he soon acquired a in Virginia, Jan. 1, 1835; received a com- large fortune. He was the author of the mission in the Confederate navy, and on famous play, the Barber of Seville. In Sept. 19, 1864, he, in company with two September, 1775, he submitted a memorial others, in the dress of civilians, captured to the French monarch, in which he in- the Lake Erie steamer Philo Parsons, sisted upon the necessity of the French Subsequently they captured another steam- government's secretly aiding the English- er, Island Queen, and also attempted to American colonies; and as agent of his wreck a railroad train near Buffalo on government he passed some time in Eng- the night of his arrest, Dec. 16, 1864. He land, where he became acquainted with was tried by court martial, condemned, Arthur Lee, which acquaintance led to dip^ and hanged on Governor's Island, New lomatic and commercial relations with the York Harbor, Feb. 24, 1865. Continental Congress. He conducted the Beardslee, LESTER ANTHONY, naval offi- business of supplying the Americans with cer; born in Little Falls, N. Y., Feb. 1, munitions of war with great ability, and 1836; was graduated at the Naval Acad- afterwards became involved in a lawsuit emy in 1856; brought the Confederate with them. In 1784 he produced his M ar- steam-sloop Florida, captured off Bahia, riage of Figaro, which was violently op- Brazil, to the United, States as prize posed by the Court. His political tenden- master in 1864; and while in command of cies were republican, and he sympathized the Jamestown in 1879, discovered, sur- with the French Revolutionists, but did veyed, and named Glacier Bay, Alaska; not enter with his usual enthusiasm into promoted rear-admiral in 1895. He died their measures. Suspected by the Jacobins, in Augusta, Ga., Nov. 10, 1903. he was compelled to leave the country, Bear Flag War. See FREMONT, JOHN C. and his property was confiscated. He was Beatty, JOHN, physician; born in Bucks finally permitted to return to France, but county, Pa., Dec. 19, 1749; was graduated could not recover his wealth. Beaumar- at Princeton in 1769; studied medicine; chais lived in comparative poverty until became a colonel in the Pennsylvania line; May 18, 1799, when he was found dead and in 1778-80 he was commissary- in his bed, having died of apoplexy. A general of prisoners. He was a delegate suit which he had commenced against the in the Congress of the Confederation, United States for payment for supplies 1783-85, and of the national Congress, furnished to the Continental Congress, be- 1793-95. He was secretary of state for tween 1776 and 1779, under the mercantile New Jersey for ten years 1795-1805. He firm name of Roderique Hortales & Co., died at Trenton, N. J., April 30, 1826. continued about fifty years, and resulted Beaufort, S. C. See PORT ROYAL SOUND, in 1835 in the payment to his heirs by the Beauharnais, CHARLES, MARQUIS DE, United States of the sum of about military officer and a natural son of Louis $200,000. XIV.; born about 1670; was governor of Beaumont, WILLIAM, physician; -born New France (Canada) from 1726 to 1746, in Lebanon, Conn., in 1796." In 1812 he ' <>/".*_ 301 BEATTREGARD BEAVER was made assistant surgeon in the United beginning of June, 1861, and issued a States array, and served until 1837. While proclamation which was calculated and stationed at Michilimackinac (Mackinaw) intended to "fire the Southern heart." in 1822, he treated Alexis St. Martin, a He said: "A reckless and unprincipled Canadian, who had a gunshot wound in tyrant has invaded your soil. Abraham his side; the wound healed without clos- Lincoln, regardless of all moral, legal, ing up, exposing to view the operations and constitutional restraints, has thrown of the stomach in its digestive functions, his abolition hosts among us, who are Dr. Beaumont made careful experiments murdering and imprisoning your citizens, with this man, for several years, upon confiscating and destroying your property, the process of digestion, and published and committing other acts of violence and the result of his researches. St. Martin outrage too shocking and revolting to hu- lived for more than fifty years after the manity to be enumerated. All rules of accident. The orifice exposing the stom- civilized warfare are abandoned, and they ach never closed. Dr. Beaumont died in proclaim by their acts, if not on their St. Louis, Mo., April 25, 1853. banners, that their war-cry is ' Beauty Beauregard, PIERRE GUSTAVE TOUTANT, and Booty.' All that is dear to man military officer; born on a plantation near your honor, and that of your wives and New Orleans, May 28, 1818; was gradu- daughters, your fortunes, and your lives ated at the United States Military Acad- are involved in this monstrous contest." emy in 1838, and entered the artillery He then, as " General of the Confederate service, but was transferred to the engi- States, commanding at Camp Pickens, seer corps. He won the brevets of captain Manassas Junction," invited the people of Virginia to a vindication of their pa triotism, " by the name and memory of their Revolutionary fathers, and by the purity and sanctity of their domestic firesides, to rally to the standard of their State and country," and by every means in their power " compatible with honor able warfare, to drive back and expel the invaders from the land." The speech of President Davis at Richmond and this proclamation of Beauregard were lauded by the Confederates at Washington and Baltimore as having the ring of true metal. After the battle of BULL Rux (q. .), in July, he was promoted to major-general. He took command of the Army of the Mississippi, under Gen. A. S. OKK. PIERRE o. T. BEAUREGARD. Johnston, and directed the battle of Shiloh in April, 1862, after the death of John- and major in the war with Mexico, and ston. He successfully defended Charles- was wounded at Chapultepec; also at the ton in 1862-63, and in May, 1864, he taking of the city of Mexico. He left joined Lee in the defence of Petersburg the service of the United States in 1861, and Richmond. As commander of the and joined the Confederates in February, forces in the Carolinas in 1GG3, he joined He conducted the siege of Fort Sumter, them with those of Gen. J. E. Johnston, and was afterwards active as a leader in and surrendered them to Sherman. At the Virginia and other parts of the slave- close of the war, with the full rank of gen- labor States. Beauregard was made brig- eral in the Confederate service, he settled adier-general in the Confederate army, Feb. in New Orleans, where he died, Feb. 20, 20, 1861, and was placed in command of 1893. the gathering army of Confederates at Ma- Beaver, JAMES ADDAMS, military offi- nassas Junction the Department of Alex- cer; born in Millerstown, Pa., Oct. 21, andria. He took the command at the 1837; was graduated at Jefferson College 302 BEAVER DAMS BEEBE in 1856; entered the ariny in 1861; was ian ambush, and, displaying his men to shot through the body at Chancellorsville, the best advantage after Bcerstler had in the side at Petersburg, and lost a leg crossed the creek, he boldly demanded the at Ream's Station; brevetted brigadier- surrender of the Americans to Major De general of volunteers; was elected govern- Haven, commander of the district. For or of Pennsylvania as a Republican in this purpose Fitzgibbon bore a flag him- 1887; and was a member of President Me- self. He falsely assured Boerstler that his Kinley*s commission to investigate the party was only the advance of 1,500 Brit- conduct of the War Department during ish troops and 700 Indians, under Lieu- the American-Spanish War. tenant-Colonel Bisshopp, and that the bar- Beaver Dams, AFFAIR AT THE. After barians were so exasperated that it would leaving Fort George the British establish- be difficult to restrain them from massa- ed a strong post and depot of supplies cring the Americans. Bcerstler, deceived at the Beaver Dams, among the hills 18 and alarmed, agreed to surrender on cer- miles west of Queenstown. Dearborn tain conditions. De Haven, whom Fitz- determined to attempt the capture of this gibbon had sent for, came up with 200 post and its stores, and for that purpose men, and Boerstler and 500 soldiers were he detached 570 infantry, some cavalry made prisoners. It had been agreed that under Major Chapin, a few artillerymen, the captives should be protected and sent and two field-pieces, all under the com- back on parole. This promise was broken, mand of Lieut.-Col. Charles G. Bcerstler. The Indians plundered the captive troops, They marched up the Niagara River to and the latter were sent to Burlington Queenstown (June 23, 1813), and the next Heights and kept prisoners of war. When morning pushed off westward. Their Boerstler was first attacked by the Indians, march appears to have been discovered he sent a courier back to Dearborn for by the British, for while Chapin's mounted aid, and that commander sent Colonel men were in the advance and marching Christie with 300 men to reinforce him. among the hills, Beerstler's rear was at- When they reached Queenstown, they tacked by John Brant, at the head of heard of the surrender, and hastened back 450 Mohawk and Caughnawaga Indians, to camp with the sad intelligence. The who lay in ambush. Chapin was instant- British advanced upon Queenstown, and, ly called back, and the Americans in a occupying that place, soon invested Fort body charged upon the Indians and drove George. them almost a mile. Then Boerstler hesi- Bedel, TIMOTHY, military officer; born tated, and the Indians, rallying, bore upon in Salem, N. H., about 1740; was a brave his flank and rear, and kept up a galling and faithful officer in the war for inde- fire at every exposed situation. The pendence. He was attached to the North- Americans pushed forward over the Beaver era army, and had the full confidence Dam Creek, fighting the dusky foe at a and esteem of General Schuyler, its corn- great disadvantage, and made conscious mander. He was captain of rangers in that they were almost surrounded by 1775, and early in 1776 was made colonel them. After keeping up this contest for of a New Hampshire regiment. He was about three hours, Boerstler determined with Montgomery at the capture of St. to abandon the expedition, when he found John's on the Sorel, and was afterwards himself confronted by an unexpected force, in command at the Cedars, not far from Mrs. Laura Secord, a slight and delicate Montreal, where a cowardly surrender by woman, living at Queenstown, became ac- a subordinate, in Bedel's absence, caused quainted with Dearborn's plans, and at the latter to be tried by a court-martial, the time when Boerstler and his forces on a false charge, made by General Ar- left Fort George a hot summer even- nold. He was deprived of command for ing she made a circuitous journey of a while, but was reinstated. He died at 19 miles on foot to the quarters of Lieu- Haverhill, N. H., in February, 1787. tenant - Colonel Fitzgibbon (who was in Beebe, BEZALEEL, military officer; command of some regulars at the Beaver born in Litchfield, Conn., April 28, 1741; Dams) and warned him of his danger, was one of the Rogers Rangers, and was Thus forewarned, he had ordered the Ind- engaged in the fight in which Putnam was 303 BEECHER'S BIBLES BEECHER taken, also in the capture of Montreal in mander of all the Connecticut troops for 1760. In July, 1775, he was commis- sea-coast defence. He died in Litchfield, sioned lieutenant and sent to Boston. In May 29, 1824. 1776 he saw active service in New York Beecher's Bibles. During the Kansas and New Jersey, and was taken prisoner trouble, in 1854-60, Henry Ward Beechcr at the capture of Fort Washington and declared that for the slave-holder of Kan- confined in New York nearly a year. Tow- sas the Sharpe rifle was a greater moral ards the end of the Revolution he was agency than the Bible, and so those rifles appointed brigadier-general and com- became known as " Beecher's Bibles." BEECHER, HENRY WARD Beecher, HENRY WARD, clergyman; ure. He had an abiding love of music, born in Litchfield, Conn., June 24, 1813; the fine arts, flowers, and animals; and son of Lyman Beecher; was graduated at believing Christianity to be, not a philo- Amherst College in 1834. He afterwards sophical system, but an exalted rule of studied theology in Lane Seminary. For conduct, he never hesitated to discuss in a few years he was pastor of a Presby- the pulpit the great problems of the times terian church in Indiana, first at Law- in politics and social life temperance, renceburg and then at Indianapolis. In social evils, and the lust for power and gain. His persistent and forceful denun ciation of the evils of slavery brought him into the greatest prominence during the Civil War period, while his speeches made during his visit to England in 1863 did much to disabuse public opinion there as to the merits of the struggle. Mr. Beecher led a most active life as preacher, editor, lyceum lecturer, and au thor of numerous books. He began edi torial labors before he began to preach, conducting for a year (1836) The Cin cinnati Journal; and for nearly twenty years he was an editorial contributor to the New York Independent, a weekly news paper. From 1870 he was editor several years of the Christian Union, a weekly paper published in New York, and was 1847 he was called to the pastorate of a a constant contributor to other publica- new Congregational organization in tions. In 1874 Mr. Beecher was accused Brooklyn, called Plymouth Church, over of criminal conduct with Mrs. Theodore which he presided as pastor till his death, Tilton. He was exonerated by the corn- March 8, 1887. From the beginning of mittee of Plymouth Church, but in the his ministry, Mr. Beecher held a high civil suit instituted by Mr. Tilton, which rank as a public teacher and pulpit ora- lasted more than six months, the jury tor, with a constantly increasing reputa- failed to agree. The case attracted the tion. Laying aside the conventionalities attention of the entire world, of his sacred profession, and regarding The System of Slavery. The follow- the Gospel minister as peculiarly a lead- ing is Mr. Beecher's address in Liverpool, er in social life, his sermons were always England, Oct. 16, 1863, the feeling of his marked by practical good-sense, and em- auditors towards his subject and himself braced in their topics the whole field of being clearly indicated parenthetically: human society. They were largely made For more than twenty-five years I have up of illustrations drawn from every been made perfectly familiar with popular phase of life and the instructions of nat- assemblies in all parts of my country, ex- 304 HENRY WARD BKEOHER. BEECHER cept the extreme South. There has not, hisses, "No, no!" and a voice: "Nevr for the whole of that time, been a single York mob.") Now, personally, it is a day of my life when it would have been matter of very little consequence to me safe for me to go south of Mason and whether I speak here to-night or not. Dixon's line in my own country, and all (Laughter and cheers.) But one thing for one reason: my solemn, earnest, per- is very certain, if you do permit me to sistent testimony against that which I speak here to-night you will hear very consider to be the most atrocious thing plain talking. (Applause and hisses.) under the sun the system of American You will not find a man (interruption) slavery in a great, free republic. (Cheers.) you will not find me to be a man I have passed through that early period that dared to speak about Great Britain when right of free speech was denied to 3,000 miles off, and then is afraid to me. Again and again I have attempted speak to Great Britain when he stands to address audiences that, for no other on her shores. (Immense applause and crime than that of free speech, visited hisses. ) And if I do not mistake the tone me with all manner of contumelious epi- and temper of Englishmen, they would thets; and now, since I have been in rather have a man who opposes them in a England, although I have met with great- manly way (applause from all parts of er kindness and courtesy on the part of the hall) than a sneak that agrees with most than I deserved, yet, on the other them in an unmanly way. (Applause and hand, I perceive that the Southern in- " Bravo ! " ) Now, if I can carry you with fluence prevails to some extent in Eng- me by sound convictions, I shall be im- land. (Applause and uproar.) It is my mensely glad (applause) but if I can- old acquaintance; I understand it perfect- not carry you with me by facts and sound ly (laughter), and I have always held it arguments, I do not wish you to go with to be an unfailing truth that where a me at all; and all that I ask is simply man had a cause that would bear exami- fair play. (Applause, and a voice: "You nation he was perfectly willing to have shall have it, too.") it spoken about. (Applause.) And when Those of you who are kind enough to in Manchester I saw those huge placards: wish to favor my speaking and you will "Who is Henry Ward Beecher?" (Laugh- observe that my voice is slightly husky, ter, cries of "Quite right," and applause.) from having spoken almost every night And when in Liverpool I was told that in succession for some time past those there were those blood-red placards, pur- who wish to hear me will do me the porting to say what Henry Ward Beecher kindness simply to sit still and to keep had said, and calling upon Englishmen still; and I and my friends the Secession- to suppress free speech I tell you what ists will make all the noise. (Laughter.) I thought. I thought simply this : " I am There are two dominant races in mod- glad of it." (Laughter.) Why? Because ern history the Germanic and the Ro- if they had felt perfectly secure, that manic races. The Germanic races tend you are the minions of the South and the to personal liberty, to a sturdy individual- slaves of slavery, they would have been ism, to civil and to political liberty. The perfectly still. (Applause and uproar.) Roman race tends to absolutism in gov- And, therefore, when I saw so much ner- ernment; it is clannish; it loves chief - vous apprehension that, if I were permit-' tains; it develops a people that crave ted to speak (hisses and applause) strong and showy governments to support when I found they were afraid to have me and plan for them. The Anglo-Saxon speak (hisses and applause, and "No, race belongs to the great German family, no!") when I found that they considered and is a fair exponent of its peculiari- my speaking damaging to their cause ties. The Anglo-Saxon carries self-govern- ( applause ) when I found that they ap- ment and self - development with him pealed from facts and reasonings to mob wherever he goes. He has popular gov- law (applause and uproar) I said, no ernment and popular industry; for the man need tell me what the heart and se- effects of a generous civil liberty are not cret counsel of these men are. They trem- seen a whit more plain in the good order, ble and are afraid. (Applause, laughter, in the intelligence, and in the virtue of 305 BEECHEB a self-governing people, than in their attention has not been directed to the amazing enterprise, and the scope and third; and, with your patience, I will power of their creative industry. The dwell upon that for a moment, before power to create riches is just as much proceeding to other topics, a part of the Anglo-Saxon virtues as the It is a necessity of every manufacturing power to create good order and social and commercial people that their cus- safety. The things required for prosperous tomers should be very wealthy and intelli- labor, prosperous manufactures, and pros- gent. Let us put the subject before you perous commerce are three: First, liberty; in the familiar light of your own local second, liberty ; third, liberty ( " Hear, experience. To whom do the tradesmen hear!") though these are not merely the of Liverpool sell the most goods at the same liberty, as I shall show you. First, highest profit? To the ignorant and poor there must be liberty to follow those laws or to the educated and prosperous? (A of business which experience has develop- voice : " To the Southerners." Laughter. ) ed, without imposts or restrictions or gov- The poor man buys simply for his body; ernmental intrusions. Business simply he buys food, he buys clothing, he buys wants to be let alone. ( " Hear, hear ! " ) fuel, he buys lodging. . . . Then, secondly, there must be liberty to On the other hand, a man well off distribute and exchange products of in- how is it with him ? He buys in far great- dustry in any market without burden- er quantity. He can afford to do it ; he some tariffs, without imposts, and without has the money to pay for it. He buys vexatious regulations. There must be in far greater variety, because he seeks these two liberties liberty to create to gratify not merely physical wants, but wealth, as the makers of it think best, also mental wants. He buys for the satis- according to the light and experience faction of sentiment and taste, as well which business has given them; and then as of sense. He buys silk, wool, flax, cot- liberty to distribute what they have ere- ton ; he buys all metals iron, silver, gold, ated without unnecessary vexatious bur- platinum; in short, he buys for all ne- dens. The comprehensive law of the ideal cesslties and all substances. But that is industrial condition of the world is free not all. He buys a better quality of goods, manufacture and free trade. ("Hear, He buys richer silks, finer cottons, high- hear!" A voice: "The Morrill tariff." er -grained wools. Now a rich silk means Another voice: "Monroe.") I have said so much skill and care of somebody's, there were three elements of liberty. The that has been expended upon it to make third is the necessity of an intelligent it finer and richer; and so of cotton and and free race of customers. There must so of wool. That is, the price of the be freedom among producers; there must finer goods runs back to the very begin- be freedom among the distributers; there ning and remunerates the workman as must be freedom among the customers, well as the merchant. Now, the whole It may not have occurred to you that laboring community is as much interest- it makes any difference what one's cus- ed and profited as the mere merchant, tomers are, but it does In all regular and in this buying and selling of the higher prolonged business. The condition of the grades in the greater varieties and quan- customer determines how much he will tities. . . . Both the workman and the buy. Poor and ignorant people buy little, merchant are profited by having purchas- and that of the poorest kind. The rich- ers that demand quality, variety, and est and the intelligent, having the more quantity. Now, if this be so in the town means to buy, buy the most and always or the city, it can only be. so because it buy the best. Here, then, are the three is a law. This is the specific development liberties: liberty of the producer, liberty of a general or universal law, and, there of the distributer, and liberty of the con- fore, we should expect to find it as true sumer. The first two need no discussion; of a nation as of a city like Liverpool, they have been long thoroughly and brill- I know that it is so, and you know that iantly illustrated by the political econo- it is true of all the world; and it is just mists of Great Britain and by her eminent as important to have customers educated, statesmen; but it seems to me that enough intelligent, moral, and rich out of Liver- 30? BEECHEB pool as it is in Liverpool. (Applause.) great deal more important to Great Brit- They are able to buy; they want variety; ain than the doctrine how to raise cot- they want the very best, and those are ton. It is to that doctrine I ask from you, the customers you want. That nation business men, practical men, men of fact, is the best customer that is freest, because sagacious Englishmen, to that point I freedom works prosperity, industry, and ask a moment's attention. (Shouts of wealth. Great Britain, then, aside from "Oh, oh!" hisses and applause.) There moral considerations, has a direct com- are no more continents to be discovered, mercial and pecuniary interest in the lib- ("Hear, hear!") The market of the future erty, civilization, and wealth of every must be found how? There is very lit- nation on the globe. ( Loud applause. ) tie hope of any more demand being created You also have an interest in this, because by new fields. If you are to have a better you are a moral and religious people, market there must be some kind of proc- ("Oh, oh!" laughter and applause.) You ess invented to make the old fields bet- desire it from the highest motives; and ter. (A voice: "Tell us something new," godliness is profitable in all things, hav- shouts of "Order!" and interruption.) ing the promise of the life that now is Let us look at it, then. You must civilize as well as of that which is to come; but the world in order to make a better class if there were no hereafter, and if man of purchasers. (Interruption.) If you had no progress in this life, and if there were to press Italy down again, under the were no question of civilization at all, it feet of despotism, Italy, discouraged, could would be worth your while to protect draw but very few supplies from you. . . . civilization and liberty merely as a com- A savage is a man of one story, and mercial speculation. . . . that one story a cellar. When a man be- They have said that your chief want gins to be civilized, he raises another is cotton. I deny it. Your chief want story. When you Christianize and civil- is consumers. (Applause and hisses.) You ize the man, you put story upon story, have got skill, you have got capital, and for you develop faculty after faculty; and you have got machinery enough to manu- you have to supply every story with your facture goods for the whole population productions. The savage is a man one of the globe. You could turn out four- story deep; the civilized man is thirty fold as much as you do, if you only had stories high. (Applause.) Now, if you the market to sell in. It is not so much go to a lodging-house, where there are the want, therefore, of fabric, though three or four men, your sales to them there may be a temporary obstruction of may, no doubt, be worth something; but it; but the principal and increasing want if you go to a lodging-house like some increasing from year to year is, where of those which I saw in Edinburgh, which shall we find men to buy what we can seemed to contain about twenty stories manufacture so fast? (Interruption and ("Oh, oh!" and interruption) every a voice, " The Morrill tariff," and ap- story of which is full, and all who occupy plause. ) Before the American war broke buy of you which is the better customer, out, your warehouses were loaded with the man who is drawn out or the man goods that you could not sell. (Applause who is pinched up? (Laughter.) Now, and hisses. ) You had over-manufactured ; there is in this a great and sound prin- what is the meaning of over - manuf act- ciple of economy. (" Yah, yah !" from the uring but this: that you had skill, capi- passage outside the hall and loud laugh- tal, machinery, to create faster than you ter.) If the South should be rendered had customers to take goods off your independent (at this juncture mingled hands? And you know that rich as Great cheering and hissing became immense; Britain is, vast as are her manufactures, half the audience rose to their feet, wav- if she could have fourfold the present de- ing hats and handkerchiefs, and in every mand, she could have fourfold riches to- part of the hall there was the greatest morrow ; and every political economist commotion and uproar ) . You have had will tell you that your want is not cotton your turn now; now let me have mine primarily, but customers. Therefore, the again. (Loud applause and laughter.) doctrine how to make customers is a It is a little inconvenient to talk against 307 BEECHES. the wind; but, after all, if you will just keep good-natured I am not going to lose my temper; will you watch yours? (Ap plause.) Besides all that, it rests me, and gives me a chance, you know, to get my breath. (Applause and hisses.) And I think that the bark of those men is worse than their bite. They do not mean any harm they don't know any better. (Loud laughter, applause, hisses, and con tinued uproar.) I was saying, when these responses broke in, that it was worth our while to consider both alternatives. What will be the result if this present struggle shall eventuate in the separation of America and making the South (loud applause, hisses, hooting, and cries of "Bravo!") a slave territory exclusive ly (cries of "No, no!" and laughter) and the North a free territory what will be the final result? You will lay the foundation for carrying the slave popu lation clear through to the Pacific Ocean. This is the first step. There is not a man who has been a leader of the South any time within these twenty years that has not had this for a plan. It was for this that Texas was invaded, first by colo nists, next by marauders, until it was wrested from Mexico. It was for this that they engaged in the Mexican ^Var itself, by which the vast territory reach ing to the Pacific was added to the Union. Never for a moment have they given up the plan of spreading the American in stitutions, as they call them, straight through towards the West ; until the slave, who has washed his feet in the Atlantic, shall be carried to wash them in the Pacific. (Cries of "Question?" and up roar.) There! I have got that statement out and you cannot put it back. (Laugh ter and applause.) Now, let us consider the prospect. If the South becomes a slave empire, what relation will it have to you as a customer ? ( A voice : " Or any other man." Laughter.) It would be an empire of 12,000,000 of people. Now, of these 8,000,000 are white and 4,000,000 black. (A voice: "How many have you got?" Applause and laughter. Another voice : " Free your own slaves." ) Con sider that one-third of the whole are the miserably poor, unbuying blacks. (Cries of "No, no!" "Yes, yes!" and interrup tion.) You do not manufacture much for them. (Hisses, "Oh!" "No.") You have not got machinery coarse enough. ( Laughter and " No ! " ) Your labor is toa skilled by far to manufacture bagging and linsey-woolsey. (A Southerner: "We are going to free them, every one." ) Then you and I agree exactly. (Laughter.) One other third consists of a poor, un skilled, degraded white population, and the remaining one-third, which is a large al lowance, we will say intelligent and rich. Now here are 12,000,000 of people, and only one-third of them are customers that can afford to buy the kind of goods that you bring to market. (Interruption and uproar.) My friends, I saw a man once, who was a little late at a railway station, chase an express train. He did not catch it. ( Laughter. ) If you are going to stop this meeting, you have got to stop it be fore I speak; for after I have got the things out, you may chase as long as you please you would not catch them. (Laughter and interruption.) But there is luck in leisure; I'm going to take it easy. ( Laughter. ) Two - thirds of the population of the Southern -States to-day are non-purchasers of English goods. (A voice: "No, they are not;" "No, no! "and uproar.) Now, you must recollect another fact namely, that this is going on clear through to the Pacific Ocean; and if by sympathy or help you establish a slave empire, you sagacious Britons ( " Oh, oh!" and hooting) if you like it better, then, I will leave the adjective out (laughter, "Hear!" and applause) are busy in favoring the establishment of an empire from ocean to ocean that should have fewest customers and the largest non- buying population. (Applause, "No, no!" A voice : " I thought it was the happy peo ple that populated fastest.") ... It is said that the North is fighting for union, and not for emancipation. The North is fighting for union, for that insures eman cipation. (Loud cheers, "Oh, oh!" "No, no ! " and cheers. ) A great many men say to ministers of the Gospel : " You pretend to be preaching and working for the love of the people. Why, you are all the time preaching for the sake of the Church." What does the minister say? "It is by means of the Church that we help the peo ple," and when men say that we are fight ing for the Union, I too say we are fighting 308 BEECHER for the Union. ("Hear, hear!" and a voice: "That's right.") But the motive determines the value; and why are we fighting for the Union? Because we never shall forget the testimony of our enemies. They have gone off declaring that the Union in the hands of the North was fatal to slavery. (Loud applause.) There is testimony in court for you. (A voice: " See that," and laughter. ) . . . In the first place, I am ashamed to con fess that such was the thoughtlessness (interruption) such was the stupor of the North (renewed interruption) you will get a word at a time; to-morrow will let folks see what it is you don't want to hear that for a period of twenty-five years she went to sleep, and permitted herself to be drugged and poisoned with the Southern prejudice against black men. (Applause and uproar.) The evil was made worse because, when any object whatever has caused anger between po litical parties, a political animosity arises against that object, no matter how inno cent in itself; no matter what were the original influences which excited the quar rel. Thus the colored man has been the k football between the two parties in the North, and has suffered accordingly. I confess it to my shame. But I am speak ing now on my own ground, for I began twenty-five years ago, with a small party, to combat the unjust dislike of the colored men. (Loud applause, dissension, and up roar. The interruption at this point be came so violent that the friends of Mr. Beecher throughout the hall rose to their feet, waving hats and handkerchiefs, and renewing their shouts of applause. The interruption lasted some minutes.) Well, I have lived to see a total revolution in the Northern feeling I stand here to bear solemn witness of that. It is my opinion ; it is my knowledge. (Great uproar.) Those men who undertook to stand up for the rights of all men black as well as white have increased in number; and now what party in the North represents those men that resist the evil prejudices of past years? The Republicans are that party. . (Loud applause.) And who are those men in the North that have oppress ed the negro? They are the Peace Demo crats; and the prejudice for which in England you are attempting to punish me, is a prejudice raised by the men who have opposed me all my life. These pro-slavery Democrats abused the negro. I defended him, and they mobbed me for doing it. Oh, justice! (Loud laughter, applause, and hisses.) . . . There is another fact that I wish to al lude to not for the sake of reproach or blame, but by way of claiming your more lenient consideration and that is, that slavery was entailed upon us by your action. ("Hear, hear!") Against the earnest protests of the colonists the then government of Great Britain I will con cede not knowing what were the mischiefs ignorantly, but in point of fact, forced slave traffic on the unwilling colonists. (Great uproar, in the midst of which one individual was lifted up and carried out of the room amid hisses and cheers.) The Chairman : " If you would only sit down no disturbance would take place." (The disturbance having subsided, Mr. Beecher continued.) I was going to ask you, suppose each child is born with hereditary disease ; sup pose this disease was entailed upon him by parents who had contracted it by their own misconduct, would it be fair that those parents that had brought into the world the diseased child, should rail at that child because it was diseased ? ( " No, no!") Would not the child have the right to turn round and say : " Father, it was your fault that I had it, and you ought to be pleased to be patient with my deficien cies "? (Applause and hisses, and cries of " Order ! " great interruption and great disturbance here took place on the right of the platform; and the chairman said that if the persons around the unfortunate individual who had caused the disturb ance would allow him to speak alone, but not assist him in making the disturbance, it might soon be put an end to. The in terruption continued until another person was carried out of the hall. Mr. Beecher continued. ) I do not ask that you should justify slavery in us, because it was wrong in you 200 years ago; but having ig norantly been the means of fixing it upon us, now that we are struggling with mor tal struggles to free ourselves from it, we have a right to your tolerance, your pa tience, and charitable constructions. No man can unveil the future; no man 309 BEECHEB BEEKMAN can tell what revolutions are about to ("Hear, hear!" applause, tremendous break upon the world; no man can tell cheers, and uproar.) I will not say that what destiny belongs to France, nor to England cannot again, as hitherto, single- any of the European powers; but one handed manage any power (applause and thing is certain, that in the exigencies of uproar but I will say that England and the future there will be combinations and America together for religion and liberty recombinations, and that those nations (a voice: "Soap, soap!" uproar, and that are of the same faith, the same great applause) are a match for the blood, and the same substantial interests world. (Applause; a voice: "They don't ought not to be alienated from each other, want any more soft soap.") Now, gentle- but ought to stand together. (Immense men and ladies (a voice: "Sam Slick"; cheering and hisses. ) I do not say that and another voice : " Ladies and gentle- you ought not to be in the most friendly men, if you please") when I came I was alliance with France or with Germany; asked whether I would answer questions, but I do say that your own children, the and I very readily consented to do so, as offspring of England, ought to be nearer I had in other places; but I will tell you to you than any people of strange tongue, it was because I expected to have the op- (A voice: "Degenerate sons," applause portunity of speaking with some sort of and hisses; another voice: "What about ease and quiet. (A voice: "So you the Trent f") If there had been any feel- have.") I have for an hour and a half ings of bitterness in America, let me tell spoken against a storm ("Hear, hear!") you that they had been excited, rightly and you yourselves are witnesses that, or wrongly, under the impression that by the interruption, I have been obliged Great Britain was going to intervene be- to strive with my voice so that I no tween us and our own lawful struggle, longer have the power to control this as- (A voice: "No!" and applause.) With sembly. (Applause.) And although I am the evidence that there is no such inten- in spirit perfectly willing to answer any tion, all bitter feelings will pass away, question, and more than glad of the (Applause.) We do not agree with the chance, yet I am by this very unnecessary recent doctrine of neutrality as a question opposition to-night incapacitated physical- of law. But it is past, and we are not dis- ly from doing it. Ladies and gentlemen, posed to raise that question. We accept I bid you good-evening, it as a fact, and we say that the utter- Beecher, LYMAN, clergyman; born in ance of Lord Russell at Blairgowrie (ap- New Haven, Conn., Oct. 2, 1775; was plause, hisses, and a voice: "What about graduated at Yale in 1797, and ordained Lord Brougham?") together with the in 1799. In 1832 he accepted the pres- declaration of the government in stopping idency of Lane Seminary, Cincinnati, and war-steamers here (great uproar and ap- served the seminary in that capacity plause) has gone far towards quieting twenty years. He had seven sons, all of every fear, and removing every apprehen- whom became Congregational clergymen sion from our minds. (Uproar and shouts William, Edward, George, Henry Ward, of applause.) And now in the future it Charles, Thomas, and James. His daugh- is the work of every good man and patriot ters were Catharine Beecher, Harriet not to create divisions, but to do things Beecher Stowe, Mary Beecher Perkins, and that will make for peace. ("Oh, oh," and Isabella Beecher Hooker. He died in laughter.) On our part it shall be done. Brooklyn, Jan. 10, 1863. (Applause and hisses, and "No, no.") Beekman, GERARDUS, colonial govern- On your part it ought to be done; and or; was a member of Leisler's council in when in any of the convulsions that come 1688 and was condemned with Leisler, upon the world, Great Britain finds her- but subsequently pardoned. In 1700 he self struggling single-handed against the became lieutenant-colonel of a militia reg- gigantic powers that spread oppression iment under Governor Bellomont. After and darkness (applause, hisses, and up- the removal of Governor Ingoldsby, Beek- roar) there ought to be such cordiality man was president of the council and act- that she can turn and say to her first-born ing governor of New York until the ar- *nd most illustrious child, " Come ! " rival of Governor Hunter, in whose coun- 310 BEET STTGAB^-BELCHER cil he also served. He died in New York in the United States in the season of City about 1728. 1899-1900: Beet Sugar. This substitute for the California ................ 37,938 product of sugar-cane was first made in Nebraska ................. 4,591 1747 in Germany by Marggraf, who dis- Utah _ ............... 8,574 covered that excellent sugar could be ob- New York. ................ 1,607 tained from the common beet. In 1830 Michigan ................ 16^699 efforts were made in the United States Minnesota ................ 2,053 to establish the beet-sugar industry, but finite I!."!!!!!!!!!!!!.' 804 it was not until 1876 that an adequately Colorado >.................. 804 equipped factory was erected for the pur- Washington ............... 446 pose, in Alvarado, Cal. Since that year Totals for United stateg> ^^^ many similar ones have been built, mostly in the Western States, and the industry Behring. See BERING. may now be said to be firmly established. Beissel, JOHANN CONRAD, reformer ; born Federal and State governments have great- in Eberbach, Germany, in 1690; becoming ly aided in bringing about this result a Dunker he was forced to leave his native through the offer of bounties on produc- country and emigrated to Pennsylvania, tion. Beet - roots yield an average of where in 1733 he established at the village about 10 per cent, of saccharine matter, of Ephrata a monastic society, which at and sugar-cane about 18 per cent. The one time numbered nearly 300. The Capu- white Slevig beet is the richest among chin habit was adopted by both sexes and the varieties. In manufacturing, the celibacy was considered a virtue, though roots are compressed into a pulp by ma- not an obligation. Soon after the death chinery; the pulp is put into bags, and the of Beissel, in 1768, the society at Ephrata juice forced out by presses. After the began to decline. A history of the Ephra- juice has been clarified by the use of lime ta society was published in 1901. or sulphuric acid, it is filtered till no de- Belcher, JONATHAN, colonial governor; posit is apparent, and then boiled for the born in Cambridge, Mass., Jan. 8, 1681; purpose of concentrating it. When the wa-s graduated at Harvard College in 1699. density of 25 Beaume has been reached, He visited Europe, where he became ac- the juice is strained through flannel, be- quainted with the Princess Sophia and her coming a dark-colored syrup, which in son (afterwards George I. of England). turn is filtered through animal charcoal, which led to his future honors. After a or bone-black, to free it of its mucilage six years' sojourn he returned to America, and coloring matter. The filtered juice engaged in mercantile business in Boston, is then treated with lime - water and the became a member of the Provincial Assem- whites of eggs, and stirred till it is bly, and in 1729 was sent as agent of the slightly alkaline. It is then placed in provinces to England. In 1730 he was ap- copper pans, and while boiling is constant- pointed governor of Massachusetts and ly stirred and scummed. After sufficient New Hampshire, which office he held concentration the substance is placed in a eleven years. He was authorized to ac- v/arm room for several days till it crystal- cept from the legislature of Massachu- lizes. The juice or molasses which re- setts a standing salary of $5,000 a year, mains is drained off, and the solid part is to be paid first out of the annual grants. raw sugar. This may be further refined When he first met the legislature (Sep- by dissolving again and using albumen and tember, 1730) , he tried to bring about a blood. settlement for a standing salary, but could Experiments in beet sugar production not, and the Assembly was dissolved. To were stimulated by the United States secure a majority in the next House, the bounty law, in operation from July 1, governor tried to gain the influence of cer- 1891, to Aug. 27, 1894. tain leaders by gifts of office; but their In the period 1890-1900 the output in acceptance diminished their popularity, the United States was increased from and he gained nothing. The people had been 2.800 tons to 74,944 tons. The following encouraged by the English press, which table shows the production, in long tons, had commended the Bostonians for their 311 BELKNAP BELL "noble stand" against the demands of Burnet, which had rt endeared them to all lovers and asserters of liberty." The new court was unmanageable by the governor, and he accepted a grant of a salary for one year. In consequence of a clamor against him, he was superseded in 1741, but succeeded in vindicating himself be fore the British Court. Belcher was made governor of New Jersey, and arrived in 1747, where he passed the remainder of his life. He extended the charter of the College of New Jersey, and was its chief patron and benefactor. He died in Eliza beth town, N. J., Aug. 31, 1757. Belknap, GEORGE EUGENE, naval officer ; born in Newport, N. H., Jan. 22, 1832; entered the navy as midshipman in 1855, and in 1862 became lieutenant - com mander. He became executive officer of the iron-clad New Ironsides in 1862, and was with her in her contests with the forts in Charleston Harbor in 1863, receiving commendation from Rear-Ad miral Dahlgren. In the attacks on FORT FISHER (q. v.) he commanded the iron-clad Canonicus. He was promoted to rear-admiral in 1889, and retired in 1894. He died in Key West, Fla., April 7, 1903. Belknap, JEREMY, clergyman; born in Boston, June 4, 1744; graduated at Har vard College in 1762. He founded the Massachusetts Historical Society; was an overseer of Harvard College; was a pa triot during the war for independence, and an opponent of African slavery. He published a History of New Hampshire; American Biography, etc. He died in Boston, Mass., June 20, 1798. Belknap, WILLIAM WORTH, military officer; born in Newburg, N. Y., Sept. 22, 1829; removed to Iowa in 1851; elected to the legislature in 1857; entered the army as major of an Iowa regiment, and reached the grade of major-general, March 13, 1865. He was appointed Secretary of War, Oct. 13, 1869; impeached March 7, 1876, but acquitted for want of jurisdic tion. He died in Washington, D. C., Oct. 12, 1890. Bell, ALEXANDER GRAHAM, inventor ; born in Edinburgh, Scotland, March 3, 1847; son of Alexander Melville; was educated in Edinburgh and London univer sities. In 1870 he went to Canada, and thence to Boston in 1872, and became Pro fessor of Vocal Physiology in the Boston University. He invented the telephone, which was first exhibited at the Centennial Exposition in 1876. He also invented the photophone. Bell, CHARLES H., naval officer; born in New York, Aug. 15, 1798; entered the naval service in June, 1812; served with Decatur in 1813-14; with Chauncey, on Lake Ontario, in 1814; and with Decatur again, in the Mediterranean, in 1815. He was with the squadron in the West Indies (1824-29) operating against the pirates there. In 1860 he was in command of the Norfolk navy-yard; commanded the Pa cific squadron in 1862-64, and the navy- yard at Brooklyn 1865-68. In July, 1866, he was made a rear-admiral. He died in New Brunswick, N. J., Feb. 19, 1875. Bell, JAMES FRANKLIN, military officer ; born in Lexington, Ky., in 1857; was graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1878; promoted to second lieutenant in the 9th Cavalry the same year, first lieutenant in the 7th Cavalry in 1890, and captain in 1899. In the vol unteer army he was commissioned major of engineers May 17, 1898; major and assistant adjutant-general, April 17, 1899, and colonel of the 36th JJnited States Infantry, July 5, 1899. In May, 1898, he was ordered to duty to Manila, where he was placed in charge of the Bureau of Information (or secret-service department of the army in the Philippines). In Feb ruary, 1899, when operations were begun against the Filipino insurgents, he at tached himself to the staff of General Mac- Arthur, and rendered important service in scouting. On Sept. 9, for " most distin guished gallantry in action " near Porac. Luzon, President McKinley directed that a congressional medal of honor should be presented to him. On Nov. 12, Colonel Bell took possession of Tarlac, where Aguinaldo had established his headquar ters. The following month he was pro moted to brigadier-general of volunteers. On the reorganization of the regular army in February, 1901, President McKinley ap pointed Colonel Bell one of the new briga dier-generals an act that caused consider able surprise, as this officer was only a captain in the regular army, and was ad vanced over the heads of more than 1,000 312 BELL BELLOMONT officers who, according to the rules of lawyer, he came to America in 1634, and seniority, would have been entitled to pre- was chosen deputy governor of Massachu- cede him in promotion. General Bell is setts the next year. He was elected gov- widely known in the army as a dashing ernor, in opposition to Winthrop, in 1641. cavalry officer, and when General Otis He was rechosen in 1654, and in 1666, recommended the presentation of the after the death of Governor Endicott, con- medal of honor, he said that it was a won- tinuing in office the rest of his life. His der that Colonel Bell still lived, because administration was a somewhat stormy of his recklessness in action. one. Bellingham was so opposed to all in- Bell, JOHN, statesman ; born near novations in religious matters that he was Nashville, Tenn., Feb. 15, 1797; was grad- severe in his conduct towards the Friends, uated at Cumberland College (now the or Quakers. He died Dec. 7, 1672. University of Nashville) in 1814, and Bellomont, RICHARD COOTE, EARL OF, studied law in Franklin, Tenn. In 1817 colonial governor; born in 1636; was of he was elected to the State Senate. He the Irish peerage, and among the first to was elected to Congress in 1827, and espouse the cause of the Prince of Orange served till 1841. After abandoning his when he invaded England. He was cre- free-trade views, he became one of the ated earl in 1689, and made treasurer and founders of the WHIG PARTY (q. v.) , and receiver-general of Queen Mary. In May, was elected Speaker of the House in 1695, he was appointed governor of New 1834. Harrison appointed him Secretary York, but did not arrive there until May, of War in 1841. but he resigned when 1698. Meanwhile he had been commis- President Tyler left the Whig party. In sioned governor of Massachusetts, includ- 1847-59 he was a member of the United ing New Hampshire; and on going to Bos- States Senate, and in 1860 he was the un- ton, in 1699, he was well received, and his successful candidate of the CONSTITU- administration was popular. Bellomont TIONAL UNION PARTY (q. v,} for Presi- had been one of the parliamentary corn- dent, with Edward Everett for Vice- mittee appointed to investigate the affair President. He died in Cumberland, Tenn., of Leisler's trial and execution, and had Sept. 10, 1869. taken a warm interest in the reversal of Belle Isle. See CONFEDERATE PRISONS, the attainder of that unfortunate leader. Belligerency, the recognition, on the On his arrival in New York, he naturally part of other nations, that an actual state connected himself with the Leisler party, of war exists, and the right of both par- whom Governor Fletcher had strongly op- ties to the exercise of belligerent rights posed. Bellomont came with power to in- on the ocean. Neutrality implies belliger- quire into the conduct of Governor Fletch- ency. Great Britain, France, and other er, and he was so well satisfied of his European powers, and Brazil, accorded malfeasance in office that he sent him to belligerent rights to the Confederate England under arrest. The remains of States during the civil war. Leisler and Milborne were taken up, and Belligerents, parties, in the sense of after lying in state several days were re- nations or confederations, actually at buried in the Dutch Church. Bellomont war with each other. Sovereign States chose for his council a majority of " Leis- at war are always belligerents, but not lerians " ; and that party soon obtained a every armed contest is a war, and com- majority in the Assembly also. One of batants, to gain the status of belligerents, their first acts was to vote an indemnity must be recognized as such by other to the heirs of Leisler. Bellomont used sovereign States. The character of every means to gain the good-will of the belligerents has never been accorded to people in both provinces, and succeeded, pirates, filibusters, brigands, nor to any The earl was a shareholder in the privateer of those who commit violence in their ship commanded by Captain Kidd; and own private interest^ nor even to those when that seaman was accused of piracy who, guilty of violence, have not been duly Bellomont procured his arrest in Boston, authorized by the head of their State. and sent him to England for trial. Bello- Bellingham, RICHARD, colonial govern- mont died in New York, March 5, 1701, or; born in England in 1592. Bred a and the earldom expired in 1800. 313 BELLOWS BEMIS'S HEIGHTS Bellows, HENRY WHITNEY, clergyman; marched from Paducah to menace Colum- born in Boston, June 11, 1814. Educated bus in the rear. Grant went with Me at Harvard and the Divinity School at demand. The troops landed 3 miles Cambridge, he was ordained pastor of the above Belmont, Nov. 7, 1861, and while first Unitarian Church in New York City they were pushing on the gunboats opened in January, 1838 He remained its pastor fire upon Columbus. General (Bishop) Polk, the commander, sent General Pil low over the river to reinforce the little garrison at Belmont. A sharp battle en sued, and the Nationals were victorious; but, exposed to the heavy artillery at Columbus, the post was untenable. Giv ing three cheers for the Union, the Na tionals set fire to the Confederate camp, and hastened back towards their boats with the captured men, horses, and artil lery. Polk opened seven of his heaviest guns upon them, and at the same time sent over some fresh troops under Gen eral Cheatham. Then he crossed over himself, with two regiments, making the whole Confederate force about 5,000 men. They fell upon Grant, and a desperate HENRY WHITNEY BELLOWS, D.D. struggle ensued. Grant fought his way back to the transports under cover of a until his death, Jan. 30, 1882. He was fire from the gunboats, and escaped. The the projector of the Christian Inquirer., in Nationals lost about 500 men, and the 1843, and he occupied from the beginning Confederates over 600, killed, wounded, a conspicuous place in the pulpit, in let- and missing. ters, and in social life, wielding great in- Bemis's Heights, BATTLES OF. Gen- fluence for good. Dr. Bellows was one of eral Schuyler, with his feeble army, had the originators of the UNITED STATES SAN- so successfully opposed the march of Bur- ITARY COMMISSION (q. v.) , which per- goyne down the valley of the Hudson that formed such prodigious benevolent work he had not passed Saratoga the first week during the late Civil War. He was presi- in August, 1777. When the expedition of dent of the commission from the beginning. St. Leger from the Mohawk and the de- Belmont, AUGUST, financier; born in feat of the Germans at Hoosick, near Germany, Dec. 6, 1816; removed to New Bennington, had crippled and discouraged York, 1837; consul-general of Austria in the invaders, and Schuyler was about New York City, 1844-50; United States to turn upon them, and strike for the minister to Holland, 1854-58; chairman victory for which he had so well pre- of the Democratic national committee, pared, he was superseded by General 1860-72. He died in New York City, Gates in the command of the Northern Nov. 24, 1890. army* Yet his patriotism was not cooled Belmont, BATTLE AT. Just before Fr6- by the ungenerous act, the result of in- mont was deprived of his command (see trigue, and he offered Gates every assist- FREMONT, JOHN C.) he ordered General ance in his power. Had the latter acted Grant to move a co-operative force along promptly, he might have gained a vic- the line of the Mississippi River. It was tory at once; but he did not. At the promptly done. A column about 3,000 end of twenty days he moved the army to strong, chiefly Illinois volunteers, under a strong position on Bemis's Heights, Gen. John A. McClernand, went down where his camp was fortified by Kosci- from Cairo in transports and wooden gun- usko, the Polish patriot and engineer, boats to menace Columbus by attacking Ilurgoyne called in his outposts, and with Belmont, opposite. At the same time his shattered forces and splendid train of another column, under Gen. C. F. Smith, artillery he crossed the Hudson on a 314 BEMIS'S HEIGHTS bridge of boats (Sept. 13, 1777), and en camped on the Heights of Saratoga, after wards Schuylerville. New courage had been infused into the hearts of the Ameri cans by the events near Bennington and on the upper Mohawk, and Gates's army was rapidly increasing in numbers. Bur- goyne felt compelled to move forw r ard speedily. Some American troops, under Col. John Brown, had got in his rear, and surprised a British post at the foot of Lake George (Sept. 18). They also at tempted to capture Ticonderoga. Bur- act on the defensive. Gen. Benedict Ar nold and others, who observed the move ments of the British, urged Gates to at tack them, but he refused to fight. Even at 11 A.M., when the booming of a can non gave the signal for the general ad vance of Burgoyne's army, he remained in his tent, apparently indifferent. Arnold, as well as others, became extremely im patient as peril drew near. He was finally permitted to order Col. Daniel Morgan with his riflemen, and Dearborn with in fantry, to attack the Canadians and Ind- NEILSON HOUSE ON BEMIS'S HEIGHTS.* goyne had moved slowly southward, and ians, who were swarming on the hills in on the morning of Sept. 19 he offered bat- advance of Burgoyne's right. These were tie to Gates. driven back and pursued. Morgan's troops, First Battle. His left wing, with the becoming scattered, were recalled, and immense artillery train, commanded by with New England troops, under Dearborn, Generals Phillips and Riedesel, kept upon Scammel, and Cilley, another furious the plain near the river. The centre, com- charge was made. After a sharp engage- posed largely of German troops, led by ment, in which Morgan's horse was shot Burgoyne in person, extended to a range under him, the combatants withdrew to of hills that were touched by the American their respective lines. Meanwhile Bur- left, and upon these hills General Fraser goyne had moved rapidly upon the Ameri- and Lieutenant-Colonel Breyman, with can centre and left. At the same time grenadiers and infantry, were posted. The the vigilant Arnold attempted to turn the front and flank of Burgoyne's army were British right. Gates denied him rein- covered by the Canadians, Tories, and Ind- forcements, and restrained him in every ians who yet remained in* camp. General way in his power, and he failed. Masked Gates, who lacked personal courage and by thick woods, neither party was now the skill of a good commander, resolved to certain of the movements of the other, and they suddenly and unexpectedly met in a * The mansion of Mr. Neilson, an active ravine at Freeman's farm, at which Bur- Whig at the time of the battle. It was the goyne had halted. There they fought des- headquarters of General Poor and Colonel perately for a while . Arnold was pressed Morgan. To it the wounded Major Acland J % . . . was conveyed, and there was joined by his back, when Fraser, by a quick movement, wife. called up some German troops from the 315 BEMIS'S HEIGHTS British centre to his aid. Arnold rallied his men, and with New England troops, led by Colonels Brooks, Dearborn, Scam- mel, Cilley, and Major Hull, he struck the enemy such heavy blows that his line be gan to waver and fall into confusion. Gen eral Phillips, below the heights, heard through the woods the din of battle, and hurried over the hills with fresh English troops and some artillery, followed by a portion of the Germans under Riedesel, and appeared on the battle-field just as victory seemed about to be yielded to the Americans. The battle continued. The British ranks were becoming fearfully thinned, when Riedesel fell heavily upon the American flank with infantry and ar tillery, and they gave way. The Germans saved the British army from ruin. A lull in the battle succeeded, but at the middle of the afternoon the contest was renewed with greater fury. At length the British, fearfully assailed by bullet and bayonet, recoiled and fell back. At that moment Arnold was at headquarters, seated upon a powerful black horse, and in vain urging Gates to give him reinforcements. Hear ing the roar of the renewed battle, he could no longer brook delay, and turning his horse's head towards the field of strife, and exclaiming, " I'll soon put an end to it! " went off on a full gallop, followed by one of Gates's staff, with directions to or der him back. The subaltern could not overtake the general, who, by words and acts, animated the Americans. For three hours the battle raged. Like an ocean tide the warriors surged backward and for ward, winning and losing victory alter nately. When it was too late, Gates sent out the New York regiments of Livingston and Van Cortlandt and the whole brigade of General Learned. Had Gates complied with Arnold's wishes, the capture of Bur- goyne's army might have been easily ac complished. Night closed the contest, and both parties slept on their arms until morning. But for Arnold and Morgan, no doubt Burgoyne would have been march ing triumphantly on Albany before noon that day. So jealous was Gates because the army praised those gallant leaders, that he omitted their names in his official report. The number of Americans killed and wounded in this action was about 300 ; of the British about 600. Second Battle. Burgoyne found his broken army utterly dispirited on the morning after the first battle, and he withdrew to a point 2 miles from the American lines. Arnold urged Gates to attack him at dawn, but that officer would not consent. Burgoyne was hoping to re ceive good news from Sir Henry Clinton, who was preparing to ascend the Hudson with a strong force. So he intrenched his camp, put his troops in better spirits by a cheerful harangue, and resolved to wait for Clinton. The next morning he was himself cheered by a message from Clin ton, who promised to make a diversion in his favor immediately; also by a de spatch from Howe, announcing a victory over Washington on the Brandywine (see BRANDYWINE, BATTLE OF). Bur goyne gave the glad tidings to his army, and wrote to Clinton that he could sus tain his position until Oct. 12. But his condition rapidly grew worse. The Amer ican army hourly increased in numbers, and the militia were swarming on his flanks and rear. His foraging parties could get very little food for the starving horses, the militia so annoyed them. In his hospitals were 800 sick and wounded men, and his effective soldiers were fed on diminished rations. His Indian allies deserted him, while, through the exer tions of Schuyler, Oneida warriors joined the forces of Gates. Lincoln, with 2,000 men, also joined him on the 22d; still Gates remained inactive. His officers were impatient, and Arnold plainly told him that the army was clamorous for action, and the militia were threatening to go home. He told him that he had reason to think that if they had improved the 20th of September it might have ruined the enemy. " That is past," he said ; " let me entreat you to improve the present time." Gates was offended, and, treating the brave Arnold with silent contempt, sat still. A long time Burgoyne waited for further tidings from Clinton. On Oct. 4, he called a council of officers. It was de cided to fight their way through the American lines, and, on the morning of Oct. 7, 1777, the whole army moved. Towards the American left wing Burgoyne pressed with 1,500 picked men, eight brass cannon, and two howitzers, leaving the main army on the heights in command 316 SEMIS'S HEIGHTS of Brigadiers Specht and Hamilton, and British grenadiers was severely wounded, the redoubts near the river with Briga- and Major Williams, of the artillery, was dier-General Gall. Phillips, Fraser, and made prisoner. Five times one of the Kiedesel were with Burgoyne. Canadian cannon was taken and retaken. When rangers, loyalists, and Indians were sent the British fell back, and the gun re- to hang on the American rear, while Bur- niained with the Americans, Colonel Cil- goyne should attack their front. This ley leaped upon it, waved his sword over movement was discerned before the Brit- his head, dedicated the piece to the ish were ready for battle. The drums of "American cause," and, turning it upon the American advanced guard beat to the foe, he opened its destructive energies arms. The alarm ran all along the lines, upon them with their own ammunition. Gates had 10,000 troops enough to have Sir Francis Clarke, Burgoyne's chief aide, crushed the weakened foe if properly who was sent to secure the cannon, was handled. He inquired the cause of the mortally wounded, made a prisoner, and disturbance, and then permitted Colonel sent to Gates's tent. The whole eight can- Morgan to " begin the game." Morgan soon gained a good position on the British right, while General Poor, with his New Hampshire brigade, fol lowed by General Ten Broeck, with New - Yorkers advanced against their left. Mean while, the Canadian rangers and their companions had gained the American rear, and attacked their pickets. They were soon joined by grenadiers. The Americans were driven back to their lines, when a sharp fight en sued. By this time the whole British line was in battle or der, the grenadiers under Ma jor Acland, with artillery un der Major Williams, forming the left; the centre composed of British and grenadiers under Philips and Riedesel, and the right of infantry under Earl Balcarras. Gen eral Fraser, with 500 pick ed men, was in advance of the British right, ready to fall upon the left flank of the Americans non and the possession of the field re- when the action should begin on the front, mained with the Americans. Meanwhile It was now between three and four o'clock Colonel Morgan had assailed Fraser's in the afternoon. As Burgoyne was about flanking corps' so furiously that they to advance, he was astonished by the were driven back to their lines. There thunder of cannon on his left, and the Morgan fell upon the British right so crack of rifles on his right. Poor had fiercely that it was thrown into confu- pressed up the thick-wooded slope on which sion. A panic prevailed. It was followed Majors Acland and Williams were posted, by an onslaught in front by Dearborn, unobserved, until he was near the bat- with fresh troops, when the British teries, which were captured after a des- broke and fled in terror. Balcarras soon perate struggle, in which the leader of the rallied them, while the centre, composed 317 PLAN OF BATTLES ON BKMIS'S HEIGHTS. BEMIS'S HEIGHTS BENEZET chiefly of Germans, though convulsed, and spread such terror among the Ger- stood firm. Now Arnold came upon the mans that they fled, giving a parting scene. Gates, offended by what he called volley of bullets, one of which gave Arnold Arnold's " impertinence," had deprived a severe wound in the same leg that was him of all command, and he was an im- badly hurt at Quebec. At that moment patient spectator of the battle. When he he was overtaken by the subaltern, who had could no longer restrain himself, he been sent by Gates to recall him, " lest sprang upon his charger and started on full he should do some rash thing." He had gallop for the field of action, pursued done it. He had achieved a victory for by a subaltern to call him back. He which Gates received the honor. The Ger- dashed into the vortex of danger, where mans had thrown down their weapons, the pursuer dared not follow. He was re- Breyman was mortally wounded. The ceived with cheers by his old troops, and fight ended at twilight, and before the he led them against the British centre, dawn, Burgoyne, who had resolved to re- With the desperation of a madman he treat, removed his whole army a mile or rushed into the thickest of the fight, two north of his intrenchments. In this When, at the head of his men, he dashed remarkable battle won by an officer who into the firm German lines, they broke had been deprived of his command the and fled in dismay. The battle was now Americans lost, in killed and wounded, general. Arnold and Morgan were the 150 men; that of the British, including ruling spirits on the American side, prisoners, was about 700. Arnold was the Fraser was the soul that directed the only American commanding officer who most potent energies of the British. One received a wound. Burgoyne was defeated of Morgan's riflemen singled him out by at Stillwater, Oct. 7, and ten days later his brilliant uniform, and shot him surrendered his army of 6,000 men at through the body, wounding him mor- Saratoga. See BURGOYNE. tally. Then a panic ran along the Brit- Benedict, GEORGE GRENVILLE, military ish line. At the sight of 3,000 fresh New officer; born in Burlington, Vt., Dec. 10, York militia, under General Ten Broeck, 1826; graduated at the University of Ver- approaching, the wavering line gave way, mont in 1847; served in the 12th Vermont and the troops retreated to their in- Volunteers in 1862-63; and was author trenchments, leaving their artillery be- of Vermont at Gettysburg; Vermont in hind. Up to their intrenchments, the the Civil War; Army Life in Virginia, Americans, with Arnold at their head, etc. eagerly pressed, in the face of a terrible Benedict, LEWIS, military officer; born storm of grape-shot and bullets. The in Albany, N. Y., Sept. 2, 1817; was a works were assailed with small arms, graduate of Williams College; was ad- Balcarras defended them bravely until he mitted to the bar in 1841; was surrogate could resist no longer. The voice of Ar- of Albany county in 1848, and member of nold was heard above the din of battle, Assembly in 1861. He entered the mili- and his form was seen, in the midst of tary service as lieutenant-colonel of vol- the smoke, dashing from point to point, unteers in 1861; served in the campaign With the troops first of Generals Pater- on the Peninsula in 1862; was captured, son and Glover, and then of Learned, a,nd confined in Libby and Salisbury pris- he assailed the enemy's right, which ons several months, and when exchanged waa defended by Canadians and loyal- was sent to the Department of the Gulf, ists. The English gave way, leaving where he was distinguished for his wis- the Germans exposed. Then Arnold dom and bravery. He served as brigadier- ordered up the troops of Livingston general in the Red River campaign, till and Wesson, with Morgan's riflemen, killed in the battle of Pleasant Hill, La., to make a general assault, while Colonel April 9, 1864. Brooks, . with his Massachusetts regi- Benezet, ANTHONY, philanthropist; ment, accompanied by Arnold, attacked born in France, Jan. 31, 1713; emigrated the troops commanded by Lieutenant- to Philadelphia in 1731, and taught school Colonel Breyman. Arnold rushed into the there nearly all his life. He became a sally-port on his powerful black horse, member of the Society of Friends; and 318 BENHAM BENNETT his life was conspicuous for acts of benev olence. He wrote much against war and African slavery, and bequeathed his es tate, on the death of his wife, to the African school in Philadelphia. He died in Philadelphia, May 3, 1784. Benham, ANDREW ELLICOTT KENNEDY, naval officer; born in New York, April 10, 1832; entered the navy Nov. 24, 1847. During the Civil War he served in the South Atlantic and Western Gulf squad rons, and took part in the battle of Port Royal and other engagements. In 1894 he commanded a squadron at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and forced the commander of the insurgent squadron to raise the blockade of the city and to discontinue firing upon American merchant vessels. Rear-admiral in 1890; retired in 1894. Benham, HENRY W., military officer; born in Cheshire, Conn., in 1817; was graduated at West Point, first in his class, in 1837. He served under General Tay lor in the war with Mexico, and was wounded in the battle of Buena- Vista. Early in the Civil War he was active in western Virginia, and afterwards on the South Carolina coast. He assisted in the capture of Fort Pulaski; and in 1863-64 he commanded an engineer brigade in the Army of the Potomac. He was brevetted brigadier-general for services in the cam paign ending with the surrender of Lee, and major : general (March, 1865) for "meritorious services in the rebellion." He died in New York, June 1, 1884. Benjamin, JUDAH PHILIP, lawyer; was born in St. Croix, West Indies, Aug. 11, JTJDAH PHILIP BENJAMIN. 319 1811; was of Jewish parentage, and in 1816 his family settled in Savannah, Ga. Judah entered Yale College, but left it, in 1827, without graduating, and became a lawyer in New Orleans. He taught school for a while, married one of his pupils, and became a leader of his pro fession in Louisiana. From 1853 to 1861 he was United States Senator. He wa* regarded for several years as leader of the Southern wing of the Democratic party; and, when the question of seces sion divided the people, he withdrew from the Senate, and, with his coadjutor, John Slidell, he promoted the great insurrec tion. He became Attorney-General of the Southern Confederacy, acting Secretary of War, and Secretary of State. After the war he went to London, where he prac tised his profession with success. He died in Paris, May 8, 1884. Sennet, or Bennett, RICHARD, colonial governor; was appointed one of the Vir ginia commissioners to reconcile Virginia to the administration of Oliver Cromwell in 1651. In 1654 the Maryland royalists, under the instigation of Lord Baltimore, revolted, and intercolonial hostilities fol lowed, resulting in a victory for the Vir ginians under Governor Bennet. During the night of March 25, 1655, many pris oners were taken, including the royalist Governor Stone. Some of these were after wards executed. Bennett, JAMES GORDON, founder of the New York Herald; born in New Mill, Scotland, Sept. 1, 1795; died in New York, June 1, 1872. Intending to enter upon the ministry in the Roman Catholic Church, he studied theology in Aberdeen some time, but, abandoning the intention, he went to British America, arriving at Halifax, N. S., in 1819, where he taught school. He made his way to Boston, where he became a proof-reader, and in 1822 he went to New York, and thence to Charleston, where he made translations from the Spanish for the Charleston Courier. Returning to New York, he be came proprietor (1825) of the New York Courier, but did not succeed. After vari ous editorial and journalistic adventures in New York and Pennsylvania, Mr. Ben nett, in May, 1835, began the publication of the New York Herald. His method was a " new departure " in journalism. BENNINGTON The Herald obtained an immense circu- tia, with the stipulation that he was to lation and advertising patronage. The have an independent command, and was profits of the establishment, at the tin) at Bennington with part of a brigade. He had lately refused to obey a command of General Lincoln to join the main army opposing Burgoyne. It was a fortunate circumstance, for he did better service when Baum approached and began to cast up intrenchments (Aug. 14, 1777) in the township of Hoosick, N. Y., within about 5 miles of Bennington. Informed of that approach, Stark had sent expresses for Warner ' s shattered regiment, and for militia, and he soon gathered many fugi tives from the disaster at Hubbardton. The 15th was rainy. Baum had sent back to Burgoyne for reinforcements, and Stark was waiting for the arrival of more ex pected troops from Berkshire. Warner joined Stark on the morning of the 15th he and his men drenched during a night march in the rain. The 16th -dawned JAMES GORDON BENNETT. bright and hot, and Stark proceeded to execute a plan of attack on Baum's in- of Mr. Bennett's death, were estimated at trenched position by dividing his force from $500,000 to $700,000 a year. He and making a simultaneous attack at dif- died in the Roman Catholic faith, and be- ferent points. The frightened Indians queathed the Herald to his only son, with Baum dashed through the encir- JAMES GORDON BENNETT, Jr., who was cling lines of the Americans, and fled to born in New York City, May 10, 1841; the shelter of the woods. After a severe fitted out the Jeannette polar expedition; contest of two hours' duration, the ammu- sent Henry M. Stanley in search of Dr. nition of the Germans failed, and they at- Livingstone in Africa; constructed, with tempted to break through the line of be- John W. Mackay, a new cable between siegers with bayonets and sabres. In that America and Europe; and greatly pro- attempt Baum was slain and his veterans moted international yachting. were made prisoners. At that moment Bennington, BATTLE NEAR. Falling Lieutenant - Colonel Breyman appeared short of provisions, Burgoyne sent out an with the jaded reinforcements which Bur- expedition from his camp on the Hudson goyne had sent, and Stark was joined by River to procure cattle, horses to mount some fresh troops furnished by Warner. Riedesel's dragoons, to " try the affections The cannon which had been taken from the of the country," and to complete a corps Germans, were immediately turned upon of loyalists. Colonel Baum led the expe- Breyman's men. A fierce battle continued dition, which consisted of 800 men, com- until sunset, when Breyman retreated, prising German dragoons and British leaving all his artillery, and nearly all marksmen, a body of Canadians and Ind- his wounded, behind. The Germans lost, ians, some loyalists as guides, and two in killed, wounded, and prisoners, nearly pieces of artillery. They penetrated the 1,000 men. The Americans lost less than country eastward of the Hudson towards 100. On Aug. 19, 1891, a monument com- Bennington, Vt., where the Americans had memorating the victory was dedicated at gathered a considerable quantity of sup- Bennington. It is a shaft of magnesian plies. At that time (August, 1777), Gen- limestone, 308 feet high the highest bat- eral Stark, disgusted because he had not tie-monument in the world; and near the been made a Continental brigadier-gen- city the national government has since eral, had resigned his colonelcy, taken established a military post. See ETHAN the leadership of the New Hampshire mili- ALLEN, FORT. 320 BENSON BEWTON Benson, EGBERT, jurist; born in New son at Nashville (1813), when a quarrel i r ork City, June 21, 1746; was graduated ensued, and in a personal encounter in that at King's College (now Columbia Uni- town with deadly weapons both parties gave versity) in 1765; took an active part in political events preliminary to the war for independence; was a member of the Committee of Safety, and, in 1777, was colonel in the regular army from 1813 to appointed the first attorney-general of 1815. Removing to St. Louis in 1813, he the and received severe wounds. He was colo nel of a Tennessee regiment from Decem ber, 1812, to April, 1813, and lieutenant- State of New York. He was also a member of the first State legislature. He was a member of the Continental Congress from 1784 to 1789, and of the new Con gress from 1789 to 1793, also from 1813 to 1815. From 1789 to 1802, he was a regent of the New York University, judge of the Supreme Court of New York ( 1794- 1801), and of the United States Circuit Court. He was the first president of the New York Historical Society. Judge Benson was the author of a Vindication of the Captors of Major Andre, and a Me moir on Dutch 'Names of Places. He died in Jamaica, Long Island, Aug. 24, 1833. Bentley, CHARLES EUGENE, clergyman; born in Warner's, N. Y., April 30 1841; became a Baptist minister, chairman of the State Prohibition Convention in 1864, and subsequently candidate for various of fices. In 1896 he was the Presidential candidate of the Liberty party. Benton, JAMES GILCHRIST, military officer; born in Lebanon, N. H., Sept. 15, 1820; was graduated at West Point Acad- established the Missouri Inquirer there, and practised his profession. He took an THOMAS HART BEXTON- active part in favoring the admission of Missouri as a State of the Union, and was one of its first representatives in the United States Senate, which post he held emy in 1842; served continuously in the for thirty consecutive years, where he was ever the peculiar exponent and guardian of " The West." He was an early and un tiring advocate of a railway from the Mississippi to the Pacific Ocean. He warmly opposed the repeal of the Mis- titled to benefit in every way by his time SOURI COMPROMISE (q. v.) in 1854. His and talent. He published A Course of free-labor sentiments caused his defeat as Instruction in Ordnance and Gunnery. He a candidate for the Senate by the ultra- ordnance department of the army, and as a result of his experiments made many inventions, for none of which did he take out a patent, as he held that having been educated by the government it was en- slavery men of his party in 1850, and in 1852 he was elected to the House of Rep resentatives. By a combination of his old died in Springfield, Mass., Aug. 23, 1881. Benton, THOMAS HART, statesman; born near Hillsboro, N. C., March 14, 1782. Before finishing his studies at Chapel Hill opponents with the AMERICAN PARTY University, North Carolina, he removed (q. v.) , he was defeated in 1854, and failed to Tennessee, studied law, and obtained of an election for governor in 1856. He great eminence in his profession. In the had then begun to devote himself to lit- legislature of that State he procured the erary pursuits; and he completed his' enactment of a law giving to slaves the Thirty Tears' View of the United States benefit of a jury trial, and also succeeded Senate in 1854. He prepared an Alridg- in having a law passed which reformed ment of the Delates of Congress, from the judicial system of the State. He had 1789 to 1856, in 16 volumes 8vo. They been on intimate terms with General Jack- contain a complete political history of the I. X 321 BENTON country during lhat period, so far as the Orleans, in lat. 26. It is a " grand and national legislature is concerned. He solitary river," almost without affluents died in Washington, D. C., April 10, 1858. or tributaries. Its source is in the region The Annexation of Texas. On May 16, of eternal snow; its outlet in the clime of 17, and 20, 1844, Senator Benton delivered eternal flowers. Its direct course is 1,200 a remarkable and characteristic speech in miles; its actual run about 2,000 miles, the debate, while the Senate was in secret This immense river, second on our conti- session, on the ratification of the treaty nent to the Mississippi only, and but lit- for the annexation of Texas. He had vigor- tie inferior to it in length, is proposed to ously opposed the measure, and on the 13th be added in the whole extent of its left offered the following resolutions, in support bank to the American Union ; and that by of which his great speech was delivered: virtue of a treaty for the reannexation of 1. That the ratification of the treaty Texas. Now, the real Texas, which we ac- would be the adoption of the Texan war quired by the treaty of 1803, and flung with Mexico, and would devolve its con- away by the treaty of 1819, never ap- clusion upon the United States. preached the Rio Grande except near its 2. That the treaty-making power does mouth; while the whole upper part was not extend to the power of making war, settled by the Spaniards, and a great part and that the President and Senate have no of it in the year 1694 nearly 100 years right to make war, either by declaration before La Salle first saw Texas. All this or adoption. upper part was then formed into provinces, 3. That Texas ought to be reunited to on both sides of the river, and has re- the American Union, as soon as it can mained under Spanish or Mexican author- be done with the consent of a majority of ity ever since. These former provinces the people of the United States and of of the Mexican viceroyalty, now de- Texas, and when Mexico shall either con- partments of the Mexican Republic, lying sent to the same, or acknowledge the in- on both sides of the Rio Grande from dependence of Texas, or cease to prosecute its head to its mouth, we now propose the war against her (the armistice having to incorporate, so far as they lie on the expired) on a scale commensurate to the left bank of the river, into our Union, conquest of the country. by virtue of a treaty of reannexation The following is an abstract of the with Texas. Let us pause and look at speech: our new and important proposed acquisi tions in this quarter. First, there is the The President upon our call sends us a department, formerly the province, of New map to show the Senate the boundaries Mexico, lying on both sides of the river of the country he proposes to annex. This from its headspring to near the Paso del memoir is explicit in presenting the Rio Norte that is to say, half down the river. Grande del Norte in its whole extent as a This department is studded with towns boundary of the Republic of Texas, and and villages is populated well culti- that in conformity to the law of the Texan vated and covered with flocks and herds. Congress establishing its boundaries. The On its left bank (for I only speak of the boundaries on the map conform to those part which we propose to reannex) is, in the memoir; each takes for the western first, the frontier village Taos, 3,000 souls, limit the Rio Grande from head to mouth ; and where the custom-house is kept at and a law of the Texan Congress is copied which the Missouri caravans enter their into the margin of the map, to show the goods. Then comes Santa F6, the capital, legal, and the actual, boundaries at the 4.000 souls; then Albuquerque, 6,000 same time. From all this it results that souls; then some scores of other towns and the treaty before us, besides the incorpo- villages, all more or less populated, and ration of Texas proper, also incorporates surrounded by flocks and fields. Then into our Union the left bank of the Rio come the departments of Chihuahua, Grande, in its whole extent, from its head Coahuila, and Tamaulipas, without set- spring in the Sierra Verde, near the South tlements on the left bank of the river, Pass in the Rocky Mountains, to its mouth but occupying the right bank, and corn- in the Ghilf of Mexico, 4 south of New manding the left. All this being part* 322 BENTON of four Mexican departments now under Mexican governors and governments, is permanently reannexed to this Union, if this treaty is ratified; and is actually re- annexed from the moment of the signature oi the treaty, according to the President's last message, to remain so until the ac quisition is rejected by rejecting the treaty. The one-half of the department of iVew Mexico, with its capital, becomes a ierritory of the United States; an angle of Chihuahua, at the Paso del Norte, fam ous for its wine, also becomes ours; a part of the department of Coahuila, not populated on the left bank, which we take, but commanded from the right bank by Mexican authorities; the same of Tamau- lipas, the ancient Nuevo San Tander ( New St. Andrew), and which covers both sides of Mexico, 2,000 miles long and some hun dred miles up, and all the left bank of which is in the power and possession of Mexico. These, in addition to the old Texas, these parts of four states, these towns and vil lages, these people and territory, these flocks and herds, this slice of the Republic of Mexico, 2,000 miles long and some hun dred broad, all this our President has cut off from its mother empire, and presents to us, and declares it is ours till the Sen ate rejects it. He calls it Texas; and the cutting off he calls reannexation. Hum- boldt calls it New Mexico, Chihuahua, Coahuila, and Nuevo San Tander (now Tamaulipas) ; and the civilized world may qualify this reannexation by the applica tion of some odious and terrible epithet. Demosthenes advised the people of Athens not to take, but to retake a certain city; and in that re lay the virtue which saved that act from the character of spoliation and robbery. Will it be equally potent with us? And will the re prefixed to the annexation legitimate the seizure of 2,000 miles of a neighbor's dominion, with whom we have treaties of peace, and friendship, and commerce? Will it legitimate this seizure, made by virtue of a treaty with Texas, when no Texan force witness the disastrous expeditions to Mier and to Santa Fe" have been seen near it without being killed or taken, to the last man? The treaty, in all that relates to the boundary of the Rio Grande, is an act of unparalleled outrage on Mexico. It is the seizure of 2,000 miles of her territory without a word of explanation with her, and by virtue of a treaty with Texas, to which she is no party. Our Secretary of State (Mr. Calhoun), in his letter to the United States charge in Mexico, and seven days after the treaty was signed, and after the Mexican minister had withdrawn from our seat of government, shows full well that he was conscious of the enormity of the outrage, knew it was war, and prof fered volunteer apologies to avert the con sequences which he knew he had provoked. The President, in his special message of Wednesday last, informs us that we have acquired a title to the ceded territories by his signatures to the treaty, wanting only the action of the Senate to perfect it; and that, in the mean time, he will protect it from invasion, and for that purpose has detached all the disposable portions of the army and navy to the scene of action. This is a caper about equal to the mad freaks with which the unfortunate Em peror Paul of Russia was accustomed to astonish Europe about forty years ago. By this declaration the 30,000 Mexicans in the left half of the valley of the Rio del Norte are our citizens, and standing, in the language of the President's message, in a hostile attitude towards us, and sub ject to be repelled as invaders. Taos, the seat of the custom-house, where our cara vans enter their goods, is ours; Santa Fe", the capital of New Mexico, is ours; Gov ernor Armijo is our governor, and sub ject to be tried for treason if he does not submit to us; twenty Mexican towns and villages are ours; and their peaceful in habitants, cultivating their fields and tending their flocks, are suddenly convert ed, by a stroke of the President's pen, into American citizens, or American rebels. This is too bad; and, instead of making themselves party to its enormities, as the President invites them to do, I think rather that it is the duty of the Senate to wash its hands of all this part of the transaction, by a special disapprobation. The Senate is the constitutional adviser of the President, and has the right, if not the duty, to give him advice when the oc casion requires it. I, therefore, propose, as an additional resolution, applicable to the Rio del Norte boundary only, the one which I will read and send to the secre tary's table stamping as a spoliation this 323 BENTONVILLE seizure of Mexican territory, and on which, at the proper time, I shall ask the vote of the Senate: "Resolved, that the incorporation of the left bank of the Rio del Norte into the American Union, by virtue of a treaty with Texas, comprehending, as the said incor poration would do, a part of the Mexican departments of New Mexico, Chihuahua, Ccahuila, and Tamaulipas, would be an act of direct aggression on Mexico; for all the consequences of which the United States would stand responsible." Bentonville, BATTLE OF. After the de feat of Hardee at Averasboro, Sherman be lieved he would meet with no more serious opposition in his march to Goldsboro. He issued orders accordingly. This sense of security proved almost fatal to Sherman's army, for at that moment, Johnston, who had come down from Smithfield, N. C., on a rapid but stealthy march, under cover of night, was hovering near in full force. He found the Nationals in a favor able position for him to attack them. Gen. J. C. Davis's corps was encamped (March 18, 1865) on the Goldsboro road, at a point where it was crossed by one from Clinton to Smithfield. Two divisions of Williams's were encamped 10 or 12 miles in the rear of this, in charge of Slocum's wagon-trains. The remainder of the forces were scattered to the south and east, in fancied security. On the morning of the 16th, Sherman left Slocum, nearest the Confederates, to join How ard's troops, which were scattered and moving on over the wretched, muddy road. On March 19, Sherman, while on his way to Howard, heard cannonading on his left wing, but did not think there was any thing serious in it. It proved, however, to be a complete surprise. The Confeder ates, in overwhelming numbers, were found pressing Slocum. A very severe battle ensued, in a densely wooded swamp, dark and wet and dismal. In this encoun ter, Gen. J. C. Davis conducted much of the battle with great skill and courage, continually cheering his men with as surances of victory. Johnston had as sured his men that he was confident of vic tory, and the troops on both sides fought desperately. Davis had formed General Fearing*s brigade to the left and hurled Vhem upon the flank of the Confederates. The latter were staggered and paralyzed by this unexpected and stunning blow from a force hitherto unseen by them, for Fearing's troops were in reserve. They reeled and fell back in amazement, and the attack was not renewed on that part of the field for more than an hour after wards. The army was saved. The young general (Fearing) was disabled by a bul let, and hundreds of his brigade, dead and wounded, strewed the field of conflict. Davis re-formed the disordered left and centre of his line in open fields half a mile in the rear of the old line. The artillery was moved to a commanding knoll, and Kilpatrick massed his cavalry on the left. Meanwhile an attack upon Morgan's di vision of the 14th Corps had been very severe and unceasing. The National forces received six distinct assaults by the com bined troops of Hardee, Hoke, and Cheat- ham, under the immediate command of General Johnston, without yielding an inch of ground, and all the while doing much execution on the Confederate ranks, especially with the artillery. With dark ness this conflict, known as the battle of Bentonville, ended. It was one of the most notable battles of the Civil War. The main forces of the Union and of its enemies were then concentrating at one point for a desperate last struggle Sher man and Johnston in North Carolina, and Grant and Lee in Virginia. Had John ston won at that time the consequence probably would have been the loss of the whole of Sherman's army and the quick and fatal dispersion or capture of Grant's before Petersburg and Richmond. On the night after the battle reinforcements came to the left of the Nationals. The Con federates prepared for another onset, but when Johnston heard of the actual con nection of three National armies in the vicinity of Goldsboro, he perceived that all chance for success against Sherman had vanished. There had been hard fighting all day (March 20, 1865), and that night, after having his only line of retreat se verely menaced by a flank movement under General Mower, Johnston withdrew and went towards Smithfield in such haste that he left his pickets, wounded in hospi tals, and dead behind. The aggregate loss of the Nationals near Bentonville was 1,648. The loss of the Confederates was never re- 324 BERGH BERING SEA ported. The Nationals captured 1,625 of as lat. 55, and formally annexed that their men, and buried 267 of their dead. part of the continent to the Russian do- Bergh, HENRY, founder of the Society mains. In 1867 Russian America was for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals; purchased by the United States govern- was born in New York City, May 8, 1820; ment for $7,200,000. The only wealth was educated at Columbia College, and in- of the country known at that time was dulged in literary labors for a while, writ- its fur-producing animals, particularly the ing a drama and some poems. In 1863 fur-seals of the coasts and islands, and it he was secretary of legation to Russia, was for this mainly that the purchase was and acting vice-consul there. He acquired made. The officials who conducted the lasting fame over the civilized world for transaction were not mistaken in their his untiring and brave labors in behalf estimates of the revenue to be derived of abused dumb creatures. These phil- from this source, for during the twenty anthropic efforts absorbed his attention years which followed the seal - fisheries for many years, and elicited the praise paid into the national treasury a rental of all good men and women. A society which exceeded the purchase-price of the for carrying out his benevolent plan was territory by $6,350,000. That Bering Sea, incorporated by the legislature of New with its islands, was the exclusive prop- York in 1866, and this example was fol- erty of Russia for the sixty-eight years lowed in nearly all of the States and of her domination in Alaska had never Territories of the Union and in Canada, been questioned, and that the United He died in New York, March 12, 1888. States, by purchase, succeeded to the same Bering (now preferred to the form Beh- rights of possession no one could, it would ring), VITUS, Danish navigator; born at be supposed, deny. About 1886, however, Horsen, in Jutland, in 1680. In his youth some ship-owners in British Columbia be- he made several voyages to the East and gan to encroach upon these rights by send- West Indies; entered the Russian navy, ing vessels into the sea to intercept the and served with distinction against the seals as they made their annual migra- Swedes; and in 1725 commanded a scien- tion to their breeding-grounds on the tific expedition to the Sea of Kamtchatka. Pribyloff Islands. This unlawful poaching He ascertained that Asia and America and the unregulated pelagic sealing were were separated by water a strait which carried on to such an extent that in 1890 now bears his name. This problem Peter the Canadian intruders secured 20,000 the Great had been very desirous of hav- skins. As very many of the seals thus ing solved. Bering was appointed captain taken were females, and their young were commandant in 1732, and in 1741 set out left to perish for want of sustenance, the on a second voyage to the same region, actual number destroyed was far in ex- when he discovered a part of the North cess of the number of skins, and the American continent supposed to have been extinction of the entire species was threat- New Norfolk. He and his crew, being ened. At this juncture a United States disabled by sickness, attempted to return revenue-cutter captured one of the poach- to Kamtchatka, but were wrecked on an ing vessels. The seizure became at once island that now bears his name, where the subject of correspondence between the Bering died Dec. 8, 1741. His discoveries British government and the State De- were the foundation of the claim of Russia partment at Washington. Secretary Blaine to a large region in the far northwest of urged that illicit sealing was a pursuit the American continent. See ALASKA. contra bonos mores, against international Bering Sea. In 1725 Capt. Vitus Be- comity; and he argued against the claim ring, a Danish navigator in the service of Lord Salisbury, who had asserted that of Peter the Great, discovered the sea Bering Sea could not be mare clausum which bears his name, and in 1741 he under any circumstances. The British made an imperfect exploration of a por- premier declined to recognize the claims tion of the Alaskan coast. By virtue of of the United States, although he ex- these discoveries, the Emperor Paul of pressed regret at the " wanton destruc- Russia, in 1799, assumed the sovereign- tion of a valuable industry," and asked ty over the American coast as far south that the right of the United States to 325 BERING SEA seize the Canadian vessels be submitted government to visit the localities under to a court of arbitration. While this cor- dispute, and make a thorough investi- respondence was going on the poachers gation of the material facts. A treaty continued their depredations, and the was signed at Washington, Feb. 29, 1892, number of seals was so materially re- providing for the settlement by arbitra- duced that in 1891 not more than one- tion of the vexed seal question. The fourth of the usual number of pelts were treaty was ratified in London, and the ar- taken by the legally authorized sealers, bitrators met in Paris; they were Lord An agreement was finally entered into Hannen, Sir John Thompson, Justice Har- to submit the matter to a court of arbi- Ian, United States Senator Morgan, Baron tration, composed of commissioners se- de Courcelles, M. Gregero Gram, and Mar- lected by the two governments. The ques- quis Visconti Venosta. The decision of tions at issue to be decided by this court the tribunal was rendered Aug. 15, 1893. were as follows: The findings of the arbitrators were: Rus- 1. What exclusive jurisdiction in Bering sia never claimed exclusive rights; Great Sea did Russia exercise prior to the ces- Britain had not conceded any claim of sion of Alaska? Russia to exclusive jurisdiction; Bering 2. To what extent was this jurisdiction, Sea was included in the Pacific Ocean in especially as regarded the seal fisheries, the treaty of 1825; all Russian rights recognized by Great Britain? passed to the United States; the United 3. Was the Bering Sea included in the States have no rights when seals are out- phrase " Pacific Ocean " in the Anglo- side the 3-mile limit. Restrictive regula- Russian treaty of 1825; and what rights tions were also adopted: proclaiming a did Russia exercise in the Bering Sea closed season from May 1 to July 31 in after the treaty? Bering Sea and the North Pacific; estab- 4. t)id not all the Russian rights in the lishing a protected zone within 60 miles fisheries east of the water boundary pass of the Pribyloff Islands; forbidding to the United States when the treaty was steam- vessels, use of nets, fire-arms, and ratified by which she acquired possession explosives. The award was regarded as a of the territory of Alaska ? compromise, in which the United States 5. What right of protection of prop- was technically defeated, but acquired erty has the United States in the seals substantial advantages in the regulations, frequenting United States islands, when The complaints came mainly from Can- found outside the ordinary 3-mile limit? ada. See BERING SEA ARBITRATION. Pending the decision of the case by ar- In 1894, the year following the sign- bitration, an agreement was entered into ing of this treaty, more seals were slaugh- between the two governments, June 15, tered by poachers than ever before. The 1891, providing: United States again asked England to in- 1. That Great Britain shall use her terfere against the Canadian poachers, best efforts to prohibit sealing by her but that country refused to act unless the subjects in Bering Sea until May, 1892. United States should pay Great Britain 2. That the United States shall limit the $500,000 in discharge of all claims for number of seals to be taken by the North damages resulting from alleged illegal American Commercial Company to 7,500 seizures of British vessels in Bering Sea. per year, and shall not permit more to be The United States denied the justice of taken previous to the date above given. this claim, but after another year of 3. That offending vessels outside the seal slaughter, agreed to submit the claim territorial limits of the United States to arbitration. In July, 1896, Judge may be seized by either of the contract- G. E. King, of Canada, and Judge ing parties; and, W. E. Putnam, of the United States, were 4. That British agents may visit or chosen commissioners to settle the matter, remain on the islands during the pres- On Jan. 14, 1898, President McKinley ent season to make such observations as submitted to Congress the report and may be necessary for the proper presenta- awards of the commission, the last aggre- tion of the case to the court of arbitration, gating $473,151 in favor of Great Britain, Expert agents were appointed by each and on June 14 Congress appropriated 326 BERING SEA ARBITRATION that amount. In the mean time (June, 1896) President Cleveland appointed a commission to make an exhaustive study of the fur-seal question, and on its re port (1897) President McKinley appoint ed a new commission to devise protection for the seals. Then efforts were made to induce Great Britain to consent to an in ternational conference, but Canada ob jected to the representation of Russia and Japan, whom the United States had in vited, and on this objection Great Britain declined. Subsequently the United States invited all interested nations to a con ference separately. See ANGLO- AMERICAN COMMISSION. BERING SEA ARBITRATION Bering Sea Arbitration. The United States stands distinguished among the nations as the foremost champion of in ternational arbitration. Our ablest and wisest statesmen have recognized it as the best way of adjusting most questions of difference arising between governments, when the ordinary diplomatic methods fail. Such being the settled policy of the country, it would be unfortunate for the cause of peace and civilization in the world if that policy should be prejudiced in the United States for want of correct information or through partisan bias. In 1893 JOHN WATSON "FOSTER (q. v.) was appointed United States agent to the Bering Sea arbitration tribunal which met in Paris. After the conclusion of the arbitration he wrote the following paper: The impression seems to prevail with many of our people that the Bering Sea arbitration was unwisely entered upon, that it was fruitless in its results to us, and that the responsibility for the failure is chargeable to the administration which agreed to it. Every one of these conclu sions is incorrect, and in the interest of the great cause of international arbitra tion their fallacy should be exposed. It is well, in the first place, to examine the origin of the controversy. Alaska was ceded by Russia to the United States in 1867, and in 1870 the seal islands in Bering Sea were leased by the government to a private company, with the privilege of taking on the land a certain number of seals annually. Soon thereafter it be came apparent that the seal herd was ex posed to serious diminution by means of pelagic or open-sea hunting. As early as 1872 the attention of the government was called to this danger, and it was sug gested that a revenue-cutter be sent to 327 cruise in the vicinity of the passes of the Aleutian chain, through which the herd travelled on its way to and from the seal islands, with a view of preventing such hunting. But Mr. Boutwell, Secretary of the Treasury, declined to act upon the suggestion, stating: "I do not see that the United States would have the juris diction or power to drive off parties going up there for that purpose, unless they made the attempt within a marine league of the shore." With the progress of time pelagic hunting increased along the Cana dian and American coasts, with greater slaughter of the herd, and with occasional incursions into Bering Sea. There was gradually developed a contention that the principle laid down by Secretary Bout- well did not apply to Bering Sea, because Russia had claimed and enforced exclu sive jurisdiction over all its waters, that it had been acquiesced in by the maritime nations, including Great Britain, and that all the rights of Russia therein passed to the United States by the cession. The act of Congress of 1868 (Section 1,956) made it unlawful to kill seals " within the lim its of Alaska Territory or in the waters thereof" and it was claimed that the wa ters of Alaska embraced all that portion of Bering Sea east of the line designated in the Russian treaty of cession. Under the foregoing construction of the treaty and the statute, the first seizure of Brit ish vessels in Bering Sea took place under instructions of the Secretary of the Treas ury by the revenue vessels in 1886, and other seizures followed in 1887. Suits were instituted in the federal court at Sitka under the act cited, and the vessels were condemned. The judge, whose ten ure of office under the practice in vogue as to that Territory was limited to the political administration which appointed BERING SEA ARBITRATION him, following the line of argument sub mitted by the district attorney in a brief prepared in the office of the Attorney- General, held that " all the waters within the boundary set forth in the treaty . . . are to be considered as comprised within the waters of Alaska, and all the penal ties prescribed by law . . . must there fore attach within those limits." He further held that " as a matter of inter national law, it makes no difference that the accused parties may be subjects of Great Britain. Russia had claimed and ex ercised jurisdiction over all that portion of Bering Sea . . . and that claim had been tacitly recognized and acquiesced in by the other maritime powers of the world." The seizure and condemnation of the British vessels were followed by an at tempt to secure a more precise and strict definition of " the waters of Alaska " by congressional legislation. A lengthy in vestigation was had by a committee of the House of Representatives in 1888 ; and in January, 1889, a report was made by Mr. Dunn, of Arkansas, chairman of the committee, fully sustaining the view taken by the Attorney-General and the federal judge in Alaska, and submitting a bill which declared " that Section 1,956 of the Revised Statutes of the United States was intended to include and apply to, and is hereby declared to include and apply to, all waters of Bering Sea in Alaska em braced within the boundary lines " of the treaty with Russia. This bill was passed by the House, but in the Senate it was sent to the committee on foreign rela tions, and that committee recommended that the clause above quoted be disagreed t; and the chairman, Mr. Sherman, in support of the recommendation, stated that the proposed legislation " involved serious matters of international law . . . and ought to be disagreed to and aban doned, and considered more carefully hereafter." Subsequently, by virtue of a conference report, an act was passed de claring Section 1,956 to include and ap ply " to all the dominion of the United States in the waters of Bering Sea." The seizure and condemnation of ves sels, as stated, constitute the origin and foundation of the complaint of the British government, and of the lengthy corre spondence and negotiations which resulted in the arbitration at Paris. These seizures were the act of the administration of President Cleveland, and had the endorse ment of the executive, politico-judicial, and legislative departments of that ad ministration. In so far as the views of the opposing political party may be inferred from the attitude of Secretary Boutwell and Senator Sherman, they were against the legality or wisdom of the policy. The complaint of Great Britain in 1887 was followed by a diplomatic correspond ence, in which Secretary Bayard, without discussing or yielding the grounds upon which the seizures had been made, pro posed an international arrangement for the protection of the seals from exter mination. With this proposition pend ing, and with all the questions arising out of the seizures unsettled, the executive government of the United States passed into the hands of President Harrison. Mr. Blaine, on assuming the duties of Secre tary of State, sought to carry into effect the proposition of his predecessor for an international agreement. He found that few of the governments approached had shown any interest in the proposition, but early in the administration he pressed the subject upon the attention of Great Brit ain, and as soon as possible secured a joint conference at Washington with the Brit ish and Russian ministers. After pro longed interviews the conference proved a failure, as Great Britain was unwilling to enter into any international agreement which the two other interested powers felt was at all adequate to protect the seals from extermination. The measure which Secretary Bayard had initiated for the settlement of the questions arising out of the seizure of British vessels having proved impossible of realization, there seemed no other al ternative but to defend the action of the previous administration ; and thereupon followed the notable diplomatic corre spondence between Mr. Blaine and Lord Salisbury, in which the former sought with all his recognized forensic skill to defend the action of the Secretary of the Treasury in ordering the seizures and, as far as he felt it possible to do so, to sus tain the correctness in international law of the attitude of the Attorney-General and the judge of the federal court of 328 BERING SEA ARBITRATION Alaska. In no part of that statesman's career did his devotion to his country more conspicuously rise above partisan ship than in that correspondence. It is doubtful if any living American could have made a more brilliant or effective defence of the action of his government, and whatever fallacies exist in his argu ment are chargeable to the previous ad ministration which had occasioned the con troversy and marked out the line of defence. The correspondence showed the two gov ernments in hopeless disagreement. Three courses were open to President Harrison, and one of them must be chosen without further delay: First, he could abandon the claim of exclusive jurisdiction over Bering Sea or protection of the seals be yond the 3-mile limit, recede from the ac tion of his predecessor as to seizure of British vessels, and pay the damages claimed therefor. Such a course would have met with the general disapproval of the nation, and would have been de nounced by his political opponents as a base betrayal of the country's interests. Second, he could have rejected the ar guments *and protests of the British gov ernment, and continued the policy initi ated by his predecessor in the seizure of all British vessels engaged in pelagic sealing in Bering Sea. But this course had already been proposed to President Cleveland, and decided to be improper. The Hon. E. J. Phelps who, as minister to Great Britain, had conducted the ne gotiations with Lord Salisbury growing out of the seizures of 1886 and 1887, in a lengthy despatch to Secretary Bayard, re viewing the conduct of Canada which had prevented an adjustment once accepted by Lord Salisbury, made the following recom mendation : " Under these circumstances, the government of the United States must, in my opinion, either submit to have these valuable fisheries destroyed, or must take measures to prevent their destruction by capturing the vessels employed in it. Between these two alternatives it does not appear to me there should be the slight est hesitation. ... I earnestly recommend, therefore, that the vessels that have been seized while engaged in this business be firmly held, and that measures be taken to capture and hold every one hereafter found concerned in it. . . There need be no fear that a resolute stand on this sub ject will at once put an end to the mis chief complained of." But this recom mendation of Mr. Phelps was not ap proved by Mr. Bayard, who was unwill ing to adopt a course which might bring about a rupture with Great Britain, the probable outcome of which would have been an armed conflict. In view of this decision and the state of public sentiment, with a prevailing opinion in a large part of the press and with public men that the attitude of the government was legally un sound, and that the interests involved did not, under the circumstances stated, justi fy the hazard of a great war between these two English-speaking nations, the adop tion of this second alternative by Presi dent Harrison would have been the height of madness. The only remaining alterna tive was arbitration. President Harrison felt that if we could commit to an inter national tribunal the far greater interests and principles involved in the Alabama claims, it would be the part of wisdom to adopt the same course as to the pend ing questions of difference, and there can be no doubt that the sober judgment of the country confirms his action. If, therefore, the Paris arbitration* was unwise in any of its features, it must have been in the manner of submission of the questions to the tribunal. But in this re spect, also, the conduct of President Har rison was greatly restricted by the action of his predecessor. He was required to formulate for the decision of the tribunal the contentions upon which the seizures were made, and the first four points em braced in Article VI. of the treaty will be found to cover accurately the grounds upon which the Attorney-General in 1887 asked for, and the federal judge based, the condemnation of the British vessels. It is a singular incident that when the case of the United States came to be prepared and the Russian archives were examined, what had been assumed in the legal proceedings to be historical facts could scarcely be substantiated by a sin gle official document. It is also notable that the only additional question intro duced in the treaty provision for submis sion to the tribunal that embraced in the fifth point, to wit, the right of protection or property in the seals, and which in 329 BERING SEA ARBITRATION the judgment of the counsel of the United States became the leading, if not the only, defence of the seizures was not advanced in the legal proceedings of 1887, and was not mooted until a late stage of Mr. Blame's controversy with Lord Salisbury. The chief credit for the development of this point is due to Mr. Tracy, Secretary of the Navy, who submitted a paper of rare legal ability on the subject to the President. The treaty after having under gone the careful scrutiny of the President and Hon. E. J. Phelps, whose advice had been sought by the President, was sub mitted to the Senate and approved by that body without a single dissenting voice, so far as is known. If the conduct of the President, in the management of the con troversy created by his predecessor, had not been in the judgment of the country wise and patriotic, or if the provisions of the treaty had not been properly framed, it would scarcely have escaped the attention of his political opponents in the Senate. Hence, the only remaining criticism which might be advanced against the ar bitration must relate to the management of the case before the tribunal. But in this respect also it must be recognized that the President's action was circum spect and free from all partisanship. In naming the arbitrators on the part of the United States, he chose, with the cordial approval of the Chief-Justice and his as sociates, Mr. Justice Harlan, of the Su preme Court, as senior American member of the tribunal. In filling the second place he selected Senator Morgan, the rec ognized leader of all international ques tions in the Senate of the party whose officials had originated the subject-matter of arbitration. Hon. E. J. Phelps, Presi dent Cleveland's minister in London, an experienced diplomatist, and a lawyer of national repute, had been consulted by the President several months before the treaty had been agreed upon, and when the case came to be prepared he was named as senior counsel. With him was associated James C. Carter, of New York, the recog nized leader of the American bar; and be fore the tribunal was organized Frederic R. Coudert, an accomplished French scholar and a prominent jurist, was added to the list. These three gentlemen were the political friends of Mr. Cleveland. With them was joined a single party friend of President Harrison, H. W. Blodgett, for many years a distinguished judge of the Federal Court. Senator Mor gan, in a subsequent letter, wrote : " Our party was and is responsible for using the means that were employed both for the raising and the settlement of these ques tions, and it was a just measure of respon sibility that Mr. Harrison devolved upon us when, out of a body of arbitrators and counsel, and Mr. Secretary Foster, the agent, selected by him seven in all he selected four Democrats and three Re publicans." As to the manner in which these gentlemen discharged their trust, we have the following testimony of Mr. Jus tice Harlan, in a public address: "I may say that no government was ever repre sented upon any occasion where its inter ests were involved with more fidelity, with more industry, and with greater abil ity than was the United States by its agent and counsel. ... If more was not obtained is was solely because a majority of that tribunal . . . did not see their way to grant more." On five points submitted to the tribunal, embracing the historical and legal ques tions, the decision was unfavorable to the United States. While the action of the gov ernment in making the seizures was based on the weakest ground of our defence, which proved untenable, it cannot be doubted that the motives which actuated its conduct were patriotic and praise worthy. But had our effort to save the seals from destruction been from the out set based upon a right of protection and property in them, our case before the tribunal would have been much stronger and the decision might have been different. Nevertheless, it cannot be justly claimed that the arbitration was fruitless in its results for us. It is no small matter that a question which threatened a rupt ure of our peaceful relations with Great Britain was adjusted by a resort to the arbitrament of reason and not of force. The Alaskan seal herd is of great value to us and to the world, and it is the duty of our government to be vigilant in pro tecting it from destruction; but the legal issues involved in our controversy with Great Britain regarding them did not seem to justify the hazard of an armed 330 BERING SEA ARBITRATION conflict, and it was a great gain to us wisely entered upon, that it was not alto- that the controversy was peacefully set- gether fruitless in its results for us, and tied without national dishonor. that the administration which agreed to it The decision of the tribunal was ad- cannot be held culpable for the manner of verse to the United States on the legal its submission or management. But it points in dispute, but the award contain- will naturally be expected that something ed an important provision for interna- be said concerning the question of dam- tional regulations, which were intended ages, a subject which was not settled by by the tribunal to be a protection to the the award. In Article VIII. of the treaty seals, and which in the judgment of the it was expressly stipulated that " the ques- majority of that body would in practice tion of liability of each for the injuries prove an adequate protection. The agent alleged to have been sustained by the and counsel of the United States contend- other " should not be embraced in the arbi- ed that no regulations would be a certain tration, but should " be the subject of protection of the herd which did not pro- future negotiation." In the discussion hibit all pelagic sealing, and the American following the adjournment of the tribunal, arbitrators voted for such prohibition, and the fact seems to have been lost sight sustained their votes by very able and of that the United States preferred seri- cogent opinions; but the majority of the ous claims for damages against Great tribunal took a different view of the sub- Britain on account of the injuries done ject. The regulations adopted were op- by British pelagic sealers to the Alaskan posed both by the American and Canadian seal herd, and that President Harrison arbitrators. When first published they proposed that this question of damages were accepted by all the Americans who should, together with the British claims participated in the arbitration as a de- for seizure of vessels, be submitted to the cided triumph for the United States, and tribunal. It was because Great Britain were regarded by the Canadian sealers as refused to consent to arbitrate this claim a serious menace, if not a death-blow, to that the whole subject was omitted. The their interests. If they are carefully ex- award of the tribunal was in effect that amined they will be found to be more in certain waters, and at certain times, favorable to the United States than the pelagic sealing is improper and should regulations which Mr. Bayard proposed not be permitted. How far the claim of to Lord Salisbury as a settlement of the the United States subsists for injuries in question, or which Mr. Elaine offered to the past sustained by the seal herd in Sir Julian Pauncefote. If, therefore, we those times and waters is one of the ques- obtained more from the tribunal than tions to be determined by the " future ne- our government proposed to accept from gotiations " contemplated in the treaty; Great Britain, the arbitration cannot and prominent persons well informed as justly be characterized as fruitless in its to the controversy contend that it is still results for us. The adequacy of the reg- a vital question. ulations cannot be properly judged, be- While the liability for damages was cause they have not yet been put in force not within the jurisdiction of the tri- in their true spirit and intent. This will bunal, it is generally admitted that the not be done until they are also made to effect of its decision was to fix upon the apply to the Russian waters, and until United States a certain measure of re- more stringent rules for their enforcement sponsibility for damages on account of are adopted. It has been a source of dis- the seizures, which would have to be met appointment to many who have taken an through the " future negotiations." With- interest in the preservation of the seals out further investigation than the docu- that these rules have been so lax and so mentary evidence before the Paris tri- imperfectly observed. The obstruction in bunal, the sum of $425,000 was agreed these respects is now, as it has been from upon between the Secretary of State and the beginning, the selfish and inhuman the British ambassador as a full satis- conduct of Canada. faction of the claims for the seizure of As it has been shown by the foregoing re- the British vessels, and the Congress of view that the Paris arbitration was not un- the United States was asked to make an 331 BERING SEA ARBITRATION BERKELEY appropriation for that purpose. In the Berkeley, GEORGE, Bishop of Cloyne; discussion which arose in the House of born in Kilcrin, Kilkenny, Ireland, March 'Representatives when th'e subject came be- 12, 1684; was educated at Trinity College, fore that body, it was most unfortunate Dublin; became a Fellow there; and at that it should have assumed a partisan an early age wrote on scientific subjects, aspect. When certain members argued Between 1710 and 1713 his two famous that the sum asked for was greatly in ex- works appeared, in which he denies the cess of the just and legal claims of the existence of matter, and argues that it is Canadian sealers, and that it was in di- not without the mind, but within it, and rect conflict with the views of the agent that that which is called matter is only and counsel of the United States before an impression produced by divine power the tribunal, they were taunted with on the mind by the invariable laws of nat- the charge that this obligation had been ure. On a tour in France he visited the contracted by the administration of which French philosopher Malebranche, who be- they were supporters. The member of the came so excited by a discussion with committee on appropriations who had the Berkeley on the non-existence of matter measure in charge said : " This is not our that, being ill at the time, he died a few foreign policy. We are paying a debt days afterwards. Miss Vanhomrigh which you gentlemen gave us." Mr. ( Swift's " Vanessa " ) bequeathed to McCreary, chairman of the committee Berkeley $20,000; and in 1728 his income on foreign affairs, in advocacy of the ap- was increased $5,500 a year by being made propriation, used this language : " I re- Dean of Derry. Berkeley conceived a plan gret that we have been placed in an atti- for establishing a college in the Bermudas tude where we have to pay this amount; for the instruction of pastors for the but the gentlemen on the other side of colonial churches and missionaries for the this House cannot claim that we caused Indians. He resigned his offices to become the existing situation." How unwarranted rector of the projected college at a salary were these assertions is shown in the fore- of $500 a year. The House of Commons going review. authorized the appropriation of a por- It may have been the wisest policy to tion of the money to be obtained from vote the appropriation, but it was no the sale of lands in St. Kitt's (St. Chris- breach of our international obligations not topher's ) , which had been ceded to Eng- to approve of that sum; and it is not to land for the establishment of the institu- the discredit of Congress that it exercised tion. With these assurances Berkeley its judgment as to the action of the execu- went to Newport, R. I. (1729), bought tive in agreeing to a settlement with a farm and built a house, intending to in- Great Britain which altogether ignored vest the college funds, when received, in the claim of the United States for dam- American lands, and then to make ar- ages to the seals by improper pelagic rangements for a supply of pupils. He hunting, and the views of its own repre- had just married, and brought his bride sentatives before the tribunal as to the with him. The scheme for the college British claims. While a difference of failed for lack of government co-opera- views may properly exist between the tion after the death of the King, who fa- executive and legislative departments upon vored it. In 1734 Berkeley was made these subordinate questions, no disposi- Bishop of Cloyne, which place he held for tion has been entertained or shown by any almost twenty years. He gave to Yale portion of our government or people to College his estate in Rhode Island, known evade our just obligations under the as " White Hall," and also 880 volumes treaty. And the fact that the spirit of for its library. He died in Oxford, the award leads us to pay out of the na- Jan. 14, 1753. Pope ascribed to him " ev- tional treasury a sum by way of damages, ery virtue under the sun." It was in which at the most must be regarded as view of the establishment of the college insignificant for a great nation, should that he wrote his famous lines On the certainly have no tendency to modify in Prospect of Planting Arts and Learning the slightest degree our devotion to the in America, in which occur these often- great policy of international arbitration. quoted lines, 332 BERKELEY " Westward the course of empire takes its way; The first four acts already pa c t, A fifth shall close the drama with the day; Time's noblest offspring is the last." Berkeley, SIR JOHN, a proprietor of New Jersey; born in 1607; was in the military service of Charles I. when the King knighted him at Berwick on the Tweed. In the civil war that afterwards ensued, he bore a conspicuous part, and he remained in exile with the royal family many years. In 1653 Berkeley was placed at the head of the Duke of York's establishment; and two years be fore the Restoration (1660), of that of the Prince of Wales, who, when crowned king ( Charles II. ) , raised Berkeley to the peerage as Baron Berkeley of Stratton, in the county of Somerset. On the Restora tion he became one of the privy council, and late in 1699 he was appointed lord- lieutenant of Ireland. He was then one of the proprietors of New Jersey, and was not above suspicion of engaging in the corrupt practice of selling offices. Samuel Pepys, who was secretary of the Admi ralty (1664), speaks of him in his Diary as " the most hot, fiery man in his dis course, without any cause," he ever saw. Lord Berkeley was appointed ambassador extraordinary to the Court of Versailles in 1675, and died Aug. 28, 1678. See CARTERET, Sir GEORGE. Berkeley, SIR WILLIAM, colonial gov ernor; born near London about 1610; was brother of Lord John Berkeley, one of the early English proprietors of New Jersey. Appointed governor of Virginia, he ar rived there in February, 1642. Berkeley was a fine specimen of a young English courtier. He was then thirty-two years of age, well educated at Oxford, handsome in person, polished by foreign travel, and possessing exquisite taste in dress. He was one of the most accomplished cavaliers of the day. He adopted some salutary measures in Virginia which made him popular; and at his mansion at Green Spring, not far from Jamestown, he dis pensed generous hospitality for many years. Berkeley was a stanch but not a bigoted royalist at first; and during the civil war in England he managed public affairs in Virginia with so much pru dence that a greater proportion of the colo nists were in sympathy with him. In religious matters there was soon per ceived the spirit of persecution in the char acter of the governor. The Puritans were then not only tolerated in Virginia, but had been invited to settle there. The civil war drew a line of clear demarcation be tween churchmen and non-conformists. A large majority of the people of Virginia were attached to the Church of England; so was the governor. In England the Puritans were identified with the republi cans, and Berkeley thought it to be his duty to suppress them in his colony as enemies to royalty. So he first decreed that no Puritan minister should preach except in conformity to the rules of the Church of England; and, finally, all non conformists were banished from Virginia. In the war with the Indians in 1644, in which OPECHANCANOUGH (q. v.) led the savages, the governor behaved with promptness and efficiency, and soon crush ed the invaders. Then the colonists had peace and prosperity for some years. In 1648 they numbered 20,000. "The cot tages were filled with children, as the ports with ships and emigrants." The people were loyal to the King; and when the latter lost his head, and royalty was abolished in England, they opened wide their arms to receive the cavaliers (many of them of the gentry, nobility, and cler gy of the realm) who fled in horror from the wrath of republicans. 'They brought refinement in manners and intellectual culture to Virginia, and strengthened the loyalty of the colonists. When the King was slain they recognized his exiled son as their sovereign, and Berkeley pro claimed him King of Virginia. Sir Will iam administered the government under a commission sent by Charles from his place of exile (Breda, in Flanders). Virginia was the last territory belonging to England that submitted to the govern ment of the republicans on the downfall of monarchy. This persistent attach ment to the Stuarts offended the republi can Parliament, and they sent Sir George Ayscue with a strong fleet, early in the spring of 1652, to reduce the Virginians to submission. The fleet bore commis sioners authorized to use harsh or con ciliatory measures to make a compro mise, or to declare the freedom of the slaves of the royalists, put arms in their 333 BERKELEY hands, and make war. The commissioners troops were sent to America to suppress were met with firmness by Berkeley, the aspirations of the people for freedom. Astonished by the boldness of the governor Feeling strong, Berkeley pursued the ad- and his adherents, they deemed it more herents of Bacon with malignant severity prudent to compromise than to attempt until twenty-two of them were hanged, coercion. The result was, the political The first martyr was Thomas Hanford, a freedom of the colonists was guaranteed, gallant young native of Virginia. Stand- Berkeley regarding those whom the com- ing before the governor, he boldly avowed missioners represented as usurpers, he his republicanism; and when sentenced would make no stipulations with v them to be hanged, he said, "I ask no favor for himself, and he withdrew from the but that I may be shot like a soldier, and governorship and lived in retirement on not hanged like a dog." At the gallows his plantation at Green Spring until the he said, " Take notice that I die a loyal restoration of monarchy in England in subject and a lover of my country." Ed- 1660, when the loyalty of the Virginians mund Cheeseman, when arraigned before was not forgotten by the new monarch. the governor, was asked why he engaged The people elected Richard Bennett gov- in the wicked rebellion, and before he ernor ; and he was succeeded by two others could answer his young wife stepped for- Edward Diggs (1655) and Samuel Mat- ward and said, "My provocations made thews (1656), the latter appointed by my husband join in the cause for which Oliver Cromwell. At his death (1660) the Bacon contended; but for me, he had people elected Berkeley, but he refused never done what he has done. Since what to serve excepting under a royal commis- is done," she said, as she knelt before the sion, and he went to England to con- governor, with her bowed head covered gratulate Charles II. on his restoration with her hands, " was done by my means, to the throne. Charles gave Berkeley a I am most guilty; let me bear the punish- commission, and he returned to Virginia ment; let me be hanged; let my husband to execute his master's will with vigor, be pardoned." The governor cried out, Ho enforced various oppressive laws, for angrily, "Away with you!" The poor he was less tolerant than when he was young wife swooned, and her husband younger and politically weaker, and, with was led to the gallows. When the brave the cavaliers around him, he hated every- Drummond was brought before the govern- thing that marked the character of the or, Berkeley, with wicked satire, made a Puritans. These cavaliers despised the low bow and said, " You are very welcome ; " common people " of New England, and I am more glad to see you than any man opposed the ideas of popular education, in Virginia; you shall be hanged in half Berkeley wrote to his government in 1665, an hour." Drummond replied, with dig- " I thank God there are no free schools nity, " I expect no mercy from you. I have nor printing in Virginia, and I hope we followed the lead of my conscience, and shall not have them these hundred years; done what I might to free my country for learning has brought heresy and dis- from oppression." He was condemned at obedience and sects into the world, and one o'clock and hanged at four; and his printing hath divulged them, and libels brave wife, Sarah, was denounced as a against the best government ; God keep us " traitor " and banished, with her chil- from both!" Oppression of the people dren, to the wilderness, there to subsist finally produced civil war in 1676, the on the bounty of friends. When these events of which soured Berkeley, who had things were brought to the notice of the then grown old (see BACON, NATHANIEL) ; profligate monarch, even he was disgusted and after it was over, and he was firmly with Berkeley's cruelties, and said, "The seated in power, he treated the principal old fool has taken more lives in that abettors of the insurrection with harsh- naked country than I have taken for the ness and cruelty. His King had proclaim- murder of my father;" and Berkeley was ed Bacon (the leader of the insurrection) a ordered to desist. But he continued to traitor, and sent an armament under Sir fine and imprison the followers of Bacon John Berry to assist in crushing the re- until he was recalled in the spring of bellion. This was the first time royal 1677, and went to England with the re,- 334 BERLIN ARBITRATION BERLIN DECREE turning fleet of Sir John Berry. The colonists fired great guns and lighted bonfires in token of their joy at his de parture. In England his cruelties were severely censured, and he died (July 13, 1677) of grief and mortified pride. Berlin Arbitration. See SAN JUAN. Berlin Decree, THE. In 1803 England joined the Continental powers against Na poleon. England, offended because of the seizure of Hanover by the Prussians, at the instigation of Napoleon, made the act a pretext, in 1806, for employing against France a measure calculated to starve the empire. By Orders in Council (May 16) the whole coast of Europe from the Elbe, in Germany, to Brest, in France, a distance of about 800 miles, was declared to be in a state of blockade, when, at the same time, the British navy could not spare vessels enough from other fields of service to en force the blockade over a third of the pre scribed coast. It was essentially a " paper blockade." The almost entire destruction of the French and Spanish fleets at Trafal gar, a few months before, had annihilated her rivals in the contest for the sovereignty of the seas, and she now resolved to con trol the trade of the world. Napoleon had dissolved the German Empire, prostrated Prussia at his feet, and, from the " Im perial Camp at Berlin," he issued (Nov. 21, 1806) the famous decree in which he declared the British Islands in a state of blockade; forbade all correspondence or trade with England; defined all articles of English manufacture or produce as con traband, and the property of all British subjects as lawful prize of war. He had scarcely a ship afloat when he made this decree. This was the beginning of what was afterwards called " the Continental System/' commenced avowedly as a re taliatory measure, and designed, primarily, to injure, and, if possible, to destroy, the property of England. By another Order in Council (January, 1807) Great Britain re strained neutrals from engaging in the coasting-trade between one hostile port and another, a commerce hitherto allowed, with some slight exceptions. This was but the extension to all hostile ports of the blockade of the coast from the Elbe to Brest established by a former order. On Nov. 17, 1807, another British Order in Council was issued, which prohibited all neutral trade with France or her allies, un less through Great Britain. In retaliation for these orders Napoleon promulgated, Dec. 17, 1807, from his " Palace at Milan," a decree which extended aaid made more vigorous that issued at Berlin. It declared every vessel which should submit to be searched by British cruisers, or should pay any tax, duty, or license money to the British government, or should be found on the high seas or elsewhere bound to or from any British port, denationalized and forfeit. With their usual servility to the dictates of the conqueror, Spain and Hol land issued similar decrees. In March, 1810, information reached the President of the United States that the French minister for Foreign Affairs, in a letter to Minister Armstrong, had said that if England would revoke her blockade against France, the latter would revoke her " Berlin Decree." Minister Pinkney, in London, approached the British minister on the subject, and, to aid in the peaceful negotiations, Congress repealed the non- intercourse and non-importation laws on May 1, 1810. For these they substituted a law excluding both British and French armed vessels from the waters of the United States. The law provided that, in case either Great Britain or France should revoke or so modify their acts before March 3, 1811, as not to violate the neutral commerce of the United States, and if the other nation should not, within three months thereafter, in like manner revoke or modify its edicts, the provisions of the non-intercourse and non-importation acts should, at the expiration of the three months, be revived against the nation so neglecting or refusing to comply. The French minister thereupon, on Aug. 5 fol lowing, officially declared that the Berlin and Milan decrees had been revoked, and would be inoperative after Nov. 1, it being understood that, in consequence of that revocation, the English should revoke the Orders in Council. Having faith in these declarations, the President issued a proc lamation on Nov. 2, announcing this revo cation of the French decrees and declaring the discontinuance, on the part of the United States, of all commercial restric tions in relation to France. But the French were playing false, and England suspected it, for she had many reasons for 335 BERMUDA HUNDRED BERRY doubting Gallic faith. So had the Ameri- ing from a voyage to the West Indies in a cans, but still they were willing to trust French ship, was wrecked (Dec. 17, 1593) France once again. They were deceived; on one of the islands. He and his com- the decrees were not revoked, and a later panions in distress remained there five one, issued at Rambouillet, was only sus- months, when they rigged a small vessel pended. The English refused to rescind on of 18 tons from the material of the ship, the faith of only a letter by the French put in thirteen live turtles for provisions, minister; and this attempt on the part of sailed to Newfoundland, and thence re- the Americans to secure peace and justice turned to England. These islands were was futile. See EMBARGO ACT, FIRST; OR- named in honor of Juan Bermudez, a DERS IN COUNCIL. Spaniard, who was wrecked there in 1522. Bermuda Hundred, OPERATIONS NEAR. May was the first Englishman who set General Butler had intrenched a greater foot upon them. See SOMERS'S ISLANDS. portion of the Army of the James at Ber- Bernard, SIR FRANCIS, colonial govern- muda Hundred, at the junction of the or; born in Nettleham, Lincoln co., Eng- Janaes and Appomattox rivers, early in land, in 1714. In 1758 he was appointed May, 1864, to co-operate with the Army governor of New Jersey; and in 1760 he of the Potomac, approaching from the wa JOHN, journalist; born in of Tamaulipas, a part of Mexico. Taylor Marietta, 0., in 1811; learned the print- refused to do so; and when he had gone er's trade in the office of the Marietta back to Point Isabel with, a part of his Gazette; and was editor of Democratic forces, leaving Major Brown in command, newspapers in Lancaster and Cincinnati. Arista crossed the river with some troops He held several State offices in Ohio; to attack the fort. His army was hourly was a member of the joint commission increasing in strength. On the night of to adjust the boundary line between that May 4 the Mexicans erected a battery be- State and Virginia; became a popular hind the fort, and early the next morning Democratic orator ; was an active " war " opened a heavy fire from it upon the f orti- Democrat in the early part of the Civil fication. At the same time the batteries War; and was elected governor of Ohio at Matamoras, which had fired upon the as the "Republic-Union candidate in 1863. fort on the 3d, hurled shot and shell, but He died in Cleveland, O., Aug. 29, 1865. with little effect, for Brown had erected Brown, AARON VAIL; born in Virginia, bomb-proof shelter. Almost at the begin- Aug. 15, 1795; removed to Tennessee ning of the bombardment, the gallant corn- in 1815; was member of the State legis- mander was killed. The bombardment lature for some years, and elected to Con- continued thirty-six hours, when Arista gress in 1839, and governor of the State in demanded a surrender of the fort. It was 1845. He was Postmaster-General in Bu- refused, and towards evening (April 6) a chanan's cabinet. He died in Washington, heavy tempest of shot and shell fell upon March 8, 1859. the fort. The fort withstood the attack Brown, BENJAMIN GRATZ ; born in until relieved by approaching troops under Lexington, Ky., May 28, 1826; gradu- General Taylor. See MEXICO, WAR WITH. ated at Yale in 1847; and settled in St. Brown, HENRY BILLINGS, jurist; born Louis, where he edited the Missouri Demo- in Lee, Mass., March 2, 1836; graduated crat. He assisted in preventing the se- at Yale in 1856; circuit judge of Wayne cession of Missouri, and was elected to the county, Mich., in 1868; United States dis- United States Senate in 1863, and gov- trict judge in 1875; justice of the United ernor of the State in 1871. He was the States Supreme Court in 1890. candidate for Vice - President on the Brown, HENRY KIRKE, sculptor; born Greeley ticket in 1872. He died in St. in Leyden, Mass., Feb. 24, 1814. Among Louis, Dec. 13, 1885. his best works are an equestrian statue Brown, CHARLES BROCKDEN, author; of Washington, in New York; an eques- born in Philadelphia, Jan. 17, 1771; studied trian statue of General Greene; a colossal law, but abandoned it for literature. In statue of De Witt Clinton; and Angel of addition to novels and works of literature the Resurrection, in Greenwood Cemetery; he published An Address to Franklin; An a colossal equestrian statue of General Address to Congress on Foreign Commerce. Scott, and a statue of President Lincoln. He was the first American author who He died in Newburg, N. Y., July 10, 1886. made literature his profession. He died Brown, ISAAC U., naval officer; corn- in Philadelphia, Feb. 22, 1810. manded the ram ARKANSAS (q. v.). 411 BROWN Brown, JACOB, military officer; born in Bucks county, Pa., May 9, 1775, of Quaker parentage. He taught school at Cross- wicks, N.J., for three years, and passed two fight the French. On leaving that service he went to northern New York, purchased lands on the banks of the Black River, not many miles from Sackett's Harbor, and C H I P P E WXTT0t7~57T8 14 NIAGARA. JULY25.IBI4 RIE.SEP 17.181 MEDAL PRESENTED TO GENERAL BROWN BY CONGKKSS. years in surveying lands in Ohio. In 1798 founded the flourishing settlement of he opened a select school in the city of Brownsville, where he erected the first New York, and studied law. Some of his building within 30 miles of Lake Ontario. newspaper essays attracted the notice of There he became county judge; colonel of the militia in 1809; brigadier-general in 1810; and, in 1812, received the appoint ment of commander of the frontier from Oswego to Lake St. Francis, a line 200 miles in extent. He performed excellent service on that frontier and that of the Niagara during the War of 1812-15, re ceiving two severe wounds in battle. For his services he received the thanks of Con gress and a gold medal. At the close of the war, General Brown was retained in command of the northern division of the army, and was made general-in-chief of the army of the United States, March 10, 1821. He died in Washington, D. C., Feb. 24, 1828. General Brown's remains were interred in the congressional burying- ground, and over them is a truncated column of white marble upon an inscribed pedestal. See FREEDOM OF A CITY. Brown, JOHN, patriot; born in San- disfield, Mass., Oct. 19, 1744; was gradu ated at Yale College in 1761; became a lawyer and active patriot; entered Canada Gen. Alexander Hamilton, to whom he be- in disguise (1774-75) to obtain informa- came secretary while that officer was act- tion and secure the co-operation of the ing general-in-chief of the army raised to Canadians with the other colonists, and 412 GENERAL BROWN'S MONUMENT. BROWN, JOHN aided Ethan Allen in the capture of Ti- companies of British regulars, a quantity conderoga. He was active with Montgom- of stores and cannon, and destroyed a ery in the siege of Quebec. In August, number of boats and an armed sloop. He 1776, he was made lieutenant-colonel, and, left the service because of his detestation on the morning of Sept. 18, 1776, he sur- of Benedict Arnold, but continued to act prised the outposts of Ticonderoga, set with the militia. He wa killed by Ind- free 100 American prisoners, captured four ians in the Mohawk Valley, Get. 19, 1780. BROWN, JOHN Brown, JOHN, abolitionist ; born in Tor- instrument declared, " for the overthrow rington, Conn., May 9, 1800; hanged in of any government, but simply to amend Charlestown, Va., Dec. 2, 1859 ; was a de- and repeal." It was a part of the scheme scendant of Peter Brown of the Mayflower, for promoting the uprising of the His grandfather was a soldier of the Revo- slaves. lution, and perished in that war. When Brown spent the summer of 1859 in prep- John was five years of age, his father arations for his work. He hired a farm moved to Ohio; and in 1815-20 he worked a few miles from Harper's Ferry, where at the trade of a tanner. He became a he was known by the name of Smith. One dealer in wool ; visited Europe on busi- by one his followers joined him there, and ness; and in 1855 he emigrated to Kansas, stealthily gathered pikes and other weap- where, as .an anti-slavery champion, he took an active part against the pro-slavery party, engaging in some of the conflicts of the short civil war in that Territory. Devout, moral, courageous, and intensely earnest, he sought to be an instrument for the abolition of African slavery from the republic. The idea that he might become a liberator was conceived so early as 1839. In May, 1859, he made his first movement in an attempt to liberate the slaves in Vir ginia, which ended so disastrously to him self at Harper's Ferry. There seemed to be a peculiar serenity and calmness in the public mind about public affairs in the fall of 1859, when suddenly a rumor went out of Baltimore that the abolitionists had seized the gov ernment armory and arsenal at Harper's Ferry, at the junction of the Shenandoah and Potomac rivers, and that a general insurrection of the slaves in Virginia was imminent. The rumor was mostly true, ons, with ammunition, for the purpose John Brown had suddenly appeared at of first arming the insurgent slaves of Harper's Ferry with a few followers, to Virginia. On a very dark night, Brown, induce the slaves of Virginia to rise in with seventeen white men and five negroes, insurrection and assert their right to stole into the village of Harper's Ferry, freedom. With a few white followers and put out the street-lights, seized the gov- twelve slaves from Missouri, he went into ernment armory and the railway-bridge Canada West, and at Chatham a con- there, and quietly arrested and imprison- vention of sympathizers was held in May, ed in the government buildings every citi- 1859, whereat a " Provisional Constitu- zen found in the street at the earlier hours tion and Ordinances for the People of the of the next morning, each one ignorant of United States " was adopted not, as the what else had happened. These invaders 413 JOHN BROWN. BROWN, JOHN had seized Colonel Washington, living a few miles from the ferry, with his arms and horses, and liberated his slaves; and at eight o'clock on Monday morning, Oct. 17, Brown and his followers (among whom were two of his sons) had full possession of the village and the government works. He had felt assured that when the first blow should be struck the negroes of the surrounding country would rise and flock to his standard, that a general uprising of the slaves throughout the Union would follow, and that he would win the satis faction and the honors of a great liber ator. When asked what was his purpose, and by what authority he acted, he replied, " To free the slaves ; and by the authority of God Almighty." News of this affair went swiftly abroad, and before night a large number of Vir ginia militia had gathered at Harper's Ferry. Struggles between these and Brown's followers ensued, in which the two sons of the latter perished. The in vaders were finally driven into a fire- engine house, where Brown bravely de fended himself. With one son dead by his side and the other shot through the body, he felt the pulse of his dying child with one hand, held his rifle with the other, and issued oral commands to his men with all the composure of a general in his mar quee, telling them to be firm, and sell their lives as dearly as possible. They held their citadel until Monday evening, when Col. Robert E. Lee arrived with ninety United States marines and two pieces of artillery. The doors of the engine-house were forced open, and Brown and his followers were captured. The bold leader was speedily tried for murder and treason, was found guilty (Oct. 29), and on Dec. 3, 1859, was hanged. Meanwhile the wildest tales of the raid had gone over the land. The gov ernor of Virginia (Henry A. Wise) was beside himself with excitement, and de clared himself ready to make war on all the free-labor States ; and he declared, in a letter to the President (Nov. 25), that he had authority for the belief that a con spiracy to rescue Brown existed in Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, and other States. Attempts were made to implicate leading Republicans in a scheme for liberating the slaves. A committee of the United States Senate, with James M. Mason, au thor of the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, as its chairman, was appointed to investigate the subject. The result was the obtain ing of positive proof that Brown had no accomplices, and only about twenty-five followers. Although Brown's mad attempt to free the slaves was a total failure, it proved to be one of the important events which speedily brought about the result he so much desired. Autobiographical Notes. BROWN'S LETTER ON SLAVERY TO HIS BROTHER FREDERICK. RANDOLPH, PA., Nov. 21, 1834. DEAR BROTHER, As I have had only one letter from Hudson since you left here, and that some weeks since, I begin to get uneasy and apprehensive that all is not well. I had satisfied my mind about it for some time, in expectation of seeing father here, but I begin to give that up for the present. Since you left me I have been trying to devise some means whereby I might do something in a practical way for my poor fellow-men who are in bond age, and having fully consulted the feel ings of my wife and my three boys, we have agreed to get at least one negro boy or youth, and bring him up as we do our own viz., give him a good English edu cation, learn him what we can about the history of the world, about business, about general subjects, and, above all, try to teach him the fear of God. We think of three ways to obtain one: First, to try to get some Christian slave-holder to re lease one to us. Second, to get a free one if no one will let us have one that is a slave. Third, if that does not succeed, we have all agreed to submit to consider able privation in order to buy one. This we are now using means in order to effect, in the confident expectation that God is about to bring them all out of the house of bondage. I will just mention that when this sub ject was first introduced, Jason had gone to bed; but no sooner did he hear the thing hinted, than his warm heart kindled, and he turned out to have a part in the discussion of a subject of such ex ceeding interest. I have for years been trying to devise some way to get a school a-going here for blacks, a-nd I think that 414 BROWN, JOHN on many accounts it would be a most INSTRUCTIONS TO THE " GILEADITES," AW favorable location. Children here would ORGANIZATION OF COLOBED PEOPLE. have no intercourse with vicious people of their own kind, nor with openly vicious Nothing so charms the American people persons of any kind. There would be no as personal bravery. Witness the case of powerful opposition influence against Cinques, of everlasting memory, on board such a thing; and should there be any, I the Amistad. The trial for life of one believe the settlement might be so effected bold and to some extent successful man, in future as to have almost the whole f*E PARKER. land and Virginia, down through the BOSTON, MASS., March 7, 1858. Southern States into Tennessee and Ala- MY DEAR SIR, Since you know I have bama, the base of his operations) to act an almost countless brood of poor hun- upon the plantations on the plains lying gry chickens to " scratch for," you will on each side of that range of mountains ; not reproach me for scratching even on the that we should be able to establish our- Sabbath. At any rate, I trust God will not. selves in the fastnesses. And if any hos- I want you to undertake to provide a sub tile action were taken against us, either stitute for an address you saw last sea- by the militia of the States or by the son, directed to the officers and soldiers of armies of the United States, we purposed the United States army. The ideas con- to defeat first the militia, and next, if tained in that address I of course like, for possible, the troops of the United States; I furnished the skeleton. I never had the and then organize the free blacks under ability to clothe those ideas in language the provisional constitution, which would at all to satisfy myself; and I was by no carve out for the locality of its jurisdic- means satisfied with the style of that ad- tion all that mountainous region in which dress, and do not know as I can give any the blacks were to be established, in which correct idea of what I want. I will, how- they were to be taught the useful and ever, try. mechanical arts, and all the business of In the first place, it must be short, or life. Schools were also to be established, it will not be generally read. It must be and so on. The negroes were to be his in the simplest or plainest language, with- soldiers. out the least affectation of the scholar about it, and yet be worded with great PROVISIONAL CONSTITUTION AND ORDINANCES clearneg8 and % ower . The anon ymOUS FOR THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES. writer ^ ^^ language Qf pad . [This is the preamble of the constitu- dy) be " afther others," and not " afther tion drawn up by Brown in 1858 for the himself at all, at all." If the spirit that government of the slaves whom he pro- communicated Franklin's Poor Richard (or posed to free.] some other good spirit) would dictate, I _ , - think it would be quite as well employed as the "dear sister spirits" have been Whereas slavery, throughout its entire for some years past. The address should existence in the United States, is none be appropriate, and particularly adapted other than a most barbarous, unprovoked, to the peculiar circumstances we antici- and unjustifiable war of one portion of pate, and should look to the actual change its citizens upon another portion the of service from that of Satan to the ser- only conditions of which are perpetual vice of God. It should be, in short, a imprisonment and hopeless servitude or most earnest and powerful appeal to men's absolute extermination in utter disre- sense of right and to their feelings of hu- gard and violation of those eternal and inanity. Soldiers are men, and no man can self-evident truths set forth in our Decla- certainly calculate the value and impor- ration of Independence : tance of getting a single " nail into old Cap- Therefore, we, citizens of the United tain Kidd's chest." It should be provided States, and the oppressed people who by beforehand, and be ready in advance to a recent decision of the Supreme Court distribute by all persons, male and female, are declared to have no rights which the who may be disposed to favor the right, white man is bound to respect, together I also want a similar short address, ap- with all other people degraded by the propriate to the peculiar circumstances, laws thereof, do, for the time being, or- intended for all persons, old and young, dam and establish for ourselves the fol- male and female, slave-holding and non- lowfaig Provisional Constitution and Ordi- slave-holding, to be sent out broadcast over nances, the better to protect our persons, the entire nation. So by every male and 418 BROWN, JOHN female prisoner on being set at liberty, Canada. I designed to have done the same and to be read by them during confinement, thing again, on a larger scale. That was I know that men will listen, and reflect, all I intended. I never did intend mur- too, under such circumstances. Persons der, or treason, or the destruction of will hear your anti-slavery lectures and property, or to excite or incite slaves abolition lectures when they have become to rebellion, or to make insurrection, virtually slaves themselves. The impres- I have another objection; and that is, sions made on prisoners by kindness and it is unjust that I should suffer such a plain dealing, instead of barbarous and penalty. Had I interfered in the manner cruel treatment, such as they might give, which I admit, and which I admit has and instead of being slaughtered like been fairly proved (for I admire the truth- wild reptiles, as they might very natural- fulness and candor of the great portion ly expect, are not only powerful, but last- of the witnesses who have testified in this ing. Females are susceptible of being car- case) had I so interfered in behalf of ried away entirely by the kindness of an the rich, the powerful, the intelligent, the intrepid and magnanimous soldier, even so-called great, or in behalf of any of their when his bare name was but a terror the friends either father, mother, brother, day previous. Now, dear sir, I have told sister, wife, or children, or any of that you about as well as I know what I am class and suffered and sacrificed what anxious at once to secure. Will you write I have in this interference, it would have the tracts, or get them written, so that I been all right; and every man in this may commence colporteur ? court would have deemed it an act worthy Very respectfully your friend, o f reward rather than punishment. JOHN BROWN. This court acknowledges, as I suppose, the validity of the law of God. I see a BBOWN'S ADDRESS TO GOVERNOR WISE. ^ ^^ ^ ^^ j guppoge t() be Governor, I have from all appearances the Bible, or at least the New Testament, not more than fifteen or twenty years the That teaches me that all things whatso- start of you in the journey to that eternity ever I would that men should do to me, of which you kindly warn me; and, I should do even so to them. It teaches whether my time here shall be fifteen me, further, to " remember them that are months or fifteen days or fifteen hours, in bonds, as bound with them." I en- I am equally prepared to go. There is an deavored to act up to that instruction, eternity behind and an eternity before; I say, I am yet too young to understand and this little speck in the centre, how- that God is any respecter of persons. I ever long, is but comparatively a min- believe that to have interfered as I have ute. The difference between your tenure done as I have always freely admitted and mine is trifling, and I therefore tell I have done in behalf of His despised you to be prepared. I am prepared. You poor, was not wrong, but right. Now, all have a heavy responsibility, and it be- if it be deemed necessary that I should hooves you to prepare more than it does forfeit my life for the furtherance of me. the ends of justice, and mingle my blood further with the blood of my children BROWN'S LAST SPEECH TO THE COURT, NOV. , .,, ,, , , -, f . n . ^ 2 ,g 5g and with the blood of millions in this slave country whose rights are disregard- I have, may it please the court, a few ed by wicked, cruel, and unjust enact- words to say. ments I submit; so let it be done! In the first place, I deny everything but Let me say one word further, what I have all along admitted the de- I feel entirely satisfied with the treat- sign on my part to free the slaves. I ment I have received on my trial. Consid- intended certainly to have made a clean ering all the circumstances, it has been thing of that matter, as I did last win- more generous than I expected. But I ter, when I went into Missouri and there feel no consciousness of guilt. I have took slaves without the snapping of a stated from the first what was my inten- gun on either side, moved them through tion, and what was not. I never had the country, and finally left them in any design against the life of any per- 419 BROWN son, nor any disposition to commit trea- member. In July he accompanied Allen son, or excite slaves to rebel, or make any on his Canadian expedition, and Sept. 24 general insurrection. I never encouraged he took FORT CHAMBLY ( q. v.). The next any man to do so, but always discouraged day Allen, who expected the co-operation of any idea of that kind. Brown, marched upon Montreal, but was Let me say, also, a word in regard attacked by a superior force and was taken to the statements made by some of those prisoner. connected with me. I hear it has been While Arnold was before Quebec, Major stated by some of them that I have in- Brown arrived from Sorel to join him. duced them to join me. But the contrary Montgomery had arrived two days earlier, is true. I do not say this to injure them, In the attack on QUEBEC (q. v.) , Dec. 31, but as regretting their weakness. There he was directed to make a false attack to is not one of them but joined me of his the south of St. John's gate and to set own accord, and the greater part of them fire to the gate itself. He successfully at their own expense. A number of them executed his orders. I never saw, and never had a word of Congress promoted Brown to lieutenant- conversation with, till the day they came colonel Aug. 1, 1776, with rank and pay to me; and that was for the purpose I from November, 1775. After the defeat of have stated. Colonel Baum at Bennington in 1777, Now I have done. Brown was despatched by General Lin- Brown, JOHN, merchant; born in Prov- coin to Lake George with 500 men. He idence, R. I., Jan. 27, 1736. In the at- attacked the British at break of day, Sept. tack on the British sloop-of-war GASPEE 17, three miles from Ticonderoga, set at (q. v.) in 1772 he was one of the leaders, liberty 100 American prisoners, captured In his account of the burning of the ship, nearly 300 British, 400 batteaux, a sloop, Bancroft says : " The following night a several gunboats, some cannon, and a vast party of men in six or seven boats, led amount of plunder. After this exploit he by John and Joseph Brown, of Providence, joined the main army a few weeks before and Simeon Potter, of Bristol, boarded the the surrender of Burgoyne. Soon after stranded ship, after a scuffle in which this event Colonel Brown resigned his Dudingston was wounded, took and landed commission on account of his detestation its crew, and then set it on fire." Brown of Arnold. Three years before Arnold's was elected a member of the State legislat- treason, Brown published a handbill of ure several times, and was a member of thirteen or fourteen articles against Ar- Congress, 1799-1801. He died Sept. 20, nold, then at the height of his fame, 1803. charging him with levying contributions Brown, JOHN, military officer; born in on the Canadians for his private use, and Sandisfield, Mass., Oct. 19, 1744; gradu- adding that Arnold would prove a traitor, ated at Yale College in 1771; studied law for he had sold many a life for money. He with Oliver Arnold in Providence; ap- was elected a member of the General pointed King's attorney at Johnstown, Court of Massachusetts in 1778. N. Y.; resigned this office in 1773 to prac- In the fall of 1780 he marched up the tise law at Pittsfield, Mass.; member of Mohawk Valley to the relief of General the Massachusetts Provincial Congress, Schuyler, but was led into an ambuscade 1774, in which year he was selected by the at Stone Arabia, and killed in the conflict, State committee of correspondence to go Oct. 19, 1780. to Canada for the purpose of exciting the Brown, JOHN, pioneer; born in Eng- Canadians to revolt. Brown returned in land in 1630; removed with his parents the autumn of 1774. He notified the com- to Rhode Island in 1638; held many of- inittee that Ethan Allen and the Green fices in the colony. He died about 1706. Mountain Boys would attack FORT TICON- Brown, JOHN, statesman; born in DEROGA (q. v.) as soon as hostilities be- Staunton, Va., Sept. 12, 1757; enlisted in gan. When the fort was captured, Brown the Continental army while a student at took charge of the prisoners, and on May Princeton; member of the Virginia legis- 17 he reported to the Continental Con- lature, 1783; member of the Continental gress in Philadelphia, of which he was a Congress, 1787-88; United States Senator 420 BROWN from Kentucky, 1792-1805. At his death, Aug. 29, 1837, he was the last surviving member of the Continental Congress. Brown, JOHN B., statesman; born in Richfield, N. Y., July 16, 1807; removed to Virginia in 1849; delegate to the Re publican national conventions of 1856 and 1860; arrested in Virginia on the charge of circulating incendiary documents, and imprisoned. He died in Washington, D. C., Dec. 9, 1867. Brown, JOHN CALVIN, military officer; born in Giles county, Tenn., Jan. 6, 1827; graduated at Jackson College in 1846; en tered the Confederate army as captain in 1861, reaching the rank of major-general. He was president of the Tennessee con stitutional convention of 1870, and was governor of the State, 1870-74. He died in Red Boiling Spring, Tenn., Aug. 17, 1889. Brown, JOHN CARTER, merchant; born in Providence, R. I., Aug. 28, 1797; second son of Nicholas Brown, 2d, the patron of Brown University, at which he gradu ated in 1816. He engaged largely in the business of manufactures and merchan dise. He travelled much in the United States, and resided in Europe, at different times, for several years. In 1828 he was chosen a trustee, and in 1842 a fellow, of Brown University, and so remained until his death in Providence, June 10, 1874, bestowing many munificent gifts upon that institution. Together they amounted to $70,000. In his will he made liberal pro vision for a new library building, which has since been erected. His entire bene factions to the university amounted to nearly $160,000. Mr. Brown never took any prominent part in public affairs; but he was an active friend of the bondsmen, and did much, in his quiet way, in aid of the cause of freedom in the struggle in Kansas, giving money liberally for the promotion of emigration thither from New England. During almost his whole life Mr. Brown was engaged in the col lection of a library of American history, in which his friend JOHN RUSSELL BART- LETT (q. v.) materially aided him. He aimed to gather early, rare, and valuable books, which, by proper classification, would show the methods of American colonization and subsequent development f its civilization. For fully forty years before his death he pursued this object with zeal, and left one of the rarest col lections of the kind ever made. It com prised about 10,000 volumes; and it gave to John Carter Brown a foremost place among the distinguished historical col lectors of the world. See BROWN UNIVER SITY. Brown, JOHN HENRY, author; born in Pike county, Miss., Oct. 29, 1820; served in the regiment of Texas Rangers during the Mexican War, 1846-48; served in the Confederate army during the Civil War. Among his writings are History of Texas from 1685 to 1892; Life of Henry Smith, First Governor of Texas; Indian Wars and Pioneers of Texas, etc. Brown, JOSEPH EMERSON, jurist; born in Pickens county, S. C., April 15, 1821; removed to Georgia in 1836; admitted to the bar in 1845; elected to the State Senate in 1849; and was governor of Georgia in 1857-65. During the Civil War he threw his influence on the side of the Confederacy, but antagonized some of the war measures of Jefferson Davis and refused to allow State troops to be sent out of the State to check Sherman's march. When peace was concluded he favored the reconstruction policy of the federal government, though the Demo cratic party of Georgia opposed it. In 1880-91 he held a seat in the United States Senate, and during his last term in that body was a member of the com mittees on civil service, retrenchment, foreign relations, and railroads. He died in Atlanta, Ga., Nov. 30, 1894. Brown, MOSES, naval officer; born in Newburyport, Mass., Jan. 20, 1742; served through the Revolutionary War. While in command of the Intrepid he captured four English vessels in the latter half of 1779, and was placed in command of the Merrimac when that vessel was com pleted for the government. In 1799-1801 he captured the French ships Le Pheniao, Le Magicien, Le Bonaparte, and Le Brill- ante. He died at sea, Jan. 1, 1804. Brown, NICHOLAS, philanthropist; born in Providence, R. I., April 4, 1769; son of Nicholas Brown, 1st; graduated at Rhode Island College (afterwards Brown University) in 1786; became a very suc cessful merchant in 1791; was a member of the Rhode Island legislature, and, giving 421 BROWN UNIVERSITY BROWNLOW money liberally to his alma mater, the Island; Etchings of a Whaling Cruise, etc. name of Brown University was given to He died in Oakland, Cal., Dec. 9, 1875. it. He gave in all about $100,000 to that Browne, WILLIAM, loyalist; born in college, and liberally patronized other in- Massachusetts, Feb. 27, 1737; graduated stitutions of learning. He gave nearly at Harvard in 1755; judge of the Massa- $10,000 to the Providence Athenaeum, and chusetts Superior Court, 1773-74; re- bequeathed $30,000 for an insane asylum moved to England in 1776. He was ban- in Providence. He died in Providence, ished in 1778 and his estates confiscated. Sept. 27, 1841. He was governor of Bermuda, 1781-90. Brown University, a coeducational in- He died in England, Feb. 13, 1802. stitution; originally established under the Browne, WILLIAM HAND, author; born auspices of the Baptist Church in War- in Baltimore, Md., Dec. 31, 1828; gradu- ren, R. L, in 1764; and incorporated un- ated at the University of Maryland in 1850; der the title of Rhode Island College. In editor of the Southern Review and the 1770 the institution was removed to Prov- Southern Magazine, 1867-75. He wrote idence, where it has since remained, and in The Life of Alexander H. Stephens; History 1804 its name was changed to Brown of Maryland; George and Cecil Calvert, etc. University in recognition of the liberal- Browning, ORVILLE HICKMAN, states- ity of NICHOLAS BROWN (q. v.). In 1900 man; born in Harrison county, Ky., in the university reported seventy-five pro- 1810; removed to Illinois in 1831; served fessors and instructors; 886 students in in the Black Hawk War in 1832; United all departments; two fellowships; 100 States Senator, 1861-63; Secretary of the scholarships; 5,260 graduates; 105,000 Interior, 1865-69; and acted as Attorney- bound volumes and 35,000 pamphlets in General, 1868-69. He died in Quincy, 111., the library; scientific apparatus valued Aug. 10, 1881. at $340,000; ground and buildings valued Brownists, the name given to those at $1,177,967; productive funds aggre- Puritans who went to Holland and after- gating $1,297,227; and total income for wards emigrated to New England; so the year $176,923. named from their leader, Robert Brown. Browne, CHARLES FARRAR, humorist; As early as 1580, Brown began to inveigh born in Waterford, Maine, April 26, 1834; against the ceremonies of the Church ol bred a printer, later became a journalist. England. Being opposed by the bishops, His clever and witty sketches, combined he and his congregation left England and with the most atrocious spelling, won him settled in Holland. At the close of the a great reputation as a humorist, under century there were about 20,000 Brownists the pen-name of ARTEMUS WARD. He in England. Of that sect were Rev. Mr. lectured in the United States from 1861 Robinson, Elder Brewster, and the congre- to 1866, when he removed to England, gation at Leyden in 1620. The founder where he was very successful. He died of this sect was born about the year 1550, in Southampton, England, March 6, 1867. and died about 1630. His family were Browne, FRANCIS FISHER, author; born closely connected with Cecil, afterwards in South Halifax, Vt., Dec. 1, 1843; en- Lord Burleigh. Educated at Cambridge, listed as a private in the 46th Massachu- as soon as he left college he began a setts U. S. V. in 1862; removed to Chicago vigorous opposition to the whole discipline in 1867 ; founded the Dial in 1880. Among and liturgy of the Established Church, his works are The Every -day Life of Abra- He taught that all the members of a ham Lincoln; Bugle Echoes; Northern and church were equal, and that the pastor Southern, etc. should be chosen by the congregation. See Browne, JOHN Ross, artist and author ; BRADFORD, WILLIAM. born in Ireland in 1817; engaged on the Brownlow, WILLIAM GANNAWAY, United States official publication, Re- clergyman and journalist; born in Wythe sources of the Pacific Slope, in 1866 and county, Va., Aug. 29, 1805; was left an 1868; United States minister to China in orphan at eleven years of age, and, by 1868. Among his works, illustrated by means of wages as a carpenter in his himself, are An American Family in Oer- youth, acquired a fair English education. many; the Land of War; Tusef; Crusoe's At the age of twenty- four years he en- 422 BROWNLOW, WILLIAM GANNAWAY tered the ministry of the Methodist Epis copal Church, and was an itinerant for ten years. While on his circuit in South Carolina he opposed the nullification movement in that State (see NULLIFICA TION), which excited strong opposition to him. About 1837 he began the publication of the Knoxville Whig, a political news paper, which soon circulated widely, and, for its vigorous polemics, obtained for Brownlow the name of the " Fighting Par son." In 1858 he engaged in a public de bate in Philadelphia on the question, " Ought American Slavery to be Perpetu ated?" in which he took the affirmative. When the secession movement began, he boldly opposed it, taking the ground that the preservation of the Union would fur nish the best safeguard of Southern in stitutions, and especially of slavery. So outspoken and influential was Mr. Brown- low that, in December, 1861, he was ar rested, by order of the Confederate au thorities, on a charge of treason against the Confederacy, and confined in Knox ville jail, where he suffered much until re leased in March, 1862. Then he was sent within the Union lines at Na-shville. Af terwards he made a tour in the Northern States, delivering speeches in the principal cities. At Philadelphia he was joined by his family, who had been expelled from Knoxville, where he published Sketches of the Rise, Progress, and Decline of Seces sion, with a Narrative of Personal Ad ventures among the Rebels. Brownlow was governor of Tennessee in 1865-69, and United States Senator from 1869 until his death in Knoxville, April 29, 1877. He was a man of fearless spirit, held such a caustic pen, and maintained such influen tial social and political relations that he was intensely hated and feared by the Confederates. The latter longed for an occasion to silence him, and finally they made the false charge that he was acces sory to the firing of several railway bridges in eastern Tennessee to cut off communication between Virginia and that region. His life had been frequently menaced by Confederate soldiers, and, at the urgent solicitation of his family, he left home in the a.utumn (1861), and went into another district. While he was ab sent several bridges were burned. Believ ing him to have been concerned in the burning, the Confederate Colonel Wood a Methodist preacher from Alabama was sent out, with some cavalry, with orders, publicly given at Knoxville, not to take him prisoner, but to shoot him at once. Informed of his peril, Brownlow, with other loyal men, secreted himself in the WILLIAM GANNAWAY BROWNLOW. Smoky Mountains, on the borders o| North Carolina, where they were fed by loyalists. The Confederates finally re< solved to get rid of this " dangerous citi zen " by giving him a pass to go into Kentucky under a military escort. He re ceived such a pass at Knoxville, and was about to depart for the Union lines, when he was arrested for treason. By the as surance of safety he had gone to Knox ville for his pass, and so put himself in the hands of his enemies. He and some of the best men in eastern Tennessee were cast into the county jail, where they suf fered intensely. Deprived of every, com fort, they were subjected to the vile rib aldry of the guards, and constantly threatened with death by hanging. Act- ing upon the suggestions of Benjamin, men charged with bridge-burning, and con fined with Brownlow, were hanged, and their bodies were left suspended as a warn ing. In the midst of these fiery trials Brownlow remained firm, and exercised great boldness of speech. They dared not hang him without a legal trial and convic tion. They offered him life and liberty if he would take the oath of allegiance to the Confederacy. He refused with scorn. To B^ajamin he wrote: " You are report- 423 BBOWN'S FERRY BRYAN ed to have said to a gentleman in Rich- about the same time; and by ten o'clock mond that I am a bad man, and dangerous a pontoon bridge was laid, and a strong to the Confederacy, and that you desire me abatis for defence was constructed. The out of it. Just give me my passport, and Confederates, bewildered, withdrew up the 1 will do for your Confederacy more than valley. Before night the left of Hooker's the devil has ever done I will quit the line rested on Smith's right at the pon- country." Benjamin soon afterwards indi- toon bridge. By this operation the railway cated a wish that Brownlow should be sent from Bridgeport well up towards Chatta- out of the Confederacy, " only," he said, nooga was put in possession of the Nation- " because color is given to the suspicion als, and the route for supplies for the that he has been entrapped." He was final- troops at the latter place was reduced ly released, and sent to Nashville (then in by land from 60 to 28 miles along a possession of National troops) early in safe road; and by using the river to March, 1862. Kelly's Ferry, to 8 miles. Brown's Ferry, SEIZURE OF. Gen. G. Brownstown, MICH., BATTLE AT. See W. F. Smith undertook to open a more di- VAN HORNE, THOMAS B. rect way for supplies for the National Brush, CHARLES FRANCIS, inventor; troops at CHATTANOOGA (q. v.). In co- born in Euclid, O., March 17, 1849; was operation with Hooker's advance on Wau- graduated at the University of Michigan hatchie, he sent General Hazen from Chat- in 1869. He was one of the earliest work- tanooga, with 1,800 men in bateaux, to ers in the field of electric lighting, and construct a pontoon bridge below. These invented the arc electric light. He is a floated noiselessly and undiscerned in the fellow of the American Association for night (Oct. 26-27, 1863) down the Ten- the Advancement of Science, and a life- nessee River, past the point of Lookout member of the British Association for the Mountain, along a line of Confederate Advancement of Science. In 1881 the pickets 7 miles in length. They landed French government decorated him, and in at Brown's Ferry, on the south side, capt- March, 1900, he received the Rumford ured the pickets there, and seized a low medal from the American Academy, range of hills that commanded Lookout Brussels Conference. See MONETARY Valley. Another force, 1,200 strong, under REFORM. General Turchin, had moved down the Bruyas, JACQUES. See JESUIT Mis- north bank of the river to the ferry at SIGNS. BRYAN, WILLIAM JENNINGS Bryan, WILLIAM JENNINGS, politician; nomination, was awarded to him. The born in Salem, 111., March 19, 1860; was Sound-money Democrats repudiated the graduated at Illinois College in 1881, and nomination, organized the National Demo- at Union College of Law, Chicago, in cratic party, and put forth a separate 1883. He practised in Jacksonville, 111., platform and national ticket. The Popu- from 1883 till 1887, then removed to Lin- lists, however, adopted the Democratic coin, Neb., and was elected to Congress nominee as their own, but with a different as a Democrat, serving in 1891-95. In candidate for the Vice-Presidency. Dur- 1894-96 he was editor of the Omaha ing the campaign that ensued, Mr. Bryan World-Herald, and in the latter year a made a speaking tour more than 18,000 delegate to the National Democratic Con- miles in extent. With virtually seven vention at Chicago. He there made a Presidential tickets in the field, Mr. Bryan notable speech advocating the free and as the Democratic and Populist candidate unlimited coinage of silver at the ratio received 6,502,925 popular and 176 electo- of 16 to 1. The free-silver element in the ral votes, while Mr.McKinley,the Republi- convention was far stronger than the can candidate, received 7,104,779 popular leaders of the party imagined, and there and 271 electoral votes. In 1897 and the was as much surprise in the convention early part of 1898 Mr. Bryan delivered as out of it when its prize, the Presidential a number of lectures on BIMETALLISM 424 BRYAN, WILLIAM JENNINGS (q, v.) . On the declaration of war against Spain he was commissioned colonel of the 3d Nebraska Volunteer Infantry. Neither he nor his regiment saw fighting during the war, both being held in reserve in the United States, with other regiments, at Camp Onward. The Democratic National Convention Parker's nomination Mr. Bryan pledged his support to the candidate. At the National Democratic Convention held in Denver Mr. Bryan was renomi- nated practically without opposition on July 10, with John W. Kern of Indiana for Vice-President. On Nov. 3, 1908, Mr. Bryan received 162 votes in the Electoral College against 321 for Mr. Taft. The Cross of Gold. At the National Democratic Convention in Chicago, in 1896, Mr. Bryan delivered the following speech: WILLIAM JEXXINGS BRYAX. Mr. Chairman and Gentlemen of the Convention, I would be presumptuous, indeed, to present myself against the dis tinguished gentlemen to whom you have listened, if this were a mere measuring of abilities ; but this ii not a contest between persons. The humblest in all the land, when clad in the armor of a righteous cause, is stronger than all the hosts of error. I come to speak to you in defence of a cause as holy as the cause of liberty the cause of humanity. When this debate is concluded, a motion will be made to lay upon the table the resolution offered in commendation of the administration, and also the resolution offered in condemnation of the adminis- of 1900 made declarations antagonistic to tration. We object to bringing this ques- President McKinley's administration, bas- tion down to the level of persons. The ing its chief opposition on allegations individual is but an atom; he is born, he that the Eepublican party had become acts, he dies; but principles are eternal; wedded to a policy of territorial expan- and this has been a contest over a prin- sion, and to the encouragement of trusts, ciple. Mr. Bryan made another remarkable Never before in the history of this coun- speaking tour, and neglected no oppor- try has there been witnessed such a con- tunity to expound the free-silver policy, test as that through which we have just The results of the elections were: For passed. Never before in the history of the Republican candidates, 7,217,677 American politics has a great issue been popular and 292 electoral votes; for the fought out as this issue has been, by Democratic candidates, 6,357,853 popular the voters of a great party. On the 4th and 155 electoral votes; showing an in- of March, 1895, a few Democrats, most crease in the Republican plurality over of them members of Congress, issued an that of 1896 of 246,025. Mr. Bryan soon address to the Democrats of the nation, afterwards established a weekly news- asserting that the money question was paper for the purpose of continuing his the paramount issue of the hour; declar- efforts in behalf of free silver. ing that a majority of the Democratic Although it was evident long before party had the right to control the action the National Democratic Convention of of the party on this paramount issue; and 1904 that a large majority of the party concluding with the request that the be- desired the nomination of ALTON B. lievers in the free coinage of silver in PARKER (q. v.) for the Presidency, Mr. the Democratic party should organize, Bryan was clearly the most conspicuous take charge of, and control the policy figure in that assembly. After Judge of the Democratic party. Three days 425 BRYAN, WILLIAM JENNINGS later, at Memphis, an organization was perfected, and the Silver Democrats went forth openly and courageously, proclaim ing their belief, and declaring that, if suc cessful, they would crystallize into a plat form the declaration which they had made. Then began the conflict. With a zeal ap proaching the zeal which inspired the crusaders who followed Peter the Hermit, our Silver Democrats went forth from vic tory unto victory until they are now as sembled, not to discuss, not to debate, but to enter up the judgment already render ed by the plain people of this country. In this contest brother has been arrayed against brother, father against son. The warmest ties of love, acquaintance, and association have been disregarded; old leaders have been cast aside when they have refused to give expression to the sentiments of those whom they would lead, and new leaders have sprung up to give direction to this cause of truth. Thus has the contest been waged, and we have as sembled here under as binding and solemn instructions as were ever imposed upon representatives of the people. We do not come as individuals. As in dividuals we might have been glad to com pliment the gentleman from New York (Senator Hill), but we know that the people for whom we speak would never be willing to put him in a position where he could thwart the will of the Democratic party. I say it was not a question of persons; it was a question of principles, and it is not with gladness, my friends, that we find ourselves brought into con flict with those who are now arrayed on the other side. The gentleman who preceded me (ex- Governor Russell) spoke of the State of Massachusetts. Let me assure him that not one present in all this convention en tertains the least hostility to the people who are the equals, before the law, of the greatest citizens in the State of Massa chusetts. When you (turning to the gold delegates) come before us and tell us that we are about to disturb your business in terests, we reply that you have disturbed our business interests by your course. We say to you that you have made the definition of a business too limited in its application. The man who is employed for wages is as much a business man as his employer; the attorney in a country town is as much a business man as the corporation counsel in a great metropolis; the merchant at the cross-roads store is as much a business man as the merchant of New York; the farmer who goes forth in the morning and toils all day who begins in the spring and toils all summer and who by the application of brain and muscle to the natural resources of the country creates wealth, is as much a business man as the man who goes upon, the board of trade and bets upon the price of grain; the miners who go down 1,000 feet into the earth, or climb 2,000 feet upon the cliffs, and bring forth from the hiding places the precious metals to be poured in the channels of trade, are as much busi ness men as the few financial magnates who, in a back room, corner the money of the world. We come to speak for this broader class of business men. Ah, my friends, we say not one word against those who live upon the Atlantic coast; but the hardy pioneers who have braved all the danger of the wilderness, who have made the desert to blossom as the rose the pioneers away out there (pointing to the West), who rear their children near to Nature's heart, where they can mingle their voices with the voices of the birds out there where they have erected school-houses for the edu cation of their young, churches where they praise their Creator, and cemeteries where rest the ashes of their dead these people, we say, are as deserving of the consideration of our party as any people in this country. It is for these that we speak. We do not come as aggressors. Our war is not a war of conquest; we are fighting in the defence of our homes, our families, and posterity. We have petition ed, and our petitions have been scorned; we have entreated, and our entreaties have been disregarded; we have begged, and they have mocked when our calamity came. We beg no longer; we entreat no more; we petition no more. We defy them. The gentleman from Wisconsin has said that he fears a Robespierre. My friends, in this land of the free you need not fear that a tyrant will spring up from among the people. What we need is an Andrew Jackson to stand, as Jackson stood, 426 BRYAN, WILLIAM JENNINGS against the encroachments of organized thority, seems to have differed in opinion wealth. from the gentleman who has addressed us They tell us that this platform was on the part of the minority. Those who made to catch votes. We reply to them are opposed to this proposition tell us that changing conditions make new issues ; that the issue of paper money is a f unc- that the principles upon which Democracy tion of the bank, and that the government rests are as everlasting as the hills, but ought to go out of the banking business, that they must be applied to new condi- I stand with Jefferson rather than with tions as they rise. Conditions have arisen, them, and tell them, as he did, that the and we are here to meet those conditions, issue of money is a function of govern- They tell us that the income tax ought ment, and that the banks ought to go out not to be brought in here ; that it is a new of the governing business, idea. They criticise us for our criticism They complain about the plank which of the Supreme Court of the United States, declares against life tenure in office. They My friends, we have not criticised ; we have tried to strain it to mean that which have simply called attention to what you it does not mean. What we oppose by already know. If you want criticisms, that plank is the life tenure which is read the dissenting opinions of the court, being built up in Washington, and which There you will find criticisms. They say excludes from participation in official ben- that we passed an unconstitutional law; efits the humbler members of society, we deny it. The income-tax law was not Let me call your attention to two or three unconstitutional when it passed; it was important things. The gentleman from New not unconstitutional when it went before York says that he will propose an amend- the Supreme Court for the first time; it ment to the platform providing that the did not become unconstitutional until one proposed change in our monetary system of the judges changed his mind; and we shall not affect contracts already made, cannot be expected to know when a judge Let me remind you that there is no in- will change his mind. The income tax tention of affecting these contracts which is just. It simply intends to put the according to present laws are made pay- burdens of the government justly upon the able in gold ; but if he means to say that backs of the people. I am in favor of we cannot change our monetary system an income tax. When I find a man who without protecting those who have loaned is not willing to bear his share of the money before the change was made, I de- burdens of the government which protects sire to ask him where, in law or in morals, him, I find a man who is unworthy to en- he can find justification for not protect- joy the blessings of a government like ours, ing the debtors when the act of 1873 was They say that we are opposing national passed, if he now insists that we must bank currency; it is true. If you will protect the creditors. read what Thomas Benton said, you will He says he will also propose an amend- find he said that, in searching history, he ment which will provide for the suspen- could find but one parallel to Andrew sion of free coinage, if we fail to maintain Jackson; that was Cicero, who destroyed the parity, within a year. We reply that the conspiracy of Catiline and saved when we advocate a policy which we be- Kome. Benton said that Cicero only did lieve will be successful, we are not com- for Rome what Jackson did for us when pelled to raise a doubt as to our own sin- he destroyed the bank conspiracy and cerity by suggesting what we shall do if javed America. We say in our platform we fail. I ask him, if he would apply that we believe that the right to coin and his logic to us, why he does not apply issue money is a function of government, it to himself. He says he wants this We believe it. We believe that it is a country to try to secure an international part of sovereignty, and can no more with agreement. Why does he not tell us what safety be delegated to private individuals he is going to do if he fails to secure an than we could afford to delegate to private international agreement? There is more individuals the power to make penal reason for him to do that than there statutes or levy taxes. Mr. Jefferson, who is for us to provide against the failure to was once regarded as good Democratic au- maintain the parity. Our opponents have 427 BRYAN, WILLIAM JENNINGS tried for twenty years to secure an inter national agreement, and those are waiting for it most patiently who do not want it at all. And now, my friends, let me come to the paramount issue. If they ask us why it is that we say more on the money ques tion than we say upon the tariff ques tion, I reply that, if protection has slain its thousands, the gold standard has slain its tens of thousands. If they ask us why we do not embody in our platform all the things that we believe in, we reply that when we have restored the money of the Constitution all other necessary reforms will be possible; but that until this is done there is no other reform that can be accomplished. Why is it that within three months such a change has come over the country? Three months ago, when it was confidently asserted that those who believe in the gold standard would frame our platform and nominate our candidates, even the advo cates of the gold standard did not think that we could elect a President. And they had good reason for their doubt, be cause there is scarcely a State here to-day asking for the gold standard which is not in the absolute control of the Repub lican party. But note the change. Mr. McKinleywas nominated in St. Louis upon a platform which declared for the mainte nance of the gold standard until it can be changed into bimetallism by international agreement. Mr. McKinley was the most popular man among the Republicans, and three months ago everybody in the Repub lican party prophesied his election. How is it to-day? Why, the man who was once pleased to think that he looked like Na poleon that man shudders to-day when he remembers that he was nominated on the anniversary of the battle of Waterloo. Not only that, but as he listens he can hear with ever-increasing distinctness the sounds of the waves as they beat upon the lonely shores of St. Helena. Why this change? Ah, my friends, is not the reason for the change evident to any one who will look at the matter? No private character, however pure, no per sonal popularity, however great, can pro tect from the avenging wrath of an indig nant people a man who will declare that he is in favor of fastening the gold stand ard upon this country, or who is willing to surrender the right of self-government, and place the legislative control of eur affairs in the hands of foreign potentates and powers. We go forth confident that we shall win. Why? Because upon the para mount issue of this campaign there is not a spot of ground upon which the enemy will dare to challenge battle. If they tell us that the gold standard is a good thing, we shall point to their platform and tell them that their platform pledges the party to get rid of the gold standard and sub stitute bimetallism. If the gold standard is a good thing, why try to get rid of it? I call your attention to the fact that some of the very people who are in this con vention to-day, and who tell us that we ought to declare in favor of international bimetallism thereby declaring that the gold standard is wrong, and that the prin ciple of bimetallism is better these very people four months ago were open and avowed advocates of the gold standard, and were then telling us we could not leg islate two metals together, even with the aid of all the world. If the gold standard is a good thing, we ought to declare in favor of its retention, and not in favor of abandoning it; and if the gold standard is a bad thing, why should we wait until other nations are willing to help us to let go? Here is the line of battle, and we care not upon which issue they force the fight; we are prepared to meet them on either issue or on both. If they tell us that the gold standard is the standard of civilization, we reply to them that this, the most enlightened of all nations of the earth, has never declared for a gold stand ard, and that both the great parties this year are declaring against it. If the gold standard is the standard of civilization, why, my friends, should we not have it? If they come to meet us on that issue, we can present the history of our nation. More than that; we can tell them that they will search the pages of history in vain to find a single instance where the common people of the land have ever declared themselves in favor of the gold standard. They can find where the hold ers of fixed investments have declared for a gold standard, but not where the masses have. 428 BRYAN BRYANT Mr. Carlisle said in 1878 that this was a struggle between " the idle holders of idle capital " and " the struggling masses, who produce the wealth and pay the taxes of the country," and, my friends, the ques tion we are to decide is: Upon which side will the Democratic party fight; upon the side of "the idle holders of idle capital" or upon the side of " the struggling masses " ? That is the question which the party must answer first, and then it must be answered by each individual hereafter. The sym pathies of the Democratic party, as shown by the platform, are on the side of the struggling masses who have ever been the foundation of the Democratic party. There are two ideas of government. There are those who believe that, if you will only legislate to make the well-to-do prosperous, their prosperity will leak through on those below. The Democratic idea, however, has been that if you legis late to make the masses prosperous, their prosperity will find its way through every class which rests upon them. You come to us and tell us that the great cities are in favor of the gold stand ard; we reply that the great cities rest upon our broad and fertile prairies. Burn down your cities and leave our farms, and your cities will spring up again as if by magic; but destroy our farms, and the grass will grow in the streets of every city in the country. My friends, we declare that this nation is able to legislate for its own people on every question, without waiting for the aid or consent of any other nation on earth; and upon that issue we expect to carry every State in the Union. I shall not slander the inhabitants of the fair State of Massachusetts nor the inhabi tants of the State of New York by saying that, when they are confronted with the proposition, they will declare that this nation is not able to attend to its own business. It is the issue of 1776 over again. Our ancestors, when but 3,000,000 in number, had the courage to declare their political independence of every other nation; shall we, their descendants, when we have grown to 70,000,000, declare that we are less independent than our fore fathers? No, my friends, that will never be the verdict of our people. Therefore, we care not upon what lines the battle is fought. If they say bimetallism is good, but that we cannot have it -until other nations help us, we reply that, in stead of having a gold standard because England has, we will restore bimetallism, and then let England have bimetallism because the United States has it. If they dare to come out in the open field and defend the gold standard as a good thing, we will fight them to the uttermost. Hav ing behind us the producing masses of this nation and the world, supported by the commercial interests, the laboring in terests, and the toilers everywhere, we will answer their demand for a gold stand ard by saying to them: You shall not press down upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns, you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold. Bryant, WILLIAM CULLEN, poet; born in Cummington, Mass., Nov. 3, 1794. He communicated rhymes to the county newspaper before he was ten years of age. His father was a distinguished physician and man of letters, and took great pains in the instruction of his son. His poem on The Embargo, written at the age of thirteen, evinced great precocity of in tellect. Young Bryant called the embargo act a " terrapin policy " the policy de signed by it of shutting up the nation in its own shell, as it were, like the terrapin with its head. In that poem he violently assailed President Jefferson, and revealed the intensity of the opposition to him and his policy in New England, which made even boys bitter politicians. Alluding to Jefferson's narrow escape from capture by Tarleton in 1781, his zeal for the French, and his scientific researches, young Bry ant wrote: " And thou, the scorn of every patriot name, Thy country's ruin, and her council's shame ! Poor, servile thing ! derision of the brave ! Who erst from Tarleton fled to Carter's cave ; Thou, who, when menaced by perfidious Gaul, Didst prostrate to her whlsker'd minion fall; And when our cash his empty bags sup plied, Did meanly strive the foul disgrace to hide. Go, wretch, resign the Presidential chair, Disclose thy secret measures, foul or fair ; Go, search with curious eye for horne'd frogs 'Mid the wild wastes of Louisiana bogs, 429 BRYANT BUCCANEERS Or, where Ohio rolls his turbid stream, Times, Philadelphia, Feb. 22, 1878, on the Dig for huge bones, thy glory and thy subject of Washington, and written at the request of the editor of that paper. He wrote the poem Thanatopsis when he At the time of his death he was engaged was in his nineteenth year. In 1810 he with Sydney Howard Gay in the prepara- entered Williams College, but did not tion of a History of the United States. He graduate. He was admitted to the bar in had also just completed, with the assist- 1815, and practised some time in western ance of the late Evart A. Duykinck, a new Massachusetts. His first collection of and carefully annotated edition of Shake- poems was published in 1821, and this speare's Works. He died in New York volume caused his immediate recognition City, June 12, 1878. as a poet of great merit. In 1825 Mr. Bryce, JAMES, historian; born in Bel- Bryant became an associate editor of the fast, Ireland, May 10, 1838; was gradu- New York Review. In 1826 he became ated at Oxford University in 1862; prac- connected with the New York Evening tised law in London till 1882; and was Post, and continued its editor until his Professor of Civil Law in Oxford in 1870- 93. He was first elected to the British Parliament as a Liberal in 1880. He has distinguished himself alike in politics and historical literature, and is best known in the United States for his work on The American Commonwealth. Bryce, LLOYD, author ; born in Flushing, Long Island, N. Y., Sept. 20, 1851; was graduated at Oxford University and stud ied law in the Columbia Law School, New York; was a Democratic member of Con gress in 1887-89. In the latter year he received a large interest in the North American Review, which he edited till 1896. Buccaneers, THE, were daring advent urers, who first combined for the spolia tion of the Spaniards in the West Indies WILLIAM OULLEN BKYANT. and the islands of the Caribbean Sea. The first of these were mostly French, who at- death. Meanwhile he contributed to lit- tempted to introduce themselves into the erary publications. He made visits to Eu- West Indies not long after the conquests rope in 1834, 1845, 1849, and 1858-59, and of the Spaniards there, and were called in the intervals visited much of his own flibustiers, or freebooters. Their depre- country from Maine to Florida. On the dations among the islands were extensive completion of his seventieth year, in and alarming. They made settlements in 1864, his birthday was celebrated by a Santo Domingo, where the Spaniards at- festival at the Century Club by promi- tempted to expel them. Retaliation fol- nent literary men. His translations of lowed. In 1630 they made the little isl- Homer into English blank verse were com- and of Tortugas, west of the Florida Keys, mended as the best rendering of the Epics their stronghold, where, in armed bands in his native tongue ever made. His oc- in rowboats, they attacked Spanish ves- casional speeches and more formal ora- sels, lying in wait for them on their pas- tions are models of stately style, some- sage from America to Europe. The richly times enlivened by quiet humor. In prose laden treasure-ships were boarded by composition Mr. Bryant was equally happy them, plundered, and their crews cast into as in poetry in the choice of pure and ele- the sea. They extended their operations, gant English words, with great delicacy The French buccaneers made their head- of fancy pervading the whole. His last quarters in Santo Domingo, and the Eng- poem was published in the Sunday-School lish in Jamaica,, during the long war be- 430 BUCHANAN tween France and Spain (1635-60) and afterwards; and they were so numerous and bold that Spanish commerce soon de clined, and Spanish ships dared not vent ure to America. Finding their own gains diminishing from want of richly laden vessels to plunder, they ceased pillaging vessels, and attacked and plundered Span ish towns on the coast of Central and South America. A number of these were seized, and immense treasures were car ried away in the form of plunder or ran som. At Ca-rthagena, in 1697, they pro cured $8,000,000. Their operations were finally broken up by an alliance against them of the English, Dutch, and Spanish governments. Exasperated at the con duct of the Spaniards in Florida, the Car- olinas were disposed to give the buccaneers assistance in plundering them; and in 1684-93 they were sheltered in the harbor of Charleston. Buchanan, FRANKLIN, naval officer; born in Baltimore, Md., Sept. 17, 1800; entered the navy in 1815; became lieu tenant in 1825, and master- commander in 1841. He was the first superintendent of the Naval Academy at Annapolis. Sym pathizing with the Confederate movement, and believing his State would secede, he sent in his resignation. Finding that Maryland did not secede, he petitioned, for restoration, but was refused, when he entered the Confederate service, and superintended the fitting-out of the old Merrimac ( rechristened the Virginia) at Norfolk. In her he fought the Monitor and was severely wounded. He after wards blew up his vessel to save her from capture. In command of the iron clad Tennessee, in Mobile Bay, he was de feated and made prisoner. He died in Talbot county, Md,, May 11, 1874. See MONITOR AND MERRIMAC. BUCHANAN, JAMES Buchanan, JAMES, fifteenth President of the United States, from 1857 to 1861; Democrat; born near Mercers- burg, Pa., April 23, 1791; was graduated at Dickinson College, Pa., at the age of eighteen years, and in 1814, when he was only twenty-three years old, he was elect ed to a seat in the Pennsylvania legislat ure. He had studied law, and was ad mitted to the bar at Lancaster in 1812. His father was a native of Ireland, and his mother was Elizabeth Spear, daughter of a farmer. Mr. Buchanan's career as a lawyer was so successful that, at the age of forty years, he retired from the profession with a handsome fortune. He was a Federalist in politics at first, and as such entered Congress as a member in 1821, where he held a seat ten successive years. When the Federal party disap peared he took sides with the Democrats. He supported Jackson for the Presidency in 1828, when the present Democratic party was organized. In 1832-34, Mr. Buchanan was United States minister at St. Petersburg, and from 1834 to 1845 was a member of the United States Senate. He was Secretary of State in the cabinet of President Polk, 1845-49, where he arrayed himself on the side of the pro-slavery men, opposing the WILMOT PROVISO (q. v.), and the anti-slavery movements generally. In 1853 President Pierce sent him as United States minister to England, where he remained until 1856, during which time he became a party in the con ference of United States ministers at Os- tend, and was a signer of the famous man ifesto, or consular letter (see OSTEND MANIFESTO). In the fall of 1856 he was elected President of the United States, re ceiving 174 electoral votes to 129 given for Fremont (Republican) and Fillmore (American). A chief topic of President Buchanan's inaugural address was the decision of the Supreme Court of the United States (not promulgated until two days afterwards) in the DRED SCOTT CASE (q. v.) , and its effects. He spoke of that decision, which virtually declared the institution of sla very to be a national one, and that the black man " had no rights which the white man was bound to respect," and said it would " speedily and finally " settle the slavery question. He announced his in tention to cheerfully abide by that deci sion. He declared that the question was wholly a judicial one, which belonged to the Supreme Court to settle; and that, as 431 BUCHANAN, JAMES by its decision the admission or rejection to a violation of solemn pledges." JOSEPH of slavery in any Territory was to be de- HOLT (q. v.), of Kentucky, a thoroughly termined by the legal votes of the people loyal man, took Floyd's place, and a load in such Territory, the " whole territorial of anxiety was lifted from the minds of question was thus settled upon the prin- the loyal people of the republic. The dis ciple of popular sovereignty a principle ruption of Buchanan's cabinet went on. as ancient as free government itself " ; Attorney-General Black had taken the that "everything of a practical nature" place of General Ca-ss as Secretary of State, had been settled; and that he seriously and EDWIN M. STANTON (q. v.) filled the hoped the long agitation of the subject of office of Attorney - General. Philip F. slavery was " approaching its end." It Thomas, of Maryland, had succeeded Cobb was then only the " beginning of the end." as Secretary of the Treasury, but, un- That decision " kindled the fire " spoken willing to assist the government in en- of by the Georgian in the debate on the forcing the laws, he was succeeded by MISSOURI COMPROMISE (q. v.), "which JOHN A. Dix (q. v.), a stanch patriot of only seas of blood could extinguish." The New York. The ex-President retired to decision settled nothing " speedily and private life March 4, 1861, and took up finally" but the destruction of the insti- his abode at Wheatland, near Lancas- tution it was expected to preserve. See ter, Pa., where he died, June 1, 1868. Mr. CABINET, PRESIDENT'S. Buchanan was an able lawyer, a good de- On Dec. 27, 1860, news of the occupation bater, and in private life, from his boy- of Fort Sumter by MAJ. ROBERT ANDERSON hood, his moral character was without re- (q. v.) reached Washington. The cabinet proach. He lived in troublous times, and assembled at noon. They had a stormy his political career, towards the last, seems session. Floyd demanded of the Presi- to have been shaped more by persistent dent an order for Anderson's return to politicians than by his own better im- Fort Moultrie, urging that the Presi- pulses and judgment. dent, if he should withhold it, would " vio- Prospects of Civil War. On Jan. 8, late the solemn pledges of the govern- 1861, President Buchanan sent the follow- ment." The President was inclined to ing message to the Congress, giving his give the order, but the warning voices of views on the question of State's rights law and duty, as well as public opinion, and the prospects of a civil war : made him hesitate, and the cabinet ad- journed without definite action. The posi- To the Senate and House of Represen- tion of the President was painful. He tatives: had evidently made pledges to the Con- At the opening of your present session federates,, without suspecting their dis- I called your attention to the dangers loyal schemes when he made them, and which threatened the existence of the had filled his cabinet with disloyal men, Union. I expressed my opinion freely con- supposing them to be honest. It is said cerning the original causes of those dan- that at that time he was in continual gers, and recommended such measures as fear of assassination. On the morning 1 believed would have the effect of tran- after the cabinet meeting referred to, news quillizing the country and saving it from came of the seizure of Fort Moultrie and the peril in which it had been needlessly Castle Pinckney. The President breathed and most unfortunately involved. Those more freely. The Confederates had com- opinions and recommendations I do not mitted the first act of war, and he felt propose now to repeat. My own convic- relieved from his pledges. He peremp- tions upon the whole subject remain un- torily refused to order the withdrawal of changed. Anderson from Sumter, and on the fol- The fact that a great calamity was im- lowing day Floyd resigned the seals of pending over the nation was even at that Secretary of War and fled to Richmond, time acknowledged by every intelligent In his letter of resignation he said, re- citizen. It had already made itself felt specting the secretaryship, " I can no long- throughout the length and breadth of the er hold office, under my convictions of pa- land. The necessary consequences of the triotism, nor with honor, subjected as I am alarm thus produced were most deplor- 432 BUCHANAN, JAMES *Dle. The imports fell off with a rapidity dependence of such State. This left me never known before except in time of war, no alternative, as the chief executive offi- in the history of our foreign commerce; cer under the Constitution of the United the Treasury was unexpectedly left with- States, but to collect the public revenues out the means which it had reasonably and to protect the public property so far counted upon to meet the public engage- as this might be practicable under exist- ments; trade was paralyzed; manufact- ing laws. This is still my purpose. My ures were stopped ; the best public securi- province is to execute and not to make ties suddenly sunk in the market; every the laws. It belongs to Congress exclu- species of property depreciated more or sively to repeal, to modify, or to enlarge less, and thousands of poor men who de- their provisions to meet exigencies as they pended upon their daily labor for their may occur. I possess no dispensing daily bread were turned out of employ- power. ment. I certainly had no right to make aggres- I deeply regret that I am not able to sive war upon any State, and I am per- give you any information upon the state of fectly satisfied that the Constitution has the Union which is more satisfactory than wisely withheld that power even from what I was then obliged to communicate. Congress. But the right and the duty to On the contrary, matters are still worse use military force defensively against at present than they then were. When those who resist the federal officers in the Congress met, a strong hope pervaded the execution of their legal functions and whole public mind that some amicable against those who assail the property of adjustment of the subject would speedily the federal government is clear and un- be made by the representatives of the deniable. States and of the people which might re- But the dangerous and hostile attitude store peace between the conflicting sections of the States towards each other has al- of the country. That hope has been dimin- ready far transcended and cast in the ished by every hour of delay, and as the shade the ordinary executive duties al- prospect of a bloodless settlement fades ready provided for by law, and has as- away the public distress becomes more sumed such vast and alarming propor- and more aggravated. As evidence of tions as to place the subject entirely this it is only necessary to say that the above and beyond executive control. The Treasury notes authorized by the act fact cannot be disguised that we are in of Dec. 17 last were advertised accord- the midst of a great revolution. In all ing to the law, and that no responsible its various bearings, therefore, I commend bidder offered to take any considerable the question to Congress as the only sum at par at a lower rate of interest than human tribunal under Providence pos- 12 per cent. From these facts it appears sessing the power to meet the existing that in a government organized like ours emergency. To them exclusively belongs domestic strife, or even a well-grounded the power to declare war or to authorize fear of civil hostilities, is more destructive the employment of military force in all to our public and private interests than cases contemplated by the Constitution, the most formidable foreign war. and they alone possess the power to re in my annual message I expressed the move grievances which might lead to conviction, which I have long deliberately war and to secure peace and union to held, and which recent reflection has only this distracted country. On them, and on tended to deepen and confirm, that no them alone, rests the responsibility. State has a right by its own act to secede The Union is a sacred trust left by our from the Union or throw off its federal Revolutionary fathers to their descend- obligations at pleasure. I also declared ants, and never did any other people in- my opinion to be that, even if that right herit so rich a legacy. It has rendered existed and should be exercised by any us prosperous in peace and triumphant in State of the Confederacy, the executive war. The national flag has floated in department of this government had no glory over every sea. Under its shadow authority under the Constitution to recog- American citizens have found protection nize its validity by acknowledging the in- and respect in all lands beneath the sun. I. 2 E 433 BUCHANAN, JAMES If we descend to considerations of purely no time for palliations. Action, prompt material interest, when in the history of action, is required. A delay in Congress all time has a confederacy been bound to- to prescribe or to recommend a distinct gether by such strong ties of mutual in- and practical proposition for conciliation terest? Each portion of it is dependent may drive us to a point from which it will on all, and all upon each portion, for pros- be almost impossible to recede, perity and domestic security. Free trade A common ground on which conciliation throughout the whole supplies the wants and harmony can be produced is surely of one portion from the productions of an- not unattainable. The proposition to other, and scatters wealth everywhere, compromise by letting the North have ex- The great planting and farming States elusive control of the territory above a require the aid of the commercial and certain line and to give Southern institu- navigating States to send their produc- tions protection below that line ought tions to domestic and foreign markets, to receive universal approbation. In it- and to furnish the naval power to render self, indeed, it may not be entirely satis- their transportation secure against all factory; but when the alternative is be- hostile attacks. tween a reasonable concession on both Should the Union perish in the midst sides and a destruction of the Union it of the present excitement, we have al- is an imputation upon the patriotism of ready had a sad foretaste of the universal Congress to assert that its members will suffering which would result from its de- hesitate for a moment, struction. The calamity would be severe Even now the danger is upon us. In in every portion of the Union, and would several of the States which have not yet be quite as great, to say the least, in the seceded the forts, arsenals, and magazines Southern as in the Northern States. The of the United States have been seized, greatest aggravation of the evil, and that This is by far the most serious step which which would place us in the most un- has been taken since the commencement favorable light both before the world and of the troubles. This public property has posterity, is, as I am firmly convinced, that long been left without garrisons and the secession movement has been chiefly troops for its protection, because no per- based upon a misapprehension at the son doubted its security under the flag South of the sentiments of the majority of the country in any State of the Union, in several of the Northern States. Let the Besides, our small army has scarcely been question be transferred from political as- sufficient to guard our remote frontiers semblies to the ballot-box, and the people against Indian incursions. The seizure themselves would speedily redress the of this property, from all appearances, serious grievances which the South have has been purely aggressive, and not in suffered. But, in Heaven's name, let the resistance to any attempt to coerce a trial be made before we plunge into armed State or States to remain in the Union, conflict upon the mere assumption that At the beginning of these unhappy there is no other alternative. Time is a troubles I determined that no act of mine great conservative power. Let us pause should increase the excitement in either at this momentous point and afford the section of the country. If the political people, both North and South, an oppor- conflict were to end in a civil war, it was tunity for reflection. Would that South my determined purpose not to commence it Carolina had been convinced of this truth nor even to furnish an excuse for it by before her precipitate action! I therefore any act of this government. My opinion appeal through you to the people of the remains unchanged that justice as well country to declare in their might that the as sound policy requires us still to seek Union must and shall be preserved by a peaceful solution of the questions at is- all constitutional means. I most ear- sue between the North and the South, pestly recommend that you devote your- Entertaining this conviction, I refrained selves exclusively to the question how even from sending reinforcements to Ma- this can be accomplished in peace. All jor Anderson, who commanded the forts other questions, when compared to this, in Charleston Harbor, until an absolute sink into insignificance. The present is necessity for doing so should make itself 434 BUCHANANBUCKINGHAM apparent, lest it might unjustly be re- ized to take similar defensive steps when- garded as a menace of military coercion, ever you have tangible evidence of a de- and thus furnish, if not a provocation, at sign to proceed to a hostile act." least a pretext, for an outbreak on the It is said that serious apprehensions part of South Carolina. No necessity for are to some extent entertained (in which these reinforcements seemed to exist. I was I do not share) that the peace of this assured by distinguished and upright gen- district may be disturbed before March tlemen of South Carolina that no attack 4 next. In any event, it will be my upon Major Anderson was intended, but duty to preserve it, and this duty shall that, on the contrary, it was the desire be performed. of the State authorities as much as it In conclusion, it may be permitted to was my own to avoid the fatal conse- me to remark that I have often warned my quences which must eventually follow a countrymen of the dangers which now sur- rnilitary collision. round us. This may be the last time I And here I deem it proper to submit shall refer to the subject officially. I for your information copies of a com- feel that my duty has been faithfully, munication, dated Dec. 28, 1860, address- though it may be imperfectly, performed, ed to me by R. W. Barnwell, J. H. Adams, and whatever the result may be, I shall and James L. Orr, " commissioners " from carry to my grave the consciousness that South Carolina, with the accompanying I at least meant well for my country, documents, and copies of my answer there- JAMES BUCHANAN. to, dated Dec. 31. Buchanan, ROBERT CHRISTIE, military In further explanation of Major An- officer; born in Maryland about 1810; derson's removal from Fort Moultrie to was graduated at West Point in 1830; Fort Sumter, it is proper to state that served in the Seminole War and the war after my answer to the South Carolina with Mexico; and was made a lieutenant- " commissioners " the War Department re- colonel in 1861. He served in the Army ceived a letter from that gallant officer, of the Potomac continually during the dated on Dec. 27, 1860, the day after this Civil War, and was brevetted major-gen- movement, from which the following is an eral United States Army in 1865. He extract: died in Washington, D. C., Nov. 29, 1878. "I will add as my opinion that many Buckeye State, the popular name of things convinced me that the authorities the State of Ohio, derived from the buck- of the State designed to proceed to a eye, or horse-chestnut, tree which abounds hostile act.' there. Evidently referring to the orders, dated Buckingham, WILLIAM ALFRED, the Dec. 11, of the late Secretary of War. "war governor of Connecticut"; born " Under this impression I could not hesitate that it was my solemn duty to move my command from a fort which we could not probably have held longer than forty-eight or sixty hours to this one, where my power of resistance is increased to a very great degree." It will be recollected that the conclud ing part of these orders was in the fol lowing terms: " The smallness of your force will not permit you, perhaps, to occupy more than one of the three forts, but an attack on or attempt to take possession of either one of them will be regarded as an act of hostility, and you may then put your command into either of them which you may deem most proper to increase its power of resistance. You are also author- WILLIAM ALFRED BUCKINGHAM. 435 BTTCKLAND BUDGET in Lebanon, Conn., May 28, 1804; en- joined the Confederate army, and surren- gaged in business in Norwich in 1825, dered the fort and garrison of FORT DON- where he became a successful merchant ELSON (q. v.) in February, 1862, when he and carpet manufacturer; and his gener- was sent a prisoner to Fort Warren. After osity and public spirit endeared him to his release, he continued in the Confeder- the people. He was elected governor every ate service until the close of the war. year from 1858 to 1866, when he declined He became a lieutenant-general in the a renomination. His patriotism, energy, army; was selected by General Grant popularity, and extensive influence were to be one of his pall-bearers; and was of inestimable service to the national gov- elected governor of Kentucky in 1887. ernment during its struggle for exist- Bucktails. In the politics of the State ence; and he was one of the most active of New York the TAMMANY SOCIETY of the " war governors " during the con- ( q. v.) held a conspicuous place as early test. In 1869 he was chosen to represent as during the War of 1812-15. The Repub- Connecticut in the Senate of the United lican, or Democratic, party had been di- States. A patron of education and a pro- vided into two great factions, known as moter of religion and public morals, he Madisonians and Clintonians, James Madi- gave to the Theological School of Yale son and De Witt Clinton being rival can- College $25,000 for the education of young didates for the office of President of men for the Gospel ministry. He died the United States. Most of the Federal- in Norwich, Conn., Feb. 3, 1875. ists voted for Clinton. The Tammany Buckland, CYRUS, inventor; born in Society adhered to Madison. In the elec- Springfield, Mass., Aug. 10, 1799. After tion of 1816 a portion of the members aiding in constructing the machinery for of the Tammany Society wore an emblem the first cotton mills, in Chicopee Falls, in their caps a deer's tail and they were he became the pattern-maker of the United called " Bucktails." This soon became the States armory, at Springfield, Mass., in title of the Madisonians; and in 1816, 1828. He remained there for twenty-eight when Clinton was elected governor of New years, much of the time as master-me- York, the opposing parties in the State chanic. He remodelled old weapons, made were known as " Bucktails " and " Clin- new ones, and designed a lathe for the tonians." To one or the other of these manufacture of gun-stocks. His -inven- parties portions of the disintegrated Re- tions also included machinery and tools publican, or Democratic, party became at- for the manufacture of fire-arms, for ri- tached. Afterwards the Bucktail party fling muskets, etc. Many of these inven- was styled by its antagonists the ALBANY tions were adopted by foreign countries. REGENCY (q. v.) . When ill-health forced him to resign Con- Buddington, SIDNEY OZIAS. See gress voted him $10,000, as he had received HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS. no compensation for his inventions while Budget, a term applied to the English at the armory. He died in Springfield, Chancellor of Exchequer's annual state- Feb. 26, 1891. ment of the finances of the country, the Buckner, SIMON BOLIVAR, military offi- documents having been formerly presented cer; born in Kentucky in 1823; was grad- in a leather bag. In the United States uated at the United States Military Acad- the Secretary of the Treasury has made an emy in 1844; was Assistant Professor annual report to Congress of receipts and of Ethics there for two years, and then expenditures of the government since 1790. engaged in the war with Mexico, in which In 1789 the House of Representatives ap- he was wounded, and brevetted captain, pointed a committee to see that the gov- After that war he was again a tutor at ernment was supplied with sufficient reve- West Point; resigned in 1855; practised nues, and to devise ways and means for law in Kentucky ; and became one of the obtaining it, whence the name of " Ways most prominent "KNIGHTS OF THE GOLD- and Means Committee." In 1865 the du- EN CIRCLE" (q. v.) in that State. After ties of this committee had become exces- the Civil War began he became command- sive, and a committee of appropriations er of the Kentucky State Guard, and was appointed to share the work. Esti- adjutant-general of the State. He soon mates for appropriations are prepared by 436 BUELL BUENA VISTA the heads of the several departments and bureaus of the public service for the fiscal year ending June 30, but are often reduced by the House. No appropriations can be made for purposes not sanctioned by the Constitution. See APPKOPRIATIONS, CON GRESSIONAL. Buell, DON CARLOS, military officer; born near Marietta, O., March 23, 1818; was graduated at West Point in 1841; en gaged in the war with Mexico, in which he won the brevets of captain and major, and was severely wounded; became lieu tenant-colonel in the regular army, and brigadier-general of volunteers in May, 1861 ; major - general of volunteers in March, 1862; and, with 'an army, arrived on the battle-field of SHILOH (q. v.) in time to assist in the defeat of the Con federates. In command of the District of Ohio, he confronted Bragg's invasion of Kentucky and drove him out of the State. On Oct. 24 he transferred his command to General Rosecrans; was mustered out of the volunteer service May 23, 1864; and resigned his commission in the regular army June 1, 1865, when he became presi dent of the Green River Iron Company, in Kentucky. He died near Rockport, Ky., Nov. 19, 1898. Buena Vista, BATTLE OF. General Taylor received such instructions from the War Department that he declared (Nov. 13, 1846) the armistice granted at Mon terey was at an end. General Worth inarched, with 900 men, for Saltillo, the capital of Coahuila, and was followed the next day by Taylor, who left Gen. W. O. Butler, with some troops, to hold the con quered city of Monterey. Saltillo was taken possession of on Nov. 15. After sev eral minor movements, and having been deprived of a large number of his troops by an order of General Scott to send them to reinforce an American army that was to attack Vera Cruz, Taylor was forced to act on the defensive with about 5,000 men. Informed that General Santa Ana (who had entered Mexico from his exile in Cuba, and had been elected President of Mexico in December) was gathering an army of 20,000 men at San Luis Potosi, Taylor resolved to form a junction with General Wool (who had entered Mexico with about 3,000 troops, crossing the Rio Grande at Presidio), and fight the Mexi cans. He reached Saltillo with his little army on Feb. 2, 1847, joining Wool's forces there, and encamped at Aqua Nueva, 20 miles south of that place, on the San Luis road. On hearing of the approach of Santa Ana with his host, Taylor and Wool fell back to Angostura, a narrow defile in the mountains facing the fine estate of Buenn Vista, and there encamped, in battle order, to await the coming of their foe. Santa Ana and his army were within two miles of Taylor's camp on the morning of Feb. 22, when the Mexican chief sent a note to Taylor telling him he was surrounded by 20,000 men, and could not, in all prob ability, avoid being cut to pieces; but as he held the American commander in spe cial esteem, and wished to save him such a catastrophe, he gave him this notice, that he might surrender at discretion. He granted Taylor an hour to make a deci sion. It was soon made; for the com mander immediately declined the polite in vitation to surrender, and both armies prepared to fight. The Americans waited for the Mexicans to take the initiative. There was slight skirmishing all day. and that night the American troops bivouacked without fire and slept on their arms; the Mexicans, in the mountains, meanwhile trying to form a cordon of soldiers around the little army of Taylor and Wool, then less than 5,000 in number. The battle began early on the morning of the 23d, and continued all day. The struggle was terribly severe; the slaughter was fear ful; and until near sunset it was doubt ful who would triumph. Then the Mexi can leader, performing the pitiful trick of displaying a flag of truce to throw Tay lor off his guard, made a desperate as sault on the American centre, where that officer was in command in person. The batteries of Bragg, Washington, and Sher man resisted the assault, and before long the Mexican line began to waver. Tay lor, standing near one of the batteries, seeing this sign of weakness, said, quietly, " Give 'em a little more grape, Captain Bragg" (see BRAGG, BRAXTON). It was done, and just at twilight the Mexicans gave way and fled in considerable confu sion. Night closed the battle. Expecting it would be resumed in the morning, the Americans again slept on their arms, but when the day dawned no enemy was to be 437 BUFFALO seen. Santa Ana had fallen back, and in a few days his utterly dispirited army was almost dissolved. In their flight the Mexicans had left about 500 of their com rades, dead or dying, on the field. With these and wounded and prisoners, their loss amounted to almost 2,000 men; that of the Americans, in killed, wounded, and missing, was 746. Among the slain was a son of Henry Clay. On the day of the battle Captain Webster, with a small party of Americans, drove General Minon and 800 Mexicans from Saltillo. Taylor re turned to Walnut Springs, where he re mained several months, and in the autumn of 1847 he returned home. Buffalo, city, port of entry, and coun ty seat of Erie county, N. Y. ; at the eastern extremity of Lake Erie and the western extremity of the Erie Canal ; area, 42 square miles; was laid out under the name of New Amsterdam by the Holland Land Company in 1801 ; incorporated as a town in 1810; and chartered as a city, April 20, 1832. The location of the city on the lake early gave it commercial im- Walk-in-the-Water, was built and launch ed, May 28, 1818, and this vessel made the first trip between Buffalo and Detroit on Aug. 23 following. From this period and this trip Buffalo has made great progress in her commercial relations with the principal American and Canadian ports on the Great Lakes. In the fiscal year end ing June 30, 1904, the imports of foreign merchandise at the port of Buffalo Creek aggregated in value $4,933,319, and the exports of domestic merchandise, $22,592,- 340. The tonnage movement of the year was: Entrances: American sail, 174,858; steam, 95,949; foreign sail, 7,968; steam, 37,322 total sail, 182,826; steam, 133,- 271. Clearances: American sail, 174,010; steam, 100,492; foreign sail, 7,970; steam, 20,140 total sail, 181,980; steam, 120,- 632. The city has very large interests in the iron and steel industry, and an exten sive commerce in grains, lumber, coal, flour, and live-stock, promoted by its ex ceptional rail and water communications. As a manufacturing centre also Buffalo has attained high rank. The census of 1900 THK PORT OP BUFFALO IN 1813. portance. In 1805 Buffalo Creek was con- credited the city with 3,902 manufacturing stituted a port of entry, and in 1811, establishments, employing $103,939,655 Black Rock. It was at the latter place capital and 43,422 wage-earners; paying that the first steamboat on Lake Erie, the $19,915,817 for wages and $73,359,466 for 438 BTTFFALO HILL BUFORD material used; and yielding products valued at $122,230,061. .The most im portant industries, according to value of products, were, wholesale slaughtering and meat-packing, $9,631,187; foundry and machine-shop work, $6,816,057; linseed oil, $6,271,170; railroad cars, $4,513,333; malt liquors, $4,269,973; and soap and candles, $3,818,571. Other important manufactures are flour, lumber, glucose, clothing, and leather. Official reports of municipal officers for 1903 showed that the city owned real estate of an estimated value of $13,679,762, and personal, prop erty, $11,274,298 total, $24,954,060, in cluded in which was the water-works prop erty, valued at $8,639,804. The resources of the city were reported at $29,568,994, and the liabilities at $18,391,451, show ing an excess of resources of $11,175,543. The assessed valuations were: real estate, $233,066,365; personal property, $18,958,- 200 total, $252,024,565; city tax rate, $17.37 per $1,000. The net city debt on May 1, 1904, was $17,413,088. Popula tion, (1880) 155,134; (1890) 255,664; (1900) 352,387. General Riall, with his regulars and Indians, recrossed from Lewiston (see NIAGARA, FORT), when his forces had re turned from the desolation of the New York frontier. Riall marched up from Queenston (Dec. 28) to Chippewa, Gen. Drummond in immediate command. By this time all western New York had been alarmed. McClure had appealed to the people to hasten to the frontier. Gen. Amos Hall called out the militia and in vited volunteers. Hall took chief com mand of troops now gathered at Black Rock and Buffalo, 2,000 strong. From Drummond's camp, opposite Black Rock, Riall crossed the river (Dec. 30) with about 1,000 white men and Indians. The night was dark. They drove the Ameri cans from Black Rock. The militia were alarmed, and at dawn Hall ascertained that 800 of them had deserted. Hall, with the rest of his force, proceeded to attack the invaders. He, too, had a force of Ind ians; but these, with more of the militia, soon gave way, and, the commander's force broken, he was in great peril. Deserted by a large portion of his troops, vastly outnumbered, and almost surrounded, Hall was compelled to retreat and leave Buf falo to its fate. It was presently in pos session of the British and their Indian al lies, who proceeded to plunder, destroy, and slaughter. Only four buildings were left standing in the village. At Black Rock only a single building escaped the flames. Four vessels which had done good service on Lake Erie the Ariel, Little Belt, Chippewa,, and Trippe were burned; and so were completed the measures of re taliation for the burning of Newark. Six villages, many isolated country-houses, and four vessels were consumed, and the butchery of many innocent persons attest ed the fierceness of the revenge of the British. See PAN-AMERICAN EXHIBITION. Buffalo Hill, BATTLE AT. On Oct. 4, 1861, there was a spirited engagement at Buffalo Hill, Ky., between the National and Confederate forces, in which the Na tionals lost twenty killed, and the Confed erates fifty. The organizations that took part in this engagement are not recorded. Buffington, ADELBERT RINALDO, mili tary officer; born in Wheeling, Va., Nov. 22, 1837; was graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1861, and com missioned brevet second lieutenant in the ordnance department; and was appointed chief of ordnance with the rank of briga dier-general in 1889. From 1881 till 1892 he was in charge of the national armory at Springfield, Ma&s. General Buffington ia the inventor of a magazine fire-arm, car riages for light and heavy ordnance, and the nitre and manganese method for bluing iron and the steel surface of small-arms. Buffington Island, BATTLE AT. On July 19, 1863. six regiments of Kentucky volunteers, three of Michigan, three of Ohio, one of Indiana, and one of Tennes see, comprising infantry and cavalry, to gether with several gunboats, had an en gagement at Buffington Island, known also as St. George's Creek, O., which re sulted in the capture of the Confederate raiders under JOHN H. MORGAN (q. v.). Buford, ABRAHAM, military officer; born in Virginia; became colonel of the llth Virginia Regiment, May 16, 1778, In May, 1780, when his command, hasten ing to the relief of Lincoln at Charleston, heard of his surrender, they returned towards North Carolina. Buford's com mand consisted of nearly 400 Continental infantry, a small detachment of Colonel 439 BUFOBD BULL BUN Washington's cavalry, and two field-pieces. He had reached Camden in safety, and was retreating leisurely towa-rds Char lotte, when Colonel Tarleton, with 700 men, all mounted, sent in pursuit by Cornwallis, overtook Buford upon the Waxhaw Creek. Tarleton had marched 100 miles in fifty-four hours. With only his cavalry the remainder were mounted in fantry he almost surrounded Buford be fore that officer was aware of danger, and demanded an instant surrender upon the terms given to the Americans at Charles ton. These were too humiliating, and Buford refused compliance. While flags for the conference were passing and re- passing, Tarleton, contrary to the rules of warfare, was making preparations for an attack in case of refusal. The in stant he received Buford's reply, his cav alry made a furious charge upon the American ranks (May 29). The assailed troops were dismayed by an attack under such circumstances, and all was confu sion. Some fired upon their assailants, others threw down their arms and begged for quarter. None was given, and men without arms were hewn to pieces by the sabres of Tarleton's cavalry. There were 113 slain; and 150 were so maimed as to be unable to travel, and fifty-three were made prisoners to grace the trium phal entry of the conqueror into Camden. Only five of the British were killed and fifteen wounded. All of Buford's artil lery, ammunition, and baggage became spoil for the enemy. For this savage feat Cornwallis eulogized Tarleton, and com mended him to the ministers as worthy of special favor. Afterwards, " Tarleton's quarter " became a proverbial synonym for cruelty. Stedman, one of Cornwallis's officers, and a historian of the war, wrote, " On this occasion the virtue of humanity was totally forgotten." Colonel Buford died in Scott county, Ky., June 29, 1833. Buford, JOHN, military officer; born in Kentucky in 1825; was graduated at West Point in 1848; became captain in 1859; and inspector-general, with the rank of major, November, 1861. He commanded a brigade of cavalry under General Hook er, and was so severely wounded near the Rappahannock (August, 1862) that he was reported dead. In the battle of An- tietam he was on General McClellan's staff. He was conspicuous in many en gagements while in command of the re serve cavalry brigade, and he began the battle of GETTYSBURG (q. v.). He was chief of Burnside's cavalry, and was as signed to the command of the Army of the Cumberland just before his death in Washington, D. C., Dec. 16, 1863. His half - brother, NAPOLEON BONAPARTE BU FORD (born in Woodford county, Ky., Jan. 13, 1807), was also graduated at West Point, and entered the artillery. He was a pupil in the Law School of Harvard University; Professor of Natural Phi losophy at W T est Point; but retired to civil pursuits in 1835. Engaging first as colonel in the Union army in 1861, he served well during the continuance of the strife, and was brevetted major-general of volunteers in March, 1865. He died March 28, 1883. Buford, NAPOLEON BONAPARTE, military officer; born in Woodford county, Ky., Jan. 13, 1807; was graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1827; and served for several years on surveying duty; subsequently resigning and entering civil life. When the Civil War broke out he was commissioned colonel of the 27th Illinois Volunteers; served through the war; was brevetted major-general of vol unteers March 13, 1865. He died March 28, 1883. Bulacan, a Philippine town on the island of Luzon, a few miles northwest of Manila. Its population is mostly native, and the town is chiefly engaged in sugar- boiling, although there are several other industrial plants. Bulacan was consider ed a place of considerable strategic im portance by the Filipino insurgents after they had been driven from the immediate suburbs of Manila, and because of this fact was the scene of considerable mili tary activity after the American troops began their remarkable chase after Agui- naldo. Early in 1900 the town was under complete American control, and a mili tary post was established there. Bull Bun, BATTLES OF. The gathering of Confederate troops at MANASSAS JUNCTION (q. v.) required prompt and vig orous movements for the defence of Wash ington, D. C. Beauregard was there with the main Confederate army, and Gen. J. E. Johnston was at Winchester, in the 440 BULL BUN Shenandoah Valley, with a large body of fiercely. Hard pressed, Evans's line be- troops, with which he might reinforce the gan to waver, when General Bee advanced former. Gen. Robert Patterson was at with fresh troops, and gave it strength. Martinsburg with 18,000 Nationals to keep Then the National line began to tremble, Johnston at Winchester. Gen. Irvin Me- when Col. Andrew Porter sent a battalion Dowell was in command of the Depart- of regulars under Major Sykes to strength- ment of Virginia, with his headquarters en it. More fiercely the battle raged. Gen- at Arlington House; and, at about eral Hunter was severely wounded. Colo- the middle of July, 1861, he was ordered nel Slocum, of the Rhode Island troops, to move against the Confederates. With was killed, when Sprague, the youthful 20,000 troops he marched from Arlington governor of the commonwealth, took corn- Heights (July 16), for the purpose of mand of his troops. The wearied Na- flanking the Confederate right wing. A tionals, who had been on their feet since part of his troops under General Tyler midnight, began to flag, when they were had a severe battle with them at Black- reinforced by troops under Heintzelman, burn's Ford (July 18), and were repulsed Sherman, and Corcoran. A charge made (see BLACKBURN'S FORD, BATTLE OF), by a New York regiment, under COL. McDowell found he could not flank the HENRY W. SLOCUM (q. v,) , shattered the Confederates, so he proceeded to make a bending Confederate line, and the troops direct attack upon them, not doubting fled in confusion to a plateau whereon Patterson would be able to keep Johnston Gen. T. J. Jackson had just arrived with in the valley. On the morning of July 21, reserves. The flight was checked, and or- McDowelPs forces were set in motion in der was brought out of confusion, three columns, one under General Tyler Alarmed by this show of unsuspected on the Warrenton road, to make a feigned strength in the Nationals, Johnston, who attack, and the other two, commanded re- had arrived and taken the chief command, spectively by Generals Hunter and Heint- looked anxiously towards the mountain zelman, taking a wide circuit more to the gaps through which he expected more of left, to cross Bull Run at different points his troops from the Shenandoah Valley, and make a real attack on Beauregard's Without these he had small hopes of sue- left wing, which was to be menaced by Ty- cess. There had been a lull in the con- ler. The Confederate right was to be flict; and at 2 P.M. it was announced threatened by troops under Colonels Rich- they were not in sight. At that time the ardson and Davies, moving from Centre- Confederates had 10,000 soldiers and ville. These movements were all executed, twenty-two heavy guns in battle order but with so much delay that it was nearly on the plateau. The Nationals proceed- noon before the battle began. ed to attempt to drive them from this Meanwhile the Confederates had made vantage-ground. To accomplish this, five a movement unknown to McDowell. The brigades Porter's, Howard's, Franklin's, Confederate government, just seated at Wilcox's, and Sherman's with the bat- Richmond, hearing of the movements of teries of Ricketts, Griffin, and Arnold, and the Nationals, immediately ordered John- cavalry under Major Palmer, advanced to ston to hasten from the valley, and rein- turn the Confederate left, while Keyes's force Beauregard. This was done at noon brigade was sent to annoy them on their (July 20) with 6,000 fresh troops. Hunt- right. General Heintzelman accompanied er's column crossed Bull Run at Sudley McDowell as his lieutenant in the field, Church, led by General Burnside, with and his division began the attack. Rick- Rhode Island, New Hampshire, and Massa- etts and Griffin advanced with their troops, chusetts troops. Soon after crossing, it and planted their batteries on an eleva- encountered the Confederates, and a bat- tion that commanded the whole plateau, tie ensued in open fields. The batteries with the immediate support of Ellsworth's of Griffin and Reynolds were brought to Fire Zouaves, commanded by Colonel Farn- bear by the Nationals. Only a small ham. To the left of these batteries, New stream in a little vale separated the com- York, Massachusetts, and Minnesota troops batants. The Confederates were led by took a position. As the artillery and the Colonel Evans. The contest raged most Zouaves were advancing, they were sud- 441 BULL RUN denly attacked on the flank by Alabam- ians in ambush, and then by Stuart's Black Horse Cavalry in the rear, and the Zouaves recoiled. At that moment Heint- zelman ordered up a Minnesota regiment to support the batteries, when the Con federates in overwhelming force delivered Confederates lost over 2,000. The Nation als lost twenty-seven cannon, ten of which were captured on the field, and the remain der were abandoned in the flight to Centre- ville. They took only a single cannon in safety to Centreville. They also lost many small-arms and a large quantity of muni- BATTLE OF BULL RUN. a fire on these guns that disabled them tions of war, and medicine and hospital by prostrating the men. Both sides suf- supplies. The Nationals were pursued fered dreadfully. some distance. Had the Confederates When Johnston heard of the slaughter, pressed on after the panic-stricken fugi- he exclaimed, " Oh, for four regiments ! " tives, the coveted prize of the national It was now three o'clock. His wish was capital, with all its treasures, might have more than gratified. Just then he saw a been won by them within twenty - four cloud of dust in the direction of the hours. Johnston had escaped from Patter- Manassas Gap Railroad. It was a part of son, reinforced Beauregard at a critical his troops, 4 ? 000 strong, from the valley, moment, and won a great victory through under Gen. E. Kirby Smith. They were the forgetfulness of Lieutenant - General immediately ordered into action, when the Scott, who had given Patterson positive Confederates, so reinforced, struck the Na- directions not to move until he should re- tionals a stunning blow, just as the latter ceive further orders. These the command- were about to grasp the palm of victory, ing general forgot to send! Patterson It was so unexpected, heavy, and overpow- knew of Johnston's movement, but his or- ering that in fifteen minutes the Nation- ders to wait were imperative. The first ols were swept from the plateau. As reg- he heard of the disaster at Bull Run was iment after regiment gave way, and hur- through a morning paper from Philadel- ried towards the turnpike in confusion, phia, on July 22. panic seized others, and at 4 P.M. the The result of the battle was published greater portion of the National army was with great exaggeration on both sides- flying across Bull Run towards Centre- It produced unbounded joy among the ville leaving behind them over 3,000 men, Confederates and their friends, and the killed, wounded, or made prisoners. The loyal people were, at first, greatly depress- 442 BULL BUN ed by it. While the Confederates were States is worthless as a military organ- elated beyond measure, by the evidence ization, ... a screaming crowd"; and the battle seemed to give of their superior spoke of it as a collection of " New York skill and courage, and thousands flocked rowdies and Boston abolitionists desolat- to the standard of revolt from all parts ing the villages of Virginia." of the Southern States, the loyalists were The depression of spirits among the stunned by the great disaster, and the loyal people was, however, only momen- 75,000 men, whose three months' term of tary. Within a few days they were buoy- service was about to expire, were, for ant with faith and hope. There was a the moment, made eager to leave the field, second uprising of the friends of free and return home. The President of the institutions more marvellous than the Confederacy, who arrived at Manassas just first. Volunteers flocked to the standard after the victory, made an exultant speech of the Stars and Stripes by thousands, at Richmond, now become its capital, and The Confederates were amazed by the said to the multitude, when referring to the spectacle, and did not venture near the vanquished, with bitter scorn, " Never be capital in force, where loyal regiments haughty to the humble"; and predicted were continually arriving. Five days that the national capital would soon be after the battle, Secretary Seward wrote in their possession. While the streets to Minister Adams in London: "Our Army of Richmond were populous with prison- of the Potomac, on Sunday last, met a re- ers from the vanquished army, and eager verse equally severe and unexpected. For volunteers were pressing forward towards a day or two the panic which had pro- the camps of the victors at Manassas, the duced the result was followed by a panic streets of Washington were crowded with that seemed to threaten to demoralize the a discomfited and disheartened soldiery, country. But that evil has ceased en- without leaders and without organiza- tirely. The result is already seen in a tion the personification of the crushed vigorous reconstruction upon a scale of hopes of the loyal people. Such was the greater magnitude and increased cnthu- sad picture of the situation of the re- siasm." The Pennsylvania reserves were public, much exaggerated, which was pre- transferred to the National army atWash- sented to Europe in August, 1861. The in- ington. The government and people were telligence was given first to Europe satisfied that a long and desperate strug- through The Times of London the accred- gle was before them, and they put forth ited exponent of the political and social most extraordinary energies to meet the opinions of the ruling class in England crisis. On the contrary, when, the shouts by the pen of Dr. Russell, its war-corre- of victory having died away, and the spondent in the United States. He did not smoke of battle dissipated, the people of see the battle, and his account was, in a the Confederacy saw their victorious army great degree, a tale of the imagination, immovable at Manassas and indisposed It excited among the ruling classes a de- to follow up their triumph, they were rision of the government and loyal people filled with apprehensions, and a feeling of the United States, and gratified the op- akin to despondency took possession of the ponents of republicanism. To them the hearts of the Southern people, ruin of the great republic of the west The second battle of Bull Run (or seemed to be a fact accomplished. Eng- Manassas) was fought on Aug. 29, 30, lish statesmen and journalists dogmatical- 1862, the fighting on the first day being ly asserted it, and deplored the folly and sometimes called the battle of GROVETON wickedness of the President and Congress (q. v.}. On the morning after the battle in " waging war upon sovereign States," at Groveton, Pope's army was greatly re- and attempting to hold in union, by force, duced. It had failed to prevent the unity a people who " had the right and the de- of Lee's army, and prudence dictated its sire to withdraw from a hated fellowship." immediate flight across Bull Run, and It was declared that " the bubble of de- even to the defences of Washington. But mocraey had burst." The London Times Pope determined to resume the battle the said (Aug. 13), "It is evident that the next morning. He had received no rein- whole volunteer army of the Northern forcements or supplies since the 26th, and 443 BULL BUN BUNKER HILL had no positive assurance that any would be sent. He confidently expected rations and forage from McClellan at Alexandria ( a short distance away ) , who was to sup ply them; and it was not until the morn ing of the 30th (August, 1862), when itwas too late to retreat and perilous to stand still, that he received information that rations and forage would be sent as soon as he (Pope) should send a cavalry escort for the train a ,thing impossible. He had no alternative but to fight. Both com manders had made dispositions for attack in the morning. Lee's movements gave Pope the impression that the Confederates were retreating, and he ordered McDowell to pursue with a large force, Porter's forces to advance and attack them, and Heintzelman and Reno, supported by Ricketts's division, were ordered to assail and turn the Confederate left. This movement, when attempted, revealed a state of affairs fearful to the National army. The latter, as their advance moved forward, were opened upon by a fierce fire of cannon, shot, shell, and bullets, and at the same moment a large number of Lee's troops were making a flank move ment that might imperil the whole of Pope's army. A very severe battle soon occurred. Porter's corps, which had re coiled at the unexpected blow, was rallied, and performed specially good service; and Jackson's advanced line was steadily pushed back until five o'clock in the after noon, when Longstreet turned the tide of battle by pouring a destructive artil lery fire upon the Nationals. Line after line was swept away, and very soon the whole left was put to flight. Jackson ad vanced, and Longstreet pushed his heavy columns against Pope's centre, while the Confederate artillery was doing fearful execution. The left of the Nationals, though pushed back, was unbroken, and held the Warrenton pike, by which alone Pope's army might safely retreat. Pope had now no alternative but to fall back towards the defences at Washington. At eight o'clock in the evening he gave orders to that effect. This movement was made during the night, across Bull Run, to the heights of Centreville, the brigades of Meade and Seymour covering the retreat. The night was very darlc, and Lee did not pursue; and in the morning (Aug. 31) Bull Run again divided the two great ar mies. So ended the second battle of Bull Run. Bulwer-Clayton Treaty. See CLAT- TON-BULWER TREATY. Bummers, SHERMAN'S, a derisive name applied in the South to the army under General Sherman, which made the mem orable march from Atlanta to the sea. See SHERMAN, WILLIAM TECUMSEH. Buncombe, mere talk, or speaking for the gratification of constituents. It is said the word received this meaning from a remark of Felix Walker, representative to Congress from North Carolina, 1817- 23. While making a speech in the Mis souri compromise debates with little rele vancy, as the House thought, he asserted it did not matter, as he was " making a speech for Buncombe," one of the counties he represented. Bunker Hill, BATTLE OF. By rein forcements from England and Ireland, General Gage's army in Boston, at the close of May, 1775, was 10,000 strong. With the reinforcements came Gens. Will iam Howe, Sir Henry Clinton, and John Burgoyne, three officers experienced in the military tactics of Europe, but little pre pared for service in America. Thus strengthened, Gage issued a proclamation (June 12) of martial law, and offering pardon to all who should return to their allegiance, except Samuel Adams and John Hancock. At that time the New England army before Boston numbered about 16,- 000 men, divided into thirty-six regiments, of which Massachusetts furnished twenty- seven, and the other three New England colonies three each. John Whitcomb, a coldnel in the French and Indian War, and Joseph Warren, president of the Pro vincial Congress, were appointed (June 15) major-generals of the Massachusetts forces. These provincial troops completely blockaded Boston on the land side, and effectively held the British troops as prisoners on the peninsula. Gen. Artemas Ward, the military head of Massachusetts, was regarded, by common consent, as the commander-in-chief of this New England army. The Americans had thrown up only a. few breastworks a small redoubt at Roxbury, and some breastworks at the foot of Prospect Hill, in Cambridge. The right wing of the besieging army, under 444 VIEWING THE BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL BUNKER HILL Gen. John Thomas, was at Roxbury, con- by a few reinforcements thrown into si sting of 4,000 Massachusetts troops, Charlestown at the southern slope of the four artillery companies, a few field- hill. On the left a fortification against pieces, and some heavy cannon. The musket - balls, composed of a rail - fence Rhode Island forces were at Jamaica and new - mown hay, was hastily con- Plain, under General Greene, with a regi- structed, almost at the moment of at- ment of Connecticut troops under Gen- tack. eral Spencer. General Ward commanded The British clearly saw their impending the left wing at Cambridge. The Con- danger, and, to thwart it, picked corps of necticut and New Hampshire troops were their army, 3,000 strong, led by Generals in the vicinity. Howe and Pigot, embarked in boats from It was made known to the committee the wharves in Boston, and landed at the of safety that General Gage had fixed eastern base of Breed's Hill. Meanwhile upon the night of the 18th of June to the troops who had worked all night and sally out and take possession of and forti- half of a hot June day in throwing up in- fy Bunker Hill (an elevation not far from trenchments on Breed's Hill were not re- Charlestown) ; also Dorchester Heights, lieved by others, as they should have been. south of Boston. Both of these points Colonel Prescott, at first, did not believe would command the town. The eager the British would attack his redoubt; and provincials determined to anticipate this when he saw the movement in the town he movement, and the Massachusetts com- felt assured that he could easily repulse mittee of safety ordered Col. William any assailants, and it was nine o'clock Prescott to march, on the evening of the before he applied to General Ward for 16th, with 1,000 men, including a com- reinforcements. Putnam had urged, early pany of artillery, with two field-pieces, in the morning, the sending of troops, to take possession of and fortify Bunker Ward, believing Cambridge to be the Hill. This force, after a prayer by Presi- point of attack, would not consent to dent Langdon, of Harvard, passed over sending more than a part of Stark's Charlestown Neck; but, going by Bunker New Hampshire regiment at first. Final- Hill, they ascended Breed's Hill (much ly,the remainder was sent; also, the whole nearer Boston ) , where they had a better of Colonel Reed's regiment on Charles- command of the town and the shipping, town Neck was ordered to reinforce Pres- They had been joined on the way by cott. General Putnam was on the field, Major Brooks and General Putnam, and by but without troops or command. The wagons laden with intrenching tools. The same was the case with General Warren, patriot troops worked incessantly all night who hastened to the scene of action when under the skilful engineer Gridley, and at the conflict began. Stark's regiment took dawn a redoubt about 8 rods square, a position on the left of the unfinished flanked on the right by a breastwork which breastwork, but 200 yards in the rear, extended northwardly to marshy land, and under imperfect cover, made by pull- met the bewildered and astonished gaze ing up a rail-fence, making parallel lines of the sentinels on the British shipping with the rails, and filling the intervening in the Charles River. The guns of spaces with new-mown hay. their vessels were immediately brought to At a little past three o'clock in the bear upon the redoubt on Breed's Hill, afternoon Howe's great guns moved tow- and the noise of the cannonade aroused ards the redoubt and opened fire upon the the sleepers in Boston. The Americans on works. They were followed by the troops Breed's Hill continued their work until in two columns, commanded respectively by eleven o'clock on that very hot June morn- Howe and Pigot. The guns on the Brit- ing, under an incessant shower of shot and ish ships, and a battery on Copp'i Hill, shell, with a scanty supply of provisions, in Boston, hurled random shots in abun- after having worked all night. Putnam dance on the Americans on Breed's Hill, had removed the intrenching tools at The occupants of the redoubt kept silent noon to Bunker Hill for the purpose of until the enemy had approached very casting up intrenchments there, and the near, when, at the word "Fire!" 1,500 of right flank of Prescott was strengthened the concealed patriots suddenly arose and 445 BUNKER HILL BUNKER HILL MONUMENT poured such a destructive storm of bullets floating batteries on the Charles River, upon the climbers of the green slope that but received very little hurt. Of the whole platoons, and even companies were 3,000 British troops engaged in the prostrated. Flags fell to the ground like fight, 1,054 were killed or wounded a tall lilies in a meadow. The assailants proportionate loss which few battles can fell back to the shore, and a shout of show. The loss of the provincials was triumph went up from the redoubt. Some 450, killed and wounded. Among the scattering shots had come from the houses at Charlestown; and Gage, infuriated by the repulse, gave orders to send combustibles into that vil lage and set it on fire. It was done, and soon the town was in flames. This conflagration added new horrors to the scene. BTJNKKR HILL MONUMENT AND PLAN OF BATTLE.* former was General Warren, whose loss was irreparable. He came to the redoubt without command, and did not take it from Prescott. He fell, as he was leaving the re doubt, from the effects of a bullet-wound. The result of the bat tle was a substantial victory for the Ameri' cans. They failed only because their ammuni tion failed. It tested the ability of the pro vincial army to meet a British force in the field; and so unsatis factory was the battle to the British minis try, that Gage was su perseded in command by General Howe. The general impression at The British again advanced, and were the time was that the battle was on Bunk- again driven back to their landing-place, er Hill, and so it figures in history as Then General Clinton passed over from the " Battle of Bunker Hill." It was Boston to aid Howe and Pigot, and the fought on Breed's Hill, some distance troops were led to the assault a third from the former. The battle was seen by time. The powder of the provincials, thousands who were on the neighboring hills scanty at the beginning, now failed. Some and the roofs and balconies in Boston. The British artillery planted pieces near the battle lasted about two hours, breastwork and swept it from end to end, Bunker Hill Monument. The corner- while grenadiers assailed the redoubt on stone of this monument was laid on the three sides at once and carried it at the fiftieth anniversary of the battle (June point of the bayonet. Stark, meanwhile, 17, 1825), in the presence of a vast mul- had kept the British at bay at the rail- titude of people. Lafayette, then on a fence until the redoubt was carried, after visit to the United States, was present, which all of the surviving provincials fled and Daniel Webster delivered an oration, in good order across Charlestown Neck, The monument is an obelisk, and stands enfiladed by the fire from the vessels and in the centre of the ground, on Breed's Hill, included in the old breastwork. Its sides * On the right of the plan of the battle are precisely parallel with those of the Is seen a picture of the granite obelisk erected redoubt. It is built of Quincy granite, over the site of the redoubt. The form of the 091 *+ : Vpj^f Tho Vacp nf redoubt Is seen in the diagram A in the map. f" d ?21 ***-** * ei S ht ' A T ,? The entrance to it was at a, which was on the obelisk is 30 feet square, and at the the end towards Charlestown Neck. spring of the apex 15 feet. By a flight 446 BUBBECK BUBGOYNE of 295 stone steps, within the obelisk, its top may be reached. A chamber at the top has four windows, with iron shutters. The monument was not completed until 1843, when, on June 17, it was dedicated in the presence of President Tyler and his cabinet and a vast multitude of cit izens. The city of Charlestown, subse quently annexed to Boston, now sur rounds the monument. Burbeck, HENRY, military officer; born in Boston, Mass., June 8, 1754; served with distinction in the Revolutionary War; took part in the battles of Brandy- wine, Germantown, Monmouth, etc., re ceiving the brevet of brigadier-general in 1813. He died in New London, Conn., Oct. 2, 1848. Bur chard, SAMTJEL DICKINSON, clergy man; born in Steuben, N. Y., Sept. 6, 1812; was graduated at Centre College, Danville, Ky., in 1836; became a temper ance lecturer and later a Presbyterian minister in New York. In 1884, near the close of the Presidential campaign, he un expectedly brought himself into notoriety by speaking of the Democrats at the close of an address to a party of Republicans as the party of " Rum, Romanism, and Re bellion." These words were scarcely uttered before the leaders of the Demo cratic party published them throughout the country. The election was very close, and it was several days before the official count of New York State was received. That State went Democratic by a small majority. The remark of Dr. Burchard was said to have influenced many thou sands of votes, and to have lost the elec tion to Mr. Elaine. He died in Saratoga, N. Y, Sept. 25, 1891. Burden, HENRY, inventor; born in Dumblane, Scotland, April 20, 1791 ; lived on a farm, and early in life evinced his inventive taste by designing a variety of labor-saving machinery. In 1819 he came to the United States, and first engaged in the manufacture of farming implements. Afterwards he designed machines for mak ing horse - shoes and the hook - headed spikes used on railroads; an improved plough; an automatic machine for rolling iron into bars; the first cultivator made in the United States; and a machine which received a rod of iron and turned out horse-shoes at the rate of sixty a minute. He died in Troy, N. Y., Jan. 19, 1871. Burgesses, HOUSE OF, the name given to the collected representatives of bor oughs in Virginia when representative government was first established there un der the administration of Governor Yeard- ly. That body was elected by the people^ and at first consisted of two representa tives from seven corporations. These, with the governor and council, formed the General Assembly of Virginia. That gen eral form of government was maintained until that colony became an independent State in 1776. That first House of Bur gesses assembled at Jamestown in July, 1619, and by the end of summer four more boroughs were established and represent atives chosen. The character of the per sonnel of that popular branch of the Vir ginia legislature for many years was sometimes severely criticised by contem porary writers. A clergyman who lived there wrote that the popular Assembly was composed largely of those unruly men whom King James had sent over from the English prisons as servants for the plant ers, and were not only vicious, but very ig norant. These men (Stith, an accurate historian, observes) disgraced the colony in the eyes of the world. Finally better material found its way into the House of Burgesses; and when the old war for in dependence was kindling, some of the brightest and purest men in the common wealth composed that House, and were the conservators of the rights of man in Vir ginia as opposed to the governor and his council. Burgoyne, SIR JOHN, military officer; born in England, Feb. 24, 1723; was liber ally educated, and entered the army at an early age. While a subaltern he clan destinely married a daughter of the Earl of Derby, who subsequently aided him in acquiring military promotion and settled $1,500 a year upon him. He served with distinction in Portugal in 1762. The year before, he was elected to Parliament, and gained his seat as representative of an other borough, in 1768, at an expense of about $50,000. In the famous Letters of Junius he was severely handled. Being appointed to command in America, he ar rived at Boston May 25, 1775; and to Lord Stanley he wrote a letter, giving a graphic 447 BURGOYNE, SIR JOHN account of the battle on Bunker (Breed's) Hill. In December, 1776, he returned to the lake. These were overtaken and de stroyed by the pursuing British. Burgoyne England, and was commissioned lieuten- pressed forward almost unopposed, for the American forces were very weak. The latter retreated first to Fort Edward, and then gradually down the Hudson almost to Albany. The British advanced but slow ly, for the Americans, under the command of Gen. Philip Schuyler, harassed them at every step. An expedition sent by Bur goyne to capture stores and cattle, and procure horses in this region and at Bennington, Vt., was defeated in a battle at Hoosick, N. Y. (Aug. 16), by a force hastily gathered under General Stark. Already another invading force of Brit ish regulars, Canadians, Tories, and Ind ians, under Colonel St. Leger, which was sent by Burgoyne, by way of Oswego, to march down the Mohawk Valley and meet SIR JOHN BURGOYNE. the latter at Albany, had been defeated in a battle at Oriskany (Aug. 6). Schuyler ant-general. Placed in command of the was superseded by Gates in command of British forces in Canada, he arrived there the northern army. Gates formed a forti- early in 1777, and in June he began an fied camp on Bemis's Heights to oppose the invasion of the province of New York by way of Lake Cham- plain and the Hudson Valley. He left St. Johns on the Sorel (June, 1777) with a brilliant and well - appointed army of 8,000 men, and ascend ed Lake Champlain in boats. At the falls of the Bouquet River, near the western shore of the lake, he met about 400 Indians in council, and after a feast (June 21, 1777) he made a stirring speech to them. On July 1 he appeared before Ticonderoga, which was inade quately garrisoned. General St. Clair, in command there, was compelled to evacuate the post, with Mount Indepen dence opposite (July 5 and 6), and fly towards Fort Edward. on the upper Hudson, through a portion of Vermont. In a battle at HUBBARDTON (q. v.) the Americans were beaten and dispersed by the pursuing British and Germans. St. Clair had sent stores in boats to Skenesboro (afterwards Whitehall), at the head of BURGOYNE ADDRESSING THE INDIANa 448 onward march of Burgoyne down the Hud son Valley. There he was attacked (Sept BTTRGOYNE, SIB JOHN VIEW OF THE ENCAMPMENT OP THE CONVENTION TROOPS. 19) by the British; and, after a severe go home on his parole. The British min- battle, the latter retired to their camp istry charged the Congress with absolute on the heights of Saratoga (afterwards perfidy; the latter retorted, and justified Schuylerville ) to await the approach of their acts by charging the ministry with Sir Henry Clinton from New York. . The meditated perfidy. Owing to the difficulty latter captured forts on the Hudson High- of finding an adequate supply of food for lands, and sent marauding expeditions up the captive troops in New England, the the river that burned Kingston. Again Congress finally determined to send them Burgoyne advanced to attack Gates. He to Virginia. Commissioners sent over, in was defeated (Oct. 7), and again retired the spring of 1778, to tender a scheme of to his camp. Finding it impossible to reconciliation, offered a ratification of the retreat, go forward, or remain quiet, he convention, signed by themselves ; but Con- surrendered his whole army, Oct. 17, 1777. gress would recognize no authority in- See BEMIS'S HEIGHTS. ferior to the British ministry for such an The vanquished troops made prisoners act. Finally, in pursuance of a resolution to the Americans by a convention for the of Congress (Oct. 15, 1778), the whole body surrender of them, made by Gates and of the captives (4,000 in number), Eng- Burgoyne, were marched through New lish and German, after the officers had England to Cambridge, near Boston, to be signed a- parole of honor respecting their embarked for Europe. The Congress had conduct on the way, took up their line ratified the agreement of Gates that they of march, early in November, for Char- should depart, on giving their parole not lottesville, Va., under the command of to serve again in arms against the Ameri- Major-General Phillips. Col. Theodoric cans. Circumstances soon occurred that Bland was appointed by Washington to convinced Washington that Burgoyne and superintend the march. It was a dreary his troops intended to violate the agree- winter's journey of 700 miles through ment at the first opportunity, and it was New England, New York, New Jersey, resolved by the Congress not to allow Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, them to leave the country until the Brit- The routes of the two nationalities were ish government should ratify the terms sometimes distant from each other, and of the capitulation. Here was a dilemma, sometimes the same, until they reached That government would not recognize the Valley Forge, when they went in the same authority of the Congress as a lawful line until they had crossed the Potomac body; so the troops were allowed to re- River. They remained in Virginia until main in idleness in America- four or five October, 1780, when the danger that the years. Burgoyne, alone, was allowed to captives might rise upon and overpower I. 2 F * 449 BURGOYNE BURKE their guard caused the British to be re moved to Fort Frederick, in Maryland, and the Germans to Winchester, in the Shenandoah Valley. Deaths, desertion, and partial exchanges had then reduced their number to about 2,100. Afterwards they were removed to Lancaster, Pa., and some to East Windsor, Conn. In the course of 1782 they were all dis persed, either by exchange or desertion. Many of the Germans remained in America. The disaster to Burgoyne's army pro duced a profound sensation in England. This was intensified by indications that France was disposed to acknowledge the independence of the colonies. Efforts were made to supply the place of the lost troops by fresh recruits. Liverpool and Manchester undertook to raise each 1,000 men, and efforts were made to induce Lon don to follow the example. The new lord mayor worked zealously for that purpose, but failed, and the ministry had to be con tent with a subscription of $100,000 raised among their adherents. Nor did the plan succeed in the English counties. In Scotland it was more successful; Glas gow and Edinburgh both raised a regi ment, and several more were enlisted in the Scotch Highlands by the great land holders of that region, to whom the ap pointment of the officers was conceded. The surrender created despondency among the English Tories, and Lord North, the Prime Minister, was alarmed. Burgoyne returned to England, on his parole, May, 1778. Being blamed, he so licited in vain for a court-martial to try his case, but he ably vindicated himself on the floor of Parliament, and published (1780) a narrative of his campaign in America for the same purpose. He joined the opposition, and an ineffectual attempt was made in 1779 to exclude him from Parliament. Then he resigned all his ap pointments; but in 1782 he was restored to his rank in the army, and appointed privy councillor and commander-in-chief in Ire land. He retired from public life in 1784, and died in London, Aug. 4, 1792. Burgoyne acquired a literary reputation as a dramatist. His plays and poems were published in a collection, in 2 vol umes, in 1808. Burke, AEDANUS, jurist; born in Gal- way, Ireland, June 16, 1743; was educated at St. Omers for a priest; emigrated to VIEW OF THE PLACE WHERE THE BRITISH LAID DOWN THEIR ARMS. 450 BURKE South Carolina, and there engaged with March 3, 1802. Judge Burke was a thor- the patriots in their conflict with Great ough republican, and wrote a famous Britain. He was a lawyer, and in 1778 pamphlet against the CINCINNATI So- was made a judge of the Supreme Court CIETY (q. v.) that was translated into of South Carolina. He served two years French by Mirabeau, and used by him with in the army; was in Congress (1789-91) ; much effect during the French Revolution, and after serving in the State legislature, Burke opposed its aristocratic features, he became chancellor of the common- He also opposed the national Constitu- wealth. He died in Charleston, S. C., tion, fearing consolidated power. BURKE, EDMUND Burke, EDMUND, statesman; born in on the following proposals which he had Dublin, June 1, 1730; was one of fifteen previously introduced: children of Richard Burke, an attor- That the colonies and plantations of ney, and was descended from the Nor- Great Britain in North America, consist- man De Burghs, who early settled in ing of fourteen separate governments, and Ireland; graduated at Trinity College, containing 2,000,000 and upward of free Dublin (1748) ; studied law, and in 1756 published his famous essay onThe Sublime and Beautiful. In 1758-59 he and Dods- ley established the Annual Register; and in 1765 he was made secretary to Pre mier Rockingham. He entered Parliament in 1766! There he took an active and brilliant part in debates on the American question, and always in favor of the Amer icans, advocating their cause with rare eloquence. In 1771 he was appointed agent for the colony of New York. He lost some popularity by advocating the claims of the Roman Catholics in 1780, and opposing the policy of repressing the trade of Ireland. During the brief ad ministration of the Rockingham ministry in 1782, he was a member of the privy council and paymaster of the forces. Tak ing a prominent part in the affairs in India, he began the prosecution of Gov. Warren Hastings early in 1786. His la bors in behalf of India in that protracted trial were immense, though the convic tion of Hastings was not effected. His great work entitled Reflections on the inhabitants, have not had the liberty and Revolution in France appeared in 1790. privilege of electing and sending any As a statesman and thinker and clear knights and burgesses, or others, to rep- writer he had few superiors. His con- resent them in the high court of Parlia- versational powers were remarkable, and ment. he was one of the suspected authors That the said colonies and plantations of the Letters of Junius. He died in have been made liable to, and bounden by, Beaconsfield, England, July 9, 1797. several subsidies, payments, rates, and . taxes, given and granted by Parliament; Conciliation with the Colonies. Burke's though the said colonies and plantations great conciliatory speech in the British have not their knights and burgesses in Parliament, On March 22, 1775, was based the said high court of Parliament, of their 451 EDMUND BURKE. BURKE, EDMUND own election, to represent the condition of their country; by lack whereof they have been oftentimes touched and grieved by subsidies given, granted, and assented to, in the said court, in a manner prejudicial to the commonwealth, quietness, rest, and peace, of the subjects inhabiting within the same. That, from the distance of the said colo nies, and from other circumstances, no method hath hitherto been devised for procuring a representation in Parliament for the said colonies. That each of the said colonies hath within itself a- body, chosen, in part or in the whole, by the freemen, freeholders, or other free inhabitants thereof, commonly called the general assembly, or general court; with powers legally to raise, levy, and assess, according to the several usages of such colonies, duties and taxes towards defraying all sorts of public services. That the said general assemblies, gen eral courts, or other bodies, legally quali fied as aforesaid, have at sundry times freely granted several large subsidies and public aids for his Majesty's service, ac cording to their abilities, when required thereto by letter from one of his Majesty's principal secretaries of state; and that their right to grant the same, and their cheerfulness and sufficiency in the said grants, have been at sundry times ac knowledged by Parliament. That it hath been found by experience, that the manner of granting the said sup plies and aids, by the said general assem blies, hath been more agreeable to the in habitants of the said colonies, and more beneficial and conductive to the public service, than the mode of giving and granting aids and subsidies in Parlia ment to be raised and paid in the said colonies. That it may be proper to repeal an act, made in the seventh year of the reign of his present Majesty, intituled, An act for granting certain duties in the British colonies and plantations in America; for allowing a drawback of the duties of customs, upon the exportation from this kingdom, of coffee and cocoa-nuts, of the produce of the said colonies or planta tions; for discontinuing the drawbacks payable on China earthenware exported to America; and for more effectually pre venting the clandestine running of goods in the said colonies and plantations. That it may be proper to repeal an act, made in the fourteenth year of the reign of his present Majesty, intituled, An act to discontinue, in such manner, and for such time, as are therein mentioned, the landing and discharging, lading or ship ping of goods, wares, and merchandise, at the town, and within the harbour, of Bos ton, in the province of Massachusetts Bay, in North America-. That it may be proper to repeal an act, made in the fourteenth year of the reign of his present Majesty, intituled, An act for the impartial administration of jus tice, in cases of persons questioned for any acts done by them in the execution of the law, or for the suppression of riots and tumults, in the province of Massachusetts Bay, in New England. That it is proper to repeal an act, made in the fourteenth year of the reign of his present Majesty, intituled, An act for the better regulating the government of the province of Massachusetts Bay, in New England. That it is proper to explain and amend an act made in the thirty-fifth year of the reign of King Henry VIII., intituled, An act for the trial of treasons committed out of the king's dominions. That, from the time when the general assembly, or general court, of any colony or plantation, in North America, shall have appointed, by act of assembly duly confirmed, a settled salary to the offices of the chief-justice and judges of the supe rior courts, it may be proper that the said chief-justice and other judges of the superior courts of such colony shall hold his and their office and offices during their good behaviour; and shall not be removed therefrom, but when the said removal shall be adjudged by his Majesty in council, upon a hearing on complaint from the gen eral assembly, or on a complaint from the governor, or council, or the House of Rep resentatives, severally, of the colony in which the said chief-justice and other judges have exercised the said office. That it may be proper to regulate the courts of admiralty, or vice-admiralty, au thorized by the fifteenth chapter of the fourth of George III., in such a manner, as to make the same more commodious to 452 BUBKE, EDMUND those who sue, or are sued, in the said less under the necessity of forming some courts; and to provide for the more de- fixed ideas concerning the general policy cent maintenance of the judges of the of the British Empire. Something of this same. sort seemed to be indispensable; in order, Burke's Speech on Conciliation. I amidst so vast a fluctuation of passions hope, sir, that, notwithstanding the aus- and opinions, to concentrate my thoughts; terity of the chair, your good - nature to ballast my conduct; to preserve me will incline you to some degree of indul- from being blown about by every wind of gence towards human frailty. You will fashionable doctrine. I really did not not think it unnatural, that those who think it safe, or manly, to have fresh prin- have an object depending, which strongly ciples to seek upon every fresh mail which engages their hopes and fears, should be should arrive from America. At that somewhat inclined to superstition. As I period I had the fortune to find myself in came into the House full of anxiety about perfect concurrence with a large majority the event of my motion, I found, to my in- in this House. Bowing under that high finite surprise, that the grand penal bill, authority, and penetrated with the sharp- by which we had passed sentence on the ness and strength of that early impression, trade and sustenance of America, is to be I have continued ever since, without the returned to us from the other House. I least deviation, in my original sentiments, do confess, I could not help looking on this Whether this be owing to an obstinate event as a fortunate omen. I look upon perseverance in error, or to a religious it as a sort of providential favour; by adherence to what appears to me truth which we are put once more in possession and reason, it is in your equity to judge, of our deliberative capacity, upon a busi- Sir, Parliament having an enlarged ness so very questionable in its nature, so view of objects, made, during this in- very uncertain in its issue. By the re- terval, more frequent changes in their turn of this bill, which seemed to have sentiments and their conduct, than could taken its flight forever, we are at this be justified in a particular person upon very instant nearly as free to choose a plan the contracted scale of private informa- for our American government as we were tion. But though I do not hazard any- on the first day of the session. If, sir, thing approaching to censure on the mo- we incline to the side of conciliation, we tives of former parliaments to all those are not at ull embarrassed (unless we alterations, one fact is undoubted, that please to make ourselves so) by any in- under them the state of America has been congruous mixture of coercion and re- kept in continual agitation. Everything straint. We are therefore called upon, as administered as remedy to the public corn- it were by a superior warning voice, again plaint, if it did not produce, was at least to attend to America; to attend to the followed by, an heightening of the dis- whole of it together ; and to review the temper ; until, by a variety of experiments, subject with an unusual degree of care and that important country has been brought calmness. into her present situation; a situation Surely it is an awful subject; or there which I will not miscall, which I dare is none so on this side of the grave. When not name ; which I scarcely know how to 1 first had the honour of a seat in this comprehend in the terms of any descrip- House, the affairs of that continent press- tion. ed themselves upon us, as the most im- In this posture, sir, things stood at the portant and most delicate object of parlia- beginning of the session. About that time, mentary attention. My little share in a worthy member of great parliamentary this great deliberation oppressed me. I experience, who, in the year 1766, filled found myself a partaker in a very high the chair of the American committee, trust ; and having no sort of reason to rely with much ability, took me aside ; and, on the strength of my natural abilities lamenting the present aspect of our poli- for the proper execution of that trust, I tics, told me, things were come to such a was obliged to take more than common pass, that our former methods of proceed- pains to instruct myself in everything ing in the House would be no longer which relates to our colonies. I was not tolerated. That the public tribunal (never 453 BUBKE, EDMUND too indulgent to a long and unsuccessful lamity is a mighty leveller; and there are opposition) would now scrutinize our con- occasions when any, even the slightest, duct with unusual severity. That the very chance of doing good, must be laid hold vicissitudes and shiftings of ministerial on, even by the most inconsiderable person, measures, instead of convicting their To restore order and repose to an em- authors of inconstancy and want of sys- pire so great and so distracted as ours, tern, would be taken as an occasion of is, merely in the attempt, an undertak- charging us with a predetermined discon- ing that would ennoble the flights of the tent, which nothing could satisfy; whilst highest genius, and obtain pardon for we accused every measure of vigour as the efforts of the meanest understanding, cruel, and every proposal of lenity as Struggling a good while with these weak and irresolute. The public, he said, thoughts, by degrees I felt myself more would not have patience to see us firm. I derived, at length, some conn- play the game out with our adversaries; dence from what in other circumstances we must produce our hand. It v/ould be usually produces timidity. I grew less expected that those who for many years anxious, even from the idea of my own in- had been active in such affairs should significance. For, judging of what you show that they had formed some clear are by what you ought to be, I persuaded and decided idea of the principles of myself that you would not reject a reason- colony government; and were capable of able proposition because it had nothing drawing out something like a platform but its reason to recommend it. On the of the ground which might be laid for other hand, being totally destitute of all future and permanent tranquillity. shadow of influence, natural or adventi- I felt the truth of what my honourable tious, I was very sure that, if my propo- friend represented; but I felt my situa- sition were futile or dangerous, if it were tion too. His application might have been weakly conceived, or improperly timed, made with far greater propriety to many there was nothing exterior to it, of power other gentlemen. No man was indeed to awe, dazzle, or delude you. You will ever better disposed, or worse qualified, see it just as it is: and you will treat it for such an undertaking, than myself, just as it deserves. Though I gave so far in to his opinion, The proposition is peace. Not peace that I immediately threw my thoughts through the medium of war; not peace into a sort of parliamentary form, I was to be hunted through the labyrinth of in- by no means equally ready to produce tricate and endless negotiations ; not peace them. It generally argues some degree of to arise out of universal discord, foment- natural impotence of mind, or some want ed from principle, in all parts of the em- of knowledge of the world, to hazard plans pire; not peace to depend on the judicial of government except from a seat of au- determination of perplexing questions, or thority. Propositions are made, not only the precise marking the shadowy boun- ineffectually, but somewhat disreputably, daries of a complex government. It is when the minds of men are not properly simply peace, sought in its natural course, disposed for their reception; and for my and in its ordinary haunts. It is peace part, I am not ambitious of ridicule; not sought in the spirit of peace, and laid absolutely a candidate for disgrace. in principles purely pacific. I propose, Besides, sir, to speak the plain truth, by removing the ground of the difference, I have in general no very exalted opinion and by restoring the former unsuspecting of the virtue of paper government; nor of confidence of the colonies in the mother- any politics in which the plan is to be country, to give permanent satisfaction to wholly separated from the execution. But your people; and (far from a scheme of when I saw that anger and violence pre- ruling by discord) to reconcile them to vailed every day more and more, and that each other in the same act, and by the things were hastening towards an incur- bond of the very same interest which able alienation of our colonies, I confess reconciles them to British government, my caution gave way. I felt this, as My idea is nothing more. Refined policy one of those few moments in which de- ever has been the parent of confusion, corum yields to a higher duty. Public ca- and ever will be so, as long as the world 454 BURKE, EDMUND endures. Plain good intention, which is The principle of this proceeding is large as easily discovered at the first view as enough for my purpose. The means pro- fraud is surely detected at last, is, let posed by the noble lord for carrying his me say, of no mean force in the govern- ideas into execution, I think, indeed, are ment of mankind. Genuine simplicity very indifferently suited to the end; and of heart is an healing and cementing prin- this I shall endeavour to show you before ciple. My plan, therefore, being formed I sit down. But, for the present, I take upon the most simple grounds imaginable, my ground on the admitted principle. I may disappoint some people when they mean to give peace. Peace implies reeon- hear it. It has nothing to recommend it ciliation; and, where there has been a to the pruriency of curious ears. There material dispute, reconciliation does in a is nothing at all new and captivating in it. manner always imply concession on the It has nothing of the splendour of the proj- one part or on the other. In this state ect which has been lately laid upon your of things I make no difficulty in affirm- table by the noble lord in the blue riband, ing that the proposal ought to originate It does not propose to fill your lobby with from us. Great and acknowledged force squabbling colony agents, who will require is not impaired either in effect or in opin- the interposition of your mace, at every ion by an unwillingness to. exert itself, instant, to keep the peace among them. The superior power may offer peace with It does not institute a magnificent auc- honour and with safety. Such an offer tion of finance, where captivated provinces from such a power will be attributed to come to general ransom by bidding against magnanimity. But the concessions of each other, until you knock down the the weak are the concessions of fear, hammer, and determine a proportion of When such a one is disarmed, he is wholly payments beyond all the powers of alge- at the mercy of his superior; and he loses bra to equalize and settle. forever that time and those chances, The plan which I shall presume to sug- which, as they happen to all men, are the gest derives, however, one great advan- strength and resources of all inferior tage from the proposition and registry of power. that noble lord's project. The idea of con- The capital leading questions on which ciliation is admissible. First, the House, you must this day decide are these two: in accepting the resolution moved by the First, whether you ought to concede; and, noble lord, has admitted, notwithstand- secondly, what your concession ought to ing the menacing front of our address, be. On the first of these questions we have notwithstanding our heavy bills of pains gained (as I have just taken the liberty and penalties, that we do not think our- of observing to you) some ground. But selves precluded from all ideas of free I am sensible that a good deal more is still grace and bounty. to be done. Indeed, sir, to enable us to The House has gone further; it has de- determine both on the one and the other clared conciliation admissible, previous to of these great questions with a firm and any submission on the part of America, precise judgment, I think it may be neces- It has even shot a good deal beyond that sary to consider distinctly the true nature mark, and has admitted that the com- and the peculiar circumstances of the plaints of our former mode of exerting object which we have before us. Because the right of taxation were not wholly after all our struggle, whether we will or unfounded. That right thus exerted is al- not, we must govern America according lowed to have had something reprehensi- to that nature, and to those circum- ble in it; something unwise, or something stances; and not according to our own grievous; since, in the midst of our heat imaginations; nor according to abstract and resentment, we, of ourselves, have ideas of right) by no means according to proposed a capital alteration; and, in or- mere general theories of government, the der to get rid of what seemed so very resort to which it appears to me, in our exceptionable, have instituted a mode that present situation, no better than arrant is altogether new; one that is, indeed, trifling. I shall therefore endeavour, with wholly alien from all the ancient methods your leave, to lay before you some of the a.nd forms of Parliament. most material of these circumstances in 455 BURKE, EDMUND as full and as clear a manner as I am great and growing population, though a able to state them. very important consideration, will not lose The first thing that we have to con- much of its weight if not combined with eider with regard to the nature of the other circumstances. The commerce of object is the number of people in the col- your colonies is out of all proportion be- onies. I have taken for some years a yond the numbers of the people. This good deal of pains on that point. I can ground of their commerce, indeed, has by no calculation justify myself in plac- been trod some days ago, and with great ing the number below 2,000,000 of inhabi- ability, by a distinguished person, at tants of our own European blood and col- your bar. This gentleman, after thirty- our; besides at least 500,000 others, who five years it is so long since he first form no inconsiderable part of the appeared at the same place to plead for strength and opulence of the whole, the commerce of Great Britain has come This, sir, is, I believe, about the true again before you to plead the same cause, number. There is no occasion to exag- without any other effect of time than gerate, where plain truth is of so much that to the fire of imagination and extent weight and importance. But whether I of erudition, which even then marked put the present number too high or too him as one of the first literary characters low is a matter of little moment. Such of his age, he has added a consummate is the strength with which population knowledge in the commercial interest of shoots in that part of the world that, his country, formed by a long course of state the numbers as high as we will, enlightened and discriminating experi- whilst the dispute continues, the exaggera- ence. tion ends. Whilst we are discussing any Sir, I should be inexcusable in coming given magnitude, they are grown to it. after such a person with any detail if a Whilst we spend our time in deliberating great part of the members who now fill on the mode of governing 2,000,000, we the House had not the misfortune to be shall find we have millions more to man- absent when he appeared at your bar. age. Your children do not grow faster Besides, sir, I propose to take the matter from infancy to manhood than they spread at periods of time somewhat different from families to communities, and from from his. There is, if I mistake not, a villages to nations. point of view, from whence, if you would I put this consideration of the present look at this subject, it is impossible that and the growing numbers in the front it should not make an impression upon of our deliberation; because, sir, this you. consideration will make it evident to a- I have in my hand two accounts: one blunter discernment than yours that no a comparative state of the export trade of partial, narrow, contracted, pinched, occa- England to its colonies, as it stood in the sional system will be at all suitable to year 1704, and as it stood in the year such an*object. It will show you that it 1772; the other a state of the export is not to be considered as one of those trade of this country to its colonies alone, minima (trifles) which are out of the as it stood in 1772, compared with the eye and consideration of the law; not a whole trade of England to all parts of the paltry excrescence of the state, not a world (the colonies included) in the year mean dependent, who may be neglected 1704. They are from good vouchers; the with little damage and provoked with latter period from the accounts on your little danger. It will prove that some table, the earlier from an original manu- degree of care and caution is required script of Davenant, who first established in the handling such an object; it will the inspector-general's office, which has show that you ought not, in reason, to been ever since his time so abundant a trifle with so large a mass of the inter- source of parliamentary information, ests and feelings of the human race. You The export trade to the colonies con- could at no time do so without guilt; and sists of three great branches. The Afri- be assured you will not be able to do it can, which, terminating almost wholly in long with impunity. the colonies, must be put to the account But the population of this country, the of their commerce; the West Indian; and 456 BURKE, EDMUND the North American. All these are so ed. But, it will be said, is not this Amer- interwoven that the attempt to separate ican trade an unnatural protuberance, them would tear to pieces the contexture that has drawn the juices from the rest of the whole; and if not entirely destroy, of the body? The reverse. It is the very would very much depreciate the value of food that has nourished every other part all the parts. I therefore consider these into its present magnitude. Our general three denominations to be, what in effect trade has been greatly augmented, and they are, one trade. augmented more or less in almost every The trade to the colonies, taken on the part to which it ever extended; but with export side, at the beginning of this cen- this material difference, that of the 6,- tury that is, in the year 1704 stood 000,000 which in the beginning of the cen- thus: tury constituted the whole mass of our Exports to North America and the ex P rt commerce, the colony trade waa West Indies .................. 483,265 but one-twelfth part; it is now (as a part To Africa ....................... 86,665 of 16,000,000) considerably more than a f the whole ' This is the relative 569 930 ' proportion of the importance of the col onies at these two periods: and all rea- In the year 1772, which I take as a SO ning concerning our mode of treating middle year between the highest and low- them must have this proportion as its est of those lately laid on your table, basis, or it is a reasoning weak, rotten, the account was as follows: and sophistical. To North America and the West Mr - Speaker, I cannot prevail on my- Indies ...................... 4,791,734 self to hurry over this great considera- To Africa .................... 866,398 tion. It is good for us to be here. We To t r m m i^fd, MS 8t - d wh * a ; e . - r **.<* in 1704 no existence .......... 364,000 what 1S > and wnat is P a t- Clouds, m- - deed, and darkness rest upon the future. 6,022,132 j, e t USj however, before we descend from this noble eminence, reflect that this From five hundred and odd thousand, growth of our national prosperity has it has grown to six millions. It has in- happened within the short period of the creased no less than twelvefold. This is life of man. It has happened within the state of the colony trade, as compared sixty-eight years. There are those alive with itself at these two periods, within whose memory might touch the two ex- this century and this is matter for tremities. For instance, my Lord Bath- meditation. But this is not all. Examine urst might remember all the stages of my second account. See how the export the progress. He was in 1704 of an age trade to the colonies alone in 1772 stood at least to be made to comprehend such in the other point of view, that is, as things. He was then old enough acta compared to the whole trade of England parenturn jam legere, et quae sit potuit in 1704: cognoscere virtus (to study the doings of The whole export trade of Eng- his forefathers, and to learn the meaning land, including that to the colo- of virtue). Suppose, sir, that the angel nies, in 1704 .............. .. 6,509,000 of thig ausp i c ious youth foreseeing the / E3 m2 t !.! he .^ 10n ! eS . ne :.. 6,024,000 *J virtue", which made him one of the - - - most amiable, as he is one of the most Difference ............ 485,000 fortunate, men of his age had opened to him in vision, that when, in the fourth The trade with America alone is now generation, the third prince of the House within less than 500,000 of being equal of Brunswick had sat twelve years on the to what this great commercial nation, throne of that nation, which (by the England, carried on at the beginning of happy issue of moderate and healing coun- this century with the whole world! If sels) was to be made Great Britain, he I had taken the largest year of those on should see his son, Lord Chancellor of your table, it would rather have exceed- England, turn back the current of heredi- 457 BTJBKE, EDMUND tary dignity to its fountain, and raise him lags after truth, invention is untruthful, to a higher rank of peerage, whilst he en- and imagination cold and barren, riched the family with a new one. If So far, sir, as to the importance of the amidst these bright and happy scenes of object in view of its commerce, as con- domestic honour and prosperity, that an- cerned in the exports from England. If gel should have drawn up the curtain, and I were to detail the imports, I could show unfolded the rising glories of his country, how many enjoyments they procure, which and whilst he was gazing with admiration relieve the burthen of life; how many on the then commercial grandeur of Eng- materials which invigorate the springs of land, the genius should point out to him national industry, and extend and animate a little speck, scarce visible in the mass every part of our foreign and domestic cf the national interest, a small seminal commerce. This would be a curious sub- principle, rather than a formed body, and ject, indeed but I must prescribe bounds should tell him : " Young man, there is to myself in a matter so vast and various. America, which at this day serves for I pass therefore to the colonies in an- little more than to amuse you with stories other point of view their agriculture, of savage men, and uncouth manners; yet This they have prosecuted with such a shall, before you taste of death, show it- spirit that, besides feeding plentifully self equal to the whole of that commerce their own growing multitude, their an- which now attracts the envy of the world, nual export of grain, comprehending rice, Whatever England has been growing to has some years ago exceeded 1,000,000 in by a progressive increase of improvement, value. Of their last harvest, I am per- brought in by varieties of people, by sue- suaded they will export much more. At cession of civilizing conquests and civil- the beginning of the century some of these izing settlements in a series of 1,700 years, colonies imported corn from the mother- you shall see as much added to her by country. For some time past, the Old America in the course of a single life!" World has been fed from the New. The If this state of his country had been fore- scarcity which you have felt would have told to him, would it not require all the been a desolating famine if this child of sanguine credulity of youth, and all the your old age, with a true filial piety, with fervid glow of enthusiasm, to make him a Roman charity, had not put the full believe it? Fortunate man, he has lived breast of its youthful exuberance to the to see it! Fortunate, indeed, if he lives mouth of its exhausted parent, to see nothing that shall vary the prospect As to the wealth which the colonies and cloud the setting of his day ! have drawn from the sea by their fisheries, Excuse me, sir, if, turning from such you had all that matter fully opened at thoughts, I resume this comparative view your bar. You surely thought these ac- once more. You have seen it on a large quisitions of value, for they seemed even scale; look at it on a, small one. I will to excite your envy; and yet the spirit point out to your attention a particular by which that enterprising employment instance of it in the single province of has been exercised ought rather, in my Pennsylvania. In the year 1704, that opinion, to have raised your esteem and province called for 11,459 in value of admiration. And pray, sir, what in the your commodities, native and foreign, world is equal to it? Pass by the other This was the whole. What did it demand in parts, and look at the manner in which 1772? Why, nearly fifty times as much; the people of New England have of late for in that year the export to Pennsyl- carried on the whale fishery. Whilst we vania was 507,909, nearly equal to the follow them among the tumbling mount- export to all the colonies together in the ains of ice, and behold them penetrating first period. into the deepest frozen recesses of Hud- I choose, sir, to enter into these minute son's Bay and Davis's Straits, whilst we and particular details; because general- are looking for them beneath the arctic ities, which in all other cases are apt circle, we hear that they have pierced to heighten and raise the subject, have into the opposite region of polar cold, here a tendency to sink it. When we speak that they are at the antipodes, and en- of the commerce with our colonies, fiction gaged under the frozen serpent of the 458 BURKE, EDMUND south. Falkland Island, which seemed too an odious, but a feeble instrument, for remote and romantic^ an object for the preserving a people so numerous, so ac- grasp of national ambition, is but a stage tive, so growing, so spirited as this, in and resting-place in the progress of their a profitable and subordinate connection victorious industry. Nor is the equinoc- with us. tial heat more discouraging to them than First, sir, permit me to observe that the the accumulated winter of both the poles, use of force alone is but temporary. It We know that whilst some of them draw may subdue for a moment; but it does the line and strike the harpoon on the not remove the necessity of subduing coast of Africa, others run the longitude, again ; and a nation is not governed which and pursue their gigantic game along the is perpetually to be conquered, coast of Brazil. No sea but what is vexed My next objection is its uncertainty, by their fisheries. No climate that is not Terror is not always the effect of force; witness to their toils. Neither the perse- and an armament is not a victory. If verance of Holland, nor the activity of you do not succeed, you are without re- France, nor the dexterous and firm sa- source; for, conciliation failing, force re- gacity of English enterprise ever carried mains; but, force failing, no further hope this most perilous mode of hardy indus- of reconciliation is left. Power and au- try to the extent to which it has been thority are sometimes bought by kind- pushed by this recent people; a people ness; but they can never be begged as who are still, as it were, but in the gris- alms by an impoverished and defeated vio- tle, and not yet hardened into the bone lence. of manhood. When I contemplate these A further objection to force is that you things, when I know that the colonies impair the object by your very endeav- in general owe little or nothing to any Ours to preserve it. The thing you fought care of ours, and that they are not for is not the thing which you recover, squeezed into this happy form by the con- but depreciated, sunk, wasted, and con straints of watchful and suspicious gov- sumed in the contest. Nothing less will ernment, but that, through a wise and content me than whole America. I do not salutary neglect, a generous nature has choose to consume its strength along with been suffered to take her own way to per- our own; because in all parts it is the fection; when I reflect upon these effects, British strength that I consume. I do not when I see how profitable they have been choose to be caught by a foreign enemy to us, I feel all the pride of power sink, at the end of this exhausting conflict; and all presumption in the wisdom of hu- and still less in the midst of it. I may man contrivances melt and die away with- escape; but I can make no insurance in me. My rigour relents. I pardon some- against such an event. Let me add that thing to the spirit of liberty. I do not choose wholly to break the Amer- I am sensible, sir, that all which I have ican spirit; because it is the spirit that asserted in my detail is admitted in the has made the country, gross; but that quite a different conclu- Lastly, we have no sort of experience il sion is drawn from it. America, gentle- favour of force as an instrument in the men say, is a noble object. It is an object rule of our colonies. Their growth and well worth fighting for. Certainly it is, their utility has been owing to methods if fighting a people be the best way of altogether different. Our ancient indul- gaining them. Gentlemen in this respect gence has been said to be pursued to a will be led to their choice of means by fault. It may be so. But we know, if their complexions and their habits. Those feeling is evidence, that our fault was who understand the military art will, of more tolerable than *our attempt to mend course, have some predilection for it. it ; and our sin far more salutary than our Those who wield the thunder of the state penitence. may have some confidence in the efficacy These, sir, are my reasons for not en- of arms. But I confess, possibly for want tertaining that high opinion of untried of this knowledge, my opinion is much force, by which many gentlemen, for whose more in favour of prudent management sentiments in other particulars I have than of force; considering force not as great respect, seem to be so greatly capti- 459 BURKE, EDMUND vated. But there is still behind a third consideration concerning this object, which serves to determine my opinion on the sort of policy which ought to be pursued in the management of America, even more than its population and its commerce. I mean its temper and character. In this character of the Americans, a love of freedom is the predominating feat ure which marks and distinguishes the whole; and as an ardent is always a jeal ous affection, your colonies become sus picious, restive, and untractable, when ever they see the least attempt to wrest from them by force, or shuffle from them by chicane, what they think the only ad vantage worth living for. This fierce spirit of liberty is stronger in the Eng lish colonies probably than in any other people of the earth; and this from a great variety of powerful causes; which, to understand the true temper of their minds and the direction which this spirit takes, it will not be amiss to lay open somewhat more largely. First, the people of the colonies are descendants of Englishmen. England, sir, is a nation, which still, I hope, re spects, and formerly adorecl her freedom. The colonists emigrated from you when this part of your character was most pre dominant; and they took their bias and direction the moment they parted from your hands. They are, therefore, not only devoted to liberty, but to liberty according to English ideas, and on English principles. Abstract liberty, like other mere abstrac tions, is not to be found. Liberty inheres in some sensible object; and every nation has formed to itself some favourite point, which by way of eminence becomes the criterion of their happiness. It happened, you know, sir, that the great contests for freedom in this country were from the earliest times chiefly upon the question of taxing. Most of the contests in the an cient commonwealths turned primarily on the right of election of magistrates or on the balance among the several orders of the state. The question of money was not with them so immediate. But in Eng land it was otherwise. On this point of taxes the ablest pens and most eloquent tongues have been exercised; the greatest spirits have acted and suffered. In order to give the fullest satisfaction concerning 460 the importance of this point, it was not only necessary for those who in argu ment defended the excellence of the Eng lish constitution to insist on this privi lege of granting money as a dry point of fact, and to prove that the right had been acknowledged in ancient parchments, and blind usages, to reside in a certain body called a House of Commons. They went much farther; they attempted to prove, and they succeeded, that in theory it ought to be so, from the particular nat ure of a House of Commons, as an imme diate representative of the people ; whether the old records had delivered this oracle or not. They took infinite pains to in culcate, as a fundamental principle, that in all monarchies the people must, in ef fect, themselves, mediately or immediately, possess the power of granting their own money, or no shadow of liberty could sub sist. The colonies draw from you, as with their life-blood, these ideas and principles. Their love of liberty, as with you, fixed and attached on this specific point of tax ing. Liberty might be safe, or might be endangered, in twenty other particulars, without their being much pleased or alarm ed. Here they felt its pulse; and as they found that beat, they thought themselves sick or sound. I do not say whether they were right or wrong in applying your general arguments to their own case. It is not easy, indeed, to make a monopoly of theorems an corollaries. The fact is that they did thus apply those general arguments; and your mode of governing them, whether through lenity or indolence, through wisdom or mistake, confirmed them in the imagination that they, as well as you, had an interest in these com mon principles. They were further confirmed in this pleasing error by the form of their pro vincial legislative assemblies. Their gov ernments are popular in a high degree; some are merely popular; in all, the popu lar representative is the most weighty; and this share of the people in their ordi nary government never fails to inspire them with lofty sentiments, and with a strong aversion from whatever tends to deprive them of their chief importance. If anything were wanting to this neces sary operation of the form of government, religion would have given it a complete BURKE, EDMUND effect. Religion, always a principle of tude of this description; because in the energy, in this new people is no way worn southern colonies the Church of England out or impaired; and their mode of pro- forms a large body, and has a regular es- fessing it is also one main cause of their tablishment. It is certainly true. There free spirit. The people are Protestants; is, however, a circumstance attending and of that kind which is the most ad- these colonies, which, in my opinion, fully verse to all implicit submission of mind counterbalances this difference, and makes and opinion. This is a persuasion not the spirit of liberty still more high and only favourable to liberty, but built upon haughty than in those to the northward, it. I do not think, sir, that the reason of It is that in Virginia and the Carolinas this averseness in the dissenting churches they have a vast number of slaves. Where from all that looks like absolute govern- this is the case in any part of the world, ment is so much to be sought in their those who are free are by far the most religious tenets as in their history. Every proud and jealous of their freedom. Free- one knows that the Roman Catholic relig- dom is to them not only an enjoyment, ion is at least coeval with most of the but a kind of rank and privilege. Not governments where it prevails, that it has seeing there, that freedom, as in countries generally gone hand in hand with them, where it is a common blessing, and as and received great favour and every kind broad and general as the air, may be of support from authority. The Church united with much abject toil, with great of England, too, was formed from her misery, with all the exterior of servitude, cradle under the nursing care of regular liberty looks amongst them like some- government. But the dissenting interests thing that is more noble and liberal. I have sprung up in direct opposition to all do not mean, sir, to commend the superior the ordinary powers of the world, and morality of this sentiment, which has at could justify that opposition only on a least as much pride as virtue in it; but strong claim to natural liberty. Their I cannot alter the nature of man. The very existence depended on the powerful fact is so; and these people of the south- and unremitted assertion of that claim, ern colonies are much more strongly, and All Protestantism, even the most cold and with a higher and more stubborn spirit, passive, is a sort of dissent. But the re- attached to liberty, than those to the ligion most prevalent in our northern northward. Such were all the ancient colonies is a refinement on the principle of commonwealths; such were our Gothic an- resistance; it is the dissidence of dissent, cestors; such in our days were the Poles; and the Protestantism of the Protestant and such will be all masters of slaves, who religion. This religion, under a variety are not slaves themselves. In such a peo- of denominations agreeing in nothing but pie, the haughtiness of domination corn- in the communion of the spirit of liberty, bines with the spirit of freedom, fortifies is predominant in most of the northern it, and renders it invincible, provinces, where the Church of England, Permit me, sir, to add another circum- notwithstanding its legal rights, is in stance in our colonies, which contributes reality no more than a sort of private no mean part towards the growth and sect, not composing most probably the effect of this untractable spirit. I mean tenth of the people. The colonists left their education. In no country perhaps England when this spirit was high, and in the world is the law so general a study, in the emigrants was the highest of all ; The profession itself is numerous and pow- and even that stream of foreigners, which erful; and in most provinces it takes the has been constantly flowing into these lead. The greater number of the deputies colonies, has, for the greatest part, been sent to the colonies were lawyers. But all composed of dissenters from the establish- who read and most do read endear ments of their several countries, and have our to obtain some smattering in that brought with them a temper and character science. I have been told by an emi- far from alien to that of the people with nent bookseller, that in no branch of whom they mixed. his business, after tracts of popular de- Sir, I ean perceive by their manner votion, were so many books as those on that some gentlemen object to the lati- the law exported to the plantations. The 461 BURKE, EDMUND colonists have now fallen into the way of raging passions and furious elements, of printing them for their own use. and says, " So far shalt thou go, and no I hear that they have sold nearly as farther." Who are you, that should fret many of Blackstone's Commentaries in and rage, and bite the chains of nature? America as in England. General Gage Nothing worse happens to you than does marks out this disposition very particu- to all nations who have extensive empire; larly in a letter on your table. He states and it happens in all the forms into which that all the people in his government empire can be thrown. In large bodies, are lawyers, or smatterers in law; and the circulation of power must be less vig- that in Boston they have been enabled, orous at the extremities. Nature has by successful chicane, wholly to evade said it. The Turk cannot govern Egypt, many parts of one of your capital penal and Arabia, and Curdistan, as he governs constitutions. The smartness of debate Thrace; nor has he the same dominion will say that this knowledge ought to in Crimea and Algiers which he has at teach them more clearly the rights of leg- Brusa and Smyrna. Despotism itself is islature, their obligations to obedience, obliged to truck and huckster. The Sul- and the penalties of rebellion. All this is tan gets such obedience as he can. He mighty well. But my honoured and learn- governs with a loose rein that he may ed friend on the floor, who condescends govern at all; and the whole of the force to mark what I say for animadversion, and vigour of his authority in his centre will disdain that ground. He has heard, is derived from a prudent relaxation in as well as I, that when great honours and all his borders. Spain, in her provinces, great emoluments do not win over this is, perhaps, not so well obeyed as you are knowledge to the service of the state, it is in yours. She complies too; she submits; a formidable adversary to government. If she watches times. This is the immuta- the spirit be not tamed and broken by ble condition, the eternal law, of extensive these happy methods, it is stubborn and and detached empire. litigious. Abeunt studio, in mores (Pur- Then, sir, from these six capital suits influence character). This study sources: of descent; of form of govern- renders men acute, inquisitive, dexterous, ment; of religion in the northern prov- prompt in attack, ready in defence, full inces; of manners in the southern; of of resources. In other countries, the peo- education; of the remoteness of situation pie, more simple, and of a less mercurial from the first mover of government from cast, judge of an ill principle in govern- all these causes a fierce spirit of liberty ment only by an actual grievance; here has grown up. It has grown with the they anticipate the evil, and judge of the growth of the people in your colonies, and pressure of the grievance by the badness increased with the increase of their of the principle. They augur misgovern- wealth; a spirit that, unhappily meeting ment at a distance; and snuff the ap- with an exercise of power in England, proach of tyranny in every tainted breeze, which, however lawful, is not reconcilable The last cause of this disobedient spirit to any ideas of liberty, much less with in the colonies is hardly less powerful theirs, has kindled the flame that is ready than the rest, as it is not merely moral, to consume us. but laid deep in the natural constitution I do not mean to commend either the of things. Three thousand miles of ocean spirit in this excess, or the moral causes lie between you and them. No contriv- which produce it. Perhaps a more smooth ance can prevent the effect of this distance and accommodating spirit of freedom in in weakening government. Seas roll, and them would be more acceptable to us. months pass, between the order and the Perhaps ideas of liberty might be desired, execution; and the want of a speedy ex- more reconcilable with an arbitrary and planation of a single point is enough to boundless authority. Perhaps we might defeat a whole system. You have, in- wish the colonists to be persuaded that deed, winged ministers of vengeance, who their liberty is more secure when laid in carry your bolts in their pounces to the trust for them by us (as their guardians remotest verge of the sea. But there a during a perpetual minority) than with power steps in, that limits the arrogance any part of it in their own hands. The 462 BURKE, EDMUND question is, not whether their spirit de- most fortunate periods. Obedience is what serves praise or blame, but what, in makes government, and not the names by the name of God, shall we do with it ? which it is called ; not the name of govern- You have before you the object, such as it or, as formerly, or committee, as at pres- is, with all its glories, with all its imper- ent. This new government has originated fections, on its head. You see the magni- directly from the people; and was not tude; the importance; the temper; the transmitted through any of the ordinary habits; the disorders. By all these con- media of a positive constitution. It was siderations we are strongly urged to de- not a manufacture ready formed, but termine something concerning it. We transmitted to them in that condition are called upon to fix some rule and line from England. The evil arising from for our future conduct, which may give hence is this: that the colonists having a little stability to our politics, and pre- once found the possibility of enjoying the vent the return of such unhappy deliber- advantages of order in the midst of a ations as the present. Every such return struggle for liberty, such struggles will will bring the matter before us in a still not henceforward seem so terrible to the more untractable form. For, what aston- settled and sober part of mankind as they ishing and incredible things have we not had appeared before the trial, seen already ! What monsters have not Pursuing the same plan of punishing by been generated from this unnatural con- the denial of the exercise of government tention! Whilst every principle of au- to still greater lengths, we wholly abro- thority and resistance has been pushed, gated the ancient government of Massa- upon both sides, as far as it would go, chusetts. We were confident that the first there is nothing so solid and certain, either feeling, if not the very prospect of anar- in reasoning or in practice, that has not chy, would instantly enforce a complete been shaken. Until very lately, all au- submission. The experiment was tried, thority in America seemed to be nothing A new, strange, unexpected face of things but an emanation from yours. Even the appeared. Anarchy is found tolerable. A popular part of the colony constitution vast province has now subsisted, and sub- derived all its activity, and its first vital sisted in a considerable degree of health movement, from the pleasure of the crown, and vigour, for near a twelvemonth, with- We thought, sir, that the utmost which out governor, without public council, with- the discontented colonists could do was out judges, without executive magistrates. to disturb authority; we never dreamt How long it will continue in this state, or they could of themselves supply it, know- what may rise out of this unheard-of ing in general what an operose business situation, how can the wisest of us con- it is to establish a government absolutely jecture? Our late experience has taught new. But having, for our purposes in this us that many of those fundamental prin- contention, resolved that none but an ciples, formerly believed infallible, are obedient assembly should sit, the humours either not of the importance they were of the people there, finding all passage imagined to be, or that we have not at through the legal channels stopped, with all adverted to some other far more im- great violence broke out another way. portant and far more powerful prin- Some provinces have tried their experi- ciples, which entirely overrule those we ment, as we have tried ours; and theirs had considered as omnipotent. I am much have succeeded. They have formed a gov- against any further experiments, which ernment sufficient for its purposes, with- tend to put to the proof any more of these out the bustle of a revolution, or the allowed opinions, which contribute so troublesome formality of an election. Evi- much to the public tranquillity. In effect, dent necessity, and tacit consent, have we suffer as much at home by this loosen- done the business in an instant. So well ing of all ties, and this concussion of all they have done it, that Lord Dunmore established opinions, as we do abroad, (the account is among the fragments on For, in order to prove that the Americans your table) tells you, that the new have no right to their liberties, we are institution is infinitely better obeyed than every day endeavouring to subvert the the ancient government ever was in its maxims which preserve the whole spirit 463 BURKE, EDMUND of our own. To prove that the Americans ought not to be free, we are obliged to de preciate the value of freedom itself; and we never seem to gain a paltry advantage over them in debate, without attacking some of those principles, or deriding some of those feelings, for which our ancestors have shed their blood. But, sir, in wishing to put an end to pernicious experiments, I do not mean to preclude the fullest inquiry. Far from it. Far from deciding on a sudden or partial view, I would patiently go round and round the subject, and survey it minutely in every possible aspect. Sir, if I were capable of engaging you to an equal at tention, I would state that, as far as I am capable of discerning, there are but three ways of proceeding relative to this stubborn spirit which prevails in our colonies, and disturbs your government. These are To change that spirit, as in convenient, by removing the causes. To prosecute it as criminal. Or, to com ply with it as necessary. I would not be guilty of an imperfect enumeration; I can think of but these three. Another has indeed been stated, that of giving up the colonies; but it met so slight a reception, that I do not think myself obliged to dwell a great while upon it. It is nothing but a little sally of anger, like the fro- wardness of peevish children, who, when they cannot get all they would have, are resolved to take nothing. The first of these plans, to change the spirit as inconvenient, by removing the causes, I think, is the most like a syste matic proceeding. It is radical in its principle; but it is attended with great difficulties, some of them little short, as I conceive, of impossibilities. This will ap pear by examining into the plans which have been proposed. As the growing population in the col- enies is evidently one cause of their re sistance, it was last session mentioned in both Houses by men of weight, and received not without applause, that in or der to check this evil it would be proper for the crown to make no further grants of land. But to this scheme there are two objections. The first, that there is already so much unsettled land in private hands as to afford room for an immense future population, although the crown not only withheld its grants, but annihilated its soil. If this be the case, then the only effect of this avarice of desolation, this hoarding of a royal wilderness, would be to raise the value of the possession in the hands of the great private monop olists, without any adequate check to the growing and alarming mischief of popu lation. But if you stopped your grants, what would be the consequences? The people would occupy without grants. They have already so occupied in many places. You cannot station garrisons in every part of these deserts. If you drive the people from one place, they will carry on their annual tillage, and remove with their flocks and herds to another. Many of the people in the back settlements are already little attached to particular situations. Already they have topped the Appalachian Mountains. From thence they behold be fore them an immense plain, one vast, rich, level meadow; a square of 500 miles. Over this they would wander without a possibility of restraint; they would change their manners with the habits of their life; would soon forget a govern ment by which they were disowned; would become hordes of English Tartars; and pouring down upon your unfortified frontiers a fierce and irresistible cavalry, become masters of your governors and your counsellors, your collectors and comptrollers, and of all the slaves that adhere to them. Such would, and, in no long time, must be, the effect of attempt ing to forbid as a crime, and to suppress as an evil, the command and blessing of Providence, " Increase and multiply." Such would be the happy result of an endeavour to keep as a lair of wild beasts that earth which God, by an express char ter, has given to the children of men. Far different, and surely much wiser, has been our policy hitherto. Hitherto we have invited our people, by every kind of bounty, to fixed establishments. We have invited the husbandman to look to au thority for his title. We have taught him piously to believe in the mysterious virtue of wax and parchment. We have thrown each tract of land, as it was peopled, into districts, that the ruling power should never be wholly out of sight. We have settled all we could; and we have care- 464 BURKE, EDMUND fully attended every settlement with gov ernment. Adhering, sir, as I do, to this policy, as well as for the reasons I have just given, I think this new project of hedging in population to be neither prudent nor practicable. To impoverish the colonies in general, and in particular to arrest the noble course of their marine enter prises, would be a more easy task. I freely confess it. We have shown a dis position to a system of this kind; a dis position even to continue the restraint af ter the offence; looking on ourselves as rivals to our colonies, and persuaded that of course we must gain all that they shall lose. Much mischief we may cer tainly do. The power inadequate to all other things is often more than sufficient for this. I do not look on the direct and immediate power of the colonies to resist our violence as very formidable. In this, however, I may be mistaken. But when I consider that we have colonies for no pur pose but to be serviceable to us, it seems to my poor understanding a little pre posterous to make them unserviceable in order to keep them obedient. It is, in truth, nothing more than the old and, as I thought, exploded problem of tyranny, which proposes to beggar its subjects into submission. But remember, when you have completed your system of impover ishment, that nature still proceeds in her ordinary course; that discontent will in crease with misery; and that there are critical moments in the fortune of all states, when they who are too weak to contribute to your prosperity, may be strong enough to complete your ruin. Spoliatis arma super sunt (The plundered ne'er want arms ) . The temper and character which pre vail in our colonies are, I am afraid, unalterable by any human art. We can not, I fear, falsify the pedigree of this fierce people, and persuade them that they are not sprung from a nation in whose veins the blood of freedom circulates. The language in which they would hear you tell them this tale would detect the imposition; your speech would betray you. An Englishman is the unfittest person on earth to argue another Englishman into slavery. I think it is nearly as little in our pow- i. 2o 465 er to change their republican religion, as their free descent; or to substitute the Roman Catholic, as a penalty, or the Church of England, as an improvement. The mode of inquisition and dragooning is going out of fashion in the Old World ; and I should not confide much to their efficacy in the .New. The education of the Americans is also on the same unalter able bottom with their religion. You cannot persuade them to burn their books of curious science ; to banish their lawyers from their courts of law ; or to quench the light of their assemblies by refusing to choose those persons who are best read in their privileges. It would be no less im practicable to think of wholly annihilat ing the popular assemblies, in which these lawyers sit. The army, by which we must govern in their place, would be far more chargeable to us; not quite so effectual; and perhaps, in the end, full as difficult to be kept in obedience. With regard to the high aristocratic spirit of Virginia and the southern col onies, it has been proposed, I know, to reduce it, by declaring a general enfran chisement of their slaves. This project has had its advocates and panegyrists; yet I never could argue myself into any opinion of it. Slaves are often much at tached to their masters. A general wild offer of liberty would not always be ac cepted. History furnishes few instances of it. It is sometimes as hard to persuade slaves to be free, as it is to compel free men to be slaves, and in this auspicious scheme, we should have both these pleas ing tasks on our hands a-t once. But when we talk of enfranchisement, do we not per ceive that the American master may en franchise too; and arm servile hands in defence of freedom? A measure to which other people have had recourse more than once, a-nd not without success, in a des perate situation of their affairs. Slaves as these unfortunate black peo ple are, and dull as all men are from slavery, must they not a little suspect the offer of freedom from that very nation which has sold them to their present mas ters? from that nation, one of whose causes of quarrel with those masters is their refusal to deal any more in that in human traffic? An offer "of freedom from England would come rather oddly, shipped BURKE, EDMUND to them in an African vessel, which is re- I am. I really think, that for wise men fused an entry into the ports of Virginia this is not judicious; for sober men, not or Carolina, with a cargo of 300 Anglo decent; for minds tinctured with human- negroes. It would be curious to see the ity, not mild and merciful. Guinea captain attempting at the same Perhaps, sir, I am mistaken in my ideas instant to publish his proclamation of of an empire, as distinguished from a liberty, and to advertise his sale of slaves, single state or kingdom. But my idea But let us suppose all these moral diffi- of it is this: that an empire is the ag- culties got over. The ocean remains, gregate of many states under one com- You cannot pump this dry; and as long mon head, whether this head be a mon- as it continues in its present bed, so long arch, or a presiding republic. It does, in all the causes which weaken authority such constitutions, frequently happen by distance will continue. " Ye gods, an- ( and nothing but the dismal, cold, dead nihilate but space and time, and make uniformity of servitude can prevent its two lovers happy!" was a pious and pas- happening) that the subordinate parts sionate prayer; but just as reasonable, as have many local privileges and immunities, many of the serious wishes of very grave Between these privileges and the supreme and solemn politicians. common authority the line may be ex- If, then, sir, it seems almost desperate tremely nice. Of course, disputes, often, to think of any alternative course, for too, very bitter disputes, and much ill changing the moral causes (and not quite blood, will arise. But though every privi- easy to remove the natural) which pro- lege is an exemption (in the case) from duce prejudices irreconcilable to the late the ordinary exercise of the supreme au- exercise of our authority; but that the thority, it is no denial of it. The claim spirit infallibly will continue; and, con- of a privilege seems rather, ex vi termini tinuing, will produce such effects as now (by the meaning of the term), to imply a embarrass us, the second mode under con- superior power. For to talk of the privi- sideration is, to prosecute that spirit in leges of a state, or of a person, whs* Has its overt acts, as criminal. no superior, is hardly any better than At this proposition I must pause a speaking nonsense. Now, in such unfort- moment. The thing seems a great deal unate quarrels among the component too big for my ideas of jurisprudence. It parts of a great political union of corn- would seem to my way of conceiving such munities, I eaa scarcely conceive anything matters, that there is a very wide differ- more completely imprudent, than for the ence in reason and policy, between the head of the empire to insist, that, if any mode of proceeding on the irregular con- privilege is pleaded against his will, or duct of scattered individuals, or even of his acts, his whole authority is denied; bands of men, who disturb order within instantly to proclaim rebellion, to beat the state, and the civil dissensions which to arms, and to put the offending pror- may, from time to time, on great ques- inces under the ban. Will not this, sir, tions, agitate the several communities very soon teach the provinces to make no which compose a great empire. It looks distinctions on their part? Will it not to me to be narrow and pedantic, to apply teach them that the government, against the ordinary ideas of criminal justice to which a claim of liberty is tantamount to this great public contest. I do not know high treason, is a government to which the method of drawing up an indictment submission is equivalent to slavery? It against a whole people. I cannot insult may not always be quite convenient to and ridicule the feelings of millions of impress dependent communities with such my fellow-creatures, as Sir Edward Coke an idea. insulted one excellent individual (Sir We are, indeed, in all disputes with Walter Raleigh) at the bar. I hope I the colonies, by the necessity of things, am not ripe to pass sentence on the grav- the judge. It is true, sir. But I confess, est public bodies, intrusted with magis- that the character of judge in my own tracies of great authority and dignity, cause is a thing that frightens me. In- and charged with the safety of their fel- stead of filling me with pride, I am ex- low-citizens, upon the very same title that ceedingly humbled by it. I cannot pro- 466 BTTBKE, EDMUND ceed with a stern, assured, judicial con fidence, until I find myself in something more like a judicial character. I must have these hesitations as long as I am compelled to recollect, that, in my little reading upon such contests as these, the sense of mankind has, at least, as often decided against the superior as the subor dinate power. Sir, let me add too, that the opinion of my having some abstract right in my favour, would not put me much at my ease in passing sentence; unless I could be sure, that there were no rights which, in their exercise under certain cir cumstances, were not the most odious of all wrongs, and the most vexatious of all injustice. Sir, these considerations have great weight with me, when I find things so circumstanced, that I see the same party, at once a civil litigant against me in point of right, and a culprit before me; while I sit as a criminal judge, on acts of his whose moral quality is to be decided upon the merits of that very liti gation. Men are every now and then put, by the complexity of human affairs, into strange situations: but justice is the same, let the judge be in what situation he will. There is, sir, also a circumstance which convinces me that this mode of criminal proceeding is not (at least in the present stage of our contest) altogether expedi ent; which is nothing less than the con duct of those very persons who have seem ed to adopt that mode, by lately declar ing a rebellion in Massachusetts Bay, as they had formerly addressed to have trai tors brought hither, under an act of Henry VIII., for trial. For though rebellion is declared, it is not proceeded against as such; nor have any steps been taken towards the apprehension or conviction of any individual offender, either on our late or our former address; but modes of pub lic coercion have been adopted, and such as have much more resemblance to a sort of qualified hostility towards an inde pendent power than the punishment of rebellious subjects. All this seems rather inconsistent; but it shows how difficult it is to apply these judicial ideas to our pres ent case. In this situation let us seriously and coolly ponder. What is it we have got by all our menaces, which have been many and ferocious? What advantage have we derived from the penal laws we have passed, and which, for the time, have been severe and numerous? What advances have we made towards our object, by the sending of a force, which, by land and sea, is no contemptible strength? Has the dis order abated? Nothing less. When I see things in this situation, after such con fident hopes, bold promises, and active exertions, I cannot, for my life, a-void a suspicion that the plan itself is not cor rectly right. If, then, the removal of the causes of this spirit of American liberty be, for the greater part, or rather entirely, imprac ticable; if the ideas of criminal process be inapplicable, are in the highest degree inexpedient, what way yet remains? No way is open, but the third and last, to comply with the American spirit as nec essary; or, if you please, to submit to it as a necessary evil. If we adopt this mode; if we mean to conciliate and concede, let us see of what nature the concession ought to be; to as certain the nature of our concession we must look at their complaint. The colo nies complain that they have not the char acteristic mark and seal of British free dom. They complain that they are taxed in a- Parliament in which they are not rep resented. If you mean to satisfy them all, you must satisfy them with regard to this complaint. If you mean to please any people, you must give them the boon which they ask; not what you may think better for them, but of a kind totally dif ferent. Such an act may be a wise regu lation, but it is no concession: whereas our present theme is the mode of giving satisfaction. Sir, I think you must perceive that I am resolved this day to have nothing at all to do with the question of the right of taxation. Some gentlemen startle, but it is true; I put it totally out of the question. It is less than nothing in my consideration. I do not, indeed, wonder, nor will you, sir, that gentlemen of pro found learning are fond of displaying it on this profound subject. But my consid eration is narrow, confined, and wholly limited to the policy of the question. I do not examine, whether the giving away a man's money be a power excepted and 467 BTJBKE, EDMUND reserved out of the general trust of gov- principles of freedom. I am not determin- ernment; and how far all mankind, in all ing a point of law; I am restoring tran- forms of polity, are entitled to an exer- quillity; and the general character and cise of that right by the charter of nat- situation of a people must determine what ure. Or whether, on the contrary, a right sort of government is fitted for them, of taxation is necessarily involved in the That point nothing else can or ought to general principle of legislation, and in- determine. separable from the ordinary supreme pow- My idea, therefore, without considering er. These are deep questions, where great whether we yield as matter of right, or names militate against each other; where grant as matter of favour, is to admit the reason is perplexed; and an appeal to au- people of our colonies into an interest in thorities only thickens the confusion. For the constitution; and, by recording that high and reverend authorities lift up their admission in the journals of Parliament, heads on both sides ; and there is no sure to give them as strong an assurance as the footing in the middle. This point is nature of the thing will admit, that we the great Serbonian bog, betwixt Damiata mean forever to adhere to that solemn and Mount Casius old, where armies whole declaration of systematic indulgence. have sunk. I do not intend to be over- Some years ago, the repeal of a revenue whelmed in that bog, though in such re- act, upon its understood principle, might spectable company. The question with me have served to show, that we intended is not whether you have a right to ren- an unconditional abatement of the exer- der your people miserable, but whether it cise of a taxing power. Such a measure is not your interest to make them happy, was then sufficient to remove all sus- It is not what a lawyer tells me I may picion, and to give perfect content. But do, but what humanity, reason, and jus- unfortunate events, since that time, may tice tells me I ought to do. Is a politic make something further necessary; and act the worse for being a generous one? not more necessary for the satisfaction Is no concession proper but that which of the colonies, than for. the dignity and is made from your want of right to keep consistency of our own future proceedings, what you grant? Or does it lessen the I have taken a very incorrect measure grace or dignity of relaxing in the ex- of the disposition of the House, if this ercise of an odious claim, because you proposal in itself would be received with have your evidence-room full of titles, and dislike, il think, sir, we have few Amer- your magazines stuffed with arms to en- lean financiers. But our misfortune is, force them? What signify all those titles, we are too acute; we are too exquisite and all those arms? Of what avail are in our conjectures of the future, for men they when the reason of the thing tells oppressed with such great and present me that the assertion of my title is the evils. The more moderate among the loss of my suit ; and that I could do noth- opposers of parliamentary concession ing but wound myself by the use of my freely confess, that they hope no good own weapons? from taxation; but they apprehend the Such is steadfastly my opinion of the colonists have further views; and if this absolute necessity of keeping up the con- point were conceded, they would instantly cord of this empire by the unity of spirit, attack the trade laws. These gentlemen though in a diversity of operations, that, are convinced, that this was the intention if I were sure the colonists had, at their from the beginning; and the quarrel of leaving this country, sealed a regular the Americans with taxation was no more compact of servitude; that they had sol- than a cloak and cover to this design, emnly abjured all the rights of citizens; Such has been the language even of a that they had made a vow to renounce all gentleman of real moderation, and of a ideas of liberty for them and their pos- natural temper well adjusted to fair and terity to all generations; yet I should equal government. I am, however, sir, hold myself obliged to conform to the not a little surprised at this kind of dis temper I found universally prevalent in course, whenever I hear it; and I am the my own day, and to govern 2,000,000 more surprised, on account of the argu- of men, impatient of servitude, on the ments which I constantly find in company 468 BURKE. EDMUND with it, and which are often urged from was on taxation. This quarrel has indeed the same mouths, and on the same day. brought on new disputes on new ques- For instance, when we allege, that it is tions; but certainly the least bitter, and against reason to tax a people under so the fewest of all, on the trade laws. To many restraints in trade as the Amer- judge which of the two be the real, radi- icans, the noble lord in the blue riband eal cause of quarrel, we have to see shall tell you, that the restraints on trade whether the commercial dispute did, in are futile and useless; of no advantage to order of time, precede the dispute on tax- us, and of no burthen to those on whom ation. There is not a shade of evidence they are imposed; that the trade to Amer- for it. Next, to enable us to judge whether ica is not secured by the acts of naviga- at this moment a dislike to the trade laws tion, but by the natural and irresistible be the real cause of quarrel, it is abso- aclvantage of a commercial preference. lutely necessary to put the taxes out of Such is the merit of the trade laws in the question by a repeal. See how the this posture of the debate. But when Americans act in this position, and then strong internal circumstances are urged you will be able to discern correctly what against the taxes; when the scheme is is the true object of the controversy, or dissected; when experience and the nature whether any controversy at all will re- of things are brought to prove, and do main. Unless you consent to remove this prove, the utter impossibility of obtain- cause of difference, it is impossible, with ing an effective revenue from the colonies; decency, to assert that the dispute is not when these things are pressed, or rather upon what it is avowed to be. And I press themselves, so as to drive the advo- would, sir, recommend to your serious con- cr.tes of colony taxes to a clear admission sideration, whether it be prudent to form of the futility of the scheme; then, sir, a rule for punishing people, not on their the sleeping trade laws revive from their own acts, but on your conjectures? Sure- trance; and this useless taxation is to be ly it is preposterous at the very best. It kept sacred, not for its own sake, but as is not justifying your anger, by their a counter-guard and security of the laws misconduct; but it is converting your of trade. will into their delinquency. Then, sir, you keep up revenue laws But the colonies will go further. Alas! which are mischievous, in order to pre- alas! when will this speculating against serve trade laws that are useless. Such fact and reason end? What will quiet is the wisdom of our plan in both its mem- these panic fears which we entertain of bers. They are separately given up as the hostile effect of a conciliatory con- of no value; and yet is always to be de- duct? Is it true, that no case can exist, fended for the sake of the other. But I in which it is proper for the sovereign cannot agree with the noble lord, nor with to accede to the desires of his discontent- the pamphlet from whence he seems to ed subjects? Is there anything peculiar have borrowed these ideas, concerning the in this case, to make a rule for itself? inutility of the trade laws. For, without Is all authority of course lost, when it idolizing them, I am sure they are still, is pushed to the extreme? Is it a cer- in many ways, of great use to us: and in tain maxim, that the fewer causes of dis- former times they have been of the great- satisfaction are left by government, the est. They do confine, and they do great- more the subject will be inclined to re ly narrow, the market for the Americans, sist and rebel? But my perfect conviction of this does not All these objections being in fact no help me in the least to discern how the more than suspicions, conjectures, divina- revenue laws form any security whatso- tions, formed in defiance of fact and ex- ever to the commercial regulations ; or that perience ; they did not, sir, discourage me these commercial regulations are the true from entertaining the idea of a concilia- ground of the quarrel; or that the giving tory concession, founded on the principles way, in any one instance of authority, is which I have just stated, to lose all that may remain unconceded. In forming a plan for this purpose, I One fact is clear and indisputable. The endeavoured to put myself in that frame public and avowed origin of this quarrel of mind which was the most natural, and 469 BURKE, EDMUND the most reasonable; and which was cer- English authority and English liberties tainly the most probable means of secur- had exactly the same boundaries. Your ing me from all error. I set out with a standard could never be advanced an inch perfect distrust of my own abilities; a before your privileges. Sir John Davis total renunciation of every speculation of shows beyond a doubt that the refusal of a my own ; and with a profound reverence general communication of these rights was for the wisdom of our ancestors, who have the true cause why Ireland was 500 left us the inheritance of so happy a con- years in subduing; and after the vain stitution, and so flourishing an empire, projects of a military government, attempt- and, what is a thousand times more valu- ed in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, it was able, the treasury of the maxims and prin- soon discovered, that nothing could make ciples which formed the one, and obtain- that country English, in civility and allegi- ed the other. ance, but your laws and your forms of leg- During the reigns of the kings of Spain islature. It is not English arms, but the of the Austrian family, whenever they English constitution, that conquered Ire- were at a loss in the Spanish councils, land. From that time Ireland had ever it was common for their statesmen to say had a general parliament, as she had be- that they ought to consult the genius fore a partial parliament. You changed of Philip II. The genius of Philip the people; you altered the religion; but II. might mislead them; and the issue you never touched the form of the vital of their affairs showed that they had substance of free government in that king- not chosen the most perfect standard, dom. You deposed kings; you restored But, sir, I am sure that I shall not be them; you altered the succession to theirs, misled, when, in a case of constitutional as well as to your own crown; but you difficulty, I consult the genius of the Eng- never altered their constitution; the prin- lish constitution. Consulting at that ora- ciple of which was respected by usurpa- cle ( it was with all due humility and tion ; restored with the restoration of mon- piety) I found four capital examples in archy and established, I trust, forever, a similar case before me; those of Ireland, by the glorious Revolution. This has Wales, Chester, and Durham. made Ireland the great and flourishing Ireland, before the English conquest, kingdom that it is; and from a disgrace though never governed by a despotic pow- and a burthen intolerable to this nation, er, had no parliament. How far the Eng- has rendered hev a principal part of our lish Parliament itself was at that time strength and ornament. This country modelled according to the present form, is cannot be said to have ever formally taxed disputed among antiquarians. But we have her. The irregular things done in the all the reason in the world to be assured confusion of mighty troubles, and on the that a form of parliament, such as Eng- hinge of great revolutions, even if all land then enjoyed, she instantly commu- were done that is said to have been done, nicated to Ireland; and we are equally form an example. If they have any ef- sure that almost every successive improve- feet in argument, they make an exception ment in constitutional liberty, as fast as to prove the rule. None of your own it was made here, was transmitted thither, liberties could stand a moment if the The feudal baronage, and the feudal casual deviations from them, at such knighthood, the roots of OUT primitive times, were suffered to be used as proofs constitution, were early transplanted into of their nullity. By the lucrative amount that soil ; and grew and flourished there, of such casual breaches in the constitu- Magna Charta, if it did not give us orig- tion, judge what the stated and fixed rule inally the House of Commons, gave us at of supply has been in that kingdom. Your least a House of Commons of weight and Irish pensioners would starve if they had consequence. But your ancestors did not no other fund to live on than taxes grant- churlishly sit down to the feast of Magna ed by English authority. Turn your eyes Charta. Ireland was made immediately a to those popular grants from whence all partaker. This benefit of English laws and great supplies are come; and learn to liberties, I confess, was not at first extend- respect that only source of public wealth ed to all Ireland. Mark the consequence, in the British empire. 470 BURKE, EDMUND My next example is Wales. This coun- ment and the use of it ! I admit it fully ; try was said to be reduced by Henry III. and pray add likewise to these preee- Tt was said more truly to be so by Ed- dents that all the while Wales rid this ward I. But though then conquered, it kingdom like an incubus; that it was an was not looked upon as any part of the unprofitable and oppressive burthen; and realm of England. Its old constitution, that an Englishman travelling in that whatever that might have been, was de- country could not go six yards from the stroyed; and no good one was substituted high-road without being murdered. in its place. The care of that tract was The march of the human mind is put into the hands of lords marchers, slow. Sir, it was not, until after 200 a form of government of a very singular years, discovered that by an eternal law kind; a strange heterogeneous monster, Providence had decreed vexation to vio- something between hostility and govern- lence, and poverty to rapine. Your an- ment; perhaps it has a sort of resem- cestors did, however, at length open their blance, according to the modes of those eyes to the ill husbandry of injustice. times, to that of commander-in-chief at They found that the tyranny of a free present, to whom all civil power is grant- people could of all tyrannies % the least ed as secondary. The manners of the be endured; and that laws made against Welsh nation followed the genius of the a whole nation were not the most effectual government; the people were ferocious, methods for securing its obedience. Ac- restive, savage, and uncultivated; some- cordingly, in the twenty-seven years of times composed, never pacified. Wales, Henry VIII. the course was entirely alter- within itself, was in perpetual disorder; ed. With a preamble stating the entire and it kept the frontier of England in per- and perfect rights of the crown of Eng- petual alarm. Benefits from it to the state land, it gave to the Welsh all the rights there were none. Wales was only known and privileges of English subjects. A to England by incursion and invasion. political order was established; the mili- Sir, during that state of things Parlia- tary power gave way to the civil; the ment was not idle. They attempted to marches were turned into counties. But subdue the fierce spirit of the Welsh by that a nation should have a right to Eng- all sorts of rigorous laws. They prohib- Hsh liberties, and yet no share at all in ited by statute the sending all sorts of the fundamental security of these liber- arms into Wales, as you prohibit by proc- ties, the grant of their own property, lamation (with something more of doubt seemed a thing so incongruous that, eight on the legality) the sending arms to years after that is, in the thirty-fifth America. They disarmed the Welsh by of that reign a complete and not ill- statute, as you attempted (but still with proportioned representation by counties more question on the legality) to disarm and boroughs was bestowed upon Wales by New England by an instruction. They act of Parliament. From this moment, as made an act to drag offenders from Wales by a charm, the tumult subsided, obedience to England for trial, as you have done was restored, peace, order, and civiliza- (but with more hardship) with regard to tion followed in the train of liberty. America. By another act, where one of When the day-star of the English con- the parties was an Englishman, they or- stitution had arisen in their hearts, all dained that his trial should be always was harmony within and without. by English. They made acts to restrain trade, as you do; and prevented the *% ^fli""* Welsh from the use of fairs and markets, Defluit saxis agitatus humor; as you do the Americans from fisheries Concidunt venti, fugiuntque nubes, and foreign ports. In short, when the ** _ . - _ -- statute-book was not quite so much swell ed as it is now, you find no less than (Soon as gleam fifteen acts of penal regulation on the sub- Their stars at sea, 4. * 1x7 i The lasn ^ spray trickles from the steep, ject ol Wales. The wind slnkg down> the S t rm-cloud flies, Here we rub our hands. A fine body The threatening billow on the deep of precedents for the authority of Parlia- Obedient lies.) 471 BURKE, EDMUND The very same year the county palatine of Chester received the same relief from its oppression, and the same remedy to its disorders. Before this time Chester was little less distempered than Wales. The inhabitants, without rights themselves, were the fittest to destroy the rights of others; and from thence Richard II. drew the standing army of archers, with which for a time he oppressed England. The people of Chester applied to Parlia ment in a petition penned as I shall read to you: " To the king our sovereign lord, in most humble wise shown unto your ex cellent Majesty, the inhabitants of your Grace's county palatine of Chester; That where the said county palatine of Chester is and hath been always hitherto exempt, excluded and separated out and from your high court of Parliament, to have any knights and burgesses within the said court; by reason whereof the said inhabi tants have hitherto sustained manifold disherisons, losses, and damages, as well in their lands, goods, and bodies, as in the good, civil, and politic governance and maintenance of the commonwealth of their said country: (2) And forasmuch as the said inhabitants have always hith erto been found by the acts and statutes made and ordained by your said High ness, and your most noble progenitors, by authority of the said court, as far forth as other countries, cities, and boroughs have been, that have had their knights and burgesses within your said court of Par liament, and yet have had neither knight nor burgess there for the said county palatine; the said inhabitants, for lack thereof, have been oftentimes touched and grieved with acts and statutes made with in the said court, as well derogatory unto the most ancient jurisdictions, liberties, and privileges of your said county pala tine, as prejudicial unto the common wealth, quietness, rest, and peace of your Grace's most bounden subjects inhabiting within the same." What did Parliament with this auda cious address? Reject it as a libel? Treat it as an affront to government? Spurn it as a derogation from the rights of leg islation? Did they toss it over the table? Did they burn it by the hands of the com mon hangman? They took the petition 472 of grievance, all rugged as it was, with out softening or temperament, unpurged of the original bitterness and indignation of complaint; they made it the very pre amble of their act of redress; and con secrated its principle to all ages in the sanctuary of legislation. Here is my third example. It was at tended with the success of the two former. Chester, civilized as well as Wales, has demonstrated that freedom, and not servi tude, is the cure of anarchy; as religion, and not atheism, is the true remedy for superstition. Sir, this pattern of Chester was followed in the reign of Charles II. with regard to the county palatine of Dur ham, which is my fourth example. This county had long lain out of the pale of free legislation. So scrupulously was the example of Chester followed, that the style of the preamble is nearly the same with that of the Chester act; and, without affecting the a-bstract extent of the authority of Parliament, it recognizes the equity of not suffering any considerable district, in which the British subjects may act as a body, to be taxed without their own voice in the grant. Now if the doctrines of policy contained in these preambles, and the force of these examples in the acts of Parliament, avail anything, what can be said against apply ing them with regard to America? Are not the people of America as much Eng lishmen as the Welsh? The preamble of the act of Henry VIII. says, the Welsh speak a language no way resembling that of his Majesty's English subjects. Are the Americans not as numerous? If we may trust the learned and accurate Judge Harrington's account of North Wales, and take that as a standard to measure the rest, there is no comparison. The people cannot amount to above 200,000; not a tenth part of the number in the colonies. Is America in rebellion? Wales was hard ly ever free from it. Have you attempted to govern America by penal statutes? You made fifteen to Wales. But your legislative authority is perfect with re gard to America; was it less perfect in Wales, Chester, and Durham? But Amer ica is virtually represented. What! does the electric force of virtual representation more easily pass over the Atlantic, than BURKE, EDMUND perrade Wales, which lies in your neigh- My resolutions, therefore, mean to estab- borhood; or than Chester and Durham, lish the equity and justice of a taxation surrounded by abundance of representa- of America, by grant, and not by imposi tion that is actual and palpable? But, tion. To mark the legal competency of sir, your ancestors thought this sort of the colony assemblies for the support of virtual representation, however ample, to their government in peace, and for public be totally insufficient for the freedom of aids in time of war. To acknowledge that the inhabitants of territories that are so this legal competency has had a dutiful near, and comparatively so inconsiderable, and beneficial exercise; and that experi- How then can I think it sufficient for ence has shown the benefit of their grants, those which are infinitely greater, and and the futility of parliamentary taxation infinitely more remote? as a method of supply. You will now, sir, perhaps imagine, These solid truths compose six funda- tliat I am on the point of proposing to mental propositions. There are three you a scheme for a representation of the more resolutions corollary to these. If colonies in Parliament. Perhaps I might you admit the first set, you can hardly re- be inclined to entertain some such ject the others. But if you admit the thought ; but a great flood stops me in my first, I shall be far from solicitous whether course. Opposuit natura (Nature has you accept or refuse the last. I think barred the way). I cannot remove the these six massive pillars will be of eternal barriers of the creation. The strength sufficient to support the temple thing, in that mode, I do not know to be of British concord. I have no more doubt possible. As I meddle with no theory, I than I entertain of my existence, that, do not absolutely assert the impractica- if you admitted these, you would com- bility of such a representation. But I do mand an immediate peace; and, with but not see my way to do it; and those who tolerable future management, a lasting have been more confident have not been obedience in America. I am not arrogant more successful. However, the arm of in this confident assurance. The proposi- public benevolence is not shortened; and tions are all mere matters of fact; and if there are often several means to the same they are such facts as draw irresistible end. What nature has disjoined in one conclusions even in the stating, this is the way, wisdom may unite in another. When power of truth, and not any mismanage- we cannot give the benefit as we would ment of mine. wish, let us not refuse it altogether. If Sir, I shall open the whole plan to we cannot give the principle, let us find a you, together with such observations on substitute. But how? Where? What the motions as may tend to illustrate substitute? them where they may want explanation. Fortunately, I am not obliged for the The first is a resolution " That the colo- wayc and means of this substitute to tax nies and plantations of Great Britain in my own unproductive invention. I am not North America, consisting of fourteen sep- even obliged to go to the rich treasury arate governments, and containing 2,000,- of the fertile framers of imaginary com- 000 and upwards of free inhabitants, have monwealths ; not to the Republic of Plato ; not had the liberty and privilege of not to the Utopia of More; not to the electing and sending any knights and bur- Oceana of Harrington. It is before me, gesses, or others, to represent them in the. it is at my feet, and the rude swain high court of Parliament." This is a treads daily on it with his clouted shoon. plain matter of fact, necessary to be laid I only wish you to recognize, for the down, and (excepting the description) it theory, the ancient constitutional policy is laid down in the language of the consti- of this kingdom with regard to representa- tution; it is taken nearly verbatim from tion, as that policy has been declared in acts of Parliament. acts of Parliament; and, as to the practice, The second is like unto the first to return to that mode which an uniform "That the said colonies and plantations experience has marked out to you, as best ; have been liable to, and bounden by, sev- and in which you walked with security, eral subsidies, payments, rates, and taxes, advantage, and honour, until the year 1763. given and granted by Parliament, though 473 BURKE, EDMUND the said colonies and plantations have not those who are resolved always to be in the right will deny to contain matter of fact, as applied to the present case; although Parliament thought them true, with re gard to the counties of Chester and Dur ham. They will deny that the Americans were ever " touched and grieved " with the taxes. If they consider nothing in taxes but their weight as pecuniary imposi tions, there might be some pretence for this denial. But men may be sorely touched and deeply grieved in their priv ileges, as well as in their purses. Men may lose little in property by the act which takes away all their freedom. When a man is robbed of a trifle on the highway, it is not the twopence lost that constitutes the capital outrage. This is not confined to privileges. Even ancient indulgences withdrawn, without offence on the part of those who enjoyed such fa vours, operate as grievances. But were the Americans then not touched and grieved by the taxes, in some measures, merely as taxes? If so, why were they almost all either wholly repealed or exceedingly re duced ? Were they not touched and grieved even by the regulating duties of the sixth of George II.? Else why were the du ties first reduced to one- third in 1764, and afterwards to a third of that third in the year 1766? Were they not touched and grieved by the stamp act? I shall say they were, until that tax is revived. Were they not touched and grieved by the duties of 1767, which were likewise re pealed, and which Lord Hillsborough tells you (for the ministry) were laid contrary to the true principle of commerce? Is not the assurance given by that noble per son to the colonies of a resolution to lay no more taxes on them, an admission that taxes would touch and grieve them? Is not the resolution of the noble lord in the blue riband, now standing on your jour nals, the strongest of all proofs that par liamentary subsidies really touched and grieved them ? Else why all these changes, modifications, repeals, assurances, and res olutions? The next proposition is "That, from the distance of the said colonies, and from other circumstances, no method hath hitherto been devised for procuring a rep resentation in Parliament for the said colonies." This is an assertion of a fact. their knights and burgesses, in the said high court of Parliament, of their own election, to represent the condition of their country; by lack whereof they have been oftentimes touched and grieved by subsi dies given, granted, and assented to, in the said court, in a manner prejudicial to the commonwealth, quietness, rest, and peace of the subjects inhabiting within the same." Is this description too hot, or too cold, too strong, or too weak? Does it arrogate too much to the supreme legislature? Does it lean too much to the claims of the people? If it runs into any of these er rors, the fault is not mine. It is the lan guage of your own ancient acts of Parlia ment. Non meus hie aermo, sed quae praecepit Ofellus, Rusticus, abnormis sapiens. [Ofellus shall set forth ('Twas he that taught me it, a shrewd clear wit, Though country-spun, and for the schools unfit).] It is the genuine produce of the an cient, rustic, manly, home-bred sense of this country. I did not care to rub off a particle of the venerable rust that rather adorns and preserves, than destroys, the metal. It would be a profanation to touch with a tool the stones which con struct the sacred altar of peace. I would not violate with modern polish the in genuous and noble roughness of these truly constitutional materials. Above all things, I was resolved not to be guilty of tampering, the odious vice of restless and unstable minds. I put my foot in the tracks of our forefathers, where I can neither wander nor stumble. Determining to fix articles of peace, I was resolved not to be wise beyond what was written; I was resolved to use nothing else than the form of sound words; to let others abound in their own sense; and carefully to ab stain from all expressions of our own. What the law has said, I say. In all things else I am silent. I have no organ but for her words. This, if it be not in genious, I am sure is safe. There are, indeed, words expressive of grievance in this second resolution, which 474 BUBKE, EDMUND I go no further on the paper ; though, the said grants, have been at sundry timea in my private judgment, an useful rep- acknowledged by Parliament." To say resentation is impossible; I am sure it nothing of their great expenses in the Ind- is not desired by them; nor ought it per- ian wars; and not to take their exertions haps by us; but I abstain from opinions. in foreign ones, so high as the supplies The fourth resolution is this " That in the year 1695; not to go back to their each of the said colonies hath within public contributions in the year 1710; I itself a body, chosen in part, or in the shall begin to travel only where the jour- whole, by the freemen, freeholders, or nals give m light; resolving to deal in other free inhabitants thereof, commonly nothing but fact, authenticated by Parlia- called the General Assembly, or General mentary record; and to build myself Court; with powers legally to raise, levy, wholly on that solid basis. and assess, according to the several usages On* the 4th of April, 1748, a committee of such colonies, duties and taxes towards of this House came to the following reso- def raying all sorts of public services." lution: This competence in the colony assemblies "Resolved, That it is the opinion of is certain. It is proved by the whole tenor this committee, that it is just and reason- of their acts of supply in all the assem- able that the several provinces and col- blies, in which the constant style of grant- onies of Massachusetts Bay, New Hamp- ing is, "an aid to his Majesty"; and acts shire, Connecticut, and Rhode Island be granting to the crown have regularly for reimbursed the expenses that they have nearly a century passed the public offices been at in taking and securing to the without dispute. Those who have been pleased paradoxically to deny this right, holding that none but the British Parlia- ment can grant to the crown, are wished to look to what is done, not only in the colonies, but in Ireland, in one uniform, unbroken tenor every session. Sir, I am Crown of Great Britain the Island of Cape Breton and its dependencies." These expenses were immense for such colonies. They were above 200,000 ster- ling; money first raised and advanced on their public credit. On the 28th of January, 1756, a mes- surprised that this doctrine should come sage from the king came to us, to this from some of the law servants of the crown. I say, that if the crown could be responsible, his Majesty but certainly the ministers, and even these law officers effect : " His Majesty, being sensible of the zeal and vigour with which his faithful subjects of certain colonies in North America have exerted themselves in de- themselves, through whose hands the acts fence of his Majesty's just rights and pass biennially in Ireland, or annually in the colonies, are in an habitual course of committing impeachable offences. What possessons, recommends it to this House to take the same into their consideration, and to enable his Majesty to give them habitual offenders have been lords of the such assistance as may be a proper reward council, all secretaries of state, all first lords of trade, all attornies, and all so- licitors general! However, they are safe; as no one impeaches them; and there is no ground of charge against them, except in their own unfounded theories. The fifth resolution is also a resolu- tion of fact "That the said general as- semblies, general courts, or other bodies legally qualified as aforesaid have at sun- dry times freely granted several large subsidies and public aids for his Majesty's service, according to their abilities, when required thereto by letter from one of his Majesty's principal secretaries of state; and that their rights to grant the same, and their cheerfulness and sufficiency in and encouragement." On the 3d of February, 1756, the House came to a suitable resolution, expressed in words nearly the same as those of the message; but with the further addition, that the money then voted was as an en- couragement to the colonies to exert them- selves with vigour. It will not be neces- sary to go through all the testimonies which your own records have given to the truth of my resolutions; I will only refer you to the places in the journals : Vol. xxvii. 16th and 19th May, 1757. Vol. xxvm. June 1st, 1758 April 26th and 30th, 1759 March 26th and 31st, and April 28th, 1760 Jan. 9th and 20th, 1761. 475 BURKE, EDMUND Vol. xxix. Jan. 22d and 26th, 1762 sort again to requisition. No colony, since March 14th and 17th, 1763. that time, ever has had any requisition Sir, here is the repeated acknowledg- whatsoever made to it. ment of Parliament, that the colonies not We see the sense of the crown, and the only gave, but gave to satiety. This na- sense of Parliament, on the productive tion has formally acknowledged two nature of a revenue by grant. Now search things; first, that the colonies had gone the same journals for the produce of the beyond their abilities, Parliament having revenue by imposition Where is it? let thought it necessary to reimburse them ; us know the volume and the page what is secondly, that they had acted legally and the gross, what is the net produce? laudably in their grants of money, and to what service is it applied? how their maintenance of troops, since the com- have you appropriated its surplus? pensation is expressly given as reward and What, can none of the many skilful index- encouragement. Reward is not bestowed makers that we are now employing, find for acts that are unlawful; and encour- any trace of it? Well, let them and that agement is not held out to things that de- rest together. But are the journals, which serve reprehension. My resolution there- say nothing of the revenue, as silent on the fore does nothing more than collect into discontent? Oh no! a child may find it. one proposition, what is scattered through It is the melancholy burthen and blot of your journals. I give you nothing but every page. your own; and you cannot refuse in the I think then I am, from those journals, gross, what you have so often acknowl- justified in the sixth and last resolution, edged in detail. The admission of this, which is " That it hath been found by which will be so honourable to them and experience, that the manner of granting to you, will, indeed, be mortal to all the the said supplies and aids, by the said miserable stories, by which the passions general assemblies, hath been more agree- of the misguided people have been engaged able to the said colonies, and more bene- in an unhappy system. The people heard, ficial, and conductive to the public ser- indeed, from the beginning of these dis- vice, than the mode of giving and granting putes, one thing continually dinned in aids in Parliament, to be raised and paid their ears, that reason and justice de- in the said colonies." This makes the manded, that the Americans, who paid no whole of the fundamental part of the taxes, should be compelled to contribute, plan. The conclusion is irresistible. You How did that fact, of their paying noth- cannot say, that you were driven by any ing, stand, when the taxing system be- necessity to an exercise of the utmost gan? When Mr. Grenville began to form rights of legislature. You cannot assert, his system of American revenue, he stated that you took on yourselves the task of in this House, that the colonies were imposing colony taxes, from the want of then in debt 2,600,000 sterling money; another legal body, that is competent to and was of opinion they would discharge the purpose of supplying the exigencies that debt in four years. On this state, of the state without wounding the preju- those untaxed people were actually sub- dices of the people. Neither is it true that ject to the payment of taxes to the amount the body so qualified, and having that of 650,000 a year. In fact, however, Mr. competence, had neglected the duty. Grenville was 'mistaken. The funds given The question now, on all this accumu- for sinking the old debt did not prove lated matter, is: whether you will quite so ample as both the colonies and choose to abide by a profitable experience, he expected. The calculation was too san- or a mischievous theory; whether you guine; the reduction was not completed choose to build on imagination, or fact; till some years after, and at different times whether you prefer enjoyment, or hope ; in different colonies. However, the taxes satisfaction in your subjects, or discon- after the war continued too great to bear tent? any addition, with prudence or propriety; If these propositions were accepted, ev- and when the burthens imposed in con- erything which has been made to enforce a sequence of former requisitions were dis- contrary system, must, I take it for grant- charged, our tone became too high to re- ed, fall along with it. On that ground, 476 BURKE, EDMUND I have drawn the following resolution, up. Even the restraining bill of the pres which, when it comes to be moved, will ent session does not go to the length of naturally be divided in a proper manner: the Boston Port Act. The same idea ol " That it may be proper to repeal an act, prudence, which induced you not to ex< made in the seventh year of the reign tend equal punishment to equal guilt, even of his present Majesty, intituled, An act when you were punishing, induced me, who for granting certain duties in the British mean not to chastise, but to reconcile, to colonies and plantations in America; for be satisfied with the punishment already allowing a drawback of the duties of cus- partially inflicted. toms upon the exportation from this king- Ideas of prudence and accommodation dom, of coffee and cocoa-nuts of the prod- to circumstances prevent you from taking uce of the said colonies and plantations; away the charters of Connecticut and for discontinuing the drawbacks payable Rhode Island, as you have taken away that on China earthenware exported to Amer- of Massachusetts colony, though the crown ica; and for more effectually preventing has far less power in the two former the clandestine running of goods in the provinces than it enjoys in the latter; and said colonies and plantations. And that though the abuses have been full as great, it may be proper to repeal an act, made in and as flagrant, in the exempted as in the the fourteenth year of the reign of his punished. The same reasons of prudence present Majesty, intituled, An act to dis- and accommodation have weight with me continue, in such manner, and for such in restoring the charter of Massachusetts time, as are therein mentioned, the land- Bay. Besides, sir, the act which changes ing and discharging, lading or shipping, the charter of Massachusetts is in many of goods, wares, and merchandise, at the particulars so exceptionable, that if I did town and within the harbour of Boston, in not wish absolutely to repeal, I would by the province of Massachusetts Bay, in all means desire to alter it; as several of North America. And that it may be its provisions tend to the subversion of all proper to repeal an act, made in the four- public and private justice. Such, among teenth year of the reign of his present others, is the power in the governor to Majesty, intituled, An act for the im- change the sheriff at his pleasure; and to partial administration of justice, in the make a new returning officer for every cases of persons questioned for any acts special cause. It is shameful to behold such done by them, in the execution of the law, a regulation standing among English laws, or for the suppression of riots and tu- The act for bringing persons accused of mults, in the province of Massachusetts committing murder under the orders of Bay, in New England. And that it may government to England for trial is but be proper to repeal an act, made in the temporary. That act has calculated the fourteenth year of the reign of his present probable duration of our quarrel with the Majesty, intituled, An act for the better colonies; and is accommodated to that regulating the government of the province supposed duration. I would hasten the of Massachusetts Bay, in New England. happy moment of reconcilation ; and And, also, that it may be proper to explain therefore must, on my principle, get rid and amend an act, made in the thirty-fifth of that most justly obnoxious act. year of the reign of King Henry VIII., The act of Henry VIII., for the trial of intituled, An act for the trial of treasons treasons, I do not mean to take away, but committed out of the king's dominions." to confine it to its proper bounds and I wish, sir, to repeal the Boston Port original intention; to make it expressly Bill, because (independently of the danger- for trial of treasons (and the greatest ous precedent of suspending the rights of treasons may be committed) in places the subject during the king's pleasure) where the jurisdiction of the crown does it was passed, as I apprehended, with less not extend. regularity, and on more partial principles, Having guarded the privileges of local than it ought. The corporation of Bos- legislature, I would next secure to the ton was not heard before it was condemn- colonies a fair and unbiassed judicature; ed. Other towns, full as guilty as she for which purpose, sir, I propose the fol- was, have not had their ports blocked lowing resolution: " That, from the time 477 BURKE, EDMUND when the general assembly or general Here, sir, I should close; but I plainly court of any colony or plantation in perceive some objections remain, which I North America, shall have appointed by ought, if possible, to remove. The first act of assembly, duly confirmed, a settled will be, that, in resorting to the doctrine salary to the offices of the chief-justice of our ancestors, as contained in the pre- and other judges of the superior courts, amble to the Chester act, I prove too it may be proper that the chief -justice and much; that the grievance from a want of other judges of the superior courts of representation, stated in that preamble, such colony, shall hold his and their office goes to the whole of legislation as well as and offices during their good behaviour; to taxation. And that the colonies, and shall not be removed therefrom, but grounding themselves upon that doctrine, when the said removal shall be adjudged will apply it to all parts of legislative au- by his Majesty in council, upon a hearing thority. on complaint from the general assembly, To this objection, with all possible def- or on complaint from the governor, or erence and humility, and wishing as lit- council, or the house of representatives tie as any man living to impair the small- severally, or of the colony in which the est particle of our supreme authority, I said chief-justice and other judges have answer, that the words are the words of exercised the said offices.' Parliament, and not mine; and that all The next resolution relates to the courts false and inconclusive inferences, drawn of admiralty. from them, are not mine; for I heartily It is this: "That it may be proper to disclaim any such inference. I have regulate the courts of admiralty, or vice- chosen the words of an act of Parliament, admiralty, authorized by the fifteenth which Mr. Grenville, surely a tolerably chapter of the fourth of George III., in zealous and very judicious advocate for such a manner as to make the same more the sovereignty of Parliament, formally commodious to those who sue, or are sued, moved to have read at your table in con- in the said courts, and to provide for the firmation of his tenets. It is true, that more decent maintenance of the judges in Lord Chatham considered these preambles the same." as declaring strongly in favour of his These courts I do not wish to take opinions. He was a no less powerful away; they are in themselves proper es- advocate for the privileges of the Ameri- tablishments. This court is one of the cans. Ought I not from hence to pre- capital securities of the act of naviga- sume, that these preambles are as favour- tion. The extent of its jurisdiction, in- able as possible to both, when properly deed, has been increased; but this is al- understood; favourable both to the rights together as proper, and is indeed on many of Parliament, and to the privileges of the accounts more eligible, where new powers dependencies of this crown? But, sir, the were wanted, than a court absolutely object of grievance in my resolution I have new. But courts incommodiously situated, not taken from the Chester, but from the in effect, deny justice; and a court, par- Durham act, which confines the hardship taking in the fruits of its own condemna- of want of representation to the case of tion, is a robber. The congress complain, subsidies ; and which therefore falls in and complain justly, of this grievance. exactly with the case of the colonies. But There are three consequential proposi- whether the unrepresented countries were tions. I have thought of two or three de jure (in law), or de facto (in fact), more; but they come rather too near de- bound, the preambles do not accurately tail, and to the province of executive gov- distinguish; nor indeed was it necessary; ernment ; which I wish Parliament always for, whether de jure, or de facto, the legis- to superintend, never to assume. If the lature thought the exercise of the power first six are granted, congruity will carry of taxing, as of right, or as of fact with- the latter three. If not, the things that out right, equally a grievance, and equally remain unrepealed will be, I hope, rather oppressive. unseemly encumbrances on the building, I do rtot know that the colonies have, in than very materially detrimental to its any general way, or in any cool hour, gone strength and stability. much beyond the demand of immunity in 478 BURKE, EDMUND relation to taxes. It is not fair to judge on metaphysical speculations. Aristotle, of the temper or dispositions of any man, the great master of reasoning, cautions or any set of men, when they are com- us, and with great weight and propriety, posed and at rest, from their conduct, or against this species of delusive geometri- their expressions, in a state of disturb- cal accuracy in moral arguments, as the ance and irritation. It is besides a very most fallacious of all sophistry, great mistake to imagine, that mankind The Americans will have no interest follow up practically any speculative contrary to the grandeur and glory of principle, either of government or of free- England, when they are not oppressed dom, as far as it will go in argument and by the weight of it; and they will rather logical illation. We Englishmen stop be inclined to respect the acts of a super- very short of the principles upon which intending legislature, when they see them we support any given part of our consti- the acts of that power, which is itself the tution; or even the whole of it together, security, not the rival, of their secondary I could easily, if I had not already tired importance. In this assurance, my mind you, give you a very striking a-nd convinc- most perfectly acquiesces; and I confess, ing instance of it. This is nothing but I feel not the least alarm from the dis- what is natural and proper. All govern- contents which are to arise from putting ment, indeed every human benefit and en- people at their ease; nor do I apprehend joyment, every virtue, and every prudent the destruction of this empire, from giv- act, is founded on compromise and barter, ing, by an act of free grace and indul- We balance inconveniences; we give and gence, to 2,000,000 of my fellow-citizens take; we remit some rights that we may some share of those rights, upon which I enjoy others; and we choose rather to be have always been taught to value myself, happy citizens than subtile disputants. It is said, indeed, that this power of As we must give away some natural lib- granting, vested in American assemblies, erty, to enjoy civil advantages; so we would dissolve the unity of the empire; must sacrifice some civil liberties for the which was preserved entire, although advantages to be derived from the com- Wales, and Chester, and Durham were munion and fellowship of a great empire, added to it. Truly, Mr. Speaker, I do But, in all fair dealings, the thing bought not know what this unity means ; nor has must bear some proportion to the purchase it ever been heard of, that I know, in the paid. None will barter away the immedi- constitutional policy of this country. The ate jewel of his soul. Though a great very idea of subordination of parts, ex- house is apt to make slaves haughty, yet eludes this notion of simple and undivided it is purchasing a part of the artificial im- unity. England is the head; but she is portance of a great empire too dear, to not the head and members too. Ireland has pay for it all essential rights, and all the ever had from the beginning a separate, intrinsic dignity of human nature. None but not an independent, legislature; of us who would not risk his life rather which, far from distracting, promoted the than fall under a government purely ar- union of the whole. Everything was sweet- bitrary. But although there are some ly and harmoniously disposed through amongst us who think our constitution both islands for the conservation of Eng- wants many improvements to make it a lish dominion, and the communication of complete system of liberty, perhaps none English liberties. I do not see that the who are of that opinion would think it same principles might not be carried into right to aim at such improvement, by dis- twenty islands, and with the same good turbing his country, and risking every- effect. This is my model with regard to thing that is dear to him. In every ardu- America, as far as the internal circum- ous enterprise, we consider what we are stances of the two countries are the same, to lose as well as what we are to gain ; I know no other unity of this empire, than and the more a-nd better stake of liberty I can draw from its example during these every people possess, the less they will periods, when it seemed to my poor un- hazard to make it more. These are the derstanding more united than it is now, cords of man. Man acts from adequate or than it is likely to be by the present motives relative to his interest; and not methods. 479 BURKE, EDMUND But since I speak of these methods, I recollect, Mr. Speaker, almost too late, that I promised, before I finished, to say some thing of the proposition of the noble lord on the floor, which has been so lately re ceived, and stands on your journals. I must be deeply concerned, whenever it is my misfortune to continue a difference with the majority of this House. But as the reasons for that difference are my apology for thus troubling you, suffer me to state them in a very few words. I shall compress them into as small a body as I possibly can, having already debated that matter at large, when the question was before the committee. First, then, I cannot admit that proposi tion of a ransom by auction; because it is a mere project. It is a thing new; un heard of; supported by no experience; justified by no analogy; without example of our ancestors, or root in the constitu tion. It is neither regular parliamentary taxation, nor colony grant. Experimen- tum in corpore vili (Try experiments only upon what is of no value) is a good rule, which will ever make me adverse to any trial of experiments on what is cer tainly the most valuable of all subjects, the peace of this empire. Secondly, it is an experiment which must be fatal in the end to our constitu tion. For what is it but a scheme for taxing the colonies in the antechamber of the noble lord and his successors? To settle the quotas and proportions in this House, is clearly impossible. You, sir, may flatter yourself you shall sit a state auctioneer with your hammer in your hand, and knock down to each colony as it bids. But to settle (on the plan laid down by the noble lord} the true propor tional payment for four or five and twenty governments according to the absolute and relative wealth and burthen, is a wild and chimerical notion. This new taxa tion must, therefore, come in by the back door of the constitution. Each quota must" be brought to this House ready formed; you can neither add nor alter. You must register it. You can do nothing further. For on what grounds can you deliberate either before or after the proposition? You cannot hear the counsel for all these provinces, quarrelling, each on its own quantity of payment, and its proportion to others. If you should attempt it, the com mittee of provincial ways and means, or by whatever other name it will delight to be called, must swallow up all the time of Parliament. Thirdly, it does not give satisfaction to the complaint of the colonies. They com plain that they are taxed without their consent; you answer, that you will fix the sum at which they shall be taxed. That is, you give them the very grievance for the remedy. You tell them, indeed, that you will leave the mode to themselves. I really beg pardon; it gives me pain to men tion it; but you must be sensible that you will not perform this part of the com pact. For, suppose the colonies were to lay the duties which furnished their con tingent, upon the importation of your manufactures; you know you would never suffer such a tax to be laid. You know, too, that you would not suffer many other modes of taxation. So that, when you come to explain yourself, it will be found, that you will neither leave to themselves the quantum nor the mode; nor indeed anything. The whole is de lusion from one end to the other. Fourthly, this method of ransom by auction, unless it be universally accepted, will plunge you into great and inex tricable difficulties. In what year of our Lord are the proportions of payments to be settled? To say nothing of the impos sibility that colony agents should have general powers of taxing the colonies at their discretion, consider, I implore you, that the communication by special mes sages and orders between these agents and their constituents on each variation of the case, when the parties come to con tend together, and to dispute on their rela tive proportions, will be a matter of delay, perplexity, and confusion, that never can have an end. If all the colonies do not appear at the outcry, what is the condition of those assemblies, who offer by themselves or their agents, to tax themselves up to your ideas of their proportion? The refractory colonies, who refuse all composition, will remain taxed only to your old impositions, which, however grievous in principle, are trifling as to production. The obedient colonies in this scheme are heavily taxed j 480 BURKE, EDMUND the refractory remain unburthened. What new restraining laws, new acts for drag- will you do? Will you lay new and ging men to England for trial. You must heavier taxes by Parliament on the dis- send out new fleets, new armies. All is obedient? Pray consider in what way to begin again. From this day forward you can do it. You are perfectly con- the empire is never to know an hour of vinced, that, in the way of taxing, you tranquillity. An intestine fire will be can do nothing but at the ports. Now, kept alive in the bowels of the colonies, suppose it is Virginia that refuses to ap- which one time or other must consume pear at your auction, while Maryland and this whole empire. I allow, indeed, that North Carolina bid handsomely for their the empire of Germany raises her revenue ransom, and are taxed to your quota, how and her troops by the quotas and con- will you put these colonies on a par? tingents; but the revenue of the empire, Will you tax the tobacco of Virginia? If and the army of the empire, is the worst you do, you give its death-wound to your revenue and the worst army in the world. English revenue at home, and to one of Instead of a standing revenue, you will the greatest articles of your own foreign therefore have a perpetual quarrel. In- trade. If you tax the import of that re- deed, the noble lord who proposed this bellious colony, what do you tax but your project of a ransom by auction, seemed own manufactures or the goods of some himself to be of that opinion. His proj- other obedient and already well-taxed col- ect was rather designed for breaking the ony? Who has said one word on this laby- union of the colonies, than for establish- rinth of detail, which bewilders you more ing a revenue. He confessed, he appre- and more as you enter into it? Who hended that his proposal would not be to has presented, who can present, you with their taste. I say, this scheme of dis- a clue, to lead you out of it? I think, union seems to be at the bottom of the sir, it is impossible, that you should not project; for I will not suspect that the recollect that the colony bounds are so noble lord meant nothing but merely to de- implicated in one another (you know it lude the nation by an airy phantom which by your other experiments in the bill for he never intended to realize. But what- prohibiting the New England fishery), ever his views may be, as I propose the that you can lay no possible restraints peace and union of the colonies as the very on almost any of them which may not be foundation of my plan, it cannot accord presently eluded, if you do not confound with one whose foundation is perpetual the innocent with the guilty and burthen discord. those whom, upon every principle, you Compare the two. This I offer to give ought to exonerate. He must be grossly you is plain and simple. The other full ignorant of America, who thinks that, of perplexed and intricate mazes. This without falling into this confusion of all is mild; that harsh. This is found by rules of equity and policy, you can restrain experience effectual for its purposes ; the any single colony, especially Virginia and other is a new project. This is universal ; Maryland, the central and most important the other calculated for certain colonies of them all. only. This is immediate in its concilia- Let it also be considered, that, either in tory operation; the other remote, con- the present confusion you settle a per- tingent, full of hazard. Mine is what manent contingent, which will and must be becomes the dignity of a ruling people, trifling; and then you have no effectual gratuitous, unconditional, and not held revenue: or you change the quota at every out as a matter of bargain and sale. I exigency; and then on every new reparti- have done my duty in proposing it to you. tion you will have a new quarrel. I have, indeed, tired you by a long dis- Reflect, besides, that when you have course ; but this is the misfortune of those fixed a quota for every colony, you have to whose influence nothing will be con- not provided for prompt and punctual ceded, and who must win every inch payment. Suppose one, two, five, ten of their ground by argument. You hare years' arrears. You cannot issue a treas- heard me with goodness. May you de- ury extent against the failing colony, cide with wisdom! For my part, I fel You must make new Boston Port Bills, my mind greatly disburdened by what I I.-2* 481 BTTBKE, EDMUND have done to-day. I have been the less riance, has ever run with a more copious fearful of trying your patience because stream of revenue, than could be squeezed on this subject I mean to spare it alto- from the dry husks of oppressed indigence, gether in future. I have this comfort, by the straining of all the politic ma- that in every stage of the American af- chinery in the world. fairs, I have steadily opposed the measures Next we know, that parties must ever that have produced the confusion, and exist in a free country. We know too, that may bring on the destruction, of this em- the emulations of such parties, their con- pire. I now go so far as to risk a pro- tradictions, their reciprocal necessities, posal of my own. If I cannot give peace their hopes, and their fears, must send to my country, I give it to my conscience, them all in their turns to him that holds But what (says the financier) is peace the balance of the state. The parties are without money? Your plan gives us no the gamesters; but government keeps the revenue. No! But it does; for it se- table, and is sure to be the winner in the cures to the subject the power of REFUSAL; end. When this game is played, I really the first of all revenues. Experience is a think it is more to be feared that the peo- cheat, and fact a liar, if this power in the pie will be exhausted, than that govern- subject of proportioning his grant, or of ment will not be supplied. Whereas, not granting at all, has not been found whatever is got by acts of absolute power the richest mine of revenue ever discov- ill-obeyed because odious, or by contracts ered by the skill or by the fortune of man. ill kept because constrained, will be nar- It does not, indeed, vote you 152,750:11: row, feeble, uncertain, and precarious. 2%ths, nor any other paltry limited sum. " Ease would retract vows made in pain But it gives you the strong-box itself, as violent and void." the fund, the bank, from whence only I, for one, protest against compound- revenues can arise amongst a people sen- ing for a limited sum, the immense, ever sible of freedom : Posita luditur area (The growing, eternal debt, which is due to chest is staked). Cannot you in England, generous government from protected free- cannot you at this time of day, cannot dom. And so may I speed in the great you, a House of Commons, trust to the object I propose to you, as I think it principle which has raised so mighty a would not only be an act of injustice, but revenue, and accumulated a debt of near would bq, the worst economy in the world, 140 millions in this country? Is this to compel the colonies to a sum certain, principle to be true in England and false either in the way of ransom, or in the way everywhere else? Is it not true in Ire- of compulsory compact, land? Has it not hitherto been true in But to clear up my ideas on this sub- the colonies? Why should you presume, ject a revenue from America transmitted that, in any country, a body duly con- hither do not delude yourselves you stituted for any function, will neglect to never can receive it no, not a shilling, perform its duty, and abdicate its trust? We have experienced that from remote Such a presumption would go against all countries it is not to be expected. If, when governments in all modes. But, in truth, you attempted to extract revenue from this dread of penury of supply from a Bengal, you were obliged to return in loan free assembly, has no foundation in nat- what you had taken in imposition, what ure. For first observe that, besides the can you expect from North America ? For desire which all men have naturally of certainly, if ever there was a country supporting the honour of their own gov- qualified to produce wealth, it is India; eminent, that sense of dignity, and that or an institution fit for the transmission, security to property, which ever attends it is the East India Company. America freedom, has a tendency to increase the has none of these aptitudes. If America stock of the free community. Most may gives you taxable objects, on which you be taken where most is accumulated. And lay your duties here, and gives you, at what is the soil or climate where experi- the same time, a surplus by a foreign sale enoe has not uniformly proved that the of her commodities to pay the duties on voluntary flow of heaped-up plenty, burst- these objects, which you tax at home, she ing from the weight of its own rih luxu- has performed her part to the British rev- 482 BURKE, EDMTTND enue. But with regard to her own inter nal establishments, she may, I doubt not she will, contribute in moderation. I say moderation, for she ought not to be per mitted to exhaust herself. She ought to be reserved to a war ; the weight of which, with the enemies that we are most likely to have, must be considered in her quarter of the globe. There she may serve you, and serve you essentially. For that service, for all service, whether of revenue, trade, or empire, my trust is in her interest in the British constitu tion. My hold of the colonies is in the close affection which grows from common names, from kindred blood, from similar privileges, and equal protection. These are ties, which, though light as air, are as strong as links of iron. Let the colo nies always keep the idea of their civil rights associated with your government; they will cling and grapple to you; and no force under heaven will be of power to tear them from their allegiance. But let it be once understood that your gov ernment may be one thing, and their priv ileges another; that these two things may exist without any mutual relation; the cement is gone ; and everything hastens to decay and dissolution. As long as you have the wisdom to keep the sovereign au thority of this country as the sanctuary of liberty, the sacred temple consecrated to our common faith, wherever the chosen race and sons of England worship free dom, they will turn their faces towards you. The more they multiply, the more friends you will have; the more ardent ly they love liberty, the more perfect will be their obedience. Slavery they can have anywhere. It is a weed that grows in ev ery soil. They may have it from Spain, they may have it from Prussia. But, until you become lost to all feeling of your true interest and your natural dignity, free dom they can have from none but you. This is the commodity of price, of which you have the monopoly. This is the true act of navigation, which binds to you the commerce of the colonies, and through them secures to you the wealth of the world. Deny them this participation of freedom, and you break that sole bond, which originally made, and must still pre serve, the unity of the empire. Do not cnte^^ain so weak an imagination, as that your registers and your bonds, your affi davits and your sufferances, your cockets and your clearances, are what form the great securities of your commerce. Do not dream that your letters of office, and your instructions, and your suspending clauses, are the things that hold together the great contexture of the mysterious whole. These things do not make your government. Dead instruments, passive tools as they are, it is the spirit of the English communion that gives all their life and efficacy to them. It is the spirit of the English constitution, which, infused through the mighty mass, pervades, feeds, unites, invigorates, vivifies every part of the empire, even down to the minutest member. Is it not the same virtue which does everything for us here in England? Do you imagine, then, that it is the land tax act which raises your revenue? that it is the annual vote in the committee of supply which gives you your army? or that it is the mutiny bill which inspires it with bravery and discipline? No! sure ly no! It is the love of the people; it is their attachment to their government, from the sense of the deep stake they have in such a glorious institution which gives you your army and your navy, and in fuses into both that liberal obedience, without which your army would be a base rabble, and your navy nothing but rotten timber. All this, I know well enough, will sound wild and chimerical to the profane herd of those vulgar and mechanical politi cians, who have no place among us; a sort of people who think that nothing ex ists but what is gross and material; and who, therefore, far from being qualified to be directors of the great movement of empire, are not fit to turn a wheel in the machine. But to men truly initiated and rightly taught, these ruling and master principles, which, in the existence, are in truth everything, and all in all. Mag nanimity in politics is not seldom the truest wisdom; and a great empire and little minds go ill together. If we are conscious of our situation, and glow with zeal to fill our place as becomes our sta tion and ourselves, we ought to auspicate all our public proceedings on America with the old warning of the church, Sur- sum corda! (Lift up your hearts). We 483 BURKE BTJRLINGAME ought to elevate our minds to the great- Michigan and release the Confederate ness of that trust to which the order of prisoners on Johnson's Island; but the Providence has called us. By adverting Michigan captured the whole party. The to the dignity of this high calling, our Island Queen was sunk and the Philo ancestors have turned a savage wilderness Parsons abandoned. Burley was placed into a glorious empire; and have made the on trial for extradition, and after con- most extensive and the only honourable siderable diplomatic correspondence with conquests, not by destroying, but by pro- the British government was surrendered moting the wealth, the number, the hap- to the United States authorities for pun- piness of the human race. Let us get an ishment. The Confederate government t American revenue as we have got an under the plea of belligerent rights, en- American empire. English privileges have deavored to secure his release or exchange, made it all that it is; English privileges but without success, alone will make it all that it can be. Burlingaxne, ANSON, diplomatist; born In full confidence of this unalterable in New Berlin, Chenango co., N. Y., Nov. truth, I now (quod felix faustumque sit) 14, 1820. His father, a farmer, removed [and may it be lucky and fortunate] lay to Seneca county. Ohio, when Anson was the first stone of the temple of peace; and three years of age. Ten years later the I move you: family were in Michigan. Anson entered " That the colonies and plantations of the University of Michigan in 1837, and Great Britain in North America, consist- was graduated at Harvard in 1846. He ing of fourteen separate governments, and began the practice of law in Boston, and containing 2,000,000 and upwards of free subsequently became an active member of inhabitants, have not had the liberty the FREE SOIL PARTY (q. v.), acquiring a and privilege of electing and sending any wide reputation as an effective speaker, knights and burgesses or others, to repre- In 1849-50 he was in Europe. In 1852 sent them in the high court of Parlia- he was chosen a member of the Massa- ment." chusetts Senate, and became an active sup- Burke, THOMAS, governor, born in porter of the American party in 1854, Ireland about 1747; went to Virginia when by which he was elected to Congress the seventeen years old, and in time engaged same year. Mr. Burlingame assisted in in the practice of medicine. Then he the formation of the Republican party studied law, and in 1774 moved to Hills- in 1855-56; and he was regarded as one boro. He had written against the stamp of the ablest debaters in Congress on that act and other obnoxious measures, and he side of the House. Severely criticising took a conspicuous part in politics in Preston S. Brooks for his attack upon North Carolina. He was a member of CHARLES SUMNER (q. v.) , the South Caro- the Provincial Congress in 1776; was en- linian challenged him to fight a duel. He gaged a short time in the army, and was promptly accepted the challenge, proposed a member of Congress from December, rifles as the weapons, and Navy Island, 1776, until early in 1781, when he was just above Niagara Falls, as the place of chosen governor of the State. In Septem- conflict. Brooks declined to go there, and ber of that year he was seized by the matter was dropped. In March, 186 1 3 Tories, and kept a prisoner on James Isl- President Lincoln appointed Mr. Burlin- and, near Charleston, four months; after game minister to Austria. He having which he was regularly exchanged, re- spoken in favor of Hungarian indepen- sumed his duties of governor, but soon re- dence, the Austrian government refused to tired to private life. He died in Hills- receive him, and he was sent as ambassa- boro, N. C., Dec. 2, 1783. dor to China. There he carried forward Burley, BENNETT G., naval officer; important negotiations; and when, iu served in the Confederate navy. On Sept. 1867, he announced to the Chinese govern- 19, 1864, with other Confederates, he seized ment his intention of returning home, the Philo Parsons, a steamer on Lake Erie, Prince Kung, the regent of the empire, and afterwards another steamer, the Isl- offered to appoint him special ambassa- e^id Queen, with which his party intended dor to the United States and the great to capture the United States gunboat European powers, for the purpose of 484 BTJBLINGTON HEIGHTS BURNS framing treaties of amity with those na- and was received with unusual pomp, tions. This high honor Mr. Burlingame This show he urged in his speech as a accepted ; and at the head of a retinue proof of their ability to give a liberal sup- of Chinese officials, he arrived in the Unit- port to his government, and acquainted ed States in March, 1868. From his own them with the King's instructions to him country Mr. Burlingame proceeded on his to insist upon an established salary, and mission to England, France, Denmark, his intention to adhere to it. The Assem- Sweden, Holland, and Prussia. He was bly at once took an attitude of opposition well received, and he negotiated treaties to the governor. They voted him 1,700 with all but France. He had just entered to enable him to manage public affairs, upon negotiations at St. Petersburg, early and to defray his expenses in going there. in 1870, when he died of pneumonia after The governor declared himself dissatisfied, an illness of only a few days, Feb. 23, and would not consent to their resolve, 1870. as it was " contrary to his Majesty's in- Burlington Heights, EXPEDITION TO. structions." The Assembly appealed to The British maintained for some time a their charter, granted by King William, fortified camp at Burlington Heights, at and refused to vote a fixed salary. A the western end of Lake Ontario. There spirited contest in writing ensued. In they made a depository of stores; and to one of his communications the governor capture these an expedition, composed of threatened the colony with the loss of their 300 land troops, under Col. Winfield Scott, charter. They remained firm, " because," borne by the fleet of Commodore Chauncey, they said, " it is the undoubted right of left the mouth of the Niagara River, July all Englishmen, by Magna Charta, to raise 28, 1813. The usual feeble guard over the and dispose of money for the public ser- stores had just been reinforced. Con- vice of their own free accord, without vinced that their forces were insufficient compulsion." At a town meeting in Bos- to seize the prizes, Scott and Chauncey ton, during the controversy, a unanimous concluded to attack York, from which the declaration was made that the people of British reinforcements had just been sent, the town were opposed to settling a fixed The fleet bore the troops across the lake, salary on the governor. That official then and entered the harbor of York on July adjourned the legislature to Salem, re- 31. Scott landed his troops without oppo- marking, in his message for that purpose, sition ; took possession of the place ; burn- that the interposition of towns was " a ed the barracks, public storehouses and needless and officious step, better adapted stores, and eleven transports; destroyed to the republic of Holland than to a Brit- five pieces of cannon, and bore away as ish constitution." The Assembly adhered spoils one heavy gun and a considerable to their determination, and the governor quantity of flour. They found in *ork was compelled to yield. In person he was (Toronto) the sick and wounded of very commanding; frank in manner, and Boerstler's command captured at the BEA- of ready wit. He died Sept. 7, 1729. VEB DAMS ( q. v. ) . Burns, ANTHONY, negro slave ; was Burnet, WILLIAM, colonial governor; seized in Boston, as a- fugitive slave, May born at The Hague, Holland, in March, 27, 1854. After a judicial hearing he was 1688, when William of Orange (after- remanded to slavery and was taken to the wards William III. of England) became wharf and shipped South under a strong his godfather at baptism; was a son of guard to prevent his rescue by anti-sla- Bishop Burnet; became engaged in the very sympathizers. The event created South Sea speculations, which involved great excitement, and subsequently his him pecuniarily, and, to retrieve his fort- freedom was purchased by a subscription une, he received the appointment of gov- raised in Boston, and after his release he ernor of the colonies of New York and settled in Canada. New Jersey. He arrived in New York in Burns, JOHN, military officer; born in September, 1720. Becoming unpopular Burlington, N. J., Sept. 5, 1793; served there, he was transferred to the govern- in the War of 1812-15, taking part in the ments of Massachusetts and New Hamp- engagements at Plattsburg, Queenston, shire. He arrived at Boston in July, 1728, and Lundy's Lane. He endeavored to en- 485 BURNSIDE BURNT CORN CREEK list for the Mexican War, but being re jected on account of his age went with the army as a teamster. In 1863, when the Confederate scouts entered Gettys burg, he joined a party to oppose them, but was turned back by the National cav alry. He took an active part in the sub sequent battle of Gettysburg, and when the report of his participation reached the Northern States it aroused much interest and he was hailed as the " hero of Gettys burg." He died in Gettysburg, Pa., Feb. 7, 1872. Burnside, AMBROSE EVERETT, military officer; born in Liberty, Ind., May 23, 1824; was graduated at West Point in 1847, and, as a member of a corps of ar tillery, accompanied General Patterson to Mexico the same year. Afterwards he was in charge of a squadron of cavalry in New Mexico; was quartermaster of the Mexican Boundary Commission in 1850- 51; resigned in 1853; established a manu factory of breech-loading rifles (his own invention) in Rhode Island; and was an officer of the Illinois Central Railroad AMBROSE EVERETT BURNSIDK. Company when the Civil War began. He went into that conflict as colonel of the 1st Rhode Island Volunteers. For good service at the battle of Bull Run he was made (Aug. 6, 1861) major-general of volunteers. He commanded the expedi tion that captured ROANOKE ISLAND (q. v.) in February, 1862; also Newbern and Beaufort. He was called to Virginia after the close of the campaign on the 486 Peninsula, and was active and skilful as a corps commander in many of the most important military events of the war. General Burnside served in the campaign in Maryland under McClellan, and was in the battles at South Mountain and Antie- tam. On Nov. 7, 1862, he superseded McClellan in command of the Army of the Potomac. Failing of success in his at tack upon Lee at Fredericksburg (Decem ber, 1862), he resigned, and was succeeded by General Hooker in January, 1863. As signed to the command of the Department of the Ohio in May, he was active there in suppressing the disloyal elements in that region. In the fall he freed eastern Ten nessee of Confederate domination, where he fought Longstreet. He was in command of his old corps (the 9th) in Grant's cam paign against Richmond in 1864-65, where he performed important work. He re signed April 15, 1865. In 1866 he was elected governor of Rhode Island, and was twice re-elected. Being in Europe in the fall of 1870, he was admitted within the German and French lines around Paris, and ineffectually endeavored to mediate between the belligerents. He was elected to the United States Senate in 1875, and was re-elected in 1880. He died in Bris tol, R. I., Sept. 3, 1881. Burnt Corn Creek, BATTLE OF. Peter McQueen, a half-blood Creek Indian of Tallahassee, was a fiery leader among the war party of that nation, wherein civil war was raging in the spring of 1813. This war Tecumseh had stirred up, and the whole Creek nation had become a seething caldron of passion. A British squadron in the Gulf held friendly inter course with the Spanish authorities at Pensacola. To that port McQueen and 300 followers, with pack-horses, went to get supplies and convey them to the war party in the interior. That party was inimical to the white people settled in that nation, and it was the duty of the military in that region to protect the latter. This protection was not furnished, and the white inhabitants and the peace party among the Creeks prepared to de fend themselves. Col. James Caller called out the militia to intercept McQueen. There was a prompt response, and Caller set out with a few followers. He marched towards the Florida frontier, joined on the BURR way by the famous borderer Capt. Samuel the military family of that officer as hr Dale and fifty men, who were engaged in aide-de-camp, with the rank of captain, the construction of a fort. He was now Offended because checked by Montgomery in joined by others from Tensaw Lake and his officiousness, he left his staff and joined Little River under various leaders. Caller's Arnold's. On the night of the assault on command now numbered about 180 men, in Quebec (Dec. 30 and 31, 1775) he was with small companies, well mounted on good Montgomery, and, when the latter was frontier horses, and provided with rifles and killed in that assault, he bore his body on shot-guns. Setting out on the main route his back from the field. He left the for Pensacola on the morning of July 27 (1813), they found McQueen encamped upon a peninsula formed by the windings of Burnt Corn Creek. It was resolved to attack him. McQueen and his party were surprised, but they fought desperately a few minutes, and then ,fled towards the creek. The tide then turned. McQueen and his Indians arose from an ambush with horrid yells and fell upon less than 100 of Caller's men. Dale was severely wounded, but kept on fighting. Over whelming numbers at length compelled Caller's force to retreat. They fled in dis order, many of them leaving their horses behind them. Victory rested with the hostile Creeks. Only two of Caller's com mand were killed and fifteen wounded. The battle of Burnt Corn Creek was the first in the Creek war, a conflict which ruined that nation. See CREEK INDIANS. Burr, AARON, educator; born in Fair- field, Conn., Jan. 4, 1716; was of German descent; graduated at Yale College in 1736; and ordained by the presbytery army in Canada, and joined the military of east Jersey in 1737. He became family of Washington, at New York, in pastor at Newark, N. J., where he was May, 1776, with the rank of major. Dis- chiefly instrumental in founding the Col- satisfied with that position, he left it in lege of New Jersey (now Princeton Uni- the course of a few weeks and took a simi- versity), and was elected its president in lar position on General Putnam's staff. 1748. In 1752 he married a daughter of He was active in the events connected Jonathan Edwards, the metaphysician. In with the defence and abandonment of the 1754 he accompanied Whitefield to Boston, city of New York in 1776 ; and in 1777 He died Sept. 24, 1757. he became lieutenant-colonel of Malcolm's Burr, AARON, Vice - President of the regiment. Burr distinguished himself in United States; born at Newark, N. J., Feb. the battle of Monmouth in 1778, where he 6, 1756; a son of Rev. Aaron Burr, Presi- commanded a brigade in Stirling's division, dent of the College of New Jersey, and During the winter of 1778-79 he was sta- of a daughter of the eminent theologian, tioned in Westchester county, N. Y. For Jonathan Edwards. When nineteen years a short time he was in command of the of age, he entered the Continental army, post at West Point, but, on account of ill- at Cambridge, as a private soldier, and health, he left the army in March, 1779. as such accompanied Arnold in his expe- Burr was a born intriguer, and was nat- dition to Quebec. From the line of that urally drawn towards Lee and Gates, and expedition, in the wilderness, Arnold became a partisan in their schemes for in- sent him with despatches to General Mont- juring the reputation of Washington. He gomery, at Montreal, where he entered had been detected by the commander-in* 487 AARON BCRR. BURR, AARON chief in immoralities, and ever afterwards BLENNERHASSETT, HABMAN). He had a he affected to despise the military charac- pleasant mansion, enriched by books, ter of Washington. He began to practise adorned with paintings, enlivened by law at Albany in 1782, but removed to music, and presided over by a lovely and New York the next year. Entering the accomplished wife. Burr laid before Blen- arena of politics, he was chosen a member nerhassett a brilliant vision of wealth of the New York legislature in 1784, and and power, in a scheme of conquest or again in 1798. In 1789 he was appointed revolution, which captivated him and fired attorney-general of the State, and com- the ambition that lay in the bosom of missioner of Revolutionary claims in 1791. his wife. They engaged in Burr's scheme, A member of the United States Senate whatever it may have been, with ardor, from 1791 till 1797, Burr was a conspicu- After remaining there some time, Burr ous Democratic leader in that body; and pressed forward, and at Louisville over- in the Presidential election in 1800 he and took MATTHEW LYON (q. v.),with whom he Thomas Jefferson had an equal number had voyaged in company in the earlier part of votes in the electoral college. The House of the journey. He accompanied Lyon to of Representatives decided the choice in his home on the Cumberland River, whence favor of Jefferson on the thirty-sixth bal- he journeyed to Nashville on horseback; lot, and Burr became Vice-President. In had a public reception (May 28, 1805), July, 1804, he killed Alexander Hamilton in which Andrew Jackson participated; in a duel; and the next year he undertook and, furnished with a boat by that gentle- his mad and mysterious enterprise in the man, returned to Lyon's. Then he resumed West, which resulted in his trial for his voyage in his own "ark," and met treason. Wilkinson at Fort Massac, nearly oppo- In March, 1805, Burr's term of office as site the mouth of the Cumberland. Some Vice-President ended, and he descended soldiers were about to depart thence for to private life an utterly ruined man. But New Orleans, and Wilkinson procured a his ambition and his love of intrigue were barge from one of the officers for Burr's as strong as ever, and he conceived schemes accommodation in a voyage to that city, for personal aggrandizement and pecuni- There he found the inhabitants in a state ary gain. It was the general belief, at of great excitement. The introduction of that time, in the United States, that the English forms of law proceedings, and Spanish inhabitants of Louisiana would the slight participation of the people in not quietly submit to our government, public affairs, had produced much discon- Taking advantage of this belief, and the tent, especially among the Creoles and restlessness of many of the inhabitants old settlers. Even the new American im- of the valley of the Mississippi, he con- migrants were divided by bitter political ceived some daring schemes (none fully and private feuds. Burr remained only a developed) of military operations in that short time, when he reascended the Mis- region, which he attempted to carry out sissippi to Natchez, whence he travelled immediately after he left office. With through the wilderness, along an Indian several nominal objects in view, Burr trail or bridle-path, 450 miles, to Nash- started for the Mississippi Valley in com- ville, where he was entertained for a week pany with General Wilkinson, who went by Jackson early in August. After spend- to take possession of his office of governor ing a few weeks there, Burr made his way of the Louisiana Territory, to which he through the Indian Territory to St. Louis, had been appointed. At Pittsburg Burr where he again met Wilkinson, that being started in a vessel called an "ark," in the seat of government of the Louisiana which were fitted up conveniences for a Territory. Then, for the first time, he long Toyage. Wilkinson was not ready, threw out hints to Wilkinson of his splen- and the impatient Burr proceeded without did scheme of conquest in the Southwest, him. He stopped at Blennerhassett's Isl- which he spoke of as being favored by the and, nearly opposite Marietta, then in- United States government. At the same habited by a wealthy and accomplished time he complained of the government as Irish gentleman of that name, who had imbecile, and the people of the West as created there a paradise for himself (see ready for revolt. He made no explanation 488 BURR, AARON to Wilkinson of the nature of his scheme, former, fifteen boats on the Muskingum and that officer, suspicious of Burr's de- River; and negotiations were set on foot signs, wrote to his friend Robert Smith, with an Ohio senator to furnish supplies Secretary of the Navy, advising the gov- for an army in the West and the purchase eminent to keep a watch upon his move- of two gunboats he was building for the ments. government. A mercantile house at Mari- Burr went from St. Louis to Vincennes etta, in which Blennerhassett had been a with a letter from Matt. Lyon to Governor partner, was authorized to purchase pro- Harrison, in which he urged the latter to visions, and a kiln was erected on Blen- use his influence to get Burr elected to nerhassett Island for drying corn to fit it Congress from that district. Thence Burr for shipment. Young men enlisted in con- went eastward, stopping at Cincinnati, siderable numbers for an expedition down Chillicothe, and Marietta, everywhere con- the Mississippi, about which only mys- versing with leading men, to whom he terious hints were given, gave only attractive hints of a brilliant Meanwhile Wilkinson had arrived at scheme in hand. He spent that winter Natchitoches to repel, with 500 or 600 and the following spring and summer in troops, a Spanish invasion of the Ter- Philadelphia and Washington, engaged in ritory of Orleans from Texas. There a his mysterious projects. There he more young man appeared in camp with a let- clearly developed his scheme, which seemed ter of introduction from Jonathan Day- to have a twofold character the conquest ton, of New Jersey, to Colonel Gushing, the of Mexico from the Spaniards and the es- senior officer next to Wilkinson. He also tablishment of an independent monarchy, slipped, unobserved, a letter into Wilkin- and the revolutionizing the Mississippi son's hand, from Burr, which was a for- Valley, separating that region from the mal letter of introduction. It contained rest of the Union, and forming an inde- a letter from Burr, principally written in pendent republic, with its seat of govern- cipher. Circumstances seem to show that ment at New Orleans. If the first-men- Wilkinson was at this time privy to, if tioned scheme should be carried out, Burr not actually engaged in, Burr's scheme, aspired to be king; if the latter, he was The cipher letter informed Wilkinson that to be president of his new republic. Tow- he (Burr) had arranged for troops under ards the end of summer (August, 1806) different pretexts at different points, who Burr departed on a second Western tour, would rendezvous on the Ohio by Nov. For a year a vague suspicion prevailed 1: that the protection of England throughout the country that Burr was en- had been secured; that Truxton had gone gaged in a scheme for revolutionizing to Jamaica to arrange with the English Mexico an idea agreeable to the Western admiral ; that an English fleet would meet people because of the existing difficulties on the Mississippi; that the navy of the with Spain. It was believed, too (for so United States was ready to join ; that final Burr had continually hinted ) , that such orders had been given to his friends and a scheme was secretly favored by the followers; that Wilkinson should be sec- government. Under this impression ond to Burr only; that the people of the Burr's project received the countenance country to which they were going were of several leading men in the Western ready to receive them; and that their country. One of the first things which agents with Burr had stated that, if pro- Burr did after his arrival in Kentucky tected in their religion, and not subject- was to purchase an interest in a claim to ed to a foreign government, all would be a large tract of land on the Washita settled in three weeks. The plan was to River, under a Spanish grant to the Baron move detachments of volunteers rapidly de Bastrop. The negotiation was car- from Louisville in November, meet Wil- ried on through Edward Livingston at kinson at Natchez in December, and then New Orleans. The avowal of an intention to determine whether to seize Baton Rouge to settle on these lands might cover up a (then in possession of the Spaniards as far different design. Blennerhassett now a part of west Florida) or pass on. En joined Burr actively in his enterprise. To- closed in the same packet was a letter, gether they built, with the money of the also in cipher, from Jonathan Dayton, 489 BURR, AARON telling Wilkinson he would surely be dis- After gathering all the information pos- placed a-t the next meeting of Congress, sible, Wilkinson sent, by express, two let- and added, " You are not a man to de- ters to President Jefferson one official, spair, or even to despond, especially when the other confidential, in which, without such prospects offer in another quarter, mentioning any names, he gave a general Are you ready? Are your numerous as- outline of the proposed expedition; and sociates ready? Wealth and glory! Lou- then pushed forward to the Sabine. He isiana and Mexico! DAYTON." sent orders to the commanding officer at The correspondence, in cipher and other- New Orleans to put that place in the best wise, between Wilkinson and Burr for possible condition for defence, and to se- several months previously leads to the cure, if possible, by contract, a train of conclusion that the former was, at that artillery there belonging to the French, time, engaged in Burr's scheme, and that Having made a satisfactory arrangement the latter relied upon him. Intimations with the Spanish commander, Wilkinson in the letters of a design to seize newly hastened back to Natchitoches, where he acquired Louisiana startled Wilkinson, received a letter from St. Louis informing and he resolved to make the best terms him that a plan to revolutionize the he could with the Spanish commander on Western country was about to explode; the Sabine and hasten back to New Or- and that Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky, Ten- leans to defend it against any scheme of nessee, and Orleans Territory had corn- conquest there which Burr might con- bined to declare themselves independent template or attempt. This design he com- on Nov. 15. Wilkinson, alarmed, or- municated to Gushing, and obtained from dered Cushing to hasten down with the the bearer of the letters such information troops, while he sped to Natchez; whence as excited his alarm to a high pitch. The he sent a second special messenger to young man (named Swartwout) stated the President with duplicates of his for- that he and another (named Ogden) had mer letters, and another declaring that been sent by Burr from Philadelphia ; that a- conspiracy really existed ; and author- they had carried despatches from Burr to i/ed the messenger to mention the names General Adair, of Kentucky, who was a of Burr, Dayton, Truxton, and others as party to the scheme; that they hastened apparently engaged in the enterprise. He towards St. Louis in search of Wilkinson, informed Governor Claiborne, of the Or- but learned at Kaskaskia that he had de- leans Territory, that his government was scended the river; that they followed to menaced by a secret plot, and took other the mouth of the Red River, when Ogden measures for its defence. At New Orleans went on to New Orleans with despatches to Wilkinson procured a meeting of the mer- Burr's friends there, and he (Swartwout) chants, to whom he and Governor Clai- had hastened to Wilkinson's headquarters, borne made an exposition of Burr's suspect- He said Burr was supported by a numer- ed projects. Bollman, an agent of Burr ous and powerful association, extending there, with Swartwout and Ogden, were from New York to New Orleans; that arrested, and the militia of the Territory several thousand men were prepared for were placed at Wilkinson's disposal. Great an expedition against the Mexican prov- excitement now prevailed on the lower inces; that the Territory of Orleans would Mississippi and on the Ohio and its tribu- be revolutionized for which the inhabi- taries. A series of articles, inspired, no tants were quite ready; that he supposed doubt, if not written, by Burr, had ap- some "seizing" would be necessary at peared in an Ohio newspaper, signed New Orleans, and a forced " transfer " of " Querist," arguing strongly in favor of the bank ; that an expedition was to land the separation of the Western States from at Vera Cruz and march thence to the the Union. Similar articles had appeared Mexican capital; that naval protection in a Democratic paper at Pittsburg. In would be furnished by Great Britain : Kentucky were many uneasy aspirants for and that Truxton and other officers of political power, and an old story of Span- the navy, disgusted with the conduct of ish influence there through pensioners the government, would join in the enter- upon the bounty of Spain was revived. p r i se . Burr's enterprise became associated in the 490 BURR, AARON public mind with the old Spanish plot ; the Muskingum, and that a body of militia and Burr and his confederates, offended was coming to seize those at the island, by what they deemed Wilkinson's treach- hastily embarked (Dec. 13) with a few of ery to their cause, associated him with his followers, and descended the river in the Spanish intriguers. These hints, Tyler's flotilla. The next day a mob of reaching the lower Mississippi, embar- militia took possession of the island, deso- rassed Wilkinson; for it was intimated lated it, and even insulted Mrs. Blenner- that he was also connected with the hassett, who succeeded in obtaining an schemes of Burr. General Jackson who open boat and following her husband down had favored Burr's schemes so long as the river. they looked only towards a seizure of The legislature of Kentucky speedily Spanish provinces alarmed by evidences passed a similar act for seizures to that that he had wicked designs against of Ohio. Tyler, however, had already the Union, wrote to Governor Claiborne passed Louisville. They were joined by (with the impression that Wilkinson was Burr, and the flotilla passed out into the associated with Burr ) , warning him to be- Mississippi and stopped at Chickasaw ware of the designs of that officer a