THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA RIVERSIDE :V Ex Ubris [ C. K. OGDEN THE NEW ENGLISH THE NEW ENGLISH V BY v : L. KINGTON OLIPHANT OF BALLIOL COLLEGE VOL. I. iLontron MACMILLAN AND CO. AND NEW YOEK 1886 All rights reserved. Y. PREFACE. Xow that I am bringing out a sketch of the develop- ment of our English tongue during the last 600 years, I must begin by repeating my acknowledg- ments to the authors I named in my former work on ' Old and Middle English.' In the Book I now send forth, I have turned to good account the Eeprints which we owe to Mr. Arber and the Shakespere Society. I have made much use of Mr. Skeat's Dictionary as regards the origin of our words. I have derived the greatest elp from Dr. Murray's Dictionary, so far as it has gone. It will not be completed, I suppose, until twenty years hence ; a new edition of my present \ work, should I live so long, will in that case be a , vast improvement upon the edition now given to the v public. I am well aware of the many faults that may be found in my book ; men will say that I have left unread what I ought to have read ; many a favourite vi PREFACE. author's name will be suggested, of whom I have taken little notice. I must plead in excuse the fact, that one man cannot read every thing. In my choice of authors, I lean to those that are comic and col- loquial, not to the master spirits of our Literature. I take little notice of Spenser and Milton, though I dwell much on the plays left us by Udall and Still. I start from the time when the germs of Xew English were springing up within the tract lying be- tween London, Oxford, Shrewsbury, and Boston. I have gone at great length into two particular periods ; the last thirty years of the Fourteenth Century, and the twenty years that followed 1520. In this last period flourished Tyndale and Coverdale, the translators of the Bible, the one representing the South, the other the North. After their time, many authors have to be studied, as they lead up to Shakespere, the great point to which all ought to tend. So often have I referred to him, that it would be a mockery to insert every reference to his name in my Index. I have been careful to set out the many Proverbs to be found in English Literature, and also the various customs of each age. I have thrown light, wherever possible, not only upon the old English pronuncia- tion, but also upon that of France, Germany, and Italy. PREFACE. vii As to my Index, I have, as a general rule, con- fined myself to Teutonic and Celtic words, and also to those Eomance words which have some peculiarity. Had I inserted every Eomance word I name, I must have brought out a third Volume. I have derived much benefit from criticism on my former works ; this has reached me partly in print, partly by letter; I hope for many fresh comments on my ' New English,' and to this end I have given my address. I have so often laughed at the absurd attempts, much in vogue, to date buildings and writings as early as pos- sible, that I have perhaps fallen into the opposite extreme. Hence I must here withdraw certain remarks of mine on the 'Eomaunt of the Eose,' vol. i. pp. 400-402 of my Book. Since I wrote these, Dr. Murray has in- formed me that without doubt the manuscript of the Eomaunt, which is at Glasgow, belongs to the Fifteenth Century. But the very modern forms contained in it,* far more modern than those in the works of Blind Harry, are most puzzling. I can only repeat once more that wish of mine, which appears in the note to vol. i. p. 400. The North, in truth, was all along far in advance of the South, as regards the changes of language ; and this comes out again two generations later, when we compare Coverdale with Tyndale. The Eomaunt of the Eose, I think, is the earliest attempt in English to imitate the Archaic. viii PREFACE. I must end by saying that this work on the ' Xew English ' "will be of small profit to my readers, unless they first master my book on 'Old and Middle English,' published in 1878. T. L. KINGTON OLIPHAXT. CASK, AUCHTERARDER, October 16, 1886. CONTENTS OF VOLUME I. CHAPTER I. A.D. 1300-A.D. 1362. A.D. PAGE Ten Divisions of English ..... 1 1300 Dialect of the Irish Pale . . . . . 2 List of English and French words ... 3 1307 Statutes of Norwich Gilds 4 Ballads of this time ...... 5 1320 William de Shoreham .6 New Verbs ....... 7 French Phrases ....... 8 1321 Poem of Edward the Second's time ... 9 The Foreign words . . . . . .10 Northern Metrical Homilies . . . .11 System of rimes . . . . . .12 Gottingen Version of the Cursor Mundi . . 13 1330 Auchinleck Poems 14 Romance of the Seven Sages . . . .15 New use of Verbs . . . . . .16 The Foreign words . . . . . .17 1337 Manning's Poem .18 His Substantives . . . . . .19 His Verbs .20 His Foreign words . . . . . .21 Specimen of his rimes . . . . . .22 CONTENTS. A.D. PAGE 1340 The Ayenbite of Inwyt 23 French. Idioms . . . . . . .24 The Substantives . . . . . .25 Terminations . . . . . . .26 The Verbs 27 The Foreign words . . . . . .28 Much French 29 New Phrases . . . . . . .30 Hampole's Pricke of Conscience . . . .31 The Verbal Nouns 32 The Verbs and Adverbs 33 The Foreign words . . . . . .34 Hampole's Prose Treatises . . . . .35 The Nouns and Verbs 36 The French words 37 The Tale of Garnelyn 38 The Foreign words . . . . . .39 The Avowing of King Arthur . . . . 40 The Foreign words . . . . . .41 1350 The Alexander ; William of Palerne ... 42 Specimen of the Poem ..... 43 The Nouns 44 The Pronouns and Verbs . . . . .45 The Adverbs and Prepositions . . . .46 The Foreign words . . . . . .47 Legends ; The Usages of Winchester . . .48 The Foreign words . . . . . .49 Minot ; The Tournament of Tottenham . . 50 The Foreign words . . . . . .51 1359 Statutes of a Lynne Gild 52 Dan John Gaytrigg . . . . . .53 1360 Northern Legends 54 The Foreign words . . . . . .55 Sir Gawain and the Green Knight . . .56 The Nouns . . . . . . .57 The Verbs 58 CONTENTS. xi A.D. PAGE 1360 The Foreign words 59 The Lancashire Alliterative Poems . . .60 The Nouns 61 The Verbs 62 The Pronouns and Prepositions . . . .63 The Foreign words . . . . . .64 The French words . . . . . .65 Two Lancashire Romances . . . . .66 The Fairfax Version of the Cursor Mundi . . 67 Disappearance of old words . . . . .68 The Southern Version of the Cursor Mundi . . 69 North and South compared . . . .70 Want of some Standard of English 7 1 CHAPTER II. CHAUCER'S ENGLISH. A.D. 1362-A.D. 1474. A glance backward . . . . . .72 Manning's works . . . . . .73 Spread of East Midland English . . . .74 Countenance given by Edward III. ... 75 A Lollard Treatise 76 General use of English . . . . . 77 1362 The York Mysteries 78 The Foreign words . . . . . .79 1370 Sir Degrevant 80 The Verbs 81 Early English Poems ; Octavian . . . .82 Torrent of Portugal .83 Richard Goer de Lion . . . . . .84 Substantives and Verbs . . . . .85 1375 Barbour's Poem on The Bruce 86 Xll CONTENTS. A.D. i'.v.r. 1375 He gives its date 87 The Substantives . . . . . .88 Adjectives and Pronouns . . . . .89 Verbs 90 Adverbs and Prepositions . . . . .91 The Foreign words . . . . . 92 New meanings of words . . . . .93 Barbour's Legends of the Saints . . . .94 1377 Allegory of Piers Ploughman . . . .95 The three editions of the work . . . .96 The Substantives 97 The contracted Proper Names . . . .98 The Adjectives 99 The Verbs and Adverbs . . . . .100 The Foreign words . . . . . .101 Much French 102 Sublimity of the Poem 103 Mirk's Instructions for Parish Priests . . .104 The new Romance words . . . . .105 Specimen of the Poem . . . . .106 Cotton Galba Version ; The Carpenter's Tools . 107 Sir Cleges 108 Chaucer's Poems . . . . . . .109 Death of Blanche the Duchess . . . .110 The Foreign words . . . . . .111 Parliament of Fowls, etc. . . . . .112 The Troilus 113 The Verbs . . . . . . .114 The Foreign words . . . . . .115 The House of Fame . . . . .116 The Verbs .... .117 1390 The Canterbury Tales . . .118 The Vowels . . . . . .119 The Consonants . . . . . .120 The Substantives 121 Many new ones . . . . . . .122 CONTENTS. xiii A.D. PAGE 1390 The Adjectives 123 The Pronouns . . . . . . .124 The Verbs 125 Phrases connected with them . . . .126 The Adverbs 127 The Prepositions 128 The Foreign words . . . . . .129 The French words 130 French and English combined . . . .131 Disappearance of Teutonic words . . . .132 Latin as well as French forms . . . .133 Chaucer's lines quoted . . . . .134 The Legend of Good Women . . . .135 The Foreign words 136 Purvey's claim for the Bible . . . .137 1380 Wickliffe's Version of it 138 He sticks too close to the Vulgate . . .139 Mixture of Dialects . . . . . .140 The Verbal Nouns 141 The Verbs 142 The Adverbs 143 The Foreign words . . . . . .144 "Wickliffe's Prose Works . . . . .145 The Substantives 146 The Verbs 147 The Foreign words . . . . . .148 A Greek word appears . . . . .149 1386 The Rolls of Parliament ; Trevisa . . .150 The Substantives 151 The Adjectives 152 The Verbs 153 The Foreign words . . . . . .154 Eising influence of the Latin . . . .155 An English Will ; Gregory's Chronicle . . 156 1390 English Sermons 157 English forms of the Marriage Service . . .158 VOL. I. & xiv CONTENTS. A.D. I'AdE 1390 Prayers in English 159 The Travels attributed to Mandeville . . .160 Vowels and Consonants . . . . .161 The Substantives 162 Pronouns, Verbs . . . . . .163 Adverbs 164 Prepositions . . . . . . .165 The French words 166 Sometimes preferred to Italian . . . .167 Coldingham Eecords ; The Pearl . . . .168 St. Erkenwald ; Poem on Masonry . . .169 A Salopian Piece . . . . . .170 1393 Gower's Confessio Amantis . . . . .171 He uses some of Chaucer's words . . . .172 The Substantives 173 The Adjectives . . . . . . .174 Pronouns, Verbs . . . . . . .175 New Phrases . . . . . . .176 Prepositions . . . . . . .177 The Foreign words . . . . . .178 A York Will 179 Political Songs ; State Papers . . . .180 1397 Gregory's Chronicle ; Rolls of Parliament . .181 1399 Richard the Redeles 182 The Foreign words 183 1400 An Apology for the Lollards . . . .184 Nouns and Pronouns . . . . . .185 The Foreign words 186 Many Latin words . . . . . .187 Romance of Ipomydou ; The Nun . . .188 The Hunting of the Hare 189 Hymns to the Virgin and Christ . . . .190 1401 Arderne; Jack Upland 191 Letter from the future Henry V. . . . .192 The later York Mysteries 193 The Verbs . 194 CONTENTS. XV A.D. PAGE 1401 The Adverbs 195 The Foreign words . . . . . .196 The Towneley Mysteries . . . . .197 First English Hexameters . . . . .198 The Substantives 199 Some new ones . . . . . . . 200 Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs . . . . .201 Many new Phrases 202 Adverbs, Prepositions . . . . . .203 The Foreign words . . . . . .204 The earliest Robin Hood Ballad . . . .205 A specimen of it . . . . . 206 Wills of the Time 207 1402 Occleve's Poems 208 The Nouns and Verbs . . . . . .209 The Foreign words . . . . . .210 His views on France 211 1415 The York Pageants 212 1420 Eymer's Documents 213 Ellis's Original Letters 214 1422 The Rolls of Parliament 215 1425 Old forms remain . . . . . .216 Gregory's Chronicle . . . . . .217 1418 Page on the Siege of Rouen . . . .218 Halliwell's Letters of the Kings . . . .219 1424 A Rutland Will 220 Works of Wickliffe, so called . . . .221 An old Lollard Treatise 222 Treatise on Hunting . . . . . .223 Legend of St. Edith 224 Poem on Cookery ...... 225 Poems of King James I. ..... 226 Wyntoun's Chronicle 227 The Adjectives and Verbs 228 The Foreign words 229 The Paston Letters of this time . 230 xvi CONTENTS. A.D. PAGE 1424 Many French words ...... 231 1426 Audlay's Salopian Poems 232 Poem on Agincourt . . . . . .233 Lydgate's Works 234 Flemish influence . . . . . .235 The French words 236 1433 Lydgate's Legends 237 The Babees' Book 238 Customs of the time . . . . . .239 Wills of the time 240 Northern Wills 241 Paston Letters ; Gregory's Chronicle . . .242 The Bolls of Parliament 243 Standard English comes into vogue . . .244 Provincialisms are dropped . . . . .245 A Lancashire Petition . . . . .246 Coldingham Papers ; Rymer's Documents . .247 1436 Poem on English Trade 248 Praise of Henry V. 249 1440 The Gesta Bomanorum 250 The Nouns, Verbs, Adverbs . . . .251 The Foreign words ...... 252 The Promptorium Parvulorum . . . .253 Much change in Vowels . . . . .254 The Consonants ....... 255 The hard g of East Anglia 256 The Substantives 257 Many new combinations . . . . .258 Change in the meaning of words . . . .259 The Adjectives 260 Adverbs, Verbs 261 Grovelling, thou and ye 262 The Foreign words 263 Union of Teutonic and French . . . .264 Latin sometimes preferred to French . . .265 Fishing Treatise ; Geste of Robin Hood . .266 CONTENTS. xvii A.D. PAGE 1440 Many Northern Phrases . . . . .267 1445 Robin and the Potter ; Plump ton Letters . . 268 York, Coldingham 269 Paston Letters 270 1447 ShiUingford's Letters . . . . . .271 Noun, Pronouns . . . . . .272 Verbs, French words . . . . . .273 1449 Pecock's Represser . . . . . .274 His peculiarities . . . . . .275 Adjectives, Pronouns . . . . . .276 Verbs 277 Adverbs, Prepositions . . . . . .278 Romance words . . . . . . .279 1450 Chevy Chase ; Religious Poems . . . .280 Doggerel rimes . . . . . . .281 Knight of La Tour-Lanclry 282 Nouns, Pronouns . . . . . .283 Foreign words . . . . . . .284 Book of Curtesye . . . . . .285 Chester Mysteries 286 Nouns, Verbs 287 1455 York Wills; Paston Letters . . . .288 Vowels, Consonants . . . . . .289 Nouns, Verbs 290 Romance words . . . . . . .291 Gregory's Chronicle ; Rolls of Parliament . . 292 Form of Petitions - 293 1460 Pieces from Hazlitt's Collection . . . . 294 Old Phrases 295 Lollard Treatises ; Ballads 296 Book of Quinte Essence ; Capgrave . . .297 Nouns, Verbs 298 French words ....... 299 The Wright's Wife ; Plumpton Letters . . .300 1465 London Documents ; Gregory's Chronicle . . 301 Rolls of Parliament 302 xvin CONTENTS. A.D. 1>AOE 1465 Paston Letters 303 The Vowels 304 Consonants, Substantives . . . . .305 Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs . . . .306 Adverbs 307 Foreign words ....... 308 Titles of Nobles 309 1467 Worcester Document ; Kymer's Papers . . .310 Blind Harry's Poem on Wallace . . . .311 Scotch and French words . . . . .312 1469 The Coventry Mysteries 313 Mixture of Northern and Southern . . .314 Nouns, Pronouns . . . . . .315 Verbs, Adverbs 316 Foreign words . . . . . . .317 Mallory's History of King Arthur . . .318 The Play of the Sacrament 319 Second Version of Gesta Eomanorum . . .320 Revelation of Monk of Evesham . . . .321 The Foreign words 322 1470 The Babees' Book 323 Political Songs ; Warkworth's Chronicle . . 324 1473 Letters of the Kings 325 Something remains to be done . . . .326 CHAPTER III. CAXTON'S ENGLISH. 1474-1586. Caxton's birth 327 1474 He prints his Recuyell 328 His Game of the Chesse 329 His Romance words . . . . . .330 New French forms 331 CONTENTS. xix A.D. PAGE 1481 His Reynard the Fox 332 Proverbs here ....... 333 Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs . . . .334 The French words 335 1482 His alterations of Trevisa and Chaiicer . . . 336 Tlie York Wills 337 Ryrner's Documents ; Rolls of Parliament . .338 Paston Letters 339 Adjectives, Verbs 340 Proverbs ........ 341 Plump ton Letters . . . . . .342 York Records ; Exeter Guild . . . 343 William of "Worcester . . . . . .344 Romance words . . . . . . .345 1483 Catholicon Anglicum 346 Consonants, Substantives . . . . . 347 Adjectives, Verbs . . . . . .348 Foreign words . . . . . . .349 1490 Digby Mysteries 350 Paston Letters . . . . . . .351 Letters of Richard III. ; Rolls of Parliament . .352 Acts of Parliament ; Plumpton Letters . .353 York Records . . . . . . .354 1499 Pynson's Edition of the Promptorium . . .355 1500 Memoria Technica ; Digby Mysteries . . .356 Poems from Hazlitt's Collection . . . .357 Romance words . . . . . . .358 Welsh Phonetic Transcription . . , . .359 Collier's Dramatic Poetry . . . . .360 Dunbar ........ 361 The Adjectives 362 The Celtic words 363 The Romance words . . . . . .364 Gavin Douglas ; Plumpton Letters . . .365 1505 Letters of Henry VII 366 The Romance words . . . . . .367 CONTENTS. A.D. PAGE 1505 Ellis's Letters 368 The Komance words . . . . . .369 Skel ton's Poems of this time . . . .370 The Adjectives, Verbs 371 The Foreign words 372 1509 Fisher's Sermons 373 The Gesta Romanorum . . . . .374 Barclay's Ship of Fools 375 The Nouns, Pronouns 376 Verbs, Adverbs . . . . . . .377 The Foreign words 378 Old Proverbs 379 English Oaths 380 Barclay's Eclogues 381 1520 HalliwelTs Letters of the Kings .... 382 Ellis's Letters 383 The Foreign words . . . . . .384 Fisher's Sermon against Luther . . . .385 State Papers 386 The Verbs 387 The Eomance words . . . . . .388 Wood's Letters of Illustrious Ladies . . .389 The Nouns, Verbs 390 The Romance words . . . . . .391 Foxe's Documents . . . . . .392 Skelton's Poems of this time . . . .393 The Adjectives, Verbs 394 Song of the Lady Bessy 395 Poems from Hazlitt's Collection . . . .396 Coventry Mysteries 397 A Northern Mystery 398 Plays from Dodsley's Collection . . . .399 The Romaunt of the Rose ..... 400 Attempts to imitate Old English . . . .401 The Court of Love 402 The Flower and Leaf . 403 CONTENTS. xxi A.D. PAGE 1523 Fitzherbert on Husbandry 404 The Nouns, Verbs 405 The Foreign words ...... 406 Lord Berners's Translation of Froissart . . 407 1525 Tyndale's New Testament 408 His Improvements on Wickliffe . . . .409 The Vowels 410 The Consonants, Substantives . . . .411 Atonement, Day , . . . . . .412 The Adjectives 413 The Pronouns . . . . . . .414 The Verbs . . . . . . .415 The Adverbs 416 The Prepositions . . . . . .417 The Romance words . . . . , .418 Both French and Latin Forms . . . .419 Latin words ....... 420 1530 Tyndale's other writings .,' . . . . 421 His wrangles with More . . . . .422 Proverbs quoted by him . . . . .423 His simple style ....... 424 The Vowels . . .. i ^ 'v .-. .' . 425 The Consonants, Substantives . : , - . . 426 Atonement, Swing, Lust . . ; . - . 427 The Adjectives 428 The Pronouns, Verbs . . . . . .429 Oversight, Worship . . . . . .430 The Adverbs 431 The Romance words . . . . . .432 Passion, Curiosity . . . . . .433 Words akin to Dutch and German . . . 434 1530 Coverdale's share in the Bible .... 435 He is compared with Tyndale .... 436 His obsolete words . . . . . .437 Vowels, Consonants, Substantives . . .438 Adjectives ........ 439 xxu CONTENTS. A.D. PAGE 1530 Pronouns, Verbs 440 The Verbal Noun contused . . . . .441 Adverbs, Prepositions . . . . . .442 Romance words . . . . . . .443 Libel, Peal, Precious ...... 444 Foreign forms . . . . . . .445 1528 Roy's Satire on Wolsey 446 Nouns and Verbs . . . . . .447 1526 Rastell's Jest Book 448 Nouns and Verbs . . . . . .449 1529 Fish's Supplication for the Beggars . . .450 Pieces from Hazlitt's Collection . . . .451 1530 Palsgrave's English and French Dictionary . . 452 The Consonants . . . . . . .453 The Substantives . . . . . .454 Bicker, Scavenger . . . . . .455 The Adjectives 456 Pronouns, Verbs . . . . . . .457 The en is often prefixed . . . . .458 Strike, Want 459 The Adverbs 460 The Prepositions . . . . . .461 The Foreign words . . . . . .462 Venturer, bray, part . . . . . .463 Temper, luscious, exploit ..... 464 Manner, rail, rubify . . . . . .465 Jyl of Brentford's Testament . . . .466 1533 Christ's Kirk ; Heywood's Plays . . . .467 Horse Races ; Elyot's Governour . . . .468 The Romance words . . . . . .469 The Definitions 470 Translations from the Classics . . . .471 Joy's work against Tyndale . . . .472 Letters on the Monasteries . . . . .473 Ellis's Letters 474 The Nouns . . .475 CONTENTS. xxiii A.D. PAGE 1533 Verbs, Eomance words ..... 476 Foxe's Documents . . . . . .477 Wood's Letters of Royal Ladies . . . .478 Cranmer ; Latinier . . . . . .479 By god's Work on Impropriations . . .480 Earls of Kildare ; Dodsley's Plays . . .481 1539 Letters on the Monasteries . . . . .482 1542 Tunstall ; Udall's Apophthegms . . . .483 The Substantives 484 The Adjectives 485 The Pronouns, Verbs 486 To cut, wonted, rake hell ..... 487 The Foreign words 488 Neat, miser, Christian . . . . . .489 Duty, devotion, allude (o ..... 490 1550 Ralph Roister Doister 491 The Verbs 492 The Romance words ...... 493 1542 Boorde's Works 494 The Romance words . . . . . .495 1544 Ascham's Toxophilus ...... 496 The Nouns, Verbs 497 The Foreign words . . . . . .498 1546 Hey wood's Proverbs ...... 499 The Romance Phrases . . . . .500 Proverbs set out . . . . . .501 Those used by Shakespere . . ... .502 Phrases still current . . . . . .503 Strange etymology . . . . . .504 Becon's earliest Writings . . . . .505 Ellis's Letters 506 Foxe's Documents . . . . . .507 The Foreign words . . . . . .508 Gardiner's Phrases . . . . . .509 Poems in Hazlitt's Collection . . . .510 The Verbs 511 xxiv CONTENTS. A.D. PAOE 1546 The Foreign words 512 1548 Thieves' Slang ; Carew ; Turner's Book . .513 Latimer's Sermons . . . . . .514 The Foreign words . . . . . .515 Old Customs 516 Leland ; Bale's Play 517 Patten's Account of Somerset's March . . .518 The Foreign words . . . . . .519 Scotch Phrases of the Time 520 1549 The Church Homilies 521 Teutonic element in Poetry . . . .522 The English Prayer Book 523 1550 Lever's Sermons ...... 524 1551 Archbishop Hamilton's Catechism . . .525 Dodsley's Plays ; Hutchinson . . . .526 The Eomance words . . . . . .527 Ty tier's Documents 528 Wood's Letters of Ladies 529 Gresham ; Coverdale ; Robinson's Utopia . . 530 Word from the Dutch 531 1555 Cavendish, his Life of Wolsey . . . .532 The Eomance words . . . . . .533 Machyn's Diary . . . . . . .534 Eden's Translations . . . . . .535 The Romance words . . . . . .536 Tytler's Documents . . . . . .537 1557 Tusser's earliest Poem 538 1558 Knox ; Foxe's Martyrs 539 The Substantives 540 Imp, shroud, handbook . . . . . .541 The Adjectives 542 The Pronouns 543 The Verbs 544 Scramble, flirt, cross . . . . . .545 Ridley's Northern Phrase . . . . .546 The Adverbs 547 CONTENTS. XXV A.D. PAGE 1558 The Foreign words 548 Manure, canvass, antic . . . . .549 Touch, promoter, varkt . . . . .550 Latin and Greek words . . . . .551 Cannibal, black guard . . . . . .552 Old English words and forms . . . .553 Foxe's curious notions . . . . . .554 Arber's Narratives . . . . .... . 555 Sea Phrases . . . , , in wading up to ]>e chynne,p. 161. There is the Scandinavian noun slete, p. 157. The French words are ditee (ditty), draperie, avoir-de-peise, pinch, pillori, poding, sioun (scion), randun (random), consonant, vowel. Birds are cooked in stu, p. 159 ; here the French estuve is clipped ; we see the con- nexion between stove and stew. In a piece printed in the ' Reliquise Antiques,' ii. 177, the verb cast is employed for prcedestinare ; hence our forecast. There is also lollai, addressed to a babe, whence comes lullaby. There is a poem by Michael of Kildare, in the same book, ii. 190; here we see the noun thin oute going, replacing the old utgang. In ii. 119 comes another poem of this time ; here we see the sound ou replacing I, for fewti stands for fealty, p. 120; thus the French turned col into cou. There had been an Old English word hafenleas (in ops), pointing to some such word as Jiafen (victus) this is slightly changed in p. 119; povere is myn having ; havour was to come later. We see the phrase good felawe in p. 121, here meaning simply that Christ made Himself our equal. Something is kept under a lok, p. 121, a new use of the preposition. There is in hap (fortasse), p. 121, the source of Lydgate's perhaps. The interjection ho/ appears in p. 120, meaning satis; to cry ho ! was embodied in the English Bible by Coverdale long afterwards ; hence our carter's wo-lw ! We see the French word riflour (robber). In p. 121 Cristendom stands, not as formerly for Christian faith, but for all Christian kingdoms. There is a long list of English words, with their French equivalents, dating from this time; they are printed in 'Reliquise Antique,' ii. 78. The ow is clipped, for ancleow becomes ankel (ankle), a Scandinavian form of the word. The o replaces u, for we see bolting-cloth : it replaces a, as 4 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. gode (goad). The old dceges cage is pared down to dayseie. The former lawerce now becomes larke ; in Scotland it be- came lauerc, laverc, laveroc. The Old English cerlice (char- lock) is here written szerlok, showing how the proper name Sherlock arose. The greatest change is navegar into nauger, afterwards to become auger ; here the v was mis- taken for u. The d is added, for the old fealefor is seen as feldefare (fieldfare). The former dweorg appears as dweruf (dwarf), the / replacing g. The es is added to the old poc, and pokes ( = veroles) appears. Among the new substantives are woddekoc, mahssing-fate (mash-tub). We see pinnes named as part of a cart's gear. There is the new verb quek (of a duck). The words akin to the Dutch and German are heckle (a word well known in Scotch politics), and siss, which here replaces the old hiss. The Scandinavian words axe flake, to slaver, splinter, kiihnt, and be-litter (the French enfaunter). Here belongs the first syllable of titemose, which is also found ; we see the noun lane with its French translation venel the latter word is still used in Scotch towns. The French words at this time adopted into England, are core, criket, gules, flute, chiri (cherry). There is annd hirnes, p. 84, our andirons ; the French andier simulating a Teutonic ending. In the same page the French purceus appears in English as porceaus (porkers). Our English knel in p. 79 is translated by the French apel, showing whence comes a peal of bells. The word raton appears instead of the old rat ; hence Dandie Dinmont talks of rations. Our garters, written garthors in p. 79, are derived from the Picard gartier rather than from the literary French jarretler. English was now coming once more into use, when con- tracts were to be put in writing. There are the statutes of two Norwich Gilds, drawn up in 1307 (Early English Text Society), where we see }>e dede used as in the Hand- lyng Synne, without the word man following. The word gilde is employed in the two senses, payment and brotherJwod, p. 122. There is the phrase go to law and the foreign i.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 5 words dirige (dirge), p. 20, messe of requiem, letterede (learned). We see the phrase, to refuse office, p. 21. In the Religious and Love Poems (Early English Text Society), p. 221, there is a piece written about this time, and transcribed fourscore years later. We here have both the forms rotelen and ratelen (rattle) applied to the throat and the teeth. There is nouth longe gon (not long ago) ; Shoreham has almost the same phrase. There are some poems, mostly Southern, ranging be- tween 1302 and 1311, in the Political Songs printed by the Camden Society. King Edward I. is highly praised, and appears as "he with the longe shonkes," p. 223. The e replaces ui, as gerland (garland) for the French guirlande. The i or y replaces e and ce, as in clink and typeth (tippet). The u replaces o, as in purpos, the French propos. We see the proper name Hobbe, not the Hobekin .of Gloucestershire ; we read of Cheepe, the great London thoroughfare, p. 221. There are the new nouns pitfall and clasp. The custom, imitated from France, is seen of placing the before a sur- name, as The Bruytz (Bruce). Many new adjectives are here formed by adding less to a noun, as nameless, ruthless, pennyless. This revived fashion was now coming in. Among the verbs we remark the expletive, so mote ich the/ (so may I thrive) which lasted down to 1550. In p. 222 a person laketh a day that is, says alack a day ! the word alack is not found by itself until near 1450. In p. 219 a wager is y-bate, perhaps the first use of the verb bet, which did not reappear for ages. In p. 187 Frenchmen beaten in war are said to be bought and sold ; a phrase applied afterwards to Richard III. The verb clap gets the new meaning pulsare heads are clapped off; hence our "clap on the back." There is the verb Iwder (our huddle'}, akin to the German ; also the Scandinavian filch. The English ballad-maker shows sound Teutonic patriot- ism when he chuckles over the Flemish victory over the common enemy at Paris ; still he sprinkles his poem with long French phrases. He has a pun on the word coning, the name of the Flemish leader, connecting it with the French word for rabbit, our cony. He talks of the com- 6 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. mune, an awful word in France in 1871. The French form hastifliche is preferred to the Teutonic hastiUche. The verb charge gets Joinville's new sense ofjubere. There is the noun hot, our hut. In the French poem (p. 293) we see the word rascaylle (common soldiers), which was to bear a far baser meaning in England 250 years later. There is a Southern piece, compiled about this time, called 'King Solomon's Book of Wisdom,' printed along with Adam Davy's poems (Early English Text Society). Here we see newf angel, p. 83, a word afterwards used by Chaucer. The preposition for is employed to denote change ; bileve olde for newe, p. 83. The word salary appears in the same page. In the specimens of Lyric Poetry (Percy Society) are some that seem to date from about the year 1310, as we see by the great proportion of French words. The form morewening (morning), p. 60, was peculiar at this time to the south and west of England ; and the unusual nam (ivit), p. 96, points to a Southern shire near the place where the ' King Horn ' was compiled. The unto (usque ad) was a thoroughly Northern form ; and here we see the old in t<>, p. 89. The French words are gingivre, incens, piete (not pity), also the verb counseil, p. 95. There are the statutes of a Lynne Gild, drawn up in 1316 (English Gilds, Early English Text Society). Among the new French words are deen (dean), attourne (attorney), galoun, fawty, an obit, excusacioun. William de Shoreham (Percy Society), a Kentish reli- gious poet, wrote about 1320. He has the form ia for ea as in the Kentish treatise of 1290; thus diath appears. He supplants the single e by a, as in harkne (hearken). He uses e like the Salopians, where Northern England employed i, and Southern England u; as in senne (sin), prede (pride), mery, and other words ; medlen (meddle), is used for the Icelandic miSla. In fri and nides, /replaces e, and foreshadows our present pronunciation. In ele (oleum) and anelien, the Old English form is preferred to the more usual French oile ; but the latter is also used by the poet. The former manJidd now becomes ntatihod . with i.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 7 us the Southern hood at the end of a word has almost always ousted the Northern head. The ou supplants o in foul (fool), goud, roude, just as we now pronounce these words. The anui of the ' Ancren Riwle ' is written anoye, p. 36. The old raw (series) is found both as rowe and rewe, just as the two sounds Douk and Dewk (dux) long ran on side by side. The ydropsi of the ' Cursor Mundi ' is now pared down to dropesy, p. 113. The b is struck out, for climme stands for the old climbe, p. 3. When we see manyour (manger), p. 122, we have a most curious instance of y supplanting the soft g. The old bruchel (fragilis) is supplanted by brotel, our brittle. The verb bensy (p. 50) for benedicere is a remarkable English contraction. The banns of marriage appear in p. 71, where they are ygred (cried); also gossibrede, p. 68, so well known in the Irish statute-book. The noun bleddre is used in p. 2, where we should now put blunder. The vocative, man, is often used throughout the poem, addressed to the reader. There are new verbs like bishop, bewitch, bistow (collocare), bytreuth (betroth), come about (evenire), dra$ into mende (call to mind). These are the new phrases go a pylgrymage, tyde what bytyde, p. 107; here the verb is repeated, and the what stands for whatsoever ; this led to Chaucer's be as be may. In the phrase wytnesse Cryst, p. 74, be (sit) is dropped. In p. 64 a particular betrothal will not healde (hold) ; here the verb is used intransitively. In p. 99 a man may com- mit theft by wordes that he craketh that is, falsely utters a new sense of the verb ; our schoolboys still speak of mendacium as a cracker. The clap (pulsare) takes the new sense of loqui, p. 135 ; clack was to come later. The past participle ago, first found in Dorset in 1240, is now applied to time, where a Northern man would have used sin; nau$t fern ago, "not far ago," p. 103. The word nothing is used for the old nought (not) : something is nothynge loude, p. 33 ; hence the later nothing loth. The French Men seems to have led to the new address, Wei, brother, p. 11. There is a new use of it in p. 16, Jwu is hit (tJiat) there bethe so fele ? here, moreover, we see the close connexion between how and why ; they are both 8 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. instrumental cases of who. The of is now used after verbs of sense, as in the ' Cursor Mundi ; ' a word smaketh of God, p. 48. In p. 109 Satan is called myx (stercus) of alle myxe ; this foreshadows our " heart of hearts," and is a continuation of the " right he loved of all things," to be found in the ' Havelok.' There is the new phrase in tokne that. The attempt at translating the French que, seen in the ' Cursor Mundi,' is repeated ; wot the was wo /p. 88 ; in p. 125 there is another rendering of the que, that hy were Uythe ! (0 how blithe they were !) It is curious to remark how early Northern phrases found their way into the South, a process that never ceased. We see, in this Kentish writer, Orrmin's Weak Perfect wepte, and the very Scandinavian ichatsomevcrc. The Northern bard's dwell has travelled down into Kent, and seems to mean Jmbitare, not morari, in p. 19. There is the verb i-lykned (similatus) akin to the German ; and our waver, the Icelandic vafra, is seen in p. 16. By the side of these new words stands such a form as proplietene, p. 92, showing how the old Genitive Plural, long dropped in the North, lingered on in Kent; where also cadic (beatus) clings to life, before altogether disappearing. The new French words are many. The old reguerdon takes its English form reward, p. 97. Shoreham prefers the form croudie (hence, Crouchback, a crusader) to the other forms of cruc-em, croice or cross. The new chalice supplants the cafe of the 'AncrenRiwle;' and corps replaces cars. Instead of stint of, we find cesse of, followed by a noun, p. 96, whence comes leave off. The word after had hitherto expressed secundum as well as post; but Shoreham brings in the form acordaunt to, p. 89, which is now most common with us ; here a French phrase is used to lessen the weight formerly thrown upon one English preposition ; this process has been since carried far. In mercy and iniseri- corde, p. 43, the learned author shows that he can bring in Latin forms as well as French. In p. 56 a mass priest is called a mynystre ; tliis word was very long in rooting itself in England. In p. 96 we hear of an auditour of accounts. There is the new phrase here aryst (arose) ques- i.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 9 tion, p. 166. The French form contrait, not contract, appears ; and also ewe, showing how eau was once sounded in France. I have already remarked upon Bewly or Beaulieu Abbey. The former eisil is now replaced by fyneyre, our vinegar; here one French word supplanted another. The word soverayn, which we were to make so much use of, appears to have been employed in Kent alone at this time ; it is also found in the ' Ayenbite of Inwyt,' twenty years later. We now see admynystracioun, array, to stanch, caracter, cantle, myrour, wyginal, grain, chisel; the adjective sodein is made an adverb by attaching the Teutonic liche to it. There is ententiftyche and also the verb atende to, two different forms. A man is concluded in a dispute, p. 106; hence our slang shut up; he no longer rues a sin, but repents of it, p. 154. All these French forms show us how the clergy at this time, like the two other learned professions, loved to wrap up their mysteries in a tongue far removed from vulgar ken. We feel the disastrous effects of the policy of Manning, Shoreham, Hampole, and their fellows, to this day. There is a well-known poem, of some length, compiled about 1321, on the miseries of England under Edward II. (Political Songs, Camden Society). It seems to be due to a Salopian bard : we see the Active participle in ende; there is uch (quisque), which was long one of the marks of this shire ; there are both the Northern thei and the Southern thilk ; and Orrmin's peculiar overgart, which, moreover, occurs in another Salopian piece. There is a curious passage in p. 336 ; we hear that if the king sends for nine or ten recruits from some town, "the stiffest " (strongest) are allowed to remain at home on paying ten or twelve shillings, while helpless wretches are enlisted, the counter- parts to " most forcible Feeble." The a replaces e, as parson (a true Salopian form), not persone, p. 326 ; and a distinction seems to be drawn between him and the priest. The old mor (palus) is now written mure, our moor. The French bussel is altered into our lusshcl. There are the new substantives daffe ' (stultus) 1 Can our duffer come from this ? io THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. formed from gedcefte (humilis) ; sheepish and simple have undergone the like degradation. Meanwhile dafte (con- veniens) survives in deft, with a meaning most opposite to the Scotch daft. We hear of the heie wey, and Godes man, (a man of God). Men murder each other wid iville, p. 343 ; hence our "do it with a will." The word girles, p. 337, means children both male and female. There is the new adjective unwelcome; shrewed has from a Past Participle become an adjective ; whence the adverb shrewedlich (male) is formed in p. 326. The old indefinite man was now dying out, and a substitute had to be found ; so we see theih wolen big He the (te), p. 339, where the last word stands for all mankind. A bragging squire is said in p. 336 to make it stout that is, to lord it ; this is a new use of the it which was to be much developed sixty years later. We see the verb wagge used both transitively and in- transitively in pp. 332 and 333. A msaipileefh up food, in p. 334 ; there are phrases like wel farende (faring) folk (pinguis) ; hu the silver goth (runs away). The up to doun of Gloucester now becomes up-so-doun, p. 335, whence came upside down 200 years later. There is a new use of at ; wheat is at foure shillinges, p. 341 ; here some verb like priced must be dropped. The Scandinavian words are deie (ancilla, whence came dairy), bote (ocrea), der]>e (caritas). The French words are taxation, quarter (of wheat), soup, furred, to institute. In p. 327 we read of a woman kaccl/inis bock gart clight, John of Lindbergh, I 5u sai ]>at es mi name ful right." He was a Northern man, and he keeps many old words that had to be altered by the later Lancashire and Southern transcribers. Sometimes he adopts a Southern form, as when he exchanges the]>en for Ipennis (thence), p. 17. Older Version. Gottingen. Lavedi . Lady, on lang in lenth. sterns stems (stars), kything kuawlag. ]>ai pat }>os >at. yepe sly. alle blurded all lourid. sue)>elband suadiling band, scath harm, licam bodi. i 4 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. Older Version. Gottingen. pou es man ]>u art man. pur man simple man. never forperward never mor forward. Sometimes the sense of a passage is mistaken altogether, as in line 4288. There is the phrase "evil pack," p. 135, where the word adds the meaning of turla to its old sense of sarcina. There is justify in the Scotch sense (do justice), p. 17. The form dais of the older text is here altered into the brand-new former dais, p. 527. The verb allow may now take a dative ; the old alou mi wil (praise my will), p. 1146, now becomes alou me mi wil (give me credit for my will), marking a change in the meaning of the French verb. In the Statutes of the Lynne Gild of 1329 (Early English Text Society), we see make god (good) his entrees, p. 63 ; also the preposition by used as an agent, for the first time I think, since the ' Blickling Homilies ; ' this was soon to be repeated in the ' Ayenbite ; ' provyd be men, p. 63. There are also the new words sufficient and profethabil. I take from Dr. Murray's dictionary two phrases dating from this time, " aleft he smot and aright ; " our right and left. The old genitive alra (omnium) was now so little understood that we find " the althrest fairest sete." The Auchinleck poems (Weber's ' Metrical Romances ') seem to have been compiled about 1330, most likely in Salop. We find the fer (ignis) of that shire, and there is a mixture of Southern and Northern forms. In the ' Amis and Amiloun ' (ii. 369) stands chepeing toun, p. 440 ; which shows how Chipping Norton got its name ; Orrmin, much earlier, had used chepeing before another noun. English was now trying to express foreign titles ; in p. 420 stands Mi lord the Douke. There is the alliterative wele and wo. Schulder-blade is first found in p. 426, and brotherhed comes in p. 384; the latter means brotJierly love; in earlier times it had meant a gild. Among the adjectives stands the comparative frendeleser; as strange a form as the sorfuller of the 'Cursor Mundi.' i.J THE NEW ENGLISH. 15 Layamon's hal and hceil is changed in p. 462 ; hayl and hole (sanus et integer). In p. 416 stands we be liclie ; here "one to another" is omitted. In p. 468 we see faire ded (fairly dead) ; here our word for pukhre slides into the sense of omnino ; fair had been used for satis in 1220. As to verbs, in p. 459 stands wo-bigon; the last part of the word being the Past Participle of the old begangan (circumdare). There is the phrase bid (beg) our bread. The preposition about is here turned into an adverb, as we saw in Shoreham ; Amoraunt bar his lord about, p. 446. The alas, for shame of the ' Cursor Mundi ' (where the for translates ob) now becomes simply for schame, p. 420. This piece being probably a Salopian poem, we are not surprised at meeting a new Celtic verb, pour, which first appears here. The French words are habergeon, noricerie (nursery), stay (nianere). The verb aprove (testari) is in p. 402, and shows us the origin of our legal word approver. The Lay Le Freine, one of the Auchinleck Romances, is in Weber, i. 358. The ge is pared away; for getwin becomes tuin (geminus). There are the phrases gret with childe, all the winter-long night, p. 362 ; (life-long was to come later). The adjective melche is formed from milk, p. 364; hence a milch cow. There is take mi chaunce ; come is followed by an Infinitive, p. 367, when y com to have it. To the county of Salop the 'Romance of the Seven Sages' (Weber, iii.) seems to belong; though the first five pages and the last forty-five have been taken from another version of the poem, a Northern one. There are the new Salopian terms, siceting and upsodoun; also the Salopian e for i or u, as kess, pelt, geltif ; there is the Midland active par- ticiple in end ; niman is used for the Latin ire, as in the West Midland. There are the Northern sket and the Southern thilk, the Northern must and the Southern mot (oportet), tokens of the Great Sundering Line. The o becomes ou, for the old rop (clamor) appears as roupe, p. 47, a word still in Scotch use. The s is added to a word ; as Gemes, our James, for the former Jame. The ch replaces k, when we find skriche (screech) for the old skrika ; we still keep both 1 6 THE NEW ENGLISH, [CHAP. screech, and shriek. The n is docked, for we find chike, not chicken, p. 84. The n is preserved in the Salopian graunt- mewys, p. 38 ; but it is struck out in the Northern gramercy, p. 130. There are the new substantives barli water, dunghill, sea- side ; there is the new gade, applied to an unwise woman in p. 102; whence perhaps our jade. The adverb is placed before the noun, for the sake of brevity ; as, thi to-nightes meting (dream), p. 93. The substantive qualifies the adjec- tive, as, stanestill, p. 141. A substantive replaces a verb, as, my ml es to dine, p. 146 ; also, thai war in will to solas tJiam, p. 135. Among the adjectives we find blind so ston (stone-blind) ; there is free stone, p. 118 ; one of the oldest senses of free was lordly ; free mason was yet to come. The word good is used in a new sense in p. 87 ; thou comest hither for no gode. The old comparative eldre or uldre is now changed into alder, our older, p. 143. Among the verbs we remark a new construction of shall : it replaces the old is to, with the Infinitive ; thy loverd schal make afest, p. 72 (purposes to do it). The old mun can still express the future, and not necessity ; see p. 110. The Auxiliary verb may now stand by itself without any infinitive following ; a man is bidden to avenge his son ; he answers, so ich schal, p. 106. This so is equivalent to that (id ipsum). We have seen the curious Old English construction with should, where should come stands for our came ; this is now transferred to Interrogative sentences ; who schulde beget him but the king ? in answer to a question as to paternity, p. 42. There is a strange repetition in p. 119; " into the toure the knight gan gane " (did go). There are phrases like make redy, make meri, make a bed, make moche to done (ado), p. 73; go about to do it, Jwld thy peace, is it comen therto ? (to this point), p. 47. The Intransitive bleed takes an accusative ; blede thre disch-fol (dishfuls), p. 75. The welcome is now followed by an Infinitive ; thai ivar wd- kum to sojorn, etc., p. 146. The Scandinavian verb ivitnen makes way for the new witness (testari), p. 28. The verb bob (ferire) gets the new sense of decipere, p. 87 ; lago bobs i.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 17 jewels from his dupe much later. In p. 103 we have "pluk up thin herte." The Old and New constructions often stand close together ; in p. 1 1 4 we have the old form, him dremyd of it; in p. 113 stands, the lady dremyd an tlioght, etc. In the Northern version, p. 109, there is a peculiar use of hope for putare ; sum hoped Tie war the fend of hell ; so we often now use / expect for puto, Among the adverbs are how so? what then? thereat. The stitte (adhuc) in p. 60 was as yet peculiar to the North of England. The hwile in p. 64 is used in the Northern sense of usque ad. To balance this, in the very next page there is a Salopian use of til for the Latin dum ; " I shall never see thee til I lire;" this is repeated in Piers Plough- man, and in the poem on Freemasonry. The preposition to now follows do ; treachery is i-don to a bird in p. 89. There is the verb flap, akin to a Dutch word ; and the Scandinavian forcrasen (frangere), p. 30, whence comes crazy. There is also the Scandinavian crake (comix) which survives in corn-crake. Among the French words are gardin, corfu (curfew), saucer, quest (inquest), female. There are the Interjections liaro ! and_/, fl! p. 63 ; the old datheit appears for almost the last time in p. 93 ; there is the courtly sauve your grace! used to an Emperor, p. 28. The word mater is used for importance; a thing of gret mater, p. 77. The word sure appears in make tliem seur of, p. 79. We find beves flesch, p. 44 ; the former word is preserved in our Bibles. A Teutonic and a Romance word are coupled in eld age (senectus), p. 22. A Teutonic word takes a Eomance end- ing, as geltif (guilty), p. 34 ; we have already seen bond-age. There is a curious French idiom in p. 27, ttiat he war an- hnnge (let him be hanged) ; our fathers always found the que too much for them. Another French idiom is imitated in p. 21 ; a command is given, and the one word Uethliche (volontiers) is answered. A knight asks a lady what cliere she made, p. 121 ; see also p. 149 ; both of these passages occur in the Northern version of the poem, and refer to the mind, not to the body. The word boM in p. 39 means VOL. I. C 1 8 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. carnifex, not puer; it had already occurred in the 'Havelok.' 1 We see the Teutonic boi (puer) in p. 53. I have already remarked on one and the same word being used as a rime, if it expresses two different meanings ; in p. 47 we have " Dame, he saide, pluk up thi cher, Other tel me whi thou makest swich cher. " Here the first cher means " courage ; " the second means " sad countenance." Other poems of the Auchinleck manuscript may be read in Horstmann's ' Altenglische Legenden,' pp. Ivii. and 242. The French herber becomes erber, our arbour, p. Ivii. There is the new phrase mani a moder child, p. 253 ; whence comes " every mother's son." There is the very old form alp (elephas), p. 248. A body is beaten bio and blac, p. 248 ; in the next Century this was to become blak and blew. There is a new use of manner ; a man does things on (in) his best maner, p. 246 ; hence a painter's earliest manner. There is the Adjective joiles (joyless) ; also lorer ire (laurus). In a rather later copy of an Auchinleck legend, on and on is altered into on be on (one by one), p. 246; row by row had appeared about 1200. Some other poems in this Volume seem to belong to 1330 ; we see the compound longe tayled, p. 332 ; there is the form ]>ou doyst (not dost or dest), p. 333. The verb clater is used of a friar preaching, p. 503. Robert Manning of Brunne, author of the ' Handlyng Synne,' translated a French historical poem into English after 1337 ; see p. 243. 2 The unusual word aglifte (territus) is common to the two pieces written by him ; also aim, plank, to-name, niman (ire), manly (fortiter); the former inter- jection prut now becomes trut! p. 317, perhaps the parent of our tut ! He appears more Northern in his dialect than he was before, since the present poem has been altered by I 1 remember, at Rome, that the Italian servants were much tickled with the name of Bowyer, belonging to an English visitor ; it reminded them of their national boja (carnifex). 2 I use Hearne's edition. i.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 19 no Southern transcriber. He uses ilk, not eche, and the Active participle in and. There are the Northern phrases unto, time and tide ; the Godes man of the ' Cursor Mundi ' here becomes man of God. He changes the French ou into e, as contreve for con- trouver, our contrive; the form preve was later very near supplanting pruve, prove ; we have already seen gle stand for (jleow. The word eage (oculus) now becomes i$e. What was written mure in 1307 appears here as mire, taking the new meaning of lutum, p. 70 ; the old fenn had expressed both lutum and palus. The new Uo had already stood for the Teutonic bid (lividus) ; it now stands for the French bloie (cseruleus), p. 173 ; it may represent the Old English bleo (cseruleus). The French Jeanne appears as Jone, our Joan ; Jane was to come later. The g is turned into w the Celtic Macdougal became Macdowall in Galloway ; more- over the French regarder appears as reward, p. 294 ; but this last was to be soon confined to reguerdon. The t in the middle is struck out ; we see vanward, whence comes our vanguard. The*J> undergoes the same lot ; Sujperei becomes Surray, p. 15. This J> is turned into t, as sleihte for the old sleJipe (astutia). The n is clipped ; for on flote becomes o flote, our afloat. The final n is clipped ; the Past Parti- ciple risen becomes rise, whence conies " his anger is rim." The r is struck out; the tristre (statio) of 1220 is seen as trittc. The French ss is changed into sch, at the end of a word, as warnische (garnish). Among the Substantives we find his side (party), my heved (overlord), p. 90, seen also as chefe, p. 237; peel (castellum); castles are won, ilka stik, every stick, p. 113. The name Jack appears, coming from Jon, Jan, Jankin, Jakkin ; it has nothing to do with the French Jacques ; there is, moreover, Hugh, not the Huwe of the ' Havelok ; ' also the Welshery. The word bank is used of earthworks in besieging a town. We have already seen go his gate, we now find go thy ways ; the use of the Plural is curious. The word sand (arena) is here used in the Plural, and evese takes the awkward Plural eveses (eaves). The old quisle of the ' Havelok ' is confused with the verb bicwefyen ; bequest is the result. The word 20 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAI-. holde takes a new meaning besides that of castellum ; we see to Juive a hold (power of seizing). The old fee (pecunia) gets the sense of prcemium. The word bond now means fcedus as well as vinculum. The old bre$e (supercilium) is now used for the top of a hill ; Manning talks of bank ne bre ; brae is a famous word in Scotland. The old blade (folium) gets another meaning, that of lamina. The word foot is now applied to measures; a fote of land, p. 140. The word tide (tempus) expresses cest-us for the first time, I think, in p. 164; to take the tide, where the sea is in question. There are the feudal words ward and relefe, p. 214. The word dipper is used in respect of coinage, p. 238. In p. 294 a provost is called a cherle ; this word, in Lincolnshire as well as in Kent, was becoming a term of reproach, as had happened long before to its synonym villein. The word town is added to a proper name, as in the ' Handlyng Synne ;' Acres twin, p. 143. There is the phrase, bare as Job, p. 323 ; also so]> (true) as ]>e gospelle, p. 123. There is the term no body, I think for the first time. Among the Verbs we see the promise, to live and die with a man, p. 45 ; a phrase that was to be common till 1700; the sweltan of the ' Chronicle ' had here vanished. "We hear in p. 46 that men were smyten into elde (grew old); here, I suspect, is the source of the later stricken in years. In p. 58 stands take the laiee (appeal to, occupy) ; the of was to be added later to this phrase. In p. 70 men itpsette saile (erigunt) ; we should now dock the up ; the Scotch still talk of the upset price of a thing ; the sense now usually borne by this word in Southern parts suggests down, not >//<. In p. 170 one ship overreaches another that is, "overtakes." In p. 205 men let flie a quarelle (bolt). In p. 222 comes to say longly or schorte ; hence our, " the long and short of it is." In p. 191 stands it salle be }>am hard, bot, etc. ; we should say, " it shall go hard, but," etc. ; this usage of but as gum had come in about 1300. A man is stokked (set in the stocks), p. 121, the first reference to this punishment. We see do his bidding, cast lots, keep the sea, I *u /////// <-i.< (mind), breke prixoti, I shrew you, at, coming after a Negative, make way for but tliat ; none shall say, bot ]>at $e be boun, ii. 291. As to Prepositions we find, at tlie first, prove it on him, behind thy back, through (by) dint of; the over is prefixed to Romance words, as over-prest (ready). Thewords akin to the Dutch and German are cogge (scapha; hence our cock-boat) ; swal^ (vorago), whence the swallows of the Mole river ; doude (dowdy), sidling (our sidelong), mud (coupled with mire), to stake (palare), to ame (aim). The Scandinavian words are windas (windlass), scop (scoop), soppe, bouspret, bouline. The Icelandic bdgr bears the sense of cortina prorce, a meaning wanting to the English bog or bdh. There is " a trip of gile," p. 156 ; whence came "to trip him." There is the Celtic podel (puddle). The French words are quash, enbusche (ambush), riff and raff, date (tern pus), wide, duchy, rince, deses (mors), larder, extent, repent it, vencuse (vanquish), bayard (of a horse), besquite (biscuit), austere, somons (summons), to convei, navy, mastif, dowerie, commonwele, commons, rascaile of refuse (applied to the Scots), rok (the chess-piece), penne, man of arms. The old French sirurgien is cut down to surgien ; there is also serch (petere) ; this form, and not chercher, still prevails in the middle and south of France. To depart, in the sense of separare, now becomes part. The Picard cauchie (chaussee) is found here . as kauc6, afterwards, from a false analogy, corrupted into causeway. A new French form of the old reaume is here found ; it is 22 THE NEW ENGLISH. [rii.vi-. written roialme. The French let is attached to a Teutonic root, as hamlet. There is a translation in line 13,757 ; egle is ern. The French place, replacing the old stow, is tacked on to a Teutonic noun, as a restyng-place, p. 16. We see the legal verb ateyn, and its participle attei/nt of traytorie ; our verb attaint comes from this last. In p. 78 we have the plural cruelte"s, which is something new. In p. 97 stands the phrase avail (depress) his helme; Scott was fond of vail his bonnet. 1 .In p. 164 tenante appears, standing for vassal. We have march-is (marchio), p. 177, our earliest form of the word ; which seems to show that we should write marquis, not marquess. The word 'escln-fc is employed for a division in battle ; the Echelon movement came much later ; mostre (muster) is employed for ostendcrr, not for our usual sense congregare. In p. 226 cunt re means shire, a sense still in vogue, as " in my country." The word click is used in the sense of malum in p. 258 ; do him chek. The noun train expresses mom in p. 263, dolus in p. 295. The word affray usually here means timor; but in p. 326 it slides into the sense of pugna ; we still keep the word fray. We see Germenie, p. 2, the new form that was to replace Almayn ; the great Flemish city appears as Gaunt, follow- ing the French, not the native Flemish, sound ; the famous Scotch king (whom the poet saw at Cambridge about 1300), is jeered at as Robin and Robinet ; Tomlyn appears as the diminutive of Thomas, and afterwards was used as an English surname. Robert Manning was a sound English patriot, according to his lights ; he thus writes of the Norman Conquest ' ' (William) sette us in servage, of fredom felle j>e floure, )>e Inglis J)orgh taliage lyve 5it in sorow fulle soure (p. 66). Our fredom )>at day for ever toke )>e leve (p. 71). Alle j>is jiraldam, ]>at now on Inglond es, ]>orgh Normanz it cam, bondage and destres" (p. 261). His love of freedom, however, does not take in other countries. "Wales ! wo }>e be, )>e fende ]?e confcmnd ! Scotland, whi ne mot I se be sonken to helle ground ? " (p. 265). 1 Macaulay was rather confused aneut this verb, when he talked of the Volscian vailing his haughty brow. I.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 23 He admires King Edward the First intensely, and tells us that the Royal banner was }>re lebardes raumpand, p. 305 ; here we see the beast that was to pollute Portugal with his hideous presence, as Napoleon asserted. There are some pieces in the 'Reliquiae Antique,' i., which seem written about 1340. In p. 196 we hear of a cold in the head, a new phrase ; the ut is still prefixed to nouns in the old way, as out ydlis (outlying isles), p. 30 ; out- house was to come centuries later. In p. 196 stands thu schM be ilielpit, I dare the wedde ; this last phrase is our common "I bet you." In p. 272 we hear of Prestere Jolwin ; in the next page of Iselond and Chvnelond. In p. 196 stands rosemaryni ; the last syllable was to be clipped a hundred years later. There is a piece, written about this time, in ' Religious and Love Poems ' (Early English Text Society). We see the new idiom of Adjectives, werse }>an wod (worse than mad), p. 248. There is paraffe (paragraph) ; the verb wait (vigilare) slides into a new meaning (exspectare) ; the Virgin waytyd lure chylde (at Calvary) that is, watched for His coming, but without hostile intent. In 1279 a French Dominican had drawn up a religious treatise, which was now, in 1340, turned into the English of Kent by Dan Michel of Northgate, an aged monk of Canterbury. He called his book the 'Ayenbite of Inwyt,' or, Remorse of Conscience (Early English Text Society). 1 He was the last Englishman who adopted an all but purely Teutonic style in many of his sentences ; keeping up the old inflexions which had been dropped in nearly all other shires; he says himself, p. 262, that he wrote for "lewd men," mid Engliss of Kent. In the same page he sets forth the Paternoster, the Ave, and the Creed, using but one foreign word in the whole ; generalliche (Catholic). But in other parts of his book he brings in shoals of new French words, and gives us many new attempts at translating French terms and idioms ; as timlich (temporel), ]>et wars ys (what is worse), to tlie death, guod cheap, to greate clieape, ane zuo greate emperur (un si grand empereur), calouive mous 1 Every one should read Dr. Morris's valuable Preface to this work. 24 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. (chauve soriz), wedde dyade (mortgage), yno^bote (satisfac- tion), dede of arnies, ]>e meste (most) beloved, }>e contra r'. aboutestondinges (circumstances), Ipe writinge (1'Ecriture), m't Ihord (monsieur), in ]>et case, )wu hi byeth foles ! ]>e o]>re zyde, p. 89 (de 1'autre c6te). The French femme, as in the 'Ancren ' Eiwle,' evidently suggested id/man (ancilla), in p. 67. The foreign vyleyne (uncourteous) is left untranslated in p. 194 ; but in p. 76 we hear that no cherl can enter heaven ; this Teutonic word, which had once stood for freeman, plainly owes its secondary and lower sense to the French nlc'm, which had long before acquired a baser meaning. The ill- sounding word derived from. Bulgaria, the term of abuse that is now so common both on French and English lips, is always appearing in this treatise ; it here stands for lieretic only. The French construction of prepositions with the infinitive is very plain in p. 134, be god to ?'/ jw^/V (by worshipping God). Another translation from the French is this ; man robs himself of his freedom in/' gmt del, p. 86 ; our great deal is in constant use now. Noble- men are called greate men, p. 256 ; a translation of Ics grands. The French position of adjectives is seen in voder gostlicli (ghostly father). The prejudice of heretics against making an oath upon any occasion whatever is referred to in p. 63 ; the sin of wasting Sunday in idleness and folly is reproved in p. 213. The French writer bears hard on Jews and Caorsins for usury. On the other hand, the 'Ayenbite,' as has been re- marked, is a most Teutonic work, and we here see the Southern speech, the most uncorrupted of all our dialects, in much of its old glory. The peculiarities of Shoreham are once more repeated, such as nudU for the French m&Ue, and minister in the sense of sacerdos. A Middle English poem of 1240 is set out in p. 129. Our translator has some very old forms, such as trav: (arbor), tck]> (docet), e^tende (octavus) ; this last reminds us of the Old Frisian tinge in the Southern Homilies of 1120. The French re in verbs is rendered by again, as to ayenwey. The use of that as the neuter of the Definite article still lingers on. But even in Kent change is at work. The old forme fadi-r i.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 25 is turned into verste voder, p. 129 ; and the old Southern o]> (usque ad) seems to have vanished since 1300. The employment of Verbal nouns has come down from the North ; also the words sob, hog, scold, pic (Hgo), and the interjection eif In p. 235 we see the proverb, to zuiche Uwrde zuicli maine, " like master, like man." In Vowels the a replaces ea; the old hleapewince becomes lliapwince, on the road to lapwing. The e is clipped, for the French escluse becomes sduse, our sluice ; it replaces a, as genie for game; the form elifans is written for olifant, p. 224; the old pisa forms the plural pesen. The ea is turned into ye, showing the old sound of the word, as in yealde and yerthe. The Kentish ie, sounded like the French e, is again found, as sopier (supper). We see the two forms, deau and deawe (ros) in p. 91. The Latin Boethius becomes Boeice in p. 174; this led to a new sound of oi, soon to be further developed; we still have the proper name Boyce. The Southern o replaces a; wdse becomes wose, our ooze; we have also lompe, bronch, ronsoun, sclondre, and many such. The o replaces e; ismejped becomes ismolped (smoothed). The u is inserted in buone and guos (anser) ; the old French pilous is seen as pitewus, our piteous. As to the Consonants, the be is inserted before langian ; we now see our verb belong. The n is struck out ; we see agrund for on ground, p. 91 ; spinnere (aranea) becomes spfyre, our spider; what was elsewhere dronken is pared down to dronke. The r is inserted ; Manning's provende becomes provendre. The former evencristene (fellow Christian) is seen as emcristen. We find the form pad, meaning pass, p. 252 ; we now give a distinct meaning to each of these variations of the Verb. Among the new Substantives are makere (Creator), vol- nesse (fulness), spekeman (spokesman), })orn-lwg (hedgehog), gememan (gamester), hyere-zigginge (hearsay), wedercoc, on- treulpe (untruth), slacnesse. The revivers of Old English in our day speak of fore-words, not prefaces; had they consulted the ' Ayenbite ' they would have seen that vorespecJie, the old forespcec, if spelt in the modern way, would have been the right word to use, since the Old English forward meant 26 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. an agreement. In p. 22 we read of the out-kestingcs (off- shoots) of a tree ; our outcast has a most different meaning. In p. 259 we find the phrase, a man of worssipe ; hence we now call a magistrate " your worship." In p. 49 stands a man of ]>e wordle (world), opposed to a man of religion ; we have slightly altered the sense of the first of these. In p. 56 bysinesse still means care, as in the North ; but bysihede is now coined to express curiosity, p. 231 (hence our busybody), and also exquisiteness, p. 228. In p. 1 leaf is used with reference to a book. In p. Ill lost expresses eager devoutness; and in the same way, in p. 31, onlusthede is used as a synonym for sloth ; we should now call it listless- ness. The noun wit is used in p. 251, both in singular and plural, to express wisdom; alle o\re wyttes ys folie; wit is further used to translate the French sens ; in and\>re wyt, p. 96. A word bears two meanings in one sentence in p. 126; sle^pe, our sleight, expresses first the virtue of prud- ence, then the wiliness of the Devil ; in 1180 it had stood for skill. In p. 256 stands the new zo\ zigger ; but this does not express a soothsayer, as we now use the word, but simply a speaker of truth. We have a definition of the lately-coined ri^tvolnesse in p. 153 ; it seems to be the quality that hits the happy mean between two extremes ; whoever has it will be a sound judge. The Old English ending hed is so much in favour that it is added to French roots ; we see vilhed and pourhed ; another form of the latter here found is pourtt, whence comes the Scotch i>ne milde herte ; hence our " hearts of oak." "We hear of Jeremiah's brecligerdel in p. 205 ; hence must have come Bracegirdle, the name of a famous English actress. A new noun, tomochelhede (too-much-ness), is coined in p. 248 to denote excess; we now talk of "much of a muchness." As to i.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 27 Verbal nouns, we find the new form inguoijnge, p. 264, a translation of the French entree ; the old ingang, in$ong had now vanished. In the page before, we find the cumbrous ate verste guoinge in ; a remarkable change in the method of compounding. In p. 190 we come upon the out-guoinge (gate) of Milan, replacing iitgang, out^ong, as we saw twenty years earlier. As to Adjectives, the ending ful is gaining ground ; we have skuvolle (slothful), harmvolle, workvol, restvol, lostvol, and other new forms. In p. 114 hate is coupled with evelwyl (ill-will). In p. 123 we hear grat guod of a man ; in p. 209 a prayer comes not to gode (to any good). A sailor, when called by his captain, yerneth ase wode, p. 140 ; we should here say " runs like mad ; " this is a curious dropping of one before the adjective. In Pronouns, the great innovation is the phrase \>e like zelve, p. 190 (the self-same); here our author, confused be- tween la m&me chose and lui mdme, has used two different English words to translate meme. In p. 128 we see lie com]) to him-zelve that is, to his senses. The Passive participle form, this done, occurred in Old English ; we now find the Kelative coupled Avith a participle at the beginning of the sentence, as huych y-graunted, p. 264 ; a very foreign idiom. In p. 115 it is said that we should not hate on ]>e o]>er ; this paved the way for our "one another," the nominative followed by the accusative. Among the Verbs we remark two Auxiliaries coupled with only one infinitive following, ase he ssel (shall) and may do, p. 136. When describing the absence of Past and Future the author writes wylpoute wes (was), wylpoute ssel by (shall be), p. 104 ; in our day an old horse is called "one of the IMS beens " (fuimus Troes). There is bedeaw, bedew, also the phrases, pride him (himself), make markat, make memorie of, make semblont (semblance), that, etc. ; make_ ham way (make way for them), breke Sunday, yeve zouke (give suck), do good to, do diligence to keep, etc. ; l see to it, Imve }>et ej,e to (have an eye to), have compassioun, have to done mid (do with), stop 1 We see by these -makes and dos the influence of the French fai re upon England. 28 THE NEW ENGLISH. [<'ii.\i'. the ear. In p. 25 hypocrites make]) ham guode; we should say "make themselves out to be good." In p. 42 let is used in a new sense ; let a benefice, with no dative following ; as we say "let a house." Our version of non possum qn!n, dating from 1300, is now further extended; in p. 219 stands Jwu ssolde (should) he lot overcome, etc. I once more call attention to the hardest idiom in English : in p. 42 men commit simony by markat makinde. This inde here representing the old ing of Verbal nouns, as in the ' Homi- lies ' of 1120, compiled not far from Kent. As to Adverbs, new ones are here made by adding licJie to Active Participles Present. The where, answering to a Relative, is much employed, as whereof, wherby, etc. We say " take bribes right and left ; " in p. 40 the translator from the French writes the longer ariqthalf and alcfthalf. In p. 153 we read of equity proceeding ari^t ase line; the strcec, our straight, seems not to have been preserved in the South. In p. 67 mention is made of men who are friends togidere ; a new use of the Adverb. There is a new phrase in p. 112; this bread surpasses all things be rcr (by far) ; hou ver is in p. 89. New adverbs are formed like bodilich, vairliche, wrongliche. Among the new uses of Prepositions we remark the phrase, " to pray God betuene }>ine te]> " (teeth) that is to say, "in thine heart," p. 210. The confusion between on and in appears in p. 222, where the old on \>am gerad gives birth to ine }>o onderstondinge (upon that understanding). In p. 248 toppe alle ]>inges stands for super omnia ; this toppe, a truly Kentish phrase, must have given birth to our atop of. One of the Old English senses of U (secundum) is continued in p. 170 ; be his iville. This bi, translating the French par, is beginning to oust the old Teutonic of (the Latin ab), placed before the agent ; in p. 270 comes \e werm i-s ymad be him. The new words akin to the Dutch and German are scorn (scum), schoren (fulcire), clapper, and rekeninge (compu- tatio) ; there is flinder (papilio), whence came Becon's flttermous (vespertilio), a word still known in Kent. We find a vast proportion of French words in this most Ten- i.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 29 tonic work ; we are reminded of the ' Ancren Eiwle.' Take such sentences as the following : ]>ise vour virtues habbe}> diverse offices and mocliel ham diverse]) in hire workes ase zaylp an aldfilosofe, p. 124 ; (he) his eritage wastede and dispendede ine ribaudie and levede lecherusliche, p. 128. Sometimes the Teutonic and Romance synonyms are set down in the same page, as bo^samnesse, obedience; ssewere, mirour; fortune, hap; his propre blod, elsewhere his o$en; to deme and damni, p. 137 ; Juirdiesse is wrongly substituted for hardness in p. 162 ; skaulpe }>et me clepe]> ine clergie accidye, p. 16; magnani- miU is said in p. 164 to be Jie^nesse, gratnesse, and noblesse of ivylliede. We see amonest (admonish), bargayn, difference, article, ingrat, devine (diviner), simulation, glorify, propreliche, profit, exile, aproprie, dayn (deign), germain, level, destincti (distinguish), discretion, condescend, fiance (affiance), magnifi- cence, orribk, scrivein (scrivener), fornication, echo, resemble, adversary, glue, heiron (heron), launde (lawn), sause, maistresse, perseverance, ariere (arrear), sucre, emeroyd (emerald), to com- parison, spirituel, paysible, have his conversation in heaven, fructify, treat, fry, confusion, afronti, suspicious, terestre, leaven, laver, edefye, grochindeliclie (grudgingly), regne, substandel, condemn, virtues cardinaks, ordenely, strait, examine, refu (refuge), sustinance, tabernacle, flechi (flinch), russoles (rissoles), abundance, mageste', tribe, innumerable, fisike, pope's bulk, region, temperance, soigneus (careful). The adjective quaint had come to mean elegant, gay, out of the common ; l it once slides into the meaning of proud, p. 89 ; a new word, curious, to be found in p. 176, was now used side by side with the old quaint all over England. In p. 40 legal costes are em- ployed in our sense of the term. In p. 96 Christ's thoughts are called oneste ; but in p. 47 ladies adorn themselves JwnestelicJie to befool the men ; here the adverb must mean gorgeously. The Old English la leof has now become lyeve sire (dear sir), p. 213. In p. 184 priv^ appears as a term for intimate friend ; 300 years later England used the Spanish form privado in this sense. The un is prefixed to a Romance verb in unjoin. We see the source of our "a round sum," in p. 234, where the tale of an hondrcd betokne]> 1 Our quaint still means "out of the common." 30 THE NEW ENGLISH. ane rounde figure. We know Shakespere's use of the word quarrel (negotium) ; in p. 142 the pious man takes his quereles to God ; the oldest French meaning of this word is lites. In p. 180 a good man becomes a post in God's temple ; this explains our phrase, " from pillar to post." There are phrases like evele an eyse (ill at ease), in general, stones of pris (price), mochel in dette, he is in porpos to, etc., be in possession, of. There is the terrible word hassasis, p. 140, our assassin ; it is here brought in to illustrate the obedience of a servant to his master. We know that deer, sJieep, etc., are both Singular and Plural ; we now find the French pair undergoing the same process ; vele (many) payre of robes, p. 258. In p. 152 we find the verb entremetti, which still lingers in Scotland as intromit, though not in the South. We see here both the French form parfit and the revived Latin form perfection, both gentilesse and genty- lete", the old devoutly and the new dewcion, corump and corupt ; avoerie and adopcioun are found in the same sentence, p. 101. We have already seen porpos or purpos ; we now light upon the verb proposent, p. 180, which by an over- sight is left in its French form ; we still may either purpose or propose. We have here both provendre and porveyance. A. new French verb comes in under two different forms in p. 5,flouri andflorisse. There are the two forms grey acre and gerniere, granary and garner. We have condut (in the sense of conduit) ; the other form conduct was to come later. We see subprior, which keeps closer to the Latin than Shoreham's sudeakne. We read in p. 61 of a fell beast called hyane (hyaena). In p. 26 the word papelard stands for a hypocrite ; it was afterwards to give birth to pope holy. In p. 51 we light upon the tavernyer or tavern- haunter ; this has given rise to an English surname. The triacle of p. 17 means a remedy for poison ; from this comes treacle. We see boundes (fines), a word which has a puzzling resemblance to the many English nouns derived from bind. There is the comparative graciouscr, like a similar form in Hampole, much about the same time. The old adverbial liclw is added to French roots, as grevouslicfa. One of our commonest phrases, ine mene time I.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 31 comes in p. 36 ; and in ]>e mene while is found ten years later. The adjective stable, as we see here, had driven out the Old English stalpel (stabilis). In p. 68 we see graces (favours) in the plural ; we still say " stand in her good graces." The word mess (epula) had come to England fifty years earlier ; it is now made a verb, for we see the Verbal noun messinges in p. 71. The verb pay is used here both for placere and solvere. In p. 96 confort is used for solamen. Sometimes a French word hopelessly puzzles the Kentish monk, as vendange, chenaille (canaille), corvde ; the happy Englishman of 1340 knew less about this last word than did the French peasant of 1789. In p. 153 we hear of four humours or qualites; in p. 129 these are said to be in the body; in Chaucer they refer to the mind; in p. 157 men are said to be colrik, sanguinien, fleumatike, and melan- conien. In p. 59 preterit is explained as referring to Ipinge ypassed, present as referring to nou. I may remark that between 1330 and 1340 three different forms of the Greek word for the huge earth-shaking beast were found in England ; alp (yip), olifant, and the elifans of the present work. The old augrim is now encroached upon by a new French form, algorisme ; and the two ran parallel with each other till 1625, after which the new form triumphed. The hermit Hampole's long poem, the ' Pricke of Con- science,' may date from 1340. It is in the Yorkshire dialect, and at once became popular all over England ; for there remain Southern versions of the piece, dating from about 1350. 1 Since Alfred's time no long English poem had hitherto been compiled, that was to enjoy an unbroken popularity for 180 years; we know that the 'Pricke of Conscience,' together with WicklinVs works, was studied in secret by Lollard heretics so late as 1520. 2 This is a proof that our tongue kept fairly steady, in her adherence to old words, after 1290. 1 Dr. Morris had edited it in the Philological Society's Early English volume, 1862-64 ; he has prefixed an invaluable dissertation on the Northern dialect. 2 Foxe (Catley's edition), iv. 236. 32 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. The e supplants the i, for tricherie now yields the ad- jective trechems. The converse of this takes place, when we find chimnd and libard; the latter form is used by Cowper. The forms move and remove appear, where mew and retrieve would have been written in other parts of Eng- land. The Yorkshire gude (bonus) appears again. As to the Consonants, / is struck out of the middle of a word, for Orrmin's abufan now becomes oboune (the Scotch aboon), in the North. There is a curious confusion between / and p, the French estoffer and the English stoppan, when in p. 198 devils stop (stuff) the sinful in the fire. The h is altered into gh, for our form heghest (highest) stands in p. 28. The g is lopped from the end of a word ; Layamon's roeving (spoliatio) becomes ravin, p. 92. In p. 52 regard (this is not reguerdon) is changed into reward, just as the old gharma became our warm. The Past Participle loses the final d; fretted (ornatus) becomes frett, p. 245. The n is added, for bedreda becomes bedreden (bedridden), p. 23 ; it is inserted in the Scandinavian way, for the Southern \rctie\e (thirteenth) becomes threttende. The s supplants the old r ; lure, and froren become losse and frosen ; the s is added to form the Genitive of hell; holies is in p. 77; the old /// midde becomes in middes (amidst). The 3 had long been mistaken for z; hence the French citeien, cite$en, becomes citesayne, p. 240. The ruskU of the year 1240 is now turned into our rush (ruere), p. 198. The Northern love of Verbal nouns is again seen ; there is a curious idiom in p. 208 ; we hear of a stone of >/ appears, p. 37. We see in u-ate (wet) and drie, an instance of Adjectives being used as substantives. The epithet unready had been applied to King i.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 33 meaning that he was " void of rede " (counsel) ; but this adjective changes its meaning in p. 55, to denote unpre,- pared. In p. 35 stands the new idiom, fresJie to assayle us ; fresh in p. 144 is further applied to wounds, as if they had been newly inflicted. A new fashion now arises of prefixing of to the Eelative, and thus forming a Genitive; the Relative is separated from its antecedent, a very bad habit; in p. 108 comes ten Binges, }>at touches ]>e day, of whilk (Binges) sum sal be, etc. So much had the old alre (omnium) gone out of use, that in p. 209 stands the pleonasm }>e alther-lieghest place of alle. In p. 250 stands ilhtn til other, a foretaste of our curious idiom coupling each other, which arose more than a hundred years later. Hampole goes out of his way to write }>e tother alle (omnes alios), a Plural. In p. 219 stands a thoivsand thmvsand, an idiom still kept in our Bible ; the French million was to come a few years later. Among the Verbs we remark stand in stede, leg or borrow, make end of, put til pain, be in prayers, do me }>at favour, gold wasfyned, p. 74. The verb speed had hitherto been Intransi- tive, but in p. 1 6 9 we hear of a process being sped. There is the new Participle uncnawen in p. 10. We find a curious jumble of Infinitive idioms in p. 97. ' ' Mak ]>air payn cees, And ]>am of ]>air payn to haf relees." To hunger had hitherto been an Impersonal Verb, as me hungre}> ; in p. 166 stands / hungerd ; changes like this are nearly always due to the North. In p. 201 we find both to new and to renovel, the English and French synonyms ; our renew is a compound of the two, and came fifty years later. Among the Adverbs we see the new up-swa-doune ; also, in p. 19, turn up }>at es doun. Instead of the Southern never- theless stands in p. 1 00 never }>e latter, and this is sometimes used by Tyndale. There is also over sone, p. 106. In p. 94 we find any time, without the at that should have been prefixed ; any way, any how, were to follow. An Adverb, as in the ' Cursor Mundi,' is formed from an Active Parti- VOL. i. D 34 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. ciple, witandly, p. 155. In p. 8 we see, what wonder es yf, etc. Among the Prepositions we find the phrases under colour of, by way of grace, p. 98 ; something like this last we saw in the ' Cursor Mundi.' The poet says that he will imagine something, an myne awen head ; we should now say " on my own account." In p. 170 stands impossibel til hym ; the oldest English would have employed the Dative case after the adjective. In p. 52 stands take reward (regard) to; in p. 250 smell sweet to others; this last seems to stand for " to the thinking of others," the French a mm avis. We see moute (moult) akin to the Dutch muiten. The Scandinavian words are swipp (sweep, pass quickly), e cuntre"; and four lines afterwards men give ]>air verdite. In p. 164 we first hear of a sergeaunt, in the legal sense of the word. In p. 213 mention is made of blessings and ]>air contraryes ; a new use of this Adjective. Allege in this poem expresses both the Old English alecgan and the French alleguer. The new words were somewhat puzzling to the poet ; in p. 8 1 he writes recoverere for our recovery. French phrases continue to oust our old Prepositions ; we now see the source of our as regards and with regard to ; in p. 202 stands als to regard of payne; in p. 242 comes als to regard to blys. Playne is opposed to mountainous in p. 173. Garette is used, p. 245, of the watch-towers of heaven. In p. 108 Christ comes in proper parson. In p. 142 the Latin austcrm and the English stern are ingeniously combined in awsterne. The verb rewel (rule) is formed from the Noun, and another verb, muse, is found for almost the first time ; it is curious that these two verbs were also making their appearance in i.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 35 Kent at this very same date, 1340. There are new forms, such as improperly, unstableness, peaceableness. In p. 221 comes the line " A Is proper ly als possible may be." We should now strike out the last two words. Deserve is first followed by an Infinitive in p. 225, and we, further on, in p. 230, find certayne to have. Hampole of course uses a number of Northern phrases, such as noght lot, sculk, scald, stour, win to, almus, hurtle, new- made, f one (pauci), face to face, he behoves, even (just) contrary, three days and a half, draw a tretis. He has the expound of the ' Cursor Mundi,' and also a new form, exposition ; we have formed words in English from ponere and positus alike. There is the Northern le (lee), not leow, which is still pro- nounced lew in Dorset. We still sound sutiltd in the French way, as Hampole writes it, though we imitate the old Latin form subtilty in writing the word. Besides the poem just considered, we have some prose treatises of Hampole's (Early English Text Society). They show us what our religious dialect was to be ; many French and Latin words appear, and are used far less sparingly than in Tyndale's works, 200 years later. Indeed, it may be laid down that nearly all the Romance words, to be found in our Version of the Bible, were known in England during the Fourteenth Century. Some of these foreign terms appeared in Kent about the same time as in York- shire, that is, in 1340. The Northern dialect of Hampole reminds us of the ' Cursor Mundi ; ' we see once more awk- wardly-formed Adverbs, such as lawlyly; also ]>ire, }>of, }>ose, ]>ou is, a being, no force, enterely, a person, by mine ane, it byhovys be lufed ; the Verbal Nouns abound. One of the Treatises, p. 19, has been turned into a more Southern dialect ; here wern (erant) and goth (eunt) appear. As to Vowels, u often replaces o, as blude, duse (facit) ; there is oys as well as use, p. 1 3 ; this word must have been pronounced by Yorkshiremen in the true French way, not like the corrupt yuse of the Severn country. As in Hampole's poetry, repreved makes way for reproffed. There 36 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. is a new instance of u being mistaken for v, just as the French Jueu became Juev, Juif; in p. 23 plenties is written for plenteuous, and this often is found as plentifaus in the next Century. Among the Substantives the ending mss is making way even in French words, as grevesnes. The new form bisin<. had already appeared in the ' Cursor Mundi ; ' this is now made Plural in p. 20, besynessis. Another new Plural, likyngis, is found in p. 21. Men have a goode wille to a person, p. 23. The habit, first noticed in the 'Ayenbite,' is continued of setting an adverb after a Verbal Noun, and treating the whole as one word which may be followed by a Genitive ; consail es doynge awaye of recJies, p. 12; the Scotch louping-on stone is curious. We lost much when we threw aside our power of prefixing prepositions or adverbs to verbs and verbal nouns. A new ending of Adjectives appears ; the foreign olfr is tacked on to a Teutonic root ; we see lufabyll (loveable) in p. 2 ; and the Northern Wickliffe was rather later to use guenchable. The neodful in the ' Ancren Riwle ' had meant nothing but avidus ; it now, p. 22, takes the sense of necessarius, as we use the word. Among the Verbs there are phrases like in tym to come, turne }>e foaynes, put his traiste in, be-warre of certayne thymji-*, p. 40 ; gyfe stede (place) to hym, set in order, take In re fafande and }>e litf<-'f>/nge of Godd. The expression cefre }>e Oder man, found in the ' Chronicle ' for 1087, is now changed ; we see ilke o]>er day (every second day), p. 41. We have already seen as to this; as for now first translates quod special ad ; }>is desire may be Juidd, as for ]>e v&ftu of it, in liabyte, p. 34. I.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 37 Among the Prepositions we find with employed after take, as was foreshadowed in 1280; with whas lufe it es takyn (captivated), p. 2. The by is employed before the agent, as in the 'Ayenbite ' previously ; goodis Jcepte bi thi ser- vantis, p. 23. We had long had the phrase, weep over a thing ; this use of over (something like the Latin de) is now extended ; thynke over thi synnes, p. 36. This over is one of the few prepositions with which we can still compound ; it is here fastened to a foreign root; the verb overtravell (overwork) is in p. 17 ; over was to replace for. We see for the first time our verb overlay, which was long peculiar to the North. We find a new Verb in p. 12, coming from the Scandi- navian tang (sea weed), a man may be tagyld (entangled) with various hindrances. The new French words are many. The foreign Adjec- tive in ous is made to take our signs of Comparison, a process now most alien to literary English, though in 1340 it was found both in Yorkshire and in Kent ; delycyouseste stands in p. 2. The Adjective innocentys is used as a Sub- stantive, p. 11 ; the Latin word had been brought into France by the clergy not many ages before this time. Hampole speaks of thynges mobill or in-mobill, p. 11. The French corruption sugettis is found in p. 24, differing from the Latin subiede used in another part of England about this time. We see our common abill to do any- thing, p. 16, which seems to come from the French habile. In p. 24 stands on the contrary wise ; in our Bible the two first words are dropped. Shoreham had used minister for a priest ; here in p. 11 we see a new sense of the word, mynystyrs of }>e Jcynge. In p. 15 the word comfort, used in the Plural, seems to change its meaning from strength to pleasure; there is also comfortable. In p. 24 we first find the word curate, used like the French cure" and Spanish cura, for one who has the cure of souls. We read here of prelates and olper curatis ; and this sense lasted in England for more than 200 years; indeed, in our Liturgy, curate is still used for a parish priest. Skelton's no force, after lasting for 200 years before that poet's time, has now been supplanted by Tyndale's no matter ; in p. 2 1 we see 38 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. it bryngith into my herte much mater to love hym, where mater stands for constraining force, as in our what is the matter ? In p. 25, Christ left the conversation of men, and went into disserte (desert), and continued in prayers alone. In p. 37 we see maystry, where the old French sense of dominium has slid into vis ; hence our masterful. In p. 1 a man savours things, in p. 44 he savours of things, a Scrip- tural idiom of ours. There are the words, doctour, to <7<-/r, concupiscence, sensualite, transform, essential, secondary, illusion, fantasy, frensy, be processe of tyme, refreyn things, to commune with, disposed, frequently, increase, desire, acordandly, unavisedly, at ]>e instaunce of, inperfite ; enjoye in it stands in p. 44, where we should say rejoice, and the two verbs were long used as synonyms. The ' Tale of Gamelyn,' lately printed by Mr. Skeat, seems to me to belong to the year 1340 or thereabouts, if we weigh the proportion of French and obsolete Teutonic words. It bears marks of the South, but has an East Midland tinge, and may belong to North Warwickshire. The Northern words, never found far to the South of the Great Sundering Line, are lithe (audire), gate (via), sheet (cito), serk (indusium), ferde (timor), hond-fast, awe (timor), not the Southern eye. There are certain forms found earlier in the 'Havelok,' such as queste (bequest), dither (omnium), rig (dorsum). On the other hand, there are certain Severn forms, such as huyre (hire), abegge (abye), the Salopian to rightes ; a whole line on Seynt Jame in Galys is quoted, twice over, from a Salopian poem of 1320. The Present ending en is encroaching upon eth t as we wiln (volumus), we spenden. There is the old construction, better is us tlier, than, etc., p. 23, also p. 20 ; this is very different from the they hadden leovere steorve of the Alexander. Another old construction is in p. 22, it ben the schirrefes men. The o supplants the common u or eo in dolful, p. 18. Among the new Substantives are draw-welle, a talking (tale). An outlaw is proclaimed wolves-heed, p. 26, an un- usual word since the Conquest. The word man is needlessly added to another substantive, as jugge-man (judex), p. 31 ; hence the later fisherman and beggarman. The word <1< < r i.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 39 (ferae) is now set apart to express cervi, p. 4 ; and this change may be seen in Lancashire about the same time. We know the Irish sorra a bit ; the source of this is in p. 33; sorwe have (him) tliat reklce! The Double Accusative is seen in bind him foot and honde, p. 15. The word side had for some time been driving out half; in p. 17 stands iflfayle on my syde (part). Men tell how the wynd was went, p. 26 (how things turned). There is the new phrase, light of foot, p. 5. An outlaw's followers are called his mery men, p. 29 ; also his $onge men, p. 26. The new great is encroaching on the old moche ; in p. 9 stands a gret fool, and eight lines lower, a moche schrewe. We have already seen nothing of his ; we now have, in p. 10, many tornes of thyne. Among the Verbs are do al tJiat in me is, draw blood, kepe his day. The verb breed is applied in a new sense ; a landowner lireeds forth beasts, p. 14. An official is reviled as broke-bak scherreve, p. 27 ; a new formation, like the later crook-back. Men dress (set) things to-ri(/htes, p. 2 ; this Adverb (few recognise it) is the source of our setting things to rights. The adjective fyn is used as an Adverb ; eat wel and fyn, p. 1 7 ; the Scotch often say, "he's doing fine." The never is used for not in p. 22, as in Orrmin ; we Jiave frendes never oon. The up is used as a verb in p. 20, he up with his staf. The more usual adverb halfinge is replaced by by Jialves, p. 6. Jurors are on a quest (inquest), p. 32 ; go on an errand was a very old phrase. A man is nome (taken) into counseil, p. 26 ; the last word was soon to mean a secret. There is the Scandinavian loft, p. 6, meaning a garret; the Old English lyft (later lift or luff) meant only air. The new French words are dress (ponere), pestel, courser, catour (caterer), toret (turret). The spenser (steward) ap- pears in p. 16, whence a great English family took its name. The word quest is shortened from the older en- queste, p. 29. A justice has a clerk, p. 31 ; a new sense of the word. In p. 32 we hear of the barre in a court of justice. This poem is curious as introducing us to the machinery of the future Robin Hood ballads; it sets before us the maister outlawe, who walks under woode scJmwes, with his 40 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. merry men; his kindness to the poor, and his enmity to abbots and monks, p. 29 ; his encounters with the Sheriff, on whom due vengeance is taken. The name Robin Hood was not to appear in English verse until 1377. There is an incident, afterwards adopted by Shakespere ; the young hero, persecuted by his elder brother, is followed by his faithful servant Adam, who had hore lokkes; the pair, when very hungry, light upon outlaws sitting at meat. Some Northern poems, that seem to belong to 1340, may be read in Horstmann's 'Altenglische Legenden,' p. 77 and 454. There is the new band-dogge, p. 78 ; it is also called a hounde. In Scotland we may still hear the Impera- tive away you go! in p. 79 the command is given, here $e ga and venge me. In p. 465 something is not /or \e beste, anew phrase. There is the word tope (ovis) in p. 79 ; our tup. We see the Superlative chefest; also, I defye \e. In p. 334 may be found a poem which from the dialect seems to me to have been composed in the Rutland district : there are very few forms now obsolete. The Avowynge of King Arthur may be found in Rob- son's 'Three Early English Metrical Romances' (Camden Society). This piece, probably due to Lancashire, seems to be older than the other two printed with it, and may belong to 1340. The Consonant / is struck out, for seofon niht becomes senny$t, p. 81. There are phrases like stokb'* and stonis, mayn and my^te, tJuiy ar gode frindus (friends). The word deor had hitherto expressed any beast ; it seems now and henceforward to be set aside for cervus. Some- thing is in tlie sunne, p. 89 (sunlight). The ranks of society are placed before us in a line found in p. 80 ; kny^te, squy /; $oman, knave, are alike entertained in hall ; the third word here bears more than its sense in the ' Cursor Mundi,' an able-bodied man. In p. 63 a steed is said to be starke ded; here the adjective changes iromfmiis to rigidus, in a physical sense. The it appears again : a knight vows to wa&e hit (keep awake), p. 61. The word any, as we saw before, is coming into vogue; in p. 78 stands mile $e any more? In p. 89 a tun bursts in six or in sevyn, the source of our well- known phrase, "at sixes and sevens." A space of time, i.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 41 whether past or future, if it be in contact with the present, may be expressed by this or the-se; in p. 91 stands tJw^he $e sege this sevyn $ere. Orrmin's mun had expressed nothing but futurity ; we now see it express necessity ; thou mun (roust) pay, p. 69. Men are bidden to sle care, our kill care, p. 81. In p. 76 stands I dar lay; here wager is dropped. In p. 90 stands cast himself away; this phrase long after- wards gave birth to the noun castaway. Among the Adverbs we find / telle 30 as quy (why), p. 85 ; there is no need of the as here ; it is prefixed, just as in as at this time, as yet; and in our age as how? is sometimes found. In p. 67 stands quethur (quo) is thou on way? the source of our whither away ? The expression a far land was good Old English ; we now hear of the fur (far) syde of the li$te, p. 88 ; the side most distant from the light. The translation of the Latin quin by but, already seen in 1300, is continued ; it now stands after nemo as well as after non; is none of 30 but he munfele, p. 76. We see the verb dotur (totter), p. 65, akin to the Dutch. There is the Scandinavian tarne (lacus). The French plat is now discarded for the Icelandic flair; "to fell a man/a^e" is in p. 67. The Celtic pert (bold) reappears, after a long disuse, in p. 66. Among the French words are rebound, bugle, palmer, beuteous. Curious (already seen in the ' Ayenbite ') is a word that took root in Northern England, and seems here to mean " well-dressed," applied to maidens, p. 83 ; it took the sense of carefully made in France in this century, hav- ing before meant careful. We hear of nolle servys in p. 80 ; the idea survives in our to pay royally. Chess is played on a chekkere, p. 84 ; this noun afterwards gave birth to a verb; it had been written escheker in 1280. A boar casts up his stuffe, p. 59 ; this word was not as yet used for fur- niture. There is take entente, p. 91 ; the en was clipped later. Our issue is written usshe, p. 89, which reminds us of the Italian uscire. The word prisoner had hitherto meant a gaoler ; it now takes our modern meaning. Cheer had hitherto expressed vultus ; it now connects itself with feast- ing ; we cannot well be merry on an empty stomach ; 42 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. men who have been eating and drinking are said to make als mirry chere als hit were $ole day (yule), p. 91. In p. 70 a man is prins of iclie play ; hence " the prince of letter writers," and such like phrases, implying thorough mastery of some art. We have an Alliterative poem on Alexander, compiled about 1340 (Early English Text Society, William of Palerne). It seems due to a Salopian bard ; the e is much used, as grendes for grindes ; there are the three forms kid, kud, and ked (notus), and other marks of the West end of the Great Sundering Line. We see here both the old quell and the new kill. In p. 199 sli and conn fug become debased in their meaning, for they are used of a magician bent on a wicked act. The hero's pride is shown by his using tJiou, not ye, even to his father and mother. There are the phrases give up gost, as happes (ut fit), cast (a nativity), go with child, prened (pinned) to the earth. There is the curious verb incle the truthe, p. 196, " to hint, give an inkling of, the truth ;" this may be Danish. There is a new idiom in p. 190 ; they ask Philip to be lord of their land, }>ei to holden of hym. Here a participle, such as being bound, is dropped after ]>ei; and the Nominative replaces the old Dative Absolute. There is the Scandinavian rap (ictus), and two words akin to the German ; droun (our verb drone) and drift, which here means driving power. Among the French phrases are his peple (soldiers) ; he was thought able (skilful). The word inkest is used for blackest, p. 212. In France, about this time, letters of reprisal were granted to an injured man, to pass the inarch and avenge himself on the foreign foe ; the verb mark comes often in this poem, meaning ulcisci ; see p. 193. Hence, our letters of mark. The English translation of the Romance of William of Palerne seems to be due to the same hand that gave us the Alexander. This question is discussed in the Preface by Mr. Skeat, the editor of this poem for the Early English Text Society. The translator of the present piece, who made his version about 1350, seems to have been a poet i.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 43 of renown in his day. He had a high-born patron, the Earl of Hereford, a man more fit for peace than war, one of the great nobles who were fostering the growth of our language about this time ; the work of translation from French into English, as we know, had been going on for seventy years. The Alliterative poet thus appeals to English gratitude " Ye that liken in love swiche Binges to here, Prei3es for pat gode Lord pat gart pis do make, The hende Erl of Hereford, Hurafray de Boune ; The gode king Edwardes dou3ter was his dere moder ; He let make pis mater in pis maner speche, For hem patknowe no Frensche, ne never understond" (p. 175). We owe to the Salopian love of e, that we have, as in this work, dent as well as the older dint (ictus) ; we con- fuse the former with the Latin indent. There are here the two forms lebard and lybarcl ; the latter was used by Cowper. There is a change of letters in the old poren (spectare), which now becomes prie ; Chaucer was to write later pyre and prie ; there was also pire, our peer. An i is inserted when fasoun becomes facioun (fashion). An o is thrown out when do of (exue) is made dof in p. 79. Orrmin's huten becomes hoten, our hoot; the word now means simply damare, not vituperare, as in Orrmin's work. The u replaces y in mures, our moors ; it is written mires in other places of this poem. The old reafere (latro) is seen here as revour, an imitation of the French ending. The form soiv, as well as sew, is used for suere in p. 62 ; the Participle is here sowed, but we have made it Strong since this time, writing it sewn. There are the two forms sur and seurte. There is the curious form leuaute (bewty) in p. 131. The w was so often written for g that, as in Hampole, reward, is written for regard (look), p. 109; and wallop occurs for gallop. In this poem gest stands for both liospes and historia, the Teutonic and the Romance ; these we now distinguish by spelling. The old diken (fodere) is found as well as the new digge, which last we have now made a Strong Verb. The \ is inserted in leng\>en (to prolong), p. 44 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. 39, the old lengan. The n is struck out, for we find a slape, not on slepe, p. 69. The r is making its way into the old gome (the kindred Jwmo) ; in p. 74 we hear of a gome of Grece; in p. 62 this is written a grom of Grece; our bridegroom (the bredgome of the 'Ayenbite') was yet to come. The curious word bakkes (vestes) appears in p. 72 ; it seems to be Salopian, being afterwards used in Piers Plow- man ; we still have the slang term bags for an important part of our raiment ; Lord Eldon was called " Old Bags." We hear of the hacches of a ship ; the word comes from the old hcem (a bar). The word boro$ is still used in the Singular both for a borough of men and for a burrow of rabbits, as of old ; morwe also is employed for both mane and eras. The term wench is used in the honourable sense of the West Midland ; it is applied to a Princess in p. 66; gerls, a West country word, had hitherto meant children ; but the same Princess and her attendant are called gaye gerles, p. 35. We see here repeated the old terms of endear- ment of the Severn country, sweting, my swete hert ; besides these, there are in p. 59, mi Jwny, mi hert, dere ; in p. 66 comes lef liif (vita). In p. 139 William calls the werwolf mi swete dere best; we have also swete Sir, faire friendes. There are new terms, such as kolier (collier), lif-time, egge tol (edged tool), a drove of beasts. We see the double Accusa- tive in folwe him o (one) fote, p. 130. The noun fill is now extended beyond eating and drinking ; lake his fille, p. 33. In p. 101 a new phrase is repeated; a queen is di,t to ri$tes. There is another new phrase, his queue on hire side was, etc., p. 173 ; where an addition is made to a pre- vious statement, and it is implied that the queen did not fall below the king. In p. 122 we find to make it o]>er gut.' : this phrase long afterwards was turned into another guess, which became common in the Eighteenth Century. Among the Adjectives tidi is in constant use, now mean- ing not only seasonable, but fair, worthy. We mark the change of sad from gravis to tristis in p. 28, where a .W x'ikiiiig (sighing) is mentioned. We see waywarde, p. 128, which is short for awayward. The word worthy (dignus) is i.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 45 turned into a Substantive, as we use it ; }>an any ici^t elles, p. 130. This dies is much used for alms; daunger or duresse or any despit elles, p. 136 ; we limit ourselves now to "any thing else," and "any one else." In p. 134 a re- quest is made of the hero to let men go ; the answer is \ai I wol; a new use of }>at, like so I shall. Persons go on alle four, like beasts ; this phrase was used in Lanca- shire about the same time. Another use of the numeral, continued from very old times, is in p. 109 ; ]>ei be five so fele (many) as we. There is a new idiom in p. 166 which saves repetition ; yj he was beloved, y,t was Meliors as moche or more; here so is dropped. We see the verb bell applied to the roar of a bull, p. 66; this sense lasted about a hundred years longer, and the verb was then confined to deer. There is the new verb ferk, to be afterwards used by Shakespere ; it is said to be formed from the sound. In p. 137 swelt changes its meaning; it no longer bears its old sense of die, but is used as a synonym for swoon; swelter was to come later. In p. 38 a lady says, y am done (morior) ; this perhaps stands for for- done; in our time the phrase is, "I am done for." In p. 121 something is said to bode good; the verb later was used in a more confined sense than before, when it had expressed nuntiare. The word override is used for vastare; in our time it can only be used of a horse ill-treated. In p. 140 lete me allone is used for do not trouble yourself. There are phrases like it com in his minde, hold to baie, make silens, 46 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. to make, schort tale. The Infinitive is dropped in easy talk ; A says, "The beast fears us not;" B answers, / m wot whi it schuld, p. 102. In p. 63 a man fears that bears would have mad of him mete ; the gamekeeper in Pickwick thinks that Mr. Winkle will "make cold meat of some of us." We see the Weak crept, not the old Strong crope, which lasted down to the Reformation. There is a curious change in break; the beast was broken into halle (irrupit), p. 139 ; this is an imitation of was come (venit). Among Adverbs, as well as other parts of speech, any is making its way ; onwhar (any where) stands in p. 64 ; on any wise, p. 60, led to our any how. There is hoio so? p. 39 ; it isfer to ]>at cuntre; up happe, the forerunner of Lydgate's perJuips ; in p. 92 happili (our haply) stands for casu ; in p. 133 it seems to express feliciter ; fifty years later a differ- ence was to be made, by means of spelling, between the two adverbs derived from liap. We see but $it used for tamen, p. 73, a kind of needless repetition ; it was soon to be used in the work called by Mandeville's name. In p. 110 men are exhorted to fight, though the enemies were eft as fele (as many again). There is a curious phrase in p. 159, it liked him wel ille, a kind of contradiction in terms. The old wellnigh is now clipped ; in p. 171 stands nei$ wepande for wo. In p. 134 stands as wel as we kunne. The word harde now means cito as well as dure; hie as harde as }>ei mi$t, p. 42; our hard all is well known. In p. 61 a girl is titllirhe attired ; this word for eleganter is said to come from the Old English tela (bene) ; we still hear people talk of tall (fine) English. The adverb gamely in p. 19 means jucunde; we have since given it another meaning, that of fortiter. We see a distinction marked between $a (yea) and $is ; the latter being the more forcible of the two, just as nay is stronger than no; this distinction lasted down to the Reformation ; see Mr. Skeat's note on this point. As to Prepositions, we remark that of, fan; and to are often prefixed to Verbs, proving that the poem was written far from the East Midland country. The bi now first gains the force of adipisci; to com II ski/iufs, p. 60 a most curious idiom. The at is developed ; healed atte best, p. 5 7 (in the i.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 47 best way); armed at alle poyntes, p. 107 ; atte fulle, p. 156 ; at arst (first), p. 41 ; atte last, p. 52. We see att alle in p. 1 5, I think, for the first time ; it seems here to mean by all means; we generally use it for omnino. We have our common sche was out of }>e weye in p. 41. There is a new use of to; I Iwpe to hevene king, p. 43 ; here the hope has some affinity to voiv. There is a new use of about; a man bens bred aboute him, p. 64 that is, bears bread on his per- son. As to on, we find sche brou$t hem on weie, p. 62 ; an extension of the old phrase " on an errand." The idiom that appeared in 1320 is repeated in p. 53; Crist yj hem wye for ]>e menskfullest messageres }>at ever to me come; hence our "begone for a fool ;" here the for reminds us of for ]>at (quia). We find a common phrase of ours, for al ]>e world such a wolf as we see here; the for seems to English maugre ; " though all the world should deny it." The old sense of to (the Latin dis) was becoming obsolete ; for we have the pleonasm to-broke on peces, p. Ill; in the next line something is shivered al to peces ; it is just possible that in the last phrase the to has more in common with dis than with ad. We see the oath Marie beginning a sentence, p. 154, where the by is dropped.; this phrase, marry, may still be heard in Yorkshire. The Scandinavian words are the three verbs glimer, spy, and strike (streak). The words akin to the Dutch arefrau^t (freighted), and to Jiamper. Among the many French words is the adverb cherli (benigne). We see the Plural wages, the French gages; it usually became the Singular wage in the North. There are the two forms pilous and piteuous; agrieve is sometimes used where we should drop the first letter ; asaie, not essay, is the form used in this Century. The term seute (the old French corruption of secutio) stands both for causa and venatio. We see lege man; lege lord had already appeared in the 'Cursor Mundi.' The Jlaket of this poem was after- wards to become flagon. There is our common " a numbre of bestes," p. 78. The word soverayne is used for any 48 THE NEW ENGLISH. I- HAP. superior, such as a provost; hence, in our day, "a sovereign remedy." The title sire is used by a lady to her lover ; a king addresses a clown as sire kowherde, p. 170. We followed the French way as yet in talking of the Spaynols ; our present form of the word came forty years later. There are phrases like in tlie mene while, pore puple (people) ; also fetures, harness (horse trappings, p. 137), metur, kour- teour, remnant, amiabul, waste (irritus). We have here the French tax; we imitate the Spanish form of the word when we write task. Mention is made in p. 151 of a gaie maide ; this adjective became the established epithet for ladies in English ballads. A man rejoices (fruitur) a realm in p. 132 ; this sense of the word lasted for another Century and more in England. In p. 102 the verb conjure is used to a supposed ghost or spirit; in p. 15 the word is used simply to express a command. The verb mcve (our move) simply means Her facere in p. 137; also remewe, p. 49. The verb restore, p. 129, means restituere; but in p. 94 a park is restored (stocked) with beasts. In p. 117 we read of the coupyng togadere of knights ; this word, coming from the French coup, gave us our verb cope. Mention is made of the pers (peers) of Spain, p. 129 ; we now make a distinction in spelling between this word and pairs of gloves. A new French preposition is now coming in ; tidings touchend her father, p. 51 ; Littr6 gives no instance of this new-formed preposition before Froissart. Two Legends of St. Katherine that are in Horstmann's ' Altenglische Legenden,' pp. 236 and 260, seem to belong to the year 1350. In p. 264 comawnde (commendo) is written for the proper commende, as we see by the rime. There is the new phrase put out ey$en, put to dede (death) ; this put was much encroaching on do about this time. The Participle had always, in the oldest English, followed verbs expressing finire ; we now see, in p. 263, leve fyghtynge ; here we now insert an off. Somewhere about 1350 ']?e old usages of J>e Cite of Wynchestre, )>at havej be y-used in }>e tyme of oure elderne,' seem to have been compiled ; they exist in a roll, drawn up about forty years later. I gave a specimen i.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 49 of this in Old and Middle English, p. 48 2. 1 We here see what Standard English would have been in our time had not London supplanted the older capital of Wessex and England ; the Southern dialect is well marked ; all the Present Plurals end in e}>, and me stands for the indefinite man. These are the three forms }>elke, Ipilke, }>ulke (iste) ; e was a favourite letter in Hampshire as in Kent, for we find meche, legge (lodge), p. 363 ; the u is also prominent in sullere, bu}>, and o-lupy. The old deagan (tingere) now gives birth to the Noun dyh^er, our dyer, p. 359. The old mceddre becomes mader (madder). The y is inserted in ffysliyere (fisher), p. 353, which reminds us of the Severn country. The interchange between w and b is seen in fafpowte (without), p. 349, just as Bill was to come from Will. We hear of men, p. 349, who are called the "hevedes (heads) of J>e Cite;" and also, p. 362, of "J>e heved answere;" here we should now use chief. The noun sale appears, and the very old term smergavel (grease tax), p. 359. The fine old phrase, god men and trewe, stands in p. 359. There is the expression to hald stal (stall) of shop- keepers. To chaffar becomes a verb for the first time in p. 357. We hear in our days of the output of mines ; this word is found as a verb in p. 362. The oldforesaid is now written afore-ysayd (aforesaid). Two words have crept down to Winchester from the North liolleclie (omnino) and lane. There are two new terms that we have in common with the Dutch tanner and talw$ (tallow). The French words are many, for law terms abound in this piece ; AVC have coroner, fraunk (free), pultrye, puller, engrosie, severaleche (severally), emplete, atachment, defendaunt. We hear of commune law, p. 361. In p. 354 custome is owed to the King, a sense born by the French word 200 years earlier. Names are entered; houses are y-charclied (charged) with certain rates, and in p. 358 we read of horse cliarclie. We see }>inges }>at touchelp the rewle of \e toivn, 1 ' English Gilds ' (Early English Text Society), p. 349. VOL. I. E So THE NEW ENGLISH. V \\.\v. p. 349, as in Lancashire ; the French verb had borne this meaning in its own country in the previous Century. Lawrence Minot wrote several short poems in the Northern dialect on the victories of Edward III. ; they are in the collection of the Master of the Rolls (' Political Poems,' vol. i.) He alters the old ruy into rie, our rye, and writes stile for the old stigel. He speaks of the Genevayse at Cressy, following the Italian rather than the French form. We had hitherto talked of Almain ; Minot now writes about the Duclw tongue, which here expresses German both High and Low, p. 63. We see the verb Iwve, (manere) here taking the sense of float, and used in connection with the sea. In the English Gilds there is a Norwich document of 1350 ; here we find the shortened forms sexteyn (sekestein) and derge (dirige). There is the new French verb to award (award) hem, p. 35 (from eswardeir) ; also the phrase han (have) for his travaille, where we should say trouble. There are some pieces in 'Reliquiae Antiquse,' ii. 38, 85, 108, which seem to belong to 1350. The word bote had hitherto meant remedium ; it now becomes commodum ; hit is no bote (use) to mote, ii. p. 108 ; the phrase to-bote (prae- terea) had long been used in England. There are the phrases reune in his dette (in debt to him), beg or borrow. We see the source of our take advantage of in p. 38 a dishonest steward, when giving in his accounts, puttes hym- self to avauntage, there lie slmld be in arerage. There is the new adverb a pase (apace), p. 98. In Higden's Latin Chronicle, drawn up about this time, we see the two forms Foukirke and Fmichyrche (the Scotch Falkirk). Again, the I is replaced by u in Meuros (Melrose), as the French col had become am.. The d is struck out, for both Sccerdburgh and Scarburgh (Scarborough) are found. See Trevisa (Master of the Rolls), viii. 286, 304. There are some pieces in Hazlitt's Collection which seem to date from about 1350. Among them is the ' Tournament of Tottenham,' a laughable burlesque of chivalry, iii. 82, perhaps due to North Lincolnshire ; and the ' Tale of the Basyn,' which may be Salopian, iii. 44. The a supplants e ; i.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 51 we see parson (clericus), and Harry (not Herry, Henry) ; the s replaces /, as snese (sneeze) for the old fneos-an. We see the kin tacked on to proper names, as Hawkin (Hobbekin), Perkin (Peterkin), Dawkin, Timkin, Tomkin; these are still in use as surnames; there is also Gfregge (Gregory), and Tiny (Terence). We read of Bayarde the blynde, a horse, iii. 87 ; this proverbial phrase lasted for 250 years and more. In iii. 53 lewdness adds the sense of libido to that of inscientia ; this usage, probably Salopian, was followed by Awdlay, the blind Salopian bard, seventy years later. There are the new Substantives potter, wJielebarow, cucry (cookery); burlesque arms are said to be quartered with the mone li$t, iii. 89 ; hence our moonshine (nonsense). We light upon the hygh borde (table) in hall. In iii. 91 rich bears the new sense of laughable; that was a rich si$t. In iii. 93 we have, I think, the first appearance of the much disputed word cokeney, here meaning a delicacy ; it retained the sense of delicate, pampered, for 230 years. There is the new phrase of this time, falle in my dette, iii. 46 that is, "in debt to me." A Numeral is now first coupled with every ; every five (iii. 93), "each mess of five persons ; " an had long been prefixed to hundred and tliousand. Among the Verbs are go betwene (play the mediator), lead the dance, break heads. There is our phrase for mingere, a literal translation of facere aguam, iii. 47 ; this was used by Coverdale in his translation of the Bible. We have the phrase, " they taught him how the katte did snese" iii. 45; something like our "which way the cat jumped." There is the oath, be cocks swete wounde, iii. 53; an early instance of softening down the Deity's name. There is the merry Chaucerian te he! iii. 91. We see the Scandinavian gravy and trip (move along lightly) ; hitherto it had been a wrestler's phrase. Also the Celtic basket. The French words are experiment, batter, quarter (arms), seasoned, charlett (like our apple charlaf), forsed meat, where o replaces a. There is the verb pleese, instead of the old pay; his speciall, iii. 52, where favourite is understood; 52 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. Sirs, in the Plural. In iii. 83 it is doubtful whether bachelery refers to a company of knights or to a company of unwedded men. The verb dress is now used for coquere, iii. 96 ; men in the next page dresse (address) themselves to a dance. The Northern Eomance of Sir Eglamour ("Thornton Romances,' Camden Society) seems to date from about 1350. We see the French norice contracted into norse, p. 157, and due turned into dewke, p. 147, a truly English change. In p. 159 the transcriber eighty years later has turned into horse what was evidently written has (raucus). There is the substantive patte (ictus), p. 172, perhaps f rom plattan (ferire). We see in p. 144 ////.> full' of fyght. The ending lin is added to a word, as hngliu, p. 144. The more is still used by us in the sense of major, in the mare pity ; this may be found in p. 122. The word unwelde adds the new sense of ingens to that of impotens, p. 134. Among the Verbs we see make signs, take the field, take him to his foot (fight on foot), p. 145 ; this has led to "take to his heels." In p. 131 one knight strikes his trowthe to another ; hence comes " strike a bargain." In p. 146 stands yf (give) you joy of, etc.; here the /, which should head the sentence, is dropped. In p. 132 comes God $ylde yow (requite you), a future Shakesperian phrase. We see the new word stompe, which is common to us and the Dutch, applied to a mutilated limb. There is the Scandinavian verb splatt, p. 141, which Shakespere was to make split. As to French words, simple stands for humilis, in p. 124 ; we know Scott's gentle and simple. We read of the gentyls (like nobles), p. 125 ; also of a knight's armes (heraldic) ; he bare aserre (azure) a grype of gold, p. 164. There are the verbs chronicle and lay (latrare) ; also forces (copise); ye parte godefrende, p. 127. In p. 125 stands the adjuration, for Goddys pete, which led to our "for pif >/'.< sake." A steed is called " rede as any roone " (roan), p. 146. There are the statutes of a Lynne Gild (Early English Text Society), drawn up in 1359 ; where we see Udke i.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 53 unday, p. 9 7 ; also boteri (buttery) ; and have on Jumde, used of money. To this time the prose treatises of Dan John Gaytrigg and some other Northern productions seem to belong, though transcribed fourscore years later ; they are in ' Religious Pieces in prose and verse ' (Early English Text Society). Many words and phrases, afterwards used by Wickliffe, occur in these pieces. The q supplants e in true Northern fashion, for we see the name Barnard ; the n is struck out ; garnement becomes garment. There are the new substantives dulness, lowliness ; the ness was coming in ; for the Southern freosdpe here appears as ffrenes, p. 38. We see good followed by to, gude I ame to my cJwsyne, p. 56. The Participle is used much like an Adjective; how luffande (loving) he es, p. 56. In p. 8 we see an early instance of a mistake common in our days, the wrongful transposition of only ; it ought anely to be gyffene to }>am }>at, etc. (to them alone that, etc.). Among the Verbs we find, have part with, do your office, keep it to yourself; the put is coming forward, for there is, put him down (crush), put upon him (lay to his charge). There is a curious idiom of the Past Participle Absolute in p. 1 9, often afterwards repeated ; he hase keped }>e, and many o\er loste (while others are lost). The Participle lykande (liking) is used to express jucundus, p. 49 ; the Yorkshire Coverdale brought this sense into our Bible in the first chapter of Daniel. A new idiom appears in p. 55 ; the as is now prefixed to an Active Participle ; it was stylle, as beynge dome (dumb) ; the as touching was coming in about this time. We now prefix as, if, though, and while to Active Participles. The off" is used to express thoroughness ; he suppede it off, p. 93. Among the French words we see a communer, cure of sawle (souls), spice (species), the reverse, chantress. There is the verbfiche, afterwards to be altered into fix, and noyous (noisome). The French en is now set before Teutonic words, as to enpride him, p. 23 ; this process was to be carried far, and to be much favoured by Shakespere. There are many Northern poems in Horstmann's ' Alten- 54 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. glische Legenden' that may be referred to 1360 ; see pp. 1- 188. The a replaces e, as quarele. The e is clipped in lufd (amatus) and /and (fonned), p. 158. The o replaces i, as venom. The final y is clipped ; Cecill stands for Cecily, p. 159. The v is struck out; lavender becomes lander, p. 156; laundress was to come 200 years later. The sh now expresses the sound of ch at the beginning of a French word; sheynes (vincula) is in p. 104; I think this is the earliest notice we have of the change of initial ch into sh. The z replaces 5, as ze, zour (ye, your), p. 115; this peculiarity lasted for 200 years in Scotland, and may be remarked in the captive Queen Mary's letters. Among the new Substantives we see a honw-cuming, godsande (godsend), slaghter man, sekk clathe (sackcloth), men of Jialikirk (churchmen, priests), p. 175. As to the Adjec- tives ; fiends will not cease for thin ne thik (for any cause), p. 99 ; these we now transpose. The word mid gets the new sense of stultus, p. 1 4 ; it later, like nice, took the further meaning of lascivus. The word good is in full use ; there is the Vocative gude Sir, p. 38; gude man is applied to a Prince, with reference to his wife, who is called his gude lady, p. 84. Two adjectives are coupled, I think, for the first time in p. 21 ; a grete blak dog. A substantive is dropped in the phrase, ]>e werst es, when, etc., p. 38. As to Pronouns, there is the new phrase that I have already re- marked on, ever (every) thrifty, p. 58. Among the Verbs we find, make gud end, put it to tJiem, gif batail, ask a question, take rote, have chose (choice), it came out (was known), have- me excused, days were cumen and gane, spread the lord (hence our slang noun spread). The verb leave is now used of testators; riches was left hynt, p. 12. There was a phrase of 1300, his might is benome; now, men are bynomen (benumbed), p. 34, a curious instance of the advance of the Passive voice. The verb rise gets the new sense of rebell, p. 143. We see by the Verbal noun, in p. 57, that the verb hert (encourage) must have appeared; Palsgrave was to write it hearten. There is the new mislive and fob (decipere), p. 138, whence Shakespere's fob off. The old verb roupe (clamare, p. 187) seems to have been i.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 55 confined to the North after 1220; it is still in Scotch use. There is a new phrase translated from the French, p. 11 ; noght withstanding that; it was soon to appear in Southern prose. The Infinitive follows love; }>ai loffed to lig, p. 31. Some word like able is dropped in, liere is none for to let (stop) ]>e, p. 48. There is a curious Double Infinitive in p. 69 ; Simon is worthy to have schame to tak on him Goddes name; the to tak represents for taking. We still use the phrase it slwuld seem that; in p. 145 stands a quene, \at Goddes moder, him thoght, suld seme. The North, unlike the South, turns French verbs into Strong verbs, as not proven, and the old fan (fined, ceased) ; we see rave for arrived in p. 86. We have the first hint of across in p. 15; two ways meet on cms. The predicate is not repeated after the adverb in the phrase, sum war ded, and sumful nere, p. 52. The verb is dropped after and; how sail I live, and ]>ou awaie? p. 178. As to Prepositions, there are answer to }>am, sworn to chastity, out of sight, out of minde (insanus), at \i bidding, boun (bound) into Ingland, p. 42. The old wty might sometimes mean ab ; hence we see part with all (his goods), p. 38 ; we can now use with in this sense after part and dispense. There is also chaunge his wede wfy a beggar, p. 177. Prepositions were now separated from the verbs to which they had been prefixed ; the old Ipurhboren becomes bare (bore) him thurgh, p. 135. There is rostiren (gridiron) akin to the German ; also the Scandinavian verb glare (glower), and pople (bubble). Among the Romance words are caldron, rosin, case (of relics), a hamper, sachel, lunatike, gaudes (nugse), defame, disease (incommodum), pynacle, fawchone, a convers (convert), preve sele, province. A man marries a girl to another person, p. 12. The word point gets a new sense; prove his poynt (purpose), p. 26. The Pope is called the chef curate of Cristendome, p. 51 ; and curate is elsewhere used for parish priest. A man gives his voice (vote) to another, p. 150. A person is confused for shame, p. 156. The word bill appears in p. 161, meaning something written; this old simple sense still lingers at Eton. The verb cease now 56 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. governs an Infinitive, p. 65. There is the affirmation, / icill warand, made after a statement, p. 104. The foreign en is set before Teutonic roots, as enhigh (exalt), p. 51 ; this VMS to become a favourite coinage in later years. There is the curious mongrel blame-worthi, p. 141. Diana appears in male guise, p. 39 ; the god Dyane. The Latin original, whence these Legends were compiled, is plainly visible in pople of Pictavi (men of Poitiers), p. 155. One of the stories in the ' Handlyng Synne ' is referred to in p. 150. In the same book stands Ipotis, p. 340, which seems to date from this time. There is the curious form i$ete for the old ge-eten (eaten), p. 346. There is ill in the sense of mains, a mark of the North, p. 344 ; also the Scandinavian whethene (whence) and nim (ire), p. 344, a mark of the East Midland, though the dialect of the piece is Southern. There are the forms stene (stone) to ded (death) ; quelle takes the new sense of oppriimre, besides its old sense of occidere ; quell his pouste (power), p. 345. There are see-cost (coast) and omnipotent. In the ' Legends of the Holy Eood ' (Early English Text Society) there is a Northern piece which seems to date from about 1360. In p. 125 stands to set on (a man) = attack; here some such word as hand must have been dropped after the verb. About 1360 the poem of Syr Gawayn and the Grene Knight (Early English Text Society) seems to have been compiled ; the author has borrowed much from a French original, but is so English as to give a hundred lines to a fox hunt, calling the victim reniarde, the earliest description that we" possess of that chase. There is so French a phrase as Nowel for Christmas, p. 3 ; the hero in p. 25 asks for lone hostel (hospitality). The poem has various Lancashire marks, such as uche, much, ho (ilia), ]>ay, hem, ]>ose, guile (hwile). The a replaces u and i ; hence we now find our verb start. The e replaces o, hence welkin ; it is clipped, for the old efese becomes evez, our eaves. The i stands for ow, for Hampole's verb worow becomes won, our worry, p. 61 ; kill (occidere) replaces cull. The French braon is written i.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 57 brawne. We now find abof (above) no longer bove or abufan. .As to Consonants the g is thrown out, for the old isgicel is seen as ysse-ikkle (icicle), p. 24, and the old Perfect bisgod as bisied (busied), p. 4 ; the g is replaced by w, as tow (trahere). The name Gawain is altered into Wawain whenever the alliteration requires it. The d is turned into g, as in the last letter of the oath bigog, p. 13. The* sound sc now becomes sh, for we see schaterande, p. 66 ; we may now use scatter and shatter in different senses. What was elsewhere of newe is seen as o-newe (anew), p. 3. The I is struck out ; tealtrian (whence the Scotch tolter) becomes totter; r is added, for the verb fait of 1240 becomes falter. We see the Teutonic nes added to foreign words, as forsnes (strength), p. 21. There are new nouns like spere leripe, half-suster, sideboard, foreland, irons, cJiarcole (wood turned to coal), Hod-hound, wod-craft. We read of Nue seres day, p. 63 ; the Christmas season is called ]>e halidaye^, p. 33. The word clothes is applied to bed-gear, p. 38. The word grome is connected with horses, p. 36. Arthur's Table is called a brdjperhede, p. 80. The French ess is tacked on to a Teutonic root, as goddes (goddess), p. 78. We know the phrase "a cast of thine office;" in p. 77 best expresses dolus. In p. 49 we see the word tnveluf; in p. 20 certain knots are called trulofe^. The word world is coming in to express indefinite thought ; whethen (whence) in worlde lie, were, p. 28 ; wylli al ]>e wonder of }>e worlde, p. 8. Hampole had talked of the Five Wittes (senses); in p. 78 a man is robbed of his wytte^, which last word seems here to stand for intellectus, as in the ' Ayenbite.' There is rock as well as roche ; Skeat quotes stanrocca from the Old English : the word may be Celtic. In p. 49 a lady calls herself "a young thing," a phrase not yet lost. In p. 51 a sword is called a Iront (brand). Among the Adjectives we find crabbed, also the Superla- tives welcomest and cursedest. Substantives are dropped in the phrase in hot and cold, p. 59. There are phrases like the lvy$e table, a bry^t grene, p. 7 ; now ar we even, p. 52. There is the truly Lancashire idiom, hunters of the best, p. 37. 58 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. The phrase one bare word had been used in 1240 ; in p. 34 we find / have but bare three days; it is easy to see how our barely came later to English vix. As to Pronouns, Shakespere was fond of using me as au expletive, as Petruchio's knock me here soundly (the door) ; in p. 64 we find he gray]>e^ (arrays) me Sir Gaivayn, where me is not wanted. The it is becoming prominent, as hit u two myle henne, p. 34 ; ]>at is ho (she), p. 78. In the pre- ceding page a French idiom is imitated in myn hononrl ladyeT, ; here the pronoun would not have been used earlier. The Plural, we alone, is in p. 39. In p. 23 comes mo (more) ny^te^ than innoghe (enough). We know the common phrase, "no more nor (than) he did;" in p. 49 we have more or (than) a hundreth. Among the Verbs the old swap gets the new sense of "make an exchange," p. 35; in the same way, the verb chop, later, bore the two senses of ferire and mutare. In p. 49 comes the expression, / am biJudden (bound), which was later to be followed by a Dative. The verb murk seems to gain a new sense somewhat beyond the sense of r< used by Layamon ; a man merkkez wel a boar before hitting him with his weapon, p. 51. The verb swenge becomes intransitive in p. 52; }>ay swengen (go) to home. There was always a noun hrcel, and now we find the transitive verb rele (volvo) ; the French rouler had most likely some influ- ence here. The verb blush in this poem keeps its old meaning rubere, but takes a new sense intueri, p. 25 ; from the last comes the noun blusch (look), p. 1 7 ; and we still say " at the first blush." The common Passive Participle pight is changed into pyched, p. 25. The old timen had meant nothing but accidere ; in p. 71 we first find our phrase " to time a thing." There is the curious Imperative, haf at ]>e ]>enne, p. 73, a challenge afterwards repeated in the 'Townley Mysteries.' Here the Imperative seems to stand for the Future, as in the later "fast bind, fast find." There is our common phrase bryng to ]>e poynt, bend hi* broics, to layke (play) enterludes, put prys on, I lere wel (believe). The old stiked (haesit) now becomes stek, our stuck, p. 5 ; an unusual change. The Infinitive follows other verbs, as fail i.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 59 to do it, born to do it. The Active Participle is dropped ; a man in p. 15 appears, his lied in his hande. The Passive Participle seems to imitate the Latin usage ; something is done in p. 31, wyth leve la^t (after leave had been got). There is the new phrase she dos hir forth (gets herself out), p. 42 ; settes hym out (proficiscitur), p. 51. The old might (potuit) is often here replaced by coude. There is a new sense of following ; a man's body is described, and we are told that he has all his features fol$ande, p. 5 ; we here plainly see how the Latin secundum arose. A knight's clothes, in p. 28, sit on him semly ; this sit had meant decere in the 'Ancren Biwle;' fit was to come later. Ga wain's host, in p. 30, entertains him, and afterwards knowes him that is, greets him familiarly ; hence our " I won't know him ; " Coverdale brought this Northern sense of know into our Bible. The old bigrowen is now supplanted by over- grown, p. 70. The verb ring is used of echoes as well as of bells ; a torrent rushed and ronge, p. 70. Among the Adverbs stands thus much; at \>ys one$, p. 35 (for this once). There is nue cummen (new come), lie^ly honowred. The on was coming into use as an adverb; ]>resch on, p. 73 that is, "go on thrashing;" this on was supplanting the older forth. We see a new use of Prepositions in the following phrases ; you have more sly^t bi ]>e half, p. 49.; at his lielez (heels), p. 61 ; she was at him, p. 47 ; a boar bides at ]>e bay (at bay), p. 50 ; do hit out of honde (at once), p. 73. There is the hunting cry hay! hay ! in p. 46, and the oath Mary ! The Scandinavian words are a flat (planum), blunder, rak (vapor), to ivhar (whir),tayse (tease), Wear, sleet, sway, froth,bole; dok (cauda), which has given us a verb, is in p. 7. We hear that mist muged on the moor, p. 6 6 ; hence our muggy weather. The words akin to the Dutch and German are waist, tap, blubber, rabble, baldrick, halow (to holloa), whip off, to dravel (drivel). There is glaver from the Welsh, p. 46 ; this may be akin to blatJter and to the Scotch clavers; there is also the Celtic loupe (fenestra), whence comes our loop-lwle. 60 THE NEW ENGLISH, LULU-. Among the French words are jeopardy, warble, prayere (prairie, p. 25), paper, crevice, to enclyne, daliaunce, disport, display, repayre (ire), corser, unmanerli, unbar, frenge (fringe), spinny, fauttes, couardise, hautesse (superbia), sever, excellent, remord, rescue; also the Shakesperian brache (canis). We see a cors (of dishes), p. 4 ; stuffe is used for material, p. 19; a helmet is staffed within, p. 20. Comaund, in p. 77, is written where we should use commend ; one single vowel can make a great difference in the meaning of our words. There is vesture, which took long to come South. A man dresses an article upon his person, p. 65 ; here the verb is about to slide into our present most usual employment of it. The old twofold of these now becomes double of these, p. 16. In p. 37 we hear of male dere (stags). We see / preserving the Norman sound ken of canis ; the more usual chien. In p. 11 a French word is written melly (combat), and this form ought to be revived in our own days. The substantive dainty is made an adjective in p. 40, meaning eximius. The adjective chef is coming into fashion, as ]>e clief gate. An old lady is called an auncian (ancient), p. 30. The colour blue is mentioned in p. 62 ; it is from the Old French bloie (caeruleus), and this sound a hundred years later transformed our Teutonic bla or bio (lividus). The verb plede, taken from the law courts, is transferred to common life in p. 42, and means simply rogare. In p. 34 require is used for rogare, as it still is in Scotland. The words patron and soverayn express dominus ; and place stands for mansio, p. 13, as we still use it; maneres, in p. 30, is used for courteous behaviour. The word tryfle expresses some- thing concrete, not abstract, in p. 31 ; it stands for the ornaments of a lady's front. The verb peine (cruciare) stands for laborare in p. 33; hence our later take pains. What we call " the manners of society," appear as ]>e coste^ of compaynye, p. 47; hence the later company iiuninnrs. A man may debate with himself, p. 69 ; but the word usually expressed pugnare. Men part (separate from each other), p. 79. The ' Alliterative Poems in the West Midland Dialect,' edited by Dr. Morris for the Early English Text Society, i.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 61 are found in the same manuscript as the Sir Gawayne. They too belong to Lancashire, and seem to date from 1360; there are many Scandinavian forms, and the ho (ilia), which still lingers in the above-named county; we see the Northern thay, and the Southern her and hem ; there is uch. The verb schin or schun stands for our sliall, and is still alive in the Lancashire schunnot. Among the Vowels the ee encroaches on the old ea and eo; we see Caldee (Chaldasa), and^eej (fleece). The old stiorn becomes stern. The o is found instead of a, as Ipose (isti) ; }>ro (dolor) replaces ]>rd, p. 92. The u and y may be seen coupled together in some words. The Consonant b is seen in the verb baiter, p. 41, where we should use palter or falter. The g is softened into 5, in on-yyd, one-eyed, p. 41 ; here too the d is added at the end, which is new. So also swogan (sonare) becomes sou$e, our sough, p. 96. A French word appears aspartryk, with the consonant made hard at the end ; the vowel a has here replaced a French e. For fluctus we have the three forms wage, wa$e, and wawe. The r is added to a word, for the verb wealtian becomes waiter, our welter. The s is clipped ; the Adverb grovelings becomes grovelinge, and was later to be mistaken for a Participle. The French is is turned into ish or ich at the end of words ; we see clierisch, anguych. Among the Substantives is stokkez, the well-known instru- ment of correction, also fetyerbed ; many sea terms are used in describing Jonah's voyage, crossayl (the first instance of cross appearing as a compound) among them. We see the source of our "further afield," when the Lord in p. 41 bids His servants seek for guests ferre out in }>e felde. There is the Alliterative, ]>e ivynde & }>e weder (procella), p. 51, which was to become a favourite phrase. Jonah is said to plunge into the whale's belly liele over hed, p. 100, our head over heels ; a journey is called a }>re dayes dede, p. 102. We see the old fele-kyn side by side with the new birds of mom/ ki/mles, p. 82 ; here the old cyn (genus) gets confounded with cynde (natura). There are new words like cupborde, dotage, rift (fragmentum). We see how our "worse for 62 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHA r wear" arose, when in p. 71 the pearl is said to wax so old in weryng. In p. 49 we hear of the walle-heved (well- head). The word wench is employed in an honourable sense in p. 75, very differently from the London usage of the year 1390. In p. 47 we find pene^, cattle pens. The Yorkshire corbun of 1290 becomes corby, p. 51, a word well known in Scotland. In p. 78 stokkes and stones become idols. It is remarked, as something curious, that Belshazzar called his concubines ladies, p. 78. The word foule$ ex- presses domestic poultry in p. 39. The warfare (warlock) of the North now first expresses magus, p. 84. Our knave, hitherto standing for puer or servus, gets the new meaning of nebulo in p. 63 ; the Sodom rioters are there called wekk'il knave^. In p. 82 a man is said to be dronkken as the devel. Turning to the Adjectives, in p. 94 typped is used for our present extreme. We see skilful, lily-white; ugly is used with an abstract noun, as an ugly unhap, p. 64. In this piece gray]>ely stands for cito or vere; the word still lives in Lancashire as gradely. The new adjective no$ty (naughty) appears in p. 78. In p. 59 smotyely stands for easily, just as Milton used it. We hear of sluchched clothes in p. 102; this comes from slutch or slich, a word for mud ; we often talk now of slosh and slouching. In p. 56 stands ]>is one^ (this once), with no Preposition before it. Lot boasts of the beauty of his daughters in p. 63, none fairer, ]>a^ I hit say (though I say it) ; this is soon repeated in Piers Ploughman. We see the new Adverb biloghe (below) in p. 41, a very late compound of be with an Adjective. The Yorkshire no-bot appears in p. 71. In p. 58 a city is said to be distant, no myle$ mo Ipen tn.ri/ne, not more than two miles ; Orrmin had already used more for longer. In p. 93 comes "to have }>e ?n//' (worse). When the excitement at Sodom is described, it is said that the borough was al up; a new sense con- ferred upon the up. Abraham, moreover, was up in the morning, p. 67. Among the Verbs we see Orrmin's intransitive use of keep, p. 45 ; 'he kepes no better; in the next page comes the phrase to keep to a thing. In p. 39 a man is said i.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 63 to be fwboden Ipat bory (forbidden the town) ; the use of the Passive voice was extending. When the Flood came, men feng to Ipe fly-,1 (took to flight), p. 49. Oxen pulle in a plow, p. 40 ; the word is all but new. We find the new verbs, shout, lult (Scotch lilt], wappe (our whop), clat^ (clash), a variation of clack. We saw war (cave) in 1170; this now becomes war }>e in p. 72. A man bet doun a city, p. 76 ; he might also type doun the same, p. 106. The source of our musical strike up is found in p. 79 ; trumpen stroke steven (voice). In p. 95 seamen we^en o.nkres ; a new sense of the old wegan (vehere). There is the form Jiave his will; ba]>e Ipem in blod, p. 75, which recalls a High German phrase. A tree is sette to do something, in p. 186. Some verbs change their meaning; thus hamper in p. 76 stands for to pack up. Before this time hove had been used of a man ; it is now used of Noah's dove ; we make a distinction between a ship's Iwoing and a bird's hovering. There is a Dutch word daesen, to lose one's wits; this becomes transitive in p. 83, where we hear of a domnde drede, our daze. Pople stands for mere in p. 101 ; hence may come owe pop. A construction, long disused, reappears when a noun is prefixed to a Past Participle ; the Ark is clay daubed, p. 52, but hunger -bitten was in the oldest English. Our Poets have for the last few Centuries been fond of this revived construction. As to Pronouns, the it is used to begin a sentence, representing a noun that is to follow, hit was hous inno$e, (enough) ]>e heven, p. 62; so Burke wrote, "It is gone, that sensibility," etc. A new idiom is seen in p. 46 ; the poet, speaking of pairs, says that they are to plese ayther other ; here both the Nominative and the Dative follow the verb, as in our common each oilier. In p. 48 Noah's family in the Ark is called a meyny of a$te (eight) ; this is something like Orrmin's Ipe tale of ehhte. As to the Prepositions, we see in. p. 94 at ]>e poynt ; also at alle peryles, like the at oil endes of the 'Cursor Mundi;' hence comes "at your peril." In the next page a man shoots too schort of his aim, just as fail in English was followed by of. In p. 99 an adverb is turned 64 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. into a preposition, adoun }>e depe; in the year 1250 of would have come before the Article. We see the source of our "putting up with hardship" in p. 104, where we hear of God's longe abydyng wyth far (loss) ; contra was one of the meanings of this Preposition. We say, " by virtue of ruth;" but in p. 100 this appears as ]>ur^ (through) vertu of rauthe. There is our common on fote. Among the Interjections we see 0, repeated at the beginning of a sentence in p. 63, where Lot remonstrates with the Sodom rioters. In p. 97 Jonah is asked by his shipmates, " What ]>e devel hat$ ]>ou don ? " There is the Celtic gown. The words akin to the Dutch and German, now first found on our shores, are clem (well known in Lancashire strikes), slobber. In Dutch, laager (lower) stands for sinis- ter; in this piece we find laddeboi'd, our larboard, p. 95. There is swol$ (vorago), our swallows. The Scandinavian words are damp, smoulder, smut (filth), bluster, gills (fauces), hurry, skyg (shy, scrupulous), gall (vulnus), trill (volvere), fettle (providere), lomerande (lumber- ing), bale (of goods), bracken. Basse (apex), p. 51, reminds us of Dunmail's Raise in the Lake Country. The Scandinavian }>jokka (ferire), differing from the Old English ]>accian (palpare), gives birth to ]>acces, our thwacks, p. 101. The Danish odd bears two meanings in this piece ; in p. 50 we hear that Noah was six hundred years old " & none odde ^eres/' in p. 65 Lot is told that he shall be saved oddely ]>yn one that is, " exceptionally and thyself alone." When we now use odd as an adjective, it is usually in a sneering sense ; in this poem odd denotes something nobly above the common. There is the Swedish rakel (hasty), to be written rake-Jiell in more modern times. We see the Danish trine (ire), Avhich Scott used as a slang term, "trine to the nubbing-cheat." The verb loltrande is used in p. 105 to describe Jonah lolling in his bower; this, like our loiter, seems to come from the Scandinavian lotra (go lazily). There are also here two words still in Scotch use, loo/ and wamble. Among the French words in the poem are surely, frok, i.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 65 capstan, goblet, the bases, daub, donjoun, to founder, to fester, scoler, decree, abyme, primate, orange, express, sonet (an instru- ment), pomgarnade, displese, to portray, to bib, to glene, soile (humus), festival, statue, hourle (hurly burly), destimj, plyant, berfray (belfry), lege (subject), sewer (dapifer), alarom, chariote, to devine, a divine, a devinor, governor, declare. -In p. 57 we first read of a sown & an hayre (son and heir). In p. 57 Abraham sets out a feast, and the guest mad god chere ; we have seen make merry cheer, in the Lancashire poem of 1340. A man is prayed (bidden) to a feast, p. 40 ; another serves salt at supper, p. 67. Words are lanced (launched forth), p. 102. In p. 62 men are said to be nyse for objecting to salt in their food ; this marks the addition of fastidious to the old meaning of the word, foolish, wanton. Comfort, as in Hampole, exchanges the idea of strength for that of pleasure in p. 91, where chastity is said to be God's com- fort. The Jwnest is used for honourable in p. 42 ; honestly arayed ; hence the Northern greeting, "honest man !" The substantive bay is used in its architectural sense in p. 79. English endings and prefixes are added to French roots, as masterful, unlwnest, merciless, logging. English and French words stand side by side in the phrase (p. 101), }>e gote$ of }>y guteres (miswritten guferes}. In p. 97 men are lie^ed out of the ship ; this verb comes from the French harier, not from the English Jiergian, though there is a confusion be- tween the two. In p. 103 we see the home -born verb samne, and in p. 78 the kindred French assemble. Belshaz- zar, in p. 89, is to be deprived; here no noun follows. Something wyds (disappears) in p. 84 ; hence the common avoid! In p. 75 comes dutundeler (our chandelier), and three lines further on stands the old condelestik. In p. 73 those besieged in Jerusalem are so shut up that they can form i/ no goods; the chief object of plundering inroads was fodder or forage. We now confine coast to the sea- side ; but in p. 65, as later in our Bible, it might be applied to any borders. The word port had hitherto been used in England for iirbs ; it now goes back to its rightful sense of harbour, p. 94. The French defend becomes "fend off" in p. 73, and this is still in use. A bower has gracious leaves, VOL. I. F 66 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. p. 105, thus expressing the Latin grains. In. p. 52 Noah receives the returning dove naytly (neatly, cleverly). In p. 78 a man is avised (minded) to do _ something ; we now keep this French word to translate monere. Belshazzar asks the meaning of \e tyxte (text) of the writing on the wall, p. 86. In p. 73 stands the line, " He used abominaciones of idolatrye." This specimen shows the inroad of French that was going on all through this century. The phrase a traverce appears in p. 81, leading to our later across. To Lancashire belong two Romances, printed by Mr. Robson (Camden Society) the Anturs of Arther and Sir Amadace ; they seem to have been composed about 1360. We may remark a change in vowels ; a trothe is plighted in p. 17, not the old trowth ; thus the word became two- pronged, and our troth and truth express different shades of meaning. The word delicious is here cut down to licio"*, and this is also written lucms (luscious), p. 17. The con- fusion between u and v continues; povrette is written poarfc, p. 40, as in the 'Ayenbite;' the Scotch poortith. The Northern wedsette (mortgage) appears in p. 28. The origin of our hairbreadth crops up in p. 21 ; Mm lakket no more to be slayne, butte the brede of hore. Our furst inne the fild stands in p. 43 ; it refers to a tournament. We see the phrase mylke guyte. Among the Verbs are deave, p. 11, which has now become transitive. In p. 38 we hear of a gentilman barnnc, and in p. 1 6 of a man fre born ; it is curious that the Adjective should stand before the Participle. In the latter page comes the verb match, bearing the sense of to equal. We find the legal to have and to hold, p. 24 ; putte away servants ; be of gud chere. The verb ivrek (wreck) appears in p. 44. There is a curious confusion between the Active Participle and the Verbal Noun in p. 15 ; on Jieremid hum alle, in the hearing of them all. We have already seen one of the best ; we now, p. 26, find bischoppus of the beste. There is a word akin to the Dutch delle (vallis). The Scandinavian gives us naxty, our nasty, p. 7. i.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 67 Among the French words are spiritual^, session; revenge, dippus (eclipse), sometour (sumpter), wage, the Northern form of our Noun wages. The word spirit is cut down to sprete, p. 5, Shakespere's sprite ; the word gost is found in the same page. Instead of the thousand thousand of the Old English the word miliun appears in p. 97 The form soget has been seen already ; we now find subiecte, p. 1 2, an imitation of the Latin form. The French verb broder appears as brauder, p. 16; it was long afterwards confused with the English braid, thanks to the twofold sound of oi ; the upshot is the broidered hair of the English Bible. In p. 1 7 stondart stands for a taper of very large size ; hence come our standard trees. In p. 30 a man thinks he has ke$te his dede (caught his death). In p. 20 a horse bears the name of Greselle, our Grizzel ; this is something like Bayard, the name of Edward the First's steed at the storm of Berwick. In p. 21 stuffe stands for equipment ; this led to its sense of furniture. In p. 25 comes the verb doue (endow) ; and in p. 55 is the Alliterative / dar savely say. The French names of the different pieces of armour may be read in p. 14. We have already examined two Versions of the ' Cursor Mundi ; ' we now come to a later version (the Fairfax), drawn up in Lancashire about 1360 (Early English Text Society). I give a few reasons, which incline me to set the date of this version not earlier than the year specified. There is the phrase touchant synne (de peccato), p. 1494, also found in 'William of Pal erne ;' there is a new phrase of Barbour's : a priest ought to be knawande (a knowing man), p. 1514; undo is used for perdere, as in the Lanca- shire Alliterative Poems of this date. There are Chaucer's new expressions egment (incitatio) and the foul fiend. The old word aght (opes) is altered into gode, p. 1542; it was soon to disappear altogether. The old gum (homo) is turned into grome, p. 1010. Politeness is making progress; the thou of the older Version is now altered into ye, when a lady is addressed, p. 256. There are many tokens of Lancashire speech, such as ho (ilia), the verb breed with no Accusative following, and 68 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. graiddi (readily), not the graithli of the Yorkshire versions ; the word is peculiar to the North and North- West. There is mane for oportet, p. 1458. The change of the su into */ is most constant, as sqitete, squilk, squa, etc. The gh is in favour, as halghes, draghes (drags) ; the at is used for to, as at make. We see both iche and ilka for quisque ; both suche and squilk. In p. 1428 comes the line, ho ne yildis ham }>aire mede (she yields them not their meed); a curious medley of Northern and Southern pronouns ; that the Southern element is plain to this day in Lancashire is a curious fact ; there is the very Southern form sorouful, not sorful ; o often replaces a, as f ending. The i supplants e, as ink. The t is added to s, as quilist (whilst). The Old English siker is often turned into the Latin sicui-?. We know how often in old-fashioned books / may be mistaken for one form of s; of this there is an early instance in p. 1370; his moder fines (ceases) to soru is here turned into his moder synnis to sorou; we see how the old fncosan became sneeze. There is the new word drcme reder, p. 242, where all the other Versions have dremer. There is our common phrase the gode ship, p. 1422. The old all and some now becomes an (one) and al, p. 98. In p. 910 stands bakfof mare (more into the background), a most curious develop- ment of the old a bak. The Lancashire version, though drawn up many }v;u^ after the oldest Yorkshire version, is sometimes more faith- ful to what the original must have been, as in p. 1491, where true Shrift is said to be, wreiande, tomsome, propre, stedefast ; in the earliest version the two first words are corrupted into wrd and turnsum. We can here mark the rapid disappearance of old words between 1290 and 1360. 1290. 1360. to spell to preiche. traistnes stabelues. biweft awai putte away, to frith to spare, werp it awai do it awai. site mischief. Drightin God. I.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 69 1290. 1360. samen to gedder. rike cuntree. sere diverse. quakinwise on quat wise. on >iskin wis on suche wise. anlepi anly. smerl noynt (anoint). tholmodnes mekenes. if pou es if fou be. he bettis he amendis. he worthes he becomes. grete (fletus) sorou. he be him an he be his ane (by himself). suernes slauth. nyth envy. sele jy- tinsel (loss) tyning. quiluni sum-time. In p. 1521 suernes (ignavia) is so utterly mistaken as to be written squering (swearing). Words like brixel, tor, gersum, and others had become so obsolete that there is no attempt to give any synonym. In p. 1414 lohan had been made to rime with maidan; the Lancashire transcriber changes the proper name into John. As to Eomance words, two forms of one verb, cark and cliarge are both found ; we hear of a heart being out of state, p. 1384, where we should now talk of condition. We read of Lagli Cmoun (canon law), in p. 1490. I may here insert the Southern Version of the ' Cursor Mundi,' which seems to have been made about this time, since it has the new toucliynge }>e apostlis in the sense of de, p. 21. It may have been compiled near Warwickshire, for we see horesones, p. 681 ; we have the Midland nor for ne in p. 205. There is now a day (the old idceges), p. 187 ; now a dayes is found in the Salopian ' Piers Ploughman.' The decay of old Teutonic words in the South, as dis- tinguished from the North, is here most obvious; this process may be remarked from 1290 down to the last Scotch ballad published in our time. I here give a few words, common to most of the Northern Versions of this piece, that have been struck out of this THE NEW ENGLISH, [CHAP. Southern version, something quite different being substi- tuted doght (valuit), late (vultus), ditt (claudere), bird (decet), men o wale (delecti), ivra (angulus), wonges (genae), gett (cus- todire), slo}> (vestigium), barnteme (proles), to spa (prsedi- cere), p. 1088 ; loveivwd (laus), gisel (hostage), graid (paratus), fernet (comitatus), thainhede (servitium), smore (suffocare), hirpild (rugosus), yark (facere), umgang (circuit), cJioslinges (electi). Northern Version. demster most we suffer doghtyhede fra ]>e>en alkin blis delve it fe oncall of his nam to spire suith farli fair mister wat ]>ou aghtel threp feires til us half feir> of eln overman pair waites forfarlid titter mistrow umbilaid steckle ay has it ferrer hals him pis ilke man mai fall bihoved }>aim to grape to carp Southern Version. domes man. mut we suffer. nobel-hede. fro )>at tyme. al maner blis. bury hit. ]>e calling on his name. to ask. sone. wondir faire. nede. wostou. penke. chiding. falle> us. foure ellen & an halfe. hy man: aspies. mased. souner. misbileve. aboute bileide. dore. ever hal> it. fur)>er. toke him aboute }>e necke. J>is same mon. hit may be. shulde >ei. to gi-ope. to speke. In this Southern Version we see the long-lived Salopian uche (quisque) ; the Northern ]>air (illorum), cr, Jeli, and mekil are altered into her, ben, truly, and mi/rhcl. We see the Participial form weldonde (wielding), p. 251. The i.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 71 Southern i-brought, p. 121, is peculiar to this Version.- The Northern fell (mons) was not understood, and was turned into j 'eld, p. 171. The Northern levening (fulmen) is made letting, our lightening; the old form had been leit. The Northern stand aw is changed into stonde in awe. The word stok takes a new meaning in p. 533, meaning domus (family). This Version sometimes evidently gives the best reading of the original manuscript, as in line 4317. There is no want of English poems between 1300 and 1360, but there is evidently a want of some Standard, such as there had been down to 1 1 20. A few great men were now at last ready to come forward, and to stamp their impress upon the New English tongue. The sketch, already given by Kobert of Brunne, was now to be filled up and to be made permanent, though a few of his Northern peculiarities were to be swept away. CHAPTEE II. CHAUCERIAN ENGLISH. 1362-1474. BEFORE entering upon the new style of English spoken in London in 1362, and soon to become a model for all the shires South of Trent, we must give a glance backward. It may often be remarked that one form of a great speech drives another form before it. Thus, in our own day, the High German is always encroaching on its Northern neigh- bour the Low German ; and the Low German, in its turn, is always encroaching upon its Northern neighbour the Scandinavian. Something of the like kind might have been seen in England six hundred years ago ; but Avith us the Dano- Anglian speech of the Midland was working down Southwards towards London and Oxford all through the Thirteenth Century. Its influence may be seen so early as the 'Essex Homilies' of 1180 ; many years later we find a still clearer token of the change. In some hundred Plural substantives that had been used by Layamon soon after 1200, the Southern ending in en was replaced by the Mid- land ending in es, when Layamon's work came to be written out afresh after 1250. East Midland works became popular in the South, as may be seen by the transcript of the ' Havel ok ' and the ' Harrowing of Hell.' In the ' Horn,' a Southern work, we find the Present Plural en of the Mid- land verb replacing the older Plural in eth. In the ' Alex- ander ' (perhaps a Warwickshire work) the Midland /, she, they, and beon encroach upon the true Southern ich, heo, hi, and beoth. Even in Kent we find marks of change : in the CHAP, ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 73 sermons of 1290 the contracted forms lard and made are seen instead of louerd and maked. Already mid (cum) was making way for the Northern with. This was the state of things when the ' Handlyng Synne ' was given to England soon after 1303; it was believed, though wrongly, to be the translation of a work of the great Bishop Robert's, and it seems to have become the great pattern ; from it many a friar and parson all over England must have borrowed the weapons wherewith the Seven Deadly Sins (these play a great part in English song) might be assailed. We have seen another work of Robert Manning's, ' Medy- tacyuns of the Soper of our Lorde,' a translation from Buenaventura, the well-known oracle of Franciscans abroad. The popularity of these works of the Lincolnshire bard must have spread the influence of the East Midland further and further. Manning heralded the changes in English, alike by his large proportion of French words and by his small proportion of those Teutonic words that were sooner or later to drop. The following examples will show how the best English of our day follows the East Midland, and eschews the Southern speech that prevailed in London about the year 1300. A is what Manning would have written ; B is what was spoken at London in Manning's time. A. But she and thei are fyled with synnes, and so I have sayd to that lady ilk day ; answer, men, is hyt nat so ? B. Ac heo and hi beoth ifuled mid sunnen, and so ichabbe iseid to thilke levedy uche day ; answereth, men, nis it nought so ? The last sentence is compiled mainly from the works of Davie, of whom I gave a specimen at page 484 of my former work. It is interesting to see what the tongue of London was thirty years before her first great poet came into the world. Robert of Gloucester could say in 1300 that England was the only country that held not to her own speech, her " high men " being foreigners. 1 This reproach was taken 1 Robert might have found the same phenomenon in parts of Hungary. I have quoted his words at page 479 of ' Old and Middle English. ' 74 THE 'NEW ENGLISH, [CHAP. away sixty years later. By that time it was becoming clearer and clearer that a New Standard of English had arisen, of which Robert Manning was the patriarch ; much as Cadmon had been the great light of the Northern Anglian that had fallen before the Danes, and as Alfred had been the great light of the Western Saxon that had fallen before the Frenchmen. Throughout the Fourteenth Century the speech of the shires near Rutland was spread- ing in all directions ; it at length took possession of Oxford and London, and more or less influenced such men as Wick- liffe and Chaucer. Gower, when a youth, had written in Latin and French ; when old, he wrote in English little differing from that of Manning. This dialect moreover made its way into the North : let any one compare the 'York Mysteries' of 1360 with the version of them made forty years later, and he will see the influence of the Mid- land tongue. 1 The Western shires bordering on North Wales had long employed a medley of Southern and Northern forms ; these were now settling down into some- thing very like Manning's speech, as may be seen in the Salopian specimen given by me. Kent, Gloucestershire, and Lancashire were not so ready to welcome the dialect compounded in or near Rutland ; their resistance seems to have lasted throughout the Fourteenth Century ; and the bard who wrote ' Piers Ploughman's Vision ' after the year 1362, holds to the speech of his own Western shire. Chaucer has given us a most spirited sketch of the York- shire speech as it was in his day. 2 The Northern English had become the Court language at Edinburgh. The Southern dialect, the most unlucky of all our varieties, gave way before her Mercian sister : Dane conquered Saxon. After 1420 no purely Southern English work, of any length, was produced for 440 years. Shakespere, in his Lear, 1 Garnett's ' Essays,' p. 192 : swylke, alane, and sail are changed into suthe, allone, and shalle ; and other words in the same way. 2 The Southerner, on entering Leeds, still reads the old Northern names of Kirkgate and Briggate on two great thoroughfares. May the Leeds magistrates have more wit than those of Edinburgh, whom Scott upbraids for affectation in substituting the modern Square for the ancient Close ! ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 75 tries his hand upon the Somersetshire tongue ; and it also figures in one of the best of the Reformation ballads to be found in Bishop Percy's collection. But Mr. Barnes in our own day was the first to teach England how much pith and sweetness still lingered in the long -neglected homely tongue of Dorset ; it seems more akin to Middle English than to New English. 1 A few improvements, not as yet brought from the North, were still wanting; but about 1360 our land had a Standard tongue of her own, welcome alike in the Palace and in the cottage. King Edward the Third, not long after Cressy, lent his countenance to the mother-tongue of his trusty billmen and bowmen. He in 1349 had his shield and surcoat embroidered with his own motto, on this wise : ' ' Hay, hay, the \vythe swan, By Godes soule, I am thy man." His doublet bore another English device : " it is as it is." 2 Trevisa says that before the great Plague of 1349 high and low alike were bent on learning French ; it was a common custom: "but sith it is somedele chaunged." In 1362, a great date indeed, English was made the language of the Law-courts ; and this English was neither that of Hampole to the North of the Humber, nor that of Herebert to the South of the Thames. Our old freedom and our old speech had been alike laid in the dust by the great blow of 1066: the former had arisen once more in 1215 and had been thriving amain ever since ; the latter was now at last enjoying her own again. We may look upon Chaucer's English as the speech spoken at Court in the latter days of King Edward III. ; high and low alike now prided themselves upon being Englishmen, and held in scorn all men of outlandish birth. The earlier and brighter days of King Harold seemed to have come back again ; Hastings had been avenged at 1 We there see the true old Wessex sound of 'ea. - Warton gives the ' Wardrobe Account, ' in Latin, with Edward's directions for his devices. ' History of English Poetry,' ii. 32. (Edition of 1840.) 76 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. Cressy, and our islanders found none to match them in fight, whether the field might lie in France, in Spain, or in Italy. King Edward was happy in his knights, and happy also in the men whom he could employ in civil business, men like Wickliffe and Chaucer. Not only the Court but a University was now lending its sanction to the speech of the common folk. In 1384 William of Nassington laid a translation into English rimes before the learned men of Cambridge. The Chancellor and the whole of the University spent four days over the work ; on the fifth day they pronounced it to be free from heresy and to be grounded on the best authority. Had any errors been found in it, the book would have been burnt at once. 1 For the last thirty years there had been a great stirring up of the English mind ; many works on religion had been put forth both in the North and the West, as may be seen in the Preface to Wickliffe's Bible, edited not many years since. The middle of the Fourteenth Century was the time when English, as it were, made a fresh start, and was prized by high and low alike. I take what follows from an old Lollard work, put forth about 1450, and printed eighty years later, when the term Lollard was being swallowed up by the term LutJieran : " Sir William Thorisby archebishop of Yorke ~ did do draw a treaty se in englishe by a worshipfull clercke whose name was Gatryke, in the whiche were conteyned the articles of beleve, the seven dedly synnes, the seven workes of mercy, the X com- maundmentes. And sent them in small pagines to the commyn people to learne it and to knowe it, of which yet many a copye be in england. . . . Also it is knowen to many men in ye tyme of King Eicherd ye II. yat into a parlement was put a bible (bill) by the assent of II arch- bisshops and of the clergy to adnulle the bible that tyme translated into Englishe with other Englishe bookes of the exposicion off the gospells ; whiche when it was harde and seyn of lordes and of the comones, the duke of Lancaster 1 ' Thornton Romances ' (Camden Society), p. xx. 2 This Prelate, in 1361, began the choir of York Minster. ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 77 Jhon answered thereto ryght sharpely, sayenge this sen- tence : We will not be refuse of all other nacions ; for sythen they have Goddes law whiche is the lawe of oure belefe in there owne langage, we will have oures in Englishe whosoever say naye. And this he affermyd with a great othe. Also Thomas Arundell Archebishoppe of Canter- bury sayde in a sermon at Westmester at the buryenge of Quene Anne, that it was more joye of here than of any woman that ever he knewe. For she an alien borne hadde in englishe all the IIII gospels with the doctours upon them. And he said that she had sent them to him to examen and he saide that they were good and trewe." l Here we see that English had kept its ground in the Palace ; an intru- sion which would have seemed strange, I suspect, to Edward the Second, the grandfather of stout Duke John. Not long after the Duke's death, an inscription in English was graven upon the brass set up in Higham Ferrars church to the memory of Archbishop Chicheley's brother. In 1362, or soon afterwards, two renowned English poets must have been at work Chaucer in London ; the author of 'Piers Ploughman' not far from the Severn. They both went on writing for nearly forty years. Of the two, the rustic bard has the more sublime passages ; the Court poet, who took long to arrive at his full powers, ex- cels in painting the manners of mankind. He had no real successor for two hundred years ; he was the great model ; and many poets must have won renown by copying his style, or even fathering their works upon him. The once despised English now came to be used, not only in legal documents and religious tracts, but even in Church prayers, Royal proclamations, and Parliamentary business ; Henry V., a truly national King, gave a great impulse to the use of his native tongue, and in his own writings replaced certain Southern forms by the Northern words that we still use. It is true that English poetry all but died out in the fifty years after Lydgate's time, remind- 1 Arber's Reprint of ' Eede me and be nott wrothe,' page 176. In page 157 will be found a Fifteenth Century pun ; the endowing of the clergy should be called " all amiss," rather than " almes." 78 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. ing us of the ninety years that followed the Norman Con- quest ; but at the same moment our prose made a sudden start, and became a most forcible weapon in the hands of Pecock, Fortescue, and Mallory. Provincial forms, at least to the South of Trent, were now retiring more and more from the public gaze ; at last Caxton and his printing press were about to give a complete victory to the Standard English, spoken at London in 1474; this press was also to arrest the decay of our old Teutonic words, a decay which, since 1290, had been most slow and gradual. The Old English Drama may well stand at the head of the English works dealt with in this Chapter. The Mysteries, of which mention had already been made in the ' Handlyng Synne,' now come before us. The earliest of the York Plays may date from about this time, though the manuscript containing them is due to a later period. 1 So popular were these Mysteries, that they were performed every year at York down to 1579 ; they seem to have been dropped, just when theatres began to flourish at London. Some of these works date from about 1360 ; others seem to be about forty years later ; these last I shall analyse further on. 2 The Northern writer uses same for the Southern togeder, p. 107. The be is clipped, when "get a bairn" replaces beget, p. 104. The k replaces p; the old clappe (strepitus), appears as women's clakke, p. 344. The Northern addition of th is seen in bountith, p. 122 ; hence the Scotch poortith. There are the new Substantives, home spone, skelp (ictus) ; there is the rare fordele (commodum), used afterwards by Gresham and Hey wood. In p. 109 woman kynde expresses mulieres, just as the word is used by Scott's Antiquary. A babe is called a mytyng, p. 141, a new application of the term mite. A woman is addressed as my love, p. 424, a new phrase. We hear of cursedness, 1 These havejbeen well edited by Miss Toulmin Smith (Clarendon Press), and are printed from the Ashburnham Manuscript. They appeared in July 1885, just in time to be inserted here. 2 In distinguishing the dates of the Mysteries I have been guided chiefly by the proportion of French words used ; the word doutles occurs in the later, but not in the earlier, Mysteries. The system of rimes is also very different. ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 79 p. 501 ; the Americans, who retain so many Yorkshire phrases, still talk of cussedness. In p. 513 stands for-lpoght (propositum) ; we have changed the sense of this. As to the Adjectives, the old prcetig had meant astutus, it now gets our later sense of the word ; a boy is likely to turn out a praty (fine) swayne, p. 170. The word dowty (bonus) begins to slide into fortis; knights are dowty in dedis, p. 404. We read of high and lowe (all men) ; no man is the wiser (knows a secret), p. 419. As to Pronouns, a child was oures two, p. 109 (belonging to us two); men are none of his, p. 503 (not his friends) ; we hear of ]>e selve and \e same (the later self-same), p. 512. The any is inserted needlessly; "why that tree any more than others ? " p. 2 3 ; it is the same with ever ; " wJiat ever can this be 1" p. 188; this last perhaps led to the new form for whatsoever. The one refers to a previous noun; "if you have no sword, buy one" p. 238. The old althir mast is used, p. 110, where Grower was soon to use most of all. Among the Verbs are look him in the face, lie in store. Joseph makes a trippe into Egypt, p. 142; the verb trip had been lately used for moving lightly. The verb be takes the new sense of vadere in p. 339 ; I ho,ve bene (to) garre make it ; a great change. The verb wit was always undergoing corruption ; in p. 501 something is weten (notum) ; a form that would have startled an earlier generation. The old to (dis) was dropping in the North, though it was to keep its ground in the South for nearly 200 years longer; the verb to-ryff (rive asunder), p. 107, stands quite by itself. On the other hand, the North was to prefix far to Verbs, long after these forms had been dropped in the South. We find the new phrase erlye and late, p. 163. In p. 512 stands "your help to them was not at hame " (ready, familiar) ; hence, a man is now said to be not at home in certain pursuits. There is the Inter- jection colle/ p. 119; which is suggested as an old form of golly ! There are the Scandinavian words dastard and balk (trabs). Among the French words are dewly, rivet, novelty, novellis (news), seeges (chairs), oblissh (oblige). A certain act is called a bad bargayne, p. 103; here there is no notion of trade. In carpentering mesures are taken, p. 80 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. 42 ; this noun was to have a greatly extended sense. The word state stands for dignity, as in Barbour, p. 24. The verb seize gets the new sense of aipere, p. 416. There is the French cry, as armes (to arms !) p. 152. The Latin is used for stage directions in p. 190; hence our exeunt, etc. The ruffians who crucify our Lord swear by Mahounde, p. 346. A more elaborate system of riming stanzas begins to come in; see pp. 143, 237, 340, 347 ; but this was to be much further developed in the later ' York Mysteries ' of 1400. I give a specimen of the earlier rimes " In lele wedlak >ou lede J>e, Leffe Mr no5t, I forbid ]>e, Na syn of hir ]>ou neveii. But till hir fast ]>ou spede ]>e, And of hir noght )>ou drede ]>e, It is Goddis sande of heven " (p. 110). In the statutes of a Lynne Gild of 1368 we see the official called the belleman, p. 55 ; also, if it nede be; here we usually strike out the it. There is also falsed with the new meaning of mendatium ; hitherto it had meant a state of mind. There are the Norfolk peculiarities geve and xal. In 1371 were drawn up certain English rules for the masons at work upon York Minster. 1 We here see Saynte Elennes, where day is dropped. The Celtic dock (campana) appears for the first time in English ; it was to supplant the French oriloge ; noon is smitten by the docke ; we now replace smite by strike. We read of dyncr tyme, of a logc, a building for masons, a famous word in our day ; also of the dose of the cathedral. The poem on Sir Degrevant ('Thornton Eomances,' Camden Society) seems to belong to 1370, or so; it is Northern, but has the Lancashire ho (ilia) ; and there is the whom (hu-ome) for domus, which still prevails in that county; also the new Celtic word gown. The rime has sometimes been altered by the transcriber, as morn into morow, p. 215 ; fas intofoas, p. 250. The a is clipped, for we find fray (pugna) instead of affray, ~p. 248 ; there are the two forms troth and trough (pig- 1 Britton's 'Cathedrals,' York, p. 80. H.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 81 nus) ; we now make a difference between them. The I is added, for the verb fuse becomes tousel (Scott's towzle), p. 239. The old word noolce is applied to the corner of a letter, p. 184. The hero overthrows many knights in a tourna- ment, and brings their horses, as prizes, to stake, p. 223 ; can this be the source of our winning the stakes ?* A man makes a remark one (in) his play, p. 248 ; here the noun refers, not to action, but to speech; it would have been earlier, in his game. A new Adjective is compounded in p. 245, a two-honde swerde, something like the old twy-ecged (two-edged). As to Verbs, the old phrase ic hit eom had been altered in the ' Cursor Mundi ' to ]>at ilk es I, and now be- comes hyt ys I, p. 207 ; Chaucer still has the old form. There are the phrases make delay, set heart on. We have two new sporting terms, to draw rivers, p. 182, and to hunt forests, p. 184 ; that is, the game that is in them. The old how so ever now undergoes a change ; how ever that hyt be stands in p. 213. There are new constructions of for ; as, fourty for one, p. 208, a phrase also used by Barbour at this time; we should now alter the for into to. In p. 218 stands a gift for a Tcyng ; here some adjective like meet is dropped before the preposition. The foreign afraid is now followed by of, like the native afeard ; afreyd of the knight, p. 188. The fashionable oath of this time is hinted at in p. 249, where a man is described as swearing by bones and blood. We see Chaucer's Celtic word cnop (applied to crystal), whence our knob was to come. Among the new French words are hart of grese, bagge (badge), banneret, servi- tor, scalmuse (shawms), knight crraunt. In p. 183 we read of a knight's place, that is, domain or manor ; also of his tenauntrie. In p. 192 chase is used for silva. The old wild deor now makes way for wyld best, p. 197; here stags are meant. The word trayn gains the new meaning of comitatus, p. 224. In p. 228 a knight is described as dresse"; this may here refer either to his fine horse or to his fine clothes. In p. 189 we read of loi'ds of honor e, leading to our "man of honour" and "maid of honour." In p. 205 comes the favourite ballad phrase, " Ihesu save thee and see /" VOL. I. G 82 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. We see the word ele (aisle of a church) in a Latin in- scription of 1370 quoted in Dr. Murray's ' Dictionary.' In the ' Early English Poems ' and ' Lives of Saints,' published by Mr. Furnivall in 1862, there are some pieces that may date from 1370. The dialect is mostly Southern, except that sin, not sithen, occurs in p. 136. We see poysi for poesy, p. 135, a sign that the oy now stood for something besides the French ou and e. In p. 129 a man is boun to begge, "ready to beg," or "forced to beg," for there seems here a confusion between the Scandinavian bun (paratus) and the English bound (coactus). In p. 122 stands love hi/nt best of eny ]>ing (of all) ; Chaucer has something like this. The verb sit governs an Accusative ; sekenesse sitte}> me, p. 129, hence the later "sit ahorse." We see cast acountcs, put ]>i tmst in him, do execution (slay), p. 119. Among the French words are, to raump (of lions), queristre (chorister), lettorne (lectern), countures round (counters), fantasie, I enseure thee, }>e cours of Tcynde (nature), p. 119; hence comes our of course. The ' Romance of the Emperor Octavian ' (Percy Society) may date from about 1370. It has the very old word heere (exercitus), elsewhere obsolete ; it was compiled in the North, as', we see the forms lowse (solvere), wepande, alle-kyii, put til dethe, thro (acer). The poem has been transcribed by a Southern writer, who has changed geste into yeste, land into londe, reame into realme, p. 18; perhaps odur (alius) into wodur, p. 13. He was evidently puzzled by the Northern ferly (wondrous), p. 49. The a is clipped in semUyd, but prefixed in avengyd ; the French lute undergoes the usual English change and becomes lewte. The ,s is struck out, for the old daies light appears as day lyght. The old verbs manan (significare) and myntan (statuere) are here confused, as in Chaucer ; we see in p. 9, lie- wiste not what hyt mente. The }> replaces d in tJiethur, our thither, p. 8. The phrase man child now starts to life again after a long sleep ; we also hear of no childys play, p. 35. We see the source of our bowsprit in p. 18, where the sailors catch up an oar or a sprytt (a projecting piece of wood). There seems to be a forestalling of our modern slang in p. 59 ; IT.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 83 the earls and barons are said to be bolde and swelle (elati). In p. 49 one side is said to be the bettur in the fight, a new sense of the adjective, like our "who is the best man." The Indefinite liyt or it again appears ; hyt was woxe nyght, p. 12. In p. 45 a question is put as to the rank of a champion ; the answer is nodur lesse nor move than^yf hyt my- sdfe wore (were), meaning that the champion was myself. Among the Verbs are the phrases, find her way, come of elde (age). The old bid now gains the sense of invitare ; thethur was he bede, p. 8. We see the new French words lyenas (lioness), floryns, scabard. A burgess is called " Clement the velayn" (villain), p. 21, where the word keeps its old sense. In p. 5 Rome is said to be wrong-heyred (ruled by the wrong heir), a remarkable instance of turning a noun into a Past Participle. In p. 34 two men fight till one becomes maystyi'; the sense of vinccrc was coming into this word. A man refers to a horse in p. 54, and says, to the emperour therwith y wylle present hym ; here a new idiom appears, which the transcriber plainly did not understand. The Romance of ' Torrent of Portugal,' edited by Mr. Halliwell, seems to have been compiled about 1370 ; it has much in common with the Lancashire poems, and is full of Northern words, such as to byrl wine, mornyng, aye where (ubique), gar, she mon (must). But it seems to have been transcribed in the next Century, perhaps in Salop or further to the South ; there are forms like litulle and woundus (wounds). The ane (unus), in p. 69, has been elsewhere altered into won ; there is also whome (home), p. 32. The rimes give a clue to the true old readings ; thus the gas and tas in p. 5 have been changed into goos and takythe, much to the loss of harmony ; travel and saule become travel and sole. The old herberwe becomes harburrow (harbour), p. 1 2 ; the r is struck out, for forester appears as foster, whence comes a well-known proper name. The n is inserted, for the foreign Portugal is seen as Portingale, a form that long lingered in England. As to the Substantives, the word knave stands, as in Lancashire, not for puer or servus, but for nebulo ; it is here applied to a savage giant, p. 6, and this sense of the word appears again in the last edition of 84 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. ' Piers Plowman' put forth by the aged author; see Skeat's edition, p. 169. The term ward had hitherto stood for custos and custodia ; but now, by an odd freak of language, it expresses the opposite, pupillus, p. 57. In p. 104 a knight's lance is called a tymber. Among the Adjectives, bice loses its old meaning lividus and expresses cceruleus, being confounded with the French bloie, later bleu; asure liny occurs in p. 95. We have now dropped the Northern manfulle, found in p. 7, except for adverbs, and we have stuck to the Southern manly. We find hys squyerys thf// mornyd, p. 5 ; this insertion of they is something unusual. Two Strong Verbs are weakened, for we see swellyd and hdpt. We come upon if so be that, to unbrydel, lay ul/it him, win erthe (ground) on hym, p. 28 ; inough to lyve uppon. Something like Manning's idiom, which substituted the Infinitive for a causal sentence, is now repeated; vl is very plain, when Methven is written Meffayn, p. 32. The old u was mistaken for v, hence the French lieutenant appears as Infftenande, p. 281. But there is a fashion of supplanting v by w, as in chewalrus ; so the old aboven becomes abowytie, 1 Jamieson's Edition, of 1869. 88 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. p. 344, which doubtless led the way to aboon ; so ////>/////i- (thraldom) but also thrillage, p. 6, like the bondage of 1303; there is also yemanry, p. 76 ; the new dewilry (devilry) appears in p. 86 ; there is also Irchery (Irishry). There are the new Substantives, undertaking, mainland, outecome, (ex- cursus), slewth-hund, infar (inroad), armful, owting (excursus) ; here a Preposition gives birth to a Verbal noun. In p. 44 men do a thing with a will, here the article is inserted ; in p. 54 men bring all thair thing (property) ; in p. 255 something has last (endurance), a word well known in our races; in p. 300 men lie slain all in a lump; in p. 343 an enterprise is begun with all handis ; in p. 392 cannon are called crakys of wer (war). The old wakeman becomes a wach, p. 201. In p. 325 men are sent on before to take herbery (harbour) for the army ; in the next page these men are called herbryouris, our harbingers, showing here a change of meaning. In p. 340 crane bears the sense of engine, not bird. The old gle is used of the joy of heaven in p. 412, just as mirth was used 200 years later; these words can now bear only a far lower meaning. We see some new proper names; Thorn Dicson, p. 97, seems to show that Richard had now become Dick ; there are Jhone Thomassone, and Gilbertson ; Gilbert is seen as Gib (whence comes Gibson) ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 89 in p. 299. The son in these proper names reminds us of Scandinavia. In p. 205 we hear of Wilyame Francuss, called Fmwnsoys in p. 212, which was thought to be a synonym of the French word Fransais, a Frankis man. The Spanish town Corunna was long known as the ' Groyne (oy for M), and appears as grunye in p. 414 ; Barbour's modern editor evidently cannot tell what to make of the word, printing it without a capital letter. A well-known Celtic province appears as Eretaynne", riming with Spainye, p. 414. We hear both of the Scottis and of Scottismen, hence the later Scotsman. There are some new Adjectives, such as scaithful, furred, craggy, and the new form Sotkeroun, p. 358. The word mid (medius) had been already set before many nouns, and we now see mydwatter, p. 62, and myd must (via), p. 365. From strength is formed strengthi, p. 84, just as lengthy has arisen in our own time. The Northern form of expressing pejor was waur ; this is turned into 'warrer in p. 105. The meaning of spedig changes from faustus to celer in p. 127. Our sheer also gains a new sense ; there is schor crag in p. 189 (sheer precipice). The old hindema becomes henmaist. There is both the Teutonic cumbyrsum and the Romance combrowss (cumbrous). The last syllable is pared away from likely in it wes lik that lie mycht haiff conqueryt, p. 321 ; a corruption to penetrate to London fifty years later. In p. 77 syndry (sundry) bears first its old meaning separatus, and then takes a new sense, something like quidam;. othyr syndry (sundry other men), as we use it mostly now. As to Pronouns, we saw &e ton in 1230; this is seen again in on the ta hand, p. 323, and it became a regular Scotch legal phrase. Barbour is fond of thai and thairis, lie and his. We have already seen "do thy best;" in p. 358 comes all thair mast (most) assailyeit tJiai (doing their utmost). In p. 321 we see fra end till uthyr; we should now say " from one end to the other." Barbour used qwheyn for pauci ; in Scotland the phrase " a wheen folk " may still be heard ; this keeps alive the old hwon (parvus), which Southern England seems to have lost for the last 700 90 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. years. In p. 399 comes we war ynew to put, etc. ; here the third word is in the Plural, (numerous enough). The question is asked in p. 389 quhat folk ar tJia,i 1 the first word answering here to quotus. In p. 263 a man is de- scribed as the thrid best knycht, a very terse phrase. In p. 373 stands he wes auchty thowsand ; to this we should now add strong. There are many new phrases where Verbs are employed, such as, hold in cheyjf, set a man on him, make tJiair acquent-n '<', put to confusioune, put thaim to the flycht, gift and tak, make him way, tak his viage, the wawys (waves) break, brek (mere) on thaim, draw aynd (breath), I am in aynd, tak aynd, lay the clath (cloth), get on fute, he is gottyn in the toure, set tryst to, tak (leap) the wall, make a stopping (halt), p. 147, draw ner to him, lede Juiy, do his part, tak the feyld, tak gret rowme, brek aray, to say suth (sooth), have na hart to help thaim, to set wachis, mak na schawing (show) of, a weyll-maid body, mak chang (exchange) of, nycht was fallyn, it mayd (told) agayn us. The verb undo adds the meaning of perdere to its old meaning solvere, p. 8. We see he had spyis owt, p. 323 ; here an Active Participle, like lying, should be the last word but one. The English verb for vigilare had hitherto been in- transitive ; but we now find thai war wachit (watched), p. 397. On the other hand, fling is intransitive as before, but also governs an Accusative, p. 331. There is a sudden change of tense, well known to ballad-makers, in p. 413 ; instead of saying in the narrative, " they had him," we find thai liaiff liad him. In p. 93 stands he put him to the se ; we now drop the him and the the. We saw in 1270 that so many hens make a flock ; in p. 115 this is carried further, he with tJuiim maid fyfty. The noun way is now followed by an Infinitive, he was set in gud way to conquer the land, p. 321. Men had hitherto blown an instrument; they now blow tunes on it ; blaw the retreit, p. 347. There is the new verb quhethir, our quiver, in p. 353 ; it is said to come from the old cwifer (impiger). There is may fall, like the French peut etre, in p. 416. In p. 393 men get wyt of some- thing ; perhaps we have confounded wit with wind in later times. We saw Jwld on his way ; the noun is now dropped, ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 91 and hold forth (proficisci) is in p. 387 ; the phrase is in our days confined to the pulpit. Among the Adverbs stands nerar togiddyr. We now sometimes hear a phrase " he is far away the best ; " in p. 305 stands fer way ma (more) tfuin tlw,i. This^r now ex- presses not only procul but multum, when set before a Comparative ; fer mair, p. 31, and this comes often in Barbour; folk are hard pressyt, p. 355. The in is struck out that should have come before na wyss, p. 124 ; this led long afterwards to our no how ; we saw no wayes in the 'Cursor.' So with is struck out in the middle of the phrase, lie folowit gud speid, p. 122. The form off seems here to be appropriated to the adverb, leaving the other form of for the preposition; with hudis (hoods) off, p. 390. In 1300 the phrase as in a Tyivesday had been used ; we now see, p. 126, as at this tyme, which remains in our Prayer Book ; here as is not wanted. In p. 4 1 2 as, with an Infini- tive, is opposed to so with an Adjective ; a wholly new idiom ; a man undertakes sa hey empriss as to ber, etc. ; hence our will you be so good as to, etc. What Chaucer called otherwise appears in Barbour as othir wayis, p. 6 ; leastways is often heard now. The latter poet is not satis- fied with the old fnllic (turpiter), but has foulyly ; and is fond of repeating this ly in Adverbs, as halijly, manlyly, a process that we dislike. As to Prepositions, we see ane till ane, p. 17, our man for man ; to win and till occupy stand side by side in p. 6. In p. 36 a bridle slips off his hand ; we have already found in this poem the two forms of this preposition. We have seen strong of hand ; a slight addition is made in p. 29, where we hear of a worthy knycht off his hand. We had in 1290 the Northern phrase the stalworthest geant of one ; this leads the way to Barbour's best off a knycht of all England, p. 375 ; hence the later a jewel of a man. A man might always go on an errand ; this brings us to he was fer on his way, p. 60. In p. 140 the army is all on ster (astir). We saw on his Jiealfe in 1076 ; in p. 176 men are slain apon ilk party. The poet uses ner in the sense of prope with an Accusative following ; nch (nigh) had been treated in this 92 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. way much earlier. The phrase at least had long been known; in p. 106 stands at the maist. In p. 169 comes the expression twa for ane ; in p. 145 we have it more at length; thai war sex guhar he wes ane. The old aver all had meant uUque ; it now means above all things, as in p. 412. There are some new phrases, used as Interjections, as : , regret, enamel. The word cariage is first found in p. 158, where it means the gear for carrying the army's baggage. A new word for if appears ; supposs they did so, p. 55 ; this comes often in later Scotch writers. There is the new trad; which has nothing to do with trace. The French had in this Century exchanged their old cataigne, chcvctaine, for a near imitation of capitaneus ; and Barbour has capitainc, soon to be adopted by Chaucer. The verb venge is making an end of the old wreak. In p. 30 towers are bataillyt (em- battled). The Teutonic un is often set before Romance roots, as unarmed ; we see also und&'-wardein, fortravaillit, umbeveround (circumdatus) ; this umbe seems to have been little known in the South after 1280. Men cum to pitrj><>* (proposed end), p. 48 ; in our day they speak to the pur- pose. In p. 65 seculer stands for layman, and is not opposed to regular. In p. 74 we see the verb confuse ; we have this (formed from the Past Participle) as well as confound, formed from the Infinitive. In p. 95 an English knight bears the name of Sand Jhon, with the accent on the first word, thus foreshadowing our well-known Sinjon. In p. 15 a knight is described as swcyt in cumpany ; I suppose that suave would ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 93 be the word favoured by our modern writers. In p. 115 a man is at first discouraged by his enemies, but after- wards tais till him his spyritis ; this strange Plural (it appeared in France during this Century) here expresses courage. In p. 138 men^?msthe king; in p. 173 he presses an them. What we call two thirds appears in p. 140 as two, partis of thaim. In p. 145 deer are in sesoun. We have seen entente ; in p. 205 it wes his ententioun to, etc. In p. 309 a man is usyt to fight, in p. 222 he uses to fight; we may now employ used for solebam, but not use for soleo, a curious instance of English nicety. In p. 285 a general dresses his men ; the verb is still used in this military sense. We see cruelly (with no idea of inhumanity) coupled with fighting in p. 337, and with wounding in p. 347; it is in our time often used to intensify a phrase, as cruel bad. In p. 421 comes soverane price, where the first word expresses maximus ; Piers Ploughman, much about the same time, has soverein salve (remedy). The scouts, sent ahead of an army, are called discouniouris, p. 388, hence our scourers. The word simple takes the meaning stultus, p. 7, besides its old sense of humilis, which is seen in p. 22. The verb trete expresses tractare in p. 10 ; Wyntoun afterwards used it in the same sense ; in p. 64 the king tretyt with certain folk ; and trety stands in p. 216. The old lenten (ver) was going out ; for this the Icelandic were is used. The word bountd expresses a valiant feat in p. 45. In p. 97 stuff" is used in its Lancashire sense for equipment or means ; the con- fusion between the verbs stop and stuff is very plain in p. 342, where so many ships come that the haven is stoppyt. A person of high rank does things in a quiet easy way ; hence an engine is pressed up to a wall gentilly, p. 354 ; we now make a great difference between genteelly and gently. Our verb unnan (own) has come to stand for conjiteri as well as concedere ; in the same way a man makes granting (con- fession) of his sins in p. 381. The verb avise (scrutari) takes the new sense of monere in p. 32 ; we make it advise. When Sant Jago is mentioned in p. 417 he is called Saynct Jak ; this is the French Jacques, not the shortened form of Teutonic Jankin. 94 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. I may mention that Barbour has many phrases that carry the mind to Scotland, such as bonet, tliai gaderyt (assembled, p. 328), bailie, we be agwent, thowless, peel (castellum), lie behoved to, weird. He has many expressions already found in Northern writers, such as morning, wilful (volens), fall to it, liamlet, sad (fessus), of myself, smertly (cito), get the ourhand, p. 202. He abounds in Verbal Nouns, and is fond of adding ness to Romance roots, as tenderness. For perns stands catell, p. 122 ; this Northern sense of the word did not come to London until after 1500. The Old English Mode held its ground in the South, but was written blowde by Barbour. He] wrote many Legends of the Saints, to be read in Horstmann's ' Altenglische Legenden,' pp. 189-208. The o replaces e, as gottin for geten ; he had gottine (gotten), p. 194. The d is added to round off a word, as expand (expound), p. 194; the rightful expone is in p. 202. The n is inserted, as ensamplar for the usual esample, p. 206 ; this en is preserved in our Bibles. Among the new Sub- stantives are slawnes, wantones ; the word slicht (sleight) is now first used of a trick of the body, not of the mind, p. 201 ; dowme (doom) in p. 204 means only the judgment or thought of the mind. Among the Adjectives are thankful, nere of kin to, ill will. The foreign plenteous takes a Teu- tonic ending, and becomes plentwis, p. 202 ; just the op- posite case to that of righteous. We hear of ripe age, p. 193 ; elsewhere, a man may be ripe in conversation ; here the adjective slides into the sense of sapiens, and is thus used a few years later by King James I.; hence Shake- spere's ripe scholar. Among the Verbs are do an erand, taJce charge, burst out into teres, p. cviii., pity may be inborne (innate). One of the old senses of sceotan had been ior- quere ; hence men are schot into a place, p. 201, as we shoot rubbish. The verb cleave (hserere), which had hitherto been Weak, makes its Perfect clafe, p. 196. There is the new -phrase syd be syd (side), p. 207. We see the Scandinavian swamp derived from swim; men through dropsy are made swampe, p. 208. Among the Romance words are heretable, retentive, ex- it.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 95 presly, demand, inflame, comprehend. There is determe in the sense of statuere, our determine, p. 194. Light fails a man, p. 196. The verb chase takes the sense of abigere, p. 201 ; a sense borne sixty years later by the other form of the French verb, catch. The verb inform has the sense of instruere, p. 204. The verb excede begins to supplant the old pass, as later in Tyndale. The verb conjure means simply orare, p. 203. The two forms werdoune and reward may be seen in p. 205. There is line of flesh (family), and change his tfwcht (mind), p. 205. We have the statutes of a London Gild of 1375 (Early English Text Society, p. 1), which are not unlike Chaucer's dialect ; we find both beth and ben (sunt) ; the Infinitive and the prefix to the Past Participle are clipped. There is noght for not, and the Southern sustren and d\>er (aut). Orrmin's same and somewhat have now reached London. We have here }>e most wyse instead of the old wisest ; also do Iw diligence, do }>e duytes, the first appearance of the last- named substantive in England. Two foreign words are used as prepositions ; touching ]>e profit (which we saw in Salop in 1350), and duryng his enpresonement ; in France the Participle would have stood last. The form acompt is found, whence comes Shakespere's day of compt ; the statutes of the Gild are called a papir, leading the way to our state paper. In a Lynne Gild of 1376 (in the same volume) we read of a man of gode conversacioun (a word used in this sense in France down to Calvin's time), and of paying fees, a new sense of the last word. There is a later Lynne Gild of 1383, where the old Midland Participle in ende is often found. We here find, as in 1350, the Verbal Noun fol- lowed by an adverb ; have a spekyng togedyr (conference), p. 52 ; a phrase like this makes us mourn over the loss of our old compounding power. We find, also, the phrase in tyme comyng, p. 53. There are the statutes of a Norwich Gild in 1385, where stands the word sparyer (spurrier), p. 42; here the y or i of the Severn country is inserted before, the Teutonic er. The form cladde, a Scandinavian word that "we saw in East Anglia in 1230, appears once more in p. 43. I place, under the year 1377, the far-renowned Allegory 96 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. of Piers Ploughman, written as it seems by a poet who dwelt on the Great Sundering Line, and who therefore used both Southern and Midland forms. The author seems to have belonged to Salop. He brought out three editions of his great Alliterative work ; the first half of it in 1362, the whole in 1377, a third, with additions and corrections, in 1393. l Many copies, made from his original text (a most popular work), still survive, and show a great variety of dialects about the year 1400 ; thus we have bridale, bredale, brudale, and bruydale, all four ; also rusche, rische, reshe. His Southern leanings are shown by forms like which (qualis), hue (ilia), hy (illi), hure (audire), jorn (cucurrit), ac (sed), o ]>ing, church, wantowen (lascivus), and the Genitive Plural of a new word, lollarene. Among the Northern forms are gar (facere), til (ad), loupe (saliat, p. 76), aren, egges. We see both dike and diche for fn/>. The different manuscripts show the uncertainty about the sound of letters ; thus our boil (pustula) appears in p. 431, but is also written bule, bylc, and bele ; boil (bullire) is seen in this form, and also as buyl, p. 383 ; toil (laborare) is in p. 422, with the variations tule, tile, and tyle. The com- 1 See Mr. Skeat's admirable edition of this author (Early English Text Society). ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 97 bination build marks the Severn country, as do forms not equally long-lived, such as pruyde and fuyr. The old stdl (sedes) is replaced by stoul ; the cloches of Mapes give birth to the verb clucche ; and the word for anas appeare both as doke and duke. As to Consonants, the b is inserted, as slumber for the old slumer. The k sound is preserved in a foreign com- parative adverb, as reverentloker, p. 141 ; and poke is used instead of pouch ; there are the new forms cull and kill for occidere, as well as the old quell, p. 423. The old synegen (peccare) holds its ground by the side of the new synnen, p. 229 ; but Layamon's ni^ene (novem) becomes nine. The for- mer gelcened is now seen as ylent, p. 108. There are the two forms drouhlpe and droghte. Ninth is seen for the first time with n inserted ; but elsewhere the n is struck out, as in a slepe, p. 88 ; we have a window a woi'chyng, p. 44, where this a (on) first stands before a Verbal Noun. Hampole's in middes becomes amyddes (amidst), p. 164. The s is inserted ; baptesme appears, not baptim ; and silpen is some- times written sfyenes, on the road to since. As to r, we find hors (raucus) as well as hos, the old Ms. The old ti-i/iJcwa now becomes ividewer (widower). We saw spilbred in 1280 ; much longer compound names are now formed, as Sire PFerch-well-urith-thyn-hand, Waryn wrynge-lawe ; a horse is called soffre-til-ich-see-my-tyme, p. 72. In these phrases Bunyan did not go quite so far as his Salopian forerunner. The ending estre no longer expressed a female, for we see wafrestre (wafer maker), and canonistre (canonist); tpmnesfar in p. 107 expresses, not our idea connected with the word, but spinner. The brewester of one copy, p. 156, has been altered into ale-wife in another. Webba did not last beyond the year 1400; it is replaced by wever and webbester, which no longer means textrix, as of old. Our common goer is formed from the verb, for we find forgoere ; go was supplanting gang. The old ending ern was now all but gone ; instead of the former breawcern we find brewhouse, p. 163. The word ravine gives birth to another noun, ravener, p. 309. The kin at the end of proper names is in full use, as Watkin, Haukin ; it is tacked on to Romance VOL. I. H 98 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. words, &sfauntekyn (infant), p. 159. Manning's Joan appears as Janet; his nigun now becomes nigard, p. 359. The con- fusion between Teutonic and Romance endings is very plain in tale-tellour, p. 442. There are new nouns, as titerer, loby (looby), kyton (kitten), kitte-pors (cutpurse), styues (lupanar), pikstaf, hangman, pykeporse, latch, bi'ocage, brocor (broker), borwton (borough town), baude (lena), batte-nelde (packneedle), lande-leper (pilgrim), collop, ragamoffin (applied to a fiend), kynde wit (Latimer's mother wit), wisp, worsted, beggcru; //<)//>- bonderie. We see the two forms larel and losel (nebulo) ; the word Idler here means a fellow, who, under pretence of religion, lives in idleness ; a few years later it was to be applied to heretics. In p. 134 we see the old, all but obsolete, form bergh (collis), which we now write bamu; our iceberg is a word borrowed from our Teutonic brethren. Team, which had meant sequela, is first applied to oxen in p. 158. We hear, in p. 197, that something is not worth a carse ; here is the change from cress to a sound like our curse. We see wyrdes (destinies) in p. 227 ; this was be- coming obsolete, at least in the South, for most of the manuscripts alter it into words. The suffix kin is dropped in proper names like Tomme, Watte, Symme, Bette ; we find here Letice, Hicke, Sesse (Cis); in p. 350 the Good Samaritan's horse is called both Lyarde and Bayarde. Perncl, whence the poet Parnell derived his name, is the short for Petronilla, and is usually here applied to a bad character. On the other hand, Piers the Ploughman, standing for Christ him- self, is sometimes called Perkin, p. 173; the name became afterwards a synonym for an impostor. In p. 75 a man pays handy-dandy, one of the first instances of our truly English love of a jingle, such as Skelton employed. Old forms, like ingang and gang (ire), are seen for the last time in the South. In p. 141 we learn that it is hard to know, in the churchyard, a knight from a knave or a queyne from a qaeene; the higher and lower meanings of the old ciiin are here brought into sharp contrast, thanks to spelling. In former times ceorl had been used for freeman ; in p. 66 the word had sunk so low that it is altered in one manu- script into ]>rall ; see also p. 401. The term u>ench is applied ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 99 to the Virgin in p. 336, and to a harlot in p. 422 ; the honourable sense was to prevail in the North, the base sense in the South. It is curious that boy had been used for a torturer or hangman ever since 1280, reminding us of the Italian boja ; this meaning reappears in p. 371. Girl in p. 162 still bears its old Salopian meaning child. Our word mirth had then a far loftier sense than now ; in p. 374 it is applied to the feelings with which we should regard Christ's birth ; this survives in the phrase " awful mirth," applied, in a hymn, to the service of God. We hear of men bolted (fettered) with iron, p. 146 ; bolt had added the sense of catena to its old meaning sagitta. The word grote had been used for fragmentum ; it now expresses a coin, p. 107. Prayer had been expressed by bede; this latter is now transferred to the little round substances used to reckon the number of prayers said ; we find a peire of bedes. We saw, about 1300, the phrases no manere harm and nakin harm ; we now, in p. 374, have the longer-lived cny kynde of creature side by side Avith eny kynne Ipynge, p. 153. A drunken man is carried to bed, in p. 118, withal Ipe wo of \e worlde ; we should now say "with all the trouble in the world." A noun has another noun of price prefixed to it in the phrase halpeny ale, p. 156. In p. 163 an Adverb is tacked on to a noun ; leperes aboute, " roving over the land." In p. 1 25 stands in $oure dejp-deynge (dying) ; the form " die the death " had been often used ; death is now set before the Verbal Noun. Both grom and gome are employed in this poem. In p. 384 comes the new phrase "they are mine, body and soule." In p. 128 the Sun is darkened far a tyme. Among the new Adjectives are baudi, lousi, }>rede-bare, pcyvesshe (peevish), wederwise, wet-shod, ller-eyed. There is bytelbrowed, which we now confound with beetle, whereas it comes from the Old English bitian (acuere). A Passive Participle is made an Adjective and takes a Comparative, blessedere, p. 223; there is also "broke-legged, p. 146, where two Past Participles are united. The Adjective is pre- fixed to an Active Participle, lowc-lyvinge men, p. 257. When we see a Southern phrase like a rnvchc (great) man, ioo THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. we understand how Much Wenlock came to exist down to our days ; another form of the word remains in Mickle Benton, further to the North. The Americans talk of "having a good time;" in p. 373 the Jews are told ^oure goode dayes leo]> don. As to Pronouns, Matzner quotes a curious idiom from this poet ; Lord, y-worshiped be the ; this explains our it's tnr , in the same way the French employ moi, toi, and lui as Nominatives. We saw nothing of his in 1260; the idiom is now extended, for we find moneye of thyn owen. In p. 405 stands our common furst andformest. Among Verbs there is a new idiom, why calle hym Crist ? here sJwuld ye is dropped before the Infinitive. There is a curious exchange of would for should in ich slwlde rajv/v .s7>r/v, p. Ill; we still say " I should prefer to starve. " In p. 382 stands ich wol beo brent, unless, etc. ; this is the idiom used in more modern curses. There are new verbs like wrangle (from wring}, unpick a lock, herd (congregari), thi'l>. In go to werke, p. 105, nothing toilsome is suggested; nothing but pleasure is in the speaker's mind. In p. 440 God, it is said, made all things, and nempnede Jiem mnitc* the first hint of our calling names. In p. 407 something cam out (became known). The poet sometimes forms happy new compounds, as land-tylynge people, p. 213 ; other poets should tread in his steps. In p. 110 we see how overreach came to mean clieat ; a rogue, when reaping, overreaches into his neighbour's corn. Among the Adverbs there is a most curious survival of the old form lytulum and lyhdum, p. 327. This seems to show that our poet, like Layamon, was a student of antiquity ; in further proof of this he writes yon a begged, "go a begging," p. 146, in imitation of the old gan an /(inttath, "go a hunting." In p. 88 trees were blown down, and turned upward here tayl ; we no\v say " tail upward." In p. 444 we see how hardly came to express vix seventy years later ; ful hard is if tliey recover. In p. 406 Christ is killed on croys-unse, the source of the Biblical Adverb cross wise. The adverb happily had been hitherto used for feliciter ; in p. 136 it is cut down to Juiplichf, and expresses ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 101 fortasse ; here is an instance of the omission of one letter in a word enabling us to express two different shades of meaning. There is now a dayes, p. 199 ; and also a nyghtes, p. 356. In p. 165 stands drynke deepe, where the last word is meant for an Adverb. The adverb abrode (abroad) is here opposed to in doors, a new meaning. Among the Prepositions we see our common for al }>at, p. 360. The for in the sense of ob now follows a Sub- stantive as well as a verb; snrgiens far synnes. In p. 137 stands bi otiht }>at ich Jcnowe ; in the ' Cursor Mundi ' far had been used for this bi. In p. 313 men are at here wittes end. The Interjections are baw (bah), Jiarow and help ! a straw for it I of this Chaucer was fond ; the oath by my soule stands in p. 245. The toper's chorus is hoy! troly! lolly! p. 145 ; something like the Shakesperian hey, nonny, nonny ! especi- ally the first word. How little objection was felt to oaths about 1370 we may learn from the following instance Piers stands sometimes for Christ, sometimes for the Church, yet the oath by God! is put into his mouth, p. 416. The Scandinavian words are arate, which in one manu- script is rate (exprobrare), to-luggen (lug to pieces), bustle, cuffe (manica), to by-slober. The new words, akin to the Dutch and German, are cramp, nip, cough, loll, jog, plot (locus), tawny, galp (yelp), bouken (whence Shakespere's buck basket). The Celtic words are kick, cobler, tinker, nib, spike, borre (burr) in the throat, cruddes (croddes and creyme, p. 155). The baban of 1220 is now seen as babi. The poet's birthplace must be fixed somewhere near the Severn; there are a few words that remind us of the Herefordshire poems of 1280, such as tike, capel, gobelyn, momcl (mumble), dozen. There is Layamon's gyves, and the Western pouke. The i of the Severn country, inserted before er, is often seen, as cotier, tiller ; also ]>rew (cecidit), asyde, and vauntwarde. There are the Salopian gerls (children), daffe, and garnement. Among the many French words are boucher (butcher), Jurer, panel, gable, wince, flux, labourer, ague, drugs, mor- gage, registre, buttress, gill, mange (munch), blammanger, 102 THE NEW ENGLISH. [< MAI-. round of bacon, enhabit, lachesse, construe, russet, patent, rave, famine, controller, match (for fire), grammar, to rut, to houpen (our whoop), for mercies sake, pous (pulse), lure, wayves and strayves. We see the Church words provisours, rectour (p. 37), curatour, fraternite, indulgence, meson-dieu ; a friar confesses a man, p. 216. Among the lawyers are serjauntes, ]>at serven atte btirre, p. 10. A doctour is a church- man in p. 264, a physician in p. 435. The word //"'A/', p. 51, is used where prisoner (custos) was employed in the year 1230 ; the last word had already begun to express a man confined. The word ergo, taken from the Schools, is used for therefore. We hear of puwes (pews) in p. 102. In p. 440 brybour, first appearing in English, is used in the sense of latro, and this sense it bore for two cen- turies ; Littre says that the old French briban (a vagrant) is connected with the Italian birbante. In p. 316 a creature honours his creatour ; here the two ways of writing the French ou are found useful; in p. 374 we hear of a comely creature, just as we now say " a fine creature ; " Chaucer attached a worse meaning to this word. In p. 262 a beggar is called a poure }>yng ; this has become one of our commonest phrases. Among the coins, here mentioned, are the noble and the floreyn. The word tutnur expresses custos, p. 1 8, which it long retained in Scotch law. The word gentel seems to undergo the same change that it did in Barbour; we hear of Job the gentel, p. 231 ; still further, gentiles are opposed to Jews in p. 315. The French cachiw was henceforth, as a general rule, to be set apart for capere, and was not to express abigere ; this last was to be expressed by the other form chacier (chase). In p. 356 the catch fire of the 'Ancren Eiwle' is repeated; one manuscript alters the Teutonic lacchcn (capere) into the French cacchen, p. 272 ; I have no doubt the two words were often confounded. A person is congcd in p. 71 ; the word conge 1 has been revived in later times. The Romance passed imitates the Teutonic ago ; he said, seven $er passed, p. 12. We saw, in the year 1290, a doseyn of doggen; the idiom changes in p. 73 ; a dosene capones ; so a pat/re gloves, p. 109. The Teutonic and Romance are yoked in one ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 103 word, doblefold, p. 176 ; also parcelmele (our piecemeal), p. 47 ; apartie (apart) stands in p. 263 like the around of 1300. The French maner appears in a Participle, p. 192 ; a wel y-manered mayde ; this must, in our day, always have an Adverb before it. The word seems to have been made a verb in England earlier than in France. In p. 112 we hear of an crraunt usurer, the source of Barclay's variation arrant; in p. 167 stands poure pacientes (sufferers). The town Lucca becomes Lukes, p. 81. But Latin forms, in matters religious, supplant their French descendants ; thus we find restitution, excite, baptism, corps, simile. We see the verb alay in p. 311, where we should now write alloy ; the two forms of spelling this word are still used in two different senses. In p. 1 1 6 a man is named nompeyr (um- pire) ; the n was docked fourscore years later ; this is just the contrary to what took place in forming the nonce. There is a strange form juvente for youth. The propor- tion of French words is sometimes very large, as "He passede forth pacientliche to perpetuel blisse (p. 211). Astronomyens al day in here art faillen (p. 312). And )>orw penaunce and passioun and parfyt byleyve (p. 323). Matrimonye, a moiste frut, fat multiplied Pe peple (p. 333). Adjectif and substantyf unite asken, Accordaimce in kynde, in cas, and in numbre " (p. 60). There is a reference to the hangman of Tyborne, p. 115; to rimes of Eobyn Hode, p. 121 ; to the flitch of Done- mo we, p. 193; to the preaching at St. Paul's, p. 264 ; to the Arches (court), p. 433. Wicked men in holy orders are compared, in p. 311, to bad money with the King's stamp upon it ; Burns has a similar idea, applied to good men, "the gowd for a' that." We have a Shakesperian phrase in 203, cast out both lyne and levell. No English verse had as yet reached such a height of sublimity as the Passus xxi. of this poem, treating of Christ's death and descent into hell. The bard here, strong in the old national Alliteration, soars above Chaucer, and above every other English writer for the next 200 years. The aforesaid subject had already given birth to some of the very best lines in the 'Cursor io 4 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. Mundi ; ' English literature, from first to last, owes much to religion. Much about the same time that the second edition of 'Piers Ploughman' was given to the world, a Canon of Lilleshall in Shropshire, named Mirk (Early English Text Society), drew up a rimed code of instructions for parish priests. We have it in a copy made about sixty years later ; the obsolete Teutonic and the French seem to belong to about the year 1380 ; there are such old forms as .-///"/' n (peccare) and forme (primus). We have the same mixture of Northern and Southern forms, so often remarked on before ; heo and scho, beth and are, thilke and that ; also such marked Salopian forms as uche (quisque) and /e (octavus), where Manning had written eighte}>c, the Old English eahto]>a. The n is inserted in passyngi re. p. 26. There are new Substantives like hoitselreker, hodymoke, the parent of huggermugger, that is, something hidden ; huyde hyt not in hodymoke, p. 62. We see the noun Ii/i-Jnrnkc, p. 45, for the first time, the word so beloved by the Laird of Monkbarns ; the Old English word for un/, Goddes moder of hevene. As to Adjectives, in p. 7 we hear of an oddc weddi/tigc, that is, irregular, much as in Lancashire the word had ex- pressed our exceptional; an odd child (nothus) is still a ii-l THE NEW ENGLISH. 105 Yorkshire phrase. We see a mark of the Severn country when fell adds the sense of callidus to its old meaning crudelis ; slegh and f el, p. 46 ; here the Latin acer seems to be the connecting link. From the old pic is formed the Adjective pyked, p. 2 ; applied to shoes that end in a peak. We hear that men ought to kneel to the Host in the road, fayre ne fowle ; a terse alliteration, where be the weather is dropped, p. 10. Among the Pronouns whyche still keeps its true old meaning qualis, p. 1. In p. 21 a priest burns Ipat (those) ylke same bondes ; a curious instance of the Old and the New words for idem being yoked together. We saw at alle in the Salopian poem of 1350; we now, in p. 56, have by non o]>er way at al. As to Verbs, need is now followed by an Accusative, heo neddh lore, p. 28. We are reminded of the cut of a coat in p. 2 ; a priest is forbidden to wear cuttede clothes. There were two Old English verbs, beorgan (tueri) and borgian (mutnari) ; the former, corrupted into borwe, had been much used down to this time ; henceforward it gave place, at least in the South, to the latter verb, our borrow, as in p. 32. The old folowe (baptizare) was now going out, to be replaced by crystene, as in pp. 5, 1 8 ; the latter had been used before the Conquest. The phrase aske the banns stands in p. 7. Among the Adverbs we find welyngly (voluntarie), found also in Chaucer ; this of old had been willeliche in the South. The Preposition for seems in p. 31 to get the sense of against or until ; leve bysynes for apon }>e werkeday. The source of many new Interjections is to be found in the following lines : ' ' Hast ]>ou be wonet to swere als, By goddes bones or herte, fals, What by hys woundes, nayles, or tre " (p. 30). We see the new Romance words sylabul, howsynge (horse- trappings), quart. In p. 23 depart is used both for abire and separare. We find " they prokereth a person to be famed," p. 22 ; we have now confounded this Celtic word with the Latin procure, which had come in eighty years earlier. io6 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. The old noun syse is used for measure, p. 39 ; hence our to size men, on parade. We read of the game bares, our prison bars, or prisoner's base. The curatour of 'Piers Ploughman' is again used for parish priest. Some of the reverend gentlemen used sory laten, as Mirk says, when baptizing; thus, Ifolowe }>e in nomina patria & filia spiritus sanctia, Amen, p. 18; so long as the first syllable of the words is right, the baptism is to stand good. Confirma- tion, he tells us, " In lewde mennes menynge Is i-called ]>e byspynge " (p. 20). This verb bishop had already been used by Shoreham. Those interested in the Sabbath question will fasten upon the following lines, showing the usage of Wat Tyler's time : ' ' Hast ]>ow holden jjyn haliday And spend hyt wel to Goddes pay ? Hast ]>ou any werke J>at day i-wro3t, Or synned sore in dede or For schotynge, for wrastelynge, & o}>er play, For goynge to ]>e ale on halyday, For syngynge, for roytynge, & syche fare fat ofte jje sowle doth myche care. perfore j>ey schule here halyday Spene only God to pay. And 3ef ]>ey do any oj>er pynge, )>en serve God by here cunuynge, pen f>ey breke]? Goddes lay And holde)> not here halyday. " There are some pieces in the ' Reliquiae Antiquae ' which seem to belong to 1380; these are in I. 38, 51, and 59. Manning's old verb rank is now altered to rancle, with the usual insertion of the I, p. 52. There are the new nouns sponful, seel skin, marigolde. The verb riddle (cribrare) is used in a new sense, p. 41, rydelid gownes ; hence, to riddle with shot. There is the new verb pampe (pamper), and the curious verb gorwound, p. 55, coming from gar (jaculum) ; by 1525 this verb was to be shortened into gore. The French verbs are tenche, suet, unordynate. There is spicer, which has become one of our proper names. ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 107 Among articles of ladies' dress, named in p. 41, are jackes (jackets) and crakowis. The French is still counted the language of leechcraft, for side-ache here appears as mal de flaunke in p. 52, the first appearance, I think, of flank in English. One of the sins of nuns about this time was undertaking to teach curtesie to their boarders, the sons and daughters of lords, thus throwing aside God's service for pride and luxury ; see p. 42. We may here consider that version of the ' Cursor Mundi ' which goes by the name of the ' Cotton Galba ' (Early English Text Society). It is a Northern work ; in p. 1569 comes a byword, afterwards repeated in Scott's ' Waverley,' gangand fote ay getes fade. Such words as nitliing and unnayt appear, I think, for the last time ; there are also form/ader, rose (jactatio), which are not often found after 1380. The old maineath (perjury) is fairly well spelt in p. 1543; in p. 1575 it is corrupted into mani ath. Among the words dropped in the North since 1290 are to weird (destine), bemester ; guatkin ]>ing is turned into any thing, p. 1533; do him understand becomes inak him to understand in p. 1562. Many old words, found in Lancashire and Salop in 1350, are now dropped, such as witherwin, selcuth, last (culpa), mele (loqui) ; a man is no longer grathed to a state, but is ordained to it, p. 1562. There are some pieces in the First volume of Hazlitt's ' Early Popular Poetry ' which may date from 1380 ; they are due to the North and the Midland. In the amusing ' Debate of the Carpenter's Tools ' we find th' all the short for thou mil, p. 79 ; this process was to be carried very far 200 years later ; the morwe now becomes morow (eras), p. 81 ; there is the Northern hayle (trahere), not the Southern haul. There is the Substantive aleunfe ; the word gijn is used as a snare for animals, p. 15. A man, an admirer of high spirits, wishes to know if his guest be any felow (vir), p. 25 ; we still say, "not half a fellow." In p. 83 crow is used for a tool, not for a bird ; it is our crowbar. In p. 86 a person thinkes no synne to go to the alehouse. There is the phrase thwow thyke and thin, p. io8 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. 15, used later by Chaucer. In p. 24 fresh is opposed to salt meat; there is unhappy (unlucky), p. 81. A man asks how fer may it be to a town, p. 1 9, a new phrase ; there is also take cold, p. 88. There is the adverb soft, p. 83, standing by itself; it here stands for stop! The /" is coupled with yet before an Imperative in p. 89, express- ing moreover, do not, etc. There is the phrase by ought l/ml I canne se, p. 89. There are the Danish words styke (steak), wimble, and thimble ; these pieces belong to the Danelagh. The Romance words are servisable, flechcr (arrow-trim- mer), prentys, fraud, gouge, rule, plane (carpenter's tools), Ptyff (pulky)- I n P- 45 and p. 83 stands the verb forti'i/n (fortune, in the sense of accidere), a verb which Tyndale loved, but was unable to hand down to us. There is the new verb cheer, used also by Wickliffe. The adjective clere is employed in a new sense ; twenty merke (marks) fine, p. 81. In p. 83 crewyll (cruel) is used to express acer, as it is still sometimes used in our day. The noun mene (via) appears in p. 84 ; we now often make it Plural. In p. 85 stands reule the roste. In p. 88 we light upon a startling change, the day is vary longe ; here is the adverb that was to supplant swith (valde), which did not long survive 1400. In p. 43 wives use the baskefysyke; this unusual word, I suspect, means stuprum ; in Wickliffe's works (Early English Text Society), p. 157, stands base fisik, used in the same sense ; the term was so uncommon that the earliest copyists of the Reformer's works did not understand it, and wrote base instead of base. 1 In p. 80 stands the proverb : "That lyghtly cum, scliall lyghtly go." The poem on Sir Cleges (Weber, i. 331) may date from about 1380; it has Wickliffe's new gladswn, replac- ing the old glcedlic. There is a curious new idiom, formed upon the they had lever (potius), of 1300; thowe haddyst be better have gold, p. 349 ; here the Dative thce makes way for a Nominative ; the English for est mihi and habeo are con- 1 The editor of Wickliffe's 'Treatises,' at my suggestion, had the manuscripts searched ; the word is there undoubtedly written base. ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 109 fused. The pronoun is dropped in hast no tonge? p. 345. In p. 339 we have what may this be? we now substitute can for may. Men do not slink away, but slake away, p. 334. We have newelte for novelty, to content him, make pressynge (to press forward). England had the honour of giving birth to one of the two great poets of the Middle Ages, of the two bright stars that enlighten the darksome gap of fourteen hundred years between Juvenal and Ariosto. Dante had been at work upon the loftiest part of his 'Divina Commedia' at the pre- cise time that Manning was compiling his 'Handlyng Synne,' the first thoroughly-formed pattern of the New English ; the great Italian was now to be followed by a Northern admirer, of a somewhat lower order of genius indeed, but still a bard who ranks very high among poets of the second class. Chaucer was born in London, a city that boasts a more tuneful brood than any single spot in the world ; for this early bard was to have for his fellow- townsmen Spenser, Milton, Pope, and Byron. Never has English life been painted in more glowing hues than by Chaucer; his lines will be more long-lived than the frescoes of Orcagna, which are dropping off the Pisan cloister; though poet and painter belong to the same date. We see in Chaucer's many works the remnants of the old Southern dialect, long spoken at London ; there are forms like axe (rogare), her, liem, doughtren, ne, nis, nas, thilke, I iml be your, mochel, suster, honde, olde, ashen (cineres), ago, o (turns), awaketh (the Imperative addressed to a person). There is also the Prefix to the Past Participle, as y-bete, y-ronnen. On the other hand there are many forms and phrases that have by this time come down from the North, such as thei han, am, she (not heo), those (most seldom), holly (omnino), by and by, to and fro, swore, unto, until, highte (altitude), grub (fodere), lad, fulli, sin (as well as sith), in as much, onward, wJiat ails him to, etc., who was who, snib, take upon him to, etc., take to me (heerere), I trow, it may wel be, see ikon do it, give away, lern (docere), God forbid/ folkes (homines), kind (benignus), still (toujours), clad, till, gate (via), ivhilom, not, doest, latter, begonnest, he ^vhich that (this is no THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. very common), for ought that, for the nones, homli, / say, fall to it, plow (not sulh), if so be that, if tJuit, blade (lamina), ///>// (mere), no force (no matter), as for, using to stele, I am used to blow, carle, loth (invitus), govcrninges, dreminges, chastising, wont, felaw of youres, pour, farewel, curate, mistake me, entirch/ (thoroughly), behalf, stour, stand in stede, being (essentia), blunder, she-wolf. The Northern bird (avis) sometimes supplants the old brid. The verb take is driving out nim. Several forms from the Severn country had by this time made their way to London, such as tlud made lie with the best, aside, upsodoum, wele or wo, bowyer, make it qiteint, lady iiiim; ones on a time, how now, be at on, at large, for all the tc<>rl the French a la bonne heure (I am glad to hear it) seems to be Englished by yn good tyme. In p. 239 a certain lady's symple recorde (tale) is said to be trew as any bondc ; the first use of the noun for a legal document. In the same page stands trewar-tongyd ; here the Comparative is used in com- pounds; we have already seen hard-hearted. In p. 217 streams make a dcdly slepynge soun; hence "a dead sleep." Chaucer is fond of adding ish to an adjective ; we see here fattyssh, also flesshy, p. 239. He uses the Northern ?(v-/-/v (pejor) for the sake of the rime, p. 230. In p. 236 the Duchess is called my swete right all hirsclve, that is, she was distinguished from all others ; our sense of he mis all himself is rather different. Another use of all is seen in lotli/, Iterte, ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. in and all, p. 216 ; this did not become common until Tyndale's time. About the year 1300 we heard of anefewe fullaris ; the first word, representing the Plural soli, now means quidam ; a few welly s, p. 217. In p. 226 the poet stands as styll as ought (anything), a new phrase. In p. 241 we read of a half worde, used for purposes of trickery. Among the Verbs are Jtave the witte to, etc., sing low and high, overslwot him (run beyond him), play a game, well grounded, hit fohvyd (followed) tJiat she was, etc., to hang the lied, put it yn ryme. Among the Adverbs is full, employed in full many a yer, p. 249. The no and nay are used in the middle of a sentence ; no man could do it, no, not Joseph, p. 221, your eyen, myn, nay, all that saw h&); p. 242. There is the phrase swear as I beste koude, p. 247. The les is added to dred to express sine dubio, p. 234 ; and dredles paved the way for doutles, which we still use as an Adverb. The old on }>am gerad ])ost makes way for the new up (upon) a con- dicyoun that, etc., p. 234. There is the cry Jwwef (oho !) to awaken sleepers, p. 218. There is the new oath by the masse, p. 239 ; this lasted into the Eighteenth Century. The adjuration, as help me God ! comes often. There is the Celtic knack (trick), p. 242, used also by Wickliffe. Among the Romance words are nycety (stultitia), mate, powne (pawn), porte (carriage), vary, annex, process of time, herse, assured maner, governess, astate (dignity), as in Barbour. A new French preposition was coming into our compounds; we see the verb countrefete. The verb carole adds the meaning of canere to its old sense saltare, p. 236. The word patrone takes the new sense of exemplar, p. 238 ; we now write it pattern; superior must be the connecting link between the two meanings borne by patrone. There is the phrase to save (attend heedfully to) hir wurshipe ; hence our " save a horse up a hill." How entirely a word's meaning may be altered appears in p. 250, where a g_ueynte dream is talked of; here the old cognitus, cuint, queynte gets the opposite sense of incognitus, something strange or out of the way. So the Teutonic seli (felix) had shifted its meaning to infelix. The Romance purely now imitates the Old H2 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. English cloene, meaning omnino, p. 215. In p. 218 stands a quater Hfore daye (a quarter of an hour) ; here there is a great ellipse. In p. 220 we hear of satyn de owter mere ; French could alone express certain articles of lady's dress. We find the noun entewn, p. 221, our tune ; we have this variation of the French as well as tone. In p. 238 >///>/////> expresses videre, OUT desci'y ; the French had both desci / Y/v and the later descrire. We hear of Sprewse (Prussia) in p. 241 ; the prefixing of s is most curious. In p. 246 yn (he dysmall appears ; this has been derived from disme and the payment of tithes, a time of sorrow ; see Skeat on this point. I now take some of the other earliest efforts of Chaucer's genius, the 'Parliament of Fowls,' the 'A B C,' and ' Anelida and Arcite.' l We see k replace ch, as in the North ; lykerous for lecher- ous ; the / is mistaken for long s, as flight (sleight) and flaterie, p. 154. The word feling is now applied to the mind, not to the body. A dame holds her lover in strict subjection; it is said that he is sarvant unto hlr htdishippe (power), p. 160; hence came the title of honour. A person's colour is said to resemble that of asshen (ashes). A lover, seeing a lady, cladde him in her huwe (wore her colours), p. 156. We hear of watir foule, and of Seynt Valentynes day, when birds choose their mates. Old phrases were going out ; soule hele is altered into svtili'* hi'Jthe in one manuscript. Among the Adjectives we find our seamen's phrase, the northe northe west, p. 58. The Teutonic hard is confused with the French hardi ; the hardy asshe (tree), p. 62. The Adjective hust (whist) stands for tacitus, p. 174. Among the Verbs are give it up (cease from it), take //, hear of no mercy ; this last phrase we always use in the negative. Fowls lay their heads togedir, p. 88. The English for vellem is dropped in ralpere dye than to do so, p. 166. Another verb is dropped in but to the poynte, p. 76. As to Adverbs, the so is used something like valdb ; a yere ys not so long to endure, p. 96. In p. 168 stands the phrase, say oute of the way (odd). The by is used in a new sense ; it 1 I here use the works of the Chaucer Society, part ii. ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 113 had often been used after the verb know ; we now see in p. 50 I me ne this be love. In p. 134 we have fals to him. Chaucer is fond of a phrase like/ow of alle flour es, p. 124. There is the Scandinavian word scant (parcus), p. 134. Among the French words are cormeraunte, entrike (en- snare), roundel, portray, princess, governowesse, superlatyf, lese (leash), nusance, tryumpJie, laurer (laurel), to cored (writing), disshevele, p. 66. In p. 58 we hear first of a dedely wound, then of a mortale stroke. A verb is formed from the Teutonic crampe (spasmus) ; and this takes the French ish at the end, p. 158. Arrow heads are tempred in water, p. 64, a new use of the verb. In p. 90 a lady may be strainge to her lover; that is, unfriendly. There is the new phrase good feith, p. 175. We see the expressions receyve unto mercy, to absente you, liave no fantesye to debate, p. 175; here the first noun takes the new meaning of liking. The adjective pleyne, in p. 154, signifies frank, open; hence the Plaindeakr. A lover has aivaytinges and besynesse (care) upon his lady, p. 164 ; here the idea of attendance or service first comes into the word wait. In p. 142 St. John is called a rirgi/ne ; a new use of the word. The old sotell and the new Latin form subtil may be seen struggling together in the manuscripts; see p. 152. We now turn to the two poems written in the middle of Chaucer's life the ' Troilus ' and the ' House of Fame.' * The former is interesting as being the first work in which we trace the influence of the New Italian upon English ; Boccacio's ' Filostrato ' supplied our own bard with many In the first stanza of this work the sound of oy seems to undergo a change ; for Troye and joye are made to rime with fro ye (from you). The r is struck out ; mcescre (mesh) gives birth to the verb mask, p. 167. Among the Sub- stantives are trapdore, twiste, overhaste, unrest, a blab, crowisfeet (under the eye). We have already seen ladyship ; a man is now requested to do something of $our lordship, p. 91, like "of your charity." There is a new compound, a let- game, p. 124, like our marplot. The word selynesse keeps 1 Chaucer Society, part ii. VOL. I. I 114 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. its old sense of felicity in p. 134. The old leof makes way for love (amans), p. 244 ; folk see their loves wedded. In- struments are sometimes delicious through wynde, p. 248. A woman tells prophecies by herte, p. 286 ; a new phrase. An Old English usage is continued when Troie toun is spoken of, p. 268. Chaucer is fond of adding ess to nouns ; as herdess (shepherdess). In the 25th stanza the heroine is said to be matchless, just as A is our first letter ; this is the first hint of our "A one." Among the new Adjectives are thrifty, wnlwlwui, womanish; this last was formerly wifmanlic. Chaucer is fond of the ending ish; he coins mannysh in stanza 41, to express the reverse of womanly perfection. He also adds this ish to the French adjective fole, making folish. He has the Superlative konnyngest. There is the phrase ahum word in p. 41 ; whence our lame excuse. A prosperous man, in p. 163, is said to sit warme; hence our warm (thriving) man, and our tenants sit at so much rent. A lady promises her friend my good wurde, p. 271. There are the phrases sir eight as lyne, in short. The Adjective is set after the Vocative, as uncle dere, lady bright ; it is made a Substan- tive, for in p. 2Q4:flatte is opposed to egge (edge). As to Pronouns, a lover is said to have it hot, p. 164, 192 ; here the indefinite it, referring to nothing before, reappears. Chaucer is fond of this or that. He revives a French idiom unknown since 1220 ; fox- }>at $e ben ! p. 161. The half is now placed before an accusative ; make halrendd Ipe fare, p. 244. Among the Verbs are unsitting (soon to become unfitting), mutter, to biblotte (blot), humme, unlove, forecast, unpin. There are the phrases, they fell to speak, it fell that (accidit), set at rest, to sand paths, dy for laghtir, fever takes him, hold thee dos (keep close), douncast look, make up cliarters, icele yshape (well shaped, of a lady), reise ]>e country, fold armes, set the worll at six & seven, p. 193; his herte mysforyaff him, p. 222, (the later misgave], dwell oute caste from joy, bring out u-rJ, make resistance, drawe his bree]>, yeve him audience, fytnf in thyn herte to, etc. The verb mean is in great use, as the explanatory / mean, p. 122; lie m-enith it in good icise, p. ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 115 66; \ow menyst wele, p. 117. We have already seen play king in 1300 ; a the is now inserted ; pley Ipe tiraunt, p. 85. Chaucer preserves the old form lorn (perditus). In p. 291 stands he went excusing her ; we should now put in on after the perfect. The to is now set between dare and the following Infinitive (a strange corruption), dare to love; there is also sivorn to hold it. We see the curious phrase in stanza 48, your hire is quit, God wot how. In stanza 41 a lady's limbs answer to womanhood ; here the verb gets a new meaning, " be consistent with." Among the Adverbs are, unfelingli, out and out }>e worthiest, p. 67; parfourme it out; inly. There is the terse phrase, to save his lyf and ellis not, p. 61, where the last two words mean, "which is otherwise impossible." An adjective is used for an adverb, take itfaire and softe, p. 244 ; here the last words slip into the meaning of quietly. The at next is cut down in p. 283, when ye nexte see upon me. As to Prepositions, we find arme in arme, wfy al myn hert, for oght I can aspye, I speke under correction, at ]>e werste, what they wold sey to it (de eo). This to is sometimes dropped ; in p. 279 we see both write to Mr and also write hir. The phrase for Gods love becomes for love of God, p. 173; we confine the older idiom to sake. A lady's attendants are called women about her, p. 129; implying respectful at- tendance, a new use of the Preposition. Chaucer has over- renne (beat in running), p. 223 ; this in his later works he altered into outrun. There is the Low German noun lash, and also roore (tumultus), whence our later uprQar. There is the Scandinavian verb jompre, OUT jumble. Among the Romance words are collateral, a pacient (of a physician), misconstrue, lytargie (lethargy), is descended from, wele disposyd (inclined), chekmate, guerdon, in mewe (prison), scarmysshe, tendre herted, impressions (thoughts), prolixite, to plye him, sentement, dissimule, templis (tempora), our desertis, source, mocyon, rudeness, vulgarly, marciall (martial), cote armure, urne, rosy, my memorie. There are the phrases press him upon her, make his adew, direct a book to. The cry, mea culpa, stands in p. 59, a foretaste of the many Latin ii6 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. phrases that were to be brought into English about 1550. There is the noun refrein (burden of a song, p. 97) ; this has been revived in our day. We see the phrase pley rakett to and fro, p. 187 ; the noun has lately become very popular. The name Pandarus is contracted into the ill- omened Pandar to suit the rime, p. 272. The word passion no longer means suffering, but is applied to emotions, p. 196. In p. 213 we hear of a pregnant argument (forcible or constraining). Littre gives no use of the adjective used in this sense in France, until the Sixteenth Century ; it is odd that in England the word should make its first ap- pearance with this secondary meaning. The old folcisc is supplanted by poeplissh, our vulgar and base, p. 231. A Greek hero loses the last consonant in his name, as Diomede. In p. 236 straunge stands for mirus, a new sense; uncoi/fh has assumed senses something like strange. We have already seen trewar tongyd ; the Superlative now comes into compounds, for strengest feylped stands in stanza 143. In p. 258 we hear of tyme passed, present tyme, and future tyme. The form recomaunde (recommend) stands in p. 283, riming with comaunde. We see certain proverbs, as, of harmys two ]>e lasse is for to chese, p. 58 ; every ]>ing a bygynnyng hath, p. 65 ; hit is not good a slepyng hound to wake, p. 132 ; al ]>ing JM]> tyme, p. 135; make vertu of necessite, p. 227; wonder laste but IX nyghtes in a toun, p. 192. Chaucer had sound notions of language ; ' ' Ye know wel )>is, in fourme of speclie is chaunge Withyn a thowsand 5eer, and wordis tho That haddyn pris now wondur nyce & straunge Us ]>inki> hem " (p. 42). Chaucer's ' House of Fame ' must have been written soon after his ' Troilus.' There are here the Northern phrases how that, woful, alleskynnes (all kinds of), pel (castellum), as now. The d replaces ]?, as quod lie (dixit), a form copied long afterwards by More. The s is inserted in Kfrri^n/m/, and the old wealhnute (walnut) becomes walsh note, p. 216. Among the new Substantives are huntress, potful. There is the phrase to bere it was no game (joke), p. 221. The ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 117 Sun's chariot is still called a carte, p. 206. The word spryng is used for a dance in p. 215 ; and there we also see, in one manuscript, hove daunce (court dance), connected with German musicians ; this strange word is elsewhere altered into love daunce ; Gower also uses this German hove. There is a curious new idiom of the Double Genitive in p. 222 ; Englishmen before this time had talked of tlie king's son of France ; but we now see the God of loves name ; this conies very sparingly in the next forty years. A house is said to be full of gyges, p. 234, whence our whirligig, seemingly meaning the same. Chaucer's favourite ish is employed in the adjective Troianysshc, not Trojan, p. 185. He further has grenyssh, p. 226 ; the first combination of ish, I think, with adjectives of colour. There is the phrase so swyft as tlwight, p. 234. In p. 217 stands alle and every man of hem. In p. 230 stands wostow wJuitte (do you know what ?); I tell you wliat (aliquid) was to come in Shakespere. In p. 240 men say / not (nescio) never what, a new phrase. The wJmt (aliquid) is repeated in p. 238 ; I herde thinges, what a hnule and what in ere ; hence our " what with A and what with B." There is our curious Interrogative idiom, what did Eolus but he take out hy* trumpe, p. 226. We see a new phrase for quidam; oon I koude nevene (name), p. 196. Among Verbs we find my hert betes, take goode herte, do yow favour, wot hoiv I stonde. In p. 218 the Goddess is y-stalled ; I suspect this form led to our installed. There is a curious new idiom of the Subjunctive, dreme he barefote, dreme he shod, p. 183, like the later come weal, come woe. The verb ken had hitherto stood for scire ; it now means videre in p. 194 ; kenne with myn ye (eye) ; a kenning in this sense was soon to become a sea term. The old chop (secare) gets the new meaning of fcrire, p. 231 ; that of mutare was to come later. The verb start now becomes transitive ; stert an hare, p. 199. There is the new verb humble (sonare), formed from the sound, p. 209 ; in Scotland a certain waterfall is known as the Hummel Bummel. The verb lilt appears in connection with music, a, liltyng Iwi'ne, p. 214. The pre- position for now replaces aftei' ; to go for Eolus (to bring him), p. 224. The interjection a is now used before nouns, ii8 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. a larges, larges 1 p. 217; it was soon to precede the names of knights as a war cry. Among the Romance words are signal, soar, casually, feminine, sicamour, oracle, sisoures (scissors), the cmtrart/es, conservatyf, p. 204 ; palpable, fumigations, saturnyne, at poynt devys, Galaxy, agreable, is perched, pouch, currour (courier), to entremedle, to aclieke (check). We see the new French jon-<-x, our jaws, p. 230 ; this was doubtless confounded with the old Teutonic ceafl, cJwule, jmvl. The verb wayte (expectare) seems to get the new sense of morari ; love may last a season, but wayte upon the conclusyon, p. 189. In p. 199 a man has devocion to Cupido, a new phrase. The word pwti-i/ was something new; it stands for poenia in p. 221; it is used in our present sense, p. 204. In p. 206 we read of eyryssh bestes (air-dwelling animals) ; perhaps our adjective eerie may come from this. There is the phrase no fors (no matter), p. 208 ; this lasted for 150 years. In p. 235 we hear of dearth, fire, and of divers accident ; here the word seems to slide into the sense of mischance. We read of a pelet out of goune, and also of the poudre, that produces the effect, p. 226. In p. 239 a goddess confers names after her disposicioun ; here the word may mean either will or ortl.n: Chaucer is fond of using see (sedes) for a throne, but this did not take root. We see unfamouse, p. 212 (unknown to fame), very different from our infamous. There is the noun pursevant (pursuivant), p. 217 ; here the v may per- haps have taken the place of a u, as in pursuer. In p. 227 easy is opposed to fast ; hence our " easy all ! " In p. 187 comes the proverb lujt is not al golde that gl/rHli. In p. 217 the victim flayed by Apollo appears as Mam, a lady. We now come to the ' Canterbury Tales,' compiled in the fulness of Chaucer's powers. 1 As to Vowels, a replaces ce, as bladder and rafter for blcedre and rafter ; before this time these had been written bleddre and refter ; the a re- places e, as bramble for brcmlle ; the a replaces ea, for mearh (medulla) gives rise to the form marie bones; the a replaces eo, as hart for heart (cervus), which had before been Inert. The 1 I here use the Aldine edition of the Poets, Pickering's. n.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 119 ai replaces ce, as hair for hcer ; praiere comes instead of preiere. The French ai becomes ia in fustian (fustaine) ; Chaucer makes it a word of three syllables, ii. 3. The e replaces i, as sleke for the old slike (lavis), and disc now splits up into two forms, desk and dish. The e replaces o, as yeman for the Northern yoman ; it replaces y, as shelf for scylfe, icerde (fatum) for wyrd. The Kentish forms mery and bery (sepelire) are adopted by Chaucer ; but he has mirthe as well as mertJie ; also Jilthe and sippe, not the Southern fid the and supe. Three variations of vowels were still striv- ing for the mastery in London, for we find in Chaucer bru sties, bristles, berstles, all three. The former lewn, the Past Participle of lie (jacere), is now written lien, the form kept in our Prayer Book ; the ie is the Kentish way of sounding the French e ; the i replaces e, for there is divel for devil, as in Ireland ; it replaces o, for parosche becomes parisJie. The old oreisun becomes orison, iii. 204, with the accent on the first vowel. Chaucer turns the old akern into acorn; he is fond of doubling the o, as in mood, flood, cook ; he uses the two forms, corone and croune ; he turns y into o, as copper for the old cyperen. The form oi might be sounded either as the French ou or as the French e, thus we see the noun devoir from debere ; this was soon to be written by Englishmen as both devure and dever. The ow replaces a g or 3 ; wilig (salix) is written ivilwe and also wttoio ; belg (follis) is seen as belous (bellows) ; the word had taken the Plural form ninety years earlier. The Past Parti- ciple of sowen (serere) is here y-soive ; the Participle of seowen (suere) is here sewed. We have now confounded these two Verbs, answering in sound to the French sou and siou, and we have further made the Weak seowen a Strong Verb, as regards the Past Participle. What was usually written roll is now roule ; we see both flood and floud ; the old ule (bubo) becomes owle, not changing its sound. The form oi, not ui, seems to be favoured ; Shore- ham's annoie is repeated ; this verb, iii. 323, implies sheer boredom, and is nearer to the modern ennui than to annoy- ance. Chaucer adopts the forms fruit and guise. The oy was now becoming a favourite combination in France ; 120 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. so he has, not only real and rial, but also royal. He has both beaute" and beutt, the French and English forms of one sound. The tree iw, eow, is now written en; our yrescwold becomes threswold (threshold). The g is changed into ck and thus forms a new verb ; tug gives birth to tuck; a friar is ytucked hie, ii. 220. Chaucer writes gailer for the jailer of Piers Ploughman ; we may now write either gaol or jail. The gh is in full force, this ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 121 being an old London form ; bough is written for boh, with the last consonants probably unsounded ; cough is also found, and draught. We see the form markis, and this pronunciation may still be heard in our day. The d is inserted in hegge, liedge, and in air; so alder (alnus), the later elder, appears. The interchange between r and s is seen in the North Western glimerin, which becomes glimsing, our glimpse, ii. 308. There is the form pace, as well as pass. The old ps is now transposed ; waps becomes wasp. The wawcs (fluctus) of the Tristrem now become waves, ii. 147, with the usual confusion of u and v. On turning to Substantives, the foreign ard, ardie, ap- pears in dotard, slogardie. The foreign ry was coming in, as goldsmithry, deiery, yemanrie. The er is freely tacked on, as tlmi glacier of the mount, ii. 66; a vertuous liver, ii. 163. The ending ness was encroaching on heel ; shrewedness re- places Shoreham's schreuhede ; there is also Jumlinesse, wil- fulnesse. There is both likelilied and likeliness, jolinesse, doublencsse, strangenesse, scantnesse. New words are formed by adding man, as court-man (courtier), ii. 281. As to Proper names, jacke fool is used, ii. 110, much like our Tom fool ; hence come jackass and jackanapes. We see the names Simkin, Hodge, Mabily ; the prison of Newgate has become proverbial, ii. 132. We light upon Jubaltare (Gibraltar). The es is no longer tacked on to a Latin word to form the Genitive, like the old Juliuses; we see Philippics sone applied to Alexander, iii. 172. We see cokenay already employed as a term of reproach, ii. 125. The word ship becomes feminine ; and this, in our clays, is the gender of a man of war. On the other hand, the month of May is masculine, iii. 8. The Verbal Nouns are freely used ; spending silver, iii. 231 ; gon a begging, iii. 28 ; his helping stands for his help (service), ii. 82 ; so my willing (voluntas), ii. 246 ; to my supposing, ii. 268. The Pre- positions are set after Nouns, in phrases like a bringer out of besinesse, the Hiding up of chirches, as we saAv in earlier writers. The word forfex is translated by the Plural sheres, not by the Singular, ii. 189. Might also takes a plural; have your rights, ii. 286. In ii. 128 we hear of tivo pigges in 122 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. a poke,. In ii. 214 min owen boy is used as a term of en- dearment. The word pley is now used for a theatrical piece. The French ecu, a piece of money, is Englished by sheld. There are new Substantives like outrider, thwitel (whittle), meremaiden (no longer merewif), chip, lever Jiat, baggepipe, wallet, brestplate, twinkling of an eye, hertes ese, night-cap, gossamer (goose summer film), milksop, broun bred, chuk, on his tiptoon, bakemete. The word fane, which earlier meant a streamer, is now used to express our vane. There is shrimp, that is, an object contracted very small, from the old verb scrymman. In iii. 327 every sinful man is a cherl (servus) to sinne ; cherlish is used for our blackguardly in p. 26. The word monger was coming in, tacked on to other nouns, as questmonger. The French age is added on to cot ; the word cotin was used for our cottage to the South of the Channel The word ]>urhfaru had of old meant camera ; it now takes our sense of the word, and appears as thurghfare. The term girles is used for puellce, ii. 20, and not in the West country sense of children. The old hkedel (a pump) is used for a cook's ladle, p. 60. The Old English IIHIT*'- fcec now becomes the nightes mare (nightmare). The old lenten, as in Trevisa, was making way for a new term ; in iii. 13 we hear of the spring flood. The old crop now takes a new sense that of seges. The word tun is used, not for dolium, as usual, but to express a measure ; tonne- gret, ii. 60. The old yrde (virga) also expresses a measure ; something is a yrde long. We read of the pipes of a man's lungs, ii. 82. A person does not take in boarders, but holds guests to borde, ii. 95. In stand in his light, ii. 101, the last word gets a new meaning. Wench is not used by Chaucer in the honourable sense of the North country ; in ii. 108 it stands for ancilla ; it is applied to no one higher than a miller's daughter. Old January's wife says, "I am a gentil woman, and no toenche." In iii. 251 we learn that women, high and low alike, may fall a prey to the seducer. ' ' But, for the gentil is in estat above, She shal be cleped'his lady and his love ; II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 123 And, for that other is a poure woman, She shal be cleped his wenche and his lemman." Chaucer and Dr. Johnson both employed the word aforesaid in the same evil sense. Leman also is sadly degraded from its old meaning, as we see here. The word Jit conveyed the notion of certare of old; in ii. 126 the noun stands for nothing so serious, and prepares the way for our Jit of cough- ing, and such like. Our green has long Englished stultus ; in ii. 138 we hear of grenehed orfolie. There is a change in herbergeour, ii. 162; it no longer means harbourers, but men who go before, our harbingers; this is Barbour's change. The word loller has changed its meaning since Piers Ploughman wrote, and now implies heresy, iii. 59. The old sense of thing (causa) is well marked in iii. 176; a man was slain for no thing ln.it for chwalrie. Adam and Eve are said to have made themselves breches in Paradise, iii. 281, a word which has given a name to one English version of the Bible. There is the usual love of Allitera- tion in the sentence, all min heritage, toun and tour, ii. 301 ; there is also hous and home. Among the Adjectives we find a new use of the Super- lative, fairest of the fair, ii. 66, where alre fairest would have been used earlier. The Substantive may be dropped, as llm.rgh thick and thinne, ii. 121. The word lihtsum (facilis) is formed from another adjective, as gladsum had already been. The les is added to a foreign root, as a titleles tirannt, iii. 251. Chaucer is fond of ful as an Adjectival ending ; he replaces the old hatelic by liateful. We talk of a horsy man ; but Chaucer coined Iwrsly when he wanted an Adjective of this kind. He writes sli sometimes for the old sleh, and uses it in a bad sense ; and here he is followed by Gower. There are new Adjectives like coltish, tusked, lerned, dogerel. There is stibbome, said to mean " stiff as a stub." We have phrases like broune as is a bery, to speke brode (plainly), ii. 23 (hence a broad joke); this is the short and plain, ii. 33 (long and short of it) ; at tlie leste way (least- ways), ii. 34, hai-e the beter, upright as a bolt, piping hot, besy as lees, a black bill shone as the jet, iii. 181. There is a new Alliterative phrase, the foule fend fetclie me, ii. 215. In ii. 124 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. 208 a promise is made to strike a man out of oure lettirs blake ; this is the source of our black books. In ii. 249 we hear of wise and ripe wordes ; the last adjective, as used in this sense, had now come South. A very long Adjectival phrase is spun in iii. 1, twenty-pound-worth land. The word sad gets the meaning of tristis, as in the North ; in ii. 253 it is applied to sorrowful Grisildis. An Adjective is strengthened by prefixing a Substantive, as bolt upright. Among the Pronouns we see ye and thou both used in a prayer to God, iii. 7 ; also in an address to parents, ii. 141; also in a speech to an adored wife, ii. 301. On the other hand, a master uses thou to a pupil, and the pupil addresses the master with ye, iii. 317. In you were nede to re si en, iii. 63, the first word is in the Dative, like Shakespere's " you were best go." In ii. 305 stands nis non, no, lumlhcr lie nc she; a Northern form of male and female. In iii. 158 Fortune overthrows hire man ; that is, the man on whom she has her eye. We see the old Dative of it very plainly when we read of the Paternoster; it comprehendeth in hi in- self all good, iii. 358. The Indefinite it comes more into vogue ; it priketh in my side, that is, "I am pricked," ii. 215 ; it nedeth not reherse, I wol auntre (adventure) it, ii. 125, like the make it stout (ruffle it) of 1320. The which some- times keeps its true old meaning, that of the kindred qunlis as, lierkeneth whiche a miracle befell, ii. 80 ; / shal teUen ichi<-h a gret Jwnour it is to be, etc., ii. 206 ; this was to be replaced by Barclay's what 120 years later. The which is also used as a Masculine Eelative ; thise riotoures, of which I tell, iii. 49 ; also as a Neuter Relative (Gower is fond of this) ; herd all thing which (he) spake, iii. 221 ; there is also the Northern the which; also for fere of which, referring to an Antecedent. The what is more used; lie told him as t/c hmi herd, ye wot wel what, ii. 233. It is employed in asking about a man's profession ; is he a clerk or non 1 tell win it In is, iii. 219. Orrmin's what now encroaches upon the old which (qualis) ; / have declared what thing /.s jn nance, iii. 260. The such is used indefinitely like the French tel ; prentices appoint to meet in swiche a strete, ii. 130. In iii. 58 we have the abrupt command, no more of this, with no Verb. ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 125 In ii. 182 we get the first hint of our all the same; a man is buried ; all is his tomb not so curious as, etc. The word one takes a Plural ; herkeneth, felawes, we three ben all ones, ii. 50 ; a foretaste of little ones. In saw him al alone, ii. 276, the al (all) comes twice over. We now say all right in token of compliance; Chaucer's phrase for this was al ready, Sire, ii. 277. He employs every body, ii. 153. Enough now takes a Genitive ; lie saw ynou of other folk, ii. 218. The development of any was going on fast; in ii. 319 stands to riden any where ; in ii. 296 love him best of any creature ; here all creatures would have stood earlier. There is the phrase to rise a ten or twelve, ii. 321 ; here of the clock is dropped ; foure of the clok stands in iii. 256 ; that is, four strokes of the bell. We saw mare harm is in the year 1220 ; Chaucer prefixes a the to the more, iii. 251. There is the new way of Englishing the Latin ipse ; eke (lie veray hogges were fered, iii. 197; in copying deeds, about this time, scribes were wont to affirm, " this is the very copy of the grant ; " so truthful that it might be taken for the deed itself. Among the Verbs we see a new idiom, we han ben waytynge, ii. 28 ; this is an advance on " I am seeking," which dates from the earliest times. We remarked the idiom of the year 1300, "to have the streets empty," where liave answers to facere ; this Jiave is now followed by the Infinitive as well as by an Adjective ; chese to han mefoule, . . . and be to you a trewe wif, ii. 203 ; hence " I would have you go." Chaucer has a startling innovation, wholly unueeded, in the Active Participle, which he perhaps confused with its Passive brother ; a swerd yhanging by a thred ; Milton most likely had this in his mind when he wrote about " a star-ypointing pyramid." Chaucer has both mot and muste, the old and the new, in one couplet in ii. 295. His may, contrary to old usage, expresses licet rather than possum. The sholde now and then stands for our would, as in ii. 305 ; but it comes far seldomer than in Caxton ; our language was losing some of its weight and gravity in 1390. The can and coude are sometimes used in their old sense of scire. We saw in 1 280 an imitation of the French sans oiler ; our 126 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. by now follows in the wake of without ; by having grete posses- sions, iii. 131. The Infinitive follows bind; as ybounden to helpe me ; the old boun (paratus) had long been followed by an Infinitive. There are new verbs like caterwaw (of a cat), clattered, munch, jingle, unhorse, prolle (scrutari). The verb get was acquiring a Middle sense ; a man geteth him to drinke, iii. 334 ; this is like Orrmin's take. The Danish forkaste (rejicere) had been used in Kent ; but Chaucer couples fore, not for, with the verb, and talks of something forccaste (devised beforehand). The old sncesen (ferire) now takes the sense of our sneeze, iii. 246 ; this is the Dutch niezen; the old fnesen still survived. The verb turn is applied to the turner's trade, ii. 117. The verb shape now expresses not only creare, but dirigere ; as in our " shape his course ;" he shope him to lie thilke night, ii. 221. To crak, ii. 292, is used. in the Scotch sense of the word, loqui. The verb wreke here retains one of its oldest senses, exercere ; v: /' his ire on it, iii. 170 ; it was soon to lose its other meaning of ulcisci and to be replaced by avenge. The expletive / gesse, so much used in America, appears in Chaucer, as in WicklifFe, ii. 303. We have heard before of sworn brethren: we now see thy boren man, ii. 290. Chaucer has both / schrewe and / beshrewe, formed from the Noun. The old writlie now becomes intransitive; she writhed away, ii. 98, and it is, moreover, turned into a Weak verb. There are barbarous forms like thou wisted, ii. 35 ; thou wotest, ii. 69. A verb is dropped in the phrase, o word er I go, ii. 223. The verb trip is now coupled with dancing. The verb whine is applied to a horse, ii. 179; we now distinguish this sense of the word from its other meaning by writing it whinny. With us, sufferers sing out; Chaucer makes them only sing, ii. 207. The Imperative come of stands in ii. 215, where Scotsmen would now say, come av//, and where Englishmen would say, come along. There are phrases like it tikelith me, yeres ago, have tlie higher /until, ring it out, take his ese, make tarying, be in pmiere, he was bore (borne) doun, he was sworne adoun, wel ygrowen, knit his browes, wet hir whistle, speke him fayre, Iwld compagnie with, let things slide, to set gemmes in gold, have a bad name, do ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 127 obeisance, do a frendes turn to, Juive love to thee, the thing is ygon so fer, sail Mr cours, drive a bargain, take thy deth, to go to the point, give in charge to, mordre wol out, God blesse my soule, kepe it close, I sette (put) case, put out his eyen, take effect, make all good, to go sorweful, go nigh the sothe, God spede you. The Teutonic and Romance synonyms stand side by side in the line, "This wif was not aferde ne affraide" (iii. 72). The Celtic and Teutonic synonyms are found much in the same way "Right as a swerd forcutteth and forkerveth" (iii. 255). Among his Adverbs Chaucer employs the Northern where for the dependent itbi, not the old there, iii. 31. Sometimes whereas stands for this ubi, referring to place, as in ii. 210 ; hwar ase appeared for ubicunque so far back as 1220. This whereas slides into a new meaning in iii. 113, taking the sense of quum; you acted thus, whereas it Jiad ben necessarie to act otherwise. Another shade of meaning, that of quoniam, was to come thirty years later. The as is now, without any need, prefixed to yet (adhuc) and now ; no word as yet spake he, ii. 205; maken no defence as now, iii. 130. The that, taking the sense of quia, follows not, as in very early times ; lo thin ende, nat only that thou faintest mannes mind, ii. 160. The preposition witJwut is now used to English nisi ; without ye list your grace shewe. A case is dropped after a preposi- tion, and the latter consequently seems to become an Adverb; his berd was shave as neighe as he can (nigh the skin), ii. 18. There is belike, ii. 96; for the nones seems to be used as a mere expletive, when the Miller is described as a stout carle for the nones. There are new phrases like right (just) now, as fer as ever I can (know), nay but, ther is more Mt hide, clap the window to, where the last word is not a Pre- position. Chaucer prefixes litel to a Comparative, as litel better. The doutles, like Barbour's dredles, is used as an Adverb, and not as an Adjective, ii. 135. The synonyms wel neigh and the later almost are coupled in one line, ii. 323. Chaucer, when describing a tournament, imparts 128 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. wonderful spirit to his verse by putting adverbs before the verbs ; as in gon the speres, out gon the swerdes, etc. We have already seen mid alle and of alle used for omnino ; we now come to the more lasting phrase, spare it not at all, ii. 220; nojoye at all, ii. 199, as in Mirk. Beside may mean either the old juxta or the new etiam in the following passage : "Not only in the toun, But eke beside in many a regioun " (ii. 249). The Adverbial ending is most awkward when added to an Adjective in ly, as Chaucer's comelily. The old other . . . other (aut . . . aut) is now changed for a new form, other (either) conscience or ire, ii. 166. There is a needless insertion of elles in iii. 80, an Jwly man, as monkes ben, or dies ought to be. We have seen the improper ferther in the Tristram ; the old ferrest is now changed into for]>est. The new ivhat tJiough is used to English etiamsi, iii. 180. A backbiter is said to praise his neighbour, but still he maketh a " but " at the laste ende, iii. 298 ; here the but seems to be made a substantive. Turning to the Prepositions, the to follows Past Parti- ciples; chosen therto, ii. 63 ; borne to thraldom, ii. 141; there is also redy to his Jiond, ii. 207, like the it lay to hand of the ' Cursor Mundi.' The to supplants for in Jiave it to myself alone, iii. 55 ; it is an honour to evcrich, iii. 57. The to mile of Layamon's Second text is continued in another similar phrase, to my gret ese, iii. 194. The of is much used; a man may be of the- blod real, like the former be of his kin. We know free (potens) of the guild ; this leads the way to fiave avantage of, ii. 77. The old phrase of tfc/iti/ i/'i/ntres age is now changed into / was ticelf yere of age, ii. 167; there is also of old (quondam), ii. 216. The former of (since) childhood is changed into of a childe, ii. 261, which comes into our Bible. In iii. 267 stands at regard of; we now change the at into an in. In the phrase at offer souper, ii. 319, two prepositions are combined. We have seen bi -icai to in the ' Cursor Mundi ; ' we now find by way of possibility ii. 39. There is awaiting on (watching ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 129 for) the rain, ii. 109. 1 The phrase have pity is followed by both the old of and the later on; have mercy on is in iii. 25. Love, in this respect, follows mercy; we see amerous on Don-gen; hence the later dote on, be sweet on. The old notion of hostility connected with on is plain in the peple rose upon him, iii. 167. There is a union of the meanings of post and propter in the upon, which stands in do execution upon your ire, iii. 253. The old upland (rus) is well known; Chaucer expands the phrase, talking of a parson dwelling up on lond, ii. 21. He often substitutes in for the older on, as in this wise, il 398. In iii. 70 stands he was bonde in a recognisance; and we hear of Advocate lerned in the lawe, iii. 94. The out, when added to Verbs, does not always answer to the Latin ex, but for the first time expresses super, as in the line, "Men may the old out-renne, but not out-rede" (ii. 73). In our days an outrider is something most different from the man who outrides you. There is the phrase out of dette. The mingling of colours is expressed by betwixt; they gloweden bytwixe yolw and reed (red). See 2134. The Interjections are Cockis bones ! (where the first word is a corruption of our term for Deus); clum (our mum),n. 108; ey benedicite/ kepe, kepe (to entice a horse), ii. 122 ; goode God / ii. 262 ; for Goddes sake / make an o (a call for silence), ii. 76; good morwe! ii. 107; by tJie blood of Crist, that is in Hailes, iii. 49; fy for shame/ iii. 182; Straw/ iii. 228 (elsewhere it is straw for thy tale /) Wliat, divel of helle ! iii. 237 ; By our Lady (an oath that lasted 300 years), iii. 241. There are numbers of expletives in the ' Eeve's Tale,' which gives us a fine specimen of the Yorkshire brogue of 1390. The parenthesis noAV begins to make its way in England ; there is one of six words at the top of iii. 19. The words akin to the Dutch and German, first found in Chaucer, are romble, rimple (rumple), to houle, husch, kyke (intueri), tub, chippe, utter, 2 to bumble, forpamper (pamper), snort, stew (vivarium). The word gat-tothed is said to come 1 In Ulster, when a man is dying his friends say, " We are waiting on him," that is, expecting his death. - This is here used like our uttering false coin ; to utter chaffare, ii. 183. VOL. I. K 130 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CUAP. from the Dutch gat, a hole. There is ingot, from the Dutch verb ingieten. The Scandinavian words are box (alapa), rate (exprobrare), scantness, gap, dairy, stalk (of a flower), frakne (freckle), 1 rammish, line (tegere), gaze, strogle, calf (sura), dapple, Hot (macula), sluttish, lull, stale, ruggi (hirsutus). Chaucer seems to have settled that we should use the Danish cross (crux) and not the French form crouche or croice. The Celtic words are pie, bucket, cut (draw cut), crone (vetula), drudge, bodkin. The French words are many, though the time of their great inroad was not now, but in the youth of Chaucer's grandfather. Our poet disregards the Old French apro- chier a, and makes his verb approch govern an accusative. There is lieronsew (young heron), the French herouncel ; the English word is still alive in Yorkshire ; it is Spenser's liernshaw, of which Shakespere has an odd corruption in Hamlet. We hear of precious (precise) folk, ii. 295 ; this new sense of the word seems to have arisen in France in this Century. Bribe is used in our sense of the word, but Piers had employed it differently. Chaucer uses prose, as Brunette Latini had done a hundred years earlier. He coins the female form markisesse. Stomak is used as a synonym for heart or pity, ii. 210; and this sense lasted for 200 years. The French had an old word pulcnt (stinking); and Chaucer uses the new form polecat. Office is used for a "place of business," ii. 214; and officer for a "man of business," iii. 62. The word chere was changing its meaning at London as well as in Lancashire ; in iii. 69 a man makes feste and chere; hence our good cheer ; see also p. 68. In ii. 270 chere stands for cheerfulness. In the phrase do his fantasie, the last word slides into the meaning of /< r- fluitee, inordinate, gentrie, artelrie, cosin germain, dampnat/, joconde, suburbs, mortifye, conceit (thought), wel disposed (sanus), humilitee, "hotel (of hay), dissolute. We hear of an esy man, one of your sort, a propre man, propre name, the stmitc of Maroc, as like as possible, to abroche a tonne, cause a h< : /1c wo, dye in greyn, gentles of honour, saufty sey, every comfort pos- sible, have his acquaintance, his apertenauntes, hold the mene, a pair of tonges. The gamblers' terms sis, cink, treye, borrowed from France, are in full use. The new verbs cese and pay are driving out stint and gild, just as roll is fast elbowing out wallow ; and pray is encroaching on bid. The phrase by menes of was coming in. The word fume expresses im : Littre" gives no instance of this in France before the Fifteenth Century. The word honour shifts its accent in the line "Ne see ye not this honourable knight?" (ii. 304). Labour does the same in iii. 3. There are many Adjectives ending in able, like suffrable. The word cape (headland), ii. 1 3, seems to come from the Gascon traders ; Littre gives no earlier employer of it in Northern France than Rabelais. We find in ii. 326 unbode his galoche; the first hint of our galoshes. The verb plie (bend) is found in ii. 279. In ii. 173 stands I told no store of it; we should say set no store by it; the noun takes the new sense oipretium. Entend to a thing is in ii. 211; in other parts of England this became atend ; but the former verb in this sense held its ground for many years. Chaucer often yokes French words with their English brethren, talking of seuretee or sikernesse, robbe and reve. About this time the language spoken at the n. ] THE NE W ENGL ISH. \ 33 French Court was much studied in England, to the neglect of the old French of 1280; thus we find in Chaucer the later renomte as well as renoun; and Gower has the new helas instead of the old allaz. There are both humilitee and humblesse. Obedient and obeisant stand in the same page, iii. 317; repentant and repenting stand together in iii. 278 ; also do penitence, as well as penance, iii. 320. Chaucer sometimes leans to the Latin rather than the French, writing equal as well as egality, perfection as well as parfit. The verb appose (question) is found, whence comes our pose ; Apposition day is kept in some schools. The word acquaintance stands for friends, ii. 227. In ii. 300 we read " Passe-over is an ese, I say no more." The first word of this was to become well known four genera- tions later. Humanitee stands for kindness in ii. 239. The word conclusion in iii. 18 means purpose, like the Teutonic end ; Americans still conclude to do a thing, where English- men resolve. We hear in iii. 20 of disese (trouble) leading to death ; it is easy to see how the word got its graver sense, after this time. In iii. 71 stands to make strangenesse between, etc. ; here our estrangement is clearly foreshadowed. The old pitez had slid in France during this Century into the shade of meaning now expressed by their dommage ; c'estoit grans pitez que ; Chaucer imitates this in his it is a gret pitee to, etc. 1 So fond had we got of the ending in ish for a verb that the French vaincre had now to imitate finir, and become venquish in England ; there was a form vainqidr in this Century. The Romance defend keeps its Latin sense, and also its later French meaning. The ' Chanones Ye- mannes Tale ' abounds in the technical words of chemistry, like amalgam, calcen, mercurie, etc. We read of something that ne was but a just unce, iii. 237 ; we should now say, " was but just an ounce." A knight stands in a lady's grace, iii. 240 ; it would now be, "in her good graces." Manning had talked of a ded coi's ; Chaucer speaks of a living corps, 1 The old pietas (pitet) came to express misericordia in France in the Eleventh Century ; Brunetto Latini afterwards usedpitiez for both piety and pity. 134 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. iii. 39. He has a vast amount of French in his verse, even without reckoning the technical words of certain crafts. In iii. 160 one line has every weighty word French "Glorie and honour, regne, tresour, and rent." So in ii. 142 " Imprudent emperour of Rome, alas ! " In iii. 31 we have "For which she floured in virginitee, With all humilitee and abstinence, With all attemperance and patience, With mesure eke, of bering and array, Discrete she was." Chaucer's Friar, one of the best sketches here, is always in- terlarding his English with French ; his brethren's sermons, a hundred years earlier, had sadly marred our English tongue. P. 150 ' ' Grand mercy, dame ! Thomas, jeo vous die, Thomas, Thomas ! Now dame, quod he, jeo vous die sanz doute." Chaucer has eighteen lines ending in the rime aille, ii. 272 ; an exercise of ingenuity. He makes mention often of Chepe (Cheapside) ; he also touches on the bacon of Duii- mow, ii. 174. He has various bywords, such as " Who so first cometh to the mill, first griut " (ii. 179). That is, " first come, first served." " To maken vertue of necessite (ii. 91) ; But I wot best, wher wringeth me my sho " (ii. 283). We substituted pinch for wring 200 years later. A woman asks the Friar how he fares "Dame, quod he, right wel, As he that is your servant every del " (ii. 222). Hence comes the polite "your servant, Sir." The attestation, as soth as God is king, is in ii. 275. In ii. 282 stands "Your herte hongeth on a joly pin." Hences comes our " to be on the merry pin." IT.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 135 In iii. 242 stands bet than never is late. In iii. 285 many smal maken a gret. Chaucer, Avho first brought in the ten-syllabled riming lines, has a dig at old-fashioned Alliterative English in iii. 257 " I cannot geste, rom, ram, ruf, by my letter, And, God wote, rime hold I but litel better." His most ambitious attempt at Teutonic rime is in ii. 187 " Whoso that bildeth his hous all of sahves, And pricketh his blind hors over the falwes, And snffereth his wif to go seken halwes, Is worthy to be honged on the galwes. " As to the ' Legend of Good Women ' (Chaucer Society, part ii. 60), it is written in the new ten-syllable metre of the Canterbury Tales, England's chosen measure. The former Anton now becomes Antony (Antonius). We see our usual contraction of the ed in loved, p. 110; here the e is not sounded " That lovyd him bettre than hirself, I gesse." The g is struck out ; tigel becomes tyle. Among the Sub- stantives are half godys (demigods). Chivalry was now in- fluencing our English speech ; the new womanhod, p. 92, is coined to express ivomanly dignity ; our fathers, rather later, talked of "the worship of womanhood." Another new word lustynesse seems to express strength in p. 103. The word menynge adds the sense of statuere to that of significare, p. 76 ; my menynge was to, etc. The word felowship here means comitatus, a band of followers, p. 90. In p. 112 Lucretia bids her servants do her besynesse ; this seems to mark the time when the new sense of negotium came into the word ; the phrase may here mean (her had two senses) either " to do the servants' diligence " or " to perform the affairs of the mistress." There is the curious new com- pound, your home comynge, p. 123. In p. 126 stands, it was not thi doynge. In p. 127 ago, following the French past, is made a substantive ; ilw venym of so longe ago ; it is the same with auld lang syne. In p. 108 a man knows the arts of love ivitlioute boke ; that is, by heart. 136 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. Among the Adjectives are botomles. The trew nv/i is opposed to thief, in p. 76. We see thike as Juiyle, p. 81 ; Jason is called a grate gentilman, p. 106 ; in the next line likely is followed by an Infinitive, I think for the first time. The old fremde (extraneus) was now going out in the South ; for it is altered into strange in one of the Manuscripts, p. 92. As to the Pronouns, we see the new phrase thanke my lady here, p. 75 ; hitherto this title had been used only in the Vocative ; the French madame was the original followed here. We find the Dative; while breath lastethme, p. 121. Among the new Verbs SCCG finger, it is 0n/r&/aw (overblown), lie in my power, do him honoure, have suspicion of, have com- passion of. The verb fire is applied in an abstract sense ; hir beautefyred them, p. 91. The verb pull is now used by us for row ; this is first found in p. 129, oars pulldli forth the vessel. The verb choose once more is followed by an Infinitive, p. 77, slie ches to dye. The verb skip is used for festinare, p. 80 ; the writer says he will skip to the effect (upshot) ; with us it is readers who skip. We have seen Jwpe to God; we now have the new phrase wissh to God that, etc., p. 84. The do, as we see, is here employed in new phrases ; Medea does company to Jason (entertains him), p. 108; hence our "company manners." As to the Adverbs, in p. 113 stands doune was the sonne, a new way of expressing the sunset. A new sense of with (famous for) appears in p. 68 ; Cleopatre with all thy passioun, like Thebes with his old icalls in the 'Canterbury Tales.' The for now follows an adjective, too longefor me, p. 118; it had earlier followed a Passive verb. The Scandinavian words are clift (scissura), mase (laby- rinth), p. 120. Among the Romance words are balade, grapnel, tenour, ceptre (sceptrum), to corump, hostess, to poss (push), narcotifo, opies (opiates), floury (flowery). The word beauty now gets the sense of decus, and is found in the Plural, hide ye your beuteis, p. 68. The word person now takes the sense of pulchritudo ; lie, was (a man) of persone, p. 80. Dido is said to be in Mr devocyoun, p. 92; hence the later "at her devotions." When the Argo is mentioned, p. 104, we hear ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 137 of pilot Tiphys, corrupted by later scribes into Philotetes; this pilot, evidently a puzzling word, did not become common in England until 1530. The word queynt still keeps its old sense of callidus when applied to the Labyrinth, p. 120. The Northern forms used by Chaucer in this piece are upriste (uprose), have at thee, p. 102, her trew love (lover), rokke, not roche. In the same volume are contained a few of Chaucer's poems of this date. In p. 165 stands do law (right), a new sense of the word. In p. 148 the verb to loi'd is coined, to express dominari. In p. 159 we see our common jalousye be hanged/ There is the new noun scarcete. In p. 150 is an instance of the two meanings of seize (1, possess, endow, and 2, take) ; a fish is cesed with the hook. I have already mentioned Cambridge ; I next turn to Oxford, which had been lately roused by the preaching of Wickliffe ; she was now glowing with a fiery heat unknown to her since the days of the earlier Franciscans. The questions at this time in debate had the healthiest effect upon the English tongue, though they might jar upon Roman interests. Wickliffe, during his long residence in the South, seems to have unlearned the old dialect he must have spoken when a bairn on the banks of the Tees. His first childish lessons in Scripture were most likely drawn from the legends of the ' Cursor Mundi.' He was now bestowing a far greater blessing upon his countrymen, and was stamping his impress upon England's religious dialect, framed long before in the 'Ancren Riwle' and the 'Handlyng Synne.' Purvey, after referring to Bede and Alfred as trans- lators of the Bible "into Saxon, that was English, either comoun langage of this lond," writes thus : " Frenshe men, Beemers, and Britons han the bible, and othere bokis of devocioun and of exposicioun, translatid in here modir langage ; whi shulden not English men have the same in here modir langage, I can not wite, no but for falsenesse and necgligence of clerkis, either for oure puple is not worthi to have so greet grace and 3ifte of God, in peyne of here olde synnes. God for his merci amende these evele 138 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. causis, and make our puple to have and kunne and kepe truli holi writ, to liif and deth !" l Purvey and his friends stand out prominently among the writers who settled England's religious dialect ; not many of the words used in the Wickliffite version have become obsolete within the last 500 years. The holy torch was to be handed on to a still greater scholar in 1525 ; for all that, Wickliffe is remarkable as the one Englishman who in the last 1100 years has been able to mould Christian thought on the Continent ; Cranmer and Wesley have had small influence but on English-speaking men. Wickliffe had much help from Purvey and Hereford. The latter of these, who translated much of the Old Testament, strove hard to uphold the Southern dialect, and among other things wrote daunster, syngster, after the Old English way. But the other two translators leant to the New Standard, the East Midland, which was making steady inroads on the Southern speech. They write daunseresse, dwelleresse, etc., following Eobert of Brunne, who first led the way to French endings fastened to English roots. They also write ing for the Active Participle, where Hereford writes the old ende ; they do not follow him in employing the Southern Imperative Plural. Among Wickliffe's phrases, now embodied in our Bible, are these : verili, make hole, wot, yea, nay, sobrenesse, damesele, depart (ire), raveyn, cumpasen the se and the lond, moche curn- panye, grucche, man servant, ledd caytif (captive), comaundour, tittle, oygnement, take a counsel, liche maner, make dene, go out for to se, duke, gedre togidre, bleynes, sit at mete, justify you, stablisch, brend offringis, mldernesse, first fruytis, to coveit, p/ress togidere, cubit, haply, seer, to spuyl, boiler, pupplican, per a ven- ture, streit $ate, set fast his face, sepulcre, oost (host), fro //>/' sunne goynge doun, anon, male and female, smi/te, kike uyi*.* the pricke, travel (laborare), pmdent, encrese, to mete (measure), infirmytees, magnify, be of good caumfort, spuylis (spolia), desolat, scrip, tabernacle, just man, suffice, tradiciouns, enter in, scribe, interpret, minister, proverbe, mageste, profit, sykenessis, biwayle, reprovys (opprobria), to compas about, to poll, agonye, 1 'Wickliffite Versions' (Forshall and Madden), p. 59. ir.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 139 continue, bere witness, to thringen (throng), flix of Hood. His Jonas, Bethanye, Jerico, Pharisee, Galike, etc., remain much as he left them. The great fault of WicklifFe is, that he sticks close to the Latin idioms he was translating ; his English there- fore is but poor, if compared with that of the year 1000. I give a specimen of his Latinisms from the 'Vulgate ;' some of his renderings, as may be here seen, are downright blunders Wickliffe. Vulgate. Derknessis Tenebrse. Weddingus Nuptise. Nyl ye Nolite. Synguler Singuli. Sudarie Sudariuln. Cofyns Cophini. Spectacle Spectaculum. At us Apud nos. Erthemovyngis Terrse motus. May not have hatid Non potest odisse. Doynge gracis Gratias agens. It is seen to me Visum est mihi. In alien thing In re aliena". She is foundun Inventa est. 1 There are also phrases like loovis of proposicioun, uttermore (exterior), p. 115; evenyng was maad, whom seien $e me to be? my volatilis (fatlings) ben slayn, a noble man. . . Barabas, p. 151; we sy$en sum oon for to caste out fendis, $yve vois, touche ether (vel) the hem, architridyn. Castel is used to Eng- lish caste-Hum (village) ; Judas is led by penaunce, not by re- pentance, to mourn his crime ; sine liberis becomes withoute fre children, p. 407. The Ablatives Absolute are rendered most literally. It is clear that there was great room for another version of Scripture, after WicklifFe's time. Still we have followed him in some things, which I here set out Wickliffe. Tyndale. Son of perdicioun That lost chylde. It is good us to be here Here is good beinge for us. Entre thou in to the joye of thi Go in into thy master's joye. lord 1 My paging comes from the volume containing the Gothic, Anglo- Saxon, Wicklitfe's, and Tyndale's Gospels. 140 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. Wickliffe. Tyndale. I shoulde have resceyved with Shulde I have receaved with usuris vauntage. Thou saverist nat tho thingis Thou perceavest nott godly thynges. Wickliffe was himself a Northern man, but he had long lived at Oxford ; hence there is a curious mixture of two dialects in his writings. There are the Northern saif, fro, no but, gylty, maist, bitokist, what manere man, bundel, fighting man, Urye, homly, sister, overpass, oft tymys, deme (putare), postle, she ass, the which, tolbo}>e (tolbooth), loss, handmaiden, hurtle, slau^tre, a $ong oon, he hungred, turn upsodoun. The Past Participle is clipped, as founden, not yfounden. The word wench is used in the honourable sense of the North ; it is applied to a rich man's child, p. 41, and to the daughter of Herodias, p. 195. He is to be bitraied, p. 89, recalls Orrmin's extension of the Passive Voice ; it is very different from the old ys to syllenne. Take seems to drive out nim. We see Hampole's curious austerne, p. 399 ; the Verbal Nouns are in great force. In p. 123 stands swolo- wynge; the second o is a mark of the North, like aro for arwe (sagitta). The Southern forms are children, britheren, moche, oo (unus), olypi, axe, gon (ire), ey (ovum), beth, clepe, culver (columba), morewynge (mane), tlw (illi), to have be (fuisse). We find the Southern thilke, and also the synonym the ilke, p. 241. The to (dis) is sometimes prefixed. The here n (illorum), p. 1 7, is a curious mixture of South and North ; yure stands in p. 307, instead of the Northern yours. The old Imperative fare ge is altered in p. 45 to goth y, a form never allowed of old. The Participle in inge is well established. Among the Vowels the a encroaches on the e in the true Northern fashion, as sarpent ; the old cemete is here seen both as amte and emte (ant and emmet). This a replaces o, for of fear becomes afer, our afar ; e supplants o in the form rekevei'e for recover; 1 and there is the very contracted form Juilpens, p. 355. The initial e is docked, as stablish. The old Participle gewefan becomes woven. The e is struck out ; owef becomes oof, our woof. There are forms like golst and 1 Hence the footman in Pickwick says, "take off the kiver." ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 141 doith ; it may be that here the o and the i were both sounded, thus preparing the way for our modern oi. A new word may be formed by simply changing a vowel ; thus pund, pound, is an enclosure referring to land, and Wickliffe's new pond refers to water. The of was both a Preposition and an Adverb ; Wickliffe marks the difference very clearly by writing the latter as off; to leeve off, p. 97. The old shephirde is now written sheperde, with the h dropped, p. 43. We have seen the Verbal Noun pungetung much earlier ; we now see the verb punch. The d is struck out of the old verb windwe, for this is sometimes written winewe, our winnow. The th is added, for the noun deope becomes here deptlie, imitating lengthe. Hampole's parlesi is now pared down to palsie. The older gredire is now turned into grediren (gridiron). The French sc for s or c often occurs, as in resceyve, which follows science. Latin endings are often clipped ; we see Thadee (the Irish Thady), Susanne, and Joone (Joanna), as in Manning. Wickliffe, a true Northerner, is fond of Verbal Nouns, such as outgoyngis, bildingis, dwellingis ; there are also forms like the comyngis togidere of, the togidere Undingus, the fallyng tlu an of, betynge togidre of teeth, the rysing a-yn fro deede men, p. 409. Here the construction, trying to imitate the Latin, is most clumsy, owing to the fact that few Prepositions could now be prefixed to our home-born roots. The loss of her old compounding powers is the great shortcoming of the New English. There is sittyng place, p. 121. We find waking, p. 199, for the old wcecce (watch). The French ess, as in Chaucer, is tacked on to English roots, as synneresse ; Wickliffe felt himself obliged to English somehow the Latin peccatrix. The English ness is employed to compound pesibleness, p. 37, differing from peace and peacefulness ; also pomes (poverty) ; we now give meanings, slightly varied, to these seeming synonyms. There are new words like gelding (eunuchus), nedleworke, dweller, taris (zizania), roodhoes (roadster), seer, schipbreche ; in this last we have confounded the English breche with the Scandinavian week, which meant " something drifted ashore." He uses man to coin new words, such as domesmaii (judex), p. 21. He turns the old 1 42 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. English d]> (surculus) into chit (catulus). One effect of Latin influence was to alter the old way of reckoning time ; lie wes twelf wintre now becomes he was maad of twelve yeris, p. 283. Still, the winters (anni) lasted for 200 years after this time. Wickliffe is fond of the even prefixed to nouns, as even-servaunt ; he has stoc in the sense of progenies (Isaiah xlviii. 19) ; tlie hei^tus (hills), the outcastinge (offscouring). Among the Adjectives we see the French ending able, as in Hampole, tacked on to an English root ; umqtuaduAle is in p. 287. The form gladsum appears, replacing the Old English adjective glcedlic ; and Jon (stultus) is seen as fonned, O\IT fond. There are new words like cle$i (clayey). Chaucer's lawful is more Teutonic than Wickliffe's leefful, p. 235, which seems to come from the French lei; the Old English leafful had meant fidus. Older adjectival forms are set aside in favour of wrongful, or rather wrongfully, p. 287. In the same page we see a, strengere than I; this form was also used by Tyndale ; in the oldest English no Article had been employed here. As to the Pronouns, there is an awkward construction in p. 235, whos wyf of these schal sche be? and again in p. 371, whos asse of $oure schal fall e? We find the goyngus of hem, not " their goings." The old who- soever is cut down to who evere, p. 45, like the older what evere ; in Purvey's version of the Bible, about 1390, hou ever stands for how so ever ; in the Prologue, p. 459, stands 36 worschipen tJiat that $e witen ; here one that stands for id, the other for quod ; in old times the first that would not have appeared. The Definite Article, contrary to old usage, is dropped in John Baptist ; this has been followed by Tyndale. In the words, / $elde the fourefold, p. 397, Wickliffe goes nearer to the Gothic than to the Old Eng- lish ; in the latter, bi stands before the Numeral. Turning to the Verbs we observe the constant Northern leaning to shall in preference to will; as (the weather), shal be deer, though this is but a bare Future, p. 81 ; so he shal seie to us, p. 110. In p. 245 stands the curious whanne $e schulen wolle ; here the last word is the verb desire ; the old wilnian was to last but seventy years longer. The Latin Participle in urus is strangely Englished ; the ii.] THE NEIV ENGLISH. 143 world to comynge, p. 395 ; he that was to doynge this, p. 417 ; here we have the usual confusion of ynge with en, the old Infinitive ; in the South they wrote to witiende. The very un-English idiom, Erode dead (niortuo Herode) is in p. 9. Chaucer's phrase gesse, so well known to Americans, is much in favour ; the Old English ne, wene ic becomes nay, I gesse, p. 387 ; and this was to be altered by Tyndale into / trowe not. The upstart put is always encroaching upon set, do, and other hoary old verbs ; we see put away. Words like endure had long been known ; this French en is now prefixed to English roots, as to enfat (make gross), p. 63 ; on the other hand, the old inly$ten has not yet become our enlighten. There are the phrases graven things (not images}, keep Jiospitalite", give sentence, do fornycacioun, make, suggestioun. Sometimes the verb, the most important part of the sentence, is set first ; as gon shul Gentiles ; opened shul be thi $ates. Wickliffe coins the word to undir^ock for the Latin equivalent. Where he has fer be it, Purvey, ten years later, writes God forbede ! which we keep ; it had first appeared in the ' Cursor Mundi.' In Isaiah Ixvi. 15 we read of foure-horsid cams. The old minnen (meminisse) is discarded, and the adjective minde (memor) suggests to Wickliffe the verb minde, as we use it now. The verb drench retains its old meaning mergere, and takes the further meaning inebriare, Deuteronomy xxxii. 42, " I shal drenche myn arewis in blood." The word poune (conterere), our pound, stands in p. 1 1 3 ; it was known before the Conquest. The phrase turn the Jious upsodoun stands in p. 377. In p. 359 stands Mirk's 50 neden thes thing-is ; Orrmin would have inserted a to after the verb. We see the verb tinkle, which, like its Dutch brother, seems to be formed from the sound. The Old English mistrowen stands side by side with the Scandinavian mistrosten. There are many Latin words beginning with in; these Wickliffe translates by English words, on which he bestows a similar prefix ; thus invocare becomes inclepe. As to Adverbs we find the word hard is used as an Adverb, p. 393 ; in p. 99 this becomes of Imrd. Hence came our hardly (vix) seventy years later. 144 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. As to the Prepositions, have mercy on and have meny f stand in the same verse, p. 95. Under is prefixed to a foreign verb, undermine, p. 131 ; and there is also to ottr- traveile tliem; the under and over are two of the very few prepositions with which we can now freely compound ; they differ much from for, of, and with. Two prepositions are coupled in kepe it unto witfwuten ende, Exodus xii 24. We see the interjection whist, Judges xviii. 19. There are the Celtic words spigot, strumpet, and gogil-;wis testament is netful uilh of dede Fraunseis (the dead Francis). In p. 60 Msiness stands first for industria, then for negotium; the senses of sollidtudo must have been here the connecting link. In p. 94 truth adds the sense of veritas to that of fides, and becomes Plural ; treujpes of Goddis lawe ; in the same way my$ttis is used for powers of the soul, p. 217. In p. 67 we have monr-y .or money worlp ; we should now make the third word a Genitive. In p. 174 we read that drunkenness Avas coloured by the priests Avith the name of good felaweschipe ; this sense of the latter word lasted till Ascham's time. The ending ness is much used; we see worldlynesse, p. 121, man- lynesse, p. 174, a polite word for ira; fonnydnesse (stultitia). The word monger was beginning to be connected Avith crime, as lesyng-monger, p. 125. There are the phrases in right of, wombejoie (gluttony), ]>e dede doynge (action), $even fulbut conseil (give headstrong counsel), full butt, p. 213. We hear of clcfyis of mornynge (sorroAv), p. 123; we now concisely use only the last word. In p. 252 we read of a ley dogge ; this is more usually called bandog. We now employ only the Plural clothes; in p. 351 we see clothe ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 147 (vestis, not pannus). In p. 477 men strive as fendis (like fiends). The priest Sir John becomes Sir Jacke, p. 192; this change is unusual. The word cros (crux) seems to be encroaching upon both rode and croice, words which it was to supplant. There is Chaucer's new idiom repeated in p. 120 ; we read of Benetis lif & Thomas of Canterburies ; here the last three words are packed together as one Genitive. Among the new Adjectives are fonnyd (fond), unlerned, a fat benefice, hei^e & my$tty, hei$e wynes (like our "high feeding"); scliepische still stands for simplex, p. 212. The great is now set before another adjective, grete fatte hors, p. 60; we see also grete foolis, p. 81 ; the old swfye was now dying out. The word fresh gets the new sense of hilaris, p. 123, like Scott's "fresh as May." As to Pronouns, we find }>is seynt or ]>is (that), p. 153. In p. 105 stands make itfals as moche as }>ei kunne. The a or an is put for quidam ; in a manere they crucify Christ, p. 104. We had always used phrases like teopan dcel (tenth part) ; we now light on something new in p. 66, ]>re fiften]>es, p. 66 ; henceforward we had no trouble in expressing fractions. Among the Verbs we find feed it fat, it comes to sixti mark, Iwlde (keep) hous, Jcepe it to his owne knowynge, help him to it, hold for]> (keep on) servants, turn ny$t into day, to cracke Latin, do ]>at is in hem to, etc., Chaucer's stand bi lawe, to do treutye, beried in synne. Wickliffe is fond of stop, as to stop sin. The verbs trust and look now govern an infinitive, like hope; men tristen to flee, p. 82; loke to be festid, p. 249. We are told in p. 96 that men eat their hevyd out of untt ; this is the source of "eat his head off." In p. 100 God's curse renne]> wip ]>is ; hence the legal phrase, "covenants that run with the land." We hear of depid myradis, p. 469 ; we should now prefix a so. We have in the same page no drede at the head of a sentence ; the forerunner of no doubt ; here there is must be dropped. There is a com- bined idiom of the Subjunctive in p. 116; (they) my^ten, couden, and wolden teche. In p. 106 stands it is to drede (timendum est), which we now put in the Passive ; but in p. 222 comes stoppe (it) to be maad (from being made). 148 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. There is an imitation of the Latin Participle in p. 87, after benefice resceyved (receiving benefit) ; in 1360 with leave tob-n had appeared. Past Participles like come and gone had taken is or are before them ; this is now extended to other verbs; (they) ben cropen in (crept in), p. 296. In p. 104 prelates are chokid wi]> tcdow of worldly goods ; this accounts for the future chock full. As to Adverbs, the Latin undique is thus expressed in p. 126; on alle sidis. .We saw in 1160 how rather added the meaning of potius to that of citius ; the same addition is made in p. 240 in the case of sooner ; God would sooner hear the oppressed poor than the hypocritical rich. In p. 128 we find curatis may almost gete no bok ; here almost and get should change places ; this wrong transposition of words is a common fault in our day. Among the Prepositions we remark to ]>is ende (the old to ]>am \>cet), to live on poore men, he is more to God (to God- ward), p. 468 ; traitour to him (not his traitor). The for comes between a Noun and an Infinitive ; it is pride for a man to make, etc., p. 82; here the sense of destination comes in; as in 1280 (he was brought for her to see). Priests savour of certain things, p. 97, a new idiom after this verb. In p. 201 a prayer is of auctorite ; here no adjective precedes the of, as always before ; some things are nou^t of bileve (need not be believed), p. 482. There is the Celtic word knack (trick), used also by Chaucer. The Romance words are synguler (applied to the Phari- sees' religion), satrap, general//, coyn, armes (heraldic), cr/fr, vessel (plate), jurour, irreguler, suspend (priests), poyntis (of faith), expresly, viser, vicious, annueler (a priest paid by the year), jurisdiccion, crie out on them, temporalities, pension, usurer, recreation, pagyn (pageant), crocer (crosier), unable to, etc., sophistrie, apostata, obeische (obey), wlym (volume), stress beasts (distress for rent), to disgrate (disgrace), professouris of law, to present clerks, the ordynary, evidence (ratio), morals, specifie, infidelity, discuss, canonyse, corier (currier), to perpetual, horrour, to distemper, to limit to. There is the curious bab- wynrie, formed from baboon, p. 8. There is the new Lord ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 149 of compayncs (hosts), p. 58, the first time that we employed this word in a military sense. Clerks used to get benefices for countyng, p. 65 ; that is, for acting as accountants. Not only a king, but a curate, had sugetis (subjects), p. 73. A man is convycted in the law court, p. 75 ; we employ con- vince in another way. We see deschaunt used of Church music, p. 77 ; hence our descant. There is the phrase save a man's body in p. 174; where the verb is used in Chaucer's new sense. There is the verb dow, p. 103; to endow was to come in Occleve's time. We see occupy (ply business) in p. 104. There is aver (habere, property) in p. 119; this word has had its influence on our later be-Jiaviour. The word appliynge is used as a synonym for prayer in p. 134, a sense still in vogue. A priest, we are told, may be a dampnyd fend (fiend), p. 153; also a blynde bosard (buzzard), p. 157. In this last page we read that the Old Testament is practised, carefully studied, as a matter of business. In p. 162 glorious is used in a bad sense, being applied to priests' habits. In p. 181 stands potestat (dominus), soon to be altered into potentate. In p. 469 we hear of lordis & comyns ; in p. 231 of comyn wymmen (meretrices). The word patroun is applied in p. 285 to the founder of an Order; it is easy to see how pattern arose. The word trental is curious, as a Church word coming from the French, not from the Latin. There is both despeyre and desperadon. A priest might get a living by acting either as a kechen clerk or apenne clerk, p. 246 ; they also acted as architects. The English for (Latin per) is prefixed to French verbs, as forbar and for/end; the latter usurped the French meaning of defend (vetare). Testaments are proved in p. 277. In p. 302 sensible is used for " perceptible by sense ; " we employ sensibly in this way. We read of pseudo-pi'ophetis ; also of pseudoes, p. 308; this influx of Greek is something new; there is autorise with its Greek ending in p. 320. The word accident is con- nected with the Eucharist, and is called }>is newe word, p. 466. We read of the godis of fortune, p. 473; hence "a man of fortune." We have, in p. 467, the proverb crounne and do}> maken 150 THE NEW ENGLISH. [niAi>. noprest ; hence the clergy are in our day sometimes spoken of as the doth. There is also, cJtarite schuld bigyne at hemself, p. 78. In p. 131 we hear that the clergy will not stop until the whole land has passed into mortmain. The crying evil of impropriations is pointed out in p. 97; the lower clergy were robbed by approprynge of parische chirchis ; in these a poor ignorant vicar was set for little cost, p. 116; men took orders to say masses for money. Even in these early times Antinomian opinions were abroad; some, p. 351, said, " late me synne ynowe, for God wole nevere lese J>at he haj> dere bou5t." The ' Rolls of Parliament ' are a mine of our language, beginning from the year 1386, when the London Mercers sent up the first English petition in a style very like Chaucer's ; see vol. iii. 225. But that poet's ^eldehaUe is now seen as Ghiyldehalle ; thus the Severn combination of u with i or y was established at London. We see a new substantive in arrysers ayeins the pees ; Barbour's rising be- came another word for rebellion. The London tradesmen appear as the craftes ; as if ars were to stand for artifex. The Petition is directed against Nichol Brembre, Mayor of London ; we see a very early English pun on his name (bramble) ; the Mercers call the forsaid Brere or Brembre a ragged subject. The Lords of the Council are addressed collectively as yowre worthy Lordship; a slight change in the use of this title was soon to come ; a favourite phrase, used here and long afterwards, was be good Lorde to hym. There is the new Northern phrase nough ticith stondyny the same. We find it hath been out of mynde ; we should now make time the middle word. A new use of by appears ; wrongs done to them by longe tyme passed. The Northern word for journeying appears in London, travail en barfote ; the two last words are curious. John Trevisa in 1387 finished a long task, that of turning into Southern English the huge Latin Chronicle, compiled by Higden some few years earlier ; thus much of the world's history was thrown open to laymen. Trevisa was Vicar of Berkeley in Gloucestershire, and wrote at the request of the Lord of that village. His dialect is un- ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 151 mistakably Southern; he has many words and phrases that appeared in the 'Ancren Kiwle.' He has forms peculiar to the Severn country, but we see that the Northern dialect is forcing its way into Gloucestershire ; thus there are the forms afire, atyirst, i. 119, and stripe (exuere), notstrupe, i. 265 ; there &re brittle and sighes ; the Verbal Nouns abound ; the same replaces ilk (idem) ; there are also nor, ]>ey, ]>aire, ]>aym, unto. As to Vowels we find initial a clipped, as in the Romance late. The e is in- serted, for wesle becomes wesel (weasel). The old Colonia appears as Coleyn ; there must have been the prior forms, Colune, Coloin. Another famous German city is seen as Mens, the future Mentz. The South-Eastern form ie re- places ea$ in die (tingere). The initial i is clipped ; for men lumine books, vii. 295 ; another version has lymne, and we still use limn. What is now called Poitou appears both as Peytowe and Peyto, the old confusion between o and u (ou), showing how Cardinal Peto's name arose. The name that Chaucer wrote Lowys is here seen as Lewes, i, 285; much as Lord Macaulay wrote it; Hewbert is here written for Hubert, and thus we pronounce the French due as dewk. The proper name Boece is written Boys (a future surname) ; and poemata is translated by poysies. I have already remarked on the change in oi. The t is used instead of }>, as nostrelle, iii. 1 1 ; here, moreover, there is a transposition of letters. It is added to the French touffe and becomes tuft. The d is inserted in iaundis, which replaces Hampole's jaunis. The r is struck out ; we read of the Charthous, vii. 305. The s is inserted, for craftesman appears instead of Layamon's craftmon. The most re- markable contraction is copweb for attercoppe web, vii. 343. Orrmin's speldren becomes our spell (syllabicare), vii. 333. The n is struck out, for bek (nutus) is formed from beknien ; this letter is replaced by m; for there is Pomfreyt as well as the old Pounfret. The w is struck out ; there trus (truce) as well as the old truwes. The new Substantives are bakwateres, evel-doer, tale-teller (delator), gravestone, popehode (papacy), twyli^tynge, Iwnysoukel, forlond (foreland), cok crowynye, overlip, werk-lious (of an 152 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. abbey), comer, glasier. The noun hoiiynge (from hurlen, ruere) is used in viii. 231, to translate turbo; it may have influenced hwrly burly. Trevisa's leving (way of life) trans- lates mores, vii. 11, which is something new. In i. 325 vernale is translated springynge tyme ; our old leinten (ver) was soon to be replaced by spring ; in vii. 461 Lenten tyme bears its religious meaning. We see homo Englished by grome, not gome, i. 359 ; the old brydguma was soon to become bridegroom. In ii. 283 mention is made of beings called half goddes. In vii. 149 epitaph is explained by writynge on grave. In vii. 481 Danegilt becomes ]>e Da IK* golde in some manuscripts. The ending ard, as I have else- where remarked, was coming in; we hear of the Spaynardes, a form which replaces the Spaynols of 1350. The Verbal Noun, as in the Mandeville treatise, is further developed ; it is \re dayes seillynge from Irlond, i. 325 ; collapsii* is Englished by }>e fallynge togidres of, etc., ii. 119. The noun will takes a new shade of meaning, have greet irill (mind) to go, vii. 377. The Latin form Brislollia, that had been in use for 200 years, is written Brestowe, ii. 103 ; the stow or place of the brig. Trevisa uses the noun likpot for the finger next the thumb, vii. 73. In vii 109, Crislean is written for the proper name Christina. Trevisa brings in a new phrase for multum ; a great deel of London, vii. 311; he has also most deel for mostly. Among the Adjectives we see manful, unfitting, sclwrt- ivitted, scJwrt-bretyed ; nobiles is Englished by wor}>y men, vii. 101. We have faire wordes (promissa). The word idter adds to its old meaning of exterior that of extremus, vi. 251. Trevisa can give nothing neater for verisimile than it seme}> like soo]>, vii. 105. The two forms fieschely and fleschy may be seen in viii. 23. The word sely gets a meaning varying from infelix, for it is used to English simplex, viii. 91, where a very foolish act is in question. In p. 155 sly is used in its old sense sapiens; in p. 105 it is debased, being applied to a cunning plot. In p. 279 prudentiorcs is Englished by ]>e rediest men ; our ready man has more to do with ned (con- silium) than with gercedian (parare). The able is added to a Teutonic word, as in Wickliffe ; we have untrowaUi'. ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 153 As to the Pronouns, the Reflexive to sit him doivn was a good Old English idiom ; the him now becomes himself; men laughe hem selve to dea}>, i. 305. The his is often used to express the Genitive, as Harolde his procurynge. We saw in 1280 the phrase to love justice of all things; we now see most of eny ]>ing, i. 263. This any replaces a in vii. 91 ; he lived like any anker (hermit) ; so wholly was the old meaning of forma (primus) lost at this time, that Trevisa writes formest fader, i. 29. Among the Verbs are $ild up a thing, fall to (irruere), put in ward, wosen oui (ooze out), bid farewell (forsake), stall (install) a bishop, beat him to ]>e deth, have indignacioun, make inquisicioun, do bataille with, it com out clere inow (erupit in clarum), fall sik. In ii. 195 something is said to be no made tale ; a new sense of the verb. In vii. 27 a man made it as Ipey (though) lie were not wroth ; in the next Century the it was replaced by countenance. We know our answer expectation; in vii. 11 fields answer }>e tillers (cultoribus). In vii. 99 Canuto secedit is Englished by hefil unto Canute; fall away must have come from an imitation of Latin. We see renew, ii. 301, the first instance, I think, of re being set before a Teutonic root. In vii. 153 manum apponere be- comes put to his Jiandes, a favourite phrase later. A man is put yn (intrusus), speaking of the Papacy ; another is i-sette downe (depositus). In iii. 297 is a phrase of the 'Gamelyn,' which probably was written not far off: he up with a staf and smoot ; there is leve his woodnesse, and also it hadde be i-left of; in vii. 377 desiste is Englished by leve of in one manuscript, by leve in another ; there is also breke of Ipe sege, putte it of (differre) used of a request. This of or off was now becoming common. In vi. 333 stands bring her ivith childe ; this sense of the verb lasted almost to our own day, as in Pope's bring you acquainted. In viii. 217 stands go a pilgrimage; the a here must represent on. In vii. 385 we read of blasi/nge clones, raiment of a too conspicuous pattern ; here the verb gets a new sense. The Future tense is employed in an unusual way, in ii. 235 ; sixe cubites, ]>at uil be nyne foot long ; before the Conquest will in the sens.0 of must could only be used in a question ; one 154 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. French idiom is, je suppose qu'il aura, (must have) cte frappe. Among the new Adverbs is unlawfullicJie. The old dcene, in the sense of omnino, is altered into clenliche, i. 341. We see the phrase hard if we (frozen), i. 325; also frescln-li/ (just) born, vii. 133. The far is now prefixed to a Present Participle, afer casting man (sapiens) appears in viii. 285. Among the Prepositions we remark went an huntynge, i. 173, where the an was doubtless mistaken for an Article. There is to lite by ]>e halvendel, too little by half ; also by the space of }>re dayes. The old o}>, standing before a term expressing quantity, is altered into to ; to }>e nowmbre of ftn> hondred, i. 341. The un}> conveys the sense of our includ- ing ; sixe schires ivi]> Cornwayle, ii. 91. This preposition usually implied agreement ; it is now used instead of as after same; oflpe same age ivfy, ii. 259. There are the Scandinavian scrap, squeak, rauschdyngA (strepitus), which Caxton a hundred years later altered into rustlynge. The Danish skim supplies the word .>/.//- mours (piratse), i. 261 ; men who skim the sea. The words sprenkle and iwiter are allied to the Dutch and German. Among the Celtic words are kybe (chilblain); the goboli/n of the Severn land is repeated here. The French words are usual, capitel (letters), marl, giestes (joists), ducherie (dukedom), empechement (accusation), anuj (of an army), form (bench), spiritualte (clergy), hors liter (f eretrum), particuler (often used here), gruel, chaneJ, brigands (latrones), to aliene, to copy, plegge, pulpit, duket (ducat), con- spire, quote, p)'ecious stone, to resign up, lettres patent, determine doutes, chase enemies; a new sense is given to florish ; we hear of florischers of wordes, i. 7 ; a bishop floruit ; this is turned into was in hisfloures, vii. 39. There is have the iimi/x- trie (mastery). We read of an esy man ; here the adjective adds the sense of lenis to that oifacilis. The word airiuuxte is used for inquisitiveness in learning, vii. 69 ; the word gracious is used to translate probus, vii. 35 ; ungracious is used both for infaustus and sinister. The adjective noble is employed in a new sense, nobil bookes, viii. 21. In vi. 123 superiores is translated soverai/nes, a word used all through the ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 155 next Century, like Shakespere's "my masters." In vi. 221 conclude, already used by Piers Ploughman, gets the mean- ing of putare. In viii. 179 equivocatio is Englished by doubel entendement, here used by an angel ; our evil double entendre, which has not been naturalised after 200 years, was to come later. In vii. 467 we see grauntsire, and also fader grauntsire (atavus) ; two languages are further used to compound double chynned, i. 299 ; we have here also the curious compound overpluse (surplus), much in use for the next two Centuries. In viii. 201 we come upon belfray, the berfray of 1360; the English bell here led the way to a false analogy. Trevisa explains the strange word commedy, i. 315, saying that it is "a song of gestes;" here the last word must mean joci, as in Manning fourscore years earlier ; but in viii. 299 gestour expresses tragcedus. There is the Latin incubus, i. 419. We see in ethica turned into in dykes, viii. 241, our Plural form. In vi. 259 comence- ment is used in its Academical sense. The verb use is employed for solere, just as in Barbour; new words and phrases crop up almost at the same moment in far distant shires. The Latin indecenter is Englished by unsemyngliche, viii. 1 1 7, an obvious imitation of the Participle form, for no ing is needed. There are the two forms avoketes and advo- ketes, showing the rising influence of the Latin ; advise was soon to replace avis. The Avord gratum is translated plesynge to; the adverb plesingly is also seen. In vii. 69 quadrivium is Englished by carfouk; this recalls the Carfax of Oxford. A Latin word sometimes needed a long interpretation ; thus inmncibilis, vii. 103, becomes unable to be overcomen. In vii. 155 electi is Englished by }>e elites; this word has never been thoroughly naturalised. There is Barbour's leeftenaunt, where the French u has been mistaken for a v ; hence the / appears. The word prejudice now expresses injuria, as in law; lotyoute prejudice of his chirche, vii. 263. Men might now meove (move) a cause or a question. In Domes- day Book all England is descrived (marked out) ; this sense lingers in our Bible. In vii. 377 the Devil appears as ]>e enemy. The word ezitus, vii. 193, is translated his ende and passing for}> ; hence " the passing bell," and " the passing 156 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. of Arthur." In the middle of the English text stands the technical in pontificalibus ; Foxe is fond of the phrase. Trevisa gives us a proverb from Seneca, vii. 5 : a cok is most my$ty on his dongehille ; 1 70 years earlier it had been kene on his mixenne. In another work of our author's he puts aside the Old English ceorles ween (Arcturus), and tells us that this star is comynly clepid in Englis Charlemaynes wayne ; a phrase that lasted to 1600 ; this is our Charles's wain. 1 The French romances must have been most popular in England. We now, in 1387, light once more upon an English Will ; these had been made in Latin and French for the previous 300 years. Robert Corn, citizen of Lon- don, makes his bequests (' Fifty Earliest English Wills,' Early English Text Society, p. 1) ; he speaks of his daughter Genet, our Janet ; of the werkes (buildings) of a church ; the Romance word peuter occurs. In the ballads of this time (' Political Poems,' Master of the Rolls) we see the phrase for wynt ne wederes, p. 216; here weather bears the meaning of Latin tempest <.is, which the word has had from the earliest times. The Scandinavian odd, first found in Lancashire, has also come South, p. 268 ; in the same page is the Lancashire noun blonder. We see the French substantive galauntes, and hear of a counter tcimr, p. 277. The documents, printed in Rymer, belonging to the years 1385 and 1386, show that English was at last asserting its right to appear in official papers by the side of Latin and French. We have here phrases like in proper persons, inhabitans, goodes and catels. The word law appears as laugh. There is the curious combination of nouns, no harm doings. Chaucer's during is here durant, as in the original French. In the 'Legends of the Holy Rood' (Early English Text Society), belonging to this time, we see the noun blok and the verb loll, which are common to the Dutch. In Gregory's Chronicle (Camden Society) we have, in the account of the year 1387, the surname Bechamp, not 1 See the ' Catholicon' (Early English Text Society), p. 59. ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 157 Bewcliamp ; just as the Northern le supplanted the Southern leow (lew). The rules of a certain London Gild (Early English Text Society) bear the date 1389 ; we see that our way of sound- ing the English word for sepelire was now settled by the Capital ; the Kentish form bery appears. There are the new nouns book-bynder and hatter. We see if nede be ; the 3^y hit neod is of the ' Ancren Biwle.' There is the phrase it may be take Ipat ; we should now say, taken for granted, p. 9. We find at warning ; we still say " at a minute's warning." There are some Lynne documents of the same date, 1389 ; the derwor]>e (pretiosus) was not understood at this time, for it is written der worthi, p. 58. Foxe has printed a famous sermon, preached at Paul's Cross by R. Wimbeldon in 1388 (Cattley's edition, iii. 292). We here see the speech understood by London church- goers under Richard II. ; we may remark how their and them have come down from the North, though hem is still found ; at the same time we see the Southern thelke (iste), beth (sunt), it was agoo (gone), o man (unus), ybore. The former uttermost is cut down to utmost, p. 305. There is Trevisa's living (mores), and Chaucer's householder; also the noun earthquaking. Among the Verbs are bring up (educare), wax on edge, as much as lyeth in thy power, p. 300. The old letten and l&tan are now confused ; let (prevent) wrongs to ben done, and let him enter. The verb answer takes a new shade of meaning; answer to God (as to your life), p. 295. In the same page there is put to the law ; whence comes our "put to school." There is the Adverb cursedly. Among the Prepositions is by the waie (obiter dictum), p. 298. Among the Romance words are advancement, theame (a preacher's text), to return writs, to forfeit, probable doctors, gentelness (mildness). Shoreham's acordant to now becomes according to (secundum) ; this was to replace one sense of after. There is a sermon against Miracle plays, dating from about 1390, in 'Reliquiae Antiquae,' ii. 42 ; here we see the Genitive their and the Accusative hem. The e is inserted, for the old hidous becomes hideous, p. 54. There is the 158 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. phrase japynge stikke, which paved the way for laughing stock. In p. 44 stands have the greet mynde to do it; mind expresses voluntas ; we here substitute a for the. In p. 50 is the new phrase hard of bileve. We see make a, play therof ; to layke enterludes had come earlier. The Participle being had very seldom been used, since the old wesende had been dropped ; we now have " it stands in beynge devoid, p. 57 ; this Participle was henceforth to be used freely after certain prepositions. The whereof stands for the Latin opes; to han wherof to spenden, p. 54. Among French words stands synguler, p. 47, opposed to a plurality, where we should say single. About 1390 certain parts of the Church ritual were translated into English ; these may readily be recognised as little altered in the Anglican Prayer Book of our day. What follows is taken from the ' York Manual ' (Surtees Society). The ' Cambridge Manuscript,' which I transcribe, is referred to in p. xiv. The parts of the ritual, done into English about this time and later, were certain bits of the Marriage service, the Great Curse, the Visitation of the sick, and the Bidding prayer for all conditions of men. This was nothing new ; in the ' York Manual ' may be found an English Bidding prayer, compiled before the Norman Conquest. In p. 24 the following address is made to the bridal couple : " I charge you both and eyther be your selfe, as ye wyll answer before God at the day of dome, that yf there be any thynge done pryvely or openly betwene yourselfe, or that ye knowe any lawfull lettyng why that ye may nat be wedded togyder at thys tyme, say it nowe or we do any more to this mater. " Here I take the N to my wedded wyfe to have and to holde at bedde and at borde, for feyrer for layther, for better for warse, in sekeness and in hele, tyl dethe us de- parte, if holy kirk it will ordeyn, and thereto I plyght the my trouthe. ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 159 " With this rynge I wedde the, and with this golde and silver I honoure the, and with this gyft I dowe thee." I add a Southern version, of about 1400, from a Sarum Missal; see p. 220 in the last part of the 'York Manual.' The woman has already promised to be boxom to the man : " Wi]? this ring y the wedde, and this golde and sulver y the 3eve, and wi]? my body y the worschipe, and wij> my worldliche catel iche ]>& sese." I add a few documents of this date from Blunt's Key to the Prayer Book : " I bileve in god, fadir almygti, makere of hevene and of erthe : and in iesu crist the sone of him, oure lord, oon alone : which is conceyved of the hooli gost ; born of marie maiden : suffride passioun undir pounce pilat : crucified, deed, and biried : he went doun to hellis : the thridde day he roos agen fro deede : he steig to hevenes : he sittith on the right syde of god the fadir almygti : thenns he is to come for to deme the quyke and deede. I beleve in the hooli goost : f eith of hooli chirche : communynge of seyntis : forgyveness of synnes : agenrisyng of fleish, and everlastynge lyf. So be it." PREIE WE. FOR THE PEES. " God of whom ben hooli desiris, rigt councels and iust werkis : gyve to thi servantis pees that the world may not geve, that in our hertis govun to thi commandementis, and the drede of enemys putt awei, oure tymes be pesible thurgh thi defendyng. Bi oure lord iesu crist, thi sone, that with thee lyveth and regneth in the unitie of the hooli goost god, bi all worldis of worldis. So be it." " God, that taughtist the hertis of thi feithful servantis bi the lightnynge of the hooli goost : graunte us to savore rightful thingis in the same goost, and to be ioiful evermore of his counfort. Bi crist our lorde. So be it." "Almyghti god, everlastynge, that aloone doost many wondres, schewe the spirit of heelful grace upon bisschopes thi servantis, and upon alle the congregacion betake to hem : and gheete in the dewe of thi blessinge that thei plese ever- more to the in trouthe. Bi crist oure lord. So be it." 160 THE NEW ENGLISH. I>HAP. In these last prayers the form Goddes borde is always oc- curring for the altar. In the Prayers of the ' York Manual' the d is again inserted, as advocate. There is the new verb to fader children on a man, p. 121 ; Chaucer's new /munches (liberty), and to present a church. In p. 123 there is a Bidding prayer, something like that used at the Univer- sities ; but the phrase we shall pray is employed ; not ye. There is an office for the Visitation of the sick, which dates from about 1390, p. 110, towards the end of the 'York Manual;' this office has a Southern tinge. In p. Ill the priest, when exhorting the dying man, uses the common oath pard4 t and moreover quotes Cato ; there is the new phrase / despeir of it. The Church, brought face to face with Lollardy, was now making full use of English as an instrument. Mr. Maskell has printed a very long English Primer, dating from about 1400. The book of travels, attributed to Sir John Mandeville, used always to be placed at the head of New English prose ; but from this place it has been deposed since Colonel Yule lately showed in the 'Encyclopaedia Britan- nica ' that the book is nothing but a compilation from well- known authors, made about 1390, with the addition of later inventions and interpolations. Thus, the Pope is placed at Eome a little before 1360 a manifest blunder. Manuscripts of this work (some of them have a Southern tinge) abound in our libraries. I have used Halliwell's edition. The Verbal Nouns are many, as in the North. In p. 127 the Northern whare is used in a dependent sen- tence; here an earlier Southern writer would have used there. Orrmin's theirs has found its way to London, and there is also hires (illorum) formed in the same way. The Infinitive follows an Adverb, as in the 'Cursor Mundi,' it is tofer to travaylle to, p. 270. The en of the Infinitive is often clipped. The Passive Voice, as in the ' Ormulum,' is making great strides, see pp. 2 and 286. The fortumtnek and al be it that of Western England have now reached London ; such a word as formyour reminds us of the ending used in the Severn country. ii. ] THE NE W ENGLISH. 1 6 1 We see both Maur and Mowr, where we now write Mom: The French royaume becomes rem& and reume, showing the double sound of au. If that combina- tion here has the sound of the French ou, it has the sound of the French d in bawme and pawme. The a replaces e, as marveyle for merveille, p. 272. The e re- places a, for knowleche stands for the former knawlage ; the pecok of the Alexander is found, as well as poocok. But the e is preferred to Hampole's o in mevable and flete ; reed sup- plants the old reod, p. 189. In p. 35 we read of the Bedoynes, where the o and the y must be pronounced separately, as before in Boys. The o replaces e, as in oldest, p. 30; it replaces a, &$,felowe, p. 24. The u is preferred to its rivals i and e in the Plural rushes; it replaces o in c/mse (eligere), p. 221. The Kentish guod becomes cjoude (bonus), p. 126. There are Severn forms like fuyr, juyce, conduyt. Fown (fawn) stands for the French faon in p. 290. As to the Consonants, the u was so often mistaken for a v, that the plenteuous of Hampole is here found as plenty- fous, p. 187. On the other hand, the v is here taken for an u ; efete becomes ewte, p. 61, our newt. The c was re- placing s even in Teutonic words ; sinder becomes cyndre (cinder) in p. 101. The old Icece (hirudo) is seen as leche. The gh is well established instead of h and 3 ; we find sleighte and chough; it seems not to have been sounded hard, for the sloiv of the 'Havelok' is written slowglie (occidit), p. 141. What had been before written ure is now hour, p. 235. The t is struck out in the middle of at do, p. 132, where the old Danish Infinitive is used as a Noun ; have ado with. The th is added at the end ; brede becomes our breadthe, p. 41 ; this must have been an imitation of length. The d is inserted, as had been the case with thunder ; air (alnus) becomes eldre, p. 93. The I is inserted, for the old specca (macula) gives birth to spekelede (speckled). The s is coming into vogue ; it is added to form the Genitive of lady ; it is added to the old sitJien ; and sithens, on the road to our since, is found in p. 299 ; the Preposition besides is in p. 44. Middel is changed to myddes (midst) in p. 2. VOL. I. M 1 62 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. The French form sc appears ever in Teutonic words, as scithes (tempora), p. 289. The n is changed into m ; run- down is in p. 238 ; the n is thrown out, when Amyas, p 108, is written for Amiens. The Northern fashion of writing x for s is seen once more ; we find both Ewv.i* and Emaux, also Jexabel. Among the Substantives are many new proper names, as yet little known in England, such as P rest re John, Cathay, Russye, Pnisse, and Crako, p. 130; Polaync, Sl:. milk, a use of the Accusative something similar to that used in the year 1098. The nobles are described as aHc the gode blood of his Reme, p. 154. We see hors back at p. 58. The Verbal Noun syttinges is coined to express the Latin sedes, p. 106. In p. 49 stands thei ben grettcre cheep ; this last word is a Substantive in the Dative, here meaning bargain; it was 160 years before we began to use cheap as an Adjective. It is remarkable how often our author throws aside the old Genitive, and uses the periphrasis with of, such as nekke of a colver ; we follow his example when we write for the press, but not in speaking. We may safely foretell that " the man's dog " will never be replaced by ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 163 " the dog of the man." In p. 273 stands the goynge doun of tlie sonne. We find here two forms of speech that have been embodied in our Bible ; most fairest (Most Highest), p. 279 ; and holy of halewes (Sancta Sanctorum), p. 85. Heaven of heavens had been a good English phrase in the earliest times ; and we still use heart of hearts. There is the phrase an Iwol (whole) mone}>, p. 134. The Superlative forme fader was so little understood that it was now altered both into foremest fader, p. 303, and into foi'mere fader, p. 2. In p. 183 we hear of a worthi (bonus) man, a new meaning of the Adjective. Our author is fond of discarding the old Comparative, and of using the periphrasis with move. The Superlative is now sundered from the Genitive Plural that should follow it ; we see in p. 237 the grettest of dignytee of the Prelates. As to the Pronouns; in p. 122 as for the tyme ("for the present ") is found, where the seems to represent this. 1 The indefinite it is repeated ; it came to the ende of nine monetlies, p. 27. In p. 3 stands the new phrase of this age, a man that hatlie whereof (opes) ; we now talk of the wherewithal. In p. 287 we have the curious form suche an on (one) ; the writer little knew that he was here using the same word twice over. The ordinal Numeral takes every prefixed, as in Hampole : every thrydde pas that thei gon, p. 174. We saw in the ' Cursor Mundi ' }>ar es na mend- ing }>e stat ; the use of the na or no, standing for not, is now extended; in p. 102 we find no gret ryvere. The phrase no more did I stands in p. 221. As to Verbs ; the old Imperfect, following that, in a dependent sentence, is sometimes altered into the Pluper- fect; and this novelty has taken root; in p. 79 stands sche ivende that he had ben a gardener. The Infinitive follows a verb of progress ; nails growe to ben longe, p. 310. This tense is governed by certain other phrases, as, are in purpos for to visite, p. 4 ; to that entent to maken men beleve, etc., p. 160. This Infinitive is replaced by that with the Subjunctive ; as, to that ende and entent that his detlie myghte ben knoiven, p. 2; we now say, "in order that." In p. 191 1 This reminds us of the Scotch "how are you the day ?" 164 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. stands in case that he had ony werre. We saw in the 'Cursor Mundi'/aZZ upon a gret (fletus); this gives birth here to Jie felle preyeng to oure Lord, p. 87 ; where the on, which should be the third word, is dropped, and the Verbal Noun seems to be turned into a Present Participle. The phrase "fall a praying" lasted almost down to 1800. In " they left beating of Paul," it is hard to say whether beating is a Participle or a Noun ; these words in ing are the hardest puzzle in the English tongue. We have already seen, in 1280, the phrase without coming, an imitation of the French ; this is carried further in p. 181 ; aftre goynge be see, . . . I liave founden, etc. There are such phrases as fall in a rage, lay sege, take the ayr, do reverence to, make Jiem to beleve, fall sick, lost labour, to bete doun and tomble ivalls (p. 95). The verb sting had hitherto been used as freely as our pierce ; it seems henceforth to be restricted, at least in its physical sense, to animals that give wounds ; see p. 286. The phrase crepynge bestes is used in p. 296 for our reptiles, and something like the former stands in our Bible. A noun gives birth to a new Participle in p. 137 ; men are now swerded, now daggered. The old Strong Verb suck now makes a Weak Perfect; thou sowkedest is in p. 30. The Active Participle may stand, as in p. 59 of my Book, with- out an accompanying Noun ; we read in p. 191 he takctlie on, and anotJier, and so foi'the contynuelle sewyng (following). The Adverbial phrase in the last example (it dates from Old English times) is repeated in p. 309 ; liere 5, Jiere 6, and so forthe ; we often substitute on for the last word. We find Iww used almost as a Relative ; / schalle devyse ^ow . . . the names Jww thei clepen hem, p. 53. The old nu had always expressed quoniam; we see in p. 122 the origin of our now that ; nmv aftre that I Jiave told, . . . / wille turnen, etc. ; we should here drop the after. Laya- mon had made a distinction between as and so ; his order of words is here reversed ; righte als tJie londes weren lost, so schulle tliei ben wonnen. A wholly new way of expressing the Latin nisi, replacing the old but, now starts up ; in p. 184 stands that may not be, upon lesse than wee mowe falle. This, the future unless, is a literal version of the French a it.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 165 moins que ; a few years later, the upon before the lesse was to be dropped. The evere more sithens, in p. 299, paves the way for our ever since. The but had been used to English quin after possum, in 1300; this usage is now extended further in p. 50 ; that feld is not so well closed, but that men may entren. The old overall (ubique) was beginning to drop; in p. 46 tJie contree is strong on alle sides. In p. 309 men rejoyssen hem hugely; this Adverb remained in use for about 300 years, when it yielded to vastly. 1 The Superlative Adverb gladlyest is in p. 195 ; and beste belovede in p. 177. We have seen the Old English adverbial same swa; this now appears in a slightly dif- ferent form ; they don in tJie same maner as the firste, p. 192. Among the Prepositions at is used to express distance ; toward tJie Est, at 160 paas, is Templum. The Adverb ovcrthwart is turned into a Preposition, p. 57 ; overthwart tJie See, much as Cowper used it. Under is applied to measure; undir the age of 15 yre, p. 278 ; here within had been employed earlier. The confusion between of and on is remarkable in p. 115; so much in lengthe, so much of brede (breadth). We saw make game of in 1290 ; we now light on make clieep (bargain) of hem. A remarkable phrase stands in p. 41, ivithouten castynge of of hire clothes; this castynge must be the Verbal Noun, not the Infinitive, as in the ' Tristrem.' Our modern off and of, the Adverb and the Preposition, here stand side by side ; the old form of casting would have been much better than this castynge of. The about now stands for juxta; abouten Grece there ben many iles. A very early idiom is continued in the phrase multiply by 360 sithes, p. 185; there is also for the most partye, p. 294. The new words akin to the Dutch and German are mosse (muscus), sclender, schokk (acervus), 2 whippe, huske, chop (secare), lodesterre. We hear, in p. 130, of cams that Juive no wJieeles, that thd clepen scleyes; this last is the Dutch sledes (sledges). 1 Will Wimble, after conveying a lad to Eton, says that the youth ' ' takes to his learning hugely. " 2 This produces here a verb. 1 66 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. From the Scandinavian comes lepe $eer (hlaupar), p. 77. The Celtic dagger also appears. As to French words; bestaylle, p. 284, is the parent of the Scotch substantive bestial. Many adjectives are used as substantives, such as necessaries, tributaries. There are phrases like gret nombre of folk ; gret (much) peple ; with on accord ; double sithes (times) more; it is (so much) in kompas aboute ; ordinance of werre ; l sue for a thing ; to companye with ; women refusen a man ; savynge here (their) reverence ; a three-cornered city (Constantinople) ; make it to ben cryed. There are the two forms, French and Latin, obeyssant and obedient; since 1390 we have made a difference be- tween obeysance and obedience. We have seen dam applied to a hen, soon after 1300; it is now applied to a mare, p. 302. We saw trail in 1303; we now light upon the noun trayne, used of a fox burrowing a hole, p. 267. In p. 236 avys seems to add the meaning of cons-ilium to that of cogitatio ; this is repeated in Gower. In p. 93 coiixrUlc stands for an assembly ; it was long before we spelt council differently from counsel. We see that part is encroaching on deal; here (exercitus) gave way altogether to hoste. The words of science (here spelt scyence} employed are many; in p. 234 we find no less than four ending in the Greek mancy, which reminds us of the frequent words with this termination naturalised nearly 300 years later. The word hostellere, p. 214, is applied to the landlord; in the next Century it was to be somewhat degraded. The French ending your (eur) is so much in favour, that ///////- your, not former (Creator), is written. The author explains streyt, p. 45, that is to seye narow ; in p. 266 he uses both this French word and the Teutonic streghte. The word estate means condition in p. 151 ; it means dignity in. p. 218; our quality partakes of these two meanings. Multiply be- comes intransitive in p. 158. The noun march is used in p. 171 of "a day's journey;" in p. 6 one country rnnrchfthe to another ; the Scotch would now say march with ; have a common boundary. The old mesel is now making way for lepre. In p. 130 we are told that there is good land, but 1 Ordnance was not applied to guns until the next Century. n.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 167 it is pure litille ; here pure is used as an Adverb, like the Teutonic dean. The vitaille of Manning now becomes rittti/lles, p. 130; we still keep the French sound of the first syllable, but we write it victuals in the Latin way. We hear, p. 131, that in the country to the East of Russia, every man has stewes in his house ; here the French estuve (the Dutch stove) has been followed. French and English words are united in surname, p. 112; and there is some- thing similar in for partie (fore part), p. 107. The verb entreat stands for tractare in p. 95, and keeps this sense in our Bible ; in our time we use it in the later sense of pre- cari. The foreign passing had been used in 1303 as a synonym for beyond ; this again appears in our author ; and he, moreover, employs this Participle both as an Ad- jective and an Adverb ; far tlie passynge love tliat he hadde, p. 89 ; men Jwlden him righte passynge old. By the year 1525 we had substituted exceeding for passing in all these senses. In p. 84 Julian is styled "a,renegate" (renegade) ; this has given birth to the strange form runagate in our Prayer Book. The delitable of Hampole becomes delect- able, p. 155. In p. 71 we hear of the Charnelle, where bones lie ; the form charnel came into English use before carnal. The author thinks that a strange French word in p. 67 needs explanation, tribe, tJuit is to seye, kynrede ; so in p. 199 lymons, that is a manere offruyt. The French form, not the Old or New Italian, is followed in writing Gene (Genoa), p. 54. The phrase in comparisoun to is substituted for the old preposition to, p. 219. In p. 45 we hear that one place is the distance of five monetlis journeycsfro another place. The new tent, here used, was soon to drive out the old teld. In p. 181 we learn that 60 minutes make a degree. In p. 168 reysynges seems to stand for the French raisins (grapes). In p. 14 the Emperour of Almayne is mentioned ; his true title was now and henceforward a puzzle to Englishmen. In p. 4 we hear of temporcl Lordes, and elsewhere of Marquyses. Our author uses merveyl as a Verb, p. 283. The word bill, well known in Parliament, appears in p. 172. We see here the words deflmir, ryzs (rice), multitude, corrour (courier), tablett, oriloge, tysseux 1 68 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. (tissues), supersoipcioun, eysement, cotoun, eguytee, vyaunde, apparayl, lax, congele, eleccioun, devide, climat, prenosticacioun, ambassedour, cylour (ceiling), centre, visibly, superficialtee, egalle, Antartyk, reconsyle, can-e, bordure, fmnkenceiis, graff, alum, oratories, censer, addiciouns, lamentacioun, Mbitacioun, goutf, Wlcan (volcano), attendance, apotecary, sophisticate, moysture, cyrcuit, finally, and the French word for mingere. Among the letters printed in the ' Records of the Priory of Coldingham ' (Surtees Society) we light upon what is, I think, the first letter written in English ; this is due to King Robert III. of Scotland suddenly dropping his usual correspondence in French on 22d April 1390; there are a few other English letters of the same date. 1 Our " he can do no less " is foreshadowed in we can nocht wytt qwat lie suld do lesse than mak hym obedience, p. 67. There is a coupling of pronouns and substantives in owr mile and ]>e mennys (hominum), p. 60, differing from the form in the ' Ancren Riwle.' We find among the verbs Jiave in remem- brance, putt (call) in questioun, to hold harmeles, God have yhoic in kepynge, make hym demaundes, the said John ; this last is an imitation of the French. The man, Orrmin's mun stand- ing for slwdl, now expresses oportet, p. 67, as it had done in Lancashire rather earlier. The Infinitive, preceded by at or to, follows Jiave, a verb that here means trahere, not possidere, as in 1160; we had (him) at spekyn wyth the bychop, p. 67. Anent bears its old sense of de in p. 60, but in the same page anente yhowe takes the further sense of quod ad te spectat. One of the oldest meanings of by is continued, be ony thynk that we can wyt (for aught we know), p. 67. Among the French words are the addresses, Reverent fadir in Crist, riclit hmorabylle fadyr in Crist ; our principale (the king). There is the French noun ferm (farm), used for a piece of land, p. 65 ; the Old English feorme had been long disused. The beautiful Lancashire poem, called ' The Pearl ' (Alliterative Poems, Early English Text Society), seems to date from about 1390; it has certainly a far greater 1 This letter should be reprinted by those who edit collections of English letters. ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 169 number of French words than are to be found in the poems of 1360, printed along with it. The old Adverb grovelinge loses its final e, and thus, seeming to be a Participle, led the way to a new verb 200 years later. The most remarkable change in spelling is that defyle supplants both the Teutonic fyle and the French defouler, a change that was not to become common until a century later ; we see unde- fylde, p. 22. The old trone makes way for the classic }>rone, p. 34, a remarkable proof of the new influence now at work. In the same page we read of a person's loke^ (looks), a new Plural phrase. The word knot gets a new sense ; a knot of women, p. 24. In p. 27 we see the lamb's name, hys fadere$ also ; here the noun name is not repeated after the second Genitive. The Adjective scharpe is applied to a shout in the same page ; hence our " sharp cry." We hear in p. 6 of a girl's fygwre fyn ; the adjective came into greater vogue throughout the next Century. Among the Verbs are bete her wings, lend to a thing (incline myself). There is the new phrase the sunne is doun, p. 17. We see the Scandinavian brunt (ictus) dot (gleba)/afe, rasch. Among the French words are pyony (peony), synglerty (singularity), query, signet. There is in respede of, p. 3 ; here meaning "in comparison with." We have the phrase Ipe mo Ipe myryer, used of heaven by a redeemed spirit, p. 26. To the same dialect belongs the Legend of St. Erken- wald, printed by Horstmann in his ' Altenglische Legenden,' p. 266. The former eggetol becomes eggit tole (edged tool), p. 267. A man is said to work street (recte), p. 272 ; a new sense of the Adjective, which was brought South by a man of the West Midland district 200 years later. Among the Verbs is hum, p. 272 ; also bete oute (abigere), bete doun, drop dede, sytte upon causes. The new Romance words are metropol (applied to London, p. 266), to embelice, in ponti- ficals, macer (mace -bearer), librarie, the providens (of God), a deputate, declyne (pervert), comaund peace (where an Infinitive is suppressed). In p. 272 limbo is used a curious leaning to the Latin Ablative case ; out of limbo, the place on the border of hell. The poem on the 'Constitutions of Masonry' in England 170 THE NEW ENGLISH. [OHAP. (printed by Mr. Halliwell) may date from 1390 or there- abouts. It seems to be a Salopian piece ; we see uclte (quisque), ellus (else), hennus (hence), resenabul (reasonable), huyre, hure (hire), kette (secare) ; there is both mechul and mekel. We see Myrc's word fell (sapiens) repeated. There is the Northern gate (via), and the East Midland nim (ire) ; the latter, not for the first time, travelled westward from Derby. The old eo becomes u ; we see duppe (profundus), and buffi; leofis altered into luf, p. 28, though it spoils the rime. There is the old Severn peculiarity which prefixes i or y to another vowel: $eke (etiam) stands in p. 23, and $ese (otium), in p. 17 ; there is yvery. The d replaces ]> in hepe and what wi}> croJce. There is a new use of VOL. I. N 178 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. before in iii. 335, where a ship sails to fore the wind. There is the Interjection away the tirany I i. 263 ; this first word is Frenchified into avoy, iii. 312; Lydgate's avaunt was to come later. The Scandinavian words first used by Gower are bask (the middle verb baka sik), bait (esca), doun (pluma), gasp. The words akin to the Dutch and German are riff" (reef of a sail), raile (paxillus) ; also the verb moor. There is the Celtic block and to pall. Among the many French words are memorial, courteour (courtier), regiment (imperium), usher (ostiarius), rosin, client, arrivaile, ungentilesse, to traunce (trounce), affiche, fixation, genius, misrule, epitaph, entaile (our intaglio), phisonomy, in effect, plover, mathematique, reptile, calme, morgage, stalon (stallion), she was professed as abbess, iii. 337. In iii. 340 culprits are atteint by the law ; but in this instance there seems to have been a fair trial first ; the technical use of attaint was to come sixty years later. The Teutonic be is set before a French root in the verb befole, i. 10, like Orrmin's bicache. The for is treated in the same way; a man is forjuged wrongly in iii. 192, like for fend. Gower uses feverous, where we have feverish. The verb fortune, (fieri), which we have already seen, is repeated here. A noun is formed from the verb await ; hate is ever upon await, L 311; we know our Scripture phrases lie in wait, and lay wait for. A man's body is awaited (tended) by his cooks, iii. 22 ; here there is the change of meaning already seen in Chaucer. We see the verb guard, with; here rixa encroaches on querela. In i. 134 the verb address all but gets the new meaning of vestire, and is used along with its sister array ; a lady's attire, is wel adressed in iii. 255. The word fairie is used for a personage and not for a realm, in ii. 371; this sense was never borne by the word in France. It is said to be honourable to a king, when all double his justice, iii. 189; the word has with us all but lost this sense, timere, which it bore in France down to Moliere's time. In iii. 200 estate shows its meaning of right of possession ; his estate of his regne. In iii. 271 comes the phrase he serves to tempt ; here the first verb means is on ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 179 duty. A storm scarses in iii 313; hence our make himself scarce. The modern form of magister is now extended to shipping ; we hear of the maister of a ship, iii. 335. There are also French naval terms, such as caban and porte, our port-holes; see i. 197. Spices are said to be restauratife, iii 30 ; a foreshadowing of our restaurants. The au is much used to give the broad sound of the French a, as de- cevaunt, atteiulaunt ; Gower is fond of the French Active Participle. He loves the latest Parisian ways ; for he has a dieu, hclas, bienfait, coulpable, Juil (July). There is a very French idiom, he was arrived to, in iii. 202. The Teutonic utterly appears as oultrely, iii. 230. An earthquake is called a terremote, a word of Grower's own coinage. The Greek pseudo turns up in ii. 190, for falsely ; as in Wickliffe. The Greek z comes well forward, as in enthronize ; our printers would now substitute s. It is a great change when graunt- dame, i. 90, replaces the Teutonic ealdmoder ; this last was to linger for fifty years longer ; the French was making in- roads even on the English hearth ; aunt had come a hun- dred years earlier. There is a change in counseil, for it may now mean a lawyer ; see iii. 155. The verb pass is em- ployed in a new English sense ; pass the night, i. 115. The transitive verb plie is used for fleeter 'e, i. 274. In i. 130 traitors are discovered out; hence our found out. The old cwite is revived after a long sleep, and is spelt in the right French fashion ; he wente quite away, ii. 23. The French pure is used for exclusively in iii. 38 ; of pure fear ; Chaucer had often used purely for omnino. It is said of a child, iii. 77, that masters entend to him ; an old French sense of the word ; the use of this verb and of attend was most unsettled for the next fourscore years. We see the new phrases double as moche as, iii. 103; and double more than, iii. 214. In the year 1393 we find an English will, made by John of Croxton of York, who styles himself chaundeler, the French ch now supplanting the old Latin hard c (' Testa- menta Eboracensia,' Surtees Society, i. 184). The old Elaine now becomes Elyn, our Ellen ; and Mold or Maid appears as Maulde, whence soon came Maud. English i8o THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. trade surnames are making way ; we hear of Johan Gold- smyth, with no the before the last word. There is another, Alison Smalbane, a proper name derived not from the trade, but from the body. We read of an Ankres and her mayden ; the last word was henceforward to be used for ancilla. We hear for the first time of a dede, in the sense of a legal document. Later on comes " if there be oght over ; " the last word, here an Adverb, is used for the first time as a synonym for remaining ; this we owe to the form overpl '">. Twice appears the phrase in Tease be that, etc. ; the first word seems to be confused with if. Among the new French words stands coverlet; there is also the onder clerk, formed like Layamon's underking. We read of a leg (legacy). There is another Will of 1395 ('Earliest Wills,' Early English Text Society), where we see parker, the man who looked after the park ; whence comes an English surname. The Eomance words are materas, baillif (to a landowner), divine service, age of discrecioun. The lady Avho makes the will talks of myn harneys in connexion with her chariot, p. 5 ; a new sense of the word. There is my secunde best bed, p. 5, reminding us of the Northern Barbour. In the Political Songs of the year 1395 (Master of the Rolls, vol. i.), we see ducke substituted for the old doke, p. 330 ; to soupe sorrow comes in p. 337. In another piece of 1399, in vol. i. 363, there is the phrase the bothom is ny ou$t (out, that is, fallen), a new use of the adverb. In p. 364 stands he is ronnon (run) away, a new construction. In the State Papers, printed by Rymer, we remark among those of 26th October 1398 that the Latin item stands at the head of paragraphs ; there is also the ad- verb particularly. In the paper of 28th October 1398 we find a surplus of goods, not overplus ; of purpose, where we now substitute on ; at the lattast (latest). In the paper of 6th November 1398 there are cndcnturs madz, where the Passive Participle imitates the French and becomes Plural; also purvait (provided) that, a preference of the French to the Latin. ii.] THE NE W ENGLISH. 1 8 1 In the paper of 25th July 1400 mention is made of thes pi-esentes, and of letters patentes. We may now cast a glance at Gregory's Chronicle for the years 1397, 1398 (Collection of a London Citizen, Camdeu Society). The one year 1398 occupies as much space as the previous twenty years ; hence we may perhaps con- jecture that the Chronicle of this time is the work of a con- temporary, copied out by Gregory himself some forty years later. We see them as well as hem for illos ; thei had forty years earlier replaced hi in London. We find Harry con- stantly used for Henry or Herry, referring to the future King Henry IV. The form indeu is preferred to endow ; we have also resydewe. The ending ful is now added to dout, and produces dowtfulle (awful), used of a King. The French words are proder (procurator), also written proctoure, blanke cJuirtours ; a Prevye Conselle is held by the Lords ; enjorne (adjourn), precede ayenste. The title youre royalle mageste is applied to Richard II. ; there is humbyll (humilis). We hear of Powlys Crosse, p. 98. In the Rolls of Parliament for the year 1397 we find Rickhill's report to the Crown, with the Duke of Glou- cester's confession, p. 378. Richard II. is spoken of as his heyyli Lwdescliipp ; there is the foreign word sedule (schedule). In the year 1399 Chief Justice Thirnyng, who deals much in Romance words, gives judgment upon certain traitors, p. 451. He must have been a Northern man, as he uses Jcyrk, mykel, ]>of (quamvis), ilkon, }>os same, tliat is atte (to) saye. There is the new combination any state whatsoevere ; the phrase opon whiclie is often used to begin sentences. The Past Participle Ablative Absolute (Lydgate was fond of it) was now beginning to come in fast; tho Jierd (illis auditis). The form bi/sydes (not the old biside) appears for the first time as a Preposition ; bysydes the Record. There are many French words, as appel, cancel ; simplych is used in our sense of the term. We hear of the liegli Court of the Parlemcnt ; also of the King and all the States in this present Parlement; this is the first hint of the Three Estates. There is the phrase he was nevere partie to it. We find another harangue of Thirnyng's in p. 424; he uses rewelers 182 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. for regulars, speaking of the clergy ; he talks of barones and banerettes, and then of a lower class, bachilers and comm<>i>.<. He uses the awful verb depose (it was rather new in Eng- lish) when addressing the unhappy Richard II. ; he has also Gower's it is of record ; the cession was agreed ; here we should add a to. In p. 423 we find Henry IV.'s well-known challenge of the English crown ; he says that the rewme was in poynt to be undone for undoyng of the gode lawes ; here undo bears both its old sense of solvere, and its new sense, first seen in the North, of perdere. So speedily did new words and meanings make their way to London. Many English vows of chastity are to be seen in ' Testa- menta Eboracensia,' iii. 316, and onward; in one of these, of the date 1398, the Archbishop of York is called worshep- ful fader in God. Hallam gives us, in his 'Literature of Europe,' i. 54, the first of English familiar letters ; it was written by Lady Pelham to her husband in 1399 ; she calls him "my dear Lord," and has " I recommend me to your high Lordship," a phrase which she repeats ; she speaks of the shires, mean- ing their inhabitants. Dr. Murray's Dictionary affords a few new words of this time, as in kenebowe, whence came akimbo ; the adverb ably, and the botanical name agnus castus, the forerunner of many such Latin terms. In September 1399 the author of 'Piers Ploughman,' a poet of nearly forty years' standing, wrote a lee/ o]>er tweyjie (as he says) against the fallen king, Richard II. Alliter- ative to the last, he called his new work Richard the Rcdeles ; much as an earlier English monarch had been branded as the un-red-y (inops consilii). In one line, so low had the king sunk, he is addressed with }>ou, not ye, p. 473. 1 The poet gives us our form b&rugh (borough) in p. 469, applying the word to Bristow, where he wrote these lines ; this is an advance on the buruh of 1170. He has both the forms axe and aske in p. 486. He uses the new word hob, p. 477, as it would seem, forjuvenis; hence our hobUedelwy. 1 This piece is printed along with Mr. Skeat's ' Piers Ploughman ' (Early English Text Society). ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 183 There is a pun in p. 479 ; Richard marked the breasts of his servants with hertis (cervi), his badge ; the servants oppressed and disgusted the common folk ; hence " For one ]>at 56 merkyd, 5& myssed ten schore Of homelich hertis (corda)." There is a further play on the verb merk, which means attingere as well as signare. We have already met with the Danish odd; it now stands for supra ; " faults fourscore and odde" p. 472. We had long used the adjective dul ; we now, in p. 490, light upon duttisslie ; this Chaucerian ish we still add in careless speech to old adjectives, like fairish, baddish. The homely no longer means familiar, but something that makes no pre- tension to elegance ; honest and simple as the dress worn by Wisdom in p. 493 ; so also in p. 479. Among the Verbs we find trouthe to telle, put in his power ; also the Passive idiom (they), were, behote (promised) hansell. Some Prepositions are used as Adverbs ; thus, in p. 474, mysscheff was up, like our "there is something up; " in p. 476 comes hervest is ynne. Prepositions are employed, somewhat on the old lines, in the quotation already given ; for one you hit, you missed ten ; here the idea of exchange comes in. The/row replaces for or by (per) ; ffrom ^oure willfull werJcis, ^oure will was chaungid ; hence comes the later from internal evidence, from what I hear, etc. We see in p. 487 the phrase sese on her sete ; the French saisir governs the Accusative, and the intruded on revives a very old English idiom, implying hostility. There are the Scandinavian verbs flush and strut (tumere), the former is like our blush ; fflussh for anger, p. 484. In the same page we read of poor men's puller ; this is the Swedish paltor (rags), whence comes paltry. Among the French words are deabolik and beu, the French beau. In p. 482 rasskayle is used of inferior deer ; in the next page it is applied to common people ; a baser meaning was to come later. In p. 492 stands the noun devyse, referring to fashion ; we now keep devise for wills, and write device for the first- named sense of the word. 1 84 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. The it had often been placed before Teutonic impersonal verbs ; this is now beginning to be prefixed to their French brethren, as in Chaucer ; it greved him stands in p. 471. We read of the renowned lawe of Lydfford in p. 49 1, some- thing like Jeddart justice ; a poet 200 years later wrote "I oft have heard of Lydford law ; How in the morn they hang and draw, And sit in judgment after." The Camden Society have printed a book under the title of 'Apology for the Lollards.' About the year 1400 a Latin book of Wickliffe's was done into English by a writer, who would seem to have been a Cheshire man. 1 He has certain peculiarities common to him and the Salopian author of the poem on Masonry; thus they both set w before o, as won, wold (vetus), and even the Romance wordeyn (ordain) ; they set 3 before e as $erle, $eke, $erd for herd (p. 59) ; there is Myrc's ask banns and need lore ; the new form een (oculi) is common to both ; also jwrx///.< (priests) ; there is the Salopian haply and shepherd (pastor), p. 67. But the dialect in this book is much more Northern than that of Salop ; we see / is (sum), nor, stern (stella), tan (captus) Ipof, aboun (super), anenst, farrer, kirke, reif (spoli- atio), J schal ordeyn, p. 1 2, where a promise is made ; tayste (taste) ; tuk (took), bind (blood). There is the Lancashire word dreamreader and the Salopian ivitntss (testari). As to the Vowels, the Latin o is written for the old French u in honor, p. 3 ; the American way of printing the word. The oi is sounded like the French e in de>/">/ ; in the ' Introduction,' p. xi., we see woois (our woes), showing how o and i, in a Teutonic word, as well as in Boice, were beginning to compound a new sound. There is polute in p. 53, and the more English sound polewt in p. 36 ; we see also presewme. As to the Consonants, de is clipped in true Northern style ; the debate of p. 26 becomes bat (bate) in p. 29 ; we now give to each form its special meaning. We also see the loss of n in dinging (ictus) ; at p. 5 this is written 1 I wonder that the editor has not remarked upon the evident fact that the work is a translation from the Latin. ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 185 diging; hence our dig in the ribs. On the other hand the old cwidan now becomes qiiekenen, p. 50. There is a love for Teutonic endings, as parisching for the old parislien (parishioner), pomes (poverty), and fersness. The Verbal Nouns abound, as his forbeding to worschip lum, p. 85 ; form of using of lawe, p. 15 ; }>e putting upon of hmds, p. 33 ; ]>i going for]) (proficiency), p. 33. In p. 22 Lincoln stands by itself, meaning the bishop of that see. We see the new phrase lawe yfar (lawgiver). There is a curious instance of the change of meaning in words (it had already appeared in the neighbouring Lancashire) in p. xv. ; wittes had been used as a Plural in the 'Ancren Riwle,' standing for the Five Senses; in 1360 this word in the Plural had begun to be used of the mind ; we now read that clerks know of five unites outward and other five wittes inward. In our day the wits of the mind have left no room for the wits (senses) of the body. Among the Adjectives we meet with some used as an ending; drunkunsum stands in p. 54 ; noisome was to arise at York about this time, and I have often heard liindersome in Scotland. In p. 25 stands ivil willid, showing how self- willed was formed later. We have unrestful formed from Wickliffe's unrcste (inquies). We see unsleJcdble used in p. 75. As in the 'Ayenbite,' there is a curious Comparative like compendiosar, p. 75. Among the Pronouns it may now refer backward to a long sentence; in p. 41 an offer is made to Christ in ten words ; he fled it. The such also, probably translating the Latin ita, has a backward reference in p. 25 ; to be cursid and lialdun swilk, p. 25. In p. 17 a man is not to reste hemsilf sikcr ; this Eeflexive Dative imitates Layamon's sit him still. The relative Which often stands as first word ; this came from the Latin, here, as in the 'Ayenbite,' it came from the French. The translators from the French, as a general rule, threw aside their pens, much about the time that the translators from the Latin set to work ; English has been steeped in foreign idioms, unknown to Orrmin and Layamon. Among the Verbs we see the phrases put questiouns, waxit 1 86 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. (grown up) folk, lime place, ^ef ^ere (give ear), Jiald togidre, do }>eft, tak occasioun, lay to hert, beg his liflod (living). The verb better had meant prcevalere in 1250; it is now used transitively, as we employ it, p. 19. In p. 24 men are blawun (maledicti) in Church ; perhaps this led to our blow up (vituperare). We saw in 1303 the Imperative, have done (finish) ; this is carried a step further in p. 20 ; have done cursing, where the last word is an Active Participle. The transitive verb wrong is formed from the noun in p. 64. We saw score (ratio) ; the verb formed from this, meaning imputare, is in p. 85. The Active Participle is here made a Superlative; bitandist (most biting), p. 105. We have seen Chaucer's use of considering ; we now find seing }>at man is not, etc., p. 21 ; this idiom, imitated from the French vu gue, etc., is much employed in the ' Chester Mysteries,' fifty years later ; this fact gives us a hint as to where the 'Lollard Apology' was translated. There is the phrase no wey (in no wise). Layamon's olper ]>ene now becomes o\>er wyse }>an, p. 47. The old Northern English negative, such as gesella olper no, is now altered ; beneficid or not is in p. 52 ; wan scho errilp and wan not, p. 99. In p. 100 stands we are not so sikir }>at ; where so takes Chaucer's new sense ; we still say, " I am not so sure of that." The however is now first prefixed to an Adjective, as how ever Mil. Among the Prepositions we find under }>e autorite, under ]>e peyn of. There is but and if at the beginning of a sentence, p. 49 ; a Western form long afterwards repeated in our Bibles (Matt. xxiv. 49). In p. 103 we read of a cmsciens iren brondit ; this verb brand is akin to a Dutch word. The Latin idioms abound, especially that of the Accus- ative and Infinitive ; so in p. 8 it is evident him not be }>e vicar ; it is don ]>at (fit ut), for price $evun, cruciar (cruciator) of ]>e same sentence (opinion), at God (apud Deum), urifyanJcful (ingratus), unnoble, unknaw (nescire), unevenly (inique), in- call (invoco), $eve peynis, at his instaunce. Sometimes there is a downright mistake, as ]>e oi'dinaunce of }>e good ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 187 memorie of Leoun (Leo of good memory), p. 39 ; wd y not be maad (nolite fieri), p. 97. We find minys (minish), effeduaM, it distingui}>, poynt of defy, absolute, scysm, potentat (not potestat), exort, assine, pompous, novys, representacioun, dcspens ivi}>, enduce, ruyn, chefty, stigma, degrade, augur, to calcule, aniversary, precell (excel), transcend, quyschin (cushion) to favor, solempni^e matrimoyn, explane, materialy. We see enpliz, p. 3 (employ), implye, p. 63, ympli^efyly, p. 17 (im- pliedly), impli^, p. 7 7 (implicate) ; this is a good example of the struggle in English between the Latin in and its French corruption en. In p. 4 stands the phrase contrarily directly. The word pite" is no longer here used, as by former English writers, for misericordia ; but it represents pietas ; impius is translated unpitous. We see our version of the French partager in p. 12, in part takyng of ; a most curious instance of the confusion between Teutonic and Eomance forms. A righteous man, following the Latin, becomes a just man, p. 13. There are compounds, such as doivble-tongid. Latin Plurals are Englished, such as prices, merits, marblis. To convict, p. 39, means simply to prove ; we have greatly altered the verb's meaning. In p. 50 we see conventiclis, a word fifty years later applied to Lollard meetings, and further on to those of other Dissenters ; in this passage it means meetings for plot- ting crime. In pp. 95 and 96 the different sorts of diviners are named, most of them ending in mancer, as geomanccr. When we see langering (languishing), p. 93, we understand how readily a lingering disease came in. In p. 52 we read of conduct (hired) prestis ; the two clergymen who perform service in Eton chapel are still called conducts. The form temporal supplants the timely of the ' Ayenbite,' p. 108. In p. 70 we have ratify, and also rate, the latter as a synonym for stable ; we now make it a substantive. The Church laws, in p. 75, are divided into incorporat and extravagant. The Latin provisiones are translated batails, p. 76 ; hence come the battels at our Universities. We have pagaynis formed at once from the Latin, no longer the French paens or paynim. In p. 100 the three different senses of the word religion are given 1 88 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. I. }>e trow]> ]>at rewlfy us to serve God. II. Ipe state procedyng of J>is. III. ]>e personis }>us enclinid. The Komance of Ipomydon, dating perhaps from 1400, is to be found in Weber, ii. 281. It was evidently com- piled not far to the South of Rutland ; we find nor, imf, and indede, all used by Manning ; also those, gainsay, lusk, till (ad), hers, wel farand. On the other hand, the Southern forms are traceable ; we find the lines, in p. 285 ' ' Kyngs and dukes comethe hyr to seke, And so done emperoures eke. " There are besides, moche, kusse, n'as, sith. Among the Adjectives we see mydille age, barc-handyd, sekir to wynne. As to Pronouns, we see be ye lie ? In p. 286 stands slie will non (no man) ; a terse idiom. Among the Verbs we find myne herte ys sette upon (it), pluck down, take his sete. There is the phrase undo my tente, p. 343 ; and also, undo (dissect) deer, p. 295. Among the Adverbs is found a shortened version of the upon lesse that of the Mandeville treatise; in p. 339 nisi is Englished by lesse than. The as, not so, was now representing one of the oldest functions of swa ; as thau arte kynde, . . . abyde! p. 322. In p. 55 not yit (pas en- core) forms a whole sentence by itself, in answer to a demand. In p. 330 stands the phrase loi'dis were plente. We have seen that Manning clipped French words, as stress for distress ; in p. 303 of the present piece we find sporte for desporte. There is quarter, applied to a year, p. 308 ; "my greyhondes raune not this quartere." The Spanish phrase en un tris is translated in p. 295 ; they plucked down deer all at a tryse (in a trice). The poem on the Nun (' Early English Lives of Saints,' Furnivall, 1862) may date from 1400 ; and may come from Lincolnshire, as we may guess by the appearance of the nouns myre and mud; there is the Northern iitoniyng (mane). There is the Reflexive me in / sportyd me, p. ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 189 139. We see the new noun selfe wylle ; also in trewthe, a new phrase, p. 143; few or none, p. 145. Among the verbs are make my sute (request), have in reverence. There is thanke yow, p. 142, with the / dropped. In p. 147 so hyt schulde seme is repeated. There is the adverb endlesly ; the out is placed before a noun, as, an owte chamber, p. 1 45. We see the Eomance adjective pore used in a compas- sionate sense, poi'e dame mekenes, p. 144. A well-known by-word is alluded to in p. 147 "A fayre garlond of yve grene Whyche hangeth at a taverne dore, Hyt ys a false token, as I wene, But yf there be wyne gode and sewer." The poem on the ' Hunting of the Hare ' (Weber, iii. 279) may date from about 1400; it seems to belong to Cheshire or thereabouts ; for we find won (unus), also twold, bivon (boun). We see new forms of proper names ; Regi- nald is seen as Raynall ; there is Gybon (Gilbert), Dykon, and Sander (Alexander). There is the new noun whele- barow. The verbs are put up (a hare), lett slyppe (dogs), a man bridles, after a blow, p. 288. The Interjections are the sporting so ho ! and hy, hy ! There is the Celtic lack (ferire), our lick, p. 285. There is the technical cours with greyhounds, p. 280 ; we hear of a village constable, p. 287. Some pieces in Hazlitt's ' Early Popular Poetry,' vol. i., seem to belong to 1400 ; they are Northern, as tylle enquere (to inquire), p. 156; awheynte (acquaint), p. 184; so in Scotland they write the proper name Cultoquhey and pro- nounce it Cultowhey. The noun mil and verb fret are used in Gower's sense. There is our word forthought (prudence for the future), p. 192; the old word foregone, standing for Providence, had died out. The ancient cries wasseile and drynkeJieil were still in use, see p. 189. The adjective mody seems to change from the sense of superbus to that of morosus, p. 185; it is coupled with envyous. The wife is exhorted to honour and wurcliipe her husband, p. 181, as in 'our Marriage service. She ought not to curse or blow her children, but whip them, p. 191. She should not be of many wordes, p. 183 ; and should be mare for worschipe than IQO THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. for pride, p. 186 ; here some word like ready is dropped; lago tells his dupe, "I am for you ;" "now for our sport!" We find the Danish gegelotte (loose woman) ; much used for the next 200 years. Among the new Romance words is the old abusive substantive file, written vyle, p. 188 ; there is the old Northern boner, soon to be driven out by debonaire. Among the proverbs are "Many handys make light werke," p. 188; also, "Leve childe lore behoveth," the latter dating from 1260. In the Third volume of Hazlitt's work is the old poem on the ' Smith and his Dame,' dating from about this time ; it is Northern, as we see by the verb smore (not smother}. We find our common that is a lye, p. 210; where that refers to a previous statement. There is the insertion of a noun in what man of craft so ever, p. 219. We have the new verb throtle, p. 211, formed from throat. The verb hold is employed in two senses; / holde tJiee dead, p. 216; and her legges wolde not holde (remain on), p. 217. There is the phrase to keep a man (maintain). There is the new phrase there away, p. 202, for thereabouts; in p. 209 come on is used where we should say come along. A man en- treats his wife, supposed to be dead, to say once, bo ! p. 216. The French words are excelent, thy mayster (thy superior in art), p. 207 (hence the Old Masters) ; the word beldame is used for mother-in-law, the French belle mere. There is the new phrase give thee a poynt, that is, an advan- tage, p. 219. The ' Hymns to the Virgin and Christ ' (Early English Text Society) seem to date from about 1 400, if we con- sider the large proportion of obsolete Teutonic. The old English bid or bio (lividus) is now confounded with the French bloie or bleu (cseruleus) ; in p. 13 stands for beefing was ]>i bodi blewe, a correct rime in this passage. Among the Substantives are candelis eende ; me is lefte but sJcyn a/id boon. In p. 53 we read of angels of priis ; and a little later of manye a price taken by Lucifer ; we now distin- guish between price and prize. The word harlot had hitherto been applied to men; in p. 64 it seems to be applied to ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 191 women, for harlotrie is opposed to dennesse ; the new sense was not well established until a Century later, when Tyndale wrote. In p. 71 young folk think that an old man goes in her weie (gets in their way) ; this is a new phrase. In p. 25 love makes men bo]>e big and bolde ; hence our " look big." Among the Verbs are make fool of him ; gates break up ; put aside things ; have it in stoore for them, p. 76 }>e cJwice lies ; fall away from. In p. 74 we have he doo]> him binde suget to me; hence "bind prentice." The Infinitive Active had long been used with for, de- noting purpose ; appropriateness is now denoted by for followed by to be ; course of kynde (nature) is for you]>e to be wilde, p. 60. Two prepositions had been coupled 400 years earlier, as in "from beyond Jordan;" we now see from an hi$e (on high), p. 45. Among the French words are pockets, which men wore long, p. 62. In p. 50 the accents of forfeit and guarel are thrown back to the first syllable. In p. 61 conscience is scornfully told to preche to \e post ; we still say, " I might as well speak to a post." In p. 79 we light upon oolde age, a curious combination of Teutonic and Romance ; either eld or age had been used before. In p. 1 14 we read of some- thing playnli printid in a booke ; this is a foretaste of the art soon to be invented. In p. 126 a woman has favour (beauty), the source of "well-favoured." In p. 61 we read that at twenty years old it was proper to goo to Oxenford vr lerne lawe ; this age is rather more advanced than accords with our generally received ideas, as to Mediseval studies. About the year 1400 John Arderne drew up a most plain-spoken account of the cures effected by him ; it is in 'Reliquiae Antiquse/i. 191. We here first light uponfiscli- manger ; the monger was now coming in as a suffix. In p. 55 stands rubarbe; in p. 257 a woman serves tlie devil to pay ; the verb here keeps its old sense of please ; this is perhaps the leading idea in our phrase, "here's the devil to pay !" (some mischief that will delight Satan). We have the poems that go by the name of 'Jack Upland' and his enemy 'Daw Topias,' dating from 1401 192 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. or soon after. These show us the Wickliffites and the Church party facing each other with deadly intent. The works are printed in vol. ii. of ' Political Poems ' (Master of the Rolls). England was now forgetting how her old words ought to be spelt, for undernim (reprehendere) appears as under- myn, p. 84. In Wydyfan we see the foreign ending tacked on to an English word, p. 92. Among the nouns there are cardmaker, hmising (furni- ture), gunner, and snek-drawer, p. 98 ; the last is used by Scott. There is the old wrench (dolus), p. 48 ; and the new wrynkel with the same meaning, p. 45 ; this is still in our mouths. The heretical disputant is hailed as Jacke boy, p. 62. There is the name TymotliA. We have still a phrase like the latter part of the following : / know not an A from the wynd mylne, ne a B from a, bole foot, p. 57. Among the adjectives we notice a fatte benefice, stunbj beggyng, and Wickliffe's blynde bitserde. Among the Verbs we find make more ado, where the last word, the Northern Infinitive at do, seems to be turned into a Noun. In p. 86 stands bere hem hevy, where we should now say, bear hard on them. Among Prepositions the for continues one of its old meanings in/0r this mater, p. 96 ; the forerunner of our for the matter of that ; the word had meant causa in France in the Twelfth Century. We see a word akin to the German in the phrase to sterch (starch) faces, p. 50. There are the Scandinavian Meris and tagges, applied to dress, p. 69. Among the French words are cuteller, forme (of a school), half a doseyne, to sette to ferme. The Church, Lords, and Commons are called the Astates, p. 54 ; not States, as two years earlier. English was now making rapid strides; in 1402 we come upon a letter written by the Prince of Wales to his father Henry IV. 1 He uses the Northern thaym (illos) and / trowe, though he has the Southern Participle do (done). 1 This is set out in Earle's ' Philology of the English Tongue,' p. 73. ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 193 Writing to the King he recommends himself to your good and (jradeux lordship ; and calls the King yowr hynesse, and Sir. The old stotye (valde) had now made way for another adverb ; we hear of right a tal meyny ; we now transpose the first two words. The King's great ship was named the Grace Dieu. The most startling change is that the old Plural o\>cre (alii) is turned into others ; the true old form is sometimes seen in our Bible ; we have never distorted the Plural some in the same way. In the above change we have a real specimen of King's English. Henry's language is far nearer our own than is that of Pecock, fifty years later. Many of the ' York Mysteries ' seem to have been written about the year 1400 ; I have already referred to the earlier ones at page 78 of this book. We here see some new words repeated that have appeared in Barbour and the ' Apology for the Lollards.' A change may be remarked in the sound of i or y, bringing it almost to the sound of French e ; betwyne is made to rime with dene, p. 9 ; chyned stands for chained, p. 279 ; Hampole's contreve (controuver) becomes contryve, p. 288 ; denay, p. 434, has not yet become our deny. There are the distinct forms payn and pyne, p. 329. The b is added ; Urn becomes lymb, p. 212. The h is clipped ; hosteler (inn-keeper) becomes ostler,}). 491 ; and the word is explained in a rather later hand as meaning inholder. The d is clipped in bum (vinctus), p. 262. which is a rime ; we see how easily bonne (paratus) and bound (vinctus) might become confounded. The 5 is some- times written for ]? in later copies of the manuscript ; hence we see how you came often to supplant thou, pp. 177, 458. The r is added, as Iwver for the old hove, p. 53 ; this verb is not yet applied to birds. The r is docked, as cluitt for chatter, p. 320. We see the French bewe Sirs, p. 291 ; this becomes bewshers, p. 254, a favourite Yorkshire form ; another instance of sh replacing s is the verbpussh (pousser); this is connected with the English verb posh, p. 481. Among the Substantives is the new fortheraunce, with its Komance ending, p. 221. Two forms for senectus appear, reminding us of the varying forms of the word in Old VOL. i. o 194 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. English ; Elizabeth could not in elde consayve a childe for aide, p. 99. The old cunde (natura) is coupled with another noun, a very late instance ; Christ takes mankynde (human nature), p. 175. There is the Vocative my man, addressed to an inferior, as in our days, p. 213. Pilate is greeted as your lordshipp, p. 324, a new title of honour ; there is also mi lorde ser Herowde, p. 128. The word wind takes the new sense of breathing power, Barbour's aynd ; a man after hard work says that me wantis wynde, p. 355. The Virgin is called the belle of all bewtes, p. 487 ; the first noun must come from the earlier phrase, to bear the bell (highest prize); this bell, about 1700, was perhaps confused with the feminine of beau. The Jews are not to be marked with ]>at messe (plague), p. 77 ; this rimes with encresse, and the later " get into a mess " may perhaps be derived from this form of the old misse (defectus, injuria). The Northern love of Verbal nouns is once more seen, when oure saffyncj stands for salus, p. 115. As to Adjectives, the old word rank was preserved in the North; see p. 220; hence our "a rank traitor." The old dcefte (conveniens) seems to take the meaning of sapiens in p. 4 ; Satan prides himself on being defte. We have seen Trevisa's unfitting ; the word Jit here takes the new meaning of congruus ; I am fygured full fytt, p. 3 ; our " fit as a fiddle " was to come much later. The adjective even is opposed to odd, p. 465, as in Gower. As to Pronouns, Pilate addresses his wife with the courteous ye, p. 272 ; this was not the usage among the lower orders. There is the emphatic the ilke selve and ]>e same, p. 296. The that is employed for the sake of em- phasis; my worthely wiffe, ]>at sche is/ p. 271. A lady is called ]>at faire one, p. 489 ; Shakespere was to be fond of this. The word clock is dropped, as in Chaucer, when reckoning time ; aftir tenne, p. 263. Among the new Verbs is saunter; the un is prefixed, as unmade ; ]>ou onhanged harlott, p. 313; there is the new to outcast, whence Coverdale was to form a Noun. There are the new phrases, go wode (mad), cast lead (at sea), take tent to, draw to ende, spille sporte, p. 265 ; play fair, be Jiarde stedde, hedge the law, p. 439. We have seen tliou may ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 195 rts well, etc., in the year 1300; in p. 48 stands }>ou were als goode come downe; and this idiom is repeated in p. 351 ; we now drop the be before as, and say, / as good as, etc. A pair are gone in eelde (age), p. 57 ; hence our far gone. The verb ken meant scire in the North, p. 1 1 6 ; in the South it nearly always expressed docei'e. Language is laid out, p. 230 ; we now confine this verb to money. We use I am afraid, when softening down some evil ; in p. 244 stands / am ferde $e mon faile. The verb balk becomes transitive, meaning to put a balk (trabs) in a man's way ; balke youre bidding, p. 255. The Participles sittand (decens) and iinsittand are found ; there was doubtless a confusion with fitting and unfitting. The words / idle you stand at the end of a sentence as an assurance, p. 288. The mean takes, not ah Infinitive, but an Accusative ; to mean malice, p. 290. The verbs dap and cJiop both meant ferire; they each took the further sense oiponere; choppe }>am in cheynes stands in p. 293, and dap was to bear the same sense a hundred years later. Herod wishes that his false God giffe you goode nyght, p. 294 ; the first instance, I think, of this greeting. The verb blow takes the new meaning spirare, p. 297. A person is rowted (knocked about), p. 325 ; this seems a confusion between lirutan and rouse ; hence comes our .rout up. The verb settle adds to its old meaning of taking a seat that of descend, p. 328 ; it is here used of a spear shaft ; our architects know too well what is meant by a settlement. The verb were had hitherto been a Weak Verb, with its Participle wered ; this is now turned into Korne, p. 331 ; a most unusual change, found afterwards in Wyntoun. There is the new Adverb dayly, p. 219, which is Northern; also the answer, wele ]>an (well then), p. 328. The so has a backward reference ; a man is told not to be taynted ; he answers, why shuld I be soo? p. 328. As to Prepositions, something is done under ]>er nese (nose), p. 463. A person is laid on lenthe, p. 370 ; here we now substitute at; the usual endelang was dying out. An old meaning of by (secundum) is expressed in / bide }>er-by (stand by my word), p. 362. There is the Interjection tussch/ p. 324, which 196 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. took a hundred years to reach London. Pilate, when pleased, cries howef howe! p. 272, much as Caliban was to cry ho! ho! when gloating over an evil deed. Herod begins a sentence with saie! p. 297; it seems here to stand for I say / The cry wassaille is used, p. 268, simply to make a noise. There is mvte alias ! and loo ! Sir, behalde, p. 82, the parent of lo and behold/ In p. 269 stands the devell have }>e worde he wolde tell its ! (devil a word) ; we saw before sorrow occupying the place of devil. There is the Scandinavian adverb skantely. Among the Romance words are pagiaunt (pageant), cat- terak (cataract), uncertain, unison, regent, mony-changer, certifi/, purloin, construe, to fashion, to noise, patter, transgression, indig- nacioun, recreacioun, reduce. Lucifer, when overthrown, cries owe ! dewes ! (deuce), p. 4 ; the first time, I think, that this cry has occurred for 120 years. There is commoner (fellow mother), p. 49, whence the Scotch cummer ; this is an early instance of co prefixed to a Teutonic word. In p. 129 dresse bears the meaning of vestire. In p. 197 rule is con- nected with common life ; we will be ruled aftir }n rede, like our " be ruled by me." In p. 222 stare takes the sense of merces ; merchants sell their store. Judas, in p. 225, is called the purser (purse-bearer) ; the word was to bear its naval sense a hundred years later. In p. 281 the chief rulers are called the States ; this Northern phrase recurs in Wyntoun. The verb tax gets the new sense of accusare, p. 316; and the verb clear seems to mean absolvere,p. 332. The verb save, as in Chaucer, means " pay careful attention to;" in p. 360 it is used of the Jewish Sabbath. In p. 131 the French stable (stabilis) has ousted the Old English sta]>eL In p. 201 a village still appears under its very old Biblical name castell. The verb warrant is used without an Infinitive ; / warande hym wakande (that he is waking), p. 268. The some was a favourite ending for Adjectives in the North; newsome (noisome) stands in p. 277, and this ousted the Southern noyous. There is the new verb taint, from linger e, p. 328. The word principall is used as a Substantive, p. 378, as in the Scotch letter of 1390; it was later to be connected with a college. Reference is ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 197 made to the devyll and his dame, p. 300. Herod and Pilate use many French words, such as bene-venew ; there is the Vocative mounseniour, p. 293 ; also my seniour, p. 273. The cry oyas ! for silence is made by the beadle, p. 285 ; The aged Simeon is called a senyour, p. 435. These later 'Mysteries' are distinguished from those of 1360 by the use of the new adverb doutles ; moreover, the stanza here is more easy and flowing than in the earlier plays ; it abounds in good rimes, see pp. 229, 232, 263; I give a specimen of the new Anapaestic style now coming in : ' ' Now wiglitly late wende on our wayes, Late us trusse us, no tyme is to tarie. My lorde, will 3 e listen our layes ? Here this boy is, Je bade us go bary " (p. 334). Many of the trades, to whom these pageants are due, appear for the first time in the list given at p. xix. ; we here see the plasterers, cardemakers, armourers, irenmangers, tumours, payntours. Some trades, which bore French names about 1400, were rather later Teutonized; thus the gaunter s, pessoners, orfevers, sellers, and verrours, were to become the glovers, fysslimongers, gold-leters, sadellers, and glasiers ; this is a change contrary to the usual run of English custom. A character new to our stage appears in Dame Percula (Procula), Pilate's wife, p. 271. Her airs and graces, and Pilate's doting love for his charming spouse, are most amusing ; it is curious to remark the wide interval that separates this early sketch from Lady Teazle. The ' Towneley Mysteries ' (Camden Society) were com- piled in Yorkshire, probably at Woodkirk, near Wakefield ; some of them are but slightly altered from the ' York Mysteries.' The work may belong to the date at which we have arrived ; the fashionable lady of the age is described as " horny d like a kowe," p. 312 ; and this usage came to England not long before the year 1400; it must have taken a little time to find its way down to Yorkshire. There is an attempt to engraft the Southern English upon this Yorkshire piece; in pp. 124 and 141 there is evidently an alteration of a into o in the rimes ; we also sometimes find mych, sick, ich a. There is Ufing as well as 198 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. liffand. We find strong Northern forms and words like at do, hand tame, wage (merces), travel, scalp, scald, I spyt (I spat), lad, not lot; and Wickliffe's expletive I gess, p. 194. The old steven (pactum) is found here, and has lasted in Yorkshire till our own day, though it vanished from the South after 1400. The first hint of English hexameters is found in p. 233 "Nomine vulgari Pownce Pilat, that may ye welle say, Qui beiie vultfari slmld calle me fownder of alle lay." We may remark here that the last vowels in welle and alle were not sounded in the North. The counterpart to the well-known Italian saw, chi va piano va lontano, is found in p. 195 " Alle soft may men go far." Herod refers to the Pope ; and Cleophas when welcoming our Lord to his board, swears " bi Sant Gyle." In p. 88 we hear of the fools of Gotham; in p. 25 a man is to be clad in Stafford blue. The whole piece is a good com- mentary on the idioms found a hundred years earlier in the ' Cursor Mundi.' As to Vowels, the a replaces e in marvel, tar, hart, share (partiri) ; since 1400 we have made a useful distinction between share (partiri) and shear (tondere) ; the Old English scer-an had expressed both meanings. We see Janet as well as the usual Joan. The a is clipped in the usual Northern way; in p. 123 stands semled for assembled. The yea or ie takes another form in p. 11 4, ay so ? this form had appeared in Gloucestershire in 1300. There is much contracting of vowels ; executors are cut down to sectures in p. 326, and in p. 308 we have stand to fence (defence). The o replaces what was sounded like the old u ; we see flo (fluere), and windo ; there is also felo for felawe. There is blynfold for the old llindfellede, p. 200 ; h'ere the verb fold must have supplied a mistaken analogy. The oy, pro- nounced like the old u, comes often, as sJioycs, I day, nay (mine); YoyUe (Yule) ; moyte, p. 179, is pronounced much as we sound "a moot point;" ploy, p. 9, is the Scotch pleugh ; on the other hand, the sound of u replaces that of ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 199 in bowled, p. 194, our booted. The verb indew stands in p. 194; we have both this and endow, proving how that truly Old English sound eu will make itself heard, even in foreign words like vertew, p. 46 ; the old Yorkshire unto becomes untew, p. 33. In Consonants there is the same Northern love of con- traction ; thus benedicite is pared down to benste, p. 99. The d replaces v, for the diveren (tremere) of 1200 now becomes dedir, our dither, p. 28. The th is thrown out in dose (vestes), p. 46. The k is thrown out in ast (rogavi), p. 200. The old form twyc (tweak) is seen in p. 220, differing from the Southern tiiMcli ; both forms alike were found in Norfolk in 1440. The g is softened when the French Gaspar becomes Jaspar, p. 123; and sawgeoure (miles), something like our sodger, is seen in p. 310. The form waivghes (fluctus), however, remains in p. 31. The n is clipped at the end of a word, for hautain becomes hawty, p. 319; and damned becomes damyd, p. 211. There is the curious Northern habit of sounding Jew like hw ; we see whake in p. 169, and whaynt in p. 175. Letters are trans- posed, as in the ' Cursor Mundi ;' drit becomes durt, p. 194 ; and thirl is seen as thrylle, p. 209. Among the Substantives may be remarked a favourite synonym for man and woman ; Sir, for Jak nor for Gille wille I turne my face, p. 28. Mowlle, our Molly, appears in p. 88. It is curious that an n is often prefixed to shortened names in English, as Ned, Nan, and Noll, for Edward, Anne, and Oliver; we see Nelle in p. 313. The Southern Herry becomes Harry in the North, p. 319. The Verbal Nouns still increase in Yorkshire; in p. 10 stands God gifys the alle thi lifyng ; in the South liflode would have been used for the last word. In the same page we find my wynnyngs. In p. 220 comes the phrase slegthe (sleight) of hande. The word monger was freely attached to other words, as quest manger ; " crochet monger " is our last coinage of this sort, 1 think, a word most appropriate to our age. A horse is called Don and Donning from its dun colour, 1 pp. 1 8 and 8 ; and in the latter page an ox is called Greyn horne, a phrase 1 This reminds us of Caxton's two forms, Bruin and Browning. 200 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. still in use, though applied to men. We see ram-skyt, p. 25, applied to a woman skittish as a ram. In p. 47 our property appears as oure thynges; cattle are here referred to ; something like this had appeared in Barbour. In p. 124 we read that a star is to overcome kasar and kyng, a very old phrase. The Sir is prefixed to other Nouns, even to Plurals; in p. 127 stands Sir Kynges thre. Our many thanks, used without any Verb following, appears in p. 128 as mekylle thank. There is a favourite phrase in the North, I am wo for tlw ! p. 136. The distinction between the English words for eras and mane was not fully established in the North; in p. 172 to-morne is opposed to to-day. Caiaphas, when in a rage, says, " / am oute of my gate;" I have heard a later version of this in the North, " I am put off my beat." The new Noun toylle (toil) is used for labor in p. 213, coming from tilian, tulien. The first hint of our "up to the mark" is seen in p. 219 ; get it to the marke ; to in the ' Cursor Mundi ' had expressed the old o}i\>e (usque ad). In the next page a request is made for something to be done, whils thi hande is in. In p. 323 we hear of a sorowful bande (turma), a new sense of the Substantive, borrowed from the French ; in the next page band keeps its old sense of vinculum. The word mompyns is used in p. 89 for "what we have begged;" Lord Macaulay in his History used mump for leg. The old wcerloga had been the term for a fiend in the ' Cursor Mundi,' and this sense is still seen in p. 116 of the present work; but in p. 60 Moses is called by Pharaoh a warlmv with his wand, follow- ing the new Lancashire sense of the word ; hence arose warlock. Fee still keeps its three meanings, which it had borne from the earliest times ; in p. 28 it stands for pro- perty, catalle and fe ; in p. 56 it stands for the kindred Latin word peciis ; in p. 192 it stands tor prcemhnn. There are new substantives like belle weder, kynswoman, cokker (cockfighter), paddok (toad). A French ending is tacked on to an English root, as wrightry (carpenter's trade), p. 26. On the other hand, dom and ness are fastened to the French caitif. We see the Scotch form carline ; the land lepar of Piers Ploughman (Scott's land louper) is repeated ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 201 in p. 144. Pilate begins his address to the Jews with "Boys, I say!" p. 229. In p. 105 no dred is inserted in a sentence like our "no fear of that." Among the Adjectives we find tiny, spruce (the material of a coffer, Prussian wood). The old expletive leof turns up in p. 143 ; nay leyfe, a very late instance. Fair was now adding the meaning of cequus to that ofpulcher; trete hym with farenes, p. 195. Strong shows its bad side, as strung tratoure and thefe/ p. 149; this throws light upon a passage in Chaucer. 1 The sad has now fully acquired the sense of tristis, at least in the North ; an enemy is to be sett botJie sad and sore, p. 249. The word high, when prefixed to time, gets a new sense; it were right hie tyme, p. 36. The phrase by my good grace is found in p. 234. The Plural Adjective may stand without a substantive ; St. Peter, in p. 281, addresses his fellows as my lefe deres. In p. 218 comes be ye secure (siker) we were lothe ; we should now say, we were lothe, you may lie sure. Among the Pronouns the distinction between the thou and the ye is well preserved; when Christ is tormented before His death, three of the Jews address Him with thou as an inferior ; the fourth, more spiteful, hails Him as a King, and employs the respectful Sir and ye, p. 218. In p. 163 Mary talks to Joseph of youre son and myne. In p. 211 we find yond same cyte (that same). We see twyse as fast, p. 62. In p. 283 we have the Relative, I what was wont, etc. Besides this, the what is used like the French quoi in asking for information ; what, son? p. 39. The what (que} is used in the old sense found in the 'Cursor Mundi' 100 years earlier ; what these weders are cold ! As to Verbs, the must is found much as we use it ; the Scandinavian auxiliary won appears in p. 97 ; it here still bears a future sense. The strange form we must have biggid stands in p. 309. In p. 54 stands to kepe fro syn ; here no Accusative follows the verb, as would have been the case earlier. To dry becomes intransitive in p. 130. In p. 192 1 When January finds himself tricked by May he calls her, "0 stronge lady store !" In the Gospels of 1000 Barabbas is called cenne strangnc Ifeofman, Mat. xxvii. 16 ; so "a sturdy beggar." 202 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. the meaning of occupare is seen in the verb take ; a certain building toke more aray (work) ; to take rest is in p. 45. In p. 194 we hear of broken words. We see in p. 201 that was welle gone to (done) ; Orrmin's go to is well known. The confusion between those very different old verbs, me }>ynca}> and / ]>enc, is seen in p. 232 ; do what thou thynk gud ; there is also / thryst (sitio), p. 228 ; I lyst, p. 245 ; here the rightful Dative makes way for the Nominative. We saw burst on laughter in the year 1303 ; the idiom is now carried a step further in p. 328, sche braste owt on weping ; we now drop the Preposition, and thus we seem to turn the Verbal Noun into an Active Participle ; fall a iveeping lasted almost down to our own Century. We light upon phrases like eat out of house and of harbar, p. 104 ; make shift, p. 105 ; it fell to my lot ; my foot slepys (is asleep) ; how the game goes ; the clok stroke twelf, p. 115; to do that is in me; know him by sight ; I held my ground ; they Jiave no fete to stande (not a leg to stand on), p. 310 ; we have a craw to pulle, p. 1 5 ; take thee tJuit (twice over), p. 17; set no store bi me, p. 22 ; if ye like ; pak up / let them go hang them, p. 142 ; now how is it? somwhat is in hand ; / shall make you men ; well done ! what commys of dysing ? (dicing), p. 243 ; it goys a^ans myn hart ; I kepe this in store ; fon him (make fun of him), p. 199 ; make or mar a man; keep the Sabbath; hangyd be lie that sparis ! p. 188; Jwld thi hand; booted and spitrrd ; strike a bargain; to come out with it, p. 194; how it stand a with you; lead him a dance, p. 205; 05 trew as ye stand there, p. 281 ; hold still there/ give place; cry and crow, p. 234. A man pipes (sets up his pipe), p. 103 ; a woman is netyld (nettled), p. 309 ; there is forrammed (pressus), whence came our verb ram; to deffe (deafen), p. 314; to gad, p. 11, perhaps from the old gcedeling ; to brane him, p. 142 ; / widder away, p. 21 ; the aged Symeon cralls to kyrk, p. 155, the creul of the ' Cursor Mundi ' being slightly changed; to overset me, p. 197; to sownd the water, p. 31 ; there had been an Old English sundgyrd (sounding line) ; the expletive / tryst stands in p. 195. There is a strange phrase in tJie wenyande, p. 241 ; in the unlucky time when the moon wanes ; hence the curse, " with a wanion." We TI.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 203 see how do they? (like our how d'ye do?), p. 63, where don (facere) supplants dugan (valere). The verb fare is used in p. 276 both for ire and tradari. To eke (add to) his days stands in p. 324 ; we cannot now use this verb with- out adding out. The old wissian (ducere) was evidently dropping out ; it is written wishe in p. 121. He wotes (scit) stands in p. 168, a great corruption of the old verb ; just as some write he dares for he dare. In p. 126 comes the blessing, Mahowne the save and see ! the two verbs are often coupled in our old ballads. There is a Latin con- struction in p. 158, a madyn to here a chyld, that were ferly (a wonder). In p. 129 comes this is sothe, wytnes Isay ; before the last word should stand something answering to the Latin sit. Among the Adverbs we find he gaf me none, no more will I, p. 11 ; no more (by itself), p. 149 ; so have ye lang sayde, p. 1 5 1 (here sin or ago is dropped after long) ; as how ? p. 197 ; that is welle ; Iwylle lyg downe stright (applied to time, hence straightway), p. 110; up with the tymbre! p. 221. In p. 267 stands thefyshly instead of the old ]>eqfliche. In p. 174 stands wille he be there? (is that his intent?); we now say, " a man is not all there " (is not fully master of his wits). We see the new form lately, p. 102, which answers to sew ; not to nuper, as we now use it. As to the sentence a pratty child, as sittes, we should now alter it into as pretty a child as, etc. Among the Prepositions we remark the curse, in the middle of a sentence, with a mischance to him, in pp. 199 and 223. The at is dropped before this tyme of the nyght, p. 106. The for (malgr6) is prefixed to a whole sentence in p. 21 8, for as modee (proud) as he can lake ; here the accusative after a preposition is replaced by a whole sentence. The old through makes way for by menys of, p. 82. In p. 200 comes ye are ever in oone taylle, a phrase of Dogberry's long afterwards. In p. 121 stands on assay, our on trial ; here the on shows that some consequence is to follow. In p. 296 stands / lefe it you by oone and oone (in- dividually). The that is dropped after a preposition in agane tlwu go, p. 326. The old prefix for still held its 204 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. ground in the North, and might be set before Romance words ; in p. 98 stands the Participle fortaxed. The Interjections are ho! p. 61 ; lo, which comes into our yo ho, p. 9 ; puf (pooh), p. 1 4 ; also, in the devillys name, in the same page ; go to the deville /p. 10; Herod, when told in p. 126 that Christ is to be king, cries " Kyng ! the dewille / " A new idiom connected with oaths appears; one of his soldiers (p. 150) cries, the devylle hare my saulle, but, etc. ; the but here must stand for quin after a sentence like non est dubium. We find out apon the ! p. 17 ; lew, lew, the call to animals, p. 33, which we now pro- nounce like the French lou, lou ! There is also mom (mum), p. 194. The so is used as an exclamation in the last line of p. 220; ay, so? is in p. 114. There are the forms of greeting, good morne and good day, without any verb. The Scandinavian words are stag (p. 311), groin, fry (semen), stump, dog, rok (colus), to nip, chappyd (fingers). The new words akin to Dutch and German are nibble, croon, prankyd (gowns), p. 312, stouke (of corn), much used in Scotland now. There are the Celtic words docket, jagged. The French words are many. Catalle is used for pecus, as in Barbour; and this exclusive sense of the Avord was to come South by 1525. Estate stands for condition in p. 317 ; in p. 104 a man says that his belly is out of astute. In p. 103 a person is said to pipe poore ; the latter word is sliding into the sense of malm, our pooiiy. The word creature had a loftier sense in 1400 than now ; for St. Peter speaks of his master as that good creature. In p. 11 travelle is used for labor, not for Her. The provand (provender) of horses is mentioned in p. 9. We know the term offices in connexion with a house ; there were in the Ark (p. 23) not only parlours, but houses of offyce for beasts. In p. 65 we read attend my wordys ; this sense comes from the Latin rather than from the French. The old ivait, which had meant expectare, seems now to get Chaucer's new sense of servire in p. 194, where Caiaphas has knights on me to wate. Our three substantives " waits," " waiters on Provi- dence," and " waiters at dinnei'," preserve the three mean- ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 205 ings which this French verb bore in England about 1400. Lay and law are both used in p. 189 ; ye be ataynt (caught) is in the next page ; and in p. 1 9 1 stands apeche him ; we know that some of our modern writers on History find it hard to distinguish between an attainder and an impeachment. In p. 195 stands vex, which now in the South means little more than annoy ; in Scotland I have heard the term vexed used to describe the feelings of a mother who had just lost her son; we know the phrase "vex the Midianites." In p. 203 we find that a judge "shews a man fair counte- nance ;" hence arose our verb countenance. The indefinite it was used in Yorkshire as elsewhere ; a promise is made in p. 210, followed by the words, / insure it; in p. 230 stands / wartmd you that, etc. The Yorkshire writer pays more regard to his provincial garth than to the foreign garden when he writes of a garthynere, p. 267. The foreign cease is here plainly driving out the English verbs Uyn and stint; there is moreover uncessantly, p. 23. In p. 243 we find by his meanes, a word that was coming in. We see the verbs pant, mock, spite, martyr, pouch. There are the musical terms icell toned, treble, brefe, crochett; in p. 118 we hear of the game of the t-enys (tennis). There are phrases like 7am in dett to, p. 73; / am passed play, p. 75, which reminds us of the ' Cursor Mundi ;' furrys (furs) fine come in p. 163. In p. 198 one judge tells another, ye ar irregu- lere. We find novels new, p. 160 (this seems tautology) ; to peep. I may remark, as curious, Cain's curses and revilings, pp. 8-17, and the comic talk of the Shepherds, p. 84, one of the first long instances known of broad English farce. If we read p. 142 we shall gain some idea of the origin of the phrase "outheroding Herod;" it is King Cambyses' vein with a vengeance. Translations from French Romances had prevailed in England from 1280 to 1380; these are now replaced by English Mysteries and ballads. About this time, 1 400, the earliest of the Robin Hood ballads, that has come down to us, seems to have been compiled ; country bards were to go" to work upon this long-lived theme for the 206 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. next 300 years; much as King Alfred's saws had re- mained engraven for ages upon the hearts of earlier genera- tions. 1 The ballad literature of England is one of her greatest treasures. The oldest of these works, judging from the obsolete words, is that of Robin Hood and Guy of Gisborne. This was made in the North country; we find words like busk, boun, farli (minis), fettle, gate (via), and the phrase set store by, used in the ' Towneley Mysteries.' The ballad seems to have been altered about the year 1600; this accounts for forms like I'le, I'm, itt's, reachles on (reckless of), tow (twa) ; perhaps the two former stand for the Northern / is ; I suspect that awkward, applied to a stroke, stands for an original awke (sinister). Some words here found could hardly have been due to the old Maker of 1400, such as pastime, wor'e (induit), stopp (stare); the earliest Southern copy may have been made about 1500. The old linde (tilia) is changed into lyne, riming with thine; hence comes our lime. We see prick used in the Shakesperian sense of meta, as later in the ' Promptorium Parvulorum.' There is a favourite phrase of ballad-makers, two howres of a summer's day. Among the Verbs we find breake heads ; and Barbour's draw near. The verb nick is used, evidently connected with notch; he nicked him in the face. Robin, it is said, when fighting, came with an awkward stroke ; hence our " come in with something." The old letter by far is now altered into far better, as in Barbour. I give a specimen of the fine old ballad, from a part that has been but little altered " Fast Robin hee hyed him to Little John, He thought to loose him blive. The sherift'e and all his companye Fast after him can drive. ' ' Stand abacke, stand abacke, sayd Robin ; Why draw you mee so neere ? It was never the use in our couutrye, One's shrift another shold heere." I may here remark that the Genitive one's is most un- common. 1 I have used the reprint of Ritson, published in 1823. ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 207 The ' Kolls of Parliament' for 1402 give us the names of many of our trades for the first time, vol. iii. 519; such as grocer, skinner, lyndraper, sadler, wodmonger, salter, peuterer, founder, cordwaner. It will be remarked that many of these are of Romance birth. In the year 1411 we have a decision of the Archbishop of Canterbury, p. 650. He mentions the Castle of Sever (Belvoir), the seat of Lord the Roos ; the old lew (beau) was now encroached upon by be, and this degradation of cw went on throughout the Century. We light on the new phrase after the Jest last passed. A comun man is distin- guished from a high official ; there is the Adjective sinister. In the 'Testamenta Eboracensia,' iii. 25 (Surtees Society), we find the will of Sir William Heron drawn up in 1404; he calls Durham The Bysshoprick, a phrase long to last in the North ; no other English episcopal see ever stood on Durham's level. We find surveour ; also joyntly or severally. In vol. iv. 42 we read of a window of three lightes, a new technical phrase. Chaucer's sense of in reappears, when men are bound in XL pound. In other Wills of this time (Early English Text Society) we see overseer, one who looks after the execution of the will, p. 1 1 ; also pipe, of wine ; the word worsted is now becoming common, p. 19. We hear of a bras pot, p. 22 ; not brasen. We know our polite phrase for death, " if anything should happen;" this appears in p. 13; yef outgh (ought) come to Thomas, than, etc. The most startling change is in a will of 1411, p. 19; (a sum) ys owynge to me. Here an in is dropped before the Verbal noun ; which, therefore, most deceptively, seems to be an Active Participle. I have no doubt that Butler, when affirming that Reformation must still be doing, never done, thought that this doing was a Participle. All this comes from Layamon's unlucky sub- stitution of inge for inde in the Active Participle. In the Will there is the word kylderkyn, p. 17, from the Dutch kindeken. Among the Romance words are }>e utensyl (furni- ture) of a house, p. 1 8, remaynder, the companye of heaven, p. 16. The word clerk in 1402 approaches to our common sense of the word ; for in p. 11 the parish priest gets ten 208 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. shillings, while the clerk of the Church and the sexton get only twelve pence each. In p. 18 a Berkshire knight talks of his store and catall quick and dead ; here the word may bear Barbour's sense. In p. 20 there are the forms, English and French, leful and lawful ; we have also the pleonasm ]>e Counte (county) of Devonschire. On examining ' Gregory's Chronicle,' between the years 1400 and 1413, we see IFyndesore contracted into Wyi p. 107. We hear of the game of hurlynge, p. 106, and of Troi/e weight, p. 107. There is a remarkable new idiom in the year 1403; brother and cousin are said to be ayenste edie othyr ; this looks as if eche, instead of being a Nominative, was an Accusative governed by the Pre- position ; before this time eche would have preceded ayenste. We saw something like this in Lancashire in 1360. The there had always stood before is or was ; the usage is now extended; for in p. 106 stands thm '.>;/< imbassetours. In Ryiner we see this endenture witnesseth, and no soiinere, 19th June 1408. In 'Ellis's Letters' (Second Series, vol. L) we find unruely, p. 4 ; to bogil us (delay), p. 15 ; hence our intransi- tive boggle ; his wey was clere, p. 22. There is a poem of Occleve's, dating from 1402, to be found in 'Arber's English Garner,' iv. 54. We here see Gower's form conceipt. The old blaber is cut down to blab. There is the new noun crabbedness, formed from the Adjec- tive. The word silly takes once more Tre visa's new mean- ing of stultus, p. 57 ; a, silly simple woman ; clerks, who hold a wrong opinion, are called silly in p. 64. Among the verbs are blow upon (slander). There is the Scandi- navian word slut, applied to a woman. Among the Romance words are changeable, amiable, dissimflc : doir is now changed into endow ; we have seen ///'. it: In p. 67 we find her impression (intent) ; we know the sense of empress^. Some in our Century have objected to the word talented; but in p. 66 we see entalented (willing) applied to courage. A more famous poem of Occleve's, ' De Regimine Prin- ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 209 cipum' (Roxburgh Club), dates from 1412. He here tells us much about his trials in the office of the Privy Seal ; he uses many phrases seldom repeated before Barclay's time, a hundred years later, such as, every man living, well worthy, nothing at all, small reate]> became }>retne}> in 1300. The English pieces in Rymer for this period begin with the confession of the high-born traitors, Cambridge and York, in August 1415 ; we see that, theyre, theym, employed for the Southern thUk, her, hem, though it was not till later in the Century that these Northern forms wholly got the mastery over their Southern rivals ; King Henry V. comes before us, and we may now fairly begin to talk of King's English. He writes an English State paper with his own 1 Marriott, ' English Miracle Plays,' xviii. ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 213 hand on 25th January 1417; he cleaves to ne (nee) and uses hem ought, thinking no doubt that the last word should English oyiwtet. In a document of 2d February we read of the Duke of Beyer (Bavaria), where the German sound of the word is preferred to the French. A long State paper was drawn up by Henry V. on 26th October 1418, when he was besieging Rouen ; here there are as many Romance nouns, verbs, and adverbs as there are Teutonic words of this kind ; our State papers henceforth were always to be com- piled in this style. There is a curious interchange be- tween of and on in the mater is so great of itself. We hear of weyes and meanes, and personell socours of the King ; this word personal and also its adverb is in our day made to do duty, as a fine word, for ipse and suus. 1 In 1420 Henry is addressed by his trusty Yorkshire deputy, Waterton, as most dredde Lord; a new variation of dreadful. On 22d May in that year, the conquering King announces his new style (titles) in Latin, French, and English ; he uses the French form espiritual. Rymer prints many English documents between the years 1420 and 1422. It is curious to find the Earl of Salisbury using the old word aghwere (ubique), which seldom appeared afterwards : this is in a letter of 1421. The form Boeme is used, not the Beeme of later days. Henry V. is addressed as Your lordschip. Salisbury says in a despatch that we misse no man of thrift (worth, value); "by my thrift " was an oath of these times. We talk of a lump sum ; in these papers we find a some in grete. There are the new phrases, oon and the same persone, all and ycli of us. The Passive Participle Absolute was making great strides ; we have here thirty days accounted for a month, where we should say, counting thirty days, etc. Ambassadors are directed to fall ynne to ask something ; this means, I sup- pose, that they are to do it incidentally. There is the Adverb lovingly. We see atte ferthest. The old idiom "hold him for king" gives birth to the strange phrase, 1 It has come most absurdly to be used for private. Mr. Gladstone wrote in the papers in 1878 about his making a personal and not a public visit to Ireland. Would he use impersonal for public ? 214 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. used of the future Charles VII., beryng hymself for the Dolphin ; like our giving himself out for. The French con- cerning is used as a Preposition for the first time, I think ; thynges wncernyng th' exercice, p. 918; this was to supplant the older touching. Among the French words we see immediately, enemity, conversant, zeel, commissioners. Mention is made of brigaundes that is, French foot-soldiers. The new Queen is called Madam Katherine, the first instance, I think, of this title being prefixed to a name ; our peasants still use it as a title of honour, as, Madam Aubrey. The Beyer of other state papers is now written Bauveir, in the French way. In p. 162 we see both the new Christien and the old Cristen. Waterton, a true Yorkshireman, uses the noun wage, not the Southern icages ; at your wage. The word ,<'///< x (crowns, the coin) is formed from the Latin, not from the French. The Romance and Teutonic are coupled in necessaire and behoveful. We see besaiel used for great-grandfather ; English pedigrees must have been drawn up in French about this time. In p. 920 mention is made of places of (the king's) obedience that is, " obeying the King;" we still talk of the Latin obedience. In a Norwich Guild, rehearsing Henry the Fifth's grant in the East Anglian dialect in 1418 (qwich, arn, mikil, ./"/), we see felawes contracted into felas; "quichever they think best," a continuation of Wickliffe's new phrase ; as is to bisy them to hear / there is the foreign progenitors. In a ballad of 1420, made against Oldcastle ('Political Songs,' ii. 244), doom seems to add the sense of poena to that of judicium ; what dome wold ye hym devise ? sekte is applied, not only to the Monkish Orders as of old, but to the Lollard Dissenters. Many new phrases of this time are to be found in Ellis's ' Original Letters.' Archbishop Chickeley uses the old form wlwio for our how. We see the form Bcmc for Bohemia ; there is also Duchelond (Germany); the German sound, not the French, is used in Mayns and Trere, showing how they pro- nounced ai and ic. In August 1422 Henry the Fifth sends home a long list of his ships and their masters ; among the ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 215 latter appear William Robynson and John Bull ; one of the ships is called le Litell John. Henry addresses his Council as right trusty and welbeloved ; he piles his nouns together, writing the sauf retournyng hoom of the men. We have ever owt of mende (mind), to express semper. We see the verbs, make 3010 sure of it, put in feere. There are French terms, such as the trewes expired, lege (3 miles), annuity. In the ' Plumpton Letters ' of this time (Camden Society), xlviii.-l., we see nonage ; sal is still used for shall in York- shire ; there is keepe watch and ward, these are transposed since Gower's time. A letter begins thus : To all men that, etc. . . . Henry Percy sends greeting ; ferine becomes farme. We see the title Richard Fairfax, Squier. The Rolls of Parliament for this Century well repay perusal ; it is easy to see the shire whence the petitions come ; Norfolk and Salop are very easy to distinguish. The first English paper is dated in the year 1414, and may be found in vol. iv. p. 57. We find the new Substantives, lond-holder and township; there is the lately-coined phrase tyme of mynde (memory). Mention is made of men of her owne dothyng, referring to some Canons ; we should say "men of their cloth." The Latin per is Englished, by xtrcnr/the of it ; we substitute on for by. The Adverb is confused with the Adjective ; for ungodly, p. 58, evidently stands for male. Among the verbs are, I trust to God, let to farm, kepe the pese. Other foreign words are suytor, repele. Turning to the year 1422 (p. 173), we find the two forms receit and recept, a mark of the new Latin influence (this we saw in Gower) at work in France and England; we now write the strange p, but do not sound it. There is the new phrase, for the tyme beyng. We hear of a subsidie of Tatiage and' Poundage, Justice of pees; icardes, manages, etc., the clerc of the Counseill, enact. In a petition from Ireland, 1423, we see the nor of 1290 replacing the old Southern ne (p. 198), though the later form's victory throughout all England was not achieved until 150 years afterwards. The old Bristow gives place to Bristoll, following the Latin form Bristollia. A great Irish 216 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. rebel, probably Macthomas, appears as Thomasson, p. 199; Thompson is now a common name with us. Among the Substantives, we see the Dutch hoggeshede (ox-head, properly), and the French Staple. Among the Adjectives appears blak rente, in connection with the Irish enemy ; also Barbour's phrase, he is like (likely) to lose it. "We have the origin of " I put it to you," when men put bills unto the council ; further, the Council sit on bills, p. 201. As to the Adverbs, the Gloucestershire foraanuch comes into London use ; where that stands for our ivhereas, p. 198 ; and ihereas is used in the same way, p. 249. We hear of bringing silver in masse, p. 257 ; our penny-a-liners would alter this into en masse. The Kernes of Ireland appear in p. 1 99. A Teutonic ending is added to a French word, and we have napkin, p. 228 ; this stands in the middle of a long French inventory, containing lawn, 1 pece d'Aras, carpette, Worstede bloy (blue), stuff de Meaux, autrecloth, paille (pail), muskball, bracelet, tissu, a charger. In p. 198 we find hewe or cry ; we come across the King's Sergeant, and the Maistre of the Myntc. There is the verb endoce (the French form, not the Latin indorse) ; the Commons are addressed, please it your discretions, p. 249, the first instance of an abstract noun being used as a title of honour in the Plural. The Active Participle is coming into vogue instead of the rightful Passive ; we seeprovydyng that, savyng (except) the peine ; also, except that, p. 256 (here it is prceter, not nisi). There is our Bible phrase, ?w//// wolde he should, etc., where icolde stands for willed (jussit). In p. 257 we hear of billon of silver (bullion); in p. 256 alay (alloy) stands in connexion with plate. The legal word attachment appears. In the year 1425 the old stamp of English is seen in forms like whuch and beon, p. 268. There is the shortened form Ascension Eve, p. 267; new titles of honour come in, such as, my lord of Derby, my lady of Glostcr. "NVe find forms like "the king that last died;" "opon late days." Shake- spere's ripe scholar is foreshadowed in p. 271, "matters ripely felt," that is, " tJwroughly ; " this word of Barbour's was 1 Wedgwood here inclines to the Spanish lona (canvas) rather than to the French linon. n. ] THE NE W ENGLISH. 2 1 7 much in use throughout this Century ; fruit that is ripe has come to its full or thwough perfection. In p. 267 how so that expresses quamvis. Among the verbs are, clepe (call) unto minde utter the, matter (this is also a phrase of Lyd- gate's) ; give in articles ; I take, you for, etc. ; keep hospitality. In p. 289 stands the opening of a petition, shewyn and be- seech your leges. The Latin is imitated in hit is thoght to the king. In the verb emboldish (embolden), p. 292, a Teutonic root takes both prefix and suffix from the Romance. The most curious phrase is in p. 298, the cause of his being here; it seems to me that this being is a Verbal Noun, though Matzner makes it a Gerundial Infinitive ; the question is a hard one ; we must remember the ther is na mending the state of the ' Cursor Mundi.' As to Prepositions, the by, as Layamon employed it, is used for solemn adjuration; promytting bij the faith of his body and his word of Prince, p. 297; we should now substitute as for the last of. The French words are personely, notable, simplesse (ignorance), letters tesmoignals (testimonials), Master of Chancery. There is a famous Peerage case, with English pleadings, p.. 267; we see the Court ruled that, demy sank (half-blood), peedigree, create an Earl, your Noblesses, to taille (entail) a name to him. Kather later, many clerical terms come, such as parson- age, vikerage, the rate, the dewes (dues), the encumbent. The habit of putting non before our words is now beginning. We have seen nonage; non-residence stands in p. 90. The old brucan (in the sense of frui} had almost gone out ; to rejoice a title, and also to enjoie my place, stand close together in p. 274 ; the former was rather later to lose the sense of frui. There are the verbs resort, be of counsel ivith, abstene them from, embesil. Return comes for the first time, I think ; to return names, p. 306 ; in France this word had been transitive before it became intransitive. In Gregory's Chronicle for these years we observe the dropping of the n in an, against all reason ; a aungylle ap- pears in p. 113; a French word for ordnance is written artyrly, p. 126; the town of Meaux was still pronounced Mewys, p. 142, a finer sound than the later Mo; the French Cherbourg was sounded in English mouths as CJiyr- 218 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. borowe, p. 121. We see promise to dwellyng (dwellen) in p. 154; this shows how easily the Infinitive and the Verbal Noun might get confounded. The old loppcstrc now be- comes lopstere (our lobster). There are the new substantives, stronghold, strenghtys (fortresses), a word kept in our Bible. The new mode of warfare was making progress, for pow>li. r and schotte are coupled together in p. 118; and the French gens de trait is Englished by folke of schotte, p. 155. As to Adjectives, Chaucer's overest yields to the new v.p- permoste, p. 113. The old self makes way for the king's owne pi'opyr person in the same page. Among the Verbs there is a new construction, where the Past and Future are combined; in londys gotyn or to be gotyn, p. 134. There is the new Adverb, lykf icyse, p. 133, where a preceding in has been dropped. Among the Prepositions stands swear i> honowre, p. 119 ; we find also continue, alt?r<'n, rnnfi/il,-r- atys, mommynge, datys (the fruit), crevys, which we now call cray fish ; mineuse (minnows). The King addresses his soldiers at Agincourt as >'' ///> (Sirs) and feloicys ; something like the Greek andres ; we hear of 4 payre of galoivys, p. 108. A foreign word is used and explained; sedylle, id est, a bylle, p. 121 ; our x/7/ <>/ >///. We find Scott's phrase, "to image something," p. 133. The former French purveit is thrown aside for the Latin form; provided alleway that, etc., p. 152. The prefix re was to gain ground in England all through this Century ; refor- tify stands in p. 261. We see porpys (porpoise, the purrtix- piscis) ; we have taken this French form instead of our old meresmne ; while oddly enough the French have exchanged their old porcpeis for the Teutonic marsouin. 1 There is the puzzling word prane (prawn). The siege of Rouen in 1418 was described in a long poem by John Page, an eye-witness, writing after the sur- render, p. 1: ' Collections of a London Citizen' (Camden Society). Page was a Northern man, as we can tell by his use of gain (prope), boun (paratus), marcyfull, ///is late Pope, have as leve to be, (would as soon be, etc.), p. 333 ; alle a mysse, p. 388, a favourite Lollard pun on almesse (alms), eny langer ; there is also a new form like non-residence, and allow in the sense of permittere. All these phrases seem to me to belong to the Fifteenth Century. We talk of "light and leading;" in p. 414 prelates give lore and leding to their people. Among the Verbs are yjve occasioun, no good comes of it, set to sale (a new noun), take degre in scole. The Passive voice makes a further stride in the phrase, (it) ou$te to be taken hede to. There is an extension of the old idiom with do, saving repetition ; }>e clergi halp robbid, and y,t do}>, ]>e chirche, p. 392. The verb love is used much as we use like; he lovyde hem to be riche, p. 440. The verb wed is used for jungere ; weddid wi}> mannus lawe, our " wedded to an opinion;" here Udal's to has supplanted the old wi}>, p. 448. The word root is dropped after take; God's word taki}> not m]> hem, p. 443 ; our medical men talk of vaccination taking. The Infinitive now follows nigh ; (they) 222 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. benful ny$ to synne a$eyne, p. 339 ; in the phrase "he was near doing it," the doing may perhaps be an Infinitive. There is a change in Adverbs ; the litlum and lit him of Piers Ploughman becomes bi litil and litil, p. 456 ; in the same page licly is made an Adverb for the first time ; this is still used as a Positive in Scotland, though we of the South can say only " most likely " (probably). There is the word rack (pra3sepe) akin to the Dutch ; luive at racke and at manger, p. 435. Among the Romance words are arbitrary, to transsubstanse, enpugn, litergi (lethargy), yvel avised, ]>e mynor (in logic), myschevous, predecessor, progenitor, glebe (of parsons), f<> induct, plete (implead), to distill waters, /alias (deceit), ages (ssecula), beddis testeris. There is the phrase no doute (sine dubio). The verb allow (allocare) bears the new sense of permittere ; Christ alowid ]>e commte her lifllode, p. 387. The new word aprove (laudare) stands in the next page. There is another new phrase in p. 390 ; dispence m]> hem of }>at bond ; we have altered this into " dispense with that bond, as regards them." In p. 454 presently stands for present (adstans). A curate may have a clerk or a spenser to distribute alms, p. 413. The evil of Church appropriations is denounced in p. 419 ; cathedral chirchis, chapels of prinsis, and colic; /ic* of studies, all use this craft of appropring; tnkeris are brought in, p. 424,- in the parson's stead. In p. 433 stand }>e housis of }>e personage (Church endowment) ; hence comes parsonage. We hear that God is lord general, p. 431 ; the adjective is one of the few that we still place after the substantive. Popes crie -something as (true) belief, p. 334; hence the future cry up something. The Lollards are called Christ's secte, p. 334, in opposition to Popes, Cardinals, Bishops, and Friars. Foxe has set out an old Lollard treatise (Cattley's edition, ii. 728), which seems to me to date from about 1420. It was compiled (see p. 738) at some time when heretics were allowed to abjure once, but were burnt for any fresh offence. There are the new phrases, far gone f ram and parsonage, found in the Rolls about this time. It is written in the Southern dialect, very unlike that of London : ir.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 223 and it may belong to the Severn country. We see yielded (built), p. 745 ; there is an allusion to the Welsh and their long legs, p. 744 ; the verb fallen (baptizare) occurs in p. 734, which survived in Gloucestershire fora hundred years longer till Tyndale's time ; he printed this treatise, before Foxe did. I think it is the most sound and vigorous English prose that was composed in the fifty years before Pecock. The ness was much used ; we have naughtines, cruellies. There is the phrase nothing to the pur- pose. The word matter means, as before, constraining cause, p. 732 ; here is much matter of sorowe. A priest is called a secular man, p. 733, as opposed to a monk. In 1220 it was allowed that religious men might mix with the world for purposes of charity ('Ancren Biwle,' p. 10); but in 1420 the title, men of religion, is appropriated to those who shut themselves up from the world; see p. 733. We see here repeated Chaucer's change in the word quaint, p. 733 ; it had meant in the previous century elegant, exquisite, and this lasted till Shakespere ; the Church prayers, sung in Latin, were called quaint by the priest; but as they were not understood by the common folk, they seemed to be strange. In p. 733 we hear of quaint prayers, following the first sense; in 735 we hear that these ben quaint orders of religion, that live an immoral life, owing to the law of celibacy ; here we have the second sense. There is a treatise on Hunting in ' Reliquiae Antiquse,' i. 149, which seems to belong to this time; it is the translation of a French work a century older. The word stag here translates qervus, p. 151, as in the 'Towneley Mysteries.' In the same page we read of the male fox and the female ; happily the old vixen is still alive. The season of the fox, we are told in p. 154, begins at our Lady's Nativity and lasts till the Annunciation. In p. 153 we read of the lawe of venery ; this phrase led, I suppose, to giving an animal law. In the next page we learn that the technical word for a herd of roes is a bevy, the first appear- ance of the French word. French Interjections swarm in this treatise ; they are to be used by the huntsman in 224 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. cheering on his dogs, as douce amy, soho / oiez & Bemond, our " hark to Beaumont ! " In p. 205 there is a poem to London, perhaps by Lydgate ; the great city is called an A per se, a phrase answering to our A one; it is called in p. 206 towne of townis patron; in the last word the sense of dominus slides by degrees into that of exemplar, as remarked be- fore. We hear in the same page of merchants of substawnce (property) and the top royall of a ship ; these are new phrases. The Legend of St. Edith, or the Chronicle of Wilton (Horstmann's edition), was compiled in verse about 1420. This Wiltshire production is the last of the markedly Southern poems ; we here see hoe and lie for ilia, Ipulke for iste ; the Northern }>ey, as in Trevisa, supplants the old hi; there are the forms blessud (blessed), my$tus (mights). There is the very old form kindam (regnum), from cyne ; also yche a (quisque) ; blessed locur (more blessedly), p. 6 1 . The Teutonic wis supplants the proper Romance ending ous, as jit/i- vertwys, etc. The great Southward march of Northern words was still going on ; we here see whethen (unde), arne (sunt), gate (via), boske (parare) ; the old urne (currere) has made way for run. The language is much akin to that of Trevisa in the adjoining shire ; particularly, he nadde no gret wylle to, etc., p. 87. The $eke (eke), p. 76, and the won (unus) remind us of Salop. The a replaces e, as frantyke, p. 53. The t is struck out, as Hampshire, p. 13; the final J> is clipped, for Ede stands for Edi]> all through. The final r is clipped, quarrer becomes quarey, p. 82. We see stall (seat in the choir), p. 69. A prelate is ordered to hold his clappe (clack), p. 75. The new idiom of the Double Genitive is coming in fast ; ]>e erle of Wyltones wyf, p. 4. There is the phrase, blind as a betulle, p. 81 ; also ]>e later hende (end), p. 50 ; a new phrase, appearing in the South, just when Wyntoun was employing it in the North. We see, what gode is hit forte be a kynge? p. 77. The Reflexive Dative appears once more after rest ; rest ym wylle (well), a greeting found in p. 11. ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 225 Among the Verbs are blow ou^t }>e ley$t, wyrche up (finish) his werk, p. 79. There is Barbour's new phrase, lede (vehere) stones, p. 82, which still lingers in some shires. We saw the Gloucester adjective mopish in 1300; men in distress mepe up and down, p. 81. Among the Romance words axe flavour, particle, sensualyte, pasture a beast, a mute, conversant, migraine. The lesson is read in church, p. 23 ; we hear that limbs have organs, p. 5 6 ; the word page is employed for a groom or horse- tender, p. 74. In p. Ill diseyse keeps its old sense of incommodum ; in p. 107 it takes the new sense of morbus. In p. 31 laudable is used where we should put laudatory. The save is much used for prceter, as in a hundred save one. In p. 86 the foreign plead becomes a Strong verb ; he pladde (pleaded) ; this most unusual change, or something like it, is still kept in Scotch law. In p. Ill it is complained that no man will now be- lieve in miracles ; the Lollards had long been at work. To the same dialect belongs the Legend of St. Ethel- dreda, printed by Horstmann, ' Altenglische Legenden,' p. 282. The u is still employed for eo ; there is Layamon's dure (carus), p. 299, which is not usual. A light went out, p. 305. The French word mater expresses pus, p. 293 ; and the word launset (lancet) appears ; a candle is set in a sconse, p. 290. A well-known part of Ely Cathedral is called }>e lanterne of Englonde, p. 303. A curious corrup- tion of a female Genitive is seen in the same page, Awdre ys body (Awdrey's body). A Poem on Cookery was written, most likely in Lanca- shire, about the year 1420. We see both the forms eyren and egges, heo (ilia), and the West Midland Plural schyn (shall), also anykins. The e replaces iw, as bre for briw, p. 46 ; this is the barley lyree of the North. The u is struck out ; weluc (concha) becomes welk. The y replaces u ; there is the Northern pyt (ponere) in p. 23 ; this is common in Scotland. The I is struck out, as wynnot, the Scotch winna, for will not, p. 45. Among the Substantives are hagese (haggis), otemele, stok fysshe. The dripping so well known to our cooks is seen VOL. I. Q 226 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. here as droppyng, p. 31 ; the grounds found in a vessel appear as the groundyngus, p. 46. Among the Verbs we see hew smalle, rost browne, gyf hit a boylyng ; the verb cremele (crumble) is formed from crumb. Akin to the Dutch are pikel, sod (gramen). The Scan- dinavian words are stepe (infundere), offal. The new French words, as might be expected, are many ; such as tost (toast), souse, grave (gravy), mince, clou (clove), comfet, corauns (currants), lard, dressore (dresser), onyon, filet, tartlot, porray (whence porridge), bray (terere), stuffe (stuffing). In p. 5 stands the phrase " to serve flesh." There is grap- pays (grampus), from the Spanish gran pez (big fish). About this year, 1420, we may consider the poems of King James I. of Scotland, who followed in the wake of Chaucer and Gower, "superlative poets," as he calls them. 1 To the Chaucerian influence are due the Southern forms, y-lokin, thilke, moche, here to be found. We see Barbour's convey and convoy, bowt for bolt ; in trundle a u replaces an e ; there is Meg for Mag. The I replaces n in freckle for Chaucer's frekne. The p replaces c iuporpapyne (porcupine). There is the substantive cadger; we find the phrase, a warld of folk ; also, hold thy grippis, p. 69, where the last word follows in the wake of clutches. We hear of a chamber, large rowm and faire ; here the room (locus) begins to gain a new meaning, which took long to reach the South. We see the faire, p. 76, where woman is dropped ; the true Northern phrase werely (bellicus) appears. In p. 54 we read, " the strait weye will I send him to," etc. ; this phrase seems here to add the sense of time to that of direction. Among the verbs we have breke louse, mene well, give a fall, sun-brynt. The verb fling gains a transitive sense and expresses torquere. There is, take up a song ; that is, raise it. A man is fortired of thought / it was Scotland that pre- served the old verb tire. The verb inbring, which occurs here, was in great vogue at Edinburgh. There is the Interjection wow I 1 I have used Dr. Rogers' edition, lately published. I shall later discuss one of the poems, wrongly assigned to James I. n.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 227 The Scandinavian words are elk, and to stand askewis (askew), p. 66. Among the Romance words are casualtee (chance), resi- dent, gud fortune, the ravin bear, intelligence (scientia). There is the Past Participle unquestionate, where a Latin ending is used ; hence the later form affectionate ; further on stands well fortunyt, where we now employ the ending in ate. The phrase my joy, sounded like the French jou, is applied to a woman, p. 80; hence the Scotch my joe ; my joy is a Yorkshire term of endearment in our days. Andrew of Wyntoun, Prior of Lochleven, wrote his riming Chronicle soon after 1420 (Laing's edition, 1872); we here find many phrases not used since Barbour's time. We see Layre, showing the old sound of the name of the river Loire. The i is inserted in scisim, much as we pro- nounce it. The b supplants / ; for the French frush, used a few years earlier in England (ruere), becomes brush, ii. 493 ; whence our brush (pugna). The b is inserted in nymbil. The 5 is dropped ; Layamon's forn a^an now ap- pears as afoi-nens, ii. 230, whence comes fornenst. The old agast (territus) is altered into aghast; here the idea of ghost must have come in. The ou or oy replaces o ; doted becomes doytyd (stultus), ii. 4. The w is often used for v, leading to much confusion of sounds ; there is chewalry, and also Murraw (Moravia), our Murray; so schirraw (often found here), written for schirraf (sheriff), led the way to shirra. Among the Substantives are man of war (miles), spay- man (wizard), Hieland men, an unfrend ; the Old English gloming (twilight) reappears. There is Neder Germany, leading the way to the later Netherlands, Litill Brettayne (Brittany); also Gret Brettane, ii. 1 1 : a term loved by Scotch writers, such as Barclay and Knox. Manning's verb upset takes a new meaning ; for an upsete stands for rebellion or revolution, something like the French bouleversement, ii. 297, 373. The word trade (trodden path) is in constant use, meaning voyage ; hence the trade winds ; this word was not common in England until ninety years later. There is the phrase latere end (mors), ii. 100. The old form dyke has 228 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. always expressed murus in the North, ii. 454 ; a sense very different from that of the ditch of the South. In ii. 134 fare begins to be connected with money; four penny s for Jier fare. The old innewearde (viscera) is revived, after a long sleep ; the inward (of the kingdom), ii. 464 ; hence came Tyndale's inward parts. Among the new Adjectives are werelike (bellicosus), the werely of James I., writing about the same time ; also clerklyk. Pope Joan is called a schrewe fyne, ii. 81 : this adjective was now coming into vogue. There is a favour- ite Scotch use of full in relationships; full brother to him, ill 99 ; we hear of hard fighting. The phrase mystyly is often used for mystically ; hence we apply misty, mystify, to the mind. There is a curious new phrase in ii. 471 : thai trayst hyr all thair best ; this is an advance on the former do their- best. In ii. 489 stands ane man worthe Franche twa; here the Numeral follows the worthe. There is a new phrase in ii. 332, send it in thare helpyng; hence " come to my help," a curious use of the Possessive Pronoun. Among the new Verbs are, Uok a matere ; in iii. 37 comes bolt up (rush up), a new sense of the verb. There are the phrases, make answer, spare besynes (pains), fall racmd, take sted (place), well Iwrsyd, he was sete hard (hard set), ii. 449, give him rowme, put to confusion, brek lous (loose ; also in James I.), get upon a courser. There is make owte his cows (accomplish it), i. 61 ; hence "to make out a journey;" in the same page comes to sayle tJie Se. In i. 361 officials take up children (seize on them) ; a new phrase, well known to our police. In ii. 30 a maiden is kyrked ; the Southern English form came later. In ii. 353 stands set his best/m* to have it ; hence, "make it his business to," etc., where the noun still keeps its oldest sense of sollicitudo. In ii. 472 we see he was set on it (resolved). The verb tyryd (fatigatus) stands in ii. 356 ; this favourite Scotch verb came South a hundred years later. There is the jingle to wed and bed ; also the Alliterative to gnyp and gnaw, i. 295 ; in England the first letter of gnyp had been docked. There is a curious confusion of the Strong and Weak verb ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 229 in metal moltynnyd, i. 244 ; melted was to appear in Cover- dale. The rightful weryd (wore) appears in ii. 417 ; but in ii. 328 something is worne owt, a startling novelty that had appeared in Yorkshire. We see both saintly and scant for vix ; there is onward, which took long to reach London. The Scandinavian words are harsk (harsh), and brode (aculeus), whence comes our prod. There is the Celtic lowch (lacus), spate (flood), quhype (quip). Among the Eomance words are plesans (voluptas), mystik, enter (sepelire), toil (dolus), i. 400 ; dissent from, usurp, a garnysown, inform, deputys, bachylere (in theology), insyngnys (insignia), foi'talys. The word antyqwyteys is used for " old stories," i. 3. There is chaumbyr play (libido, i. 74), whence conies the later phrase, chambering, which is in our Bible. The verb examyne means to question; and examyna- tioune, i. 340, is first connected with school work; the form exam was still in the future. The word state, as later in Barclay, stands for a man of position; we use dignity much in the same way. We read about a lady of fassown fyne, i. 322 ; this refers to her form of body, her figure. In i. 323 comes hyr folys fantasy (her fool's fancy); this is a new use of the Genitive, afterwards repeated by Barclay, just as we say "your fool's head." In i. 351 comes dyspend owte tresore ; hence our lay out. The old French form cruelty is laid aside for the later French cruawt6, which comes often ; another token of the close connexion between France and Scotland. Wyntoun often uses pathement for pavement, a compound of Teutonic and Romance ; he has dergat (target), where an Old English word takes a French suffix. The form pyU is still used, as in 1300, for our piety, ii. 70 ; it also expresses misericordia. There is the form corrump, afterwards to be replaced by corrupt, coming from another part of the Latin verb. There is revengeans, whence two distinct English words have been formed. The verb trete bears two senses ; that of tractare, ii. 144, as in Barbour, and that of pactum inire, ii. 420. The adjective round gets a new meaning, that of bluff; make rownd answer e, iii. 66. We have seen the gentles ; we 230 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. now find the nobles. There are two new and curious Plurals, devotions and instructions (preces, jussa). In ii. 325 a querele in law is pi'oponed ; we still propound a will ; the other form, propose, had been known for eighty years. The word composytore, here standing for peacemaker, bears a very different sense in our day. In ii. 322 a heart is embalmed and laid in a cophyn of ivory ; the word was to bear a new meaning later. In i. 20 supprys is used for surprising a woman asleep ; in p. 1 1 7 for crushing in war ; our suppress. We see a curious jumble of French and Latin forms in dissymbelatyown, ii. 332. In ii. 341 a man is mankyd (mutilatus) ; hence came mangle, forty years later. Wyntoun is fond of theolog, Dryden's theologue. We hear of the syngne of an inn, iii. 104. The word Amyrale is now connected with the fleet, and loses its Mussulman sense. There is the battle cry, A Muntagw for evyr mare ! this a may perhaps be an Interjection, as A! Kynge Herri/ / in ' Wark worth's Chronicle,' fifty years later ; this soldier's cry lasted till 1730 in England. 1 We now see the first of the laughable explanations of family names, legends that are lively as ever in our own critical age. The great house of Cumin, Wyntoun says, got its name from its ancestor being a doorkeeper in the Palace, who was always crying cum in! ii. 309. This is not more absurd than Sir B. Burke's derivation of the Bulstrode family from a man bestriding a bull. A few pages beyond his Cumin explana- tion, Wyntoun draws a distinction between the chief who bids his men go on, and the chief who bids them come on. The poem on Kynge Roberd of Cysille ( ' Hazlitt's Col- lection,'^. 270) seems to belong to Lincolnshire. There is Manning's puddle; also gar, kyrke. There is the phrase make noyse ; also, he was a fole to every knave, p. 286; here the to means, according to the knave's judgment ; one of the oldest meanings of to was secundum. I now approach that mine of information on many points, the ' Paston Letters ' (Gairdner's edition). There 1 Rolandini (Muratori, 'Scriptores,' viii. 188) gives an Italian war-cry in 1227 ; Za Za Cavaler Ecelin I In the 'Stratford Letters,' lately published, A Pulteiiey is shouted in the days of George II. it.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 231 are a few reaching over the interval between 1417 and 1426. On turning to the Vowels, there is more in this respect to remark in the French words than in the English ; the verb aurai (habebo) is written may ; on the other hand, avec appears as auvec, showing the ancient broad sound of the a. But aussi, pronounced of old as oussi, is now written osy, proving a change in French pronunciation. We see u (aut), not on. All this may be found in i. 23. As to Consonants, we find nought standing for our not, written so late as 1425 (p. 20). The proper name Wylleby (Wil- loughby) appears in p. 10, sounded much as we pronounce it now. Among the Nouns there is the curious idiom, in the kyngcs tyme Henry the Fyfte, p. 16. Barbour had written stop the way ; we now have stop the noyse, p. 26 : a slight change. There is the first instance, I think, of the legal use of where as for quoniam, in p. 16; hitherto where had been used in this sense. Among the Prepositions appear " send money on trust," p. 20 ; " condempnyd in ccc marcz," p. 21 ; to his knowleche, p. 17 ; the preposition to is wholly dropped in the trespas doon William, p. 17. As to Ro- mance words, instead of the old phrase used with sur- names, my maistre Neville, the Pronoun is now dropped, as Maister John Urry, p. 19, the origin of our mister. We see this usage moreover in the French, p. 24 ; an English letter is directed a mez meistres A, B . . . , et meistre Piers Shelton. A French letter ends with Johannes Paston, le tout vostre, p. 24 ; the French taught us the art of polite letter -writing. We read of arbitrator es, also arbitrores, in the same page, 14; courtezane (curialis, p. 24). In p. 21 mesure gains the new sense of consilium; hence comes "measures, not men." In p. 26 stands the adverb noy- syngly ; in York, noisomely would have been used ; we have in our day two English sounds coming from one French source, noisome and nuisance, something like ennui and annoy. In p. 19 the word contreman seems to be used for fellow -provincial ; for in p. 30 Manning's phrase is re- peated, in my cuntre, but a myle fro the place where I was born. There are the phrases, tax damages, adnull, endowed (preeditus, p. 21), due and lawefull, p. 13. The Latin words 232 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. et cetera are tacked on to English writing, p. 1 3 ; they were to draw great attention later, in connexion with an oath in 1640. In 1426 an old blind monk, known as 'Syr Jon Aud- lay,' was compiling his poems, striking at Lollards and worthless priests alike (Percy Society, 47). He lived on the border land between the Northern and Southern dialects, as we can tell from a few lines in page 65 " And VII aves to our lady, Fore sche is the wel of al pete, That heo wyl fore me pray." There is no doubt about the monk's Salopian dialect ; he has both cherche and kerke in the one page, 74 ; also forms such asfouyre (ignis), seche (talis), ^esy, ^every, uche, won (unus), als, makus (socii), thou gase (vadis), ch for sh. There are words and senses of words already found in Salopian writers, such as, homeli (rusticus), begge ne borou; there is an allusion to Piers Ploughman's Mede the maydyn in p. 38. The scribe, to whom the blind bard dictated, has been faulty as usual ; holdist is written for holdes, p. 20 ; wo/id begoon and Abragus for wo-bigon and Abraham's, p. 31. The o replaces a in wedloke. We see both engeyne and enjoyn, pp. 47 and 48. The n is struck out, for Oxenford becomes Oxford, p. 32 ; it is added, for we find holdoun (olden) dais in p. 22. In p. 75 an original morn (mane) has been altered by the writer into morwe, as we see by the rime. In p. 85 (this is from another poem) we see the rise of the word skipping applied to the practice of many readers. Careless priests are thus branded "Hi sunt qni Psalmos comimpunt nequiter almos : Jangler cum jasper, lepar, galper quoque, draggar. Momeler, forskypper, for-reyner, sic et overleper. " The draggar is the forerunner of our drawlers. Among the Adjectives we find oure blessud byscop, used ironically, p. 39. The word lofty appears for the first time, and is applied to the lineage of the child Henry VI., p. viii. The bad meaning given to lewd is repeated ; the word still means ignarus, as of old, in p. 32 ; but in p. 3, curates ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 233 who break their vows of chastity, and priests that are lewyd (libidinosi) in their living, are assailed for the bad example they set ; this change had appeared in another Salopian piece. Among the Pronouns we find me, the old man, still in use, though soon to drop ; do as thou woldus me dud be the, p. 32. There is the phrase, what was (he) the worse ? p. 15 ; fro tyme 50 ben, etc., p. 76 ; here a that is dropped after the noun. Among the Verbs we find bakbyte a man, play thefole, take order (orders, p. 34), have the charche (charge) of. The verb blmter is employed much like our blunder, p. 50. We see wherefore and why, in p. 49, with the usual alli- teration. The French words are pause, aschelere (ashlar stone), hogpoch (hotchpot), core favel, p. 26 ; favel was a common name for a horse ; hence the corruption curry favour. In p. 23 stands a metaphor taken from chess ; after chec for the roke, ware for the mute. In p. 45 c/er^and clerenes stand side by side. There is a most spirited description, in p. 16, of our gentle Sir John, the usual name for a priest down to the Reformation ; hence came the Mass John of the Scotch Presbyterians. To this date we may assign the poem on Agincourt ('Hazlitt's Collection,' ii. 93). Among the substantives are gunstones (cannon balls of iron), longe bote, great gunne (can- non) ; our soldiers fight under the rede crosse, Saynt Georges stremers. Henry the Fifth was almost fit to be set among Tpe worthyes nyne, p. 94: a new phrase. He asks, in p. 105, what tyme of the day ? (what hour is it ?) We see both the forms, thou were and thou wast, p. 94. The king lay in a town : a phrase not wholly replaced by staid until our own Century ; ships lay at rode ; trumpets blow, an intransitive sense; men play their rivals at a game, p. 104, against be- ing dropped. We see our a crosse for the first time, p. 96 ; it is here an adverb. There are some sea words bor- rowed from Holland, hoise (hoist), deck (teg-ere), the first letter differing from the true English theck, our thatch, the 234 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. Latin teg. There is also the Scandinavian bulwark, one of Lydgate's new words. There is the French word serpentine (a warlike engine). We have a pun in p. 201 "The lordes of Rone (Rouen) togyther dyde rowne (whisper)." English Poetry had now fairly made her way into the Palaces of Kings, whence she had been banished since Harold's time for 300 years. Chaucer had been the servant of Edward III. ; Gower had been encouraged by Richard II. ; Occleve had been the pensioner of Henry IV. ; Page had sung the deeds of Henry V. ; Lydgate acted as Laureate to the child Henry VI. The monk wrote a poem, setting forth the Royal titles, in the year 1426 ('Political Songs,' vol. ii.) He turns Madame Katerine into //?// A"/y Katerine, p. 136, and has the new noun budde, p. 140, akin to the Dutch. We may here consider the mass of the poems attributed to him. 1 He came from Bury in East Anglia, and we are therefore not surprised to find him using the Active Participle in and, and such East Midland forms as dad, give, fulsom. On the other hand, he imitates Chaucer in having the prefix to the Passive Participle, as y-bake. The adjective praty, gainsay, and the peculiarly Northern idiom, a goodly one, p. 28, have now reached Lon- don. He clips the a at the beginning of words, writing venter for aventure, and look bak (as in the ' Cursor ') for look aback, p. 256. The e replaces i in flettyng (fleeting), p. 194. The old pure is now written pewer, p. 108, just as we sound it. Grower's falsehed now becomes falshood. Orrmin's wakeman appears as waclieman, p. 175. We see the be clipped in p. 147, where cause translates qi.n>.i. Wickliffe's Danish word backe (vespertilio) is now written batte, p. 170. The I replaces r ; Chaucer's verb jompre becomes jumbel. The / is inserted ; for the peoddare of 1220 now becomes pedeler, p. 30. The ra becomes n, as ant (formica). Chaucer's cokewold is now seen as cokolde, p. 30. Among the Substantives we find gloowerm, seme-ice (sea mew). Mention is made of the Kyngs Bench, p. 103. Our 1 Percy Society, vol. ii. ri.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 235 bumble bee is seen as boymbyl, p. 218. We hear of the hedspryng (well head) in p. 237. The Old English earg had always borne the sense of ignavus down to this time; but in p. 47 we hear of arche wives, and from the context this epithet must imply pride. We hear of a fowlle shame, slwmi, and gerysshe (garish, per- haps from Chaucer's gauren, gaze). In p. 194 sondryfold is formed in imitation of manifold; sundry can now ex- press quidam as well as separatus. In p. 147 we see un- kouth add the meaning of odd to its old sense of unknown. Among the Verbs are, bend my stepps, thrust (ire), give chase, break out, abide by the bargen, Jwund on, I am a fool to telle, fre to syng, bolster, tourne (out) for the best, bere good face (put a good face on it). Lydgate now has the Northern / gat me out, p. 105. We h&veupgrow in p. 246; very few verbs beginning with up lasted beyond the year 1400, though the Scotch still use upbringing (education). The verb bestoiv here means prcebere as well as collocare ; bestow alms. There is a new construction of the Passive Infinitive after scire ; I liave wyste men be caste, p. 224. In p. 133 a man brekes his fast ; hence a new noun was to arise forty years later. The new construction, thou ware over sayne (made a mistake) stands in p. 189. The great change of 1411 is repeated in p. 142; masse was seyeng ; we see in the Rolls of Parliament for 1435 a dette was owyng hem. The most remarkable of the Adverbs, which we owe to Lydgate, is perhappous, which we now usually hear pro- nounced as praps ; it took Centuries before this mongrel, something like because, could drive out haply. In p. 104 stands as well as Icoode. The Preposition under is employed in a new sense, marking something that falls short of a given measure : thou scapst not under ii pence, p. 107. There is out of joynt in p. 245. The Flemish traders in London are mentioned in p. 105, who use their word copen (emere). It was from them per- haps that Lydgate got his boueer, our boor, p. 192 ; for the Old English ge-bur seems to have died out hundreds of years before this time. The form before us suggests that the first syllable of the German bauer was pronounced like 236 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. the French ou in 1430. The Dutch bolwerk (bulwark) is in p. 237 ; and their verb prate is in p. 155 ; to nod is akin to a Bavarian word. Among the French words are dyal, tapcery (tapestry), weel favoured, chierful, fagot, cok-boat, pint, velym (vellum), cariage (bearing), to ferret, pores, splene, streyglit-lasyd, sorel, blase (blazon), grocery, premynence. The adverb very (valde) comes often ; after Lydgate's time it drove out its Teu- tonic rivals. In p. 52 we hear of a precious knave, just as we still use the adjective. In p. 39 a man frussln''* a woman's mouth with his beard; this French word, long before known in England, may have helped to bring lm*h into vogue ; the latter is a French word connected with the German borste. Lydgate talks of the Kolls (the Court) in p. 104; and in the next page he uses presently (forth- with), the sense still borne by the word in Yorkshire. His bargeman is in our day often thrown aside for bargee ; a curious instance of a French ending ousting its English brother. The French phrase, of necessity occurs in p. 141; and apropos appears as exaumple to purpoos, p. 146. The cry avaunt stands in p. 166. In the same page, what Wick- liffe had called gelding, is written spado ; and there are the gamester's synk and sice, showing the French sound of the last In p. 170 we light on paterfamilias, and in p. 187 comes a 'naturall fole ; the adjective, in some counties, still expresses idiot ; "a born natural." In p. 194 man is de- scribed as deriving many humoures from water ; humour at this time bore the sense of inclination in France. Lydgate does not talk of lenten and Jiarvest, the old-fashioned terms for the seasons; he uses Ver and Autumpne. In p. 212 respublica is translated by stoat ; in the same page we read of estaatys (the different orders of men). In p. 214 sacred appears as an Adjective; in the year 1290 it was but a Participle. Our enjoy himself appears in p. 218 as rejoys hymsylf ; later in the Century the Pronoun was dropped after the verb. The poet says he must acounte for my talent ; this is a new sense of the Noun in English ; Ham- pole had used it for inclination ; the Parable of the Talents must have had some influence here. In p. 242 Aurora is ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 237 made a dactyl ; England, as yet, had little horror of false quantities. One of Lydgate's poems, dedicated to the Earl of Salis- bury who fell at Orleans, is a translation of De Guileville's famous 'Pilgrimage' (published by Pickering in 1858). The poet has a peculiar contraction, that of telpe for to helpe, and such like ; this is repeated in his later works. Adjec- tives are strung together, as, the noble hih hevenely place, p. iii. ; this yred large, sea ; there is the phrase ryht (straight) as any lyne, p. xii. We see ley trappys, lose his weye, in p. xlvi. Fortune lawes on the ryght syde (is favourable) ; we still say, make you laugh on the wrong side. Among the Romance words are nerve, mendicant, passingly, disdain, op- posite, unction, jack (coat of mail), collusion, immutable, commis- sion, inquisitive, unsure, duplicity, intermission. Lydgate, dropping his East Anglian usage, imitates Chaucer in forms like ihilke and beth (sunt), also in prefixing y to the Passive Participle. There are three pieces by Lydgate in ' Reliquiae An- tiquse,' i. 13, 79, 156; they may date from 1430. Here we read of the lining (inside) of a bowl, p. 13; glassy is applied to eyes ; lumpish. In p. 157 a boy is warned not to pike his nose. There is another piece of Lydgate's of this time in ' Religious and Love Poems ' (Early English Text Society), p. 15. We see the new substantives crosebow and gosselyng. There is the new phrase to scape with life. There are the foreign words, bastylle, similitude, bagage (here meaning prceda}. We have the sentence, "odyous of olde been comparisonis." Lydgate compiled certain Legends in 1433 (Horstmann, ' Altenglische Legenden ') ; he here describes himself as old and enfeebled in his powers, p. 416. He continues his favourite practice of writing teschew for to eschew, etc. ; he has jerarchy for hierarchy, p. 415. The n is struck out; Orrmin's scorcnen (exurere) becomes skorch, p. 452. Lyd- gate uses the two forms, Egelwyn and Ayllewyn, pp. 432, 431. He employs a Southern form, long obsolete, for the sake of his metre ; kneen (genua), p. 445. In the same 238 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. page he talks of Bury toun, a pleonasm ; burh (oppidum) had but lately dropped out of use. He employs unto my laste, p. 407, where breath is dropped. Among the Verbs are put off (repellere), put in mynde, be seen (apparere), unpyke locks, set at ese. The French en is prefixed to Teutonic roots, as, to enhang, p. 401. Among the Prepositions are at werre, go at liberte, be of f ewe wordys. The with is used in a new sense ; a man is brave with Tideus (equally with), p. 395. The between represents community of action ; tween wind and wawe his barge almost brast, p. 401. The through is prefixed to a verb, probably in imitation of the Latin original, thurgh^perced, p. 448. There is the verb rakk from the Dutch, p. 401 ; this torture was first brought into England in this Century. The Romance words are carecte (character), a memento, furyous, eurous (heureux), predestynat, antiquity (old time), philologie, a preservatiff, stage of decrepitus, p. 419 ; in grot, transcend, thre tymes suinge (following), obstacle, spectacles (glasses). The old anker is now written anachorite, p. 417. We hear both of God's purveyance and of His pro- vydence, pp. 426, 421. There is the French verb glace (slide), p. 436, which may have had some influence on our glancing off. A man is riht gentilmanly, p. 399 ; Udal, a hundred years later, was to write this gentlemanlike. The King is addressed as your hyh excellence, p. 440. We read, in p. 431, of the instruccioun given to a messenger; we now make this word Plural. The heathen who harried England in the Ninth Cen- tury are called Sarseynes, p. 403. The adverb aslope is found about this time ; I have mislaid the reference. " JThere are some pieces in the 'Babees' Book' (Early English Text Society), which date from about 1430. Here we find where-sere, p. 302, a great shortening of where so ever ; in p. 12 stands toilose (toilsome) ; here the old til or tul (laborare) bears its modern form. Among the Substan- tives are kervyng-knife, snof (of a candle), the over wunt. The first hint of a nightgown is given in p. 315 ; and of fotemen (servants) in p. 320; "these run by the bridles of ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 239 ladies sheen ; " not long before there is mention of hired pages. In p. 316 appears the ^omon ussher, who sleeps at his Lord's door ; the grom.es (of the chamber) make the beds. In p. 307 a man should let others Jwive ]>e way (take the pas of him). In p. 12 the new adjective medelus (med- dlesome) appears. The word spare is used in a new sense in p. 325 ; a spare pece, something not in actual use. A man must not be too stirynge, or too pressing, p. 1 2 ; here the Participle is used like an adjective. Among the Verbs are henge in honde (hang on hand), broken meat. The lose is used without an Accusative in p. 305 ; a man shall never lose by kindness. The Passive Voice is further developed in p. 307 ; %if }>ou be profert (proffered) to drink. Among the French words are countyng house, p. 312 (room where money is checked), counturpynt (counterpane), clerk of the kitchen; asseles patentis, p. 318, (seals patent), ferroure (farrier) ; sesours are here used for snuffers. The word enfaunt is used, as in France, for a boy, p. 303. There is the new phrase apiece ; foure pens a pece, p. 310. In p. 11 argue stands for mangle. In p. 58 a man is bidden not to be nyce in clothing ; here the adjective adds the sense of fastidious, new in 1360, to its old meanings foolish and wanton. As to rules of behaviour, men must not sup their potage mth grete sowndynge ; they must not spit over or on the board, or pick their teeth, or bear knife to mouth, or lean on their elbows, or put meat into the salt cellar. ' ' Who so ever despise ]>is lessoun ry3t, At borde to sitt he hase no my?t" (p. 303). In the same page boys learn certain prayers ; among others, how to bless themselves with Marke, Mathew, Luke, and Jon ; the old rime is still alive in our day. Accounts were kept in French, p. 317, where the forms taunt resceu, and taunt dispendu are enjoined. The adage that three is no company is enforced in p. 307 : ' ' Be not }>e thryd felaw for wele ne wo ; Thre oxen in plowgh may never wel drawe." In the Wills of this time (Early English Text Society) 240 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. the e is struck out, for Chaucer's mwemaiden becomes mer- maid, p. 78 ; this refers to the house where Shakespere's club long afterwards met. The form moevable is used in p. 127 for what some called meveable, others mvveable. Cirencester shrinks into Siscetre, p. 109. We have seen Cecile ; we now have our other form Cisily, p. 70. There is the proper name John of Nokys, p. 111. There are the substantives, rodelofte, yoman of the chambre, oure lady chapell, p. 114; in this last we see one of our few surviving Genitives that does not end in s. The verb mill, in connexion with coinage, may have been known in 1434 ; a cloth is men- tioned with mylyngis, p. 101. The wise is now tacked on to nouns to form adverbs; we see trestelwise in p. 102; crosswise is well known. Among the Romance words are revenues, sygne mamtell, flourdeluce, prymmer, exquies (funeral rites), decesse (morior). The old mobles now become mevable godes, p. 76. The word debita is Englished by duetees (duties), p. 88, in the Plural. In p. 95 we read of the mevable catell of bestall in a London will ; this shows how cattle was much later to express pecus in the South, as well as in the North. Bequests are made first to priests, then to every secundnrtj and clerk of the church, p. 105. Our famous co is used for the first time, I think, in a compound made by English- men; coexecutour stands in p. 100; hence co-mate, co-}> >>/, etc. A Countess is particular in directing that two Greffons should bear up the scutcheon on her tomb, p. 117; supporters were now coming in, but were not yet strictly hereditary. Among the ' Wills and Inventories ' (Surtees Society), vol. ii., are some belonging to 1427 and 1429; also some letters of the same date, written by Salisbury, the King- maker's father. He uses both the forms, yaw and yow (vos) in one line, p. 70. The North still, as of old, loved coin- ing Verbal Nouns ; we see his welcoming (the welcome given him) ; my forthbryngyng (burial procession) ; there is hows of almouse, soon to be much shortened. Salisbury talks of hymself in his own person, an imitation of the Latin. Among the Verbs are shew kyndnesse, teke partie (part) ; Orrmin's n.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 241 uribyden (injussus) is repeated in the North, after a long interval ; his love of the Passive voice reappears in Salis- bury's th&i are seen to. To hold for king was always good English; this is now extended to Passive Participles; Salisbury writes, have us for recomendid. The Earl has the strange phrase, he was here a (on) Monday was a VII. night, where it seems to be dropped before was, p. 70. A New- castle merchant, making his will in 1429, uses the thoroughly Northern forms, ]>ose (ilia), tendes (decimse). Salisbury writes, do me this ease as to len me yor chariott ; here this seems to answer to tantum; and we see the source of Cranmer's " be so good as to," etc. ; the Earl is fond of the old form len. A tale is told mor at large; there comes, at our last being with yow ; in p. 78 stands at my weting (to my knowledge). The French words are, terme of life, my goods moblez and unmoblez (personal and real), enfeffed in landes to my use, stuffe of myn howses of offices as panetre and buttre (pantry and buttery, p. 75) ; we still talk of the offices of a house. In p. 70 stands save (safe) and suyrly ; in p. 80 a man gives cleerly and freely, a new sense of the first adverb. There is the verb dispoyne ; Scotch law prefers dispone to dispose. The old verb tent is written tender by Salisbury, p. 70, and this form lasted long in England. There is much to be learnt from the Northern Wills, between 1426 and 1440, 'Testamenta Eboracensia' (Surtees Society). The first is that beginning, " I, dame Jhon Gascoigne," i. p. 410, the lady of the renowned Chief- Justice. The old pdwa (pavo) had been written poucoc further to the South ; it is here pacok, p. 420 ; showing the double sound of the old aw. The former caudron is now seen as caldron, p. 419. There is the new noun salt salar, and the new verbal phrases thanket be God ! }>ai Jiavand Gode before }>er eghen, ii. 76. In ii. 20 stands rather w (citius quam) ; in our day, we sometimes hear sooner nor. Among the French words are, a party goune (hence party- coloured) ; extend is driving out stretch, ii. 20. The Chief- Justice's wife prefixes dame to her Christian name ; this legal title has lasted for more than 400 years. VOL. I. R 242 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. There is the Latin in primis at the beginning of a sen- tence, ii. 20. In the 'Paston Letters,' from 1426 to 1440, we remark the Norfolk use of x for s, as xal for sal (shall). In p. 30 stands / am your man (servant), a phrase still existing. There is the adjective ungodely (malus), p. 32; the word had before been used as an adverb. In p. 40 we read that owr Lordes bytte (beat) the French, a new sense of the verb; in iii. 417 comes the phrase to fele a man; where we should now sound him. There are the foreign words, synister and taylles (tallies). A Lord is addressed in a letter both as your reverens and your lordesship, iii. 416; the former of these phrases is in our time set apart for the clergy. There is a deed in the ' Plumpton Letters,' p. li., bearing date 1432. A representative of certain parties is called their man ; and we read of a man of counsell learned in the law, showing how Gower arrived at his sense of counsel. We see accious reall and personall. In Gregory's Chronicle for these years we see Jane used instead of the usual form Joan for Henry the Fourth's Queen. We know that we pronounce the name St. John as Sinjon ; in p. 168 we find Syn Jorge. The three heads of our Common Law are named in p. 160; the men who presided over the Kyngys Benche, the Comyn Place, and the Kyngys Chekyr. Mention is made of the Downys ; the sea is referred to, not the hills. In p. 167 we read of a pounde weyght of golde, a new phrase for "gold that weighed a pound." The old Adjective lewk becomes leuke warme, p. 166. The Verbs are, he bare uppe his trayne, make a mocke of, p. 178. An Adverb is made a Preposition, all acrosse hys II schylderis (shoulders), p. 166; this, probably due to the French a travers, is in the year 1429. The Chronicler loves to tell of good eating; we find here the French words, custarde, gely, esteryge (ostrich). The word raysonys is used in the English, not the French sense, and grayne is used for corn, p. 181. The word prefas appears in p. 166, which lasted here without a rival, until some zealous Teuton in our own day first printed forewords, a word used by our IT.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 243 forefathers for pacta. The Parliament was concludyd (ended), p. 182; in p. 176 comes the curious phrase, "to banysch a man the town; " a double Accusative, " forbid him the town," had come earlier. We find a long English paper of the year 1426 in the 'Rolls,' vol. iv. pp. 409-411. There is the new phrase, Justices in the Quorum. In p. 410 we see the Northern es beginning to supplant the Southern eth in the highest quarters ; he comes is found in a Court document. In the same volume we find bedurr me, fittith him (decet). A well-known phrase of ours comes in p. 435 ; the siege of Orleans was taken in hand, God knoweth by what advis. It is in p. 433 that the title of the Squeers of English History is earned by Warwick, in his proposals anent the chastise- ment of the future founder of Eton College. The French words are agreeably (cheerfully), conclude pees. Cardinal Beaufort is called the King's grete uncle, p. 438 ; the old erne was soon to vanish altogether. It is curious how the foreign words have intruded into our very hearths, as it Avere. In vol. v. p. 318 are the petitions for the year 1427. We find a curious idiom, well known in our days, in p. 322, he schulde Iwum been and procured, etc. ; the been, I suppose, stood for gone. In p. 327 the young King isfer goon (far gone) in growth ; we now limit this phrase to love and liquor. In p. 326, instead of the old natheles, comes howe were it that ; howbeit was soon to appear. We had always coupled from and beyond ; we now have from over }>e sea, p. 318. The French words are, denisein, and ye agreed you to, etc. ; the later pourvey for stands for the Latin provide for, p. 318. There is a long discussion in 1427 by the Lords Spiritual and Temporal of the title given to Duke Humphrey : " (we) devised unto you a name different from o]?er counsaillers, nought J>e name of Tutour, Lieutenant, Governour, nor of Regent, . . . but )>e name of Protectour and Defensour, }>e which emporteth a personell duetee of entendance to J>e actuell defense of J>e land, as well ayenst J^enemys utward, yf cas required, as ayenst Eebelles in- ward, yf any were, J>at God forbede," vol. iv. p. 326. In the 244 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. year 1429 raise is spelt reze, vol. iv. p. 343, showing how z has encroached upon s, even in Teutonic words. We see the substantives see cole, fredomys (liberties), clothemakyng ; a zern (yarn) chopper is coupled with a regratour, p. 349 ; perhaps our jobber may have something to do with the former word. Barbour's Scottisman makes way for Scott- yshman, p. 360; this was to be contracted still more. There is the new Adjective weiable; Hampole's new suffix to Teutonic nouns was coming South. In p. 365 comes the phrase, a vessel laden of c tonne tite and over; the word }>iht, the German dihte, is Englished by solidus in the ' Promptorium Parvulorum ; ' a ship is said to be tight, when no water can get in; water-tight was to come in 1550. In p. 360 stands oon $ere with another. The Verbs are bryng downe ]>e pris, take an action against/ there is a wonderful change of idiom in p. 343, thair resones beyng herd, the Ablative Absolute ; here being stands before a Passive Par- ticiple. Orrmin's forthwith appears in London, p. 343. The French words are quinzisme and disme, grants made by the Commons ; prefer a man to office ; things passe and be agreed be the Counseill, p. 343 ; to pass accomptes, to pass a yeft be dede, to condescende unto hem; this old law term is still used in Scotland ; to enter thair advys of recorde, p. 344 ; to present an offence. As to the years 1430 and 1432, we see that Gower's doaire has now become dower ; the opener of 1340 is now seen as awener (owner). In p. 375 comes the female name Joyous, our Joyce. We hear in p. 405 that wines are wele drinking ; this is in truth a Verbal Noun, which looks like a Participle ; the wines are in such a state that they give pleasure when swallowed ; the idiom is something like that of a debt is owing. In p. 376 a man is made party to some- thing. In p. 385 we see howbeit that, found in Rymer's documents about the same time. Instead of moreover stands overe that, p. 369. The French words are, inter esse (interest), your JRoial Excelence, oratrice, gauge. The law term, iojoyn issue, appears in p. 376. In the year 1433 we remark how the Standard English, spoken in London, was more and more coming into vogue, II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 245 as the language of public affairs ; the distant shires framed their petitions more and more on the London model ; Parliament was enforcing unity in speech as well as in politics. For instance, in the Salopian petition, p. 476, there is little that is provincial, except uch (quisque) and oo (unus). In p. 423 the abash of 1303 becomes lash, whence we got our bashful; in p. 475 the old druncn-ian appears as drowen (drown) ; the writer evidently thought that drow was the root of his Infinitive. There are the new Substan- tives Town Clerk and nynesse ; nearness was to come fifty years later. There is the new phrase by likelihod, not like- lihed as in Chaucer; we have preferred hood to head. Among the Verbs we find make offris (offers), put in writyng, have relation to, bere voice (have a voice, p. 479). We see that the Northern sense of still (adhuc) has come down to London from the North. A translation of the French sur ousts the Old English for in things done upone her accounte, p. 477. Much is dropped in the sentence a robe, price xx?, in the same page ; the English seemed to be intent on saving their breath. We see, in p. 423, a sen- tence begin with Mcmorand', }>at, etc. There are the new French words, extraordinarie, scrupill, to retaile, assistants. There are the phrases, due allowance, to article a request, sue to a man for, etc., truly and indifferently (juste) choose, save him harmeles, the Statute in such case ordeyned. We see rynge a belle 3 peell, p. 478 ; the last word is properly apele ; in the same page atteynte is used of a trifling fault; the verb was to bear a far more serious meaning in the bustling times twenty years later. Turning to the years 1435, 1436, 1437, we find the new Substantive utterance ; French endings were now much in vogue for Teutonic roots. The phrase " get her lyvyng," p. 491, has come down from the North; liflode was as yet the common phrase in the South. We hear of the Speker, of gavelkynde, of the mene Hans townes, p. 493 ; of a ship of a c tonne portage, p. 501 ; we should now alter the last word into burden. There is a fresh idiom in p. 498, the trespas done by Richard takyng her ; Richard is not in the Genitive, and therefore takyng may not perhaps be a Verbal 246 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. Noun. We have seen being set before a Passive Participle ; another step is made in p. 491, the Court beyng sitting. In p. 486 stands seisid as of frehold ; one of the many needless insertions of as. In a Lancashire petition in p. 498 the phrase and ]>en }>ere is used in describing a crime ; our " then and there ; " the Northern sho (ilia) is used here. The noun rape is now used in our legal sense; it had hitherto meant only hurry. The French words are, heynous,fee simple, keyes (quays). We see enquerre (inquiry) with inquisition in the same page, 487 ; our tongue is very rich in having in many cases both original Latin forms, and their offspring as cor- rupted by the Northern Gauls. In p. 490 the verb defait expresses perdere, our undo. In p. 497 stands atteint of high treason, the new serious sense of the verb. The French had long before talked of manoeuvring a vine in the sense of the Latin colere ; in p. 500 we find this verb under its Picard form menuring, our manure. The old pass (superare) was now being encroached upon by excede. In the year 1439 we see the substantive lyrode clothe; ships be at rode (in the roads), p. 29 ; this is the Dutch sense of the noun. In p. 16 yoman stands for a particular class of the commons ; in p. 32 it is used for an archer in the wars. We hear of the shire of Salop, p. 17. The verbs are, put up a petition, ley down plowes (like our put down a, carriage), bye at the first hand, p. 32. The Northern phrase falle to robbery is in p. 32. The former o lesse now becomes yn lesse than, our unless, p. 15. The French words arefeoffes, the Corporation of Plymouth, the homir of Tut- bury, usuell, omitte. In p. 5 comes the Latin form to be deducte ; we have now the Infinitive form deduce as well. We see finance in p. 22 with its old French sense of mom-ij payment. In p. 32 stands the phrase to garbal spicery ; it here means to cleanse ; the Arabic algarbal and the Spanish garbillo express a sieve; we sift out what is best for our purpose, leaving the rest; and thus we garble facts. 1 There is the old verb juperd in p. 33 ; our penny-a-liners now fling aside the Classic English form and rejoice in the barbarous jeopardise. We lately saw the French form tesmoign ; in 1 See the word in Wedgwood. II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 247 p. 33 we have the Latin letters testimoniall. The term Baillies was used in England as well as in Scotland ; see p. 33. A few words may be picked from Halliwell's 'Royal Letters,' between 1425 and 1440. The Northern lurdain has come down to London, p. 117; also Wickliffe's intran- sitive (jather. The Lollards, the first English Dissenters, are called God's traitors and ours ; in connexion with them we hear of conventicles, p. 118, a phrase applied for ages to Dissenters' assemblies both in England and Scotland ; accomplice also appears. In p. 118 stands ye Jiave great cause and matter to, etc. ; these words were synonyms in the earliest French. In the papers of Coldingham Priory, between 1429 and 1440, we remark the old name Cuthbert altered into Cud- bart, p. 109 ; hence comes Cuddie. A Scotchman writes about the kirkmen (sacerdotes), our churchmen. The Prior of Durham is addressed as 50^?' Lordschip in p. 109 ; in another part of the same letter gude lordsship is used for favour. One letter is signed, be ^oi~s (by yours) in all thyng, David Home of Wederburn (p. 109). He translated the French form and set the fashion to future English writers. Among the Verbs are, oure charging (overcharging). The Active Participle in yng is supplanting the old Northern and in Durham. In p. 110 stands as to your fee to be (such) / agree me ; the to be was afterwards to be altered into being, another instance of the confusion between the Infinitive and the Verbal Noun. In p. 104 stands the clause of reservation ; (something) all way mite taken, the Ablative Absolute. A knight is addressed in p. 114 as wirsliipfull Sir. On turning to Rymer's documents, between 1429 and 1440, we see the river Loire under the forms Lyre and Leyr, p. 724 ; a well-known province appears as Langdocke, showing that the French had begun to clip the last vowels of langue. Cardinal Beaufort wishes to have certain speres and bowes at wages, p. 420 ; here the weapon stands for its wielder. In p. 635 Henry VI. talks of the re-taking of a truce ; this is an early instance of re being prefixed to an 248 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. English root; we see in French law documents re-eyant. In p. 421 is the phrase for oo cause or other ; in the next page we hear of the thriddes or other games of werre, due to the Crown, an early hint of our way of expressing fractions ; the Numeral seems to be turned into a noun. Among the verbs are, beryng date of this day, havyng regard to it, lay by a thing (put on one side), yeve trouble (an early instance of this noun ; it was usually travail), put undir arest, answer for (be responsible). The Passive voice comes forward, as usual ; the Jcyng may be sent unto, p. 727. We see howbeit, with no that following/ p. 424; under conditions is in p. 420. The French words are Cruciat (Crusade), Capitain- ship, to estyme (value), proves (proofs), Doctour of lawe, popu- lous, to convene and assemble (in a Scotch document). In p. 420 a cause is solicited ; hence our solicitors ; the word had appeared in France in the foregoing Century, and soon came to be used of law matters. In the same page stands he is agreed to licence; in p. 421 he agreeth him to it; it took some little time to settle these idioms. In p. 424 stands they entenden the subversion, a meaning borne by the French verb 200 years earlier ; further on we see, to entend with the Cardinal (come to an understanding) of these senses the first alone survives in our mouths. In p. 426 comes he treted (induced) him to goo, he and his retenue (here, by the way, the last he ought to be him) ; further on stands entreat (tractare). In p. 727 we find pleine refusing ; hence our plain dealing ; this sense has been lost in France but kept in England. In the next page we see places enclaved ; the wars with France were bringing in many new words ; enclave is a word well known to readers of newspapers, since Napoleon III. took to rectify- ing boundaries. In the Political Songs of this period ('Master of the Rolls,' ii. 146-205) the chief point of interest is the long poem on English trade, compiled in 1436 by some fore- runner of Gresham. The author has a high respect for the late Richarde of Whitingdone, calling him " the sonne of marchaundy, that loodesterre and chefe chosen floure, p. 178. The Old English mceddre (rubia) now appears as ?nadder. II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 249 The d rounds off a word at the end ; the French riban takes the form of ruband, p. 173; both ribbon and rib- band are used in our day. The k in the middle is struck out; market appears as mart, p. 179. A Romance ending is fastened once more to a Teutonic root; hinderaunce comes in p. 176. A Latin word is literally translated by thinge publique, p. 178. There are the nouns, cheffe staple, swerd of astate, sea keping. In p. 175 comes the phrase XII pens in the pounde. Among the Adjectives we remark mery Yngland for the first time, p. 156; this was often repeated in the Eobin Hood ballads. Mention is made of Higlie Duch ; as gode as gone (lost), p. 187; this last idiom is a little changed since the year 1280. In p. 193 stands I can say no bettere. The verb pulle takes the sense of bibere, p. 169. In p. 176 the poet thus delivers him- self, they wolde un/pen our nose with our owne sieve ; this proverbe is homely but true. The last clause is a foretaste of the favourite apologetic phrase of our penny-a-liners, " according to the vulgar adage ; " they probably think the author of ' Don Quixote ' the most underbred of writers. There is a new adverb in p. 203, singly to sleep ; perhaps our snugly may have some connexion with this. Among the French words are found bucram, policie (political interest), expensis, peasemaker, for verry shame, rounde aboute envirmin, Iwr chaunge (speaking of traders). In p. 187 metal isfyned; the French word was affiner. In the same page a post is spoken of in the old sense of pillar ; Ireland is here called a post under England. Here is a flaming outburst in praise of Henry V. (p. 200); the poet most likely thought Teutonic words vulgar, when so high a theme was in hand ; he may be compared with Chaucer, when the latter writes of the Virgin ' ' What had this kynge of hie magnificens, Of grete corage, of wysdome and prudence, Provision, forewitte, audacite, Of fortitude, justice, agilite, Discrecioun, subtile avisifenesse, Atemperaunce, noblesse, and worthynesse, Science, proesce, devocion, equyte, Of moste estate his magnanimite ! " 250 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. This poem upon English trade leads us to consider next the documents in use in the City of London about 1440, such as the oath taken by apprentices and by newly-made freemen. These may be found in Blades' ' Life of Caxton,' pp. 145, 146. Here we see shopholder (keep has since encroached upon hold), lotte and skotte (transposed by us), to have right and lawe; when an animal is given law, he possesses a right to a certain privilege. We see the feliship, not the Company, of the Mercers. There is the rising idiom, rules made and to be made, the Past and the Future com- bined ; also, here your parte ; hence the later bear a hand, do your part. The Romance words are, secrets (in the Plural, which is new), to emplede men. An English version of the ' Gesta Eomanorum ' (Early English Text Society) was made about the year 1440, perhaps not far from Salop, for we see forms like mery, beld, (aedificare), thelke, p. 90 ; birde, 106 ; huyr, p. 229 ; a phrase of Piers Ploughman, first and fur]>ermost, is repeated in p. 228. The most Southern forms are, i-be (the Past Participle often keeps its prefix), lungen (lungs), bu]>, dupe, I not ; both iubet ! &nd iebet (gibbet); the Southern u comes even into contrucion and conducim. This is the last long work with strongly marked Southern forms. The Northern forms are, thou was, kytling, what kynne, }>ou lies, even to the bone, steyne (lapidare), trays (trace). The English translations of the original were printed rather later, and went through about twenty-five editions within 210 years. The treatise must have been in the hands of all that aspired to be good preachers, thanks to the theological moral appended to every tale ; and I suspect that, through Tyndale, these Gesta have had an influence upon the diction of our English Bible. Some of the phrases here found are, similitude, transgression, have indignacion, have his desire, break the ship, set in ward, sey on, unmutable, bowels (pity), ensample, Iww that, to her -ward, drew nigh, babe, oi^deynfor a law, hole of his sickness, now (the Greek oun), put trust in, anhungred, astonied, Sirs. In this work cross and dog are employed, to the exclusion of the old rode and hound. The Teutonic words, now obsolete, are very few, perhaps not more than sixty in the whole of the bulky ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 251 treatise. Thirty years later a lasting barrier was to be set up against the further loss of old words. As to letters, the a, replaces e, as wariour (bellator). What had hitherto been usually written schet (clausus) now becomes our shut, p. 127. Among the Substantives we see deth-bedde, stoner (lapi- dary), lyme-pyt. A judge, about to sentence a man to death in p. 102, calls him derefrend. A man calls a woman deer love, p. 220. There is the phrase, hillis and dalis, p. 134; the first word used to formerly be downs. The Old English han-crced now becomes cockis crowe, p. 298. An Emperor, angry with his brother, addresses him as }>ou 3oman ! p. 318; in p. 311 carle is used, like the Southern clioiie, for a mere boor, opposed to a rich man. In p. 248 stands a f&ide pleye. As to the Pronouns, there is what of that? p. 255. Among the Verbs stand come to soth (the truth) of this mater, make lamentation, make contynance as (quasi), rested never till he liad, etc., put a-bak fro, go to werke, take honours, p. 176 ; do a good tornefor me, keep his bedde, begge mybrede. We have come to (accedere), p. 5, with no noun following ; hence our naval hove to. In p. 220 stands }>ow makest hit so straunge to me ; we should now say, make such a strangw of me. In p. 319 we have sette up sayle ; set sail had come earlier. An Impersonal verb governs the Accusative in p. 239 ; a man speaks of rain falling on his eyes, and says, lete hit reyne hem (them) oute of the hede. A noun is turned into a verb; pes was felashipid among hem, p. 135. There is the strange coupling of Teutonic and Romance synonyms in p. 81; dampnyd to the foulest deth \ai I can deme. We have seen verbs like order and suffer followed by a Passive Infinitive ; we now have, in p. 174, he coveytith a man to be cmiplid to him ; our verb want, used in this sense, is now very common. In p. 267 stands if it be come to this poynt ; hence our "it comes to this." Among the Adverbs we find hielyplesid, go forth (forward) and bakward, told how it was with (them), howe is ]>is? The old Adverb manli, used in 1310, is thrown aside for man- fulli, p. 229. We see in }>e end, the on ende of 1220 ; many 252 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. now find that this is a poor phrase by the side of eventually. There is the unusual phrase in p. 12 used of a wronged husband, his ivife tooke an cfyer undir him. This may mean "shielding herself under his reputation;" it can here hardly mean "under his nose." We have in p. 74, lok }>e dore upon him; with the usual hostile sense of this pre- position. There is the new phrase, he tJwught to himself e, p. 112; this is very different from Wickliffe's she saide with ynne hir self, the Gothic in sis (Mat. ix. 21). We know the old French construction to be seised of; this is now further extended ; / shall purveye me of another frende, p. 130. In p. 68 stands Hum liest in thi hed ; we should here use teeth; the in here is instrumental, as "in Adam all die." The French and Italians use per or par, coupled with throat, for the in first quoted. In p. 10 stands the old saw, of too evelis }>e lasse evill is to be chosyn, where evils replaces Chaucer's harms. The one new Scandinavian word found here is scroggi (rough, covered with bushes), p. 19, whence our scraggy; it is written scourgy in p. 20. The French and Latin words are, per consequent, specius, governance, infect, credence, moralite (moral of fable), natwrlt/, cocautrice, pronosticacion, profetis (profits), corpulent, sugiestim. In p. 2 a wizard is called a mystnman ; the term given by American travellers to Indian sorcerers is mystery man. The word bowelis, as in the Bible, is here in constant use for misericordia. In p. 30 it is said that Christ has ordered each man to keep the saboth day ; this is the first English instance, I think, of the Hebrew word being applied to the Chris- tian Sunday. A man of low birth calls himself aporfelow, p. 122. In p. 123fantasiis, changing its meaning, expresses " knicknacks." In p. 1 62 we have, pursue the law ayenst him ; in the next page Jiave goode lawe upon him ; in our " take the law of him," the of must stand for on. In p. 215 save youre Beverens is addressed to an Emperor. The French per dieu comes into the text in p. 224 ; two pages further on we have a very French idiom, Lorde, that ther //]> manye that, etc. ; our how many there be ; the French form unnumberable is in p. 241. In p. 248 Sir is for the n.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 253 first time addressed by a man to an animal ; a man thus speaks to his lion, Sey, sir ! jeo vous pri, have i-do, sir / In p. 260 a man is communid (receives the communion). We see such words as diliciousites and dilectabilites. There is servitute, a direct imitation of the Latin, p. 44 ; and statute (statua), p. 27. The Old English spend makes way for the Latin expend in p. 53. In p. 105 we read of nedefull necessariis. In pp. 108 and 109 Jubiter and Jovem are alike used as the Nominative. The French and Latin sometimes stand side by side; as febilnesse and fragilitee, p. 241. In p. 43 an Emperor is addressed as thou by an inferior ; we saw in 1415 something like this. The Englishman sometimes does not trouble himself to translate his Latin text ; he talks in p. 237 of kinge assireorum; there is also congruli, impel (impetus), and quadragesme. In the year 1440 a Dominican, living at Lynne, wrote an English and Latin dictionary, which he called the Promptorium Parvulorum (Camden Society). He tells us in his preface that he followed the Norfolk dialect alone, which he had used from his childhood. He has all Chaucer's hatred of inaccurate copyists ; he objects to interpolations such as honde pro hande, nose pro nese ; " let the transcriber write hande vel hond, nese vel nose." Some of the friar's terms are still current in his beloved shire, though not else- where. Few old writers have been privileged to have such a modern editor as our present author has enjoyed in Mr. Albert Way. There are certain peculiar words and forms that remind us of the ' Handlyng Synne,' compiled not far from Lynne, 130 years earlier. Such are dawntyn (fovere), many maner wyse, mattok, eke name, nygun, solowin (maculare), squyllare (lavator), stresse, tysin, geinsay. The prut ! Manning's scorn- ful interjection, reappears as ptrot or trut, p. 505. As to the Vowels, a is sometimes clipped at the begin- ning of a word ; atyre and tyre, arayment and rayment, are alike found. We see the broad sound of the a in mageram, which we now write marjoram; what we now call sap is here written saappe. The a supplants i and y ; masch-in and carlok stand for the old misc-an (miscere), and cyrlic 254 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. (eruca). The Old English cespe (populus tremula) is here represented by both aspe and espe. The e is sometimes dropped at the beginning, as chete (fisca) for eschete ; 1 also in the middle, for the Perfect Participle acolede becomes acolde (frigidus), to be afterwards used in King Lear; Chaucer's dayes ie is now seen as daysy ; the man who looks after warrens is here called a warnere, the source of a well- known surname. The e seems to be added to words to express a new shade of meaning; a man may be bad (malus), but a shilling is badde (invalidus) ; a church feest differs from a worldly feeste; so lok and loke express different nouns; Jeere (feretrum) is distinguished (who forgets Can- ning's squib on Whitbread?) from the various other meanings expressed by bere. We see demynge and dome, preef and proof, smeke and smoke, all alike. The old wifel (curculio) still lingers as wivil, but there is also the new form wevil, our weevil. The e replaces u, as embirday for the umbridei of the 'Ancren Riwle.' A rewme (rheum) of the head is also written reem ; the old bewpyr (pulcher pater) and the new bepyr appear ; throughout this Century e was encroach- ing upon ew, and this accounts for our present way of pronouncing Beauchamp and Belvoir. The word boy had borne the sound of bu in 1300, but it is now written bey ; the old adjective scheoh becomes here schey or skey, our shy. The i in the middle is clipped, for belschyd stands for our embellished. The French word for ox appears as byffe, much as we still pronounce it. The word lust, by a vowel- change, takes two separate meanings; lust appears as voluptas, libido; list as delectatio, libitum ; Gower's lustles changes into listles. The eo is struck out ; the old belle yoter (bell melter) is seen as belle^tare ; hence comes Billiter Street. The o replaces a; there are the two forms cope and cape for the Latin capa; there is ocorn as well as acorn, a false analogy. The o replaces e in dolfin and brodin (f overe) ; in this last we have still the two forms of the verb breed and brood ; the old hemleac appears as humlok (cicuta). The o replaces i, for trollyn is found as well as tryllin (volvere). The author keeps 1 Shakespere, in his ' Merry Wives of Windsor, ' lias a pun on the old and new meanings of cheat. ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 255 the Teutonic bloo (lividus), and the Komance blewe (cseruleus) carefully distinct. The o is inserted, to mark off hoope (circulus) from hope (spes) ; it is struck out in heron, which becomes hern. The twofold sound of oy is here plainly seen, as in bu and bey ; we have poyntynge (punctacio), and poyntynge or peyntynge (pictura). The aveer (property) of 1390 appears here as havure, this oi being the connecting link ; our behaviour was soon to appear. We know how often v was written as u ; we have here the forms recuryng and remown written for recovering and removen ; the givegove of 1220 appears here as gugaw, our gewgaw. So the govel (gafol) of 1230 is now seen as goul, devil as dewle ; there are both the forms cJuivilbon and chaulbon (JOAV! bone). The Scotch use doos for columbce ; in this book columbar appears as dowys hoole. As to Consonants, the b is inserted, for cemyrie is seen not only as eimeri, but as eimbi-e, our ember ; it is curious in this book to see many words change, as it were, before our eyes. We have here the form bedrabylyd, which we have since turned into bedraggled; draggled is found in Gavin Douglas ; in the present work we find drubly (turbidus), the Scotch drumly ; a good instance of the connexion be- tween b and m. The form snipe appears instead of the old snite, which Lydgate had written snyghte. There is a very late instance of the old hn at the beginning of a word : hnoppe, our nap of a coat. Chaucer's chirk is here en- croached upon by the new form chirp. The word notliak (hacker of nuts) has not yet been softened into nuthatch, and peske is formed from the foreign pesche (peach). There is muschyl as well as muskyl ; we now drop the k when sounding the word. Carle and chorle stand side by side ; also ketil and chetil, pik and piche (pix). The Old English sc sometimes holds its ground ; thus sceol appears as sculle, and has not yet become shoal. The c is prefixed, for the former rimpil (ruga) is found also as crympylle ; the c is in- serted in the East Anglian way, as in squatter ; it replaces h, as in quysper, quele, and other words. The k replaces p ; we have the clakke as well as the clappe of a mill ; this change had appeared in the 'York Mysteries.' The k 256 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. replaces t ; we see the French name hadot of a certain fish turned into haddok. The old Eelative whylke keeps its place beside the corrupt whyche ; the old ece (dolor) appears both as ache and ake (the former sound was favoured by Kemble). The ch encroaches on c, the French s, in launch. Gower's was (aqua) is seen as wasche ; our author well knew the Wash. The h is docked, for hreol (alabrum) is cut down to reel ; owing to this h failing, our word for mugire became confused with our terms for humiliare and flammare, all alike being low. As to g, the old egg (ovum) had hitherto been softened into ey or ei, almost without an ex- ception, throughout England; but here we find the two forms ey and eg. In this work we find the three forms, agayne, a^eyne, and geyn, as in geynbyyng. It is to East Anglia that England owes the preservation of the old hard g in so many words, as gate, give, gainsay. It was East Anglia that kept drag (trahere) alive, while all other shires leant to dray and draw ; even the French alayen (allay) is in this book turned into Teutonic aleggyn. The warnish of former English writers now appears as garnish. We see gest (hospes) followed by geeste (romance) ; the g in the last word may have been softened; the old gist (spuma) is altered into $eest ; lawere and lawyer are both found. The gh is dropped; there are both the forms Irmigh and truit. The d is doubled, as ruddi for rudi; it is inserted, for we have here the two forms hegge and hedge ; the old Icenan (com- modare) now becomes leendyn. The d at the beginning is clipped, for we find the form spiteful, not despiteful. On the other hand, affodylle has not yet the d prefixed to it. The d replaces t, as clodde (gleba) for clotte ; it replaces ]?, as in rodyr (rudder). We see dunch used as well as bunch (our punch) for tundere ; while dunche and lonche are two forms of the word for sonitus ; a curious instance of the inter- change of consonants. In some shires a horse's kick is still called a lunge. The t replaces J>, as tol-pyn ; it is added to a word; the dare" of 1280 now becomes claret; it is in- serted, for Wickliffe's swalien appears as swalterin, our swelter. There are the two forms thretti and thirti; the latter must have come down from the North. The old ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 257 Icp.tta now becomes latthe, our lath; and the old cudele (sepia) becomes cotul, our cuttle fish; it is odd that we have to supplement this noun with fish. The I is added, as in stoppell, hovel; it is inserted, as in wyndelas (windlass). The / replaces r, as mellow for the Old English mearu (mollis) ; lorel for Gower's lorer (laurus) ; it replaces s, for Lydgate's primerol becomes prymerose. The n is prefixed, as in neke name for eke name; newte for the ewte of 1390, the old efete (lacerta). On the other hand, napron was to lose its first letter a hundred years later. The n is struck out, for there is elle, our ell, as well as the old elne; so we find halpworthe for halpeni worth, p. 492; the w in this word was to vanish 170 years later. The word incenser loses its first syllable and becomes censere. The n at the beginning is clipped ; we see owm- pere (umpire) as well as the true nowmpere. There is the bird martnet, where Shakespere later substituted I for n. The n is inserted ; the popegai of 1390 becomes popynjay ; it is struck out, as in rose mary (rose maryne) ; it makes way for m, as mygreyme (megrim) from emigranea. The r is added, as webbare (textor) for webbe. The r in the middle is struck out, as prokecye (proxy) for procuracy ; we have already seen foster. The s is added, as in tydyngys (rumor). As to scratch, here first found, it is a compound of the two forms scratten and cracchen. The w is inserted; the old wermod becomes wyrmwode. We see, in p. 68, the first instance of our replacing h by wh, whence come whole and whore ; whole (calidus) is here set down for hot. I will point out a curious instance of mistaken philo- logy. The old mucgwgrt, our mugwort, was in some shires written modirwort ; an author, inditing a few years before this time, thus explains what seemed to him to be an English corruption, "Mogwort, al on as seyn some, mod- irwort : lewed folk J?at in manye wordes conne no ry3t sownynge, but ofte shortyn wordys, and changyn lettrys and silablys, >ey coruptyn ]?e o into u and d into g, and syncopyn i, smytyn awey i and r, and seyn mugwort." Among the new Substantives are, chaffinch, chekinwede, 1 See the note in p. 347 of the ' Promptorium.' VOL. I. S 258 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. crelle (creel), bulrysche, p. 244, cranke (haustrum), crykke (spasmus), hull (of ship), locker, sound (of a fish), sinke (latrina), starche, coite (quoit), teal, whyrlegyge, codlynge (gadus), u-hytynge (piscis). The chuff e (rusticus), found here, has given birth to the chuffy (clownish), still heard in Yorkshire. There are new combinations, as almesshowse, barly corne, barlymele, bandogge (bandog, canis vinctus}, brasyere, brydelime, brood arowe, chese- kake, cokerelle (a Shakesperian word), cokkys combe, dullarde, doume goynge, etynge howse, fly flappe, fote steppe, hange manne, howskepare, hornpype, husun/fery, kechyne knnrc, kyngys fyschare, loksmythe, madnesse, mowsare, neverthryfte (a wastour), owte caste (or refuse, Wickliffe's outcastyng), pan- kake, penne knyfe, rynge wyrme, roof tree, schavyngys, schoynge home, silkunrm, suklynge, swerde man (swordsman), sunne ryse, thundyr clappe, tol-pyn, upholder (the tradesman, who was to become upholster forty years later), wagstert (wagtail), waterpot, weyfarere, whyte led, whytlymynge, wyldefyyr ; Tre- visa's tmlyghting now becomes twylyghte. The old hengest (equus) now gives birth to heyncemann, soon to become henchman. The word neb had lost its former meaning fades ; it here expresses nothing but rostrum ; it was soon to give birth to the nib of a pen. The word wytche may here translate either magus or maga ; but we find vnsard elsewhere. The old bysynesse keeps its Southern meaning of diligencia : the further sense of negotium may be seen in p. 30. The honourable sense of bonde (colonus) had van- ished ; the word can now express nothing but servus ; lente can now no longer English ver, as of old ; it is reserved to translate quadragesima. We seefitin (mendacium), whence our fib seems to come. Gower's comlihede is now replaced by comlinesse. There is a fashion of adding French endings to Teutonic roots ; we find here hangement (suspencio) ; we have seen certain words ending in ard. The ster was no longer a peculiarly female ending ; browstar may now stand for a man ; maltestere, appearing for the first time, is applied to either man or woman, and it is the same with webstare ; tapstare to women only ; thakstare to men only. The ling is added, for the old steer becomes steiiynge, our starling. We see the renowned proper name Gybonn used as a ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 259 synonym for Gilbert ; the form Bete is given as the English for Beatrix ; the Betty of our days is supposed to express a longer name, and may have been confused with Bessy. The forms Kyrstyone and Crystyone are used as proper names, with the transposition to be found in cers and cress. There is the unusual word murche (nanus), whence Murchison must come. Barbour's new Celtic word stabbe (vulnus) has arrived at Lynn on its way to London ; there is also his owtynge. The English telt is still found, as well as its foreign supplanter tent. There is here an attempt to derive blun- derer from blunt worker ; in the same way cymbal appears as chymme belle. The imitation of French compounds, first seen in 1280, now produces lyhdysshe (scurra) ; a hundred years later this kind of coinage was to be in great favour. We light upon the clumsy nouns, gaderynge togedur (col- lectio), comynge-too (adventus), to-falle (appendicium) ; the last is something like a lean-to. There are both the forms byynge-ayn (redempcio), and the neater agayn-byer (redemp- tor). We read in p. 358 of a forthebryngar fro ^outhe to age (nutricius) ; one of the last attempts at compounding with forth. In this lexicon, when an English word bears two or more senses, it is carefully repeated, as bede or bedys (numer- alia), and bede (oracio) ; different Latin words are given for fela or felowe (socius), when reference is made to companion- ship at meat, in travail, in office, in walking, in school, in guilt. So as to the word kervare (carver), three senses are given ; referring to meals, to a trade, and to the oldest sense of all (obsolete in our day), the simple meaning of cutting anything whatever. We see here h/velode with its old meaning victus, and with its later meaning of 1340, donativum. The word loome still keeps its old general sense of instrumentum, which we have lost ; there is also its new particular sense loome of webbarys crafte (telarium). The word pley stands for ludus, then for spectaculum ; the plcy that endeth with sorrow is called tragedia, and the pley that endeth with mirth is called comedia. Next we find pleyfere, which was to be replaced by Tyndale's playfellow. The old camp (pugna) can now express nothing higher than a match at football ; camping land is still known in East 260 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. Anglia. The verb rcedan (interpretari) and redan (legere) are now confused ; and there is a third verb redyn formed from the old hreod (arundo). The verb fret had fifty years earlier changed from edere to corrodere ; a pain may now be called a fretting. We find not only hanging (suspencio) but some new verbal nouns, the hangings of a hall, a church, or a tent, each with its Latin synonym. The new word bahche (our batch) is formed from baking loaves. The word comb expresses, not only favus, crista, and pecten, but also strigilis, "of curraynge." The old frame no longer means commodum, but expresses fabrica. It is curious to find lerare or lernare Englishing both doctor and discipulus, a strange confusion. The word pype may now be used of organs ; the substantive pul (tractus) is formed from the verb. The word stone (calculus) now expresses a disease. We see the old sailyard ; and %erd is moreover used as a synonym for a rope. There are both the old ruddok and the new redbreste. Among the new Adjectives are fit (congruus), irksum. We have seen lucius (luscious) ; we now have lush (laxus). There is the old lothli, and also the new lothsum. We saw great-hearted in 1220; we now find lyght hertyd, lyghte handy d, grey her yd ; there is also yvel menynge, a synonym for false. The oldest meaning of seli appears for the last time, I think ; for it is here translated by felix ; the word's history from first to last has been most curious. The adjective onsyghty stands for inmsibilis, very different from the later unsightly. The old Scandinavian werre, the Scotch waur, had by this time died out of East Anglia here nothing but werce stands for pejor. The old dceft had meant mitis, but now deft is set down as hebes, the Scotch daft ; the York folk had given an exactly opposite mean- ing to deft. Wickliffe's lifli (vitalis) here takes the sense of vivax, and is moreover spelt liveli. The word bold has both a good and a bad sense ; audax and presumptuosus ; a girl is by us still called " a bold thiiig." The old ruful bears two meanings ; full of pity, and full of pain. The old dredefulle means both timidus and terribilis. We find fayre first in the sense of pulcher : then as amoenus, applied ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 261 to weather; then comes fayre spekar (orator); the meaning cequus is not here given to the word. The adjective drye is applied to kine that give no milk. The word fresche means, not only recens, but redimitus, and is explained "joly and galaunt," as in Wickliffe; in our day, a man in his cups is said to be rather fresh. We read of myry weder (hence comes an English surname) ; this sense of jucundus long lingered in the word, as in " it was never merry in England since," etc. The phrase opun synnare is rendered by puplicanus, and is explained to be "one without shame." One of the three meanings of scharpe here given is velox, which explains our "look sharp." We read of smal wyne; we now apply the adjective to beer. Many new substan- tives are formed by adding nesse to adjectives ; we have here bestylynesse, craftynesse (indu stria), coragyowsnesse, p. 422, feythefidnesse, fewenesse, kendlynesse, predowsnexse, sly- nesse, synfulnesse, werdlynesse (mundialitas). Even Chaucer's bmtnte becomes here bonlyva&nesse. The old usage of Adverbs was now forgotten, for these are lengthened out by a needless ly at the end, as asunderly, astrayly ; we see onknowyngly for the first time. The Salopian phrase of 1350, in ]>e mene while, now loses its first two words. The author points out clearly that agayne conveys the two very different meanings contra and retro. We see the phrase owte, owt, described as an Interjection ; while owt, applied to a candle, as in 1300, is translated extinctus. Sohowe (soho) is called a hunting cry. As to the Verbs, the author repeats some of the com- moner sort very often, coupling them with prepositions or adverbs ; thus we have been abowte, yn bysynes ; been aqweyntyd (noscor), and many others ; so goo wronge is but one out of fifteen headings. It is plain that grow is en- croaching on wax ; we have growe olde, growe yonge, and others ; in fact, the grow now answers to the esco at the end of Latin verbs, though we still find sowryn as well as growe soivyr. The verb make is largely exemplified, as make dene, make drunkyn, make fat, make knowyn, make perfytte, make pleyne, make redy ; make mery has both an Active and a Middle sense. We see put awey (repudio), put forthe, put 262 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. to geder. Many adjectives follow wax, as wax febyl, wax fatte, etc. The verb wynd-yn has six different meanings. There is the verb chenk, p. 75. There are several new verbs formed from nouns, as bowl, brain, church, gutt-on (exentero), bacch-yn 1 (back, retrofacere, p. 240), husbond-yn, moolde, netl-yn, pynn-in (intrudere), snare, howgh-in (hough), from the old hoh (poples). The old suken seems to have paved the way for a new verb sokyn (infundere), our soak. Some verbs have here more than one meaning ; thus dwell- yn expresses the old manere, and the later habitare. The old varpa had meant projicere / it now means curvare, just as we use warp. The verb pyn-yn drops its old meaning cruciare, and expresses languere. The old nym (capere) was to seem to Palsgrave ninety years later to be " dawche (Dutch) and nowe none Englysshe ; " still it is here set down, and also its derivative nom-yn, " a man taken with the palsy," our numb. Three different meanings are set down for lowr-yn. We see that arreptus might in 1440 be Englished by latchyd, fangyd, hynt, or caw$t ; of these the last, the foreign word, is the only one that now keeps its ground in Standard English. There is the old adverb grovelynge or grovelyngys ; but there is also a nominative case grovelynge, translated by supinus ; so the word seems to have been mistaken for an Active Participle, coming from a supposed verb to grovel. We see schyllyn owte (shell out), and ly-yn yn referring to childbed ; have beyng, p. 30 ; goo to and begin a deed (aggredior) ; syttyn at mete ; most of them Biblical phrases. There are many words beginning with the privative on or un, such as onhurte (illaesus). The verb play governs an Accusative, being the game played, as pley-yn buk hyde. The old overlive had not yet made way for outlive ; at least, we find ovyrlevare (superstes). There is a curious new verb thowt-yn or saying thou to a man (tuo) ; this verb became common about 1600; there is another verb yet-yn, or saying ye with worship. It will be remembered that the sharp distinction between thou and ye was drawn not far from Lynn in 1303, for the first time in England. 1 We may now back a horse physically, or back it pecuniarily ; the verb here has two meanings exactly opposed. n.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 263 The new words akin to the Dutch and German are More (blare), hoppe (humulus), loytr-on (loiter), moder, the East Anglian mawther l (puella), masel (serpedo) ; the Plural maseles (meazles) also occurs about this time ; z bumm-in, s clam (clammy), foppe, luk (luck), dapir (elegans), molle (mole, replacing moldewarp), nagge, nodil, pikil, pippe (pituita), plasche, rabet (cuniculus), stripe (vibex), top (turbo). Our frump, applied to an ugly woman, may come from the Dutch frommel (ruga), which is here written frumpil. The word daw is akin to a German word ; we here see cadaw (monedula). The old German kil (calamus) has a u in- serted, which produces quylle. The Scandinavian words are bawlynge, p. 20, cms (our cruise, cantharus), chyrne (churn), cilte (glarea), to crasch, clamerin (clamber, meaning here reptare), flegge (acorus, our flag},fligge (fledge), gaunt, legge (ledge), nesin (sternutare), rumpe, roche (roach), scale (piscis), sqwyrtyl (sifons), step-in (inf undere), bolke (bulk), burre (lappa), pegge, spudde, shrug, wikir, typ (pirula), })imbil/ in this last a b has been inserted in the Icelandic }>umall. The Swedish flaga has given us our flaw ; in this book we see the two forms whitflowe and whitlowe; this is still called whickflaw in some shires that is, a flaw that hurts the nail to the quick. We see the source of Shakespere's " she had a tongue with a tang" a word still known in Yorkshire ; the Icelandic tangi (aculeus) is seen here as tonge, which must not be confused with our word for forceps. One of the words for a beacon here is forborne; for this the Danes use baun ; Palsgrave was to show us the word transposed as bonne-fyre. There are the Celtic words bug (larva), bung, hassock, moppe, proppe, gagg-yn (suffocare), coker-in (fovere), and also whin from chwyn (weeds) ; the word here means ruscus, but we now restrict it to furze ; there is the verb job (f odere). Among the French words are but (meta), awburne, babulle (bauble), batylment, bokeram, byscute, caryare (vector), chine (spina), core, corn (of feet), cressaunt (lunula), dormowse, 1 This comes in the ' Alchemist ' and in ' David Copperfield. ' 2 The old mesel (leper) did not last much longer. 3 Used in Tennyson's ' Northern Farmer.' 264 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. boni (bunion), bunne (placenta), cedyr (cider), crani (cranny), cork, dram, entyrfer-yn, entre (ingressus), ferette, frise (frieze), flewe (flue), garbage, gyyste (joist), graceles, fouaile (fuel), goord (cucumer), glacynge, which is our grazing (devolatus), a grate, hale (halo), jurnalle, lint, manuele, marmeset, novys, pan-Ji, pentaivncere (penitentiary), pere (pier of a bridge), petycote (worn by men at this time), plater e, promptare, pump, purcy (in wynd drawynge), queryster (chorister), quyver (pharetra), robou'S (rubbish), sawcyster (sausage), scanne, scren (screen), spawn, spavin, squerel, soket, sole (fish), spykenarde, stacyonere (bibliopola), sukyr candy, tankard, tann-in, terrere (canis), tysyk, tortuce (tortoise), trelis, trenchowre (a knife), vestry. There is the musical mynyn (soon to become mynym). The union of Teutonic and French is seen in the following combinations : aftyr parte,forne parte, aneys seede, contremann (compatriota), dubbylman (falsus),/eyw/ hertyd, fowre corneryd, fryynge pann,pavynge stone, fery place, hydynge place, watri/nge place, peynfulle (penalis). There are some Teutonic words that take ard for a suffix, such as dullard. There are the two forms canel and chanelle for canalis ; these we now carefully distinguish. There is a curious attempt to Teutonise half of a French word ; Manning's kauce, the Scottish causey, re- appears, but there is also the new form caucewei. We are reminded of the famous Norfolk partridges by the word cove (covey), here first found. There is tempyr (tempera- mentum), a sense the word had borne in France about the year 1400. There is not only the Old English line (funicu- lus), but also the French line (linea). There is a long Latin description of the Seven Agys ; we find the Parti- ciple agyd and ag-yn (senescere). The adjective nice, which was always changing its meaning from 1300 to 1800, here takes the short-lived sense of iners ; waitin bears its old meaning of obsercare, though in other parts of England it conveyed a different notion. The verbs cachyn and chasyn here still bear the same meaning, abigere, though the former, when employed as a Verbal Noun, may also mean appi'ehensio, its new sense in 1360. The verb payyn means solvere ; in 1440 it can mean placare only when it is in the Past Participle. In 1397 doutful had meant t&rriUUs ; it n.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 265 now changes its sense to dubim. The Avord rewle here means, not only government, but the normal instruments of grammar, and the carpenter's tool. We see coller applied to hounds, to horses, to a man's garment, and to a livery badge. The word sqwyar is explained by gentylmann, and by the Latin words armiger, scutifei: We find sute meaning both prosecutio and sequela ; we now use suit for the f ormer, and suite for the latter. The word caucyon, following the old French usage, is explained as wedde (pledge) ; hence comes the caution money at Oxford. The communyone is used as a synonym for the Eucharist, I think, for the first time ; a hundred years later, it was to drive out the old housel. As to clere, it may be applied to the weather (serenus) ; to water (limpidus) ; to man's wit (perspicax). We see batyldoure, but this means only an instrument for washing clothes. There is the term bace pleye, whence must come prisoner's base ; this in Mirk had appeared as the game of bares. Chaucer's broudin now makes way for inbrowdyn, our embroider; a struggle seems to be going on between the French and Latin forms ; we have endyte, entyrement (funerale), and envye, but also indyte, yntyrement, and invie ; there are inmevable, insur-yn, and many such. The in is certainly preferred to the en; but the on (the usual un) abounds ; we see onmevable, onable (inhabilis), onrepentaunt, and the curious ontelleable among many others. The Latin abuti is translated by both dysuse and mysse-use; in our time, the foreigner has sadly encroached upon the home- born prefix. We have dressure or dressynge boorde, which we have turned into dresser. The word curfew had often appeared in our French legal documents, but never in an English book, I think, until we here see curfu. The Latin, as corrupted by the Northern French peasants, is now sometimes pushed aside by Latin brought straight from the fountain-head ; we find both fassyone and fadyone (forma), both olyfaunt and clefaunte. Chaucer's noun refute is now Latinised into refuge. Trevisa's enter in is expanded into entryn ynto a place ; we have both returnyn and turnyn a$ene for reverti. The Latin rector is put down as equivalent to persone, curate; the sense of the latter was to change a 266 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. hundred years later. There is muskytte, a small hawk, which, like the falconet, was to furnish a term for weapons of war. We have but two prepositions mentioned as attached to the Infinitive pass ; one of these is pacyn aver, whence came Tyndale's passover. The adverb cowrsly is formed from cours, p. 271 ; it here means "according to Nature," or " as a matter of course ; " Bishop Pecock used the word a few years later. The Persian schach or shah (rex), coming through France, had before given rise to the word check, when the king in chess is threatened ; we see in the ' Promptorium ' both chekkyn (scactifico) and chekyn (suffoco). Mr. Satchell published in 1883 a treatise on Fishing that seems to date from about 1440. The r is added to a word ; the foreign mespilum, mesle, medletre, becomes our medeler (the tree), p. 8. We see heyghoge (hedgehog), blake thorne, schoyt (shoot of a tree), grelyng (grayling) ; also the technical rod, angler, lyne, floote (float), flye ; the old mycelnes appears as mochenes (size), p. 30 ; whence our much of a muchness. There is the verb lond (land) applied to fish ; and the new phrase ye may hap to take, p. 22 ; not the old it may hap you to, etc. There are the Celtic maggot, the Dutch blister, and the Scandinavian chobe (chub). Among the French words are signet (cygnet), vise (the tool), and the noun souce ; a hawk is brought to the souce (sudden downfall), p. 3 ; hence the verb souse down on, of about 1570. This is the same word as sauce; the idea is, plung- ing something in pickle. We may assign to 1440 or thereabouts the 'Lytell Geste of Robyn Hood ;' it has some new words common to it and the ' Promptorium,' such as, swerdeman, buttes (metae) ; there is also Audlay's nye of his kynne. 1 The Monarch of the story is Edward, called elsewhere our kynge in the usual loyal style of English ballads ; the poet would naturally throw his tale back seventy years or so, to the days of the hero of Cressy, who went about in disguise. The new phrase mery England is repeated here. 1 The edition I have used is that of Ritson, reprinted in 1823. The present poem has not so large a proportion of obsolete words as that of ' Guy of Gisborne.' ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 267 The ' Geste ' is due to the North ; the scene is laid near Doncaster ; we see the words Yole, devilkins, win to it, mosse (palus), smart (acer), to-morne, tyll (ad), home; the lodesman (dux) of Manning appears as ledesman. But the poem must have been transcribed in the South, long before it was printed about 1500 ; hence we find beth, y-founde ; the a is sometimes altered into o, and there are mistakes, such as, se for fee (merces), myght for mote, hens for hethen or hennes, none for nane, well for wele, Uyth for blive, as we see by the rimes. There is a Yorkshire phrase in p. 32, " God is holde a ryghtwys man " (being) ; something like this may still be heard at Almondsbury. The ' Geste ' abounds in words that were soon to become obsolete in England, like derne, hende, wedde (mortgage), halfendele, me longeth; dereworth (pretiosus) is misunderstood as before. The transcriber knew nothing of the him (famulus) of the North, so writes it hynde, though it rimed to dine ; on the other hand, we have turned linde (tilia) into line or lime. There are old constructions like, the trewest woman that ever founde I me ; Robyn bespoke hym to the knight. We hear of a sorry housband that is, a man who could not husband his resources well ; the verb husband stands in the ' Promp- torium.' A promise is made to the distressed knight that Lytyll Johan will stand him in a yemaris sted ; hence our do yeoman's service. We find the old ballad phrases trystell tre, grene wood tre, Lyncolne grene. Among the Adjectives are fat-heded, to be long (in doing something), fyne ale browne. A knight complains (something like this appeared in 1360) that his friends will not know him when he has lost his goods : a very old instance of this phrase for cuttings man. We see stand used by robbers in their technical sense of the word when they stop travellers. There is have his answer, make a release. Among the Adverbs stand whither be ye away ? as in Lancashire ; wystly, the first hint of our wistfully. We see, among the Prepositions, wayte, up chaunce, ye mowe mete (upon the chance that) ; here up or upon is prefixed to a noun denoting something future ; the old hereupon had referred to the past. The old but, at the beginning of a sentence, might still express nisi. 268 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. Among the French words are a, pare present (humble gift), male hors (baggage horse), like our mail-cart. The old route is here used as a verb, to rout up the cmmtre, as earlier in York. The ballad of Robin Hood and the Potter' seems to belong to the same time as the foregoing poem ; the piece has been transcribed by an ignorant writer sixty years later, who writes ey for i, as dreyffe, mey : an early instance of this change, which led the way to our present pro- nunciation of drive and my. The poem must have been compiled in the North, perhaps not far from Wentbridge, which is named ; we find herkens (audite), thow seys, deijell (diabolus), they schot abowthe, as in the 'Cursor Mundi;' here we should insert turn after the verb ; a to-hande (two-handed) staffe, as in the ' Yorkshire Wills.' The copyist was puzzled by the old he cujpe of corteysey, and writes the verb cowed ; the Old English cocer (pharetra) is written quequer, a hoarier form than that in the ' Promptorium.' This copyist must have put in the Southern loketh (videte). There is the curious substitution of nor for than, which may still be heard ; y had lever nar a hundred ponde that, etc. We see God eylde het the, where the second word has lost a y at the beginning. In the ' Morte Arthure ' (Early English Text Society), dating from about 1440, we find doffe of thy clothes; here there is the contraction of do off, and the of comes twice over. In Gregory's Chronicle of this time we remark Chaucer's new word for courtiers, coming in p. 189, thoo aboute the kynge. We hear of the Prevy Seall (an official). About this time we find a few new words akin to the German and Dutch, as sprotte (sprat), brick. There are the Scandinavian smatter (crepare), and cliokeful (choke-full). 1 In the 'Plumpton Papers,' between 1440 and 1450, a few things may be remarked. The French joues is now written jawes, p. Ixi., still keeping the old sound. There are the nouns karving knyves, p. xxxiv. ; a sight (number) of people, the spring of the day, p. lix. ; whence comes day- 1 See these words in Stratmann's Dictionary. ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 269 spring ; the new howbeit is written how it be. There is the verb roble (errare), p. lv.; it may be the parent of ramble. We see the phrase to faire foule with (fall foul of), p. Ivi., lie in waite to, a future Biblical phrase. There is a literal translation of the French in a law deed ; alway forseene, that if, etc., p. Ixxxv. In the 'Testamenta Eboracensia,' vol. ii. (1440-1450), the Maulde of former years now becomes Maude, p. 123. In ii. 106 we have in one sentence both the old verb and Wickliffe's new form ; a bequest is made to a priest to myn my saule and minde me in his prayers. Among the new Substantives are spout and kyndenes, which may be done to a man, p. 119. A testator gives so much to every yoman in housludd, and half as much to every grome, p. 113; a distinction of ranks. We read of longe bowis, p. 113; men take administracion, in the same page. Among the French words is guarte potte. We hear of coral bedes and gete (jet) bedes ; chaundeler refers in p. 112 not to a man, but to a light ; we have since found the form chandelier convenient as a distinction. In p. 132 we read of silver with the louche of Paris; hence our touchstone. In a chapman's inventory, iii. 104, we see bonet used for a man's head -gear, while women's caps are mentioned later. In ii. 254 we come upon devyne service. In the records of Coldingham Priory, vol. i. (1440-1450), we see King James II. using the Northern form convoy, not the Southern convey ; the former was first seen in Barbour ; our tongue is all the richer for these two forms. The Scotch turned the French parlies into payrtiez, p. 120; a curious instance of dialectic peculiarity. We see the forms Home, Hume, Howme, all referring to one Scotch house ; the dispute on this between the author of Douglas and the Essayist on Miracles is well known. Gilbert is cut down to Gib, p. 138 ; we know the French change of I into w ; just so the Scotch used awssa for alswa, p. 140. There is a startling change in p. 160 ; the old cude (potuit) is written culde, from a false analogy with shulde and wulde. The n is dropped; Wyntoun's garnison becomes garyson, p. 149. In p. 133 stands the phrase chaunge it far the bettre ; here 270 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. some substantive is dropped after the last word. The noun unkouthness is used in p. 138 for estrangement; ground takes a new meaning, the causez and grounde (causa), p. 160. Among the verbs are gang throw wyth his maters, have in derision, lede a process upon ; in Scotch law proofs are still led. In p. 119 stands / can noght say yha ne nay. The Southern " not long ago " appears in the North as no$t gan lang sen, p. 132, a hint of the future auld lang syne. The French and Latin words are surrendour, lawe canon et cywell (civil), a tak (lease), intimacion of it, this instant monthe of Aprill, aparcyale Juge, to purport, predecessor; this last has unhappily driven out Piers Ploughman's forgoere. The Scotch writers had been fond of suppose; it now stands for if; suppoze he say it, p. 147. Our prefer (it was otherwise in France) may in our time bear the two senses of anteponere and promovere ; they seem to be combined in prefer him before all men to the priory, p. 116. A man near death is said to have diseese, p. 121; the sense of incommodum is giving way to that of morbus. In p. 152 men have hasti expedition. In reading the 'Paston Letters' (1440-1448) our hearts are at once drawn to Margaret Mauteby, the lady who was married to John Paston in 1440 ; she uses old East Anglian forms, such as ghat, xal, dan (our than). Another Paston has the old noun breke for breach, p. 72. There is the form sord (gladius), p. 74, showing how w was dropped in the new pronunciation of the word. Among the Sub- stantives we see the surname Dowebegyng, iii. 424, which was known all over the land in the days of the Crimean war. A Viscount is addressed as your Hygnes, p. 73. We see in an Inventory, iii. 418, the words fleshoke, pykforke (pitchfork). A new sense of dole, that still lingers in Norfolk, appears in p. 58 ; it here means a stone used to mark off divisions in land. In p. 60 stands our common the trouth is (that). Margaret Paston, in p. 69, describes a man as schyttyl wyttyd; perhaps our skittish may come from the same Swedish root skyttla (discurrere). Among the verbs we remark geve hym a lyfte, p. 71. A man, in p. 69, would have sold his goods, he had nowth rowth to qhom ; we should now say, "he cared not to whom;" a new use of ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 271 the Relative. We see (out) of the Kyngs gode grase (favour), p. 68. The head of the family is dutifully addressed by his younger brother as Syr, and Margaret writes to her ryth wyrchypful hwsbond ; our post cards now give little space for titles of honour. There is a French letter in p. 64 which shows the source of many of our English phrases ; we there read pour cause que, non obstant, faire difficultey, la dicte isle, en iempz advenir ; there are the Latinised forms of 1370, like escript and soubz. We may particularly re- mark le non aage de, etc.; in p. 50 we find non first pre- fixed to a Teutonic word, your noun comyng hedir, a phrase written by a man learned in the law. We have buffet (a piece of furniture) ; in the same page, iii. 420, stands lignum in le carthows, a curious mixture of Latin, French, and English, in one item of an Inventory. We see the French participle enterlessant (interlacing), p. 65 ; this end- ing in ant must have reminded the East Anglians of their old Participial ending in and, which was not yet gone. In the years 1447 and 1448 a long lawsuit was drag- ging on between the Mayor and the Bishop of Exeter. The former, John Shillingford by name, has left us a most interesting series of letters to his townsfolk, describing the progress of the suit ; these have lately been printed for the Camden Society. We know that business from all parts of the country came before the London lawyers ; and these, riding their circuits, must have appeared in the shires as missionaries of the best style of English. Thus, in the present instance, we see how the New Standard, spoken at London for the last three generations, was mak- ing its influence tell on the far West, the country which, as Giraldus Cambrensis says, had most perfectly kept King Alfred's forms of speech. In these ' Letters ' are found the Northern forms their, tham, that, nor, not, same, byseke; while the native ham, tho, and thiJce, p. 23 (usually thilke), also appear. There are, moreover, the Southern o (unus), bulls (bills), puple, we bufh, it was ydo ; the Southern pre- fix is kept even before a foreign participle, like y-nportfd ; this was to last only thirty years longer, at least in writ- ing, as a general rule. The old thearf remains in Ithersay, 272 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. p. 35. The tyme of servyce doyng preserves a very old English idiom, for here the Accusative is placed before the Verbal Noun. The English sound of chif is already found, when Chif Justice Fortescu is mentioned. We get a hint as to the old sound of early in some Southern shires, when we find yerly in p. 16; yeve stands for give. The y is inserted in a word, as on the Severn ; yncomyers stands in p. 112. The w is prefixed, as in Salop ; we find wother (other), p. 117. The t is added in parchemente. Among Nouns we remark the curious phrase my lorde is (lord's) gode lordship, p. 1 5 ; where Lord Chan- cellor Kempe is referred to. Certain proofs are committed to the wysedomys of the Judges. In p. 49 a thing is done with hardnys (difficulty) ; in the next page hardly stands for laboriously. The Mayor talks of " our comynge Jiaste to London" p. 54 ; here the in that should have come before haste is dropped ; our post haste is well known ; something like this had appeared in 1230. WicklifFe had already written bac half ; here in p. 86 we hear of the bale side of a building. Free comyng and going stands in p. 100, where we have to use entrance and exit. Among the Adjectives the old form lowlokest (lowliest) is preserved in p. 132. In p. 7 the Mayor enters the Chancellor's ynner chamber, a form peculiar to the South. In p. 38 raw stands for novus ; we now often couple it with soldiers. We hear of dredefull and mysgoverned puple in p. 112, a new sense of the adjective ; hence comes our "dreadful rogue." In p. 109 something is proved gode and true. As to the Pronouns, we see that the Chancellor Arch- bishop, the first subject in the realm, uses the polite ye when addressing the Mayor, p. 6. The use of the Northern yours has reached Exeter ; in p. 17 stands money of youris. In p. 56 comes they and alle theyris. The his is often employed as the sign of the Genitive, as my lord of Excetre is tenantis, p. 44. Another Northern usage is whas names (quorum nomina), p. 118. The morun, p. 18, is used in the South much as in Scotland now, where they say " how are you the day ? " seeing no need to use on befor n.j THE NEW ENGLISH. 273 a Dative case. There is a strange arrangement of the Numeral in p. 115: Kyng Harey is tyme the Thirdde ; in p. 120 stands the iij de Kyng Harry is tyme. As to the new idioms of Verbs, what was the Dative Absolute is now turned into the Nominative, even in the South, he menyng (this), p. 13 ; in p. 30 he to fele seems to stand for lie being to fele. In p. 92 there is a startling change of idiom which did not become common until 300 years later ; being is prefixed to a Past Participle ; wyn is being y put to sale; this idiom is repeated in p. 100. We know the disputes that have arisen about the confusion of the Infinitive and the Verbal Noun ; in p. 32 the Infini- tive mistrusten is altered by the Mayor into mystrustyng. There are new phrases like put in answers, p. 2 ; abyde (stand) apoun theire right, p. 21 ; make myche of this matter, p. 30 ; x do gode (be of use), give over (cease), p. 46. There is the first hint of hounds throwing off in p. 36, where the phrase seems to stand for breaking loose. In p. 7 to morun stand for eras. There is we were thurgh (finished), p. 37 ; here the preposition becomes an Adverb. As to Prepositions, there is Pecock's habit of coupling them before the case governed, as by and to suche, p. 106 ; yn and of the cite, p. 110. We find apon my sawle in p. 16. The Yorkshire unto (p. 63) is now known in the South. What we call in their turn was known of old as for theire torne, p. 138. There is the puzzling Interjection Alagge (alack) uttered twice by the Lord Chancellor Archbishop in p. 18 ; it was thus most honourably introduced into English speech. The new French phrases are demene us, U is his part to, a rule (given by the Chancellor), etc., to travers him. In p. 37 the Chancellor stands yn his astate near the fire ; that is, in the robes of his dignity. In p. 56 comes to all ententis. There are words like symytery (cemetery), robill (rubble, rubbish), p. 89 ; nude, p. 132 ; to noyse, surmyse, yong peple, misrule, retaill, noysaunce (nuisance), precyncte, trial, compre- 1 In later times great has encroached on much; we should now write "a great deal of." At the same time we say, " make the most of it." VOL. I. T 274 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. mys, to notise. Entrety and trete both stand for the same thing, tractatus ; it is the same with the verbs entrete and trete. We hear of my Mayster Radford (a renowned lawyer) and my Maistresse his wyf, p. 61. The mayster is cut down to our common form Mr. before a surname in p. 89. The verb commaund in p. 61 expresses our commend ; the latter appears in p. 15 ; comander in Old French expressed both jubeo and commendo ; we have found it convenient to separate the two meanings. There is a compounding of Teutonic and French in the words comyscyoner, p. 139, coronershipp. A French Participle appears, written both joynaunt and junant, in p. 86 ; joyning is also found. In the next page our abutting is seen with the first letter clipped. Alliteration affects French as well as English words ; in p. 88 things are kept saf and sure. The French ending acion is- tacked on to a Teutonic root in p. 95, where we read of the stallacion of Bishop Leofrik. We constantly hear of the mynysters of the Church, and of the close where they dwelt. An action may be reall, personall, or myxte, p. 139. We see both the old auctoritee and the new authoritee, p. 1 39 ; in the same page charters may be cancelyd. We hear of the justices of peas now beynge or (in) tyme to comynge ; in the last word the confusion between the Infinitive and Verbal Noun reappears. In p. 88 sus- pecious bears its Passive, not its Active, sense. In p. 19 we hear of a greet barre (number of lawyers). We find the Under Tresorer mentioned in p. 7 ; a translation of the French sous; in our day we talk of a sub -way. The English thrall has the French preposition en prefixed in p. 98. The very (valde) has not yet reached Exeter from the North East. About this time we meet with the adverb on abrest (abreast) and the verb abreathe horses ; the latter was to lose its first syllable in the next Century. See Dr. Murray's Dictionary. In 1449 Pecock, Bishop of Chichester, brought out his work, the ' Eepressor of overmuch blaming the Clergy ' (Master of the Kolls), written against the Lollards. Pecock was the greatest English prose writer that flourished in this ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 275 Century ; he was fully conscious of his talents; for none of our standard writers have ever betrayed so much self-con- ceit. He is said to have written books in English for twenty years together. He much insists upon " the doom of natural resoun," which is clepid moral lawe of kinde. He is a forerunner of Hooker, not only in his matter, but in his style ; Pecock forestalls the writers of 1600 in his long sentences (some of seventy words), and in his use of the parenthesis; see p. 86. He is fond of Latin words, and often employs Latin constructions, such as the Accusative coupled with the Infinitive ; he has all Orrmin's love of the Passive Voice, as weren to be blamed, p. 227. He frequently repeats a foreign construction, such as, with other therto bi reson dewe circumstauncis, p. 1 ; her propre to hem boundis, p. 3 2 ; prech- ing has his dew wiseli to be don exercise, p. 90 ; something altogether new in English. He likes to couple Teutonic and Romance words, as leeve and licence, donab.uris or $evers, p. 412. He is fond of Manning's wolde God, and often has the Northern corruption seen in thou tookist. He has the Northern phrases to make a^ens it and the utterist degree. He sticks to the Southern hem, thilke, and clepe, and the Plural of the Present Tense, forms which were now going out. He gives us a well-known proverb anent familiarity ; overmyche homeliness with a thing gendrith dispising, p. 184. Pecock illustrates our English fondness for ew by turning the Latin subducere into sttbdewe. We see lousid (solutus), p. 517, just as we pronounce the word. He inserts the o, and so talks of a thoru$ faar (thorough fare), p. 521. He has ways of his own in forming the endings of Sub- stantives ; thus he adds er to old words in his first page, and gives us the overer, the netherer ; he uses a French end- ing when writing overte (superiority), p. 299 ; also gold- smythi (the trade), p. 50. He is the first, I think, to employ badnes, p. 105. He is fond of ing in the Plural, writing holdingis (tenets), makingis; he gives us our common word feelingis, p. 87, using it for sententice ; also suffringis, failingis. We see the Plural almessis, p. 550. It was a 276 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. custom about this time to set un before old words very freely; Pecock has the unhavyng of this, p. 89 ; many un- helpis (lets), p. 108. He employs Plural nouns in new senses, as natural helpis ; he makes a substantive of an adverb, in othere wheris (places), p. 27. He has phrases like it is in being, p. 1 2 ; mis undirstonding ; a rateler out of textis, p. 88 ; modir tunge; his dai labour; the lotting (allot- ting) of cuntrees, p. 198; a brigge at his laste cast, p. 338; here we now make gasp the word at the end. He coins a new substantive in " Goddis forbode be it but that," etc. ; this he often uses, dropping the be; see p. 537. He uses schaft, p. 28, for the stem of a tree ; hence we employ it for columna. He calls the Lollards oure Bible men, and doctour mongers ; the last part of the compound was creep- ing into more extended use ; the heretics called themselves knowun men, p. 53. He has i$e si$t, leevis (in a book). He has both clock and orologe in the same page, 118; but avoids Lydgate's word dial, though describing the thing. He tells us that the part is sometimes used for the whole, giving as an illustration the Old English habit of employ- ing the word winters for years, p. 151. Another old sense of a word is seen in " foulis and their briddis " (pulli). The Southern Genitive Plural appears once more in lewen preestis (ludaeorum). We see in p. 371 "whether he be kny3t, squyer, gentilman ; " here a distinction seems to be made between the two last words. Among the Adjectives we see naught turned into an adjective, p. 430 ; nau$t and badde ; we now add a y to it. In p. 552 stands lordli. Pecock is fond of the foreign able as an ending for adjectives ; he has unberable, seable, smelle- able, doable, and many such ; this we first saw in Hampole and Wickliffe. He sometimes tries the foreign ose or ous ; craftsmen appear as craftiose men, p. 450 ; there is also costiose. As to Pronouns, whiche stands for the kindred qualis almost for the last time, p. 313, as well as for gui, quod ; it is often used here as the Neuter Eelative. In p. 99 comes the curious ivhatever (thing) whiclie. In p. 171 we have what is it to us that, etc. In p. 492 comes deedis whos it.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 277 forbering is, etc. (refraining from which), a rare idiom. Instead of whose, in p. 2 1 5 is found the iugement of whom ever hath seen. Pecock likes to couple two or three syno- nyms ; thus he has oonli or aloone, p. 1 2. There is ech such man, p. 243; eny oon person, p. 384; also the new repetitive idiom twixe per soon and per soon, rewme and rewme, p. 450 ; eny man, preest or no preest, p. 295. He is always bringing in two words of his own coining, evereither and neverneither. He Englishes multum thus, bi a greet deel ; we now drop the bi. Instead of our "so much for that," he has the short sharp sentence, thus miche there, p. 197. Among the Verbs we remark would beginning to encroach upon should (oportet) ; as if so, it wolde folewe tliat, etc., p. 24; thouj, a man wolde denye, p. 186 ; still in Pecock slwuld sometimes keeps its old place. In p. 95 stands thou"$ God schulde not and wolde not suffre ; we have now all but dropped the should, except as a synonym for debere, though we still say, "it should seem that." The shall, as in Manning, is used for soleo ; thei han mouth and thei schulen not speke, p. 153. In p. 112 we hear of a sermon to be prechid ; the about, which we should insert after the noun, had not yet appeared in this sense. Two Infinitives Pass- ive are strangely bracketed in, what ow$te be askid to be doon, p. 517. In p. 351 stands bileeve (it) to be trewe. There are phrases like born into liif, renne thorny (a book), make an assaut, make proof of, make a yifte, make no difference, make answer, prechingis rennen arere (into arrear), p. 90, do sewtis and servicis, lock it up, han no place in matters of faith, have part and lott in, have access, a weel tried revelacioun, bear office, alle thingis considerid, hold residence, turn jewelis into money. Pecock coins a verb in ooned (united) to God, p. 41; also to unworship God, p. 64; later writers made this disworship ; to strengths it, p. 67, to be bodied (em- bodied), p. 245. A curious Latin idiom is, it is walkid ari$t, p. 75. The revenues are said to schrink (become less), p. 347 ; in p. 374 a leg is said to loll (dangle) from a stirrup ; Piers Ploughman had long before spoken of lazy devotees as lollers. In p. 548 we hear of the biasing colour of dress ; something like our loud patterns. In p. 278 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. 563 Lollards, speaking of the Eucharist, myscall it bi foule names; the first hint of our calling names. In p. 102 stands ther came into my knowing, that (came to my know- ledge) ; in p. 246 ydolatrie came up. In p. 377 stands he mai avorthi (afford) to have ; here the old iforlpien loses the sense of perficere, and the idea of command of money comes in. Among the Adverbs we see men comen rathir (sooner) or latir, p. 94; of the newe (anew). In p. 19 stands men musten needis granule; we can now never use this old adverb (nearly all its old strength is gone) except after must ; in p. 192 Pecock coins nedisli. There is a change of meaning in " to speke wiildeli," p. 72, referring to hyper- bole ; we have piththeli. The that is dropped in y am sikir (that) thei wolden, p. 71. In p. 370 we have esilier, and in p. 268 the corrupt esier, which is here a comparative adverb; in p. 159 comes Jcnele louder (lower). In p. 267 stands whanne and whilis he is present; the coupling of these is something new. Pecock is fond of imitating the Latin quin ; not so myche lasse but that, etc., p. 344 ; y can not see but that, etc., p. 433. In p. 350 stands so or so or so it is writun, which is unusual. The notwithstanding is employed for quamvis, p. 355, and for tamen, p. 402, no that following in either instance. The as is still further developed, for it stands before Passive as well as Active Participles ; take it as for doon (done), to which Pecock adds the explanation, or as thouj, it had be doon, p. 394. Turning to Prepositions, he is fond of anentis ; he has gift under trust, in large lengthe (at great length), p. 563. He often prefixes up to verbs. He objects to fore as a prefix, for he has the before goyng conclusioun, p. 167 ; he is guilty of the strange blunder, to biforbar (prohibere) a thing, p. 477, where the verb is the French bar, and where the intensive for should be prefixed, as in the verb forpamper. Pecock is fond of setting over (nimis) before Romance adjectives, as over contagiose, in p. 345 ; according to a favourite idiom of his he has over and above it ; but he couples more than two prepositions in his out, fro, and bi an occaxioun, p. 327. He employs toward in a new sense ; toward the eende (of a book), p. 303. In p. 458 he has of Ink state ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 279 with, a new idiom, where the preposition supplants as. We see obiecciouns Uholding the bible, p. 85 ; this is the first hint of our regarding used as a Preposition. Among his Romance words we. see lay men, waastful, pointis of lawe, vituperaciwn, neutralis, unsavory (sermon), necessarili, habituali, alloweabili, usuali, abhorre, to cumpeny with, a concordaunce (for the Bible), a reverent persoon (man), rehercel, assignees. We see how many long foreign adverbs Pecock brought in. He has to dress words to (address), p. 2; streyn a text, p. 58. We see the substantive choice (pur- pose), p. 42. The Latin form is often preferred to v the French; we see the conversis (converts), p. 59; cartJs or chartouris are coupled in p. 402. We find graceful in the sense of gratus, p. 66 ; curiose in p. 245 is something strange that cannot be understood, reminding us once more of quaint. In p. 68 attend to is used in the French sense (expectare) ; in p. 85 it is used in our present sense of the word (operam dare). In p. 135 we find waite to be hoosilid ; here the first verb, bearing the sense of morari, governs an Infinite Passive. In p. 74 we read of sensitif wit (referring to the five senses) ; in p. 519 we see in one sentence, inward sensityve wyttis and outward sensityve wyttis. In p. 88 detect means to inform against ; the verb in this sense comes often in Lollard trials seventy years after this time. In p. 103 we see improve with the meaning redar- gues; and in p. 120 comendyng gets the new sense of laus. The adjective symple means stultus in p. 157; it means Jwnestus in p. 272. In p. 183 something is doon in the better forme (way) ; the last noun has in our day come into great vogue. In p. 450 we read of badde maners (con- duct) ; in p. 519 maner means custom. Pecock gives, in p. 484, the two meanings borne in his time by the word religioun, touching on the well-known passage in St. James. He clings to the old way of forming the comparative of Adjectives, even if they be Romance, for he has evydenter and perfiter ; there are also vertuosenes, quietnes, contrariose, prestial (priestly), religiosite. He prefixes un to Romance words, as unfruytful, unusid, p. 431. For vinea he has both vyner, p. 389, and vyne gardein, p. 383. He makes opinioun 280 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. and Church masculine, calling them he, pp. 96 and 334. Pecock continues our old verb stie, but brings in ascend, the stranger that was to supplant it. He has a favourite phrase of ours, manye ^eeris in successioun, p. 306. In p. 477 stands expropriat poverte, that is, a state of life that forbids holding property. The famous ballad of ' Chevy Chase ' may date from about '1450. Here we find the Northern Jamy ; also driver and spearman. The word like is used in a new sense (ut decet) ; Douglas marshals his host, lyk a cheffe cheften of pryde. We see meet him on man for on (man to man). The half stands before a Passive Participle, as half done. The Stasyons of Jerusalem (Horstmann, ' Altenglische Legenden ') may belong to 1450. We hear of Candy (Crete), p. 356, and we find the word quaryntyne in p. 365; it here means the place where Christ fasted forty days. We read of the covere of conies, p. 361, a new form ; it was usually covert. The traveller is struck by the fact that the Latin clergy at Jerusalem wore long beards ; they were barefooted friars, p. 359. In the same volume, p. cxxi, may be found the word herthstede, whence comes our fire place, in a document of this age. There are some poems in ' Eeligious and Love Poems ' (Early English Text Society), pp. 52, 95, 215, which seem to belong to 1450. The Southern Imperative, ending in eth, comes often ; on the other hand, there is the Northern in no kyns wise. We see weel at hir ease, where the pro- noun is something new. There are the new phrases better saide thanne doon, I betake me to, etc. In p. 217 we hear of a soukyng sore ; this shows us the source of Tyn dale's soak- ing consumption. Among the Eomance words we find obstynate. We see the form defyled, p. 104 ; like the pre- vious undejUed. There are many pieces, dating from about 1450, scat- tered through the ' Keliquise Antiquae.' In i. 91 stands a curious mixture of English and Latin in hexameters, be- ginning with an invective against fleas, flies, and friars ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 281 " Fratres Carmeli navigant in a bothe (boat) apud Eli, Omnes dreneherunt, quia sterisman non habuerunt." Something not unlike these lines has come down to the schoolboys of our own day. In i. 324 stands " Is gote eate yvy. Mare eate ootys." I well remember, about 1850, hearing in Devonshire the line, rapidly pronounced, as a puzzle " Can a mare eat hay ? can a goat eat ivy ? " A favourite usage of schoolboys dates from 1450 or so; we see in ii. 163 " He that stelys this booke Shul be hanged on a hooke. Whane yee this boke have over-redde and seyne, To Johan Shirley restore yee it ageine." There are several other couplets of this kind given here. The phrase " not at home " was used to troublesome visitors in 1450 ; see i. 271. In i. 2 is a poem on the miseries of the sea. There is the sailor's cry, y how (yoho) ; we hear of the bote swayne and the steward, who is ordered to bring a pot of here ; this beverage had hitherto been hardly men- tioned at all. The passengers also partake of a saltyd tost, the first appearance of this last word as a noun. The word mate is used, like fellow on land. The command is given, vere tlie shete ; the verb is French ; the shete for the first time stands for velum. In the Treatise on hawking the former Tomme is now cut down to Tom, i. 84. We see the new Substantives dovecote, quicsand, nightcap, grub. In i. 25 comes / am your man, addressed to a lady ; this noun we usually address to a comrade. We hear of the ruff (roof) of the mouth, i. 300. There is the Shakesperian eyas, used of a hawk, i. 294. Among the Adjectives we find lyglit of love, i. 28 ; a woman is called chiri ripe (ripe as a cherry), i. 248. 282 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. Among the Verbs are flusch (put up game), bubble. There is gagul, used of the noise made by a goose ; hence Bishop Montague's book, nearly two Centuries later, called C A Gag for a Goose.' There are the phrases have lovers in hand, drive the dust in his eye, keep (maintain) a wife, to hold abacke, set foot there, take payne. The proper technical words for hawking are given in i. 293 ; a hawk eyrs (the French aire means nidus), but does not breed ; hence came eyrie ; so in p. 296 a hawk nims its prey, but does not take it ; a covey is merked (marked), p. 297. When we say, "I cannot help it," help means prevent; we see the source of this in p. 301 ; that the hawke schal not dye thus a man may help hit. The two forms lorn and lost occur in one line, i. 50. As to the Prepositions, in i. 261 stands nowefor the fourth poynte ; this for had hitherto been to. There is the Scandinavian flounder, the iish. Among the French words are salpetre, sausage, trinket, vitriol, radish, decrese, money maker. The word galant had been so long in use that it gives birth to galantnesse, i. 75 (bravery of apparel) ; gallant and brave later underwent the same change of meaning. In i. 77 nyse loses its old meaning of stultus, and bears the exactly opposite sense of discriminating judgment; a meaning it may still bear. In L 303 we have both the old triacle and the new treacle ; it here loses the sense of remedium and gains its present meaning. We learn in i. 296 to speak of a covey of part- ridges, and of a bevy of quails. In i. 28 is the common be rewlyd by me. In the next page, Stafford blewe seems to have been as famous as Lincoln green. The Book of the Knight of La Tour-Landry (Early English Text Society) was compiled in French in 1372, and was translated into English about fourscore years later. It may be due to Salop ; we see the forms seing that, melke, kesse, fere (ignis) ; there are the Northern nor, are, sen (quoniam), eggis (ova), manered, as in 'Piers Ploughman,' and leude (libidinosus, p. 23), Myrc's sense. There are many Southern forms, such as suster, beth, thilke, ydo, she nis not, moche ; we find in one sentence the two old forms of ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 283 the Imperative, knouithe you and Jwes therof, p. 83 ; there are both thair and her (illorum) ; the Southern her follows a Northern idiom and becomes heres (theirs), p. 53. The English word for subula had been pronounced in Southern England like the French oul or ioul ; but in p. 67 it is written all, just as we pronounce it, following the unusual sound of Wickliffe's dl. There is the very old form beriels (sepulchrum) ; other parts of England had clipped the last letter ; there is also sithe (time), and the form wonder de- vout, p. 8 ; this way of expressing the Superlative had been peculiar to the Severn country for 250 years; there are, moreover, the Severn transpositions nwe (novus) and renue ; the oldpitous has the usual Severn insertion piteous, p. 136. The r is added, for the old splent becomes splinter, p. 9. Among the Substantives we see the form is used to form the Genitive, both for female and Plural nouns; mention is made of daughters, and then comes atte the eldest ys hous, p. 9. We see bayte used in connexion with fishing, p. 59. The modern use of our gossip is fully ex- plained in p. 96, where one godsib passes on to another a wondrous tale, " till all the centre spake therof." We hear of a cutting of vynes, p. 8, used to form a bed ; hence a well-known term in gardening. [Among the Adjectives we see brayne sik, p. 20 ; hate langage, p. 19. As in the ' Promptorium ' the word fresh, applied to dress, is used as a synonym for gay all through the book ; so fresh and fair have been coupled ever since. The adjective mannisshe is applied to "a woman that is not humble and pitous," p. 136; this ish has often since been used to express an evil shade of meaning, like bearish, loutish. The Nominative of the Pronoun replaces the rightful Dative in she hadd ben beter to have been stille, p. 32 ; the old out of his wit becomes oute of hym selff (beside himself), p. 6. In p. 81 we see the phrase she had not (nought) to do there, " no business there." There is a long expression for nemo in p. 69 ; no maner of man. Among the verbs we see misanswer, put in the way of, bear record, axe (in marriage), how fele ye youre self? 284 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. When we see grapped, p. 139, the Perfect of grip, there is a kind of compromise between the Strong and Weak form. There is the curious idiom (she) lost the king to be her husband, p. 19. One Severn idiom of this work, he made as they (though), p. 77, has been brought into our Bible by Tyndale. In p. 126 stands ne hadde it be that, etc. (" had it not been that "), a common idiom in our days. The former bihabben now appears as behave herself, p. 127 ; there is the noun behaving, soon to be supplanted by another form of the word. In our day a person " has the last word," the source of this is in p. 28 ; she let him have the wordes (all the talk). In former times men let crie festis / in p. 1 10 the first verb is altered into made, following French usage. In p. 11 men wynde up water at a well ; this expression was later transferred to watches and mer- cantile affairs. Among the Adverbs we find derkeling, p. 21, where the old ling is applied to an Adjective, just as sideling and hedlinge (headlong) had been already struck off. A woman is not to answer her husband overthwartly (crossly, p. 28) ; but across was now beginning to supplant the older athwart. We have right so in p. 143, where we now say just so. In p. 52 stands or ever were saide masse ; this curious or ever came into the Bible later; it is like where ever are you coming ? As to the Prepositions, we see marry him into (a family), p. 18. The idiom at the least is carried a little further ; in p. 8 1 stands atte the hardest (our at the worst). We saw in Salop, about 1220, have a dear bargain on (in) me ; we now find, in p. 33, we are deceived in you. In p. 166 comes not so faire bi the seventhe part as, etc., we should say, "not a seventh part so fair." A French idiom, first adopted in the ' Percival,' 150 years earlier, is continued; here is a faire body of a woman, p. 38 ; like our " he is a fine figure of a man." There is one Scandinavian verb, it boted not (availed not), p. 66 ; here no Accusative follows, as 130 years before. This work, as might have been expected, abounds in French phrases ; the writer often does not trouble himself to translate, writing Sampson the fort, parent (kinsman), ii.] THE NE W ENGLISH. 285 couroux, verres (glasses), scorche (flay) ; the old form roialme is found. There are, besides, the verbs goormaunde, puissant, famissh, resuscit, to gage bataile, disarm, to be storied (rehearsed), to endoctrine orphelyns, usance (mos), incontenent (statim), custumer (solitus). In p. 130 stands a plumme tre pruner ; here we have the French added to the very old English synonym. In p. 148 the Virgin calls herself the chaumbrere (ancilla) of God ; but the word has a bad meaning in p. 30, where evil women in France make themselves chambreres to Englishmen ; hence comes the " chambering and wanton- ness " of our Bible. In p. 128 a Queen is attended by her gentille woman. In p. 149 the Virgin shows courtesy and good nature on her visit to Elizabeth ; the latter phrase was not to reappear till long afterwards. In p. 146 there may be recoveraunce (regaining) of time, as well as of sick- ness. In p. 137 men ought to be in charite togedre ; in the next page charitable is opposed to unforgiving. In p. 28 we hear of evelle langage (bad language). In p. 84 symple, coupled with debonaire, expresses our easy-going ; there is a shade of difference between this and humble, one of the old senses of simple. In p. 154 a lady is required (sought) in marriage ; hence our " be in great request ; " the verb, like desire, will express either rogare or jubere. In p. 106 we hear of the faon (fawn) of a lion. There is the portentous compound disworship. 1 In p. 90 a wicked woman is paied ; we should say paid out. In p. 110 we read of excessive vayne glorie ; this paved the way for Tyndale's use of exced- ing (valde) instead of the old passing. Samson, in p. 93, is led to the maister pillour of the hall ; Macaulay's word master-piece is in our time encroached upon by the penny- a-liner's chef d'ceuvre. The ' Book of Curtesye ' (Early English Text Society), composed by an old pupil of Lydgate's, may date from about 1450; it abounds with Imperatives in eth, soon to vanish altogether. The interchange between u and v is plainly seen in demevire (demure), p. 10. The later French 1 I have lately seen a Magazine article, headed "A Dishorned Nation." Do these people suppose that the particle un has dropped out of existence ? 286 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. sound of ch is introduced in schirche (church), p. 10. The \vordfulsumnesse keeps its old meaning of copia in p. 40; but in p. 26 fulsom means satur. There is apish, p. 48. A flog- ging is called a berchely fest, p. 30 ; the first hint of the English tree of knowledge. We read of blounte langage, p. 46. An Adjective is intensified by prefixing a substantive ; in p. 6 we hear that nails ought not to be geet (jet) blake. The pronoun he stands for one in p. 6 ; this childe is he that is well taught. Among the Verbs are fecch a compace, pley Jakke malapert (Tomfool), ye have you (behave you), p. 16. The Romance words are pertinent, advertyse, to brace, cyrcum- spectly, reproclieable ; attendaunce stands for our attention, p. 12. We now talk of "quality and quantity;" in p. 14 we read, Idle maner and mesure be youre guydes twey. There is interrupte, one of the forms derived from the Latin Par- ticiple, not from the French Infinitive. The trainer of youth who wrote the 'Book of Curtesye' directs their attention to the old English poets ; Chaucer has seldom been awarded higher praise than in p. 34 ; he turned our ears into eyes ; his language seemed to his countrymen " ' Not only the worde, but verrely the thing.' " The ' Chester Mysteries ' (edited by Mr. Wright for the Shakespere Society) may have been compiled about 1450; they have come down to us in a transcript made 140 years later. We see, by the rimes, what the original must have been in the following instances : Original. Transcript. In fere (simul) In freye, i. 126. Repreved Reproved. Breres Breyers. Barne (puer) Baron. Fere (procul) Farre. Has Hath. Dalte Dealed. Segh (vidi) Seinge, ii. 77. In p. 174 we see swaine written for the old swoun (our sivoon) ; a curious instance of the double sound of oy, which must have led to the mistake. There are very old words ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 287 like beames (tubse) and thester (tenebrse), which seem to have died out of the South by this time ; there is the Scandi- navian hethen (liinc). On the other hand, we see Southern forms, as i-mente, oo (unus), and sometimes seith (quoniam). Much Latin is used for the stage directions ; some of these Latin words seem to have been Englished much later ; in i. 57 stands havinge restored, a new idiom which cannot well have been set down in writing before 1520. We also see common, wele altered into common welth, ii. 82. The seinge thai (quoniam), which so often appears, carries us back to the 'Lollard Apology' in 1400. Cheshire is not far from Piers Ploughman's country ; we see his word pevishe ; his daffe (stultus) and ratoun now become dafte and rotten. The old nagere (our auger) is still preserved, i. 107. Among the new Substantives are boe-spritte, whippecord. Cain speaks of my dadde and mam; afterwards comes mame and dadd ; these forms are spread over many lands. In i. 52 gossip bears the meaning of the Latin comes, losing its religious sense. The audience is addressed, i. 91, as Lordes and Ladyes that bene presente (our " ladies and gentlemen "). The old deal (pars) is now replaced by bit; my bodye burnes everye bitte, ii. 184. The form gamon is written for game all through. In i. 175 stands the phrase at your becke. Among the Adjectives is elvishe. In i. 229 stands the new phrase thy owine (own) dere. We find, i. 184, have tJiou one (a blow) ; here one has no antecedent ; we still say, " that's one for his nob." In i. 215 stands it is the vereye same ; here very retains a trace of ipse, as we saw in Chaucer's writings. As to the Verbs, we may remark the curious mixture of Southern and Midland forms in the Plurals ; beasts that creepeth, flyne, or gone, i. 22. In i. 55 you mon (must) knowe stands by itself; the phrase is now common. There are take a turne with (have a bout with) ; flye out of his skynne, i. 151 ; brew thin, ii. 82 ; loke, up (search out) a book (found in the ' Paston Letters ' about this time) ; slea them downe, like the burn down of the year 1300. 288 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. We have seen to my knowledge; we now have to my deemynge, to your likynge. As to Interjections, Marye is an oath used by Noah, i. 54. There is a stage direction, i. 136, singe troly loly, something like tra la la. In i. 218 stands the curse, a ven- gance on them; this prefixing the article is curious. We see in ii. 57 the Shakesperian anon, Maister, anon ! equal to our "coming, Sir." The Scandinavian words are filly (equa) and the verb tipple. In ii. 142 we read of skewed horses, the first hint of our skewball ; this seems to come from the Danish skiev (obliquus), irregularly marked. Among the French words we see baronete coupled with barrones and burges. There is the phrase wagewarre, i. 173, where the verb takes a new meaning ; also to caulk a ship. We often see Chaucer's / counggr thee in the sense of obsecro. The Devil is spoken of as Ruffyne, i. 17, which perhaps led to our ruffian. In the York wills, ranging between 1451 and 1458, we remark in p. 175 that a yoman in the house is sharply dis- tinguished from a grome and a hyen (hind) ; we read of lytttl Nanne, a curious instance of n being prefixed. We see the verb will (in the sense of bequeath), ii. 149; in p. 192 stands the old to overlife me; the over in compounds, when referring to time, was thirty years later to be replaced by out. There is the term resedenter (resident), used by Lord Scrope, p. 191 ; this still lingers in Scotland. In p. 176 we hear of the jornenall (journal), which Constable, a York- shire squire, bore always in his sleeve ; these two pages are full of Northern forms. In the 'Pas ton Letters,' between 1448 and 1460, we mark the lingering traces of the Norfolk dialect, soon to vanish from the correspondence of the educated. Sir John Fastolf (the Shakesperian hero) talks in his will of Mikel Yermuth, and has gove (datum), farthyst (not the proper furthest); he also uses the Northern Imperative " sendis me word," p. 94 ; having lived long in France, he writes moyen for mean, p. 309, and ayle (avus), p. 362. Agnes Paston, one of the old school, born about 1400, often writes the ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 289 Infinitive in en, and uses the rewli (rueful) of the Genesis and Exodus poem, p. 219. William Paston has a (he) toke me, p. 302, much in the style of Robert of Brunne; and a Lincolnshire knight talks of women mylkand kine, p. 98. On the other hand, we hear of " pillows of a lasser assyse " (size), p. 478. The word assuage appears as squage, p. 160, like the East Anglian sqmlk (talis) of the year 1280. The forms syns and nor appear in Norfolk use in the year 1450; see p. 179 ; the old chapitle has not been quite ousted by chapter, p. 395. The Duke of York employs the Northern form childre (liberi). while the Duke of Suffolk has the Southern axe (rogare). One of the most amusing things in the ' Letters ' is Friar Brackley's dog Latin, which is sometimes worthy of Moliere's quacks. See i. 524. As to the Vowels, a replaces e; we see harbyger, an official sent on before his Lord, p. 525 ; initial a is clipped, for we see larum. The city of Debylyn has not yet become Dublin, p. 505. The y is prefixed in yelfate, p. 490 ; the Scotch still say yill for ale. The a becomes i in Yimmis (James), p. 514; whence our Jim. Warwick writes goud for the old gode (bonus), p. 95; and the proper name Shuldam stands in p. 191, one of the few words in which we still keep the true old sound of u. We see in these letters both the old Bewcliam and the new Bemond. The Duke of York turns the rihtwus of 1303 intorightuous (Introduction, Ixxx.), not far from our righteous. The old honur is much altered, for we hear of "dishonneurs and losses," p. 259. As to Consonants, b is inserted in debt, p. 370, an un- lucky imitation of the Latin ; the same takes place with p, for attempte stands in p. 457. There is a transposition of letters in p. 172, where the King's taxes become taskys, a word used in the 'Cursor Mundi.' In p. 93 "having rewarde to" is written for "having regard to;" this may also be seen in Pecock. The d is struck out in the middle ; for we see Wenstay (Wednesday), written by the learned Botoner, p. 414. The w at the beginning of a word van- ishes ; bede oman (mulier) is in p. 343 ; this is often heard in our time. The letter z is constantly written for the old 3, our consonant y, VOL. I. U 290 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. Among the new Substantives we find hand-gun, warehows, kynsefolke, rydynghoode, fornoon, forecastell. The powerful Suffolk uses the phrase from kynrede to kynrede, p. 122 ; here we now substitute a Latin noun. Chaucer's brew-hcuse now becomes browere, our brewery, p. 250. King Henry VI., in p. 329, is said to threaten, I shal destrye them every moder sone. In p. 462 a house is to be pulled down, every stone and stikke therof. In p. 512 stands (he) and ye bene grete frendes ; here the grete replaces the former good. In p. 428 we hear of xxviii. sayle (naves) ; this sail is one of the few English words that may be either Singular or Plural. In p. 526 lyflod stands for a man's land, or, as we should say, his estate. Among the new Adjectives we remark hevedy, our heady, p. 514 ; it was long before the old heafod (caput) parted with its middle consonant. In p. 125 we read that Suffolk was beheaded by oon of the lewdeste of the shippe ; here the adjective takes the new meaning of vttis. In p. 224 tall is used where we should now say fine ; on of the tallest yminge men; proper and tall go together in English ballads. Botoner, in his own phrase, p. 369, writes Uontly ; that is, " with little elegance." King Henry the Fifth's change is imitated in a letter of Parson Howes ; otJier, like our some, had usually been both Singular and Plural ; but in p. 311 we find otherez, and in p. 404 othyrs ; the older form still lingers in our Bible. Among the Verbs may be remarked go lose (loose), peke a qwarell, hold fote wyth (keep step with), p. 189 ; he turned pale colour, p. 158 ; fysh the water, bear chargys, ley upp money, thei wylle laboren all that in hem lyeth (Agnes Paston, p. 423) ; breke the mater to, breke aweye (effugere), left for dede, they have as moche as they may do to kep them down, p. 541. Friar Brackley has the curious find no bonys (scruples) in the matere, p. 444 ; a Century later they substituted make for find. In p. 83 stands fall in felaschepe with, the source of OUT fall in with, and the military fall in. A most curious phrase, where we have to search for a dropped Nominative, stands in p. 361 ; Fastolf ys owyng for his reward; that is, " money is in owing to Fastolf ;" something like this phrase ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 291 of the year 1455 has already been seen in 1410. The ruling idea is debetur, not debet. There is another curious confusion of the Verbal Noun with the Active Participle in p. 510, I am yn bildyng of a pore hous ; here the two pre- positions are not needed ; the ungrammatical be a fighting was to come two generations later. In p. 392 something is in doyng ; here we should now, most incorrectly, drop the in. In p. 360 a verb is dropped ; baronies were gotten by Fastolf, and no charge, to the King ; hence comes and no blame to him. In p. 514 the verb broke takes the new meaning tolerare ; it had hitherto expressed only its kindred form frui. In p. 535 certain persons are made for evir ; something like the make, a, man of him of 1320. Seamen are ordered to stryke, p. 85 ; here the Accusative flag is dropped. As to the Prepositions, we find Thursday by thefarthyst, iii. 425, where by replaces the older at. We have long ago seen out of his ivits, out of reason ; we now find he is owte of charite with him, p. 393. The after is coupled with nouns, so as to form one word ; an aftr mater, p. 540 ; fare had long been used in this way. A new Preposition appears in p. 85, / cam abord the Admirall. As to the new words found here, the Dutch vier (quatuor) produced our ferkyn, fourth-kin, since it holds the fourth of a barrel. The same people seem to have given us warff (wharf). Among the Romance words stand a letter (bill) of ex- scJiawnge, p. 78 ; romer (rumour), flagon, saltsaler, streytly charge hem, to quyte us lyke men, joyn batayle, factors (agents), a debentur, p. 364 ; to sort things, to scryble, good conducte, an ante date, to audyt accompts, polityk, a servaunt domysticall, (counter) pane, curass, Morysch daunce, solicitour, trotter. In p. 274 stands she laboured of hir child (Ilithyia) ; in p. 321 to labor e the jury, like our " work the oracle." In Norfolk carry hay seems to have been the right phrase, p. 219; some shires talk of leading it. In p. 427 a town is refreshed (refurnished) with ordnance, a French phrase that comes in Froissart ; hence " to refresh the memory." The French verb foumer gives us an instrument, here called a skymer. In p. 480 a piece of linen is said to be of a certain length, 292 THE NEW ENGLISH. . [CHAP. countyng lenthe and brede; the Participle is used like Chaucer's considering. The legal verb demur is used, not for moruri, but for obstare, in p. 90. We see Teutonic endings in symplenesse, malissiousness ; and grievous is written gravni-i* in p. 9 7, a curious imitation of the old rihtwis ; in p. 134 the weapon brigantine is written bregandyrn, as if it had something to do with Teutonic iron ; in p. 303 appears a jantylmanly man, where man comes twice over. In p. 172 menage and housold are coupled. A sister of the Fastens speaks of her husband as my mayster, p. 435, much as Mrs. Thrale did ; a Norfolk Prior sends a letter to my Sovereyn, John Paston, and subscribes himself your orator, p. 78. A priest is called Doktor Grene, p. 350. In p. 380 we hear of ditbble intendementz ; this by no means implies the vicious meaning conveyed by the French phrase that we have used for the last 200 years. In iii. 428 very is used by Fastolf in a new sense ; my very last wille ; it is like making the adjective a Superlative. In p. 514 fumous stands for iratus ; the verb fume took this sense in France during the Fifteenth Century. Friar Brackley, in a sermon, uses audacite, affluens, and perfight (perfect). In 'Gregory's Chronicle,' between 1450 and 1460, we find mention of Beuley Abbey in Hampshire, the place now written Beaulieu ; one of the few words that are left to show the old sound of eau in both French and English. Jack Cade's men are called ryffe raffe ; we hear of a londe- lord in connexion with the tenancy of houses, p. 199 ; the new phrase the aftyr none appears, p. 204. The verbs are put to a rebuke, take (houses) for a terme, leve owte (things). Two men fighting went togedyr by the neckys, p. 202 ; hence our "set by the ears." In p. 191 stands halfe besyde hyr wytte ; it was now long since beside had expressed extra. The French words are his costys (costs) (in the Plural), p. 203; bacheler of devynite ; be Howe (allowed) 2 d > p. 199; here the first syllable must have been mistaken for the Past Participle's prefix ; the verb had expressed give credit for a hundred years earlier. In the 'Eolls of Parliament,' between the years 1450 and 1460, we find an instance of the English habit of IT.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 293 docking the final vowel of foreign names ; just as we have done with the names of Machiavelli and Titiano ; in p. 214 we read of Ambrose Spinull (Spinola) of Genoa. The a replaces e, as gaol, not the old geol. At the bottom of p. 280 come the verbs imply and emploie, two forms of the Latin implicare ; both are here used in our sense of the words; helpour stands for helper. We see Chaucer's markis give way to marquoys, p. 394, the oy being sounded like the French e; our marquis is a compound of the two forms. The former interesse now becomes interest, p. 185 ; the t being added. In p. 194 servants of the Crown, such as porters, etc., are often styled yomen ; we hear of the clerk of oure Grenecloth, p. 197, and the clerk of our hamper, p. 317. In p. 182 comes the ill-omened sterre chambre. In p. 285 the phrase their good Lordshippes is employed for domini. In p. 325 appear the silkewymmen, a very old London trade, as we are here told. In p. 204 stand gonne powder and longebowes ; here the adjective and substantive are coupled, to make a sharp distinction from crossbow. The late form mornyng (mane) is stamped with Royal sanction, p. 282. In p. 300 we read of a crue of ccc men ; soldiers, not sailors; this word is Scandinavian. In p. 225 comes the curious phrase a setter-forth of a shippe, like Pecock's a ratler out of texts; it is not often that the adverb stands close to the noun that expresses the agent. In p. 184 we read of the parish of Much Billyng; this word for magmis is still sometimes found in towns of Southern England, just as Mikel is still used in the North for the same purpose. There is a curious idiom of pronouns in p. 384, in whos handes so evere they be. A habit is now coming in of setting un before Passive Participles ; we have here unspotted and unbrused, p. 280. We see the phrases lie dormant, pight tents, call to remembraunce, put to silence. An Exeter petition to the King, p. 390, begins with shevnth (ostendunt) your subjectis ; the Avord shewith is still used to head petitions to Parliament. We see our common thenne and there for the first time, I think, at full length in p. 282. Both the forms nor and ne are found in p. 294 ; the former was soon to triumph. 294 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. Among the Eomance words are diabolique, celerite, pleni- tude, irrecuperable, getee (jetty), delibre (discuss), aniversarye, barreer, defete a title, be at diettez (maintenance), p. 293. In p. 280 we see one of our present senses of address; they addressed thaim toward, etc. ; in the same page directly expresses " in a straight line." In p. 309 an Act extends ; before this time it was stretched. In p. 389 we read of an act of atteindre, in our sense of the word ; this very properly belongs to the bloody year 1460. In p. 399 a Northern petition uses catell for pecus ; but in the South catelles stood for our chattels for some time after the year 1500. In the ' Letters ' belonging to this time, printed by Ellis, the chief new phrase is, stand possessed of. Many of the pieces printed in ' Hazlitt's Collection ' belong to 1460 or thereabouts; they were printed about fifty years later. In vol. i. there are the pieces in pp. 4, 69, 111-152, 196. We see flatert, a gi~eat tenement -man (rich in houses, p. 133), long-sided. In p. 135 stands thys ys the schorte and longe; we now transpose these adjectives. Among the Verbs are follow the chase, sell up (chattels). In p. 146 a man has no more goods, but ryght as he in stode (the clothes he stood in). A miser will not lend, but (unless) he wyst why, p. 114; a common phrase now. There is the Scandinavian frisky, which may also be French. We have to bere offys, pecys of silver, cull him foul (names). The word gracious is now applied to a sale of goods, p. 149; it must mean pins. The word nice (fastidious) was now getting the new sense of eler/i/nt, like the words dainty or exquisite; that was a neys seyte (seat) is used ironically in p. 8. The word paramour, which might mean virgo in 1290, gains its evil sense in p. 199. In p. 205 stands the emphatic certen sothe ; some- thing like our certain sure. In vol. ii. the pieces to be here considered are in pp. 2, 23, 138. The }> is struck out in Norweste wind. In Substantives there is Barbour's tryst coupled with another noun, trysty tre, p. 154. A juror becomes a swerei; p. 149; this word was applied to those who took the oath to William III., two Centuries later. A squire, when he ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 295 serves the King in hall, bears a white yeard ; hence the white staff coveted by English ministers. We read of falow deer. Men do not talk of Rhodes (the island), as in Wyntoun's time, but of The Bodes, p. 31. We have Clym for Clement. Among the new Verbs we see angle, fowl. A man, when swearing, has to hold up his hand, p. 56. There is take the mesure of a man, p. 150. We see the old win your shone, p. 30 ; after this time it was spurs that were won. A great change in the Perfect is seen in p. 30; a man ware velvet ; this replaces the old wered ; we have already seen the Northern worn. It is not often that a Weak verb becomes Strong, as in this case. Men ring bells bacward, p. 153, for an alarm; this phrase is seen in a ballad of Scott's. In p. 42 comes it stode with hym full harde ; we should now substitute went for stode. We see the Scandinavian skulle (remus). Among the French words are jennet, dulcimer, dulcet, bowles (for playing), sykamoure. In vol. Hi. of ' Hazlitt's Collection ' the pieces of this time may be found in pp. 60 and 100. The initial a is pared away; "this is long of thee" (per te), p. 79, used afterwards by Scott. There is the Dutch word trick, p. 117. In p. 103 something is near, not the length of a lande ; here length stands for distance / in Scotland they say, "I will come your length." In p. 113 further is revived as an Adjective after long disuse, "the further side of the hall ;" it is here more akin to far than to forth, its old positive. Among the Verbs we see beat him both Uacke and blewe, beleeve me (in the middle of a sentence), get him down (in fight), you knowe (at the end of a sentence) ; a musician blows up ; hence our strike _up. There is a most curious change from transitive to intransitive in p. 109, a dore will undoe. The swa (so) formerly expressed quoniam ; this is continued in p. 109, "you should know your way better, so oft as you come here." In p. 102 a man steals more by a deale ; we should say a deal more ; here great is dropped before deal. There is the Interjection hey Iwwe, p. 62, leading to our heigh ho ! As to the Romance words, the word bombe is seen in p. 68 ; a woman is afflicted 296 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. crepitu invito, and is told, tempre thy bombe; hence, I sus- pect, comes bum. 1 The nyce keeps its old sense lascivus, p. 107; and shows its new sense elegans, p. 117, where a wench is proper and nyce ; just as young ladies now ask, " Do I look nice " There are two old Lollard treatises reprinted by Arber as an appendix to Roy's "Rede me and be not wroth;" they are in pp. 150 and 172. They belong to an age of civil war; see p. 184; but were first printed in 1530. There is the new syns, though sythen is oftener used ; both tho and thos may be seen in p. 154. The ship is used to form new nouns, as apostleship. Among the Verbs are bear out (support), break an entail/ the deme bears here its Northern sense (arbitrari). There is the phrase " the most cruel enemy that might be," p. 178. We have a new phrase, it is all one as he sayeth, p. 152, the old swa had expressed quasi ; in the same page stands say otherwyse than it is. We see how abrode slid from late to foris, in p. 181; God scattered the Jews abrode among the hetlien. The language used by Bede is said to have been EngUshe. There are the phrases compile, unequity, to ensue (sequi), entromedle, barbarus, resign up ; mortefy (hand over in mort- main) is a sense still known in Scotch law ; it comes from the amorteyse, amortesy of p. 161; the long s being mistaken for an/. These Lollard treatises of 1460 were pronounced to be barbarous, when reprinted seventy years later ; see p. 170 ; a fact that shows how our tongue was changing. In the 'Political Songs of 1458' (Master of the Rolls) we remark that rejose bears the two meanings, gaudere and frui, in one stanza, p. 254 ; the former meaning was to be the lasting one. There are also the phrases forswear the lond, in every quarter. There are two ballads of this time in the ' Archasologia,' vol. xxix. There is the well-known expression, the good shype, p. 326 ; also taklynge, a good stay, shrowthes (shrouds), words well known to sailors. Further on, we see ragged staf, curre dogges. We say, "three Rs running;" in p. 331 we see that the old expression was, thre arres togydre in a 1 Mr. Skeat, on the other hand, derives bum from bottom. ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 297 sute. There is the phrase as ]>e world gos, p. 341. In p. 339 there is lay wayte to a thing, and also lie a-wayte to do a thing. In Halliwell's ' Original Letters of our Kings,' Edward IV. uses foreigners to express "men who are not fellow- citizens," p. 128 ; something like this usage still prevails in some parts of our country ; the sense belonged to forain in French. The 'Book of Quinte Essence' (Early English Text Society) is a translation from the Latin, about 1460, and abounds in medical terms. In p. 2 1 we see how our phrase " a little rhubarb " arose ; there is first a litil quantite of pulpa ; then, a litil of rubarbe. Among the foreign words are lapis lasuly, grose mater, ]>e splene (which seems to imply choler, p. 18). A man at death's door is said to be almost consumed in nature, p. 15 ; the first hint of consumption. The old form of the verb fiche is now changed to fix,. We read of a brute beast, and the Latin equality comes instead of the French egality. Some poems, edited by Mr. Furnivall in the ' Book of Precedence ' (Early English Text Society), belong to this date. We see the contraction Antyny for Antonius, p. 39. There are roppys end, coke fyghtynge, callot (light woman), p. 40, and the name Kate. There is our familiar who ys that? p. 40. In p. 53 stands call her by no vylons name ; hence the later call him names. There are a few proverbs, as " Syldon mossy tli the stone >at oftyn ys toriinyd and wende " (p. 39). We have fayre wordes brake never bone, p. 45 ; here we now change the adjective; erly to ryse is fysyke fyne. Capgrave's ' Chronicle of England ' (Master of the Rolls Series) seems to have been compiled about 1460. The writer was born at Lynne, and we see some of his East Anglian forms in levene (fulgur), dyke (fossa), bigge (sedifi- care), tidyndis, who (quomodo) ; he has the hard g in give and again, and he uses the Active Participle in and. But he has Southern forms like i-sought, be (been), and o (one). He follows Latin forms when he writes Lodeunc (Louis), 298 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. and Duke Aurelianensis, p. 300 ; Arius, however, appears as Arry, p. 77. He has Manning's phrase, to avale a hood. Capgrave is fond of casting out vowels in French words, writing banch and punch for banish and punish. We may trace in him the two sounds of oi, for he writes cleystir for cloister in p. 308, and Groyne for Corunna in p. 242. He has the old form Beaumont and the new Beamount in one page, 182. He has foster for forester, like his East Anglian brother Lydgate. The Suffolk habit, seen in 1230, of changing th into d appears in erdequave (earthquake), p. 80 ; here also is the origin of our quaver, k changing into / and v. Our navel is written nowil in p. 82 ; av must have been mistaken for au, and au and ow were both sounded like the French ou. The / was often mistaken for s (fitting to and sitting to) ; in p. 194 enfess is written for enfeff. Among the Substantives we find the old querne. In p. 130 stands our common " he had not a peny in the world." In p. 365 rusticus is Englished by cliorle, and in the next page this becomes carle. The adjective fanned (stultus) gives birth to fonnednesse, p. 151. We read of Grete Bretayne, whicJie is cleped England, in p. 359, the first time, I think, that this grand title is used by an Englishman. The renowned Percy of 1400 is called Herry Hatspore, p. 242. The old Burgeyn (Burgoin) is found, as well as the newer Burgundy, coming from the Latin ; Burgenye, p. 219, seems to be a compromise between them. There is not only Almayn but Germaine, p. Ill, showing the influence of the Latin ; the Germanes appear in p. 106 ; Aeon stands for Aachen, and Maydenborow for Magdeburg, p. 118. Among the Adjectives we hear of a fayre-spokyn man, p. 81 ; a curious instance of the Passive Participle replac- ing the Active ; it reminds us of the Old English heom gesprecenum (illis loquentibus). Our common fayn to fle is in p. 119. Among the Verbs we remark phrases like take hors, make difficulte, make oth, picche tentis, to poll a man (tondere), p. 234. The verb gore is formed from the gorwound of 1380. To waste is used intransitively in p. 104. A con- vent is not built but takes place, in p. 153. In p. 187 ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 299 men swear to do something, " come hem lyf or come hem deth." The three stages of punishment are (rather un- usually) set out in their right order, when in p. 190 a man is doomed "to drawyng, hanging, and hedyng." The verb cliepe adds the sense of our clieapen to its old meaning buy, p. 180. Capgrave, in one of his earlier writings, uses the phrase happed hym to be, etc., p. 365 ; in his latest book comes Wyntoun's phrase he Juipped to mete, etc., p. 288 ; a good example of the encroachment of the Nominative upon the Dative, and of the journey Southward of Northern forms. We have often seen but (standing for ne but) used before a Substantive ; we now see Daniel but ymg led into Babilonie, p. 47. There is a new phrase not Jialf mech (big) inow, p. 132 ; and in p. 141 stands / had as lef be kUlid, as, etc. ; this phrase, already used in the late Lollard tracts, is the one phrase that still keeps alive the Old English leaf (carus). Among the Prepositions we remark the new phrase, a man is hanged far his laboure (pains), p. 278. Among the French words are monstrous, code, antepope, unmanerly, cass (quash), cariage in the sense of currus ; here there must have been a confusion with caroche. There are phrases like have a touch of, p. 1 ; graces (indulgences) were bought in p. 244 ; this phrase lasted till Strafford's time. There is the curious compound semi-goddes, p. 50, like Shakespere's demi-devil ; this replaces Chaucer's ludf-gods. In p. 190 the King, when judging a traitor, dispensid with him of the peynes ; an idiom that we have now changed. Gentil, as in Barbour, adds the meaning mitis to its old sense nobilis, in p. 122. The Pope disguises himself, in p. 309, like a Malandryn; hence perhaps our Merry Andrew, with the usual change of J into r. A large sum becomes a horibil summe, p. 155 ; this is something like our present use of awful. To purpose articules comes in p. 175 ; this verb and propose had not yet been marked off from each other. In p. 189 we find he cacchid or caute; a curious instance of double forms. The form Wiclefist, p. 244, coming from the Latin, is preferred as a party name. 300 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. In the Coldingham papers for 1461 we see lossez (damna), p. 191. In p. 215 stands on way and odur ; we should say, " one way or another." In p. 203 trewbill (trouble) stands for bellum ; something is grevous costly in p. 215, and we now often use an adjective for an adverb, as " awful hard." In the York Wills for 1466 we come upon a draght ox, ii. 285 ; in the same page a man talks of my sonnes Herre Eure, Maister William Eure, and John Eure ; the second son enjoys the title of respect because he was a rector. In the 'Testamenta Eboracensia,' iii. 185, there is weikly (every week) ; daily had appeared sixty years earlier, both coming from the North. There is do what hym pleases, p. 197; showing that you in what you please is a Dative. A well-known surname appears in John Dicconson, p. 204. In the same page stands their burds (their boarding when children). The amusing tale of the Wright's Chaste Wife (Early English Text Society) dates from about the time of Edward IV.'s victory in 1461 ; the poet speaks " Of roses whyte fat wyll not fade, Whych floure all Ynglond doth glade, Wyth trewloves medelyd in syght ; Unto the whych floure i-wys The love of God and of the Comenys Subdued bene of ryght." The old bridale loses its last letter and becomes brydall, p. 3. The b is added, for the old momelen becomes monibyll (mumble), p. 19. The use of ye and thou in the piece is happily marked ; the knight, who means to do the crafts- man's wife the honour of seducing her, first jauntily addresses her as thou; when she has trapped and half starved him, he uses the more respectful ye, which his lady also adopts. A poor woman is addressed as dame by her betters ; she speaks of an absent personage as my lady, p. 16. In the 'Plumpton Letters' (Camden Society) of 1461 many of the Yorkshire forms may be remarked, such as gar, fey, lark, thof (quamvis), they deals, gif (si). The word ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 301 milne, found here, had lost its third consonant all through Southern England. The old maistresse is seen as mistris, p. 15 ; and the well-known name Fdljambe is pronounced as we sound it; Fulgiam stands in p. 21. The old Iwlli (omnino) is now written wholie, p. 11, the form that we keep, at least in writing; just so home in Lancashire is sounded Jmome. The old Wyrcestre now becomes Woster, p. 17. In p. 27 the Earl of Northumberland, writing about 1471, turns liflode into livelyhed, our livelihood, using a false analogy. King Edward IV. sends greeting in a letter to certain of his subjects, p. Ixx. ; and forbids them to give or shew ungodly language to Plumpton. We see the proper title for a knight's wife in p. 15 ; my lady Ingolshoi'p, whose ladyship is recovered of sicknes. In p. 2 the phrase a readie man is used in describing a lawyer ; I suspect this comes from rede (consilium). In p. Ixx. Edward IV. addresses his lieges as all and every one of you. There is the phrase he is riden to, p. 17, in imitation of he is gone ; also, it is for her to refuse, p. 1 1 ; here meet should be the third word ; money in Jiand, p. 5. The Romance words are longanimity, have matters against him, what the matter was, p. 23 ; the non- accomplishment of, cry liavok upon ; here the noun is said to represent the old hafoc (accipiter). There are some London documents, ranging between 1465 and 1468, in Blades' 'Life of Caxton,' pp. 149-151. The verbs are underwritten, lay out money, open business to ; hence our open the case (reveal it). There is a new use of the preposition toward ; a certain sum towarde their costs. Among the Romance words are direct a lettre to you, it is not cure, parte to do it. The word adventure or auntre had been hitherto used of knights ; but England was now be- coming a commercial country ; hence merchants trading beyond sea are here called aventerers and adventerers ; a century later the same man might be both warrior and trader. We hear of custoses (custodes) of the Mercery, a very English form. In Gregory's ' Chronicle ' (1460-1470) we see Lambe/e written for Lambeth, p. 229. There is the trade of a lokyer, whence comes a proper name. The Salopian coup togethei' 302 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. of 1350 becomes here cope with, p. 219. There is a curi- ous conciseness of idiom in p. 223, "it was not lost, and nevyr hyt shalle," where be should be the last word. There is the phrase, still common, to bery his lady ; that is, to lose her by death, p. 233. In the same page is the scornful interjection bawe / as in ' Piers Plowman.' We see to go farre (in speaking), she was IX myle of (off, that is, distant), p. 213 ; to show favyr, p. 238. The French words are rayl (vituperare), p. 229 ; read lessons (preach sermons), p. 230 ; ]>e prevelage will not serve (avail). The chronicler tells us in p. 214 where the strength of an English host has always lain ; in the fote men ys alle the tryste (trust). In the 'Rolls of Parliament,' from 1461 to 1473, we come upon the Welsh proper name Lloit, p. 596. The former entrecourse becomes intercurse, vi. 65 ; the Latin gaining the day over the French. We see much clipping of consonants when we read of the counties of Not' and Bertf, p. 547 ; in the same page, Lytlierpoole stands for our Liverpool ; our modern change is like the Russian Feodor for Theodore. The old geol may now be written jayle, p. 488, one of the few English words that still has two lawful forms. The qu of the 'Promptorium' makes way for the Latin ch ; chorester stands in vi. 48 ; nothing like this word in France is found till much later. In p. 18 we see to enjoy londes, where the verb comes in that was to drive out brucan in its old sense ; in the page before stands to joye londes ; this last verb can now EDgtifihfgMttfora alone. The n is clipped in the sentence, men not a (in) werke, p. 506. Among the Substantives we findfyretonges,drepyngpannes, paknedle (the old batte nelde), underwoode. We see kerver (carver) used as a title of honour ; Edward IV. writes of a squierfor oure body (hence came body guard). We read of the hede of a hous, p. 518; gunner stands for the keeper of artillery in a castle, who has many men under him, p. 543. There is the form handcrafty men and women, p. 506 ; also man and woman clothmaker, p. 563 ; it was a pity that we lost our female ending in en. The ness is employed in ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 303 forming fynes (fineness) and stobournesse ; we see bothpak- kour and pakkir in one page. We read of Tlwnas Broun, of the shire of JRutland, vi. 22. In p. 65 there is a grant to the "Duchie Hanze, otherwise called Marchauntez of Almayn." There is the adjective unmanly. Among the Verbs we remark, to set outeward an armee, vi. 4 ; take seyntwary, make hym sure (surely dead), p. 36 ; he was put in tlie bylle, a phrase well known to all Etonians, but it here refers to a bill of Attainder, p. 29. We see repakke, p. 59. Among the Adverbs the distinction between de jure and de facto turns up in p. 20 ; Henry VI. late of dede and not of right kyng. Among the French phrases an address to Edward IV. refers to beaute of personage, p. 463 ; this last word (one of Monstrelet's) was also used by Pope with the same mean- ing, in the 'Rape of the Lock.' We see journey men opposed to householders, p. 506. We read of the III estates, lordes spirituell, lordes temporell, and commons, p. 622. In vol. vi. 4, exhibition stands for maintenance ; this sense of the word, which does not come from the French, still survives at the Universities. In p. 65 stand lettres of Margue or reprisale ; further on, we read of proprietaries cmd owners ; in our time the Teutonic word has almost vanished before its Romance synonym. In p. 35 we see another instance of coupling words, welwillers or benevolentes. In p. 479 stands the verb unable, our disable. We have cardes for pleiyng, p. 507 ; brushes, an infourmer, verger, ymposition (tax), in tymes passed. In p. 545 we read of the countie of Wiltes, very different from the old name. In p. 635 comes tfie Kynges eschaunge, the office whither they brought gold and silver. In vL 37 men have names of baptisme, surnon, and addition. In the 'Paston Letters,' from 1461 to 1473, we remark the well-known Norfolk names of Jerningham, Townsend, Gorney, Wodehouse, Wymondham (Wyndham), and Jermy. Some of the old East Anglian forms are still used, such as arn, sal, qwan, levand, beseke, mekil; nor is ousting ne ; the new thos (illi) is coming in, replacing tho and thei; it is used by the Earl of Oxford, ii. 421. A gentleman writes at 304 THE NEW ENGLISH. [.:HAP. thefardest, iii. 27 ; this reminds us how East Anglia turned burthen into burden two Centuries earlier. We find the proverb, referring to an old rite now gone out, " A man must sumtyme set a candel before the Devyle." Margaret Paston quotes two other saws that date from 1260 at least, "men cut large thongs of other mens lether," ii. 226 ; oftyn rape (haste) rewith, iii. 78. The a is struck out ; f antsy is in p. 83, which becomes fansey (fancy) in p. 243. The ay replaces a ; we see bayly in ii. 249, while baly comes in the same page ; this contraction of bailiff is now a common surname ; laydy stands in ii. 416. The e replaces a, as der (audeo), meke (facio), Temse, hesty ; there is a distinction made between per sane and parson in ii. 307. The e replaces eo in Lenard, iii. 99. The old Eewcham gives way to Becham, ii. 224. The old form mannir (manor) appears as maner, ii. 306, and as maneur, p. 382. The i or y is added, as nowgty (malus), ii. 26 ; it replaces e ; we see it hadde byn, ii. 5 1 ; wyke, hyr (here), priste, spyde (speed), fyle (feel), agry (agree), beshyche (beseech),hyde (heed). Many of these changes in pronunciation, foreshadowing our present usage, are in the letters of Margery Paston and her son Sir John ; the Northern innovations had now reached Norfolk, and were to arrive at London 100 years later. We see Smith turned into the genteel Smythe, iii. 431. The sound of one o is dropped, when do on (induere) becomes doon (our don), ii. 233 ; the change in doff had preceded this by a century. In the pedigree of the Dukes of Suffolk, ii. 210, their name is written both Pool and Pole. We see exskeus, rebeuc, meuve (move), both Dewk and Duck (dux), sewt (Us), indew ; it cannot be too often repeated that ew, from first to last, unless it follows r, is the most favoured and unchangeable of all English vowel sounds ; it has often encroached upon u. In ii. 356 we see reauyll (rule), showing the sound of the old au, which was like the French ou. There is the form plesyer (voluptas) in iii. 6, which becomes plesur in iii. 30. The form guyde seems to be well established. We see maryache (marriage), ii. 139, showing how every vowel of the word was once sounded. n.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 305 As to Consonants, we see from the form manslauter, ii. 378, how completely the sound of the old gh had died out. The former ploge is now written plowe, ii. 286, which is often seen in our time. The hu (quomodo) is written howghe,iii. 15 ; and km becomes ivhyghe, iii. 94. We have Jernemuth in ii. 97, and Yermouth in the foregoing page. The p is inserted in TJwmpson, ii. 46. The d is struck out, for Kirkcudbright is written Kirkhowbre, ii. 46. The name Hobart is spelt Hobard, ii. 368, whence comes Hub- bard. The d is replaced by th ; ther means audeo in ii. 195 ; perhaps this is a confusion with the now vanishing verb thar. The / is struck out, Alnwick is written Anne- wyke, iii. 432 ; enemies becomes elmyse, ii. 309. The rt is struck out in the middle of Fortescue, which is written Foskew, iii. 9, just as forester became foster. Margaret Paston, iii. 78, talks about my nawnte ; nuncle was to come later in Shakespere's plays. An s, as well as other letters, is struck out in the old Glowsestyr, ii. 357, which appears as Glowsetyr (Gloster), ii. 358. The old form ilde (insula) is once more seen in iii. 93. Among the new Substantives stand Jiedermoder (hugger- mugger, ii. 28), bald batt (ball-bat, iL 125), undershirejf, potlwk, clwppe (ictus), pakthred, delyng (conduct, iiL 4). We see lyklyhod replacing Chaucer's liklihed ; the ship is added to foreign words, as serclwrship ; a Romance ending is added to a Teutonic root, as stoppage, ii. 221. There are the proper names Dawson, Pytte, Jakys Son; we see a sharp jibe at yonge Wyseman, otherwise callyd Foole, iii. 32. Our noun work now often means incomnwdum ; they make us werke, iii. 92. In iii. 481 stands the phrase man of the world; we now put a slightly different meaning on the phrase, which used to be opposed to religious life ; in the same page comes man of livelode ; we should now change this last word into fortune. A sharp distinction is drawn between lyfe and lyfflode, ii. 370. We read of ivynfall wod in ii. 176, the source of our windfall. The old reke, little known to the South of Norfolk, is used for fumus ; seven of the belle (clock) is in iii. 61, a future sea phrase. The word back was now much used in compounds ; bak rekenyngges VOL. I. X 306 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. comes in ii. 224. There is the new phrase a writinge ofolde liand, p. 285, which we now make more concise. The word bawde, as in the ' Promptorium,' is applied to a man, p. 299. In p. 347 we see humys and hays (hums and haws) for the first time. Among the Adjectives are knavyssh, trew hertyd, prystly, a thanklesse offyce. There is lavish, which seems to be Teu- tonic, not French. We hear of men that ben knowyng in that behalf, ii. 360 ; the same meaning is conveyed in iii. 18 by a wytty felaw. To come stronke (strong), ii. 375, means to come in great force; we say, "came out strong." The old mad means avidus ; "they are madde upon it," iii. 71. A younger brother addresses the elder as rytlie worchypfwll broder, ii. 258 ; also as Syr. Margaret Paston is hailed by her husband as myn owne dere soverc>/n lady, ii. 235. Sir John Paston addresses his sire as my ryth reven-end and worchepfulle fadyr, ii. 244. As to the Pronouns, we have he shuld be servid tJie same, ii. 48; by the same token, ii. 134. There is the Reflexive Dative, I fere me, ii. 82, which also appears in the ' Coventry Mysteries ' about the same time. There is a curious sub- stitute for all men in iii. 52, you most of eny on man alyve ; Pecock had employed a phrase something like this. In iii 59 any he stands for any man; Shakespere writes of the shes. One Paston declares in iii. 75, 1 am not the man I was. Instead of some one we see the very early What-calle- ye-hym, iii. 104. In iii 33 comes beff'or Twelthe, referring to 6th January; we now usually confine this particular numeral to August and grouse-shooting, except in Twelfth- cake, Among the Verbs we remark Jiave a plowe going, they myght not cheese (choose) but, take out the patent, take a ferme of him, shift for yourself, fall out (quarrel), do him a shrewd turne, kepe an howsolde, breke up howsold, the jury found, etc., make a serche, make up a sum, make sport, make promes, I wyle rubbe on, make him or mar him, it schal do no hurt, take my part, take no thowth (thought), / took it upon my sowle that, etc., make war upon, make a man partye (to), put her in re- memberaums, put our tryst (trust) to, pyke it owt, give her ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 307 warning, lead him a dance, cast calves, se hym saffe, sett at lyberte, set (them) at one, he is lodgyd at, etc. In ii. 26 stands she wost ner howe to do for mony ; here do means rem agere, but we should now put what for the howe. In ii. 64 we have mak hym yonger than he is; we should now put out after hym. In ii. 205 besiegers are said to sit uppon us ; the phrase is in our day used for male tractare* John Paston means to take assise against a man, iii. 482 ; hence our "take the law of him." In ii. 348 stands eete yow mute at the dorys, our out of doors. In ii. 254 comes hold up your manship (keep up your pluck). Up to this time English knights had won their shoes ; in iii. 102 we find wynne yowr sporys. Margaret Paston, like Manning, did not use the shall and will as we do; in iii. 78 she writes / will love (like) hym to be a good man ; also, / wold be sory (if, etc.). The Passive Voice is making strides ; / have don as I wolde be don for, ii. 375. There is a new use of the Past Participle in ii. 288; "he took it, unknowyn to the priour /' this is very concise. In iii. 47 a man is called the best spokyn archer, like Capgrave's fair spoken. There is a curious change of meaning in iii. 483, "he harped upon the thought." To axe (a couple) in chyrche appears in iii. 46. To crosse writing is in iii. 47. In iii. 57 stands he is evyr choppyng at me ; we should now say, " cutting at me." We see Wyntoun's it is woryn ought, iii. 73 ; the new Perfect ware stands in p. 141, replacing wered. There is a curious attempt at turning a French verb into a Strong verb, he was scope (escaped), iii. 17. Among the Adverbs appears the streyt weye of King James I., ii. 38, which here seems to refer to place, not to time, like the French direct. In ii. 236 we have "in that yere, or ther aboutes," which is new. There are phrases like / reke not thowe lie did it (etiamsi), iii. 87 ; he was en- treated like ajentelman, ii. 205 ; weell owt off the weye, iii. 92; he is tliorow with him (wholly on his side), ii. 299 ; here the preposition is turned into an adverb. There is the curious idiom, ye schall not be longe without a byll, iii. 47. In iii. 100 stands, almost for the last time, the hoary old phrase, with thys tlmt (on condition that). The but, in the sense of 3o8 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. quin, is developed, there ys but few but they know, etc., ii. 263 ; in this last we should now drop the they. In ii. 291 nyer (near) stands where our nearly (fere) was to be written a Century later. The as is used in a new sense, if ther were c of hem, as ther is non, yet have they no tytill, ii. 211 ; here the idea must be, "which is no true fact." As to Prepositions, the at is used, as in our at length, in the sentence, at the longe wey (in the long run), Godde wott helpe, p. 351 ; there is also (they) were at words, p. 105. In iii. 481 comes, he profited us not to value of one groat ; in Old English this would have been much more concise, to one groat. In ii. 372 stands (they will die) to the grettest rebuke to you; hence comes to your shame. In ii. 358 stands it was refusyd by avise ; here the last two words express deliberately, advisedly. Shakespere's great comic hero hopes that the Chief -Justice goes abroad by advice. In ii 207 men are in fer of ther lyvys ; this of expresses anent, and we still keep this unusual employment of the preposition in this phrase. The idiom connected with the old beswican is continued in / was deseyvyd of (certain) men, ii. 246 ; hence our baulk of, cheat of. The phrase in the name of had hitherto been confined to Scrip- ture ; we now have / labored hem yn Velvet-ton's name, iii. 445. Capgrave's phrase again appears, a man is to have something for his labour, ii. 373; we should say, "for his pains." Among the words akin to the Dutch is blaver (our verb blather) ; Edward IV. intends, in iii 98, to be a styffeler between his quarrelsome brothers ; that is, to stifle their dispute ; the word is Scandinavian, as also is queasy. Among the new Romance words is the pane of a window, from pagina ; straggle seems akin to stray ; and mangle is from the Low Latin mangulare, foreshadowed by Wyntoun's monk. We have ferror (farrier), ipedemye (epidemic), agonye, gayle delyverye, junior (jointure), boke of remembraunce, a splayyd hors, a comon carier, a lees (lease), saffegard, incedentes, contermaund, decay, qualifyed with, recom- pense, suppena, it concerns him, insuneccion, enforsyd to, it is II.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 309 his own defaut (fault), interlyne, asserteyn (certify), basket, probatt, entyrpryce, fensyng (inclosure), sorepe (sirrup). In ii. 4 and 29 we see the twofold meaning of bribery ; as before remarked, it might express both robbery and corruption. A new sense of dress is seen in iii. 3 ; a young Paston, wounded at Barnet Field, is dressid by a serjon. In ii. 78 catell seems to bear its Northern meaning of pecus. In iii. 436 we hear of a stokke gonne (gun) with III chambers ; a new sense of the last word; in iii. 441 culverin appears in the Latin form colubi'ina. We see a repetition, in ii. 314, of Chaucer's kepe it close; a little further on a man is called close (un- blabbing). In iii. 35 a man can make his peace by no meane ; in ii. 107 a man fond the meanys that something should be done ; a new use of the noun. In iii. 27 your quarters is used for "your neighbourhood." An abusive name comes under the head of language, ii. 112; hence our "bad language." In ii. 360 the Queen is attendid wurshepfully ; a new sense of the verb. In p. 358 young Paston offers his servyse to a great Lady ; hence our phrase " my service to you." He, when writing to his mother, subscribes himself your humbylest servaunt, iii. 8. The Duke of Norfolk is addressed as the right liyghe and myghty Prince; my Lord the Dwke; your good Grace; your hygh- nesse, iii. 75, 76 ; we afterwards read of my Lady of Norffolkes grace, 157. The hostess of the Black Swan is called Mestresse Elysabeth Hyggens by young Sir John Paston, iii. 1 8. We should do little business now without "a power of attorney;" in ii. 68 a letter of attournay made in the strengest wise tluit ye can is asked for. There is the phrase passe your credens (give your word), ii. 369 ; we still use pass in this sense. The form Geane, standing for Genoa, is borrowed from France, ii. 293; so the French Gawnt is preferred to the true Ghent in iii 79 ; these two foreign forms are used by Sir John Paston, a Court-bred youth. We see in ii. 300 I kannot fynde hyr agreable that, etc. ; the old form was, she is agreed that, etc. ; we still say, I am agreeable (willing). In ii. 145 a man hath^w/ excep- tion onto certain persons ; we should substitute take for put. The noun fee begets a verb ; for we read of the King's feed 310 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. men, ii. 145 ; the verb councel is found in ii. 360. The word com/oil may now refer to a man as well as a thing ; he is a grete comfort to me, writes Margaret Paston, ii. 187. In ii. 241 a matter is gydyt in a certain way; this sense still lives in Scotland ; as also does plee (lis), ii. 306. In ii. 387 servants seek for new servysys ; this Plural is some- thing new. In ii. 352 stands they wold not dampne ther soules for us, a new phrase. We see the source of our " make a fortune," when the founder of the famous Pole family is said to have been a Hull merchant grow (grown) be fortwne of the werld, ii. 210. In ii. 324 crusty old Fastolf swears, mevyd and passyoned in his soule ; hence comes our passionate. At elections for Parliament, men geve ther voyses to candidates, iii. 52 ; we still "have a voice" in the matter. In iii. 70 we read of standardis, that is, standard trees. In iii. 102 comes the sporting phrase a brace a growndes (greyhounds). In iii. 25 currants appear as reysonys of Corons. In iii. 33 a money grant is expected from a convocation of the clergy. In the book on English Gilds (Early English Text Society, p. 370) there is a "Worcester document of the year 1467. We see the Southern form brugge (pons) and the Severn fuyre and huyde ; there is both croys and crosse; but the English of the piece, in general, resembles the Lon- don standard. We see fredom of the burgesshippe, smale ale, the Kynges pease. There are the Verbs make feith (oath), make out a capias, put aparte, set up a craft; there is a curious Passive form in p. 400, this is done for serche to be hadd. The form oftener replaces the old ofter, p. 378. Among the French words are recorder (of the town), Baillies (both here and at Exeter, p. 331). In p. 407 a jorneyman is distinguished from a craftsman. There are the verbs to try a man, to rente ground, commit to prison, to wage law (like war), men find a person defectyf (guilty). In Eymer's ' State Papers' (1461-1473) we find Herry and Harry close together in p. 710; also the goeing downe of the Soune, p. 509 ; Keper of the Seal, p. 579 ; rightuis (rightful) king, p. 714 ; give in complaints, p. 788 ; a question ryses, p. 579; answer at their parell, p. 523 ; to proport ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 311 (purport), p. 788. A diet is to be kept between England and Scotland, p. 717. But the most valuable Scottish work of this time is the poem on Wallace by Henry the Minstrel or Blind Harry (edited by Dr. Jamieson in 1869) ; it may date from 1470. There is much here in common with Barbour, such as oi for u, w for v ; the b struck out, as temir for timber ; fling used transitively ; suppose used for si ; and the phrases on ster, schor, tryst, get on fide. We know how Northern England turned the a, of the South into the sound of French e, so far back as 737. We now see madeym written for madame, p. 209 ; the old rod, the Southern rode, is here seen as raid, and this has been the longer-lived of the two forms. Manning's Scandinavian word squyler now becomes scudler, p. 97, whence comes scullery ; the French escouillon (dishclout) must have had some influence here. The most remarkable clipping of Consonants is the turning of Barbour's French discourriour (scout) into skouriour, p. 55; hence " to scour the country," which has nothing in common with the Teutonic "scour the floor." The con- sonant at the end is often clipped in the true Scotch fashion ; thus we h&vepow (pull), sel (self), befciw (befall), aw (all). The old French scarmish appears as scrymmage, p. 39. Among the new Substantives are ourset (overset, de- feat), schipburd (shipboard), mudwall werk, p. 337 ; we see salis (sails) standing for naves, p. 225 ; we now, however, make a difference, as to Singular and Plural, between five sails of a ship and five sail out at sea ; sail has here followed our construction of yoke and pair. The Southron enemy are called Saxons, though Blind Harry himself writes good Northern English. We see the old goym (guma, homo) in p. 194; but this is written groyme, p. 123. A pirate, in p. 225, is called the Red Reffayr ; the old reafere (spoliator) was soon to be confined to the sea, at least in England, and to be supplanted by the Dutch form rover. The expressive word unlaw, that had long dropped out of Southern use, stands in p. 144. The Romance et was tacked on to a Teutonic word ; we see howlat in p. 286. 312 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. The new Adjectives are dewyllyk (devilish) ; this ending is also added to French words, as chyftaynlik. The word awful is much employed by the Scotch of our days in the sense of valde ; in p. 69 we read of am awfull hard assay. There is a difference between a fish that is landed and a landyt man (terrse dominus) ; the latter stands in p. 276. The word awkward had been used as an Adverb by Ham- pole ; it is turned into an Adjective in p. 74, as in one of the earlier Eobin Hood ballads of the North. The same change befalls forward ; in p. 249 it is turned into a synonym for zealous, and from it is compounded a new adverb, forthwartlye, p. 301. Among the Verbs we find play a part, make a ster, make (get) quyt of, p. 146; besy him to, etc.; burd (board) him (of a pirate) ; byd thi tym. There is the alliterative do or de (die), p. 60 ; a favourite phrase of Scotchmen ever since. The verb kerve, even so late as this, is used of a soldier cutting his foe's neck. In p. 156 men maid tham for the flycht ; hence our "make for a place." The verb clap had hitherto meant pulsar e ; but in p. 206 Wallace clappyt harnes on his leg. In p. 227, when at sea, he bids his steersman lay thaim langis tJie bourd (along the board) ; a well-known technical use of the verb. Instead of saying "I bet my head," the phrase in p. 258 is my hed to wed ; perhaps it was owing to this phrase that the to, standing here before the Infinitive, triumphed over for and against in betting sentences. The to (Latin dis) is still prefixed to some verbs in this poem. In p. 13 young Wallace treats an Englishman to the thou ; the indignant rejoinder is made, " quham thowis tJww, Scot ? " The old Adverb timliche is now altered into tymysly ; hence came the Northern timeous, something like righteous and wrongous, where the ous stands for an Old English wis. There are some peculiarly Scotch words, such as craig (guttur), layff (reliquum), inch (insula), a corruption of the Celtic innis. The French words are fraudful, in frount, a natyff Scottisman. There is excedandlye, which Tyndale was to make so common. Wallace is called in p. 20 the Aperse ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 313 (A per se) of Scotland ; something like this had appeared in Chaucer. In the same page we read of a sword's temper. The old number is used in the Plural ; with nowmeris (turbse) mony ane, p. 164. Edward I. is said, in p. 311, to have forced Salysbery oyss (use) upon the Scotch clergy, while he burnt the Roman books. The Virgin acted as convoyar to Wallace, p. 168 ; this form of the verb has always had a more exalted and protective sense than the other form, convey. In p. 206 Wallace croyssit him (crossed himself) ; this is almost the last appearance in our island of the French form of cruc-em, but we must except croisade. In p. 225 extasy stands for an agony of despair. In p. 224 we hear of a gud gay un/nd ; this gay is still much used for valde in Scotland ; like the English a jolly good mnd. In p. 227 we see God gyd our schip ! yude guide us is still a favourite Scotch cry of surprise. The word barge is used for a fine sea-going ship. The poet, or his transcriber, can make nothing of the French avoue (advocate); so in p. 134 St. Andrew is called the wowar of Scotland. In p. 238 turn- greys is used for a winding-stair ; something like turnstyle. In p. 17 a kinsman of the hero's is called the Squier Wallace; we should now dock the. In p. 106 an English- man, mockingly polite, greets Wallace thus "Dewgar, gud day, bone Senyhour, and gud morn !" These French phrases are requited with a little Gaelic. An intruding bishop has rents given him in commend, p. 256 ; this last word we now write commendam. The ' Coventry Mysteries ' (Ludus Coventrice, by Mr. Halliwell) are important, as they were compiled so near to Shakespere's birthplace. They bear the date 1469, and show us the speech of the Warwickshire folk about the time of his great-grandfather's birth ; they give us also a foretaste of the dialogue in ' Middlemarch.' Being compiled upon the Great Sundering Line, they dis- play a mixture of Northern and Southern forms. Thus we have both mekyl and meche, chylder and childeryn, tyl hym and to hym, sin and sith, beteche and betake, the two Im- peratives thinkys and lystenyth, the Present Participle ending 314 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. both in ande and Inge. There are the Northern tydandis, arn, tan (capere), tyth (cito) ; ken (scire), take tent to, go thy gate, in no kynnys wyse, tende (decimus), kyrke. On the other hand, we find the Southern her, hem, suche, weren, i-born, kusse, buschop, o (unus) ; the Infinitive in yn comes often, especially in stage directions. We are reminded of the ' Blickling Homilies,' written about 500 years earlier, by the e substituted for i or u, as in unkende, fer (ignis), and many other such ; this is a mark of the shires bordering on Salop, as is won (unus), p. 147. We see some of Orrmin's phrases, as take on (proceed), p. 297 ; on lofte (aloft), p. 325 ; forthwith, nor, howte (vituperare), p. 182; heyle (salutare), p. 293; eyn (oculi). There is the Midland we han (habemus). We see stow (compescere), p. 217, sweting, come by (adipisci), p. 263, lesser; phrases peculiar to the Western part of England, as we re- marked before; also the qu (replacing hw) of the 'Havelok;' the chyse, shrill, and round followed by an Accusative, forms which had appeared in the 'Alexander.' There are some phrases that give us a foretaste of Shakespere, well met, hit the pin, here a lythe (hie jacet), p. 319, where the a represents he; and the unusual dolour, p. 327; there is something like a well-known proverb of his in p. 367, trewthe dyd nevyr his maystir shame. The author seems to have copied the first lines of the ' Harrowing of Hell,' the play of 1 280, in p. 346. We see the long Latin stage direc- tions in p. 149 and elsewhere. Alliteration is still popular ; in p. 100 a promise is given to be true bothe terme, tyme, and tyde. The usual homely diction of the plays is exchanged for the finest and longest Eomance words, when a Prophet, or an Angel, or even the Devil is speaking; see p. 240. Latin words are often preferred to their French children. As to Vowels, die (mori) is written day, p. 250, showing the old sound of ie. It seems that there must have been some difference of sound between ay and e ; for in p. 5 the rimes mayde, afrayde, etc., are contrasted with the rimes lede, dede, etc. The i is clipped at the beginning, for tys stands for it is, p. 284, another Shakesperian token. The e replaces i, as pekyd for ihepikid of 1 440 ; pekyd schon, p. 241. ii.] THE NE W ENGLISH. 3 1 5 As to the Consonants, the g is softened, for we have wagour (wager) instead of the old waiour, p. 45. The French attacker becomes takk (astringere), p. 319. The gh is completely lost in the middle of a word, as syeng (sus- piratio), p. 39. The initial di is clipped ; we have splayed, not displayed, p. 242 ; hence & splay foot. We see w written for v, as dowe for dove, p. 48. The x is constantly used for 5, as in Norfolk ; we see xal for sal, shall. Turning to Substantives, we find the Proper Names Kate, Sybyly (Sibby), also Symme Smalfeyth and Letyce Lytyltrust e , p. 131. In p. 241 we hear of a shert of feyn Holond. A woman is called a stynkynge byche clowte, a scolde, and a sloveyn. We see the old confusion between Teutonic and Romance, when in p. 297 Gethsemane is called a -$erd (yard, garden). The Verbal Nouns continue, whantynge stands for lack in p. 44. The Latin pedissequa seems to have suggested footmayd, p. 72 ; our footman pre- serves a trace of this. We find abyde a qwyle, p. 73 ; these last two words were later to be joined and made to appear like an Adverb. The loss of the Genitive ending is re- markable, when Christ is called Joseph and Maryes sone. Among the Adjectives are bare-leggyd, a very different form from the old bare-foot and bare-head. On the other hand, the old sliper (lubricus) still stands, soon to be con- founded with slideri. The word careful is used for trisfis, p. 53, when Abraham, about to slay Isaac, calls himself a careful fadyr. The Americans talk of having a good time ; in p. 319 we find his good days xul be past. As to Pronouns, we see brothers and sisters address each other with the ye, not with the tlwu, ; which is most different from the French usage; see p. 223. There is a curious instance in p. 126 of he being applied to a man, who has not been named, a token of close familiarity; Elizabeth describes the Angel's promise to her, and goes on, referring to her husband, and hym tJiought nay ; here Zachariah has not as yet been mentioned. 1 The which is much employed as a Masculine Relative. The emphatic 1 In Scotland the goodwife will say, without any previous mention of a name, " fie's awa to-day," the he referring to the goodman. 316 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. that is now made to stand, as in Gower, at the head of the sentence ; " hath any man condemned thee ?" " That hathe ther nought" (not), p. 222 ; here also we see the verh done dropped after the hath, and any man is omitted. The old manifold is strangely corrupted in the sentence, God thou dost greve many a folde, p. 138. There are a few corrupt Plural Genitives, not destined to live much longer, $our altheris (omnium) leche, p. 202, and sour bothers (amborum) stryffe, p. 28 ; there is also tier tweyners (duorum) metyng, p. 125. Among the Verbs we see the phrases take it or ellys lef (leave), thin herte is sett to serve God, I fere me grettly, I am aschamyd to, etc., whedyr (whither) they arn bent (bound), it wyl be longe or (ere) ihou do thus, p. 207, as in the 'Paston Letters,' take him to grace, telle no talys. There is I pulle oo draught, p. 142, whence comes our "taking a pulle at a tankard." We see make good face, p. 269 ; hence our put a good face on it. We have, in p. 136, do this, or I xal make ym ; here the Infinitive is dropped after make you. The Verb slake may govern an Accusative or not ; to slake hungyr, p. 208 ; sorwe doth slake, p. 229. The prefix un is often set before the Verbs and Participles, as uneten, unbegete, unlose. The verb crak is applied in a new sense; in p. 325 stands my lyppys gyn crake. The if that 30 plese in p. 363 shows the rise of one of our commonest phrases. In p. 142 stands put at (to) repref, a future Biblical phrase, the last word meaning dedecus. Among the Adverbs we remark sum way, p. 40, the parent of our somehow; here an in is dropped. The happier sense of our sore comes out strongly in thei plese God sore, p. 82. In p. 335 stands / se, I wote nevyr how, where a verb is dropped after the last word. The call come away ! is now commonly used in Scotland, where in the South we say come along ; in p. 132 the audience are invited to the play by the phrase com away! this in Chaucer's time had been come off. We know Byron's far as the breeze can bear, where as is dropped before the first word ; in p. 384 stands ys there ony renogat, fer as ye knawe? We often use our sure as an Adverb; in p. 352 ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 317 comes sekyr, this is good. In p. 223 stands woundyrly seke (sick) ; hence the old-fashioned adverb woundily. Among the Prepositions, of is supplanted by /row in dene from synne, p. 140 ; alietie from had come in seventy years earlier, and had brought in a Romance construction. To rede on a look is in p. 103, one of the phrases that show the close connexion between the old in and on. There is the Interjection out, out (heu), p. 46, which lasted long in England ; and in p. 125 stands a/ my God ! to express surprise. We find the Celtic word prong, and the Dutch sloven. Among the many French phrases we see try out the trewthe, expound it out ; past, present, and future, p. 70; it wyl be straunge if lie leve. In p. 115 Gabriel is called God's masangere expresse ; we have since dropped the first of these two words. Latin is preferred to French, when adultrye replaces the old avoutrie in p. 10; it is the same with infaunte, p. 51, and regal. We see not only revere, but also the verb reverens, p. 20. In pp. 63 and 132 lay (lex) stands for "way of life;" in Oliver Twist the thieves talk of " the kinchin lay." The term audyens is applied to the spectators of the plays ; they are called sovereynes in p. 79, Shakespere's my masters. The Teutonic er is added to the old French parishen in p. 71 ; the rule for a priest's expenditure is thus laid down " So xulde every curat in this werde wyde 5eve a part to his chauncel iwys, A part to his parochoneres that to povert slyde; The thryd part to kepe for hym and his. " When we find a form like comfortacion, p. 116, and moralysacyon, p. 244, we see how easily ruin became ruination after this time. The word material appears as an Adjective, p. 208. Our common "I am afraid that you did it," referring to the Past, comes more than once. The old pynne and the new pynnade, meaning the same, are seen side by side in p. 208 ; Satan, tempting Christ, says ' ' Up to this pynnacle now go we, I xal the sett on the hy5est pynue. " 3i8 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. The Latin rrwra had been Englished in many ways ; it is written delation in p. 248. The Latin seriatim is turned into seryattly, p. 273. The former verb travail us becomes trobel us, p. 294. We find dubytacion, lyberary, intelligence (news, p. 125), anameryd (enamoured), metaphesyk, reynes (renes), roberych (rubric), excuse me, ravenous. In 1469 Sir Thomas Mallory compiled from various French books the History of King Arthur and his Knights ; this was printed by Caxton a few years later, and the work, a pattern of sound Old English, has been reprinted again and again, down to our own day. 1 The compiler was a Northern man, as we see by his prefixing for to Verbs, and by his using what will we do? i. 125; what is your will ivith me? iii. 51; gaynest (proximus), i. 270; give back (regredi), i. 192; in iii. 120 his everilk has been altered by Caxton into everyeach. In a chronicle, quoted in the Preface to the Plumpton papers, p. xcvl, Sir William Malary is mentioned along with many other Yorkshire knights in 1485. There are in this work more Teutonic words, now obsolete, than would have been used by a Southern writer ; Caxton's own early translations are far more modern in diction. As to the Vowels, e is added!; for Chaucer's hoor becomes hore, our hoary, i. 86. The old lein, the Participle of li^en (jacere), is written lyen, p. i. ; the form lien remains in our Prayer Book ; ie had always in the South been pronounced like the French e. The d is inserted in ridge (dorsum). Among the Nouns we see hough-bone (huckle bone), iii. 32 ; in my days (tune) ; hot as any stew, iii. 2 ; shwt breathed, letter winded. As to the Verbs, we see ride on Maying (a new Verbal noun), do thy worst, went to the ground (in Milton's sense), to be nighted (benighted), rather differing from Manning's use of the verb ; he will never make man (become a good soldier), i. 234, unbolted, run wild, set hand to. There is the verb hem, iii. 16, when a sound is made to arrest attention. The to (dis) is sometimes prefixed to Verbs in the good old way, as all to-shiver, all to-hew ; but this all to now began to be mistaken for omnino or vcliementer ; hence 1 I have used Wright's edition, 1866. ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 319 we here see all to beat, all to scratch, all to besweat, iii. 51 ; this corruption is employed by Tyndale and More, and lasted down to 1700. A man is said to be more than half dead, iii. 327. Among the French words stand labouring man, an hard case, by no manner of meanes, ii. 2 ; place of worship (respect- able house), bay window, estrange herself from. Mallory was so literal that he translated the cry aux armes ! by at armes I i. 27. The word promise gets the new meaning of assure, iii. 216, as in our asseveration, "I promise you." In i. 109 a knight is described as full of good parts ; this is the sense of the word that Lord Macaulay was so fond of. In i. 263 a lady makes curtesie to a man down to the ground ; here the noun slides into the expression of an attitude. There is in ii. 160 the proverb, "hard it is to take out of the flesh that is bred in the bone." The ' Play of the Sacrament ' (edited for the Philological Society) is interesting as the first English play that is not based upon a Scriptural subject. It must have been com- piled about 1470, and seems due to Norfolk; there are some uncommon words found also in the ' Promptorium ; ' there is am (sunt), ylke (idem), a late instance of this word, also the hard g, as goven, not the usual yeven. The ow supplants g ; for a famous German port is written Ham- boi'owhe, p. 108. The o is replacing the sound of French ou ; for we have here sole (anima) and knoest (scis). There is the new form ah, not a, p. 118. Among the Substantives are player (of an interlude), bone setter. There is boldero, some part of man's frame, which has given rise to an English surname. There is the new Verbal noun firing, and the phrase a great meny of Jewys, p. 136 ; the of, after the French word, was soon to be dropped. The dom replaces French endings; as dukedom. Among the new Verbs are untaught, kepe his howre, a new sense of kepe. There is the new nay tJuin, used at the beginning of a sentence ; expressing not denial but acquiescence, p. 126. The French words are bank (of money), the adverb 320 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. masterly, fruition, punch (an awl), p. 114, the audience (the spectators), represent a play. A man wishes for the deliver- ance of an article to him, p. 1 1 6 ; we have since coined de- livery to express the shade of meaning here denoted. A leech says he saves lives with prattise, p. 126 ; hence a physician's practice. A servant is directed to brushe intruders away, in the same page ; Wyntoun had used this verb intransitively. A master bids his servants tenderli to tende me iylle (attend to me), p. Ill; this adjective seems to have been confused with the verb ; for to tender a thing (attend carefully to it) is in constant use for the next Century. Occleve had already had the phrase. A second Version of the ' Gesta Romanorum ' seems to have been compiled about 1470; at least we see ware for the old wered, p. 395, which is found in the 'Paston Letters ' about that date. 1 This text is far more Northern than the Salopian text of 1440 ; we have Manning's go a good pace, also kirke, arne, alse longe as, thou knowes, both mekille and mych, lefte for Ulefte (mansit), to-morne (eras). In p. 48^Layamon's Gornoille becomes the Gonoryll so well known to us. There is the new Substantive pokefull. The word stole still keeps its dignified meaning of sedes in p. 418, not having come down to the sense of scahellum, as in Norfolk. Among the Adjectives we see moste myghtiest, p. 423. In p. 405 we have both forms, rightful and rightwise, used for Justus. We see, among the Verbs, drynke it up, a sperite walks, ye han nougM to do here. In p. 35 the Paston put out eyen is substituted for the do out yen of the older Version. Among the Adverbs we see why so? A request is made in p. 410 ; the Southern answer / nille becomes that shall I not. As to the Prepositions, we have / mil make with the a covenaunte of ten agaynes oon that, etc., p. 374; our sportsmen have now wonderfully shortened this betting phrase. As to French and Latin words, we find transite, used 1 This Version extends from p. 327 to p. 428, besides some earlier parallel versions of the First text (Early English Text Society). ii.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 321 both as a noun and as a verb. A moral lesson is drawn from grammar in p. 416, and all the fallyngis or cases are named. We hear of a woman wele enfourmyd, p. 396 ; of the Rialles, p. 408, whom Miss Burney calls " the Royal- ties." A jurrour (juror) seems to have little differed from an extortioner in this age; see pp. 372 and 386. Children are arrayed nysely (elegantly), p. 388 ; the new sense of the word. Our unstedefast was being supplanted by unstable, soon to become a Biblical word. We see vetious, ruynouse. There is a pun in p. 417, turning upon eyre, which expresses both hceres and aer. The ' Revelation of the Monk of Evesham ' (Arbor's Reprints) seems to have been translated from the Latin about 1470 ; it was printed about 1482 ; I suspect that it was compiled not far from Tyndale's birthplace. We see the new words and forms, behave, ware (induit), not wered ; thoes (illi) and dyke (fossa) have come down from the North, while tliylke appears only once. But the old Imperative sechith remains, and the Present Plural ends in en, as they desiren ; these forms were soon to drop. There are Salo- pian forms and words like mekylle, horrabulle, seche (talis), doers, liethir to ; there is the Worcestershire gyve (catena) ; and Trevisa's Gloucestershire phrase, three nyghtis togedyr. Both her and their stand for illoruni ; the South and North meet in " a neybur of herns " (hers), p. 70. Many of the new words and phrases I mention here were fifty years later to be inserted by Tyndale, another son of the Severn land, in our Version of the Bible. Among these is the new sense of the verb worship. As to Vowels, the i is replaced by o, as hedlong. The u is inserted in sejmlcur, p. 93, much as we pronounce it. There is tedusnes, and also tedeusnes, p. 76. The old sceos (calcei) becomes scliewis. Among the Consonants we find d changed into th, as hethur (hue) ; Tyndale was fond of this. The ]? is represented either by th or y ; yow is constantly written for thou, and this perhaps helped to supplant ye and tliou by you. The w is prefixed to vowels, as wolde (senex) ; also to h, as wlwre (canus) ; it is struck out, for home (quern) replaces whom. The r is added, for lesse VOL. I. Y 322 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. becomes lessur (minor), one of Tyndale's forms. There is the new Adjective onspekable. Among the Pronouns we remark that after, unlike other prepositions, is not prefixed to one another, as the new usage of this age enjoined ; in p. 20 the phrase is one after a nothyr, following the former construction of all prepositions. There is the new phrase any lenger (longer) ; " he knew not that it were any synne," where any supplants a. The old me (man) has been dropped since Audley's time ; we see how myght a man sey, etc., p. 46. Among the Verbs we see schynyd instead of shone, p. 108. In p. 77 we have both the old holpyn and the new helpyd. A new phrase for the Future, a phrase now always in our mouths, comes in p. 43 ; a sowle was goyng to be broughte, instead of shulde be broughte ; this reminds us of the Old English lie gce}> rcedan. There are new phrases like have any suspycyon, dead and gone. The old Teutonic rap (auferre) is confused with the Latin ; hence we see the Participle rapt. In p. 72 take stands for intelligere, as in our "I take it." In p. 105 the saints worship Christ; in p. 87 Christ worships His servant, that is, "does honour to him;" it was unlucky that one English verb should come to express both adorare and colere. There is the medical verb cup in p. 32. Among the Adverbs there isfer and brode, p. 68, where we should make the last word wide; in p. 103 stands an evyn heyre with me (co-heir). As to the Prepositions, we have many of myne acquentans, p. 41; cruel apone (them), p. 57; whence "hard upon them." There is for a more wondyr, p. 22 ; here a preced- ing wJiat may be held is dropped. We see the German noun brack (bush), our brake, p. 40. The Komance words are conteyne (restrain) him, ex- pedyent, contrary wise, plead a cause, join himself to, fugytyve. The form state is set apart for conditio ; estate was needed to express other ideas. In p. 63 a clerk is wise in his own conceyte ; we now make a difference between this noun and conception. The verb mervel was coming in fast, as we see in this treatise. In p. 106 a man is so amazed that ii.] THE NE W ENGLISH. 323 he is absent to himself. In p. 93 a man is prevent by mercy, to repent before death ; here the idea of forestalling begins to come in. The very, standing for valde, is in great use. About 1470 were compiled the 'Babees' Book' (Early English Text Society) and some other poems in the same volume. The chief author here is John Russell, some time servant to the good Duke Humphrey. He uses the y pre- fixed to the Past Participle, the ande which ends the Present Participle, and uche (quisque). He prefixes the y, as in yerb (herba) ; we see the alliterative ryme or reson in p. 199 ; the h is clipped ; hrcecan becomes reche (vomit). Among the new Substantives are wrapper, slipper, runner (strainer). In p. 1 babees is used for young lads, reminding us of Baby Charles. In p. 195 Eussell uses in my dayes, Mallory's phrase for olim. We see a new Adjective formed by adding som to an old one, as iverysom, p. 168. There is the new phrase any further, p. 161. Among the Verbs are set abroche (a pipe), set on egge (edge). In p. 3 the greeting prescribed is God spede. A new idiom with the Imperative is often used, be tastynge, p. 128 ; Coverdale was to be fond of this. There is the Scandinavian substantive roughe (roe of fish), p. 154, also squirt. Among the French words are posset, junket, Muscadel, sugar candy, basshe (modest, p. 161), courtly, vycount. The lees of some red wine are called colour e de rose, p. 125. The expletive sans doute is used. We hear of these gromes called wayters, who set out the table of Edward IV., p. 314, Note. The word mess gains a new meaning in p. 188 ; it does not mean food, but a party of men eating together. In p. 8 report stands for a written document. We see to brush clothes; the foreign word had also given birth to the Participle unbrushen. We read of the blod royal, one of the few instances where we still make the Adjective the last word. The Middle class seem to have been making way about this time, for in p. 187 it is stated that merchants and rich artificers may sit at table with ladies and squires. 324 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAI>. No one under the rank of an Earl employed a taster as a preservative against poison, p. 196. The Abbot of Tin- tern is named in p. 192 as the poorest of all the Abbots, he of Westminster being the highest ; in the same way, the Prior of Dudley is opposed to the Prior of Canterbury. In the ' Chronicles of the White Rose ' (published in 1845) there are many documents of 1470 and 1471. We see avant cut down to van, p. 80, and discouriour becomes scourer (scout), p. 75, as in the North. There are the verbs set in array, it lies in his power, keep terms with ; this last reminds us of kepan Jialf dale with, in 1210. The verb get, following the example of come, takes an Infinitive; he might get to liave the overhand, p. 52. We hear of " so able and so well picked men," p. 45. There is an inversion in truth it is that, p. 234. We see the new adverb hourly, p. 235 ; there is terseness in the phrase they dispersed the soonest they could, p. 92. The Romance words are, the appointment is broken, abuse (fallere), his funeral service, tranquillity, to minister justice. In p. 57 we hear of comfort- able (cheering) messages, where the able, as in the old de- fensable, has an Active sense. In p. 233 we have put it in ure (practice) ; hence came the verb inure twenty years later ; still more remarkable is put them in their uttermost devoir to, p. 240 ; the change from the sense of debere to that of conari is most strange ; a few years later Caxton wrote indevor him to, etc. In the 'Political Songs' of the year 1471 (Master of the Rolls) the Northern change, which substituted aro (sagitta) for the Southern arwe, is making progress ; in p. 277 waloing stands for the Participle of the old walewen. The old closer is now written clothyer, p. 285. The form Bewme, not Beeme (Bohemia), appears, p. 284 ; perhaps this was an imitation of the German sound of the word. The French words are penowry (penury), altratyd (altered). Warkworth's Chronicle (Camden Society) seems to belong to this time ; the writer must have been an East Angle from his use of qmcJie (which) and till (ad). Some documents of the time are added to the Chronicle. The old on lesse becomes our common unless, p. 50. We know IT.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 325 the old idiom, a man of his ; this is extended in p. 16, a manne of the Erics. Among the Substantives we see once more Jumde-gonnes, as distinguished from cannon ; Edward IV. owed the recovery of his throne mainly to three hundred of these light weapons, borne by Flemings, p. 13. An adverb is made a noun ; for in p. 17 stands the forwarde (of the battle). The new thoos (illi) may be read in a State paper, p. 46 ; it was soon to drive out the old tho. There is halff so myche more, p. 3, four of clokke, p. 16, not far from our phrase. Among the Verbs are give knoleage to, to loose gonnes at (our let off], lose it to the King, to turn out (come forth), make out commaundements to, also commissions to. We see the cry wherewith a favourite chief was hailed: A ! Ki/nge Herry, p. 14 ; this had come South since Wyn- toun's time. Among the Eomance words we find the new put them in devir to, etc. ; there is pety capitaine, resist, execute him, levy war ; the word dyverse is used without any substantive, p. 27, like the Latin Plural quidam, a new sense of the word ; dyverse of tliem were turned. The word inconvenience stands for damnum, p. 37 ; debate is now used of a Parliamentary contest, p. 60 ; York's change of the succession was debatet. The Western shires are expressed by the west countre, p. 17. An old French proverb comes in p. 27, "a castelle that spekythe, and a womane that wille here, thei wille be gotene bothe." In 'Halliwell's Original Letters of English Kings,' for the year 1473, we see the new substantive breakfast, p. 138, stamped with the authority of Edward IV.; also behaviour, p. 141, the ending of which seems to have been suggested by the word haver or flavour (opes), coming from the French avoir. The word humanity stands here for "polite learning." In the 'State Papers,' vol. vi., dating from 1473, we see " letters sent in that byJuilf" p. 1 ; a new phrase for object. In p. 6 stands a minuit (minute) of a letter. In p. 8 we find the premissez (what has gone before). London had been extending her sway over the shires South of Trent for the last Century as regards language ; 326 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. n. her influence can be measured by glancing at the Stafford- shire poem in Horstmann's ' Altenglische Legenden,' p. 308, supposed to have been compiled about 1460. Chaucer, Wickliffe, and Henry the Fifth had not written in vain, but something still remained to be done ; the old manu- scripts were now to yield to a new invention. CHAPTEE III. CAXTON'S ENGLISH. U74-1586. HITHERTO the New Standard English had been militant ; it was now at last triumphant ; the many dialects, at least to the South of Trent, very seldom reappear in writing after 1474. Caxton's press marks the beginning of a new period ; it arrested the decay of old Teutonic words, and gave stability to our spelling. The Reformation was to bring Standard English home to all men ; the Bible of Tyndale and Coverdale, and the Prayer Book of the reformed Anglican Church books read every week in every English parish were to insure the triumph of the East Midland English that had forced its way to London and Oxford. The form, in which the world -renowned English classics were soon to appear, now conies before us ; it differs in some points widely from Pecock's works that were compiled only a score of years earlier. Caxton, a Kentish man, whose grandfather must have been born not long after the time that the Ayenbite of Inwit was compiled, lived for three years in London ; and then about 1441 betook himself to the Low Countries, where he combined trade and authorship. We might have expected, from his birth and breeding, that he would have held fast to the old Southern forms and inflections, at least as much as Bishop Pecock had done. But Caxton had come under another influence. In 1469 he had begun translating into English the ' Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye ;' in the previous year King Edward's sister had been 328 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. given to Charles the Bold. The new Duchess took an interest in the work of her countryman, who had sickened of his task after writing five or six quires. In 1471, "she commanded me," says Caxton, "to show the said five or six quires to her said grace. And when she had seen them, anon she found defaute in mine English, which she commanded me to amend." She bade him (he had a yearly fee from her) go on with his book ; and this work, the first ever printed in our tongue, came out in 1474. It was "not written with pen and ink, as other books are, to the end that every man may have them at once." Wherein did the Duchess and the Printer differ in their views of English 1 In this, that the one came of a Northern house, while the other had been born and bred in the South. 1 Owing to the new influence, in Caxton's first work we see the loss of the old Southern inflexions of the Verb ; and we find Orrmin's their, them, and that (iste) well established, instead of the Southern her, hem, and thill 4 , beloved of Pecock. Caxton uses besiness for occupation, and has the phrase to passe the tyme, whence a noun was to come, thirty years later. When we weigh the works of Caxton, who wrote under the eye of the Yorkist Princess, we should bear in mind the English written by her father in 1452, not very unlike the State papers of Henry V. 2 The Midland speech was now carrying all before it. The Acts of Parliament, passed under the last Plantagenet King, were soon to be printed by the old servant of the House of York. Caxton says of himself, " I was born and lerned myn englissh in Kent in the weeld, where I dowte not is spoken as brode and rude englissh as is in ony place of englond." 3 He got the ' Eecuyell ' printed at Bruges 1 See Mr. Blades's ' Life of Caxton.' 'The Recuyell,' and some of Caxton's later works, are exposed to view in a case at the British Museum. 2 See York's long State Paper in Gairdner's ' Paston Letters, ' Ixxvii. 3 I may remark that this weeld (the old weald) was written woldc (saltus) in other parts of England. As to broad, it had been degraded from Chaucer's sense of plamis to incultus ; hence oiir broad YorktHvun applied to speech. in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 329 by his friend Colard Mansion in 1474 ; another of his works, the 'Game of the Chesse,' was printed by the same friend in the next year. In 1476 Caxton seems to have set up a press of his own in Westminster, where he worked till his death in 1491. Good reason has England to be proud of this son of hers, who opens a new era in her literature. The ' Game of the Chesse ' (I use Axon's reprint in 1883) abounds in new French words, which did not take root in England ; there are very few Teutonic words, now obsolete, to be found there. Here we doubtless trace the influence of Caxton's fair patroness. Colard Mansion, a foreigner, had no type for the English \ ; hence th usually replaces it, and our loss of the old character is accounted for. The letter y is sometimes used for it, as y u (thou), y 1 (that) ; hence we often see in our time if written for the; this last may be seen in p. 133. Another token of foreign influence is the Flemish gh before e, as ghest (hospes) ; ghost appears in later works.* The Northern syn (quoniam) is preferred to the Southern sithen, p. 44. We see ner (neque) an odd mixture of the old ne with the North- Western corruption nor. Caxton is fond of striking out vowels ; he constantly prints forms like thanswer for the answer, a usage which lasted for a hundred years ; captayn replaces Chaucer's capitaine ; pawne (the chess piece) is written for Lydgate's poun. The o replaces ow ; soroful is written for sorweful. The ch replaces t, as scracch ; we see not reckless but recheless, which comes into our Prayer Book. Caxton is fond of the z, writing Ceza/r. Among his new Substantives are husband man, grauntsirs fader ; this last was to be altered by 1530. The forms heyghte and hyghnes stand in one sentence, p. 159. The word rodde is used for a carter's whip, p. 76. Caxton is fond of new Plurals ; thus he talks of hectes (ardores), p. 103, applying the word to the mind. The word forfex is now Englished by a pair of sheres, p. 93. Among his Adjectives is the liye sea; men may dress in whyte, p. 36. Among the Pronouns we see iliee needlessly inserted, as ne doubte the- (fear not), p. 330 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. 21 ; we have already seen / fear me. The her, now and then, still stands for illorum ; there is the very Northern phrase afrende of heeris (hers), p. 32. The nothing is very often used for not, the old nought/ no thynge so grete as, nothinge lyke to it. Caxton's countryman Shoreham had used nothing loud. There is the new phrase in p. 67, answer none otherwyse, where in is dropped. Caxton was unable to pass the Double Negative on to Tyndale, a generation later. An English sentence may now consist of two words ; in p. 87 the question is asked, who entendeth to, etc. ? Then comes Certaynly none ; this we must owe to the French. We see the new phrase they ben worst of alle other ; here the of expresses beyond ; or else the other is not needed. Among the Verbs we see sette in enprinte, gyve thankyngis, kepe a promise. The verb break gets the new sense of domare ; his hors well broken, p. 43. In p. 59 certain advice is given, which they toke; in our phrase take advice, the verb may mean either rogare or amplecti. In p. 72 Csesar is ready to do for his soldiers (act in their behalf ) ; hence landladies profess to do for their lodgers. The old cleave (findere) becomes intransitive in p. 152 ; it moreover begins to take a Weak Perfect. Among the Adverbs are a fore tyme, comerwyse ; this win was to be much used in compounding. The old adverb clerelier becomes more clerely, p. 2 ; a change for the worse. In p. 65 a man acts for nothynge that (non quia) he mys- trusted ; this was soon to become not that he mistrusted, where a for is dropped. In p. 90 stands the grettest synne tJtat is ; here a there is dropped before the verb. As to Prepositions, there is a new idiom connected with for in p. 90 ; it is an evil thing for a man to have suspecion ; laws hard for them to kepe, p. 54; here the for connects an Infinitive with the Adjective. A covetous man is not good for ony thynge, p. 109. In p. 121 money is holden and gaged upon something; this is a new betting phrase, both as regards the verb hold and the preposition. Among the Eomance words are redoubted, to cndodrine, parole, clyent (at law), gauntelet, barbaryns (barbarians), dis- in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 331 agreable, depose (as witness), trowell, abandon, net (purus), to confisc, clere seing, treangle, vailliant. Caxton does not care to alter the French forms and words in the book which he was Englishing, thus we see Seneque (Seneca), moyan (mean), to estudy, mysericorde, to enseygne (docere), esprised with her, fumee (smoke), tryste (msestus). He often restores to a French word a sense that it had long lost in England, as defend (vetare), caitif (captivus). New French forms replace older ones, as renome'e, loyalty, gardes (no longer wardeins), guarisshe (not ivarish, to heal). We see both the Latin tractate and the French traytee, meaning our treatise. "We hear of strange birds that men call wultres (vultures), p. 10. The two Participles corrupt and corompid stand side by side in p. 37 ; they are formed from different parts of the Latin verb. The word pietous is in constant use for pitying. Caxton couples franc with free, p. 79; he also brought in new Plurals, as mlanyes (scelera). He uses marched for smith, p. 85 ; this word must have been commoner in every- day speech than in literature, to account for our freqirent surname MarsJiall. We hear of dyvyne pourveance, p. 113; we now usually give to the substantive its Latin form. The old estate makes way for another word ; men in good con- dition, p. 132 ; but it here refers to the mind, not the body. We are told in p. 158 that the myles of Lombardy and England are called in France leukes (leagues). The foreign verb extend was now driving out the Teutonic reach. The word succession now expresses proles, and is used of a king, p. 170. We saw, about the year 1470, the new phrase put them in dever to ; this is now altered by Caxton into endevor them to, p. 3 ; and a further change was to come thirty years later. Caxton is fond of using peple for homines ; a queen should spring of (from) honest peple, p. 27 ; we now often use my people for my family. A manoir is used for castelhim, p. 30 ; hence our Worksop Manor, referring to a house. Caxton's Southern birth is evident when he writes turner ous for timorous, p. 32. In p. 50 we see the new word botye (booty), and also its French form butyn. There is a favourite phrase set it a part (aside), that is, abolere. The verb close becomes intransitive, p. 90. The 332 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. barbarous compound scawage (show-age) appears in p. 139 ; it here means toll taken upon goods displayed for sale ; hence shortly was to come scavenger. The Latin ?//"/"/ is derived from mollis aer in p. 123; this was repeated by Shakespere. The technical terms of Chess appear in this book, such as chesse horde, chesse meyne, chesse men, a quadrante (square), set the chesse, take his adversary, go from black to whyte, to meve (ire, not movere), to cover (your men). In the 'Book of Curtesye,' printed about 1477, Caxton follows a manuscript that makes a few alterations in the text of 1450, upon which I have already remarked ; see p. 285 of my book. He preserves the old Imperative in clli. He couples the verbs mocken and mowe in p. 49 ; the first word was to be replaced by Shakespere's mop. The morowe (mane) and thilke of the first text are here altered into ///"/- enynge and these, pp. 5 and 43 ; and (si) is turned into ///, p. 9. A wonderful mistake is made in p. 47, where to you louse is altered into go to the galowis. In 1481 Caxton translated the liystorye of Reynard ilx- Foxe from the Dutch ; this is the most valuable treatise ever set in type by him, and it has been reprinted again and again ; I have gone to the Percy Society for my text. In this piece Caxton brought in many Dutch words, such as the verbs rutsele, wentle, etc. He prints dicrc (fera) in the Dutch way, not the English dere ; so also lupacrd and ungheluck. He says, "I have followed as nyghe as I can my copie, which was in dutche, and translated into this rude and symple Englyssh ; " here Dutch is restricted to Hollandish, I think for the first time. In this work, the diction of which is most unlike the ' Game of Chesse,' Caxton shows his Southern birth by printing axe (rogare), anhmgryd, suster, everiche, tryev:, the old treow (verus), and valdore as well as faldore, p. 34. But the Northern words and forms had come down in flocks, and were now em- bodied in Standard English. Where replaces there (ubi) in p. 121. Caxton has already (jam), halow (clamare), the Perfect tliou dalf-est, gete (ire), sware, upsodoun, she-ape, ranne (cucurrit), cratch (scratch), have the is hardly ever used for fk ; this ]> which was now vanishing is a sad loss. Henceforth the language was to be much more stable ; a hundred years later still Sir Philip Sidney would have altered but few of Caxton's words. I give a specimen of the changes in English Trevisa, Caxton. 1387. 1482. i-cleped called. schulle]> fouge shall resseyve. ich I. to eche encrece. lore doctryne. to wone dwelle. byneme teke away, to welk fade, to hore wexe Lore (cauus). eyren egges. buxom obedient. hi5t was named, as me trowej> as men suppose, steihe ascended, i heleful helthful. ' teeldis tents, lesue pasture. a5e agayn. schenful shameful, schrewednesse ylle disposicioun. deel part. 5ede went, swife good right good, nesche soft, chepinge market. Caxton brought out an edition of Chaucer's ' House of in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 337 Fame' in 1483 ; we can thus mark further changes in our speech. The printer replaces gost by his new Dutch ghost. The old Imperative havetli (habete) makes way for hive ye, do (factum) becomes don, y-be appears as be; (it) nas but, etc., as (it) was but, arne (sunt) as ar, nyste I as / ne wyst, wilnen as wylleth, hevenyssh as hevenly, graunt mercy as gramercy, other as eytlier, disesperat as desperate, disport as sporte, mochil as grete. Chaucer had written Cataloigne and Aragon; but in Caxton's time another part of the Peninsula had taken the lead ; he therefore' writes Castyle lyon (Leon) and Aragon, p. 215. Even Thynne in 1532 often sticks closer to the old text than Caxton does. The latter thus speaks of Chaucer, "In alle hys werkys he excellyth in myn oppynyon alle other wryters in our Englyssh. For he wrytteth no voyde wordes, but alle hys mater is ful of hye and quycke sentence. ... Of hym alle other have borowed syth and taken in alle theyr wel sayeng and wrytyng." Few poets, in modern times, have enjoyed 500 years of continuous honour. In Caxton's edition of the ' Book of the Knight of La Tour Landry ' (Early English Text Society), given to the world in 1483, there is the Southern form suster, the Northern ask and the which, also some body, p. 176, and straw (sternere) to be afterwards used by Tyndale; the old assay becomes essay, p. 170; both dommage and dammage stand in p. 194. In p. 175 stands the pleonasm one onely word. In p. 179 stands better men of theyr persones ; hence the later "a tall man of his hands." In p. 194 we find not above ten yere old ; here this preposition is first prefixed to numerals. In p. 200 stands at all aventure (in any case) ; this paved the way for our " at all events. " French words are brought in from the original without the slightest reason, as arrache, vergoynoiLS ; there is custommed to doo (solitus), p. 195. Dr. Murray's Dictionary shows that Caxton prefixed the a to the old kn&uleche (fateor) ; he has also amuse (fallere), absolutely (certainly), and by accident. In the 'York Wills' for 1482 and 1483 we see a thoroughly Northern substitution, when a Saville writes VOL. I. z 338 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. his own name as Sayvell, iii. 294. In p. 287 an executor, speaking of a servant, calls hym to accomptes ; we now put the last word in the Singular. In Rymer's documents, from 1474 to 1477, we see the form buye (emere) in a grant of Edward the Fourth's, p. 185 ; the word has at last all but taken its modern form. In p.. 175 we once more see the Present and Future coupled in the nobles being and to be under him. This was also an idiom of Caxton's. The word Duchery, p. 826, occurring in a Scotch document, is a compromise between duchy and dukery ; the latter word is well known in Notts. We see non, as before, prefixed to a Teutonic word ; in non-doing of (it), p. 838. In p. 849 stands the expedition and setting forth of the army ; here both the Romance and the Teutonic nouns convey a transitive sense, though we now use them as neuters. There is a Scotch substitution of bringage for bringing in the year 1477. There is the new placquart (placard). In the 'Rolls of Parliament,' 1474-1483, we see the Old and New forms coupled in p. 166, where mention is made of the village Iwarne Cowrteney, otlierwise Yewarne Courteney ; both Janyver and January appear. In p. 113 we read of the Northrithyng and Estrithyng of York ; this th had not yet been corrupted into d in the East Anglian fashion ; in the same way the old verb aforthe lingers in p. 156, followed by an Infinite. There is the surname Gibbes, due to Gilbert ; and new nouns like oversight, neernesse, mys- behavyngs ; the latter shows how readily the mis was pre- fixed to a new word. In p. 188 various plays are mentioned, among them are halfbowle, handyn and handowte; these, like our skittles, were played in gardens. In p. 134 we read of 1 2 fatliom ; the word is unchanged in its Plural form. The Commons are addressed as youre ivisdomes, p. 182. In p. 221 we see that grilles was anything but equal to a salmon. In p. 156 we learn that Englishmen were getting fonder of playing cards than of archery ; a statute is passed (like one of the Emperor Frederick the Second's), compelling every ship to bring home bowstaves from foreign parts. In p. 193 stands it is comen to his in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 339 The preposition out (we saw one instance in Chaucer) was now beginning to encroach upon over in composition ; to outleve him stands in p. 234, where the out expresses super, not ex. Among the Eomance words are sewers (of water), p. 210, demeane (domain), to quiet them, arable land. We saw determine (statuere) in Trevisa; we now find in p. 241 we be determined to, etc. In p. 210 we hear of the Pricw and his confreres ; the latter word is now a thing of beauty and joy to our penny-a-liners. The old French form bordure still stands, not having given way to border. The 'Paston Letters,' from 1474 to 1485, show many changes at work. There is the East Anglian plot (of ground), hvswifery ; thos (illi) is much used for tlw by the upper class. The sound of the French & is making its way to the South, for there are declair, gayt (I gat, got), p. 227 ; in p. 254 stands Leystoft for Lowestoft, owing most likely to the twofold sound of oi. The o replaces ow in boroed. In p. 140 we have streyghtly charge theym ; here the Teutonic gh is thrust into a French word. A Paston uses the very Southern form " (it) ys do " (done) in p. 247 ; this do was very near sharing the triumph of ago (agone). The most curious use of consonants is that of psal for sal (shall), p. 221. The r is inserted, for the quavin of the 'Promp- torium ' now becomes qwaver, p. 174. Among the new Substantives are shomaker, wardship, the lete (let of an estate), your moderchypp (mothership). In p. 109 a letter is directed to a knight, "lodgyd at the George by Powlys Wharff ;" here we see the titles of Saints clipped in common usage. The word tmveardnes before the Con- quest had meant futurity ; this had died out, and the sub- stantive, bearing another meaning, is coined anew from the adjective toicard ; see p. 122. The word stok had expressed progenies in Wickliffe; it stands for domus in p. 190, and ior peats in p. 238. In p. 133 we hear of a grome of the cliambyr. In p. 170 a young lady addresses her betrothed as her Voluntyne. In p. 148 a new title comes up ; Sir John Paston talks of Mother Brown ; in p. 171 reference is made to my lady my moder. It is hoped, in p. 163, that a marriageable girl may come into Crysten menys handys ; 340 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. here Crysten must stand for a man of worth. In p. 155 something is gotten by stronge hand (violence). In p. 162 the conquerors of Charles the Bold appear as the Swechys ; Tyndale later called them Souchenars. We have already seen your wisdoms; in p. 181 we have yowr wurshippys. There is the new word growndage, p. 211, expressing the right to what comes aground after a wreck at sea. The old fere was now being replaced in composition by fellow ; in p. 235 stands bedffelawe. In p. 244 there is not only Chaucer's bme Jwus, but also the new bruewyf. We find Tully for Cicero in p. 301, just as July had replaced Julius nearly 200 years earlier. We see the proper name Whyte in p. 211. Among the Adjectives something is called in p. 239 not goodely nether goddely ; the latter word starts once more to life after a long sleep. In p. 144 we hear of a gravecloth not worth II d , a phrase that we still keep, sometimes adding to it halfpenny. The word onhappy is applied to a thing without feeling in p. 121, much as unlucky. The word slak is employed in a new sense in p. 166, slakke payeres. The Past Participle of hreddan (liberare) had not often been used hitherto ; she wold be redde of it, p. 295. We read of a free horse in p. 200 ; this must mean generosus ; we now talk of " a free goer." Among the Pronouns we see on (one) weye or other, p. 153. As to the Verbs, there is a most unusual coupling in p. 159, / wyll and shall be redy. The Imperative stands for the Future in p. 211, lesse (lose) your ryht now and lesse it for ever. We see do the best I can, p. 143; lay to me (a charge), let loose, it is well ment, brynge it to effecte, I took (visited) him in my wey, put in possession, make trobyll, fall in gweyntaince with, gete it into yowr handes, draw ought (up) a bylle, kepe possession, doo as moche for yow. We have seen mean applied to the signification of a word ; it is now applied to the reality denoted by the word, they wote what yt meneth to be as a sauger, p. 135. The verb erase is still used both of sea-sickness and of illness produced by bad diet in p. 161; we now confine it to failure of brain. In p. 149 deele in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 341 stands for make a bargain. In p. 188 yowr mater is Uowyn wyde, "made common talk;" hence character is blown upon. Our slang use of sit upon is foreshadowed in p. 235 ; the King intends to sitte uppon a criminal ; that is, in judgment. In p. 231 stands ye may do meclie with the Kyng ; here the do re- presents the old dugan (valere), not don. The Infinitive is dropped after Jiave (jubeo), how ye wyll have me demeanyd, p. 159. The verb spring is made transitive in p. 130, ^f (it) spn/nge (produce) any sylver ; a new verb is coined in p. 162, where the Swiss berde the Duke of Burgoyne. We see the Chaucerian / gesse used as an expletive in the American way, p. 185. The Passive Voice is further de- veloped, / am promysed to know, p. 228. The verb do is even at this late date used for our make, do him come, p. 238. The phrase go to lawe, p. 245, means simply "begin to study law." As to Adverbs, down is employed in a new sense in p. 226, the tvod (wood) is down; out is prefixed to nouns; we hear of the owt chargys, that is, extra charges, p. 126. In p. 194 stands the soner the letter. There is a new phrase for tolerare in p. 199, used afterwards in the Bible, my charges be gretter than I maye a weye with ; perhaps a verb make is dropped before the a weye, representing some sense like facere viam ; the whole construction is most curious. Old Margaret Paston uses there in its old sense, ubi, in p. 284 ; she speaks of Redliam, there as I was borne. Among the Prepositions we find be in hand with a man, it is in the giftt of, etc., be in goode hope, be out of facyon ; here the last word takes the sense of mode. Hitherto a man had appeared before the Lords of the Council ; nowa mater is beffoor tlwm, p. 153. A well-known law phrase is in p. 166, ye sholde have it with your wyffe to the lenger lyver of yow bothe. In p. 219 stands, (she) is upon L yer of age; here dose is dropped after is. In p. 204 we see long of comyng where the of must stand for an on. Instead of saying " she has a sister," a lad writes in p. 241 ther be II systers of them ; our " make a night of it " is something like this. We see the proverbs, grettest clerkys are nott alweye wysest men, p. 153 ; it is but a sympill oke, that is cut down at the first 342 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. stroke, p. 169. If a thing is very easy to be obtained, a goose may gel it, p. 163. The well-known letter of young Master Paston from Eton, anent love-making and Latin verse-making, stands in p. 240 ; it was written in 1479. There is the Dutch word waynescotte. The Romance words are specify, plunge (as a frisky horse does), relyffe (relief), rental, weell-monyed, prefyx, compleynotini, senior (set after a proper name), ipse dixit, seyetyka (sciatica), a gradwat (graduate), marye with yowe (filiam tibi dare, p. I68),pylyon (on a horse), my quarter wagys, sertyfy, suppliant . Dame Margaret Paston repeatedly addresses another lady as Madam, p. 197 ; she talks of a somma of money and suimmt totalis, p. 135. There is the phrase have a horse with him at lyvery, iii. 280. We see the two meanings that may be borne by one verb in p. 141, ye shall not depart tyll ddhc depart yow. We read of good dysposyn (disposition), and of a person being dysposyd to act, p. 201. In p. 148 stands j>' it yow to sende, etc. ; we should now strike out the three middle words. The young Etonian is the first Englishman, I think, to use one of our commonest phrases, the French translation of the Northern even; sJie is just iceddyd, p. 241 ; this refers to time, but Pecock's even so was to become just so. The verb desire gets the new meaning oijubeo, p. 256. In p. 300 we read of a boke in preente, which is something new ; this refers to the first book ever printed in England. There is a curious mixture of Latin and French forms in be proveyd (purveyed) of, p. 21 1. We see the verbs to rneve and to mocyon in one sentence, p. 158 ; another verb, coined from a noun, is to laches (neglect), p. 216. The old no frs was making way for a longer-lived phrase, taken up by Tyndale rather later ; it makyth no matyr Iwuo corse it be is in p. 237. In the 'Plumpton Letters' (1474-1485) we see the sound of our common do in dow (facere), p. 42 ; the r is cast out in Knasboro, p. 32; the old begotten is seen as gotten, p. xciii. In p. 33 we read of a watche word, which here means a caution. The Southern reve (gerefa) appears more correctly in Yorksire as grave, p. 39 ; another form grieve is still in being. I have remarked upon monger in com- ni.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 343 position ; in p. 30 we hear of a super sedeas mounger. We see the source of drive a bargain, when a man says of an article, in p. 37, "I have clieaped (it) . . . and that is the least that I can drive it to." Among the French words are moyte (half), to file (papers). Orrmiu's Pasch is still in Northern use for Easter. We read of parson Tuly, p. 31, a familiar way of mentioning a priest ; Robin becomes Robenett in p. 38. There are some other Northern documents (1477-1485) in Davies' 'York Records.' We see the old gude, bryg (pons), tochand, we gretys, eyn (vesper). Some of these forms, evidently the work of a Yorkshire clerk, are con- tained in a letter signed by the future Richard III., p. 147. So fond were the Northern men of changing a into e, that we find here pairt, depairt, airms. The old sawel, where the first syllable answers to the French ou, is now changed into sail, p. 142 ; and this remains in Scotch use. There is the proper name Nelson, p. 183; we read of wards (of a city) and wapentaks. A. pageant is called a syght, p. 162; the lokkes of a river are mentioned in p. 84. Men are made toll free, p. 144; a new instance of compounding with an adjective. In p. 178 news comes that Bucking- ham is turnyd ayanst Richard III. ; bear the charges of, etc., is in p. 115; find things upon him is in p. 200. The Romance words are almyfiuent, jacket, javelin, usefullnes (profit). In the ' Testamenta Eboracensia,' iii., we see shaft for sagitta, p. 253 ; beriall loses the sense of sepulchrum and means sepultura, p. 244 ; there is the phrase icoman of livelod (property), p. 257; a man of wealth and rank is yoman of the chambre to the' King, p. 294. There is the phrase break ground, used literally. There is the compound gardenshipp (of a child), p. 241. We have the Statutes of an Exeter Guild ('English Gilds,' Early English Text Society, p. 304), drawn up in the year 1480. The y is prefixed to Past Participles, as y-occupied ; but it hardly ever appears after this time. We see the Salopian won (unus), p. 323, and wothe, p. 316; the Northern ivhatsomever, p. 318; fang (recipere) is 344 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. found, which remains to our own day in Devonshire mouths. There is a habit of prefixing y to vowels, as yand for and ; soul (anima) is written sole, just as we pro- nounce it, p. 318 ; in p. 314 are the two forms sower and sewer (stitcher). There is a curious change of i into oy ; the old spillan (laedere) becomes spoyll, p. 321 ; the Teutonic verb was thus confused with the French cor- ruption of spoliare. The g and d are still confused, as acordynd to, p. 336 ; a very late instance. There is the new substantive foreman ; one of the old senses of free comes out in p. 316, free of the craft. 1 Among the Verbs is call him a mysname ; here we now dock the mys. As to new French words, we read of the customers of a shop, p. 317; and quarter dayys. In p. 413 of the same work we find a Bristol docu- ment; very few old turns of phrase remain, except tho, beth, ycome, "our alther (omnium) liege lord" p. 415. In Gardner's ' Letters of Richard III.' (Master of the Rolls) there is a curious insertion of ps in anempst, p. 23, the Scotch anent. In pp. 6 and 7 morne and mow are at last distinguished and are employed in our sense of the words. The form thoos (illi) was now rapidly driving out the rightful tho ; the former .. is used by Richard III., p. 51. We see fore-horse, bear iSe towards, I hei-e for certeyne, havyng respecte to, frountures (frontiers). These are in 1483. William of Worcester, known also as Botoner, penned his observations upon English geography and history in 1480, paying particular heed to his native Bristol; his ' Itinerarium ' was reprinted in 1778. What was Aldgute in London had been corrupted into Oldgate at Bristol, p. 182. The ala of a Church is seen as yle in p. 79, and as isle in p. 82 ; whence comes aisle ; the confusion between ala and insula is curious. We see Chedsey, p. 144, the Chedzoy of Lord Macaulay. We read of Botrowse Castle, 1 Swift made a fair pun on the two meanings of free, liber and potens ; Burnet had set down that one of his heroes was free of vices ; upon which Swift remarked, " I suppose in the same sense that hu was free of a corporation." in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 345 near Tyntagel, p. 123; this is a corruption of Botreaux (Botriouse); so the village of Wickham Breaux, near Canter- bury, is now pronounced Broo. William shows his Southern breeding by talking of vethym instead of fathom. The d is struck out ; there are both the forms St. Audoen and St. Ewen (applied to one Bristol church), pp. 221 and 215. Among the Substantives are seebord, ward (of a castle), wildfire, crossway. The word kenning is applied to a view reaching over twenty-one miles out at sea, p. 110 ; hence our " within ken." The unusual word le slip is explained in p. 218, anglice a steyre. There is a nickname in p. 324 ; a man who has no hands is called Thomas Stompys (stumps). A famous town on the Dee, which had long lain waste, appears as West-ckestre, p. 263. The old firren mast now appears as mast de vyrre, p. 1 75. Names of places keep their old forms more exactly than other words ; we see the old Genitive Plural in Monken-brygge and Hounden-lane ; dyke (fossa) has not become ditch, p. 217. There is the Celtic noun gull, for a bird, p. 111. Among the Romance words are text-wryter, custom-hous, cylyng (ceiling), casement, reredes (reredos), a gar gyle, crosse-yle. We see the ovyrstorye of a building in p. 82 ; this noun coming from estorer (instaurare) is confused with historic, for le ovyrhistorie stands in p. 78. We see panys of glass in p. 93, which appear also as panellce, p. 82 ; we now dis- tinguish between a pane and a panel (pannus), each mean- ing a portion of something. In p. 117 we read of le pleyn de Salysbery. In an heraldic description in p. 164 we light on ung egle displayed de argent, the spread eagle of later times ; it was heraldry, no doubt, that caused the French eagle to drive out the English ern; we see how the verb display took root. In p. 169 we read of lez shamlys (shambles), from the Latin scamnum, scamellum. Soon after 1240 the great trench or quay to the North of Bristol had been dug; this in 1480 still retained its old name le graunt key, p. 255. Other traces of the Norman Conquest and its results on the burgher class are seen ; in p. 243 the place of justice is called anglice lezfourches sive galowes ; the Old Market stood on the East side of the 346 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAV. town, and this is also called le veyle market, p. 211. Our author translates compassion by pietas, p. 271. We see filius naturalis in p. 340, a phrase which could not take root in English for more than a Century. The parish authorities were as heedless in those days as now; the South aisle of All Saints was built in this Century, when the bones and freestone tomb of our author's uncle, who died about 1420, were removed; see p. 171. In Ellis' Letters for 1483 we see Collougne written in- stead of the usual Coleyne, owing to the twofold sound of oi. There are the phrases in myn opinion, charge upon their lives. In p. 168 stands the rekenyng to begyne, etc.; here being, which should be the third word, is dropped. The ' Chronicles of the White Rose ' were compiled about 1483. How utterly lost the Old English grammar was may be seen by the fact that the Commons begin a petition with pleaseth (placeat) it your Grace, p. 272. There is the phrase twenty persons of gentlemen, p. 114. We learn that the three most Royal houses of Christendom hi 1483 were reckoned to be England, France, and Spain, p. 276. A curious mixture of official language in this year is seen in p. 279 ; a bill in English is read before Richard III. ; then comes A ceste bille les Communs sont assentes ; then the King's assent is set down in Latin, p. 279. The Romance words in these Chronicles are profane (secular), edition (publication); the policy of England is in p. 277 coupled with her laws and liberties, and must therefore mean here political interest. In 1483 was compiled the ' Catholicon Anglicum ' (Early English Text Society), an English-Latin dictionary ; it seems to be due to the North -East of Yorkshire. Among the Northern forms and phrases, now unknown in the South, are hundreth (centum), lyke sange (ncenia ; who forgets Monk- barns' lykewake ?), neddyr (aspis), fee (pecus), seen in feehouse, smallum (minutim), stag (pullus), gudsyre (avus), foryetytt (obliviosus), yirn (grin), towne (both pagus and rilli.i), t<> uppeliepe (cumulare) ; tomorne, as it still does in Yorkshire, stands for eras. The old kakel (used of a hen) is here seen as kaykylle. The old Jiaga (hedge) is unsoftened in hag- HI.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 347 worme ; but becJie, belch (the old belk), drone, show Southern forms creeping up to the North. In p. 190 we see a Latin verse, an aid to memory in declining damns "Tolle me, mi, mus (mis ?) in variando domiis." This, in my schoolboy days, had become "Tolle Die, mi, mu, mis, si decliiiare domus vis." The a replaces e, as in parcelle (parsley), JuirtJie (focus). The final e is sometimes not pronounced ; howe is written for the old hu ; the ea replaces ia, as treakylle (treacle). The y is added ; there is gramary, here meaning the same as gramere (grammar). The y supplants o ; nyke is written for nokke (notch), as we saw in the ' Ballads.' We find chine written for chain, a Yorkshire usage seen before. The old ]>awen (degelare) is here written thowe, a very different sound from what the verb now bears in the North ; the old tawere (coriarius) becomes fewer, taking the favourite English sound. As to Consonants, we see the true old form borgh (mutuum), and also the Southern corruption borowe (mutu- ari) ; we find also bower (arcuarius), whence comes a surname. The old g had long been softened in the Old English geolo (flavus), but it is hard as ever in the Northern guile, seen here, from the Scandinavian gulr (flavus). There is the Scandinavian clwfte, and also the English chavylle and chawylle (maxilla), whence jowl was to come. The b is in- serted ; there is schambylle as well as scliamylle (whence slwmUes). The t is added ; for parchemin becomes parche- tncnt. The n is struck out, spinder becomes spyd&r, p. 116. The r is inserted, as in hoarse, long before ; a swathe of grass becomes a swarthe. The m is inserted, there are the two forms apostem and imposteme (imposthume). A change of meaning is shown by simply adding an s ; there is both glosse (adulari) and glose (glosare). The I is added, for there are both the old pedder and the new pedlare ; the latter form had come much earlier. Among the new Substantives are cade (ovis domestica), dawe (monedula), rokelt (rochet), sappelynge, wagstert (our 348 THE NEW ENGLISH. wagtail). There are the compounds, ake apylle, arowhede, banefyre (bonfire), bedtyme, blynde worme, fery man, fidylle slik, fleschour (carnifex, a Northern word), flesche schamylle (macel- lum), hay coke (the last part of the compound is Scandi- navian), hartstringe, hedelande, lynsy wolsye, litilnes, mure cok, schepherde dog, snayballe (snowball), thonour bolte, toste yren. The old bow may now be used for the arch of a building, as the Netherbow at Edinburgh ; we also read of the bryge of a nose. The word schafte may now be used of a pillar. The word folowynge may now express sequela. There is a new word merytotyr, the source of our "merry go round ;" in Yorkshire merritrotter is still used for a kind of swing. What we now call a pore appears as a swet hole. The old eldfadyr (avus) is made to express abavus in p. 428. Two nouns are revived after a long sleep, scutelle (canistrum) and newness. We see Huchon for Hugh. There are many Teutonic Adjectives ending in able, as biteable, clenseable, eteable, lovedble, untellable, with several others. There is also HI fame, wyde opyn, woi'dy ; an epithet that will always stick to the luckless Alison. One word out of all those compounded with the Teutonic sam (semi) lived beyond the year 1400 ; it here takes the form of sande blynde (luscus), and in this form it was used by Shakespere. The open is made a substantive, as }>e opyn oflpe hede (calvaria). In p. 426 anniculus is Englished by a yre olde. Among the new Verbs we see miselle (mizzle) coming from mist, whewe (fistulare). There are unbend, bryst up (burst up), crakk nuttes, wax even (vesperare), stryke fire, to halfe, Jiold halyday, putt out strength, schute (as corn does). The verb wirshipe adds to its old sense of colere that of adorare, as in the Monk of Evesham. The verb cross gets the new sense of cancellare ; we say cross out. The verb gmve here means not only sculpere but also fodere ; this last sense has vanished before the Southern dig. We see scrud, with rub given for its synonym ; hence perhaps our verb scrooge. There is a curious instance of a French ending tacked on to a Teutonic root, unwernyschit for unwarned. in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 349 The Adverb is placed before a Participle, as dene rynynge ; there is also hereaicay (hac). There is the Interjection schowe, p. 338. The Scandinavian words are kylte (succingere), snap, kytytte (titillare). There is the Celtic bannok. Among the Romance words are arsenic, brusket (brisket), case (theca), congruity, cowrbe (a curb), disfigure, halfe a cerkylle, to halfe tone, lavyr (lavacrum), legerdemayn, nowne, obstynate. to order, ospray, pasnepe (parsnip), pynappylle, scul$on, tendron (tendril), thre cornarde (triangulus). The word clokke supplants the old horiloge, and drops the sense of campana. There is pille garleke (vellicare), whence came a scornful term. We see the word liympsynger ; we now talk of psalmsingers. The Latin in may be seen encroach- ing on the French en, as inquire, invyous. There is the curious substantive mawncliepresande (a munch present), equal to sicofanta ; this looks like a literal version of one of Hesiod's Greek adjectives. The word pair is now used with the Genitive both of tongs and pincers. The noun robynett is employed for the redbreast. The old tretabylle (tractabilis) is still in use ; but in trade (sistema, tractus) the Latin, not the French form, is followed. We see both the Substantive forms trayn and trayle. There is goffe (godfather) ; this may have had its influence on gaffer ; also gome (commere), whence perhaps gammer. There is sprynge (enervare) ; the Teutonic form is used for the French espreindre, our sprain. We have already seen the ' Promptorium Parvulorum ' of 1441 ; I now show, from later editions, dating from about this time, 1485, what alterations had been made in our tongue within little more than forty years. I have added to the second column one form taken from Caxton 1441. 1485. gnastyn gnachyn (gnash), lawncent lawnset (lancet), left liande left handid. selwylly selwyllyd. Ma fey ! Maffeyth ! (my faith). Make (Celtic) Magot (maggot). Sewstare (sutrix) Soware. Upholder (the tradesman) Upholster (Caxton). 350 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. I may call attention tomorwyn (mane) and morwynstere, old forms that lingered down to this time. The alteration of Adjectives into Past Participles in the above list will be remarked. Of the ' Digby Mysteries ' (Shakespere Society) two pieces may be set down to 1490 or thereabouts ; these are 'The Killing of the Children' and 'Mary Magdalene.' They seem to belong to East Anglia ; there are xal, arn, the strait way of the ' Paston Letters,' and bigg (sedificare) ; also Lydgate's precyows knave. The form defyle comes very often. One of the greatest changes is, that wolde God becomes wold to God ! p. 74 ; here the e being clearly pro- nounced was mistaken for to ; Chaucer's / irish to God may have had some influence here. The old fad.er and moder now become fathyr and mother ; the h in dohter was still sounded so clearly that it is written docctor in p. 88. As to Substantives, in p. 123 stynt is employed for wages, something like pittance. The word harlot is applied to women in p. 1 4, I think, for the first time ; this usage was established by Tyndale. Herod uses lang baynes (long bones) as a term of abuse, p. 61. In p. 128 the Virgin is called sokor for man and wyff, that is, for all mankind ; hence " all the world and his wife." We see what is your wyll ? a word tvith thee ; also the name Maryon. Among the Adjectives are blabyr-lyppyd ; a woman is addressed as my own dere, p. 75. Among the Verbs is the Northern inbring. We find give audience, shew sport, fall flat to the ground, bring to abaye (bay). There is the Northern wyll we ivalk? p. 75. The have is wonderfully clipped in had natt a (have) byn ded, p. 88. A sailor is ordered to sett of from the land, p. 109; here the Accusative ship must be dropped, and we gained a new term for profeisci. The old phrase go a pilgrimage had long been in use ; this is extended in p. 127, where a woman has gon \e stacyounes. Among the Adverbs in p. 76 stands how Itremylf the how had hitherto been coupled with an adjective or adverb. The so I shall of 1320, beginning the answer to another man's speech, is continued ; we see so am /in pp. 7 and 96. A in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 351 person is called and answers here, lord, here, p. 82, using no verb. The like, in the sense of as, was coming in ; they ficjlit like develles, p. 9. The Preposition is now placed after its case ; (children) of two yeeres age and within, pp. 2 and 5 ; another manuscript has the new under for within. There is the cry hoff hof f p. 73, with which young gallants began their speeches for the next eighty years ; Skelton has huffa ! huffa ! Among the French words are bewteful, elegant (written iterant in p. 73), redolent, apostylesse. In p. 61 the verb opteyn gets the new sense of hold ground ; a sense still kept by us. There is the curious phrase a soveryn (optimus) servant, p. 76. We have seen the phrase in ure; we now have, p. 134, woman, inure (inured) in mekenesse; thus a new English verb is compounded. We find Malmeseyn (Malmsey), p. 72 ; in the same page is the old clary and the new form claret. In Collier's 'Dramatic Poetry,' vol. ii. p. 213, there is a piece that may date from about 1490. The d is added, roune (susurrare) becomes ronde in your ear. A man, almost hanged, says, we had a nere mnne, p. 215. The ecce signum, Falstaff's future phrase, is set in the middle of the English text. In the ' Paston Letters,' 1485-1500, Reginald is softened, when Ser Reynold Bray, the well-known minister of Henry VII., is mentioned in p. 332 ; hence the surname Reynolds. The Earl of Surrey, the future conqueror of Flodden, turns fader into the new fathir, p. 366. As to the new Substantives, a rebel chief calls himself Robyn Godfelaws brodyr, p. 362. A young Paston complains of the price of horsflesclie (equorum), p. 376. The old idiom of the Double Genitive is carried a step further in the same page ; we read of a h(rrs of a persons (belonging to a parson). A peculiarly East Anglian word stands in p. 365, lobster (stoat) ; Garnett has discussed the word. In p. 352 it is lamented that there is no grete lady to meet the King ; an obvious translation from the French. As to the Verbs, a town is dronkyn drye, p. 352, when the 352 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. King and his retinue visit it. A man is crasid in his mynde, p. 391 ; the verb, hitherto a synonym of frangere, was later to be restricted to this particular sense. We see the Dutch hoy (navis). Among the Romance words are skillet, inestimable, to qwestyon, bede rolle. A manuscript written about this time (referred to in the Preface to ' Gesta Romanorum,' p. xx.) gives us a new idiom connected with few ; we see a fewe of the tales ; this differs much from the old dne (soli) fedwa worda (a few words). In ' Caxton's Life/ by Mr. Blades, we see the new word Chirchwardeyn used in a document of 1491 (p. 162). The old late (nuper) becomes lately in a book of 1493 (p. 362). In ' Gardner's Letters of Richard III. and Henry VII.,' 1485-1500 (Master of the Rolls), we see Bemares (Beau- maris) in ii. 297, followed by Bewemares in the next page. There is the contraction Clwmley for Cholmondelcy in ii. 283. The Irish Cavanagh appears as Cavenok, ii. 304. In i. 109 breche stands for inimicitia. A ship is called a man of warre, ii. 69. In a Scotch document we hear of peetis (peats) and colis, ii. 332 ; the former word is said to come from bet-an, to mend the fire, like the purse of 1220 from bourse. There is the skippar of a ship and the Northern form raid. We see the Verbs to ren a cours r and to onhelme ; there is the phrase take him into favor, i 92 ; be of oone mynde, ii. 67. We see latest (ballast), which, like many of our sea terms, came from the Dutch. The Romance words are signe manuell, evyte (avoid), baroness, of a sewerte, he was out of wages (pocket, ii. 317), deputie lieutenant (of Ireland). The old jangle changes its meaning, for we hear of the cluingelyng of bellis, i. 394. We see the first hint of a new sense in a Verb, our resolved mynde is, that, etc., i. 110. We have the Celtic kerne and galoglasses, ii. 67. In the 'Rolls of Parliament' from 1485 to 1496 we re- mark the change of Hobekin into Hopkyn, p. 279 ; there are both Bedlem and Bethleem, p. 372 ; we find Ippeswiche in p. Hi.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 353 512; while the rightful g still remains prefixed to the word in p. 519. The new restfulness stands for quies, p. 431. A Bristol petition in p. 391 complains of the paving as holowid and pitted by water; here the second verb is new. In p. 288 stands the phrase upon youre honour. There is the Dutch lyghter (navis). Among the Eomance words are disable (there is also the older verb writable), the wayter- shipp (an office), gentilman husJier, raungership (of the forest). In p. 276 stands to forejugge of honors (in an attainder); this is one of the last instances where our for, the Greek para, is prefixed to a Eomance word. In p. 386 February supplants the old Fever er. In p. 450 we read of Viscount Welles and Dame Cecilia his wife ; it seems that we had not as yet coined Viscountess. In the 'Acts of Parliament' (1488-1496) we see new substantives like slaughter howze, brickleyer, dyncher, p. 586. In p. 603 stands the curiously terse new phrase, the then and nowe Duke. We here remark that syn has long been encroaching upon sith in the South. As to the Komance words, in p. 638 (it is the age of Cabot) we hear of the Marchauntes Adventurers, a name still in Bristol use, with but little alteration. Chaucer's verb compoune now under- goes the usual English change and becomes componde ; compose came later. There is also in leage (fcedus), which bears a sense something different from that of the old liege; the new word seems more akin to the Italian lega than to the French ligue ; perhaps we may here trace the influence of Papal envoys. In the 'Plumpton Letters,' 1485-1500, we see the old form Everwick for York; it is in a French document, p. ciii. Our gamekeeper appears first as keeper of the game, p. 79. In p. 124 stands (it) may be my making ; we should say, "the making of me." We have in p. 132 a dede of gift. In p. c. we see how an Adjective can be made a Sub- stantive ; certain closes are there called The Flates (flats). There is the term weighty, p. 61, used by the Earl of Northumberland, slain in 1489. In p. Ill men will have something, be yt right or wrong. In p. 123 we read of a widow, worth m. pounds. In p. 63 a Preposition is made VOL. i. 2 A 354 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. an adjective ; we hear of a thorow search/ it had been made an adverb twenty years earlier. Among the Verbs did was once more coming into use ; he dyd yffe, is in p. 49. In p. 67 is stand good master ?////. etc. ; hence comes stand treat. In p. 140 is take in good parte. There is a new use of to in p. 109, she hath not a doth to her backe ; here some word like fitted must be dropped ; there was the Old English shapen to his likeness. As to the Romance words we find the Latin strictly (not the French straitly), p. 54 ; cornered (comrade), a rnyskii>. The truly Scotch skipper (connected with a ship) appears once more in p. 335 ; our shipper has now a very different meaning. The old Cuthbert becomes Cuddy, p. 174; and Alexander appears as Sandy, p. 251 ; Englishmen, on the other hand, dock the last half of the Greek word, and make it Alick. The Arabian prophet Mahoun is used as a synonym for the Devil in p. 96 ; and this usage appears also in Burns ; we still read of the old Termigant in p. 339. As to Adjectives, the ancient engellic is revived, after a long sleep, as angel-like, p. 30. The ed, as we saw in Yorkshire in 1250, is much used in forming adjectives, as honeyed; there are also the Romance evil-faced and ?/,"//- visaged. The ending mm has always been a favourite with the Scotch ; they preserved uinsome and coined hindersome ; we here see the wholly new ugsum, p. 65, and tiresome, p. 265 ; fensum (offensive), p. 127. There is the foreign able. used in unourcumable (invincible), p. 268. In p. 222 we see sorrowful and sad ; the latter word was soon to be used for tristis by Tyndale as well as by Dunbar ; the first ink- ling of the change had appeared in 1350. In p. 67 the word trum seems to keep its meaning ralidus ; Christ comes to suffer for mankind full trimily ; but in p. 165 a lady dances trimly (eleganter) ; the idea of ornament was soon to be attached to the verb trim ; our handsome has undergone much the same change. 1 Burke remarked upon this Dutch phrase, as we read in Boswell's Johnson. ' In Yorkshire, a flower budding is said to be in knop. in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 363 As to Pronouns, in p. 153 we now see the corruption of Orrmin's Keflexive Dative, him ane (alone by himself) ; instead of writing you alone, in p. 153 Dunbar has solitar walking your alone ; I remarked upon this in the year 1320. In p. 222 there is a new phrase for men and women, " they will say, baith he and she;" it had been used of beasts in 1290. The Southern corruption of the Plural othere had now reached the North; we find oderis letteris, p. 18, fra others, p. 89. Among the Verbs are be tyit up (hanged), dash, run down a man, tak thy choice. In p. 137 ladies are graithit up gay; the source of our get up, applied to dress. In p. 172 stands the verb lichtly (parvi pendere), a most curious instance of a verb formed from an adverb. In p. 334 we find to back thee ; here a verb is formed from a noun. The old erd had meant habitare down to 1350 ; it now stands, p. 10, for sepelire, and gave rise to our unearth. In Laya- mon's forriden the first syllable had stood for ante; in Dunbar the same stands for the kindred Greek para ; we hear of a foridden (for-ridden) mule, p. 285, like forsworn. As to Adverbs, hard expresses something different from vix or cito in hard beside him, p. 95, our hard by ; a man swears braid, in the same page, like Caxton's use of the adjective ; this braid must be the source of broad (coarse) humour. In p. 165 a man dances homelty-jomelty (higgledy- piggledy) ; these riming words were now coming in fast both in the North and South. There is a new use of the Preposition under in p. 335, the ship was under sail ; this may come from the Middle German under wegen ; our under way was to appear later. The new Interjection tut! is seen in p. 97 ; bae stands for the cry of sheep in p. 323. There is the Low German loon, queer, p. 324. There are the Celtic words tartan, catherein (cateran). coronach, pet (darling), tedder (tether), brat. There are Southern forms which must be due to Dun- bar's love for Chaucer ; we see y-bent, ago, forthy, triumph- ing. In strong contrast to these stand the curious words long in Scotch use, such as wallidrag, limmer, skirl, altercap, widdy (gallows). 364 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. Among the Romance words are cummer (the York com- moder), lintel, Mum (the toy), lounger, dregar (oyster dredger), modern, artist, dine on creddens (credit, p. 141), ruffian, iacuby (an imp). The Scotch were fond of tack, from atache ; we have already seen it used for a lease ; it now, p. 84, stands for a nail. The word geste (jocus) gives birth to jestour, p. Ill; and St. Clown, the patron of minstrels, appears in p. 128. The word brigand loses its former honourable sense and is made a term of abuse, as in France, p. 329. The old */'// is employed for a physician's compounds, p. 167. If ///>/ arose in the London Court thirty years earlier, disjonc, p. 204, was its synonym at the Edinburgh Court ; Scott uses this form. We hear of practicians in medicine, and of the fumltic, a word applied to poets, p. 250. The word sot, after a long sleep, comes to life again in p. 336. A groom is still called &hors marschael, p. 335 ; the last word seems to have been peculiar to the North; it occurs in the 'York Mysteries.' A man is addressed as damnit dog, p. 339, which is some- thing new. There is the new construction, he pleases not till hear, p. 234, where the first word should be in the Dative ; the same change was going on in the South. In p. 289 a hat is adorned richt bravelie ; the v and u were, as usual in the North, confused, whence comes the Scotch brawly ; the meaning of fortis did not enter into the word until much later. There is Achil (Achilles) pronounced in the French way, p. 269, and Cordilleris (Franciscans) appear in p. 142, a form not usual in our island. This was the great age of discovery ; and Dunbar differs from earlier English poets by talking about Calyecot (Calicut) and the new-found Isle, p. 264 ; in p. 273 he takes a blackamoor or ane black for his subject ; my ladie with the meikle lips. Like a true Scot he speaks of our island as Britain, p. 316. He is the first writer who makes the Thistle the emblem of Scotland, in 1503. He gives us a most terse proverb that afterwards crops up in 'Waverley,' of young sancts grmms auld feinds, p. 44. Dunbar had a wonderful command of rime ; see the poem in p. 69 ; the flyting between him and Kennedy, p. 313, is an invaluable treasure house of fine old Northern in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 365 ribaldry. 1 The Scot is fond of imitating Chaucer and his enamellit terms celical ; the licht of all our English, sur- mounting every tongue terrestrial. Our island, Dunbar tells us, was bare and desolate of rhetoric, until moral Gower and Lydgate laureate came with their mellifluate mouths ; see p. 39. The Scotch poet will use hardly any Teutonic noun or verb at all, when, as in p. 267, he sings a great hero, our indefaient adjutory. We saw a mixture of Latin and English in some lines in the ' Towneley Mysteries.' Dunbar carries this further in his witty Testament of Mr. Andro Kennedy, p. 143. Contemporary with Dunbar was Bishop Gavin Douglas. He turns bough (ramus) into bew as a rime for hue ; the stuve of 1390 now becomes our stove; the old leye (novalis) is here written lea. The drabelin of the ' Promptorium ' appears as draggled, with the usual change of consonants. The Old English mi/eg is softened into midge, an uncommon alteration of the hard g in Scotland. The Southern twinkle and twitter are seen here as quinckle and whitter. There are the peculiarly Scotch caller, eldritch ; Orrmin's adjective trig (fidus) is still kept alive. We hear of a window, a little on jar (cherre); charwoman keeps the truer sound of the old noun. There is the adverb owerJuad (overhead). Among the foreign words are dent de lion, Palsgrave's dandelion. In the Eolls of Parliament for 1503 we see of his mere mocion, p. 532, where the foreign adjective is new; the old verb possede is still holding its own against possess. In the Acts of Parliament of this time we see theves and pikars (picking and stealing), reed deere and falowe, bloklwuse, a braye (fossa) ; the old form kempt still remains ; and catall keeping its Southern sense still stands for our cJuittels. In the 'Plumpton Letters,' from 1500 to 1513, there are a few things worthy of remark. In p. 180 the riijlduous of 1453 changes into our righteous. In p. 169 the 1 A student of Old English literature comes across some funny freaks on the part of editors. One of the funniest is in p. 219, where Dunhar's editor, after printing a piece full ,of dashes (inadmissible words) remarks, ' ' the humour of the poem is certainly of an unrefined character, nay, altogether coarse, though not, perhaps, indelicate." What's the difference here ? 366 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. epithet learned is applied to counsel (a lawyer). In p. 164 a man is made away with (killed), a most curious phrase, as the with is unneeded. In p. 180 a tenant asks his lord to beare him out in certain business ; hence also comes our " help him out." There is the new compound with out, I lay at outside, p. 180 ; this was soon to be used as a preposition. Among the Romance words is the King's garde, p. cvii. In p. ex. beast is used for ox, and this is still the technical term among our farmers. We read, in p. 205, of a Prelate's Picker generall ; here we still put the adjective after the substantive. In Gardner's ' Letters of Richard III. and Henry VII.' (1502-1509) we see lieufully written for lawfully, p. 282, a proof that the old law (coming from laga) was sometimes sounded like the French ou ; there is also the old Southern bruge (pons), p. 411; Brandenburg becomes Brandborow, p. 445. The usual Colaine is written Colone, p. 201. The b is inserted, for the German P&mmern is seen as Pomberne, p. 265 ; the v is struck out, I marled stands for / marvelled, p. 257. The g replaces w, for vanguards is written for the old vantwarde, p. 208 ; the g, even at this date, is softened, for we see ayenne (iterum) so late as the year 1503. There is an old form in p. 265, "he wol leane (lend) to you." The former cruciat becomes cruciade in p. 154, not far from our crusade. The t is struck out, for Luttich (Liege) is written Luke, p. 201. In p. 208 we read of the Souchyvers (Switzers); this v or u was later mistaken for n, and Tyndale talks of the Souchenars. The former issue is written yslm, p. 446, showing our present pronunciation of the word. Among the Substantives we find that the adjective needy has given birth to nednyes, p. 228 ; there is also onto- wardnes (a word of Wolsey's), p. 439 ; a bak doore, dry ft (propositum), ryngledre, p. 238. We hear of the Grete Turke, of the marchant Fokers (Fuggers), of the George, the knightly ornament given to the Emperor Maximilian, of liede officers. An idiom of Page's is carried further in p. 257, ef he be the mane (man) I tlienke lie be. A man wishes for two monethis warning. We see the Dutch title of honour, yonker. in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 367 Among the Adjectives we see syklow (seger) in the year 1503, a very late instance of the old ending low or lew. There is harde of credens, p. 235, tJie over many wordes, a clobbcd (club) fote, Mi myndi/d. Henry VII. has the honour of reviving an old obsolete Adjective, when he writes of noon outward (foreign) prince, p. 450 ; he also writes about these Lowe parties, p. 449 (the Low Countries). Among the Verbs we find make offerture (overture), do yow plesur, kepe you company, putte to libertie, gief their attend- ance, take a copy of, make my abode. The verb stike is much used for morari in these letters. In p. 208 stop is used in- transitively, I think for the first time ; there is also the new noun a stop; Barbour had written make a stopping. We see a new Scandinavian verb in p. 417, a barge well rigged. In p. 442 Wolsey says that ambassadors ly (morantur) in a certain place; a hundred years later Wotton was to make his well-known pun on this phrase. We see God willing used with a Future. In p. 172 a man is myndid to do something ; the old verb mind was turned into a Passive, following the construction of the French avise". The English Infinitive had for 200 years been used where quum must have stood in Latin ; this tense now ex- presses the Latin si, I shall never titter hym, to be drawen (si traherer) with wyld horsses, p. 234. As to Adverbs, thorough became an Adverb in the 'Paston Letters ' about 1460 ; we now, in p. 194, see our form thorughli/. The Cheshire seyng that (quoniam) is used by Warham and other good writers. In p. 414 we have go streight uforehed ; the germ of our adverb ahead. We have already seen under used when a man is hampered ; we now hear of men under suretie (in prison), p. 284. As to the Romance words, we have nothing of importance (a favourite phrase of Wolsey's), impotent, to compound with, to be revengyd of them, legacye (embassy), disannull, lakkey, mine (mien), baggage, to advaunce (money), his traffykkes (the Shakesperian word for tricks, as here), pass articles, cJiaunge their myndes (purposes), money is curraunt,to esteme (appraise), bankett (feast), obteyn it to be doon, orator (spokesman). 368 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. We see restitution, which we use as well as restoration. In p. 415 minstrels doo their paries; the first time, I think, that the noun is applied to music. Wolsey uses iniegyr for entire, p. 443 ; we now confine the word to mathematics. The Italians, about this time, address Henry VII. as sacra regia majestas ; they helped to revive " Your Majesty " as a title of honour. In p. 284 personaiges stands for mri. James IV., in p. 341, speaks of a crew as including mastir, 2 factmirs, skippar, sterisman. In p. 169 "the king's resolute mynde is to, etc.," this is a Latin form of the usual resolved. In p. 195 stands your naturall son; here there is no reference to bastardy; the English adjective was in honourable use throughout this Century. In Hazlitt's ' Early Popular Poetry,' vol. iii., there is a piece that seems to belong to 1500. Here there is the phrase nice gear, p. 122, the latter word, equivalent to s///j was to be worked hard all through the Century. In iv. 92 stands the adjective cranky (lascivus). The letters of this time, printed by Ellis, are most valuable. We see the change in Queen Margaret's style ; when she first went to Scotland she wrote London English ; in a little time she adopted the dialect of her new subjects. Cardinal Bainbridge, when writing, shows himself to be a true Northerner. We find that ships play up and down, ii. 217 ; ie had the sound of ay, so the derivation of our intransitive plie, ply, is accounted for ; ply, transitive, comes from applico. We see the d added to n, as sermond, p. 182 ; something like this may be seen lasting down to the ycui 1765. Meanwhile the n at the beginning is clipped, nafegar, nauger becomes agore, our auger, Series iii., vol. i. p. 148. The of is turned into a, as ten a clok, p. 214. There are the new Substantives fernesse (distance), IIWIJH top, a row barge (rowing barge), the stocks (upon which a galley is). We see lee ivales, like gunwales ; ivalu was the Old English for mbex. There is the phrase a day after the fair, p. 211. The in is dropped before the Verbal Noun, when a man is doing (is in activity), p. 216 ; we still say, "to be up and doing." A great crack still stands for a boast or a lie. James IV. talks of his queen as our fallow. in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 369 An Adjective is followed by the Infinitive, / am bowlde to write ; we should substitute make for the second word. Among the Numerals we see twice the money. The Verbs give us many new phrases, such as come to any good, luive the choice, lay to his charge, we named him unto the dignity, well trimmed (equipped), it weies with me, soldiers are fleshed to this enterprise, make tornys (of ships), make sail, speak a ship, we weyed (here anchor is dropped), to stop holes, to fecch the Downs, run on ground, fill (them) ther belies full, give us over (let us alone), smoke them out, break with him, stand his brother. There is the new form veer, our sailor's verb wear, vol. iL p. 213. In Series iii., vol. i. p. 155 mariners will not go to the trade, as one of the Howards writes ; the last word must mean voyage, and is the source of trade winds. It will be seen that there are many sea terms coming in; we had already discovered the most Northern part of America; in Series iii., vol. i. p. 161, we read of the vyage to an newfounde land; ships are now under captains. Among the Adverbs we have, he did every thing like him- self/ here the like seems to express similiter, not similis. In ii. 202 abrode stands for "out at sea;" the word was changing its meaning from late to foris ; in another place go abi'ode means "out of his house." The lest is dropped in the sentence, for fear they should destroy. We read that a wryt is owt. There is the phrase 'to my thinking, i. 88. We see the Scandinavian leak. Among the Eomance words are, a good means (here the s is added), gay (good) artillery, quarter of a mile, purse); the noise runs (bruit is also found), equipage (of a ship), paquet, partily (partly). We read of faicts of war ; we now make a difference between facts and feats, the Latin word and its French corruption. There is the curious new idiom to pass artillery the mountains, p. 199, where pass is made transitive. Queen Katherine writes, / am horrible besy. There is to continue sending, where the foreign verb imitates the Old English Ipurhwunian in governing an Active Participle. In Series iii., vol. i. p. 148, provision seems to stand for victualling; something is VOL. I. 2 B 370 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. to be sent "by post, to strait (starve) the army, be at />*<' , / am of opinion, sewre inough, if wynde serve. Many of Skelton's poems (see Dyce's edition) date from between 1500 and 1513. He has many words, both Teu- tonic and Romance, first seen in the ' Promptorium,' a fact which makes for those who assign his birthplace to Norfolk. Such words are fop, scut, creak, pinch (play the niggard), also Lydgate's jumble. Skelton has the Northern theke (thatch), gar, mighty strong, dykes (fossae), sykc (talis), and the Participle flingande. He has Manning's peculiar sense of toy ; to toye with him, p. 50 ; and such old words as pykes (pickaxe), queed (malum), spell (enuntiare), bmb' (taxus). He often uses a lilting metre, as in his poem on Flodden, p. 202. Skelton speaks of Burdeou and Boi'dew ; examiners in our own day are fond of giving this French city as a puzzle for luckless spellers. Chaucer's Utmir is now seen as lift< / . not far from our bittern. The w is struck out ; Chaucer's }>reshwold becomes threshold, p. 126. The / is struck out ; the sparrow Philip becomes Phip ; hence the name Phipps. The very old form Sothray (Surrey) is found in p. 11 2. The character 3 is in constant use. Among the Substantives are wagtayle, puffin, bit //>//>>. swyllynge (hog's wash), syppet. There are also imtbnfftmess, spynnyng whele, syde sadell, dyscheclowte, sea borde, rosebml. A flirting woman is called a fys-gygge, p. 128; gigge had been used in this sense in the'Ancren Biwle;' vliirl<' in p. 438, yu for ]>u. In p. 441 freshe stands for sober; in our day it is often used as a synonym for drunk. In p. 444 comes thy right mynde. In p. 429 we still find the old verb renne, not the new outrun ; in the next page get stands for ire. There are phrases like liacc h>//n at < n r, mayne sayle, rustynes, canykin (afterwards in lago's song). The word wayes is often used, as in Skelton, to express habits ; another's wayes, i. 34. There is the phrase ///"//, woman, and child, to express universality. Barclay is fond of using bush when speaking of a man's hair ; he even coins the verb to bush, i. 63. He employs gate (our gait) for incessus more than once ; it had hitherto meant only via. Chaucer had used market betere ; we now have a In f?r of the street, i. 296 ; whence our beaten track. There is the new Northern word dronkard, ii. 34. Our speere (spire) is used for pyramid, ii. 120. In ii. 45 fools care for nothing but what from hande to mouth is brought ; a well known phrase. We have seen lords of name ; the name now takes an article, get him a name, ii. 101. Among the Adjectives we find untrue (not veracious). The word homely (simplex) is now applied to clothing, not to a man, i. 40. A man is colde of langagc, i. 105 ; hence, a cold reception ; hitherto cold had been physical, not moral. There are phrases like wars than ever, wax tlri/r (thirsty). There is the strange compound talcati/fe. The Latin nimius seems to be Englished in thy to great pyte, ii. 149. Among the Pronouns -what (qualis) is followed by an in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 377 Article for the first time, I think, what a cyte I ii. 105 ; which a company had appeared in 1300. We have one yll is past, as bad may come, ii. 250 ; here another is dropped before as. We read of folys nat a fewe/ there is a very Latin idiom in some ar that thynke. Among the Verbs stand the tyme hath ben when, etc., shoot wyde, keep silence, let a word slip, gyve his mynde to it, kepe a solem countenaunce, ete him out of hous, lye open to him, Jcest an anker, ships breke, the pryse doth aryse (rise), he takys all things like as they come. The must is used in a new sense, that of cupere ; tJiey must have many (houses), ii. 98. The Infinitive, as of old, replaces when with the Subjunctive, wluit mean ye thus to tere, etc., ii. 131 ; it is a madness to hope, etc., ii. 173; there is also have the brayne to compreJiend, ii. 139, like the old grace to serve thee. The verb call now gets the sense of cestimare ; I call you as bad as robburs, i. 118. The verb deck had hitherto meant tegere ; it now perhaps slides into ornare ; to ovei'deck with a hood, i. 168; the second meaning was soon to be well developed in other poems of Barclay's, a few years later. The verb giggle is used of men, i. 63. In i. 232 the way is greatly worne ; this verb had hitherto been used of clothes. In ii. 25 stands he is in honde with Grece (busy about it). The verb brew is applied to wine, ii. 222 ; a trick of the perfalus caupo. There is the pleonasm, they dare- be bold to, etc. Among the Adverbs are laugh out lowde. The no, as in Chaucer, is put in the middle of a sentence, no beste, no, nat the bere, etc., ii. 304 ; this was to be used by Tyndale. The old by and by had meant protenus ; it is now often used to express an interval between two actions, as in ii. 24 and 109. This change bears witness to the common love of delay ; the similar change in pi-esently was to come later. The use of abroad is much extended ; it is often coupled with "all through the world;" Rome spred abrode Jiir fame, ii. 105, men are abi'ode in the sea, ii. 220. As to the Prepositions, we remark talys tolde by (contra) Mardocheus, ii. 217; Tyndale followed this new meaning of by, which has not been long-lived. In ii. 252 men 378 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. provide for myshap ; here the for also gets the meaning of contra. The to, following the Gothic, stands after grow ; grow to a tree, i. 47. There is the new phrase their ho>i*<- burns owe (over) theyr head, i. 125. The of, followed by no noun, becomes an adverb; leve of, i. 91. Gower had written away the tyranny ! Barclay inserts a with after the first word, i. 40. There is the seaman's cry to shyp ! i. 3, with no verb. The Celtic verbs are toss and qu-ax ; this last, from the Gaelic cuach (poculum), must have been brought by Barclay to the South ; thirty years later it became quaff. Among the Romance words are fruteles, rural, pur*/; quarter mayster (two ship officers), wastful, incline ears, de- cline from, enormity, satyre (a poem), to ouigovge, operation, desist, a sage (sapiens), pyllage, to be active, insolence, patroness, correct (for the press), a mind is abstract. There are many words, new in the South, afterwards adopted by Tyndale, such asfolysshenes, vagabund,incredyble,destitft; l;ibn-nll,reinl<-i\ submyt him to, diceytful, be of none effect, also the Lancashire vesture. The word transpose is employed to express wrest hi ii*nes. We see furour, furiousiies, and furyosite. The word inconvenience, in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 379 in the sense of damnum, is always coming. A man enjoyed hym (gavisus est) in the city he was building, i. 90 ; the enjoy and rejoice had long been running a parallel course. The foreign ending ist was coming in ; we read of a planet t/st, ii. 19; our poet thinks astronomy a juggle. The French had a phrase cheveux primes, delicate hair ; a pryme, i. 250, means a paramour; our adjective prim has now a very different sense ; but we still talk of a prime cut. We read of a botyll nose, i. 288. We see the Latin encroaching on the French ; in ii. 43 stands make purveaunce of corn ; in p. 44 conies prom/de sustenaunce ; in p. 46 provysion, whereby he might feed them ; here the word provision has all but got its modern sense of food. 1 Still, provide has not lost the sense of foresee. But we find fatygate where we now use the French form. There is uttmunce, the later outrance, not to be confused with the earlier utterance. We had long used past midnight; we now find past shame, ii. 55. Barclay is fond of after one rate (manner) ; not quite like our " at a great rate." A man is a great corporate body, ii. 82 ; a sort of pleonasm. The carle and vyllayne are coupled in a harmless sense, ii. 97. The word place was much used for domus ; we see &ferme place, ii. 98. There is a curious confusion between the Substantive and Adjective in ii. 100, an almost infynyte of folys. There are the phrases bestely dronken, ii. \77,joyn liande to hande, maners of the table, in one instant. We see exposytour ; we have now expounder and exponent as well, all from different parts of the old verb. The rascaille of 1400 was losing its harmless sense; rascold is used for nebulo, ii. 307. Barclay is very fond of volage, which he found in the French book he was translating. The verb jest is formed from geste (historia) ; it was to be a favourite verb of Tyndale's. Barclay has many old proverbs and maxims for the first time ; some have been a little altered since his day. We find 1 Here the joke in ' Punch ' conies in. Lawyer What were the provisions of the will ? Client Provisions ! that's just it ! We have not "ot even bread and cheese. 380 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. " Take ye in gode worth the swetnes with the sour (i. 39). When the stede is stolyn, to shyt the stable dore (i. 76). Lcrne not to be a fole ; that cometh by it selfe (i. 178). Nothing is worse than a churle made a state (nobleman) (ii. 8). It is an olde sayd sawe, Lyke to lyke will drawe (ii. 35). One yll turne requyreth another (ii. 38). Be besy about your hay while Phebus is shiniiig (ii. 45). Pryde will have a fall (ii. 159). One myshap fortuneth never alone" (ii. 251). We hear much about the England of Barclay's day. Beggar's tricks were then much as they are now, i. 303. It was shocking that monks and 1 priests danced, i. 294. A. man is said to be a fool, who prefers the bagpipe to harp or lute; an odd sentiment for a Scot, i. 256. Some kept their bonnets on when Christ was consecrated on the altar ; the Paynims in their temples were more devout, i. 223. A foretaste of the riotous Mohawks of 1710 is given in i. 299. England's sins were punished with diseases, " both uncouthe and cruel ; " the new-come ///"/ bus Gallicus is referred to, i. 39. Not only Aristotle but also Plato is recommended; a sign of the times, i. 147. Barclay wishes the English lion to join with the Scotch unicorn against the Turk, ii. 209 ; the dreaded enemy worshipped idols, a very old mistake. This countryman of Lord Bute's writes, we Brytons, ii. 16; he calls Henry VII. " the rede Rose redolent," ii. 16; that king's sober- ness in dress is held up as an example, i. 39 ; Henry VIII. also is mentioned. We hear that fools feast and drink on Sunday; the Scotch poet calls that day the Salbot, ii. 176. He speaks of the newe fonde londe, ii. 25, and hints at America, though not by name, ii. 26. The names Dvni/*, Mawrys, and Patryke are given as Irish names, ii. 308. Barclay, on the question of blasphemy, differs from Car- dinal Newman ; the latter, in one of his works, argues that the nations of Southern Europe show themselves more pious than the Englishman by their oaths ; most irreverent and filthy these oaths are, as every traveller knows. But Barclay thus rebukes the heavenly-minded blasphemer of his day in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 381 ' ' And than these houndes can suche excusys fynde, As to theyr soules without dout ar damnable, Saynge it is gode to have the masse in mynde, And the name of God, and His sayntis honourable. erytykes, houndes abhomynable, That is a thynge whiche God almyghty lothys, To take His name in thy foule mouth by othys " (ii. 133). Some of Barclay's other poems, such as his ' Eclogues,' may be found in the Percy Society Collection, vol. xxii. The e is often sounded at the end of words ; but y is sometimes substituted, as Jeny for Jane. We read of an arrant thief, where a supplants e. Pecock's avor]>i now becomes aforde, p. 69. The new Substantives are bedfellow (not the old bed/ere), Jacke with the bush (a hairy youth in office), p. xlv. There is the new phrase a back reckoning. A man [_is addressed as my mate/ We find the plural silkes. The word rowm is used for a place at Court. The old Adjective pert degenerates in p. liii., meaning no more than saucy; it must have been confused with malapert. The it is employed in a new construction, often seen in Heywood ; for this Pronoun is prefixed to a Verbal noun, where the Infinitive would be used in Latin, it is yll stel- yng from a thefe, p. 36 ; this turn of phrase recalls Barclay's native land. Among the Verbs we see clap (in prison), cleve like burres. There is the advice, spare a corner of thy belly, p. xlii. ; hence Goldsmith's "we'll all keep a corner." We see they are setled (are at ease), a new sense of this verb. As we saw before, the Dutch verb deck now gets the sense of ornare. The verb smyrk has degenerated from its old honourable sense; see p. 26. There is the Adverb earlier, p. 33, and by startes. There is the borrowed term of abuse, abbey lowne or limnier of a monke, p. xxxvi. ; limnier is now represented by the Scotch limmer. There is the Celtic lag ; tliey remain last for lag, p. xii. Among the new Eomance words are picture, brutal, formal (in dress), the rest (reliqui). We find the French phrase, a bone mage; a favourite wish all through this Century. There is the phrase courting, p. 382 THE NEW ENGLISH. [ IIAI-. xvi. ; this means here "frequenting the Court." There are the new phrases let it pass, grate (rub), goodly appoint tfli, vi. 197. The Double Negative is all but laid aside in these State Papers. Wolsey writes, in vi. 225, first, . . . secondely, and so on to sixthly ; he knew nothing of firstly ; the ly added to Numerals is new. We find so prefixed to a Verbal Noun, hys so doynge shall be, etc., i. 83. As to Prepositions, tree upon tree had long been known ; where the upon has the meaning of the Latin post ; we now see slepe apon the matter, i. 3. The new idiom connected with for once more appears in iv. 280, he is man of great substance for these paries ; the old translation of for, quod spectat ad, is present here. Among the Romance words are in the lieu and place oj, Vice Admyral, pasport, in no case, mutenary (mutiny), pre- vent (forestall), something like this appeared in 1470; a gratuite (pleasure), to marshe (march), munytion (ammunition), sense (meaning), be frank and open, a postscripta (Wolsey's word), he is obliged unto us, take her congie of him, plif/urm, rampaire, fawsbraye, chek accompts, apply (lean) to. Latin is sometimes preferred to the French form ; thus there is Pace's recuse for the usual refuse (recusant was to come rather later) ; traduction stands for delivery. Wolsey often writes subdainly, with the Latin subitus in his head ; he is fond of doulce (dulcis). He writes pickande for the French piij>///, he wills me evil. The Passive voice is developed, I /nt ye jar, ii. 334 ; the last word was much favoured by Heywood. The th is added, for there are the two forms commune icell and commune ivelth, Barclay's new form. As to new Substantives, we have mamockes (fragmenta), a jackenapes, shyttel cocke, a webbe of lylse wulse, ii. 281 ; this last is a pun on the Cardinal's name. There is a yonkerhjn, i. 233, from the Dutch. Skelton still uses the term Lollardy, i. 241, of which he was no lover ; the Lollard was soon to be replaced by the Gospeller. There are the phrases Jacke shall have G-yl, ii. 16, sober sadnesse (gravitas), Pers Pykthanke, a term of abuse, ii. 60. Wolsey is called a gracelesse elfe, ii. 314, showing a change in the meaning of the Substantive; he is also such a Bedleme, ii. 297, a new use of the such. We see an ende of an old song. When we come across the form negarshyp we understand why the Irish call a niggard " an ould nagur." There is the new phrase he is at suche takynge, ii. 308 ; we should say, " in 394 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. such a taking." The old loittol (sciens), in the guise of a wetewold, is now first used in its evil sense, ii. 178. 1 In the same page is another term of abuse, a noughts/ pu> /., which perhaps here refers to a man ; baggage was later applied to women. The new Adjectives are upstart, pynk iyde. We see cock sure, ii. 286. The word praty gets the new meaning of fortis; quyte you like praty men, ii. 33. In touch you on tJie quyke, ii. 76, a substantive is dropped after the adjective. The wonder had long stood before adjectives, as icon as the first word. The impersonal it is much used after Verbs, as to fotc it. We see not a whit, ii. 219, expressing the Old English nawiht (naught). Among the new Verbs is mysname (vituperare). There are the phrases blowen with the flye of heresy, also/?/ bloi'-> opinions, i. 234, chop logyk, take your pleasure, thou be hmuj <<].' ii. 86, kepe the wolfe from the dare, know what ys a clocke, ii. 132, he knew what was what, ii. 313, have a smacke of (resem- blance to), play didil diddil, ii. 203, / did what I <: prate after this rate, ii. 165; we should now substitute at. 1 Skeat says that the evil word conies from icoodwalc (a bird), like cuckold from cuckoo. in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 395 Among the Interjections is boho ! a cry of derision. There are also the Shakesperian bowns, the Yorkshire tushe ; hem, Syr, ii. 1 2 (Shallow's hem, boys /), by our lakyn (lady kin), alarum! out harowe / ii. 112. We have the cry of birds, jug jug, chuk chuk. St. Mary of Egypt supplied the oath by Mary G-ipcy, ii. 235 (Marry gup). The Devil's name is often brought into Skelton's comedy ; there is also what, a very vengeaunce, who is that? ii. 100. In ii. 180 stands to blow a bararag (a noise), whence ballyrag. There are the Scandinavian nouns blurre, trash, and the verb whysk, also go gingerly. Among the Romance words are conveyance (thieving), ii. 25, tenter hokys, a budge furre (lamb's wool), mynyon, bybyll clarke, musty, trotters (sheep's feet), carbuckyls (warts) ; the grapeys of 1430 becomes graundepose, leading up to our grampus. There is the phrase grese my hands with gold. The Northern form catell is used for bestia, ii. 54 ; may- sir esse now means arnica as well as domina, ii. 73. The verb intrete adds the sense of precari to that of tractare, ii. 75. To trusse a packe expresses abire, ii. 84; hence our " send him packing," "pack off." In ii. 93 Adversity says that she is Goddys preposytour ; she remarks as to careless lords, I prynt them with a pen ; the prepostors at Eton may still be viewed, marking down the names of culprits at the master's behest. We have seen passing strange used for nearly 200 years ; the participle is now changed, and we find so excedynge farre, ii. 110; this form was adopted by Tyndale. In ii. 147 poly tykes' expresses statecraft, a most curious use of the Plural. Terence is called a comicar, ii. 185; the Teutonic ending er must perforce assert itself. Wolsey is called an epycure, ii. 274. Skelton used the old fors, where Tyndale employed the later matter; make no great fors, ii. 330. In vol. xx. of the Percy Society may be found the two versions of the old Song of the Lady Bessy (the Queen of Henry VII.) The second of them may date from about 1520, when the great events of 1485 were becoming some- what legendary ; the first of the versions is more modern still. The poet must have been a Cheshire or Lancashire 396 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. man ; he uses wlwme for home, p. 75 ; there is the old j 'axe (caesaries), which was now not known to the South of Lichfield. A man in disgrace comes under a clowde, p. 79 ; we now first hear of read coates, Lord Stanley's soldiers, p. 74 ; a well-known word in Cromwell's day, 130 years later. We here see that Lancashire is included in "the West country." There is the new phrase lyke a man will I die, p. 77. Among the verbs are where standeth the wynde? p. 70. We talk of backing a horse ; we here find to back (re- pellere) enemies, p. 45. In the same page men give white hoods ; that is, bear for their cognisance ; this is a favourite phrase of the Century, and is used by Mrs. Thrale about 1790. Men are ready in an houres warnyng ; here we substitute at. There is assuredlye, used also by Fisher. Many poems in Hazlitt's Collection (vols. ii. and iv.) seem to date from 1520. There are the very old forms tho (tune), go on live (alive), iv. 221, and moldeis still used for terra, p. 191, swayne for servus, p. 204. But there is the great contraction werte for were it, p. 208. Among the Substantives there is toy (antic). An admir- ing woman calls a stalwart youth a whypper, p. 94 ; in our day she would use whopper or whacker. Among the Adjectives is the old quever (impiger) of 1220, first seen in the ' Ancren Kiwle.' The byrchen rod is mentioned in iv. 218. There are the new forms faced and tonged, p. 88. As to Pronouns, a man brings his wife to this, p. 225 ; later in the Century pass would have been added. Among the Verbs are show his mind to, bere the br (in wedlock), nothing commes amysse, tell where to tourne mr, keep house, beare a rule, liave in store for, set up his shop, play the devell, let flee at him (with no Accusative, p. 209). The be was prefixed to form Verbs all through this Century ; begyft them stands in p. 196. The verb sway had been Transitive hitherto ; it now becomes intransitive, being used of a body hanging, p. 94. The verb take now gets the new sense oiferire; take him on the cheek, p. 181. The old trim (firmare) is used ironically, a wife threatens to trim her husband, p. 209. m.l THE NEW ENGLISH. 397 We see the new ones for all, iv. 91, soon to be used by Tyndale. There is the proverb selfe doe, self have, p. 194, imply- ing that a man creates his own fate. There is lob, akin to the German, used of a clown, p. 205 ; it was afterwards used by Shakespere. Among the Eomance words is turn a penny; there is the phrase double quycke, p. 85, whence comes a verb much used in our army. In p. 95 a man dying tourns his heels up ; we here substitute toes for heels. There is the noun checkenuite, p. 88 ; here a pun is intended, for there is a hit at a husband. One of the Coventry Mysteries, the 'Assumption,' p. 383, differing in style from the rest, is attributed by the editor to a hand of Henry the Eighth's time. We may consider it as dating from about the year 1520 ; the play cannot well be later, for it abounds in old forms and words, soon to vanish for ever, from the South. Such are beth, let se, hende, to nyhyn (accedere), qivyche (quod), into (usque ad), breth&r, kend (genus), fer (ignis), postel (apostolus), lare (docere), tho (tune), ble (color), in fere, gramly (graviter), flum Jordan ; out, harrow ! belave (manere), berde (mulier), queme (placere), clepe, to spelle of me, Sovereins (domini), injoye (gaudere). The piece cannot well be earlier than 1520, for we find Eoye's new phrase fy on you ! also, it is like you to do it, p. 394. There is curyng for covering, p. 392 ; g replaces b, as glaberis (garruli), p. 396 ; the two forms wach and icake (we are on the Great Sundering Line for the last time) are coupled in p. 388, as in the year 1220; mayde is still applied to a man, as mayde John, p. 389, like Drayton's maiden knight ; there is sneveler used in scorn, p. 396. In p. 385 senster, which was to last all through this Century, is applied to the Virgin, and seems to be a compound of sempstress and spinster. In p. 400 she and the angels address their risen Lord with the you. In p. 395 stands what noyse is alle this? Among the Verbs we see Skelton's phrase flyes blowe hem, p. 384. We have seen "considering thy youth;" we now find a new Participial phrase in p. 387 ; my name 398 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. is gret, treuly you telland, like our " speaking roughly," for "to speak roughly." The will is used in the Northern sense (oportet) in p. 395 ; / am aferd there wylle be s>n/i- thyng amys. The at is prefixed to Numerals to express age; at fourten yer, p. 383. There is the Dutch word ogyl ; my heart begins to ogyl and quake, p. 395 ; we have now restored the verb to its proper sense, showing con- nexion with the eye, cage, ooge. The new Romance words are expire (mori), demon, terestrial ; the Virgin speaks of her sympil sowle, p. 388. The old system is still in vogue of identical words riming, if they express different ideas ; for in p. 388 hende (prope) rimes with hende (mansuetus). A 'Northern Mystery,' printed in 'Reliquia? Antiquae,' ii. 124, perhaps a Yorkshire composition, seems to belong to this time ; it has some new words in common with Sk el ton and Coverdale; for instance, wonderoslye is something new ; also gross and far hence. The e is inserted in piteous, as before in hidous. The Northern habit of turning a into e, which dates from the year 680, is seen in p. 142, where alas becomes ales! the old joyful is sounded joeful, p. 158; the quickly of the South becomes irhi/:li/c, p. 134. We see sho (ilia), a very late instance. The verb start is sliding into proficisci ; St. John, when leaving, says, now fancett, for a starte. There is a curious un- grammatical change in an Auxiliary verb ; in p. 126 a man is asked, was ye present ? the ye and thou are here con- founded; the was was used in this way down to 183 1. 1 The use of but (quin) is continued, was thcr none "/// meyn but }>ou must die? this idiom is used by Tyndale. In p. 141 comes run in loss, like the former ////? /// ilciif. In p. 156 stands she myndes (recordatur) his ol'' is replaced by t. The old nock (notch) gives birth to the verb nick ; these are like top and tip. There is another new verb slaue, whence our nautical slue round ; it here means both fledere and cadere. We see a curious omission of the Verb in p. 19; sowing is spoken of, and then comes the question, But howe to sowe ? In p. 65 the at, answering to the old on, for the first time follows an Adjective ; women ought to be good at a longe journeye / Matzner here quotes the Scandinavian gcetinn at geji (cautious in disposition). We Moderns look after our servants ; in p. 92 they must be well looked uppon. There is the Scandinavian verb ted, used of hay. Among the Romance words are champyon countrey (champaign), badger, pastern, glaunders, brouse (browze), bustard. It is curious to see how entirely Romance the old terms of English sport were ; horses have a syre and damme, not a father or mother, p. 61 ; there is a disease called the affreyd, when a horse has been overridden, reminding us of the Italian fretta (haste), p. 70. In p. 72 acloyde is a hurt given by a nail to a horse ; here the French clou is very plain. Oxen may be laboured, p. 55, our worked. The new phrase to survey land had come in ; our author wrote the 'Book of Surveying' in 1523. In p. 77 the housbande stands for agricola ; the farmer is something inferior, being only a lease-holder or a tenaunt at wyll, p. 83. He rolls his ground, p. 25, and plashes his hedges, p. 78, our pleach. His heed servaunte is also called a bayly (bailiff), p. 92 ; this term is further applied to the sheriff's officer, p. 101. If a man has true servants he hath a great treasure, p. 92 ; this term we still apply to domestics. In p. 47 the verb mend becomes intransitive, I think for the first time. In p. 84 the verb peruse means simply to go through ; we now limit its meaning. In p. 42 grosse sale stands for our wholesale. In p. 56 we read of in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 407 reasonable meate ; that is, a moderate quantity of meat ; the Scotch used sober in this sense. A French sentence comes in p. 73, where vie-u, our view, is written, showing the old French pronunciation of the verb; in the same page stands caveat emptor, applied to horse-dealing. The author gives us some English hexameters, p. 93; the first that we have with no Latin admixture ; they end with ' ' Make mery, synge and thou can ; take hede to thy gere, that thou lose none." He tells us how to mend a road, and shows how badly this was done about London, p. 81. When a beast died of murrain, it was a custom to set his head upon a pole by the wayside to give warning of the fact, p. 5 3. In p. 9 1 the farmer is advised to have a payre of tables (tablets), and to write doAvn anything that is amiss as he goes his rounds ; if he cannot write, let him nycke the defautes upon a stycke. Lord Berners' translation of Froissart may be looked on as a new landmark in our tongue. Those who filled up the gap between Caxton and the learned nobleman, men like Hawes, Skelton, and Barclay, have few worshippers now but antiquaries. But the Englished Froissart, given to the world in 1523, heads a long roll of noble Avorks, that have followed each other, it may be said, without a break for 360 years. Since 1523 there is not an instance of twenty years passing over England without the appear- ance of some book which she has taken to her heart and will not willingly let die. No literature in the world has ever been blessed with so continuous a spell of glory. Two of her great men, whose works are inscribed on the aforesaid roll, would, by most foreign critics, be reckoned among the five foremost intellects of the world ; a large proportion forsooth to be claimed by one nation. The chief thing to remark in the nobleman's work is the new phrase "they had ben a fyghtyng," quoted in Dr. Murray's ' Dictionary,' p. 3 ; here the a is not wanted, but the Verbal Noun and Participle are confused as usual. Hence Shakespere's lie a bleeding. 408 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. The New Testament was printed in English at Worms, in 1525, by William Tyndale of Gloucestershire. Wickliffe had made his translation from the Vulgate, and his work is sadly marred by Latin idioms most strange to English ears ; Tyndale, being a ripe Greek and Hebrew scholar, went right to the fountain-head. 1 His New Testament has become the Standard of our tongue ; the first ten verses of the Fourth Gospel are a good sample of his manly Teutonic pith. It is amusing to think how differ- ently one of our penny-a-liners would handle the passage ; he would deem that so lofty a subject could be fairly ex- pressed in none but the finest Romance words to be found in Johnson or Gibbon. 2 Most happily, our authorised version of the Scriptures was built upon the translation which Tyndale had almost completed before his martyrdom. When we read our Bibles we are in truth taken back far beyond the days of Bacon and Andrewes to the time of Wolsey and More. Tyndale shows his Southern dialect in his love of the ea form (so often seen in the ' Ancren Eiwle ') ; he writes treaspas, procead, fearce, swearde, dealt. He writes yerly (early), yer (ere), and yerbes. He has honde, londe, suster, ayenst, foryeven, axe (rogare), anhungred, athyrst, bryd (avis), holpen, boren (natus), tho (illi), brent, goodman, other (aut), them sylfe, whether (uter). He is fond of the old to (dis), but sometimes uses Mallory's corruption, as all to-reryled, Mark xii. 4. Abimelech's skull, that a stone all to-livake, remains to prove Tyndale's Southern birth ; this to-brake (di-fregit) is the one verb of his compounded with to that was spared by the Revisers of 1611. Some old idioms, pre- served in the South, are inserted, as "take that thine is," "they that," "them that." Tyndale, I think, must have 1 Mr. Demaus has lately written bis life. Tyndale in prison wrote a letter, still extant, beseeching his Flemish gaolers to let him have his Hebrew books the ruling passion strong in death. Of all our great writers, he is the one about whom most mistakes have been made by later inquirers. - A scribe in the Daily Telegraph, 14th July 1873, speaks thus, in a leader on the Duke of Edinburgh, " He ranks next in geniturc to the heir of our throne." Hoc f mite derivata clades, etc. in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 409 had Wickliffe's version before him ; see, in particular, Matt, xxi. 15. Our spelling was rapidly taking its present form; sometimes we have altered but one vowel in a verse of Tyndale's, as Luke x. 16. Among his old phrases, expunged by later Revisers, are tho (illi), wene (putare), soyle (solve), uneth (vix), gobbet, lyvelod (used of the land sold by Ananias), stone- graver, worm (serpens), utter him (expose him), without naye (denial), spylt (perditi), it fortuned that (often repeated), advoutrie, unpossible, his duty (his due), he pyght (pitched), mockyng-stoke, I had lever go, be aknowen of, leful (lawful), arede, withoutforth (extra), unghostly, jangeling, manquellar, manerly, pill (rob), the rysinge agayne, to desease him, to appose, an heepe of teachers, goostly mynded, wedlock breaker, workfelow, pluck him (the eye) out, draw him (the sword) out, raught (reached), fammisshment, huswyfly, harberous (hospitable), the same silfe thynges, angle (hamus), seat (throne), a right Israelite, a grece (stairs), norsfelow (applied to Manaen in Acts xiii.), handfast (betroth), herbi'oulesse (without harbour), longe agon, took (offered) him a peny, in daunger to (liable to), brain-pan, hored (fcedus), break up a house (of a thief), ye can skyll of it, make nothyng ado, have in pryce (honour), endevre (force) ourselves to, boldlyer, unthryftes, take shipping, whyther- sumever, come awaye (along), ungoodly (male), brybery (rapina), eny other where, thus farre foi'the, lawing, incommer, flawe (flatus), / have sytten, take a (at) woi'th. I give some phrases in which Tyndale has been preferred to Wickliffe Wickliffe. Tyndale. Heathens Gentyls. 3eerd rod. Satanas Satan. a wakyng a watche. to sclaundre to offend, sclaundris evill occasions, libel deforcement, fomulement foundacion. richessis Mammon, to meke to humble, eddris vipers, he was norischid he was noursed. soure dow5 leven. THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. WicUiffe. Tyndale. halwe sanctify. it was don hit chaunced that. bitake delyver. in the laste thingis att poynt of deeth. axe him questen with him. worship honoure. turn upsodoun pervert. dom judgment. his knowen hys acquayntaunce. wordis communicacions. a si3t of aungels visions of angels. walow a stoon roll a stone. thre mesuris ech thre fyrkyns a pece. unrestfulnesse importunite. his witnessing his testimony. a manere (manor) a possession. make ready provide. abide it wayte for it. evene to God equall with God. it spedith it is expedient. churche congregacion. into mynde of for a memoriall of. elde olde age. 3elde to thee recompence thee. stater a pece of twelve pens. purpur purple. the wrytyng above to hie hymself the superscripcion. to exalt hym silfe. lesewis pasture. As to the Vowels, the verb plait becomes plat; thus a often replaces e, as star, barn, paril, warpe, popular (poplar, for Wickliffe's popeler} ; it replaces an old ce, as ate, draw, spate (conspuit). Sometimes the a gets the sound of French $, for we find prepayre. The e replaces o, for paterne (ex- emplar) is written for the old patrone (1 Chron. xxix. 18) ; it is inserted in warely, the old wcerlice ; it is sounded broadly in lovess (loaves) ; it is clipped in blest (blessed). We see the form broyded (braided) corrupted many years later into broidered ; there are forms like appier, biest, and pryer, where the ie or ye still kept the sound of French On the other hand we see bryar (Heb. vi.), a great change, for this may have been pronounced like lyar, as two syllables. The i or y was encroaching on the Southern u, for we have kysse, by (emere), bylde ; we find both byn and ben (our been). The o replaces y, as to blyndfold for the blyndefylde of 1440. in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 411 Tyndale is fond of the oa for o, as moare. He is fond of u or ou, as in roume,fluddes, blonde, shute (shoot), shuke (shook), astunied, lowse, rowle, bruse, broul (broil) ; like More and the King, he writes awne (proprius) ; he has straw for our verb strew, pronouncing it in the same way. He has sow both for seminare and mere. The former rihtwus, rightuous, now becomes righteous, but we still sometimes find here the older rightewes. Tyndale uses his old Gloucestershire form in shues, rueler, drue, slue; the ew encroaches, in the true English fashion, on the French sound ou ; for we find tewch and slewthful. The u is clipped ; the old tyccetu appears as thykette. As to the Consonants, g is used for gest (hospes), as well as for geste (historia) ; this latter occurs in Tyndale's tracts. The word wawes (fluctus) is sometimes written waves, a striking instance of a change in pronunciation owing to spelling. The v is struck out, for there is the phrase, "ye worshlppe ye wot neare what." The d replaces tli in burden and swaddle ; we see the curious combination hydther (hither) ; there is also hytherto. The t is added ; we find both graff and grafa; the n is often lost, as in afote, astray, they were byd. The r is added, as caterpillar for the old catyrpel ; it is inserted in brydgrom, hindermost ; and the I appears in collide (potuit), as it had long before in Scotland. The w is prefixed, as in won, wother, whole (calidus), whoole (totus). WicklifFe's oof becomes wolfe (woof), Lev. xiii. 52. Tyndale is fond of the letter z. Among the Substantives we see gripinges (diseases), yockfelowe, unbeliever, firstling, for skin, birthright, failing, fote stole, menstealer, callynge (vocation), thankes gevinge, the utter side (outside), longe dothynge, weakling, whoremonger, of scouring, cole panne, erthqnake, shyre toune, shewe bread, stonegraver, ship- wracke, snoffers (of a candle), a castaway e, foi-eknowledge, warfare, stumbling block. The word reech, in the account of St. Paul's shipwreck, has been since made creek. The Verbal Nouns, coming down from the North, are so preva- lent that sainges translates verba ; there is " have our beinge." In Heb. xii., speaking against him has been since turned into contradiction. Tyndale changes the old roore (tumultus) into 412 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. uproure ; Coverdale has the same new word. Tyndale has love, which the Revisers of 1611 have unluckily altered into charity. Unlike Shakespere, he applies harlot to none but women, thus altering the old usage. He writes welth for welfare, and commen ivelth instead of the old common wele ; he is always using helth for salvation; work out your own salvation appears as pcrforme your owne health; the sub- sequent change was an improvement. The forms morowe and mornynge are carefully distinguished in Luke xxiv. 1. Tyndale is fond of the words churl, man of war, loving kind- ness ; he employs Barclay's new term drorikard, and other innovations of that fashionable author. Instead of pass- over, which he employs in his own treatises, Tyndale uses ester lambe (Matt. xxvi. 17), one of the tokens of his abode in Germany. We may credit him with coining the word atonement ; this he uses in 2 Cor. v., putting a few verses later that ye be atone (at one) with God ; the new noun has been altered into reconciliation. In Exod. xxix. 33 this new word atonement is employed for an expiatory offering, and this is the sense in which we now use the word ; it was copied from Tyndale by Coverdale in this particular verse. In Heb. viii. 1 pith (medulla) is used with reference to words ; it has since been replaced by sum. In 2 Cor. iv. 8 the words " we are not without shyft " have been altered into not distressed. In the second verse of this Chapter clokes of unhonestie has been since turned into " the hidden things of dishonesty." In Col. iii. 1 5 men are called in one body, a new sense of the noun. In 1 Cor. iv. 17 St. Paul is made to talk of his ways, Queen Margaret's new sense of the word. In the third verse of this chapter, man's dmjc has since been altered into man's judgment, the former word thus explaining the days man (judex) to be found in Cover- dale's version of Job ; these were new senses of the word in English. There is Uackemwe often written for Ethiopian; the e in the former word is still sounded, a rare thing with final e in English. Tyndale's softenes, which is to be known unto all men, has been altered into moderation. We here first find busy body ; cursed speakynge, p. 166, has been altered into blasphemy. Tyndale is fond of striking off new nouns, in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 413 by adding ness to an old word ; craft and filth thus give birth to craftiness and filthiness ; there is also childeshnes, blessednes, and the Komance synglenes, ferventnes, gloi'iousnes, puernes (purity), and many such. The ship is employed to form apostleship. The old mannis sone is now thrown aside for the sone of man. There is the idiom for my sake and the gospelles (Mark x. 29). We read of John the Baptiser. There is yeres (anni) instead of the old yer, the Plural that lasted down to 1400 ; on the other hand, Tyndale talks of five yooke and ten pounde. He writes Mary JacoU for "Mary the mother of James" (Mark xvi. 1), an unusual addiction to the Vulgate. He has ryse from deeth, where, for the last word, we substitute the dead. He has bucking time (Gen. xxxi. 10), which has been altered into a long periphrasis. His phrase young men has somehow been altered into servants. Among the Adjectives we find like mynded, unholy, goode for nothynge, fatfleshed, inwarde parties, beggarly, stiffenecked, two-edged. There is the expression the cool of the day, where an Adjective stands for a Substantive , we see also with lier young. The word up ryghte is disjoined, and is used in a physical rather than a moral sense (Lev. xxvi. 13). The hye mynded is used in a bad sense ; we later English have raised it to the level of magnanimus ; this goes against our usual practice of debasing words ; Tyndale is fond of com- pounding with this mynded. He also adds less, as botom- lesse. The word manifold, expressing ingens, is coupled with a Singular Noun (Eph. iii. 10). The lively is often used in the graver sense of the word. The word fearful is used in one sense (Heb. x. 27), in another sense four verses farther on. The ysh is added, as in blackish, reddish. St. Paul says his speech is whomly, our homely ; this has been altered into contemptible. Orrmin's oferrhannd now becomes the upper Juinde ; Coverdale uses both these forms, and has also superiority. Tyndale has the curious idiom, "loaves were lawful to eat " (Matt. xii. 4). He writes " Hosanna in the hyest," where Wickliffe had added the word things to the Adjective. An idiom of Layamon's is continued in Deut. iv. 40, where something is given thee thy life longe 414 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. (for thy life) ; hence comes livelong. Tyndale is fond of foul for immundus, and of is comly for decet. The word rash changes its meaning from acer to temerarius ; do nothing rasshly. The word sad (gravis) was now used for tristis in the South, though Tyudale has the old sense of the word in his treatises. In 1 Cor. ii. 13 cunning is applied to the words of the Holy Ghost. The old as good as crops up once more ; the aged Abraham is called " as good as dead." Among the Pronouns we see the two forms that have come down from the North, it is I, and it sJutll be oures. The old in her middis of 1400 is replaced by in the myddes of you (Acts ii. 22). The former ic hit eom is changed into / am lie ; and WickliffVs tho it ben that appears as they are they whych. The Latin pronoun hie is turned by Tyn- dale into he here (this here man), John xxi. 21. There is a very Latin idiom of Tyndale's in 1 Cor. viii. 5, "there be that are called goddes." The tJuit is used in the new sense; the question is asked, "are ye able to drink?" the answer is made, that we are. The old mysilf is altered into myne awne silfe. The one following an Adjective is now made Plural ; we see lytle wonnes. The another may follow one, but not each; one another's members (Eom. xii.); there is also the phrase see ether other ; the ether is elsewhere used for uterque. The old twyfealdlicor is changed into two folde more (Matt, xxiii. 15). Tyndale is fond of pre- fixing a to Numerals, as they were about a five thousand, an eight dayes. He has from whence, where the first word is not wanted. The where, coupled with a Preposition, is much used as a Relative, as whereunto, whereof, etc. ; an idiom dating from 1160. Tyndale is fond of the Relative idiom, a man which ; which he called them lie justified ; and the first clause in the Paternoster. The ivhose wyfe of them shall she be is curious, coming down from Wickliffe ; there is also whose shewes of his fete I . . . lose (Acts xiii.), whom do men saye that I am ? Tyndale has a peculiar way of trans- lating qualis spiritus, using what maner sprete. The new as many as replaces WicklifiVs hou manye evere. We see such like, where the like really comes twice over, as in the Gothic swahikata galeik. The much is sometimes replaced in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 415 by Trevisa's a greate deale ; still we see moclie goodes. There is a curious token of the popularity of the old English ballads ; in them the line often occurs by Him that died on tree ; in the first chapters of the Acts Tyndale twice uses the phrase hanged on tree, dropping the Definite Article. Among the new Verbs we see eye, wede out, undergird. There is cutt (secavit) instead of Wickliffe's kitted. There is both lewgh and lawght (risit). There is the intransitive Juinged, which is dropped in our time. Tyudale well renders an expression that had been bungled by all former translators, what have we to do with thee? He sometimes uses are (sunt) instead of the be of former times ; still he has be ye come out ? The can is encroaching on the old may (possum). The schul not mmve of Tyndale's youth is now altered into sJuill nott be able. In Heb. xii. 20, Tyndale's must have bene stoned seems preferable to the sliall be stoned of the Eevisers. Our author often substi- tutes will for Wickliffe's sliall ; in one verse we have yf we shall saye from heven, he wyll saye, etc. There is the old form they had (would have) repented ; on the other hand, the old wcere (esset) sometimes becomes shulde be. The do and did are often prefixed to verbs, especially on solemn occasions. We see the Past Participle Nominative eny man beynge circumcised, etc. (1 Cor. vii.) ; this had formerly been confined to the Ablative Absolute. This Past Par- ticiple is used without any noun preceding; abstain from strangled; some instances of this were altered by the Eevisers. In Acts xxi. the dores were shut to ; a form of 1180; a gate is shett uppe in the parable of the Ten Virgins ; we shut up a Jwuse. Tyndale is fond of adding up to verbs, as stay thee up. He leaves a thing undone (infectum), where former writers did not employ the last word (Matt, xxiii. 23) ; so, in let me go the last word is a novelty ; it is the same with hear tell. We have seen they are come ; we now have they are crept in ( Jude). The new phrase they were pined awaye appears instead of the old f orpine ; this for was being dropped in the South ; there is also the intransitive pine away. The former einloldish 416 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. makes way for bolden ; Tyndale's knew before is not so neat as the Eevisers' did foreknow. We see howe longe is it agoo replacing the old hou mocJie of tyme is it. He employs the weighty rend (scindo) where former authors employed slit and kit (cut). He produces a fine effect by altering the construction of a sentence, as hated shall ye be, silver have I none. The phrase get thee hence comes often ; but they got themselves to Pilate (Matt, xxvii. 62) is unusual. The old delve is supplanted by dig. There are the phrases cast in his tethe, the day wears away, put on raiment (not do on), make a sliewe of them (like Barbour). Tyndale is fond of the verbs wag, kill, wax, hale. The verb hurt changes its sense, being applied to the mind, like offend (Mark xiv. 29). There are both lay a wayte, and lie in wayte. We see the new phrases fynde fawte with, puff up, break to shevers, lid him God spede, biing us on our way, make light of it, rim];*' spede to, set at ease, there goeth a sayinge, wele stricken in age, marke (ecce) (Luke i. 36), go a warfare, he blesses himself, do folly, brede doutes, set himself to seek, take a courage, eares ytche, call to remembrance (mind), have in Iwnour, shew him a plea- sure, have knowledge of, go beyond his brother (get the better of). In 1 Cor. iv. 6 we have preferred Coverdale's to be puffed up to Tyndale's intransitive swell; this last, im- plying importance, seems to be the parent of a modern slang noun. In Luke vi. 33 Tyndale is inferior to all translators, both before and after him, " yf ye do for them which do for you." He adopts the new idiom, putting the needless a into she laye a dyinge, as if the last word was a Verbal Noun ; and there are other instances of this fault. We see an unusual idiom in Mark xi. 14, never man eate frute of thee (the fig-tree) ; we hardly ever employ this Imperative, standing singly, except in a blessing or a curse, though in ' Quentin Durward ' stands " some one give him another weapon." We see the old Subjunctive in till tJwu have payed. There are new compounds with Participles, such as moth-eaten; overflowen is written for the rightful overflowed. Peter, at the Transfiguration, says, liere is good beinge for us. As to Adverbs, we see again supplanting the old eft and in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 417 eftsoone ; there "is the pleonasm turn lack again. The old feorran or afer, as in Fisher, has of added, as afarre off; there is also a good waye off. Where we should use if only, Tyndale places and hit wer hit (Mark vi. 56). In not tJuit eny man liath sene (an advance upon Caxton's phrase) the second word expresses quid; it is curious that the Gothic here should be ni }>atei. The word shortly is often used for mox. We saw often tymes in 1303 ; we now find thyne often diseases. Tyndale uses to the utmost, thus wise, derely, coupled with beloved. In 2 Cor. vii. 9 he uses godly first as an adverb (now altered), then as an adjective ; he has also the awkward liolyly. The hit appears in a curious new phrase, following a negative (Judges xiv. 3), "is there not a woman . . . but that thou must go," etc. ; this differs from WicklifFe, and Coverdale strikes out that. The yea had stood in the middle of a sentence ; Tyndale places it at the beginning, as ye and they hjnde hevy burthens. A sentence begins with not so, in token of denial. The neither sometimes comes twice over, as in Matt. xii. 32, where Wickliffe had nether . . . ne (nor). The on is much used as an Adverb, especially in have on a wedding garment. The Greek oun is translated by now; we see this fore- shadowed by the Gothic nu in Luke xx. 33. Orrmin's all reddy comes very often. The old over in composition is quite supplanted by the upper of 1300, as the upper captayne. There are the Adverbs mightily, altogedder borne in synne, hit rather, fall flat, far spent, once for all, by all means, and Fisher's afressh. Among the Prepositions we remark the new oute a dores, which comes often ; in Matt. v. 1 3 we see that this a repre- sents an at, not an of; oute at the dores. The is at her liberty replaces is free. This at is still used in its old friendly sense; come at hym (Luke viii. 19). There is the old- fashioned have to her husbande an infidell. The Northern unto is much employed for ad. There is the phrase join hard to. There is the pleonasm a good waye off from them (Matt. viii. 30). This of appears both as an adverb and a preposition in shake of the duste of youre fete. Tyndale has the new idiom, sick of a fever ; he substitutes the of for the VOL. I. 2 E 4 i8 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. old jar in rejoyse of that shepe (Matt, xviii. 1 3) ; so, zeal of thine house. We see a new idiom in of weak were made strong. Wickliffe's avenge me of myne adversary and rebuke the u-i>r!. roots, as rightums (rihtwis) ; Coverdale further has the new wonderous and murthurous. He uses true of heart, a st/ people ; here only is used as a Superlative, much as we say, " the one perfect song ; " the one when coupled with only seems a pleonasm. In the Psalms Coverdale wrote, one depe calltth another ; this has been much improved by the later Eevisers, who put deep calleth unto deep ; here is the true English terseness. In Isaiah xi. yongones is written one word, much as we use young 'uns. The none is now coupled with a possessive Pronoun ; a house is none of his (Job xviii. 1 5). Coverdale is fond of no body and every limit/. As to the Verbs, there are phrases like wish him good, to winter, happen on a thing, the work went forward (on), to blast corn, set me a chair, get up (surgere), go mourning, din/ ln-enh, lay it waist, make mockes at, kill them down, cast up their noses in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 441 upon me (Ezekiel viii. I7),fede thefyre, come to light, lie hid, slip in, make dene ryddaunce of, kepe thy word, bid them welcome, get their will of, shake hands. We see " the waters plumped together ;" hence our "going plump into a thing." Coverdale has an odd compound of the two forms wcere and wast (eras) ; he writes thou werst (Ezekiel xxviii.) He con- fuses two different English verbs when he Avrites me think. In 1 Kings ii. 23 Solomon threatens thus, " Adonias shall have spoken this agaynst his lyfe ;" here the verb bears both a past and a future sense. The Infinitive is often set first, as punish will I. In connexion with it a new idiom appears, "he shall never want one, to sit," etc., "the last to fetch him." In Malachi i. 10 stands "what is he that wil do so moch as to shut," etc. ; here our terse English speech in later years struck out the first Infinitive, and also the to prefixed to the second. He brings did into ques- tions, as did not I wepe ? (Job xxx.) There is a new usage of the Active Participle in 2 Maccabees x., "two dayes were they destroyenge (it);" I suspect that this should be " they spent in destroying." Coverdale is fond of the idiom, "be giving of thanks," "be doing good," "my herte is dyting of a good matter ; " in some of these he confuses the Participle with the Verbal Noun, like Chaucer's passing over of Emily. He is fond of setting un before a Past Parti- ciple, as untrodden, unloked for. There is the new Participle melted by the side of the old molten ; also the Perfect cleved (hresit), not clave ; Tyndale's holpen becomes helped. We see the form drt/e shod; a Northern phrase. In 1 Sam. vi. 12 we read of the blearing (lowing) of oxen ; we now use this verb of trumpets only. We see miss used in two senses : David was missed, and 19 men missed (abfuerunt). There is a new sense connected with spend, " the day is spent." Chariots not only roll, but welter / a man may also welter a stone. There is the phrase to turn (ire) into a house. When Jonah was about to be thrown overboard, the sea wrought (was stormy). In Micah ii. 9 we read, " the women have ye shot out from their houses;" the verb here has since been altered into cast; we now shoot, in this sense, nothing but rubbish. The military phrase fall out is used 442 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. for sally (Judith xiv.) ; to fall out in common life suggests a sally of ill-temper. In Ecclus. xxx. we are exhorted to hit (strike) a child, by way of chastisement ; hitherto the word had been coupled with a mark. There is the phrase, set to pledge, which reminds us of Catullus ruefully punning on the word opponere. In Nehemiah vii. 5 we see "God gave me in my hert;" the verb has since been altered into put; we still say, " my heart misgave me." For mingere Tyndale used the French word still in our Bibles ; Coverdale has a literal translation of facere aquam. In Ezekiel xxiii. 40 set fmih thyself means, not proponere, but ormre ; it has since been altered into deck ; we should now substitute off for the forth. In the Song of the Three Children magnify him has now replaced the earlier set him up, which Coverdale uses all through the poem ; our set up (conceited) is well known. We hear of winds overbearing a ship (Ezekiel xxvii.) ; we have since coined an adjective from this new verb. There is the Imperative wake up, so often in the mouths of our drivers. In Isaiah xviii. 4 we hear of a myslinge shower, a purely Northern word, being a form of mist. Among the Adverbs we see hard at liand, go straightfor- ward. The old Adverb has lost its rightful e at the end in evell gotten goods. The out is much used as an Adverb, tell it out, live out his days. In treat him rughly the sense of durus is added to that of hirsutus. Coverdale is fond of prefixing prepositions to nouns, as thy out and ingoynge, over pole (upper pool), forecourt. In Ezekiel xxxii. downe, by itself, is employed as a word of command ; there is also downe with it ! In Joel ii. 2 2 stands, as in Orrmin, be not ye af rayed nether ; an idiom to be continued by Shakespere. Coverdale sometimes uses yes, which was afterwards altered into yea. Among the Prepositions the upon is used in its old hostile sense, "see his desire upon his enemies." In Solomon's Song, iii. 2, stands " I will go about the city ; upon the market," etc. ; hence our " go upon Change ;" there is also "lend upon usury." In the Psalms is the curious phrase "go on in wikedness;" of old, the on and in had been two forms of one word. The old Icelandic in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 443 idiom, seen in the ' Cursor Mundi,' reappears, " to seke unto thee;" there is also Roy's new phrase, "lean unto counsels;" " have a zele unto the lawe." There is the new idiom " when he was at the strongest " (Daniel viii. 8) ; at the soonest had but just appeared. In 1 Mac. vii. the people "pass over that day;" here the over means per, as we "read over a paper." In Lev. xi. 46 stands "the law over the beestes " (de bestiis) ; Tyndale here has of. I have seen in late writers the phrase "what is over you?" (what is the matter concerning you ?) The over is prefixed to adjectives, as overgredy. As to Interjections, Coverdale is fond of the optative that, etc. In Job xxxi. 30 Oh no ! stands at the begin- ning of a sentence ; the first instance, I think, of this now common phrase. There is also no, no ! and if no, at the beginning of a fresh sentence. The scornful there ! there ! of the Psalms is well known. In Proverbs xxx. 1 5 some- thing " saieth never hoo " (ho /) ; this last arresting cry, used by Chaucer, has since been altered into "it is enough ;" this ho (satis) lasted down to 1630, being used by Mabbe. In Jeremiah li. 14 men cry alarum, alarum/ this has been changed into " lift up a shout." Among his Romance phrases Coverdale has felicity, dis- dainedly (disdainfully), joly array, wyne bebber (this is not Tyndale's word), temerarious, dyspoynt (disappoint), dis- favour, mine encrease, mockage, disquietnesse, salette (armour), party coloured, presterly (sacerdotal), to beutify, my delicates, batel ram, faynedly, unpaciency, innocency, dishonesty (oppro- brium), natyves, buckle together (congredi), adherentes, pledges, (hostages), churchrobber, winegardener (vindemiator), spryn- ijald (juvenis). The word presumptuous is used in the old sense of wilful ; it has since acquired a new shade of mean- ing. The old triacle still bears the sense of remedium. The verb discover is used for uncover ; this sense still survives on the stage, where actors are discovered (revealed). The verb comfort often means strengthen ; comfortable, when applied to the Lord's name, is used in an unusual sense. Coverdale is very fond of employing stomach for cor ; as " a high stomach ; " what Prometheus did to our stomach is 444 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. well known to readers of Horace. As to the uses of matter, we see it was a matter of life, wJiether his matters (negotia) would endure. The old give no force for comes in, but has since been altered into the single word scorn. The rilliti/i is used only for a -man of low degree. Job wishes to be sued with a lybell ; this has been altered into "write a book;" in Scotch law, an indictment is still called a libel. The mys is still used where we now employ dis, as mys- content, mysordre. In EccL ix. 16 we read of a symple man's wisdom; Coverdale here uses the adjective in its Northern sense of humilis, pauper ; the sentence must have seemed a contradiction in terms to the Revisers of 1611, who therefore changed the adjective into poor. The word bonett is used of the head-gear of both men and women ; for the former, tire of thine head, has been substituted in Ezekiel xxiv. 17. We have already seen peals connected with bells ; we now read of peaks of warre, coupled with trumpets; this has been changed into the alarm of war (Jer. iv. 19); we know Shakespere's stage direction, v.larn'iii*. Coverdale literally translates the Latin cequus, talking of equal (lawful) and right. The word evidence is used in its Northern sense of legal document, and this still remains in Jer. xxxii. We hear of the rascall people (now altered into the poor of the people), Jer. xxxix. In Jer. li. 22 l/icliclcr (now young man) is opposed to maiden; elsewhere I- woman is opposed to meretrix; dishonesty is used for dis- honour. In Ezekiel xvi. 30 stands "thou precious whore," just as we talk of a precious rogue ; the word has been altered into imperious ; Lydgate had this use of the adjec- tive. The word ungracious is often used, as it is still in the North. There is the East Anglian phrase " to labor with child " (parturio) ; this, coming in the Liturgy, was in our day ludicrously applied by a poor German governess to women of her own craft. In Ecclus. x. we hear that pride is the origenall (principium) of all sin. The word ivniour is sometimes employed for good-breeding, especially as regards the table ; Tyndale has not this old sense of the word ; well-nourtured in Ecclus. XXL exactly answers to our ici.-ll- bred. The verb martyr stands for cruciare in 2 Mac. ix. : in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 445 the noun in Italian bears this sense. We saw in Tyndale that atonement stood for both agreement and expiation ; the latter sense seems to be borne by reconcyle, at the end of 2 Mac. xii. In Coverdale's armlett we see an instance of the Romance let being fastened to a Teutonic root. There is a compounding of Teutonic and Romance in noone day, suerteshippe. Verbs coming from the Latin were not yet quite settled in form; we see the Infinitives corruppe, correcke, suspeck ; we insist on using the Past Participle form of these. The former vwnder, used as an Adverb, seems to have led to marvelous pale. The ramping found here, borrowed from Chaucer, perhaps was the parent of romping. The verbs consume and convert are sometimes used intransitively. The verb tarry now governs an accusative, "tarry his leisure." Like Fisher, Coverdale is fond of added ed to spirit, thus making an adjective, as meke spreted. The Lord is said to have planted our fathers in ; this is the first hint, I think, of plantations, the old word for colonies. A change found in the 'York Mys- teries' is repeated; Babylon is called the bewtie of the Caldees' honour ; here the first noun means decus, not pul- chritudo as of old ; when we speak of a woman as a beauty, we mean that she is decus sexus. The verb occupy is much used, of trade ; Solomon's virtuous woman occupieth wool. In Isaiah i. stands "I hate (it) from my very heart;" this seems to stand for inmost, and is rather unusual. We hear of ravishing (ravening) beasts. In the account of the death of Judas Maccabseus, he is persecuted (pursued). The old form take travail (trouble) is often used. The bones seen by Ezekiel, chap, xxxvii., are called "a marvelous greate sorte " (army) ; as we now use sort, it answers to genus rather than multitudo ; we still keep in the Psalms "ye shall be slain, all the sort of you " (lot of you). The word company is used in a military sense. The Plural Seraphins is used ; there are the proper names Palestina, Philistia ; in 1 Mac. xv. we come upon Lucius, the Mayre of Rome. In Isaiah xxvii. 2, Muscatel has since been altered into red wine. In the English text occur the words lamia, taxus. We hear not only of Caldees, 446 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. but of Caldeish (language); the last-named hoary form was not to survive. Among the words akin to the Dutch and German are knap (snap). There is the Scandinavian verb scraul, which originally meant rattle/ also stale (urina), slavering (saliva), and wherry man. As to Coverdale's Preface to his Bible, he uses com&n ^velthes for res publicce, instead of the old comon weales ; this had been done by Skelton. He employs wyde from the purpose. It is important, we are told, to tye the Pope sJwrter; hence came our " cut him short." Scripture setfeth every thyng in frame (in good shape) ; this is something like the later ship shape. The Pope is called a counterfayte Christian; Tyndale had used this adjective in a harmless sense. Coverdale, in these very ticklish times, is careful to speak of England's crown as imperiall. He thus ad- dresses King Henry, "there hath ben of olde antiquite (and is yet unto this daye) a lovyng ceremonye used in your realme of Englonde, that whan your graces subiectes reade your letters, or begynne to talke or comen of your hyghnes, they move theyr bonettes for a signe and token of reverence unto your grace, as to their most soveraigne lorde and heade under God, which thyng no man useth to do to eny bysshoppe." Coverdale tells us that he uses in his Version penance as well as repentance, and declares, misguided man, that there is no greater difference between the two terms than between four pence and a groat. His friend Grafton uses snub as a Noun. William Eoy was a runaway Franciscan friar, of not the best character, who aided Tyndale in translating the New Testament abroad, and who afterwards arrived at Strasburg in 1526. Two years later he brought out his famous Satire against Cardinal Wolsey, called 'Rede me and be not wrothe ' (Arber's Reprint). Roy seems to have been a Northern man by his use of ban (maledicere), limbi'm, and kye (vaccse). The y is put for the French e, as fryrc, p. 37 ; the accent is still thrown on the last syllable of barayne (barren), p. 52. The old noun hwceg here survives as whyg, and the more modern form u-hey, dating from rir.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 447 1240, stands alongside; why g and whey, p. 100. Wolsey is called Carnall, a pun on Cardinal, p. 39 ; this joke thirty years later often did duty against Pole, who was not so open to a satirist as Wolsey was. Like the d in Cardinal, the n is struck out; covent stands for convent, p. 82, whence Covent Garden. Roy is fond of making new nouns by adding nes, as beneficialnes, unhappines, sluggishnes, lordlynes, noblenes. The title youre ladyshippe was now beginning to come in ; it is in p. 85 (as also her noblenes in p. 84) ; here the flattering friar and the dame, " not very wise," are most happily hit off, quite in Chaucer's style. In p. 93 we read of a lorde of bludde ; here high is dropped after of. The noun lorcher is coined from lurk, p. 98; Palsgrave employs it for gour- mand; it was then used of a man, in our day of a dog. A bishop is mentioned as a goode Greke in carde playing, p. 117; the abusive phrase has lasted long. Chaucer had talked of a bever hat ; this is now cut down to bever, p. 47. We see bed of state (state-bed) ; when Wolsey destroyed abbeys, he plucked down the costly leades; a new Plural, p. 113. The Annas of the Gospel becomes Anne, for the rime, p. 118; this was the Christian name of the famous French Constable, Roy's contemporary. As to the Adjectives, we see the origin of make black white in p. 51, where Wolsey can, it is said, make regulars of seculars, makynge as he lyste blacke of whyte (priests). We find whyst (tacitus), p. 65 ; the adjective in Chaucer's time had been hust. There is the phrase hear ynough and to moche, p. 90. Mention is made of men being proclaimed heretics, p. 113; the terse answer is, why more we than (he 1). Among the Verbs we see the very old forms, thou myght (poles), p. 37, thou spake (locutus es), p. 104. There is cotha (quoth he), p. 70, lett this pass, make no difficulte, make marchandyse of, hyt the nayle upon the heed, it is to be fearyd lest, etc. There is a well-known Scotch phrase, the upset price ; this is in p. 139. Roy has the new topsy termj (top side turf way), p. 51. Barclay's change in the sense of by and by is repeated in p. 66. 448 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. Among the Prepositions are be in (of) no use, have a wife upon my hande, lean unto tyranny. As to Interjections, the former devil have tlie lit that becomes the devil of the whit that (devil a bit), p. 65. Roy's of seems here to stand for have. There is the cry och at the beginning of a sentence, p. 59, and the eager nay, nay, p. 61. The Scandinavian words here seen are the substantive sloutclie and bladder (bag). Among the Romance words are papistical, gresy, gratis, momcJiaunce (a game at cards), p. 60, service in plate, p. 93, to improperate (benefices), monkery, reprehensible, turmoil, copy holder, capacity, incomparable, encroach. Roy was one of the first to use popisshe, p. 116. The word senwur seems to be employed for do-minus in pp. 67 and 83. In p. 43 we find questionist (schoolman), a curious compound of Latin and Greek. There are the phrases my ladys chamber, foles para<< (understanding). We have in p. 17 the first English laugh at the use of fine language; a scholar, fond of eloquent English and curious termis, puzzles a cobbler by talking of subpedytals, not shoes; he also employs semy cercles ; Eabelais carried this joke much further. In p. 62 a child answers a hard demand at all adventures (hazards) in the Plural ; the forerunner of at all events. We see dcuic- full (obligatory), p. 140; a new formation. In p. 77 com- pany is used much as we employ society ; the good that should precede the noun is dropped. The adverb precisely stands for imperiously in p. 114; so Shakespere, in Hamlet, uses absolute for precise. The old maugre now becomes spyte of, p. 45. In p. 74 Sir is lengthened into Sirra. In 1527 arrived the first English letter ever sent hither from America, so far as we know ; it may be found in Eden's Book on America, p. xiv. (Arber's Reprint) ; it was written by Rut, the master of the English ship, from Newfoundland. He uses harbor in a new sense (port us), and talks of foul weather ; sailors run in their course at sea. Mention is made of Portugal barkes (naves) ; the new sea phrase is used, " to come into 53 degrees." In another letter of this time, quoted in p. xvi., we read of cardes, that is, charts of the voyage. In the ' Supplication for the Beggars ' (Arber's Reprint), which Fish brought out in 1529, we remark the new word whirlpool, also bloudsupper, a favourite word of Coverdale's. in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 451 The Turk gets grounde of Christendom, p. 5 ; we should now say, "gain ground on." The Komance words are profligate, out ofjoynt, to people. In p. 8 we read of priests' s&vereigne ladies; this explains Skelton's mistress, used for arnica. In p. 4 comes the verb assite ; this was a few years later to be cut down to cite. We now transfer as well as trans- late, a most useful distinction; but in 1529 the latter of these Latin forms seems to have done double duty ; see p. 6. Some pieces in Hazlitt's ' Collection' (vols. iii. and iv.) seem to belong to 1530 ; the old bydene appears for the last time, I think, in iii. 178 ; the old awlper (suit) still appears as other, iv. 112. The bi is clipped, for bitwen becomes twen, p. 173; the d is added, a man was bounde toward the altar; this is the old boun (paratus), p. 172 ; there was doubtless a confusion with bound (vinctus). The old doppa gives birth to dobchick (dabchick), iii. 171. In p. 124 stands gib (felis). The old hallowes still stands for saints, p. 117, and the allusion here to pilgrimages helps to fix the date of this poem. Wickliffe's knack (dolus) now stands for our knicknack, p. 152; toy has undergone a change somewhat similar. A woman in p. 174 steals short endes and mony, hence our odds and ends. Dunbar's adjective trim came South very soon, for it is in p. 153 ; the other adjective trick (trig), soon to be coupled with trim, is in p. 109. The future Shakesperian most unkindest stands in p. 114. The all had been lately developed, it is all your fawt stands in p. 158. In iii. 169 something is done for good and all. In iv. 107 we have twise so muche, where Cover- dale was soon to alter the so into our as. Among the Verbs stand have the last word, I am matched (married), breke her mynde to him. We see keep him short ; Coverdale's tie him short, to lay vice, iv. 106; hence our "lay a ghost." Skelton's jingles were coming into vogue ; a woman gets a man to smick and smack, p. 110; bones make clitter clatter, p. 123; bible bable, p. 130. Among the Komance words is assimilate. The word base in p. 110 seems to mean ugly ; it is applied to a baby. The en was in great vogue ; in p. 137 cntwit stands for the 452 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. old cetwit, our twit. In iii. 40 we are told that loyalete is a good quality in a Prince ; we now usually apply the word to a subject. The word gallant is made an Adjective in p. 176, and is applied to dress; brave had already been used in the same sense. In iii. 171 the verb souse bears the meaning of mergere ; see p. 266 of my book. John Palsgrave, a native of London, and a graduate of Paris, brought out his ' L'Eclaircissement de la langue . Francoyse ' in 1530; this invaluable dictionary he dedi- cated to Henry VIII., having been tutor in French to the King's sister Mary ; the author obtained from the King a grant of copyright for seven years. He has such old words as gong (privy), paddock (rana) ; and such old forms as croise (crux), rande of befe. The verbs carpe, depe, stye, and threpe, are here set down as fane Northern words ; also the Romance fray (quarrel) with. Certain words as hente (capio) are named as then going out ; sperre (claudo) and spere (rogo) are Northern, and not in common use ; the syns and sytlie are both used in one sentence, p. 471. The nomme (capio) is nowe none Englysshe ; queme (placeo) is out of use. There are very old forms in p. 217; to do make a castell, or to lette make it. The for is still often prefixed to verbs, as fordreynt ; the form formast fyngar had not yet become Udall's forefinger. There is Tyndale's new word mysse woman. Palsgrave makes an odd mistake or two ; thus in p. 285 he says that to lorne a thing is not used, but we borrow I foiiore of the Doutche tonge. The to (dis) in to-breke was now about to disappear ; its true force was becoming unknown to the new generation ; for all to fyle a gown (inquinare) stands in p. 236 ; all to sowee in the myar stands in p. 368 ; this mistake of Mallory's is seen in some of the later Reformers, and even after 1700. As to the Vowels, the old initial ce is struck out ; cetintan becomes twite (cast in the tethe), p. 308 ; to twhyte (re- prouche) is called a Northern term in p. 396. The a is clipped, atire becomes tyre. There is both the old berke and the new barke (latrare) ; both commende and commawtde appear in p. 192 for recommend. The e replaces u : Lyd- gate, who is in this work often quoted as an English classic, in.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 453 appears as the Monk of Berye, p. 226. The e is inserted; hoicer (hora) stands in p. 452. The ie final is clipped; grundcswulie becomes grounde sail (groundsel). The i or y supplants o, as upsyde doume for upsodoun, p. 230 ; here there was a false analogy ; there is also to lylle (loll) out the tonge. There are both enquiere and enquyre in p. 226. The two forms bylde and buylde stand close together, p. 163. There is both the old form of the verb keele (re- frigerare) and the verb cool, which we adopt. The titmose of 1440 now becomes tytmouse. The verbs toyle and till appear, each with its different sense, in p. 391 ; the South- ern and Northern heirs of the old tylian. The ennoye is used for the French enuye, p. 225. The two forms bery and bury (sepelire) both appear. The French endouer appears both as endowe and endewe, p. 224. The ou re- places i ; penthouse of a house ; but afterwards comes pentys over a stall. The p is added to m, as to champ ; we see both bunch and punch, forms of one verb. The old sound is still un- softened in thacke (tegere), but atche (dolor) replaces ake ; Kemble the actor was laughed at for pronouncing ache as Palsgrave did. There are both the forms eye and egge for, ovum ; gane and yane (oscitare) ; our author first gives Lydgate's foryet, and then his own forget, p. 242. The g is softened ; there are both rygge and ridge, referring to land ; it is struck out in flemme (phlegm) ; here spyttell is given in explanation. Palsgrave says that we do not sound h in honest, honour, and a few other words. The d is added in / drownde (drown), p. 221 ; there are both ledder and htliers. The t is added, as talant (talon) ; there are both to graffe and to graft ; the t is inserted, as heyghten for the old verb heyn. The th is added ; there is come to inn full grouthe, p. 202, which last word replaces the old grownes. The m replaces b, as somersault ; in French, sober- sault. The n is prefixed; the ekename of 1303 becomes ni/ckename. The / is added ; spekke becomes speccle, bidaggen becomes daggyll ; in this way a new verb is formed from nose, to nosyll (nuzzle); it seems to have been confounded with nursle (train), and was used in this latter sense throughout 454 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. this Century. The r is inserted, asfrutrer, the French fruyc- tiers ; it is added, as stutter, the old stutte ; it replaces n, as periuyncle for pinewinde ; it replaces/, as hande kercher, which is used for wiping the nose, p. 410. The sh replaces sc, as " what cometh our shotte to ? " the French escot, p. 192. The sh replaces st ; there are both the old gnast and the new gnasshe ; this last form had been used five years earlier by Tyndale. The robows of 1440 now becomes robrisshe (rubbish). The old French pikeis is corrupted by a false analogy into picke axe. We see convenablement Englished by syttyngly, p. 445, not fittingly. Among the Substantives we find calver of samon, caste of haukes, childes ratle, a cuttyng of a vyne, dogge fysshe, ducke- lyng, drepyng (of meat, not the Lancashire droping), drivdar, gagge (for mouth), gonne poudre, gose berry, hertys ease (the flower), hedge hogge, kynges yvell, Lady daye, mole (talpa), nedyll of a compas, nosegay, oulde mayde, peperquerne, quave- myre (quagmire), sawe dust, schyp owner, schoppe kepar (not shop holder), scrytche houle, a smutche, hote-house (a stew), stoppe (of organs), [toione house, clacke clacke of a mill, bomlt/U bee, syde wynde (opposed to a full wynde), brome (for sweep- ing), tacklyng, daye foeake, by heresay (par ouyr dire). Pals- grave remarks that " in maner all oure abstractis ende in nesse," unless they come from the French. He has curlydnesse (of hair) and proudnesse. The foreign ending let is very seldom tacked on to a Teutonic word ; we here find driblet. What we now call a doll appears as a babe. The words schrewe, baud, and harlotte may apply to either man or woman. The word depe is used in a new way, the depe of wynter, p. 231. The word drabbe here means nothing worse than slutte. The word lome means & frame ; its old force is therefore narrowed. One craftsman appears as ropar (rope-maker) ; this gave name to a well-known family. The old word shed is now applied to ground, schedde of an hylle (tertre). Palsgrave explains besynesse by labour, and then refers to besynesse of occupation (negotium). His dogge has two meanings: 1, a beest, cliien ; 2, a mis- chevous curre, dogue. The playe ofsadde matters is in French moralite", while playe, an enterlude, is in French farce. Cover- in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 455 dale's daysman (arbiter), still in our Bible, here first appears ; it recalls the old legal diem, dicere. We see gadde bee, a flye (our gadfly}. A gospellar is one that sings the gospel ; this word was soon to get a new meaning. There is a new construction of man ; I am man good ynough to, etc. ; here we now drop the adjective. When a woman is to be delivered, she says, / am nere my tyme. The word world is more used ; he wyste nat in the ivorlde what to do, p. 1 75 ; here we transpose a little ; it is a dangerous worlde now a dayes, p. 243 ; this translates danger eux temps. There is I shall tell him more of my mynde, p. 184 ; my foote is aslepe, exactly the same as in French, p. 269 ; as long as tlie breth is in my body, p. 453. The word handsome now first means pulcher, for liamomnesse is in French advenantete'. The word nappe has lost its old exalted sense, and here means only a It/tell slepe. The old bicker (pugna) is degraded ; byckerynge is here equivalent only to skrymysshe, the French escarmuclie ; we know the later form skrimmage. The old wit had been a synonym for wisdom ; but it now stands for ingeniositd, among other things ; its lighter shade of meaning was soon to be developed. The noun spring, in p. 161, gets a new meaning, " something that may be bent or bowed." The word gear means no more than the French chose in p. 239. The word water may stand for sudor ; a horse is all on a water, p. 245 ; we should say, lather. The old wif in com- pounds is replaced by woman ; the former wif-freond had long vanished ; we now see many forms like woman preest. The French fretillon is Englished by (a) hoppe upon my thombe. Tyndale's new atonement here appears as onement (reconciliation). The French fossette is translated a pytte in ones cheke ; the verb pit had already appeared. We have seen Caxton's barbarous compound sceawage, the show of goods for sale ; the officer, who took toll upon this, had also to see to the cleaning of the streets ; hence he was called scavager ; he appears in Palsgrave as scavenger. 1 One of the names for English slang was a pedlar's frenche, p. 368. The phrase every whyt is thought very English, p. 450; the French expressed the last word by goutte ; 1 Skeat gives this derivation. 456 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. never a whyt the nerer in p. 469 is rendered by de pas ung grayn. Among the new Adjectives are clammy, darkesome, hylly, noppy (of ale), in French, vigoreux ; broken backed, dainty mouthed, lyght heeded, ]>e lyflong daye, p. 453. The word light is used in two different senses, lyght grene and lyght horse. An adverb is made an adjective ; as a downeryght strooke, p. 377. The old awkward still appears as an adverb in to rynge aukeivarde (when enemies are coming), like Scott's " the bells are rung backward." But this adverb is now made an adjective, meaning lefte handed, and also expressing the French perverse. It further gives birth to the new adverb awkewardly (frowardly), p. 439. The ish, as in Chaucer, is added to old adjectives of colour, thus expressing a new shade of meaning, as blackysshe, blewishe, and many others ; there is seeysshe (marin), the Old English scelic. The word daper of 1440 here changes its old sense ; it now Englishes mignon. The word hom,ely means not only familiar, but saiLcy (free and easy). The word fine is used of very small work. The word fond changes from stultus to amans (cynics say that this is no great step) ; I waxe fonde upon a woman is translated Toy je m'enamoure, p. 218 ; the verb dote had already followed the same course. The old elvysshe is removed from Fairyland, and here expresses mal traictable, p. 403. The rough is now used of speech ; speak roughly, p. 242. The word busy has gained an evil sense ; a busy felowe Englishes ung entremetteux, p. 331. The word pretty now expresses parvus ; a preaty whyle ago, ung peu de temps passe", p. 453; this great whyle is the English for de long temps, p. 455. An adjective is made a substantive, as the white of the eye or of an egg. Sometimes the substan- tive is dropped, as draw in blacke and white, a French phrase ; to be longe aboute it, p. 237. A fashion is revived of pre- fixing a substantive to an adjective, like the old blod-read ; we now find love sycke, brimmeful. The adjective stcdye once more appears, after a sleep of 300 years, p. 234 ; it is applied to something that does not move, as a wall. We see 'an alliterative phrase in they keep the day hye and /ml// (haultement), p. 257. We find earable ground, p. 279, in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 457 bespeaking a welcome for the kindred arable that had already appeared. There are the phrases a tall man of his handes, as mery as a cricket, as longe as large. The vif ou mort is Englished by alyve or deed, p. 437 ; so completely had on lif become an adjective. An adjective is placed before a verb, as to roughe heawe timber. Two adjectives are coupled, as lyght grene. An adjective follows a verb, as hacke them small. Our more will still translate major ; the more fole is he, p. 452 ; we have also the fewer the better fare, p. 472. As to Pronouns, in p. 300 stands and I were as you, I wolde, etc. (si festoye que de vous) ; here we now drop the as. We see sclie devyll and many such compounds. The it has a backward reference, as / wyll pass or I wyll dye for it, p. 317. In p. 444 one with another is translated by pesle mesle. The all is developed; the by lykelyJwde of 1430 becomes by all lykelylwde, p. 439. The word years is dropped after a Numeral, as if she be ones fourty, she will, etc., p. 396 ; here the French inserts ans. So completely had the all and some (omnes et unus) dropped, that Palsgrave blunderingly translates it by tout entierement, p. 448. We find the new every body, a lytell to moche, lytell lesse, fewe ynmighe, you may come tyme ynoughe, p. 375 ; here an in is dropped. There is the new idiom a great many peces, p. 217 ; here the of is dropped before the last word ; the Teutonic many and the Romance maine are confused; in p. 463 stands a great meyny of them. There is a curious new phrase, / will offer my offering tlie first thing I do, p. 308. The quod sciam is Englished in I never did it, that I wotte of, p. 394. Among the new Verbs are to dog, bear him out (je suporte), blober, blow (after running), break out (as one that waxeth scabby), dasshe out of countenance, dygge my horse with spores, do him servyce, harten a man, go to borde in a place, fall awaye (wax lean), fall in love with, be in amours with, p. 253, synge out (chanter a playne voyx), to fynger (like a thief), fyer a gonne, a ship grounds, hold at a baye (a la boy), kepe resydence, take him up (reprove), lie at anker, locke up a thing, make my- self e a straungcr (je me aliene), the law byndeth you, weather is overcaste, pop into water, cast a shoo, stake (in play), stedye a 458 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. thing, stricken deer, take herte a gresse (en pance, sudden courage), take into favour, take hym to his legges ; take on, as in sorrow; take ]>e wynde of a man (get wind of), also wind a man, take the worde out of one's mouth, to takyll a ship, thynke scorne to (je ne daigne), toppe a ire, unlerne, my tethe waters to see, etc. (a French phrase), to whytelyme a wall, pypyng hote (tout chault), worme etyn, weather beaten, tonge tyed ; halfe slepi/ny, halfe wakyng. Palsgrave is fond of shall where we put will. We see both the forms lye in chylde bedde, and the clipped lye in. There is the expressive trowe mother (putative) ; I morne is used for " wear mourning." A child is marred, not spoiled. Wood, when burning, crakes ; crackle had not yet come. The foreign en is much used before Teutonic words ; enbusye myself, embolden, engrave (used of a goldsmith). The Northern verbs stabbe and tire (fatigare) have now come to London, also bonfire. The verb drone is now set apart for the noise of a bagpipe. Men had long baited their horses; they themselves baited in 1530, when they ate at an inn. There is the famous bring him aquaynted ivith, used by Pope. The je importune is Englished by "/// i^907i a man that I have a sute to; hence our visits became call*. The verb cross was used in different senses ; to crosse legges, and also cross over the waye. A verb has evidently been formed from sun ; for set a sonnyng appears for au soleil, p. 357. The verb cut, like carve, is used for executing very fine work, p. 203. A candle may be either put out or done out, p. 218. The verb scatter, like skale, becomes intransitive ; men scatter (go out of order). The verb fret still takes an Ac- cusative, as freat himself away ; but the new construction also appears, frete not for a trifle, p. 242 ; there is further the other Old English verb fret (ornare). In the same way there is the new kepe close as well as the old kepe you close, with the same meaning. There is both the intransitive geve over (cedere), and the transitive geve a man over. We saw laugh himself to death 140 years earlier; we now have overshote my selfe (je me advise mal), and overslepe my selfe. A strong fellow is said to be well sette or set up. A man is said to starve (die), and to starve for cold ; there is also the transitive I starve (famish) a man, p. 373. The verb in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 459 tryppe now becomes transitive. The verb stoppe is used technically in a game ; I will stoppe on your side, p. 375 ; hence our longstop at cricket. The verb stryke Englishes je lache ; it is here, p. 377, applied to letting down a crane ; our strike sail had been used centuries earlier; stryke on ground is here applied to a ship. The verb tanne becomes intransitive ; it here means be sun-burnt. Palsgrave says of thrill (je penetre), that it is old and little used in his time ; we have happily revived it, though we apply it to the soul, not to material objects. The afford of Barclay now seems to get the sense of the Latin dare or something like it ; " I forde an article " Englishes je vends ; the un- doubted sense of dare comes forty years later. The verb gag (suffocare) now takes its more modern sense ; it is also made a noun. There is a new sense of gather, where we now say pull ; I gather myself e to gyther, for some feat of strength, p. 245. The verb gesse keeps its old sense of calculating in shooting, like ayme; but it is also translated by the French deviner, showing a new sense, p. 245. Two senses of drag are given in p. 219 ; I dragge for fish, and I dragge (come behind). There is fydell with your liandes, p. 236, a new sense of the verb. There are two senses of walk in walke the stretes, and walke a horse. The verb leare Englishes regarder de longue veue, and is applied to a dog behind a door, p. 279. The verb snoffe (anhelare) takes a new sense ; not only a horse, but a stubborn boy is said to snoffe; Foxe was fond of this latter sense, expressing anger. The old want (carere) now means egere, and perhaps desiderare ; I wante a gowne Englishes fay mestier de, etc., p. 400 ; a few years later the sense of desiderare is clear enough. The old warp becomes intransitive; bordes warpe, p. 401. The verb worship, as is said expressly, is used of honour paid both to God and to man. Palsgrave translates pour tout potaige by whan all is doone and sayd ; this he calls a phrasys, p. 427; we transpose his two participles. The old go is still used for ambulare ; I can neyther go nor stande, p. 469 ; we still say of a horse, something in this sense, " he can go well." The old verb Imck has a new variation, liucke, p. 265, (mangle, wrangle) ; hence came our haggle. There is a new 460 THE NEW EA 7 GLISH. [CHAP. phrase, formed from former nouns, fie hummeth and Jiaeth, p. 265. The Northern hjtlynge appears, used for our kitten ; it also gives birth to the verb kyttell (kitten), p. 273. The verb pat gives birth to paddyll (in mire). The verb ryfte is formed from the noun ; boards ryfte (gape asunder). Two other verbs are due to whine, p. 407 ; a child whympers, a horse whynyes. The phrase it came to the joynyny Englishes ce vint a, etc., p. 267 ; many French phrases were translated literally into our tongue. We find kepe house, and also kepe open house ; this last, it seems, was used only of a Prince, p. 272. We see an is struck out in the proverb better ply e than breake, p. 319; here, in French, il vault begins the sentence. We see also the Imperative, lest do, best luiv< . p. 439. Palsgrave says that English has no way of expressing the verbes inchoatyves of the Latin except by putting wax or begin before adjectives; he gives some pages of these; see p. 402 ; I could wish that we had more verbs, such as redden and sicken. Both the Participles, waxen and waxed, are given, p. 404. Coverdale's confusion of the Participle and Verbal Noun appears here ; be doyng of something stands in p. 425. The French par estudicr is Englished thus, by study eng, p. 439. Among the Adverbs are darkelyng, runne a heed (ahead), slopewise, wheraboutes? no where at al, a syde wyse (a cos- tiere), halfe waye (en my chemyn), selfwylledly, shortly (in the sense of mox), ever syns, for ever and a da ye (a grant jamays), agayne and agayne (encore et derechief), no where els, nay truely, whether I wyll or nat. We see sfn/td a strydlyng (with legs abroad), hence a new verb was to be coined later. We also see the adverb sydelyng (de couste), which gave birth to the verb sidle long afterwards ; grovel is another instance of a verb mistakenly formed from an adverb. There is the Shakesperian anon, anon (tout mayntenant). An unusual adverbial form appears in fully fedde. In p. 441 stands happely luckcbj (par bon eur) ; in Arber's 'English Garner,' iv. 641, Cromwell's redcoats ask if they are to fall on in order, or happy-go-lucky. In p. 445 stands so so, to English tellement quellement, je me porte. There was an odd fashion, very common later in in.] THE NE W ENGLISH. 46 1 the Century, of repeating too (nimis); in p. 452 stands to to moche (par trop). In p. 461 we see it is so, which is here called a very strong affirmative ; hence the favourite American that's so. The come away ! is translated by viens avant, viste f this might also be Englished by come at ones ! p. 461 ; it is our later come, along ! Palsgrave remarks on the legal use of whereas, p. 472. The but is developed ; / wyll folowe tyll to morow but Iwyllfynde her, p. 239, it shall go harde but, etc., p. 236, but now (a prime), p. 423. Palsgrave says that is my lorde uppe? is a peculiar English phrase, p. 417. He has as well as well may be, remarking that the French do not repeat the well a second time, p. 438 ; there is also as sone as maye be, p. 420. ~His far from makyng an ende is a translation of bien loyng de, p. 457. Tyndale here had inserted an off after the far. Among the Prepositions we see hande to hande, under a locke and keye, over heed and eares, at unwares, at tymes, bytwene whyles, up the hyll and downe the dale (arnont et aval), p. 436, cheke by cheke (joe a joe), in play. The out, as of old, is prefixed to nouns, as an out place, explained as "a corner out of the waye." In p. 230 men do a thing upon a full stomacke ; here the idea expressed by the Latin post seems to encroach on the idea connected with super. 1 There is a new phrase in p. 2 31, fall behynde }>e hande (in debt) ; a few years later ]>e was dropped. Our favourite betting phrase appears in p. 357, twenty to one he is ondone ; see p. 358 of my book Palsgrave says that to and unto are used indifferently, but the latter is Northern, p. 436. The old idiom with of, first seen in Layamon, is extended ; it is a fayre syght of a woman when she is well tyred (dressed), p. 391. The of is dropped in is the money weyght? p. 400, (de poyx). The old now a dayes is expanded into nowe at tliese dayes, p. 401 ; a great mistake. We do a thing against the grain ; Palsgrave did it agaynst ]>e heare (hair), which he explains by frowardly ; the phrase lasted till Shakespere's time. The old at ones had meant simul ; in p. 461 it means statim. 1 Sydney Smith was told to walk upon a full stomach ; he at once asked, " iqxm whose ? " 462 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. Among the Interjections are houische ! mom ! ye, suerly ! God blesse you! God be thanked! If a man sneezed, his neighbours cried, Christ helpe ! the French synonym for this was much longer, p. 460. Palsgrave compares par la mort bieu / (morbleu) to the English by cockes body ! in either case the name of the Deity was disguised, p. 460. He gives many French curses without English equivalents, p. 461. Among the words akin to the German and Dutch are lynke (torch), waynscot, rabbit, to gulp, drone (sonare), leer, to quiver, snarre (snarl), lymp (boiteux). A yonker is the French ung rustre (an uncouth rustic), p. 322. There is the verb dandyll, the daunt of 1303, used by Robert of Brunne. The Scandinavian words are fillip, flag (vexillum), smutch, stale (urina), dug, cuffe (ferire), tip, as a cart tips over, symper (our simmer), rowse himself ; that is, stretch himself before action. There is "fall in a dumpe," p. 222, which as yet means only to muse. There is hugge (shrink in bed for cold). The sivagge of 1303 is here used of a fat man's belly ; hence the swag-bellied Hollander, and also the later swagger. To look aswhasshe (lorgner) is a token of pride, p. 284; hence comes the later swashbuckler. There is jump; that is, leap with both feet held together, p. 269. The Celtic words are cub and agog. Among the Romance words are dandelyon, cabestain (capstan), cordiall medicyne, coveryng /or a book, flagon, gaber- dyne, gauger of wyne, grayne to dye with, heed pece, leaver (the engine), meson sayle (mizen, in French mysayne), pacquet, pensy floure, pyppen, plomet, porkepyn, rascall refuse beest, redysshe (an herb), rollar or rammer of husbandrie, rounde daunce, sorrel (of a horse), spynnage, surge of sea, toyll (used in hunting), costive, imprennable, massy, perspectyfe (beholding with the eye), scrupulouse, to calke (a ship), to cyfer, consommate (make a full end of), dis-apoynte, disunite, blottyng paper, bastylment (battlement), to engrosse writing, entune an organ, to equate, to extorcyon a thing, face him downe, farce, fry she (une f risque), tryfle with my hands, force him to, etc., afrycasse, gestyll (jostle), payster (pester), grapple, to in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 463 ayr clothes, to brush clothes, launsyng yron, levell a gonne, muffle, to panell a quest, to pece a thing, to pomell, potche eggs, to prompte (a schoolboy), to prostytute, retreve (as a hound), to rule paper with a ruler, letter of marke, to somme an account, to sorte things, mayster of ship (pilote in French), pair of virgynals (espinettes), ventylate matters abroad, unmarry, whoop (je huppe), modes, tenses, in partyculer, poorely (male), sommaryly. Palsgrave uses bachelar for nat maryed, and syngle man for the French bachelier. He has the old bace playe for jeu aux barres, our prisoner's base. Like Tyndale, he uses cattell in the Northern sense of betail. The word fasyon expresses the French mode, and also tattle and facon. We see grauntfather's father stand for aieul, and grantfather grantsyre for grant aieul or atave ; a little lower comes great grauntfather. There is man nourse, something like the later man midwife. The word portlynesse expresses the French magnificence. The French cordon translates Seynt Audries lace; whence came tawdry in later times. The syse of a man's body is rendered by the French corpulence. Their piratte might be Englished by a venturer on the see; this last phrase a little later was to stand for a merchant. The word precyse, taken from France, here means scrupulously cyrcumspecte ; men may be utterly precyse in speaking, p. 466. The word rampysshe (ramponneux) may be applied to a beast or a wench ; it is in our time rampageous. Pals- grave says that nothing in French or English can go beyond millions. The noun courrant appears as an English word, and is used in connexion with a gutter, p. 156. The verb bray is still used of deer, or any other beast. The verb cable (very unlike our use of it) means " store a ship with cables." There is the oath, God confounde me ! Roy had used the verb conjecture ; Palsgrave has, / conjected as moche. We find cry haroll alarome, in French, harol alarms. We see deduce used in connexion with argument, deducte in connexion with arithmetic ; the Infinitive and Participle of the Latin verb contribute each one form of the word. The verb meurs is Englished by parte my lyfe ; our present form depart this life was to come a few years later. There is deprive a man ; here of his office is dropped. We see desyre 464 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. to dinner ; this verb, like lid, meant both jubere and precari. The old verb spillan is now found in the form of dispoil (our spoil) ; this Englishes the French gaster ; the other and rightful sense of the English word desrober is given afterwards. The form differ is written where we put defer. The word solen (sullen) has no worse meaning here than pencif. We have first provisyon of meate (vivres) ; then pi'ovision of any other thyng (pourvoyance). We see / am out of temper, referring to body, not mind ; afterwards, / temper my selfe, referring to abstinence from anger, p. 387 ; to distemper refers to the body, meaning bring out of frame. The word passyon stands for ira, p. 388. A horse covers a mare ; and a man is uncovered when he doffs his hat, p. 398. The fadresse is Englished by dyrect a letter to. The word pece, as also in French, expresses cannon, p. 308. There are the two words nicenesse and nicete"; nycely will express both coyement and coyntement, p. 443. The English coy is as much as strange or nyse (fastidious). The word lussyous may be applied to meat ; it here implies an unpleasant sweetness. The word patron may mean either a helper or an example. The word glosse will noAv express colour ; the glosse of satyn, *p. 211; in French, lustre. The curious French synonym ung gallant is given for our marchaunt, p. 200. Two French verbs are given for the English dont<> : douter and craindre. The verb endyte bears three meanings in p. 225 ; endyte of trespasse ; also, to penne something, and to compose. Our esteme here means nothing more than to appraise, p. 229. The verb expleyt (explicitare) bears the true old French sense of achieve ; in our day, when we ex- ploit a thing, we achieve profit from it ; Palsgrave's exployt bears a new sense, to be found in Comines ; to work so hard, p. 230. The French payssant is Englished by one of the countraye, p. 265 ; hence our countryman (rusti- cus). We had long known trifles ; we now see a tryflyng mater, p. 281. The phrase strayne courteysie implies here an exaggeration of politeness, as one doth that is nyce. Pals- grave remarks that there is no French idiom answering to our take peper in }>e nose, whence comes peppery. We hear of a mynsynge pace, p. 437 (le pas menu) ; here the verb in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 465 mince, gets a new sense. Two substantives are coupled in a dutie dette. The word usher (ostiarius) gets a new sense, that of the hussher of a school ; Palsgrave perhaps derived it from hush. There are the two forms of one verb, distylle and stylle. The de is clipped, when defens toy is Englished by fende thy selfe, p. 234; we now insert a for after the verb. The origin of our pikestaff is very plain, when we read of a staffe well pyTced with yron, p. 316. We have heard of the game of faro ; in p. 233 stands I fare (play at dice, at a game so named). The word dandyprat, so common in this Century, is French, meaning a coin, p. 198. A tryumph in p. 237 is said to be something like a tournament. The word manner gets its Shakesperian sense, "to the manner born," J fynde one with the maner (trouver sur le faict), p. 236 ; also, take him with the maner (sur le faict), like a thief, p. 385. The French en is much used at the beginning of words ; there are both enspyre and inspyre. We know a woman's front ; je effronte is given in p. 243 for tofronte up, as a woman does her hair ; effrontery was as yet uncoined ; in the next page a woman's bonnet is mentioned. The verb geste (jocari) appears in p. 245 ; it also bears the meaning of rayle upon, our later rally ; here rail loses its old harsh sense. The ending fy for verbs was coming in ; but Pals- grave remarks that the verb rubyfye had not been admitted into common speech ; the verb surmount, according to him, is a late comer ; Lydgate's verbfahe is by this time obsolete. There is the curious / saynte (I become a saint), leading to Pope's "sinner it or saint it." Either a man or a horse may trotte aboute, p. 394. There is a new sense of the verb use ; " use bad words to a man," p. 400. We see retayle contrasted with what men sell hole, p. 440. There is the new phrase hate me like poyson, p. 259 ; also, stand upon his promocyon (sur le point de), p. 263; hence the later on sale, on the mend. The old gilofre becomes gylowfloure, p. 364, from a false analogy. A seal may be called an antique, p. 323, following the French. We hear of the nolylyte (nobles) of the realm. The crowche in Crowchemesse day preserves the old sound of the vowel in cruc-em, p. 425. The French a Jiaulte voyz is Englished by in a Pylates voyce, p. 442, VOL. I. 2 H 466 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. showing the popularity of the old Mysteries. The French ma mayson becomes my poor e house, p. 420. The old quyte (omnino) was coming in again, p. 378. There is the new phrase in the very myddes of, p. 431 ; also, at the very begin- ning (au fin commencement) ; also, very fewe. This very comes often, just sometimes; in p. 461 juste is set down as an affirmative. The French Singular par ce moyen is Englished by by this meanes, p. 440 ; and en nulle maniere thus, by -no maner of meanes, p. 439. From the Italian comes monkey (monicchio, monna). There is the cork (of a bottle) from the Spanish. Palsgrave, in the beginning of his book, mourns that the Latin tongue is so ill pronounced in England, and thinks that this comes from Latin and French being taught jointly. He himself has advoultry, the curious compound of the two languages, p. 218. He distinguishes the Picard and "Walloon from the French of Paris. In p. 160 he con- trasts certain olde Romant words, out of use in his day, with the modern French. He tells us that Lydgate's obsolete words are mostly French, p. 242. When treating of the noun standard he mentions St. Cuthbert's banner as in England most nearly answering to the Oriflamme. He gives us the proverb, two wyttes be farre better than one, p. 269 ; also, thou lokest after deed mens shoes, p. 307 ; a day afore ]>e fayre is given as an adage applicable to one that cometh too late, p. 419 ; Hey wood slightly changed this a few years later. Mr. Furnivall has printed 'Jyl of Brentford's Testament,' dating from about 1530. There is the name Jyllian ; score here means the reckoning, p. 1 4 ; the word toyes suggests the idea of amusement in p. 9 ; the word qualm, p. 15, losing its old serious meaning of mors, stands for no more than a pain or stitch. We see whypstoke, a word of abuse, whence came Shakespere's whipster. In p. 19 stands a hedge Cured. In this Century, and indeed till 1710, woodcok was much used for stultus ; we see as wyse as a icoodcok, with as moche wit as a calf. There is a curious ellipse in p. 14, a mayde that marryeth, not caryng whom. The verb su-yll takes a new meaning, that of bibere, p. 7. In p. 14 stands in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 467 make a stay. There is the Scandinavian jomp, p. 1 4 (exactly), which has influenced Shakespere. Among the Eomance words are strangury, dyaculum ; we hear of the passyng bel, p. 13. There is presuppose and the common yf ye please, p. 15. In p. 9 stands the saw, the poore mare shall have his man agayn ; this is transposed in Shakespere ; I have met with the later version of this in Scotch letters about 1780. The poem of ' Christis Kirk on the Green ' (printed by Dr. Rogers among the works of James I.) seems to me not to date from before 1530 ; there is here the word younker, which did not come in long before that year, and loun is not much earlier. There are Jok and Lowry ; a man dancing is called Lightfute. The old Northern nais (pudi- bundus) of 1320 reappears as nyss, applied to girls. There is the phrase to nov:t powis (knock heads), used later by Davie Deans. We see the Scandinavian word byre, answer- ing to the Old English bur or bower ; it is noticed by the Yorkshireman Levins forty years later. In apiece of 1533, referred to in Collier's 'Dramatic Poetry,' 1879, vol. ii., we find in p. 300 the phrase her dieng day. There are some plays of Heywood (Percy Society, vol. xx.) which belong to 1533. In p. xliii. Ave see the form ie used for aye (semper) ; this was to be cut down to i later in the Century. There is squib, derived from the Icelandic svipa, to flash or dart ; wittiness, a nody (stultus), a jar (rixa), which here means a difference between two words, p. 17. A person is missing, p. xxi., which must stand for in missing, like in mving. The verb glance at gets the new meaning of hinting or touching upon, p. 12. There is make an appointment. We have seen Barbour's on Ipaim ! we now have at him! p. 49. In p. xlv. stands /or his life (he) daryth not, etc. ; this is as absurd a change as to write he cans for potest. There are the Romance close weathei; overjoyed, an incident, undoictydly, paymaster. A man may be carried away by his will. There is our common of corse, p. 28, I think, for the first time. P. 1 7 is a most curious page, which ought to be bracketed with Barrow's famous definition of wit. I give some of the lines of the dialogue 468 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. " Why, what dyfferens between wyse and wytty 1 As much sometyme as between wysdom and folly. Men can in no wise be wise without wytt. No ! and men may have gret wytt and wisdom nought, Wytt is the wurker of all perseyvyng, And indifferent to good or yll wurking. Wysdom ys in good part taken alweys." The man who broaches this evidently new distinction is called some young schoolman and fresh comonar ; the theory is called a, jar. The Avhole passage is most curious, show- ing that wit is no longer, as of old, to stand for sapient ia and nothing else. In 1532 glimpses of the future English horse-race begin to appear. As we learn from Mr. Hore's ' History of Newmarket,' i. 61, the King's horses are run in that year; the boys that run them have caps made by the mylanner, a man most unlike the modern milliner. In 1540 a prize is given by the authorities at Chester to the man who runs best on horseback ; see p. 65, where the rules of the course are set out. Sir Thomas Elyot brought out his book, called ' The Governour,' in 1531 ; I have used the reprint by Eliot in 1834. The r is added; Hampole's verb low now becomes lower, p. 24. Among the Substantives we see a long summer's day, p. 23, forwardness (activity), the head of a discourse. Elyot speaks in p. 42 of sharpness of wit, called in Latin acumen. The word wit expresses sapiens, not mens, pp. 59 and 162 ; the man, not the thing ; a great change. The word understanding undergoes a change, for it is used of the intention common to two parties in a bargain, p. 181. The term good fellowship was applied to soften the harsher term gluttony, p. 87. The word Gospel is used for verus ; we hear in p. 266 that ^Esop did not write Gospels. The word play is used of the method used by a gamester, p. 86 ; a man's play is suspected. The old handgun becomes simply gun in p. 93, as if it was a cannon. Elyot describes the football of his day as nothing but beastly fury and extreme in.] THE NEW ENGLISH, 469 violence, p. 92 ; this complaint is repeated fifty years later. Among the Adjectives is doggish. The word tall takes the new sense of procerus, p. 220. The pronoun is used in a new construction, Avhere a Participle seems to be dropped, "Moses aided the multitude, and they most unstable," p. 137. There is the phrase / nothing doubt, showing the connexion between noht (nihil) and not, p. 245. Among the Verbs are to game, unteach, rouse game, keep time (in dancing), something to wcrrk on, p. 77, man a ship, it is to be wished, throw a rider, moulder, grind colours, raise the siege. The verb fling, still intransitive, is used of horses, p. 9. The verb sprengen was doubtless confused with springen ; for to spring birds stands in p. 56. The verb mote, our moot, becomes transitive, to mote a case, p. 36. Gower had talked of things wearing out ; in p. 43 members of the body wear more hard. With us dogs yap ; in p. 55 they yawn, meaning the same. The old gelyfan (permittere) now becomes confused with Ice/an (relinquere) ; leave them no time stands in p. 77. The verb forbear is followed by an Infinitive, forbear to speak, p. 83. The old Adverbial wunder, as in wunder strong, is now replaced; wonderful elegantly stands in p. 224. The by is dropped after a Comparative, he was not the richer one halpenny, p. 231, like the old a hundredfold more. Among the Romance words are inferiors, declamation, elocution, retain a lawyer, pleadings, exordium, civilian (lawyer), grumble, battle axe, to vaunt (vault), qualify, reduce, intensely, roundes (dances), altercation, unities, with effect, maniac, mania, adult, adolescence, countermand, good people (men), definition, frugality, insignia, in a rage, tract of time (mora), timorosity, valiance (valiantness), scale walls, goal, consolidate, intimation, enterlace, vegetative, exquisite (of torments), sophisms, obstinacy, to forage. We have rejected Elyot's verbs erogate and radi- cate. He adverts to a strange sense of the word commoner in p. 2 ; this is applied to burghers who are neither alder- men nor sheriffs. There are two different senses of engine in pp. 25 and 179, machine and subtilty ; it was confused with gin. The word property gets a further meaning, that of our propriety, p. 41 ; we are happy here in having both 470 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. the Latin form and its French corruption to express two distinct ideas. The old tutor (guardian) now gets the usual sense of the word in our day, a director of study, p. 44. In p. 80 affection stands for partiality; while in p. 136, what we call the affections of the mind, appear as the affectes ; but in p. 222 obstinacy is called an affection. The verb commit gets a new technical sense, a judge commits to prison, p. 124. In p. 137 the Adjective individual is opposed to public, much as personal was to be used seventy years later. In p. 147 we hear that with bounteousness (liberality) bounty is diminished ; the latter noun seems here to be at last connected with almsgiving. In p. 264 the four Gospels are one context of an history ; the word is not yet used in our sense, the circumstance of old. A man of honour in p. 269 means only a man held in honour for his rank or riches. There is the phrase to despatch matt/ />. The word rythm appears in p. 41, connected with metre and harmony ; this was later to encroach on the Teutonic rime. There are many definitions in Elyot ; profit is our weal, p. 2 ; a thema is the head of a declamation, p. 36. He usurps the word maturity, p. 73, to express the mean be- tween sluggishness and haste. He says that providence, p. 76, is so noble a thing that it is attributed to God as well as to Kings ; industry had not been used in English so long as providence, and the former in 1531 meant "speedy in- vention," p. 76. The word modesty (moderation) had not been known in English until very lately, p. 83 ; discretion was the name improperly given to this virtue. A mild man was wrongly said to be "of a great modesty;" man- suetude, according to Elyot, would here have been the right term to use, p. 84 ; wise men are exhorted to receive the new word. The quality humanity, p. 133 (it now means something higher than courtesy), is said to be made up of benevolence, beneficence, and liberality. The second of these qualities can be taken only in a good sense; the third may mean sheer prodigality. The vice in was commonly called unkindness, p. 156. In p. 185 the word faith is applied to our confidence in God ; trust to our in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 471 confidence in our fellow-men, and this becomes credence in contracts ; a servant or subject shows fidelity, or the new revived French term loyalty to his sovereign or master ; I may here remark that sovereign is now no longer applied to the master of a servant ; and the term loyal, as used by Barclay (the old lei is no longer found in the South), seems to have been a new importation from France. Elyot speaks of repulse in p. 216, which the vulgar call "putting back from promotion." The word magnanimity had just been brought in, p. 218; but some opponents of change, we hear, were content with nothing out of their accustomed mumpsimus. The names of sobriety and frugality were strange to all but Latin scholars, p. 245 ; sobrett had certainly been used in Kent all but 200 years earlier. In p. 252 sapience is called a more elegant word than wisdom. In p. 258 intelligence, we are told, is used for an elegant word, especially in messages between princes ; Elyot is not satisfied with understanding when he wishes to express intelledus. The Latin calumnia was Englished by detraction, p. 271. In p. 274 a broad line is drawn between counsel and consultation. Elyot uses the new French verb fatigue as well as Barclay's Latin fatigate. There is a curious survival of an old French adverbial phrase in par amours, p. 249 ; it had long been known in England. Nowhere more clearly than in Elyot's work is seen the vast influence that Latin and Greek were to have upon English ; Henry VIII. (Preface, xxiv.) admired the book, and rejoiced in this augmentation of our language ; the best thoughts of Aristotle were now brought within the reach of all. Elyot, in p. 84, declares that England had hitherto lagged behind France, Italy, and Germany, in the matter of trans- lations from Greek and Latin. He says, in p. 73, that some words, lately come out of Italy and France, had been made denizens in England. He tells us, in p. 55, that the hunting of the fox with running hound is not to be compared with other sports, being much inferior ; it is used in deep winter, when other game is unseasonable. There was an alarming waste of poultry, which were used up in feeding hawks, p. 56. He 472 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. gives the saying, " he that sweareth deep, sweareth like a lord," p. 87 ; the phrase long afterwards was " drunk as a lord." The oath by the Mass had become so simple a thing that the nobles had abandoned it to the common folk, p. 196. Elyot (Preface, x.) was the author of a work called 'the ly'ttle Pasquill ;' the first instance, I think, of the Roman Pasquino appearing in England. George Joy brought out an Apology to Tyndale in 1535 (Arber's Reprint), the apology being a sharp invec- tive. Here we see magry (maugre), to cyte (quote) ; it is the old ascite; the forms pistle (epistola) and soulis (animae) are still in constant use. The foreign Deutsch is written Dewche, showing the old German sound of the word. There is vysard, p. 44, with a new letter at the end. Among the Substantives are fore leader, p. 1 8 ; we see why the fore horse is called a leader. The classics appear as the tongues, p. 11 ; here the old tung imitates a French form. The noun enseer is coined (one who sees into), p. 20. We hear of swimming with a corke, p. 23. The adjective sleyght (parvus) has now made its way to London from the North. There is the phrase / said so (as) muche (all this), p. viii. Among the Verbs videtur appears in a new guise ; he wolde seme to flitte, p. 47 ; this differs from the it sholde seme that of 1400. There are the phrases put his name thereto, cal it agein into his hande (withdraw it from circula- tion), sette a boke (in print, p. 20), wink at it, steke to it (hserere). There is the curt Passive Participle admitted that, etc., yet, p. 14. We see the new verb, to englisshe a word, p. 9. The Dutch coin stuver appears in p. 22. Among the Romance words are cavillacion, derive, absurdities, yroni (it is most unusual) replaces d; for we find thumper from the old dump, just as faith replaced the French feid. There are the new substantives a wanton, a loser. Thersites says that he is sick of his mother, a new phrase. There is th-ey give me tJie wall, p. 401, the battle shall be pight, p. 404, the first hint of a pitched battle. In p. 423 stands it is too too, tlie pastime; a phrase revived in our day. We have the new VOL. I. 2 I 482 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. Adverb amain, and the Interjection ho, ho ! the howe, howe, of 1400. There is sillabub, from the Scandinavian swell bouk (swell-belly). Among the Romance phrases are bevy of maidens, a word no longer applied to animals ; this is a sure card, this piece of work, p. 363 ; the word slave is revived in England, after a long sleep. In 1538 Bale wrote a tragedy, in seven acts, called 'God's Promises;' it may be found in Marriott's 'Miracle Plays,' p. 223. There are the old forms up so downe and trone, not throne, p. 246. We see stycke unto a thing. There are icynde pypes and humayne, our human, p. 245. In Collier's ' Dramatic Poetry,' vol. ii., there is a piece written about 1540; here we see kokscome, which was worn by a fool, p. 258 ; there is the verb twydle, which seems to be connected with twirl. In the ' Letters on the Suppression of the Monasteries ' (Camden Society) are many that range between 1537 and 1540. There is the old form Glowsetur, p. 196, and our new Gloscetur, p. 193. Another town appears as Leycettour. An Abbess contracts halfpenny worth into halporthe, p. 231. A famous Herefordshire house appears as both Skidmore and Scudamore. Among the Substantives is hege row; the word mynch (monacha) is still used in the South, p. 228, as in Layamon's time. The new phrase, the halff blodd, appears in p. 286. The words day and law seem to have been used without distinction about this time ; a man is given three years' day to do something, p. 277. The word pretty is used ironically in p. 198; some monkish crimes are called praty besynes. Chancellor Audley talks of good and goodly air. There are the new phrases find the menys to, etc., p. 205, mak his hand (make a purse for him- self), p. 234. A man draws up a calculation so ner as / can knowe, p. 210; hence was to come "a near guess." The Romance words are implementes (furniture), transpose (translate a see), renterowle, trynket, burglary, saynthj, incongrue (unfit), the rates, inveigle, Jiaut treason. The old gilofre ap- pears as gelofer flower, p. 172. The phrase the relygyon is employed for monk's profession, almost for the last time, in p. 197. The word improve is used in our sense, p. 257. in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 483 The phrase streyn himself is applied to Edward VI. not long after his birth, p. 246. The word comyt (committee) appears in p. 239. In Tunstall's famous sermon on the Supremacy in 1539, the preacher shows his Northern origin by the form chylder (pueri). We see the new form ye, ye, not yea, yea ; this paved the way for the spread of the form aye (yes) ; * there is also race (cursus), altered from the old rats; this word here used in its modern sense seems due to the North. There are the forms the most liardest of all, from one place to another moche lyke (the first place). We see the new phrase liave nought to saye for hym selfe. The old English Negative, rejected by Tyndale, is continued ; no miserie never was, nor none can be. Men swear at everye worde, a new use of the at. The French words are problem, superioritie, compounder of strife. Tunstall divides the Ten Commandments in the Protestant, not in the Roman fashion, which is curious. Tyndale's repent ^ you is also preferred to the old do pen- ance. The well-known future Cardinal appears as Raynolde Pole. Nicholas Udall in 1542 translated the 'Apophthegms of Erasmus ; ' I have used the reprint by Mr. Roberts in 1877. Our author abounds in Northern phrases and forms; many of his new words appear afterwards in Foxe. He is fond of ea, as feacte arid to tread ; the old pietee (pity) is still retained. The e is suppressed, as battree, battring. The oy replaces o, as joyly (hilaris), p. 153 ; this must have been an attempt at deriving jolly from joy. The French is imitated when ue is needlessly added to a word, as doggue, pangue ; of this our tongue is a survival; there is also publique ; eguall (equal) is a compromise between Latin and French. The t becomes th, as aucthour for auctor. The h is inserted, from a false analogy, in livelehood (opes), p. 358 ; we saw livdyhed in 1470 standing for the old liflode. The b is struck out ; Skelton's gambon becomes gammounde, p. 100. The r is struck out ; the old torple becomes topple, p. 165 ; the r is added, as windor (fenestra), p. 134. The n 1 In Northara Church, near Biddeford, I read an inscription of 1593 on one of the pillars ; this has yele for aisle. 484 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. is struck out ; napron makes way for aperen string, p. 118. The I is added ; huk bone becomes hucclebone, p. 185. Among the new Substantives are livelinesse, mongrel, cates, haver (possessor), blockehed, slepiness, sugar lofe, handy gripes (handgrips, p. 209), day time, ynkehorne termes (fine language), a hanging matter, fore fynger, beggerliness, hob- goblin, harier, buckhound, brewage, Suycerlande, p. 307. There are phrases like a foul shame, not a rag to hang about him, be at thine elbow, man of fetve wordes, the botome of his harte, a peck of troubles. The word mtte in p. xxiii. stands for something that provokes laughter; Hey wood had already shown the new meaning taken by the term. The word toy had already meant a trifle or a folly ; it now stands for a play on words, p. 115; and in p. xxiv. it expresses joke. The word weight is used morally as well as physically ; a good speaker gives weiglite to his sayings, p. xix. The word sleight, lowered in meaning, is used of a juggler's tricks, p. 31 ; we are not far from sleight of Juind. The word way stands for knack or trick; in p. 185 a man has the waie to take profit of his enemies ; in p. 225 grooms have not the waies to handle a horse. The best of the dice, in casting, was called the cock, p. 186 ; hence "cock of the school." Dunbar's odds are much developed here; too far odds (too great inequality) is a favourite phrase ; oddes is used as a synonym for difference in p. 282, as in our " what's the odds 1 " The word shift implies " power of usefulness " in p. 119; a woman is of small shift, whence came the later shiftless. The word Jiome is used in a new sense ; " pay Iwme a debt," p. 120, "pay a man home a jest," p. 245; hence the later strike home. The word match means simply a comparison that may be made, p. 252 ; in p. 370 a match means " a brace of equals." The verb reach gives birth to a substantive bearing the same meaning ; we see above our reach, p. 11. We have seen at the next doore by in 1500; we now have, in p. 41, be nexte doore by a thing, or nexte cousin to a thing ; we now say, " next door to." There are new diminutives ; Udall has not only hillock, but rottocke, a little rod, p. 174 ; the Northern bittock is well known. The Greek paidion is Englished by another in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 485 diminutive, sonnekin, p. 233. Scott makes the English clowns threaten Madge Wildfire with a whisterpoop ; here in p. 1 1 2 we light upon ivhistersnefet (ictus). The word good- man had become so common that it was used in addressing a person, like master or Sir ; as goodman cock ! p. 124. We see cockescomb used for a fool, p. 118. There is Collepixie (fairy), p. 125 ; the last half of the word is still used in Devonshire. The noun renneway appears in p. 135, formed probably on the model of runagate. Udall is fond of phrases like a dog's life, dog weary (dog tired), dog hole. He uses girl for meretrix in p. 154 ; the word made its way very slowly in the South. We talk of a fool's cap ; Udall of a,fooles hood, p. 250. There is an imitation of sound in play toodle loodle, referring to a bagpipe, p. 250. The sub- stantive goodlinesse (very different from goodness) is now formed from the adjective, p. 254. The ship is often added to nouns to express an office, as constableship, consulship. Csesar, when staking all, resolves to be man or mouse (make or mar), p. 298. The old merle, still used in poetry, makes way for blackbyrd, p. 318. Verres is said to play swepestake, p. 359 (swept off all) ; we apply the word to a thing, not to a man. Rocks may be of a steep down fall, p. 1 5 1 ; the word was to take our sense a few years later. The word Germans begins to supplant Almains or Dutchmen. Among the Adjectives are fertJiermost, p. 127, squinteyed, bokish, far seeing, snappish. The word dry is applied to witty jokes, p. x. ; a man rained on has never a drie thred about him, p. 111. The sely continues to express stultus; it is applied to a man of no wit, a sheep's head, p. 122 ; what we call "a poor creature" is in p. 126 a sely creature. The shrewd now takes a new sense ; it was a shrewd likelihood, p. 168; hence our shrewd guess; here the adjective rises from malus to acutus, something higher, an unusual process in English. The sound is connected with sleep, slepe soundely, p. 234. Orrmin's chary (msestus) now takes the sense of parcus, p. 248, as we still use it. The word fine now means clever, pp. 326 and 371. The affix some is used in compound- ing, as troublesome ; also the ish, as brutish ; also the like, as fellowlike, giantlike. We see flat as a cake, p. 250; we sub- 486 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. stitute pancake. There are the phrases come home as wise as he went, p. 20, be a decide man, p. 43, as much as his life is woorthe, p. 87, in open court. There is a curious instance of the substantive being dropped after the adjective in give as good as he brought, p. 139, give hym as good againe, p. 19. The word cheap is rapidly becoming an adjective, it is cheape inough, p. 1 9. The old on lif (alive) now gives birth to a new adjective, a live dog, p. 286. The snattid of 1440 now gives birth to snatnosed, p. 250 ; Mr. Snatt was one of the divines who, in the next Century, absolved Fenwick on the scaffold. As to the Pronouns, the Dative me is used most freely here, as also in Ascham ; he chopped me it in sonder, p. 258, he flounced (ruit) me into the flood, p. 207 ; here the me refers to the narrator. Udall is fond of using his to express the Genitive, as Plato his pillows, p. 82. The a is used for an (one), as drink all at a draught, p. 33. The one (aliquis) is freely used ; make one have an appetite, p. 131 ; the Genitive of this appears, come to ones handes, p. 223. There is a new phrase for nescio quid in p. 151 ; some great thing, whatsoever it was. There is the pleonasm, the verie self same, p. 38. The all is added to round off a sentence, the best of them all, p. 29. There is the phrase I have Jutlf a guess (I rather think), p. 123. We see a new synonym for multum, better by a great waie, p. 149. There is the new phrase be myne owne maister, p. 322 ; this had been earlier man, not master. The Numeral is used much like a noun, a sixe at dice, p. 186 ; we talk now of flvers and temn r.<, making the Numeral an unmistakable noun. Among the Verbs are to gossip, to twang, flag, streighfen, ear up (plough up), unfleshed. There are the phrases keep foote with (keep up with), p. 8, much good do it him ! stand (consist) with reason, set spurs to, swing in a halter, take his heels, take him to his Jicels, picked men, make his dinner, ring in his ears, like a drouned rat, flght the fleld (battle), put him to a galop, stand for office, beat it into him, make the most of, make tJie best of, hope the best, call a council, take a walk, have a fling at him, stricken in love. The verb be, as we saw before, had acquired the sense of go ; it is in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 487 followed by the Infinitive, lie Imd been to see it, p. 151. There is a change in drown in p. 65 ; ^Egina drowned the beauty of Athens ; Udall notes this as a peculiar English phrase ; we now say that one colour kills another. The verb bait (lacessere) had been applied to animals ; it is now used of men, p. 120, reviled by their enemies. The word cut now means ire as well as secure ; ships cut between Scylla and Charybdis, p. 133; the verb, used in this sense (cut along] is still reckoned slang after 340 years, though we may write a short cut. The verb make gets the sense of vadere ; lie made upon them, p. 295; Patten uses this a few years later. The verb take is used much in the same way; take after the Prince, p. 296, se gerere. The verb wed is not confined to marriage ; wedded to his faction, p. 311. A man is done with age, p. 364 ; this reminds us of Virgil's made confecta. The Past Participle wont (solitus) had long been known ; we now see wonted, which is used as an adjective, p. 33. We cry, go it, to boys when fight- ing; Udall uses go to on a similar occasion, p. 27. A man is made blank (discomfited), p. 67 ; we say, look blank. Udall has in p. 87 "whoso hath stepped forth and sette in foote to take," etc. ; hence comes our rather different set on foot a plan ; the sette in in the first sentence seems to mean, proferre. A man setles him selfe to dwell, p. 130; hence our settler. The old adjective rakel (promptus), from a mistaken analogy, gives birth to the phrase to rake hell, p. 130. There is the Shakesperian go hang thyself, p. 145. In p. 1 9 2 a person stands to be sold ; hence our stand to win. A man is worthy thirty kings set together, p. 269 ; we now substitute put for set. The verb trade had become so common within the last few years that we see untraded (unpractised), p. 194. In p. 230 stands she may do much with him; here the verb seems to mean valere (dugan) rather than facere. There is go so far that, etc., p. 259 ; we should substitute as to for that. Caesar, blushing, shows a red pair of cheeks, p. 278; hence show a clean pair of heels. The torture of the brakes seems to be hinted at in the verb enbrake (hamper), p. 286. The people are not hushed but whished, p. 381; the Northern ichist J had 4 88 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. influence here. There is the Participle hungresterved, p. 319 ; in time the hunger was here to be dropped. In p. 336 one orator takes up (interrupts) another; hence in class a clever boy takes up a dull boy. In p. 354 men bear off (ward off) a blow with a buckler ; hence our carry off an awkward situation. There is a new idiom in p. 373, he escaped being delivered into his hands; here a from should be the third word. Udall likes to form Adverbs by adding ly to a Present Participle, as quippingly, nippingly; gentlemanlike and lesurly are also used as Adverbs, though soldiarlike, p. 53, is an Adjective. In p. xxiii. stands ever now and then ; we now make the first word every. There are the new as though, not so moche as (not even), turn the tale in and out (inside out), p. 263. We see a new use of ever in p. 108; a mad rekening as ever I heard. There are new phrases for omnino ; every incJie of him, p. 213; a city is destroyed, bothe sticke and stone, p. 215. Among the Prepositions we see out of all comparison, put him in trust with matters, out of pacience. The through is made the last word; whole nightes through, p. 367. The for had followed an adjective and thus introduced the Infinitive ; it now need not follow an adjective ; for us to be offended appeareth like, etc., p. v. ; formerly this would have been that we shoud be offended, etc. We see ka ka! p. 342, the noise of the crow; and foh, Skelton's fo I is an expression of disgust, in p. 356. We have here the Scandinavian log, flash, skragge (a lean fellow), p. 301, to flounce, to scud. The Dutch minneken gave rise to minx, p. 143, here used of a lady's lapdog. Among the Romance words are to pouther, poinaunt (poignant), a president (precedent), induction (in reasoning), recorders (instruments), storehous, indewment (endowment), pmctike (practical), coungre (conger eel), grand, cross-bars, collision, position (assertion), to border on, tropic, gudgeon, ttrbanitie, stratagem, to license to him, fwceably, the collections of Plutarch, annals, to cloy. There are the phrases in open face of the world, with what face, vein of merryn.es, to ill.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 489 soche pass, use his discretion, piece of plate, good stuff (of a book), out of conceipt with, truss up (string up, hang), mere chance, piece of werke (a great labour), propound riddles, pay doun, for this present (time), natural philosopher, tJie veraiest foole, pro- perly called. Some French phrases appear ; as Moun sire Capitain / sus / pot of wine (bribe), p. 195, graund seigniours (lords) ; gourmanders appears in p. 86, where we now clip the Teutonic ending. The Latin phrases are zona torrida, florent (nourishing), a modicum; vice versa appears as arsie versee, and this phrase may still be heard at Almondsbury in Yorkshire. Udall is fond of Latin forms like feact, traictise, conceipt, and such like. Greek words often appear here in their own character ; this is one of the first fruits of the Keformation ; we, of course, see apophthegm. He carefully defines metropolis as an Archbishop's see, p. 131. He brings in idees (ideas), referring to Plato's well-known theory about them, p. 138. Before this time beauty had taken the sense of decus ; grace now does the same in p. xxl The French poupe'e (baby, doll) is here used of young dogs. The verb train now gets the sense of educare, p. xxvi. The word point is now applied to a joke, p. 151 ; it means a counter in a game at dice, p. 186. The new ad- jective mat is coupled with clean in p. 62 ; in p. 32 it means daintily dressed ; it afterwards ran side by side with nice. The adjective pleasant is here constantly used for sayings that are witty. The word miser, meaning wretch, appears in p. 76 ; twenty years later it was to take its present meaning. The word valour still keeps its old meaning of u-ortli. The word justly means exactly, p. 133 ; in p. 159 the sun liesy^ over a place, a Northern phrase. In p. 133 a Christian body means a human form; it is applied to the monster Scylla ; hence we often call men Christians. The Eoman prcenomen is called Christian name in English, p. 339. The adjective base gets a new shade of meaning in p. 155 ; a bastard is basse born. A full ex- planation is given of cophin, p. 159, as the receptacle of the carcases of noble persons. The word ciiilitee stands for mildness or humanity in p. 185, also for courtesy, p. 254. Danae is set afloat in a trounke of wood, p. 189 ; hence our 490 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. trunk. The word vile is used of a very abject nation, p. 208. The word duty means proper reverential attitude; do her dutie unto Alexander, p. 232. A bombastic orator rolls (exults) in painted terms, p. 243; hence our "roll in wealth," and the later rollick. The word bountie (goodness) is now used as a synonym for generosity in giving, p. 241, f as in Elyot ; there is also bountifulnesse. We see party constantly employed for homo; in p. 325 stands please all parties. Athens is called in p. 246 the only poste to lean to; the old sense of pillar was here soon to make way for that of stronghold. In p. 255 briber still keeps its sense of latro. In p. 269 memory takes the new meaning of "power of recollecting." In the same page we hear of letters diredorie or letters of addresse; that is, they contained both the name of the receiver and the message conveyed ; we now make directory a substantive. Men give their devocion (contribu- tion) towards a religious object in p. 325 ; hence our " devote money to." A lady is called a riche marriage, p. 355 ; we should here substitute good match. In p. 371 affectation of eloquence is used for study of eloquence ; affectation, as we now use it, implies something studied and not natural. The phrase allude to (refer to) is often used ; it had already appeared in More. Tales are made double dedde by evil handling, p. xxi. ; that is, they fall flat ; hence our " dead failure." A Eomance substantive is turned into an adjective by simply adding ed ; merie conceipted, p. xxvi. In p. 339 Cicero never did on harness (bore arms), for the matter (his defeat of Catiline) ; hence our common for the matter of tJutt. Palsgrave had used provision of meat ; Udall makes pi'ovision a synonym for vitailles, p. 94. In p. 27 Socrates is advised to use his tenne commaundementes (ten fingers) in a brawl. The verb counter, still used in the prize ring, is applied to combatants in p. 46. A man does a feat trickely, p. 121 ; hence the later adjective tricksy. There is the Shakesperian chartered or privileged, p. 285. In p. 113 we hear of a fellow of the Goddes abandoned, our " abandoned wretch ;" the Scotch say of a man acting foolishly, "he was so left to himself that," etc. The noun pelfir (spolium) now gives birth to the verb in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 491 to pielf (pilfer), p. 117. We see body politike in p. 172; one of the few instances in which we still put the adjective after the substantive. The word blank is made a substan- tive, p. 186, and is applied to dice. A soldier bills himself among the sick, p. 214; in our day an actor wishes to be well billed. The word square is now made a substantive ; out of square (the old frame), p. 347; hence "act on the square." Udall uses the Northern words brethred (a brotherhood), sprite, oulet, chary, to whish (hush), bonny; there is race, in Tunstall's new sense ; there is Orrmin's trig, also trim as a trencher, p. 276 ; gay is often used for fine, as a gaie example, p. 205, gaily well broken, very Northern phrases. There are the proverbs, the more hast the wurst spede ; a thing well begon is more than Jialfe doen ; both in p. 41. In p. 372 stands the famous saw " That same man, that renneth awaie, Maie again fight, another dale." In p. 193 a man makes his friends believe the moon to be made of a green cheese. In p. 118 is the English phrase, as wise as a gooce. It is possible to set the cart before the horses, p. 359. Our saw about a grandmother and eggs was of old, teach our dame to spinne, p. 380. A man would have an oar in each man's boat, p. 203; our "finger in the pie." We talk of the wrong end of the stick; in p. 340 men have the worse end of the staff in a quarrel. The Greek parrhesiastes is Englished by Thorn trouth, p. 202 ; this phrase is often met with in Udall's Cen- tury. He wrote his play of 'Ealph Eoister Doister' (see Arber's Reprint) about 1550 ; it was probably meant to be acted by his Eton boys ; the first play that deals with English everyday life, standing halfway between the Inter- ludes of 1500 and the Comedies of 1590. Some of Udall's peculiar phrases recur in this piece. The u replaces e, as the verb justle (jostle) for the earlier gestle, p. 48. The Latin suere is expressed by both smv, p. 19, and by sew, p. 22. The old metal, when applied to the 492 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. dispositions of mankind, becomes mettle, p. 34. Caxton's ghest becomes gueast, p. 11, something like our spelling now; Bishop Guest's name, about ten years later, was spelt most variably. The r is struck out ; we see Margerie, Mage, and Madge, all for one person, pp. 19 and 20. Your mastership becomes your rnaship, p. 16, like the later your La'ship. Among the new Substantives stand Hoddydodie, p. 11, harebraine, drudgerie, a wag, my sweete heart, loutishnesse, potgunne, p. 73 ; hence we take pot shots ; a later variation is popgun. A man is hailed as my heart of gold, p. 25. A girl ramps abroad like a Tom boy, p. 37. A message comes by worde of mouth, p. 40. There is the . curious form knightess, p. 78. Among the Adjectives stand in the hotte haste, p. 12; a lady of property is worth a thousand pound, p. 16. A mistress, when sternly re- proving a servant, addresses her as pretie mayde, p. 37. There is a play upon musical terms in p. 44, " Hast thou a flat answer ? " then follows, " Nay, a sharp answer." A man puts his friend into a genteel attitude, and then says, " So, that is somewhat like " (our something like) ; I suppose the pi'oper thing is dropped after like. In p. 20 stands sit downe like a good girle. The you, which had long been encroaching on the ye, is now found as a Vocative ; you great calfef p. 37. Among the Verbs are runne mad, renne on patins (said of the tongue), keepe within doores, play the man. A verb is struck out in best open it, p. 31. Something of the same kind may be remarked in p. 42, ye a woman, and your letter unredde? There is a new sense of make in what maketh he here ? p. 23, which seems to come from the French. The verb have gets a new meaning, accipere ; no woman will have him (for husband), p. 44. The word no stands by itself as an exclamation of surprise, p. 38. A man is farre in with a new love, p. 33 ; here we should put on for the in ; it may stand for far in love with. We see up to the Jiarde eares in love, p. 12. There is to it again ! p. 78, with no verb ; we find also the stern com- mand in at dores, p. 40, with no verb. In the phrase yes, for twentie pounde, p. 47, the assurance "I will warrant in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 493 it " is dropped ; our betting sentences were to be very terse. Among the Interjections are kocksnownes I law! p. 28, heigh how ! (a sigh), hoigh dagh (hey day), whough ! thrum- plcdum thrum (of a gittern), dubbe a dubbe (of a drum). The phrase chip clww, cherry chow, may be heard in English choruses in our day ; we see in p. 36 ' ' With chip and cherie, Heigh derie derie." The last word was often to reappear. Among the Romance words are foolyng, paragon, brute (applied to a man), insurance (engagement, p. 70), plaine (sheer) force, proccdijngs. The word humour is now applied to the mind, as well as to the body ; the roysting sort feed the humour of the vainglorious, p. 10. The adjective brave is connected with clothes, and means fine, p. 35 ; this had appeared in D unbar. A girl ramps like a Tom boy, p. 37 ; we make it romp. The verb promise means here desponsare ; a lady says, / am promised, p. 42. The word courtesy is now made a verb, p. 26 ; men are ordered to curtsie. There is the phrase plie my business, p. 30. A forward fellow is addressed as Sir sauce, p. 48. There are puns on the word stomach in p. 71 ; the master uses it to express his courage ; the man uses it to jeer at his master's appetite. The hero of the play gets his name Roister Doister from the French rustre ; we hear of the roysting sort in p. 10; our verb roystcr was to follow later. We see the stage Latin exeant onmes, Actus, Sccena, etc.; in our days the stage borrows more from French than from Latin. One of the stage characters, Merrygreek, shows the origin of our grig. When an ignorant man or woman is brought on the stage in this Century, the Somersetshire dialect is usually put into his mouth ; this lasted for the next fifty years, down to Shakespere's Edgar. In p. 23 Margery Mumblecrust employs God yelde you, chad, icJwtte, chwas ; here the ch ex- presses ich (I) ; further on comes zembletee (semblance). A more Northern phrase appears in / mun be married, p. 87 494 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. Some very old forms are found in this play ; as God you save and see ! busk (bush), me lust (placet mihi), no force (no matter). The soldier's cry, Saint George to bormv I p. 74, long preserved in the South the sense of surety, which came into the last word ; the Scotch courts still talk of law borows. The Infinitive in ing reappears once more, I think for the last time, in p. 39 ; he hath somewhat to dooing (facere) ; this rimes with the Participle wooimj. Andrew Boorde was a traveller and physician, who wrote some books in 1542 or thereabouts (Early English Text Society, Extra Series). He is very fond of new words formed from the Latin, and is thus a forerunner of the Euphuists. His opinion of his own tongue is this : " The speche of Englande is a base speche to other noble speches, as Italion, Castylion, and Frenche; howbeit the speche of Englande of late dayes is amended," p. 122. The style of More, Tyndale, and Coverdale must have seemed poor stuff indeed to our travelled physician's eyes. He leans, however, to old fashions in the matter of the Double Negative. He gives us two well-known saws, " the white (gray) mare is the better horse," p. 68, and " when the drynke is in, the wytte is out," p. 94. The Italians, he affirms, used to say of England, bona terra, mala gent, p. 118; a future Shakesperian saw applied to Kent. Borde was the second writer who gave specimens of the peculiari- ties of our English dialects ; he treats of the Cornish, with their Tre, Poll, Pen, the iche cham (ego sum), dycke (thick), and the old afyngred (anhungred), p. 122 ; he gives us the Lowland Scotch gewd, blewd (good, blood), ken ye (Englished by do you know?), / es (ego sum), p. 138. The Irish sor (sir) is marked in p. 134. All things change; in p. 194 Borde says that in Toulouse regneth Irene iustyce & cquitie ; this was not the experience of the Galas family two Centu- ries later. The Germans had not yet lost the sounds of their old w and ei, for wayne is their word for rinnm, p. 161. The Italians said kela and kesta, not quella and guesta, just as their gui had long become chi, p. 179. As to Vowels, i continues to express something like the French e, for Bayonne is written Bion several times. Borde in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 495 makes a distinction between Scotch lordes and lardes (lairds) in p. 59. The French seem at this time to have pronounced the old Pictavia as Puttyors, p. 191 ; this oi, once sounded like e, had now got the ou sound ; and the ie in the last syllable was no longer sounded like , but each vowel must have been pronounced. As to the Consonants, the m is exchanged for n ; the old pinpel appears as pymple. Among the Substantives we see redshank (applied to the Irish), the Scotch placke, instep, Imy ricke, chilblain. In p. 235 air is said to be fryske (a Scandinavian form), not fresh; in p. 117 a change - loving man is called a frysker, whence comes frisky. In p. 124 rekenyng is used of the money due to mine host. Provisions are called good cheere. Borde talks of dwelling at elbowe-rome, p. 233 ; he writes of a man's doublet and a woman's waste cote (waistcoat), p. 97. The Five Wittes are mentioned in p. 93, though sences is given here as a synonym. We hear of the keper of a lunatic, p. 298. Beer in p. 256 is said to have lately come to England. We read of the Nether land, p. 155, which is here said to extend to Mayence ; it is otherwise called Base Almayne. Among the Adjectives is lyght-fyngered. We hear of naughty (bad) English, of dowtyd crayme ; there is the phrase rest in a Iwle, skin, p. 169. Borde is fond of you as the Nominative; in p. 138 he contrasts this new fashion with the Scotch ye. In p. 219, when advice is given to a possible traveller setting out, it is said he must do so and so ; this he is suddenly turned into you ; " you must make your bargain ; " our use of this you is very common. As to Verbs, there are the phrases set cocke on tlie hoope, p. 117, keep touch, cutte down (from the gibbet), p. 206. The verb grow takes an Accusative, as grow grapes. A traveller makes his banke with some merchant, p. 219. Among the Romance words are modern, musherom. In p. 226 Borde talks of your recuperatyng or recovering your health ; all through this Century the Latin was coming in by the side of the French synonyms, hitherto employed in England. The French pastenaque had already given birth 496 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. to Palsgrave's pasneppe and Elyot's parsneppe ; this is here written persnep. 1 We read of base gold, p. 153 ; the word was changing from inferior to turpis. The usual title of physicians is seen in p. 226, mayster doctor Buttes ; there is also Doctor Boorde, p. 143. We read of aqua mice, an Irish drink. In p. 214 we light upon the Sophy of Persia. There is the Scandinavian roudge (rug). We find here the Celtic pilcJuird and the verb quaf, said to come from the Celtic cuach (poculum); Palsgrave had already written quaught in the Perfect. There is an account of Lord Hertford's raid into Scot- land in 1544 (Arber's 'Garland,' i 115). Here the Yorkshire nout (boves) appear as note, the Scotch nolt, p. 126. Among the verbs are give an alarm and tlie weather broke up. There is the Danish word fog (mist), p. 122. Hertford himself is called the Lord Lieutenant ; cannon are dismounted; two verbs that come most appropriately into this piece are sack and ruinate. Roger Ascham, born in North Yorkshire, was one of the early Protestants who were bred at Cambridge. He wrote his famous work ' Toxophilus ' (I have used Arber's Reprint) in the year 1544. Says the sound patriot, "I have written this Englishe matter in the Englishe tongue, for Englishe men." He resolves to speak as the common people do, to think as wise men do ; also to keep clear of strange Latin, French, and Italian words. Ascham's Northern birth is attested by the words combersome, stoure (pugna), ilnesse (pravitas), laste (permanence) freke (vir), ware (collocare), braye (collis) ; the Northern flee, not the Southern Jly, ex- presses wlare ; Page's turnpike is repeated, p. 88. As to his Vowels and Consonants, a bow-maker appears as bower in p. 11 0, and as bowyer in p. 11 4. The old w makes way for b ; the verb wcdde becomes bet (so Will becomes Bill) ; to laye and bet with a man is in p. 19. 2 The I and r inter- change ; we hear of the citie of Argier, p. 82. 1 Skeat's Dictionary. 2 Some say that bet comes from the French abet ; the latter verb is hardly ever found in England before Ascham's time. in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 497 Among the new Substantives are inkeper, Turkishnesse (barbarism), cutte (vulnus), bent (inclination of a bow), head of ale, a, lowse (impulse), a wether man (weather wise). In p. 48 auctumnus is called faule of the leafe; this has been passed on from Yorkshire to America. Men are called true liertes, p. 78. There is the phrase both man and boye (omnes), p. 100; we use it in a rather different sense. Certain arrow heads are called by merry fellows bobtayles, p. 126 ; others are called swalowe tayles, p. 135. The noun wrentche, in p. 49, ceases to express dolus, and takes our sense of the word. The old match gets the new meaning of certa- men, and is applied to archery, p. 91. There is the new phrase in good sadnesse (earnest), p. 102. In p. 56 oaths are heaped upon oaths, one in anothers necke ; a new phrase. In p. 98 a man asks to be taught archery by a trade or waye, so as to succeed ; the derivation of trade from tread is very plain here. Dr. Murray gives bencher and barrester as words of this date. Among the new Adjectives are dankish, bygge brested, sadle backed (called a shooter's word, p. 129), hie rigged, unliansum, workable. An old Adjective of Orrmin's is revived in tricke and tnmme, p. 28. There is the phrase weake as water, p. 28. The adjective prety is applied to good poetry, p. 52. The naughty (malus) is in constant use. The word rank gets the new sense of copious, p. 93. In p. 128 fenny is opposed to uplandish ; the latter word here seems to change its old sense, and to mean hilly. The word plompe, meaning rotundus, is applied to the head of an arrow, p. 137. There is dompysshe, p. 28, used of the mind ; we apply dumpy to the body. The Nominative ye replaces you in p. 54, to set ye one (unum tibi dare). There is the phrase the onelye causes, p. 89 ; hvjre only is coupled with a Plural. The old Northern ivliatkin war becomes, in p. 69, what kynde of war ; Ascham brought this North "Western idiom to the South ; he has also al kyndes of, for the old alkin. Among the Verbs are know wliere to have him, cocker Mm up, owe ill wyll to, put to nurse, bear your halfe, p. 55 (go halves with you), come in their walke (way), work him woe, VOL. I. 2 K 498 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. cut short, let drive at him, you mil have it so, shoot straight, fit your bow, string it, it will gyve (fail), make poste haste, take ame. There is the new verb crust ; snow is crusted after a frost, p. 157. Udall's corruption to rake hell is repeated in p. 33. Men play with laws; that is, trifle with them, p. 97. Another verb for this is derived from pedler's wares ; men piddel about their bows, p. 1 1 7. A book may runne awaye with a man, p. 25 ; a new metaphor. A man's finger hurteth, p. 109 ; here the verb becomes in- transitive. There is the Passive phrase, it was heard tell on, p. 100. I have heard it disputed whether oarsmen should say, backwatering or backing water ; Ascham has, in p. 89, marking at one, yet let driving at another (not letting drive). He is sure that the Turk shulde not onelye not over- come us, but, etc. ; a most awkward turn of phrase, p. 8 1 . There is a new Superlative Adverb, to rise erliest, p. 27. In p. 101 a man shoots wyde and far of the marke ; this is one of the few instances, where we now prefer the old of to the later off. We see doicn the wind, and for al time. There is the phrase shoot under hand, p. 126. Things stand by contraries, p. 45. There is the Old English one amonges twenty, p. 48 ; not our later " one in twenty," which is more like the Gothic. There is the Dutch verb foist, which is used much as the new Celtic verb cog, for cheating; see both in p. 54. There is moreover the Celtic creased (wrinkled), p. 138. Among the Romance words are minikin, f/nJiurd (a dance), paragraph, enemyes by nature, aptness, well .^n^nml (of wood), soft spirited, bow case, brasell (the wood), to peece a shaft, to course (run) over, pliable, to nn/Jf, '/ struck out, for Chaucer's }>witel makes way for the verb whittle, Early Writings, p. 3 6 2. There are coalpit, law-maker, shaveling, slieepmmger ; a fool is called an ass-head ; carles and churls, coupled together, are opposed to gentlemen. We have seen to trick it in 1450; we now find the substantive with its Dutch sense of lineament ; a trick (fashion) of apparel stands in p. 204. Becon is fond of coining adjectives with like, in the Old English way ; thus he has Nero-like, jay-like, good-fellow-like (jovial) ; this good fellow, as a mild phrase for debauchee, lasted nearly 200 years. The word huff had long been set apart as appropriate to gallants; a proud priest is called huff-nosed,~Ea,Tly Writings, p. 201. Latimer is said to have used free speech (audax). In p. 43 the verb carp changes its meaning from loqui to objurgare ; here the Latin carpere must have had some influence. In Cat. 415 the verb crack seems to be used in the modern Scotch sense for loqui, though a spice of jactare still hangs about the word. Men row in the same haven, not boat ; they do not dream of doing a thing. There are two new phrases ; men hunt, hawk, and what not, p. 254 ; they dispend hundreds, p. 255 ; here pounds are under- stood. There is the Scandinavian verb^are. Among Becon's Eomance words are stupor, votary (man under vows) ; the word sycophant stands for calumniator, as in Foxe, p. 43 ; the first hint of the press-gang stands in p. 235, when men are pressed for the wars. The verb saly appears, being here used for saltare, p. 373. The Teutonic and Romance are compounded in a purgatory -raker. A man of pronounced opinions is called plain as a packstaff, p. 276 ; a hundred years later this was made pikestaff. The holy King of France appears as Saint Lodowicke, p. 390 ; hence his worship cannot have taken root in England. Our modern communism is hinted at, when men make a communion, yea, a confusion of all things, Cat. 601. The 506 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. word duncer is coined from Duns ; we clip the last letter. Becon borrows the word blood-souper from Coverdale's version. He bestows the title of Pater Patrice upon Henry VIII. ; it was given to a better man a hundred years later. New and strict ideas on the Sabbath, so early as 1540, were coming in ; see pp. 38 and 362. In the former page occurs a parenthesis of about 100 words in the middle of a sentence. Becon would return a ready answer to the question, what is an Archdeacon 1 see Cat. 586. In the letters of this time contained in ' Ellis' Collec- tion,' 1538-50, we see the great contraction vytler for victualler ; the s is prefixed, as Layton's verb squench ; we sometimes hear squelch in our time ; in the same way, squeeze was formed from the old cwysan. The t rounds off a word, as varment. The k replaces t, as haskeness (huskiness) from host (tussis). We see snap shares (chance profits), the bal- ing ; we hear of the not (non) doing of a thing. The word home stands for its inhabitants ; call up the Jwuse. Among the Adjectives is close handed and the Superlative dronkynest. We know the phrase " the Queen's rebels ;" we now have for whoos resistance (resistance against whom). Among the Verbs are run in ruyne, take up money, make it over, call in a patent. The Lady Elizabeth writes that colours may gi<;- . I suppose ground must be dropped. The Passive Infinitive may govern a verb ; to lie rejected were to my dishonour ; it may follow for, as, dedicate for service to be done. Among the Romance words are revestre (vestry), res'i'lni- sarie, domestiques, charter party, a cane, unctuous goom (gum), maistre $ hostel, engener (engineer), grome porter. Men are said to be close (secret) ; Latimer talks of a cyrt/U and honest man ; here the adjective changes its old meaning. We hear of a suspecious book ; the adjective in our day has both an Active and a Passive meaning. In 1548 we read of a coronell of Germans ; this is the Spanish variation, still employed by us in pronouncing ; it refers to the officer Avho heads the column. We see Mr. Gladstone's famous phrase with bag and baggage; also fw that present (nunc) ; here we substitute the for that. There is the new in.] THE NE W ENGLISH. 507 take, a stay among them ; a few years later this became stay among them. There is to be busy brosshing clothes ; here an in is dropped before the Verbal Noun. We see charge the jury, the exchange is up, to pass over things, to torn over the leaf,franke caryage (without cost), hence " to frank a man." We hear of the town of Camerik (Cambrai), whence came the article cambric, already mentioned. There is a strange phrase in Series ii., vol. ii. p. 176, " Dr. Crome's canting, recanting, decanting, or rather double canting ; " this word canting was soon to be applied to thieves' patter. In Series iii., vol. iii. p. 167, Lay ton reviles a man as "a monk of Cant " (Kent). In the documents of this time preserved by Foxe (vols. v. and vi.) we see the proper name Boyse, v. 510, from Boece, Boethius. The former millenary is now cut doAvn to mutiny ; on the other hand, Palsgrave's catour becomes caterer, vi. 199. Among the new Substantives are shriek, inkling, white meat. In p. 190 twopence is claimed of every poll; we should say, " tAvopence a head." There is a new sense of the Dutch trick in p. 409, that of dolus ; it is applied to the monks' doings. We find the compound a farewell-supper ; a man is in a wrong box ; Lord Russell cuts bloodshedding down to bloodshed, vi. 284. Bradford uses Iwme in Udall's new sense, vii. 281 ; you hit me home ; he is the first, I think, to use hairbreadth and woi'ldliness. Among the Adjectives Gardiner changes the tikel of 1470 into ticklish, vi. 30 ; he talks of the Upper House (of Parliament). His victim Barnes calls Henry VIII. a whole King (a despot), v. 436, one that had more power than his father and grandfather, thanks to the Gospellers. The like is used in compounding new adjectives, as order-like (orderly). Bradford uses the new phrase come (here) and welcome, vii. 285 ; here a be must be dropped before the last word. There is a new Relative phrase, if he be the man I take him for ; this comes in Bonner's long and amusing letter from abroad against Gardiner in 1538. Anything neglected is said to lie post alone, viii. 33 (solitary as a post). 5o8 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. Among the new Verbs are fly the realm, to mad (madding crowd), call to account, turn (over) my books, put tJiem by (aside), put up your pipes (Bonner to Hooper, like our shut up), a flying report, go up to his examination, overcrow them, settled in error, come unto a retractation (hence, come into a plan), slip the anchor-liold. The transition in the verb want from egere to cupere is very plain in v. 155; among other uses of it stands, lie asked what I wanted. We have seen run his sword through him ; the noun is now dropped ; Bonner writes, run me through, p. T 156. Men are put up (accused) by the authorities, p. 445 ; in our time they would be pulled up or had up. Among the Adverbs is over and besides; Bonner com- plains that Hooper, like an ass, had turned the Bishop's words, "the same tJiatw&s hanged," into "the same as was hanged," p. 752 ; men were now becoming nice about their phrases. We hear that Bonner's common oath was, before God ! v. 410; it is Chaucerian. The by is much developed in compounding, as a bye thing, bye matters, bye talk ; we find it convenient to have by-work to English the parergon of Thucydides. There is the Scandinavian glum, coupled with silence by Gardiner in vi. 36. There is the Celtic quirk, connected with law. Among the Romance words are accent, magnitude, epi- tome, local, publish books, to all intents, sophister, doctress, paraphrase, palliate, unduly, impertinent (not relevant), educe, defence (at law), papistry, orders (commands), misconstrue, civilian, ingrate, a close prisoner, to term it, plain English, iteration, relevant, mockery, extenuate, lucubration. The Reforma- tion, it will be seen by the above list, brought in many new Greek and Latin words ; Lambert says he will not affirm pro or contra, v. 219. The old mislike makes way for dislike, v. 211. In p. 258 chattels, not the old catals, are coupled with goods in a Royal injunction. A man writing in 1544 speaks of the Pope-catlwlic clergy, viii. 32. In v. 245 Lambert uses the verb reprove for "hold as bad" and imp/rove for "refute." The word varlet, in Bonner's mouth, in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 509 comes to mean nebulo, p. 764. The new meaning of curate appears in p. 446. In p. 754 a man professes the law ; the verb had hitherto been confined to religion. The new phrase practise with a per son, p. 776, appears ; it bears a bad sense. The noun pleasure is made a transitive verb by the Lady Mary in vi. 20 ; a new synonym for to favour ; it means more than please. Gardiner uses platform for scheme or policy in its present American sense, p. 25 ; he does not here connect it with its old sense of material building ; he speaks of the Gospellers as our new schoolmen, p. 33. Prince Edward is able to construe and parse, p. 351 ; that is, tell the parts of speech. Gardiner uses policy in p. 37 for two different things, sapientia and consilium. He opposes the word profane to holy, speaking of everyday life, p. 63. Ridley, when on the Eucharist, talks of annihilation of bread, p. 313. The phrase I pass not was often now used for our " take my stand on ; " see p. 315. A man, whose arrangements have been made useless by a change of pur- pose in his enemy, professes himself sore disappointed, p. 401. Lambert, in 1538, compares something futile to the moon shining in the water, v. 216; hence our all moon- shine. There is the phrase every vat (vessel) shall stand on his own bottom, p. 533 ; Bunyan changed the vat into tub when using this proverb. Gardiner cares not to talk, as (though) butter would not melt in his mouth, vi. 37. Ridley tells an objector, you would move a saint, p. 331. The word amiss was always a favourite with English punsters ; in v. 447 a Gospeller says that the mass was called miss beyond sea, for that all is amiss in it. Gardiner declares that using the term The Lard for Deus is a token of heresy, v. 507. One idea of King Edward's rebels was, that they were not bound to obey laws made before he was twenty- one, v. 773. In vi. 51 Gardiner (here, at least, a sad blun- derer) speaks of the King as one of the three Estates of the realm. The Bishop, though some call him a Papist, refuses to play the pope-holy, as the old term ivas ; it evi- dently meant "a sanctimonious prig," as is here hinted. He approves of religion being set forth in Greek and 510 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. Latin, which are well fixed; "but as for the English tongue, itself hath not continued in one form of under- standing 200 years ; ... it shall hardly contain re- ligion long when it cannot last itself," vi. 37. Gardiner could not foresee the stability that Tyndale and Cranmer were to give to this fleeting English which now seemed unworthy to be the handmaid of religion. We hear something of verse-making at Winchester, vi. 223 ; Bishop Gardiner, about 1538, caused the schoolmaster of the College to make verses on the King's supremacy as against the Pope; these were learnt by the boys, who then made verses of their own on the same theme. Gar- diner uses while in its Northern sense of usque ad, vi. 42. He distinguishes between a letter of German fashion of the Chancery hand and a letter of the Secretary hand, vi. 27; in the same page he tells us that an honest Englishman will put off his cap on seeing the King's seal. Somerset excuses the Government for not interfering with the pro- fane rimes of the Gospellers, saying that Pasquil at Kome has always been tolerated by the Popes, even when their tyranny was most extreme and when they themselves were his butt, vi. 35. There are many poems in Hazlitt's Collection, vols. iii. and iv., ranging between 1537 and 1550. The ow replaces o, as prowl ; in iii. 312 the two forms ketch and catch stand in one line. The t is struck out, as popery for popetry ; it is added, as hoist for the old hoise ; it replaces J>, as tyght for the thiht (solidus) of 1440, wynd and water tyght. A rustic con- tracts gentleman into gemman, iv. 10, and uses soner for sooner ; also ycJie am for ego sum. The r is inserted ; the old braided hair becomes broader ed, iii. 238, the Iroidered of our Bibles ; the Teutonic braid and the French broder were confused. The Vocative master parson becomes mas parson in a rustic's mouth ; hence the Scotch mass John. Among the Sub- stantives are dribbler, collet, jacke daw ; this Jack was now prefixed to many nouns, as a Jack lout, iii. 229 ; we see a Judas kisse, p. 235. There is the new phrase hare (make) a better showe, iii. 239. A chief is described asformost of the rynge, p. 290 ; hence ringleader had already been coined. A in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 511 sot is always crying fyll the pot, Jone! p. 310; this was the usual name for a poor woman, and it lasted for 200 years ; we know Shakespere's greasy Joan. A man has a knacke to say things (of saying things), iv. 9. Matters are on a hubble shubble (huffle scuffle), iii. 312. A peasant speaks of the priestly power as a galows gay gifte, iv. 13; this gallus is still a slang term for magnus. We see crust and crum coupled in p. 44. Among the Adjectives we remark lousy (ebrius), from an English word of 1280. The old mi i 'nl . '-a like reappears after a very long sleep; there is also Christianlike. Among the Verbs are I knowe whates a clocke, iii. 281, beat (cudgel) his brayne, take in (recipere). In iv. 5 stands the old expletive, so mut I tliee (so may I thrive !), the last appearance, I think, of the Old English theon. There is masse me no messinges to a priest, p. 15, like Lord Derby's knee me no knees. Thieves lyft a man from his good, p. 40 ; this is the Gothic Mi/an, the Greek klep, meaning the same ; hence comes our shoplifter. The word tease keeps its old violent meaning (lacerare) in p. 63, where wolves tease sheep ; in Yorkshire the machine for tearing wool is still called a teaser. When we put a thing away, we lay it in some cupboard or safe place ; this sense of the adverb appears in iii. 138, lay money away. Bishop Gardiner is called, in p. 263, so so a preacher ; our so so still means mediocre. People are fetched by the whole dosens, p. 264 ; something comes by fyttes, p. 295 ; in old times the Singu- lar, not the Plural, would have been used after the dis- tributive preposition. Caxton had staked upon a thing ; we here see to borow (money) on garments, iv. 59. There is a curious omission of against in the phrase housing (which is) wynd and water tyght, p. 52. We see the source of the future tirra lirra in iii. 321; a tirlary typpe ; the tirlary is here made to jingle with whirlary. A man says he often does a miracle, iv. 13; the answer is, the devell ye do ! a new phrase. A horse is addressed with ree u~ho ! this last must be a corruption of ho/ (stop), p. 16, something like our wo-ho ! In the same page stands God spede us and the plough ! 512 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. There are the Dutch words ruffle (brag) and trick up (ornare). There is the Celtic gull (decipere) and roger (soon to become rogue), iv. 44. The Romance words are conscionable (conscientious), iii. 228, to poche (rob), iv. 41, serving man, carion crow, trinket, cassoc, farthingale. An impudent fellow is called Jack sauce, iii. 242 ; and his father addresses him with the scornful Sir, p. 231. Two lines in p. 281 refer to the sea "The compas may stand awrye, But the carde wyll not lye. " This card (our chart) comes into the later speak by the conL In the parable, Dives is opposed to Pauper, p. 286 ; the last word is often in our mouths now. A woman is exhorted to wear sober apparel, p. 239 ; she answers that her clothes are not drunk. In pp. 290 and 295 the word pluresye (perhaps in joke) stands for pletJwra ; Shakespere and others imitated this. Men abuse their tongues against holiness, p. 256 ; we here see how the verb began to mean vituperare. A rustic calls the mass vengeance Iwly, iv. 11, a new phrase. The Adverb clierly is used to encourage a horse onward, p. 16 ; Orlando was to encourage Adam in the same way. In p. 35 we hear of gaudy chere ; hence the gaudy days at the Universities. Men are asked wJiat country men they be, p. 42 ; this refers to their shires. Per- sons may be defended, but meadows are defenced in p. 53 ; we now clip the de in this sense ; defend had led to the noun defence, and this latter to another verb defence. The noun Popistant is coined, iii. 262 ; perhaps an imitation of Protestant. The popular poet of 1550 in iii. 278 wishes that mer- chants would stick to the sea and not buy up the lands of the gentry ; this new practice had come up within the last eighty years. In iv. 64 it is hinted that drunkenness had hitherto been confined to Duche fotke or Flemynges, but it is now rooting itself among the English. A new noun, God- terer, is coined to express a swearer, p. 61. There is the proverb, gi-ete boost and small roost (roast), p. 66. I give a specimen of the earliest thieves' slang we have, from p. 69 in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 5 1 3 " With bousy cove maimed nace Tear the patryng cove in the davkman cace Docked the dell for a coper meke His watch shall feng a prounces nobchete Cyarum by salmon and thou shalt pek my jere In thy gan for my watch it is nace gere For the bene bouse my watch hath a coyn." The foreign style of speaking English is first imitated in pp. 46 and 47 ; a quack says " Me non spek Englys by my fayt ; My servaunt spek you what me sayt. Dys infant rumpre img grand postum, By got, he ala mort tuk under thum." The dog Latin in iii. 320 is not so good as Moliere's " This alum finum Is bonus than vinum Ego volo quare Cum tu drinkare. Juro, per Deum, Hoc est lifum meum Quia drinkum stalum Non facere malum." Hall, in his Chronicle, uses the Scandinavian verb baffull (disgrace) ; he explains it as a word of great reproach among the Scotch ; see Skeat's Dictionary. In the ' Life of Sir Peter Carew ' (Maclean) we see deck (of ship), netting, wynge of an army. Wallop, in 1543, talks of cutting between an army and home, p. 124, Appendix. A sunken ship is to be wayed upp, p. 129. There is the phrase be aforehands with him, p. 139. Among the Romance words are pyJce (the weapon), mortaires (mor- tars), to bombast a doublet with cotton, an avauntcourreur ; mountes of earth were to become mounds a few years later ; most of these words occur in Wallop's letters in 1543. There are, besides, cordage, the patrone (master) of a ship ; enemies assemble in great troupes, p. 136; we stand in doubtful tearmes with France, p. 142. In 1548 William Turner put forth his book on the Names of Herbes, printed by the English Dialect Society. VOL. I. 2 L 5 i 4 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. He had travelled much abroad, and throws light on foreign pronunciation. He tells us that the poticaries clipped the first a in asparagus, p. 1 7 ; sparrow grass came later. He says that the two forms mallowe and mallo are both in use, p. 50 ; the English for guercus may be either oke or eke, p. 66 ; and brassica may be either cole or Tceele (kale), p. 20. He goes back to the true old morbery, not mulberry, p. 9. Both the forms cresse and kerse are in use, p. 55. The old affodil is written daffodil, p. 1 ; this is said to come from the French fleur d' affodil. Turner insists on writing wad (woad) " and not ode, as some corrupters of the English tonge do nikename it," p. 40 ; we remember how Woden became Odin. The German ei must have been sounded like French e at this time ; Turner writes Ehene and eich (oak), of course giving the English sound to these letters ; he writes the German ougen for oculi, p. 84 ; tusent for in Ilk, p. 24 ; still the form baume (arbor) appears. The Germans seem still to have sounded their w as we do. Turner has the new substantives buckwheate, kydney beane, twopeny grasse; Jack was becoming such a common prefix that in p. 89 a plant appears as Jacke of the liedge. The old nighteshade, after a sleep of many centuries, reappears in p. 89. In p. 77 with us stands for apud nos, "in our speech;" this is a development of the idiom of 1470, an holy prophd with God (in the sight of God). Among the Eomance words are carot, larche, raspes (raspberry) ; there is blew-botfel for ri/(ntn3 ; the word archichoke, p. 23, comes straight from the Italian, the ar being the Arabic al (the). Turner says that in England we have two forms for one plant, cynkfol;/ or fyve fyngred grasse, p. 66. He always tries to Teutonise new words ; thus he thinks swallowurt should be used for the strange plant called schwalbenwurt by the Duche men, p. 17; he wishes the German thmk&tusz to be called thorowuxxt in English, p. 85. When he gives mangolt as the Duche for English bete, p. 19, he little foresaw the future mangelwurzel Instead of errata at the end of his book he gives /antes escaped in the pnntyitfi, a pretty long list. Latimer's ' Sermons and Remains ' of this time (Parker Society) retain some old forms, as a gainer (readier) way ; in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 515 there are both manqueller and mankiller (homicide). The a is prefixed in aweary (fessus) ; it is clipped in pose (appose) ; Chaucer's hochepot becomes hotchpotch. There are the Sub- stantives, a put off, income, hanger on, a standing (thieves' station), a laughing matter, tussock, gun-maker. Latimer coins sliavery, something like slavery, to express the robbery of the Church; 'Sermons,' p. 100. We seem to see the origin of our duffer in p. 121, " there stood by him a dubber, one Doctor Dubber," an ignorant priest. Latimer uses mingle-mangle, a word for pigs' food used in " my country " (Leicestershire). He employs a glimmering for "a slight recollection," p. 174. A man may be a firebrand. A curate's wages, nine or ten pounds, may be earned by some three-halpenny priest ; ' Remains,' p. 29. The word stock seems to be used for property, not merely for cattle, in p. 11 2. Among the Adjectives is white-livered, quick (in the sense of quick-tempered] ; ' Sermons,' p. 207. As to the Pronouns, we see they were none of his to give, p. 158 ; no man is any thing near unto mine age, p. 251 ; usurers take forty in the hundred, p. 279, a new commercial phrase. Shakespere talks of "your but /" Latimer of St. Paul's nots and nons ; 1 Remains,' p. 1 8. Among the new Verbs are overhear, brazen it, lamb, and the phrases, blmv men to ashes (with ordnance), raise rents, keep touch (agreement) with, an article is far fetched (brought from a distance), do moi'e hurt than good. Latimer uses to prittle-prattle prayers, and. also to pittle-pattle, whence comes our pit-a-pat. We have seen strike in the sense of vadere ; we now find chop in (cut in). The verb is dropped in no doubt of tlwt. As to Prepositions, we see the Northern expletive, with a wanniaunt, 'Sermons,' p. 119, soon to be altered into with a vengeance. There is the new phrase, leave them at adven- ture (to chance), p. 120. There are the Scandinavian shelf (at sea) and trudge. There is the Celtic perk (wax proud). Among the Romance words are imposture, Anabaptistical, king's minority, cursorily, brutality (brutishness), suspend judgment, valuer, salad, propriety (peculiarity), pliantastical 516 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. (unreal), to fantasy (putare), clerkly. In the well-known 'Sermon on the Card' we see the technical deal, suit, heart, turn up your trump, which is also seen as triumph, p. 16. The word dame is used as the counterpart of master, hence a dame's school. Men make a dividend (division) of spoil, p. 31. The mock is employed in com- pounds like our sham, mock - gospeller ; of this kind of words mock auction still survives. The word satisfactory (expiatory) appears, used in a very different sense from ours. The famous word pasguyl appears for satire, as before in Elyot. Latimer, when removed from his see, became a quondam; he also speaks of guondamship, p. 154. We see satrapa and a caveat. The old even in composition was falling away, for we see co-helper ; this co had appeared in commoder. The new sense of civil appears ; an honest civil woman, p. 180. Where we say, "thanks to my trouble," the old phrase was gramercy labour, p. 213. We hear of new spirits (homines), p. 229, hence our- "choice spirits ;" ghost and soul had long been used in this sense. Men are made of certain metal, p. 393 ; this spelling was later to be changed. A man who cheats another thinks himself a wise merchant, p. 401 ; the word might bear a bad meaning about this time. We hear of fooleries, p. 425, and moreover of follies, in the Plural. John the Baptist is called a clergyman; 'Remains,' p. 82 ; the first instance, I think, of this word. The huge farthingales worn by women are called round-abouts, p. 108. Latimer says, "the Devil shall go for my money " (he is the one for me) ; 'Sermons,' p. 77. As to old customs, noblemen are complained of by many, because they lie in bed till eight in the morning ; 'Sermons,' p. 255. A certain rich man, when dying, utters nothing but the oath, Wounds and sides! p. 277. Latimer protested against burials within the City, and wished that Curates might be appointed to the gaols. On St. Stephen's day it was usual to bleed horses; 'Remains,' p. 100. Latimer confesses that he has been too apt to use the oath, yea, by St. Mary ! p. 79 ; most men in his day contented themselves with Mary ! He was once much blamed by a in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 517 Bishop for speaking of the Lord's Supper, a new term, not often used by the Doctors ; ' Sermons,' p. 121. He tells us that many punningly spoke of the new Homilies as Iwmelies (simple stuff), p. 121 ; the people would sometimes talk so as to prevent these documents from being heard in Church. He remarks on Abiathar's conspiracy, " it is marvel if any mischief be in hand, if a priest be not at some end of it " (the bottom of it) ; ' Sermons,' p. 11 4. He speaks of bribery and its returns ; " giffe-gaffe was a good fellow," p. 140; Scott has something of the kind. Latimer has various proverbs, to be found in Heywood. Leland's remarks on his journey through England were given to the King in 1546, and were soon afterwards edited by Bale. The Antiquary had a licence in 1533 to search all the Convent Libraries. He is here said by his editor to have been learned in both Brittyshe, Saxony she, and Walslie ; he might well call himself Antiquarius. No Englishman probably professed to understand Old English for 300 years before Leland ; one of the fruits of the Reformation was to breed men like him, Parker, and Foxe. A man may be an unprofitable clod, a new term of abuse. The sli was coming in ; Gower's was, (aqua) becomes wash. There is the new adverb lernedlye, which is an unusual formation. We hear of dogged doynges of Anabaptists (brutish or mad). The verb itisli seems to imitate order or command, taking an Accusative and Infinitive ; / wyshe all to consydre. The of now follows careful careful of good learning. The very old sense of for (quod attinet ad) is carried a step further ; lerned for hys tyme. We hear of the prymative Church, to barbaryse, stacyoner. We see monstruouse buyldinges (ingentia) ; this sense lingers in our monstrous fine. There is laysy (lazy), from the Old French lasclie (laxus). The Universities are said to be not all clere in- destroying old manuscripts; that is, "free from blame." Leland uses the word Romanist, with a new sense widely apart from that of Roman or Romancer. He applies fanatijcal to the Anabaptists, calling them chymney prechers and benche bablers. Bale seems to have written his play of ' Kynge Johan 518 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. (Camden Society) about the year 1550; he set the ex- ample of not observing the unities of time or place, as many years elapse between the scenes, and these shift from England to Italy ; he first brought secular history upon our stage. He has some old forms, as backe (vesper- tUio), mesel (leper), slypper (lubricus), the moste (maximus) knave. In p. 80 stands a wassail song, the six lines all ending in ayle, something in Chaucer's style. The old wane (mos) now takes a t at the end, as wont, p. 27 ; we hear of the Pope's crosse keys, p. 32; there is the old alliteration kyng and keyser, p. 5. Among the Verbs are slip aside, bear them grudge, set a good face upon it, cud <" (the Irish blak rent), singlar (peculiar), huirmaister (whorem aster), docu- ment (proof) ; these two last appear in the Anglican Homilies ten years later. We have already considered the earlier version of the ' Song of Lady Bessy ' (Percy Society, vol. xx.) ; the later version seems to belong to this time ; there is the word slave, which was now coming into use. The piece seems to have been written in Lancashire or some Northern county, for a Princess is spoken of as a proper wench, p. 1 1 . The / is clipped ; we hear more than once of a gent (gentleman) ; I can well remember Albert Smith's treatise upon this being. We see keep an appointment. There are two plays of about 1550 in Dodsley's Collec- tion (Hazlitt, voL ii.), Lusty Juveutus and the Disobedient Child. In p. 273 breech is used, no longer for a garment, but for the hinder part of the person. There is the Shakesperian mome, meaning stultus. In p. 277 stands young Lively and Lusty, which is something new. In p. 271 stands when all is said and done, differing from the old version of this. There is the Scandinavian word bang. We see in service time, where divine ought to follow the Preposition. There is the new phrase face out the matter. Hutchinson (Parker Society) was one of the Reformers, who published about 1550. In some verses by Dean Bill, prefixed to the volume, p. 10, we see the very old word ceyhwwr (ubique), long preserved in the North, in the form in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 527 of each where. Hutchinson seems to have come from the North, for he uses barne (puer) and corse (mutare), which last word puzzles the modern editor, p. 321. The old yea, written ie, was now making way for aye, which is often repeated in p. 336. There are the new Substantives picklock, seacoal ; the former is rather different from Occleve's unpick a coffer. There is the old Northern God's man in p. 253, where we should say man of God ; our lady's man is a later formation. In p. 286 we read of children following the wild swing of youth. Men attack some- thing tooth and nail, p. 213; tooth-ache is also revived after a long sleep. There is the Shakesperian it was a merry world, before, etc., p. 8. The word Dutch is now used for Hollander ; in p. 1 7 a distinction is made at last between Dutch and the Almaines' tongue ; the former has God, the latter Gott. There is the new form all-knowing coined, p. 193, just as eal-crceftig had been struck off hun- dreds of years earlier. We hear of the broad seal of Eng- land, p. 251. The old kindly bears its rightful meaning of naturalis in our Litany; but in p. 322 we read of David's kindly table ; here the word seems to take the new sense of benignus, as kind had done 250 years earlier. In p. 39 iron at Elisha's bidding hoves above water ; the verb had meant manere ; Minot, who was a Northern man, had used it in connexion with water, as Hutchinson does. The verb gather is used for intelligere in p. 325 ; "gather from a text that," etc. Heretics may rack a Scriptural word, p. 131, to prove their own figments. Among the Romance words are colligener (member of a college), Avhich comes often, a common table (for eating), p. 203, bowser (bursar), losing an r in the middle like palsy and sexton; also expiation, peasant. A plaintiff tries his suit,' p. 327 ; we transfer the verb to the judge. A knave is to be set forth in his colours, p. 335 ; hence "in his true colours." The word trinity loses its theological sense in p. 81 ; a trinity of suns. St. Paul's friend is called Captain Lysias, p. 329. Hutchinson shows us how the knowledge of Greek was making rapid strides ; he uses the word bribe-taker, p. 318, which compound, I suspect, he took from 528 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. Demosthenes; a vain repetition becomes tautolntjin, p. 122. Unlike Luther, he calls Aristotle " the noble and worthy philosopher," p. 170. He has a devout belief in the Sibyls, p. 177. He disagrees with Zuinglius, thinking the Eucharist something more than a bare and naked meta- phor, p. 260. He often inserts Greek characters and words into his English text ; Protestant divines were now leaving Latimer far behind, who avowed that he knew no Greek. In the documents of this time, set forth in Tytler's Edward VI., we see the old sound of ay still existing, since there is a pun in i. 210, where London is called Troy untrue. There are the Substantives a runabout, tid-fi 1 - ness, heart-burning, doings and sayings ; heat takes the sense of ira, i. 170. A pirate sends ashore his mate, i. 271, the first instance, I think, of this word being applied to a ship's officer. The Pope is called His Holowness, ii. 81. The adjective warm is employed for iratus, i. 67 ; and lubberly appears. In ii. 44 a man keeps his .own counsel ; here the use of own is something peculiar ; counsel in this phrase bears to this day its old sense of a secret. In this page the old Double Negative may be seen in full force, em- ployed by Lord Arundel. The most remarkable change in the Verbs is the new Past Participle ; this letter, hn-'nuj been written, hath, etc. ; the increasing study of Greek would bring these new forms of speech into vogue. The Northern egg (incitare) is now coming South,.! 298. The Active verb mind (curare) now takes an Infinitive ; he seemeth not to mind to leave it (care about leaving it), i. 297. There are the new phrases take exercise, take his oath, put out of countenance, cut off a tale. Among the Romance words are certainty, decipher, tem- porize, broil (rixa), billet (epistola), reciproque (reciprocal), pique (rixa), brush (for the hair), virago, proveable, finances. Many new military terms appear ; enseigns of footmen and horsemen, i. 53 ; the new French form, Colonel ; a man has soldiers in regiment, ii. 182, where a new sense of the word begins to come in. We hear of the Great Turk, who is also called Le Grand Seignor ; also of his Bassa (Pasha) ; in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 529 the Turkish fleet is called an armata, ii. 252. In the same page the old Genoways become Genoeses, like Milton's Chineses. The word tromperie is used for deceit, ii. 93, as before in Caxton ; attend bears its French sense of expectare, ii. 93. The word pinnace is used as an equivalent for galley, i. 284. A man wishes for a few lines from his friend, i. 345. Young Philip II. is said to continue in a Spanish gravity, i. 303 ; this would earlier have been expressed by sadness. Paget boasts that he never loved extremes, i. 24 ; here the adjective is made a substantive. There is the saying, "I would not be in some of their coats for five marks!" i. 171. King Edward takes the French envoys to hunt in Hyde Park, i. 288. In Halliwell's ' Letters of the Kings,' vol. ii., Edward VI. uses the new phrase run a match, p. 53. He has praiseworthy, an odd compound, gendarmery, and the new hatchment. In Wood's 'Letters of Illustrious Ladies,' vol. ii., a Scotch lady talks of a bawnking, p. 195 (whence comes lawn}; it seems to be distinguished from a castle ; the old form was barmeken. We hear of lords and their ladies (wives), p. 39. A wife addresses her husband in a letter as, Good mine own; a Duchess writes patronisingly to a Minister as, my good Cecil, p. 248. A will stands; a reprover sJiakes a person up, p. 54 ; make clear with him (clear off his accounts), p. 49 ; lay a corpse forth (out) ; a room falls void ; have (get the) best of him,, p. 134. Among the Romance words are un- natural, conserve of damascenes (damsons), to feast men, depart this world. Florence appears as a woman's name, p. 89. Elizabeth signs herself Cor Eotto at the end of a letter, p. 280 ; the study of Italian was coming in. The word Christian is used in a new and restricted sense in p. 240 ; it is applied to certain men who are sure to do justice. The old Plural form heirs males appears in the year 1539. In p. 237 stands " it argue th your non-receipt of my letters;" here the substantive replaces the usual construction with the verb, a change that has done much harm in English since 1740. There is the proverb, a good turn quickly done is twice VOL. I. 2M 530 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. done, p. 249 ; Elizabeth quotes, or rather misquotes, a saw of 1260, also known in Iceland ; when bale is lowest, boot is nearest, p. 280. About this time appear the words aborigines, accoutre- ments; the word achievement has been used down to our day for escutcheon; but this is seen in Hall's Chronicle as liaclmnente, a curious instance of the loss of v. These items I take from Dr. Murray's Dictionary. In Burgon's 'Life of Gresham' we see a substituted for lie in Mrs. Quickly's style; a can speak, p. 108. We read of a frame of tymbre, silk stockings ; a cargo is conveyed in one bottom (ship), p. 472 ; a man is open-mouthed. We read of Turkey carpets, a Bursse (Exchange), Spanish rials (reals), an Agentshipe (Gresham's own post), the infrrr..\ says that he has nothing but the dotJies on his back. The words morrow and morning, both alike here meaning the Latin mane, may be seen in one sentence, p. 387. As to Adjectives, in p. 84 we find wye (parvus), the Scotch wee ; this puzzling word is quoted from More's writings. In p. 141 stands the dead time of the night; the time was to be dropped some years later. The word like takes a the before it; I never saw the like, p. 201. We have & full gallop ; twenty years or more. There is the Numeral no one day (not a day), p. 286. Among the Verbs is the in- transitive waffet, p. 251 ; boats waffet (sail or row), p. 251 ; this was soon to become tea ft, with a change of meaning. in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 533 There are the phrases sit on thoi'ns, sell our lives dearly, broken English, he fired (fired up), take until next day, he is yielded, his eyes were set in his head (when near death). We had long used be in brewing ; the Verbal noun, as usual, leads to the verb brew becoming intransitive ; matters brew, p. 203. The verb call here gets the sense of awake ; call him early, p. 324. In p. 381 stands the angry, what have you to do to ask, etc. ; this to do (ado) was soon to give place to the synonym business ; whit business have you, etc. Wol- sey fears, in p. 392, that God will leave us in our own lumds; the Scotch say, he was so left to himself. Among the Adverbs are on/ standing by itself, p. 106. As to Pre- positions, there is Jiave a jewel of him, p. 332 ; we should say in him ; the with is now followed by a Past Participle, he never went with any part of divine service unsaid, p. 105. Among the Eomance words are confections, difficile, pier (of harbour), havresack, chess board, fife, a mutual brother, p. 333 ; hence our " mutual friend," so long objected to. The word compasses is used for stratagems, p. 78. The verb entertain in p. 165 expresses, not hospi- tality, but agreeable converse ; it is applied to the meeting of the French king and Wolsey on horseback. A man plants himself near the king, p. 295 ; the verb had been making way within the last few years, being used of some- thing besides trees and flowers. In p. 249 something is parcel gilt; in the next page parcel stands for package. In p. 299 Wolsey 's servants are called his family ; hence our family prayers. In p. 305 slandei- is used for the kindred scandal. In p. 347 Wolsey speaks with a faint voice, a new sense of the Adjective. The phrase be in trouble is used of a man imprisoned, p. 382 ; the noun here gets a very harsh sense. Cavendish borrows from his old master the adjective duke, seen in p. 177. Ladies' dress is cut by tailors, p. 201. We hear of every several Uni- versity, p. 205. There is the new directly, which followed the course of the English straight; it seems as yet to be used of place, not of time. In p. 248 stands grograine, whence came, centuries later, the word grog. A chair is based in a certain spot, p. 281. In p. 307 we hear of 534 THE NEW ENGLISH. [( HAP. livery clothes; in p. 313 of liveries. Wolsey's servants, when asked to go to York, refuse to leave their native country ; that is, Southern England, p. 307. A stag is coursed, p. 325. Wolsey lies barefaced in his coffin, p. 395; we now give a bad moral meaning to the word. The Cardinal takes a nobleman's servants by the hands, whether gentlemen or yeomen, p. 362. Henry VIII. uses to Cavendish an oft-quoted speech, p. 399, "three may keep counsel, if two be away ; if I thought that my cap knew my counsel, I would cast it into the fire." We hear that Henry VII., for his great wisdom, was known in every Christian region as "the second Solomon," pp. 78 and 216. In Machyn's Diary (Camden Society), from 1550 to 1563, we see the word raw (crudus) pronounced much in the old way, for it is written rowe, p. 304 ; but pryche (prsedicare) shows that preach was losing its old sound. We find St. Olave's written Saynt Towllys, p. 21 ; hence the tailors of Tooley street. Abergavenny is cut down to Borgane, p. 45. The h in aliht (alight) is still sounded, for it is often written alykt. There is the phrase low iculer marke, p. 213. We see Rotland-shyre, p. 43; a sad cor- ruption, too common in our day. A very old English Genitive idiom is kept in My Lord Dakurs of the North doythur (daughter), p. 29. In our time we talk of articles going off (being sold) ; something like this is found in p. 241, cheese went away for so much. Among the Romance words are obsequies, bellet (billet of wood), Imrhj burly (the Lancashire IwurU), marchand ventorer, change a blow or two. The old ivait (watchman) now appears as a musician, p. 45 ; he had always sounded an alarm, with some instrument. Bacon may be messelle (measly), p. 248. We read of an Englishman who was marchand of Muskovea in 1557, p. 166; Turkey merchants came later. The substantive sukctt appears for dainty, p. 237 ; hence perhaps the sock so dear to Etonians. We hear of Hyde park corner, p. 55. The change of religion is marked in p. 249 ; in a London church a certain man was parson, and ys menyster. In the year 1561 a criminal is given to the barber surgeons in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 535 to be a notheme (anatomy) at their hall, p. 252 ; science was making great strides. Richard Eden, the foremost pioneer of English researches in geography, translated many foreign works between 1553 and 1555; I have used Arber's Reprint. The author flourished at the moment when England was sending forth her own sons, both North and West, to make discoveries, and was no longer depending on foreigners like Cabot. Many a strange word, brought from America, is here made an English citizen. The books on America, compiled by Peter Martyr and Oviedo, were now first translated into English, as also were certain works on Russia. Columbus and Magellan were at last made known to the English public ; our own Chancellor and Drake were now in full vigour. As to Vowels, the e is sometimes added ; thus the old war (cautus) becomes ware, p. 386, our wary ; we see humane (mansuetus), p. 186, bearing a very different sense from human. The usual interchange of I and d is seen when Cadiz is written Coles in English. The p replaces// Coverdale's chaft now gives birth to chappes (fauces), p. 231 ; the other form chops had appeared in Dunbar ; the cluippes in p. 16, from the Dutch happen, express another meaning, sdssura. The final d is clipped ; Barbour's sliold appears as shole, our sJwal. The c replaces h ; the old hoh gives birth to the Plural Iwux, our Jwcks, p. 292 ; it is here coupled with pasterns. The old crevis now simulates an English ending, and becomes crevyssh, p. 329, our cray fish. Among the new Substantives are mainland, brode swoord, swoordeplayer, bludsucker, puff (mushroom), looking glass, man- hunter, woodpeck (woodpecker, p. 224), swoord fyshe, pack Iwrse. Certain words bear new meanings, as the bed of a river, a neck of land ; beads are no longer connected with religion, but are given to savages, p. 251. The word dog now expresses masculus ; a dog tiger, p. 144. The word plaij now stands for hilaritas ; an animal is full of play, p. 171. The word fang expresses the Latin dens ; fanges or dogge teeth, p. 220. We hear of mariners' sloppes, p. 327 ; this old word for vestes seems henceforth to have been restricted to seamen. The very old byght (sinus) is revived 536 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. in p. 380. We read of a hoommock (hillock), p. 381 ; this seems to come from hump. There is the Verbal noun swepynges (things swept), p. 157. The man is added to another Substantive; fyssher men are found in p. 189. The North stars are called charles wayne, p. 310. Job had already been connected with the morbus Gallicus as a kind of patron Saint ; in p. 260 this plague is called the disease of saint Job. The Definite Article is inserted before the Verbal noun; something is worth the hearyng, p. 173. A phrase of Ascham's appears; the you is employed where man would have stood in Middle English ; here you may get water, p. 381. Among the Verbs are a well meaning man, mouths water, break open a chest, set our course east ; this cum-*- seems to be dropped in currents set to the eastward, p. 382 ; and also in to bear southwest, p. 379. Sailors reckon them- selves to be in a certain spot, p. 381 ; hence their later reckonings. The verb flirt is seen for the first time, I think, in p. 23 ; nostrils flirt upward. There is the Scandinavian verb whiz, already used by Surrey, and the Celtic si ally (miry), p. 321, which must have had its influence on our sloppy. As to the Romance terms, Eden thinks it well to prefix the interpretation of certain uncommon words in a table, p. 45 ; among these are colonie (an habitacion), parallel', <, equinoctial (the Line), continente, here opposed to island; colonies are planted in p. 345. Peter Martyr made known many American words, such as canibal, canoa, maidtun (maize), furacan (hurricane), botata (potato), p. 131, cociis (cocoa). Southern Asia gave us raia (rajah, p. 258) ; we now read of indigo and opium. From Tartary came Jionlas (hordes, turbo), p. 291 ; Northern Europe gave us wcr.7.v (Easter) appears in p. 228. There is the proverb in p. 233 " A bushel of Marche dust, worth raunsomes of gold." In p. 234 are twelve long lines, containing words all be- ginning with / or th "Thinges thriftie thatteacheth thee thriving to thrive." England had not yet bidden farewell to her old and beloved Alliteration. About this time allow took the new sense of permit, and the old alphin of the chessboard was replaced by the bishop. See Dr. Murray's Dictionary. in.] THE NE W ENGLISH. 539 In 1558 Knox brought out at Geneva his unlucky book against the monstruous regiment of Women (Arber's Re- print). Some English friend must have corrected the manuscript for the press, for the language here is most unlike the Reformer's usual broad Scotch ; certain letters of his have been added to the treatise. The au still expresses the French ou, for Friaul stands for Friuli, p. 14. Like a true Scot, Knox talks of the lie of greate Brittanny, p. 3. The Queen's title kings on her birth, p. 59 ; I sus- pect that this old Northern form of Jiang had some influ- ence on the later verb hinge. Knox lays his accompt as to what his book may cost him, p. 8. We have seen upon honour; men are now charged upon their allegeance, p. 42. We see corporal punishment, explain himself, the question is, if, etc. The Baptist was beheaded for the liberty of his tonge, p. 7 ; hence our take liberties. In p. 8 politike means sapiens, in p. 43 it means civilis. The word journey expresses pugna, p. 42. Knox applies the word monster in p. 50 to a woman ruling over men, this being something unnatural ; in p. 45 Mary Tudor is called a cruell monstre. He applies the word base to English martyrs who were not of noble blood, p. 52. He follows Pope Clement VII. in branding the odious nation of Spaniards as Jews, p. 46. I now begin Foxe's Book of Martyrs (Cattley's edition) ; it has had much influence on our speech. The e re- places a, as kennel for the old canal, i. 273 ; it replaces o, as sheet-anchor for Tyndale's shot-anchor, vi. 387 ; the very unusual ce reappears, as dElmer (Bishop Aylmer), viii. 679. The i replaces as, as he bid (jussit); also e, as in the proper name Allin (Allen). Both lust and list are found for wluptas. The o replaces e, as landloper for the old landleper. The oi for u is still found, as croysies (crusaders), iii. 53 ; also oi for i, as spoil blood (fundere), v. 299 ; the ou stands for i; they would him to (do it), viii. 81. The ou replaces o ; the osel (merula) of 1430 now becomes ousel. We hear of Petow (Peto), the Bishop elect, viii. 636. As to Consonants, we find pick used for pitch (torquere), viii. 629 ; also the two forms Goodrick and Goodrich for the 540 THE NE W ENGLISH. [r n A v. name of the Bishop of Ely. The k is added to a word ; the old chine becomes chink (of door). The k is prefixed ; the old wandrethe (turbatio) becomes quandary. Bradford, a Lancashire man, uses both snag and snatch, vii. 232. A man is not egged, but edged, ii. 542. There is the Welsh Sparry, leading to Parry. We see the name Mildman, lead- ing to Milman ; the d is further struck out in gossopi-y (gossipred). The t is added, for rampire becomes rampart. The n is struck out ; sprenge (sarmentum) becomes sprig, viii. 694. The I replaces r, as huddle for the old verb hoder. The r is added, for the old verb braid becomes broider, ii. 160; this we saw a few years earlier. The s is prefixed; the old cwysan becomes squeeze, iv. 115 ; here the French es or ex had influence. The s is inserted in gallowses, vl 549. Among the new Substantives are bunch of keys, deed-doer, nunnishness, the Pope's man (his candidate), a Cambridge man (student), a Scripture man, at arms' length, glut (turba, ii. 796), a hurry, book-maker (writer), gun stones (cannon balls), fatherliness, dog-days, Bluebeard, God's ape (imitator), breath i/i'j time, seat (of saddle), Jewishness, stamps (types), molehill, foreman (of jury), towndweller, the bench (magistrates), rush (impetus), stander by, wolfishness, outthmster, Irrickbat, mne- drawer, a man of great reading, fopperies (follies), coal hole, sideman (churchwarden), slaughter -slave, walking-staff, time out of mind, padlock, twopence-halfpenny, cart's tail, at the first cliop, at the first dash (impetus), fire side, a downhill, stak?- fellow, milkmaid, wonderment, self-murder, brand of infamy, our printing days (when printing is used), a deal more strictly, it was his doing, a doctrine of no ancient standing, goodwife Fislier, goodman Austen, the glance of a stroke, AllhaUoweren, a great piece of money in my way (for my profit), seek all holes and corners, in his full cups, driven from house and home. Dunbar's clown has now made its way to London, iv. 365. The form depth had long been in use ; but Ridley, wishing to express the cunning of Satan, revives the old deepness, vii. 422. The word lieap is no longer confined to something concrete, heaps of joy, viii 627. The word ring leader is used in a good sense, i. 259. The word shoal may in.] THE NE W ENGLISH. 54 1 now be used of men as well as of fish, i. 272. The word boatswain is still employed for a common sailor, ii. 247. The word sweepstake is used in the Neuter Gender, as equivalent to havoc, iii. 362. The word nap still bears its old exalted sense, for taking a nap is used of sleeping with Christ, viii. 172. The word odds gets a new meaning, that of disparity, ii. 771. The word imp had hitherto been em- ployed most honourably, and is applied to Edward VI. in vi. 350 ; but in iv. 75 we see young imps of this impious generation; and in v. 640 imp of Satan. Foxe wishes that More had kept himself in his own shop (profession), iv. 652; hence our "talk shop." We find packing in con- nexion with a jury, iv. 204. We hear of bands employed in Wishart's dress, and connected with his shirt, v. 626. The word shroud seems to lose the old sense of vestis, and to be connected with burial, vii. 548 ; it was worn by Latimer at the stake. Foxe, like former writers, speaks of swearers as teams of God, viii. 641. He coins hand-book from manual, ii. 29 ; but this had been coined once before, prior to the Conquest. The old tunmon is revived as townsman; and the old lore reappears in the South after a long sleep. He is fond of the suffix ling, as popeling, Bonnerling. The word jill is used as an abusive epithet, applied to the Lady Elizabeth, and giving rise to a long dispute, viii. 623. We know " Jack in office ;" Foxe talks of John out of office, p. 663. A writing is said to have neither head nor foot (tail), v. 479. Bradford, in the year 1555, seems to have first used the favourite pun of Uteslieep for bishop, vii. 248. We hear of the toll-booth (prison) at Cambridge, viii. 285. The name Dennis may be borne by a woman, p. 640. The descriptive word spinster is now used after a proper name, as Rose Allin, spinster, viii. 306. On the other hand, ividow is used as a prefix, Widow Swaine, p. 599. We see the Suffolk name Dowsing, p. 424, a name terrible to the lovers of architecture ninety years later. Other feelings are called up by the name Thomasin a Wood, p. 377. There is the odd phrase in p. 627 (her hopes) all came to a castle -come- down ; we have already seen castles in Spain. The word jug is seen, p. 42 ; Mr. Skeat derives it from 542 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. Judith, a pet name for a pitcher. A new word, seems to have been coined in Queen Mary's time ; Foxe explains it as one who makes and hastens the fire for the martyrs, p. 426. Cranmer falls in a stand, p. 42 ; hence our "come to a stand." We find Agnes Glascock written Mistress A. Glascock to suit a rime, p. 195 ; it is the earliest instance, I think, of one letter doing duty for an English Christian name. We have seen the franchise of London ; Foxe writes of the freedom of Ayr, p. 443; speaking of a district. In p. 465 a man asks further day; this word and law seem to be synonyms in more than one instance. A tradesman talks of this bill of my liand, p. 473 ; hence our note of liand. We see the original of coping stone in p. 514, a man wears a coping tank (head covering); this comes from the old cop. Among the Adjectives are a sparing man, a might i/ />'.'/'', cockish (our cocky), in free prison, beetle -headed, chuff- headed (hence our chuck -headed), brazen-faced, quick with child. Foxe is fond of coining new adjectives by adding like to a substantive, as truthlike, Gospel-like, hosteler -like, doctoi'ly, sightly. He is the first, I think, to use stingy (parcus), i. 269. The old true still means honest us ; get a penny truly, viii. 498. We see hither treated like further and made an Adjective, the hither bank, p. 568. The word untidy is used of ground that produces weeds, iv. 121 ; it is also applied to arguments (slovenly), viii. 234. The sweet is prefixed to Saints' names, by sweet St. Peter, ii. 527. There is a curious Superlative, the pickedst (choicest) things, i. 332. A substantive is prefixed to an Adjective where a Preposition is understood, as knee-deep, ii. 177. The white appears once more for favourite; the Pope's own white son, ii. 190. Orrmin's old sheepish now gets the new sense of stultus, iv. 51. What we call a lame excuse appears as a blind excuse, iv. 613. In the same page we read of a good debt (likely to be discharged). The word better stands for more; we desire no better, i. 308. In vii. 316 we must take earthly things for no better than they be. A mother, when bearing a child, may have a good time, vi. 710. The word manly stands for humanus, v. 372. Barbour's like (likely) in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 543 has now come South ; like enough (probable) stands in p. 489 ; Bradford says that a man had like to have been slain, vii. 161. The homely becomes further degraded, and stands for crudelis, vi. 695. A woman looks bleak (pallida), viii. 221 ; persecutors look black in the mouth, p. 617. Some- thing cost a hundred pounds thick (a solid sum), p. 260. We hear of fine (good) writers ; a fine fellow. The adjec- tive is now employed as a kind of parenthesis, " unto whom, good man, he submitted," vi. 657. Cranmer is said to be the very middle man of all the martyrs, viii. 90 ; half being burnt before, half after him. A parish in Essex is called in one and the same page, 142, Much Burstead and Great Burstead ; Essex certainly belongs to the South. There is the old Northern phrase wlwle as a fish, p. 673. As to Pronouns, there is something new in / Mve dis- covered mine, yours, and England's enemies, viii. 675. The my is now dropped before a title of honour ; we see Lady Bartlet, viii. 581. Foxe well marks the contrast between the mild Bishop of Chichester and the savage Story when they are examining a martyr ; the first addresses him with you, the latter with thou, viii. 341. The rightful Dative, well tvas him, is changed ; well was he that could, etc., iv. 581. The it or they may be dropped, words as plain as can be, viii. 587. The it has a backward reference; a man, frightened in his sleep, thinks that he shall never recover it, ii. 533. This it may be substituted for there/ wJiat tongue is it that slie knoweth not ? viii. 602. The wJiat is used for aliquid, one of its oldest senses; wot you what, says Henry VIII., in v. 690; hence Shakespere's "I tell you what." The old such like makes way for such kind of things, iv. 619. There is the phrase to all their comforts (to the comfort of them all), viii. 620. The Latin omnia mea is imitated in my all, i. 287. The all has a backward reference, do it far none of them all, viii. 460 ; men suffer all because they would not stoop, iv. 106. We see / can say none otherwise, and also no otherwise, in viii. 360. Gardiner seemed nobody in Scripture know- ledge, p. 587 ; a new phrase. A king in ii. 283 claims to Ije his own man (act for himself). It is their own fault stands in viii. 125. A monarch is ready enough and too much to 544 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. gratify the clergy, iii. 228. Men are all in a tale, viii. 42, Dogberry's future phrase ; here the a is clearly used for one. There is the new phrase any one diocese, viii. 344. The Numerals appear in Plural forms ; men are killed by two and threes, ii. 574. There is the curious idiom for your two sakes, viii. 186. The phrase a twelvemonth had long been known; we now find one twelvepence, p. 473. Brad- ford says that half a suspicion was in him ; that is, he half suspected, vii. 259. Gardiner makes a half turn to the Gospel, p. 587. The every whit is sometimes changed ; he lost the money every groat, viii. 473. Among the Verbs are give check to, fall in with (meet), make up to him, put in practice, fall out (accidere), break the neck of disturbance, let fall (drop), cut up meat, take sides, lay a train (dolus), go against him (displease), Iwld out, talk over the matter, smell a rat, ii. 466, a spread eagle, come what would, a book came out, take up the matter, cut his comb, keep in with them, go (agree) with the Pope, make short work with, fly in my face, keep him in play, lead by the nose, go to print (press), stand in force, things hang together (concur), it came unto him to speak, give my guess, I take it to signify, make battle, feed his wars, go the right way to work, miscall (vitu- perare), tlie beaten way, not know which way to turn him, have words with (a conference), quicken (look alive), unsay, play fast or loose with, turn head to tail (alter his opinions), cut out words\(\n a parchment), come in question, send it pack- ing, unlwuse, warn him out of his house, fetch (bring) it about, let the matter sleep, have (know) Latin, if it were to do again, fall to it (begin the attack), give cause, tire him out, take to his legs (Palsgrave had here inserted him), take exceptions against, keep a stir, come forward (get on in life), fish for things, to lord it, break the ice, to fleece, keep order, unbishoped (deprived of see), stand to their tackle, he will have the last word, look big, I can tell you, vii. 667; I will be hanged if, etc., mar your own market, call him opprobrious names (here we drop the Adjective), take a note of it, make the best of it, be put to it (compelled), tied to time, take depositions, give out (proclaim), meddle or make, eat your words, skim over it, take in men (decipere, viii. 536), make an escape, untaken, take in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 545 their iiames, blow Jwt and cold, take place (succeed), to do it was death, make his appearance, what do you make of it, liave a good opinion of, follow tlie camp, make a lane (passage), go to tJie wwst (bad, viii. 662). There is a new Verb tinkle, formed from the sound. A new form of the old gird (ferire) appears in jerk, i. 208, retaining as yet the same meaning. The old pulten (trudere) is now found with a slightly altered sense and form ; pelt with stones, ii. 452. In iii. 367 we hear of the fetching (dolosus) practice of Prelates ; the meaning of the word is rather altered in the slang of our day. The old scrape gives birth to a new verb scramble, v. 459. The sloor (csenum) of the ' Promptorium ' gives birth to slomj (foedare), viii. 172 ; hence our slur. The old verb tf,eardian (trifle) seemed to have vanished ; but in p. 485 Bonner flirts a martyr under the chin with a stick. In i. 341 Rome takes head above other churches ; hence our to make Jiead, or take rank. The phrase blow up (evertere) is used without reference to gunpowder ; a storm blows up houses and trees, ii. 376. We had long used fall out (certare); to this, in iii. 416, is opposed fall in with (agree) ; so soldiers are ordered to fall in ; that is, keep a uniform line. The verb miss takes a new sense ; a man misses (leaves out) certain words, viii. 493. The verb cross is used first for adversari ; to cross men, vi. 608; also for transire ; cross the sea, viii. 713. Henry the Eighth's verb scale gains a fresh meaning ; skin scales off, viii. 328. There is a new use of shut up, a favourite phrase in our day ; / have shut up your lips ivith your own book, viii. 216. The verb toll (trahere) is now first used in connexion with bells, vii. 439. The verb come is used without implying any physical motion; he came to understand that, etc., viii. 327; " arrive at the knowledge." We have seen fetch a compass; we have now fetch a leap, vii. 604 ; Bunyan's Apollyon " fetches a blow." There is the vile compound disclothe. A penitent keeps his measures at the Confiteor, viii. 206 ; that is, "goes through the customary duty;" our "keep no measure with" suggests transgressing all custom. A priest shows up (elevates) the Host, p. 214 ; our use of the verb is very different. The verb leave off had hitherto VOL. I. 2N 546 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. governed a Participle; we now see leave off slioes, ii. 351. A martyr is asked to come into one church with the Bishops, vi. 597 ; hence " come into the scheme." Bradford speaks of worthiness, and then adds, Worthiness, quoth I? (do I say?), vii. 265. The verb / lay is dropped in betting sentences; twenty pounds, it is a man, viii. 539. Foxe mis- takes the old wolde nolde, and writes wtt'd she, nil'd she, p. 556. When a man offers to take his death upon a certain thing, p. 611, we see how take a bet arose. The get you had hitherto been followed by an Adverb ; we now see get you gone, viii. 595. Foxe is fond of the phrase luive him by the back ; hence the later "have him on the hip." In viii. 622 there is a plot to take the Queen out of the way (kill her) ; this is the later take off; the Irish conspirators of 1882 used the more polite remove. Queen Mary yields life to nature, p. 624 (pays the debt of nature). Some people, beggared and ruined, are left to the wide wurbl in thnr clothes, viii. 630. The old Future is very plain in the phrase candles you get none, vii. 667. The old shall gives way to must, in you must understand that, etc., iv. 593. Ridley employs would in the Northern sense ; / think ilmt he would not say so (cannot have said so), vi. 487. There is a curious instance of the development of the Passive voice in viii. 318, no testaments durst be fa-otight ; also, in p. 601, men were deprived of their lands, for him to be in- ducted. A Participial phrase may be greatly enlarged ; a- not-enough-circumcised heart, vi. 635. A noun is prefixed to the Past Participle, as stall fed, vii. 232. We have seen that niman once meant vadere as well as capere ; a man now takes down a lane when flying, viii. 337. The bear governs a Passive Infinitive, bear to be admonished, v. 135. There is the cry stop ! stop ! viii. 320. We find a new use of the Accusative after the Verb in to live the Gospel, vii. 197. The was is dropped before need; more ado than needed, viii. 6. The word tumble now becomes transitive, tumble 'i/iy bed, v. 424. We have seen Barbour's put him to sea ; the Accusative is now dropped; put from tJie shore, vii. 369. The verb whip takes a new meaning ; whip on my clothes, viii. 336. There is a curious phrase in vii. 147, a man in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 547 shifts himself with a clean shirt ; here two different mean- ings of the verb seem to be mixed together. The phrase look foi- adds the meaning of qucerere to that of expectare, viii. 6. The verb yelp is now confused with the old galpen of 1360, and means clamare, viii. 89 ; it ceases to bear its old sense gloriari. The old spruten (pullulare), used of trees, is now applied to blood, and the letters are trans- posed; blood spirts out, viii. 578. An unlearned assistant sets a priest, p. 610; that is, baffles or puts him out; this new sense is still known in the hunting field. The verb want certainly expresses desidemre in p. 688; hereunto we want indifferent using (fair treatment). As to Adverbs, Foxe compounds them in the old English way by adding like or ly to a noun ; as school-like (scholas- tic^), i. 49, bishoplike, Christianly, flatly ; the ly is added to Past Participles, as groundedly instructed, iv. 384. No- thing plainer marks the change in the use of cheap, than that the Adverb cheaply should be found, iv. 445. There is the negative nay sure, viii. 355, which may still be heard. There is a new use of however ; it is found in the middle of a sentence by itself, and stands for tamen, v. 369. Foxe uses while in the Northern sense of until in vi. 717. The well is used for naturally ; displeased, as he might full well (be), ii. 161. The togetJier is added after nouns; Chaucer and Gower were great friends together, iv. 249. Latimer runs as fast as his old bones would carry him, vi. 534. There is out of heart ; a beard is on, vi. 718 ; see the game out, p. 615; the wind is up, p. 379. A person speaks thick, vi. 700. Bonner offers a man fair, vii. 356. We say that a man is good all round ; the phrase used by Foxe is on every side a man, vii. 97. Ridley uses forth much in its old sense, equivalent to far (procul) ; forth of the Church is no salvation, vii. 412. A woman, being asked her age, answers, forty and upwards, viii. 537. There is ever anon, p. 550 ; we insert and between these words. The old overthwart makes way for the Scotch athwart ; athwart the face, ii. 189. The use of under, in the sense of less than, is extended ; a prelate never rides 548 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. under fifteen hundred horse, ii. 311. Gardiner plays under the board, v. 526; we say, fair and above board; above the board stands in vi. 703. There is at no hand (by no means), viii. 612, which leads to our "at first hand." We see the phrases, by halves, a king at arms (herald), out of use, to my knowledge ; the in is used to compound, as the verb imbox, ii. 715. Something happens, and is followed by another circumstance, upon the neck of this, ii 435 ; this neck had appeared in Ascham. There is upon a sudtl/'/i, v. 264, meaning, I suppose, on or in a sudden time. Cranmer, seeing King Edward's learning, declares that he never thought that to have been in him, v. 700. The over supplants for in compounding, as overwatch himself, vl 57. The old endlang is altered ; certain chests are set on end, p. 283. A man does not come up with a fugitive, but comes in with him, p. 337. The toward is coupled with Numerals and is used of time ; a person is well toward (on to) a hundred (years), p. 553. A curious instance of a Preposition being dropped is, shoot the bridge, p. 609 ; here through disappears. Bonner's oath, by my troth, is objected to by one of the martyrs, vii. 355 ; the Bishop also swears, by All-hallows, viii. 407. Mocking laughter is represented by Iwugh, hough, 352. The words akin to or derived from the Dutch and German are furlough, jeer, buoy. The Scandinavian words are paltry, to bilge (of a ship), pad (bundle), billow. Bonner calls a man " a stout boyly heretic;" this may be bully, coming from bullra (clamare). Among the Romance words are manage, bad economy, give mate to, initiate into, public house (church), sclwolfellow, carry pick-back, i. 30, ulcer, unique, i. 261, impoverish, pre- ordain, to stomach, reiterate, to unpope, to unpriest, to disprirxf, press him to pay, story-book, concertation, encroach (seize upon), aggravate (oppress), cream (chrism), appeal him up, landiiuj place, sequel, harpy, feastful day (festival), expunge (root out), exasperate, expostulate, debase, revolt, repulse, evacuate (quash), belabour, monied man, principal (of money), innovate, escort, larum bell, disfavourer, pi'eposterous, to articulate matters, bail HI.] THE NE W ENGLISH. 549 a, man, spite him, figment, foreface (preface), a summary, laboured story, exhilarate, copartner, copse, plausible, a taste of it, cases incident (happening), atheist, explode (hiss), halbert, oblique, declare himself, muleteer, lunacy, interlard, push on, instinct-ions (instincts), to foil, bastardize, escape clear, paradox, to import (mean), impressions (printed copies), rejoinder, jutty (jetty, pier), appendix, to scJwol him, uncivil (churlish), a private man, it is no great matter (of conse- quence), mummery, old stager, to frequent, collation (com- parison), hyperbolical, discommend, offensive, practical, porket (pig), unnatural, to pinion, solicitous, pass the pike, pass through the pikes, lineaments, main post, coat-card (court card), refractorious, grand master, retire (convey), challenge (claim) kindred, scarf, a composition, beagle, piinted papers, well affected, disable, resolve a, doubt, relent, try his patience, the push of the pike (assault), leave unprovided, proterve, faci- norous, to undress, an exercise (a prayer), he was placed schoolmaster, one quarter's stipend, an innocent (idiot), to pump, it is no manners to, etc., peephole, gentlefolks, heroical, personable (handsome), out of countenance, turncoat, for old acquaintance sake, recover himself, rjassage boat, gentlewoman- ivaiter (lady in waiting), sergeant at arms, communicants, un- gentlemanly, chamber of presence, passionate, laws penal, field- piece (cannon), re-enter. The word dictate means to "set up for master," i. 200. The verb point, ii. 373, gets the new meaning of placing stops in a sentence. The word stress, as distinguished from distress, is now confined to the weather, ii. 316. The old ride in post is now shortened into to post. There is the new phrase, offer contumely (offer an insult), ii. 276. The word face now expresses impudence ; have the face to write, ii. 476. The word manure changes and takes its modern sense of stercus; Jwrse-manure, iv. 533. Tyndale had talked of canvassing (examining) a man ; Foxe writes of canvassing voters, iv. 601. He has Ascham's word antics, v. 4, meaning apparently curiously carved bosses ; he adds to this sense (it had already appeared in Hall), the new sense of freaks, iv. 665 ; for he speaks of More's antics as a writer. The verb ply adds the sense of occupare to its old meaning fledere, v. 24. There is a new sense of 550 THE NEW ENGLISH. ICIIAI-. ordinary in, p. 115 ; a gentleman keeps a good ordinary at his table ; that is, welcomes every one. The old courtezan now takes the sense of meretrix, p. 137. Gardiner was an organ of Satan, p. 258 ; a new sense of the word. Cromwell was touched when he read the Scriptures, p. 365. Henry VIII. says that his nature (disposition) is always to pardon, p. 691. A man may now be pledged, when you drink to him, p. 493. The verb prejudice takes a new meaning, vi. 550, which we express by pre- judge. In p. 613 state is opposed to church. Memories are present (good), p. 664 ; this after- wards led to presence of mind. The verb pretend now means proponere ; pretend an oath against a man, vii. 159. Barclay had used promoter for a lawyer ; Foxe constantly uses the word to signify an informer, and this last word is also employed. Latimer was hindered from his dtttf/-<.l<>iniii(! are used for a Mussulman, iii. 359. Foxe uses Romidi Catholic, also Catholic, iii. 350, the Pope's sect, Romanist, iv. 473, papist; he calls certain doctors "great Rabbins." He speaks of the black guard of the Dominies (black friars), iv. 169; the phrase is also found in Grafton's Chronicle. He talks with scorn of psalm-saying friars, viii. 84 ; hence our psalmsinging. The word gentility is used for heathenism in i. 309. Bonner wishes to reclaim two men to his faction and fashion, vi. 730 ; a curious instance of the old Latin in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 553 word and its French corruption side by side. The origin of our carte blanche appears when Richard II. sends out blank charts, iii. 219. Foxe complains of something being blanch stuff, i. 278; hence our "sad stuff." Certain men are cousins-germans removed, ii. 93, which leads to a well- known phrase of ours. Edward I. is called a fierce young gentleman, ii. 551. Latimer's arguments are exhibited up, vi. 501; hence our boys show up verses. The word infidel stands for Pagan, vii. 168. The word Christian is employed for a pious man; Cobham is called tlie Christian knight, iii. 322; religion is used for Protestantism, viii. 41, a well-known French usage. Foxe brings back quarrel to its old sense querela in viii. 7, where the mild Cranmer quarrels with his friends for promoting him. The word desperate is much used ; the desperates stand in iv. 620. Queen Mary's expected babe is called this young master, vii. 125. The word master is used as of old in fresh com- pounds, as master -cowl (chief cowl), ii. 52. The word train is now connected with gunpowder, iv. 59. Latimer uses politic and civil as meaning the same, vii. 416. Foxe, following his countryman Manning, uses the rare word enamoured, viii. 72. Among old English words and forms used by Foxe are fore-elders, spill a body (perdere, i. 261), overlive him,, as ye ween, to housel, his evil willers, well-willers, soul health, Everik (York, ii. 255), to forslack, spar (claudere), lin (cessare), namely (praecipue'), to wreak them of, witch (warlock), make (conjux), moirow-mass, loadsman (dux), to gainstand, wanhope, ruth, have no nay (denial), middle-earth, brim (ferus), lese (perdere), otherwhile, market-stead, inchmeal, spur (rogare), dere (Isedere, iv. 200), rock (colus), the five Wits (senses), to kemp, dizard (stultus), some deal (somewhat), glaver (blan- diri), braid (impetus), he can (scit) grammar, a youngling, be crazed (ill). There is the old idiom the prater's daughter of that city, iv. 81 ; also ride or go (walk). Among old words and forms, non-Teutonic, we find titiviller (mischief- maker), spouse-breach, take travail, goods and cattle (chattels), rascal (common) soldier, scurrier (scout), acJiates, a stroy-good (destroyer of property), it forceth not (it matters), augrim 554 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. (arithmetic), / am well apaid, a many (turba). The word knour (nodus), still in Northern use, is employed by a Lan- cashire man, vii. 68. His countryman Bradford uses buslde, the Northern busk (parare), vii. 203 ; also weal (divitise). The Kentish office of bars -holder appears ; the word is still in use. A Devonshire woman is called a mazed creature, viii. 499 ; the term is not obsolete. The word harborom had so slipped out of use that Foxe has to explain it, viii. 20. A very favourite metre, about 1550, was the one afterwards used by Lord Macaulay in his 'Virginia;' there is a long specimen in vii. 356; this metre dates from the Twelfth Century. The poet here uses yclad, doubtless in imitation of Chaucer. Thomas Aquinas appears as Thomas of Wat ring, i. 107. Foxe draws a broad distinction between Briton and Englishman, i. 258, and tells us that the Saxons spoke English, p. 347. He derives lurdane from Lord Dane, ii. 76. He tells us that the Dutch tongue was spoken at Ostend, viii. 664. His use of the word boor (agrestis, ii. 452) is a memorial of his sojourn in what he calls Dutchland, as also is his horror of the Turks. His idea of king craft is peculiar ; for the many rebellions crushed by Edward VI. are reckoned among the boy's glories, viii. 627. A gentle- man's son, in those days, might be sent to London as an apprentice, viii. 473. The dialogue in viii. 322 shows how humble a chaplain had to be to his patron. Foxe declares that Elizabeth had a marvellous meek stomach, p. 604 ; she altered rather later. The Tudor arms in churches are referred to in viii. 56, "down with the arms of Christ, and up with a lion and a dog ! " The word Lollardy was still in use in 1557, viii. 261. Foxe complains that the Popes hold Eome from its lawful Emperor, a con- tinual treason, iii. 380. English pronunciation of Latin at this time could not have differed much from that used in Germany; see viii. 575. Foxe has a full belief in Prester John, iv. 91, whom he quarters in Africa. The Italians, it is remarked, do not lightly praise those who are not their countrymen, viii. 604 ; Milton confirms this. We have a fine example of Spanish courtesy, where Philip in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 555 makes the Lady Elizabeth such an obeisance that his knee touched the ground, p. 623. Foxe couples players with printers and preachers as God's bulwark against the Pope, vi. 57. One pious martyr is specially let out of prison to play in the Coventry pageant, in Mary's time, viii. 170. Bonner, threatening to have a man hanged, says that he will make twelve godfathers to go upon him, vii. 409 ; the phrase was later applied to Shylock. Bonner refuses the title of master to a heretic, Master Green, p. 740. We see some of the earliest germs of Puritanism in p. 70, where a martyr talks of Paul's church (so called) and of Christ's day (Easter day) ; our Lady's chapel is also objected to, viii. 586 ; Tyndale had not gone so far as this. A heretic might be known by his use of the phrases, the Lord, we praise God, the living God, the Lord be praised, viii. 341. Old Testament names came in ; one of the heretics has his child christened Josue, p. 434. A bishop, with them, became a superintendent, p. 540. Foxe gives us the pro- verbs, to stop two gaps with one bush (kill two birds with one stone), iv. 199 ; man purposeth one thing, and God disposeth another, p. 608; neither time nor tide is to be delayed, viii. 608. There is the phrase, is the wind in that corner? viii. 205 ; Gardiner, threatening to rack a man, says, " I will make thee a foot longer," p. 584. A heretic makes the pun that she will not swim in the see of Eome, p. 391. St. Nicholas' clerks (thieves) are mentioned in p. 579. Foxe is the first English writer, I think, who added notes to his text. In Arber's 'English Garner,' i., iv., and v., may be found certain narratives, among others those of Under- bill's imprisonment and Hawkins' voyages, pieces ranging between 1558 and 1570. We see the on once more cut down to a, as astern and asJiore. We hear of Scio and Leg- Iwrn ; the last is a curious change from Livorno. There are the new Substantives Iwusewom, the leeward, the wind- wards, soundings. The word firework stands for a warlike engine, used to defend Calais, iv. 198. The word mound (defence) is revived after a long sleep, iv. 198; it may afterwards have been confused with mount. The word 556 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. breach is used in connexion with walls. A man is said to be a plague to others, p. 119. We hear of the main (main- land) of Cuba, p. 120 ; hence the later Spanish Main. The word bed is, connected with oysters, p. 132. There is the phrase in ten fathom water, p. 121. The word v id ruth takes the sense of mendacium, i. 42. Silver is called white money, p. 55. There is the new Adjective westerly, which is confined to winds. We have the phrase if the worst fall, iv. 91. There is the verb trade, i. 51. We see make the approach, sJww lights, spring a mast, turn their tails, make much way (speed), as God would have it, fill water (fill casks with water), lose Hie sight of. We see the new sense of cut repeated in the year 1558, men cut (run) over the ground, iv. 190. A mark had hitherto been overshot; sailors now overshoot a harbour, v. 113. The word make gets the sense of putare ; we made it to be Jamaica, p. 118. We have seen never so much; we now find tn.rri/ crc.r so little longer, p. 235. There is the verb moor, and also brackish, derived from the Dutch. There is the verb tack about, from the Celtic tack (nail, rope). Among the Romance words are top -gallant, tragedies (cruelties), offer skirmish (battle), reinforce; officer (of ship), to double the Cape, poop, pompion (pumpkin), breeze, to double along (tack), a complice, volley, in all respects. We hear of the caroling (carlini) of Naples, i. 55. A new feature in England is the number of Spanish words, such as morion, cask, tornado, turtle (the reptile), disembogue, flamingo. Some Indian words have been changed since Eden wrote, as canoe, maize, potato, v. 104; there is also hammock. The description, but not the name, of tobacco appears in p. 130. One tribe of Africans is called the Samboses, p. 95, whence comes Sambo. There is shark, said to come from the Greek karcharos ; the old pesen makes way for the new Plural peas, p. 246. The French piquer, confused with an English verb, gives us, to pink a jerkin, p. 96. A cunning knave professes to tell fortunes, iv. 98 ; a new sense of the word. Hawkins uses reasonable weather for reasonably good weather, p. 215. He manures (manoeuvres) a ship, p. 225. Certain London merchants form a Company for in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 557 the Guinea trade ; we read of " Garrard and Company," pp. 231 and 232. In 1559 certain lawyers are called the utter barr ; see Dr. Murray's Dictionary. Many of Becon's works (Parker Society) date from about 1560. In his 'Prayers' we see the old Pernel (Petronilla) changed into Parnel, p. 267 ; pretty Parnel appears there as a nickname for a priest's mistress ; she is called Petronilla in p. 265 ; the name had represented a bad character, 200 years earlier. Another nickname is Good-wife Pintpot, p. 276. There is massmonger; and we see a token of Becon's flight into Germany, when we find sin- flood (the Deluge) in p. 400. In p. 269 the mass is called both pedlary and pelting (paltry) ; the last word was to be used by Shakespere. There is the new phrase she-saint, p. 265. Keeping silence in p. 276 appears as play mum- budget (most Shakesperian) ; perlegere is Englished by run voer. We remember Mr. Gladstone's famous hands off ! addressed to the Austrian Emperor in 1880 ; hand off! say the Papists, p. 268, when insisting on putting the Eucharist into the mouths of the faithful. There is address himself to ; to degenerate. The term Calvinist appears for the first time in England, I think, in p. 401. The old husel is corrupted into hushel, and is called a Popish word in p. 380. Becon tells us that in some parts the faithful laity would cry to the priest at the Elevation, " hold up, Sir John, heave it a little higher!" p. 270. There is a most lively description of the blessing that Purgatory was to the priests in p. 277. Becon mentions "an old proverb used among us " (it was long afterwards to be rimed by Defoe), " wheresoever God buildeth his church, there the devil also buildeth his chapel," p. 400. The word flittermouses (bats) is a record of Becon's cure in Kent, p. 378. Bishop Jewel (Parker Society), about 1560, mentions cuts and girds as weapons of controversy, p. 99 ; he has also the word scarecrow, p. 352. There is the phrase at random, I think for the first time, in p. 528. Mention is made of the Jannizers ; a title here given to the Pope's champions. 558 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. Bishop Pilkington's ' Sermons ' (Parker Society) date from about 1560. He writes Bitllen (probably pronounced with an accent on the last syllable) for Boulogne, much as Colayn was written for Cologne. Among the new Sub- stantives are gamester, p. 663, also lip-labour, a tosspot. The word foundation is replaced by ground-work, p. 495. Hildebrand, we are told, might be called a hell -brand. Among the Verbs are, fetch a high note, rack tlie rent, take him napping, p. 437. Men stand on figures (attach import- ance to), p. 379 ; hence "stand on his dignity." Physicians m&y put up their pipes (give up business), p. 601. Certain miracles would make a horse to laugh, p. 587 ; hence our horse laugh. Among the words brought back from Pilking- ton's exile in Germany are burghmaster, p. 259 ; a dodkin of money, p. 607, from the Dutch duyt (doit). There is the favourite pun bite-sheep for bishop ; and this he derives from the Dutch name, p. 495. There is the famous swashbuckler, p. 151; the swash is Scandinavian, (ferire). Among the Komance words are carpet gentleman, to part companies (go asunder), time-server, to cozen (French cousiner}, frizzle hair, a Christian man. The word Protestant was supplanting Gospeller in 1562 ; see p. 416. Pilkington enlarges on the old glories of England's archers ; he gives a common byword, used of bad bowmen, "he shooteth like a Scot," p. 428. The Bishop shows us that the workmen of his time were as prone to scamping work as they are now ; the labour- ing man at noon must have his sleeping time, p. 447 ; here a scene is described much like the opening chapter in ' Adam Bede.' It was a common proverb to speak of an idle man as an abbey lubber, a long lewd lithe r loiterer, p. 610. Pilkington was not strong in our history ; he says that the Saxons drove out the Englishmen (Britons), p. 188. He remarks that the Northumbrians down to his own day have always recited the Paternoster, the Creed, and the Ten Commandments in English metre, never in Latin, p. 500. His own Northern forms are Irethcr (fratres), duddles (duds). In Collier's ' History of Dramatic Poetry/ vol. ii., there are some pieces given that date from about 1560. There in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 559 is a tendency to contract and cast out letters ; thus heile (our he'll) stands for he will, p. 376; there is whatsere (whatsoever), p. 381 j tza (it is a), p. 374. We hear of the rection (insurrection), p. 368. The n is inserted inflincher, p. 374 ; and in the lengthner (one who lengthens), p. 380. We hear of a maister's mate (ship's officer), p. 293; there is the name Susan Sweetlips, p. 377. The old Adverb groveling (gruflinge) is made an Active Participle in p. 404, paving the way for grovel. There is to set a joint (broken), p. 9. A bell goes ding (long, p. 376. There is the Scandi- navian verb flant, used of flags, p. 293. Among the Romance words are bayse (laurels), jigge (dance), to moyl, country dance. There is triump (a game at cards) and dewsace, p. 231. We hear of dise of vauntage, p. 376 ; hence "to take advantage of a man." We hear of a miser's wealth, p. 374 ; here the Latin word is first con- nected with money. In 1561 came out Sackwille's well-known play, our first tragedy, and our first specimen of blank verse on the stage. Many years earlier, Surrey had used this metre in a poem. Our earliest sea-song appeared about 1570 ; it may be seen in p. 293. In the ' Babees' Book ' (Early English Text Society) are many pieces dating from about 1560. A ship has its staies, p. 243. A boy should be courteous aud free of cappe, p. 341 ; to cap had not yet been coined. The new use of handker- chiefs led Englishmen to blow the nose, p. 79 ; in p. 77 we see that to drink manerly was one thing, to quaff another. There is the new verb brable (brawl) in p. 92. The old smak (gustare) gets confused with the Dutch smak (fragor) in p. 344 ; a boy must not smack his lips. Among the Romance words are shirt collar, amceites after dinner (our dessert), p. 68, to inable yourself to nurture (aptare), p. 74. The French coy takes the Teutonic ish and becomes coi/ish, meaning reserved, p. 94. Hey wood's ' Epigrams ' were printed in 1562; I have used the modern reprint. Here we see the contractions thers (there is), lets (let us), tys (it is), lie (I will). The b is struck out; we see uncomde (uncombed), p. 182, the old un- 560 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. kempt. There is the very old guttural liekst (highest), p. 170; occurring in the old proverb here set out, when bale is hekst, boote is next ; to this I have lately referred. There are the two forms seen in the ' Promptorium,' ake and acJie (dolor), pp. 131 and 111 ; in the latter page ache is used as a pun on the letter H. The w is inserted ; the cry who, addressed to a cart horse, replaces the old ho (stop), p. 152; the new word must have been sounded as huo, which was later to become our wo, or wo ho ! The Passive Participle of the old alayen (alloy) is written aloude, p. 178, and is rimed with proude ; the oi, it cannot be too often repeated, bore two very different sounds, both in France and England. The y replaces o ; we see ynions (onions), p. 206, which may still be heard. We find the new Substantive byrder, a man who goes a birding ; the word burde still keeps its old sense of pullus, p. 210. There is rennet, p. 118, derived from run, which meant coagulate in the ' Promptorium.' There is instep, p. 164, most likely from in voA. stoop (bend). We hear of the wind's eie, p. 114. The word fare comes to mean the passenger conveyed, p. 205. The word row is applied to a line of houses, as Paternoster row, p. 209. There is the proper name Dauson, p. 113. The word why is made a substantive; what is the why? (reason), p. 96 ; we know the wherefore and the why. We see dym syghted and the forcible starke staryng blinde, p. 113. In p. 90 no whit and nought stand side by side. There is a curious idiom of the Accusative in p. 92 ; the question is asked, " am I Maccabseus or Iscariot ? " the answer is "Whom it please your mastership, him let it be." As to the Verbs, creak is now used of a door, p. 99, shoes may stretche, p. 110, a clock goes, p. 213; there is take his arm, hang on his arm, a man stands to his tadiyng, p. 214, as in Foxe. There is the strong affirmative wel fare ale, I saie, p. 90. There is the Shakesperian take thine ease in thine inne, p. 132. We see the new Adverbs fyrstly, lastly, and merely (touch him neerely), p. 177. There is the command back! (go in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 561 back), p. 119. The tlwugh and the if had always been closely connected, as we see by the Latin etiamsi; in p. 145 stands / care not, though (if) / do. As to Prepositions, the to had already supplanted the far in connexion with numbers ; we now have the betting sentence, a thousande to one, he sJuill die, p. 179 ; it follows the verb change, as a nettle changes to a rose, p. 103 ; it is repeated in one short sentence, as go to olde fooles to scoole, p. 155. There is the Scandinavian fledge. Among the Romance words are out of place (unfitting), turn his tippet, a man is covered (puts on his hat), p. 156. A new phrase of 1530 is toyed with in p. 140 ' ' Thou takest hart of grasse, wyfe, not hart of grace. Cum grasse, cum grace, syr, we grase both in one place." We hear that cups may dysgyse a man, p. 184; hence disguised in liquor. There are the proverbs ' ' Ii every man mende one, all shall be mended. Lyttle sayde, soone amended." The later Homilies of the Reformed English Church were put forth in 1562. Some old phrases are here retained, such as nice (in the sense of lascivus), soul health, miscreant (unbeliever), almsman (a word of Layamon's for almsgiver). The word doles stands for limites. In Homily ix. stands (he) is in rehearsing the prayer; here we see repeated the confusion of two idioms, that of the Participle and the Verbal Noun. In Homily ii. one edition tran- slates alii by other, the old other e ; the edition of 1563 corrupts this into others. The two meanings of silly are both in vogue ; Judith is called a silly woman (poor, feeble), and elsewhere silly is coupled with foolish. There is pith of the argument (a new sense of the word), spokesman; this last word is curious, being formed from the Perfect, not from the Present ; the s also is inserted. We see at the length, with the inserted, standing for our in the end. There is the new Verb to cap; and Sunday is called a standing (fixed) day for certain purposes ; standing water VOL. I. 2 O 562 THE NEW ENGLISH. ICHAP. had appeared earlier. In Sermon ii. Councils are holden, not held; the latter Participle was soon to replace the true old form, though we still use holden on solemn occasions. We see high fed horses ; here the Adjective is used for the Adverb. The but (quin) comes into a new idiom in Sermon ii., " images were not so fast set up, but (he) pulled them down." We see the noun gibe, which is Scandinavian, in Sermon x. Among the Romance words is uniform. In Sermon ii. there is a philological discussion as to the difference between images and idols; in Scripture it is said, though not in common English speech, these mean the same ; the Pope's party seem to have held images to be Christian, and idols to be pagan. We see our common phrase, "he is no man's foe but his own." When men sneezed the usual cry was, " God help and St. John ! " Sermon ii. The system of finger- posts seems to have been in vogue, "we use in cross-ways to set up a wooden or stone cross, to admonish the travelling man which way he must turn ; " Sermon xi. Rebels of this time bore a banner with a plough painted on it, and underneath, God speed the plough; Sermon xxi. In Sermon viii. we are told to keep " the Christian sabbath- day, which is the Sunday;" some transgressors travel on Sunday without need, others, worse than the former, are " prancing in their pride, pranking and pricking, pointing and painting themselves." l Constantino and other Chris- tians built churches, where people might go to keep holy their sabbath-day. One of the misdeeds of rebels is that they profane this day. Stow has given us certain memoranda, dating from 1561 to 1567, when they end ('Three Fifteenth Century Chronicles,' Camden Society). The word pluck is here made a substantive, get a phtcke at him, p. 121 ; there is byrd bolt, blynd ally, brode awake, where the brode keeps one of its old meanings, apertus. A merchant bntky (broke, became bankrupt), p. 127. The Passive Infinitive follows 1 A fine alliterative sentence. in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 563 none; no yce to be sene, p. 131. The Old and the New stand side by side in p. 130, all to blewne and shatterd in pecis, p. 130; there is the phrase fall from rwghe words to blowes, p. 138 ; the last Dutch word, so common with us, had been very seldom used before this time. In p. 123 stands y e weke ending if 23 of July ; here an on is dropped after the Parti- ciple. The word Puritans occurs in 1567, and is applied to certain Anabaptists, p. 143. Several plays, ranging between 1560 and 1570, may be found in Dodsley's ' Collection ' (Hazlitt's Edition). In ' New Custom,' vol. iii., there is full in the face, plain dealing. In 'Appius and Virginia,' vol. iv., the metre is most easy ; that of the Prologue is the same that Lord Macaulay used when handling the same subject. There is the con- traction fipence, p. 118; churl and carl are used in the same line as terms of reproach, p. 149. There are the new Sub- stantives Maypole and drumble (a sleepy head) ; this last may have had its influence on the future humdrum. In p. 112 ladies are called sparks, in all honour ; the word was later to be applied to the other sex. In p. 122 stands the word thwick thwack ; here a w has been inserted in the old thack (ferire). In p. 120 vixen (she fox) is used of a woman. In p. 1 1 8 stands " as stout as a stockfish ; " hence it is that Shallow fights with one Simon Stockfish. The phrase my dear comes often ; it was to be a favourite one of Sidney's. In p. 152 stands I proffer you fair, where the adjective seems to become a substantive. In p. 138 is have with ye to Jericlw, imitated from the Jiave at you of 1360. In p. 151 stands hap tliat Imp may. There is the renowned by Jove! p. 124 ; a fig for it ! p. 135 ; body of me/ p. 121. There is the Dutch verb hustle, and the Scandinavian jaunt (travel). Among the Eomance words are haphazard, the name of a character. We saw vengeance holy a few years earlier ; in p. 150 we have run with a vengeance. In p. 125 stands passing piece, said of a lady; hence was to come masterpiece. In the same page Apelles made a piece (picture) ; hence sea piece. A man who is uncivil is said never to have learned his manners in Siville ; this pun is in p. 151. There is the proverb, "if hap the sky fall, we 564 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. may hap to have larks," p. 124. The old form file (polluere) is much used in this play. In 'Jack Jugler,' vol. ii., we have the substantive elder- ship, and the adjectives toothsome, light-fingered, tricksy. The it is used much in the sense of yonder, as it is a spiteful girl, p. 117. We see sit stewing, set a good face on it, play you a prank. A woman is said to simper, to bridle, to swim to and fro, p. 117 ; the first of these verbs is Scandinavian ; the swim here first gets a meaning something like ambulare. From box (alapa) is coined a transitive verb. There is smell strong, in the sense of olere. The Dutch dollen (to sport) produces doll (arnica], p. 169 ; hence Doll Tearsheet. In p. 223 we hear of puss, our cat ; this word may come either from the Celtic, the Dutch, or the Scandinavian. Among the Romance words are play the truand (here used of children), to lacquey. The pity-craving poor is applied by the speaker to himself; to get poor me, p. 116. The new oath was coming in, a damned knave, p. 178. ' Gammer Gurton's Needle,' probably due to Bishop Still, was written in 1566, with a good swinging metre; it is in Dodsley, iii. 172. Among the Substantives are a pin's head, dodge (dolus), p. 193, titJiepig, a book-oath, the swill tub. There is fine gentleman ; a certain man is called a two legged fox. Among the Verbs are to slop up milk (bibere), p. 193 ; like our slangy " mop up sherry ; " dodge (decipere), p. 254. There is a foretaste of a common phrase, tlwu rose not on thy right side (got up the wrong side of the bed), p. 193. A new Interrogative idiom crops up in p. 181, " ye have made a fair day's work, liave you not ? " The new Scandinavian jib (velum) is in p. 211 ; set the jib forward. Among the Romance words are gaffer, gammer (here it means ////'.s7/v>-x; we may remember the York commoder), trump (a game at cards, p. 199), lose a trump, p. 174, to pass sport (go beyond a joke), p. 202. The dame is prefixed to a poor woman's surname, as Dame CJuit. Old English words are put into the mouths of peasants, as sickcrly, swyth, and tite (protenus). The Western dialect appears, as ch'am,ich cham, vilthy (filthy) ; in p. 240 stands the Shakesperian God eild you ! The ' Trial of Treasure ' dates from about the same m.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 565 time as the foregoing piece. The a, is added at the end of a verse to lengthen it out ; / do delight-a stands in p. 290, riming with plight-a ; this was to become very com- mon. A lady is called mouse, p. 293. We see lash out (kick), p. 298, tune my pipes. A French line comes in p. 277 ; there is also a specimen of Flemish. The play ' Like will to Like ' dates from about the same time. Here we see knave of clubs, skipjack, snip-snap. The too, so favoured in this Century, reappears ; is not this too bad 1 p. 3 1 7. We see run a race. There is bottle-nosed, to scan, pledge them all carouse, p. 339. The adverb nicely (properly) is used much as it is now, p. 331. In Dodsley, iv., we find the play of ' Damon and Pithias ' of the date of 1567 ; many of Foxe's new words are found here. We see tha,tjoy is made to rime with away, p. 100. There is the contraction t'is. Wickliffe's word barnacle now appears in the Plural, meaning spectacles, p. 81. In p. 72 a man may seem a great bug (big wig) ; I believe this is still an American sense of the word. There is seat (situ- ation), p. 35 ; it is here situs, not sedes. A servant is ad- dressed as my boy, p. 28. There is share and share alike, p. 83. Among the Adjectives are seasick, log headed (wooden headed), deep in merchant's books ; a new phrase. The word good now means validus ; " try who is the better man of us," p. 67 ; this must come from have tJie better. In p. 1 7 stands " I was somebody " (a great man) ; the nobody had already been applied to Gardiner. In p. 1 6 a courtier says, "I can help one;" we should set number after the Infinitive. So unusual was the old all and sum that a clown in p. 70 is made to say, " I have wit enough, whole and sum." Among the Verbs are give him the slip, a knot may slip, he has bees in his liead, tliere is somewhat in the wind, make things worse, to look high (seem proud), make an impression, stretch one point. In p. 40 stands to pouch up money (for his own use) ; in our time, a liberal friend pouches school- boys. The verb breathe now becomes transitive, to breathe ourselves, p. 69. There is the new phrase if I speak, hang me! p. 41 ; this we should now transpose. The new Interrogative have I not ? crops up after an affirmation in 566 THE NEW ENGLISH. [(HAP. p. 60. Skelton's touch on the quick is now altered into touch to the quick, p. 11. The at is used to translate the French au ; take, me at my word, p. 56 ; "prendre au mot." The curse a plague take him! stands in p. 102. There is sconce (caput) from the Dutch ; also the Celtic plod and coil (stir) in keep a coil, p. 24. Among the Eomance words are, to incense him against, catch him into a trip, p. 23 ; hence " catch him tripping." We see he has a wooden face ; in p. 74 a servant speaks French to astonish a friend, and calls him petit Zaivw (zany or sawny) ; an Italian word. Foxe's favourite word sycophant (informer) is here much coupled with parasite, showing a change of meaning. We see presently taking our shade of meaning in p. 90 ; for here it is not protcnus, since there is an interval of time ; the foreign word shared the fate of our by and by. In p. 33 we have a pun, your course is very coarse ; our translation of cursus and the Adjec- tival form of the word. There are the old forms meve and lese (move and lose). In 'Dodsley,' vol. iv., may be found the play of 'Cam- byses.' There is the contraction what's tliat? p. 219. Gower's of kin now becomes akin to, p. 226. The initial /' is struck out, as ich ould (I would), p. 220 ; we often hear / ood now. The z for s is here much used by rustics. The old curst (crabbed) has its letters transposed and be- comes crusty (p. 184). In p. 177 three ruffians appear as Huff, Kuff, and Snuff; in p. 223 we come upon a box on the ear. The one (Number one) appears once more in its new meaning, it is wisdom to save one, p. 187. A rustic makes a retort not obsolete even now, and thou calVst me knave, thou art another, p. 220 ; here such ought to be the last word ; we may remark the contraction calTst. There is hark in your ear, make a match (marriage) with me. The Infinitive had been used much like an Interjection in 1290; I to lei'e ]>e ]>usf this is slightly altered in p. 185, tliou a soldier and loose thy weapon / here to be should follow tlwu ; this led to Shakespere's what / a young knave, and beg / something like this we have seen in Udall's play. In p. 236 we light upon the dance called liey <7/YA/A il'uldle ; in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 567 this rimes here with fiddle. There is black pudding. The old manqueller now becomes execution-man, often repeated. The old pous goes back to its Latin form ; my pulses beat is in p. 218. A rustic uses the strange form bum vay (by my fay), p. 219. The 'Marriage of Wit and Science,' in vol. ii., dates from 1570. The a replaces o, as sprat for sprot. The new Substantives are cracJcbrain (whence our cracky), this spindleshanks, a Jack sprat. In p. 362 Darby's bands may mean shackles ; hence the darbies. There is the Shake- sperian phrase, the top of the desire. The word fan is now used in the sense best known to ladies. There is the new begone ! and she takes on her like a queen, p. 350 ; here some word like state should follow the verb. In p. 362 stands speak, off or on ? (shall we remain or go 1) ; here the verb sfaill we be is dropped. A country lout says, hey tisty tust, p. 376 ; I well remember the nursery phrase tisty tosty, cowslip ball. There is the new turn of phrase, it is a good fault. In the Letters in Ellis' Collection, from 1553 to 1576, we see the i encroaching on e ; Elizabeth writes from the very first indide (indeed), bin (been), and other words of the same kind ; the form gentill (used by Sadler) appears again, whence our genteel, differing from gentle ; there is slwed (monstravit), where o replaces the sound of u. Mary Queen of Scots writes quin, hesti, gud, for queen, hasty, good ; doubtless the Northern Stuarts did much to bring in the new Northern pronunciation which took root in Lon- don after 1600; Raleigh, speaking his broad Devon at Court, must have been thought very provincial (Aubrey's ' Lives '). Among the Substantives is bigness, the cock of a pistol ; room adds the meaning of camera to its old sense, spatium. There is the Verb blast slanders of her (hence "a blasted character"). The verb make gets the new sense of evenire; he will make a rare prince. The to is developed, say to the contrary, to their likeing. Among the Romance words are cabinet, joynt of motion, demy God, pro- prietary (owner), skeptik (used by Buchanan). Sandys unfolds a pcece of his mynde. Gresham writes of th' interest $68 THE NEW ENGLISH. [ HAP. of 12 per cent by the year. The room where Rizzio died was about 12 footes square, a new way of measuring. A new phrase replaces devil ; what a mischeefe mcaneth he, vol. iv. p. 8. The word practise is used of lawyers as well as of physicians, a lawyer of great practise. The old bid is sup- planted by a French word, invite to supper. We hear of committees (men entrusted). The adjective rare appears, with the meaning of eximius, a rare prince. Burgon's 'Life of Gresham' gives us many letters, ranging from 1554 to 1571. The great merchant is fond of ie and ye, writing Lieth and Lye for Leith and Lee. The old acumba (tow) becomes okym (oakum). The t is prefixed ; Cecil's daughter Anne is called Tannikin, i. 227 ; much as Edward afterwards became Ted. The w is struck out; we read of the bishop of Norrige, i. 479. It is pre- fixed; an Irish earl appears as Woi'monde, ii. 155. /The s is prefixed ; Sprague is the capital of Bohemia, ii. 8 ; in this way Spruce had already been formed. Among the Substantives is waftage (conveyance by sea), i. 197 ; Gresham uses waft in a sense different from that employed by Cavendish a year or two earlier. We see fit of ague, mainmast, mills far powder, drinking penny, begging letter, the Queen's stamp. A horse is twelve handfulls high, i. 346 ; we now strike out the full. A board appears, meaning the persons sitting at table, ii. 162; hence we now call companies boards. There are the new words fire- lock, freebooter. There are the phrases as good luck was, between man and man. A person wishes to go for health to the Spa, ii. 93. Among the Adjectives handsome seems to get the new sense of largus, ii. 42 ; it is used of a man that has behaved hospitably ; hence our handsome offer. There is best heddyd (clever), smooth-tongued,, my last (here letter is suppressed), i. 398, nothing short of death, p. 322. Gresham is, I think, the last great Englishman who took much pleasure in the Double Negative. Among the Verbs we see an old Southern form in con- stant use, they lyeth (jacent). A town holds out, a sight is worth to go 100 myles to see it, i. 255, girr him to in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 569 understand, take the wynde of us, make a start, make despatch, run in danger, it is given out that, bosom-creeping Italians. The verb hail is used in a new way ; hayl a ship, ii. 42. The make gets the meaning of perficere; make six miles, p. 70. A man is mark yd, p. 168 ; this verb had hitherto been used of animals in the chase. Money lies dead (useless), p. 421 hence a dead loss. Among the Adverbs this may be remarked ; a lady when unwell is described as yll at ease, ii. 443 ; this ill, made an adjective, was almost to drive out the old sick, except in America. Among the Prepositions are, at all eventes (adventures), i. 234, of force (perforce). In ii. 200 certain men are Protestants for their lives (earnest) ; hence our " run for your life." Another new use of for stands in p. 19, to depart for Deientor. There is the German dollar (dollar), i. 334. In ii. 284 mention is made of deel boards ; this sense of the noun comes from the Dutch. We see the verb carouse (gar aus), a cup thoroughly emptied. The word excise, ii. 245, reverses the usual order of things, for it comes to us through the Dutch from the French ; it is another form of assise. As to Gresham's Romance words, what strikes us most is the number of our technical mercantile terms, first found in his letters. Such are dytto,\bill of ci'edit, bill of exchange, bill of lading, the chiffer (cypher), to assewre (insure) goods, a power for money. More's bancke-roupt appears here as banke-rowte. The L. S. D. , representing the Italian liri, soldi, denari, may be found in i. 432. We see the Italian verb bas- tanado, i. 269, mentioned by Gresham, living at Antwerp ; this was due to the town's Southern masters. An English knight talks of his cocJie (coach) in 1556; see i. 483. Gun- powder is sent over in poncheones, p. 3 1 8. A lottery is estab- lished in London in 1568 (ii. 338). The Protestant places of worship in Flanders are called tempells, p. 154. There are phrases like repose trust in, time serves, remember me to her, chargeable (expensive), system, a sure ship, charge pistols (a new noun), colourable bargains, waiting woman. The word stay 570 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. (morari) is in constant use. A duke invites himself to a house, ii. 1 84 ; this verb was encroaching on the Teutonic bid. The artists of that age appear as picture makers, p. 467. The word mynyster gets a new sense, that of legatus, i. 399. The Prince of Orange is called his excellentcie, ii. 206 ; he has Gresham to dine and gives him verie great intertainment, p. 160; hence the last word might easily come to mean ccena. In p. 196 stands Ansians (ancients, companies) of footmen; a new sense of the word, which was soon to be transferred to their commander. A knight bequeaths his celestial globe and a case of compases, p. 459. . Calf hill, a Shropshire man, in 1565 wrote an answer to Martiall's 'Treatise of the Cross' (Parker Society). He prefixes a to a word, as aweary, p. 289 ; he adds n to a word, as to lessen it, p. 331 ; this can hardly be the old Infinitive form. Among his Substantives we see loadstone, birth sin. The old stikelinde (steadfastly) of the Hali MeidenJiad (perhaps a Salopian piece) gives birth to stickler (champion), p. 8. In p. 118 we see poor souls (miseri homines). In p. 176 the old sink (latrina) is used in a moral sense; a palace becomes a sink of sectaries. Trevisa's popeJwde (papacy) becomes popedom, p. 323. In p. 236 old mother Mauldn (Malkin, Mary) is used as a synonym for a fool ; it is just possible that this may have had some in- fluence on our future mawkish (foolishly precise). " Among the Adjectives are blockish, a sore point ; there is the Comparative foolisher ; Lydgate's kingli is turned into kinglike, p. 6. We read of a live man, p. 387, Udall's new adjective. There are, moreover, the new adjectives long lived, sole lived (celibate), better lived. Our author begins in page 1 with a pun on cross, his subject ; he makes it an adjective, as overthwart had been made earlier ; cross and overthwart proofs, p. 72; in p. 113 we have cross luck (ill fortune) ; here the word begins to bear our sense froward. The one is made much more emphatic than in the old dn hund scipa; Calais was lost in one three days, p. 114. There are the Verbs unbody (leave the body), unwonted. There are the phrases leave (prowess) to others, not so sound as in.] THE NEW ENGLISH. 571 it liad been to be wislied (could be wished), p. 71, we are given to understand, that, p. 364 ; a bone for you to pick on, p. 277; hence our " a bone to pick with you." There is a most terse new idiom in p. 371, when a question has to be answered ; what would he have done ? Damned them to tJie Devil ; but long before this time we have seen the curt phrase well answered, at the beginning of a sentence. We light on the phrase it is too absurd, p. 375 ; too bad ap- peared about this same time. Among the Romance words are paradox, inteireign, impertinent, to disgrace him, instinct, hypei'bole, quid pro quo, Tarn fool, p. 226, pleadable, unconscionable, p. 177, comma, nonsuit, porkling, expostulate, votary (nun). The word humanity had long been used both for courtesy and kind- ness; Calf hill, following Tyndale, uses courtesy in the graver sense of kindness in p. 22 ; an Emperor, refrain- ing from slaughter, shows courtesy. The word humour stands for fancy in p. 208. A canker (cancer) is in a woman's breast, p. 329. In p. 54 we hear of a theolo- gian's common place (usual argument) ; we now often make the phrase an Adjective. In p. 81 a physician's prescrip- tion is called a Mil. The verb squat, p. 179, keeps its old sense of comprimere, soon to be changed. The adjective temporal stands where we happily substitute another form, temporary, p. 245. The words chrism and chrisom are dis- tinguished in p. 224 ; the latter meaning a white garment, used at baptism. Authors should be reconciled in p. 251 ; that is, their writings should be made to agree. A man is posted to do a future action when his quew (cue) conies, p. 209. The verb track stands in p. 198; trace and track have no common derivation, but they both come to us through France, the former from the Low Latin, the latter from the German. In p. 331 egregious is used in a bad sense as usual in English, play the varlet egregiously. The word sot belonged to the South and West ; it is used in its old sense of stultus, p. 273, and was to take a new sense twenty years later. The word personal, hitherto rare, appears in p. 288 ; examples, taken from the conduct of good men, may possibly be only personal, and not prompted 572 THE NEW ENGLISH. [CHAP. by God. The verb muster keeps its old sense, the Cross musters (shows) fair, p. 352. The verb urge takes the new sense of press upon us; ye urge a miracle, p. 329. The phrase turn over the leaf had already appeared ; we now have turn over histories, p. 93. The word sense had of late years come in, expressing sapientia ; we therefore find senseless, p. 103. The same distinction is drawn between worship and adore as between colere and odor are, p. 373. Martiall had been an usher at Winchester ; Calfhill treats him as a scholar in an amusing dialogue in p. 201 ; one sentence is down with him ; give me the rod here. Martiall uses the term lurde (heavy), p. 361 ; the other says he knows not what is meant. Our author is fond of puns ; in his first page he plays upon the words cross, Juimtntifi/, and martial. In p. 158 reason may bear the sense of rai*ii>, as Falstaff afterwards employed the word. I suspect that Calfhill attempts a pun in p. 186, where he speaks of the members of the Second Council of Nice (which established image -worship) as "the Nice masters;" nice might still bear its old sense stultus. Puritanism crops up in p. 363 ; it is superstitious to call our churches by the names of Saints, as St. Peter's church. There is the phrase " find a pin's head in a cartload of hay," p. 173 ; "have a quarrel to Eowland, and fight with Oliver," p. 374. We light upon a most truthful proverb in p. 113, bustum Anglorum Gallia, QaUonm Italia ; this takes a range of history from Edward III. to the first Duke of Guise. The New Indians are mentioned in p. 338. Our Salopian author has God wot, land leaper, to (/.g, iii. 139. We see Brougham in the North written Brov:liam. The d replaces th, as farding. The n is struck out in the proper name Perith, the town. There are such old forms as brickie (brittle), Southerie (Surrey), raise (impetus), /