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PHILOLOGICAL GRAMMAR.
PHILOLOGICAL GRAMMAR,
GROUNDED UPON ENGLISH, AND FORMED FROM
A COMPARISON OF MORE THAN
SIXTT LANGUAGES.
BEDra
Alf INTRODUCTION TO THE SCIENCE OP ORAMMAU,
AND
A HELP TO GRAMMARS OF ALL LANGUAGES,
ESPECIALLY
ENGLISH, LATIN, AND GREEK.
By WILLIAM BARNES, B.D.
LONDON :
JOHN RUSSELL SMITH,
36, SOHO SQUARE.
MDCCCLIT.
v:>
LONDON :
rETNTED BY E. TUCKEK, PERKT'S PLACE, OXFOED STREET.
PREFACE.
TO THE READER.
Worthy Reader,
There are three sciences which are of great
service for the strengthening of the mind and the
sharpening of the wit, and for the helping of the under-
standing in its search after truth, — Geometry, Logic,
and Grammar; but if we would make Grammar truly
worthy of its two fellow-sciences, we must seek to con-
form it to the universal or to some common laws of
speech, so as to make it the science of the language of
mankind, rather than the Grammar of one tongue.
A knowledge of the forms which have grown out of
common laws, working with peculiar elements in one
tongue, cannot be fairly taken for the Science of Grammar,
any more than a knowledge of the organs of one plant,
when some even of them are misformed from accidental
causes, is the science of botany.
The formation of language is always a conformation
to three things in nature : (1) the beings, actions, and
VI PREFACE.
relations of things in the universe ; (2) the conceptions
of them by the mind of man ; and (3) the action of the
organs of speech : and inasmuch as the beings, actions,
and relations of things, and the mind and the organs of
speech, are the same in kind to all men upon earth, and
a need of conformity to them is itself a law, so far, it is
clear, that some common laws must hold in the formation
of languages, and the science of those laws, when they
are unfolded, is Grammar.
What the Senor Astarloa says in his Apologia de la
Lengua Bascongada (Apology for the Basque Language)
is true of English as well as Spanish : " A bUnd slaver
to the Greek and Latin languages, and a readiness to
believe that every thing which imitates their idioms
must be so far regular, has misdirected or fettered our
whole literature."
Although I have sought to build my Grammar, mainly
of general forms, in conformity with common laws, yet
I have so far grounded it upoii English as to make it an
English Grammar, and have taken up so many Latin
and Greek speech-forms as to make it of service to the
less learned teacher and more forward learner of the
dead languages of our schools.
PREFACE.
VU
The languages from wliicli I have drawn my prin-
ciples and forms are, —
Latin {Lat.)
Eomaunt {Rom.)
Italian {It.)
Spanisli {Span.)
Portuguese. .... {Port.)
French Fr.
Greek Gj-eek,
Eomaic.
Albanian,
English {Eng-)
Anglo-Saxon .... {A.-Sax.)
German {Germ?)
Low Dutch .... {Lu.)
Masso-Gothic . . . {M. Goth.)
Icelandic or Norse . {Icel., No.)
Swedish {Swed.)
Norwegian {Nonceg.)
Danish {Dan.)
Old Teutonic dialects.
Welsh.
Irish.
Gaelic.
Bretonne.
Eussian {Riiss.)
Bohemian.
Polish.
Wallachian.
Wendish-Servian.
Illyric.
Bulgarian.
Turkish.
Persian {Pers.)
Sanscrit.
Hindoostanee . . . {Hindoost.)
Damulican.
Khoordish.
Mandshoo.
Mongolian.
Lazistanish, of Lazistan, by the
Black Sea.
Hebrew {Heb.)
Arabic {Arab.)
Chaldee.
Syriac.
Maltese.
Egyptian or Coptic.
Malay.
Basque.
Armenian.
Chinese.
Finnic.
Hungarian, or Magyar.
Lapponic.
Syrjpena.
Vlll
PREFACE.
Cheremissian.
Estlinonian.
Cree.
Chippeway.
Greenlandish.
Japanese.
Malay.
Maori, of New Zealand.
Hawiish, of Hawaii or Owhyhee.
Bisaya, of the Philippine Islands.
Australian.
Language of Marquesas Islands.
Tonga.
Kafir.
I am,
Worthy Keader,
Your very obedient servant,
W. Barnes.
DOBCHESTEE,
March, 1854.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Preface v
Introduction 1
ORTHOGRAPHY 6
The Breathings 10
Clippings 11
Division I. — Lip Division 14
„ II. — Tongue Division 15
„ III.— Throat Settings 15
Equivalent Consonants 18
Some Rules of English Spelling 19
Phonetic Alphabet 21
ETYMOLOGY * 28
Shifting of pure Breath-sounds or Vowels . . 47
Etymological Figures 48
Formation of Words 49
English Nouns 51
Verbal Nouns 57
Diminutive Nouns 59
Bad or Unworthy Nouns 61
Nouns of Likeness, or Madeness, or Artificiality . 61
Collective Nouns 62
Nouns of Past and Coming Time 62
Augmentive Nouns 62
Noun of Agent 63
„ of Place, &c 65
,, of Instrument 65
Nouns of Quality 66
Patronymics 67
Noun of Place 70
Gentile Nouns 71
Table of Roots 75
Universal Noun 76
Person 76
Gender 76
Number 81
The Plural of ExceUence 84
Case 85
Definite and Indefinite Things 121
CONTENTS.
Etymology — cotdimied. page
Shifting of Case. — Twofold Cases . . .121
Pronouns 145
Adjectives 155
Verbs 168
Participles 182
Negative Verbs 184
Tense 184
Table of Tense Forms 195
Mood 196
Enulisli Strong Verbs 214
Mixed Verbs 217
Adverbs and Prepositions, or Postpositions 227
Adverbs 227
Prepositions, Postpositions, &c 233
Conjunctions 240
SYNTAX 242
Eelative Propositions 243
Parenthesis 248
Single Propositions 249
Twofold Propositions 250
Ellipsis 253
Pleonasm 256
Other Figures of Grammar 256
Purity 258
Ethnology and Language 259
PROSODY 261
RHYME : 277
Twofold Rhymings 282
Blank Verse 283
Sonnet 284
Word-Matching 286
Clipping-Rhyme, or Matching of Clippings . .287
Old Teutonic Poetry 289
Celtic Poetry of the Bards 291
Palindrome 297
Paronomasia 298
Speech-Matching 298
Task 299
Hebrew Poetry 302
Index 309
A PHILOLOGICAL GRAMMAE.
INTRODUCTION.
1. Grammar is the science of speech.
2. Speech is the formation and utterance of breathsounds,
by which men communicate thoughts one to another.
Speech is not the same among all nations on the earth, but different
nations or kindreds or tribes of men own sundry bodies of breath-
sounds for the communication of thoughts.
The sundry bodies of breathsoimds owned by different bodies of
men, are called their languages, or tongues, or speeches.
3. Breathsounds of a language may be either pure breath-
sounds, or clipped or articidate breathsoimds.
The breathsounds of speech are formed by streams of breath,
flowing through the throat and mouth or nostrils, under the
action of the throat, tongue, and lips ; with the palate, teeth,
and nostrils.
The throat, tongue, and lips ; with the palate, teeth, and
nostrils, are the organs of speech.
4. A PURE Breathsound is one that may begin and end
by a stream of breath flowing through the throat and mouth,
without any motion of an organ of speech, as o, e.
A speaker, having set his organs of speech in the form with which
he utters the sound o,-may begin and end it again and again, as o, o, o ;
without any motion of the tongue, Ups, or any other organ of speech.
5. A CLIPPED or ARTICULATE Breathsound is ouc that
cannot begin and end without a motion of an organ of speech.
The breathsounds bo, po, begin with an opening of the lips ; do, to,
begin with a motion of the tongue from the palate ; ob, op, end with a
closing of the lips ; ad, at, end with a motion of the tongue to the
palate ; (jo, ho, begin with an opening of the throat ; and acj, ak, end
with a straitening of the throat; top begins with a motion of the
2 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
tonj^ue from the pahite, and ci)ds w.tU a closing of the lips ; and pot
begins with an opening of the lips, and ends with a motion of the
tongue to the palate.
Clipped breatlisounds are made of pure breathsounds, em-
bodied with motions of the organs of speech.
Breatlisounds are either short or long.
6. A SHORT Breathsound is one that takes up only the
least length of time in which a single clipped breathsound
can be clearly uttered ; as bat, met, not.
7. A LONG Breathsound is one that takes up twice the
time of a short one ; as bate, meet, note.
8. Single breatlisounds are called syllables; as a, ball,
man, sin, woe, Lon-don.
9. The breathsounds of a language form words which are
tokens either of notions^ as man, horseman, ivhite, skilful, walk,
ride ; or of relations, as fast, slow, over, under.
10. A word may be of one syllable, or of more syllables
than one.
11. Language is known among all nations, in the form of
breathsounds, for perception through the hearing ; but among
some of them words are betokened by visible or tangible
marks, for perception through the sight or touch.
The first and most natm-al form of language is that of
breathsounds, for perception through the hearing ; and as the
breathsound form of language is the first and most natiu'al
one, so it is still the best for the communication of thought
and will among men, within hearing of each other ; but, in
the breathsound form, language cannot be heard by the deaf,
and is confined Avithin a narrow sphere of space round a
speaker ; and does not continue, otherwise than in the memoiy
of a hearer, after the uttering of it : and therefore most
nations have felt a greater or less need of a form of language,
in which it may be perceived by the deaf, and by men beyond
the reach of hearing and sight, from the utterer of it, and
at any time after the outgiving of it ; and they have more
or less fully answered their need, wdth types or visible marks,
Jjy which breathsounds or words, and therefore thoughts.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 3
may be communicated to the minds of men through their
sight.
12. There are two modes of betokening and communicating
the words of language by visible marks.
13. One is the Alphabetic or Phonographic mode, in
which the pui'c breathsounds_, and the motions of the speech-
organs for the clipped breathsounds, are betokened or spelt by
marks, which we call letters.
This is the mode in which the English, German, Ai-abic, Greek, and
other languages are mostly betokened to the sight.
14. The other mode is the Symbolical or Logographic
mode, in which the words of a language are betokened, each
by its own mark.
This is the mode in which the Chinese language is mostly betokened
to the sight.
15. Both the alphabetic and phonographic modes may be
employed together, in the betokening of the same language ;
as tliey are in English, when we betoken any of the numerical
words, such as three, four, five, by Arabic numerals, 3, 4, 5,
among other words betokened by letters.
Language so betokened to the sight by visible marks, may
be called Sight-speech.
By a slight modification of the sight-speech, it has been
made intelligible through the touch instead of the sight, so
that it may be read by the blind. In this form the letters
or symbols of the words are embossed or raised upon flat
surfaces, and are perceived through the reader's fingers.
Language so betokened to the fingers may be called Finger-
speech.
Language betokened by visible types for the sight, or by
tangible ones for the touch may be called Type-language.
16. There is another mode of betokening facts and ideas —
that of signals and tokens for the hearing and sight; and
although it cannot be rightly called language, it is often a
good substitute for true breathsound speech as well as type-
language.
Of such signals are the ringing of bells for the calling of
folk to worship, or for gathering them to dinner; or for the
4 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
summoning of a waiter into a room : the clapping of hands,
in approbation of a skilful performance ; the whistle of the
railway-engine; or the bloAving of a coach-guard's horn, to
give warning of the coming of the train or the coach; the
blast of the trumpet, or the beating of the drum, by which
soldiers are bidden to their exercise or work.
Of such signals are hoisted flags, of different forms or
coloui's, by day, or lights by night ; to declare to others, on
shore or sea, their bearers' nation ; or an admiral's orders ; or
a crew's wants ; such as was Nelson's signal, "England expects
every man to do his duty."
Of such tokens is the emblem of the cross, to beget the
thought of Christ's death for man's sin, or to declare the
Christian faith of the owner of it ; such as was the cross worn
by the Christians in the holy wars.
Of such tokens are armorial bearings, which announce to
beholders, who can read the symbols of heraldry, the rank
and famdy of those Avho bear them.
Of such tokens are the uniform and badges of soldiers,
which show to what regiment they belong, and the rank they
hold in it ; and the gowns and hoods which betoken the rank
of members of the universities, and the degrees they may
have taken.
Of such tokens is the black apparel of moui*ning, which
announces its wearer's loss of kindi'cd by death; and the
wedding-ring, which betokens a woman's Avifehood, or her
mourning weeds of woe, Avhich show her widowhood.
Of such tokens are beekonings of the head or hand, such
as the forward nod of affirmation, and the backshaking of the
head for a denial ; or such as the inward motion of the raised
hand, which may be read "come hither;" and the offward
motion of it, that means "go away." The uplifted finger,
which bids bystanders listen; and the downshaken hand, as
that with which St. Paul {■^y.rso-etas tw Aaw) shook down, or
beckoned to the people, to forbid a chm-mc or uproar.
These symbols or tokens, although they fulfil the office of
words, are not truly language, inasmuch as they are not
breathsounds or tokens of tliem. They are loose tokens of
propositions, which may be given in sundry forms of words.
Thus, the wedding-ring may be read either " wife," or
"married;" the upholden finger would not be misread, as
"hold your tongues," or "listen," or "don't talk;" the bell
may mean "go to chapel," or "come to dinner;" and the
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 5
drum may mean several biddings, which may be distinguished
by the time of day at which it may be beaten.
The half-language of signals, like true language in its
breathsound form, and in its type form, is for perception
through the hearing and sight ; and, as breathsound-language
is for the hearing, in sounds; and type-language is for the
sight, in visible marks ; and for the touch, in tangible ones ;
therefore language is known in forms in which it may be
perceived by three of the senses — hearing, sight, and touch.
17. There is said to be, however, something of a half-
language in the form of symbols of flowers; and inasmuch
as the flowers, which may be known as symbols of words or
propositions, may be distinguished by the smell as well as
sight, insomuch they may be read through the sense of smell.
18. Type-language has been of great help in the exaltation
of man's moral nature ; for the enlarging of his knowledge,
and for the weal of his social life.
In type -language the dead outgiver of it still speaks through
a long series of days and years, to later men of many genera-
tions ; and the thoughts of a mind on one side of an ocean,
or of the earth, may be communicated to one on the other,
unperceived by any soul in its passage between them.
In type-language our Savdour still teaches the millions of
his Church the wisdom from above; and the prophets and
apostles and evangelists, though dead, yet speak. By type-
language holy men of all times, faithful men of all trials, the
learned of all lore, the seekers of all knowledge, the ga-
therers of all historical truth and statistical facts, the searchers
into all the laws and works of natm-e, travellers among all
nations, navigators of all seas, the ready in all traffic, and the
skilful in all crafts, can communicate their thoughts and feel-
ings, and learning and knowledge, and truths and facts, and
science and arts, to others, of all places on the earth, and of
any times after them.
By type-language all the hundreds or thousands of authors
of the books in a library are ever uttering, side by side, their
still language of instruction ; and while the words of one are
not drowned by the clashing voices of the others, each is
always ready to yield to its reader its treasures of knowledge
and thought.
By type-language, in a will, the dead father gives his beloved
5 ORTHOGRAPHY.
widow her pi'onsion of worldly goods, and divides among his
children the fruits of his labour. By type-language in the
conveyance, the seller of house or land is for ever renouncing
the ownership of it to the heirs or assigns of the buyer ; and
in the receipt, the receiver of money is unceasingly declar-
ing that it has come into his hands. By type-language the
lonely guidepost and milestone tell the traveller which road
to take on the darksome heath, and the length of it that
lies before him.
By type-language the house, or its door, announces the
name and business of its householder, and the grave gives an
account of its dead.
19. In the Grammar of a language, in the type form, it is
usual to handle it in four divisions. Orthography, Etymology,
Syntax, and Prosody, though in its first form, that of breath-
sound-language, it has only three of those divisions. Etymo-
logy, Syntax, and Prosody.
ORTHOGRAPHY.
20. Orthography is the science of the visible or tangible
marks, which betoken the breathsounds of a language to the
sight or touch ; or, in other words.
Orthography is the science of the spelling of the breath-
sounds of a language.
21. The marks that spell words, or that betoken to the
sight or touch, the pure breathsounds, and the motions of the
organs of speech, in the articulate breathsounds, are called
Letters.
The letters taken to spell the words of a language are called
the Alphabet of the language.
22. The letters that spell the pure breathsounds, as such, or
as they are embodied in clipped breathsounds, are called
Vowels.
(From the Latin vocalis, belonging to the voice, vex ; because they
are letters of pure voice-sounds. Focalis, voalis, became the French
voijelle, and the English coweL)
ORTHOGRAPHY
23. The clipped breathsounds of the English language are
made by motions of the organs of speech, embodied with 16
pm-e breathsounds, as there are in English 16 voicesounds,
8 long and 8 short, 8 close and 8 open.
24. The open sounds are so called, because they are made
with the tongue and underjaw more open from the palate than
the close ones.
Long Close Sounds.
Short Close Sounds.
1
ee
as in meet.
1
i
as in \xii.
2
e
as the ea in xeaA, in tlie
rustic dialect of the Wes-t
of England.
2
i
as in dip.
3
a
as in mate.
3
e
as in men.
4
ea
as in earth.
4
e
as in battery, or e
of the French le.
ee in meet is the same sound as i in wit lengthened ; as the
long sounds, 2, 3, and 4, are the short ones, 2, 3, and 4,
lengthened.
The i in dip, fit, clearly differs from i in wit, kitten ; but it
is markworthy that, although the sounds 1, 3, and 4, are
found both short and long, in the national speech of our
books, yet we now o-^vn the sound 2 only as a short one ; and
therefore that our book language wants one of the 16 vowel
sounds : but, as it still lingers in some of her rustic dialects,
we may believe she once owned it, and has lost it; and it
would be worth while to inquire, through the dialects of West
Saxony and the German language, whether the long sound.
No. 2, is betokened by any vowel or diphthong of the Anglo-
Saxon.
25.
5
6
7
a
axo
00
Long Open Sounds.
as in father,
as in awe.
as in rope,
as in food.
5
a
6
7
u
8
00
Short Open Sonne
as in fat.
as in dot.
as in 1«U.
as in crook.
The division of the close and open sounds is set between
the sound of ea in earth, and that of a in father, because,
in uttering the long sounds in succession, the tongue and
under jaw are found to open wider from the palate between
those two than any other two sounds, and because a division
between those two leaves 4 close and 4 open ones.
8 ORTHOGRAPHY.
26. A diphthong'^ is the meeting of two vcwel-sounds uttered
in immediate succession, as oi in voice, ou in Jound.
27. A triphthony\ is the meeting of three vowel-sounds,
uttered in immediate succession.
These diphthongs and triphthongs are somei imes called, in
Grammars of type language, pi^ojier diphtho: gs and triph-
thongs, to distinguish them from what are cabled improper
diphthongs and triphthongs, or the meetings of two or three
vowel letters, of which we utter, in breathsound speech, only-
one of the two, or one or two of the three, as ea in read, oa in
boat, lew in view, eau in bureau; but the letters so called
diphthongs and triphthongs, inasmuch as they betoken only
one sound, are truly no diphthongs or triphthongs at all.
They may be digrams or trigrams, 5.ypafAfxaT« or rptypxiL-
fj,circt, but they cannot be ll(p^oyyoi or ip'^p^oyyoi.
Some of the English letters, which we call single vowels,
are truly diphthongs. The sound of the i long, as in life, is a
combination of two vowel-sounds, the 4th and 1st short close
ones; and the u in dutij is a combination of the 1st short
close one and the 4th short open one.
W at the beginning of a word is a vowel, with the 4th short
open soimd, as in ^<;^nd {doind), sow {so-66) ; and tj short has
the 1st short close sound, as in yonder [ee-onder), boy {bau-ee).
28. The letters that spell the motions of the organs of
speech in the clipped breathsounds are called Consonants.
From the- Latin " consonms" tcithsoundinf/ ; because they betoken
nothing more than motions of the organs of speech, which are not
themselves breathsounds, though they modify breathsounds, and there-
fore they do not betoken breathsounds otherwise than with vowels.
The motions of the organs of speech are —
A motion of the lips to or from each other ; as in ab, ap,
am ; bo, po, me ; or to or from the teeth ; as af, av, fo, vo.
The motion of the tongue up to or out from the palate ; as
in ad, at, an, at ; do, to, no, to.
The motion of the tongue nearer towards or farther from
the palate ; as in ar, as, az ; ro, so, zo.
* So called fi-om the Greek ^if, twice, and (pOoyyoc, sound; i.e. a twofold
sound. .
+ So called from the Greek rplf, thrice, and (pOoyyoc, sound; t.e. a tiiree-
fold sound.
ORTHOGRAPHY. \)
The motion of the tongue to or from the teeth ; as in ath,
ad; tho, do.
The motion of the throat by a straitening or widening of it ;
as in ag, ak, aq ; go, ko, qo.
29. The consonants are divided into classes of Up letters,
lip-teeth letters, tongue-teeth letters, palate letters, and throat
letters, after the organs of speech whose motions they spell.
30. The lip letters are those that spell the motions of the
lips to or from each other ; as b, p, m, in ab, ap, am ; bo, po,
mo.
31. One of the lip letters, m, is a lip-nose letter, because it
spells an opening or shutting of the lips with the nostrils
open ; while the bare lip letters spell motions of the lips with
the nose stopped.
32. The lip-teeth letters are those that spell the motions of
the lip to or from the teeth; as v,f, in av, af ; vo, fo.
33. The tongue-teeth letters are those that spell the motions
of the tongue to or from the teeth ; &s d, p ; or the smooth
and rough th, in other, death ; thy, thigh.
34. The palate letters are those that spell the motions of
the tongue up to or out from the palate ; as d, I, n, t, in ad, al,
an, at ; do, lo, no, to ; or r, s, z, in ar, as, az ; ro, so, zo.
35. One of the palate letters, n, is a palate-nose letter, as it
spells a motion of the tongue up to or out from the palate
with the nostrils open, while the other palate letters spell
motions of the tongue Vv'ith the breath stopped from the
nose.
36. The throat letters are those which spell motions of the
throat ; as g, k, c, q, in ag, ak, ac, aq ; go, ko, co, quo.
37. The pure breathsoimds are made by the flowing of a
stream of breath from the lungs through the throat and
mouth or nostrils ; and the motions of the tongue, or other
organs of speech, form pm-e breathsounds into clipped ones
by clippings, which are the narrowings, widenings, divertings,
^1 ^
10 ORTHOGRAPHY.
or stoppings of the stream of breath upon which they work,
as a hatch, by its shiftings, acts with a stream of water.
38. Consonants are divided into two classes, Mutes and
Semivowels, as they betoken stoppings or only narrowings of
the stream of breath.
39. The Mutes are those letters which betoken such set-
tings of the organs of speech as must needs stop the breath-
stream at the end of a breathsound ; as b, p, d, t, g, k, m ; ah,
up, ad, at, ag, uk.
40. The Semivow^els are those letters which betoken such
settings of the organs of speech as do not of need stop the
stream of breath at the end of a breathsound ; as v, f, in av,
af; or J, r, s, z, in aj. ar, as, az ; or m, n, in am, an.
In the making of the breathsounds av, af, the breath is
still allowed to flow on, hissing, between the lip and the teeth.
At the end of the breathsounds aj, ar, as, az, it is still free to
go out, with a hissing or duU breathsound, between the tongue
and palate ; and the closing of the lips in am, and the striking
of the tongue on the palate in an, still leave it an open way
through the nostrils.
L, m, n, r, are called Liquids, because they speU easy clip-
pings that make good breathsounds.
The Breathings.
41. There are tAvo breathings, — the weak or soft, or
smooth or slow; and the strong or hard, or rough or quick
breathing.
The weak or soft, or smooth or slow breathing, is a stream
of breath that flows with less impulse and speed; and the
strong or hard, or rough or quick breathing, is a stream of
breath that flow's with greater impulse or speed in the making
of a breathsound.
In the making of the pure breathsounds, the strong or hard,
or rough or quick breathing, is a sudden impulse of the
breathstream at the beginning of them ; and in the English
alphabet, and others derived from the Latin, the mark for it is
h, or some other such letter; and in Greek it is the mark ',
as opog, horos.
ORTHOGRAPHY. 11
"Weak breathsounds, a, e, o ; at, et, ot.
Strong breatlisounds, ha, he, ho ; hat, het, hot.
In the making of tlie clipped breatlisounds, the weak
breathing is a slacker breathstream, with a slacker action of
the organs of speech ; and the sti'ong breathing is a quickened
breathstream, with a quicker action of the organs of speech.
Weak breathings, bab, vav, clod, zoz ; juj, gug.
Strong breathings, paj), faf, tot ; sos, chuch, kick.
42. The two breathings in clipped breathsounds are mostly
marked in type-language by two sets of letters, and therefore
some of the lip letters, lip-teeth letters, tongue-teeth letters,
palate letters, and throat letters, are fellows by two and two ;
each of a pair, spelling the same clipping as the other, but
with a slacker or quicker outflowing of the breath ; and thence
such pairs of letters are called cognate-letters, or fellow -letters,
or kins-letters.
43. We have shown that the letters of an alphabet are of different
kinds ; those of one kind beinp; akin to each other, with some quality
in which they differ from the others, — such as the vowels, as they differ
from the consonants ; or the lip letters, lip-teeth letters, tongue-teeth
letters, palate letters, and throat letters ; or the mutes, as they differ
from the semivowels ; or the pairs of kins-letters, as they differ from
each other only in impulse of breath : and thei'efore it might seem, at
first thought, that the best order for the succession of the letters in the
alphabet would be that of some succession of their classes ; such as
that the vowels might stand together at the head of the alphabet,
with the consonants below them ; and that the consonants of each
class might be placed together, with the classes in some order of
succession.
We do not, however, find any such order of letters, or of their classes,
in actual alphabets. In the Hebrew alphal)et the letters of one class
are dispersed, seemingly without any forechosen order, among those of
others ; and as many, if not most, of the later alphabets of Europe,
Asia, and America have been formed after the Hebrew, or that of a
Sliemitic language akin to it, they do not show any more marked order
of their letters than their prototype.
Clippings.
44. Sometimes words that are much worn in their own
language, or are taken, as borrowed words, into another, lose
a clipping, and do not take any other instead of it ; and yet
the letter of the lost clipping abides in the type language,
13 OUTIIOGRAniY.
thougli it docs not stand for any thiog ia the breathsound-
speech ; as^ in English, —
45. Unclijyped throat -letter before a palate-letter.
(6) g in foreign. k in /rnife.
g in _(^ash. k in /:nocker.
g in impugn. k in ^now.
k in Arnave. g in resign.
k in /rnell. ^r in si^n.
c in indie/.
46. Unclq)j)ed throat-letter before a palate-let leTf and
at the end of a word.
(7) g in bright. g in ri^ht.
g in %ht. g in hi^h.
g in li^ht. ^r in plough.
47. Undipped throat-letter before a lip-letter,
(5) ^ in apothegm, phlegm, paradigm.
48. Undipped I.
(4) baZm, ca/m, psa?m, ta/k.
ca/f, ha^f, sta/k, wa/k.
Undipped s.
8 in demesne, puisne, corps, viscount.
49. Undipped palate-letter after a lip-letter.
(3) w in autumn, hymw, solemw.
50. Undipped lip-letter before a palate-letter,
(2) p in j5salm, josalter, Ptolemy,
b in debtor, subtle, bdellium.
51. Undipped lip-letter after a lip-letter.
(1) 6 in clim6, comb, dumi, torn';.
52. Other undipped letters.
ph in jo^thisis, th in as/Ama.
k of x=ks in Xenophon, Xerxes.
ORTHOGRAPHY. 13
■ 53. From the dispositions of sundry nations to especial
settings of tlie organs of speech, and from a tendency in all to
give up harder for more easy ones, the clipped breathsounds
of a tongue, after a long wear in their OAvn language, or a
reception, as borrowed words, into another, often lose a clip-
ping of one class, and assume that of another instead of it,
while the letter of the first clipping abides in the type-language
as a token of the latter.
Thus, in the Latin word natura, the ^ is a close palate letter, but in
the English nature it is an open palate letter, of the force of tHli.
The French word sure has become the English sure (share). The c
in the Latin venniculus (most likely equal to k), became tsh in the
Italian vermicelli {varmiqelli), and is mostly s, as vermicelli is pro-
nounced in England.
/ in of is breathed v, as it often is in Icelandic ; and the pJi of
jo/ithisis is not clipped in English.
p in j??salm (Greek -tpaXixbc), and b in de^vtor (Lat. debitor), stand for
clippings which are not made in English, though they were in Greek
and Latin.
The t of the word nation is in English sh, and in French s ; cJi in
the English and French Charles, and in cJiaiiijnigne and chain, have
two different clippings, tsh and sli ; the g in dili_^ence, English, is
dj, and in the French diligence, like s in pleasure ; and the z of mangel
wiir^el is, in German, ts ; and the t in et stands for a palate clipping
in Latin, and for none in French.
The I of ca^f, and ha^f, Anglo-Saxon cealf, healf, the n in autumw,
hymw, (Latin, atdtimnus, hymnus^ were clipped in the word-giving
languages, though we drop them; and the LI in Z^ewellyn betoken one
clipping to the Welsh, and another to us.
In the Anglo-Saxon word cnafa, German knabe, and in the Latin
signo, the c and h and (j are formed ; but in our forms of the words
knave, sign, although the k of /fuave, and g of sign, stand in the type-
language, yet their clipping is unknown in the breath-sound speech.
54. The same letter stands, in different languages, for
different clippings; and when words with such a letter are
taken from one language into another, they will sometimes
retain the clipping of the word-giving language in tlie word-
taking one ) so that the word-taking language will then have
the same letter standing for different clippings, — its own clip-
ping of the letter, and the word-giving language's clipping
of it.
Thus the letter B is, in Russian, articulated V; C is sometimes equal
to tsh in Italian ; j is, in English, a palate letter of one clipping, but in
14 ORTHOGRAPHY.
French a palate letter of another ; in Italian a vowel, and in Spanish a
throat letter.
ck are, in English, tsh, in French sh, and in Latin and Gennan a
throat-clipping.
w is articulated, in German, as v.
Thence, in the English words cow, calf, colt, the c is clipped as k ;
and in the words certain, city, from the French, it is clipped as *.
ch in the English words chap, chick, chop, churm, have the force of
tsh; in the words chaise, machine, they are equal to sh ; and in the
words chord, chronology, from the Latin, or rather Greek, they betoken
the clipping of k.
g in the English words gate, give, go, gun, is a hard throat letter ;
but in the words gelid, virgin, it is a palate letter.
j in the English words jar, jest, jig, job, is a palate letter of one
clipping ; and in the word joujoux it is a palate letter of a different one.
55. We have in English 16 pui'e breathsounds, and only
7 letters for the WTiting of them ; and we have 19 settings of
the organs of speech in our clipped breathsounds, and only
16 letters that spell any of them : so that we have 9 pure
breathsounds and 3 settings of the organs of speech, for which,
as such breathsounds and settings, we have no letters.
It is true we have .26 letters in our alphabet ; and if we were
to take the so-called vowels as 7, a, e, i, o, u, and iv and y, we
should have left 19 consonants. But our c, when it is soft, as
in cinnamon, is s ; and when it is hard, as in card, it is ^;
our q, as in queen, is A: or c hard, as in kween or cween ; our
X in ox is ks, as in oks ; and therefore our c, q, and x, instead
of being sole representatives each of its own clipping, are
vn'tually nothing more than forms of other consonants ; and
we have no more consonants with them than we should have
without them, namely 16.
56. The settings of the organs of speech in the English
language, and the main ones of Europe and Asia, are
these : — •
DIVISION L
Lip Division.
Class 1. Lip settings.
Weak breatliing. Strong breatliing.
B. P.
ORTHOGRAPHY. 15
57. Class 2. Lip-teeth settings.
Weak breatliing. Strong breathing.
F. F.
58. Class 3. Lip-settings, nose-breathed.
{M) {MP) as in pump.
DIVISION II.
Tongue Division.
59. Class 4. Tongue-palate close settings.
(D) English. (T) English.
( s ) broad Irish. ( r ) broad Irish.
{j ) English. {ch) Eng. ; (q) Russ.
60. Class 5. Tongue-palate open settings.
(^) {s)
(j) Fr.; (;«) Russ.; (r/m) Persian, (sh) Eng.; (57pono; oSpono, o/^pono.
b becomes jj at the end of a word in Turkish, as heb (all),
pronounced hep.
The Latin P has become B in some of the Roman dialects.
Lat., 'opera/ 'super;' Bomaunt, ' obrsLs/ 'so^re.' Lat.
'ca/>illus;' Portuguese, 'caSello.'
In Welsh p becomes b, as j) is eclipsed by b in Irish, by the
Celtic canons of articulation ; as Welsh, 'pen gwr,' man's
head ; ' ei ben,' his head.
Irish, ' ar b-pmn,' our pain.
In Cheremissian, p after n becomes b.
[1.2.]
107. (1) before (2) becomes 2.
Lat., suAfocare, su^fusus; su^ocare, su^usus.
/ and V are represented by p and b, and vice versa in
different Teutonic tongues.
Germ., au/, ban/, hel/, haien, ubev, sieien, silver.
Eng., up, hem^j, hel/>, hare, over, seven, silver.
Gothic, hlaibs, liian. Gr., Bosixu.
Lat., fremo.
A.-Sax., hla/, li/an.
* I. e., often becomes, or has a tendency to become. Throughout these
canons of clippings, tlie predicates of tlie changings and omissions of the clip-
pings, which are given in bare verbs for the sake of shortness, are to be taken
with the like restricted meaning.
32 ETYMOLOGY.
In Welsh ;; becomes ph (/), and b becomes /; and in
Irish b is aspirated into b [v] by the canons of the Celtic
chauijings of clippings.
Wcl.s/i, pen gwr, man's head ; ei phcn, her head ; 6ara
cann, manchct bread J ei /ara, his bread.
In Welsh b becomes / in some adjectives for the feminine
form, ilasus (?«o.9), /lasus [fern), soft.
Irish, 6ard, a bard ; a vaird, O bard.
In Persian, f at the end of the root of a class of verbs
becomes b in the imperative form ; as kooftun, to beat, in-
finitive ; koob, imperative.
In Finnic and Cheremissian, p becomes v in the formation
of words.
In Cheremissian, v becomes b after m.
In Hebreiv, n and 2, undotted, are the weak and strong
clippings (2) v and /; but when dotted, they become b
and p.
In Coptic, the memphitic / becomes b or p in Bashmuric
and Tanitic.
In Japanese, the formation of the tenses and moods of verbs
is grounded upon permutations of clippings, such as / into
p or 6; as fa, fez, fi, fo, foo (2), into pa, pei, pi, po, poo, and
ba, bei, hi, bo, brw.
(1) has a tendency to become (2), and vice versa.
German,
hab-an, schaaf, pfeffer, halb, schiff, leben, iiber, tief, silber.
English,
have, sheep, pepper, half, ship, live, over, deep, silver.
[1.3.]
108. (1) with (3) becomes (3).
Lat., su(^moveo, suZ^mergo; summoveo, summergo.
Greek, hehsni'^Lui^ rirvK^iur, XeXeiixixui,reTvix.ixai.
In Welsh, b becoiiies m, and in Irish, b is eclipsed by »»,
by the Celtic canons of the changings of clippings.
Welsh, Aara cann, manchet breaS ; fy wara, my bread.
Irish, bo, cow; ar m-ho (iir mo), our cow.
In Finnic, j) after m becomes m.
In Cheremissian, p after m becomes b.
In Bisuya, b or p becomes m.
ETYMOLOGY. 33
[1.4.]
109. (1) with (4) becomes (4), or goes out.
Lat., scrijotus, ru/jtus, ojotimus, became Ital. scri^to, ro/to,
ortimo.
debtor, Ptolemy, bdellium, subtle,
de*tor. *tolemy. *dellium. su*tle.
A weak (1) before a strong (4) becomes strong.
Lat., scrib-o, scrib-tum, scrijo-tum.
GT', Tp/j3w, TST^iiiTut, rir^iTtrcct.
(4) before (1) becomes (1).
Lat., adhrexio, aZ»brevio; ac?paro, ajoparo.
In the Kafir language b becomes ^y in the accidence of
nouns, and^ becomes tsh.
[1.5.]
110. (1) with (5) becomes (5).
Lat., suirigo, su^ripio; surrigo, surripio.
In Greek, 3 before a becomes strong, Ke((iu, hei^u (Xekau).
In Italian b before s has become s. Lat., o^servatio;
Ital., 05serv;Azione.
p before s goes out in psalm.
[1.6.]
111. n before (1) becomes m.
Lat., iwpono, iwpello, iwpossibilis ; impono, impello, im-
possibilis.
GV., Kivravca^ hcivlice,vci}, evi^vxo?) iv^aivu,
Kifjjzcivcij. Kci(ji(ixvu. e/xv^u^o?. ifj^liciivca.
So in Turkish and Persian,
Turkish, awbar, a grange ; pronounced ambar.
„ guwbad, a tower ; pronounced gumbad.
So hawaper, in English, became haw*per, hamper.
In Spanish, I represents the Lat. p ; as /lover, p/uere.
Lat., p before /, or a rough (1) before (6), becomes soft b;
pojoulus, populicus, pop*licus, puZ»licus.
_ [1.7.]
112. In Greek (1) % with (7) 6 becomes (2) up.
y.pv%rifi, eupvTi^viv, evtpuf6v]v.
So in Anglo-Saxon, habb-sm, to have; h6X'U, rpoxog.
In Kafir, (im-|-3), as im-alato, forefinger, index, from alata,
to point.
Magyar, (3-f-asz) .
Japanese, (3-|-goto) ; kakigoto, a writing-tool, pencil.
162. Form {?>J^st).
Other nouns of the form (3-|-.) are formed from roots by
the ending of an st clipping.
These nouns are mostly abstract, and mean the effect of the
action (3).
A.-Saw., behdt-an, bid, behest. Ger., ruh-en, rest ? rest.
roost ?
bequeath, bequest,
blow, blast.
wane ? waste ?
west?
Ger., frier-en, freeze, frost, ^^^j^^ thanrsj-an, 1 ^j^^^^
to thirst. J
grind, grist.
A.-S., treoivi-an, "^
A.-S., ga-an, go, guest. be faithful, V trust.
hie, haste. believe, be sure. J
ETYMOLOGY. 55
163. Other primary nouns of tlic form (3-f--) are made
from roots, by an ending of a clipping of the class (4) , d, t.
They are mostly abstract, meaning the effect of the action (3).
A.-S., blac-an, fade, blight. flow, flood.
A.-S., ceowan, chew, cud. give, gift.
cleave, cleft. A.-S., may-an, be able, might,
drive, drift. see, sight.
A.-S., fleog-an, fly, flight. stand, state,
do, deed. weigh, weight,
draw, draught. mow, mead.
Goth., fi-an, hate, feud. sow, seed.
164. Other primary nouns of the form (3 -j-.) are formed
from roots, by the endings m, n, and er.
They are mostly concrete, more rarely abstract.
165. Form (3 + *w).
blow, bloom. sew seam,
glow, gleam. tow, team.
166. Prom {^-{-en).
gird, garden. bear, burden.
167. Form (3 + er).
, , fbutter, Goth., fodj-an, feed, fodder.
. ~ , , J 77 ^u * A.-S., sleq-an, slay, slaughter.
A.-S., bu-an, dwetl, bower. j n } j} o
Ger., fang-en, take, finger. Goth., tundy-an, kindle, tinder.
(3 + .).
168. Another class of primary nouns of the form (3-}-.),
are formed from roots ending in a clipping of class (8), by the
conversion of it into one of class (4) — (canon 4. 8.)
They mean the effect of the action (3).
bak (bek), batch (iar). ^i\ck{stik), stitch {s(iq).
break (brek), breach (brj?). speak (spjk), speech (spJ9).
dig, ditch {di<^.
smack (smaA:), smatch {smac). wake (wek), watch (woe).
56 ETYMOLOGY.
169. Form (3 + M.)
Another class of primary nouns of the form (3 +.) are
made of roots, by the ending th, (d) .
They are mostly abstract, rarely concrete nouns.
Goth., ar-an, till, earth,
bear, birth.
A.-Sax., brad-an, make broad, breadth.
brew, broth.
dip, go deep, depth.
dear, dearth.
die, death,
foul, filth.
A.-Sax., h(Bl-an, health.
Icel., meer-a, praise, rejoice, mirth.
long, length.
A.-Sax., slawi-an, be slow, sloth.
steal, stealth.
strong, strength.
A.-Sax., treowi-an, (certum esse,) truth, troth.
well, weal, wealth.
weorSan, become, worth.
young, youngth, youth.
This ending -th, is -iths and -itha in Gothic, *^ in Anglo-
Saxon, and in German t and end ; and in Icelandic, ^, d, t
and -und.
A.-Sax., tredw-^, truth, troth.
Germ., juy-end, youth. ge-hurt, birth.
Icel., leing^, length. ^>/-eec?f/, breadth. dypt, depth.
vitund, knowledge.
Goth., ga-baurths, birth. diupitha, depth.
In Kafii', (im-f-3) . In Magyar, (3+al), hal, die ; halal, death.
(3-j-at), el, live ; elet, life, &c.
ETYMOLOGY. 57
170. Form {3-\-ing).
Verbal Nouns.
Roots with the ending ing, make another set of nouns
called verbal nouns, of the form (3-1-.) ; as,
an ' offering ' for sin. a man of ' learning.'
the ' washing ' of regeneration. the ' singing ' of birds.
They are abstract nouns.
This ending was, in A.-Saxon, ung, ing; in German it is
ung ; in Dutch, ing ; in Icelandic, ing, ung ; in Gothic, eins.
A.-Sax., halgung, ~\
Germ., heiligung, > a hallowing.
Dutch, heiliging, J
Icelandic, sigling, a sailing.
djorfung, a daring.
Gothic, ustaikneins, outtokening, manifestation.
In Latin the ending ing of {^■\-ing) is often represented
by *^io, tura, sus, ium, *go ; and in Greek by ai?, v].
., em-0,
emp-tio.
laud-o.
laud-atio.
dic-o.
dic-tio.
mut-o.
mut-atio.
gest-o,
gest-atio.
solv-o,
solu-tio.
capi-o,
cap-tura.
col-o,
cul-tm-a.
nasc-or,
na-tura.
fulci-o,
ful-tura.
derid-eo.
deri-sus.
curr-o,
cur-sus.
cens-eo.
cen-sus.
eveni-o,
even-tus.
consul-o,
consil-ium.
move-o,
mo-tus.
gaud-eo.
gaud-ium.
vert-o.
vert-igo.
The Latin supines in um and u seem to be nouns of this
form, {S-\-us). Ledum ire, is ad tectum ire, to go for a
reading ; and difficilis factu, is difficilis in factu, difficult in
the doing.
The noun {2,-\-ing) with its concrete meaning, as that of
'collection' and 'section,' when they mean not the act of
collecting or cutting, but the instrument of the action or the
lot of things effected by it, is often represented in Latin by
nouns of the form (3-j-mentum) , and (S-f-men), (3-|-ium).
al-o, ali-mentum. lig-o, lig-amentum.
doce-o, docu-meutum. move-o, mo-mentum,
jug-o, jug-umeutum. orn-o, orn-amentum.
3§
58 ETYMOLOGY.
a<2^-o, ag-men.
cau-o, can-men, car-men. (Can. 3. 6.)
cant-o, cant-amcn.
cert-o, cert-amcn.
flu-o, flu-men.
gest-o, gest-amen.
medic-o, medic-amen.
nuo (to nod), numen, a nodding, thence
a will of the Deity,
for-o, for -am en.
lib-o, lib-amen.
teg-o, teg-men.
conjung-o, conjugium.
nub-o, nuptije.
I'elinquo, reliquiae.
In Greek the English noun {3-\-inff) is o^en replaced by
(3+^/0, and (3+11), (3+«), (3+o?), (3-j-H-
[iuh-oo, [ioiai;. C^utt-u, (3a(p'^.
(pv-w,
sometimes (2+.) . We have three or four of these forms in
English and other Teutonic tongues.
Forms (1+ling) or (2+ling.)
duck, duckling. goose {gooseling), gosling,
dump, dumpling. gray, gray-ling,
found, foundling. suck, suck-ling.
lord, ' lordling.
Icel, baklingr, a little book, pamphlet.
Bu., lieveling, loveling, darling.
Ger., theuer-ling, A.-S., deor-ling, Eng., (dearling) darling.
A.-Sax., (E^eling, a young noble, prince.
Swedish, I'drling, a little learner, or apprentice.
Some of these nouns are rather anomalous, as, although
they are of the form (1+ling), they are not diminutives of
the ground- word, but of some other :
year, yearling.
In Magyar these forms are (l-j-acs), (1+ka)-
In Lapponic, (l-[-*tz).
In Finnic, (l-f-incn), (l-j-kha).
60 ETYMOLOGY.
172. Form {l-\-kin), Ger. (l-^chen), Icel. {\+ki).
Eny., {\-\-key), {\-\-en), Icel. and Sco. (1-H).
cat, catkin,
man, man-ikin.
nap, nap-kin.
Germ., magd (maid), mad-chen.
Icel., sveinki, a swainkin, boy.
donkey, dun-key, the little dun animal,
monkey, man-key, the little man.
A.-Sax., coc (cock), cycen (chicken),
maid, maiden,
cat, kitten.
r 1 I '7 / J IT \ f bseli, a lair or stv,
Icel, hoi (a dwelling), |^ ^^^^^ dwelling
8co., lass, lassie.
foal, (foaly), fiUy.
173. Form {\-\-ock).
dunnock, the little dun (bird), sparrow.
wliellc, wheelock ? the little wheel.
174. Form (1+*/)-
We have nouns of this form, which seem to be diminutives.
A.-Sax., crcBt (crate), cradle,
corn, kernel.
A.-Sax., cneow (joint), knee, knuckle.
A.-Sax., {neb) nib, nipple.
A.-Sax., hdf, Germ., hof (house), Enff., hovel,
pot, pottle,
rib, ripple.
A.-Sax., snaca, snake. A.-S., snagel, snail,
throat, throttle.
Upon these forms we may fairly shape other diminutives.
An omnibus, instead of taking for its name a Latin pro-
noun, in the ablative or dative case, might have been called a
' wainliug ' or ' waincl,' or ' vanling.'
regulet, Singling,
rosette, roseling, rosel.
ETYMOLOGY. 61
It is rather markworthy, that the */ clipping, which is the
token of the diminutive in one form of our diminutives, is
found as a like token in other Indo-Teutonic languages;
as in
Lat., toga, tog-ula. castra, castellum.
ratio, rati-uncula. filius, fili-olus.
ager, agellulus. lapis, lapillus.
ramus, ramus-culus.
Pers., mard, mard-al.
In some other languages a clipping of the eighth class
comes into the diminutive ending :
Greek, (l+i7Jtoc), ^ccGiXl^yiOQ.
Lat., (l-f-culus), cani-culus.
Irish, (l-{-og), duille-og, a little leaf.
Russ., (l+ji^j ^om-iiKi. (dom-jke), a small house.
Hindoos,, {l-\-ce, &c.), (deg-^e), a little cauldron.
Turkish, {I -{-Jek), {l-\-c^ek), (Z»«%'e^) , little father.
{kitabcek), a little book.
Many of these languages have other endings for diminutive
nouns, and in Arabic the form is not (1+.), but a new form
of the noun (1).
In Bretonne, the form is (l-|-ecg).
In Bisaya (1+1), tauo-tauo, a little man, a man-man.
(— ,) as ba-ro-halaij , a small house, from balay, house.
175. Form (1+.)
Bad or Unworthy Nouns.
In Latin (l-|-aster), poetaster.
176. Form (1+.)
Nouns of Likeness, or Madeness, or Artificiality.
Some languages have a most handy kind of nouns (1-1-.)
for the names of things, like or made like the noun (1), and
therefore the names of artificial things.
In Bisaya they are formed by repetition of the noun ; as^
tauo, man; iauoiauo, a mock-man, a made-man, an image;
62 ETYMOLOGY.
bagoJ, shell of coco; bagolbagol, a mock-shell, the skull.
Sometimes of the form (1) by inscttinji; into it the breath-
sound in, as buto, stone; b-in-ato, hard (plane-tree), stonelike
(tree) .
In Cree their form is (l-}-kon).
niska, goose ; msk-ekon, an artificial goose for a decoy.
wdtee, a hole in the ground, cavern; wdtee-kon, a made-
hole, cellar or vault.
mistick, tree ; mistick-oo-kon, a made-tree, a pole or flag-
staff set up.
In English this form is (2-}-]), and sometimes becomes
(mock+l), or (sliam-|-l)-
177. Collective Nouns.
Some languages have forms of nouns called collective
nouns, for lots, or sets, or collections of things of a name.
Germ., ge-birge, a range of hills, from berg, a hill.
Bisaya, ca-|-(l)-[-lian, ca-tauo-han, a crowd, from tauo, man.
Finnic, (1-j-sto), /aire, ship; laivasto, ^cci.
Lapponic, (l+loge).
178. Nouns of Past and Coming Time.
In Lapponic there is a good form for nouns of coming
time (l-|-asas), as irg, bride; irg-asas, intended bride.
In Icelandic, (1-f-efni), mdgs-efni, intended son-in-law.
In English we have taken Latin words, quondam and ex,
for these nouns, as quondam-pupil, ex-king of France.
In Latin, present, consul ; past, vir consularis, a man who
has been consul.
179. Form (l-f.).
AUGMENTIVE NoUNS.
The English language does not own any augmentives, or
forms of the noun for large or ugly things of their name.
In Italian their form is {l-\-one) {l-\-accio), &c., and we
have borrowed some of them into English.
bullo, bale. ball-one, balloon.
sala, hall. sal-one, saloon.
tromba, trumpet. tromb-one, trombone.
ETYMOLOGY. 63
180. rorm {l-\-inff), {2-{-ing).
The Teutonic languages have some nouns of the form
{l-\-inff), {l-\-unff), {:Z-\-ing), which are not diminutives.
A.-Sax.^ feor^, fourth ; feoi-^ing, a farthing.
Icel., fjor^ungr, a fourth part.
A.-Sax., here, a troop^ shoal ; herring.
Icel., Sjdland (Sealand) ; Sjdlendingr, a Sealander.
Icel., ferhyrn (four-horn) ', ferhyrningr , a fourhorning,
square,
white, whiting, (fish).
181. Form (3+.).
Noun of Agent.
The noun of the agent mostly takes in English the form
(3+er).
bowl-er. read-er.
build-er. wTit-er.
In A.-Saxon the ending is -ere ; German and Dutch, -er ;
Icelandic, *r, -ari, -i.
A.-Sax., reaf-ere. Germ., r'dub-er, robb-er.
Du., maaker, maker.
Icel., hrefher-i, brief-bearer, letter-carrier.
hird-ir, herder, herdsman.
skrif-are, writer.
In Latin this noun takes the form {^-\-tor), (3-(-«), (3+o),
(3+M<5), {l-\-ista), {\-\-istes).
In Greek, (3+fU5), (3+T;^p), (3+tvi^$)-
ag-o, ac-tor. iucol-o, incol-a.
scrib-o, scrib-a.
imit-o, imit-ator; S^I""' S/.. . ^ana, lanista.
iud-o, ludms, cithara, citharistes.
Greek, yh-ofjiai, beget; yovevg, parent.
dviXiu, destroy; Jv]Avit;j'^, destroyer.
/3«/vw, go; (iurrip, a goer.
ypafw, write; yp«^fu?, writer.
jfpivw, judge; uptrri;, a judge.
64 ETYMOLOGY.
In Irish the form is {S-\-oir).
millce-oip, destroyer.
In Russian, (3-j-ine^-b), &c.
In Turkish, (3+iJi).
(3+Ji)-
bak, look; bakjjj, spectator.
dilen, beg; (^i'cnjj, beggar.
In Greek, as in Arabic and Persian, the active participle
often takes the place of the agent-noun.
d TUTTTwv, striker, active participle of rinrru.
In Japanese the form is (l-[-te). yomi-te, reader.
kaki-te, writer.
In Arabic, kotib, writer, active participle of kataba, to
write.
In Cheremissian its form is (3-f-i^~«) •
In Kafir, {um-\-S-]-i) , um-lenf/4, a trader, from teng-a,
to buy.
In Finnic, (3-|-ia), {2>-{-uri).
In INIongolian, (3-|-<^i).
In Basque, (3+^2ra//e), (3+/e), {^-\-taria).
These nouns often take in English the form (1+1), where
one stands for the matter under the agency ; as glass-blower,
shoe-maker.
In Magyar, {V-\-os), asztal, table; asztalos, table- wright.
(l+as-sr), Aa/, fish; /jaM^^, fisher.
182. A liker or fancier of a thing, as a science or an art,
or flowers or animals, the Greek (phil + 1) is in Bisaya
(maqui-j-1).
In Australian, (1+1), kuya, fish; kuyamcyu, a fisherman.
183. Some languages have agent-nouns of two forms ; one
for the semelfactive or one-time agent, and another for the
habitual or many-times agent.
Under the sentence, ' John is the writer of that letter,' the
writer is one-time agent ; but under the sentence ' John is a
writer in a lawyer's office,' he is habitual agent.
ETYMOLOGY. 65
One-time Agent. Habitual Agent.
Greek, 6 ypavi/a?, . . . . d ypci(pe\jg.
Bisaya, {mag-sorat) , o ypa-J/ac, a writer,"! f [mag-so-sorat),
as the writer of a letter, j \_a writer officially.
Mongolian. . . . ( 3 -j- a participle), . . {^-\-cJ).
Basque (3 + /e)? .... (3 + /ana).
In the Cree language the place of the form {\.-\-er), the
name of the habitual agent, is taken by the frequentative form
of the verb :
ki\ha&\.u, he lies.
ka kithasku, he lies with iteration ; he is a liar.
184. Forms (l+ery), {2-{-ery), &c.
Noun of Place, etc.
There are in English a few nouns of the form {^-\-ery) or
{\-\-y), or (l-j-ery) or {2-\-ery), betokening the place of the
action or agent, and collections of things.
{l-\-ery).
lott-ery, shrubb-ery, rook-ery, swan-ery.
{2+ery). (3+ery).
fin-ery, brew-ery, forg-ery.
(l+y), smithy.
In Latin these nouns are found imder the forms (l-f-*nMm),
{\-\-etum), ().-\-ile), &c.j as
aviarium, arboretum, suile.
Basque, {\-\-queria) .
185. Forms (3+*/), (3+er), &c.
Noun of Instrument.
The nouns of the instrument are of very irregular formation
in English. Some of them are of the form (3+*/) and (3+er).
gird, girdle. shoot, shuttle.
lade, ladle. spin, spindle.
prick, prickle. stop, stopple.
dust, duster, grav^, graver, rule, ruler, scrape, scraper.
snuff, snuflFers.
66
ETYMOLOGY.
Some arc in the form of the verb-root, as
bcllpull, shoelift, a press.
Some are not formed from the root, as
gun, hook, pen, spoon.
Latin, {S-\-trum), &c. aratrum.
Greek, (S-\-eTov), (S+rpov), ypaipsTov, Tr^i^vtrpov.
In Arabic the noun of the instrument has a set form shapen
from the triliteral verb, as miftah, a key; from fat aha, to
be opened.
In Hindoostanee its form is (3+.) .
186. Nouns of Quality.
We have a large elass of abstract nouns of quality of the
form (1+.) and (2+.).
(l+hood), (2+hood); (1+ship, (2+ship).
boy, boy-hood.
child, child-hood.
(2+hood) hardy, hardi-hood.
fellow, felloAV-ship.
heir, heir-ship.
owner, owner-ship.
A.-S.,weor^ (honour) worth; weo?*Sscz/?,worthship, worship.
The ending -hood is in A.-S., -had.
woman, womanhood.
God, Godhood (Godhead),
likely, likeli-hood.
seaman, seaman-ship,
son, son-ship,
workman, workman-ship.
Germ.,
Du.,
Swed.,
•heit ;
■held;
-het ;
cild-hdd,
moiden-hdd,
kind-heif,
kinds-heid,
s'dllhet.
child-hood,
maiden-hood-head,
childhood,
childhood,
happi-hood (ness) .
The ending -ship is, in
freond-scipe, friendship .
frexnd-schaft,
vriend-schap.
A.-S., -scipe ;
Germ., -schaft ;
Du., -schap ;
Dan., -skab ; ven-skah,
Sived., -skap ; van-skap,
Icel., -skapr ; fjand-skapr.
M. Go., -iskei ; barn-iskei.
In Latin a form of this noun is {\.-\-itiu), {\-\-atus) ; and
in Greek (l-j-f/a), {\-\-7vvyi).
Lat., amic-us, magister, consul,. puer,
amic-itia. magistr-atus. cousul-atus. pueritia.
[-friendship.
friendship,
friendship,
foeship.
child-hood.
ETYMOLOGY. 67
Greek, iruTp-og, iraip-eix.
fxdvjig, (ji,ccvro-avvvi.
Lap., (l-\-wuddi) .
Bisaya, {ca-\-\), tauo, man; pag-ca-tauo, nxd.vih.oodi.
Finnic, (1-f-w^), {\-{-ide), &c.
Basque, {\-\-tasuna) .
In Irish, (1+*^), (1+acc).
caraid, Mend; cdirdeas, friendship.
caoijieaCj chieftain ; caoijiijeacc, chieftainship.
Russian, ( 1 + crnBO ),
cocb^Tj^ slave ; cocfc^cmBo, slavery.
Persian, (l+e).
\mard), man; [marde), manhood.
In Hindoostanee^ and also in Arabic^ though it is a Shemetic
language, the form of this noun is (1+.).
187. Form (1+.) (1+1.).
Patronymics.
Many languages own a set of surnames for the designation
of children of the same father or family.
They are mostly of the form (1+.) or (l-{-l)j with the
name of the father for a groundword.
There are a few of such names, such as
Johnson, Ptichardson, Williamson,
that are now fixed as lasting surnames of families in English.
In Welsh it is {Ap-\-\), and in Irish {Mac-\-\) and
{Mic-\-\) ; as,
Ap-David, Ap-Hoel.
Mac-Donald, Mac-Cormac.
Domnall Mac Emin, Mic Cainnaich Moir.
In Greek it is (l+*Jvif) masculine; {l-\-k), {l-\-ccco?),
(2+/«), {2-{-avj^).
(icip!lci(i-K7[j.dg, aiSps-ia.
In Russian, (2+o-ste), (2+este), (2+stbff), (2-{-£na), &c.
In Irish, (2-|-acc) .
In the Cree, {2-\-win) .
In Japan, {2-\-sa), sigei, thick; sighe-sa, thickness.
In Cheremissian, {^-\-ja) .
In Kafir these nouns are mostly of the form {ubu-\-Z), as
ubulumko, wisdom ; from lumk-a, to be wise.
Lap., {2-\-wuadt). Bisaya, (ca-\-2).
The Bisaya language distinguishes, by two nouns of the
form {2-\-ness) , an inward and essential quality from a received
and accidental one ; as,
ca-tamis, essential sweetness, as of sugar ;
quina-tamis, received or accidental sweetness, sweetenedness,
as of tea. So of the wetness of water, and the wettedness of
the hands by it.
4
74 ETYMOLOGY.
In some languages, as in Tonga, an adjective is used as a
noun of quality. Latin, malum, evil.
202. Form (3-|-l).
English, go-cart.
Greek, i>^67C(poi.
203. Form (3 + 4).
A cast-away.
204. Form (3 + 5).
English, pinafore.
205. Form (5+.).
innings,
offing.
206. One verb-root may yield many nouns of its own clip-
pings, or kindred ones, with changes of its vowel, as well as
nouns of the form (3+.)
So the root scyl-, to separate or split off, as in thin lamina,
yields scale, a thin plt'.te.
shell (5. 8.), a hollow scale.
skull, ditto.
shilling (5. 8.), a little scale.
shield (5. 8.), a scalelike thing.
skill, power of separation or discrimination.
A verb-root yields adjectives as well as noims :
scyl yields shallow ; scalelike, thin,
grow, gro-; Latin, ere- (as in cresco), yields
growth.
grass, what grows readily or mostly,
ground, the growing earth.
green, of the colour of growth.
207. The following Table shows a few roots, with different
nouns which they yield :
ETYMOLOGY.
75
Boots.
Bear
{Goth,, bair-)
Bind
Noun
of Agent.
Bite .
Blow.
Break
Trow
{A.-S.,
treow-ian),
Drive
Go, gang . . .
Gird
bearer .
binder.
biter. .
blower
breaker
Abstract
Noun.
Grub
{A.-S.,grd-;
G., grab-).
Shear
{A.S., seer),
Slit. .
Cleave
driver . .
goer, . .
ganger.
girder . .
grubber,
engraver
shearer,
sharer.
slitter . .
cleaver .
Hide?
Eide
Spin
birth . .
binding .
biting . .
blowing.
breaking,
breach.
troth. . .
drivins: .
going, .
gait.
girdino;
grubbing,
engraving
shearing,
sharing.
slitting .
cleavino;
Noun
of End or
Effect.
bairn, child,
burthen.
bond, . . .
bondage,
band.
bite, bait.
blast.
breach,
brack,
breakage.
tnith,
trust.
Noun
of Instru-
ment.
drift, .
drove.
rider . . . ,
spinner,
spinster,
spider.
ridino:
bond,
band.
gait, . . .
gang.
girth, . .
garden,
yard.
grave, . .
groove.
share, . .
shire,
shard.
slit, slate.
cleavage,
cleft,
cliff.
hat, hood,
hut.
girth,
sir die.
graver.
shears,
plough-
share.
Noun
of
Place
drove.
gate.
road.
/ o etymology.
208. Universal Noux,
jNIost men feci at times the want of a word, which they
may put in the place of a name wiiich they may have
forgotten or may not know, or the name of something with-
out a name. In English this word is thing, from the Saxon
thinc-an, to think ; so that a thing is whatever may breed or
hold the thought. In Latin it is res, from reor, to think.
209. PERSON.
The telling of a thought has mostly relation to three
things ; one tiiat tells it, another to which it is told, and a
third of which it is told.
The teller of the thought is called the first person ; the
thing to which it is told is called the second person ; and the
thing of which it is told is the third person.
210. GENDER.
Gender is kind, as to sex.
Nouns are in English, as well as in Turkish, Persian, and
Japanese, and other languages, of three genders, — the mas-
culine, the feminine, and the neuter.
211. The name of a male thing is of the masculine gender;
as, man, horse.
212. The name of a feminine thing is of the feminine
gender ; as, woman, cow.
213. The name of an inanimate thing, that is, neither male
nor female, as toivn, tree, stone, is said to be of the neuter
gender.
214. In English, as well as in Turkish, Persian, and Japanese,
the gender of the noun is the same as the sex of the thing
which it names ; but in most of the Teutonic, Celtic, Sclavonic,
and. Shemetic tongues, as well as Latin and Greek, and the
new speeches which have arisen out of them, many, if not
aU, of the names of inanimate things are made of the mas-
cidinc or feminine gender, so that their gender does not
answer to the sex of the things which they betoken, but they
i
ETYMOLOGY. 77
take it mostly from their own forms, or the kinds, but not the
sex, of the things understood under them.
Thus regnum, a kingdom, is of the neuter gender, because
it ends in -um; and in Greek, Koyog, a word, is masculine,
because it ends in -o; ; and in German even m'ddcJien, maiden,
is neuter from its ending, -chen ; and aiceann, furze, is mas-
culine in the south of Ireland, and feminine in the north.
215. The sex of animate things is imputed to inanimate ones
by a figure of speech, called personification, which strengthens
a language, so that it begets in the mind more lively and
graceful notions of the activities and relations of things.
Thus, even in English, a thing of the neuter gender is
sometimes designated by a masculine or feminine pronoun ;
as Avhen we say of the sun, " he rejoices as a giant to run his
course;" of a ship, "she was wrecked;^' of England, '^she
has many colonies."
216. In Grammar, the masculine gender is more worthy
than the feminine; so that, for a person of unknown or of
undefined sex, we may use the pronoun he ; as, " if any person
will not work, neither should he eat."
On the same ground, we take for a masculine noun the
word man for the genus homo, male and female ; as,
" If any man (in Greek ti;) will come after me, let him
deny himself, and take up his cross daily^ and follow me." —
(Luke ix. 23.)
" Nevertheless, man (Hebrew ^7^ ) being in honour
abideth not : he is like the beasts that perish." (Psa. xlix. 12.)
" Cease ye from man, (Hebrew ^7? ) whose breath is in
his nostrils," (iBi^^).— (Isaiah ii. 22.)
From inattention to this rule, some often use a plural
pronoun instead of a singular one for a person of either sex,
and would say, " If any person, or any one, call, tell them I am
engaged."
Yet we have the authority of some such construction as
this, grounded upon the original Greek, in our version of the
Epistle of James ii. 15, 16 :
"If a brother or sister be naked, . . . and one of you say
unto them, Depart in peace : be ye warmed and filled," &c.
78
ETYMOLOGY.
So in Latin, {Jacob's Latin Reader, Fab. 1 2, /. 4,)
Uterque causam cum perorassent suam.
21 7. A first person mostly uses a neuter pronoun for a young
child or an animal of a sex unknown to him ; as, ' the child
has fallen and hurt itself;' 'there is a pretty lamb: don't
frighten it;' 'tlicre is a pretty bird or moth : do not kill it.'
In German, the noun ' kind,' child, and in Greek t^/Jjov,
child, is of the neuter gender. So in lUyric.
218. In Latin, the names of animals of unknown sex,
epicene nouns, are mostly of the gender imputed to nouns
of their form, rather than of the neuter gender ; as,
passer, a swallow, (masculine) ; aquila, an eagle, (feminine) .
219. In many languages there are two words for our word
' man ; ' one for man, the genus man ; and another for man,
as distinguished from woman.
Genus Noun.
Sex Noun.
Latin,
homo.
vir.
Greek,
avOpwTo;.
aviip.
Hebrew,
Di;^.
tt^^K.
German,
mensch.
mann.
Kafir,
umntu.
indoda.
220. In language, the sexes of things are distinguished in
different modes ; as, in English, —
1st.
By differed
it words.
Ma
X.
bachelor,
maid.
lord.
lady.
boy,
brother.
girl,
sister.
man,
master.
woman,
mistress.
father.
mother.
nephew.
niece.
friar,
husband.
nun.
wife.
son,
uncle,
daughter,
aunt.
king,
lad.
queen,
lass.
wizard,
sir.
Mitch,
madam.
Latin, maritus, husband; uxor, wife.
ETYMOLOGY.
Quadrupeds
AND Birds.
buck,
doe.
horse, mare.
dog,
bitch.
ram, ewe.
hart,
roe.
stag, hind.
bull or ox,
, cow.
boar, sow.
cock.
hen.
gander, goose,
drake
>
duck.
sire, dam.
Latin, taurus.
vacca.
79
2nd. By^ an ending, such as the ending -ess, [adopted from the
French,) for the feminine in English.
Man.
mayoress.
patroness.
peeress.
poetess.
priestess.
princess.
prophetess.
shepherdess.
sorceress.
Brutes.
lion, lioness,
tiger, tigress.
abbot.
abbess.
mayor.
baron,
baroness.
patron.
benefactor.
benefactress.
peer,
count.
countess.
poet.
emperor.
empress.
priest.
governor.
governess.
prince.
heir.
heiress.
prophet.
host,
hostess.
shepherd.
jew.
Jewess.
sorcerer.
3rd. By sharpening of the vowel and the ending -en.
fox {Germ, fuchs), fyxen {Germ, fiixin), vixen.
In Latin, and some other languages, the sex is often be-
tokened by a change of ending ; as,
Latin, servus, a he-slave ; serva, a she-slave.
imperator, emperor; imperatrix, empress.
Germ., konig, king; konig-in, queen.
Russian, nacmy-xT>, shepherd ; nacmy-mKa, shepherdess.
Coptic, ouro, king; ouro, queen.
Hindoos., heetaw, son; .... heetai, daughter.
dhohee, washerman ; dhobin, washerwoman.
80
ETYMOLOGY.
Arabic, adeem^un, great man ; adeem-at-un, great woman.
Hebrew, V)^, man; T\^'^, woman.
Coptic, Jo-ra, father-in-law ; Jfrme, mother-in-law.
son^ brother; so-ne, sister.
4th. Of the Form (1 + 1). — By composition of a noun with
another noun, or a jjronoun or adjective.
maid-servant, cock-sparrow, hen-sparrow,
female-child, he-goat, she-goat.
colommen wrryw . a male pigeon,
a hen pigeon.
boy, male child,
girl, female child,
lion, he-lion,
lioness, she-lion.
lion, he-lion,
lioness, she-lion.
man-servant,
male-child.
So in Welsh,
Turkish,
Persian,
colommen fenyw
er ogldn
kiz ogldn .
erkek arslan .
deeshee arslan
sheer-i-nur . ,
sheer-i-madah
Hindoos.
bull, he-bullock,
cow, she-bullock.
nur gaoo .
madah gaoo
Japanese, wo-iniu, dog, he-dog ; me-iniu, she-dog, bitch.
So in Mongolian.
221. The English ending -er of the noun of the agent, is
rightly -ster for a female agent.
The ending -ster is the same in Dutch, and was estre or
ystre in Anglo-Saxon, in which
sang-ere, meant singing-man.
sang -estre, (Dutch, zangster,) singing- woman.
backster, is the feminine of baker.
brewster,
spinster,
seamster,
maltster,
huckster,
tapster,
whitster.
brewer.
spinner.
seamcr, or sewer.
malter.
hawker.
tapper.
whiter or bleacher of linen.
ETYMOLOGY. 81
NUMBER.
222. The number of a noun, is the number of the things
which it marks.
223. A noun in a form which marks one thing of its name
is said to be of the singular number, as man, book.
224. A noun in a form which marks two things of their
name is of the dual number.
225. An English noun in a form which marks more things
than one of their name is in the plural number.
226. Nouns are made to mark one thing, or two or many
things, of their name by different endings or forms; as,
boy, boys; man, men.
musa, musse ; regnum, regna ; rex, reges.
A070?, Aoyo< ; jtpzTvi;, npirui.
In English, the plural form of a noun is mostly made from
its singular shape by an ending of a hissing clipping (s) ; as,
hat, hats; garden, gardens; house, houses.
227. When the singular shape of the noun ends with a
strong clipping, the hissing ending of the plural shape is strong ;
as, lip^ lips ; death, deaths ; ruff, ruffs.
hat, hats; brick, bricks; crop, crops.
228. When the singular shape of the noun ends with a
weak clipping, the hissing ending of the plural shape is
weak; as,
tub, tubs (tubz) ; nod, nods (nodz) ;
love, loves {luvz) ; egg, eggs (egz) .
229. AVhen the singular shape of a noun ends with a hiss-
ing clipping (5) , the hissing ending of the plural shape takes
a vowel (e) before it :
kiss, kisses ; lash, lashes ;
box, boxes ; church, churches.
230. When the last breathsound of the singular shape of
4 §
82 ETYMOLOGY.
the noun is long, and ends with a strong 2 (/), tlic rough (/)
clipping and the hissing ending mostly become weak in its
plural shape ;
knife (ncif), knives (neivz) ; loaf (IcTf), loaves (lo^'z) ,
life (leif), lives (leivz) ; wife (weif), wives (weivz).
231. Some English nouns, and many German ones, take
their plural form by sound -shifting (a change of vowel-sound
with the same clipping) ; as,
man, men; mouse (mows), mice (meis) ;
tooth (tiub), teeth (tjb) ; goose (gms), geese (gjs) j
louse (lows), lice (leis) ; foot (tmt), feet (fjt).
So, in German, gott, God ; gotter, Gods,
nacht, night ; nachte, nights,
baum, tree ; baume, trees,
floss, float; flosse, floats.
There is some sound-shifting in the formation of plural
nouns in the Celtic languages.
fVelsh, march, horse ; meirch, hoi-ses.
bran, crow ; brain, crows,
ffbrdd, road; llyrdd, roads.
Irish, bapd, poet ; baijib, poets,
j-pocan, brook; j-jxocam, brooks.
We have left to us a few nouns that take their plural form,
like the weak nouns of Anglo-Sa^on and German, with the
ending -*n .- ox, oxen.
brother, brethren.*
cow, kien, kine.*
More of these weak plural forms linger in Scotland and
the west of England ; as,
Scotch, shoon (shoen), shoes,
een, eyes.
A.-Sax., eage, eye ; eag-an, {Scotch een,) eyes.
Western, housen, houses,
cheesen, cheeses.
Germ., graf, reeve; graf-en, reeves.
* These words are made by sound-shifting, as well as the ending -en.
ETYMOLOGY. 83
232. In Spanish, Portuguese, and French, the noun takes
on a hissing clipping like the English for the plural form.
In the Sclavonic tongues it takes sundry endings.
In Tui'kish, ~ler ; as at, horse ; atlei^ horses.
In Persian, -an or -ha ; as goorg, wolf; goorgan, wolves.
bal, wing; hatha, wings.
233. In the Shemetic languages some nouns take on end-
ings for the plural, and others take their plural form by
sound-shiftings.
234. In Japanese there is a singular plural form of the
noun made by a repetition of its singular shape, though often
with a change of its first clipping :
feeto, man; feetobeeto, men.
koonee, kingdom; kooneegoonee, kingdoms.
235. The Shemetic languages, such as Hebrew, Arabic, and
Maltese, with Greek, Tonga, and possibly Welsh, have a very
handy form of the noun and pronoun, called the dual form,
for two things of their name :
Hebrew, WV H** DH^n*);
but the two-hands are the two-hands of Esau.
These dual forms are most handy for the giving of lively
notions of the twofoldnesses of nature and art, and espe-
cially of man and other animals; as, the two breasts, arms,
shoulders, hands, thumbs, legs, hips, knees, feet, eyes, ears,
nostrils, cheeks, temples, jaws, horns, and wings; the feelers
of insects and mandibles of birds; the two sexes; the two
sides and two ends of geometrical solids; two pages of a leaf;
two valves of a shell ; two posts of a door or gate ; two wheels
of an axle ; two oars of a boat, and others.
236. In the telling of numerical quantities of things, a
singular noun is often given for a plural one ; as, three dozen
(dozens) of oranges ; the pig weighed twelve score (scores) ;
a hundred head (heads) of cattle.
So, in Welsh, ' pymtheg gwraig,' fifteen woman (women) ;
and in Hindoostauee, 'dus ghorut,' ten woman (women).
In Magyar, 'three man,^ 'one pair of shoe;' 'these stock-
ing are blue.'
84 ETYMOLOGY.
237. Some nouns, for stuff which is not usually known in
individualities, are not much known in a plural form; as,
butter, dirt, fat, honey, wax ; and others, for lots made up of
individualities, or individualities made up of matching mem-
bers, as bowels, goods, snuffers, tongs, are not much known
in the singular form.
Some names of single towns and places are of the plural
form, SLs'A(iv\vui, Cannae, Wells (in Somerset), Sevenoaks (in
Kent).
238. The Plural of Excellence.
In many of the Eastern languages, and some of the
"Western ones, a person of high rank, or one thought worthy
of tokens of high estimation, is designated by a plural noun
or pronoun instead of a singular one, and by a pronoun of
the third person instead of the second ; as, in English,
'Will you {wilt thou) sit down?'
' I thank you {thee) J
In Frencli, ' Voulez-vous (for vmx-tvL) me faire le faveur?'
* Je vous {te) remercie.'
German, ' Wie befinden sie sich?' How do they find them-
selves? for How dost thou find thyself? — How art thou?
We (I), Victoria, queen of Great Britain, &c.
239. In some languages, as the Bisaya, Hawaii, and often
the French, the singular and plural number are oft-marked
only by articles or pronouns, as the noun is of the same form
for both numbers :
Bisaya, an tauo, the man ;
an manga tauo, the men.
French, le livre, the ])ook ;
les livres, the books.
Hawaii, ke kanaka, the man ;
na kanaka, the men.
In Lappouie, by enallage, the plural is sometimes em-
ployed for the singular ; as, ' heads ache for me/ for •• my
head achcs.^
ETYMOLOGY. 85
CASE.
240, Case is a most weighty and powerful division ol
Grammar, wielding with great might the Syntax of lan-
guages ; but although its laws are highly worthy of our search,
they are as yet ill understood.
In a disquisition upon case it is needful that we should
clearly understand what is meant by the word case ; and as
the laws of case hold mainly upon the noun, we shall seek
them more safely with a clear conception of the meaning of
the word 7inun,
The weightiness of case may be readily conceived from the
large body of rules for the syntax of case in the Latin
Grammar.
A substantive or noun, (old French nom, Latin twmen,) by Murray's
and Johnson's definitions, is ' the name of any thing.'
In Welsh it is called etiw, name ; in Hindoostanee, Persian,
and Turkish, eesm, name; in Russian, nMa {emia), name;
in Japanese, na, name : in German and Dutch it is called
nenwort and nennwort, name-word : and in Edward the Sixth's
Latin Grammar it is said that
" A noun is the name {iiomen, ovofia) of whatsoever thing, being, or
quality we see or discourse of."
Thence we are to conclude that a noun is the name of a
thing, but not a thing of the name ; and that it is a word, and
not a thing.
It may be thought, at first, that it is indifferent whether we
take a noun to be the name of a thing, or the thing known
under it ; but such a confusion of notions would greatly baffle
us in our search into the natui'e of case.
241. Having learnt what we are to understand by the word
' noun,' we have to find the now received or the true meaning
of the word ' case,' which is not of easy discovery.
As it is needful to know whether a noun is a word, or else
the thing known by it, so the first question on case is,
whether it is an accident of the noun, or else of the thing
named by it, or of both of them.
86 ETYMOLOGY.
The following definitions of case, from diflferent Grammars,
will show that it still needs elucidation.
Tliey are not given to show that grammarians liave written bad
definitions of case, but that they are not yet of one mind as to the
nature of it.
(1) King Edward the Sixth's Latin Grammar:
" Nouns have six cases {casus, a falling,) in each number.
" A noun in the nominative case {casus rectus, tttSjoi^ opQi\^ was
considered by the ancient grammarians as a line perpendicular ; and
in the other cases {casus obliqui) as gradually declining or falling from
the perpendicular.
" To decline a noun is to make it pass through these cases or
fallings."
Now it does not seem so likely that the name case was first
bestowed to betoken the falling away of a noun from its first
form, the nominative one, since it is not so clear in what the
ablative form Habore' is fallen farther from 'labor' than is
the genitive ' laboris,' or in what the accusative ' pedes ' is
fallen farther oflF from 'pes' than the dative 'pedibus;' or
why the ablative 'pedibus' is fallen wider from 'pes' than
the dative 'pedibus,' when 'pedibus' and 'pcdibus' are of the
same form.
(2) Flower's English Grammar :
" Case is the different termination or ending of a noun, and is used
to show in what relation words stand to each other."
(3) Bosworth's Anglo-Saxon Grammar :
"A case is a change in the termination of a noun, he. to express
their relation to the words with which they are connected in the
sentence."
(4) O'Donovan's Irish Grammar :
*' By case is understood a certain change in the form (generally in
the termination) of a noun to denote relation."
(5) Bromsgrove Greek Grammar :
"The cases are distinguished by their endings."
(6) Heard's Russian Grammar :
" The declension of substantives by case is nothing but an expres-
sion of the relation which one object bears to another, marked by
some vaiiation of the final letters of the word itself."
ETYMOLOGY. 87
(7) Vieyra's Portuguese Grammar :
" The Portuguese nouns have no variation of cases."
(8) M'Culloch's English Grammar :
" As the only relation of nouns which is expressed in English by a
change of termination is that of ownership or possession, there are,
strictly speaking, only iwo cases, i. e. nominative and possessive."
(9) Jones's Persian :
" The Persian substantives, like ours, have but one variation of case.
" The other cases are expressed, for the most part, as in our lan-
guage, by particles placed before the nominatives."
(10) David's Turkish :
" Les Turcs ont six cas."
(11) Yates' Hindustani :
" The cases are eight : the nominative, genitive or possessive, instru-
mental, dative, objective or accusative, the ablative, the locative, and
the vocative."
(12) Jones's Arabic, in his Hindustani Grammar :
" Nothing can be more easy than the declension of Arabic nouns,
there being only three cases."
242. From the foregoing definitions we must understand
that the case of a noun is some one out of sundry of its case-
forms, and that it takes its sundry case-forms with different
endings ; and thei'efore that there is nothing out of a noun, —
such as a preposition or other word, — that can make its case,
and that a noun has no more cases than it has case-forms ;
and so that case is to be understood of words only and not of
things, inasmuch as a noun has been shown to be only a word
and not a thing.
Now the English noun has only two case-forms, the no-
minative and possessive, and therefore, as we are told by
definition 8, it has only two cases ; yet Murray's Grammar
says, " English substantives have three cases, the nominative,
possessive, and objective;" and it defines the objective case
as one that "expresses the object of an action or of a relation."
Murray tells us that he is aware the idea of case has a re-
ference to the termination of the noun, and that he had " long
doubted the propriety of assigning to English substantives an
objective case ;" and yet, as he could not conceive that under
88 ETY.MOLOr.Y.
such an expression as Hhe bay horse kicked the white horse/
both words ' horse ' were in the nominative case, barely since
they were in the same form, so he was driven to allow, aj^ainst
the received definitions of case, that case was not wholly in
the form of the noun.
The Iliudoostance Grammar reckons the cases to be cigbt,
and yet tells us the dative is always the same as the nomina-
tive; so that if cases be only sundry forms of the noun,
then the forms which are called tlie Hindoostancc dative
and nominative cases are one, and the language has only
seven cases.
Then Lennie^s Grammar gives case as "the relation one
noun bears to another, or a verb or preposition," and tells us
there are three cases, the nominative, possessive, and objective ;
and that the objective denotes the object upon which an
active verb or a preposition terminates.
Now there is reason to think, that when this definition and
some fore-given ones tell us that case is the relation which
one NOUN bears to another, or is a form of the voiin for the
showing of its relation to any other, they mean, after all, that
case is the relation or the token of the relation of a tinny, and
not of a noun, to another ; for we have seen that a noun is
not a thing itself, but only its name, and therefore only a
word; and the relation of a word to another cannot be any
thing more than its relation to it in its order in the sen-
tence, or its length or loudness, or some other accident or
quality of a word ; and yet it is clear that this is not the rela-
tion which the definitions mean.
Thence Heard's Russian Grammar tells us that declension
is "an expression of the relation which one object bears to
another," marked by some variation of the final letters of the
word itself.
But if case be the expression of the relations of things only
as they are betokened by endings of nouns, then the English
has only two cases, and .Murray and other grammarians are
wrong while they hold that it has three ; and if case be the
expression of the relations of thinf/s by any case-tokens what-
ever, then English has as many cases as Latin, or Hungarian
or any other language, since we tell with our nouns and case-
tokens all the relations of things which are marked by the
case-endings of other tongues.
If case be the relation of one thing to another, then, as
ETYMOLOGY. 89
long as a noun is the name of a thing in the same relation to
another, the noun must be in the same case ; or otherwise the
name of a thing may shift its case, while the thing itself does
not shift its relation ; so that case is not a true token of the
relation of a thing : and yet, under both of the expressions,
* I have lost the pin's head,^ and ' 1 have lost the head of the
pin,' the pin bears the same relation to its head, though in the
first, pin would be in Mr. Murray's possessive case, and in
the other in the objective case.
Richards' Welsh Grammar :
" As to cases, there is but one termination throughout the singular
number, and another in the plural ; so that they* are only distinguished
by prepositions set before them, or in their construction."
Yeates' Hebrew Grammar :
" The cases of nouns are not distinguished, as in Latin and Greek,
by terminations, but frequently by prefixes.
" Strictly speaking, there is no genitive case in Hebrew."
But if cases be forms of nouns, then Mr. Yeates must be
understood to say that forms of nouns are frequently distin-
guished by prefixes; i.e., the forms of nouns which do not
vary in form, are distinguished by what is not of their forms,
which is unintelligible.
This seems to be the plight of case as grammarians now
understand it ; and yet among all the clashings of their defi-
nitions we find some truth, and in all these confused outlines
of case we catch glimpses of true forms.
Case, it seems allowed, betokens the relations of nouns,
which Ave see must mean things; and Mr. Yeates confesses
that there must exist in Hebrew some contrivance to convey
an idea of the same logical relation of words {things) which
in Western languages is expressed by the genitive case ; and
it will be found that there are, in all other languages, con-
trivances to tell all the logical relations of things which are
betokened by the case-forms of words in Latin, or Greek, or
Hungarian.
There is reason to believe, that the first grammatical
meaning of ' casus ' Avas the colloquial meaning of ' case ' in
English, — the logical plight of any thing, or its logical relation
* If the word they means cases, and cases arc forms of nouns, then we are
told that tlic forms of nouns are distinguished by prepositions set before them,
the meaning of which is not very clear.
90 ETYMOLOGY.
to Other things^ or to circumstances affecting it, or ^vhat
befalls a thing. ' Casus/ in Latin, meant a pliglit or case, or
accident.
" . . . . nemo dolorem
Fingit in hoc casu." — Juvenal, Sat. 13.
" Et quod in hujusmodi casu accidit, periti ignaris parebant."
Quini. Curt., lib. 4.
" Quove casu extinctus est ignaris." — Quint. Curt., lib. 6.
Cado, the root of ' casus,' means to fall, or to happen or
fall out, to befall, — like our word ' fall,' the German ' fallen,'
and the Dutch vallen ; — as, ' it fell upon a day,' ' lest some
evil befall him,' ' it fell out otherwise : ' and therefore the
verbal noun, ' casus,' means a plight or case, like the German
' fall ' in the expression ' in dem falle,' in that case.
So in Arabic, Persian, and Hindoostanee grammar, a case,
called hal or halat, from the verb hala, ' to come or happen,'
means ' a logical plight or case of a thing.'
Hindoostanee : 'Hur kowee apnee{hal)sai wakif hai/
' Every one is aware of his case.'
Persian: ' Ruz deegur haman[hal) wujood girift,
' On another day the same case, or circumstance, took place.'
Thence it seems likely that case, which most of our gram-
marians bind to the noun (the name of a thing), was at first
understood as the case or plight of the thing known under the
name, or as the logical relation of things to other things or
their activities; and that the name case, at last, went over
from things to the case-forms of their names, inasmuch as the
case-forms were the tokens of the cases ; as a writing of the
case of a man at law with another is called * his case.'
But whether case meant at first the case of a thing or the
form of its name, still, as it will be found, and has been
allowed, that the cases of nouns (word-cases) are tokens of
the logical relations of things (thing-cases) ; and as the thing
wields its case-token, while the case-token does not wield the
thing ; so it is clear that the understanding of word-case must
come from that of thing-case.
Some may think it indifferent whether we take cases as the
cases of nouns, or of the things named under them ; but in
seeking the laws or nature of case through sundry languages,
we soon find that such an opinion is wrong. There is as
ETYMOLOGY. 91
much need of the distinguishing of the case of a thing from
the case-form of its name, as there is for a discrimination of
an original straight line in perspective from its representative
in the outline. All that is true of original straight lines is
not true of their representatives in the draught, for while two
original straight lines may be parallel, their representatives
may rightly approach each other; and so, while the logical
relations of things must be as many in England as in Russia
or Hungary, the case-forms of their names may be fewer in
English than in Russian, and fewer in Russian than in
Magyar.
We must therefore discriminate between the cases, or
plights, or relations of things, and the case-forms or case-
tokens of their names ; and we shall need sundry names for
them. We might call the logical relations of things ' cases,'
or 'plights,' or 'thing-cases,' or 'natural-cases;' and we
might call the relation -forms, or tokens of their names, ' case-
forms,' or ' name-cases,' or ' speech-cases,' or ' case-tokens,' or
* case- wordings.'
Now a man may have as many relations to a tree, or a
house, or a fire, or its activities, or a thing may be conceived
in as many relations to other things or their activities, in
England, as in Russia or China, or in any other land ; and
inasmuch as all nations can tell, by breathsounds, or case-
tokens in or with the nouns of their languages, any of such
relations of things, so far any one language may have as many
speech-cases, or at least case-tokens, as another.
It is true some languages have fewer case-forms or case-
endings of nouns (in German fallendungen) than others, as
the English has less than the Latin, and the Latin than the
Finnic tongues; but what they want in case-forms or case-
endings, they make up with case-tokens of other kinds, such
as prepositions or postpositions, or such as the kasra, the
token of the genitive case, in Persian, or such as the allo-
cation of the noun, as that of the accusative case, in English.
And the Latin needs case-tokens besides its case-forms almost
if not quite as much as the English ; for the relations of the
man to the tree, under the sentences ' vir in arbore est,' and
' vir longe ab arbore est,' are shown, not by the case-form
arbore, which is the same in both of the sentences, but by
the prepositions in and ab.
Upon all these things we may conclude that it may be well
to call the logical cases or relations of things ' cases,' and all
92 ETYMOLOGY.
the kinds of speech -tokens of those cases or relations 'case-
tokcnings/ reserving the name ' case-forms/ or ' casc-cndings/
to case-tokenings in tlic noun, while case-tokenings in general
are the case-tokens either in the nouns, as endings, or with
the nouns, as prepositions, affixes, and others.
Now while it may be believed that a clear insight into the
case-tokenings of speech should be sought through that of
the natural cases of things, it may be thought that the gather-
ing and comparing of all the logical relations of things, taking
in all their relations of place, space, direction, size, hardness,
time, motion, rest, cause and effect, agency and patieucy, and
all other qualities, accidents, and activities, would be an end-
less task, inasmuch as they would be found to be almost
innumerable.
The species of animals, and vegetables and minerals, are
almost innumerable, and yet the mind has made it possible, if
not easy, to know them and comprehend their natures and
qualities by a classing of them after their likenesses and
differences ; and as the logical cases or relations of things
have been the subjects of thought and speech to millions upon
millions of men, even to all generations of them from the
creation till now, it is worth while to inquire Avhether the
mind of man has classed them by any laws of their likenesses
and differences, and whether the case-tokenings of speech
show any thing of such laws.
2i3. Now in Latin, a thing with an activity from it, and a
thing with the quality of another rated from its own, are both
classed under the same case-tokening :
' Vir venit ab urbe,' (ablative),
' Argentum Aolius auro' (ablative) .
This may be thought accidental. Let us look at the Greek :
it is so there :
** ax' 'Afivjvajv," (genitive),
'from Athens.'
** ao(puT£po; Tou ^i^uay.aXov," (genitive),
' wiser than (from) the teacher.*
It is so in Romaunt :
" Pan de Dio es loqual deisende del eel," (preposition de)
' The bread of God is that which descends from heaven.'
" Sies tu maior del nostre paire Abraam ? " (preposition de)
'Art thou greater than (from) our father Abraham?'
ETYMOLOGY. 93
It is so in Italian, Spanish, Portiig:uese, and French, in one
of two modes of rating the quality of one thing by another :
" Contenersi di ridere,^' (preposition di) .
' To refrain from laughing/
" Piii ricco di quest' uomo," (preposition di) ,
' Richer than (from) this man/
Spanish :
" He venido de mi casa/' (preposition de).
' I am come from my house, ffom home/
" Es mas discreto de lo que parece/' (preposition de) .
' He is wiser than (from) what appears/
Portuguese :
"Que pareceo salir do mar profundo," (preposition de, d'o) .
' Which seemed to rise from the deep sea/
" He mais prudente do que parece," (preposition de, d'o) .
' He is wiser than (from) what appears/
French :
" II vint de Paris," (preposition de) .
' He came from Paris/
" Plus c?'une chose,'' (preposition de) .
' More than (from) one thing/
The same two cases are betokened by the same case-tokens
in Romaic ;
" (azo) Ti^v FaAAiav," (preposition ixo).
' from France/
" II TspiJ^civix slvui ix^eyaK^Tspx {a%o) ri^v TuKXiav" (prep. oizo).
* Germany is larger than (from) France/
(See Julius David's Modern Greek Grammar).
In Albanian the preposition yua means 'from/
(See Xylander's Albanian Speech) .
" i (jov\xe 'xovpjj.e (yyoc.) TuKiKaia /3/vTf 7ra? x/y e Je (yJi^)
TouJa/a." — (Mark iii. 7.)
' A. great multitude from Galilee followed him, and ' from
Judea/
" TO |Xf / (icfsXe VT£ [x.zperEpi ts nieXliBT tare jxe i (xaj
(yxa) ai."
' He that is least in the kingdom of heaven is greater than
(from) he/
94 t:tymology.
The increase of examples of this coincidence makes it less
likely tliat it is an accidental one.
It is true that in some languages, Latin and others, there
are two modes of rating the quality of one thing from that of
another. One of them is the mode which w^e are tracing, — that
in which the thing with the quality of another rated from it,
has the same case-tokens as a thing with an activity from it, —
and the other mode is the conjunctive mode of two subjects,
in which the noun of the thing with the quality rated from
it, follows a conjunction in the nominative case.
1st mode. Argentum villus [auro].
2d mode. Argentum villus qu;\m [aurum] .
So in Welsh the form is, ' She is fairer not, or nor, her
sister ; ' i. e., she, not her sister, is fairer.
The latter mode may be dismissed for a short time, while
we arc tracing the first through other languages. The first,
as well as the latter, may be taken for the ends of induction
in the discovery of the laws of the classification of cases.
In Anglo-Saxon, through the fewness of its case-forms, the
noun of a thing with a motion from it, is put in the dative
case-form :
" Da comon pa men of (prym mseg^um) Germanic," —
(dative case).
' Then men came from three tribes of Germany.'
" Ge synd beteran (manigum spear wum)," — (dative case).
' Ye are better than (from) many sparrows.'
Gothic :
" Fram (attin) nisandiths vas," — (dative case).
' Was sent from the father.'
" (]Managain sparwam) batizans signup gus," — (dative case).
' Ye are better than (from) many sparrows.'
In Icelandic, fra, from, governs the dative case, or a
motion from a thing is marked by a noun in the dative case :
" Fr^ (hverjum manni)," — (dative case).
' From any man.'
" Words -which define or strengthen comparatives are put
in the dative ; e. g.,
" (Ilvcrjum manni) hserri."
' Taller than (from) any man.' — Rask's Norse Grammar.
ETYMOLOGY. 95
In modern Irish the usual mode of rating the quality of a
thing from that of another is the conjunctive form, — ' argen-
tum vilius quam aurum;^ but we find from O'Donovan's
Irish Grammar, -that in the old Irish and Gaelic the form
'argentura vilius auro ' is found. Now the Irish preposition for
' from ' takes the dative or ablative case, and Mr. O^Donovan
tells us that " when the noun following this comparison "
(that of the form ' argentum vilius auro ') " is in the feminine
gender, it is always in the dative or ablative;" and that
'* jilicep jeij", 'wliiter than the swan,-" is of the same con-
struction as candidior cycno ;" or that the name of a thing
with a motion from it, and that of a thing with the quality
of another rated from it, have the same case -tokens.
The same coincidence of case-tokens happens in the Scla-
vonic tongues, Russian, Bohemian, and Wallachian.
'jz (Russij),' genitive; '^ from Russia.'
' (prikrasiaya Ijlaj),' genitive; 'fairer than (from) the lily.'
In Bohemian, ' z ' out of, with a motion from, and ' od,'
from, govern the genitive case ;
' od lesa,' from the wood.
* od vlice,' from the street.
And Wenzel Pol, in his Bohmische Sprachkunst, says, " Den
comparatives wird zwar gemeiniglich nezli nachgesetzet, als
* Etnost gest wazenegssi nezli zlato ; ' ' Tugend ist iiber gold :
doch kan auch soldi nezli ausgelassen ; ' und der genitivus
nachgesetzet werden, als 'Gest vcinegssi mne/ er ist gelehrter
als ich."
Commonly, indeed, ' nezli ' is set after genitives, as
' Etnost,' &c., ' Virtue is above gold ; ' but yet the nezli may
be left out, and the genitive put on, as ' Gest,' &c., ' He is
more learned of (from) me.'
In Illyric od means from, and governs the genitive^ case-
form ; as, ' (od) brata,' from the brother ; but ' veci (od)
brata,' means ' greater from (than) the brother.'
In Bulgarian ot is from, and ^
'asidu (ot) doma — (ot) grad-ut,' (preposition o/,) means
' I come from the house — from the town ; ' but
'p6-jak (ot) pesucivi-jut kamuk,' means 'harder from
(than) the sandstone,' (preposition ot).
96
ETYMOLOGY.
In Wallacliian [40] de, means from ; as, ' de a kase/ from
a house.
' The fox is more cunning than the dog/ is
wel Bv^uo ccTe Mai niii^eaii [^e-KjKT] 'u-1 Kiniie.
" ©el \'ulpe este mai viklcan [dc kcit] 9el koine "
' The fox is more cunning from how (from how much)
the dog/
Here, although the sameness of case-token holds in
de-keit,' ' the dog ' is in the nominative case, and therefore
we have a key to the English form, ' the fox is more cunning
thaii the dog.' — (See Blazewicz Grammatik der Dacoromanis-
cheji Sprache.)
These coincidences which we are gathering of case-tokens,
are already enough to make us mistrust that they happen
from bare chance ; but we can find more of them, —
In Turkish, the preposition Men,' means 'from,' and is
the token of the ablative case.
'smdcn,' from water;
but David's Grammaire Turks says, " Le coraparatif est quel-
quefois forme en mettant k I'ablatif le nom ou le pronora
qu'on compare : "
' anden yegder' better (from) him.
In the language of the Lazen, sa is the ending of the
fromness case-form, called by Rosen the motative; and the
sentence, ' this stone is harder than that stone,' is
' Ham qua (this stone), heem quasa {from that stone),
da bgi one {it is harder.)
So in Persian :
" Ma{az) mushrik hur amud."
' The moon arose (from) the east,' (preposition az) .
'' Hoshuntur {az) rookh-i-roz."
' Fairer (from) than the face of day,' (preposition az) .
In Hindoostanee :
" Ghorai {sai) ooturkur."
' Alighting (from) his horse,' (postposition sai) .
" Ndddn dost {sai) ddnd dooshmun bhiild hat.*'
' A wise foe is better from (than) an indiscreet friend.'
ETYMOLOGY. 97
Mr. Anderson, in liis Biidiments of Tamul Grammar, says,
" The ablative denotes locality, and serves also to denote
motus a loco."
By a figurative extension of the latter sense, the ablative
serves to form the degrees of comparison ; as, ' this is greater
than that,' ' greater froin that.'
In Khoordish :
" U b.stina ex wan.''
//
' Take from them,' {ex, from) .
" Jek ex ih, amintera."
' One more faithful from (than) thee,' {ex, from.)
Mandshoo language :
In Mandshoo the case-ending for the ablative case, or for
a thing with a motion from it, is '(;[,' as [biutyj] from the
house; and Mower than the high house,' is 'dergj [bmt 9J]
fuisikhan,' i.e. lower from the high house.
Schmidt, in his Grammar of the Mongolian language, says,
" Der vergrossernde comparative wird theils durch vorset-
zung des adverbums mehr gebildet, theils durch den ablative
des zum vergleich gewahlten hauptworts und dessen post-
position {atsa) von, aus, welche in comparations falle den
sinn des Deutschen als annimmt;" i.e., the increased com-
parative is sometimes formed by the forsetting of the adverb
more, and sometimes by the ablative of the noun chosen
for the comparison and the postposition {atsa) from, out ;
which, in the case of comparison, takes the meaning of the
German als.
In the Shemetic languages we find a like coincidence of
case-tokens :
Hebrew :
)i'^iiil []D] nby;_ liji), (preposition TQ, from )
' And a vapour arose frotn the earth.'
U^y^ [P] \)^r\^f (preposition Q, same as TO 'witli the T out
' „ . ,n s ^^ 1, 5 before a palate-letter.)
' Sweeter (from) than honey.
5
d8 ETYMOLOGY.
Arabic :
" Kdna Eenscin arsila[inin) Allah," (prepos. m?«, from) .
'There was a man sent (from) God/ — (John i. G.)
" Md dladzee eehldiniin) dlusal," (prcpos. min, from).
'What is sweeter (from) than honey/ — (Judges xiv. 18.)
Sijriac :
In Syriac, also, the preposition from is used for than ; and
'sharper than a two-edged sword/ is ' sharper /rom a two-
edged sword.^
Maltese :
In Maltese the preposition 'from' is 'myn/ as, ("myn)
dan jygi,'^ ' it comes from this.'
Then Vassalli, in his Grammatica della Lingua Maltese,
says, " L'addiettivo, che puo diventar coraparativo nella su<\
qualitjl maggiore o miuore, si eonstrusce allora coile particellc
' fost ' o ' myn.' "
"Aktar ahmar (myn) nar."
' Redder from (than) fire.'
In Coptic, isjen means from ; and isje is used for than ;
' tahelpis (isjen) eiouemghi nte tamau.' ' My hope from my
mother's breasts.'
" Nanous gar eji ehoua (isji) elokh."
' For (it is) better to marry (than) from to burn.'
In Greenlandish the thing from which the quality of
another is off-rated, is taken in the aljlative or fromuess case ;
tvgto, reindeer; {tuytumit), from the reindeer.
" Nano (tugtumit) angivok."
' The bear is great (from) the reindeer ; '
or, as Ilerr Kleiusmidt analyzes it, " Der bar is vom renn-
thier (ausgegangen) gross;" d.h. ' grosser als ein rennthier.'
Armenian :
In i\j-menian the case-token for a thing with an activity
from it, is that of the ablative case ; as,
" E tsaee kooeeheedoots-g-ee banits," (ablative case) .
' From c\\\ thoughts and words.'
" MyeSn markaraits," (ablative ease) .
' Greater from (than) the prophets.'
{SceFather Paschal Aucher's Grammar, Armenian andEnglish.)
ETYMOLOGY. 99
The Finnic languages :
The Finnic hvnguages are, the Finnic itself, the Lapponic,
the Madjar, or INIagyar or Hungarian, the Cheremissian, the
Esthonian, and the Syrjfena, the language of a tribe who
dwell by the rivers Witshedga and Wira, and others.
The case-endings of these languages, no less than ten,
twelve, or fourteen, are most exact and complete as tokens of
the logical relations of things.
Hungarian or Magyar, and Finnic :
In Hungarian the case-ending for the ablative is ^stol,
and sometimes -val ; and " comparativi Hungarorum con-
struuntur cum substantivis quibus suffixum prsepositionale
' val,' ' vel ' copulatum est."
Yet I think the jMagyars now often, if not mostly, take for
comparison of qualities the form ' argentum vilius quam
aurum.' In that form quam is represented by 7nint, of which
I know not the formation ; and the noun of the thing from
which the quality is rated is sometimes put in the nominative
case-form, and at others in the associative.
So in Esthonian, a noun of a thing with an activity from it
takes the case-ending *st, and ' My wife is two years younger
than I,' is
" ]\Io peiginees on kaks aastat norem (minnust)," (abla-
tive of minna.)
' My wife is two years younger (from) me.'
(See Affinitas LingutB HungariccB cum Linguis Finnicce
originis demonstrata, auctore Samuele Gyarmathi.)
In Cheremissian :
' Shimbel-gits,' means 'from the brother;' and
' Shimbel-gits kogo,' ' greater from (than) the brother.'
In Lapponic, again, the case-ending for a noun of a thing
with an activity from it is 'est,' that of the ablative; and
' The crow is blacker than the swan,' is
" Garanes le tiappetub (miuktie.9/) ," (ablative case).
* The crow is blacker from (than) the swan,'
[Grammatica Lapjjonica, by Peter Fiellstrom) .
So in the Syrjsena tongue,
(See Lingua Syrjcena, hy M. A. Castren),
The case-endinsT for the noun of a thing M'ith a motion
100 ETYMOLOGY.
from it is mostly *ys, that of what 'Mr. Castren calls the
relative case, as ju-ys, 'from the river;' and ' Whatsoever is
greater than this cometh of evil/ is
' Myize vy yti (ta-ys) / &c.
' Whatsoever is greater (from) tliis/ &c.
In Japanese, the suffix yori, yoriwa means ' from.'
" Miyako yori koodaroo," ' I come from the court.'
" Fito yori," ' from the man.'
And M. Abel Remusat, in his Elemens de la Grammaire
Japanoise, says, "On forme le coniparatif en pla^ant I'adverbe
naivo devant I'adjectif au positif, et le particule yomi, ou
yorimo, ou yoriwa, (from,) devaut la chose comparee."
In the Malay language, darr't pada is ' from,' or the token
of fromness ; and ' from God,' in the sentence " there was a
man sent from God," is '' darri pada Allah;" while 'two
are better than one,' is " bayikla doowa darri pada sawatu."
In Maori, " Wakaoraug'a matou i te kino," is
' Deliver us from the evil.' — (Matt. vi. 13.)
And " Ehara oti te oranga, i te mea rahi i te kai,"
' Is not the life more from (than) meat.' —
(Matt. vi. 25.)
In the Kafir language the thing from which a quality of
another is rated, is taken in the same case as it is with a
motion from it. ]Mr. Appleyard calls it the dative case ; but
then he says elsewhere, that the dative forms include " the
usual significations of to, in, into, on, at, from," &c.
244. We see, then, that nation after nation of men have
marked the case of a thing with an activity from it, and a
thing with the quality of another rated from its own, with
the same case-tokens, and therefore have classed the two
cases together, — a token that the iiiinds of men have done
much towards the classing of the logical relations of things
by some laws, so that we may take heart in the searching
after them.
It may be answered, that there is not in English any such
coincidence of case-tokens as those which we have been
gathering, since we say ' snow is whiter than linen,' an expres-
ETYMOLOGY. 101
sion in which 'linen/ instead of having any token of the
case of 'fromness/ is in the nominative case^ as is 'auruin'
in the form, , , •,• v _ ,
' ' argentum villus quam aurum.
Now we have a clue to this form in the Wallachian lan-
guage in the foregiven expression :
" (;el vulpg este mai viklean {de keit) gel keine,"
'the fox is more cunning than the wolf; '
for de means ' from/ and keit ' how/ ' how much/ ' what ; '
and therefore de keit means ' from how much/ ' from how/
' from what ; '
And ' mai viklean dekeit (;el keine/ is
more cunning, ' from how/ or ' from how much/ or
' from what ' the dog (is) ;
so that the token of fromness is in ' dekeit,' though it is not
in the noun ' keine/
Now we learn ft'om the Anglo-Saxon (see 'j^on/ in Bosworth's
Anglo-Saxon Dictionary), that (]>6n) our word 'than^ is used
chiefly in adverbial expressions for ' ]mm/ which is the from-
ness case-form of ' se/ and means 'from that/ so that 'Ge
synt selran (|7onne) manega spearwan/ (Matt, x, 31.) is 'Ye
are better from that (which) many sparrows (are) ; ' i. e., ye
are better, rating the quality good from what sparrows are,
so that the token of fromness, although it is not in ' spearwan,'
is in ']?onne;' and Mr, Bosworth says, in \\\s, Anglo-Saxon
Grammar, that " when the words ' j^onne,' ' |?jenne,' or ' j^e,'
are omitted after a comparative, the following word is put in
the genitive or dative case," the fromness case-form ; or, that
when there is no pronoun upon which the law (if there be
such a law) can hold, it holds on the noun. Hence we may
deduce a resolution of the Latin form, ' argentum villus quam
aurum,' which seems to be elliptic for
" argentum villus (ab ea ad) quam aurum vile est."
* silver is viler, rating from that quality to which gold is vile.'
So in the Basque language we find
" Ez jaatoc i-r-e zaldija (bano) lodiric ;"
' No horse is fatter (than) yours.'
In Zetlandish, ' more than ' is ' mour az ; ' and
in the German, " listiger (als) der hund,"
'more cunning (than) the dog;' and
in Greek, ' o-e/xvorfpov vi ol^stvi.'
] 0.2 ETYMOLOGY.
The words 'bano/ and 'als/ and 'v^/ may have a liiie
origin, from a pronoun^ as our word * than/ and may ctymo-
iogicaliy have the case-token of fromness. But this wants
further inquiry.
215. It is true tlierc is a form of comparison in which the
noun of the thing from which tlie quality is rated is governed
by a word of the meaning of our word ' over/ or ' beyond/
and therefore may have no ease-token of 'fromness;^ Ijut in
that form the adjective is mostly in the positive, and not the
comparative degree. It is thus :
' Snow is white above, or over or beyond, linen.'
Latin. " Scelere ante alios immanior oranes."
Mieid, lib.i. 34-7.
' Preeter cseteras altior.'
In Luke xvi. 8. we have (ppoviixurepoi V'Kcp vlov; rov (pooTog.
So in Bisaya, " I am older than Peter/' is
' Tigurang aeo can Pedro/
' I am old (in comparison) with Peter.'
This form is sometimes found in Armenian and Chinese ;
as in the Chinese,
" Mu hiiin (hu) van, mil hian (hu) wei /
' Nothing is clear over the hidden ; nothing open over the
concealed.'
' Nothing is clearer than what is hidden ; nothing more
open than what is concealed.' '
246. Having these tokens, — of what, indeed, we had reason
to believe vrithout them, — that mankind have classed by some
laws of ditfercnces and likenesses the logical relations of
things, our next business will be to learn into how many and
what classes they have been disposed by mankind at large, or
by ditferent nations, or by those nations who have classed
them with the most skill.
247. Don Pablo Pedro dc xVstarloa, Avho wrote anApoIoffia
de la Lenr/ua Bascomjada, ' Apology for the Basque Lan-
guage,' — a language which is highly worthy of our admiration,
if not of all his praise, — seems one of the first grammarians
who ever thought of the classing of the natural cases, and
says, upon the grounds of much keen reasoning, that " there
ETYMOLOGY. 103
are four primary, and four secondary relations of noun to
noun, (thing to thing)." That tlie four primary relations are
those of agcntj patient, recipient, and principal ; and the four
secondary relations are those of material^ final, instrumental,
and efficient.
ISIr. de Astarloa seems to mean, by his eight relations,
those of the following sentences :
The boy (agent) struck the ball, (patient).
The man went into the house, (recipient) .
The man went from the house, (principal) ?
The chain is made of gold, [material) .
He laboured for wealth, (final) .
He struck him with a stick, {instrumental) .
He died from the bloio, {efficient) .
248, INIr. De Astarloa does not reckon among his relations
of things (cases) those which we call the nominative and
vocative cases, as they are not relations of the kinds of v/hich
he speaks. The nominative case is not the relation of one
thing to another thing under speech, but it is the relation of
a thing to the speech it is uuder : it is the subject of the
speech in which it is taken. Now any one of the things
under speech, whatever may be its relation to the others of
them, may be taken as the subject of speech, and therefore
may be taken into the nominative case with its other case,
though not the case-form of its noun, left as it was. Thus,
under the sentences,
' The groom rides the horse,^ and
' The horse is ridden by the groom,'
the relations of the groom (agent) and horse (patient) are the
same; and yet in the former the groom is the subject of
speech (in the nominative case), and in the latter the horse is
the subject of speech (and in the nominative case) ; so that
the nominative case is a king-case, taking the place of any
natural case. And when a thing under speech is brought into
it, its noun casts off the tokens of its thing-case, and the
speech makes amends for them by the giving of case-tokens
to other nouns of the speech, or by some other change of
wording. Under the sentence,
' Csesar duxit cohortem,'
Caesar is agent ; but the noun Csesar has no case-token^ while
lot ETYMOLOGY.
the noun ' cohortem ' has the case-token of the patient ; but
under the sentence,
' Cohors ducta est j\ Caesare/
' cohors ' has cast off its token of patiency, and ' Caesare ' has
taken that of the instrument.
249. The vocative case is another relation of a thing to the
speech,
250. Mr. De Astarloa's eight relations, with the speech
relations, the nominative and vocative cases, would make
ten cases.
251. In the classing of the logical relations of things, we
may readily conceive that some nations may have classed two
or more together upon too slight likenesses, and so may have
too few classes of them ; or may have classed them asunder
upon too slight diflferences, and so may have more classes of
them than are needful.
252. The Latin and Greek would show too few classes if
we were to reckon them by the case-endings, since in Greek
the relation of place and instrument are set in one class
imder the dative case-form, and in Latin the relations of
instrument, place, and fromness are ranked under the ablative
form of the noun ; but if we begin to look over the languages
of the world to find those in which the relations of things
may seem classed with the greatest skill under case-endings,
we shall find worthy of our attention a cluster of tongues
which we may call the Finnic, or the languages of the Finnic
tribes.
253. The Finnic tribes are, the Finns and Lapps, and the
Magyars of Hungary ;
The tribe by the river Iser, and that of Eastland, and of
Livonia in the circle of Riga, and in CoorUuid ;
The Tsheremisscs or Clieremisses, on the left side of the
Volga, the Mordwincrs of Orenburg ;
The Permians and the Syrjaners, both dwelling on the rivers
Witshedga and Wim ;
The Woguls of Siberia, and the Ostiaks of the lower Irtysh
and lower Ob.
ETYMOLOGY.
105
In the Grammatica Lapjmnica of Peter Fiellstrom there are
reckoned nine case-forms, but in Gyarmathi's Affinitas Linguoi
Hungaricce cum Linguis Finnicce originis, he gives the names
of thirteen case -forms in the Lapponic and Hungarian.
Lapponic.
Case
cndiiigs.
, C Nominative * . ,
\ Vocative * . .
2 Genitive eu . .
3 Accusative eb . .
Hungarian.
Case
endiugs.
*
. . e . . . .
. at . . . .
Relations.
vir, a man.
vir, man.
viri, of a man.
virum, a man.
4 I Penetrative i
ba, be . . in virum, into a man. |
5 Nuncupative an . . . ra, re . .
6 Dative i . . . nak . .
7 Locative en . -ban, -ben
8 Ablative est . . bol, bol .
9 Mediative in . . . val, vel .
10 Descriptive lai . . . . ent . .
11 Negative atla . . . atlan .
12 Factive en . . . va, ve.
C usque ad virum,
\ end of motion.
viro, to a man.
in viro, in a man.
a viro, from a man.
viro, with a man.
secundum vhum,
case of parallel motion.
(as shoeless).
254. In the Lingua Sijrjcena we find sixteen case-endings
or postpositions or case-forms.
1 C Nominative, mort. . . * vir, a man.
2 I Vocitive * vir, o man.
3 Genitive * viri, of a man.
4 Accusative as virum, a man.
5 Illative a in virum, into a man.
„ „ • i • T • ( usque ad virum, up to
6 Termmative edzj | {^^^ ^^^^ .^^^ ^ ^^^^^
„ .„ ,. .... ( adversus virum, against
7 ^lative lanj | ^^. ^^^^,^^^^^ ^ ^^° ^_
8 Consecutive la pro viro, for a man.
viro est amicus, (the
dative of a noun).
., ^ ^ . 1 f viro locutus est, (the da-
^^ ^'^^''-^ ^y [ tive of an action).
11 Inessive yn in viro, in a man.
5§
9 Adessive Ian
lOG
ETYMOLOGY.
12 Elativc vs e viro, out of a man.
13 Ablative { l^n j ) " '''""' ^'°'" ''' """"'
1 i Instrnmentive an, on cum viro, with a man.
f secundum virum, (case
] 5 Prosecutive ad | pf pjjj.aUel motion).
16 Caritive iig, i'.-j^ manlcss.
255. Ill tlic Finnic language we find fifteen case-forms,
or postpositions. See Finsk Spraklara, by Gustaf Erik Euren,
Abo. 1849.
Sin^^ular. riural.
Nominative -t.
Infinitive
Genitive .
Tnessive
Elative . .
6 Illative . .
7 Adessive .
-ta, tii.
-n.
-ssa, ssa.
-sta, stji.
-h-n.
-Ua, llii.
1.'
-ita, ita.
-iten, -ten.
-issa, issji.
-ista, ista.
-ih, -n.
-ilia, -ilia.
8 Ablative
9 Allative.
10 Abessive
11 Prolative
13 Translative, -ksi.
13 Essive . . -na, -nii
14 Comitative, -ne.
Singular.
-Ita, Ita.
-lie.
-tta, -tta.
-tse.
Plural.
-ilta, -iltii.
-ille.
-itta, itta.
-itse.
-iksi.
-ina, -ina.
-ine.
Instructive, -n. -in.
It is an excellence of some of these Finnic languages, tliat
as they have case-endings for most if not all of the greater
classes of the logical relations of things, so they have but
little if any need of prepositions or case-tokens of other kinds.
256. Little good can be gained in a language by the class-
ing of different natural cases under the same case-form ; for
the language may not therefore have fewer case-tokens, though
it may have fewer case-endings, since it must still show, by
prepositions, postpositions, or other case-tokens, the relations
which it cannot mark off by its case-endings.
The 'where' case, or locative, (the Syrjajn inessivc,) and
the ' wherefrom ' case, or ablative, are classed in Latin under
the same case-form, the ablative; and since the word 'urbe'
itself will not mark them off one from the other, they are
marked off by ' urbe ' with a preposition, as ' in urbe,' ' ab
urbe,' and therefore ' in ' and ' ab ' arc as much case-tokens as
' urbe ; ' and if the noun had two case-endings for them, like
the Finnic or Syrjeen tongue, there would be no need of the
prepositions.
It is therefore idle to object to a scheme of natural cases;
that since it may, as it will, propose more cases than there
ETYMOLOGY. 107
are case-endkigs of nouns in Latin or Greek^ or most other
languages, so it perplexes the mind with manifold and need-
less distinctions; for the logical relations of things ha^e
already been classed by the nations of the earth, and distin-
guished in their languages by case-forms, prepositions, post-
positions, or case-tokens of some kinds ; and therefore they
must all be distinguished by the learners of such languages
in the use of theii' case-tokens, whether they may be case-
endings or others.
257. We will now try to show what we hope may be found,
for the sake of the syntax of languages at large, a useful
classification of the cases, arranging them in their classes
upon their natural differences and likenesses, and the classings
which have been already made by many nations in their
languages.
258. Case 1. — Nominative Case.
A thing under speech, as the subject of a predicate, is
in a case which may be called the nominative case ; as, ' The
man rides.'
This case may be called the ' main speech-case,' or ' king
case.'
259. Case 2. — Vocative Case.
A thing called by name, is in a case which may be called
the vocative case ; as, ' O man ! hear me.'
260. Case 3. — Possessive Case.
A thing with another owned or possessed by it, is in a case
called the possessive case ; as, ' John's field.' It may be called
the 'what's' case.
Note. — As a thing possessed belongs to its owner as a pos-
session, so the owner belongs as a possessor to the thing
possessed, and the possessor and possessed are in the pos--
sessive case one to the other ; for where there is ' yiri summa
prudentia,' there is ' vir summse prudentise;' if there is
* cadus vini,' there is ' vinum cadi.'
See Latin rule, "Laus vituperium, vel qualitas rei,'' &c.; and
Latin rule, " Sum genitivum postulat quoties significat pos-
sessionem," &c.
108 ETYMOLOGY.
The whole of a thing is possessor of all its parts, so a thing
under speech with a part of itself is in the possessive case ;
as, 'one (finger) of the fingers;' 'primus {rex) reyum Roma-
norum fiiit Ronudns ;' ' pauhdum pccunice.' Thence tlie Latin
rules, "Adjcctivuni in neutro geuere," &c. and "Nomina par-
titiva numcralia/' &c.
See Greek Grammar : construction of active vcbs. ' Kpors-o?
i(TTi Tuv TKovatav.
To this case belongs the Latin rule, " Instar et ergo geni-
tivum post se liabent;" as, 'instar montis,' ' donari virtutis
eryb.' For instar is a word of the ibrm (5. 1.), composed of
in and stare, a verbal noun, meaning standing or stead or
size; and 'instar montis' is in statu{B) inontis{A), in the size
(B) of a mountain (A) .
Ergo is the Greek noun 'ipyov, a work ; and ergo virtutis is
pro ergo(B) virtutis {A), for the work or sake of his virtue.
To this case also belong the Latin rules, " Qusedam adverbia
loci, temporis et quautitatis, geuitivum admittunt.'' 'Ed im-
pudentice,' is ' eo gradu{B) impudenti(e{A}.' ' Quo terrarum
abiit,' is ' quo loco (B) terraruni{A) abiit.' ' Pridie ejus diei/
is ' prior e c^ie(B) ejus diei (A)/ &c.
261. Case 4. — Genitive or Elative Case.
A thing AAdth another, or its predicate beginning or begotten
of it, is in a case Mhich may be called the genitive or
elative case. It may be called the 'whereof case; as, 'the
fear of death,' ' the love of money,' ' the works of man,' ' the
cup is full of water/
The natural possessive and genitive cases are clearly different,
though in most languages they are both classed under one
case -form; for a thing may be the begetter of a thing which
it may not possess, or may be possessor of a thing which it
may not have begotten. ' John's field,' means the field of
which John is possessor but not begetter ; while ' the fear of
death,' or 'the love of money,' docs not mean the fear or love
wliich death or money ])ossesses, for neither death nor money
can possess fear or love; but the fear of death or the 'ove o'
money is the fear or love which death or money begets in the
mind of man; and under the sentence, 'the cup is full of
water,' the water is the begetter of the predicate ' full.'
Since a thing with another, or its predicate beginning or
ETYMOLOGY.
109
begotten by it is in the genitive case, it follows that a thing
may have two genitive relations, — one genitive relation to
another thing itself, and another to its predicate ; as (1st)
'the prick of a needle/ where the needle is the begetter of
the thing 'prick;' (2d) the cup is 'full of water/ where the
water is not the begetter of the thing ' cup/ but of its pre-
dicate 'full:' and it is idle to object that to make so keen a
discrimination as that between the relation of the thing A to
the thing B, and the relation of the thing A to the predicate
of the thing B, is to make case needlessly perplexing, for
some nations, such as the Finnic ones, have shown such dis-
criminations in the case-forms of their languages, and we
could not understand any language in which such discrimina-
tions might be made without the making of them in our
minds.
Euren, in his Finnish Grammar, distinguishes the genitive
from the possessive by the calling of the latter the genitive
possessive.
The Greek in 2 Corinth, v. 14, is ambiguous : *' »i yocp
kyot.'Kv^ Tou xpiarov avvex^i ViP^cig." If rov xpKTTOV is pos-
sessive, it means, as Bloomfield observes, the love of Christ
for us; but if it is genitive, it means our love for him.
Examples of A, genitive of B :
'Crescit amor(B) nummi[K), quantum ipsa pecunia crescit.'
See Latin rule, " Quum duo substantiva diversse," &c.
Examples of A, genitive of the predicate (p) of B :
'Weary (p) of crying (A) ;' ''/•es(B) plena[^) timoris(A) ;'
' est natura(B) hominum novitatis{A) avidai^) ;' ' timi-
dus{Tp) deorum{A).'
See the Latin rule "Adjectiva quae desiderium, notitiam," &c.
To this case also belongs the Latin rule, " Verba accusandi,
damnandi, monendi," &c.
As, ' Altei'um accusat{'^) probri{A).'
' Sceleris{A) coudejrmat{p) generum suum'
To this case belong also the Latin rules for the taking of
the genitive case-form by some verbs in -or, as misereor, remi-
niscor, obliviscor, recorder, potior. The ending -or of these
verbs shows that they are not active : they are middle-voice
verbs.
misereor, is to become miser, sad or afflicted.
reminiscor, is to become or keep mindful again.
1 10 ' ETYMOLOGY.
obliviscor, is to become forgetful.
recordor, is to become feeling again.
j)ot'ior (from potis), is to \iCQ.o\uQ. potis , powerful, or possessor.
So, " Oro miserere laborum ;"
' Be sad (p) of our toils (A) .'
" Daice fidei{A) reminiscitur{\)) ;"
'lie is mindful (p) of the plighted faith (A).'
" V'itiorum{Pi) suorum oblitus est{\)) ;"
' lie has become forgetful (p) of his own vices (A).
" Recordor {p) hujus meriti{A) •/'
'1 become feeling again (p) of this kindness (A).
" Armorwn{K) pot'Ui sunt{\)) ;"
'They became ' j^otes,' masters of the weapons.'
" Swnmam imperii{A) potiti sunt{i)) ;"
'They became 'poles' over the chief power.'
Satago (from satis ago) takes the genitive case-form for
the same reason that satis does so ; ' satis ' stands for the
thing (B), and
"/S«) means, 'it bears wealth, or a good.'
" Tanti refert honesta agere," is
' Tanti pretii{A) rem(B), or res {B)fert,' &c.
'It brings a good(B) of such worth (A) to behave honestly.'
ETYMOLOGY. Ill
The German seems to have a nominative case-form for a
genitive in the formula :
'A bottle of wine;' ^ A crowd of folk;'
* Eine jiasche ivein.' ' Eine menye leuteJ
That this, however, is only a solecism, allowed for shortness,
seems clear from the appearance of the genitive case-form
with an adjective; as,
" Eine mass des besten bieres ;"
' A pint of the best beer/
A thing (A) with another (B) made of it, is mostly in the
elative or genitive case, as 'the crown was made of gold,'
since the stuff (A) of which (B) is made is, without much
straining of meaning, the begetter of B.
In Latin the genitive and matter of a thing are named by
the same case-form, and in English they are marked by the
same preposition,
262. Case 5. — Originative Case.
A thing with the motion or predicate of another from it,
is in a case which may be called the originative or ' ivhere-
from' case: as, '\\e went from London;' 'he was pale from
fear.'
This is a twofold case, — that of the 'wherefrom' case of the
thing, as ' he went from London ; ' and the ' wherefrom ' case
of the predicate, ' he was pale from fear.'
These cases are the true ablative of the Latin, and both in
Latin and Greek they are classed under the same case-form, —
the Latin ablative and Greek genitive ; but in the Finnic and
Syrjsen tongues they are marked by dift'erent case-endings.
The '^ wherefrom' case of the thing is the SyrJEen first ablative
or elative and Finnic elative ; and the ' wherefrom ' case of
the predicate is the Syrjeen second ablative and Finnic abla-
lative, which is the Lazen motative, and is the same as
Mr. De Asterloa's relation of efficient cause.
Examples of the ' wherefrom ' case to the thing.
Some cases of Latin ablatives after the prepositions ab,
absque, de, e, ex.
The rule, '' Verbis significantibus motum a loco, fere additur
nomen loci in ablativo," &c.
1 12 ETYMOLOGY.
The ' wherefrom ' case of the predicate.
The case of the rule " Coniparativa, cum exponantur per
quiim, ablativum admittunt ; lit, villus aryeiitura est auro."
The rule " Natus, i)ro|2:natus, satus, cretus^ creatus, ortus,
editus, ablativum exiguut."
A thing may be the begetter or wherefrom of another's
predicate by its absence as well as by its presence, as under
the sentence ' the cup is empty of water/ ' there is need of
rain ;' where the water, by its absence, is the begetter of the
predicate ' is empty ; ' and rain, by its absence^ is the cause of
the predicate 'there is need,' Thence 'opus/ in Latin,
requires an ablative or a genitive ; as^
' Auctoritate tua (or tuce) nobis opus est'
To the ' wherefrom ' case of the predicate belongs the Latin
rule for the taking of an ablative case by adjectives that
belong to fulness and ivant : the rule, " Adjectiva et substan-
tiva regunt ablativum significantem causam et formam," &c.,
and the rule, " Verba abundaudi, implendi, onerandi, et his
diversa, ablativo junguntur."
263. To this case may belong also, if it does not sometimes
appertain to the hereafter given associative,* the rule, "Quibus
libet verbis additur ablativus absolute sumptus."
Under the sentence, ' the wind being against us, we made
but little way,' the wind is the wherefrom of the predicate
' we made but little way,' and therefore is in the ' wherefrom '
case ; and in both Latin and Greek may be named with the
case-endings of the wherefrom case-forms, the ablative and
genitive.
Some grammarians say that the noun of the absolute case
is in the nominative case in English, and it may be so if case
is only the form of the noun ; so that under the sentence
'the man whipped the dog,' the dog would be in the nomi-
native case. But a thing with a predicate reckoned from it, as
is a thing in the absolute case, is in the ' wherefrom ' case,
even although, by a solecism, it may be named by a noun
with the case-tokens of another case.
In the French ' Qui vent de ccs pommes ? Moi, j'en veux,'
the word moi may be taken as in the dative case ; but still the
* Plautus -writes, " Agite cum diis benevolcntibus," ■where it is clear that he
takes the gods in the associative case.
ETYMOLOGY. 113
person named by moi cannot be in any natural case but tbe
nominative.
It is rather markworthy that the very form which is given by
Diomedes (lib. ii.), as a pattern of a solecism, has now settled in
Komaic as that of a sentence with an absolute noun. He says,
" ^oXoiKifffioc ^i tfffij \6yog aKaTa\Xi)\wg avvrtTayftivoq, dog to, syio
irepLTraruiv 6 rolxog tiriaiv ;"
and now they luny in modem Greek,
" ■)(^adoviJ.ivoQ aiiTOQ eig to TpaTrt^i jjXav oi ^t'Xot tov."
' He sittmg at table, his friends came.'
In Icelandic the noun absolute takes tlie case-form of the
' wherefrom ' case :
" At ]7vi gjorvu/' ' at that done/ ' hoc facto.^
In Finnic, the absolute case is the nominative case-form.
To this ' wherefrom ' case of the predicate belong the Latin
rules for ' verba passiva/ and the rule, ' Tanto, quanta, hoc, eo,
et quo, cum quibusdam aliis quae mensuram excessus signi-
ficant, item ffitate et natu comparativis, &c. junguntur.^'
A verb (a) may be the ' wherefrom ' case of a predicate (b) .
French, ' Je suis aise (b) de vous voir (a) .
Spanish, ' Me alegro (b) de ver (a) u. m.
264. Case 6. — Accusative or Illative Case.
A thing with the coming or action of another to it, is in
a case which may be called the accusative or illative, or
'whereunto' case; as, ' John went to London;^ 'Cain slew
Abel.'
This is a twofold case, the accusative to the thing, as
under the sentence ' John went to London,' where London
is with the motion of John to it ; and the accusative to the
action, as ' Cain slew Abel,' where Abel is with the action
' slew ' to him.
In many languages, as in Latin and Greek, these tw^o cases
are classed together under the same case-form ; but in Syrjaen
they are marked by different case-endings, that of the accu-
sative to the action ' being ' -cis, and tlrnt of the accusative
to the thing, called the illative and terminative, being
-a and -edzj.
In Lapponic, a thing with a motion into it has a case-form
called the penetrative.
114
ETYMOLOGY.
Accusative to the thing.
To this case belongs the Latin rule, " Nomina appellativa
adduntur fere cum praipositionc/^ &c.
"Verbis significantibus motum ad locum, fere additur nomen
loci in accusativo sine prsepositionc ; as,
Concessi Cantabrigiam. Ite domum."
Accusative to the action.
To this case belong the Latin rule, "Verba transitiva," &c.,
and some sentences of the rule, " Verba rogandi," &c.
It is not true that ' verba vestiendi,' verbs of clothing,
mostlj^ govern an accusative case. Even the verb vestio
governs the ablative, and not the accusative, as in ' tabu lis
parietes vestire ;' and amicio (amjicio), to cast round, takes
an ablative or accusative case-form.
It is true 'i«duo^ governs the accusative, for it is formed
of in or iv (on) , 5uw (to betake or put) ; and ' induit se cal-
ceos' is 'induit se in calceos,' (he put himself, or went into
his shoes), as we say of a child, ' he is gone into long-clothes,'
where the clothes are the accusative to the thing 'he.'
To this case belongs also the Latin rule, " Verba infinitivi
modi frequenter pro nominativo accusativum ante se statuunt,"
which holds on a thing which is the accusative to an action
that may sometimes be understood only, and not named ; as,
' Te rediisse incolumem gaudeo/ is
' Te [scire or videre) rediisse incolumem gaudeo.'
In Japanese, the accusative to the thing and the accusative
to the predicate are marked by different case-endings :
Fito-ye, ' to the man,' ' ad virum.'
Fitowa, 'the, man/ 'virum.'
265. Case 7. — Allative or Objective Case.
A thing with the aiming of another's motion or predicate
towards it, is in a case which may be called the allative or
objective case, or the ' wherctowards ' case.
This is a twofold case; that of the objective to the thing,
and the objective to the ])rcdicate.
In Latin and Greek, and many other languages, they are
classed with the ' whereto ' cases under the accusative case-
form, but marked asunder by prepositions or other free
case-tokens.
ETYMOLOGY. 115
This objective ease must not be mistaken for JSIurray^s
objective, which takes in many natural cases, nor is it the
same as the accusative case; for the accusative is that of a
thing with the coming or action of another to it, and the
objective case is that of a thing with the aiming of another's
predicate or motion towards it. Under ' he threw a stone at
John/ the stone is the accusative to the action, and John is
the objective to the predicate ' threw a stone.'
Examples of the objective to the motion.
To this case belong many prepositions, as in ' vir ivit
advei'sus, or contra, or post, hostes. Vir ivit erga, juxta,
prope, ultra, trans, flumenJ
It has been said, in a former article, that the notions of the
activities of the mind, or of things which are not perceived
by the senses, are mostly formed from notions of the acti-
vities of the body or other things which are perceived by the
senses; as, 'anger inflamed his mind;' 'remorse stung his
soul.' And in the same way the notion of the reaching of a
thing through lengths of space, or the lasting of its activity
through lengths of time, is taken from the motion of it to
those lengths of space and time ; as, ' he lived ninety years,'
i. e. on to ninety years, year after year ; ' the w^ood reached
five miles ;' i.e. on to five miles, mile after mile ; and there-
fore spaces and times, with the reachiugs of things or acti-
vities to them, are in the objective case.
Thence the Latin rules, "De tempore et loco;" " Quaj
autem durationem temporis," &c. ; and " Spatium loci in
accusativo ponitur," &c.
This case is called in Syijaen grammar the ablative, and its
case-ending is -Iclnj.
Objective to the predicate, but not to the motion.
'The girl went to the spring for water;' where 'the spring'
is the accusative to the girl's motion, and 'water' the ob-
jective to the predicate ' went to the spring.'
' The soldier fought for glory ; ' where ' glory ' is the
objective to the predicate ' fought.'
To this case belongs the Latin rule, " Natus, commodus,
incommodus, utilis," &c. ; as,
' Natus ad gloriam.' ' Utilis ad eam rem.'
116 ETYMOLOGY.
Under the sentence, ' Tn modo posce deos veniam' given as
an example of two accusatives after verbs of asking, deos is
accusative and veniam objective to the activity posce; and
' poscere deos veniam ' is ' to ask the gods for pardon.'
To this case belong the sentences under the rule " In pro
erga^contra, ad et supra accusativum exigit."
' Accipit in Teucros animum.'
' In commoda publica peccem.'
' In reynum qucBritur heeres.'
In the Syi'jaen grammar this case is called the consecutive,
and in the Finnic the allative, and is the one which Mr. De
Asterloa calls the ' final relation.'
266. Case 8. — Locative Case.
A thing named as the place of another or its predicate, is
in a case Avhich may be called the locative or ' where ' case.
This case is classed in Latin under the ablative case-form,
and in Greek under the dative ; but in Russian and Bohemian
it is mostly marked by a form called the prepositional case-
form. In Basque it is marked by the case-ending -an; it is
the commorative case of Armenian, in which its ending is e ;
and it is the inessive of the Finnic and Syrjain tongues, in
which its case-ending is -yn, and ssa, ssci, issa, issd ; while in
Lapponic it is -esn or -en, and in Hungarian -ban, -ben. In
Chinese its mark is a preposition ' iui,' as in
" 'lu fang shang ;" ' he sat in the hall.'
To this case belong the Latin rule that in, for in only serves
to the ablative case, and the sentence ' super viridi fronde.'
Since the ' where ' case is classed under the Latin ablative
case-form, the name of the place of an action should be, as it
is in all forms but the singular ones of the first and second
declension, in the ablative case.
There is a rule, " Omne verbum admittit genitivum oppidi
nominis, in quo fit actio, modo primse vel secundai declina-
tionis, et singularis numcri sit ; " ut,
' Quid Romce faciam.'
' Hi genitivi, humi, domi, militia, belli, propriorum sequuntur
formam;' ut,
' Una semper militia et domi fuimiis.'
But there are reasons for believing that the case-forms
called in this rule genitive, are old ablative ones. Perizonius
ETYMOLOGY. 117
believed that the ablative case-form was once the same as the
dative, and in the plural number it is still so. In the first
declension the dative is found in ai, which became a, as the
Greek ai becomes ce in Latin.
The a of the ablative is long, and as it is so in breach of
the rules for nouns in a, it is most likely so as a contraction
of ai.
In the second declension the dative and ablative case -forms
are still the same. In the third, the dative formerly ended in
e or i, as in Plautus's epitaph : ' Postquam est niorte datus,
comoedia luget' {Aulm GelL, Attic Nights, i. 24) ; and the
ablative is found in i in Plant. [Men. v. 2, 14), ' de parti med,'
and many nouns take either e or i. Aulus Gellius shows that,
in the fourth declension, the dative once ended in n as well
as id; and in Plant. [Merc. i. 1, 4), we find die for diei, the
dative of dies.
See obscj^ations on the cases in 'A Practical Grammar of
the Latin Tongue: London, 1742.*
A time named as the place of an action is in the ' where '
case ; thence the rule ' Quje significant partem temporis, in
ablativo freqnentius ponuntur.
Are not the words inertia; and mora old ablative forms in
' Paulum sepultce distat inerticc
Celata virtus,
Eripe te mora ' ?
See Latin rule, ' Qusedam accipiendi, distandi, et auferendi/ &c.
267. Case 9. — Dative or Adessive.
A thing with the relation but not the motion of another's
predicate to it, is in a case which may be called the dative
or adessive, or ^what-to ' case ; as ' mihi est pater,' or ' I spoke
to the man.'
This is also a twofold case : that of the dative to the thing,
which in the Syrjsen grammar is called the adessive case, as
that of mihi under 'mihi est pater ;' and that of the dative to
the predicate, which the Syrjaen grammar names the dative,
as that of woman under ' the man spoke to the woman.'
Dative to the tiling.
To this case belongs the Latin rule, ' Sum cum compositis,
regit dativum ;' as,
* Rex pius est reipublica ornamenium ; *
118 ETYMOLOGY.
and the rule, ' Est, pro hubeo, regit (Uitivum/
' Est mild namque cloini jjater ;'
and the rule, ' Yerl)a comparandi regunt dativura/ ut
' Sic parvh cornponere iiuKjna solebam.'
' Hue rcferuutur nomiua ex con pnepositione composita ;
ut, cuniiibernalis, cominililo, cojisn-vus, coynatus,' &c.
TJie dative to the predicate.
To this belongs the Latin rule, ' Secundus aliquando dati-
^a^m exigit;' ut, 'Hand ulli veterum virtute secundus.'
The rule 'Adjeetiva, qnibus commodura, incommodum,
similitudo, dissimilitudo, voluptas,' &e.
The rule ' Verhalia in bids accepta passive, et participialia
in das, dativum postulant;' ut,
' NuJli penetrabilis astro
Lucus iners.'
The rule 'Omnia verba regunt dativum ejus rei, eui aliquid
acquiritur, aut adimitur.'
The rules ' Verba dandi, ct reddendi,' and ' verba proniit-
tendi, ae solvcndi, regunt dativum,' and the rules for verbs of
telling and trusting, with a dative case.
The rule ' Exosus et perosus, passive significantia, cum
dativo leguntur;' ut 'Exosus Deo.'
268. Case 10. — Associative or Instrumentive Case.
A thing (B) associated with another (A) in an action, is in
a case which may be called the ' associative or instrumentive,'
or 'wherewith' case; as, 'the Persians write with a reed;'
'I walked with John.'
The Lazic and the Sclavonic tongues, the Wendish, Illyric,
and others, have an associative case-form.
This ease is classed in Latin under the ' wherefrom ' case-
ending, as ' Hi Jacu/is, illi certunt defendere sa.ris ;' but in
mauv languages, the Russian, Bohemian, Iiindoostanee,Tamul,
Basque, Lapponic, Hungarian, and Syrjaeu languages, the
associative of the instrument is marked by a case-ending of
its own ; and in the new tongues derived from tlie Latin it
is mostly classed under the geuitive case-token. —
French, ' 11 me blessa d'une epce.'
In Greenlandish this case-form is called the ' modalis.'
The associative case is twofold, — the free associative to the
thing, but not of need to its action, and the associative of
ETYMOLOGY. 119
need to the action of a thing, or the instrument, which is
called in the Lapponic grammar the mcdiative.
When 'I wrote with a pen/ the pen was necessarily asso-
ciated with me as an instrument of my action of writing ; but
when ' I walked with John/ John was freely hut not neces-
sarily associated with me in my action of walking.
The ]Mongolian and Finnic languages have a case-form for
each of the associative cases, the free associative and the
instrumentive. In Lapponic the instrumentive is called the
mediative.
To this case belongs the Latin rule, ' Fungor, fruor, utor,
vescor, clignor ablativo junguntur.^
The ending -or- of these verbs shows that they are not
active, but passive or middle-voice verbs. Vescor means
* I feed myself,^ and vescor came is ' 1 feed myself with meat,'
where meat is the wherewith of the action ' I feed myself.'
Fungor officio is finem agor officio, '■ I take myself through
with my duty.'
Fruor re rneci, 'I enjoy myself with my wealth.'
Utor cultello, ' I help or accommodate myself with a knife ; '
as in French, Je me sers d'un covteau (I use a knife) ; and in
German, Ich bediene mich clieser schonen gelegenheit, ' I serve
myself with this good opportunity.'
269. Case 11. — Abessive Case.
A thing without another Avith which it is named in a
sentence, is in a case which may be called the abessive or
' wherewithout ' case ; as, ' I walked without John,' ' I wrote
without a pen.'
This case is the reverse of the associative, and is marked by
its own case-form in Finnic, Lapponic, Cheremissian, Estho-
nian, Syrjasn, &c. Its case-form is called in sundry Grammars
the abessive, caritive, and negative.
270. Case 13. — Assecutive Case.
A thing with the motion of another parallel to it, is in a
case which may be called the assecutive or ' whereafter ' case.
We have already given the case of a thing with the motion
of another to it, and that of a thing with the motion of
another from it ; but there may be a thing with the motion
120 ETVMOLOOY.
of another neither to it nor from it, l)ut parallel with it ; as,
'the horse walks along by the canal/
Bv^ J' aKc'wv "na^x ^Tvu.
In Latin and Greek this case is classed under the accusative
case-form ; but in some of the Finnic tongues it has case-
forms of its own, such as that called the descriptive and
prosecutive.
In Euren's Finnic Grammar this case is called the prolative,
and in Greeulandish the vialis.
There arc some other relations of space, such as that of
above, below, behind, before, near, round; and a thing with
another in one of those relations to it, is in a case which may
be called the space case. It will be shown in the grammar of
the prepositions that they are mostly resolved into some of
those already given. In Ai*menian, however, some of these
relations are classed under a case-form which is called the
circumlative ; and in Russian some of them are marked by
prepositions, with the case-form that is mostly that of the
instrumcntive or associative.
In Armenian the circumlative case-ending is either that of
the accusative or instrumcntive. A circumlative noun may
be likely to take that of the accusative with a verb of motion,
and when it is the same as that of the instrumcntive, it does
not seem so likely that the circumlative case has taken the
case -tokens of the instrumentive, as that those of the circum-
lative were taken by the instrumentive; for the Armenian
circumlative case, as well as the instrumentive, seems to be one
of association, and one notion of an instrument is that of a
thing in association with another, the agent, and thence we
have the same preposition with for association and instru-
mentality; as,
John was walking (in association) with his sister.
John wrote his name with a pencil ; i. e,
John (in association) with his pencil wrote his name.
271. The Latin gerund in -iim is really a verbal noun of the
declension of regnum.
N. .
. scribendum .
. writing.
G. .
. scribendi . .
. of writing.
D. .
. scribendo . .
. to writing.
Ac.
. scribendum .
. writing.
V. .
. scribendum .
. o writing.
Ab..
. . scribendo . .
. from, in, with writing.
ETYMOLOGY. 121
This is shown by tne vei'bal noun of the Finnic^ which is
declined with the case-endings of the noun.
This language has both active and passive verbal nouns, the
active {3-\-nota) answering to our {3-\-in(/), and {S-\-no(iata)
answering to our (a being '6-\-ed) .
272. Definite and Indefinite Things.
Many are the contrivances of sundry nations for the
betokening the wideness and narrowness of predicates, and
their looseness as predicates of undefined things of their
name, or their fixedness as predicates of defined things of
a name.
In English, as well as in Greek, Italian, Spanish, Portu-
guese, French, German, Swedish, Danish, and other languages,
the noun is marked definite or indefinite, or the limitation of
the predicate is shown by little words called articles, and
other contrivances ; as,
•Give me a book,^ indefinite ; ^Give me the book,' definite.
' Give me some apples,' indefinite ; ' Give me the apples,'
definite.
In Swedish the definite and indefinite singular numbers are
marked by the foresetting or aftersetting of the same article
to the noun ; as, etf barn, a child ; barnett, the child.
In French an indefinite quantity or number is marked by
a possessive formula; as, ' Donnez moi dupain ;' ^ J' acheterai
des oranges.'
In Finnic there is both a definite and indefinite form of
the noun. The indefinite form, called by Euren the indefinite
case, is {\-\-ta), &c., and betokens an indefinite subject, as
'stones were thrown at the windows;' or the object of a
negative predicate, as 'we did not plant potatoes;' or a par-
titive object, as ' give me some bread.'
In Cree there are determinate and indeterminate forms of
the verb ; as, noote-n-eyayivuk, ' they (determinate) fight ; '
noote-n-eganewoo, ' they (some people) are fighting.'
273. SHIFTING OF CASE.— TWOFOLD CASES.
It may so happen that, notwithstanding the clear off-
marking of one case from another, the relation of a thing (A)
to another (B) may be such, that (A) may fairly be taken as in
6
122 ETYMOLOGY.
either of two logical relations to (B) ; and therefore that one
case may be taken in language for another.
Such ambiguous cases may be called twofold eases.
One of such twofold cases is that of the going of a
thing (A) through a thing (B) ; as under the sentence, ' the
man went through the gate.' Here the man first went to the
gate, which was in the accusative ease (art. 264), and then
he went ofi' from it ; and thence it was in the ' whercfrom '
case (art. 262) .
Thence, in different languages we may find the preposition
through with tokens of the most different eases ; in some
tongues, as in Greek, with the tokens of the 'wherefrom' case ;
and in other tongues, as in Latin and the Teutonic tongues,
as we see by the case-endings of the Gothic and German,
with the tokens of the ' whereunto ' case.
Twelve classes of cases are given in this Grammar, and the
number of combinations that can be made out of n things
taken two and two together, are ^^X^^, or if w be 12, 12X t,
or 66 ; or if every one of the cases might be commuted for any
one of the others, there would be 66 commutations of two-
fold cases. The commutation of some few of the pairs of
cases, however, may be unknown in any language. The
names of most of them are given hereafter, as commutations
unknown to the author may be known to the reader.
274. Commutation of Nominative,
Possessive and Dative, &c.
TVhai's and What-to.
Any one of the things under speech may be taken as the
subject of it, and therefore may be made the nominative case.
The woodman^s hoy struck my do(j with a rod of hazel in
the field near (to) my house. The cases of the things under
this sentence are, woodman, fjenitive ; boy, nominative; dog,
accusative to the predicate ; rod, instrumentive ; hazel, geni-
tive ; field, locative ; house, dative to the field.
Now, by conversion of the sentence, either of the things
may be made the nominative case ; as,
1. Woodman. The woodman is the father of the boy who
struck, &c.
2. I>og. My dog was struck by the woodman's boy with
a rod, &c.
ETYMOLOGY. 123
3. Rod. It was a rod of hazel with which the woodman's
boy struck my dog, &c.
4. Hazel. Hazel was the wood of the rod with which the
woodman's boy struck ray dog in the field, &c.
5. Field. It was the field near my house where the wood-
man's boy struck my dog, &c.
6. House. My house is by the field where the woodman's
boy struck, &c.
Again :
' The girl went from her house down the 7'oad to the spring
for water.'
The girl is in the nominative case.
„ house „ wherefrom of the thing.
„ road „ whereafter of the parallel motion.
„ spring „ accusative to the thing.
„ water „ objective to the predicate.
By conversion, house, road, spring, water, may become
nominative :
1. House. It was the house from whence the girl Avent
down the road, &c.
2. Road, The road was taken by the girl as she went from
her house, &c.
3. Spring. The spring was the place whither the girl went
from her house down the road for water.
4. Water. Water was the object for which the girl went
from her house down the road.
1
2.
275. Nominative and Vocative.
A thing called by name or the vocative case, may be the
subject of the sentence, and some languages have only one
case-form for both the nominative and vocative cases.
1^
3.
276. Nominative and Possessive.
A nominative case with a cardinal number may be con-
verted into a possessive case; ^A has B,' may be converted
into ' of A is B.'
Our formula ' one king,' ' two kings,' is in Turkish ' one
of kings,' ' two of kings.' So in Illyric, ' six of hoi'scs.'
The conversion of ' A has B ' into ' of A is B,' gi\ es the
Turkish formula ' Benum var kopek,' ' of me there is a dog,'
' I have a dog.'
124 ETYMOLOGY.
4.
277. Nominative and Genitive.
AVe may say, * the water {nom.) fills the cup/ or, by change
of subject, 'the cup is full of water,' {(/en.) ; 'Manton (nom.)
makes good guns,' ' Manton's {(jcn.) guus are good.'
5.
278. Nominative anb Wherefrom Case.
By a change of subject the nominative may become a
'wherefrom' case; as, 'John [nom.) has sent me a letter;'
'I have received a letter from John,' [wherefrom). Thence
the Latin formula ' statur ab illis,' for ' they stand ; ' and
' pugnatum est,' for ' pugnaverunt.' So in English, ' people
say or believe there will be a war,' or ' it is said or believed
(by people) there Avill be a war.'
In Hindoostanee we find mostly the passive formula
' Rajai nae hola* 'it was said by the king,' for 'the king
said;' 'the gun [iiom) sent the ball,' 'the ball flew from the
gun,' [wherefrom),
l_
6.
279. Nominative and Accusaiive, or
AVhereunto Case.
The accusative case to an action becomes a nominative by
a change of subject, with the action in the passive voice :
' The dog caught the hare,' [accusative) ;
' The hare {nom.) was caught by the dog.'
In German, our formula ' what book is that ? ' is ' what
for a book is that ? '
In Mag)^ar, our formula 'I was baptized John,' [nom.) is ' I
was baptized unto or into John,' [accusative or penetrative).
In Greenlaudish, for 'he {nom.) is my neighbour,' they
say ' I have him [ace.) for a neighbour.'
In Finnic and Lapponic there is a ease-form called the
nuncupative or factive, and essive, for nouns of accidental
qualities which may be taken by a sul)ject or object of a
sentence. This case may be ranked under the accusative or
objective ease, or, in some of its forms, under the dative, as it
i.> sometimes in Lntin.
'1 am a singer,' (v.ith singer in the factive easr), vrould
mean ' I am become or come to a singer,' which ditlers
ETYMOLOGY. 125
from 'I am a singer/ with singer in the nominative case,
which would mean only ' I am a singer by profession.'
' He became a priest/ (nom.) ; in Lapponic, ' into a priest/
{/active) .
'Deus raihi pater/ {nom.) ; in Lapponic, 'in patrem/ {/active)
or ' for a father.'
' He was accused as a thief/ {nom.) ; Lapponic, ' for a thief.'
7.
280. Nominative and Objective.
The formula ' He {nom.) is greater than I,' is, in Green-
landish, ' I have him for a greater {object.) than I.'
' ]Money {nom.) makes John work : ' ' John works for
money,' {object.)
1
8.
281. Nominative and Locative, or Where Case.
' My purse {nom.) contains ten sovereigns,' {accus.)
' I have ten sovereigns {ace.) in my purse,' {'where' case).
In Finnic, for 'John is now a man' {nom.), {i.e., grown to
be a man,) they say ' John is now in man,' {loc.) {i. e., in his
manhood) .
J_
9.
282. Nominative and Dative, or Whereto Case.
If we convert the sentence, ' that man has a wife,' ' is vir
halDct conjugem,' so that ivi/e may be the nominative case, it
must take some such form as ' there is a wife (belonging) to
that man,' ' Ei viro est coiijux,' or ' there is a wife of or to
that man ; ' and so where no verb of possessing or owning is
used, the possessive thing, in the nominative case, will become
a dative or possessive to the thing possessed. Thence the
Latin rule, "Est, pro habeo, regit dativum;" ut,
' Est mild namque domi pater.'
This form, ' to A there is B,' is admissible in English as well
as in Latin ; as, ' Pump some water.' — Ans. ' The pump {nom.)
has no handle,' {ace.) ; or, ' There is no handle {nom.) to the
pump,' {dat.)
The form ' to A there is B,' instead of ' A has B,' is the
form of the sentence of possession in many languages, as
] 0(5 ETYMOLOGY.
Irish, Tamul, Mandshoo, and in Lapponic, Syrjsean, and
^Magyar.
So a (A) have (a letter to write)' (B), becomes by conver-
sion, ' To me (to A) there is (a letter to write) ' (B) .
This is the Latin formula, ' mihi epistola scribenda est/
See the Latin rule, ' Participiis passivse vocis,' &c.
Our formula 'what man is that?' becomes in Lapponic
'what to men is that?' i.e., 'what, in relation to men, is
that?' where the Lapponic has a dative case-form instead of
a nominative.
So in Bisaya, ' canino inin balay;' 'to whom (whose) is
that house ? '
283. Nominative and Associative, or
Wherewith Case.
' John {mm.) was walking with Henry,' [aasoc.)
There also ' Henry [nom.) was walking with John,' {assoc.)
' John {nom.) struck my leg with a stone,' {assoc.)
' A stone {mm.) thrown by John, struck my leg,' {accus.)
In the Tonga language, for want of a passive verb, the
nominative and accusative formula, ' a stone struck him,' for
' he was struck by a stone,' is always used.
' I {mm.) have twenty boarders ; ' ' there are twenty
boarders ivith me,' {assoc.)
1
11.
284. Nominative and Abessive.
' John {nam.) was walking without Henry,' {abess.)
' Henry {nom.) was not walking with John/ {assoc.)
This case-change happens with a conversion of the abessive
into a nominative case, and an affirmative into a negative
predicate.
j^
12.
285. Nominative and Parallel, or
"Whereafter Case.
'The ruler {mm.) directs the pencil;' 'the pencil follows
the ruler,' {assec.)
ETYMOLOGY. 127
286. Possessive and Genitive.
What's and Whereof.
The begetter of a thing is so often the owner of it^ that in
most languages the possessive and genitive cases are often
classed under the same tokens, In English, however, they
are far from undistinguished by case-tokens, for the ending s,
though it is so often that of the possessive, is rarely that of
the genitive, which is marked by of.
'The love of money,' could aot be named by 'money's
love,' which would mean the love possessed by money; and
' full water's,' for ' full of water,' or ' ill fever's,' for ' ill of
fever,' would never be received as good English.
So in Latin. In 'languet desiderio tui,' tui is genitive,
not possessive ; but ' desiderio tuo ' means ' from thy desire.'
'Imago mea,' is 'my picture;' 'imago mei,' is 'the picture
or likeness of me.'
5.
287. Possessive and Wherefrom Case.
A of B ... A from B.
The thing owned by another may be from it, and so the
' whereof ' case may be taken for the ' wherefrom ' case :
' A man of Trinity College ' becomes, in Dorsetshire, ' a man
from Trinity College.'
So in Latin, ' Deus e vobis alter est.'
And so in Irish and Hindoostanee : Irish, ' the fairest
woman from women.' Hindoos., ' one from the kings.'
So in Swedish, ' skonheten af en vers;' 'the beauty
from (of) a verse.'
In German, 'der konig von Frankreich;' 'the king from
(of) France.'
And the Latin de (from) has become the token of the pos-
sessive case in Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and French;
and our of, the genitive case-token, once meant from.
128 ETVMOLOOY.
3
288. POSSESSIVK AND ACCUSATIVE.
What's and Whereunto.
By taking an active particijjlc for tlic noun of the agent, an
accusative may take place of the possessive.
* The writer of the letter/ [poss.) ; ' the one writing
[Greek, 6 yputpuv^) the letter.'
This is the formula of the jMongolian.
3
T.
289. Possessive and Objective.
What's and Wherefore.
'That money is for John ;' 'That is John's money.'
'Christ is a Saviour /or men ;' 'Christ is the Saviour of men.'
290. Possessive and Locative.
What's and Where.
The place of a thing is the possessor of it, and the ' where '
case may be the possessive.
' The furniture in the hall, is the furniture of the hall.'
3
291. Possessive and Dative.
What's and What-to.
A possessed by B, is A with a motionless relation to B,
and a possessive case may be converted into a dative.
' There is an end of that, or to that.'
' He is brother of or to that lady.'
Thence the Latin rules for the conversion of the genitive
into the dative, and the I'cverse.
" Quern inetuis, par hujas erat." — Liican.
" Domini similis es." — Ter.
" Vobis immunibus hnjus
Esse mall dabitur." — Ovid.
" Caprificus omnibus immunus est,
Fratri [for fratris) cedes jient pervice." — Ter. Adelph. 5, 7.
ETYMOLOGY. 129
The possessor^ however, is more frequentlj^ in the possessive
case when its thing is definite, and in the dative when its
thing is indefinite ; as, ' he is a steward to Lord A ;' 'he is
the steward of Lord A.'
' That is a letter w^ritten to John,' {dat.) ' That is John^s
{poss.) letter.'
So in Lapponic, adjectives of likeness govern the possessive.
3
10.
292. Possessive and Associative.
IVhafs and Wherewith.
A thing (A) possessed by (B) may be with (B), and the
possessive and associative cases may take place of each other.
' John is a fellow-workman of Henry,' {possess.) ; ' John
is a fellow-workman with Henry,' [assoc.)
' John's {poss.) servants may be called ; ' ' the servants
with John,' {assoc.)
3
11.
293. Possessive and Abessive.
12.
294. Possessive and Parallel, or Assecutive
OR Whereafter Case.
' The rover by the stream,' {paral.) is ' tbe rover of the
stream,' {poss.)
J
5'
295. Genitive and Originative.
Whereof and Wherefrom.
A thing (A) or its predicate (B), beginning from or be-
gotten of another (B), may be taken as a thing or predi-
cate from (B) ; and the ' whereof and ' wherefrom ' cases may
be taken one for the other.
Hence the Latin rules for tlic conversion of the genitive
after a verb into the ablative.
Accusas furti, an stupri ? Utrorjue, or de utroque. ' Im-
plentur veteris Bacchi.'
6§
130 ETYMOLOGV.
Ill the Latin rule, " Qiuedara accipiciidi, distandi, et aufe-
reudi, verba aliquando dativo junguntur," if the words inertia;
and morce are not old ablative forms, they are of this two-
fold case.
The matter of a thing (A) is mostly matter taken from the
matter (B) of the same name, and is therefore named some-
times by the genitive or 'whereof case, and sometimes by
the ' whcrcfrom ' case.
' The smith made a horse-shoe of his iron/ {gen.) or
'from his iron,' {ivherefrom) .
So in Lapponic, ' maste [wherefrom) le dacketum ; ' 'from
what is it made ? ' ' muaerest {ivherefrom) from wood.'
And in theCrce language,' pahk'eggin ootche,' 'from leather.'
German, ' Es ist von eisen ;' ' it is from {of) iron.'
So in Mongolian.
In Greek and French the genitive and ' wherefrom ' cases
have the same case-tokens; the genitive case-form of the
Greek, and the preposition de of the French.
So the formula ' sick of fever,' is in Albanian ' sick from
fever ;' and in the Saxon, ' full Halgum Gaste,^ ' full of the
Holy Ghost,' Gaste has the 'wherefrom' case-form, as it
would have in Turkish.
So they say in Irish, ' Ian peipge,' ' full of anger ;' or * Ian
b' feipg,' ' full fi'om anger.'
Hindoostanee, ' Khstcrn rukhwolan (se) suino,' ' fields
empty from {of) workfolk.'
Persian, ' Pur (oz) lolho8,' ' full from {of) tulips.'
i_
6.
296, Genitive and Accusative.
Whereof and TVJiereunto.
In Lapponic, the formula 'guilty of murder,' {gen.) some-
times becomes ' guilty to murder ;' 'up to (usque ad) murder.'
' John loves painting,' may be made ' John is fond of
painting.'
■%_
7.
297. Genitive and Objective.
Whereof and Wheretowards
An action aimed towards an object may be begotten from
it, and an o])jective case may be taken for a genitive one.
ETYMOLOGY. 131
A.-Sax., *K his sunu hine bitt hlafes/ {gen.)
English, ' If his sou ask him for bread/ {object.)
Lapponic, ' Piergo hanhies / ' desirous o/" food/ {gen.)
' Pierguoi hauhies / ' desirous for food/ {object.)
So iu Lapponic, ' a man greedy 0/ gain/ [gen.) is some-
times called ' a man greedy for or after gain/ {object.)
i
87
298. Genitive and Locative.
Whereof and Where.
A thing with another begotten of it may be the place of it ;
and the 'whereof and 'where' cases may take each the
other's place.
In Lapponic, the formula 'innocent of crimes/ {geti.)
becomes 'innocent in crimes.'
In Mongolian, ' the grass of the field/ ' the kernel of the
nut/ are ' the grass in the field/ and ' the kernel in the nut.'
Eng., 'He is careful of his clothes;' Russ., 'he is careful
on his clothes.'
Eng., 'He spoke 0/ justice;' Russ., 'he spoke on justice.'
' 111 of fever ; ' 'ill in fever.'
So, ' a figure shapen of matter/ is ' sliapen in it ;' and ' an
image of gold/ is ' an image in gold.'
' A figure 0/ marble ' is sometimes called ' a figure in marble.'
9.
299. Genitive and Dative.
Whereof and What-to.
A predicate (B) begotten of a thing (A), is sometimes
taken as a predicate (B) with a motionless relation to (A) ;
thence our formula ' fond of wine/ is in Lapponic ' fond
to wine.'
And our formula ' think of me/ is in German and French
' think to me.'
Germ., ' sie denkt an mich ;' Fr., ' elle pense a moi.'
' John is fond of pleasure/ or ' given to pleasure.'
]'ci2 ETYMOLOGY.
4_
10.
300. Genitive and Associative.
IVhereof and Wherewith.
An instrument (A) of its effect (B), is the thing of which
its effect (B) is l)egottcn, and the genitive case is sometimes
taken for the associative of the instrument.
' He was killed hy a blow of a club ;' or, ' he was killed by
a l)low ivitli a club.'
Hindoostanee, ' Of {ivith) this takee I will buy a hen/
A man ' tired of mowing/ [whereof) is ' tired tvith mow-
ing/ [assoc.)
A cup ' made of gold/ is sometimes said to be made with
gold.'
The formula 'the cup is full of water/ (geii.) would be, in
jMongolian and Lapponic, ' the cup is full with water/ {assoc.)
4
11.
301. Genitive and Abessive.
Whereof and Whereivithout.
' A man deprived of a thing/ [gen.) is *^ man toithout the
thing/ (abess.)
_4
"12."
302. Genitive and Parallel or Assecutive.
5
~6.
303. Originative and Accusative.
Wherefrom and Wlieretowards.
"When a share (A) of a whole thing (B) is accusative to an
action, whereby it is sundered from the whole, then the whole
(B) is sometimes named as the ' wherefrom ' case, instead of
the share (A) in the accusative case.
'He drinks wine' (A), 'he drinks of or from wine'(B),
which is the Lapponic formula.
A thing with an action towards it may be the origin of
the action.
In Lapponic, the formula 'I fear the danger/ becomes 'I
fear from the danger.'
ETYMOLOGY.' 133
5
7.
304. Originative and Objective.
Wherefrom and Whereafter.
The end of an action may be taken as the origin of it :
' He did it for malice/ {object.) ; ' he did it fr^om malice/
{wherefrom) .
Objective and Originative.
Wlieretowards and Wherefrom.
A thing (B) with the aiming of a predicate (A) towards it,
may be with the predicate (A) reckoned from it ; and so the
objective (wlieretowards ) case may be taken for the originative
(wherefrom) case, as under the sentence, ' he painted for
fame;^ where the predicate of painting was aimed at fame as
its end, and began fi'om it as a begetting cause of it.
Thence we may say in Latin, ' defendit se contra insidias,'
or ' defendit se ab insidiis / ' he did it for love,^ ' he did it
from love.^
The money for which a thing is sold, or the thing for which
another is given, is in this twofold case ; as, ' Thomas sold his
horse for twenty pounds,' or ' Thomas gave his bay horse fol"
a black mare,' where the predicate of selling or giving was
aimed at the ' twenty pounds,' or the ' black mare,' as its end,
and began from it as a begetting cause.
The Teutonic nations mostly, though not always, take this
case as an accusative ; as, ' he worked for wages / ' he sold his
horse for fifty pounds.'
The Eng. and A.-Sax./o/', Ger.fiir, Du. voor, Goth, faur,
Swed, for, which is a preposition of tliis case, will sometimes
take the case-ending of the ' wherefrom ' case.
Froiu this case we have the Latin rule, " Quibusdam verbis
subjicitur nomen pretii in ablativo casu."
The money for which a thing is bought, though not that
for which it is sold, may be in the instrumentive or ' where-
with ' case. We may say in English, ' I bought a hat ivith a
sovereign,' but not ' I sold a hat ivith a sovereign.'
An action as Well as a thing may be the end or begetting
cause of an action ; as ' she went into the garden to gather
a rose/ where the action ' to gather a rose/ was the end or
134; ETYMOLOGY.
tlie ' ^herefrom ' of the action ' went into the garden/ and in
old Englisli wonld have been marked with the preposition /or,
our token of the case ; as, ' what went ye out {for) to see ? '
— (St. Luke, vii. 16.) The preposition is often left out of this
formula in modem English; as, 'what went ye out ( )
to see?'
Thence the Latin rule for the formula of this twofold case
with the accusative gerund, as in "Ad accusandos homines
duci prteraio, proxiraum latrocinio est /' and the rule " Supi-
num in urn active significat, et scquitur verbum," &c.
" ]Milites sunt missi speculatum arcem."
The end and the begetting cause of the predicate cannot
always be taken one for the other. Ends sought by actions of
the will are usually taken as objective in case ; and begetting
causes of unchosen actions are mostly in ' wherefrom ' cases.
We say ' he died for his fatherland,' and ' he died from fever.'
These two cases are marked in Spanish and French by two
prepositions : in Spanish, para and por ; and in French, pour
and de. ,, Trabajo para el bien publico ;"
' He laboured for the public weal.'
" Habla pjor embidia ;"
' He speaks from em-y.'
French, '' jNIourir pour la patrie,"
" Mourir de faim."
_1
8.
305, Originative and Locative.
Where and Wherefrom.
The 'where' of a subject may sometimes be taken as the
' wherefrom ' of the predicate ; as,
' He spoke in the balcony,' [loc.)
' He spoke /ro^/^ the balcony,' {wherefrom).
' He did it in anger,' {loc.)
' He did it from anger,' {wherefrom) .
This is the Magyar formula.
In Illyric, the formula ' he spoke of the war,' {wherefrom
or yen.) becomes ' he spoke on the war,' {loc.)
Enylishy ' Think of me,' {gen.) Fr., ' Pensez a moi.'
ETYMOLOGY. 135
9.
306. Originative and Dative.
What-to and Wherefy^om.
A thing witli the predicate of another reckoned from it, the
' wherefroni ' case, may be taken as a thing with the relation
of another's predicate to it ; and in many languages the
' wherefrom ' and ' what-to ' cases are classed under the same
case-form.
In Lapponic, the formula ' I was bitten by or fro7n a dog/
is ' 1 was bitten to a dog/ i. e., in relation to a dog.
10.
307. Originative and Associative.
Wherefrom and Wherewith.
An action of an agent with an instrument, is sometimes
reckoned from the instrument instead of the agent, as the
agent may be overlooked.
' The Jews received warnings from God by the prophets,' (a^soc.)
* The Jews received warnings from the prophets,' {orig.)
Icelandic, " Steig £)6r |>a//-am oSi'um freti/'
'Then Thor stepped forward //'om {with) one foot.'
In French de, in Cree ootche, and in Chinese oo, is taken as
a token of both the instrumentive and the wherefrom case.
French, ' Je viens de Paris.'
' II me frappa d'wn. baton.'
Cree, ' Meegewap-ick ootche / * from the tent,' {wherefrom) .
' Sap6o-n-egun ootche / ' from {with) a needle.'
So in Latin and some of the Teutonic languages, the
'wherefrom' and 'wherevdth' cases are classed under the
same case-form.
' The child cried from pain,' {wheref.) or ' with pain,' {assoc.)
The associative formula is the Illyric.
The quantity by which one thing differs from another, is that
with which it differs {assoc.) and that from which it differs,
{wherefrom,) ' He is taller than his brother by a foot/ —
French, ' d'un pied,' {wherefrom.)
Illyric, ' He is taller than his brother with a foot,' {assoc.)
136 ETVMOLOGY.
Om- formula 'he dicdfrom a 1)l()\v/ {wherefrom) , if he died
sonic time after it, would he in Finnic, ' he died of or from a
blow ;' hut if he died at once, it wo\dd be ' he died to, or at,
or ayuinst a blow/ {illative).
5
11.
308. Originative and Abessive,
Wherefrom and Wherewithout.
5
12.
309. Originative and Assecutive.
Wherefrom and Whereafter,
6
7.
310. Accusative and Objective.
Whereunto and What - towards.
The case of a thing (B) with the coming of another or its
predicate (A) to it, the 'whereunto^ case, or the accusative
case, is often classed with that of a thing (B) with the aim of
another's motion or predicate (A) towards it, — the objective
case.
In Latin the two cases have the same case-ending :
' Ccesar in Galliam profectus est.'
' Amor in patriam.'
' John works for gain/ [obj.) ; or, ' John seeks gain,^ {ace.)
' A ticket /o7' London,' [obj.) ; or, 'a ticket to London,' iacc.)
So we may say ' Henry stoned John,' {ace.) ; or, ' Henry
threw a stone at John,^ {obj.)
6_
8.
311. Accusative and Locative.
Whereunto and IVJiere.
A thing (A) with the action of another (B) to it, may be
the place of the other (B) ; and the place-case and accusative
case may displace each other.
' John holds a farm,' {ace.) ; or, ' John is in a farm,' {loc.)
ETYMOLOGY. 137
'The water fills the cup/ {ace) ; or, 'the water is in the
cup,' [loc.)
' Johu carries on the flour trade/ {ace.) ; or, ' John is in
the wine trade/ (/oc.)
In English and French the same preposition stands with -an
accusative and locative case.
English, ' He is at Dorchester/ {loc.) ; ' He threw a stone
ot me/ (ace.)
French, ' 11 est a Londres/ {loc.) ; ' L'enfant courut a sa
mere,' {ace.)
6
9.
312. Accusative and Dative.
Whereunto and What-to.
Since the direction of a thing is mostly known with a
motion of it, so the bare direction of a thing or of its pre-
dicate is often taken as a motion of it or its predicate ; and
the dative case, that of a thing (B) with a motionless relation
of another (A) to it, is often taken for the case of a thing
(B) with the motion of another (A) to it, the 'whereunto^
or accusative case.
' The vane points to the east, or toivards the east.'
In Hindoostanee the same postposition (ko'), in Persian the
same ending {ra), and in French and English the same pre-
position {a French and to English), is applied to the accu-
sative and dative cases.
' I went to John,' {ace.) ; ' I spoke to John,' {dat.)
Greek, ' %poayivva ra 6fw/ {dat.) ; v.ou tov Ofov, {ace.)
Modern Greek, * Aeyw bIq rov tplKov ^j^ov,' {ace.)
In Lapponic and Syrjten the dative is sometimes taken for
aa accusative to a motion.
We say in English : ' I sealed the deed,' {ace.) ; or, ' I put
my seal to the deed,' {dat.)
' 1 ended the business,' {ace.) ; or, 'I put an end to the
business,' {dot.)
6
10.
313. Accusative and Dative.
Our formula 'They call my father John,' {ace), is in
Magyar ' They call to my father John,' {dat.)
138 ETYMOLOGY.
Notions of unhodily actions arc formed from those of bodily
ones, and are often named by the same words ; but a thing
with an unbodily action to it under the name of a bodily
motion, is not therefore always taken as the accusative to the
motion, but is often taken as the dative to the motionless
action.
Thence many of the datives for accusatives under the Latin
rule, ' Dativum ferme rcgunt verba composita cum his adver-
biis, benii, satis, male ; ct cum his prapositionibus, pr, 2.
' Fessum (ace.) quies plurimum juvat.'
' Si ad eum (ace.) comparatur, nihil est.'
' Imperat, aut servit, collecta pecunia ciiique, (dat.)
* Temper at ipse sibi,' (dat.)
' Sol temperat omnia (accus.) luce.'
' Semper obtemperat pius fiiius prntri,' (dat.)
' Ignavis precibus (dat.) fortuna repugnat.'
' Utrique (dat.) mortem est minitaius.' —Cic.
' Adolescenti (dat.) nihil est quod succenseam' — Ter.
' Me vis dicere quod ad te (ace.) attinet.'
' Special ad omnes (ace.) bene vivere.'
6
11.
314. Accusative and Associative.
Whereunto and M^ierewith.
' Donare aliqtbem civitate,' (instrument.) — Cicero.
' Armeniam minorem (ace.) Deiotaro donavit.' — Eutropius,
lib.vi. 14.
The accusative to a verb of owning may be converted into
an associative, since the owner of a thing is associated with it.
' He is a man with five chiidren' [assoc], for *^hc has five
ETYMOLOGY. 139
children.' So Horace, {Saiira, vi. 32,) ' Quali sit facie,'
[assoc), for 'what a face he may have.'
So our formuLa 'He spits blood/ and 'The child weeps
great tears/ would be in IMongolian, ' He spits with blood/
{assoc), and ' The child weeps with great tears.'
In Greenlandish, owing to the want of an article, the definite
and indefinite noun has two case-forms.
" Merdlertut asavai," ' He loves the children,' [definite.)
" Merdlertunik asangnigpok," ' He loves ivith children/
{indefinite.)
6
12.
315. Accusative and Abessive.
Whereunto and Wherewithout.
316. Accusative and Assecutive.
Whereunto and Whereafter.
Amotion of a thing (A) by a thing (B), is mostly classed by
nations who have no case-ending to mark it, or no 'where-
after' case-form, as a motion to rather than from (B).
Lathi, ' Secundum littus,' {ace.)
Greek, '/3vi 5' a%£'wv xixpa ^7\iUy {ace.)
7_
8.
317. Objective and Locative.
Wlieretowards and Where.
The object of an action may be the place of it, ' Alfred
did much good for England ' {object.), and ' in England ' {loc.) ;
and the objective case may be the iilace-case.
_7_
9.
318. Objective and Dative.
In Tonga, for ' Give it to me ' {dat.), they say ' Give it for
mine.' . .
There is in some languages an emphatic objective or dative
in a formula, such as ' There's a leap for you ! '
] 40 ETYMOLOGY.
Latin, " Suo sibi gladio hunc jujijiilo;'^ ' I will cut this man's
tliroat for him with his own sword.'
Gennn?}, "Das waren ihnen wahre helden;" 'Those were
true heroes lor you.'
7_
10.
819. Objective and Associative.
TFfiere towards and Wherewith,
' He bought a bat /or the shilling/ (object.) ; or 'he bought
a bat with the shilling/ {assoc.)
11.
320. Objective and Assecutive.
Wheretowards and Whereafter.
A thing with a motion of another parallel with it, is some-
times taken as a thing with the aiming of another's motion
or action towards it; and the objective and assecutive cases
have been classed under one case-form in Latin, Greek,
(jerman, and some other languages.
Latin, ' In regnum (object.) queeritur hseres.'
' Secundum flumen iassec.) ivit.'
_8_
9.
321. Locative and Dative.
Where and Whereto.
When a thing (A) is in the place of another (B) or its
predicate (P), it may be taken as a thing (A) with the relation
of the predicate to it; and the French, Greeks, Germans,
and others have classed the locative 'where' case and the
dative or ' what-to ' case under the same case-tokenings.
Greek, * XvatreXeT tvj roXei,' [dat.)
' iv TV1 'KoKei,^ [dat.)
French, ' Je I'ai donne a mon ami/
' II est a Paris.'
ETYMOLOGY. 141
10.
322. Locative and Associative.
Where and Wherewith.
The place of a predicate may be the instrument of it ; as,
* The child hid her face in her apron/ [loc.) ; or,
' The child hid her face ivith her apron/ (instru.)
' He squeezed his finger in a vice/ [loc.) ; or,
' He squeezed his finger ivith a vice,' {instru.)
' They played at quoits, or with quoits,'
' He played a tune on his violin,' (loc.) ; or,
' He played a tune with his violin,' {assoc.)
In Russian, our formula ' He is pale in his face,' is ' He is
pale with his face.'
' In summer we make hay,' (loc.)
In Illyric, ' with the summer [assoc.) we make hay.'
A thing ' soaked in water,' is * soaked with water.'
8
11.
323. Locative and Abessive.
WJiere and Wherewithout.
8
12.
324. Locative and Parallel oh Assecutive.
Where and Whereafter.
The place of an action may be with a motion parallel to it,
and the locative and assecutive cases may take place one of
the other.
' They walked in the lane,' [loc.) ; or,
* They walked down the lane,' [assec.)
9
10.
325. Dative and Associative.
What-to and Wherewith.
A thing associated with another under a predicate, may be
taken as a thing with the relation of that predicate to it, and
the associative and dative cases may take place of each other.
' I compared gold to or with silver; '
' I spoke to or iciili Jtjhn.'
142 ETYMOLOGY.
The Hindoostanec idiom is, ' I said with John/
Theucc the Latin comparo takes a dative case-form, or an
ablative {assoc.) case-form with cum.
9
11.
326. Dative and Abesstve.
Whereto and Wherewithout.
9
12.
327. Dative and Assecutive.
Whereto and Whereafter,
' I kept to the stream/ (dat.) ; or,
' I went down or by the stream/ (assec.)
10
11.
328. Associative and Abessive.
Wherewith and Wherewithout.
10
12.
329. Associative and Assecutive.
Wlierewith and Whereafter.
' He went with the stream/ (assoc.) or
' He went down the stream,^ [assec.)
So in Illyi'ic, ' Idem mojira put-em,^ (assoc.) ;
' I go with ray way.'
11
12.
330. Abessive and Assecutive.
Wherewithout and Wfiereafter
331. Subject of Speech.
Under the formula ' He thought or spoke or wro^e of war,'
war is in the genitive ease, (art. 261) ; and it may be taken in
the originative by art. 262, and in the objective by art. 265.
ETYMOLOGY. 143
Therefore the formula
1. 'He spoke of war/ {gen), may be converted into
2. ' Locutus est de ])ello/ {ivherefrom) ,
3. ' He spoke on or upon war/ [where),
4. * He spoke about war/ [assec.)
Forraulffi 1 and 3 are English; formula 1 is Finnish and
Bretonne-
Formulse 2 and 3 are Latin.
Formula 2 islNIagyar and German, 'Er spricht boses von ihm.'
Formula 3 is Russian and Bohemian, (Sclavonic) .
Formulffi 2 and 3 are also Armenian, for although the
Armenian has a case-form called the narrative, its case-ending
is either the same as that of the ablative, or else that of the
accusative.
332. Measures of Size.
Spaces of size, such as miles, yards, feet, inches, or others,
with a predicate of size, may be taken as in the accusative,
originative, or genitive case ; as,
. ' The tower was eighty feet high;^ or,
' The tower was high eighty feet.^
Here we find the eighty feet with the reaching of the tower,
or its predicate, ' was high ' through them ; so that they are
accusative by art, 264.
' The tower was high to or through eighty feet.'
We find the eighty feet as the spaces wherefrom the tower
is high, and the 'wherefrom^ to the predicate 'was high;'
and (by art. 261) it may be taken for the ' whereof {gen.) case.
Thence the Latin rule, ' Magnitudinis mensura subjicitur
adjectivis in accusativo, ablativo, et genitivo.'
333. To one who does not know the formation and primary
meanings of the verbs and prepositions of a language, its
formulae of speech will sometimes seem to break the laws of
case, while they conform to them.
Thus, if we took vescor for a verb of the active instead of
the middle voice, and deemed it equal to our word eat, or the
Latin edo, we should wonder why it should be used with an
ablative rather than an accusative case-form ; but when we find
that it is a verb of the middle voice, and means ' 1 feed myself,'
we see that as the thins with which I feed mvself is the instru-
144 ETYMOLOGY.
ment of the action of feeding-, so its name should take the
instrunieiitive case-form, the Latin ablative.
So in Irish, the verb substantive caim, to be or become,
takes a noun that will be a nominative in English, with a pre-
position in or into, or some such tokens of the accusative case.
' Ta me am' peaji,' is ' I am into a man,' ' I am into my man.'
This, however, would be a formula for a man who is no longer
a child or boy. It means I am no longer a child or boy ; ' I
am come into a man.' Therefore the formula ' 1 am a man
and no longer a child,' is ' I am into a (or my) man ; ' and the
formula for ' I am a man, and not a woman,' is ' I am a man'.'
These cases, out of hundreds and thousands in different
languages, may warn us not to think the laws of case are
broken till we can thoroughly analyze every formula that may
seem to break them.
334-. It is often said by grammarians when they talk of cases,
and especially of tlie twofold cases, or the shifting of them,
that they are governed by prepositions, which are understood
if they are not given ; so that if one Latin author has written
' Eum/«r/i accusat,' and another '^Eum/wr/o accusat/ we are
told that//^/*^o is governed by a preposition de, understood.
This may be quite true, as it may be true that in ' ivit ad
urbem,' and ' ivit ab urbe,' urbem is governed by ad, and urbe
is governed by ab ; but yet it docs not stop off our inquiry for
the grounds upon which the preposition de or ad or ab was
chosen, and needed or allowed in such cases, or upon which it
should govern one case-form rather than another, and nothing
short of an answer to that inquiry can enlighten us on the
laws of case.
335. It may be said against a system of natural cases, that
to discriminate so many classes of the logical relations of
things upon what may be deemed slight differences or like-
nesses, and to unfold so many shiftings of twofold cases, is to
make grammar needlessly perplexing. To this it may be
answered, that all the logical relations of things are in nature,
and if they are manifold there is no help for it : we may ahut
cur eyes to them, but we cannot lessen them. They have
been brought in sundry classes under the thought of men of
ail nations, as they have shown by the structure of tlicir lan-
guages, and our minds will miss the good of -what should be
ETYMOLOGY.
145
a wit-sliarpening exercise, the learning of grammar, if we
wilfully keep them out of thought.
In Basque the genitive and possessive cases are off-marked
by two sundry endings or case-forms, {l-\-ez) and {l-\-aren) ;
and in French the two associatives are marked by different
prepositions ; as, ' II se promena avec son pere/ with avec for
with ; and ' II ecrit f/'une plume,' with de for with.
Botanists tell us that there are three or four hundred
orders of plants, and more than a thousand species of the
' leguminosaj.' It is not by an idle wish that one can know
them all, but there is no help for it. Botanists might, it is
true, have stopped with the discrimination of the five great
classes of plants ; but still they would not therefore have
lessened the numbers of the orders or species, or made them
more like or unlike one another, or have left the knowledge
of plants of more easy attainment.
336.
PRONOUNS.
Pronouns are of two kinds, pronouns which are used for
nouns, and called personal pronouns, and pronouns which are
used with, but not for nouns, and called limiting pronouns.
337. Personal Pronouns.
Personal pronouns are words that betoken things, not by their
names, but by their number, gender, and relation to the speech.
The personal pronouns are of much use instead of unknown
names of persons, and instead of known names of persons
and things when they come very often under speech.
The English personal pronouns are, —
I, we. I thou, ye, you. | he, she, it, they.
The likeness of the personal pronouns, especially those of the first
and second persons singular, in the Indo-Teutonic languages is rather
markworthv.
English .
. I* .
thou.
Icelandic . ek .
. fPU.
Latin . .
eg-o .
tu.
Swedish . . jag (yag)
. du.
Greek
«'y-a> .
av.
Danish . . jag (yeg^
. du.
Italian
i-o .
tu.
Irish ... me .
. tu.
Spanish .
y-0 .
tu.
Welsh . . mi .
. ti.
A. -Saxon
ic
hi.
Eussian . . menya .
. ti
German .
ich .
du.
Persian . . man .
. t&.
Gothic .
ik .
|PU.
Hindoostanee . main .
7
. tm.
146
ETYMOLOGY.
In Coptic tliere arc two pronouns for the second person
singular ; one for the masculine, ntbk (thou) masculine^ ntotn
(thou) feminine.
/ is the first person singular, being the pronoun by which a
speaker betokens himself.
Thou is the second person singular, being the pronoun by
which a first person designates a second.
He, she, or it, is the third person singular, being the pro-
noun by which a first person designates one third person.
We is the first person plural, being the pronoun by which a
first person designates those of which he is one.
Ye or you is the second person plural, being the pronoun
by which a first person designates more than one second person.
They is the third personal pbiral, being the pronoun by
which a first person designates more than one third.
He is masculine, she is feminine, it is neuter.
/, thou, we, ye or you, and they, are of all genders.
The English pronouns are declined thus :
I.
Nominative
Possessive ')
Genitive . j
Other cases
Singular.
. I,
Plural.
we.
my, mine, our, ours.
me,
us,
Thou.
Nominative
Possessive
Genitive
Other cases
with prepositions.
Lapponic has a dual form of pronoun.
Singular. Plural.
. thou, ye.
thy, thine, your, yours.
C thee, you,
( with prepositions.
He.
Nominative
Possessive
Singular. Plural.
. he, they.
C his, ^ their, theii's.
\ of him, ( of them.
Genitive . . of him, of them.
^,, f him, them,
Other cases < •,,
( with ]
prepositions.
She.
Nominative
Possessive,
Genitive .
Singular. Plural.
she, they.
C her, hers C their,theirs
I of her, ( of them.
. of her, of them.
^,, ( her, them,
Other cases < .,,
( with
prepositions.
It.
Nominative
Possessive
Genitive
Other cases
:]■
Singular.
. it,
Plural.
they.
its, of it, their, theirs, of them.
. it, them, . with prepositions.
338. From notions of politeness, many nations designate a
single second or third person, deemed worthy of high esteem.
ETYMOLOGY. 147
by a pronoun of another person, or of the plural instead of
the singular number ; as,
' Will ijou (for wilt thou) sit down?' 'I thank you (for thee) .'
French, ' Youlez-vous (for veux-^^^) me faire le faveur ? '
' Je vous (for te) remercie/
So in Illyric.
Germ., ' Wie befinden sie sich?' 'B.ovr do they (for dost
thou) find themselves (for thyself) ?' ' How art thou ? '
In Basque there is a respectful form of the second person
singular ; as, hi, hie, thou, homely; eu, euc, thou, respectful.
In Japanese there are pronouns, of several forms of
worthiness, for the first and second as well as the third per-
son ; so that a speaker may honour a second or third person
with a more worthy pronoun, while he may take a less worthy
one for himself, or may uphold his own dignity by taking of
a more worthy one for himself, and a less worthy one for
another person.
In Bisaya, guita (we) is used for aco (I), the first person
plural, for the first personal singular, as Horace often writes
nos (we) for himself.
339. In English, and most other languages of the old
world, the pronoun of the first person plural is ambiguous.
TVe may mean / and thou, I and ye, I and he, or / and they ;
but in the Cree language there is a pronoun for a first and
second person, and another for a first and third.
Kethdnow, (1+2) ive, (I and thou) or (I and ye).
NetJianan, (1+3) we, (I and he) or (I and they).
The case (1+3) is sometimes met in Anglo-Saxon by urit
(we) and the name of a third person : ' wit Scilling,' ' we
Scilling,' "^/and Scilling.^
In the sentence ' we are all sinners,' ive is inclusi\c
(1+2+3) ; but in ' we beseech thee,' we is exclusive (1+3).
So the Polynesian tongues, and the Bisaya and some of
the sister ones of the Malay family, have two pronouns, one
inclusive (1+2+3), and the other exclusive (1+3).
Bisaya, ive inclusive (1+2+3) is quit a ; exclusive (1+3) cami.
Tonga, we inclusive (1+2+3) is tow; exclusive (1+3) mow.
So in Bisaya, sira (they) ; sira Pedro, they Peter; Peter
and those with him, ol nirpou.
148 ETYMOLOGY.
So our pronoun Jiis is indeterminate in the sentence ' John
has been at play with Henry, and broken his bat/ in which his
bat may mean 'John's or Henry's. Some languages, such as
Latin, Swedish, and Hiudoostanec, have two pronouns for oar
his, and therefore they are of more discriminate meaning.
Latin, ejus, his (another's) ; suus, his own.
Hindoostanee, mska, his (another^ s) ; apna, his own.
Illyric, vjihov, his (another's) ; svoj, his own.
Swedish, hans, his (another's) ; sin, his own.
340. TheT/ is often used as an indeterminate pronoun for
folk at large ; as, * they say there will be war.' Instead of the
pronoun of the third person plural, the French use ' on ' one ;
as, ' on dit que,' &c.
341. Our pronouns, self, (A.-Saxon, sylf, German, selber,)
myself, thyself, himself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves, are
now very anomalous, since those of the first and second
persons are shapen from possessive forms of the pronouns my,
thy, our, your, as if self were a noun ; and those of the third
persons are shapen upon other ease-forms, him, them. If
myself should be myself, then himself should be hisself; or,if
himself should be himself, then myself should be meself.
In Anglo-Saxon and Icelandic, the pronoun with sylf, sjdlf,
self, is inflected ; as, A.-Sax. icsylf, iself ; fram me sylf urn,
from meself (myself).
-Self is emphatic and reflective; as, 'I myself v^iW awake;'
' 1 will wash myself
In Anglo-Saxon and older English, the pronouns without
the self were more often taken as reflective pronouns.
A.-Sax., " Ic me reste ;" ' I rest me.'
The co-operative forms of the Latin pronouns mecum, tecum,
secum, have taken the preposition cum, con, again as a prefix
in Spanish, and are become commiyo, contiyo, consigo ; i. e,,
cummecum, cumtecum, &c.
342. The English case-forms of he and she have sprung, by
syncope and crasis, from the Anglo-Saxon pronouns he and
heo, with their case-endings.
Nom., He, he; Ile-o, she.
Gen., He-es, his; He-ere, her.
Vat., He-um, him; lle-ere, her.
ETYMOLOGY. 149
343. The forms my, thy, his, her, our, your, their, are used
before the noun of the thing possessed, or begotten of the
possessive or genitive person; as, 'this is my dog;^ 'the
painter has sold his picture :' and the forms mine, thine, hers,
ours, yours, and theirs, are used without the nouns of the
things possessed or begotten; as_, 'whose dog is that?^ —
' mine ;' ' whose picture is that ?' — ' thine.'
The first forms, my, thy, &c. answer to the French mon, ton,
&c., and German mein, dein; and the forms mine, thine, &c.
answer to the French le mien, le tien, &c., and German der
meinige, der deinige, &c.
In Cheremissian there are two forms of personal pronouns,
the long form without the noun, and the short one with it.
Some tongues have possessive suffixes instead of the pro-
nouns my, thy, his, &c.
In Lapponic, they are -m (my), -t (thy), -s (liis), &c., which
are the first letters of the pronouns ; as,
Zjahna-m (my eye), zjalma-t (thy eye), zjalma-s (his eye;.
So in Hebrew and Koordish.
344. Limiting Pronouns.
A limiting pronoun is a word which limits a predicate to
all or a part of the things of a name ; as, one bird, or each
bird, or this bird, has been shot ; or three birds, or many birds,
or these birds, have been shot.
345. The limiting pronouns are of several classes; some
are indefinite, such as one, some, any, few, several, many,
another, other, such, both, all.
One, some, any, limit a predicate loosely to any one thing
of its name ; as, ' give me one book, some book, or any book.'
Few, some, many, much, little, limit a predicate loosely to a
share of the things of a name; as, 'he has few books, some
books, or many books ; ' ' much or little paper/
Another or other limits a predicate to a difierent number or
individual of the things of a name from that of another fore-
going predicate ; as, ' this is a bad pen,' ' these are bad pens ;'
' I must get another pen, or other pens.'
Both limits a predicate to two known things of their name ;
as, ' both of his gloves are lost.'
Some of the indefinite pronouns, few, some, many, much.
150 ETYMOLOGY.
little, have forms for comparatively greater or smaller numbers
or quantities :
few, fewer, fewest; much, more, most,
many, more, most; little, less, least.
Such limits a predicate to an individual or share of the
things of a name, like one of another foregoing predicate;
as ' such good boys deserve praise.^
All limits a predicate to the whole of the things of their
name; as, 'all men are mortal.^
346. Each, Every, Either, Neither, are
Distributive Pronouns.
They limit a predicate to the individuals of their name,
singly and not collectively; as, 'each man drew his sword;'
* every boy showed up his exercise ;' 'I have not bought either
of the horses.' Neither is a compound of not either, ne segSer,
or a3er.
347. Tins, That, These, Those, are
Demonstrative Pronouns.
They limit a predicate to things to which the sight is
directed by some bodily action, or to which the mind is
directed by language; as, 'look on this picture and on that;'
' this is the sacrifice that I have chosen.'
This, with its plural form these, shows a nearer thing ; and
that, with its plural those, marks a farther one, as 'this is a
better picture than that.'
This also means the latter noun in a sentence, and that the
former ; as, ' wealth and poverty are both temptations ; — that
begets pride, this discontent.'
Ought and nought are compounds from the Anglo-Saxon
wiht, ivuht, creature, being ; wight, whit.
Ought is from dn-iviht, d-wiht, a thing; and nought is from
ndn-wiht, nd-iviht,uo-i\\\rig; La^in, ne quid ; Greek, o'j-S-ev.
In languages which have only one demonstrative pronoun
for the nearer and farther thing, and indeed in some others,
one of them is sometimes emphatically marked from the other
by an adverb, here or there; as, 'this here,' 'that there;' and
in Frencii, ceci, 'that here,' and cela, 'that there.' Greek,
iv.eTvo; (from iyieU), 'the one there.'
ETYMOLOGY. 151
348. JVho, Which, That,
Relative.
Who, which, and that limit a predicate to a foregoing noun,
which is called its antecedent ; as, " Blessed are the dead that
die in the Lord/' TT^o now relates to persons, and which to
things without reason and animal life ; as, ' the man who is
good is happy ; ' ' this is the horse which I bought ; ' ' this is
the tree ivhich I planted.' That relates to nouns of all kinds,
as 'the man that hath done this thing shall surely die ;' 'this
is the sacrifice that I have chosen.'
mdch was formerly used as a relative to a person as well as
an inanimate thing; as, "Our Father, which art in heaven."
Who, lohich, and what are used for interrogative pronouns
as well as relative ones; as, 'who is that?' 'which is the
house ? ' ' what do you say ? '
JVhether was once in use as an interrogative. It means
which of the two; as, "show whether of these two thou hast
chosen." — Acts i. 24.
Wlio is thus declined :
Nominative . . . who. | Possessive, Genitive . . . whose, of whom.
Other cases .... whom, with prepositions
The relative pronouns are sometimes used without their
antecedent ; as, ' I know* who did it,' i. e., the ' person who,'
&c., unless this formula is that of the question, ' who did it ? '
Ans., ' I know who did it.'
Some languages, Greek, Welsh, and Hindoostanee, have
pronouns of two forms for our who, which, and what, one set
of relative ones, and another of interrogative ones ; as,
Greek, oV, who, relative ; tIq, who, interrogative.
In the Japanese and Mongolian the relative pronoun is not
used. The formula 'the man who is come,' yields to another,
in which the verb-root is placed before the noun man, and
which means ' the come-man,' i. e., ' the coming-man.'
So in Mongolian, the relative pronoun and verb give place
to a participle, and the formula ' the man who spoke,' is 'the
having-spoken man;' 'the girl whose eyes glisten like the
sun,' is ' the sunshine-like eyed girl ; ' ' the book which thou
gavest me,' is ' thy to-me-given book.'
152
ETYMOLOGY.
349. Indefinite.
Whoever, Whichever, Whatever, Whosoever, Whichsoever,
Whatsoever, Whoso.
These pronouns limit a predicate loosely to any person or
thing; as, ^whoever, or whichever, may ask shall receive;'
* do whatever you like/
The pronoun who in whoever, whoso, whosoever, is declined
like who, and takes -so, -ever, soever on to its sundry ease-
forms.
" Whoso rewardeth evil for good, evil shall not depart from
his house/' — (Prov. xvii. 13.)
" JFhosesoever sins ye remit, they are remitted unto them."
—(John XX. 23.)
" To whomsoever I will, I give it." — (Luke iv. 6.)
These pronouns are relatives to antecedents understood.
They are equal to the Latin quicmique, quivis ; qui, who,
vis, you will ; quilibet, qui, who, libet, it pleases.
350.
Numeral Pronouns.
The numeral pronouns are of two kinds, cardinal numbers
and ordinal numbers.
351. The cardinal numeral pronouns are one, two, three,
and like numbers onward ; and they limit a predicate to some
number of the things of a name.
352, The ordinal numbers are first, second, third, and like
numbers onward ; and they limit a predicate to a thing of a
name of Avliich they mark the order among others.
Cardinal.
Ordinal.
Cardinal.
Ordinal.
one.
first.
eleven.
eleventh.
two.
second.
twelve.
twelfth.
three.
third.
thirteen.
thirteenth.
four.
fourth.
fourteen.
fourteenth.
five.
fifth.
fifteen.
fifteenth.
six.
sixth.
sixteen.
sixteenth.
seven.
seventh.
seventeen.
seventeenth
eight.
eighth.
eighteen.
eighteenth.
nine.
ninth.
nineteen.
nineteenth.
ten,
tenth.
twenty.
twentieth.
ety:mology.
Cardinal. Ordinal.
Cardinal.
Ordinal.
thirty, thirtieth.
eighty.
eightieth.
forty, fortieth.
ninety,
ninetieth.
fifty, fiftieth.
hundred.
hundredth.
sixty, sixtieth.
thousand.
thousandth.
seventy, seventieth.
million.
millioneth.
In Magyar, the ordinal numbers end in
dih
In Bisaya, polo, ten ; ica-polo, tenth.
153
353. It is markworthy, that in most languages the number
teyi is so taken for a base, that the names of numbers from one
ten to two tens (twenty), (A.-Sax. iwentig, Du. twintig, Germ.
zwanzig), and the names of tens from one ten to ten tens
(a hundred) are formed from the name or some token of ten.
Sixteen (Du. zestien, A.-Sax. sixtyne, Germ, sechzelin, Norse
sextan,) is formed from six and the name of ten, and sixty
(Du. zestig, A.-Sax. sixtig. Germ, sechzig, Norse sextiu,) is
formed of six, and an ending betokening a multiple — ten.
The cause of this phenomenon might have been, that man-
kind at first reckoned with tlieu* ten fingers and thumbs, and
took them as units, tens, and hundreds, which we still call
digits {digiti, fingers).
So there seems some likeness of the
Greek, Je'n-a, Scta-TuKoQ.
Latin, dec-em, dig-iti.
Germ,, zehn, zehe, toe.
Hawaii, lima (five), lima, hand.
Kleinschmidt, in his Greenlandish Grammar, says, " that
they reckon in Greenlandish not to 10 but to 5, or only to
the end of one hand ; then they begin with the same numerals
on the other hand, and so on to one and the other foot. When
all the fingers and toes are reckoned, a man is reckoned out,
and they begin with another, and then with a third. They
have tale-words and limb-words, to show on what limb or in
what five they are reckoning, as urfinek-ataussk, Q>, or second-
hand one; arkanek-pingasut, first foot, three, or 13.^'
We have some traces of this limb-reckoning in Welsh, in
which we find dau ar bymtheg, two and fifteen, or 2 and 3
limbs, for 17; and pedwar ar bymtheg, foui* and fifteen for
19 ; and in English, French, and Lazish, where men reckon
by scores, of which one is one man-tale, or the four limbs ; as,
four score, French, quatre-vingt.
7 6
154 ETYMOLOGY.
The Gothic gives us a clue to the first meaning of our words
eleven and twelve, from the verb lif-an, to leave.
In Gothic, eleven is ain-lif, i.e. one leave, one left over the ten.
twelve is twa-lif, i.e. two leave, two left over the ten.
35 1. The ordinal numbers are used with the cardinal ones,
as names of the aliquot shares of integers, as thirds, fifths, or
others ; as in the fractions two-thirds, three-fifths.
355. In some of the Teutonic languages, as well as in Greek
and Latin, there is a mark worthy mode of telling mixed
quantities of integers and halves. It is one in wliich the
number of the integers is not given, but implied in the num-
ber of uneven halves; as. A.- Sax. ]>ridde-healf, Germ, dritte-
halb, i. e. the third-half, which means 2|, as the number is
one in which uneven halves occur three times, as |, 1^, 2^.
Herodotus describes some demiplinths of gold, " rplrov
•^[j.irxKu]/TOV enatTTOv eh-^ovrci/' each weighing the third half-
talent, i.e. two talents and a half, {Herod., book i. §50) ; and the
Latin term, sestertius, which is contracted of semis tertius, i. e.
the tliii'd half, as, means two asses or pounds and a half.
Some of our ordinals, third, fourth, fifth, &c., are used in
two ways, — as ordinal of things, the fifth loaf, the third acre ;
and divisive of things, as the fifth of a loaf, the third of a field.
In Lapponic, however, these two offices are taken by sundry
pronouns; as, coJmad (ordinal), colmadas (divisive).
In Kafir, instead of the ordinals they use the cardinals in
the possessive case ; as, ' the day of foui-,' for ' the fourth day.'
356, Articles.
Two of the limiting pronouns, an and the, are called articles.
They limit a predicate either definitely or indefinitely to one
thing of its name ; as, an ol)ject, the object.
An has now become a before a consonant or strong breath-
ing; as, a man, once an man; a horse, once an horse.
A or an is called the indefinite article, since it limits a pre-
dicate to one thing of its name, without marking which one ;
as, a man, an arm.
The is called the definite article, because it limits a predicate
to some marked thing ; as, ' the horse is sold ;' ' the letters are
received.'
The indefinite article an, a, is the Anglo-Saxon numeral
pronoun, an, one ; and in French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese,
ETYMOLOGY. 155
German, Dutch, Turkish, and Hindoostanee, the indefinite
article and the numeral pronoun one are the same word.
So in Anglo-Saxon se, seo, ]?cet, is both the definite article
and the demonstrative pronoun that ; while the definite article
in Italian, French, Spanish, and Portuguese, il, el, lo, la, are
fragments of the Latin pronoun ille, which seems itself to be
an article in the expression, Alexander ille magnus.
In the Scandinavian di^dsion of the Teutonic tongues, such
as Norse and Swedish, the definite article is sometimes suffixed
to the noim ; as, Norse, ' skip-it,' the ship ; Swedish, ' konung-
€11,' the king; Danish, ' grav-en,' the grave.
In the Bisaya there are two articles, an or ang, definite ; and
in, ing, i, indefinite ; ang tauo, the man ; ing tauo, man.
357. ADJECTIVES.
An adjective is a word to tell the quality of a thing.
Adjectives are of difierent forms.
358. Stem Adjectives,
from Verb - roots.
Moots. Adjectives.
bite bitter.
A.-Sax., blic-an, Germ., blink-en, to shine blank.
brenn-an, to burn brown.
Gothic, balth-j-an, to dare bold.
A.-Sax., blend-ian, to dazzle bbnd.
blow (whence A.-Sax., bleo, color) blue.
dip deep.
A.-Sax., di*ig-an, wither, dry dry.
0. Goth., ar-an, A.-Sax., earni-an, work earnest.
Gothic, fahg-an, to be pleased fair ; A.-S., fwger.
Gothic, fast-an, keep fast.
Gothic, fody-an, feed fat.
fill fuU.
flow, fly fleet.
grow green, great {Du. groot).
heat hot.
let, hinder late.
ledd, vulgus lewd.
he low.
A.-Sax., hlyd-an, sound loud.
melt mild.
rec-an, stretch right.
1 56 ETYMOLOGY.
Roots. Adjectives.
A.-Sax., rip-an (to reap) ? ripe, rough.
shear, cut short, sharp.
A.-Sax., scyl-an (divide, scale oW) shallow.
A.-Sax., slic-au (strike) ? slack, sleek, slight.
smite smooth.
stoop steep.
A.-Sax., strec-an (stretch, as a string) straight.
A.-Sax., J;in-an, vanish, wane thin.
wring, twist wrong.
In JapaiiGsc the verb-root is taken for the adjective.
359. Form (1 + .)
(1 + y).
Adjectives of the form (1+y) mean with much or many of
a thing.
cloud -y, hill-y, ston-y, water-y,
grass-y, nois-y, storm-y, wind-y.
In Latin this form is {\-\-osus), {\-\-tus), [\-\-ulentus) ', as,
nubil-osus, gramin-osus, mont-osus, oims-tus, funes-tus, lut-
ulentus, pulver-ulentus.
In Greek it is (l+w5v;?), A/Gw^vif.
In Anglo-Sax., Germ., and Dutch, it is (1+i^) :
A.-Sax., dreor-ig; Germ., traur-ig, dreary; Du., doorn-ig,
thorny.
In M.Goth., {l+ahs), {\+ags) -, Icel., {\-\-ugt), [l-\-igt).
Goth., stain-ahs, stony; Icel., blo^-ugt, bloody,
Welsh, (1+0^) ; brwyn-og, rushy.
In Persian, (1 + sor), (l-fgin), (1+nok), &c.
In Cree, {X-\-'woo), {\-\-wun).
Nippec-wun, it is watery, wet.
Tonga, ( 1 + a ) . Cheremissian, ( 1 -|- *w ) .
Lapponic, (1+eya). Bisaya, {l-\-un).
360. Form (1+m).
Adjectives of the form {\-\-en) are material adjectives,
meaning made of the thing (1).
lin-en, gold-en, wood-en, wooll-en.
Adjectives of the form {\-\-en) mean wholly of the thing (1);
ETYMOLOGY. 157
but adjectives of the form {l-\-ed) mean ha^dng the thing (1)
on to it : aureus, golden ; auratus, gilded.
The ending -en is, in A.-Saxon and German, -en; in M.Goth.
-EiNs ; in Icelandic, -in.
A-Sax., fleax-en ; Germ., flachs-en, flaxen ; Goth., stain-eins ;
Icel., stein-in, stonen.
Latin, {\-]^eus), {\-\-inus) , {V-^aceus) ; as, argent-eus, fag-
inus, herb-aceus.
Greek, (l+£oe), as u^yvp-eo;; [\J^mg), as (ivaa-mQ.
Welsh, {\-\-aid), {\-\-in),euraid,^o\Aerx', mein-in, of stone.
Persian and Hindoostanee, (1-f-in), as gobin, wooden.
In Arabic it is ( 1 + i ) • Basque, (1 ■\-esco) .
361. Form {\-{-ed).
Adjectives of this form mean, having a thing (1)
long-legged, minded, gifted.
Latin, (l-f-*^M5), al-atus, pil-atus, pile-atus,auritus, comutus.
Such adjectives are found in other Teutonic languages with
the representative of our ending ed in its place.
Bisaya, {\-\-an), (1+mw) ; ca/o, hat; ca/o-aw, hatted.
Basque, {\-\-ada) . Mongolian, {\-\-to) . Australian, {l-\-tidli) .
FoEM {l+ly.)
The ending -ly is in A. -Sax. -lie. Germ, -lich, Icel. -ligt, and
means fitly kke ; so that adjectives of this form mean, like or
belonging to the things named by the noims :
friendly, kingly, manly, neighbourly.
A.-Sax., leof-lic. Germ., lieb-lich, lovely.
A.-Sax., wif-lic. Germ., weib-lich, womanly.
Greek, {l-{-iog), {l-\-ivo;), (l-f/Ko?).
oupaviog, xv^puxivog, 5vj/xot/moc.
In Japanese the place of the adjective {l-\-ly), and others,
is taken by a noun in the possessive case, tenno, of heaven,
heavenly ; ' man of good,^ for ' good man.'
Lapponic, {\-\-latz.) Australian, {l-\-butto.)
158 ETYMOLOGY.
Latin, (l-j-awMs), miuidanus, montanus;
(1-f-*^^*), capitalis, hostilis, mortalis;
(1-|-*^^W5), argentarius, li])rarius, Ilectorius;
{\-\-ester), campcstcr, equcster, pedester;
{\-\-inus), corvinus, asininus, equinus;
{\-\-^cus), aquaticus; {\-\-ius)f patrius;
{\-\-^rnus), hodicmus^ nocturnus;
{\-\-ivus), fiu'tivus, sestivus;
{\-\-aris), consularis, militaris;
{\-\-estis), agrestis, coclestis.
Welsh, {\.-\-aicld). Irish, (1+map). Arabic, (l+iV
Cree, {\-\-ivow). Finnic, {\-\-inen.)
Many of the Latin adjectives, {\-\-orius), {\-\-aris), {\-\-aIis),
{\-\-inus), and Greek ones, are possessive or genitive adjectives
such as we want, and for which we use a noun in the possessive
or genitive form ; as, asses milk, lac asininum ;
geeses down, lana anseriua.
363. Form (l+i^^.)
Adjectives of this form are of two kinds :
1st. Adjectives of unfit likeness, meaning unfitly like the
thing (1) ; as,
mannish, womanish, hrutish, prudish, childish, sottish.
2nd. Gentile adjectives, meaning of the nation or father-
land (1) ; as, English (Angle-ish), Scottish, Swedish.
Bisaya, {\-\-nun). Another form in Bisaya is (1), a noun
with the breathsound ni or in after the first syllable ; as,
from Bisaya comes Bi-ni-saya ; '■ Bi-ni-saya iiga gaui,' ' a
Bisayan dress.'
Lat., (l-f-*«M5), {l-{-icus), {l-\-ensis), Rom-anus, Angl-ic^s,
^gin-ensis.
G7-eek, {l-\-tog), (1-f/vo;), (l-f^o?), &c.
In A.-Saxon the gentile ending -ish, is isc ; Germ., -isch ;
Icelandic, skt, skr :
A.-Sax., Englisc. ; Germ., Englisch ; Icel., Eingelskt.
In Welsh the gentile adjective is of the form {\-\-ig), Seis-
nig, Saxon ; and that of unfit likeness is of the form {\-{-llyd),
dyfrllyd, waterish.
ETYMOLOGY. 159
In Turkish the gentile adjective is (l-j-lm), (l-{-li).
Istambmlm, a Constantinopolitan.
Arabic, Persian, and Hindoostanee, (l-|-i).
Ar., Afriki, African; Per., Sirq^zj, of Shiraz. ;
Hind., Bengoli, of Bengal.
364. Form ( 1 +>/.)
Adjectives of this form mean, full or having much of the
thing (1).
beautiful, gainful, joyful, sorrowful,
fearful, hopeful, scornful, wonderful.
In Hindoostanee an adjective of the form (1-f-dor) answers
to this, though dor means having; as, wafodor, faith-
having, faitliful.
Icel., {\-\-gjarn) : metna^ar-gj am, honour-seeking;
fe-gjarn, money- seeking.
365. Form {l + less.)
This form means, without the thing (1) :
beardless, hopeless, peerless,
breathless, lifeless, shapeless,
friendless, moneyless, sleepless.
-less is from the root to lose; and in A. -Saxon is -leas; Ger-
man, -Los; Dutch, -loos; Icelandic, -laus.
A.-Saw., synleas, German, siindelos, sinless.
Dutch, vaderloos, fatherless. Icel., vopnlaus, weaponless.
Finnic, {l^ton.) Hawaii, {\-\-ole.)
In Greek the answering form is («+l), ai3/wT0?, xiJioppog.
And in Hindoostanee (10+ 1), where lo is the preposition
without; logory, without help, helpless.
So in Latin its form is sometimes (e^-|-l) ; as, exanimis,
exsanguis.
Cheremissian, {\-\-tem.d). Australian, {\-\-tinna).
Lapponic, {\-\-ac), (1-j-^em), {l^tis).
366. Form {l-\-ward.)
This form means, toward the thing (1) ; as, homeward,
heavenward.
In German, -ward is -vdrts ; in A-Saxon, -weard ; in
Norse, -vert.
1 go etymology.
367. Form (1+1.)
The Persian and Turkish are very rich of these adjectives :
pyri raw], angel-face.
Jjr dilj lion-heart.
Lolo-rvukh, tulip-cheek.
Latin, anguicomus, anguiraanus, coi'nipes.
Greek, po^ohx-^rvXog. (iou%ig.
In English they mostly take the form (l-j-l) ; as,
cherry-eheek-ed, copper-bottom-ed, ox-ey-ed.
368. Form (1+2.)
Headstrong, homeborn, motheaten.
Latin, pilicrepus, manumissus.
Greek, /JaAavvi^opo?, pu(7(p6(iog, ^eoriorog.
Icel., jarnslcginn, ironshod.
Pers., jon-oso, soul-soothing.
soy3^-ps"rw^r, shade-bred, bred in obscurity.
Hind., mol-m^st, wealth-drunk, i.e. purse-proud.
Irish, mon^-puab*, hair-red, red-haired ; bapp - b'pif ce,
top-broken, broken at top.
369. Form (1+3.)
Lat., Lucifer (lux-fero) ; laniger (lana-gero) ; multibibus
(multum-bibo) ; florilegus (flores-lego) ; puerpera (puer-pario) ;
clarisonus (clarum-sono) .
370. Form (2 + .).
371. Form {2-\-ish.)
These adjectives are of weak meaning, and mark a low form
of the quality, — rather of a cpiality :
blackish, longish,
brownish. shortish.
In Cree its form is {2-\-issu), misshigitt-u, he is large;
misshigitt-issu, he is largish.
ETYMOLOGY. 161
The form of this adjective in Latin is,
{sub-{-2), subniger, subiratus. {2-\-culus), frigidusculus.
{2-\-^lus), parvulus, misellus. {2-\-eus), subitan-eus.
{2-\-aster.)
And in Greek {v7ro-\-2.)
In Russian, (2-|-a'vet). Wendish, {2-\-oiv'y). Kafir,
{2-\-ana), {2-\-azana). Magyar, {2-\-ka), {2-\-ocska).
372. Form (2-f-em).
A few adjectives of the form {2-{-ern), Icel. {^-\-ran), mean
in directions rather towards the quarters of the sky :
northern, southern,
eastern, western.
373. Form (2 + 1).
The Teutonic, Greek, Persian, and some other languages,
are very strong in adjectives of the form (2-|-l) or (2+1* )
They are especially powerful and useful as epithets in the
language of poetry.
Fair-faced, yellow-haired, gray-headed.
Two-edged, three-cornered, four-sided, five-leaved, ten-
stringed.
Latin, longipes, fissipes, bimembris.
Greek, fia&vMKTog, lia^vfwvogy JxTasTV]?, ToKv%ovg, OiuoyKuaaoQ.
Germ., zwei-schneidig, Dutch, vier-voetig.
Icel., fagur-hserdr, fair-haired.
In Irish and French, (1+2), cof-lomnocc, foot-bare, bare-
footed; tete-nue, head-bare, bare-headed.
Australian, (1+2), kurra, head; wilta, hard; kurrawilta,
impudent.
Persian, khmb-rmwe, fair-faced ; khmj-olhon, sweet-toned.
374. Form (2 + 2).
Adjectives of a limiting pronoun and participle :
almighty, all-wise.
To this form belongs the Anglo-Saxon riht-wis, rightwise ;
English, righteous.
Germ., allmachtig. Icel., almattugr.
1G2 ETYMOLOGY.
M. Goth., allvaldands, all-wielding, all-ruling.
Latin, altisonans, largiloquus, maguificus.
375. Form [2 -\-fold) ; threefold, fourfold, manifold.
M.Goth., (2+faltlis). A.-Sax., (2+feald). Ger., (2-i-faltig,
facli). Dutch, (2-|-voudig).
A.-Saxon, |>reo-feald. German, drey-fach, drey-faltig.
Dutch, drie-voudig. M. Goth., manag-falths.
To this form belong also such adjectives as bitter-sweet, and
the intensitiveor superlative adjectives formed, in Hindoostanee
and some other languages, by a repetition of the positive form
of the adjective, as good-good, very good, optimus.
376. Form (2-|-3).
377. Form (3-f-.).
This is the form of participles :
loving, loved, spoken.
The Latin active participle is of the form (3-|-*ws), amans.
„ passive participle is of the form {^-\-^tus), ama-
tus, rectus, auditus.
„ future active participle is of the form {S-^*turus) ,
meaning going to do the action ; as, arnaturus, recturus,
auditurus.
378. The Latin passive gerund participle is (3-{-*wc?m5),
and means awaiting the action; as, 'liber legendus est;'
' the book is to be, ought to be, or must be, read.^
The Greek (3-|-T6'og) is of the same meaning ; as,
alpereoQ, (iKv\Tiogy yvuarecg.
There are other Greek ones of other forms and meanings; as,
liKciliepog, yXvKrog, /3pwV/jxo?.
To this form belongs the Latin adjective {S-\-torius) , as
auditorius, dormitorius ; and the Latin {^-\-icus), as pudicus.
379. There is in Latin a highly useful adjective, of the
form {^-{-"^bilis), {3-\-ilis), {^-{-itiiLs) , meaning, that can or
may be the subject of the action (3).
ETYMOLOGY.
163
{amo) amabilis, [lego) legibilis, [audio) audibilis,
amiable. legible. audible.
[facio) Tacilis, [findo) fissilis, [frango) fragilis.
In Greek its forms are [^-{-toq) and (fu-[-3+T0?).
In Basque, [^-\-coi).
Unluckily, this kind of adjective is wanting in English,
though our adjective (3 + ^y) sometimes takes its place;
as, lovely.
We ought not, however, to be in want of an adjective for
[^-{-'^bilis) , as such an one is found in German and some
other of the tongues of our race.
In German it is {^-{-bar), in which bar, from bear, means
that can bear or take the action :
essbar, edibilis; denkbar, intelligibilis ;
trinkbar, potabilis; furchtbar, formidabilis.
In Cree the place of this adjective is taken by verb-forms,
(3-|-oo5m), [^-\-wun) : nok-oosu, he is visible; pey-tak-wun,
it is audible.
380. {^-\-some) ; sometimes [2-\-some) .
This is the form of a very useful adjective of the Teutonic
languages, though in English it is unluckily much slighted.
It means, disposed or given to do the action (3), or be of the
quality (2).
frolicsome disposed to frolic.
quarrelsome .... quick to quarrel.
irksome likely to irk.
wearisome tending to weary.
winsome likely to win.
In the sentence, ' many things are wholesome that are not
toothsome;' toothsome is of the form [\-\-some). — A Treatise
of Repentance.
The ending some is, in A.-Saxon, -sum; German, -sam ;
Dutch, -zaam; Norse, -sam, -som.
A.-Sax., wyn-sum; Germ., wonne-sam, winsome.
Dutch, ge-hoorzaam, hearsome, obedient; which word
' obedient ' itself is from ob-audio.
Icel., gaman-samr, gamesome, playful.
164 ETYMOLOGY.
There is a like adjective in Latin of the form {3-\-ax),
{3-\-bundus), {'d-\-cundus), (S-j-ucus), {3-\-idus), {3-\-ulus),
{3-|-*/;6-), (3-f-u-ws).
audax {audeo), loquax {loquor), tenax {teneo).
furibiindus. caducus [cado).
jucundus, facundus [for], vcrccundus (vereor).
frigidus (/n^eo), rapid us (ro;>w), cupidus (cwjoio).
bibulus (bibo), credulus {credo).
flexilis [flecto], edulis (edo). activus (ago).
In Cree, the place of this adjective is holden by a verb-
form ; as, sakehe-wuyoo, he loves.
sakehe-wdy-wissu, he is lovesome, amorous :
or, by the frequentive verb,
nipp-oiv, he sleeps.
ntpp-dsku, he sleeps very frequently ; he is sleepsome,
Austrulia7i, (3-j-6mna). Lapponic, (3-f-e5), &c.
The place of our adjective {3-\-some) is taken in Bisaya by
one of markworthy formation, the foresetting of ma to the
root, and the insetting of in within it ; as,
sogot, to hear or obey ; ma-s-in-ogot, hcarsome, obedient.
The Cree language has two forms of verb-adjectives; one
for an accidental, and another for an essential quality :
wawg-ow, it is crooked (naturally) ;
wawg-etayoo, it is bent [i.e., crooked accidentally).
381. Form (3-j-l).
382. Form (3-|-2).
The verb-adjectives in Cree and Japanese are of this form.
383. Form (3-f-4).
384. Form (3-f5).
385. Form (5-|-.)
From a preposition and ending ; as,
Lat., ant-icus {ante), Eng., forward,
post-icus {post), backward.
In Lapponic many adjectives are formed from prepositions.
They are of the form {^-\-satz), such, in meaning, as to-ty,
by-ly, near-ly, round-ly, within-ly, under-ly, over-ly.
ETYMOLOGY. 165
386. Forms (5-f-l), (5-J-14-.).
Eng., uphill, offhand; underhanded, afterwitted.
Latin, commodus {cum, modus) ; deformis {de, forma) ;
exsanguis, immunis {in, munus) ; exlex, inops.
Greek, civri^eog, TiapdvoiJ.og.
387. Form (5 + 2).
There is a large body of adjectives and participles of the
form (5+2).
Eng., thorough-spun, offcast, undercut, overlarge.
Latin, Prse-dives, prse-longus, sub-niger, ira-possibilis, per-
grandis, sup-plex, prse-stans,
Greek, (Tvv-Tfio(pog, avjM-ixxxoi;, eTriKsvAo;, Trocpsyyvg.
388. Form (5+3).
389. Forms (4+1) and (4+1+.).
Eng., well-manned, ill-conditioned.
Greek, a^uupvg {a, ^axpu), evysug (fu, yi^), Sva-o^og.
390. Forms (4+2) and (4+3).
This is the form of many participles and some adjectives.
Eng., well-born, ill-bred, new-made, ill-looking, highly -
finished.
Greek, fufuvje (ev, -\-azj.)
Bulgarian, [po-\-2>), I do the action (3) a little.
174
ETYMOLOGY.
There are in Latin some iterative verbs of the forms
{S-^ito), {3-\-iculo) :
ag-o, ag-ito. mitt-o, miss-iculo.
curr-o, curr-ito. volvo^ voluto.
haer-eo, haes-ito. Virt/. jEn. ii. 725.
Here we should place the Latin desiderative verbs of the
form (3-j-Mno) , which mean to tend to the action, or desire it ;
as, from ed-o, esum, esurio.
parc-o, partum, parturio.
In Lapponic, {3-\-ow).
And the Latin intensitives of the form {S-{-*sso) ; as,
facio, facesso.
capio, capesso.
The Bulgarian intensitive is (ra-j-3) .
In Cree it is {ne-\-3), {3-{-dsku).
We have a few of these iterative or fi-equentative verbs of the
426.
beat,
chat,
climb,
fret.
batter,
chatter,
clamber,
fritter.
Form (3 + er).
gleam, glimmer,
spit, spatter, sputter.
* slumber,
sway, swagger.
wave,
wind,
whine,
waver,
wander,
wonder,
whimper.
427.
428.
Foam (3-{-3).
Sudden Veiibs.
The Finnic has a form for the sudden and quick doing of
an action. The form is (3-j-a/if/), {S-\-ais).
Qu. If snock, snip, are sudden verbs from knock, nip.
429. CONTINUATIVE VeRBS,
The Finnic has a form for the continuance of an action, {S-\-in) .
430. Form ( 1+. )
Inchoative Verbs.
Inchoative verbs of this form mean, to begin to be the
thing (1), as if we were to say of the water 'it ices,' for 'it
freezes;' and of steam, 'it waters,' for 'it condenses.'
In Lapponic, the form of the inchoative verb is {8-\-aka'Qt) .
ETYMOLOGY. 175
431. Forms (4+.) and (S-f.)
In Lapponic are many verbs of these forms, made from
adverbs and prepositions.
(4-|-aw), (4-|-cm), ^I here myself/ I come hither.
' I off myself/ I withdraw.
' I west myself/ I go west.
' I late myself/ I retard myself, or make myself late.
{5-\-a.9tam) , 'I round/ I go round. 'I over/ I go over.
' I up/ I go up, climb.
432. Form (5-|-1).
We have some of these verbs of the form (be-^l) ; as.
In English, be-dew, be-friend, be-head, be-smut, be-tide.
433. Forms (5+3) and (4+3).
These are the forms of innumerable verbs in the Indo-
Teutonic languages. They are compounded of a preposition
and verb, or of an adverb, or some other particle of that kind,
with a verb.
Lat., abjicio, disjicio, describo, prsetereo, circumambulo.
Gi'eek, ti%o^ccKKu, ^lulhxKKu, narajixivoi}, Tfifp5p%o/xa/, TrepilZcthKu.
434. Form {en-\-3), (m+3).
encage, engird, engrave, enlarge, enrol,
incline, increase, induce, inflate, inscribe, intend,
Z/fl!^., in-clino. in-cresco. in-duco. in-flo. in-scribo. in-tendo.
adsum, intersum, prsesum.
Greek, iva,%Tu, hls%o[j.uiy i-j-joeu, hrpi'Ku.
Noun-verbs of this form, as encage, evvosca, mean to put or
take into the thing under the noun ; as, encage, to put into a
cage ; f vvoe'w, to take into the mind, voog.
But verb-rooted verbs of this form mean to do the action
onwards ; as, incresco, increase, to grow on.
435 . Form {over -\- 3) , {under -\- 3) .
overtake, overbear, overcome, overflow, overrun,
underbid, undersell, understand, underwrite.
M. Goth., nfar-fuljan, overfill.
1 76 ETYMOLOGY.
Latin, sub-eo^ sub-igo, sub-scribo,
super-ad do, super-figo, supcr-jacio.
Greek, v%o(iciiv(>}, vi:oypoi^) , and (uepe-j-3) for (orer-f-3).
436. Form (om^ + 3).
Out, in this form, means beyond ; as,
out-bid, out-do, out-fly, out-grow, out-run, out-stand.
Lat., {pr(E-\-2>), {ante-\-^), {super •\-Z).
Greek, (u7rfp-|-3), (Trap/ -{-3.)
437. Form (wz7A-f 3).
With, in this form, means against.
withdraw, withhold, withstand.
Lat., (re-}-3), retiro, retineo, resisto.
438. ■ Form {be-\-Z).
The A.-S. be, our by, means by or about.
be-daub, .... to daub by or about.
be-faU, to fall by.
be-gird, to gird by.
be-hold, to hold the eyes or mind by.
be-set, to set by or about.
be-speak, .... to speak about.
This form is found in A.-S., Germ., Du., and M. Goth. ; as,
^.-S., be-sprecan; Ger?M., be-spreehen ; Z)m., be-spreek, be-
speak ; M. Goth., bi-gitau, be-get.
439. Form (/ore-f-3).
Gr. (xpo5-f3), Lat. (7jrrt?-j-3), {pro-\-^), Russ. (npe4T,+3).
forecast, forego, foreknow, forerun, foreshow.
provideo, prsescio, praecurro, prsemonstro.
This form is found in A.-Sax., Norse, M. Goth., Germ.,
and Dutch ; as, A.-S., fore-sceawian, foreshow ; Ahorse, fortelja,
foretell; M. Go/A., faur-rinnan, forerun ; Ge;w.,vorher-sagen;
Du., voorzeggen, foresay.
440. Form (4-f3).
ETYMOLOGY. 177
441. Form (mi^-f-S. )
Mis means wrong; thence our words misbehavej miscall,
mislead, mistake, misunderstand.
This form is foimd in A. -Sax., German, Gothic, and Norse.
A.-Sax., mis-truwian; Germ., mis-trauen, mistrust;
Norse, misbruka, misuse; M.-Go., missa-deds, misdeed.
Latin, neg-ligo (ne-lego), ne-scio, ab-utor.
Greek, (Trapa-j-S) ; xapaMOUw, mishear.
In Cree is a form which may be reckoned with this, and
means to do an action wrongly, or undesirably, or accidentally :
ate-sknwdyoo, he mis-elsewheres-him ; displaces him wrongly.
thake-skawdyoo, he mispushes him ; pushes him accidentally
or wrongly.
442. Form (/or + 3).
For (in A.-Sax. and Norse for, in German and Dutch ver,
and in M. Goth, fra,) means off. Thence
forbid, bid off.
forswear, swear off (from the truth) .
forgive, give off; forlorn, lost off.
forbear, bear off; forspent, spent off.
forget, off- get.
forgo, go or let off ; wrongly written forego.
forsake, oflFseek.
A.-Sax., for-beodan, Ger., verbieten, Norse, forbjoda, forbid.
Du., vergeeven, M. Go., fraletan, to forgive, give or let off.
Lat., {per-\-^), perjurare, forswear.
443. Form (^o-f3).
This is an Anglo-Saxon form, in which the to (the Ger. zu,
zer, Latin dis-, Gr. um-, Russ. ore,) means aioay, asunder ;
thence, 'to-brakehis skull,' i.e., 'broke in pieces his skull.' —
Judges ix. 53.
Thence, ' go to,' ' go away.' Fr., allez vous en.
A.-Sax., td-drifan, dispellere. Germ., zerbrechen, disrumpere.
Sunder would make a good substitute for the Latin dis :
dissentio, sunderthink.
dispono. sunderset.
8§
178 ETYMOLOGY.
444. Form {un-{-S).
This form means to undo the action, or do it the reverse
™ undo, unhang, unbend, untie.
In A.-Sax., {un-\-S), untigian, untie.
Norse, (o+3), onyta, to make useless.
M. Go., and\ , - ' r .■
un \^^^^'^} '^^'^'* Latm, in.
andbindan, unbind,
unloose, unpick, are anomalous.
Of this form are innumerable compound verbs in Latin,
Greek, Teutonic, Sclavonic, and other languages : as, adcedo
(accede), antecedo, intercedo, percurro, postpone, transeo,
decide, excedo, praecedo, precede, ineo, subcedo.
445. Being, Accidental and Proper.
In some languages there are two verbs of being ; one for a
proper or natural quality or state, and another for an acci-
dental or received quality or state.
In 'man is mortal,' the predicate is of a proper quality;
but in ' John is sick,' the predicate is of an accidental state.
The Spanish has two sundry verbs for such sundry predicates ;
' El hombre es mortal,' man is mortal, (verb ser) .
' Este hombre esta cojo,' that man is lame, (verb estar).
Some such difference of proper and accidental being seems
once to have been marked in the Teutonic tongues by the
verbs represented by the Anglo-Saxon beon and wesan.
' Godes willa is weorc, and He nsefre by'^ werig.'
God's will is (properly) work or operation, and He is
(becomes accidentally) never tired.
446. The Japanese have verb-endings or verb-particles, and
therefore verb-forms, of lowliness and honour ; so that a man,
saying to his betters ' I ivrite,' and ' you write,' might take
the lowly form for himself, and the honour form for the
other man.
etymology. 179
447. Person and Number.
In most languages verbs take sundry forms as names of
the action of the different persons and numbers of persons ;
aS; in Latin,
Singular Number. Plural Number.
1st person, am-0, I love. 1st person, am-amus, we love.
2d „ am-as, thou lovest. 2d „ am-atis, ye love.
3d „ am-at, he loves. 3d „ am-ant, they love.
448. The English verb has lost some of its Anglo-Saxon
endings for the marking of the persons, and the only persons
that are marked by the form of oiu- verb are the 2d person
singular, thou, marked by the ending *«/, and the 3d person
singula]-, marked by *//« or ^s.
I love ; thou love-st ; he, she, or it loves or loveth.
The Cree verb marks the gender of the object :
peyakoo-hayoo, . . he unites them, (animate).
peyakoo-tow, .... he unites them, (inanimate) .
449. In languages which mark every person by its own
ending of the verb, there is little need of the personal pro-
nouns otherwise than as marks of emphatical discrimination.
' I read and write,' would be usually given in Latin without
the pronoun, as lego et scribo ; but ' I read, and thoii wrotcdst,'
would be ' ego legi, tu vero scripsisti.'
In English, from a want of tokens of the persons in the
verbs, the pronouns are always needful.
450. We have not in English any dual form of the verl),
as we haA^e not any of the noun or pronoun.
451. In languages which have forms of the verb for all the
persons of all the numbers, — singular, dual, and plural, or
singular and plural, there is a rule that the verb must agree
with its nominative case in person and number, or must be
of the form that belongs to the person and number of the
nominative case. This rule, however, which is called the first
concord, is sometimes broken, as in Greek a plural nomi-
native case of the neuter gender will have a verb of the
singular form.
180 etymology.
452. Voice.
Actions may so come under speech, that the speech may be
mainly of the doing of an action (B) by a nominative doer (A),
as 'John (A) struck (B) the ball;' or the speech may be
mainly of the taking of an action (B) by a nominative under-
goer (A), as ' the ball (A) was struck (B) by John.'
453. Verbs have forms or tokens, called the Active Voice,
for the telling of the doing of an action by a nominative doer
of it, as 'John ivrote ;' and verbs have forms or tokens, called
the Passive Voice, for the naming of the undergoing of an
action by a nominative taker of it, as ' the letter was tvritten.'
In Coptic, change of breath-sound is a token of voice ; as,
tot, persuading (active) ; tit, persuaded (passive).
454. The doer of an action may be also the taker of it, as
' John struck himself;' and some tongues, such as Greek and
Cree, have a form of the verb, called the Middle Voice, for
the marking of the doing of an action by a nominative doer
to himself.
Greek, ervn-ov, I struck; iVuTr-o/xviv, I struck myself.
Cree, {3-\-hissoo) , jiwkoo-hayoo, . . he hurts him.
awkoo-hissoo, . . he hurts himself.
In other languages the doing of an action by a nominative
to himself is marked by a pronoun, or some word meaning
-self.
Latin, " Claudius abscondidit ^e."
' Claudius hid himself.'
Russian, oht^ Moern-ca, he Avashes himself, ca being a con-
traction of cebH, self.
' They sat them domi and Qx\ci\.'— Children in the Wood.
The middle voice is of two kinds, the direct and indirect.
455. The direct middle voice is tliat of the doing of an
action by a nominative (A) to himself (A) ; as, ' the boys (A)
washed themselves (A) ;' 'I {X) blame myself (A) ;' 'she (A)
warmed herself (A).' Greek, Kovo^iai.
Kafir, {zi-\-Z), zi-tauda, to love oneself.
ETYMOLOGY. 181
456. The indirect middle voice is that of the doing of an
action by a nominative doer (A) to a taker (B), so as to bring
the taker (B) under the po^yer of (A) .
' INIake thee [for thee] (A) an ark (B) of gopher wood/
' Thou (A) shalt not make to thyself (A) any graven image/ (B)
' Riches (A) make themselves [for themselves] (A) wings/ (B)
' Lay up for yourselves (A) treasures (B) in lieaven/
' I (A) have bought myself [for myself] (A) a horse/ (B)
Greek, le%0[j.ui, 1 receive for myself.
The simulative form of the Cree verb is a reflective one,
as {2»-\-kdsoo) .
mitskowiss-Uj he is strong.
muskowisse-kasoOj he strong-makes -himself;
pretends to be strong.
457. Latin verbs of the passive form have often the direct
or indirect reflective meaning of the middle voice ; as,
Direct, Turnus vertitur, . . Turnus turns himself.
Indirect, vultum demissa, . . having hung down the face (B)
for herself (A) [her face] .
faciem mutatus, . . having changed the form (B)
for himself (A) [his form] ,
458. Reciprocal Verbs
Are verb-forms for actions by ageats one to the other, as
* the men help each other.^ Some languages have reciprocal
verb-endings :
In Australian {^-\-ana) , as tand-ana, to love one another.
In Mongolian {^-\-ltsa).
459. An impersonal verb is one which names a proposition
of some natural cause, or phenomenon, or power, or of some
action ; as, ' it rains,^ ' it freezes,^ ' it thaws : ' that is, the
cause which begets rain, or frost, or a thaw, is doing it. ' It
is cold,' 'it is dark;' that is, the air, or the space within
sight, or the day or night, is cold or dark.
'It is God that avengeth me;' that is, the power that
avengeth me is God.
' It is a good thing to give thanks unto the Lord ; ' that is,
the action ' to give thanks imto the Lord ' is a good thing.
1 82 ETYMOLOGY.
460. PAllTICIPLES.
A participle is a part of the verl) Avliich is in kind both a
verl) and an adjective, as the word siufjiny in tlie sentence
'My situ/iiiy bird is dead;' or the word broken in the propo-
sition ' They ponred water into a broken cistern.'
4G1. There are in English two participles, the active or
imperfect, and jxissive or perfect.
462. Tlie active or neuter participle ends in -ing ; as, a
' lovinfj child,' a ' singing bird.'
463. The participle of the form {^-\-ing) should not be con-
founded with the noun of the same form. In the sentence
' I like to hear singing,' the word singing is a noun, though it
is of the same form as the participle singing in the expression
' I have a singing bird.'
In Anglo-Saxon, as well as in German and other Teu-
tonic tongues, the participle and verbal noun have different
endings, as the noun in Anglo-Saxon is {^-\-ung) or {^-{-ing),
and the participle is (3+enrf) ; and the expression, ' I was
hunting yesterday,' is " Ic wass on huntunge gyrstan dseg,"
' I was on or in hunting yesterday.' — Jilfric's Colloquy.
This use of on or at coincides with that of on or at in the
expression ' David fell on sleep,' (Acts xiii. 36) ; for m hich
we should say now ' David fell a' sleep,' i.e., on or into sleep.
464. The {2>-\-ing) participle is in German {^-\-end) ;
A.-Sax., {'i\-\-e7ide) ; Gothic, {^-\-unds) ; Norse, {^-{-andi) ;
Swedish, {?>-\-ande).
465. The passive participle is in German {ge-\-^-\-en),
{ye-\-?>-\-et) ; A.-Sax., (3-|-e/i), (3+erf, ode), (//e-|-3-i-ew),
(^e-(-3_|-erf) ; Norse, (3-f *^) ; Swedish, (3+e«), (3-f-e/).
466. In Latin and Greek there are participles of other
kinds, such as the Latin future participle {^^-\-tiirus), and the
Greek one (3-|-^wv) , meaning ' going to do the action ; ' and
the gerund participle (3-(-*??c?z^), meaning 'that ought, or is,
to undersro or do the action.*
ETYMOLOGY.
183
467. Altliough the perfect participle {^-{-ed) of the English
weak verb ends in the tj^pe-Ianguagc in -ed, yet the e is not
usually sounded in common speech, but after d or its kins-
letter t, as commanded, delighted, intruded, requited.
called is pronounced calFd. stabbed is pronounced stab'd.
loved .
marred
planned
raised .
. lovM.
. . . mar'd.
. . . plan'd.
. . . rais'd.
layed has become laid.
payed . . . . „ paid.
sayed . . . . „ said.
468. When the last consonant of the verb is rough, the d
becomes its rough kins-letter t (Art. 127) in sound, and some-
times in spelling :
laugh'd, laught. stopp'd, stopt. crack'd, crackt.
quaff' d, quaft. hitch'd, hitcht. pass'd, past.
469. The perfect participle of most besides the weak verbs
are, or were in the older form of the language, of the form
(3-j-^^) ; as, fall, fall-en ; break, brok-en.
The e is often omitted in common speech, and in spelling ; as,
blown
for
blowen.
Iain . for
. lay en.
sown for
so wen.
done .
doen.
mown „
mowen.
sworn „
. sworen
drawn
drawen.
sawn . „
sawen.
torn . „ .
toren.
flown .
flowen.
seen . „
. see-en.
worn . „ .
woren.
gone
. goen.
shorn „
shoren.
falln . „
fallen.
grown
growen.
shown „
showen.
brokn „
broken.
known
knowen.
slain . „
slayen.
Sometimes the n clipping is dropt ; as, ago for agone, broke
for broken, writ for written.
470. The passive or perfect participle is of the form (3),
(3-4-e«), {3-\-ed) ; as, a stung hand, a broken heart, baked
meats.
471. We have an aorist participle componnded of the two;
as, 'having delivered his message, he departed:' and the
Finnic has a past active participle, with a power much like that
of the Greek aorist active participle rv-^xg.
The Cree lauguage has special clippings for man-actions,
to mark whether they are done by the mouth, hand, arm,
leg, &c.
184 ETYMOLOGY.
472. NEGATIVE VERBS.
Some languages have negative forms of verbs to betoken
the not-ncss of an action or predicate. In Latin and Anglo-
Saxon Ave find a few shapcn of an adverb ne or von, ' not,'
blended with the verb, as nolo, nonvolo; A. -Saxon, nyllan,
ne wyllan ; najs, ne waes.
In Chippeway the form of the negative verb is (3-f-.9e),
(3-fre).
In Greenlandish, {2>-\-'ngit).
In Japanese, present tense, (3-j-enm), (3-[-ezm) ; past tense,
{^-\-nanda), &c.
In Kafir, {nga-{-2>-\-i),^?>, uku-t eta, to speak; uku-nga-tet-i,
not to speak.
In Turkish, (x) sctpmak, to err ; sap-ma-mak, not to err.
473. TENSE.
Tense (in French temps, and in Latin tempus,) means time.
The tense of an action or predicate is its time.
474. The tense of a predicate is betokened in sundry
languages either by forms of the verbs or tense-forms, as
'I sing/ 'I sang,^ 'I love,' 'I loved;' or by the verb or its
participle vrith helping verbs, or other tense-tokens (tense-
formulae), as 'I shall love,' 'I shall have seen,' 'I have
found,' ' I had written.'
475. The doctrine of tense is nearly as unsettled as that of
case, since the time of an action and the time-form of its
verb are often taken loosely one for the otlier.
476. Some grammarians will hold that a tense is only a
tense -form of the verb, and that since the formula ' have
spoken,' in the sentence ' I have spoken/ is made up of have
and spoken, it is no tense of the verb 'speak;' and that the
verb ' to speak ' has only two tenses, the present speak, and
past spoke. But if this were allowed, it would follow that
'locutus sum' is no tense of Moquor,' and that 'J'ai parle'
is no tense of ' parler,' a consequence which would not be
received.
Yet if a man were to say of the same action, first in Latin,
' legeram librum,' then in French, ' J'avais lu le livre,' and
ETYMOLOGY. 185
lastly in English, ' I had read the book/ it is clear he would
be speaking of the same time (tense) in all three languages,
though he might betoken it in Latin by a tense-shape of the
verb, and in the other tongues by helping-verbs and parti-
ciples ; and therefore if tense is time, it would be wrong to
hold that French and English, which betoken the same time
as legeram, had not the tense of it.
It seems best, therefore, to take tense as the relative time
of a predicate, and to call the time-shapes of the verb, as 'legi,
legeram,' time-forms, or tense-forms; and the tense-tokens,
composed of the verb or participle with helping-verbs, time'
formula, or tense-formulae ; as, ' I shall love,' ' I have loved/
' I shall have spoken,' ' I had spoken.'
Murray says that " tense is the distinction of time, and is
made to consist (in English) of six variations;" but if he
means by ' variations of tense ' time-forms of the verb, six are
more than we have ; and if he takes time-formulse for vari-
ations of tense, six are less than those known in English,
which is very rich in tense-formulse.
As the logical relations of things are innumerable, so are
those of the times of actions, and therefore we shall not
inquire how many or what they all may be, as taken singly ;
but, inasmuch as the nations of the earth have classed them
in their languages, as they have classed in their languages the
logical relations of things ; and inasmuch as the tense-forms
or tense-formulse of the verbs are tokens of the classes into
which they have been formed ; so it seems enough to take for
the tenses of verbs those which we find marked by tense-
forms and tense-formulse of known tongues ; and English is
so rich of tense-formulse, that there are but few in other
tongues for each of which it has not one of its own.
477. Present Tense.
The present tense is the time of the uttering of a predicate ;
as, ' I love,' or ' I am loving ; ' that is, I love, or am loving,
while I utter the predicate ' I love,' or ' I am loving.'
478. The present tense in English is of two kinds, the
present indefinite, as ' I love,' and the present definite, as ' I am
loving.'
479. The present indefinite form betokens the time of a
predicate of the present time, and of much more than the
186 ETYMOLOGY.
present time, whether by repetition or continuation, as ' I walk/
' he sells books/ ' she likes knitting/ now and at other times,
from time to time, or always, as by practice, by trade, or by
disposition.
480. The present definite tense-formula is rightly composed
of the verb to be, a preposition on or in, and the noun (3-f-m^),
as ' I am on or in loving.' It betokens the time of a predi-
cate of the present time, and of little more than the present
time, as 'I am walking' (iiow), 'he is selling books' (now),
' she is sewing ' (now) .
The present actual tense-formula sometimes takes a place
which may seem that of the present indefinite.
One may say with the present indefinite formula, ' I bathe,'
meaning habitually ; he may say with the present actual
formula, while he is in the water, ' I am bathing :' or, he may
say at a watering-place, but not in the water, ' I am bathing
for a short time under medical direction,' which is the present
actual formula taken rather narrower than the present inde-
finite for an action of little more than the present time.
The Latin and Greek, with their daughter tongues, have
only one tense-form for these two formulae; but the Mongolian,
Irish, and Hindoostanee have both of them,
4ol. Present Indefinite. Present Actual .
Irish, jlannan pe, ' he cleanses.' lab'paim, ' I am speaking.'
^i«c^., mein morto, 'I strike.' mein morto hiun, 'I am
striking.'
482. Present Indefinite.
Active Voice.
1. Hove (3). 1. we love (3).
2. thou (3-j-esO- 2. ye or you (3).
3. he, she, or it (3+5) or (3+eM). 3. they (3).
The ending -s is that of the actual language ; {-th) is found
in the Bible, and was that of the Anglo-Saxon and older
English : -th or |? was the Anglo-Saxon ending of all the
persons in the plural number.
Substantive Verb, To Be.
Indefinite and Definite.
1. I am. we are.
2. thou art. ye or you are.
3. he, she or it is. they are.
etymology. 187
483, Present Definite.
1. I am {S-\-inff). we are {S-\-ing).
2. thou art {S-^ing). ye or you are {S-{-ing).
3. he, she, or it is (3-j-m^) . they are {3-\-ing) .
Passive Voice.
Indefinite and Definite.
The passive voice is formed of the substantive verb To Be,
and a passive participle.
English participles are of three forms, (3), (S-fere), and {3-{-ed),
(3) is the root-participle, as stung.
{S-\-en) is the strong participle, as wov-en.
{3-\-ed) is the weak participle, as stoned.
1. I am (3), {3-\-en), (3+ec?). we are (3), {3-\-en), {3-\-ed).
2. thou art ye or you are - - -
3. he, she, or it - - - they are - - -
This formula is sometimes taken for a past time, and some-
times for a present one. The true time of the proposition
' the murderer is hanged' may be the perfect present, as it
may mean 'has been hanged,' but is not now in the state
hanging ; while the same formula ' the hat is hung on the peg,'
may be one of the present time, and may mean is now in the
state hung.
In Cree these two meanings are given by two tense-forms ; as,
u'ckoo-t-ayoo it is hung, (and now hanging).
u'ckoo-ch-egat-ayoo . . it is hung, (has been hung) .
484. Past Tense.
The past tense is that of a predicate of a time before that
of the uttering of it.
There are two past-tense formulae, — the past indefinite, and
the past definite.
Past Indefinite.
1. I bound (3), or loved (3+ec?). we (3) (3-i-ec?).
2. thou {3-\-est), {3-^edst). ye or you - -
3. he, she, or it (3), (3-fec?). they - -
Substantive Verb, To Be.
1. I was. we were.
2. thou wast. ye or you were.
3. he, she, or it was. they were.
188 etymology.
Past Definite.
1. I was {3-\-in(/). we were {S-\-ing).
2. thou wast - ye or you were -
3. he, she, or it was - they were -
Indefinite.
Passive Voice.
1. I was (3), or (3-|-ew), or (3-|-e£?). we were - - -
2. thou wast - - - ye or you were - -
3. he, she, or it was - - - they were - - -
Definite.
1. I was (being), (3), (3-j-e/i), {3-{-ed). we were - - -
2. thou wast ye or you were- - -
3. he, she or it was - - - they were - - -
Our indefinite tense-form ' I bound,' or ' loved,' is used for
two time-modes of a predicate, — the single (done once), and
iterative (done many times in succession) ; as, ' he struck
(once),' or *he struck (many times).' Under the sentence
' 1 ivrote to my father yesterday,' I wrote once. Under the
sentence ' when I was in London, I wrote to my father once a
week,' I ivrote many times in succession. So, ' John played
cricket yesterday,' or ' Jane sold me some apples this morning,'
means that John played and Jane sold once ; while ' John
formerly played cricket,' or ' Jane once sold apples at a stall,'
means that John played and Jane sold many times.
The past indefinite single, and the past indefinite iterative,
are betokened in many languages by two tense-forms or tense-
formulse ; and though both of them are often given in English
under the same tense-form, yet the iterative is sometimes
marked by its own formula ; as, ' John used to play,' ' Jane
used to sell,' ' he kept striking.'
All verbs, however, are not iterative, or their actions are not
such as are done several times in succession ; as, to live, to die.
We should not want to say a man keeps living or dying, though
a boy may keep leaping or falling, or may leap or fall many
times. But actions that are not iterative may yet be con-
tinuative, and as the iteration of an action is a kind of
continuation of it, so, in some languages, the iteration and
continuation of an action are betokened by the same tense-
form or tense-formulse, and of the three tenses :
ETYMOLOGY. 189
A, the indefinite single, ' I struck once/
B, the indefinite iterative, ' I struck often, kept striking,
or used to strike.'
C, the definite coutinuative, ' I was striking.'
Some languages may include A and B under one tense-
form ; others may give B and C, and others A and C under
the same form.
Thus, in Latin B and C are betokened by the prajter-im-
perfect tense-form, and A by the prseter-perfect.
The Greek betokens B and C by the imperfect, and A by
the aorist tense-form.
So David's Modern Greek Grammar says, " If T advise a
person to practise writing for the purpose of acquiring a good
hand, I say, ypi '3 .2
«3 '3 'f:^ '3 -S v. 'a
^ CJ ±: -\-ing). if we had (been ^-\-ing),
2. if thou hadst - - if ye or you had - -
3. if he, she, or it had - - if they had - -
Passive Voice.
1. if I had (been loved). if we had (been loved).
2. if thou hadst - - if ye or you had - -
3. if he, she, or it had - - if they had - -
ETYMOLOGY.
207
Future Tense.
1. if I were (to love).
2. if thou wert - -
3. if he, she, or it were
if we were (to love) .
if je or you were -
if they were - -
Verb To Be.
1 . if I were (to be) .
2. if thou wert - -
3. if he, she, or it were -
if we were (to be),
if ye or you were
if they were - -
Definite.
1. if I were (to be loving)
2. if thou wert - - -
3. if he, she, or it were -
if we were (to be loving),
if ye or you were - - -
if they were - - -
Passive Voice.
1. if I were (to be loved).
2. if thou wert - - -
3. if he, she, or it were -
if we were (to be loved),
if ye or you were - - -
if they were - - -
Future Perfect Tense.
1. if I were (to have loved) .
2. if thou wert - - -
3. if he, she, or it were
if we were (to have loved),
if ye or you were - - -
if they were - - -
Verb To Be.
1. if I were (to have been).
2. if thou wert - - -
3. if he, she, or it were - - ■
if we were (to have been),
if ye or you were - - -
if they were - - -
Definite.
1. if I were (to havebeen loving) . if wewere (tohavebeen loving).
2. if thou wert - - - - if ye or you were - - - -
3. if he, she, or it were if they were - - - -
Passive Voice.
1. if I were (to have been loved) . if we were (to have been loved) .
2. if thou wert - - - - if ye or you were - - - -
3. if he, she, or it were - - - - if they were - - - -
208 ETYMvOLOOV.
514. (1) FAST or LOOSE. (2) HYPOTHETICAL,
(p) SURE or UNSURE. (a) HYPOTHETICAL.
1. I wish (1) that I loved (2).
2. I wish (1) tliat thou lovedst (2).
3. I wish (1) that he, she, or it loved (2).
1. we could wish (1) that we loved (2).
2. we could wish (1) that ye or you loved (2).
3. we could wish (1) that they loved (2).
The tense-forms of this mood are the same as those of the
last (p) hypothetical, (a) sure or unsure.
515. It is to he ohsers-ed, that though some of the tense-
forms of the hypothetical moods are the same as some of the
indicative mood, they do not belong to the same tenses in
both moods.
' I am not well, [indie.) ; if I ivere, I would walk out with
you.^ If I were, when ? — now. Therefore am in the indicative
mood and were in the subjunctive are of the same time.
' I ivas not at home when you called, {indie.) ; if I had
been, I Avould have Avalked out with you.' If I had been,
when ? — when you called. Therefore had been of the hypo-
thetical answers in time to was of the indicative mood.
' You do not rebuke him.' ' If I did, he would not hearken
to me.' If I did, when? — now. So did of the hypothetical
mood answers in time to do of the indicative.
' I have not served God faithfully ; if I had, He would not
have forsaken me.^
Hence we see that the English language has a true sub-
junctive mood formula, since it tells a protasis or apodosis by
subjunctive tense-forms or mood-forms ; or, at least, it tells a
protasis or apodosis of one tense in the subjunctive mood by
a formula, which in the indicative mood would belong to
another tense, — a proof that it is not the indicative mood.
Murray says " that some tenses of the subjunctive mood
are, in general, similar to the corresponding tenses of the
indicative mood;" Avhich is not true of the hypothetical sub-
junctive mood, if it is of the unsure subjunctive. It is true
that some tense-forms of the hypothetical subjunctive mood
are similar to some tense-forms of the indicative mood, but
not those of the corresponding tenses.
ETYMOLOGY. 209
516. There are often given or understood in these two-
predicate moods two conjunctions, one to each of the pre-
dicates, to mark their connection, as it maj^ be free, after-
hanging, or adverse.
1st Conjunction. Protasis. 2nd Conjunction. Apodosis.
since H i i f therefore 1 • j
when / ye asked, | ^^^^^ j ye received.
. ^ |- ye ask, | ^^^ lye shall receive.
though ye ask, yet ye will not receive.
These conjunctions are called correlatives, as they relate one
to the other, and mark the connection of the predicates as
free, on-hanging, or adverse.
517. Threefold Propositions.
There may be given three onhanging propositions, such
that the first may lead the other two, and one of the other two
may lead the third ; as,
(A) I ask (1) so, that if it is for the best (2) I may
receive (3),
(B) If you asked (1), you wished (2) that you might
receive (3).
(C) If it be not given (1), I shall wish (2) that I had
not asked (3).
(B) You may conclude (1), that if you do not ask (2), you
will not receive (3) .
(E) I hope (1) that if I were a king (2), I should be just (3) .
(F) If it were my business to judge (1), I should think (2)
that he was guilty (3) .
(G) Whenever we sin (1), then we become more the slaves
of sin (2), so that it is harder for us to do good (3).
(H) If a tree brings forth fruit (1), then it shall be
pruned (2), that it may bring forth more fruit (3).
(I) When the sailors saw the mercury sink (1), tlien they
reefed their sails (2), because they thought a storm was at
hand (3).
In these threefold propositions the last two may be taken
together as an apodosis to the first, or the first two may be
taken as one pi'otasis to the third.
The formvila (F) is one of a kind in which the first of the three
propositions is often omitted by an enthymeme ; and thus we
210 ETYMOLOGY.
may \itter those ouly of the following propositions which are
printed iu Roman type, omitting those given in italics.
If wishing would bring him, I could wish that he might come.
If my opinion were sought, I should say that he would come.
If you were to see him, you would think that he was crazy.
Thence come some of the twofold (both fast and loose)
formulae of some of the protases and apodoses in the foregiven
cases of the subjunctive mood.
518. Two-Mood Formula.
MTiat are here called two-mooded formulae are either not
worthy of the name mood, or are almost innumerable.
They would not have been here given as moods or mood-
formulse had not most Teutonic grammarians holden one of
them as such, though it may not be amiss to class them
together mider the name of two-mooded formulae.
The formula here called a two-mooded formula, is one com-
posed of one of the true finite mood-forms with an infinite
mood-form ; as, 'possum scribere,' which is a potential formula
of two forms or moods.
Here it may be answered that this cannot be a potential
mood-formula of the verb ' scribere,^ which is in the infinitive
form. Be it so ; but then it must follow that ' I can write,'
* I might write,' 'leh kan schreiben,' is no potential mood-form
of the verb write or sckreiben, for the helping verb can is the
present tense-form of the Anglo-Saxon verb cunn-an, to
know : ' Ic can sing-an,' is * I know (how) to sing,' and
sing-an is in the infinitive mood-form : and yet this is a con-
clusion which grammarians do not receive.
So the helping verb may is the Anglo-Saxon mceg, the
present tense of mag-an, to be able ; ' Ic maeg stand-an,' is
* possum stare,' ' I am able to stand,' ' I may to stand,' which,
by ellipsis of the word to, becomes * I may stand.'
It may be ansAvered, that ' I can write,' and ' I may write,'
may be taken as mood-formulae of the verb ivrite, inasmuch as
they have lost the particle to and every token of the infinitive
mood ; but if the omission of to from the infinitive form of
the formula ' I can write ' would make it a potential one, then
* bid him *sing,' ' I have known him *sing,' would be mood-
formulae of the verb ' to sing,' while '' bid him to sing,' and
* I have knoAvn him to sing,' would not, which woiild be
ETYMOLOGY. 211
absurd. It is true that can and mmj have heen worn down
into bare helping verbs ; and therefore, as they are hardly no-
tional words alone, they may be fairly taken only as elements
of a mood-formula, which may as fairly be called the poten-
tial mood.
The past tense-form of magan is mihte, our word might.
' Ic mseg stand-au,' ' I am able to stand,' ' possum stare.'
* Ic miht stand-an,' ' I was able to stand,' ^poteram stare.'
The past tense-form of cunn-an is cu^e, our word could.
' Ic can sing-an,' ' I know (how) to sing,' Ital., ' so cantare.'
* Ic cu^e sing-an,' ' I knew (how) to sing.'
If the mood-forms with can, could, may, might, are to be
reckoned for two-mooded formulae, so must those of the for-
mulae ■with shall, should, will, would, and must.
519. The helping verb must is in Anglo-Saxon most, and
means owe, ' Ic moste gan,' I owe ' to go,' ' I must to go,'
which, by ellipsis of the word to, becomes ' I must *go.'
For want of a verb exactly equal to our must, the Latins
like the Hindoos, made the action the nominative case; as,
' Eundum est milii,' ' It is to be gone to me.'
^Tumkef jono hui,' .... 'Eundum est vobis.'
520. Potential Mood.
The potential mood is that of a predicate within the poAver
of the subject j as, ' I can write/ ' you may play.'
Present Tense.
1. I may or can love. we may or can love.
2. thou mayst or canst - ye or you may or can -
3. he, she, or it may or can - they may or can -
Verb To Be.
1- I may or can be. we may or can be.
2. thou mayst or canst - ye or you may or can -
3, he, she, or it may or can - they may or can -
Definite.
1. I may or can (be loving). we may or can (be loving).
2. thou mayst or canst - - ye or you may or can - -
3. he, she, or it may or can - - they may or can - -
212
ETYMOLOGY.
Passive Voice.
1. I may or can (be loved). we may or can (be loved).
2. thou mayst or canst - - ye or you may or can - -
3. he, slie, or it may or can - - they may or can - -
The Turkish Linguage has a form of the verb called the
impossible form for the negative potential mood-form; it is
made by the insetting of a breathsound between the root and
the token of negation.
Sev-mek, to love ; sev-me-mek, not to love ; sev-eh-me-mek,
not to be able to love.
Past Tense.
Passive
Voice.
be loved.
Active
Verb
Voice.
To Be.
Definite.
1.
I might or could
love.
be.
be loving.
2.
thou mightest or couldest .
—
—
—
3.
he, she, or it might or could
—
—
—
1.
we might or could
—
—
—
2.
ye or you might or could .
—
—
—
3.
they might or could ....
—
—
Present Perfect Tense
1.
I may or can ]
have
loved.
have
been.
have been
loving.
2.
thou mayst or canst ....
—
—
—
3.
he, she, or it may or can . .
—
—
—
1.
we may or can
—
—
—
2.
ye or you may or can . . .
—
—
—
3.
they may or can
—
—
Past Perfect Tense.
1.
I might or could ]
have
loved.
have
been.
have been
loving.
2.
thou mightest or couldest .
—
—
3.
he might or could
—
—
—
1.
we might or could
—
—
2.
ye or you might or could .
—
—
—
3.
they might or could ....
—
—
—
have been
loved.
have been
loved.
521. Mood formulae composed oi' shall and ivill, and their past
tense-forms should and ivould, are in truth two-mooded formulae.
Shall is the A. -Saxon sceal, from scealan, to owe ; and its
past tense-form should is the A. -Saxon sceolde, ' I owed.'
Will is from wyll-an, to will or wish ; and its past tense-
form would is wolde, '■ I willed or wished.'
ETYMOLOGY.
(1)
FAST or LOOSE.
(2)
FAST.
(p)
SURE or UNSURE.
(a)
SURE.
213
522.
Because I shall ask (1), I shall receive (2).
Because he will not ask (1), he shall not receive (2).
Whenever he asks (1), he shall receive (2).
The present tense-forms of shall and ivill are mostly elements
of indicative mood-forms ; and their past tense-forms should
and ivould go to the formation of subjunctive mood formulae
and two-mooded formulse of other kinds.
523. (1) LOOSE. (2) FAST,
(p) UNSURE. (a) SURE.
If he should ask (1), he will receive (2).
Though I should die with thee (1), yet will I not deny thee (2) .
If you should fail in yom' undertaking (1), yet you will have
done your best (2) .
524. (1) FAST or LOOSE. " (2) LOOSE.
(p) SURE. (a) UNSURE.
I begged, or thought, or wished (1) that he would ask (2).
Velim (]) quseras (2) ; i.e. Velim (1) ut quseras (2).
Ovid, Ep. iv. 18.
Tua dicar (2) oportet (1) ; i.e. Oportet (1) ut tua dicar (2).
Ovid, Ep. Penel. i. 83.
The potential mood-form is often found in places for which
the indicative might seem more fitting, but it mostly, if not
always, answers to some looseness of person, time, or pre-
dicate; as, 'Nescio qualis sit,' not est. I know not what
kind of man he may become, or be found, when he is tried,
or known, or seen,
525. (1) HYPOTHETICAL. (2) FAST.
(p) HYPOTHETICAL. (a) SURE.
If he would ask (1), (as he will not), he should receive (2).
526. (1) FAST. (2) HYPOTHETICAL.
(p) SURE. (a) HYPOTHETICAL.
I wish (1) that he would ask (2), (as he will not).
214
ETYMOLOGY.
527.
Other Two-Mooded Formula.
Children should obey their parents.
Here should is equal to ought, which means owed; and we
may say either Children should obey, or ought to obey.
He would not ask; i.e. He willed not to ask.
528.
English Strong Verbs.
\st Class. — Verbs ^vith a close -sound in their present tense-
form, and an open one in their past tense-form, and their par-
ticiples (3), or (3+ ere).
isfoTE. — The figures given with the verbs betoken the vowel sounds
(by Art. 7-i, 75) of their past tense-forms in sundry Teutonic dialects.
Thus, 6 Ger., Cumberland, means that the vowel sound in German and
the Cumberland dialect is the 6th. 6 Sco., 3 Bible, shows that in
Scotch it is the 6th, and in the Bible language it is the 3rd. A fractional
form of figures (|) betokens that the verb takes a diphthong ; as,
f A'orse, which means that in the Norse or Icelandic the sounds are a
diphthong of the 3rd and 1st.
The good of this comparison is, that it may show us which of two
or more forms, such as trod and irode, stands by the best authorities
in the Teutonic tongues.
abide,
arise,
awake,
bear,
begin,
2 bid,
bind,
break,
cling,
dig,
drink,
drive,
eat,
Norse, eta 3
abode, (7)
arose, (7)
awoke, (7)
(bare, (3) ]
I bore, (7) ]
f begun, (7) j
X began, (5) )
bad(5),bade(3)
bound, (b)
f brake, (3) )
[broke, (7) ]
clung, (7)
dug, (7)
drank, (5)
i drove, (7) ]
\ drave, (3) j
eat, (3)
abode.
aris-en.
borne (bor-en).
begun.
bidd-en.
bound.
brok-en.
clung.
dug.
drunk.
driv-en.
3-5 Norse, 3 Bible,
6 German.
5 German.
7 Ger., 3 Bible.
6 German.
6 German, Cumb.,
6&0., 2, Bible.
6 German, Norse.
C 1 German, 3 Bible,
\ Scotch, Cumb.
5 German.
ETYMOLOGY.
215
English Strong Verbs.
1st Class — cotitinued.
fight,
find,
fling
fly.
forget,
forsake,
freeze,
get,
give,
grind,
5 hang,
lie,
ride, f
Nor. nd-a,(l)
ring,
rise.
Nor. ris-a>(l)
see,
shake,
shear,
Nor.,^\tx-&Z
shine,
„ skin-a,(l)
shrink,
sing,
sink,
sit,
slay,
sling,
slink,
smite,
speak,
spin,
spring.
fought, (6)
found, I
flung, (7)
flew, (8)
forgot, (6)
forsook (8)
froze, (7)
gat (5), got (6),
gave, (3)
ground, (|)
hung, (7)
lay, (f )
rode, (7)
(■ rang, (5) ")
I rung, (7) j
rose, (7)
saw, (6)
shook, (8)
shore, (7)
shone, (6)
shrunk, (7)
C sang, (5) ]
I sung, (7) j
C sank, (5) ")
[ sunk, (7) 3
sat, (5)
slew, (8)
slung, (7)
slunk, (7)
smote, (7)
spoke, (7)
spun, (7) ")
span, (5) j
C sprang, (5 )j
(. sprung,(7) )
fought.
found.
flung,
flown (flow-en),
forgott-en.
forsak-en.
frozen.
gott-en.
given.
ground.
hung.
lain (lay-en).
ridd-en.
rung.
ris-en.
seen (see-en),
shak-en.
shorn (shor-en).
shone.
shrunk.
sung.
sunk-en.
sat.
slain (slay-en),
slung,
slunk,
smitt-en.
spok-en.
spun.
sprung.
7 German.
6 German, Norse,
Cumb., Scotch.
2-5 Cumberlmid.
7 German.
6 German, Bible.
7 German.
5 Sco., Cumb.
5 German.
1 German.
5 German.
1 German, % Norse.
6 German.
^ Norse.
' 6 Ger., sometimes
a weak verb in Sco.
5 Norse.
1 German, f Norse.
' 6 Ger., | Norse,
^ i Swedish.
6 German, \ Steed.
' 6 German, Essex,
[ Amer., 1-5 Norse.
i German, Norse.
6 German.
2 German.
1^ 5 German, Cumb.,
I 3 Bible
5 German, Norse.
5 German, Norse.
216
ETYMOLOGY.
English Strong Verbs.
Ist Class — continued.
steal, 1
i\'o;-. stel-;in 3 )
stole, (7)
stol-en.
6 Ger., 5 Norse.
stick.
stuck, (7)
stuck.
6 German.
sting.
stung, (7)
stung.
5 Norse.
stink.
f stank, (6) |
I stunk, (7) 3
strode, (7)
stunk.
6 German, Bible.
stride,
stridd-en.
1 German.
strike.
struck, (7)
btrick-en.
5 Cumberland.
string,
strung, (7)
strung.
strive,
strove, (7)
(■ swore, (7) 1
striv-en.
swear.
(sware, (3)3
swor-en.
swing,
swung, (7)
swung.
6 German.
swim,
f swam, (5) ")
I swum, (7) 3
swum.
6 German.
take,
took, (8)
tak-en.
5-8 Norse.
tear,
tore, (7)
tor-en.
3 Bible.
thrive,
throve, (7)
thriv-en.
tread,
7ceZ.,tro«-a,(7)
C trod, (6) ■)
[trode, (7) 3
trodd-en.
C 6 Ger., 5 Norse,
1 3 Yorkshire.
C 1-5 Norse, 2-5 Cum
win,
won, (7)
won.
I berlaud, 6 Ger.
wear,
wore, (7)
wor-en.
weave,
wove, (7)
wov-en.
8 Ger., f Norse.
wind.
wound, (1)
wound.
wring,
wrung, (7)
wrung.
6 German.
write,
wrote, (7)
writt-en.
529. English Strong Verbs.
'ind Class. — Verbs. with a more open sound in their present
tense-form, and closer one in their past tense-form :
bite, \ \
i\'br.bit-a,(l) ]
blow, (7)
come, (7)
crow, (7)
draw, (6)
faU, (6)
grow, (7)
bit, (1)
blew, (8 i)
came, (3)
crew, (8 1)
drew, (8 i)
fell, (3)
grew, (8 i)
bitten.
C blown
( (blow-en).
come.
drawn
(draw-en).
fall-en.
grown
(grow-en).
5 A. -Sax., ^ Norse.
> 1 German.
C 5 Ger., Sco., Norse,
\ 7 Cumberland.
3 Norse.
1 German.
ETYMOLOGY.
217
hold, (7)
know, (7)
run, (7)
8 shoot, (8)
German,
schiess-en,(l)
throw, (7)
English Strong Verbs.
'ind Class — continmd.
held, (3)
knew, (8 \)
ran, (5)
shot, (6)
threw, (8 i)
hold-en.
C known
( (know -en).
run.
shot.
f thrown
( (throw-en)
1 German.
5 German, Norse.
7 German.
530.
Mixed Verbs.
]\Iixed verbs are those which are or were in kind both
strong and weak verbs ; or such as took their past tense-form
by a shifting of the root-sound, and also by the ending of the
weak verbs.
Their past tense-forms would now seem, at first sight, not to
be formed by tense-ending from their roots, as they have
come through several forms which are lost, though enough of
analogous ones are found in other Teutonic tongues to show
the former being of such forms.
Their past tense-form in Anglo-Saxon was {?>-\-ode), in
Gothic it was [^-{-ida), and in German it is {^-\-et) ; and
their actual English forms will be better understood with their
successive forms of immutation, and the canons of articulation
by which they took them. (Art. 56, &c.)
beseech
bring . .
buT
(^.5. bycge-an)
can
(^.-S.cunn-an
-to know liow,
to be able)
besoc-ode i besoc*de
!
bi'ong-odo brong*de .
(Cum.hrong bro *g * dc .
brang)
bocg-ode bocg*de .
besoc*t3 M>8>|
besought.
broc*te . .
{Ger. brachte)
(Sice, braglitc)
boc-te . . .
catch .
cun-ode . . '■ cuu*de
\ Ger. kannte
coc-ode, i
cotch-ode . I coc*de . .
cu*de (^'6) ,
coc-te .
beso*te f**^'
bro*te «.8)
(Goth, brahta)
bohte (4'8) .
Go. bauhta
do
(A.-S. don,
do-an, dj-au)
dij-ode . . I dy*de
Go.ga-tawidaj
Ger.thaH I
besought
bro*t*
bot*
ciid*
co*t*
dyd*
10
brought
bought
could
cau^ut
did
218
etymology;
Mixed Verbs, — continued.
seek I sdc-ode . .
(^.-S. tsec-an)
tell
thmk. . A.-SA
will
sol-ode . .
{Cum. sel-t)
sho-cd . . .
stond ....
toe-ode . .
tol-ode . .
<5onc-ode .
woll-ode .
80c*de
8ol*de . . .
{Icel. sel-di)
sto*d . .
toc*de. .
tol*de . •
<5onc*de
^o*c*de.
wol*de .
(Icel. vil-di)
8(5c-te . . .
(Ger. socht)
stod (*^) .
toc-te . .
i5o*e*te . .
{Ger. dachte)
80*te '^-S' .
to*t (^-S) ,
thohte <^'8>
{Ice. f otte)
wold* ,
sot*
sold*
sho*d
taught
told*
tho*t
would
sought
sold
shod
stood
told
thought
531,
Shortened Long Roots.
These verbs have a long present tense-form and short past
tense-form ; and when their present tense-form ends with a
weak consonant, it becomes strong in their past tense-form.
bend } bend-ode,
bite 1 bit-ode,
breed .... bred-ode,
build .... bild-ode,
burn bren-odc,
■]
chide .
(^--S-. cid)
deal ■)
(^.-5.deel-an) j
Goth
feed ■)
.-S. fed) )
gild ...
gird . . .
{A.-S. gyrd)
hide \
{A.-S.\v^A) j
i
cid-ode,
dtel-ode,
ga-dailida
fed-ode,
gild-ode,
gyrd-ode,
hyd-ode.
bend*de,
bit*de,
bled*de,
bred*de,
bild*de,
bren*de,
Ger.
cid*de,
d8el*de,
fed*de,
gild*de,
gyrd*de,
hYd*de,
bent*te(4)
bit*te,
bledd*,
bredd*,
bilt*te,
brent*te,
brannte.
dael*te.
gilt*te,
gyrt*te.
bentt*,
bit*.
bled.
bred.
biitt*,
brentt*.
cidd*,
dselt*,
fedd*,
giltt*,
gyrtt*,
hvdd*.
bent.
built,
burnt.
chid.
dealt.
fed.
gilt,
girt.
hid.
lead 7
{A.-S. Ised) j
lend
meet . . . . |
(^.--S'. me't) )
read
rend
send .....
Goth.,
slide
speed . . . )
(^.--S'. spe'd) j
spend ....
Shortened
Ised-ode,
lend-ode,
met*ode,
ETYMOLOGY.
Long Roots — continued.
219
r£ed*ode,
rend-ode,
send-ode,
send-ida,
sUd-ode,
sped-ode,
spend- ode
lsed*de,
lend*de,
met*de,
r8ed*de,
rend*de,
send*de,
Qer. sandte
slyd*de,
sped*de,
spend*de,
lent*te,
mette,
rent*te,
sent*te,
spent*te,
laedd*,
lentt*,
mett*,
rredd*,
rentt*,
sentt*,
slydd*,
spedd*,
spentt*,
led.
lent.
met.
read,
rent.
sent.
slid,
sped.
spent.
532.
bereave . .
(,A.-S., bereafi-an)
cleave . . .
(,A.-S., cleaf-an)
{Norse, kljuf-a)
f-clippings and others.
creep
dwell
feel .
flee. .
hear .
keep
leave,
(^.-^.lyf-
lose .
sleep
spill .
Icel
Sco
an)j
bereaf-ode
cleaf-ode,
creep-ed,
dvvell-ed,
dval-di,
feel-ed,
flee-ed,
hear-ed,
keep-ed,
keep-it,
lyf-ode,
los-ed,
sleep-ed,
spiU-ed,
bereaf*de,
cleaf*de,
creep*d,
dwell*d,
feel*d,
flee*d,
hear*d,
keep*d,
lyf*de,
los*d,
sleep*d,
spill*d,
bereaf*te,
cleaf*te,
creep*t,
dwell*t,
feel*t,
keep*t,
lyf*te,
los*t . .
sleep*t,
spill*t,
bereaft*,
cleaft*,
klauf, f
crept,
dwelt,
felt,
fled,
herd,
kept,
lyft*,
lost,
slept,
sp2t,
bereft
cleft.
crept,
dwelt.
felt,
fled.
heard.
kept.
left.
lost.
slept,
split.
;J20
ETYMOLOGY.
533.
burst . .
cast
cost
cut .
hit .
hurt
let .
U-s.
put .
rid .
set .
laet)
shed
shred
shut
slit .
spit
(A.-S. spset)
split . .
spread .
sweat .
thrust .
burst-ed . . i
Dors. bu3t-ed :
cast-cd . . .
cost-ed . . .
cut-ed ....
hit-ed
hurt-ed . . .
Dors, hurt-ed
let-ode ....
put-ed ....
rid-ed ....
set-ode . . .
Goth, sat-ida.
shed-ed . . .
shred-ed . .
shut-ed . . .
spset-ode . .
split-ed . .
spread-ed. .
sweat- ed . .
thrust-ed . .
Short
burst*d . . .
cast*d .
cost*d .
cut*d .
hit*d .
hurt*d
let*de .
put*d .
rid*d . .
set*de .
8hed*d ,
shred* d ,
shut*d ,
spet*de .
split*d .
spread*d
sweat*d .
thru8t*d
Roots.
burst*t ... I I ' burst.
Ger., weak verb, 3-6, 7 ;
Icel. and Cumb., weak verb, 3-5.
cast*t .... I
cost*t ....
cut*t I
Cumb. and Sco., strong verb, cut-cot.
hit*t
hurt*t
let*te . . .
lett*
put*t . . .
Cumb., strong verb, put-pat.
hit
set*te . . .
Icel. set-ti.
shut*t .
spet*te
sett* .
shedd .
shredd
spett*
split .• .
spUt*t .
spredd .
swett . .
Cumb. and Sco., strong verb, sweat.
thrust*t .
rid. .
cast,
cost,
cut.
hit.
hurt.
let.
put.
rid.
set.
i
shed.
shred.
shut,
slit. j.s. slat,
spit,
spat.
split,
spread,
sweat.
thrust.
534. ]Many Teutonic verbs which are weak in English arc
strong in some other Teutonic dialects :
(■ bake baked.
{ back-en, Ger buk, b*k 8, Ger.
bequeath bequeath-ed.
9 * « f , Norse.
burst burst.
b*rst f, Norse, Cumb.
climb climb-ed.
klomm 7, Ger., Cumb., Dorset.
/■creep crep-t.
3 crope 7, Dorset.
I kijup-a, Norse kraup f .
y drip, drop dripp-ed, dropp-ed.
(^ triof-en, Ger trot" 7, Ger. ; draup f, Norse.
ETYMOLOGY. 221
glide gli(l-ed; gl*t, Ger. 2.
f grave . graved.
[grab-en, Ger gr*b, Ger. %, Norse ^.
(gripe grip-ed.
\ greif, Ger griff, Ger.
/-liave hav-ed, hav*d.
]hEEf*ode, h£ef*de h8e*de, hsed*, had.
C-hafa, Icel haf*«i.
heave heav-ed.
hove (among sailors).
hob, 7 Ger. ; hdf, 7 Norse.
help help-ed; half, 6 Ger.
Hade lad-ed.
(lad-en, Ger lud, 8 Ger.
( leap leap*d, leap*t.
\ hlaup-a, Norse hliop, J- ; lap, Sco. Cumb.
[lie H-ed.
(lug-, Ger . log, 7 Ger.
make . . . mak-ed, 0. Eng., mak*d, ma*d, made.
Cmilk milk-ed.
(melk-en, Ger molk, 7 Ger.
[praise prais-ed.
I preis-en, f Ger pries, 1 Ger.
quit quitt-ed ; quat, Sco.
reek reek-ed.
rjiik-a, Norse rank f.
rub rubb-ed.
reib-en, f Ger rieb, 1 Ger.
/•seeth seeth-ed.
\ sid-en, Ger sott, 7 Ger.
^ sjoS-a, Norse sau^, f Norse.
[ shape shupe, 0. Eng.
(schaff-en schuf, 7 Ger.
[sleep slep-t.
(schlaff-en, 5 Ger schlief, 1 Ger.
[slip . slipp-ed.
[ slepp, Icel slapp, 5 Icel.
[ snuff snuff-ed.
[schnib-en, Ger schnob, 7 Ger.
strive.
222 ETYMOLOGY.
suck suck-ed.
ScUig-en, «^ Ger sog, 7 Ger.
sjuk-a i Norse saug, f Norse.
sweat . . Climb, and Sco. strong verb, sweat-swat.
C swell swell-ed.
( schwell-en, Ger schwoll, 7 Ger. ; svall, 5 Icel.
thresh . . . , thresh-ed ; dr*schj 7-6 Ger.
/-wash wash-ed.
\ wasch-en, Ger wusch, 8 Ger.
Cvax-a, Norse ox, 7.
f wax wax-ed.
\ wachs-en, Ger wuchs, 8 Ger.
C weigh weigh-ed.
I wag-en, Ger wog, 7 Ger.
-wet wett-ed ; wat, Sco.
535. Some verbs are of irregular conjugation from the
substitution, in some of their tenses, of different roots.
The present tense of r/o, Anglo-Saxon gun, has been sub-
stituted for that of the old verb to wend, the present tense of
which was
1. I wend. we wend.
2. thou wendest. ye or you wend.
3. he wends. they wend.
The past tense of this verb is retained :
1. I went. we went.
2. thou wentest. ye or you went.
3. he went. they went.
" Like a poor pedler he did wend.^' — Shepherd's Calend., 1588.
In Scotland they say still ' he gaed.'
Be, as in the subjunctive mood of the verb to be, ' if I be/
is from the Anglo-Saxon verb beon; and was and were are
from the Anglo-Saxon wesan.
So, in Latin, fero takes its past tense tuli from toUo ; and
f £p«, in Greek, takes its future tense-form, ol^u, from Oiw ;
and its perfect present tense-form, 'J\vey'A:iy from iviy^u.
ETYMOLOGY. 223
536. One-thing Verbs, Two-thing Verbs, and
Three-thing Verbs.
A neuter or intransitive verb is the name of an action that
one thing cannot do to another ; as, ' to walk,' ' to sleep ;' and
as such verbs do not want any noun but that of the subject
to stand with them in the sentence, they are one-thing verbs.
537. An active or transitive verb is the name of an action
that one thing can do to another ; as, ' to strike/ ' to love ; '
and such a verb is taken with at least two things named or
understood in the sentence, — the subject and object ; as, 'John
struck the ball.' ' Mary loves her mother.'
Active or transitive verbs are at least iwo-tJiing verbs.
538. But some of the active or transitive verbs are taken
with three things, named or understood under the sentence, —
the subject, the first object, and the fmther object; as, 'John
gave an orange to his sister,' where John is the subject,
orange is the first or nearest object, and his sister is the
further object ; and the action to give is one that can hardly
take place without such three things, and is a three-thing verl).
539. It is needful in general grammar to understand tlie
differences of one, two, and three-thing verbs, and especially
the three-thing ones; inasmuch as the verbs of some lan-
guages, such as the Basque and the languages of the tribes of
North America, are formed to betoken by breath -sounds and
clippings, under their own forms, sundry relations of the three
things as subject and objects ; and other languages mark the
relations of the three things by sundry settings of pronouns.
540. To betoken these relations of subject and objects we
mav take the letter a for the first person singular, h for the
second person singular, and c for the third person singiilar ;
as for the first person plural, Us for the second person plural,
and c's for the third person plural. Then let the figui'e 3
stand for the verb, and let the person that is sul)ject be be-
tokened by a capital letter in the first place, and let the object-
persons be betokened l)y small letters, the first object by
a small Roman letter, and the further object by a small
italic letter.
224
ETYMOLOGY.
Then (A * 3 . c , Z») woi^ld mean that tha 1st person singular
is subject^ the 3rd person singular the first object, and the
2nd person singular the further oljject; as,
I gave it to thee.
A* 3 . c . b.
541. In languages which have pronouns for the singular
and plural number there are 6 pronouns and G cases of
subject-pronouns, with actions reflected on the agent.
A. 3. a. A's. 3. ax.
I strike myself. we strike ourselves.
B. 3. b. B's. 3. Vs.
thou strikest thyself. ye strike yourselves.
C. 3. c. C's. 3. cs.
he, she, or it strikes himself, &c. they strike themselves.
Intransitive and reflective verbs are one-thing verbs.
542.
Two-thing Verbs.
In sentences of two-thing verbs, pronoims may come in
in pairs, — subject and object.
The number of permutations, by two and two, in pairs
that can be made up of n things, is n{n — 1), which, with
6 pronouns, would be 6X5=30 ; so that, in a language which
has pronoun-forms for the singular and plural number without
dual forms, there may be 30 sundry pairs of pronouns with
two-thing verbs.
A.
A.
A.
A.
B.
B.
B.
B.
C.
C.
C.
C.
8. b.
3. c.
3. b's.
8.
8.
3.
3.
3.
3.
3.
3.
3.
c s.
a.
e.
as.
c's.
a.
b.
as.
b's.
C. 3.
I love thee.
I love him.
I love you.
I love them,
thou lovest me.
thou lovest him.
thou lovest us.
thou lovest them
he loves me.
he loves thee,
he loves us.
he loves you.
The followin
c. he loves
A's.
A's.
A's.
A's.
B's.
B's.
B's.
B's.
C's.
C's.
C's.
C's.
3. b.
3. c.
3. b's.
3. c's.
3. a.
3.
3.
3.
c.
as.
c's.
we love thee,
we love him.
we love you.
we love them,
ye love rae.
ye love him,
ye love us.
ye love them,
they love me.
they love thee.
they love us.
3. a.
3. b.
3. a's.
3. b's. they love you.
g relations are not permutations,
am. C. 3. c's. he loves them.
C's. 3. c's. they love them.
4 other forms ... A. S.a's.—B. 3. b's.— A.'s. 3. a.— B's. 3. b.—-
are not, from their relations, likely to be often used.
ETYMOLOGY.
225
The Basque and Cree tongues have verb-endings for the
foregoing relations, which, therefore, tliey betoken without
pronouns.
If a language had three dual forms of pronouns besides the
singular and plural ones, it would have 9 pronoun forms, and
therefore n(/i — 1) or 9X8=72 cases of two-pronoun verbs;
and if a language had two forms of pronoun for the first
person plural (1+2) and (l-j-2-|-3), without dual- forms, it
would have 7 pronoun-forms and 7X6=42 cases of two-
pronoun verbs.
543.
Three-thing Verbs.
The permutations that can be made of n things, in sets of
three and three, are n{n — 1), {n — 2), which, with 6 pronouns,
would be 6X5X4=120; but we do not find verb-forms for
all the permutations of the 6 pronouns in the Basque or Cree
language, as many of them are of rare occurrence, while, on
the other hand, both Basque and Cree have verb-forms for re-
lations Avith which the same person and number appear twice.
A. 3. b. b's. is a permutation answering to the sentence
I gave thee to you,^ which is useless ; while ' he gave it to
him,^ or C. 3. c. c, with the subject and both the two objects
of the third person singular, is a common three-thing relation,
though not truly a permutation at all.
The Basque has verb-forms for the following 56 permu-
tations, which are all those in which a third person appears
as a first object.
1.
B.
3. c.
a.
. thou 3 it to me.
19.
C.
3. c. c. .
he 3 it for him.
2.
C.
3. c.
a.
he 3 it to me.
20.
A's
3. c. c. .
we 3 it for him.
3.
B's
3. c.
a.
. ye 3 it to me.
21.
B's.
3. c. c. .
ye 3 it for hiui.
4.
C's
3. c.
a.
they 3 it to me.
22.
C's.
3. c. c. .
they 3 it for liiiii.
5.
B.
3. c's
a.
. thou 3 them to me.
23.
A.
3. c's. c. .
I 3 them for Iiim.
6.
C.
3. c's
a.
. he 3 them to me.
24.
B.
3. c's. c. .
thou 3 them for him
7.
B's
3. c's
a.
ye 3 them to me.
25.
C.
3. c's. c. .
he 3 them for liim.
8.
C's
3. c's
a.
. they 3 tliem to me.
26.
A's.
3. c's. c. .
we 3 them for him.
9.
A.
3. c.
b.
. I 3 it to thee.
27.
B's.
3. c's. 0. .
ye 3 tliem to liini.
10.
C.
3. c.
b.
ho 3 it to thee.
28.
C's.
3. c's. c. .
they 3 them to liim.
11.
A's
3. c.
b.
we 3 it to thee.
29.
B.
3. c. a's. .
thou 3 it to us.
12.
C's.
3. c.
b.
. they 3 it to thee.
30.
C.
3. c. a's. .
he 3 it to us.
13.
A.
3. c's
b.
. I 3 them to thee.
31.
B's.
3. c. a's. .
ye 3 it to us.
14.
0.
3. c's
b.
. he 3 them to thee.
32.
C's.
3. c. a's. .
they 3 it to us.
15.
A's
3. c's
h.
. we 3 them to thee.
33.
B.
3. c's. a's.
thou 3 them to us.
16.
C's.
3. c's.
b.
they 3 them to thee.
31..
C.
3. c's. a's.
he 3 them to us.
17.
A.
3. c.
c.
I 3 it for him.
35.
B's.
3. c's. a's.
ye 3 tliem to us.
18.
B.
3. c.
c.
thou 3 it for liim.
36.
C's.
3. c's. a's.
they 3 them to us.
10 §
22G
ETYMOLOGY.
37. A. 3. c. Vs. I 3 it to you.
38. 0. 3. c. Vs. he 3 it to you.
39. A's. 3. c. Vs. wc 3 it to you.
40. C's. 3. c. Vs. they 3 it to you.
41. A. 3. c's. Vs. I 3 them to you.
42. C. 3. c's. Vs. lie 3 them to you.
43. A's. 3. c's. Vs, we 3 thein to you.
44. C's. 3. c's. Vs. they 3 tliem to'vou.
45. A. 3. c. c's. I 3 it to them."
46. B. 3. c. c's. thou 3 it to the.ii.
47. C. 3. 0. c's. he 3 it to them.
48. A's. 3. c. c's. we 3 it to them.
49. B's. 3. c. c's. ye 3 it to tlicni.
50. C's. 3. c. c's. tliey 3 it to them.
51. A. 3. c's. c's. I 3 them to tliem.
52. B. 3. c's. c's. thou 3 them to them
53. C. 3. c's. c's. he 3 tliem to them.
54. A's. 3. c's. c'*. we 3 them to them.
55. B's. 3. c's. c's. yc 3 theiu to tliem.
56. C's. 3. c's. c's. they 3 them to them
It would seem, from Howse's Cree Grammar, that the Cree
language has three-thing verb-forms for all these 56 permu-
tations, which are those that bring a third person in as a first
object; and since it offmarks an animate from an inanimate
object, it has most likely 112 verb-forms for relations of persons.
For the other permutations of the relations of the 6 persons
in which A and B come in as first objects, neither the Basque
nor American languages seem to have any forms.
Many of such relations seldom happen, and the Basques
and Indians may betoken the others of them by speech-forrnulee
of other kinds.
A. 3. b. b's., or ' I gave thee to you,^ or ' I bought thee for
you,^ betokens a relation not likely to happen, and therefore
not likely to need a verb-form.
The three-thing relations are betokened in most of the
tongues of Europe by pronouns in sundry case-forms; as,
English, ' I gave it to you,' . . French, ' Je vous I'ai donne ; '
and it is not a little puzzling to place the pronouns in their
right idiom order.
The best relation order would be that the subject should
come first, and be followed by the first oloject, and then by
the further o"l)ject ; as,
' / gave it you,' . . . 'we bought them for him;'
which, if 1 stood for the subject, 2 for the first object, and
3 for the further object, would be the order . . 1, 2, 3.
But when we name the further object by a noun, our order
is sometimes .... 1, 3, 2.
'/gave him the hook,' . . . ' I bought him a toy ;'
though, if Avc inset a preposition before the pronoun of the
further object, our order is .... 1, 2, 3.
* / gave a book to him,' . . . ' 1 bought a ho7^se for him.'
ETYMOLOGY. 227
French, ' Je le lui moutrai.' ^ Je lui montrai Ic livre."
12 3 13 2
Italian, 'Datemelo;' i.e., Datc-voi-me-lo.
13 2
English, ' Give it me.'
12 3
544. ADVERBS and PREPOSITIONS, or
POSTPOSITIONS.
A true adverb and a true preposition are both raode-words,
or tokens of the modes of actions or predicates, -^vitli a
difference between them, — that an adverb is a one-tliwcj
mode-word or mode-token, and a preposition is a two-tJdny
mode-word or mode-token.
In the sentence 'John walked fast, or sees clearly,' or
' the letter is ivell written,' the adverbs fast, clearly, well,
betoken the mode of the actions walked, sees, ivritten, among
others of the same name, but do not want any noun after or
with them ; so that they may stand in a sentence with only
one thing, the subject, in it.
In the sentence ' John walked f7'om or into the house,' or
' the letter was carried by a messenger,' the prepositions from,
into, by, betoken the mode of the actions walk and carried, as
to the objects house and messenger, and want a noun after or
with them ; so that they stand in the sentence with tivo things,
the subject and object.
Yet many compound adverbs and prepositions of the form
(S-f-l) are formulae of two things, as ' John walked ivith speed,'
'the letter was written ivith elegance ;' of which form arc the
Welsh yn dda, ' in good,' for ivell, and the French au-tour,
in the round.'
545. ADVERBS.
An adverb is a word that names the modes of actions and
being of the same name.
jNIost adverbs have been made from notional words, and are
of sundry forms.
Castren, in his Elements of Cheremissian Grammar, says,
" Ut prepositiones, ita etiam multa adverbia, casus sunt no-
228 ETYMOLOGY.
minuni ; " and Ganandri, in Lis Grummatica Lapponica, says,
" Ablativus et casus locativus uorainis facile adverbii naturara
induunt." And nouns in the modal case in Greenlandisli, very
often — * sehr haiifig/ as Klciushmidt says, — serve as adverbs.
546. Form (1) and (l-f.)
The form (1-f-) is some case-form of a noun.
Germ., theils, of part, partly; flugs, of flight, i.e. quickly;
mittags, of noon, at noon; nachts, of night, at night.
These are possessive ease-forms of nouns.
Icel., stundum, at hours, at times, — dative case-form oi stund;
ti'^um, at times, often, — dative case-form of ti^.
So Old English, ivhilom is the A. -Saxon hwilum, — the dative
of hwil, time.
So the Arabic adverbs, or rather adverb-nouns, are almost
all of the form (1) ; as,
aklon with prudence, prudently.
azraon .... with purpose, purposely.
Latin, foris.
So in Lapponic.
547 Form (1-f.)
Purposely, daily,
Latin, {\-\-atim), gradatim, from gradus ; paulatim, from
paulum ; verbatim, from verbum.
xuvvjXov, doggishly ; ovpuvov^s, heavenward ; ovpavo^e, from
heaven.
Persian, (1-j-onah), do"stmonah . . . friendly.
Turkish, (l-|-)'lah), deljleg'lah . . . fool-like, foolishly.
548. Form (1-fl).
Hindoostanee, roz-roz .... day-day, i.e. daily.
Tonga, mamafa, heavy ; mamafa-ange, heavy-like, heavily ;
ange-like.
549. Form (1+2).
Latin, nihilominus (naught less).
550. Form (1+3).
etymology. 229
551. Form (1+4).
552. Form (1+5).
553. Form (2).
In many languages adjectives are taken into the office of
adverbs.
English, long, little ; ago, agone.
Latin, parum, docte, falso.
Welsh, da, good and well.
Turkish, gmzel^ pretty, prettily ; eym, good, well.
Germ., gut, good, well.
Spanish, pronto, ready, readily ; menos, less ; alto, high,
highly; bajo, low, lowly; mal, bad, badly.
Germ., hochstens, of the highest, at most; wenigstens, of
the least, at least ; ziveitens, of the second, secondly ; gewiss,
sure, or surely.
Icel., scir-an, of sore, sorely ; har^an, of hard, hardly, (case-
forms of sdr and har^) ; mest, most and mostly.
In Wendish, adjectives of the neuter form are adverbs.
554. Form (2 + .)
This is a very common form of adverbs of mode.
English, (2+/?/), as badly, cruelly, darkly, greatly, highly,
justly, lightly, rightly ; and adverbs of order, firstly, secondly,
thirdly, fourthly, fifthly, sixthly, seventhly.
Latin, (2+*^er), (2+e), 1 acriter, felicitcr, magnificenter,
(2+im), J decenter; strictim,divisim; male,
badly ; valde, from validus, strongly or very.
Greek, (2+wf), 6l,euQ.
Ital. and Span., (2-\-mente), dolcemente.
French, {2-\-ment), doucement,
Icel., (2+a), viS-a, widely.
Adverbs of repetition, as once, twice, thrice, — case-forms of
one, two, three.
Latin, quinquies, sexies, &c.
In jMongolian, the cardinal with the ending da ; Magyar,
the cardinal -\-da.
230 LTYMOLOGY.
555. Form (2-fl.)
This was at first the formula of many adverbs of time and
place ; such as, then, when, here, there, ivhere. They are case-
forms of pronouns formerly belonging to nouns now left out.
In Anglo-Saxon the local case-form of he-o, this, was
he-ere, hire; and 'hire stowe' meant 'at this place,' whence,
by ellipsis of ' stowe,' we have ' here.'
The local case-form of se-o or \)a, that, was ]>a-e7'e, ]>(Bi'e ;
and '|?fere stowe' was 'at that place;' whence, by ellipsis of
' stowe,' we have the adverb ' there.'
The local case-form of se, that, was "Sam, ^dn, ^dn; and
' \>6n timan ' was ' at that time,' whence, by ellipsis of ' timan,'
we have the adverb ' then.'
So, from cases of htva, who or what, we have luhen and
where; 'o^ hwtcne tide,' at what time, ' when ;' ' hwsere stowe,'
at what place, ' where.'
So hither, thither, and whither are formed of heo, this, pa,
that, and hwd, what, and mean thisward, thutward, and
whatward ; and hence, thence, and whence are genitive or
originative case-forms of heo, ]m, and hwd, and mean of or
from this, that, and ivhat place or time.
How and ivhy are also most likely case-forms of whd, what ;
how, by what ; why, for what.
So Ezguerra, in his Arte de la Lenyua Bisaya, shows that
the Bisaya pronouns this, that, serve as adverbs, here, there.
556. Form (2-|-1).
Yester-day, straight- ways, (straight-wise, straight-mode),
always (all-wise, all-modes).
Latin, eb (eoloco), there; quo (quo loco), Avhere; qua (qua
vid or parte), where, in what part, or by what way; multb,
paulb.
Pridie (priore-die), postri-die (postero-die), hodie (hoc-die),
qud-re, quo-modo, magn-opere (magno-operc) .
Germ., einmal, one time, once ; zweintal, twice ; jederzeit,
each time, always ; diesseits, of this side.
Norse, allatima, all time, always ; annanweg, another way,
otherwise ; all-sta^ar, all places, every where ; jafnsihes, even
sides, side by side.
Welsh, pa le, what place, where ; un-waith, one turn^ once.
ETYMOLOGY. 231
Persian, ainjo, this place, here; onjo, that place, there;
kujo, what place, where ; hui'giz, each time, always ; d jgurbor,
another time, i.e. again.
Cree, tun-ispee, what time, i.e. when ; tan-itte, what place,
i.e. where.
Lapponic, daat (this), daasne (in this*), here; duot (that),
duusne (in that*), there; gutt (what), gusae (in what), where.
557. Form (2 + 3).
]\Iultifariam, (multum-for) .
558. Form (2+5), (2f5+l).
We have some adverbs of this form composed of a pronoun
become an adverb, and a preposition ; as, hereafter, hereby,
hereto, herein, herefrom, thereafter, thereby, thereto, therein,
therefrom, whereto, ivherein, wherefrom, hitherto, hitherward,
henceforth, henceforward.
Latin, quem-ad-modum, quam-ob-rem.
55i
S9. Form (2 + 4).
Any-where, some-where, no-where.
560. Form (5).
About, down, up.
Latin, ante, post. Greek, cLvw, evrof.
501. Form (4 + .)
Downward^ upward.
562. Form (5+1).
In-deed, jjer-chance (par-chance), perhaps (per or by hap) ;
to-morrow, to-day.
Form [a, for at, + 1).
Aside, a-foot, a-head, a-sleep, a-board, a-shore, a-ground.
Italian, a capo, at the end ; da capo, from the beginning ;
da banda, a-sidc ; all-ora, at the time, then.
Spanish, a-caso, perhaps ; al-cabo, at the end ; a-hora, at
the time, then.
French, en-fin. Norse, i-sta'S, instead.
233 ETYMOLOGY
Irish, i;o i-iop, witl) trutli, truly; ap a])a, by -cause, because;
a]i ball, oii-thc-s])ot, immediately. French, sur-lc-champ.
Hhidoost., olhol, the state, immediately. Latin, stat-im,
bolfil, in the act, immediately.
Bretonne, en dro. French, au-tour.
„ a gostez. „ a-c6te.
„ e ty, i.e. at house. „ chez.
„ gand-primber, with readiness, readily.
563. Form (5 + 2).
At last; by far. Germ., Bei weitem, by far.
Welsh, yn-dda, in good, i.e. well; yn-fwyn, in kind, i.e.
kindly.
564. Form (5 + 3).
565. Form (4+.)
Upward, downward, forward, backward.
Form (4 + 2).
Latin, nimii'um (ne mirum).
566. Form (4 + 5 + 2).
Ital., Non di meno.
567. Form (4 + 4).
Germ., immerfort.
Hindoost., jahon-jahon, where- where.
Latin, quaqua, i.e. where-ever.
568. Some adverbs are so worn down, that they no lon"-er
afford a clue to their notional forms or formation; as, now
oft, often, seldom, soon, late, yes, no, not.
Latin, non. Persian, na, nah. Hindoostanee, nah.
569. Form (4 + 5).
There-on, there-in, there-of, here-by, where-by.
Germ., dar-an, darin, darauf.
ETYMOLOGY. • 233
570. PREPOSITIONS, POSTPOSITIONS, &c.
Most of the prepositions, whicli are now only bare relational
words, have been formed of old notional words, of which they
have lost the meaning and much of the form; thus, before
and behind, or fore and hmd, are derived from words betoken-
ing the notions of an animal nmning on and another, or a
man ininning after it to catch it.
(F*?-), a Teutonic root, meaning to go on, is that of fore;
and (A*;«|?) or {Iv^nf), Gothic, hin\-an, to catch or hunt, is the
root of hind.
So fore means the ' going on,' and hind means the ' catch-
ing ;' and before means ' by the going-place,' and behind ' by
the catching-place.'
From the root/*/* comes also /or, Dutch voor, Germ, filr,
Goth, faur ; and far, the effect of going, and forth, in the
direction of going, and first, meaning forest, the most going.
From the same root, /*r, go, comes most likely ,/^r*m, go
off, oiuMvord /ro?w ; Goth., /ram; Swedish,/rfl!w ; Norse, /ra;
and the Lat., prce, pr<£ter, pro, per, primus, (art. 107) ; and
the Greek, itpo, rpog, Tiapx.
From (A*/?^) 'to catch,' comes most likely hunt, hound,
hand, and the Lat. hend-o.
The connection of for and pr(B is shovm in the expressions
" Non potuit eum videre /?r« lachrymis ; " ' He could not
see him for tears.'
So in Arabic, the preposition befbre is kabla, a case-form
of a noun, from kabala, ' to come to,' and means ' in the
coming ' direction.
So the pi'imary meaning of of, Ger. af, Lat. ab, Gr. «xo, dtp\
seems to be that of a going off up from the earth ; while on,
A. -Sax. on, an, Goth, ana, Greek dva, seems to have borne
the notion of a coming on down towards the earth ; so that
we can rank under the same root of, up, Ger. anf, Goth, iup,
Eng. ov-er, Goth, uf-ar, A. -Sax. df-er, Gr. ux-^p, Lat. sup-er.
Eug. op-en, Ger. off-en.
Thence it seems likely that most of the pure rational pre-
positions were at first tokens of the motions and relations
that were so much in the mind of man in savage life, such as
1st, the motion of an arrow up from the earth, as at a bird ;
3nd, the motion of an arrow down to the earth ;
23i ETYMOLOGY.
3rd, the motion of an animal or foe fleeing ;
4th, the motion of a man or foe following the fleer ;
5th, the act of a man coming against a man ;
6th, the association of man Avitli man, or animal with animal.
571. The motion of an arrow upward from the earth aflbrds
two relations, that of upwardness and that of fromness as to
the shooter and the earth.
The root seems to be */, *p, (art. 107).
With the relation of upwardness we have up, Ger. auf,
Goth, iup, Gr. i%i, Lat. ob, Eng. ov-er, Goth, vf-ar, A.-Sax.
0-er, Norse yfir, Gr. uxfp, Lat. super, Sansc. up-ari, Pers.
ab-er, Eng. after, Goth, afar; and with the relation of from-
wardncss the Eng. of, off, Gr. axo, in), Lat. ab.
Thence we may guess why £x/ and vi:ep take different case-
forms. 'Ex/ might take a wherefrom case of a thing (A) when
it meant i(p, reckoning from (A) ; a where ease-form of (A)
when it meant up on (A) ; and an accusative case-form of
(A) when it meant up towards (A) : fcxi vvio? up of (on) the
ship; fxi pvjy/xn//, up (without a motion) to the shore; ix/
fiavarov, up (with a motion) to death.
So uVfp may take a wherefrom case-form as meaning vp,
reckoning from, and an accusative case-formj as up (with a
motion) over.
572. The motion of an arrow down to the ground aff'ords
three relations ; that of doivn-ness, that of to-ness to the
shooter or ground, and that of back-ness, or a reverse motion.
The root seems to be *^i.
To the relation down belongs under, Ger. unter, Nors. under.
To the relation of to-ness belongs on, A.-Sax. on, an; Du.
A.-Sax. Germ. Goth. Eng. Lat. in. Span. Fr. en. Port, em,
"Welsh yn, Norse, Dan. Swed. Irish i*, Gr. £v, f/?> «va,
Goth, ana ; Lat. ante, Goth, and, A.-Sax. o*-S without the n,
(art. 130), Ger. awi, Gr. a|X(p/? A.-Sax. ?/?/«A-e.
To the relation oi back-ness, or reverse motion, belong un, as
in un-do ; Lat. in, of invisibilis ; Gr. ava, of aveKnuy I draw
back ; Goth. and. of and-bindan, to unbind ; Ger. ant, of
ant-wort, back-word, i.e. answ'er.
ETYMOLOGY. 235
Tlie word end, Goth, andi (the back-turning point of the
arroVs motion) , Gr. ivr/, seems to have been a noun mean-
ing the reverse or back thing as a compensation or match.
6!p^uK[i.o'j olvt) 6(p^aKy.oVy an eye, the back-gift of an eye.
573. The forward motion of a man or an animal seems to
have been betokened by the root /*r, p^r, for one root;
whence we may have the A. -Sax. fm'-an, Ger. fahr-en, to go,
Eng. fare, price of going, fareivell, go on well, Lat. fer-o.
But y^r, p*r, while it means go, may be taken with a rela-
tion from- wards or to-wards; and under the relation from-wards
may belong from, fore, far, Gr. xpo, with a wherefrom case-
form, as %?o fiupwv, fore (reckoning) from the door.
xpo?, with a wherefrom case-form, means fore-from ; with a
dative case-form, fore-to ; and with an accusative case-form,
fore- (with a motion or direction) towards.
TupUy with a wherefrom case-form, meant fore-from ; with
a whereto case-form, fore- (without a motion) to ; and with
an accusative case-form, foi'e- (with a motion or direction)
towards.
So the Latin pro, fore-from ; prce, fore-to ; per, fore-tlirough;
proiter, fore-by ; prope, propter, fore-towards.
574. The coming of man to man seems betokened by the
root H, *(/, ^*. . . . at, ad, to.
575. The association of man with man seems betokened by
the roots 5*m, 5*w, m*/, &c. Germ, and Sansc. sam, together ;
Qoih..samana; Eng. same; Gr. aw; Lat. cum, con; Gr. [i^erk;
Goth, mi^ ; Ger. mit.
576. It often happens in languages with some case-forms
that, when a case-form of a noun is given with a preposition,
the case-form may betoken one relation and the preposition
another; as, 'super lapide,' on a stone; 'super lapidem,' to
on a stone ; the accusative case-form showing the motion
to (the place) on a stone, and super the place on it.
'lie went down from the Idaean hills;'
where the genitive case-form betokens the froraward motion,
and Mxra the downward motion, for nccra. with an accusative
236 ETYMOLOGY.
case-form would mean toivards ; nar uCtovq ctth opx, 'he
always looked toward them.'
So, e%i TciQ (ivpaag . . up to the skins.
1 2 12
%:ipoi (iuaiKsog . . . fore from the king.
1 2
TTccpoc (iuaiKea, . . , fore to the king.
Again, a man may die from many causes : he may die from
a disease ; he may die willingly, ginng his life a ransom for
his father, or he may die for his fatherland. And in either of
these cases, whether he may die from a disease, for his father,
or for England, his disease, his father, or his fatherland is
the wherefrora of his dying ; and the noun of the disease, the
father, or the fatherland, may be given in Greek or Latin in
the wherefrom case-form. But to die from a disease would
most likely become vtco voitov xiro^aveTv ; to die for one's
father, uxfp rev Turpog oc%- ; to die for one's fatherland,
irepi Tvi; %arpl3og otic- ; where the case-form of the noun
betokens the relation of cause, and the preposition the rela-
tions of power between it and the dier. If a man dies from
a disease, he dies under its power ; if he dies willingly for his
father, he does not die under his father's power, for his father
is in his, and he dies with power over him ; and if he dies
fighting for his fatherland, he is not under its power, since he
chooses to die for it, nor is his fatherland under his power,
since he cannot singly save it ; so that he does not die under
or over it, but about it or for it. Hence, when our Lord says
(John X. 15), that "He lays down His life /or the sheep,"
He says, rvjv \l/u%i^v /xou t/Svjpl/ vzsp ruv icpo^xruv, ' I lay
down my life over the sheep,' because they arc under His
power.
Therefore different relations may be shown by sundry pre-
positions v^'ith the same case-form ; or by different case-forms
with the same preposition.
577. Some Greek prepositions may take either an origina-
tive or accusative case-form, by articles 202 and 265.
lix . . li uv^pooTcov Mvarog . . . wherefrom.
TO 'Zuli^uTOv ^loc Tov avOpwTTOv . . . objcctlve.
ETYMOLOGY. 237
€Ti , . eTi Tov nciXov Ksyuv zai^og . . . wlierefrom.
e%eipxTO Tovg 'Afiviva/ou? Tvj; fV ccvtov opyvig Tapa-
ni's iv , . . objective.
HaTX . Tohv; STratvog ^v Kara rvj; Viixerspag ToXsug . origin.
01 v.a.^ CTfpo%v|v 'j6\).oi . . . objective.
Tcpog . ^pog dvlpog ex^pov e^ifspuv 7V]v •4/i^(pov , wherefrom.
zpog 'Pwfxaiovg [Lxxea^ai . . . objective.
apL^; . a/x(p; aarspuv y, ypci The air dropped a fifth ( ) .
A Message 1 f I have sent ( ) to Mr, A.
A Letter J ' * L I have written ( ) to Mr. B.
Yeaj^s He is a man of forty ( ) .
While ~\ r ^^^^ ^"^^^ ^^ ^o^' t^ic present ( ).
T^l^iQ r \ Have you been here long ( ) ?
•^ 1_ I was there a little ( ) before.
Day The sixth ( ) of ^rarch.
Hours It is four ( ) of the clock.
Part A third ( ).
Shillings Three ( ) and sixpence.
Money How much ( ) did it cost ?
TFea/th Content with a little ( ) .
Clothing She was clad in white ( ) .
Cloth Was it linen ( ) or woollen ( ) ?
g f In the Mediterranean ( ) and the
[_ Baltic ( ).
Water Launch out into the deep ( ) .
River The ( ) Thames ; the ( ) Severn.
Wine Will you take some hock ( ) ?
Road ^ This ( ) leads to Dorchester.
Way, direction 1 He came straight ( ) to me.
Via, regione . . . j E navi recta ( ) ad me xenit.— Cic. Alt.
pj „ f He was in the middle ( ) of the room.
'Medio ( ) tutissimus ibis.' — Ovid Met. ii.
Space . < He is in the north ( ), and his brother is in the
Part ' ^^^^^ U-.
L I am standing in the dry ( ) .
6 17. Articles :
a . . . f He was a learned, ( ) wise, and ( ) good man.
the . . I^Tlie Lords and ( ) Commons.
SYNTAX.
255
648. Personal Pronouns :
he r He reads and ( ) writes.
they, &c. . {_ They walk and ( ) ride.
ego, vos, &c. . ( ) scribo, ( ) legitis.
649. Limiting Pronouns :
o r He is ( ) of the Horse Guards.
one, ^^- ' ■ \_YLei^{ ) of the firm of A. B. & Co.
650. Verbs : . . . . You cannot winte, but I can ( ).
You did not play cricket, but I did ( ) .
hasten, run, flee . ( ) to arms, ( ) to the mountains.
/ swear ( ) by the life of Pharaoh.
is, there is 1 m TThe more haste ( ) , tlie less speed ( ) .
are, there are J ' j^Quot homines ( ), tot sententiae.
Thence the Latin rule "Ponuntur interdum sola, per ellipsin,
verba infinita ; ut,
incipere, 'H'mc ( ) exaudiri gemitus, irseque leonum.^ — Virg."
651. CoxNJUNCTioNS : The King, ( ) Lords, and Commons.
652. Prepositions :
by .... He was actuated more by hope than ( ) fear.
for .... They sell bread at sixpence ( ) a loaf.
653. To, or unto, is omitted from a dative case ; as, ' We
should have been like Gomorrah,^ for ' we should have been
like unto Gomorrah.' 'Give ( ) me a book;' for 'give to
me a book.' ' I went ( ) home.'
To is omitted from the infinitive mood of some verbs ; as,
' I heard him ( ) speak,' for ' I heard liim to speak.'
* Bid him ( ) come hither,' for ' bid him to come hither.'
654. Adjectives, &c.
Prteditus .... Vir ( ) magna doctrina.
Justo Est paulo liberior ( ) .
655. In relative propositions either the antecedent or con-
sequent noun is often left out, though both of them are some-
times given with their relative pronoun :
' Diem {\) dicunt, qua die (2), ad ripam Rhodani omnes
conveniant.' — Cas. B. G. i. 5.
Here both the antecedent {diem) and consequent {die) are
given.
256 SYNTAX.
The consequent noun is tlie most often omitted ; as, * This
is the tree which ( ) 1 planted/
Sometimes the consequent noun is given, and the ante-
cedent one is left out ; as,
( ) Urbem (2) quam statuo, vestra est ; i.e.
Urbs, (1) quam urbem (2) statuo, vestra est.
' Quam materiam reperit, banc ego polivi.^ — Phdsd.
Ego polivi hanc materiam quam materiam reperit.
656. Propositions are left out ; as,
/ must say To be candid with you, ( ) I do not
like your behaviour,
/ swear ( ) " ^y t^ie life of Pharaoh, ye shall
not go forth hence except," &c. — Gen. xlii. 15.
/ wish, &c The French imperative mood-formula, * *qu'il
aime, *qu'ils aiment,' is an apodosis of a con-
ditional mood-formula (1 fast, 2 loose) without
its protasis, Avhich would be some such sentence
as 'je veux :' ' je veux qu'il aime.'
657. Pleonasm.
A pleonasm is an overfilling of speech with a word which is
not needful for the bare clearness, though it may be so for
the full strength of its meaning ; as,
A little bit of a house. A little doll of a woman.
A great lout of a boy. A great thing of a boar.
Greek, [Msya %pv](xa avog.
Eng., What ever are you doing?
In Greek two or three negative adverbs are sometimes given
instead of one :
Ovdi%0Te ov^ev ov ju-i^ yivviTCii rav hovruv. — Demosth.
where three things are nayed or negatived, (1) the time by
ov^izoTs, (2) the thing by oiilh, and (3) the happening by |x;i.
Spanish, Ella se alaba a si mismo.
658. Other Figures of Grammar.
ExALLAGE is a change of words and cases, one for another,
as an adjective for an adverb, — 'he spoke slow' (for slowly) ;
a noun for a pronoun, — " si quid est in Flacco viri " (for in
me viri). — Horace.
SYNTAX. 257
659. Syllepsis, or up-taking, is a taking up in the mind
of something understood, but unnamed, and forming of the
sentence to it.
Spanish, ' Su alteza es muy docto,'
' Your highness is very learned ;'
where docto agrees, not with the nominative noun alteza, but
with hombre man, understood under alteza.
660. Metonymy, or name-changing, is a figure by which
one puts the effect for the cause, or the cause for the efJ'ect,
the place for the person, or the abstract noun for the concrete
one; as, 'even to hoary hairs (old age) will I carry you;'
'Heaven (God) preserve us!' 'the house (members) divided;'
'the soldiery (soldiers) were called out;' 'noctem' for 'somnum,'
Virgil, lib. iv. 1. 530; ' tvine (a drunken man) is a mocker.'
661. Synecdoche is a figure by which one puts a part of a
thing for the whole, or a definite for an indefinite number ;
as, 'Mr. S. employs twenty hands (men);' 'all the useless
mouths (people) were sent out of the city;' 'the horse (for
horses in general) is a useful animal.'
In Sophocles {Ajax, 1. 739), we find ad^Luru^ bodies, for
men or persons.
662. Hendiadis is a figure by which one names one thing
as two ; as, ' malus aut fur,' for ' mains fur.' — Hor. Sat. i. 4, 3.
* I heard shouting and men,' for ' the shouting of men.'
663. Amphibolia, or twofold meaning, is a construction of
words gi^ing two meanings ; as, ' John met Simon, and gave
him his bat;' which may mean either John's or Simon's bat.
664. Anastrophe is an inversion of words from their more
usual order ; as, ' mecum ' for ' cum me.'
665. Asyndeton, or unbinding, is an omission of copu-
lative words ; as, ' he is upright, kind, good.'
666. Hypallage, or case -shifting, is a mutual shifting of
two cases ; as we say ' the men were put to the sword,' when
the sword was put to the men. (Art. 272, &c. ; art. 617.)
667. Hysterologia is a figure by which the speech names
things in an order different from their natural one; as, 'he
earned two shillings, and worked all day,' for ' he worked all
day, and earned two shillings.'
258
SYNTAX.
668. EuPHEMiSMUs, or fair-speaking, is a figure by which
one speaks of an unbecoming or unwortliy thing by a worthier
n ime tlian its own, or gives it by fair words a more worthy
form than its true one ; as,
" The ' convicts ' in New Holland call themselves, and are
called, 'government-men."' — Henderson's Australia.
Bullocks' blood was called ' spice ' by refiners of sugar.
A little boy, who has carelessly broken his pencil, will most
likely say ' My pencil broke.'
669. Purity.
A language is called purer inasmuch as more of its words
are formed from its own roots.
Pm'ity is deemed a good quality of languages, inasmuch as
the purer a language is, the more regular it is in clippings and
breath-sounds, and in the forms of its words and sentences;
and the more readily it is learnt and understood.
If the French word vin, or the Welsh word Haw, were
borrowed into English, it would call for a breathing unknown
to bare speakers of pure English ; and as the clipping of pure
French does not call the tongue beyond the teeth, our word
' truth ' would be hard to utter with the French. And while a
thousand compound words formed from English single words
would bear, to English minds, their own meanings in their
known elements, a thousand words borrowed from another
tongue would need a thousand learnings to be understood.
" What the Greeks should aspire after," says a late writer,
" is the complete purification of the modern language." The
modern Greek has been much improved by the weeding out
of Turkish and Italian words, and by the partial restoration
of ancient forms of construction.
The intaking of Arabic words into the Persian and Hin-
doostanee languages has made them hard to be understood
without much knowledge of the Arabic Grammar, and there-
fore of Arabic ; and the large share of Latin and Greek words
in English makes it so much the less handy than a purer
English would be for the teaching of the poor by sermons
and books.
We may enrich and purify our speech by the inbringing
of words of forms already known and received. Of the verb-
form (2-j-ew) we may take 'greaten,' to exaggerate; of the
SYNTAX. 259
noun-form (5-|-l) we may take ' foredraught/ a programme;
and on the adjective form {S-\-some) we may have ' bendsome/
for flexible.
A writer in Chambers' Edinburgh Journal, Dec. 27, 1851^
has been bold enough to call what is mostly named a sub-
marine telegraph, an undersea telegraph ; and another, in an
account of a visit of the British Archseological Association to
the antiquities of London, says, with a good English word,
' it was inwalled in the time of Alfred.'
The text 1 Peter ii. 16, "As free, and not using your liberty
as a cloke of maliciousness, but as the servants of God,"
seems translated less truthfully than it might have been,
owing to the use of Latin-rooted instead of English words,
s\ich as liberty, maliciousness, and servants. It might have
been better ' as free, and not using your freedom as a cloke
of (or for) evil, or evildoing, but as the bondsmen of God.'
Servants is not in antithesis to free or freedom, since our
servants are free.
670. Ethnology and Language.
Mankind live on the earth in sundry tribes or nations, each
of them composed of men of one stock and language, and
bound together under one fellowship of laws and self-defence
against others.
These tribes or nations may be offmarked into kindreds or
races, each of them composed of a set of tribes or nations of
one older stock, and of languages from the same roots and of
the same building.
The English belong to the Teutonic race, which takes in
the English, Germans, Dutch, Danes, Swedes, Norwegians,
and Icelanders.
The Sclavonic race are the lUyrians, Servians, Croats or
Croatians, the Vendes or Slovenzi, Bulgarians, Wallachians,
Moldavians, Bohemians, Slovaks, Poles, and Russians.
The Finnic race comprehends the Finns, the Laps or Lap-
landers, the Madjars or Magyars of Hungary, the tribes by
the river Iser and in Eastland, and Livonia in the circle of
Riga and Courland. The Cheremisses on the left side of
the Volga, the Mordiviners of Orenburg, the Permians and
Syrjjieners on the rivers Witshedga and Wim, the Wogiils of
Siberia, and the Ostraks of the Lower Irtysh and Ob.
260 SYNTAX.
The Celtic race, -vrhich had once a larger share of Europe, are
now abiding only in the Welsh, the Bretons of France, and
the Irish, the JNIanx, and Gael of Scotland, though their blood
has mingled much with the French and a little with the English.
The Basques or Gascons of the Pyrenees mountains are a
fragment of an old race now nearly lost.
It seems to be a law of languages, that when one tribe
blends or mingles with another in one community or political
life, through the taking of lands by war, the language of the
incoming race will be grafted into that of the overcome tribe,
or will take place of it, only after the same rate as the in-
coming race are many or few as rated against the others ;
and that the language of the incoming race will not wholly
take place of that of the invaded one, till the former are more
numerous than the latter. The fewer yield their language to
the greater number.
The Saxons and Angles seem to have at last outnumbered
the Britons in the east and west of England, and to have
planted their language there ; but the Franks, a Teutonic
tribe, who took a share of Gaul or France, and the Northmen,
who took Neustria, though they were the wielding race, were
the fewer men, and wei'e taken into the overcome population,
and received their language. So Galatia in Asia Minor, and
Gallicia in Spain, were settlements of fewer Gauls among
more men of other races, and therefore St. Paul wrote to the
Galatians in Greek, and the Gallicians speak Spanish.
And since there are in India fewer English among more
Hindoos, so if the English were to leave India next year, the
English language would give place to the native tongues.
The French language seems to have been formed from Latin
grafted on a Celtic stock in the minds of the Gauls ; and
while most French words are broken stumps of Latin ones,
many of its idioms are those of the Bretonne.
Trench. Brefomie.
tout-le-monde ; ar bed oil ; all the world, every body.
je n'ai point de pain; n'am ens qet a vara ; I have no bread.
je n'ai rien; n'em ens ne tra; I have nothing.
au tour ; en dro.
a cote; a gostez.
divant ; diracg.
d'aller ; da vont.
So De Larramendi has shown that the Castilian has been
formed from Latm Avords with the idiom of the Basque.
261
PROSODY.
671. Prosody, wliicli is so called from the Greek xpo?
(for) and wJvj (song or poetry), treats of the laws of the
language of poetry, and the accidents of words upon which
those laws hold ; such as the lengths and accents of syllables,
the disposing of them in metrical lots with their rhymings
and clippings, and the emphases and tones of words.
672. In an English word of two or more syllables, one of
them is uttered with a stronger breathing and higher sound
than the rest of the Avord, as the syllable gram in gram-mar.
673. The stronger breathing or higher sound of a syllable
is called the acute accent, and the softer breathing or lower
sound of a syllable is called the grave accent.
The mark with which an acute accent is betokened in
English is a stroke leaning to the right ('), and that wath
which a grave accent is betokened is a stroke leaning to th
left of a reader ( ^ ) .
674. The voice may both rise and fall with the same syllable,
or may pronounce it with the acute and grave accent in quick
succession : and this twofold accent is marked with what is
called a circumflex, a or a.
675. The relative lengths of time which are taken up in
the uttering of syllables is called their quantity, or tirne.
676. Syllables are short or long.
677. The mark for a short syllable is a curve ("), as bid.
678. The mark for a long syllable is a horizontal stroke (~),
as bide.
679. Accent is from the Latin word accentus, formed of ad
(to or upon) and cano (to sing or sound) , and means singing or
sounding on a syllable. In Greek it is called tqvoq (tone or
stress), from rslvu (to stretch or strain), as sharper or flatter
tones are given by the stronger or weaker strainings of a
string, or the voice.
262 piiosoDY.
680. That the acceiitus or rovoq [tonus) of the Romans
aud Greeks was the higher or lower sound of a sylhi1)le, whieh
■we call aceent, is shown by their names for it, as it is by the
accent of the Greek of our time, Avhich answers to the mark-
ings and laws of the acute accent in Ancient Greek; and if
that which has been betokened by the laws and markings of
accent in Greek was some other thing than what we call
accent, we must conclude that accent has taken the place of
an unknown something that was not accent, and that the laws
of that which accent has displaced hold upon accent as fully
as they Avould if it were not accent, but that which it has
displaced, though this would be an immutation unknown in
any language of the world.
It is clear, from what Cicero writes of accent {Oral, xviii.),
that it was the same as our accent. He says, " INIira est enim
queedam natura vocis ; cujus quidem, e tribus omnino sonis,
inflexo, acuto, yravi, tanta sit, et tam suavis varietas pcrfecta
in cantibus. Ipsa enim natura, quasi modularetur hominum
orationem, in omni verbo posuit acutam vocem, ncc una
plus, nee a postrema syllaba eitra tertiam."
The last expression is of the same meaning as a rule in Greek
prosody, that an acute aceent will not be followed by more
than two syllables, nor by more than three times of a short
syllable; and thence that the circumflex is never thrown
farther back than the penultimate syllable, for the circumflex
takes one time of rising and another of sinking, and its one
time of sinking with another low syllable will make two low
syllables, the most of lo\v syllables that the acute accent takes
after it.
Thence the circumflex of au[Lu becomes an acute in the
genitive case-form auixurog ; for otherwise, since auixu is
equal to crdofxa, aSixcirog would be equal to aooiMxror, a word
of one acute syllable with three grave ones after it, and there-
fore a word of a forbidden form. Hence come the rules, that
if the last two syllables be short, the acute accent may be
before them on the antepenultimate ; if the last two syllables
be long, it comes on to the penultimate; and if the penul-
timate be long and the last short, the accent will be circumflex.
The accent shifts in Illyric as it does in Greek and Latin.
681. Notwithstanding the care with which English scholars
learn and teach the rules of the acute accent in Greek, and
PROSODY. 263
mark it in their Greek books, few of them ever make the
Tovog by their rules or markings when they read or speak
Greek.
They take the rule, ' If the last syllable be long, the accent
will be placed on the penultimate,^ and upon this rule Avrite
TUTTTO/xiyou, •JSipsKvj, and aretpcivovg, and yet they pronounce
them TUTTo'/xfvou, vs^sKvi, are^uvovg.
682. English verse is constructed upon sundry orders of
acute and grave accents and matchings of rhymes, while the
poetic language of the Romans and Greeks is formed upon
rules of the sundry clusterings of long and short syllables,
and therefore the English are much given to confuse time and
accent in Latin and Greek and other languages; so that a
scholar may, without blame, pronounce amdbilis, insiiperabilis,
for amdbilis, insupercibilis, giving accent for quantity, and may
say bonus and brevis for bonus and brevis, giving quantity and
accent for the Latin accent ; though one must always give
the right quantity to the penultimate or critical syllable of
words of more than two syllables, and therefore he would
sin greatly in the saying of vesica for vesica, though he may
call vesica vesica without blame.
From these anomalies of our Latin prosody, and from the
insufficient lettering of the Latin, which has only one letter
for a long and a short breath-sound of the same kind, the
Latin prosody is, on the one hand, very bewildering ; and yet,
inasmuch as Latin poetry is constructed upon rules of sundry
clusterings of long and short syllables, it is, on the other
hand, of great weight in Latin scholarship.
683. It must not be concluded that the mark which we
have taken as a token of the acute accent fills the same office
in all languages in which it is found.
In Spanish and Irish it betokens a long sound, and in
Icelandic the leaning strokes over the vowels are not tokens
of tone, since the two words blasa (to turn toward) and bldsa
(to blow), and the two words atti (heated) and dtti (had) have
the same tone. Nor docs this stroke ( ' ) at all denote the
length of the vowels, for the unmarked ones are often long,
and the diphthongic ones short or toneless, as vel (well), math
(meat) ; but it (the stroke ' ) betokens an addition or essential
alteration in the sound itself, as tap [tavp] pith, tre {trie) tree,
264 PROSODY.
mtr {mier) to me, gret (griet) wept; it therefore betokens a
diplithoug, of which the vowel it marks gives one sound.
684. The same stroke, which is found in Anglo-Saxon, and
is taken by most Anglo-Saxon scholars as a mark of a single
long sound, might have been a mark of a diphthong ; and
therefore, Avhilc it is rightly taken as a mark of two times, it
may be wrongly taken as the mark of two times of the same
sound. Many of the stroke-marked vowels of the Anglo-Saxon
are found as diphthongs in some otlier Teutonic dialects ; as,
clsen; Dorset, clean. dom; doom,
hlaf; „ luof. eode; Northumh. yewd.
hal; „ hail. hy'rde; Dorset, heard,
an ; one (won) ; Germ. ein. hwy' ; why.
gast; Germ, gheist. sy'; Germ. sey.
stjin ; Dor. stwon ; Ger. stein. fy'r ; fire ; Germ, feuer.
Ised-an ; Dorset, lead. ur ; our.
mare ; „ mwor. hus ; house ; Germ, haiis.
cid-au ; chide. wi^utan ; without,
min; mine; Germ. mein. hu; how.
fif; five. tun; town.
sniS-an; Germ, schneiden.
685. In English the acute accent keeps mostly on the root
in words of the forms (.+1), (1+.), (.+2), (2+.), (.+3),
(3-|-.) ; as, unhorse, manliness, unfair, truly, undo, laughingly.
Compounds of the forms (^-f-l), (4+3), have the acute accent
sometimes on 4, and sometimes on the root syllable ; as,
German, utifang-en, zusehen, eingang, dbfall, iibersetz-en, wider-
stehen, underwood, undersherijf.
In Welsh the acute accent is on the last or penultimate
syllable, and when it falls on the last it becomes a circumflex.
In the north of Ireland the acute accent is on the root syllable,
but in the south it is on the ending ; so that the poems of a
Munster bard are of very bad construction to an Ulster reader,
and the song of an Ulster man is spoilt in the mouth of a
Munster one.
686. The utter inattention to quantity in English prosody,
in which accent takes its place, works to make unlearned
English bad pronouncers of Avords from languages in which
long gi'ave breath-sounds follow short acute ones.
Kuron {kurcin), vrith the first syllable short and the last
long, is mostly called in England kardn, with the first long and
PROSODY.
265
the last slioi't ; and few English would make the last ^ syllable
long without easting the acute accent on it, as kurcin.
So most other long end-syllables of words from the Oriental
languages are either wrongly shortened as grave tones, or
wrongly sharpened as long ones.
Quantiti/
as commonly
pronounced.
. . . islam
True
(Quantity.
. . . . ameer . .
carvan, caravan
. . . . divan . . ,
. . . . faquir . . .
. . . . haram . . .
. . . . Allahabad
. . . . ramadan .
. . . . kafir ....
. . . . sultan . .
. . . . salam . . .
. . . . Shu'az . .
)or(-
')or(
')•
')•
-),
).
687. Prosody is of much utility, not only for the wording
of poetry, but also for the reading of it with advantage and
pleasure, as well as for the true pronunciation of words and
the ends of comparative and critical grammar; and it has
often led to emendations of classical works.
688. Scanning is the dividing of a line into its clusters of
long and short, or acute and grave, syllables.
689. To scanning belong several figures of prosody, —
Synalcepha, Ecthlipsis, Si/nai'esis, Dicer'esis.
690. Synalcepha is the casting out of a vowel-ending of a
word, before a vowel at the beginning of another :
{e)l ie)2
Latin, conticu- \ er*dm- \ nes In- \ tentl \ qiC^ora ten- \ ebdnt.
The e marked 1 and 2 are omitted.
691. Ecthlipsis is the casting out of *m at the end of a
word, before a vowel of the next in Latin pcetry :
1 2
Latin, monstr\um\ horrend\um'\ inform[e] ingens.
The urn marked 1 and 2 are omitted.
12
266 PROSODY.
692. Crasis, or Synceresis, is the contraction of two vowels
into the time of one ; as,
' By fraud th\e o]jfended Deity t\o a]ppease.'
Where the e and o, and tho o and a, are uttered in the time of one short Towel.
693. Diceresis is the opening of one syllahle into the time
of two ; as, sUlke for silvce.
694. The sundry chisters of long and short, or acute and
grave, syllables are called feet.
Dr. Latham has taught us, that if we betoken a long or
acute accent or syllaljle by A, and a short or grave one by a,
we can mark the sundry clusters of long and short, or acute
and grave, syllables by very handy formulae of like clusters
of A^s and a's.
The feet are the
Pyrrhic, 2 short or grave syllables (2 a).
Spondee, 2 long or sharp (2 A).
Iambus, 1 short or grave, and 1 long or sharp . . (a-f-A) .
Trochee, 1 long or sharp, and 1 short or grave . (A-(-a).
Dactyl, 1 long or sharp, and 2 short or grave . . (A-j-2 a) .
Anapcest, 2 short or grave, and 1 long or sharp . (2a-f-A) .
Amphibrach, 2 short or grave, with a long or"l / _i a _i_ ■*
sharp between them J i^+^+^J-
Amphimacrum, 2 long or sharp, with a short~l , . _j , . .
or grave between them J '•* "r^T'-^J-
Baccheius, 1 short or grave, and 2 long or sharp . (a-|-2 A) .
Anti-Baccheius, 2 long or sharp, and 1 short
or grave
} (2A+a),
Choriambus, 2 long or sharp between 2 short"! , j^^ .
or grave J (a-j-^A+a).
Epitritus, an iambus and a spondee.
PcEona, a trochee and a pyrrhic.
Antispastus, an iambus and a trochee.
695. A verse or line may be formed of a set number of
feet, which may be all of the same kind, or of sundry kinds,
and therefore there are sundrv kinds of verse or metre.
PROSODY. 267
696. Heroic.
6 [(A + 2a) or (2 A)].
The Heroic verse of the Greeks and Romans has six feet,
spondees or dactyls, though the fifth must always be a dactyl,
and the last a spondee :
Tu nihil | invi | ta di | cas faci | as ve Mi- [ nerva.
This kind of verse has been tried in English, but does not
seem to have been received with much favour.
697. Elegiac
The Elegiac verse is the pentameter of five feet, dactyls or
spondees or anapaests :
12 3 4 5
Res est | solici | ti plen | a ti mor | is a mor.
698. Adonic
2[(A + 2a) + (2A)].
The Adonic verse is of two feet, a dactyl and spondee :
12 12
Gaudia
PeUe ti-
pelle.
morem.
Sis mihi I prjesens.
Rebus in arctis.
Christe Re demptor.
Boethius.
699. Sapphic
3 [(A-f a) + (2 A) + (A-|-2a) + (2 A+a)] + 1 Adonic.
A Sapphic verse is of five feet, a trochee, spondee, dactyl,
two trochees ; and after three of such lines an Adonic :
_1 2 _ 3 4 6
Inte- I ger vi- | t^ sceler- | isque | purus.
700. ASCLEPIADE.
2[(A-f-2) (A-|-2a + A) + (a + A)].
An Asclepiade consists of 4 feet, a spondee, two choriambi,
and an iambus :
Maece- | nas atavis | edite reg- | ibus.
701. Iambic
[6 (a + A), or 4 (a-f A)].
The Iambic verse is mostly of iambics and spondees, or
other feet of their time, four or six in a line :
" With wo I ful mea | sures wan | Despair,
Low sul I len sounds, | his grief | beguiled."— Co//jw«.
268 PROSODY.
1 2 __ 3 4
Inar | sit £e - | stiio- | siiis.
1 2 3 4 5 6
Siiis I et ip- | sa llo- | ma vi- | ribus | riiit.
Hor. Epod. xvi. 2.
"And Hope, | enchant | ed, smiled | and waved | her gold | en hair."
Collins.
1 2 3 i_
" Once more I the ho- | ly star | light
1 2 3
Sleeps calm | upon j thy breast,
1 2 3 4
Whose bright | ness bears | no to | ken more
1 2
Of man's | unrest." — Mrs. Hemana.
702. Anacreontic.
3[(a+A)+a) or (2 A) -|- 2 (a + A) + a.) ]
The Anacreontic verse is of 3^ feet ; the first a foot of
three or four times, the second and third iambics :
12 3 i
ades I pater j siipre- | me.
1 2 3 i
" Flow on, I rejoice, | make mu ] sic." — Mrs. Eemans.
703. Archilochiax.
2[(A + 2a)+a)].
The Archilochian, 2| feet; two dactyls and a syllable :
1 2 \
Dulcibus I alloqui- | is.
704. Alcaic
2 [ (a4- A) + (2 A) + (2a-fA) + (a + A) ].
The Alcaic, 4^ feet; two feet of two syllables, a syllable,
two dactyls :
12 3 4 5
Vides 1 ut al I ta stet | nive can | didum.
705. Archilochian Iambic
2 [2A+(a + A)]+A.
4| feet ; first and third spondees, second and fourth iambics,
and a long syllable at the end :
12 3 4 I
Nec su I mit aut | ponit | secvi | res.
PROSODY. 269
An odd syllable is sometimes given at the end of an English
iambic line ; as,
J 2 8 4, 5 I
of hear'n \ received | us fall- | ing, and | the thund- | er,
706. Dactylic Alcaic Minor.
2(AH-2a) + (A+a) + (2A.)
1st and 2nd feet dactyls, and the 3rd and 4th feet trochee
and spondee : . ? v, . , . ? ^ t t ^ i *- -
^ arbitn | o popu- | lans | aurse.
707. Phaleucian.
(2A) + (A-f 2a)4-2(A + a) + (2A.)
Five feet ; 1 spondee, 1 dactyl, and 3 trochees :
1 2 3 4 5
Summam | nee metu- | as di- | em nee j optes.
708. The English heroic verse is mostly iambic of five feet :
m heaven | or earth, | or un- [ der earth | in hell.
This line is nearly, if not wholly, pure in quantity as well
as in accent :
in heaven | or earth, | or un- | der earth | in hell.
This coincidence of the acute accent with a long syllable,
and of the grave accent with a short one, is not, however, often
found in English verse, in which accent is taken instead of
quantity.
709. A variation of iambic verse is often made by the
incasting of a trochee instead of one of the iambics.
1st foot trochee :
My'sti- I cal dance, \ which yond- | er star- | ry" sphere.
2nd foot :
U'ndeck't | save with \ herself | more love- | ly fair.
3rd foot :
Fairest | of stars, | last in \ the train | of night.
4th foot :
These are | thy glo- | rious works, | parent \ of good.
5th foot :
Spoil'd prin- ] cipal- j ities | knd powers | trium'ph'd.
270 PROSODY.
710. Each of the iambic feet may also give place to a
spondee.
1st foot :
Smooth, ed- \ sy, in- ] offen- ] sive, (lorn 1 to hell.
2nd foot :
At such I bold words, \ vouch'd with | ^ deed ] so bold.
3rd foot :
And faith- | ful now \ prdv'd false, \ but think | not here.
4th foot :
While day | kris- | es, that \ sweet hour \ of prime.
5th foot :
Sflence, | ye troub- [ led waves, | and thou, | Deep, peace.
711. The pyrrhic may take place of an iambic foot.
1st foot :
On the I proud crest ] of Sa- | tun, that | no sight.
2nd foot :
Springs light- | er the \ green stalk, ] from thence |
the leaves.
3rd foot :
Converse ] with A'd- | dm hi \ what bow'r \ or shade.
4th foot :
By pray'r [ th' offend- ] ed de- | )tij | t' {\ppe^e.
5th foot :
His dan- | ger, and | from whom | what en- | emy.
The under-length of the pyrrhic is often made out by the
over-time of the spondee, or by a pause, so that the time of
the verse is not shortened or lengthened by either of them.
712. The anapsest and dactyl seem to have, in many places,
two shortened short syllables, such as Quinctilian calls bre-
vibus breviores, 'shorter than the short'; so that two of them
take up only one short time :
and flow'- | nng 6- | dours, cass- | id, nard, | and balm.
No in- I grate- | ful food, | and food | alike | those pure.
713. The anapsest may take place of an iambic foot.
1st foot :
1 2 3 4 5
To e- I van- | gelize | the na- ] tions, then | on all.
PROSODY. 271
2nd foot :
of mer- | c'y and jus- \ tice in | thy face | discern'd.
3rd foot :
Near that | bi-tii- | niinous lake j where So- | dom flam'd.
4th foot :
The earth | to yield | unsa- | vbury food | perhaps
5 th foot :
Hurl'd head- ] long flam- | ing from | the ethe- | real sky.
714. The dactyl may take place of an iambic foot.
1st foot :
Myriads \ i\ih' bright; [ if he | whom mii- | tukl league.
3rd foot:
More jiist- | ly , seat 1 worthier \ of gods | is built.
4th foot :
over I the vast | abyss, | folloiving \ the tract.
715. Two or three trochees, spondees, or anapaests may
take place of as many iambics in the same line.
*^* These notes on the commutation of feet in English verse are
taken from a Paper on ' the Quantity or Measure of English Verse,
with Examples from Milton/ Annual Register, 1758.
716. Sometimes the last line of a couplet has six instead of
five feet, and is called an Alexandrine :
And Hope [ enchant- | ed smiled, | and waved | her gold- | en hair.
Collins.
717. Iambic verse is of sundry metres besides the heroic,
or has more or fewer feet in a line.
1st, two feet. 2(a + A.)
Pack clouds | away,
And wel- | come day. — Heywood.
Tho' lee- | ward whiles, | against | my will 4 (a-|-A.)
I took I a bick- | er.' — Burns. 2 (a-|-A) -{-(a.)
Once more j the ho- | ly star- | light 3 (a-|-A) -|- (a.)
Sleeps calm | upon | thy breast, 3 (a-j-A.)
Whose bright- | ness bears | no to- | ken more 4 (a-}- A.)
Of man's ] unrest. 2 (a-j-A.)
272 PROSODY.
2(a + A.)
Your voi- I ces raise,
Ye cher- | ubini
And ser- | apliim,
To sing I his praise.
One night | as I | did wand- | or, 3 (a--j-A) -I- (a.)
^Vhen corn | begins | to shoot. — Burns. 3 (a-j-A.)
4(a4-A.)
Ye banks | and braes | o' bon- | nie Doon,
How can I ye bloom | so fresh | and fair.
4(a + A) + (a.)
Thy wee | bit hous- | ie too | in ru- j in,
Its silly wa's the wins are strewin. — Burns.
5(a-f A.)
The sil- I ver swan, | who liv- | ing had | no note.
When death | approach'd | unlock'd | her si- | lent throat.
May pure | contents 2 (a-j-A.)
For ev- I er pitch | their tents. 3 (a-j-A.)
Upon I these downs, | these meads, | these rocks, | these mount-
ains, 5 (a-j-A) -j- (a.)
And peace | still slum- | ber by | these purl- | ing fount- | ains.
Raleigh.
Sometimes we have alternately four feet ia one line, and
three in the other : this is called common metre.
As pants | the hart | for cool- | ing streams,
When heat- | ed in | the chace.
So longs I my soul, | O God, | for thee,
And thy | refresh- | ing grace.
718. Trochee.
One foot and a long syllable. ( A -f- a ) -j- (A.)
Tumult I cease.
Sink to I peace.
Two feet. 2 ( A -|- a.)
Kich the | treasure,
Sweet the | pleasure. — Bryden.
(Two feet -f 1). 2 (A -j- a) -f (A.)
Can I I cease to | care ?
PROSODY. 273
Three feet. 3 ( A -j- a. )
Can I I cease to | languish ? — Burns.
(Three feet + 1 .) 3 (A -{- a ) -|- (A.)
Scots wha I hae wi' | Wallace | bled,
Scots wham Bruce has often led.
Four feet. 4(A-{-a.)
Onward | float, the | wave di- | viding,
Go, my I bark, se- | renely | gliding.
(Four feet -f- 1 .) 4 ( A + a) -f- (A.)
Must I I tell my | sorrow | and de- | spair P
Five feet. 5 ( A + a. )
We must I make for | yonder | distant j island.
719. Dactyl.
Spondee and iambus. (2 A -j- a) -\- (A.)
God save | the Queen.
Two feet. 2 ( A -}- 2 a.)
Bird of the | wilderness,
Blithesome and | cumberless. — Hoffff.
Happy and | glorious.
Long to reign | over us.
(A + 2a)+(A + a.)
Non sia ri- | trosa,
Non isdegn- | dsa,
Ma ritro- | setta,
E sdegnos- | etta.
(Three feet -fl.) 3(A+2a) + (A.)
Light be thy | matin o'er ] moorland and | lea. — Hogff.
(Three feet + 2.) 3 ( A+ 2 a) + ( A-j- a.)
Light sounds the | harp when the | combat is | over. — Moore.
Four feet. 4(A + 2a.)
Out of the I door as I I look'd with a | steady phiz. — Soncf.
12 §
274 PROSODY.
720. Anapaestic.
Two feet. 2(2a-|-A.)
Hearts of oak | are our ships,
British tars | are our men. — Song.
Three feet. 3 ( 2 a -f A. )
Oh, the stream- | let that flow'd | round her cot,
All the charms | of my Em- | ily knew.
Sometimes the first anapaest gives place to an iamb as :
I am mon- | arch of all | I survey,
My right \ there is none | to dispute.
Four feet. 4 (2 a + A. )
And the sheen | of their spears | was like stars | on the sea,
When the blue | wave rolls night- | ly on deep | Galilee. — Byron.
721. A catalectic or wanting verse is one that wants a
syllable for the filling of its feet, or a hypercatalectic or over-
full verse is one that has an odd syllable besides its full feet.
It might be more rational to consider that the catalectic
and hypercatalectic verses are neither underfull nor overfull
in time, if they are in speech ; and that the odd syllables are
always followed by pauses, ^ith which they make, in time, true
feet. They may be called pause-footed verses; and if we
take P for a long pause, or the pause of an acute accent,
and p for a short pause, or the pause of a grave accent,
then the Anacreontic verse (art. 702) would be of four feet,
3(a-hA) + (a-fP).
The archilochian (art. 703) would be of three feet,
2(A+2a) + (A+2p).
So of the other metres :
2 (a+A) + (a) (art. 717) should be 2 (a+A) -}- (a-j-P).
3 (a-l-A) + (a) would be 3 (a+A) -f (a+P).
4 (a+A) + (a) is 4 (a+A) + (a+P).
(A+a) + (A) (art. 718) should be (A+a) + (A+p).
2 (A+a) + (A) is 2 (A+a) + (A+p).
3 (A+a) + (A) might be 3 (A+a) + (A+p).
4 (A+a) + (A) would be 4 (A+a) + (A+p).
3 (A+2 a) + (A) (art. 710) should be 3 (A+2 a) + (A+2 p)
3 (A+2 a) + (A+a) is 3 (A+2 a) + (A+a+p).
PROSODY.
275
The following are overfull verses of sundry kinds. The odd
syllable is given in italics.
722. Iambic,
with ( ' + P. )
2 ( a-{-x4)-f-(a.) I took | a bick- | er.— Burns.
3 (a-{-A)-|-(a.l One night | as I | did wan- | der. — Burns.
4 (a-f-A)-j-(«.) Thy wee | bit hous- | ie too | in ru- | in. — Btmis.
5 (a-j-A)-|-(a.) Upon | these downs, | these meads, | these rocks, |
these mount- | ains. — Raleigh.
723. Trochaic,
with ( ' -{- p. )
2 trochees-f-(^.) Can I | cease to | care ?
3 trochees-|-(y^.) Scots wha | hae wi' | Wallace | hied,
Scots wham | Bruce has | often | led. — Burns.
4 trochees-|-(^.) Must I | tell my | sorrow | anrl de- | spair ?
724!. Dactylic,
with ('4-2 p.)
1 dactyl-}-(^.) God save the | Queen.
2 dactyls-f-(^.) Bright be the | place of thy | soul. — B^/ron.
3 dactyls-(-(^.) Sound the loud | timbrel o'er | Egypt's dark |
sea. — Moore.
3 dactyh-\-(A-\-a.) Light sounds the
ver. — Moore
harp when the I com bat is
725. In loose verse a trochee often takes piace of a dactyl,
and a dactyl takes that of a trochee :
Little Miss | Muffet she | sat on a | iuj^i.
Eating of I curds and | whey.
Why all this
Why aU this
wJujiing ?
pining ?
The following verses are of sundiy kinds of feet :
Come ye, | come ye, | to the green, | green wood.
Loudly' the | blackbird is | singing;
The squir- | rcl is feast- | ing on bios- | sbm and bud,
And the curl- | ing fern | is spring- | ing.' — Howitt.
Two trochees take the place of a dactyl :
Down by' yon | stream, and yon ] bonny castle | green. — Burns.
276 PRosoDy.
A dactyl is given for an iambus :
He bade | mc- act \ a man- | ly' part, | though 1' | had ne'er | a
far- I thing, O,
For wWioiH I an hdn- | est man- | ly" heart, | no man \ was worth
I regard- j ing, 0. — Burns.
An iambus is cast in for an anapaest :
And her hair, | shedding te;'ir- ] drops from all | its bnglit | rings,
Tell 6- I ver her white | arm, to make | the gold strings. — Moore.
Where health \ and high spi- | rits awa- | ken the morn.
And ddah \ through the dews | that impearl | the rough thorn,
To shoiUs I and to cries
Shrill e- I cho replies, ScC. — Bishop.
726. The measure of two lines taken together is sometimes
full, while each of them taken singly as they are written, is
overfull or wanting. Such lines may be so written as to show
their full measure :
Light sounds the | harp, when the | combat is over, [ wJien
Heroes are | resting, and | jc5y is in bloom ; when
Laurels hang | loose from the | brow of the | lover, | and
Ciipid makes | wings of the | warrior's \ pliime. — Moore.
727. The following is a trial at English, sapphics byDr.Watts:
When the fierce northwind, with his airy forces,
Eears up the Baltic to a foaming fury,
And the red lightning, with a storm of hail, comes
Rushing amain down. — Notes and Queries, iii. 494.
728. Part of the 120th Psalm, in alcaic metre :
As to th' Eternal often in anguishes
Erst have I called, never unanswered ;
Again 1 call, again I calling.
Doubt not again to receive an answer. — Sir P. Sidney ?
729. The Japanese mostly write their poetry in distichs.
The first line of a distich is made up of three feet or measures,
with five syllables in the first, seven in the second, and five in
the third. The last line of the distich has two feet or mea-
sures, with seven syllables in each.
277
RHYME.
730. Rhyme is tlie matching of two breath-sounds by the
likeness of one to the other of them. The rhyme-likeness of
two breath-sounds consists in voicings (vowel -sounds) and
clippings (articulations or consonants) . A breath-soun^ may
be only a pure breath-sound or voicing, as o or oive ; or it
may be a voicing with a clipping, or more than one clipping,
before it or after it ; as, bo, bio ; hot, blot ; stand, brand.
The main element of rhyme-likeness is the last voicing in a
breath-sound ; as e in me, be ; a in hand, land.
The next elements of rhyme-likeness are the clippings that
follow the last voicing ; as nd in hand, land.
731. It is a rule of full and true English rhyme, that the
last voicings, and all the clippings after the last voicings, of two
rhyming breath-sounds should be the same, as band rhymes
with land, or as iveeps rhymes with sleeps in
Lo ! where tliis silent marble iceeps,
A friend, a wife, a mother sleeps.
732. It is a rule of full and true English rhyme, that two
clippings before the two last voicings of two rhyming breath-
sounds should be different, and therefore that a breath-sound
should not be taken for a rhyme to itself, as in the lines
The blackbird leaves
The quiv'ring leaves.
or. The sailors see
The rolling sea.
733. Now if we set a vowel, a or e, for the last voicing of a
breath-sound, and figures 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. in the places of the
clippings of it, they will afford us handy formulse for the be-
tokening of rhyming breath-sounds and rhymes.
a. 1. would betoken a breath-sound of one voicing and one
clipping, as on. Then, if sundry figures betoken sundry clippings,
a. 1. 2. would stand for one voicing and two clippings, as old;
3. a. 1. 2. would mean a breath-sound of one voicing, with
a clipping before it and two tonguings after it ; and
4. 3. a. 1, 2. would be a formula for a breath-sound of one
voicing between two pairs of clippings, as bland.
278 RHYME.
Two of sncli formulse for brcatli-sounds placed parallel, with
a line between them, as
3. 4. a. 1.2.
5. a. 1.2.
would betoken a pair of rhyme breath-sounds, as
bland
• land.
Now the rule for full and true English rhyme is, that the
last voicings, and all the clippings after the last voicings, of
two rhyming breath-sounds should be the same, but that all
the clippings before them should not be the same ; so English
rhymes would be of the form
1 as
l.a no.
2.1.a^^
snow.
1. a no
2. l.a
snow
-a -0.
-a
-0.
2. 1. a free
3. a
2.1.a''^^
me
3. a ^^ me.
free.
2. a. 1. bad
3.a. 1. ^^ lad.
4. a. 1.2. band
5. a. 1.2. ^^ land.
3. 4. a. 1.2. trend
4. a. 1.2. ^^ rend.
In Arabic, Persian, and Hindoostanee prosody, the voicing
and clippings of rhyming breath-sounds bear sundry names.
A last long voicing is ri(if, and the last short voicing, with the
clipping after it, is kied ; the clipping that folloAVS ridf, or
kiedy is rewee.
734. These nilcs do not hold good for the rnyme of all
languages, and they are sometimes broken by English writers.
Butler, in his Hudibras, frequently breaks the rule that the last
voicings of two rhyming breath-sounds should be the same in
quality and quantity, and often gives an opener and closer,
and a longer and shorter, as rhymes.
Let different vowels betoken sundry voicings, and let a
vowel with a dash ( a' ) stand for a short vowel, and a vowel
with two dashes ( a" ) mean a long one. Then the unlikeness
RHYME. 279
of the two last voicings of the two breath-sounds will be
shown by the formulai —
3. I a. 1. lad
4. I e. 1. bed.
3. a'. 1. ten
4. a". 1. mane.
735. Cases of the breach of rules.
— '- instead of — '—
e. a.
And weave fine cobwebs, fit for skull
That's empty, when the moon is full. — Hud. pt. i. c. i. 1. 159.
They stoutly in defence on't stood.
And from the wounded foe drew blood. — Ibid. 323.
The mighty Tyrian queen, that gain'd
With subtle shreds a tract of land. — Ibid. 467.
Some of Butler's misrhymings, as they are to us, may
have been true rhymes in bis time, since which the voicings
of many of our words have changed, as in
And when we can with metre safe.
We '11 call him so ; if not, plain RapJi,
Ralph is still often voiced Rafe by the rustics of the West
of England.
a 1
736. In Norse the half-rhyme, ~ which is called skot-
hending, is allowed; so that sCirS-um rhymes with nor^-an,
and var^ with forS, and
spara^ . , ,
— — rrr- IS a good rhymc.
— '- — '- is the form of one of Butler's rhymes :
e. o. ''
The Eabbins wrote Avhen any Jew
Did make to God, or man, a vow. — Hud. pt. ii. c. 2.
737. 3. a. 1.
4. e. r.
In this case of half-rhyme the last voicings are of sundry
sounds, and are followed by clippings which are kinsletters,
but not the same ; as, met
bad.
280 RHYME.
This rliymc is allowed in Irish, under the name of uaithne,
or union. Butler has taken the freedom of this form of
half-rhyme :
The beaten soldier proves most man/«l,
That, like his sword, endures the anvd. — Hud. pt. ii. c. 1.
But we must claw ourselves with sha>«e/«d
And heathen stripes, by their e\i\mj)le. — Idid. c. 2.
sham*/*l
Her mouth compared to an oyster's, with (wid)
A row of pearls in't 'stead of teeth (tjd:). Ibid.
738. a. 1. 2.
e. 1. 3.
This form is allowed as a good half-rhyme {skot-hending,
half-assonance) in Norse poetry, in which
„ , . — IS a good rhyme.
739. a'. 1.
a". 1.
This is a form of imperfeet rhyme, where the last voieings
are of the same sound, but one of them long and the other
short, with the same clippings ; as, lane
ten.
But first, with knocking loud and bmol-m^,
He roused the squire in truckle loll-'m^. — Hud. pt. ii. c. 2.
740. a. 1.
a. 1'.
This form of half-rhyme has the last voieings the same,
and the last clippings of the same kind or class ; as, blade
late.
The Persian poets call it eekfa, and sometimes, though rarely,
allow it ; so that lub has been taken as a rhyme to chup.
It is allowed, also, in Irish poetry under the name of com-
harda or correspondence.
RHYME. 281
Butler has admitted it into his Hudibras, as in
In which they 're hamper'd by the fet-lock.
Cannot but put y' in mind of wed-lock.
Also, And, by the greatness of its noise (noiz),
Proved fittest for his country's choice (tqois).
741. a' 1.
a" 1'.
In this form of half-rhyme the last voicings are of the same
class but of sundry lengths, and the last clippings are of the
same class but not the same ; as in
not overstrain'd,
nor overbent.
742. a. 1.
a. 2.
In this form of half-rhyme the last voicings are the same,
but the last clippings are of sundry classes.
This form is the imperfect correspondence of Irish poetry,
in which it stands good with the form
743. a.
a. 1.
where one of the rhyming breath-sounds has no tonguing;
ba . ,
-y^ — - IS a rhyme.
so that 1
ba
744. a. 1.2. a. 1.2.
a. 1. 3'. a. 1. 3.
are forms of half-rhyme, in which the same voicings have
more clippings than one, and the last clippings are of sundry
classes or breathings.
It is allowed as a good rhyme (Iiending or assonance) in
Norse poetry, in which
biarts . , .
-T • — j— IS a good rhyme.
282 RHYME.
745. Twofold Rhymings.
The two main rhyming breath-sounds are often given with
two or more others after them ; as, say-ing
pray-ing.
In English rhyme it is needful that the two hinder breath-
sounds of the rhyme should be the same ; as ing of the two
rhyming words saying and praying.
The hinder rhyming breath-sound is called by the Persian
poets rudeef, an Aj'abic word, meaning the hindermost, as of
two men upon one horse ; and they mostly make only a word,
but not a syllable rudeef.
Hinder rhyme, or rudeef, takes place very often in English,
and still more often in Persian, Kafir, Italian, Spanish, and
Portuguese poetry ; as,
He snatch'd his weapon, that lay near him,
And from the ground began to rear him. — Hud. pt. i. c. 2.
But since you dare and urge me to it,
You '11 fmd I 've light enough to do it. — Ibid. c. 1.
Compound for sins they are inclined to.
By damning those they have no mind to. — Ibid.
And little pleasure had they in him,
Who had spent the day to win him. — Allingham.
746. The Persians sometimes give, after the rhyming breath-
sounds, two or more words answering in final letter with the
rhyme ; and at other times they bring in two rhymes at the
end of a distich, as if we were to write
In the light day
Of bright May.
Or, In the cold gloom
Of an old tomb.
747. When the rhyming breath-sounds are those of two
words of the same measure or number of letters, as well as
full rhyme, the Persian poets call the rhymes ' full snjd' or
full rhyme, though sujd means a-cooing, as of doves ; as,
Fra le vane speranze c'l van dolore,
Ove sia chi per prova intenda amore. — Petrarca, son. 1.
748. A tongue-rhyming of only the last clippings of two
words of sundry measures and numbers of breath-sounds, is
called svjd moturruf, or end-rhyming.
rhymt:. 283
749. Blank Verse.
Poetry written in unrhyming lines is called blank verse.
Milton's Paradise Lost, and most of Shakspeare's works, with
Thomson^s Seasons and many other poems, are in blank verse.
Although blank verse is free of rhyme, yet it seems holden
by another rule, — that every verse should end with an im-
portant or emphatic word.
No sooner had the Almighty ceased, but all
The multitude of angels, with a shoui
Loud as from numbers without number, sweet
As from blest voices, uttering joy, heav'n rttng
With jubilee ! Milton.
The rolling i/ear
Is full of Thee. Forth in the pleasing spring
Thy beauty walks, thy tenderness and love.
Wide flush the fields, the softening air is balm,
Echo the mountains round, the forest smiles,
And ev'ry sense and ev'ry heart is Jot/. TJmnson.
750. Rhymes are arranged in sundry ways, as in couplets
or distiches of two lines together :
a.
a.
Oh, render thanks to God above, ( — a)
The fountain of eternal love. ( — a)
In verses of four lines, of which the alternate ones rhyme
with each other : a.
b.
Or thus
As high as heav'n its arch extends ( — a)
Above this little spot of clay, ( — b)
So much His boundless love ixsinscends (—a)
The small respects that we can pay. ( — b)
And hard Unkindness' alter'd eye,
That mocks the tear it forced to Jloio, ( — a)
And keen Eemorse with blood defied, ( — b)
And moody Madness laughing Tvild ( — b)
Amid severest woe, ( — a)
284 RHYME.
Lament in rhyme, lament in prose, ( — a)
Wi' saut tears trick'ling down your nose, ( — a)
Our bardie's fate is at a close, ( — a)
Past a' mmead ; ( — b)
The last sad capestane o' his 7coes, ( — a)
Poor Mailie 's dead. ( — b)
Burns.
'Tis done ! But yesterday a Mti//, ( — a)
And arm'd with kings to strive; ( — b)
And now thou art a nameless thinff, ( — a)
So abject, — yet alive ! ( — b)
Is this the man of thousand thrones, ( — c)
Who strewed our earth with hostile bones ? ( — c)
And can he thus ^wxvive ? ( — b)
Since he, miscall'd the Morning Star, ( — d)
Nor man nor fiend hath fall'n so far. ( — d)
Byron, Ode to Buonaparte.
Fair Greece ! sad relic of departed ioorth ! ( — a)
Immortal, though no more, — though fallen, great ! ( — b)
Who now shall lead thy scatter'd children /or^/?, ( — a)
And long-accustom'd bondage uncrea^e ? ( — b)
Not such thy sons who whilome did awa^Y, ( — b)
The hopeless warriors of a willing doom, ( — c)
In bleak Thermopylfe's sepulchral strait : ( — b)
Oh ! who that gallant spirit shall resume, ( — c)
Leap from Eurota's banks, and call thee from the tomb ? ( — c)
B^ron.
751. Sonnet.
The sonnet is a composition of a very pretty form, of
which many and most excellent specimens have been given by
Petrarca, the Italian poet, and by writers of England, Por-
tugal, and other nations of Eui'ope.
The sonnet is a perfect little poem on one subject, and it
must have fourteen lines and five sets of rhymes, (a, b, c, d, e) ;
two sets of a and b, which may be arranged in sundry ways
in the first eight lines, and the other three sets {c, d, and e,)
may be given, in sundry orders, as the ending of the last six
lines; as.
RHYME.
285
! a
a
b
b
b
a
a
b
a
b
b
a
b
b
a
a
c
c
d
d
e
d
c
c
d
e
e
e
Ye airs of sunny spring, that softly hlow
With whisp'ry breathings o'er the grasses h\ade ;
Ye grass-bespangling flow'rs — too soon to hde —
That now with gemlike brightness round me groiv ;
Ye saplings small and green-bough'd trees, that ihrow
Your waving shadows on the sunny ^ade ;
Thou lowland stream, whose winding waters Jloio
Like molten silver to the hoarse cascade,
Give Vice the noisy town, and let the great
Ride mighty o'er the earth with pride and poio'r ;
Give Avarice his gold, but let mefiee
Where cold and selfish hearts live not to //ate
And scorn. Oh, take me to thy lonely dow'r.
Sweet rural Nature ! Life is sweet for thee.
-a)
-b)
-b)
-a)
-a)
-b)
-'')
-b)
-c)
-d)
-e)
-c)
-d)
-e)
752, Nine-line Rhyme.
Ay, me ! how many perils do enfold ( — a)
The righteous man to make him daily fall, ( — b)
Were not that heav'nly grace doth him \\\^/iold, ( — a)
And stedi'ast Truth acquite him out of all. ( — b)
Her care is firm, her care contin««/, ( — b)
So oit as he, through his own foolish ^vide ( — c)
Or weakness, is to sinful hands made ihral ; ( — b)
Else should this red-cross knight in bands have died, ( — c)
For whose deliverance she this prince doth thither guide. ( — c)
Spenser.
286 RHYMK.
Eight lines.
Di vivere &\?,cioUo
(-a)
Giii chc pretcndo in vano,
(-b)
M'aniioiU qiiella \\\ano
(-b)
Chi mi guidn fin or.
(-C)
Da solio, dair osile.
(-d)
Sia rozzo o sia genti/e,
(-d)
Sceglier tu dei quel \olto.
(-a)
Che ha da legarmi il cor.
(-C)
Metastasio.
Cada il iivanno,
(-a)
Kegno iVs.more,
(-b)
Kegno d'ingftHMO
(-a)
Di crudel^«.
(-C)
Scemo ogni core
C-b)
De' suoi martm,
(-d)
L'aure respfW
(-d)
Di liberta. Ibid.
(-C)
As the sets and orders of rhymes are
free
for the fancy of the
let, it is not thought needful to give
more patterns of them.
753. AVord-Matching.
There is in Eastern poetry a kind of word-rhyming, or
word-matching, in Avliich every word of a line is answered by
another of the same measure and rhjane in the other line of
the distich : it is called ters\a, or adorning.
The following distich is a ters\a as to the accented words :
She drove her flock o'er mountains,
By grove, or rock, or fountains.
There are kinds of match ings of wordsj breath-sounds, or
clippings, which the Persians call iujnis, or likeness.
754. That which they call tujnis-i-tom, or 'full-matching,'
is a full likeness in sound, of words which differ in meaning,
and is nothing more than our punning ; as if one were to say
to a married lady, ' If I call'd you a miss, I call'd you amiss.'
755. A matching of each of the words of one line by another
of the same measure in the other, is called by the Persians
sujd mowQzana, or constant matching, as in the couplet —
Syllahles. 12 lis 1
In 1 Britain's | isle, I no | matter | where,
An 1 ancient | pile j of | building | stands. — Gray.
Syllables.
RHYME.
287
Or,
1 2
2 1 1
2 1
111
silent
horror | o'er the
boundless waste,
The
driver
Hassan j with his
camels past.
Or,
Collim.
1 1
2 3
And
the
bhickest
discontents
Be
her
fairest
ornaments. -
-Wither.
756. In Irish verse there is a rule called rinn, ending, or
airdrinn, licad-eiiding, by which the last word of the second
line of a qnatrain should have one syllable more than the last
word of the first, and the last word of the fourth one more
than that of the third.
Irish metre has a kind of verse called seadna, in which the
last word of the second and fourth line of the quatrain is a
monosyllable called ceann, or head. Sometimes the first and
third lines are made to end in a word of two syllables, and the
third and foui'th in a word of one syllable.
In one kind of Irish verse, rarmaigheact bheag, or the less
filling, every line ends Avith a word of two syllables. In
rannaigheact mhor, or the great filling, every line ends Avith
a word of one syllable. In casbhairn every line ends with a
word of three syllables.
757. Tirsia with hfjr/[s, a full matching, in number and
form, of breath-sounds of the words of two lines, is holden
by the Persians as a great beauty ; as,
or tui n'oz ore
or tui noz ore.
If thou hast not love,
If thou hast sportiveness.
Or, as if we say in English :
What can undo
What cannon do ?
758. Clipping-Rhyme, or Matching of Clippings.
Clipping-rhyme, or matching of clippings, or letter-matching,
is the inbringing of the same clippings in set places of a line, or
two lines. It is known in the versification of many languages.
There is a matching of clippings which takes place in Welsh
and Persian poetry.
The Persians call it U/jnis-i-nakis, or deficient likeness;
and the Welsh cynghanedd.
288 RHYME.
By this matcliinji:, some same clippings are brought into two
lines, or in two halves of a single line.
The seaman
By heafcw's stars v, n, s, t, r, s.
To hare??* s/eers. v, n, s, t, r, a.
In both of the last two lines the clippings v, n, s, t, r, s are found-
"^orsaJdng bttXer ways, s, k, luj, b, t, r, w, a.
Is seeking b'ltier woes. s, k, ng, b, t, r, w, t.
The hunter roams
In woody wolds w, d, w, I, d, s.
And weedy wilds. w, d, w, I, d, s.
Beguiled by gold, b, g, I, d, \ b, g, I, d.
What hast thou sold !
In the first line the clippings b, g, I, d are found twice.
And can a little boy that's good,
Dare kill a ^ir6?'s dear callow brood? d, r,k, I, b,r, d, \ d,r,k{c),l,b,r, d.
Here the clippings d, r, k, I, b, r, d are found twice in the last line,
for c in callow is of the same clipping as k in kill.
3Iy Dorset maid, my dearest meed m, d, r, s, t, m, d \ m,d,r,s,t, m,d.
Is now thy winsome smile.
Compare the Norse . . Enn ]>eir er ^omu
Kilir vestan til,
Um ^i^ liSu
J , V 1 , • imafiarSar brm ;
and the Latin •'
Quaeque lacus late liquidos. — Virg. JEn. iv. 26.
The cry of Reuben, on his missing of Joseph, with its
clipping rhyme of n, is very touching :
:Nn"">j>* r\iik ^:^^"l ^ir^< I'^^n
|T .-; T^T •-;- v •• v v-
Hayeled enennvx vaa«j owo a«j bo.
n n n n n
The child is not; and I, whither shall I go? — Gen. wxjyii. 30.
There is a tendency in English, and some other languages,
to the formation of two-limbed words, with clipping-rhyme
and full-voice rhyme.
Clipping-rhyme.
chit-chat. gew-gaw. "^^^^^^
ding-dong. hip-hop.
iid(lle-faddle. nick-nack. ,. ,
flim-flam. nidd)' -noddy. onm-snnn
smp-snap.
RHYME. 289
Voiee-rJiyme.
cag-mag. hocus-pocus. hurly-burly,
clap-trap. hoity-toity. hurry-scurry,
harum-scarum. hotch-potch. namby-pamby,
higgledy-piggledy. hum-drum. roly-poly.
hob-nob. humpty-dumpty. wiUy-nilly.
759. Old Teutonic Poetry.
The old Teutonic poetry was constructed on laws of tongue,
rhyme, or clipping-rhyme and accent, or of clipping-rhyme
and quantity. The main law of the tongue-rhyme or clipping-
rhyme is, that every two fellow-verses should have three ac-
cented words or syllables beginning with the same clippings
or rhyme-letters, or with three vowels ; and that two of them,
which are the under -clippings, should be in the first of the two
lines ; and that the third, called the head-clipping , should be
at the first accent in the other line : as,
When, (5iound to some buy b, h.
In the billowy ocean, b.
O'er seas rolling surges s, s.
The sailors are steering, s.
God ?/Jeighs on his waters ?v, w.
Their ?pandering bark, ic.
And ?i"afts them with winds w, w.
O'er their ?catery way, w.
While his s^ars for their steersman s^, d.
Bes^ud all the sky. &t.
Then forego all misgivings g, g.
Of guidance and helping, g.
For our /mnds from the i/ighest h, h.
Have /^elp in their weakness, h.
When we woxk by the w'\)l w, w.
And the wisdom of God. w.
Or,
But when the raoonlight marks anew
Thy jMurky shadow on the dew.
So stowly o'er the sfeeping flow'rs,
OnsZiding through the nightly hours,
While smokeless on the houses' //eight
The /iigher chimney gleams in light
Above yon reedy roof, where now,
With rosy cheeks and lily brow.
No ?(7atchful mother's rard within
The window sleeps for me to win, &c.
^undlas ^tsung, bottomless greediness
yilpes and sehta, of glory and wealth.
13
290 RHYME.
If the rliymc-lcttcrs are vowels_, they sliould be all sundry ones:
ntan ymbe (^-'Selnc out round the noble
iiiiglas studon ........ angels stood.
\>cOt se dca het the same (man) bad
enlle acwellan to slay all.
Anglo-Saxon and Icelandic poetry has sometimes, but not
always or mostly, rhyme as well as tongue-rhyme or clipping-
rhyme ; and short verses have often only two instead of three
rhyme-clippings in a couplet, one in each of them :
iEla ]>u scippend thou creator
scin-d tungla of the bright stars.
This poetry is constructed mostly by rules of accent or em-
phasis with some attention to time or quantity, inasmuch as
the sharp syllables were of a set number in a line, often two,
as in the foregoing verses ; but the grave or uncmphatic sylla-
bles were thrown in before, between, or behind them, fewer
or more as the language may need them. The unaccented
or uncmphatic syllables, which are called the sjjeech-fillinff,
were read or sung very quick, like the breviores brevibus, or
shortened -short syllables, of our verse.
The following couplet has speech-filling within the brackets :
[ac sc] s^earca storm, .... but the stark storm,
[)?onne he] strong cym^. . when it comes strong.
The following lines have no fore-speech filling :
scean scix werod, shone the bright host,
scyldas lixton shields gleamed.
760. In Icelandic verse there is often an under-clijiping
rhyme, or two incomings, in the same line of the same clipping,
in the midst or end of two breath-sounds, whereas the place of
the main clipping-rhyme is at the beginning of them ; as,
fasto?"'Sr skyli firSa, . . . the king that would be rich in men,
fe«^s3ell vera J'f'WT/ill. . . should always keep his word,
where ?•§ are the under-tongue rhyme in the first line, ng in the latter,
761. The difference, therefore, between under-clipping rhyme
and full rhyme — to which under-clipping rhyme often comes
near — is, that under-clipping rhyme may be the sameness
only of clipping, and in the middle of a word, while full
rhyme is the sameness of breath-sound and clipping, and is at
the end of a word.
Under-clipping rhyme sometimes becomes full rhyme in
Icelandic.
RHYME. 291
762. Some of the more severe kinds of Norse poetry are
constructed by rules of quantity, with a set number of syllables
in a line.
763. This Teutonic versification is found in the works of
Anglo-Saxon poets : King Alfred's translation of the Metres
of Boethius ; Csedmon's Metrical Paraphrase of portions of
the Bible ; the heroic poems on Beowulf, king of the Angles ;
and the Sagas of the Northern skalds.
764. We find the true clipping rhyme of Saxon verse in
the later works of early English ; as in the
Vision of Piers Plowman.
In a somer seson, s, s.
Whan softe was the sonne, s.
I s/iop me into s/n'oudes, sh, s/i.
As I a sliee-p weere. s/i.
In /^abite as an /^eremite, k, k.
Un/^oly of workes, 7i.
Wente wide in this ?^orkb w, w.
TFbnders to here ; ic.
Ac on a il/ay wiorvvenynge m, m.
On Jialverne hilles, m.
Mebi/ela/erly / /.
Of /aire, me thote. /.
765. In the sixteenth centm'y the threefold clipping rhyme
of Teutonic poetry had given place to manifold clipping rhymes
in a line, as we find in The Paradise of Dainty Devises, printed
in 1576 :
The ifrustless ^vaynes that /coping /^arts allure. — E. S.
jPast /etter'd here is /orste away to _/ye,
As /mnted /^are that /^ound hath in the chace. — L. Faux.
And by conseyte of sweete alluring tale,
He Sites the baiie that Sreedes his fitter Sale. — F. K.
\A here sethyng sighs and sower sobbs. — L. F.
The fire shall freest, the //-ost shall /ne.
The /rozen mountains hie.— il£ Edtmrds.
As one that runnes beyond his race, and rows beyond his reach.
A. Bourcher.
766. Celtic Poetry of the Bards,
Irish Celtic poetry is constructed on rules of quantity of
syllables and lines, clipping-rhyme and voice-rhyme^ under-
rhyme and full-rhyme.
292 RHYME.
767. Irish clipping rhyme, which is much like that of
Teutonic poetry, is the beginning of two words of a line with
the same clipping ; as,
cpiall taji beapb'a na j-peab* j-ean,
cap eij- /aochjiaib'e Zairean.
Or, as in English :
Aloft, o'er /urrow'd /ields,
Tlie /ark now Zoudly sings.
7G8. Irish sound-rhyming is the answering of two breath-
sounds at the ends of two lines in vowels only, though not in
PP ^'^ * ba rhymes with blay.
aoi „ „ aoif.
As, in English :
Tall o'er the dingy town
Uprose the lofty tow'r.
Or, Then flew with deadly aira
The arrow through the air.
769. Irish under-rhyme is the answering of two breath-
sounds at the ends of two lines, both in vowels and clippings,
so far as that the clippings may be either the same or of the
same class, — liquids, or soft, or hard, rough, strong, or light.
Our rough and smooth kins-letters are two of the Irish
classes, and the liquids are another; so that ^-cam rhymes
with -mall, and ann with cholam.
As, in English :
High o'er the houseless vioor j
Rode on the silver moo7i.
770. Rinn, or ending, requires that the last word in the
second and fourth lines of a quatrain should have one more
syllable than that of the first and third.
771. There is a kind of under-rhyme, or rhyme called
union, which is the under-rhyming or rhyming 'of the last
word or breath-sound in one line, with one in the middle of
the following one ; as.
Then on buds of early foic'rs
April showers had cast bright gems ;
Then on ev'ry hedge was heard
Some sweet l/ird in joyful song.
772. Lines are often of six, seven, or eight syllables.
J
RHYME.
293
773. Some of the rules of quantity of syllables are 'head,'
— that in sundry kinds of verse the lines must end with words
of one, or two, or three syllables.
774i. Welsh poetry is constructed on laws of number of
syllables, full-rhyme, and clipping-rhyme ; and is of four, five,
six, seven, eight, nine, and ten syllables in a line.
Welsh clipping-rhyme [cijnghanedd] is of its own kind,
different from that of the Irish as well as that of the Teutonic
languages. Its laws are, that syllables or words of both of
the two members of a line separated by the caesura, have
syllables or words with the same clippings : (art. 758.)
Pur yw ei ghM, \ por y gljn,
Pure is his sword, the lord of the valley,
where the clippings p, r, gl are found in both members of the
line,— :??ur yw ei ghM, (and) por y gljxs..
The kinsletters are allowed to be rhymes to each other, so
that it is good cynghanedd for one pause to answer d hj t,
b by p, and c by gh in the other.
These rhymes sometimes become voice-rhymes as well as
clipping-rhymes :
/y?/yn ddaw i bob ^yr/a, /, r, /, . . t, r, f; or,
. an end will come to every host. tyr, f, . . tyr, f.
775. There is another kind of clipping - rhyme, called
cymmeriad (taking), which is a taking of the same clipping
or breath-sound for the beginning of two, four, or more lines :
Cael dirgelu
Clwyf annelu,
Cair dy selu,
Croew des haelion.
Being able to conceal
The wound of the an-ow-shot,
An opportunity may be had of seeing thee,
Warm luminary of the generous ones.
This kind of clipping-rhyme {cymmeriad) is that of the
Hebrew of the 119th Psalm, of Avhicli eight verses begin with
the letter aleph, eight more with beth, a third eight with
gimel, and so on to tau.
294 RHYME.
776. lu a ciimmeriad of vowels tlicy may be different ones.
Y docth I a'r annocth | njiwedd,
O //y>-au'r byd \ g\r i'r bcdd.
The wise aud the unwise alike
From the ends of the world He sends to the grave.
777. It may be thoufi:bt that the clipping-rhyme of the
bards and skalds is a triiiing ornament;, even if it gives their
verse any grace, or affords the car pleasure enough to be
worthily called an ornament.
It is* however, pretty and striking, when it is good of its
kind ; and in historical poems, such as those of the bards and
skalds, it was most useful for the continuing of the true text.
A false word of any weight in the verse could hardly take
place of a true one, which was bound into its context by
clipping-rhyme :
Mwy wa m'\l am uwo maw/, m, n, m, I, \ m, n, m, I.
Lin nefoedd oil yn vfadd. II, n,f, dd, | U, n,f, dd.
More than a thousand in united praise,
The throng of heaven were obedient.
In the first line mawl could not drop out without carrj'ing
away in I, answering to the m I in mil ; and in the second line
neither nefoedd nor ufudd could be easily displaced by another
word, as they bind in each other by the letters /, dd.
In the line.
Lion yw'r lla a lla.wn yivW lie, II, n, ywr, II, \ II, n, ywr, II.
Gay is the throng and full the place,
'Hon yw'r llvJ has the same clippings as 'Z/aww yw'r lie;' and
in the Saxon distich,
Fr)— (B") is full of bribes.
The Lord will strengthen him upon the bed {]l!^V) of languishing :
Thou wilt make all his bed (23li^;2) in his sickness.
Ps. xli. 3.
798. The same words, however, may appear in both members
of a distich, when it is not an answering, and therefore not
an emphatic word :
My voice — shalt thou hear — [in the morning-], Lord :
[In the morning] will I direct my prayer mito thee.
Ps. V. 3.
799. The same word may stand in a following member of
a distich that amplifies the former one :
Ps.ix. 9. Tlie Lord also will be (A) a refuge — (B) for the oppressed :
(A') A refuge — (B') in times of trouble.
Ps. Ivi. 10. (A) In God — (B) will I praise his word :
(A') In the Lord — (B') will I praise his word.
Ps. xxix. 4. (A) The voice of the Lord — (B) is powerful :
(A') The voice of the Lord — (B') is full of majesty.
800. An amplification seems to be sometimes given for a
parallel :
Ps. Ixvii. 3. Let the people — praise thee, Lord ;
Let all the people praise thee.
801. A parallelism is sometimes amplified by following
ones, and tlie first or short parallel is followed by a line, which
reappears in tlie same or like form after the other :
RHYME, 305
Is. liii. 7. (A) He was oppressed,
(B) And lie was afflicted,
(C) Yet he opened not his mouth :
(A) He is brought as a lamb to the slaughter,
(B) And as a sheep before her shearers is dumb,
(C) So he openeth not his mouth.
Joh X. 21. Before I go whence I shall not return,
(A) Even to the land of darkness
(B) And the shadow of death ;
(a) A land of darkness — (A') as night,
(b) And of the shadow of death — (B') without order.
Here the line a A' amplifies A, and b B amplifies the line B.
Ps. cxiii. 8. (A) He raiseth up the poor — (B) out of the dust,
(A') And lifteth the needy — (B') out of the dunghill ;
That he may set him with princes,
Even with the princes of his people.
802. The excellence of the structure of Hebrew poetry is
beyond that of the poetry of other nations^ inasmuch as it is
one which is not lost in translation.
The charming skill and sweetness of the Greek and Latin
feet of long and short breath-sounds^ and ours of sharp and
grave ones^ with the end-rhyme, sound-rhyme, and clipping-
rhyme of other nations, cannot follow a poet's thoughts out of
his language ; but the Hebrew parallelism, which is gromided
upon things and not words, can leave its own language, and
tune the psalm and the prophecy with the touching harmony
of its twin ideas to every man in his own language, — an ex-
cellence of markworthy fitness for the word which was to be
published to all nations.
803. Traces of Hebrew parallelism are found in some of
the discourses of our Lord, and other writings of the New
Testament.
The language which rises into poetry in the New Testament
is mostly that of strong feeling and earnest declaration, as in
Acts ii. 14, " Peter lifted up his voice, and said unto them,
(A) Ye men of Judea,
(B) And all ye that dwell at Jerusalem,
(A) Be this known unto yoii,
(B) And hearken to my words."
306 RHYME.
80 k "Wherever parallelism is found, whether in the New
or Old Testament, it becomes a useful key of interpretation ;
since, if the third member of a parallel means tlic fir.st under
another name, or in another form, we may conclude that the
fourth means the second; as,
(A) come, let us sing — (B) unto the Lord :
(A') Let us heartily rejoice — (B') in the strength of our salvation.
Where we may conclude that if 'rejoice^ in (A') is the
same action as 'sing^ in (A), then 'the strength of our sal-
vation' in (B') is 'the Lord' of (B).
Ps. cv. 20. (A) The king — (B) sent and loosed him [Joseph],
(A') The ruler of the people, — (B') let him go free.
Here the subject of A and A' is the same (the king of
Egypt), although in A' he is given by a periphrasis; and in
the members B and B', the actions ' loosed ' and ' let go free '
are the same action of ' the king/ and ' Joseph ' is the object
of it.
805. If the subject of the third member only bears some
likeness to that of the first, yet, if the meaning of three out
of the four members is clear, and one of them is disputed or
sought, the three clear ones will often disclose the meaning
of the dark one.
Jb^ xxvi. 13. (A) By his spirit — (B) he hath garnished the heavens;
(A') His hand — (B') hath formed the crooked serpe?it.
Here we may believe that as (B') speaks of the heavens,
and the subject of A' is the hand (power) of God, as that
of A is his power, so B' also speaks of the heavens, and
that liTTD (serpent) must mean a constellation.
806. Parallels are sometimes of three with three, instead
of two and two :
(A) Thou hast rebuked the heathen,"(B) thou hast destroyed the wicked,
(C) Thou hast put out their name for ever and ever.
(A') thou enemy, destructions are come to a perpetual end,
(B') And thou hast destroyed cities :
(C) Their memorial is perished with them.
Ps. ix. 5, 6.
(A) The clouds poured out water : — (B) the skies sent out a sound :
(C) Thine arrows went abroad.
(A') The voice of thy thunder was in the heaven :
(B') The lightnings lightened the world -.
(C) The earth trembled and shook.
Pi. Ixxvii. 17, 18.
RHYME. 307
(A) Take an liarp, — (B) go about the city,
(C) Thou harlot that hast been forgotten ;
(A') Make sweet melody, — (B') sing many songs,
(C) That thou mayest be remembered.
Isaiah xxiii. 16.
807. The symmetry of parallelism appears in sundry other
forms besides those of the parallels of two with two, or three
answering to three, as in Psalm cxv :
(A) Israel, trust thou in the Lord :
(m) He is their help and their shield.
(B) house of Aaron, trust in the Lord :
(m) He is their help and their shield.
(C) Ye that fear the Lord, trust in the Lord :
(m) He is their help and their shield.
(D) The Lord hath been mindful of us :
(E) He will bless us ;
(A') He will bless the house of Israel ;
(B') He will bless the house of Aaron ;
(C) He will bless them that fear the Lord.
Where A', B', and C take up A, B, and C.
The member (A) may be a continuation instead of a parallel
to (A) :
(A) They cried, — (B) but there was none to save them :
(A') Even unto the Lord, — (B') but he answered them not.
Fs. xviii. 41.
808, In Matthew xxiii. we read :
They make broad — their phylacteries,
And enlarge — the borders of their garments,
And love the uppermost rooms — at feasts
And the chief seats — in the synagogues.
And greetings — in the markets,
And to be called of men, — Rabbi, Rabbi.
This shows us parallelism, which we may believe to extend
further. On reading on with attention we find six parallels,
three and three :
First, three precepts and three reasons :
But be not ye called Rabbi :
for one is your IMaster, even Christ ; and all ye are brethren.
And call no man your lather upon the earth :
for one is your Father, which is in heaven.
Neither be ye called blasters ;
for one is your Master, even Christ.
308 RHYME.
Then follow three precepts witli three antitheses :
But he that is greatest among you,
let him be your servant.
And whosoever shall exalt himself
shall be abased ;
And he that humbleth himself
shall be exalted.
809. In two of the first three parallels we have a tautology
which Hebrew parallelism hardly allows. We read ' for one
is your master, even Christ/ in two of the parallels ; and so
far there are grounds afforded by parallelism for thinking that
the reading or translation is bad.
Bloomfield says of -Aa^yiyviTViQ (v. 8), "There is some doubt
as to the reading here. Many of the best commentators
would read ^t^ua'AuXogy which is found in several MSS.,
versions and fathers, but is received by no editor except
Fritz.'' Yet Bloomfield thinks di^oiuyixKoi; the true reading.
In the Syriac version of St. Matthew it is rabi (master)
in the first parallel; aba (father) in the next; and meda-
bronee (guides) in the third.
309
INDEX.
A.
Ablative case (Latin), 111, 116,
118, 129, 133, 135.
Absolute case, 112.
Accent, 261.
Accusative case (Latin), 113, 114,
120, 133, 137.
(Greek), 120.
Adjective, 29, 155.
forms of, 156, &c.
comparison of, 166.
definite and indefinite,
167.
ellipsis of, 255.
Adverb, 29, 227, 253.
Amphibolia, 257.
Anastrophe, 257.
Antecedent, 244.
Antithesis, 48.
Aphseresis, 48.
Apocope, 48.
Apodosis, 198.
Article, 121, 154.
ellipsis of, 254.
Asyndeton, 257.
Attraction, 245.
B.
Being, accidental, &c., 178.
Bisaya language, 246.
Blank verse, 283.
Breathings, 10.
Breathsounds, 1.
Case, 85, 253.
Cases, classes of, 102.
definitions of, 107.
Case endings, 240-246.
substitutes for, 246,
249.
Case, shifting of, 121-245.
twofold, 121-245.
Celtic race, 260.
clipping-rhyme, 292.
Clippings, 11.
table of, 15.
canons of, 30, &c.
Clipping-rhyme, 287.
Teutonic, 289.
Celtic, 291.
Comparison of things, 92.
Concord, 166, 245, 249.
Conjunction, 30, 240.
Consonants, 8, 18.
Crasis, 266.
D.
Dative case (Latin), 117, 118,
128, 138.
Definite things, 121.
Diaeresis, 266.
Diphthong, 8.
Do, 194.
E.
Ecthlipsis, 265.
310
INDEX,
Ellipsis, 253.
Enallage, 256,
Epenthesis, 48.
Ergo, 108.
Est pro habeo, 125.
Ethnology, 259.
Etymology, 28.
Etymological figures, 48.
Eupliemismus, 258.
F.
Feet, 266.
change of, 269.
formulae for, 266.
Figures of Etymology, 48.
Grammar, 256.
Finnic language, 106.
race, 259.
Formation of words, 49.
French language, 26, 260.
G.
Gender, 76.
Genitive case (Latin), 107,
127, 128, 129.
Gerund (Latin), 120, 134.
H.
Half-rhyme, 278.
Hebrew, 27.
Hebrew Poetry, 302.
Hendiadis, 2.5*7.
Hungarian, 105.
Hypallage, 257.
Hysterologia, 257.
Indefinite things, 12L
Instar (Latin), 108.
Literest (Latin), 110.
Interjection, 30.
Irish verse, 287, 291.
Language, 2.
type, 5.
displacement of, 260.
Lapponic language, 105.
Latin verbs in -or, 109.
Letters, 9.
undipped, 12.
Lip letters, 9.
M.
Measure of things, 143.
Metonymy, 257.
Metre, 266.
Mongolian language, 246.
Mood, 196, 210.
infinitive, 196.
indicative, 197.
imperative, 197.
subjunctive, 198.
subjunctive hypothetical,
200.
potential, 211.
108, two-mood formulse, 210.
Mutes, 10.
N.
Negative verbs, 184.
Negatives, 252.
Nominative case, 103.
Noun, 28.
of agent, 63.
of place, 65, 70.
of instrument, 65.
of quality, 66.
gentile, 71.
universal, 76.
verbal, 57, 121.
diminutive, 59.
augraentive, 62.
collective, 62.
of past time, &c., 62.
artificial, 61.
forms of, 59, &c.
INDEX.
311
Nouns, forms of:
(l-|-.)> 59-62, 69.
(l-j-l), 68-70.
(1+3), 71.
(2+.), n, 59.
(2+1), 71.
(3+-), 53-57, 63, 74.
(3+1), 72, 74.
(3+4), 74.
(3+5), 74.
Number, 81, 179.
Propositions, threefold, 209.
relative, 243.
Prosody, 261.
Prosthesis, 48.
Protasis, 198, 25^.
Purity, 258.
Qualities, rating of, 92.
Quantity, 261, 263.
O.
Orthography, 6, 16.
Palate-letters, 9.
Palindrome, 297.
Paragoge, 48.
Paronomasia, 298.
Parenthesis, 248.
Participles, 182.
Patronymics, 67.
Person, 76, 179.
Phonetic letters, 21.
Phonotypy, 20.
Pleonasm, 256.
Plural, 81.
of excellence, 84.
Polyptoton, 295.
Possessive case, 107.
Postposition, 233, 240.
Predicate, 242.
Prepositions, 30, 144, 233.
— — Greek, 236.
forms of, 237.
ellipsis of, 255.
Pronoun, 28, 145, 243, 249.
limiting, 149.
relative, 151, 243.
distril)utive, 150.
demonstrative, 150.
indefinite, 15].
numeral, 151.
ellipsis of, 255.
E.
Rating of Qualides, 92.
Eefert (Latin), 110.
Eeciprocal verbs, 181,
Ehyme, 277.
twofold, 282.
(clipping), 287.
repetition, 295.
Ehymes, arrangement of, 283.
Eoot-matching, 295.
S.
Satago (Latin), 110.
Sclavonic race, 259.
Scanning, 265.
Semi-vowels, 10.
Shall, 192, 212.
Sight-speech, 3.
Signals, 3.
Singular number, 8 1 .
Sonnet, 284.
Sounds, 7.
Speech, 1.
Speech-matching, 298.
Spelling (rules for), 19.
Subject, 142, 242, 249.
Supine (Latin), 134.
SyUepsis, 257.
Synalcepha, 265.
Syncope, 48.
Synecdoche, 257.
Syntax, 242.
Syrjfena language, 105.
312
INDEX.
Task, 299.
Tense, 184, 252.
formulae, 185.
Teutonic race, 259.
poetry, 289.
Throat letters, 9.
Tongue teeth-letters, 9.
Triphthong, 8.
V.
Verb, 29, 168, 252.
concord of, 626.
(Latin in) or, 109.
strong, weak, 169, 214.
mixed, 217.
one-thing, 223.
two-thing, 224.
three-thing, 225.
Verb, causative, 172.
diminutive, 173.
inchoative, 174.
reciprocal, 181.
negative, 1 84.
iterative, 188.
seuiclfactive, 188.
Verse, Irish, 287.
catalectic, 274.
Vocative case, 104.
Voice, 180, 187.
Vowels, 6.
W.
Welsh poetry, 292, 293.
Will, 192, 212.
Words, formation of, 49.
notation for, 50.
Word-matching, 286.
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Syhester). By Charles Dunster, M.A. 12mo, cloth, 23 6d. (original price os.)
HUNTER'S (Rev. J.) Historical and Critical Tracts. Po8t8vo,2s.6d.cocA.
1. Agincourt; arontribution towards an 3, Milton; a sheaf of Gleanings after
authentic List of the Commanders of the his Biographers and Annotators.
English Host in King Henry the Eifth's
Expedition. 4. The Ballad Hero, " Robin Hood,"
2. First Colonists of New England. his period, real character, &c., investi-
{Out of print.) gated, and, perhaps, ascertained.
BRITANNIC RESEARCHES ; or, New Facts and Rectiflcations of
Ancient British Histoi^. By the Rev. Beale Poste, M.A, 8vo (pp. 'M8), with en-
gravings, cloth, 15s.
"The author of this volume may justly him, Tlie body of the book is followed by
claim credit for considerable learning, great a very complete index, so as to render re-
iudustrv, and, above all, strong faith iii the ference to any part of it easy : this was the
i-nterest and importance of his subject. . . . more necessary, on account of the multi-
On various points he has given us addi- faiiousnesa of the topics treated, the v»-
tional information, and afforded us new riety of persons mentioned, and the many
views, for which we are bound to thank works quoted." — Aihenmim, Oct. 8, 1853.
LAPPENBERG'S HISTORY OP ENGLAND, under the Anglo-
Saxon Kings. Translated by Bonj. Thorpe, with Additions and Corrections, by tlie
Author and Translator. 2 vols. 8vo, cloth, 12s. (original price £1. Is.)
LETTERS OF THE KINGS OP ENGLAND.— Now first collected
from the Originals in Royal Archives, and from other Authentic Sources, private as
well as public. Edited, with Historical Introduction and Notes, by J. 0. HalliwelL
Two handsome roJumes, post 8vo, with portraits of Henry VIll and Charles L Cloth,
8s. (original price ±1. Is.)
These volumes form a good companion to EUis's Original Letters.
GAIMAR'S (GEOFFREY) Anglo-Norman Metrical Chronicle of the
ANGLO-SAXON KINGS. Printed for the first time entire. With Appendix, contaiiv-
ing the Lav of Havelok the Dane, the Legend of Ernulph, and Life of Uerw:ird the
Saxon. Edited by T. Wright, E.S.A- 8vo (pp. 354), cloth, 123.
/;
A'V
JOHN RUSSELL SMITH, 36, SOHO SQUARE, LONDON. 3
WAGE (MASTER), HIS CHRONICLE OP THE NORMAN
CONQUEST, from tlieRomau deRou. Translated into English Prose, with Notes and
Illustrations, by Edgar Taylor, I'.SA. 8vo, muinj engraviniis from the liuyeux Tapestitj,
Norman Architfcturt, JUuminations, tj-c. Cloth, los. (pub. at il. 8s.)
Only 250 copies printed, and very few re- above low price, in consequence of the death
main unsold ; the remaining copies are now of Mr. Pickering ; hitherto no copies have
in J. R. Smith's hands, and are offered at the been sold under the published price.
LIFE, PROGRESSES, AND REBELLION OP JAMES, DUKE
OF MONMOUTH, &c., to his Capture and E.xecution, with a full account of the
Bloody Assize, and copious Biographical Notices. By Georije Roberts. 2 vols, post 8vo,
plates and cuts, new, e.vtra cloth, 93. (original price' £1. 4s.)
Two very interesting volumes, particularly so to those connected with the West
of England.
A NEW LIFE OF SHAKESPEARE, including many particulars
respecting the Poet and his Family, never before published. By J. 0. Halliwell,
F.R.S., &c. In one handsome volume, 8vo, illustrated with 76 engravings on wood,
of objects, most of loliich are neio, from draicings by FairhoU. Cloth, \as.
This work contains upwards of forty do- light is thrown on his personal liistory, by
cuments respecting Shakespeare and his
family, nerer before published, besides nu-
merous others indirectly illustrating the
Poet's biography. All the anecdotes and
traditions concerning Shakespeare are here,
tor the first time, cotlected, and much new
papers exhibiting him as selling Mait,
Stone, &c. Of the seventy-si.v engravings
wliich illustrate the volume, more ihanfil't;/
have nei'cr before been engraved.
It is the only Life of Shakespeare to be
bought separately from liis works.
SHAKESPERIANA.— A Catalogue of the Early Editions of Shake-
speare's Plays, and of the Commeutaries and other Pubhcations illustrative of his
Works. By J. 0. Halliwell. 8vo, cloth, Ss.
Indispensable to everybody who wishes Shakespeare, or who may have a fancy for
to carry on any inquii-ies connected with Shakespearian hihliogv-dphy.— Spectator.
SHAKESPEARE'S VERSIFICATION and its apparent Irregularities
explained by Examples from early and late EngUsh Writers. By the late William
Sidney Walker, formerly I'ellow of 'Irinity College, Cambridge ; edited by W. Nansoa
Lettsom, Esq. Fcp. 8vo, cloth, 6s.
A FEW NOTES ON SHAKESPEARE, with Occasional Remarks
on the Emendations of the Manuscript-Corrector in Mr. Collier's copy of the folio,
16o2. By the Rev. Alexander Dyce. 8vo, cloth, 5s.
" Mr. Dyce's Notes are peculiarly delight- enabled him to enrich them. All that he has
ful, from the stores of illustration with recorded is valuable. We read his little vo-
which his extensive reading not only among lume with pleasure, and close it with re-
our writers, but among those of other coun- gret." — Literartj Gazette.
tries, especially of the Italian poets, has
Other Publications illustrative of Shakespeare' s Life and Writings.
Malone's Letter to L)r. Farmer {in
Reply to Ritson), relative to his Edition
of Shakespeare, published 1790. 8vo,
sewed. Is.
Ireland's (W. Hewry) 'Authentic
Account of the Shakespearian Manu-
scripts, &c. (respecting his fabrication of
them). 8vo, Is. 6d.
Graves's (IT. M.) Essay on the
Genius of Shakespeare, with Critical Re-
marks on the Characters of Romeo,
Hamlet, Juliet, and Ophelia. Post 8vo,
cloth, 2s. 6d. (original price 5s. 6d )
Comparative Review of the Opi-
nions of JAMES BOADEN, in 179.J and
in 1796, relative to the Shakespeai-eMSS.
8vo. 33.
WivelVs Historical Account of the
Monumental Bust of Shakespeai-e, in the
Chancel of Strattbrd-on-Avon Church,
bvo, 2 plates. Is. 6d.
Ireland's (IF. H.) Vortigern, an
Historical Play, represented at Di-ury
Lane, April 2, 1796, as a supposed newly
discovered Drama of Shakespeare. New
Edition, with an original Preface. 8vo,
facsimile, Is. 6d. (original price 3s. 6d.)
%* The preface is both interesting and cu-
rious, from the additional information
it gives respecting the Shakespeare
Forgeries, containing also the substance
of his " Confessions."
Traditionary Anecdotes of Shal-e-
speare, collected in Warwickshire in 1693.
8vo, sewed, Is.
4 VALUABLE AIS'D INTERESTI]S'G BOOKS.
Boaden (Jos.) on tlie Sonnets of Shakespeare's Will, copied from
Shakespeare, idciitifviux the person to the Ori|:inal ii\ tlie j'r< lojinlive Court,
whom they arc addressed, and eUicidat- preserving the Interhneatiuns and Fac-
ing several points in the Poet'a history. siiuLlcs ot tin; three Auti);.'raph8 of the
Svo, Is. Gd. Poet, witli a few nrclliiiiiiarv Ohserva-
Madden's {Sir F.) Observations on ^}°''\ ^^ •"• <^- "i^'w-H. !■'■&•»■. &c.
an Auto^rapli of Shakespeare, and the "' ''
OrihoKiupliyofhi3Nan.e 8vo, sewed, Is. ^ _pe,(, Remarlcs on the Emenda-
Criticism applied to Shakespeare. tion "Who smothers her witli Paintinir,"
By C. Badliain. Post 8vo, Is. in the Phiv of Cymhehne, discovered by
Collier's {J. P.) Reasons for a Neio ^''■- ^"^H;"' a Correettd Copy of the
rii- V iji 1 . 11- 1 o 1 second Edition of jliakespeiirc. Bv J. 0.
Edition ol bliakcspeare's Works. 8vo, Is. lialhwell hvo la ^y.- ^} v-^j.
Account of the only known Manu-
script of Shakespeare's Plays, comprising ^ Few Words in Reply to Mr.
some important variations and eorree- Dyce's " Tew Notes on Shakespeare."
tioas in the " Merry Wives of Windsor," By the Rev. Joseph Hunter, bvo, Is.
obtained from a Playhouse Cojjy of that
Play recently discovered. By J. O.Hal- The Orimaldi Shakespeare. —
liwell. 8vo, Is. Notes and Emendations on the Plays of
Rimhauies " Who loas ' Jack Wil- Sliakespeare, from a recently discovered
son'theSingerofShakespeare-sStage?" annotated copy by the late J. Gnmaldi,
An attempt To prove the identity of this ^'1- ^^'^n^^'^'-'n- bxo, cuts. Is.
person with JolinWilson.ltoctorof Music A liumorous squib on the late Shake-
in the University of Oxford, A.U. lG4i. speare Emendations.
8vo, Is.
THE PILGRIM FATHERS.— Collections concerning the Clutrch or
Congregation of Protestant Separatists formed at Scrooby, in North Nottinghamshire,
in the time of James I, the Founders of New Plymouth, the Parent Colony of New
England. By the Kev. Joseph Hunter, F.S A., auU an Assistant Keeper of her
Majesty's liecords. llandsomehj printed. 8vo, cloth, 8s.
This work contains some very important recently been discovered, through the in-
particulars of these personages, and their defatigable exertions of the Author. }'re-
connections previously to their leaving fixed to the volume are some beautiful
England and Holland, which were entirely Prefatory Stanzas, by Kichard Monckton
unknown to former writers, and have only Milnes, Esq., M.P.
LOVE LETTERS OP MRS. PIOZZI (formerly Mrs. Thrale, the
friend of l)r Johnson), written when she was Eighty, to the handsome «ctor, William
Augustus Conway, aged Twenty-seven. 8vo, sewed, is.
LIFE OP MR. THOMAS GENT, Printer, of York. Written by
himself. Svo, fine portrait, cngraned by Aaii-.Tox. Clotli, 2s. 6d. (original price 98.)
The .\uthor of this curious, and hitherto was the author as well as printer. The
unpublished, piece of ."Vutobiography is well Book requires no encomium to those who
known by the several works of which lie have read Southey's " Doctor."
ENGLAND'S WORTHIES, under whom all the Civil and Bloody
Warres, since Anno IfiW to Anno lfi-t-7, are related. By John Vicars, Author of
" England's Parliamentary Chronicle," Sic. &c. Koyal l^mo, reprinted in the old style
{similar to Lady Jl'illouyhljy's Diary), with copies of the 18 rare portraits after Hollar,
^c. Half morocco, 5s.
LISTER. — The Autobiography of Joseph Lister (a Nonconformist), of
Bradford, Yorkshire, with a contemporary account of the Defence of Bradford and
Capture of Leeds, by the Parliamentarians, in 1G43. Edited by Thos. Wright, F.S.A,
8vo, sewed, is.
FORMAN. — The Autobiography and Personal Diary of Dr. Simon
Forman, tlie celebrated Aelnildger, 1552-1602, from uiipubHshed MSS. in the Ashmo-
lean Museum, Oxford. Edited by J. 0. Halliwell. Small -ito, sewed, 5s.
Only 150 copies privately printed. It will by the Camden Society, who also printed
form a companion toDr.Dee'sJDiary, printed tliis work but afterwards supj)rc3sed it.
4
s
JOHN RUSSELL SMITH, 36, SOHO SQUARE, LONDON. 5
LIFE, POETRY, AND LETTERS OF EBENEZER ELLIOTT,
tlie Corn-Law Kliymer (of Sheffield). Edited by Iiis Son-in-Law, John Walkins
Post 8vo, cloth (an inieresting volume), 3s. (origiual price 7s. Cd.)
WESLEY. — Narrative of a Remarkable Transaction in the Early Life
of John Wesley. Now first printed, from a MS. in the British Museum. 8vo, sewed, 2s.
A very curious love affair between J. W. thodists. It is entirely unknown to all
and his housekeeper; it gives a curious in- Wesley's biographers,
sight into the early economy of the Me-
GOUNTER'S (Col., of Racton, Sussex) Account of the Miraoulous
Escape of King Charles II. Now first printed. Post 8vo, Is.
This little tract takes up the narrative where the Royal memoir breaks off.
< « »(iNI>«* •
^JiloIoQs anti (JHarlg (fHitsUsfj 3Litcrature,
(COMPENDIOUS ANGLO-SAXON AND ENGLISH DIG-
J TIONAKY. By the Rev. J. Bosworth, D.D., F.R.S. &c. 8vo, closeli/ printed in
treble columns, I2s.
■ Large Paper. Royal 8vo (to match the next Article), cloth, £1.
"This is not a mere abridgment of the most practical and valuable in the former
large Dictionary, but almost an entirely e.xpensive edition, with a great accession
new work. In this compendious one will be of new words and matter." — Author's
found, at a very moderate price, all that is Preface.
ON THE ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH, Germanic, and Scandi-
navian Languages and Nations, with ChronologiccJ Specimens of their Languages.
By J. Bosworth, D.D. Royal 8vo, boards, £1.
A new and enlarged edition of what was of the Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, and now
formerly the Preface to the First Edition published separately.
ANGLO-SAXON DELECTUS ; serving as a first Class-Book to the
Language. By the Rev. W. Barnes, B.D., of St. John's College, Cambridge. 12mo,
clotii, 2s. 6d.
"To those who wish to possess a critical
knowledge of their own Native English,
some acquaintance with Anglo-Sa.\on is in-
dispensable ; and we have never seen an
introduction better calculated than the pre-
sent to supply the wants of a l)eginner in a
short space of time. The declensions and
conjugations are well stated, and illustrated
by references to Greek, the Latin, French,
and other languages. A philosophical spirit
pervades every part. The Delectus consists
of short pieces, on various subjects, with
extracts from AngIo-8a.xon History and the
Saxon Chronicle. There is a good Glossary
at ihe end." — Athenaum, Oct. 20, 1849.
GUIDE TO THE ANGLO-SAXON TONGUE : on the Basis of
Professor Rask's Grammar ; to which are added, Reading Lessons, in Verse and Prose,
with Notes, for the use of Learners. By E. J. Vernon, B.A., Oxon. 12mo, cloth, Ss.
" Mr. Vernon has, we think, acted wisely
in taking Rask for his model ; but let no
one suppose from the title that the book is
merely a compilation from the work of that
philologist. The accidence is abridged from
Kask, with constant revision, correction,
and modification; but the syntax, a most
important portion of the book, is original,
and is compiled with great care and skill ;
and the latter half of the volume consists of
a well-chosen selection of extracts from
Anglo-Saxon writers, in prose and verse,
for the practice of the student, who will
find great assistance in reading them from
the grammatical notes with which they are
accompanied, and from the glossary which
follows tliem. This volume, well studied,
will enable any one to read with ease the
generality of Anglo-Saxon writers; and its
cheapness places it within the reach of
every class. It has our hearty recommen-
dation." — Literary Gazette.
6 VALUABLE AND INTERESTING BOOKS.
ANALEOTA ANGLO-SAXONICA.— Selections, in Prose and Terse,
from Ani.'10-Saxon Literature, witli an Introductory Ethnological Essay, luid Notes,
Critical aud Ex|)lauatory. Hy l.ouis F. Klipstcin. of the University of Giessen. Two
thick vols, post 8vo, clolii, V2l. (original price lbs.)
INTRODUCTION TO ANGLO-SAXON READING; comprising
iElfric's Iloinily on tlie liirth-day of St. Gregory, with a copious Glossary, &c. By
L. Lanirlcy, F L.S. 12ino, cloth, 23. Gd.
./Elfric's Homily is remarkahle for beauty forth Augustine's mission to the " Land of
of composition, and interesting, as setting the Angles."
ANGLO-SAXON VERSION OF THE LIFE OF ST. GUTHLAC,
Uermit of Croyland. Printed, for the first time, from a MS. in the Cottoniau Library,
with a Translation and Notes By Charles Wycliffe Goodwin, M.A., Fellow of Cathe-
rine Hall, Cambridge. 12mo, cloth, 53.
ANGLO-SAXON VERSION OP THE HEXAMERON OF ST.
BASIL, and the Anglo-Saxon Remains of St. Basil's Admonitio ad Kilium Spiritualem.
>'ow first printed, from MSS. in the Bodleian Library, with a Translation aud Kotca.
By the Rev. H. W. Jiormau. 8vo, Second Edition, enlanffed. Sewed, 4s.
ANGLO-SAXON VERSION OF THE STORY OF AP0LL0NIU3
of Tyre ;— upon which is founded the Play of Pericles, attributed to Shakespeare;—
from'a MS., witii a Translation and Glossary. By Benjamin Thorpe. 12mo, cloth,
43. Gel. (original price Gs )
ANALECTA ANGLO-S AXONICA.— A Selection, in Prose and Verse,
from Anglo-Saxon Authors, of various ages, with a Glossary. By Benjamin Thorpe.
F.S. A. A New Edition, with corrections and improvements. Post 8vo, cloth, bs. (original
price 12s.)
POPULAR TREATISES ON SCIENCE, written during the Middle
Ages, in Anglo-Saxon, Anglo-Norman, and English. Edited by Thomas Wright, M.A-
fevo, cloth, OS.
A PHILOLOGICAL GRAMMAR, grounded upon English, and
formed from a comparison of more than Sixty Languages. Being an Introduction to
the Science of Grammars of all Languages, especially Eughsh, Latin, and Greek. By
the Rev. W. Barnes, B D., of St. John's College, Cambridge; Author of "Poems iu
the Dorset Dialect," " Anglo-Saxon Delectus," &c. 8vo (pp. 322), cloth, 9s.
"Mr. Barnes' work is an excellent spe- lice may be traced, and that an attempt
cimen of the manner in which the advauc- may be made to expound a true science of
iu" study of Philology may be brought to Grammar. Mr. Barnes has so far grounded
illustrate and enrich a scientific e'xposi- his Grammar upon English as to make it aa
tion of Enghsh Grammar." — i'(/iniMr;h intended as an intro- The plates, indeed, form the most valuable
duction and a guide lo the study of our early
antiquities, will, it is hoped, also prove of
service as a book of reference to the prac-
tised. Archieologist.
" One of the first wants of an incipient
Antiquary is the facility of comparison;
and here it is fui-nished iiirn at one glance.
part of the book, both by their number and
the judicious selection of-types and exam-
ples which they contain. It is a book
which we can, on this account, safely and
warmlv recommend to all who are interest-
ed in the antiquities of their native land."
— Literary Gazette.
AV
JOHN RUSSELL SMITH, 36, SOHO SQUAEE, LONDON. 9
EEMAINS OF PAGAN SAXONDOM, principally from Tumuli in
England. Drawn from tlie Originals. Described and illustrated by John Yonge
Akernian, Fellow and Secretary of tlie Society of Antiquaries. One handsome volume,
4to, illustrated with 40 coloured plates, half morocco, £3.
The plates are admirably e.vecuted by tionof the Author. It is a work well worthy
Mr. Basire, aud coloured under the direc- the notice of the Archffiologist.
VESTIGES OF THE ANTIQUITIES OP DERBYSHIRE, and
the Sepulchral Usages of its Inhabitants, from the most Remote Ages to the Refomia-
tion. By Thomas Bateman, Esq., of Yolgrave, Derbyshire. In one handsome volume,
8vo, with tmmerous woodcuts ofTiimnli and their cotitents, Crosses,Tombs, ^-c. Cloth, 15s.
EELIQUI^ ANTIQUIiE EBORACENSIS, or ReUcs of Antiquity,
relating to the County of York. By W. Bowman, of Leeds, assisted by several
eniineut Antiquaries. 4to, 6 Parts (complete), ^;«umber.
This is the only repertory of Numismatic aucs and countries, by the first Numismtu-
intelligence ever published in England. It tists of the day, both English and Foreign,
contains jKipcrs on coins and medals, of all Odd parts to complete sets.
LIST OF TOKENS ISSUED BY WILTSHIRE TRADESilEN
in the Seventeenth Century. By J. Y. Akerman. Svo, plates, seired. Is. Cd.
LECTURES ON THE COINAGE OF THE GREEKS AND
ROMANS, DeUvered in the University of Oxford. By Edward Cardwell, l).D., Prin-
cijial of St. Alban's Hail, and Professor of Ancient History. Svo, cloth, 4s. (original
price bs. Gd )
A very interesting historical volume, and written in a pleasing and popular manner.
HISTORY OF THE COINS OF CUNOBELINE, and of the
ANCIEXT BRITONS. By the Rev. Beale Poste. Svo, with numerous plates and
vuodcuts, cloth {only 40 printed), £1. 83.
JOURNEY TO BERESFORD HALL, in Derbyshh-e, the Seat of
Charles Cotton, Esq., the celebrated Author and Angl.-r. By W. Alexander, I'.S.A.,
F.L.S., late Keeper of the Prints in the British Museum. Crown 4to, printed on
tinted paper, with a spirited frontispiece, representing Walton and his adopted Sua
Cotton in the Fishing-house, and vignette title-page. Cloth, 5s.
Dedicated to the Anglers of Great Britain and the various Walton and Cotton
Clubs. Only lUO printed.
ARCH^OLOGICAL MINE; a Magazine, in which will be comprised
the History of Kent, founded on the basis of Hasted. By A. J. Dunkiu. 8vq.
Parts 1 to 24. Published Monthly. Is. each.
NOTES ON THE CHURCHES in the Counties of KENT, SUSSEX,
and SURREY, mentioned in Domesday Book, and those of more recent Date; with
some Account of the Sepulchral Memorials and other Antiquities. By the Kev. Arthur
Hussey. Thick 8vo,/[«t; ;)'ui!f.s. Cloth, 18s.
KENTISH CUSTOMS.— ConsuetudinesKancifB. A History of Gavel-
kind, and other remai-kahle Customs, in the County of Kent. By Charles Sandys,
Esq., F.S.A. {Cantiunus). Illustrated icith facsimiles; a very handsome volume. Cloth, 15a.
HISTORY AND ANTIQUITIES of RICHBOROUGH, RECUL-
VER, and LYMNE, in Kent. By C. R. Roach Smith, Esq., F.S.A. Small 4to, with
many engravings on wood and copper, by F. If. Fairholt. Cloth, £1. Is.
" No antiquarian volume could display a seiited— P.x)ach Smith, the ardent e.vplorer :
trio of names more zealous, successful, and Fairholt, the excellent illustrator ; and
intelligeut, on the subject of Romano-Bri- Rolfe, the indefatigable collector."— ii<«-
tish remains, than the three here repre- rary Gazette.
AV
JOHN RrSSELL SMITH, 36, SOHO SQUARE, LONDON. 11
HISTORY AND ANTIQUITIES of DARTFORD, in Kent ; with
incidental Notices of Places iii its Ncigliboui'hood. liy J. Duiikin. 6\'o,lJ j/lutes.
Only IbO printed. Cloth, £1. Is.
HISTORY OF THE TOWN of QRAYESEND, in Kent, and of the
Port of Londijii. By R. P. Ciudcii, late Major of Gravcsend. Royal 8vo, 37 Jine
plates and woudcuts ; a very handsome rottime. Cloth, lOs. (original price £1. 8s.)
ACCOUNT OF THE ROMAN and other ANTIQUITIES discovered
at Springhead, near Gravesend, Kent. By A. J. Dunkin. iivo 'plates {only \i)Q printed).
Cloth, Gs. 6d.
HISTORY OF ROMNEY MARSH, in Kent, from the time of the
Romans to 183o; with a Dissertation on the original Site of the Ancient Anderiila.
By W. Holloway, Esq., author of the " History of Rye." 8vo, with maps and plates.
Cloth, 123.
CRITICAL DISSERTATION on Professor Wnhs's "Architectural
History of Canterbury Cathedral." By C. Sandys, of Canterbury. 8vo, 2s. 6d.
HISTORY AND ANTIQUITIES of the TOWN of LANCASTER.
Compiled from Authentic Sources. By the Rev. Robert Simpson. 8vo, doth, 8s.
A DESCRIPTIVE ACCOUNT of LIVERPOOL, as it was during
the last Q,uarter of the Eighteenth Century, 1775—1800. By Richard Brooke, Esq.,
F.S.A. A handsome volume. Royal 8vo, with illustrations. Cloth, £1. as.
In addition to informati'^n relative to the have never been previously published, re-
PnbUc Buildings, Statistics and Commerce specting the pursuits, haluts, and amuse-
of the Town, the work contains some cu- nientsoftlie inhabitants of Liverpool during
rious and interesting particulars which thatperiod, with views of its public edifices.
NOTICES of the HISTORY and ANTIQUITIES of ISLIP,
Oxon. By J. 0. Ilalliwell. 8vo (oK?y 50 ^jriVite/), sewed. Is.
HISTORY OF BANBURY, in Oxfordshire; inchuhnfr Copious His-
torical and Antiquarian Notices of the Neighbourhood. By Alfred Beesley. Thick
8vo, 684 dusfly printed pages, with 60 woodcuts, engraved in the first style of art, Ig
0. Jewett, of Oxford. 1-ts. (original price £1. 5s )
HISTORY OF WITNEY, with Notes of the Neighbouring Parishes
and Hamlets in Oxfordshire. By the Rev. Dr. Giles, formerly Fellow of Christ's
College, Oxford. 8vo, plates. Cloth {only loO printed), 6s.
HISTORY OF the PARISH and TOWN of BAMPTON, in Oxfords
shire, with the District and Hamlets belonging to it. By the Rev. Dr. Giles. 8vo,
plates. Second Edition. Cloth, 7s. 6d.
SUSSEX GARLAND.— A CoUection of Ballads, Sonnets, Tales,
Elegies, Sonjs, Epitaphs, &c., illustrative of tlie County of Sussex; with Notices,
Historical, Biographical, and Descriptive. By James Taylor. Post 8vo, engravings.
Cloth, 12s.
HISTORY AND ANTIQUITIES of the ANCIENT PORT and
Town of RYE, in Sussex; compiled from Original Documents. By "William IloUoway,
Esq. Thick 8vo {only ZQQ printed), cloth, £1. Is.
HISTORY OF WINCHELSEA, in Sussex. By W. Durrant Cooper,
F.S.A. 8vo, fine plates and woodcuts, 7s. 6d.
CHRONICLE OF BATTEL ABBEY, in Sussex ; originally compiled
in Latin by a Monk of the Establishment, and now first translated, with Notes, and
an Abstract of the s.ubsequent History of the Abbey. By Mark Antony Lower, M.A.
Svo, with illustrations. Cloth, 9s.
HAND-BOOK to LEWES, in Sussex, Historical and Descriptive;
with Notices of the Recent Discoveries at the Priory. By Mark Antony Lower.
12mo, many engravings. Cloth, Is. 6d.
CHRONICLES of PEVENSEY, in Sussex. By M. A. Lower. 12mo,
woodcuts, Is.
I
12 VALUABLE AND INTERESTING BOOKS.
MEMORIALS of the TOWN of SEATORD, Sussex. By M. A,
Lower. 8vo, plales. Hoards, Ss. 6d.
HISTORY AXD ANTIQUITIES of the TOWN of MARL-
BOROUGH, and more generally of the entire Hundred of Selkley in Wiltshire. By
James Waylen, Esq. Thick 8vo, woodcuts. Cloth, l4s.
This volume descrihes a portion of 'Wiits not included by Sir K. C. lloare and
other topographers.
HISTORICAL ACCOUNT of the CISTERCIAN ABBEY of
S.\LLEV, in Craven, Yorkshire, its Foundation and IJeuefactors, Ahhots, I'ossessions,
Computus, and Dissolution, and its existing Kemains. Edited by J. llarland Koyal
Svo, U plales. Cloth, 4s. Cd.
ANNALS AND LEGENDS of CALAIS; with Sketches of Emigre
KotabiliUt-s, and Memoir of Lady Ilaniilton. By Robert Bell Calton, author of
" Ilambles in Sweden and Gottlan'L" &c. &,e. I'ostbvo, with frontisviece and viantUe.
Cloth, OS. J r y
A very entertaining volume on a town full of historical associations connected
with England.
!i?craltiru, 6cnralog2, anti Surnames,
CURIOSITIES of HERALDRY; with lUustrations from Old
English Writers. By Mark Antony Lower, M.A., autlior of " Essays on En