Lib. AGRIC, DIPT. 
 
o 
 
 
THE 
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS, 
 
 GIVING THE PRINCIPLES WHICH GOVERN THE 
 
 DEVELOPMENT AND GROWTH OF PLANTS, THEIR BOTANICAL 
 AFFINITIES AND PECULIAR PROPERTIES ; 
 
 ALSO, 
 
 Descriptions of the Process by which Varieties and Species are Crossed 
 or Hybridized, and the many Different Methods by which Cul- 
 tivated Plants may be Propagated and Multiplied. 
 
 BY 
 ANDEEW S. FULLEE, 
 
 AUTHOR OF " THE GRAPE CULTURIST," " THE SMALL FRUIT CULTTJRIST," " PRAC- 
 TICAL FORESTRY," ETC. 
 
 ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 
 0. JTJDD CO., DAVID W. JUDD, PKES'T, 
 
 751 BROADWAY. 
 
 1887. 
 

 Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1887, by the 
 
 O. JUDD CO., 
 Ill the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 
 
TO 
 
 J. R. T R U M P Y, 
 
 FLUSHING, N. T.. 
 
 Whose great skill in the Propagation of Rare Trees and 
 Shrubs has contributed so much to the tasteful appear- 
 ance of the Homes of our People, 
 
 THIS VOLUME IS DEDICATED. 
 
 BY HIS FRIEND. 
 
 THE AUTHOR, 
 
 S4892U 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Preface vii. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 Propagation of Plants 11 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 Movement and Reorganization of Cells 20 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 Origin and Kinds of Buds 28 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 Roots and their Functions 36 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 Stems and their Appendages 51 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 Flowers, Fruits and Seeds. 66 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 Circulation of Sap - 85 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 Sex and Fertilization 100 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 Influence of Pollen 117 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 General Principles andMethods.. 135 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 Propagation by Cuttings 144 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 Propagation by Cuttings of Immature Growth 154 
 
VI PROPAGATION OP PLANTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 Propagating by Layers 170 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 Propagation by Suckers and Divisions 176 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 Propagation by Koot-Cuttings 180 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 Propagation by Budding 189 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 Propagation by Grafting 199 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 Selecting Stocks 232 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 Select List of Plants 249 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 Herbs, Tubers and Bulbs .. 309 
 
PEEFACE. 
 
 When I was a young man a plant of that grand old 
 Rose, the Chromatella, came into my possession. Desir- 
 ing to piopagate it, I visited a Scotch gardener in the 
 neighborhood and asked him to show me how Eoses were 
 budded, and was informed that propagating Eoses was a 
 "trade secret." This somewhat surprised me, as "trade 
 secrets " in gardening was a new idea to me, not having 
 at that time been introduced to the mystic shrine of the 
 craft. My reply to this statement was, " Well, sir, if I 
 live to be as old as you are, I will not only know your 
 trade secrets, but make them known to all who may de- 
 sire such information." The present work is in part a 
 fulfillment of the promise made so many years ago, and it 
 has never been lost sight of. 
 
 While admitting that a more intimate acquaintance 
 with horticulturists and horticultural literature has 
 somewhat modified my earlier impressions as to the 
 general secretiveness of the profession, especially as to 
 the more intelligent members, yet there are many who 
 are still very chary of giving information about the best 
 modes of propagating the plants they cultivate, and in 
 visiting their establishments we may see ""No Admit- 
 tance " over the door of the propagating house, probably 
 placed there to more fully impress upon the minds of 
 visitors the idea that the proprietor or his gardener is an 
 important personage, and that behind this sign are trade 
 secrets of vast importance and value. But it will be 
 
 (VII) 
 
VIXT. *': *; PR^AGfAjlO^'OF PLANTS. 
 
 found not only with horticulturists, but among all learned 
 men, that he who knows most is the most willing and 
 ready to give information to whomsoever may ask it. 
 
 The fountains of true knowledge are inexhaustible, 
 and in practical matters it is folly to suppose that to 
 know just how an operation should be performed will 
 enable all to do the work equally well. One man may 
 know how an implement should be made, and yet not 
 possess the skill requisite to make it. It is said that 
 poets are born, not. made, but this oft-repeated aphorism 
 is no more true of poets than of the mechanic or gar- 
 dener. Long experience may enable a man to become a 
 moderately good mechanic or propagator of plants, bub 
 never a first-class workman in either calling unless he pos- 
 sesses an inborn latent talent for such work that becomes 
 developed through practical experience. For this reason 
 there is not the slightest danger of the upper rooms in 
 the temple of Hortulanus ever becoming overcrowded as 
 the result of making known all that is possible to discover 
 in regard to the cultivation and propagation of plants. 
 
 The present volume is a summing up of a life of 
 observation, study and experiment among plants, in the 
 field, forest and garden, and while in a few instances I 
 may not agree with some of our botanical authorities, 
 still, to be true to myself and my convictions, I could not 
 do otherwise than state what appeared to me to be facts. 
 It has been my aim in this, as in my other works, not 
 to mislead, but to prompt the inexperienced to think as 
 well as act to investigate, experiment and seek the truth 
 wherever it is to be found, without regard to what I or 
 other authors have said. It is a common failing among 
 cultivators of plants to consider words equivalent to 
 action, and theories as facts derived from actual experi- 
 ence. We are all far too ready to accept theories in regard 
 to the habits and structure of plants, instead of appealing 
 to the plants themselves for the truth. It is so much 
 
PREFACE. IX 
 
 more convenient to believe than to investigate and know 
 whether a declaration is true or false, that we have com- 
 paratively few thorough and careful investigators of the 
 phenomena of plant life. 
 
 Horticulture as a science is as yet in its infancy, and 
 while we know something of the botanical relationships 
 of plants as exhibited in the floral organs and various 
 other appendages and parts, there is yet much to be 
 learned of their chemical and mechanical affinities. In 
 the hybridizing and crossing of species and varieties, 
 and, perhaps, the intermingling of genera, there is a wide 
 field open for investigation and experiment, from which 
 very valuable and important results may confidently be 
 expected ; and while I have devoted only a limited space 
 to this subject, enough has probably been said to show 
 the way in which operations should be performed. 
 
 The usual incentive to investigation is a desire to know, 
 and a doubt often becomes a germ of knowledge and an 
 aid to progress. In this way have emanated most of the 
 greatest discoveries of all ages. When one has become 
 sufficiently interested in a subject to inquire and inves- 
 tigate, he enters upon the true and only road to actual 
 knowledge. 
 
 In endeavoring to explain some of the physiological 
 laws and principles which govern the growth of plants, I 
 have not placed implicit confidence in the statements of 
 those who are usually considered eminent vegetable 
 physiologists, for it appears to be a common failing with 
 the authors of such works to state definitely that a thing 
 is thus and so, with seldom or never an if, but, or other 
 modifying word that would indicate it was possible for 
 the author to be mistaken, hence the gravest errors if 
 we call them by no worse name have been widely dis- 
 seminated and credited as absolute facts. I have stated 
 only what my own experience among plants has led mo 
 to believe to be facts, without presuming upon the 
 
X PROPAGATION OP PLANTS. 
 
 bounds of infallibility. The modes of propagation may 
 not in every instance be the best known to others, but 
 they are the best known to the writer. 
 
 The author asks no fellow laborer to place implicit 
 confidence in the explanations given of the principles 
 involved in the growth or modes of propagation of plants, 
 but merely requests that their value or worthlessness be 
 determined by actual personal experience, leaving all 
 preconceived theories out of the question. 
 
 There was a time in the author's life when such a work 
 as this would have been of great assistance, and have 
 saved him the loss of many valuable plants; and believing 
 that there are at this day young men just entering the 
 horticultural field who may be benefited and derive some 
 little assistance from this volume, it is sent forth with 
 the hope that it will not only be kindly received, but may 
 serve to promote the propagation and cultivation of 
 plants. 
 
 ANDREW S. FULLER. 
 
 Ridgewood, N. J., January, 1887. 
 
PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 CHAPTEK I. 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 For all practical purposes, the single individual plant- 
 cell may be considered as the unit of vegetable organism. 
 These minute individual cells contain a vital principle 
 called life, which may be defined as a force, possessing 
 an aptitude to respond to a stimulus. 
 
 It is the same in animals as in plants so long as they 
 remain in their embryonic stages, but soon in the former 
 energy, a condition of consciousness is delevoped. The egg 
 of an insect, bird or other oviparous animal is a complex 
 living organism, but it cannot in truth be said to possess 
 consciousness, or be aware of its own existence; still, it 
 responds to the stimulus (heat), energy is developed, and 
 consciousness follows in succeeding stages. Seeds of 
 plants respond to the same stimulus, the young plantlet 
 absorbing nutriment from surrounding elements; and 
 while it may not be conscious of the act, it possesses an 
 inherent vital principle which enables it to reject certain 
 substances and select others for its own use. 
 
 But as man has not as yet been able to analyze this 
 vital principle which we term life, or trace it this 
 mysterious force manifested in matter to its source, hor- 
 (11) 
 
12 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 ticulturists are compelled to confine themselves to seek- 
 ing a knowledge of the best means of promoting the 
 development and multiplication of the cells, which, in 
 their aggregate form, compose the plants that contribute 
 so much to the welfare and pleasure of all members of 
 the animal kingdom, man included. 
 
 The plant-cell, however minute, is not a solid body, nor 
 composed of a single element, but in structure is made 
 up of several parts, and these are the result of a combina- 
 tion of several substances. "Within the young cell we 
 find a viscid liquid, which has received the name of proto- 
 plasm (meaning formative matter), and usually floating in 
 this there are numerous granules, the nature of which has 
 not been fully determined, but they are supposed to be a 
 kind of cell-kernels or nuclei, that probably play an im- 
 portant part in the production of new cells. As the cell 
 acquires age and enlarges, the protoplasm forms a gela- 
 tinous coating on the inside of the true cell membrane, 
 or what may be considered the proper wall of the cell. 
 This membraneous inner surface of the cell-wall is called 
 the internal utricle by Mulder, and primordial utricle 
 by Mohl. It is only visible in new and very young cells, 
 and soon disappears; but, when present, maybe detected 
 under the action of a tincture of iodine, which turns it 
 yellow. As the cells thicken the internal utricle, also 
 the cell-kernels or granules, become incorporated with the 
 cell-walls. The chemical composition of the complete 
 or mature cell is made up of three elements, carbon, 
 hydrogen and oxygen; but in this young and immature 
 state the protoplasm contains nitrogen, and the nitrogen- 
 ous substances are known under various names, such as 
 gluten, albumen, and other well-known products of veg- 
 etables. 
 
 Commencing with the individual cell, we find them in 
 a vast number of plants so minute that they are invisible 
 to the unaided eye, and their forms can only be deter- 
 
PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 13 
 
 mined by the aid of the most powerful microscopes. But 
 down here, at or near the unit of vegetable life, we find 
 perfect plants that consist of only a single cell, and 
 among the most familiar of them is the yeast plant 
 (Torula cerevisice) A cluster of 
 these one-celled plants, highly 
 magnified, is shown in figure 1. 
 There are different species of yeast 
 plants, each of a different form, 
 and all may be propagated, under 
 proper conditions, as readily as 
 
 Fig. I.-YEAS. CELLS. P^tsof higher orders. TheBac- 
 tena are among the most mrnute 
 and obscure race of one-celled organisms, and the in- 
 terest in these is increased on account of their frequent 
 association with many of the diseases of the higher 
 order of plants and of ani- 
 mals. There are hundreds 
 and thousands of species of 
 these minute one-celled plants, 
 and they assume a great va- 
 riety of forms; some are sim- 
 ple round dots floating in 
 liquid, others in chains of 
 cells, while some species are 
 ornamented in the most intri- 
 cate geometric patterns, while 
 others are oval, long, or spread 
 out in a fan-shape, as shown 
 in the one-celled alga (Lic- 
 
 , 7 ,., , Fig. 2. ONE-CELLED ALGA. 
 
 mophora splendida), figure 2. 
 
 While these minute one-celled plants play an impor- 
 tant part in the development and continuation of plant- 
 life, still their small size has, in a measure, prevented a 
 very general acquaintance with their structure and 
 properties, as well as making it somewhat difficult to 
 
PROGAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 trace the relations of such low organisms through a 
 multiplicity of channels up to the higher forms of plants. 
 
 SIZE AND FORM OF CELLS. The size and form of cells 
 are infinitely varied, and, as only a comparatively small 
 number of the* known species of plants have been sub- 
 jected to a careful microscopic examination, we can only 
 gather an idea of the many forms from what we know of 
 the few. Wood cells of different forms and sizes are 
 shown in figure 3. The size of cells may be said to vary 
 from y, of an inch up to y,J 00 of an inch in diameter, and 
 
 there are probably some 
 that are even of less size. 
 Not only do the cells in 
 different kinds of plants 
 vary greatly in size, but 
 such variation is also 
 found in different parts 
 of the same plant. It is 
 also known that the cells 
 of a rapidly - growing, 
 healthy plant are larger 
 than those of one that is 
 feeble and sickly. In 
 form, cells vary from the 
 simple globule of the yeast 
 plant in every conceiv- 
 able direction, frequently assuming intricate geometrical 
 figures, the ellipsoidal apparently springing from the 
 spherical; following upward we find the cube, prismatic, 
 hexagonal, stellate, fusiform, and branching cells. The 
 spherical, oval and elliptical are most common in fungi 
 and herbaceous plants, the more complicated appearing 
 in shrubs, trees and other plants belonging to what are 
 termed the higher orders. 
 
 GROWTH OF CELLS. Each individual cell is a direct 
 
 Fig. 3. WOOD CELLS. 
 
PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 15 
 
 product of other cells, or some form of organizable matter 
 containing the elements of which the cell is composed. 
 At 6rst the cell consists of a separate membrane, but as 
 growth commences there is a re-arrangement of the 
 formative matter, varying according to the characteristics 
 of the plant in the course of development. In some of 
 the lower forms, as has already been stated, the fully 
 developed plant consists of a single cell, others of only 
 an aggregation of the same or closely allied forms; but as 
 we pass upward, the structure becomes more complicated, 
 and there is a greater variety in the shape of the cells, as 
 well as in the elements of which they are composed. 
 The cells have the power of multiplication, new cells 
 springing from the mother cell ; these in turn producing 
 others, and in plants like the common puff ball, many 
 millions are produced in a few hours. Dr. Lindley cal- 
 culated that in one gigantic species, the Bovista Gigantea, 
 that the cells were produced at the rate of sixty-six mil- 
 lions in a minute. But in such simple kinds of plants 
 as the mushrooms and sea-weeds, the entire structure is 
 composed of what is called cellular tissues, a pulpy mass 
 very similar to that which makes up the bulk of our 
 cultivated fruits and vegetables. Some cells elongate to 
 a great length and become a continuous hollow tube, as 
 in the filaments of Cotton, or solid fibers, as in the inner 
 bark of the Basswood and Papaw tree, or in 'such herba- 
 ceous plants as the Ramie, Hemp, Jute and other fiber- 
 yielding species. There is a wide difference in the way 
 cells are united. In some of the lower orders of plants 
 the cell walls separate as they form, but in the higher 
 and more complex, the walls of the young cells are solid 
 and only divide or split apart as they advance in age. 
 In many of the simple plants, the cells are widely sepa- 
 rated and the intervals between them is filled with a semi- 
 liquid mass, in which nothing that resembles a cell can be 
 discovered. But as we advance to the higher orders of 
 
16 PROPAGATION OF PLAKTS. 
 
 plants, a more compact and systematic organization is 
 observable and the cell-walls touch each other at one or 
 more points, permitting of the transmission of fluids 
 from one to another. While young the cell-walls are so 
 thin that they allow of a rapid transmission of fluids and 
 gases, but when they reach a more mature condition the 
 walls become thick and rigid, but never entirely impervi- 
 ous to liquids, for even dead plants will absorb moisture, 
 and often assume the forms and colors which they pos- 
 sessed when alive. The restoration to apparent life of 
 various species of Lycopodiums, Mosses, and the well- 
 known "Rose of Jericho" (Anastatica Meroclmntinc), 
 are familiar examples of this kind. But it is only while 
 the cells are young and contain protoplasm that they are 
 available for the "propagation of plants under artificial 
 conditions. The propagator should keep this in mind, as 
 it will often be of assistance to him iiTselecting cuEings 
 and cions of plants for propagation. 
 
 THE TRAKSUDATION OF FLUIDS. The inherent 
 power that cells possess of absorbing fluids and transmit- 
 ting them from cell to cell, is the process by which 
 nature enables plants to obtain nutriment from the 
 medium by which they are surrounded, whether it be 
 air, earth, water, or all of these combined. This trans- 
 ference of fluids from one cell to another, by a process of 
 transudation, is universal among plants, and while it may 
 be said that the energy displayed in the movement is 
 controlled by a physical law applicable to both animal 
 and vegetable membranes, still there is a vital force pres- 
 ent in the living tissues, of the origin or properties of 
 which we know but little. The operations of this force 
 or principle may be, as is generally claimed by vegetable 
 physiologists, purely mechanical, but that it does possess 
 an inherent power of selection, using certain material or 
 elements and rejecting others, can scarcely be doubted, or, 
 as Dr. Thayer has said, in a paper on Plant Life, that, 
 
PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 17 
 
 " While some of the little cells are at work on delicious 
 honey and rare perfumes, others are engaged in com- 
 pounding healing medicines and even deleterious poisons." 
 It is quite within the range of possibilities that plants 
 possess the power of discrimination or choice, irrespec- 
 tive of their mechanical structure, and this may, in part 
 at least, account for their responsive action to certain 
 stimulants and not to others. Of course we are not to 
 suppose that plants possess any functions corresponding 
 with mind in animals, but they do possess a sensitiveness, 
 which often nearly approaches, if it does not quite reach, 
 the realms of intelligence. The physical process in 
 obedience to which fluids pass from cell to cell, or through 
 any permeable membrane, has been named enclosmosis 
 and exosmosis. The first is given to the inward flow and 
 the other to the outward. These names were applied by 
 H. J. Dutrochet, an eminent French physiologist, who 
 wrote several valuable treatises on animal and vegetable 
 physiology, published in Paris between 1824 and 1837, 
 and since his time the above terms have been in common 
 use. The explanation of this process of transudation is, 
 that liquids of different density, placed on opposite sides 
 of a permeable membrane, are naturally attracted or flow 
 towards each other, and sooner or later become inter- 
 mingled. The thinnest liquid will flow towards and into 
 the thicker, and this movement is called endosmose, 
 while at the same time a much smaller amount of the 
 thicker will flow out into the thinner (exosmose), until 
 both become of equal density. A linen or silk bag, filled 
 with honey or thick syrup, and suspended in a pail of water 
 will furnish a good illustration of the movements of fluids 
 by transudation, for while the water will flow in, some of 
 the honey will be dissolved, thinned, and then flow out, 
 this process continuing until the entire liquid becomes 
 merely honey-flavored or sweetened water, and of the 
 same density throughout. The same kind of interchange, 
 
18 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 as it may be termed, takes place when the living tissues 
 of any two closely allied plants are placed in contact, as 
 in the common operations of budding and grafting, for 
 it will seldom occur that the density of the fluids in both 
 sto'ck and cion, or even a bud, will be exactly the same; 
 consequently, a movement, however feeble at first, must 
 follow close contact of the living plant-cells. In some 
 instances, as I shall have occasion to show in a succeeding 
 chapter, the greater the difference in density of the 
 fluids, the more likely are the two parts to unite quickly 
 and permanently. But it is not to be supposed that the 
 transmission of fluids from cell to cell is all that is neces- 
 sary to make those of one plant support another, or to 
 insure a union between the severed parts of two species 
 or varieties, as in the operations of budding and grafting, 
 for there is an individuality of plants not always easily 
 recognized; still, it exists, and while the transudation of 
 fluids may take place, there must also exist an affinity be- 
 tween stock and cion to insure the coalescing of cells. 
 The principle involved cannot, with our present knowl- 
 edge of life in plants, be fully explained, and vegetable 
 physiologists usually refer to the movement of fluids in 
 plants as a mechanical process, probably because this is 
 the easiest way of bridging a chasm that they cannot 
 fathom. The sup of the Oak may flow into a cion from 
 a Hickory by the process of transudation, but the cells of 
 the latter refuse to use it, or even respond to a stimulus 
 from such a source. This individuality in the functions 
 of cells enables one part of a plant to be engaged in ac- 
 cumulating very different elements from those of other 
 parts. The leaves, flowers, roots and bark may all be 
 manufacturing, as it were, quite different substances. 
 The petals of the Rose emit a different scent from that of 
 the leaf or other part of the plant, and that this fra- 
 grance is a distinct product of their cells is shown in 
 the attar of Roses distilled therefrom. Then again 
 
PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 19 
 
 almost every different variety of the Eose has an indi- 
 vidual fragrance of its own, which is only emitted while 
 the cells remain in their natural and original form. 
 The bark-cells of many species of plants yield valuable 
 products not to be found in any considerable amount in 
 other parts of the same plant, as in the bark of the Cin- 
 namon tree, Benzoin, Peruvian bark, and in the root-bark 
 of the Sassafras. In other plants the roots may yield a 
 large amount of coloring matter, as in those of the 
 Madder, while only a trace of it appears in the stems and 
 leaves. Seeds of some kinds of plants yield oil in the 
 greatest profusion, with little or none in other parts; Flax, 
 Rape and Cotton seed are familiar instances of this kind. 
 Some seeds contain most powerful poisons, like those of 
 the Strychnos, while the pulp surrounding them is in- 
 noxious. The Peach tree yields the most luscious of 
 fruits, while from the seed maybe extracted Prussic acid, 
 the most virulent of all known vegetable poisons. 
 Special deposits of special elements in the same plant 
 may be considered the rule in nearly all of those most 
 useful to man, and yet all these various substances are 
 derived from the same sources, and are composed of 
 simple elements, known by less than a half dozen differ- 
 ent names. A plant, therefore, is in itself a chemical 
 laboratory, and within its minute cells systematical evolu- 
 tions are in progress, which we can neither see or fully 
 understand, but the results are quite apparent to some 
 one or all of our senses. 
 
20 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 MOVEMENT AND KEORGANIZATION OF CELLS. 
 
 There is always a struggle in nature to right herself 
 after any disturbing cause has interrupted her ordinary 
 currents and conditions, and the propagator of plants is 
 constantly doing this, especially when multiplying plants 
 by division of cellular and woody tissues. Young and 
 active cells contain matter that not only serves for the 
 completion of the cell itself, but for the formation of new 
 cells, and it is to the latter principle that we must attri- 
 bute the ready response of vegetable structures to vari- 
 ous stimulants and irritants. When a mass of cells is 
 artificially divided or separated, as in the operation of 
 making cuttings of the stems and roots of ligneous plants, 
 or of cellular matter, as found in-many bulbs and tubers, 
 the exposed cells immediately make an effort to heal or 
 cover the wound with new cells and restore the missing 
 parts. 
 
 A severed root may, under favorable conditions, throw 
 out new rootlets to take the place of the part removed, 
 and from the exposed cells, made in removing a branch of 
 a tree or shrub, new shoots often appear. Cuttings made 
 of young twigs strive to furnish themselves with ne\v 
 roots wherewith to gather nutriment, and in all these 
 various operations, there is a movement of cell-matter 
 resulting in the production of new cells, no matter what 
 form they may subsequently assume ; whether it be that 
 of roots, leaves, or any other of the many parts and ap- 
 pendages of plants. 
 
 The movement of cell-matter under multifarious con- 
 ditions appears to be always in response to either a 
 stimulant or irritant, and whatever other stimulant there 
 may be present, that of heat is of paramount import- 
 
MOVEMENT AND KEOKGANIZATION OF CELLS. 21 
 
 ance. It may be that only one or two degrees above the 
 freezing point is all that is necessary to promote action 
 in the vegetable cells of certain plants indigenous to 
 cold latitudes, still, this is just as indispensable as sixty 
 or seventy degrees higher temperature is for producing a 
 similar movement in the cells of those inhabiting tropical 
 climates. 
 
 It is to this movement of cell-matter, in response to a 
 stimulant, that we are indebted for all the benefits and 
 advantages derived from the artificial methods of propa- 
 gating plants. The gardener's art consists principally 
 in taking advantage of what he has here learned in regard 
 to the natural functions and properties of plants. 
 
 The uniformity of the movement of cell-matter has 
 enabled the propagator to formulate certain operations 
 in order that they may be conducted under uniform 
 conditions, and for the express purpose of producing 
 uniform results. Under certain conditions, he is enabled 
 to make the cells of one plant throw out new cells which 
 unite firmly with those of another, thereby admitting of 
 the passage of fluids, as in the operations known as bud- 
 ding and grafting. But under other and different . con- 
 (jitions, this exuded cell-matter may become roots, cap- 
 able of absorbing nutriment directly from surrounding 
 elements in the soil, or, as in the case of the true^epi- 
 pli\tes, from the atmosphere. 
 
 In the formation of knots on ligneous plants there is 
 certainly a deviation from natural channels in the de- 
 
 " Si ^***^ IB|l|l<l " l ^py^^^^*'^**p^^ 
 
 positing of cell-matter. A few cells at first, through 
 some obstruction or disturbing cause, are forced out of a 
 direct course, and the next layer of woody tissues de- 
 posited must pass over or around the obstruction, this 
 being repeated year after year, until the entire abnormal 
 structure is complete and built up, in many instances, to 
 an enormous size ; for Ash-knots two to three feet in 
 diameter, and weighing a hundred pounds, are not un- 
 
22 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 common in many of the forests of our Northern States. 
 The grain of these knots appears to be formed by cells 
 propelled by some cyclonic force that gave to them a 
 rotating motion, and yet there is a uniformity in this 
 distorted re-arrangement. Another peculiarity of these 
 knots is, that the bark covering them always partakes of 
 the characteristics of the wood underneath and is fully as 
 variable in structure. 
 
 But what may be termed the formative principle in 
 plants, is always a potent power, and while frequently ap- 
 pearing to promote abnormal growths, is equally power- 
 ful in assisting the re- arrangement of cell-matter for 
 continuing and perpetuating natural forms. The move- 
 ment and re-arrangement of cell-matter under artificial 
 conditions must have often been observed by all farmers 
 and gardeners, although probably few of those engaged 
 in these pursuits ever think these phenomena worthy of 
 any special attention or study. An excellent illustration 
 of this movement or action of cells is often found among 
 the tubers of the common Potato, that have been stored 
 in cellars or pits where the temperature was a little too 
 high to insure perfect inactivity. An increase of tem- 
 perature a few degrees above the passive point tends to 
 incite action in the cells, and the most natural result 
 would be a growth from the eyes or buds, which very 
 frequently, if 'not generally, follows. But it is in the 
 abnormal growths that we obtain the best illustration of 
 the potency of the formative principle, as, for instance, in 
 the not unfamiliar production of new tubers on the out- 
 side or within large hollow Potatoes. No leaves, stems, 
 or roots are produced to assist the growth of these new 
 tubers, but the starchy cell- matter of the old Potato 
 moves inward or outward, as the case may be, and in re- 
 forming, builds up an entirely new structure out of the 
 materials obtained from the old. These new tubers, 
 produced in the absence of light, have well-formed buds 
 
MOVEMENT AKD REORGANIZATION OF CELLS. 23 
 
 or eyes on their surface, and, in fact, are in every respect 
 typical representatives of their parents, and yet the con- 
 ditions under which they have grown are certainly ab- 
 normal or unnatural. 
 
 Similar movements of cell-matter, as seen in the Po- 
 tato, . occur in other 
 species of tubers and 
 bulbs, and they may be 
 looked for among all 
 families of plants when 
 ' placed under artificial 
 conditions, or subjected 
 to injury or serious dis- 
 turbance of any kind. 
 Propagators of plants 
 can, and often do, utilize 
 these abnormal growths, 
 produced by the reor- 
 ganization of cell-mat- 
 ter, in the multiplica- 
 tion of various species 
 
 . ,. , l Fig. 4. BULB OF LILIUM SPEC1OSUM. 
 
 and varieties under cul- 
 tivation. For instance, with the scaly bulbs of Lilies, 
 like those of L. spcciosum, shown in figure 4, we have 
 a complete and perfect structure which, if planted en- 
 tire, will produce its one, or, at most, two 
 flower stems, with leaves scattered along their 
 entire length, the roots gathering nutriment 
 from the soil for the support of the plant. But 
 if we separate the individual scales and .place 
 them in a congenial material, such as moist 
 earth, sand or moss, keeping them only moder- 
 ately warm, and allow sufficient time for the 
 change, eacji scale will produce a small bulb, 
 an exact counterpart of the parent bulb. A small 
 scale is shown in figure 5, as it appears when un- 
 
PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 dergoing a change of structure. A cell near the base 
 of the detached scale draws to itself the cell-matter of 
 an adjoining one, the two add other cells, all deriving 
 their support from the contents of the old cells, and 
 from these reservoirs of nutriment a new scaly bulb of 
 the exact type of the old or parent bulb is built up, just 
 as occurred in the formation of a new tuber out of the 
 materials of the old one in the Potato. Sametirnes sev- 
 eral bulbs will be produced from a 
 single scale, as the formative principle 
 may become active in one or more cells 
 at the same time. These scales, in 
 their aggregate form, make a complete 
 or perfect bulb,, are really sessile sub- 
 terranean leaves, which, as shown, 
 possess an inherent power of repro- 
 ducing their kind in the absence of 
 any additional organic material from 
 other sources. 
 
 .That the cell-matter of these sub- 
 terranean scales or leaves is not specifi- 
 cally different from that of which the 
 upper or stem leaves is composed, is 
 readily shown when the old or main 
 bulbs are planted so deep that a few 
 inches of the base of the flower stem 
 will be covered with soil. Tlio. flower 
 stems of this species of Lily, as stated, 
 produce leaves along their entire length, 
 but those below the surface of the 
 ground are prevented from developing 
 into true aerial leaves ; consequently 
 the cell-matter provided by other parts of the plant is re- 
 organized and becomes small bulbs (figure 6), which emit 
 roots for their individual use and support later in the 
 season, when they will be cast off by the mature and 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 LILT BULBS ON THE 
 FLOWER STEM. 
 
MOVEMENT AND REORGANIZATION OF CELLS. 25 
 
 ripened parent stem. That these stem bulbs are the pro- 
 duct of reorganized cell-matter, which, under other con- 
 ditions, would have spread out into long, thin, aerial, and 
 true leaves, is quite evident from the fact that tney are 
 only produced at the point where an embryo leaf-bud 
 had formed a junction with the stem. It is not only 
 in the propagation of plants under artificial conditions 
 that we find great uniform- 
 ity in the movement of cell- 
 matter proceeding from 
 uniform causes, but it is 
 also observable in the re- 
 sults of attacks and injuries 
 inflicted by insects. In the 
 growth of what are called 
 
 53. 
 
 galTs'on plants, produced, 
 
 so far as known, by the irri- 
 
 tation caused in depositing 
 
 eggs, or the presence of the 
 
 larvae hatched therefrom, 
 
 the results are so uniform 
 
 that the entomologist is 
 
 enabled, at a glance, to Fig. 
 
 identify the inhabitants of galls by the structure and 
 
 outward appearance of their dwellings. 
 
 Why the irritation caused by the depositing of a few 
 minute eggs by a small four- winged black fly (Gynips 
 spongifica), on the leaf-stalk of the Black Qal^ should 
 cause cell-matter to rush to that part, and form a large 
 puffy gall an inch or more in diameter, and of a speci- 
 fic structure, differing widely from those produced by a 
 closely-related insect upon other species of the Oak, we 
 do not know ; but the fact that every distinct species of 
 Cynips produces a different gall is well known to every 
 entomologist. (Figure 7 a, larva in center; b, hole 
 where the fly escaped.) 
 
 GALL. 
 
26 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 In the true Oak Apple (figure 7), the cell-matter im- 
 mediately surrounding the Iarva3 in the center of the 
 gall becomes very hard and woody, while the space be- 
 tween this center kernel and the rind of the gall is filled 
 with a grayish, light, spongy matter. In what is called 
 the " Bastard Oak- Apple/'' produced by the Cynips 
 inanis on the Red Oak, the central kernel or cell is not 
 hard and woody, and the rind is connected with the 
 center by slender radiating filaments, as shown in figure 
 8. Another species of Oynips produces a very distinct 
 gall on the acorn of both the Black and Red Oak indis- 
 criminately. Different species of insects not only pro- 
 duce different kinds of galls on the Oak, but upon vari- 
 ous other kinds of trees 
 and shrubs, and even upon 
 many herbaceous plants. 
 The Pine-cone Gall of the 
 Willow is a familiar object 
 in every swamp where the 
 Heart-leaved Willow (Salix 
 cor data), is found, and is 
 the result of the depositing 
 of eggs of a minute species 
 of gall-gnat. As soon as the 
 eggs are deposited in the 
 young twig of the Willow, 
 the cell-matter proceeds to 
 form a cone-like structure, 
 something entirely differ- 
 
 Fig. 8. BASTAKD OAK APPLE. 
 
 ent and entirely foreign to 
 
 the natural functions of the plant, and this movement 
 continues until the gall is complete, the outer part being 
 covered with regularly formed scales, the whole resem- 
 bling a small pine cone. There may be thousands of these 
 galls in the same field or swamp, but all will be found 
 nearly of one size, and built up on the same general plan. 
 
MOVEMENT AND REORGANIZATION OF CELLS. 27 
 
 Where different species of insects, so far as our knowl- 
 edge enables us to determine, produce galls out of ident- 
 ically the same materials, they are invariably of a differ- 
 ent structure and form, showing that however slight the 
 variation in the chemical or mechanical nature of the 
 cause, the results may be widely variable. For instance, 
 there are several species of gall-gnats that breed in the 
 Grape-vine, but each produces a distinct form of gall. 
 One species that attacks the young succulent canes 
 makes a gall somewhat resembling a small apple, and it 
 is known as the "Apple Gall" of the vine, while the 
 habitation of another species resembles a cluster of fil- 
 
 . 9. TRUMPET GALL ON GRAPE-LEAF. 
 
 berts. The same rule holds good with galls produced on 
 the leaves of the Grape-vine. TJie galls produced by the 
 minute parasite formerly known as Pemphigus vitifolia, 
 Fitch, but now as Phylloxera vastatrix, Planchon, .appear 
 Qn the underside of the leaf, and are merely small green 
 fleshy swellings, more or less wrinkled, and with a slight 
 depression on the upper side, forming -\ < m- 
 
 of hairy or pubescent margin. But in another leaf-gall, 
 known as the "Trumpet Grape-gall," produced by a 
 
28 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 small species of Gall-gnat (Cecidomyia), the eggs are 
 deposited on or in the upper surface of the leaf, and the 
 cell-matter, moving to the point of irritation, builds up 
 a trumpet-like gall (figure 9), a quarter to one-third of 
 an inch in length. These galls, when produced on the 
 leaves of wild vines having reddish petioles or leaf 
 stalks, assume the same color, and on others they are 
 greenish white, showing that the cell-matter, when re- 
 sponding to an irritant, may not change its natural 
 chemical properties any more than it would in respond- 
 ing to a stimulant, and guided by the formative prin- 
 ciple while perfecting the growth of the plant. 
 
 We are not to suppose that these galls are necessarily 
 injurious to plants, for while the normal conditions and 
 channels of circulation may be temporarily changed, 
 followed by a re-forming of cell-matter under new con- 
 ditions, and for the express purpose of giving food and 
 protection to an insect, still the tissues of which these 
 galls are composed are generally healthy, and are, without 
 doubt, capable of performing the regular functions of 
 assimilation,, 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 ORIGIN AND KINDS OF^gTOS. 
 
 The origin of buds is a subject that has received much 
 attention from vegetable physiologists, but in pursuing 
 their investigations it is to be feared that many of them 
 have been more anxious to confirm some previously con- 
 ceived theory than to discover the truth from actual per- 
 sonal research. 
 
 Beginning at the unit of vegetable structures, we find 
 plants composed of a single cell. In the multiplication 
 or growth of these single cells a new cell is produced 
 
ORIGIK AKD KINDS OF BUDS. 29 
 
 in other words, it puts forth a bud, this in turn another ; 
 these, however, are only single cell buds, but as we 
 advance upward in the scale we find plants composed of 
 an aggregation of cells, therefore compound in their 
 structure, and their buds, assuming the parent form, are 
 also made up of a number of cells, arranged in regular 
 order, through the controlling influence of what is called 
 the formative or living principle. Keeping the fact 
 in mind that new cells are always the product of other, 
 or parent cells, and that in the re-arrangement of cell- 
 matter, or growth, the new cells preserve their typical 
 form, we can readily understand how buds, even of the 
 most complicated structure, may, under favorable con- 
 ditions, be produced from living organizable vegetable 
 matter, on or within any part or appendage of a plant. 
 It is true that, when plants are under normal conditons 
 and with room for full development, they produce buds 
 uniformly at certain points and not elsewhere ; but it is 
 seldom that a plant is so favorably situated as .got to be 
 disturbed at some period in its life; consequently, ajmor- 
 mal growths may become hereditary through the oft- 
 recurring influence of abnormal conditions. In a state of 
 nature, there is usually more or less crowding among 
 plants, and parts are disturbed, broken, or destroyed. 
 The larger animals trample upon the small and young 
 plants, or later in life browse upon the stems and 
 branches, while insect enemies sting, cut and wound 
 plants in various ways, consequently there is always a 
 struggle for existence, which begets a necessity for a de- 
 parture from what, under other conditions, would be 
 the natural order of growth. 
 
 There are as many dijSjerent forms of buds, as there 
 are different species of plants, but for the sake of con- 
 venience, they may all be arranged under five groups, 
 viz. : The (1) terminal, (2) axillary, (3) accessory, (4) 
 fruit bud, (5) adventitious. Buds, although of various 
 
30 
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 forms, are generally, in the higher order of plants, com- 
 posed of imbricated scales, enclosing the rudiments of 
 stems, leaves, or organs of reproduction. The ter- 
 minal bud is situated on the en^^of a^stem^or branch (as 
 in ng. J.O), and the axillary bud on the side just below, 
 and usually in the axils of the leaves, and this bud may 
 either grow and become a branch or remain dormant, or 
 be entirely overgrown and obliterated. The terroinal 
 and the axillary buds are really t^e sagejp. 
 structure and importance, for if the terminal 
 buabe destroyed, the one next below it be- 
 comes the terminal, and the elongation of 
 the stem or branch proceeds with but a slight 
 check. It is seldom that all of the axillary 
 buds become branches, as only the strongest 
 and most favorably situated grow, for nature, 
 in her prodigality, provides more than are 
 required in the regular order of growth. 
 The accessory bud is merely one of a cluster 
 of buds sometimes surrounding the base of 
 a terminal, but more frequently accompany- 
 ig the axillary buds. If by accident or 
 otherwise the regular terminal or axillary 
 bud is destroyed, the accessory buds take their place, 
 one or more of their number growing. These ac- 
 cessory buds are not only found on the stems of 
 annual and perennial plants, both herbaceous and 
 ligneous, but also scattered over the surface of such 
 tubers as the common Potato and Jerusalem Artichoke. 
 In other tubers and bulbs they are found clustered at 
 the crown or apex, as in the tubers of the Dahlia, Herba- 
 ceous Paeony and bulbs like the Turnip, Beet, Crocus and 
 Gladiolus. Then, again, we find the axillary and acces- 
 sory buds distributed along subterranean stems of various 
 kinds of plants, and naturally they are only produced at 
 the nodes or joints, as seen on the cane of the Grape-vine 
 
 BUDS. 
 
ORIGIN AND KINDS OF BUDS. 
 
 31 
 
 Fig. 11. WOOD SORREL (Oxalis Acetoxlla). 
 
32 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 or the underground brandies of the Canada Thistle and 
 common Wood Sorrel (Oxalis Acetosella) , shown at a and 
 I, figure 11. 
 
 The propagators make extensive use of all these forms 
 of buds, in multiplying the various kinds of plants under 
 cultivation. 
 
 Frtqi^bu^s appear on plants in the same position as 
 other buds of the regular form that is, they are either 
 ter^minaj_oi\4ateral, but principally the latter ; on trees 
 they are often found on short spurs, which remain pro- 
 ductive for many years. These buds contain the embryo 
 organs of the flower, and in many kinds of plants they 
 are formed the season previous to their full development. 
 But the production of visible fruit-buds is by no means 
 a universal characteristic of plants, for in many orders, 
 and especially among cryptogamous plants (Ferns, Sela- 
 ginellas, Mosses, etc.), true flowers or flower-buds are 
 unknown, for the spores, which answer the purpose of 
 seeds in the higher orders, are developed on the stems, 
 leaves or other appendages of the plants, without the 
 appearance of any previously formed organ in the least 
 resembling flower or fruit-buds. Still, some of these 
 plants produce both aerial and subterranean buds as 
 freely and with as great uniformity as the most common 
 of our cultivated fruit and ornamental trees and shrubs. 
 The spores of these cryptogams are also produced with as 
 great regularity and distinctness of form and position on 
 the plant, and are usually as available for the purpose of 
 propagation, as the most perfect and highly developed 
 seeds. 
 
 Adventitious buds have long been a source of discord 
 among vegetable physiologists, and some of the old and 
 erroneous theories are not as yet quite obsolete. It 
 is less than a centu < ry_ago that several learned European 
 botanists^daimed that evejr^Jbud on the stem of a tree 
 was, an embryo plant fixed in position, but sending its 
 
ORIGIN" AND KINDS OF BUDS. 33 
 
 roots downward and its leaves upward, having a kind of 
 individual existence in the performance of its natural 
 functions. All buds that might appear on the stem, and 
 of the regular order, were supposed to be developed dor- 
 mant or latent buds that had remained inactive from 
 the time they were originally produced on the young 
 stem when it was first clothed with leaves. The idea 
 that buds could be developed or formed out of the young 
 cell-matter at any time or at any point, on certain kinds 
 of plants, seems never to have occurred to many of these 
 earlier investigators, and, I may add, even to some still 
 living. That ^ud^ do lie dojjjiajjt for. a. time "-years in 
 some instances must be admitted, but this will not ac- 
 count for their frequent appearance on parts of plants 
 where no bud could have previously existed, as on the 
 internodes of the stems and 
 branches, as well as on leaves 
 and true roots. In seeking 
 for the origin of these ad- 
 ventitious or chance buds, we 
 have no occasion to confine 
 our investigations to a single 
 order of plants, because they 
 constantly appear in a vast _ 
 
 J * . -,.,., , Fig. 12. R08P-LEAF AS CUTTING. 
 
 number or species distributed 
 
 among widely separated genera and families, and it 
 is not at all difficult to jirace tljeir sourajtojjic^ 
 ^reorganization of cell-matter. The lealfTrf aTfcose cannot' ' 
 be said to contain buds of any kind, still it will, when 
 stripped from the stem, with no wood or bark attached, 
 and placed under favorable conditions, produce roots and 
 a bud near the base of the stalk or petiole, as shown in 
 figure 12. The same is true of the Bryophyllum, some 
 Begonias, and hundreds of other familiar and well-known 
 plants that florists are constantly propagating by leaves, 
 and even minute portions of a leaf. Even the bark 
 
34 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 taken from tlio internodes of some kjnd of plants, where 
 there are no indications of the existence of dormant 
 buds, will produce both roots and buds. Were it not for 
 our modern facilities notably, the microscope we might 
 be inclined to account for the origin of these chance buds 
 by supposing, as claimed by some of the earlier botanists, 
 that the germ? or embryo buds were floating about in 
 the sap of the plants, ever ready to develop when an op- 
 portunity offered. 
 
 H. F. Link, a celebrated German botanist of a half 
 century ago, says: (C The adventitious buds are distin- 
 guished from the axillary buds by their structure ; in 
 the latter, the greater part of the pith goes with the 
 wood into the supporting leaf, and in the former the 
 entire amount of pith passes into the bud." But Prof. 
 Link's distinction between axillary and adventitious 
 buds were more imaginary than real, and that the pith 
 of even ligneous plants supporting the leaf was long 
 since shown to be erroneous. Dr. J. M. Schleiden, in 
 his " Principles of Botany," published about forty years 
 ago, in speaking of adventitious buds of perennial plants 
 with vegetation periodically dormant, says : " that the 
 axillary and adventitious buds are only to be distin- 
 guished by the mode of development," and further that, 
 "each stem, whether a common one or. a root stem, can 
 develop a bud. These buds are caused, not only by ac- 
 cidental and intentional wounding of the stem, but also 
 hvthe inclination of plants to develop buds at certain 
 glaces." However much later botanists may disagree 
 wTFn Prof. Schleiden in regard to his pet theories and 
 caustic denunciation of some of those advanced by his 
 contemporaries, practical horticulturists of the present 
 day will certainly agree with him as to the appearance 
 and origin of adventitious buds, although, in the chapter 
 previous to the one from which the above remarks are 
 copied, he states distinctly that, in Dicotyledons, "no 
 
ORIGIN AND KINDS OF BUDS. 35 
 
 root is capable of producing buds," p. 220. But, as I 
 have said, adventitious buds appear as freely on roots as 
 on leaves, and under similar conditions, but vegetable 
 physiologists seem to be inclined to ignore the fact, or 
 get around it by saying that when a root produces a bud 
 it should be considered as a subterranean stem. The late 
 Dr. Lindley in his "Theory of Horticulture " says: "In 
 general, roots have no buds, and are therefore incapable 
 of multiplying the plant to which they belong," but he 
 adds, " that it constantly happens in some species that 
 they have the power of forming what are called adven- 
 titious buds; and, in such cases, they may be employed 
 for the purposes of propagation." 
 
 Prof. Asa Gray, in his "Structural Botany," Chap. 
 iii., p. 82, says that, although roots are not naturally 
 furnished with buds, yet, under certain circumstances, 
 those of many trees and shrubs and some herbs, have the 
 power of producing them. Again, in Chap, iv., p. 98, 
 he says of adventitious buds: " It has been already re- 
 marked that roots, although naturally destitute of buds, 
 do yet produce them in certain plants, especially when 
 wounded." This is very true, but there are many species 
 of plants, and notably among these the Wild Raspberry of 
 both Europe and America, that multiply naturally and 
 rapidly from adventitious buds on their true roots, as 
 well as from those developed on what are usually con- 
 sidered as subterranean stems. 
 
 With the present state of our knowledge in regard to 
 the structure of plants, it would not be wise, to say the 
 least, to attempt to fix a limit to the range of adventi- 
 tia^Jyucig, for, as I have already said, their origin de- 
 pends .largely upon the vital energies of the parent cell, 
 and, as Prof. Schleiden remarks, " the self-subsistence and 
 of reproduction of the qell js the foundation of 
 From this power,~"under 
 
 favorable conditions, can each individual cell or group 
 
36 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 form new cells and buds, which may or may not, accord- 
 ing to circumstances, become a new plant. Botanists 
 have been inclined to pass over the adventitious bud as 
 a thing rarely occurring, and then merely a chance pro- 
 duction, consequently not of sufficient moment to call 
 for any special attention, but to the propagator of plants 
 it has become of great importance ^wherever and when- 
 ever it can be made available in the multiplication of 
 valuable species and varieties. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 ROOTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS. 
 
 In many of the simple plants no organs corresponding 
 to the true roots of the higher orders are produced, the 
 nutrient elements being absorbed directly through all 
 parts of the plant alike. At what point in the ascending 
 scale the true roots first appear has not been fully deter- 
 mined, but these organs most probably follow, or are co- 
 existent with, the inception of a division of cells into 
 groups, each possessing special functions, as found in all 
 compound plants. 
 
 As soon as a plant has advanced upward in the scale, 
 and reached a plane where different organs are evolved 
 with distinct and special functions, roots become neces- 
 sary to its existence, and are consequently among the 
 first of a multiplicity of organs to appear. It is true, if 
 we consult the writings of our most eminent vegetable 
 physiologists, we find that they do not agree as to what 
 part or how much of certain plants should be designated 
 as roots. In the funguses, such as mold and mildew, as 
 well as in the larger mushrooms, the filmy threads called 
 mycelium answer the purpose of true roots, producing 
 
ROOTS AND THEIK FUNCTIONS. 37 
 
 a form of bud from which spring up, in some instances, 
 stout stems, bearing a cap containing fruit-like organs ; 
 while in others there is only a very minute ascending 
 axis. 
 
 While authors differ very widely in their opinions as 
 to what part of certain plants should be considered as 
 roots, and what should not, nearly all agree that what- 
 ever is developed ^ejw^the^cotyledons, figure 13, .ojrjirst 
 pair of seed-leaves, in dicotyledonous plants, should at 
 first be considered as the root, or descend- 
 ing axis ; but this part soon undergoes a 
 change, or outgrows its normal functions, 
 and becomes merely an extension of the 
 true stem or ascending axis. The embryo 
 root, no doubt, when it first pushes out 
 from the seed, absorbs nutriment from the 
 elements with which it is surrounded, just 
 as the smaller rootlets do later in the life 
 of the plant ; but when this main or cen- 
 tral root ceases to absorb nutrients it would 
 be difficult to determine. The stem or 
 ascending axis, and the two cotyledons 
 (seed-leaves), with a central terminal bud 
 or leaf (plumule) is that part of the plant 
 which seeks the light and air ; while the ING COTYLEDONS. 
 part growing in the opposite direction, or downward, is 
 the root or descending axis or radix. In many of the 
 monocotyledonous plants (one cotyledon or seed-leaf), like 
 the Grasses, Asparagus, Yuccas, Palms, etc., there are a 
 number of roots, or a multiplication or division of the 
 radix from the first, and, in some instances this emission 
 of what may be properly called adventitious roots appears 
 to be the normal habit. 
 
 But these rather anomalous characters need not sur- 
 prise the propagator of plants if he will keep in mind 
 that variation is a rule of nature ; and while there is suf- 
 
38 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 ficient uniformity in the, laws governing the growth of 
 vegetation to enable us to discover what we may term 
 general principles, yet it is impossible for us to determine 
 with certainty the exact limits of variation. 
 
 In a general way, it may be said that roots growing in 
 the ground have a tendency to go downward, or toward 
 the center of the earth. Prof. Gray says that the plant- 
 let possesses a kind of polarity, and is composed of coun- 
 terpart systems namely, a descending axis, or root, and 
 an ascending axis, or stem. Prof. Balfour, in referring 
 to this subject, says : " Physiologists have not been able 
 to detect any law to which they can refer the phenomena, 
 although certain agencies are obviously concerned in the 
 effect. Some have said that the root is especially influ- 
 enced by the attraction of the earth, while the stem is 
 influenced by ligfht." But experiments have shown that 
 the downward coarse of the root is not always due to the 
 attraction of gravitation, or to moisture in the soil ; nei- 
 ther is the ascent of the stem due to the action of light, 
 although all these, no doubt, have an influence upon the 
 plantlet in its early stages of growth. Thomas Andrew 
 Knight placed mustard seeds and French beans on the 
 circumference of two wheels which were put in rapid 
 I ^ motion, the one horizontal and the other in a vertical 
 
 . manner, and he found that in the former the roots took 
 a direction intermediate between that impressed by gravi- 
 
 'tation and by the centrifugal force namely, downward 
 and outward, while the stems were inclined upward and 
 inward. In the latter the force of gravitation was neutral- 
 ized by the constant change of position ; the centrifugal 
 force acted alone, by which the roots were directed out- 
 ward at the same time that the stems grew inward. But 
 these variations may have all been due to the liquid con- 
 dition of the parts of the young plants. Some plants 
 grow indifferently in all directions from the very incep- 
 tion of germination, and it is well known that the roots 
 
ROOTS AKD THEIR FUNCTIONS. 39 
 
 of parasites point toward the center of their host. While 
 the first root of the plantlet growing in the earth, and in 
 a position free to act, generally goes downward, the sec- 
 ondary or adventitious roots have a tendency to wander 
 in search of food, not only pushing out at right angles 
 from the central descending axis, but often climb up 
 banks at a very acute angle. There is co doubt about 
 the uniformity of action in first roots of plants, but those 
 produced later are controlled by varying conditions and 
 circumstances. *) 
 
 The sensitiveness of the root is mainly in its pdtat, J" . 
 and it is through the ounge.r parts that the nutrient 
 properties are mostly absofbecl from the medium in which 
 they live. Old or large roots cannot take up moisture or 
 the elements of nutrition necessary for the growth of the 
 stem and its appendages ; hence the necessity of weserv;- 
 ing the small libers from injury in transplanting, ^LS^ell 
 as placing the principal roots in a position where new 
 rootlets will bo produced in time to respond to a call 
 upon them for nutriment by the leaves. 
 
 The most natural position for roots is at the base of 
 the stem, whatever form the latter may assume, whether 
 it be that of a tree, shrub, vine, herb, bulb, tuber, epi- 
 phyte, or even a parasite, which pierces with its roots the 
 tissues of its host for nutriment. But as all .roots, are 
 produced by the multiplication of cells within restricted 
 limits, they may, like the adventitious bud, appear, under 
 favorable conditions, upon v all parts of the same pi tint 
 on the stem, leaves, buds, or other appendages. Roots 
 have no more fixedness of character than branches, for 
 they may in many instances be changed into stems or 
 branches, and there are soone kiadsjpf Jbreps, like the Wil- 
 lows and Poplars, t^at may be completely inverted, the 
 roots becoming. branches and the branches roots. The 
 same is true of many other kinds of plants to which I 
 shall have occasion to refer hereafter. 
 
40 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 Roots, like stems and brandies, lengthen at their points 
 only, and while the absorption of moisture and nutriment 
 is principally through the newly-formed cells near the 
 ends of the rootlets, still they continue to take in. liquids 
 .through all. parts until they have become hardened and 
 enclosed in a cortical layer of cells. It is no doubt true, 
 as Mr. Darwin claims, that sensitiveness to moisture 
 resides specially in the tip of the root, but it can readily 
 be shown that the absorbing property is not wholly con- 
 fined to this point, by removing the tip of the rootlet. 
 The absorbing powers of the young, fibers must be far 
 greater than could possibly exist nTthe extreme point, in 
 order to supply the loss of moisture through rapid evapo- 
 ration from the leaves and young twigs of many kinds of 
 herbs and trees during dry and hot weather. But at 
 what age or period of growth the rootlet loses its 
 power of .absorbing nutrients has not been determined, 
 but it is probably variable in different kinds of plants, 
 The epiphytes, and especially the larger species of Or- 
 chids, with coarse, fleshy, aerial roots, retain the power 
 of absorbing liquids through their side cells for a much 
 longer period than those of plants growing in the earth, 
 having roots so minute that they can readily pass between 
 small particles of soil while seeking sustenance. They 
 not only add new cells to. their points, but the cells in 
 the rear are continually throwing off new branches, there- 
 by enabling the plant to occupy and gather food from 
 new sources. 
 
 The cause of this rapid formation and multiplication 
 of absorbing. points on many of the most vigorous peren- 
 nial plants is unknown, for they are evidently wholly 
 adventitious, not originating from buds like the natural 
 branches on the stems of plants ; and, furthermora, the 
 larger proportion of these minute roots are deciduous, 
 and only serve a tompor^ry purpose, lining but for a 
 year or two ; a few of the stronger remaining perma- 
 
BOOTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS. 41 
 
 nently, the ojtliers dropping off when no. longer of service 
 to the plant. The number and ramifications of roots are 
 naturally quite variable in different kinds of plants, as 
 well as in the same species growing under different con- 
 ditions, and the cultivator frequently takes advantage of 
 these variations in many of the operations which he is 
 called upon to perform. 
 
 The principal office of roots is to collect nutrients from 
 the medium by which they are surrounded, furnishing a 
 vehicle for conveying the materials collected to other 
 parts of the plant. But in many instances the roots also 
 act as a support and for securing the plant in a perma- 
 nent place or position. This function of localization, 
 however, is not general throughout the vegetable king- 
 dom, but belongs to certain groups or families, and even 
 with these it is only operative during the life of the indi- 
 vidual plant. Collectively, all plants may be said to 
 travel or change places with each successive generation, 
 and there is a vast number which are not confined to one 
 spot for any considerable period during their lives, but 
 they are continually moving from place to place, as seen 
 in many aquatic plants floating in ponds, rivers and 
 bays in all parts of the world. There are also many 
 parasitic plants, like the common Dodders (Cuscuta), 
 which at first spring up from seed buried in the earth ; 
 but the plant soon breaks loose from the parent root, 
 then moving onward over its host, from which it obtains 
 nutriment, the older parts of the stem dying and drop- 
 ping off as the younger parts advance. Such plants may 
 be said to travel in search of victims, leaving only their 
 seeds scattered along the way, while other plants, like 
 the common Black-cap Raspberry and Trailing Black- 
 berry, leave one of their kind at each place occupied. 
 The old plant sends out a long slender shoot, several feet 
 or yards in length, and from the very tip of this, new 
 roots are emitted, and in this way a new plant is estab- 
 
42 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 listed far away from the parent stock. While such plants 
 do not migrate, or move about in the same manner as the 
 floating aquatic herbs, still each successive generation 
 seeks a new abiding place, at a greater or less distance 
 from the homes of their immediate progenitors. 
 
 Wherever a plant becomes established, the roots gather 
 nutriment from the medium in which they are placed, 
 and of such nature as is required to build up the struc- 
 ture. These nutrients are absorbed or taken in through 
 the surface of the roots, and as all must pass through 
 the minute cells, it is quite evident that they can only be 
 utilized when in a liquid or gaseous condition ; nothing 
 of a solid nature can be appropriated for use by the plant. 
 Everything found in a mature plant must have originally 
 entered the root or other parts as a liquid or gas, and 
 then changed, by some chemical or other agency, into 
 whatever form it afterward assumes. 
 
 "Whether roots possess an inherent power of selecting 
 their food, or not, is still a mooted question among veg- 
 etable physiologists. Some are quite positive that they 
 do possess this power in a greater or less degree, while 
 others are just as certain that they do not, and that all 
 matter presented to them in a liquid or gaseous form is 
 alike absorbed ; hence the frequent cause of death among 
 plants through the absorption of poisons. Dr. W. B. 
 Carpenter, in his " Vegetable Physiology and Botany," 
 in referring to this subject, says : "that they appear to 
 have a certain .power, of selection ; some of the substances 
 dissolved in the fluids which surround the roots being 
 ab^orbe^a,n<gLothers rejected. Thus, if a grain of wheat 
 and a pea be grown in the same soil, the former will ob- 
 tain for itself all the silex or flinty matter which the 
 water of the soil can dissolve ; and it is the deposition of 
 this in the stem which gives to all the grasses so much 
 firmness. On the other hand, the pea will reject this, 
 
BOOTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS. 43 
 
 and will take up whatever calcareous substances (lime 
 and its compounds) the water of the soil contains." 
 
 Prof. J. H. Balfour, in his "Manual of Botany," says : 
 " Gaseous matters are taken up by the roots of plants 
 and circulated along with the sap, as well as in the spiral 
 vessels. These usually consist of common air, carbonic 
 acid, and oxygen." And further, he thinks that the dif- 
 ferences in the absorption of solutions depend on the 
 " relative densities alone, and not on any peculiar extract- 
 ing power of the roots, for it is well known that poison- 
 QUS matters are absorbed as well as those that are whole- 
 some." On the contrary, another English authority, Dr. 
 Maxwell T. Masters, in his recent work, "Plant Life," 
 gays : " It is a moot point whether any carbon is taken 
 up by the roots, but if any, it is only a small proportion." 
 But Dr. J. M. Schleiden ("Principles of Scientific Bot- 
 any " ), in referring to this same mooted point, says : 
 "The most universally distributed medium of solution 
 in nature water is also the fluid which is absorbed by 
 the plant cell, and conveys all other matters into its in- 
 terior. The most essential of these matters are carbonic 
 acid and ammonia, both of which are contained in water 
 which either falls from the air or has been a long time in 
 contact with it. W^btjgr, carb^cQic^acid^and ammonia 
 contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, all of 
 which are essential to jthe formation of the assimilated 
 substances, and to the especial nourishment of the cell. 
 But waiter occasiolTally cony^^to^the^cell, in smaTTquan- 
 tities, all substances which are capable of solution in 
 
 Of the many other works of equally celebrated author- 
 ities examined on this point, no two fully agree in their 
 "opinions," for we can scarcely bestow upon the infor- 
 mation derived from such sources so dignified a name 
 as "knowledge." But we may safely credit roots with 
 the faculty of modifying and changing certain elements 
 
44 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 in their passage through the cells, and the chemical, 
 mechanical and vital forces are all engaged in this work. 
 There is a thorough filtering of the solutions as absorbed, 
 else the crude sap or liquid would often remain colored 
 as it passes upward ; but this seldom occurs, even when 
 the roots are submerged in highly colored, and what are 
 generally considered, very nutritious fluids, as, for in- 
 stance, the drainings of a manure heap, and from other 
 similar vegetable matter. Still, roots do sometimes ab- 
 sorb vegetable dyes, as has been shown in various experi- 
 ments with extract of Madder and the juices of the Poke- 
 berry, but in no instance on record has the coloring 
 matter produced any permanent effect on the plant or 
 become hereditary, and it is seldom that the added color 
 can be traced upward in the cells to any considerable 
 distance ; showing that the liquid as filtered through 
 the cell-walls, as it passes from one to another, soon 
 parts with any uncongenial foreign materials which may 
 be present ; at least the attempt is made to do this, and 
 in case of failure, as with poisonous gases, the plant is 
 killed. While the living cells may reject coloring matter 
 and fail to retain it, the dead tissues of plants are readily 
 colored by absorption a purely mechanical operation as 
 constantly practised by the manufacturer of microscopic 
 slides, the stainers of wood, and dyers of. vegetable fab- 
 rics in general. 
 
 It is quite evident that whatever is absorbed by the 
 roots is subjected to unceasing changes and transforma- 
 tions, the result of the action of chemical and vital forces 
 about which there is yet much to be learned. 
 
 Roots that grow in the dark possess somewhat different 
 functions from those growing in the light ; at least the 
 chemical changes which take place in them are different. 
 We know that roots differ very widely, not only in their 
 forms and structure, but in their habits as well. Some 
 appear to require resistance, like those of trees which 
 
BOOTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS. 
 
 thrive best in heavy, compact clay or loamy soils ; others 
 flourish in loose sands and peat-bogs ; while still other 
 kinds grow only in water, or wholly exposed to the air, 
 as seen in some of the epiphytes. 
 
 The food of plants consists principally of a few simple 
 elements, viz., oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen. 
 These are indispensable nutrients, out of which all com- 
 bustible parts of the plant are formed by the chemical 
 and vital processes of nutrition. It is true that other 
 substances are usually found in plants, such as potassium, 
 calcium, magnesia, iron, phosphorus, silicon, sodium, and 
 various other elements, but just what position they hold 
 in vegetable economy has not been fully determined. 
 There are also elements which may be essential to some 
 kinds (like iodine in marine plants) that are of no value 
 to others. 
 
 Oxygen is a very important element of plants, for every 
 nine pounds of water contains eight of oxygen, and it is 
 always present in organic compounds. Plants take up 
 oxygen, chiefly in its combination with hydrogen, in the 
 form of water, and we all know how important moisture 
 is to vegetation in general, as it is the vehicle which con- 
 veys to plants the great bulk of their food. Oxygen com- 
 bines with various other elements to form the solid rocks 
 of the globe,, as well as the bodies of animals. 
 
 . Hydrogen is an invisible element of plants and the 
 lightest of all known substances. It is not found free in 
 nature, but combined with oxygen in water, and it is in 
 this state of combination that it is taken up and utilized 
 by plants. As water is composed of eight parts (by 
 weight) of cxygen and one of hydrogen, the latter may 
 be considered as always present where there is moisture, 
 and without this compound all plants soon perish. Hy- 
 drogen is always present in all organic compounds, but 
 it is not supposed to enter into the composition of the 
 
46 PROPAGATION OE PLANTS. 
 
 mineral masses of the globe, but it is present in the air 
 in combination with nitrogen. 
 
 Carbon is a constituent of every organic compound, 
 and even the lowest order of plants, that consist only of a 
 single cell, is supposed to have the power of decomposing 
 and utilizing carbonic acid. On an average, forty to 
 fifty per cent, of the weight of plants, v^hcn perfectly 
 dry, is carbon, and in some trees and shrubs the percent- 
 age is still greater, as shown when burned for charcoal. 
 From whence all this carbon is derived is as far from 
 being a settled question among vegetable physiologists as 
 is that of how it finds an entrance to the cells of plants, 
 referred to on a preceding page. Some authors assert 
 that it is all derived from the atmosphere through the 
 leaves, while other^ are just as positive that it is taken 
 up by the roots and then decomposed, combined, or re- 
 organized in the cells. Prof. C. H. Goessmann, in " Man- 
 ual of Agriculture," 1885, says : "that both carbonic acid 
 and ammonia are always found in the atmosphere, and 
 are taken in by the leaves or dissolved by the rain falling 
 through the air and carried into the earth, where they are 
 absorbed by the roots." Prof. Moll, an eminent German 
 authority, so late as 1878, claims that " roots take no 
 part in supplying the plant with carbon dioxide," while 
 Prof. Julius Sachs, in his voluminous work "Text-book 
 of Botany," says "that it is only the cells which contain 
 chlorophyll and these under the influence of sunlight 
 that have the power of decomposing the carbon dioxide 
 taken up by them, and at the same time setting free an 
 equal volume of oxygen in order to produce organic com- 
 pounds out of the elements of carbon dioxide and water, 
 or, in other words, to assimilate." The theories advanced 
 by Prof. Moll and Sachs are also held by many other 
 equally eminent botanists of the present day, while many 
 of our most learned and celebrated chemists, like Prof. 
 Goessmann, dissent, offering equally as good reasons, with 
 
BOOTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS. 47 
 
 some well-supported facts, for rejecting them. It is cer- 
 tainly consistent with the almost universal observation of 
 practical as well as scientific cultivators of plants, that 
 soil containing organic or vegetable matter is far more 
 productive than that from which it is wholly absent. It 
 is true that some kinds of plants will grow in a soil con- 
 taining no perceptible amount of vegetable matter, yet 
 we all know how much more luxuriantly plants will grow 
 in the presence of an abundance of decomposed or decom- 
 posing carbonaceous materials. The fact, however, 
 should not be overlooked, that in the decomposition of 
 vegetable matter, other elements are set free in addition 
 to carbonic acid, and it is not readily determined as to 
 which one among the number contributes most to the 
 increased fertility of the soil. 
 
 Every intelligent cultivator of plants knows that as 
 each crop is taken from the land, its fertility i3 lessened, 
 owing, in part at least, to the loss of organic matter ; but 
 if each successive crop derived its entire carbon from the 
 air, and through the leaves of the plants, then it would 
 never be necessary to add anything to the soil likely to 
 yield carbon ; consequently tlje theory of plants deriving 
 .all their carbon from the dioxide absorbed by the leaves 
 is scarcely reconcilable with what appears to be the ordi- 
 nary operations usually practised, if not positively neces- 
 sary, in the cultivation of plants. We can readily under- 
 stand, or at least believe, that it is possible, as claimed, 
 that all the carbonaceous matter now present on this 
 earth had its origin in the atmosphere ; but it does not 
 necessarily follow that each individual plant, or crop, 
 derives all, or any considerable part, of its carbon from 
 the air. 
 
 Nitrogen is another element of plants, about the origin 
 and way in wjiich it is utilized by plants, neither vege- 
 table physiologists noj; chemists have been able to agree. 
 While some contend that plants cannot assimilate atmos- 
 
48 PROPAGATION OF PLAKTS. 
 
 plieric nitrogen, others have proved, to their own satis- 
 faction at least, that they do, under certain conditions, 
 obtain considerable quantities from this source, and 
 Adolf Mayer, in some experiments made a few years ago 
 on air-plants, found that xujrogeny in.ihe form of Ammo- 
 nia, was absorbed in appreciable amount by both leaves 
 and roots, but most freely by the latter. 
 
 Nitrogen forms nearly four-fifths in bulk of the atmos- 
 phere, and is also abundant in all animal tissues, which, 
 during decay, give off nitrogen, combined with hydrogen, 
 in the form of ammonia. The latter is readily absorbed 
 by moist carbon (charcoal), and by carbonaceous matter 
 generally. In this form, plants take up nitrogen quite 
 freely through their roots ; consequently, ammonia is 
 valued highly as one of the most powerful and stimulat- 
 ing of fertilizers. Nitrogen and the oxygen of the air, 
 under certain conditions combine, forming nitric acid, 
 and this, in combination with alkalies, forms nitrate of 
 soda, of potash, and of lime, all of which are useful fer- 
 tilizers for plants. The guano deposits on the islands of 
 the Pacific Ocean, the nitre beds of South America and 
 other countries, are all drawn upon by civilized nations 
 for providing nitrogen and other important elements re- 
 quired by cultivated plants. Not only is nitrogen sup- 
 plied to plants by the application of nitrates to the soil, 
 but in various other forms of animal and vegetable ma- 
 nures, as produced on the farm and in the garden, and, 
 in addition, it is being constantly deposited in the soil 
 wherever animal or vegetable matter is undergoing de- 
 composition. 
 
 These four elements oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and 
 nitrogen are generally recognized as the four elementary 
 constituents of plants, supplied principally in the form 
 of carbonic acid, water, and ammonia. In such forms 
 or combinations they all exist in. the air as well as in the 
 .earth, hence the means of subsistence of plants that live 
 
ROOTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS. . 49 
 
 suspended in the air, as well as those the roots of which 
 are buried in the soil. 
 
 But there are many other important elements and 
 combinations, about which so little is known in regard 
 to their origin or action in the building of vegetable 
 structures that the most I need say about them is, that 
 they are important materials and should be supplied 
 whenever and wherever required. Among these are Sul- 
 phur, which is found most abundant in plants yielding 
 what are termed albuminoids. It is especially abundant 
 in plants of the Mustard Family, from the seeds of some 
 plants of which is expressed a valuable oil. It is also 
 abundant in Peas, Beans, Clover, and other seeds of leg- 
 umes. Sulphur is found in the form of sulphuric acid 
 combined as calcium sulphate or sulphate of lime, also 
 known as gypsum and plaster. Plants take up sulphur 
 in the form of soluble salts of sulphuric acid, but exactly 
 how these are utilized by them is not definitely known, 
 and it is perhaps for this reason that the use of gypsum 
 as a fertilizer for plants has so long remained a bone of 
 contention among agriculturists. Sometimes the results 
 obtained from an application of this material are seen in 
 a marked improvement in the growth of the plants, jbut 
 in other instances it has no apparent effect, and this, too, 
 on the same kinds of plants, and, so far as can be deter- 
 mined, on the same kind of soil. 
 
 Iron js an indispensable element of all plants contain- 
 ing chlorophyll i. e., with green colored parts or organs. 
 It is, however, required in such small quantities that it 
 is readily obtained from the soil in all parts of the world. 
 Too much iron in the soil is injurious to plants, espec- 
 ially when in solutions that are readily absorbed and 
 distributed through the cells. 
 
 Lime is an essential constituent of the ashes of plants, 
 and it is taken up as a sulphate of lime in such plants as 
 the Clovers, while in others, like Wheat, Rye, Oats, and 
 
50 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 similar cereals, a,s phosphate of lime (a compound of phos- 
 phoric acid and lime), and it is from such seed or grain 
 that the phosphorus found in the bones of animals is 
 produced, and without which this could not be formed. 
 Sulphates and phosphates are necessary to supply a part 
 of the material forming the protein compounds found in 
 grain. 
 
 Silica is a component part of a large number of plants, 
 and it is a combination of oxygen with a metal-like ele- 
 ment called Silicon. Common flint and the quartz rocks 
 are composed mainly of silica, and the transparent crys- 
 tals of quartz, used for making what are called "pebble" 
 glasses in spectacles and similar purposes, are merely a 
 purer form of the same material. ilica, or silicic acid, 
 is absorbed by the roots of plants largely dissolved in 
 water as silicates, and from this solution it is deposited 
 in the plant-cells, and in widely variable quantities. It 
 is found in great abundance in trees, shrubs, and other 
 w_oody plants, also in the bark or epidermis of the larger 
 grasses Wheat, Rye, Oats, Sorghum, Indian Corn, Bam- 
 boo, and the Tubular Palms ; in fact, it may be termed 
 the great stiffening material of plants. In the Bamboo 
 it is deposited in such large quantities in the cavities of 
 the stems that it is extensively extracted and used under 
 the name of tabasheer by the Hindoos, among whom it is 
 in high repute as a tonic. As found in the Bamboo and 
 some of the other large grasses, it consists chiefly of 
 silica and potash, in the proportion of about seventy 
 parts of silica and thirty of potash. In some kinds of 
 plants, like the common Scouring Rush (Equisetum), 
 the epidermis is almost pure silex, and the ashes of the 
 entire plant are nearly or quite one-half composed of it. 
 Grain raised on land deficient in silica will be weak in 
 the stem and easily blown down when the grain forms in 
 the head or ear. As silica is found in the ashes of plants, 
 we can readily understand how that released by decom- 
 
STEMS AND THEIR APPENDAGES. 51 
 
 posing vegetable matter will yield to growing crops this 
 material in a readily soluble form. 
 
 Soda and Potash are found abundantly in all of the 
 plants belonging to the higher orders. Those growing 
 near the seashore usually contain a larger proportion of 
 soda than those growing inland, while the latter contain 
 more potash. Common potash (carbonate of potassa) is 
 a compound of carbonic acid and potassium, while soda is a 
 carbonate of sodium ; the base of Jboth being metals hav- 
 ing a strong affinity for oxygen. All the alkalies soda, 
 potash and ammonia, and especially in their combinations 
 with acids form neutral compounds from which plants 
 obtain a large portion of their mineral parts. 
 
 Oxide of Magnesium, better known under the name of 
 Magnesia, also chlorine, iodine-, bromine, alumina, man- 
 ganese, and even copper in minute quantities, exist in 
 plants, but the more important of these are found natur- 
 ally in all fertile soils, and they are seldom lacking in 
 the infertile or barren ones. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 STEMS AND THEIR APPENDAGES. 
 
 There are a vast number of simple plants that have 
 no true stems, but are composed of only single or a 
 multiplication of cells, and the growth of which con- 
 sists merely in a division or expansion of cellular tissues. 
 These plants do not possess a true vascular system, al- 
 though, in many instances, they assume an elongated 
 form, the cell uniting or expanding into a single fila- 
 ment or several parallel rows, while in others they branch 
 out in various directions, or expand into membranes, as 
 
52 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 % 
 
 seen in the common lichens growing on rocks and on the 
 old bark of trees. 
 
 In the most familiar acceptance of the term as applied 
 to plants, a stem is that part bearing leaves and flowers. 
 The ordinary herbs or herbaceous plants do not produce 
 perennial woody stems, but annual flower stalks (caulis), 
 which may or may not bear true leaves in addition to 
 those organs generally accompanying the flowers. 
 
 The stems of grasses are mostly hollow, jointed tubes, 
 living only a sufficient time to perfect their seed, 
 whether the period required is but a few weeks, as with 
 the common meadow grasses, or several years, as with 
 the great Bamboo of Oriental countries. It may be 
 mentioned, however, that while under purely natural 
 conditions the stems of such plants invariably perish 
 with the ripening of their seeds, it is not at all difficult 
 to prevent either, if the stems are required for other 
 purposes, which is often the case, as, for instance, the 
 stalks of the tropical Sugar Vtme(Saccharum officinarum). 
 This plant has been so long and continuously propagated 
 by cuttings or " rattoons," that it no longer produces seed 
 under the artificial conditions to which it is subjected. 
 The Bamboos, Eeeds, and many other kinds of grasses, 
 may be readily propagated in the same way, and by pre- 
 venting the production of seeds they can be perpetuated 
 and multiplied almost without limit, even when no seeds 
 are produced. In the true Palms (Palmce), the stems 
 are perennial, and often attain to a very large size, liv- 
 ing to a great age and fruiting almost constantly. 
 
 Among the Ferns (Filices), we find some with distinct 
 fruiting stalks, the seed-like organs being produced on 
 leafless, sporiferous stems, springing direct from the 
 crowns of the roots, while in others the sporangia are 
 found on the fronds only. Plants producing distinct 
 stems are termed caulescent, while those in which the 
 stQm is inconspicuous are acaulescent i. e. t without a 
 
STEMS AND THEIR APPENDAGES. 53 
 
 stem. Botanists separate flowering plants into two great 
 divisions the Endogens and the Mpogens, or "inside 
 growers "and " outside growers." As these terms have 
 a special reference to the growth and structure of the 
 stems of plants, it is proper that they should be ex- 
 plained here ; although the differences between the 
 plants of the two divisions are usually distinguishable in 
 the seed as well. Endogenous stems are not made up of 
 concentric rings or annual layers of deposited matter, as 
 seen in the woody stems of nearly all exogens or outside 
 growers. Ill the formation of the woody tissues of en^ 
 duuL-iLS the new material deposited appears to be inter- 
 mmgied. with the old, and the increase in the size of the 
 stems is principally through distention or pressing out- 
 ward, and not by the deposition of matter in the form of 
 layers, such stems consisting of bundles of fibers inter- 
 mingled with or imbedded in cellular tissues. Neither 
 do such stems show the marked distinction between the 
 pith, wood and bark, as seen in those of exogens. The 
 galms, Ferns, Yuccas, Bamboo, Sorghum and all of our 
 cereal grasses belong to this division of true inside, grow- 
 ers. Their seeds are also distinguished by having only 
 one cotyledon or seed-leaf, hence are called .rnonocoty- 
 ledonous plants, the plumule pushing upward from the 
 seed in a columnar form, as seen in the Asparagus, In- 
 dian Corn, or the giant Palms of the tropics. In the 
 leaves of these plants we also find that the, veins run 
 mostly parallel with the length that is, extend from 
 base to point and not branched. 
 
 The exogenous stem has at first three distinct parts, 
 viz., the pith, wood and bark, all readily separable. As 
 the stem increases in size through the deposition of new 
 matter in concentric layers of bundles of .wood-cells, 
 the pith is often compressed or entirely obliterated with- 
 out in any manner interfering with the growth of the 
 plant, for the principal office of the pith is to facilitate 
 
54 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 the rapid transmission of- fluids through the succulent 
 stems of herbaceous plants and the young plantlets, and 
 twigs of shrubs and trees. The solidity of the stems of 
 the trees diminishes from Jthe.cenfer to circumference as 
 they increase in size, or just the apposite of what takes 
 place in endogenous stems, the inner portions, in time, 
 ceasing to take any active part in the movement of the 
 outer layers, and the heart-wood may decay, as seen in 
 thousands of instances in almost every old forest, or be 
 forcibly removed without severely checking the growth' 
 of the younger parts of the tree. But so long as the 
 center of the stem remains entire, there is a slight com- 
 munication between the outer and adjacent parts through 
 what are called the medullary rays, which are composed 
 of cells spread out into a fnrn membranous structure. 
 These rays are quite abundant and conspicuous in the 
 wood of the Beech, Maple, Oak and many other kinds of 
 trees. Through these rays the inner parts of the stem 
 are supposedto_be su^5liedjvj,th sufficient moisture to 
 prevent complete exsiccation" of the wood. 
 
 Folio wjjog in the same direction, from Uie pith outward 
 through th^jn^ir^woad, w^e next reach a later forma- 
 tion composed of a few or many concentric layers which, 
 as a whole, are called albunious wood, or alburnum, from 
 the Latin albus, white, bqcausa kjjng&t trees and shrubs 
 this recently formed wood is of a whitish color, or at 
 least lighter in color than the duramen or heart wood, 
 and the cells of which this alburnum is composed are 
 capaJ^Je^oTtrarisLmitting living, ^ofganizable matter. The 
 cells of the inner layers of alburnum are, however, less 
 active^ than those of the outer, and the propagator of 
 plants by division, finds the latest formed wood responds 
 most readily to his wishes in the various operations to 
 which it is subjected^ |]p.circlmg the. alburnum we 
 find a layjer of soft organizable mattefwhich has received 
 the name of eambium, which is quite abundant in some 
 
STEMS AND THEIR APPENDAGES. 55 
 
 plants just before and at the time they commence their 
 growth insuring. It is of a mucilaginous natuje, and 
 filled withcells that are actively assumirig"~their more 
 regular and solidified form, as 
 found in the completed or ma- 
 ture wood. 
 
 Qutside and resting upon the 
 cambium layer, or partly im- 
 mersed, as it were, in it, we find 
 the Uber^ or inner bark, which 
 in some kinds of trees, like the 
 Beech, is of a granular structure 
 and very brittle, while in others, 
 like the Papaw, Persimmon, and 
 Lindens, it is cloth-like and filled 
 with strong, tough fibres. Sur- 
 rounding the liber we find the 
 older layers of bark partaking 
 somewhat of the character of 
 the liber, but generally quite 
 porous, coarser, and of a more 
 brittle texture. The old bark of 
 trees often breaks up into deep 
 furrows, as on the stems of the 
 Chestnut and Elm, or cleaving 
 off in thin irregular plates, as 
 from the Plane or Buttonwood 
 tree, while in some it peels off in 
 in the form of annular paper- 
 like rings, as in the Birch and 
 Cherry. This outer bark is 
 
 merely effete or dead matter, an Fig. 14. SEEDLING OAK, 
 excrescence of no further use to the tree than to cover 
 and protect the inner bark from the elements. 
 
 The Qxogens are also called dicotyledonous plants, "be- 
 cause their seeds have two cotyledons, or seed-leaves, as 
 
56 
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLAXTS. 
 
 has been explained elsewhere, but may be referred to 
 again for the purpose of noting the exceptions to the 
 rule, as well as to explain more fully some peculiarities 
 of stems in their embryonic stages. 
 In the young seedling Oak, shown in figure 14, the 
 
 two cotyledons or seed-leaves 
 are attached to one side of 
 the stem and remain partly 
 enclosed within the shell, 
 this being the usual position 
 in which they are found on 
 the starting plantlets, for they 
 seldom expand sufficiently to 
 free themselves from their 
 horn-like covering ; neither 
 is it necessary, for the secon- 
 dary leaves are early de- 
 veloped, and before the nu- 
 triment stored up in the nut 
 is entirely exhausted in pro- 
 ducing the plumule and 
 simple root. A similar re- 
 stricted development of seed- 
 leaves occurs in nearly all of 
 the nut-like seeds, and even 
 in the seeds of many herbs. 
 The common garden Pea 
 is a familiar example of a di- 
 cotyledonous seed, the seed- 
 come up," or appear above- 
 ground on the ascending stem ; but on the closely allied 
 garden Bean the cotyledons or seed-leaves are always con- 
 spicuous objects on the young plants. This is also true 
 with many kinds of trees, such as the Pear, Apple, Plum 
 and G'herry among fruits, and the Ash, Elm and Maple 
 among, our most familiar forest trees ; as soon as the 
 
 Fig. 15. SEEDLING MAPLE 
 
 leaves of which do not 
 
. STEMS AXD THEIR APPENDAGES. 57 
 
 second and third pair of the true leaves unfold, the seed- 
 leaves below commence to dry up, as shown in the seed- 
 ling Maple, figure 15, and eventually drop off. 
 
 The position as well as the movements of cotyledons 
 in seedlings are characters worthy of careful study by 
 cultivators of plants, for it is quite important to know 
 in advance of sowing seeds whether the first leaves are 
 to "come up," as with the Bean, or remain stationary 
 below the surface, as with the Pea, Wistaria, Oak and 
 similar seeds, for in the former the cotyledons must 
 break through the soil and come to the surface, while in 
 the latter it is only a new and slender stem therefrom 
 that appears. Different conditions, therefore, are re- 
 quired for different growths, for the large, _fleshy_seed- 
 leaves of some kinds of plants would never break through 
 a compact soil or crust on its surface that might not 
 seriously impede the progress of plants with cotyledons, 
 which remain stationary at the depth at which they are 
 deposited. 
 
 While the two cotyledons are generally recognized as a 
 characteristic of plants with woody, exogenous stems, 
 still there are some exceptions ; among the most famil- 
 iar of these are the conifers, or cone-bearing trees, for 
 in these the cotyledons or seed-leaves are quite variable 
 in number. In the seedling Arbor-vitae (Thuya), the 
 usual number is two, but in the Pines they range from 
 four and five up to fifteen or sixteen in Sabine's Pine 
 (Pimis SaMniana.) The seed-leaves in the Pines are 
 produced in a whorl, as shown in figure 16, and they 
 always push their way up above the surface, if not pre- 
 vented by a too compact soil. The true leaves of the 
 Pine tree grow in clusters, or, more properly, bundles, 
 the lower ends being encased in a kind of sheath. 
 
 The number of leaves in a sheath varies in different 
 species from one or rarely two, in the One-leaved Pine 
 (Pinus monophylla), up to five in the common White 
 
58 
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 Pine (P. Strobus), figure 17. The cotyledons, however, 
 give no indications of the number or arrangement of the 
 true leaves, which appear later on the plant, for in the 
 One-leaved Pine there are from seven to ten cotyledons, 
 while the seeds of Sabine's Pine produce fifteen to sixteen, 
 and later the true leaves are arranged with only three in 
 a sheath or bundle. 
 Another dicotyledonous character is wanting in the 
 
 leaves of a large 
 
 majority of the coni- 
 fers, and that is the 
 
 branching veins, for, 
 
 with only a few ex- 
 ceptions, their leaves 
 
 are long, slender and 
 
 with^ parallel veins ; 
 
 consequently, in 
 
 seeking characters to 
 
 aid us in separating 
 
 the dicotyledonous 
 
 from the monoeoty- 
 
 ledonous plants, we 
 
 must not expect to 
 
 find all equally well 
 
 developed, or even 
 
 always foremost in any one genus or 
 family. For instance, the common garden 
 Pea has two distinct and readily separated Fi? 17.. LEAVES 
 cotyledons and its leaves have branching * WBITE PINE - 
 or netted veins, but the stalk shows no/Qutside growth, 
 this character being confined wholly to stems that live 
 more than one seajson, and it is never developed until 
 the second year. The Wistaria vine is closely related to 
 the Pea, but the stem being perennial, new layers of wood 
 are annually added to the outside ; consequently, it has a 
 true exogenous stem. 
 
 Fiff. 16. 
 
 SEEDLING PINE. 
 
STEMS AND THEIR APPENDAGES. 59 
 
 The apj3end^gefi_of_iems are exceedingly numerous 
 and of diversified form and structure, and all are of 
 value, and of more or less importance in aiding us to 
 distinguish plants of the different classes, orders, genera, 
 species, and even the natural and cultivated varieties ; 
 but the space at my command will only admit of a 
 brief notice of the few with which the propagator must 
 necessarily become the most familiar. I will say, how- 
 ever, that he who aims to know plants must not think 
 that even the minutest character is unimportant, for 
 size is only a comparative term at best, and a thing may 
 be great among the small as well as among the large. 
 The most prominent appendages of stems are prickles, 
 as in the Nettle ; spines, as found on the canes of the 
 Black Easpberry, theTBlackberry and the Koses ; thorns, 
 as on the Hawthorn, the Honey Locust, and many of the 
 larger cactuses ; tendriis, as on the Clematis, Grape, 
 and many other climomg plants. Jjeaves, flowers, fruits 
 or seeds are other appendages. Prickles, "'Spines and 
 thorns probably ^aks^an active pa^rt in the general assim- 
 ilation of nutrients of the plant, atTeast while theylire 
 younglmd' growing, but what other pur^ose_jthey serve 
 in vegetable economy is noire^d^'^^^mmeSrim^iliej: 
 than they are distinguishing" cliaracTeristics among the 
 vast numbers which Nature employs in her always dif- 
 ferent and ever changing productions. To say that 
 plants are armed with spines or thorns as a protection, 
 .as is often asserted, has no foundation in fact, but it is a 
 purely sentimental idea, for the supposed protecting 
 organs do not protect against any natural enemy, for the 
 species most fully armed with the strongest spines and 
 thorns often perish from the attacks of some thin- 
 skinned and wholly defenseless little insect, while the 
 giant thorns of some trees often become the safe and 
 rather luxurious home of certain species of the ant. 
 
 There are other appendages of stems which may not 
 
60 PKOPAGATIOX OF PLANTS. 
 
 take any very active part in gathering or assimilating 
 nutrients, and still be of great service in other ways 
 to the plants producing them for instance, the filiform 
 aerial organs on the stems of the Poison Sumac (Rims 
 Toxicodendrori) , on the Trumpet Creeper (Tecoma radi- 
 cans), American and Japan Ivies (Ampelopsis) , and 
 many other similar and well-known plants. These ap- 
 
 Fig. 18. GRAPEVINE TENDEHi. 
 
 pendages differ much in their mode of attachment to 
 whatever object serves them as a support. Some force 
 themselves into the cracks of the bark, wood, or rocks, 
 or are attached by minute lateral fibres, while others, like 
 the Ampelopsis, produce small flattened discs on the ends 
 of their many-branched, root-like organs each disc be- 
 coming fastened to whatever object that happens to be 
 within reach. 'Jendrils are merely modified forms of the 
 same .organs in these and allied plants, possessing various 
 
STEMS AND THEIR APPENDAGES. 61 
 
 morphological characters, often changing and^ serving 
 different purposes. In many species of plants having 
 woody steins, like the Grape, Passion-flower and American 
 Ivy, the tendrils are really metamorphosed flower-stalks, 
 for while the larger proportion serve in assisting the 
 plant to climb and retain a position where ^he leaves 
 will be exposed to the light, a much smaller number on 
 the same plant may blossom and eventually become a 
 bunqh of fruit; that is, a bunch o.f fruit on such plants is, 
 merely a productive tendril. It is,only a few from one 
 to five of the tendrils first formed on the young Grape- 
 canes of the season that are fruitful, all that are produced 
 later being unproductive or barren, possessing great 
 irritability, which causes them to cling to or twine about 
 any object with which they come in contact. Tlie ends 
 of the tendrils of the plants under consideration are 
 divided, sometimes into several branches, as in the Ameri- 
 can Ivy, or into two or more, as in those of the Grape, 
 two being the most usual number in the latter, and these 
 not of the same length ; consequently, iwjign^both divisions 
 are fruitful, the bunch of grapes will be double, with one 
 side shorter than the other, the lesser bunch having the 
 technical name of "shoulder." If there are two short and 
 fruitful branches the bunch may be double-shouldered, 
 or if there is a greater number the bunch may be a cluster. 
 Such terms as single-shouldered, double-shouldered and 
 clustered bunches are employed by pomologists in de- 
 scribing the form of the bunch in the different culti- 
 vated varieties of the Grape. 
 
 It very frequently occurs that only one division of the 
 tendril will be fruitful, as shown in figure 18, the other 
 remaining barren, winding around some convenient 
 branch or twig. That the tendrils are of the same nature 
 as other parts of the plant, the juices flowing through 
 them as actively as in the stem, is shown by the fact that 
 a fertile may be grafted upon an unfertile tendril. As 
 
62 PKOPAGATION OF PLANTS, 
 
 it is a characteristic of the tendril to tarn away from the, 
 light and seek the shade, it naturally follows that the 
 fruit of these plants also ripen best when protected from 
 
 tlje direct rays" of the sun, as is well known to 
 
 every practical cultivai^r^of ^h 
 
 In many herbaceous plants the tendril is 
 but a prolongation of the mid-rib beyond the 
 point oJLthe leaf, as seen in the Pea-vine, and, 
 in a few instances, like that of the Yellow 
 Vetchling (Lathyrus Apliacd), of Great 
 Britain, the whole leaf is but a filiform ten- 
 dril, while in such climbers as the Clematis, 
 Maurandia and Lophospermum the petiole 
 of the leaf may serve as a tendril. 
 
 All twining plants may be considered in 
 the nature of tendrils, being irritable and sen- 
 sitive on one side, enabling them to climb 
 supports and retain an upright position, but 
 the biology of such plants is scarcely of 
 sufficient importance to the practical hor- 
 ticulturist to call for treatment in detail in a 
 19. work of this kind. 
 LBAVES or Iud& may^be Dlaceo^an the list of append- 
 
 JERSET PINE. "f , \ 
 
 ages oi stems, tor they are extensively em- 
 ployed in the prTJpaganon of plants, being removed and 
 transferred from one to another with a portion of the 
 surrounding bark and wood attached, and, in such posi- 
 tions, becoming a part of the stem to which they are 
 united. They are also, in some instances, placed in a 
 position where they produce roots, and thus become 
 separate individual plants, ^ud^ may therefore be briefly 
 described as organs enclosing within scales the rudiments 
 of^a ster^ of le^v^^^?_^owers. It naturallyTolTows 
 that the appendages of highly-developed plants, which 
 are called leaTes,are merely theunfoj^ingo^ a 
 
 combination of line tissues of tmTsTiern orofHe? parts from 
 
STEMS AND THEIK APPENDAGES. 
 
 63 
 
 which they are developed. JL eave $ are generally formed 
 the elongajtion jtrid expansion of the JigneousJ^undles 
 
 , of "TTssvfes,, the interspaces being filled with cellular 
 matter (Parenchyma), of green or greenish color. 
 ^That the woody part or frame-work of the leaf is of 
 
 Fiff. 20. LEAVES OP LARCH. 
 
 Fig. 21. LEAF OF LILAC. Fig. 22. LEAF OF BEECH. 
 
 is shown 
 
 in the readiness with which many kinds produce both 
 buds and roots; consequently, leases may. produce stei 
 
 as wellj as stems leaves. 
 
64 
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 Fig. 23. LEAF OP CUT-LEAVED BIRCH. 
 
 The general form of the leaf depends mainly upon the 
 disposition of the principal veins and branches of the 
 tissues of which the skeleton of the leaf is com- 
 posed. W^en these tis- 
 sues run parallel, and 
 are composed of a single 
 or several thread-like 
 fibres, the leaves will 
 assume a similar ,|orm, 
 as seen in the linear- 
 shaped leaves of the 
 Pine (figure 19, Jersey 
 Pine, P. mops). The 
 veins in these leaves 
 starting singly from the stems, are each surrounded or 
 incased in cellular matter. This single form of growth 
 is common in many of the conifers ; the leaves, instead 
 of having branching veins, grow in a thread-like bundle 
 or fascicle, as in the Larch, 
 figure 20. Bjut in the simple 
 membranous leaf,~1ike that of 
 the common garden .Ldlaa, 
 figure 21, the central stem of 
 the leaf, for about one-third 
 of its length, tj^jyi what is 
 called a petiole or k-ai-stalk ; 
 then throws out branches, all 
 remaining united by the thin 
 membrane or parenchyma, 
 which fill the interspaces. J 
 of the Beech, figure 22, the secondary veins branch ofi 
 at an ascending angle from the mid-rib, running almost 
 in a straight line to the outer edge of the leaf, forming a 
 saw-tooth-like notch where each terminates. The edges 
 of such leaves are said to be serrate, because beset with 
 teeth projecting forward like those of a saw. But in 
 
 Fig. 24. LEAF OF BUCKEYE. 
 
 some leaves, like those 
 
STEMS AKD THEIR APPENDAGES. 
 
 65 
 
 the leaves of the Cut-leaved Birch, figure 23^. the branch- 
 ing veins are of irregular or unequal lengths, giving to 
 
 Fig. 26. LEAP OF ACACIA 
 Fig. 25. LEAF OF LOCUST. GRANDIFLORA. 
 
 the edges of the leaves a jagged or tooth-like form. 
 In the leaves of the^ Buckeye, fig j ure24, t^emid-rib 
 " ^ lvision having "IhlTap- 
 
 Fig. 27. LEAF OF FERN-LEAVED ARALIA. 
 
66 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 pearance of a simple leaf, but all attached to the petiole 
 at one point. Leaves of this kind are called palmate or 
 digitate, because they resemble or are divided like the 
 fingers on the hand. 
 
 In the iQaveSxof such trees as the Butternut, Black 
 Walnut and common Locust (RoUnia, figure 25), the 
 divisions of the leaf are scattered m pairs along both 
 sides of a greatly lengthened mid-rib, and such leaves are 
 said to be compound or pinnate, from the Latin penna, 
 a feather. A further subdivision of the leaflets in this 
 kind of a leaf is seen in the Acacias, and a leaf of A. 
 grandiflora, much reduced in size, is shown in figure 
 $6. Leaves divided in this form are said to be fifjnnnaje, 
 or twice pinnated. Thore are many hundreds of different 
 forms of these bipinnate leaves, as well as of all other 
 forms, and in the Aralias and closely allied plants the 
 leaves are often of immense size. In the Fern-leaved 
 Aralia (A. ftlicifoUa), the upper part of the leaf -stalk ex- 
 pands into a broad, leafy branch, which is curiously 
 divided, as shown in figure 27. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 FLOWERS, FRUITS AND SEEDS. 
 
 IJlowers, like all other organs and appendages of the 
 s&n^ofj3jants, assume almost innumerable forms and 
 sizes. Some are almost microscopic, or remain concealed 
 within an envelope, as in the common Fig, while oJJiers 
 are Jarge and very showy, as in several species of the 
 Magnolia ; consequently, it is difficult to give any con- 
 cise and clear definition of a flower that will apply to all. 
 In the ordinary acceptance of the term, ajgerfect flowr 
 
ELOWEBS, FRUITS AND SEEDS. 67 
 
 is one that contains all the organs of reproduction, as 
 seen m that of the Apple, Rose, and many other similar 
 and common plants. At_the^base and outside we find a 
 floral envelope or Galyx, and this is^divided into several 
 leaf-like divisions called s&pals. Within the calyx there 
 is another set of floral organs called pptals^ which in the 
 flowers named, are larger and broader than the sepals of 
 the calyx, and usually quite conspicuous often of a 
 brilliant color, and together formjthe oprolla. The nj3x$ 
 row of organs aje stameng, these being slender and 
 thread-like, composed of a stem or filament tipped_ wjth 
 a knob-like body, called an aether, the latter being filled 
 with a fine powder, pollen, that differs widely in size 
 
 and form in different kinds of plants. Xhe stamens are 
 
 * 
 
 really the Tnaje^ gjgansurfjalants. for the pollen produced 
 by them is Iffie fructifying substance, without which no 
 seed can be formed in any of the higher orders of plants. 
 In the very center of the flower we find another set of 
 slender organs called pistils, which rest upon or are but 
 a part of what is called the ovary the organ that con- 
 tains the ovnljs^ or embryo seeds. The pistils are tho 
 female organs, and it is through these that the pollen 
 from the anthers exerts its influence upon the embryo 
 seeds in the ovary. The uppj^rjyr _ extreme point, of the 
 pistil is called the stigma, and the column, or stem be- 
 low, the style, that widens out at the base into an ovary. 
 But these simple and perfect flowers are but one among 
 the many thousands of forms to be found everywhere 
 among plants, and while in nearly all of the plants with 
 distinct flowers the pistils and stamens can be readily 
 distinguished, their ^ize^a^d^positipn are far from being 
 uniform. I^sin^glejind^ those of the 
 
 Apple, both^setsof^orga^s are fouxtdinjhe^ ___ 
 consequently, they are called bi-sex^TorDerlect: bnTm 
 many other kinds of plants, these organs are found 411 
 separate flojEBrs on the same plant, as seen in the Pines, 
 
 **irT!i iJ^^^^Uj^** i '^^**^^B3 *** I^' 
 
68 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 Oaks, Beech, Chestnut, Walnut, and Hazel. Such plants 
 are called mgnceciQus, because each produces but one 
 kind of sexual organs. In other plants the staminate 
 and pistillate flowers are produced by sej^arate pljLiits, as 
 in the Poplars, Buffalo-Berry, Hop ancTHemp, and in 
 some of the "Maples. The flowers of such plants are said 
 to be (jicecioytS, because the two different sexual organs 
 are borne by separate individual plants. There are also 
 species of ^plants distributed among various families and 
 genera, like certain species of the Grape, Ash, Maple, 
 Olive, and many of the Palms, which bear flowers, some 
 with pistils only, others with stamens, and some with 
 both kinds of organs in the same flower. Plants with 
 these variable flowers are said to be polygamous. 
 
 In plants like the Asters, Gaillardias, Seleniums, and 
 the common Sunflower, the, flowers are called compound, 
 being crowded together in a broad head ; the position 
 tind distribution of the sexual, organs are variable (heter- 
 ogamoHs), some containing both stamens and pistils, 
 while others have neither, and are therefore neutral or 
 abortive, as often seen in the ray florets or outside rows 
 of showy petals in such flowers. 
 
 But it is not my purpose to attempt to describe or even 
 note the many forms and the \^riabi]itjinjthe structure 
 gf flowers, but merely to call the attention of the reader 
 to the fact that such variations not only exist, but require 
 close and careful investigatmnby persons who desire or 
 intend to become successful cultivators and propagators 
 of plants. It must be apparent to the most casual ob- 
 server that it would be perfectly useless to^ set-out one 
 specimen^f our native Buffalo Berry (SJiepherdia), ex- 
 pecting it to produce fruit, for the sexual organs are in 
 separate^la^ts, and the one bearing stamjnate flowers 
 never produces fruit under any circumstances, and the 
 plants bearing pistillate flowers will not bear, except ja 
 the presence of the staminate ; consequently, it is im- 
 
FLOWERS, FRUITS AND SEEDS. 69 
 
 perative that at least one plant of each sex shall be grow- 
 ing near enough together to admit of the pollen from 
 the anthers to reach the stigmas of the pistils with the 
 aid of the wind or insects., One staminate plant may be 
 sufficient to fertilize the flowers of several pisti Hates, 
 but the twp sexes must always be present in order to 
 secure fruit and seed. The same rule holds good in all 
 dioecious trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants. For fur- 
 ther information on this subject, I would refer the reader 
 to the various standard works on " Strjictu.ral Botany." 
 
 Fruit, in the ordinary meaning of the word, is some- 
 thing different from seed, although, in a strict botanical 
 sense, they are really inseparable, for in many plants it 
 requires both seed-vessels and^seeds to make a perfect 
 fruit, while in others the fruit includes other parts of 
 the flower, such as the bracts and floral envelopes. But 
 the most common idea of a fruit is something edible and 
 different from the seed, although it must be said that the 
 terms edible or eatable are rather vague and indefinite, 
 inasmuch as a fruit may be eatable for one kind of ani- 
 mal and not another, and it may also be edible, pala- 
 table and healthful for mankind in its improved condi- 
 tion, while the same species may be neither of these 
 in its wild or primitive condition. 
 
 In the Peach it is the juicy, agreeable pulp surround- 
 ing. the>. stone, or seed, that becomes the edible part, but 
 in the Almond, which is closely allied, if not the actual 
 parent of the Peach, the outer envelope is dry and not 
 edible, the kernel or -seed, alone being considered valu- 
 able as food. 
 
 In common horticultural phraseology, fruits are sepa- 
 rated from nuts, grain and other kinds of seeds, not that 
 the division is always scientifically correct, but such 
 classification is made as a matter- of convenience, when 
 speaking of the members of each class. For instance, 
 when we speak of <tf snialHrj3ats^_or^ber^es, it is not to 
 
70 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 be supposed that they are all really small, or, scientific- 
 ally speaking, true berries, but by common consent the 
 trailing plants, like the Strawberry, Cranberry, Black- 
 berry, cr upright growing bushes, like the Raspberry, 
 Gooseberry and Currant, have received the name of small 
 fruits or berries. 
 
 There is such an immense number of fruits, and they 
 are so variable in structure that I can only refer to a few, 
 Hierely to show, in a very general way, their manner of 
 growth. There are simple and compound fruits and 
 various sub-divisions of each class. The common Plum 
 (figure 28), Peach and Cherry are familiar examples of 
 what .are termed simple fruits, or 
 the ripening of a one-celled pistil, 
 the seed or kernel being surround- 
 ed by a hard, bony shell, ai^d this 
 enclosed in a fleshy, edible pulp. 
 In the Cornel (Cornus Mas), and 
 common Dog-wood, the seed is 
 composed of two bony cells, one 
 often abortive, but all surrounded 
 by the fleshy, edible pulp. The 
 olive is also a drupe or stone fruit, 
 
 but with a one-celled seed vessel. 
 Fig. 28. COMMON PLUM. ,, . , 
 
 The Raspberry and Blackberry 
 
 are really an aggregation of small stone fruits, their hard, 
 bony seed being surrounded with an edible pulp, each 
 seed being a ripened pistil, but all arranged on a conical 
 or elongated receptacle. But in these fruits the entire 
 cluster is the product of one flower. In the Mulberry, 
 however, which so closely resemEIes the Blackberry in 
 form and general appearance, the fruit- is really a Sorosis 
 or congeries of fruits, the product of numerous female or 
 pistillate flowers .united ; the calyx of each becoming suc- 
 culent and adhering to the ovary. The Bread fruit (Ar- 
 tocarpus) and the Pineapple (Ananassa) arc multiple 
 
FLOWERS, FRUITS AND SEEDS. 71 
 
 fruits ot this kind, formed by numerous ovaries, floral 
 envelopes and bracts combined, all uniting and becom- 
 ing a succulent mass. 
 The commo^n Fig, al- 
 though a multiple fruit,, 
 is quite the opposite of 
 the Mulberry, and is a 
 Syconus,. the peduncle 
 or fruit stalk, becoming 
 hollow, bearing the nu- 
 merous minute flowers 
 within the cavity, where 
 all are united, produc- 
 ing the flesh, or what is 
 usually termed the fruit. 
 The Strawberry has 
 
 . STRAWBERRY FLOWER. / ' 
 
 the appearance of a Fig 
 turned inside out, .but, instead of being the product of 
 many flowers, it is of only one, with many pistils, as 
 shown in ngure 29. The ~ j^ 
 
 petals and stamens drop off, 
 leaving a central fleshy re- 
 ceptacle resting upon, or at- 
 tached to, the apex of the 
 peduncle. As this fleshy 
 receptacle enlarges, the ova- 
 ries or seeds spread apart, 
 either becoming slightly 
 imbedded in or resting on 
 the surface of the mature 
 part, as shown in figure 30. 
 In the Pomea3 Apple, 
 Pear, Medlar, Mountain Fig. SO.-STRAWBEBBY, 
 
 Ash, Hawthorn and Quince there are from two to five 
 Cells, with thin or thick walls, enclosing one or two seeds 
 in each cell in the Pear and Apple, or several as in the 
 
72 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 Quince. The seeds are mainly enclosed in a thin mem- 
 branous covering, but in the Hawthorn and Medlar it 
 is hard and bony. In the formation of the true pome 
 the calyx tubes enlarge or thicken, becoming a soft and 
 pulpy fruit ; the sepals or leaf-like divisions of the 
 calyx are carried forward as growth proceeds, and re- 
 main attached, as seen in what is called the blossom end 
 of such fruits. In the Gooseberry and Currant a some- 
 what similar, enlargement of the calyx takes place, but 
 the ovarj is only one-celled, the seeds being .imbedded in 
 the pulp, and attached to the two opposite sides of the 
 cell. 
 
 The Orange and Lemon are berry-like in structure, the 
 ovarj free and many-celled, each containing one or more 
 seeds* with thick, fleshy cotyledons. These fruits have 
 thick, spongy rinds, and pulpy .separable cells, the cell- 
 walls thin and membranous. The Persimmon (Diospy- 
 ros) is also a fruit of a berry-like structure, with large 
 bony seeds imbedded in pulp. The cells of the ovary are 
 irregular, and the styles and stigma united as one, but 
 with several distinct pollen tubes. 
 
 The Papaw or Custard Apple is a large plant with 
 dull-colored flowers of six petals in two rows, suc- 
 ceeded by large, oblong, pulpy fruit, containing sev- 
 eral large, flattish, long seeds. There are, however, 
 many species belonging to this family, and the fruit 
 is quite variable in form and structure. But, as I have 
 already stated, the number of different kinds of fruits is 
 far tco great to admit of even a brief description of all, 
 or any considerable number of them, in a work of this 
 kind ; for even in our cool climate there are, in addition 
 to those already named, the Grape ( Vitis) in many species, 
 the Barberry (Berberis), Buffaloberry (S/icpherclia), 
 Blueberry ( Vaccinium), Low Trailing Cranberry ( Vac- 
 cinium Oxycoccos), High Bush Cranberry (Viburnum 
 Opulus), Elderberry (Sambucus), Huckleberry (Gaylus- 
 
FLOWERS, FRUITS AND SEEDS. 
 
 73 
 
 accia), Man drake or May apple (Podophyllum), Partridge- 
 berry (Mitchella) and Wintergreenberry (Gaultheria), 
 besides Melons, Squashes, Pumpkins, Cu- 
 cumbers, Tomatoes, etc., all of which 
 come under the head of edible fruits. In 
 tropical and semi-tropical countries there 
 is still a greater number which I must 
 omit mentioning here, but nearly all will 
 be named elsewhere. 
 
 NATURE OF SEEDS. Seeds are embryo 
 plants, the mature, fecundated ovule, with 
 i s 31 - certain nutritive properties stored up 
 
 Q. PEDUNCULATA. .., . . , ,. A 
 
 within various protective organs. A seed 
 is also a living organism which separates from its parent, 
 and is then capable of becoming a new individual of the 
 same species. When mature they 
 contain various albuminous, ligne- 
 ous and oily compounds required 
 to supply the young plantlet with 
 nutriment during its early stages of 
 growth, or until roots are produced 
 through which it can obtain nutri- 
 ents from surrounding elements. 
 Some seeds acquire a stony hard- 
 ness when ripe, as seen in the Ivory 
 Nut ; others remain soft and fleshy, as in the Horse- 
 chestnut, or partly fleshy and partly 
 liquid, as in the Cocoanut ; others, 
 like those of the maples and elms, are 
 soft, and the cotyledons leaf -like ; 
 others are of a starchy nature,- as in 
 Oats, Buckwheat and the Onion. 
 
 Seeds are usually enclosed in a peri- 
 carp or seed-vessel, which offers protec- 
 tion to the kernel and germ. Some- 
 times there are several of these protective organs, as seen 
 
 Fig. 32. 
 
 Q. P. FASTIGIATA. 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 Q. TINCTORIA. 
 
74 
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 in the Chestnut, Filbert and Walnut, the outer husk 
 enclosing the nut becoming detached at maturity from 
 the parent plant, as well as from the nut proper, while 
 within the latter there is another integument in the form 
 of a thin membrane surrounding the kernel. In some 
 
 of the Oaks the outer husk is 
 but a shallow cup, figures 31 
 and 32 ; in other species the 
 cup extends farther up or is 
 deeper, figures 33 and 34, 
 while in a few the nut is nearly 
 covered with the husk. 
 T\e stalk of the seed is called the fyniculus, and 
 when a seed breaks loose from the stalk at maturity it 
 leaves a scar, as seen in the garden bean, which is called 
 the liilum. Sometimes this funiculus is extended or 
 even rolled up within the seed-vessel, forming a thread- 
 like attachment to the seed, as seen in those of the Mag- 
 nolias, allowing the seed to drop out and remain for a 
 
 Fig. 31 Q. ALBA. 
 
 Fig. 35. ULMUS SUBEROSA. 
 
 Fig. 36. 
 
 TJ. CAMPESTRIS. 
 
 Fig. 37. 
 
 TJ. EFFUSA. 
 
 time suspended to the seed-vessel. On the seed of the 
 Common Swamp Magnolia (Magnolia glauca), this um- 
 bilical cord is an inch or more in length, and quite con- 
 spicuous as the seed drops out of the cone-shaped pods 
 in autumn. 
 
 In form, size and structure, as well as in chemical 
 composition of seeds, variation is the rule, as well as in 
 other parts and appendages of plants. Seeds of differ- 
 
FLOWERS, FRUITS AND SEEDS. 75 
 
 ent families, genera and species may have sufficient 
 general resemblance to enable the botanist to determine 
 very nearly where they belong, still they will usually vary 
 considerably in many of their characters, even when very 
 closely related, and as near alike as two peas from the 
 same pod, and yet no two peas are exactly alike. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF SEEDS. Nature has provided vari- 
 ous methods for the distribution of seeds, thereby in a 
 measure preventing overcrowding of plants, although it is 
 quite evident that, in her prodigality, she produces a far 
 greater number of seeds than can possibly grow, with 
 
 Fig. 38. SEED OF THE ASH. 
 
 room for the plants to reach maturity; but as animals are 
 dependent upon plants for support, seeds are largely con- 
 sumed, and yet, when this demand has been fully provided 
 for, there is still a large surplus of some kinds, and the 
 war of races, as well as of kinds, takes place, ending in 
 what has been aptly termed " the survival of the fittest." 
 The seeds of many herbs and trees are provided with 
 long hair-like appendages (pappus), as seen on the seed- 
 vessels and seeds of the Thistles (Cirsium), Milkweeds 
 (Asclepias), Willow-herbs (Epilobium), Dandelion (Tar- 
 axacum), Cottonwood (Populus), which assist in their 
 
76 
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 distribution by the wind. Others have hooked awns on 
 the outside of their seed-vessels, as on those of the Bur- 
 dock (Lappa) and Beggar-ticks (Bidens), which become 
 attached to any rough surface like the hide of animals or 
 
 wool of sheep, and by such 
 means become widely dis- 
 tributed. The seeds of many 
 kinds of trees are provided 
 with wing-like appendages, 
 those of the Elm having a 
 thin membrane passing nearly 
 or quite around, the edge of 
 the seed, as shown in figures 
 35 to 37. The Ash tree has 
 long, slender one to two celled 
 seeds with a wing on two 
 sides and the upper end 
 figure 38. The seeds of the 
 Maples are produced in pairs, 
 each pair the product of a 
 single flower, the membrane 
 of the wing growing inward 
 from its stem, as shown in 
 figure 39, which represents a 
 pair of the seeds of the Large- 
 Fig. SPACER MACROPHYLLUM. leaved California Maple (Acer 
 
 macrophyllum) of natural size. 
 
 In the Coniferce, or cone-bearing trees, the seeds of a 
 large majority of the species are winged, but in only a 
 limited number are these appendages of any assistance in 
 their distribution. In the seeds of the Great Tree of 
 California (Sequoia giganted), the Arbor Vitass (Thuya), 
 and closely allied species, the wings are firmly attached 
 to the seeds, consequently aiding in their extended dis- 
 tribution as they fall from the cones, but in many species 
 of conifers the wings are deciduous, readily parting 
 
FLOWERS, FRUITS AND SEEDS. 77 
 
 from the seed as soon as it is mature, and before drop- 
 ping from the cone. In the Pines especially, we find a 
 wide variation in this respect, for in some species, like 
 those of the Northern Pitch Pine (Pinus rigida), figure 
 40, the wing of the seed is three or four times the 
 length of the seed, and it adheres until the seed has been 
 widely scattered, but in those with larger seed, such as 
 
 the Nut Pines (P. edulis) and others, the wings 
 
 become detached before, or at the time, the 
 
 seeds fall from the cone. 
 
 While wind and water, birds and mammals 
 
 of various kinds, assist in the distribution of 
 Fi.'40. seeds, there is 110 discrimination in these 
 S riNu P na tural processes, and the seeds of worthless 
 RIGIDA. and pestiferous plants are just as likely to 
 spread over the earth's surface and grow as the most 
 valuable and useful. 
 
 VITALITY ,.OF SEEDS. Perfect and mature seeds, as 
 I have said elsewhere, are living organisms, within which 
 there can be no absolute cessation in the action of the 
 living principles or vital forces, for when this occurs the 
 seed dies, and a purely chemical change follows, however 
 slow and protracted it may prove to be. Sometimes the 
 vital actions may appear to be almost suspended, either 
 under normal or abnormal conditions, but they are never 
 absolutely quiescent, and while some kinds of seeds may 
 retain their vitality for many years under favorable con- 
 ditions, there is a limit to individual life even among 
 seeds. No known species will remain alive for "ages," 
 as has been so often asserted by persons whose imagina- 
 tion seems to have been far more fertile than their 
 knowledge was profound. It has been frequently claimed 
 that Wheat, and other kinds of grain, taken from the 
 Egyptian tombs and the wrappings of mummies, where 
 it was deposited many thousands of years ago, has been 
 made to germinate and grow when planted, but there are 
 
78 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 no well authenticated instances of any such growths. 
 Whenever any of these supposed-to-be very ancient seeds 
 germinate, we may conclude that there has been some 
 trickery about the matter. Travelers in search of curi- 
 osities are usually accommodatad by servants and guides, 
 for even Indian Corn or Maize, unknown in Europe be- 
 fore the discovery of America, has been furnished travel- 
 ers, among other seeds claimed to have been found in the 
 ancient Egyptian tombs. We may also distrust all ac- 
 counts of the germination of seeds that have been buried 
 in the earth for hundreds and thousands of years, and 
 brought to the surface in digging wells, canals and other 
 similar deep excavations, for in no instance that has been 
 traced to any trustworthy source have the plants raised 
 from such seeds been specifically different from those 
 recently introduced or indigenous to the same locality. 
 No new genera or species from such seeds have ever been 
 brought to light, as might be expected if they were the 
 product of some very ancient plants or locally extinct 
 species, as usually claimed. It is certainly true that no 
 one knows how long some kinds of seeds may remain 
 sound when buried deeply in the earth, or for how many 
 years some kinds may retain their vitality under the most 
 favorable conditions, but when we come to test seeds by 
 actual and carefully conducted experiments, we find little 
 to support the theories advanced in regard to long dura- 
 tion of vitality. 
 
 Many hundreds of experiments have been, and are still 
 being made, for the purpose of determining the limits of 
 life in seeds, the results differing but slightly, or no 
 more than might be expected from the unavoidable vari- 
 ableness of conditions, while all do show that vitality 
 decreases more or less rapidly with age. 
 
 Size has no influence on the vitality or keeping pro- 
 perties of seeds, for the Cocoanut, under the most favor- 
 able conditions, will not remain alive half as long as the 
 
FLOWERS, FRUITS AKD SEEDS. 79 
 
 seeds of the common Field Poppy, which are a million of 
 times less in bulk. 
 
 Neither has there heen as yet discovered any peculiar 
 property of seeds that would make those possessing it 
 insensible to the influence of surrounding elements and 
 conditions. It might readily be supposed, upon general 
 principles, that seeds containing a large amount of oil 
 would be far less likely to be affected 
 by moisture, dry ness, or even a low 
 temperature, than those of an opposite 
 nature, but long experience with such 
 seeds shows that oil is not a preserva- 
 tive property. For instance, such 
 large seeds as the Butternut, Hickory- 
 nut, Black Walnut and European Wal- 
 nut contain a large, fleshy, oily kernel ^Fiff. 41. 
 (figure 41), which, from appearances, ' 
 we might suppose would be able to resist ordinary adverse 
 conditions for a long time, but, on the contrary, they are 
 quite sensitive to extremes of any kind, and it is with 
 difficulty such nuts can be preserved alive and sound for 
 even a twelvemonth. If kept warm, a chemical change 
 takes place, and the oil in the kernel becomes rancid. In 
 a moist position the kernel soon decays, and, while a freez- 
 ing temperature will check decay, if it be long continued 
 the germ of the seed is destroyed. But, on the contrary, 
 the minute oily seeds of the Mustard will withstand con- 
 siderable drying, a high temperature or a low one, and 
 still retain their vitality for several years. Such minute 
 seeds as the common garden Pursley or Purslane (Por- 
 tulaca), will withstand great extremes of temperature, 
 also alternate soaking and drying while buried in the 
 soil, and yet survive these changes, while the great hard- 
 shelled nuts, as well as many of the seeds of our forest 
 trees, must grow, if at all, or die within a few weeks, or 
 months at farthest, after reaching maturity. There are, 
 
80 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 of course, certain families of plants, the seeds of which 
 possess much greater tenacity to life than others, but in 
 all, time is a weakening element. The seeds of Melons 
 and Cucumbers may be preserved in good condition for 
 growth from one to fifteen years, and even at the latter 
 age yield a fair proportion of plants, while the seeds 
 of the Onion, Carrot and Celery soon perish if kept 
 under the same conditions, few germinating after they 
 are three or four years old. 
 
 Then there are other kinds of seeds which require age 
 and long exposure to heat and moisture to soften their 
 horn-like covering, as in those of the Cmtcegus, Mespilus, 
 Cornus, Halesia, Ilex, and several species of the Rose ; 
 but in all of these, and others of like character, a few 
 weeks' exposure to a dry atmosphere will either destroy 
 vitality, or so harden the shell that the pores of the latter 
 will not open again to admit moisture to the kernel. 
 
 It might readily be supposed that the natural sur- 
 roundings of vessels enclosing seeds would not only 
 afford the best protection, but also insure the most favor- 
 able conditions for the*prolongation and preservation of 
 their vitality, and while this is true in many instances, it 
 is quite the contrary in others. The pulp of the Apple, 
 Pear, Quince and similar fruits, if left to decay about the 
 seed, is almost certain to destroy it, from the chemical 
 changes which occur in the decomposition of what is 
 called the fruit, consquently to remove the seed by arti- 
 ficial means is assisting nature in its preservation. 
 
 There are seeds which naturally begin to grow while 
 still attached to the fruit-stalk, not separating from the 
 parent plant until after germination and the production 
 of roots. The fruit of the Mangrove tree (Rhizophora 
 Mangle), of Southern Florida, is a well-known example of 
 this kind of seed. Then, again, there are other seeds 
 which will remain sound for many years if kept sealed up 
 in their natural and multiple integuments, as seen in 
 
FLOWERS, FRUITS AND SEEDS. 
 
 81 
 
 many of the conifers, and especially among the Pines and 
 Cedars, the cones of some of these not opening or allow- 
 ing the seed to escape for several years after maturity. 
 The cone of the Cedar of Lebanon (Cedrus Libani), is a 
 somewhat remarkable example of this kind, and in one 
 instance it is reported upon trustworthy authority that 
 seeds from a cone that had been kept in a cabinet forty 
 years, germinated quite freely when planted. But it 
 should be noted that seeds enclosed and sealed up in 
 these cones are not only surrounded by the natural 
 balsamic elements, but are also attached to the rhachis or 
 axis of the cone, and it is not improbable that they draw 
 some sustenance therefrom during their long imprison- 
 ment. It is certain that when removed from the cone 
 their vitality decreases rapidly. When seeds of this kind 
 are to be kept for a year or more they should be left in 
 the cones until wanted for use. Of course the seeds of 
 conifers which naturally drop from the cone when mature 
 cannot be preserved in this way. 
 
 Experiments have been, and are still being, made for 
 the purpose or determining the relative duration of life 
 in different kinds of seeds that have been preserved 
 under what are considered favorable conditions, but all 
 show that fresh, new seeds are far preferable to old ones, 
 and these the propagator always endeavors to secure. 
 
 Many years ago Professor Alphonse De Candolle, one of 
 the most eminent botanists of Europe, tested the vitality 
 of 368 species of seeds, fifteen years old, all collected in 
 the same garden, and sowed at the same time and under 
 the same conditions as nearly as possible. The following 
 are the results : 
 
 Malvaceae 5 came up out of 10 species. 
 
 Le^uminosae . 9 ' 45 
 
 Labiate I 30 
 
 Scrophulariaceas 10 
 
 Umbelliferse 10 
 
 Caryophyllacas .0 16 
 
 Gramineae 32 
 
 Crucifera 34 
 
 Composite 45 
 
82 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 It will be seen by the foregoing list that seeds of the 
 MalvacecB or Mallow family retained their vitality the 
 longest, as one-half of the species germinated after fifteen 
 years, while of the Leguminosas only one in five germin- 
 ated, while with barely one exception all of the others 
 failed. Prof. Balfour, in referring to the experiments 
 of Prof. De Candolle, says : "Large seeds were found to 
 retain their germinating powers longer than small ones, 
 and the presence or absence of separate albumen or peri- 
 sperm did not seem to make any difference. Composites 
 and Umbelliferse lost their germinating power very early," 
 
 From these experiments Prof. De Candolle concludes 
 that duration of vitality is frequently in an inverse pro- 
 portion to the rapidity of the germination. 
 
 PRESERVATION OF SEEDS. While the propagator of 
 plants will usually endeavor to sow seeds as soon as prac- 
 ticable after they are ripe, still it is often necessary, as 
 well as desirable, to preserve them in good condition for 
 a few months, and sometimes for several years. The 
 most favorable conditions for preserving the germinating 
 power of seeds no doubt are such as maybe said to accord 
 with natural laws, but not by strict natural methods. 
 Cultivated plants are mostly far removed from their 
 native habitats, and are also subjected to the influence 
 of artificial surroundings ; therefore we could not, if we 
 would, adopt nature's methods of propagation ; besides, 
 wj^aim to improve upon nature, and make a far greater 
 number of seeds grow than is possible in the absence of 
 man's assistance. There can be no general rule given 
 for the preservation of seeds, but by arranging plants 
 into groups we may devise a set of rules which will 
 assist, if they do not prove to be an infallible guide. As 
 I have already stated, the seeds of conifers keep better 
 in the cones, whenever this is practicable, than when re- 
 moved, and the same rule holds good with many other 
 kinds of seeds that; are not enclosed in cones. Indian 
 
FLOWERS, FRUITS AKD SEEDS. 83 
 
 Corn, will keep sound on the cob much longer than if 
 shelled when first gathered, and the same is true of the 
 Millets, Sorghums, and even of the smaller grasses, if 
 they are stored in a dry, cool place. Seeds of some of the 
 Leguminosse will remain sound for many years if kept 
 enclosed and sealed up jin the pods, and it is well known 
 to seed-growers that the seed of the common Onion will 
 retain its vitality much longer in the heads than if 
 threshed out as soon as ripe. For all kinds of speeds . 
 which will admit of any drying, like those jof our com- 
 mon vegetables and cereals, there is probably no better 
 method of preservation than tp store, in boxes or bins, 
 and small lots in cloth or paper bags, and place them in a 
 dry, cool room. <&*' 
 
 Seeds with hard shells, like the nuts, which require 
 softening or opening of the pores of the shell to admit 
 moisture to the kernel, shoul4_J:>e jplaced in a position 
 where these essential conditions will be assured. In cold 
 climates, frost and moisture will expand the shell, andm 
 warm ones heat and moisture perform the same service. 
 But whether the seeds are to be kept dry or moist, in a 
 high or low temperature, these conditions should be as 
 uniform as possible, extremes of every nature being 
 more or less injurious, even if they do not entirely destroy 
 vitality. 
 
 QERMT^ATJO[ OF SEEps. Beafe moisture and air 
 are the principal requisites for the germination of seeds. 
 Light is not essential, and on some kinds of seeds it ap- 
 pears to be detrimental, retarding germination, presum- 
 ,ably from its known action in the decomposition of 
 carbonic acid. The temjpera^ture required is exceedingly 
 variable, for with the seeds of some t^opical^olants a 
 hundred or more degrees Fahrenheit are necessary to 
 cause germination, while there are those, natives of Qool^ 
 cjj mates, that will sprout at a temperature of thirty-four 
 or five, or two or three degrees above the freezing point. 
 
84 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 As the heat and moiature come in contact with seeds the 
 materials of which they are composed well. and soften, 
 chemical changes follow, rendering the stored np matter 
 fit for nourishing the embryo. In albuminous seeds the 
 starch is changed into dextrine, thence to sugar, through 
 what may be termed the result of contact and the re- 
 arrangement of the molecules of the seed. Oxygen is 
 absorbed and heat generated, as may be seen on an ex- 
 tended scale in the operation of malting Barley and other 
 kinds of grain. In exalbuminous seeds slightly different 
 chemical changes occur, but all tend to the preparation 
 of nutriment for the embryo plant. It is quite evident 
 that the chemical changes that take place in sprouting 
 seeds QifteT as widely as do their chemical properties, but, 
 all are set inaction by the stimulus (heat) in the presence 
 qf moisture. ^^ 
 
 The increase of heat accelerates germination, provided 
 it is not carried so far as to prevent the natural chemical 
 processes. A temperature of sixty-five to seventy-five 
 degrees may be considered a safe one for most kinds 
 of fruit, flower and vegetable seeds, but those with hard 
 ^hells or coverings, and especially those of tropical 
 origin, will usually require a higher temperature. In a 
 lower temperature, or less than fifty degrees, the necessary 
 chemical changes proceed very slowly, if at all, and often 
 cease altogether, even after having once commenced, and 
 when this occurs the seed usually decays, and for this 
 reason haste in sowing seeds in spring, and before the 
 ground is warmed by the sun and showers, often gives 
 unsatisfactory results. The germination of seeds is 
 governed by the same principles as that of the production 
 of buds from tubers, bulbs and even the emission of roots 
 from cuttings of ligneous plants, the starchy matter 
 stored up in the cells undergoing very similar chemical 
 changes in the reorganization and growth of the new 
 cells. 
 
CIRCULATION OF SAP. 85 
 
 CHAPTEK VII. 
 CIRCULATION OF SAP. 
 
 Plants obtain the principal part of their nourishment 
 from the liquids and gases absorbed by their roots. The 
 fluids and gases thus absorbed is called crude sap, and this, 
 meeting previously assimilated matter in the cells, min- 
 gles with it, and going forward or upward until it reaches 
 the buds, twigs, or expanded leaves, is there exposed to 
 or meets both air and light, producing chemical changes 
 resulting in what is termed organizable matter. 
 
 The movement of fluids in endogenous plants is not so 
 readily determined as in the exogenous, owing to the in- 
 termingling of the woody and vascular bundles. It is, 
 however, quite probable that both take part in the move- 
 ment, and as we find cambium near the vascular bundles, 
 it may serve the same purpose as this material in the 
 exogens. But experiments are wanting to show how the 
 transmission of sap takes place in the various and com- 
 plex structure of endogenous stems ; still it is known 
 that there is both an upward and downward flow, but its 
 movement has not been so accurately determined as in 
 the exogenous stems. 
 
 The cr^ude sa,p, or liquid taken in by the roots by the 
 process of imbibition, does not mss upward through open 
 tube-like vessels, but from cell to cell by an endosmose 
 and exosmose action, as explained in Chapter I. ; conse- 
 quently, the crude liquid does not remain separate from 
 the old or previously assimilated sap in the cells, but the 
 new and thinner liquid lessens the density of the older, 
 and both, thus mingled, flow on upwaj^L vr^ out jvard , as 
 the case may be, to the ends of the branches, the. result 
 .pf some force not fully understood. Physiologists do not 
 agree in regard to the cause of motion in the liquids of 
 plants. Some attribute it to what they term capillary 
 
86 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 attraction, and that the continuous upward flow is sus- 
 tained through constant evaporation and transpiration 
 which takes place in the buds, leaves and young parts 
 of the plant. 
 
 Prof. J. W. Draper attributes the movement of sap to 
 capillary attraction, which he considers an electrical phe- 
 nomenon. Prof. Leibig takes a somewhat similar view of 
 the phenomenon, and thinks that as evaporation and trans- 
 piration take place in the leaves and buds, a portion of 
 the fluids are thus removed and capillary attraction is 
 promoted. Prof. Balfour is inclined to attribute the 
 movement to capillarity in the vessels of the higher plants, 
 and through the process of endosmose the continued 
 imbibition and movement of fluids is chiefly carried on. 
 These movements, he says, will of course take place with 
 greater vigor and rapidity, according to the activity of 
 the processes going on in the leaves, which thus tends 
 to keep up the circulation. Still, if a small or large root 
 of a Maple is severed twenty or thirty feet from the main 
 stem in spring, before the leaves expand, the sap will 
 flow from the wound with as much force as it will from 
 a branch or twig of the same size and the same distance 
 from the base of the stem, a fact that does not appear to 
 establish the theory of capillary attraction. 
 
 It is quite evident, however, from what we do know 
 about the movement of fluids in plants, that there are 
 different forces that act and assist in their movements, 
 and it may be due in part to vital force variation in 
 temperature, or those changes which result from the 
 action of light and air and partly from capillary attrac- 
 tion following the continuous loss by evaporation, ^hich 
 must constantly affect the density of the fluids, thereby 
 promoting endosmose and exosmose action. 
 
 In many herbaceous and acquatic plants there is a 
 rotary or spiral motion of the fluids within each individ- 
 ual .cell that can be readily seen with a magnifier of mod- 
 
CIRCULATION OF SAP. 87 
 
 erate power ; and, furthermore, this rotation is constantly 
 in one direction, and if checked and then set in motion 
 again it proceeds in its original course, just as certain 
 twining plants will turn only in one direction. But the 
 rotary motion of the fluids in the cell does not prevent 
 a portion from passing through the cell walls, and the 
 peculiar action is kept up in all so long as active growth 
 proceeds. 
 
 Boucherie, in his investigations upon trees in France, 
 found that felled trees continued to imbibe moisture 
 through their exposed cells with considerable force, and 
 that a Poplar ninety-two feet high absorbed in six days 
 nearly sixty-six gallons of pyrolignite of iron. We all 
 know that cut stems of plants, it placed in water, will keep 
 fresh a much longer time than if the lower ends are not 
 immersed, or in some other manner supplied with liquids, 
 and this is mainly, but not wholly, due to the absorption 
 through the exposed cells. It is evident that heat and 
 light have a powerful influence in the flow of sap in 
 plants, by promoting transpiration and action in the 
 cells, but imbibition of liquids by the roots does not 
 necessarily cease with growth of the plant, or even loss 
 of foliage, for as liquids of less density than those within 
 them are presented to the roots, absorption must con- 
 tinue, although the movement may be slow when the 
 plant is less active than during the growing season. We 
 conclude that this must occur from the fact that trees, 
 shrubs and other plants, while apparently at rest, even in 
 cold climates, become gorged with liquids, and at a 
 season when there cannot be any considerable exhalation 
 from the leaves of evergreens, or the twigs and buds of 
 deciduous kinds, which would promote or cause continue^ 
 absorption of liquids by the roots ; still, it is well known 
 to every investigator that exhalation from the parts of 
 plants exposed to the air does not cease altogether, even 
 in the coldest weather, and the loss of this moisture 
 
88 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 must be made good from the parts below. Whenever 
 there is a tojbal cessation of the movement of fluids 
 through the stems and branches death follows, and in 
 ligneous plants the wood, bark and buds become dry and 
 shriveled. We may, therefore, conclude that the entire 
 sap of trees never becomes frozen solid, and that there is 
 always a flow of gaseous matter, if not of heavier liquids, 
 through the cells, even when the plants are in a semi- 
 dormant state. The often repeated experiment of forcing 
 into growth under glass a cane of a Grapevine or branch 
 of a fruit tree while attached to the parent plant, remain- 
 ing out of doors and apparently frozen, shows that there 
 must be some communication between the semi-dormant 
 parts and those within the house. 
 
 The first effect of light and warmth in spring is to 
 stimulate action in the plants. The fluids absorbed from 
 the soil by the roots are carried upward from cell to cell, 
 through the alburnum or sap-wood of exogenous stems, 
 to the leaves and buds, where they are exposed to air and 
 Jight, and there changgd into organizable mattei^hrgugh 
 a process which is termed assimilation, Some of the 
 liquid pa<rt of the sap is exhaled, passing off into the 
 atmosphere, while a portion of the assimilated matter 
 goes to aid in the prolongation of the twigs, enlargement 
 of the leaves, buds, flowers and fruit, and other portions 
 are spread over the entire surface of the plant through 
 the liber or inner bark, even extending down to the ex- 
 tremities of the roots, adding to their size and prolonga- 
 tion. In this way the concentric layers of wood are 
 formed on the outside of the stem and branches. If 
 there is no cessation of growth during the summer the 
 newly-formed cells coalesce, producing a homogeneous, 
 uniform concentric layer which may be readily distin- 
 guished from those of previous years. This is the usual 
 method of growth in exogens, but the sap may be diverted 
 from its natural course, lor if obstructed, the tissues will 
 
CIRCULATION Ofc SAP. 89 
 
 change their functions and propel the fluids in other 
 directions through the cells instead of lengthwise with the 
 grain of the wood, as may be readily proved by removing 
 alternate sections of wood from the stem of a tree. Prof. 
 Lindley 4 in referring to the functions of the alburnum 
 and liber in trees, says: " The two have equally important 
 offices to perform; the alburnum giving strength and 
 solidity to the stem and conveying sap upwards ; the 
 liber not only conveying sap downward, but covering over 
 the alburnum, protecting if from the air and enabling it, 
 to form without interruption. It is therefore indispen- 
 sable to the healthy condition of plants that neither the 
 alburnum nor liber should be injured. 7 ' 
 
 The inner layers,, or heart-wood, of trees are dead, and 
 they may be removed entirely without serious injury to 
 the living parts, as often occurs, and as seen in. hollow 
 treejj, which sometimes live for centuries in "this condi- 
 tion, new layers of alburnum being annually added to 
 the outside. It is now quite generally conceded that the 
 annual increase in the diameter of exogenous stems is due 
 to the multiplication of the cells of the cambium layer, 
 and the material from which they are formed or at least 
 the greater part of it descends in the bark ; tiut there 
 have been, and still are, vegetable physiologists who deny 
 the existence of any distinct downward flow of organiz- 
 able matter through the liber. Dr. J. M. Schleiden, in 
 his " Principles of Botany," emphatically denies any such 
 movement in plants, and says : "As water is continu- 
 ally exhaled by plants in proportion to the dryness, mo- 
 tion and warmth of the air, so the sap becomes concen- 
 trated, and thus interrupts the endosmatic process toward 
 the other cells ; this action is continued naturally down- 
 ward toward the roots, by which new watery and unas- 
 similated fluids are absorbed. If this stream of crude 
 sap is artificially interrupted in its course from below 
 upward, the sap in the upper part becomes more concen- 
 
90 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 trated, and its organizing power increased. This is the 
 simple fact which lies at the foundation of all those phe- 
 nomena which are brought forward to support the 
 groundless hypothesis of a decending bark sap." In 
 another place he says : " When an Apricot graft grows 
 from the trunk of a Plum tree the latter is naturally and 
 by degrees clothed with Apricot wood, for out of the same 
 soil an Apricot tree would merely take up the same crude 
 material as the Plum tree," etc. But those who oppose 
 this idea of a downward flow of organizable sap in the 
 liber appear to have overlooked the individuality of the 
 functions of the cells, and the fact that while one set or 
 group may be secreting one kind of substance, or per- 
 forming certain functions, another group may be doing 
 something quite different, as I have already explained 
 elsewhere. 
 
 Practical propagators of plants know that the cells of 
 the stock and those of the cion always remain distinct 
 in each, preserving their individual type, and even the 
 old and excretory bark enclosing them retaining its pecu- 
 liar original characteristic. Pears grafted on Quince roots 
 never change the latter into the former, and we may 
 build up a tree of alternate sections of Pear, Quince, 
 Thorn and Medlar, and each section or part of the stem 
 will retain its individuality, although the roots may be 
 of one species and the branches and leaves of another. 
 The cells of each take from the passing crude sap, or 
 descending organizable matter, the materials needed to 
 build up and retain their own individual structure. 
 
 Jf there were no descending organizable sap in the 
 liber or inner bark, then the girdling of trees would have 
 no more than a temporary ^effect, upon growth $ but the 
 pioneers in our American forests have proved to us that 
 ^o remote a. ring, of barj^and the mere jsgvering ojf the 
 outer layer of alburnum will cause the death of any kind 
 of tree within a twelvemonth. By tins' simple process 
 
CIRCULATION OF SAP. 91 
 
 the upward flow of the crude sap j^ not prevented, for it 
 passes freely through the unsevered "alburnum layers, 
 reaching the leaves as usual, where it is assimilated ; but 
 the descent of the organizable matter can pass no further 
 than the annular incision in the stem ; the result is 
 that none reaches the roots, the latter perish in conse- 
 
 Fig. 42. VARIGATED RUSH. 
 
 quenc^, and the following season the tree is dead not a 
 -bud on either root or branch survives. Those species'. 
 which are the most obstinate in producing suckers from 
 their roots are readily killed outjby.-so simple an opera- 
 tion as girdling in late winter or very early spring. 
 
 Kinging^.or the removal of a ring-like piece of bark 
 from a single branch of a fruit tree, or cane of a Grape- 
 
92 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 vine, has long been practised for the purpose of produc- 
 ing extra large specimens of jfrnit, it becoming gorged 
 with organizable matter, which is prevented from passing- 
 downward on account of the removal of the ring of bark. 
 The pojver ojjQejj^oapgro^riaje^^fcaiji elements and 
 not others "can scarcelylBe doubted, ami otigti we know 
 but little of the process, but it is through the individu- 
 ality of their functions that they are enabled to take from 
 the liquids passing through them those materials neces- 
 sary for their own growth, allowing others to pass unap- 
 propriated ; thus certain groups of cells assume one form, 
 size, color, as in the case of the double or quadruple 
 grafted Pear tree, each group retaining its own individu- 
 ality to the end. This preservation of individual charac- 
 teristics of cells^ may not only be seen in the multiple 
 steins of grafted trees, but frequently in various simple 
 herbaceous plants, as in the stems and leaves of the 
 Japan Zebra Grass (Eulalia), and in the Variegated Rush 
 (Scirpus), shown in figure 42. In both of these plants 
 the long, slender leaves and stems are composed of alter- 
 nate sections of white and green parts, and if we take no 
 account of any downward flow of organizable matter, and 
 presume that the crude sap is assimilated in its progress 
 upward through the leaves, we still find it difficult to 
 explain how the green colored liquids can pass through 
 the white parts and leave no stain of chlorophyll, except 
 upon the hypothesis that there is an individuality of 
 action in the various groups of cells of the leaves which 
 enables them to retain their distinct characteristics, while 
 all are drawing nutrients from the same source and 
 through the same set of vessels. We know that some 
 such action takes place in grafted trees with stems and 
 roots made up of different species. Quince roots may 
 imbibe nutrients from the soil, while Pear leaves may as- 
 similate them ; yet each remain true to its species or vari- 
 ety. Conductibility in this case is not only a function of 
 
CIRCULATION OF SAP. 93 
 
 the cells, but in the operation a kind of selection or choice 
 is made of materials passing through them ; but this 
 elective power appears only to extend to those elements 
 which are of a congenial nature to the whole or some 
 part of the plant, for when certain poisons are presented 
 to the roots or leaves they are unable to resist them. 
 This act of non-resistance does not prove that plants have 
 no pow^gr of selection pi nutrients, jgut, merely thaFTney 
 are in^apaBle^of resisting certain elements which are 
 inimical to their health and growth. The difference in 
 the density of liquid poisons_pr^se^t,ed.^tp_the_rj[)ot^ may 
 also have some influence upon the elective powers ; and 
 it is well known that some mineral poisons, when much 
 diluted, will be absorbed by plants without any apparent 
 injury, while stronger solutions will cause death, as they 
 also do when given to animals in large doses. Certain 
 gases are also highly injurious to plants, being readily 
 absorbed by both roots and leaves. Sulphuretted hydro- 
 gen gas, says Dr. Balfour, attacks the leaves at the tips 
 first, gradually extending to the leaf-stalk, which would 
 seem to show that it followed the return flow of sap. 
 Sulphurous acid gas is highly injurious to plants, as 
 many a gardener has learned to his cost through the 
 accidental ignition of su'phur in houses filled with plants. 
 But the gas which most interests the practical cultivator 
 of plants is the one known as carbonic acid gas, for it is 
 from this that the carbon, the most abundant single 
 element of plants, is obtained. Carbon also makes up 
 some forty to fifty per cent, of the bulk of the ordinary 
 plants cultivated for food, and in trees the proportion is 
 still greater, all of which is supposed to be derived from 
 carbonic acid gas, but just how it is obtained or fixed in 
 the form of plant cells has been a mooted question among 
 vegetable physiologists and chemists ever since they began 
 to investigate the principles of growth and composition 
 of plants. This carbon ghost will neither remain passive 
 
94 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 or find an abiding place either in the atmosphere or soil ; 
 for while one authority allows it free entrance to the 
 roots, another is equally certain that it only finds its way 
 into the plants through the leaves. In a recent work of 
 Dr. M. T. Masters, in speaking of root action, he says : 
 "No passage of acid fluid out of the cell takes place, 
 root excretions having no existence," etc. But in another 
 paragraph on the same page he says: "On the other 
 hand, r,oots do not absorb carbonic acid gas nor exhale 
 oxygen as the leaves do (in the sunlight), but they do 
 give off carbonic acid gas, which, with the aid of water, 
 converts the insoluble carbonates of the soil into soluble 
 Jncarbonutes, and exercise a similar power of solution in 
 the case of phosphates." If the roots "do give off car- 
 bonic acid gas," it is certainly by an "excretive" action, 
 which the author utterly denies in the first paragraph 
 quoted. In describing the action and function of leaves 
 he says : "The paramount function of the leaf is the 
 absorption and assimilation of carbon. Carbon, as such, 
 does not exist in the atmosphere, unless, indeed, as an 
 impurity in the air of towns, and is a very prejudicial one 
 to plants. It is in the form of carbonic acid gas a com- 
 bination of carbon and oxygen that it is found in the 
 atmosphere, but only in small proportion compared with 
 the other constituents. In the plant, carbon exists in 
 much larger proportion than any other ingredient, with 
 the sole exception of water. It forms, in fact, fifty per 
 cent, of the dry matter of plants left behind after the 
 water and gases have been expelled by heat. This large 
 quantity of carbon has to be taken up in the form of 
 carbonic acid by the leaves." 
 
 There can be no question in regard to the meaning of 
 Dr. Master's words, for they are direct and to the point 
 namely, the carbon of plants is derived from the air 
 and through the leaves only, consequently from a source 
 where this important element is the least abundant, and, 
 
CIRCULATION" OF SAP. 95 
 
 we may say, so largely diluted that our chemists tell us 
 that it averages only about one twenty-five hundredth 
 part of the bulk of the atmosphere, while it abounds in 
 many soils, springs, brooks, wells, caverns in the humus 
 of forests, besides occurring combined with bases, form- 
 ing carbonates of lime, magnesia, soda, strontia, baryta, 
 as well as in the various oxides of metals, some of which 
 are always found in fertile soils. The position which 
 Dr. Masters takes in regard to the source, as well as the 
 way in which carbonic acid is utilized by plants, does not 
 differ essentially from that held by several other Euro- 
 pean botanists, but he gives the theory in a better form 
 than I have seen it elsewhere. 
 
 Dr. Balfour, however, a very eminent English author- 
 ity on vegetable physiology, says that "carbonic acid is 
 readily taken up, either in its gaseous state by the leaves, 
 or in combination with water hy the rp.ots," We cer- 
 tainly can scarcely conceive of any inherent power of 
 choice so potent in the roots as to enable them to reject 
 this gas which is so necessary to their health and growth, 
 and it is well known to be far more abundant in the soil 
 about the roots than in the atmosphere. In a recent 
 (1885) edition of the "Manual of Agriculture," by Geo. 
 B. Emerson, I find the following in relation to this sub- 
 ject : " Carbonic^ a^cidjs the most indispensable and 
 abundant article of the toodjDf all plants.. It enters the 
 plant dissolved in water, and either remains in that state, 
 or the vital action of the plant, in the light of the sun, 
 decomposes the acid and throws back most of the oxygen 
 into the atmosphere, but retains, a portion which per- 
 forms important offices, and also retains the carbon. 
 This forms the solid parts of every plant." 
 
 Among men who combine science with practice the 
 foregoing is the most generally accepted theory of the 
 manner in which plants obtain the great bulk of their 
 carbon. It is open to some objection, but it will mislead 
 
96 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 no one in the management of plants. All practical cul- 
 tivators of plants recognize the great value of c^rbona.- 
 ceovis matter., not only as found spread over the surface 
 of the easth in forests, prairies and plains, but in the 
 manures applied to soils from which it has been exhausted 
 by long- cultivation or otherwise. It is not denied, how- 
 ever, that plants do absorb carbonic acid gas through 11 
 their twigs, buds, leaves, and other appendages ; in fact, 
 as they take in moisture through these parts, other nu- 
 trients must also pass in combination with it, as well as 
 carbonic acid gas, bo^t in infintesimal quantities compared 
 with the amount absorbed by the roots. 
 
 In this respect plants do not differ greatly from ani- 
 mals, for it is well known that nutrients and poisons may 
 be conveyed Jty air to the blood through the lungs, or 
 they may be thrown directly into the system ,by hypo- 
 dermic injections through the skin,; that a starving man 
 would liye longer in an atmosphere laden with the fumes 
 of cooking meat than in one from which such fumes 
 were entirely absent ; .still, few of us would care to .take 
 all our beefsteak in thjs way. 
 
 I have been prompted to refer to this subject of the 
 sources of carbon in plants somewhat at length, because 
 it has of late become quite a habit among writers on agri- 
 cultural and horticultural topics to ignore the v^alue^of 
 carbonaceous matter in the soil,^ and some go so far as to 
 doubt the value of ammonia and other sources of nitro- 
 gen ; in fact, they would lead us to believe that with air 
 and water, and a few broken rocks for an anchorage, the 
 husbandman will be enabled to produce the most luxu- 
 riant growth in plants of oil kinds. But it will be well 
 for the cultivators of plants to continue the practice of 
 applying liberal quantities of carbonaceous, and nitro- 
 genous manures to their soils, trusting to these to supply 
 the greater part of the nutrients, and these tljrough the 
 roots of plants, or by placing the food where it will be 
 most likely to be utilized. 
 
CIRCULATION OF SAP. 9? 
 
 have various Junctions ; they permit of the 
 evaporation of superfluous moisture and gases, as well 
 as the absorption of the same from the air, -as conditions 
 a^c changed. So long as the leaves are supplied with an 
 abundance of .moisture through the roots and stems they 
 wall take none from the air, but let the supply be cut off 
 from below and have it presented to the leaves, and a 
 reverse action coon follows. We may test this reverse 
 movement very readily with leaves and twigs cut from 
 growing plants, and at the same time it may be seen that 
 the absorption of moisture varies under different circum- 
 stances and conditions. l!]ie force exercised by the roots 
 is by far the greatest ; next in degree is the absorption of 
 liquids by the exposed cells in the severed stem, and last 
 and least through thejoores or stomata of the leaves. Of 
 the many experiments I have made in investigating the 
 movements of liquids in plants, I may refer to one which 
 has a direct bearing on this question of absprption of 
 moisture through the stomata of the leaves. V I cut off 
 small, tender branches and leaves of various plants, such 
 asAchyranthus, Coleus, Verbenas, Abutilons, etc., spread 
 them all out on a shelf in the sun, where they soon began 
 to flag, and after all had become fully wilted, the severed 
 ends of one-half of each variety and kind were dipped in 
 melted wax in order to hermetically seal up the exposed 
 cells. Then all were placed in a box and lightly sprinkled 
 with pure water. At the end of twelve hours they were 
 taken out and carefully examined, and the difference in 
 the condition of the sealed and unsealed was quite ap- 
 parent ; those with exposed severed cells had fully revived, 
 while many of the others were still limp, but all showed 
 signs of recovery. The cuttings were all replaced in trie" "box 
 and left there another twelve hours ; then all were found 
 to have recovered and to be as fresh as when first taken 
 from the parent plants. This experiment shows that 
 absorption of moisture may take place through the 
 
98 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 severed cells of the stems, leaf-stalks, and also through 
 the stomata, under varying conditions and circumstances. 
 
 Dr. G. Hart wig, in " Harmonies of Nature," says : 
 " The stomata are destined to admit air, not water, which 
 by drenching the leaf would entirely interrupt the process 
 of respiration." But Hugo yon Mohl, a very able inves- 
 tigator in the structure of plants, has shown very clearly 
 that the stomata open in the presence of moisture and 
 close in a dry atmosphere, as may be readily verified by 
 any one who will examine them under a glass of high 
 magnifying power. 
 
 Gardeners utilize this power of severed Qeljs to absorb 
 moisture and nutriment, especially in propagating plants 
 by cuttings of the young and immature parts, or by what 
 are technically termed "green cuttings." In employing 
 such cuttings it is well for the propagator, to keep in 
 mind the fact that the severed and exposed cells at the 
 base of the cuttings cannot resist the noxious properties 
 which may be presented to them in liquids with the same 
 power as roots, hence the greater necessity of selecting 
 pure and innocuous materials in which to plant the cut- 
 tings while producing roots. I have kept the roots of 
 such coarse celled and rank growing plants as the Calla 
 (Ricliardia) submerged in a solution of Madder and other 
 vegetable dyes for weeks at a time without detecting any 
 indications of their absorption by the plants, although 
 the outer bark, or epidermis, of the roots and smaller root- 
 lets were soon colored ; but if a Icgf-sJ^alk of one of these 
 plants is cut off and the severed end set in the dye, some 
 of the coloring matter will ^spon be absorbed and easily 
 traced upward to a greater or less distance. 
 
 That the imj^ibtion ofjiquicts through the roots, as well 
 as^ the severed jceljs of a green cutting, is in^^rtdue 
 to leaf Diction can scarcely be questioned, but it is not the 
 only fcirce that aids in the ascent of the sap of plants, 
 for absorption will occur in the absence of leaves and even 
 
CIRCULATION OF SAP. 99 
 
 in the dead tissues of plants, but with less force than in 
 living ones. 
 
 ^ plants that have jio distinct leaves, like most of the 
 Cactuses and Stapelias, tjie epidermis of the stems per- 
 fprms~tne functions of true leaves in other kinds of plants, 
 but just what these functions are has not as yet been 
 fully determined, although many plausible theories of 
 leaf action have been given by vegetable physiologists and 
 chemists, but as they do not agree we may safely conclude 
 that there is not only some mystery surrounding this 
 matter, but that there is still something to be learned 
 about leaf action as well as the chemical changes which 
 take place during the process of assimilation. Plantp, 
 
 animals, to a certain degree posses^ an inherent^owe/ * 
 apitmg themselves to varying conditions, not being M 
 
 controlled ^By' such Tnvariabie laws that their lives are 
 jeopardized by every change of temperature, hygromet- 
 rical condition of the earth and, air, or variations of light , 
 and shade. It can be readily demonstrated that sun- 
 light is necessary for the production of chlorophyll, or 
 the green, coloring matter in the leaves, but it is no 
 more so than for the depositing or production of other 
 natural colors of the leaves, and there are no good reasons 
 for supposing that the green matter in the leaf of the 
 common Beech tree is of any more importance or 
 obtained from a different source than the r^d .pigment in 
 the Igaf of the Purple 5h, or the colors in the leaves of 
 Coleiis^efscTiaffeUii. Neither will it be produced in the 
 absence of light ; still, the 4eeej&t greert in the foliage of 
 plants in general is not to be founo. in countries where 
 there is the most sunlight, but in those where.there is 
 Alternate light an 4 shade, w^itlj, a decided preponderance 
 of the latter. In the deep shade of our forests the 
 Kalmias, Rhododendrons and Hollies not only thrive 
 best, but it is in such situations their leaves assume the 
 deepest shade of green. Aiternate^junlight^and shade, 
 
100 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 \vith abundant moisture, are the requisites for coloring 
 the leavesof plants a deep green, and in Ireland, long 
 known as the " Emerald Isle/ 7 they do not have half the 
 sunlight we do, while under the almost cloudless skies 
 on our Western plains the foliage of plants have a sickly 
 yellowish or grayish green. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 SEX AND FERTILIZATION. 
 
 At what stage in the evolution of plants differentiation 
 of sex becomes a distinctive characteristic, has not been 
 fully determined. But from what we know of their 
 development, it is quite evident that (JitinQt sexual 
 .organs are the result of a ^progressive movement from 
 the lower to the higher and more complex organisms. 
 Nothing like sexual organs have been discovered in the 
 simple one-celled plants, or even among those much higher 
 in the scale, like the Mushrooms, Mosses and Lichens, and 
 even in the Ferns and other cryptogamous plants the 
 sexual organs are not clearly defined, although in some 
 they are sufficiently distinct to be utilized in what is 
 called cross-fertilization or hybridizing of species. It is 
 quite probable that in the lower forms of plants the con- 
 jugation of the sexes occurs by a simple coalescence of 
 cells, somewhat as two drops of water, brought in contact 
 Ojmte and become one. But as the practical propagator 
 of plants will seldom have occasion to investigate the 
 sexes of the lower orders, they may be passed over here 
 without further attention. 
 
 In a large majority of the plants under cultivation the 
 sexual organs are sufficiently distjiictand conspicuous to 
 be readily examined and manipmated, whenever there is 
 
SEX AND FERTILIZATION. 101 
 
 an occasion to interfere with the natural processes of re- 
 production, {n a state of nature, the sexes are gener- 
 ally placed in positions favorable to direct intercourse, 
 either by contact, or through natural vehicles, for the 
 transmission of pollen from the male to the female organs. 
 If the sexes are widely separated on different plants, or 
 on different parts of the same plant, wind and insects, 
 either or both, become the n^edia for transporting pollen, 
 and every person who is at all observing, and takes an 
 interest in such matters, must not only have noticed the 
 clouds of yellow dust blown from Pine, Chestnut, and 
 similar kinds of trees, but also the pollen-laden bees and 
 other insects that pass from flower to flower, in search of 
 honey or whatever may serve them for food and other 
 purposes. 
 
 While in the larger majority of plants both anthers 
 and pollen-grains are of a yellow or yellowish-white 
 color, still there are many exceptions, and red, brown, 
 blue and other shades of color are seen in the pollen even 
 among the plants of the same family or genus. 
 
 In some plants there appears to be considerable 
 mechanical force required for the proper distribution of 
 the pollen; this is exhibited in a peculiar manner in the na- 
 tive Kalmias. In these plants the stamens are so arranged 
 that they are bent back with the expansion of the flower, 
 and held in this position for several days, and when re- 
 lieved by the petals they spring back to the center, strik- 
 ing the stigma with considerable force, the anther cells 
 bursting at the same time and widely scattering the 
 pollen. The position and form of the stamens in the 
 flower of the Kalmia are shown, greatly magnified, in 
 figure 43. In some the female organs are shorter and 
 placed below the male, the pollen dropping from the 
 anthers upon the stigmas; or in drooping flowers, like the 
 Fuchsia, the pistils may be many times longer than the 
 stamens, but if extending below them they receive the 
 
102 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 pollen as it falls from the anthers above. There are 
 almost as many different ways in which the ovule is 
 fertilized as there are different plants. The stamens and 
 pistHSTlare also of different size and form, and in some 
 plants, as in the Conifers, Palms, etc., the pistils are 
 entirely wanting^ the pollen coming in direct contact 
 with the exposed ovule. But however variable the sexes 
 or form of the sexnal organs in the higher orders of 
 plants, their functions are very nearly identical, and in 
 performing the operation of artificial fertilization we pro- 
 ceed"!!! 'about the same manner with all, merely interfer- 
 
 . 43. FLDWEK OP KALMIA LATIFOLIA, ENLARGED. 
 
 ing with nature sufficiently to produce varying results. 
 if both male and female organs are present in the same 
 flower, we remove the former in order to prevent them 
 from performing the operation for which they were in- 
 tended by nature, and then introduce pollen from some 
 other. closely allied plant to "fertilize the ovules. But 
 whero the sexes are in separate flowers on the same plant 
 or on different plants, we have pjily to protect the female 
 organs against the visits of insects, or contact of pollen 
 transported by the wind, and then introduce that which 
 we desire should perform the act of fertilization. For 
 
SEX AXD 
 
 instance, if we wish to produce a cross or hybrid plant 
 between the common White Lily (lilium candidum), 
 
 Fig. 44. LILIUM CANDIDUM. 
 
 figure 44, and some other species or variety, we w_atcji 
 f of^ _the jo^eningof Jhe flowers and exgansipn_of the 
 
 petals, A ; then we cut oft^ the anthers, B, to prevent 
 
104 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 self-fertilizatioa^ jliT^a^lithej^^ them falling 
 
 upon the female organ or sii^maT^^^^tKen procure 
 pollen from the flowers of the other variety or species, 
 and apply it to the stigma of the first, or \Vhite Lily. The 
 stigma, when in the proper condition for fertilization, is 
 coated with a viscid substance to which the pollen grains 
 will adhere quite firmly, consequently there is little 
 danger of their removal while handling the flower. ^To 
 prevent insects from visiting the flowers, and interfering 
 with our operations, the flowers should be^nclose^in bags 
 made of muslin, mosquito netting, or some similar material 
 soon after opening, and kejDt enclosed until fertilization 
 is assured ; then removed to relieve them from further 
 restraint. It is always Advisable to repeat the application 
 of pollen, because the first may not "take," owing to the 
 immaturity of the stigma, pollen, however, is not such 
 a delicate material that its potency is readily destroyed 
 by rough handling, and that produced by some kinds of 
 plants may be preserved in good condition far use several 
 days, or even weeks, if excluded from the air. This fact 
 should be kept in mind, for it often occurs that the plant 
 from which we desire to obtain pollen blooms in ad- 
 yance of the one on which we desire to use it. 
 
 In the application of pollen a small camel's hair pencil 
 is the most convenient implement, but where the anthers 
 are large, as in the Lily, a pair of forceps, or even the 
 fingers, may be used^for trajigferrjng it torn one, jDlapI^ 
 tjiestigrnn of another. 
 
 TH^polJen grains plaQgd^on thejstigma ^burst^opep and 
 discharge their contents upon~iC where they may be said 
 to germinate, sen^l^g down lon^ flexible, filarnfints or 
 ' < pQ^eB^Jbu^es5" tjirpujgh the loose tissues of t\e stigma 
 and style to the ovary or true seed-vessels, where the 
 completion of the act of fertilization takes place. The 
 exact nature of this act is not. fully known, but the 
 mechanical part of the operation is as stated, as may be 
 
SEX ASTD FERTILIZATION. 105 
 
 determined by dissecting the stigma and style at vari- 
 ous stages of the growth of the pollen tubes. 
 
 Prof. Sachs, in referring to the fertilization of seeds, 
 says: " Sijice every ovule requires^Qn^^oJJ^i^tuJ^ for its 
 fertilization, the number of tubes. vyTnch outer the ovary 
 depends, speaking generally, 011 the number of the 
 ovules" contained in it ; the number of pollen tubes is, 
 however, usually larger than that of the ovules ; where 
 these latter are very numerous, the number of pollen 
 tubes is therefore also very large, as in the Orchideae, 
 where they may be detected in the ovary, even by the 
 naked eye, as a shining, white, silky bundle. " 
 
 \yhile it is no doubt true that each ovule must except 
 in rare instances come in contact with a pollen tube in 
 order to be fertilized, it is not at all necessary or prob- 
 able that a distinct and separate tj^jbe or filament starts 
 from the pollen on the ctigma, thence passing through 
 the style to eaclJ ovule to be fertilized, especially in those 
 plants .where there are many seeds produced in a seed- 
 vessel,, as in the Lilies, Mallows, etc. But instead of the 
 multiplicity of pollen tubes that would be required if 
 one was formed for each ovule, several ovules .become 
 attached to the side otone pollen tube as it passes length- 
 wise through the carpels. As the seed grows or enlarges 
 the little branch of the tube can be readily seen. Where 
 the pistils correspond in number with the cells in the 
 seed-pod, as in the Abutilons, one pollen tube suffices for 
 the fertilization of the two, to six or more ovules in each of 
 the eight to twelve loculicidal cells of our common culti- 
 vated varieties. In some of the Malvaceae, there are a 
 greater number of pistils, or at least branches of the 
 style and stigma, than there are cells of the ovary or 
 even ovules ; consequently, if each stigma produced a 
 pollen tube, they must either coalesce in their growth or 
 some of them become abortive. 
 
 [n such plants as. the Strawberry, Rose and Indian 
 
 ^"""^ ^ x * n -**"^ 
 
106 
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 Corn,, and closely allied plants, there is one pistil for each, 
 ovule or seed- vessel, and more than one pollen tube would 
 
 be an entirely superfluous 
 production, iience we find 
 only one. in each. If a 
 pistil is destroyed the 
 ovule at. its bjase remains 
 unfertilized, andjio. grain 
 or eed is. produced, and 
 where a few of the pistils 
 are fertilized and the 
 others not, the result on 
 an ear of Corn will resem- 
 ble the one shown in.fig;? 
 ur^45,, the grains on it 
 varying in number with 
 the number of pistils fer- 
 tilized. It is only about 
 sixty years (1823) since 
 PrQf. Amici, an Italian 
 botanist, discovered the 
 pollen . tubes, and this 
 opened a new field for 
 investigation, which was 
 soon occupied by some of 
 the most eminent botan- 
 ists of Europe. Previous 
 to the discovery of Amici, 
 the process by which the 
 ovules were fertilized was 
 unknown. Some vegeta- 
 ble physiologists supposed 
 that the pollen grains 
 passed bodily through the 
 pistils to the ovary an erroneous idea which still pre- 
 vails among certain horticulturists of the present day. 
 
 Fig. 45. IMPERFECTLY FERTILIZED 
 EAR OF COHN. 
 
SEX AND FERTILIZATION. 107 
 
 When the ovule of one plant is fertilized by the pollen 
 of another, the seed resulting therefrom should, as a 
 natural result, produce a plant intermediate between the 
 male and female parent, but it is seldom, that both 
 parents^ossess equal potency in transmitting their own 
 incTfviduaT characteristics to their offspring. For instance, 
 we might be successful in fertilizing the ovules of the 
 White Lily with pollen taken from one of the many yel- 
 low or red varieties in cultivation, and yet the plants 
 raised from the cross-bred seed may all resemble the 
 female parent more than the male. This alone would 
 not prove that the artificial fertilization had failed, but 
 merely shows that the influence of the male parent was less 
 potent in transmitting its characteristics to the offspring 
 than the female. A second generation of seedlings 
 from the cross-bred or hybrid plants may show more of 
 the characteristics of the staminate than the pistillate, 
 or the reverse of those of the first generation. It may 
 also be well to bear in mind that in experimenting with 
 w;ld plants, or those recently introduced into cultivation, 
 we have to contend with inherited characteristics acquired 
 by close interbreeding through an unknown number of 
 generations, and these have become so fixed in vegetable 
 structure,that introduced disturbing causes have, at first, 
 but a slight influence in producing any very pronounced 
 change in form or structure of offspring. fcJtiJL, as a rule 
 we expect the offspring of cross-fertilixed seed will show 
 the effect by varying more or less from the parent type, 
 and when once a species commences to vary, as a result 
 of artificial causes, it becomes quite difficult to determine 
 the limits. 
 
 In all of our operations in transferring the pollen of 
 one plant to the stigma of another, we proceed in very 
 much the same way as in the cross-fertilization of the 
 Lily, only varying, the operation to correspond with the 
 variation in the structure of the flowers of different kinds. 
 
108 PEOPAGATKW OF PLANTS. 
 
 In some instances it may be necessary to remove a part, 
 or force open the petals or other organs that envelop 
 those to be operated upon. It is also advisable, in many 
 instances, to anticipate nature in such operations by a 
 few hours, or even days, and place the pollen in a posi- 
 tion where it will be utilized by the stigma when re- 
 quired. 
 
 In crossing and hybridizing the. Grape, it is n common 
 practice to anticipate nature by several hours, because 
 its flowers do not expand like those of the Lily, Rose and 
 similar plants, but instead, the petals cohere to one 
 another at the top, breaking loose at the base, and are 
 then forced upward by the elongation of the stamens and 
 pistils, as shown in figure 46, A 9 the petals being thrown 
 
 Fig. 46. FLOWERS OF THE GRAPE. 
 
 off in the form of a cap. The five stamens then expand, 
 as shown in figure 46, J} t these surrounding the pistil, 
 C. The anthers should be immediately removed with 
 a pair of small and sharp-pointed scissors, leaving them 
 as seen in the figure at D. In the illustration, figure 
 46, the Grape flowers are shown somewhat enlarged. 
 Before commencing to operate upon an immature cluster, 
 it is well to thin out the undeveloped flowers, not only to 
 facilitate manipulation, but also to prevent the crowding 
 of the fruit when fully grown. An immature cluster of 
 flowers thus prepared must be closely examined from day 
 to day, and so soon as the petals break loose from their 
 base they should be carefully thrown off with the point 
 of a knife or other sharp-pointed implement, and the 
 anthers removed as directed. Pollen may be immediately 
 
SEX AND FERTILIZATION. 
 
 109 
 
 placed on the stigma or the operation deferred for a few 
 hours, but it is better to apply it as soon as the cap is re- 
 moved, as the minute grains will usually adhere and be in 
 position for absorption, or, more properly, germination, 
 when required. As the flowers do not all open at the 
 same time the cluster may have to be operated upon for 
 several days in succession, and when applying pollen to 
 those recently opened it is well to touch the stigma of 
 those operated upon the previous day with fresh pollen, 
 
 in order to increase the 
 chances of success. Re- 
 peat these operations until 
 all the flowers, or as many 
 as may be required, are 
 fertilized, and then re- 
 move all * that remain 
 unopened. Tke cluster 
 should be protected by. 
 enclosing it in a bag made 
 of some kind of thin 
 fabric like Swiss muslin 
 or mosquito netting, for 
 if some such covering is 
 not used, insects may visit 
 the flowers, and interfere 
 with our work. When 
 the Grapes are ^ipe they 
 should be gathered, the seeds removed and planted in the 
 usual manner. In operating on the Grape as described, it 
 is presumed that the flowers are perfect, containing both 
 stamens and pistils as are usually found in the common 
 wild and cultivated varieties. But among the species of 
 the Grape indigenous to North America, an occasional 
 plant is found bearing both perfect and imperfect flowers, 
 wljile others produce only staminate flowers, the pistils 
 [nffmidevelqped or deformed. When perfect and im- 
 
 fc. 47. 
 
 IMPERFECT BUNCH OF GRAPES. 
 
110 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 perfect flowers exist in the same cluster, the bunches of 
 fruit will be equally irregular, as shown in figure 47, from 
 the " Grape Culturist," page 14. But on vines bearing only 
 staminate flowers, or those with fully developed stamens 
 and deformed pistils, no fruit is possible or is ever pro- 
 duced. There are many Vines of this kind to be found 
 in different parts of the country, and some very old ones 
 have been preserved more as a curiosity than for intrinsic 
 value. In the Spring of 1860 I saw one of these stam- 
 inate vines in the grounds of T. S. Kennedy, Esq., Louis- 
 ville, Ky., which was then supposed to be over seventy- 
 five years old, and although it bloomed freely almost 
 every spring, it had never been known to produce a fruit, 
 its flowers, like others of this sex, exhaling a fragrance 
 somewhat like that of the Mignonette. 
 
 But while occasional abnormal forms are to be found 
 among wild plants of all classes, orders and genera, they 
 may be considered as exceptions to a general rule, while 
 among cultivated plants it is almost the reverse, for sup- 
 pressed, deformed or enormously developed sexual organs 
 and malformations of the various parts and appendages 
 are to be met with almost everywhere. In a strict botan- 
 ical sense, all such variations from normal types are 
 monstrosities, and yet double flowers, seedless fruits, 
 misshaped and discolored foliage are greatly prized and 
 usually considered in the light of valuable acquisitions. 
 Owing to this wide departure from normal types, as seen 
 in all classes of cultivated plants, it would require far too 
 much of the space at my command to give full and defi- 
 nite directions or crossing and hybridizing the vast 
 number of different species of plants belonging to the 
 various classes, or even the members of some of the larger 
 families. But I may remark, in a general way, that when 
 a person possesses the inclination to perform such opera- 
 tions, he will naturally begin to observe, the form, struc- 
 ture and habits of plants, and soOn, with the aid of some 
 
SEX AND FERTILIZATION. Ill 
 
 elementary or advanced botanical. treatise, be able to 
 ijistinguish the sexual ^and other organs and parts of 
 flowers, and when a person has acquired this knowledge 
 t|irough. actual observation and study, that which may 
 have been previously obscure will, in a great measure, 
 become plain and easily understood. Partly or wholly 
 smothered organs will be relieved by removing, entire 
 or in part, others that have overgrown and shaded them, 
 as is frequently practised in removing the abnormal and 
 highly-dejeloped petals of double flowers, as in the double 
 Dahlias, Chrysanthemums, Asters, and other plants of 
 the Composite Family. 
 
 lUvthe doubling of such flowers as Fuchsias, Carna- 
 tions, Camellias, Koses, and all members of the great 
 Eose Family ; Apple, Peach, Plum, Cherry, Almond 
 and Quince, as well as those of the Mallow Family; 
 Abutilon, Hollyhock, etc., the additional number of 
 petals are mainly transformed stamens, and the metamor- 
 phosis of these organs can be readily traced in their 
 gradual advance from the single to the double form. 
 There are, however, exceptions to this rule, and the 
 multiplication of petals is a distinct process from that in 
 which they proceed from transformed stamens and pistils. 
 Sometimes we find a duplication of the petals in the 
 Hollyhock, Rose of Sharon and Chinese Hibiscus, while 
 the sexual organs retain their normal number and form. 
 In the only double Abutilon at present known (Abutilon 
 Thompsonii pleno), the stamens are all transformed into 
 irregularly shaped petals, with no duplication .of the 
 divisions of the original corolla ; but a plant of Afiutilon, 
 tk Mary Miller, " in my greenhouse, recently produced a 
 flower with a perfectly duplicated corolla, or a semi-double 
 flower, showing that what we call "doubling" may pro- 
 ceed in this genus from both multiplication of the corolla 
 and the transformation of the stamens. 
 
 In some plants, like the Rose, Fuchsias and Abutilon, 
 
112 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 the pistils in the center of the flower are the last to be 
 effected by cultivation, and often remain in a condition 
 to perform their natural functions long after the stamens 
 have changed to petals, and with a little assistance, to 
 prevent smothering the stigma, may be readily fertilized 
 artifically, and fertile seeds produced from quite double 
 flowers. There is, however, a limit to all operations of 
 this kind, as well as to our knowledge of vegetable struc- 
 tures, as, for instance, we occasionally find plants which 
 appear to have perfect sexual organs, and yet they resist 
 all effort? to make them fruitful, but why this is so we 
 are unable to determine. 
 
 LIMITS OF CROSS-FERTILIZATION. The limits of 
 artificial fertilization of plants have never been deter- 
 mined, and they only can be through the aid of innumer- 
 able and oft-repeated experiments, and if we could decide 
 what is possible with plants, as they exist at this time, 
 new forms must necessarily appear as the result of artifi- 
 cial intermingling of species, thereby opening ne\v and 
 at present unknown fields for experiments and investiga- 
 tions. In the ever-changing phases of plant life, who 
 can say that the impossible of to-day will not be possible 
 to-morrow or a few years hence ? 
 
 Under ordinary circumstances, xarieties of a species 
 may be cross-fertilized far more readily than species can 
 be hybridized. The distinction between the offspring of 
 species, and varieties is not so generally recognized as it 
 should be among cultivators of plants. Correctly speak- 
 ing, a li^brid is the offspring of two species. For 
 instance, if we should take the native Apple of Europe 
 (Pints Malus), which is the parent of nearly all of our 
 cultivated varieties, and the American Crab Apple (P, 
 coronaria), and by fertilizing the flo\vers of one species 
 with pollen from the other, produce a plant with the 
 characteristics of both combined, we would then have a 
 proper or true hybrid. But if we fertilize the flowers of 
 
SEX AND FERTILIZATION. 113 
 
 the Baldwin Apple with pollen from the Porter, or any 
 other variety of the same species, the offspring will only 
 be a cross-bred variety, and in this kind of crossing we 
 only intermingle elements that may have been inter- 
 mingled many times before. 
 
 True hybrids may be considered as forced productions 
 rarely found in nature, and the few that have been pro- 
 duced without the assistance of man, are but exceptions 
 to the rule. At one time, and that not many years ago, 
 hybrids among cultivated plants were so rare that it was 
 thought they must necessarily be barren, or nearly so, as 
 was supposed to be the case among hybrid animals the 
 common mule or offspring of the ass and mare, being the 
 accepted type of such animals ; but not only has the 
 mule been known to breed, but many of the hybrid 
 plants are as productive as either of their parents. Un- 
 fortunately, however, for the student of natural history, 
 it is frequently very difficult to determine species from 
 varieties among both plants and animals. Every collector 
 in any branch of natural- history, who has attempted to 
 arrange his specimens in the order laid down in " check 
 lists," or the works of the highest authorities, knows, to 
 his cost, how frequently he is compelled to re-arrange 
 his cabinet to meet the ever-changing opinions and dis- 
 coveries of those to whom he has looked as competent 
 guides in such matters. If he seeks specific information 
 that will enable him to determine what is or is not 'a 
 true species, he will find but little that is clear and defi- 
 nite on this point. Prof. Asa Gray says that the "idea" 
 of species is " based upon a succession of individuals, each, 
 deriving its existence, with all its peculiarities, from a 
 similar antecedent one, and transmitting its form and 
 other peculiarities essentially unchanged from generation 
 to generation. By species we mean absolutely the type 
 or original of each sort of plant, or animal, thus repro- 
 duced by a perennial succession of Jil^e individuals, or, 
 
114: PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 concretely, the species is the sum of such individuals." 
 But as we know little or nothing of the "type or 
 original" of what we now call a species, it is very diffi- 
 cult and often impossible to distinguish theni from 
 varieties ; or, in other words, where there are various 
 closely allied normal or wild varieties, each extending 
 over extensive areas of country, or even when they are 
 more or less intermingled, it is scarcely possible to deter- 
 mine which is the original type or species. Dr. W. B. 
 Carpenter, in referring to this subject and the tendency 
 of some species to run into spontaneous variations, for 
 which no external cause will account, very truly says : 
 " Hence, in discriminating what are real species from 
 what are simple varieties, the botanist is treading on very 
 insecure ground, until he has ascertained, for every 
 species, its tendency to run into varieties of form, 
 whether spontaneous or induced by change of external 
 conditions. His greatest difficulty arises from those 
 cases in which have arisen what are termed permanent 
 varieties, which reproduce themselves with the same 
 regularity as do real species." It may be said on this 
 subject that the most thorough and experienced investi- 
 gators are the least positive in determining what should 
 or should not be called a species, while the superficial 
 writers and observers are usually quite ready at all times 
 to decide such questions to their own satisfaction, if not 
 to 'that of any one else. 
 
 If a plant in its wild or cultivated state reproduces 
 itself from seed with slight or no variation, this fact 
 would not prove it to be a distinct species, but merely 
 show that the natural forces of the plant were very nearly 
 or perfectly balanced. It may be said, in a general way, 
 that species differ from varieties by possessing characters 
 that through a longer period of interbreeding have be- 
 came more firmlv established under uniform conditions. 
 
 Plants in a state of nature perpetuate their species and 
 
SEX AND FEBTILIZATIOJS". 115 
 
 varieties with great uniformity, but when removed from 
 their natural habitats, a change in their offspring is usually 
 observable, and these variations may be intensified by 
 cultivation and other external causes. The first variation 
 may be considered the entering wedge, which will, if fol- 
 lowed up, divide and disintegrate the most stubborn of 
 species. 
 
 The novice in horticultural matters will necessarily 
 need some other source of information in regard to 
 species and natural varieties than that acquired through 
 his own personal observation, and this is found in our 
 standard botanical works, but it may be well to bear in 
 mind that their authors are as other men, not wholly 
 infallible, but probably as near right as the present state 
 of botanical science permits ; also that the acquirement of 
 true knowledge often tends to change the opinions of the 
 most learned. 
 
 Taking our standard botanical works as a guide in the 
 classification of plants, we may say that most species 
 may be hybridized and varieties cross-fertilized. We 
 cannot say all may be, because we would have nothing 
 better than a mere theory on which to base such an as- 
 sertion, and it is well known that there are many closely 
 allied species that have successfully resisted all efforts to 
 hybridize them. For instance, no one has ever been able 
 to hybridize or produce a hybrid plant between the 
 Alpine Strawberry of both Europe and America and any 
 other of the various species found in different parts of 
 the world. We might also naturally suppose that it 
 would not be difficult to hybridize the different species 
 of the true Cherries (Cerasus), but all the species and 
 varieties that produce their flowers in racemes have thus 
 far resisted all efforts to hybridize or cross them with 
 those which bear flowers in umbels. While I would not 
 venture to assert that the various species cannot be 
 hybridized, it is not at all probable that they ever will 
 
116 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 be. It may be said, however, that while certain species 
 oj^a gen^sjnay have sufficient affinity to admit of hybrid- 
 izing, others do not. Among some kinds of fruits 
 hybrids have been produced between widely separated 
 and very distinct species, as, for instance, between the 
 Black Cap Raspberry (Rubus occidentalis) , and the 
 European Raspberry (R. Idceus). The late Charles 
 Arnold, of Canada, produced several such hybrids, 
 although they were of no value for cultivation. In view 
 of what has already been accomplished in the way of 
 hybridizing and crossing, and the small number of per- 
 sons who have experimented in this field, it would be 
 mere presumption on the part of any one to attempt to 
 determine the limits of such operations. It is generally 
 supposed, however, that the hybridizer is restricted in his 
 operations to the members of a genus that is, he can 
 only produce hybrids between the species of the same 
 genus, and a genus is simply a group of species all pos- 
 sessing similar generic characteristics. But, as I have 
 already shown, the species of a single genus some- 
 times resist all attempts to force them to intermingle or 
 hybridize, and it is quite probable that they are as far 
 removed from each other in relationship as the members 
 of some distinct genera. It is also probable that in some 
 instances botanists have made mistakes in. the grouping 
 of species, as well as in their separation or designation. 
 It is certainly quite possible thafc two species supposed 
 to belong to a different genera may be forced to inter- 
 breed ; in fact, hybrids between two supposed-to-be distinct 
 genera are already known, and a hybrid Palm, the Micro- 
 phmnix sahuti, is quite a recent production of this kind. 
 The experimenter need not hesitate to attempt the 
 hybridizing of the species of closely allied genera, 
 although it is quite probable thafc in a large majority of 
 instances it will be but a waste of time. 
 
IXFLUEKCE OF POLLED. 117 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 INFLUENCE OF POLLEN. 
 
 Whether the influence of the pollen extends beyond 
 the ovule and ovary or not, is a question that has not 
 attracted any considerable attention from either vegetable 
 physiologists or practical cultivators of plants. It is 
 quite evident, however, that there is a reciprocal action 
 extending far beyond the ovary, else unfertilized ovules 
 would not so uniformly show the non-development of the 
 ovary as well as various external organs. In the Eose 
 family, in which we find the Apple, Pear, Quince, etc., 
 the embryo fruit is formed before the flowers expand, 
 and it is the same in the Melon family, and, in fact, in a 
 large majority of plants the seed-vessels and ovules are 
 plainly discernible long before the flowers appear or 
 the sexual organs are developed ; but ifjthe ovules are 
 ixot_frtilized^4he entire flower and ftpwer-stajk soon 
 witUer and drop off. When fertilization occurs, an 
 immediate change in the parts take place ; the ovary and 
 its^enyejope, whether in the form of a pulpy fruit or 
 membranous pod or shell, respond to the demand of the 
 fertilized ovule, enlarging and thickening as it becomes 
 the natural receptacle of the embryo seeds. The flower- 
 stalk supporting these organs also enlarges, as it becomes 
 tl^e vehicle through which nutriment passes from the 
 parent stock to the flower and fruit. The calyx of the 
 flower and other leaf-like organs assimilate the crude sap 
 which reaches them, thereby aiding in the development 
 of the embryo seeds and the seed-vessel. In the absence 
 of fertilization, all the various parts of the flower, embryo 
 fruit and fruit-stalks soon wither away. This is the 
 general result of non-fertilization of the embryo, as every 
 cultivator of plants must have seen. But while it is 
 generally conceded that the presence of the fertilized 
 
118 PKOPAGATIOtf OF PLAKTS. 
 
 ovule is necessary to the enlargement of the surrounding 
 and supporting organs, it appears that very few observers 
 have endeavored to trace the influence of the pollen beyond 
 the seed, probably because the practical utility of the 
 operation, in most instances, ceases at this point, 
 although every observing horticulturist must have noticed 
 that the parts most valued in what we call fruits, are at 
 least dependent upon pollination, even if the act does not 
 extend to actual fertilization of the ovule. I use the 
 term pollination to designate an act in plants the equiva- 
 lent of co-habitation in animals, which does not neces- 
 sarily extend to or result in fertilization. The necessity 
 of the presence of pollen to produce perfect fruits and 
 seeds is not doubted, but the moot point connected with 
 this matter is, whether or not in cross-fertilization, the 
 pollen has any influence.!!! changing the form, color or 
 properties of the parts enclosing the ovary. My atten- 
 tion was first called to this matter some twenty-five years 
 ago, while experimenting with various pistillate varieties 
 of the Strawberry, the flowers of which, as is well known, 
 must be, fertilized with pollen from some perfect flow- 
 ered variety, in order to secure a crop of berries. When 
 employin^fVarieties bearing large coxcomb-shaped fruit, 
 like that of the Peabody and Triomphe de Gand, for 
 supplying pollen to such pistillates as the Hovey and 
 Burr's New Pine, I noticed that fche_Jruit of the latter 
 two often assumed the_shape__ojf the former or ^ollen- 
 yielding^planj;s. "^his led me to further experiments in 
 that direction, all of which tended to establish the fact, 
 that the influence of the .pollen,, is often sufficiently 
 otent, no 
 
 potent, not only to change the form, but also 
 and-flav,o^ ofjhte^friiit. I briefly referred to this subject 
 in my "Small Fruit Culturist" published in 1867, and 
 since that time I have had occasion to make many other 
 experiments, for determining the influence of pollen in 
 cross-fertilization and hybridization of different kinds of 
 
INFLUENCE OF POLLEN. 119 
 
 plants, and the results, in a majority of instances, have 
 shown that its influence^ always extends .beyond the ovule, 
 ,{jii, its effect is iaF from being uniform in producing 
 pronounced changes in the color, form of the fruit, or 
 pericarpic organs. This is not at all strange, inasmuch 
 as tiiejlanXs bearing tlje-iertiligfid flowers also supply 
 tke entire nutriment necessary for their support and 
 development, hence, would naturally Jiaye a much 
 greater influence on the growth of the seed-vessel than 
 any likely to be conveyed in a few grains of pollen. 
 Still, the influence of the pollen on the female organs 
 readily discernible, and through these it must necessarily 
 affect, to a greater or less extent, all parts of the plant 
 that respond to the demand for nutrients to the seed 
 and surrounding organs. "We. can readily see the effect 
 of fertilization, and often, mere pollination, in plants by 
 the rapid swelling and growth of the pericarpic organs 
 the fruit stalks and their various appendages and even 
 trace it down to the very roots, of such plants as the 
 Strawberry and other herbaceous kinds. 
 
 PollejiJ^ not ^simple substance, but a coimpounjd, and 
 while its principal office is to convey to the female cells 
 fertilizing materials, it may also car ryjelem c n t s of health 
 or^disease, as well as those that are or may become Ueredi- 
 tary characteristics of its race. In the animal kingdom 
 we have an exact parallel case, for, leaving out all mental 
 impressions, the male parent contributes no more 
 towards the production of the offspring in proportion to 
 size, and we doubt if as much, as does the male in the 
 vegetable kingdom. Still, no breeder of choice stock 
 would willingly permit the contamination or adultera- 
 ation of the blood of the female by a scrub animal, or 
 even one out of the direct line of the pure breed. It is 
 an old saying that "there is a black sheep in almost 
 every flock, " but there are probably few persons who 
 know the full significance of this phrase when applied to 
 
120 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 sheep, and especially to the long known American 
 Merinos. No breeder of these sheep in the past fifty or 
 sixty years has allowed a black male in his flock, and yet 
 almost every season an ewe among the pure bloods, as 
 they are called, will drop a black lamb, a direct reversion 
 to some early ancestor of this color. No one can tell how 
 long, or through how many generations, this early con- 
 tamination will continue to show itself. Similar cases 
 of reversion, the result of contamination of blood, as it 
 may be termed, are known to frequently occur among all 
 of our domesticated and improved breed of animals, and 
 they are as likely to originate with and become hereditary 
 in the male line as in the female. As there is an affinity 
 between animals to admit of breeding, so there must be 
 the same among plants, and the mobile pollen promotes, 
 if it does not cause, excitability in the female organs of 
 the flower, and thus produce a responsive action from 
 those below and beyond, as already stated. 
 
 While it is not claimed that the influence of the pollen 
 will, in all cases, show itself in marked changes in the 
 form or size of the pericarpic organs, still that it often 
 does this can scarcely be doubted by any one who has 
 ever made careful experiments for the purpose of ascer- 
 taining the truth in this matter. In cross-fertilizing 
 varieties of Indian Corn of. different colors, the influence 
 of the pollen can be readily traced, not only in produc- 
 ing kernels on the same ear of different sizes, shape and 
 color, but the cob underneath the black, yellow or red 
 kernels will usually be tinged with a corresponding 
 color. In all plants having a distinct pisjtil for each seejl, 
 as in Indian Corn, the Sorghums and ]Vtille.ts, or in fruits 
 like the Strawberry, Easpberiv, tic., each, and every 
 avule must be fertilized in order to produce a perfect ear 
 or fEuifc. If none of the ovules are fertilized, the ear, 
 fruit, or pericarpic organs, and even supporting fruit- 
 stalk and stem, wither away. 
 
INFLUENCE OF POLLED. 121 
 
 Since the attention of horticulturists has been called 
 to this subject, several who combine science with prac- 
 tice have repeated my earlier experiments with the 
 Strawberry, and in a majority of instances with like 
 results. Prof. W. R. Lazenby, of the Ohio Experiment 
 Station, made several very carefully-conducted experi- 
 ments with different varieties of the Strawberry in 1884, 
 the results of which were fully reported in the Bulletin 
 of the Station for that year. In referring to these experi- 
 ments at the meeting of the American Pomological 
 Society in 1885, Prof. Lazenby stated that he employed 
 a pistillate variety of the Strawberry, known as 
 the Crescent. "Boxes open above and below, and 
 cohered with whitewashed glass, were placed over the 
 plants to prevent accidental fertilization of the flowers 
 by insects or otherwise." The results in brief were : 
 The Charles Downing pollen communicated its .char- 
 acteristic shape, texture, and other qualities, and the 
 same with Sharpless and Vick, so that any one familiar 
 with the berries could tell by looking at the crop from 
 what source the pollen came. The following season, 
 or in 1885, Prof. Lazenby repeated the experiment, 
 but with far less satisfactory results, showing, as I have 
 said, that the irifluence^f the pollen is not always suffi- 
 ciently powerful to change size, color, etc., or it may be 
 said that the influence of the female plant is strong 
 ejiougli to Qverjjalance^and partly suppress that of the 
 niale. 
 
 Prof. Julius Sachs, in his recent great work, " Text 
 Book of Botany, " says, p. 495 : " The increase in size of 
 the ovary, which is frequently enormous (in Curcubitm,\ 
 Cocos, etc., several thousand times in volume), shows, in a 
 striking manner, the results of fertilization * * * to 
 the rest of the plant. Frequently similar changes result 
 also in other parts. Thus, it is the. receptacle that T con- 
 stitutejOhe fleshy swelling which is called the Straw- 
 
122 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 berry, on the surface of which a^re seated the small true 
 fruity." Also on page 594: "But sometimes the long 
 series of deep-seated changes indu-ced by fertilization cjt- 
 tend also to parts, which~db not belong to the ovary and 
 even to some which have never belonged to the flower. " 
 Among the plants so affected he names the JJig,J$iaw.- 
 berry and Mulberry. 
 
 In some kinds of plants even the ovary itself appears 
 to be the resu3i_of pollination. Dr. Hildebrand has 
 shown that in some, of the Orchids, that it is only during 
 the growth of the pollen tubes through the tissues of the 
 stigma and style that the ovules become so far developed 
 that fertilization can at length be affected. In other 
 words, in the absence of pollen, no ovary or organs for 
 containing ovules or seed are produced. But as the 
 space at my disposal will not admit of reference to the 
 various authors who have touched upon this subject, I 
 must omit them, for my principal object in referring to 
 the influence of pollen upon other organs besides the 
 seeds is to opelfthe way for seeking an explanation of the 
 cause of certain phenomena often occurring among culti- 
 vated plants for instance, the occasional chan^e^of 
 color and general appearance of specimens of fruits, 
 when growing in close proximity to other closely aljied 
 but distinct species or varieties. There are many in- 
 stances on record, and others are being noted every sea- 
 son, both in Europe and this country, of Jxuite, and 
 especially Apples on one tree, assuming the color of those 
 of an adjoining tree. Sometimes only one or two speci- 
 mens on interlacing branches are thus affected, while in 
 other instances nearly all, or a certain branch, will show 
 the effect of the. cross-ferjilization. Several such in- 
 stanc3s were observed and reported by Dr. Hildebrand, 
 of England, to the Gardeners 1 Chronicle, some twenty 
 years ago, and in each case the change in the color of 
 the fruit showed very clearly that it .was due to the 
 
INFLUENCE OF POLLED. 123 
 
 influence of the pollen of flowers on branches of other 
 varieties growing in close proximity. White Apples 
 have been colored when .growing near red varieties, and 
 those having smooth skins have been covered with russet 
 on branches that have been interlaced with those of rus- 
 set trees. That this cross-fertilization does riot occur 
 every season, is due to the fact that. self-fertilization is 
 the most natural and frequent in the flowers of the Apple 
 and kindred fruits, and further, when crossing does 
 occur, it is not, to be supposed that the effect will always 
 be sufficient to change the color or other characteristics 
 of the fruit. 
 
 In the many experiments that' I have made for the 
 purpose of determining the extent to which the influence 
 of the pollen could be distinctly traced, I will only refer 
 to one which has recently been completed on plants, so 
 common that the merest tyro in gardening must not only 
 be acquainted with them, but can readily repeat my ex- 
 periments if they care to do so. I refer to the Shrubby 
 Abutilons, which come to us from South America, where 
 some of the species grow to a height of thirty feet. 
 Nearly all the species and varieties in cultivation bloom 
 freely either in the open ground or under glass, but pro- 
 duce seed very sparingly, and some none at all, unless 
 artificially cross-fertilized. Another point in their favor 
 for testing the influence of pollen is, that the seed-pods 
 of the different species and varieties are quite various in 
 size and form, and any disturbing or foreign influence 
 can the more readily be traced to the pericarpic organs. 
 Among the twenty or more species and varieties in culti- 
 vation, I selected Santana and Boule de Neige as two 
 extremes in the way of varieties likely to be the best 
 for my experiments. These may be only varieties of the 
 same species, but from the form and color of these flowers 
 I am inclined to think that Santana is from A. venosum, 
 and Boule de Neige from A. pulcliellum. My plant of 
 
124 PROPAGATION OF PLAKTS. 
 
 the Santana is seven or eight years old, and is planted in 
 the ground in one corner of my greenhouse, and has been 
 cut back several times to keep it within bounds. It is a 
 mass of flowers all the year round, but has never shown a 
 a sign of producing seeds, except as the flowers are arti- 
 ficially fertilized by pollen from some other variety. Its 
 own pollen is impotent for fertilizing its own stigma, as I 
 have proved by repeated experiments, but it is perfectly 
 potent on other varieties. The form of the seed-pods 
 of the Santana is broad top-shaped, the ten to twelve 
 loctilicidal cells are each tipped with a prominent winged 
 terminal point, as shown in figure 48, while the seed- 
 pods of Boule de Neige are slightly smaller, and the 
 cells, instead of widening at the top, are contracted, or 
 more or less rounded inward, as shown in figure 48 at 
 A. Now, to fertilize the stigmas of the Boule de Neige 
 with pollen from the Santana is but a simple opera- 
 tion, requiring only a few minutes for its performance. 
 Twenty flowers in one experiment were thus fertilized, 
 and the result was that five of the seed-pods assumed 
 the form of those of the Santana or male parent, as 
 shown in figure 48, B, the other fifteen retaining the 
 normal form. The plants, however, since raised from 
 the seed show plainly the effect of cross-fertilization. 
 But in reversing this operation, and in fertilizing more 
 than fifty flowers of the Santana with pollen from those 
 of the Boule de Neige, in no instance has there been any 
 very marked change in the normal form of the seed-pods, 
 but I have seldem failed to effect cross-fertilization or 
 obtain fertile seed. The Santana being much the 
 strongest and most vigorous plant of the two operated 
 upon, it is not at all strange that what I presume is the 
 normal form of the seed-vessels should be retained under 
 the circumstances. As a rule the female plant, if 
 equally as vigorous and healthy as the male, will exert the 
 greatest influence upon the offspring, because there are no 
 
INFLUENCE OF POLLEN. 
 
 125 
 
 Fig. 48. BOULE DB NEIGE ABUTILON, CROSSED WITH SANTANA. 
 
PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 mental faculties to assist in impressing and perpetuating 
 the male or other sexual characteristics, as in the animal 
 kingdom. 
 
 As I have shown in the case of the Abutilons, sexual 
 affinity presents wide variations, which can only be defi- 
 nitely determinedly actual experiments upon the plants 
 themselves. No theory will explain why the pollen of a 
 plant cannot fertilize its own ovules, while it has an 
 affinity for, and is potent upon, those of another closely 
 allied plant. If the pollen from several different varieties 
 or species is applied simultaneously to the same stigma, 
 it is quite evident that only one kind will be potent, and 
 that one from the plant possessing the greatest sexual 
 affinity with the plant pollinated. 
 
 It is generally supposed that in all the higher orders 
 of plants the ovule must be fertilized in order to secure 
 perfect and fertile seed, but there are some fej^_rn,- 
 stancps on record where seed^ are supposed to have been 
 produced in the absence of fertilization, or, as it has been 
 termed, by Parthenogenesis. Prof. Asa Gray thinks it 
 does sometimes occur among Dioecious plants. A cen- 
 tury ago (1786) Lazaro Spallanzani, published his ob- 
 servations on the fecundation of plants, and claimed 
 to have found pistillate blossoms of the Hemp producing 
 fertile seed in the absence of pollen. A half century later 
 Drs. Charles Naudin and Joseph Decaisne are said to have 
 confirmed the fact by raising seedlings from Euphor- 
 biaceous plants, also from the common Bryony, which 
 were kept from all access of pollen. While I am not 
 disposed to question the statements of such high botan- 
 ical authorities, or to attempt to offset their experiments 
 with those of my own, still I think there is room for a 
 (kiu^jk in this matter, and especially when we take into 
 consideration the present undetermined boundaries of 
 species. 
 
 The question arises, may not the pollen of some other 
 
OF POLLED. 127 
 
 and closely allied plant have reached the stigma, causing 
 a sufficient responsive action to insure fertile seed ? \J?oU 
 4ination .does not necessarily extend to fertilization, and 
 the presence of pollen on the stigma may result in pollen 
 tubes, which, upon reaching the ovule, fail to fertilize it, 
 owing to the want of sufficient natural affinity between 
 the two. In plants like the Strawberry, the pistillate 
 varieties are merely abnormal productions, the result of 
 some chance suppression of the stamens, and in such 
 instances we may always expect an occasional develop- 
 ment of the suppressed organs. It has been said that 
 "necessity knows no law," and there are goqd reasons 
 for expecting that nature will make the effort^ and she is 
 often successful in supplying an absent organ, as well as 
 employing various means to accomplish the same results. 
 My own experience leads me to "doubt the production 
 of fertile seeds where there is a total absence of pollen, 
 either in dioecious or other highly- developed plants,. but 
 it may .not be always necessary that the pollen should 
 be supplied by plants of the same or. very closely allied 
 species. For instance, for many years Iliad growing in 
 my grounds a pistillate specimen of the Box Elder or 
 Ash-leaved Maple (Negundo aceroides). There being 
 no staminate or male tree in my own grounds or in the 
 neighborhood, at least not within a radius of six or eight 
 miles, consequently a fertile seed on the said tree could 
 not be found. Every year for a decade this tree was 
 loaded with its unfertile seed, which were scattered 
 broadcast under the branches of some large pines a 
 favorable position for germination if there had been a 
 perfect seed produced among the vast number. There 
 were many other species and varieties of the Maple in 
 my grounds, but none growing very near or that bloomed 
 at the same time as the Negundo. In the spring of 1879 
 I planted a large Red Maple (Acer nibrum), about sixty 
 feet from the Negtmdo, and the transplanting delayed its 
 
128 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 blooming, the flowers appearing with those of the former, 
 although the Ked Maple usually blooms several days 
 earlier than the Negundo. The next season I found 
 several seedling Negundo Maples coming up under a 
 Pine tree near by. These were transplanted, and last 
 spring, 1886, one of them bore seed, a pistillate like 
 the parent. While I cannot say positively that the 
 flowers of the Negundo Maple were pollinated or fertilized 
 by those of the Ked Maple, still the facts in the case 
 point strongly that way. The seedlings produced in 
 this anomalous manner do not appear to be hybrids, but 
 this point cannot be definitely determined until plants 
 are raised from the present race of seedlings, and even 
 then the influence of the pollen-bearing parent may re- 
 main hidden through several generations and afterwards 
 appear when and where least expected. It is not at all 
 improbable that the presence of nan-related pollen may 
 excite development in the pericarpic organs, and if this 
 be true we can the more readily account for the produc- 
 tion of fruits with abortive seeds the stigma having 
 been pollinated, but the pollen tubes having failed to 
 fertilize the ovules. 
 
 The excitability of plants due to the presence and v inr 
 flaences of pollen has long been observed by the cultivators 
 of the Hop plant, the quantity of lupuline deposited in 
 the strobiles or female catkins being far more abundant 
 when there are staminate or male plants present than 
 when they aro absent. It is also well known that 
 ,among our larger |ruits we have seasons of scarcity _and 
 of abundance, and these variations cannot be attributed 
 to changes in the climate or to age, maturity or non- 
 maturity of the trees, for planting is going on continually, 
 so all sizes, ages and varieties are represented in our 
 orchards, still all seem to readily acquire the habit of 
 bearing full crops every alternate year or at longer Inter- 
 nals, That this unity of action among fruit trees, as 
 
INFLUENCE OF POLLEN. 189 
 
 well as forest trees, may in part be due to exhaustion in 
 bearing a full cropland the necessity for a season or two 
 of rest and recuperation, is probably true, as some have 
 claimed ; but that it is largely due to general periodic 
 sexual excitement can scarcely be questioned, for.similar 
 phenomena are of frequent occurrence in the Animal as 
 well as in the Vegetable Kingdom. 
 
 PUKPOSES OF CROSS-FERTILIZING. The results sought 
 in cross-fertilizing of varieties, or the hybridizing of 
 species, are various, but the principal one is to produce 
 something different from either parent. Sometimes we 
 may aim to increase the size, or change the color, texture, 
 flavor^ or other characteristic of a fruit, or the size, form 
 and color of the flower or habit of a plant. Adaptation - 
 of the various species and varieties of cultivated plants to 
 specific conditions is another, and often a very important, 
 object sought in producing cross-bred plants. There are 
 many species, and occasionally varieties, which have been 
 so closely and -continuously inbred in their native habi- 
 tats or elsewhere that theyliave acquired a fixedness of 
 character that removals to other localities, and subjection 
 to widely different conditions fail to effect any material 
 change in their offspring ; .but hy^crossjng, and the intro- 
 duction of new sexual or other elements, the foundation 
 of generations, as it maybe termed, is broken up, and 
 wider deviations from normal types soon follow. It may 
 sometimes be necessary to introduce an undesirable ele- 
 ment, in order to force a plant to break away from its 
 typical form, but when we have succeeded in this, it will 
 not be difficult to ; b reed out the undesirable characteristics 
 or properties. Then, again, we cannot know in advance 
 what will be the result of crossing any two plants of the 
 same genus or species, for even the mingling of two in- 
 ferior elements may result in the production of one supe- 
 rior to either of the originals ; still, we would noj^advise 
 using inferior materials in preference to superior, except, 
 
130 PROPAGATION" OF PLANTS. 
 
 when it is absolutely necessary to effect a desired varia- 
 tion, as may sometimes occur when a person has but a 
 limited number of species or varieties of a genus with 
 which to experiment. 
 
 4, wilding may possess some, very desirable properties, 
 such as vigor, hardiness and exemption from disease, 
 while its domesticated congener lacks one or all of these 
 properties; so, _by comjbinino^the best elements of the 
 two, a new and superior progeny may be produced. 
 
 As yet no very marked improvements among cultivated 
 fruits have been made by hybridizing, although in a few 
 instances, as with the Grape, it may have aided in causing 
 the species to break away from the wild type, and through 
 the wide variation resulting from artificial fertilization 
 some valuable varieties may have^Been secured. Whether 
 the hybrids between the indigenous species of the Grape 
 of North America and the Vitis vinifera of Europe are 
 as well adapted to our climate as the pure native varie- 
 ties is at least questionable ; still, it may be that the in- 
 troduction of a foreign element will yet prove to have 
 been a judicious movement, and in the right direction, 
 for yielding the best possible results. 
 
 The object in all cases should be to introduce valuable 
 properties, and in such a combination that they can be 
 made available. We may, among fruits, secure size, 
 color, texture in fact, all the good qualities known to 
 belong to or exist in a certain species, and still these will 
 be of little value unless the plant itself is adapted tp^ the 
 soil and climate where it is to be cultivated. In fact, 
 adaptation is all that is sought or can be credited to what 
 is termed acclimatizing of plants and animals, for it is 
 scarcely to be supposed that the constitutional characters 
 of the individual plant or animal can be greatly or per- 
 manently affected by a removal from one climate or con- 
 dition to another. One variety of plant may be more 
 hardy, and safely endure many degrees lower temperature, 
 
INFLUENCE OF POLLEST. 131 
 
 than another of the same species, but no amount of nursing 
 or moving about will ever change a tender plant or animal 
 into a hardy one. But by introducing new elements, as 
 in cross-fertilization, we multiply the causes for wide 
 variation through the dift'erent^hej^ditary cJiaracteristics 
 of .both parents. Then, by careful selection and propa- 
 gation of such crags-bred, varieties as are worth preseiva- 
 tion, we are often able to secure -those adapted to widely 
 different conditions, as seen among all of our long-culti- 
 vated and widely-disseminated plants. Why the seeds 
 from a plant should yield both tender and hardy varieties 
 can only be accounted for upon the hypotheosis that each 
 possesses transmitted hereditary characteristics, but what 
 the nature of the laws are that control this transmission 
 we know little or nothing. 
 
 plants that are indigenous, or have become naturalized 
 .in cold climates .and in elevated regions, are constantly 
 subjected to the loss,_of their leading shoots and branches 
 through the action of frosts and winds, and this being 
 repeatfid^fpr ^centu.ries in succession, the plants at last 
 become permanently dwarfed, and. this character becomes 
 i^ce^aiK^^iffiarv, as seen in many of our cultivated 
 plants obtained from very cokLj^jdpij3j^gi0ns. The 
 d \yarf habit remains fixed in the individual, even when 
 cultivated in, more favorable regions of a country, {niso 
 soon as we commence to raise seedlings from these pig- 
 mies, we find that there is a tendency in a certain number 
 to grow taller than the parent plant, or to return to what 
 we may presume was the original form of the species. 
 
 Form andJia^Wt_^fjila.nt^ are greatly modifi^ by J>ur- 
 rounding conditions, and while severe winds and low 
 temperature may permanently dwarf plants in certain 
 countries or regions, high temperature and poor soils 
 may produce similar changes elsewhere. The Chinqua- 
 pin Chestnut (Castanea pumila), as found growing wild 
 over quite extensive regions in some of our Southern 
 
132 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 States, is a familiar instance of a tree being reduced to a 
 mere shrub through the influence of a poor soil and 
 other uncongenial surroundings. Under favorable con- 
 ditions this species grows to a tree thirty or forty feet 
 high, but where they are unfavorable, it is but a mere 
 shrub from two to six feet high, even when the plants 
 have reached what may be considered maturity. 
 
 Instances of permanent changes having been effected 
 through various external causes are no doubt familiar to 
 every botanist and gardener, but the practical plant 
 grower should be on his guard, lest the sudden appear- 
 ance of some hereditary character, or direct reversion in 
 seedlings to some ancient type, mislead him into think- 
 ing that the variation observed is the result of his own 
 skill in cross-fertilization. 
 
 All plants have a tendency to vary in different direc- 
 tions, the cultivated more than the uncultivated, while 
 every new internal element introduced, intensifies this 
 proclivity to depart from the normal type, and whenever 
 a departure has been made, it is likely to become heredi- 
 tary, consequently it is often difficult, if not wholly 
 impossible, to determine to what disturbing cause we are 
 indebted for certain results. 
 
 BUD VARIATION. This is a prolific source of varieties 
 among plants, although by far the greater number are 
 raised from seed. When a bud on a tree or other plant 
 from some cause unknown, produces a sljoot or branch 
 differing from others on the same stock, it is attributed 
 to what is called " bud variation," and the branch or 
 shoot so produced is termed a " sport," to distinguish 
 varieties originating in this way, from those raised from 
 sed, or the direct product of sexual reproduction. These 
 sports, if removed from the parent plant and propagated 
 by division, will often remain permanent, but sometimes 
 they quickly revert to the original or parent form. In 
 propagating varieties originating from bud variations, it 
 
INFLUENCE OF POLLED. 133 
 
 is usually necessary to exercise considerable cOtVe, in order 
 to preserve their distinct characteristics, and" this is 
 especially true in those with variegated leaves, as seen in 
 the variegated leaved Elder, Dogwood, Ginkgo, Maples, 
 etc., for all of these possess a strong tendency to revert 
 to the plain or one-colored leaf of the parent. Through 
 bud variation we have obtained many of the most highly 
 prized ornamental trees and shrubs, both evergreen and 
 deciduous, and new ones are constantly being added to 
 the list. There is certainly a cause for the variation of 
 buds. In some plants it may be an attempt to revert to 
 some earlier form, and in others the result of some 
 element introduced through the sexual organs, either in 
 the present or some previous generation; but whatever 
 the cause, it is certainly an inherent property of the plant 
 which jsjiojjjconfined to one. part or single bud, for it 
 frequently occurs that several buds on the same plant, 
 but on different branches on distant parts of the stem, 
 produce shoots possessing the same characteristics. A 
 noted instance of this kind occurred a few years ago on 
 the Remilly Ash, growing near Metz in France. This 
 tree is over sixty feet high, with stem about six feet in 
 circumference. The branches are pendulous, and the 
 variety is known as a Weeping Ash ; but three buds, one 
 on the main stem near the top and two on separate 
 branches lower down, produced shoots which assumed an 
 erect habit, and have continued in this until they have 
 become large branches. Similar freaks or bud variations 
 have been frequently noticed on other weeping trees botli 
 in this country and Europe. When a plant has shown a 
 tendency to produce these bud variations or sports, a 
 repetition may be looked for, even if the first one is 
 promptly removed. 
 
 About ten years ago I noticed a single branch on one of 
 my specimen plants of Golden Retinispora (R. oUusa, var. 
 aurea plumosa), which had assumed an entirely distinct 
 
134 PPOPAGATIOK OF PLANTS. 
 
 form of growth from all others on the same plant, or in 
 fact on any of the various species or varieties of the 
 Eetinisporas in my grounds. This branch was layered, 
 and the next season cut off and planted out by itself. It 
 is now more than three times the size of the parent plant, 
 and so distinct from it in leaf and habit of growth that 
 it might readily be taken for a distinct species instead of 
 a sport. Prof. George Thnrber, the eminent botanist, de- 
 scribed this sport in 1881, and named it Retinispora obtusa 
 Fuller i. Three years ago another bud on the same plant, 
 but on the opposite side of the stem, produced a branch 
 identical in every respect with the first sport, showing 
 that this plant has either inherited or developed a faculty 
 of producing bud varieties, and of one form only. 
 
 Sometimes these bud varieties show a marked differ- 
 ence in the color of the foliage or habits of growth, while 
 in others only the flowers appear to differ, as seen in 
 many well-known varieties of the Eose which have orig- 
 inated in this way. The first Moss Eose is supposed to 
 have originated from a bud on the old Centifolia ; the 
 Striped Moss is a sport of the old Eed Moss, and the 
 White Baron Prevost from the old Pink Hybrid Perpet- 
 ual of the same names. The American Banner, Tri- 
 omphe d'Amens, Painted Orleans, and many other well- 
 known varieties of the Eose, originated from what are 
 termed bud variations. AmQngfruij^bud ^variations 
 are constantly occurring, but the larger number are prob- 
 ably overlooked and consequently lost. The Eed Mag- 
 num Bonum Plum is said to have originated from a bud 
 of the Yellow Magnum Bonum. Many instances are 
 recorded of Peach trees producing Nectarines on one or 
 more branches, and these sports have frequently been 
 preserved and extensively propagated. The seed of Nec- 
 tarines originating in this way usually produce Nectarine 
 trees, not reverting to the Peach. 
 
 The earliest instance on record of a Peach tree produc- 
 
GEKEEAL PKIKCIPLES AND METHODS. 135 
 
 ing Nectarines is mentioned by Peter Collinson, in 1741, 
 but they have been so frequent since that they have 
 ceased to be considered rare or strange. Similar bud 
 variations may be looked for among all of our cultivated 
 fruits, and the horticulturist should be constantly on 
 the alert for such freaks and endeavor to perpetuate those 
 likely to prove valuable. What is true in fruits is also 
 true among ornamental trees, shrubs and herbaceous 
 plants, and those who are seeking ne\v and valuable varie- 
 ties may often find them where least expected. 
 
 CHAPTEE X. 
 GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND METHODS. 
 
 The different modes of propagating plants may be 
 classed as follows : 
 
 1. Propagation by means of seeds and spores. 
 
 2. By cuttings of the stems, twigs and leaves. 
 
 3. By suckers and divisions. 
 
 4. By root cuttings. 
 
 5. By budding and grafting. 
 
 All the known species and varieties of plants may be 
 multiplied by one or another of these methods, and 
 some kinds can be readily propagated by each and every 
 one of them. But there are certain principles, which 
 serve as a guide to the propagator in the different modes 
 of operation, that it may be well to consider before pro- 
 ceeding to the more practical part of the subject. Al- 
 though, when the great diversity of characters as well as 
 the vitality of plants is considered, it cannot be expected 
 that any general rule can be given that will be applicable 
 to every case or be altogether faultless, yet for the purr 
 pose of dispelling that mystery with which the novice 
 
136 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 often supposes the various modes of propagation to be 
 surrounded, I shall give a brief synopsis of the general 
 principles connected therewith, together with a descrip- 
 tion of the more usual methods practised by our most 
 skilful propagators of plants. It may also be proper to 
 1 suggest that, however well informed a person may be in 
 regard to the structure and habits of plants, and however 
 extended his experience and perfect the conveniences 
 for propagation, he must still possess skill and patience, 
 and exercise great care and watchfulness in every opera- 
 tion, in order to become a successful cultivator and 
 propagator of plants in general. A person may know 
 just how an operation should be performed and still lack 
 the skill required for its execution. 
 
 PROPAGATIONS BY. SEEDS. The perpetuation of the 
 greaier portion of the knoY.~n species of plants is directly 
 by their seeds, which, in their wild state, they perfect 
 with great uniformity, but when cultivated the vital 
 forces are often disturbed, and a portion is directed into 
 other, than natural channels. The effect of this we see 
 in the double flower and the increased size of many of our 
 fruits. The seeds of so-called " improved plants " often 
 become abortive and cannot be depended upon as a 
 means of reproduction, not only because of the want of 
 vitality which naturally belongs to them, but in the 
 course of long cultivation there has been such an inter- 
 mingling of species, as well as varieties, that scarcely 
 any variety of cultivated fruit will reproduce an exjict 
 counterpart of itself from seed. Therefore we have to 
 resort to other modes of propagation to perpetuate any 
 particular variety. 
 
 Under what particular conditions seeds germinate 
 most readily it is certainly difficult to determine, because 
 of their great diversity of character and functions. 
 Heat and moisture are always necessary in order that cer- 
 tain changes may take place in the seed, but the degree 
 
GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND METHODS. 137 
 
 of heat and amount of moisture required are exceedingly 
 variable. As stated elsewhere, some seeds will germinate 
 at a temperature slightly above that of freezing water, 
 while others require nearly or quite a hundred degrees 
 Fahrenheit. Certain kinds of seeds will absorb more 
 than their own weight of water before sprouting or 
 bursting their hard, bony covering, while others appear 
 to retain, while ripening, nearly all the moisture required 
 in the early stages of growth. Seeds will withstand a 
 higher and a lower temperature in a dry atmosphere 
 than in a moist one, hence cool and dry, as well as hot 
 and dry, are non-inciting and preservative conditions for 
 most kinds of seeds. But seeds in general are not so 
 frail as to be readily destroyed by slight variation in 
 temperature, or in the hygrometric conditions of the 
 atmosphere, 'and their germination may usually be 
 hastened or retarded without serious injury, although it 
 is always safe to place seeds under conditions approxi- 
 mating those under which we find them in their native 
 habitats, but in order to do this we must know something 
 of their history. The spores of Cryptogamous plants 
 indigenous to a cold climate might quickly perish if 
 placed under the conditions most favorable for the growth 
 of a Cryptogam from the tropics, and the same difference 
 may often be noticed in the seeds of higher orders of 
 plants. With a knowledge of the peculiarities of the 
 climate of the habitat of plants, the propagator can usually 
 make a very close guess in regard to the treatment the 
 seeds require to insure germination. It is well, how- 
 ever, to bear in mind that latitude and longitude do not 
 furnish a very trustworthy guide to climate, for there are 
 snow-cupped mountains and very cool or cold regions of 
 country even in the tropics, or within the belt of country 
 so designated by degrees of latitude. Ocean currents 
 also have their influence, and the climate of widely sepa- 
 rated regions, on the same parallel of latitude, may differ 
 
138 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 greatly, as seen in the difference between that of New 
 York and that of the City of Madrid in Spain, or in the 
 climate of England, and of Labrador. Then, again, the 
 hygrometric conditions may have a very marked influence 
 on vegetation, as seen in the cool, dry, elevated regions 
 of our own and other countries. Plants, native of cold, 
 dry climates, often fail in moist, warm ones, while others 
 are wonderfully improved by the change, and all these 
 varying conditions and results must be duly considered 
 in their propagation by seeds or otherwise. 
 
 When supplied with the requisite amount of heat and 
 moisture, all seeds grow more readily when near the sur- 
 face of the soil than whep. buried deeply, therefore we 
 should endeavor to so place them in or on t\ie soil that 
 the air and heat can reach them, but at the same time 
 exclude the Jiglit, for darkness is favorable to germina- 
 tion. But air, or rather oxygen, is necessary, conse- 
 quently degp plajkting_ ajixL^exclusion ofaj^ retar^_pr 
 wkojly_jpr^yenEs gpowth. Whether sj^ds should be 
 covered or not with soil to assist or insure germination 
 Depends much upon circumstances, as well as upon their 
 ^ize^ structure and pow^jro^l^jwi^^uj) their stems 
 through the material usecTfor covering them. .Some 
 k^ii d s of seeds will germinate far more readily ifjDlacejl 
 .on the surface of the. soil and then kept moist .and in 
 shade or total darkness. It may be said that we only 
 bury seeds as a matter of convenience, and not because 
 it is actually necessary to insure germination. By cover- 
 ing seeds with soil or other similar material, we are 
 enabled to secure more equable conditions as regards 
 temperature and moisture, as well as the exclusion of 
 light, than if they be left uncovered, and thus we secure 
 better and more uniform results with less attention ; still, 
 i^pjs^willgenejally penetrate to the required depth and 
 position e^e^_wlie^jthe_seed^has not jjeen burjed, pro- 
 vided they falljipon some yielding materiaj_orpne readily 
 
GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND METHODS. 139 
 
 penetrated byjb^ joung rootlets. Seeds of our common 
 forest trees, when they fall upon the thick mat of old 
 leaves, usually fail to grow because the young roots can- 
 not penetrate through the tough, fibrous material under- 
 neath them ; but let these seeds be scattered along the 
 roadsides, or in the open fields, or wherever they can come 
 in direct contact with moist soil, and they soon show 
 that they have found congenial conditions for growth. 
 
 ^o^general ,rule can be given in. regard to the- depth 
 for covering seeds, not even one that would apply to all 
 the members of the same family of plants, because they 
 frequently differ in their habit of growth, as, for in- 
 stance, in Peas and Beans, the cotyledons of the former 
 remaining urrder ground and those of the latter being 
 lifted above the surface in the elongation of the stem ; 
 consequently we can safely cover a small variety of the 
 IVa much deeper than the largest variety of the Bean, 
 although both are closely allied dicotyledonous plants. 
 Similar variations also occur amoug^the monp.cotyledon- 
 ous seeds, the plumule or stem usually rising in the form 
 of a cylindrical column, whether they are of the size of the 
 giant Cocoanui, or of ^ye^^^Wixeat^^oj; the still smaller 
 g^asse^s. Depth, however, must be varied somewhat, 
 a.ccoi;ding to "the nature of .the soil in which seeds are 
 sown, for a stem that would readily push up through an 
 inch or two of vegetable mold or of sapd, might be un- 
 able to pierce the same thickness of compact loam, or 
 tough, hard^clay. 
 
 When seeds have once begun to grow, they cannot be 
 again reduced to a dormant state without causing their 
 destruction; this should always be borne in mind, for 
 from this cause alone more seeds are annually destroyed 
 than from any other. As they are usually hidden in 
 the soil, we are very likely to neglect giving them an 
 ample supply of moisture at their time of greatest need. 
 
 The soil in which seeds are sown should be made fine 
 
140 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 and reacUly,permeable, not only to_admit, air .and heat 
 and to retain moisture, but so that the radicle or young 
 root may penetrate the earth without hindrance, and 
 also permit the stem to grow upright unimpeded. The 
 soil should in most cases be deep, and of such a natnre 
 that the young plant will receive a constant and regular 
 supply of moisture. Nature serves as a guide to us in 
 many of the operations connected with the art of propa- 
 gation ; yet it should be remembered that the sowing of 
 Feeds and transplanting are artificial operations instead of 
 natural ones, and we follow nature only when it serves 
 our purpose, or as we are compelled to do so by natural 
 laws. Nature is so plastic that she allows us to mold her 
 gifts into forms that meet our wants and tastes, confining 
 us only within, certain limits that are difficult to de- 
 termine. 
 
 ^Nature perfects as well as destroys, and thus that equi- 
 librium is preserved which is observable throughout the 
 vegetable kingdom. If we scatter seed in every instance 
 exactly as is done by nature, we should not make more 
 than one in ten thousand grow. 
 
 While it is quite obvious that seeds require moisture 
 to insure their germination, it is only the acquatic kinds 
 that will bear an unlimited amount ; for, while the seeds 
 of ordinary field and garden plants may sprout when 
 submerged, they require air to insure a continuous 
 growth. To keep a seed-bed constantly soaked or, satu- 
 rated with water is almost as injurious as -to allow the 
 seed to suffer for the lack of a .sufficient amount of mois- 
 ^ture, * The propagator must always exercise his own good 
 judgment in such matters, varying his treatment accord- 
 ing to the size and nature of the seed as well as the kind 
 and condition of the soil. 
 
 Seeds forced in a high temperature, or sprouted in a 
 low one, usually produce feeble plants. If the tejnpera- 
 ture of the soil is between fifty and sixty degrees, -Fah. ; . 
 
GENEBAL PKIKCIPLES ASTD METHODS. 141 
 
 it will be favorable for the germination of seeds of plants 
 indigenous to cool climates ; but a temperature of .ixty 
 to seventy degrees will be none to high for ordinary green- 
 house plants ; while seeds from the. tropics may need ten 
 qr twenty degrees higher temperature. 
 
 While it is generally conceded that new seeds are pref- 
 erable to old ones, still the idea of newness should net 
 mislead the propagator and cause him to employ imma- 
 ture seed ; for, in many instances, what would be consid- 
 ered a fully ripe seed has not arrived at its best condition 
 for sowing or growth. Seeds containing a large amount 
 <xf natural moisture, or sap, will often fail to grow if 
 placed in the ground when new and fresh ; but if left to 
 dry a few weeks or months and then sawn, they will ger- 
 minate freely. I am unable to give any scientific reason 
 for these variations, but have learned from long experience 
 that while freshly gathered seeds of some kinds of plants 
 wjll fail to grow, after having been dried for some time 
 they germinate very readily. It would appear that the 
 loss of natural moisture and shrinking increases thejpoyver 
 of ^absorbing external moisture, and accelerating the 
 chemical changes that take place during germination. 
 Buj^jtfjthe olrying is allowed to proceed too far, the vital 
 energies are diminished or wholly destroyed. A period 
 of x rest, appears to be ne^e^arj^tojthe.^eejls of a large 
 majority. of plants, while, on the contrary, there are kinds 
 .which must be placed in a position for growth before 
 losing much of their natural moisture, else they fail to 
 germinate. Feo^instance, the seeds of, our indigenous 
 White^M&ple (Acer dasycarpum), and those of the Eed 
 Maple (A. rubrum), wiVTnot withstand drying, and must 
 either grow within a few days after falling from the tree 
 or perish. JBut^of the seeds of the Elm (Ulmus), of 
 various species, ripening at the same time as the Maples 
 named, and also similar in structure, some_will sprout 
 immediately, while others remain dormant until the fol- 
 
PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 lowing year, although all may be treated exactly alike. 
 The same variations occur among many different kinds 
 of seeds, some germinating readily when freshly gath- 
 ered, others requiring a season of rest, or time to become 
 fully mature. It is well known that there are periods of 
 great activity and rest in the vegetation of all countries 
 and climates, and these have their influence upon the 
 seeds, their vital energies becoming excited with the 
 return of the season of growth, and at such times they 
 will germinate far more readily than at any other, al- 
 though artificial surrounding conditions may appear to 
 be the same during the period of growth and when they 
 are at rest. 
 
 To hasten the germination of seeds, gardeners have 
 recourse to various expedients. Steeping in different 
 solutions is often practised with old seeds, in order to 
 soften the outer covering and admit.moisture to the in- 
 .terior and germ. Seeds with hard, horn-like integuments, 
 like those of the Three- thorned Acacia (Gleditschia tria- 
 canthos), and Kentucky Coffee tree (Gymnocladus Cana- 
 densis), may usually be forced to germinate by steeping 
 a few days in warm water, or hot water may be poured 
 over them and allowed to cool to a temperature of about 
 100 degrees, and kept at this point until the seeds show 
 signs of growth. See4s incrusted with resin, as is usual 
 with the Junipers, or wax, as in the Bayberry (Myrica), 
 are benefited by steeping in a solution of potash, or they 
 may be mixed with moist wood-ashes, and kept in this 
 condition^mjil the incrustation is removed and the bony 
 nuts are somewhat softened. Potash solutions are to be 
 recommended as a steep for all similar seeds, especially 
 if they have been allowed to become dry and hard, or 
 when it is desired to force their germination in advance 
 of their natural season of growth. Linie is also used for 
 similar purposes, and a few years ago it "was highly rec- 
 ommended by several European horticulturists for hasten- 
 
GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND METHODS. 143 
 
 ing the germination of old Spruce seeds and of other coni- 
 fers. Humbolt is said to have employed a dilute solution 
 of chlorine with great success in sprouting seeds ; and 
 another German, a Mr. Otto of Berlin, employed oxalic 
 acid to make old seed germinate. Dr. Lindley, in His 
 " Theory of Horticulture," describes Mr. Otto's method 
 of using oxalic acid, and says that " the seed were put in 
 bottles filled with the acid and left in it until they germi- 
 nated, which generally takes place in from twenty to 
 forty-eight hours." The seeds are then removed and 
 sown in the usual way. Very small seeds may be sown 
 and diluted acid applied two or three times a day until 
 they germinate. 
 
 Mr. Otto claimed that by this means, seeds that were 
 from twenty to forty years old grew, while the same sort, 
 sown in the usual manner, did not grow it all. But Dr. 
 Lindley, in referring to the advantages claimed for the 
 acid process, says : " Theoretically it would seem that 
 the effects described ought to be produced, but general 
 experience does not confirm them ; and it may be con- 
 ceived that the rapid abstraction of carbon by the pres- 
 ence of an unnaturally large quantity of oxygen may 
 produce effects as injurious to the health of the seed as 
 its too slow destruction in consequence of the languor of 
 the vital principle/*' 
 
 The oxalic acjbd solution for accelerating the germina- 
 tion of seeds, although highly extolled at the time of its 
 discovery, has, like many other similar discoveries, gone 
 out of use and is almost forgotten. At the present day 
 our horticulturists depend mainly upon heat and moisture 
 for revivifying the dormant energies of their old as well 
 as new seeds, although, as I have said, the alkaline solu- 
 tions are very useful in softening and removing natural 
 incrustations of some kinds, and the hard, horn-like 
 covering of others. Frost, or freezing, is also useful for 
 this purpose, and always available in cold climates ; but 
 
144 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 heat answers the same purpose for opening the pores and 
 admitting moisture to the seed proper ; and while jn cold 
 climates, nuts and other hard shelled seeds are placed 
 wjiere they will freeze in winter, the same kinds sprout 
 just as freely in hot climates, provided they are ]sept 
 moist and warm during the same season. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 PROPAGATION BY ^CUTTINGS. 
 
 _GrRjOWTH. There are many kinds of trees, 
 and shrubs that are readily propagated by cuttings of the 
 jnajhije or ripened wood. Sometimes Avood two or more 
 years old is used for this purpose,. but with most kinds 
 that of on%season's growth produces roots ni ore. .readily. 
 The cuttings are usually taken from the parent stoqk in 
 the^fall of the year, as soon as the leaves of deciduous 
 plants'will part from the stem without injury to the buds 
 adjacent. 
 
 Autumn is also a proper time to make cuttings of many 
 kinds of evergreen plants, particularly those of hardy 
 trees and shrubs indigenous to temperate climates. A 
 branch, when it ceases to grow in summer or .autumn, 
 contains a la?ge amount of matter which has njot assumed 
 any special form or structure, and it is therefore in a 
 proper condition either to produce roots or branches. 
 With some kinds of plants it can be made to produce the 
 former verjTreadily ; with others it is quite jljj^ cult, 
 simply because we have not discovered the proper condi- 
 tion necessary for their development ; and it is just here 
 that we come upon the great secret in the propagation of 
 plants i. e. } under what conditions should cuttings of 
 
PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS, 145 
 
 a particular plant be placed to insure growth ? Cut- 
 tings of the Willow, Currant, and many other woody 
 plants, grow very freely, even if taken from the parent 
 stock at almost any time of year ; while it would be diffi- 
 cult to make a branch from a Hickory tree produce roots 
 under the most favorable conditions ; yet it may not 
 be among the impossibilities to propagate the Hick- 
 ories from cuttings. The horticulturist, however, does 
 not usually seek the most difficult methods of multiply- 
 ing plants, but the easiest, and there may be many ways 
 of producing the same result. 
 
 As it requires more or less time for a cutting to pro- 
 duce roots, it is better to allow an abundance than too 
 little ; consequently, we usually make the cuttings of the 
 mature and dormant wood in the autumn, because by 
 doing so we secure several months in which to produce 
 the change ; or, in other words, for roots to form. Eoot^ 
 are produced readily at a lower temperature than leaves 
 also in tKe~3ark and these jxmditions are easily secured, 
 evan in cold climates ; for if the earth is frozen on the 
 surface, it may still be warm enough below to afford suffi- 
 cient warmth to insure the formation of roots on the 
 cuttings of woody plants native of a similar climate. We 
 avail ourselves of the knowledge of this fact and make 
 the cuttings of hardy plants in the fall, and either plant 
 them immediately where they are to grow, giving further 
 protection if necessary, or bury them in a cellar or the 
 open ground ; in fact, almost anywhere that we can secure 
 a temperature but slightly above the freezing point, 
 but not so warm as to force the leaf- buds into grpwth. 
 
 In such situations the process of forming roots will go 
 xm^ncl some kinds willvusually become so l^ll^uppl^ed 
 with roots by the time the regular growing season com- 
 mences in the spring, that a vigorous early growth of 
 stem will be produced. These conditions are produced 
 naturally in the open ground, for the temperature of the 
 
146 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 soil mspring is generally warmer than the atmosphere, 
 and tliefTower end of a cutting, from which point it is 
 always desirable to have the roots produced, receives 
 more heat than that portion which is exposed to the air. 
 In latitudes where the ground freezes to a considerable 
 depth, every one who has ever taken the trouble to exam- 
 ine the soil at the time of its thawing out in spring, must 
 have noticed that it thaws from below upward, far more 
 rapidly than from the surface, downward. Heat descends 
 slowly, but cold rapidly, and just as soon as the weather 
 becomes so warm that the surface does not freeze, the 
 heat from below will rise to the surface. The hot-bed 
 used by gardeners in forcing vegetables in cold climates 
 is made on the same principle, the object being to secure 
 warmth for the roots, while the leaves and upper portions 
 of the plant are kept cool. Thus plants are forced with 
 what is termed "bottom heat." 
 
 In warm climates it is just as important to give the 
 cutting plenty of time to form roots, or the advance 
 process^callejl a callus., as in cold ones ; for if roots are 
 not formed when the leaves expand, the cutting is very 
 likely to die. The callus which always precedes the, for- 
 mation of rpots on all kinds of cuttings, whether from 
 ripe or green wood, leaves or roots, is composed of cellu- 
 lar matter formed principally from the assimilated sap 
 of the plant, and is of a similar nature to the nutrients 
 stored up in seeds for nourishing the embryo and young 
 plantlet ; and while the callus does not itself become a 
 root, it is the immediate source from which the young 
 rootlet on a cutting obtains nutriment. By a close ex- 
 amination of the callus on a cutting at the time the young 
 rootlets are pushing out, it can readily be seen that the 
 roots are distinct formations, and not in any manner the 
 result of an unfolding or prolongation of the irregular 
 masses of exuded matter which is termed the callus. 
 
 Cuttings that are jemovedjrom^ a Cellar or other plajee, 
 
PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 
 
 wjiepe they have been sjored during the winter months, 
 to the open ground, n eedTto^Beh andled with gr^at care,, 
 especially if well callused and young roots have commenced 
 to push out ; for any considerable exposure to the light, 
 to drying winds, or to rough handling, will check the 
 root-forming process, if it does not entirely prevent 
 further progress toward growth. In taking out cuttings 
 of this kind for planting, they should be laid carefully 
 in rather shallow boxes, kept shaded, and occasionally 
 sprinkled if necessary to keep them moist while being set 
 out. If kept moist or wet the soil will adhere to them 
 closely, and the new roots come into immediate contact 
 with nutriment. If^the_grouud in which the- cuttings are 
 to be planted is rather dry and of a loose nature, it is a 
 good plan to puddle the cuttings before taking them to 
 the place where they are to be planted. Puddling con- 
 sists merely in mining water with almost .any good soil or 
 clay, forming a composition of the consistency of thin 
 mortar ; the lower half or a little more of the cuttings 
 are dipped in this, coating the part immersed in mud, 
 which will adhere and prevent too rapid drying, as well 
 as protect the cutting from injury by light and air during 
 the operation of planting. Peddling cuttings, as well as 
 the roots of plants, is practised extensively by gardeners 
 and nurserymen as a ready means of giving temporary 
 protection during transit from one part of the country to 
 another, and also when transplanting in their own ground. 
 Where the climate will permit it, the proper time to 
 plant cuttings is as soon as they are made inautumn, 
 thereoy avoi4inj_all^ the timeTrleyare 
 
 forming a callus or producing roots ; hut in cold climates 
 it is usually necessary to give protection ol some kind 
 during the winter by pj^cing the cuttings in a position 
 whfcre the root-forming process may not be wholly sus- 
 pended, even during the coldest weather. The cuttings 
 of some kinds of trees and shrubs will grow freely under 
 
148 PKOPAGATIOX OF PLANTS. 
 
 almost any treatment, while others require all the care 
 that can possibly be bestowed upon them to insure the 
 emission of roots and their future growth. 
 
 j^uccess^in growing such cuttings in the open air often 
 depends as much upon the condition of the soil and the 
 mode of planting as upon their proper selection and.care 
 during the preparatory stages. The^soji in which cut- ' 
 tings are planted in the open ground should hgjleep, of 
 a ^orcnjg nature, and composed of matgrials^tliat will 
 absorb and retain . a regular supply of moisture. The 
 variatijjfi of climate should be Attended with a corres- 
 ponding varia^ionjn^sxiil, which inwarmjatitudes should 
 contain powerful absorbents, so that it will not become 
 tQO^Arjjj^sumn^r ; while a ^ojl for the same purpose^ 
 the more nort^rn latitiides would be better wothput 
 these absorbents. In this latitude a loainy soil of fine 
 texture is perhaps the best ; one that is not so fine as to 
 ca^e^and crack on the surface after heavy showers, or 
 so loose that it will not retain sufficient moisture to sup- 
 ply the wants of the cuttings. The amount of moisture 
 required by cuttings varies greatly in different species, 
 some" requiring little, while others a very large amount. 
 The Poplars. Willows, Sycamore and many other kinds 
 of trees and shrubs will grow readily, even if the lower 
 end of the cuttings are immersed in water containing but 
 very little nutriment. But, as a general rule, cuttings 
 do not require more moisture than is held in suspen- 
 sion m well drained and friable soils. 
 
 Rank substances, such as uudecayed vegetable and ani- 
 mal matter, should never be allowed near cuttings ; and 
 where it may be necessary to use manure, it should always 
 t^eoljd, well decomposed, and thoroughly intermingled 
 with the soil, and applied some time before the cuttings 
 are planted. 
 
 Some propagators plant their cuttings and then cover 
 the surface of the ground with manure, the juices of 
 
PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 
 
 149 
 
 which will percolate the soil at every shower and furnish 
 nutriment in solution to the roots. I have found this to 
 answer well in some seasons, while in others a innu,s 
 (Mushroom) would spread through the maimre, and when 
 it came in qojitat^\yjih the young growth on the Qutting 
 it was very likej^tojjestroy it. This, however, can be 
 prevented by frequently stirring the manure, and I may 
 remark that frequent stirring the surface soil is almost 
 equal to mulching for keeping the cutting-bed moist. 
 In some soils, and in hot and dry cljjnateg, 
 coverjnj^^j$u^e^ coarse 
 
 hay, straw, spent ta^bark or spent hops from 
 the breweries, and other similar materials, 
 will be of great service in keepin^the soil 
 moisjt and of an equable temperature. 
 
 MA^JTG CUTTINGS. Nearly all plants_emjt 
 roots mo^rre^dily at or neajHjheir bujis joj: 
 joints than elsewhere ; therefore, 
 in making Quttings, it isalways 
 well to sever them ji^st bejg^a., 
 Iju^orjjuds, ^s^shown in~TIgure 
 
 a point from which roots appear 
 to be produced most freely. It is 
 true that some kinds of plants, 
 like the Willow, Catalpa, and the 
 common Quince, emit roots very 
 readily from every part of the 
 Fig. 49. stem, and with these it is not 
 
 CUTTING UT> , . l . . _ , , Flff. 50. 
 
 jTiTBEj#w necessary that they should be cut CUTTING OF 
 T %3^ 8 - o^bej^w^^. With some 6T HOLLOWSTEM - 
 the hollow stemined plants, or those having a large pith, 
 Jike the Supir Cane and Bamboos among the large grasses, 
 orThe Mo^F0fange,Syringa (PMladelplms) , and Deutzias 
 among shrubs, the orifice is usually entirely (^psed^jar 
 as shown in figurj3j>0 ; or opposite 
 
150 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 the buds on the young stems ; and it must be apparent 
 that there will be less liability of water lodging within 
 the stem and causing decay if the .cutting is severed just 
 below the joint than at any other point. 
 
 The roots produced on a cutting are sjrrjposed^ to be 
 formed from the sup or assimilated juices of the plant, 
 deposited mainly between the bark and wood ; but the 
 stems and branches of some kinds of woody plants, hav- 
 ing a large pith or hollow stem, will throw out roots 
 from the inner portion, but this does not disprove the 
 general theory of circulation of the sap, or that roots 
 emanate only from the assimilated sap or nascent matter ; 
 because it is not impossible, nor contrary to" the general 
 principles of vegetable physiology, that a portion of the 
 true sap of exogenous plants may not pass from the outer 
 to the inner surface of the stems of young wood, at least 
 when placed under artificial conditions. 
 
 There are some authors who contend that a bud, either 
 latent or developed, is essential on a branch to enable it 
 to produce roots ; in other words, roots always proceed 
 directly from a bud ; and if a cutting is severed at a dis- 
 tance below a bud, the roots start from the lowermost 
 one and push their way down under the bark and out at 
 the end, establishing a communication with the source 
 from which they are to derive their future nourishment. 
 It was also claimed by some of the old vegetable physiol- 
 ogists, that in the same manner all the buds below the 
 surface of the soil, which do not grow upright and form 
 branches, produce roots by going down, overlapping and 
 intermingling with those produced below them. 
 
 The erroneous theory of roots emanating only from 
 buds doubtless originated from the fact that many kinds 
 grow more readily from cuttings if they are cut off close 
 to the base of a bud, as before stated, thereby strength- 
 ening the belief that at this point was located the mate- 
 rials from which roots are formed. To ascertain whether 
 
PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 151 
 
 buds on ligneous plants must exist on or within a cutting 
 to enable it to produce roots, it is only necessary to take 
 a section of the stem between the buds (called the inter- 
 node), of some kind of plant that has no latent buds for 
 instance, a young shoot of a Grapevine, or closely allied 
 plant, and make such a cutting produce roots, which it 
 will readily do if placed under favorable conditions. No 
 buds will be produced or appear, yet roots will be pro- 
 duced more or less abundantly, or in proportion to the 
 natural vitality of the cutting and the amount of avail- 
 able material which it contains. Of course the roots 
 cannot grow to any considerable size, or for any consid- 
 erable period of time, without the assistance of buds and 
 leaves for assimilating the nutriments which the new 
 roots absorb from surrounding materials. 
 
 That roots will live and continue to grow for longer or 
 shorter periods, drawing sustenance from the material 
 previously stored up in the plant, and upon that which 
 they absorb without the assistance of leaves or buds, is 
 too well known to be questioned. The tubers of herba- 
 ceous Pseomas and Dahlias, the thick fleshy roots of the 
 common Rhubarb and many similar plants, will, when 
 deprived of buds, live and continue to emit new roots for 
 an entire season, and even for a longer period, but event- 
 ually perish, as they do not seem to possess the power of 
 producing buds, except at the crown of the plant, where 
 there is always a large number of buds. 
 
 The proper length, to make cuttings will necessarily 
 ^ary somewhat, acGQJidm^J^o.tl^cjiaracteiuof the plant 
 f ixmjLjvhich they are made, a^well asjhejn^nn^nj^lan^- 
 ing^them. Quttmg of .someEi^^ofJr^es that produce 
 roots very freelyTTik 6 the Willows and some of the Pop- 
 lars, may be several feet.m length, especially if set in 
 moist or wet soils ; while the other extreme in size may be 
 a single bud with an inch or tAvo of the branch attached. 
 The single bud cutting is often employed with free-root- 
 
152 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 ing kinds of trees, vines and shrubs of rare kinds, the 
 cutting being laid down in a shallow trench, or set up- 
 right, and then Qoyered to the depth of a half inch or a 
 little more with light soil, or some material that will 
 retain moisture well, ,and at the same time permit the 
 young shoots to. push readily thrqugh it. Single bud, or 
 very short cuttings, when planted in the open ground, 
 require more attention than longer ones, in order to pre- 
 vent injury during dry weather ; still, with proper care, 
 they will usually make excellent and vigorous plants. 
 As a rule, however, the niost convenient lengths for what 
 are called ripe- wood cuttings of deciduous trees and 
 shrubs, are from six to ten inches, although they are .of ten 
 made much longer, which is not only a waste of material, 
 but quite frequently a disadvantage when planting them ; 
 for in order to bury the cutting its entire length, as usu- 
 ally practised, it must either be set at an acute angle or 
 the lower end placed almost beyond the influence of solar 
 
 heat, an element as essen- 
 tial for the production and 
 growth of roots on cuttings 
 planted in the open air, as 
 for the germination of seeds. 
 Planting jsuttings too deep 
 should be avoided, ^s the 
 farther from the surface 
 
 Fig. 51.-TRENCH FOR CUTTINGS. 
 
 they Deceive, and this is quite necessary to insure rapid 
 growth, especially after they haveBecbme well rooted. 
 
 PLANTING THE CUTTINGS. The surface of a cutting- 
 bed should be level, smooth, free from lumps and stones. 
 Draw a line across .the bed and dig a trench, by placing 
 the back of the spade against the lineTpressing it down 
 nearly perpendicularly ; then throw out the soil to one 
 side, making a trench, as shown in figure 51, Place the 
 juttings against the perpendicular side of the trench, as 
 
PKOPAGATIOX BY CUTTINGS. 
 
 153 
 
 shown, and t^coto six inches apart according to the 
 size and kiud of jsuttmg planteo^-and 
 
 the^oot, or wjth 
 
 ^_^~ and Rress.it _____ = ^_ </ 7 - ^^ 
 
 poundejc made from a piece of two-inch plank, shown / 
 in figu4^J>2 v ^AfteJ;iLe.^^ about - 
 
 tlie basejjfjhe cutting, the tr^nch^may be^JeTuJ^Hjef ) 
 
 of 
 
 plants the packing or firming of the soil around the low 
 end^of^the^cuttings is a very 'essential pofrrt;'and 
 the whole secret of success. This is particularly so w 
 those kinds that pro- 
 d uce roots mainly from 
 the lower end, where 
 the wood is exposed to 
 the soil. It is true Fi s- 
 
 that cuttings of sonie kinds of trees. and -sjyuljg will grow 
 readily 4f merejy_jyyuist_into^the ground, alinpst any- 
 where, and at any season ; but to raise such plants re- 
 quires nemrerexperience nor skill ; consequently they 
 only call for a passing notice. 
 
 The distance between the rows of cuttings will Depend 
 entirely upon, the manner in which they are to be culti- 
 vated. If a cultivator or plow is to be used, then the 
 rows should be two and a half or three feet apart ; but if 
 to be cultivated entirely with the j)e, one and a halinj) 
 two feet. wide/ will be sufficient. In^ onie.^pjla-aaidjcj> 
 raised from cuttings may be left Jin the 
 ground 
 ti 
 
 luring the 
 
 In making antTplan ting cuttings of the ripe or dormant 
 wgod of evergreen jplan,ts, tlie sa!ne^genfiraT^5lah should 
 be pursued as with deciduous plants, except that the cut- 
 tings are .not usually made as long, and they must n^t JD&- 
 
154 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 entirely excluded from the light, or wholly buried in the 
 soil ; ^orjn making them, the leaves arc left, on that 
 part of the cutting which remains above ground when 
 planted. If^cover^dj entirely, a we do with decidu- 
 ous cuttings, they would soon.Nlec#y. The leaves of 
 our hardy evergreen coniferous plants are covered 
 with a compact epidermis, which does not permit 
 them to either absorb or exhale moisture very rapidly 
 when in a dormant state, and this peculiarity in struc- 
 ture admits of their being placed in such a position that 
 roots will form while their leaves do not suffer. In cold 
 climates they should be placed in what are termed cold 
 frames, and covered with glass that has been dimmed 
 with some kind of a wash that will prevent the direct 
 rays of the sun reaching them, and still admit sufficient 
 light to keep them in health. In the coldest weather the 
 frames may be covered with straw mats to keep out the- 
 cold and prevent severe freezing. The Arbor-vitees, 
 Evergreen Box, Yews and Junipers, are quite readily 
 propagated from cuttings made of the dormant wood in 
 the fall, although this mode of propagating these trees is 
 seldom practised, probably because there are others less 
 hazardous, and perhaps more convenient. 
 
 CHAPTEE XII. 
 
 BY CUTTINGS OFJMMATURE GROWTHS. 
 ~ ^s*^Z . - 
 
 "When propagating by quttings of the young, growing, 
 > wopjiLop succulent parts of "l^erbaceous plants, we^ar^ 
 operating with an active vegetation instead of one that is 
 dormant. In the cuttings made from ripe wood, there 
 is a supply of organized material from which roots are 
 produced ; but in those made'from the young and grow- 
 ing parts of plants, this is only jnji state of transmutation, 
 
BY CUTTINGS OF IMMATURE GROWTHS. 155 
 
 and we aim to continue or accelerate the change, and not 
 to check it by our operations. To accomplish this, it is 
 generally necessary to anrround the cutting with a warm, 
 moist,, and somewhat confined atmosphere, .so that the 
 exhalation, which is very rapid in an open situation, can 
 bo controlled. II' the quantity of moisture given off by 
 the leaves is greater than that absorbed, then they will 
 surely droop, and artificial applications will be required 
 to revive them. 
 
 Various devices are employed by propagators to secure 
 that peculiar state or condition of the atmosphere most 
 suitable to the growth of cuttings of different kinds of 
 plants, (rlass is the principal material used for covering 
 propagating houses, because it is the most durable, and 
 through it plans receive light, which is indispensable to 
 the growth of all those belonging to the higher orders ; 
 while, at the same time, heat and moisture are under the 
 control of the propagator. These houses may be made 
 of almost any size or form to suit the convenience or taste 
 of the owner, but those with a double pitch or span roof, 
 as shown in figure 53, are the most common, and probably 
 the most convenient for heating and ventilating, as well 
 as exposure to the light and direct rays of the sun during 
 the greater part of the day. 
 
 The illustration on page 156 shows the interior per- 
 spective view of a section of a well-arranged propagating 
 house. It may be made of almost any desired length or 
 width, but eighteen or twenty feet is about the usual 
 width of a span-roof house of this kind. 
 
 The side walls of the house may be of brick, stone, 
 concrete, or other durable material, and in very cold cli- 
 mates it is well to bank them up on the outside with 
 earth, and sod over the embankment. The house should 
 stand with ends north and south, although a slight devi- 
 ation from this direction will not be a serious objection. 
 The side walls should be low, not more than four or 
 
156 
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
BY CUTTINGS OF IMMATURE GROWTHS. 157 
 
 five feet high, and a row of low frames may be placed 
 under the eaves on the sides, as shown in figure 53, or be 
 omitted, according to the taste of the builder or nature 
 of the plants to be propagated. 
 
 The glass should be of the best quality, and double 
 thickness is preferable to the single. Embed the glass 
 with putty, and fasten with glaziers' tins, but put no 
 putty on the outside ; use nothing but thick white lead 
 paint in the joints between glass and sash. The size of 
 glass is immaterial, but if the best and heaviest is used, 
 the panes may be of any size, from seven by nine up to 
 ten by sixteen, or even larger. Large sized glass, however, 
 is more expensive than small ; it breaks quite as readily ; 
 consequently, repairs, where large sized panes are used, 
 are likely to be the most costly. The furnace and potting 
 room should be placed at the north end of the house, if 
 such an arrangement can be made without inconvenience, 
 and then the south end may be of glazed sash, as shown 
 in figure 53. 
 
 The best and most economical mode of heating a large 
 house is by hot water. For this purpose there are several 
 kinds of boilers in market, each of which has its friends 
 among the florists and nurserymen, but all of those now 
 in common use are economical, safe, and generally give 
 satisfaction. The hot- water pipes should lie side by side, 
 although they are sometimes placed one over the other, 
 when it is inconvenient, for want of space, to place them 
 the other way. The flow- pipe passes under one of the 
 side frames, thence through the back under the middle 
 one, and then under the frame on the opposite side. The 
 return-pipe passes back along by its side, both lying on 
 iron rests made for the purpose. This arrangement gives 
 eight pipes the whole length of the house, besides the 
 elbows and the few feet that it takes to cross the end. 
 The center frame has four pipes under it, while those on 
 the sides have but two. In mild climates, where less 
 
158 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 artificial heat is required in winter, the pipes may pass 
 only under the two outside frames, and the center one 
 may be used for the plants after they have become well 
 rooted, or for other purposes. For convenience in reach- 
 ing the plants, and economy of space, the center stage or 
 frame is made double the width of the side frames, and 
 the depth of all depends upon the purposes for which 
 they are to be used. If for small cuttings only, then they 
 may be quite shallow not more than six to eight inches 
 deep ; but if grafting is to be done, then a greater depth 
 will be required, or from one to two feet in depth ; but 
 if the house is to be a kind of "general utility house" in 
 propagating plants, then the frames may be made of 
 various sizes and depths. The center frames may be 
 deep enough to hold potted stocks of good size, and the 
 side frames must be shallow, for growing small cuttings. 
 The pipes under the frames should be entirely shut in, 
 so that the greatest heat in the house will be under the 
 frames, in order to give what is termed "bottom heat" 
 to the cuttings, exciting root-growth in preference to 
 growth of the leaf and stems. There should be small 
 doors placed along the entire length, opening into the 
 passage-ways, that may be opened to let the heat escape 
 into the house when necessary to raise its temperature, 
 or to lower that under the frames. The passage-ways 
 between the beds should not be less than two and a half 
 feet wide, and three will be better. If the frames are 
 over four feet wide it will be inconvenient to reach across 
 them, and a house eighteen feet wide will allow of three 
 rows of frames, and two passage-ways of three feet each ; 
 or the outside frames may be three feet wide, and the 
 center one as it can be reached from both sides may 
 be six feet. 
 
 Arrangements for ventilating the house may be made 
 to suit one's convenience or fancy, but the openings 
 should be mainly at the top or near the peak of the roof. 
 
BY CUTTINGS OF IMMATURE GROWTHS. 159 
 
 The slope of the roof should be at an angle of from thirty- 
 five to forty-five degrees, varying somewhat according to 
 latitude,, although water, snow and ice will pass off more 
 readily from a steep roof than a flat one. A single roof, 
 or lean-to, propagating house is perhaps a little more 
 economical than a span roof in very cold climates ; being 
 less exposed to cold winds, it takes less fuel to heat it. 
 Its 'construction and interior arrangement may be the 
 same as the span roof, only the center frame, or table, is 
 divided lengthways by the main or back wall, which 
 should run east and west, in order to have the roof slope 
 to the south. The lean-to house may be just one half 
 the width of the span roof, or a little wider if necessary, 
 and the furnace-room, potting and storing sheds, should 
 extend the entire length of the back wall as a protection. 
 While professional gardeners depend mainly on a regu- 
 larly constructed propagating house for multiplying those 
 
 Fig. 54. LATH SCREENS. 
 
 plants requiring artificial heat to force them to produce 
 roots, they often employ other means and structures, 
 such as the ordinary hot-bed, where a high temperature 
 and bottom heat are secured by the use of stable manure, 
 leaves from the woods, spent hops, anoT other kinds of 
 fresh vegetable substances, wluch gen erj^te Jiea^lri ring 
 fermentation. In summer the ordinary hot-bed frames 
 may be employed without bottom heat for multiplying 
 majiyykinds^ of |)la^ts. v from i^reon. cuttings, especially 
 those known to produce roots freely and with Httle^care, 
 
160 
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 when placed in a confined, moist, and rather warm 
 atmosphere. When grown in frames in the open ground, 
 the cuttings will need to be shaded the same as when 
 planted in the house, and this maybe given by using lath 
 screens, as shown in figure 54, or the glass maybe dimmed 
 by applying with a brush a wash made of skim milk with 
 common whiting. The cuttings in frames will need at- 
 tention when growing, for water must be regularly sup- 
 plied, and airjidmitted occasionally to prevent the tem- 
 perature from reaching too high a point during wjirm, 
 bright days. Common white muslin, made water-proof, 
 or coated with boiled linseed oil and well dried before 
 
 Fig. 55. HAND GLASS. 
 
 Fig 56. BELL GLASS. 
 
 using, may be employed for covering the frames in which 
 cuttings are rooted during the summer months, but glass 
 is preferable, and as it is so much more durable, it is in 
 the end the cheapest. 
 
 What are called hand glasses (figure ,55), and bell 
 glasses (figure V 56), may often be employed with advan- 
 tage, wjiere onjy a fqw cuttjugs are to be raised, either in 
 the open ground or in an ordinary greenhouse. These 
 glasses are also useful in covering delicate seeds and the 
 spores of ferns, which, owing to their minute size and 
 fragile structure, cannot safely be buried in ordinary soil. 
 
 IN WHAT MATERIALS TO PLANT CUTTINGS. Various 
 kinds of materials have been recommended, and are still 
 
BY CUTTINGS OF IMMATURE GROWTHS. 161 
 
 used, in which to root cuttincrs made of the green and 
 immature parts of plant-. $fu->[. burnt clay or pulver- 
 ized brick7~chareoal, peat, Sphagnum nooss, and various 
 combinations of these and other materials, have been 
 employed by propagators ; and while any one, or all of 
 them, may sometimes answer the purpose, still, the. more 
 delicate the cutting, and difficult the plant is to propa- 
 gate in this way, the purer must be the material in which 
 the cuttings are set to insure the production of roots. In 
 a previous chapter I have shown that the exposed cells of 
 a branch or leaf taken from certain plants will imbibe 
 various poisons and colored liquids presented to them, 
 which are successfully resisted by the roots of the same 
 plant ; consequently, the material best and safest to use 
 in growing green cuttings in general is one f i^jjfronx^ill, 
 salts, metallic oxides, humus or coloring matter of any 
 kind. The most abundant and available material of this 
 nature is pure silex (sand). That which maybe obtained 
 from the banks of fresh water streams, ponds and lakes 
 is generally the purest and best, but that found in the 
 ordinary .sand-pit niay be used with safety, if well washed 
 to remove the^)xi^esor"Tron and other metals "wnTch. are 
 usually present, giving to the sand its red, yellow, or 
 other shades of -Qolor., When ordinary building or pit- 
 sand is to be used lor propagating plants, it should be 
 dug out^an^expo^ed to the weather for^jej^we^ks or 
 months previous, in order to hasten tKeTfurther oxidizing 
 of the metals which it may contain, and facilitate their 
 removal by washing. Sea-sand is, as a rule, too line for 
 such purposes, besides it contains various saljjs, and fre- 
 quently magnetic iron in large quantities. Many a gar- 
 dener has sustained serious losses from attempting to 
 propagate certain kinds of plants, through negligence in 
 this matter of obtaining pure ,san(l in which to place his 
 cuUings. 
 
 iFpure^ sand is placed in pots, boxes or frames, with 
 
162 
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 sufficient openings in the bottoms to allow of rapid 
 drainage, there is little danger of applying too much 
 water on the surface, as the sand witTTJiMy retain a cer- 
 tain amount ; all in excess passift^ragidly away. The 
 roots being produced from, the- organized matter already 
 in the cutting, no further nutriment than that contained 
 in the water applied, is required until the cutting is well 
 supplied with roots, when it should be removed from the 
 sand, and potted in good soil, with which more or less 
 sand is intermingled, varying the amount according 
 
 Fig. 57. CUTTING OF GREEN WOOD. 
 
 the nature of the plant being propagated. Plants of a 
 soft, succulent nature, like the Coleuses, Begonias and 
 Geraniums, should at first be^o]^din^j;aO^J^gMjml 
 porous soil, while a more fern one may be given to ligne- 
 ous plants of Hnii tfcxfnre ; although it is better to err, if 
 at all, in placing the newly rooted cuttings in rather too 
 light a soil than one that is too heavy. 
 
 PREPARING,, THE .CUTTINGS. In making 
 the young or ^ucculejai^shoot^ of plants, a portion of the 
 
BY CUTTINGS OF IM3IATUBE GROWTHS. 163 
 
 leaves, should be allowed to ^emain^an^ t h e cutting, for the 
 purpose of assisting in the assimilation of the sap and 
 preparation, of the material required to produce roots. 
 In selecting cuttings of ligneous plants, it is advisable, 
 when convenient, to take the small, shco^si^e^shoots 
 that may be cut off close to the more mature wood, leav- 
 ing, the hip or ring of half ripened wood attached at the 
 base ; for, as I have stated on a previous page, in regard 
 to ripe wood cuttings, there is usually an aggregation of 
 buds, and more available prganized matter, at this point 
 than elsewhere. The lower leaves on the cutting should 
 be removqd. This should begone with a sharp knife, and 
 the wound made left with a smooth surface ; for severing 
 with a dull knife, or crushing with shears, and even pull- 
 ing off the leaves by hand (as often practised by careless 
 gardeners, who are in such haste that they seldom do 
 their work well), will not answer when making cuttings of 
 the soft shoots of delicate plants. The old saying that 
 anything that is worth doing at all, is worth doing well, is 
 certainly applicable here, for no one canjbg,too carejuiiri, 
 making and plantin^_cuitings_of th*p:een shoots of 
 woody plants and succulent stems of herbaceous plants. 
 It is also well to make up such cuttings in the house, or 
 where they will n^ot^be exposed to itK<T direct rays .at the 
 gun while they are being made. 
 
 It is not always practicable to make cuttings of this 
 form, for some woody plants will produce few or no lat- 
 eral shoots, unless the leading ones are pinched back for 
 the purpose of forcing out side branches, and where the 
 latter are not available the terminal, or leading shoots, 
 may be used for cuttings, and with some kinds of plants 
 the entire new growth of the season may be divided up 
 for this purpose. In some cases the half ripened, or 
 nearly mature shoots of herbaceous plants, are better for 
 cuttings than a younger" growth. With the half woody 
 and herbaceous plants, the tips of both upright and lat- 
 
164 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 eral shoots are used for cuttings, and in making them the 
 lower leaves are cut off, as shown in figure 57. The cut^ 
 tings should be cut square across, just below a bud, or 
 the axil of a leaf, and of twigs firm enough to be severed 
 without breaking or crushing under the blade of a sharp 
 implement. In making very small and slender cut- 
 tings, like those of the Heath (Ericas), a razor in good 
 
 58. STAPELIA GLAUCA. 
 
 order is none too sharp an implement for this work, and 
 the heel of the cutting may be placed on the thumb nail^ 
 or a piece of horn when being smoothed off before 
 planting. 
 
 No general rule can be given as to the exact time for 
 separating the cutting from the parent plant ; with v somp 
 it is better to take them off while the growth is very 
 young and tender, while with .others it should be some- 
 
BY CUTTINGS OF IMMATURE GROWTHS. 
 
 165 
 
 what mature and jirja. CUittinga^of the succulent plants, 
 like theTStapelias (figure 58), and the Gac^ujes and others 
 of a similar structure, are benefited by a few hours or 
 eyen days of drying before planting, or they may be^set 
 in dry sajidar_.soil a few days jjefpre any wjter is applied. 
 But at no time should cuttings of these plants be watered 
 very freely, but the sand in which they are set should be 
 kept only slightly moist. Some propagators make a 
 practice of wilting the cuttings of Geraniums, Acacias, 
 Banksias, and many other kinds of plants, before placing 
 them in the cutting boxes or frames, but others appear 
 to produce just as good results without it, planting the 
 cuttings as soon as made. 
 
 CUTTJSTGS OF THE LEAVES. The leaves of many kinds 
 of plants may be employed in 
 making cuttings whenever it is 
 necessary for their rapid mul- 
 tiplication. In propagating 
 woody plants by cuttings of the 
 leaves, the leaf is usually taken 
 off ^n^ir^jvith _t h e jgejjole or 
 leaf-stalk attached, as shown in 
 figure 59, the leaf-stalk in this 
 case representing the stem of 
 the ordinary cutting. Such cut- 
 tings should be taken ighilej&g. 
 leaf is fresh and in a condition 
 for supplying the proper ma- 
 terials required for the produc- 
 tion of roots and buds, and 
 placed in a w,arm,. moist and con- 
 fined atmosphere, or treated in 
 the same way as the ordinary grejpjnitting. Not only can 
 the leaves of the common Lilacs, Roses, and various other 
 kinds of har^iyshruJ3sand > iree^^ 
 of the leay.es, but there are hundreds of tHe common and 
 
 Fig. 59. LEAF OF LILAO. 
 
166 
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 rare species and varieties of tender greenhouse and bed- 
 ding plants that may be, and some often are, multiplied 
 in this manner. Certain kinds produce roots so freely 
 from their leaves ihat^it is not necessary to use or pre- 
 serve the leaf-stalk, but the leaf may be laid down with 
 its underside in contact with the. sand, and little wooden 
 pegs thrust through it as shown in the Begonia leaf, 
 
 Fig. 60. LEAF OF BEGONIA, PRODUCING YOUNG PLANTS. 
 
 figure 60, or the. leaf maybe^cut up into small pieces and 
 then set upright in sand, when eacjh part of the leaf will 
 soon produce roots, buds, and then new leaves, as shown 
 in figure 61. 
 
 The thick, fleshy leaves of the common Bryophyllum 
 calycinum, as they fall to the ground, will often throw 
 out roots and buds from their edges, and, s if left, undis- 
 turbed, these buds saon become vigorous individual 
 gforf*&*&uU9*? to/toyi 
 6 
 
BY CUTTINGS OP IMMATURE GROWTHS. 167 
 
 plants. Not only are the Bryophyllums, Begonias, Ges- 
 nerias, and many other kinds of closely allied plants, 
 propagated by cuttings of their leaves, but among the 
 succulent Cactuses, Stapelias, Echeverias and Cacalias, 
 either their ieaves^or lej^Uke ^tejus, are geiLej^ally_,an> 
 ployed in multiplying the various species and varieties in 
 cultivation. 
 
 SETTU^__THJL_QUTTINGS. The depth and distance 
 apart at which cuttings should be .get, .must necessarily 
 vary according to their length and thickness, but, as a 
 rule, one-half their entire length should be covered when 
 set iiilTposition for growth. 
 
 The more us.ua! lengths for green cuttings are from 
 two to four inches ; consequently, the 
 sand in the boxes need not be of 
 greater" depth than to give , room for 
 the production of roots, and insure 
 the retention of sufficient amount of 
 moisture around the base of the cui- 
 ting. If the sand in the boxes is 
 made rather moist, a sharp or pointed 
 stick, or dibber, may be employed for 
 making the small holes in it for the 
 reception of the cuttings, but where 
 the cuttings are small, and a large 
 number are to be set, a pane of glass 
 is a better implement, for by pressing 
 one edge down into the sand, a 
 straight, narrow trench is quickly F| 61 
 
 made across the box, and into this the PIECE OF BEGONIA LEAF, 
 
 . , . , . ,, T USED AS A CUTTING. 
 
 cuttings may be set very rapidly, and 
 at any distance apart desired. When a row has been set, 
 the glass may be inserted near it, and with a slight side 
 movement the sand pressed firmly against the cuttings, 
 or the sand, or other material, may be "pressed down 
 around each cutting, separately, with the fingers or the 
 
168 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 large end of the dibber. Af ter (llli^g,tlie bgx, the cuttings 
 may be spryjlded jpth water, which Avill aid furtherjji 
 compacting the sand about the base of the cuttings. 
 
 The professional florist, with the conveniences for 
 propagating plants in quantities, will seldom have occa- 
 sion to employ anything of less size than boxes holding 
 several dozen or a hundred cuttings, but the amateur may 
 often have occasion to raise a less number of plants of 
 certain species or varieties, ^nd,in doing so have recourse 
 to ordinary flower-pots for this purpose, placing them in 
 a window, or by the side of some building or board fence, 
 where the requisite amount of heat may be obtained dur- 
 ing the summer months. 
 
 When gree.n cuttings are set in pots filled with sand, 
 and placed in the window of an ordinary room in sum- 
 mer, or even plunged in a 
 half -shady place in the open 
 ground, they are very likely 
 to be occasionally neglected, 
 hence suffer for want of mois- 
 ture. To prevent this, and 
 insure a constant and regular 
 supply, the device shown 
 in figure G2 is frequently em- 
 ,. ployed. In this two pots 
 
 Fig. 62. DOUBLE POT FOR J 
 
 CUTTINGS. are used, one inside of the 
 
 other, with sufficient differ- 
 ence in their sizes to leave a space between, which is 
 filled with sand, c c, and into this me cuttings are in- 
 serted. The hole in the bottom of the inner or smaller 
 pot is .stopped with a cork, and the pot is then employed 
 as a reservoir for holding water, d. If the smaller pot 
 is of the ordinary unglazed kind, enough wat^r will pcr- 
 Qolate/ through the sides and bottom to keep v the sand 
 fairly moi^t, but never saturated. The small, inner pot 
 should be kept filled with water, or at least not be allowed 
 
BY CUTTINGS OF IMMATURE GROWTHS. 
 
 169 
 
 to become entirely empty. By setting the cuttjngs close 
 tpjhe rini of thejn&j^e pot, a belTglas^I^a^be used ^or 
 covering the cuttings, thereby insuring a close, moist at- 
 mospnere, and preventing^tooji'apid^evaporation of the 
 juices Q the cuttings through their leaves* By employ- 
 ing larger pots and filling them about half full of sand, 
 the cuttings may be covered with a large pane of window 
 glass, laid lint on the top of the pot. Boxes six to eight 
 inches in depth may be employed in a similar manner, 
 and often with excellent results, for cuttings of Gerani- 
 ums, Coleuses, Fuschias, and other kinds of plants that 
 are readily propagated from green cuttings. With giants 
 that are not GO easily propagated, 
 a similar arrang&nient oT^ke^po-ts 
 may be employed, and the space 
 betw^een the twc^filledj^itli moss, 
 tan, CT*e'VUU"l38i.nd, and the center 
 one al^~ffled. wj^hsand, pHJctng 
 
 arQundij^jasP^ ar- 
 
 rangemenVemploying two bell 
 glasses, as shown in figure 63 
 the larger bell glp,ss ; #,jt 
 or smaller one ; c, cutjiing ; ^ sa 
 iwtlieinner pot ; ^e^lfed^sp^ 
 
 bew5Cn*theJjS^s ; ^JSe^ou-ter, or largeiyx>j;. With this 
 deviceVan^^r^perattexBtion for securin^a tenvperature of 
 seventy to eighty degrees Fahrenheit, cuttings of many 
 kinds of plants usually considered quite difficult to propa- 
 gate, may be forced to produce roots in a few days or 
 weeks. , 
 
 Many other devices are employed in propagating plants 
 from green cuttings, but the principles governing the 
 operation are the same in all, and while the propagator's 
 ingenuity or fancy may lead him to vary the mode of 
 doing a thing, he seeks only the rapid production of roots. 
 
 , 
 
 . 63. DOUBLE BELL 
 GLASS FOR CUTTINGS. 
 
170 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 PROPAGATING BY PAYEES. 
 
 The same principles given .for- propagating plants by 
 cuttings are applicable tojajer^.j^itlijbbis difference : 
 layers of tbe green and growing parts do riot need to be 
 surrounded witli a confined atmosphere, in order to pre- 
 vent a too rapid evaporation of their juices through the 
 leaves. A layer is only a cutting that is allowed to re- 
 main attached to the parent, plant until it has produced 
 roots through which it may collect sustenance for self- 
 support. 
 
 Various methods are employed to produce this result, 
 such as ringing, girdling, twistingptonguing, or partly 
 dividing that portion of the stem or branch on which it 
 is desired that roots shall be formed. All these distor- 
 tions of the stem or branches of the plant layered are for 
 one object, that is, to check the downward flow of sap. 
 Roots J;hen become necessary for supplying sustenance to 
 the" cutting, or layer, and are consequently formed. 
 The most common method of preparing layers is that of 
 making a tongue on the under side of the branch. The 
 operation is performed thus : ]VIake an incision in the 
 branch or part of the plant to be layered, just below a 
 bud, cutting through the bark and into the branch to 
 the depth of one-quarter to one-half its diameter; then 
 pass the knife upward for an inch or more, according to 
 the size and nature of the plant being layered, splitting 
 the branch lengthways, forming the tongue as shown in 
 figure 64 at a. The branch is then^bgnt down and 
 fastened in its place Jby means of a hooked \j3eg, c, 
 and the end tied up to a stake, J), as shown iujfigure 
 .64. That part on which the incision is made is 
 covered with, soil or other material that will exclude ifc 
 
PROPAGATING BY LAYERS. 
 
 171 
 
 from light and air, while at the same time keeping it 
 moist, thus aiding the dev_dagn^ent^ofjrQot. In making 
 layers of certain kinds of smaUKerbaceous plants and 
 slender vines, it will not be necessary to use pegs or 
 stakes to hold the layer in place ; but with larger plants, 
 they are usually needed for keeping the layered branch 
 steady and in one position, while the new roots are being 
 emitted. 
 
 Twisting, coiling, or notching the branch, so as to 
 partly separate the fibres, will often answer the purpose 
 
 Fig. 61 LAYERED BRANCH OF A TREE. 
 
 equally as well as ton gn ing. Girdling the branch to be 
 layered, by removing a ring of bark a half inch or more 
 in width, is another mode of exposing the alburnum to 
 the soil and checking the flow of sap in woody plants. 
 Bending the branch aJL.a very acute angle will often 
 answer the same purpose, but this can only be done with 
 safety on plants with tough wood and bark. There are 
 many kinds of ligneous as well as herbaceous plants that 
 will produce roots freely, and in a few days' time, from 
 branches merely laid on the surface of the ground and 
 covered with almost any kind of material that will keep 
 them moist ; but there are others that produce roots very 
 
172 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 tardily, or not at all, even under the most careful and 
 skilful manipulation. 
 
 In preparing layers of those plants wlych produce roots 
 very slowly, it is best to Distort that part which is buried 
 as much as possible with safety ; but with many kinds no 
 disturbance of the natural condition is necessary. With 
 nearly all kinds of climbing and trailing plants, such as 
 Wistarias, Tecomas, Honeysuckles (Lonicera), , Grape, 
 Passifloras, etc., it is only necessary to lay the stems in a 
 shallow trench, early in spring, and when the buds push 
 into growth, draw the soil^back into place ; thus treated, 
 
 Fig. 65. LATER OF VINE. 
 
 each shoot will produce a plant. Jloots will usually be 
 emitted in-^bpniauce the entire length of the old stem, 
 as shown in figure 65. 
 
 When roots are^rtot produced as freely as desired, then 
 the layered cane may be bent,, as shown in figure G6, 
 a method quite generally practised with the Wistarias, 
 Passifloras, and similar vines, especially when a large 
 number of plants are sought, in preference to a few 
 of more vigorous growth. If only a few strong plants 
 are wanted, then the cane may be layered with one single 
 bend, as practised with shrubs and trees. (See figure 64.) 
 In preparing .shrubs and trees for the purpose of pro- 
 ducing layers therefrom, it is often necessary to. 
 
PROPAGATING BY LAYERS. 
 
 173 
 
 them bacl^ severely, the year previous, so that a large 
 number of shoots shall start from near the ground. 
 Plants thus prepared are technically termed .stools ; 
 and if all the new shoots are layered in any one sea- 
 
 
 Fig. 66. BENT LATER OF VINE. 
 
 son, then none should be layered the next, but the 
 new growths be allowed to grow unchecked, so that the 
 parent stock may regain that strength of which it has 
 been deprived by excessive layering. With some kinds 
 
 Fig. 67. STOOL BANKED UP. 
 
 Q| plants it is not necessary to bend down or layer the 
 shoots, but merely to -bank them pp with soil, as shown 
 in figure 67, and when the shoots, have thrown out 
 from their base, they are slipped off from the 
 
PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 main stalk and planted out separately. The Quince, 
 Hibiscus, Cercis, Paradise Apple, and many other kinds 
 of trees and shrubs that produce roots readily, are exten- 
 sively propagated in this manner. It is certainly more 
 convenient for the purpose of layering, if the branch is 
 near the ground ; yet it is not positively necessary, be- 
 cause soil, or other material which will answer the same 
 purpose, may be elevated to the branch to be layered. 
 A platform may be made, upon 
 which to place the soil (figure_6), 
 or boxes and pots^ 6 lied with it 
 may be suspended among the 
 branches of a^Tree and the shoots 
 layered therein. u in making 
 layers of this kind, it will require 
 more care to keep the soil moist 
 around the layer than when they 
 are placed in the earth in the usual 
 manner. It will seldom be neces- 
 sary to make layers of branches 
 that cannot be bent down to the 
 
 Ftg. 68.-LAYER IN POT. grQun(L gtf^ ingtancss mfly occur? 
 
 where it will be desirable to secure some freak in this way. 
 sTiME^FOE^MAKiNG LAYERS. The proper time, or 
 season, for making layers is as variable as thaTlxJr mak- 
 ing cuttings. But, ajsjy^JLe^ layers should be made wjjile 
 the parent pl^ntis growing most rapidly, because roots 
 will be pro^uc^aT sucn timesmore^readlly than at any 
 other, althougTT^rth~~Wfe1faT^Tnas iFwfll make very little 
 difference, as they produce roots freely under almost all 
 conditions and from all parts of the plant. With the 
 larger proportion of both deciduous and evergreen trees 
 and shrubs, ^yering should v not J)egin until tl^Jeayes 
 have full^expan3ed, and the new growth of the season 
 is fairly under way. If layered earlier, many of the de- 
 ciduous trees and shrubs will "bleed," as it is termed, 
 
PROPAGATING BY LAYERS. 175 
 
 from the wounds made on the layered parts, and the sap 
 flowing from these wounds will often corrode and other- 
 wise injure the exposed cells and entirely prevent the 
 production of roots therefrom. Wounds made in the 
 branches of coniferous trees during the winter and early 
 spring months are usually soon covered by the exuding 
 resin, the severed and otherwise exposed cells thereby 
 becoming fully protected, not only against the influence 
 of moisture from without, but it effectually prevents 
 the formation of a callus and production of roots. For 
 this reason, such Qonifers as Pines, Spruce, and Firs 
 should always be layered at a time when the sap is thin- 
 nest and flowing mosfrapidly, as during the first growth 
 of spring and early summer. With some kinds of hardy 
 deciduous trees and shrubs the autumn islihe better sea- 
 son in which to make layers, for the reasons given for 
 making cuttings at that season, but such variations will 
 be noted further on. The advantages and disadvantages 
 in propagating plants byjaygrs are : 
 
 First, It is a very simple process of multiplying plants 
 by which an inexperienced person may propagate many 
 species and varieties that require greater skill by different 
 processes ; in other words, it is especially valuable to 
 amateurs who possess neither skill nor facilities for propa- 
 gating plants by the more advanced and superior modes. 
 
 >ccoi}fl, It_is^a certain mode, with by far the larger 
 number of ligneous species, as the parent plant sustains 
 the layer until it has produced roots through which it 
 may, when transplanted, derive nutriment for self-sup- 
 port ; but the roots produced on layers are seldom of as 
 firm a texture, neither do they mature as early as these 
 produced on cuttings : hence their inferiority. 
 
 Third, .With many kinds of plants much larger speci- 
 mens may be obtained in less time than is possible by 
 cufctings^and, as size is frequently more highly appre- 
 ciated than quality, large layers are usually in demand. 
 
176 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 PROPAGATION BY SUCKERS AND DIVISIONS. 
 
 Suckers #re shoots which are produced from latent or 
 adventitious buds on the subterranean stems or jroots. 
 Shoots that spring up from the base of the main stem of 
 a plant are often referred to under the name of .stem- 
 suckers, but "sprout" is by far the more appropriate 
 name, as they are of a very different origin, and should 
 not be confounded with the true suckers of plants. There 
 are hundreds of different kinds and species of plants 
 which, under certain~~conditions, produce sprouts quite 
 freelyxfrom their qrow,ns or the base of their stems, but 
 seldom or never a true sucker from the roots. 
 
 The common Dahlia and Pseonia are familiar tuberous 
 rooted plants that produce scouts or stems from, their 
 crowds, butwnp buds or puckers from any part of the 
 tuber or root below it. Among trees, the Catalpas, Ma- 
 ples, Magnolias and Chestnuts are well known kinds that 
 produce sprouts freely, but seldom or never ^sucker. 
 
 To increase by suckers appears to be one oF"rjature's 
 methods of multiplying certain kinds of plants, and when 
 these are brought under cultivation it becomes a ready 
 and simple means of propagation. It is very probable, 
 however, that long continued propagation by suckers will 
 intensify the habit until the plant multiplies so rapidly 
 in this way, that it will lose much of its oriirinal value, 
 even if it does not become an intolerable nuisance to the 
 eumvator. The propaga^ion_o^lants by natural suckers 
 is certainly a GQnveniejit process^Bufr upon the whole it 
 tends more v to the degeneration of the species or variety 
 thus multiplied than to improving it ; consequently, it 
 should jieyer be resorted to except with some of the simple 
 specie^, like the Raspberryand^ackberry, or herbaceous 
 
PROPAGATION BY SUCKERS AND DIVISIONS, 177 
 
 plants, which are frequently transplanted or renewed from 
 
 Suckers from old Pear, Cherry, Plum, and other kinds 
 of fruit trees may, under some circumstancss, be worth 
 preserving, especially when other means of propagation 
 are not at hand ; but trees raised from these suckers are 
 seldoni as vigorous, productive and healthy as those prop- 
 agated by other and more scientific methods. The same 
 is true of many kinds of forest trees which sucker more 
 or less freely ; and while there may be no difficulty in 
 transplanting the sucl^rsyand making them grow, they 
 ire, as a rule, ipferaaTto seedlings. 
 
 are manj^mds^oi herbaceous plants, such as 
 Japan Anemones, the Pachysandras, Lilies-of-the-Valley, 
 and same of the herbaceous Spiraeas, that are usually 
 propagated by- suckers, but they are so frequently trans- 
 planted and divided that no apparent deterioration has 
 as yet been observed from this long continued mode of 
 propagation. 
 
 PROPAGATION BY DIVISION. In propagating plants 
 by divisions, we take~attvantage of all the various forms 
 of growth wherein buds or sprouts appear on the crowns, 
 side shoots, or the base, of the stems. With many kinds 
 of herbaceous plants, division of the clumps of the buds, 
 stems and roots is the most common mode of propagation. 
 There are also various kinds of ligneous plants which 
 may be rapidly multiplied by divisions, employing for 
 this purpose the sprouts which spring up from the base 
 of their stems. The number of these sprouts may be 
 greatly increased by severely heading-back the main stems 
 early in spring, thereby forcing the stump to produce a 
 largo number, and permitting the entire forces of the 
 r^oots, to be expended in producing buds and sprouts. 
 After tliese sprouts have reached a moderate size they 
 may be ban^ejjjp and their bases covered withjsoiL to 
 induce the formation of roots atffiisoTnT, as described 
 
178 PPOPAGATIO^ OF PLANTS. 
 
 in the preceding chapter ; but this banking must be 
 varied according to the nature of the plant operated 
 upon ; for, in some instances, to place earth around 
 young, succulent sprouts would destroy them, while on 
 others, roots would be produced more freely than if the 
 operation was delayed until they were nearly or quite 
 mature. When such sprouts have become well furnished 
 with r/)ots, whether it be at the end of the first, second 
 or third season, they may be slipped off and planted out 
 separately. In propagating plants by divisions, the best 
 time for separating sprouts from the parent stock, or 
 dividing up clumps of herbaceous plants, is when they 
 are in a dormant state ; but this does not occur in all the 
 plants indigenous to any country, at one time, or during 
 any one season. It is perhaps true that the larger pro- 
 portion of the plants cultivated in the gardens of tem- 
 perate climates are in a semi-dormant condition during 
 the colder months ; still it is well known that the roots 
 of certain kinds grow very rapidly, while the aerial parts 
 are to all outward appearances in a state of complete rest. 
 
 With by far the larger number of the species of plants 
 cultivated ,m cold climates, ^spring is the best season^for, 
 dividing and transplanting, because the warm rains which 
 usually fall at this season favor the production of new 
 roots as well as buds and growth of stern. But in mild 
 Qlimatigs, where the ground does not freeze, or at least 
 not to any considerable depth in winter, the autumn 
 months would be preferable, in which to do such work, 
 to those of spring. 
 
 There are, however, many kinds of bulbous, tuberous, 
 and fibrous rooted herbaceous, plants indigenous to cool 
 and coM climates that make all their stem and leaf-growths 
 early in spring and then rest during- the warmest weather 
 in summer. 'No amount of rain or degree of heat will 
 force them to make a second growth. With such plants, 
 among the most familiar of which are the spring flower- 
 
PROPAGATION BY SUCKERS AST) DIVISIONS. 179 
 
 ing bulbs the Narcissus, Hyacinth, Tulip, etc., or the 
 fibrous and tuberous species of early Anemones, Spiraeas, 
 Dicentras and Perennial Poppy dividing the bulbs and 
 clumps and transplanting should immediately follow the 
 ripening of the foliage, for this time is the beginning oE 
 the dormant season with these plants. 
 
 Boot-growth and development of flower-buds will take 
 place later in the season, and while no stems may appear 
 above the surface, they are gathering materials for the 
 ensuing season's growth. In a few instances, as in the 
 common Garden Lily (Lilium candidum) and Oriental 
 Poppy (Papyver orientale) a part of the main leaves of 
 the plants push to the surface early in autumn. Owing 
 to the wide difference in the habits and structure of 
 plants, no one season, or time of year, can be considered 
 as best for dividing and transplanting all kinds. 
 
 In the common herbaceous species of the PaBonia and 
 Dahlia we have types of a class of plants that produce 
 tubers with buds clustered at the apex or crown, and not 
 distributed over the entire surface, as seen in the Potato 
 and American (commonly called Jerusalem) .Artichoke. 
 In prorogating the varieties of either class, we have only 
 to separate the buds, leaving a tuber or a small portion of 
 one attached to the bud, for the purpose of supplying it 
 with sustenance until it emits new. roots j and tubers. 
 Many of the fibrous-rooted plants which grow in tufts or 
 stools, as seen in some species of Grass, Garden Pinks, 
 and other common plants, are usually propagated by 
 divisions. All plants which- naturally produce buds, 
 bujbs, or tubers on their^roots o^^ibterrajieo^s^s^jns^are, 
 usualty~more readily propagated by mot divisions than 
 are those which do not show such formations, but, as I 
 have already shown, with many kinds the existence of 
 buds is of no importance whatever, because there is an 
 inherent power in the plant sufficient to produce them 
 whenever they are required. 
 
180 PROPAGATION OE PLANTS. 
 
 PROPAGATION BY KuNNEHSj on STOLONS. There are 
 manys species of plants, such as the common Strawberry, 
 some of the Potentillas, Saxifrages, and various species 
 of Grassesjwhich throw out long, slender shoots, pro- 
 ducing ' bii as, leaves and roots at the nodes or joints. 
 Plants of this kind require very little artificial aid in their 
 propagation ; still we can hasten development and growth 
 by keeping the surface of the ground rich and loose, 
 applying water whenever necessary. In propagating the 
 common Strawberry by runners, the young plants may be 
 layered in small pgts filled with rich soil, and then 
 plunged in the bed and in the most convenient position 
 to receive the undeveloped plant when ready for pro- 
 ducing roots or layering. By this mode the roots are 
 confined within the pot, forming a close, compact ball, 
 which facilitates transplanting and prevents any serious 
 check to the growth of the young plant. 
 
 C'HAPTEK XV. 
 
 PROPAGATION BY jgOJ-CUTTINGS. 
 
 The propagation of .plants by jcop.t-ciittings has its ad- 
 vantages and its disadvantages. With some kinds, such 
 as certain species of the Raspberry and Blackberry, it 
 will yield plants far superior to those usually obtained in 
 the form of natural suckers ; but with fruit trees, such 
 as the Pear, Plum, and Cherry, it should never be em- 
 ployed, except when no other mode can be made available, 
 or for the purpose of saving some choice variety from be- 
 coming wholly extinct. Trees that naturally produce 
 suckers are likely to have this habit intensified by contin- 
 ued propagation by either suckers or root-cuttings ; but 
 there are others upon whom it does not appear to have 
 
PROPAGATION BY ROOT-CUTTINGS. 181 
 
 this effect, and with such the propagation by root-cjjttiujrs 
 ^is i to be recommended as a very cjjeajp^u^eYCellent mode 
 of increasing the number. 
 
 PkntsJhat produce suckers freely can usually be grown 
 fr-am root-^i^ng^buj^5^fe not limifed to tliese alone, 
 for there are ma^ivjjnnjl^ that seldom or never produce a 
 sucker under naturaTconditions, that under artificial con- 
 ditions niay be readilxpropagaied by root-cu>tings. ,Why 
 one plant possesses so much vitality that every portion, 
 from the leaves to the most minute point of a root, can 
 readily be made to produqe a separate plant, ivhile with 
 another every attempt at such division is unsuccessful, 
 cannot be scientifically explained. The fact is apparent 
 the cause unknown. 
 
 Root-cuttings of hardy plants are usually made in 
 autumn, for the same reasons given for making cuttings 
 of ripe wood at that season, and in all such operations it 
 is well to keep in mind that it takes time for changes and 
 the reorganization of cellular matter. The size of the 
 cutting will necessarily depend somewhat upon the kind 
 of plant under propagation, and the manner of keeping 
 through the winter must also be varied- considerably, 
 owing to the difference in the nature of the roots. Some 
 kinds will require more warmth and moisture to develop 
 buds and new roots than others ; but the propagator who 
 closely patches the progress of his work can readily vary 
 the conditions to mQet the requirements of each and every 
 kind. He can hasten the root-forming process by giving 
 m^re heal^or retard it by ventilation and lowering the 
 temperature. 
 
 As a -packing material in which to store root-cuttings 
 of all hardy plants, none is equal to the common Peat- 
 moss, or Sphagnum from the swamps. It will hold 
 moisture well, is of a cool nature, and will not*. ferment 
 and heat, even when packed closely and subjected to a 
 tngh temperature. It is also a clean and sweet material 
 
.182 PROPAGATION" OF PLANTS. 
 
 in which to pack away cions, roots or cuttings of any 
 kind, whether they are to be preserved for a few days or 
 for months. 
 
 The next best material for this purpose is clean, sharp 
 sand, and it is more generally used, probably, because 
 very abundant, and less labor is required in packing away 
 as well as removing the cutting, than when moss is used. 
 Ordinary soil, if of a rather light, sandy nature, will 
 answer very well as a material in which to store cuttings, 
 but either moss or sand is better. 
 
 In making cuttings of the roots of such hardy plants 
 as the Easpberry, Blackberry, Juneberry, and various 
 ornamental shrubs and trees that are usually propagated 
 by this mode, the roots should be taken up as soon as the 
 plants have ceased growing in the fall, and.cut into pieces 
 of from one to three inches in length, but in some coarse- 
 growing kinds, such as the Paulowuia, they may be a little 
 longer. Then prepare some boxes, by boring holes .in the 
 bottom to insure good drainage, and place a layer of moss 
 or hay over the holes, and if sand is used for packing, 
 spread on an inch or two in depth and over this a layer of 
 the cuttings, then another thin layer of sand, and so on, 
 until the box is full. When moss is used as a packing 
 material, proceed in the same way as with sand. If a dry 
 place can be secured in the open ground, the box contain- 
 ing the cuttings may be buried there and then covered 
 with sufficient earth to prevent severe freezing during 
 the winter. A little freezing will not injure the cuttings 
 of hardy plants, though it may retard the production of 
 buds and new roots ; but a cool cellar is the best place in 
 which to keep root-cuttings, because it will be a conven- 
 ient place for examination from time to time, and their 
 condition be ascertained as often as necessary. The 
 greatest danger to be guarded against when cuttings are 
 stored in a cellar is high temperature, which may fon:e 
 them into growth before the time arrives for planting 
 
PROPAGATION BY ROOT-CUTTINGS. 183 
 
 out. The temperature of the cellar should remain only 
 a few degrees. above the freezing point, until the approach 
 of warm weather in spring ; then, if the callus and buds 
 have not formed, increase the temperature as much as 
 may be necessary to excite growth. It will be found in 
 practice, that root-cuttings of certain kinds of plants pro- 
 duce a callus, buds, and even young shoots in a much lower 
 temperature than others, hence the necessity of frequent 
 examination. There is also a very marked difference in 
 the readiness with which root-cuttings .of the same .genus 
 produce buds, and very often, when two varieties of the 
 same species are treated exactly alike, and placed side by 
 side, one will produce buds and even shoots several inches 
 in length, before the other has emitted a callus. I have 
 often found this to be the case with root-cuttings of roses, 
 and a little forcing with bottom heat was needed to make 
 certain varieties produce buds. The intelligent propa- 
 gator will readily see where a change in treatment is re- 
 quired, and bear in mind that it is only by close attention 
 in such matters that success is to be attained. 
 
 In warm or hot climates root-cuttings may be planted 
 out as soon as they are made, provided there is a certainty 
 of sufficient rain falling to ensure a supply of moisture, ; 
 but keeping them under artificial conditions will usually 
 yield the most satisfactory results. In all cases the root- 
 cuttings should be made when the plant has matured its 
 growth of the season, whether it be of herbaceous or 
 Avoody species, and the propagator should not forget that 
 it takes time for buds to form from cell matter, and to 
 force the roots when first divided is seldom or never advis- 
 able. In propagating tender or greenhouse plants, such 
 as Bouvardias, Geraniums, Acacias and Coronillas, etc., 
 by root-cuttings, the cuttings should be placed in the 
 boxes and covered with sand, charcoal, or moss, and then 
 set aside in a moderately cool place to callus and produce 
 buds, before attempting to force them into growth. 
 
184 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 Tender Eoses, as well as hardy, may be rapidly propagated 
 by root-cuttings, as is now generally practised with the 
 Bouvardias, and at all seasons, provided the cuttings are 
 taken at a time when the plants are in a semi-dormant 
 condition. This may oocur in the autumn, if the plants 
 have been growing in the open ground, or in spring with 
 those that have been forced in the house during winter. 
 Because certain kinds of plants may be propagated 
 freely from ripe or green cuttings, it does not follow that 
 they may also be propagated by root-cuttings. For in- 
 stance, cuttings of the branches of the common Catalpa 
 tree may be struck almost as freely as the Willow, but I 
 have never known of a root-cutting having been made to 
 produce a bud. I have kept the cuttings between layers 
 of moss and in a greenhouse for twelve months, and at the 
 end of that time they were perfectly sound and fresh, 
 and while they had thrown out numerous rootlets, there 
 were no indications of buds. J. C. London, in all of his 
 works where he has occasion to refer to this tree, says that 
 it can be, or is, propagated by root-cuttings, and this 
 statement has been repeated by various authors since his 
 time, and I must confess to have been once misled and 
 named the Catalpa among the ligneous plants which 
 could be readily propagated by root-cuttings. The Paul- 
 ownia tree, which is not distantly related to the Catalpa, 
 is so readily propagated by root-cuttings, that nursery- 
 men prefer this mode to any other. On the contrary, 
 there are other woody plants, such as some of the Moss 
 Eoses, which almost defy the skill of the experienced 
 propagator to force roots from the ripe wood, and yet 
 cuttings of their roots grow very readily when treated in 
 the same way as advised for those of the Easpberry and 
 Blackberry. It is not to be supposed, however, that all 
 of the known species of the Eose can be multiplied as 
 readily from cuttings of their roots as the common 
 Blackberry, but there are many that can be, and no 
 
PROPAGATION BY ROOT-CUTTINGS. 185 
 
 doubt all may be propagated by root-cuttings by varying 
 the treatment some requiring more time and a higher 
 temperature than others in order to secure the production 
 of buds. I now refer to the t4^e_ropJs <<L not to what are 
 called su4^erranea>v$tems and branjeJiej^jvluch are quite 
 djstmc.t productions f rom roBfe, as the former are similar 
 in structure to the aerial stems and branches of the plants 
 that produce them, having joints or nodes at which there 
 is either a single \^u^ or a concentration of a number of 
 buds, as may be seen in such genera of plants as the 
 Calycanthus, Neviusia, and such species as Kamanas Rose 
 (Rosa rugosa), the Smooth Sumach (Rhus glabra), and 
 various kinds of herbaceous plants, like the Canada 
 Thistle, Toad-flax, some of the species of Phlox, Spircea, 
 P achy sandra, and others, all of which produce subter- 
 ranean branches, in addition to their true roots. Fur- 
 thermore, tiqie^ roots^ always originate in^jjie 
 
 i^perJng^rootlets, "Jblargjng with ag 
 subterranean branch starts from a bud on the main stem 
 with nearly, or quite, asgreat a diameEer~as it will ever 
 acquire, with a tip not pointed, but rather blunt, and 
 often thicker than the part behind, and if it meets no 
 obstacle in its lateral growth, the end will either come to 
 the surface and produce an upright stem, and separate 
 pl&nT7~as usually found about old clumps of the plants 
 named, Qr^ej^i^minaj^jn a tuj>er, as seen in the com- 
 mon Potato, Jerusalem Artichoke, Tuberous-rooted Scir- 
 pus (Chufa), etc. If the terminal bud on these subter- 
 ranean branches is destroyed, the next below will pro- 
 duce a shoot, and this may be repeated until the entire 
 number are forced into growth, as is well known to every 
 farmer who has ever tried to kill out Canada Thistles. 
 
 The roots of the Easpberry and Blackberry, although 
 often referred to as subterranean stems or branches, have 
 really nothing in common with these productions, as they 
 do not show any such system of nodes and internodes, 
 
186 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 with buds at their joints, as seen on their aerial canes 
 and branches ; but the roots of these plants produce ad- 
 ventitious buds from any and all parts of their surface 
 alike, consequently in dividing them for making cuttings, 
 we pay no attention to any surface indications of roots or 
 buds. But in employing the -true subterranean branches 
 for cuttings, we divide them on the internode, preserving 
 one, two or more joints with their dormant buds on eacli 
 cutting. If one of these buds pushes and forms a sprout, 
 it is sufficient, but sometimes all will grow, producing a 
 greater number of plants, but less vigorous ones. 
 
 The after-treatment of cuttings made of subterranean 
 branches should be very much the same as that given to 
 
 .HAND-PRUNING SHEARS. 
 
 root-cuttings, although it will usually require less time 
 'for developing the dormant buds at their joints than to 
 produce adventitious buds on true roots. In making 
 such cuttings, the ordinary pruning shears (figure 69) 
 may be employed, instead of a knife, fcr.# very smooth 
 surface to the severed parts is not, so necessary as in mak- 
 ing cuttings of the twigs and young shoots of ligneous 
 and herbaceous plants. 
 
 To avoid repetition, I will say here that wherever in 
 the following pages root-cuttings are mentioned as a mode 
 of propagation, it will be understood that they are to bo 
 made and preserved as described in this chapter. Any 
 variation in treatment which may be required will be 
 noted as it may occur. 
 
PBOPAGATION BY BUDDING. 187 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 PROPAGATION BY BUDDING. 
 
 Budding, is the art of taking a bud, with a small por- 
 tion of the bark adjoining, from one plant and inserting 
 it in another, or in some other part of the same plant 
 from which it was taken. The physiological principles 
 which govern the operation are that there must exist an 
 affinity between the plant from which the bud is taken 
 and the one., upon which it is to be placed, and the nearer 
 the relationship the more readily will it unite and perfect 
 the union. While the science of botany assists us in 
 determining the relationships between plants, it is only 
 by practical experience that the affinity between the 
 various species can be determined. Two species of trees 
 of the same genus may appear to be botanically very 
 closely allied, and yet no permanent union can be effected 
 between the wood of the two, and in such, cases practical 
 experience must necessarily become our only guide. 
 
 In budding it is very important that the har^; of the 
 stock should pjirt readily from ,the wood ; and to secure 
 free and easy separation it is necessary that the operation 
 should be performed when the flow of sap .,is abundant, 
 because if the bud is inserted at this time it immediately 
 comes in contact with that nourishment which it requires 
 for its support. The sap which has been assimilated by 
 the leaves descends mainly through the inner bark and 
 on the external surface of the wood of the stock ; it 
 therefore comes in direct contact with the inside of the 
 bark adhering to the bud,_and is transmitted through the 
 exposed cells to the bud itself, which thus becomes 
 attached to the plant upon which it is placed ; or, in 
 other words, a union is formed between the two. 
 
 For budding are necessary a small knife for preparing 
 the buds for insertion and opening the bark of the stock 
 to admit them, and a quantity of some material to tie 
 
188 
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 around the stock so as to hold the bud in place. Bud- 
 ding knives are made after various patterns ; one that 
 is commonly used has an ivory or bone handle, made 
 very thin at the end, that is used to peel the bark 
 from the stock where the bud is to be inserted, figure 
 70. Another form of budding knife is made with a 
 horn handle, with a small tapering piece of ivory fastened 
 in the end. These knives, of various sizes and shapes, 
 can be had at the seed-stores, but another and quite 
 a different form of budding knife is shown in figure 
 
 Fig. 70. COMMONLY USED BUDDING KNIFE. 
 
 ^1 ? and known as the "Yankee Budding Knife." It 
 is a small pocket knife with a thin blade, round at 
 the end. The cutting portion extends about one-third 
 around the end of the blade and about two-thirds of its 
 length, leaving the lower part dull. Although this form 
 of budding knife has been in use in some of our older 
 nurseries for the past fifty years or more, still it does not 
 appear to have been manufactured for the general trade, 
 and only on special orders from nurserymen. I have 
 
 Fig. 71. YANKEE BUDDING KNIFE. 
 
 used this knife for the past thirty years, and prefer it to 
 those with a bone or ivory spatula for lifting the bark ; 
 for in using the Yankee Budding Knife there is no 
 time wasted in reversing it, as is necessary with those 
 of the form above mentioned. The rounded end of 
 the blade is used for lifting the bark, and it is far more 
 convenient than any form of knife that must be reversed 
 in the hand every time a bud is inserted. This Yankee 
 Budding Knife is an implement especially adapted ta 
 
PROPAGATION BY BUDDING. 
 
 189 
 
 rapid work in the nursery. It may be said, however, 
 that it is immaterial what form of knife is employed, 
 provided it has a keen edge and is dexterously used. 
 The material most commonly 
 used for tying in the hud is called 
 Bass, and may he procured at 
 almost any seed-store, or it can 
 he obtained in the form of Bass 
 mats ; but when it cannot be 
 readily had in either of these 
 forms, and Basswood trees are 
 at hand, their inner bark may 
 be stripped from them in the 
 spring, as soon as it parts freely 
 from the wood. By immersing 
 this bark in water from two to 
 four weeks (varying according to 
 the temperature of the water), 
 the bark will part with its mu- 
 cilaginous matter, after which it 
 may be divided into thin layers 
 resembling fine silk, being very 
 soft and pliable. Another good 
 tying material is known in the 
 trade under the name of Kaffia 
 or Roffia, and of late years it has 
 been extensively imported for 
 this purpose, and is now kept on 
 sale at most seed-stores. It is 
 the cuticle of the leaves of a 
 large Palm, the Rhaphia Ruffia, 
 indigenous to Madagascar and Mauritius. Raffia is some- 
 what softer and more pliable than the ordinary Bass bark 
 but does not hold its form as well, being inclined to roll 
 up instead of remaining flat when handled in tying. Bass, 
 and similar materials, should be immersed in water for an 
 
 Fig. 72. STICK OF BUDS. 
 
190 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 hour or two before wanted for use, in order to increase their 
 pliableness and softness. The inner bark of other kinds 
 of trees besides the Basswood is sometimes used for this 
 purpose, also woolen yarn, strips of cotton cloth, cotton 
 wicking, etc., but Bass is more extensively used than any 
 other material. In selecting buds the young shoots of 
 the present season's growth are usually preferred, and 
 these should be taken from Jhe most healthy and thriving 
 branches. The leaves should be immediately removed, 
 leaving a portion of the leaf-stalk attached, as shown in 
 figure 72. If the leaves have fallen from the twig, it is 
 usually thought to be too ripe for use, but in some in- 
 stances such buds may be used with success. If there 
 are any soft, immature buds on the upper part of the 
 shoot, or any undeveloped ones at the base, they should 
 be rejected. But success in budding depends very largely 
 upon the condition of the stock at the time the operation 
 is performed. Unless the sap is flowing, and in sufficient 
 abundance to allow the bark to part, or peel, freely and 
 easily from the wood underneath, the bud is certain to 
 fail. If the buds should happen to be^a little oyer-ripe, 
 or wholly dormant, if placed in direct contact with the 
 living tissues and thin juices of the stock, they will 
 absorb moisture and nutriment, and they are far more 
 likely to unite and live than under opposite conditions. 
 
 To become an expert in budding, the following rules 
 may be observed: Take the branch in the left hanj] with 
 the small end pointing under the left arm ; insert the 
 knifo blade half an inch below the bud,, cutting through 
 T. ] * tUe baj^an d jjjittlejnto the x wojx^pass the knife under 
 the bud and bring it out abov.e it, taking off the bud with 
 the bark, and a thin s!ico of wood attached, as at a, iiguro 
 7'v. Then (if using- the Yankee Budding Knife) let the 
 -j J forefinger clasp the lower part of the blade, make the 
 horizontal incision m the stock firsthand from this an in- 
 cision downward about an inch long, being careful not 
 
PKOPAGATIOtf BY BUDDING. 
 
 191 
 
 to cut too deep ; lift up the edge of the bark by passing 
 the back of the blade (without removing it) up to the 
 horizontal incision. Ldftthe bark on the other side in 
 the same manner, the two incisions making a wound on 
 the stock resembling the letter T, as shown in figure 73. 
 If other forms of budding knives are used the thin end 
 of the ivory handle is thrust under the bark, raising it 
 sufficiently to admit the bud. The budder holds the bud 
 between the thumb and forefinger of his left hand while 
 making the incision in the stock and as the knife leaves 
 it, he places the lower point of 
 the bark attached to the bud 
 under the bark of the .stocj; 
 before this, falls back into plnrv\ 
 and thrusts it clown into posi- 
 tion. If the upper end of the 
 bark attached to the bud does 
 not pass completely under the 
 bark of the stock, it must be 
 cut across so as to allow that 
 which remains with the bud to 
 fall into place and rest firmly on 
 the wood of the stock, as shown 
 in figure 74. 
 
 When the bud. is fitted to the 
 stock, wind the Bass, or other 
 material used, around the stock, both above and below, 
 covering the entire incision, leaving only the bud and 
 part of leaf-stalk uncovered. The ligatures should be 
 removed or loosened as soon as the bud has become 
 firmly united with the stock, which will usually be in 
 ten or fifteen days, if at all. The horizontal incision is 
 somc.timj3s made below the perpendicular one. This 
 allows more of the downward flow of sap to reach, the 
 bud than when cu,t across above it, as no cells are divided 
 above the bud ; but as it often proves detrimental, and is 
 
 73. 
 
 INCISION 
 
 READY FOB 
 
 BUD. 
 
 4. 
 
 BUD IN POSI- 
 TION. 
 
 t 
 
192 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 not so convenient, this mode is rarely practised, except 
 upon plants in which some peculiar condition of the sap 
 at the time of budding seems to require it. 
 
 When the hud is taken from the shoot, as represented 
 in figure 12, c, there is a small pi^c^j^^p^j^rem^ining 
 under the eye, which in hudding some kinds of plants it 
 may be desirable to remove, although it is almost an 
 universal practice in this country to let the wood remain, 
 and doubtless in a majority of cases, and with most kinds 
 of plants, it is best to do so ; but there are many Euro- 
 pean propagators of plants who insist that a more per- 
 manent union can be secured by its removal. Certain 
 French nurserymen claim that the removal of the wood 
 is quite important in using the Quince as a stock for the 
 Pear, preventing overgrowing or " knotting" at the point 
 of union between stock and bud, but I do not think our 
 own nurserymen have found in their experience that the 
 removal of the wood in the ordinary " shield budding" 
 is an advantage. It may be said, however, in its favor, 
 that when buds are to be taken from large stock branches, 
 like those produced by some varieties of the Pear and 
 4 certain species of the Magnolia, that hj^je 
 ^opj, we gp^rftjajyuiffjiffig shjelrM-.Q fifit ^ 
 surface of the stock, thereby making a better mechanical 
 joirungof jj^two^than could be made otherwise. Vari- 
 ous devices have been employed for removing the wood 
 from buds, in addition to the more common one of lift- 
 ing it out with the point % of the budding knife, raising 
 the upper end first, and peeling it downward to avoid 
 breaking out the center or heart of the bud too deep, as 
 is likely to occur if the lower end of the wood is lifted 
 first and then pulled out from thid direction. 
 
 But if the w-ood is to be removed from any considerable 
 number.of buds, branches should be used from which the 
 bark will readily peel .without tearing or breaking the 
 fibres, and the buds removed as follows : Hold the 
 
PKOPAGATION BY BUDDING. 
 
 193 
 
 branch or shoot containing the buds in the left hand, and 
 with the smaller end towards you ; insert the knife blade 
 about one inch below the bud ; cut^a little^deep^r thaji 
 you would if the wood was to 
 
 J ii _ i i" ^* _^^^__ 
 
 above the bud about one inch, 
 then cut across through the 
 bark only, about half an inch 
 above the bud (see figure 75), 
 then with the finger and 
 thumb lift up the bark, at 
 the same time press gently 
 forward, and the bark and bud 
 (a) will come off, leaving the 
 wood beneath (b) adhering to 
 the branch. Examine the 
 bud after it has been removed 
 to ascertain whether the chit, 
 as it is called, hasTGeen broken 
 off v even with the inside, sur- 
 face of the bark .orwrlnin the 
 
 bud, leaving a 
 
 latter, there- is danger that 
 
 while the bark around the 
 
 bud will unite with the stock, 
 
 the bud itself may fail to grow 
 
 unless the flow of assimilated 
 
 sap on the stock is sufficiently 
 
 abundant to fill the cavity 
 
 witli^ cambium soon after the 
 
 bud is inserted. But the par- 
 
 ticular manner in which buds 
 
 are taken from the twig, or 
 
 inserted in the stock, will make hjit little difference, pro- 
 
 vided the buds are fresh and the bp^atJQn is carjajujly 
 
 performed at the proper time. One operator will insist 
 
 that the best wav to make the horizontal incision in the 
 
 Fig, 75. REMOVING THE BUD. 
 
194 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 "took is by giving the edge of the knife a sloping inclin- 
 ation downward, as shown in figure 76. This form has 
 its advantages, as well as disadvantages. The point of 
 the bark to which the bud is attached is more readily 
 inserted under the bark of the stock than when the in- 
 cision is made square, but it also permits the water which 
 falls upon the stock to enter the wound, often to the 
 injury of the inserted bud. This method is given in 
 "Warder's American Pomology," and is there called 
 (t Mr. Jackson's method." 
 
 The sloping incision would naturally suggest itself 
 to any one who desired to insert buds very rapidly, because 
 
 Fig. 70. BUDDING SLOPING CUT. 
 
 if the stocks were in a proper condition the buds could 
 be thrust home without resorting to the knife for the 
 purpose of lifting the bark ; although it must be admit- 
 ted that, as a general rule, to lift the bark with the knife 
 is far better than to do it with the bud. The bark and 
 wood to which the bud is attached are not usually firm 
 enough to resist, without injury, the pressure required to 
 cleave the bark from the stock. 
 
 The time for budding most kinds of hardy plants is 
 usually during their growth an .summer, varying the 
 
PROPAGATION BY BUDDING. 195 
 
 season to suit the different species, varieties, localities 
 and soils. The experienced propagator, who has become 
 acquainted with the habits of various species, usually 
 delays the qperatio^ until^the stock has passed its seas.on 
 of most. rapid growth, for he has learned that if the bud 
 is inserted too early in the season, the stock may over- 
 grow and smother it. Then, again, buds which are set 
 too early will often push into growth, and not having 
 sufficient time to mature their wood before winter, are 
 killed by cold. Pinching off the ends of the new shoots, 
 when a few inches long, will usually check the growth 
 and hasten maturity ; but buds which make no growth 
 the first season are in the best condition to resist the cold 
 of winter. Eemoving the ligature with which the bud is 
 tied, as soon as a union is formed between bud and stock, 
 will usually prevent premature or fall growth. 
 
 Although summer is the best season for budding most 
 kinds of plants, still, the operation may of ten be success- 
 fully performed in the spring, when vegetation is just 
 starting into growth, or when the sap has begun to flow 
 freely. The branches from which the buds are to be taken 
 are usually cut from the parent plant early in winter and 
 packed away where the buds will remain dormant and yet 
 keep alive and uninjured until wanted for use. Budding 
 in spring is performed precisely as in the summer, except 
 that bhere should be no attempt at removing the wood. 
 Buds may also be removed from one tree and inserted 
 into another in the spring, if both stock and cion are in 
 the same condition, but the operation is not generally as 
 successful as summer budding. 
 
 With trees and shrubs which have a very thick bark, 
 such as Hickory and Magnolia, or even those with a 
 thinner bark, like the Chestnut, Cherry, ^etc., the annu- 
 lar or rjng budding may be performed in the spring after 
 growth has commenced, and in some instances it may be 
 found convenient for saving some choice species or vari- 
 
196 
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 eties, but it is too slow a mode for general use. It differs 
 from other methods in several particulars, but the main 
 one is that the bud is not inserted under the bark of the 
 stock but fitted to it. A ring of bark passing nearly or 
 quite around the stem uponjvhich there is a tnid ..i_s_taljen 
 from the branch, aad a similar ring is cut from the stock, 
 id the bud and bark are fitted into this and then care- 
 fully tied ia place. The branch 
 from which the bud is taken, and 
 the stock to which it is affixed, 
 should be of nearly the same size, 
 although a piece of bark may be 
 taken off from the bud, or the 
 same added to it, for the purpose 
 of making a close joint. Figure 77 
 shows a stock with a ring of bark 
 removed (#), and another (a) with 
 bud ready to clasp arourd it. 
 This method of pudding or gi;aft- 
 jng,.for it may be considered under 
 either head, is termed "Jflute 
 grafting" by European horticul- 
 turists, and it is more generally 
 performed in spring than later in 
 the season. When only a small 
 section of bark is removed with 
 the bud, and this fitted to the stock by removing a similar 
 section, it is called "veneer shield budding," as it is 
 intermediate between the ordinary budding and the 
 annular or flute grafting. 
 
 Like other methods of propagating plants, pudding 
 may be performed in various ways. The exact size or 
 form of the bud or stock is not so very essential ; the 
 main thing to be observed is, their condition at the time 
 the operation is performed. It should be borne in mind 
 that new plant-cells must be formed before a permanent 
 
 Fig. 77. 
 
 FLUTE BUDDING. 
 
PROPAGATION BY BUDDING. 197 
 
 union can take place ; consequently, both bud and sjtock 
 shou4dj3e_iiLa condition^ to produce cells soon after the 
 junction of these is artificially made". As~1bhe delicate 
 tissues of growing wood and bark are very sensitive to 
 exposure, it is apparent that in performing the operation 
 of!) udding, in any of its forms, it should be done^s^rap^ 
 i(lly as possible compatible with completeness of execu- 
 tion. The young wood containing the bud is, however, 
 not so perishable as to prevent the preserving of them for 
 several days in good condition, and it has recently become 
 quite a general practice among nurserymen to supply 
 their customers at a distance from the nursery with buds 
 of various kinds during the season. When the sticks of 
 buds, as they are termed, are cut from the tree, the leaves 
 should be removed, leaving about an inch of the petiole, 
 or leaf-stalk, attached to the branch for convenience in 
 handling the bud at the time it is inserted in the stock. 
 The sticks of buds should then be wrapped in damp 
 moss that will keep them in good condition for several 
 days, but the less interval that elapses between the time 
 they are cut and that when they are used, the better. In 
 the ordinary and more common modes of budding, dur- 
 ing the months of July, August and September, in tem- 
 perate climates, the bud is not expected to push into 
 growth until the following spring, it remaining in a dor- 
 mant state through the winter months. Whether the 
 budding should .be performed during the first or last 
 month named, will depend upon the condition of the 
 stocks, but those kinds that complete their growth ear- 
 liest in the season, should be budded first. If the stocks 
 .are likely to cease growing before the buds are ready 
 for use, the maturing of the latter may be hastened by 
 pinching off the ends of the twigs, thereby throwing all 
 the sajp into that part which remains. The buds should 
 be plump and of good form and substance, a condition 
 which may be readily understood by an examination of 
 shoots in different stages of growth. 
 
198 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 If the stocks are very vigorous and are budded early, 
 there will be danger that the ligatures may cut into the 
 bark, as the stock increases in diameter. It would be 
 safest to leave the ligatures on the stock until the follow- 
 ing spring, provided the budding could always be done 
 at just the right moment to insure a firm union, and no 
 more, when frosts come to check growth, but this so sel- 
 dom occurs, that in a majority of instances the ties will 
 need to be loosened within ten or fifteen days after the 
 buds are inserted. It is not always advisable to remove 
 the ligatures, but merely to loosen them .sufficiently to 
 admit of an expansion of the stock, and prevent strangu- 
 lation and the forcing of the bud to make a premature 
 growth. If the buds should be forced into growth, there 
 is nothing to be done but to head back the stocks and let 
 the buds grow as rapidly as possible until checked by cold 
 weather. Some of the lower buds on these premature 
 shoots may escape destruction the ensuing winter ; if so, 
 they should be head-ed back to a strong, well-developed 
 bud, and this may produce a strong and vigorous shoot. 
 
 Under ordinary. circumstances, budded stocks should 
 not be headed back until the following spring, and then 
 severed at a point four or five inches above the inserted 
 bud. This stump serves as a support to which the new 
 growth may be tied, to prevent it from being broken out 
 by the wind. A|l sprouts which may push out from the 
 stock, either below or above the bud, must be jobbed off 
 from time to time, as they appear. Later in summer, 
 when the new stem has become somewhat mature, the 
 stump of the stock may be cut away with a sloping cut, 
 at the lowest point opposite the bud. With weak, slen- 
 der-growing trees, the young plant may require staking 
 for the first year or two, in order to secure a straight stem. 
 
 The rapidity with which budding can be done by an 
 expert is astonishing to a novice or an amateur who will 
 spend several minutes in properly placing a single bud. 
 
PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING. 199 
 
 I have known men who considered 200 an hour an easy 
 task, and there are a few who will set many more than 
 that, under favorable circumstances. Practice makes ex- 
 pedition as well as perfection. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 Grafting is governed by the same physiological prin- 
 ciples as budding. There must exist an affinity between 
 the stock and cion ; if not, a permanent union is im- 
 possible. 
 
 With some of the Anodes in use, the operation is very 
 similar to that ofbudding, but with this important4iffert 
 ence, that in grafting a larger section .of the plant to be 
 propagated is used than in budding ; besides, it can be 
 performed upon a great variety of plants while they are 
 dormant. 
 
 The art of grafting is one of the most ancient methods 
 known of multiplying individual species and varieties of 
 plants ; still, there is at this late day, scarcely one person 
 in a hundred, among those who cultivate fruits who suf- 
 ficiently understands the process to put it into successful 
 practice. The same may be said of all the most common 
 methods of propagating plants, oft-repeated, but seldom 
 learned by any considerable number of persons of any one 
 generation. 
 
 Thro viorh the ingenuity of horticulturists a great num- 
 ber of different modes of grafting have been invented, 
 and practised to a somewhat limited extent, but of the 
 majority it is safe to say that they are of no practical 
 value, merely showing jn^ how many digejre^,^^^^ 
 cells of plants may be forced to^ unite. As it would be 
 
200 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 only a waste of time and valuable space to enumerate the 
 many different modes of grafting, only those possessing 
 the most merit, and such as have been approved by skil- 
 ful propagators, will be described in the following pages. 
 
 There has also been a large number of grafting machines 
 invented, several of them patented .in this country and 
 Europe, but practical propagators seldom employ them 
 in their work. The French gardeners, and especially the 
 vineyardists of France, have been quite prolific in inven- 
 tions of this kind, and since the advent of the Phylloxera 
 in the vineyards of Europe, grafting machines have been 
 in greater demand, as they are thought to be of some ad- 
 vantage in grafting the Grape. As the species of Grape 
 indigenous to North America are supposed to more suc- 
 cessfully resist the attacks of the Phylloxera than the 
 European varieties, the former are now extensively em- 
 ployed as stocks upon which to graft the latter. Among 
 the various European implements recommended in graft- 
 ing vines, the following are perhaps the best known kinds : 
 M. Petit's Cleft Grafter ; Leyder's Grafting Implement ; 
 Bordguer's Grafting Tool ; Trabuc's Grafter ; Sabatier's 
 Implement for grafting in-doors, and another for out- 
 door work ; Vincent's Grafter, and Pelanquier's Grafter. 
 Some of these implements are of very complicated con- 
 struction, and not only cut off and prepare the stock for 
 the reception of the cion, but tie it in when inserted. 
 
 An American implement for grafting the Grape, con- 
 sists of two saw-blades placed side by side, for cutting 
 the cleft in large stocks, and an accompanying imple- 
 ment, consisting of two knife-blades set in a lever, for 
 cutting the cions of the proper thickness to fill the saw- 
 cleft in the stock. This implement, although at one 
 time highly recommended and somewhat extensively em- 
 ployed in grafting old and large vines, appears to have 
 gone out of use, like others of its kind. 
 
 T_he ordinary implements used in grafting, are : a small 
 
PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING. 
 
 saw, for cut ting. off. the heads. of large^tpcl^ or_ branches 
 
 make clefts in the stock ; a small knife with which to pre- 
 pare the cion; a wedge, or grafting chisel, and a small 
 mallet. The above-named implements are often made of 
 petrtmar patterns, to suit the fancy of the operator, but 
 the main thing is, to have the work well dpne. Other 
 kinds of~fmplements are used in performing particular 
 modes of grafting, which I shall have occasion to men- 
 tion as the different processes are described. In addition 
 to these, bass or raffia strings, such as are used in budding, 
 for tying in the grafts, and grafting-wax^fco^coyertjie 
 wounds and protect them from the air and water, are 
 necessary? - * 
 
 lyVVUM^ ' fllAJjfrtMftj 1M* CMLlMwCA/^Vy 'i 
 
 GRAFTING- WAX. There arTTtmny kinds of grafting- 
 wax, as welT as other compositions for the same purpose. 
 A composition, made of clay, fresh cow manure, and fine 
 straw or grass, was the principal material used m graftiffg 
 untillhe present century, and it is still used occasionally, 
 and with such good results that it should not be entirely 
 ignored or overlooked. It may be prepared as follows : 
 Take a quantity of good, strong clay, and a small quantity 
 of fresh cow manure ; add sufficient water to make it the 
 consistence of thick paste ; add a little fine-cut grass or 
 straw ; if a little salt say about one pint to the bushel 
 is added, it will assist it in retaining moisture, when ap- 
 plied to the stock and cion. Tl^is composition should be 
 made several weejss before it is wanted for use, and be 
 thorougly worked over as often as once a week until 
 used, for the more it is manipulated the better. This 
 composition is but little used at the present day, but for 
 some kinds of coarse grafting on large, open-grained 
 wood, it will retain moisture longer and protest the cion 
 better than the more modern grafting-wax. There are 
 many different kinds of grafting compositions recom- 
 mended by the authors of works on gardening, which 
 
202 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 shows that the exact proportions of materials, or, in fact, 
 the materials themselves, if of like nature, are not very 
 essential to success. For grafting in the open air, the 
 following compound is probably more generally used in 
 this country than any other : Common rosin, four parts ; 
 beeswax, two parts ; tallowy one part melted together ; 
 and after it is cool, it is applied by hand, or, when in 
 a liquid state (being melted), it may be applied with a 
 brush or spread thinly upon tough paper or muslin, and 
 the latter cut up into strips of convenient size for use. 
 If the wax is to be used in cool weather, then add a little 
 more tallow. Linseed oil is sometimes used in place of 
 tallow in the following proportions : Rosin, six pounds ; 
 beeswax, two pounds ; linseed oil, one pint. From my 
 own experience, I consider .tallow much preferable to oil, 
 and I would warn the novice against using indiscrim- 
 inately the different .kinds of oils often sold under the 
 name of linseed. In Europe, Burgundy pitch is more 
 generally used in making grafting-wax than in this 
 country. Some of the French authors recommend the 
 following : Melt together two pounds twelve ounces of 
 rosin, and one pound and eleven ounces of Burgundy 
 pitch. At the same time melt nine ounces of tallow ; 
 pour the latter into the former, while both are hot, and 
 stir the mixture thoroughly. Then add eighteen ounces 
 of red ochre, dropping it in gradually and stirring the 
 mixture at the same time. After the composition has 
 cooled sufficiently, work it well with the hands. If this 
 wax is to be used out of doors in cool weather, it should 
 be carried in a vessel like an ordinary glue-pot, in order 
 to keep it in a semi-fluid condition. All the above kinds 
 of wax may be spread upon cloth or tough paper with a 
 brush, when warm, and the paper or cloth cut up when 
 the wax is cool. In what is called splice or whip-graft- 
 ing, these waxed strips will be found very convenient for 
 wrapping about the parts united. 
 
PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING. 203 
 
 The French Mastic, so long known as "Lefort's 
 Liquid Graf ting- Wax," is made by melting one pound of 
 common rosin over a gentle fire, adding one ounce of 
 beef tallow, the latter to be well stirred in. Take it 
 from the fire, let it cool down a little, and then mix in 
 eight ounces of alcohol. The alcohol will cool down 
 the mixture so rapidly that it may be necessary to place 
 it over the fire again. The utmost care must be exer- 
 cised to prevent the alcohol from taking fire. The com- 
 position should be kept in tin boxes or glass jars until 
 wanted for use. This mastic is highly recommended by 
 the nurserymen of France, but as its composition and 
 mode of making were until quite recently a kept secret, 
 it has been used only in very limited quantities in this 
 country, owing to the cost of importing it. 
 
 In all the different modes of grafting great care should 
 be observed in having the external surface of the wood of 
 the stock and cion exactly even, no matter whether the 
 inner surface of the bark is even or not. This allows 
 the new cells which form between the bark and wood, of 
 both stock and cion v to uiaite and form channels through 
 which the sap can readily pass. The sap ascends through 
 the wood of the stock into that of the cion (graft), caus- 
 ing the leaves to expand, which, in their turn, assimilate 
 it preparatory to its descent, as stated in a previous 
 chapter. 
 
 Thejtime for grafting most kinds of woody plants in 
 the open air or nursery is in the spring, just before, or 
 soon after, the sap begins to flow most rapidly, varying 
 the time according to the nature of the different species 
 to bo operated upon, for experience has demonstrated 
 that some kinds should be grafted much earlier than 
 others, without regard to any apparent movement of the 
 ap. These variations in the time of grafting, as well as 
 in the condition of the stock, will be referred to more 
 fully in a succeeding chapter. 
 
204 PKOPAGATIOK OF PLANTS. 
 
 In cold climates, the young slender branches of even 
 the most hardy deciduous trees are often injured by the 
 severe frosts of winter ; therefore, when such twigs or 
 branches are wanted for cions, it is best to take them 
 from the parent stock in autumn, soon after the leaves 
 have fallen, and preserve them in earth, saw-dust, char- 
 coal, sand, mqss, or some similar material, where they will 
 be cool not frozen and just sufficiently moist to prevent 
 shriveling. Cions of the^ripe wood of some kinds of trees 
 may be taken from the parent plant in the spring, at the 
 time they are wanted for use ; but their vitality is often 
 weakened by the severity of the weather, and the delicate 
 tissues injured to such an extent that they will not form 
 what is called "granulations" although it is precisely 
 the same as the callus on cuttings which fill up any small 
 interstices that may exist between the stock and cion, al- 
 lowing of the transmission of sap from one to the other. 
 Furthermore, in grafting plants while in a semi-dormant 
 state, it is well to secure as great a difference as practicable 
 in the density of the fluids of the stock and cion, in order 
 to ensure the endosmose and exosmose movement of the 
 sap, as explained in Chapter I., and to secure this condi- 
 tion we have only to keep the branches selected for cions 
 in a dormant state until the sap of the stock has begun 
 to flow in spring. While it cannot be said to be positively 
 necessary in every instance that there should be any con- 
 siderable difference in the density of the fluids of the 
 stock and cion, to insure success in grafting, still, with 
 some kinds of trees, a difference in condition is rather to 
 be sought than otherwise. 
 
 CLEFT GEAFTING. This method is the original or most 
 primitive of all the different modes of grafting trees, and 
 it is principally used upon large stocks or on the brancLes 
 of old trees. It is rather a bungling, unscientific method 
 of grafting, exposing an unnecessary amount of surface 
 to be healed over by a new growth, and the scars made in 
 
PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING. 
 
 205 
 
 the operation are seldom or never entirely obliterated. 
 It is, however, extensively employed in re-grafting old 
 orchards, and in utilizing large stocks, in order to obtain 
 bearing trees in less time than if smaller and younger 
 ones were used. 
 
 The stock is first cut off at a point where it is desirable 
 to insert the cion ; it is then split with a large knife or 
 thin chisel being careful to divide the bark at the same 
 
 a 
 
 Fig 78. 
 
 USE OF THE WEDGE. 
 
 CLEFT GRAFTING. 
 
 Fig. 79. 
 CION AND STOCK. 
 
 time, leaving the edges smooth. When the knife is with- 
 drawn, an iron, or hard-wood, wedge is inserted in the 
 center or afc the side of the stock, as shown in figure 78 ; 
 the cion, #, figure 79, is then cut in the form of a wedge, 
 b, and fitted into the cleft, c; the wedge is then. with- 
 drawn, and the elasticity of the stock will hold it in its 
 place. Grafting-wax is then applied, entirely covering 
 the wound. When the stock is an inch or more in diam- 
 eter, two cions may be inserted, one on each side, the 
 operator being careful to place the external surface of tl^e 
 \Efiund not bark of both cion and stock exactly even ; 
 
206 
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 a 
 
 at least they should meet at some one point ; and to make 
 sure of this, some grafters set the cions slightly inclining 
 inward, as shown in figure 80 a, the upper part of the 
 
 cion ; , the lower end. 
 The cion may be two or 
 three inches long, con- 
 taining one or more buds. 
 The bark 011 the cion y? ill 
 usually be thinner than 
 that on the stock ; ,but 
 this is of no consequence, 
 provided the edges of the 
 wound are even, bringing 
 the bark of the cion and 
 stock in direct contact. 
 - ~" ' In stocks of less size, they 
 irm may be cut off with an 
 upward slope and the cion 
 inserted on the upper or 
 lower side ; some grafters prefer one and some the other, 
 but I have often set cions in both positions without dis- 
 covering that either had any advantage. 
 
 QROWN GRAFTING. This is but a mere modification 
 of the clef t graft, but instead of splitting the stock to 
 receive the cion, the latter is sloped off thinly on one 
 side, the bark divided from the top of the stock down- 
 ward for an inch or more, and then lifted slightly, as in 
 budding ; the cion is then inserted under the Lark of 
 the stock and held in place by strips of waxed cloth. 
 This form of grafting cannot be done until the bark of 
 the stock will peel readily ; consequently, it is usually 
 performed later in the season than the ordinary cleft 
 grafting. Another form of crown grafting is shown in 
 figure 81, The cion is cut about half-way through, as 
 shown at B, and the wood removed, leaving a square 
 shoulder at top, and opposite to a well-developed bud. 
 
 Fi. 80. 
 
 OL^FT GRAFT WITH TWO CIONS. 
 
PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING. 
 
 207 
 
 From the stock, d, d, d, d, the bark is removed to admit 
 the cion ; one to four cions, as shown, may be fitted to a 
 stock, and then all are held in place by a ligature of waxed 
 cloth, and the top of the stock also covered with wax. 
 This mode of grafting is usually considered best adapted 
 to large stocks, such as are not suitable for the ordinary 
 cleft grafting, but it may be used for stocks of quite small 
 size. The exposed wood of the upper end of the cipn 
 should also be covered with wax, to prevent evaporation 
 of moisture therefrom, and with some kinds of trees, 
 
 Fig. 81. CROWN GRAFTING. 
 
 such as the Hickories, "Walnuts and Chestnuts, it is well 
 to cover or -enclose the entire -head of the stock and cions 
 with a hood made of oiled paper or thin muslin, until the 
 buds on the cions push into growth. This shading and 
 protection against drying winds, often secures the growth 
 of the cions when, if left exposed, they would fail. 
 
 TRIANGULAR CROWN GRAFTING. This is only an- 
 other form of the preceding mode, and one that should 
 have long ago taken the place of the more clumsy method 
 of cleft grafting. In this, the stock is not split, but in- 
 stead, a triangular incision is made in the side of the 
 stock, as shown in figure 82, r, and the cion cut in the 
 
208 
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 same form and fitted into the cleft, as seen in the right- 
 hand figure. An implement, called a cleft-cutter, figure 
 
 . 82. TRIANGULAR CROWN GRAFTING. 
 
 83, is sometimes used for making the incision in the 
 stock ; but it is not indispensable, as the cleft can be 
 made almost as readily with a good, sharp knife. The 
 
 Ffe. 83. 
 
 cions are, as is usual in such methods of grafting, held 
 in position by ligatures of waxed cloth. 
 
 SIDE CROWN GRAFTING. This mode of grafting is 
 employed principally o.n large stocks and at the collar or 
 crown above the main roots, and with species that can- 
 not be "feadily~divided or split to receive the cion, as in 
 the ordinary cleft grafting. Sometimes the wood at this 
 point is gnarled and so cross-grained that a smooth cleft 
 cannot be made with a. knife, and with such the side 
 
PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING. 209 
 
 crown graft may be employed. The stock is cut oft level 
 wither a littlejjelow the surface of the ground, as in ..fig- , 
 ure 84. The cion, B, is severed to about two-thirds of, 
 its diameter, and this portion removed, forming .a 
 shoulder at ,C; the remaining part is pared smooth and 
 thin aTTTEe lower end. The stock, having been cut off 
 at D, and the b$rk, E 9 remQvedj^I^aJ:hiiilice of wood, 
 
 Fig. 84. SIDE CKOWN GRAFTING. 
 
 to correspond with ,the lip of the cion,, which is then 
 fitted to it, tlre^shouloTelrof 'the cion resting upon the 
 top of the stock, or both iray be notched, as shown in 
 figure 84. The cion and stock are then ^tied with bass 
 or waxed cloth and the soil drawn back over the head of 
 the stock covering the cion, except the terminal bud, A. 
 It often occurs that cions of rare varieties of ornamental 
 trees are obtained by persons who have no suitable stocks 
 
210 
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 on which to use them, although large trees of closely 
 allied species may be near at hand. Under these circum- 
 stances the large roots of old trees may be employed as 
 stocks without removing them from the ground. In 
 using such stocks, the soil should be removed from over 
 the roots seyer-al feet from the main .stenx of the tree, 
 varying the distance according to the age and probable 
 size of the roots sought. The < root is then qut off .and 
 the end brought to the surface, as shown in figure 85, 
 and the cion inserted or affixed in any of the different 
 modes of crown or cleft grafting. It must be apparent 
 that a large root of this kind will supply a cion with ma- 
 
 Fig. 85. SIDE CROWN GRAFTING ON ROOTS. 
 
 terials for making a vigorous growth, which may be util- 
 ized as c'ions when a better class of stocks have been 
 raised or otherwise procured. 
 
 ,SADDI< GE^FTIKG. This is a neat but somewhat tedi- 
 ouslnocle of grafting, consequently seldom practised, ex- 
 cept by amateurs in gardening who can spare the time 
 necessary for such complicated operations. It is em- 
 ployed principally upon small stocks, qr on the terminal 
 shoots of young trees. The stock and cion should be 
 nearly of the same size, although the stock may be a little 
 
PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING. 
 
 211 
 
 larger without making any material difference in the re- 
 sult ; the two sides of the stock are cut off in a sloping 
 direction, forming a wedge, as shown in figure 86 ; the 
 lower end of the cion is trimmed out on the inside so 
 that it will fit upon the stock, as shown. Young; Apple, 
 Pear, and other fruit trees, when three or four feet high, 
 are often toprgrafted in this manner, although what is 
 
 Fig. 86. SADDLE 
 
 GRAFTING. 
 
 Fig. 87. MODIFIED SADDLE Fig. 88. KNIGHT'S 
 GRAFTING. SADDLE GRAFTING. 
 
 called a splice graft will answer equally well, and can be 
 applied far more expeditiously. 
 
 Sometimes the saddle grafj; is so modified that it is 
 intermediate between the cleft and the saddle, as shown 
 in figure 87. 
 
 Another form of saddle grafting, introduced by Mr. 
 Thomas A. Knight, of England, in 1811, is shown in fig- 
 ure 88. Of this Mr. Knight says that " it is never at- 
 tempted until the usual season of grafting is passed, and 
 
212 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 the bark is readily defcached from the alburnum. The 
 head of the stock is taken off by a single stroke of the 
 knife obliquely." The cion, which should not exceed in 
 diameter half that of the stock, is then divided longi- 
 tudinally, about two inches upward from its lower end, 
 into two unequal divisions. The stronger division of the 
 cion is then pared thin at its lower extremity, and intro- 
 duced, as in crown grafting, between the bark and wood 
 of the stock, and the more slender division is fitted to the 
 stock upon the opposite side. The cion, consequently, 
 stands astride the stock, to which it attaches itself upon 
 each side, as in the more common mode of saddle graft- 
 ing. 
 
 SPLICE AND TONGUE GRAFTING.-- -When the stock and 
 cion are nearly of the same size, splice grafting also 
 called tf wJaip grafting" is the most convenient and cer- 
 tain method known. Seedling stocks are most generally 
 used, and. of various ages, from one to three or more years 
 old, according to their kind and rapidity of growth. The 
 stock is cut off with an upward slope, making the exposed 
 wood perfectly smooth ; a cion two to four inches long is 
 cut off, with the same slope as the stock, and fittec^ to it, 
 being careful to have the wood and bark on one side 
 exactly even. The Difficulty in practising this, mode is 
 in keeping the cion in position while applying the liga- 
 tures, and for this reason it has been almost entirely 
 superseded by 
 
 * TONGUE OR WHIP GRAFTING, which differs from the 
 ordinary splice only in one point, viz.: a small cleft or 
 split is made in both stock and cion, about midway on the 
 slope, forming a tongue on both ; these are then inserted 
 one into the other, which will hold the cion in its place. 
 Figur^ SU shows the operation as completed c, the stock; 
 , the cion ; a, bud on cion the union being formed by 
 what is sometimes called a tongue splice. This mode of 
 
PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING. 
 
 213 
 
 grafting is one of the most expeditious and certain of any 
 in general use, not only where small seedling stocks and 
 roots are employed, but also for top- grafting young trees 
 in the nursery. It may also be used upon quite large 
 stocks, provided they have been previously headed back 
 and have thrown oat thrifty, branches upon 
 which the cions can be conveniently spliced. 
 In splice" grafting, in the open air, waxed 
 cloth should be used for ligatures, to prevent 
 the breaking away of the cion before it has 
 become firmly united ; but when the grafting 
 is done inside, or upon pieces of roots which 
 will be planted out in spring, strong waxed 
 paper may be used, or even bass, and no wax. 
 Sometimes a ligature of bass is used, and 
 then melted wax is applied with a brush, to 
 cover the wounds on the joint between cion 
 and stock. In some forms of root grafting 
 it is desirable to place the cion so low down 
 that it will eventually take root and become 
 capable of supplying itself with sustenance 
 through its own roots, instead of through 
 those of the original stock. Under such 
 conditions only very short pieces of roots are 
 employed, as they are intended .only to serve ^^FTING. 
 a temporary purpose, usually dying when the cion has 
 produced roots for self-support. 
 
 All thcTother modes, such as the splice, cleft, crown, 
 side and saddle grafts, maybe used on roots as well as. on 
 the stems and branches of woody plants, and, as a rule, 
 the larger and stronger the stock, the more vigorous will 
 be the growth of the cion. But while rapid and vigorous 
 growth is usually desirable, it should be kept in mind 
 that no cion can utilize more'nntriment sent forward .by, 
 the stock than its leaves can assimilate ; consequently, jf 
 the roots of a stock upon which a cion is set gather more 
 
214 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 materials than can be used, there must ensue a forced, 
 unhealthy growth, or an entire inaction, in some part of 
 the plant. When a tree or shrub is severely headed back, 
 for grafting or other purposes, and thus deprived of its 
 usual amount of foliage, it will often expend the greater 
 part of its vitality in producing suckers or sprouts from 
 the base of its stem. No root will remain dormant and 
 healthy for any considerable time under circumstances 
 which are naturally favorable for promoting growth, and, 
 knowing this, the grafter should, avoid cutting off all the 
 branches of a large tree at one time, unless he can substi- 
 tute a sufficient number of cions to fill their place, or at 
 least enough to allow all the roots to act, even if it be but 
 slowly. To avoid the too severe checking of root action, 
 it is better to graft only a part of the branches of large 
 trees one season, leaving the remainder until the next. 
 
 A^ENEEE GRAFTING. This mode of grafting is princi- 
 pally employed in propagating woody plants under glass, 
 where both the temperature and hygrometric condition 
 of the atmosphere can be readily controlled by the propa- 
 gator. The usual time for performing the operation is in 
 summer, and soon after the first and most vigorous growth 
 of the season is completed, but before the wood and leaves 
 are fully mature. As the leaves on both stock and cion 
 are retained, they should notnave entirely ceased to 
 assimilate sap at the time of grafting, but still remain 
 fresh and capable of performing all of their natural func- 
 tions. The time for performing the operation must neces- 
 sarily vary with different kinds, according to the differ- 
 ence in the natural habits of the various species, as some 
 make their growth much Qarli.er in the season than others, 
 but the method of grafting is the same in all. 
 
 In this mode of grafting the^stocks should be grown 
 in pots for convenience in handling when performing the 
 operation, as well as afterwards, for the union between 
 stock and cion must be .secured before the plants are re- 
 
PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING. 215 
 
 moved to the open ground, or to outside frames. The 
 usual practice is, to place the stocks in pots, from six to 
 twelve months before ,they are wanted for use, and 4ihen 
 plunge them s in an open border surrounded with board 
 frames, where water can be applied as often as necessary 
 to ensure a vigorous growth of the stems and the forma- 
 tion of new roots. Success depends very much upon the 
 condition and vigor of the -stocks, and their preparation 
 for use is of such importance that it should not be over- 
 looked or neglected. Seedling stocks are principally used, 
 and of various ages, according to the kind and natural 
 growth, but those of from six to twenty-four inches high 
 vvilTusually be as large as necessary. If the seedlings have 
 long tap-ropt-Sj these may be cut away, and even the lateral 
 roots may be shortened, if necessary, to admit all into 
 .pots of convenient size. The .tops may also be headed 
 back at the time of placing the stocks in pots ; in fact, 
 more or less pruning will usually be necessary, in order 
 to secure neat, trim-looking stocks. The new growth 
 which they will make in the pots before they are wanted 
 for use may require slight attention, in order to secure a 
 smooth, clean surface on the stem at the point where r the 
 cion is to be placed. 
 
 WI\en ready for grafting, the stocks are lifted from the 
 border and carried indoors, and the cions cat from the 
 parent plants as required, and kept in as fresh condition 
 as possible, not being allowed to wilt or shrivel in the 
 least. The stock should not be headed back or severely 
 pruned at the time of grafting, although^ a side branch, 
 or more than one, may be removed if necessary in prepar- 
 ing a place for the cion. 
 
 In affixing the cion the operator selects a smooth place 
 on one side of the stock, then with a sha^p knife he 
 makes a light cross-cut through the bark and to a slight 
 depth into the wood underneath, then inserts the blade 
 from one and a half to two and a half inches above, 
 
216 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 ting ofE a thin slice or veneer of the wood and bark down 
 to. the cross-cujt. m me stoc. ^TsimII^jlic53jthencjit 
 from the ciou, as shown in figure. 9.0. The exposed al- 
 burnum^ of the cion is placed against .that on the stock, 
 and the whole wqund firmly bound with a ligature of 
 bass, as in budding or splice grafting. No wax is used, 
 neither is there a tongue made on either cion or stock, 
 but merely a clean, smooth wound, as shown in figure 90. 
 
 As soon as the cion has been inserted, the stock should 
 be removed to the inside frames of the propagating house 
 and gently watered overhead. The bottom of the frames 
 should be either covered with sand or moss the latter is 
 preferable, as it holds moisture better and gives it off 
 slowly, keeping the air within the frames well filled with 
 vapor. If the frames are not deep enough to admit the 
 grafted plants when set upright, the pots may be tilted 
 over to one side, and a good depth of sand or moss in the 
 bottom will aid greatly in keeping them in this position. 
 
 The house in which plants are veneer grafted in sum- 
 mer should be well shaded, either with lath screens or 
 whitewash on the glass, and in very clear weather it will 
 frequently be necessary to add extra shading to the inside 
 frames, especially if filled with recently grafted plants of 
 broad-leaved kinds, like the Maples, Magnolias and Dog- 
 woods. In this climate, artificial heat will seldom be 
 required ; still, it is well to have the furnaces in order, 
 as cold storms occasionally occur, and a little fire heat 
 may be needed to allow of rather more ventilation than 
 could otherwise be given with safety. During the first 
 iew days, or for the first week .after the cions are set, the 
 plants should be kept in a pretty close, warm and moist 
 atmosphere, for the object at this time is to excite growth 
 in the stock, or at least to accelerate the flow of sap, in 
 order to produce rapid granulation of the wounds on both 
 stock and cion, and thereby increase the chances of a 
 union of the two. 
 
PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING. 217 
 
 Fig. 90. yjga E 
 
218 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 Within a week after the cions are set, the failures, if 
 any, may be seen, as the leaves will drop from the cions 
 if there is no communication between them and the 
 stocks. At the end of two weeks, or a little more, the 
 cions will be united, if at all, and a very reliable indica- 
 tion of this is a new growth on the cions. The plants 
 may then be removed from the house, if necessary, and 
 the pots plunged in frames in the open ground, and given 
 shade and plenty of moisture. But where the propaga- 
 tor has abundant house room, it is best to keep the plants 
 inside for a month or more, and by proper ventilation 
 somewhat harden the new growth Before removing to the 
 outside frames. If the stocks have a good ball of roots 
 they may be slipped out of the pots when transplanted to 
 the outside frames. 
 
 This mode of inside veneer grafting is not only one of 
 the most expeditious and certain methods of propagating 
 nearly all kinds of deciduous and evergreen trees and 
 sjirubs, but it is performed at a season when the expert 
 grafter has the most leisure, if it can be said that such a 
 time ever falls to his lot ; and by having his stocks of 
 various kinds growing in pots, he can graft them at his 
 pleasure, in foul or fair weather, and at the same time be 
 eminently successful in propagating many species of trees 
 that are always uncertain, and seldom or never success- 
 fully grafted in the open air at least not in cold climates. 
 
 Another advantage of grafting in summer is that in 
 taking the cions, the propagator can select those which 
 will best perpetuate any special characteristic like the 
 variegation of leaves in deciduous trees, which become 
 obliterated later in the season. This is a very important 
 matter, for, as is well known, the best marked of the 
 variegated, laciniate and colored leaved trees, are inclined 
 to revert to the original forms, and it is only by proper 
 and timely selections of wood for propagation that these 
 abnormal forms are fixed and perpetuated. By repeated 
 
PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING. 
 
 selections of the best forms and most distinctly marked, 
 these peculiar characteristics which in a majority of in- 
 stances give to the plants their special value become 
 intensified. 
 
 In the alter treatment of the veneer-grafted plants, 
 much will depend upon the climate where they are grown. 
 If the winters are severe, they may need protection under 
 glazed sashes, board shutters, or lath screens, with plenty 
 of hay or some similar material filled in around the plants 
 to prevent injury from alternate freezing and thawing or 
 low temperature. The propagator must necessarily be 
 the best judge of the amount of protection required, if 
 any is needed. 
 
 The stock above the cion should not be removed until 
 the following season, and in some of the very slow grow- 
 ing kinds it may be well to leave it intact until late in 
 the summer or autumn. 
 
 BOTTLE GRAFTING. While the mode of xeneerjjTaft? 
 ing described is undoubtedly the best,, and most reajfly 
 and rapidly performed, others are sometimes employed ; 
 probably more To show how many different ways there 
 are of obtaining similar or the same results, than for 
 their practical utility: What is called " bottle grafting" 
 is one of these variations from the more general method 
 of veneer grafting, In this, the lower end of the cion, 
 instead of being fitted to the stock, is placed in a bottle 
 filled with water, as shown in figure 91. The upper part 
 is fitted to the stock in the same way as in the former 
 mode. 
 
 Another and rather more complicated form of bottle 
 grafting is shown in figure 92. A E, the stock ; B, the 
 cion ; D, ligature ; II H. branches and leaves of the head 
 of the cion ; F, bottle filled with water, and G, stake to 
 which the bottle is tied. This latter form may answer 
 for amateurs who may wish to graft an Orange, Lemon, 
 Oleander or similar specimen plants, but the professional 
 
220 
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 gardener will seldom have occasion to resort to such com- 
 plicated and time-consuniing methods. 
 
 SIDE GRAFT WITH VERTICAL CLE.FT. There are prop- 
 agators who prefer this method to the veneer graft, and 
 it is usually performed under the same conditions. The 
 cleft in the stock is made sloping downward and inward 
 towards the center of the stock, cutting nearly or quite 
 through the alburnum. The cion is made in the form of 
 
 H 
 
 BOTTLE GKAFTTNG. 
 
 BOTTLE GRAFTING, MODIFIED. 
 
 a thin wedge and thrust into the cleft and held in place 
 with the ligature of bass. This form of side graft is 
 usually employed in what is called herbaceous grafting, 
 as used in grafting Melons, Squashes, Dahlias, Potatoes, 
 Tomatoes, etc. The cion, when grafting such succulent 
 plants, is not pared down so thin as with woody plants, 
 but left more in the form shown in figure 93 A, stock ; 
 
PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING. 
 
 B, cleft in same ; D, cion ; E, leaf on cion ; F F, leaves 
 on stock. In grafting herbaceous plants and vines in the 
 open air, heavy shading and frequent applications of water: 
 to the foliage are usually required to ensure success. 
 
 GRAKCi^G^^Y^^PRpACH. This method is practised 
 both in the open air and under glass, as all that is re- 
 quired is to have the^stocj^._and thejpjant^that is to fur- 
 nish the, cion in sufficient close proximity to admit of the 
 branches being brought together. A thin slice of bark 
 and alburnum, two or more inches- long, is removed from 
 each, and the exposed 
 wounds brought together 
 and held firmly in place 
 with a ligature of waxed 
 cloth or bass ; but if the 
 latter is employed, it 
 should be covered with 
 wax if in the open air. 
 
 Ij^ARCHpJG. This 
 
 method J cH3ffers from the 
 last only in the manner of 
 manipulation. To graft 
 trees by inarching or ap- 
 proach, they must neces- 
 sarily stand so near to- 
 gether that their stems or branches can be united with 
 out separation from the parent stock. Incisions are us- 
 ually made similar to those employed in tongue grafting. 
 The branches of different trees or of the same tree may 
 be inarched, and in this manner hedges and live fences 
 and screens may be formed with fruit or ornamental trees 
 and shrubs. Inarching is sometimes employed in propa- 
 gating rare species, instead of grafting in the ordinary 
 methods ; and alter the union, has been formed, the in- 
 arched branch is separated from the parent stem. In 
 former times this method of propagating trees that were 
 
 Fig. 93. SIDE GRAFTING. 
 
222 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 supposed to be difficult to graft in other ways, was very 
 extensively employed by nurserymen. Seedling stocks 
 were planted around a large or medium-sized tree, and 
 near enough to allow the branches to conveniently reach 
 the stock when ready for use, at which time they were 
 inarched, afterwards severed, and the stocks taken up 
 and removed to the nursery rows. The tinje for inarch- 
 ing trees in the open air, is in spring, at the usual season 
 for grafting, but if grown under glass, the operation may 
 be performed whenever the plants are growing or are 
 about to commence growth. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 SELECTING STOCKS. 
 
 In the propagation of plants by budding and grafting, 
 the selection of the proper kind of stock is quite as im- 
 portant as knowing how to utilize it afterwards. The 
 most skilled propagator cannot produce the best nor even 
 satisfactory results with poor stocks and cions. A feeble 
 cion may revive and make a fair or even first-rate plant if 
 set in a^und^aji^ vigorous stok, but if the stock is poor, 
 the result Is usually unsatisfactory, for in this case we 
 build upon a feeble and unstable foundation. 
 
 It is not only desirable to secure stocks of closely allied 
 species, but those that are young, vigorous, and well sup- 
 plied with fibrous roots, for it is the small roots that first 
 imbibe nutriment from the soil, as well as the first to 
 emit additional fibres to assist in increasing the supply. 
 
 As a rule, seedling stocks are preferred to those raised 
 from cuttings, although there are a few exceptions, and 
 the " wilding," as it is termed, is usually the most hardy 
 and least subject to disease. The so-called improved, 
 
SELECTING STOCKS. 223 
 
 domesticated and long-cultivated plant has also been long- 
 est exposed to diseases which often originate under forced 
 and unnatural conditions. 
 
 klj^ising all kinds of tree and shrub stocks from seed, 
 a moderately light, porous soil is preferable to one of an 
 opposite character, as light soils tend to increase the num- 
 ber of fibrous roots. In heavy, compact soils, seedlings 
 may produce longer vertical or tap-roots and taller stems, 
 or we may say that they will grow larger in a given time 
 than in lighter and naturally poorer soils, but they will 
 usually produce a far less number of fibrous roo^;_con- 
 sequently; less valuable for transplanting. The taller the 
 stem and longer the tap-root, the greater the amount of 
 each will have to be cut away when they are , transplanted. 
 The best stocks, therefore, for all purposes, are those that 
 will lose the least when prepared for re-planting in nursery 
 rows or for potting. The raiser should seek great diam- 
 eter of stem, and number of rootlets rather than length at 
 the ^sacrifice of ^breadth. Thick seeding tends to lessen 
 diameter and increase length, and while a greater num- 
 ber of plants may be produced on a given space by crowd- 
 ing, it is always at the expense of quality ; consequently, 
 height of ..stocks is not a sa^e guide for determining their 
 vigor or value, either in seedling stocks or older trees. 
 
 There are certain kinds of trees, like the Oaks, Chest- 
 nut, Hickories, and English Walnut, which produce 
 rather long, sturdy vertical roots the first season, and 
 these poorly furnished with fibres, especially if raised on a 
 firm, hard soil ; butaf. the nuts are planted in light vege- 
 table mold or sand, their roots will be mainly fibrous, 
 with only^a small central or tap-root, or none at all. 
 Nurserymen who make a specialty of raising such stocks 
 for grafting in pots, sow the nuts in shallow pots or boxes, 
 and in nearly pure sand, applying liquid manure as 
 needed, to insure a vigorous growth. 
 
224 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 STOCKS FOR FEUIT TREES. 
 
 The stocks principally employed in propagating fruit 
 trees of temperate and semi-tropical climates are as 
 follows : 
 
 THE ALMOND. Seedling Peach or Plum stocks are 
 preferred. Seedlings of the hard-shelled Almond will 
 answer equally as well as the Peach. The Plum makes the 
 best stock for trees to be cultivated on moist or clay soils, 
 and it is also less liable to the attacks of insects and dis- 
 eases, but does not grow so large, and there is danger of 
 the Almond overgrowing and dying through what may 
 be termed strangulation, unless very large-growing varie- 
 ties and species of the Plum are employed as stocks. 
 
 APPLE. Seedling stocks are always preferred for gen- 
 .eral use for orchards, and those raised from ungrafted or 
 wildings of the European species (Pirus Malus) are best. 
 Stocks for the different varieties of the Siberian Crab 
 Apples (P. prunifolia), may be of the same species, or 
 seedlings of the wild American Crab Apple (P. coronaria 
 and P. angustifolia), but those of the common European 
 Apple are most extensively employed for all the culti- 
 vated species. 
 
 For dwarfing the Apple where low bushes or espalier 
 training is desired, the Doucin and Paradise stocks are 
 employed, these being low-growing varieties of the Pirus 
 Malus. These stocks are raised by cuttings, or by bank- 
 ing up around the sprouts, which spring up around the 
 base of large stems of plants which have been previously 
 headed back for the purpose of producing them. 
 
 APRICOT. Seedling Plum stocks, or those raised from 
 cuttings, are usually employed in propagating the im- 
 proved varieties of the Apricot. In mild climates both 
 Apricot and Peach seedlings are sometimes used. 
 
 CHERRY (Oerasus). For large, standard trees, seed- 
 ling stocks of the wild Mazzard Cherry of Europe (Cera- 
 
SELECTING STOCKS. 225 
 
 sus avium), are the best. In cold climates they should be 
 worked low down near the crown. What are called the 
 Morello, Duke and Kentish varieties of the Cherry are 
 supposed to have originated from a wild species in 
 Europe, known as Cerasus caproniana, and as a class they 
 are considered more hardy than those that are descended 
 from the 0. avium. Seedlings of each group may be em- 
 ployed as stocks for their varieties, but the Mazzard is 
 the largest and most free-growing tree, and for this rea- 
 son is usually preferred as a stock for all. The Mahaleb 
 or St. Lucie Cherry (C. Malialeb], is alow-growing, slen- 
 der-branched species, which is extensively employed in 
 France as a stock for dwarfing the taller-growing varie- 
 ties of other species. It has also been employed but 
 less extensively for the same purpose in this country, 
 but it should never be used for what are termed standard 
 trees, or trees with long stems, for if trained high, the 
 leading branches soon become diseased, die back, and if 
 the tree does not perish altogether, it will assume the low 
 dwarf form of the stock. Buds of the different varieties 
 of the cultivated Cherry take very readily on Mahaleb 
 stocks, and usually make a most vigorous growth for the 
 first year or two. This apparent vigor of the young plant 
 has often misled the inexperienced to believe that it would 
 continue in after years if the tree is primed up as a 
 standard, but the chances are ten to one against securing 
 such results. 
 
 Among the Cherries proper, or Cerasus, there are two 
 very distinct groups of species which do not appear to 
 have the least affinity, either in their flowers or wood ; 
 consequently, no hybridizing, so far as known, has ever 
 occurred between the species of the two groups, nor have 
 the plants of one been used as stocks for the other. 
 These two groups are readily distinguished by their 
 flowers ; for in one they are produced in sessile umbels, 
 as seen in the common garden Cherries from Europe, 
 
226 PHOPAGATJON OF PLANTS. 
 
 also in our Wild Red Cherry (0. Pennsylvanicum), and 
 the Dwarf Cherry (C. pumila). The flowers in the other 
 group are in long slender racemes, as in the American 
 Wild Black Cherry (C. serotina), Choke Cherry (a Vir- 
 ginana), Bird Cherry of the Rocky Mountain regions 
 (C. demissa), and the small Bird Cherry of Europe 
 (C. Padus). 
 
 The Chinese and Japan Cherries belong to the first 
 section, and seedlings of the different species may be in- 
 terchanged in 'their propagation whenever desirable. 
 
 CITRON, LIME, LEMON, ORANGE, SHADDOCK, ETC. 
 As all of these fruits are but different and closely allied 
 species of one genus, their wood readily unites by either 
 budding or grafting. But, as with other fruits, the 
 largest and most vigorous species and varieties are pre- 
 ferred for stocks if large trees are desired, and the reverse 
 for dwarfs ; and as with the Apple and Pear, seeds from 
 the Wild Orange produce better stocks than those from 
 the improved on which to graft, and the same may be 
 said of the Lemon and other species of the Citrus Family. 
 The Shaddock (Citrus decumana), is a rather strong and 
 large growing tree, and it will readily take buds from 
 the Orange, Lemon and other species of the genus. For 
 making dwarf trees of the Orange, the Limonia trifoliata 
 is by some propagators considered a better stock than the 
 Otaheite Orange, which has long been used for this 
 purpose. 
 
 CORNEL TREE. Seedlings of the common Oornus Mas 
 are used principally as stocks for the different varieties of 
 the Cornel, or edible-fruited Dogwoods. But the Cornels 
 are so rarely cultivated in this country, that experiments 
 are wanting for determining the value of the different 
 species for stocks on which to grow the edible fruited 
 varieties, but it is quite probable that Oornus florida 
 would answer equally as well as or better than C. Mas. 
 
 CURRANT. Although not a tree, the Currant is some- 
 
SELECTING STOCKS. 22? 
 
 times cultivated as standards and in the form of small 
 trees. To secure this form they are grafted upon some 
 strong growing species, like the Missouri Currant (Ribes 
 aureum), which appears to answer the purpose as well as 
 any that has thus far been tested. 
 
 DATE PLUM. See Persimmon. 
 
 FIG. The Fig is rarely propagated by grafting, as it 
 grows very readily from cuttings ; but weak and feeble 
 varieties may be grafted upon the strong and vigorous. 
 
 GOOSEBERRY. Like the Currant, this shrub is some- 
 times trained in the tree form, and the low growing 
 varieties grafted upon the tall and most vigorous. Stocks 
 raised either from seed or cuttings of the wild North 
 American species are the best for this purpose. The 
 Round-leaved Gooseberry of the Western States (Ribes 
 rotundifolium), is one of the strongest and tallest grow- 
 ing of the indigenous species, consequently one of the 
 best for stocks. 
 
 MEDLAR. Strong growing species of the Hawthorn 
 are preferred for stocks, but seedling Medlars, or even 
 the Quince, may be employed for this purpose. 
 
 MULBERRY. Seedlings of the common White Mul- 
 berry (Morus alba), are usually employed as stocks upon 
 which to graft the Downing and other improved varieties. 
 
 NECTARINE. As the Nectarine is only a smooth- 
 skinned Peach, the same kinds of stocks and treatment 
 are recommended for both. (See Peach.) 
 
 OLIVE. In Southern Europe wild seedling Olives are 
 often used as stocks upon which to graft the cultivated 
 varieties as a means of hastening maturity. Grafting 
 the Olive is not, however, a very general mode of propa- 
 gation, as all the varieties are easily propagated by cut- 
 tings of the old as well as young wood. 
 
 PAPAW (Asimina). Seedlings of the common Papaw 
 (A. triloba], may be employed as stocks for the smaller 
 
228 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 growing species, or for the multiplication of distinct 
 varieties ; but of the latter, few or none have as yet been 
 discovered worthy of a place among choice garden and 
 orchard fruits. 
 
 PEACH. Seedling Peach stocks are principally em- 
 ployed in propagating the improved varieties. The best 
 stocks are raised from what may be considered the in- 
 ferior varieties, or, as usually termed, " wilding," that are 
 on their own roots, not having been budded or grafted. 
 Of late years, in this country, some care has been neces- 
 sary in selecting seed in order to obtain it from trees that 
 were free from a common disease of the Peach known as 
 "yellows." Seedlings of one season's growth are pre- 
 ferred to older ones, and if the Peach stones are planted 
 in moderately rich soil in spring, they will usually produce 
 stocks strong enough to receive a bud by the ensuing 
 August or September. If the bud " takes," the stocks* 
 may be headed back the following spring to within four 
 inches of the inserted bud, and later in the season cut 
 down close to the base of the young shoot produced from 
 the bud. In planting the Peach stone or seed, they 
 should be dropped about one foot apart in the row, or at 
 a sufficient distance apart to admit of budding at the 
 proper time. 
 
 Plum stocks are also employed for the Peach, especially 
 in Europe, where the trees are trained to walls and kept 
 low in the form of dwarfs, or cultivated in peach-houses 
 under glass. The Plum is naturally a slower growing 
 and a smaller tree than the Peach, hence its influence as a 
 stock is to dwarf the growth. The Plum stock is no 
 doubt preferable where the trees are to be trained low, or 
 planted in stiff, cold, or clayey soils ; but where the Peach 
 thrives as an orchard tree, as it does in the light, warm 
 soils of our best peach-growing districts, the natural stock 
 is no doubt the best, although not quite so hardy or free 
 from insect enemies as the Plum. 
 
SELECTING STOCKS. 229 
 
 PEAK. Seedlings of wild or inferior varieties are pre- 
 ferred to any other as a stock for the Pear. Most of the 
 seed used in this country is imported from Europe, where 
 it is saved from the pomace after expressing the juice of 
 Pears for making perry. In raising seedlings in this 
 country, great care is required in their cultivation to pre- 
 vent blight on the leaves during the first season. Fresh, 
 new, or virgin soil is best for a seed-bed, and it should be 
 worked very deep in order to insure an equable amount 
 of moisture during the entire summer. While seedlings 
 of the Wild Pear of Europe have long been considered as 
 the best stocks for standard trees, it is quite probable 
 that the oriental species (Pirus Sinensis), and some of its 
 varieties, found in both China and Japan, will eventually 
 prove to be superior to the European species as a stock 
 upon which to work the improved and long-cultivated 
 varieties. These oriental species and varieties appear to 
 possess a vigor surpassing that of any of those of Euro- 
 pean origin, as seen in their large, thick, leathery leaves, 
 as well as in the great rapidity of growth and sturdy 
 character of their young shoots. They certainly give 
 promise of value as stocks upon which to work the less 
 sturdy-growing varieties. 
 
 The Quince has long been used as a stock for the Pear, 
 especially for producing low-growing or dwarf trees, 
 which are desired for small gardens, or for training in 
 some other form than as standard trees. While some 
 varieties of the Pear succeed admirably when grown 
 on Quince stocks, others soon fail for the want of a 
 proper affinity between the wood of two species of 
 trees which we force to unite temporarily, or otherwise, 
 by budding or grafting. 
 
 By adopting a method known as " double working," 
 we may use Quince stocks for varieties^that do not succeed 
 when worked directly upon it. In double working, 
 varieties are selected that are known to unite readily and 
 
230 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 grow thriftily upon the Quince, and buds of these are 
 inserted in the usual way, and near the ground. The 
 next season, after the shoots from the buds have nearly 
 completed their growth of the season, buds of the feeble- 
 growing varieties, or those which appear to have very 
 little affinity for the Quince stock, are inserted in the 
 young growth of the Pear wood six to twelve inches above 
 its junction with the Quince. The stock is then treated 
 as it was the year previous, and the following spring the 
 stock cut back to within four to six inches of the bud in- 
 serted in the Pear wood. This small section or piece of 
 wood of a vigorous-growing variety, uniting with the 
 Quince stock below, and supporting another abo^e, will 
 have a very great irriluence in the future growth of the 
 tree. Doubled worked trees cost twice as much to raise 
 as single worked, but they are worth the difference to 
 any one who desires dwarf Bartlett, Seckle, and similar 
 varieties, which do not usually succeed when grown 
 directly on Quince stocks. Doubled worked trees, how- 
 ever, should never be trained as standards, as the Quince 
 has a rather feeble root system, producing few large 
 lateral roots ; consequently, if the top is trained high the 
 tree is likely to be blown over, ani all of the roots thrown 
 out. 
 
 The White Thorn (Cratcegus coccinea), may also be 
 employed as a stock for the Pear, and in moist, heavy 
 soils it is fully equal, it not superior, to the Quince. There 
 are several native species of the Thorn, some much 
 stronger growers than others; the largest and most vigor- 
 ous species should be selected, if to be employed as stocks 
 for the Pear, or even for propagating the ornamental 
 varieties of the European Hawthorn. 
 
 The common Juneberry or Shadbush (Amelancliier), 
 and the Mountain Ash (Pirus Americana and P. Aucu- 
 parid), may be employed as stocks for the Pear, but are 
 usually considered inferior to the Pear and Quince. The 
 
SELECTING STOCKS. 231 
 
 common Apple may also be used as a stock for the Pear, 
 but the union between the wood of the two trees is very 
 imperfect, and seldom of long duration. 
 
 PERSIMMON (Diospyros). The Date Plum of Europe, 
 and the many cultivated varieties of the Kaki, or Japan 
 Persimmon (D. Kaki), when grown on the American 
 Persimmon, thrive equally as well, if not better, than on 
 any other stock. The American Persimmon is not only 
 the largest, but most hardy tree of the genus, conse- 
 quently preferable as a stock for the less robust species 
 and varieties. The seedlings grow rapidly, and often reach 
 a size large enough for budding the first season. If not 
 used at this time, they may beheaded back the following 
 spring to insure a vigorous growth -of young wood, into 
 which buds may be inserted later in the season. 
 
 PLUM (Prunus). Seedlings of the hardiest and most 
 vigorous growing varieties of the European Plum are 
 usually preferred by nurserymen for stocks, but the larger 
 growing species of the native Plum answer the purpose 
 well, if budded low, or the cions are splice grafted on the 
 roots, and then planted so deep that the point of junc- 
 tion is covered. The Myrobalan Plum is a favorite 
 among the French nurserymen and orchardists, as it is 
 said not to produce suckers, or, at least, very sparingly, 
 and it is readily propagated by cuttings. There are 
 several other species or varieties of the Plum that may 
 be readily propagated by cuttings, layers, mound layers 
 made by banking of the sprouts or old stools, and by 
 cuttings of the roots. The latter mode is objectionable, 
 as stocks produced in this way are very likely to produce 
 suckers far more freely than will be desirable as the trees 
 become old. Varieties of the Plum, known as the Black 
 Damas and St. Julien, are also largely used as stocks by 
 the French nurserymen, and are also imported by those 
 of this country. These, with the Myrobalan, are among 
 the best, if not the very best, of the European varieties 
 
232 PPOPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 for stocks upon which to work the various cultivated 
 sorts of the Plum, Apricot, and, I may add, the Peach, 
 whenever it is desirable to raise the latter on any other 
 than its own. stock. 
 
 Our indigenous species of the Plum, especially the 
 Primus Americana and P. C/iicasa, are the best stocks 
 on which to groAV all the varieties originating from the 
 same, but the more rapid and stronger- growing European 
 varities soon overgrow the American stocks, unless 
 worked very low down, or directly on the roots. 
 
 The Peach is often employed as a stock for the Plum, 
 and in mild climates, and where the trees are planted 
 on rather light soils, it answers the purpose moderately 
 well ; but it is not recommended for general use, and in 
 cold climates, or where the Peach is subject to diseases 
 and attacks of insects, it is useless as a stock for the Plum. 
 
 PoM~EGR&NA.TE(PunicaGranatum). The Pomegranate 
 is usually propagated by seeds, cuttings, and layers, but it 
 may be grafted ; the Sweet-fruited, Violet, and other 
 varieties being worked on the stocks of the Wild Pome- 
 granate, or one variety may be employed as a stock for any 
 other, whenever such mode of propagation is desirable. 
 
 QUINCE (Pirus, Cydonia of some). Strong kinds, 
 like the Angers and Fontenay, are used as stocks for 
 the improved varieties cultivated for their fruit. Also 
 for. the ornamental, like the Japan Quince, or Pirus 
 Japonica, of nurserymen's catalogues, and the large 
 Chinese Quince (Pirus CJdnensis). Some European 
 authorities recommend the Portugal Quince (P. Lusi- 
 tanica), as a stock not only for the Pear, but for other 
 varities of the Quince, as it is a very vigorous grower. 
 
 TREE AND SHRUB STOCKS. 
 
 In making a list of the stocks usually employed in the 
 propagation of ligneous plants, I shall not attempt to 
 include in it every species and variety that has been, 
 
SELECTING STOCKS. 233 
 
 or may be under certain circumstances, employed for 
 such purposes, but merely refer to the best likely to be 
 available. In some families, a single species may answer, 
 or have been proved to be the best stock for all the species 
 of an entire genus, while in the wood of others, as has 
 already been noted among the Cherries, there may not be 
 the least affinity. The genus Prunus, sub-section Oerasus, 
 is not an exceptional instance of this kind, for in all of the 
 larger genera of trees and shrubs there are groups of spe- 
 cies which have a general botanical resemblance, and still 
 the wood of the species of the different groups have little or 
 no affinity. On the contrary, there are instances where 
 a single species of a genus will not only answer well as a 
 stock for all the different species, but also for those be- 
 longing to different genera of the same family. 
 
 To avoid repetition and frequent reference to some par- 
 ticular variety or species of stock in succeeding chapters, 
 those most usually employed in propagating ligneous 
 plants are named here and as follows : 
 
 ABIES (The Fir). See Coniferse. 
 
 ABUTILOK. Almost any of the strong upright growing 
 species will answer well as stocks upon which to work the 
 feeble or the trailing species, like A. Megapotamicum, 
 when standard plants with drooping heads are desired. 
 
 ACER (The Maple). In seeking a stock for use in prop- 
 agating any variety of a species of Maple, it is a good rule 
 to select seedlings of its parent for stocks, except when a 
 stronger and more vigorous species can be utilized for 
 this purpose. The so-called Soft Maples (A. dasycarpum 
 and A. rubnim), also known as the Silver and Red Maples, 
 have given us a few very desirable varieties, and these 
 succeed best when grown on Silver Maple stocks. This 
 stock may also be employed in propagating nearly all of 
 varieties of European Maples, but in a few instances, as 
 with the varieties of the Sycamore Maple (A. Psuedo-Pla- 
 
23-4 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 tanus), and Field Maple (A. campestre), have a stronger 
 affinity for their own species than for others. The Japan 
 Maples, and there are numerous varieties, succeed only 
 when worked on stocks of closely allied species. No 
 American or European species has as yet been tried that 
 makes even a passably good stock for these Maples, but 
 as seedlings of the indigeneous species of Japan can now 
 be imported quite safely and cheaply, propagators are not 
 seriously incommoded by the failure of other species to 
 furnish a good stock. 
 
 ^ESCULUS (Horsschestnut). Varieties of the European 
 Horsechestnut (^2?. Hippocastanum), should be grafted 
 upon seedlings of the species. Our indigeneous varieties 
 and species, some of which are mere shrubs, may be 
 grafted upon seedlings of the Buckeye (^E. glabra), the 
 largest growing native species of the genus. 
 
 ALNUS (Alder). The Heart-shaped Leaved Alder 
 (A. cordifolia), makes an excellent stock for trees to be 
 planted in a dry soil, while the Sticky Alder (A. glu- 
 tinosd), is the best for moderately dry soils. These are 
 both natives of Europe, but it is quite probable that some 
 of oar North American species will yet prove equally as 
 valuable for stocks, especially those which grow to a large 
 size, like the Red Alder (A. rubm}, of the northwest, 
 and the Oblong-leaved Alder (A. oUongifolia), of New 
 Mexico and the regions westward. 
 
 AURAUCARIA. See Coniferse. 
 
 ARBOR VIT^E. See Ooniferae. 
 
 ARBUTUS (Strawberry Tree). The common European 
 species (A. Unedo) is usually employed as a stock for the 
 various species and varieties of the genus. 
 
 AZALEA. For all the various species and' varieties of 
 the deciduous Azaleas the two North American species, 
 known as A. viscosa and A. nudiflora, have proved to be 
 superior, if not the very best, stocks known. They are ex- 
 
SELECTING STOCKS. 235 
 
 tremely hardy, and the varieties of the Pontic Azaleas (A. 
 Pontica), and the semi-evergreen of the Chinese (A.Sinen- 
 sis or mollis of some authors), take readily to these stocks, 
 forming a close and lasting union and insuring a vigor- 
 ous growing plant. The American Flame-colored Azalea 
 (A. calendulacea) , is also a good stock, but is not quite as 
 hardy as the first two. A . viscosa is the stronger grower of 
 the two, and for this reason is usually preferred as a stock 
 for the larger growing varieties of Pontica, mollis and the 
 various hybrids between the Pontic and American species. 
 For cultivation in our Northern States, as well as in the 
 northern countries of Europe, the two first-named species 
 of Azaleas are without doubt the best for stocks. 
 
 BETULA (Birch). Seedlings of the strongest growing 
 species, like the White Birch of Europe (B. alba) or the 
 American Sweet Birch (B. lento) and Paper Birch (B. 
 papyracea), are preferred as stocks for the many varieties 
 of different species now in cultivation. 
 
 CALOPHACA (Lentil Shrub). The common Laburnum 
 (L. vulgare), is employed as a stock for the C. Wolgarica, 
 a low-growing shrub, native of Siberia. Grafting is only 
 practised for the purpose of producing graceful little trees 
 of only a few feet in height ; consequently, the stocks 
 should be tall and straight, and the cion inserted six feet 
 or more from the ground. 
 
 CAMELLIA. Seedlings or plants raised from cuttings of 
 the single flowered variety are usually preferred for stocks. 
 Double flowering varieties may, however, be re-grafted 
 wherever desired, thereby making what are called "double 
 worked" plants. 
 
 CARAGANA (Siberian Pea Tree). Seedlings of C. ar- 
 bor escsns are the best stocks on which to work the 
 smaller growing species and varieties. The weeping or. 
 pendulous variety should be worked on rather tall 
 stocks, to allow room for the growth of the drooping twigs 
 and branches. 
 
236 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 CARPINTJS (Hornbeam). Seedlings of the American 
 (C. Americana), and European (C. Betulus), are used as 
 stocks for the Cut-leaved, Oak-leaved and other varieties 
 of the Hornbeam in cultivation. The American species 
 is the most rapid growing tree while young, but it is 
 said that it does not reach quite so large a size in ol<\ age. 
 
 CASTAHEA (Chestnut). For cultivation in this coun- 
 try the American Sweet Chestnut (C. vesca var. Ameri- 
 cana), is undoubteldy the best stock for all the European 
 and oriental species and varieties, including the recently 
 introduced Japan Chestnut. The common American 
 Chestnut tree grows to a very large size and is perfectly 
 hardy where many of the varieties of the European 
 species are tender. It is said that the Chestnut succeeds 
 moderately well when grafted on the Oak, but it will sel- 
 dom be necessary to employ Oak stocks, as seedlings of the 
 Chestnut are usually cheap and readily obtained. 
 
 CATALPA (Indian Bean). Seedlings or root cuttings 
 of the common American Catalpas ( C. Ugnonioides and 
 C. speciosa), may be used as stocks for the less vigorous 
 growing varieties or oriental species. 
 
 CEDBUS (Cedar). See Coniferae. 
 
 CEBASUS (Cherry), Sub-section of Prunus. The same 
 kind of stocks are usually employed for the ornamental 
 species and varieties of the Cherry as for those cultivated 
 for their fruit. The dwarf and trailing varieties, when 
 worked on tall, straight stocks of the Mazzard, form 
 handsome, round-headed or broad-spreading, pendulous- 
 branched trees, much admired for ornamental purposes. 
 With some of the Japanese varieties it is best to graft or 
 bud low down and then train to a stake until the stem 
 reaches the desired height ; then cut off and allow the 
 head to form as though grafted high. This treatment is 
 recommended because the wood of some of the oriental 
 varieties is not so likely to be injured by cold in winter 
 or by the heat in summer, as that of the Mazzard Cherry. 
 
SELECTING STOCKS. 237 
 
 Varieties of the evergreen species of the Cherry, such as 
 C. ilicifolia, C. Lauro-cerasus and the C. Lu&itanica, 
 should, of course, be grafted on stocks of their own or 
 closely allied species. . 
 
 CHAM^ECYPARIS (Cypress). See Coniferae. 
 
 CHICK ANT H us (White Fringe). Almost any species 
 of the Ash (Fraxinus), makes a good stock for the 
 American White Fringe (C. Virginica) and the Chinese 
 species (C. retusus). The European Ash (F. excelsior), 
 is, however, usually preferred to the American species as 
 a stock for the fringe trees. 
 
 CONIFERS (Cone Bearing). With but few exceptions, 
 the Conifers are evergreen trees or shrubs. The ever- 
 green kinds must necessarily be confined to stocks of the 
 same group and the deciduous to their own. As a rule, 
 in seeking stocks for the Conifers, the nearer we can keep 
 to the species from which the varieties under propagation 
 originated, the better, although in a few instances some 
 closely allied species may have proved to be superior for 
 this purpose than the original. For the Abies or Firs, 
 the European Silver Fir (A. pectinata), has been most 
 extensively used as a stock for the different species and 
 varieties of the genus, mainly because it was most com- 
 mon and readily obtained. Any of the other larger grow- 
 ing species native of cool climates will, however, answer 
 equally well. 
 
 With the Pines (Pinus), the species with two and three 
 leaves in a bundle should be employed for varieties of the 
 same, such as P. sylvestris, P. s. nana, P. Muglio 
 compacta, P. Pyrenaica, P. densiflora, etc. The com- 
 mon Austrian Pine (P. Austriaca), may be used as 
 a stock for our Western Pines (P. ponderosa, P. Coulteri 
 and P. Sabiniana), as these all have heavy, coarse-grained 
 wood, and are closely allied to the Austrian Pine. But 
 \i good, rapid and free growing three-leaved species is 
 
238 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 usually preferred as a stock upon which to work both the 
 two-leaved and the three-leaved species. The common 
 Eed or Norway Pine (P. resinosa), is one of the very best 
 of the two-leaved species as a stock for other closely allied 
 species and varieties. The common White Pine (P. 
 Strobus), is the best stock for all of the five-leaved species, 
 such as P. flexilis, P. excslsa, P. Cembra, P. Mandshur- 
 ica, etc., etc. 
 
 The Junipers (Juniper us), are rarely propagated by 
 grafting, as they are readily multiplied by seeds and cut- 
 tings ; but almost any of the strong-growing species, like 
 /. Virginiana, will make good stocks for the varieties of 
 feeble and strong-growing kinds. For the Arbor Vitaes, 
 including the Biotas, Thujas and Retinisporas, the com- 
 mon American species (Thuja occidentalis), may be em- 
 ployed in preference to any other. For the Piceas or 
 Spruces, the commom Norway Spruce is one of the 
 best for stocks, as it is a very free-growing, hardy 
 tree, and thrives in a great variety of soils. The 
 true Cedars (Cedrus), such as the Cedar of Lebanon 
 (C. Libani) and Deodar Cedar (C. Deodara), may 
 bs grafted on seedlings of their own species, or on 
 those of the Mt. Atlas Cedar (C. Atlantica). European 
 nurserymen prefer the latter when they can be obtained. 
 For the Hemlock Spruces or Tsugas, the common North 
 American species (T. Canadensis), is probably the best 
 for stocks, it being one of the most hardy of the genus. 
 The Larches (Larix), including the False Larch (Pseu- 
 dolarix), are grafted on stocks of the common Larch, 
 the European species (L. Europcea), being usually em- 
 ployed for this purpose. The oriental Cypress ( Glypto- 
 strobus), is so closely related to the common Cypress 
 of our Southern States ( Taxodium disticlium), that the 
 latter is used as a stock for the former, with its allied 
 species and varieties. 
 
 CORPUS (Dogwood). Seedlings of the common Ameri- 
 
SELECTING STOCKS. 233 
 
 can Dogwood (0. florida), is the best stock upon which 
 to bud or graft its own varieties, or those of other 
 closely allied species. The herbaceous species, of course, 
 are not propagated by these modes. 
 
 CORYLUS (Hazel or Filbert). The Hazelnuts are rarely 
 propagated by budding or grafting in this country, but 
 in Europe the weak-growing and dwarf varieties are 
 sometimes worked on the stronger. Seedlings of the com- 
 mon European Hazel (C. Avelland), it being one of the 
 most hardy and free-growing species, is preferred as a 
 stock. Seedlings are preferable to layers or cuttings, as 
 they have a better root system; that is, longer and stronger 
 side or brace-roots, as they are termed. 
 
 COTO^EASTER. The deciduous species grow freely on 
 either Quince or Hawthorn stock, while the evergreen 
 species are usually propagated by layers or cuttings. 
 
 CRAT^GCTS (Hawthorn, White Thorn). Seedlings of 
 any of the strongest growing species may be employed as 
 stocks for the double flowering and other varieties. For 
 cultivation in this country, stocks of the indigenous 
 species are preferable to the European. 
 
 CYTISUS (Broom, Scotch, Spanish, etc.) The smaller, 
 trailing, or low-growing species may be grafted on stocks 
 of the stronger growing, or on the Laburnum, if stand- 
 ard plants are desired. 
 
 DAPHNE (Spurge Laurel). The Daphnes are princi- 
 pally low-growing evergreen shrubs, rarely propagated 
 by grafting, but scarce species and varieties may be grown 
 on stocks of the common European Spurge Laurel 
 (D. Laureola). 
 
 EUONYMUS (Spindle Tree, Burning Bush, Wahoo, etc.) 
 Seedlings of the larger and stronger growing species, like 
 the American Burning Bush (E. atropurpureus) , and 
 the European Spindle tree (E. Europceus), are often em- 
 ployed as stocks upon which to work the broad-leaved 
 
240 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 species (E. latifolius). The evergreen species are usu- 
 ally propagated by layers and cuttings. 
 
 JExocHORDA (Great-Flowered Spiraea). No suitable 
 stock has as yet been found for these noble shrubs from 
 the North of China, but small pieces of their own roots 
 are employed in place of larger stocks, the cion being 
 affixed to them by splice grafting. 
 
 FAGUS (The Beech). Seedlings of the American 
 Beech (F. ferruginea), and the European (F. sylvatica), 
 are generally employed as stocks for the different varieties 
 in cultivation. Varieties of the Evergreen Beeches of 
 South America and New Zealand would, of course, be 
 grown on stocks of the species from which they origi- 
 nated. 
 
 FRAXINUS (Ash). Seedlings of the common Euro- 
 pean Ash (F. excelsior), are the best for stocks for all the 
 European and American species and varieties. Long ex- 
 perience in the use of the European Ash as a stock for 
 the many cultivated varieties, has fully established its 
 reputation as one of the best, if not the very best, species 
 to be employed as a stock. The young wood is soft, fine 
 grained, and either buds or cions unite to it readily. 
 The different species of the American Ash may, of 
 course, be employed as stocks for their own or foreign 
 varieties, but the European Ash is usually preferred. 
 
 GLEDITSCHIA (Honey Locust). The common American 
 Honey Locust, or Three-Thorned Acacia ( G. triacanthos), 
 is an excellent stock for the Chinese species and varieties, 
 as well as the thornless and other varieties of our native 
 species. 
 
 HALESIA (Snowdrop Tree). As the Four-winged 
 Halesia (H. tetraptera), is the largest growing and most 
 hardy species of the genus, it is the best stock. This, 
 and closely allied spscies, may also be employed as 
 stocks for other species of the Styracacem or Storax family, 
 as, for instance, the Japan Sty rax (8. Japonicd), and 
 
SELECTING STOCKS. 241 
 
 Pterostyrax hispidum, and the different North Ameri- 
 can species of Styrax. 
 
 HALIMODENDRON (Silver- Leaf ). These Siberian 
 shrubs succeed best when grafted on stocks of the Car a- 
 gana arborea, or Siberian Pea Tree. 
 
 ILEX (Holly). The common evergreen American 
 Holly (/. opaca), is without doubt the best stock for the 
 closely allied species and varieties, especially if they are 
 to be cultivated in cool or cold climates. But as seedlings 
 of this species are not so readily procured as those of the 
 European Holly (/. Aquifolium), the latter are more 
 generally used for this purpose. 
 
 JUGLANS (Walnut, Butternut), Seedlings of the larger 
 growing varieties of the European Walnut (Juglans 
 regia), are usually employed as stocks for the different 
 cultivated varities. It is quite probable that the common 
 American Butternut (J. cinerea), could also be utilized 
 for the same purpose, but further experiments are needed 
 to determine its real value as a stock. 
 
 LAEIX. See Conifers. 
 
 MAGNOLIA. Seedlings of the common American Cu- 
 cumber-Tree (M. acuminata), are usually recommended 
 as the best stocks for all of the deciduous species of the 
 Magnolia, whether natives of China, Japan or America. 
 But Mr. J. E. Trumpy, of the Kissena Nurseries, of Flush- 
 ing, N". Y., who has probably propagated a greater num- 
 ber of species and varieties of the Magnolia than any other 
 man in this country or Europe, is quite emphatic in 
 giving the preference to the Umbrella Magnolia (M. 
 Umbrella), also called M. tripetala. He says that the lat- 
 ter species is more easily worked and produces a greater 
 number of fibrous roots, consequently is not so seriously 
 affected by transplanting. 
 
 PLANERA (Planer Tree). All the species and varieties 
 from Japan and Siberia, as well as those indigenous to 
 
242 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 North America, grow freely on the Elm ( Ulmus). The 
 common American and English Elm may both be em- 
 ployed as stocks for the Planeras. 
 
 QUEECUS (Oak). In selecting stocks for the Oaks, the 
 propagator will secure the best results by taking seedlings 
 of closely related species of each of the several groups that 
 are usually designated under such names as White Oaks, 
 Black and Bed Oaks, Chestnut Oaks, Willow Oaks and 
 Evergreen Oaks. The English Oak and our native White 
 Oaks are closely allied and may be interchanged as stocks 
 for each other. The European Oaks (Q. Robur and 
 Q. pedunculata), will probably serve as stocks for a larger 
 number of species and varieties than any other two species 
 that have been tried. Most of our North American 
 Oaks take on these quite readily, while, on the contrary, 
 very few of the American species will answer as stocks 
 for the European varieties. The Chestnut Oaks come 
 next, as the acorns of both groups mature the first year. 
 The Willow Oaks are biennial fruited, and some of them 
 almost evergreen, consequently not so closely allied as 
 the two first groups. The Scrub, Black and Rod Oaks 
 have rather coarse-grained wood, and are rather indiffer- 
 ent stocks to work, even for varieties of their own species. 
 The Q. Ilex is the species most usually employed as a 
 stock for the evergreen species and varieties, although 
 most of the evergreen Oaks may be readily propagated by 
 cuttings. 
 
 RHODODENDRON (Rose Bay). The R. Ponticum, from 
 Southern Europe, has been more extensively employed as 
 a stock than any other species, and while it has served 
 the purpose well in Europe, it is inferior in growth and 
 hardiness to oar native species, R. maximum and R. 
 Catawbiense. The former is superior to the Pontic 
 species as a stock for the Rhododendron in this country, 
 although probably not so readily obtained, or so cheap. 
 
SELECTING STOCKS. 243 
 
 ROBINIA (Locust or False Acacia). Seedlings of the 
 common Locust (R. Pseud acacia), are the best stocks for 
 the varieties of the species, as well as those of the Rose 
 Acacia (R. liispida). The latter and its varieties, when 
 grown on their own roots, produce suckers so freely that 
 they become a nuisance in the garden. 
 
 ROSA (Rose). Many species and varieties are em- 
 ployed as stocks, and in Europe the Wild Dog Rose (R. 
 canina), is usually recommended for this purpose. The 
 wild plants as they are found in the hedges and woods 
 are used, as well as seedlings raised in the nursery. A 
 variety known as the Manetti is extensively employed as 
 a stock in this country, and appears to thrive better in 
 our climate than the Dog Rose, and for this reason is 
 usually preferred. It is readily raised by cuttings, .these 
 producing plants large enough for use the first season. 
 The common Sweet Briar (R. ruMginosa), which is a nat- 
 uralized species from Enropo, is also an excellent stock 
 for nearly all of the cultivated varieties. It is less likely 
 to produce suckers than the Manetti, and is exceedingly 
 hardy. 
 
 SALIX (Willow). The varieties usually propagated by 
 grafting will, as a rule, succeed best on stocks of their 
 own species. The common Kilmarnock Willow being 
 only a variety of the English Goat Willow (8. Caprea), 
 the cions take more readily on this stock than on any 
 other. It will grow, however, on the Pointed-leaved 
 Willow (S. acuminata], also indigenous to Great Britain, 
 but the cions do not take as readily and freely, but 
 when they do unite, the union is quite perfect and lasting. 
 The so-called American Weeping or Fountain Willow 
 (S. purpurea pendula), is a trailing variety, of the 
 English Bitter Willow, and may be grafted on stocks of 
 either of the above-named species. 
 
 SOPHORA JAPONIC A. The Weeping and Variegated- 
 leaved varieties are grown on seedling stocks of the species. 
 
244 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 TILIA (Linden or Bass wood). The common American 
 Linden (T. Americana), is one of the largest and most 
 rapid growing species of the genus. It is also less liable 
 to the attacks of insects and diseases than the European 
 species ; consequently, to be preferred as a stock for all 
 the different varieties and species as yet brought to notice. 
 Seedlings are better than plants raised from cuttings or 
 layers. 
 
 ULMUS (Elm). The varieties of the different species 
 succeed best on the mother stock. That is, the many 
 varieties of the English Elm ( U. campestris), should be 
 grown on the stocks of the original species, and those of 
 the Scotch or Wych Elm (U. montana), on their own 
 species. The common Camperdown Weeping Elm belongs 
 to the last species, and should be grafted on seedling stocks 
 of the same. Of course, in case the proper stocks are not 
 at hand, other closely allied species may be used, but it 
 is always best to select stocks from the species from which 
 the varieties originated. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 INFLUENCE OF CION AND STOCK. 
 
 In selecting cuttings, cions and buds, it is well to keep 
 in mind the fact that they have more or less influence in 
 determining the future value of the plant raised therefrom. 
 Whatever faults or merits are possessed by the parent 
 plant are likely to be transmitted to the offspring, and 
 either, under certain conditions, may be increased er de- 
 creased many fold. If we desire early fruiting, we should 
 select wood for propagation from mature or bearing 
 plants, instead of from the young and immature. But 
 we may readily carry this kind of selection too far, 
 for very early and premature fruiting is not always 
 desirable, especially with trees which need to be of con- 
 
INFLUENCE OF CION AND STOCK. 245 
 
 siderablc size, to enable them to sustain a fair or large 
 crop. Continuous propagation from old, mature and 
 productive specimen trees may increase the tendency to 
 a premature old age and decay. Almost any peculiar 
 form of growth, or other characteristic of a variety or 
 species, may be transmitted to the offspring through the 
 part employed in its propagation. We may' not in every 
 instance be able to perpetuate abnormal characteristics 
 at first, but by repeated selections of parts showing a 
 variation from the normal type, we can usually fix and 
 perpetuate almost any peculiar habit or form of plant. 
 
 In selecting parts of herbaceous plants, the same rule 
 holds good as in the ligneous, and we may increase the 
 floriferous habit by continuous propagating from the 
 flowering stems and branches, until the plant perishes 
 from what may be termed over-exhaustion. 
 
 INFLUENCE OF STOCK V OJS^CION. That the stock upon 
 which a cion is set has influence upon its future growth 
 is well known. If it were not so, then the art of propa- 
 gating plants by budding and grafting would be less valu- 
 able than now. 
 
 The stock not only acts as a medium through which the 
 cipn obtains sustenance from the earth, but it in a measure 
 imparts its own characteristics tp it; and it is thus we 
 change the giant into a dwarf, the slow growing plant 
 into a rapid one, and many other variations from the 
 natural habits of plants, simply through the influence 
 of the stock on the cion or graft. 
 
 While we may not, in every instance, be able to deter- 
 mine the true cause of certain variations, which may appear 
 to be antagonistic with what we call natural laws, still, for 
 all practical purposes, our knowledge of this subject is 
 sufficient to enable us, in many instances, to so change 
 natural products that their value is increased many fold. 
 
 The common mode of producing dwarf trees is one of 
 the most familiar instances of the influence of the stock 
 
246 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 on the graft. It mainly affects the form and habit of 
 growth, but is not necessarily debilitating, for size and 
 rapid growth are not always trustworthy signs of perfect 
 health or great longevity. 
 
 In some instances we employ stocks as a mere tem- 
 porary support to the cion, not expecting or desiring a 
 permanent union, as in grafting the tree Pseonia 
 upon the tuber of the herbaceous, or the stem of one 
 Dahlia upon the tuber of another. But with trees we 
 usually seek permanency, and therefore select stocks that 
 shall not only support the graft, but aid in developing 
 those particular characteristics which are most desired. 
 The influence of the stock upon the graft may be briefly 
 stated as follows : 
 
 First, The stock gathers the crude materials for the 
 support of the graft from the soil, and in doing so it 
 may supply it in such quantities as to produce rapid 
 growth, or the reverse. 
 
 Second, The tendency of the' stock is to impart its own 
 habit of growth to the graft. 
 
 Third, One species of stock will extract from the soil 
 the peculiar components which are necessary to support 
 the graft, while another will not ; consequently, a variety 
 or species may fail upon one stock and succeed upon 
 another in the same soil and locality. 
 
 Fourth, The hardiness of a tree is but slightly changed 
 or affected by the stock, except as its growth is influenced 
 to mature early or late in the season. 
 
 Fifth, The quality of a fruit is occasionally in- 
 fluenced by the stock, but the true cause of this is not as 
 yet sufficiently understood to allow of any rules being 
 given by which it may be avoided. Size of fruit is also 
 in some instances considerably changed by the use of dif- 
 ferent stocks. I have known two Bartlett Pear trees of 
 the same age, standing side by side, and apparently of 
 equal vigor, still, for ten years, one has produced very 
 
INFLUENCE OF CION AND STOCK. 247 
 
 large fruit and the other small. The number of speci- 
 mens upon each tree being reduced to an equal number, 
 the difference in size remained the same. With such ex- 
 amples before us, we cannot but conclude that the stock, 
 in some instances, does exert sufficient influence to change 
 the size of the fruit, as well as the form of the tree. 
 
 Sixth, The stock will not only impart vigor to the graft, 
 but also transmit diseases. It is therefore just as import- 
 ant to avoid the one as to endeavor to secure the other. 
 
 INFLUENCE OF THE CION ON THE STOCK. The influ- 
 ence of the cion on the stock is a subject only occasionally 
 referred to in our modern horticultural works. Down- 
 ing says: " The influence of the graft on the stock seems 
 scarcely to extend beyond the power of communicating 
 disease." But, if we have discovered this much, it proves 
 that there is an influence, and if it is sufficiently potent 
 to "communicate disease," then it is probably powerful 
 enough to impart other properties as well. Mr. J. J. 
 Thomas, in his " American Fruit Culturist," edition of 
 1849, says: "The extension of the stock by successive 
 depositions from the leaves of the graft and through the 
 cellular system of the bark, so as to preserve the strict 
 specific identity of the wood of the former, is familiar to 
 every practical cultivator." The same seedling Cherry 
 stocks, grafted with sorts of different degrees of vigor, 
 soon vary in amount and size of the fibrous roots. Trees 
 of the Imperial Gage and Jefferson Plums, a few feet in 
 height, when budded on the Wild Plum, were found to 
 have only half the amount of roots possessed by the un- 
 budded stock of the same age. 
 
 Every nurseryman must have observed that some 
 varieties of the Pear, as well as of the Plum and Cherry, 
 have a far greater number of fibrous roots than others. 
 So marked is this difference that the common laborers in 
 the nursery soon learn to distinguish them and will pro- 
 ceed quite differently in digging the trees of each variety, 
 
248 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 knowing that one has few long naked roots, while the 
 others have short and numerous fibrous ones. These 
 various forms of roots cannot be satisfactorily accounted 
 for in any other way but to ascribe the cause to the influ- 
 ence of the graft. If we take a seedling Apple tree of one 
 or two years old, and divide the root into two parts, upon 
 one of which we splice a cion .of Monmouth Pippin, and 
 on the other one of the Korthern Spy, and plant both in 
 exactly the same soil, side by side, and cultivate them alike, 
 after three or four years the roots will ha.ve a decidedly 
 diiferent appearance both 411 color and form. Still, with 
 all the influence the cion has had upon the roots in chang- 
 their form and color, if cuttings are taken from these 
 roots and forced to produce shoots, the plants thus raised 
 will be of the original type, showing that the influence of 
 the cion is not perpetual, but continues only so long as 
 the roots are in position to gatlfler the crude nutrients 
 from the soil for the leaves on the cion to assimilate ; 
 thus, while this reciprocal action continues, whether it be 
 for one or fifty years, the cion will continue to hold its 
 influence over the stock or roots. 
 
 A few instances have been recorded where the dons with 
 variegated leaves have so influenced the stock as to cause 
 it to produce shoots below the point of union, bearing 
 leaves like those on the cion. But whether this change 
 is due to some disease inherited in the cion, or the inter- 
 mingling of the cellular matter of the two parts, has 
 never been fully determined. Although this subject of 
 reciprocal action between stock and graft has been fre- 
 quently referred to by writers on horticultural topics, 
 from the time Pliny wrote his "Historia Naturalis," down 
 to the present, still, there does -not, appear to have been 
 any very carefully conducted experiments made for the 
 express purpose of ascertaining its exact extent or limits. 
 It remains an almost wholly unexplored field, to be occu- 
 pied by some future disciple of vegetable phenomenology. 
 
SELECT LISTS OF PLANTS. 249 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 SELECT LISTS OF PLANTS. 
 
 In the following lists of plants annuals are omitted, for 
 it is presumed that every cultivator of the soil knows that 
 these are generally propagated by seed. There may be 
 an occasional instance where it is desirable to perpetuate 
 an annual by cuttings, but these may be considered as 
 exceptions to a general rule. Furthermore, as this work 
 is not intended to be a botanical dictionary, nor an ency- 
 clopaedia of plants, the author only aims to mention those 
 species and varieties which are to be found in cultivation 
 either in the gardens or conservatories of the inhabitants 
 of temperate climates. 
 
 The plants will be named in alphabetical order accord- 
 ing to their botanical names, one or more of the common 
 or local names being added when known ; but there are 
 many species to which none have as yet been given a 
 fact not at all to be regretted, as local and popular names 
 are usually as untrustworthy as they are unnecessary and 
 confusing. 
 
 TREES, SHRUBS AND VINES, WITH BRIEF NOTES ON HABITS 
 AND MODES OF PROPAGATION. 
 
 Abelia. Mostly evergreen shrubs, adapted to cool greenhouse cul- 
 ture in cold climates. Propagated by green cuttings taken off in summer 
 and planted in a close frame, or by layering in the house. 
 
 Abies (Balsam Fir, Etc.) Well known coniferous trees', propagated 
 by seeds preserved dry over winter, and then sown in light soil in frames, 
 I cr where water and shade can be applied when required. Varieties are 
 propagated by veneer grafting under glass late in summer. 
 
 Abroma. East India and New Holland evergreen trees ; succeeding 
 only where they can be given a high temperature. Increased by seeds 
 or cuttings of the half-ripened wood placed in a close frame or under a 
 bell glass. 
 
 Abutilon (" Flowering Maples "). Very free blooming ornamental 
 trees and shrubs, natives of warm climates, but succeeding in a cool 
 greenhouse in winter and in the garden during the summer. New vari- 
 
250 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 eties are raised from seed, then increased by cuttings of the young shoots 
 planted in sand in frames. Cuttings root very freely, and usually with- 
 out dropping their flower buds if these are left on when the cuttings are 
 made. 
 
 Acacia. Evergreen trees and shrubs, principally from the tropics 
 Australia, New Holland, East Indies, South America and Africa. About 
 400 species are known, but not more than one-eighth of the number in 
 cultivation. Propagated by seed, or cuttings taken off with a heel and 
 inserted in sand under a bell glass or in a close frame. Also by root- 
 cuttings of two or three inches in length, placed in sand, with the larger 
 end only lightly covered. 
 
 Acalypha. Tropical shrubs with inconspicuous flowers, but rather 
 ornamental foliage. They require a high temperature to bring out the 
 bright color of their leaves. Propagated by cuttings, taken off in early 
 spring and placed in a close frame, and given a temperature of eighty to 
 ninety degrees, Fahrenheit. 
 
 Acer (Maples). Well-known deciduous trees and shrubs, natives of 
 cool climates. Seeds of such species as American Silver-leaved Maple 
 (A. dasycarpuni) and Red Maple (A. rubrum), which ripen early in sum- 
 mer, should be sown immediately and covered very lightly ; but the 
 seeds of species ripening in autumn may be readily preserved by mixing 
 with clean sand and then stored in a cool place until spring. These late 
 ripening seeds may also be sown in autumn if preferred, although there 
 is greater danger of loss from vermin than when stored in sand over 
 winter. The varieties of the species named may be readily propagated 
 by budding or grafting in the nursery, and the same is true of the Hard 
 or Sugar Maple ; but in grafting, the cions should be taken from the 
 trees early in winter and kept dormant until the sap has begun to flow 
 quite freely in the stocks. The European varieties require similar treat- 
 ment ; but the Japan Maples are more successfully grafted under glass 
 and by veneer grafting, the stocks having been grown in pots for this 
 purpose. The Japan Maples may also be propagated by cuttings of the 
 green wood taken off in summer, but the plants are usually feeble, 
 making a very slow growth ; consequently, this mode of propagation is 
 not recommended. The Negundo Maple or Box Elder (A. Negundo), 
 may be propagated by ripe wood cuttings taken in the fall and placed 
 in a moist and warm position, where a callus will be formed by the time 
 they are wanted for planting out in the spring. All the species and 
 varieties of the Maple may be increased by layers, made in autumn or 
 after the leaves are nearly full formed in spring ; but plants raised from 
 layers are inferior to those produced from seeds, or by budding and 
 grafting. 
 
 Acttnidia (Japan Gooseberry). A small genus of hardy deciduous 
 climbing shrubs from Japan, one of the species bearing edible jerries, 
 resembling a gooseberry in size and flavor. Propagated by seeds, layers 
 and cuttings of the green shoots in summer. Both cuttings and layers 
 
SELECT LISTS OF PLANTS. 
 
 produce roots freely, but the buds on them push very slowly and often 
 fail, although the young plants may have an abundance of roots. 
 
 Adenocalymna. Evergreen climbing shrubs, belonging to the same 
 order as the common Bignonia (Trumpet-creeper), but being native of a 
 tropical climate, they require great heat to insure vigorous growth and 
 perfect flowers. Increased by cuttings placed where they will receive 
 plenty of moisture and bottom heat. 
 
 Adenocarpus. A genus containing both evergreen and deciduous 
 .Bhrubs, bearing long racemes of yellow pea-shaped flowers. Propagated 
 by seeds, layers and cuttings of the unripe wood under glass. 
 
 Adenostoma (Chamiso). A genus of only two species of small 
 evergreen trees or shrubs indigenous to California. Propagated by cut- 
 tings of the immature shoots in sand under a bell glass or in frames 
 
 Adhatoda. Greenhouse o r 
 stove evergreen shrubs from Brazil 
 and India. Propagated by cuttings 
 of the young shoots placed in a posi- 
 tion where they will receive bottom 
 heat. 
 
 sEgiceras (Goat Plant). Ono 
 species from New Holland, some- 
 times cultivated for its white, fra- 
 grant flowers. A rather stocky 
 shrub. Propagated by cuttings of 
 the half-ripened shoots. 
 
 sEsculus (Horsechestnut). De- 
 ciduous trees or shrubs. Numerous 
 species and varieties in cultivation. 
 The species are usually propagated 
 from seed. The large, fleshy nuts 
 should be gathered as soon as they 
 fall from the trees in autumn the 
 
 outside husk removed then either sown and merely covered 
 with leaves or very light vegetabla mold, or the nuts may 
 be preserved in pure sand or sphagnum until the following 
 spring. They should be stored in a cool place to prevent 
 premature sprouting and decay. If the boxes containing 
 the nuts are buried in the ground under an evergreen tree, 
 or in the shade of some building, they will usually 
 pass through the winter in good order. In the germination of the 
 Horsechestnut, the nut does not burst open as in the Acorn, Butternut 
 and Hazelnut, but both plumule and radicle press through the envelope 
 on one side, as shown in figure 94. Varieties of the different species are 
 propagated by budding and grafting. The most certain mode is by 
 veneer grafting under glass, and in this climate during the month oi : 
 August. Seedling stocks, placed in pots in early spring, may be grafted 
 
 Fig. 94. HOKSECHEST- 
 NUT GERMINATING. 
 
 [After Gray]. 
 
PROPAGATION OF PLAXTS. 
 
 the first summer, as the stocks will produce plenty of small fibrous roots 
 by the time they are wanted for use. Some of the dwarf species, like 
 the California Buckeye (^. Californlca), and the Dwarf Buckeye (^K. 
 parviflora), of the Eastern States, are readily increased by dividing up the 
 old stools or clumps of stems. 
 
 Aganosoma. Showy greenhouse shrubs, principally from India. 
 Propagated by cuttings under glass with gentle bottom heat. 
 
 Agapetes. Deciduous shrubs from the mountains of India. They 
 are closely allied to the Huckleberries ( Vacdniacete), but require the 
 heat of a warm greenhouse. Propagated by seeds, and half-ripened 
 cuttings under glass. 
 
 Agathophylliun (Madagascar Nutmeg). An evergreen tree closely 
 allied to the Laurels, the leaves having "the fragrance of the clove. 
 Requires the heat of a warm greenhouse. Propagated very readily by 
 cuttings of the green shoots. 
 
 Agathosma (Bucco). Small, evergreen, heath-like shrubs from the 
 Cape of Good Hope, thriving in a cool greenhouse in winter and in a 
 half shady position during the summer. Propagated by cuttings of the 
 green, succulent shoots under glass. 
 
 Ailantus (Tree of Heaven). A well known tree from China ; the 
 staminate flowers exhaling a disagreeable, nauseating odor. Propagated 
 by seeds preserved in a dry, cool place over winter and then sown in 
 spring and lightly covered. Also increased by suckers and cuttings of 
 the roots. The latter modes are not recommended except for propagat- 
 ing the pistillate trees, the flowers of which are odorless. 
 
 Akebia. A very hardy and handsome twining shrub from Japan. 
 Only one species as yet known, the A. quinata, or Five-leafletted. Read- 
 ily propagated by layers of either the old or young shoots. 
 
 Alhagi (Manna Tree). Small shrubs with pea-shaped flowers. Na- 
 tives of Caucasus. One of the species, the A. maurorum, yields the 
 substance known as "manna," a natural exudation of the leaves and 
 branches. Propagated by seed, and cuttings of the green shoots placed 
 where they will receive bottom heat. 
 
 Alnus (Alder). Deciduous trees and shrubs, mostly natives of cold 
 countries. The species are usually propagated by seeds preserved in a 
 dry, cool place over winter, and sown on the surface of the soil in spring 
 and thinly covered with moss or some light vegetable mold, which should 
 be kept constantly moist until the plants appear. Varieties are propa- 
 gated by cuttings of ripe wood, layers and grafting upon free growing 
 stocks. The recently introduced Japan Alder (A.firma), succeeds best 
 when grafted on the European Sticky Alder (A. gluttnosa). 
 
 Amelanchter (Juneberry, Shadbush, Etc.) Deciduous trees and 
 shrubs. The North American species are extremely variable, producing 
 many natural and widely different varieties. Some grow to trees thirty 
 or more feet in height, others are merely dwarf shrubs two or three feet 
 
SELECT LISTS OF PLANTS. 253 
 
 high ; all producing edible and pleasant-tasting fruit. Propagated by 
 seeds, layers or cuttings of the ripe roots. The dwarf varieties, when 
 grafted on tall stocks of the larger growing kinds, form handsome, small, 
 round-headed trees. 
 
 Amorpha (Lead Plant, Indigo Shrub). A genus of a few species of 
 hardy shrubs, all natives of North America. There are several local 
 forms or varieties in cultivation. Propagated by seeds, layers, sprouts 
 and ripe wood cuttings, taken off early in the fall and planted in a half 
 shady position, and left undisturbed until the following autumn. 
 
 Amygdalus (Almond). Shrubs and trees of Almond or Plum ge- 
 nus, or Prunus of most of the modern botanical works. Propagated by 
 seeds or by grafting and budding on Almond, Peach and Plum stocks. 
 The Dwarf Double Flowering Almond (A. nana), is readily propagated 
 by cuttings of the larger roots, made in autumn and stored in sand or 
 moss in a cool cellar until spring, then sown in drills and covered about 
 two inches deep with light soil. These dwarf varieties may also be 
 budded on Peach or Plum stocks, and if the buds are set three to four 
 feet from the ground, very elegant littlo trees may be produced. Plum 
 stocks are preferable to the Peach, as the latter are liable to be attacked 
 by the Peach tree borer. 
 
 Andromeda. Neat little shrubs several of the species evergreen 
 nearly all quite hardy in our Northern States, although some are natives 
 of the South. Propagated by seeds sown in very light soil and in seed- 
 pans or shallow boxes, kept shaded and constantly moist until the plants 
 appear, then removed to a position where they will receive more light. 
 The Andromedas may also be propagated by layers ; but these produce 
 roots slowly, and it usually requires two years to secure well-rooted 
 specimens. Nurserymen usually obtain their stocks from the native 
 habitats of the species, as the young plants may be transplanted with- 
 out much loss. 
 
 Anona (Custard Apple). Trees and shrubs mostly tropical, some of 
 the species bearing highly-prized and delicious fruit, like the Cherimoyer 
 (A. cJierimolia), Sour-sop (A. muricata), and Sweet-sop (A. squamosa), of 
 the West Indies and South America. Propagated by seeds placed in a 
 moist and high temperature, and by cuttings of the mature wood under 
 glass and with bottom heat. 
 
 Aralia. A genus of the order Araliacece, containing numerous 
 species of trees and shrubs, and a few herbaceous plants. Among the 
 ligneous section the American Angelica tree or Hercules Club (A. spin- 
 osa), is perhaps the most common in our gardens. The Chinese Aralia 
 (A. Chinensis), is a closely allied species, and moderately hardy when 
 grown in a rather dry, open soil. The recently introduced Mandchu- 
 rian Aralia (A. Mandchuricus, or dimot'phanthus of some authors), is as 
 hardy as our indigenous species, and is a shrub worthy of the attention 
 of apiarians, as it blooms profusely and its flowers yield a large amount 
 of honey. All of the hardy, shrubby species, and some of the tender 
 
254 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 ones, are readily propagated by cuttings of the roots taken off when the 
 plants are in a dormant state in the fall. The root cuttings should be 
 preserved in sphagnum, or sharp sand, until spring, or the hardy species 
 planted out in the nursery and the tender ones forced under glass. Some 
 of the tropical species are not so easily propagated as the hardy, but 
 they may be grafted under glass, using stocks of the more free-growing 
 sorts for this purpose. All the species may be increased by seeds, when- 
 ever these can be procured. 
 
 Araticaria (Norfolk Island Pine, Etc.) A genus of cone-bearing 
 evergreen trees, natives of the Southern Hemisphere, none of the species 
 quite hardy in our Northern States, although often cultivated in tubs 
 and pots for decorative purposes ; protection being given them during 
 the winter. Propagation by seeds is the most satisfactoiy method, but 
 all may be multiplied by layers and cuttings ; the latter should be made 
 from the ends of the shoots, and placed in sand and in a rather cool 
 house until callused, then given a higher temperature. 
 
 Arbutus (Strawberry Tree). Evergreen trees and shrubs. Some of 
 the species are hardy, others require the protection of a greenhouse. 
 Propagated by seeds sown in the fall or early in spring, and by layers ; 
 also by budding on strong seedling stocks. 
 
 Arctostaphylos (Bear Berry). A genus of low-growing and trailing 
 shrubs, closely allied to the last, and propagated by similar methods. 
 
 Ardisia.A very extensive genus of evergreen trees and shrubs, all 
 of tropical or semi-tropical origin, cultivated principally for their orna- 
 mental berries, which are quite persistent, remaining on the plant 
 several months after they have assumed their brilliant colors. Propa- 
 gated by seed sown as soon as ripe, and by cuttings of the half-ripened 
 shoots, planted in frames or under bell glasses. 
 
 Aristolochia (Birthworts). A genus of about one hundred and 
 seventy species, mostly twining shrubs, the large majority being natives 
 of tropical countries. There are a half-dozen species indigenous to the 
 United States. The Dutchman's Pipe (A. Sipho), is a species in common 
 cultivation, as it is one of the most hardy. Propagated by layers, cut- 
 tings of the roots, or of the green shoots planted under glass. 
 
 Artocarpus (Bread Fruit). A genus of evergreen tropical trees, 
 requiring a high temperature to insure a healthy growth and perfection 
 of their fruit. The true Bread Fruit (A. incisa), is sometimes cultivated 
 for its ornamental foliage, but the fruit seldom reaches maturity, except 
 in the tropics. The species of this genus are all difficult to propagate 
 under artifical conditions. Cuttings and suckers may be utilized for this 
 purpose, but do not grow very readily or freely. 
 
 Asimina (Papaw, Custard Apple). A genus of North America- 
 trees and shrubs of the order Anonacecc or Custard Apple Family, 
 The large Papaw (A. trilobd), is a well-known small tree, extending 
 from Lake Erie, in the north, to the Gulf of Mexico, in the south. 
 
SELECT LISTS OF PLANTS. 255 
 
 Propagated by seeds and layers put down in autumn. Seedlings usu- 
 ally spring up in great abundance about the wild plants, but are some- 
 what difficult to make live unless transplanted while young and of 
 email size. 
 
 Athrotaxis. A small genus of Tasmanian evergreen trees and 
 shrubs, belonging to the Coniferce. Rather tender, but will no doubt 
 succeed in the Southern States. Propagated by seeds, when these can be 
 obtained, otherwise by cuttings under glass. 
 
 Atragene. See Clematis. 
 
 Aucuba (Golddust Tree). Evergreen deciduous shrubs from Japan 
 and the Himalayas. The pistillate plants bear very showy fruit or 
 berries, but these are not usually obtained in the absence of artificial 
 fertilization of the flowers. Where ornamental berries is the special 
 object in the cultivation of these plants, specimens of both sexes 
 should be grown in the same house, and the pistillate flowers carefully 
 fertilized with pollen from the staminate, applying it, as usual, with a 
 fine camel's-hair pencil. All the varieties are readily propagated by cut- 
 tings of the green or half-ripened wood, planted in sand, or almost any 
 kind of light soil. 
 
 Azalea. A genus of evergreen and deciduous shrubs, all very orna- 
 mental and exceedingly popular for both greenhouse and garden culture. 
 The North American and European species have been hybridized, and 
 from these hybrids an immense number of varieties produced, many of 
 which are far superior to any of the parent species. These hybrids, and 
 the seedling? therefrom, are known under the popular name of " Ghent 
 Azaleas." The Chinese Azaleas (A. sinensis), from both China and Japan, 
 are slowly deciduous, the foilage remaining on the plants until late in 
 the autumn, but all are nearly, or quite, hardy in our Northern States. 
 Of this species there are a large number of varieties cultivated in Japan, 
 and recently introduced into our gardens under the name of A. Mollis or 
 soft-leaved. The Indian species ( A. indica), are evergreen and usually 
 tender, although an occasional variety may survive in the open air if 
 given a little protection in winter ; they are generally cultivated un- 
 der glass, but do not require a very high temperature. The evergreen 
 varieties are propagated by seeds and cuttings of the young shoots, taken 
 off with a heel or close to the old wood, and then placed in sand, and in 
 a close frame in the house. The deciduous varieties are propagated by 
 layers, divisions and by veneer graftings in summer under glass. (See 
 Selecting Stocks, Chapter XVIII.) 
 
 Azara. A genus of graceful half-hardy shrubs from South America. 
 The flowers are mostly yellow, with an aromatic fragrance. Propagated 
 by ripened cuttings placed in moderate heat, and under ( glass in cool 
 climates, and in simple frames without artifical heat in warm climates. 
 
 Baccharls (Groundsel Tree). A genus containing shrubs, trees, and 
 herbaceous plants, but none of any special value or interest to culti- 
 vators of plants. There are two shrubby species found along our coast, 
 
256 
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS, 
 
 from Connecticut southward, the most common being known as the 
 Groundsel tree (B. halimifoha). Propagated by seed and ripe wood 
 cuttings. 
 
 Banksia. A genus of evergreen shrubs, native of Australia, and 
 cultivated for the beauty of their foliage. There are a large number 
 of species cultivated in European gardens, where they are employed for 
 table decorations and for ornamenting rooms on festive occasions. Prop- 
 agated by well-ripened cuttings, separated carefully below a joint, and 
 then planted in sand without removing any but the lower leaves. Only 
 moderate heat is required, and 
 the air in the frames should not 
 be too confined or moist. 
 
 Benthamia. A genus of 
 shrubs, of the order Cornacece, 
 and by botanists it is now re- 
 ferred to as the genus Oornus 
 (Dogwood). Of the two species 
 in cultivation, the B. Japonica 
 is the most hardy, but the lead- 
 ing shoots suffer, more or less, 
 every winter in my grounds. 
 Propagated by seeds and layers, 
 or by grafting on the Dogwood. 
 
 Berberidopsis. An ever- 
 green, half -climbing shrub from 
 Chili ; closely related to the com- 
 mon Barberry. Propagated by 
 seeds, green cuttings, and layers 
 of mature shoots and branch es 
 
 Berberis (Barberry). A 
 genus of many species, mostly 
 evergreen, erect or trailing 
 shrubs. A few species are de- 
 ciduous, like the common Euro- 
 pean Barberry (B. vulgaris), and 
 the American (B. Canadensis). 
 Increased by seeds, by cuttings of the mature wood in autumn, by layers, 
 and some of the evergreen species by cuttings of the subterranean 
 branches. The seeds of the species indigenous to cool climates should 
 be washed from the pulp, mixed with sand and buried in the ground 
 out-doors over winter, and sown in a half shady place in spring, as the 
 young plants are very sensitive to the direct rays of the sun when they 
 first appear above ground. (See Ilex). 
 
 .Betula (Birch). A genus of about thirty species of graceful decid- 
 uous trees and shrubs. Fully one-third of the known species are found 
 in North America, and some of them extending far north ward. Flowers 
 
 WHITE BIRCH LEAF AND CATKINS. 
 
SELECT LISTS OF PLANTS. 257 
 
 appear before or with the leaves sexes in separate catkins ; the males 
 long cylindrical, as shown in figure 95 (common White Birch) ; the 
 females similar, but more dense or shorter ; both drooping when nearly 
 mature. Seeds small, nut-like, winged. The species are usually propa- 
 gated by seed, which ripen early in autumn, and may be kept dry over 
 winter and sown very early in spring ; or they may be preserved in moist 
 sand and stored in a cold place to prevent fermentation. The seed-bed 
 should be shaded, also the young seedlings, until they are a few inches 
 high. The seedlings should be transplanted when a year old. Varieties 
 are readily increased by budding and grafting .upon seedling stocks in 
 the nursery. (See Selecting Stocks, Chapter XVIII.) 
 
 Btgnonia, (Trumpet-Flower). A very large genus of climbing 
 shrubs, mostly natives of warm climates ; consequently requiring the 
 protection of a greenhouse when cultivated in cold ones. In most of 
 our recent botanical works the species are separated and those with a 
 certain form of flower are called Tecomas, and the other Bignonias. The 
 latter is the most common name, and applied indiscriminately to the 
 species in cultivation. Our common will Trumpet-creeper of the Mid- 
 dle States (Tecoma radicans), is a good type of the Tecomas ; while the 
 Southern evergreen Trumpet-creeper (Bignonia caprcolata), may be taken 
 as a type of the true Bignonias. All are readily propagated by seed, 
 cuttings, layers, and some of the hardy species from cuttings of the 
 larger roots. The evergreen species may be increased by cuttings of the 
 half-ripened shoots placed in sand under a bell glass or in close frames 
 in a greenhouse. 
 
 Borbonia. Ornamental tender shrubs from the Cape of Good Hope, 
 bearing handsome, pea-shaped flowers. Increased by cuttings of the 
 half-ripened shoots taken off late in winter and planted in sand and kept 
 in only moderate heat. 
 
 Boronta.A genus of ornamental greenhouse shrubs, mostly from 
 New Holland. They only require moderate heat and should be planted 
 out in summer. Propagated by cuttings of the half -ripened wood 
 placed in a frame and given plenty of air, with a temperature not above 
 sixty degrees, and only sufficient water to prevent wilting. 
 
 Souvardla. A small genus of slender evergreen shrubs indigenous 
 to Mexico and South America.' They are extensively cultivated for cut- 
 flowers during the winter months. There are both single and double 
 flowering varieties and of various colors, from brilliant scarlet to the 
 purest white. They are all rather difficult to propagate by cuttings of 
 the shoots, but are readily and rapidly increased by cuttings of the roots. 
 To obtain the latter, an old plant or one of good size should be taken 
 out of the pot, the soil shaken off, and the roots divided into pieces 
 about one inch long. These cuttings should then be placed in shallow 
 boxes filled with sand or sandy loam, and covered about one-half inch 
 deep. Apply water sufficient to settle the soil, and set aside for a week 
 or two where they will receive but moderate heat while the callus and 
 
258 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 buds are forming-. The boxes may then be placed in a position where 
 the cuttings will get a little bottom heat, which will force out the buds 
 and sprouts. When the young plants are of sufficient size to handle 
 readily, they may be potted oil, using two or three inch pets. The time 
 to make root-cuttings is after the plants have ceased flowering, or when 
 they are in a semi-dormant state, as they usually are during the latter 
 part of winter. Cuttings of the young terminal and side shoots, when 
 about two inches long, are in the best condition for striking, and if 
 placed in pure sand in close frames, or under bell glasses, the larger 
 proportion can be made to grow, but the plants are so easily propagated 
 by root-cuttings that our florists depend mainly upon this mode for in- 
 creasing their stock of Bouvardias. 
 
 Broussonetia (Paper Mulberry). Only one species, of which there 
 are several varieties in cultivation. All low-growing trees from China. 
 Propagated by seed, cuttings of the mature wood taken off in the Ml 
 and stored during winter .in a moderately warm place. Also increased 
 by layers, suckers and cuttings of the rools. 
 
 Suxus (Box Tree). A genus of well-known, hardy evergreen trees 
 and shrubs. There are many varieties in cultivation, all of which thrive 
 best in a light, well-drained soil. Propagated by seed, cuttings and 
 layers. Green cuttings, taken from the plants in summer and placed in 
 frames and shaded duiing the he.it of the day, produce roots quite freely, 
 and in a few days. Ripe wood cuttings, taken off in the fall and placed 
 in boxes in a cool greenhouse, will usually become well rooted by the 
 following spring. Some of the varieties grow quite readily by cuttings 
 planted in the open ground in spring, but the soil should be packed 
 firmly about the ba:e of the cuttings to insure the production of roots. 
 
 Callicarpa (French Mulberry). Handsome little shrubs, cultivated 
 for their ornamental berries. A genus of only five species one Ameri- 
 can, one from Japan, two from India, and one from China. Propagated 
 by seed, divisions, or cuttings o2 the young shoots in spring, placed 
 under a bell glass in a grcenhou&3 or in close frames where they will 
 receive a littla bottom heat. 
 
 Callistemon, Handsome greenhouse shrubs, most of the species 
 being native of New South Wales. Propagated by seed when it can be 
 obtained, but the best flowering plants are raised from the ripe wood 
 the cuttings placed in pure sand in frames or under a bell glass. 
 
 Callttris. A small genus of tender, evergreen trees, closely allied 
 to the Arbor-vitses, but with very long, slender, joint d branches. Propa- 
 gated by seed, and cuttings of the branches taken off in the autumn and 
 kept in a cool greenhouse through winter, or stored in a frame where 
 they will not freeze. 
 
 Calluna (Heather, Ling). A genus of the Heath family, indigenous 
 to Europe and to rather limited areas in North America. Propagated 
 by cuttings of the green, tender shoots planted in pure sand under glass. 
 To secure the best cuttings, the plants should be grown in the house 
 
SELECT LISTS OF PLANTS. 259 
 
 and the cuttings taken when the new shoots are of a proper length to 
 make cuttings two to three inches long. 
 
 Calothamnus. Tender evergreen shrubs of the " Myrtle Family," 
 natives of West Australia. Flowers bright scarl.t. Propagated by cut- 
 tings of the young shoots, when they have become somewhat firm, placed 
 in sand in a frame. The air should noi b3 kept too moist, as there is 
 danger of the cuttings damping off. 
 
 Calycanthiis (Sweet Scented Shrub). A genus of hardy shrubs, 
 all indigenous to the United States. Readily increased by seeds, divi- 
 sions, and cuttings of the subterranean stems and branches. 
 
 Camellia (Tea Plant, Etc.) Evergreen shrubs and trees from China 
 and Japan. One of the species, C. theifcra, and its varieties, yields the 
 tea of commerce. The single varieties are propagated by seed, layers, 
 and cuttings of the green twigs planted in sand in frames or under bell 
 glasses. Cuttings of the season's growth, taken off in the autumn and 
 planted in frames in a cool greenhouse, will usually become rooted by 
 the following spring ; but green cuttings are usually preferred, as they 
 strike root in a few weeks, if at all. The double varieties are propagated 
 by veneer grafting under glass. The grafted plants should be placed in 
 close frames and frequently watered overhead until the cions have 
 united. 
 
 Capparis (Caper Tree). An extensive genus of evergreen shrubs, 
 of no especial value except the one species, C. spinosa, which yields the 
 Caper of commerce. It is a native of Southern Europe, Western Asia, 
 Egypt and North Africa, and is said to be hardy in the Southern coun- 
 ties of England ; hence, it will probably thrive in the open air in some 
 of our Southern States. Propagated by cuttings of the ripe wood hi 
 sand, under glass. 
 
 Caragana (Siberian Pea Tree). All small, hardy, deciduous shrubs, 
 with one exception. The C. arborcscens of Siberia grows to a height of 
 fifteen to twenty-five feet in its native country, but ten feet would be 
 considered an extra strong growth in this country. Propagated by 
 seed, layers, cuttings of the roots, and by grafting the low growing 
 species and varieties on the seedling stocks of the C. arborescens. If the 
 seeds are kept dry over winter, they will need to be slightly scalded or 
 steeped in tepid water for a few days before sowing in spring. 
 
 Carptnus (Hornbeam). A genus of hardy, deciduous trees, mostly 
 of small size, but with veiy tough and hard wood. The species are 
 propagated by seeds, which are hard and nut-like, and germinate very 
 irregularly. Some will grow the following spring after sowing, others 
 remaining dormant until the second year. Owing to this uncertainty as 
 to the time of germination, it is always best to sow the seed in the fall 
 as soon as ripe, and in a position where the bed can be freely watered 
 during the following summer, even if but a few plants should appear. 
 But if none are seen by the time warm weather sets in, the entire surface 
 
260 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 of the bed may bo covered to the depth of three or four inches with 
 chaff, moss, hay or some similar material, that will keep the soil moist, 
 thereby saving the labor of applying water. Early the following spring 
 the bed should be uncovered. All kinds of seeds that do not usually 
 germinate until the second season may be safely treated in the same way. 
 Carya (Hickory, Pecan Nut). Well-known, valuable, deciduous 
 trees, all natives of the United States. Some of the species, like the Pe- 
 can tree and Shell-bark Hickory, yield very delicious and valuable nuts, 
 which are always in demand for home use and export. The cultivation 
 of these noble and valuable trees has, no doubt, been greatly retarded 
 by the prevalence of an erroneous idea in regard to the supposed diffi- 
 culty or uncertainty attending the transplanting of either young or old 
 trees. This very absurd idea has been repeated and disseminated by 
 men holding high positions, but who could not possibly have had any 
 practical experience in raising or cultivating such trees. These theorists 
 usually recommend the planting of the nut where the trees are intended 
 to remain, which is not necessary any more than it is to plant the seeds 
 of our common fruit trees in such positions. The excuse for this kind 
 of permanent planting is, that the Hickories do not produce a sufficient 
 number of fibers to insure safety in transplanting. If Hickory-riuts are 
 planted in a stiff clay, or any other kind of hard, compact soil, they will 
 ssnd down one or two long, naked tap-roots, but if placed in light, rich 
 sand or loam they will produce a large number of fibrous roots, and may 
 be transplanted with as much certainty of living afterwards as any nut- 
 bearing tree known. I speak from experience, and not hearsay, in this 
 matter. In propagation, select the fresh nuts in autumn, and mix with 
 light soil or sand, and place in heaps in the open ground, or in boxes 
 with good drainage. Early in spring, or as soon as the nuts show signs 
 of sprouting, take them out and drop in rows, placing the nuts two to 
 four inches apart in the row, and the rows four feet apart. Cover the 
 nuts with about an inch of soil. If the seed-bed is light, poor sand, so 
 much the better, but add old, well-rotted stable manure in liberal 
 quantities to the surface, as a mulch. In the fall, or early the following 
 spring, take up the seedlings, either with a spade or with a tree-digger, 
 and if they have long tap-roots, they should be shortened to about one- 
 half their original length, or a little more. If this is done in the fall, 
 and in a cold climate, the plants should be heeled in and well pro- 
 tected from cold, and- left in this position until the following spring, 
 when they should be set out in nursery rows, and in heavier soil than 
 recommended for a seed-bed, placing them fifteen to twenty inches 
 apart in the row, and the rows at a distance that will admit of cultiva- 
 tion with plow and cultivator. The trees may remain in the nursery 
 rows until four or five feet high, then removed to the place where they 
 are to remain permanently. While it is true that transplam ing usually 
 temporarily checks the elongation of the stem, the number of i-oots will be 
 greatly increased, and the plants Mill not only become more bulky, but in 
 a far better condition for making a rapid and vigorous growth in after 
 
SELECT LISTS OF PLANTS. 261 
 
 years. Where there is no danger of the nuts being disturbed by vermin, 
 or of the soil becoming packed and hard during the winter, the nuts 
 may be planted out in rows as soon as gathered in autumn, but my pre- 
 ference is for spring planting in a recently-plowed and freshly-prepared 
 bed for all kinds of nuts and seed. Propagating the Hickories by 
 budding and grafting has never been practised with any very great 
 success anywhere, and when I first published a description of and 
 named the Kale's Paper-shell Hickory-nut, in 1870, I doubt if there was 
 a grafted tree of tha Hiskory in this country. The making known the 
 existence of this unique and valuable variety, has prompted many 
 nurserymen and other persons to try their skill in grafting these trees, 
 and while their success has not been great, still grafted Hickory trees 
 are no longer unknown, or so very rare. The greatest success, thus far, 
 has been obtains 1 by grafting under glass, using small stocks that have 
 been growing at least one year in pots. For out-door grafting, and in 
 cool climates, terminal grafting is best, either using a splice without a 
 tongue, or by cutting away one side of the cion and thrusting it under 
 the bark at the apex or top of the stock. Wrap with Bass, and cover with 
 grafting clay, and over this a little moss, and then enclose the whole in a 
 hood male of oil paper, leaving it on until the cion shows unmistakable 
 signs of growth. The object of enclosing in oil paper is to prevent the 
 evaporation of moisture, and drying of the clay and cion. The wood or 
 twigs used for cions should be taken from the tree early in winter, and 
 buried in moist sand or packed in sphagnum, and stored in some cool 
 place, where they will remain in a perfectly dormant condition until they 
 are wanted for use. The grafting should not be done until the leaves 
 on the stocks have begun to open. The great difference in the 
 density of the sap of the stock and the cion will insure a rapid flow 
 into the latter. There is another mode of propagating the Hickory, 
 which may be practised when necessary to preserve or increase the 
 number of any choice or rare variety. This is done by exposing the 
 roots to light and air, thereby forcing them to produce buds and sprouts. 
 It is well known that Hickory roots, large or small, when exposed to the 
 light and air, will soon produce buds and sprouts on the exposed surface. 
 This tendency of Hickory roots to produce sprouts from adventitious 
 buds ma} r be taken advantage of in the propagation of valuable natural 
 varieties. The lateral surface roots, at some distance from the main 
 stem five, ten or twenty feet, according to the age and size of the tree- 
 should be expossd to the light and air early in spring, by removing the 
 soil above them for a space of two feet or more, and leaving them in 
 this condition the entire summer. Sometimes no sprouts will appear 
 the first season, and the exposure will need to be continued during the 
 succeeding one, or until they do appear. Then the main root on which 
 the sprouts have grown may be severed on the side nearest the stem of 
 the tree, and then carefully lifted and followed outward until enough 
 fibers or small roots are secured to ensure the life of the young tree 
 when transplanted. Better formed plants may be secured by allowing 
 
262 
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 the sprouts to remain for a year where they have grown, after severing 
 the root ; and if fine, rich soil is thrown in around the base of these 
 sprouts, new fibers will usually appear during the season, and when the 
 plants are removed less of the old or main root will be needed to ensure 
 
 Fig. 98. HICKOBT WITH HOOT SPROUTS. 
 
 growth after transplanting. In figure 93 a Hickory tree is shown with a 
 number of forced sprouts from the roots in position. 
 
 Cassandra (Leather Leaf). A genus of small native shrubs, closely 
 allied to the Andromsdas, and of the " Heath Family." Usually propa- 
 gated by layers or dividing the plants as taken from the bogs and low 
 grounds, where they are to be obtained in abundance. 
 
 Cassia (Senna). A genus of some two hundred species of shrubs 
 and herbs. Very few of the species are in cultivation, or are they of any 
 special interest. All are readily propagated by seed. The ligneous 
 species may be increased by cuttings of the half-ripened shoots under 
 glass. 
 
 Castanea (Chestnut). A genus of a few species, but of many varie- 
 ties. Propagated by planting the nuts as soon as ripe in the autumn, or 
 preserving them in sand and stored in a cold place until spring, 
 then planting as directed for Hickory-nuts. Varieties are increased 
 by grafting on seedling stocks splice grafting being the preferable 
 
SELECT LISTS OF PLANTS. 2G3 
 
 mode, and. it should not be done in spring until the sap in the stock is 
 flowing rapidly and the buds have pushed almost into leaf. The cions 
 should be in a dormant state when inserted, and held in place with waxed 
 manilla paper, as waxed cloth does not allow of rapid expansion of the 
 stock when growth begins, and there is danger of strangulation. (For 
 Stocks, see Chapter XVIII.) 
 
 Catalpa (Indian Bean). A genus of handsome, rapid growing trees 
 and shrubs. Cultivated for ornament, and the very durable wood of the 
 larger growing speeiefe. Propagated by seed preserved dry during win- 
 ter and sown in spring lightly covered with fine, rich soil. The Catalpas 
 may also be readily propagated by grafting in spring, and by cuttings 
 of the one year old wood, made in the fall and buried below the reach 
 of frost in the open ground, or they may be preserved in a cool cellar 
 and then planted out in nursery rows early in spring. The Catalpa will 
 not grow from root-cuttings, as has been repeatedly stated in books on 
 forestry and the propagation of plants. 
 
 Ceanothus (New Jersey Tea). An interesting genus of low-grow- 
 ing, pubescent shrubs, with small but pretty flowers. Of the twenty or 
 more species, all are natives of North America. Propagated by cutting's 
 of the ripe wood taken off in the autumn, and by layers. Some of the 
 species may be propagated by root-cuttings placed in a position where 
 they will form buds during the winter months. 
 
 Cedrus (Cedar). A small genus of cone-bearing trees, the Cedar of 
 Lebanon being the best known and most familiar representative. The 
 species are propagated by seed, sown as soon as taken from the very 
 close and compact cones, and in a half-shady position in a cool green- 
 house, or in frames in warm climates. The seeds will remain sound for 
 many years if left enclosed in the cones, but soon lose their vitality after 
 removal. Varieties are usually propagated by veneer grafting under 
 glass, late in summer or early spring, using strong, pot-grown seedlings 
 for stocks. 
 
 Celastrus (Staff Tree, Bitter-Sweet). A genus of climbing, decidu- 
 ous and evergreen shrubs, cultivated for their ornamental foliage and 
 fruit. All the species readily propagated by seed, layers, or cuttings of 
 the mature shoots. 
 
 Ccltis (Nettle Tree). A small genus of mostly hardy, deciduous 
 trees and shrubs. The North American species are the largest, but not 
 of any special value. Propagated by seed sown as soon as ripe, and by 
 layers when the trees branch so low down as to admit of this mode of 
 propagation. 
 
 Cerasus (Cherry, Laurel, Etc.) A large genus of shrubs and trees, 
 mostly deciduous ; but there are two European and one American 
 species with persistent evergreen leaves. Propagated by seed sown as 
 soon as ripe, or stored in moist sand ; also by budding and grafting. (See 
 Prunus and Cherry, under head of Fruit Tree Stocks). 
 
264 
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 Ceratiola.A low-growing evergreen shrub of the order Empetmcece, 
 native of South Carolina and Florida. Thrives in dry, sandy soil. Propa- 
 gated by seed or green cuttings under glass. 
 
 Ceratonia (Carob Tree). An evergreen tree bearing pea-shaped 
 flowers, succeeded by long pods containing a sweet tasted, mucilaginous 
 ,ulp. Propagated by ripe wood cuttings planted in frames, or from 
 Jreshly gathered seed. 
 
 Cerctdtphylliun. A slender, rapid-growing, hardy, deciduous 
 tree, introduced about twenty years ago from Japan under the name of 
 C. japonica. It has small, smooth, heart-shaped leaves, of a purplish 
 color while young. Propagated by green cuttings, made of the tips of 
 the twigs during the summer, planted in sand in a close frame in a propa- 
 gating house. I have found that the cuttings strike root more readily 
 if slightly dried or wilted before they 
 are placed in the frames. The leaves 
 should be cut away, leaving only two 
 or three of the terminal ones. 
 
 Cercis (Judas Tree, Ptedbud). A 
 genus of three species, one each in 
 America, Europe, China and Japan; 
 the former two small trees growing 
 twenty to thirty feet high, the latter a 
 stocky shrub six to eight feet. Propa- 
 gated by seeds kept in moist sand over 
 winter, and by layers. 
 
 Chamcecyparts (Cypress, White 
 Cedar, Etc.) An extensive genus of 
 coniferous trees, according to the re- 
 cent re-arrangement and classification 
 of the Conifcrce. It is represented in 
 this country by three species : the 
 White Cedar (C. tJiyoides), the Lawson 
 Cypress (C. Lawsoniana), and Nootka 
 Sound Cypress (C. Nulkacnsls) of the 
 Pacific Coast. The Rctinlspora, or 
 Japan Arbor-vitoes, are also included in 
 this genus. Propagated by seed, layers, 
 and cuttings of the smaller twigs and 
 branches taken off in the autumn and planted in frames, or in a cool 
 greenhouse where they will callus slowly ; then given a little higher 
 temperature to force out the roots. Some of them produce roots readily 
 and freely, while others under the same treatment will remain fresh and 
 sound for a year before any roots will be emitted. This difference may 
 often be observed in the varieties of a species, as well as in the different 
 species. With both the varieties of a species, as well as species which 
 are found to be difficult to propagate by cuttings taken from plants in 
 
 Fig. 97. 
 
 CUTTING OF EETINISPORA. 
 
SELECT LISTS OF PLANTS. 265 
 
 the open ground, the most certain mode is to pot a few plants and place 
 them in a greenhouse, and after they have made a new growth of two 
 or three inches take off the young, succulent tips of the branches for 
 cuttings, planting them in sand under bell glasses, or in a close frame, 
 where they can be given bottom heat, applying water overhead daily 
 with a syringe or watering pot, through a fine rose. Cuttings of the 
 species commonly known as Retlnispora plumosa may be made of the 
 size and form shown in ligure 97. Varieties may also be propagated by 
 grafting, using closely allied species for stock. Veneer grafting under 
 glass is the best mode. 
 
 Chilopsts (Desert Willow). A genus represented by one species, 
 indigenous to Texas and westward to Southern Calif omia. A slender- 
 growing, small tree, bearing Bignouia-like flowers. Readily propagated 
 by seed, or by ripe wood cuttings, planted in the open ground in warm 
 climates, or under glass in cold ones. 
 
 CJiionanthus (White Fringe Tree). Hardy, native, deciduous 
 shrubs, cultivated for then* pure white, fringe-like flowers. Propagated 
 by seeds sown in the autumn as soon as ripe ; by budding and grafting 
 on the common Ash. (See Fraxin, Chapter XVIII.) 
 
 Choisya. Only one species, and this (native of Mexico) a beautiful 
 shrub, hardy only at the South. Propagated by ripened cuttings, 
 planted in a half-shady position and in rather light soil. 
 
 Chrysobalanus (Coco Plum). Small semi-tropical shrubs bearing 
 edible fruit. Two species indigenous to Florida. Propagated by seed 
 and cuttings of the mature branches, planted in a half-shady position 
 and given plenty of water overhead during dry weather. 
 
 Citrus (Orange, Lemon, Shaddock). Semi-tropical evergreen trees, 
 bearing in their improved state edible fruit. Propagated by seed, bud- 
 ding and grafting in the open air in warm climates, but in cool ones 
 under glass, and usually by veneer grafting. (See Fruit Stocks.) 
 
 Cladrastts (Yellow- Wood, Virgilia). A genus of only two species 
 of large, free-growing, deciduous, ornamental trees. One species is 
 indigenous to Kentucky and Tennessee (C. tinctoria), and the other 
 (C. amurcmis) to the Amoor regions of Asia. Propagated by seeds sown 
 in spring or autumn, and by cuttings of the roots prepared in the 
 autumn and packed in moss or clean sand and stored in a cool cellar 
 until spring. 
 
 Clerodendron. A large genus, mostly tropical and semi-tropical 
 shrubs and vines, bearing bright-colored flowers in long, terminal pan- 
 icles. Some of the most showy species require a high temperature ; 
 others will thrive in an ordinary greenhouse, while one Japanese species 
 is said to be hardy in England. Propagated by seed sown as soon as 
 ripe ; by cuttings of the somewhat mature wood in close frames. 
 
 Clethra (White Alder, Pcpperidge, Etc.) Ornamental, deciduous 
 shrubs, two or three species indigenous to the United States, and often 
 
266 PROPAGATION" OF PLANTS. 
 
 cultivated in gardens. The foreign species are mostly tender in the 
 North, although a recently introduced Japan species ( C. larbincrvis], is 
 moderately hardy. Propagated by seeds, layers, division of the clumps, 
 and by cuttings of the ripe wood. 
 
 Cleyera. Handsome evergreen shrubs blooming in spring ; flowers, 
 white, or yellowish-white ; fragrant. One species from Japan and the 
 other from Jamaica. Not hardy in our Northern States. Propagated 
 from green cuttings. 
 
 Codiceum, (Croton). A small genus of omamental-foliagcd, ever- 
 green shrubs, natives of tropical countries ; consequently require a Ligh 
 temperature to insure health and vigorous growth. There is an im- 
 mense number of varieties in cultivation, all of which have probably 
 descended from less than a half dozen species. They are more com- 
 monly cultivated under the generic name of Croton, and are now very 
 popular for decorative purposes. Propagated by seed to produce new 
 varieties, and these by cuttings of the ends of the leading shoots and 
 branches planted in sand, in frames or under bell glasses, giving strong 
 heat and a confined, moist atmosphere. 
 
 Colutea (Bladder Senna). A genus of a few species of ornamental, 
 deciduous, hardy shrubs, with pea-shaped, yellowish flowers, and seeds 
 in bladdery pods ; hence, the common English name. Propagated by 
 seeds, or ripe wood cuttings taken off in the autumn and treated as 
 usual with mature wood cuttings. 
 
 Comptonia (Sweet Fern). Only one species, the C. asplenifolia, a 
 very common and familiar low-growing shrub, with fragrant, fern-like 
 foliage. It is seldom cultivated. Propagated by dividing the clumps, 
 and by layering in autumn. 
 
 Cordta. A genus of about two hundred species of tropical, ever- 
 green trees and shrubs, two of which are found indigenous or naturalized 
 along the southern border of the United States. A few of the species 
 are cultivated as greenhouse shrubs in European gardens. Propagated 
 by soft or mature cuttings under glass. 
 
 Corema (Portugal Crakebcrry). Small, low-growing, Heath-like 
 shrubs. Only two species in the genus. Flowers, dioecious. One 
 species indigenous to our Northeast Coast and Newfoundland, the 
 other to Southwestern Europe. Propagated by cuttings taken off in 
 summer and planted under glass. 
 
 Cornus (Dogwood, Cornel). A genus of about twenty-five species, 
 all but one belonging to the Northern Hemisphere and more than half 
 of these indigenous to the United States. They are mostly hardy, decid- 
 uous shrubs and small trees ; rarely herbs. A few of the species and 
 then- varieties cultivated for ornament and their edible fruit ; among the 
 latter, the European Cornel (C. mas.} is a familiar shrub in gardens. 
 The American Flowering Dogwood (C.florida) is a conspicuous tree in 
 oui- forest in early spring. A weeping variety (C. florida pcndula), and 
 
SELECT LISTS OF PLANTS. 267 
 
 a red flowering- (C.f. pwyured), have recently been discovered and are 
 now being extensively propagated by nurserymen by grafting- and bud- 
 ding on seedling stocks of the species. Grafting these varieties in the 
 open air is somewhat uncertain, although by using cions composed of 
 two-year-old wood for the splice or wedge, and a short section of one- 
 year-old with a bud above, moderate success may be obtained. But the 
 best mode of grafting is with the veneer graft, under glass, on pot-grown 
 stocks, in August. I much prefer budding in the nursery on stocks that 
 have been headed back in spring, inserting the buds on the new growth 
 of the season, and performing the operation as late in summer as pos- 
 sible, and yet before the stocks have ceased growing. To hasten the 
 development of the buds on the parent tree, pinch off the ends of the 
 young shoots a week or two before the buds are wanted for use. All of 
 the species of the Dogwood are readily propagated by seed, layers, and 
 some like the " Red Osier Dogwood " may be readily increased by 
 cuttings of the mature wood. 
 
 Corylus (Hazelnut, Filbert). A small genus of hardy deciduous 
 trees and shrubs, bearing edible nuts. Two small, low-growing 
 species are natives of the United States, but they are seldom cultivated. 
 The European and Asiatic species have yielded an almost innumerable 
 number of varieties ; the best of these are extensively cultivated in the 
 Old World, and sparingly so in this country. Propagated by seed, or the 
 nuts preserved in sand over winter, as I have already directed for other 
 kinds of nuts ; by suckers, which usually spring up in great abundance 
 about the stems ; by layers, and occasionally by budding and grafting. 
 Cuttings of the young shoots of the season, made in the fall and stored 
 in moist sphagnum or sand through winter, will grow quite freely, if 
 planted in a warm, well-drained soil. 
 
 Cotoneaster. Hardy shrubs and small trees, with small white or 
 pinkish flowers, succeeded by ornamental berries late in autumn. There 
 are about fifteen species, a few of the number evergreen in mild 
 winters. Propagated by seed, layers, or grafting on the Quince. 
 
 Cratcegus (Thorn, Hawthorn). A genus of some thirty species, 
 mostly hardy, deciduous shrubs and trees ; about one-half the number 
 are North American. The double-flowered Hawthorns are popular orna- 
 mental trees, propagated by budding and grafting on seedling stocks. 
 To raise seedlings, the fruit should be gathered when ripe, and placed 
 where the pulp surrounding the seed will soften, but not ferment and 
 heat. Then mix pulp and seed with an equal bulk of pure sand, work- 
 ing over the heap until both are thoroughly intermingled. Place all in 
 boxes with good drainage, and on the north side of some building, or 
 where the box will be in the shade, bank up and cover over with soil. 
 The box and seed may remain in this position until the autumn of the 
 next year ; then the seed may be taken out and sown in shallow drills, 
 covering them from one to two inches deep, dropping a seed every two 
 inches if sown in single drills, or about the same distance apart if sown 
 
268 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 ID broad drills or beds. As Hawthorn seeds do not usually gro\V 
 until the second season after sowing, it is always preferable to keep 
 them in a position where water can be given when needed in dry 
 weather, than to sow them fresh and run the risk of having them injured 
 by drouth the following summer. When only a small quantity is to be 
 sown, they may be placed in the seed-bed as soon as the pulp is softened, 
 and the bed kept heavily mulched during the ensuing summer the 
 mulching removed in the spring of the second season. The main thing 
 to be observed is, to keep them moist and cool until the time arrives for 
 their germination. When the seedlings are one year old, they should be 
 taken up and transplanted into nursery rows, as usually practised with 
 other kinds of stocks. 
 
 Croton. See Codiceum. 
 
 Cryptomeria, (Japan Cedar). Slender, tall-growing, coniferous 
 evergreen trees, indigenous to Japan. Two species are usually recog- 
 nized by botanists, but there are several varieties in cultivation. 
 Scarcely hardy in the Northern States, but an occasional specimen sur- 
 vives, when planted in a dry soil, and in a sheltered position. Propa- 
 gated by seeds and cuttings of half-ripened wood, and planted in sand 
 under glass. 
 
 Cunninghamia (Chinese Fir). Only one species, the C. Sinensis. 
 A broad, lance-leaved evergreen coniferous tree, of a very graceful 
 habit, not hardy in the Northern States, but often cultivated as a low 
 bush, and protected in winter. Propagated by seeds and cuttings. 
 
 Cupresstis (Cypress). Evergreen trees and shrubs, with small scale- 
 like leaves, mostly compressed and rubricated in four rows on the rather 
 slender branchlets. There are several species, natives of the west coast, 
 but none quite hardy in the Northern Atlantic States. Propagated by 
 seeds and cuttings. 
 
 Cydonia (Quince, Pints Japonica). Well-known, hardy, decidu- 
 ous trees and shrubs. The common Quince ( C. vulgans), is cultivated 
 for its highly-flavored fruit, and the Japan Quince ( C. Japonica), and its 
 varieties, for their very showy flowers, appearing in early spring. Some 
 of the latter produce very large and spicy-scented fruit. The propaga- 
 tion of the common Quince is usually by cuttings of the mature wood 
 taken off in the autumn, and after the cuttings are made, they are 
 buried in a dry, warm place in the open ground, or in a moderately cool 
 cellar, and planted out in spring. The cuttings may be made from the 
 one-year-old wood, and from this age to that of four or five years old. 
 Layering the branches is also often practised as a mode of propagation ; 
 also banking up of the sprouts that appear around the base of old 
 stocks, which have been headed back for the purpose of producing 
 these sprouts. Varieties may be propagated by cuttings, budding and 
 grafting, using inferior sorts or seedlings for stocks. The Japan orna- 
 mental varieties are readily increased by cuttings of the young wood of 
 v ie season, taken after the frost has killed the leaves in the fall, but the 
 
SELECT LISTS OF PLANTS. 269 
 
 most rapid and certain mode is by cuttings of the roots made in the fall, 
 kept in sand or moss over winter, then sown in drills early in spring. 
 The Chinese Quince ( C. Chinensis), is a very distinct species, bearing- fruit 
 of an enormous size, but it is scarcely edible. Propagated by seed, or 
 grafting on stocks of the common Quince. 
 
 Cyrtlla. A genus of two species of evergreen trees ; one species is 
 found in the Southern States, and the other in the West Indies and 
 South America. Readily propagated by seed and cuttings planted in the 
 open ground in the South, or under glass in the North. 
 
 Cyttsus (Scotch Broom, Etc.). A large genus of low, slender- 
 branched shrubs, bearing pea-shaped flowers. All indigenous to the 
 Eastern Hemisphere, and many of the species are known under such 
 local names as Scotch Broom, Irish Broom, Spanish Broom, etc. The 
 hardy species are readily increased by seeds and layers, and the tender, 
 or those cultivated in the greenhouse, by cuttings of the tender shoots 
 planted in close frames, or under a bell glass. 
 
 Dacrydlum (Tear Tree). A genus of handsome coniferous ever- 
 green trees, from New Zealand, Tasmania and New Caledonia. All 
 tender, except in the extreme South. Propagated by cuttings of the 
 mature twigs planted in sand under glass, and by seed when it can be 
 obtained hi a fresh state. 
 
 Daphne (Spurge Laurel, Mezereon). A highly-prized genus of low- 
 growing evergreen and deciduous shrubs. Some of the species, like 
 the common Mezereon (D. mezereum), and the Garland Flower (D. 
 Cncorwri), have been cultivated in this country for many years ; but 
 there are many other species, fully as hardy and valuable, that are 
 rarely or never seen in our gardens. All thrive best in a half-shady 
 position, as the leaves are likely to burn during the hot weather in sum- 
 mer. Propagated by seed, when these can be obtained, by layers, cuttings 
 and grafting ; the stronger-growing being used as stocks. D. Cneorum 
 is one of the very best of the hardy, low-growing species for cultivation 
 in this country, and it may be increased by layers put down in spring, or 
 by cuttings of the ends of the young shoots obtained from young plants 
 forced in winter, or even from cuttings of the nearly matured wood, if 
 taken off early in the fall and planted in a greenhouse where they will 
 receive only moderate heat not much above fifty-five or sixty degrees 
 while the callus is forming. Veneer grafting on stocks grown in pots 
 is the best mode, as with other evergreen shrubs. 
 
 Darwinia. Handsome evergreen shrubs, indigenous to Australia. 
 Flowers large and showy, either red or white, produced in terminal 
 fascicles. Cultivated in greenhouses in cold climates. Propagated by 
 cuttings of the young succulent roots placed in a close frame. 
 
 Dasyltron (Lily Tree). A genus of tall-growing dio3cious ever- 
 green shrubs, natives of Mexico, and only hardy at the South, but 
 they are fine, showy plants, adapted to greenhouse culture, although 
 
270 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 rather large unless kept well cut back. Propagated by seeds and 
 cuttings. 
 
 Datura (Stramonium). A genus of shrubs, trees and annuals. A 
 few of the species, like D. Arborca (or Jtrugmansia Candida of some 
 authors), and D. mctdoidcs from California, are cultivated for their large 
 tube-shaped flowers or showy foliage. Propagated by seed ; and the 
 shrubby species and varieties by cuttings, which strike root quite 
 readily under glass. 
 
 Decumaria. A handsome climbing shrub, -with white, sweet- 
 scented flowers. Indigenous to the Carolina s and Florida. Eeadily 
 propagated by layers and cuttings. The latter should be made in sum- 
 mer, and planted in the shade, and given plenty of water. 
 
 Desfontatnea. A Holly-like, evergreen shrub, native of the 
 mountains of Chili. Said to be hardy in England. Propagated by 
 cuttings, planted either in li^ht loam or sand under glass. 
 
 Dsutzia. Well-known, hardy, dreciduous shrubs of easy culture. 
 Propagated by cuttings of the mature shoots of the season, made in the 
 autumn and stored in a cool and moist place ; planted out in spring. 
 For the slender-growing, dwarf species, like the D. tjracilis, green cut- 
 tings are preferable, taken from plants forced under glass in winter. 
 These green cuttings should be taken off with a heel, or close to the 
 old stem, and then set in close frames ; they will strike root in a very 
 few days. 
 
 Diervilla (Weigela). A genus of hardy, deciduous shrubs, with 
 showy, funnel-shaped flowers, varying in color from pure white and 
 yellow to deep rosy purple. The Chinese and Japanese species and 
 their varieties are far move common in cul ivation than our two indig- 
 enous species, viz., D. trifida and D. scssiliflom. Propagated very 
 readily by either ripe wood cuttings in the open air, or green wood 
 under glass. 
 
 Dlmorphanthus. See Aralia. 
 
 El(eagnus (Oleaster, Wild Olive). A small genus of evergreen 
 and deciduous shrubs. One species, the E. argentca, is a native, and 
 sometiniss cultivated ; also one or two species from Europe and Japan. 
 Propagated by seed, layers and root-cuttings. 
 
 Ellloitia. A genus of only three species, one indigenous to our 
 Southern States, and two are found in Japan. The first is a deciduous 
 slirub, growing four to ten feet high, bearing small, white flowers in 
 terminal racemes, resembling those of the Andromeda. Propagated by 
 soft wood cuttings under glass. 
 
 Epacris. Small evergreen shrubs and trees, mostly from the Indian 
 Archipelago, Australia and Polynesia. All are tender, and require the 
 protection of a warm greenhouse in winter, but may be planted out in 
 summer. They are highly valued for the great number of flowers which 
 appear during the winter months. Pteadily propagated by cuttings of 
 
SELECT LISTS OF PLANTS. 271 
 
 the tips of the growing shoots, taken off during the winter, and planted 
 in a close frame with bottom heat. 
 
 Erica (Heath). An extensive genus of nearly, or quite, four 
 hundred species of evergreen shrubs, with small and slender branches. 
 A large majority of the species are native of the Cape of Good Hope, 
 and are tender in cool climates. There are, however, a few species native 
 of Europe, and hardy, but they require a moist soil and a rather shady 
 position. The Heaths are very popular plants, and extensively culti- 
 vated in European gardens and greenhouses, but seldom seen in any 
 large numbers in this country, as they require special care and attention 
 in order to produce fine, healthy specimen plants. Propagated by seed 
 for producing new varieties, and by cuttings of the ends of the mature 
 twigs, also from the young growth of what are called the soft-wooded 
 species. The cuttings should be short not more than two inches long, 
 and one-half this length will answer equally as well. Very clean sand 
 should be used in which to set the cuttings of these plants, and the pots 
 or boxes given good drainage. 
 
 Erythrlna (Coral Tree). A genus of about thirty species of trees and 
 shrubs, bearing showy pea-shaped flowers. They are principally natives of 
 tropical countries. One species (E. herbaceci), with slightly woody stem, 
 indigenous to our Southern States. The flowers of all the species are 
 coral-red, scarlet or copper colored, hence the common name of " Coral 
 tree." The Cockscomb Coral tree, from Brazil (C. Crista-galli), is the best 
 known and most common species in cultivation in this country. The plants 
 are usually stored in a warm cellar or cool greenhouse during winter, 
 and planted out in summer. Propagated by cuttings of the young 
 shoots as they start in spring, taken off with a heel, and planted where 
 they will receive a little bottom heat. 
 
 Eucalyptus (Australian Gum Tree, Fever Tree). An immense 
 genus of very large, broad-leaved evergreen trees, mostly natives of 
 Australia. Specimen trees of some of the species are said to have been 
 found in the forests of Australia that are over four hundred feet high, 
 with stems more than fifty feet in circumference. The Blue Gum tree 
 (E. globulus), has been planted quite extensively in California as a timber 
 tree, and also in the malarious districts of Italy, where it is said to have 
 a beneficial effect in checking malarial fevers. Propagated by seeds im- 
 ported from Australia, and which usually grow very readily. The seed 
 should be sown in shallow boxes, and the seedlings transplanted when 
 only a few inches high. 
 
 Euonymus (Burning Bush, Spindle tree). A genus of ornamental, 
 deciduous and evergreen shrubs and small trees. The flowers are 
 mostly small and inconspicuous, but in several of the species they are 
 succeeded by very brilliant-colored berries remaining on the plants until 
 late in autnmn. Of the evergreen Japanese species (E. Japonicus, E. 
 rad-icans, etc.}, there are sevaral variegated-leaved varieties in cultivation, 
 some of them requiring protection during the winter in our Northern 
 
272 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 States, whilo others are quite hardy. The deciduous species are propa- 
 gated by seed and ripe wood cuttings, and the evergreen varieties by 
 cuttings of the young wood under glass. They may also be propa- 
 gated by layers, but cuttings produce the best-formed plants. The large 
 fruited and broad-leaved Euonymus (E. latifolius), is usually propagated 
 by budding and grafting on stocks of the larger-growing species, and 
 the low, trailing species may also be grafted on the same kind of stocks, 
 the evergreen thriving on the deciduous. 
 
 Euphorbia (Milk wort, Poinsettia, Etc.) An immense genus of several 
 hundred of species of trees, shrubs and herbs, the greater part abounding 
 in a milk-like juice, often containing on acrid and poisonous principle, 
 others containing valuable medicinal properties. The flowers are small, 
 unisexual and crowded in numbers at the ends of the main shoots. A 
 few shrubby species are cultivated in greenhouses, usually under the 
 name of Poinsettias, the bright-colored bracts surrounding the umbel of 
 flowers being used for decorative purposes. The winter-blooming, 
 tropical species require a high tsmperature to insure full development 
 of the showy, leaf-like bracts. Propagated by cuttings, and they strike 
 root freely in a temperature of about seventy-five to ninety degrees. 
 
 Eurya. A small genus of evergreen shrubs from China and Japan. 
 A variegated-leaved variety of lalifolia is occasionally cultivated as a 
 half-hardy shrub in our Northern States. Propagated by green cuttings 
 under glass. 
 
 Exochorda (Large-flowered Spiraea). A very large, hardy decidu- 
 ous shrub, introduced about twenty-five years ago from China, under the 
 name of Spircea grandiflora, but, owing to its being difficult to propa- 
 gate, it has not as yet become common. Green cuttings taken from 
 plants forced in a greenhouse strike root more or less freely, but the 
 usual practice is to splice graft cions of the ripe wood on pieces of the 
 roots, then plant in hot-beds or in boxes in a moderately warm green- 
 house. It is also reported that in France ripe wood cuttings planted 
 early in fall in the open ground strike root quite readily. 
 
 Fabiana. A neat little shrub with white flowers, and a well-known, 
 common greenhouse plant. Propagated by seeds and cuttings. 
 
 Fag us (Beech). A genus of large and valuable timber and orna- 
 mental trees. All are deciduous except two or three species found in 
 South America, but of which little is known. The triangular-shaped 
 nuts are well known among the people of both Europe and America. 
 Propagated by seed, which should be sown as soon as it is taken 
 from the tree, or stored in moist sani and in a cool place through winter. 
 Varieties are propagated by layers, and by budding and grafting in the 
 open air. In grafting, the cions should be set low down, and as near 
 the roots as convenient for working handily. 
 
 Faratnea. A neat little evergreen shrub from the West Indies. 
 Cultivated in greenhouses for its white, fragrant flowers, which are about 
 the size of those of the Cape Jasmine. This species (F. odoratissima), is 
 
SELECT LISTS OF PLANTS. 273 
 
 known by various names, such as Coffea occidentales, Ixora Americana, 
 etc. 
 
 Ficus (Fig Tree). A very large and important genus of evergreen 
 shrubs' and trees. One species, the F. Carica, yields the cultivated figs 
 so well known to all civilizeJl and to many barbarous nations. Another 
 species, the F. elastica, yields a part of the India-rubber of commerce, 
 while another, F. Indica, is the celebrated Banyan tree of India. 
 The varieties of the common Fig and India-rubber tree are readily propa- 
 gated by cuttings of the green wood or mature shoots planted in rather 
 coarse sand or pulverized brick, in the open ground in warm climates, 
 and under glass in cool ones. 
 
 Fltzroya. A coniferous, evergreen tree from Patagonia, with the 
 habit of the Weeping Cypress. Only one species in cultivation, the F. 
 Patagonica, and this is far from being common. Propagated by seeds 
 and cuttings of the half -matured twigs and leading shoots under glass. 
 
 Fontanesia. Large and handsome ornamental shrubs, closely re- 
 lated to the common Olive tree. One species, from Syria (F. pJiillyrce- 
 oidcs), has long been cultivated in our gardens, but the Chinese species 
 (F. Fortunei) is not so well known. Propapated by layers and cuttings 
 of the mature wood under glass. 
 
 Forsythia (Golden Bell). A small genus of handsome, early-bloom- 
 ing, hardy shrubs from China and Japan. Three species are recognized 
 in the late botanical works, viz., F. viridissima, from China in general ; 
 F. Fortunei, from Pekin, China, and F. suspensa, from Japan. The latter 
 is very distinct from the former two, having long, slender branches, 
 drooping or trailing on the ground. The leaves are quite small, ovate, 
 and on some branches all will be trifoliate, somewhat after the form of 
 a clover leaf. The flowers are usually of a bright yellow, appearing 
 several days earlier than on the first-named two ; still, with this wide 
 difference in habit of growth, size and form of leaves, and time of 
 blooming, I am quite certain that it is only a garden variety (or it may 
 be a wild one), of the first, or F. viridissima. My reason for making this 
 statement is that from a large number of seedlings raised from the seed 
 of an isolated plant of F. suspensa, at least nine out of everv ten have 
 assumed the upright habit, with the strong, stout canes and large, entire 
 leaves of the two first-named species. In these seedlings we have an 
 instance of reversion to the original type of the most pronounced kind ; 
 for there could not possibly have been any crossing or hybridizing with 
 any other closely allied plant. Many of the seedlings of this Weeping 
 Golden Bell are now large, old plants, so well established that their 
 varietal characters may be considered as fully developed. All the varie- 
 ties are readily propagated by cuttings of the ripe wood, made in either- 
 fall or spring, and planted in nursery rows. 
 
 Fothergilla. A genus of one, or at most two, species of low-grow- 
 ing, deciduous shrubs, native of the swamps and low grounds of the 
 Southern States. F. alnifolia is sometimes cultivated for its rather 
 
274 PKOPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 sherry, white flowers, appealing in spring. Propagated by seed and 
 layers. 
 
 Fraxinus (Ash). A genus of many species, mostly large, deciduous 
 trees of cold climates. Highly valued for their timber, as well as for 
 ornamental purposes. There are also a large number of varieties in cul- 
 tivation. The species are usually propagated by seed, which should be 
 gathered when ripe, in autumn, and either sown immediately, or packed 
 in moist sand and stored in a cool place, and then sown in spring, cover- 
 ing lightly with rich, loose soil. Sometimes the seeds will remain dor- 
 mant and not germinate until the following spring, and when this is 
 likely to occur, the seed-bed should not be permitted to become dry, 
 but given water or covered with some light, chaffy material to aid in 
 retaining moisture. The seed should also be examined when gathered, 
 to see if they contain a good, plump kernel, as seeds on isolated trees 
 are often defective or false, owing to non-fertilization of the flowers. 
 Varieties are propagated by budding and grafting in the open air. (See 
 Chapter XVIII., on Tree and Shrub Stocks.) 
 
 Fremontia, An interesting, large, ornamental, deciduous shrub, 
 with yellow flowers. This genus is closely allied to the Basswoods or 
 Lindens. One species, F. Californica, is known locally in California as 
 " Slippery Elm," the inner bark being used as a substitute for that of 
 the Ulmus fulva. Vide Prof. Rothrock, botanist to Wheeler's expedi- 
 tion. Propagated by seed and layers. 
 
 Fuchsia (Ladies' Eardrops). Well known and popular, tender, orna- 
 mental shrubs, mostly native of Mexico and South America. The F. 
 arborcsce)is of Mexico is said to grow to a height of ten to twelve feet in 
 its native habitats, but there are few other species and varieties that 
 exceed five or six feet. All are readily propagated by seeds and by cut- 
 tings of the young, tender shoots. 
 
 Gardenia (Cape Jessamine). A very popular genus of evergreen 
 shrubs, producing sweet-scented flowers. The double flowered variety 
 of G. jlorida, from China, has long been a favorite greenhouse plant in 
 our Northern States, and a common garden shrub in the Southern. In 
 the South it is readily propagated by layers, but in cool climates by cut- 
 tings of the young, tender shoots, planted in close frames in the propa- 
 gating house, or in an ordinary warm greenhouse. 
 
 Garrya.A small genus of evergreen shrubs, of the order Cornacece 
 (Dogwoods), native of the Rocky Mountain regions and the Pacific 
 Coast. The young branches and branchlets are somewhat four-angled ; 
 fruit, blue or purple. Seldom cultivated, and little is known of their 
 propagation further than by seed and layers. 
 
 Genista. See Cylisus. 
 
 Gleditschia (Honey Locust, Etc.) A genus of deciduous trees with 
 elegant, pinnate leaves, all of graceful habit ; but most of the species 
 produce simple or branching thorns of great strength as well as length, 
 
SELECT LISTS OF PLANTS. 275 
 
 and for this reason they are objectionable, and rarely planted except 
 for hedges. There are, however, several unarmed varieties of the most 
 hardy and valuable species, and these are well worthy of general culti- 
 vation as ornamental trees. The species are propagated by seed, sown 
 as soon as gathered, and removed from the pods, or mixed with moist 
 sand and buried in the open ground. If the seeds are kept dry over 
 winter they should be scalded or steeped in warm water for a day or 
 two before sowing. It is always advisable to soak old seeds and keep 
 them in a warm place until the sprouts begin to appear, before sowing ; 
 for, if they do not germinate while in a warm place in the house, 
 they will not grow when sown in the field. The varieties may be propa- 
 gated by grafting on seedling stocks in the open air. (See Chapter 
 XVIII., Selecting Stocks.) 
 
 Gymnocladus (Kentucky Coffee Tree). Only one species, the G. 
 Canadensis, common in the Middle and Western States, thriving best in 
 rich, moist soils. A large, deciduous, ornamental and timber tree, with 
 very long, bi-pinnate leaves. Seeds produced in long, broad pods large 
 and very hard when mature, requiring the same or similar treatment as 
 those of the Honey-locust. English nurserymen are said to propagate 
 the Kentucky Coffee Tree by cuttings of the roots, but there is no occa- 
 sion to resort to this mode here, as seeds are to be obtained in abundance. 
 
 Halesia (Snowdrop, or Silver-Bell Tree). A small genus of very 
 ornamental, deciduous shrabs, of the Styrax Family. Only three species, 
 all indigenous to the Southern States ; one extending as far north as 
 Virginia, but all hardy in much colder latitudes, as I have never known 
 them to be injured in my grounds in Northern New Jersey. Propagated 
 by seeds, layers, and cuttings of the roots. Seeds, a hard, bony nut, 
 enclosed in a persistent, fibrous husk. The seeds do not usually germi- 
 nate until the second year, and should be sown where they can be kept 
 moist during the first summer. By covering the seed bed with mulch, 
 this condition can be secured with but little trouble or expense. Seeds 
 self sown, under Pine trees, in my grounds, germinate readily without 
 any artificial aid. (See Chapter XVIII., on Selecting Stocks, Styrax, etc.) 
 
 Halimodendron. A handsome little deciduous shrub from Sibe- 
 ria, closely allied to the Caragana, which see for propagation ; also Chap- 
 ter XVIII., Stock for Halimodendron. 
 
 Hamamelis (Witch-Hazel). Tall, hardy shrubs, of no especial value 
 or beauty, having the rather singular habit of blooming late in fall or 
 early winter, and ripening the seeds the following autumn. Flowers 
 small, bright yellow, in clusters in the axils of the leaves. A species 
 has recently been introduced from Japan (H. Japomcd), also one variety. 
 Propagated by seeds and layers. The Japan species may be grafted on 
 the American, but it is rather difficult to make the cions unite in the 
 open air. 
 
 Heltanthemum (Rock Rose). An immense genus of shrubby and 
 herbaceous plants. The shrubby species often cultivated in conserva- 
 
276 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 tones for their large and showy flowers usually under the generic name 
 of Cisttts. The shrubby kinds are propagated by seed, and green cut- 
 tings under glass. 
 
 Hibisctis (Rose of Sharon, Rose-Mellow). A genus of about one 
 hundred and fifty species, widely distributed around the world. Mostly 
 stout, herbaceous plants, with large, showy flowers ; a few shrubby 
 species, like the common garden Althaea or Rose of Sharon (H. Syria- 
 cws), and the Rose of China (H. Rosa Sinensis), largely cultivated as green- 
 house plants in cold climates. Of the two shrubby species named, there 
 are a large number of varieties, all highly prized for their showy flowers. 
 Propagated by seeds, and cuttings of either the green wood under glass, 
 or ripe wood in the open ground. Ripe wood cuttings should be made 
 in the fall, in cold climates, and stored where they will not freeze during 
 the winter. They should also be kept rather dry, too much moisture 
 being very injurious. The same is true of the plants raised from ripe 
 wood cuttings ; and they should be dug up in the autumn of the first 
 season and heeled-in, either in a cool cellar or some dry place in the 
 garden. 
 
 Hovenia. A large shrub bearing edible fruit, from Japan and Nepal. 
 It is said that the fruit tastes somewhat like a good Pear. The Japan 
 species (H. dulcis), is reported to have produced fruit in the open ground 
 in Philadelphia, but in my grounds the leaves and stems are invariably 
 killed by the first hard frost in autumn. Propagated by seeds, and by 
 root-cuttings. 
 
 Hydrangea. A genus of elegant drawf, mostly deciduous, orna- 
 mental shrubs. There are three shrubby species native of the United 
 States, and about a half-dozen in China and Japan. There are, how- 
 ever, many garden varieties of the various oriental species. Propagated 
 by suckers, layers and cuttings of the green and half-ripened wood. Of 
 some of the hard wooded species, like the Oak -leaved (H. qucrc-i folia), 
 and the recently introduced Japan Hydrangea (H. paniculata f/randiflora), 
 green cuttings are most certain, if taken from plants forced under 
 glass. 
 
 Hypericiun (St. John's-wort). There are more than one hundred 
 and fifty species in this genus, mostly herbaceous plants of little value 
 or beauty. Of the shrubby species, a few rre cultivated in gardens, among 
 these Kalm's St. John's-wort (//. Kalmlanum), is probably the most 
 common. The hardy species are propagated by seeds and division of the 
 clumps, and the tender ones by green cuttings under glass. 
 
 Idesia (Japan Cherry). A handsome, rapid-growing fruit and orna- 
 mental tree from Japan. The one species introduced/, polycarpa 
 has not proved to be hardy as far north as New York City, but thrives 
 in the South. Readily propagated by root-cuttings made in the fall and 
 planted out in the spring. 
 
 Ilex (Holly). Mostly evergreen shrubs and small trees, with prickly 
 leaves, and small white or yellowish flowers in axillary clusters, sue- 
 
SELECT LISTS OF PLANTS. 
 
 277 
 
 ceeded by small berry-like fruit. Species of this genus may be sought 
 in botanical works under such generic names as Herberts, Mahonia, 
 Prinos and Myginda. The European Holly (/. aquifolium), and its many 
 varieties, is not hardy in our Northern States, but the American *Holly 
 (I.opaca), thrives in sheltered positions, as far north as the southern 
 counties of the State of Massachusetts. Several trees in my grounds 
 have withstood the cold and produced a fine crop of berries during the 
 past twenty years. The European and true American Holly are in- 
 creased by seed, which should be gathered late in autumn, or dur- 
 ing the winter, and placed in a vessel that will hold water and kept 
 wet for a few days, then the pulp washed off clean. The seed should 
 then be mixed with moist sand, and exposed to the cold in the 
 
 Fig. 98. CION OF AMERICAN HOLLY. 
 
 open air, or sown in a bed and covered about an inch deep, and the 
 whole surface of the seed-bed well mulched. The seed does not 
 usually sprout until the second year, and if allowed to remain very 
 dry they will seldom germinate at all. Varieties are propagated by 
 veneer graftings under glass in August. The American Holly is highly 
 prized for its bright, red berries, which remain upon the plants all 
 winter, but as it is not every tree that produces berries in abundance, 
 grafting has recently been resorted to for the purpose of securing 
 a stock of productive plants for cultivating in pots, as well as in the 
 open ground. The cions for this purpose should be taken from pro- 
 ductive native trees, the lateral berry-bearing twigs, as shown in figure 
 98, being selected for this purpose. I have in my grounds one tree of 
 the American Holly, not less than thirty years old, that has never borne a 
 
278 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 berry, although it blooms freely, but another of the same age, near by, 
 is loaded every season with its bright scarlet fruit. 
 
 IlljLcium (Anise Tree). A small genus of evergreen Anise-scented 
 shrubs of the Magnolia family, two of which are native of Florida, one 
 of China and another of Japan. Propagated by seeds and cuttings of 
 the ripened shoots planted under glass in warm climates. All thrive 
 best in a moist or wet soil. 
 
 Indtgofera (Indigo Plant). A large genus of annual, perennial, 
 herbaceous, and shrubby plants. A few of the shrubby kind arc culii- 
 vated in greenhouses, as they are very ornamental when loaded with 
 their red or purplish flowers. Readily propagated by cuttings of the 
 young, tender shoots. 
 
 Itea (Willow Shrub). A neat little native shrub (/. Virginica}, bear- 
 ing long, slender racemes of minute, fragrant flowers. Usually found iu 
 low grounds, from New Jersey southward, but thrives in any good soil, 
 and is quite hardy. Propagated by layers and suckers. 
 
 Jasmi num (Jessamine). Evergreen and deciduous climbing shrubs 
 from the Old World, cultivated under glass in cold climates, but many 
 of the species succeed iu the open ground in the South. Flowers fra- 
 grant, and mostly white or yellow. Propagate .1 by layers and cuttings 
 of either the ripened or green wood. 
 
 Jxiglans (Walnut, Butternut). A genus of long-known, nut- 
 bearing trees. The so-called English Walnut ( J. rcgia), is a native of 
 Asia, but has been cultivated for many centuries in the warmer countries 
 of Europe, and a large number of varieties produced. The Black 
 Walnut (J. nigra), is one of our well-known timber trees, bearing large, 
 round nuts of a strong, rank flavor. The Butternut (J. cincrca), is also 
 a valuable timber tree, the nuts oblong, with rough ridges ; kernel sweet, 
 pbasant tasted, but very oily. A closely allied species to the last (J. 
 Cal'fornica), is a native of California and Arizona, and one other 
 species (J. rupestris), is found from Arizona to Texas. Propagated by 
 seed which should be planted as soon as ripe, or stored in a cool, moist 
 place during winter. If planted in light soils, the seedlings produce a 
 large number of fibrous roots, and are readily transplanted without loss, 
 but when grown in rather firm soils, the seedlings will produce long, 
 naked tap-roots, with few fibers. Varieties are propagated by grafting 
 by ordinary modes in the open ground in mild climates, but in cool ones, 
 out-door grafting is uncertain and seldom successful. Budding is 
 preferable to grafting, for if the bud fails, the stock is not seriously in- 
 jured. The buds should be pi amp, rather mature, and then inserted 
 into a rapid-growing stock or branch, through which the sap is 
 flowing rapidly at the time of performing the operation. The English 
 Walnut is not quite so difficult to propagate by budding and grafting as 
 the Hickory, still it requires care and skill to insure success, either in 
 the open air or under glass. 
 
 Juniper us (Juniper, Red Cedar). A large genus of coniferous 
 
SELECT LISTS OF PLiNTS. 279 
 
 evergreen trees and low shrubs, native of the Northern Hemisphere. 
 Wood'nne grained, not resinous. The heart wood usually of a reddish 
 color, and fragrant, and exceedingly durable. Propagated by seeds and 
 cuttings. The seeds are very hard and bony, and unless the shell is 
 softened by some chemical application they seldom germinate until 
 the second season, even when exposed to frost and kept constantly 
 moist. The usual method of treating the seeds is to gather them in 
 the fall when fully ripe, and either mix with strong, moist wood ashes, 
 or pour some strong potash water over them, leaving them to soak and 
 soften for two or three, days ; then rub the berries until the outer coat 
 is removed. A little sharp sand added will assist greatly in cleaning 
 the seed. Wash out the sand and other foreign matter by placing the 
 seed in a sieve and pouring the water over them. Sow immediately in 
 a bed in the open air, and cover the seed about one-half inch deep. 
 Over the surface scatter leaves, chaff, or some similar light material. In 
 spring remove the mulch, and if the plants appear, protect them from 
 the direct rays of the sun, but if they fail to come up, cover the bed 
 again with mulch, and leave it undisturbed until the following spring. 
 Most of the Junipers may bj propagated by cuttings of the young 
 shoots planted in sand under glass, or of the mature wood taken oil' 
 in the fall and set in cold framc3,v/here they will receive only slight pro- 
 tection during the winter. 
 
 Kalmia (Laurel, Calico Bush, Spoonwood). A genus of North 
 Ameriaan evergreen shrubs ; only ono species, the K. latifolia, growing to 
 the height of twenty feet and over. All very ornamental, and highly prized 
 in Europe, but only sparingly cultivated in this country. Propagated 
 by seed and by layers abroad ; but wild plants from the woods and 
 fields can bo obtained to supply the demand in this country. 
 
 Kerria (Golden Corchorus). One species in cultivation (K. Ja- 
 ponica), but of this there are several varieties ; one with double yellow 
 flowers is very common in gardens ; the single flowered is more 
 rare, but really the most desirable of the two. There is also a varie- 
 gated-leaved variety. Easily propagated by suckers or cuttings of the 
 mature shoots, planted in the open ground in fall or spring. 
 
 Kolreuteria (Bladder-pod). A genus of one species, viz., K. pani- 
 culala ; a small tree somewhat resembling the common Sumac, having 
 pinnate leaves of numerous leaflets. Flowers small, yellow, in larc;e 
 terminal panicles, succeeded by large bladdery pods, containing large, 
 shot-like, black seed. Propagated by seeds, layers and cuttings of the 
 roots. 
 
 Laburnum (Golden Chain). The common Laburnum (L. vulgare), 
 of Europe, is placed in the genus Cyt-isus by some botanists, while 
 others have separated it because of the difference in the general appear- 
 ance of the plants, and the absence of the Caruncle, which is present 
 
280 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 on those of the true Cytisus. Propagated by seels, layers, suckers, 
 grafting and budding. (See Chapter XVIII., Stocks). 
 
 Lagerstroemia (Crape Myrtle). A splendid genus of deciduous 
 shrubs from China and the East Indies. Flowers with wavy, crisped 
 petals in large panicles, and of a light red or white color. All popular 
 shrubs, cultivated under glass in cool climates, and in the open air in 
 warm ones. Propagated by layers and by cuttings of the young, tender 
 shoots, placed in a confined, rather moist, and warm atmosphere. 
 
 Lantana. Low-growing, semi-tropical shrubs, producing pink, yel- 
 low and orange colored flowers in great profusion. Cultivated ex- 
 tensively for bedding out in summer. The plants grow rapidly, and 
 are very showy when planted in masses. Propagated by cuttings in sand 
 under glass. 
 
 JLarix (Larch, Tamarack). Deciduous, coniferous trees, thriving best 
 in swamps, or cold, moist climates. Valuable timber trees. Native of 
 North America, Europe and Japan. Species propagated by seeds, which 
 should be kept dry over winter, and sown early in spring in a finely pre- 
 pared seed-bed, the seed to be but lightly covered with sand, or light, 
 fine leaf-mold. The young plants should be shaded, either with lath 
 screens, or with branches of trees, until they are two or three months old, 
 as they are liable to be burned off by the hot, scorching rays of the sun 
 in our climate. The seedlings may remain in the seed-bed until two 
 years old, and then transplanted into nursery rows early in the spring. 
 Varieties and rare species are propagated by veneer graf ting under glass 
 in August, or by cleft and splics grafting early in spring in the open ah'. 
 The former mode is preferable, and the most certain. (See Stocks, 
 Chapter XVIII.) 
 
 Laurus (Laurel, Bay Tree). The natural order Lauracece contains 
 about fifty genera, and an immense number of species. The Cinnamon, 
 Camphor tree, Sassafras, Spice Bush, Sweet and Red Bay, are all 
 familiar plants of this great family. In Europe the Bay tree (L. nobilis) 
 is the shrub usually referred to under the name of Laurel, while in this 
 country the shrubs called Laurels do not belong to the Laurel Family. 
 The Laurel or Bay tree of Southern Europe, and its varieties, is some- 
 times cultivated here in conservatories for their highly perfumed foliage. 
 Propagated by cuttings of the half-ripened wood. 
 
 Ligustrum (Prim, Privet). Ornamental evergreen and deciduous 
 shrubs from Europe and Asia. The common European Privet (L. vul- 
 garc), is quite hardy in the Northern States, where it is often planted for 
 ornamental hedges and screens. Some of the Chinese and Japanese 
 species are hardy, if given a slight protection during the winter months. 
 All the species are readily propagated by cuttings planted in the open 
 ground, or under glass. 
 
 Limonta. Evergreen trees and shrubs of the Citrus Family, requir- 
 ing the same treatment and culture as mentioned for Citrus. 
 
SELECT LISTS OF PLANTS. 281 
 
 Ltppla (Lemon-Scented Verbena). The common species cultivated 
 in greenhouses, from Chili, is better known under the name of Aloysia 
 citriodora, but some of our botanists consider Lippia as the proper name 
 of the genus. There are several other species, but they are rarely 
 cultivated. 
 
 Liquidambar (Sweet Gum Tree). A genus of one North American 
 and one oriental species. The first is a widely-distributed, handsome 
 forest tree of large size, with bright green, star-shaped leaves which usu- 
 ally change to a dark red or crimson color in autumn. Propagated by 
 seed sown as soon as ripe in the fall, in very moist soil. Some of the seed 
 may germinate the following spring, but they usually remain dormant 
 until the second season, and for this reason it is well to sow them where 
 the bed can be watered during dry weather in summer. 
 
 Liriodendron (Tulip Tree, White Wood). A very large and 
 widely-distributed indigenous forest tree, valuable for its timber, and 
 highly prized as an ornamental tree. Only one species, the L. Tulipifcra. 
 Propagated by seeds sown as soon as ripe in the autumn, and 
 covered about a half-inch in depth with leaf-mold or other light 
 soil. The seedlings are inclined to make very long, slender tap-roots, 
 and they should be frequently transplanted while young, if they are to 
 be moved when large or several feet in height. The transplanting 
 should always be done in the spring, for the Tulip tree and other mem- 
 bers of the Magnolia Family have rather soft, spongy roots, liable to 
 injury from cold and moisture, if disturbed in the fall, and, while seed- 
 lings and larger trees may be taken up and hecled-in and given protection 
 during the winter months, it is seldom safe to plant them out in nursery 
 rows or elsewhere in the fall at least not in cold countries. 
 
 Lonicera (Honeysuckle.) A very extensive genus of ornamental, 
 upright and climbing shrubs. In some botanical works, the species of 
 this genus are separated into two groups, the upright-growing under the 
 above name, and the climbing under that of Caprifolium. All, how- 
 ever, belong to the Caprifoliaccce, or Honeysuckle Family. All readily 
 propagated by layers put down in fall, or early spring, also by ripe wood 
 cuttings in the open ground, and green cuttings under glass. 
 
 Lyctum (Matrimony Vine). Numerous species ; mostly hardy, but 
 a few from the Cape of Good Hope are tender and cultivated in green- 
 houses. The best known is the common Matrimony Vine (L. vulgarc), 
 from Southern Europe, a slightly thorny, half-climbing shrub, with small, 
 greenish-purple flowers, succeeded by red berries. Easily propagated 
 by cuttings of the mature one-year-old wood, or by seed. 
 
 Lyonia. See Andromeda, Cassandra, Oxydcndrum. 
 
 Madura (Osage Orange, Bow-Wood). A well-known native tree 
 of our Southwestern States. Formerly extensively planted for farm 
 hedges, the young branches being well famished with strong, sharp 
 epiues. The best mode of propagation is by seed sown in spring, in 
 
232 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 light, rich soil. To hasten germination the seed should be soaked in 
 warm water for two or three days before sowing. 
 
 Magnolia (Cucumber Tree, Etc.) A genus of highly ornamental 
 deciduous and evergreen trees and shrubs, natives of America, China 
 and Japan. A few of the species grow to a large size, and are valuable 
 timber trees, notably the common Cucumber tree (M. acuminatd). Prop- 
 agated by seeds, layers, budding and grafting. The seed should not 
 be allowed to get thoroughly dry, but as soon as removed from the pulpy 
 covering, be mixed with sand and sown immediately, or buried in boxes 
 in the open ground for the winter ; then taken out in early spring and 
 sown in frames where water can be supplied, and the young plants 
 shaded when they first appear above ground. Layers put down in early 
 spring and notched, or a tongue made on the under side, will usually 
 become well furnished with roots the first season ; if not, they should be 
 allowed to remain undisturbed a year longer. Budding is a rather un- 
 certain mode of propagation, but with rapid growing stocks and plump 
 mature buds moderate success may be obtained, even in cool climates. 
 Grafting under glass, employing stocks grown in pots, is the most certain 
 mode for increasing varieties and rare species. (See Veneer Grafting, 
 Chapter XVII, and for Stocks, Chapter XVIII.) 
 
 Mahonia. See llsx, Bcrberis, Aqmfolium. 
 
 Malvaviscus (Scarlet Mallow). Evergreen shrubs of the " Mallow 
 Family," from Texas and tropical America. Flowers scarlet, of a 
 peculiar convolute or twisted appearance, not opening broad, as in the 
 Abutilon and other closely allied plants. The most familiar species is the 
 M. arboreus, often cultivated under the name of Achania Malvaviscus. 
 It does not seed freely in cultivation, but is easily propagated by cuttings 
 made of the short side shoots, removed with a heel, or close to the old 
 wood. 
 
 Mangifera (East India Mango). Evergreen tropical trees, bearing 
 very large fruit, that of some varieties of delicious flavor ; others 
 have the taste and fragrance of turpentine. The Mango is called the 
 "Apple of the tropics," and it is now largely cultivated in the West 
 Indies and throughout tropical America. It is occasionally cultivated in 
 conservatories. Readily propagated by cuttings of the ripened wood 
 planted in sand. 
 
 Melastoma. A genus of tropical evergreen shrubs, mostly with 
 large purple flowers, blooming freely in summer. The petals soon 
 drop when cut from the plant ; only a few of the species cultivated in 
 this country. Readily propagated by cuttings under glass. 
 
 Mella (Pride of India, China Tree). A genus of large, handsome, 
 ornamental trees, mostly evergreen and native of tropical countries. 
 One spcc-ios, the M. Azsdamc7i, a deciduous tree from Persia, has long 
 been cultivated in the Southern States under the name of China Tree. 
 The fruit resembles in size and form the common cherry, and it is eaten 
 
SELECT LISTS OF PLANTS. 283 
 
 by birds. Propagated by seeds, which should be sown in the fall, or as 
 soon as ripe. 
 
 Mespilus (Medlar). Low-growing, hardy trees closely allied to the 
 common Pear and Quince, and of the Rose Family. Propagated by 
 seed, and grafting on various stocks. (See Chapter XVIII.) 
 
 Mezereum. See Daphne. 
 
 Morus (Mulberry). A genus of few species, but these extending 
 around the world in the Northern Hemisphere. They are principally 
 trees of moderate size, but of great importance to mankind. The leaves 
 of the oriental species supply the silkworm with food, the timber is also 
 valuable for fuel and other purposes, and some of the varieties, like the 
 Downing Mulberry, produce excellently flavored fruit. The species are 
 propagated by seed, layers, and by cuttings of the mature wood taken 
 off in the fall. Most of the cultivated varieties are readily increased by 
 cuttings, but an occasional one is found rather difficult to propagate in 
 this way, and root-grafting in winter or spring is resorted to in its propa- 
 gation. 
 
 Myrtus (Myrtle). A genus of evergreen shrubs and trees, very few 
 cultivated outside of tropical countries. The common Myrtle ( J/. corn- 
 munis), and its varieties, are well known greenhouse shrubs. Propagated 
 by cuttings of the gre n shoots under glass. 
 
 Negundo (See Acer, Maple). 
 
 Nerium (Oleander). A genus of showy evergreen shrubs, natives of 
 the East Indies and Southern Europe. There are but few species, but 
 of the oldest and best known there are many varieties in cultivation. 
 They are very popular greenhouse plants, blooming the greater part of 
 the year. Readily propagated by cuttings planted in sand, and then kept 
 moist and warm. The half-ripened shoots will produce roots, if the 
 lower ends are kept immersed in water alone. 
 
 Nyssa (Tupelo, Sour Gum Tree). A genus of North American decid- 
 uous trees, usually growing in moist soils or near the borders of streams. 
 Flowers small, greenish. Fruit, a one-seeded drupe, and in some of the 
 species edible. The Tupelos, although greatly admired for their deep, 
 glossy green foliage, which assumes a bright crimson color in autumn, 
 are rarely seen in cultivation, owing, it is said, to the difficulty of mak- 
 ing transplanted trees live. To prepare the trees for safe removal, when 
 of good size, the seedlings should be transplanted every two or three 
 years, and the soil above their roots covered with mulch. Propagated 
 by seed, which seldom germinates until the second year; and the seed- 
 bed must not be permitted to become dry from the time of sowing the 
 seed, until the plants have appeared and become well established. A 
 safe and certain mode of obtaining good plants for transplanting is to 
 raise them in pots plunged in a frame in the open ground. 
 
 Olca (Olive). The common Olive tree (0. Europcca) is the most im- 
 portant species of the genus, yielding the well-known, edible, oily fruit 
 
284= PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 of commerce. There are, however, quite a number of species of trees 
 and shrubs belonging to this genus, that arc well worthy of cultivation 
 for ornamental purposes, but not for their fruit. The Olive is readily 
 propagated by cuttings of the ripe wood, old branches taking root even 
 more freely than the one-year-old. In warm climates, where the Olive 
 flourishes, the cuttings are planted in the open ground in the autumn. 
 In European countries large truncheons or cuttings are used instead of 
 those of moderate size and length, but for no better reason than because 
 it is the general practice or custom, just as long cuttings are used in 
 propagating the grape in the same countries, instead of very short ones, 
 as in this country. Chips cut from an old Olive tree stem will readily 
 produce sprouts, if planted in a warm soil and kept moist ; in fact, the 
 entire surface of this tree will produce adventitious buds very freely, if 
 placed in a position to receive heat and moisture. 
 
 Osmanthus (Japan Holly). A genus of neat little evergreen shrubs, 
 of the " Olive Family," from Japan. Flowers small, white and very fra- 
 grant. Not hardy in the north, but often cultivated in greenhouses. 
 There are several species or varieties in cultivation under such names as 
 O. aquifolium, 0. fragrans, and 0. ilicifoliits. Propagated by cuttings 
 under glass. 
 
 Ostrya (Iron-Wood, Hop-Hornbeam). Slender, deciduous, hardy 
 trees, with very firm, hard wood. One American species, 0. Virginica, 
 and one European, 0. vulgaris. Propagated by seed, layers, and graft- 
 ing in the open air. 
 
 Oxydendrum (Sorrel Tree). Only one species, the 0. arboreum, 
 native of Ohio and south. A rather scarce tree, growing fifteen to 
 twenty, and even fifty feet high ; leaves rather acid to the taste 
 when yoting ; very smooth, glossy green when mature, but in autumn 
 changing to a dark crimson color, even before they are touched by frost. 
 Propagated by seed sown in frames, lightly covered with fine soil, and 
 kept shaded and moist until they germinate. The young plants are 
 exceedingly delicate, and require great care and attention to keep them 
 growing through the first season. Layering is practicable, if strong, old 
 plants are headed back for the purpose of producing sprouts suitable 
 for layers, but roots are produced very slowly from layered shoots, how- 
 ever carefully the operation is performed. 
 
 Pceonia (Paeony). A genus of well-known, tuberous-rooted, herba- 
 ceous and shrubby plants, with very large, showy flowers. Mostly natives 
 of Siberia and China. One herbaceous species (P. Brownii} indigenous 
 to California and northward. Herbaceous varieties propagated by divid- 
 ing the crowns bearing a terminal bud on each division or tuber, as 
 adventitious buds are seldom or never produced below the crown. 
 Shrubby species are propagated by division, layers, and cuttings taken 
 off late in summer, with a heel or a piece of the preceding year's wood 
 attached, and planted in a cool greenhouse, or in a frame where they 
 can be given sufficient protection to prevent freezing during the winter. 
 
SELECT LISTS OF PLANTS. 285 
 
 Grafting is also practicable, using the large fleshy roots of the shrubby 
 kinds, or tubers of the ordinary herbaceous Chinese Paeony. The trian- 
 gular side graft is best, if the tubers employed are of large size, and the 
 splice graft on the roots of the shrubby kinds. The grafting should be 
 done in early autumn, and the worked roots stored in some place where 
 they will not become frozen. New varieties are raised from seed, which 
 should be sown in good soil as soon as ripe. They will germinate the 
 following season, but the entire growth will be directed or expended in 
 producing roots and small tubers ; the cotyledons remaining enclosed in 
 the shell of the seed until the spring of the second season. I have raised 
 many hundreds of seedling Poeonies, but never had one appear above 
 ground until the spring of the second season ; I have always found 
 them producing roots and tubers the first summer. 
 
 Palturus (Christ's Thorn). Shrubs of the Rhamnaccce or Buckthorn 
 Family. One species native of Judaea, another of Nepal. The former 
 has rather slender thorny branches, with fruit resembling a head with a 
 fcroad-b rimmed hat on. Not quite hardy in our Northern States, but 
 often cultivated in greenhouses for the sake of its reputed association. 
 Propagated by layers and cuttings of the roots. The latter grow freely 
 if stored in moist sand or moss during the winter. 
 
 jPassiflora (Passion-Flower). An extensive genus of herbs and 
 climbing shrubs, bearing large and beautiful flowers of various colors. 
 A few of the larger-growing shrubby species, like the common Grana- 
 dilla (P. cdulis), and the large Granadilla (P. quadrangularis), produce 
 edible fruit, as large as a lemon, and of a similar form. All the species 
 and varieties easily propagated by cuttings of the young shoots planted 
 in sand, and where they can be given moderate heat. 
 
 Paulownia.K well-known ornamental tree (P. imperialis) from 
 Japan. Its leaves are of immense size, rather downy, and heart-shaped. 
 Flowers large, violet-colored in terminal panicles in spring. The flower 
 buds are often winter-killed in the latitude of New York City, but the 
 trees arc hardy. Propagated by seed sown in spring, or cuttings of the 
 roots made in the fall and stored in a moderately warm place during the 
 winter. 
 
 Phellodendron (Cork Tree). A small genus of deciduous trees of 
 the Rutacece or Rue Family, and closely allied to our common Prickly 
 Ash (Zanthoxylum Americanum). TWO species have been introduced 
 P. Japonicum, supposed to be a native of Japan, and P. Amurense, from 
 the Amoor regions in Asia. Propagated by layers and cuttings of the 
 roots. 
 
 Fhiladelphus (Syringa). A very popular genus of ornamental 
 shrubs, natives of North America, Europe and Asia, including Japan. 
 There are probably less than a dozen species, but a large number of cul- 
 tivated varieties. Flowers white, and in some of the species sweet 
 scented ; others inodorous. The common European varieties have long 
 been known in our gardens under the name of Mock Orange, as the 
 
28G PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 flowers of P. coronarius sraell somewhat like Orange flowers. All readily 
 propagated by cuttings, layers and suckers. 
 
 Phillyrea. Ornamental evergreen shrubs of the Olive Family, 
 natives of Southern Europe and the East Indies. Flowers small, white 
 and inconspicuous. These shrubs are esteemed for their deep, rich green 
 foliage. Propagated by cuttings and layers. 
 
 Photinia. Evergreen shrubs of sub-tropical countries belonging to 
 the Rose Family. One species is extensively cultivated in warm climates 
 under the name of Loquat tree (Eriobotrya Japonica of nurserymen's cata- 
 logues), as it bears a yellow edible fruit, resembling small apples. This, 
 and several other species are old inhabitants of our greenhouses. Prop- 
 agated by cuttings of the ripened wood, and by budding and grafting on 
 the Quince and Hawthorn. 
 
 Pinckneya (Georgia Bark). A small evergreen tree of the Southern 
 States, closely allied to the Cinchona, and the bark is supposed to con- 
 tain the same or similar principles ; hence, the common name of the 
 native species, P. pubens. Propagated by seeds and cuttings under glass, 
 but must be well supplied with moisture. 
 
 Pinus (Pine Tree). An extensive genus of evergreen coniferous 
 trees and shrubs. Many of the -species, and some of the most valuable, 
 thrive in soils unfit for agricultural purposes, it being either too light 
 and dry and thin, or too cold and wet. Pine barrens and Piney swamps 
 are, as a rule, the home of this genus throughout the world, although, 
 upon the whole, it is one of the most useful to mankind. Propagated 
 by seed sown in spring in a half-shady position. The seed should be cov- 
 ered lightly with sandy soil and kept moist until the plants appear, 
 when these must be shaded from the direct rays of the sun, and given 
 water only sufficient to prevent wilting and drooping. The shading 
 should be continued during the entire first season, either with lath 
 screens, as shown elsewhere, or with branches thrown over the seed bed. 
 Varieties are propagated by veneer grafting und-ir glass in August. (See 
 Chapter XVII.) 
 
 Pirus (Apple, Pear, Etc.) A very important genus of the Rosacece or 
 Eose Family. The common Pear (P. communis) and Apple (P. J/aZws), 
 are the most valuable fruits raised in cool climates. The common Quince 
 ( Cydonia vulgarls) is so closely allied to the Pear thai, it is used as a stock 
 for many varieties. The same ma^be said of the Hawthorn ( Crat<egus)\ 
 although belonging, botanically, to a different genus, they are sometimes 
 employed as stocks for both the Pear and the Apple ; but, as I have said 
 in Chapter XVIII., on Selecting Stocks, it is always best to employ stocks 
 as near related to the kind being propagated as possible. In propagat- 
 irig the Pear, the seed should be washed from the ripe fruit, or pomace, 
 while fresh, and before decay has proceeded so far as to have softened 
 the thin shell enclosing the cotyledons or seed proper. It may then be 
 spread out in the shade and dried sufficiently to prevent it from becom- 
 ing moldy or heating when stored in boxes or bags. Pear seed is usually 
 
SELECT LISTS OF PLANTS. 
 
 imported dry, but when received it may be mixed with inofet saad, and 
 either buried in the open ground or stored in a cool cellar, until it is 
 wanted for sowing in early spring. But it may be mixed with sand as 
 soon as washed from the pomace, and then, buried in the ground, it will 
 germinate more readily and produce stronger and more vigorous plants 
 than seed that has been long dried. The seed should be sown in single 
 or broad drills and covered not more than an inch deep. The seedlings 
 should be taken up when one year old, the tap-root shortened, and the 
 stem cut back to within six or eight inches of the ground, before plant- 
 ing out again. The following August, if they make a good growth, they 
 will be in good condition for budding in the usual way. The next spring 
 they are to be cut back to within four inches of the bud, and all sprouts 
 kept removed from the stock during the summer. The stocks on which 
 the buds have not taken may be splice grafted near 
 the ground, in order to have the rows full of worked 
 trees. The next spring the stump above the bud may 
 be removed with a clean, upward sloping cut. Some- 
 times one-year-old, and even older, Pear stocks are 
 splice grafted in the winter and planted out in spring, 
 but this mode of propagation is more generally prac- 
 tised with the apple. Apple seed may be treated in 
 the same general way as those of the Pear, but they 
 grow more freely and are far less liable to be injured 
 by rust in summer and other parasitic diseases. Root 
 grafting the Apple, using one and two-year-old seed- 
 ling stocks, is extensively practised by nurserymen. 
 The stocks should be dug up in the fall and stored in 
 a cool cellar or pit, where they can te readily taken 
 out when wanted for use. Cions should also bg cut 
 from the trees of the varieties to be propagated, late 
 in fall or early winter, and stored where they will not 
 shrivel or become softened by wster. Well-ripened 
 wood of the present season's growth is used for cions, 
 and that from bearing trees is preferable to shoots 
 from small and immature trees. When ready to com- 
 mence grafting, the stocks and cions are brought into 
 a warm cellar or room and brushed or washed clean ; 
 for if covered with sand or earth of any kind, the 
 knives used will soon become dull, and good work 
 is impossible with dull tools. Strong manilla paper, coated on one 
 side with wax or very thin cloth may be used if preferred is cut 
 into narrow strips for tying in the cions. When the materials are all 
 at hand, proceed with the work by splicing a cion on the crown of lift 
 seedling stock, as shown in figure 99, and wind the lower part of the 
 cion and stock with a piece of the waxed paper or cloth, applying only 
 enough to cover the splice. (See Splice Grafting in a preceding chapter). 
 Sometimes nurserymen cut up the long slender roots of seedlings into 
 
 Fig. 99. 
 
 SPLICE GRAFT- 
 ING THE APPLE. 
 
288 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS, 
 
 several pieces, inserting a cion on each ; but better trees and a more vig- 
 orous growth will be obtained if the stocks are entire, or only the tap- 
 root and some of the lateral ones are shortened, if of too great a length 
 for convenience in handling, in grafting and when planting out. Two 
 or three persons may work together at this root grafting to considerable 
 advantage ; for while one is cleaning and preparing the stocks, another 
 can eut and insert the cion, while the third may apply the waxed cloth 
 or paper, without loss of time in laying down and picking up knives and 
 other implements used in the operation. When the stocks are grafted, 
 they are packed away in moss or soil and stored in a moderately cool 
 cellar, where the process uniting cion and stock will proceed slowly 
 until the time arrives for planting out in nursery rows in spring. The 
 Apple may be readily propagated by budding or grafting in the open air, 
 but root grafting in winter is preferred, because little else can be done in 
 the nursery at this season, and long experience has shown that this mode 
 of propagation answers every purpose, and, upon the whole, is the 
 cheapest. In propagation of the different species of the Mountain Ash 
 (Pirus Americana, P. aucuparia, etc.,) the seeds should be sown where 
 the young plants can be shaded until they become well established, for 
 in our hot climate the young seedlings are very likely to be burned off, 
 if not protected from the direct rays of the sun. The different varieties 
 may be propagated by budding or grafting on seedling stocks and in the 
 open air. 
 
 Pittosporum (Pitch Tree). Ornamental evergreen trees or shrubs, 
 mostly natives of tropical countries. The most common species in cul- 
 tivatioii is the P. Tobira, from Japan, bearing small, white, fragrant 
 flowers. Propagated by cuttings of the ripened shoots, planted in sand 
 under glass. 
 
 Planera (Planer "Eree). A genus of small deciduous trees closely 
 allied to the Elms ( Ulmus), of no great beauty, but interesting to the 
 botanist and arboriculturist, as the few species in the genus are natives 
 of widely separated countries ; for instance, United States, Japan and 
 Siberia. Propagated by seed, layers, and grafting on the Elm. (See 
 Chapter XVII.) 
 
 Platanus (Plane Tree, Sycamore, Buttonwood). A very limited 
 genus of only three species, two in the United States (P. ocddcntalis and 
 P. racemosa), and one in Europe (P. orientalls). Of the latter there are 
 several varieties in cultivation. All large, noble, deciduous trees, but 
 rarely planted in this country, although the European species and vari- 
 eties are occasionally seen in some of our city parks. Propagated by 
 cuttings of the ripe wood, taken off in the fall, and bulled in the ground, 
 aj)d planted in low, moist soil the following spring. 
 
 Podocarpus. A genus of evergreen trees of the Taxacce or Tew 
 Family, mostly native of warm climates ; one species the P. japonica-^ 
 nearly hardy in this latitude, but it is doubtful, if it will prove of much 
 value as an ornamental tree at the North, except in sheltered situations. 
 
SELECT LISTS OF PLANTS. 289 
 
 Propagated by cuttings of the mature shoots set in cold frames, or in a 
 cool greenhouse during the winter months. 
 
 Poinsettia. See Euphorbia. 
 
 Populus (Poplar, Aspen, Cottonwood). A genus of about twenty 
 species, one-half the number indigenous to North America, and one 
 species the Quaking Aspen (P. tremuloides) extending northward to 
 the Arctic Ocean. With few exceptions the Poplars are large, rapid- 
 growing, deciduous trees, thriving in a great variety of soils, but succeed 
 best in one that is rather moist. Extensively cultivated in cold climates 
 for ornament, fuel and shelter. The wood is rather light, of little value 
 for uses, where it is exposed to the weather, but is valuable for fuel, 
 especially where better kinds cannot be obtained. Propagated by seeds, 
 suckers, cuttings of the branches and roots. Varieties are usually prop- 
 agated by cuttings, or by budding and grafting upon stocks of the free- 
 growing species. The seeds are small and produced in pendulous cat- 
 kins, appearing before or at the time of the unfolding of the leaves. The 
 eecds ripen early in the. season, or about two months from the time the 
 flowers appear, and if sown as soon as ripe, they will germinate and pro- 
 duce plants a foot or more in height the first season. Seeds should be 
 scattered over the surface of the seed bed and merely raked in, or a little 
 fine soil sifted over them. If no rain falls soon after the seed is sown, 
 water must be given in liberal quantities until the plants appear and 
 become well established. Cuttings may be made of either one or two- 
 year-old wood, and planted in the fall or spring. 
 
 Potent ilia (Five Finger, Cinquefoil).~An immense genus of the 
 Rose Family, and with few exceptions herbaceous perennials, the 
 species being widely distributed around the world in the Northern Hemi- 
 sphere. The Shrubby Cinquefoil (P. fruticosa), is a low-growing shrub, 
 two to four feet high, with bright yellow floweus ; the plants usually 
 continuing in bloom from early spring until checked by frosts in autumn. 
 This handsome little shrub is indigenous to the colder regions of both 
 North America and Europe, but thrives in much milder climates. Prop- 
 agated by divisions of the clumps, by layers, and cuttings of the mature 
 wood, taken off in the fall, and stored in the usual way until spring. 
 
 Primus (Plum, Prunes). In most of the recent botanical works the 
 Plum and Cherry are placed in the genus Prunus, but the propagator of 
 these fruits is obliged to keep each group distinct or separate, as the true 
 Cherries (Cerasus), and the Plums (Pnmus), cannot be, except in rare 
 instances, interchanged in propagating by budding and grafting, while 
 the Peach, Almond, Apricot and True Plum are so closely allied that any 
 and all of the species and varieties may be employed indiscriminately as 
 stocks for one and another. Still, there is always a preference when, 
 selecting a species or a variety for a stock. (See Fruit Stocks, Chapter 
 XVIII.) Propagated by seed, layers, cuttings of the mature wood, and 
 cuttings of the roots. The latter mode is not recommended, as most of 
 the species and varieties are inclined to produce suckers rather too 
 
290 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 freely. Some of the varieties of the common European Plum (P, domes- 
 tica), are readily increased by cuttings of the ripe wood treated in the 
 same manner as usual with the Currant and Gooseberry. The Myrabo- 
 lan Plum, so largely used in France for stocks, may be propagated by 
 cuttings ; also many of our choice garden varieties. The seeds or Plum 
 stones should be placed where they will be kept moist and cool during 
 the winter months, and if they freeze while moist, the shell will open all 
 the more readily when planted out in the spring. 
 
 Pseudotsugtt (Douglass Spruce). A species of conifers found in the 
 Rocky Mountain regions ; closely allied to the True Spruces (Plccci). It is 
 a hardy tree, thriving in our Northern Atlantic States. Propagated by 
 the same modes as the more common species of the Spruce. 
 
 Ptelea (Hop Tree). A small genus of North American shrubs or 
 small trees. Two species are native of the United States ; one, the 
 P. trifoliata, is common in the Middle and Western States, and the other 
 one, P. cmgustifolia, from Texas westward to California. The broad, oblong 
 winged seed is sometimes used as a substitute for the common Hop. 
 Propagated by layers and seeds sown in autumn", or preserved in sand 
 until spring. 
 
 Pterocarya (Winged Walnut). A small genus of deciduous trees 
 from Asia, closely allied to the Hickories (Cart/a) and Walnuts (Juglans). 
 Propagated by seed and layers, also by suckers that usually spring up 
 about the main stem, these producing roots sufficient to admit of allow- 
 ing them to be taken off and planted out with safety. 
 
 Pterostyrax (Winged Storax). An ornamental deciduous shrub or 
 small tree from Japan, bearing creamy-white, fragrant flowers. It be- 
 longs to the Storax Family (Styracaccce), and is closely related to the 
 Halesias. Propagated by seeds, layers, and by grafting on the Halesia. 
 Veneer grafting under glass in late summer is the most certain mode. 
 
 Punlca (Pomegranate). This is one of the few fruits that appears 
 to have come down to us from very ancient times, and almost in its prim- 
 itive condition. The Promegranate tree is of a rather bushy habit, grow- 
 ing from twenty to thirty feet high in tropical countries, although it is 
 readily controlled by pruning, and may be trained in the form of a small 
 shrub. It is extensively cultivated throughout "the semi-tropical and 
 tropical countries of the Old and New World, and highly prized as an 
 ornamental and fruit-bearing tree, in our Southern States. The fruit is 
 as large as an ordinary apple, and the numerous seeds imbedded in or 
 surrounded with a juicy pulp ; it is used in hot climates for making cool- 
 ing drinks. There are several varieties in cultivation, all readily prop- 
 agated by seeds, layers and cuttings. Very scarce varieties are sometimes 
 propagated by grafting on the more common sorts. 
 
 Quercus (Oak). A very large genus of evergreen and deciduous 
 trees and shrubs. About forty species are found within the limits of the 
 United States, and more than two hundred additional species are in- 
 digenous to other countries of the northern hemisphere. They are for 
 
SELECT LISTS Of PLANTS. 291 
 
 the most part highly valued for ornament as well as their hard and dur- 
 able timber, and there are few other kinds of trees that 'have been more 
 celebrated in peace and war than the Oaks. The flowers are monoecious : 
 the statninate flowers in catkins, the pistillate in a cup-like involucre, 
 covered with scales ; the seed a one-celled nut, well known under the 
 common name of Acorn. The acorns of some species of the Oak ripen 
 the first season ; in others not until the autumn of the second, but all ap- 
 pear to be inclined to germinate very soon after they have fallen and come 
 in contact with the moist earth ; consequently, whatever is to be done in 
 the way of gathering, storing, or sowing, must not be delayed long after 
 the acorns begin to fall from the trees. If the acorns are shaken from 
 the trees, or picked up as they fall, they may be preserved in a cool 
 room for weeks, and some species for several months, without serious 
 injury ; but, as a rule, acorns are rather difficult to preserve in good con- 
 dition for growth, and the sooner they are sown after ripening, the 
 better. In some few of the species, the nuts do not fall out of the cup, 
 but both drop together, and the acorn remains within the husk until it 
 germinates the following spring, when it bursts both the inner and outer 
 shell in its germination. But this form of acorn is rather an excep- 
 tion than the rule ; those of a larger majority of the species begin to 
 grow in the fall, the root or radicle penetrating the soil for several 
 inches, thereby holding the acorn in a position for the production of the 
 plumule or stem, the following spring. Any one who has taken a stroll 
 on the edge of an oak forest late in the fall, must have noticed these 
 "anchored" acorns, while the cotyledons or seed-leaves still remained 
 within the inner shell. But when fairly within an oak forest, we find 
 that the acorns as they fall do not come in direct contact with the soil, 
 the layers of old tough leaves on the surface preventing ; consequently 
 the larger proportion of the acorns perish for the want of suitable 
 anchorage, or conditions favorable for growth. 
 
 In sowing acorns, they may be scattered in single or broad drills, or 
 even broadcast over the surface of a seed-bed, and then lightly covered 
 with hay, chaff, or very fine old manure or leaf-mold. In such positions 
 they will take root in the autumn, and the next season make a vigorous 
 growth. As with other nuts, a light, sandy soil will insure a far greater 
 number of fibrous roots than a heavy one. Those persons who live near 
 oak forests can always secure a stock of seedlings, without the trouble 
 or cost of gathering and sowing the nuts, by merely raking away the old 
 leaves from under the trees of the species they desire to secure. The 
 acorns falling on the bare ground will soon sprout and become fixed in 
 position, and the leaves falling later will give them ample protection. 
 I have practised this with eminent success with our common White and 
 Black Oaks, and while the seedlings obtained in this way were not as 
 large as those raised in the nursery, they were still fair plants and made 
 a good, vigorous growth when transplanted to nursery-rows. Of course, 
 it is not to be supposed that seedlings can be obtained in this way in 
 regions where hogs are pastured in the woods. Kare species and varieties 
 
292 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 of the Oak are propagated by grafting. (See Chapter XVII.) But it win 
 be found in practice that the Oaks are rather difficult subjects to deal 
 with, and grafting in the open air should be performed early in spring. 
 Veneer grafting in August, under glass, is the most likely to be success- 
 ful, especially with the evergreen and variegated-leaved Oaks. 
 
 Raphiolepts (Indian Hawthorn). A genus of low-growing ever- 
 green shrubs from China and Japan. They are closely related to the 
 Hawthorns (Vratcegus), with large, thick, dark-green, leathery leaves and 
 white or pink, sweet-scented flowers in pyramidal-shaped clusters. The 
 Japan species (R.Japonicci) is said to be hardy in the gardens of London, 
 England, and will probably succeed here with a slight protection in 
 winter. Propagated by cuttings of the half-ripened shoots planted in a 
 greenhouse or in close frame in the open ground. 
 
 Rettnispora. See Chamcecyparis. 
 
 Rhamnus (Buckthorn). A very large and widely distributed genus 
 of evergreen and deciduous trees and shrubs. There are a half dozen 
 indigenous species, and the common European Buckthorn (It. catharli- 
 cus), formerly used as a hedge-plant in this country, has run wild in 
 many places. The berries of this species were formerly used in medicine, 
 and the juice of the ripe berries yield a pigment called " Sap-green," in 
 common use by water-color painters, while the bark of the branches 
 and roots yield a valuable yellow dye. Propagated by seed, and these, 
 being quite hard, like the Hawthorns, do not usually germinate until 
 the second season, and require the same treatment. 
 
 Rhododendron (Rose-Bay). An extensive genus of evergreen 
 shrubs and small trees, with large, and usually very thick, smooth, green 
 leaves. Taking them as a whole, the Rhododendrons may be placed in 
 the front rank among the most showy and elegant of ornamental plants. 
 There are not only a large number of species, but almost innumerable 
 varieties in cultivation, while new ones appear every year, as hybrid- 
 izing and crossing is readily effected, resulting in wide variation in 
 habit of plant, and in form, size, and color of the flowers. Propagated 
 by seeds, layers, and grafting, and some of the more slender and tender 
 species by cuttings of the young shoots, removed with a heel of the old 
 wood, then plunged in sand in close frames with bottom heat. The 
 seeds are very minute, and must not be covered deeply. They are 
 usually sown in shallow boxes or seed-pans, filled with a mixture of leaf- 
 mold and clean sand, and then placed in a close frame until the plants 
 appear, care being required in watering, lest the seeds are washed out on 
 the surface. When the plants are large enough to handle, remove into 
 other boxes or pans, giving them a little more room for growth, then 
 replace in the frames for a few days, or until the plants become estab- 
 lished in their new position ; after this they may be gradually hardened 
 off by removing the covers of the frames for a few hours at a time. 
 Hardy species and varieties may be planted out in a sheltered position, 
 when a year old, although there will be nothing lost by keeping them. 
 
SELECT LISTS OF PLANTS. 293 
 
 in the seed pans a little longer. There are several modes of grafting 
 practised with Rhododendrons, but veneer grafting or side grafting in 
 August and September under glass are the most certain as well as the 
 most convenient. (Sjee Chapter XVII.) 
 
 Rhus (Sumac, Smoke Tree, Etc.) A very large and important genus 
 of evergreen and deciduous trees and shrubs. Some are extremely 
 poisonous, others yield astringent properties valuable for tanning Tur- 
 key and Morocco leather. One Japanese species is said to yield the 
 famous lacquer, another a valuable wax, and taking it all together, the 
 genus is a valuable one in the arts, besides those species cultivated for 
 ornamental purposes, like the common Venetian Sumac (R. cotinus), and 
 the rather rare but closely allied American Smoke tree (R. cotinoides). 
 Propagated by seeds, layers, cuttings of the roots, and some species by 
 cuttings of the ripened wood, made in autumn before the branches have 
 been severely frosted. 
 
 Itlbes (Currant, Gooseberry). Well-known, berry-bearing, deciduous 
 shrubs, mostly native of cold climates, succeeding very poorly or not at 
 all in warm ones. New varieties are raised from seeds, which germinate 
 at a very low temperature, and for this reason they must be stored in a 
 very cool place, else they will sprout in spring- before the weather will 
 permit of a continuation of growth. Seeds should be washed from the 
 pulp, then mixed with pure sand and placed in the shade out-of-doors ; 
 on the north side of a building is usually a safe position to prevent 
 early germination in spring. If only a few plants are to be raised from 
 seeds, they can, of course, be started under glass, but the open ground 
 is preferable, givi::g the young plants shade until they are well estab- 
 lished. All the species and varieties are readily increase 1 by layers and 
 cuttings of the mature one-year-old shoots. The usual practice is to 
 make the cuttings of Currants early in the fall, and plant immediately, 
 protecting the cuttings with a mulch of coarse hay or manure. They 
 will produce roots before the ground freezes, and the mulch will prevent 
 lifting by frost. Gooseberry cuttings may be made a little later in the 
 fall, but not planted out until spring. (See Grafting, Chapter XVII.) 
 
 Itobinia (Locust Tree). A genus of few species, the most important 
 of which is the common Locust or False Acacia (R. Pseudacacia), a large, 
 deciduous forest tree, with deep green pinnate leaves and loose-drooping 
 racemes of white fragrant flowers. The timber of this tree, when of slow 
 growth, is one of the most durable known. Formerly, this tree was ex- 
 tensively planted in the Eastern States, and is still to a limited extent ; 
 but of late years the Locust borer (Cyllcne pictus), has been so destruc- 
 tive to the trees that very few are now planted. There are two other 
 indigenous species one a mere shrub with rose-colored flowers that are 
 cultivated for ornament. Propagated by seeds, sown in the fall or spring, 
 and the ornamental species and varieties by seeds, cuttings of the roots, 
 and by budding and grafting. (See Stocks, Chapter XVIII.) 
 
 Rosa (Rose). A very extensive or limited genus, according to the 
 
294 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 botanical authority one consults for information on this point. Some 
 make the number of species 250, but modern botanists have reduced it 
 to about thirty, all natives of the temperate and colder regions of the 
 Northern Hemisphere. The number of varieties in cultivation is un- 
 known, for old ones become obsolete, as new ones are introduced, 
 although there are always several thousand enumerated in rose-growers' 
 catalogues. The Rose is a universal favorite among all civilized nations, 
 and the difference in the fragrance of the flowers of the varieties is only 
 equalled by their variation in size, form and color. To attempt to clas- 
 sify the cultivated Roses at the present day would be a hopeless task, for 
 species have become so intermixed that specific characteristics have been 
 mostly obliterated. In the propagation of the Rose, every mode at all 
 applicable to ligneous plants is employed in its multiplication. Roses 
 are raised from seeds, not only for the purpose of producing new varie- 
 ties, but sometimes for stocks on which to bud or graft the improved 
 sorts. For all the common, hardy varieties of the Rose that produce 
 seed, the fruit or "heps "as English gardeners call them should be 
 gathered when ripe, and thrown into some vessel where they will be 
 moist until the surrounding pulp becomes soft ; then crush and wash out 
 the seeds, and either mix with sand and set aside where they will freeze, 
 or sow immediately in a bed in the open air, and treat as recommended 
 for Hawthorn and other similar seeds. But if there is danger of mice 
 getting into the bed during the winter, it is best to keep the seeds in the 
 boxes with sand, covering with wire netting to keep them out. In 
 spring, sow the seeds and sand together in seed-pans, boxes, or in an 
 outside frame, but always where they can be given plenty of water and 
 be protected from vermin. Scalding the seeds before sowing will hasten 
 germination, but it is not usually necessary, if the seeds have been kept 
 moist and cold during the winter. Sometimes the seeds will not sprout 
 until the second year, and it is well to keep the seed beds moist through- 
 out the summer, even if some plants do appear the first season, as more 
 will usually come up the second. As soon as the plants are large enough, 
 they should be carefully lifted and transplanted into other frames or 
 boxes. The tender Roses maybe raised in the same way, only avoid 
 subjecting the seed to as low a temperature, and it is better to sow it in 
 pans or shallow boxes in the house. Green cuttings of what are called 
 the Tea, Noisette, Bourbon, Hybrid and Hybrid Perpetuals, and several 
 other classes, strike root quite freely in sand under glass, and this is the 
 Usual method of propagating these varieties. Some of them, however, 
 are rather slow growers and shy bloomers on their own roots, and to in- 
 crease the growth and vigor, they are budded on hardy and strong-grow- 
 ing varieties, such as the Manetti, Sweet-briar and Dog Rose. These 
 kinds are also employed as stocks for many other varieties, both tender 
 and hardy. Hardy Roses, however, if naturally of a free-growing habit, 
 are to be preferred on their own roots, especially for amateurs, who can- 
 not be always on guard, lest some sucker from the root comes up and 
 robs the graft of its nutriment. Roses are usually budded in the open 
 
SELECT LISTS OF PLANTS. 295 
 
 ground in summer, and at any time when good plump buds can be 
 obtained, and the stocks are in condition to receive them. Grafting is 
 rarely practised in the open air, but splice grafting on pieces of roots of 
 some common variety is a convenient and rapid mode of increasing rare 
 varieties, the cuttings of which do not strike root readily. Cions of one 
 bud will answer, but if the wood is short jointed, two are better ; the 
 grafted roots being planted in boxes filled with sand or very light soil, 
 and afterwards given the same care as ordinary cuttings. This is a com- 
 mon mode of propagating Moss Hoses and other similar hard-wood 
 varieties. Most of the Climbing Roses, of both native and foreign origin 
 also the classes known under the name of Perpetual and Hybrid Per- 
 petuals are quite readily propagated by ripe wood cuttings, placed in a 
 cool greenhouse in autumn, or in protected frames in the open ground. 
 They are also readily increased by green cuttings taken from plants in 
 the open air, or from those forced under glass; the, short, spur-like 
 shoots, taken off with a heel, are preferable for this purpose to the more 
 vigorous and succulent wood. But the most simple method of propa- 
 gating Roses is by root cuttings, and there are very few species or varie- 
 ties that cannot be readily multiplied by cuttings of their roots. Some 
 species and varieties like the Moss Roses, Briars and common June 
 Roses usually considered difficult to propagate by layers and cuttings 
 of the shoots, grow very freely from pieces of their roots, if these are 
 given sufficient time to develop adventitious buds before attempting to 
 force them to produce new roots and stems. The time to make root 
 cuttings of hardy Roses is in the fall, as soon as the plants have been 
 checked by cool weather. The roots, or a part of them, may be removed 
 without digging up the entire plant, but it is better to lift the plants, 
 following out the roots to their ends, then cut away all those suitable 
 for cuttings the larger roots make the best, but those of not more than 
 one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter will answer and cut all up into 
 pieces of two to three inches in length. Pack these pieces between 
 layers of damp moss the common Sphagnum from the swamps and low 
 grounds is the best, but if this cannot be obtained, pure clean and sharp 
 sand may be used instead. These root cuttings may be packed in well- 
 drained boxes or large flower pots, or any similar vessel, but in all cases 
 they should be well drained and absolutely clean and free from any taint 
 or substance likely to generate or promote the growth of mildew and 
 mold. These boxes or other vessels containing the cuttings, may be 
 buried in a dry place in the open ground or set away in a cool cellar, 
 where they can be examined from time to time during the winter, for the 
 purpose of ascertaining their condition and giving water, if it should be 
 required. If buds push too rapidly, lower the temperature ; and if they 
 do not come forward as rapidly as is thought necessary, increase the 
 temperature, or remove to a warmer place. Root cuttings of some varie- 
 ties will push into growth under exactly the same conditions, where 
 others will remain quite dormant, and for this reason it is well to place 
 the cuttings where they can be examined. All that is necessary or 
 
296 PROPAGATION" OF PLANTS. 
 
 desired is to secure the development of one or more buds on each cut- 
 ting by the time the weather will permit of planting them in the open 
 ground in spring. These root cuttings may be sown in drills and cov- 
 ered with good rich soil to the depth of two inches, and water applied to 
 settle the ground, or it may be packed slightly with the back of a hoe or 
 light roller. Good strong plants are usually produced from such root 
 cuttings the first season. With the more delicate, tender varieties, like 
 the Teas and Bourbons, the roots should be treated as recommended for 
 those of the Bouvardia which see. 
 
 Rubus (Raspberry, Blackberry). A large and interesting genus of 
 plants, the species pretty widely distributed over the world. Some of 
 the species are strong, large, upright shrubs with perennial woody stems ; 
 in others as with most of our cultivated species and varieties the stems 
 are biennial that is, growing one season, fruiting the next, and dying 
 down in the latter part of summer or early autumn. The few herbaceous 
 species are natives of cold climates, while the evergreen are mostly in- 
 digenous to warm or tropical ones. In the propagation of these fruits, 
 seed is seldom employed, except for the purpose of producing new vari- 
 eties, and it may be sown as soon as taken from the ripe berries, or the 
 latter may be dried, and the seeds preserved in good condition for several 
 years, and when wanted for sowing it is only necessary to soak the dried 
 fruit for a few hours in warm water, wash out the seeds, and sow in good 
 soil, watering the bed freely until the.plants appear and are large enough 
 for transplanting. The ornamental Brambles, as represented in the 
 Atlantic States by the Purple-Flowered Raspberry (R. odomtus), and in 
 the Western and Pacific Coast regions by the Salmon-Berry (72. Nutka- 
 nus), and one or two other closely allied species, and from China by the 
 Rose-Flowered Raspberry (It. roscefolius), are rarely cultivated for their 
 fruit, although it is edible, but rather deficient in flavor. The species 
 most valued for their fruit belong to the two groups known as true gar- 
 den Raspberries and Blackberries. There are upright-growing and trail- 
 ing species, and varieties in both groups. Those with a trailing habit 
 increase naturally by a natural process, called rooting, or taking root at 
 the tips, the long, flexible canes bending over and taking root, as seen 
 in the varieties of the Black-caps (R. occidcntalis), among the Rasp- 
 berries, and in the Low Blackberry or Dewberry (R. Canadensis). The 
 trailing species do not produce suckers, but sometimes numerous sprouts 
 spring up from around the base of the main stems, and the old stools 
 may be taken up and divided into several plants, when such a mode of 
 propagation is desirable for the more rapid increase of a variety. The 
 upright-growing species of both groups produce suckers more or less 
 freely ; these latter are employed in their propagation, and taken 
 up in spring or fall, and set out to make new plantations. But in the 
 propagation of the garden Blackberries, better plants may be raised by 
 root cuttings than are produced naturally in the form of suckers, and 
 the same is true of such varieties of the Raspberry, as the Purple Cane, 
 Philadelphia, and Shaffer's Colossal, because when raised from root cut- 
 
SELECT LISTS OF PLANTS. 297 
 
 tings the plants axe far better supplied with small fibrous roots, which 
 are readily preserved in the digging and transplanting. The method of 
 propagating the different species of Uttbus by root cuttings is the same 
 as described for Eoses and other similar hardy plants, but the roots of 
 some of the varieties grow much more freely than others. The orna- 
 mental varieties, especially those cultivatad under glass, are readily 
 propagated by green cuttings taken off close to the old wood, or with a 
 heel, and planted in sand in a close frame. 
 
 Salisburia (Ginkgo, Maidenhair Tree). A large, hardy, deciduous 
 ornamental tree from Japan and China. It belongs to the Taxaccce or 
 Yew Family, and is the only representative of the genus. The pistillate 
 and staminate flowers are on different trees, the pistillate flowers solitary ; 
 fruit drupe-like, with a large nut-like seed. Although introduced more 
 than a century ago (1784), the Ginkgo is still far from being a common 
 tree in this country. Propagated by seeds imported mostly from oriental 
 countries, by layers, and cuttings of the young shoots taken off with a 
 heel in midsummer, or of the ripened twigs in autumn, and planted in 
 frames in a greenhouse. Varieties are propagate:! by the same modes, 
 or by grafting in the open air early in spring, or under glass in August. 
 
 Salix (Willow, Osier). An immense genus of widely distributed trees 
 and shrubs, all thriving best in moist soils and swamps. The larger 
 number are so readily propagated by cuttings that other modes are 
 seldom practised, except to produce small, weeping trees, by budding or 
 grafting the small, low-growing species on stocks of those of an upright 
 habit. (See Stocks, Chapter XVIII.) 
 
 Sassafras. A well-known native deciduous tree of the Laurel Fam- 
 ily, with very fragrant foliage, and roots with thick, yellow, spicy bark. 
 A handsome tree, but produces suckers far too freely for admission into 
 cultivated grounds. Readily propagated by seed and cuttings of the 
 roots. The species is S. officinale, and, in some works, Laurus Sassafras. 
 
 Sambucus (Elder). A small genus of deciduous shrubs and a few 
 herbaceous plants. The shrubby species propagated by seeds, cuttings, 
 and layers, and the herbaceous by division of the roots. The shrubby 
 species usually increase far too rapidly by suckers, and often become a 
 nuisance in grounds of limited extent. 
 
 Sciadopitys (Umbrella Pine). A rare coniferous evergreen tree 
 from the mountains of Japan, where it grows from pne hundred to ono 
 hundred and fifty feet high. A very distinct and hardy conifer, but 
 apparently of rather slow growth. Usually propagated by seeds imported 
 from Japan, but the seedlings make an exceedingly slow growth, at 
 least during the first half dozen years. Cuttings of the half-ripened 
 shoots, taken off in summer and planted under glass, strike root quite 
 readily; and where one has good stock plants to supply the cuttings 
 this is the most expeditious mode of propagation. 
 
 Sequoia (Great Tree of California, Etc.) A genus of two species 
 of coniferous evergreen trees both native of California. One species, the 
 
298 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 Sequoia gigantca, is supposed to grow to a larger size than any other tree 
 indigenous to Europe or America, and is only excelled in size by a few 
 species of the Eucalyptus in Australia. Propagated by seeds, which 
 should be sown in a half-shady position, lightly covered, and kept moist 
 until the plants appear ; then some care is required to prevent damping 
 off in warm weather, although watering must not be neglected. Only 
 moderate heat is necessary to insure a healthy growth. A temperature 
 of from fifty to sixty degrees will prove to be far better than a higher 
 one. These trees may also be propagated by layers and cuttings, treated 
 the same as usual with the common Arbor- vitae, Yews and Junipers. 
 The Sequoia* thrive best in a rather moist soil, and in what is usually 
 termed a moist, cool climate. S. sempervirens is the valuable Red-wood. 
 
 Sheperdia (Buffalo Berry). A genus of three North American 
 deciduous shrubs or small trees, found only in the cool regions of the 
 Northwest. The largest-growing and most valuable species (8. argentea), 
 is found in northern New Mexico and northward to Alaska ; in the latter 
 country, I am informed by correspondents, the fruit is gathered in im- 
 mense quantities by the Indians for use in winter. The fruit is of a 
 bright scarlet color, resembling small currants, juicy, rather acid, but 
 pleasant flavored. This species succeeds perfectly in this latitude ; 
 I raised plants from seed gathered on the Upper Missouri thirty years 
 ago ; they are still alive ; and the pistillate plants seldom fail to bear 
 a good crop* of fruit. The flowers being dioecious, it is necessary to have 
 trees of both sexes growing near together, in order to insure the produc- 
 tion of fruit on the pistillate or female plants. Prop'agated by seeds, 
 which should be removed from the ripe fruit, find either sown ir the fall, 
 or mixed with sand, kept cool and moist during the winter, and then 
 sown in the spring in a half-shady place, as the young seedlings are 
 rather sensitive to the direct rays of the sun in this climate. 
 
 Sktmmia. A genus of evergreen shrubs from Japan, closely allied 
 to the Evergreen Barberries (Bcrbens), but with white, sweet-scented 
 flowers, succeeded by bright red berries. Not quite hardy in this lati- 
 tude. Propagated by layers, or cuttings planted under glass. 
 
 Sophora.A. genus of about twenty-five species of leguminous trees, 
 shrubs or herbs, mostly native of warm countries. There are two or 
 three evergreen shrubby species found in Texas and Mexico, and one in 
 Arizona and California. The species most highly valued in cultivation 
 is the S. Japonica and its numerous varieties, all moderately hardy in our 
 Northern States. The latter are propagated by seeds, layers, and by 
 grafting. The pendulous-branched and variegated-leaved varieties are 
 grafted on stocks of the species in the open air in spring. Tender vari- 
 eties and species may be increased by cuttings taken from plants forced 
 under glass. 
 
 Spiraea (Meadow-Sweet, Bridal Wreath). A genus of a half hundred 
 species, mostly native of temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. 
 They are mostly low-growing deciduous shrubs, a few with persistent 
 
SELECT LISTS OF PLANTS. 299 
 
 evergreen leaves, and others perennial herbaceous plants. About a 
 dozen species are natives of the United States, two of which are low herba- 
 ceous plants of the Rocky Mountain regions and far northward. Another 
 herbaceous species of tall growth viz., S.Aruncus has dioecious flowers, 
 the male plant being the one most common in cultivation. This species 
 is very widely distributed and found growing wild in the Alleghanies, 
 thence northward to Alaska and through Northern Asia and Europe. 
 The common shrub known by the name of Nine-Bark, and in most 
 botanical works as Spircea opulifolia, is now placed in the genus Neillla 
 Don., along with four or five other species found in the mountains of 
 Asia. The shrubby species are propagated by cuttings of the ripe 
 wood, by layers, and cuttings cf the roots. Herbaceous species by 
 division of the clumps. 
 
 Staphylea (Bladder-Nut). A small genus of three or four species of 
 large shrubs with small white flowers ; the seeds produced in a three- 
 lobed, three-celled bladdery pod. Our native species (S. trifoliata) is 
 common in low grounds in the Northern and Western States. The 
 European Bladder-nut (&. pinnata), and the Japanese species (S. l>u- 
 maldi\ are occasionally cultivated. Propagated by seeds, layers, suckers 
 and cuttings of the large, rather fleshy roots. 
 
 Stuart ia. Large, hardy, deciduous shrubs, with showy white flow- 
 ers, resembling those of the Tea-plant. There are two species indigenous 
 to the Southern States, and one or two to Japan ; the latter have recently 
 lean introduced. Propagated by seeds and layers, but the latter do not 
 strike root very readily. It is said that they are propagated by ripe wood 
 cuttings, planted under glass, in European nurseries, but I have no expe- 
 rience with this mode. 
 
 Styrax (Storax). A genus of very ornamental deciduous shrubs, 
 represented by a half dozen species in the United States. The European 
 species (S. officinalc) is noted for producing the very powerful and fra- 
 grant balsam, known by the name of Storax. Propagated by seeds and 
 layers, and by grafting. (See Halesia, and Selection of Stocks, Chapter 
 XVIII.) 
 
 SympJioricarpus (Snowberry, Indian Currant). A genus of about 
 a half dozen species of low-growing North American shrubs, cultivated 
 for their ornamental berries. The hardy species are common in gardens. 
 Propagated by cuttings or suckers ; the latter produced in great abund- 
 ance. 
 
 Symplocos (Sweet-Leaf, Horse-Sugar). Evergreen trees or shrubs 
 of the Storax Family. One species native of the Southern States (S. 
 tinctoria), one of Mexico, and two or three in China and Japan. Propa- 
 gated by cuttings under glass. 
 
 Syringa (Lilac). A genus of old and well-known ornamental shrubs. 
 There are but few species, but an immense number of cultivated varie- 
 ties, and new ones are being brought forward almost every year. Propa- 
 gated by seeds, suckers, layers, and cuttings of the larger roots. Also 
 
300 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 by budding and grafting in the open air in summer or early spring. The 
 Lilacs will grow when grafted on the Ash and common Privet, but the 
 union between the two kinds of wood is seldom perfect, and the plants 
 not very long lived. 
 
 Tamar ind us (Tamarind). Semi-tropical or tropical evergreen trees 
 bearing delicious fruit, well known in all great cities in its preserved or 
 dried state. Readily propagated by seeds, which should be sown in a 
 hot-bed or where it can be given bottom heat, and the young plants 
 taken up and potted singly when a few inches high, or in hot climates 
 set out in a half-shady bed. The plants may also be increased by cut- 
 tings planted in sand under glass, or in the open ground in tropical 
 countries. 
 
 Tamartx (Tamarisk). Slender-growing shrubs or small trees from 
 Europe and Asia. All are evergreen in warm climates, or when grown 
 under glass; but the French Tamarisk (T. Gallica), the species most 
 common in the gardens of this country, is slowly deciduous in the lati- 
 tude of New York City and a few degrees further south. The hardy 
 species and varieties are readily propagated by cuttings of the mature 
 shoots, planted in the open ground, either in the fall or spring. 
 
 Taxodium (Bald Cypress). A small genus of lofty-growing, decid- 
 uous coniferous trees, with very short and narrow, or long and slender, 
 thread-like leaves. The Bald or Deciduous Cypress is a familiar indige- 
 nous representative of the genus growing abundantly in the swamps of 
 the Southern States. Although this tree is a native of a warm climate, 
 still it is quite hardy in most of our Northern States, and thrives in 
 almost any kind of soil. The Glyptostrobus of China are now considered 
 as only species of the genus Taxodium, although the former name is 
 still retained in nurserymen's catalogues, and in a few botanical works. 
 The Taxodiums are readily propagated by seeds, treated in the same man 
 ner as those of the ordinary conifers. Also by layers, and the cuttings 
 of the young shoots in summer, placed in pure sand, constantly saturated 
 with water. They will also strike root in water alone, but the sand is 
 preferable, because it will hold each cutting in one position or place, un- 
 til the roots are formed. The weeping, variegated, and other varieties 
 of the oriental Taxodiums, may be grafted on stocks of the American 
 Bald Cypress. Grafting in spring in the open air and close to the ground 
 is sometimes practiced with success, but the cions should be shaded for 
 a time with paper caps, or an inverted flower pot will answer. Veneer 
 grafting under glass in August is however the preferable mode for all 
 kinds of coniferous trees. 
 
 Taxus (Yews). Well-known ornamental evergreen trees and shrubs. 
 They are closely allied .to the conifers, but the fruit is not a cone, but 
 drupe-like, and the seed enclosed in a soft, bright red, cup-shaped berry. 
 Our American Yew (T. Canadensis) is alow, prostrate shrub, found com- 
 mon in woods far ncrth. Propagated by seeds, layers, and cuttings of 
 the green twigs under glass, or the mature wood taken off in the fall and 
 
SELECT LISTS OF PLANTS. 301 
 
 planted in frames, where they can be given slight protection during the 
 winter, 
 
 Tecoma (Trumpet Creeper). For propagation see Lignonia. 
 
 Tliea (Tea Plant). See Camellia. 
 
 Thuja (Arbor- Vitse, White Cedar). A very extensive genus of con- 
 iferous evergreen trees, or a very limited one, depending entirely upon 
 whose classification we adopt as our guide. If the Retinisporas, Chamce- 
 cyparis, Libocedrus, and Blotos are excluded, as they are by some bota- 
 nists, a very limited number of true Thujas remain or only two, and 
 these are both indigenous to the United States. But if all the species 
 of the above so-called genera are included, then the genus will be a 
 moderately large one. But the different species are so closely allied that 
 one mode of propagation answers equally well for all. They are readily 
 propagated by seeds, sown in spring in half shade, and watered as often 
 as necessary to. keep the surface of the bed moist ; by layers, cuttings of 
 the green shoots under glass, and of the ripe twigs in autumn, planted 
 in frames out-of-doors, or in a cool greenhouse. Grafting under glass is 
 extensively practiced in increasing the plants of rare species and varie- 
 ties. (For Stocks, see Chapter XVIII.) 
 
 Ttlia (Linden, Basswood). A small genus of only about a half dozen 
 species of large, deciduous trees of the temperate regions of Europe and 
 America. All valuable for ornament and for their timber. Propagated 
 by seeds, layers, budding and grafting. The seeds should be sown as soon 
 as ripe, or packed away in moist sand until spring, and then sown. Some- 
 times the plants will not appear until the second season. Layers strike 
 root quite readily, if notched or merely twisted until the bark is slightly- 
 broken. Budding and grafting in the open ground is the usual mode of 
 increasing rare varieties. (See Chapter XVIII,, on Selecting Stocks.) 
 
 Torreya (Stinking Cedar). Evergreen trees of the Yew Family. 
 One species, native of Florida (T. taxifclid), is called " Stinking Cedar" ; : 
 another, on the Pacific Coast ( T. Calif arnica}, is known under the com- 
 mon name of "California Nutmeg." There are in addition several 
 oriental species. Propagated by the same modes as the common Yew. j 
 
 Ulmus (Elm). A genus of noble, ornamental and useful, deciduous 
 forest trees, mostly natives of Europe and America. There are but few 
 species, but a large number of natural varieties, as the elms are noted for 
 their wide variation from what may be considered the normal types. 
 Long cultivation and the raising of immense numbers from seeds under 1 
 artificial conditions, has still further augmented the number of distinct 
 varieties. Seeds of most of the species ripen early in summer, and should 
 be sown as soon as they fall from the tree, and lightly covered with soil. 
 Some will germinate in a few days, while others remain dormant until 
 the following spring. Varieties are readily propagated by layers and by 
 grafting on strong stocks of closely allied species in the open an*. (See 
 Stocks, Chapter XVIII.) 
 
303 PPOPAGATTON OF PLANTS. 
 
 Vaccinium (Cranberry, Huckleberry, Blueberry, Etc.) A large 
 genus of hardy, upright-growing shrubs, or low, trailing vines. A few 
 are evergreen, but they are mostly deciduous, and the larger number 
 natives of North America.*- The low, trailing Cranberries, V. Oxycoccus 
 and V. macrocarpon especially the latter and its many varieties are 
 extensively cultivated, growing freely in low bogs and swamps, and the 
 fruit is well known in our markets. They are readily propagated by 
 cuttings planted in wet soils. But the Huckleberries and Blueberries 
 are rarely cultivated, although there is really no good reason why they 
 should not be, for the plants thrive on almost any light soil, and even 
 those species which naturally grow in swamps and peat bogs will thrive 
 on high and dry soils, provided they are light and sandy. The shrubby 
 species are propagated by seeds and layers. The seeds being very small, 
 they should be sown in shallow boxes filled with vegetable mold and 
 eand, and but lightly covered with fine shreds of moss from the swamps, 
 and this kept constantly saturated with water, until the plants appear, 
 after which only water sufficient to keep the soil moderately wet need be 
 applied, 
 
 Viburnum (Arrow-Wood, Cranberry Tree). A large genus of ele- 
 gant ornamental shrubs, a few bearing edible but not very highly prized 
 fruit. The common Snowball tree is only a variety of the wild Cran- 
 berry tree (V. Opulus) of the swamps of our Northern States and 
 Great Britain. The Chinese Snowball ( V. plicatum) is a more recent 
 introduction, and even more highly prized than the older favorite. 
 Propagated by layers ; some of the species by cuttings of the mature 
 wood ; others, like the Chinese Snowball, by cuttings of the young, im- 
 mature shoots taken off with a heel and planted in sand under glass. 
 
 Vitex (Chaste Tree). A genus of tropical and sub-tropical evergreen 
 and deciduous shrubs and trees. They are rarely seen in cultivation, 
 although the Chaste tree ( V. Agnus- Castus) from Southern Europe, is 
 sometimes found in old gardens in the North, but more common South. 
 The Chinese Cut-leaved Chaste tree is also occasionally cultivated, and 
 is very nearly hardy in the latitude of New York City. Propagated by 
 layers, or ripe wood cuttings planted in a sheltered position m autumn. 
 
 Vttts (Grape). An important genus of climbing shrubs, bearing 
 edible fruit in clusters. The number of species undetermined, as the 
 opinions of botanists differ in regard to the value of the variable specific 
 characteristics for the purposes of classification. The European varie- 
 ties of the grape are supposed to have descended from one species viz., 
 V. vinifera and the cultivated American varieties from several indige- 
 nous epecies, through natural variations, or by crossing and hybridizing 
 under domestication. There are also hybrids between the European 
 and American species, and various grades of intermixtures of species 
 and varieties. Propagation by seeds is mostly practiced for the purpose 
 of producing new varieties which is not at all difficult from any of the 
 improved cultivated varieties. Seeds from black varieties like the Con- 
 
SELECT LISTS OF PLANTS, 
 
 303 
 
 cord sometimes give pure white or greenish-colored varieties, even hi 
 absence of any attempt to cross-fertilize the flowers. Still, it is always 
 best to employ artificial fertilization where hybrids or any intermixture 
 of varieties are desired ; for, if such operations 
 are left to chance, the results are very uncertain. 
 Grape seeds should be removed from the fruit 
 when i-ipe, and then mixed with sand and pre- 
 served in a moist condition until spring, then 
 sown in boxes under glass or in the open ground, 
 and covered about one-half inch deep. For the 
 hardy species, the seeds will germinate more 
 freely if placed where they will freeze during 
 winter than if stored where no frost will reach 
 them. Mice are usually so abundant, and so fond 
 of grape seeds, that it is seldom safe to sow them 
 in the fall, otherwise this would be the best plan, 
 and for all kinds. The seedlings should be trans- 
 planted into nursery rows when a year old, and 
 the plants set out about four feet apart each way 
 and trained to a single cane and a stake until they 
 bear fruit, then those worth preserving may be 
 increased by any of the usual methods of propa- 
 gation and the others destroyed. But with the 
 most careful selection of parent plants to raise 
 seedlings from, the chances are not more than 
 one in a thousand of obtaining a variety superior 
 or even equal to the best of those already in 
 cultivation. I do not say this to discourage any 
 one who has the inclination and time to spend in 
 making experiments in this direction, for we need 
 far better varieties of the native Grape than any 
 we now possess ; but multiplying varieties with- 
 out a corresponding advance in the intrinsic 
 merits of those produced has already gone far 
 enough in fact, too far, for the general good of 
 this branch of horticulture. The most common 
 modes of propagating the grape are by cuttings, 
 layers, and grafting. In making what are called 
 ripe wood cuttings, the past season's growth is 
 used ; that is, shoots that have been produced 
 during the summer are taken for cuttings in the 
 fall. That which is strong, vigorous and well 
 ripened is to be preferred, but overgrown canes 
 do not always make the best cuttings, or strike 
 root as readily as those of medium size. The 
 best length for cuttings is a moot point. Among 
 vineyardists in Europe they use very long cut- 
 tings, while we prefer much shorter ones, and think that we know that 
 
 Fig. 100. 
 
 GRAPE CUTTING. 
 
304 PROPAGATION" OF PLANTS. 
 
 they arc the best. A cutting of six or eight inches in length, when 
 properly planted, will produce as good or better plant than one twice 
 that length. Furthermore, no modem scientific horticulturists would 
 plant cuttings in a vineyard where the vines are to remain and bear 
 fruit, any more than he would plant Apple seed in an orchard instead of 
 trees ; and yet European vineyards are to this day planted with cuttings 
 instead of rooted plants, just as they were two or three thousand years 
 ago, and about the same class of implements are used in their cultiva- 
 tion. The cuttings should be made in autumn, and before the vines 
 have been subjected to a very low temperature. When the vines are 
 pruned, the canes may be cut into lengths of six to eight inches, leaving 
 not less than two buds on each, as shown in figure 100. If the wood is 
 short jointed, a cutting of this length will have three, and perhaps four 
 buds upon it ; if so they are all the better, as roots usually start from 
 each bud although not always the first season. The lower end of the 
 cutting should be cut off smooth and close up to the base of tne bud, as 
 shown, and the top an inch above the bud. When the cuttings are pre- 
 pared, they may be buried in sand or moss in a cellar, or in a dry place 
 in the open ground and below the reach of frost. In spring the cuttings 
 
 . 101. SINGLE-BUD CUTTING. Fig. 102. 
 
 are taken out and planted in the same manner as other ripe wood cut- 
 tings, the upper bud being left just level with, or a half inch below the 
 surface of the ground. 
 
 In the fall the rooted cuttings are taken up and heeled-in, and pro- 
 tected in winter if necessary. In warm climates, and where the ground 
 does not freeze to any considerable depth in winter, the cuttings may be 
 planted out in the vineyard in the fall, the long roots shortened, and the 
 young cane cut back to within two buds of the old wood. In some 
 localities, mulching the cutting bed will be beneficial in keeping it moist, 
 but in others it might do more harm than good ; but the cultivator of 
 such plants must use nis own judgment in such matters, as he is sup- 
 posed to know something of the climate of the region wherein he is 
 living. Nearly all of our cultivated varieties of the grape may be readily 
 propagated by cuttings in the open ground, but an occasional one, like 
 the Delaware and Norton's Virginia, require a little more care than 
 others ; the cuttings must be kept in a moist and rather warm place 
 during winter in order to have the root-forming process sc-mewhat 
 advanced by the time they are needed for planting. What are called 
 single-bud cuttings are made of the same kind of wood as the long cut- 
 tings, but with only one bud on each, as shoAvn in figure 101, which 
 represents the cutting of the usual size and length. Some propa- 
 
SELECT LISTS OF PLANTS. 
 
 305 
 
 gators cut off a slice of the wood on the lower side, as shown in 
 figure 102, thereby exposing more of the alburnum than when merely 
 severed at the ends. But the shape of the cutting may be varied to suit 
 the fancy of the propagator, so long as a sufficient amount of wood 
 but not too much is left attached to the bud. These single bud or 
 short cuttings are usually employed for propagating scarce varieties, 
 and under glass during the winter months. The cuttings are planted hi 
 shallow boxes or frames filled with pure sand, and then placed in a 
 propagating house where they can be given gentle bottom heat. These 
 cuttings may be laid flat or thrust into the sand at a slight angle, but 
 the bud ought not to be covered much more than a half inch when in 
 position. Water must be applied liberally, and the temperature of the 
 cutting bed kept at about sixty or seventy degrees until the cuttings are 
 well furnished with roots, and the new growth from the bud is from two 
 to three inches in height, then remove the cuttings from the sand and 
 pot off singly in two or three inch pots. After potting, the plants may 
 be returned to the frames, or placed in others where the air will be 
 somewhat confined and moist for a few days, or until the plants have 
 become established in their new position. Single-eye cuttings may be 
 forced early in winter, but the most usual practice is to delay the opera- 
 tion until about the first of February in this climate. The wood, how- 
 ever, to be used for cuttings should be taken in early in the winter and 
 stored in the cellar, or where it will not become dry and shrivelled. If 
 by accident it should get very dry, the cuttings may be thrown into warm 
 water and allowed to soak a few hours before placing them in the sand. 
 Cuttings of the green or unripe wood are sometimes employed in 
 propagating rare and scarce va- 
 rieties, but unless the plants are 
 given extra care, they are seldom 
 as strong and healthy as those 
 raised from mature wood. The 
 mode of operation is usually as 
 follows : In the autumn pot the 
 vines to be propagated or plant 
 in a border within the propa- 
 gating house, making the soil so 
 rich that the vines will not suffer 
 for want of nutriment. When 
 they have made a growth of a 
 foot or more, some of the shoots 
 may be removed for cuttings, but 
 do not cut back all the young 
 growth at one time, as this would 103 ^cuTTi^ OF GREEN WOOD. 
 
 severely check the vine, but a 
 
 few cuttings at a time may be taken without injury. The young shoots 
 may then be divided into pieces of two buds each, the lower end cut off 
 square across close to the base of a bud, and the upper leaf left entire, 
 as shown in figure 108. The cuttings, when prepared, are planted in 
 
PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 sand, about two-thirds of their length, covered as shown A represents 
 the surface of the sand. These green cuttings must be placed in close 
 frames, frequently syringed overhead, and the temperature should not 
 be allowed to fall much below sixty degrees, and if kept at eighty or 
 ninety degrees the roots will push out all the more rapidly. These cut- 
 tings may thenceforward receive the same treatment as those of ordinary 
 tender greenhouse plants, and in spring transferred to frames in the 
 open ground ; or, if well ripened off, set out in nursery rows, when the 
 weather will permit, in early summer. 
 
 Layering is one of the most simple and certain modes of propagating 
 the Grape and it is no doubt the oldest, for whenever the canes of wild 
 vines come in contact with the earth they emit 
 roots and thus become layers. But to facilitate 
 the emission of roots we bend down a cane and 
 cover that part on which we desire roots with 
 soil, and this layer is but a cutting which is left 
 attached to the parent plant, and derives nour- 
 ishment therefrom, until it has produced roots 
 of its own. Layers may be put down in fall or 
 
 Fig. 104. LAYERING THE GRAPE. 
 
 spring, and the young canes of the season's growth are preferable to 
 older wood, as they produce roots the most freely and readily, no notch- 
 ing, twisting or tonguing being required. Vines grown expressly for 
 layers should be planted about six feet apart, and headed back in the 
 fall in order to force out a larger number of strong canes the following 
 season. The growing canes may be layered in summer, but the better 
 plan is to allow them to grow unchecked the entire season and layered 
 the next, each cane making one strong layer after it is cut back to a 
 convenient length. But if all the canes of a vine are layered, it would 
 too severely check its growth, and the more usual practice is to use only 
 one or two of the canes in any one season, and cut back the others so 
 that new shoots will be produced for use the following year. If a larger 
 number of layers are desired than can be secured by making one plant 
 
SELECT LISTS OF PLANTS; 307 
 
 of each layer, then some of the strongest shoots may be laid in a 
 shallow trench, as shown in figure 104. Select the largest cane or 
 canes as the case may be for layers, and cut it back to six or seven 
 feet, if it is longer ; then cut the other canes back to within three or 
 four buds of their base. In spring, after the buds begin to swell, layer 
 the cane as follows : Dig a shallow trench four to six inches deep and 
 of a sufficient length to receive the cane ; now bend it down and fasten 
 it in the trench by hooked pegs. The cane may be bent in almost any 
 direction from the parent stock most convenient, but it should be laid 
 flat in the bottom of the trench. The layered cane may remain in this 
 position uncovered until the new shoots appear along its entire length^ 
 and if allowed to grow every bud will produce a shoot and a plant, but 
 it is better to rub off at least one half of the buds and raise a less 
 number of stronger plants. When the young shoots have grown to 
 be five or six inches long, a little soil may be drawn in and the layered 
 cane covered with an inch or more of soil, and a small stake placed by 
 the side of each shoot, to which it should be tied later in the season. In 
 the accompanying illustration the layer is shown in the trench as it ap- 
 pears when the young upright shoots are a foot or more in height, also 
 the roots as they appear later. The shoots (B, (7,) growing from the 
 main stem may be preserved for layering the following season, or for 
 bearing f rait. In the fall the layered cane is dug up and divided into 
 as many plants as there are upright shoots, each with the roots at its 
 base. The principal advantage of layering as a mode of propagation is 
 that certain species and varieties, which are not readily propagated by 
 cuttings, may be made to produce roots on layers. 
 
 Grafting the Grape is a very ancient mode of propagation, and is fully 
 described by most of the old Roman authors of works on agriculture. 
 The cions may be inserted by any and all the different methods practised 
 in grafting woody plants cleft, triangular, side, tongue and splice, and 
 even by in-arching and approach. The most usual method is to insert 
 the cion in the crown of the plant below the surface of the ground, tying 
 it in with bass or other similar material, and then banking up with earth 
 about the cion ; no wax of any kind is used in the operation, the earth 
 being sufficient to exclude air and prevent drying. The proper time or 
 season for grafting is still as it has been for thousands of years a moot 
 point among vineyardists. The old Romans could not agree as to the 
 best time for grafting the Grape in the vineyards about Rome ; for while 
 Julius Atticus said that the time for .grafting was from the first of Novem- 
 ber until the first of June, Columella objected to this prolonged season 
 and thought the better time was in spring after the cold weather is past. 
 The same difference of opinion exists among vineyardists at this day, 
 probably because climate as well as experience differ. My own expe- 
 rience is in favor of early grafting either in the fall or winter, then pro- 
 tecting the cions from frost either by covering with an inverted flower 
 pot and straw, as I described many years ago in the "Grape Culturist," 
 or by merely covering with a few forkfuls of coarse stable manure. In 
 
308 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 warm climates no such protection is required, and a cion set early in 
 the winter becomes fully united to the stock before a rapid flow of sap 
 begins in spring, and this no doubt is why Julius Atticus recommended 
 early grafting of the Grape in his time, or nearly two thousand years 
 ago. But early spring grafting is most generally practised in cold 
 climates, the cions being stored in a cool place where they will remain 
 dormant until wanted for use. The earlier they are inserted the more 
 likely they are to unite, and if not inserted early it is better to wait until 
 the leaves have unfolded on the stock and the sap has become somewhat 
 thickened through evaporation from the leaves. When vines are grafted 
 on roots below the surface, the cion, if not prevented, will throw out 
 roots of its own, and the benefit of a strong, old stock will be only tem- 
 porary ; but if these surface roots are removed once or twice a year the 
 old stock may continue to exercise its influence upon the cion for many 
 a year. Grafting by approach above ground is readily accomplished by 
 the usual mode during the early summer months, and this is probably 
 preferable to grafting below the surface where it is necessary to use 
 what are called "phylloxera resisting stocks," as some of our native 
 species of the vine are called in France and California. 
 
 Weigela. See Diervilla. 
 
 Wistaria. Very rapid- growing, woody, climbing plants, with pea- 
 shaped flowers in long, drooping clusters. One species ( W. frutescens), 
 native of the United States, and one ( W. Sinensis), in China. There are 
 several varieties of both species in cultivation, nearly all now common in 
 our gardens. Propagated by seeds, which are produced in great abun- 
 dance on old plants, by layers and grafting. Cuttings do not usually 
 strike root very readily when planted in the open ground, but will suc- 
 ceed if planted in sand under glass where they will receive moderate 
 heat. 
 
 Zanthoxylnm (Prickly Ash). A small genus of ornamental and use- 
 ful shrubs ; the bark, leaves and fruit extremely pungent and aromatic. 
 The common native species found in our Northern woods is known as 
 "Toothache tree." Another species is found in the Southern States, 
 and several in the East and West Indies and other tropical countries, 
 besides in China and Japan. One species from the latter country (Z. pi- 
 perituni) is nearly hardy in my grounds, the terminal shoots only being 
 injured in winter. Propagated the most readily by cuttings of the roots. 
 
HERBS, TUBERS AKD BULBS. 309 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 HERBS, TUBERS AND BULBS. 
 
 In the following pages I purpose giving only very brief 
 hints in regard to the propagation of herbaceous, bulbous, 
 tuberous, and some suifrutescent perennial plants omitted 
 in the preceding chapters. Although the principles gov- 
 erning their growth and propagation are the same as 
 with other kinds, still it may often occur that a hint in 
 relation to some simple mode of increasing a species or 
 variety is of more value to the inexperienced than a 
 learned treatise on the subject. Certain modes of propa- 
 gation well known to one person may not be to another ; 
 consequently, in attempting to impart information in a 
 work like this, the author is obliged to presume some- 
 what upon the inexperience of his readers. As a rule, it 
 may be said that all kinds of herbaceous plants, such as 
 Carnations, Phloxes, Petunias, Verbenas, Snap-dragons, 
 and all similar kinds having stems bearing leaves, may 
 be more or less readily propagated by cuttings of the 
 tender or half-ripened shoots, placed in frames or under 
 a bell glass, where the air will be somewhat confined and 
 moist, while at the same time a moderately high tempera- 
 ture can be secured. In temperate climates this mode of 
 propagation may be practised with success in ordinary 
 hot-bed frames, without bottom or artificial heat, during 
 the summer months. 
 
 The soft-wooded greenhouse plants, such as Geraniums, 
 Fuchsias, Lophospermums, Begonias, etc., may be in- 
 creased under the same conditions, as well as many of the 
 more succulent kinds, like the Ageratums, Alternan- 
 theras, Alyssums anct Coleuses ; but a propagating house, 
 built especially for such purposes, is always preferable to 
 cheaper structures of this kind, because of the facilities 
 
_31D PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 afforded for controlling the temperature in our change- 
 able climate. In making cuttings of soft-wooded and 
 herbaceous plants, it is always best to cut through close 
 under a joint or bud, although there are kinds which 
 strike root so readily that it will make very little or no 
 'difference where or how the stems are divided. The 
 leaves on the lower part of the cutting that part to be 
 buried in the sand or soil must be removed, else they 
 are likely to decay and increase the danger of what is 
 termed " damping off." It may also be advisable in some 
 cases to remove a part of each leaf on the cutting, espe- 
 cially if the leaves are large and soft ; but with most 
 plants propagated by cuttings of the young shoots, the 
 terminal leaves may be left intact. 
 
 In the application of water to such cuttings, the propa- 
 gator must ever depend upon his own observations and 
 judgment. The cuttings must not be allowed to flag for 
 want of moisture, neither should the atmosphere in the 
 frames be kept constantly saturated. Ventilation must 
 also be attended to, and more air admitted as the cuttings 
 advance in growth and in the production of roots, than 
 when first placed in the frames or under bell glasses. 
 Cuttings of the hardy and half-hardy herbaceous plants, 
 such as Carnations, Phloxes and Hollyhocks, do not re- 
 quire so high a temperature to insure the production of 
 roots as those of the Coleus, Acanthus, Achimenes, Bego- 
 nias and other kinds, natives of tropical climates. There 
 are usually more cuttings lost by attempting to force 
 their growth by a high temperature than in keeping it 
 too low. 
 
 - In propagating bulbous, tuberous, and other plants with 
 large, fleshy roots, it should be kept in mind that no 
 great amount of moisture is required until the leaves have 
 been produced and growth has fairly begun. They all 
 have their seasons of growth and of rest, and this natural 
 we may term it has been acquired through 
 
HERB3, TUBERS AND BULBS. oil 
 
 the influence of the climate of the region in which they 
 have lived for an unknown number of centuries. Some 
 kinds of plants seem to submit more readily to artificial 
 conditions than others, but the most satisfactory results 
 will usually be secured by keeping very near to nature in 
 dealing with the plants of any country or clime. 
 
 Acanthacece (Acanthus Family). Mostly tropical herbs; a fc\V 
 climbers, as in Thunbcrgia, but the most highly prize:! belong to the 
 genus Acanthus, these being large, stately, ornamental perennials, much 
 admired for their beautiful foliage. Very useful plants for bedding out 
 in summer. Propagated by seeds sown under glass, or by division of 
 the roots while the plants are in a semi-dormant condition in fall or 
 winter. 
 
 Amarantacetz (Amaranth Family). A large family; mostly low 
 annual herbs ; a few shrubs, and only a few genera considered worthy 
 of cultivation, and among these are the well known Amarantus, Cclo- 
 sia, GompJirena, Alter nanthera, and Ircsinc or Achyranthes. The species 
 of the two last named genera are perennials, and of which there are 
 many varieties in cultivation, valued for their handsomely colored foli- 
 age. To insure a perpetuation of the bright color and variegation of the 
 leaves, the plants should be propagated by cuttings taken from stock 
 plants kept over for the purpose. Cuttings taken off in March and 
 April will usually become sufficiently strong and well supplied with 
 roots for planting out later in spring. 
 
 Amaryllldacece (Amaryllis Family). A very large family of ele- 
 gant ornamental plants, mostly bulbous, but a few, such as the Agave 
 (American Aloe) have stems and large fleshy roots. The most familiar 
 genera are the Amaryllis, Crinum, Pancratium, Narcissus, Galanthus 
 (Snowdrop), Hippeastrum, and Ilcsmanthus. A few, such as the Narcis- 
 sus and Galanthus, are hardy, but they are mainly greenhouse plants. 
 New varieties are raised from seeds, and as these arc rather fleshy they 
 should not be covered very deep, especially if soil is used for this pur- 
 pose. I have had excellent success by scattering the seed over the 
 surface of leaf mold, and then spreading over them a few shreds of 
 moss, covering all with a bell glass or a pane of window glass laid flat 
 on the top of the seed-pan or pot. The young plants may be potted off 
 as soon as they are large enough to be readily handled. All of the dif- 
 ferent genera require a deep rich soil with good drainage, whether cul- 
 tivated in pots or in the garden. Varieties are propagated by offsets, 
 which are usually produced in great abundance, although in a few kinds 
 the old bulbs produce buds rather slowly and sparingly. 
 
 Apocynacece (Dogbane Family). A family composed of trees, erect 
 and twining shrubs, and many low herbs, mostly containing an acrid, 
 
PPOPAGATlON OF PLANTS. 
 
 poisonous juice. The common Oleander (Neriuni), is a well-known ever- 
 green shrub belonging to this family. Among the low herbaceous and 
 evergreen genera, the Apocynum (Indian Hemp), Amsonia, and Vinca 
 (Periwinkle), are common border ornamental plants. Propagated by 
 cuttings and divisions of the clumps or stools in spring. 
 
 Aroldece or Aracece (Arum Family). A large order of herbaceous 
 perennial plants with tuberous rhizomes. The most familiar genera in 
 cultivation are Alocasia, Amorpliophallus, Anthurium,- Caladium, Coloca- 
 sla (Tanya), Differibachia, and Itichardla (Calla). The flowers are very 
 minute, unisexual or perfect, produced on a central organ called a spa- 
 dix, and this surrounded by a large spathe, which is sometimes as in 
 the Amoi*phaphallus Rivieri two feet or more in diameter, and emiting a 
 
 Fig. 103. COLOCASIA ESCULENTA. 
 
 most disagreeable odor. The rhizomes of some of the genera contain an 
 acrid watery juice, as in the wild Indian Turnip (Ariscema), while in 
 others, such as the Colocasia esculcnta, they are edible when cooked. 
 This edible species is known in our Southern States, where it has become 
 naturalized, as the Tanya. It is largely employed as a bedding-out 
 plant in the Northern States, the leaves growing to an immense size, and 
 the general habit and form of the plant is shown in figure 105. The 
 Richardia or Calla Lily, as it is called, is a well-known and common 
 window and greenhouse plant. The Caladiums are what may be termed 
 hot-house plants, requiring a high temperature and moist atmosphere to 
 insure the full development of their brilliant colored and handsomely 
 
HEHES, TUBERS AND BULBS. 313 
 
 variegated leaves. The Differibachias are of a more stocky growth than 
 the Caladiums, the large leaves springing from a central fleshy stem, 
 which in some species is six to eight feet long. This genus possesses a 
 very poisonous acrid juice, and the propagator should bear this in mind 
 when dividing the plants or removing the leaves. The Antfiuriums are 
 perhaps the most showy of the family, on account of the immense size 
 of the bract-like spathe, which bend backward instead of folding around 
 the spadix, as in the common Calla and others. All members of this 
 family are moisture-loving plants, and need a copious supply, especially 
 when growing rapidly. Propagated by seed, and by divisions of the 
 corms, or the naturally produced offsets. Some of the genera throw off 
 small tubers in large numbers, others few ; but on all old and strong 
 tubers, small buds may be found which may be cut out when the plants 
 are at rest, and if placed in gentle heat will usually produce roots from 
 around the crown or eyes. Seeds of the Calla will usually produce 
 blooming plants under favorable conditions in a twelvemonth, but for 
 those of some of the other genera, two to three years are required from 
 seed to obtain even plants of moderate size. 
 
 Begonlacecv (Begonia Family). A small family, and only one genus 
 in cultivation, and that the Begonia ; but of this there are at least three 
 hundred species and an innumerable number of garden hybrids and 
 varieties. The Begonias are mostly succulent herbaceous or somewhat 
 woody-stemmed plants, with unequal-sided leaves, which no doubt sug- 
 gested the common name of u Elephant's Ear." In some of the species 
 the roots are very thick and fleshy, in others, distinctly tuberous. The 
 flowers are usually showy, sometimes of enormous size, and of various 
 colors white, rose, scarlet, yellow, and all intermediate shades. Seeds 
 minute, but produced in great abundance. One species, the _B. soco- 
 trana, has an herbaceous annual stem, at the base of which small bulb- 
 lets are produced, and these should be kept dry during the summer 
 months and forced into growth during the winter. All the Begonias are 
 of easy culture, thriving in a warm greenhouse. Keadily and rapidly 
 propagated by seed, and by cuttings of the stems and leaves. The mi- 
 nute seeds should be sown on the surface of light soil or pulverized 
 charcoal and moss, and not covered with soil, but the boxes or pans 
 covered with a pane of window glass or a common bell glass. Water 
 should be given freely and often through a fine rose syringe or atomizer, 
 and the temperature kept at about sixty degrees, or slightly above. 
 
 Boragtnacece (Borage Family). Mostly rough, hahy, annual and 
 perennial herbaceous plants. Some, like the common Comfrey (Sym- 
 phytum), with thick fleshy roots containing a mucilaginous juice. T.he 
 genera most highly valued are AncJiusa, Mcrtensia (Lungwort), Heliotro- 
 pium (Heliotrope), Myosotis (Forget-me-not), and Symphytum (Comfrey). 
 The different species and varieties of the Anchusa and Symphytum are 
 usually propagated by division of the clumps or cuttings of the roots, 
 and the others by seeds or cuttings of the tender shoots. 
 
314 .PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 Bromeliacece (Pine-Apple Family). The most familiar genera of 
 this Family are Ananassa (Pine-apple), ^Echmca, Bilbergia, Bromelia, and 
 Tillandsia, one of the species of the latter being the well known Spanish 
 moss of Florida and other parts of the South. The Ananassa or Pine- 
 apple is the most important genus in this family, and now exists in both 
 its wild and cultivated state in all the warmer or tropical countries of 
 America. There are a number of varieties in cultivation, and all are 
 propagated by cuttings made of the sprouts which naturally spring up 
 around the base of the main stem. When the fruit is cut off the sprouts 
 appear in more or less abundance, and these are slipped off and planted 
 in sand where they can be given bottom heat. The <dchmcas t Bilbergias, 
 and Bromelias arc readily propagated in the same way, all requiring a 
 rather high temperature and abundance of water to insure vigorous 
 growth and free blooming plants. When at rest they need but just suf- 
 ficient moisture to prevent shrivelling. 
 
 Cactacese (Cactus Family). An immense order or family of succu- 
 lent or fleshy plants, mostly destitute of true leaves, the functions of 
 these useful organs on other plants being performed by the green rind 
 of the columnar, flattened, or other shaped stems and branches. These 
 plants arc most abundant in the warmer regions of North and South 
 America, but some of the species grow at high altitudes in the tropics, 
 and others extend far northward, where they are subjected to a temper- 
 ature many degrees below zero in winter. The most popular and best 
 known genera are Cereus, Mammilaria, Mclocactus, Epiphyllum, Echino- 
 cactus, Phyllocactus, Opunlia, and Pcrcskia. We have no family of plants 
 that thrive under neglect nor respond more fully to good care than the 
 Cactuses. They all need moisture while growing, and very little or none 
 at all white at rest. There are many species found in the higher regions 
 of the West and South that withstand a temperature of ten or more 
 degrees below zero in their native habitats, where rains seldom fall in 
 winter, and yet these same species are quickly destroyed by slight freez- 
 ing in a moist climate or atmosphere. Cactuses from the cool and ele- 
 vated regions of New Mexico, Arizona and Old Mexico should not be 
 exposed to the direct rays of the sun when cultivated in our Atlantic 
 States, as the heat is often much greater than it is in their native habi- 
 tats, and shade during the middle of the day should always be given to 
 plants placed outdoors during the summer months. Propagation is 
 effected by seeds, cuttings, and grafting. Seeds arc rarely employed 
 except for producing new varieties, but cuttings of the species and 
 varieties with columnar and branching stems strike root very readily if 
 placed in sand or any light, loose soil. The cuttings should be watered 
 very sparingly until they are well supplied with roots. The small globu- 
 lar Melon and Hedgehog Cactuses are usually propagated by removing 
 the small sprouts appearing at the base or sides of the old plants. Graft- 
 ing the smaller species, such as the Crab Cactuses (Epiphyllum\ on the 
 Stronger, upright-growing species, is extensively practised by florists, and 
 with great success. The stocks usually recommended are the Pcrcskia 
 
HERBS, TUBERS AND BULBS. -315 
 
 and Cereus for the Eplphyllums, and the smaller, globular-shaped genera. 
 For many years I have employed the Cereus speciossimus as a stock for 
 the varieties of Crab Cactus (Epiphyllum tnmcatuin), and the plants 
 appear to thrive as well as on other and stronger-growing stocks. In 
 grafting, all that is necessary is to place the fresh cut surface of the cion 
 against a similar surface of the stock, and keep the two in contact until 
 a union is formed. When small species, like the Crab Cactuses, are 
 grafted, it is best to use a wedge-shaped cion and insert it into a cleft at 
 the top of the stock, then thrust a sliver of pine wood through both cion 
 and stock, or in other words, pin them together. A sharp, strong spine 
 of a cactus will answer for a pin, and this may be left in place until a 
 firm union is formed, and then withdrawn with a pair of nippers. In 
 grafting the small globular-shaped species on stocks of the tall-growing 
 kind, scoop out a little of the pulpy matter from the top of the stock, 
 then set the freshly cut cion in this depression and tie it firmly in place. 
 The soil for Cactuses should be made up of rather coarse materials, such 
 as partly decomposed sods, with plenty of drainage when grown in pots. 
 
 Campanulaccce (Bellflower Family). A family of herbs and sub- 
 shrubs. The genus most highly prized and best known is the Campa- 
 nula or Bellflower. Flowers mostly blue or white, with intermediate 
 shades. There are annual, biennial, and perennial species, the latter 
 being most extensively cultivated, as they are nearly all quite hardy and 
 thrive in any good garden soil. Readily propagated by seed sown in 
 frames, or in the open ground in spring, and by divisions of the roots. 
 
 Capparidaccce (Caper Family). Herbs and shrubs, rarely trees, 
 distributed throughout the warmer regions of both hemispheres. There 
 are twenty-three genera, and nearly or quite three hundred species. The 
 best known genera are Capparis, Cleome, and Cratccva. The latter yields 
 the curious Garlic Pear ( C. Tapia), of Central America, a tree growing 
 to the height of thirty to forty feet. Capparis spinosa, native of the 
 Levant, yields the well-known Caper of commerce, while several species 
 Of Clcoms are cultivated in greenhouses for their flowers. All readily 
 propagated by seed, or cuttings of the young, tender shoots planted in 
 sand under glass. 
 
 Caryophyllacecv (Pink Family). A very large family of low-grow- 
 ing herbs, consisting of annuals, biennials, and perennials. The most 
 interesting genera are Dianthus, Lychnis, Silene, and Cerastium. Tht 
 common Carnations (DiantJius Caryophyllus), especially the monthly or 
 perpetual bloomers, have become exceedingly popular of late years and 
 are now extensively cultivated by florists, as they bloom most freely 
 during the winter months. They succeed best in a cool greenhouse, or 
 pits where the temperature can be kept at about sixty degrees during 
 the day, and not much below f orty-five at night. The plants are almost 
 hardy, but require a moderate heat to develop the flower buds. Propa- 
 gated by layers and cuttings, and new varieties are raised from seed. 
 Cuttings strike root so freely that this is the usual mode of propagation. 
 
31G PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 They should be taken off late in winter or early spring 1 and planted in 
 pure sand under glass, but they do not require a high temperature or a 
 very copious supply of water while the roots are being produced. A 
 temperature of sixty degrees will insure the production of roots, and 
 with l^ss danger of the cuttings damping off than if exposed to a higher 
 temperature. The cuttings should be from two to three inches long, 
 the base cut just below a joint, and the leaves from the lower part 
 removed, while those above are shortened to about one-half their orig- 
 inal length. Carnation cuttings will usually strike root very readily in 
 an ordinary greenhouse, without placing them in close frames or where 
 they will receive bottom heat. It is well to shade the cuttings, or pro- 
 tect them from the direct rays of the sun, for a few days after planting. 
 A few species of Cerastium (Mouse-ear Chickweed) are cultivated in 
 greenhouses, and others for edgings of beds in summer or as border 
 plants. The same may be said of Lychnis and Silenes, and all are readily 
 propagated by seeds, cuttings, or division of the roots. 
 
 Clstacece (Cistus or Rock Rose Family). A small order of elegant 
 shrubs or sub-shrubs, with very showy flowers of various colors, from 
 pure white to purple and yellow. The best known genera are Cistus and 
 Ifelianttiemum. There are many species and varieties of Cist us in culti- 
 vation, some of them quite hardy in our Northern States ; others are 
 tender, requiring the temperature of a cool greenhouse in winter. The 
 flowers are very handsome, but seldom last more than one day ; conse- 
 quently are of little value for cutting or using in bouquets. The IMian- 
 tlicmums are very similar to the Rock Rose in general appearance, but 
 not usually of as strong and robust habit. Some of the species are 
 annuals, but there are many half shrubby perennials. Propagated by 
 seeds, division of the clumps, and by green cuttings planted under glass 
 and treated as usual with such cuttings. 
 
 Commelinacesce (Spiderwort Family). A large and widely distrib- 
 uted family of herbaceous plants, mostly tropical. Only a few genera 
 in cultivation, and the two most deserving attention are Commdina and 
 Tradescantia. The latter is usually represented in gardens by the very 
 common Spiderwort (T. Virginica), and in greenhouses by several varie- 
 ties of the Striped-leaved Spiderwort ( T. zebrlnd). The Commelinas are 
 only occasionally cultivated ; a few species are grown in greenhouses 
 for bedding out in summer, and among these there arc several tuber- 
 ous-rooted kinds, which should be lifted in the fall and stored in a dry, 
 warm place until spring. All readily propagated by seeds and divisions, 
 and the trailing kinds by cuttings and layers. 
 
 Compositte (Composite Family). This is the most extensive family 
 of the entire vegetable kingdom, containing between seven and eight 
 hundred genera, and fully ten thousand species. They are mostly 
 herbs, but a few being shrubs ; the flowers, collected in a head on a 
 common receptacle, usually surrounded by an involucre bract, as seen 
 in the common Sunflower, Artichoke and single Zinnia. The genera 
 
HERBS, TUBERS AKD BULBS. 
 
 317 
 
 alone are far too numerous to name here, and I can only mention a few 
 of the most important and valuable among the herbaceous perennials. 
 Agter only a few perennial species are cultivated. The popular annual 
 China Aster is a Callistcphus. Artemisia only one species is of special 
 value, and that the A. Absintliiutn (Wormwood), a low-growing, hardy 
 plant, possessing some medicinal properties, and another is largely used 
 for flavoring the French liqueur known as absinthe. Ant/iemis nobilis is 
 the well-known garden herb, Chamomile. Achillea, or Sneezeworts, are 
 mostly low perennial weeds, but a few are handsome border plants, and 
 A. Ptarmica plena has pretty double white flowers. Antcnnarias are 
 known as Everlasting, and one the Pearly 
 Everlasting is extensively cultivated in 
 Europe, and the flowers dried for winter 
 bouquets. Liatris, of which there are 
 many hardy indigenous species, are best 
 known in cultivation under the name of 
 Blazing Star. They are tall-growing 
 plants, with rather thick and woody corms 
 or tubers at the base of the stems. Arnica 
 and Inula (Elecampane), are genera yield- 
 ing medicinal properties more or less in 
 repute. Gaillardia and Gazania are showy 
 greenhouse plants, also employed for bed- 
 ding out in summer. These plants are 
 raised from seeds, or by divisions of the 
 roots and cuttings of the young shoots. 
 All of the hardy genera are most readily 
 propagated by division. Chrysanthemum 
 has of late years become one of the most 
 popular genera in the family, especially 
 the Chinese species ((?. Indicum). Propa- 
 gation may be effected by seeds, cuttings, 
 divisions or suckers. Varieties can only 
 by perpetuated by the last three modes. 
 Cuttings of the young shoots strike root 
 very readily under glass and with mod- 
 erate heat, and the plants requite only 
 good, rich soil, plenty of moisture, and 
 plenty of room in which to expand. There are now more than a thou- 
 sand named varieties of Chinese and Japanese Chrysanthemums in cul- 
 tivation, and scores of new ones are brought forward every season. The 
 Dahlia is another very popular genus of the Composite Family of plants. 
 There are but few distinct species, but an immense number of cultivated 
 varieties. Flowers usually very large and showy, and of many shades 
 of color ; roots tuberous, several tubers usually attached to the base of 
 the stem, and the eyes or buds always at the apex of each tuber, or on 
 the stem. The most usual mode of propagation is by dividing the clump 
 
 Fig. 106. 
 
 GRAFTING THE DAHLIA. 
 
318 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. : 
 
 of tubers, care being taken to preserve at least one eye or bud on each> 
 This dividing is done in spring, the tubers having been kept in a warm, 
 dry place over winter. To multiply scarce varieties, the tubers may be 
 potted, and as the sprouts push they may be slipped off and treated as 
 cuttings, planting in sand or light soil, where they will receive a little 
 bottom heat. When roots have formed in the cuttings they should be 
 placed singly in small pots. Cuttings made of either the side or termi- 
 nal shoots, taken from large plants, strike root very readily under glass. 
 Grafting is sometimes practised, a small piece of a tuber answering for 
 a stock, the cion being inserted as shown in figure 106, and held in place 
 with a ligature of bass or fine twine. The grafted tuber is then planted 
 in a frame and given the same care and attention as usually bestowed 
 upon cuttings. 
 
 Convolvulacece (Morning Glory or Convolvulus Family). A family 
 of half a dozen or more genera, but nearly seven hundred species. The 
 common Morning Glory (Ipomcea), and Quamadit (Cypress Vine), are 
 well-known annual climbers of this family. A few genera, such as the 
 Cuscuta (Dodder), and Calystegla (Bindweed), are weeds which have 
 become intolerable nuisances in many localities. The Sweet Potatd 
 (Ipomcea batatas), is the most valuable member of the family, although 
 there are many other species of the same genus that are extensively cul- 
 tivated for ornamental purposes. The perennial, tuberous-rooted species 
 are propagated from sprouts, which are forced out "in great abundance 
 by placing the tubers in a hot-bed, or where they will receive gentle 
 bottom heat. The sprouts, when a few inches long, are pulled off and 
 planted out separately. This is the usual mode of propagating the 
 varieties of the Sweet Potatoes, but this and other perennial species may 
 be multiplied by cuttings of the vines, taken off at almost any time dur- 
 ing the summer. 
 
 Crassulacece (Orpine Family). A large family composed princi- 
 pally of succulent herbs. There is about a dozen genera and several 
 hundred species. The best known are Bryophyllum, Crassula, Sedum, 
 Rochca and Scmpcrvivum. The common House Leek (Sempervivum tecto- 
 runi) is a familial* and good representative of the family, and while the 
 other genera may not be as hardy or as difficult to kill out, still they 
 may be readily propagated by divisions, or cuttings of leaves and stems. 
 
 Cructferece (Mustard Family). A large order containing many 
 kinds of useful and edible, as well as ornamental plants. There are 170 
 genera and nearly 1,300 species. Many of our common garden veg- 
 etables, such as Cabbage, Cauliflower, Cress, Horseradish, Mustard and 
 Turnip, belong to this family, but the propagation of these plants is to 
 familiar to all cultivators to be repeated here. Among the ornamental 
 genera, the following are worthy of some attention : Arcibis (Rock 
 Cress), Alyssum (Sweet Alyssum), Ibcris (Candytuft), Chieranthus (Wall- 
 flower), Ilesperis (Garden Rocket), and Matthiola (Stock or Gilliflower). 
 These, however, are all easily propagated by seeds, divisions, or from 
 
HERBS, TUBERS AND BULBS. 319 
 
 cuttings of the young shoots, planted in an ordinary greenhouse, or 
 under a frame during the summer months. 
 
 Curcubitacece (Gourd or Cucumber Family). A family of succu- 
 lent, climbing or trailing plants, furnished with solitary lateral tendrils. 
 They are mostly annuals, and many of the genera yield large and 
 delicious fruit, such as the Melons ; others are cultivated for ornament, 
 such as the small Gourds and the Bryonias ; the litter are greenhouse 
 perennials with tuberous roots. Propagated by seed, layers, and the 
 tuberous rooted species by division of the tubers when in a dormant 
 state. ; 
 
 Cycadacece (Cycas Family). A family of small, Palm-like plants^ 
 closely related to the conifers, the male flowers being in cones, and the 
 female consisting only of ovules on the edges of what may be termed 
 abnormal leaves. There are nine genera, all tropical or sub-tropical. 
 The Sago Palm (Cycas revoluta) and the Coontie (Zamia intcgrifolia), of 
 Florida, are familiar representatives of this family. Propagated by seed, 
 but mostly by suckers or sprouts that spring up about the stems of old 
 plants. 
 
 Cyperacece (Sedge Family). A large family of low, grass-like; 
 mostly perennial plants, with minute flowers in spikes or heads. Only 
 a few of the genera are of horticultural value, and among these Carex, 
 Cyperus, Papyrus and Seisms are the best known. The Cyperm escu- 
 lentus is the well-known Chuf a, the small tubers of which are quite sweet 
 and edible, sometimes cultivated for feeding swine and sheep. The 
 Variegated Rush ( Cyperus allernifolius variegatus) is a handsome peren- 
 nial greenhouse plant. Papyrus anliquorum is supposed to be the Bul- 
 rush of the Nile, from which paper was first made. It is in common 
 cultivation in greenhouses. All the genera require an abundance of 
 moisture. Propagated by division of the roots or tubers, and by seeds. 
 
 Dioscoreacefg (Yam Family). A family of twining herbs and 
 shrubs, mostly natives of tropical climates, and the larger proportion 
 producing tubers, used as food the same as the common potato. Dioscorca 
 saliva, is the common yam of the West Indies, and D. batatas is the 
 Chinese yam or potato, introduced into this country about thirty years 
 ago, and highly extolled as a tuber likely to supersede the common 
 potato ; but while the tubers are of excellent quality, they penetrate the 
 earth so deeply that it costs more to dig them than they are worth. 
 This species is now cultivated as a hardy climbing ornamental vine, 
 its thick leaves making it an excellent climber, while its dull-looking 
 flowers are so fragrant that it is offered by some as the " Cinnamon 
 vine." All readily propagated by dividing the roots or tubers, and by 
 cuttings of the stems. Some of the species produce small aerial tubers 
 in the axils of the leaves, and these are utilized in their propagation. 
 
 Droseracece (Sundew Family). A small family of low annual and 
 perennial bog-herbs, with flowers consisting of from four to eight 
 persistent sepals, and a similar number of petals. Leaves variable, 
 
320 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 often bristly fringed. There are six genera, and about a hundred 
 species in this family. The best known genera are Dioncea, Drosera and 
 Drosophyllum. The Dioncea muscipula is a native of the low peat bogs 
 near Wilmington, N. C., and has long been known under the common 
 name of "Venus's Fly-trap," from the way the leaves close up and 
 catch flies and insects which may alight on the inner surface of the 
 expanded leaves. Only one species of this genera is known, but of the 
 Drosera there are about ten known, one half native of our Southern 
 States, and the other of Australia. They possess the same irritability 
 as the Dioncea, catching small insects. The Drosophyllum lusitanicum 
 is a greenhouse shrub, native of Southern Europe and Africa, but its 
 leaves and hairs are not sensitive to the touch. It is propagated by 
 cuttings, but the species of the two first named genera may be propa- 
 gated by seed or by divisions. They thrive best in light, peaty soils, or in 
 beds composed principally of Sphagnum moss from the swamps. 
 
 Filices (Fern Family). An immense order, of about seventy-five 
 genera, and nearly, or quite, 2,500 species. They are mostly perennial 
 herbs, with creeping or ascending root-stocks, a few climbing, others 
 shrubby or arborescent. Ferns are most abundant in warm, moist 
 climates, but there are many low growing species, extending far into 
 the colder regions of nearly all parts of the world. The leaves, or 
 fronds as they are usually termed, are tufted or alternate on the root- 
 stocks ; some arc simple, but the larger proportion are compound and 
 variously divided ; and the segments, pinnos and pinnules are widely 
 variable in numbers, size and forms. Ferns are called flowerless plants, 
 because the organs of fructification are microscopic, and the spores, 
 which answer the same purpose as seeds in the higher order of plants, 
 are usually collected in masses, or a sorus, on the under side of the 
 fronds, as in the common wild Adder's Tongue ferns (Opliioglossums and 
 Botrychiums), The propagation of ferns is usually affected by varying 
 the mode in accord with the different habits of the numerous sub- 
 families and genera. The most common one is by divisions of the 
 creeping rhizomes, or by the little bulbils forming naturally on the 
 fronds of some of the genera, such as in the Aspleniums. The best 
 time to divide the rhizomes, or those kinds growing in small slender 
 clumps with thread-like roots, is just before growth commences, and 
 while the plants are in a semi-dormant state. Taken as a family, the 
 ferns need a great amount of water both over-head and at their roots, 
 but what is usually called stagnant moisture at the roots is highly 
 injurious, consequently good free drainage is of the utmost importance. 
 Propagation by spores is always an interesting mode, even when not 
 necessary for the purpose of obtaining a stock of plants, because of the 
 chances afforded of producing new varieties ; and when a number of 
 different species are grown together in the same house, variations from 
 normal types may be more pronounced than where only a few or a single 
 species is cultivated. In preparing seed pans, or boxes, for the recep- 
 tion of the spores, cover the bottom with broken pots or pieces of brick, 
 
HERBS, TUBEKS AXD BULBS, 
 
 321 
 
 and over these place old, half-decomposed sod, then fill up with a 
 mixture of fine leaf-mold and silver sand. Smooth the surface, and 
 make it as level as possible, then scatter 
 the spores and leave them without any cov- 
 ering of soil or other material. Set a bell 
 glass over the seed pan, or, if deep enough, 
 a pane of window glass laid flat on the top 
 of the pan or box will answer equally as 
 well. Water must be applied by placing 
 the bottom of the seed pan in a shallow 
 saucer or other vessel, leaving it in this 
 position until the water rises to the surface 
 of the soil within ; then remove it. Water- 
 ing overhead is not practicable until the 
 plants appear, except it be applied with an 
 atomizer. The frond from which the spores 
 are to be obtained should be cut when the 
 son begin to turn brown, and by passing 
 the finger over them a few can be easily 
 
 Fig. 107.-FESN SEEDLING. rubbed % ff . Lay away the f^ in the 
 
 shade for two or three days, then scatter the spores in the seed pan by 
 
 holding the frond over it, and snapping the back with thumb and finger. 
 
 When the young plants appear, and are large enough to be removed 
 
 safely, they should be pricked off 
 
 in small clumps, and lifted out on 
 
 the point of a knife. When of the 
 
 size shown in figure 107 they may 
 
 be potted off separately, using small 
 
 thumb pots for the purpose. It is 
 
 well to keep them in the house, 
 
 where they will be shaded and in 
 
 a close atmosphere, until they are 
 
 well established. 
 
 Fumariacece (Fumitory Fam- 
 ily). A small order of herbaceous 
 plants, closely related to the Poppy 
 Family (Papavcracece), and by some 
 botanists considered as only a tribe 
 of the latter. The most interesting 
 genus in the family is Dicentra. TLis 
 genus contains several hardy peren- 
 nial species of ornamental plants, 
 a few indigenous to the United 
 States, such as D. cucullaria (Dutchman's Breeches) and D. Canadensis 
 (Squirrel-corn) ; but the most showy and valuable species is the D. 
 spectabilis (Bleeding Heart), brought from Northern China. This is 
 truly one of the most graceful as well as beautiful hardy herbaceous 
 
 Fig. 108. FLOWERS OF DICENTKA 
 SPECTABILIS. 
 
322 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 plants in cultivation, and a universal favorite. It is readily propagated 
 by division of the large clumps of fleshy roots, cr by cuttings of the 
 succulent stems, planted either in frames, or in a shady place in the 
 open ground. Cuttings of the blooming stems, taken just as the 
 flowers begin to drop off, root quite readily in the open air, if water is 
 applied freely during dry weather. Of the other genera very few are 
 cultivated, although some of the perennial Corydalis are occasionally 
 ceen in botanical collections and private gardens. All readily propa- 
 gated by seed and cuttings of the succulent stems. 
 
 Gentianacece (Gentian Family). Mostly smooth annual, biennial 
 or perennial herbs, a colorless bitter juice being a characteristic of the 
 entire order. Of the forty-nine genera of this family, a very small 
 number are represented in gardens and greenhouses. The most popular 
 of all are the true Gentians (Gentiana), and some of the very best of 
 these resist all attempts to domesticate them. The best mode of propa- 
 gation is by seed, and this had better be scattered in what may be 
 termed a " wild garden," and the plants left undisturbed. The peren- 
 nial species, however, may be raised in seed pans or frames, and the 
 plants transplanted when large enough for handling ; but the slow- 
 growth of seedling Gentians will try the patience of the most persever- 
 ing of propagators. 
 
 Geraniacece (Geranium Family). A large order of about twenty 
 genera and over seven hundred species, widely distributed throughout 
 the temperate and semi-tropical regions of the whole world. The most 
 familiar genera are the Geranium, Pelargonium, Tropocolum and Oxalis. 
 The latter, however, belong to a distinct tribe Oxalidece of the order 
 Geraniacece. The true Geraniums are rather sparingly represented 
 among cultivated plants ; the most popular species and varieties that 
 arc commonly called geraniums are really Pelargoniums, such as tho 
 Zonale, Rose-scented, Nutmeg, Oak-leaved, Ivy-leaved, Scarlets and 
 Tricolors ; but as the species have become so intermingled by hybrid- 
 izing and crossing under cultivation, it is now very difficult to determino 
 the true parents of any of the older varieties. The Pelargoniums aro 
 all perennials, and more or less shrubby. New varieties are raised from 
 seed, which may be sown as soon as ripe, or preserved for several 
 months and then sown in rather light soil and covered with fine earth 
 sifted over them to the depth of not more than one-eighth of an inch. 
 The seeds usually germinate readily in a temperature of 60 to 70 
 degrees, and as soon as the plants have produced a second or third 
 pair of leaves they should be removed from the seed pans and potted 
 separately. With few exceptions, all the varieties in cultivation are 
 readily propagated by cuttings, made of the young succulent shoots, 
 planted in sand in an ordinary cool greenhouse ; a very high tem- 
 perature is not desirable for cuttings of Pelargoniums. One or two 
 good leaves should be left on the cutting ; but with very scarce and 
 rare varieties single-eye cuttings may be used, making these of rather 
 firm and mature shoots. Root cuttings may also be utilized in multi 
 
HERBS, TUBERS AND BULBS. 323 
 
 plying choice varieties, taking the roots of large and rather mature 
 plants for this purpose. Cuttings of either the shoots or roots may be 
 made at any or all seasons, if given the protection of a house or of an 
 ordinary garden frame covered with glazed sash. Of the genus Oxalis, 
 there are are a large number of species, some natives of cold climates 
 and, of course, quite hardy, as with our common Wood Sorrel ( 0. Acc~ 
 tosella) ; others are tender and cultivated in greenhouses. There are 
 several bulbous or tuberous-rooted species ; and at least two, found in 
 South America, are cultivated for their edible tubers. All are readily 
 propagated by seed, divisions of the roots and tubers. 
 
 Gesneriacece (Gesneria Family). A large family of tropical 
 berbs and shrubs, rarely trees ; often growing from scaly tubers. 
 Flowers with sowewhat irregular corollas ; the corolla tube often 
 elongated or tube-shaped. Mostly very showy conservatory plants, re- 
 quiring a high temperature and a moist atmosphere during their season 
 of most rapid growth. The most familiar genera are : AcJiimenes, 
 Gesneria and Gloxinia. The seeds of all these genera are very minute, 
 and should be sown on the surface of very light soil, then covered only 
 with a bell glass and water applied with an atomizer, or through a fine 
 rose on a watering pot or syringe. The seed requires a high tempera- 
 ture and a constant supply of moisture ; and the young plants need to 
 be handled with great care in transplanting, and kept shaded and moist 
 until well established. Varieties of Achimencs may be readily propa- 
 gated by means of the small corm produced at the base of their stems, 
 or by cuttings of any portion of their stems, planted in light soil or in 
 sand, then giving plenty of moisture overhead, and a high temperature. 
 The larger number of the species of Gesneria in cultivation are tuberous- 
 rooted and herbaceous, and they are propagated by dividing the tubers 
 and by cuttings of the stems, taken when somewhat mature or hard- 
 ened off after blooming. Gloxinias are low almost, or quite stemless 
 herbs, with very large soft leaves and showy flowers of many colors. 
 Seedlings bloom the first year, and varieties are readily multiplied by 
 cuttings of the leaves, or from the young sprouts as they push from 
 the old tubers' in spring. 
 
 Graminete (Grass Family). An immense order, and a large number 
 of the genera of the greatest importance to man, not only yielding the 
 bread materials of the world, but supplying the most valuable of our 
 domesticated animals with food. The cerealia, Wheat, Rye, Oats, Rice, 
 Sorghum and Indian Corn, are annual grasses, while the Tropical Sugar 
 Cane, the giant Bamboo of Asia, and many of the larger ornamental 
 species are perennials. The cultivation and propagation of all the more 
 useful genera are so well known that they may be omitted here. It may 
 not, however, be generally known among cultivators that the Arundo, 
 Banibusa, Dendrocalamtis, and other closely allied genera, may be almost 
 or quite as readily propagated by cuttings of the stems as the Saccharum. 
 officinarum, or Tropical Sugar Cane. This mode is preferable to the 
 
324 
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS, 
 
 usual one of dividing the roots for perpetuating grasses with variegated 
 foliage. 
 
 Irtdacece (Iris Family). A moderately large order of monocotyle- 
 donous perennial herbs, the stems and leaves rising from somewhat 
 fleshy root stocks, bulbs or tubers. Flowers showy, and of many forms 
 and colors, in terminal spikes, corymbs, or loose panicles. This family 
 is extensively represented in gardens by such genera as Crocus, Gladio- 
 lus, Iris, Ixia, PardantJius and Tiyridia. All are readily propagated by 
 seeds, but this mode is rarely practised except for the purpose of pro- 
 ducing new varieties. The seeds should be sown in boxes or small pots, 
 using light, friable soil ; the plants are then placed in frames or kept in 
 a greenhouse until the plants are large enough to be safely set out in 
 
 the open ground. Tender species 
 must, of course, be protected in win- 
 ter, either by lifting the plants and 
 storing them in a cellar, in pits, or 
 in some similar place where they 
 will not be frozen. The different 
 species of Crocus usually multiply 
 very rapidly by the natural increase 
 of the bulbs or conns. The Gladio- 
 luses multiply less rapidly, as a new 
 bulb is only formed at the base of 
 each stem, or set of leaves arising 
 from the buds or eyes on the old or 
 parent bulb, and while there may be 
 many of these buds on its surface, the 
 larger proportion remain dormant, 
 two or three of the strongest push- 
 ing into growth. In addition to the 
 buds on the upper surface of a Gla- 
 diolus bulb, there are usually pro- 
 duced a large number of bulbils at- 
 tached to the base of the old bulb, as 
 
 shown in figure 109. These small bulbs or " spawn," as they are some- 
 times called, are extensively employed in propagating choice varieties. 
 They should be carefully removed from the old bulbs when the latter 
 are taken up in the fall, and stored in pure sand, and kept where they 
 will not become so dry as to shrivel, nor so moist as to cause them to 
 decay. In spring they should be sown in shallow trenches, and in a very 
 light but rich soil. With good care they will produce bulbs from a half 
 inch to an inch in diameter the first season. But there are some of the 
 cultivated varieties which do not produce the small bulbils in any con- 
 siderable number, and in some seasons none at all ; consequently, the 
 propagator must devise some other mode for rapidly increasing his stock. 
 There are several ways of forcing the latent buds of the old bulbs, 
 and each new sprout will eventually produce a new bulb at its base. 
 
 Fig. 109. GLADIOLUS BULB 
 WITH BULBILS ATTACHED. 
 
HERBS, TUBERS AKD BULBS. 
 
 325 
 
 The old bulbs may be partly divided with the point of a knife, cutting 
 around and at some distance from each eye, found on the top and sides 
 of the bulbs ; this will allow the bulb to expand or spread apart as 
 growth begins in spring, each bud producing a shoot or plant. This 
 cutting of the upper surface of the bulb should be done several weeks 
 before the bulbs are planted out, either in frames or the open ground. 
 Separating the bulbs into as many pieces as there are eyes is another 
 
 Fig. 110. GLADIOLUS BULB WITH ROOTS CHANGED TO LEAVES. 
 
 mode, but there is danger of the smaller pieces rotting if planted out in 
 cold soil, and the better way is to plant them in shallow boxes of light 
 soil or sand, and keep them in a greenhouse until late in spring, and 
 then transfer to the garden. The roots of the Gladiolus may also be 
 made to change into sprouts, as I had occasion to show in the " Ameri- 
 can Agriculturist" for June, 1869. A number of Gladiolus bulbs hav- 
 ing been left under the stage of a greenhouse during the winter, several 
 of these were turned upside down, so that the eyes or buds were ex- 
 
326 
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 Fig. 111. 
 
 BULB OF TIGKIDIA. 
 
 eluded from the light, and probably had less heat than the bottom of 
 the bulb. The results were that the roots, or the appendages which 
 would have been roots under natural condi- 
 tions, pushed upward in the form of leaves, as 
 shown in figure 110. This is but another in- 
 stance of the reorganization of cellular matter 
 referred to in a previous chapter. By dividing 
 large, mature bulbs crossways, and inverting 
 the lower section, and planting it in sand, with 
 root surface exposed to the light, sprouts may 
 be obtained in large numbers, each producing a 
 email bulb at its base. The upper half of the 
 bulb may be lightly scarified on the surface, 
 and forced in the same way as though it had 
 not been divided. Irises, Ixias and Pardanthuses 
 are readily propagated by offsets, which are 
 produced very freely. The Tiyridias have rather 
 small, compact bulbs, many in a cluster, or 
 clump, as shown in figure 111. They must be 
 kept in a warm, dry place during the winter 
 months, and when taken up in the fall the leaves and stems should be 
 left entire, and not cut off until towards spring, or after the bulbs have 
 become thoroughly dried. 
 
 Lablatce (Mint Family). A very large order mostly of herbs, usu- 
 ally with scented foliage. Many of the genera furnish medicinal and 
 economical plants, such as Sweet Basil, Horehound, Lavender, Mint, 
 Patchouly, Rosemaiy, Sage and Thyme. These are simple garden herbs, 
 all readily propagated by seed, divisions of the roots, or cuttings of the 
 young shoots planted under glass. The ornamental species of Salvia 
 are mostly natives of warm climates, requiring the temperature of a 
 greenhouse in winter ; but they are readily propagated by seed, and the 
 varieties are usually perpetuated by young plants struck from cuttings 
 taken from oli stock plants kept over for this purpose. The many 
 varieties of Coleus Blumei, of Java, now so common in cultivation, are 
 also propagated by cuttings of the young shoots, and even a single leaf 
 may be utilized for this purpose, roots being freely produced if the cut- 
 tings are kept moist, and in a temperature ranging from sixty to eighty 
 degrees. There is a tuberous-rooted species of the Coleus ( C. tubcrosus) 
 in Madagascar, and although it is said to have been cultivated for cen- 
 turies by the natives, as an article of food, it does not appear to have 
 reached this country. The tubers are preserved in a dry, warm place 
 during winter and planted out in spring. 
 
 Leguminosece (Pulse Family). An extensively and widely distrib- 
 uted order of trees, shrubs, annual and perennial herbs. As the most 
 important of the trees and shrubs of this family have been referred to in 
 preceding chapters, I will notice here only a few genera containing 
 familiar perennial herbaceous plants. Among these are Astragalus, 
 
HEEBS, TUBERS A3D BULBS. 327 
 
 Dalea, Desmodium, Dolichos, Clianthus, Clitona, Lcspedeza, Mimosa, 
 and Phaseolus. Of each of these genera there are a few species in general 
 cultivation, either as conservatory or hardy border plants, while some 
 of ths genera, such as Astragalus and Desmodium, are mostly pestiferous 
 or uninteresting weeds. Dolichos lignosus is a showy greenhouse 
 climber from India, readily propagated by seed, or cuttings of its 
 perennial roots. Clianthus Dampieri, or Glory Pea, is a remarkable 
 ehowy plant from Australia, and thrives only in a high temperature. 
 Seeds should be sown singly in small pots, and the plants carefully 
 shifted into larger ones as they increase in growth, great care being 
 required in the operation to prevent disturbing, or allowing the soil to 
 fall away from the roots. Plants set out in the garden late in spring 
 will usually bloom the same season. The Clitorias are tropical climbing 
 plants, with large and showy flowers, and with trifoliate and pinnate 
 leaves. Propagated by seed, or from cuttings of the side'shoots taken 
 oil with a hip, and planted in close frames in the house. Lespedeza has 
 given us an excellent forage plant for the South in the Japan clover 
 (L. striata), and a large late, flowering hardy herbaceous plant, the L. 
 bicolor, but usually offered by florists under the name of Desmodium 
 pendulijlorum. The Japan clover spreads rapidly by seed, and the 
 latter is propagated by dividing the rather hard woody stems and roots. 
 Mimosa is the well-known sensitive plant, and is readily propagated by 
 seed. Phaseolus contains the annual and perennial beans ; the latter 
 may be increased by either seeds or cuttings. 
 
 Lillacece (Lily Family). An immense order of about 180 genera and 
 fully 2,500 species. There are also in cultivation innumerable varieties 
 of nearly all of the popular species in the different genera. The space 
 at my command will only admit of a brief notice of a very few of the 
 most familiar genera cultivated for ornamental purposes. Although in 
 intrinsic value such economic plants as the Asparagus, Onion, Squill, 
 and New Zealand Flax (Phormium tenax), shoulJ take precedence of 
 the purely ornamental, but as luxuries are usually more highly prized 
 than the necessaries of life among civilized nations, so the ornamental 
 must take precedence here of the purely useful among the lilies. Of the 
 latter the Agapanthus, Fritillarla, Ilyacinthus, Lilium, and Tulipa, arc the 
 most extensively cultivated and highly prized. The species of all these 
 genera aro readily propagated by seed, division, offsets, bulblets which 
 some species produce in the nxils of the leaves and from scales of the 
 old or mature bulbs. With all the different genera and species having, 
 scaly bulbs, such as the L. Spcciosum, figure 4, Chapter XL, and 
 L. Canadcnsc, figure 112, may be readily utilized in their pr-opagatiop. 
 Imported bulbs, or those which have been a long timo out, of the 
 ground, or until they have become much shrivelled, may always be used 
 with advantage in this mode of propagation. If such bulbs arc planted 
 entire they are very likely to decay, but if the scales aro separated an4 
 scattered between lasers of damp moss, in large pots or well drained 
 boxes, and then placed in a green-house or warm cellar, and given 
 
328 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 water as often as necessary to prevent drying, they will usually produce 
 plump little bulbs, in two or three months. When new roots push out 
 from the base of these young bulbs they may be potted separately or 
 pricked out in shallow boxes filled with light rich soil. Hyacinths are 
 rarely propagated in this country ; nearly all the bulbs cultivated here 
 are imported from Holland, as they soon degenerate in our climate. 
 The bulbs being solid and not made up of scales, as in the true lilies, the 
 propagation of varieties is effected not only by natural division but by 
 cutting off the upper half of the bulb. This forces the base or lower half 
 to produce a large number of buds or bulblets. Sometimes the lower 
 
 Fig. 112. BULB OF LILIUM CANADENSE. 
 
 % 
 
 part is cut across the bottom in various directions and then planted, the 
 exposed parts producing small bulbs near the roots. The young leaves 
 are sometimes utilized in propagation, for if cut off and planted in light 
 soil they will produce bulbs on the lower end. Tulips divide naturally, 
 and increase very rapidly without artificial aid. 
 
 Loranthacece (Mistletoe Family). An interesting order of para- 
 sitic plants living upon trees and shrubs, and mainly drawing their 
 sustenance from the plants which they infest. There are about fifteen 
 genera and three hundred species known, but the most familiar are the 
 European Mistletoe (Viscum album) and the common American Mis- 
 tletoe Phoradendron flavescens. Their propagation is rarely attempted, 
 
HERBS, TUBERS AND BULBS. 329 
 
 but if the seeds are inserted just under the bark of the trees the differ- 
 ent genera and species are known to live upon, they will usually sprout 
 and grow. The European Mistletoe does not thrive in this country ; at 
 least I do not know of any specimens ; but the American species grow 
 abundantly from Ohio, south and westward, on the Button-wood, 
 Poplar, Ash, Honey Locust, etc. 
 
 Malvaceae (Mallow Family). An immense and important order of 
 herbs, shrubs, and trees. The_e are about fifty genera and nearly, or 
 quite, seven hundred species. All are innocuous mucilaginous plants, 
 with fibrous bark. Gossypium, in economic value, is probably the most 
 important genus, yielding the different species and varieties of cotton. 
 The ligneous species of the best known genera have been referred to in 
 preceding chapters, and I will only mention here a few of the hardy 
 herbaceous kinds, such as Callirrhoe (Prairie Mallow), Althea or Malva 
 alcea (Hollyhock), and the Hibiscus, or Rose Mallow, of various species 
 indigenous to the United States. The Prairie Mallow (Callirrhoe) is 
 readily propagated by seed, and dividing the old plants. The Holly- 
 hock, although naturally a biennial, becomes a perennial in cultivation, 
 through propagating it by division, and by cuttings of the young sprouts 
 as they push from the large fleshy roots in spring. The Hose Mallows 
 are not often cultivated, but are worthy of more attention than they 
 have received. New varie'.ies arc readily raised from seed sown in a 
 half-shady bed, in the open ground in spring, and these propagated by 
 division or young cuttings. 
 
 Melastomacece (Melastoma Family). An order of trees, shrubs and 
 herbs. They are most abundant in the tropics, and representatives of 
 several genera are grown in greenhouses. Among these are : Cenlradenia, 
 Cyanophyllum, Bartoloma, Melastoma and Plcroma. The most familiar 
 native genus is the Rhcxia, half a dozen species of which are found in 
 the Atlantic States, but rarely seen in cultivation. Propagated by seed 
 and cuttings in summer, planted in a close frame or under a hand-glass. 
 
 Mesembryanthemece (Fig Marigold Family). This family is also 
 known as the Ficoidcce in some of our botanical works, and in others as 
 Mcsenibryaccce. There are nearly three hundred species in cultivation, 
 mostly of the one genus Mescmbryantficmum. They are best known in 
 this country under the popular name of " Ice Plants," They are chiefly 
 low trailing plants, with thick fleshy leaves, and some of the species 
 have large and showy flowers. They thrive best in a rather light poor 
 soil, with more or less lime rubbish intermixed with it. Their propaga- 
 tion is exceedingly simple, as almost any piece of stem or leaf will 
 take root if laid on the surface of sand or thrust into it, and then ex- 
 posed to the direct rays of the sun. 
 
 Nymphceacew (Water Lily Family). A rather small order of 
 aquatic perennial herbs, widely distributed over the globe in fresh- 
 water ponds, and along the borders of rivers and smaller streams. 
 The leaves and flowers of some of the genera, like those of the com- 
 
330 PKOPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 mon Water Lily (Nymphcea odorata), float on the surface ; others, such as 
 Ndumbium luteum and speciosum, rise several feet above the surface, the 
 seed vessels ripening in this position. In others the seeds or fruit ma- 
 ture under water. They thrive best in rather shallow ponds or streams 
 with muddy bottoms, but deep enough to prevent the roots freezing. 
 Propagated by seed and division of the roots, or by tubers formed on 
 the subterranean stems and root stocks. The seeds may be sprouted 
 in water in a greenhouse, and then transferred to the pond, a small 
 stone or pebble being attached to each to sink and hold it in position at 
 the bottom. I have always found in planting the tubers and cuttings 
 that it was better to sink each with a stone than to trust to their own 
 weight to cany them down. 
 
 Onagrariece, or Onagracece (Evening Primrose Family). A 
 large order, mostly inodorous, of annual and perennial herbs ; rarely 
 shrubs or trees. The most familiar genera in cultivation are : Clarkia 
 (annual), Fuchsias (shrubs), Jussicea, Gaum, (Enothera and Zauschnera. 
 Tbe shrubby species are propagated by seeds and cuttings, and the her- 
 baceous perennials by seeds and careful divisions ; or by cuttings of the 
 young shoots, taken oft early in spring and planted in a close frame 
 where they will receive but a moderate heat. The (Enotheras are very 
 showy plants, thriving best in light dry soils. 
 
 Orchidaceve (Orchis Family). An immense order of monocotyle- 
 donous perennial herbs. Some are terrestrial, with tuberous or fascicled 
 roots ; others arc epiphytes, with or without pseudo-bulbs, living on the 
 stems of palms, and various kinds of trees and shrubs in tropical coun- 
 tries. The flowers are of peculiar and varied structure ; some of them 
 appear more like birds and butterflies than flowers. Of the terrestrial 
 genera there are a large number indigenous to the United States, but 
 they are rarely cultivated, with the exception of the different species of 
 Cypripcdium, or Lady's Slipper. These thrive best in moist soil, and 
 the plants may be obtained from their native habitats, transplanting 
 when the flowers begin to fade, or late in summer. The tender exotic 
 species are cultivated in greenhouses, in pots filled with light fibrous or 
 peaty soil, water being plentifully supplied when the plants are grow- 
 ing most rapidly, and the temperature varied according to the require- 
 ments of the different species. There are three hundred and thirty- 
 four genera in the Orchis Family, and about five thousand species. The 
 genera are divided into five tribes Upidendrece, Vandece, JVcotticcc, Oph- 
 rydcce and Cypripcdicce. The genera of the first three tribes are mostly 
 epiphytal, and in cultivation are grown in wire baskets filled with 
 sphagnum, bits of cork, light wood, bark, and similar materials ; or they 
 are attached to Eh3ets of cork, sections of the stems of old palms, 
 lumps of charcoal ; in fact, almost any porous substance which will 
 not decay rapidly will answer. Ordinary flower pots will answer for 
 many of the species if filled with soft brick and pieces of cork or 
 porous wood. A pot designed expressly for Orchids has recently been 
 
HEKBS, TUBERS AND BULBS. 
 
 331 
 
 introduced by Mr. Matthews of England, and its construction is clearly 
 shown in figure 113. A circular earthenware disc is made to replace the 
 mass of broken crocks usually placed below the other materials for 
 drainage, thereby securing aeration and avoiding all danger of over- 
 watering. Tribes four and five are terrestrial Orchids, and grown in 
 light soils as recommended for the common Lady's Slipper. Few of the 
 Orchids are of any economic value ; the Vanillas, however, are an excep- 
 tion, the fruit yielding a valuable balsamic oil with well known deli- 
 cious perfume. The propagation of the Orchids, as a family, is a rather 
 slow process, and while species of the epiphytal tribes may be success- 
 fully divided when at rest, yet cultivators depend mainly upon fresh 
 
 Fig. 113. ORCHID POT. 
 
 collections from the native habitats of the different species for increas- 
 ing their stock of plants. New varieties and hybrids are raised from 
 seed, but it requires skill, patience, and structures especially adapted to 
 the needs of these plants, to enable one to succeed in such operations. 
 
 Papaveracece (Poppy Family). A small order of about seventeen 
 genera, mostly herbs with milky or colored juice. The only shrub 
 belonging to this family is Dendromccon rigidu-n of California. There 
 are several genera containing some showy annuals that have long been 
 familiar in gardens, like Eschscholtzia, Argcmone, and the Opium Poppy 
 (P. somnifcrum). But the perennial Poppies (P. orientalis) are not so 
 well known, but they are well worthy of cultivation. They are easily 
 raised from seed, but rather difficult to transplant, owing to their very 
 long and deeply penetrating roots. The seeds should be sown as soon 
 as ripe, and where the plants may be left undisturbed. 
 
332 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 Plumbagtnacece (Leadwort Family). These are mostly low-grow- 
 ing marine herbs, somewhat remarkable for their regular flowers ; all the 
 different parts or organs in fives five lobes to the calyx, five petals to 
 flowers, and the same number of stamens and pistils. The most familiar 
 genera in gardens are Armeria (Sea Pink and Thrift), Statice (Sea Laven- 
 der) and Plumbago (Leadwort). They are plants requiring only moder- 
 ate care and are easily propagated by seed, or by dividing the clumps or 
 roots. 
 
 Portulacacece (Purslane Family). Succulent annual and perennial 
 herbs. The common garden Pusley or Purslane (P. oleracea), and the 
 Great-flowered Portulaca (P. grandiflora), are well-known annual repre- 
 sentatives of this family. There are very few species of the other four- 
 teen genera in cultivation, except the two species of Claytonia ( C. Vir- 
 ginica and C. Carolina), and these are not very common in gardens, 
 although well deserving of a shady nook, even in grounds of limited 
 extent. All readily propagated by s^eds. 
 
 Primulacece (Primrose Family). An order of about twenty genera 
 and 150 species of low-growing herbs of no economic value, but a few of 
 the genera, such as Androsace, Cyclamen, DodecaiJieon and Primula, are 
 highly-prized ornamental plants. The Androsaces are all Alpine plants, 
 and thrive only in open, airy situation, among rocks and stones, and in 
 positions where they will not suffer for moisture. Of the Cyclamens, 
 there are numerous species, but the varieties in general cultivation as 
 greenhouse plants are offsprings of C. Pcrsicum. These have thick fleshy 
 root-stocks or corms, which are largely imported for forcing under glass. 
 They are usually propagated by seeds sown as soon as ripe, in shallow 
 boxes or seed-pans, and in frames or in an ordinary greenhouse. Dode- 
 catheon, or American Cowslip, ie a genus of only one species, but there 
 are a large number of natural local varieties, widely distributed from 
 our Middle States to California, and northward to Washington Territory. 
 They thrive best in moist or wet soils, and half shady positions. They 
 are handsome plants for forcing in a cool greenhouse, and readily propa- 
 gated by seeds, or by dividing the crowns. The genus Primula contains 
 many species, chiefly native of the cold regions of Europe and Asia, but 
 the most popular varieties for greenhouse culture belong to a Chinese 
 species (P. Sinensis). They are plants requiring simple culture, and are 
 propagated by seeds, cuttings of the roots, and by dividing the old 
 plants as soon as they have ceased blooming. 
 
 Ranunculacece (Crowfoot Family). An immense order, and one 
 largely represented in cultivated plants. Mostly herbaceous or some- 
 what shrubby, with acrid, caustic, and in some genera, very poison- 
 ous juice. The Anemone (Wind-Flower), Actcea (Banebcrry), Aconitum 
 (Monkshood), Aquilegia (Columbine), Clematis (Virgin's Bower), Del- 
 phinium (Larkspur), Hellcborus (Christmas Rose), Hcpatica (Liverleaf), 
 Pceonia (Poeony) and Ranunculus (Buttercup), are some of the best known 
 genera. The indigenous, and many of the exotic species are hardy 
 
HERBS, TUBERS AND BULBS. 333 
 
 garden plants, of easy culture, and readily propagated by seeds and 
 division of the roots. The double garden Ranunculuses, descended from 
 It. Asiaticits and R. aconitifolius, are but sparingly cultivated in this 
 country, as they are not hardy, and if planted early in spring the foliage 
 and flowers are burned by the sun when they come into bloom. 
 
 Resedacece (Mignonette Family). A small order of herbs, or slightly 
 shrubby plants, rarely cultivated except species of Mignonette (Iteseda). 
 These, in the It. odorata, a native of North Africa, have small, incon- 
 spicuous, but sweet-scented flowers. There are many varieties in culti- 
 vation, and propagated by seeds, and by cuttings of the young shoots. 
 
 Rutacece (Rue Family). Mostly trees and shrubs, characterized by 
 their strong smell, as in the Orange and Lemon, and our common Prickly 
 Ash. There are a few genera of hardy herbaceous perennials, such as 
 the Dictamnus Fraxinclla and Euta graveolens, or garden Rue. Readily 
 propagated by seeds, or by dividing the roots late in autumn or early 
 spring. 
 
 Sarraceniaceoe (Pitcher-Plant Family). A email order of bog 
 plants, with pitcher-shaped, tubular and hooded leaves, with rather 
 large, six-petal ed flowers. There are half a dozen species of the Sarra- 
 cenias native of the Atlantic States, and only one of the genus Darling- 
 tonia, and this a native of California. Propagated by seed sown in very 
 light soil or on sphagnum, and by dividing the roots. 
 
 Saxifragacece (Saxifrage Family). A very large family, of about 
 seventy-five genera, and five or six hundred species. They are mostly 
 shrubs, and the Currant, Gooseberry, Deutzia and Hydrangea are familiar 
 representatives. Among the perennial herbaceous genera, the Astilbe 
 and Saxifraga are the most common and best known. The Aslilbe Ja- 
 ponica (often incorrectly called Spiraea Japonica) is a very hardy border 
 plant, extensively cultivated by florists for forcing in winter, its small, 
 pure white flowers being in great demand. The Beefsteak Saxifrage 
 (S. sarmentosa) is an old and well-known trailing greenhouse plant, some- 
 times called Strawberry Geranium. The Siberian Saxifrages (8. crassi- 
 folid), and its many varieties, are occasionally seen in gardens. All 
 readily propagated by dividing the roots. 
 
 Scltamtnete (Banana Family). An order of tropical and sub-trop- 
 ical plants, mostly having very large leaves with a distinct petiole and 
 blade. The most familiar representative of this family in gardens is the 
 common Indian Shot plant, or Canna Indica, and other species of this 
 genus. Maranta zebrina is a well-known and common greenhouse plant. 
 The Queen plant, or StreUtza regince, from the Cape of Good Hope, is a 
 large, rather coarse, stemless greenhouse plant, also common ; while the 
 Banana (Musa), of which there are several species, are occasionally cul- 
 tivated in conservatories, but it is a large, coarse-growing plant, requir- 
 ing considerable space for full development. They are propagated by 
 dividing the roots. The Cannas are most extensively cultivated, as they 
 are excellent plants for bedding out in summer. The thick fleshy roots 
 
334 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 should be stored in a warm, dry place in winter. New varieties are 
 raised from seed, which should be soaked in warm or tepid water for a 
 day or two before sowing. 
 
 Scrophulariacece (Figwort Family). A very large and widely dis- 
 tributed order of herbs, shrubs, and occasionally trees. The flowers are 
 usually two-lipped, and with an irregular monopetalous corolla. An- 
 tirrhinum (Snapdragon), Calceolaria (Lady's Slipper), Chelone (Turtle- 
 head), Digitalis (Foxglove), JUaurandia, including Lophospcrmwn, JMimu- 
 lus (Monkey Flower), and Pcntstemon, t.re well-known representatives of 
 this family. Varieties are easily raised from seeds, and are then propa- 
 gated by cuttings of the succulent shoots planted under glass ; or, with 
 the hardy genera, by dividing the roots when the plants are at rest. 
 
 Solanacece (Nightshade Family). A very large order, mostly herbs, 
 with rank-scented foliage, often containing narcotic or poisonous proper- 
 ties, as in Nwotiana (Tobacco), Atropa (Belladonna), and Datura (Stram- 
 onium). Several genera have given us very valuable economic plants, 
 such as the Tomato, Egg Plant, Pepper ( Capsicum), Potato, and Tobacco. 
 Among those genera cultivated principally for ornamental purposes, the 
 Petunias, Nierembergias and Ccstrums, are the most common in gardens 
 and greenhouses. They are readily propagated by green cuttings under 
 glass, and the tuberous rooted by divisions. The best and most simple 
 method of perpetuating varieties of the Tomato is by cuttings, which 
 strike root very readily in frames during the summer or in the green- 
 house in winter. 
 
 Umbelliferce (Parsley Family). A large family, mostly innoxious, 
 biennial or perennial herbs, but a few are poisonous, such as the 
 Poison Hemlock ( Conium maculatum), the Water Hemlock ( Cicuta macu- 
 lata), and the Water Parsnip (Sium lincare). But this family contains 
 many genera of great economic value, such as the common garden 
 Carrot, Caraway, Coriander, Fennel, and Parsnip. The cultivation and 
 propagation of these plants are too well known to be considered in a 
 work of this kind. 
 
 Urttcacece (Nettle Family). A large order of several sub-families, 
 such as the Elm family, Fig family, etc. The true Nettles are annual 
 or perennial herbs with a fibrous bark, as in the Bxhmeria nivea, or 
 Ramie plant, of China, which yields one of the most valuable of textile 
 fibers, and is woven into grass cloth. It is not hardy in our Northern 
 States, but is now being extensively cultivated in our Southern. It is 
 propagated by seed, cuttings of the young shoots and of the subter- 
 ranean stems. The Hop plant also belongs to this family, and is 
 usually propagated by dividing the roots, or by removing the young 
 sprouts with a few roots attached. 
 
 Valertnacece (Valerian Family). A small order of herbs, and only 
 a few genera represented among cultivated plants. The common garden 
 Valerian ( Valerianaofflcinalis), is usually cultivated as a medicinal plant; 
 its flowers are very sweet scented, and its roots have a very strong odor. 
 
HERBS, TUBERS AND BULBS. 335 
 
 An indigenous species ( V. edulis), has large spindle-shaped roots, and is 
 said to have been used as food by the Indians. Centranthus ruber, or 
 Spurred valerian, has red flowers, and sometimes cultivated in European 
 gardens under the name of Jupiter's Beard. Readily increased by seed 
 or by dividing the roots. 
 
 Verbenacece (Vervain Family). A small order of herbs and shrubs ; 
 the latter have already been noticed in previous chapters. See Calli- 
 carpa, Lantana, and Lippia, Of the true Verbenas there are a large 
 number of species, but those most usually cultivated in gardens are 
 descended from several South American species, but now so mixed that 
 it would be impossible to trace them back to the original types. New 
 varieties are raised from seed, and then propagated by layers or cuttings 
 of the young shoots. The latter mode is the preferable one, and for 
 stock plants to be preserved over winter, the cuttings should be struck 
 in August or September, and then kept in a rather cool house until 
 toward spring, when they are forced for the purpose of producing more 
 new shoots for cuttings. 
 
 Violacece (Violet Family). This family is scarcely represented in 
 cultivation by any other genus than Viola, the true Violets and Pansies. 
 The most popular species is V. odorata, of which there are many varieties 
 in cultivation. Some are quite hardy, others tender and need slight 
 protection and are usually grown in cold frames where the temper- 
 ature may be under control of the gardener. There arc about thirty 
 North American species of Viola, but they are mostly scentless, or only 
 slightly fragrant. The Pansy or Heart's-ease, is deconded from V. tri- 
 color of Europe, and has been greatly improved, and the flowers 
 increased in size by cultivation. The Violets thrive best in a very rich, 
 light soil, and with a moderate temperature. Plants of easy culture 
 and all readily propagated by seed, cuttings, or dividing of the roots. 
 
IK"D EX. 
 
 Abelia ....249 
 
 Abies 333,237,249 
 
 Pectinata .237 
 
 Abronia 249 
 
 Abutilon 233, 249 
 
 Experiments with. .123 
 
 Fertilization of 1U5 
 
 Species of 123 
 
 Abutilon, Boule de Neige and 
 
 Santana 123,125 
 
 Megapotamicum 233 
 
 Santana 123 
 
 Thomsonii Pleno 111 
 
 Acacia .250 
 
 Acalypha ....250 
 
 Acanthaceae 31 1 
 
 Acanthus ...311 
 
 Acer .233,250 
 
 Campestre 234 
 
 Dasycarpum ..233, 250 
 
 Macrophyllum. 76 
 
 Negundo.. .-250 
 
 Pseudo-Platanus 233 
 
 Kubrum .233, 250 
 
 Achania Malvaviscus 282 
 
 Achillea 817 
 
 Achimenes. .323 
 
 Aconitum -.332 
 
 Acorns. 73 
 
 Actaea .332 
 
 Actinidia .-250 
 
 Adder's Tongue Fern. .320 
 
 Adenocalymna 251 
 
 Adenocarpus 251 
 
 Adenostoma .251 
 
 Adhatoda 251 
 
 Advantages and Disadvantages 
 
 of Layers 175 
 
 Aerial Organs of Stems 60 
 
 JEchmea .-314 
 
 ^Egiceras .251 
 
 uEsculus .251 
 
 Californica .234, 252 
 
 Glabra 234 
 
 Hippocastanum 234 
 
 Parviflora 252 
 
 Aganosoma -252 
 
 Agapanthus .327 
 
 Agapetes 252 
 
 Agathophyllum .252 
 
 Agathosoma .252 
 
 Agave 811 
 
 Ailanthus _ .252 
 
 Akebia .252 
 
 Alder .234 
 
 Alhagi.. 252 
 
 Almond 224,253 
 
 Alnus .234,253 
 
 Cordifolia 234 
 
 Firma 252 
 
 Glutinosa- .234, 252 
 
 Oblougifolia .234 
 
 Eubra 234 
 
 Alocasia 312 
 
 Aloysia Citriodora .281 
 
 Alternanthera 311 
 
 Althea---. 276, 329 
 
 Alyssum 318 
 
 Amaranthacese .311 
 
 Amaranth Family .311 
 
 Amaryllidaceae .31 L 
 
 Amaryllis Family 311 
 
 Amelanchier 230, 252 
 
 American Aloe .311 
 
 Azaleas ...235 
 
 Burning Bush 230 
 
 Cowslip 232 
 
 Holly.. 241, 277 
 
 Linden...- 244 
 
 Persimmon .231 
 
 Sweet Birch 235 
 
 Sweet Chestnut .236 
 
 Weeping Willow .243 
 
 White Fringe 237 
 
 Yew ..300 
 
 Amorpha .253 
 
 Amorphophallus 312 
 
 Amsonia 312 
 
 Amygdalus 253 
 
 Nana 253 
 
 Ananassa .314 
 
 Anchusa.. 313 
 
 Andromeda 253 
 
 Androsace.... 332 
 
 Angers Quince ...232 
 
 Anemone 332 
 
 Anise Tree.... 278 
 
 Anona 253 
 
 (336) 
 
INDEX. 
 
 33? 
 
 Anona Cherimolia 253 
 
 Muricata. - - -253 
 
 Squamosa 253 
 
 Antennarias - ..317 
 
 Anthemis nobilis 217 
 
 Anthurium - .-..312 
 
 Antirrhinum 334 
 
 Apocynacae 311 
 
 Apocynum ..-312 
 
 Apple -224 
 
 Gall 27 
 
 Seedlings --- 87 
 
 Apricot -224 
 
 Aquilegia 332 
 
 Arabis. 318 
 
 Aracese -312 
 
 Ai-alia 253 
 
 Chinensis 253 
 
 Maiidchuricus 253 
 
 Araucaria 254 
 
 Arbor-Vitaa 234, 301 
 
 Arbor-Vitses 238 
 
 Arbutus ..234,254 
 
 Unedo. 234 
 
 Arctostaphylos . 254 
 
 Ardisia . 254 
 
 Argemone 331 
 
 Arineria- . 332 
 
 Aristolochia 254 
 
 Sipho ; 254 
 
 Aroidce 312 
 
 Artemsia 317 
 
 Arrow Wood 302 
 
 Arthrotaxis 255 
 
 Artichoke-.--. .316 
 
 Artocarpus 254 
 
 Incisa - - 254 
 
 Arum Family 312 
 
 Ash .240, 274 
 
 American 240 
 
 European .240 
 
 Seeds 75 
 
 Ash-leaved Maple 127 
 
 Asimina -.254 
 
 Triloba 227, 224 
 
 Asparagus 327 
 
 Aspen -.-289 
 
 Aster 317 
 
 Astilbe Japonica 333 
 
 Astragalus 326 
 
 Atragene 255 
 
 Aucuba -255 
 
 Auraucaria 234 
 
 Australian Gum Tree -.271 
 
 Austrian Pine 237 I 
 
 Azalea ...234, 255 
 
 Calendulacea 235 
 
 Indica -...255 \ 
 
 Mollis 235,255 | 
 
 Azalea Nudiflora -234 
 
 Pontica . 235 
 
 Sinensis . 235, 255 
 
 Azara ..-255 
 
 Baccharis 255 
 
 Halimifolia 256 
 
 Bald Cypress.. 200 
 
 Balsam Fir ...249 
 
 Bamboo.. 323 
 
 Bambusa 323 
 
 Banana 333 
 
 Banana Family... 333 
 
 Baneberry 332 
 
 Bankin g up Sprouts 273 
 
 Banksia ..256 
 
 Barberry 256 
 
 Bartoloma 329 
 
 Bastard Oak Apple 26 
 
 Bass 189 
 
 Basswood 244, 301 
 
 Bay Tree... ..280 
 
 Bear Berry 254 
 
 Beech 212, 240 
 
 American 240 
 
 European ..240 
 
 Beefsteak Saxifrage . 333 
 
 Begoniaceae 313 
 
 Begonia Family 313 
 
 Leaf Cutting of 167 
 
 Bellflower Family 315 
 
 Bell-glass ....160 
 
 Benthamia 256 
 
 Japonica 256 
 
 Bent Layer of Vine 173 
 
 Berberis 256 
 
 Canadensis 256 
 
 Vulgaris 256 
 
 Betula ...235, 256 
 
 Alba 235 
 
 Lenta 235 
 
 Papyracea -- 235 
 
 Bignonia 257 
 
 Capreolata 275 
 
 Radicans 257 
 
 Bilbergia.. 314 
 
 Bindweed 318 
 
 Biotas 238, 301 
 
 Birch 235,256 
 
 Bird Cherry. 226 
 
 Birthworts 254 
 
 Bitter-sweet 263 
 
 Blackberry 296 
 
 Black Damas Plum 231 
 
 Bladder-nut. ..299 
 
 Bladder Pod ...279 
 
 Bladder Senna 266 
 
 Bleeding Heart 321 
 
 Blueberry- 302 
 
 BoehmeriaNivea... ...334 
 
338 
 
 PROPAGATION" OF PLANTS. 
 
 Boraginaceae 313 
 
 Borbonia . . . 257 
 
 Bordguer's Grafting Tool 200 
 
 Borage Family... 313 
 
 Boronia 257 
 
 Botrychiums 320 
 
 Bottle Grafting. 219 
 
 Bouyardia 257 
 
 Bovista Gigantea 15 
 
 Box Tree 258 
 
 Bow-Wood 281 
 
 Bread Fruit 254 
 
 Bridal Wreath.... ....298 
 
 Bromelia.-. 314 
 
 Bromeliaceae 314 
 
 Broom 239, 269 
 
 Irish 239,269 
 
 Scotch 239, 269 
 
 Spanish ...239,269 
 
 Broussonetia 258 
 
 Brugmansia Candida .270 
 
 Bryonias 316 
 
 Bryophyllum .318 
 
 Bucco .252 
 
 Buckeye ..234 
 
 Buckthorn 292 
 
 Bud. Incision Ready for .161 
 
 In Position 191 
 
 Variation 132 
 
 Budding with Sloping Cut 194 
 
 Buds, Different Forms of 29 
 
 Buffalo Berry 298 
 
 Bulb of Lilium Canadense 327 
 
 of Lilium Speciosum 23 
 
 of Tigridia 326 
 
 Burning Bush .239 
 
 Buttercup 332 
 
 Butternut 241 
 
 Button wood 288 
 
 Buxus- 258 
 
 Cabbage 318 
 
 Cactacese 314 
 
 Cactus Family ..314 
 
 Caladium 312 
 
 Calceolaria.. 334 
 
 Calico Bush -..279 
 
 California Buckeye 252 
 
 California N utmeg 301 
 
 Calla - -312 
 
 Calla Lily 312 
 
 Callicarpa .-250, 335 
 
 Callirrhoe 324 
 
 Callistemon 258 
 
 Callistephus... .317 
 
 Callitris.- -.258 
 
 Calluna .258 
 
 Calophaca Wolgarica .235 
 
 Calothamnus. -259 
 
 Calycanthus 185, 259 
 
 Calystegia .318 
 
 Camellia... 235, 259 
 
 Theifera 259 
 
 Campanulacece .315 
 
 Campanula 315 
 
 Camperdown Weeping Elm ...244 
 
 Camphor Tree. 280 
 
 Candytuft .,318 
 
 Cannalndica.. 333 
 
 Cape Jessamine 274 
 
 Caper Family 315 
 
 Tree ..259 
 
 Capparis .815 
 
 Spinosa.. 234 
 
 Capparidacese 315 
 
 Carpinus Betulus 236 
 
 Caprifolium ..281 
 
 Capsicum ..334 
 
 Caragana.... 235 
 
 Arborescens 259 
 
 Arborea 241 
 
 Caraway.... 334 
 
 Carbon 46 
 
 Carex ...319 
 
 Carnations 315* 
 
 Carob Tree 264 
 
 Carrot 334 
 
 Carpinus Americana 236 
 
 Carya 259 
 
 Caryophyllaceae 315 
 
 Cassandria . 262 
 
 Cassia 262 
 
 Castanea 236, 262 
 
 Vesca, var Americana 236 
 
 Catalpa 263 
 
 Bignonioides 236 
 
 Speciosa 236 
 
 Cauliflower 318 
 
 Ceanothus 263 
 
 Cedar 236,263 
 
 of Lebanon 238 
 
 Cedars .. 238 
 
 Cedrus 236, 238, 263 
 
 Atlantica 238 
 
 Deodara 238 
 
 Libani 238 
 
 Celastrus 263 
 
 Celosia 311 
 
 Celtis 263 
 
 Centradenia 329 
 
 Centranthus Ruber 335 
 
 Cerastium. 315 
 
 Cerasus 236, 289 
 
 Avium 225 
 
 Capronianum 225 
 
 Demissa .^...226 
 
 Ilicifolia ....237 
 
 Lauro-Cerasus 237 
 
 Lusitanica .. ...237 
 
IKDEX. 
 
 339 
 
 Cerasus Padus 226 
 
 Pennsylvanicum - 226 
 
 Pumila --226 
 
 Serotina ...226 
 
 Virginiana --226 
 
 Ceratiola... .-264 
 
 Ceratonia.--- -.264 
 
 CercidiphyUum 264 
 
 Cercis ... ..-264, 314 
 
 Cestrums 334 
 
 Chamgecyparis 237, 264 
 
 Lawsoniana .264 
 
 Nootkaensis 264 
 
 Thyoides.... 264 
 
 Chamiso 251 
 
 Chamomile.. 317 
 
 Chaste Tree ,. ...302 
 
 Chelone .4 334 
 
 Cherry ....224, 236, 263 
 
 Cherimoyer 253 
 
 Cheiranthus ..318 
 
 Chestnut ...236, 262 
 
 Chilopsis.... 265 
 
 China Aster -. 217 
 
 China Tree 282 
 
 Chinese and Japan Cherries 226 
 
 Aralia 253 
 
 Azaleas 235, 255 
 
 Fir 268 
 
 Paeony 285 
 
 Quince 232,269 
 
 Snowball .302 
 
 Yam .319 
 
 Chionanthus 265 
 
 Retusus .237 
 
 Virginica 2C7 
 
 Choisya ...265 
 
 Choke Cherry.. 226 
 
 Christ's Thorn 285 
 
 Chrysanthemum 317 
 
 Chrysobalanus ..265 
 
 Cinchona 286 
 
 Cicuta Maculata ...334 
 
 Cinnamon .280 
 
 Vine 319 
 
 Cinquefoil .289 
 
 Cionand Stock. 205 
 
 Cion of American Holly 277 
 
 Circulation of Sap. 85 
 
 Cistacese 316 
 
 Cistus.. .276,316 
 
 Citron 226 
 
 Citrus 265 
 
 Decumana ..226 
 
 Cladrastis 265 
 
 Tinctoria 265 
 
 Amurensis 265 
 
 Clarkia 330 
 
 Claytonia Carolina 332 
 
 Claytonia Virginica 332 
 
 Clematis .332 
 
 Cleome 315 
 
 Clerodendron 265 
 
 Clethra .265 
 
 Cleyera 266 
 
 Clianthus 327 
 
 Clitoria .327 
 
 Cockscomb Coral Tree 271 
 
 Coco Plum .265 
 
 Codiaeum .266 
 
 Coleus Blumei 326 
 
 Tuberosus .326 
 
 Colocasia 312 
 
 Esculenta 312 
 
 Columbine 332 
 
 Colutea 266 
 
 Comfrey .313 
 
 Commelina .316 
 
 Commelinaceae .316 
 
 Common Budding Knife 188 
 
 Common Hum 70 
 
 Composites 316 
 
 Composite Family 316 
 
 Comptonia .266 
 
 Cone-Bearing Trees 237 
 
 Coniferse 237 
 
 Conifers 237 
 
 Conium Maculatum .334 
 
 Convolvulaceae 318 
 
 Convolvulus Family 318 
 
 Coontie 319 
 
 Coral Tree ..271 
 
 Corchorus .279 
 
 Cordia .266 
 
 i Corema 266 
 
 Coriander 334 
 
 Cornel 266 
 
 Cornel Tree 226 
 
 Cornus.. 266 
 
 Florida 226. 239, 266 
 
 Florida Pendnla 266 
 
 Mas.. 266 
 
 Florida Purpurea .267 
 
 Corydalis '.... S22 
 
 Corylus 267 
 
 Avellana 239 
 
 Cotoneaster. .239, 267 
 
 Cottonwoods 289 
 
 Crab Cuctuses 314 
 
 Cranberry 302 
 
 Cranberry Tree 302 
 
 Crape Myrtle .280 
 
 Crassula 318 
 
 Crassulaceae ...318 
 
 Crataegus 239, 267 
 
 Coccinea 230 
 
 Crataeva .315 
 
 Cress.. ...318 
 
340 
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 Crinum .811 
 
 Crocus. 324 
 
 Cross Fertilization 107 
 
 Croton 266 
 
 Crowfoot Family... 332 
 
 Cruciferese 318 
 
 Cryptomeria ..268 
 
 Cucubitaceae 319 
 
 Cucumber Tree 282 
 
 Cunninghamia 268 
 
 Cupressus .268 
 
 Currant ..226,293 
 
 Cuscuta... 318 
 
 Custard Apple 254 
 
 Cut-leaved Chaste Tree... 302 
 
 Cutting Below a Bud 149 
 
 of Green Wood 162 
 
 of Hollow Stem 149 
 
 Cuttings of Immature Growths -154 
 
 of "Leaves 165 
 
 of Mature Growths .. 144 
 
 Cyanophyllum 329 
 
 Cycadaceae 319 
 
 Cycas Family .319 
 
 Revoluta.. 319 
 
 Cyclamen 332 
 
 Cydonia 232,268 
 
 Chinensis 269 
 
 Japonica .268 
 
 Vulgaris 268 
 
 Cynips 'Inanis .-. 26 
 
 Spongifica 25 
 
 Cyperaceae 319 
 
 Cyperus ...319 
 
 Cypress 237, 264, 268 
 
 Vine 318 
 
 Cypresses 238 
 
 Cypripediese ..330 
 
 Cyrilla 269 
 
 Cytisus 239,269 
 
 Dacrydium. 269 
 
 Dalea. .327 
 
 Daphne- .269 
 
 Cneoram .269 
 
 Laureola 239 
 
 Mezereum 269 
 
 Darlingtonia ..333 
 
 Darwinia .269 
 
 Dasylirion - ....269 
 
 Date Plum. ...227 
 
 Datura 270, 334 
 
 Arborea 270 
 
 Meteloides..... 270 
 
 Deciduous Cypress .300 
 
 Decumaria 270 
 
 Delphinium 332 
 
 Dendrocalamus . - 323 
 
 Dendromecon Rigidum .331 
 
 Desert Willow 265 
 
 Desfontanea 270 
 
 Desmodium .327 
 
 Penduliflorum 327 
 
 Striata.... ..327 
 
 Deodar Cedar.. 238 
 
 Deutzia... 333 
 
 Gracilis .270 
 
 Dianthus 315 
 
 Dicentra. 321 
 
 Canadensis .321 
 
 Cucullaria .321 
 
 Spectabilis... ...321 
 
 Dicotyledonous Plants 55 
 
 Dictamnus Fraxinella 333 
 
 Diervilla ..270 
 
 Sessiliflora ....270 
 
 Trifida 290 
 
 Diffenbachia.. .312 
 
 Digitalis 334 
 
 Dimorphanthus 253, 270 
 
 Dioecious Plants 68 
 
 Dionaea 320 
 
 Dioscoreaceoe 310 
 
 Dioscorea Batata 319 
 
 Sativa 319 
 
 Diospyras Kaki 231 
 
 Disti ib ution of Seeds 75 
 
 Dodder 318 
 
 Dodecatheon ..332 
 
 Dogbane Family 311 
 
 Dog Rose .243 
 
 Dogwood 238,266 
 
 Dolichos 327 
 
 Double Abutilon 111 
 
 Bell-Glass 169 
 
 Flowers .110 
 
 Pot for Cuttings- 168 
 
 Worked Trees .230 
 
 Doucin Apple 224 
 
 Douglass Spruce -290 
 
 Downing Mulberry ...283 
 
 Drosera 320 
 
 Droseraceae 319 
 
 Drosophyllum 320 
 
 Duplicated Corolla Ill 
 
 Dutchman's Breeches. .321 
 
 Pipe ..... 254 
 
 Dwarf Cherry 226 
 
 Double Flowering Almond .253 
 
 East India Mango 282 
 
 Echinocactus --314 
 
 Egg-Plant 334 
 
 Elseagnus --- --270 
 
 Elder - 297 
 
 Elecampane 317 
 
 Elephant's Ear... 313 
 
 Elliottia 270 
 
 Elm.... 244,302 
 
 .. 74 
 
INDEX. 
 
 341 
 
 Endosmosis :. 19 
 
 Endogens and Exogens 53 
 
 English Bitter Willow 243 
 
 Elm 244 
 
 Epacris. 270 
 
 Epiphyllum .314 
 
 Epidendreae 330 
 
 Eri botrya Japonica 286 
 
 Erica 270 
 
 Erythrina 271 
 
 Crista-galli 271 
 
 Herbacea .-271 
 
 Eschscholtzia -231 
 
 Eucalyptus.. 271 
 
 Globulus 271 
 
 Euphorbia 272 
 
 Euonymus -271 
 
 Atropurpureus 239 
 
 Europaeus 239 
 
 Japonicus - -271 
 
 Latif olius 240, 272 
 
 Kadicans . . 271 
 
 European Holly .241 
 
 Plum r 231 
 
 Sticky Alder 252 
 
 Evening Primrose Family 330 
 
 Everlastings 317 
 
 Evergreen" Beeches 240 
 
 Exochorda 240, 272 
 
 Exosmosis 17 
 
 Experiments with Abutilous-..123 
 
 with Leaves 97 
 
 with Seeds 81 
 
 Fabiana.. -.272 
 
 Fagus 240,272 
 
 "Ferruginea.- 240 
 
 Sylvatica 240 
 
 False Acacia -.. 293 
 
 Larch .238 
 
 Faramea .272 
 
 Odoratissima 272 
 
 Fennel 334 
 
 Fern Family .320 j 
 
 Seedling 321 
 
 Fertilization of the Kalmia.--.102 
 
 of Orchids 122 
 
 Fever Tree -.271 
 
 Ficoideoe -.329 
 
 Ficus 2?'3 
 
 Carica 273 
 
 Elastica ..273 
 
 Indica 233 
 
 Fig ....227 
 
 Fig-Marigold Family. .329 
 
 Fig Tree ..273 
 
 Figwort Family ...334 
 
 Filbert .239, 267 
 
 Field Maple 233 
 
 Filices.. ...320 
 
 Firming the Soil 153 
 
 Fitzroya 273 
 
 Five Finger 289 
 
 Flowers, Fruits and Seeds 66 
 
 of the Grape .108 
 
 of Kalmia- 102 
 
 Parts of 67 
 
 Flowering Maples 249 
 
 Flute Budding 196 
 
 Fontanesia ...273 
 
 Fortune! .273 
 
 Phillyracoides 273 
 
 Fontenay Quince. ..232 
 
 Food of 'Plants...- 45 
 
 Forsythia. 273 
 
 Fortune! 273 
 
 Suspensa ..273 
 
 Fothergilla 273 
 
 Amifolia ...273 
 
 Foxglove * 334 
 
 Fraxinus 1 240, 274 
 
 Excelsior ..240 
 
 Fremontia 274 
 
 California 274 
 
 French Mastic 203 
 
 Mulberry 268 
 
 Tamarisk 300 
 
 Fritillaria 327 
 
 Fruit, Forms of. 70 
 
 Fuchsia 230, 274 
 
 Arborescens .274 
 
 Fumariaceae 321 
 
 Fumitory Family 34 
 
 Gaillardia 317 
 
 Galanthus ..311 
 
 Gall-Gnat 28 
 
 Garden Basket .318 
 
 Gardenia Florida .274 
 
 Garland Flower .269 
 
 Garlic Pear .315 
 
 Garrya ...274 
 
 Gaura ...330 
 
 Gazania 317 
 
 General Principles of Propaga- 
 tion 135 
 
 Genista ..274 
 
 Gesneria Family 323 
 
 Gesneriaceae 323 
 
 Gentian Family 322 
 
 Gentianaceoe 322 
 
 Genus Hybrids .116 
 
 Georgia Bark. _. 286 
 
 Geraniaceae ..322 
 
 Geranium Family 822 
 
 Germination of Seeds 83 
 
 Ghent Azaleas 255 
 
 Ginkgo .297 
 
 Gladiolus 324 
 
 Bulb S24 
 
342 
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 Gladiolus with Roots Changed 
 
 to Leaves.. 325 
 
 Gleditschia ...240, 274 
 
 Triacanthos 240 
 
 Seed 142 
 
 Glory Pea. .327 
 
 Gloxinia 323 
 
 Glyptostrobus 238, 300 
 
 GolddustTree 1 255 
 
 Goat Plant ....251 
 
 Golden Bell.. ...273 
 
 Chain ..279 
 
 Corchorus .279 
 
 Gomphrena 311 
 
 Gooseberry 227, 293 
 
 Gossypium 329 
 
 Gourd or Cucumber Family 319 
 
 Grafting 205 
 
 Bottle 220 
 
 Modified .220 
 
 By Approach .221 
 
 Cleft 204,205 
 
 With two Cions 206 
 
 Crown 206. 207 
 
 Saddle.... ..., 210 
 
 Side-Crown ...i.. ....208 
 
 On Roots . 210 
 
 Side, with Vertical Cleft. ..220 
 
 The Dahlia .317 
 
 The Grape 307 
 
 Triangular Crown 207 
 
 Veneer ....214 
 
 / Dogwoods 216 
 
 Maples 216 
 
 Grafting Wax 201 
 
 Graminese. ..323 
 
 Grape... 302 
 
 Cutting 303 
 
 Cuttings of Green Wood-- r 305 
 
 Layering of 306 
 
 Single-Bud Cutting .304 
 
 Vine Tendril. 60 
 
 Grass Family 323 
 
 Great-Flowered Spiraea 240 
 
 Great Tree of California 297 
 
 Groundsel Tree 255 
 
 Growth of Cells 14 
 
 Gymnocladus 275 
 
 Canadensis 142, 275 
 
 Haemanthus 311 
 
 Halesia 240,275 
 
 Tretraptera 240 
 
 Halimodendron .241, 275 
 
 Hamamelis 275 
 
 Japonica 275 
 
 Hand Glass 160 
 
 Hand Pruning Shears 186 
 
 Hawthorn 239, 267 
 
 Hazelnut 239, 267 
 
 1 Heartsease 335 
 
 Heart-Shaped Leaved Alder ...234 
 
 Heath . 271 
 
 Cuttings of 164 
 
 Heather, Ling .258 
 
 Hedgehog Cactus 314 
 
 Helianthemum 275, 316 
 
 Helleborus .332 
 
 Heliotrope S13 
 
 Heliotropium 313 
 
 Hemlock Spruces 238 
 
 Herbs, Tubers and Bulbs 309 
 
 Hepatica 332 
 
 Hesperis 318 
 
 Hercules Club 253 
 
 Hibiscus 276, 329 
 
 Rosa Sinensis 276 
 
 Syriacus 276 
 
 Hickory 260 
 
 Kale's Paper-Shell 261 
 
 With Root Sprouts 262 
 
 Hippeastrum 311 
 
 Holly .241,277 
 
 Hollyhock ..- 329 
 
 Honey Locust. ..240, 274 
 
 Honeysuckle 281 
 
 Hop-plant 334 
 
 Hop-hornbeam 284 
 
 Hop-tree 290 
 
 Horehound ....326 
 
 Hornbeam ...236,259 
 
 Horse-chestnut 251 
 
 Germinating 251 
 
 Horseradish ..318 
 
 Horse Sugar. .299 
 
 House Leek.. ...318 
 
 Hovenia Dulcis 276 
 
 Huckleberry 302 
 
 Hyacinthus 327 
 
 Hybrid Grapes 130 
 
 Raspberries 116 
 
 Hydrangea 233, 276 
 
 Panicul ata Grandiflora 276 
 
 Quercifolia 276 
 
 Hydrogen 45 
 
 Iberis ...318 
 
 Ice Plant. ...329 
 
 Idesia Polycarpa 276 
 
 Ilex 241 
 
 Aquifolium .241, 277 
 
 Opaca 241,277 
 
 Illicium ...278 
 
 Imperfect Bunch of Grapes .. -109 
 Imperfectly Fertilized Ear of 
 
 Corn 106 
 
 Inarching 221 
 
 Indian Bean ..236,263 
 
 Corn .323 
 
 Currant 299 
 
INDEX. 
 
 343 
 
 Indian Hawthorn 292 
 
 Hemp. 312 
 
 Shot Plant ..333 
 
 Indigofera. ...278 
 
 Indigo Shrub 253 
 
 Influence of Cion and Stock.. .243 
 
 of Cion on the Stock 247 
 
 of Pollen.... ..117 
 
 of Stock on Cion 245 
 
 Inula -..- ...-317 
 
 In What Materials to Plant 
 
 Cuttings 160 
 
 Ipomrea ..318 
 
 Iresine -.. 311 
 
 Iridaceae 324 
 
 Iris Family. .324 
 
 Iron 49 
 
 Iron-wood 284 
 
 Ixia.. 324 
 
 Japan Alder. .252 
 
 Arbor-Vitces. 264 
 
 Cedar ..268 
 
 Cherry 276 
 
 Chestnut... 233 
 
 Clover 3:37 
 
 Gooseberry 250 
 
 Holly... 284 
 
 Hydrangea 276 
 
 Maples... 234 
 
 Quince .232,268 
 
 Styrax 240 
 
 Jasmhmm 278 
 
 Jessamine 278 
 
 Judas Tree. 264 
 
 Juglans 241,278 
 
 California 278 
 
 Cinerea 241,278 
 
 Nigra... 278 
 
 Regia .241,278 
 
 Rupestris 278 
 
 Juneberry 230, 252 
 
 Juniper 278 
 
 Junipers 238 
 
 Juniperus 238, 278 
 
 Virginiana 238 
 
 Jupiter's Beard 335 
 
 Jussioaa 330 
 
 Kalmia Latif olia 279 
 
 Kentucky CoJTee Tree 142, 275 
 
 Kernel of Walnut 79 
 
 Kerria Japonica 279 
 
 Kilmamock Willow .243 
 
 Kolreuteria Paniculata 279 
 
 Labiatae ...326 
 
 Laburnum Vulgare 235, 279 
 
 Ladies' Eardrops 274 
 
 Slipper 330, 3:34 
 
 Lagerstroemia ...280 
 
 Lantana 280, 335 
 
 ' Larch 280 
 
 j Larches ....238 
 
 Large-flowered Spirasa 272 
 
 Larix ....280 
 
 Europoea. 238 
 
 Larkspur 332 
 
 Lath Screens for Frames 159 
 
 Laurel 263, 279, 280 
 
 Laurus 280 
 
 Nobilis... 280 
 
 Sassafras 297 
 
 Lavender ...326 
 
 Lawson Cypress 2o4 
 
 Layered Branch of a Tree 171 
 
 Layer in a Pot 174 
 
 Layers of Vines ...172 
 
 Lead Plant .253 
 
 Leadwort Family. 332 
 
 Leaf of Acada. 65 
 
 of Buckeye. 64 
 
 of Begonia ,. 166 
 
 of Beech 63 
 
 of Cut-leaved Birch 63 
 
 of Fern-leaved Aralia 65 
 
 of Jersey Pine 62 
 
 of Lilac 63.165 
 
 of Locust.. 65 
 
 Leather Leaf 262 
 
 Leaves Absorbing Moisture 97 
 
 of Larch 63 
 
 of White Pine 58 
 
 Lefort's Liquid Grafting Wax.203 
 
 Leguminoseae 326 
 
 Lemon 226,265 
 
 Lentil Shrub 235 
 
 Lespedeza 327 
 
 Leyder's Grafting Implement. .200 
 
 Liatris-. 317 
 
 Libocedrus 301 
 
 Licmoophra Splendida 13 
 
 Lilac 299 
 
 Ligustrum Vulgare 280 
 
 Liliaceae 327 
 
 Lilium 327 
 
 Canadense .327 
 
 Candidum, Flower of 103 
 
 Speciosum 327 
 
 Lily Bulbs on the Flower Stem 24 
 
 Family 327 
 
 Tree 268 
 
 Lime 49, 226 
 
 Limits of Cross-Fertilization.. .112 
 
 of Vitality in Seeds 77 
 
 Limonia ...280 
 
 Trifoliata ...226 
 
 Linden 244, 301 
 
 Lippia 281, 335 
 
 Liquidamber ..281 
 
 Liriodendrou Tulipif era 281 
 
344 
 
 PROPAGATIOX OF PLANTS. 
 
 Liverl eaf 332 
 
 Locust, or False Acacia 243 
 
 Borer ..293 
 
 Tree 293 
 
 Lonicera 281 
 
 Lophospermum 334 
 
 Loranthaceae 328 
 
 Lungwort 313 
 
 Lychnis 315 
 
 Lycium Vulgare 281 
 
 Lyouia _ 281 
 
 Madura .281 
 
 Madagascar Nutmeg 252 
 
 Magnolia 251, 282 
 
 Acuminata 241 
 
 Tripetela 241 
 
 Umbrella 241 
 
 Mahaleb Cherry 225 
 
 Mahonia 282 j 
 
 Maidenhair Tree 297 j 
 
 Mallow Family 329 
 
 Malvaceae .329 ,' 
 
 Malvaviscus. .282 
 
 Arboreus ..282 
 
 Mammilaria ..314 
 
 Mandchurian Aralia 314 ! 
 
 Manetti Rose _ V 243 | 
 
 Mangifera 282 
 
 Mango .282 
 
 Manna Tree .252 
 
 Maples, European ...233 
 
 Japan, Sugar, Etc 250 
 
 Red ..233 
 
 Silver. 233 
 
 Soft 233 
 
 Sycamore 233 
 
 Maranta Zebrina 333 
 
 Matholia 318 
 
 Matrimony Vine .281 
 
 Maurandia 334 
 
 Mazzard Cherry 225 
 
 Meadow Sweet 298 
 
 Medlar ...227, 283 
 
 Melastoma ..282, 329 
 
 Melastomaceae 329 
 
 Melia Azedarach 282 
 
 Melocactus. - 314 
 
 Melon Cactus 314 
 
 Mertensia 313 
 
 Mesembryanthemese .329 
 
 Mespilus 283 
 
 Metamorphosed Flower Stalks. 61 
 
 Mezereum 269, 283 
 
 Microphoenix Saluiti ..116 
 
 Mignonette 333 
 
 Milkwort 272 
 
 Mimosa 327 
 
 Mimulus ..334 
 
 Mint .. ...326 
 
 Mint Family 326 
 
 Missouri Currant 227 
 
 Mistletoe, American 328 
 
 European 328 
 
 Family 328 
 
 Mock Orange 285 
 
 Monkey Flower 334 
 
 Monkshood 332 
 
 Monocotyledouous Plants 53 
 
 Monoecious Plants 68 
 
 Morning Glory 318 
 
 Morus 283 
 
 Alba.. 227 
 
 Mouse-Ear ---J 316 
 
 Mountain Ash 230, 288 
 
 Movement and Reorganization 
 
 of Cells 20 
 
 Mulberry... 227, 283 
 
 Mu&a -.-- 333 
 
 Mustard 318 
 
 Family 318 
 
 Myrabolon Plum 231, 290 
 
 Myrtus Communis. 283 
 
 Myrtle .283 
 
 Narcissus 31 1 
 
 Nature of Seeds 73 
 
 Nectarine 227 
 
 Negundo 283 
 
 Aceroides 127 
 
 Maple. 250 
 
 Nelumbium Luteum 330 
 
 Speciosum ...330 
 
 Neottieae 330 
 
 Nerium .283,312 
 
 Nettle Family 334 
 
 Nevuisia 185 
 
 New Jersey Tea ...263 
 
 New Zealand Flax .327 
 
 Nicotina .334 
 
 Nierembergias 334 
 
 Nightshade Family 334 
 
 Nitrogen 47 
 
 Nootka Sound Cypress 264 
 
 Norfolk Island Pine , . .254 
 
 Norway Spruce .238 
 
 Nymphaaa Odorata .330 
 
 Nymphaeacese 329 
 
 Nyssa 283 
 
 Oak 242, 290 
 
 Black 242 
 
 Chestnut 242 
 
 English ...242 
 
 European .242 
 
 Red ....242 
 
 White .242 
 
 Willow 242 
 
 Oak Gall. 25 
 
 Oak-leaved Hydrangea 276 
 
 Oats.. ...323 
 
INDEX. 
 
 345 
 
 (Enothera -339 
 
 Olea 283 
 
 Europsea 283 
 
 Oleander 283, 312 
 
 Oleaster 270 
 
 Olive 227, 283 
 
 Onagrarieoe 330 
 
 One-celled Alga 13 
 
 Onion.. 327 
 
 Ophioglossums .320 
 
 Ophrydeje 330 
 
 Opium Poppy 331 
 
 Opuntia 314 
 
 Orange 226, 265 
 
 Orchidacese ..330 
 
 Orchid-Pot 331 
 
 Orchis Family 230 
 
 Origin and Kinds of Buds 28 
 
 Orpine Family _. 318 
 
 Osage Orange 28 L 
 
 Osier 297 
 
 Osmanthus aquif olium 284 
 
 Fragrans . __24 
 
 Ilicifolius 284 
 
 Ostrya-.-- 284 
 
 Virginica ...284 
 
 Vulgaris 284 
 
 Oxalis 322 
 
 Acetosella 32 
 
 Oxide of Magnesium 51 
 
 Oxydendrum 284 
 
 Oxygen 45 
 
 Pachysandra _ _185 
 
 Pseony 284, 332 
 
 Paeonia Brownii 284 
 
 Paliurus 285 
 
 Pancratium ..311 
 
 Pansy. ..335 
 
 Papaveraceae.. .321,331 
 
 Papaw 227, 254 
 
 Paper Birch.. 835 
 
 Paper Mulberry. 258 
 
 Papyrus ..319 
 
 Paradise Stocks 224 
 
 Pardanthus 324 
 
 Parsley Family ....334 
 
 Parsnip 334 
 
 Passiflora 285 
 
 Edulis 285 
 
 Quadrangularis .285 
 
 Passion Flower. .285 
 
 Patchouly 326 
 
 Paulo wnia Imperialis 285 
 
 Peach 228 
 
 Stocks .'. 228 
 
 Pecan Nut .260 
 
 Pearly Everlasting 317 
 
 Pelanquier's Grafter .200 
 
 Pelargonium 322 
 
 Pemphigus Vitif olia 27 
 
 Pentstemon 334 
 
 Pepper .334 
 
 Pepperidge ...265 
 
 Pereskia ..314 
 
 Periwinkle 312 
 
 Persimmon 230 
 
 Petit's Cleft Grafter .200 
 
 Petunia 334 
 
 Phaseolus .327 
 
 Phillodendron Amurense .285 
 
 Japonicum 285 
 
 Phillyrea 286 
 
 Philadelphus ..285 
 
 Coronarius 286 
 
 Phoradendron flavescens 328 
 
 Phormium tenax 327 
 
 Photinia 286 
 
 Phyllocactus ..314 
 
 Phylloxera Vastatrix 27 
 
 Piceas .238 
 
 Pinckneya Pubens 286 
 
 Pine Apple 314 
 
 Family 314 
 
 Pines 237 
 
 Pine Tree 286 
 
 Pink Family 315 
 
 Pinus 286 
 
 Austriaca 237 
 
 Cembra ...238 
 
 Coulteri. 237 
 
 Excelsa 238 
 
 Densiflora 237 
 
 Flexilis 238 
 
 Mandchurica 238 
 
 Monophylla 57 
 
 Mugho.. 237 
 
 Ponderosa 237 
 
 Pyrenaica 237 
 
 Resinosa 238 
 
 Sabiniana 57, 237 
 
 Strobus... .58, 238 
 
 Sylvestris _ .237 
 
 Nana .237 
 
 Pirus Americana 230, 288 
 
 Angustif olia 224 
 
 Aucuparia .230, 288 
 
 Chinensis 232 
 
 Communis 286 
 
 Japonica .232, 268 
 
 Lusitanica 232 
 
 Malus .224, 286 
 
 Prunifolia ..224 
 
 Sinensis .229 
 
 Pitcher-Plant Family .333 
 
 Pitch Tree 288 
 
 Pittosporum Tobira .288 
 
 Planera-... 241,288 
 
 Planer Tree 241,298 
 
346 
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 Plane Tree .288 
 
 Platanus Occidentalis. .288 
 
 Orientalis 288 
 
 Planting the Cutting 153 
 
 Pleroma 329 
 
 Plum ....231,289 
 
 Stocks 228 
 
 Plumbago 332 
 
 Plumbaginaceae .332 
 
 Podocarpus Japonica 288 
 
 Poinsettia 272, 289 
 
 Poison Hemlock ..334 
 
 Pointed-leaved Willow 243 
 
 Polygamous Plants 68 
 
 Pomeae. 71 
 
 Pomegranate .232, 290 
 
 Poplar 289 
 
 Poppy Family 331 
 
 Populus ...289 
 
 Potash.... 51 
 
 Potato 334 
 
 Potentilla. 280 
 
 Fruticosa 289 
 
 Portulacacese 332 
 
 Portulaca Grandiflora. .332 
 
 Oleracea ...332 
 
 Portugal Crakeberry 266 
 
 Quince 232 
 
 Pounder for Firming the Soil. .153 ; 
 
 Prairie Mallow 329 
 
 Preparing Cuttings 16 2 
 
 Preservation of Seeds 82 
 
 Prickly Ash ..308 
 
 Pride of India .282 
 
 Prim 280 
 
 Primula 332 
 
 Primulaceae ...332 
 
 Primrose Family 332 
 
 Privet -280 
 
 Propagating Begonias 167 
 
 House! 156 
 
 Propagation by Budding 187 
 
 Different Modes of 135 
 
 by Divisions 176 
 
 by Cuttings 144 
 
 by Grafting 199 
 
 by Layers -.170 
 
 by Root-cuttings 1 80 
 
 by Seeds.... 136 
 
 by Suckers and Divisions ..176 
 
 Protoplasm 12 
 
 Prunes 289 
 
 Prunus -231 
 
 Americana - -232 
 
 Domestica -290 
 
 Chicasa - 232 
 
 Pseudolarix 238 
 
 Pseudotsuga -290 
 
 Ptelea Augustif olia 290 
 
 Ptelea Trif oliata - - 290 
 
 Pterocarya 290 
 
 Pterostyrax 290 
 
 Hispidum 241 
 
 Pulse Family ,326 
 
 Punica 290 
 
 Granatum 232 
 
 Purple Flowered Raspberry. -.296 
 Purposes of Cross Fertilization^ 
 
 Pusley, or Purslane 232 
 
 Quaking Aspen. 289 
 
 Quamoclit 318 
 
 Queen Plant... 333 
 
 Quercus ...242, 290 
 
 Ilex 242 
 
 Peduculata .242 
 
 Robur .242 
 
 Quince.. 232,268 
 
 Stocks _ 229 
 
 Ranianas Rose. -.. 334 
 
 Ramie Plant ..334 
 
 Ranunculaceae 332, 333 
 
 Ranunculus Aconitifolius 333 
 
 Asiaticus 333 
 
 Raphiolepis Japonica 292 
 
 Raspberries, Species and Va- 
 rieties. 296 
 
 Red Alder.. 234 
 
 Redbud.... ..264 
 
 Red Cedar 278 
 
 Maple 127 
 
 or Norway Pine. .238 
 
 Osier Dogwood. .267 
 
 Removing the Bud.. __193 
 
 Resedaceae ..333 
 
 Reseda Odorata 3J3 
 
 Retinosporas 133, 238, 293 
 
 Rhamnus Cathaticus.. 292 
 
 Rhaphia Ruffia 189 
 
 Rhus Cotinoides .293 
 
 RimsCotmus... ..393 
 
 Rhexia 329 
 
 Rhododendron 242, 292 
 
 Catawbiense .242 
 
 Maximum 242 
 
 Ponticum .242 
 
 Ribes .293 
 
 Aureum 227 
 
 Rotundif olium 227 
 
 Rice 323 
 
 Richardia 312 
 
 Robinia---. ..243 
 
 Hispida ...243 
 
 Pseud-acacia 243, 293 
 
 Rochea 318 
 
 Rock Cress .318 
 
 Rose -275 
 
 Family 316 
 
 Boots and their Functions 36 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Rosa 243, 293 
 
 Canina .243 
 
 Rugosa -.185 
 
 Rubiginosa 243 
 
 Rose-. .243,293 
 
 Bay 242, 292 
 
 Flowered Raspbeny ..296 
 
 Leaf as a Cutting 33 
 
 Mallow 329 
 
 of Jericho.. 16 
 
 of Sharon 276 
 
 Varieties of 294, 295 
 
 Rosemary .326 
 
 Roses, Sports Among 134 
 
 Round-leaved Gooseberry 227 
 
 Rubus, Species and Varieties. .296 
 
 Rue Family.. ...333 
 
 Ruta Graveolens .333 
 
 Rutaceae .333 
 
 Rye 323 
 
 Sabatier's Implement for Graft- 
 ing 200 
 
 Saddle Grafting .211 
 
 Modified 211 
 
 Sage .326 
 
 Sago Palm 319 
 
 Salisburia-- 297 
 
 Salix 243, 297 
 
 Acuminata .243 
 
 Caprea .243 
 
 Purpurea Pendula... .243 
 
 Salmon Berry 296 
 
 Sambucus ..297 
 
 Sarraceniaceae 333 
 
 Sassafras ...280 
 
 Officinale 297 
 
 Saxif ragaceae .333 
 
 Saxifrage Family 333 
 
 Scale of Lfly Bulb ..._,._ 23 
 
 Scarlet Mallow. 282 
 
 Sciadopitys ....297 
 
 Scirpus 319 
 
 Scitaminese 333 
 
 Scrophulariaceae 334 
 
 Scrub Oak .242 
 
 Sea Pink. 332 
 
 Lavender 332 
 
 Sedum 318 
 
 Sedge Family 319 
 
 Seeds and their Appendages. .. 75 
 
 of the Ash 75 
 
 of the Elm 74 
 
 of Pinus Rigida... 77 
 
 Size and Vitality 79 
 
 Seedling Pine.. 68 
 
 Select List of Plants .249 
 
 Selecting Stocks .222 
 
 Sempervivums ..318 
 
 Senna ...262 
 
 Sensitiveness of Roots 39 
 
 Sequoia 297 
 
 Gigantea .298 
 
 Setting the Cuttings .167 
 
 Sex and Fertilization... ..100 
 
 Shadbush 72,230,262 
 
 Shaddock 226,265 
 
 Shell-bark Hickory.. ....260 
 
 Shepherdia Argentea 298 
 
 Shrubby Cinquefoil 289 
 
 Siberian Pea Tree 235, 259 
 
 Saxifrage -333 
 
 Side Grafting. 221 
 
 Silica - 50 
 
 Silene -315 
 
 Silver Bell Tree... 275 
 
 Leaf .-.- 241 
 
 Slum Lineare 334 
 
 Size and form of Cells. 14 
 
 Skimmia 298 
 
 Slippery Elm 274 
 
 Smoke Tree 293 
 
 Snapdragon 334 
 
 Sneeze worts. .317 
 
 Snow ball Tree-. ...302 
 
 Snowberry 299 
 
 Snowdrop 311 
 
 Tree .240,275 
 
 Soda... 51 
 
 I Solanaceae - -334 
 
 i Sophora Japonica 243, 298 
 
 Sorghum -323 
 
 Sour Gum Tree -..283 
 
 Sop 253 
 
 i Sorrel Tree.... 284 
 
 Spice Bush 280 
 
 Spiderwort Family 316 
 
 I Spindle Tree .239 
 
 Spiraea 298 
 
 Aruncus ..299 
 
 Grandiflora 272 
 
 Japonica 333 
 
 Opulifolia 299 
 
 Splice Grafting the Apple 287 
 
 Splice and Tongue Grafting 212 
 
 Spoonwood .279 
 
 Sports among Roses 134 
 
 Spurge Laurel 239, 269 
 
 Squill 327 
 
 Squirrel Corn - 321 
 
 Staff Tree.. 263 
 
 i Stapelia Glauca 164 
 
 Staphylea Bumaldi .299 
 
 Pinnata 299 
 
 Trifoliata 299 
 
 Statice 332 
 
 Stems and their Appendages... 51 
 
 Stick of Buds .189 
 
 [ Sticky Alder 234 
 
348 
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 Stinking Cedar 301 
 
 St. John's-Wort 276 
 
 St. Julien Plum 231 
 
 St. Lucie Cherry .225 
 
 Stock or Gilliflower.. 318 
 
 Stocks for Fruit Trees 234 
 
 Storax . 299 
 
 Family 210,290 
 
 Stramonium 334 
 
 Strawberry 71 
 
 Flower 71 
 
 Geranium ...333 
 
 Tree .234,254 
 
 Strelitza Reginae 333 
 
 Stuartia 299 
 
 Styracaceae 240,290 
 
 .Styrax Japonica... 240 
 
 Officinale .299 
 
 Sugar Cane ..323 
 
 Sumac 293 
 
 Sundew Family 319 
 
 Sunflower . ...316 
 
 Sweet and Red Bay 280 
 
 Sweet Basil 326 
 
 Sweet Briar 243 
 
 Sweet Chestnut 236 
 
 Sweet Fern 266 
 
 Sweet Gum Tree ..281 
 
 Sweet Leaf... 299 
 
 Sweet Potato 318 
 
 Sweet-Scented Shrub 259 
 
 Sycamore 288 
 
 Symphytum . -.313 
 
 Symphoriearpus -299 
 
 Symplocos Tinctoria 299 
 
 Syringa.. 285, 299 
 
 Tamarack .280 
 
 Tamarindus 300 
 
 Tamarind 300 
 
 Tamarisk .300 
 
 Tamarix Gallica -300 
 
 Tanya 312 
 
 Taxodium .300 
 
 Distichum 288 
 
 Taxus Canadensis .300 
 
 Tea Plant 259, 301 
 
 Tear Tree 269 
 
 Tecoma ..301 
 
 Radicans 257 
 
 Terminal and Axillary Buds ... 30 
 
 The Office of Roots 41 
 
 Thea .301 
 
 The Callus 146 
 
 Three-Thorned Acacia 240 
 
 Seed .142 
 
 Thrift.. .332 
 
 Thorn 267 
 
 Thuja 301 
 
 Occidentalis .. ...238 
 
 Thujas.... 238 
 
 Thyme 326 
 
 Tigridia 824 
 
 Tilia 301 
 
 Americana 244 
 
 Tillandsia 314 
 
 Time to Cut Cions 204 
 
 Time for Making Layers 174 
 
 Tobacco ." 334 
 
 Tongue or Whip Grafting 212 
 
 Torreya California. .301 
 
 Taxifolia .301 
 
 Trabuc's Grafter 200 
 
 Tradescantia _ . . 316 
 
 Virginica 316 
 
 Zeb'rina 316 
 
 Transudation of Fluids 16 
 
 Tree of Heaven 152 
 
 Trees, Shrubs and Vines 249 
 
 Tree and Shrub Stocks 232 
 
 Tropoeolum .322 
 
 Trumpet Creeper 259, 301 
 
 Trumpet Grape-G all 27 
 
 Tsuga Canadensis 238 
 
 Tsugas .238 
 
 Tulipa.... ..327 
 
 Tulip Tree ..281 
 
 Tupelo 283 
 
 Thunbergia. 311 
 
 Turnip ...318 
 
 Turtlehead 334 
 
 Ulmus 244, 301 
 
 Campestris 244 
 
 Montana ..244 
 
 Umbelliferae :___334 
 
 Umbrella Magnolia 241 
 
 Pine 297 
 
 Urticaceaa .334 
 
 Vaccinium Macrocarpou 302 
 
 Valeriana Edulis .334 
 
 Valerinaceae ...334 
 
 Valerian Family 334 
 
 Vandeje ..330 
 
 Vanillas 331 
 
 Variegated Rush 91 
 
 Venus' Fly-Trap ..320 
 
 Veneer Grafting 217 
 
 Venetian Sumac 293 
 
 Verbenaceae .335 
 
 Vervain Family .335 
 
 Viburnum Opulus 802 
 
 Plicatum. 302 
 
 Vinca 312 
 
 Vincent's Grafter 200 
 
 Violacecc.-- ..335 
 
 Viola ..-335 
 
 Odorata. 335 
 
 Tricolor. .335 
 
 Violet Family 335 
 
INDEX. 
 
 349 
 
 Virgin's Bower 332 
 
 Virgilia 265 
 
 Viscum Album 328 
 
 Vitality of Seeds 77 
 
 Experiments to Determine. 81 
 
 Vitex. Agnus Castus .302 
 
 Vitis Vinifera -302 
 
 Wallflower ...318 
 
 Wahoo -239 
 
 Walnut -241 
 
 Water Hemlock. --334 
 
 Water Lily Family 329 
 
 Lily 330 
 
 Parsnip 334 
 
 Weigela , 270, 308 
 
 Wheat ..323 
 
 Whip Grafting ....213 
 
 White Alder.- 265 
 
 Birch ..235 
 
 Leaf and Catkin 256 
 
 Cedar 264, 301 
 
 Fringe Tree 237, 265 
 
 Lil> -.103 
 
 Mulberry .227 
 
 Pine .238 
 
 Thorn 239 
 
 White Thorn as a Stock .230 
 
 Wood -..- -230 
 
 Wild Black Cherry 226 
 
 Red Cherry..-. .226 
 
 Olive.... .270 
 
 Willow .297 
 
 Wind-flower 332 
 
 Winged Storax 290 
 
 Walnut 290 
 
 Witch Hazel 275 
 
 Wistaria Frutescens 308 
 
 Sinensis 308 
 
 Wood Cells 14 
 
 Sorrel 31,323 
 
 Wormwood ..317 
 
 Wych Elm.. 244 
 
 Yam Family 319 
 
 Yankee Budding Knife ..188 
 
 Yeast Cells.-. 13 
 
 Yellow Wood 265 
 
 Yews .--. 300 
 
 Zamia Integrif olia 319 
 
 Zanthoxylum Piperitum 308 
 
 Zauschnera. 330 
 
 Zinnia 316 
 
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF BOOKS. 
 
 O. JUDD CO., DAVID W. JUDD, Pres't, 
 
 <* \ yb PUBLISHERS AND IMPORTERS OF s^r^ V.^ 
 
 All Works pertaining to Rural Life. 
 
 :Broa,d.-wa,3r, 
 l-MKJI 
 
 Allen, R. L. and L. F. New American Farm Book ............. $ 2.50 
 
 American Farmer's Hand Book ........... ........... 2.50 
 
 Asparagus Culture. Fiex.cioth ...................... ... .50 
 
 Bailey. Field Notes on Apple Culture ................. 75 
 
 Bamford,C. E. Silk Culture. Paper ............................... 30 
 
 Barry P. TlH Fruit Garden. New and Revised Edition ........... 2.00 
 
 Bommer. Method of Making Manures .............................. 85 
 
 Brackett. Farm T;ilk. Paper50c. Clotu .................... ...... 75 
 
 Brill. Farm-Gardening and Seed-Growing ........................ 1.00 
 
 - Cauliflowers ............................................ ....... 20 
 
 Broom-Corn and Brooms. Paper .................... ....... so 
 
 Curtis on Wheat Culture. Paper ......................... .... .50 
 
 Emerson and Flint. Manual of Agriculture ......... ......... 1.50 
 
 Farm Conveniences ........................................... 1.50 
 
 Farming for Boys ...................... .......................... 125 
 
 Farming for Profit ........................... . .............. 3.75 
 
 FitZ. Sweet Potato Culture. New and Enlarged Edition. Cloth ...... .(50 
 
 Flax Culture. Paper ............................................. 30 
 
 French. Farm Drainage ................................... ....... 1.50 
 
 Fuller, A. S. Practical Forestry .................... . ............. 1.50 
 
 Propagation of Phtnts ...................... ____ 1.50 
 
 - Grape Cult nrist .................................... 1.50 
 
 -- Illustrated Strawberry Cnltinist ..................... 25 
 
 - Small Fruit Culinrist. New Edition ................ 1.50 
 
 Fulton. Pcttc'i Culture. New and Revised Edition .................. 1.50 
 
 Gregory. On Cabbages .............................................. 30 
 
 - . On Carrots, Mangold Win tzels, etc ......................... 30 
 
 . -- On Fertilizers ............................................. 40 
 
 - On Or.ion Raising ................................ ...... 30 
 
 - On Squashes ............................................. 30 
 
 Harris Joseph. Gardening for Young and Old .................. 1.25 
 
 __ Talks on Manures. New and Revised Edition. .. 1.75 
 
 Henderson, Peter. Gardening for Pleasure ..................... 1.50 
 
 Gardening for Profit. New and Enlarged Edition. 2.00 
 
 -- Garden and Farm Topics ........................... 1.50 
 
 - Hand Book of Plants ................................ 3.00 
 
 - Practical Floriculture. New and Enlarged Edition.... 1.50 
 Husmann,Prof.CeO. American Grape growing and Wine Making 1.50 
 Johnson. Winter Greeneries at Home ............................... 1.00 
 
 Henderson fc Crozier. How the Farm Pay? .................... 2.50 
 
 Hop Culture. New and Revised Edition. Paper ................. 30 
 
0. JUDD CO.'S ALPHABETICAL CATALOGUE. 2 
 
 Illustrated Dictionary of Gardening, Vois. I & n, each 5.00 
 
 Johnston. Agricultural Chemistry 1.75 
 
 Johnson, M. W. HowtoPl.-mt. Paper 50 
 
 Johnson, Prof. S. W. How Crops Feed 2.00 
 
 How Crops Grow 2.00 
 
 Jones, B. W. The Peanut Plant. Paper 50 
 
 Lawn Planting. Paper 25 
 
 Leland. Farm Homes, In-Doors, and Out-Doors. New Edition 1.50 
 
 Long, EMas A. Ornamental Gardening for Americans 2.00 
 
 Morton. Fanner's Calendar 5.00 
 
 Oemler. Truck-Farming at the South 1.50 
 
 Onions. How to Raise them Profitably 20 
 
 Our Farm of Four Acres. Paper .. .30 
 
 Pabor, Wm. E. Colorado as an Agricultural State 1.50 
 
 Parsons. On the Rose 1.50 
 
 Pedder. Land Measurer for Farmers. Cloth 60 
 
 Plant Life on the Farm i.oo 
 
 Quinn. Money in the Garden ,... 1.50 
 
 Pear Culture for Profit. New and Revised Edition. 1.00 
 
 Riley. Potato Pests. Paper 50 
 
 Robinson. Facts for Farmers 5.00 
 
 Roe. Play and Profit, in my Garden 150 
 
 Roosevelt. Five Acres Too Much 1.50 
 
 Sheehan, Jas. Your Plants. Paper 40 
 
 SilOS and Ensilage- New and Enlarged Edition 50 
 
 Starr. *Farm Echoes 1.00 
 
 Stewart. Irrigation for the Farm, Garden and Orchard 1.50 
 
 Ten Acres Enough 1.00 
 
 The Soil of the Farm 1.00 
 
 Thomas. Farm Implements and Machinery 1.50 
 
 Tim Bunker Papers; or, Yankee Farming i.so 
 
 Tobacco Culture. Paper 25 
 
 Treat. Injurious Insects of the Farm and Garden 2.00 
 
 Ville. School of Chemical Manures 1.25 
 
 High Farming without Manures 25 
 
 Artificial Manures 6.00 
 
 Waring. Book of the F.-irm 2.oo 
 
 Draining for Profit and Health 1.50 
 
 Waring. Elements of Agriculture 1.00 
 
 Farmers' Vacation 3.00 
 
 Sanitary Drainage of Houses and Towns 2.00 
 
 Sanitary Condition in City and Country Dwellings 50 
 
 Warington. Chemistry of the Farm 1.00 
 
 Webb, Jas. Cape Cod Cranberries. Paper 40 
 
 White. Cranberry Culture 1.25 
 
 White. Gardening for the South 2.00 
 
 Send your address immediately on a postal card for 
 our 32mo. finely illustrated Catalogue of some 3OO Riiral 
 Books, and it will be sent you FREE, by the Publishers. 
 
 0. JUDD CO. DAVID W. JUDD, Pres't. 
 
 751 BROADWAY NEW YORK. 
 
By ANDREW S. FULLER. 
 
 The Illustrated Strawberry Culturist, 
 
 Containing the History, Sexuality, Field and Garden Culture of Strawber- 
 ries. Forcing or Pot Culture, How to Grow from Seed. Hybridizing, etc.. together 
 with a Description of New Varieties, and a List of the Best of the Old Sorts 
 Fully Illustrated. 
 
 FLEXIBLE COVERS. PRICE, POST-PAID, 25 CENTS. 
 
 THE PROPAGATION OF PLANTS, 
 
 Giving the principles which govern the Development ami Growth of Plants, 
 1heir Botanical Affinities and Peculiar Properties. Also. Descriptions of the 
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 many Different Methods by which Cultivated Plants maybe Propagated and 
 Multiplied. Illustrate;! with numerous Engravings. 
 
 CLOTH, 12mo. PRICE, POST-PAID, $1.50. 
 
 PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 
 
 A Treatise on the Propagation. Planting and Cultivation, with a description 
 find the botanical and popular names of a.l the indigenous trees of the United 
 States, both Ever-riven and Deciduous, with Notes on a large number of the 
 most valuable Exotic Species. 
 
 CLOTH, 12mo. PRICE, POST-PAID, $1.50. 
 
 SMALL FRUIT CULTURIST, 
 
 Re-written, enlarged, and brought fully up to the present time. This is the 
 first work exclusively devoted to Small Fruits, and it continues to be the recog- 
 nized authority. It covers the whole ground of Propagating Small Fruits, their 
 Culture. Varieties, Packing for Market, etc. The chapter on gathering and 
 packin"- the fruit is a valuable one, and in it are figured all the baskets and 
 boxes now in common use. The book is very finely and thoroughly Illustrated, 
 and makes an admirable companion to the "Grape Culturist." 
 CLOTH, 12uio. PRICE, POST-PAID, $1.50. 
 
 GRAPE CULTURIST. 
 
 This is one of the very best of works on the CtTture of the Hardy Grapes, 
 with full directions foral'l departments of Propagation, Culture, etc., with 105 
 excellent Engravings. Illustrating Planting, Tiaining, Grafting, etc. 
 
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 0. JUDD CO., DAVID W. JTTDD, Pres't 
 
 751 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. 
 
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 octf 8 
 
 LIBRARY USE 
 
 FEB5 1955 
 
348920 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY