BOTANY FOR 
 
 SECONDARY 
 
 SCHOOLS 
 
 L H BAl LEY 
 
GIFT OF 
 
BOTANY FOR SECONDARY 
 SCHOOLS 
 
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 NEW YORK BOSTON CHICAGO 
 ATLANTA SAN FRANCISCO 
 
 MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED 
 
 LONDON BOMBAY CALCUTTA 
 MELBOURNE 
 
 THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD, 
 
 TORONTO 
 
"From fragile mushrooms, delicate water weeds and pond scums, to floating leaves, 
 soft grasses, coarse weeds, tall bushes, slender climbers, gigantic trees and 
 hanging moss." See Chapter I. 
 
BOTANY FOR 
 SECONDARY SCHOOLS 
 
 A GUIDE TO THE 
 
 KNOWLEDGE OF THE VEGETATION 
 OF THE NEIGHBORHOOD 
 
 BY 
 
 L. H. BAILEY 
 
 \\ 
 
 gorfe 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 LONDON : MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd. 
 
 1920 
 
 All rights reserved 
 
COPYRIGHT 1900, 1907, 1913 
 BY L. H. BAILEY 
 
 New edition set up and electrotyped July, 1913 
 
PARAGRAPHS FOR THE TEACHER 
 
 The purpose of this book is to lead the pupil to an 
 understanding of the vegetation of his neighborhood. 
 
 There are four general subjects in the book: the 
 nature of the plant itself; the relation of the plant 
 to its surroundings; histological studies; determination 
 of the kinds of plants. From the pedagogical point 
 of view, the third is the least important: the writer 
 has inserted it because so many schools want it. Each 
 of the subjects is practically distinct, so that the 
 teacher may begin where he will. Few schools will 
 desire to pursue all the four parts. 
 
 The notes in small type at the ends of the chap- 
 ters are intended as suggestions and to supply infor- 
 mation to teachers: they are not necessarily for class 
 use. The "Notes" suggest additional experiments and 
 corollary observations. 
 
 ***** 
 
 The schools and the teachers are not ready for the 
 text-book that presents the subject from the view- 
 point of botanical science. Perhaps it is better that 
 the secondary schools attempt only to teach plants. 
 
 A book may be ideal from the specialist's point of 
 view, and yet be of little use to the pupil and the 
 school. 
 
 Every statement in an elementary text-book has 
 two values, the teaching value and the scientific 
 value. An elementary text exists primarily for the 
 
 (v) 
 
 459848 
 
VI PAKAGKAPHS FOR THE TEACHER 
 
 purpose of teaching; and good teaching results in 
 quickened perception rather than in accumulation of 
 facts. 
 
 The pupil should come at first to the study of plants 
 and animals with little more than his natural and native 
 powers. Study with the compound microscope is a 
 specialization to be made when the pupil has had 
 experience, and when his judgment and sense of 
 relationships are trained. 
 
 One of the first essential conceptions to the study 
 of natural history is the fact that no two things are 
 alike. This leads to the understanding that every 
 animal and plant contends for an opportunity to live; 
 and this is the central fact in the study of living things. 
 The world has a new meaning when this fact is 
 understood. 
 
 The ninety and nine cannot and should not be 
 botanists, but everyone can love plants and nature. 
 Every person is interested in the evident things, few 
 in the abstruse and recondite. Education should train 
 persons to live, rather than to be scientists. 
 
 Now and then a pupil develops a love of science 
 for science's sake. He would be an investigator. He 
 would add to the sum of human knowledge. He should 
 be encouraged. There are colleges and universities in 
 which he may continue his studies. 
 
 In the secondary schools, botany should be taught 
 for the purpose of bringing the pupil closer to the 
 things with which he lives, of widening his horizon, 
 of intensifying his hold on life. It should begin with 
 familiar plant forms and phenomena. It should be 
 related to the experiences of the daily life. It should 
 not be taught for the purpose of making the pupil 
 
PARAGRAPHS FOR THE TEACHER Vll 
 
 a specialist: that effort should be retained for the few 
 who develop a taste for special knowledge. It is often 
 said that the high-school pupil should begin the study 
 of botany with the lowest and simplest forms of life. 
 This is an error. The microscope is not an introduc- 
 tion to nature. It is said that the physiology of plants 
 can be best understood by beginning with the lower 
 forms. This may be true: but technical plant physiol- 
 ogy is not a subject for the beginner. Other subjects 
 are more important. 
 
 The youth is by nature a generalist. He should 
 not be forced to be a specialist. 
 
 A great difficulty in the teaching of botany is to 
 determine what are the most profitable topics for con- 
 sideration. The trouble with much of the teaching is 
 that it attempts to go too far, and the subjects have 
 no connection with the pupil's experience. 
 
 Good botanical teaching for the young is replete 
 with human interest. It is connected with the common 
 associations. 
 
 The teacher often hesitates to teach botany because 
 of lack of technical knowledge of the subject. This 
 is well; but technical knowledge of the subject does 
 not make a good teacher. Expert specialists are so 
 likely to go into mere details and to pursue particu- 
 lar subjects so far, when teaching beginners, as to miss 
 the leading and emphatic points. They are so cogni- 
 zant of exceptions to every rule that they qualify their 
 statements until the statements have no force. There 
 are other ideals than those of mere accuracy. In other 
 words, it is more important that the teacher be a 
 
Vlll PARAGRAPHS FOR THE TEACHER 
 
 good teacher than a good botanist. One may be so 
 exact that his words mean nothing. But being a good 
 botanist does not spoil a good teacher; and the ideal 
 teacher is one who has careful knowledge and knows 
 how to teach. 
 
 An imperfect method that is adapted to one's use 
 is better than a perfect method that cannot be used. 
 Some school laboratories are so perfect that they dis- 
 courage the pupil in making inquiries when thrown 
 on his own resources. Imperfect equipment often 
 encourages ingenuity and originality. A good teacher 
 is better than all the laboratories and apparatus. 
 
 Good teaching devolves on the personality and 
 enthusiasm of the teacher; but subject-matter is a 
 prime requisite. The teacher should know more than 
 he attempts to teach. Every teacher should have 
 access to the current botanical books. The school 
 library should contain these books. By consulting the 
 new books the teacher keeps abreast of the latest 
 opinion and points of view. 
 
 When beginning to teach plants, think more of 
 the pupil than of botany. The pupil's mind and sym- 
 pathies are to be expanded: the science of botany is 
 not to be extended. The teacher who thinks first of 
 his subject teaches science; he who thinks first of his 
 pupil teaches nature-study. 
 
 Teach first the things nearest to hand. When the 
 pupil has seen the common, he may be introduced to 
 the rare and distant. We live in the midst of common 
 things. 
 
 The old way of teaching botany was to teach the 
 
PARAGRAPHS FOR THE TEACHER IX 
 
 forms and the names of plants. It is now proposed 
 that only function be taught. But one cannot study 
 function intelligently without some knowledge of plant 
 forms and names. He must know the language of the 
 subject. The study of form and function should go 
 together. Correlate what a plant is with what it does. 
 What is this part? What is its office, or how did it 
 come to be? What are its relations? It were a pity to 
 teach phyllotaxy without teaching light-relation: it 
 were an equal pity to teach light-relation without 
 teaching phyllotaxy. 
 
 Four epochs can be traced in the teaching of ele- 
 mentary botany: (1) The effort to know the names of 
 plants and to classify. This was the outgrowth of the 
 earlier aspect of plant knowledge, when it was neces- 
 sary to make an inventory of the things in the world. 
 (2) The desire to know the formal names of the parts 
 of plants. This was an outgrowth of the study of gross 
 morphology. Botanies came to be dictionaries of 
 technical terms. (3) The effort to develop the powers 
 of independent investigation. This was largely a result 
 of the German laboratory system, which developed the 
 trained specialist investigator. It emphasized the 
 value of the compound microscope and other appa- 
 ratus. This method is of the greatest service to botani- 
 cal science and to mankind, but its introduction into 
 the secondary schools is usually unfortunate. (4) The 
 effort to know the plant as a complete organism liv- 
 ing its own life in a natural way. In the beginning of 
 this epoch we are now living. 
 
X PARAGRAPHS FOR THE TEACHER 
 
 There is a general protest against the teaching of 
 "big names" to pupils; but the pupil does not object 
 to technical terms if he acquires them when he learns 
 the object to which they belong, as he acquires other 
 language. When a part is discovered, the name becomes 
 a necessity, and is not easily forgotten. He should be 
 taught not to memorize the names. The "hard" 
 words of today are the familiar words of tomorrow. 
 There are no words in this book harder than chrysan- 
 themum, thermometer, and hippopotamus. 
 
 The book should be a guide to the plant: the plant 
 should be a guide to the book. 
 
 Plants should not be personified or endowed out- 
 right with motives; but figures of speech and para- 
 bles may often be employed to teach a lesson or to 
 drive home a point. 
 
 Excite the pupil's interest rather than his wonder. 
 
 The better the teacher, the less he will confine him- 
 self to the questions at the end of the lesson. 
 
 Botany always should be taught by the "laboratory 
 method:" that is, the pupil should work out the sub- 
 jects directly from the specimens themselves. It is 
 easy, however, to carry the laboratory method too 
 far. With beginners, it is rarely good teaching merely 
 to set a young pupil a task, expecting him to work 
 it out. The pupil needs suggestions, help, and the 
 enthusiasm inspired by a good teacher. 
 
 Specimens mean more to the pupil when he collects 
 them. 
 
 No matter how commonplace the subject, a speci- 
 men will vivify it and fix it in the pupil's mind. 
 
 A living, growing plant is worth a score of herba- 
 rium specimens. 
 
PARAGRAPHS FOR THE TEACHER xi 
 
 Every opportunity should be taken to send the 
 pupils to the fields to see the plants naturally as they 
 grow. 
 
 Remember that garden plants and field crops are 
 as "botanical" and as well worth the attention of 
 botanists as are wild plants. 
 
 Many persons have aided in the making of this book 
 as it has gone through its various editions. In this 
 present revision the author has had the help of Lewis 
 Knudson, Assistant Professor of Plant Physiology, and 
 acting head of the department, in the New York State 
 College of Agriculture at Cornell University, assisted 
 by M. F. Barrus, Assistant Professor of Plant Pathology 
 in the same institution, who have reviewed the work 
 from first to last with much care. 
 
 L. H. BAILEY. 
 
 ITHACA, NEW YOBK, 
 MAY 20, 1913. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PART I 
 
 THE PLANT ITSELF 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 I. The Plant as a Whole . 1 
 
 II. The Root ..... - . . . . -i . -.. . 7 
 
 III. TheStem. . , M .-,-;.. .-=. . . . . 13 
 
 IV. Propagation by. Means of Roots and Stems .-; . 18 
 V. How the Horticulturist Propagates Plants by Means 
 
 of Roots and Stems . : ;* -. . , ' r > . 23 
 
 VI. Food Reservoirs . . . . . . ... . . 31 
 
 VII. Winter Buds .,.<,. ...... 1 . . 36 
 
 VIII. Plants and Sunlight . . . . .... . . 42 
 
 IX. Struggle for Existence amongst the Branches . . 52 
 
 X. Pruning 59 
 
 XI. The Forms of Plants ......... 64 
 
 XII. Water and Mineral Nutrients. Root Action . . 69 
 
 XIII. Water and Mineral Nutrients. Action above the 
 
 Roots . . ... . ... -.." . . 75 
 
 XIV. Food Elaboration, and Respiration ..... 82 
 XV. Dependent Plants . . . . . . . . . 90 
 
 XVI. Leaves and Foliage 95 
 
 XVII. Morphology, or the Study of the Forms of Plant 
 
 Members ? . . . . ... . . . 105 
 
 XVIII. How Plants Climb ...'... . * ," . 112 
 
 XIX. Flower-Branches 118 
 
 XX. The Parts of the Flower . . .... . . 127 
 
 XXI. Fertilization and Pollination '. 133 
 
 XXII. Particular Forms of Flowers . . . . . . . 143 
 
 XXIII. Fruits . 155 
 
XIV CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 XXIV. Dispersal of Seeds 166 
 
 XXV. Germination 171 
 
 XXVI. Phenogams and Cryptogams 179 
 
 XXVII. Studies in Cryptogams ......... 185 
 
 PART II 
 
 THE PLANT IN ITS RELATION TO ENVIRONMENT 
 
 AND TO MAN 
 
 XXVIII. Where Plants Grow 205 
 
 XXIX. Contention with Physical Environment .... 212 
 
 XXX. Competition with Fellows 218 
 
 XXXI. Plant Societies 228 
 
 XXXII. Variation and Its Results 236 
 
 XXXIII. Weeds . . 241 
 
 XXXIV. Crops 249 
 
 XXXV. The Forest 256 
 
 PART III 
 
 HISTOLOGY, OR THE MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANTS 
 
 XXXVI. The Cell 263 
 
 XXXVII. Contents and Products of Cells 270 
 
 XXXVIII. Tissues 278 
 
 XXXIX. Structure of Stems and Roots , . 285 
 
 XL. Structure of Leaves ........* 297 
 
 PART IV 
 THE KINDS OF PLANTS (p. 307) 
 
BOTANY FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 
 
 PART I THE PLANT ITSELF 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 THE PLANT AS A WHOLE 
 
 V 
 
 1. A plant is a living, growing thing. It partakes of 
 the soil and air and sunshine. It propagates its kind and 
 covers the face of the earth. It has much with which to 
 contend. It makes the most of every opportunity. We 
 shall learn its parts, how it lives, and how it responds. 
 
 2. The Parts of a Plant. Our familiar plants are made 
 up of several distinct parts. The most prominent of these 
 parts are root, stem, leaf, flower, fruit and seed. (Fig. 2.) 
 Familiar plants differ wonderfully in size and shape, from 
 fragile mushrooms, delicate water-weeds and pond-scums, 
 to floating leaves, soft grasses, 
 
 coarse weeds, tall bushes, 
 slender climbers, gigantic 
 trees, and hanging moss. See 
 frontispiece. 
 
 3. The Stem Part. In 
 most of the familiar plants 
 there is a main central part 
 or shaft on which the other 
 or secondary parts are borne. 
 This main part is the plant 
 axis. Above ground, in famil- 
 iar plants, the axis bears 
 
 2. The parts of a plant, root, stem, 
 leaves, pods (or fruit, following the 
 flower). Bean. 
 
 (1) 
 
2, .TJIE^PLANT AS A WHOLE 
 
 the branches, leaves and flowers; below ground, it bears 
 the roots. 
 
 4. The rigid part of the plant, which persists over win- 
 ter and which is left after leaves and flowers are fallen, is 
 the framework of the plant. The framework is composed 
 of both root and stem. When the plant is dead, the frame- 
 work remains for a time, but it slowly decays. The dry 
 winter stems of weeds are the upper part of the framework or 
 skeleton of the plant. (Figs. 3, 4.) The framework of trees 
 is the most conspicuous part of the plant. 
 
 5. The Root Part. The root bears the stem at its apex, 
 but otherwise it normally bears only root-branches. The 
 stem, however, bears leaves, flowers and fruits. Those 
 living surfaces of the plant that are most exposed to light 
 are green or highly colored. The root tends to grow down- 
 ward, but the stem tends to grow upward toward light. 
 The plant is anchored or fixed in the soil by the roots. 
 
 6. The Foliage Part. The leaves precede the flowers 
 in point of time or in the life of the plant, although the flow- 
 ers may come first in the season (note that peach trees 
 bloom before they leaf). The flowers always precede the 
 fruits and seeds. Many plants die when the seeds have 
 matured. The whole mass of leaves of any plant or any 
 branch is known as its foliage. 
 
 7. The Plant Generation. The course of a plant's 
 life, with all the events through which the plant naturally 
 passes, is known as the plant's life-history. The life-history 
 embraces various stages or epochs, as dormant seed, germi- 
 nation, growth, flowering, fruiting. Some plants run their 
 course in a few weeks or months, and some live for centuries. 
 
 8. The entire life-period of a plant is called a generation. 
 It is the whole period from birth to normal death, without 
 reference to the various stages or events through which 
 it passes. 
 
 9. A generation begins with the young seed, not with 
 
LENGTH OF LIFE 
 
 germination. It ends with death that is, when no life is 
 left in any part of the plant, and only the seed or spore 
 remains to perpetuate the kind. In a bulbous plant, as a 
 lily or an onion, the generation does not end until the bulb 
 dies, even though the top is dead. 
 
 10. When the generation is of only one season's duration, 
 the plant is said to be annual. 
 
 When it is of two seasons, it 
 is biennial. Biennials usually 
 bloom the second year. When 
 of three or more seasons, the 
 plant is perennial. Examples 
 of annuals are pigweed, bean, 
 pea, garden sunflower, maize; 
 of biennials, evening primrose, 
 mullein, teasel, parsnip, carrot; 
 of perennials, dock, meadow 
 grass, alfalfa, cat-tail, and all 
 shrubs and trees. The bien- 
 nial and perennial weeds 
 are the most difficult to 
 eradicate. 
 
 11. Duration of the 
 Plant Body. Plant struc- 
 tures that are more or less 
 soft and that die at the 
 close of the season are said 
 
 to be herbaceous, in contradistinction to being ligneous or 
 woody. A plant that is herbaceous to the ground is called 
 an herb; but an herb may have a woody or perennial root, 
 in which case it is called an herbaceous perennial. Annual 
 plants are classed as herbs. Examples of herbaceous per- 
 ennials are buttercup, bleeding-heart, violet, water-lily, 
 many grasses, dock, dandelion, goldenrod, asparagus, 
 rhubarb, many wild sunflowers (Figs. 3, 4). 
 
 3. Plant of a wild 
 sunflower. 
 
 4. Framework 
 of No. 3. 
 
THE PLANT AS A WHOLE 
 
 12. Many herbaceous perennials have short generations. 
 They become weak with one or two seasons of flowering 
 and gradually die out. Thus common red clover begins to 
 fail after the second year. Gardeners know that the best 
 bloom of hollyhock, larkspur, pink, and many other 
 plants, is secured when the plants are only two or three 
 years old. 
 
 13. Herbaceous perennials that die away each season 
 to bulbs, corms or tubers, are sometimes called pseud-annuals 
 (that is, false annuals). Of such are lily, crocus, onion, 
 
 potato. 
 
 14. Plants that 
 are normally peren- 
 nial may become 
 annual in a shorter- 
 season climate by 
 being killed by 
 frost, rather than 
 > by dying naturally 
 at the end of a 
 season of growth. 
 Such plants are 
 called plur-annuals 
 in the short-season 
 region. Many 
 warm -region per- 
 5. A shrub or bush. Dogwood osier. ennials are plur- 
 
 annuals when grown in the North, but they are treated as 
 true annuals because they ripen sufficient of their crop the 
 same season in which the seeds are sown to make them 
 worth cultivating, as tomato, red pepper, castor-bean. 
 
 15. Woody or ligneous plants are usually longer lived 
 than herbs. Those that remain low and produce several 
 or many similar shoots from the base are called shrubs, as 
 lilac, rose, elder, osier. (Fig. 5.) Low and thick shrubs are 
 
NO TWO PARTS ARE ALIKE 
 
 6. A Tree. The weeping birch. 
 
 bushes. Plants that produce one 
 main trunk and a more or less 
 elevated head are trees. (Fig. 6.) 
 
 16. Plants are Modified by the 
 Conditions in Which They Grow. 
 In most plants, the size, form 
 and general appearance vary or 
 change with the conditions in 
 which the plant grows. That is, 
 there is no uniform or necessary 
 form into which all plants shall 
 grow. No two plants are exactly 
 alike. Observe plants of the same 
 kind and age, and see how they 
 differ or vary. The farmer and 
 gardener can cause plants to be 
 
 large or small of their kind, by changing the conditions or 
 
 circumstances under which they grow. 
 
 17. No two parts of the same plant are exactly alike. 
 No two parts grow in the same conditions, for one is nearer 
 the main stem, one nearer the light, and another has more 
 room. Try to find two leaves or two branches on the same 
 plant that are exactly alike. (Fig. 7.) 
 
 18. Every plant makes an effort to propagate or to per- 
 petuate its kind; and 
 
 so far as we can see, 
 this is the end for 
 which the plant itself 
 lives. The seed or 
 spore is the final pro- 
 duct of the plant. 
 
 19. Every plant, 
 and every part of 
 a plant undergoes 
 
 vicissitudes. Every 7> There are no two brancheg 
 
6 THE PLANT AS A WHOLE 
 
 plant is so constituted as to withstand the diverse condi- 
 tions of the circumstances in which it is placed. The plant 
 contends for place in which to grow, and for air and light. 
 Its life is eventful. Every plant, therefore, has a history. 
 
 REVIEW. Of what parts is a plant composed? What is the axis? 
 What parts are borne on the stem? On the root? On what part are the 
 mostly highly colored parts found? What direction does the root take? 
 The stem? How are plants anchored in the earth? In what order do 
 the different parts appear? What is meant by the life-history? What 
 are some of the stages or events in the life-history? At what point 
 does a generation begin? When end? By what means does the next 
 generation begin? What is an annual? Biennial? Perennial? Herb- 
 aceous perennial? Pseud-annual? Shrub? Bush? Tree? Give three 
 examples of each of these classes, not mentioning any given in the book. 
 What is a plur-annual? Why are no two parts or plants exactly 
 alike? What is the final effort of every plant? Why is the life of a plant 
 eventful? 
 
 NOTE. The teacher may assign each pupil to one plant in the 
 school-yard, field, garden, or in a pot, and ask him to bring out the 
 points in the lesson, 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 THE ROOT 
 
 20. The Root System. The offices of the root are to 
 hold the plant in place, and to absorb water and mineral 
 substances. Not all roots, however, absorb water and mineral 
 nutrients. 
 
 21. The entire mass of roots of any plant is called its 
 root system. The root system may be annual, biennial or 
 perennial, herbaceous or 
 
 woody, deep or shallow, 
 large or small. 
 
 22. Kinds of Roots. 
 A strong leading central, 
 root, which runs directly 
 downwards, is a tap-root. 
 
 The side or spreading roots are usually 
 smaller. Plants that have such a root 
 system are said to be tap-rooted. 
 Examples are red clover, beet, turnip, 
 radish, burdock, dandelion, alfalfa. 
 (Fig. 8.) 
 
 23. A fibrous root system is one that 
 is composed of many nearly equal, slen- 
 der branches. The greater number of 
 plants have fibrous roots. Examples 
 are many common grasses, wheat, oats, 
 corn, and most trees. The bean in 
 Fig. 2 has a fibrous root system. 
 
 24. Shape and Extent of the Root System. The depth 
 to which roots extend depends on the kind of plant and the 
 
 (7) 
 
 8. Tap-root 
 A of the 
 dandelion. 
 
8 
 
 THE ROOT 
 
 nature of the soil. Of most plants the roots extend far in all 
 directions and lie comparatively near the surface. The 
 
 roots usually radiate from a 
 common point just beneath 
 the surface of the ground. 
 
 25. The roots may be of 
 considerable extent, ramify- 
 ing in the soil, and often 
 extending much farther in 
 all directions than the spread 
 of the top of the plant. 
 Roots tend to spread farther 
 in poor soil than in rich 
 soil. The root has no such 
 definite form as the stem has. 
 Roots are usually very 
 crooked, because they are 
 constantly turned aside by 
 obstacles. Examine roots in 
 stony or gravelly soil. 
 
 26. The extent of root 
 surface is usually very large, 
 for the absorbing roots are 
 
 fine and very numerous. An ordinary plant of Indian corn 
 may have a total length of root (measured as if the roots 
 were placed end to end) of hundreds 
 of feet. (Fig. 9.) 
 
 27. The finest feeding roots are in 
 the richest soils. It is commonly stated 
 that they are attracted by the 
 nutrients of the soil. This is 
 not strictly true. The roots 
 may grow toward a supply of ** 
 water. Notice that in a moist 
 soil the roots are short; in a 
 
 9. The abundant roots of maize. Note 
 that the root branches are much more 
 numerous than the leaves. 
 
WHERE ROOTS GROW 
 
 9 
 
 dry soil they are usually long. Roots of the willow run into 
 
 wells and drains and into the margins of creeks and ponds. 
 
 Roots may frequently cause trouble by 
 
 clogging drain-pipes. Grow plants in a 
 
 long, narrow box, in one end of which 
 
 the earth is kept very dry and in the other 
 
 moist: observe where the roots grow. 
 
 28. The absorbing surface of the roots 
 is near their ends. As the roots become 
 old and hard, they serve only as channels 
 through which water and substances in 
 
 solution pass, and as hold- 
 
 fasts or supports for the 
 
 plant. The root-hold of a 
 
 plant is very stong. Slowly 
 
 pull upwards on some plant, 
 
 and note how firmly it is 
 
 anchored in the earth. With 
 
 the increase in diameter, the 
 
 upper roots often protrude 
 
 above the ground and be- 
 
 come bracing buttresses. 
 
 These buttresses are usu- 
 
 ally largest in trees that 
 always have been exposed to strong winds. 
 (Fig. 10.) 
 
 29. The Root-hairs. The larger part 
 of the water and mineral nutrients ab- 
 sorbed by the root is taken in through 
 root-hairs. (Fig. 11.) These are very del- 
 icate prolonged surface cells of the 
 roots. They are borne for a short dis- 
 tance just back of the tip of the root. 
 
 30. The root-hairs are very small, 
 often invisible. They, and the young 
 
 11. Root-hairs 
 of the radish. 
 
 12. Aerial roots of 
 creeper or 
 
10 
 
 THE ROOT 
 
 roots, are usually broken off when the plant is pulled up. 
 They are best seen when seeds are germinated between 
 layers of dark blotting-paper or flannel. On the young 
 roots, they will be seen as a mould-like or gossamer-like 
 
 13. Drooping aerial roots of an orchid. 
 
 14. Indian corn, showing the 
 aerial roots. 
 
 covering. Root-hairs soon die : they do not grow into roots. 
 New hairs form as the root grows. 
 
 31. Aerial Roots. Although most roots grow in the 
 earth, there are some that grow above ground. These usually 
 occur on climbing plants, the roots becoming supports or 
 fulfilling the office of tendrils. These aerial roots usually 
 grow away from the light, and therefore enter the crevices 
 and dark places of the wall or tree over which the plant 
 climbs. The trumpet-creeper (Fig. 12), true or English ivy, 
 
ROOTS ABOVE GROUND 
 
 11 
 
 and poison ivy climb by means of roots. The roots often 
 remain on the wall or other support after the plant is torn off. 
 
 32. In some plants, all the roots are aerial; that is, the 
 plant grows above ground, and the roots absorb water from 
 the air and from the bark of the tree on which they grow. 
 Such plants are known as epiphytes or air-plants (Chapter 
 XV). The most familiar examples are some of the tropical 
 orchids, which are grown in glasshouses. (Fig. 13.) 
 
 33. Some plants throw out aerial roots that propagate 
 the plant or act as braces. The roots of Indian corn are 
 
 15. A banyan tree in India. The old trunk is seen (at the left), together with 
 many trunks formed from the aerial roots. 
 
 familiar. (Fig. 14.) Many ficus trees, as the banyan of India 
 (Fig. 15), send out roots from their branches; when these 
 roots reach the ground they take hold and become great 
 trunks, thus spreading the top of the parent tree over large 
 
12 
 
 THE ROOT 
 
 areas. The mangrove tree (Fig. 16) of the tropics grows 
 along seashores and sends down roots from the overhanging 
 branches into the shallow water, and thereby gradually 
 
 marches into the sea. 
 The tangled mass behind 
 catches the drift, and soil 
 is formed. 
 
 REVIEW. What is the 
 root for? What is a root 
 system? Define tap - root. 
 Fibrous root. What deter- 
 mines how deep the root 
 may go? How far does the 
 root spread? Explain what 
 form the root system may 
 assume; also what extent. 
 Where is the greatest number 
 of fine roots found? Where 
 is the absorbing surface of 
 roots? Of what use to the 
 plant are the old woody roots? 
 What are root-hairs? What 
 do they do and what becomes 
 of them? What are aerial 
 
 roots? Where found? What are epiphytes, and where do their roots 
 grow? What are brace roots? How do the banyan and mangrove spread 
 (aside from seeds)? 
 
 NOTE. The pupil should see the root-hairs. A week before this 
 lesson is studied, the pupil should place seeds of radish, turnip or cab- 
 bage between folds of thick cloth or blotting-paper. Keep the cloth or 
 paper moist and warm. The hairs show best against a dark back- 
 ground. In some of the blotting-papers, sprinkle sand: observe how 
 the root-hairs cling to the grains (compare Chapter XII). 
 
 The pupil also should study the root-hold of a plant. Let him care- 
 fully pull up a plant. If a plant grows alongside a fence or other rigid 
 object, he may test the root-hold by securing a string to the plant, 
 letting the string hang over the fence and then adding weights to the 
 string. Will a stake of similar size to the plant and extending no deeper 
 in the ground, have such firm hold on the soil? 
 
 16. Mangroves marching into the sea. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 THE STEM 
 
 34. The Stem System. The stem of a plant is the 
 part that bears the buds, leaves, flowers and fruits. Its office 
 is to hold up these parts to the light and air; and through 
 its tissues the various food-materials and nutrients in solu- 
 tion in water are distributed 
 to the parts of the plant. 
 
 35. The entire mass or fabric 
 of stems of any plant is called 
 its stem system. (Figs. 4, 17.) 
 The stem system may be her- 
 baceous or woody, annual, bien- 
 nial, or perennial; and it may 
 assume many different sizes and 
 shapes. (Paragraphs 11 to 13.) 
 
 36. Stems are of many forms. 
 The general way in which a 
 
 Stem system of an apple tree, plant grOWS is Called its habit. 
 
 The habit is the appearance or 
 
 looks. Its habit may be open or loose, dense, straight, 
 crooked, compact, straggling, climbing, erect, weak, strong, 
 and the like. The roots and leaves are the important func- 
 tional or working parts : the stem merely connects them, 
 and its form is exceedingly variable. 
 
 37. Kinds of Stems. The stem may be so short as to 
 be scarcely distinguishable. In such cases the crown of the 
 plant that part just at the surface of the ground bears 
 the leaves and flowers; but this crown is really a very short 
 stem. The dandelion (Fig. 8) is an example. Such plants 
 
 (13) 
 
14 
 
 THE STEM 
 
 18. A trailing plant (Abronia, grown in flower-gardens). 
 
 are often said to be stemless, however, in order to distin- 
 guish them from plants that have long or conspicuous 
 stems. These so-called stemless plants die to the ground 
 every year. 
 
 38. Stems are erect when they grow 
 straight up. (Figs. 3, 9.) They are 
 trailing or creeping when they run 
 along on the ground. (Fig. 18.) They 
 are decumbent when they lop over to 
 the ground. 
 They are ascend- 
 ing when they 
 lie mostly or in 
 part on the 
 ground but stand 
 more or less up- 
 right at their 
 ends. They are climbing when they cling to other rising 
 objects for support. (Fig. 12.) 
 
 39. Trees in which the main trunk or the "leader'* 
 continues to grow from its tip are said to be excurrent in 
 growth. The branches are borne along 
 
 the sides of the trunk, as in common 
 pines (Fig. 19) and spruces. Excurrent 
 means "running out" or "running up." 
 
 40. Trees in which the main trunk 
 does not continue are said to be deliques 
 cent. The branches arise from one com- 
 mon point or from each other. The stem 
 is lost in the branches. The apple tree 
 (Fig. 17), maple, elm, oak, are familiar 
 examples. Deliquescent means "dissolv- 
 ing" or "melting away." 
 
 41. Each kind of plant has its own 
 peculiar habit or direction of growth. 
 
 19. Excurrent trunk. 
 
KINDS OF STEMS 
 
 15 
 
 Spruces always grow to a single stem 
 or trunk, pear trees are always deli- 
 quescent, morning-glories are always 
 climbing, strawberries are always 
 creeping. We do not know why each 
 plant has its own habit; but the habit 
 is in some way associated with the 
 plant's genealogy or with the way in 
 which it has been obliged to live. 
 
 42. The stem 
 may be simple or 
 branched. (Figs. 20, 
 21.) A simple stem 
 usually grows from 
 the terminal bud, 
 
 21. Branched stem of alfalfa. 
 
 20. Simple stems of sorghum. 
 
 and side branches either do not start, or, 
 if they start, they soon perish. Mul- 
 leins are usually simple. So are 
 palms. 
 
 43. Branched stems may be of 
 very different habit and shape. 
 Some stem systems are narrow and 
 erect: these are said to be strict. 
 Others are diffuse, open, branchy, 
 twiggy. 
 
 44. Stems vs. Roots. Roots 
 sometimes grow above ground (31- 
 33); so, also, stems sometimes grow 
 underground, and they are then 
 known as subterranean stems, rhi- 
 zomes, or rootstocks. (Figs. 22, 23.) 
 
 45. Stems normally bear leaves 
 and buds, and thereby are they dis- 
 tinguished from roots. The leaves, 
 however, may be reduced to mere 
 
16 
 
 THE STEM 
 
 scales, and the buds beneath them may I 
 scarcely visible. Thus the "eyes" on an Iris 
 potato are cavities with a bud or buds at tl 
 bottom. (Fig. 24.) Sweet potatoes have r 
 evident "eyes" when first dug (but they ma 
 develop buds before the next growing season 
 The Irish potato is a stem; the sweet potai 
 is an enlarged root. 
 
 46. How Stems Elongate. Roots elonga 
 by growing near the tip. Stems elongate t 
 
 22. wintergreen, growing more or less throughout the young 
 
 QJ . between j om t s . But any pa 
 
 23. Rhizome of a wild sunflower. 
 
 showing rootstock. soft 
 
 of the stem soon 
 
 reaches a limit be- 
 
 yond which it cannot 
 
 grow, or becomes 
 
 "fixed;" and the new 
 
 parts beyond elongate 
 
 until they, too, become 
 
 rigid. When a part of the stem once becomes fixed or har 
 
 it never increases in lengt 
 that is, the trunk or wooc 
 parts never grow longer < 
 higher; branches do not b 
 come farther apart or high 
 from the ground. 
 
 47. The different regions 
 growth in stems and roo 
 may be observed in seedlii 
 plants. Place seeds of radii 
 or cabbage between layers 
 blotting-paper or thick clot 
 Keep them damp and wan 
 When the stem and root ha^ 
 
 24. Potato. Stems (where?) .fine , i i i / i 
 
 roots, and rootstocks. grown an inch and a half loi 
 
STEM VS. ROOT 
 
 17 
 
 each, with waterproof ink mark spaces exactly one-quarter 
 inch apart. Keep the plantlets moist for a day or two, and 
 it will be found that on the stem some or all of the marks 
 are more than one-quarter inch apart; on the root the 
 marks have not separated. The root has grown 
 beyond the last apical mark. (Figs. 25, 26.) 
 
 REVIEW. What is the stem system? What does 
 the stem do? How long may the stem persist? What 
 is meant by the habit of a plant? Name some kinds 
 of habit. What are so-called stemless plants? W T hat 
 is the crown? What becomes of the tops of stemless 
 plants? What are erect, trailing, decumbent, ascending, 
 climbing stems? What are excurrent trunks? Deli- 
 quescent? What is a simple stem? What are strict 
 stems? What are subterranean stems? How are stems 
 distinguished from 
 roots? What is the dif- 
 ference in mode of 
 growth between stems 
 and roots? 
 
 NOTE. The pupil 
 should make marks 
 with waterproof ink (as 
 Higgins' ink or indelible 
 marking ink) on any 
 soft growing stems as 
 geranium, fuchsia, grass, 
 the twigs of trees. Note 
 that the separation of 
 the marks is most evi- 
 dent on the youngest 
 shoots. 
 
 The pupil should observe the fact that a stem of a plant has wonder- 
 ful strength. Compare the proportionate height, diameter and weight 
 of a grass stem with those of the slenderest tower or steeple. Which 
 has the greater strength? Which the greater height? Which will with- 
 stand the most wind? Note that the grass stem will regain its position 
 even if its top is bent to the ground. Split a cornstalk and observe how 
 the joints are tied together and braced with fibers. Note how plants 
 are weighted down after a heavy rain. 
 B 
 
 25. The marking of 
 the stem and root. 
 
 26. The result. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 PROPAGATION BY MEANS OF ROOTS AND STEMS 
 
 48. The primary function of roots and stems is to support 
 and maintain the plant; but these parts may also serve to 
 propagate the plant, or to produce new individuals. 
 
 49. Propagation by Means of Rhi- 
 zomes. One function served by subter- 
 ranean stems or rhizomes (rootstocks) is 
 to propagate the species. Each stem has a 
 bud at its end, and from this bud a shoot 
 arises. By the dying away of the older 
 part of the rhizome, this shoot becomes 
 a separate plant, although the rhizome 
 maintains its connection for years in some 
 plants. Shoots may also arise from the 
 intermediate or lateral buds, but the 
 strongest shoots usually arise from the end 
 or near the end of the rhizome. (Fig. 23.) 
 
 50. Each successive plant is farther 
 removed from the original plant or the 
 starting-point of the colony. Thus the 
 colony or ''patch" grows larger. Familiar 
 examples are the spreading patches of 
 mandrakes or may-apples, quack-grass 
 (Fig. 27), Solomon's seal, lily-of-the- valley, 
 ferns. Cannas propagate by means of 
 
 rhizomes; so does ginger, and 
 the "roots" can be purchased 
 at the drug -store. Fig. 28 
 
 27. Quack-grass or couch-grass. Point .-n , r j r 
 
 out the rootstock. illustrates the spread of a 
 
 (18) 
 
SPREADING BY MEANS OF ROOTSTOCKS 
 
 19 
 
 colony of wild sunflower. On the right 
 the rhizomes have died away: note the 
 frayed ends. On the left, the strong up- 
 turned buds show where the shoots will 
 arise next spring. The old stems in the 
 middle show where the buds stood at the 
 close of the last season. Fig. 23 shows one 
 of the terminal buds. 
 
 51. When rhizomes are cut in pieces, 
 each piece having at least one bud or 
 "eye," the pieces may grow when planted. 
 A familiar example is the practice of 
 dividing tubers of potato. A severed piece 
 of plant designed to be used 
 to propagate the plant is 
 a cutting. See Fig. 29. 
 
 52. Cuttings of rhi- 
 zomes are often made 
 undesignedly or accidentally when land is cultivated. The 
 cultivator or har- 
 row breaks up 
 the rhizomes of 
 quack-grass, Can- 
 ada-thistle, toad- 
 flax, and other 
 weeds, and scat- 
 ters them over 
 the field. 
 
 53. Propa- 
 gation by 
 Means of 
 Roots.- 
 Roots some- 
 times develop 
 
 buds and 29. Cuttings of canna rhizome. 
 
 28. Creeping rhizomes of wild sunflower. 
 
20 PROPAGATION BY MEANS OF ROOTS AND STEMS 
 
 throw up shoots or new plants. Severed roots often grow. 
 Blackberries, raspberries, and many plums and cherries, 
 throw up shoots or "suckers" from the roots; and this 
 propensity is usually increased when the roots are broken, 
 as by a plow. Broken roots of apples often sprout. Plants 
 may propagate by means of root-cuttings. 
 
 54. Occasional Buds. The buds that appear on roots 
 are unusual or abnormal, they occur only occasionally and 
 in no definite order. Buds appearing in unusual places on 
 any part of the plant are called adventitious buds. Such are 
 the buds that arise when a large limb is cut off, and from 
 which suckers or watersprouts arise, as on the apple tree. 
 
 55. Layers. Roots sometimes 
 arise from aerial stems that are 
 partially buried. If a branch 
 touches the ground and takes 
 root, it is called a layer. Gar- 
 deners often bend a limb to the 
 ground and cover it for a short 
 distance, and when roots have 
 formed on the covered part, the 
 branch is severed from its parent 
 and an independent plant is 
 secured. See Fig. 30. 
 56. There are several kinds of layers: a creeper, when a 
 trailing shoot takes root throughout its entire length; a 
 runner, when the shoot trails on the ground and takes root 
 at the joints, as the strawberry; a stolon, when a more or less 
 strong shoot bends over and takes root, as the black rasp- 
 berry or the dewberry (Fig. 30); an offset, when a few very 
 strong plants form close about the base of the parent, par- 
 ticularly in succulent or bulbous plants, as house-leek 
 (old-hen-and-chickens) and some lilies. The rooting branches 
 of the banyan and mangrove (Figs. 15, 16) may be likened 
 to layers. 
 
 30. A layer of dewberry. The new 
 plant has arisen at the left. 
 
BUD-PROPAGATION 
 
 21 
 
 31. Bulblet of 
 tiger lily. 
 
 57. Natural Cuttings. Sometimes cuttings occur with- 
 out the aid of man. Some kinds of willows shed their twigs, 
 or the storms break them off: many of these twigs take 
 root in the moist earth where willows grow, and 
 they are often carried down the streams and are 
 washed along the shores of lakes. Observe the wil- 
 lows along a brook, and determine whether any of 
 them may have come down the stream. 
 
 58. Propagation by Means of Leaves. 
 Even leaves may take root and give rise to 
 new plants. There are examples in warm 
 4 countries. The lake-cress of northern streams 
 'also propagates in this way: the leaves with 
 little plants attached may often be seen float- 
 ing down stream. Gardeners propagate some 
 kinds of begonias by means of leaf -cutting ; 
 also gloxinias and bryophyllums. (Paragraph 69.) 
 
 59. Propagation by Means of 
 Buds. Buds often become detached 
 and propagate the plant. Familiar 
 examples are the bulblets of tiger 
 lilies, borne amongst the foliage; for 
 all bulblets and bulbs are only 
 special kinds of buds. Fig. 31. 
 Some water plants make heavy 
 winter buds, which become de- 
 tached on the approach of cold 
 weather and sink to the bottom. 
 In spring, they give rise to new 
 plants. 
 
 60. Grafts. Sometimes a plant 
 may unite with another plant. A 
 branch or a trunk may lie against 
 another plant of the same kind, or of 
 
 a very closely related kind, and grow 32. A native graft. 
 
22 PROPAGATION BY MEANS OF ROOTS AND STEMS 
 
 fast to it; and if its original trunk die away, the part will 
 be growing on an alien root. A branch that grows fast 
 to a branch of another plant, the wood of the two knitting 
 together, is called a graft. (Fig. 32.) It is necessary to dis- 
 tinguish between a graft and a parasite: a parasite preys 
 upon another plant, robbing it of its food, but a graft becomes 
 an integral part of the stock on which it grows, and does 
 its full work in elaborating food for itself and for the stock. 
 
 REVIEW. What are primary and secondary functions of roots and 
 stems? What are the functions of rhizomes? How does propagation 
 by rhizomes proceed? Why does the colony spread? Name some plants 
 that propagate by means of rhizomes. What is a cutting? May cuttings 
 be made of rhizomes? How are rhizomatous weeds often spread? 
 Name some of them. How do roots serve to propagate the plant? Name 
 instances. What are adventitious buds? What is a layer? Define some 
 of the kinds of layers, runner, creeper, stolon, offset. Explain how 
 cuttings may occur without the aid of man. How may leaves serve 
 to propagate the plant? Explain how plants propagate themselves by 
 means of detachable buds. What is a graft? How may grafting take 
 place without the aid of man? 
 
 NOTE. If there is an accessible "patch" of toad-flax, Canada 
 thistle, may-apple, or other perennial plant, the pupil should determine 
 by what means it enlarges from year to year. "Patches" are always 
 instructive when considered with reference to propagation and dis- 
 semination. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 HOW THE HORTICULTURIST PROPAGATES PLANTS BY 
 MEANS OF ROOTS AND STEMS 
 
 61. Cuttings in General. A bit of plant stuck into the 
 ground stands a chance of growing; and this bit is a cutting. 
 (Compare 51.) Not all plants can be propagated by the same 
 kind of cutting. The means is determined by experiment or 
 experience. In some cases the part to be used and the con- 
 ditions necessary for growing the cutting have not been dis- 
 covered, and we say that the plant is not propagated by 
 cuttings. It is probable that some plants cannot be grown 
 from cuttings, even under the greatest skill. 
 
 62. Most plants propagate from cuttings made of the 
 soft or growing parts (called "wood" by gardeners), of which 
 the "slips" of geranium and coleus are examples. Others 
 grow equally well from cuttings of the hard or mature 
 parts or wood, as currant and grape; and hi some instances 
 this mature wood may be of roots, as in the blackberry. 
 Pupils should make cuttings now and then. If they can 
 do nothing more, they can make cuttings of potato, as the 
 farmer does; and they can plant them in a 
 
 box in the window. 
 
 63. The Softwood Cutting. The soft- 
 wood cutting is made from tissue that is 
 still growing, or at least from that which 
 is not dormant. It comprises one or two 
 joints, with a leaf attached. (Figs. 33, 
 34, 35.) It must not be allowed to wilt. 
 Therefore, it must be protected from 
 direct sunlight and dry air until it is well 
 
 (23) 
 
 33. Geranium cutting. 
 
24 
 
 ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION 
 
 established in the earth; and if it has many leaves, some of 
 them should be removed, or at least cut in two, to reduce 
 the evaporating surface. Most of the common window-plants 
 
 may be propagated 
 easily by means of 
 softwood cuttings 
 or slips. 
 
 64. For most 
 plants, the proper 
 
 35. Rose cutting. agg Qr maturity of 
 
 wood for the making of cuttings may be 
 determined by giving the twig a quick 
 bend : if it snaps and hangs by the bark, it 
 is in proper condition; if it bends without 
 breaking, it is too young and soft or too old; if it splinters, 
 it is too old and woody. The tips of strong upright shoots 
 usually make the best cuttings. Preferably, each cutting 
 should have a joint or node near its base; and if the inter- 
 nodes (or spaces between joints) are very short, it may 
 comprise two or three joints. 
 
 65. The stem of the cutting is inserted one-third or more 
 its length in clean sand or gravel, and the earth is pressed 
 firmly about it. A newspaper may be laid over the bed to 
 
 34. Carnation 
 cutting. 
 
 36. Cutting-bed, showing carnations and roses. 
 
MAKING CUTTINGS 
 
 25 
 
 37. Verbena cutting ready 
 for transplanting. 
 
 exclude the light if the sun strikes it and to prevent 
 too rapid evaporation. The soil should be moist clear 
 through, not on top only. 
 
 66. Loose sandy or gravelly soil is 
 used. Mason's sand is good earth in 
 which to start most cuttings; or fine 
 gravel sifted of most of its earthy 
 matter may be used. Soils that con- 
 tain much decaying organic matter are 
 avoided, for these soils are breeding- 
 places of fungi, which attack the soft 
 cutting and cause it to "damp off," or 
 die at or near the surface of the ground. If the cuttings are 
 to be grown in a window, put three or four inches of the 
 earth in a shallow box or a pan. A soap box cut in two 
 lengthwise, so that it makes a box four or five inches deep 
 like a gardener's flat is excellent. A cutting-bed may 
 be made on a greenhouse bench or in a good shaded window, 
 as in Fig. 36. Cuttings of 
 common plants, as gera- 
 nium, coleus, fuchsia, carna- 
 tion, are kept at a living- 
 room temperature. As long 
 as the cuttings look bright 
 and green, they are in good 
 condition. It may be a 
 month before roots form. 
 When roots have formed, 
 the plants begin to make 
 new leaves at the tip. Then 
 they may be transplanted 
 into other boxes or into 
 pots. The verbena in Fig. 
 
 37 is jUSt ready for trans- 38. Old geranium plant cut back to 
 
 j . . make it throw out shoots from which cut- 
 
 planting. tinKS can be made. 
 
26 
 
 ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION 
 
 67. It is not always easy to find growing shoots from 
 which to make the cuttings. The best practice, in that 
 case, is to cut back an old plant, then keep it warm and well 
 watered, and thereby force it to throw out new shoots. The 
 old geranium plant from the window-garden, or the one 
 taken up from the lawn bed, may be treated this way. 
 See Fig. 38. The best plants of geranium and coleus and 
 most window-plants are those that are not more than one 
 
 year old. The ge- 
 ranium and fuchsia 
 cuttings that are 
 made in January, 
 February, o r 
 March will give 
 compact blooming 
 plants for the next 
 winter; and there- 
 after new ones 
 take their places. 
 (Fig. 39.) 
 
 68. The Hard- 
 wood Cutting. 
 Best results are 
 secured when the 
 cuttings are made 
 in the fall and then buried until spring in sand in the cellar. 
 These cuttings are usually 6 to 10 inches long. They are not 
 idle while they rest. The lower end calluses or heals, and 
 the roots form more readily when the cutting is planted in 
 the spring. But if the proper season has passed, take cut- 
 tings at any time in winter, plant them in a deep box in the 
 window, and watch. They will need no shading or special 
 care. Grape, currant, willow and poplar readily take root 
 from the hardwood. Fig. 40 shows a currant cutting. It has 
 only one bud above the ground. 
 
 39. Early winter geranium, from a spring cutting. 
 
CUTTINGS AND GRAFTS 
 
 27 
 
 69. Cuttings of Leaves. Some plants 
 are regularly propagated by leaf-cuttings. 
 See paragraph 58. Begonias of the "foliage" 
 kinds are the most frequent examples. 
 Sometimes the leaf is cut to wedge-shaped 
 parts, each part with a midrib and a bit of 
 the leaf-stalk; from the point which is put 
 in the earth a new plant arises, as shown 
 in Fig. 41. Gardeners often cut the begonia 
 leaf across and set the severed edge in the 
 earth; sometimes they lay the leaf flat on 
 the earth and peg it down at intervals. 
 The leaf should be nearly or quite mature, 
 but still full of vigor. 
 
 70. The Graft. When the cutting is 
 inserted in a plant rather than in the soil, 
 we have a graft; and the graft may grow. 
 In this case the cutting grows fast to the 
 
 ther P lant > and 
 
 the two become 
 one. When the cutting is inserted 
 in a plant, it is no longer called a 
 cutting, but a don] and the plant 
 in which it is inserted is called the 
 stock. Fruit trees are grafted in 
 order that a certain variety or kind 
 may be perpetuated. 
 
 71. Plants have preferences as 
 to the stocks on which they will 
 grow; but we can find out what 
 their choice is only by making the 
 experiment. The pear grows well 
 on the quince, but the quince does 
 
 not grOW SO Well On the pear. The 
 
 pear grows on some of the haw- 
 
 40. Currant cutting. 
 
 41. Triangular leaf-cutting 
 of begonia or "beefsteak geran- 
 
28 
 
 ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION 
 
 thorns, but it is an unwilling subject on the apple. Tomato 
 plants will grow on potato plants, and potato plants on 
 tomato plants. When the potato is the root, both tomatoes 
 and potatoes may be produced; when the tomato is the 
 root, neither potatoes nor tomatoes will be produced. Chest- 
 nut will grow on some kinds of oak. 
 
 72. The forming, growing tissue of the stem (on the plants 
 we have been discussing) is the cambium, lying on the out- 
 side of the woody cylinder, beneath the bark. In order that 
 union may take place, the cambium of the cion and of the 
 
 42. Cion of apple. 
 
 43. The cion inserted. 
 
 44. The parts waxed. 
 
 stock must come together. Therefore the cion is set in the 
 side of the stock. There are many ways of shaping the cion 
 and of preparing the stock to receive it. These ways are 
 dictated largely by the relative sizes of cion and stock, 
 although many of them are matters of mere personal prefer- 
 ence. The underlying principles are two: securing close 
 contact between the cambiums of cion and stock; covering 
 the wounded surfaces to prevent evaporation and to pro- 
 tect the parts from disease. 
 
 73. On large stocks, the commonest form of grafting is 
 
GRAFTING 29 
 
 the cleft-graft. The stock is cut off and split; and in one or 
 both sides a wedge-shaped cion is firmly inserted. Fig. 42 
 shows the cion; Fig. 43, the cions set in the stock; Fig. 44, 
 the stock waxed. It will be seen that the lower bud that 
 lying in the wedge is covered by the wax; but being nearest 
 the food supply and least exposed to weather, it is the most 
 likely to grow: it will push through the wax. 
 
 74. Cleft-grafting is performed in spring, as growth 
 begins. The cions are cut previously, when perfectly dor- 
 mant, and from the the tree which it is desired to propagate. 
 The cions are kept in sand or moss in the cellar. Limbs of 
 various sizes may be cleft-grafted, from one-half inch up 
 to four inches in diameter; but a diameter of one inch is the 
 most convenient size. All the leading or main branches of 
 a tree-top may be grafted. If the remaining parts of the 
 top are gradually cut away and the cions grow well, the 
 entire top will be changed over to the new variety. 
 
 REVIEW. How do we determine how a plant may be propagated? 
 Mention any plants that grow from cuttings. What are softwood 
 cuttings? Hardwood? Describe a geranium cutting. What is the proper 
 condition of wood for making a softwood cutting? How is it planted? 
 Where? In what kind of soil? Give directions for watering. How may 
 cutting-wood be secured? Describe a hardwood cutting. When is it 
 made? Name plants that can be propagated easily by means of hard- 
 wood cuttings. Describe a leaf-cutting. What is a cion? Stock? How 
 do we find out what stocks are congenial to the cion? Describe a cleft- 
 graft. When is cleft-grafting performed? Why do we graft? 
 
 NOTE. The cutting-box may be set in the window. If the box 
 does not receive direct sunlight, it may be covered with a pane of 
 glass to prevent evaporation. Take care that the air is not kept too 
 close, else the damping-off fungi may attack the cuttings, and they 
 will rot at the surface of the ground. See that the pane is raised a 
 little at one end to afford ventilation; and if water collects in drops on 
 the under side of the glass, remove the pane for a time. 
 
 Grafting-wax is made of beeswax, resin, and tallow. The hands 
 are greased, and the wax is then worked until it is soft enough to spread. 
 For the little grafting which any pupil would do, it is better to buy the 
 wax of a seedsman. However, grafting is hardly to be recommended 
 
30 ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION 
 
 as a general school diversion, as the making of cuttings is; and this 
 account of it is inserted chiefly to satisfy the general curiosity on the 
 subject. But now and then a pupil may make the effort for himself, 
 for nothing is more exciting than to make a graft grow all by one's self. 
 
 The pictures of the cuttings (Figs. 33-35, 37, 40) and the grafts 
 (Figs. 42-44) are one-third natural size. 
 
 The many forms of grafting and budding are too special for dis- 
 cussion in this book. Descriptions of them may be found in "The 
 Nursery-Book" and other works. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 FOOD RESERVOIRS 
 
 75. Storehouses. All greatly thickened or congested 
 parts are reservoirs for the storage of plant-food. This 
 food is mostly starch or sugar. Potatoes, beets, turnips, 
 thick rhizomes, seeds, are examples. Recall how potatoes 
 sprout in the cellar (Fig. 45) : the sprouts are produced from 
 the stored food. 
 
 76. The presence of starch can be determined by apply- 
 ing diluted tincture of iodin to the part : if a blue or purplish 
 brown color appears, starch is present. Cut the part open and 
 moisten the fresh sur- 
 face with iodin (to be 
 
 had at the drug store) . 
 The test will usually 
 give the best reaction 
 when the part is per- 
 fectly dormant. Starch 
 may be found in 
 nearly all twigs in fall 
 and winter. Test thin 
 cross-sections. 
 
 77. This stored 
 plant-food enables the 
 plant to start quickly 
 in the spring, without 
 waiting for food elab- 
 oration to begin in the 
 leaves; and it enables 
 
 j.v 14-14." 4.v> 45. Potato sprouts. The sprouts have used the food 
 
 the plantlet in the stored in the tuber, and the tuber has shriveled. 
 
 (31) 
 
32 
 
 FOOD RESERVOIRS 
 
 seed to grow until it establishes itself in the earth. The flow- 
 ers of early-blooming trees are developed mostly from the 
 nourishment stored in the twigs, not from the materials 
 
 46. A winter branch bearing leaves inside a window, while still 
 attached to the tree outside. 
 
 taken in at the time by the roots, nor from food being made 
 by the newly forming leaves. This can be demonstrated 
 by bringing branches of peach, apple, and other early- 
 blooming plants into the house in the winter and keeping 
 them in water; they will bloom and sometimes even make 
 leaves. Study Fig. 46. 
 
 78. Kinds of Storage-organs. Short and 
 much thickened or swollen parts of roots or 
 stems are known as tubers. These may be 
 stem-tubers, as the potato, or root-tubers, as 
 the sweet potato (45). Most tubers are sub- 
 terranean. 
 
 79. Many tubers are stem at the top and 
 root in the remaining part: these are called 
 crown-tubers, because the upper part comes 
 
 47 Crown-tuber ^ ^ e surface of the ground, or is a crown. 
 Turnip. Leaves and stems arise from the upper part. 
 
TUBERS AND BULBS 
 
 33 
 
 Beet, radish parsnip, turnip, salsify, carrot, dahlia roots, 
 are examples. These tubers are usually much longer than 
 broad, and generally taper down- 
 wards. (Fig. 47.) A good example of 
 
 stem-tuber is the kohlrabi. (Fig. 48). 
 , ^ }\z / jv\n\r~{f' 
 
 OP* 
 
 48. Stem-tuber above ground. 
 Kohlrabi. 
 
 49. A multiplier onion. 
 
 80. A much thickened part composed of scales or plates 
 is a bulb. The bulb may be scaly, as in the lily; or it may be 
 tunicated, made up of plates or layers within layers, as 
 the onion. 
 
 81. Small bulbs borne amongst the foliage or flowers 
 are known as bulblets. 
 
 Such are the "top onions," 
 and the little bulbs that 
 the tiger lily (Fig. 31) 
 bears on its stem. Bulbs 
 that grow around the main 
 bulb or which are formed 
 by the breaking apart of 
 the main bulb, are known 
 as bulbels. Many bulbous 
 
 plants propagate by means 50. Section /.multiplier onion. Natural size. 
 G 
 
34 
 
 FOOD RESERVOIRS 
 
 of bulbels. The multiplier or potato onion (Fig. 49) is an 
 example. If the bulb is cut across, it is found to have two 
 or more "hearts" or cores (Fig. 50). When it has been 
 
 planted a week, each core 
 or part begins to separate 
 (Fig. 51), and there are 
 soon as many onions as 
 there are cores. Potato 
 onions can be bought of 
 seedsmen. They are used 
 for the raising of early 
 onions. 
 
 82. Solid bulb-like parts 
 are known as corms. These 
 usually have a loose cover- 
 ing, but the interior is not 
 made up of scales or plates. 
 Of such are gladiolus and 
 crocus corms. (Figs. 52, 53.) Corms multiply by cormels or 
 small corms, as bulbs do by bulbels; or the plant may bear 
 cormlets amongst the branches and foliage. Fig. 54 shows 
 an old gladiolus corm on which three new corms have grown. 
 83. We have seen that thickened parts may serve one 
 or both of two purposes: they may be storage-organs for 
 
 51. Beginning to separate into its parts. 
 Each part will be a little onion. 
 
 52. Corm of crocus. Nat. size. 
 
 53. Section of a crocus corm. 
 
TUBERS AND BULBS 
 
 35 
 
 food; they may be means of propagating the plant. The 
 storage of food carries the plant over a dry or cold season. 
 By making bulbs or tubers, the plant persists until spring. 
 Future growth is, therefore, pro- 
 vided for by the storage. Bulbous 
 plants are characteristic of many 
 dry countries. 
 
 54. Three corms growing on an 
 old one. Gladiolus. 
 
 REVIEW. What do you understand 
 by food reservoirs? How is the presence 
 of starch determined? Where may starch 
 be found? Of what service to the plant is 
 this stored food? How are the flowers and 
 leaves enabled to start so early in spring? 
 Define tuber. Root-tuber. Stem-tuber. Crown-tuber. Give examples. 
 Define bulb. Scaly bulb. Tunicated bulb. Bulblet. Bulbel. Give 
 examples. -Define corm. Cormel. What two purposes do congested 
 parts serve? 
 
 NOTE. The pupil should examine various kinds of bulbs and 
 tubers. If these are not at hand, many kinds can be purchased of 
 seedsmen or florists. Secure onion, narcissus, hyacinth, gladiolus, 
 crocus, potato. Cut them in two. Study the make-up. Test them 
 for starch. Plant some of them in pots or boxes. Observe how they 
 grow. In the onion and some other plants, most of the stored food is 
 sugar. Place a potato tuber in a tumbler or cup in a window so that 
 the bottom of the tuber will be in the water. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 WINTER BUDS 
 
 84. What Buds Are. Because of cold or dry weather, 
 the plant is forced into a period of inactivity. We have 
 seen that it stores food, and is ready to make a quick start 
 in the spring. It also makes embryo branches and packs 
 them away underneath close-fitting scales: these branch- 
 lets and their coverings are winter buds. The growing 
 points of the plant are at rest for a time. In the warm 
 season, the growing point is active, and the covering of 
 scales is not so pronounced. A winter bud may be defined 
 as a resting covered growing point. 
 
 85. A resting bud, therefore, is a shortened axis or branch, 
 bearing miniature leaves or flowers, or both, and protected 
 by a covering. Cut in two, lengthwise, a bud of the horse- 
 chestnut or other plant that has large buds. With a pin, 
 separate the tiny leaves. Count them. Examine the big 
 
 bud of the rhubarb as it lies under 
 the ground in winter or early spring. 
 Dissect large buds of the apple and 
 and pear. (Figs. 55, 56.) 
 
 86. The bud is protected by firm 
 and dry scales; but these scales are 
 Bud of apri- O nly modified leaves. The scales 
 
 cot showing .111- ,56. Bud of pear 
 
 the minia- fit close. Often the bud is protected showing both 
 
 ture leaves. by varnish (see horse-chestnut and ^^ Vhe 
 
 the balsam poplars). Most winter buds are latter are the 
 
 little knobs in 
 
 more or less woolly. Examine them under the center. 
 a lens. AS we might expect, bud-coverings are most prom- 
 inent in cold and dry climates. 
 
 (36) 
 
MANY KINDS OF BUDS 
 
 37 
 
 87. 
 of the 
 
 
 Where Buds Are. Buds are borne in the 
 leaves, in the acute angle that the leaf makes 
 the stem. When the leaf is grow- 
 ing in the summer, a bud is form- 
 ing above it. When the leaf falls, 
 the bud remains, and a scar marks 
 the place of the leaf. Fig. 57 
 shows the large leaf-scars of ailan- 
 thus. Observe those on the horse- 
 chestnut, maple, apple, pear, bass- 
 wood, hickory, or any tree or bush. 
 88. Sometimes two or more buds 
 are borne in one axil: the extra 
 ones are accessory or supernumerary 53. 
 _ buds. Observe them in the Tar- 
 
 57. Leaf-sca7 s tarian honeysuckle (common in 
 Aiianthus. yards), walnut, butternut, red 
 maple, honey locust, and sometimes in the apricot and 
 peach. 
 
 89. Shoots of many plants bear a bud at the tip: this 
 is a terminal bud. It continues the growth of the axis in 
 a direct line. Very often three or more buds are clustered 
 at the tip (Fig. 58); 
 
 and in this case there 
 may be more buds than 
 leaf-scars. Only one of 
 them, however, is strictly 
 terminal. 
 
 90. Bulbs and cabbage 
 heads may be likened 
 to buds: that is, they 
 are condensed stems, 
 
 With SCaleS Or modified 59. A gigantic bud.-Cabbage. 
 
 leaves densely overlapping and forming a rounded body. 
 (Fig. 59.) They differ from true buds, however, in the fact 
 
38 
 
 WINTER BUDS 
 
 62. 
 
 The open- 
 ing of 
 61. Fruit- the pear 
 
 that they are condensations of main stems rather than 
 embryo stems borne in the axils of leaves. But bulblets 
 
 may be scarcely distinguish- 
 
 able from buds on the one 
 
 hand and from bulbs on the 
 
 other. Cut a cabbage head in 
 
 two lengthwise, and see what 
 
 it is like. 
 
 91. What Buds do. A bud 
 is a growing point. In the 
 growing season it is small, 
 and persons do not notice it. 
 In the winter it is dormant 
 
 and wrapped up and is plainly bud of pear ' bud " 
 seen: it is waiting. All branches spring from 
 buds. 
 
 92. All winter buds give rise to branches, 
 not to leaves alone: that is, the leaves are borne 
 on the lengthening axis. Sometimes the axis, 
 or branch, remains very short, so short that it 
 
 GO. wiiiow. may not be noticed. Some- A 
 
 times it grows several feet *&'' 
 
 long. 
 
 biack a bud 93. Whether the 
 
 re c a a dy e to branch grows long 
 
 Ihe has" or not depends on 
 
 of each. 
 
 P are~ 
 
 position on the plant, fertility 
 
 of soil, rainfall, and many 
 
 other things. The new shoot is 
 
 the unfolding and enlarging of 
 
 the tiny axis and leaves that 63 Hickory 
 
 we saw in the bud. (Figs. 55, 
 
 56.) If the conditions are congenial, the shoot may form more 
 
 leaves than were tucked away in the bud, but commonly 
 
 64. Growth is 
 progressing. 
 
CONTENTS OF BUDS 
 
 39 
 
 it does not. The length of the shoot usually depends more 
 
 on the lengths between joints than on the number of leaves. 
 94. How Buds Open. When the bud 
 
 swells, the scales are pushed apart, the 
 
 little axis elongates and pushes out. In 
 
 most plants, the outside scales fall very soon, 
 
 leaving a little ring of scars. Notice peach, 
 
 apple, plum, willow, and other plants. 
 
 (Fig. 60.) In others, all the scales grow 
 
 for a time, as in the pear. (Figs. 61, 62.) 
 In other plants, the inner bud- 
 scales become green and al- 
 most leaf-like. See the maple 
 and hickory. Fig. 63 shows a 
 hickory bud. Two weeks later, 6 5. Opening of the 
 the young shoot had pushed out pear bud> 
 and the enlarged scales were hanging. (Fig. 64.) 
 95. Sometimes flowers come out of the buds. 
 Leaves may or may not accompany the flowers, 
 o'clock it We saw the embryo flowers in Fig. 56. The 
 fuiiy ex- bud is shown again in Fig. 61. In Fig. 62 it is 
 opening. In Fig. 65 it is 
 
 more advanced, and the woolly un- 
 formed flowers are appearing. In 
 
 Fig. 66 the growth is more advanced. 
 
 In Fig. 67 the flowers are full blown; 
 
 and the bees have found them. 
 
 96. Buds that contain or produce 
 
 only leaves are leaf-buds. Those that 
 
 contain only flowers are flower-buds 
 
 or fruit-buds. The latter occur on 
 
 peach, almond, apricot, and many 
 
 very early spring-flowering plants. 67 ' Pear in fu " bloom> 
 
 (Fig. 68.) The single flower is emerging from the apricot 
 
 bud in Fig. 69. Those that contain both leaves and flow- 
 
 A single 
 flower in 
 the pear 
 cluster as 
 seen at 7 
 A. M. on 
 the day of 
 its open- 
 
40 
 
 WINTER BUDS 
 
 Almond flower the 
 sole occupant of a bud. 
 
 The 
 ing of the 
 flower-bud 
 of apricot. 
 
 ers are mixed buds, as in pear (Fig. 67), apple, and most late 
 
 spring-flowering plants. 
 
 97. Fruit-buds are usually thicker 
 or stouter than leaf-buds. They are 
 borne in different positions on differ- 
 ent plants. In some plants 
 (apple, pear) they are mostly 
 on the ends -of short branches 
 or spurs; in others (peach, red 
 maple) they are mostly along 
 the sides of the last year's 
 open- growths. In Fig. 70 are shown 
 three fruit-buds and one leaf- 
 bud on e, and leaf-buds 
 
 on a. In Fig. 71 a fruit-bud is at the left, and a leaf-bud 
 
 at the right. 
 
 98. The "Burst of Spring" 
 
 means chiefly the opening of the 
 
 buds. Note the process in Fig. 72. 
 
 Everything was made ready in the 
 
 previous growing season. The em- 
 bryo shoots and flowers were devel- 
 oped in the buds, and the food was 
 
 stored. Spring comes on. The warm 
 
 rain falls, and the shutters open and 
 
 the sleepers wake: the frogs peep 
 
 and the birds come. 
 
 REVIEW. What are resting buds? 
 What are they for? What is their cover- 
 ing? Where are they borne? When are 
 they formed? What is a leaf-scar? What 
 are accessory buds? What other name is 
 applied to them? Define terminal bud. 
 What does it do? What are bulbs and 
 cabbages? How do they differ from 
 buds? What do buds do? From what do 7 ' Fruft *?jy^ leaf ' buds 
 
QUESTIONS ON BUDS 
 
 41 
 
 branches arise? To what do winter buds give rise? What determines 
 whether the branch shall be long or short? Describe the opening of 
 a bud. What are flower-buds? Leaf-buds? 
 Mixed buds? How may fruit-buds be distin- 
 guished? What is the "burst of spring?" 
 
 NOTE. It is easy to see the swelling of the 
 buds in a room in winter. Secure branches of 
 trees and shrubs, two to three feet long, and 
 stand them in vases or jars, as you would 
 flowers. Renew the water frequently and cut 
 off the lower ends of the shoots occasionally' 
 In a week or two the buds will begin to swell. 
 Of red maple, peach, apricot, and other very 
 early-flowering things, flowers may be secured 
 in ten to twenty days. Try it. 
 
 The shape, size, and color of the winter buds 
 are different in every kind of plant. By the buds 
 alone botanists are often able to distinguish the 
 kinds of trees. Even such similar plants as the different kinds of 
 willows have good bud characters. The study of the kinds of buds 
 affords excellent training of the powers of observation. 
 
 71. Fruit-bud and leaf- 
 bud of apple. 
 
 72. The burst of spring in the lilac. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 PLANTS AND SUNLIGHT 
 
 99. Each Plant Responds to Light. Green plants live 
 only in sunlight, direct or indirect. The gradual with- 
 drawal of light tends to weaken the plant; but the plant 
 
 makes an effort to reach the light 
 and therefore grows toward it. The 
 whole habit of a plant may be 
 changed by its position with ref- 
 erence to sunlight. Choose two 
 similar plants. Place one near 
 the window and the other far 
 from it. Watch the behavior from 
 day to day. Fig. 73 shows a 
 fern that grew near the glass in 
 a conservatory: Fig. 74 shows one that grew on the 
 floor of a conservatory. Fig. 74 also teaches another 
 lesson, which is to be explained in another chapter (Chapter 
 XXVIII). 
 
 100. Plants grow toward the light. The most vigor- 
 ous branches, as a rule, are those that receive most light. 
 
 73. Sufficient light. 
 
 74. In need of light, 
 kind of fern as No. 73. 
 
 75. Growing toward the light. 
 
 (42) 
 
REACHING FOR LIGHT 
 
 43 
 
 Climb a tree and observe where the thriftiest shoots are; 
 or observe any bush. 
 
 101. When plants or their parts are not stiff or rigid, 
 
 76. Branches of the cedar reaching for light. 
 
 they turn toward the light, if the light comes mostly from 
 one direction. The geraniums and fuchsias in the window 
 are turned around occasionally so that they will grow sym- 
 metrical. Plant radish in a pot or pan. When the plants 
 are three or four inches high, place the pan in a tight box 
 
44 
 
 PLANTS AND SUNLIGHT 
 
 which has a hole on one side. The next day it will look 
 like those in Fig. 75. This turning toward the light is 
 called heliotropism (helios is Greek for "sun"). 
 
 102. Even under natural 
 conditions, plants become 
 misshapen or unsymmetri- 
 cal if the light comes 
 mostly from one direction. 
 On the edge of a forest, 
 the branches grow out 
 toward the light. (Fig. 76.) 
 Trees tend to grow away 
 from a building. Branches 
 become fixed in their 
 position, so that even in 
 winter they show the in- 
 fluence of light. 
 
 103. Some plants climb 
 other plants in order to 
 reach the sunlight; or they 
 climb rocks and buildings. Notice that the vine on the house 
 luxuriates where it is lightest. Climbing plants may injure 
 or even kill the plant on which they climb. This they may 
 do by throwing their mantle of foliage over it, and smother- 
 ing it, or by sending their roots into its trunk and robbing 
 it of food. Sometimes they do both, as in Fig. 78. 
 
 104. Each Branch Grows Toward Light. The plant is 
 made up of branches. There is a struggle amongst the 
 branches for sunlight. We have seen (Fig. 7) that no two 
 branches are alike: we now know one reason why. Notice 
 that the small branches die in the center of the tree. Look 
 on the inside of a pine, spruce or other dense tree. Every 
 branch has a story to tell of the value of sunlight. 
 
 105. Each Leaf Grows Toward Light. Leaves are borne 
 toward the ends of the branches. This is particularly 
 
 77. Mantle of clematis. The leaves, and later 
 the flowers, spread themselves to the light. 
 
THE LIGHT REACTION 
 
 45 
 
 marked when the struggle is severe. If the outside of a 
 plant is densely thatched with leaves, the inside will be 
 found to be comparatively bare. Contrast Figs. 79 and 80, 
 both being views of one tree. We know the tree as seen 
 in Fig. 79: the squirrel knows it as seen in Fig. 80. 
 
 106. On any branch in a very thick-topped tree or bush, 
 leaves of equal age usually tend to be largest where the 
 light is best. Leaves that grow in full sunlight tend to per- 
 sist later in the fall than those that grow in poor light. 
 This fact is sometimes obscured because the outermost 
 leaves are most ex- 
 posed to autumn 
 
 winds. 
 
 107. Plants that 
 start in cellars, from 
 seeds, bulbs, or tubers, 
 grow until the stored 
 food is exhausted and 
 then die: the leaves 
 do not develop to full 
 size in darkness. Figs. 
 81 and 82 show this. 
 Fig. 81 is rhubarb 
 forced in a cellar for 
 the winter market; 
 Fig. 82 is a plant 
 grown out-of-doors. 
 Compare Fig. 45. 
 
 108. The position 
 or direction of leaves 
 is determined largely 
 by exposure to sun- 
 light. In temperate climates, they usually hang in such a 
 way that they receive the greatest amount of light. Observe 
 the arrangement of leaves in Fig. 83. One leaf shades the 
 
 78. A climbing fig choking a palm. 
 
46 
 
 PLANTS AND SUNLIGHT 
 
 79. Looking at the top of a Norway maple. As the bird sees it. 
 
 other to the least possible degree. If the plant were placed 
 in a new position with reference to light, the leaves would 
 make an effort to turn their blades. Observe the shingle-like 
 arrangement in Fig. 79. If the pupil were to. examine the 
 
 80. Looking up into the same tree. As the squirrel sees it. 
 
THE LIGHT RELATION 47 
 
 leaves on the Norway maple, which is photographed in Fig. 
 79, he would find that leaves which are not on the outside 
 lengthen their leaf-stalks in order to get the light. See Fig. 
 157. Norway maple is common on lawns and roadsides. 
 
 109. We have seen (85) that a large part of the leaves 
 of any one year are packed away in the buds of the previous 
 winter. It is almost impossible that these leaves should be 
 packed away hit or miss. They are usually arranged in a 
 mathematical order. We can see this order when the shoot 
 has grown. We can see it by studying the buds on recent 
 
 81. Rhubarb grown in the dark. The leaf-blades do not develop. 
 
 shoots, since there was a leaf for each bud. The leaves (or 
 buds) may be opposite each other on the stem, or alternate. 
 (Fig. 84.) 
 
 110. When leaves are opposite, the pairs usually alter- 
 nate. That is, if one pair stands north and south, the next 
 pair stands east and west. See the box-elder shoot, on 
 the left in Fig. 84. One pair does not shade the pair beneath. 
 The leaves are in four vertical ranks. 
 
 111. There are several kinds of alternate arrangement. 
 In the elm shoot in Fig. 84, the third bud is vertically above 
 the first. This is true, no matter which bud is taken as the 
 
48 
 
 PLANTS AND SUNLIGHT 
 
 starting point. Draw a thread around the stem until the 
 two buds are joined. Set a pin at each bud. Observe that the 
 two buds are passed (not counting the last) and that the 
 thread makes one circuit of the stem. Representing the num- 
 ber of buds by a denominator, and the number of circuits 
 by a numerator, we have the fraction ^A, which expresses 
 the part of the circle that lies between any two buds. 
 
 That is, the buds are 
 one-half of 360 de- 
 grees apart, or 180 
 degrees. Looking 
 endwise at the stem, 
 the leaves are seen 
 to be 2-ranked. Note 
 that in the apple 
 shoot (Fig. 84, right), 
 the thread makes 
 two circuits and five 
 buds are passed: 
 two-fifths represents 
 the divergence be- 
 tween the buds. The 
 leaves are 5-ranked. 
 112. Every plant 
 has its own arrange- 
 ment of leaves. For 
 opposite leaves, see 
 maple, box-elder, ash, lilac, honeysuckle, mint, fuchsia. For 
 2-ranked arrangement see all grasses, Indian corn, basswood, 
 elm. For 3-ranked arrangement see all sedges. For 5-ranked 
 (which is one of the commonest), see apple, cherry, pear, 
 peach, plum, poplar, willow. For 8-ranked, see holly, osage 
 orange. More complicated arrangements occur in bulbs, 
 house-leeks, and other condensed parts. The arrangement 
 of leaves on the stem is known as phyllotaxy (literally 
 
 82. Rhubarb growing in the light. 
 
LEAF ARRANGEMENT 
 
 49 
 
 83. All the leaves are exposed 
 to light. 
 
 "leaf-arrangement"). Make out the 
 phyllotaxy on any plant. Try it 
 on a long potato tuber. 
 
 113. In some plants, several 
 leaves occur at one level, being 
 arranged in a circle around the 
 stem. Such leaves are said to be 
 verti dilate or whorled. Leaves 
 arranged in this way are usually 
 narrow. 
 
 114. Although a definite 
 arrangement of leaves is the rule 
 in most plants, it is subject to mod- 
 ification. On shoots that receive the light only from one 
 side or that grow in difficult positions, the arrangement may 
 not be definite. Examine shoots that grow on the under 
 side of dense tree-tops or in other partially lighted positions. 
 
 115. The direction or 
 "hang" of the leaf is 
 usually fixed, but there 
 are some leaves that 
 change their direction be- 
 tween daylight and dark- 
 ness. Thus, leaves of 
 clover (Fig. 85), bean, 
 locust, and many related 
 plants, "sleep" at night; 
 also oxalis. It is not a 
 sleep in the sense in which 
 animals sleep, however, 
 but its function is not 
 well understood. 
 
 116. Leaves usually ex- 
 pose one particular surface 
 
 tO the light. This is be- g4. Phyllotaxy of box-elder, elm, apple. 
 
50 
 
 PLANTS AND SUNLIGHT 
 
 85. Day and night positions of the 
 clover leaf. 
 
 cause their internal structure is such that light is most 
 
 efficient when it strikes this surface, as we shall learn later 
 
 on. Some plants, how- 
 ever, expose both surfaces 
 
 to the light, and their leaves 
 
 stand vertical. Others 
 
 avoid the intense light of 
 
 midday and turn in the 
 
 direction of least light. 
 
 Leaves standing edgewise 
 
 are said to exhibit polarity. 
 
 They are "compass plants" if they point north and south. 
 The famous compass plant or silphium of 
 the prairies, and the wild lettuce (Fig. 86), 
 are examples of plants having polar leaves. 
 Every leaf has a story to tell of the value of 
 sunlight. 
 
 117. Winter Buds Show What Has Been 
 the Effect of Sunlight. Buds are borne in 
 the axils of the leaves (87), and the size or 
 vigor of the leaf determines to a large extent 
 the size of the bud. Notice that, in most 
 instances, the largest buds are nearest the tip. 
 (Fig. 87.) If the largest ones are not near the 
 tip, there is some special reason for it. Ex- 
 amine the shoots on trees and bushes. 
 
 118. The largest buds usually start first 
 in spring, and the branches that arise from 
 them have the advantage in the struggle 
 for existence. Plants tend to grow most vig- 
 orously from their ends. Observe that only 
 the terminal bud grew in the hickory twig 
 in Fig. 64. If the side buds or lower buds 
 
 wite id p s ia a cef grew more vigorously than the end buds, the 
 plant would become exceedingly branched 
 
QUESTIONS ON THE LIGHT-RELATION 51 
 
 and its whole form might be changed. Consider how such a 
 mode of branching would affect any small tree that you 
 know. Every bud has a story to tell of the value of sunlight. 
 
 REVIEW. What is the relation of the plant 
 to sunlight? Does its form ever depend on its 
 relation to light? In what direction do the tops t 
 of plants grow? Where are the most vigorous 
 branches? What is heliotropism? Why are trees 
 sometimes unsymmetrical? Do you know any 
 instances yourself? What is one way in which 
 plants profit by the climbing habit? Explain. 
 Where are leaves borne in reference to light? 
 Where are leaves usually largest? Do they de- 
 velop in darkness? Are leaves borne directly 
 above one another? How may leaves be arranged? 
 Explain what phyllotaxy is. Are leaves always 
 arranged definitely? Explain the arrangement 
 in some plant that is not mentioned in this 
 lesson. What is the "sleep" of leaves? Which 
 surface of the leaf is exposed? What are com- 
 pass plants? How do buds show what the effect 
 of sunlight has been? What buds start first in 37. The big terminal 
 
 spring? buds. Hickory. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE AMONGST 
 THE BRANCHES 
 
 119. No Two Branches are Alike. Every twig has 
 history. It has to contend for sunlight and a place in whic 
 to grow. Its size and shape, therefore, depend on the cor 
 ditions under which it lives. Observe the long, straighl 
 big-leaved shoots on the top of the plant, and the shorl 
 weak, crooked ones on the inside or under side. 
 
 120. There is struggle for existence for every twig an 
 every leaf. Those finding the best conditions live and thrive 
 
 88. The struggle for life. Mulberry shoot. 
 
 those finding the poorest die. The weak are overpowere 
 and finally perish: this prunes the tree, and tends to mak 
 the strong the stronger. Observe the competition in th 
 branch photographed in Fig. 88. Pick out the dead twig 
 the weak ones, the strong ones. See also Fig. 7. 
 
 121. The Buds May Not Grow. There is not room in 
 tree-top for all the buds to grow into branches. Some buc 
 
 (52) 
 
THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE 
 
 53 
 
 89. The branching is crooked 
 and irregular. 
 
 are suppressed. Branches die. So it comes that branches 
 are not arranged regularly, although the buds may be. In 
 
 the Tartarian or "tree" 
 honeysuckle the buds are 
 opposite; Fig. 89 shows how 
 the branches are. Even 
 though the branch or plant 
 is apparently regular in 
 shape (as in Fig. 90), never- 
 theless many of the buds 
 have been suppressed, else 
 there would be a branch 
 from every axil. 
 
 122. The results of the 
 struggle for existence in the 
 tree-top can be expressed in figures. Consider that every bud 
 is the germ or starting point of a branch. Observe at what 
 distances apart the buds are usually borne on any plant, and 
 estimate the number of buds that the plant has borne: 
 count the number of branches which the tree actually bears. 
 It will be found that the number of buds is far in excess of 
 the number of 
 branches: the differ- 
 ence between the 
 numbers shows how 
 many buds or 
 branches have failed. 
 Or, count the buds 
 on any branch, and 
 figure up the pos- 
 sibilities. A branch 
 12 inches long, for 
 example, has 10 buds. 
 If each bud grows, 
 
 90. Not all the buds have produced 
 at the end Of the next branches. Tea plant. 
 
54 STRUGGLE AMONGST BRANCHES 
 
 season, there will be 10 branches, each of which may have 
 10 buds. At the end of the second year there will be IOC 
 branches; at the end of the third, 1,000. Can 1,000 branches 
 be borne on a 4-year-old branch 12 inches long, as a basel 
 Or, count the old bud-scars on the branches for the places 
 of the buds persist as wrinkles in the bark, often for man} 
 
 years. (Fig. 91.) One can ofter 
 locate these bud-scars on ok 
 branches with his eyes closed b} 
 running his fingers over the bark 
 123. Buds that fail to gro^ 
 are called dormant buds. The} 
 are usually the weakest ones 
 those which grew in the mos 
 uncongenial conditions. They ar( 
 toward the base of the shoot 
 We have seen (118) tha 
 it is the terminal o: 
 uppermost buds whicl 
 are most likely to grow 
 The dormant budi 
 gradually die. T h e i 
 may live four or fivi 
 years on some plants 
 If the other buds o 
 branches fail or are in 
 
 91. Scars of the dormant bud,-Wi,low. J Ufed ' the y ^ ^ W 
 
 but usually they do not 
 
 124. Dormant buds must not be confounded with ad 
 ventitious buds. We have learned (54) that adventitiou 
 buds are those formed at unusual times or places, becausi 
 of some disturbance of the part. If a large branch is cu 
 off, suckers or watersprouts are thrown out near the wound 
 these arise from buds that are made for the occasion. Thes< 
 buds did not exist there. In many countries it is a custon 
 
92. A pollard tree 
 
 In this case, man has added to the struggle for existence. An ash tree in Algeria. 
 The shoots are cut for forage. 
 
 (55) 
 
56 
 
 STRUGGLE AMONGST BRANCHES 
 
 to "pollard" or cut off the tops of trees every few years for 
 the firewood or other uses, and strong adventitious shoots 
 
 arise along the trunk. 
 
 (Fig. 92.) 
 
 125. Where the 
 Branches Grow. Be- 
 cause new shoots tend 
 to arise from the top 
 of the twigs, the branches 
 of most trees are in tiers 
 or layers. These tiers of- 
 ten can be traced in trees 
 50 and 100 years old. 
 Try it in any oak, maple, 
 ash, or other tree. For 
 practice, begin with 
 young, vigorous trees. 
 (Figs. 93 and 94.) 
 
 126. When part of a 
 top is removed, the remaining branches fill the space. The 
 branches are attracted by the light, and grow in that 
 direction. A pruned or injured top always tends to come 
 back to equilibrium. 
 
 93. Tiers of 
 branches on 
 young tree. 
 
 94. Even in old trees 
 the tiers can be 
 traced. 
 
 95. Crushed by storm, the tree still shoots upward. 
 
HISTORY OF A TWIG 
 
 57 
 
 127. A mangled or broken plant tends to regain its former 
 position. From fallen trees, upright shoots arise. In Fig. 
 95 observe the new trunks arising from the older prostrate 
 trunks. 
 
 98. May 20. 
 
 REVIEW. What is meant by the statement that every twig has 
 a history? Upon what does the shape and size of a branch depend? 
 Explain what you mean by the struggle for existence. Why do not all 
 buds grow? If buds are arranged in mathematical order, why are not 
 branches so arranged? How may the effect of struggle for existence be 
 expressed in figures? Choose some branch and explain. Define dormant 
 buds. Adventitious buds. Why are branches in tiers, or borne at 
 intervals? How do plants tend to regain their form and position, when 
 injured? 
 
 NOTE. Let the pupil work out the history of some branch. It is 
 better to choose a branch that is vigorous. He should first determine, 
 if the shoot is dormant, how much grew the previous season. The 
 last year's growth bears buds on the main axis, not on side branches; 
 
58 
 
 STRUGGLE AMONGST BRANCHES 
 
 and the "ring" (scars or bud-scales) marks the junction between the 
 different years' growth. Notice this ring in the front shoot in Fig. 87. 
 The teacher will find many twigs worked out in "Lessons with Plants." 
 Figs. 96-100 show an actual case. These drawings were all made with 
 the greatest care from one elm twig. The twig (Fig. 96) shows three 
 years' growths. The side branch is evidently only one year old, for it 
 did not arise until the twig which bears it was one year old. Note 
 that only one of the buds made a branch. There are five blossom-buds. 
 Fig. 97 shows the twig in bloom. Fig. 98 shows it in fruit and leaf. 
 Fig. 100 shows the net result. The side branch grew from a to s and made 
 two blossom buds. The tip of the main shoot (Fig. 96) was broken in 
 a storm. The two buds next in succession grew. Each made flower- 
 buds. Observe how many buds on this elm shoot have failed. 
 
 100. October 18. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 PRUNING 
 
 128. We are now ready to discuss the reasons for pruning, 
 and how the work should be performed. We have discovered 
 that there is competition between different plants and also 
 
 between branches on the same plant. 
 When one or more of the competitors 
 is removed, the remain- 
 ing plants or parts 
 have better condi- 
 tions and will prob- 
 ably increase in vigor. 
 Pruning is a means of 
 allowing the remaining 
 branches a better op- 
 portunity to develop. 
 
 129. Pruning should therefore increase 
 the vigor of remaining parts. In fruit trees 
 it also thins the fruit, increasing its size. 
 It opens a tree-top to air and light; 
 removes superfluous fruit -buds; allows 
 more thorough spraying; increases ease of 
 access into the tree by the pickers. Prun- 
 ing also keeps plants within bounds, and ^ 
 corrects misshapen or awkward forms. 
 
 130. The first pruning is performed 
 when the plant is set or planted. The 
 broken and dead roots are removed, and 
 part of the top is taken away. There 
 should be a proper balance between root 
 
 (59) 
 
 101. Showing how much 
 the leaves or top of a 
 young plant may be 
 removed on trans- 
 planting* 
 
 102. Suggestions for 
 pruning root and top 
 of an apple t ree when 
 it is transplanted. A 
 pruned top is shown 
 at a. 
 
60 
 
 PRUNING 
 
 and top, when a tree is dislodged from the earth and taken 
 to another place. We have found that the leaves of cuttings 
 are sometimes reduced for a similar reason (63). In most 
 
 103. Peach tree unpruned and pruned. 
 
 trees and shrubs (except conifers) the top is cut back as 
 much as one-half on transplanting. (Figs. 101, 102.) 
 
 131. Young trees may be so pruned that so many branches 
 will not grow as to confuse and crowd the tree-top later on, 
 A few framework or scaffold branches should be left. (Fig, 
 103.) An effort should be made to shape the tree sym- 
 metrically; and if the trees are to constitute an orchard, 
 they should be uniform in shape and height of top. (Figs, 
 104, 105.) "As the twig is bent the tree's inclined." 
 
 132. F r u i 1 
 plants should be 
 so pruned as tc 
 encourage and 
 spare sufficiem 
 bearing wood tc 
 insure a good 
 crop. W e have 
 identified the 
 fruit-buds (Chap- 
 
 104. Well-shaped apple trees. In regions of intense 
 
 heat and sunshine, as in parts of the western United strongest and best 
 States and Canada, apple trees are usually trained lower * j i_ j 
 
 than this, to shield the trunks. placed DUOS 
 
HOW TO PRUNE 
 
 61 
 
 105. Well-formed peach trees in the eastern region. 
 
 should be saved. Thinning the fruit-buds thins the fruit. 
 In some fruit plants, the bearing wood is on canes that live 
 
 or that bear for 
 a single year 
 only. Of such 
 are blackberries 
 and raspberries. 
 The raspberry 
 cane that springs 
 from the root 
 this year, bears 
 fruit next year, 
 and then dies or 
 becomes so weak 
 as to be worth- 
 less; and the 
 cane that comes 
 up next year bears fruit the year after, thus maintaining the 
 succession. Therefore, every fall or spring the canes that 
 have borne should be cut away near the ground; a certain 
 number (four to eight) of the new ones should be allowed to 
 remain; and these new ones are later cut back to make them 
 upright and to concentrate the bearing area. (Figs. 106, 107.) 
 133. Shrubs and trees grown for bloom may bear their 
 flowers from winter or resting buds, or from growing shoots 
 of the season; if the former, they bloom very early in 
 spring, as lilac, flowering almond, deutzia, weigela, for- 
 sythia or golden bell; if the latter, they bloom later after 
 active twig growth begins, as rose of sharon or hibiscus, 
 hydrangea, privet, mock orange, rose acacia, most honey- 
 suckles. If it is desired not to remove the bloom, those 
 bushes that bloom from resting buds should be pruned 
 or headed back (if at all) after flowering or when in leaf; 
 the other class should be pruned before flowering, or when 
 the plant is dormant. 
 
62 
 
 PRUNING 
 
 134. Pruning is sometimes employed to increase the vigor 
 of weak or injured plants, and to renew and reshape old trees. 
 Woody plants severely injured by frost are often cut back 
 
 106. Raspberry before pruning. 
 
 107. Same bush after the 
 spring pruning. 
 
 heavily to fresh clean wood. (Fig. 108.) The vigor of the 
 plant is condensed into a smaller area, new shoots arise, and 
 a renewed top may be formed. 
 
 135. In pruning, all long stubs should be avoided, and 
 the cut should be smooth and not splintered. The "healing" 
 of such a wound is merely the covering of the stub or cut 
 area by a callus or ring of tissue that arises from the cambium 
 region (between wood and bark); this callus does not form 
 
 readily on long 
 and leafless 
 stubs. An un- 
 covered wound 
 tends to rot, and 
 a hole is formed 
 into the tree. 
 Figs. 109 and 110 
 show poor and 
 good pruning. 
 
 108. Peach trees heavily cut back after a freeze. The limb should 
 
HOW THE LIMBS ARE TO BE CUT 
 
 63 
 
 be severed practically parallel to its parent branch and close 
 to it. Some of the worst examples of pruning (or of tree 
 butchery) are to be found along streets where trees have 
 been cut to allow the passage of telephone and telegraph 
 wires and other improvements. Only careful and practiced 
 persons should be allowed to prune street trees. 
 
 136. Pruning may be performed at any time of the year, 
 depending on the climate and the objects to be attained. 
 Fruit trees and shade trees are usually pruned in spring, 
 before the leaves appear. Sometimes the heading in of fruit 
 trees is performed in late summer or fall, but late winter and 
 spring pruning for all trees is most favored in cold climates. 
 
 
 109. Poor pruning 
 
 110. Good pruning. 
 
 REVIEW. What do you understand by pruning? What does prun- 
 ing accomplish? Is it "unnatural"? How should newly set trees and 
 plants be pruned? Why? What relation has pruning to the bearing 
 wood? What are the considerations hi the pruning of flowering shrubs? 
 What kind of pruning is practised on weak or injured plants? How 
 should the pruning wounds be made? How do wounds heal? When 
 may pruning be performed? How would you prune a bearing apple 
 tree (ask some one who knows)? A raspberry or blackberry bush? 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 THE FORMS OF PLANTS 
 
 137. Although the form of the branch, and to som< 
 extent the entire plant, is determined by a struggle wit! 
 the conditions in which it grows, nevertheless each kinc 
 of plant has its own peculiar habit of growth. The lum 
 
 111. Different forms of trees. 
 
 berman distinguishes the kinds of trees by their "looks/ 
 rather than by their leaves or flowers, as the botanist does 
 The farmer usually does the same with his cultivated plants 
 138. The habit of a plant is determined by its size 
 general style or direction of growth, form of head, and methoc 
 of branching. The general style or stature 
 of plants has been mentioned in Chaptej 
 III they may be erect, strict, creeping 
 decumbent, and the like. The shape o: 
 the top or head is well illustrated in trees 
 Note the general effect of the mass, as 
 seen at a distance. The elm is vase-forn 
 or round-headed. (Fig. 111.) So are maple 
 beech, and apple trees. The Lombard} 
 poplar (Fig. 112) is columnar or fastigiate 
 Young spruces and firs are conical 
 (64) 
 
 112. Round-headed and 
 fastigiate trees. 
 
THE TREE TOPS 
 
 65 
 
 Heads may be narrow, 
 wide, flat, symmetrical, 
 irregular or broken. 
 
 139. The general leaf- 
 age or furnishing of the 
 top is different for each 
 kind. The top may be 
 dense or thin. The foliage 
 may be heavy, light, large, 
 small. Compare maples 
 and elms, apples and 
 peaches, and other trees. 
 
 140. The trunk or bole 
 of the tree is one of its 
 most conspicuous fea- 
 tures. Observe the strict 
 
 113. The unbranched trunks of palms. straight trunk of the 
 
 palm (Fig. 113), and the forking trunk of elms and maples. 
 Observe that no two trees have trunks quite alike. The bark 
 is different for each kind of plant. 
 
 114. The plant form in winter. Russian thistle. 115. A plant form. Cotton. 
 
 141. Plants awaken certain thoughts or feelings: they 
 are said to have expression. This expression is the source 
 of much of our pleasure in them. Trees are particularly 
 expressive. One suggests restfulness, because of its deep, 
 
DO THE FORMS OF PLANTS 
 
 shady top; another gaiety, from its moving, small, light- 
 colored leaves; another heaviness, from its very large, dull 
 foliage; another strength, from the massive branches; another 
 grace, from the flowing outline or flexile growth. We think 
 of the oak as strong, the willow as lithe, the aspen as weak, 
 
 116. The many trunks of an old olive tree. Italy. 
 
 and the like. Irregular or gnarly trees suggest struggle, 
 If all plants, or even all trees, were alike, we should have 
 little pleasure in them. 
 
 142. The expression of a plant depends to some extent 
 on the character of the shadows in the top. These shadows 
 (or lights and shades) are best seen by looking at the plant 
 
THE INTEREST IN PLANT FORMS 
 
 67 
 
 when the sun is low and behind the observer. Stand at 
 some distance. Look at the dark places in the old pasture 
 maple: they are lumpy and irregular. In the pasture beech 
 they are in layers or strata. The shadows depend mostly 
 on the method of branching. Those who take photographs 
 know how the "high lights" and 
 shadows develop on the plate. 
 (Fig. 117.) 
 
 143. The habit of a plant is 
 usually most apparent when it is 
 leafless. The framework is then 
 revealed. Woody plants are as 
 interesting in winter as in sum- 
 mer. Observe their forms as out- 
 lined against the sky every one 
 different from every other. Notice 
 the plant forms as they stand in 
 the snow. (Fig. 114.) Compare 
 this form with that of the cotton 
 in Fig. 115; or with that of any 
 other plant. How do stems of 
 
 the pigweed differ from those of burdock and grasses? 
 Observe how the different plants hold snow and ice. 
 
 144. The more unusual the shape of any tree or other 
 plant, the greater is our interest in it, because our curiosity 
 is awakened. Some unusual circumstance or condition 
 has produced the abnormal form. Such plants should be 
 preserved whenever possible. (Fig. 116.) 
 
 REVIEW. What do you mean by the statement that each kind of 
 plant has its own habit (36)? How do plants differ in habit? Name 
 some of the forms of tree-tops. How may plants differ in the furnish- 
 ing of the top? Is the trunk characteristic? Bark? Bring in and 
 describe the bark of three kinds of trees. What is the expression of 
 a tree? Name some of the expressions? Explain what you under- 
 stand by the shadows in the top. On what do the shadows chiefly 
 depend? What is there to see in plants in winter? Why are we interested 
 
 117. The lights and shades. Honey 
 locust tree. 
 
68 
 
 THE FORMS OF PLANTS 
 
 in plants of unusual form? Tell how any two trees differ in "looks." 
 NOTE. One of the first things the pupil should learn about plants 
 is to see them as a whole. He should get the feeling of mass. Then 
 he should endeavor to determine why the mass is so and so. Trees 
 are best to begin on. No two trees are alike. How do they differ? 
 The pupil can observe as he comes and goes from school. An orchard 
 of different kinds of fruits shows strong contrasts. Even different 
 varieties of the same fruit may be unlike in habit. This is especially 
 true in pears (Figs. 118, 119). It is well, also, to develop the feeling 
 for the mass, and to apprehend the expression, in a field of wheat or of 
 clover, a field of potatoes, an apple orchard, a vegetable garden: dis- 
 tinguish the various plant forms and also the impression that the 
 entire field or garden or woodland makes on you. 
 
 118. A young pear tree of the Kieffer 
 variety. 
 
 119. A pear tree of the Hardy 
 variety. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 WATER AND MINERAL NUTRIENTS. ROOT ACTION 
 
 145. Plant-food. Having learned what a plant is and 
 having seen it as a whole, we may now inquire how it secures 
 food with which to live. We can discuss only the outlines 
 of the subject here: the pupil may consider the question 
 again when he takes up Part III. The plant secures water 
 and mineral nutrients from the soil. It also takes up mineral 
 elements which are not nutrients, but which enter the plant 
 because they are in solution in the soil-water. The word 
 plant-food is used commonly to include the water and 
 mineral nutrients taken in by the roots. Technically, the 
 word plant-food is used to designate such products as 
 starch, sugar, fats and other substances elaborated by 
 the plant. The latter usage is unfortunate, but we shall 
 follow it here, according to botanical usage, to avoid 
 confusion. 
 
 146. Root Structure. Roots divide 
 into the thinnest and finest fibrils: there 
 are roots and there are rootlets. The large, 
 fleshy root of the radish (Fig. 120) ter- 
 minates in a common-sized root to which 
 little rootlets are attached. There are 
 also little rootlets attached to the fleshy 
 root at various places near the base. But 
 the rootlets that we see are only inter- 
 mediary, and there are numerous yet 
 smaller structures. 
 
 147. The rootlets, or fine divisions, are clothed with 
 root-hairs (29), which are very delicate structures. Carefully 
 
 (69) 
 
 120. Root and rootlets. 
 
70 
 
 WATER AND MINERAL NUTRIENTS 
 
 germinate radish or other seed, so that no delicate parts 
 of the root will be injured. For this purpose, place a few 
 seeds in packing-moss or in the folds of cloth or blotting- 
 paper, being careful to keep them 
 moist. In a few days the seed has 
 germinated, and the root has grown 
 an inch or two long. Notice .that, 
 excepting at a distance of about a 
 quarter of an inch behind the tip, 
 the root is covered with minute 
 hairs (Figs. 11, 121). They are 
 actually hairs, that is, root-hairs. 
 Touch them and they collapse, they 
 are so delicate. Dip one of the plants in 
 water; remove it, the hairs are not to be 
 seen. The water mats them together along 
 the root and they are no longer evident. 
 Root-hairs usually are destroyed when a 
 plant is pulled out of the soil, be it done 
 ever so carefully. They cling to the minute 
 particles of earth. Under a microscope, 
 observe how they are flattened when 
 they come in contact with grains of sand 
 (Chapter II). These root-hairs clothe the young rootlets, 
 and a great aonount of soil is thus brought into actual con- 
 tact with the plant. Root-hairs are not young roots: they 
 soon die. 
 
 148. Rootlet and root-hair differ. The rootlet is a compact, 
 cellular structure. The root-hair is a delicate tube (Fig. 
 122), within the cell-wall of which is contained living matter 
 (protoplasm); the wall and the lining membrane permit 
 water and substances in solution to pass in. Being long and 
 tube-like, these root-hairs are especially suited for taking 
 in the largest quantity of solutions; and they are the principal 
 means by which material is absorbed from the soil, although 
 
 121. Root of pumpkin 
 seedling, showing the 
 covering of root-hairs. 
 
WATER ABSORPTION 
 
 71 
 
 122. Cross-section of root, enlarged, 
 showing root-hairs. 
 
 the surfaces of the rootlets themselves do a small part. 
 Water-plants probably absorb a great quantity of water 
 through the leaves and stems. 
 Most of the higher plants, how- 
 ever, growing in water, are pro- 
 vided with roots and root-hairs 
 and considerable absorption is 
 effected by these. Certain of the 
 water-plants have roots but 
 produce no root-hairs; others, 
 as the utricularia or bladder- 
 wort, have no roots whatever. 
 
 149. Osmosis. To under- 
 stand how water enters the 
 root-hair, it is necessary that 
 we study 
 
 the process of osmosis. A salt or sugar 
 solution, separated from water by a 
 semi-permeable membrane, will in- 
 crease its volume, due to the passage 
 into the solution of some of the water. 
 This can be easily demonstrated. (Fig. 
 123.) Dissolve in one pint of water, one 
 ounce of either common household salt 
 (sodium chlorid) or saltpeter (sodium 
 nitrate). Saltpeter is a valuable plant 
 fertilizer. Tie securely over the large 
 mouth of the tube a piece of animal 
 membrane (hog's bladder is excellent 
 for the purpose). Now fill the enlarged 
 end of tube with either the common 
 salt or the saltpeter. Then sink the 
 tube, as in Fig. 123, in the bottle A, of 
 water, until the level of the water in the 
 123. TO illustrate osmosis, tube stands at the same height as that 
 
72 WATER AND MINERAL NUTRIENTS 
 
 in the bottle. The tube may be readily secured in this position 
 by passing it through a hole in the cork. In a short time, we 
 notice that the liquid in N begins to rise, and in an hour or 
 so it stands at F, say. The diffusion of water through this 
 membrane into the salt solution is known as osmosis. Under 
 these conditions, there is pressure in the tube and this pres- 
 sure is known as osmotic pressure. We may have osmosis 
 taking place from a weak solution to a stronger solution. 
 
 150. The root-hairs secure water from the soil. The 
 above experiment enables us to understand how the count- 
 less little root-hairs act, each one like the tube N, if only 
 the whole surface of the tube were a bladder membrane, or 
 something acting similarly. The soil-water does not contain 
 much of the soil fertility; that is, it is a very weak solution. 
 The active little root-hair, on the other hand, is always 
 filled with cell-sap, a more concentrated solution; hence 
 soil-water must come in, and along with it come also small 
 quantities of dissolved food materials. Some of these ma- 
 terials may be fertilizers that have been applied to the land. 
 
 151. This principle of absorption of water by osmosis 
 may now be demonstrated by another experiment. Fleshy 
 pieces of root or stem will absorb water from weak solutions 
 and become rigid; in strong solutions such fleshy parts will 
 give up their water and become flexible. Cut several slices 
 of potato tuber about one-eighth of an inch in thickness, 
 and let them remain in the air half an hour. Make up two 
 solutions of cane-sugar: (1) dissolve four ounces of sugar in 
 a quart of water; (2) dissolve one-half ounce of sugar in a 
 quart of water. Place pieces of the potato tuber in these 
 solutions. In half an hour those pieces in the weak solution 
 will be rigid or stiff (turgid); those in the strong solution 
 will be flexible (flaccid). The potato tuber is composed of 
 thousands of minute cells, each with a cell wall, protoplasm, 
 starch grains, and cell-sap. The cell-sap contains sugars 
 and various salts in solution. When the slice of tuber is 
 
OSMOSIS AND SAP-PRESSURE 
 
 73 
 
 placed in weak sugar solution (each cell having a concen- 
 tration greater than the outside solution), it takes up water. 
 The slices of tuber in the strong solution lose water because 
 the concentration of the external solution is stronger than 
 that of the cell-sap. 
 
 152. The root-hairs are able to take up water from the 
 soil because the soil solution is extremely dilute. If the soil 
 solution were strong, the plant might give up 
 water to the soil. It would be possible to add 
 so much fertilizer to the land as to cause the 
 plant to lose water by exosmosis. There is 
 seldom, however, any danger that the farmer or 
 gardener will add so much fertilizer to the soil, 
 in practice, as to cause a wilting of the plant 
 due to loss of water by exosmosis. 
 
 153. The water and salts in solution taken 
 up by the root-hairs pass into the root proper 
 and finally into definite routes that are con- 
 tinuous from the root through the stems to the 
 leaves. To illustrate the path of water-ascent, 
 insert a growing shoot in water that is colored 
 with eosin. (Eosin may be had of dealers in 
 microscopic supplies. Common aniline may 
 answer very well.) The tissues stained with 
 the dye are the conducting tissues. In woody 
 plants, the water is conducted in the young 
 wood, not between the bark and wood 
 as commonly supposed. 
 
 154. The absorption of water by a 
 root may be so rapid as to give rise to 
 distinct pressure. This force is root- or 
 sap-pressure. It varies in different plants 
 and in the same plant at different times. 
 The "bleeding" of plants is a manifesta- 
 tion of this pressure. In the spring, the 
 
 124. To show 
 sap-pressure. 
 
74 WATER AND MINERAL NUTRIENTS 
 
 maple and grape particularly exhibit strong sap-pressure. To 
 illustrate root-pressure, grow squash or cucumber plants, and 
 when they are about a foot or more in height cut off the 
 plant close to the ground. To the plant stem attach a small 
 piece of rubber tubing. Fill it with water and then connect 
 it to a glass tube. (Fig. 124.) At intervals note the rise of 
 water due to root-pressure. The root-pressure in a large 
 cucumber plant may force sap to a height of five feet or more 
 in a tube of five millimeters diameter. 
 
 REVIEW. What is meant by plant-food? Plant nutrient? De- 
 scribe the root structure. What are root-hairs? Their function? How 
 do water plants secure water? Do they have roots and root-hairs? 
 Explain osmosis. Exosmosis. How does water enter the root? Why? 
 How can you illustrate the path of water-ascent? What is root- or sap- 
 pressure? Why do plants "bleed?" Have you ever actually seen root- 
 hairs? Explain where and when. Make a drawing as they appeared 
 to you. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 WATER AND MINERAL NUTRIENTS. ACTION ABOVE 
 THE ROOT 
 
 155. The water in the soil is not usually present as free 
 water, but in the form of films that adhere to the indi- 
 vidual particles of soil. The root-hairs are in contact with 
 the soil particles and films of water. (Fig. 125.) The finer the 
 soil, the greater the number of soil-particles and the greater 
 the film-moisture. The film-moisture surrounding the grains 
 may not be perceptible, yet the plant 
 
 can utilize it. Absorption by roots may 
 continue in a soil that seems to be 
 dust dry. 
 
 156. The root must be warm if it is to 
 perform its functions. A proper tempera- 
 ture is essential to the life processes. 
 Should the soil of fields or greenhouses 
 be much colder than the air, the plant 
 suffers. When in a warm atmosphere, 
 or hi a dry atmosphere, plants need to 
 absorb much water from the soil, and 
 the roots must be warm if the root-hairs 
 are to supply the water as rapidly as it 
 is needed. If the roots are chilled, the 
 plant may wilt or die. Try this with two 
 potted plants, as radish, coleus, tomato. 
 Put one pot in a dish of ice water, and 
 the other hi a dish of warm water, and 
 
 keep them in a warm room. In a short 125 - The rootlets and 
 
 ,. , . , , .. j . . root-hairs cling to the 
 
 time notice how stiff and vigorous is part icie8 of sou. 
 
 (75) 
 
76 WATER AND MINERAL NUTRIENTS 
 
 the one whose roots are warm, whereas the other may show 
 signs of wilting. 
 
 1-57. Plants take from the soil an immense quantity of 
 water. A single corn plant may require in a growing season 
 200 to 500 pounds of water. From 250 to 400 or more pounds 
 of water are required for the production of one pound of 
 dry matter in plants. Most of the water absorbed by the 
 roots is given off by the plant as water vapor in a process 
 of evaporation called transpiration (166). 
 
 158. Water serves the plant in a number of ways. It is 
 a nutrient for the plant and takes part in the formation of 
 substances manufactured by the plant. The cell sap is 
 water with substances in solution. The water serves as a 
 carrier of the materials derived from the soil and also 
 for the manufactured food made within the plant. Let us 
 see what nutrients the ordinary green plants secure from 
 the soil. 
 
 159. Nutrient Materials Secured from the Soil. We have 
 seen that all nutrient material must be in solution in water 
 to be taken in by the root. The ordinary green plant obtains 
 from the soil the following essential elements: 
 
 Nitrogen, chemical symbol N. Potassium, K. 
 
 Phosphorus, P. Calcium, Ca. 
 
 Sulfur, S. Magnesium, Mg. 
 Iron, Fe. 
 
 Chlorin is also an essential element for buckwheat. The 
 elements in the above list (except nitrogen) are known as 
 the mineral elements. All of the above elements are taken 
 up not in their elemental form but in the form of salts. 
 
 160. Ten elements are essential for the growth of all 
 green plants. In addition to the seven above mentioned, the 
 plant requires hydrogen, H, oxygen, O, and carbon, C. 
 Hydrogen and oxygen are supplied in the form of water, 
 which has the chemical formula H^O. Carbon for the green 
 
FERTILIZERS 
 
 77 
 
 plant is provided in the carbon dioxid (CO 2 ) of the air. Oxygen 
 is also derived from air (187). When the plant is burned, the 
 six mineral elements remain in the ash. 
 
 161. The ash is but a very small part of the total weight 
 of the plant. In a corn plant of the roasting-ear stage, the 
 ash (what remains after ordinary burning) is about one per 
 cent of the total substance. A good wheat crop will require 
 per acre about ten pounds of phosphoric acid and about 
 thirty pounds of potash. The amount of phosphoric acid 
 removed by 200 bushels of 
 
 potatoes is nine pounds; and 
 of potash sixty pounds. 
 
 162. The farmer does not 
 add all the elements to the soil 
 in the shape of fertilizers. Some 
 of the nutrient elements are 
 used in such small quantities 
 and are present in the soil to 
 such an amount that the ad- 
 dition of them is not necessary. 
 The farmer adds nitrogen, pot- 
 ash and phosphorus to the land 
 to provide' nutrients, and he 
 also adds calcium in lime or 
 land-plaster because of its 
 chemical and physical effect on 
 the soil. Some of the fertilizers 
 are mined, others are by-pro- 
 ducts of packing-houses and 
 
 other manufacturing establishments. Stable manure is gen- 
 erally considered to be the best single fertilizer. 
 
 163. Nitrogen is one of the most essential elements 
 required by the plant. It is expensive to add to the soil as 
 fertilizer. Fortunately, nature has provided a method 
 whereby some of the inexhaustible nitrogen supply of the 
 
78 
 
 WATER AND MINERAL NUTRIENTS 
 
 air is taken into the soil. Dig up a clover, vetch, pea, bean, 
 cowpea, alfalfa or other legume plant. Carefully wash the 
 soil away from the roots. Nodule swellings will probably 
 
 be found on the roots. (Figs. 
 126, 127.) In these nodules are 
 certain bacteria that secure 
 nitrogen from the air, and from 
 which they build up more 
 complex nitrogenous com- 
 pounds. The legume host-plant 
 then appropriates some of the 
 nitrogen fixed by bacteria and 
 the remainder, of course, re- 
 mains in the bacteria. 
 
 164. Only the leguminous 
 plants bear these nodules. 
 The legumes are plants of the 
 great family Leguminosae, 
 comprising all pea-like, bean- 
 like, clover-like, acacia-like and 
 other pod-bearing plants. It 
 has been demonstrated that 
 over 100 pounds of nitrogen 
 per acre can be fixed by these 
 nodule-forming bacteria dur- 
 ing a growing season. These 
 bacteria are not present in all 
 fields. They must be intro- 
 duced to fields on 'which 
 legumes have not grown. 
 Moreover, the bacteria that 
 
 ^^ the ^ ^ ft wiu not ^ e(jt 
 
 or variety is necessary for 
 
 127. Nodules on root of Canada field pea. 
 
 the cowpea. A different "strain 
 
 almost every legume. So important are the bacteria that 
 
 the farmer who desires to enrich his soil and secure good 
 
SOIL NUTRIENTS 79 
 
 crops introduces these bacteria into his field by the appli- 
 cation of soil taken from a field known to have them, or 
 possibly in some cases he introduces the bacteria by the use 
 of commercial cultures. Certain legume crops, as alfalfa, will 
 do poorly unless the bacteria are present. 
 
 165. A simple experiment will demonstrate the growth 
 of plants in a nutrient solution, such as may exist in the 
 soil. Secure from the druggist the following chemicals and 
 make a solution of them, using the amounts here indicated: 
 
 Potassium nitrate, KNO 3 2 grains 
 
 Calcium phosphate, monobasic, CaH 4 (PO 4 )2 1 grain 
 
 Or Calcium phosphate dibasic Ca 2 H 2 (PO 4 )2 1 grain 
 
 Magnesium sulfate, MgSO 4 0.50 grain 
 
 Ferric chloride, very slight trace. 
 
 Water (distilled) .5 quarts 
 
 Fill four or five tumblers with this solution and cover 
 the tumblers with paraffined paper. Germinate peas or seeds 
 of a similar plant, and when the roots are two inches long 
 punch holes in the paper and insert the roots through the 
 holes into the nutrient solution. Place the cultures in good 
 light and allow the seedlings to grow three or four weeks. 
 For comparison, grow some of the plants in distilled water 
 in place of the nutrient solution. 
 
 166. Transpiration. We have found that the plant 
 takes nutrients from the soil in very dilute solutions. Much 
 more water is absorbed by the roots than is used in growth, 
 and this surplus water is given off from the leaves into the 
 atmosphere by the evaporation process known as trans- 
 piration (157). The transpiration takes place more abun- 
 dantly from the under surfaces of leaves in most plants, 
 and through the pores or stomates. It has been found that a 
 sunflower plant of the height of a man, during an active 
 period of growth, gives off more than a quart of water per 
 day. A large oak tree may transpire 150 gallons per day 
 
80 
 
 WATER AND MINERAL NUTRIENTS 
 
 during the summer. For every ounce of dry matter pro- 
 duced, it is estimated that fifteen to twenty-five pounds 
 of water must pass through the plant. Cut off a succulent 
 shoot of any plant, press the end of it through a hole in a cork 
 
 and stand it in 
 a small bottle of 
 water. Invert 
 over this bottle 
 a large-mouthed 
 bottle (as a fruit- 
 jar), and notice 
 that a mist soon 
 accumulates on 
 the inside of the 
 glass. In time, 
 drops of water 
 form. The ex- 
 periment may be 
 varied as shown 
 in Fig. 128. Or 
 invert the fruit- 
 jar over an entire 
 plant, as shown 
 
 128. To illustrate transpiration. in pig> ^ tak _ 
 
 ing care to cover the earth with oiled paper or rubber cloth 
 to prevent evaporation. 
 
 167. Even in winter, moisture is given off by leafless 
 twigs. Cut a twig, seal the severed end with wax, and allow 
 the twig to lie several days: it shrivels. There must be some 
 upward movement of water even in winter, else plants would 
 shrivel and die. 
 
 168. When the roots fail to supply to the plant sufficient 
 water to equalize that transpired by the leaves, the plant 
 wilts. Transpiration from the leaves and delicate shoots is 
 increased by all of the conditions that increase evaporation, 
 
WHY PLANTS WILT 
 
 81 
 
 as higher temperature, dry air or wind. In especially hot 
 weather, when the wind is brisk and the air dry, the roots 
 may be very active and yet fail to absorb sufficient moisture 
 to equalize that given off by the leaves. Any injury to the 
 roots or even chilling them (156) 
 may cause the plant to wilt. On a 
 hot, dry day, note how the leaves 
 of corn "roll" toward afternoon. 
 Early the following morning, note 
 how fresh and vigorous the same 
 leaves appear. Water is also forced 
 up by root-pressure (154). Some of 
 the dew on the grass in the morn- 
 ing may be the water forced up by 
 the roots; some of it is the condensed 
 vapor of the air. 
 
 169. The wilting of a plant is due 
 to the loss of water from the cells. 
 The cell walls are soft, and they col- 129 ' To aiustrate trans P iration - 
 lapse. A toy balloon will not stand alone until it is inflated 
 with air or liquid. In the woody parts of the plant the cell 
 walls may be stiff enough to support themselves, even though 
 the cell is empty. Measure the contraction due to wilting 
 and drying by tracing a fresh leaf, and then tracing the 
 same leaf .after it has been dried between papers. The 
 softer the leaf, the greater will be the contraction. 
 
 REVIEW. What relation do root-hairs have to soil-particles? What 
 is the effect of the chilling of roots? Of what use to the plant is water? 
 What essential elements are taken from the soil? How many elements 
 are essential for the plant? What is the ash? What elements does the 
 farmer add as fertilizers? How may the nitrogen supply of the soil be 
 increased? What plants possess the root nodules? What is soil 
 inoculation? What is transpiration? When does a plant wilt? 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 FOOD ELABORATION AND RESPIRATION 
 
 170. Sources of Raw Material. The ordinary green plant, 
 as we have seen, secures water and certain substances from 
 the soil. It also secures from the air raw material which it 
 utilizes in the elaboration of food material. When a plant is 
 thoroughly dried in an oven, the water passes off; this water 
 came from the soil. The remaining part is called dry sub- 
 stance or dry matter. If the dry matter is burned in an ordi- 
 nary fire, only the ash remains; this ash came from the soil. 
 The part that passed off as a gas in the burning contained 
 the elements that came from the air. It also contained 
 some of those that came from the soil all those (as nitrogen, 
 hydrogen, chlorin) that are transformed into gases by the 
 heat of a common fire. 
 
 171. Carbon. Carbon enters abundantly into the com- 
 position of all plants. Note what happens when a plant 
 is burned without free access of air, or smothered, as in a 
 charcoal pit. A mass of charcoal remains, almost as large 
 as the body of the plant. Charcoal is almost pure carbon, 
 the ash being so small in proportion to the large amount 
 of carbon that we look on it as an impurity. Half or more 
 of the dry substance of a tree is carbon. The carbon goes 
 off as a gas when the plant is burned in air. It does not go 
 off alone, but in combination with oxygen, and in the form 
 called carbon dioxid gas, CO 2 . 
 
 172. The green plant secures its carbon from the air. 
 In other words, much of the solid matter of the plant comes 
 from one of the gases. By volume, carbon dioxid forms 
 only about three-hundredths of 1 per cent of the air. It 
 
 (82) 
 
CARBON AND CHLOROPHYLL 83 
 
 would be very disastrous to animal life, however, if this 
 small percentage were much increased, for it excludes the 
 life-giving oxygen. Carbon dioxid is often called "foul- 
 gas." It may accumulate in old wells, and an experienced 
 person will not descend into such wells until they have been 
 tested with a torch. If the air in the well will not support 
 combustion, that is, if the torch is extinguished, it usually 
 means that carbon dioxid has drained into the place. The 
 air of a closed schoolroom often contains far too much 
 of this gas along with little solid particles of waste matters. 
 Carbon dioxid is often known as carbonic acid gas. 
 
 173. Appropriation of the Carbon. The carbon dioxid 
 of the air readily diffuses into the leaves and other green 
 parts of the plant. The leaf may be delicate in texture, and 
 air may diffuse directly into the leaf-tissues. There are, how- 
 ever, special inlets adapted for the admission of gases into 
 the leaves and other green parts. These inlets consist of 
 numerous pores (stomates or stomata), which are especially 
 abundant on the under surface of the leaf. They may also 
 be present on the upper surface. The apple leaf contains 
 about one hundred thousand of these pores to each square 
 inch of the under surface. Through these pores the outside air 
 enters into the air-spaces of the plant, and finally into the 
 little cells containing the living matter. In Chapter XL 
 these stomata will be studied. 
 
 174. Chlorophyll. The green color of leaves is due to a 
 substance called chlorophyll. Purchase at the drug store 
 about a gill of (grain) alcohol. Secure a leaf of geranium, clover, 
 or other plant that has been exposed to sunlight for a few 
 hours and, after dipping it for a minute in boiling water, 
 put it in a white cup with sufficient alcohol to cover the 
 leaf. Place the cup on the stove where it is not hot enough 
 for the alcohol to take fire. After a time the chlorophyll is 
 dissolved by the alcohol, which has become an intense 
 green. Save this leaf for a future experiment. Without 
 
84 FOOD ELABORATION AND RESPIRATION 
 
 chlorophyll, the plant can not appropriate the carbon di- 
 oxid of the air. 
 
 175. In most plants, this chlorophyll or leaf -green is 
 scattered throughout the green tissues in little oval bodies, 
 and these bodies are most abundant near the upper surface 
 of the leaf, where they secure a large amount of light. With- 
 out this green coloring matter, there would be no reason for 
 the large flat surfaces that leaves possess, and no reason for 
 the fact that the leaves are borne most abundantly at the 
 ends of the branches, where the light is most available. 
 Plants with colored leaves, as coleus, have chlorophyll, but 
 it is masked by other coloring matter. This other coloring 
 matter is usually soluble in hot water. Boil a coleus leaf and 
 notice that it becomes green and the water becomes colored. 
 
 176. Plants grown in darkness are yellow and slender, 
 and do not reach maturity. Compare the potato sprouts 
 that have grown from a tuber lying in the dark cellar with 
 those that have grown normally in the bright light (Fig. 
 45). The shoots have elongated until the food which is 
 stored in the tuber is exhausted. These shoots have lived 
 useless lives. A plant that has been grown in darkness 
 from the seed will soon die, although for a time the little 
 seedling will grow very tall and slender. Light induces the 
 production of chlorophyll. Sometimes chlorophyll is found 
 in buds and seeds, but it is probable in most cases that 
 these places are not perfectly dark. Notice how potato tubers 
 develop chlorophyll, or become green, when exposed to light. 
 
 177. Photosynthesis. Carbon dioxid diffuses into the 
 leaf (173) and is used during sunlight, and oxygen is given 
 off. We have seen (172) that carbon dioxid will not support 
 animal life. Experiments show that carbon dioxid is absorbed 
 and that oxygen is given off by all green surfaces in the hours 
 of sunlight. How the carbon dioxid may be used in making 
 organic food is a complex question and need be considered 
 here only in a general way. 
 
PHOTOSYNTHESIS 85 
 
 178. Chlorophyll absorbs certain of the sun's rays and 
 the energy thus derived is used in uniting the carbon dioxid 
 with some of the water brought up from the roots. The 
 process is complex, with some kind of sugar or starch as 
 the ultimate product. Glucose is probably the first carbo- 
 hydrate formed. In most plants, the first visible product is 
 starch. Certain plants do not produce starch. The common 
 onion, amaryllis and iris are of this class. The process of 
 using the carbon dioxid of the air has been known as carbon- 
 assimilation, but the term now commonly used is photo- 
 synthesis (from Greek words, meaning "light" and "put 
 together"). 
 
 179. Glucose or grape sugar is composed of carbon, hydro- 
 gen, and oxygen (C 6 Hi 2 O 6 ). Starch is likewise composed 
 of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but differs in the percent- 
 ages. Its chemical formula is generally given (C 6 HioO 5 ). 
 Cane sugar, malt sugar, woody substances are very similar 
 in composition. They are called carbohydrates. In making 
 the glucose sugar from the carbon dioxid and water, the 
 oxygen gas is given off by the plant as a waste product. 
 The general chemical formula for the process is: 6CO 2 + 
 6H 2 = C 6 Hi 2 6 +60 2 . 
 
 180. In the daytime the plant, therefore, takes in carbon 
 dioxid and gives off oxygen. It is not so easy to demonstrate 
 this fact. Chemical analysis is the only way of proving it. 
 The escape of oxygen can best be demonstrated by employ- 
 ing water plants. Make an experiment as illustrated in Fig. 
 130. Under a funnel in a deep glass jar containing fresh 
 spring or stream water, place fresh pieces of the common 
 water-weed, elodea (or anacharis). In sunlight, bubbles of 
 oxygen will arise and collect in the test-tube. Some of the 
 bubbles may be only air, particularly if marked changes in 
 the temperature of the water occur. A simple experiment is 
 to immerse a stem of elodea in a test-tube of water and hold 
 the tube in bright sunlight. Bubbles of gas will arise from 
 
86 
 
 FOOD ELABORATION AND RESPIRATION 
 
 the cut end of the twig. This gas has been found to be largely 
 oxygen. The water-plant gets its carbon dioxid gas from 
 that which is dissolved 'in the water. A gas, as well as a 
 solid, may be dissolved in water. Observe the bubbles on 
 
 pond-scums and water-weeds on 
 a bright day. 
 
 181. Starch is present in the 
 green leaves that have been ex- 
 posed to sunlight; but in the dark 
 no starch can be formed from 
 carbon dioxid and water. Apply 
 iodin to the leaf from which the 
 chlorophyll was dissolved in a 
 previous experiment (174). Note 
 that the leaf is colored purplish 
 brown throughout. Starch gives 
 a blue coloration with iodin. 
 The leaf contains starch (76). 
 Secure a leaf from a plant 
 that has been in the darkness 
 for about two days. Dissolve 
 the chlorophyll, as before, 
 and attempt to stain this 
 leaf with iodin. No purplish 
 
 130. To show the escape of oxygen. brQwn ^^ {& produce(L 
 
 182. Plants or parts of plants that have developed no 
 chlorophyll can form no starch. Secure a variegated leaf 
 of coleus, ribbon-grass, geranium, or of any plant showing 
 both white and green areas. On a day of bright sunshine, 
 test one of these leaves by the alcohol and iodin method 
 for the presence of starch. Observe that the parts devoid of 
 green color have formed no starch. However, after starch 
 has once been formed in the leaves, it may be changed into 
 soluble substances and removed to be again converted 
 into starch in other parts of the living tissues. 
 
DIGESTION AND ASSIMILATION 87 
 
 183. Digestion. The starch made by the leaf during the 
 daytime is present in the form of insoluble granules. In 
 order to be carried from the leaf to other parts of the plant 
 for purposes of storage or growth, it must be made soluble. 
 The starch of the leaves at night is converted into sugars 
 by the action of enzymes, or ferments, and is then conveyed 
 to other parts of the plant. This conversion is a process of 
 digestion. It is much like the change of starchy foods to 
 sugary foods by the saliva. 
 
 184. After being changed to the soluble form, this material 
 is ready to be used in growth, either in the leaf, in the stem, 
 or in the roots. With other more complex products it is 
 then distributed throughout all of the growing parts of the 
 plant; and when passing down to the root it passes readily 
 through the inner bark, in plants that have a definite bark. 
 This gradual downward diffusion of materials suitable for 
 growth through the inner bark is the process referred to 
 when the "descent of sap" is mentioned. Starch and other 
 products are often stored in one growing season to be used 
 in the next season (Chapter VI). If a tree is constricted or 
 strangled by a wire around its trunk, the digested food can- 
 not readily pass down and it is stored above the girdle, caus- 
 ing an enlargement. 
 
 185. Assimilation. The food from the air and the nutrients 
 from the soil unite in the living tissues (see Photosynthesis, 
 178). The sap that passes upwards from the roots in the 
 growing season is made up largely of the soil-water and the 
 salts that have been absorbed in the diluted solutions. 
 We have found that this upward-moving water is conducted 
 largely through certain tubular cells of the young wood (153). 
 These cells are never continuous tubes from root to leaf; 
 but the water passes readily from one cell to another in its 
 upward course. 
 
 186. The upward-moving water gradually passes to the 
 growing parts, and it comes in intimate contact with the 
 
88 FOOD ELABORATION AND RESPIRATION 
 
 soluble carbohydrates and products of photosynthesis. In 
 the building-up or reconstructive and other processes it is 
 therefore available. There is a series of changes, gradually 
 increasing in complexity. There are formed substances 
 containing nitrogen, in addition to carbon, hydrogen and 
 oxygen. Others will contain also sulfur and phosphorus, and 
 the process may be thought of as culminating in protoplasm. 
 Protoplasm is the living matter in plants. It is in the cells, 
 and is usually semifluid. Starch is not living matter. The 
 process of building up the protoplasm is called assimilation. 
 
 187. Respiration. In the maintenance and growth of 
 the plant, energy is required. This energy is derived from 
 the food that the plant has manufactured; and its ultimate 
 source is the sunlight. For the release of this energy, chemi- 
 cal changes are involved which require oxygen; as by- 
 products, carbon dioxid gas is given off and water is formed 
 in the cells; this whole process is respiration. This process 
 of respiration is similar in animals. All animals require oxygen 
 and give off carbon dioxid. Likewise, all living parts of 
 the plant must have a constant supply of oxygen. 
 
 188. In green plants, at night, carbon dioxid is given off 
 into the air and oxygen is taken into the cells. In the day- 
 time, respiration goes on, but the required oxygen is derived 
 from the supply released in photosynthesis; and the carbon 
 dioxid released in respiration supplies a part of the carbon 
 dioxid used in photosynthesis. In the daytime, the plants 
 tend to purify the air because they use carbon dioxid and 
 give off oxygen. At night, like animals, they tend to make 
 the air foul because they use oxygen and give off carbon 
 dioxid. The carbon dioxid given off by a few plants at 
 night, however, is so slight that it need not disturb one at all. 
 
 189. The oxygen that the plants need may come into 
 the plant through the stomata, through pores in the stems or 
 trunks of trees, or it may diffuse through the cell walls. 
 All rapidly growing plants respire very freely. Germinating 
 
RESPIRATION 89 
 
 seeds especially give off a large quantity of carbon dioxid. 
 In a wide-mouthed bottle place several hundred germinating 
 pea seeds. Fill a small vial with a filtered concentrated 
 solution of barium hydrate. Place the vial in the bottle 
 with the seeds. Do not spill the solution. Tightly stopper the 
 wide-mouthed bottle and after several hours note the heavy, 
 white precipitate that forms hi it. As a check, place a 
 similar vial of barium hydrate solution is a similar bottle 
 tightly stoppered. Does a heavy precipitate form? Using 
 a piece of glass tubing, blow air into a bottle of barium hy- 
 drate. The exhaled air is rich in carbon dioxid. The water 
 becomes turbid, due to the precipitate formed when carbon 
 dioxid reacts with barium hydrate. 
 
 REVIEW. What are the sources of the raw material? What part 
 of the dry matter is carbon? What percentage of the air is carbon 
 dioxid? How does it enter the plant? What is chlorophyll? What is 
 necessary for its formation? What is meant by photosynthesis? What 
 gas is given off in photosynthesis? What conditions are necessary for 
 photosynthesis? What is meant by digestion of starch? WTiat is meant 
 by assimilation? Respiration? When does it occur? What gas is given 
 off in the process? What gas is required in the process? Contrast the 
 process of respiration in animals and plants. 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 
 DEPENDENT PLANTS 
 
 190. Dependent and Independent Plants. Plants with 
 roots and foliage usually depend on themselves. They 
 collect the raw materials and make them over into assimi- 
 lable food. They are independent. Plants without green 
 foliage cannot make food : they must have it made for them 
 or they die. They are dependent. The 
 potato sprout (Fig. 45) cannot collect 
 and elaborate carbon dioxid. It lives 
 on the food stored in the tuber. 
 
 191. All plants with naturally white 
 or blanched parts are dependent. Their 
 leaves do not develop. They live on 
 organic matter that which has been 
 made by a plant or an animal. The 
 Indian pipe, aphyllon (Fig. 131), 
 beech -drop, coral -root (Fig. 132) 
 among flower-producing plants, also 
 mushrooms as well as bacteria and 
 other fungi (Figs. 133, 134, 135) are 
 common examples. 
 
 192. Saprophytes and Parasites. 
 A plant that lives on dead or decay- 
 ing matter is a saprophyte. Mush- 
 rooms are examples: they live on the 
 decaying matter in the soil. Mould on 
 bread and cheese is an example. Lay 
 
 i3i. A parasite, growing in a piece of moist bread on a plate and 
 
 woods. Aphyllon. It is in . .. T r 
 
 bloom. invert a tumbler over it. In a few 
 
 (90) 
 
SAPROPHYTES AND PARASITES 
 
 91 
 
 days it will be mouldy. The spores were in the air, or per- 
 haps they had already fallen on the bread but had not had 
 opportunity to grow. 
 
 193. Saprophytes break down or decompose organic 
 substances. Chief of these saprophytes are the 
 microscopic organisms known as bacteria (Fig. 
 136). These innumerable bodies are immersed in 
 water or in animal and plant 
 juices, and absorb food over 
 their entire surface. By 
 breaking down organic com- 
 binations, they produce de- 
 cay. Largely through their 
 agency, and that of many 
 true but microscopic fungi, 
 all things pass into soil and 
 
 Thus are the bodies Of 133 - A mushroom, example 
 . of a saprophytic plant. 
 
 plants and animals removed 
 and the continuing round of life is maintained. 
 194. A plant that secures its nutrition di- 
 rectly from a living plant or animal is a parasite, 
 and the plant or animal on which it lives is the 
 host. The dodder is a true parasite. So are the 
 rusts and mildews that attack leaves and shoots 
 and injure them. The threads of the parasitic 
 fungus usually creep through the intercellular 
 spaces in the leaf or stem and send suckers (or 
 haustoria) into the cells. (Fig. 137.) 
 In some forms these threads (or 
 hyphse) penetrate the cells. The 
 hyphae clog the air-spaces of the leaf 
 and often plug the stomata, and they 
 also appropriate and disorganize the 
 cell fluids: thus they injure or kill 
 
 132. Corallorhiza or coral-root, , . . . ._. ... .. 
 
 showing the mycorhizas. their host. The mass of hyphaB of a 
 
92 
 
 DEPENDENT PLANTS 
 
 134. The cultivated mushroom, a saprophytic plant. 
 
 fungus is called mycelium. Some of the hyphse finally grow 
 out of the leaf and produce spores or reproductive cells 
 
 which answer the 
 purpose of seeds 
 in distributing the 
 plant (6, Fig. 137). 
 195. The ab- 
 normal condition 
 produced in plants 
 by fungous and 
 bacterial parasites 
 and by other agents 
 is known as a dis- 
 ease. On some 
 plants, the disease takes the form of a leaf -spot or a blight; 
 in others swellings or galls are produced. Cankers on branches 
 of trees and on stems of herbaceous plants are produced 
 by fungi living in the affected tissue. The well-known fire- 
 blight and blight-canker 
 of pears are caused by 
 bacteria. The rots of 
 fruits and vegetables 
 are largely produced by 
 fungi or bacteria. 
 
 196. Some parasites 
 spring from the ground 
 (Figs. 131, 132), as 
 other plants do, but 
 they are parasitic on 
 the roots of their hosts. 
 Some parasites may be 
 partially parasitic and partially saprophytic. Many (perhaps 
 most) of these root-saprophytes are aided in securing their 
 food by soil fungi, which spread their delicate threads over 
 the root-like branches of the plant and act as intermediaries 
 
 135. Saprophytic fungus. One of the shelf fungi 
 (Polyporus) growing on dead trunks and logs. 
 
PARASITES AND SAPROPHYTES 
 
 93 
 
 136. Bacteria, much 
 magnified. 
 
 between the food and the saprophyte. The roots of the 
 coral-root (Fig. 132) are covered with this fungus, and 
 the roots have practically lost the power of absorbing 
 nutrients direct. These fungus-covered roots are known as 
 mycorhizas (meaning "fungus root"). Mycorhizas are 
 not peculiar to saprophytes. They are found 
 on many wholly independent plants as, for 
 example, the heaths, oaks, apples and 
 pines. It is probable that the fungus- 
 threads perform some of the offices of root- 
 hairs to the host. On the other hand, the 
 fungus obtains some nourishment from the host. The 
 association seems to be mutual. 
 
 197. Some parasites are green-leaved. Such is the mistle- 
 toe. They anchor themselves on the host and absorb its 
 juices, but they also appropriate and use 
 
 the carbon dioxid of the air. In some 
 groups of bacteria the process of photo- 
 synthesis, or something equivalent .to it, 
 takes place. 
 
 198. -Parasitism and saprophytism are 
 usually regarded as degeneration, that is, 
 as a loss of independence. The ancestors 
 of these plants might have been inde- 
 pendent. Thus, the whole class of fungi 
 is looked upon as a degenerate evolution. 
 The more a plant depends on other 
 plants, the more it tends still further to 
 lose its independence. 
 
 199. Epiphytes. To be distinguished 
 from the dependent plants are those that 
 grow on other plants without taking food 
 from them. These are green-leaved plants 
 whose roots burrow in the bark of the 
 
 host plant and perhaps derive some food i ea f. 
 
 137. A parasitic fungus, 
 magnified. The my- 
 celium, or vegetative 
 part, is shown by the 
 dotted - shaded parts 
 ramifying in the leaf 
 tissue. The rounded 
 haustoria projecting 
 into the cells are also 
 shown. The long 
 fruiting parts of the 
 fungus hang from the 
 under surface of the 
 
94 DEPENDENT PLANTS 
 
 from it, but which subsist chiefly on materials that they 
 secure from air-dust, rain-water and the air. These plants 
 are epiphytes (meaning "upon plants") or air-plants. 
 
 200. Epiphytes abound in the tropics. Orchids are 
 amongst the best known examples. (Fig. 13.) The Spanish 
 moss or tillandsia of the South is another. Mosses -and 
 lichens that grow on trees and fences may also be called 
 epiphytes. In the struggle for existence, the plants probably 
 have been driven to these special places in which to find 
 opportunity to grow. Plants grow where they must, not 
 where they will. 
 
 REVIEW. What is an independent plant? Dependent? Give 
 examples. How are dependent plants distinguished from others in 
 looks? Define saprophyte. Parasite. Give examples. What is a 
 host? How does a parasitic fungus live on its host? What is meant by 
 plant disease? What are hyphse? What is mycelium? What are root- 
 parasites? Give examples. What is a mycorhiza? What is the relation 
 of the soil fungus to its host? What is the role or office of saprophytes 
 in nature? Are parasites ever green? Explain. What has probably 
 been the evolution of most parasites and saprophytes? What is an 
 epiphyte? Give examples. How do epiphytes live? Why may they 
 have become epiphytes? 
 
 NOTE. Usually, the most available parasite is the dodder. It is 
 common in swales from July until autumn, winding its coral-yellow 
 stems about herbs and soft-growing bushes. It is a degraded mem- 
 ber of the morning-glory family. It produces true flowers and seeds. 
 These seeds germinate the following spring. The slender young vine 
 grows from the ground for a time, but if it fails to find a host, it perishes. 
 One of the dodders is a pest in alfalfa fields. From the Ohio River 
 southward, the mistletoe is available. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 
 LEAVES AND FOLIAGE 
 
 201. Leaves may be studied from two points of view 
 with reference to their function, or what they do; and 
 with reference to their form, or their shapes and kinds. 
 
 202. Function. Leaves, as we have seen, make organic 
 matter from carbon dioxid. Almost any part of the plant, 
 however, may bear chlorophyll and perform the function 
 of leaves. The general form and structure of leaves is 
 intimately associated with their function: they are thin and 
 much expanded bodies, thereby exposing the greatest pos- 
 sible surface to light and air. The position of the leaves 
 usually has relation to light, as we have seen (Chapter 
 VIII). Leaves usually hang yi such a way that one casts 
 the least shade on the other; those that have the least 
 favorable positions die and fall. 
 
 203. Parts. Leaves are simple or un- 
 branched (Fig. 138), and compound or 
 branched (Fig. 139). The method of 
 compounding or branching follows the 
 style of veining. The veining, or venation, 
 is of two general kinds: in most plants 
 the main veins diverge, and there is a 
 conspicuous network of smaller veins: 
 such leaves are netted-veined. In other 
 plants the main veins are parallel, or 
 nearly so, and there is no conspicuous 
 network: these are parallel-veined leaves 
 (Fig. 150). The venation of netted- 
 veined leaves is pinnate or feather-like, 
 (95) 
 
 138. Simple leaf. One 
 of the eupatoriums or 
 bonesets. 
 
96 
 
 LEAVES AND FOLIAGE 
 
 when the veins arise from the side of a continuous midrib 
 (Fig. 138); palmate or digitate (hand-like), when the veins 
 
 arise from the apex of 
 the petiole (Fig. 140). 
 If the leaf were divided 
 between the main veins, 
 it would be pinnately 
 or digitately compound. 
 204. It is customary 
 to speak of a leaf as 
 compound only when 
 the parts or branches 
 
 139. C^poundor branched leaf of brake are comp letely separate 
 
 blades, as when the 
 
 division extends to the midrib (Figs. 139, 141, 142). The parts 
 or branches are known as leaflets. Sometimes the leaflets 
 themselves are compound, and the 
 whole leaf is then said to be bi-com- 
 pound or twice-compound (Fig. 139). 
 Some leaves are three-compound, four- 
 compound, or five-compound. Decom- 
 pound is a general term to express any 
 degree of compounding beyond twice- 
 compound. 
 
 205. Leaves that are not divided 14 - Digitate-veined peltate 
 
 ,r -j M ! , i leaf of nasturtium. 
 
 to the midrib are said to be: 
 
 lobed, openings or sinuses not 
 
 more than half the depth of 
 
 the blade (Fig. 143). 
 cleft, sinuses deeper than the 
 
 middle. 
 parted, sinuses two -thirds or 
 
 more to the midrib (Fig. 144). 
 divided, sinuses nearly or quite 
 
 141. Pinnately compound leaf of ash. to the midrib. 
 
KINDS OF LEAVES 
 
 97 
 
 142. Digitately com- 
 pound leaf of rasp- 
 berry. 
 
 The parts are called lobes, divisions, or segments, rather 
 
 than leaflets. The leaf may be pinnately or digitately lobed, 
 
 parted, cleft, or divided. A pinnately parted 
 
 or cleft leaf is sometimes said to be pinnatifid. 
 206. Leaves may have one or all of 
 
 three parts blade or expanded part, petiole 
 
 or stalk, stipules or appendages at the base 
 
 of the petiole. All these parts are shown in 
 
 Fig. 145. A leaf that has all three of these 
 
 parts is said to be complete. The stipules 
 are often green and 
 leaf-like and per- 
 form the function 
 of foliage, as in the 
 pea and Japanese 
 quince (the latter common in 
 yards). 
 
 207. Leaves and leaflets that 
 have no stalks are said to be sessile 
 (Fig. 149), i.e., sitting. The same is 
 
 143. Lobed leaf of sugar maple. ^ Qf flowers and f ruits> T h e blade 
 
 of a sessile leaf may partly or wholly surround the stem, 
 
 when it is said to be clasping (Fig. 146). In some cases the 
 
 leaf runs down the stem, 
 
 forming a wing: such leaves 
 
 are said to be decurrent 
 
 (Fig. 147). When opposite 
 
 sessile leaves are joined by 
 
 their bases, they are said 
 
 to be connate (Fig. 148). 
 
 208. Leaflets may have 
 one or all of these three 
 parts, but the stalks of leaf- 
 lets are called petiolules and 
 
 the Stipules Of leaflets are 144. Digitately parted leaves of begonia. 
 
98 
 
 LEAVES AND FOLIAGE 
 
 145. Complete leaves 
 of willow. 
 
 146. Clasping leaf 
 of wild aster. 
 
 called stipels. The leaf of the garden bean has leaflets, 
 petiolules, and stiples. 
 
 209. The blade is usually attached to the 
 petiole by its lower edge. In pinnate-veined 
 leaves, the petiole seems to continue through 
 the leaf as a midrib (Fig. 138). In some 
 plants, however, the petiole 
 joins the blade inside or be- 
 yond the margin (Fig. 140). 
 Such leaves are said to be 
 peltate or shield-shaped. This 
 mode of attachment is par- 
 ticularly common in floating 
 leaves (e.g., the water-lilies). 
 Peltate leaves are usually 
 digitate-veined. 
 210. Shape. Leaves and leaflets are infinitely variable 
 in shape. Names have been given to some of the more 
 definite or regular shapes. These names are a part of the 
 language of botany. They represent ideal or typical shapes, 
 but there are no two leaves alike and very few that perfectly 
 conform to the definitions. The shapes are likened to those 
 of familiar objects or of geometrical figures: 
 Linear, several times longer than broad, with the sides 
 
 \nearly or quite parallel. Spruces and most grasses 
 are examples. (Fig. 150.) In linear leaves, the main 
 veins are usually parallel to the midrib. 
 Oblong, twice or thrice as long as broad, with the sides 
 parallel for most of their length. Fig. 149 shows the 
 short-oblong leaves of the box, a plant which is much 
 used for edgings in gardens. 
 Elliptic differs from the oblong in having the sides gradu- 
 
 Vally tapering to either end from the middle. The Eu- 
 ropean beech (Fig. 151) has elliptic leaves. (This tree 
 is often planted.) 
 
SHAPES OF LEAVES 99 
 
 Lanceolate, four to six times longer than broad, widest 
 
 V below the middle and tapering to each end. Some of 
 the narrow-leaved willows are examples. Most of 
 the willows and the peach have oblong-lanceolate 
 leaves. 
 Spatulate, a narrow leaf that is broadest toward the apex. 
 
 \The top is usually rounded. It is much like an oblong 
 leaf. 
 Ovate, shaped somewhat like the longitudinal section of 
 
 an egg: twice as long as broad, tapering from near 
 
 the base to the apex. This is one of the commonest 
 
 leaf forms. (Fig. 152.) 
 Obovate, ovate inverted, the wide part toward the apex. 
 
 Leaflets of horse-chestnut are obovate. This form is 
 
 commonest in leaflets of digitate leaves. 
 Reniform, kidney-shaped. This form is sometimes seen in 
 
 wild plants, particularly in root-leaves. Leaves of 
 
 wild ginger are nearly reniform. 
 Orbicular; circular in general outline. Very few leaves are 
 
 perfectly circular, but there are many kinds that are 
 
 nearer circular than any other 
 shape. (Fig. 153.) 
 
 The shape of many leaves is 
 described in combinations of these 
 terms, as ovate-lanceolate, lanceo- 
 late-oblong. 
 
 211. The shape of the base and 
 
 apex of the leaf or leaflet is often 147 
 
 characteristic. The base may be Decurrent 
 
 rounded (Fig. 138), tapering (Fig. 
 
 127), cordate or heart-shaped (Fig. 
 
 152), truncate or squared as if cut 
 
 off. The apex may be blunt or obtuse, acute or sharp, 
 
 acuminate or long-pointed, truncate (Fig. 154). 
 
 212. The shape of the margin is also characteristic of 
 
100 
 
 LEAVES AND FOLIAGE 
 
 148. Two pairs of connate leaves 
 of honeysuckle. 
 
 each kind of leaf. The margin is entire when it is not indented 
 or cut in any way (Fig. 149). When not entire, it may be 
 
 undulate or wavy (Fig. 140), ser- 
 rate or saw-toothed (Fig. 152), 
 dentate or more coarsely notched 
 (Fig. 138), crenate or 
 round-toothed, lobed, 
 and other forms. 
 
 213. Leaves often 
 differ greatly in shape 
 on the same plant. 
 Observe the different 
 shapes of leaves on the 
 young growths of mul- 
 berries (Fig. 88) and 
 
 wild grapes; also on vigorous squash and pumpkin 
 vines. In some cases there may be simple and com- 
 pound leaves on the same plant. This is marked 
 in the so-called Boston ivy or ampelopsis (Fig. 155), 
 a vine which is used to 
 cover brick and stone build- 
 ings. Different degrees of 
 compounding, even in the 
 same leaf, may often be 
 found in honey-locust and 
 Kentucky coffee tree. Re- 
 markable differences in 
 forms are seen by com- 
 paring seed-leaves with mature leaves 
 of any plant (Fig. 156). 
 
 214. The Leaf and Its Environ- 
 ment. The form and shape of the 
 leaf often have direct relation to the place in which the 
 leaf grows. Floating leaves are usually expanded and flat, 
 and the petiole varies in length with the depth of the water. 
 
 150. Linear- 
 acuminate 
 leaf of 
 grass. 
 
 149. 
 Short-oblong leaves of box. 
 
CHARACTERISTICS OF LEAVES 
 
 tc* 
 
 Submerged leaves are usually linear or thread-like, or are 
 cut into very narrow divisions. Thereby is more surface ex- 
 posed, and possibly the leaves are less injured by moving 
 water. 
 
 151. Elliptic leaf 
 of purple beech. 
 
 152. Ovate serrate leaf 
 of hibiscus. 
 
 153. Orbicular lobed leaves. 
 
 215. The largest leaves on a sun-loving plant are usually 
 those that are fully exposed to light. Compare the sizes of 
 the leaves on the ends of branches with those at the base of 
 the branches or in the interior of the 'tree-top (106). In 
 dense foliage masses, the petioles of the lowermost or under- 
 most leaves tend to elongate to push 
 
 *he leaf to the light. (Fig. 157.) 
 
 216. On the approach of winter the 
 leaf ceases to work, and often dies. 
 It may drop, when it is said to be de- 
 ciduous; or it may remain on the plant, 
 when it is said to be persistent. If 
 persistent leaves remain green during 
 the winter, the plant is said to be 
 evergreen. Most leaves fall by break- 
 ing off at the lower end of the petiole 
 with a distinct joint or articulation. 
 
 There are many leaves, however, that wither and hang 
 on the plant until torn off by the wind: of such are the 
 
 154. Truncate leaf of 
 tulip-tree. 
 
LEAVES AND FOLIAGE 
 
 155. Different forms of leaves from 
 one plant of ampelopsis. 
 
 leaves of grasses, sedges, lilies, orchids, and other plants 
 known as monocotyledons (Chapter XXV). Most leaves 
 
 of this character are paral- 
 lel-veined. 
 
 217. Leaves also die and 
 fall from lack of light. Ob- 
 serve the yellow and weak 
 leaves in a dense tree-top 
 or in any thicket. Why do 
 the lower leaves die on 
 house-plants? Note the 
 carpet of needles under the 
 pines. All evergreens shed 
 their leaves after a time. 
 Counting back from the tip 
 of a pine or spruce shoot, 
 determine how many years 
 the leaves persist. (Fig. 158.) In some spruces a few leaves 
 may be found on branches ten or more years old. 
 
 218. Although the forms and positions of leaves often 
 have direct relation to the places and conditions in which 
 the leaves grow, it is not probable that all forms and shapes 
 have been developed to adapt the plant to its environment. 
 It is probable that the toothing or lobing of the leaf -margins 
 is due to the same causes that produce compounding or 
 branching of leaves, but 
 what these causes are is 
 not known. It has been 
 suggested that leaves have 
 become compound in order 
 to increase their surface and 
 thereby to offer a greater 
 exposure to light in shady places, but very many sun-loving 
 species have compound leaves, and many shade-loving 
 species have simple and even small leaves. Again, it has 
 
 156. Muskmelon seedlings, with the unlike 
 seed-leaves and true leaves. 
 
CHARACTERISTICS OF LEAVES 
 
 103 
 
 been suggested that compound leaves shade underlying 
 leaves less than simple leaves do. 
 
 219. How to Tell a Leaf. It is often difficult to dis- 
 tinguish compound leaves from leafy branches, and leaflets 
 
 157. A leaf mosaic of Norway maple. Note the varying lengths of petioles. 
 
 from leaves. As a rule, leaves can be told by the follow- 
 ing tests: (1) Leaves are temporary structures, sooner 
 or later falling. (2) Usually buds are borne in their axils. 
 (3) Leaves are usually borne at joints or nodes. (4) They 
 arise on wood of the current-year's growth. (5) They have 
 a more or less definite arrangement. When leaves fall, the 
 twig that bore them remains; when leaflets fall, the main 
 petiole that bore them falls also. 
 
 REVIEW. How may leaves be studied? What is meant by function? 
 What do leaves do? What other parts may perform the function 
 
104 
 
 LEAVES AND FOLIAGE 
 
 of leaves? How is the form of leaves associated with their function? 
 What are simple leaves? Compound? What is venation? What are 
 the types or kinds of venation? What are the two types of compound 
 leaves? What is a leaflet? Define bi-compound; decompound. 
 What are lobed, cleft, parted, and divided leaves? Pinnatifid 
 leaf? Complete leaf? Complete leaflet? What is a sessile leaf? 
 How may the petiole join the blade? How are the shapes of leaves 
 named or classified? Define the shapes described in 210. Describe 
 common shapes of the base of the leaf. Of the apex. Of the margin. 
 How are the forms and sizes of leaves ever related to the place in which 
 they grow? Why do leaves fall? Define deciduous. Persistent. Ever- 
 green. When do pine leaves fall? How can you distinguish leaves? 
 
 158. Shoot of the common white pine, one-third natural size. 
 
 The picture shows the falling of the leaves from the different years' growth. The 
 part of the branch between the tip and A is the last season's growth; between A and 
 B it is two years old ; the part between B and C is three years old ; it has few leaves, 
 The part that grew four seasons ago beyond C has no leaves. 
 
CHAPTER XVII 
 
 MORPHOLOGY, OR THE STUDY OF THE FORMS OF 
 PLANT MEMBERS 
 
 220. Botanists interpret all parts of the plant in terms 
 of root, stem and leaf. That is, the various parts, as thorns, 
 flowers, fruits, bud-scales, tendrils, and abnormal or un- 
 usual members, are supposed to represent or to stand in 
 the place of roots, stems (branches) or leaves. 
 
 221. The forms of the parts of plants are interesting, 
 therefore, in three ways: (1) merely as forms, which may 
 be named and described; (2) their relation to function, or 
 how they enable the part better to live and work; (3) their 
 origin, as to how they came to be and whether they have 
 been produced by the transformation or modification of 
 other parts. The whole study of forms is known as morphology 
 (literally, the "science of forms")- We may consider examples 
 in the study of morphology. 
 
 222. It is customary to say that the various parts of 
 plants are transformed or modified root, stem or leaf, but 
 the words transformation and modification are not used in 
 the literal sense. It is meant that the given part, as a tendril, 
 may occupy the place of or represent a leaf. It was not 
 first a leaf and then a tendril: the part develops into a ten- 
 dril instead of into a leaf: it stands where a leaf normally 
 might have stood : it is the historical descendant of the leaf. 
 
 223. It is better to say that parts which have similar 
 origins, which arise from the same fundamental type, or 
 which are of close genealogical relationship, are homol- 
 ogous. Thus the tendril, in the example assumed above, 
 is homologous with a leaf. Parts that have similar func- 
 
 (105) 
 
106 
 
 MORPHOLOGY 
 
 tions or perform similar labor, without respect to origins, 
 are analogous. Thus a leaf-tendril is analogous to a branch- 
 tendril, but the two are not homologous. 
 
 224. There are five tests by means of which 
 we may hope to determine what a given part 
 is: (1) by the appearance or looks of the part 
 (the least reliable test) ; (2) by the 
 position of the part with relation 
 to other parts its place on the 
 plant; (3) by comparison with 
 similar parts on other plants 
 (comparative morphology) ; (4) by 
 study of intermediate or connecting 
 parts; (5) by study of the develop- 
 ment of the part in the bud or as it originates by means of 
 the microscope (embryology). The last test can be applied 
 only by the trained investigator, but it often gives the most 
 conclusive evidence. Even with the application of all these 
 tests, it is sometimes impossible to arrive at a definite con- 
 
 159. Leaf and 
 cladophylla of 
 asparagus. 
 
 160. Leaves of 
 asparagus. 
 
 161. Fern-like leaf-branches of a 
 greenhouse asparagus. 
 
 elusion as to the origin or morphology of a part. For ex- 
 ample, it is not yet agreed whether most cactus spines 
 represent leaves or branches, or are mere outgrowths of the 
 epidermis (as hairs are). 
 
LEAF-BRANCHES 
 
 107 
 
 225. The foliage 
 of asparagus is com- 
 posed of modified 
 branches. The true 
 leaves of asparagus 
 are minute whitish 
 scales, (a, Fig. 159.) 
 The green foliage is 
 produced in the axils 
 of these scales. On 
 the strong spring 
 shoots of asparagus, 
 which are edible, the 
 true leaves appear as 
 large scales, (a, a, 
 Fig. 160.) These 
 large scales persist on the base of 
 the asparagus plant, even in the 
 
 fall. In the species of greenhouse or ornamental 
 asparagus, the delicate foliage is also made up of 
 green leaf-like branches. (Fig. 161.) In some cases 
 the true leaves fall after a time, and there is little 
 evidence left. The strong new shoots usually show 
 the true leaves plainly (as in Fig. 162). Branches 
 that simulate leaves are known as cladophylla 
 (singular, cladophyllum). The broad flat leaves 
 of florists' smilax (common in glasshouses) are 
 cladophylla. 
 
 226. In the study of morphology, it is not 
 enough, however, merely to determine 
 whether a part represents root, stem or 
 ^ ea ^ : one must determine what part or 
 kind of root, stem or leaf it stands for. 
 For example, the foliage in Fig. 163 rep- 
 ?ng n fromthe S S g " \i resents green expanded petioles. These 
 
 163. Phyllodia of aca- 
 cia. These Australian 
 trees are sometimes 
 grown in glasshouses. 
 
108 
 
 MORPHOLOGY 
 
 164. The thorns are in the axils 
 of leaves. 
 
 leaf -like members have buds (which produce branches) in their 
 axils, and they have the arrangement or phyllotaxy of leaves; 
 
 therefore they are considered to be 
 true leaf parts. But they stand 
 edgewise as if they might be pet- 
 ioles; sometimes they bear leaf- 
 blades; other acacias have com- 
 pound expanded leaves; there are 
 intermediate forms or gradations 
 between different acacias; young 
 seedlings sometimes show intermediate 
 forms. From all the evidence, it is now 
 understood that the foliage of the simple- 
 leaf acacias represents leaf-like petioles. 
 Such petioles are known as phyllodia (sin- 
 gular, phyllodium). 
 
 227! Thorns and strong spines are usu- 
 ally branches. The spines of hawthorns 
 or thorn-apples are examples: they are 
 borne in the axils 
 
 of leaves as branches are (Fig. 164); 
 hawthorns usually bear two or more 
 buds in each axil (Fig. 165), and one 
 or two of these buds often grow the 
 following year into normal leafy 
 branches (Fig. 166); sometimes the 
 thorn itself bears leaves. (Fig. 167.) 
 The thorns of wilding 
 pears, apples and plums 
 
 are short, hardened branches. In well-culti- 
 vated trees there is sufficient vigor to push the 
 main branch into longer and softer growth, so 
 that the side buds do not have a chance to 
 start. The thorns of osage-orange and honey- 
 locust are also branches. Those of the honey- may bear 
 
 165. Two or more buds 
 axe borne in the axils. 
 
 166. Some of the buds pro- 
 duce leafy branches. 
 
PRICKLES AND SPINES 
 
 109 
 
 buds that are 
 
 which have a 
 
 168. Leaf-spine of 
 barberry. 
 
 locust usually arise from supernumerary 
 
 borne somewhat above the axils. 
 
 228. Prickles, bristles and weak spines, 
 
 definite arrangement on the stem, are usually 
 
 modified leaves or parts of leaves. The spines 
 
 of thistles are hardened points of leaf-lobes. 
 
 The spines of the barberry are reduced 
 
 leaves; in their axils are borne short branches 
 or leaf-tufts (Fig. 168); in 
 spring on young shoots may 
 be found almost complete gradations from 
 spiny leaves to spines. The prickly ash has 
 prickles (Fig. 169) that simulate stipules 
 and stipels, but the irregularity of position 
 indicates that they are not homologous with 
 stipules. The prickles of the common locust 
 (robinia) are usually interpreted as stipules. 
 
 229. Prickles, bristles and hairs that are 
 scattered or have no definite arrangement, are 
 usually mere outgrowths of the epidermis. 
 They commonly are removed with the bark. 
 Of such are the prickles of squashes, briars 
 (Fig. 170), and the 
 
 roses. 
 
 230. The reason 
 
 for the existence of spines is difficult 
 to determine. In many or most 
 cases they seem to have no distinct 
 use or function. In some way they 
 are associated with the evolution of 
 the plant, and one cannot deter- 
 mine why they came without know- 
 ing much of the genealogy of the 
 plant. In some cases they seem 
 
 169. Small prickles of 
 the prickly ash. 
 
 170. Prickles of dewberry. 
 
 to be the result of the 
 
 contraction of the plant-body, as in the cacti and other 
 
110 
 
 MORPHOLOGY 
 
 171. The diminishing leaves 
 of boneset. 
 
 desert plants; and they may then serve a purpose in lessen- 
 ing transpiration. It is a common notion that spines and 
 prickles exist for the purpose of keep- 
 ing enemies away, and that hairs keep 
 the plant warm, but these ideas usu- 
 ally lack scientific accuracy. Even if 
 spines do keep away browsing animals 
 in any plant, it is quite another ques- 
 tion why the spines came to be. To 
 determine what spines and hairs are 
 for demands close scientific study of 
 each particular case, as does any other 
 problem. 
 
 231. Leaves are usually smaller as 
 they approach the flowers. (Fig. 171.) 
 They often become so much reduced 
 as to be mere scales, losing their office as foliage. In their 
 axils, however, the flower-branches may be borne. (Fig. 172.) 
 
 Much-reduced leaves, particu- 
 larly those that are no longer 
 green and working members, 
 are called bracts. In some 
 cases, large colored bracts are 
 borne just beneath the flowers 
 and look like petals: the flow- 
 ering dogwood is an example; 
 also the bougainvillea, which is 
 common in glasshouses ; also the 
 scarlet sage of gardens, some of 
 the euphorbias or spurges, and 
 the flaming poinsettia of green- 
 houses. Sometimes a green leaf 
 is borne close against a head or 
 cluster of flowers, as in the clover (Fig. 173) ; but a separate 
 bract or scale will be found for each flower in the head. 
 
 172. The uppermost flowers are borne 
 in the axils of bracts. Fuchsia. 
 
BUD-SCALES 
 
 111 
 
 232. The scales of buds are special kinds of bracts. In 
 some cases each scale represents an entire leaf; in others, 
 it represents a petiole or stipule. 
 In the expanding pear, maple, lilac, 
 hickory and horse-chestnut buds, 
 note the gradation from dry scales to 
 green leaf-like bodies. When the 
 winter scales fall by the pushing out 
 of the young shoot, scars are left: 
 these scars form "rings," which mark 
 the annual growths. (See Chap. VII.) 
 The scales of bulbs are also special 
 kinds of leaves or bracts. In some 
 cases they are merely protective bodies', 
 in others they are storehouses. We 
 have found (45) that the presence of 
 scales or bracts is one means of dis- 
 tinguishing underground stems from 
 roots. 
 
 173. Red clover. Leaves 
 3-foliolate. 
 
 REVIEW. What are considered to be the fundamental or type 
 forms from which the parts of plants are derived? How do the forms 
 of plants interest us? What is morphology? What is meant by trans- 
 formation and modification as used by the morphologist? What is 
 meant by homologous parts? Analogous parts? Tell how one may 
 determine the morphology of any part. What is a cladophyllum? 
 Phyllodium? Show a specimen of one or the other, or both (canned 
 asparagus can always be had in the market). What is the morphology 
 of most thorns? Explain the thorns of hawthorn. What are bristles, 
 prickles and hairs? Why do spines and bristles exist? Explain what 
 a bract is. A bud-scale. A bulb-scale. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 HOW PLANTS CLIMB 
 
 233. We have seen that plants struggle or contend for 
 a place in which to live. Some of them have become suited to 
 grow in the forest shade, others to grow on other plants as 
 epiphytes, others to climb to the light. Observe how woods 
 grapes, and other forest climbers, spread their foliage on 
 the very top of the forest tree, while their long flexile trunks 
 may be bare. One who has seen a dense tropical forest has 
 realized the struggle for light on the tops of the trees. 
 
 234. There are several ways by which plants climb, but 
 most climbers may be classified into four groups: (1) scram- 
 blers, (2) root-climbers, (3) tendril-climbers, (4) twiners. 
 
 235. Scramblers. Some plants rise to light and air by 
 resting their long and weak stems on the tops of bushes 
 and quick-growing herbs. Their stems are elevated by the 
 
 growing twigs of the plants 
 on which they recline. Such 
 plants are scramblers. Usu- 
 ally they are provided with 
 prickles or bristles. In most 
 weedy swamp thickets, 
 scrambling plants may be 
 found. Briars, some roses, 
 bed-straw or galium, bitter- 
 sweet (Solanum Dulcamara, 
 
 174. A root-climber. The English ivy. 
 
 not the celastrus), the tear- 
 thumb polygonums, and other plants are familiar examples 
 of scramblers. 
 
 236. Root-climbers. Some plants climb by means of 
 
 (112) 
 
CLIMBERS 113 
 
 true roots, as explained in paragraph 31. These roots 
 are of adventitious origin. They grow in a horizontal di- 
 rection and enter the chinks of walls "or the furrows in the 
 bark of trees. Fig. 12, the trumpet creeper, is a familiar 
 example. The true or English ivy, which is often grown to 
 cover buildings, is another example. (Fig. 174.) Still another 
 
 175. Tendril of Virginia creeper. The direction of the coil changes near the middle 
 
 is the poison ivy. Roots are distinguished from stem tendrils 
 by their irregular or indefinite position as well as by their 
 mode of growth. 
 
 237. Tendril-climbers. A slender coiling part that 
 serves to hold a climbing plant to a support is known as a 
 tendril. The free end swings or curves until it strikes some 
 object, when it attaches itself and then coils and draws the 
 plant close to the support. The spring of the coil also allows 
 the plant to move in the wind, thereby enabling the plant 
 to maintain its hold. Slowly pull a well-matured tendril 
 from its support, and note how strongly it holds on. Watch 
 the tendrils in a storm. To test the movement of a free ten- 
 dril, draw an ink line lengthwise of it, and note that the line 
 is now on the concave side and now on the convex side. 
 Of course this movement is slow, but often it is evident in 
 an hour or so. Usually the tendril attaches to the support 
 by coiling about it, but the Virginia creeper and Boston ivy 
 attach to walls by means of disks on the ends of the tendrils. 
 H 
 
114 HOW PLANTS CLIMB 
 
 238. Since both ends of the tendril are fixed, when it 
 finds a support, the coiling would tend to twist it in two. It 
 will be found, however, that the tendril coils in different 
 directions in different parts of its length. In Fig. 175 the 
 change of direction in the coil occurs at the straight place 
 beyond the middle. In long tendrils of cucumbers and 
 melons there may be several changes of direction. 
 
 176. The fruit-cluster and tendril of grape are homologous. 
 
 239. Tendrils may be either branches or leaves. In 
 the Virginia creeper and grape they are branches; they 
 stand opposite the leaves in the position of fruit-clusters 
 (Fig. 176), and sometimes one branch of a fruit-cluster 
 is a tendril. These tendrils are therefore homologous with 
 fruit-clusters, and fruit-clusters are branches. 
 
 240. In some plants tendrils are leaflets. Examples are 
 the sweet pea (Fig. 177) and common garden pea. In 
 Fig. 177, observe the leaf with its two stipules, petiole, 
 
CLIMBERS 115 
 
 two normal leaflets and two or three pairs of leaflet-tendrils 
 and a terminal leaflet-tendril. The cobea, a common gar- 
 den climber, has a similar arrangement. In some cases 
 tendrils are stipules, as probably in the green briers (smilax). 
 241. The petiole or midrib may act as a tendril, as in 
 various kinds of clematis. In Fig. 178, two opposite leaves 
 are attached at a. Each leaf is pinnately compound and 
 
 177. In the sweet pea (and garden pea) the leaflet* are tendrils. 
 
 has two pairs of leaflets and a terminal leaflet. At 6 and 
 c the midrib or rachis has wound about a support. The 
 petiole and the petiolules may behave similarly. Examine 
 the tall-growing nasturtiums in the garden. 
 
 242. Twiners. The entire plant or shoot may wind 
 about a support. Such a plant is a twiner. Examples 
 are bean, hop, morning-glory, moon-flower, false bitter- 
 sweet or wax- work (celastrus), some honeysuckles, wis- 
 
116 HOW PLANTS CLIMB 
 
 taria, Dutchman's pipe, dodder. The free tip of the twining 
 branch sweeps about in curves, much as the tendril does, 
 until it finds support or becomes old and rigid. 
 
 243. Each kind of plant usually coils in only one direction. 
 Most plants coil against the sun, or from the observer's 
 
 178. Clematis climbs by means of its leaf-stalks. 
 
 left across his front to his right as he faces the plant. 
 Such plants are said to be antitropic, or to move against 
 the sun from the position in which the observer stands. 
 Examples are bean, morning-glory. The hop twines from 
 the right to his left; such plants are eutropic (with the sun). 
 Fig. 179 shows the two directions. 
 
CLIMBERS 
 
 117 
 
 pupil 
 
 REVIEW. How do 
 plants climb? Explain 
 what is meant by 
 scramblers. By root- 
 climbers. What is a 
 tendril? How does it 
 find a support? How 
 does it coil? How does 
 it grasp its support? 
 What is the morphol- 
 ogy of the tendril of 
 Virginia creeper? Of 
 the pea? Of the clem- 
 atis? What is a 
 twiner? How does it 
 find a support? What 
 is an antitropic twiner? 
 Eutropic? 
 
 NOTE. The 
 may not un- 
 derstand why 
 the branch (as 
 tendril and 
 flower-cluster ) 
 stands oppo-^ 
 
 site the bud in the grape and Virginia creeper. Note that a 
 
 grape-shoot ends in a tendril (a, Fig. 180). The tendril 
 
 represents the true axis of the shoot. On the side a leaf 
 
 borne, from the axil of which the branch grows to continue 
 
 the shoot. This branch ends in a tendril, b. 
 
 Another leaf has a branch in its axil, and this 
 
 branch ends in the tendril c. The real apex of the 
 
 shoot is successively turned aside until it appears 
 
 to be lateral. That is, the morphologically terminal 
 
 points of the successive shoots are the tendrils, and 
 
 the order of their appearing is a, 6, c. The tendrils 
 
 branch: observe the minute scale representing a 
 
 leaf at the base of each branch. This type of branch- 
 ing the axial growth being continued by successive 
 
 lateral buds is sympodial, and the branch is a 
 
 sympode. Continuous growth from the terminal bud 
 
 is monopodial, and the branch is a monopode. 
 
 179. Antitropic and eutropic twiners. False 
 bitter-sweet and hop. 
 
 180. Sympode 
 of the grape. 
 
CHAPTER XIX 
 
 FLOWER-BRANCHES 
 
 244. We have seen (87) that branches arise from the 
 axils of leaves. Sometimes the leaves may be reduced to 
 bracts and yet branches are borne in their axils (225). Some 
 of the branches grow into long limbs; others become short 
 spurs or thorns (227) ; others bear flowers. 
 
 245. Flowers are usually borne near the 
 top of the plant, since the plant must grow 
 before it blooms. Often they are produced in 
 great numbers. It results, therefore, that 
 flower-branches usually stand close together, 
 forming a cluster. The shape and arrange- 
 ment of the flower-cluster differ with the kind 
 of plant, since each 
 
 plant has its own mode 
 of branching. 
 
 246. Certain definite 
 or well-marked types 
 of flower-clusters have 
 received names. Some 
 of these names we shall 
 discuss, but the 
 flower-clusters that 
 
 perfectly match the definitions are 
 the exception rather than the rule. 
 The determining of the kinds of 
 flower-clusters is one of the most 
 perplexing subjects in descriptive 
 botany. We may classify the sub- 
 
 (118) 
 
 181. Solitary ter- 
 minal flower of 
 corn-cockle. 
 
 182. 
 
 Lateral flower 
 of abutilon. 
 
CORYMBS 
 
 119 
 
 ject around three ideas: solitary 
 flowers, corymbose clusters, cymose 
 clusters. 
 
 247. Solitary Flowers. In 
 many cases flowers are borne 
 singly. They are then said to be 
 solitary. The solitary flower may 
 be either at the end of the main 
 shoot or axis (Fig. 181), when it 
 is said to be terminal, or from 
 the side of the shoot (Fig. 182), 
 
 When it is Said to be lateral. 183. Leafy flower-cluster of fuchsia. 
 
 The lateral flower is also said to be axillary. 
 
 248. Corymbose Clusters. If the 
 flower -bearing axils were rather close 
 together, an open or leafy flower-cluster 
 might result, as in Fig. 183. The fuchsia 
 continues to grow from the tip, and the 
 older flowers are left farther and farther 
 behind. If the cluster were so short as 
 to be flat or convex on top, the outer- 
 most flowers would be the older. A 
 flower-cluster in which the lower or outer 
 flowers open first is said to be a corym- 
 bose cluster. It is sometimes said to be 
 an indeterminate cluster, since it is the re- 
 sult of a type of growth which may go on 
 more or less continuously from the apex. 
 
 249. The simplest form of a definite 
 corymbose cluster is a raceme, which is 
 an unbranched open cluster in which the 
 flowers are borne on short stems and 
 bloom from below (that is, from the older 
 
 184. Racemes of sweet P art of the shoot ) upwards. The raceme 
 clover. may be terminal to the main branch, or it 
 
120 
 
 FLOWER-BRANCHES 
 
 185. Loose spikes of false 
 dragon's-head or physo- 
 stegia. 
 
 may be lateral to it, as 
 in Fig. 184. Racemes 
 often bear the flowers 
 on one side of the stem, 
 or in a single row. 
 
 250. When a corym- 
 bose flower - cluster is 
 long and dense and the 
 flowers are sessile or 
 nearly so, it is called a 
 spike (Figs. 185, 186). 
 Common examples of 
 spikes are plantain, 
 mignonette, mullein. 
 
 251. A very short 
 
 and dense spike is a head. Clovers (Figs. 173, 
 187) are examples. The sunflower and related 
 plants bear many small flowers in a very dense 
 head. This special kind of head of the sun- 
 flower, thistle and aster tribes has been called 
 an anthodium, but this word is little used. Note 
 
 that in the sunflower (Fig. 188) the outside or 
 exterior flowers open first. Very often the antho- 
 dium terminates the main stem, as in Fig. 189. 
 
 252. Another 
 special form of 
 spike is the cat- 
 kin, which usu- 
 ally has scaly 
 bracts and the 
 whole cluster is 
 deciduous after 
 flowering or 
 fruiting, and the 
 
 188. Head of sunflower. flowers (in typi- 
 
 186. Spike of 
 hyacinth. 
 Note, also, 
 that the 
 flowers and 
 foliage are 
 produced 
 from the 
 stored food 
 in the bulb, 
 only water 
 being given. 
 
 187. 
 
 Head of crimson 
 clover. 
 
CORYMBS 
 
 121 
 
 cal cases) have only one sex. Ex- 
 amples are the "pussies" of willows 
 (Fig. 229) and flower-clusters of 
 oaks (Fig. 228), hickories, poplars 
 and walnut (Fig. 190). 
 
 253. When a loose, elongated 
 corymbose flower-cluster branches, 
 or is compound, it is called a pan- 
 icle. Because of the earlier growth 
 of the lower branches, the panicle 
 is usually broadest at the base or 
 conical in outline. The flower- 
 cluster of the oat is an example. 
 (Fig. 191.) True panicles are not 
 common. 
 
 254. When an indeterminate 
 flower-cluster is short, so that the 
 
 top is con- 
 vex or flat, 
 it is a 
 corymb. 
 (Fig. 192.) 
 The outer- 
 most flowers open first. Fig. 193 
 shows many corymbs of the bridal 
 wreath, one of the spireas. 
 
 255. When the branches of an 
 indeterminate cluster arise from a 
 common point, like the frame of 
 an umbrella, the cluster is an umbel. 
 (Fig. 194.) Typical umbels occur 
 in carrot, parsnip, parsley and other 
 plants of the parsley family: the 
 
 190 Catkins of black walnut, f y - k th UmbellifeWB. 
 
 at b. Pistillate flowers at a. J 
 
 Paragraph 284. or umbel - bearing family. In the 
 
 189. Terminal heads of the white- 
 weed (in some places erro- 
 neously called ox-eye daisy). 
 
122 
 
 FLOWER-BRANCHES 
 
 carrot and many other Umbelliferae, 
 there are small or secondary umbels, 
 called umbellets, at the end of each of 
 the main branches. (In the center of 
 the wild carrot umbel one often finds a 
 single, purplish, often aborted flower, 
 comprising a 1 -flowered umbellet). 
 
 256. Cymose Clusters. When the 
 terminal or central flower opens first, 
 the cluster is said to be cymose. The 
 growth of the shoot or cluster is deter- 
 minate, since the length is definitely 
 determined or stopped by the terminal 
 flower. Fig. 195 shows a determinate 
 or cymose mode of flower-bearing. 
 
 257. Dense cymose clusters are 
 usually flattish on top because of the 
 
 cessation of growth in the main 
 or central axis, but cymes are 
 
 192. Corymb of candytuft. 
 
 193. Corymbs of the bridal wreath (spirea). 
 
CYMES 
 
 123 
 
 194. Compound umbel of 
 wild carrot. 
 
 sometimes open and loose. 
 
 These flower-clusters are known 
 
 as cymes. Apples, pears (Fig. 
 
 196) and cherries bear flowers 
 
 in cymes. Some cyme -forms 
 
 are like umbels in general ap- 
 pearance. A head-like cymose 
 
 cluster is a glomeruk: it blooms 
 
 from the top downwards rather than 
 from the base upwards. 
 
 258. Centripetal and Centrifugal. 
 A cluster in which the outermost 
 (or lowermost) flowers open first is 
 corymbose or indeterminate, as we 
 have learned; it is also said to be 
 centripetal (meaning "toward the cen- 
 ter")- A cluster in which the inner- 
 most or central flowers open first is 
 cymose or determinate; it is also said 
 to be centrifugal (meaning "away from 
 the center"). These contrasts can 
 best be under- 
 stood by study 
 of diagrams, 
 since actual 
 clusters so often 
 
 195. Determinate or cymose Vary from the 
 arrangement.-Wild geranium, ^g^erf gtan _ 
 
 dard. Such diagrams are presented in 
 Figs. 197, 198, 199. 
 
 259. Mixed Clusters. Often the 
 cluster is mixed, being determinate in one part and indeter- 
 minate in another part of the same cluster. This is the case 
 in horse-chestnuts. The main cluster is indeterminate, but 
 the branches are determinate. Tte cluster has the appear- 
 
 196. Cyme of pear. 
 
124 
 
 FLOWER-BRANCHES 
 
 i 
 
 ' 9 
 S S 
 
 4 
 
 / * 
 
 
 f } 
 
 2 
 
 / "^ 
 
 \ 
 
 1 
 
 
 A 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 197. Forms of centripetal flower-clusters. 
 1, raceme; 2, spike; 3, umbel; 4, head or anthodium; 5, corymb. 
 
 <\i ^ ' 
 
 2o^L If 
 
 iS=*L \ 
 
 198. Centripetal inflorescence. 
 6, spadix; 7, compound umbel; 8, catkin. 
 
 199. Centrifugal inflorescence. 
 1, cyme; 2, scirpioid cluster (or half cyme) 
 
FLOWER - CLUSTERS AND .- STEMS 
 
 125 
 
 ance of a panicle, and is usually so called, but it is really a 
 thyrse. Lilac is a familiar example of a thyrse. In some 
 cases, the main cluster is determinate and the branches are 
 indeterminate, as in hydrangea and elder. Such clusters also 
 are mixed clusters. 
 
 260. Inflorescence. The mode or method of flower 
 arrangement is known as the inflorescence. That is, the 
 inflorescence is cymose, corymbose, paniculate, spicate, 
 solitary. By custom, however, 
 
 the word inflorescence has come 
 to be used for the flower-cluster 
 itself in works on descriptive 
 botany. Thus a cyme or a 
 panicle may be called an inflo- 
 rescence. It will be seen that 
 even solitary flowers follow either 
 indeterminate or determinate 
 methods of branching. 
 
 261. The Flower-stem. The 
 stem of a solitary flower is known 
 as a peduncle; also the general 
 stem of a flower-cluster. The 
 stem of the individual flower in 
 a cluster is a pedicel. 
 
 262. In the so-called stemless plants (37) the peduncle 
 may arise directly from the ground, or crown of the plant, 
 as in dandelion, hyacinth (Fig. 186), garden daisy (Fig. 200). 
 This kind of a peduncle is called a scape. A scape may bear 
 one or many flowers. It has no foliage leaves, but it may have 
 bracts. In some cases, of course, the flowers are sessile, and 
 in others very nearly sessile (207). In Fig. 201, the little 
 fruits (following the flowers) are in close clusters in the axils 
 of the leaves. 
 
 REVIEW. What is the homology of flower-branches? How is it 
 that flowers are often borne in clusters? Explain what may be meant 
 
 200. Scapes or the true or 
 English daisy. 
 
126 
 
 . FLOWER-BRANCHES 
 
 by a solitary flower. What are the two types of flower-clusters? What 
 are corymbose clusters? Define raceme. Spike. Head and anthodium. 
 Catkin. Panicle. Umbel. Umbellet. Corymb. What are cymose 
 clusters? What is a cyme? Glomerule? Contrast indeterminate and 
 determinate modes of branching. Centripetal and centrifugal. Explain 
 mixed clusters. What is a thyrse? Define peduncle, pedicel and scape. 
 NOTE. In the study of flower-clusters, it is well to choose first 
 those that are fairly typical of the various classes discussed in the 
 preceding paragraphs. As soon as the main types are well fixed in the 
 mind, random clusters should be examined, for the pupil must never 
 receive the impression that all flower-clusters follow the definitions in 
 books. Clusters of some of the commonest plants are very puzzling, 
 but the pupil should at least be able to discover whether the inflores- 
 cence is determinate or indeterminate. 
 
 201. The practically sessile axillary clusters of coffee. 
 
CHAPTER XX 
 
 THE PARTS OF THE FLOWER 
 
 263. The flower exists for the purpose of producing 
 seed. It is probable that all its varied forms and colors 
 contribute to this supreme end. These forms and colors 
 please the human fancy and make living the happier, but 
 the flower exists for the good of the plant, not for the good 
 of man. 
 
 264. The parts of the flower are of two general kinds 
 those that act as covering and protecting organs, and those 
 that are directly concerned in the production of seeds. The 
 former parts are known as the floral envelopes; the latter as 
 the essential organs. 
 
 265. Envelopes. The floral envelopes usually bear a 
 close resemblance to leaves. These envelopes are very com- 
 monly of two series or kinds the outer and the inner. The 
 outer series, known as the calyx, is usually smaller and green. 
 It commonly comprises the outer cover of 
 
 the flower-bud. The calyx is the lowest 
 
 whorl in Fig. 202. 
 
 The inner series, 
 
 known as the co- 
 rolla, is usually 
 
 colored and more 
 
 special or irregular 
 
 in shape than the 
 calyx. It is the showy part of the flower, as a rule. The 
 corolla is the second or large whorl in Fig. 202. It is the 
 large part in Fig. 203. 
 
 266. The calyx may be composed of several leaves. Each 
 
 (127) 
 
 202. Flower of a butter- 
 cup in section. 
 
 203. Flower of buttercup. 
 
128 
 
 PARTS OF THE FLOWER 
 
 204. Gamosepalous 
 and gamopetalous 
 flowers of sweet 
 potato. 
 
 leaf is a sepal. If it is of one piece, it may be lobed or di- 
 vided, in which case the divisions are called calyx-lobes. In 
 
 like manner, the corolla may be 
 composed of petals, or it may be 
 of one piece and variously lobed. 
 
 267. A calyx of one piece (as in 
 Fig. 204), no matter how deeply 
 lobed, is gamosepalous. A corolla 
 of one piece is gamopetalous. When 
 these series are of separate pieces 
 (as in Fig. 202), the flower is said 
 to be polysepalous and polypeialous. 
 Sometimes both series are of sep- 
 arate parts, and sometimes only 
 one of them is so formed. The 
 floral envelopes are homologous 
 with leaves. 
 
 268. Sepals and petals, at least when more than three or 
 five, are each in more than one whorl, and one whorl stands 
 below another so that the parts over- 
 lap. They are borne on the expanded 
 
 or thickened end of the flower-stalk: 
 this end is the torus. In Fig. 202 all 
 the parts are seen as attached to the 
 torus. This part is sometimes called 
 a receptacle, but this word is a com- 
 mon-language term of several mean- 
 ings, whereas torus is a technical word 
 exclusively. Sometimes one part is 
 attached to another part, as in the 
 fuchsia (Fig. 205) in which the petals 
 are borne on the calyx-tube. 
 
 269. Essential Organs. The 
 
 essential organs are borne within 205 . Flower of fuchsia 
 the floral envelopes (when envelopes in section. 
 
STAMENS AND PISTILS 
 
 129 
 
 I 
 
 206. Pistil of garden pea, 
 the stamens being pulled 
 down in order to disclose 207. Simple pistils of 
 it; also a section, showing buttercup, one in 
 the single compartment. 
 
 buttercup, one 
 longitudinal section. 
 
 are present). They are of two series. The outer series is 
 
 composed of the stamens. The inner series is composed of 
 the pistils. Stamens and pistils are 
 homologous with leaves. 
 
 270. Stamens bear 
 the pollen, which is 
 made up of a large 
 number of minute 
 grains. The stamen is 
 of two parts, as readily 
 
 seen in Figs. 202, 203, 205, the enlarged terminal part or 
 
 anther, and the stalk or filament. The filament is often so 
 
 short as to seem to be absent, and the 
 
 anther is then said to be sessile. The anther 
 
 bears the pollen grains. It is made up of 
 
 two or four parts (known as sporangia or 
 
 spore-cases), which burst and discharge the 
 
 pollen. When the pollen is shed, the 
 
 stamen dies. 
 
 271. Pistils bear the ovules, which become 
 
 seeds. The pistil may be of 
 
 one part or compartment, or 
 
 of many parts. The different 
 
 units or parts of which it is 
 
 composed are carpels. Each 
 
 carpel is homologous with a 
 
 leaf. Each carpel bears one 
 
 or more seeds. A pistil of 
 
 one carpel is simple; of two 
 
 or more carpels, compound. 
 
 Usually the structure of the 
 
 pistil may be determined by 
 
 cutting across the lower or 
 
 seed-bearing part. Figs. 206, 207, 208 explain. A flower may 
 
 contain one carpel (simple pistil) as the pea (Fig. 206); 
 
 
 
 208. Compound pistil 
 
 209. The structure of a plum blossom. 
 se. sepals; p. petals; sta. stamens; o. 
 ovary; s. style; st. stigma. The pistil 
 consists of the ovary, style, and stigma. 
 It contains the seed part. The stamens 
 are tipped with anthers, in which the 
 pollen is borne. The ovary, o, ripens 
 into the fruit. 
 
130 
 
 PARTS OF THE FLOWER 
 
 several separate carpels or simple pistils, as the 
 buttercup; or a compound pistil, as the St. John's- 
 wort (Fig. 208). 
 
 272. The pistil, whether simple or compound, 
 has three parts: the lowest or seed-bearing part, 
 which is the ovary; the stigma at the upper 
 extremity, which is a flattened or expanded 
 surface and usually roughened or sticky; the 
 stalk-like part or style, connecting the ovary 
 and stigma. Sometimes the style is appar- 
 ently wanting, 
 and the stigma 
 is said to be 
 sessile o n the 
 ovary. These 
 
 210. Knotweed, a very common but inconspicuous plant parts are shown 
 
 in the fuchsia, 
 Fig. 205. The 
 
 ovary or seed vessel is at a. A long style, bearing a large 
 
 stigma, projects from the flower. See, 
 
 also, Figs. 207 and 209. 
 
 273. Conformation of the Flower. 
 A flower that has calyx, corolla, stamens 
 and pistils is said to be complete; all 
 others are incomplete. In some flowers 
 both the floral envelopes are wanting: 
 such are naked. When one of the floral 
 envelope series is wanting, the remaining 
 series is said to be calyx, and the flower 
 is therefore apetalous (without petals). 
 The knotweed (Fig. 210), smartweed, 
 buckwheat, elm (Fig. 96), are examples. 
 
 274. Some flowers lack the pistils but 
 
 . 211. Flower of garden 
 
 have stamens: these are staminate, nasturtium. Separate 
 
 v ii j i i petal at a. The calyx is 
 
 whether the envelopes are missing or prolonged into a spur. 
 
 along hard walks and roads. Two flowers, enlarged, are 
 shown at the right. These flowers are very small and 
 borne in the axils of the leaves. 
 
FORMS OF FLOWERS 
 
 131 
 
 212. The five petals of the pansy, 
 detached to show the form. 
 
 213. Flower 
 of catnip. 
 
 not. Others lack the stamens but have pistils: these are 
 pistillate. Others have neither stamens nor pistils: these are 
 
 sterile (snowball and hydrangea). 
 Those that have both stamens and 
 pistils are perfect, whether or not 
 the envelopes are missing. Those 
 that lack either stamens or pistils 
 are imperfect or diclinous. 
 Staminate and pistillate 
 flowers are imperfect or 
 diclinous. 
 
 275. Flowers in which 
 the parts of each series 
 are alike are 
 said to be regular 
 
 (as in Figs. 202, 203, 204, 205). Those in which 
 some parts are unlike other parts of the same series 
 are irregular. The irregularity may be in the calyx, 
 as in nasturtium (Fig. 211); in the corolla (Figs. 
 212, 213); in the stamens (compare nasturtium, 
 catnip (Fig. 213) sage, or in the pistils. Irregularity 
 is most frequent in the corolla. 
 
 REVIEW. What is the flower for? What are the two 
 general kinds of organs in the flower? What is the 
 homology of the flower-parts? What 
 are floral envelopes? Calyx? Sepals? 
 Calyx-lobes? Corolla? Petals? Corolla- 
 lobes? Gamosepalous flowers? Gamo- 
 petalous? Polysepalous? Polypetalous? 
 Define torus. What are the essential 
 organs? Stamen? Filament? Anther? 
 Pollen? Pistil? Style? Stigma? Ovary? 
 Carpel? Define a complete flower. In 
 what ways may flowers be incomplete? 
 
 Explain perfect and imperfect (or di- ^^SW^ D?s^ect- 
 clinous) flowers. Define regular flowers. "* needle. 
 
 214. Improvised U natural 
 
 In what ways may flowers be irregular? stand for lens. size. 
 
132 
 
 PARTS OF THE FLOWER 
 
 NOTE. One needs a lens for the examination of the flower. It is 
 best to have the lens mounted on a frame, so that the pupil has both 
 hands free for pulling the flower in pieces. An ordinary 
 pocket lens may be mounted on a wire in a block, as in 
 Fig. 214. A cork is slipped on the top of the wire to avoid 
 injury to the face. The pupil should be provided with two 
 dissecting needles (Fig. 215), made by securing an ordinary 
 needle in a pencil-like stick. Another convenient arrange- 
 ment is shown in Fig. 216. A small tin dish is used for the 
 base. Into this a stiff wire standard is 
 soldered. The dish is filled with solder, 
 to make it heavy and firm. Into a cork 
 slipped on the standard, a crosswire is 
 inserted, holding on the end a jeweler's 
 glass. The lens can be moved up and 
 down and sidewise. This outfit can be 
 for about seventy-five cents. Fig. 217 
 a convenient hand-rest or dissecting 
 stand to be used under this lens. It may be 
 16 in. long, 4 in. high, and 4 or 5 in. broad. 
 Various kinds of dissecting microscopes are on 
 the market, and these are to be recommended 
 when they can be afforded. 
 
 made 
 shows 
 
 216. Dissecting 
 
 217. Dissecting stand. 
 
CHAPTER XXI 
 
 FERTILIZATION AND POLLINATION 
 
 276. Fertilization. Seeds result from the union of two 
 elements or parts. One of these elements, a nucleus of a 
 plant-cell, is borne in the germinating pollen-grain. The 
 other element, an egg-cell, is borne in the ovary. The pollen- 
 grain falls on the stigma. (Fig. 218.) It absorbs water or the 
 juices exuded by the stigma and grows by sending out a 
 tube. (Fig. 219.) This tube grows downward through the 
 style, absorbing food as it goes, and finally reaches the egg- 
 cell in the interior of an ovule in 
 the ovary, and fertilization by the 
 union of the two nuclei takes place. 
 The ovule then develops into a 
 seed. The growth of the pollen- 
 tube is often spoken of as germi- 
 nation of the pollen, but it is 
 not germination in the sense in 
 which the word is used when 
 speaking of seeds. 218 B ^^ plum escaping 
 
 277. In Order that from anther. A, pollen germin- 
 ating on the stigma. Enlarged. 
 
 the pollen may grow, 
 
 the stigma must be ripe. At this stage, the 
 stigma is usually moist and sometimes sticky. 
 The pollen is held by the mucilaginous secre- 
 tion on the stigma. The stigma may be barbed 
 or feathery and hold the pollen by this means. 
 Observe the stigma of some of the lilies. In 
 Pollen -grain corn the "silk" constitutes the style, and the 
 stigma is feathery. A ripe stigma is said to be 
 (133) 
 
134 
 
 FERTILIZATION AND POLLINATION 
 
 receptive. The stigma may remain receptive for several hours 
 or even days, depending on the kind of plant, the weather, 
 and how soon pollen is received. When fertilization takes 
 place, the stigma 
 dies. Note the dried 
 
 222. Flower of hollyhock; proterandrous. See Fig. 223. 
 
 end of the "silk" of corn. Observe, also, how soon the petals 
 wither after the stigma has received pollen. 
 
 278. Pollination. The transfer of the pollen from anther 
 to stigma is known as pollination. The pollen may fall of its 
 own weight on the adjacent stigma, or it may be carried 
 from flower to flower by wind, insects or other agents. There 
 may be self-pollination, close-pollination or cross-pollination. 
 
 In self-pollination, 
 the pollen that falls 
 on the pistil is de- 
 rived from the same 
 flower. In close- 
 pollination, the pol- 
 len may be derived 
 from different flowers 
 on the same plant. 
 In cross-pollination, 
 the pollen is derived 
 
 223. Older flower of f?f / * a viv 
 
 hollyhock. Ml from flowers on differ- 
 
FERTILIZATION AND POLLINATION 
 
 135 
 
 224. Flower of larkspur. 
 
 225. Envelopes of a larkspur. There 
 are five wide sepals, the upper 
 one being spurred. There are 
 four small petals. 
 
 ent plants. Fertilization resulting from self- or close-pollina- 
 tion is close-fertilization. Fertilization resulting from cross- 
 pollination is cross-fertilization. In 
 many cases cross-pollination is 
 essential for good seed or fruit 
 development. Corn, if close-pol- 
 linated, pro- 
 duces imperfect 
 ears. Culti- 
 vated plants 
 frequently ex- 
 hibit decreased 
 vigor by close- 
 pollination. 
 
 279. Usually 
 the pollen is dis- 
 charged by the 
 bursting of the anthers. The commonest method of discharge 
 is through a slit on either side of the anther. (Fig. 218.) Some- 
 times it discharges through a pore at the apex, as in azalea 
 (Fig. 220), rhododendron, huckleberry, wintergreen. In 
 some plants a part of the anther wall 
 raises or falls as a lid, as in barberry (Fig. 
 221), blue cohosh, May apple. The open- 
 ing of an anther (as also of a seed-pod) is 
 known as dehiscence. When an anther or 
 seed-pod opens it is said to dehisce. 
 
 280. Most flowers are so constructed as 
 to increase the chances of cross-pollination. 
 The commonest means of insuring cross- 
 pollination is the different times of matur- 
 ing of stamens and pistils in the same 
 flower. In most cases the stamens mature 
 first: the flower is then proterandrous. 
 When the pistils mature first the flower is 
 
 226. Stamens of lark- 
 spur, surrounding 
 
 the pistils. 
 
136 
 
 FERTILIZATION AND POLLINATION 
 
 proterogynous. (Aner, andr, is a Greek root often used, in 
 combinations, for stamen, and gyne for pistil.) The dif- 
 ference in time of ripening may be an hour or two, or it 
 may be a day. The ripening of the stamens and pistils at 
 different times is known as dichogamy, and flowers of such 
 
 character are said to be dichog- 
 amous. There is little chance 
 for dichogamous flowers to pol- 
 linate themselves. The holly- 
 hock is proterandrous. Fig. 222 
 shows a flower recently ex- 
 panded. The center is occupied 
 by the column of stamens. In 
 Fig. 223, showing an older 
 flower, the long styles are con- 
 spicuous. Many flowers are im- 
 perfectly dichogamous some 
 of the anthers mature simul- 
 taneously with the pistils, so 
 that there is chance for self-pol- 
 lination in case foreign pollen 
 does not arrive. Even when the 
 stigma receives pollen from its 
 own flower, cross -fertilization 
 may result. 
 
 281. Some flowers have so 
 developed as to prohibit self- 
 pollination. Very irregular flow- 
 ers are usually of this cate- 
 gory. Regular flowers usually depend on dichogamy and 
 on the impotency of pollen on the pistil of the same flower. 
 Flowers that are very irregular and provided with strong 
 perfume are usually pollinated by insects. Gaudy colors 
 probably attract insects in many cases, but odor appears to 
 be a greater attraction. The insect visits the flower for the 
 
 227. Toad-flax is an insect-pollinated 
 flower. 
 
MEANS OF POLLINATION 
 
 137 
 
 nectar (for the making of honey) and may unknowingly 
 carry the pollen. Spurs and sacs are commonly nectaries, 
 but in spurless flowers the 
 nectar is usually secreted in 
 the bottom of the flower-cup. 
 Fig. 224 shows a larkspur, 
 and the envelopes are sepa- 
 rated in Fig. 225. The long 
 spur at once suggests insect 
 pollination. The spur is sepal. 
 Two hollow petals project 
 into this spur, apparently 
 
 f 228. Staminate catkins of oak. The pistil- 
 SerVing tO gUlde the bee S late flowers are in the leaf arils, 
 
 i_ i_ i_ i r an d not shown in this picture. 
 
 tongue, but probably of no sig- 
 nificance. The two smaller petals, in front, are differently 
 colored and seem to serve the bee in locating the nectary. 
 The stamens ensheath the pistils. (Fig. 226.) As the insect 
 stands on the flower and thrusts his head into its center, the 
 envelopes are pushed downward and outward and the pistil 
 
 and stamens come in contact 
 with his abdomen. Since the 
 flower is proterandrous, the 
 pollen which the pistils receive 
 from the bee's abdomen must 
 come from another flower. Note 
 a somewhat similar arrange- 
 ment in the toad-flax or butter- 
 and-eggs. (Fig. 227.) Clover 
 and alfalfa are pollinated by 
 insects. 
 
 282. The bee is perhaps the 
 most efficient of all insects in 
 distributing pollen, for in ad- 
 dition to carrying away pollen accidentally in its search for 
 nectar, it also deliberately gathers pollen from the flowers. 
 
 229. Catkins of a willow. A staminate 
 flower is shown at s. and a pistil- 
 late flower at p. The staminate 
 and pistillate are on different 
 plants. 
 
138 
 
 FERTILIZATION AND POLLINATION 
 
 In certain seasons, moreover, it confines 
 itself to a single species of plants. Bees are 
 very useful to the fruit-grower, wholly aside 
 from the honey that they make for him. 
 
 283. Many flowers are pollinated by the 
 wind. Such flowers produce great quantities 
 of pollen, for much of it is wasted. They 
 usually have broad stigmas, which expose 
 large surfaces to the wind. They are usu- 
 ally lacking in gaudy colors and in perfume. 
 Grasses and pine trees are typical examples 
 of wind-pollinated plants. 
 
 284. In many cases cross-pollination is 
 insured by the stamens and pistils being 
 in different flowers (diclinous, 274). When 
 the staminate and pistillate flowers are on 
 the same plant, e.g., oak (Fig. 228), beech, 
 c hestnut, 
 
 hazel, walnut 
 (Fig. 190), 
 hickory, the 
 plant is mon- 
 oecious ("in 
 
 one house")- When they are 
 
 on different plants (poplar and 
 
 willow, Fig. 229), the plant is 
 
 dioecious ("in two houses"). 
 
 Monoecious and dioecious 
 
 plants may be pollinated by 
 
 wind or insects, or other agents. 
 
 They are commonly wind- 
 pollinated, although willows 
 
 are often, if not mostly, in- 231 . Ear of maize , p roduct of the pi8 tii. 
 
 Sect-pollinated. Some plants, late flowers fertilized by pollen borne 
 
 . in the tassel, the whole enclosed m a 
 
 as rye, insure cross-pollination husk or sheath. 
 
 230. Indian corn, a 
 monoecious plant, 
 with staminate 
 flowers borne in 
 the tassel and 
 pistillate flowers 
 borne in the ear. 
 
MEANS OF POLLINATION 
 
 139 
 
 because the pollen of one flower 
 is impotent on the pistil of 
 that flower, feuckwheat is 
 another such plant. 
 
 285. The corn plants are 
 monoecious, and therefore self- 
 pollination is impossible. The 
 staminate flowers of the In- 
 dian corn are in a terminal 
 panicle or tassel. (Fig. 230.) 
 The pistillate flowers are in a 
 dense spike (ear), inclosed in a 
 sheath or husk. (Fig. 231.) Each 
 "silk" is a style. 
 Each pistillate 
 flower may produce 
 a kernel of corn. 
 Sometimes a few 
 
 232. Panicle or tassel of a sorghum in 
 blooming time. 
 
 233. Head or 
 brush of 
 broom - corn 
 at seeding 
 time. Broom- 
 c or n is a 
 sorghum. 
 Brooms are 
 made from 
 the stiff 
 peduncles or 
 rays. 
 
 234. Head of 
 one of the 
 k a fi r s (or 
 milo) in seed. 
 Kafirs are 
 forms of sor- 
 ghums. They 
 are much 
 grown in dry 
 regions. 
 
 a 
 
 pistil- 
 late flowers are borne in the tassel 
 and a few staminate flowers on the 
 tip of the ear. In sorghums, broom- 
 corn and kafirs (Figs. 232, 233, 234), 
 the two kinds of flowers are in the 
 same cluster or tassel. 
 
 286. Although most flowers are of 
 such character as to insure or increase 
 the chances of cross-pollination, there 
 are some in which crossing is abso- 
 lutely forbidden. These flowers are 
 usually borne beneath or on the 
 ground, and they lack showy colors 
 and perfumes. They are known as 
 cleistogamous flowers (meaning "hidden 
 flowers")- The plant has normal 
 
140 
 
 FERTILIZATION AND POLLINATION 
 
 235. Hog-peanut, showing a leaf, and a 
 cleistogamous flower at a. 
 
 showy flowers that may be insect-pollinated, and in addi- 
 tion is provided with these specialized flowers. Only a few 
 plants bear cleistogamous flowers. Hog-peanut, common blue 
 violet, fringed winter- 
 green, and dalibarda 
 are the best subjects 
 in the northern states. 
 Fig. 235 shows a cleis- 
 togamous flower of the 
 hog-peanut at a. Above 
 the true roots, slender 
 rhizomes bear these flowers, which are provided with a 
 calyx and a curving corolla that does not open. Inside are 
 
 the stamens and pistils. The 
 
 /\ s pupil must not confound 
 
 _/**W~ .***/ * the nodules on the roots of 
 
 the hog-peanut with the 
 cleistogamous flowers: these 
 nodules are concerned in the 
 appropriation of food. Late 
 in summer the cleistogamous 
 flowers may be found just 
 underneath the mold. They 
 never rise above the ground. 
 The following summer one 
 may find a seedling plant 
 with the remains of the old 
 cleistogamous flower still 
 adhering to the root. The 
 hog-peanut is a common low 
 twiner in woods. It also 
 bears racemes of small pea- 
 like flowers. Cleistogamous 
 flowers usually appear after 
 the showy flowers have 
 
 a 
 
 236. Common blue violet. The familiar 
 flowers are shown, natural size. The 
 corolla is spurred. Later in the season, 
 cleistogamous flowers are often borne 
 on the surface of the ground. A small 
 one is shown at a. A nearly mature 
 pod is shown at b. Both a and b are 
 one-third natural size. 
 
POLLINATION 
 
 141 
 
 passed. They seem to insure a crop of seed by a method 
 that expends . little of the plant's energy. 
 (Fig. 236.) 
 287. There 
 a special 
 
 is 
 
 and peculiar 
 structure in 
 the peanut or 
 goober, 
 flowers are of 
 two kinds. 
 
 One is showy and staminate (shown uppermost 
 in Fig. 237) ; and one is small and pistillate, and 
 after fertilization is thrust downward into the 
 earth by the elongation of the torus and flower- 
 stem, and the pods ripen underground. (Fig. 238.) 
 288. Flowers may be cross-pollinated by hand. 
 One may carry the pollen of a given flower to the pistils 
 of another flower, for the purpose of securing seeds that 
 may combine some of the characteristics of the two parents. 
 
 237. Peanut. Staminate showy flower above; 
 young pod from pistillate flower below. 
 
 238. Peanut pods ripening underground. 
 
 In this case, the stamens are early removed from the flower 
 to be pollinated so that all possibility of self-fertilization is 
 averted ; and after the other pollen is applied, the flower is 
 
142 
 
 FERTILIZATION AND POLLINATION 
 
 protected by being securely covered with a paper bag. (Fig. 
 239.) In monoecious plants, if the staminate flowers are 
 removed or covered close-fertilization is prevented. 
 
 REVIEW. What is fertilization? Pollination? 
 Pollen germination? What is a receptive stigma? 
 How is pollen discharged? How is cross-pollina- 
 tion secured? Are plants benefited by cross-pol- 
 lination? What is meant by impotent pollen? 
 What do you understand by dichogamy? Its office? 
 Is it frequent? What is the character of insect- 
 pollinated flowers? Why is the bee an effective 
 insect in distributing pollen? What is the sig- 
 nificance of irregularity in flowers? Where is the 
 nectar borne? What are monoecious and dioecious 
 flowers? Cleistogamous flowers? Why may flowers 
 be hand-pollinated? 
 
 NOTE. The means by which cross-pollination 
 is insured are absorbing subjects of study. It is 
 easy to give so much time and emphasis to the 
 subject, however, that an inexperienced observer 
 comes to feel that perfect mechanical adaptation 
 of means to end is universal in plants, whereas 
 it is not. One is likely to lose or to overlook the 
 sense of proportions and to form wrong judgments. 
 
 In studying cross-pollination, one is likely to look first for devices 
 that prohibit the stigma from receiving pollen from its own flower, but 
 the better endeavor is to determine whether there is any means to insure 
 the application of foreign pollen; for the stigma may receive both but 
 utilize only the foreign pollen. Bear in mind that irregular and odd 
 forms in flowers, strong perfume, bright colors, nectar, suggest insect 
 visitors; that inconspicuous flowers with large, protruding stigmas 
 and much dry powdery pollen suggest wind-transfer; that regular and 
 simple flowers depend largely on dichogamy, whether wind- or insect- 
 pollinated. Most flowers are dichogamous. 
 
 239. A bag covering a 
 pollinated flower. 
 
CHAPTER XXII 
 
 PARTICULAR FORMS OF FLOWERS 
 
 289. General Forms. Flowers vary wonderfully in 
 size, form, color, and in shapes of the different parts. These 
 variations are characteristic of the species or kind of plant. 
 The most variable part is the corolla. In many cases, the 
 disguises of the parts are so great as to puzzle botanists. 
 Some of the special forms, notably in the orchids, seem 
 to have arisen as a means of adapting 
 
 the flower to pollination by particular 
 kinds of insects. A few well-marked 
 forms are discussed below in order to 
 illustrate how they may differ among 
 themselves. 
 
 290. When in doubt as to the parts 
 of any flower, look first for the pistils 
 and stamens. Pistils may be distin- 
 guished by the ovary or young seed- 
 case. Stamens may be distinguished 
 by the pollen. If there is but one 
 
 series in the floral envelope, the flower is assumed to lack the 
 corolla: it is apetalous (273). The calyx, however, 
 in such cases, may look like a corolla, e.g., buck- 
 wheat, elm, sassafras, smartweed, knotweed. 
 (Fig. 210.) 
 
 291. The parts of a flower usually have a 
 numerical relation to each other, they are 
 oftenest in 3's or 5's or in multiples of these 
 numbers. The pistil is often an exception to thie 
 order, however, although its compartments or 
 (143) 
 
 240. Funnel form flower of 
 morning-glory. 
 
 241. 
 
 Salver form 
 flower of 
 phlox. 
 
144 
 
 PARTICULAR FORMS OF FLOWERS 
 
 242. Rotate flowers of potato. 
 
 carpels may follow the rule. Flowers on 
 the plan of 5 are said to be pentamerous; 
 those on the plan of 3 are trimerous 
 (merous is from Greek, signifying "mem- 
 ber"). In descriptive botanies 
 these words are often written 
 5-merous and 3-merous. 
 
 292. The corolla often as- 
 sumes very definite or distinct 
 forms when gamopetalous. It 
 may have a long tube with a 
 wide-flaring limb, when it is 
 said to be funnelform, as in 
 
 morning-glory (Fig. 240) and pumpkin. If the tube is 
 
 very narrow and the limb stands at right angles to it, the 
 
 corolla is salverform, as in phlox. (Fig. 241.) If the tube is 
 
 very short and the limb wide-spreading and 
 
 nearly circular in outline, the corolla is rotate 
 
 or wheel-shaped, as in potato. (Fig. 242.) 
 293. A gamopetalous corolla or gamo- 
 
 sepalous calyx is often cleft in such way as to 
 
 make two prominent parts. Such parts are 
 
 said to be lipped or labiate. Each of the lips 
 
 or lobes may be notched or toothed. In 5- 
 
 merous flowers, the lower lip is usually 3-lobed 
 
 and the upper one 2-lobed. Labiate flowers 
 
 are characteristic of the mint family (Fig. 
 
 213), and the family therefore is called the 
 
 Labiatse. (Properly, labiate means merely 
 
 lipped, without specifying the number of lips 
 
 or lobes; but it is commonly used to designate 
 
 2-lipped flowers.) Strongly 2-parted poly- 
 
 petalous flowers may be said to be labiate; 
 
 but the term is oftenest used for gamopeta- 
 lous corollas. 
 
 243. 
 
 Personate flowers 
 of snapdragon. 
 
LABIATE AND LILY FLOWERS 
 
 145 
 
 244. Flower of triUium. 
 
 294. Labiate gamopetalous 
 flowers which are closed in 
 the throat (or entrance to the 
 tube) are said to be grinning 
 or personate (personate means 
 masked, or person-like). Snap- 
 dragon is a typical example 
 (Fig. 243); also toad-flax or 
 butter and eggs (Fig. 227), and 
 many related plants. Personate 
 flowers usually have definite 
 relations to insect pollination. 
 Observe how a bee forces his 
 
 head into the closed throat of the toad-flax. 
 295. Lily Flowers. In 
 
 plants of the lily family (Lili- 
 
 acese) the flowers are typically 
 
 3-merous, having three sepals, 
 
 three petals, six stamens and 
 
 a 3-carpelled pistil. The 
 
 parts in the different series 
 
 are distinct from each other 
 
 (excepting the carpels), and 
 
 mostly free from other series. 
 
 The sepals and petals are so 
 
 much alike that they are dis- 
 tinguished chiefly by position, 
 
 and for this reason the words 
 
 calyx and corolla are not 
 
 used, but the floral envelope is 
 
 called the perianth and the 
 
 parts are segments. Flowers of 
 
 lilies and trilliums (Fig. 244) 
 
 answer these details. Not all 
 
 flowers hi the lily family 
 
 245. Papilionaceous flowers. 
 Sweet pea. 
 
146 
 
 PARTICULAR FORMS OF FLOWERS 
 
 answer in all ways to this description. The term perianth 
 is used in other plants than the Liliacese. 
 
 296. Papilionaceous Flowers. In the pea and bean 
 tribes the flower has a special form 
 (Figs. 245, 246). The calyx is a shal- 
 low 5-toothed tube. The corolla is 
 composed of four pieces, the large 
 expanded part at the back, 
 known as the standard or 
 banner; the two hooded side 
 pieces, known as the wings', 
 the single boat-shaped part 
 
 246. Flowers of alfalfa, 
 enlarged. 
 
 247. 
 
 Cassia flower, beneath the wings, known as 
 
 showing the _. , . . 
 
 the keel. The keel is sup- 
 
 separate 
 
 keel petals. posed to re p re s en t two united 
 
 petals, since the calyx and stamens are in 5's or multiples 
 of 5; moreover, it is of two distinct parts in cassia (Fig. 
 247) and some other plants of the pea family. Flowers of 
 the pea shape are papilionaceous 
 (Latin papilio, a butterfly). 
 
 297. Flowers of the pea and its 
 kind have a peculiar arrangement 
 of stamens. The stamens are 10, 
 of which 9 are united into a tube 
 which incloses the pistil. The tenth 
 stamen lies on the upper edge of the 
 pistil. The remains of these sta- 
 mens are seen in Fig. 206. The sta- 
 mens are said to be diadelphous ("in 
 two brotherhoods") when united into 
 two groups as in this case. Stamens 
 in one group would be called mona- 
 delphous, and this arrangement 
 
 OCCUrS in SOme members Of the 
 T . < -1 
 
 Legummosse or pea family. 
 
 fruits, 
 "cheeses 
 
 plant." 
 
 a, gives the names 
 and "shirt button 
 
THE MALLOWS 
 
 147 
 
 NV' \' 
 
 1 1 249. Flower of cot t on . N ote 
 * the stamens; also the in- 
 volucre or "square" on 
 the bud. 
 
 298. Mallow Flowers. The 
 flowers of the mallow family are 
 well represented in single holly- 
 hocks (Figs. 222, 223) and in the 
 little plant (Fig. 248) known as 
 "cheeses." A peculiar structure 
 is the part formed by the united 
 filaments, the inclosed styles and 
 the ring of ovaries at the bottom 
 of the style-tube. The flower is 
 5-merous. Count the ovaries. 
 They sit on the torus, but are 
 united in the center by the base 
 of the style-tube, which forms a 
 cone-shaped body 
 
 y /*' 
 
 that separates f \\ 
 from the torus when the fruit is 
 ripe. Do all of the ovaries de- 
 velop, or are some crowded out 
 in the struggle for exis- 
 tence? 
 
 299. The calyx in 
 such flowers is often 
 reinforced by bracts, 
 which look like an extra 
 calyx. These bracts form 
 an involucre. An invo- 
 lucre is a circle or whorl 
 of bracts standing just 
 below a flower or a 
 flower-cluster. The umbel 
 of wild carrot (Fig. 194) 
 has an involucre below 
 it. A large family of 
 
 , , 250. A lady's-slipper, to illustrate the 
 
 plants known as the orchid family. 
 
148 
 
 PARTICULAR FORMS OF FLOWERS 
 
 Malvaceae, or Mallow family, has flowers similar to those of 
 the hollyhock. To this family belong marsh mallow, althea, 
 okra, cotton (Fig. 249). Observe that even though the 
 hollyhock is a great tall-growing 
 showy plant and the "cheeses" is a 
 weak trailing inconspicuous plant, 
 they belong to the same family, as 
 shown by the structure of the flowers. 
 
 251. Jack-in-the-pulpit. 252. Wild aster, with 
 "Jack" is the spadix; six heads, each con- 
 
 the "pulpit" is the 
 spathe. 
 
 taining several 
 florets. 
 
 253. Head of pasture 
 thistle, showing the 
 high prickly involucre. 
 
 300. Orchid Flowers. The flowers of orchids vary 
 wonderfully in shape, size and color. Most of them are 
 specially adapted to insect pollination. The distinguish- 
 ing feature of the orchid flower, however, is the union of 
 stamens and pistil in one body, known as the column. In 
 Fig. 250 the stemless lady's-slipper is shown. The flower 
 is 3-merous. One of the petals is developed into a great 
 sac or "slipper," known as the lip. Over the opening of 
 this sac the column hangs. The column is shown in detail: 
 a is the stigma; d is an anther, and there is another similar 
 one on the opposite side, but not shown in the picture; b 
 
ORCHID FLOWERS 
 
 149 
 
 is a petal-like stamen, which does not produce pollen. In 
 most other orchids there is one good anther. 
 
 301. In orchids the pollen is usually borne in adherent 
 masses, one or two masses occupying each sporangium of 
 the anther, whereas, in most plants the pollen is in separate 
 grains. These pollen-masses are known technically as pollinia. 
 Orchids from the tropics are much grown in choice green- 
 houses. Several species are common 
 in woods and swamps in the northern 
 states and Canada. 
 
 254. Longitudinal sec- 
 tion of thistle head. 
 
 256. Cornflower or bachelor's button, 
 255. Floret of in which the outer florets are large 
 
 thistle. and showy. 
 
 302. Spathe Flowers. In many plants, very simple 
 (often naked) flowers are borne in dense, more or less fleshy 
 . spikes, and the spike is inclosed in or attended by a leaf, 
 sometimes corolla-like, known as a spathe. The spike of 
 flowers is technically known as a spadix. This type of flower 
 is characteristic of the great Arum family, which is chiefly 
 tropical. The commonest wild representatives in the North 
 are Jack-in-the-pulpit or Indian turnip (Fig. 251) and skunk 
 cabbage. In the former the flowers are all diclinous and 
 naked. The pistillate flowers (comprising only a 1-loculed 
 
150 
 
 PARTICULAR FORMS OF FLOWERS 
 
 ovary) are borne at the base of the spadix, and the staminate 
 flowers (each of a few anthers) are above them. The ovaries 
 ripen into red berries. In the skunk cabbage all the flowers 
 are perfect and have four sepals. The common calla of 
 greenhouses is a good example of this type of inflorescence. 
 303. Compositous Flowers. The head (anthodium) or 
 so-called, "flower" of sunflower and whiteweed and daisy 
 (Figs. 188, 189, 200), thistle, aster (Fig. 252), dandelion, 
 daisy, chrysanthemum, goldenrod, is composed of several 
 or many little flowers, or florets. These florets are inclosed 
 in a more or less dense and usually 
 green involucre. In the thistle (Fig. 
 253) this involucre is prickly. A longi- 
 tudinal section (Fig. 254) discloses the 
 florets, all attached at 
 bottom to a common 
 torus, and densely 
 packed in the involucre. 
 The pink tips of these 
 florets constitute the 
 showy part of the head. 
 304. Each floret of 
 the thistle (Fig. 255) is a 
 complete flower. At a is the ovary. At b is a much-divided 
 plumy calyx, known as the pappus. The corolla is long- 
 tubed, rising above the pappus, and is enlarged and 
 5-lobed at the top, c. The style projects at e. The five 
 anthers are united about the style in a ring at d. Such 
 anthers are said to be syngenesious. 
 
 305. These are the various parts of the florets of the Com- 
 positae, sometimes known as the Sunflower family. In some 
 cases the pappus is in the form of barbs, bristles or scales, 
 and sometimes it is wanting. The pappus, as we shall see 
 later, assists in distributing the seed. Often the florets are 
 not all alike. The corolla of those in the outer circles may be 
 
 257, 258. Double dahlias. In one, the florets 
 have developed flat rays. In the other, the 
 florets appear as inrolled tubes. 
 
COMPOSITOUS AND GRASS FLOWERS 
 
 151 
 
 developed into a long, strap-like 
 
 or tubular part and the corolla of 
 
 those at the center may be but a 
 
 short tube. The head then has 
 
 the appearance of being one flower 
 
 with a border of petals. Of such 
 
 is the sunflower (Fig. 188), aster 
 
 (Fig. 252), bachelor's button or 
 
 cornflower (Fig. 256). These long 
 
 corolla-limbs are called rays. In 
 
 some cultivated composites, all 
 
 the florets may develop rays, as in 
 
 the dahlia (Figs. 257, 258) and 
 
 chrysanthemum. In some species, 
 
 as dandelion, all the florets natu- 
 rally have rays. Syngenesious 
 
 arrangement- of anthers is the 
 
 most characteristic single feature 
 of the composites. 
 
 306. Grass Flow- 
 ers. The flowers 
 of grasses are too 
 difficult for the be- 
 ginner, but if the 
 pupil wishes to un- 
 derstand them he 
 may begin with 
 
 wheat or rye or barley, which are members 
 of the Grass family. The "head" or spike of 
 wheat is made up of flowers and bracts. The 
 flowers are in little clusters or spikelets (often 
 called ' 'breasts" by farmers). One of the 
 
 260. Flower of rye/ spikelets is shown at fe, in Fig. 259. Each 
 
 o, stigma; 6, 6, 6, 
 
 stamens; c, paiet; spikelet contains from 1 to 4 flowers or florets, 
 giume.En!arged! The structure of the flower is similar to that 
 
 259. Spikes and flowers of wheat, 
 a. beardless wheat; d, bearded 
 wheat; 6, spikelet in bloom; c, 
 grain; e, single spikelet on a 
 mature head. The beards in d 
 are awns 'on the flowering 
 glumes. 
 
152 
 
 PARTICULAR FORMS OF FLOWERS 
 
 261 
 
 of rye (Fig. 260) and other grasses. The pistil 
 has 2 feathery protruded stigmas (wind-polli- 
 nated) shown at a, Fig. 260. There are 3 sta- 
 mens, b, b, b. There are minute scales in the 
 base of the flower (not shown in the cut) that 
 probably represent true floral envelopes. These 
 are lodicules. The larger parts, c, d, are bracts. 
 The larger one, d, is the flowering glume, and 
 the smaller, c, is a palet. The entire spikelet is 
 also subtended by two bracts or 
 glumes', these are the two lower- 
 most parts in b, Fig. 259. The 
 glumes of the spikelet, and flower- 
 ing glumes and palets of the flow- 
 ers, constitute the chaff when wheat 
 is threshed. Compare barley, Fig. 
 261. There are many grass plants Bariey'flower. 
 with large florets that are adap- Enlarged - 
 table to elementary class work, as millet (Fig. 
 262), sorghums (Figs. 232 to 234), rice, oats 
 (Fig. 191), and a number of big lawn grasses. 
 Maize is one of the Grass family. 
 
 307. Attachment of the Flower Parts. The 
 parts of the flower may all be borne directly 
 on the torus, or one part may be borne on 
 another. With reference to the pistil or ovary, 
 the stamens and envelopes may be attached in 
 three ways: hypogynous, all free and attached 
 under the ovary, when it is said to be superior, 
 as in Fig. 202; perigynous, or attached to a 
 more or less evident cup surrounding the ovary, 
 as in Fig. 209; epigynous, some or all of them 
 apparently borne on the ovary, when it is said 
 to be inferior, as in Fig. 205. 
 
 308. Double Flowers. Under the stimulus 
 
 
DOUBLE FLOWERS 
 
 153 
 
 of cultivation and increased food-supply, flowers tend to 
 become double. True doubling arises in two ways, morpho- 
 logically: (1) Petals 
 may appear in place 
 of stamens and pis- 
 tils; (2) adventitious 
 or accessory petals 
 may arise in the 
 circle of petals. Both 
 of these categories 
 may be present in 
 the same flower, as 
 in Fig. 263. In the 
 full-double holly- 
 
 263. Petals arising from the staminal column of holly- hock, the petals de- 
 hock; and accessory petals in the corolla-whorl. . -, f , , 
 
 nved from the stam- 
 inal column are shorter and make a rosette in the center 
 of the flower. 
 
 309. Other modifications of flowers are sometimes known 
 as doubling. For example, double dahlias (Fig. 257), chry- 
 santhemums and sunflowers are forms in which the disk 
 flowers have developed rays. The snowball is another case. 
 In the wild plant 
 (Fig. 264) the ex- 
 ternal flowers of 
 the cluster are large 
 and sterile. In the 
 cultivated plant 
 (Fig. 265) all the 
 flowers have be- 
 come large and 
 sterile. Hydrangea 
 is a similar example. 
 Double flowers are 
 
 ... . .. 264. The wild or original form of the snowball. 
 
 likely tO be Sterile. Outer flowers larger. 
 
154 PARTICULAR FORMS OF FLOWERS 
 
 REVIEW. How do flowers vary in form? How are the various 
 parts determined in disguised flowers? What are 5-merous and 3-merous 
 flowers? What are some of the'common forms of gamopetalous corollas? 
 Describe a labiate flower. Personate. Lily flower. Papilionaceous 
 flower. What are monadelphous and diadelphous stamens? Describe 
 a mallow flower. Orchid flower. Spathaceous flower. Compositous 
 flower. If grass flowers are studied in class, describe one of them. 
 What do you understand by the terms hypogynous, perigynous, epi- 
 gynous? How do flowers become double? What is meant by doubling 
 in compositous flowers? In snowball and hydrangea? 
 
 285. Cultivated snowball, in which all the 
 flowers in the cluster have become 
 large and showy. 
 
CHAPTER XXIII 
 
 FRUITS 
 
 310. The ripened ovary, with its attachments, is known 
 as the fruit. It contains the seeds. If the pistil is simple, 
 or of one carpel, the fruit also will have one compartment. 
 If the pistil is compound, or of more than one carpel, the 
 fruit usually has an equal number of compartments, although 
 one or more of the compartments may be suppressed as the 
 parts' grow. The compartments in pistil and fruit are known 
 as locules (from Latin locus, meaning "a place"), or cells. 
 
 311. The simplest kind of 
 fruit is a ripened 1-loculed 
 ovary. The first stage in com- 
 plexity is a ripened 2- or many- 
 loculed ovary. Very complex 
 forms may arise by the attach- 
 ment of other parts to the 
 ovary. Sometimes the style 
 persists and becomes a beak 
 (mustard pods, dentaria, Fig. 
 266), or a tail as in clematis; 
 or the calyx may be attached 
 to the ovary; or the ovary 
 may be imbedded in the re- 
 ceptacle, and ovary and recep- 
 tacle together constitute the 
 fruit; or an involucre may be- 
 come a part of the fruit, as 
 
 possibly in the walnut and hickory, and cup of the acorn. 
 The chestnut (Fig. 267) and the beech bear a prickly invo- 
 
 (155) 
 
 266. Dentaria, or toothwort, in fruit. 
 
156 
 
 FRUITS 
 
 lucre, but the nuts, or true fruits, are not grown faso to it, 
 and the involucre can scarcely be called a part of the fruit. 
 A ripened ovary is a pericarp. A pericarp to which other 
 
 parts adhere has 
 been called an ac- 
 cessory or reinforced 
 fruit. 
 
 312. Some fruits 
 are dehiscent, o r 
 split open at ma- 
 turity (279) and 
 liberate the seeds; 
 others are indehis- 
 cent, or do not- open. 
 A dehiscent peri- 
 carp is called a pod. 
 
 267. Chestnuts are ripened ovaries. They are borne in a rpi , , 
 
 prickly involucre. The remains of the catkin of stam- 
 inate flowers is seen in the picture. which SUCh a pod 
 
 breaks or splits are known as valves. In indehiscent fruits 
 the seed is liberated by the decay of the envelope, or by 
 the rupturing of the envelope by the germinating seed. 
 Indehiscent winged pericarps are known as samaras or key- 
 fruits (consult Chapter XXIV). Maple, elm (Fig. 97), and 
 ash (Fig. 141) are examples. 
 
 313. Pericarps. The simplest pericarp is a dry, one- 
 seeded, indehiscent body. It is known as an 
 
 achene. A head of achenes is shown 
 in Fig. 268, and the structure is 
 explained in Fig. 207. 
 Achenes may be seen 
 in buttercup, hepatica, 
 anemone, smartweed, 
 buckwheat. 
 
 314. A 1-loCUled 268. Achenes 
 
 pericarp that dehisces 
 
 269. 
 
 cup. 
 
 larkspur. 
 
 270. Young follicles of 
 larkspur. Normally, 
 the flower has 5 pis- 
 tils, but some are 
 lost in the struggle 
 for existence. 
 
FOLLICLES AND LEGUMES 
 
 157 
 
 271. Follicles of 
 swamp milk- 
 weed, not yet 
 dehisced. 
 
 along the front edge (that is, the inner 
 edge, next the center of the flower) is a 
 follicle. The fruit of the larkspur (Fig. 
 269) is a follicle. There are usually five 
 of these fruits (sometimes three or four) 
 in each larkspur 
 flower, each pistil 
 ripening into a fol- 
 licle. (Fig. 270.) If 
 these pistils were 
 united, a single com- 
 pound pistil would 
 be formed. Colum- 
 bine, peony, nine- 
 bark and milkweed 
 (Fig. 271) also have 
 
 272. Legumes of perennial follicles. 
 
 or everlasting pea. o^c ^ l-loculed 
 
 pericarp that dehisces on both edges is a legume. Peas and beans 
 are typical examples (Figs. 
 272, 273, 274): in fact, this 
 character gives name to the 
 p e a - f a m i 1 y , Leguminosae. 
 Often the valves of the legume 
 twist forcibly and expel the 
 seeds, throwing them some 
 distance. Sometimes (as in 
 peanut) the legume does not 
 dehisce of itself, even though 
 it has all the essential struc- 
 ture of a true pod. The word 
 pod is sometimes restricted 
 to legumes, but it is better to 
 use it generically (as in 312) 
 for all dehiscent pericarps. 
 
274. Peanuts. Compare Figs 
 237, 238. 
 
 277. Three-carpelled fruit of horse-chestnut 
 Two locules are closing by abortion 
 of the ovules. 
 
 282. Apical dehis- 
 cence in capsule 
 of Bouncing Bet. 
 Four columns of 
 seeds are attached 
 to a central shaft. 
 
 275. Capsules of datura or jimson weed. 
 Septicidal and loculicidal. 
 
 281. Toad-flax 
 capsule. 
 
 276. Capsules of 
 evening prim- 
 rose. Loculic- 
 idal. 
 
 278. 
 
 St. John's-wort. 
 Septicidal. 
 
 279. 
 
 Loculicidal pod 
 of day-lily. 
 
 (158) 
 
DEHISCENCE OF FRUITS 159 
 
 316. A compound pod dehiscing pericarp of two or 
 more carpels is a capsule. (Figs. 275, 276.) There are 
 some capsules of one locule, but they may have been com- 
 pound when young (in the ovary stage) 
 and the partitions may have vanished. 
 Sometimes one or more of the carpels are 
 uniformly crowded out by the exclusive 
 growth of other carpels. (Fig. 277.) The 
 seeds or parts that are crowded out are said 
 to be aborted. 
 
 317. There are several ways in which 
 Basal dehiscence of capsules dehisce or open. When they break 
 
 campanula capsule. 
 
 septa), the mode is known as septiddal 
 dehiscence; Fig. 278 shows it. In septi- 
 cidal dehiscence, the fruit sepa- 
 rates into parts representing the 
 original carpels. These carpels 
 may still be entire, and they then 
 dehisce individually, usually 
 along the inner edge as if they 
 were follicles. When the com- 
 partments split in the middle, 
 between the partitions, the mode is lo- 
 culicidal dehiscence. (Fig. 279.) In some 
 cases the dehiscence is at the top, when 
 it is said to be apical (although several 
 modes of dehiscence are here included). 
 When the whole top comes off, as in 
 purslane and garden portulaca (Fig. 280), 
 the pod is known as a pyxis. In some 
 cases apical dehiscence is by means of 
 a hole or clefts. (Fig. 281.) In pinks and 
 their allies the dehiscence does not 
 extend much below the apex. (Fig. 282.) ' 
 
160 
 
 FRUITS 
 
 Dehiscence may be basal. (Fig. 283.) Two-loculed capsules 
 that resemble legumes in external appearance are those of 
 catalpa and trumpet-creeper. (Figs. 284, 285.) 
 
 318. The peculiar capsule of the mustard 
 family, or Cruciferse, is known as a silique when 
 it is distinctly longer than broad (Fig. 266), and 
 a silicle when its breadth nearly equals or exceeds 
 its length. (Fig. 286.) A cruciferous cap- 
 sule is 2-carpelled, usually with a thin 
 partition, each locule containing seeds in 
 
 one or two rows. The two valves detach 
 from below upwards. Cabbage, mustard, 
 cress, shepherd's purse, sweet alyssum, 
 wallflower, honesty, are examples. 
 
 319. The pericarp may be fleshy and 
 
 indehiscent. A pulpy 
 pericarp with several or 
 many seeds is a berry. 
 (Fig. 287.) To the hor- 
 ticulturist a berry is a 
 small, soft, edible fruit, 
 without particular reference to its struc- 
 ture. The botanical and horticultural conceptions of a 
 
 berry are, therefore, 
 unlike. In the botan- 
 ical sense, gooseber- 
 ries, currants, grapes, 
 tomatoes, potato- 
 balls and even egg- 
 plant fruits (Fig. 288) 
 are berries ; strawber- 
 ries, raspberries, 
 blackberries are not. 
 320. A fleshy peri- 
 
 287. Berries of the snowberry. Carp Containing One 
 
 2 shepherd's purse. 
 
 0*1*1 
 
 tecoma or trumpet- 
 
COMBINED FRUITS 
 
 161 
 
 288. Eggplant fruits. Examples of 
 large berries. 
 
 relatively large seed or stone is a drupe. Examples are plum 
 
 (Fig. 289), peach, cherry, apricot, olive. The walls of the 
 
 pit in the plum, peach and 
 
 cherry are formed from the inner 
 
 coats of the ovary, and the flesh 
 
 from the outer coats. Drupes are 
 
 also known as stone-fruits. 
 
 321. Fruits that are formed by 
 the subsequent union of separate 
 pistils are aggregate fruits. The 
 carpels in aggregate fruits are 
 usually more or less fleshy. In 
 
 the raspberry and blackberry flower, the pistils are essenti- 
 ally distinct, but as the pistils ripen they cohere and form 
 f one body. (Fig. 290.) Each of the 
 
 j^ carpels or pistils in the raspberry and 
 
 blackberry is a little drupe, or drupelet. 
 In the raspberry the entire fruit sep- 
 arates from the torus, leaving the torus 
 on the plant. In the blackberry and 
 dewberry the fruit adheres to the torus, 
 and the two are removed together 
 when the fruit is picked. 
 
 322. Accessory Fruits. When the pericarp and some 
 other part grow together, the fruit is said to be accessory or 
 reinforced (311). An example is 
 
 the strawberry. (Fig. 291.) The 
 edible part is a greatly enlarged 
 torus, and the pericarps are 
 achenes imbedded in it. These 
 achenes are commonly called 
 
 gee( J s 290. Aggregate fruits of raspberry. 
 
 323. Various kinds of reinforced fruits have received 
 special names. One of these is the hip, characteristic of roses. 
 (Fig. 292.) In this case, the torus is deep and hollow, like an 
 
 289. Plum. Example of a 
 drupe. 
 
162 
 
 FRUITS 
 
 urn, and the separate achenes are borne inside it. The mouth 
 of the receptacle may close, and the walls sometimes become 
 fleshy: the fruit may then be mistaken for a berry. 
 
 324. The reinforced 
 fruit of the pear, apple, 
 and quince is known as a 
 pome. In this case the 
 five united carpels are 
 completely buried in the 
 hollow torus, and the torus 
 makes most of the edible 
 PHP&*' part of the ripe fruit, while 
 the pistils are represented 
 
 291. Strawberries. The edible part is torus. by the COre. (Fig. 293.) 
 
 Fig. 294 shows the apple in bloom; Fig. 295 shows young 
 fruits, only one having formed in each cluster. In the lower 
 left-hand flower of Fig. 294, note that the sepals do not fall. 
 Observe the sepals on the top of the torus (apex of the 
 fruit) in Fig. 295. In the plum flower (Fig. 209), note that 
 the pistil sits free in the hollow torus: imagine the pistil 
 and torus grown together, and something like a pome 
 might result. 
 
 325. The reinforced fruit of pumpkin, squash 
 (Fig. 296), melon and cucumber is a pepo. The 
 outer wall is torus, but the sepals do not persist, 
 and the fruit is normally 3-loculed (although the 
 partitions may disappear as the 
 
 fruit ripens). The maypop, one of 
 the passion flowers growing wild in 
 the southern states, has a similar 
 structure. 
 
 326. Gymnospermous Fruits. 292 - ffi p of rose - 
 
 In pines, spruces and their kin, there is no fruit in the 
 sense in which the word is used in the preceding pages, 
 because there is no ovary. The ovules are naked or uncov- 
 
 293. Diagram of 
 a pear. The 
 receptacle is 
 a, and the 
 pericarp 6. 
 
294. Apple flowers. 
 
 295. Young apple fruits. 
 
 (163) 
 
164 
 
 FRUITS 
 
 297. 
 
 296. Pepo or squash. 
 
 ered, in the axils of the scales of the young cone, and they 
 
 have neither style nor stigma. The pollen falls directly on 
 the mouth of the ovule. The ovule 
 ripens into a seed (Fig. 297) which is 
 usually winged. Because the 
 ovule is not borne in a sac 
 or ovary, these plants are 
 called gymnosperms (Greek for 
 "naked seeds"). All the true 
 cone-bearing plants are of this winged 
 class; also certain other Norway 
 plants as red cedar, juniper, s P ruce - 
 
 yew. The plants are monoecious or sometimes dioecious. 
 
 The staminate flowers are mere naked stamens borne 
 
 beneath scales, in small yellow catkins which 
 
 soon fall. The pistillate flowers are naked 
 
 ovules beneath scales on cones which persist. 
 
 (Figs. 298, 299.) 
 
 REVIEW. What is a fruit, as understood by the 
 botanist?. What is a locule? What are simple, com- 
 pound and accessory or reinforced fruits? Define 
 pericarp. Pod. What are dehiscent and indehiscent 
 
 fruits? What is a samara or key-fruit? 
 
 Define achene. Follicle. Legume. Cap- 
 
 sule. Explain septicidal and loculicidal 
 
 dehiscence. Apical dehiscenc. Basal 
 
 dehiscence. What is a pyxis? Silique? 
 
 Silicle? Berry? Drupe? Drupelet? 298. Pistillate cone 
 
 Explain an aggregate fruit. Explain 
 
 the fruit of strawberry, rose, apple, 
 
 squash. What is the fruit of pines 
 
 j o 
 
 and spruces? 
 
 NOTE. Fully mature fruits are best for study, 
 particularly if 10 is desired to see dehiscence. For 
 comparison, pistils and partially grown fruits should 
 
 be had at the Same time< If the fl>UitS ar6 nOt rip6 
 
 pine. enough to dehisce, they may be placed in the sun to dry. 
 
 the commonest of 
 planted ever- 
 greens. 
 
TABLE OF FRUITS 
 
 165 
 
 In the school it is well to have a collection of fruits for study. The 
 specimens may be kept in glass jars. 
 
 The following diagram will aid the pupil to remember some of the 
 fruits to which particular names have been given. He must be warned, 
 however, that the diagram does not express the order of evolution of 
 the various kinds. He should also remember that there are many 
 common fruits that answer to no definition, and these should be studied 
 and compared with the forms that have received definite names: 
 
 PERICARPS , 
 
 Dry pericarps 
 
 {achene (indehiscent). 
 follicle (dehiscent), 
 legume (dehiscent). 
 
 I septicidal dehiscence. 
 Compound [ loculicidal dehiscence. 
 (capsule) [apical dehiscence. 
 
 [Pyxis, 
 berry. 
 
 Fleshy pericarps "j drupe. 
 
 [drupelet. 
 Aggregate pericarps 
 
 ACCESSORY FRUITS 
 
 GYMNOSPERMOUS OR CONE FRUITS. 
 
 strawberry, 
 hip. 
 pome, 
 pepo. 
 
CHAPTER XXIV 
 
 DISPERSAL OF SEEDS 
 
 327. It is to the advantage of the plant to have its seeds 
 distributed as widely as possible. It has a better chance of 
 surviving in the struggle for existence. 
 4 jJ 4 t/ ^ ets away fr m com Petition. Many 
 
 v! >^JL seeds and fruits are of such 
 
 character as to increase 
 their chances of wide dis- 
 jjf*^ persal. The commonest 
 
 W } \r means of dissemination may 
 
 / be classed under four heads: 
 
 explosive fruits; transporta- 
 tion by wind; transporta- 
 tion by birds; transportation 
 as burs. 
 
 328. Explosive Fruits. 
 
 Some pods open with explosive force and scatter 
 the seeds. Even beans and everlasting peas 
 (Fig. 272) do this. More 
 marked examples are the 
 locust, witch hazel, gar- 
 den balsam, wild jewel- 
 weed or impatiens 
 (known also as ' 'touch- 
 me-not"); violet, and the oxalis. (Fig. 
 300.) The oxalis is common in several 
 species in the wild and in cultivation. 
 One of them is known as wood sorrel. 
 Fig. 300 shows the common yellow 
 (166) 
 
 300. Explosive fruits of 
 oxalis. An exploding 
 pod is shown at c. The 
 dehiscence is shown at 
 b. The structure of the 
 pod is seen at a. 
 
 301. 
 
 Winged seeds of 
 catalpa. 
 
 302. 
 
 Wind-blown fruits 
 of dandelion. 
 
WIND-TRAVELERS 
 
 167 
 
 303. The expanding balloons of the milkweed. 
 
 oxalis. The pod opens loculicidally. The elastic tissue sud- 
 denly contracts when dehiscence takes place, and the seeds 
 are thrown violently. The fruit of the squirting cucumber 
 discharges the seeds with great force, throwing them many 
 
168 
 
 DISPERSAL OF SEEDS 
 
 II 
 
 IB 1 Pi! 
 
 feet. This plant is easily grown in a gar- 
 den (procure seeds of seedsmen). 
 
 329. Wind - travelers. Wind-trans- 
 ported seeds are of two general kinds 
 those that are provided with wings, as the 
 flat seeds of catalpa (Fig. 301) and cone- 
 bearing trees (Fig. 297) and the samaras 
 of ash, elm, tulip-tree, ailanthus and 
 maple; those that have feathery buoys or 
 parachutes to enable them to float in the 
 air. Of the latter kind are the fruits of 
 many composites, in which the pappus is 
 copious and soft. Dandelion (Fig. 302) 
 and thistle (Fig. 256) are examples. The 304. Head of cat-tail in 
 
 late fall. The fruits 
 . , Silk OI the are carried in the late 
 
 milkweed (Fig. autumn winds - 
 303) has a similar office, and also 
 the wool of the cat-tail. (Fig. 
 304.) Recall the cottony seeds 
 of the willow and poplar. 
 
 330. Dispersal by Birds. 
 Seeds of berries and of other 
 small fleshy fruits are carried far 
 and wide by birds. The pulp is 
 digested, but the seeds are not 
 injured. Note how the cherries, 
 raspberries, blackberries and 
 Juneberries spring up in the 
 fence-rows, where the birds rest. 
 Some berries and drupes persist 
 far into winter, when they supply 
 food to cedar-birds, robins and 
 the winter birds. (Fig. 305.) 
 Red cedar is distributed by birds. 
 Many of the pulpy fruits are 
 
 305. Drupes of the black haw, loved 
 of robins in winter. 
 
BUR-TRAVELERS 
 
 169 
 
 soe. The cow is carrying 
 
 agreeable as human food, and some of them have been greatly 
 enlarged or "improved" by the arts of the cultivator. 
 
 331. Burs. Many seeds and fruits bear spines, hooks , 
 and hairs that adhere to the coats of 
 animals (Fig. 306) and to clothing. 
 The burdock has an involucre with 
 hooked scales, containing the fruits 
 inside. The clotbur is also an in- 
 volucre. Both are compositous plants, 
 allied to thistles, but the whole head, 
 rather than the separate fruits, is 
 transported. In some compositous 
 fruits the pappus takes the form of 
 hooks and spines, as in the "Spanish 
 bayonets" and "pitchforks." Fruits 
 of various kinds are known as "stick- 
 tights," as of the agrimony and 
 hound's tongue. Those who walk in the woods in late 
 summer and fall are aware that plants have means of 
 disseminating themselves. (Fig. 307.) If it is impossible 
 to identify the burs which one finds on clothing, the seed 
 may be planted and specimens of the plant may then be 
 grown. 
 
 REVIEW. What advantage is it to the plant to 
 have its seeds widely dispersed? What are the leading 
 ways in which fruits and seeds are dispersed? Name 
 some explosive fruits. Describe wind-travelers. What 
 seeds are carried by birds? Describe any bur with 
 which you are familiar. 
 
 NOTE. This lesson will suggest other 
 ; ways in which seeds are transported. Nuts 
 
 are buried by squirrels for food, but if they 
 307. Stealing a ride. ^ not eaten they may grow The geeds of 
 
 many plants are blown on the snow. The old stalks of weeds, standing 
 through the winter, may serve to disseminate the plant. Seeds are 
 carried by water down the streams and along shores. About woollen 
 
170 DISPERSAL OF SEEDS 
 
 mills strange plants often spring up from seeds brought in the fleeces. 
 Sometimes the entire plant is rolled for miles before the winds. Such 
 plants are "tumble- weeds." Examples are Russian thistle (Fig. 113), 
 hair-grass or tumblegrass (Panicum capillare), cyclone plant (Cyclo- 
 loma platyphyllum), and white amaranth. About seaports strange 
 plants are often found, having been introduced with the earth that 
 is used in ships for ballast. These plants are usually known as "bal- 
 last plants." Most of them do not persist long. 
 
 In some way, the seeds of every plant are dispersed, some far 
 and some near: discover these ways for any plant that you know. 
 
CHAPTER XXV 
 
 GERMINATION 
 
 332. The Seed. We have found (276) that as a result 
 of fertilization a seed is formed. The seed contains a minia- 
 ture plant or embryo. The embryo usually has three parts 
 that have received names: the little stemlet or caulicle ' t 
 the seed-leaf or cotyledon (usually 1 or 2) ; the bud or plumule 
 lying between or above the cotyledons. These parts are well 
 seen in the common bean (Fig. 308), particularly when the 
 seed has been soaked for a few hours. 
 
 One of the large cotyledons comprising half 
 
 of the bean is shown at r. The caulicle is 
 
 at c. The plumule is at a. The cotyledons are 308 Partg of 
 
 attached to the caulicle at /: this point is the bean. r - cotyie- 
 
 first node, and the plumule is at the second ,a, iiu'muie; f, 
 
 node. firstnode ' 
 
 333. Every seed is provided with food, to support the 
 germinating plant. Commonly this food is starch. The 
 food may be stored in the cotyledons, as in bean, pea, squash; 
 or outside the cotyledons, as in castor bean, pine, Indian 
 corn. When the food is around the embryo, it is usually 
 called endosperm. 
 
 334. The embryo and endosperm are inclosed within a 
 covering made of two or more layers and known as the seed- 
 coats. Over the point of the caulicle is a minute hole or a 
 thin place in the coats known as the micropyle. This is 
 the point at which the pollen-tube entered the forming 
 ovule and through which the caulicle breaks in germination. 
 The micropyle is shown at m in Fig. 309. The scar where 
 the seed broke from its funiculus or stalk is the hilum. It 
 
 (171) 
 
172 GERMINATION 
 
 occupies a third of the length of the bean in Fig. 309. The 
 hilum and micropyle are always present in seeds, but they 
 are not always close together. In many cases it is difficult 
 to identify the micropyle in the dormant seed, but its location 
 is at once shown by the protruding caulicle 
 as germination begins. Opposite the micropyle 
 in the bean (at the other end of the hilum) is 
 External parts of an elevation known as the raphe. This is 
 formed by a union of the funiculus or seed- 
 stalk with the seed-coats, and through it food was transferred 
 for the development of the seed, but it is now functionless. 
 
 335. Seeds differ wonderfully in size, shape, color and 
 other characteristics. They also vary in longevity. These 
 characteristics are peculiar to the species or kind. Some 
 seeds maintain life only a few weeks or even days, whereas 
 others will "keep" for ten or twenty years. In special cases, 
 seeds have retained vitality longer than this limit, but the 
 stories that living seeds, several thousand years old, have 
 been taken from mummies are unfounded. Oats do not 
 retain their vitality for more than a year or two. Seed of 
 alfalfa may retain its vitality for eight years or more. The 
 condition of storage of the seed is an important factor in 
 the retention of seed vitality. Moisture is especially dele- 
 terious; a dry atmosphere of the storage room is necessary 
 for maintaining the vigor of the seed. 
 
 336. Germination. The embryo is not dead; it is only 
 dormant. When supplied with moisture, warmth, and oxy- 
 gen (air), it awakes and grows: this growth is germination. 
 The embryo lives for a time on the stored food, but grad- 
 ually the plantlet secures a foothold in the soil. The roots 
 absorb and the leaves elaborate food and the seedling is inde- 
 pendent with respect to its food supply. When the plantlet 
 is finally able to shift for itself, germination is complete. 
 
 337. The germinating seed first absorbs water, and 
 swells. The starch and other stored foods are transformed 
 
THE PROCESS OF GERMINATION 
 
 173 
 
 310. The young roots are not able to 
 gain a foothold. 
 
 into soluble products. They are digested, so to speak, and 
 made available for assimilation by the protoplasm. Germi- 
 nate barley. Note how sweet 
 it is to the taste. Compare it 
 with the ungerminated barley. 
 Do likewise with corn and 
 wheat. What is the source of 
 the sugar? The seed-coats are 
 ruptured, the caulicle and 
 plumule emerge. In this pro- 
 cess, the seed respires freely, 
 giving off carbon dioxid (CO 2 ). 
 Fill a tin box or large-necked 
 bottle with dry beans or peas, then add water; note how 
 much they swell. Secure two fruit-jars. Fill one of them 
 a third full of beans and keep them 
 moist. Allow the other to remain empty. 
 In a day or two insert a lighted splinter 
 or taper into each. In the empty jar 
 the taper burns: it contains oxygen. 
 In the seed- jar the taper goes out: the 
 air has been replaced by carbon 
 dioxid. Usually there is a percepti- 
 ble rise in temperature in a mass 
 of germinating seeds. 
 
 338. The caulicle usually elon- 
 gates, and from its lower end roots 
 are produced. The elongating 
 caulicle is known as the hypocotyl 
 ("below the cotyledons"). That 
 is, the hypocotyl is that part of the 
 stem of the plantlet lying between 
 the roots and the cotyledon. The 
 general direction of the young hypocotyl or emerging 
 caulicle is downwards. As soon as roots form, it becomes 
 
 311. Cotyledons of germi- 
 nating bean spread apart 
 to show elongating cauli- 
 cle and plumule. 
 
 312. Germination of bean. 
 
174 
 
 GERMINATION 
 
 314. Germination of cas- 
 tor bean. Endosperm 
 at a. 
 
 fixed, and its subsequent growth tends to raise the cotyle- 
 dons above the ground, as in the bean. 
 
 339. When cotyledons rise into the air, germination is 
 said to be epigeal ("above the earth"). Bean 
 and pumpkin are examples. When the hypo- 
 cotyl does not elongate greatly and the coty- 313. Sprouting of 
 ledons remain under castor kean. 
 ground, the germination is hypogeal ("be- 
 neath the earth"). Pea and scarlet run- 
 ner bean are examples. When the ger- 
 minating seed lies on a hard surface, as 
 on closely compacted soil, the hypocotyl 
 and rootlets may not be able to secure a 
 foothold and they assume grotesque 
 forms. (Fig. 310.) Try this with peas 
 and beans. 
 
 340. The first inter- 
 node above the cotyledons between the 
 cotyledons and the plumule is the epi- 
 cotyl. It elevates the plumule into the air, 
 and the plumule-leaves expand into the 
 first true leaves of the plant. These first 
 true leaves, however, may be very unlike 
 the later leaves. 
 
 341. Germination of Bean. The 
 common bean, as we have seen (Fig. 
 308), has cotyledons that occupy all 
 the space inside the seed-coats. When 
 the hypocotyl or elongating caulicle 
 emerges, the plumule-leaves have begun 
 to enlarge and to unfold. (Fig. 311.) The 
 hypocotyl elongates rapidly. One end 
 of it is held by the roots. The other is 
 held by the seed-coats in the soil. It. 
 
 316. Germination complete 
 
 in castor bean. therefore, takes the form of a loop, and 
 
 315. Castor bean. En- 
 dosperm at a, a; co- 
 tyledons at 6. 
 
GERMINATION IN PARTICULAR SEEDS 
 
 175 
 
 its central part "comes up" first, (a, Fig. 312.) Presently 
 it draws the cotyledons out of the seed-coats, and then it 
 straightens and the cotyledons expand. These coty- 
 ledons, or "halves of the bean," persist for some 
 time. (b, Fig. 312.) They often become green and 
 probably perform some function of 
 foliage. Because of its large size, Lim? 
 bean shows all these parts well. 
 
 342. Germination of Castor Bean. 
 In the castor bean the hilum and 
 micropyle are at the smaller end. (Fig. 
 313.) The bean "comes up" with a 
 loop, which indicates that the hypocotyl 
 greatly elongates. On exam- 
 ining a germinating seed, however, it will be 
 found that the cotyledons are contained inside a 
 fleshy body or sac. (a, Fig. 314.) This 
 sac is the endosperm. To its inner sur- 
 face the thin, veiny cotyledons are 
 very closely appressed, absorbing its 
 substance. (Fig. 315.) The cotyledons 
 increase in size as they reach the air (Fig. 316), and become 
 functional leaves. 
 
 343. Germination of Indian Corn. Soak kernels of 
 corn. Note that the micropyle and hilum are at the 
 smaller end. (Fig. 317.) Make a longi- 
 tudinal section through the narrow 
 diameter; Fig. 318 shows it. The 
 single cotyledon is at a, 
 the caulicle at 
 plumule at p, 
 cotyledon remains in 
 the seed. The food is 
 stored both in the cotyledon and as endosperm, chiefly the 
 latter. The emerging shoot is the plumule, with a sheathing 
 
 319. Indian corn. Cau- 
 licle at c ; roots emerg- 
 ing at 7n; plumule at p. 
 
 6, the 
 The 
 
 320. Indian corn. o. plumule; 
 n to p, epicotyl. 
 
176 
 
 GERMINATION 
 
 leaf, (p, Fig. 319.) The root is produced from the tip of the 
 caulicle, c. The caulicle is held in a sheath (formed mostly 
 from the seed-coats), and some of the roots escape through 
 the upper end of this sheath, (m, Fig. 319.) The epicotyl 
 
 elongates, particularly if the 
 seed is planted deep or if it is 
 kept for some time confined. 
 In Fig. 320 the epicotyl has elon- 
 gated from n to p. The true 
 plumule-leaf is at o, but other 
 leaves grow from its sheath. 
 In Fig. 321 the roots are seen 
 emerging from the two ends of 
 the caulicle-sheath, c, m; the 
 epicotyl has grown to p; the 
 first plumule-leaf is at o. 
 
 REVIEW. What does a seed con- 
 tain? What do you understand by 
 the embryo? What are its parts? 
 Where is the food in the seed? W T hat 
 are the seed-coats? What is the mi- 
 cropyle? Hilum? How may the 
 position of the micropyle be deter- 
 mined? How do seeds differ? With 
 what are these differences associated? 
 What is germination? Under what 
 conditions does a seed germinate? 
 What is meant by seed vitality? 
 What are the best conditions for 
 storage of seed? When is germination 
 complete? What is the first phenom- 
 enon of germination? Explain the relation to O and CC>2. Define 
 hypocotyl. Epicotyl. Hypogeal and epigeal germination. What be- 
 comes of the plumule? Explain germination in a seed which you 
 have studied. 
 
 NOTE. Few subjects connected with the study of plant-life are so 
 useful in schoolroom demonstrations as germination. The pupil 
 should prepare the soil, plant the seeds, water them and care for the 
 
 321. Germination is complete, p, top 
 of epicotyl; o, plumule-leaf; TO, 
 roots; c, lower roots. 
 
The beginning. 325. A later stage 
 
 323. Natural planting of the fruits of Norway maple. 
 
 327. The wing cast off; the 329. Free from the 
 seed -coats still adhering. seed-coata. 
 
 (177) 
 
178 GERMINATION 
 
 plants. Plant in pots or shallow boxes. Cigar-boxes are excellent. 
 The depth of planting should be two to three times the diameter of 
 the seeds. It is well to begin the planting of seeds at least ten days 
 in advance of the lesson, and to make four or five different plantings 
 at intervals. A day or two before the study is taken 
 up, put seeds to soak in moss or cloth. The pupil 
 then has a series from swollen seeds to complete ger- 
 mination, and all the steps can be made out. Dry 
 seeds should be had for comparison. 
 
 Good seeds for study are those detailed in the les- 
 son, bean, castor bean, corn. Pea is a good plant to 
 contrast with bean. (Fig. 322.) Make drawings and 
 notes of all the events in the germination. Note the 
 effects of unusual conditions, as planting too deep and 
 too shallow and different sides up. For hypogeal ger- 
 mination, use the garden pea, scarlet runner or Dutch 
 case-knife bean, acorn, horse-chestnut. Squash seeds 
 are excellent for germination studies, because the coty- 
 ledons become green and leafy and germination is rapid. 
 Its germination, as also that of the scarlet runner bean, 
 is explained in "Lessons with Plants." Onion is ex 
 cellent, except that it germinates too slowly. In order 
 to study the root development -of germinating plantlets, it is well 
 to provide a deep box with a glass side against which the seeds are 
 planted. 
 
 Observe the germination of any seed that is common about the 
 premises. Where elms and maples are abundant, the germination of 
 their seeds may be studied in lawns and along fences. Figs. 323 to 
 330 suggest observations on the Norway maple, which is a common 
 ornamental tree. 
 
CHAPTER XXVI 
 
 PHENOGAMS AND CRYPTOGAMS 
 
 344. The plants thus far studied produce flowers; and 
 the flowers produce seeds by means of which the plant is 
 propagated. There are other plants, however, that pro- 
 duce no seeds, and these plants are probably more numerous 
 than the seed-bearing plants. These plants propagate by 
 means of spores, which are generative cells, usually simple, 
 containing no embryo. These spores are very small, and 
 sometimes are not visible to the naked eye. 
 
 345. Prominent amongst the spore-propagated plants 
 are ferns. The common Christmas fern (so called because 
 it remains green during winter) is shown in Fig. 331. The 
 plant has no trunk. The leaves spring directly from the 
 underground stem. The leaves of ferns are called fronds. 
 They vary in shape, as other leaves 
 
 do. Compare Fig. 139 and the 
 pictures in this chapter. Some of 
 the fronds are seen to be narrower 
 at the top. If these are examined 
 more closely (Fig. 332) it will be 
 seen that the leaflets are contracted 
 and are densely covered beneath 
 with brown bodies. These bodies 
 
 1 1 r . 331. Christmas fern. Dryopteris 
 
 are Collections OI Sporangia Or Spore- acrostichoides; known also as 
 
 cases (singular, sporangium). Aspidium. 
 
 346. The sporangia are collected into little groups, 
 known as son (singular, sorus) or fruit-dots. Each sorus is 
 covered with a thin scale or shield, known as an indiisium. 
 This indusium separates from the frond at its edges, and the 
 
 (179) 
 
180 
 
 PHENOGAMS AND CRYPTOGAMS 
 
 332. Fruiting frond of Christ- 
 mas fern. Sori at a. One 
 sorus with its indusium, at b. 
 
 sporangia are exposed. Not all ferns have indusia. The 
 polypode (Figs. 333, 334) does not: the sori are naked. In 
 the brake (Fig. 335) and maiden- 
 hair (Fig. 336) the edge of the frond 
 turns over and forms an indusium. 
 In some ferns (Fig. 337) an entire 
 frond becomes contracted to cover 
 the sporangia. In other cases the 
 indusium is a sac-like covering, 
 which splits. (Fig. 338.) 
 
 347. The sporangium or spore- 
 case of a fern is a more or less globu- 
 lar body and usually with a stalk. 
 (Fig. 334.) It contains the spores. 
 When ripe, it bursts and the spores 
 are set free. Lay a mature fruiting 
 
 frond of any fern on white paper, top side up, and allow it 
 to remain in a dry, warm place. The spores will discharge 
 on the paper. 
 
 348. In a moist, warm place the spores germinate. They 
 produce a small, flat, thin, green, more or less heart-shaped 
 membrane. (Fig. 339.) This is the prothallus. Sometimes 
 
 the prothallus is an inch or 
 more across, but oftener it 
 is less than one-fourth this 
 size. It is com- 
 / monly un- 
 j known except 
 to botanists. 
 Prothalli may 
 often be found 
 
 334. Son and sporan- in greenhoUSCS 
 gium of polypode. where ferns MO 
 
 grown. Look on the moist stone or brick walls, or on the 
 firm soil of undisturbed pots and beds. 
 
 333. Common polypode fern. 
 Polypodium vulgare. 
 
PROTHALLUS 181 
 
 349. On the under side of the prothallus two kinds of 
 organs are borne. These are the archegonium and the anthe- 
 ridium. These organs are minute specialized parts of the 
 prothallus. Their positions on a particular prothallus are 
 
 shown at a and 6 in Fig. 339, but in some 
 ferns they are on separate prothalli (plant 
 dioecious). The sperm-cells escape from 
 the antheridium and in the water which 
 
 335. The brake fruits , .in i 
 
 underneath the revo- collects on the prothallus are carried to 
 
 lute edges of the leaf. the arc h e gonium, where fertilization takes 
 
 place. From a fertilized archegonium a plant grows, and 
 
 this plant becomes the "fern." In most cases the prothallus 
 
 dies soon after the fern plant begins to grow. 
 
 350. The fern plant, arising from the fertilized egg in the 
 archegonium, becomes a perennial plant, each year pro- 
 ducing spores from its fronds, as we have seen; but these 
 spores which are merely detached special kinds of cells 
 produce the prothallic phase of the fern plant, from which 
 new individuals arise. A fern is fertilized but once in its 
 life-time. The prothallium here is the gametophyte] the "fern" 
 is the sporophyte (phyton is Greek for "plant"). 
 
 351. This succession 
 of generations runs all 
 through the vegetable 
 kingdom, although there 
 are some groups of plants 
 in which it is very ob- 
 scure or apparently want- 
 ing. It is very marked 
 in ferns and mosses. In 
 
 algse (including the sea- m Retod ^^ of a ****** frond - 
 weeds) the gametophyte constitutes the "plant," as the non- 
 botanist knows it. There is a general tendency, in the evo- 
 lution of the vegetable kingdom, for the gametophyte to lose 
 its relative importance and for the sporophyte to become 
 
182 
 
 PHENOGAMS AND CRYPTOGAMS 
 
 337. Fertile and sterile fronds 
 of the sensitive fern. 
 
 larger and more highly developed. In the seed-bearing 
 plants the sporophyte generation is the only one seen by the 
 non-botanist. The gametophyte 
 stage is of short duration and the 
 parts are small: it is confined to the 
 time of fertilization. 
 
 352. The sporophyte of the seed- 
 plants, or the plant, as we know it, 
 produces spores which, however, are 
 not visible to the naked eye. The 
 spores are of two kinds: microspores 
 borne in tissues called sporangia 
 which forms part of the anther; and 
 macrospores which 
 are present in the 
 
 pistil. The microspore developes into the 
 pollen-grain. The macrospore develops 
 in the ovule into an embryo-sac, which 
 contains the egg nucleus. The germi- 
 nated pollen-grain constitutes the com- 
 pletely developed sterile gametophyte. 
 The fully developed embryo-sac constitutes the fertile gam- 
 etophyte. Fertilization occurs, and the sporophyte is again 
 
 produced. This new sporophyte 
 develops farther and we have the 
 embryo plant formed in the seed. 
 This may remain dormant for a 
 time, and when germination 
 occurs the visible sporophyte plant 
 is produced. This in turn produces 
 microspores and macrospores, and 
 the cycle is again complete. The 
 alternation of these phases in the 
 plant's life history is known technically as alternation of 
 generations. 
 
 338. A sac-like indusium. 
 
 339. Prothallus of a fern. Enlarged. 
 Archegonia at a; antheridia at b. 
 
THE TWO GREAT CLASSES OF PLANTS 183 
 
 353. It happens that the spores of seed-bearing plants 
 are borne amongst a mass of specially developed leaves 
 known as flowers: therefore, these plants have been known 
 as the flowering plants. Some of the leaves are developed as 
 envelopes (calyx, corolla), and others as spore-bearing 
 parts, or sporophylls (stamens, pistils). But the spores of 
 the lower plants, as of ferns and mosses, may also be borne 
 in specially developed foliage, so that the line of demar- 
 cation between flowering plants and flowerless plants is not 
 so definite as was once supposed. The one definite dis- 
 tinction between these two classes of plants is the fact that 
 one class produces seeds and the other does not. The seed- 
 plants are now often called spermaphytes, but there is no 
 single coordinate term to set off those which do not bear 
 seeds. It is quite as well, for popular purposes, to use the old 
 terms, phenogams for the seed-bearing plants and cryptogams 
 for the others. These terms have been objected to in recent 
 years because their etymology does not express literal facts 
 (phenogam refers to the fact that the flowers are showy, and 
 cryptogam to the fact that the parts are hidden), but the 
 terms represent distinct ideas in classification. Nearly 
 every word in the language has grown away from its ety- 
 mology. The cryptogams include three great series of 
 plants the Thallophytes or algae, lichens and fungi; the 
 Bryophytes or moss-like plants; the Pteridophytes or fern- 
 like plants. In each of these series there are many families. 
 See the following Chapter. 
 
 REVIEW. What is a spore? Describe the appearance of some 
 fern plant that you have studied. What are the spores and sporangia? 
 What is a sorus? Indusium? What grows from the spore? How does 
 the new "fern" plant arise? What is meant by the ph ase "alternation 
 of generations?" Define gametophyte and sporophyte. Describe 
 the alternation in flowering plants. Explain the flower from this point 
 of view. What is the significance of the word spermaphyte? Contrast 
 phenogam and cryptogam. 
 
 NOTE. All the details of fertilization and of the development of 
 
184 PHENOGAMS AND CRYPTOGAMS 
 
 the generations are omitted from this book, because they are subjects 
 for specialists and demand more training in research methods than 
 the high-school pupil can properly give to plant-study. Cryptogams 
 are as widespread as phenogams, and for this reason it has been 
 urged that they are most proper subjects for study in the school. This 
 position is untenable, however, for the best plant subjects for youth 
 are those which mean most to his life. It is said, also, that cryptogams 
 are best for the beginner because their life-processes are relatively 
 simple in many cases; but the initial study of plants should be under- 
 taken for the purpose of quickening the pupil's perception of common 
 and familiar forms and problems, rather than for the purpose of de- 
 veloping a technical knowledge of a given science. 
 
CHAPTER XXVII 
 
 STUDIES IN CRYPTOGAMS 
 
 The special advanced pupil who has acquired skill in 
 the use of the compound microscope may desire to make 
 more extended excursions into the cryptogamous orders. 
 The following plants, selected as examples in various groups, 
 will serve as a beginning. 
 
 ALG.E 
 
 The algae comprise most of the green floating "scum" which covers 
 the surface of ponds and other quiet waters. The masses of plants 
 are often called "frog spittle." Others are attached to stones, pieces 
 of wood and other objects submerged in streams and lakes, and many 
 are found on moist ground and on dripping rocks. Aside 
 from these, all the plants commonly known as seaweeds 
 belong to this category. They are inhabitants of salt water. 
 
 The simplest forms of algae consist of a single spherical 
 cell, which multiplies by repeated division or fission. 
 Specimens of these may be found growing on damp rock 
 and the shady side of trees. Most of the forms found in 
 fresh water are filamentous, i.e., the plant-body consists 
 of long threads, either simple or branched. Such a plant- 
 body is termed a thallus. This term applies to the vege- 
 tative body of all plants which are not differentiated into 
 stem and leaves. Such plants are known as ihallophytes 
 (353). All algae contain chlorophyll, and are able to as- 
 similate carbon dioxid from the air. This distinguishes 
 them from the fungi. 
 
 Spirogyra. One of the most common forms of the 
 green algae is spirogyra. (Fig. 340.) This plant frequently 
 forms the greater part of the floating green mass on ponds. 
 The filamentous character of the thallus can be seen with 
 the naked eye or with a hand lens, but to study it carefully 
 a microscope magnifying two hundred diameters or more should 
 
 f!85) 
 
 340. Strand of 
 spirogyra, 
 showing 
 the chloro- 
 phyll bands. 
 There is a 
 nucleus at a. 
 
186 
 
 STUDIES TN CRYPTOGAMS 
 
 be used. The thread is divided into long cells by cross-walls which, 
 according to the species, are either straight or curiously folded. (Fig. 
 341.) The chlorophyll is arranged in beautiful spiral bands near the 
 wall of each cell. From the character of these bands the plant takes 
 its name. Each cell is provided with a nucleus and other 
 protoplasm. The nucleus is suspended near the center 
 of the cell, a, Fig. 340, by delicate strands of proto- 
 plasm radiating .toward the wall and terminating at 
 certain points in the chlorophyll band. The remainder 
 of the protoplasm forms a thin layer lining the wall. 
 The interior of the cell is filled with cell-sap. The pro- 
 toplasm and nucleus cannot be easily seen, but if the 
 plant is stained with a dilute alcoholic solution of eosin 
 (153) they become clear. 
 
 Spirogyra is propagated vegetatively by the break- 
 ing off of parts of the threads, which continue to grow 
 as new plants. Resting-spores, which may remain dor- 
 mant for a time, are formed by a process known as con- 
 jugation. Two threads lying side by side send out 
 short projections, usually from all the cells of a long 
 341. Conjugation series. (Fig. 341.) The projections or processes from 
 Ri e SP1 z 0gyr o- PP s ite cells grow toward each other, meet and fuse, 
 spores on the forming a connecting tube between the cells. The 
 left; connect- protoplasm, nucleus and chlorophyll band of one cell 
 now pass through this tube, and unite with the con- 
 tents of the other cell. The entire mass then becomes surrounded by 
 a thick cellulose wall, thus completing the resting-spore, or zygospore. 
 (Fig. 341, 2.) 
 
 Vaucheria is another alga common in shallow water and on damp 
 soil. The thallus is much branched, but the threads are not divided 
 by cross-walls as in spirogyra. The plants are attached by means of 
 colorless root-like organs which are much like the root-hairs of the 
 higher plants: these are rhizoids. The chlorophyll is in the form of 
 grains scattered through the thread. 
 
 Vaucheria has a special mode of vegetative reproduction by means 
 of swimming spores or swarm-spores. These are formed singly in a 
 short, enlarged lateral branch known as the sporangium. When the 
 sporangium bursts the entire contents escape, forming a single large 
 swarm-spore, which swims about by means of numerous lashes or cilia 
 on its surface. The swarm-spores are so large that they can be seen with 
 the naked eye. After swimming about for some time they come to 
 rest and germinate, producing a new plant. 
 
ALG^E-FUNGI 
 
 187 
 
 The formation of resting-spores of vaucheria is accomplished 
 by means of special organs, oogonia Fig. 342. o, and antheridia. (Fig. 
 342, a.) Both of these are specially developed branches from the thallus. 
 The antheridia are nearly cylin- 
 drical, and curved toward the 
 oogonia. The upper part of an 
 antheridium is cut off by a 
 cross-wall, and within it nu- 
 merous ciliated sperm-cells are 
 formed. These escape by the 
 ruptured apex of the antherid- 
 ium. The oogonia are more enlarged than the antheridia and have 
 a beak-like projection turned a little to one side of the 
 apex. They are separated from the thallus-thread by a 
 cross-wall, and contain a single large green cell, the egg- 
 cell. The apex of the oogonium is dissolved, and through 
 the opening the sperm-cells enter. Fertilization is thus 
 accomplished. After fertilization, the egg-cell becomes 
 invested with a thick wall and is thus converted into a 
 resting-spore, the odspore. (Fig. 343.) 
 
 342. Thread of vaucheria with oogonia 
 and antheridia. 
 
 FUNGI 
 
 Some forms of fungi are familiar to every one. Mushrooms and 
 toadstools, with their varied forms and colors, are common in fields, 
 woods and pastures. In every household the common moulds are 
 familiar intruders, appearing on old bread, vegetables and even within 
 tightly sealed fruit jars, where they form a felt-like layer dusted over 
 with blue, yellow or black powder (192). The 
 strange occurrence of these plants long mystified 
 people, who thought they were productions of the 
 dead matter upon which they grew, but now we 
 know that a mould, like any other plant, cannot 
 originate spontaneously; it must start from some- 
 thing which is analogous to a seed. The "seed" 
 in this case is a spore. The term spore is applied 
 to the minute reproductive bodies of all flower- 
 less plants. A spore is a very simple structure, 
 usually of only one plant-cell, whose special 
 function is to reproduce the plant. A spore may 
 be produced by a vegetative process (growing out from the ordinary 
 plant tissues), or it may be the result of a fertilization process (344). 
 
 344. Mucor mucedo, 
 showing habit. 
 
1.88 
 
 STUDIES IN CRYPTOGAMS 
 
 Mould. One of these moulds, Mucor mucedo, which is very com- 
 mon on all decaying fruits and vegetables, is shown in Fig. 344, some- 
 what magnified. When fruiting, this mould appears as a dense mass 
 of long white hairs, often over an inch high, standing erect from the 
 fruit or vegetable upon which it is growing. 
 
 The life of this mucor begins with a minute 
 rounded spore (a, Fig. 345), which lodges on the 
 decaying material. When the spore germinates, it 
 sends out a delicate thread which grows rapidly in 
 length and forms very many branches which soon 345 - Spores of mucor; 
 permeate every part of the substance on which the 
 plant grows. (6, Fig. 345.) One of these threads is termed a hypha. All 
 the threads together from the mycelium of the fungus (194). The 
 mycelium disorganizes the material in which it grows, and thus nour- 
 ishes the mucor plant. (Fig. 344.) It corresponds physiologically to the 
 roots and stems of other plants. 
 
 When the mycelium is about two days old, it begins to form the 
 long fruiting stalks which we first noticed. To study them, use a 
 compound microscope magnifying about two hundred diameters. One 
 of the stalks, magnified, is shown in Fig. 346, a. It consists of a rounded 
 head, the sporangium, sp,- supported on a long, delicate stalk, the 
 sporangiophore, st. The stalk is separated from the sporangium by 
 a wall which is formed at the base of the sporangium. This wall, how- 
 ever, does not extend straight across the 
 thread, but it arches up into the sporangium 
 like an inverted pear. It is known as the 
 columella, c. When the sporangium is placed 
 in water, the wall immediately ruptures and 
 allows hundred of spores, which were formed 
 in the cavity within the sporangium, to 
 escape, 6. All that is left of the fruit is 
 the stalk, with the pear-shaped columella 
 at its summit, c. The spores which have been 
 set free by the breaking of the sporangium 
 wall are now scattered by the wind and 
 other agents. Those which lodge in favor- 
 able places begin to grow immediately and 
 reproduce the fungus. The others soon perish. 
 The mucor may continue to reproduce itself in this way indefi- 
 nitely, but these spores are very delicate and usually die if they do not 
 fall on favorable ground, so that the fungus is provided with another 
 means of carrying itself over unfavorable seasons, as winter. This is 
 
 346. Mucor. a, sporangium 
 
 b, sporangium bursting 
 
 c, columella. 
 
FUNGI 
 
 189 
 
 accomplished by means of curious thick-walled resting-spores or zygo- 
 spores. The zygospores are formed on the mycelium buried within 
 the substance on which the plant grows. They originate as follows: 
 The threads of two sexually different plants that 
 lie near together send out short branches, which 
 grow toward each other and finally meet. (Fig. 347.) 
 The walls at the ends, a, then disappear, allowing 
 the contents to flow together. At the same time, 
 however, two other walls are formed at points 
 farther back, 6, b, separating the short section, c, 
 from the remainder of the thread. This section now 
 increases in size and becomes covered with a thick, 
 dark brown wall ornamented with thickened tu- 
 bercles. The zygospore is now mature and, after 
 a period of rest, it germinates, either producing a 
 sporangium directly or growing out as mycelium. 
 
 The zygospores of the mucors form one of the 
 most interesting and instructive objects among the 
 lower plants. They are, however, very difficult to 
 obtain. One of the mucors, Sporodinia grandis, 347 T' Mucor 
 may be frequently found in summer growing on 
 toadstools. This plant usually produces zygospores, 
 which are formed on the aerial mycelium. The 
 zygospores are large enough to be recognized with a hand lens. The 
 material may be dried and kept for winter study, or the zygospores may 
 be prepared for permanent microscopic mounts in the ordinary way. 
 
 Willow mildew. Most of the molds are saprophytes (192). There 
 are many other fungi which are parasitic on living plants and animals. 
 Some of them have interesting and complicated life-histories, under- 
 going many changes before the original spore is again produced. The 
 
 willow mildew and the 
 common rust of wheat 
 will serve to illustrate the 
 habits of parasitic fungi. 
 The willow mildew 
 (Uncinula salicis) forms 
 white downy patches on 
 the leaves of willows. (Fig. 348.) These patches consist of numer- 
 ous interwoven threads which may be recognized as the mycelium 
 of the fungus. The mycelium hi this case lives on the surface of the 
 leaf and nourishes itself by sending short branches into the cells of the 
 leaf to absorb food-materials from them. 
 
 formation of zygo- 
 spore on the right; 
 germinating zygo- 
 spore on the left. 
 
 348. Colonies of willow mildew. 
 
190 
 
 STUDIES IN CRYPTOGAMS 
 
 349. Summer-spores of willow 
 mildew. 
 
 Numerous summer-spores are formed on short erect branches all 
 over the white surface. One of these branches is shown in Fig. 349. 
 When it has grown to a certain length, the upper part begins to segment 
 or divide into spores which fall and are scattered by the wind. Those 
 
 falling on other willows reproduce the 
 fungus there. 
 
 This process continues all summer, 
 but in the later part of the season pro- 
 vision is made to maintain the mildew 
 through the winter. If some of the white 
 patches are closely examined in July or 
 August, a number of little black bodies 
 will be seen among the threads. These 
 little bodies, called perithecia, are shown in 
 Fig. 350. To the naked eye they appear 
 as minute specks, but when seen under a magnification of 200 diameters 
 they present a very interesting appearance. They are hollow spheri- 
 cal bodies decorated around the outside with a fringe of crook-like 
 hairs. The resting-spores of the 
 willow mildew are produced in 
 sacs or asd inclosed within the 
 leathery perithecia. Fig. 351 
 shows a cross-section of a peri- 
 thecium with the asci arising 
 from the bottom. The spores 
 remain securely packed in the 
 perithecia. They do not ripen in 
 the autumn but fall to the 
 ground with the leaf and there 
 remain securely protected among 
 the dead foliage. The following 
 spring they mature and are lib- 
 erated by the decay of the peri- 
 thecia. They are then ready to attack the unfolding leaves of the 
 willow and repeat the work of the summer before. 
 
 Wheat rust. The development of some of the 
 rusts, like the common wheat rust (Puccinia gram- 
 inis), is even more interesting and complicated 
 than that of the mildews. Wheat rust is also a true 
 parasite, affecting wheat and a few other grasses. 
 The m y celium here cannot be seen by the unaided 
 low mildew. eye, for it consists of threads which are present 
 
 350. Perithecium of willow mildew. 
 
FUNGI 
 
 191 
 
 352., 
 
 Son containing teleu- 
 tospores of wheat 
 rust. 
 
 within the host -plant, mostly in the intercellular spaces. These 
 threads also send short branches, or haustoria (194), into the neighbor- 
 ing cells to absorb nutriment. 
 
 The resting-spores of wheat rust are 
 produced in late summer, when they may 
 be found in black lines breaking through the 
 epidermis of the wheat-stalk. They are 
 formed in masses, called sori (Fig. 352), 
 from the ends of numerous crowded mycelial 
 strands just beneath the epidermis of the 
 host. The individual spores are very small 
 and can be well studied only with high 
 powers of the microscope (x about 400). 
 They are brown two-celled bodies with a 
 thick wall. (Fig. 353.) Since they are the 
 resting- or winter-spores, they are termed 
 teleutospores ("completed spores"). They 
 usually do not fall, but remain in the sori 
 during winter. The following spring each 
 cell of the teleutospore puts forth a rather stout thread, which does 
 not grow more than several times the length of the spore and termi- 
 nates in a blunt extremity. (Fig. 354.) This germ-tube, promycelium, 
 now becomes divided into four cells by cross-walls, which are formed 
 from the top downwards. Each cell gives rise to a short, 
 pointed branch which, in the course of a few hours, forms a 
 single small spore at its summit. In Fig. 354 a germinating 
 spore is drawn to show the basidium, b, divided into four 
 cells, each producing a short branch with a little sporidium, s. 
 A most remarkable circumstance in the life-history of 
 the wheat rust is the fact that the mycelium produced by 
 the teleutospore can live only in barberry 
 leaves, and it follows that if no barberry 
 bushes are in the neighborhood the sporidia 
 finally perish. Those which happen to lodge on 
 a barberry bush germinate immediately, pro- 
 ducing a mycelium which enters the barberry 
 leaf and grows within its tissues. Very soon 
 the fungus produces a new kind of spores on 
 the barberry leaves. These are called aecidio- 
 spores. They are formed in long chains in little fringed cups, or xcidia, 
 which appear in groups on the lower side of the leaf. (Fig. 355.) These 
 orange or yellow aecidia are termed cluster-cups. In Fig. 356 is shown 
 
 354. Germi- 
 nating te- 
 353. leutospore 
 
 Teuleutospore of wheat 
 of wheat rust. rust. 
 
192 
 
 STUDIES IN CRYPTOGAMS 
 
 355. Leaf of barberry with 
 cluster-cups. 
 
 a cross-section of one of the cups, outlining the long chains of spores, 
 
 and the mycelium in the tissues. 
 
 The secidiospores are formed in the spring, and after they have been 
 
 set free some of them lodge on wheat or other grasses, where they germi- 
 nate immediately. The germ-tube 
 enters the leaf through a stomate, 
 whence it spreads among the cells of 
 the wheat plant. The secidiospores 
 are not able to infect the barberry 
 leaf. During summer one-celled 
 uredospores ("blight spores") are 
 produced in a manner similar to the 
 
 teleutospores. The sori bearing them are red, due to the color of the 
 
 spores of the mass. These are capable of germinating immediately 
 
 and serve to disseminate the fungus during the summer on other wheat 
 
 plants or grasses. (Fig. 357.) Late in the season, teleutospores are again 
 
 produced, completing the life cycle of the plant. 
 
 Many rusts besides Puccinia graminis produce different spore-forms 
 
 on different plants. The phenom- 
 enon is called hetercecism, and 
 
 was first shown to exist in the 
 
 wheat rust. Curiously enough, the 
 
 peasants of Europe had observed 
 
 and asserted that barberry bushes 
 
 cause wheat to blight long before 
 
 science explained the relation be- 
 tween the cluster-cups on barberry 
 
 and the rust on wheat. The true 
 
 relation was actually demonstrated, 
 
 as has since been done for many 
 
 other rusts on their respective 
 
 hosts, by sowing the eecidiospores 
 on healthy wheat 
 plants and thus pro- 
 ducing the rust. The 
 cedar apple is another 
 
 357. 
 
 Uredospores of 
 wheat rust. 
 
 356. Section through a cluster-cup on 
 barberry leaf. 
 
 rust, the fungus producing the curious swellings often 
 found on the branches of red cedar trees. In the spring 
 the teleutospores ooze out from the "apple" in brownish yellow masses. 
 It has been found that these attack various pomaceous fruit trees pro- 
 ducing aecidia on their leaves. Cedar trees about orchards may be a 
 menace unless carefully watched. 
 
LICHENS AND HEPATICS 193 
 
 LICHENS 
 
 Lichens are so common everywhere that the attention of the student 
 is sure to be drawn to them. They grow on rocks (Fig. 373), trunks 
 of trees, old fences and on the earth. They are too difficult for begin- 
 ners, but a few words of explanation may be useful. 
 
 Lichens were formerly supposed to be a distinct or separate divi- 
 sion of plants. They are now known to be organisms, each species of 
 which is a constant association of a fungus and an alga. The thallus 
 is ordinarily made up of fungous mycelium or tissue, within which the 
 imprisoned alga is definitely distributed. This association of alga and 
 fungus is usually spoken of as symbiosis, or mutually helpful growth, 
 both together being able to accomplish work which neither could do 
 independently. By others this union is considered to be a mild form 
 of parasitism, in which the fungus profits at the expense of the alga. 
 Each component may be able to grow independently, and under such 
 conditions the algal cells seem to thrive better than when imprisoned 
 by the fungus. 
 
 Lichens propagate by means of soredia, which are tiny parts sepa- 
 rated from the body of the thallus, and consisting of one or more algal 
 cells overgrown with fungous threads. These are readily observed 
 in many lichens. They also produce spores, usually ascospores, which 
 are always the product of the fungous element, and which reproduce the 
 lichen by germinating in the presence of algal cells, to which the hyphae 
 immediately cling. 
 
 Lichens are found in the most inhospitable places and, by means 
 of acids which they secrete, they attack and slowly disintegrate even 
 the hardest rocks. By making thin sections of the thallus with a sharp 
 razor and examining under the compound microscope, it is easy to 
 distinguish the two components in many lichens. 
 
 LIVERWORTS 
 
 The liverworts are peculiar, flat, green plants usually found grow- 
 ing on wet cliffs and in other moist, shady places. They frequently 
 occur in greenhouses where the soil is kept constantly wet. One of 
 the commonest liverworts is Marchantia polymorpha, two plants of 
 which are shown in Figs. 358, 359. The plant consists of a flat ribbon- 
 like thallus which spreads over the soil, becoming repeatedly forked 
 as it grows. The end of each branch is always conspicuously notched. 
 There is a prominent midrib extending along the center of each branch 
 
194 
 
 STUDIES IN CRYPTOGAMS 
 
 of the thallus. On the under side of the thallus, especially along the 
 midrib, there are numerous rhizoids which serve the purpose of roots, 
 absorbing nourishment from the earth and holding the plant in its 
 place. The upper surface of the thallus is divided into minute rhombic 
 areas which can be seen with the naked eye. Each of these areas is 
 perforated by a small breathing pore or stomate which leads into a 
 
 358. 
 
 Plants of marchantia 
 
 359. 
 
 cavity just beneath the epidermis. This space is surrounded by chloro- 
 phyll-bearing cells, some of which stand in rows from the bottom of 
 the cavity. (Fig. 360.) The delicate assimilating tissue is thus brought 
 in close communication with the outer air through the pore in the 
 thick protecting epidermis. 
 
 At various points on the midrib are little cups which contain small 
 green bodies. These bodies are buds or gemmce which are outgrowths 
 from the cells at the bottom of the cup. They become loosened and 
 are then dispersed by the rain to other places where they take root and 
 
 grow into new plants. 
 
 The most striking organs on the 
 thallus of marchantia are the pecu- 
 liar stalked bodies shown in Figs. 358, 
 359. These are termed archegonio- 
 phore and antheridiophores or re- 
 ceptacles, each produced on separate 
 plants. Their structure and function 
 are very interesting, but their parts 
 are so minute that they can be 
 studied only with the aid of a micro- 
 100 to 400 tunes. Enlarged drawings wiii 
 
 360. Section of thallus of marchantia. 
 Stomate at a. 
 
 scope magnifying from 
 guide the pupil. 
 
 The antheridiophores are fleshy lobed disks borne on short stalks. 
 
LIVERWORTS 
 
 195 
 
 (Fig. 358.) The upper surface of the disk shows openings scarcely 
 visible to the naked eye. However, a section of the disk, such as is 
 drawn in Fig. 361, shows that the pores lead into oblong cavities hi 
 the receptacle. From the base of each cavity there arises a thick 
 club-shaped body, the antheridium. Within the antheridium are 
 
 361. Section through antheridiophore of marchantia, showing antheridia. 
 One antheridium more magnified. 
 
 formed many sperm-cells which are capable of swirnming about in 
 water by means of long lashes or cilia attached to them. When the 
 antheridium is mature, its wall ruptures and allows the ciliated sperm- 
 cells to escape. 
 
 The archegoniophores are also elevated on stalks. (Fig. 359.) In- 
 stead of a simple disk, the receptacle consists of nine or more finger- 
 like rays. Along the under side of the rays, between delicately fringed 
 curtains, peculiar flask-like bodies, or archegonia, are situated. The 
 archegonia are not visible to the naked eye. They can be studied only 
 with the microscope (x about 400). One of them much magnified is 
 represented in Fig. 362. Its principal parts are the long neck, a, and 
 the rounded center, b, inclosing a large free cell the egg-cell. 
 
 We have seen that the antheridium at maturity discharges its 
 sperm-cells. These swim about in the water provided 
 by the dew and rain. Some of them finally, find their 
 way to the archegonia and egg-cells, which are thus 
 fertilized, as pollen fertilizes the ovules of higher plants. 
 
 After fertilization the egg-cell 
 develops into the spore-capsule or 
 sporogonium. The mature spore- 
 capsules may be seen in Fig. 363. 
 They consist of an oval spore-case 
 on a short stalk, the base of which 
 is imbedded in the tissue of the re- 
 ceptacle from which it derives the 
 necessary nourishment for the de- 363 Archegoniophore 
 
 with sporogoma of 
 
 velopment of the sporogonium. At marchantia. 
 
 Archego- 
 nium of mar- 
 chantia. 
 
196 
 
 STUDIES IN CRYPTOGAMS 
 
 364. Spores and elaters of marchantia. 
 
 maturity the sporogonium is ruptured at the apex, setting free the 
 spherical spores together with numerous filaments having spirally 
 thickened walls. (Fig. 364.) These filaments are called elaters. When 
 drying, they exhibit rapid movements by means of which the spores 
 are scattered. The spores germinate and again produce the thallus of 
 marchantia. 
 
 MOSSES 
 
 If we have followed carefully the development of marchantia, the 
 study of one of the mosses will be comparatively easy. The mosses 
 are more familiar plants than the liverworts. They grow on trees, 
 stones, and on the soil both in wet and dry places. One of the com- 
 mon larger mosses, known as Polytrichum commune, may serve as an 
 example. This plant grows on rather dry knolls, mostly in the borders 
 of open woods, where it forms large beds. In dry weather these beds 
 have a reddish brown appearance, but when moist they form beautiful 
 green cushions. This color is due, in the first instance, to the color of 
 the old stems and leaves and, in the second instance, to the peculiar 
 
 365. Section of leaf of Polytrichum commune. 
 
 action of the green living leaves under the influence of changing mois- 
 ture-conditions. The inner surface of the leaf is covered with thin, 
 longitudinal ridges of delicate cells which contain chlorophyll. These 
 are shown in cross-section in Fig. 365. All the other tissue of the 
 leaf consists of thick-walled, corky cells which do not allow moisture 
 to penetrate. When the air is moist the green leaves spread out, 
 
MOSSES 
 
 197 
 
 366. Section through a receptacle of 
 Polytrichum commune, showing 
 paraphyses and antheridia. 
 
 exposing the chlorophyll cells to the air, but in dry weather the mar- 
 gins of the leaves roll inward, and the leaves fold closely against the 
 stem, thus protecting the delicate assimilating tissue. 
 
 The antheridia and archegonia of polytrichum are borne in groups 
 at the ends of the branches on different 
 plants (many mosses bear both organs 
 on the same branch). They are sur- 
 rounded by involucres of characteristic 
 leaves termed perichaetia or perichxtal 
 leaves. Multicellular hairs known as 
 paraphyses are scattered among the 
 archegonia and antheridia. The invo- 
 lucres with the organs borne within them are called receptacles or, less 
 appropriately, "moss flowers." As in marchantia, the organs are very 
 minute and must be highly magnified to be studied. 
 
 The antheridia are borne in broad cup-like receptacles on the 
 antheridial plants. (Fig. 366.) They are much like 
 the antheridia of marchantia, but they stand free 
 among the paraphyses and are not sunk in cavities. 
 At maturity they burst and allow the sperm-cells 
 or spermatozoids to escape. 
 In polytrichum when the re- 
 ceptacles have fulfilled their 
 function the stem continues 
 to grow from the center of the 
 cup. (Fig. 367, m.) The arch- 
 egonia are borne in other re- 
 ceptacles on different plants. 
 They are like the archegonia 
 of marchantia except that they 
 stand erect on the end of the 
 branch. 
 
 The sporogonium which de- 
 velops from the fertilized egg 
 is shown in Fig. 367, a, b. It 
 consists of a long, brown stalk 
 bearing the spore-case at its 
 summit. The base of the stalk 
 
 is embedded in the end of the 367 ' Polytrichum commune;/,/, fertile plants, 
 
 one on the left in fruit ; m, antheridial plant. 
 
 moss stem by which it is nour- 
 ished. The capsule is entirely inclosed by a hairy cap, the calyptra, b. 
 The calyptra is really the remnant of the archegonium, which for a time 
 
198 STUDIES IN CRYPTOGAMS 
 
 increases in size to accommodate and protect the young growing cap- 
 sule. It is finally torn loose and carried up on the spore-case. The 
 mouth of the capsule is closed by a circular lid, the operculum, having 
 a conical projection at the center. The operculum soon drops, or it 
 may be removed, displaying a fringe of sixty-four teeth guarding the 
 mouth of the capsule. 
 
 This ring of teeth is known as the peristome. In most mosses the 
 teeth exhibit peculiar hygroscopic movements, i.e., when moist they 
 bend outwards and upon drying curve in toward the mouth of the 
 capsule. This motion, it will be seen, serves to disperse the spores 
 gradually over a long period of time. 
 
 Not the entire capsule is filled with spores. There are no elaters, 
 but the center of the capsule is occupied by a columnar strand of tis- 
 sue, the columella, which expands at the mouth into a 
 thin, membranous disk, closing the entire mouth of the 
 capsule except the narrow annular chink guarded by the 
 teeth. In this moss the points of the teeth are attached 
 to the margin of the membrane, allowing the spores to sift 
 out through the spaces between them. 
 
 When the spores germinate, they form a green, 
 branched thread, the protonema. This gives rise directly 
 to moss plants, which appear as little buds on the thread. 
 When the moss plants have sent their little rhizoids into 
 the earth, the protonema dies, for it is no longer necessary 
 for the support of the little plants. 
 
 FERNS 
 
 The adder's tongue fern, Ophioglossum vulgatum, 
 shown in Fig. 368, is one of a peculiar type of ferns be- 
 longing to the family Ophioglossaceae. This plant has a 
 short, subterranean stem from which a single frond unfolds 
 each year. The roots arise near the bases of the leaves. 
 368. The leaves are curiously ' divided into a sterile and a 
 Ophioglossum fertile part, the latter being a sporophyll. The sterile part 
 has a tongue-shaped blade which is narrowed to a petiole. 
 The young leaves are inclosed by the sheathing base of the petiole. 
 The growth is very slow, so that it takes several years for each leaf to 
 develop before it is ready to unfold. During its development each leaf 
 is sheathed by the one preceding it. 
 
 The sporophyll is elevated on a stalk arising near the base of the 
 sterile part of the frond. The upper part consists of a spike bearing 
 
FERNS AND HORSETAILS 199 
 
 two rows of large spore-cases or sporangia sunk in the tissue. At 
 maturity the sporangia open by transverse slits and discharge the 
 inclosed spores. 
 
 When the spores germinate they produce subterranean tuberous 
 prothallia which, however, are rarely found, and of whose history little 
 is known. They develop archegonia and antheridia beneath the surface 
 of the ground, and the fertilized egg produces the young fern plant. 
 
 The generations of the true ferns are explained in Chapter XXVI. 
 
 EQUISETUMS, OR HORSETAILS 
 
 There are about twenty-five species of equisetum, constituting 
 the only genus of the unique family Equisetacese. Among these E. 
 arvense is common on clayey and sandy soils. 
 
 In this species the work of nutrition and that of spore-production 
 are performed by separate shoots from an underground rhizome. The 
 fertile branches appear early in spring. The stem, which is 3 to 6 
 inches high, consists of a number of cylindrical furrowed internodes 
 each sheathed at the base by a circle of scale-leaves. The shoots are 
 of a pale yellow color. They contain no chlorophyll, and are nourished 
 by the food stored in the rhizome. (Fig. 369.) 
 
 The spores are formed on specially developed fertile leaves or 
 sporophylls which are collected into a spike or cone at the end of the 
 stalk (Fig. 369, a). A single sporophyll is shown at 6. It consists 
 of a short stalk expanded into a broad, mushroom-like head. Several 
 large sporangia are borne on its under side. 
 
 The spores formed in the sporangia are very interesting and beau- 
 tiful objects when examined under the microscope (X about 200). 
 They are spherical, green bodies each surrounded by two spiral bands 
 attached to the spore at their intersection, s. These bands exhibit 
 hygroscopic movements by means of which the spores become entangled, 
 and are held together. This is of advantage to the plant, as we shall see. 
 
 All the spores are alike, but some of the prothallia are better nour- 
 ished and grow to a greater size than the others. The large prothallia 
 produce only archegonia while the smaller ones produce antheridia. 
 Both of these organs are much like those of the ferns, and fertilization 
 is accomplished in the same way. Since the prothallia are usually 
 dioecious, the special advantage of the spiral bands holding the spores 
 together, so that both kinds of prothallia may be in close proximity, 
 will be easily understood. As in the fern, the fertilized egg-cell develops 
 into an equisetum plant. 
 
200 
 
 STUDIES IN CRYPTOGAMS 
 
 The sterile shoots, Fig. 369, st, appear much later in the season. 
 They give rise to repeated whorls of angular or furrowed branches. 
 The leaves are very much reduced scales, situated at the internodes. 
 The stems are provided with chlorophyll and act as assimilating tis- 
 sue, nourishing the rhizome and the fertile shoots. Nutriment is also 
 stored in special tubers developed on the rhizome. 
 
 369. Equisetum arvense; st, sterile shoot;/, fertile shoot showing the 
 spike at a; b, sporophyll, with sporangia; s, spore. 
 
 Other species of equisetum have only one kind of shoot a tall, 
 hard, leafless, green shoot with the spike at its summit. Equisetum 
 stems are impregnated with silica and they are sometimes used for 
 scouring floors and utensils: hence the common name "scouring rush." 
 
 ISOETES 
 
 Isoetes or quill worts are usually found in water or damp soil on 
 the edges of ponds and lakes. The general habit of a plant is seen 
 in Fig. 370, a. It consists of a short, perennial stem bearing numer- 
 ous erect, quill-like leaves with broad sheathing bases. The plants 
 are commonly mistaken for young grasses. 
 
 Isoetes bears two kinds of spores, large roughened ones, the macro- 
 spores, and small ones or microspores. Both kinds are formed in spo- 
 
ISOETES 
 
 201 
 
 rangia borne in an excavation in the expanded base of the leaf. The ma- 
 crospores are formed on the outer, and the microspores on the inner leaves. 
 A sporangium in the base of a leaf is shown at b. It is partially covered 
 by a thin membrane, the rdum. The minute triangular appendage at 
 the upper end of the sporangium is called the ligvle. 
 
 The spores are liberated by the decay of the spo- 
 rangia. They form rudimentary prothallia of two 
 kinds. The microspores produce prothallia with an- 
 theridia, while the macrospores produce prothallia with 
 archegonia. Fertilization takes place as in the mosses 
 or liverworts, and the fertilized egg-cell, by continued 
 growth, gives rise again to the isoetes plant. 
 
 ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS 
 
 In Chapter XXVI, the alternations of generations 
 and the terms gametophtye and sporophyte were 
 explained. In many of the plants just studied, 
 this alternation is more clearly and beautifully 
 marked than in any other groups of plants. 
 In each generation, the reproductive body 
 (egg or spore) gives rise to a new plant- 
 form or generation different from the par- 
 ent generation. In the liverworts the 
 thallus produces the egg. The fertilized 
 egg-cell is the beginning of a new plant, 
 but this new plant is not like the thallus 
 which produced the egg, nor does it lead 
 an independent existence. It is the sporo- 
 gonium, which, although it is attached to 
 the thallus, is not a morphological part 
 thereof. The sporogonium produces spores. It is the sporophyte gen- 
 eration of the plant, and not until the spores germinate is the thallus 
 again produced. The same is true in the mosses. The "moss plant" 
 produces the egg-cells. It is the gametophyte. The fertilized egg-cell 
 develops into the sporophyte the spore-case and its stem. We can 
 pull the stem of the capsule out of the moss plant and thus separate 
 the sporophyte from the gametophyte. 
 
 The fungi and algae are omitted from these remarks. In the former 
 there is nothing analogous to the sporophyte and the gametophyte. 
 In alga3 like spirogyra, evidently the whole plant is a gametophyte, 
 
 370. Isoetes showing habit of 
 plant at a; 6, base of leaf 
 showing sporangium, velum, 
 and ligule. 
 
202 STUDIES IN CRYPTOGAMS 
 
 and, since the zygospore germinates directly into a new gametophyte, 
 there is probably no sporophyte. In some other algae traces of a sporo- 
 phyte have been found, but the discussion of these would lead too far 
 for the present purpose. 
 
 In the ferns the egg-cells are developed on the prothallus. This 
 then is the gametophyte. It corresponds to the thallus of marchantia 
 and to the "moss plant," but it has become much reduced. The plant 
 developing from the fertilized egg-cell is the large and beautiful "fern 
 plant" differentiated into stems and leaves. Since the fern plant 
 produces the spores directly, it is the sporophyte and corresponds 
 to the shaft and capsule of the mosses. Both sporophyte and gameto- 
 phyte lead an independent existence. 
 
 As we pass on to equisetum and oscetes, the sporophyte is still 
 more conspicuous in comparison with the gametophyte. In isoetes the 
 prothallus (gametophyte) is very rudimentary, consisting only of a 
 few cells remaining within the spore, which merely bursts to expose 
 the archegonia or to allow the sperm-cells to escape. Moreover, the 
 spores have become differentiated into micro- and macrospores corre- 
 sponding to the pollen and embryo-sac of higher plants. 
 
 This gradual increase of the sporophyte and reduction of the gameto- 
 phyte can be traced on through the flowering plants in which "the 
 plant" is the sporophyte, and the gametophyte is represented simply 
 by a few cells in the germinating pollen grain, and in the embryo-sac. 
 
PART II 
 
 THE PLANT IN RELATION TO ITS 
 ENVIRONMENT AND TO MAN 
 
CHAPTER XXVIII 
 
 WHERE PLANTS GROW 
 
 354. Environment. The circumstances and surround- 
 ings in which an organism lives constitute its environment. 
 The environment comprises effects of soil, moisture, tempera- 
 ture, altitude, sunlight, competition with animals and other 
 plants, and the like. An organism is greatly influenced by 
 the environment or conditions in which it lives. Not only 
 must a plant live and grow and multiply its kind, but it 
 must be capable of withstanding diverse environments. 
 
 355. The particular place in which a plant grows is known 
 as its habitat (i.e., its "habitation"). The habitat of a given 
 plant may be a swamp, hill, rock, sand plain, forest, shore. 
 The plant inhabitants of any region are known collectively 
 as its flora. Thus we speak of the flora of a meadow or a 
 hill or a swamp, or of a country. The word is also used 
 for a book describing the plants of a region (as in Part IV). 
 
 356. Plants Grow Where They Must. The plant is not 
 able to choose its environment. It has no volition. Its seeds 
 are scattered, and only a few of them fall in favorable places. 
 The seeds make an effort to grow even though the places are 
 not favorable ; and so it happens that plants are often found 
 in places that are little adapted to them. See the fern 
 growing on a brick in Fig. 74. Plants must grow in 
 unoccupied places. 
 
 357. Not only do the seeds fall in unfavorable places, 
 but most places are already occupied. So it comes that 
 plants grow where they must, not always where the conditions 
 are the most favorable. There are, of course, certain limits 
 beyond which plants cannot grow. Water-lilies can thrive 
 
 (205) 
 
371. Desert vegetation. 
 The tree cacti grow only in special regions. Arizona. 
 
 372. Plants seize the first opportunity to grow. Palisades of the Hudson. 
 
 (206) 
 
WATER LIFE 207 
 
 only in water, and white oaks only on dry land, but it is 
 seldom that either the water-lily or the oak finds the most 
 congenial place in which to grow. Fine large plants of the lily 
 and strong giant trees of the oak are so infrequent, as com- 
 pared with the whole number, that we stop to admire them. 
 
 358. Originally, plants probably were aquatic, as animals 
 were. Much of the earth was sea. Many plants are now 
 aquatic, and the larger number of these as algae and their 
 kin belong to the lower or older forms of plant life. Many 
 plants of higher organization, however, as the water-lilies, 
 have taken to aquatic life. True aquatic plants are those 
 that always live in water, and that die when the water dries 
 up. They are to be distinguished from those that live on 
 shores or in swamps. Aquatic plants may be wholly im- 
 mersed or under water, or partly emersed or standing above the 
 water. Most flowering aquatic plants come to the surface 
 to expand their flowers or to ripen their fruits. Some aquatic 
 plants are free-swimming, or not attached to the bottom. 
 Of this kind are some utricularias or bladder-worts. In some 
 waters, particularly in the ocean, there are enormous quanti- 
 ties of free-swimming microscopic life, both animal and 
 vegetable, which is carried about by currents: this is known 
 under the general 
 
 name of plankton 
 (Greek for " wander- 
 ing" or "roaming"). 
 
 359. The general 
 tendency has been 
 for plants to become 
 terrestrial, or land-in- 
 habiting. Terrestrial 
 plants often grow in 
 wet places, but never 
 
 in water throughout their entire life; of such are swamp, bog 
 and marsh plants. Some plants have the ability to grow 
 
208 
 
 WHERE PLANTS GROW 
 
 in standing water when young and to become terrestrial 
 as the water dries up. Such are amphibious. Some 
 buttercups are examples; mermaid-weed (Proserpinaca) is 
 another. 
 
 360. Some plants grow in very special soils or special 
 localities, and consequently are infrequent or are confined 
 to certain well-marked geographical regions. (Fig. 371.) 
 
 374. Sphagnum bog, green and living on top, but dead and dying underneath. 
 Sphagnum moss is used by nurserymen and florists as packing material for plants. 
 
 Common plants are those that are able to accommodate 
 themselves to widely different environments. Weeds are 
 examples. Many plants have become so specialized in habitat 
 as to be parasitic, saprophytic or epiphytic. (Chap. XV.) 
 
 361. Common plants often grow in most unusual and 
 difficult places. Note that some weeds grow not only in 
 fields, but often gain a foothold in chinks in logs, on rot- 
 ting posts, in crotches of trees, on old straw stacks, in clefts 
 and crannies of rocks. In moist climates, as in England, 
 plants often grow on thatched roofs. 
 
 362. Plants may be said to be seeking new places in 
 
SOIL-FORMERS 
 
 209 
 
 which to grow. Whenever ground is cleared of vegetation, 
 plants again spring up. The farmer plows the meadow 
 or pasture, and immediately a horde of weeds appears. 
 
 375. The same landscape in winter and in sun 
 
 Any breach .or break in the earth's surface makes room 
 for a new group of plants. Note how the railway embank- 
 ments and the newly graded roadsides take on a covering 
 of vegetation. Observe the ragweed. Whenever soil is 
 formed at the base of a cliff, plants at once secure a foothold. 
 (Fig. 372.) 
 
 363. Plants Aid in the Formation of Soil. This they 
 do in two ways: by breaking down the rock; by passing into 
 earth when they decay. Even on the hardest rocks, lichens 
 and mosses may grow. (Fig. 373.) The rhizoids eat away 
 the rock. A little soil is formed. Ferns and other plants gain 
 a foothold. The crevices are entered and widened. Slowly 
 the root acids corrode the stone. Leaves and stems collect 
 on the rock and decay. Water and frost lend their aid. As 
 the centuries pass, the rock is eaten away and pulverized. 
 Note the soil that collects on level rocks in woods where 
 wind and rain do not remove the accumulations. 
 
 364. In bogs and marshes and on prairies, the remains 
 of plants form a deep black soil. In bogs the vegetable 
 matter is partially preserved by the water, and it slowly 
 becomes solidified into a partially decayed mass known as 
 
 N 
 
210 
 
 WHERE PLANTS GROW 
 
 peat. When dug out and dried, peat may be used as fuel. 
 Finally it may decay and make a vegetable soil known as 
 muck. When thoroughly decayed, plants become vege- 
 table mold or humus. New plants grow on peat or muck, 
 and the accumulations year by year tend to raise the level 
 of the bog, and the surface finally becomes so high as 
 to support plants of the high lands. An important agent 
 in the formation of peat bogs is sphagnum moss. New 
 moss grows on the old, and the bog becomes higher as 
 time goes on. (Fig. 374.) 
 
 376. A landscape devoid of vegetation. Western United States. 
 
 365. Plants Contribute to Scenery. Aside from sky 
 and air, natural scenery depends chiefly on two things: the 
 physical contour of the earth; the character of the vegeta- 
 tion. Contrast the aspect of winter and summer scenes as 
 expressed in vegetation. (Fig. 375.) Imagine any land- 
 scape with which you are familiar to be devoid of plants. 
 Compare Figs. 376 and 377. 
 
 REVIEW. What is meant by environment? By habitat? Flora? 
 What determines where plants shall grow? What is an aquatic plant? 
 
QUESTIONS ON WHERE PLANTS GROW 211 
 
 Explain immersed, emersed, free-swimming. What is plankton? Ex- 
 plain terrestrial. Amphibious. Why are some plants rare or local? 
 Why are some plants common? Name some unusual places in which 
 you have seen plants growing. Give examples of how plants occupy 
 the new places. How do plants aid in the formation of soil? Explain 
 what is meant by peat, muck, humus. How are peat bogs formed? 
 What relation have plants to scenery? 
 
 377. A landscape with vegetation. Holland. 
 
CHAPTER XXIX 
 
 CONTENTION WITH PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 
 
 366. The Physical Environment. We have seen (354) 
 that the environment in which a plant grows is made up 
 of two sets of factors the physical environment of climate 
 and soil, and the organic environment of competing animals 
 and plants. 
 
 367. Modifications to Climate in General. Every par- 
 ticular climate induces particular modifications in its plants. 
 There are two general ways, however, in which plants are 
 modified by climate: modification in the length of the 
 period of growth; modification in stature. Any modification 
 of the plant, visible or invisible, that enables it to grow in a 
 climate at first injurious to it, is acclimatization. 
 
 368. In short-season climates, plants hasten their growth. 
 They mature quickly. Indian corn may require five or six 
 months in which to mature in warm countries, but only 
 
 three months in very cold 
 countries. Garden vegetables 
 probably mature quicker 
 from the time of planting in 
 the North than in the South 
 378. Germination of com grown in when they are raised from 
 
 New York (on the left) and in Alabama. -, .1 
 
 seeds grown in their respec- 
 tive localities. Some seedsmen think this to be true and 
 they like to raise seeds of early varieties in the North, for 
 such seeds usually give "early" plants. Many plants that 
 are perennials in warm countries become annuals or plur- 
 annuals in cold countries (14). 
 
 369. Plants are usually dwarf or smaller in stature in 
 
 (212) 
 
MODIFICATION BY WIND 
 
 213 
 
 short-season climates. Indian corn is a conspicuous ex- 
 ample. As one ascends high mountains or travels in high 
 latitudes, he finds the trees becoming smaller and smaller, 
 until finally he passes beyond the regions in which the trees 
 can grow. Many of the Esquimaux doubt the statements 
 of travelers that there are plants as high as a man. In these 
 high altitudes and high latitudes, plants tend also to be- 
 come prostrate. 
 
 370. Plants 
 are Influenced 
 by Wind. In 
 regions of strong 
 prevailing winds, 
 as on lake and 
 sea shores and 
 on hills and 
 mountains, tree- 
 tops develop un- 
 symmetrically 
 and are heaviest 
 on the leeward 
 side. (Figs. 379, 
 380.) Observe 
 this fact in or- 
 chards in windy 
 regions, and note 
 
 that the most unsymmetrical trees are those on the exposed 
 side of the plantation. 
 
 371. Trees often lean away from the prevailing winds. 
 The tips of the branches of exposed trees usually indicate 
 whether there are strong prevailing 'winds. (Fig. 381.) 
 Observe trees in pastures and along roadsides, particularly 
 in high places and within a few miles of exposed shores. 
 Note the tip-top spray of hemlock trees. 
 
 372. Plants are Profoundly Influenced by Soil. The 
 
 379. Evergreen trees on wind-swept heights of the 
 Rocky Mountains. 
 
214 
 
 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 
 
 nutrient supply varies with the kind of soil ; and the supply 
 determines to a large extent the character of the individual 
 plant. On poor soils plants are small; on rich soils they are 
 large. The difference between poor and good yields of wheat, 
 or any other crop, is largely a question of soil-fertility. 
 The farmer reinforces his poor soils by the addition of ferti- 
 lizers, in order to make his plants vary into larger or more 
 productive individuals. 
 
 380. One-sided holly tree growing near the ocean. New Jersey. 
 
 373. The moisture-content of the soil exerts a marked 
 influence on plants. We have found (157) that a large 
 part of the plant-substance is water. The water is not only 
 itself food for plants, but it carries nutrients into the plant 
 and transports them from tissue to tissue. However rich 
 a soil may be in mineral nutrients, it is inert if it contains 
 no moisture. The character of the plant is often determined 
 more by the moisture in the soil than by all the other soil 
 
MOISTURE AND EXPOSURE 
 
 215 
 
 materials. Note how rank the plants are in low places. 
 Observe how the weeds grow about the barn where the 
 soil is not only rich but where moisture is distributed from 
 the eaves. Contrast with these instances the puny plants 
 that grow in dry places. In dry countries irrigation is 
 employed to make plants grow vigorously; or the moisture 
 may be stored in the soil by means of deep preparation and 
 frequent surface 
 tillage and other 
 dry-farming meth- 
 ods. In moist and 
 rich soil plants 
 may grow so fast 
 and so tall as not 
 to be able to with- 
 stand the wind, as 
 in Fig. 382. 
 
 374. Plants are 
 Influenced by the 
 Exposure of the 
 Place In Which 
 They Grow. The 
 particular site or 
 outlook is known 
 as the exposure or 
 aspect. The ex- 
 posure, for example, 
 may be southward, 
 eastward, bleak, warm, cold. A favorable exposure for 
 any plant is one that supplies the requisite warmth, room, 
 sunlight, moisture and nutrients, and immunity from severe 
 winds and other destructive agencies. Against the edge of 
 a forest (Fig. 383) or at the base of a cliff, certain plants 
 thrive unusually well. Note the plants of any kind grow- 
 ing in different exposures : observe that they vary in stature, 
 
 381. A tree that shows which way the wind blows. 
 Oklahoma. 
 
J. "Lodged" oats. On rich ground the grain is often broken by wind and rain, 
 the plants having grown so heavy as to be unable to support themselves. 
 
 383. The flowering dogwood is seen at its best along the 
 margins of the wood and in partially open places. 
 
 (216) 
 
DIFFERENCE IN PLANTS 217 
 
 time of maturity, color of foliage and flowers, productive- 
 ness, size of leaves and flowers, longevity. 
 
 REVIEW. Contrast physical and organic environments. How are 
 plants modified by climate? Define acclimatization. Explain how time 
 of maturity is influenced by climate. Explain how climate influences 
 stature. How do winds affect plants? How are plants influenced by 
 soil? By soil moisture? Exposure? 
 
 Observe two or three plants of any one kind on your way to school, 
 and note how they differ from each other in size, form, branching, 
 color, earliness or lateness, productiveness and other characters: are 
 you able to correlate these differences with the conditions in which 
 the plants grow? 
 
CHAPTER XXX 
 COMPETITION WITH FELLOWS 
 
 375. The Fact of Struggle for Existence. We have 
 seen (Chapter IX) that branches contend amongst them- 
 selves for opportunity to live and grow. Similarly, separate 
 plants contend with each other. We shall observe that this 
 is true; and we are compelled to believe it by considering 
 the efforts that all plants make to propagate themselves. 
 The earth is filled with plants. It is chiefly when plants 
 die or are killed that places are made for others. Every one 
 of these plants puts forth its utmost effort to prepetuate its 
 kind. It produces seeds by the score or even by the thousand. 
 In some cases it propagates also by means of vegetative 
 parts. If the earth is full and if every plant endeavors to 
 multiply its kind, there must be struggle for existence. 
 
 376. The effects of struggle for existence are of three 
 general categories: (1) the seed or spore may find no oppor- 
 tunity to grow, (2) sooner or later the plant may be killed', 
 (3) the plant may vary, or take on new characters, in response 
 to the conditions in which it grows. Consider the crop of 
 seeds that any plant produces: how many germinate? 
 How many of the young plants reach maturity? Note the 
 profusion of seedlings under the maples and elms, and then 
 consider how few maple and elm trees there are. Count the 
 seeds on any plant and imagine that each one makes a plant : 
 where will all these new plants find a place in which to grow? 
 
 377. What Struggle for Existence Is. Struggle for 
 existence with fellows is competition for room or space, 
 for nutrients and moisture in the soil, for light. We may con- 
 sider examples in each of these three categories. 
 
 (218) 
 
384. There is no opportunity for weeds in a good field of wheat. 
 
 385. Divergence of character in a cornfield. 
 
 (219) 
 
220 
 
 COMPETITION WITH FELLOWS 
 
 378. If the 
 earth is filled 
 with plants, 
 there must be 
 sharp competi- 
 tion for every 
 inch of its sur- 
 face. If any 
 good soil is not 
 populated with 
 plants, it is usu- 
 ally because it 
 has recently 
 been moved. If the farmer does not move or till his 
 soil frequently, various plants get a foothold, and these 
 plants he calls weeds. Determine how much room an apple 
 tree, or other plant, occupies: then calculate how much 
 space would be required for all the seedlings of that tree or 
 plant. The greater the population of any area, the less chance 
 
 386. The tree has appropriated the food and moisture, so 
 that a large area remains bare of vegetation. 
 
 387. Low shade-loving plants on the forest floor. 
 
UNLIKE PLANTS GROW TOGETHER 
 
 221 
 
 have other plants to gain a foothold. When the wheat com- 
 pletely covers the ground, as in Fig. 384, there are no weeds 
 to be seen. 
 
 379. Plants of different form and habit may grow 
 together, and thereby the area may support more plants 
 than would be possible if only one kind were growing on 
 it. This principle has been called by Darwin the divergence 
 
 388. A primeval pine forest. 
 Along the roadway foreign vegetation has come in. Michigan. 
 
 of character. When an area is occupied by one kind of 
 plant, another kind may grow between or beneath. Only 
 rarely do plants of close botanical relationship grow to- 
 gether in compact communities. A field that is full of corn 
 may grow pumpkins between. (Fig. 385.) A full meadow 
 may grow white clover in the bottom. Herbs may grow 
 on the forest floor. When an orchard can support no more 
 trees, weeds may grow beneath. 
 
222 
 
 COMPETITION WITH FELLOWS 
 
 380. We have learned that the plant may possess an ex- 
 tensive root-system (25, 26). The plant that is first estab- 
 lished appropriates the nutrients to itself, and newcomers 
 find difficulty in gaining a foothold. Note the bare area near 
 
 389. On the top of an evergreen forest. 
 
 the large tree in Fig. 386. Recall how difficult it is to make 
 plants grow when planted under trees. This is partly due 
 to the intercepting of the rain by the tree-top, partly to shade, 
 and partly to lack of available food and moisture in the soil, 
 and perhaps partly to unknown factors. The farmer knows 
 that he cannot hope to secure good crops near large trees, 
 
CLIMBERS AND SHADE-LOVERS 
 
 223 
 
 even beyond the point at 
 which the trees intercept 
 the rain and light. It is 
 difficult to establish new 
 trees in the vacancies in an 
 old orchard. 
 
 381. In Chapter VIII we 
 studied the relation of the 
 plant and its parts to sun- 
 light. Plants also compete 
 with each other for light. 
 Plants climb to get to the 
 light (Chapter XVIII). (Fig. 
 77.) Some plants have be- 
 come so modified as to 
 grow in subdued or transmitted light, but no green plants 
 can grow in darkness. The low plants in forests are shade- 
 lovers. (Fig. 387.) Note the plants that seem to be shade- 
 lovers and those that prefer full sunlight. Some plants 
 
 390. The tell-tale pine. 
 
 391. The forest rim. Looking toward the woods. 
 
224 
 
 COMPETITION WITH FELLOWS 
 
 are so constituted as to 
 grow well in both sun and 
 shade. Most ferns are 
 shade-lovers. 
 
 382. In the midst of 
 dense plant populations, 
 each individual grows up- 
 wards for sunlight. Thus 
 are forests made : the com- 
 peting trees become long 
 slender boles with a mantle 
 of foliage at the top. The 
 side branches do not de- 
 velop or they die for lack of 
 light and food, and they fall 
 from decay or are broken 
 by storm; the wounds are 
 
 healed, and the bole becomes symmetrical and trim. Fig. 
 
 388 shows the interior of a primeval pine forest. Note the 
 
 392. The forest center. Looking from the 
 woods, with the forest rim shown in 
 Fig. 391 seen in the distance. 
 
 393. The foliage bank of a tangle. 
 
COMPETITION IN THE FOREST 
 
 225 
 
 bare trunks and the sparse vegetation on the dim forest floor. 
 Fig. 389 is the top of a great forest. With these pictures 
 compare Figs. 79 and 80. Fig. 384 shows a deep wheat 
 forest. A lone survivor of a primeval forest is shown in 
 Fig. 390. In dense plantations, plants tend to grow to a 
 single stem. When these same plants are grown in open 
 or cultivated grounds, they often become bushy or develop 
 
 394. View just inside the tangle. 
 
 more than one trunk. In what places have you seen trees 
 with more than one trunk? 
 
 383. On the margins of dense populations, each indi- 
 vidual grows outwards for sunlight. Note the dense forest 
 rim: then plunge through it, and stand by the tall bare 
 trunks. Figs. 391, 392, show these two views of the same 
 forest. Note the kinds of trees and other plants that grow 
 in areas similar to those depicted in these illustrations. 
 Note the dense wall of foliage in Fig. 393, and the thin brushy 
 area just behind it in Fig. 394. Observe the denser and greener 
 foliage on the outside rows in thick orchards. Consider how 
 
395. A hydrophytic society. New York. 
 
 396. A mesophytic society. Michigan. 
 
 (226) 
 
PLANTS REACT TO LIGHT 227 
 
 the plants extend over the borders in dense flower-beds. Note 
 where the best-foliaged plants are in the greenhouse. Notice 
 the foliage on the outer rows in a very thick cornfield. Ob- 
 serve how plants nearest to buildings reach outward for the 
 light and room. 
 
 REVIEW. Why is there struggle for existence? How does it affect 
 plants? Tell what it is. How do plants compete for space? What 
 is meant by the phrase "divergence of character?" Give examples. 
 How do plants compete for nutrients and water from the soil? In what 
 respects have plants become modified to the light relation? How do 
 plants grow in dense plantations? On the margins of these planta- 
 tions? You know some tree or other plant: describe how it is consti- 
 tuted to compete with its fellows. 
 
CHAPTER XXXI 
 
 PLANT SOCIETIES 
 
 384. What Plant Societies Are. In the long course 
 of evolution, in which plants have been accommodating 
 themselves to the varying conditions in which they are 
 obliged to grow, they have become modified to every 
 different environment. Certain plants, therefore, may live 
 together or near each other, all enjoying the same conditions 
 and surroundings. These aggregations of plants adapted 
 to similar conditions are known as plant societies. 
 
 385. Moisture and temperature are the leading factors 
 in determining plant societies. The great geographical 
 societies or aggregations of the plant world are for con- 
 venience associated chiefly with the moisture-supply. These 
 are: (1) hydrophytic or wet-region societies, comprising 
 aquatic and bog vegetation (Fig. 395); (2) xerophytic or 
 arid-region societies, comprising desert and much sand-region 
 vegetation (Fig. 371) ; (3) mesophytic or mid-region societies, 
 comprising the vegetation in intermediate conditions (Fig. 
 396) . Mesophytic vegetation is characteristic of most regions 
 that are fitted for agriculture. The halophytic or salt-loving 
 societies are also distinguished, comprising the seashore and 
 salt-area vegetation. Much of the characteristic scenery of 
 any place is due to its plant societies (365). Xerophytic 
 plants usually have small and hard leaves, apparently to 
 prevent too rapid transpiration. Usually, also, they are 
 characterized by stiff growth, hairy covering, spines, or a 
 much-contracted plant-body, and often by large under- 
 ground parts for the storage of water. Halophytic plants 
 are often fleshy. 
 
 (228) 
 
PLACE-VEGETATION 
 
 229 
 
 386. Plant societies may also be distinguished with refer- 
 ence to latitude and temperature. There are tropical socie- 
 ties, temperate-region societies, boreal or cold-region societies. 
 With reference to altitude, societies might be classified as 
 
 397. A society of sand-dune plants. New Jersey. 
 
 lowland (which are chiefly hydrophytic), intermediate (chiefly 
 mesophytic), subalpine or mid-mountain (which are chiefly 
 boreal), alpine or high-mountain. 
 
 387. The above classifications have reference chiefly to 
 great geographical floras or societies. But there are societies 
 within societies. There are small societies coming within 
 the experience of every person who has ever seen plants 
 growing in natural conditions. There are roadside, fence- 
 row, lawn, thicket, pasture, dune (Fig. 397), woods, cliff, 
 barn-yard, corn-field societies. Every different place has its 
 characteristic vegetation. Note the smaller societies in Figs. 
 395 and 396. In the former is a water-lily society and a 
 cat-tail society. In the latter there are grass and bush and 
 woods societies. 
 
230 PLANT SOCIETIES 
 
 388. Some Details of Plant Societies. Societies may be 
 composed of scattered and intermingled plants, or of dense 
 clumps or groups of plants. Dense clumps or groups are 
 usually made up of one kind of plant, and they are then called 
 colonies. Colonies of most plants are transient: after a short 
 time other plants gain a foothold amongst them, and an 
 intermingled society is the outcome. Marked exceptions to 
 this are grass colonies and forest colonies, in which one kind 
 of plant may hold its own for years and centuries. 
 
 398. The return to forest. Bushes and trees now begin to crowd. 
 
 389. In a large newly cleared area, plants usually first 
 establish themselves in dense colonies. Note the great patches 
 of nettles, jewel- weeds, smart-weeds, clot-burs, and others in 
 recently cleared but neglected swales, also the fire-weeds 
 in recently burned areas, the rank weeds in the neglected 
 garden, and the ragweeds and May-weeds along the recently 
 worked highway. The competition amongst themselves 
 and with their neighbors finally breaks up the colonies, and 
 a mixed and intermingled flora is generally the result. 
 
 390. In many parts of the world the general tendency 
 of neglected areas is to run into forest. A large number of 
 different plants begin growth in a cleared area. Here and 
 there bushes gain a foothold. Young trees come up: in time 
 
THE RETURN TO FOREST 
 
 231 
 
 these shade the bushes and gain the mastery. Sometimes the 
 area grows to poplars or birches, and people wonder why the 
 original forest trees do not return; but these forest trees may 
 be growing unobserved here and there in the tangle, and in 
 the slow processes of time the poplars perish for they are 
 short-lived and the original forest may be replaced. 
 Whether one kind of forest or another returns will depend 
 largely on the kinds that are most seedful in that vicinity 
 and which therefore, have sown themselves most profusely. 
 Much depends, also, on the kind of undergrowth that first 
 springs up, for some young trees can endure more or less 
 shade than others. Fig. 398 shows an early stage in the 
 return to forest. 
 
 391. Pasturing and mowing tend to keep an area in grass. 
 This is because the grass will thrive when the tops are 
 repeatedly taken off, whereas trees will not. Note that the 
 wild herbs and bushes and trees persist along the fences and 
 about old buildings, where animals and mowing machines 
 do not take them off. A sod society means grazing or mowing. 
 Consider Figs. 110, 399, 400. The farmer keeps his wild 
 pastures "clean" by turning in sheep: the sheep are fond of 
 browsing. 
 
 392. Some plants 
 associate. They 
 grow together. This 
 is possible largely be- 
 cause they diverge 
 or differ in character 
 (379). Plants associ- 
 ate in two ways: by 
 growing side by side ; 
 by growing above or 
 beneath. In sparsely 
 populated societies 
 
 f . 1? . x 399. Sod and tree societies. About the building the 
 
 (^aS in r Ig. 401) trees find refuge from the mowing machine. 
 
232 
 
 PLANT SOCIETIES 
 
 plants may grow 
 along side each 
 other. In most 
 cases, however, 
 there is overgrowth 
 and undergrowth : 
 one kind grows 
 beneath another. 
 Plants that endure 
 shade (381) are 
 usually under- 
 growths. In a cat- 
 tail swamp, grasses 
 and other narrow- 
 leaved plants grow 
 in the bottom, but 
 they are usually un- 
 seen by the casual 
 observer. Search 
 the surface of the 
 
 400. The farmer mows part of his roadside. ground in any SWale 
 
 or meadow. Note the undergrowth in woods or under trees. 
 (Fig. 402.) Observe that in pine and spruce forests there 
 is almost no undergrowth, 
 because conditions are not 
 favorable. (Fig. 388.) 
 
 393. On the same area 
 the societies may differ at 
 different times of the year. 
 There are spring, summer 
 and fall societies. The 
 knoll that is cool with 
 grass and strawberries in 
 June may be aglow with 401 An aquatic society in which several 
 
 Other plants in September. kinds of plants grow side by side. 
 
THE LANDSCAPE 
 
 233 
 
 402. Overgrowth and undergrowth in three series, 
 trees, bushes, grass. 
 
 If the bank is examined in May, look for the young plants 
 
 that are to cover it in July and October; if in September, 
 
 find the dead stalks of the flora of May. What succeeds 
 
 the skunk cabbage, hepaticas, trilliums, phlox, violets, butter- 
 
 cups of spring? 
 
 What precedes the 
 
 wild sunflowers, 
 
 ragweed, asters, 
 
 and goldenrod in 
 
 fall? 
 
 394. In lands 
 that gradually rise 
 from wet to dry, 
 the societies may 
 take the form of 
 belts or zones. Start- 
 ing at a shore, walk 
 back into the high 
 
 land; note the changes in the flora. Three zones are shown 
 in Fig. 403. 
 
 395. To a large extent, the color of the landscape is 
 determined by the character of the plant societies. Ever- 
 green societies remain green, but the shade of green varies 
 from season to season; it is bright and soft in spring, becomes 
 dull in midsummer and fall, and often assumes a dull yel- 
 low-green in winter. Deciduous societies vary remarkably 
 in color from the dull browns and grays of winter to the 
 brown-greens and olive-greens of spring, the staid greens of 
 summer, and the brilliant colors of autumn. 
 
 396. The autumn colors are due to intermingled shades 
 of green, yellow and red. The coloration varies with the 
 kind of plant, the special location and the season. Even 
 in the same species or kind, individual plants differ in color; 
 and this individuality usually distinguishes the plant year 
 by year. That is, an oak that is maroon-red this autumn 
 
234 
 
 PLANT SOCIETIES 
 
 is likely to exhibit that color every year. The autumn color 
 is associated with the natural maturity and death of the 
 leaf, but it is most brilliant in long and open falls largely 
 because the foliage ripens more gradually and persists longer 
 in such seasons. It is probable that the autumn tints are 
 
 of no utility to the plant. 
 The yellows seem to be 
 due in part to the break- 
 ing down and disorganiza- 
 tion of the chlorophyll. 
 Some of the intermediate 
 shades are probably due 
 to the unmasking or liber- 
 ating of normal cell color- 
 bodies which are covered 
 with chlorophyll or ob- 
 scured by it in the grow- 
 ing season. The reds are 
 due to changes in the color 
 of the cell-sap, or to the 
 unmasking of the red by 
 the disintegration of the 
 chlorophyll. Autumn 
 colors are not caused by 
 frost. Because of the long, 
 dry falls and the great 
 variety of plants, the 
 autumnal color of the 
 American landscape is phenomenal. 
 
 397. Ecology. The study of the relationships of plants 
 and animals to each other and to seasons and environ- 
 ments is known as ecology (still written cecology in some 
 dictionaries). All the discussions in Part II of this book 
 are really different phases of this subject. It considers 
 the habits, habitats and modes of life of living things 
 
 403. Three society zones bog, forest run, 
 forest. 
 
ECOLOGY 235 
 
 the places in which they grow, how they migrate or are 
 disseminated, means of collecting food, their times and sea- 
 sons of flowering, reproduction, and the like. 
 
 REVIEW. What is a plant society? Why do plants grow in 
 societies? Name societies that are determined chiefly by moisture. 
 What societies are most abundant where you live? Name those de- 
 termined by latitude and altitude. Name some small or local societies. 
 What are colonies? Where are they most marked? WTiy do they 
 tend finally to break up? How are societies composed when colonies 
 are not present? How do forests arise on cleared areas? What effect 
 have pasturing and mowing? How do plants associate? What is 
 undergrowth and overgrowth? Explain how societies may differ at 
 different times of the year. What are zonal or belt societies? Discuss 
 autumn colors. What is ecology? 
 
 NOTE. One of the best of all subjects for school instruction in 
 botany is the study of plant societies. It adds definiteness and zest 
 to excursions. Let one excursion be confined to one or two societies. 
 Visit one day a swamp, another day a forest, another a pasture or 
 meadow, another a roadside, another a weedy field, another a cliff 
 or ravine. Visit shores whenever possible. Each pupil should be 
 assigned a bit of ground say 10 or 20 feet square for special study. 
 He should make a list showing (1) how many kinds of plants it con- 
 tains, (2) the relative abundance of each. The lists secured in different 
 regions should be compared. It does not matter if the pupil does not 
 know all the plants. He may count the kinds without knowing the 
 names. It is a good plan for the pupil to make a dried specimen of 
 each kind for reference. The pupil should endeavor to discover why the 
 plants grow as they do. Challenge every plant society. 
 
CHAPTER XXXII 
 
 VARIATION AND ITS RESULTS 
 
 398. The Fact of Variation. No two plants are alike 
 (16). In size, form, color, weight, vigor, productiveness, 
 season or other characters, they differ. The most usual form 
 of any plant is considered to be its type, that is, its repre- 
 sentative form. Any marked departure from this type is a 
 variation, that is, a difference, 
 
 399. The Kinds of Variations. Variations are of many 
 degrees. The differences, in any case, may be so slight as to 
 pass unnoticed, or they may be so marked as to challenge 
 even the casual observer. If a red-flowered plant were to 
 produce flowers in different shades of red, the variation 
 might not attract attention; but if it were to produce 
 white flowers, the variation would be marked. When- 
 ever the variation is so marked and so constant as to 
 
 be worth naming and describ- 
 ing, it is called a variety in 
 descriptive botany. If the 
 variation is of such charac- 
 ter as to have value for cul- 
 tivation, it is called an agri- 
 cultural or horticultural va- 
 riety. There is no natural 
 line of demarcation between 
 those variations that chance 
 to be named and described 
 as varieties and those that do 
 404. An arborvit* tree, from which seeds not ; Varieties are only named 
 
 were taken one day. Variations. 
 
 (236) 
 
SEED- AND BUD-VARIETIES 237 
 
 400. Variations may arise in three ways: (1) directly 
 from seeds; (2) directly from buds; (3) by a slow change 
 or a lack of development in the entire plant after it has begun 
 to grow. 
 
 401. Variations arising from seeds are seed-variations; 
 those that chance to be named and described are seed- 
 varieties. Never does a seed exactly reproduce its parent; 
 if it did, there would be two plants alike. Neither do any 
 two seeds, even from the same fruit, ever produce plants 
 exactly alike. Even though the seedlings resemble each 
 other so closely that people say they are the same, never- 
 
 405. The progeny of the 
 
 seeds of the tree shown in Fig. 404. 
 
 No two plants alike. 
 
 theless they will be found to vary in size, number of leaves, 
 shape, or other features. Study Figs. 404 and 405. 
 
 402. Variations arising directly from buds, rather than 
 from seeds, are bud-variations, and the most marked of 
 them may be described and named as bud-varieties. We 
 have learned in Chapter V how the horticulturist propagates 
 plants by means of buds: not one of these buds will repro- 
 duce exactly the plant from which it was taken. We have 
 already discovered (17, 119) that no two branches are alike, 
 and every branch springs from a bud. Bud-variation is 
 usually less marked than seed-variation, however; yet now 
 and then one branch on a plant may be so unlike every other 
 branch that the' horticulturist selects buds from it and 
 endeavors to propagate it. "Weeping" or pendent branches 
 sometimes appear on upright trees; nectarines sometimes 
 are borne on one or more branches of a peach tree, and 
 
238 
 
 VARIATION AND ITS RESULTS 
 
 peaches may be borne on nectarine trees; russet apples 
 are sometimes borne on Greening apple trees; white roses 
 are sometimes found on red-flowered plants. 
 
 403. Frequently a plant begins a new kind of varia- 
 tion long after germination, even after it has become well 
 
 established. It is on 
 this fact that success- 
 ful agriculture de- 
 pends, for the farmer 
 makes his plants 
 better by giving them 
 better nutrition and 
 care: and betterment 
 (like deterioration) is 
 only a variation as 
 compared with the 
 average plant. Plants 
 that start to all 
 appearances equal 
 may end unequal: 
 some may be tall and 
 
 vigorous, others may be weak, others may be dwarf: some 
 
 will be worth harvesting and some will not. 
 
 404. The Causes of Variations. Variations are induced 
 by several, and perhaps many, causes. One class of origin 
 lies in the environment, and another lies in the tendencies 
 derived from parents. Of the environmental causes of vari- 
 ation, the chief is probably food-supply. Good agriculture 
 consists largely in increasing the food-supply for plants by 
 giving each plant abundant room, keeping out competing 
 plants, tilling the soil, adding fertilizers. (Fig. 406.) Another 
 strong environmental factor is climate (Chapter XXIX). 
 It is very difficult to determine the exact reasons for any 
 variation. There is much difference of opinion respecting 
 the causes of variation in general. The extent of variation 
 
 406. Variation. Big and little redroot pigweeds 
 of the same kind. 
 
THE CASE OF THE PIGWEEDS 
 
 239 
 
 apparently due to food-supply is illustrated in Fig. 406. The 
 two weeds grew five feet apart, one in hard soil by a walk, 
 the other near a compost pile. They were of similar age. 
 One weighed J oz.; the other 4J Ibs., or 136 times as much. 
 
 405. Heredity. Marked variations tend to be perpet- 
 uated. That is, immediate offspring are likely to retain 
 some of the peculiarities of their parents. This passing over 
 of characteristics from parent to offspring is heredity. 
 By "selecting the best" for seed the farmer maintains and 
 improves his crops. It is said that "like produces like." 
 This is true of the general or average features, but we have 
 seen that the reproduction is not exact. It is truer to say that 
 similar produces similar. Fig. 407 represents a marked 
 
 407. The progeny of little and big plants. 
 
 case of heredity of special characters. The plants on the 
 right grew from a parent 24 in. high and 30 in. broad. Those 
 on the left grew from one 12 in. high and 9 in. broad. (For 
 a history of these parents see "Survival of the Unlike," 
 p. 261.) 
 
 406. Selection. There is intense struggle for existence: 
 there is universal variation: those variations or kinds live 
 that are best fitted to live under the particular conditions. 
 
240 VARIATION AND ITS RESULTS 
 
 This persistence of the best-fitted and loss of the least- 
 fitted is the process designated by Darwin's phrase "natural 
 selection" and by Spencer's "survival of the fittest." Natural 
 selection is also known as Darwinism. 
 
 407. By a similar process, the cultivator modifies his 
 plants. He chooses the variations that please him, and from 
 their offspring constantly selects for seed-bearing those 
 that he considers to be the best. In time he has a new 
 variety. Plant-breeding consists chiefly of two factors 
 or processes; producing a variation in the desired direction; 
 selecting, until the desired variety is secured. 
 
 408. Evolution. Variation, heredity, natural selection 
 and other agencies bring about a gradual change in the 
 plant kingdom; this change is evolution. The hypothesis 
 that one form may give rise to another is now universally 
 accepted amongst investigators; but whether the vegetable 
 kingdom has all arisen from one starting point is unknown. 
 Only a few of the general lines of the unfolding of the vege- 
 table kingdom, with numberless details here and there, have 
 been worked out. Not every form or kind of plant can be 
 expected ever to vary into another kind. Some kinds have 
 nearly run their course, and are undergoing the age-long 
 process of extinction. It is thought, however, that every 
 kind of plant now living has been derived from some other 
 kind. Evolution is still in progress. Variation and heredity 
 are two of the most important facts in organic nature. 
 
 REVIEW. What is a variation? A variety? Agricultural vari- 
 ety? How many variations arise? Explain each of the three categories. 
 What are some of the apparent causes of variation? What is heredity? 
 Selection? What are essentials in plant-breeding? What is evolution? 
 
CHAPTER XXXIII 
 
 WEEDS 
 
 409. Plants compete with each other. It happens that 
 some of the competitors are specially useful to man, and 
 he endeavors to protect them; and in protecting them he 
 destroys the plants that tend to crowd them out. Certain 
 plants have the habit of occupying places that are desired 
 for other uses. A weed is a plant that is not wanted. 
 
 410. Weeds, therefore, are of two general classes: those 
 that interfere with plants that man cultivates; those that 
 inhabit unoccupied and waste places. Cer- 
 tain kinds of plants are specially adapted 
 
 to hold their own in such competition or to 
 invade open places; and these plants are 
 particularly known as weeds. But any plant 
 may be a weed, if it is out of place or is 
 not wanted. June-grass is a weed in a corn- 
 field, but not in a pasture or lawn. Dan- 
 delion and purslane are commonly regarded 
 as real weeds, yet they are sometimes culti- 
 vated for "greens," and they then become 
 a crop. When any crop is too thick, the 
 weaker and useless plants interfere with the 
 others and become weeds. Thus some of 
 the corn plants may be weeds in a cornfield. 
 If one were growing a forest of maples, 
 other trees might be weed trees. 
 
 411. The plants commonly known as 
 weeds have the power to distribute them- 
 selves and to persist, otherwise they 
 
 p (241) 
 
 408 
 
 Common white 
 pigweed. C h e n o - 
 podium album. 
 
242 
 
 WEEDS 
 
 would not be successful competitors or vagrants. Usually 
 they are (1) suited to a wide range of conditions', (2) strongly 
 tenacious of life; (3) have effective means of dissemination; 
 (4) and they often have a life-cycle similar to that of some 
 cultivated plant, and they therefore take the fortunes of that 
 plant. As examples of these categories, we may recall the 
 wide range of such plants as pigweeds (Fig. 408) and docks; 
 the tenacity and endurance of Canada thistles (Fig. 409) 
 and quack-grass (Fig. 27); the way in which the burdock 
 spreads its seeds; 
 the fact that cockle 
 (Fig. 181) ripens 
 with the wheat, and 
 the seeds pass 
 through the separa- 
 tor with the grain. 
 
 409. Canada thistle. 
 
 410. Wild carrot. 
 
 411. Redroot pigweed. 
 Amarantus. 
 
 412. Certain kinds of weeds follow certain crops or 
 certain systems of farming. Dandelion (Figs. 8, 302), wild 
 carrot (Figs. 194, 410) and whiteweed or daisy (Fig. 189) 
 are essentially weeds of grass lands; purslane, pigweed, 
 chickweed, redroot (Figs. 406, 407, 411), shepherd's purse, 
 are pests of gardens and tilled grounds; cockle, chess (Fig. 
 
KINDS OF WEEDS 
 
 243 
 
 412), kinghead (an ambrosia), mustard or charlock (Fig. 413) 
 are weeds of grain crops; dock, plantain, hound's-tongue, 
 burdock and catnip (Fig. 414) are weeds of back yards and 
 by-ways; sorrel, mullein, evening prim- 
 rose (Figs. 276, 415) are denizens of old 
 fields; ragweed (Fig. 416), mayweed 
 (417), stick-tight (Fig. 418), prickly 
 lettuce (Fig. 86), sweet clover (Fig. 
 184) and Russian thistle (Fig. 113) are 
 suited to roadsides and waste places. 
 
 412. Chess or cheat. 
 
 413. Charlock, a weed of 
 grain fields and open 
 places. 
 
 414. Catnip, often a weed 
 about old places. 
 
 413. Some weeds come and go year by year; these are 
 mostly weeds of tilled and raw ground, and usually annuals, 
 as pigweeds of several kinds, pepper-grass, purslane, rag- 
 weed, pigeon-grass, jimson weed (Fig. 275). Such weeds are 
 avoided by the use of clean seed, preventing the weeds from 
 ripening seeds, and taking care not to spread them in manure. 
 
 414. Some weeds have a two-year cycle, making a tuft 
 or getting a foothold one year and ripening seed the follow- 
 ing year. These are biennials, as mullein, burdock, bull 
 thistle (Fig. 254), evening primrose, wild carrot, creeping 
 
244 
 
 WEEDS 
 
 mallow or "cheeses" (Figs. 153, 149), teasel. These weeds 
 may be mown when coming into bloom, or the plant may be 
 spudded or cut off below the crown in fall, 
 and care should be taken not to spread the 
 seeds. 
 
 415. Some weeds persist for a longer 
 period, sometimes for many years. These 
 are perennials, as docks and daisy. Many 
 of them propagate by underground parts as 
 well as by seeds, such as quack-grass, toad- 
 flax (Fig. 227), Canada thistle, Johnson- 
 grass, nut-grass or coco-grass, bindweed, 
 hawkweed or paint-brush. In lawns and 
 gardens, the roots may be dug out, or the 
 plant cut below the ground with a spud; small 
 patches or clumps may be smothered out by 
 covering deeply with leaves or straw, or 
 sometimes crowded out by securing a dense 415. Evening prim- 
 sod on the area. Thorough and clean cultiva- rose in fruit- 
 
 tion will destroy most 
 kinds, but care should be 
 taken not to carry the 
 rootstocks to fresh ground 
 on the plow or cultivator. 
 Meadow and pasture seeds 
 are liable to be carried with 
 grass seed and with grain. 
 416. The best treat- 
 ment for weeds is to pre- 
 vent or change the condi- 
 tions under which they 
 thrive. A good rotation of 
 crops, cleaning up of waste 
 IM> places and putting them 
 
 416. Ragweed. Ambrosia. ^to Crops Or Sod Or tim- 
 
419. Poisonous mushroom. 420. Poisonous mushroom 
 
 (245) 
 
246 
 
 WEEDS 
 
 421. Poison ivy. Rhus Toxicodendron. 
 
 her, clean tillage, are essential to a clean, weedless farm. To 
 these efforts should be added care to secure clean seed, and 
 manure that is not weed-in- 
 fested; and the farmer or gar- 
 dener should be alert to recog- 
 nize new weeds as soon as they 
 invade the neighborhood and 
 be prepared to meet them. 
 
 417. On lawns, weeds may 
 be lessened by the use of the 
 cleanest grass seed, and of chem- 
 ical fertilizers or only well- 
 rotted or other clean manure. 
 The grass seed should be sown 
 very thick (3 to 5 bus. of blue grass to the acre) both to 
 secure a soft dense lawn and to crowd out weeds. Frequent 
 
 mowing will destroy most an- 
 nual weeds, and these weeds 
 are usually most troublesome 
 when the lawn is newly made. 
 Dandelions and other peren- 
 nials may be taken out with a 
 spud or long, strong knife. In 
 badly infested places, the area 
 may need to be dug over, and a 
 new seeding made with clean 
 seed and chemical fertilizer. 
 
 418. Some weeds may be 
 killed by poisons or herbicides. 
 Sulfuric acid is sometimes 
 poured on the crowns of plants 
 in lawns. Salt is often used to 
 kill grass and weeds in gutters 
 and walks; carbolic acid and arsenical poisons are some- 
 times used for the same purpose. Recipes are to be found 
 
 422. Poison sumac, poison elder, a 
 bush of swamps and low places. 
 Rhus venenata or R. Vernix. 
 
POISONOUS PLANTS 
 
 247 
 
 423. Poison oak, a trailing or climbing 
 plant of the Pacific Coast. Rhus 
 diversiloba. 
 
 in books and government publications, and periodicals. 
 Sprays of copper sulfate or iron sulfate are sometimes used 
 
 for mustard and other field 
 weeds. A 3 per cent solution 
 of copper sulfate (about 10 Ib. 
 to 40 gal. water) at the rate of 
 40 to 50 gallons an acre de- 
 stroys wild mustard without 
 injuring peas or cereals with 
 which the weed may be grow- 
 ing. There are special herbi- 
 cides about which information 
 can be secured from the ex- 
 periment stations. These her- 
 bicides are poisonous, and 
 must be used with caution and 
 only by those who are reliable and who understand them. 
 
 419. Poisonous Plants. Many plants produce ill effects 
 on live stock and human beings 
 when eaten; and some are in- 
 jurious to the touch. Some 
 plants produce such marked 
 results, leading even to death, 
 that they are known as poison- 
 ous plants. Some of the mush- 
 rooms are examples, two of which 
 are shown in the illustrations 
 (Figs. 419, 420), (wild mush- 
 rooms should never be eaten ex- 
 cept on the advice of someone 
 who knows the different species). 
 Many plants of the parsley 
 family (Umbelliferae) are poison- 
 ous; the poison hemlock and the water hemlock or mus- 
 quash-root are deadly when eaten. The poison ivy is shown 
 
 424. Solanum Dulcamara. 
 
248 WEEDS 
 
 in Fig. 421, poison sumac in Fig. 422, and poison oak of the 
 Pacific coast in Fig. 423; these are poisonous to the touch. 
 The handsome red berries of the bittersweet 
 (Solanum Dulcamara, Fig. 424) are poisonous 
 if eaten; and it has poisonous relatives. 
 
 REVIEW. Explain your understanding of a weed. 
 How may we classify weeds? What are the com- 
 monest kinds of weeds in your locality? What enables a plant to be an 
 habitual weed? Name some of the weed groups or associations. Name 
 the ways in which weeds may be controlled or eradicated on farms. On 
 lawns. What would you recommend to be done with weedy roadsides? 
 Are there laws in your state for the control of weeds? Are there 
 village or city ordinances on the subject where you live? What is 
 an herbicide? Name the poisonous plants that you know, or of which 
 you have heard. 
 
 NOTE. Every class studying plants should learn the usual weeds 
 of the neighborhood, and should make herbarium specimens of them. 
 Discussions should be had of the weeds infesting the local crops, and 
 the reasons for them. The school should have a collection of weed 
 seeds in bottles, and it should study commercial samples of grain and 
 grass seeds. The U. S. Department of Agriculture and perhaps the 
 State Experiment Station may have bulletins to aid in such examina- 
 tion. If the school is to indentify weed seeds in such samples, it should 
 also have a collection in bottles of the leading grains, grass seeds and 
 field seeds. A small lens or. magnifier is needed for this examination, as 
 shown in Fig. 425, or in Figs. 214, 216. 
 
 Many plants are poisonous to a greater or less degree. No one should 
 eat of any plant or fruit or root that he does not know to be safe. 
 Some plant families are known for poi.-jonous qualities: as Solanaceae, of 
 which the common black nightshade (Solanum nigrum) and others are 
 examples; Umbelliferse, with the hemlock herbs, water parsnip, and 
 others; Ranunculaceae, with the aconites or monkshoods; and other 
 families. Fatalities are frequently reported from eating the thick roots 
 of certain Umbelliferse. There are useful government publications on 
 poisonous plants. 
 
CHAPTER XXXIV 
 
 CROPS 
 
 420. Plants that are grown by man for his uses constitute 
 a crop. The term is commonly used for the product of a 
 field, but is just as applicable to the product of .a planted or 
 managed forest or of a garden or a greenhouse. Thus we may 
 speak of a crop of wheat, of rye, of hemp, of pine timber, of 
 
 celery, of roses i 
 
 or violets, of 
 
 mushrooms. 
 
 421. Crops 
 may be distin- 
 guished into four 
 groups: (1) those 
 grown for human 
 food or medicine 
 or condiments, 
 as rice, potatoes, 
 strawberries; (2) 
 those grown to 
 provide materials 
 for shelter and 
 clothing, and for 
 use in the manu- 
 facturing arts, as 
 
 timber, COtton, ^ Two crops growing together-oats and peas for forage. 
 
 flax, rubber; (3) those grown to satisfy the artistic impulses, 
 as roses; (4) those grown iorfood of domestic animals, as grass 
 and clover. Another division, and one followed in a general 
 way in colleges of agriculture, is into field crops and horti- 
 
 (249) 
 
250 
 
 CROPS 
 
 cultural crops; and the horticultural crops include fruit crops 
 (pomology), vegetable-gardening crops (vegetable-gardening 
 or olericulture) , flower- and ornament-crops (floriculture). 
 
 422. We may group crops also as follows into more par- 
 ticular division^: forage and fodder crops; cereal grains; 
 root-crops; fiber-crops; sugar plants; oil plants; dye-stuff 
 
 plants ; b e v e r - 
 age-p reducing 
 plants; stimu- 
 lants; aromatic 
 and medicinal 
 plants; perfum- 
 ery plants; fruit 
 crops; vegetable- 
 garden crops; 
 timber crops; 
 manuring crops. 
 Some crops fall 
 under more than 
 one division, de- 
 pending on the 
 purposes for 
 which they are 
 grown, as oats, 
 beets, peas, sor- 
 ghum, maize or Indian corn, flax: explain why. Sometimes 
 two plants are grown together purposely, as shown in Fig. 
 426, and also in Fig. 427. 
 
 423. Many of the crops may be assembled, on the basis 
 of their botanical affinities, into the families to which they 
 belong: Grass-family crops, all cereal grains as well as the 
 meadow and pasture grasses, as wheat (Fig. 384), rye, barley, 
 oats (Fig. 382), rice, maize (Fig. 427), sorghum (Fig. 20), kafir, 
 broom-corn (Fig. 429), millets of several kinds, sugar-cane 
 (Fig. 428) ; leguminous or pulse crops, beans and peas of all 
 
 427. A crop of Indian Corn. 
 
THE MANY KINDS OF CROPS 
 
 251 
 
 kinds, cowpea, peanut or goober, alfalfa, clovers, sweet 
 clover, lespedeza, vetch; cruciferous or mustard-family crops, 
 mustard, cabbage, kale, rape, turnip, rutabaga, kohlrabi ; rose- 
 family crops, rose, apple, pear, plum, peach, almond, apricot, 
 cherry, quince, strawberry, blackberry, raspberry medlar, 
 loquat; cucurbitous 
 crops, pumpkin, 
 squash, melon, water- 
 melon, cucumber, 
 gherkin, gourds; 
 solanaceous crops, 
 potato, tomato, to- 
 bacco. Some of the 
 important crops be- 
 long to families that 
 do not yield other 
 leading cultivated 
 species, as buck- 
 wheat to the knot- 
 weed family, cotton 
 to the mallow family, 
 flax to the flax family, 
 hemp and hops to 
 the nettle family, 
 sugar-beet and other 
 beets to the goose- 
 foot family. 
 
 424. How to Study a Crop. Every botany class should 
 know the leading crops of its vicinity and region, including 
 the grasses, the grains, the most important fruits and vege- 
 tables, and any special crops that maybe grown in the locality. 
 This knowledge may be derived from the experience of the 
 members of the class, from inquiries made of farmers and 
 from census figures. Having learned the kinds of crops and 
 their relative importance in the region, the class should 
 
 428. A crop of sugar-cane. 
 
252 CROPS 
 
 try to determine why they are important there, and should 
 then gather information as to their importance in other 
 regions and where they are grown with the greatest success. 
 Then may follow such details as the rotation or farm-plan 
 in which these crops find a place, the times and methods of 
 sowing, the fertilizers used, the methods of tilling, harvest- 
 ing and marketing; and then inquire as to any special 
 difficulties in the way of insects or plant diseases. The cost 
 
 429. A crop of broom-corn. 
 
 of growing the crop, the usual prices and the yields should 
 always be determined as nearly as possible. 
 
 425. How to Study a Crop Plant. We have been directed 
 in this book to some of the important things to look for in a 
 plant, from root to fruit; and our attention has been called 
 to some of the relations of plants when they live together. 
 These observations may be made on cultivated plants 
 with as much interest as on wild plants. The cultivator of 
 plants should develop the habit of careful observation on 
 individual plants that he cultivates; this observation should 
 aid him in discovering the reasons for failure or success in 
 the growing of plants. The student should go directly to the 
 
THE PLANT THAT MAKES THE CROP 
 
 253 
 
 plant. Examine the plant where it stands, height, spread, 
 color, mode of branching and any special peculiarities: make 
 
 430. Harvesting a peanut crop. 
 
 a sketch. Collect the plant, root and all, character of root 
 as to depth and spread, mode of branching, nodules (if a 
 legume), and other features: make sketch. The specimen 
 may now be taken to the schoolroom or other laboratory, 
 and studied as to direction and size of stem, features of 
 nodes, character of bark or rind, position of branches and 
 leaves and flowers, characters of leaves and flowers and fruits, 
 how pollinated, yield, whether it bears any evidence of dis- 
 ease or insect injury or lack of normal vigor, whether it 
 has suffered in contest with its fellows or with other plants : 
 make notes and sketches. 
 
 426. Plants or plant products are sometimes judged by 
 comparing them 
 with an assumed 
 or ideal standard 
 of perfection. 
 These standards 
 may be printed in 
 form for ready 
 use, and they are 
 
 then known as 431. A crop of nursery trees. Year-old peach trees. 
 
254 
 
 CROPS 
 
 score-cards. A few useful score-cards of common cultivated 
 plants are as follows: 
 
 Plum - Points 
 
 Form 10 
 
 Size 25 
 
 Color 15 
 
 Uniformity of fruits 25 
 
 Freedom from blemish 25 
 
 100 
 Apple. 
 
 Size 10 
 
 Color 20 
 
 Good shape or form 10 
 
 Uniformity 15 
 
 Freedom from blemish 20 
 
 Texture and flavor 25 
 
 100 
 Sweet Pea. 
 
 Length of stem 25 
 
 Color 20 
 
 Size 25 
 
 Substance 15 
 
 Number of flowers on stem . 15 
 
 100 
 Wheat (grain). 
 
 Trueness to variety 10 
 
 Uniformity in size and shape 
 
 of kernel 10 
 
 Color of grain 10 
 
 Freedom from mixture 15 
 
 Size of kernel 10 
 
 Percentage and nature of im- 
 purities (weed seed, dirt) . 15 
 Percentage of damaged, 
 
 smutty or musty kernels . 5 
 Weight of grain per bus .... 10 
 Germination test .. . 15 
 
 Potato - Points 
 
 Uniformity of sample 20 
 
 Symmetry of tubers : . . 15 
 
 Trueness to type 20 
 
 Freedom from disease and 
 
 insects 15 
 
 Commercial value 30 
 
 100 
 Corn. 
 
 Adaptability to purpose. ... 25 
 Seed condition, as to whether 
 
 fresh, well kept, etc 15 
 
 Shape of kernel 15 
 
 Uniformity and trueness to 
 
 type 15 
 
 Weight of ear 10 
 
 Length and proportion of 
 
 ear 10 
 
 Color of grain and cob 5 
 
 Butts and tips covered 5 
 
 100 
 
 Determine in advance what 
 weight and proportion of ear is to 
 be assumed for the variety under 
 examination. 
 
 Carnation. 
 Color. .. 
 
 Size 
 
 Calyx... 
 Stem.. 
 
 . 25 
 . 20 
 . 5 
 . 20 
 
 Substance or texture of 
 
 flower 10 
 
 Form 15 
 
 Fragrance 5 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
FESTIVALS AND EXCURSIONS 255 
 
 The ' 'points' ' in the score-card represent the mark of 
 perfection: if the size of the carnation flower is normal for 
 the variety under examination, the particular specimen will 
 be marked 20; if it should receive a rating of only 75 per 
 cent perfect, it receives 15 points. In any large bunch of 
 carnations, one plant may be taken to represent perfection 
 in one feature and another plant for another feature; or, 
 better, if an expert carnation-grower is available he may set 
 the ideal of perfection. The pupil may make up his own 
 ideal as to what the perfect plant or product should be. 
 
 427. The Vegetation Environment. The botany class 
 should take part in a harvest festival, in which the plant 
 products of the community are exhibited, together with the 
 wild plants hi the form of leaves, flowers, nuts and other 
 interesting parts. Members of the class should explain 
 what the products and the plants mean. 
 
 428. The class should also know the most important 
 vegetation of the vicinity, and should arrange excursions for 
 the school or classroom to close-by places in order to ex- 
 plain the vegetation setting of the school; and if possible a 
 crop excursion for the entire school should be undertaken. 
 
 REVIEW. What is a crop? Name the six most important crops 
 of your neighborhood. How may crops be classified or grouped? Give 
 two examples in each group. What natural families contribute very 
 important crops in temperate regions? Outline a study blank for the 
 general study of the most important crop in the locality. Make a 
 similar outline for a study of the plant itself. What is a score-card 
 and how it is used? WTiat may an exhibition teach? An excursion? 
 
 NOTE. Various texts and bulletins now set forth the standards 
 of perfection in many of the leading crop products, and give the student 
 definite statements of what is considered to be the product that should 
 score 100. 
 
CHAPTER XXXV 
 
 THE FOREST 
 
 429. An area of trees growing close together and having 
 its own features and its own life is a forest. An avenue of 
 trees, or a grove of shade trees, is not a forest. The science 
 and the practice of growing and utilizing forests is forestry. 
 A forest is a great plant society. 
 
 430. Forest trees constitute a crop. The chief product 
 is timber; other products are stove-wood, bark, resin, tur- 
 pentine, rubber, 
 paper pulp. The 
 crop is regularly 
 harvested, in 
 some cases by 
 removing the 
 entire forest and 
 planting anew, 
 but often, in 
 planted and 
 managed forests, 
 by removing 
 
 432. A stand of young timber in need of thinning. 1 1 i 
 
 ripe trees and allowing the forest to continue. 
 
 431. The value of the forest crop depends on the kinds 
 of trees, how they are mixed or associated in the forest, and 
 the distance at which they stand apart, as well as on location 
 and soil and climate, freedom from insects and timber dis- 
 eases, and other factors. A natural forest may not be the 
 most productive forest, any more than a natural or wild 
 meadow may be a perfect meadow. There are likely to be 
 
 (256) 
 
SILVICULTURE AND ARBORICULTURE 
 
 257 
 
 open and poor spots, and many of the trees may be weed 
 trees of no value in themselves and interfering with the 
 growth of useful trees. Some natural forests (as that shown 
 in Fig. 388) present a uniform and continuous stand of 
 timber of one kind ; others (as in Fig. 387) are mixed forests. 
 Both kinds may be useful and desirable. 
 
 432. Trees standing alone or on the edge of a forest do not 
 produce good timber because they branch too low and are 
 likely to be too much exposed to wind. They produce 
 short and knotty logs. (Fig. 400.) It is essential that the 
 forest be thickly 
 
 and continu- 
 ously planted. 
 
 433. Forests 
 may be planted 
 anew; or nat- 
 ural forests may 
 be perpetuated 
 by removal of 
 ripe and unde- 
 sirable trees and 
 the in-planting 
 or saving of 
 other trees. The 
 
 planting and rearing of trees in forests is silviculture. The 
 planting and rearing of trees in general is arboriculture, 
 and this may have no direct relation to forestry, because the 
 planting may be of lawn trees, park trees, roadside trees or 
 fruit trees. Silviculture is one part of forestry; other parts 
 or divisions are forest management, harvesting, marketing, 
 timber technology. The safeguarding and utilization of the 
 forests, both on public and private lands, is one of the great 
 public questions, and demands the attention of persons of 
 special training and skill. 
 
 434. Forestry is an important farming question, for the 
 
 433. A stand of young timber after moderate thinning. 
 
258 
 
 THE FOREST 
 
 forest crop may be as important as other crops on the farm. 
 In hilly regions, practically all farms have forests, yielding 
 timber, posts, firewood and other supplies, and protect- 
 ing lands from washing, affording windbreaks, and providing 
 good use for lands that cannot be profitably devoted to 
 other crops. 
 There are many 
 planted wood- 
 lots in the West. 
 The manage- 
 ment of these 
 small forests is 
 called farm for- 
 estry. Every 
 good general 
 farmer should 
 be skillful in 
 the growing of 
 forest crops as 
 in the growing 
 of grain crops 
 or fruit crops. 
 The principles 
 of good plant- 
 growing may be 
 applied to the 
 forest, the trees 
 
 hpintr nlanfprl ^^' Absolute forest land, unadaptable to other uses. 
 
 cared for, the forest thinned if too thick (Figs. 432, 433) 
 or filled if too thin, fire kept out, and the trees properly 
 harvested. 
 
 435. What small forests contribute to the farm, the larger 
 public forests contribute to the nation or to all the people: 
 profitable utilization of remote, rocky and less fertile areas; the 
 holding back of the rainfall so that floods and serious erosions 
 
WHERE FORESTS MAY BE GROWN 
 
 259 
 
 435. Absolute forest land, a cypress swamp. 
 
 are prevented and the flow of navigable streams regulated; 
 
 protection of wild life; tempering of physical conditions 
 
 by regulation 
 
 of water -flow in 
 
 streams and lakes 
 
 and elsewhere 
 
 and by checking 
 
 the sweep of 
 
 winds; providing 
 
 an attractive 
 
 cover for large 
 
 areas of the sur- 
 face of the earth, 
 
 in which the 
 
 people may find 
 
 recreation and 
 
 help. Areas that 
 
 can be utilized for no other crop than forest are said to be 
 
 absolute forest land (Figs. 434, 435) ; and much land that is 
 
 available to some extent for pasture or other croppage 
 
 may still be most profitable in forests. (Fig. 436.) Very 
 
 special forests 
 (Fig. 437) may 
 be grown on 
 arable lands. 
 In the general 
 scheme or plan 
 of a farm, a 
 forest or wood- 
 lot may be an 
 essential part; 
 and likewise, in 
 a national 
 domain large 
 
 436. Land that may be profitably used for forestry purposes. forest areas are 
 
260 
 
 THE FOREST 
 
 essential. Even with the greater use of cement, the demand 
 for timber will increase, 
 
 REVIEW. What is a forest? Forestry? In what sense is a forest 
 a crop? On what general factors does the value of a forest crop depend? 
 Name some of the forest products. How may man produce a more 
 profitable forest than nature often does? What do you say about the 
 timber value of trees standing alone? What is aboriculture? Silvi- 
 culture? Farm forestry? What are some of the large values or benefits 
 of forests? What is the nature of the forests in your neighborhood? 
 What kinds of trees dominate them? 
 
 437. A forest of paper bamboo. 
 
PART III 
 
 HISTOLOGY, OB THE MINUTE 
 STRUCTURE OF PLANTS 
 
CHAPTER XXXVI 
 
 THE CELL 
 
 436. Plants Composed of Cells. All the higher plants 
 are made up of a large number of small structures termed 
 cells. They are so minute that, in most cases, they are 
 invisible to the naked eye. These cells are box-like structures. 
 They are of many forms. Many of the lower forms of plants, 
 as bacteria, yeasts, spores of fungi, and many of the algae, 
 are composed of but a single cell. 
 
 437. Cells are of Many Forms. In general, plant cells 
 may be assigned to some one of the following forms: 
 
 Spherical, as in protococcus (a minute alga to be found 
 on damp walls and rocks), and apple flesh; 
 
 polyhedral, or many-sided, as in pith of elder; 
 
 tabular, or flat, as in epidermis of leaves; 
 
 cylindrical, as in vaucheria, spirogyra (fresh water algae) ; 
 
 fibrous, as cotton fibers; 
 
 vascular, as the ducts of wood; 
 
 stellate, as in the interior of leaves of lathyrus (sweet 
 pea) and other plants. 
 
 438. Parts of a Cell. The typical cell is composed of 
 living and dead matter. The living matter of the cell is the 
 protoplasm. The protoplasm is differentiated into a nucleus t 
 cytoplasm and plastids. 
 
 439. The nucleus is usually a round or elliptical body, 
 denser than the remainder of the protoplasm ; .in which it may 
 be imbedded or from which it may be suspended by strands 
 of protoplasm called cytoplasm. The cytoplasm lines the wall 
 of every living cell, and commonly in old cells the nucleus 
 is in this layer of cytoplasm. In the cell may be aggregates 
 
 (263) 
 
264 
 
 THE CELL 
 
 of protoplasm forming definite structures, usually scattered 
 in the layer of cytoplasm. They are the plastids. The ones 
 most familiar are the chloroplasts, in which the green pig- 
 ment chlorophyll is imbedded. They are found in cells of 
 leaves and stems exposed to the light. Plastids are not found 
 in all cells. The dead part of the cell is the cell-wall, the cell- 
 sap stored in chambers or pockets in the protoplasm called 
 vacuoles (Fig. 438), and various inclusions. The cell-sap 
 contains mineral nutrients in solution or suspension, as well 
 as organic foods, as sugar and other sub- 
 stances. Imbedded in the cytoplasm or in 
 the plastids may be starch grains, oil 
 droplets and other substances. In the 
 nucleus is a densely granular body called 
 the nucleolus. 
 
 440. Study of Cell. Examine with the 
 aid of the microscope the cells in the sta- 
 men hair of tradescantia or spider-wort. 
 (Fig. 438.) If the flowers of this plant are 
 not available, use the young bristle hairs 
 of squash plants; a plant a few weeks old 
 will supply sufficient hairs. Note the shape 
 of the cell and the contents. The nucleus 
 will probably be located near the middle 
 of the cell, and to it run the strands of 
 cytoplasm. The protoplasm is not entirely 
 homogeneous. It is composed of a viscous, 
 colorless fluid in which are imbedded many 
 minute granules. In a young cell the pro- 
 toplasm fills almost the entire cell. In an 
 old cell the vacuoles are of increased size. 
 438. circulation of pro- Compare old and young cells in the stamen 
 topiasm in a cell of a hairs of tradescantia or in squash hairs for 
 
 stamen hair of trade- 
 
 scantia or spider- their protoplasmic content. Examine the 
 
 wort. Magnified 600 n /. ,-, i /. ,-, ~\i * 
 
 times. cells of the epidermis of the onion. Note 
 
PROTOPLASM 265 
 
 the large volume of the cell occupied by the vacuoles. The 
 protoplasm in this case will consist probably only of the 
 lining layer of cytoplasm in which the nucleus is imbedded. 
 Examine the leaf of the water plant elodea or the thin 
 leaves of some of the mosses. Note the character of chloro- 
 plasts in the cells (Pig. 439). These chloroplasts may 
 be observed hi the cells of the leaf of higher plants if a 
 cross-section of the leaf is cut and a microscopical examina- 
 tion made. Study should be made of cells of the soft pulp of 
 a celery stem; of hairs scraped from the surface of a begonia 
 leaf; of threads of spirogyra; soft, white cells of apple; the 
 
 439. Rotation of protoplasm in Elodea canadensis (often known as 
 Anacharis). Common in ponds. 
 
 cells of the potato tuber (observe the starch grains). Ex- 
 amine the lower epidermal cells of cyclamen, irises, or coleus 
 and note that the cell-sap is colored by a red pigment. 
 The beet also has cells with red pigmented cell-sap. 
 
 441. Nature of Protoplasm. The living substance is 
 protoplasm. It is proteid. Its chemical composition is not 
 known. It is semi-liquid, of hyaline color, and colloidal in 
 nature. It may be killed by heating to a high temperature 
 or by various chemical reagents. The whole principle of 
 antiseptics is based on these facts and processes. 
 
 442. Within the cell-wall, at times the protoplasm 
 shows a tendency to move from place to place. This move- 
 ment is chiefly of two kinds: (1) Circulation, or movement 
 not only along the walls but also across the cell-body, as seen 
 in the long, thin-walled cells of celandine; hi the staminal 
 hairs of tradescantia (Fig. 438); in the bristles of squash 
 vines ; in the stinging hairs of nettle ; in stellate hairs of holly- 
 hock. (2) Rotation, or movement along the walls only, well 
 
266 THE CELL 
 
 seen in the cells of many water plants, as elodea (Fig. 439) , 
 chara, and nitella. 
 
 443. Besides these and other movements of protoplasm 
 within the cell-wall, there are also movements of naked 
 protoplasm, of two main types: (1) Amceboid or creeping 
 movements, such as may be seen in a plasmodium of myxomy- 
 cetes, or in an amceba. (2) Swimming by means of cilia or 
 flagella, illustrated in the swarm-spores of water fungi, and 
 of some algae. By the latter type of movement the unicellular 
 bodies (swarm-spores) are often moved very rapidly. To 
 see movement in protoplasm, carefully mount in water a 
 few hairs from the stamens of tradescantia (spider-wort). 
 The water should not be too cold. Examine with a power 
 high enough to see the granules of protoplasm. Make a 
 sketch of several cells and their contents. It may be neces- 
 sary to make several trials before success is attained in 
 this experiment. If the microscope is cold, heat the stage 
 gently with an alcohol lamp, or by other means; or warm 
 the room. See Fig. 438. 
 
 444. Nature of Cell- wall. The cell-wall of very young 
 cells is a delicate film or membrane. As a cell grows in 
 size the wall remains thin and does not begin to thicken 
 until the cell has ceased to enlarge. The fundamental sub- 
 stance of cell-walls is a carbohydrate known as cellulose. 
 
 The cellulose usually stains blue with 
 ITr^^HL hematoxylin. Often by incrustations or de- 
 posits of one kind or another, the cellulose 
 reaction is lost or obscured. Two of the 
 most common additions are lignin, forming 
 440. Bordered pits in wood, and suberin, forming cork. The walls 
 then are said to be lignified or suberized. 
 
 445. In all the cells studied in the above experiments, 
 the walls are thin and soft. In general, those cells that 
 have thin walls, are called parenchymatous cells. Some 
 cells, as those of nuts and the grit of pear fruit, have very 
 
 
 
CELL-WALLS 
 
 267 
 
 441. Markings in cell- 
 walls, sp, spiral; an, 
 annular; sc, scalar i- 
 form. 
 
 thick walls, and are called sclerenchymatous cells. In many 
 cases the cell-walls are intermediate between these extremes. 
 446. Cell-walls often thicken by additions to their 
 inner surface. This increase in thickness seldom takes 
 place uniformly in all parts. Many times the wall remains 
 thin at certain places, while the most of the wall becomes 
 very thick. Again the walls may thicken 
 very much in angles or along certain 
 lines, while most of the wall remains 
 thin. As a result of this uneven thicken- 
 ing, the walls of cells take on certain 
 definite markings. Some of the names 
 applied to these markings are: 
 
 Pitted, with little holes or depres- 
 sions, forming very thin places, as 
 seen in seeds of sunflower, and in the large vessels in 
 the stem of the cucumber. 
 Bordered pits, when the pits are inclosed in the cell-wall. 
 
 as in wood of pines and other conifers. (Fig. 440.) 
 Spiral, with the thickening in a spiral band, as in the 
 primary wood of most woody plants and in the veins of 
 leaves. (Fig. 441.) 
 
 Annular, with thickening in the form of rings; seen 
 
 in the small vessels 
 of the bundles in 
 stem of Indian corn. 
 (Fig. 441.) 
 
 Scalariform, with 
 elongated thin 
 places in the wall, 
 alternating with the 
 thick ridges which 
 
 appear like the rounds of a ladder. (Fig. 441.) These 
 are well shown in a longitudinal section of the root of 
 the brake fern (Pteris). 
 
 442. Four steps in process of cell-division. Mother 
 cell at left, far advanced in division; daughter 
 cells at right. 
 
268 
 
 THE CELL 
 
 447. While a true cell must have cytoplasm and a nucleus, 
 the word cell is applied to the unit structures that make up 
 the plant body. Many of these cells are dead. The wood of 
 trees consists largely of dead wood. The pith of stems also 
 may consist largely of dead cells. The cells of bark are largely 
 dead cells. 
 
 448. Multiplication of Cells. Every cell owes its origin 
 to some previous cell, and all go back eventually to the germ- 
 
 443. Nuclear and cell division in the root of corn: cell with prominent resting nucleus 
 (a): prophases of nuclear division, spirem (b) and chromosome (c) stages; bipolar 
 spindle (d) ; early (e) and late (/) anaphases; telophases (g) and first evidence 
 of cell-plate ; location of cell-wall clearly defined (h) . (After Curtis.) 
 
 cells. The method whereby cells are produced is complex. 
 The process is at first internal, and consists in the formation 
 of definite aggregates of protoplasm derived from the nucleus, 
 called chromosomes. In the course of the formation of these 
 chromosomes, intricate changes occur in the cell nucleus 
 
CELL DIVISION 269 
 
 and cytoplasm. In the division of the cell, equal numbers 
 of these chromosomes are found at its equator. Half of these 
 chromosomes then go to the opposite poles of the cell and 
 unite again to form at each pole a nucleus. A cell-wall is 
 then laid down at the equator, and we have two cells in the 
 place of one. Enlargement and further changes may go on 
 in these two cells. The method of cell division by this complex 
 means is known as mitosis or karyokinesis. It is exceedingly 
 complex and too difficult for the beginner to follow or .to 
 comprehend. Some of the stages are given in Fig. 442. A 
 more detailed representation of these changes is shown in 
 Fig. 443. 
 
 REVIEW. Of what is the plant composed? What Is the general 
 nature of cells? Forms of cells? What part of the cell is dead matter? 
 Living matter? Compare different cells studied. State your conception 
 of protoplasm. State the divisions in the protoplasm. Name two kinds 
 of movement of protoplasm. What is the nature of the cell- wall? Its 
 modifications? How do cells multiply? 
 
CHAPTER XXXVII 
 
 CONTENTS AND PRODUCTS OF CELLS 
 
 449. The Living Cell is a Laboratory. In nearly all 
 cells are found one or more non-protoplasmic substances 
 produced by the plant. Some of these are very useful to 
 the plant, and others seem to be waste or by-products. There 
 is considerable division of labor among the cells of higher 
 plants, one cell or group of cells producing one product, and 
 another group of cells producing another product and func- 
 tioning in a different way. We know that there is also 
 division of labor among the different organs of a plant. 
 
 450. Chlorophyll. Cells may contain chlorophyll bodies 
 if they are exposed to the sunlight. Chlorophyll is a green 
 substance infiltrated in a protoplasmic ground-mass. It 
 imparts color to all the green parts of the plant. Its pres- 
 ence is absolutely necessary in all plants that secure their 
 nourishment wholly or in part from the air and from mineral 
 matter of soil. Review Chapter XIV. Most parasites and 
 saprophytes do not bear chlorophyll, but live on organic 
 matter (Chapter XV). The oval bodies in the cell of Figs. 
 468, 470, 471, are chloroplasts. 
 
 451. The Cell Contents. The products formed in plants 
 are of varied character and exceedingly large in number. 
 Of the more common and most abundant products are the 
 following : 
 
 Grape (glucose or dextrose, with the chem- 
 ical formula CeH^Oe). 
 Sugars { Fruit (fructose or levulose 
 
 Cane (saccharose C^ 
 Malt (Maltose Ci 2 H 22 Oii). 
 (270) 
 
CHEMICAL CONTENTS 
 
 271 
 
 starch, found in most plants. 
 Amyloses dextrin in various seeds. 
 cellulose in date seed. 
 inulin in dahlia tubers. 
 Fats and oils, as in flax seed, castor bean, cotton seed, 
 
 corn and other seeds. 
 Muscus and mucilage, as in orchid roots, onions, quince 
 
 seed, and other plants. 
 
 Tannins, as in oak and hemlock bark, persimmon, and, 
 in general, in all plants that are astringent to the taste. 
 Glucosides. Complex products which on digestion yield 
 glucose sugar as one of the products. Amygdalin of 
 almond and peach nut, and indican of the indigo plant, 
 which yields the indigo dye, are examples. 
 452. Some of the cell contents are alkaloids, complex nitro- 
 genous products, of which the following rnay be mentioned : 
 atropin, in belladonna. 
 nicotin, in tobacco. 
 emetin, in ipecac root. 
 caffein, in coffee. 
 Alkaloids ^ strychnin, in mix vomica. 
 
 morphin, in Papaver somniferum (opium 
 
 poppy). 
 quinin, in cinchona or Peruvian bark 
 
 tree. 
 
 Re"sins, as in Coniferae. 
 Gum-resins, Caoutchouc, as in India-rubber plant. 
 
 formic, as in stinging nettles. 
 acetic, as in fermented cider. 
 oxalic, mostly in form of calcium 
 Vegetable acids oxalate. 
 
 malic, as in apple. 
 citric, as in lemon. 
 And many others. 
 
272 CONTENTS AND PRODUCTS OF CELLS 
 
 453. Other cell contents are the proteids. There is a large 
 number of different proteids. They are very complex organic 
 products composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, 
 and in addition sometimes phosphorus and sulfur. The 
 white of egg is a proteid. The protoplasm itself is a proteid. 
 
 454. Of the various sugars in the cell, glucose or grape- 
 sugar, so named because it is so abundant in grapes, is 
 perhaps the most common in plants (179). It is probably 
 the first carbohydrate formed in the plant, and the one 
 from which all others are derived. It is also a product of 
 the digestion of maltose, which in turn is derived from the 
 conversion of starch in the plant. It is also one of the sugars 
 formed from the digestion of cane sugar. It is very soluble 
 and therefore is in a convenient form for transportation 
 from one part of the plant to another. Corn syrup is glucose 
 derived from starch of the corn kernel. 
 
 455. To test for glucose: Make a thick section of a bit of 
 the edible part of a pear and place it in a bath of Fehling's 
 solution. After a few moments, boil the liquid containing 
 the section for one or two minutes. It will turn to an orange 
 color, showing a deposit of an oxid of copper and perhaps 
 a little copper in the metallic form. A thin section treated 
 in like manner may be examined under the microscope, 
 and the fine particles, precipitated from the solution by the 
 sugar of the pear, may be clearly seen. Fructose and maltose, 
 as well as other organic substances, give a similar reaction 
 with Fehling's solution. In the case of fruits and other com- 
 mon products, it may be assumed that precipitation of the 
 oxid of copper is due to glucose or fructose. With barley 
 malt, the precipitation of the copper oxid is due to maltose. 
 Test various fruits by boiling them in water in a test-tube, 
 and then determine whether sugar is present by adding 
 Fehling's solution to the extract and again heating. Feh- 
 ling's solution is made by taking one part each of these three 
 solutions and two parts of water: (1) Copper sulfate, 9 
 
SUGARS, OILS AND RESINS 273 
 
 grams in 250 c.c. water; (2) sodium hydroxid, 30 grams in 
 250 c.c. water; (3) Rochelle salts (sodium potassium tartrate), 
 43 grams in 250 c.c. 
 
 456. Cane-sugar is stored as a reserve food in many 
 plants. In the maple tree, sugar-beet, sorghum, and sugar- 
 cane, cane-sugar is abundant. Test the sugar-beet for glu- 
 cose with Fehling's solution. None is found. Boil a piece 
 of sugar-beet in a little water in a test-tube. To the water 
 first add a drop of hydrochloric acid. When cool add a 
 pinch of sodium carbonate and Fehling's solution, and again 
 heat. A precipitate of oxid of copper is obtained. Cane- 
 sugar heated in the presence of hydrochloric acid is con- 
 verted into glucose and fructose. This is one test for cane- 
 sugar. Another test is as follows: (1) Make a thin section 
 of sugar-beet and let it stand a few minutes in a strong 
 solution of copper sulfate. Then carefully rinse off all the 
 salt. (2) Heat in a very strong solution of potassium hy- 
 droxid. There will be seen a blue coloration in the section, 
 gradually washing out into the liquid. 
 
 457. To test for the oil content of the cell: Mount a thin 
 section of the endosperm of castor-bean seed in water and 
 examine with high power. Small drops of oil will be abun- 
 dant. Treat the mount with alcanin (henna root in alcohol). 
 Half an hour or more may be required. The drops of oil 
 will stain red. This is a standard test for fats and oils. 
 
 458. To examine gum-resin: Mount a little of the milky 
 juice of the leaf-stem of the garden poinsettia (Euphorbia 
 pulcherrima). It is of a creamy consistency. Examination 
 under the microscope shows that it is not white, as it seems 
 to the naked eye. The particles are yellowish or colorless 
 and insoluble. These particles are gum-resin. They have 
 been emulsified by the plant, making the juice appear white. 
 
 459. Starch is the most abundant of the solid products 
 of the cell. Starch grains have a definite form for each group 
 of plants; and these groups can be determined by the form 
 
274 CONTENTS AND PRODUCTS OF CELLS 
 
 of their starch grains. Detection of adulteration of various 
 products containing starch is accomplished by the aid of 
 the microscope. This method is now particularly important 
 in determining adulteration of stock foods. In potato starch 
 the grains are ovate, with a "nucleus" near one end, as 
 shown in Fig. 444. In poinsettia they are dumb-bell shaped, 
 with two nuclei. (Fig. 444.) In corn they have equal diame- 
 ters, with radial fissures. In Egyptian lotus they are forked 
 or branched. So far as known, all starch grains are marked 
 with rings, giving a striated appearance, due to the differ- 
 ence in density of the layers. When all 
 water is driven out of the starch, the rings 
 disappear. The layers are more or less 
 concentric, and are formed about a starch 
 nucleus. 
 
 460. Starch grains may be simple, as 
 found in potato, wheat, arrow-root, corn, 
 
 444. Starch grains. ' . 
 
 a, potato; b, poinsettia; and many others; or they may be in 
 c> nce> groups called compound grains, as in 
 
 oats, rice (Fig. 444), and many of the grasses. 
 
 461. Starch may be found in all parts of the plant. It 
 is first formed in presence of chlorophyll in daytime, mostly 
 in the leaves, and at night it is converted into sugar and 
 then it is carried to some other part of the plant, as to 
 the roots or tubers, to be stored or to be used. When 
 found in the presence of chlorophyll, it is called transitory 
 starch, because it is soon converted into sugar to be trans- 
 ported to other parts of the plant. When deposited for future 
 use, as in twigs and tubers, it is stored starch. 
 
 462. The composition of starch is represented by 
 C 6 HioO 5 . The grains are insoluble in cold water, but by 
 saliva they are changed to sugars, which are soluble. Great 
 heat converts them into dextrine, which is soluble in water. 
 Starch turns blue with iodin (76). The color may be de- 
 stroyed by heat, but will return as the temperature lowers. 
 
STARCH AND PROTEIDS 275 
 
 463. To test for starch: Make pastes with wheat flour, 
 potato starch, and corn starch. Treat a little of each with 
 a solution of rather dilute iodin. Try grains from crushed 
 rice with the same solution. Are they the same color? Cut 
 a thin section from a potato, treat with iodin and examine 
 under the microscope. To study starch grains: Mount in 
 cold water a few grains of starch from each of the following: 
 potato, wheat, arrow-root (buy at drug store), rice, oats, 
 corn, euphorbia. Study the sizes, forms, layers, fissures, 
 and location of nuclei, and make a drawing of a few grains 
 of each. 
 
 464. Amylo-dextrine is a solid product of the cell much 
 resembling starch in structure, appearance, and use. With 
 the iodin-test the grains change to a wine-red color. Seeds 
 of rice, sorghum, wild rice, and other plants contain amylo- 
 dextrine. Amylo-dextrine is a half-way stage in the con- 
 version of starch into maltose and dextrine. These latter 
 substances do not react with iodin. 
 
 465. Rroteid or nitrogenous matter is stored largely in 
 the form of aleurone grains, and is most abundant in seeds 
 of various kinds. It is present also in solution or in amorphous 
 compounds. The grains are very small, colorless or yellow- 
 ish in most plants, rarely red or green. In the common 
 cereals they occupy the outer layer of cells of the endosperm. 
 (Fig. 445.) In many other cases they are distributed through- 
 out the seed. The grains vary in size and 
 
 form in different species, but are rather 
 constant within each group. They are en- 
 tirely soluble in water unless certain hard 
 parts or bodies, known as inclusions, are 
 
 , . , . TIT m>' Aleurone grains 
 
 present, and these may remain undissolved. (ai) in kernel of 
 The inclusions may be (a) crystaloids, as wheat - 
 in potato, castor-oil seed; (6) globoids, as in peach, mustard; 
 (c) calcium oxalate crystals, as in grape seed. 
 
 466. To study alevrone grains and their inclusions: Cut 
 
276 CONTENTS AND PRODUCTS OF CELLS 
 
 a thin cross-section of the peripheral cells of a grain of wheat 
 and mount in alcohol. Stain with an alcoholic solution of 
 iodin to color the grains yellow, and examine with the high- 
 est power. Make a sketch of a few layers of cells, just be- 
 neath the epidermis. Make a sketch of a few of the grains 
 removed from the cells. While looking at the mount, run a 
 little water under the cover-glass and watch the result. 
 Make a similar mount and study of the endo- 
 sperm of castor-oil seed, or of grape seed. In 
 the castor-oil seed, look for inclusions of large 
 crystaloids and small globoids. In the grape 
 seed, globoids should be found with crystals of 
 calcium oxalate within them. This experi- 446 Raphideg of 
 ment will require the power of one-sixth or rhizome of skunk 
 
 r*c t i i i . cabbage. 
 
 one-fifth inch objective. 
 
 467. Cells may contain crystals. Besides the crystals 
 found as inclusions of aleurone grains, many others occur. 
 In onion skin they are prisms; in nightshade they are in 
 the form of crystal flour; in the petioles of the peach they 
 are roundish, with many projecting angles; in the root-stock 
 of skunk cabbage, in the bulbs of hyacinth, and leaves of 
 tradescantia they are needle-shaped and are called raphides. 
 (Fig. 446.) In the leaf of the India-rubber plant (common 
 in greenhouses) are found compound clusters resembling 
 
 bunches of grapes, which are called cysto- 
 liths. (Fig. 447.) These are concretions and 
 not true crystals. In saxifrage, mineral 
 matter appears as incrustations on the sur- 
 face of the plant. Toward autumn, crystals 
 of calcium oxalate become very abundant in 
 447. Cystoiith in leaf the leaves of many deciduous trees; examine 
 FHc^eiastSa 11 *'"" cross ~ sec ^ ons f peach petiole in June and 
 again in October. 
 
 468. To study crystals and cystoliths: Section the root- 
 stock of skunk cabbage or Jack-in-the-pulpit, the leaf 
 
CRYSTALS 277 
 
 of Ficus elastica, the leaf of ivy (Hedera helix); make a 
 separate mount of each in water, and examine with the 
 high power. When the crystals are found, draw them, with 
 a view of the adjacent cells. Make a similar study of a 
 bit of thin onion skin. 
 
 REVIEW. Name ten classes of contents or products of tke cell. 
 Where found? Of what use? What is chlorophyll? What is its use? 
 What is assimilation (185)? Give outline of the products of cells 
 found dissolved in cell-sap. What are the uses of sugar to plants? 
 Name some kinds of sugar found in plants. Describe an experiment 
 to test for glucose. Same for cane-sugar. How may we find the oil 
 in plants? Describe an experiment for the study of gum-resin. Why 
 does the juice containing it appear white? Describe starch grains of 
 potato. Tell how starch grains of other plants studied differ from 
 those of potato. What are the uses of starch to the plant? Where 
 is the plant's starch factory? Describe an experiment to test for starch. 
 Name some plants in which one may find amylo-dextrine. How does 
 its test differ from that for starch? What are aleurone grains? In 
 what cells are they found in kernels of wheat? Name some of the forms 
 in which we find true crystals in plant cells. 
 
 NOTE. The digestion of starch is produced by means of enzyms 
 (183) or unorganized ferments (i.e., ferments that are not bacterial 
 or fungal, but are chemical substances). These ferments, as diastase, 
 are present in seeds and other living tissues containing starch. During 
 dormant periods the enzyms either are not present, or their action is 
 prohibited by the presence of other substances. There are various 
 specific enzyms, each producing definite chemical changes. 
 
 Grape-sugar and its associate, fruit-sugar, appear to be the forms 
 most generally useful to plants. Cane-sugar is readily inverted into 
 these sugars. 
 
CHAPTER XXXVIII 
 
 TISSUES 
 
 469. The lowest plants are unicellular or composed 
 of only one cell. Of such are bacteria. (Fig. 136.) All the 
 higher plants are composed of collections or aggregations 
 of innumerable cells: they are multicellular. If we ex- 
 amine the cells of the stem, the leaves, and the roots of any 
 common garden plant we find that they differ very widely 
 from each other in shape, size, and texture. 
 
 470. Any group of similar cells is called a tissue. Each 
 of the different tissues of a plant has its own type of cells, 
 although the cells in a tissue may differ from each other 
 in various minor ways. 
 
 471. Parenchymatous Tissue. Thin-walled cells are 
 known as parenchyma cells. When they unite they form 
 parenchymatous tissue. These may or may not be elon- 
 gated in form, and they usually contain protoplasm. Paren- 
 chymatous tissue is found at the growing point of a shoot 
 or root (Fig. 448); in the mesophyll (soft pulpy part) of 
 the leaves (Fig. 468) ; around the vascular bundles of stems 
 and roots (Fig. 455f), and in a few other places, as pith, 
 medullary rays, etc. The cells of this tissue may be meriste- 
 matic in a state of active division and growth; or they may 
 be permanent, no longer able to divide. 
 
 472. One important use of this tissue is to form other 
 tissues, as in growing points. Near the end of any young 
 root or shoot the cells are found to differ from each other 
 more or less, according to the distance from the ponit. 
 This differentiation takes place in the region just back of 
 the growing point. In the mesophyll (or middle soft part) of 
 
 (278) 
 
THE GROWING POINT 
 
 279 
 
 leaves the elaboration of plant-food takes place. Intercellular 
 spaces filled with air and other gases are common in this 
 tissue of leaves, as well as in parenchyma of other parts of 
 the plant. 
 
 473. To study growing points use the hypocotyl of Indian 
 corn. Prepared slides may be secured having stained longi- 
 tudinal sections of the hypocotyl. The median section should 
 be studied with the high power. Note these points (Fig. 
 448) : (a) Root-cap beyond the grow- 
 ing point. (6) The shape of the end 
 
 of the root proper and the shape of 
 the cells found there, (c) The group 
 of cells in the middle of the first 
 layers beenath the root-cap. This 
 group is the growing point, (d) Study 
 the slight differences in the tissues a 
 short distance back of the growing 
 point. There are four regions: the 
 plerome, several rows of cells in the 
 center; the endodermis, composed of 
 a single layer on each side; the peri- 
 blem, of several layers outside the 
 endodermis; the dermatogen, on the 
 outer edges. Make a drawing of the 
 section. If a series of the cross-sec- 
 tions of the hypocotyl should be made 
 and studied, beginning near the growing point and running 
 back some distance, it would be found that these four tissues 
 become more distinctly marked. The central cylinder of 
 plerome will contain the ducts and vessels; the endodermis 
 remains as endodermis; periblem becomes the cortex of 
 parenchyma; the dermatogen becomes the epidermis of the 
 root. 
 
 474. Epidermal Tissue is a special modification of 
 parenchyma, comprising the thin layers on the exterior of 
 
 gen; p, p, periblem; e, e, en- 
 dodermis; pi, pierome; i, in- 
 itial group of cells, or growing 
 point proper; c, root-cap. 
 
280 TISSUES 
 
 leaves and stems. The cells are often tabular or plate-like in 
 form, as in the epidermis of leaves (Fig. 137); and their 
 outer surface bears a layer of cuticle, a protective sub- 
 stance which is insoluble even in sulfuric acid. They do not 
 bear chloroplasts and often contain only cell-sap, with a 
 little protoplasm. Their walls are much thickened in some 
 cases, as in Figs. 447 and 471. Hairs and bristles are con- 
 sidered to be modified epidermal tissue. 
 
 475. Collenchymatous Tissue. Tissue composed of cells 
 thickened at the angles, not much elongated and not lapping 
 at the ends, is known as collenchyma. (Fig. 
 449.) It is strengthening tissue. Good 
 examples are found in such vines as 
 pumpkin, cucumber and gourd. The tis- 
 sue is slightly elastic and allows of some 
 stretching. Cut a few thin cross-sections 
 , of large stems of jewel-weed, and mount 
 
 449. Collenchyma in wild . J . 
 
 jewel-weed or touch- m water. Study with high power. 
 
 476. Soft Bast or Sieve Tissue. In the 
 
 higher plants is a tissue known as soft bast or sieve tissue (this 
 also forms part of the bundle; 476). It is composed of two 
 types of cells which almost always accompany each other. 
 These are sieve tubes and companion cells. (Fig. 450.) Both 
 are elongated, thin-walled and blunt at the ends. The sieve 
 tubes are so called because of the sieve-like areas that they 
 bear in various parts. These areas, called sieve plates, are 
 commonly at the ends (as partitions) but may be in the 
 lateral walls. (Fig. 450.) They serve to connect the cell- 
 cavities with each other, and through them the proto- 
 plasm strands extend, as shown in the figure. 
 
 477. Prosenchymatous Tissue. Several elongated and 
 strong tissues, that greatly strengthen the stems in which they 
 are found, are collectively known as prosenchyma. The cells 
 of these tissues become much thickened by the addition of 
 layers to the inner surface, and finally lose their protoplasm. 
 
PROSENCHYMA 
 
 281 
 
 At times they may serve as store-rooms for starch and 
 other products, and take an important part in the transfer 
 of the plant juices. 
 
 478. There are four main varieties of tissues that may be 
 included under prosen- 
 chyma. (1) Fibrous tissue, 
 composed of very thick- 
 walled cells with very 
 small central cavities. (F, 
 Fig. 454.) They are very- 
 long and tapering at the 
 ends, which lap. Such 
 tissue is found in many 
 plants where it often 
 wholly or hi part surrounds 
 the fibro-vascular bundles. 
 It is more often but not 
 always found near the soft 
 bast: hence the cells are 
 sometimes called bast 
 fibers or hard bast. (2) 
 Wood tissue, or wood fibers. 
 This is composed of cells 
 much like the preceding 
 structure, but with 
 
 in 
 
 450. Bast-tissue. , s, sieve tubes; e, com- 
 panion cell; p, shows a top view of a sieve 
 plate, with a companion cell, c, at the side 
 o, shows sieve plates in the side of the cek. 
 In s, s, the protoplasm is shrunken from the 
 walls by reagents. 
 
 thinner walls and the cen- 
 tral cavity not so nearly 
 closed. In some cases 
 such fibers have transverse walls. Wood cells constitute 
 a large part of the wood of some plants and in other 
 cases are scattered only among the other prosenchyma. 
 (3) Tracheids. Cells of this tissue differ from ordinary 
 cells in being supplied with numerous bordered pits or 
 other characteristic markings. They constitute almost all 
 of the wood of the pines and other gymnosperms. (Fig. 
 
282 
 
 TISSUES 
 
 451.) (4) Vascular tissue, composed of large cells which 
 become confluent end to end, forming long tubes or ducts. 
 (TT', Fig. 454.) From the thickened markings which these 
 cells bear they are named spiral, annular, pitted, scalariform, 
 etc. (Fig. 441.) These vessels are often of considerable 
 length, but are never continuous through the entire plant. 
 Cut a grape-vine stem 2 or 3 feet long. Place one cut end 
 in a glass of water and with, the other end in the mouth, 
 
 try to force air 
 through the stem. 
 If not successful, 
 shorten the stem 
 a little. 
 
 479. Scleren- 
 chymatous or 
 Sclerotic Tissue. 
 Sclerenchyma 
 cells are hard, not 
 elongated, often 
 somewhat spheri- 
 cal, and their 
 thickened walls 
 are provided with 
 
 Simple Or branch- 
 
 jng Canals. The 
 
 . 
 
 cells of this tissue 
 are illustrated by the common grit cells of the pear and some 
 other fruits. They are also found in the coats of many 
 seeds, in nut shells, in the pith of some plants. Hold a large 
 gritty part of a pear between two pieces of smooth elder 
 pith or cork and make free-hand sections. Mount in water. 
 Make a drawing of a single cell showing thickness of wall, 
 size of central cavity, wall markings. Note the general shape 
 of the cells. 
 
 480. Laticiferous Tissue. That tissue found in many 
 
 451. Longitudinal tangential section of Scotch pine wood, 
 highly magnified. It shows tracheids with bordered 
 pits. The dark cells are cut ends of medullary rays. 
 
THE TISSUE SYSTEMS 283 
 
 plants which contain a milky liquid is called latiriferous 
 tissue. There is no fixed type for the vessels that carry 
 this fluid, as they vary greatly in different plants, being 
 simple in the asclepias (milk-weed), and complex in the 
 dandelion. 
 
 481. Tissue Systems. The parts of complex plants 
 may be conveniently grouped into three tissue systems: 
 
 (1) Fibro-vascular tissue system. This is composed of 
 fibro-vascular bundles. The fibrous framework of roots, 
 stems, and leaves is made of fibro-vascular bundles. ("Fibro- 
 vascular" means fibrous or long and slender, and having long 
 openings or channels.) Each bundle is composed of two 
 fundamental parts: phloem and xylem. The bast fibers 
 may or may not be present. Phloem is another name for 
 the soft bast or sieve tissue, while xylem is the name of the 
 lignified or woody part, and is composed chiefly of the wood 
 cells, tracheids, and ducts. In stems of dicotyledons (exogens), 
 these two parts of the bundle are separated by cambium, 
 a meristematic layer giving rise to xylem on one side and to 
 phloem on the other. For types of bundles, see next chapter. 
 
 (2) Fundamental tissue system. This is composed of the 
 parenchymatous tissue already described. The fibrovas- 
 cular system may be said to be imbedded in the funda- 
 mental tissue. (3) Epidermal tissue system. This is the 
 covering of the other systems, and is composed of epidermal 
 tissue, already described. It should be borne in mind that 
 the types of cells and tissues as defined in this chapter 
 are not all that may be found in plants. There are many 
 intermediate forms, e.g., tracheids and ducts blend the one 
 into the other; and the same is true of wood cells and tracheids. 
 
 482. Summary of tissues studied: 
 
 1. Parenchymatous tissue. 
 
 a. meristematic. 
 
 b. permanent. 
 
 2. Epidermal tissue. 
 
284 TISSUES 
 
 3. Collenchymatous tissue. 
 
 4. Soft bast or phloem (sieve tissue). 
 
 5. Prosenchymatous tissue. 
 
 a. Fibrous tissue or bast fibers. 
 6. Wood tissue or wood fibers. 
 
 c, Tracheids. 
 
 d. Vascular tissue or ducts. 
 
 6. Sclerenchymatous or sclerotic tissue. 
 
 7. Laticiferous tissue. 
 
 8. Tissue systems. 
 
 REVIEW. What is a tissue? How may two tissues differ? What, 
 is parenchymatous tissue? Name three places where this is found. 
 Distinguish between meristematic and permanent tissue. Name two 
 uses of parenchymatous tissue. Of what utility are the intercellular 
 spaces of leaves? Describe the parts studied in the section of root 
 tip. What part of this tip will become vascular? Describe epidermal 
 tissue. Collenchyma. Sieve tissue. Of what use are the sieve areas? 
 What are the chief uses of prosenchyma? Describe fibrous tissue, 
 wood cells or wood fibers; tracheids; ducts. What does your experi- 
 ment in blowing air through a grape-vine stem indicate? Describe 
 cells of sclerotic tissue. Laticiferous tissue. Name three tissue systems. 
 What are nbro-vascular bundles? What two classes of tissue are found 
 in each bundle? Of what is phloem composed? Xylem? 
 
CHAPTER XXXIX 
 
 STRUCTURE OF STEMS AND ROOTS 
 
 483. There are two main types of stem structure in 
 flowering plants, which have their differences based upon 
 the arrangement of the nbro-vascular bundles. These types 
 are endogenous and exogenous. 
 
 484. Endogenous Stems. In endogenous stems, the 
 vascular bundles are irregularly scattered through the funda- 
 mental tissue of the stem (Fig. 452), and are not arranged 
 in circles about a common center. These plants are mono- 
 cotyledons. The bundles are not parallel with each 
 other, and are not of the same size throughout their length. 
 Fig. 453 shows the direction often taken by the bundles 
 in the stem. On the exterior there is either an epidermis 
 or a false rind. The only trees that have this kind of stem 
 are natives of the tropics or of warm countries. The palm 
 is one of them, and these 
 
 stems are sometimes called 
 the palm type. In our 
 climate are many ex- 
 amples, such as greenbrier, 
 Indian corn, asparagus, 
 grasses, orchids, iris, and 
 cat-tail. 
 
 485. To study arrange- 
 ment of bundles in corn: 
 Cut thin sections of a small 
 corn stem that has been 
 
 preserved in alcohol. Stain with hematoxylin; or the sections 
 may be examined first without staining. Examine with the 
 
 (285) 
 
 452. Cross-section of corn-stalk, showing 
 the scattered fibro- vascular bundles. 
 Slightly enlarged. 
 
286 
 
 STRUCTURE OF STEMS AND ROOTS 
 
 low power, and make a sketch showing the 
 arrangement of the bundles. The sections, if 
 mounted in a permanent way, as in balsam, 
 may be kept for further study of the bundles. 
 Compare with Fig. 454. 
 
 486. Exogenous Stems. The fibro-vascular 
 bundles in exogenous (or dicotyledonous) stems 
 are arranged in a circle around the center, 
 which is usually filled with pith. Outside the 
 ring of bundles is a cortex of fundamental 
 tissue. Around this is either a layer of cork 
 or an epidermis. Layers of parenchyma cells, 
 called medullary rays, are found between the 453. Diagram to 
 
 bi l show the course 
 
 UndleS of fibro -vascular 
 and Often bundles in mono- 
 cotyledons. 
 
 extending 
 
 from the central pith to 
 the outer cortex. These 
 usually are prominent in 
 young stems of woody 
 plants and in vines. (Fig. 
 457.) All trees and nearly 
 all other woody plants 
 of the temperate regions, 
 as well as many herba- 
 ceous plants, show this 
 plan of stem. The me- 
 dullary rays are very 
 prominent in oak wood. 
 These rays are lignified 
 in the xylem part of the 
 bundle and non-lignified 
 in the phloem part. 
 
 487. To study arrange- 
 ment of bundles in ex- 
 
 454. Fibro-vascular bundles of Indian corn, much 
 magnified. A, annular vessel; A', annular 
 or spiral vessel; TT', thick-walled vessels; 
 w, tracheids or woody tissue; F, sheath of 
 fibrous tissue surrounding the bundle; FT, 
 fundamental tissue or pith; s, sieve tissue; 
 p, sieve plate; c, companion cell; i, inter- 
 cellular space, formed by tearing down of 
 adjacent cells; w', wood parenchyma. 
 
EXOGENOUS STRUCTURE 
 
 287 
 
 P, pith; /, fundamental tis- 
 
 sue; e, epidermis. The fibro- 
 
 vascular bundles are 
 prominent. 
 
 ogens: Prepare thin cross-sections of th stems of meni- 
 spermum (moonseed), one year old, of geranium or of tomato 
 plant. Other greenhouse or garden 
 plants may be employed. Stain with 
 hematoxylin. Make a permanent 
 mount. Study with low power, and 
 make a sketch showing the shape and 
 location of the fibro-vascular bundles. 
 (Fig. 455.) Save the mount for 
 further study. If menispermum stems 
 are not easily obtained, ivy (Hedera 
 helix), clematis, geranium, coleus, 
 tomato or other plants may be substi- 
 
 tuted - In wood y stems the compres- 
 s i O n is such that the student is usu- 
 
 - j . i 1.1111 
 
 very ally puzzled to understand the bundle 
 structure. The subject will be sim- 
 plified if he compares (on cross-section) the bundles in such 
 a plant as the cucumber with that part of the vascular ring 
 that lies between any two medullary rays in one-year-old 
 stems of peach, 
 elm, oak. 
 
 488. Other 
 Stems. Be- 
 sides the two 
 types of stems 
 studied above, 
 which are prev- 
 alent among 
 phenogams, 
 there are other 
 kinds of struc- 
 tures of stems 
 
 among the Ciyp- 456. Cross-section of root of brake (Pteris aquilina), showing 
 f/^rroTv-k A twelve concentric fibro-vascular bundles. The two long 
 
 lOgamS. A COm- dark 8tra nds are composed of fibrous tissue. 
 
288 
 
 STRUCTURE OF STEMS AND ROOTS 
 
 m 
 
 457. Cross-section of fibro-vas- 
 cular bundle of moonseed (see 
 Fig. 455) . /, /, crescent-shaped 
 sheaths of bast fiber; p, 
 phloem; cp, crushed phloem; 
 c, cambium; d, xylem ducts; t, 
 xylem tracheids; m, medullary 
 rays of fundamental tissue; 
 from c to / (at bottom) , xylem ; 
 
 1, end of first year's growth; 
 
 2, end of second year's growth 
 of wood. 
 
 mon arrangement of the bundles is 
 in the form of a circle some distance 
 from the center, with a few other 
 bundles within the circle. Within 
 the circle also are sometimes large 
 areas of fibrous tissue. (Fig. 456.) 
 There are, however, wide variations 
 from this structure, but this mode 
 of arrangement is often called the 
 fern type of stem. 
 
 489. Three Types of Bundles. 
 It has already been said (481) that 
 every fibre-vascular bundle is made 
 up of two parts- (1) phloem or 
 soft bast; (2) xylem' or woo(}. The 
 relative position of these two 
 strands of tissue is very important. 
 There are three plans of arrange- 
 ment, on which three types of 
 These plans are collateral, bi-collateral 
 
 bundles are based, 
 and concentric. 
 
 490. In collateral bundles, the phloem and xylem are 
 placed side by side, the 
 xylem being nearer the 
 center of the stem and 
 the phloem outside or 
 nearer the circumfer- 
 ence of the stem. This 
 plan occurs in the stems 
 of phenogams. The col- 
 lateral bundles may be 
 either open or closed. 
 Open bundles are those 
 that continue to in- 
 
 , . ,. 458. Part of cross-section of root-stock of aspar- 
 in Size during lite agus , showing a few fibre-vascular bundles. 
 
THE STUDY OF BUNDLES 
 
 289 
 
 by the presence of a growing layer at the line of union of the 
 phloem and xylem. This layer of growing cells is called cam- 
 bium. Dicotyledonous stems have open collateral bundles. 
 (Fig. 455.) Closed bundles are those that cease growing very 
 early and have no cambium or growing layer. They are called 
 closed, perhaps from the fact that there is no means by which 
 they may become larger. Stems of monocotyledons have 
 bundles of the closed collateral type. Examine with high 
 power cross -sec- 
 tions of menisper- 
 mum stems and 
 corn stems (see 
 Figs. 454, 455, 457), 
 that have been 
 stained with hema- 
 toxylin. Study the 
 tissues found in a 
 single bundle of 
 each, with the aid 
 of the illustrations. 
 
 491. In concen- 
 tric bundles, the 
 xylem is centrally 
 placed in the 
 bundle and the 
 
 phloem is all around it, as in club mosses and ferns (Fig. 
 456) ; or the phloem is in the center of the bundle and the 
 xylem surrounds it, as in the underground stems of some 
 monocotyledons, as asparagus. (Figs. 458, 459.) 
 
 492. To see concentric bundles: Prepare cross-sections 
 of the stem of pteris or aspidium. They should be cut very 
 thin and stained with hematoxylin. Make a sketch showing 
 the arrangement of bundles. Bicollateral bundles differ 
 from the collateral in having additional phloem on the inner 
 side of the xylem strand; as in pumpkins and squashes. 
 
 459. Enlargement of a single concentric 
 bundle from Fig. 458. 
 
290 
 
 STRUCTURE OF STEMS AND ROOTS 
 
 493. In roots, the phloem and xylem are not definitely 
 arranged in bundles, but in alternating radial strands or 
 plates. This plan is typical in young roots and rootlets, 
 but is more or less obscured in older ones as seen in Fig. 467. 
 
 Microphotograph of cross-section of grape cane of a single season's growth; a 
 cambium; a-b, phloem; a-c, xylem; b-d, periderm layer, derived from phellogen, 
 which cuts off the cortex, d-e, with its primary bast bundles. Note large medullary 
 rays, m, and the large ducts for water conduction. Compare with structure of 
 pine wood, Fig. 461. 
 
THE ANNUAL RINGS 291 
 
 494. Secondary Thickening of Stems. Dicotyledonous (or 
 exogenous) stems with open collateral bundles may increase 
 in diameter each year. If they are perennial, they may add 
 a ring of growth each spring. (Fig. 461.) These rings may be 
 counted on the smooth cross-cut surface of a tree, and the 
 age of the tree usually can be very closely determined. All 
 
 461. White pine stem five years old. The outermost layer is bark. 
 
 growth in thickness due to the formation of new cells out- 
 side of the primary wood is called secondary thickening. 
 
 495. As we have seen (490), there is a cambium or grow- 
 ing layer hi every open collateral bundle just between the 
 xylem and phloem. Each spring the cells of this layer divide 
 many times and form new cells both inside and outside the 
 cambium ring. (Figs. 462, 463.) Those formed inside 
 become thick- walled and are xylem. Those formed to the 
 outside of the ring are gradually changed into phloem. The 
 crowding of the cells within the cambium ring causes the 
 
292 
 
 STRUCTURE OF STEMS AND ROOTS 
 
 ring itself to enlarge its circumference and to move out- 
 ward by this growth. 
 
 496. To study secondary thickening: Cut thin cross- 
 sections of basswood stems of different ages (one to three 
 years old) . Stain and mount. Examine with low power and 
 
 r.d 
 
 D 
 
 462. Microphotograph of cross-section showing secondary growth in larch, June 
 13; a, cambium; a-b, new phloem; a-c, new wood. D. Tagential section of wood 
 of pine, showing transverse section of medullary rays; rd, transverse resin-duct. 
 
 sketch the arrangement of bundles in the oldest and young- 
 est. Note the effect of growth on the medullary rays. Test 
 them with iodin for starch. Now with the high power 
 study the peculiar character of the bast tissue. Note the 
 abundance of fibrous tissue all through it. Draw a 
 single bundle from the stem one year old, carefully show- 
 ing the location of the cambium and the different tissues 
 in the xylem and phloem strands. (Fig. 464). It may 
 be thought best to precede this experiment with a similar 
 study of two-year-old stem of moonseed, ivy or other 
 vines. 
 
THE BARK 
 
 293 
 
 463. Cambium tissue a-b, in larch, May 20. Lower 
 quarter, cells of old xylem. Upper quarter, 
 cells of old phloem. Diameter increase just 
 about to begin. Medullary rays are shown. 
 Magnification 500 times. 
 
 497. Bark. In most 
 
 woody plants, that part 
 
 of the stem which is 
 
 outside the cambium 
 
 ring is called bark. At 
 
 first it contains the 
 
 epidermis or outer layer 
 
 of cells, the phloem 
 
 and the cortex lying 
 
 between the epidermis 
 
 and the phloem. The 
 
 gradual growth of the 
 
 stem causes the outer 
 
 dead layers of bark 
 
 to crack more or less 
 
 irregularly and finally 
 
 to split off. Examples of this can be seen on the trunks 
 
 of any large trees. Before the tree is many years old, 
 
 the cortical cells of the bark become much crushed and 
 
 are lost to view. The epidermis is shed rather early in 
 
 the life of the tree. 
 498. Usually 
 very early in the 
 life of the stem a 
 corky layer of bark 
 is produced. This 
 is the product of an 
 active layer of cells 
 called phellogen. 
 This layer is first 
 found at those 
 places where the 
 
 ^^V stomates were 
 
 located. The epider- 
 
 464. Section of basswood stem, five years old. . . c i i 
 
 The cone-shaped growths of phloem are plainly seen. BUS IS farst Crowded 
 
294 
 
 STRUCTURE OF STEMS AND ROOTS 
 
 off at these places, and the rough corky spots are called 
 lenticels. Phellogen is_very active in the cork oak of Spain, 
 but it occurs in nearly all woody 
 plants. In such plants as button- 
 wood (sycamore), in which the bark 
 peels off in thin, flat layers, the 
 phellogen layer is nearly uniformly 
 active in all parts, while in many 
 other cases there is very little uni- 
 formity. In wahoo (burning-bush) it is in four bands, giv- 
 ing rise to four corner wings. In the section of menisper- 
 mum already studied, it is found only under the lenticel 
 spots where the stomates have been located. Fig. 465 shows 
 structure of the outer bark as it occurs in the whole circum- 
 ference of the three-year-old stem of red currant. 
 
 499. To study phellogen and corky tissue: Cut thin cross- 
 
 465. Cross-section of red cur- 
 rant twig, showing bark. 
 c, corky tissue; p, phellogen; 
 g, parenchyma or cortex 
 
 466. White pine stem in radial longitudinal section. 
 
 Tracheids on the left with medullary rays crossing them. Next to the wood 
 is the phloem, then fundamental tissue, then the dark bark. 
 
 sections of red currant from stems two or three years old 
 that have been kept in alcohol at least several hours. The 
 sections should be stained. With the highest power make 
 a careful study of the phellogen and the corky tissue outside 
 
STRUCTURE OF ROOTS 
 
 295 
 
 467. Microphotograph of cross-section of root of grape one season old; m, medullary 
 rays; a, cambium; a, c, phloem; a, 6, xylem. 
 
 of it. Draw. The relation of bark to woody tissue in pine 
 is shown in Fig. 461. Cork tissue may be studied to 
 advantage in the skin of the potato. 
 
 500. Structure of Roots. At the growing point, the 
 root has a cap (of small compact cells) that protects the 
 delicate tissues from injury. (Fig. 448.) Such a protection 
 
296 STRUCTURE OF STEMS AND ROOTS 
 
 does not occur in growing points (buds) of stems. In their 
 internal structure roots differ from stems, especially when 
 very young. In older roots the differentiation is not so 
 marked. (Fig. 467.) Young roots have the radial arrange- 
 ment of phloem and xylem (490). The number of xylem 
 strands radiating from the center differs with the plant. 
 In roots also there is almost uniformly a true endodermis. 
 This layer is just within the cortex and is composed of 
 rather thick-walled cells. However, many rhizomes and 
 stems have a true endodermis. 
 
 501. To study pea roots: From the roots of the pea 
 a few weeks old cut thin cross-sections; stain and mount. 
 With the aid of the low power make a sketch showing the 
 arrangement of the strands of wood and bast, and also the 
 amount of fundamental tissue. Use the highest power and 
 draw a portion including one strand of wood and two of 
 bast. In this part, draw the tissues from the center out 
 beyond the endodermis. Sections may also be made of the 
 roots of germinating pumpkins or squashes. 
 
 REVIEW. Name two types of stems occurring in flowering plants. 
 Describe each and give examples to illustrate them. Give the plan 
 of arrangement of bundles in fern stems. How many types of bundles 
 are there? Upon what do their differences depend? Describe and give 
 examples of collateral bundles. What difference is there between open 
 and closed collateral bundles? Give examples of each. Describe 
 and give examples of concentric bundles. Radial arrangement. What 
 is secondary thickening? What plants show it? What is the layei 
 called that forms the new cells in a bundle? When is this layer most 
 active? Describe the work of this layer. What part of each bundle ol 
 a dicotyledon is found in the bark? What are lenticels? What is phel- 
 logen? Describe the work of phellogen in any plant you have studied. 
 Where is the root cap? What is its use? Describe fully the structure 
 of roots, telling how they differ from stems. 
 
CHAPTER XL 
 
 STRUCTURE OF LEAVES 
 
 502. Besides the framework or system of veins found 
 in blades of all leaves, there is a soft tissue (468) called 
 mesophyll or leaf-parenchyma, and an epidermis that covers 
 the entire outside part. 
 
 503. Mesophyll. The mesophyll is not all alike or homo- 
 geneous. The upper layer of it is composed of elongated 
 cells placed perpendicular to the surface of the leaf. These 
 are called palisade cells. The chlorophyll grains are most 
 abundant in them, because they are on the side of the leaf 
 most directly exposed to the sunlight. Below the palisade 
 cells is the spongy parenchyma, composed of cells more or 
 less spherical in shape, irregularly arranged, and provided 
 with many intercellular air cavities. (Fig. 468; also Fig. 
 137.) In leaves of some plants exposed to strong light 
 there may be more than 
 
 one layer of palisade 
 cells, as in the India- 
 rubber plant and ole- 
 ander. Ivy, when grown 
 in bright light, will de- 
 velop two such layers of 
 cells, but in shaded places 
 it may be found as in 
 Fig. 468. Such plants as 
 iris and compass plant, 
 which have both surfaces of the leaf equally exposed to sun- 
 light, usually have a palisade layer beneath each epidermis. 
 
 504. Epidermis. The outer or epidermal cells of leaves 
 
 (297) 
 
 468. Cross-section of ivy leaf, which grew in 
 shade and has only one layer of palisade 
 cells, u, upper epidermis; p, palisade cells; 
 c, a crystal; sp, spongy parenchyma; f, in- 
 tercellular space; I, lower epidermis. The 
 plant here intended is the true or English 
 ivy, Hedera helix. 
 
298 
 
 STRUCTURE OF LEAVES 
 
 do not bear chlorophyll, but are usually so transparent that 
 the green mesophyll can be seen through them. They often 
 become very thick-walled, and are in most plants devoid of 
 all protoplasm except a thin layer lining the walls, the 
 cavities being filled with cell-sap. This sap is sometimes 
 colored, as in the under surface of begonia leaves. It is 
 not common to find more than one layer of epidermal cells 
 on each surface of a leaf. The epidermis serves to retain 
 moisture in the leaf. In desert plants the epidermis as a 
 rule is very thick and has a dense cuticle. 
 
 505. There are various outgrowths of the epidermis. 
 Hairs are the chief of these. They may be (1) simple, as 
 on primula, geranium, naegelia; (2) once branched, as on wall- 
 flower; (3) compound, as on verbascum or mullein; (4) 
 disk-like, as on shepherdia (Fig. 469); (5) stellate, or star- 
 shaped, as in certain 
 crucif ers. In some 
 cases the hairs are 
 glandular, as in Pri- 
 mula sinensis and cer- 
 tain hairs of pumpkin 
 flowers. 
 
 506. To study epi- 
 dermal hairs: For this 
 study use the leaves 
 of the plants men- 
 tioned above or others 
 that may be substi- 
 tuted. Cross-sections 
 may be so made as to 
 bring hairs on the 
 edge of the sections. Or, in some cases, the hairs may be 
 peeled or scraped from the epidermis and placed in water 
 on a slide. Make sketch of the different kinds of hairs. 
 507. Stomates are small openings or pores in the epi- 
 
 469. Disk-like or radial, hairs of shepherdia. 
 
THE STOMATES 
 
 299 
 
 470. Stomate of ge- 
 ranium leaf, show- 
 
 dermis of leaves and soft stems, allowing the passage of 
 
 air and other gases and vapors. They are placed near the 
 
 large intercellular spaces of the mesophyll. Fig. 470 shows 
 the usual structure. There are two guard- 
 cells at the mouth of each stomate, which 
 may in most cases open or close the passage. 
 It is commonly thought that the opening 
 and closing of the guard-cells is in response 
 to different moisture conditions of the 
 ing the guard-ceiis. atmosp h e re. When the air is dry it is 
 
 assumed that the stomates close 
 
 and thus retard water loss from 
 
 the plant, and vice versa. The 
 
 stomates have generally been 
 
 thought to regulate transpiration. 
 
 This is not true. In Fig. 471 is 
 
 shown a case in which there are 
 
 compound guard-cells, that of ivy. 
 
 On the margins of certain leaves, as of fuchsia, impatiens, 
 
 and cabbage, are modified stomates known as water-pores. 
 
 508. Stomates are very numerous, as will be seen from 
 the numbers giving the pores to each square inch of leaf 
 surface: ^^ Upper 
 
 surface surface 
 
 Peony 13,790 None 
 
 Holly 63,600 None 
 
 Lilac 160,000 None 
 
 Mistletoe 200 200 
 
 Tradescantia 2,000 2,000 
 
 Garden Flag 11,572 11,572 
 
 The arrangement of stomates on the leaf differs with 
 each kind of plant. Figs. 472 and 473 show stomates on two 
 plants, and also the outlines of contiguous epidermal cells. 
 The guard-cells contain chloroplasts. 
 
 509. Fall of the Leaf. In most common deciduous plants, 
 when the season's work for the leaf is ended some of the 
 
 471. Stomate of ivy, showing 
 compound guard-cells. 
 
300 STRUCTURE OF LEAVES 
 
 nutrients are withdrawn into the stem, and a layer of corky 
 cells is completed over the surface of the stem where the 
 leaf is attached. The leaf soon falls. It often falls even 
 before killed by frost. Deciduous leaves begin to show 
 the surface line of articulation in the early growing season. 
 This articulation may be observed at any time during the 
 summer. The area of the twig once covered by the petioles 
 is called the leaf-scar after the leaf has fallen. Figs. 57, 87, 
 91 show a number of leaf-scars. Fig. 474 shows the leaf- 
 scar in the form of a ring surrounding the bud, for in the 
 plane-tree the bud is covered by the hollowed end of the 
 petiole; sumac is a similar case. Examine with a hand- 
 lens leaf-scars of several woody plants. Note the number of 
 bundle-scars in each leaf-scar. Sections may be cut through 
 a leaf-scar and examined with the microscope. Note the 
 character of cells that cover 
 the leaf-scar surface. Com- 
 pare 216. 
 
 472. Stomates of geranium leaf. 473. Grouped stomates on a begonia leaf, 
 
 REVIEW. Name three tissues found in leaves. On the board, 
 draw a sketch showing the structure of a leaf as seen in cross-section, 
 What cells of leaves bear protoplasm and chlorophyll? Why do some 
 leaves have palisade cells near both surfaces? Describe epidermal 
 cells. Why are their walls much more thickened in some plants than 
 mothers? What is the purpose of epidermis? What are stomates? Dra\* 
 on the board a section through a stomate showing epidermis and 
 mesophyll. Give some idea of number of stomates in various plants, 
 Name several types of epidermal hairs. What utility could be suggested 
 for the dense coat of hairs on leaves of shepherdia? (Fig. 469.) 
 
 NOTE. To study leaf tissues: A number of leaves can be com- 
 
HOW TO STUDY LEAF HISTOLOGY 301 
 
 pared by making free-hand cross-sections of leaves held between two 
 pieces of pith or cork, and mounting the material in water. Study 
 such leaves as ivy (Hedera helix), begonia, cycas, geranium, and corn. 
 Note the number of layers of palisade cells, the spongy parenchyma, 
 the epidermal layers. Which cells bear chlorophyll? Write a brief 
 description of the tissues of each leaf, and make a drawing of the geranium . 
 
 To study stomates in. cross-section: In the cross-sections of leaves 
 of geranium, corn, ivy, lily, or spider-lily prepared for the above exper- 
 iment, look for the stomates and make a careful drawing from the one 
 you can see best. 
 
 Study of stomates in surface 
 view: From the under surface of 
 leaves of geranium and impatiens, 
 peel bits of epidermis by tearing 
 the leaf. Mount these in water 
 and examine under low power. 
 Are the stomates scattered or in 
 groups? With the aid of a higher W^ 474 . Leaf ^ 10Br of the plane . tree or 
 
 power, draw a few Stomates show- I sycamore. The scar surrounds 
 
 ing their guard-cells and the sur- '** <? ^ which was covered by 
 
 the hollow base of the petiole. 
 
 rounding epidermal cells. Make _^s 
 
 a similar study and sketch of the epidermis torn from the under surface 
 
 of a Begonia sanguinea leaf. 
 
 The openings or pores are known as stomata, singular stoma; also as 
 stomates, singular stomate. 
 
 NOTE ON SCOPE, APPARATUS, AND METHODS. The work outlined 
 in Part III is sufficient, if well done, to occupy one period of the pupil's 
 time each school day for six weeks. These chapters are intended 
 only as laboratory guides. The pupil should work out each structure 
 or part for himself before taking up the succeeding subject. The work 
 in this Part deals with only the elements of the subject, but it is as 
 much as the pupil can hope to take up with profit in an outline course. 
 Apparatus. The apparatus necessary for the work outlined in 
 these chapters on histology may be secured from dealers in micro- 
 scopes and laboratory supplies at a low figure. Schools should obtain 
 catalogues from the following and other reliable dealers: 
 
 Bausch & Lomb Optical Co., Rochester, N. Y. 
 
 Eimer & Amend, New York. 
 
 The Franklin Educational Co., Boston. 
 
 Ward's Natural Science Establishment, Rochester. 
 
 Richards & Co., Chicago and New York. 
 
302 
 
 STRUCTURE OF LEAVES 
 
 Spencer Lens Co., Buffalo. 
 
 Williams, Brown & Earle, Philadelphia. 
 
 Geneva Optical Co., Chicago. 
 
 Whitall, Tatum & Co., New York. 
 
 Chas. Lentz & Sons, Philadelphia. 
 
 Kny-Scheerer Co., New York. 
 
 Cambridge Botanical Supply Co., Cambridge, Mass. 
 
 475. All material and apparatus should be kept under cover when not in use 
 
 The microscope should have a 1-inch and perhaps a 2-inch eye- 
 piece, and two objectives of say % and l / & focal lengths. By arrang- 
 ing the laboratory study of the pupils at different times, each microscope 
 may be used by three, four, or even more pupils. 
 
 There should be a microtome or section-cutter for use by the class. 
 If possible, each pupil should have his own individual tools and 
 bottles of reagents, as follows: 
 
 1 good razor (hollow-ground on one side only). 
 1 small scalpel. 
 
 1 pair forceps. 
 
 2 sharp needles mounted in handles (as penholders). (Fig. 215), 
 1 medicine dropper. 
 
 1 small camel's-hair brush. 
 A number of slides and cover-glasses. 
 Of reagents, stains, and other chemicals, there should be the following 
 
 lodin dissolved in alcohol. 
 
 Potassium hydroxide solution. 
 
 Fehling's solution. 
 
 Alcanna (henna root in alcohol). 
 
 Formalin. 
 
 Glycerine. 
 95 per cent alcohol. 
 Canada balsam. 
 Xylol. 
 
 Copper sulfate solution, 
 lodin dissolved in water. 
 
 Preparing and keeping laboratory material. In preparing material 
 for the experiments outlined in Part III, the pupil or teacher will find 
 
APPARATUS AND SUPPLIES 303 
 
 it best to secure much of the material during the growing season and 
 preserve it until the time for use. Material collected can be prepared 
 by placing it immediately in 95 per cent alcohol and then transferring 
 it after twelve hours into 70 per cent alcohol, in which it may be stored 
 for future use. Material may also be prepared in a 2 or 2^ per cent 
 solution of formalin. Formalin burns the skin. 
 
 Free-hand cutting and mounting. To cut sections, the material 
 may often be held between pieces of pith or smooth cork by the fingers. 
 The material and sections should be kept wet with alcohol during the 
 time of cutting. 
 
 The sections when cut should be wet in water, then stained with 
 Delafield's hematoxylin for a few minutes; drain off the hematoxylin 
 and rinse with water; then use 95 per cent followed by absolute 
 alcohol, to extract all the water from the sections; then pour on xylol 
 for a few minutes. If the section is too heavily stained, some of the 
 stain may be removed by repeated rinsing with water. Mount the 
 section on the slide in a drop of balsam and cover with the thin cover- 
 glass. Mounts so made are permanent. 
 
 Hematoxylin does not mix readily with alcohol, and balsam does 
 not mix with water nor with alcohol. Sections mounted before they 
 are freed from water become cloudy and worthless. 
 
 All materials should be kept covered when not in actual use, and 
 always in order. (Figs. 475, 476.) A good work-table may be made on 
 the side of the school-room. (Fig. 477.) 
 
 Microtome sectioning. The sectioning may be improved by the 
 use of a hand microtome, that may be purchased of a dealer at 
 small cost. A more complicated microtome may be employed, but in 
 this case the material must first be imbedded in a matrix like collodion, 
 paraffine or other substance. This imbedding is a complex process; 
 the material must first be treated with various reagents. The method 
 will not be considered here. The reader should refer to Chamberlain's 
 "Methods in Plant Histology" or to Stevens' "Plant Anatomy" for 
 the methods necessary and for directions for staining. 
 
 476. Box of microscope slides, and a packet of collodion drying in a glass vessel. 
 
PART IV. THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
PART IV 
 
 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 Number of Plants. Above 120,000 distinct kinds or 
 species of seed-bearing plants are known and described. 
 Probably little more than one-half of the total number now 
 existing on the earth is known. Even in the older countries 
 and regions, seed-bearing plants heretofore unknown to 
 science are discovered now and then. Outlying regions 
 are relatively little known botanically. Large parts of 
 Africa, South America, Central America, China, Central 
 Asia, and the tropical islands are only imperfectly explored 
 for plants. Cryptogamous plants are very numerous in 
 kinds, and many kinds as, for example, various bacteria 
 are almost infinite in numbers of individuals. In the 
 lower ranges of cryptogamous plants, as in fungi and bac- 
 teria, new kinds are being described even in countries in 
 which they have been carefully studied. 
 
 Species. Each kind of plant is called a species. There 
 is no absolute mark or characteristic of a species. Between 
 many kinds there are intermediate forms, and some kinds 
 vary immensely under different conditions. What one 
 botanist considers as a distinct species another botanist 
 may regard as only a variety or form of another species. 
 No two botanists agree as to the number of species in any 
 region. Species are not things in themselves. In practice, 
 any kind of plant that is distinct enough to be recognized 
 by a description, and that is fairly constant over a con- 
 siderable territory, is called a species. We make species 
 merely to enable us to talk and to write about plants : we 
 must have names to call them by.- The different kinds of 
 
 (307) 
 
308 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 plants are the results of evolution. Probably none of them 
 was created in the beginning as we now find it. 
 
 Names of Species. For more than one hundred and 
 fifty years (since Linnaeus published "Species Plantarum" in 
 1753), species have been known by two names, the generic 
 and the specific. The generic name is the name of the 
 genus or group to which the plant belongs: it corresponds 
 to a surname. The specific name belongs only to the par- 
 ticular species or kind: it corresponds to a given or Chris- 
 tian name. Both names are necessary, however, to desig- 
 nate the species. Thus Quercus is the generic name of 
 all the oaks. Quercus alba is one of the oaks (the white 
 oak), Q. virginiana (the live-oak) another. All maples be- 
 long to the genus Acer, and all elders to Sambucus. The 
 same specific name may be used in any genus, as the same 
 Christian name may be used in any family. Thus, there 
 is a Quercus nigra, Cyperus niger, Acer nigrum, the word 
 "niger" meaning black. 
 
 By common consent, the oldest proper name of any 
 species must stand. If a species happens to have been 
 named and described twice, for example, the first name, if 
 in the proper genus, must hold; the later name becomes a 
 synonym. It sometimes happens that the same specific 
 name has been given to different plants of the same genus. 
 Of course this name can be allowed to stand for only one 
 species, and the other species must receive another name. 
 In order to avoid confusion of this and other kinds, it is 
 customary to write the author's name with the species- 
 name that he makes. Thus, if Gray describes a new 
 Anemone, his name is written after the plant-name: Ane- 
 mone cylindrica, Gray. The author's name thus becomes 
 an index to the history of the species-name. 
 
 Plant-names are thrown into the forms of the Latin 
 language. When plants first were studied seriously, knowl- 
 edge was preserved in. Latin, and Latin names were used 
 
PLANT NAMES 309 
 
 for plants. The Latin form is now a part of the technical 
 system of plant and animal nomenclature, and is accepted 
 in all countries; and the Latin language is as good as any 
 other. In the Latin language all plant-names have gender, 
 and the termination of the word usually differs in each gender. 
 The species-name must agree with the genus-name in 
 gender. Acer is neuter: so are* A. rubrum and A. nigrum. 
 Cyperus is masculine; so is C. niger. Quercus is feminine, 
 although masculine in form, but trees and shrubs are feminine 
 in Latin: so we write Q. nigra. Masculine, feminine, and 
 neuter endings are seen in Rubus sativus, Pastinaca saliva, 
 Pisum sativum. "Sati-vus" means cultivated. 
 
 The name of a species not only identifies the species, but 
 classifies it. Thus, if a plant is named in the genus Acer, 
 it belongs to the maples; if it is named in Fragaria, it belongs 
 to the strawberries; if it is named in Pyrus, it is allied to 
 apples and pears; if it is Helianthus, it is one of the sunflowers. 
 
 Use of Knowing Plant-names. The name is an intro- 
 duction to the plant, as it is to a person. It is an index 
 to its history and literature. It enables us to think and 
 to speak about the plant with directness and precision. It 
 brings us nearer to the plant and increases our interest in it. 
 
 The name is a means, not an end. Merely to know the 
 name is of little use or satisfaction. Knowing the name 
 should be only one step in knowing the plant. Of late 
 years, the determining of the names of plants has been 
 discouraged as a school-exercise. This is because all in- 
 quiry stopped when the name was secured. A name was a 
 stone wall when it should have been a gate. 
 
 How to Find Out the Names of Plants. There can 
 be no short-cut to the names of plants, for names cannot 
 be known accurately until the plant is known. The name 
 and the plant should be indissolubly associated hi the mind. 
 Study first the plant. If one does not know the plant, there 
 is no occasion for knowing its name. 
 
310 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 Learn first to classify plants: names will follow. Look 
 for resemblances, and group the plants around some well- 
 known kind. Look for sunflower-like, lily-like, rose-like, 
 mint-like, mustard-like, pea-like, carrot-like plants. These 
 great groups are families. The families of plants are bet- 
 ter recognized by studying a few representative plants than 
 by memorizing technical descriptions. Go to the botany 
 and use the keys in these families, in order to run the plant 
 down to its genus and species. If the family is not recog- 
 nized, use the key to find the family. Use the keys at first: 
 gradually discard them. When one looks for relationships, 
 the vegetable kingdom comes to have continuity and mean- 
 ing. Merely to know names of plants here and there is of 
 little use. 
 
 It is unwise for the beginner to try first to find the name 
 of any plant. Let him first examine familiar plants or those 
 which seem to be related to other plants that he knows. 
 Let him get in mind the bold characteristics of the families 
 which are most dominant in his locality. After a time, in 
 case of each new plant, he should be able to give a shrewd 
 guess as to its family; then he may go to the book to verify 
 the guess. 
 
 In the following Flora, about fifty well-marked families 
 are chosen for study. Some of them are not the most char- 
 acteristic of American vegetation, but they are such as 
 afford easily accessible species, either in the wild or in culti- 
 vation, and which are not too difficult for the beginner. 
 The pupil should begin with plants of which he knows the 
 common names or with which he is familiar. Several plants 
 should be studied in each family, that he may grasp the 
 characteristics of the family and thereby be led to 
 compare plant-groups and to clarify his perception and 
 widen his horizon. When these families, or the larger 
 part of them, are understood, if the pupil desires further 
 knowledge of species, he may go to the regular manuals in 
 
THE HERBARIUM 311 
 
 which species are grouped or classified according to their 
 natural affinities. It is well to study more than one plant in 
 a genus whenever possible, for then close comparisons can 
 be made. 
 
 Making a Collection. The making of a collection of 
 plants focuses one's attention, defines one's ideas, and affords 
 material for study at any season. The collecting and pre- 
 serving of plants should be encouraged. Not until one 
 searches for himself, and collects with his own hands, can 
 he know plants. The collection should not be an end, how- 
 ever. It should be only a means of knowing plants as they 
 live and grow. Too often the pupil thinks it sufficient 
 merely to have made a collection, but the collection of itself 
 is scarcely worth the while. 
 
 Plants are preserved by drying them under pressure. 
 The collection, when properly arranged and labeled, is an 
 herbarium. Each species should be represented by sufficient 
 specimens to display the stems, foliage, flowers, fruits. If 
 the plant is an herb, its roots should be shown. There should 
 be several or many specimens of each species, to show the 
 different forms that it assumes. It is less important to 
 have an herbarium of many species than to have one showing 
 the life-phases of a few species. First make specimens 
 of the common species: later one may include the rare ones 
 if he choose, although an herbarium that selects plants 
 merely because they are rare is of little account except as 
 a collection of curiosities. The commonest plants are usually 
 the least represented in herbaria. 
 
 Dry the plants between blotters that are 12 inches 
 wide and 18 inches long. These blotters are called "driers." 
 They may be purchased of dealers in botanical supplies, 
 or they can be cut from felt "carpet paper." It is well to 
 place the specimen in a folded sheet of newspaper, and 
 then lay the newspaper between the driers. If the specimens 
 are large or succulent, three or four driers should be laid 
 
312 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 between them. The sheets may be piled one above another, 
 until the pile becomes so high (10-16 inches) that it tends to 
 tip over. On the top place a board of the dimensions of the 
 drier, and apply twenty to thirty pounds of stones or other 
 weight. Change the driers but not the newspapers once 
 a day at first, laying the moist driers in the sun for a time. 
 In a dry warm place, most plants will dry in a week or ten 
 days. When thoroughly dried, they retain no soft, sappy, 
 fresh-green areas, and they usually break if bent sharply. 
 They will be perfectly flat. 
 
 The use of corrugated paste-board has proved very satis- 
 factory in drying specimens. The board should be of the 
 same size as .the driers. Place one of the corrugated boards 
 upon a table; over it lay a drier; then the sheet containing 
 the specimen; over this a drier; then another corrugated 
 board, a drier, a sheet containing specimens, and so on. The 
 corrugations of the board provide air passages for the re- 
 moval of moisture absorbed from the specimens by the driers; 
 and, unless very succulent plants are being pressed, it is not 
 necessary to change driers at any time while the specimens 
 are drying. The pile should be weighted as described above. 
 
 The specimen may now be secured to strong white 
 paper, known as "mounting paper." The regulation size 
 of the sheets is HJ^xlGJ^ inches. It is the quality of 
 heaviest ledger paper. By the ream, it can be bought for 
 one cent or less a sheet. The specimen should be large 
 enough nearly or quite to cover the sheet, unless the entire 
 plant is smaller than this. It may be glued down tight, as 
 one pastes pictures in a scrap-book, or it may be held in 
 place by strips of gummed paper. The former is the better 
 way, because the plants are not so easily broken. Only 
 one species should go on a sheet. In one comer, glue the 
 label. This label should give the place and date of collecting, 
 name of collector, and any information as to height, color, 
 nature of soil, and the like. Sooner or later, the label should 
 
MAKING THE HERBARIUM 
 
 313 
 
 contain the name of the plant; but the name need not be 
 determined until after the plant is mounted. (Fig. 478.) 
 
 The sheets of one genus are laid together in a folded 
 sheet of strong straw-colored paper. This folded sheet is 
 
 478. An herbarium sheet. In this case, the specimens are held in place 
 by strips of glued paper. 
 
 the "genus cover." Its size when folded is 11% x 16J/2 
 inches. On the lower left-hand corner the name of the 
 genus is written. If one has many sheets in one genus 
 say more than 20 it may be necessary to have more than 
 
314 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 one cover for them. The covers are laid in cupboards flat- 
 wise, one on the other, and the sheets then retain their 
 shape and are always ready for use. 
 
 Explanation of the Flora. The following Flora con- 
 tains 625 species of plants in 294 genera and 51 families. 
 These species are selected from common and representative 
 plants, in the hope that 50 to 100 of them may be secured 
 by any pupil. The pupil should collect his own specimens 
 as far as possible, and he should press and preserve them 
 after he has studied the structure. Familiarity with 100 
 plants will give the pupil a good grasp of plant forms, pro- 
 vided he does not stop with merely acquiring the names and 
 pressing the specimens. He should know how the plants 
 look, where they grow, how they associate with other plants, 
 how long they live, and the like. 
 
 Avoid the use of keys as much as possible: learn to 
 see the plant as a whole : go directly to the family, if possible. 
 But it may be necessary to use keys at first. In this book 
 coordinate parts of the key are marked by the same letter: 
 e.g., F, FF, FFF, are three coordinate entries. Coordinate 
 entries are also introduced by the same catch-word, as 
 "flowers," "leaves," "fruit." Using a key is a process of 
 elimination. First try the plant in A; if it does not belong 
 there, go to AA. Then repeat the search in D, DD, etc., until 
 the family is found. 
 
 Synonyms are placed in parentheses immediately fol- 
 lowing the accepted name. Thus "Impatiens biflora, Walt. 
 (7. fulva, Nutt.)" means that the accepted name is Walter's 
 /. biflora, but that the plant is also known by Nuttall's 
 name, /. fulva. 
 
 Proper pronunciation is suggested by the accent, which 
 indicates both the emphatic syllable and the length of the 
 vowel. The grave accent (*) indicates a long vowel; the 
 acute ('), a short vowel. Terminal vowels are pronounced 
 in Latin words. The word officinale is pronounced offid- 
 
THE KEY 315 
 
 nay-ly; aurea with au as in Laura; virginiana with the a as in 
 hay; alba, with a as in had; acutiloba with i as in hill; minor 
 with i as in mine; halimifolia with o as in hole; japdnica with 
 o as in con; rumex with u as in tune; f unkia with u as in run. 
 
 Key to the families as represented in the following pages 
 
 A. CRYPTOGAMS: no true flowers or seeds: propagating by means 
 
 of spores Filices, p. 321 
 
 AA. PHENOGAMS: bearing flowers and seeds. 
 
 B. GYMNOSPERMS: seeds naked (not enclosed in ovaries), borne 
 in cones or berries: no conspicuous flowers: Ivs. needle- 
 shaped or scale-like: plants usually evergreen Coniferx, p. 324 
 
 BB. ANGIOSPERMS: seeds borne in ovaries: flowers usually showy: 
 
 leaves very various, mostly deciduous. 
 
 c. Monocotyledons: cotyledon 1: leaves mostly parallel- 
 veined, not falling with distinct articulation: stem with 
 scattered fibro-vascular bundles (endogenous) and no 
 separable bark: flowers mostly 3-merous. 
 D. Flowers without true perianth, except sometimes small 
 scales, or bracts, or bristles, but inclosed by green 
 alternate glumes, or chaffy bracts: arranged in spikes 
 or spikelets: grass-like plants. 
 
 E. Glumes in pairs, of 2 sorts (glumes and palets): culms 
 round, hollow: leaf -sheaths usually split on one side 
 
 opposite blade 
 
 Graminex, or Grass Family, not treated here. 
 
 BE. Glume or scale single, with flower in axil: perianth 
 
 none or replaced by bristles: culm triangular, solid; 
 
 sheath entire or closed 
 
 Cyperacese, or Sedge Family, not treated here. 
 (For grass-like plants having flowers with 6 similar, green 
 or chaffy bracts [glumaceous segments], culms solid, 
 See Juncacex, or Rush Family, not included here.) 
 DD. Flowers without glumes, borne on spadix, small, incon- 
 spicuous, usually attended by spathe Aracese, p. 327 
 
 DDD. Flowers not on spadices, mostly conspicuous. 
 E. Perianth free from ovary. 
 
 F. The perianth with all parts similarly colored. 
 
 G. Parts of perianth 6, similar, green or chaffy 
 (bract-like) or glume-like (glumaceous segments). 
 
 Juncacex. 
 
 GG. Parts of perianth 6, regular, colored . . . .Liliacex, p. 328 
 FT. The perianth with parts differently colored. 
 
 G. Leaves in a whorl: stigmas 3 .Trillium in Liliacex, p. 332 
 GG. Leaves alternate: stigma 1 Commelinacese, p. 334 
 
316 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 EB. Perianth-tube adherent to ovary wholly or partly: 
 flowers perfect. 
 
 F. Anthers 3 Iridaceae, p. 337 
 
 FF. Anthers 6 Amaryllidaceae, p. 335 
 
 FFF. Anthers 1 or 2, united with pistil, gynandrous 
 
 Orchidacex, p. 339 
 
 cc. Dicotyledons: cotyledons 2 or more: leaves mostly netted- 
 veined, usually falling with a distinct joint or articula- 
 tion: stem with concentric layers of wood when more 
 than one year old (exogenous), and a distinct separable 
 bark: flowers mostly 5-merous or 4-merous (comprising 
 the remainder of this key). 
 
 D. Choripetalae: petals distinct or wanting (i. e., flowers 
 polypetalous, apetalous or naked, in distinction from 
 gamopetalous, DD, p. 319). 
 E. Flowers characteristically apetalous; mostly small and 
 
 often greenish, inconspicuous. 
 F. Plants woody. 
 
 G. The flowers monoecious or dioecious, one or both 
 
 sorts in catkins. 
 
 H. Fertile flowers in short catkins or heads: calyx 
 regular in the pistillate flower, becoming 
 
 fleshy or juicy in the fruit (juice milky) 
 
 Urticacese, p. 345 
 
 HH. Fertile flowers 1-3 in a cup-like involucre: 
 or 2 or 3 at each scale of the pistillate catkin: 
 fruit dry, often winged, or a 1-seeded nut: 
 
 sterile fls. in elongated catkins Cupuliferae, p. 342 
 
 GG. The flowers not in catkins. 
 
 H. Calyx-tube adherent to ovary: climbing 
 
 Aristolochiacese, p. 348 
 HH. Calyx-tube hypogynous. 
 i. Leaves opposite. 
 
 j. Fruit a double samara, 2-winged 
 
 Sapindacex, p. 343 
 jj. Fruit a single-winged samara or 1-seeded 
 
 drupe: stamens 2 Oieacese, p. 388 
 
 jjj. Fruit not winged: 3-seeded: stamens 4 
 
 Euphorbiaceae, p. 351 
 ii. Leaves alternate. 
 
 j. Styles or stigmas 2 or 2-cleft; stamens 
 equal the calyx-lobes and opposite to 
 
 them Urticaceae, p. 345 
 
 jj. Styles or stigmas 3, each 2-cleft: pod 3- 
 celled and 3-seeded: flowers 3-parted: 
 fruit a dry capsule: stamens 8 to many.. . 
 
 Euphorbiaceae, p. 351 
 
THE KEY 317 
 
 FF. Plants herbaceous: flowers not in catkins or amenta. 
 
 G. Ovary inferior, 6-celled : stamens 6 or 12 
 
 Aristolochiaceae, p. 348 
 GG. Ovary superior, 1-celled. 
 
 H. Stamens indefinite Ranunculoceae, p. 355 
 
 HH. Stamens few (4-12). 
 
 i. Styles 2-3: stipules sheathing stem at nodes 
 
 of the alternate leaves Polygonaceae, p. 349 
 
 ii. Style single: stipules not sheathing stem 
 
 Urticacex, p. 345 
 
 GGG. Ovary superior, 3-celled Euphorbiaceae, p. 351 
 
 EE . Flowers characteristically polypetalous, generally showy. 
 F. Plants woody. 
 
 G. The stamens numerous (more than 10). 
 H. Leaves alternate. 
 
 i. Ovary 1, simple or compound, or ovaries 
 numerous; fruit a drupe or fleshy: stamens 
 distinct, inserted on the cup-shaped recep- 
 tacle Rosaceae, p. 385 
 
 ii. Ovaries many or numerous: stamens many, 
 
 monodelphous Malvaceae, p. 372 
 
 HH. Leaves opposite: ovary single, 2-5-celled: fruit 
 
 a dry capsule Saxifragaceae, p. 393 
 
 GG. The stamens 10, or less than 10. 
 
 H. Stamens 2 (rarely or accidentally 3 or 4) : fruit a 
 
 drupe, or 2-celled berry or 2-celled pod 
 
 Oleaceae, p. 420 
 HH. Stamens 5, alternate with petals: fruit a berry. 
 
 Saxifragaceae, p. 393 
 
 Stamens 5 or 10 united at base, some sterile: 
 leaves simple: fruit 5-lobed, carpels separating 
 from central axis when ripe. . . . .Geraniaceae, p. 373 
 Stamens 5-10: leaves compound: fruit a leathery 
 1-3-valved pod and flower irregular: or, fruit 
 a 3-celled inflated (bladdery) pod and flowers 
 
 regular Sapindaceae, p. 375 
 
 HHHHH. Stamens usually 10, monadelphous, diadel- 
 
 phous, or distinct: fruit a legume 
 
 Leguminosae, p. 379 
 FF. Plants herbaceous. 
 
 G. The stamens 10 or more. 
 
 H. Ovary 1, simple: fruit a 1-2-seeded berry 
 
 Berberidoceae, p. 360 
 HH. Ovaries several, simple. 
 
 i. Stamens indefinite, hypogynous 
 
 Ranunculaceae, p. 355 
 
318 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 ii. Stamens indefinite, inserted on cup-like recep- 
 tacle Rosacex, p. 385 
 
 HHH. Ovary compound. 
 
 i. Water plants: leaves flat and floating, or 
 
 heart-shaped and erect Nymphaeacese, p. 361 
 
 ii. Land plants. 
 
 j. Ovary compound and 1-celled. 
 
 K. With central placentae, many-ovuled: 
 
 plants juicy (watery) Portulacacese, p. 371 
 
 KK. With 2 or more parietal placentae: colored 
 
 or milky juice Papaxeracese, p. 362 
 
 KKK. With 3 or more parietal placentae: leaves 
 opposite: juice not milky: flowers 
 
 yellow, cymose Hypericacex, p. 370 
 
 jj. Ovary compound, several-celled: stamens 
 
 monadclphous Malvaceae, p. 372 
 
 GG. The stamens 10 or less in number. 
 
 H. Ovary single, 1-celled, simple or compound, 
 i. Corolla regular or nearly so. 
 j. Sepals and petals 4-5 each. 
 K. Leaves alternate. 
 
 L. Stigma 1 Leguminosae, p. 379 
 
 LL. Stigmas 4 Saxifragaceae, p. 393 
 
 KK. Leaves opposite, punctate : flowers yellow. 
 
 Hypericaceas, p. 370 
 KKK. Leaves opposite, not punctate: flowers 
 
 pink, red, white Caryophyllaceae, p. 353 
 
 jj. Sepals 2: petals 4-5 Portulacaceae, p. 371 
 
 jjj. Sepals 6: stamens hypogynous, opposite 
 
 to the petals Berberidaceae, p. 360 
 
 ii. Corolla irregular. 
 
 j. Fruit a legume Leguminosae, p. 379 
 
 jj. Fruit a capsule. 
 
 K. Petals 5: stamens 5: pod 1-celled, 3-valved. 
 
 Violaceae, p. 369 
 
 KK. Petals 4: stamens 6, diadelphous: fruit 
 2-valved (globular) 1-seeded, indehis- 
 
 cent in Fumaria Fumariaceae, p. 363 
 
 HH. Ovary 2-5-celled: fruit dry. 
 
 i. Fruit of 2 dry seed-like carpels: flowers small, 
 
 umbelled or in heads: stamens 5. . Umbelliferae, p. 397 
 n. Fruit a 2-celled pod, silique or silicle, or some- 
 times loment, or indehiscent and nut-like: 
 flowers not truly umbelled, but solitary or 
 in racemes. 
 
 j. Stamens 6: sepals 4: petals (0 or) 4 
 
 Cruciferae, p. 365 
 
THE KEY 319 
 
 jj. Stamens 4-8, distinct or monad elphous ; fls. 
 very irregular: sepals 5, unequal and some 
 of them colored: petals 3 (or 5, with 2 
 
 scale-like): pods 2-seeded Polygalaceae, p. 378 
 
 m. Fruit (or ovary) a 4-celled capsule: stamens 2, 
 
 4 or 8: petals 0, 2 or 4 Onogracex, p. 396 
 
 nn. Fruit (or ovary) a 5-celled capsule. 
 
 j. Leaves simple, evergreen: seeds minute, 
 innumerable: plants white, or yellowish, 
 parasitic or saprophytic about the roots 
 
 of trees Ericaceae, p. 423 
 
 jj. Leaves simple, more or less lobed or divided, 
 capsule 5-10-seeded: or stem succulent 
 and translucent: pod walls elastic, each 
 
 cell several-seeded Geraniaceae, p. 373 
 
 jjj. Leaves compound, palmately 3-foliolate .... 
 
 Oxalis in Geraniaceae, p. 373 
 urn. Fruit of 2 follicles, seeds hairy tufted: juice 
 
 milky Asclepiadacex, p. 417 
 
 DD. GAMOPETAI^E: corolla in one piece, at least toward tne 
 base (as if the petals were more or less united): calyx 
 and corolla both present. 
 
 E. Stamens more numerous than corolla-lobes. 
 ." F. Ovary 1-celled, 1 parietal placenta: fruit a legume.. . 
 
 Leguminosac , p. 379 
 FF. Ovary 3, several-celled. 
 
 o. The stamens nearly or quite free from corolla: 
 
 style 1 Ericaceae, p. 423 
 
 GG. The stamens free from corolla: styles 5 
 
 Oxalis in Geraniaceae, p. 373 
 GGG. The stamens on base of corolla-tube: filaments 
 
 monadelphous Malvaceae, p. 372 
 
 EE. Stamens as many in number as the lobes of the corolla 
 and inserted opposite to the lobes: ovary 1-celled: 
 
 style and stigma 1 : pod several to many-seeded 
 
 Primulocese, p. 422 
 
 EEE. Stamens equal in number to lobes of corolla and alter- 
 nate with them, or fewer in number. 
 F. Ovary inferior. 
 
 c. The stamens distinct, inserted on corolla, 4 or 
 5: ovary 2-5-celled. 
 
 H. Leaves whorled or opposite with stipules 
 
 Rubiaceae, p. 426 
 
 HH. Leaves opposite, without true stipules 
 
 Caprifolioceae, p. 427 
 
 GO. The stamens inserted on corolla and united by 
 anthers. 
 
320 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 H. Flowers in a head with involucre subtending. . . . 
 
 Compositae, p. 431 
 HH. Flowers not in involucrate heads, but separate: 
 
 corolla irregular Lobeliacess, p. 431 
 
 GOG. The stamens not inserted on corolla and not 
 united to each other: no stipules: juice milky.. . . 
 
 Campanulacess, p. 430 
 FF. Ovary superior. 
 
 G. Corolla irregular: stamens 4, in 2 pairs: or 2 
 stamens: the ovary deeply 4-lobed around the 
 style: fruits 4 dry nutlets: stem square.. Ldbiatse, p. 400 
 GG. Corolla somewhat irregular: stamens 5, inserted on 
 corolla. 
 
 H. The ovary deeply 4-lobed about the style 
 
 Echium in Borraginaceae, p. 412 
 
 HH. The ovary not lobed: pod many-seeded: fila- 
 ments all or some woolly 
 
 Verbascum in Scrophulariaceae, p. 405 
 GGG. Corolla regular: stamens equal in number to the 
 
 lobes of the corolla. 
 H. Ovaries 2, distinct: Ivs. opposite: juice milky: 
 
 styles or stigmas united into 1. 
 i. Stamens separate, inserted on corolla: corolla 
 bell -shaped, funnel- or sal ver - formed :' 
 
 pollen granular, as usual Apocynaceae, p. 418 
 
 n. Stamens monadelphous, anthers attached to 
 stigma: a crown of hood-like appendages each 
 containing an incurved horn, borne on the 
 stamen-tube : pollen cohering in masses (waxy 
 
 or granular) Asclepiadacex, p. 417 
 
 HH. Ovary 1, deeply 4-lobed around style (2-lobed 
 
 in Heliotropium). 
 i. Leaves alternate: plants usually rough-hairy.. . 
 
 Borraginaceae, p. 412 
 
 ii. Leaves opposite: stems square 
 
 Mentha in Lobiatae, p. 400 
 HHH. Ovary 1, not deeply lobed, 1 -celled: ovules 
 
 parietal, or 2 parietal placentae, 
 i. Leaves simple, entire, opposite, exstipulate. . . . 
 
 Gentianaceae, p. 417 
 ii. Leaves toothed, lobed or pinnately compound, 
 
 mostly alternate Hydrophyllaceae, p. 415 
 
 Ovary not deeply lobed, 2-10-celled. 
 
 i. Leaves none: parasites, twining 
 
 Cuscuta in Convolvulaceas, p. 411 
 n. Leaves opposite, without stipules. 
 
THE KEY 321 
 
 j. Stamens free from corolla but inserted with 
 
 it: style 1 Ericaceae, p. 423 
 
 jj. Stamens inserted on tube of corolla. 
 
 K. Number of stamens 4 in 2 sets: ovary 
 
 2-4-celled (cells I-seeded)...Verbenoceae, p. 403 
 KK. Number of stamens 5 or (rarely) more. 
 
 L. Fruit 2 or 4 nutlets .... Borraginaceae, p. 412 
 LL. Fruit a pod, few-seeded. 
 
 M. Calyx 5-lobed: styles 3-cleft 
 
 Polemonioceae, p. 416 
 
 MM. Calyx 5-lobed: style 1 or 2, or 2-cleft: 
 ovary 2-celled (rarely 3-celled): 
 seeds good-sized, 1 or 2 per cell: 
 
 generally twining herbs 
 
 Convolvulaceas, p. 411 
 LLL. Fruit a pod, many-seeded, or' a berry: 
 
 style 1 Solanaceae, p. 408 
 
 GGGG. Corolla regular or irregular: stamens fewer than 
 
 the corolla-lobes. 
 H. Stamens 2: ovary 4-lobed: corolla nearly 
 
 equally 4-lobed Lycopus in Lobiatae, p. 400 
 
 HH. Stamens 2 (rarely 3): ovary 2-celled. 
 
 i. Woody plants, shrubs or trees: corolla regular, 
 
 4-cleft Oleaceae, p. 420 
 
 ii. Herbs: corolla wheel-shaped or salver-shaped, 
 with a 4-parted (rarely 5-parted) border, 
 
 or somewhat irregular 
 
 Veronica in Scrophularioceae, p. 408 
 
 A. CRYPTOGAMS. 
 I. FILICES. FERNS. 
 
 Herbaceous and leafy plants, ours without stems or trunks above 
 ground, but producing perennial rootstocks: plants flowerless and 
 seedless, but bearing spores in sporangia, the latter collected into 
 son which are usually borne on the under side or margins of the fronds 
 and which are sometimes covered with an indusium. Most abundant 
 in warm countries, of about 4,000 species, of which about 165 are native 
 to the United States. The leaflets of fern-fronds are pinnae; the second- 
 ary leaflets are pinnules. 
 
 A. Fruit borne in contracted panicles or on specially con- 
 tracted parts of the frond, these parts being devoid 
 of resemblance to green leaves. 
 
322 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 B. Sporangia large and globose, without a ring of special 
 
 cells running around their margin 1. Osmunda 
 
 BE. Sporangia with a ring of prominent elastic cells run- 
 ning around the margin, and which are concerned 
 
 in the dehiscence 2. Onoclea 
 
 AA. Fruit borne on the back of green fronds (the fruiting 
 pinnae sometimes narrowed but still leaf-like), sporan- 
 gia with a ring of elastic cells. 
 
 B. Sori naked (no indusium) 3. Polypodium 
 
 BB. Sori borne under the reflexed margins of the frond. 
 c. Pinnae entire on the lower edge, somewhat trian- 
 gular in outline 4. Adiantum 
 
 cc. Pinnae toothed on both margins, oblong in outline... 5. Pteris 
 BBB. Sori covered with a distinct scale-like indusium. 
 
 c. Shape of sori oblong 6. Asplenium 
 
 cc. Shape circular. 
 
 D. Indusium circular-peltate, without a sinus 7. Polystichum 
 
 DD. Indusium reniform, or if circular with a narrow 
 
 sinus 8. Aspidium 
 
 1. OSMUNDA. FLOWERING FERN. 
 
 Strong ferns from stout creeping rootstocks, with large, pinnate fronds: 
 sporangia covered with interwoven ridges, but wanting the elastic ring of 
 most ferns. Inhabitants of bogs and wet woods. 
 
 O. regalis, Linn. Royal fern. Top of the frond contracted into a fruit- 
 ing panicle: frond 2-pin- 
 nate, the pinnae oblong, ob- 
 tuse, and nearly entire. 
 
 O. Claytoniana, Linn. 
 Fig. 479. Two to four pairs 
 of pinnae near the middle 
 of the frond contracted into 
 fruit-bearing parts: pinnae 
 linear-lanceolate and acute, 
 deeply lobed. 
 
 O. cinnamdmea, Linn. 
 479. Osmunda Claytoniana (left). Osmunda Cinnamon fern , Fig . 479. 
 cinnamomea. 
 
 Some fronds entirely con- 
 tracted into fruiting parts, and these cinnamon colored (whence the ver- 
 nacular name): sterile form with the fronds much like those of O. Clay- 
 toniana in shape except more acute at top. 
 
 2. ONOCLEA. SENSITIVE FERN. 
 
 Mostly rather strong ferns, with broad sterile fronds and with the fertile 
 fronds rolled into hard contracted fruiting bodies, which remain after the 
 sterile leafy fronds have perished: sporangia with an elastic marginal ring 
 of cells. Bogs and old springy fields. 
 
FERNS 323 
 
 O. sensibilis, Linn. Sensitive fern. Brake. Fig. 337. Sterile frond 
 triangular-ovate, the pinnae not extending quite to the midrib and toothed: 
 fertile frond usually lower than the other (1-2 ft. high), with a few pinnae. 
 Common in old pastures. 
 
 O. Struthi&pteris, Hoffm. Ostrich fern. Very tall (2-5 ft.), the 
 sterile fronds narrow, once-pinnate, with long-lanceolate acute-lobed 
 pinnae: fertile fronds much shorter, blackish, with many pinnae. 
 
 3. POLYPODIUM. POLYPODY. 
 
 Small ferns, with simple or once-pinnate fronds from slender creeping 
 rootstocks: sori round, borne at the ends of little veins. On dry cliffs. 
 
 P. vulgare, Linn. Common polypody or polypode. Figs. 333, 334. 
 Fronds a foot or less tall, narrow-oblong in outline, pinnatifid, the lobes 
 nearly or quite entire: fertile pinnae not contracted. 
 
 4. ADIANTUM. MAIDENHAIR FERN. Fig. 336. 
 
 Small ferns with compound forking fronds and wedge-shaped or some- 
 what triangular pinnae, shining stipes or petioles, and sori borne at the 
 ends of the veins under the reflex ed margins of the pinnae. 
 
 A. pedatum, Linn. Common maidenhair. Plant 2 ft. or less high, the 
 leaves forking into several or many long pinnae which bear broad pinnules 
 notched on the upper margin. Cool, shady woods. Very graceful. 
 
 5. PTfiRIS. BRAKE. 
 
 Coarse ferns of mostly dryish places, with long pinnae: sporangia borne 
 beneath the reflexed margin of the pinnules, on small, transverse veins. 
 
 P. aquilina, Linn. Common brake. Figs. 139, 335. Fronds broadly 
 triangular, twice- or thrice-pinnate, the pinnules long-lanceolate, acuminate, 
 and lobed. Common in sunny places: perhaps our commonest fern. Two 
 to 3 ft. high, growing in patches, particularly in burned areas. 
 
 6. ASPLfcNIUM. SPLEENWORT. 
 
 Middle-sized ferns, mostly with pinnate leaves: sori oblong or linear, 
 borne on the upper side of a veinlet, or back to back on opposite sides of 
 the veinlet, these veinlets not interwoven. 
 
 A. Filix-fdemina, Linn. Lady-fern. Large, the fronds 2-3 ft. tall, 
 growing many together, twice-pinnate, the pinnules oblong-pointed and 
 sharp-toothed: sori short and close together, at maturity becoming more 
 or less continuous. A very common fern in moist woods and copses. 
 
 7. POL? STICHUM. CHRISTMAS FERN. 
 
 Much like the last in general appearance, but the sori circular and 
 covered with peltate indusia. 
 
 P. acrosticholdes, Kuntze (Aspidium acrostichoides, Swartz). Christmas 
 fern. Figs. 331, 332. Fronds 2 ft. or less tall, narrow, once-pinnate, the 
 pinnae serrate and bearing a larger tooth on the upper side near the base, 
 the terminal part of the frond somewhat contracted in fruit. Common in 
 woods. Nearly or quite evergreen. 
 
324 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 8. ASPIDIUM. SHIELD FERN. 
 
 Resembles Polystichum but with reniform indusia or, if circular-peltate, 
 having a distinct sinus along one side. 
 
 A. Thelypteris, Swartz (Dryopteris The- 
 lypteris, Gray). Marsh shield fern. Fronds 
 standing 2 ft. high, long-pointed, once-pin- 
 nate, the pinnae many-lobed, the margins of 
 the fertile fronds revolute. 
 
 A. marginale, Swartz (Dryopteris mar- 
 ginalis, Gray). Fig. 480. Large, handsome 
 
 fern growing in woods and ravines, 2 ft. 
 4oU. Aspidium marginale. . . , ., . 
 
 high: fronds once-pinnate, the pmnce pinna- 
 
 tifid and lance-acuminate: sori large and close to the margin of the frond: 
 petiole chaffy. 
 
 AA. PHENOGAMS: B. GYMNOSPERMS. 
 II. CONIFERS. CONE-BEARING or PINE FAMILY. 
 
 Woody plants, mostly trees, with resinous sap and stiff needle- 
 shaped or scale-like, mostly evergreen leaves: plants bearing no ovaries, 
 the ovules lying naked and receiving the pollen directly: flowers 
 diclinous (usually monoecious), generally in scaly catkins, those cat- 
 kins bearing the pistillate flowers maturing into cones but sometimes 
 becoming berry-like (as in junipers). Above 300 species, one-third 
 of which inhabit North America: particularly abundant in elevated 
 and mountainous regions. 
 
 A. Cone dry, with overlapping scales. 
 
 B. Scales many and cones 1 in. or more long. 
 
 c. Leaves long and needle-like, in sheaths or bundles of 
 
 2-5, persistent 1. Pinus 
 
 cc. Leaves short, scattered, persistent. 
 
 D. In cross-section, Ivs. 4-sided: sessile 2. Picea 
 
 DD. In cross-section, Ivs. flat: short-petioled 3. Tsuga 
 
 ccc. Leaves short but very slender, in clusters, deciduous. 4. Larix 
 
 BB. Scales few (3-12), the cones about Yi in. long 5. Thuja 
 
 AA. Cone modified into a fleshy, berry-like body 6. Juniperus 
 
 1. PiNUS. PINE. 
 
 Trees with long, persistent, needle-shaped, angled leaves, in bundles of 
 2-5, and with scale-like deciduous leaves on the young branchlets: sterile 
 catkins usually borne at the base of the new shoot: fertile cones maturing 
 the second year, often hanging on the tree for years: cotyledons several. 
 
 P. Strdbus, Linn. White pine. Figs. 158, 299. Large forest tree, much 
 
PINES AND SPRUCES 
 
 325 
 
 481. Pinus rigida. 
 Old open cone at the left. 
 
 used for lumber: leaves long and soft, light green, in 5's: cones long and 
 
 symmetrical, with thin-edged scales, terminal on the shoots and falling 
 
 after shedding the seeds. Grows as far 
 
 south as Georgia. 
 
 P. palustris, Mill. Long-leaved pine. 
 
 Very tall tree, with nearly smooth bark: 
 
 leaves very long and slender (usually a 
 
 foot or more), clusters at the ends of the 
 
 branches, in 3's: cones 6 in. or more 
 
 long, the scales tipped with a short 
 
 curved spine. Lumber tree. Virginia, 
 
 south. 
 
 P. rigida, Mill. Pitch pine. Fig. 481. 
 
 Medium-sized or small tree with rough 
 
 dark bark: leaves short and stiff, usually 
 
 in 3's: cone 23 in. long, conical, the 
 
 scales with a short spine. Grows as far 
 
 south as Virginia; common in pine barrens of the north Atlantic coast. An 
 
 eastern species. 
 
 P. sylvestris, Linn. Scotch pine. Fig. 482. Medium-sized tree, with glau- 
 cous green leaves in 2's: cone short, the scales tipped with a prickle or point. 
 
 Europe; very commonly 
 planted. 
 
 P. austriaca, Hoss. 
 Austrian pine. Fig. 482. 
 Large tree with rough 
 bark, and long, dark 
 green stiff leaves (about 
 6 in. long) in 2's: cone 
 about 3 in. long, the 
 scales not prickly. 
 Europe, commonly 
 planted; a coarser tree 
 482. Pinus sylvestris (left). Pinus austriaca. than the Scotch pine. 
 
 2. PlCEA. SPRUCE. 
 
 Trees of medium or large size, with short, scattered leaves: cones 
 maturing the first year, hanging at maturity, their scales thin. 
 
 P. Abies, Karst. (P. excelsa, Link). Norway spruce. Figs. 297, 298. 
 Becoming a tall tree: cones 6-7 in. long, the large scales very thin-edged. 
 Europe, but the commonest of planted evergreens. Until 25-40 years old, 
 the trees are symmetrical cone-shaped 
 specimens, holding their lower 
 branches. 
 
 P. mariana, B.S.P. (P. 
 
 rngra, 
 Link). Black spruce. Fig. 483. Becom- 
 
 483. Picea mariana. 
 
326 
 
 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 ing a middle-sized tree, with dull, dark foliage; cones 1^ in. or less long, 
 usually hanging for several years, the edges of the scales often irregular. 
 Cold woods, as far south as North Carolina in the mountains. 
 
 3. TStTGA. HEMLOCK SPRUCE. 
 
 Differs from Picea in having 
 flat 2-ranked petioled leaves : cones 
 hanging on the end of last year's 
 branches. 
 
 T. canadensis, Carr. Hemlock. 
 Fig. 484. Large forest tree, with 
 
 Tsuga canadensis. deep-furrowed dark bark and 
 
 coarse wood: leaves whitish be- 
 neath: cones not an inch long, compact. Common lumber tree. Bark much 
 used in tanning. 
 
 4. LARIX. LARCH. 
 
 Trees of medium size: leaves soft, short, in fascicles or clusters on 
 short branchlets; falling in autumn: cones much like those of Picea, but 
 standing erect at maturity. 
 
 L. decidua, Mill. (L. europcea, DC.). European larch. Leaves 1 in. 
 long: cones of many scales, about 1 in. long-. Planted for ornament and 
 timber. 
 
 L. laricina, Koch (L. americana, Michx.). Tamarack. Hackmatack. 
 Leaves shorter and pale in color: cones of few scales, % m - or less long. 
 Swamps. 
 
 5. THtTJA. ARBORVIT^:. 
 
 Trees, becoming large: leaves opposite, closely appressed to the branch- 
 lets, the latter frond-like: cones small, oblong or globular, of few scales. 
 Leaves awl-like on new growths and scale-like on the older growths. 
 
 T. occidentalis, Linn. Arborvitoe. White cedar of some places. Fig. 
 485. Cones ^ in. or less long, bearing 2-winged seeds. Swamps and cold 
 woods, as far south as North Carolina in 
 the mountains. Very commonly planted 
 as a hedge evergreen and as single speci- 
 mens, but in the wild becoming very large 
 trees and much used for telegraph poles. 
 
 485. Thuja occidentalis. 
 
 6. JUNfPERUS. JUNIPER. 
 
 Small trees or shrubs, with opposite 
 or whorled awl-like leaves (often of two 
 kinds) : fertile catkin of 3-6 fleshy scales 
 which cohere and form a berry-like fruit containing 1-3 hard seeds. 
 
 J. communis, Linn. Common juniper. Shrub, erect or usually spreading 
 and lying close to the ground, with leaves in whorls of 3 and all alike (awl- 
 like) : berries large and smooth. Banks and sterile ground. 
 
THE ARUMS 327 
 
 J. virginiana, Linn. Red cedar. Savin. Small tree or large shrub, 
 usually narrow pyramidal in growth, with leaves of two kinds (scale-like 
 and awl -like, the former small and lying close to the branch): berry glaucous: 
 heart-wood red and highly scented. Common on banks and in old fields. 
 
 BB. ANGIOSPERMS: C. MONOCOTYLEDONS. 
 III. ARACE^E. ARUM FAMILY. 
 
 Perennial herbs, with rhizomes or corm-like tubers and acrid juice: 
 flowers minute, often diclinous and naked, borne on a spadix and 
 surrounded or attended by a spathe: fruit usually a berry, the entire 
 spadix usually enlarging and bearing the coherent berries in a large 
 head or spike. Leaves often netted-veined. Mostly tropical plants, 
 and some of temperate regions, many of them odd and grotesque. 
 Genera about 100; species about 1,000. Representative plants are 
 skunk cabbage, jack-in-the-pulpit, calla, caladium, anthurium. 
 
 A. Leaves compound 1. Arisaema 
 
 AA. Leaves simple. 
 
 B. Spathe hooded or roofed at the top 2. Symplocarpus 
 
 BB. Spathe open or spreading at the top 3. Richardia 
 
 BBB. Spathe open and spreading for its whole length 4. Calla 
 
 BBBB. Spathe separated from spadix, appearing lateral. . . .5. Acorus 
 
 1. ARISAEMA. INDIAN TURNIP. JACK-IN-THE-PULPIT. 
 
 Stem arising from a corm-like tuber, and bearing 1 or 2 compound leaves 
 with sheathing petioles: flowers naked and diclinous, the pistillate at the 
 base of the spadix and the staminate above them (or the plant dioecious), 
 the top of the spadix not flo wer- bearing : staminate flowers of a few sessile 
 anthers, and the pistillate with 1 sessile ovary, which ripens into a red few- 
 seeded berry. Plants of spring or early summer, in rich woods. Tuber 
 very pungent, often used in domestic medicine. 
 
 A. triphyllum, Schott. Jack-in-the-pulpit. Common Indian turnip. 
 Fig. 251.' Leaves usually 2, each bearing 3 oblong elliptic pointed leaflets: 
 spathe purple-striped, curving over the spadix. 
 
 A. Dracontium, Schott. Dragon-root. Leaf usually 1, with 7-11 narrow 
 oblong leaflets: spathe greenish, shorter than the spadix. 
 
 2. SYMPLOCARPUS. SKUNK CABBAGE. 
 
 Leaves and flowers arising from a strong rootstock, the Ivs. very large 
 and appearing after the spathes: fls. perfect, each with 4 sepals, 4 stamens 
 and single ovary which is sunk in the fleshy spadix : fruit made up of the 
 fleshy spadix with imbedded fleshy seeds: spathe pointed and arching, in- 
 closing the spadix. Common in wet meadows in the northeastern states. 
 
328 
 
 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 S. fdetidus, Nutt. Spathes purple, arising in the earliest spring f leaves 
 very large (often 2 ft. long), simple and entire, ovate, in tufts. The tufted 
 leaves and fetid odor give the plant the name of skunk cabbage. 
 
 3. RICHARDIA. CALLA LILY. 
 
 Leaves several from each short rootstock, their pe- 
 tioles sheathing the flower-scape: flowers naked and 
 diclinous, the stamens above and the 3-loculed ovaries 
 below on the spadix: spathe large and showy, the top 
 flaring and the base rolling about the spadix. Several 
 species are cultivated, but the following is the only com- 
 mon one. 
 
 R. africana, Kunth. Calla or Calla lily of gardens. 
 Fig. 486. Leaf-blades broadly arrow-shaped, simple and 
 entire, cross-veined, glossy: spathe white and wax-like. 
 Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 486. Richardia 
 africana. 
 
 4' CALLA. WATER ARUM. 
 
 Differs from the above in having a spathe which does not inclose the 
 spadix, and mostly perfect flowers (the upper ones sometimes staminate), 
 each of 6 stamens and 1 ovary: fruit a red berry. One species. 
 
 C. palustris, Linn. True calla. Fig. 487. Leaves about 1 ft. high, the 
 blades arrow-shaped: spathe about 2 in. long, white on the upper face. 
 In cold bogs, north. 
 
 5. ACORUS. SWEET FLAG. CALAMUS. 
 
 Erect, having long, horizontal, branching root-stocks, thick and aromatic: 
 leaves sword-shaped, rising from the rootstocks: scapes 3-angled, bearing 
 each a cylindric spadix, but much prolonged and leaf-like, causing the 
 spadix to appear as if borne on the side of the leaf-like scape: flowers on a 
 very dense spadix: ovary oblong, 2-4-celled, with 2-8 
 ovules in each cell. 
 
 A. Calamus, Linn. Sweet flag. Calamus-root. Along 
 the margins of streams, in swamps and wet soils. 
 Leaves 23 ft.: flowers greenish-yellow, very small. 
 May to July. The rootstocks supply "sweet flag roots" 
 of the druggists. 
 
 IV. LILliCE^E. LILY FAMILY. 
 
 Ca ,, a palustria 
 
 Herbs, with bulbs, corms, or large rootstocks: 
 fls. mostly regular and showy, the perianth of 6 
 separate or coherent parts, the stamens usually 6 and standing in front 
 of the parts of the perianth: ovary superior, usually 3-loculed, ripen- 
 ing into a capsule or berry. About 200 genera, including more than 
 
LILY FAMILY 329 
 
 2,000 widely distributed species. Characteristic plants are lily, lily-of- 
 the-valley, onion, Solomon's seal, tulip, trillium, hyacinth, asparagus, 
 yucca. 
 
 A. Fruit a loculicidal capsule. 
 B. Style 1, undivided. 
 
 c. Plant bulbous: root-leaves not in large clumps. 
 
 D. Stem tall and leafy 1. Lilium 
 
 DD. Stem short, with only 2-6 leaves. 
 
 E. Flower erect 2. Tulipa 
 
 EE. Flower nodding 3. Erythronium 
 
 DDD. Stem naked, bearing many flowers. 
 E. Perianth tubular. 
 
 F. Flowers funnelfonn, throat open: lobes 
 spreading or recurved, as long as the 
 
 tube 4. Hyadnthus 
 
 FF. Flowers urn-shaped, constricted at throat; 
 
 lobes much shorter than tube 5. Muscari 
 
 EE. Perianth parted nearly to base 6. Ornithogalum 
 
 cc. Plant with a rootstock, and large clumps of 
 
 leaves. 
 D. Flowers yellow and paniculate on a somewhat 
 
 branching scape 7. Hemerocallis 
 
 DD. Flowers white or blue, mostly in a simple 
 
 raceme 8. Funkia 
 
 BB. Style 1 at base, but 3-cleft or 3-parted: flowers 
 
 bell-like, drooping, yellow 9. Uvularia 
 
 AA. Fruit an angled berry: styles or stigmas 3: leaves 
 
 broad and netted-veined 10. Trillium 
 
 AAA. Fruit a globular berry: style 1: fls. small white, or 
 
 greenish. 
 
 B. Foliage made up of cladophylls, the true leaves 
 being mere scales: stamens borne on the base 
 
 of the small corolla 11. Asparagus 
 
 BB. Foliage of ordinary leaves: stamens borne on the 
 corolla-tube. 
 
 c. Perianth of 6 parts, separate 12. Smilacina 
 
 cc. Perianth of 4 parts 13. Maianthemum 
 
 ccc. Perianth gamosepalous, with 6 lobes. 
 
 D. Flowers racemose on a scape 14. Convallaria 
 
 DD. Flowers hanging from the axils of the leaves. .15. Polygonatum 
 
 1. LfLIUM. LILY. 
 
 Strong-growing bulbous herbs, with leafy stems usually bearing several 
 or many flowers: perianth bell-shaped or funnelform, the 6 divisions nearly 
 or quite separate and spreading or recurving and having a honey-bearing 
 groove at the base: anthers attached by the middle (versatile). 
 
330 
 
 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 a. Flowers white. 
 
 L. longiflorum. Thunb. Easter lily. One to 4 ft., with scattered long- 
 lanceolate pointed leaves: flowers 5-8 in. long, horizontal, scarcely 
 widened from the base to the middle, fragrant. Japan and China, now 
 much cultivated under glass. Many of the bulbs are grown 
 in the Bermuda Islands, whence the name "Bermuda lily." 
 L. candidum, Linn. Common white lily. Leaves broad- 
 lanceolate, scattered: flowers numerous, 5 in. or less long, 
 widening gradually from the base. Europe. Common in 
 gardens. 
 
 aa. Flowers in shades of yellow or orange. 
 
 L. philadelphicum, Linn. Fig. 488. Flowers 1-3, erect, 
 23 in. long, orange-red and spotted, the divisions separate: 
 leaves whorled. Dry soil. 
 
 L. canadense, Linn. Wild orange-red lily. Wood lily. Two 
 to 5 ft., with leaves in whorls and bulbs producing rhizomes 
 or runners: fls. several or many, erect or horizontal on long 
 stalks, the divisions spreading above the middle, orange or 
 red and spotted. Meadows and swales. 
 
 L. superbum, Linn. Turk's-cap lily. Fig. 489. Very tall, 
 bearing several or many nodding red-orange spotted flowers 
 in a panicle, the segments all pointing backward. Meadows 
 and low grounds. 
 
 L. tigrinum, Ker. Tiger lily. Fig. 31. Four to 5 ft., 
 bearing a loose cottony covering on the stems: leaves sessile, 
 scattered, lanceolate: flowers many, nodding in a panicle, 
 orange-red and black-spotted, the divisions about 4 in. long 
 and rolled back. China and Japan; old gardens. 
 
 488. Lilium 
 philadelphicum. 
 
 Lilium 
 superbum. 
 
 2. TtLIPA. TULIP. 
 
 Low bulbous plants with a few leaves near the ground on the 1-flowered 
 stem: flower large, erect, the 6 divisions erect or flaring: capsule triangular. 
 T. Gesneriana. Linn. Common tulip. Leaves 3-6, broad: peduncle 
 glabrous: divisions of the flower broad at the end, with a 
 very short point in the center: late-blooming tulips, orig- 
 inally from Asia Minor. 
 
 T. suaveolens, Roth. Due Van Thol tulip. Early and 
 dwarf, with fewer leaves, downy peduncle, and acuminate 
 segments. Caspian Sea; common in cultivation. 
 
 3. ERYTHRONIUM. DOG'S-TOOTH VIOLET. 
 
 Low herbs with deep-seated conical bulbs, and scape 
 with 2 leaves near the ground: flower nodding, the 6 divi- 
 490 Erythronium s i ns wide-spreading or recurved, the style long and club- 
 americanum. shaped. Blooming in earliest spring. 
 
LILY FAMILY 331 
 
 E. americanum, Smith. Common dog's-tooth violet, or adder' s-tongue. 
 Fig. 490. Leaves thickish, oblong-lanceolate, mottled with purple: flower 
 light yellow, nodding on a stem 3-6 in. tall. Low grounds. 
 
 E. albidum, Nutt. White adder' 's-tongue. Leaves scarcely mottled: 
 flowers whitish. Low grounds. 
 
 4. HYACiNTHUS. HYACINTH. 
 
 Low plants, with large bulbs, producing many flowers in spikes or dense 
 racemes on a short scape, the leaves arising directly from the bulb: flowers 
 bell-shaped or funnelform, the 6 lobes spreading or curling back. 
 
 H. orientalis. T.i'nn. Common hyacinth. Fig. 186. Early spring, the 
 flowers of many colors and sometimes double, the perianth-tube swollen, 
 the oblong-spatulate lobes as long as the tube. Greece to Asia Minor. 
 
 Var. albulus, Baker. Roman hyacinth. Flowers fewer and usually 
 smaller, white or nearly so,. the perianth-tube scarcely swollen and the lobes 
 shorter. France. Much cultivated. 
 
 5. MUSCARI. GRAPE HYACINTH. 
 
 Low herbs, with very narrow, somewhat fleshy leaves and small flowers 
 in a raceme: perianth deep blue or white, the tube ventricose or urn-shaped, 
 with 6 short blunt teeth. 
 
 M. botryoides. Mill. Grape hyacinth. Flowers faintly odorous, nod- 
 ding, deep blue: scape 410 in.: leaves linear, obtuse, erect, becoming longer 
 than scapes. In grass about gardens and lawns in very early spring; also 
 escaped in some places to meadows and along roadsides. Asia. 
 
 6. ORNITH6GALUM. STAR OF BETHLEHEM. 
 
 Stemless low herbs, with narrow linear, fleshy, channelled leaves: 
 flowers in terminal clusters, usually with conspicuous bracts: perianth 
 of 6 parts, white, spreading, veined: stamens 6, hypogynous: filaments 
 flattened, subulate: ovary sessile, 3-celled: capsule roundish, 3-angled: 
 seeds few, black. 
 
 O. umbellatum. Linn. Scape 4-10 in.; flowers 5-8, on long spreading 
 pedicels: sepals white, each with green band outside. Common about 
 gardens. Introduced from Europe. Early spring. 
 
 7. HEMEROCALLIS. DAY-LILY. 
 
 Strong-growing plants from tuberous roots, producing clumps of long 
 swoid-shaped leaves: flowers yellow or orange, erect, large and lily-like, in 
 clusters or panicles on a tall, branching scape, the divisions widely spread- 
 ing at the top. Old World, but common in gardens. 
 
 H. fulva, Linn. Orange day-lily. Flowers tawny orange, produced in 
 early summer, the inner perianth divisions nearly or quite obtuse. The 
 commonest species, and often escaped along roadsides. 
 
 H. flava, Linn. Yellow day-lily. Plant somewhat smaller, early- 
 blooming: flowers fragrant, pure lemon-yellow, inner divisions acute. 
 
332 
 
 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 8. FtJ NKIA. WHITE AND BLUE DAY-LILY. 
 
 Medium-sized plants, producing dense clumps of broad-bladed leaves 
 from rootstocks: flowers blue or white, in racemes on scapes, each flower 
 sheathed at the base by 1 or 2 bracts, the perianth-tube long. and the limb 
 sometimes irregular. China and Japan; planted by houses 
 and along walks. 
 
 F. subcordata, Spreng. White day-lily. Fig. 491. Leaves 
 broadly cordate-ovate: flowers large and white, in a short 
 raceme, not drooping. 
 
 F. ovata, Spreng. (F. cxriilea, Sweet). Blue day-lily. 
 Fig. 492. Leaves broadly ovate: flowers deep blue, in a long 
 raceme, nodding. 
 
 9. UVULARIA. BELLWOKT. "WILD OATS." 
 
 Low, erect plants, with short rootstocks: stems with 
 leaves alternate above, sessile or perfoliate, parallel-veined: 
 flowers yellow, drooping, solitary at the end of the forking 
 stems, the perianth elongated, bell-shaped, of 6 similar, 
 distinct, narrow sepals, each bearing a nectar gland at in- 
 side base. Spring-flowering wood plants. 
 
 U. grandiflora, Smith. Large-flowered Bellwort. Commonly 1-2 ft. 
 tall: leaves oblong, whitish-pubescent beneath, and perfoliate: perianth 
 smooth on inner surfaces. Common in rich woods. Blooms a little earlier 
 than U. perfoliata. 
 
 U. perfoliata, Linn. Smaller than the preceding: glaucous, leaves per- 
 foliate: perianth segments twisted, covered on inner surface with shining 
 grains (papillose): flowers somewhat fragrant, pale 
 yellow. Common in moist woods. 
 
 U. sessilifolia, Linn. (Oakesia sessilifolia). Straw 
 lily. Leaves sessile, lance-oval, thin, smooth, pale be- 
 neath: stem angled, slender and zigzag: flower green- 
 ish-yellow, about 1 in. long. Woods. 
 
 491. Funkia 
 subcordata. 
 
 10. TRfLLIUM. WAKE-ROBIN. 
 
 Low herbs from deep-seated corm-like tubers: 
 leaves 3 in a whorl, broad and netted-veined : flower 
 single, of 3-colored petals and 3 green sepals, the 
 latter persistent until the angled, many-seeded berry 
 ripens; stigmas 3, often sessile. Plants of earliest spring, growing in 
 rich woods. 
 
 492. Funkia ovata. 
 
 a. Flower sessile in the leaf-whorl. 
 
 T. sessile, Linn. Flowers dull pUrple, the parts narrow, pointed, and 
 nearly erect: leaves sessile, ovate, often blotched with purple. Pennsylvania, 
 west and south. 
 
LILY FAMILY 333 
 
 aa. Flower stalked in the leaf -whorl. 
 
 T. grandiflorum, Salisb. Common wake-robin, or birthroot. Fig. 244. 
 Flowers large and white, the peduncle standing erect or nearly so, the 
 petals broadest above the middle (obovate) and 2-2^ in. long: leaves broad- 
 ovate, sessile or nearly so. Flowers become rose-pink with age. 
 
 T. erectum, Linn. Flowers smaller, ill-scented, varying from white to 
 pink and purple, the peduncle erect or declined, the petals ovate or lanceo- 
 late and spreading: leaves broad-ovate. Frequent North, and south to 
 Tennessee. 
 
 T. cernuum, Linn. Flowers not large, white, the peduncle declined under 
 the broad leaves; petals ovate-lanceolate, rolled back. Range of the last. 
 
 T. undulatum, Willd. Painted wake-robin. Flowers on peduncles 
 erect, or partly declined; segments ovate, or ovate-lanceolate, margined, 
 thin, widely spreading, white, penciled with purple stripes at base; sepals 
 half as long as petals: leaves ovate, taper-pointed, distinctly petioled, 
 obtuse or rounded at the base. Cool damp woods, from New Brunswick to 
 Georgia, and west. 
 
 11. ASPARAGUS. ASPARAGUS. 
 
 Mostly tall, often climbing plants with cladophylla and very small 
 scale-like true leaves: flowers white or greenish, small, bell-shaped, scat- 
 tered or in groups of 2 or 3: fruit a 3-loculed and 1-6-seeded small berry. 
 
 A. officinalis, Linn. Common asparagus. Figs. 
 159, 160. Erect and branchy, the strong young 
 shoots thick and edible: berries red. Europe. 
 
 A. plumosus, Baker. Fig. 161. Twining, with 
 dark, frond-like foliage, small white flowers and 
 black berries. South Africa; greenhouses. 
 
 A. medeoloides, Thunb. Smilax of florists (but 
 
 ' Asparagus medeoloides. 
 
 not of botanists). Fig. 493. Twining: foliage broad 
 
 and leaf-like: flowers solitary and fragrant: berries dark green. South 
 Africa; much grown by florists. 
 
 12. SMILACINA. FALSE SOLOMON'S SEAL. 
 
 Low, erect plants with many small white flowers in racemes or pani- 
 cles: perianth 6-paned: fruit a 3-loculed berry: rootstock creeping. 
 
 S. racemosa, Desf. False spikenard. About 2 ft. tall, somewhat downy, 
 with many oblong or oval leaves: flowers in a panicle: berries pale red, 
 speckled. Spring and early summer. Rich woods. 
 
 S. stellata, Desf. Nearly or quite smooth: leaves narrower: flowers in 
 a simple raceme. Forms patches in low ground. 
 
 13. MAIANTHEMUM. TWO-LEAVED SOLOMON'S SEAL. 
 
 Neat little herbs, with slender rootstocks: stems unbranched, few- 
 leaved: flowers small, in an open raceme, with usually 2 or 3 pedicels 
 together; perianth of 4 ovate, obtuse, spreading segments, united at base: 
 fruit a globular 1-2-seeded berry. One species in eastern North America. 
 
334 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 M. canad6nse, Desf. Slender stem, 3-6 in. high, terminated by the 
 many-flowered raceme: flowers white: leaves ovate, cordate at base, short- 
 stalked. Common in moist woods and on shaded banks, making mats or 
 patches. May to July. 
 
 14. CONVALLARIA. LILY-OF-THE-VALLEY. 
 
 Low, spring-flowering herbs from branching rootstocks: flowers gamo- 
 petalous, white and waxy, nodding in a 1-sided raceme, the 6 short lobes 
 recurving: fruit a red berry. 
 
 C. majalis. Linn. Leaves oblong, numerous from the rootstocks, form- 
 ing mats, and about 2 with each scape: flowers very fragrant. One of the 
 best-known garden flowers. Europe. The only species. 
 
 15. POLYG6NATUM. SOLOMON'S SEAL. 
 
 Mostly strong plants from long running rootstocks on which the scars 
 of preceding stalks are very evident (whence the common name): stems 
 leafy, bearing nodding gamosepalous flowers in the axils: fruit a globular, 
 dark-colored berry. Rich woods, spring. 
 
 P. commutatum, Dietr. Three to 5 ft. tall: leaves ovate, somewhat clasp- 
 ing: peduncles in each axil, 2-8-flowered : filaments not roughened. 
 
 P. biflorum, Ell. One to 3 ft.: leaves oblong, nearly sessile, somewhat 
 glaucous, hairy: peduncles usually 2-flowered: filaments roughened. 
 
 V. COMMELINACE.E. SPIDERWORT FAMILY. 
 
 Herbs, annual or perennial, with flat, narrow leaves, sheathing 
 at base: roots fibrous, sometimes thickened: flowers regular or irreg- 
 ular, perfect, usually showy, in terminal cymes, usually borne above a 
 leafy or spathe-like bract; sepals 3: petals 3, soon decaying or falling; 
 stamens 6, hypogynous, some of them often deformed or abortive: 
 ovary 2-3-celled, style single, stigma entire or somewhat lobed: juice 
 slimy or mucilaginous. More than 300 species, mainly belonging to 
 tropical regions. 
 
 A. Flowers irregular, inclosed in cordate spathe-like 
 
 floral leaf; perfect stamens 3 (rarely 2) 1. Commelina 
 
 AA. Flowers regular, or nearly so; bracts leaf -like; 
 
 stamens 6 2. Tradescantia 
 
 AAA. Flowers somewhat irregular, tubular, usually in pairs: 
 
 trailing habit, easily rooting at nodes 3. Zebrina 
 
 1. COMMELiNA. DAY FLOWER. 
 
 Plants erect or partly procumbent and rooting at joints, succulent, 
 branching: leaves petioled or sessile, the floral leaf or spathe cordate: 
 flowers recurved on their pedicels and hooded by the floral leaf before and 
 after flowering, open for a short time only. 
 
SPIDERWORT AMARYLLIS 335 
 
 C. virgfnica, Linn. Stem glabrous or somewhat downy, ascending 1-2 
 ft.: leaves lanceolate to linear, acuminate: flowers 1 in. wide, the odd petal 
 very small. In moist soil. 
 
 2. TRADESCANTIA. SPIDERWORT. 
 
 Mucilaginous herbs, with stout, succulent stems, simple or branched: 
 leaves elongated, narrow, keeled, sometimes purple-veined: flowers in ter- 
 minal and axillary um belled clusters, with leaf-like bracts, not tubular; 
 filaments glabrous or bearded. 
 
 T. virginiana, Linn. Plant green, erect, with linear leaves: flower- 
 clusters showy, terminal; corolla over 1 in. broad, the 3 petals deep blue 
 (rarely white), longer than sepals; filaments blue, and clothed with hairs. 
 Cultivated and wild; mostly in rich soil. Very variable. Flowers quickly 
 fading by becoming mucilaginous, but produced all summer. 
 
 T, pilosa, Lehm. Stout, more or less zigzag, stems soft-hairy or nearly 
 smooth: leaves lanceolate, tapering at apex, narrowed at base, hairy on both 
 sides: cymes terminal and axillary, or on short axillary branches: flowers 
 %-l in. wide. In rich moist soil, woods and thickets, or in shaded places. 
 
 T. fluminensis, Veil. One of the greenhouse plants known as Wandering 
 Jew (see Zebrina), but leaves usually green and flowers white. South America. 
 
 3. ZEBRlNA. WANDERING JEW. 
 
 Low, trailing or partially climbing, rooting readily at the nodes, and 
 branching: leaves often striped with purple, green, white, thick and ovate: 
 flowers small, more or less irregular, tubular, usually in pah's. 
 
 Z. pendula, Schnitzl. Stems trailing, perennial: corolla 3-parted, 
 roseate: calyx with short tube, 3-parted: ovary 3-celled, 3-6 ovuled: leaves 
 ovate or oblong, heavy or succulent, green and silver stripes above, purple 
 beneath. Much used for vases and baskets. A native of Mexico. 
 
 VI. AMARYLLIDlCE^E. AMARYLLIS FAMILY. 
 
 Differs from Liliaceae chiefly in having an apparently inferior ovary 
 and in bearing its flowers more uniformly on scapes. More than 600 
 species in nearly 70 genera, widely dispersed. Representative plants 
 are narcissus, daffodil, snowdrop, tuberose, amaryllis. Plants of 
 the first three genera may be grown from bulbs in the school-room. 
 
 A. Plants from coated bulbs; stem a leafless scape. 
 
 B. Perianth with a crown or cup in its center 1. Narcissus 
 
 BB. Perianth with no cup. 
 
 c. Anthers and style pointed 2. Galanthus 
 
 cc. Anthers and style blunt 3. Leucoium 
 
 AA. Plants from tuberous rootstocks or conns. 
 
 B. Stem tall and leafy 4. Polianthes 
 
 BB. Stem a low, leafless scape 5. Hypoxis 
 
336 
 
 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 1. NARCISSUS. NARCISSUS. DAFFODIL. 
 
 Low plants producing from 1 to many 6-parted flowers on a scape which 
 arises from a tunicated bulb: perianth with a long tube and bearing a cup 
 
 or crown in its center. Old World, but frequently 
 
 cultivated. 
 
 a. Crown as long as, or longer than, the 
 divisions of the perianth. 
 
 N. Pseudo-Narcissus, Linn. Trumpet narcissus. 
 Common daffodil. Scape 1 -flowered, the flower large 
 and yellow with a relatively short tube and a wavy- 
 edged crown. Leaves flat and glaucous. Double forms 
 are common in gardens. 
 
 494. aa. Crown half or more as long as the divisions 
 
 Narcissus Tazetta. of the perianth. 
 
 N. incomparabilis, Curt. Scape 1-flowered, the flower about 2 in. or 
 more across, yellow, the cylindrical tube 1 in. long, the crown plaited and 
 usually a deeper yellow: leaves flat and glaucous. 
 
 aaa. Crown less than half the length of the division. 
 
 N. Tazetta, Linn. Polyanthus narcissus. Chinese sacred lily. Fig. 494. 
 Flowers several to many in an umbel, yellow or white, small, the crown 
 usually darker colored and usually somewhat scalloped: leaves flat and 
 somewhat glaucous. One of the commonest kinds. The narcissus known 
 to florists as "Paper-white" is a white-flowered form of this 
 species. 
 
 N. poeticus, Linn. Poet's narcissus. Scape rather slender, 
 usually 1-flowered, the flower white with the thick rim of 
 the very short crown margined with red: leaves flat, glaucous. 
 
 N. Jonquflla, Linn. Jonquil. Scape 2-5-flowered, the 
 flowers small and yellow, the tube slender and the segments 
 wide-spreading: leaves linear, somewhat cylindrical. 
 
 ' ' 
 
 
 2. GALANTHUS. SNOWDROP. 
 
 Small, spring-blooming plants, with a single white flower 
 nodding from the top of the scape, followed by grass-like 
 leaves: perianth divisions 6, oblong and more or less con- 
 cave, the three inner ones shorter, some of them usually 
 green-blotched at the tip; anthers and style pointed. 
 
 G. nivalis, Linn. Snowdrop. Fig. 495. One of the earliest of spring 
 flowers, appearing as soon as the snow is gone, the flower and leaves arising 
 from a small bulb: scape 6 in. or less high: inner divisions of Ihe bell-shaped 
 flower tipped with green. Europe. 
 
IRIS FAMILY 337 
 
 3. LEUC6IUM. SNOWFLAKE. 
 
 Flowers often more than 1: divisions of the perianth all alike: anthers 
 and style blunt: otherwise very like Galanthus. 
 
 L. vernum, Linn. Snow flake. Taller than the snowdrop (about 1 ft.), 
 the scape usually 1-flowered, blooming later, the flowers larger. Europe. 
 
 4. POLIANTHES. TUBEROSE. 
 
 Leafy-stemmed lily-like plants, with a thick, tuberous rootstock (whence 
 the name tuber-ose not tube-rose), bearing an erect spike of white flowers; 
 perianth with a short slightly curved tube and 6 spreading nearly equal 
 divisions: stamens included in the tube (not projecting). 
 
 P. tuberdsa, Linn. Tuberose. Two to 3 ft., bearing long-linear, chan- 
 nelled, many-ranked leaves: flowers very fragrant, sometimes tinted with 
 rose. A popular garden plant from Mexico, blooming in the open in late 
 summer and autumn; some forms are double. 
 
 5. HYP6XIS. STAR-GRASS. 
 
 Stemless, with grass-like, hairy leaves, growing from a conn-like root- 
 stock: flowers yellow on filiform scapes; perianth 6-parted. 
 
 H. hirsuta, Coville. Scape 3-8 in., not so long as the grassy leaves, soft- 
 hairy: flowers 1-4, yellow, greenish without, about H in. in diameter. Com- 
 mon in dry soils. 
 
 VII. IRIDACE^. IRIS FAMILY. 
 
 Differs from Amaryllidaceae and Liliacese in its inferior ovary, 
 3 stamens which are opposite the outer parts of the perianth, and 
 2-ranked equitant (bases overlapping) leaves : stigmas sometimes large 
 and petal-like. About 60 genera and 700 species. Representative 
 plants are iris or blue flag, crocus, gladiolus, freesia. Crocuses and 
 freesias are easily grown in window-boxes for winter and spring bloom. 
 
 A. Lobes of the style expanded and colored, looking like 
 
 petals 1. Iris 
 
 AA. Lobes of the style thread-like. 
 
 B. Plant stemless: flowers borne on scapes. 
 
 c. From corms: spathe 1-flowered: flower large, 
 
 and perianth-tube long and slender 2. Crocus 
 
 cc. From mostly fibrous roots: perianth-tube scarcely 
 perceptible, if at all: flowers small: spathe 2- 
 
 or more flowered 3. Sisyrinchium 
 
 BB. Plants with a leaf-bearing and flower-bearing stem. 
 
 c. Flowers in a short 1 -sided cluster: plant small 4. Freesia 
 
 cc. Flowers in a terminal spike: plant large 5. Gladiolus 
 
338 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 1. IRlS. FLEUR-DE-LIS. FLAG. 
 
 Mostly strong plants, with rhizomes or tubers: flowers mostly large and 
 showy, the 3 outer segments recurving and the 3 inner ones usually smaller 
 and more erect or sometimes incurving; the 3 long divisions of the style 
 petal-like and often more or less hairy, covering the stamens ; stigma on 
 the under side of the style: leaves long and sword- 
 shaped. Several wild and many cultivated species. 
 The following species have rhizomes: 
 
 a. Flowers yellow. 
 
 I. Pseudacorus, Linn. Common yellow flag. One 
 to 3 ft., with several-flowered, often branching stems; 
 outer divisions of the perianth with no hairs or crests; 
 flowers bright yellow. Europe. 
 
 aa. Flowers in shades of blue (sometimes varying to white). 
 
 I. versicolor, Linn. Common wild blue flag. Two 
 to 3 ft., stout: leaves Min. wide, flat: flowers about 3 
 in. long, short-stalked violet-blue, the tube shorter 
 496 Iris 'ermanica than tne ovar y, the inner petals small and the outer 
 
 ones with no hairs. Swamps. 
 
 I. laevigata, Fisch. & Mey. (/. Kaempferi, Sieb.). Japanese iris. Two to 
 3 feet, the stem much overtopping the thin, broad leaves: flowers large 
 (sometimes several inches across), flat, the inner lobes spreading, the 
 outer ones very large and rounded, with no hairs or crests: color mostly in 
 shades of blue and purple. Japan; now one of the choicest of garden irises. 
 I. germanica, Linn. Common blue flag of gardens (sometimes runs wild). 
 Fig. 496. Two to 3 ft, with long sword-shaped leaves: flowers few or several 
 to each stem, about 3-4 in. across, the drooping outer segments with 
 yellow hairs, the inner segments erect and arching inward. Europe. 
 
 2. CROCUS. CROCUS. 
 
 Small, stemless plants, the long-tubed flowers and the 
 grass-like leaves arising directly from the coated corm: 
 flowers with the 6 obovate divisions all alike and erect- 
 spreading or the inner ones a little the smaller, opening 
 only in sunshine. The following, from Europe, blooms in 
 earliest spring: 
 
 C. vernus, Linn. Common crocus. Fig. 497. Leaves 4g7 Crocus vernus 
 2-4 to each flower, glaucous on the under side: flower 
 rising little above the ground; color in shades of lilac and variously striped, 
 sometimes white. 
 
 3. SISYRiNCHIUM. BLUE-EYED GRASS. 
 
 Low, slender, perennial herbs with grass-like, linear, or lanceolate 
 leaves and fibrous roots: scapes or stems erect, compressed, 2-edged or 
 
IRIS FAMILY 339 
 
 winged, often branched: flowers small, usually blue or bluish, soon wither- 
 ing, in terminal 2-5-flowered umbels in a 2-leaved spathe; perianth seg- 
 ments spreading, bristle-pointed: stamens 3, monadelphous; style 1 long; 
 stigmas very slender; ovary 3-celled. 
 
 S. angustif olium, Mill. Grassy plants in tufts or clumps: scape 4-12 in., 
 spathe single, sessile: flowers blue to purple, rarely 
 white; petals notched and mucronate. In moist 
 meadows, among grass. Summer. Common. 
 
 4. FREfiSIA. FREESIA. 
 
 Small, cormous plants with flat leaves: flowers 
 white or yellowish, tubular, with a somewhat spread- 
 ing limb, the tube generally curved: stem about 1 ft. 
 high, bearing several erect flowers on a sidewise 
 cluster. Popular florists' plants of easy culture and 
 
 P. rafcffifc, Klatt. Fig. 498. Leaves narrow: ***' ^^ refraota - 
 flower usually somewhat 2-lipped or irregular, white in the most popular 
 forms but yellowish in some, often with blotches of yellow; fragrant. Cape 
 of Good Hope. 
 
 5. GLADIOLUS. GLADIOLUS. 
 
 Tall, erect plants, with flat, strong-veined leaves, the stem arising from 
 a conn (Fig. 54) : flowers in a more or less 1-sided terminal 
 spike, short-tubed, the limb flaring and somewhat unequal: 
 stamens separate (united in some related genera): style 
 long, with 3 large stigmas. 
 
 G. gandavensis, Van Houtte. Fig. 499. Upper seg- 
 ments of the perianth nearly horizontal: colors various and 
 bright: spikes long. Hybrid of two or more species from 
 499. Gladiolus the Cape of Good Hope. Summer and fall. The common 
 gandavensis. gladioli of gardens are greatly hybridized. 
 
 VIII. ORCHIDACE^E. ORCHID FAMILY. 
 
 Perennial herbs, distinguished by singular and extremely irregu- 
 lar perfect flowers, among the most ornamental and interesting of 
 native and exotic plants, curiously adapted, in most cases, to insect 
 pollination; many air-plants (epiphytes) of the tropics and warmer 
 regions also belong to this family. Leaves usually alternate, simple, 
 entire, sheathing: perianth in 6 divisions, adnate to the 1-celled ovary: 
 sepals 3, the outer segments of the perianth usually colored and similar 
 or nearly so, appearing petal-like, the 2 lateral petals generally alike; 
 third petal, the lip (the upper petal and, morphologically, next to 
 axis, but apparently next to bract, by a peculiar twisting of the ovary), 
 
340 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 very unlike the others, usually larger and frequently lobed, spurred, 
 or saccate: stamens 1 or 2 fertile, variously coherent with the style 
 or with a thick, fleshy stigma, all together forming the column: pollen 
 in waxy or powdery masses: ovary inferior. About 5,000 species 
 and over 400 genera, of wide distribution but most abundant in the 
 tropics; species rather difficult to determine, and therefore not de- 
 scribed here in detail. Ours usually found in cool, damp woods, bogs, 
 and meadows. Some of the rarest of greenhouse plants, and often very 
 difficult to grow, are members of this family. 
 
 A. Lip sac-like or inflated, larger than the other parts. 
 B. Anthers 2, one on each side of the style: a spread- 
 ing sterile stamen over the summit of the style: 
 
 flowers generally large and drooping 1. Cypripedium 
 
 AA. Lip not saccate, but spurred, and sometimes fringed: 
 flowers in a terminal spike. 
 
 B. Sepals more or less spreading 2. Habenaria 
 
 BB. Sepals and petals somewhat arching together 3. Orchis 
 
 AAA. Lip not noticeably saccate or spurred. 
 
 B. Flowers in spikes, appearing more or less twisted 
 about the spike, in 1 or several rows: flowers small. 
 
 c. Leaves not variegated 4. Spiranthes 
 
 cc. Leaves variegated with white veins 5. Epipactis 
 
 BB. Flowers 1 to several, in a spike-like loose raceme: 
 
 or terminal on a leaf-bearing stem. 
 A. Stem (scape) from one grass-like leaf: lip crested 
 
 with colored hairs 6. Calopogon 
 
 cc. Stem 1-3-leaved 7. Pogonia 
 
 1. CYPRIPEDIUM. LADY'S SLIPPER. MOCCASIN FLOWER. 
 
 Distinguished by having 2 fertile anthers: pollen sticky, as though var- 
 nished on surface, powdery beneath: lip a large, inflated, spurless sac, 
 toward which the column bends: leaves large, broad, many-nerved: flowers 
 large, showy. Fig. 250. 
 
 C. hirsutum, Mill. Stem leafy, 1-2 ft., or more: flower solitary or 
 2 or 3 together; lip a globular sac, white, colored with purplish-pink, lMs-2 
 in. long. In swamps, bogs and woods, North, and South in mountains. June 
 to September. One of our rare and beautiful wild flowers. 
 
 C. acaule, Ait. Scape 1 ft. tall, with two leaves at base, 1 -flowered: 
 sepals greenish purple, spreading; lip pink, veined with rose-purple, about 
 2 in. long, fragrant, split down the front, but edges closed. Woods and 
 bogs. May to June. Fig. 250. 
 
 C. pubescens, Willd. Stem slender, leafy, 1-2 ft., usually clustered, 
 1- to several-flowered: flowers yellow, lip much inflated, with purplish stripes 
 or spots, 1^-2 In. long. Low woods, meadows. May to July. 
 
 C. parvifldrum, Salisb. Stem 1-2 ft. high, leafy, 1- to several-flowered: 
 
ORCHIDS 341 
 
 flowers yellow, fragrant; lip usually more marked with purplish spots or 
 lines than preceding and smaller, about 1 in. long. Low woods and thickets. 
 May to July. 
 
 C. candidum, Muhl. Lip white, with purple veins and stripes, not 1 in. 
 long. A very rare species, found in bogs and wet meadows, New York and 
 New Jersey to Minnesota, Missouri, Kentucky. 
 
 C. ariethmm, R. Br. Slender, less than 1 ft., leafy stemmed: flower 1, 
 drooping, the 3 sepals separate and very narrow and greenish, the lip somewhat 
 shorter than sepals H in. long, red with lighter veins. Cold woods, North. 
 
 2. HABENARIA. FRINGED or RAGGED ORCHIDS. 
 
 Flowers several or numerous, in open terminal spikes, each flower in 
 the axil of a foliaceous bract: corolla white, purplish or yellow, with lip 
 variously fringed or 3-parted and cut-toothed, spur longer than lip: 1 
 anther: pollen-mass stalked, cohering. Growing, for most part, in wet 
 places, borders of ponds, etc., through eastern United States. Several 
 species, rather too critical for the beginner and therefore not described 
 here. By some, the genus is broken up into several genera. 
 
 3. 6RCHIS. 
 
 Very similar to Habenaria, differing in having the glands attached to 
 the pollen masses, and inclosed in a kind of pocket: the petals are arched and 
 somewhat connivent over the column. 
 
 O. spectabilis, Linn. Stem short, from 2 large and glossy root-leaves, 
 and carrying 1 or 2 lanceolate bracts, with several flowers above, in a 
 raceme: lip white, spurred at base: other petals purplish pink, arching up 
 over the flower. Woods. 
 
 4. SPIRANTHES. LADIES' TRESSES. 
 
 Generally characterized by small flowers, whitish, yellowish or greenish 
 white, bent horizontally and arranged in 1-3 rows spirally in a spike, 
 appearing as if twisted: stem usually bearing leaves below, or at the base: 
 lip of the little flowers not saccate but erect, oblong, recurved, channelled, 
 the base embracing the column and bearing 2 callous protuberances; anther 
 1 2-celled: 1 powdery pollen mass in each cell. Several species. 
 
 S. cernua, Richard. Six to 20 in. high, having leafy bracts with the 
 flowers; spike dense, with flowers in 3 rows, inflorescence appearing but 
 slightly twisted: leaves lance-linear. Common in moist meadows and 
 swamps. Late summer and early autumn. 
 
 S. gracilis, Beck. Spike and scape slender, with flowers in one straight 
 or spiral row: leaves all radical, ovate to oblong, commonly withering 
 away at or before flowering. Common in dry or sandy fields, oj>en or 
 hilly woods. July to October. 
 
 5. EPIPACTIS. RATTLESNAKE PLANTAIN. 
 
 In spike and perianth similar to spiranthes, but without the 2 lateral 
 callous protuberances on the lip: leaves basal, tufted, thickish, petioled, 
 
342 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 dark green, usually blotched or veined with white. A few species widely 
 distributed, but not common, with handsome leaves. The genus is also 
 known as Peramium and as Goodyera. 
 
 6. CALOPOGON. GRASS PINK. 
 
 Scapes from round solid bulbs bearing several flowers in loose terminal 
 spikes or racemes; leaf 1, grass-like. Distinguished by having the lip on 
 the upper side (ovary or stalk not twisting) bearded. 
 
 C. pulchellus, R. Br. Scape 1 ft. high, 2-6-flowered : flowers 1 in. across, 
 pink-purple; the lip triangular at apex, crested with colored hairs (yellow, 
 orange, purple), club-shaped: anther lid-like: pollen-masses 4, powdery. 
 Wet meadows and bogs. Very pretty. 
 
 7. POGONIA. 
 
 Low, with solitary, terminal, odd flowers; alternate leaves: lip spurless, 
 crested or hooded or 3-lobed; column not attached: calyx spreading; fertile 
 anther lid-like; 2 pollen-masses, granular. 
 
 P. ophioglossoides, Ker. Stem 6-9 in. from a fibrous root; leaf sessile, 
 oval near middle of stem: lip erect, bearded and fringed; flower 1 in. long, 
 sweet-scented, pale rose color, slightly nodding, with a leafy bract. Marshes 
 or swampy places. Eastern United States. June to July. 
 
 BB. PHENOGAMS: ANGIOSPERMS: DICOTYLEDONS. 
 D. CHORIPETALM. 
 
 IX. CUPULlFER^). OAK FAMILY. 
 
 Monoecious trees and shrubs with staminate flowers in catkins 
 and the pistillate in catkins or solitary: leaves alternate, with stipules 
 early deciduous (mostly scale-like), and the side- veins straight or 
 nearly so : stamens 2 to many : fruit a 1-seeded nut, sometimes inclosed 
 in an involucre. Ten or a dozen genera and upwards of 450 species. 
 Representative plants are oak, chestnut, beech, birch, hazel, ironwood. 
 
 A. Sterile flowers in a hanging head: fruits 2 three-cornered 
 
 nuts in a small, spiny involucre or bur 1. Fagus 
 
 AA. Sterile flowers in cylindrical catkins. 
 
 B. Fruit 1-4 rounded or flat-sided nuts in a large, sharp- 
 spiny involucre or bur 2. Castanea 
 
 BB. Fruit an acorn a nut sitting in a scaly or spiny cup 3. Quercus 
 
 BBB. Fruit flat and often winged, thin and seed-like, borne 
 under scales in a cone. 
 
 c. Fertile flowers naked: mature cone-scales thin 4. Betula 
 
 cc. Fertile flowers with a calyx: cone-scales thick 5. Alnuii 
 
BEECH CHESTNUT OAK 
 
 343 
 
 1. FAGUS. BEECH. 
 
 Tall forest trees with light bark, and prominent parallel side- veins in 
 the leaves: sterile flowers in a small, pendulous head, with 5-7-cleft calyx 
 and 8-16 stamens: fertile flowers 2, in a close involucre, ripening into 2 
 three-cornered "beech nuts" in a 4-valved bur. 
 
 F. grandifolia, Ehrh. American beech. Close-grained, hard-wood tree, 
 with light colored bark: leaves ovate-oblong and acuminate, coarsely serrate, 
 usually with 9 or more pairs of nerves: nuts ripening in the fall, and much 
 sought by boys and squirrels. A common forest tree. 
 
 F. sylvatica, Linn. European beech. Fig. 151. Often planted, particularly 
 in the form of the purple-leaved and weeping beech: foliage differs in being 
 mostly smaller, ovate or elliptic, small-toothed, with 9 or less pairs of nerves. 
 
 2. CASTANEA. CHESTNUT. 
 
 Forest trees, with rough, furrowed bark: Sterile flowers with 4-7-lobed 
 calyx and 8-20 stamens in very long, erect or spreading catkins, which 
 appear in clusters in midsummer: fertile flowers about 3 in an involucre, 
 producing "chestnuts" in a spiny bur. 
 
 C. dentata, Borkh. American chestnut. Fig. 267. Tall, straight- 
 grained tree, with large, broad and thin, oblong-lanceolate leaves, which are 
 taper-pointed, and have large teeth with spreading spines: nuts usually 1 in. 
 or less across, sweet. Grows as far west as Michigan, and south to 
 Mississippi. 
 
 C. sativa, Mill. European chestnut. Less tall: leaves smaller and 
 narrower, more pubescent when young, not long-acuminate, the teeth smaller 
 and their spines more incurved: nuts 1 in. or more across, not so sweet as 
 those of the American chestnut. Europe. Very com- 
 monly planted. 
 
 500. Quercus alba. 501. Quercus macrocarpa. 502. Quercus Prinus. 
 
 3. QUERCUS. OAK. 
 
 Strong, close-grained trees, with mostly laterally-lobed leaves: sterile 
 flowers in clustered hanging catkins, with a 4-7-lobed calyx, and 3-12 sta- 
 mens: fertile one in a shallow involucre which becomes the cup of the 
 acorn, the stigma 3-lobed: fruit an acorn. See Fig. 228, which represents 
 a form of the English oak (Q. Robur) often planted in choice grounds. 
 
 a. White oak group, distinguished by its light gray scaly bark, rounded lobes 
 or teeth of the leaves, and the acorns maturing the first year. (Q. virens 
 has nearly or quite entire leaves.) 
 Q. alba, Linn. White oak. Fig. 500. Leaves obovate, 5 or 6 in. 
 
 long, the lobes usually 7 and at equal distances apart, and the sinuses 
 
344 
 
 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 deep or shallow: acorn small, with a rather shallow and not fringed cup. 
 The commonest species. 
 
 Q. macrocarpa, Michx. Bur oak. Fig. 501. Leaves obovate, downy 
 or pale on the lower surface, toothed towards the tips and irregularly and 
 often deeply lobed toward the base: acorn cups heavily fringed on the 
 margins: young branches corky. More common West. 
 
 Q. Prinus, Linn. Chestnut oak. Fig. 502. Leaves rather long-obovate, 
 
 503. Quercus bicolor. 
 
 504. Quercus rubra. 
 
 505. Quercus coccinea. 
 
 toothed, with rounded teeth and yellow-ribbed: acorn long and the cup 
 hard-scaled: bark dark with broad, deep furrows. Eastern. 
 
 Q. bicolor, Willd. Swamp white oak. Fig. 503. Leaves obovate. white- 
 downy on their lower surface, toothed with squarish teeth, the bases wedge- 
 shaped: acorn small, with the margin of the cup finely fringed. Common 
 in low grounds and along ravines. 
 
 Q, virginiana, Mill. Live-oak. Leaves small, oblong, entire or sometimes 
 spiny-toothed, thick and evergreen: acorn oblong, the nut about one-third 
 covered with its scaly cup. Virginia, south. 
 
 aa. Black oak group, distinguished by its dark furrowed bark, pointed lobes 
 of the leaves, and the acorns maturing the second year. 
 
 Q. rubra, Linn. Red oak. Fig. 504. Leaves obovate or sometimes 
 shorter, the 7-9 lobes triangular and pointing toward the tips: acorn large, 
 flat-cupped. Common. 
 
 Q. coccinea, Moench. Scarlet oak. Fig. 505. 
 Leaves obovate, bright scarlet in autumn, thin, 
 smooth on the lower surface, the sinuses deep, 
 wide and rounded : margin of the acorn cup round- 
 ing inwards and the scales close: inner bark 
 reddish. Common. 
 
 Q. velutina, Lam. Black oak. Fig. 506. 
 Leaves obovate, coarser, downy on the lower sur- 
 face until midsummer or later, wider toward the 
 tip, the sinuses shallow (or sometimes as in the scarlet oak): margin of the 
 acorn cup not rounding inwards and the scales looser: inner bark orange. 
 Common. 
 
 4. BfiTULA. BIRCH. 
 
 Small to medium-sized trees, with sterile flowers in drooping, cylindrical 
 catkins, 3 flowers with 4 short stamens being borne under each bract : fertile 
 
 506. Quercus velutina. 
 
BIRCH ALDER 345 
 
 flowers in short, mostly erect catkins which become cones at maturity, 2 or 3 
 naked flowers being borne under each 3-lobed bract: fruit winged and seed- 
 like: leaves simple, toothed or serrate; bark often aromatic. 
 
 a. Brawn-barked birches: leaves ovate. 
 
 B. lenta, Linn. Cherry birch. Sweet birch. Tall tree, the bark tight 
 (not peeling in layers), the twigs very aromatic: leaves oblong-ovate, some- 
 what cordate at base, doubly serrate, becoming glossy above: bracts of the 
 oblong-cylindric fruiting catkins with wide-spreading lobes. Rich woods. 
 
 B. lutea, Michx. YeUow or gray birch. Bark grayer or silvery, peel- 
 ing in layers: leaves scarcely cordate, dull, more downy: bracts of the 
 short-oblong fruiting catkins with scarcely spreading scales: tree less aro- 
 matic than the other. Same range. 
 
 aa. White-barked birches: leaves triangular or broad-ovate. 
 
 B. papyrifera, Marsh. Paper birch. Canoe birch. Tree of medium 
 to rather large size, with the bark peeling in very large plates or layers: 
 leaves broad-ovate and often somewhat cordate, dull green. Pennsylvania, 
 north. , 
 
 B. populifolia, Ait. American white birch. Small and slender tree with 
 rather tight, glistening, white bark: leaves triangular-acuminate, toothed, 
 dangling, and moving incessantly in the wind. Northeastern states. 
 
 B. alba, Linn. European white birch. A larger tree, with triangular- 
 ovate leaves which are pointed but not long-acuminate. Europe. The com- 
 mon cultivated white birch. There are weeping forms (Fig. 6). 
 
 5. ALNUS. ALDER. 
 
 Much like Betula, but smaller trees or bushes: flowers with a 3-5- 
 parted calyx, and the small, short, fertile catkins composed of thickened, 
 woody scales. In the following, the flowers appear before the leaves in 
 earliest spring, from catkins formed the previous year and remaining partly 
 developed during winter. Common along streams. 
 
 A. incana, Moench. Speckled alder. Shrub or small tree, with pubescent 
 branches: leaves oval to oblong-ovate, acute, doubly serrate, glaucous and 
 downy underneath: cones about ^ in. long, mostly sessile. 
 
 A. rugdsa, Spreng. (A. serrulata, Willd.). Smooth alder. Leaves elliptic 
 or obovate, acute or rounded at the apex, finely serrate, the under side 
 of the leaves smooth or pubescent only on the veins: cones short-stalked. 
 
 A. vulgaris, Hill. Black alder. Leaves orbicular or very broadly obo- 
 vate, not acute, irregularly serrate, dull and nearly smooth beneath: cones 
 peduncled. Europe. Planted, some varieties with divided leaves. 
 
 X. URTICACE^E. NETTLE FAMILY. 
 
 Trees and herbs, with small apetalous flowers in small clusters or 
 solitary: leaves mostly straight-veined, with stipules: plants dioecious 
 or monoecious, or flowers perfect in the elms: stamens usually as many 
 
346 
 
 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 as the lobes of the calyx and opposite them: ovary superior, ripening 
 into a 1-seeded indehiscent, often winged fruit. A very polymorphous 
 association, by some botanists divided into two or three coordinate 
 families. More than 100 genera and 1,500 species. Representatives 
 are elm, hackberry, mulberry, osage orange, nettle, hop, hemp. 
 
 A. Trees. 
 
 B. Fruit a samara 1. Ulmus 
 
 BB. Fruit a small drupe 2. Celtis 
 
 BBB. Fruit as large as an orange, formed of the whole mass of 
 
 the pistillate flower-cluster 3. Madura 
 
 BBBB. Fruit resembling a blackberry, formed of the pistillate 
 
 flower-cluster 4. Morus 
 
 AA. Herbs. 
 
 B. Leaves digitately lobed or divided. 
 
 c. Plant standing erect 5. Cannabis 
 
 cc. Plant twining 6. Humulus 
 
 BB. L.eaves not lobed: plant with stinging hairs 7. Urtica 
 
 507. Ulmus fulva. 
 
 508. Ulmus americana. 
 
 509. Ulmus racemosa. 
 
 1. tfLMUS. ELM. 
 
 Trees, mostly large and valuable for timber, with rough-furrowed bark: 
 leaves alternate (2-ranked), ovate and straight- veined, dentate: flowers small 
 and not showy, appearing in earliest spring, sometimes diclinous, the calyx 
 4-9-parted, the anthers 4-9 on long filaments: ovary generally 2-loculed, 
 ripening into a 1-seeded wing-fruit. 
 
 a. Leaves large, rough on the upper surface: fruit large, nearly orbicular. 
 
 U. fulva, Michx. Slippery elm. Fig. 507. Middle-sized or small tree 
 with inner bark mucilaginous or "slippery" in spring: leaves 6-8 in. long 
 and half or more as broad, ovate-elliptic and unequal-sided, doubly 
 serrate, very rough above and softer beneath: samara %-% in. long, 
 orbicular or nearly so, with the seed in the center: flowers in dense 
 clusters. Common. 
 
ELM TRIBES 347 
 
 aa. Leaves not very rough above: fruit oval, deeply notched at the apex. 
 
 U. americina, Linn. Common or white elm. Figs. 96-100, 508. Tall and 
 graceful tree: leaves elliptic-oval, serrate: samara small, more or less hairy 
 on the thin wing, the notch in the apex extending nearly to the seed: flowers 
 hanging on slender stalks. One of the finest of American trees. 
 
 U. racemdsa, Thomas. Cork elm. Fig. 509. Smaller tree than the last, 
 with corky -winged branches: leaves with straighter veins: samara with 
 sharp incurved points at the apex: flowers in racemes. Less common. 
 
 U. alata, Michx. Wahoo elm. Small tree, with wide, corky ridges on 
 the branches: leaves small and rather thick, almost sessile, ovate to nearly 
 lanceolate and acute: samara downy, at least when young. Virginia, south 
 and west. 
 
 2. CELTIS. NETTLE-TREE. HACKBERRY. 
 
 Elm-like in looks, but the fruit a 1-seeded, berry-like drupe: flowers 
 greenish, in the leaf axils, mostly diclinous; calyx 5-6-parted; stamens 5 or 
 6: stigmas 2, very long. 
 
 C. occidentalis, Linn. Common hackberry. Middle-sized tree with 
 rough-furrowed bark: leaves ovate-pointed, oblique at base, serrate: fruit 
 purplish, as large as a pea, edible in the fall when ripe. Low grounds. 
 
 3. MACLtTRA. OSAGE ORANGE. 
 
 Small tree, with dioecious flowers in catkins, 
 and alternate, simple leaves: sterile flowers in 
 raceme-like, deciduous catkins: fertile flowers 
 densely crowded in a head, with 4 sepals and 2 510. Maclura pomifera. 
 stigmas, the ovary ripening into an achene, the 
 whole flower-cluster becoming fleshy and ripening into an orange-like mass. 
 
 M. pomifera, Schneid. (Toxylon pomiferum, Raf.). Osage orange. 
 Fig. 510. Spiny, low tree, much used for hedges, but not hardy in the north- 
 ernmost states: leaves narrow-ovate and entire, glossy: flowers in spring 
 after the leaves appear, the fruit ripening in autumn. Missouri and 
 Kansas south. 
 
 4. MORUS. MULBERRY. 
 
 Small to middle-sized trees, with broad, alternate toothed or lobed 
 leaves and monoecious flowers, with 4-parted calyx: stamens 4, with fila- 
 ments at first bent inward, the staminate catkins soon falling: fertile flowers 
 ripening a single achene, but the entire catkin becomes fleshy and blackberry- 
 like, and prized for eating. Leaves very variable, often lobed and not 
 lobed on the same branch. 
 
 M. rubra, Linn. Common wild mulberry. Often a large tree in the 
 South: leaves ovate-acuminate, oblique at the base, rough and dull on the 
 upper surface and softer beneath, dentate: fruit ^-1 in. long, black-red, 
 sweet. Wood yellow. Most abundant South, but growing as far north as 
 Massachusetts. 
 
348 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 M. alba, Linn. White mulberry. Fig. 511. Leaves light green and 
 usually glossy above, the veins prominent and whitish beneath, the teeth 
 usually rounded or obtuse: fruit of variable size, often 1^ in. long, whitish, 
 violet, or purple. China; planted for ornament and for its fruit, also for 
 feeding silkworms. The much-planted Russian mulberry is a form of it. 
 
 5. CANNABIS. HEMP. 
 
 Tall, strong, dioecious herbs with 5-7 leaflets: fertile flowers in clus- 
 ters, with 1 sepal surrounding the ovary, and 2 long, hairy stigmas: sterile 
 flowers in racemes or panicles, with 5 sepals and 5 drooping stamens. 
 
 C. sativa, Linn. Hemp. Six to 10 ft., strong-smelling, blooming all 
 summer: leaflets lanceolate, large toothed. Old World; cultivated for fiber 
 and sometimes escaped in waste places. 
 
 6. HtTMULUS. HOP. 
 
 Twining dioecious herbs of tall growth, with 5 sepals in the sterile 
 flowers, the stamens erect: fertile flowers with 1 sepal, 
 2 flowers under each scale of a short, thin catkin which 
 becomes a kind of cone or "hop." 
 
 H. Lupulus, Linn. Common hop. Perennial, rough- 
 hairy: leaves broad-ovate, deeply 3-lobed (only rarely 
 5 7-lobed): sterile flowers in panicles 26 in. long: pis- 
 tillate catkin enlarging into a "hop" often 2 in. or 
 more long. A native plant, cultivated for hops and 
 sometimes for ornament. 
 
 H. japonicus, Sieb. & Zucc. Japanese hop. Fig. 
 511. Morus alba. 179. Annual: leaves not less than 5-lobed: fertile 
 catkin not enlarging into a hop. Japan; much 
 cultivated for ornament. 
 
 7. tJRTICA. NETTLE. 
 
 Erect herbs with opposite simple leaves and stinging hairs, and monoe- 
 cious or dioecious flowers in racemes or dense clusters, the calyx of 4 
 separate sepals: stamens 4: stigma sessile: fruit an ovate flat achene. The 
 following are perennials with flowers in panicled spikes: 
 
 U. gracilis, Ait. Common nettle. Two to 6 ft.: leaves ovate-lanceolate, 
 serrate, on long petioles. Common in low grounds. 
 
 II. dioica, Linn. Not so tall: leaves ovate-cordate and deeply serrate, on 
 rather short petioles, downy underneath. Weed from Europe, very stinging. 
 
 XI. ARISTOLOCHIACE^E. 
 BIRTHWORT FAMILY. DUTCHMAN'S PIPE FAMILY. 
 
 Low acaulescent herbs, or tall twining vines: leaves basal or alter- 
 nate, without stipules, petiolate, roundish or kidney-shaped: flowers 
 regular or irregular, perfect: perianth-tube brown or dull, valvate in 
 
ARISTOLOCHIA POLYGONUM 349 
 
 bud, adherent to ovary: stamens 6-12, epigynous, and adherent to 
 base of the styles: ovary 6-celled, pistil 1. A small family of about 200 
 species, sparingly represented in this country. Many of the members 
 have aromatic or bitter-tonic properties. 
 
 A. Low stemless herbs 1. Asarum 
 
 AA. Leafy-stemmed herbs, or woody climbers 2. Aristolochia 
 
 1. ASARUM. WILD GINGER. 
 
 Perennial spreading herbs: leaves large, kidney-shaped, pubescent: 
 flower brown, inconspicuous, borne on a short peduncle arising from between 
 the petioles: rootstocks creeping, elongated, very aromatic. 
 
 A. canadense, Linn. Leaves in pairs, large, renifonn, but more or less 
 pointed at tip, soft-hairy with a silky finish : flower greenish outside, purple- 
 brown within, consisting of a 3-lobed calyx, adnate to ovary: stamens 12, 
 the filaments longer than the anthers. Common in rich woods. April, May. 
 
 2. ARISTOLOCHIA. DUTCHMAN'S PIPE. 
 
 Herbs or tall vines, with alternate, petiolate leaves, cordate, entire 
 and palmately nerved: flowers irregular, the calyx tubular, the tube oddly 
 inflated above ovary and contracted at throat, shaped like a much-bent 
 pipe, the margin reflexed or spreading, 3-6-lobed or appendaged: sta- 
 mens 6. 
 
 A. macrophylla, Lam. (A. Sipho, L'Her.). Calyx-tube about 1-lJi in. 
 long, curved to resemble a Dutch pipe, the margin spreading, brownish- 
 purple: leaves large, smooth, dark green, round kidney-shaped. Wild in 
 rich woods; May; often cultivated. 
 
 XII. POLYGONACE^E. BUCKWHEAT FAMILY. 
 
 Herbs, mostly with enlarged joints or nodes and sheaths (repre- 
 senting stipules) above them: leaves simple and usually entire, alter- 
 nate: flowers small, apetalous, usually perfect and generally borne in 
 spikes or dense clusters: stamens 4-12, attached to the very base 
 of the 3-5-merous calyx: ovary 1-loculed, ripening into a 3-4-angled 
 achene. Thirty or more genera and about 600 widely dispersed species. 
 Characteristic plants are buckwheat, rhubarb, dock, sorrel, smart- 
 weed. 
 
 A. Root-leaves 1 ft. or more across, rounded 1. Rheum 
 
 AA. Root-leaves narrow or not prominent. 
 
 B. Calyx of 6 sepals, often of two kinds 2. Rumex 
 
 BB. Calyx of 5 (rarely 4) sepals, all alike. 
 
 c. Flowers white and fragrant 3. Fagopyrum 
 
 cc. Flowers greenish or pinkish, not distinctly fragrant. .4. Polygonum 
 
350 
 
 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 1. RHEUM. RHUBARB. 
 
 Very large-leaved perennials, sending up stout hollow flower-stalks in 
 early summer which bear smaller leaves with sheathing bases : sepals 6, all 
 alike, withering rather than falling, and persisting beneath the 3-winged 
 achenes: stamens 9: styles 3. Old World. 
 
 R. Rhaponticum, Linn. Rhubarb. Pie- 
 plant. Figs. 81, 82. Leaves 1 ft. or more 
 across, the thick petioles edible: fls. white, in 
 elevated panicles. 
 
 2. RUMEX. DOCK. SORREL. 
 
 Perennial often deep-rooted plants with herbage 
 bitter or sour: sepals 6, the 3 outer large and spread- 
 ing, the 3 inner (known as "valves") enlarging after 
 
 512. Rumex Acetosella. nowerin g and one or more of them often bearing a 
 grain-like tubercle on the back; stamens 6, styles 3; 
 
 flowers in panicles or interrupted spikes. 
 
 a. Docks: herbage bitter: valves often grain-bearing: /lowers mostly perfect: 
 leaves not arrow-shaped. 
 
 R. obtusifdlius. Linn. Bitter dock. Lower leaves oblong-cordate and 
 obtuse, not wavy: one valve usually grain-bearing. Weed from Europe. 
 
 R. crispus, Linn. Curly dock. Leaves lanceolate, wavy or curled: all 
 valves usually grain-bearing. Weed from Europe. 
 
 aa. Sorrels: herbage sour: valves not grain-bearing: 
 flowers dioecious: leaves arrow-shaped. 
 
 R. Acetosella, Linn. Common or sheep sorrel. 
 Fig. 512. Low (1 ft. or less): Ivs. mostly arrow- 
 shaped at base: flowers brownish, small, in a ter- 
 minal panicle. Common in sterile fields. Europe. 
 
 3. FAGOPtRUM. BUCKWHEAT. 
 
 Fast-growing annuals, with somewhat triangular 
 leaves, and fragrant flowers in flattish, panicle-like 
 clusters: calyx of 5 parts: stamens 8: fruit a trian- 
 gular achene. Old World. 
 
 F. esculentum, Moench. Common buckwheat. 
 Fig. 513. Leaves triangular-arrow-shaped, long- 
 
 petioled: flowers white, in a compound cluster: achene with regular angles. 
 Flour is made from the grain. 
 
 F. tataricum, Gaertn. India wheat. Slenderer, the leaves smaller and 
 more arrow-shaped and short-petioled : flowers greenish or yellowish, in 
 simple racemes: achene notched on the angles. Somewhat cultivated. 
 
 513. 
 
 Fagopyrum esculentum. 
 
KNOTWEED FAMILY 
 
 351 
 
 4. POL^GONUM. KNOTWEED. SMARTWEED. 
 
 Low weedy plants, or some exotic ones tall and cultivated, blooming in 
 summer and fall, the small pinkish or greenish flowers mostly in racemes or 
 spikes (in the Knotweeds in the leaf-axils): calyx usually 5-parted: stamens 
 4-9: stigmas 2 or 3: black achene lenticular or triangular. 
 
 a. Knotweeds: flowers sessile in the axils of the leaves, greenish and very small. 
 
 P. aviculare, Linn. Common knotweed. Doorweed. Fig. 210. Pros- 
 trate or creeping, bluish green wiry plant, growing along the hard edges of 
 walks and in yards, and commonly mistaken for sod: leaves small, mostly 
 oblong, entire: sepals very small, green with a broad white margin: stamens 
 5 or more: stigmas usually 3. Annual. 
 
 P. erectum, Linn. Taller knotweed. One ft. or more high: leaves three 
 or four times larger, oblong or oval and obtuse. Common annual. 
 
 aa. Smartweeds: flowers in terminal spikes, mostly pinkish. 
 
 b. Sheaths of leaves (surrounding stem) hairy on the edge, or 
 
 the margin with a spreading border. 
 
 P. orientate, Linn. Prince's feather. Several feet tall, soft- 
 hairy: flowers in long cylindrical nodding spikes: leaves ovate: 
 stamens 7. India; cultivated. Annual. 
 
 P. Persicaria, Linn. Smartweed. Lady's thumb (from the 
 dark blotch near the center of the leaf). Fig. 514. About 1 
 ft.: leaves lanceolate: spikes oblong, dense and erect: stamens 
 usually 6: stigmas 2. Weed from Europe. 
 
 P. Hydropiper, Linn. Smartweed. Herbage very pungent 
 or "smarty:" leaves oblong-lanceolate: spikes short and 
 nodding, the flowers greenish: stamens 6: stigmas 3. Low 
 grounds. Annual. 
 
 P. hydropiperoides, Michx. Smartweed. Herbage not 
 pungent: spikes slender and erect, the flowers whitish: sta- 
 mens 8: stigmas 3. In very wet places. Perennial. 
 
 P. acre, HBK. Smartweed. Herbage pungent: leaves 
 linear or lanceolate, long-pointed: spikes slender and erect: flowers white or 
 blush: stamens 8: stigmas 3. Low grounds. Perennial. 
 
 bb. Sheaths of leaves not hairy, nor the margin bordered. 
 
 P. pennsylvanicum, Linn. Smartweed. Pungent: plant with conspicuous 
 glandular hairs above: leaves lanceolate: spikes short-oblong and erect, the 
 flowers purplish: stamens 8: stigmas 2. Low ground. Annual. 
 
 XIII. EUPHORBIACE.E. SPURGE FAMILY. 
 
 Trees, shrubs or herbs, often with milky, pungent juice, some- 
 times poisonous: flowers monoecious or dioecious, mostly apetalous, 
 usually small and inconspicuous. The family is large, in warmer parts 
 
352 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 of the world. The determination of the genera and species is difficult. 
 Euphorbia and Ricinus will sufficiently explain the flower structure for 
 the beginner. 
 
 A. Flowers in a cup-like involucre, which imitates a perianth: 
 
 flowers dioecious, without calyx or corolla 1. Euphorbia 
 
 AA. Flowers, not in an involucre, but in a terminal panicle: 
 
 flowers dioecious, calyx present, but no corolla 2. Ricinus 
 
 1. EUPHORBIA. SPURGE. 
 
 Flowers monoecious inclosed in an involucre; which is 4-5-lobed and 
 often showy, resembling a perianth: staminate flowers each consisting of 
 a stamen jointed to filament-like pedicel, subtended by a minute bract, 
 attached on the inner surface of the involucre: the solitary pistillate flower, 
 standing at the bottom of the involucre, is at length protruded on a stalk: 
 capsule 3-lobed and 3-celled: styles 3, each 2-cleft: stigmas 6. Many of the 
 species are cultivated for ornamental purposes, as E. splendens, Crown of 
 Thorns; E. Cyparissias, Cypress spurge, common in old yards and about 
 cemeteries, where it has run wild. 
 
 E. corollata, Linn. Flowering spurge. Perennial, 2-3 ft., slender- 
 branched: leaves mostly alternate, or the uppermost ones, or those on 
 the branches opposite, whorled, oval, rather thick, usually pale beneath: 
 flowering branches much forked: involucres terminal, or on peduncles, from 
 the forks of the branches, the lobes snowy white, appearing like petals with 
 oblong yellowish green glands at base of each. In dry or sandy soil, common. 
 July to October. 
 
 E. maculata, Linn. Small plant, prostrate or spreading, the branches 
 slender and radiating, dark green, often dark red: leaves oblong-linear, 
 usually with red-brown spots in center: involucre minute, the corolla-like 
 appendages narrow, white or red. A common inconspicuous weed through- 
 out North America, except the extreme north. 
 
 E. pulcherrima, Willd. Poinsettia. Floral leaves brilliant red and 
 appearing like flaming blossoms: flowers in a greenish involucre, with a 
 large yellow gland on summit. A Mexican species, well known as an 
 ornamental greenhouse plant. 
 
 2. RICINUS. CASTOR-OIL PLANT. Figs. 313-316. 
 
 Tall stately, perennial herb (annual North), with large, alternate, pal- 
 mately cleft leaves: flowers monoecious, apetalous, greenish, in terminal 
 racemes or panicled clusters, the pistillate flowers above the others; styles 
 large, reddish. 
 
 R. communis, Linn. Castor bean. Palma Christi. Stem erect from 
 3-12 ft., somewhat branched: leaves very large, peltate, lobes acute, pointed, 
 toothed: seeds smooth, black, mottled or variegated with gray and brown. 
 Grown for medicinal and ornamental purposes. Tropical. There are many 
 forms in cultivation. 
 
PINKS 353 
 
 XIV. CARYOPHYLLACE.E. PINK FAMILY. 
 
 Herbs, with opposite, mostly narrow, entire leaves without conspic- 
 uous veins: flowers 4-5-merous, sometimes apetalous, with stamens 
 twice or less the number of sepals or petals, and 2-5 styles which 
 may be wholly separate or partially united: pod usually a 1-loculed 
 capsule commonly inclosed in the calyx, mostly splitting from the 
 top, the seeds usually attached to a central column. Genera between 
 30 and 40, species about 1,000. Representative plants are pink, car- 
 nation, bouncing Bet, catchfly, chickweed, corn-cockle, lychnis, spurry. 
 
 A. Flowers polypetalous, with sepals united into a tube. 
 
 B. Bracts at the base of the calyx 1. Dianthus 
 
 BB. No bracts at base of calyx. 
 
 c. Styles 2 2. Saponaria 
 
 cc. Styles 4-5 3. Lychnis 
 
 ccc. Styles 3 . .4. Silene 
 
 AA. Flowers often apetalous, the sepals nearly or quite distinct. 
 
 B. Styles 3 or 4 5. SteUaria 
 
 BB. Styles 5 6. Cerastium 
 
 1. DlANTHUS. PINK. 
 
 Showy-flowered small herbs, with striate, many-furrowed 
 calyx and sepal -like bracts at its base: petals with slender 
 claws or bases, the limb usually toothed or fringed: styles 2. 
 
 a. Flowers single on ends of branches. 
 
 D. chinensis, Linn. China or florists' pink. Leaves 
 short-lanceolate, not grass-like: calyx-bracts linear-acute and 
 as long as the calyx: petals in white and shades of red, very 
 showy. China. Perennial, but grown as an annual (mostly 
 under the florists' name D. Heddewigi). 
 
 D. plumarius, Linn. Grass or Scotch pink. Common pink 
 of old gardens, from Europe. Low, growing in mats, glau- 
 cous-blue: leaves grass-like: flowers very fragrant, deep-fringed, white or 
 pink. Perennial. 
 
 D. Caryophyllus, Linn. Carnation. Two ft. or more, with wiry stems, 
 glaucous-blue: leaves grass-like: calyx-bracts short and broad: petals more 
 or less toothed but not fringed: flowers fragrant. Europe. 
 
 aa. Flowers in compact clusters. 
 
 D. barbatus, Linn. Sweet William. Fig. 515. One ft. or more, erect, 
 green: flowers small, in dense clusters in red and white. Old World; common 
 in old gardens. 
 
 W 
 
354 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 2. SAPONARIA. SOAPWORT. 
 
 Calyx cylindrical or angled, 5-toothed, with no bracts at its base: 
 stamens 10: styles 2: pod 4-toothed at top (Fig. 282). 
 
 S. officinalis, Linn. Bouncing Bet. Perennial, forming colonies in old 
 yards and along roads, 1-2 ft. high, glabrous, with ovate or oval leaves: 
 flowers 1 in. across, white or rose, in dense clusters, often* double, the petals 
 with a crown. Europe. Common. 
 
 3. LYCHNIS. LYCHNIS. COCKLE. 
 
 Annual or perennial, with styles usually 5, and pod opening by 5 or more 
 teeth: calyx 5-toothed and 10- or more-nerved, naked at the base: stamens 10. 
 
 L. Githago, Scop, (or Agrostemma Githago, Linn.). Fig. 181. Corn 
 cockle, because it is a common weed in wheat fields (wheat is. known as 
 corn in Europe), its seeds not being readily separated from wheat because 
 of their similar size and its seasons corresponding with those of wheat : annual, 
 2-3 ft., hairy: flowers purple-red and showy, on very long stalks, the 
 petals crowned and the calyx-lobes long and leafy: leaves very narrow. 
 Europe. 
 
 L. Coronaria, Desv. Dusty Miller. Mullein pink. Biennial or per- 
 ennial, white- woolly all over: leaves oblong: flowers rose-crimson, showy. 
 Europe. Old gardens and along roads. 
 
 4. SILENE. CAMPION. CATCHFLY. 
 
 Annual or perennial herbs, with white, pink, or red flowers, solitary or 
 in cymes: calyx often inflated, 5-toothed, 10- to many-nerved, with no 
 bracts at base; petals 5, clawed, sometimes with crown or scale at base of 
 blade; stamens 10; styles 3 (rarely 4 or 5); ovary 1-celled (or incompletely 
 2-4-celledj: fruit a capsule, or pod, 1-celled or 3-celled at base, dehiscent by 
 3 or 6 teeth at apex, many-seeded. A viscid secretion covers the calyx and 
 stems of certain species, by which creeping insects are caught, whence the 
 name "catchfly." 
 
 S. stellata, Ait. Starry campion. Perennial, 2-3 ft. high: leaves ovate- 
 lanceolate, acuminate, in whorls of 4 (at least the upper ones) : flowers in 
 panicled cymes; calyx bell-shaped, loose and inflated; petals fringed, 
 crownless, white. July. Open woods. 
 
 S. latifdlia, Britten & Rendle. Bladder campion. Perennial, 1-2 ft.: 
 leaves ovate-lanceolate, acute, opposite: flowers in panicles, inclined or 
 drooping: calyx globular, thin and much inflated, conspicuously veined; 
 petals 2-cleft, white. Roadsides, fields and waste places. Common eastward. 
 Naturalized from Europe. 
 
 S. pennsylvanica Michx. Wild pink. Perennial, viscid-pubescent above, 
 4-10 in.: basal leaves spatulate or cuneate, narrowed into petioles; stem- 
 leaves lanceolate, sessile, opposite: flowers in terminal, few-flowered cymes; 
 calyx narrow; petals wedge-shaped, slightly emarginate (or eroded) on 
 edge, pink-red, crowned. In dry soil in eastern states. 
 
 S. virgmica, Linn. Fire pink. Perennial, 1-8 ft.: lower leaves thin, 
 spatulate, the cauline oblong or lanceolate, sessile: flowers few in a loose 
 
PINK FAMILY 355 
 
 cyme, peduncled, showy, 1^-2 in. broad; calyx bell-like, enlarged as pod 
 matures: petals 2-cleft, crowned, bright crimson: stem viscid-pubescent. 
 Open, dry woods. May to September. 
 
 S. noctifldra, Linn. Night-flowering catchfly. Annual: lower leaves 
 spatulate or obovate, the upper linear: flowers large, few, pedicelled, 
 in loose panicle, opening at dusk for the night: very fragrant: calyx-tube 
 elongated, noticeably veined, with awl-like teeth: petals 2-cleft; white, 
 crowned. Weed introduced from Europe. July to 
 September. 
 
 5. STELLARIA. CHICKWEED. 
 
 Small, weak herbs with sepals 4-5, petals of equal 
 number and deeply cleft or sometimes wanting; stamens 
 10 or less; styles usually 3: pod opening by twice as 
 many valves as there are styles. 
 
 S. media, Cyrill. Common chickweed. Fig. 457. 
 Little prostrate annual, making a mat in cultivated 
 grounds, with ovate or oblong leaves mostly on hairy ^ Stellaria media, 
 petioles: flowers solitary, minute, white, the 2-parted 
 
 petals shorter than the calyx, the peduncle elongating in fruit. Europe; 
 very common. Blooms in cold weather. 
 
 6. CERASTIUM. MOUSE-EAR CHICKWEED. 
 
 Differs from Stellaria chiefly in having 5 styles and pod splitting into 
 twice as many valves. The two following gray herbs grow in lawns. From 
 Europe. 
 
 C. viscosum, Linn. Annual, about 6 in. high: leaves ovate to spatulate: 
 flowers small, in close clusters, the petals shorter than the calyx, and the 
 pedicels not longer than the acute sepals. 
 
 C. vulgatum, Linn. Perennial and larger, clammy-hairy: leaves oblong: 
 pedicels longer than the obtuse sepals, the flowers larger. 
 
 XV. RANUNCULACE^. CROWFOOT or BUTTERCUP FAMILY. 
 
 Mostly herbs, with various habits and foliage: parts of the flower 
 typically all present, free and distinct, but there are some apetalous 
 and dioecious species: stamens many; pistils many or few, in the 
 former case becoming achenes and in the latter usually becoming folli- 
 cles. Upwards of 30 genera and 1,000-1,200 species. Characteristic 
 plants are buttercup, anemone, meadow-rue, marsh-marigold or 
 cowslip, adonis, clematis, larkspur, aconite, columbine, banebeny, 
 peony. Known from Rosaceae by the hypogynous flowers. 
 
 A. Plants not climbing: herbs. 
 
 B. Fruits achenes, several or many from each flower. 
 
356 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 c. True petals none, but the sepals petal-like (and 
 
 involucre often simulating a calyx). 
 D. Flowers in small umbels, or peduncles 1-fld. 
 E. Involucre of 2 or more Ivs. some distance 
 
 below the flower 1. Anemone 
 
 EE. Involucre of 3 sepal-like leaves close to the flower 2. Hepatica 
 EEE. Involucre of 3 compound Ivs., sessile at base 
 
 of umbel: pistils fewer than in Anemone 3. Anemonella 
 
 DD. Flowers in panicles or corymbs 4. Thalictrum 
 
 cc. True petals present : yellow 5. Ranunculus 
 
 BB. Fruits, follicles, 
 c. Flowers regular. 
 
 D. Petals each spurred 6. Aquilegia 
 
 DD. Petals none^ sepals petal-like, yellow 7. Caltha 
 
 DDD. Petals many: fls. very large and of shades of red: 
 
 plant bushy 8. Pxonia 
 
 cc. Flowers irregular; upper sepal spurred; 2 petals 
 
 spurred 9. Delphinium 
 
 BBB. Fruits, berries, red or white. 
 
 c. Flowers with petals and 3-5 petal-like sepals: fls. 
 
 small, white, in a short raceme 10. Actxa 
 
 AA. Plants climbing by the leaf -stalks: stem woody 11. Clematis 
 
 1. ANEMONE. ANEMONY. WINDFLOWER. 
 
 Low perennial herbs with mostly showy apetalous flowers and an invo- 
 lucre of 2 or more mostly divided leaves standing some distance below the 
 flower: pistils ripening into a head of achenes. 
 
 a. Achenes woolly or silky. 
 
 A. japonica, Sieb. & Zucc. Japanese anemony. Three ft., blooming in 
 fall, with pink or white flowers 2-3 in. across: leaves with 3 cordate-ovate 
 notched leaflets. Much planted. 
 
 A. virginiana, Linn. Two ft., with involucre of three 3-parted leaves: 
 flowers on long stalks arising in succession from succeeding nodes: sepals 5, 
 acute, greenish white: head of fruit oblong, ^ in. long. Woods. 
 
 aa. Achenes not woolly or silky. 
 
 A. quinquefolia, Linn. (A. nemorosa of some). Common windflower. 
 Low, about 6 in., blooming in rich woods in early spring: involucral leaves 3, 
 each with 3 or 5 long leaflets: flowers white, purplish outside, pretty. 
 
 2. HEP ATI C A. LIVERLEAF. MAYFLOWER of some places. 
 
 Differs from Anemone chiefly in having 3 simple sepal-like bracts be- 
 neath the flower (but they are sometimes a half -inch removed from it): 
 flowers in earliest spring, white, blush, or blue, on simple hairy scapes: 
 leaves broad, 3-lobed. Woods. 
 
 H. triloba, Chaix. Leaves with rounded lobes. 
 
 H. acutiloba, DC. Leaves with acute lobes. 
 
CROWFOOT FAMILY 357 
 
 3. ANEMONfiLLA. RUE ANEMONE. 
 
 Attractive slender perennial herb, resembling Anemone: basal leaves 
 2 or 3 times compound: involucre of 3 compound leaves at base of the 
 umbel: leaflets petioled: flowers in a terminal umbel, on slender pedicels; 
 petals wanting; sepals 5-10, white or pinkish, 1 in. broad, petal-like; pistils 
 4-15; stigma broad, sessile on carpels, glabrous and deeply grooved. 
 
 A. thalictroides, Spach. Rue anemone. Stem slender, 6-10 in., appear- 
 ing in earliest spring before the 2-3 ternately compound basal leaves, rising 
 from a cluster of tuberous roots: sepals 5-10, bright, quite lasting. A com- 
 mon spring flower of the woodland, appearing with the Wood Anemone or 
 Windflower and easily confused with it. 
 
 4. THALfCTRUM. MEADOW RUE. 
 
 Mostly smooth perennial herbs, erect, sometimes several feet high : 
 panicled flowers small, greenish and inconspicuous, often dioecious, or 
 polygamous: foliage light, graceful, the alternate leaves being 2-4 ternately 
 compound, with the leaflets and divisions stalked: calyx of 4-5 petal-like 
 greenish sepals, soon falling; stamens many; ovaries 4-15, 1-seeded. 
 
 T. dioicum, Linn. Early meadow rue. Flowers dioecious, green or pur- 
 plish, in loose panicles: leaflets thin and delicate, 3-7-lobed, pale beneath, 
 somewhat drooping on the petiolules: anthers yellow, drooping on thread- 
 like filaments: achenes about 8, sessile or nearly so: 1-2 ft. high. Common 
 in woodlands. April and May. 
 
 T. polygamum, Muhl. Tall meadow rue. Coarser, ranker and later than 
 T. dioicum, 4-8 ft. high: filaments of stamens broad, spatulate: achenes 
 stalked: flowers polygamous, sepals white. 
 
 T. dasycarpum, Fisch. & Lall. Purplish meadow rue. Stem 2-5 ft. high, 
 usually purplish: stem-leaves almost sessile: leaflets thick, dark green above, 
 pale and waxy or downy beneath, margins slightly rolled or thickened: 
 flowers polygamous or dioecious, greenish and purplish: anthers drooping 
 on filiform filaments. June to August. 
 
 5. RANUNCULUS. CROWFOOT. BUTTERCUP. Figs. 202, 203, 207, 268. 
 
 Perennials or annuals, with mostly yellow flowers; sepals 5; petals 5 
 and bearing a little pit or scale at the base inside: leaves alternate: achenes 
 many in a head. 
 
 R. acris, Linn. Tall buttercup. Two to 3 ft., from a fibrous root: leaves 
 3-parted, all the divisions sessile and again 3-cleft: flowers bright yellow. 
 Europe, but now a common weed. Summer. 
 
 R. bulbosus, Linn. Earlier and only half as tall, from a bulbous base: 
 leaves 3-parted, the lateral divisions sessile and the terminal one stalked: 
 peduncles furrowed: flowers bright yellow. Europe; common eastward. 
 
 R. septentrionalis, Poir. Stems more or less prostrate at base, often 
 forming long runners: leaves 3-divided, divisions all stalked and 3-lobed or 
 -parted: petals obovate, yellow. Wet places. 
 
 R. abortivus, Linn. Glabrous, biennial herb; 6 in. to 2 ft., branching: 
 basal leaves heart-shaped or kidney-form, crenate (sometimes lobed), on 
 
358 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 long stalks: later leaves, often 3-5-lobed or -parted, and sessile or nearly so: 
 petals small, yellow, not equal to the sepals: styles very short, curved. 
 Shady woods and along stream-sides. April to June. 
 
 R. micranthus, Nutt. Pubescent, smaller than preceding and basal 
 leaves ovate, but not heart-shaped, some 3-parted: fairly common. 
 
 R. recurvatus, Poir. Usually pubescent, erect, branching, 1-2 ft. : leaves 
 all petioled and similarly 3-parted: sepals longer than the pale yellow petals 
 and recurved: beaks of achenes strongly hooked. Common. Spring. 
 
 6. AQUILfiGIA. COLUMBINE. 
 
 Upright herbs, with compound leaves which have petioles expanded 
 at the base: sepals 5, somewhat petal-like; petals 5, each one produced 
 into a long nectary spur; pistils 5: fruit a several-seeded follicle. Delphinium 
 or larkspur is an allied genus. 
 
 a. Spurs straight. 
 
 A. canadensis, Linn. Common wild columbine. Often 
 incorrectly called honeysuckle. Fig. 517. About 2 ft.: 
 leaflets rounded or obovate, toothed at top: flowers 
 about 2 in. long, drooping, scarlet and orange or nearly 
 yellow, the stamens projecting. Common on rocks. 
 
 A. chrysantha, Gray. Yellow columbine. Flowers 
 517 " bright yellow, often tinged, erect or becoming so. New 
 
 Aquilegia canadensis. Mexico and Arizona, but frequent in gardens. 
 
 aa. Spurs hooked at the end. 
 
 A. vulgaris, Linn. Blue columbine. A European species, common in 
 gardens, and often full double: flowers varying from blue and purple to 
 white, with rather short and thick hooked spurs. 
 
 7. CALTHA. MARSH MARIGOLD. COWSLIP (in America) 
 
 Low tufted herbs with undivided leaves, and clusters of yellow butter- 
 cup-like flowers: sepals 5-9, petal-like; petals none; pistils 5-10, ripening 
 into several-seeded follicles. 
 
 C. palustris, Linn. About 1 ft. high: leaves rounded or kidney-shaped, 
 crenate or nearly entire. Wet places, in early spring. Used for "greens." 
 
 8. P-ffiONIA. PEONY. PINEY. 
 
 Stems shrubby and perennial or, as in the commoner garden forms, her- 
 baceous, from thick, fleshy roots : leaves ternately and pinnately compound : 
 flowers large, terminal, solitary; sepals 5, unequal, leafy, persistent; petals 
 5 to indefinite in number; ovaries 3-5, surrounded by a disk: fruit, many- 
 seeded follicles. Oriental. 
 
 P. officinalis, Linn. Common garden peony. Large flowers, double, 
 red, pink, flesh-colored to white; carpels 2, pubescent, forming 2 erect, 
 many-seeded follicles. June. 
 
CROWFOOT FAMILY 359 
 
 9. DELPHfNIUM. LARKSPUR. Figs. 224, 225, 269, 270. 
 
 Stems erect, simple or branching, with alternate leaves, petioled, pal- 
 mately-divided or -lobed : flowers in a terminal raceme or panicle, white, blue, 
 purple and showy, with irregular sepals and petals; sepals 5, colored, the 
 upper spurred behind; petals 4 (rarely 2), the upper pair spurred, and in- 
 closed in the spur of the sepal; carpels 1-5, sessile, forming many-seeded 
 follicles. Several wild and cultivated species. 
 
 D. Ajacis, Linn. Annual, 1-2 ft.: flowers purple, roseate or white, 
 sometimes double, many in crowded racemes; pistil 1: follicle pubescent, 
 with short, stout beak. Cultivated and a showy garden plant; sometimes 
 escaped from gardens. 
 
 D. tricorne, Michx. Perennial, 6 in. to 1 or 2 ft.: flowers blue or white, 
 in few-flowered racemes (6-12): leaves 5-parted, the divisions 3-5-cleft: 
 pistils 3: follicles widely diverging, short-beaked. In rich soil, west of 
 Alleghanies. April to June. 
 
 10. ACT^EA. BANEBERRY. 
 
 Erect, perennial plants, in rich woods, 2-3 ft., with conspicuous red or 
 white berries: stems mostly simple, bearing large, ternately compound 
 leaves, the leaflets ovate but sharply cut-lobed or toothed: flowers small, 
 white, in thick terminal racemes; sepals 3-5, soon falling; petals 4-10, long- 
 clawed, flat, spatulate; stamens many, filaments white and slender; ovary 
 1, with a broad, sessile, 2-lobed stigma, many-ovuled. 
 
 A. alba, Mill. White baneberry. Raceme oblong: petals truncate, 
 pedicels thickened, and usually red: berries white, ellipsoid. Common in 
 woods. April to June. 
 
 A. rubra, Willd. Red baneberry. Raceme ovate or hemispherical; 
 petals acute; pedicels slender: berries cherry-red (sometimes white), oval 
 or ellipsoid. Common in woods, especially northward. In bloom, April, 
 May. 
 
 11. CLEMATIS. VIRGIN'S BOWER. Figs. 77, 178. 
 
 Herbs, or somewhat woody, generally climbing by clasping petioles: 
 leaves opposite, simple or compound: flowers apetalous, or petals very small; 
 sepals 4 (rarely more) and colored; stamens many, a number of them (some- 
 times all) usually sterile; pistils many in a head, bearing the persistent, 
 plumose or silky styles. Many large-flowered cultivated forms. 
 
 C. verticillaris, DC. A woody climber, nearly smooth: leaves in whorls 
 of 4's, each 3-foliate: large, purple flowers 2-3 in. across, at each node. 
 Not common, belonging mainly to the North and to mountainous districts. 
 May, June. 
 
 C. Viorna, Linn. Leaves mostly pinnately compound, with 3-7 leaflets, 
 entire, or 3-lobed: flowers solitary and usually nodding on long peduncles, 
 bell-shaped, having peculiarly thick sepals, with their points recurved; 
 purplish-red color: the long akenes plumose. Climbing. Pennsylvania, weat. 
 May to August. 
 
 C. virginiana, Linn. Common virgin's bower. Old-man vine (from 
 
360 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 the heads of hairy styles). A common climbing plant, along fences, streams 
 and in low woodlands: leaves compound, glabrous, with 3 leaflets cut or 
 lobed and nearly heart-shaped at base: flowers small, in leafy panicles, poly- 
 gamo-dioecious ; petals none, but sepals whitish, thin, spreading: styles 
 long-plumed in fruit, making a feathery cluster. July, August. 
 
 XVI. BERBERIDACE^E. BARBERRY FAMILY. 
 
 Herbs and shrubs with alternate or radical leaves, sometimes with 
 stipules: flowers regular, perfect (except 1 genus), hypogynous, soli- 
 tary or racemed; sepals and petals usually in several rows of 3 each, 
 and calyx colored; stamens as many as petals (rarely mqre) and one 
 opposite to each petal: anthers opening at the top by 2 valves or 
 lids (except in Podophyllum) : pistil 1: fruit a berry or pod. About 20 
 genera and 100 species. 
 
 A. Shrubs: flowers yellow: berries red or orange, remaining 
 
 on branches into the winter 1. Berberis 
 
 AA. Herbs. 
 
 B. Flowers on leafless scapes: leaves radical, each 2- 
 
 parted: fruit a pod, opening at the top by a lid 2. Jeffersonia 
 
 BB. Flower on short pedicel, in fork between 2 large 
 
 leaves: fruit a large, oval, edible berry 3. Podophyllum 
 
 1. BERBERIS. BARBERRY. Figs. 168, 221. 
 
 Shrubs, often spiny: flowers yellow, in drooping racemes; sepals 6-9, 
 colored, bracted; petals 6, each with 2 basal glandular spots; stamens 6, 
 irritable, bending inward when touched; pistil 1; stigma circular, sessile: 
 berries sour, 1 few-seeded: leaves simple or compound, bases dilated and 
 jointed on short petioles, usually spiny-toothed, sometimes reduced to 
 cleft spines. 
 
 B. vulgaris, Linn. Common barberry. Leaves with repandly-toothed 
 margins, teeth spinous-pointed or represented by branched (3-pronged) 
 spines: berries oblong, scarlet, acid. Europe; but cultivated and naturalized 
 in eastern and middle states. 
 
 B. canadensis, Mill. Shrub 1-3 ft., native to southern mountains, 
 with oval berries and few-flowered racemes. 
 
 B. Thfinbergii, DC. Cultivated, low shrub with small entire leaves and 
 handsome horizontal sprays: flowers solitary or in pairs, on slender pedicels, 
 from leaf-axils: berries bright red, remaining on the twigs into the winter: 
 leaves H-l in. long, also red in fall. Japan. 
 
 2. JEFFERSONIA. TWIN-LEAF. RHEUMATISM ROOT. 
 
 Perennial glabrous herb, from roots of matted, blackish fibers, with 
 ample 2-parted leaves, rising on long petioles from the roots : scape bearing 1 
 terminal large white flower; sepals 4, soon falling; petals usually 8, oblong; 
 
BERBERIDACEjE NYMPH^EACE^E 361 
 
 stamens 8, with linear anthers on slim filaments ; stigma peltate, with many 
 ovules on lateral placentae: pod green, leathery, becoming pear-shaped and 
 dehisces by a lid, opening half-way round the upper part, from which the 
 many, rounded seeds, arilled on one side, spill forth. 
 
 J. diphylla, Pers. Scape erect to 8 or 12 in.: leaves divided longitu- 
 dinally into 2 parts, with usually entire margins. Very interesting little 
 plant in rich woods, spring: sometimes cultivated. 
 
 3. PODOPHYLLUM. MAY APPLE. MANDRAKE. 
 
 Smooth perennials from creeping horizontal rootstocks, and thick, 
 fibrous roots: stems smooth, simple, carrying large, peltate, glossy-green 
 leaves and a solitary white flower: sepals 6, petal-like, soon falling; petals 
 6-9, concave, broad and large; stamens as many or twice as many as petals; 
 pistil 1, with sessile, large, thick, stigma: fruit a large, fleshy, oval, 1-celled 
 berry, filled by many seeds, each seed inclosed in a pulpy aril, edible. 
 
 P. peltatum, Linn. Leaves 2, large, orbicular, peltate, deeply 5-9-lobed 
 and few-toothed: flowers fragrant, solitary from the common axil of the 2 
 stem leaves, borne on a short, recurved peduncle: petals, large, white, wax- 
 like: common in rich, shady, woodland, often in large patches. May, June. 
 
 XVII. NYMPrLEACE^E. WATER-LILY FAMILY. 
 
 Aquatic, perennial herbs, with very large rootstocks tinder water: 
 leaves large, peltate or heart-shaped, often floating: flowers solitary, 
 on axillary peduncles; sepals 35 or 6; petals 5 to many; stamens 5 
 to many, with large, erect anthers; carpels 3 to many, distinct, or united 
 in a circle or with the receptacle: fruit indehiscent, or group of distinct 
 carpels. Eight genera, -of wide distribution in fresh water. The great 
 Victoria Regia of the Amazon, and often cultivated, belongs here. 
 
 A. Flowers white: sepals 4 1. Castalia 
 
 AA. Flowers yellow: sepals 5 or more 2. Nymphaea 
 
 1. CASTALIA. WATER-LILY. 
 
 Herbs with floating leaves a'nd beautiful, large, many-petaled flowers: 
 sepals 4, white, green without; petals large, wax-like, gradually becoming 
 smaller, and passing into the yellow stamens which are adherent to the 
 many-celled ovary; stigmas radiate (as in a poppy head) from a center: 
 fruit ripens under water. 
 
 C. odorata, Woodville & Wood. White water-lily. Flower 2-6 in. across, 
 very sweet-scented: petals oftenest white, sometimes tinged with pinkish. 
 Common. 
 
 2. NYMPHJfcA. YELLOW POND-LILY. 
 
 Distinguished from the water-lily by the leaves, which are more or less 
 heart-shaped, floating or erect: also by the flowers, which are 2-3 in. in 
 
362 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 diameter, with small, linear, yellow or purplish petals, becoming stamen-like 
 toward center: fruit ripens above water. The name Nymphsea is sometimes 
 applied to the genus Castalia. 
 
 N. advena, Ait. Spatterdock. Leaves oval, thick, 6 in. to 1 ft. long, 
 floating or erect: flowers yellow, sepals 6 or more, not equal; petals thick, 
 truncate, resembling stamens. 
 
 XVIII. PAPAVERACE.E. POPPY FAMILY. 
 
 Herbs with milky or colored juice (acrid and narcotic), alternate 
 or radical exstipulate leaves, the upper rarely opposite: flowers mostly 
 single, regular or irregular, perfect; sepals 2 (rarely 3 or 4), falling as 
 the flower opens; petals 4-6 (or more), imbricated, often crumpled in 
 the bud, and early falling; stamens usually many; ovary 1- to many- 
 ovuled, 1-celled: fruit a dry pod or capsule, 1-celled or, in Poppy, 
 imperfectly many-celled, generally dehiscing by a pore or by valves. 
 Small family of mostly small but usually showy herbs. 
 
 A. Plants with white (milky) juice * 1. Papaver 
 
 AA. Plants with colorless juice (watery) 2. Eschscholtzia 
 
 AAA. Plants with red or orange juice. 
 
 B. Flower-bud erect: flowers white, in earliest spring. . . .3. Sanguinaria 
 BB. Flower-buds generally nodding; flowers yellow. 
 
 c. Stigma 3-4-lobed, on a short style. Capsule ovoid. 4. Stylophorum 
 cc. Stigma 2-lobed, about sessile: capsule long 5. Chelidonium 
 
 1. PAPAVER. POPPY. 
 
 Herbs with white juice: stems smooth or hairy, erect, and the terminal 
 buds nodding, but erect in flower and fruit: sepals 2 (or 3) soon falling; petals 
 4-6; sessile stigmas united to form a rayed disk. 
 
 P. sommferum, Linn. Opium poppy. Annual, erect to 1^-2 ft., 
 branching, glaucous, with large, white or purplish-centered flowers on long 
 peduncles: leaves sessile, clasping, variously incised: capsule smooth. 
 Cultivated for opium and for ornament. 
 
 P. Rhdeas, Linn. Corn poppy. Shirley poppy. Annual, bristly, hairy, 
 the leaves deeply lobed: flowers mostly red or scarlet with a dark center, 
 varying in cultivation: pod small. 
 
 P. orientale, Linn. Stem rough-hairy, 1-flowered: flowers very large, 
 brilliant, scarlet: leaves scabrous, deep green, about pinnate. A favorite 
 perennial in gardens. 
 
 P. nudicaule, Linn. Iceland poppy. Rather delicate, hairy, with leaves 
 radical, pale green, and pinnately incised: flowers single, on slender, hairy 
 scapes, orange or white. Gardens. 
 
 2. ESCHSCH6LTZIA. 
 
 Annual or perennial herbs: leaves glaucous, finely pinnatifid: sepals 2, 
 cohering as a pointed cap, falling as flower opens; petals 4, yellow or orange 
 
PAPAVERACE^E FUMARIACE^E 363 
 
 or cream-colored; stamens many, adherent to petals; stigmas 2-6, sessile: 
 pods long, cylindric, grooved, many-seeded. 
 
 E. calif ornica, Cham. California poppy. Cultivated 'in flower-gardens: 
 stem branching, leafy: flowers showy and large, receptacle funnelform, 
 with a broadly dilated rim: pod long and slender. California. 
 
 3. SANGUINARIA. BLOODROOT. 
 
 Low, acaulescent perennial, from thick, horizontal, pointed and scarred 
 rootstocks, with juice red and acrid: in very early spring a naked scape, 
 carrying 1 terminal white flower, enfolded at first by long-petioled kidney- 
 shaped or cordate, glaucous, palmately veined leaf; sepals 2, soon falling; 
 petals 8-12, unequal, in 2 rows, not lasting; stamens many: fruit a capsule, 
 oblong, swollen, 1-celled, many-seeded, 2-valved, dehiscent at base. 
 
 S. canadensis. Linn. Flower large, white, fragile, on a scape about 6 
 in. tall: glabrous and glaucous: leaves with rounded lobes and sinuses. 
 Common in rich, open woods and on sunny banks; early spring. 
 
 4. STYLtfPHORUM. CELANDINE POPPY. 
 
 Hairy herbs with yellow juice, and pinnately divided leaves: flowers 
 large, yellow: style 1: stigma 3-4-lobed. 
 
 S. diphyllum, Nutt. Low perennial, usually with two opposite, pinnately 
 parted leaves on the stem; leaves often marked with white, 5-7-lobed: 
 flowers few, in umbels, large, 1^-2 in. across, clear yellow. Frequent in 
 rich woods in central states. May. 
 
 6. CHELIDONIUM. CELANDINE. 
 
 Rather weak, branching herbs; perennial: leaves alternate, pinnatifid: 
 juice deep yellow: flowers yellow, small, the bud nodding; sepals 2; petals 
 4; stamens many. 
 
 C. majus, Linn. Along roadsides, about fences, as a weed, growing 1-4 
 ft. high: leaves thin, once or twice pinnatifid: flowers in loose umbels, 
 soon perishing, about %~% m - m diameter. 
 
 XIX. FUMARlACELE. 
 
 Smooth, succulent herbs with noticeably delicate, finely dissected, 
 or lace-like leaves, alternate or radical, exstipulate: flowers small, 
 irregular, racemose; 2 very small sepals, scale-like; petals 4, small, 
 partially united: 6 diadelphous stamens (2 sets of 3 each); ovaries 
 1-celled: fruit a pod, 1-celled, 1-seeded and indehiscent, or several- 
 seeded with 2 parietal placentae. 
 
 A. Corolla 2-spurred at base, or heart-shaped: fls. pendent 1. Dicentra 
 
 AA. Corolla with 1 spur at base. 
 
 B. Pod slender, several-seeded: seeds arilled, or crested 2. Corydalis 
 
 BB. Pod globular, 1-seeded, indehiscent 3. Fumaria 
 
364 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 1. DICfiNTRA. 
 
 Low, acaulescent perennials, among the earliest and most delicate oi 
 spring flowers: leaves compound in 3's, finely dissected (lace-like), on 
 tender pinkish petioles from the roots: the racemose, nodding flowers borne 
 on leafless, flesh-colored scapes; pedicels 2-bracted; corolla peculiarly 
 irregular 4 petals in 2 pairs, the 2 outer spurred at base, somewhat united 
 to form a 2-spurred corolla, the inner pair of petals spoon-shaped, crested, 
 meeting over the pistil and stamens; stamens 6, in two sets, opposite the 
 outer petals. 
 
 D. Cucullaria, Bernh. Dutchman's breeches. Leaves from a cluster of 
 little pinkish tubers, forming a bulb: flowers with straight spurs, longer 
 than pedicel, and diverging, mostly creamy with yellow tips to petals, not 
 fragrant. 
 
 D. canadensis, Walp. Squirrel corn. Similar to the preceding, but 
 leaves usually glaucous: root-tubers yellow, resembling grains of Indian 
 corn: flowers differing in shape from D. Cucullaria in being more elongated, 
 spurs short and rounded, and the crests of the inner 2 petals prominent: 
 fragrant. Blooms a little later than preceding, but found in same 
 situations. 
 
 D. spectabilis, DC. Bleeding-heart. A smooth, leafy-stemmed plant of 
 many gardens; stems much branching; leaves large, twice ternately com- 
 pound: flowers many and showy in long racemes drooping from the curv- 
 ing stems, heart-shaped, bright rose or pink; no sepals when in full flower. 
 Siberia. 
 
 2. CORfDALIS. 
 
 Biennial or perennial herbs with leafy stems, pale or glaucous: leaves 
 much divided or decompound: flowers small, in racemes; corolla 4-petaled, 
 irregular; one of the outer pair of petals spurred at the base, all erect and 
 somewhat united. 
 
 C. sempervirens, Pers. Stem slender, erect, 6 in. to 2 ft. : leaves small, ses- 
 sile above, all finely dissected: flowers horizontal in terminal racemes; spurs 
 short and blunt; corolla rosy, yellow- tipped ; outer petals sharp-pointed: pods 
 erect, slender. May to June. 
 
 C. a urea, Willd. Low, diffuse or spreading: flowers yellow, ^ in. long; 
 outer petals keeled, not crested; spur shorter than pedicel (^ in.), decurved: 
 pods hanging or spreading, knotty. March to May. 
 
 3. FUMARIA. FUMITORY. 
 
 Annuals, branched and leafy-stemmed : leaves compound, finely dissected: 
 flowers small, in dense racemes or spikes; petals 4, unequal, 1-spurred at 
 base; stamens 6, diadelphous: fruit small, globular, 1-seeded, indehiscent, 
 the style falling. 
 
 F. officinalis, Linn. Low, much branched, erect to 1 ft., glabrous: flowers 
 purple-tipped, pinkish, minute, in loose spikes; sepals acute, sharply toothed, 
 shorter than corolla. Waste places. Summer. Introduced. 
 
MUSTARD PLANTS 365 
 
 XX. CRUClFER/E. MUSTARD FAMILY. 
 
 Herbs, mostly of small stature, with alternate mostly simple leaves: 
 flowers 4-merous as to envelopes, the 4 petals usually standing 90 
 degrees apart and thereby forming a cross (whence the name Cruciferae, 
 or "cross-bearing")?' stamens usually 6, 2 of them shorter: fruit 
 a silique or silicic. A very natural or well-marked family, with about 
 180 genera and nearly 2,000 species. Familiar plants are mustard, 
 shepherd's purse, honesty, cress, pepper-grass, wallflower, stock, 
 cabbage, turnip, radish, horse-radish. 
 
 . A. Fruit a silique (much longer than broad). 
 
 B. Silique tipped with a long point or beak, extending 
 
 beyond the valves, the latter more than 1-nerved. . 1. Brassica 
 BB. Silique not prominently beaked beyond the valves. 
 
 c. Flowers yellow 2. Barbarea 
 
 cc. Flowers white or purple. 
 
 D. Valves with a midrib, or seeds hi 2 rows. 
 
 E. Stigma deeply 2-lobed: flowers large 3. Matthiola 
 
 EE. Stigma but slightly, if at all 2-lobed 4. Arabia 
 
 DD. Valves without midrib. 
 E. Seeds in 1 row. 
 
 F. Stems leafless below, with 2 or 3 leaves near 
 
 middle: rootstock scaly 5. Dentaria 
 
 FF. Stems leafy: roots more fibrous 6. Cardamine 
 
 EE. Seeds in 2 rows in each cell. (Water plants. 
 
 See Radicula.) 
 AA. Fruit a silicle (short and broad). 
 
 B. Partition in the pod parallel to the sides! 
 
 c. Fruit not much compressed: seeds minute, in 2 
 
 rows in each cell 7. Radicula 
 
 cc. Fruit quite flattened, 2-8-seeded 8. Alyssum 
 
 BB. Partition crosswise the pod. 
 
 c. Pod obcordate, many-seeded 9. Capsetta 
 
 cc. Pod orbicular, 2-seeded: corolla regular 10. Lepidium 
 
 ccc. Pod rounded or ovate: corolla irregular with un- 
 equal petals 11. Iberis 
 
 AAA. Fruit fleshy, indehiscent, constricted between the 
 
 seeds 12. Raphamis 
 
 1. BRASSICA. MUSTARD. 
 
 Erect branchy herbs, mostly annual, with more or less lyrate lower 
 leaves, and small yellow flowers in racemes or panicles: petals clawed or 
 narrowed below, the limbs spreading horizontally: silique narrow, cylindrical 
 or 4-angled, the valves 1-5-nerved and the seeds in 1 row in each locule. 
 Cabbage, cauliflower, and turnip also belong to this genus. The three fol- 
 lowing are eommon weeds introduced from Europe: 
 
366 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 B. nigra, Koch. Black mustard. Fig. 518. Leaves pinnatifid, some- 
 what hairy: pod short, strongly 4-angled, not hairy. Mustard (flour) comes 
 largely from this species. 
 
 B. alba, Boiss. White mustard. Leaves pinnatifid, and rough -hairy: 
 pods rather slender, hairy, but only the lower part seed-bearing. 
 
 B. arven^is. Kuntze. Charlock. Leaves strongly toothed: 
 pod knotty, hairy or smooth, the upper third indehiscent and 2- 
 edged. Fig. 413. 
 
 2. BARBAR^A. WINTER CHESS. 
 
 Low herbs, blooming in early spring, with many small light 
 yellow flowers, and lyrate leaves with the terminal division much 
 the largest: pod cylindrical or somewhat 4-angled, the valves 
 having a strong mid vein: seeds a single row. 
 
 B. vulgaris, R. Br. Common winter cress. Yellow rocket. 
 Biennial, about 1 ft. high, with smooth foliage and flowers in 
 elongating clusters: lower leaves lyrate, upper ones cut or merely 
 
 toothed. Low grounds. 
 518. 
 
 Brassica 3 MATTHiOLA. STOCK. GILLIFLOWER. 
 nigra. 
 
 Cultivated garden or house plants from Europe: stems and 
 leaves hoary-pubescent: flowers showy, single or double, of 'many colors, 
 fragrant, in terminal racemes; stigma deeply 2-lobed: silique nearly cylin- 
 drical, with prominent midrib on each of the 2 valves; seeds winged. 
 
 M. incana, R. Br. Biennial or perennial with stout, rather woody stem : 
 leaves lanceolate, entire: flowers white, varied shades of red, purple, etc. 
 Much grown in gardens and greenhouses. 
 
 4. ARABIS. ROCK CRESS. 
 
 Mostly very small herbs with purple or white flowers: stems leafy: rad- 
 ical leaves spatulate, the stem-leaves sessile: siliques very narrow, elongated, 
 flat, the valves smooth, keeled or one-nerved in the middle, or veined length- 
 wise; seeds in 1 or 2 rows in each cell, flattened, usually margined or winged. 
 
 A. canadensis, Linn. Sickle-pod. Biennial with stems erect, 1-3 ft.: 
 leaves lanceolate, pointed at both ends, simple, toothed or entire, sessile, 
 pubescent: flowers small, white, petals twice as long as sepals: pods long, 
 flat, sickle-shaped, pendent on hairy pedicels; seeds broadly winged. Com- 
 mon in woods and rocky ravines. 
 
 A. glabra, Bernh. Biennial tall, 2-4 ft., glaucous above, but pubescent 
 at base, with many stem-leaves, ovate-lanceolate, sessile, sagittate-clasping 
 at base; petals yellowish white, scarcely longer than the calyx: pods narrow, 
 erect: seeds in 2 rows, marginless. Fields and rocky places. 
 
 5. DENTARIA. TOOTHWORT. 
 
 Low herbs, perennial, found in damp woodland, blooming with the early 
 spring flowers, bearing flowers in corymbs, white, roseate or purplish, 
 larger than the similar flowers of Cardamine: rootstocks long, horizontal, 
 
MUSTARD PLANTS 367 
 
 scaly or toothed, aromatic or with cress-like taste: stems erect, unbranched, 
 leafless below, with 2 or 3 palmately divided or compound leaves on petioles ; 
 near the middle: fruit a linear silique, flattened, valves not nerved, with 1 
 row of seeds in each cell; seeds not winged. 
 
 D. diphylla, Michx. Crinkle-root. Pepper-root. Stem erect, from a 
 toothed rootstock: leaves usually 2: leaflets 3-parted, wide-ovate, with 
 margins dentate: flowers white. 
 
 D. laciniata, Muhl. Fig. 266. Rootstock deep, short, tuberous, con- 
 stricted in several places (necklace-like): stem-leaves 3, nearly verticillate, 
 deeply 3-parted into lanceolate, linear or oblong leaflets, which are lobed or 
 toothed, and some 2-cleft: flowers white or pinkish, smaller than preceding. 
 
 6. CARDAMlNE. BITTER-CRESS. 
 
 Very similar to Dentaria, the chief difference being in the stem, which 
 is leafy, and the leaves simple, usually more or less lobed, alternate on stem. 
 Glabrous perennials, growing in wet places and along waterways, from 
 fibrous roots or tubers (not scaly rootstocks), the flowers white or purple in 
 terminal racemes. 
 
 C. bulbosa, BSP. Stem simple, erect, 9-18 in., from a tuber: leaves 
 simple, petioled below, ovate or rhombic-oblong in shape: petals white, 
 small, much longer than calyx. A variety purpurea, not so tall (46 in.), 
 with rose-colored flowers, appears even earlier than the type. 
 
 7. RADfCULA. WATER-CRESS. HORSE-RADISH. 
 
 Low, mostly aquatic or marsh plants, with pinnate or pinnatifid leaves 
 (sometimes simple); flowers small, white or yellow, with spreading sepals; 
 stamens 1-6: fruits various, short and broad (silicle) or short-cylindrical: 
 valves convex, nerveless or 1-nerved. Formerly called Nasturtium. 
 
 R. Nasturtium-aquaticum, Britten & Rendle. Water-cress. Glabrous, 
 growing in or about water: stems spreading, rooting at the nodes: leaves 
 pinnately lobed, with 3-11 lobes, the terminal segment largest: flowers 
 small in racemes, which elongate as the fruits mature: petals white and twice 
 as long as the sepals. A favorite plant for salads. 
 
 R. palustris, Moench. Marsh-cress. Annual or biennial, with simple, 
 fibrous roots: stem erect, 1-2 ft., glabrous or slightly pubescent: pinnately 
 lobed leaves, the upper sessile: flowers small, yellow: pods oblong or ovoid, 
 turgid, little if any longer than the pedicels. Weed in marshy places. 
 
 R. Armoracia, Robinson. Horse-radish. Cultivated, but sometimes 
 escaped into waste grounds: perennial, the roots long and thick: root-leaves 
 large, coarse, glabrous, oblong, crenate, rarely pinnatifid, on thick petioles, 
 the stem leaves sessile, lanceolate: flowers small, petals white, longer than 
 calyx. 
 
 8. ALfSSUM. ALYSSUM. 
 
 Small plants, mostly trailing, with entire and small leaves: pod small, 
 orbicular, 1 or 2 seeds in each locule: flowers in elongating racemes. 
 
368 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 A. marftimum, Linn. Sweet alyssum of the gardens (from Europe). 
 Fig. 519. Annual, producing a profusion of small white, fragrant flowers. 
 There are many cultivated forms. 
 
 9. CAPSfiLLA. SHEPHERD'S PURSE. 
 
 Low short-lived annuals, with very small white flowers in racemes: 
 pod obcordate or inversely triangular, the partition run- 
 ning across the narrow diameter, containing several seeds. 
 C. Bursa-pastdris, Medic. Common shepherd's purse. 
 Fig. 286. One of the commonest little weeds: root-leaves 
 pinnatifid or strong- toothed, in a rosette, the stem-leaves 
 arrow-shaped. Europe. 
 
 10. LEPIDIUM. PEPPER-GRASS. 
 
 Small stiffish annuals (or biennials), which shed their 
 leaves late in the season: flowers very small, white or 
 greenish, in elongating racemes: pod small and roundish, 
 the partition running across the narrow diameter. Plant 
 peppery to the taste. 
 519. Alyssum L virginicum, Linn. Common pepper-grass. About 
 
 mantimum. - ., i i -, , , , , , ,. 
 
 1 ft. high, much branched, glabrous: leaves linear to 
 
 lanceolate, tapering to the base, the lower mostly pinnatifid. Common 
 weed; often fed to canary birds. 
 
 11. IBtRIS. CANDYTUFT. Fig. 192. 
 
 Herbs with white, or purple flowers in flat or elongated clusters; 2 outer 
 petals larger than 2 inner: silicles flattened, truncate, cells 1-seeded. Cul- 
 tivated. 
 
 I. umbellata, Linn. Annual, 1 ft. or more: lower leaves lanceolate, the 
 upper linear and entire: flowers mostly purple or lilac in flat clusters: 
 silicles acutely 2-lobed. June and July. 
 
 I. amara, Linn. Annual: leaves lanceolate, toothed toward apex: flowers 
 white. The common white-flowered candytuft, in many forms (including 
 the garden /. coronaria). 
 
 12. RAPHANUS. RADISH. 
 
 Annual or biennial herbs, with lyrate, pinnately-lobed root-leaves: 
 flowers rather showy in long racemes; calyx erect; petals clawed; style long 
 and slender: pod linear, indehiscent, constricted between the seeds, pithy; 
 seeds spherical. Europe. 
 
 R. Raphanistrum, Linn. White charlock. A weed, common in the 
 East: tap-root slender: petals yellow,' fading to white or purplish: pod 4- to 
 10-seeded, long-beaked, constricted between seeds when dry. 
 
 R. sativus, Linn. Garden radish. Flowers pink or white: root fleshy, 
 spindle- or turnip-shaped, red or white: silique 2-3 -seeded, short and 
 pointed, with fleshy partitions between seeds: seeds round and blackish. 
 
VIOLETS 369 
 
 XXI. VIOLACEJ3. VIOLET FAMILY. 
 
 Ours herbs with or without stems, and simple, entire or cleft leaves, 
 radical or alternate, with stipules: flowers showy, irregular, solitary 
 on peduncles; sepals persistent; petals unequal, the lower one larger 
 or spurred at base; stamens with filaments short, broad, continued 
 beyond the anthers, usually coherent, joining over and around the 
 pistil; ovary simple, 1-celled, 3 parietal placentae: fruit a 3-valved 
 capsule, loculicidal, and, after dehiscence, edges strongly inrolled in 
 drying, thus dispersing the seeds. One genus is well known. 
 
 VlOLA. VIOLETS. HEAKT'S-EASE. JOHNNY-JUMP-UP. Fig. 236. 
 
 Early flowers conspicuous and petaliferous, but frequently sterile; some- 
 times later flowers cleistogamous, concealed under the leaves, apetalous 
 and self-fertilized, usually developing seeds; sepals eared at base; petals 
 unequal, the lower spurred or saccate at base; stamens 5, 2 with spurs which 
 project into the corolla spur. 
 
 a. Stemless: leaves basal: flowers on peduncles from rootstocks. 
 b. Flowers blue or violet: side petals beardless. 
 
 V. pedata, Linn. Bird's-foot violet. Not stoloniferous, rootstock short, 
 stout, nearly smooth: leaves orbicular in outline, but palmately 3- or 5-11- 
 lobed or divided, segments linear not lanceolate: flowers large, 1 in. broad, 
 pale violet or deep purple (varying to white); stigma large, not beaked. 
 Sandy soil. Var. bicolor has 2 upper petals deep velvety violet, 3 lower pale 
 blue. 
 
 bb. Flowers blue or violet: side petals bearded. 
 
 V. palmata, Linn. Common, or early blue violet. Pubescent to nearly 
 glabrous: rootstock stout and scaly: early leaves rounded, cordate or kidney- 
 shaped, margin crenate, the later leaves various, palmately or pedately 
 lobed or parted, on long stalks: flowers deep or pale blue; spur short, 
 saccate; stigma beaked. 
 
 V. cucullata, Ait. Common blue violet. A common form, variable and 
 grading into V. palmata: leaves not lobed or toothed at base, merely crenate 
 or dentate, kidney-form to broadly ovate: nearly or quite glabrous. 
 
 V. sagittata, Ait. Leaves sagittate-lanceolate, or often cordate, toothed 
 near base: scapes bearing the flowers shorter than the leaves, 3-5 in.; 
 sometimes all petals bearded; stigma beaked; flowers usually large. 
 
 V. odorata, Linn. Sweet violet. English violet. Hardy, cultivated 
 species from Europe: stoloniferous by creeping runners: leaves downy or 
 glabrous, rounded or heart-shaped or broadly ovate: flowers fragrant, single 
 or double, sometimes white. 
 
 bbb. Flowers white. 
 
 V. lanceolata, Linn. Rootstock smooth, creeping: stoloniferous: leaves 
 lanceolate to linear, erect, the blade decurrent on the long petioles: flower 
 
 X 
 
370 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 small, white, the lower and side petals purplish- veined : petals beardless 
 cleistogamous flowers on erect pedicels, frequently from stolons. Wet 
 places. 
 
 V. blanda, Willd. Sweet white violet. Stoloniferous from slender root- 
 stock: flowers fragrant: petals beardless or nearly so, white veined with 
 purple: leaves cordate or rounded: few cleistogamous flowers on curved 
 stalks. Wet places. Plant small. 
 
 bbbb. Flowers yellow. 
 
 V. rotundifdlia, Michx. Stoloniferous: leaves rounded to cordate, mar- 
 gin somewhat crenate, finally growing large, glossy and lying flat on the 
 ground: flowers small: lateral petals bearded, ,?nd with brown lines; sepals 
 blunt-pointed. Cool woodlands. 
 
 aa. Stems evident, leafy: flowers showy on axillary stalks. 
 b. Flowers blue or violet. 
 
 V. rostrata, Pursh. Plant 3-8 in. : leaves rounded heart-shaped, serrate, 
 the upper acuminate: stipules fringe-toothed, lanceolate: flowers pale violet, 
 darker-veined: petals beardless: spur slender, longer than corolla. Moist 
 woodland and shaded hillsides. 
 
 V. arenaria, DC. Stems weak, 6-8 in., glabrous: leaves heart-shaped 
 or kidney-form, margin crenate: stipules lanceolate, somewhat fringe- 
 toothed: spur slender, half as long as corolla. Swamps and wet places. 
 Pale purple. American forms differ from the European. 
 
 bb. Flowers white, tinged with pink or violet. 
 
 V. canadensis, Linn. Upright, 6 in. to 2 ft. : stems leafy, stipules broad- 
 lanceolate, entire: leaves large, heart-shaped, serrate: petals white inside, 
 pinkish or violet beneath, spurred petal yellow at base: lateral petals 
 bearded. Common. Rich woods. All summer. 
 
 bbb. Flowers yellow. 
 
 V. pubescens, Ait. Downy yellow violet. Pubescent: stems erect, 5-20 
 in., leafy: leaves broadly heart-shaped, toothed: stipules large, entire: root- 
 leaves soon wither up: lower petals veined, more or less obscurely, with 
 purple; spur short; stigma beakless: pod downy. Dry woods. 
 
 bbbb. Flowers of various colors: cultivated 
 
 V. tricolor, Linn. Garden pansy. Stems angular, branching, leafy: 
 leaves roundish to cordate: stipules leaflike, incised: flowers widely varied 
 in colors. Europe. Var. arvensis, in fields, is slender, and petals scarcely 
 exceeding sepals. 
 
 XXII. HYPERICACE.E. ST. JOHN'S-WORT FAMILY. 
 
 Herbs or shrubs (in our species), with leaves chiefly sessile, sim- 
 ple, opposite, some with translucent or black dots: flowers regular, 
 usually in terminal cymes, and yellow; sepals and petals 4 or 5; sta- 
 
HYPERICACE^E PORTULACACE.E 371 
 
 mens few to many, often in clusters of 3 or 5, hypogynous: pod 1- to 
 7-celled. 
 
 HYPfiRICUM. ST. JOHN'S-WORT. Figs. 208, 278. 
 
 Mostly branching plants with yellow flowers in cymes: leaves sessile, 
 usually dotted: sepals and petals 5; stamens many, mostly in 3-5 groups. 
 
 H. perforatum, Linn. A common introduced species: stems upright, 
 1-3 ft., branching, 2-edged: leaves linear to oblong, dotted, sessile: flowers 
 about 1 in. in diameter, the petals dotted with black and much exceeding the 
 lanceolate sepals; stamens grouped in 3 sets: capsule 3-celled. Spreads 
 by running shoots from base. 
 
 H. punctatum, Lam. Much like preceding, but leaves more broadly- 
 oblong, sepals more ovate, and the petals often lined, as well as dotted, with 
 black. 
 
 XXIII. PORTULACACE^E. PURSLANE FAMILY. 
 
 Herbs succulent or fleshy, with entire leaves, alternate or oppo- 
 site, and dry stipules: flowers regular but not symmetrical; sepals 2; 
 petals 4-5 or none; stamens equal to number of petals and opposite, 
 or fewer, or more; ovaries free, each 1-celled; style 2-3-cleft, or di- 
 vided, stigmatic on inner surfaces: fruit a 1-celled pod, opening loculi- 
 cidally, or a pyxis, opening by a lid; seeds small, kidney-shaped, few 
 or many. 
 
 A. Stamens more numerous than petals: flowers opening once 
 
 only, in sunshine 1. Portulaca 
 
 AA. Stamens 5 : flowers open for some time 2. Claytonia 
 
 1. PORTULACA. PURSLANE. Fig. 280. 
 
 Low, fleshy annuals, diffuse or ascending: terminal flowers, which open 
 once only, in sunshine; sepals 2, joined at base and partially adherent to 
 ovary; petals 4-6 on calyx, not lasting; stamens 7 to many, on calyx; style 
 3-8-parted. 
 
 P. oleracea, Linn. Common purslane. Pusley. A very common weed. 
 Smooth, fleshy, prostrate: stems cylindrical, reddish: leaves obovate or 
 wedge-form, thick, nearly sessile: flowers small, yellow, sessile, open in 
 morning sunshine. Sometimes used for greens. 
 
 P. grandifldra, Lindl. Rose-moss. Stems erect, 3-6 in., fleshy, smooth 
 or hairy: leaves alternate, cylindrical, K~l m - long: flowers open in morn- 
 ing; very gay colors, white, yellow, reds, 1-2 in. wide. South America. 
 Gardens. 
 
 2. CLAYTONIA. SPRING BEAUTY. 
 
 Low, glabrous, perennial herbs, from small tubers: flowers lasting some 
 time ; sepals 2 ; petals 5, distinct or slightly united ; stamens 5, 1 on base 
 of each petal; style 3-lobed; ovary 1-celled: capsule 3-valved, few-seeded: 
 
372 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 stem erect, usually bearing 2 leaves and terminating in a raceme. Among 
 the first spring flowers in open woods. 
 
 C. virginica, Linn. Leaves thickish, linear-lanceolate, 3-6 in. long, 
 nearly sessile: stem about 3 in. from tuberous root, bearing 2 (3 or 4 occa- 
 sionally) leaves: petals white or pink with darker veins, emarginate M-% 
 in. long; sepals and petals obtuse. 
 
 C. caroliniana, Michx. Leaves 1-2 in. long, oblong or oval to spatulate, 
 short-petioled: flowers fewer than in preceding, white or pinkish, veined. 
 
 XXIV. MALVACEAE. MALLOW FAMILY. 
 
 Herbs or shrubs (trees in the tropics) with alternate, mostly simple 
 leaves which have stipules: flowers perfect and regular, 5-merous, 
 often subtended by a calyx-like involucre, the petals 5; stamens 
 many, united in a column which closely surrounds the several styles; 
 ovaries several, connivent into a ring or sometimes united into a com- 
 pound pistil, in fruit making 1-seeded 1-loculed more or less indehis- 
 cent carpels or a several-loculed capsule. About 60 genera and 700 
 species. Representative plants are mallow, hollyhock, abutilon, hibis- 
 cus, althea, okra, cotton. 
 
 A. Anthers borne only at the top of the stamen-tube. 
 
 B. Fruits 1-seeded, forming a ring at the base of the styles. 
 
 c. Involucre of 3 bracts 1. Malva 
 
 cc. Involucre of 6-9 bracts 2. Althaea 
 
 BB. Fruit of several-seeded carpels 3. Abutilon 
 
 AA. Anthers borne all along the side of the stamen-tube 4. Hibiscus 
 
 1. MALVA. MALLOW. 
 
 Herbs, with a 3-leaved involucre like an extra calyx; petals obcordate; 
 carpels many in a ring, separating at maturity, 1-seeded and indehiscent: 
 leaves usually nearly orbicular in general outline. 
 
 M. rotundiffilia, Linn. Common mallow. Cheeses. Fig. 248. Trailing 
 biennial or perennial, rooting; leaves orbicular, indistinctly lobed, toothed: 
 flowers small, white or pinkish, clustered in the axils. Yards and roadsides; 
 from Europe. A common weed. 
 
 2. ALTHJfcA. MARSH MALLOW. 
 
 Differs from Malva chiefly in having a 6-9-cleft involucre. 
 A. rdsea, Cav. Hollyhock. Figs. 222, 223, 263. Tall perennial, with 
 angled or 5-7-lobed cordate leaves, and large flowers in many colors. China. 
 
 3. ABtTTILON. INDIAN MALLOW. Fig. 182. 
 
 Mostly shrubs, often with maple-like leaves, and no involucre to the 
 flower: ovaries and fruits several -seeded. Contains conservatory plants. 
 Fig. 520. 
 
MALVACEAE GERANIACE^E 373 
 
 A. stri&tum var. Th6mpsonii, Veitch. Spotted flowering maple. 
 Shrub: leaves S-Mobed but more typically 5-7-lobed, green: flowers 
 drooping, on long solitary axillary peduncles, bell-shaped, veiny-orange or 
 red. A conservatory and house plant. Several forms are in cultivation, 
 probably cultural variations from the tropical American type. 
 
 A. Theophrasti, Medic. Velvet leaf. Indian mallow. Stout 
 annual, 3 or 4 ft., densely pubescent: flowers yellow, erect, on 
 peduncles shorter than the long petioles: leaves large, roundish 
 heart-shaped, taper-pointed, and velvety: calyx 5-cleft; carpels 
 12-15, united, pubescent, beaked, 2-valved, with 3-9 seeds in. 
 each cell. August to October. Weed, from Asia. 
 
 4. HIBfSCUS. ROSE MALLOW. 
 
 Herbs or shrubs, with an involucre of many narrow 52- Garden 
 bracts: stamen-column anther-bearing most of its length: 
 styles, 5, united: pod 5-loculed, loculicidal: flowers large and showy. 
 
 H. syriacus, Linn. AUhea of cultivated grounds. Rose of Sharon. 
 Shrub 10 ft.: leaves wedge-ovate and 3-lobed: flowers showy, in various 
 colors, in the leaf-axils in summer and fall, often double. Asia. 
 
 XXV. GERANllCILE. GERANIUM FAMILY. 
 
 Herbs, chiefly with simple leaves: flowers perfect, in most genera 
 nearly regular (but sometimes very irregular), 5-merous; stamens as 
 many or twice as many as the sepals, hypogynous; ovary single, the 
 locules usually as many as the sepals: fruit capsular. A most diverse 
 family, often divided into several. There are about 20 genera and 700 
 species. Common examples are geranium, pelargonium, nasturtium, 
 balsam, jewel-weed or touch-me-not, oxalis. 
 A. Flowers regular or very nearly so. 
 B. Leaves simple (often deeply lobed). 
 
 c. Anther-bearing stanfens 10 1. Geranium 
 
 cc. Anther-bearing stamens about 7 2. Pelargonium 
 
 BB. Leaves compound 3. Oxalis 
 
 AA. Flowers very irregular. 
 
 B. Flower with one very long spur 4. Tropaeolum 
 
 BB. Flower hanging by its middle, with a short hooked spur.5. Impotiens 
 
 1. GERANIUM. CRANESBILL, 
 
 Small herbs with forking stems and 1-3-flowered peduncles: sepals and 
 petals 5; glands on the torus 5, alternating with the petals; stamens 10, 
 usually all of them with perfect anthers: fruit 5 1-seeded carpels separat- 
 ing from the axis from the base upwards and curling outwards. 
 
 G. maculatum, Linn. Common wild cranesbill. Fig. 195. Perennial, 1-2 
 ft., hairy erect: leaves orbicular, deeply 5-7-parted: petals entire, hairy 
 on the claw: flower rose-purple, 1 in. across. Common; spring. 
 
374 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 G. Robertianum, Linn. Herb Robert. Annual or biennial, 1 ft. or some- 
 times less, somewhat hairy, spreading: leaves 3- or 5-divided into pinnatifid 
 divisions: fls. % in. or less across, pink-red. Moist places; common. 
 
 2. PELARGONIUM. GEBANIUM of gardens. 
 
 Somewhat fleshy, strong-scented plants, differing from Geranium in 
 having a somewhat 2-lipped corolla, and stamens with anthers less than 10. 
 
 P. hortorum, Bailey. Garden geranium. Fish geranium. Fig. 39. Stem 
 somewhat succulent and hairy: leaves orbicular or reniform, crenate-lobed, 
 often with bands of different colors: flowers in umbel-like clusters, deflexed in 
 bud of many colors, often double. South Africa, but of hybrid origin. 
 
 P. peltatum, Ait. Ivy-leaved geranium. Trailing: filaments 10, some 
 being sterile: petals pink or white, nearly equal: leaves more or less peltate, 
 nearly or quite smooth, 5-angled or -lobed. 
 
 P. fragrans, Willd. Nutmeg geranium. Stems somewhat shrubby, 
 and the branches straggling, thick, and softly hairy: leaves small, rounded, 
 very downy, fragrant: flowers small, white. 
 
 P. graveolens, Ait. Rose geranium. Somewhat shrubby: filaments 10, 
 some sterile: leaves divided palmately, the 5 or 7 lobes more or less toothed, 
 revolute and rough-edged: petals not equal, but 2 upper larger: flowers 
 umbelled, small, pinkish-lavender, veined with darker: plant very fragrant. 
 
 3. 6XALIS. OXALIS. WOOD-SORREL. 
 
 Low often tuberous herbs with small flowers which have no glands on 
 the torus-disk: leaves digitate, of 3 or more leaflets, usually mostly radical: 
 flowers (opening in sun) with 5 sepals and petals and 10 somewhat mona- 
 delphous stamens, the alternate ones shorter: pod 5-loculed, often opening 
 elastically. The following have 3 obcordate leaflets, closing at night. 
 
 O. stricta, Sav. Common yellow oxalis. Fig. 300. Stem leafy and branch- 
 ing: peduncles bearing 2-6 small yellow flowers. Common in fields. 
 
 O. Acetosella, Linn. Wood-sorrel. Scape 2-5 in. high, from a creeping 
 rootstock: flowers white, and pink-veined. Deep woods. 
 
 O. violacea, Linn. Scape 5-10 in. high wi?h an umbel of several bright 
 violet flowers, from a scaly bulb. Woods South, and a common window- 
 garden plant. 
 
 4. TROP^OLUM. NASTURTIUM of gardens. 
 
 Tender, mostly climbing herbs (by means of leafstalks), with one of the 
 5 petals extended into a long, nectar-bearing yellow spur: petals usually 5, 
 with narrow claws, often bearded; stamens 8, of different shapes; carpels 
 3, indehiscent in fruit. The following (from Peru) have peltate orbicular 
 leaves (Fig. 140). 
 
 T. ma jus, Linn. Climbing nasturtium. Tall-climbing: flowers yellow, 
 red, cream -white, and other colors; petals not pointed. 
 
 T. minus, Linn. Dwarf nasturtium. Fig. 211. Not climbing: petals 
 with a sharp point. 
 
GERANIACE.E SAPINDACE^ 
 
 375 
 
 Impatiens biflora. 
 
 5. IMPATIENS. TOUCH-ME-NOT. JEWEL-WEED. 
 
 Soft or succulent tender herbs with simple alternate or opposite leaves 
 and very irregular flowers: sepals 3 to 5, usually 4, one of them produced 
 into a large curving spur; petals apparently 2, but each 
 consisting of a united pair; stamens 5: fruit 5-valved, 
 elastically discharging the seeds (whence the names "Im- 
 patiens" and "touch-me-not"). 
 
 I. Balsamina, Linn. Garden balsam. Erect and stout, 
 1-2^ ft.: leaves lanceolate, toothed: flowers in the axils, 
 of many colors, often full double. 
 
 I. bifldra, Walt. (/. fulva, Nutt.). Orange jewel-weed. 
 Fig. 521. Tall branching plant (2-4 ft.) with alternate 
 oval or long-oval blunt-toothed long-stalked leaves: flowers M.in. long, 
 horizontal and hanging, orange-yellow with a red-spotted lower lip, the 
 upper lip less spotted and of one piece, the 2 green sepals at the apex of 
 the pedicel closely appressed to the tube, the tail of the spur curled under 
 the spur: pod opening elastically when ripe, throwing the 
 seeds (the 5 valves quickly curling from above down- 
 wards). Common in swales. 
 
 I. pallida, Nutt. (7. aurea, Muhl.). Yellow jewel-weed. 
 Fig. 522. Leaves usually stronger-toothed, the teeth usu- 
 ally ending in sharp points: flowers 1 in. long and much 
 broader than those of 7. biflora, clear yellow, the upper lip 
 of two parts, the lower also of 2 parts and nearly hori- 
 zontal, the 2 sepals at apex of pedicel large and not closely 
 522. appressed, tail shorter: pods as in the other. Less common 
 
 Impatiens pallida. than the other, but often growing with it. 
 
 XXVI. SAPINDACE.E. SOAPBERRY or MAPLE. 
 
 Trees or shrubs, of various habit: flowers polypetalous or apeta- 
 lous, often inconspicuous, 4- or 5-merous: stamens 10 or less, borne 
 on a fleshy ring or disk surrounding the single 2-3-loculed pistil: fruit 
 a pod or samara. A various family, largely tropical. Genera about 75 
 and species about 600-700. Maple, box-elder, buckeye, horse-chest- 
 nut, bladder-nut, are familiar examples. 
 A. Herb: climbing by hook-like tendrils among the 
 
 flowers in the cluster: fruit an inflated pod 1. Cardiospermum 
 
 AA. Trees and shrubs. 
 
 B. Stature of trees (or tall shrubs). 
 
 c. Leaves simple (more or less palmately lobed) 
 or (in 1 species) 3-5 pinnately compound: 
 
 fruit a samara (with 2-winged seeds) 2. Acer 
 
 cc. Leaves digitately compound, 5-9 leaflets 3. dZsculus 
 
 BB. Stature of shrubs: leaves pinnately 3-7 compound: 
 
 fruit a large bladdery pod 4. Staphylea 
 
376 
 
 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 1. CARDIOSPfiRMUM. BALLOON-VINE. HEART-SEED. 
 
 Vines climbing by axillary, hook-like tendrils among flower-clusters: 
 leaves alternate, biternate, leaflets toothed: flowers dioecious, or some per- 
 fect; sepals 4, 2 of them smaller; petals 4, irregular, each with an appendage 
 
 at inner base; stamens 8, filaments un- 
 equal; style short, 3-cleft; ovary triangular, 
 3-celled, 1 ovule to each cavity: capsule 
 membranous, much inflated. 
 
 C. Halicacabum, Linn. Climbing 
 or spreading herb, delicate and slender: 
 leaflets ovate-lanceolate, acute, cut and 
 toothed: flowers small, white: fruit large, 
 balloon-like, decorative; seeds black with 
 
 523. 524. white scar, hard, round. Cultivated. 
 
 Acer sa ccharinum. Acer rubrum. Summer. 
 
 2. ACER. MAPLE. BOX-ELDER. 
 
 Trees or shrubs, with opposite lobed or parted leaves (pinnate in box- 
 elder): flowers small and greenish or reddish, in early spring and often 
 from winter buds, in box-elder dioecious, in true maples perfect (or imperfectly 
 diclinous); calyx about 5-cleft; petals 5 or none; stamens usually 3-8: fruit 
 a samara with 2 seeds and 2 wings. Two shrubby woods maples are common 
 in some parts of the country. 
 
 a. Maples: leaves simple, palmately lobed. 
 
 b. Flowers from lateral winter buds, preceding the leaves: fruit 
 maturing very early. 
 
 A. saccharinum, Linn. (A. dasycdrpum, Ehrh.). White or silver maple. 
 Fig. 523. Flowers greenish, with no petals: leaves very deeply 5-lobed, 
 silvery white beneath, the narrow divisions lobed and toothed: fruit with 
 large spreading wings, downy when young. Common along streams and in 
 low grounds; much planted. There is a cut-leaved form known as Wier's 
 maple, popular as a lawn tree. Wood white. Linnaeus thought it to be the 
 sugar maple, hence his name "saccharinum." 
 
 A. rubrum, Linn. Red, soft, or swamp maple. Fig. 524. Tree usually 
 of only medium size: flowers red, with narrow- 
 oblong petals: leaves rather small, not deeply 
 3-5-lobed, whitish beneath, the lobes serrate 
 and toothed : fruit with nearly parallel or slightly 
 spreading wings, not downy. Low grounds. 
 
 bb. Flowers in clusters, with the leaves, some 
 or all on shoots of the season. 
 
 525. Acer saccharum. 
 
 A. saccharum, Marsh. (A. saccharinum of some). Sugar, hard, or rock 
 Figs. 143, 525. Flowers greenish, drooping, on long pedicels, the 
 petals none and the calyx hairy at the top: leaves bright green, firm, cordate- 
 orbicular in outline, 3-lobed and the side lobes again lobed, all lobes and 
 
MAPLES 377 
 
 teeth ending in points, the basal sinus broad and open: wings of fruit some- 
 what spreading. Commonest of maples East. 
 
 A. nigrum, Michx. Black sugar maple. Fig. 526. Foliage dark and limp, 
 the lobes broad and shallow, little toothed and with only blunt points, the 
 basal sinus nearly or quite closed: wings of fruit nearly parallel, large. 
 Eastern Central States; by some regarded as a form of A. saccharum. 
 
 A. plantanoides, Linn. Norway maple. Figs. 79, 80, 157, 323-330. Flowers 
 late, in umbel-like clusters, yellowish green, large, with both sepals and 
 petals: leaves large and heavy, 3-5-lobed and much toothed, all parts ending 
 in points: fruit with wide-spreading wings. Europe. Commonly planted: 
 has milky juice. 
 
 A. Pseudo-platanus, Linn. Sycamore maple. Tree from Europe, and 
 many varieties cultivated: leaves broad, 3-7-lobed, glabrous above, whitish 
 and downy below; lobes acute, unequally toothed: racemes terminal, droop- 
 ing; flowers yellowish-green; ovaries woolly: fruit downy, the wings rather 
 spreading. 
 
 bbb. Flowers appearing after the leaves, in racemes: large bushes or 
 bushlike small trees in cool woods and ravines. 
 
 A. pennsylvanicum, Linn. Striped maple. Moose-wood. Bark smooth- 
 ish, light green, striped: flowers greenish, in ter- 
 minal drooping loose racemes: leaves simple, 
 thin, 3-lobed near apex, the lobes acuminate, 
 with finely toothed margin all around: fruit 
 greenish, smooth, with large, widely diverging 
 wings. Small tree. 
 
 A. spicatum, Lam. Mountain maple. Shrub, 
 5-10 ft., usually forming clumps: bark green, 
 not striped: flowers appearing after leaves, in dense racemes, upright, 
 compound, small, greenish: leaves slightly 3-5-lobed, coarsely serrate: fruit 
 with narrow, somewhat divergent wings. 
 
 aa. Box-elder: leaves pinnate. 
 
 A. Negundo, Linn. (Negundo aceroides, Moench). Box-elder. Tree with 
 green glaucous twigs and leaf-bases covering the buds: flowers in long 
 racemes, dioecious, with 4-5-cleft calyx and no corolla, and 4-5 stamens, the 
 sterile flowers on long, slender pedicels: leaves pinnate, with 3-5 ovate- 
 pointed toothed leaflets: fruit with somewhat incurving wings. Common; 
 much planted in cold and dry regions west. 
 
 3. JESCULUS. HORSE-CHESTNUT. BUCKEYE. 
 
 Trees: leaves opposite, on long petioles, palmately compound, 5-7-f olio- 
 late: flowers irregular, in a terminal panicle, some often imperfect, most of 
 them with some imperfect pistils and stamens; calyx 5-toothed; corolla 
 irregular, with 4 or 5 clawed petals ; stamens 5-8, usually 7 : fruit a leathery 
 capsule, smooth or spiny, 2-3-valved, each valve containing, usually, 1 seed 
 only; seed large, with shiny brown coat and a large, round, pale scar; not 
 edible. 
 
378 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 JE. Hippocastanum, Linn. Common horse-chestnut. Fig. 277. Buds 
 noticeably large and resinous: leaf-scars large, horseshoe-shaped: leaves 
 large, palmately compound, usually with 7 leaflets; leaflets obovate, abruptly 
 pointed at tip: corolla of 5 petals, white, spotted with purple and yellow; 
 stamens long, exserted: fruit prickly. Blooms June to July. 
 
 JE. rubicunda, Loisel. Red horse-chestnut. Small, round-headed tree, 
 cultivated: leaflets 5-7: petals 4, broad, on slender claws, rose-red; stamens 
 usually 8. 
 
 JE. glabra, Willd. Ohio buckeye. Tall tree, native in woods and along 
 river banks, west of Alleghanies: bark rough and ill-scented when peeled or 
 bruised: leaflets 5, oval or oblong, acuminate: flowers small, in short panicle; 
 petals 4, narrow, on claws, nearly equal, erect, pale yellow; stamens longer 
 than petals: fruit prickly at first. April, May. 
 
 JE. octandra, Marsh. Sweet buckeye. Large tree, rarely shrubby: bark 
 dark brown, scaly: leaflets usually 5, sometimes 7: flowers yellow; calyx 
 oblong; petals 4, very unequal, long-clawed, connivent, longer than sta- 
 mens: fruit glabrous. Rich woods West and South. April and May. 
 
 JE. Pavia, Linn. Red buckeye. Shrub or small tree, 3-10 ft., found in 
 fertile soil West and South: flowers red; calyx tubular; petals 4, unequal, 
 longer than the stamens: fruit nearly smooth. 
 
 4. STAPHYLtA. BLADDER-NUT. 
 
 Upright shrubs with opposite leaves, pinnately compound, with 3-7 leaf- 
 lets, stipulate: flowers small, white, in drooping clusters; sepals, petals and 
 stamens 5; styles 2-3: capsule a large bladdery pod, 2-3-lobed, 2-3-celled, 
 each cell several-seeded. 
 
 S. trifolia, Linn. Shrub 6-10 ft., in thickets, in moist soil: leaflets 3, 
 ovate, acuminate, serrate, stipules deciduous: flowers bell-like, white, in 
 clusters at ends of branchlets. 
 
 XXVII. POLYGALACE^E. MILKWORT FAMILY. 
 
 Herbs or shrubs, with leaves mostly simple, entire, without stipules, 
 and flowers irregular and perfect. Represented by the genus 
 
 POLYGALA. MILKWORT. 
 
 Mostly herbs, with bitter juice: flowers very irregular, some often cleisto- 
 gamous; sepals 5, unequal, 2 of them winged and colored (petal-like); petals 
 3, usually united into a tube, the middle petal hooded or crested, or other- 
 wise appendaged; stamens 6 or 8, the filaments usually monadelphous, but 
 the sheath split, more or less connate, within or hidden in the middle petal; 
 ovary 2-celled. The irregularity of the flowers makes some of the species 
 conspicuous, but others have very minute flowers, difficult to examine. 
 
 P. paucifolia, Willd. Fringed polygala. Flowering wintergreen. The 
 most striking of the common milkworts, the flower being large (about 1 in. 
 long) and showy, rose-purple, with a fine, fringed crest on the central corolla 
 
PEA FAMILY 379 
 
 lobe: plant low, 3-4 in. high, branching, ' from a creeping rootstock, with 
 oval petiolate leaves clustered near the tips of the stems, the lower leaves 
 scale-like: there are small, whitish and fertile (cleistogamous) flowers on the 
 rootstock. In moist, rich woodland. East and North. 
 
 P. Senega, Linn. Seneca snakeroot. Flowers small in terminal, slender, 
 spike-like racemes: stem erect, 8-15 in., simple and leafy: leaves lanceolate, 
 alternate: flowers white or greenish, on very short pedicels; corolla with 
 small crest. Perennial. 
 
 XXVIII. LEGUMINDS.E. PULSE, or PEA FAMILY. 
 
 Herbs, shrubs, or trees, mostly with pinnately compound alter- 
 nate leaves: flower papilionaceous in the species described below: 
 fruit typically a legume. A vast family and widely dispersed, with 
 many tropical species. Genera about 400, and species about 6,500. 
 By some authors, the species with papilionaceous flowers are separated 
 into the family Papilionaceae, and those of the acacia tribes, with 
 regular flowers, as the Mimosaceae. Familiar leguminous plants are 
 pea, bean, lupine, clover, alfalfa, vetch, wistaria, locust, red-bud. 
 
 A. Shrubs, twining 1. Wisteria 
 
 AA. Trees, or erect shrubs. 
 
 B. Leaves once or twice pinnately compound: flowers 
 
 in racemes: often large trees. 
 
 c. Flowers truly papilionaceous, rather large and 
 showy, usually fragrant: leaves with sharp 
 
 spines or prickles often in place of stipules 2. Robinia 
 
 cc. Flowers small, greenish and inconspicuous, not 
 truly papilionaceous: tree usually armed with 
 
 large pronged thorns 3. Gleditsia 
 
 BB. Leaves simple, entire: corolla not truly papilionaceous: 
 
 fls. in umbel-like clusters, before the leaves 4. Cercis 
 
 AAA. Herbs. 
 
 B. Plant climbing by tendrils. 
 
 c. Calyx leafy-lobed 5. Pisum 
 
 cc. Calyx not leafy-lobed. 
 
 D. Style flattened, bearded down 1 side 6. Lathyrus 
 
 DD. Style slender, with a tuft of hairs at apex only, 
 
 or about the upper part 7. Vicia 
 
 BB. Plant not tendril-bearing: leaves compound. 
 
 D. The leaves 3-foliolate (sometimes simple in No. 9). 
 E. Leaves digitately compound. 
 
 F. Stamens diadelphous (9 and 10), and the 
 
 flowers in heads, or spikes 8. Trifolium 
 
 FF. Stamens 10, distinct: flowers in racemes 9. Baptisia 
 
380 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 EE. Leaves pinnately compound (terminal 1- 
 
 stalked, and the stalk jointed), 3 leaflets. 
 F. Flowers small, in a long raceme. 
 
 G. Pod straight, exceeding calyx: flowers 
 
 small, in very slender racemes 10. Melilotus 
 
 GO. Pods curved or coiled: flowers, small to 
 
 medium, in heads or short spikes 11. Medicago 
 
 FF. Flowers medium to large, clustered at the 
 
 ends of the raceme. 
 G. Keel of the corolla coiled into a spiral .... 12. Phaseolus 
 
 GG. Keel curved but not coiled 13. Vigna 
 
 DD. The leaves more than 3-foliolate, or digitately 
 compound. 
 
 E. Digitately compound, 5-7 leaflets 14. Lupinus 
 
 EE. Pinnately compound. 
 
 F. Even-pinnately compound: many leaflets: 
 
 flowers yellow 15. Cassia. 
 
 FF. Odd-pinnate (sometimes 3 leaflets) of 57 
 
 leaflets: flowers purplish or lavender 16. Apios 
 
 1. WISTERIA. 
 
 Tall shrubby twiner, producing long, dense racemes of showy flowers: 
 leaves pinnate, with several or many leaflets: 2 upper calyx-teeth shorter: 
 standard large and roundish: pod knotty, several-seeded. 
 
 W. chinensis, DC. Wistaria. Popular climber for porches, from China, 
 with large drooping racemes of bright blue (sometimes white) pea-like 
 flowers in spring and summer. 
 
 2. ROBfNIA. LOCUST. 
 
 Trees or large shrubs with compound, odd-pinnate leaves, with stipules 
 or stipular spines, the base of the leaf -stalk covering the next year's bud: 
 flowers showy, pea-like, hanging in axillary racemes; calyx 5-cleft; standard 
 of the corolla large, turned back, inclosing side petals in bud. 
 
 R. Pseudo-Acacia, Linn. Common black locust. Tree, native West and 
 South, everywhere introduced and valuable for timber. Bark nearly black, 
 very rough: stiff spines at base of each leaf: leaflets 9-19, ovate or oval, 
 somewhat mucronate at tip, on short stalks: racemes 3-5 in. long, from 
 axils, pendulous, slender and loose, the flowers white, very fragrant: pod 
 smooth, 4-7-seeded. 
 
 R. viscosa, Vent. Small tree, native to southern states: cultivated: leaf- 
 stalks, branchlets and pods glandular-viscid (clammy): prickles short: 
 flowers roseate, in dense, erect racemes. April to June. 
 
 R. hispida, Linn. Rose acacia. A straggling shrub, to 10 ft.: branches, 
 stalks, and pods bristly with flexible red spines: flowers pink, handsome, in 
 loose pendulous racemes. Native of southern mountains. Cultivated. May 
 to June. 
 
PEA FAMILY 381 
 
 3. GLEDfTSIA. HONEY LOCUST. 
 
 Trees, thorny with stout branching spines on branches and usually on 
 trunk: leaves abruptly pinnate, frequently bi-pinnate, and all gradations 
 often on same leaf: flowers in axillary, spicate racemes, greenish, inconspicu- 
 ous, soniQ imperfect, not papilionaceous; calyx-tube short, 3-5 cleft; petals 
 3-5, nearly equal, inserted on calyx-tube; stamens 3-10, distinct, inserted on 
 petals: fruit a large, leathery, flat pod, elongated, containing 1 to many 
 seeds. 
 
 G. triacanthos, Linn. Large tree with hard and heavy wood: pods 6-18 
 in. long, an inch or so wide, twisted or hoop-like, filled with sweetish pulp 
 between the several to many smooth, shiny seeds. 
 
 4. CERCIS. REDBUD. 
 
 Small trees with simple, rounded, heart-shaped leaves and tiny stipules 
 soon falling: flowers roseate-purple, in numerous small clusters along 
 branches, even on trunk, before leaves, thus giving the tree a striking 
 appearance; calyx 5-toothed, campanulate; corolla irregular, not papil- 
 ionaceous; petals 5 and standard inclosed by wings; stamens 10, distinct: 
 legume oblong, flat, many-seeded, margined on one edge. 
 
 C. canadensis, Linn. Redbud. Judas tree. Native small tree of middle 
 and southern states, 10-30 ft. high, irregularly branching: bark smooth and 
 dark. Cultivated as ornamental tree, April, May. 
 
 5. PlSUM. PEA. 
 
 Slender herbs, climbing by tendrils which are homologous with leaflets: 
 leaves pinnate, with 1-3 pairs of foliar leaflets, and very large, leafy stipules: 
 lobes of calyx leafy; flowers large, white, or pink, on axillary peduncles: pod 
 a typical legume, several-seeded. 
 
 P. sativum, Linn. Garden pea. Figs. 206, 310. Smooth and glaucous leaf- 
 lets usually 2 pairs, broad-oval: peduncles 2- or more-flowered. Old World. 
 
 6. LATHYRUS. VEITCHLING. 
 
 Much like Pisum, differing chiefly in very technical characters, but best 
 told in general by the narrow leaflets and pods, and not leafy calyx. 
 
 L. odoratus, Linn. Sweet pea. Figs. 177, 245. Annual, the stem hairy: 
 leaflets one pair, narrow-oval or oblong: flowers 2 or 3 on a long peduncle, 
 very fragrant, in many colors. Southern Europe. 
 
 L. latifolius, Linn. Everlasting pea. Fig. 272. Perennial of long dura- 
 tion, smooth, the stems winged: leaflets one pair, long-oval: flowers many 
 in a dense cluster on long peduncles, rose-purple and white. Europe. 
 
 7. VfCIA. VETCH. TARE. 
 
 Herbs, mostly trailing or climbing by tendrils from the ends of pin- 
 nately compound leaves: leaflets usually many, entire or emarginate: 
 stipules half-sagittate: flowers in axillary racemes or pairs; calyx somewhat 
 oblique, 5-toothed; wings adhering to keel; style slender, bent, hairy or with 
 hairy ring beneath stigma: pods flat, 2-valved, 2- to several-seeded. 
 
382 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 V. americ&na, Muhl. Perennial, smooth: leaflets 10-14, oblong, blunt: 
 peduncles 4 8-flowered: flowers purplish-blue, ^ % in. long. Moist soil. 
 
 V. Cracca, Linn. Perennial, more or less pubescent, with weak stems: 
 leaflets 12-24, oblong to linear, mucronate: racemes many-flowered, 1-sided, 
 spike-like, on axillary peduncles; flowers blue to purple, M-H in. long. 
 Dryish soil. 
 
 V. sativa, Linn. Spring vetch. Annual, rather pubescent, not climbing: 
 leaflets, 5-7 pairs, oblong or obovate, to linear, obtuse or retuse or mucro- 
 nate: flowers in pairs, from axils, nearly sessile, violet-purple, %-l in. long: 
 pod smooth, linear, 5-10-seeded. Cultivated or wild; from Europe. 
 
 V. villdsa, Roth. Hairy or winter vetch. Diffuse, very hairy: flowers 
 showy in long axillary racemes, deep purple: seeds small and black. Culti- 
 vated and escaped. Europe. Annual and biennial, perhaps sometimes 
 perennial. 
 
 8. TRIFOLIUM. CLOVER. 
 
 Annual or perennial herbs with digitate leaves of 3 leaflets (all 3 leaflets 
 joined directly to top of petiole): flowers small, with bristle-form calyx- 
 teeth, in dense heads: fruit a 1- to few-seeded little pod which does not 
 exceed the calyx. 
 
 a. Flowers sessile in the dense heads. 
 
 T. pratense, Linn. Common red clover Figs. 85, 173. Erect, 
 12 ft., with ovai or obovate leaflets, which have a pale spot 
 or band near the center and usually a notch at the end : flowers 
 rose-red, honey-sweet, the heads closely surrounded by leaves. 
 Europe, but common everywhere in the North. 
 
 T. medium, Linn. Medium red clover. Larger, the stem less 
 straight, the leaflets oblong, entire and with a spot: head stalked 
 above the uppermost leaves. Otherwise like the last. 
 
 T. arvense, Linn. Rabbit-foot clover. Annual; 5-10 in., 
 erect: flowers sessile in dense, cylindrical heads, which become 
 very soft and grayish fur-like, from the silky plumose calyx- 
 teeth; corolla insignificant, whitish. Dry, sandy soils; intro- 
 duced from Europe. 
 
 aa. Flowers short-stalked in the heads. 
 
 T. hybridum, Linn. Alsike clover. Slender, from a prostrate base, 1-3 
 ft.: leaflets obcordate: head small and globular, light rose-colored. Europe. 
 
 T. repens, Linn. White clover. Small, the stems long-creeping and 
 sending up flowering stems 3-12 in. high: leaflets obcordate: heads small, 
 white. Common; native, also European. 
 
 T. incarnatum, Linn. Crimson clover. Fig. 527. Stout, hairy, erect 
 plant, 1-2 > ft., with obovate-oblong leaflets and brilliant crimson flowers 
 in a long-stalked head. Europe; now frequently cultivated. 
 
 T. reflexum, Linn. Buffalo clover. Annual or biennial, pubescent, ascend- 
 ing 818 in. : standard purple, keel and wings whitish: leaflets oval or obovate, 
 finely toothed. Most common in central states, from western New York. 
 
LEGUMINOS.E 
 
 383 
 
 T. procumbens, Linn. Low hop clover. Annual, slender, procumbent 
 or upright to 6 or 12 in.: flowers yellow, turning brown and dry when old, 
 finally reflexing; standard striate; heads small, rounded, 20-40-flowered : 
 leaflets wedge-shaped and notched at end, terminal one stalked, stipules 
 ovate. June. Dry soil, introduced. 
 
 T. agrarium, Linn. Hop clover. Larger: leaflets ovate- 
 oblong, the terminal one not stalked, and stipules narrow 
 and joined for half their length to the petiole. Introduced. 
 
 9. BAPTfSIA. FALSE INDIGO. 
 
 Perennial herbs: leaves palmately 3-foliolate, with 
 stipules (or, simple, sessile, exstipulate, perfoliate leaves): 
 flowers racemed; calyx 4-5- toothed; standard erect, 
 rounded, the sides rolling back; keel and wings oblong, 
 nearly straight; stamens 10, distinct: pod stalked in a 
 persistent calyx, pointed, inflated, many-seeded. Plants 
 usually blackened in drying. 
 
 B. tinctoria, R. Br. Bushy, erect to 2 ft., somewhat 
 glacuous: leaves sessile or nearly so, with tiny deciduous 
 stipules; leaflets small, entire, wedged-ovate : racemes 
 many, terminal, loosely few-flowered; flowers yellow, about 
 J^ in. long, papilionaceous. Dry soil in woods. 
 
 10. MELILOTUS. SWEET CLOVER. 
 
 Tall, erect annuals or biennials, with sweet-scented 
 herbage and small white or yellow flowers in numerous 
 open racemes: leaflets, 3, oblong: pod ovoid, somewhat exceeding the calyx, 
 1-2-seeded. 
 
 M. alba, Desr. White sweet clover. Bokhara clover. Fig. 184. Two 
 to 5 ft. tall, smooth: leaflets truncate: flowers white, the standard longer than 
 other petals. Europe; common on roadsides. 
 
 M. officinalis, Lam. Yellow sweet clover. Fig. 528. 
 Leaflets obtuse: flowers yellow. Less common than the 
 other. 
 
 11. MEDIC AGO. MEDICK. 
 
 Clover-like plants with small flowers in heads or 
 short spikes and toothed leaflets: particularly distin- 
 guished by the curved or coiled pod. 
 
 M. sativa, Linn. Alfalfa. Lucerne. Figs. 21, 246, 
 529. Medicago sativa. 529. Erect perennial, with ovate-oblong leaflets and 
 short spikes or dense racemes of blue-purple flowers. 
 
 Europe. Grown extensively for forage, being made into hay and also 
 ground into "alfalfa meal." 
 
 M. lupulina, Linn. Black medick. Trailing clover-like plant, with obovate 
 leaflets and yellow flowers in heads or very short spikes: pod black when 
 ripe. Europe; common weed East. 
 
384 
 
 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 530. 
 Phaseolus vulgaris. 
 
 12. PHASfiOLUS. BEAN. 
 
 Tender herbs, often twining, the flowers never yellow, and the pinnate 
 leaves of 3 leaflets: flowers usually in clusters on the joints of the raceme or 
 at the end of the peduncle, the keel (inclosing the essential organs) coiling 
 into a spiral: fruit a true legume. 
 
 P. vulgaris, Linn. Common bean. Figs. 1, 308, 309, 
 311, 312, 322, 530. Annual: twining (the twining habit 
 bred out in the "bush beans"): leaflets ovate, the lateral 
 ones unequal-sided: flowers white or purplish, the racemes 
 shorter than the leaves: pods narrow and nearly 
 straight. Probably from tropical America. 
 
 P. lunatus, Linn. Lima bean. Fig. 531. Annual: tall- 
 twining (also dwarf forms): leaflets large: flowers whit- 
 ish, in racemes shorter than the leaves: pods flat and 
 curved, with a few large flat seeds. South America. 
 
 P. multiflorus, Willd. Scarlet runner bean. Perennial 
 in warm countries from a tuberous root, tall-twining: 
 leaflets ovate: flowers bright scarlet (white in the "White Dutch Runner 
 bean") and showy, the racemes exceeding the leaves: pod long and broad 
 but not flat. Tropical America; cultivated for ornament and for food. 
 
 13. VIGNA. COWPEA. 
 
 Differs from Phaseolus chiefly in technical characters, one 
 of which is the curved rather than coiled keel of the flower. 
 
 V. sinensis, Endl. Cowpea. Black pea. Stock pea. 
 Figs. 273, 532. Long-trailing or twining, tender annual: leaf- 
 lets narrow-ovate; flowers white or pale, 2 or 3 on the apex of 
 a very long peduncle, the standard rounded; pod slender .' * S6( 
 and long, cylindrical: seed (really a bean rather than pea) 
 small, short-oblong. China, Japan; much grown South for forage, and 
 used also as cover-crop. 
 
 14. LUPiNUS. LUPINE. 
 
 Low herbs: leaves palmately compound, 5-15 foliolate, rarely simple: 
 flowers showy, in terminal spikes or racemes: calyx 
 decidedly 2-lipped: standard round, sides rolled back- 
 ward: keel incurved, sickle-like: wings lightly united 
 above keel: stamens monadelphous, with 3 alternate 
 anthers, different in size and shape from others: pod 
 oblong, flattened, often knotty. 
 
 L. perennis, Linn. Perennial, somewhat downy: 
 stem erect to 1 or 1^ ft.: leaflets 7-11, large, radiat- 
 ing, nearly sessile, oblanceolate, mucronate; stipules 
 small: flowers blue or whitish, in loose racemes: pod 
 linear-oblong, hairy, 5-6-seeded. Sandy soil. May to 
 June. 
 
 532. 
 
 Vigna sinen- 
 sis. Cowpea. 
 
LEGUMINOS^J ROSACEJB 385 
 
 15. CASSIA. SENNA. Fig. 247. 
 
 Our herbs with odd-pinnate, compound leaves and yellow flowers: sepals 
 5, nearly equal; corolla not papilionaceous, nearly regular ; petals 5, stamens 
 510, some anthers usually imperfect: pod often curved, many-seeded. 
 
 C. marilandica, Linn. Smooth perennial, 3-4 ft. : leaflets 6-9 pairs, lance- 
 olate-oblong, mucronate, with a gland at or near base of petiole: stipules 
 deciduous: stamens 10, 3 imperfect, with deformed anthers, the anthers 
 black: flowers showy yellow, short, axillary racemes. Summer. 
 
 16. APIOS. GROUNDNUT. 
 
 Perennial, twining herb, with edible underground tubers: leaves pin- 
 nately 3-7-foliate: flowers in short, dense, often branching axillary racemes: 
 calyx rather 2-lipped: standard broad and reflexed: keel strongly incurved, 
 pushing into the standard, and finally coiled or twisted. 
 
 A. tuberdsa, Moench. Flowers brownish purple, sweet-scented, in dense 
 racemes about 1-3 in. long: no tendrils: juice milky. Summer. In low, 
 moist ground and shady woods. 
 
 XXIX. ROSACES. ROSE FAMILY. 
 
 Herbs, shrubs and trees, much like the Saxif ragacese : leaves 
 alternate, mostly with stipules (which are often deciduous): flowers 
 mostly perfect and polypetalous, the stamens usually perigynous, 
 mostly numerous (more than 20) ; pistils 1 to many : fruit an achene, 
 follicle, berry, drupe, or accessory. A very mixed or polymorphous 
 family, largely of temperate regions, of about 75 genera and 1,200 
 species. By some writers, divided into three or four families. Common 
 rosaceous plants are rose, strawberry, apple, pear, plum, peach, cherry, 
 blackberry, raspberry, spirea, cinquefoil. 
 
 A. Herbs. 
 
 B. Torus not enlarging. 
 
 c. Carpels many, in a head. 
 
 D. Style deciduous 1. PotentUla 
 
 DD. Style persistent on achene, usually jointed and 
 
 plumose 2. Geum 
 
 cc. Carpels 2: calyx prickly and lobes closing over 
 
 the fruit: 1 or 2 achenes 3. Agrimonia 
 
 BB. Torus becoming fleshy: flowers directly from the 
 
 crown or root .' 4. Fragaria 
 
 AA. Shrubs or trees. 
 
 B. The ovary 1, superior: fruit a drupe 5. Prunus 
 
 BB. The ovaries more than 1. 
 
 c. Fruit 1-seeded drupes aggregated, or achenes. 
 
386 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 D. Ovaries many, free from calyx and torus, be- 
 coming drupelets 6. Rubus 
 
 DD. Ovaries 5-8: shrubs not prickly: leaves simple: 
 
 flowers yellow: fruit achenes 7. Kerria 
 
 cc. Fruit achenes inside a hollow torus 8. Rosa 
 
 ccc. Fruit a pome: ovaries usually 5, immersed in the 
 
 torus. 
 D. Petals oblong-spatulate : carpels 3-5-celled, but 
 
 appearing about 10-celled 9. Amelanchier 
 
 DD. Petals rounded : ovaries 5. 
 
 E. Pome with 2-seeded carpels 10. Pyrus 
 
 EE. Pome with many-seeded carpels 11. Cydonia 
 
 EEE. Pome with 1-5 stony kernels 12. Cratxgus 
 
 cccc. Fruit 2-8 dry follicles, each several-seeded 13. Spiraea 
 
 1. POTENTILLA. FIVE-FINGER. CINQUEFOIL. 
 
 Herbs (sometimes shrubby) with flat deeply 5-cleft calyx and 5 bracts 
 beneath it, and 5 obtuse, mostly yellow or white petals; stamens many: fruit 
 an achene, of which there are many in a little head on the small, dry torus : 
 leaves compound. 
 
 P. norvegica, Linn. An erect (1-2 ft. tall) very hairy and coarse annual, 
 with 3 obovate, or oblong serrate leaflets and small flowers in which the yel- 
 low corolla is usually not so large as the calyx. Common weed. 
 
 P. canadensis, Linn. Common five-finger. Trailing, strawberry-like 
 with 5 narrow leaflets, but the lateral ones deeply lobed: flowers solitary, 
 on axillary peduncles, bright yellow. Fields; common. 
 
 P. argentea, Linn. Perennial, with stem prostrate, branching above, 
 white-woolly : leaflets 5, wedge-oblong, green above, white-pubescent beneath, 
 with a few large, incised teeth, and margins revolute: flowers small, cymose, 
 yellow; stamens about 20. June to September, in dry soil. 
 
 P. fruticosa, Linn. Stem erect (1-2 ft.), shrubby, diffusely branched: 
 leaves pinnate, with 5-7 sessile leaflets, margins entire, revolute: flowers 
 axillary; petals yellow, orbicular, and longer than calyx, 1 in. broad. 
 Marshy and wet ground. June to September. 
 
 2. GfcUM. AVENS. 
 
 Perennial, erect herbs, with odd-pinnate or lyrate leaves, with stipules: 
 flowers resembling those of Potentilla; calyx 5-cleft with 5 alternate 
 bracts; stamens, many: achenes numerous, aggregated on a conical recep- 
 tacle, with long persistent styles jointed, or bent, or plumose. 
 
 G. rivale, Linn. Stems erect, 1-2 ft., several-flowered: root-leaves 
 lyrate, and irregularly pinnate, petioled: stem-leaves few, usually of 3 
 leaflets, or 3-lobed: flowers few, large, nodding, the calyx purplish, the 
 petals clawed, erect, yellowish purple; styles purplish, jointed and bent in 
 middle, stigmas plumose: fruit stalked in the calyx. May to July. Bogs. 
 
 G. canadense, Jacq. From 2-3 ft., with stem erect, branching, smooth 
 or downy: root-leaves of 3-5 leaflets, or simple with smaller leaflets at base: 
 
ROSE TRIBES 
 
 387 
 
 533. Fragaiia vesca. 
 
 stem-leaves few, simple, lobed, or 3-divided or toothed and short-petioled: 
 flowers whitish, the petals not longer than sepals: head of fruits sessile in 
 the calyx: styles jointed and bent near middle, the lower part hooked: torus 
 bristly. Late spring and summer. 
 
 G. virginianum, Linn. Differs from preceding in being hirsute: root- 
 leaves various, but pinnate, with a very large 
 rounded terminal leaflet; the upper leaves mostly 
 3-parted: flowers white or pale yellow: receptacle ^^^M 
 not bristly; heads of fruits on short, stout, hairy 
 stalks. Low ground. Summer. 
 
 3. AGRIMONIA. AGRIMONY. 
 
 Perennial, erect herbs, with alternate odd-pin- 
 nately compound leaves, and slender, spike-like 
 racemes, with yellow flowers: leaves with small seg- 
 ments interposed, and large dentate stipules: calyx- 
 tube contracted at the throat with a 5-cleft limb, and bristly on upper 
 part; petals 5; stamens slender, 5-15, carpels 2, styles terminal: fruit dry, 
 included in the prickly calyx-tube. 
 
 A. gryposepala, Wallr. Spicate raceme terminating the stem (6 in. to 2 ft. 
 high) , petals yellow and twice longer than the calyx. Dryish soils. Summer. 
 
 4. FRAGARIA. STRAWBERRY. 
 
 Low perennials with 3 broad-toothed leaflets and a few flowers on radical 
 peduncles: torus enlarging in fruit, usually becoming fleshy. 
 
 F. vesca, Linn. Fig. 533. Small, very sparsely hairy, the leaves thin 
 
 and rather light green, very sharply toothed: flower-clusters overtopping 
 
 the foliage, small and erect, forking: fruit slender and pointed, light colored 
 
 (sometimes white), the achenes not sunk in the flesh. Cool woods; common 
 
 North. 
 
 F. virginiana, Duch. Common field strawberry. 
 Fig. 534. Stronger, darker green, loose-hairy, the 
 leaves with more sunken veins and larger and firmer : 
 flower-cluster slender but not overtopping the leaves, 
 in fruit with drooping pedicels: fruit globular or 
 broad-conical, with achenes sunk in the flesh, light 
 colored. Very common. 
 
 F. chiloensis, Duch. Garden strawberry. Fig. 
 291. Low and spreading but stout, the thick leaves 
 somewhat glossy above and bluish white beneath, 
 rather blunt-toothed: flower-clusters short, forking, 
 the pedicels strong and long: fruit large and firm, dark colored, with 
 sunken achenes. Chile. 
 
 534. Fragaria virginiana. 
 
 5. PRtTNUS. PEACH. PLUM. CHERRY. 
 
 Trees and shrubs, mostly flowering in early spring: sepals, petals and 
 stamens borne on the rim of a saucer-shaped torus, the calyx with 5 green 
 
388 
 
 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 spreading lobes and the petals 5 and obovate; pistil 1, sitting in the bottom 
 of the flower, the ovary ripening into a drupe: leaves alternate. 
 
 a. Peach and apricot: flowers solitary from lateral winter-buds, usually 
 appearing before the leaves. 
 
 P. Persica, Stokes. Peach. Fig. 535. Small tree, with oblong-lanceolate 
 pointed serrate leaves and solitary fuzzy fruits on 
 last year's wood. China. The nectarine is a 
 smooth-fruited form. 
 
 P. armeniaca, Linn. Apricot. Figs. 69, 536. 
 Leaves ovate to round-ovate, serrate : fruits solitary, 
 on last year's shoots or on spurs, smooth or nearly 
 
 535. Prunus persica. so . China. 
 
 aa. Plums: flowers in umbel-like clusters: fruit large and smooth, usually 
 with a distinct suture (or "crease") on one side and covered with a 
 "bloom" the stalk short. 
 
 P. domestica, Linn. Common plum. Figs, 209, 289. Small tree, usually 
 with young shoots downy: leaves thick and relatively 
 large, dull dark green, ovate, oval or obovate, very rugose 
 or veiny, somewhat pubescent beneath, coarsely and un- 
 evenly serrate: flowers large: fruits various, usually thick- 
 meated and with heavy "bloom." Europe, Asia. 
 
 P. americana, Marsh. Wild plum of the North. Fig. 
 537. Twiggy small tree, often thorny, the young shoots 
 usually not downy: leaves obovate, dull green, abruptly 
 pointed, coarsely toothed or jagged, not pubescent be- 
 neath: fruit small, red or yellow, tough-skinned and glau- 
 cous, the pit large and flattened. Common in thickets; improved forms are 
 in cultivation. Including P. nigra, perhaps distinct. 
 
 P. angustifdlia, Marsh. Chickasaw plum. Mountain cherry. Fig. 538. 
 Smaller, the young growth smooth and zigzag and usually reddish: leaves 
 lanceolate to oblong-lanceolate, often trough-shaped, shining, finely serrate, 
 cherry-like: fruit a small thin-fleshed shining plum on a long pedicel. 
 Delaware, south; also in cultivation. 
 
 aaa. Cherries: flowers in umbel-like clusters: fruit 
 small and nearly globular, early-ripening, 
 usually without a prominent suture and 
 "bloom," the stalk slender. 
 
 P. Cerasus, Linn. Sour cherry. Round-headed 
 tree, with flowers in small clusters from lateral buds: 
 leaves hard and stiffish, short-ovate or obovate, 
 grayish green, serrate: fruit small, sour. Europe. 
 
 P. Avium, Linn. Sweet cherry. Fig. 539. Straight 
 grower, the "leader" prominent in young trees, with 
 537. Prunus americana. flowers in dense clusters from lateral spurs: leaves 
 
 536. Prunus 
 armeniaca. 
 
PRUNUS RUBUS 
 
 389 
 
 538. Prunus angustifolia. 
 
 oblong-ovate, dull and soft, on the young growth hanging: fruit usually 
 rather large, sweet. Europe. 
 
 aaaa. Wild cherries, with small, scarcely edible fruits: 
 flowers umbellate or racemed. 
 
 P. pennsylvanica, Linn. Wild red cherry. Pin or bird cherry. Small 
 tree, 20-30 ft. high, with red-brown, 
 peeling bark: flowers small, white, on 
 long pedicels in umbel-like clusters, 
 from lateral scaly buds, in early spring, 
 before or with the leaves: fruit very 
 small, globose, red, smooth, with thin, 
 sour flesh. 
 
 P. virginiana, Linn. Choke cherry. 
 Small tree or shrub, 5-20 ft., with 
 grayish spotted bark: leaves thin, oval 
 or obovate, abruptly acute at tip, 
 sharp-serrate: flowers white, in short 
 racemes, terminating leafy branches, appearing after leaves in late spring: 
 fruit small, globose, red changing to dark crimson (nearly black), very 
 astringent: usually found along banks and in thickets. 
 
 P. serotina, Ehrh. Wild black cherry. Tree, 50-80 ft., with black, rough 
 bark and reddish brown branches: leaves thickish, oblong or oblong-lanceo- 
 late, acute or tapering at tip, serrate with incurving or bluntish teeth: flow- 
 ers later than preceding, white, in elongated, drooping or spreading, termi- 
 nal racemes: fruit deep purple or black (J^ in. in diameter) with a sweetish, 
 bitter taste. 
 
 6. RtTBUS. BRAMBLE. 
 
 Shrubs, usually thorny, the canes or shoots dying after fruiting, with 
 alternate digits tely compound leaves: flowers white, in Clusters, with 
 5-parted calyx and 5 petals: ovaries many, ripening into coherent drupelets. 
 
 a. Raspberries: drupelets or berry separating from the torus. 
 
 R. occidentalis, Linn. Black raspberry. Figs. 142, 
 290. Canes long and thorny, glaucous, rooting at the 
 tips late in the season: leaves of mostly 3 ovate 
 doubly-toothed leaflets: flowers in close, umbel-like 
 clusters: fruits firm, black (sometimes amber-color). 
 Woods, and common in cultivation. 
 
 R. aculeatissimus, C. A. Meyer. Red raspberry. 
 Canes erect and weak-prickly, more or less glaucous, 
 not rooting at tips, leaflets oblong-ovate: flowers in racemes: fruits soft, 
 red. Woods, and cultivated. 
 
 R. odoratus, Linn. Flowering raspberry. Flowering "mulberry." Shrubby 
 and erect, branching, 3-5 ft., not prickly, but rather bristly and sticky- 
 hairy: leaves large, 3-5-lobed: flowers large, 1-2 in. broad, in terminal 
 
 Prunus Avium. 
 
390 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 corymbs, the petals orbicular and purplish rose (rarely whitish): fruit red, 
 ripe in August, flattened, sweetish but scarcely edible. Common in woods. 
 
 aa. Blackberries: drupelets adhering to the torus (the torus forming 
 the "core" of the berry). 
 
 R. allegheniensis, Porter (R. villdsus of some). Common blackberry. 
 Tall, very thorny: leaflets 3 or 5, ovate and pointed, toothed, hairy beneath: 
 flowers large, in open racemes: fruit cylindrical and firm, black when 
 ripe. Woods, and cultivated. 
 
 R. villdsus, Ait. (R. canadensis of some). Northern dewberry. Trail- 
 ing and rooting at tips, prickly : leaflets 3-7, ovate-acuminate or oblong-ovate, 
 toothed: flowers 1-3, on erect, short peduncles, large: fruit like a small and 
 shining blackberry. Sterile fields, and in cultivation. 
 
 R. trivialis, Michx. Southern dewberry. Fig. 170. Long-trailing, very 
 thorny and bristly: leaves 3-5, more or less evergreen, mostly lance-oblong 
 and small, strong-toothed: flowers 1-3: fruit black. Sands, Virginia, south; 
 also in cultivation. 
 
 7. KlSRRIA. GLOBE FLO WEB. "JAPAN ROSE." 
 
 Shrubby plants with calyx of 5 acuminate, nearly distinct sepals; petals 
 5 (or flowers double); ovaries 5-8, smooth, globose: leaves simple, ovate, 
 acuminate, doubly serrate, with stipules: flowers terminal on branches, soli- 
 tary or a few together. 
 
 K. japonica, DC. Bush 3-8 ft. with green winter twigs: flowers orange- 
 yellow, usually double: leaves sometimes variegated. Late May and June. 
 Cultivated. 
 
 8. ROSA. ROSE. 
 
 More or less thorny erect or climbing shrubs with pinnate wing-petioled 
 leaves, and flowers with 5 calyx -lobes and 5 large, rounded petals: pistils 
 many, becoming more or less hairy achenes which are inclosed in a hollow 
 torus (fruit becoming a hip, Fig. 292). Most of the garden roses are too 
 difficult for the beginner: they are much modified by the plant-breeder. 
 
 R. Carolina, Linn. Swamp rose. Tall, often as high as a man, the few 
 spines usually somewhat hooked: stipules (petiote wings) long and narrow: 
 leaflets 5-9, narrow-oblong and acute, finely serrate: flowers rather large, 
 rose-color. Swamps. 
 
 R. virginiana, Mill. Usually low, with stout hooked spines: stipules 
 rather broad; leaflets about 7, smooth and mostly shining above: flowers 
 large, rose-color. Moist places. 
 
 R. humilis, Marsh. Three feet or less tall, with straight, slender spines: 
 stipules narrow; foliage usually less shining. Dry soils. 
 
 R. rubiginosa, Linn. Sweet briar. Eglantine. Erect, 4-8 ft., curving, 
 'armed with stout recurved prickles, with weaker ones intermixed: leaflets 
 5-9, ovate or oval, coarsely and doubly serrate and resinous or glandular, 
 pubescent beneath, very aromatic: flowers small, pink or white, solitary, 
 single or double. Naturalized from Europe and in cultivation. 
 
ROSACES 391 
 
 9. AMELANCHIER. SERVICE BERRY. JUNE BERRY. 
 
 Small trees or shrubs, with smooth, grayish bark: leaves simple, peti- 
 oled, serrate: flowers white, in racemes, or rarely solitary; calyx-tube 5- 
 cleft; petals 5; stamens many, short, inserted on calyx-throat; ovary 
 inferior, apparently 10-celled, with 1 ovule in each cavity; styles 5, united 
 below: fruit a berry-like pome, 4-10-celled. 
 
 A. canadensis, Medic. Shadbush. Small tree or bush 5-50 ft. high, 
 with snowy white flowers in very early spring before the foliage: leaves 
 ovate to oblong, sharply serrate, acute at apex, base cordate, soon smooth; 
 stipules long and silky-hairy: fruit red or purple pomes, on slender pedicels, 
 sweet and edible. Woods, common. 
 
 10. PYRUS. PEAR. APPLE. 
 
 Small trees or shrubs with alternate leaves, and flowers in clusters in 
 spring; flowers 5-merous: ovaries usually 5, immersed in the torus, the 
 styles free. 
 
 a. Leaves simple: pear and apple. 
 
 P. communis, Linn. Pear. Figs. 61, 62, 65, 66, 67, 118, 119, 196, 293. 
 Leaves ovate, firm and shining, smooth, close-toothed : fruit tapering to the 
 pedicel. Europe. 
 
 P. Malus, Linn. Apple. Figs. 294-295. Leaves ovate, soft - hairy be- 
 neath, serrate: fruit hollowed at the base when ripe. Europe. 
 
 P. coronaria, Linn. Wild crab. Bushy tree to about 20 ft., somewhat 
 thorny: leaves ovate-triangular to heart-shaped, cut-serrate, or somewhat 
 lobed, soon smoothish: flowers large, strikingly fragrant, rose-colored, few 
 in a corymb or cluster: pome flattened at the ends, long-stemmed, indented 
 at the attachment to stalk, green, becoming yellowish, fragrant but sour. 
 Open glades, from New York, west and south. 
 
 P. ioensis, Bailey. Prairie crab. Pubescent: leaves oblong or ovate, 
 notched or parted along the sides, the petioles short: pome globular or 
 oblong, short-stemmed, with light dots. Mostly west of Great Lakes. 
 
 aa. Leaves compound: mountain-ashes. (Sorbus.) 
 
 P. americana, DC. American mountain-ash. Tree or large shrub, native 
 to mountain woods in the East, but sometimes cultivated: leaves odd-pin- 
 nately compound, with 13-15 leaflets that are lanceolate, taper-pointed, ser- 
 rate, bright-green above: flowers numerous, small, white, in compound, flat 
 cymes; styles 3-5: berry-like pomes globose, bright red, or orange, about the 
 size of peas. 
 
 P. Aucuparia, Ehrh. English mountain-ash. Rowan. Leaves pubescent 
 on both sides when young, the leaflets blunt: fruit larger than that of pre- 
 ceding, about }^, in. in diameter. 
 
 11. CYDONIA. QUINCE. 
 
 Small trees or shrubs: flowers and leaves much as in Pyrus: ovary 5- 
 celled, with many seeds in each: fruit a pome, usually hollowed at top end, 
 globose ; or pyriform. 
 
392 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 C. vulgaris. Pers. Quince. Six to 15 ft. high, with crooked branches; 
 flower solitary, large, pale pink or roseate, on shoots of the season: leaves 
 oblong-ovate, acute at apex, with obtuse base, entire. A small tree grown 
 for its large yellow fruits. 
 
 C. japonica, Pers. Japan quince. Shrub, 3-6 ft., cultivated for hedges 
 and flowers: branches armed with short, straight spines: leaves glabrous 
 and shining, acute at the end, serrulate, the stipules conspicuously reniform: 
 flowers in axillary clusters, nearly sessile, crimson or scarlet. Fruit globose, 
 fragrant. 
 
 12. CRAT^GUS. HAWTHORN. Figs. 164-167. 
 
 Large bushes or small trees, much branched, the wood tough and hard, 
 usually very thorny: flowers white or pink, in dense umbel-like clusters; 
 petals 5, entire; stamens 5-10 to many: fruit a small red or yellow drupe 
 containing large bony stones: leaves simple, mostly toothed or lobed. Many 
 species wild in North America, and some cultivated; too difficult of determi- 
 nation for the beginner. The wild hawthorns are amongst the most deco- 
 rative plants in the American landscape. 
 
 13. SPIRjfeA. SPIBEA. Fig. 193. 
 
 Hardy perennial herbs and many ornamental shrubs: leaves alternate: 
 flowers white or roseate, usually small but many; calyx 5-cleft, short and 
 open; petals 5; stamens many: fruit of about 5 follicles, not inflated. A 
 large and very interesting group of flowering plants, mostly with white 
 bloom. Following are small shrubs: 
 
 S. salicifolia, Linn. Meadow-sweet. Glabrous or nearly so, erect to 3 
 or 4 ft., stem often purplish: leaves simple, oblong-ovate to lanceolate, 
 serrate, with stipules deciduous: flowers in terminal erect panicles, white 
 or pinkish-tinged, small, with pods (follicles) 5, smooth, many-seeded. 
 Moist or swampy ground. Summer. 
 
 S. tomentdsa, Linn. Hardhack. Erect, 2-4 ft. high, with pubescent 
 stems, rusty or hairy: leaves simple, oblong or ovate, serrate, woolly on 
 lower surface, without stipules: flowers in terminal thyrse-like dense panicles, 
 pink or purple (rarely white), the follicles 5, pubescent or woolly: pastures 
 and low grounds. Late summer. 
 
 S. trilobata, Linn. Bridal wreath. Large bush with long recurving 
 branches and bearing a profusion of showy flowers in flat-topped clusters: 
 leaves round-ovate, crenately cut and 3-lobed. S. Van Houttei is an 
 improved form. The forms of this species-group are the most popular 
 cultivated spireas. 
 
 S. hypericifolia, St. Peter's wreath. From 36 ft., leaves obovate- 
 oblong or wedge-shaped, obscurely toothed or lobed: flowers white, in many 
 small lateral sessile clusters, on short branches. Cultivated. 
 
 S. Thiinbergii, Sieb. Compact bush with very narrow leaves, sharply 
 serrate and very light green: flowers umbellate, small, white. Handsome 
 species from Japan. 
 
SAXIFRAGES 393 
 
 XXX. SAXIFRAGACE^E. SAXIFRAGE FAMILY. 
 
 Herbs or shrubs of various habit, with opposite or alternate leaves 
 that usually do not have stipules: flowers with ovary mostly inferior, 
 5-merous, the stamens usually 10 or less (in a few cases as many as 
 40); pistils 10 or less, either separate or the carpels united, the fruit 
 a follicle, capsule or berry. A polymorphous family comprising some 
 600 species in about 75 genera. Comprises saxifrage, mitre-wort, 
 hydrangea, mock orange, currant and gooseberry. 
 
 A. Herbs. 
 
 B. Stamens twice as many as petals. 
 c. Petals entire: stamens usually 10. 
 
 D. Flowers in cymes or . panicles (rarely solitary) : 
 
 capsule 2-beaked: ovary usually 2-celled 1. Saxifraga 
 
 DD. Flowers in racemes: ovary 1 -celled: capsule 
 
 2-beaked. with 1 beak the longer and larger 2. Tiardla 
 
 cc. Petals with edges fringed or cleft 3. Mitetta 
 
 BB. Stamens (fertile) 5, or equal in number to the petals: 
 
 clusters of sterile stamens opposite each petal 4. Parnassia 
 
 AA. Shrubs. 
 
 B. Leaves opposite. 
 c. Stamens 8 or 10. 
 
 D. Flowers all alike: sepals 5 5. Deuteia 
 
 DD. Flowers usually of 2 kinds: the marginal ones 
 
 enlarged and neutral, apetalous 6. Hydrangea 
 
 cc. Stamens many: petals 4 or 6, large, white 7. Philaddphua 
 
 BB. Leaves alternate 8. Ribes 
 
 1. SAXiFRAGA. SAXIFRAGE. 
 
 Herbs, with root-leaves in rosette: flowers perfect, small, whitish, in 
 cymes or panicles, on leafy stems or leafless scapes; sepals 5, more or less 
 united; petals 5, entire inserted on calyx-tube; stamens mostly 10; styles 
 2 and capsule 2-beaked, or of nearly separate divergent pods. 
 
 S. virginiensis, Michx. Little perennial herb with spatulate or obovate, 
 petioled, crenate, thick leaves: scape 3-12 in., erect, viscid-pubescent, 
 bearing many small, white flowers in a loose cyme, the petals exceeding the 
 calyx. In early spring, on moist banks and rocks. 
 
 2. TIAR&LLA. FALSE MITREWORT. 
 
 Perennials, with small white flowers in racemes: calyx white, campan- 
 ulate, 5-lobed; petals 5, entire on claws; stamens 10, with long filaments 
 from the calyx-tube; ovary 1-celled, nearly superior; styles 2, long and 
 slender: capsule with two very unequal beaks. 
 
 T. cordifolia, Linn. Scape slender, pubescent, leafless or with 1 or 2 
 leaves: stoloniferous from rootstocks: leaves cordate, lobed or toothed, 
 petioled, slightly hairy or downy beneath: flowers white, in short raceme. 
 Spring. Handsome. 
 
394 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 3. MITlSLLA. MITREWOBT. BISHOP'S CAP. 
 
 Delicate little perennials, with small, white flowers in a raceme or spike, 
 the basal leaves heart-shaped or reniform : scape with 2 opposite leaves, or 
 1 or none: calyx short, 5-cleft, adherent to base of ovary; petals 5, white 
 edges daintily fringed, inserted on calyx; stamens 5-10, with short fila- 
 ments, on petals; styles 2, short. 
 
 M. diphylla, Linn. About 1 ft. tall: root-leaves in a cluster, cordate, 
 ovate, somewhat 3-5-lobed, toothed, hairy: scape rather hairy, with 2 
 opposite nearly sessile leaves near middle: flowers tiny, many, white. May 
 to early June, in rich woods. 
 
 M. nuda, Linn. Very delicate and slender: scape usually leafless: basal 
 leaves reniform, crenate: flowers few, greenish, very small, pedicelled; not 
 common. Damp, cold woods, northward. Late spring and early summer. 
 
 4. PARNASSIA. GRASS OF PARNASSUS. 
 
 Low, glabrous perennials, belonging mostly to marshy or wet situations: 
 root-leaves in rosettes, rounded, entire; stem-leaves 1 or few, alternate: 
 flowers solitary, terminal, on a scape-like stem, white or greenish; calyx 
 5-lobed to near base; fertile stamens 5, alternating with the 5 whitish 
 petals, a cluster of sterile filaments at base of each petal; ovary superior 
 1-celled, with 4 parietal placentae, and usually 4 stigmas. 
 
 P. caroliniana, Michx. One flower with sessile petals, white, with green- 
 ish veins, 1 l/^ in. broad: root-leaf thickish, ovate or cordate, 1 leaf usually 
 near base of scape: 6-15 in. high. Wet places. Summer. 
 
 5. DEtrrziA. 
 
 Shrubs, having opposite, simple, exstipulate leaves: flowers panicled or 
 racemed, numerous, white or pinkish: calyx-lobes 5; petals 5 to many; sta- 
 mens 10, 5 long and 5 short, the filaments flat, commonly with 3 prongs, 
 the middle prong antherif erous ; ovary inferior, styles 3-5. 
 
 D. gracilis, Sieb. & Zucc. Grows to 2 or 3 ft.: flowers many, white, single 
 or double: leaves oblong-lanceolate, sharply serrate, green and smooth. 
 June. Cultivated from Japan. 
 
 D. scabra, Thunb. Tall, pubescent: leaves ovate or oblong-ovate, finely 
 crenate or serrate: flowers pinkish. Later-blooming than preceding, and 
 much larger. China and Japan. 
 
 6. HYDRANGEA. 
 
 Shrubs, with opposite, stalked exstipulate leaves, and flowers of two 
 kinds in terminal corymbs or cymes, the outer ones usually sterile, often 
 apetalous, consisting merely of a showy, flat or spreading 5-lobed calyx, the 
 fertile flowers small, with calyx-tube 4-5-toothed; petals 4 or 5: stamens 8- 
 10, filaments slender; ovary inferior, 2-celled (rarely 3- or 4-celled) ; styles 2-4. 
 
 H. arborescens, Linn. Leaves ovate, obtuse or cordate at base, acumi- 
 nate, serrate, green on both surfaces, nearly or quite smooth: flowers in 
 flat cymes, often all fertile, but sometimes with many large, white, sterile 
 flowers. Along streams. June to July. 
 
SAXIFRAGE FAMILY 395 
 
 H. Hortensia, DC. Smooth, with large, toothed, bright green oval 
 leaves and flowers nearly all neutral, pink, blue or whitish, in great round- 
 ish clusters. China and Japan. Cultivated in greenhouses. 
 
 H. paniculata, Sieb. Somewhat pubescent, with oblong-ovate, long- 
 pointed, dull, sharp-toothed leaves, and whitish flowers in great elongated 
 panicles. Japan. The common hydrangea of lawns. 
 
 7. PHILADELPHIA. MOCK ORANGE (from the flowers). SYRINGA. 
 
 Shrubs with showy corymbose or paniculate white flowers and opposite 
 simple leaves: petals 4 or 5; stamens 20 or more; ovary 3-5-loculed, becom- 
 ing a capsule. 
 
 P. coronarius, Linn. Tall shrub with erect branches: leaves oblong- 
 ovate and smooth: flowers cream-white, fragrant, in close clusters, in late 
 spring. Europe. 
 
 P. grandiflorus, Willd. Tall, with long recurving branches: leaves ovate- 
 pointed and somewhat downy beneath: flowers pure white, scentless, in 
 loose clusters. Virginia, south, and planted. 
 
 8. RIBES. GOOSEBERRY and CURRANT. 
 
 Low shrubs, often prickly, with alternate digitately lobed leaves: 
 flowers small; sepals 5 and petal-like, on the ovary; petals and stamens 5, 
 borne on the calyx: fruit a small globular berry. 
 
 a. Gooseberries: flowers 1-3: usually spines below the leaves. 
 
 R. oxyacanthoides, Linn. Small bush, with long, graceful branches and 
 very short thorns or none: leaves thin, orbicular-ovate, about 3-lobed, 
 the edges thin and round-toothed: flowers on very short peduncles, the 
 calyx-lobes longer than the calyx-tube, the ovary and berry smooth, the 
 fruit reddish or green. Swamps North; probable parent of Houghton and 
 Downing gooseberries. 
 
 R. Grossularia, Linn. English gooseberry. Stiffer and 
 denser bush, with firm and thickish more shining leaves, 
 which have revolute margins: ovary downy and the large 
 fruit pubescent or bristly. Europe; parent of the large- 
 fruited gooseberries. 
 
 R. Cynosbati, Linn. Tall, open prickly bush, with 
 thickish bluntly 3-lobed downy leaves and long peduncles 
 bearing 3 or more flowers with calyx -lobes shorter than 
 the tube: leaves rounded and 3-lobed: fruit dull purple, 
 either prickly or smooth. Common in dry places. 540. Ribes vulgare. 
 
 aa. Currants: flowers in long racemes: no spines. 
 
 R. vulgare, Lam. Red and white currant. Fig. 540. Erect bush, with 
 broad-cordate 3-5-lobed leaves with roundish lobes and not strong-smelling: 
 racemes drooping, the flowers greenish and nearly flat open: berries (cur- 
 rants) red or white. Europe. 
 
 R. nigrum, Linn. Black currant. Stronger bush, with strong-scented 
 
396 
 
 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 leaves and larger oblong or bell-shaped flowers with bracts much shorter 
 than the pedicels: berries black and strong-smelling. Europe. 
 
 R. floridum, L'Her. (R. americanum, Marsh.). Wild black currant. 
 Fig. 541. Straggling bush, with heart-shaped 3-5-lobed doubly serrate some- 
 what scented leaves: flowers in long racemes, whitish, with bracts longer 
 than the pedicels: fruit black, scented. Woods. 
 
 R. aureum, Pursh. Golden, buffalo, or flowering currant. Fig. 542. 
 Large bush, with racemes of long-tubular yellow very 
 fragrant flowers : fruit blackish. Missouri, west, but com- 
 mon in gardens for its flowers. 
 
 XXXI. ONAGRACE^E. EVENING PRIMROSE FAMILY. 
 
 Mostly herbs: leaves various, alternate or opposite, 
 without stipules: flowers perfect, usually 4-parted, with 
 calyx-tube joined to ovary and often prolonged, the 
 margin 4-lobed, lobes valvate in the bud, usually 
 reflexed in flower: petals 4 (2-9), on throat of calyx- 
 tube: stamens as many or twice as many as petals: style 1, slen- 
 der, the stigma 4-lobed (sometimes 2-lobed); ovary 2-4-celled. 
 More than 300 species and 40 genera, of wide distribution. 
 
 A. Calyx-tube much prolonged beyond the ovary. 
 
 B. Lobes generally reflexed: fruit a dry capsule, dehiscent.. 1. (Enothera 
 BB. Lobes large and spreading: calyx-tube highly colored: 
 
 fruit a 4-celled berry: flowers drooping 2. Fuchsia 
 
 AA. Calyx-tube not much prolonged. 
 
 B. Stamens 8 ; petals 4 3. Epilobium 
 
 BB. Stamens 2; petals 2 4. Circcea 
 
 1. (ENOTHERA. EVENING PRIMROSE. 
 
 Herbs, stems usually erect: leaves alternate: flowers brightly colored, 
 regular, axillary or in terminal spikes; calyx-tube prolonged beyond ovary, 
 the 4 lobes usually reflexed, sometimes soon falling; petals 4; 
 stamens 8; stigma 4-lobed; capsule usually narrow and long, 
 4-celled, many-seeded. 
 
 (E. biennis, Linn. Common evening primrose. Figs. 276, 415. 
 Stem erect, 2-5 ft., hairy and leafy: leaves lance-oblong, 
 somewhat repandly-toothed ; flowers pure yellow, fragrant, in 
 terminal, leafy spikes, not remaining open in broad sunshine: 
 calyx-tube 2 to 3 times longer than ovary and lobes reflexed; 
 petals obcordate: pod oblong, bluntly 4-angled. A very com- 
 mon biennial of roadside and pasture, opening quickly at 
 542. Ribes nightfall, 
 aureum. (E. fruticdsa, Linn. Sundrops. Biennial or perennial : stem 
 
ONAGRACEJB 397 
 
 erect, 1-3 ft., leafy, more or less hairy: flowers yellow, 1-2 in. in diameter, 
 in corymbed racemes, open in daytime: pod decidedly 4-angled and 4- 
 ribbed, rather downy, shortly stalked. Dry soil. 
 
 <E. pumila, Linn. Resembles preceding, but smaller, 5-12 inches high: 
 corolla yellow, about H m - across: pod smooth, 4-angled, sessile or short- 
 stalked. Dry soil. 
 
 2. FtCHSIA. Figs. 172, 183, 205. 
 
 Herbs or shrubby plants (some trees): leaves opposite, or 3 in a whorl: 
 flowers drooping, axillary; calyx-tube colored, extended beyond ovary; 
 margin 4-lobed, spreading; petals 4 on throat of calyx; stamens 8, project- 
 ing; style long: fruit a 4-celled berry. A number of species of these orna- 
 mental plants in cultivation. Mainly native to South America. 
 
 F. magellanica, Lam. Smooth and tender: leaves simple, toothed, 
 slender-petioled: flowers hanging on long peduncles from leaf axils; calyx 
 red, lobes long, exceeding the tube and the petals; petals blue or purple or 
 red, obovate, notched, convolute about the bases of the long filaments and 
 style. The common window-garden fuchsias (F. speciosa) have descended 
 from this species, more or less hybridized with others. 
 
 3. EPILOBIUM. WILLOW-HERB. 
 
 Mostly perennials, with leaves nearly sessile, alternate or opposite: 
 flowers white or purple, spicate, racemed, or solitary; calyx-tube little 
 if any longer than ovary, limb 4-cleft; petals 4; stamens 8; stigma 4-lobed: 
 fruit linear, 4-sided, dehiscent by 4 loculicidal valves, many-seeded: seeds 
 with tuft of long, silky hair attached to tip. 
 
 E. angustifolium, Linn. Purple fireweed. Stem simple, erect, 4-7 ft.: 
 lower leaves alternate, lanceolate, nearly entire: racemes long, terminal, 
 showy; flowers large, about 1 in. across, reddish purple. Common in woods. 
 
 4. CIRCJSA. ENCHANTER'S NIGHTSHADE. 
 
 Low, delicate, and insignificant perennial herbs, with creeping root- 
 stocks: leaves opposite, very thin, petioled: flowers very small, in terminal 
 and lateral racemes; calyx-tube slightly prolonged beyond ovary; parts of 
 the flower in 2's. Damp, shady places. Summer. 
 
 C. Lutetiana, Linn. Stem erect, 1-2 ft. tall, pubescent: leaves ovate, 
 slightly repand-toothed : flowers white or pink, about % in. in diameter, on 
 slender pedicels, bractless: fruit small, round, 2-celled, bristly. The com- 
 mon species in damp, shady places in summer. 
 
 XXXII. UMBELLtFEILE. PARSLEY FAMILY. 
 
 Herbs, mostly strong-scented and with compound alternate leaves 
 petioles expanded or sheathing at the base: flowers small, mostly 
 perfect, 5-merous, epigynous, in umbels or umbel-like clusters; stamens 
 5: fruit consisting of 2 carpels, which are dry and seed-like and 
 
398 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 indehiscent. Oil-tubes, in t-he form of stripes, 1 or several in the 
 intervals of the ribs on the fruits, also sometimes under the ribs and 
 on both faces of the fruit, are characteristic features of the Umbel- 
 liferse. A well-marked natural family of about 1,500 species in about 
 160 genera. Some of the species are poisonous. Here belong parsley, 
 parsnip, carrot, celery, caraway, sweet cicely. Rather difficult for 
 the beginner. 
 
 A. Fruits bristly 1. Daucus 
 
 AA. Fruits not bristly. 
 B. The fruits winged. 
 
 c. Wing single, surrounding the margin: flowers 
 
 yellow 2. Pastinaca 
 
 cc. Wing double on margin: flowers white. 3. Angelica 
 
 BB. The fruits wingless. 
 
 c. Fruit long and slender, tapering at base: no appar- 
 ent oil-tubes: flowers white 4. Osmorrhiza 
 
 cc. Fruit ovate or orbicular. 
 
 D. Plant low and delicate: blooms in earliest spring: 
 
 stem with 1 or 2 leaves, if any 5. Erigenia 
 
 DD. Plant tall: stems leafy. 
 
 E. Axis not splitting in two when the carpels 
 
 fall from it. . . 6. Apium 
 
 EE. Axis splitting in two when the carpels or ' 'seeds' ' 
 
 fall. Leaf -segments filiform, flowers white. . . 7. Carum 
 
 1. DAtTCUS. CARROT. 
 
 Annuals or biennials, bristly, slender and branching, with small white 
 flowers in compound umbels, the rays of which become inflexed in fruit: the 
 fruit oblong, ribbed and bristly. 
 
 D. Cardta, Linn. Carrot. Figs. 194, 410. Leaves pinnately decompound, 
 the ultimate segments lanceolate: outer flowers with larger petals. Europe; 
 cultivated for the root, and extensively run wild. 
 
 2. PASTINACA. PARSNIP. 
 
 Tall, smooth biennials of strict habit and with pinnately compound 
 leaves: flowers yellow, in compound umbels with scarcely any involucres: 
 fruit oval, very thin, wing-margined. 
 
 P. sativa, Linn. Parsnip. Flowering stem 2-4 ft. tall, grooved, hol- 
 low: leaflets ovate or oblong, sharp-toothed. Europe; cultivated for its 
 roots and also run wild. 
 
 3. ANGELICA. 
 
 Strong, tall, perennial weeds, with great compound leaves and large 
 umbels of small white flowers, with involucre and involucels none, or only a 
 few small bracts: fruit ovate or oval, flattened, with rather broad, marginal 
 wings: oil-tubes many. 
 
UMBELLIFERJB 399 
 
 A. atropurpurea, Linn. A great weed, 3-8 ft. tall, in moist, rich soil or 
 swampy ground, with stem stout, smooth, strong-scented, often purple: 
 leaves large, 3-compound, on petioles with broad, inflated bases: umbels 
 large, flowers greenish white. 
 
 4. OSMORRHiZA. SWEET CICELY. 
 
 Herbs, 1-2 ft. or more, perennial, glabrous or pubescent, from thick- 
 clustered, aromatic roots: leaves 2 or 3 times pinnately compound; 
 leaflets variously toothed, the whole leaf fern-like: flowers many, small, 
 white, in compound, rayed umbels: fruit linear to linear-oblong, attenuate 
 at base, short-beaked, compressed, with 5 bristly ribs: no oil-tubes. 
 
 O. Claytdnii, Clarke. Stout, downy, 1-2 or 3 ft.: style conical, shorter 
 than the ovary. 
 
 O. longistylis, DC. Glabrous or nearly so, otherwise much like the pre- 
 ceding: style slender and about as long as the ovary: root aromatic. 
 
 5. ERIGENiA. 
 
 Little, glabrous perennial, early flowering: simple stem, springing from 
 a rounded tuber: leaves finely compound: flowers in small clusters, in 
 leafy bracted umbels, small, white; calyx-teeth wanting; petals obovate or 
 spatulate: fruit nearly orbicular, compressed on sides, glabrous, notched 
 at both ends. 
 
 E. bulbosa, Nutt. Harbinger of spring. A delicate and pretty but incon- 
 spicuous plant, 4-10 in. high, springing from the ground in earliest 
 spring, on sunny slopes of woodlands. The little white petals and brown or 
 purplish anthers give a "pepper-and-salt" appearance. . 
 
 6. APIUM. CELERY. 
 
 Annuals or biennials, with large pinnate leaves: flowers white, in small 
 umbels: fruit small, usually as broad as long, each carpel 5-ribbed: axis, 
 from which the carpels fall, not splitting in two. 
 
 A. graveolens, Linn. Celery. Biennial, smooth: leaflets 3-7, wedge- 
 shaped or obovate, the lower ones about 3-divided, round-toothed, Europe: 
 cultivated for its petioles, which have become greatly enlarged. Many 
 cultivated forms. 
 
 7. CARUM. CARAWAY. 
 
 Slender and erect, smooth annual and biennial herbs with pinnate 
 leaves: flowers white, in compound umbels provided with involucres: axis 
 bearing the carpels, splitting in two at maturity. 
 
 C. Carui, Linn. Caraway. Stem furrowed, 1-2 ft.: leaves cut into 
 thread-like divisions: flowers white. Europe. Cultivated for its fruits, 
 known as "Caraway seed," and also run wild. 
 
 C. hortense, Hoffm. (C. Petroselinum, Benth. Petroselinum hortense, 
 Hoffm.). Parsley. One to 3 ft. : leaflets ovate and 3-cleft, often much cut or 
 "curled" in he garden kinds: flowers yellowish. Europe. Grown for its 
 foliage, used for garnishing and flavoring. 
 
400 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 CC. GAMOPETALM. 
 XXXIII. LABIATE. MINT FAMILY. 
 
 Herbs, usually of aromatic scent, with 4-cornered stems and oppo- 
 site usually simple leaves: flowers typically 2-lipped; stamens 4 
 in 2 pairs, or only 2; ovary deeply 4-lobed, forming 4 indehiscent 
 nutlets in fruit. A well-marked family of some 2,700 species, dis- 
 tributed in about 150 genera, of both temperate and tropical regions. 
 To this family belongs the various mints, as peppermint, spearmint, 
 catnip, hyssop, thyme, pennyroyal, savory, rosemary, sage, hore- 
 hound, balm, basil. Flowers mostly in whorls in the axils of leaves or 
 bracts, sometimes forming interrupted spikes. 
 
 A. Stamens 2. 
 
 B. Calyx nearly equally toothed. 
 
 c. Lobes 5: throat hairy 1. Monarda 
 
 cc. Lobes 4-5: throat naked 2. Lycopus 
 
 BB. Calyx 2-lipped. 
 
 c. Throat naked within 3. Sahia 
 
 cc. Throat hairy: plants very pungent-scented 4. Hedeoma 
 
 AA. Stamens 4. 
 
 B. Corolla scarcely 2-lipped: lobes nearly equal. 
 
 c. Border of corolla 4-lobed: upper lobe broadest and 
 
 emarginate 5. Mentha 
 
 cc. Border of corolla 4-lobed, with a deep fissure be- 
 tween the 2 upper lobes 6. Teucrium 
 
 BB. Corolla strongly 2-lipped. 
 c. Calyx 2-lipped. 
 
 D. Lips of calyx toothed: flowers in dense terminal 
 
 spikes or heads 7. Prunella 
 
 DD. Lips of calyx entire, the upper humped, or 
 appendaged: flowers axillary in bracts or leaf 
 
 axils, solitary or racemed 8. Scutellaria 
 
 cc. Calyx nearly or quite regular. 
 
 D. Upper pair of the stamens the longer 9. Nepeta 
 
 DD. Upper pair of the stamens the shorter. 
 
 E. Stamens short, included in the tube of the 
 
 corolla 10. Marrubium 
 
 EE. Stamens long, projecting from the corolla-tube. 11. Leonurus 
 
 1. MONARDA. HORSE-MINT. 
 
 Rather stout, mostly perennials, with flowers in close terminal heads: 
 calyx tubular, 15-nerved, hairy in the throat, the teeth nearly, equal : corolla 
 strongly 2-lipped, the upper lip erect, the lower spreading and 3-lobed. 
 
 M. fistulosa, Linn. Two to 5 ft., in clumps: leaves ovate-lanceolate: 
 
THE MINT FAMILY 401 
 
 flowers in a clover-like flattish head: calyx slightly curved: corolla about 
 
 1 in. long, purple. Common in dry places. 
 
 M. didyma, Linn. Oswego tea. Bee balm. Stem 4-angled and branch- 
 ing: leaves petioled, shortly ovate to lanceolate, those about the terminal 
 head tinged with red: not very common wild, but cultivated. 
 
 2. I/fCOPUS. WATER HOARHOUND. 
 
 Low perennials, with stolons or suckers, much like the mints (Mentha) 
 and growing in similar moist or shady places: not aromatic: flowers small, 
 white clustered in leaf axils: calyx bell-shaped, 4- to 5-toothed: corolla 
 campanulate, with 4 nearly equal lobes: fertile stamens 2, the other 2 rudi- 
 mentary or wanting: flowers small, white or purplish, bracted and whorled 
 in axillary clusters. 
 
 L. virginicus, Linn. Stem 6 in. to 2 ft., obtusely 4-angled, green or 
 often purplish: stoloniferous: leaves oblong or ovate-lanceolate, serrate, 
 except at base, short-petioled or nearly sessile. In moist places. Summer. 
 
 3. SALVIA. SAGE. 
 
 Annuals or perennials, mostly with large and showy flowers; calyx and 
 corolla 2-lipped: upper lip of corolla large and usually arched, entire or 
 nearly so, the lower lip spreading and 3-lobed: stamens 2, short, the anther 
 locules separated by a transverse bar. 
 
 S. omcinalis, Linn. Common sage. Erect low perennial, with gray 
 pubescent foliage: leaves oblong-lanceolate, crenulate, very veiny: flowers 
 blue, in spiked whorls. Europe; used for seasoning. 
 
 S. splendens, Sell. (S. coccinea of gardens). Scarlet sage. Tender peren- 
 nial from Brazil, but much cultivated for its bright scarlet floral leaves, 
 calyx, and corolla: leaves ovate-pointed. 
 
 4. HEDE6MA. MOCK PENNYROYAL. 
 
 Low, aromatic-fragrant herbs, with small bluish flowers in loose axillary 
 clusters, often forming terminal racemes or spikes: calyx tubular, 13-nerved, 
 swollen on lower side, hairy in throat, 2-lipped; corolla 2-lipped, upper lip 
 erect, flat, emarginate, the lower spreading and 3-cleft, 2 perfect stamens; 
 
 2 shorter sterile stamens sometimes present. 
 
 H. pulegioides, Pers. Small annuals of pungent fragrance and taste, 
 with slender stem 6-12 in. tall, erect, branching, pubescent: leaves ovate 
 to oblong, about 1 in. long, few-toothed, petiolate: whorls few-flowered, the 
 corolla bluish, pubescent. In dry fields and woods. Summer. 
 
 5. MfiNTHA. MINT. 
 
 Low perennials: calyx with 5 similar teeth: corolla nearly or quite regu- 
 lar, 4-cleft: stamens 4, equal: flowers in heads or interrupted spikes, pur- 
 plish or white. 
 
 M. pipertta, Linn. Peppermint. Straggling, 1-3 ft. tall, the plant dark 
 colored (stems purplish): leaves ovate, oblong, or narrower, acute, sharply 
 serrate: flowers light purple, in thick spikes 1-3 in. long. Europe. 
 
402 
 
 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 M. spicata, Linn. (M. viridis, Linn.). Spearmint. Fig. 543. Erect and 
 smooth, 1-2 ft., green: leaves lanceolate and sharply serrate- flowers whitish 
 or tinted, in long, interrupted spikes. Europe. Along roadsides, and 
 cultivated. 
 
 M. canadensis, Linn. Wild mint. One to 2 ft., pubescent: leaves lanceo- 
 late: flowers tinted, in whorls in the axils of the leaves. Low grounds. 
 
 6. TEUCRIUM. GERMANDER. 
 
 Perennial herbs (or shrubs) with small, pinkish, rather irregular flowers, 
 in terminal bracted spikes (or heads) or verticillate in the upper axils of the 
 stem -leaves: calyx 5-toothed, 10-nerved: corolla 5-lobed, with 4 upper lobes 
 oblong, somewhat equal, and turned forward, the lowest lobe large, rounded: 
 stamens 4, in 2 pairs, projecting from a deep fissure between the 2 upper 
 lobes of the corolla. 
 
 T. canadense, Linn. Erect, pubescent, 1-3 ft.: leaves 
 ovate-lanceolate, irregularly serrate, short-petioled : bracts 
 under the flowers linear-lanceolate, about as long as calyx: 
 spike long and slender, the few odd-looking purplish or 
 pinkish flowers in crowded verticels. Damp ground. Late 
 summer. 
 
 7. PRUNELLA. SELF-HEAL. 
 
 Low, usually unbranched perennials without aromatic 
 odor: calyx about 10-nerved, 2-lipped: corolla 2-lipped, the 
 upper lip arched and entire, the lower one 3-lobed: sta- 
 mens 4, in pairs, ascending under the upper lip. 
 
 P. vulgaris, Linn. Self-heal. Three to 10 in. tall, with 
 ovate or oblong, usually slightly toothed leaves: flowers 
 small, violet (rarely white), in a dense, oblong, clover-like 
 head or spike. Common in grassy places; often a weed in 
 lawns. 
 
 543. 8. SCUTELLARIA. SKULLCAP. 
 
 Mentha spicata. 
 
 Perennials, bitter, not aromatic: flowers solitary or in 
 
 pairs, axillary or in bracted spike-like racemes; calyx bell-shaped, 2-lipped, 
 the lips closed in fruit, the upper one appendaged on the back (at maturity 
 the calyx splits to the bottom, the upper lip usually falling off); corolla- 
 tube elongated, curved and ascending, swollen above the throat, 2-lipped, 
 the upper lip arched and notched: stamens 4, ascending in pairs under 
 the upper lip, the upper pair shorter. 
 
 S. laterifolia, Linn. Mad-dog skullcap. Smooth, 1-2 ft. high: stem 
 nearly or quite erect, much branched, slender, leafy: leaves thin, ovate- 
 lanceolate, pointed, serrate, petioled: flowers blue (rarely white), small, 
 %-}$ in. long, in axillary, 1-sided racemes (some terminal). Wet. shaded 
 places. Summer. Several related species grow in bogs and along slow 
 streams, but most of them will not be likely to attract the attention of the 
 beginner, although all are odd or interesting. 
 
MINT AND VERVAIN FAMILIES 403 
 
 9. NE*PETA. CATMINT. 
 
 Perennials, mostly sweet-scented : calyx nearly equally 5-toothed; corolla 
 2-lipped, the upper lip erect and somewhat concave, the lower 3-lobed: 
 stamens 4, in pairs under the upper lip, the outer pair the shorter. 
 
 N. Cataria, Linn. Common catmint or catnip. Figs. 213, 414. Erect, 
 2-3 ft., pubescent: leaves cordate-ovate, crenate, grayish: corolla tinted: 
 flowers in interrupted spikes. Introduced from Europe. 
 
 N. hederacea, Trev. (N. Glechoma, Benth.). Ground ivy. GUl-over-the- 
 ground. A weed from Europe, but familiar almost everywhere: creeping, 
 with rounded, crenately margined, petioled leaves: flowers bluish purple, 
 small. 
 
 10. MARRtTBIUM. HOREHOUND. 
 
 Erect perennials, with white- woolly aspect: calyx nearly equally 5-10- 
 toothed, the teeth very sharp: corolla 2-lipped, the upper lip erect and 
 notched, the lower one spreading and 3-lobed: stamens 4, included in the 
 corolla-tube. There are a number of Old World species, but only the 
 following seems to have run wild in this country:* 
 
 M. vulgare, Linn. Common horehound. Leaves broad-ovate and 
 crenate: flowers small, white, in dense whorls. Europe, but common. 
 
 11. LEONtFRUS. MOTHERWORT. 
 
 Erect perennials with green aspect: calyx about equally 5-toothed, the 
 teeth becoming spine-like; corolla 2-lipped, the upper lip somewhat arched 
 and entire, the lower spreading and 3-lobed : stamens 4, ascending under the 
 upper lip: nutlets 3-angled. 
 
 L. Cardiaca, Linn. Common motherwort. Tall: leaves rounded and 
 lobed: corolla purple, the upper lip bearded; flowers in axillary whorls. 
 Introduced from Europe. Common. Other introduced species may now and 
 then be found. 
 
 XXXIV. VERBENACILE. VERVAIN FAMILY. 
 
 Herbs, shrubs or trees: leaves opposite or whorled (in our spe- 
 cies), exstipulate: flowers monopetalous, often irregular, in bracted 
 cymes or panicles; calyx free Irom the ovary, 4-5-cleft; corolla some- 
 times regular, but often more or less 2-lipped: stamens 4 (rarely 
 2), in unequal pairs, inserted on corolla, alternate with lobes; style 
 1; ovary mostly 2- to 4-celled (not lobed), with style from summit: 
 fruit dry or drupe-like. About 1,200 species, mostly tropical. 
 
 VERBENA. VERVAIN. 
 
 Herbs with simple, opposite, serrate or pinnately-lobed leaves: flowers 
 usually sessile, bracted, in terminal spikes: corolla salver- or funnel-form, 
 with border somewhat unevenly 5-cleft. 
 
404 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 V. urticaefolia, Linn. Perennial, common coarse weed in waste ground: 
 4-6 ft. tall: leaves oval, coarsely serrate, stalked: flowers minute, white, in 
 slender spikes. 
 
 V. angustifdlia, Michx. A perennial, roughish weed, with stems 6 in. 
 to 2 ft., mostly simple, leafy: leaves sessile, narrow-lanceolate, tapering to 
 sessile base: flowers small, in spikes; corolla purple: fruits overlapping on 
 spike. Dry fields. 
 
 V. stricta, Vent. Perennial, hoary-hairy: stem 1-3 ft., very leafy: leaves 
 obovate or oblong, serrate and nearly sessile: spikes thick and densely 
 flowered ; flowers blue-purple, rather larger than in other common Ver- 
 vains, M in. across, but few open at one time. Westward. 
 
 V. hastata, Linn. A common, rather pubescent weed of the waysides: 
 stem 2-6 ft. tall, branching, with many slender spikes of the small, bracted, 
 blue-purple flowers, few flowers in bloom at one time: leaves lanceolate, 
 acuminate, petioled. 
 
 V. canadensis, Brit. One of the species from which the garden Ver- 
 benas have come: stems rather prostrate and creeping: flowers in a corymb 
 or peduncled spike and showy, of various colors and considerable size : leaves 
 on petioles, ovate in outline, but pinnately cut or 3-parted. Wild from 
 Indiana west. 
 
 XXXV. SCROPHULARIACE.E. FIGWORT FAMILY. 
 
 Herbs (trees in warm countries), of various habit: flowers perfect, 
 irregular, usually imperfectly 5-merous: corolla usually 2-lipped and 
 personate: stamens 4 in 2 pairs, inserted on the corolla, with some- 
 times a rudiment of a fifth: ovary single, 2-loculed, ripening into a 
 several- or many-seeded capsule. About 160 genera and 2,000 species. 
 Representative plants are figwort, snapdragon, toad-flax, foxglove, 
 mullein, pentstemon, monkey-flower or musk-plant. 
 
 A. Corolla very shallow and nearly regular 1. Verbascum 
 
 AA. Corolla very irregular, often personate. 
 
 B. Flowers with long spur 2. Linaria 
 
 BB. Flower spurless, but saccate or swollen at the base. . 3. Antirrhinum 
 BBB. Flowers not spurred, saccate, or much swollen. 
 
 c. Stamens 5, but the fifth sterile, often a scale only. 
 D. Sterile filament a little scale on the upper side 
 
 of the corolla: flowers small and dull-colored... 4. Scrophularia 
 DD. Sterile filament elongated: corolla 2-lipped. 
 
 E. Filament shorter than the others: the 2 lips 
 of the corolla but slightly open: seeds 
 
 winged 5. Chelone 
 
 EE. Filament about the same length as the others: 
 
 corolla lip open: seeds wingless 6. Pentstemon 
 
SCROPHULARIACE^E 405 
 
 DDD. Sterile filament, not conspicuous: corolla almost 
 2-parted, the middle lobe of the lower lip 
 
 keeled, inclosing the 4 stamens 7. Cottinsia 
 
 cc. Stamens plainly 4. 
 
 D. Corolla 2-lipped: calyx 5-angled: flowers not 
 
 drooping 8. Mimulus 
 
 DD. Corolla slightly 2-lipped, irregularly 5-lobed 
 
 flowers drooping 9. Digitalis 
 
 DDD. Corolla with upper lip narrow and erect, much 
 longer than the lower, and keeled: anther- 
 sacs are not alike: floral leaves colored like 
 
 petals 10. CastiUeja 
 
 ccc. Stamens 2 (or 2 others rudimentary or wanting). 
 
 D. Corolla 2-lipped 11. Gratiola 
 
 DD. Corolla rotate, lobes unequal 12. Veronica 
 
 1. VERBASCUM. MULLEIN. 
 
 Tall biennials, with alternate decurrent leaves: calyx 
 and corolla 5-parted, the latter shallow and nearly or quite 
 rotate; stamens 5, some or all of the filaments woolly. 
 
 V. Thapsus, Linn. Common mullein. Fig. 147. Two 
 to 5 ft., stout and usually unbranched, white-woolly: leaves 
 oblong and acute felt-like: flowers yellow in a very dense 
 spike. Weed from Europe. 
 
 V. Blattaria, Linn. Moth mullein. Slender and branch- 
 Linaria vulgaris. m &> g 1 " 6611 an d nearly smooth: leaves oblong, serrate, often 
 laterally lobed, somewhat clasping: flowers yellow or 
 cream-colored, in a loose raceme. Weed from Europe. 
 
 2. LINARIA. TOAD-FLAX. 
 
 Low herbs, of various habit: corolla personate, the throat nearly or 
 entirely closed, spurred from the lower side: stamens 4: capsule opening 
 by apical pores. 
 
 L. vulgaris, Mill. Toad-flax. Butter-and-eggs. Figs'. 
 227, 281, 544. Common perennial weed (from Europe), 1- 
 2 ft., with linear leaves and yellow flowers in racemes. 
 
 L. Cymbalaria, Mill. Kenilworth ivy. Fig. 545. Trail- 
 ing: leaves orbicular, 5-7-lobed: flowers solitary on long 
 peduncles, lilac-blue. . Europe; very common in 
 greenhouses and sometimes runs wild. 
 
 L. canadensis, Dumont. Common annual 
 or biennial in dry or sandy soil: flowering stems 
 slender and erect, generally simple and few- 
 leaved: also prostrate shoots, more leafy: leaves 
 narrow, flat, entire, sessile, opposite or whorled: 
 flowers small, blue, in a terminal, loose, slender 
 raceme. 545. Linaria Cymbalaria. 
 
406 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 3. ANTIRRHINUM. SNAPDRAGON. 
 
 From Linaria differs chiefly in having no spur, but only a swelling at the 
 base of the corolla. 
 
 A. ma jus, Linn. Snapdragon. Fig. 243. Erect biennial or perennial: 
 leaves oblong, smooth, entire: flowers erect or ascending, 2 in. long, purple 
 or white, in a raceme with downy axis. Europe. 
 
 4. SCROPHULARIA. FIGWORT. 
 
 Herbs perennial, rank and generally ill-smelling, with opposite leaves, 
 and very odd-looking small, greenish-purple flowers, in simple or compound 
 loose terminal cymes: calyx deeply 5-parted: corolla irregular, with a globu- 
 lar tube, the limb 5-lobed, 4 upper lobes erect, but the lower one hori- 
 zontal or reflexed: stamens 5, 4 fertile, in two pairs, the fifth sterile and a 
 mere rudiment at the top of the corolla-tube. 
 
 S. marilandica, Gray. Smooth, 3-6 ft., much branching, in thickets and 
 damp woods, blooming in late summer and earlj' fall ; stems 4-angled : leaves 
 ovate, oblong or lanceolate, coarsely toothed, 3-9 in. long, on slender petioles : 
 flowers small, dull-colored. 
 
 5. CHELONE. TURTLEHEAD. SNAKEHEAD. 
 
 Smooth, erect perennials, with opposite, serrate and stalked leaves: 
 flowers large, sessile, white or rose-tinged, of curious shape, in the upper 
 leaf axils, forming a terminal spike: calyx 5-parted, segments acute, 
 bracted at base: corolla irregular, with inflated and elongated tube con- 
 cave underneath, the limb 2-lipped, but lips only slightly open, the upper 
 lip broad, usually emarginate, lower lip 3-lobed, bearded within: stamens 5, 
 the fifth sterile and smaller, the filaments woolly. 
 
 C. glabra, Linn. Two to 4 ft. high, in swamps and by brooks or in 
 wet places. Late summer. 
 
 6. PENTSTEMON. BEARD-TONGUE. 
 
 Perennial herbs, with opposite leaves, the upper sessile or clasping: 
 flowers showy: calyx 5-parted: corolla irregular, with tube more or less 
 inflated and 2-lipped, the lower lip 3-lobed: stamens 5, 4 in 2 pairs each 
 bearing an anther, the fifth filament conspicuous but sterile, sometimes 
 longer than the others and bearded : fruit a globose capsule with many wing- 
 less seeds. 
 
 P. hirsutus, Willd. (P. pubescens, Ait.). Stems hairy, rather viscid above, 
 1-2 ft.: leaves narrow-oblong to lanceolate, minutely toothed or entire; 
 panicle open: corolla about 1 in. long, 2-lipped, with a bearded palate in 
 the throat, dull bluish violet or purplish. Dry situations. May to July. 
 
 7. COLLINSIA. INNOCENCE. BLUE-EYED MARY. 
 
 Pretty little annuals or biennials, branching and diffuse with opposite 
 or verticillate leaves, and irregular flowers, blue and white, on pedicels, 
 whorl ed or solitary in the axils of the upper leaves: corolla 2-lipped with 
 the upper lip 2-cleft, the lower lip 3-cleft, with the middle lobe keeled and 
 
SCROPHULARIACE.E 
 
 407 
 
 saccate, inclosing the 4 stamens and the style: a fifth stamen reduced to a 
 mere rudiment. 
 
 C. vSrna, Nutt. Stem 8-16 in. , branching: leaves small, various, the lower 
 ovate, the upper more lanceolate and clasping, margins crenate or toothed: 
 flowers on long peduncles, in whorls of 4-6: corolla %-% in., twice longer 
 than calyx: 3 lower petals sky-blue or pink, upper 2 petals, white. An 
 extremely attractive plant in woods, blooming April to June. 
 
 8. MfMULUS. MONKEY-FLOWER. 
 
 Small herbs with opposite leaves, with usually showy solitary flowers on 
 axillary peduncles: calyx 5-angled and 5-toothed: corolla tubular, the 2- 
 lobed upper lip erect or spreading; stamens 4; stigma 2-lobed. 
 
 M. ringens, Linn. Wild monkey-flower. Erect perennial, with square 
 stem and oblong or lanceolate clasping serrate leaves: flowers blue or light 
 purple, somewhat personate. Wet places. 
 
 M. luteus, Linn! Monkey-flower. Tiger-flower. 
 Fig. 546. Annual, with ovate serrate leaves: flowers 
 large, yellow, blotched with brick-red or brown. 
 Western America, and commonly cultivated. To 
 gardeners often known as M . tigridio\des. 
 
 9. DIGITALIS. FOXGLOVE. 
 
 Stem simple and strict: leaves alternate: flowers 
 with a long expanding tube and a very short in- 
 distinctly lobed limb, the throat wholly open: 
 stamens 4. 
 
 D. purpurea, Linn. Common foxglove. Usually 
 biennial, tall and stout (24 ft.): leaves oblong, 
 
 nearly or quite entire, rough and downy: flowers many, drooping, in a 
 long, erect raceme, 2 in. long, white to purple and spotted inside. Old 
 garden plant from Europe. 
 
 10. CASTILLfcjA. PAINTED CUP. 
 
 Herbs, at least partially parasitic on roots of other plants: flowers ses- 
 sile in leafy, often brilliantly colored, bracts; calyx tubular, 2-4-cleft; corolla 
 very irregular, tubular, the tube included in the calyx, the upper lip very 
 long, arched and keeled, enfolding 2 pairs of stamens; lower lip short, 
 3-lobed. Late spring and summer. Four or 5 species in our territory. 
 
 C. coccinea, Spreng. Annual or biennial, 8-12 in., with very striking 
 inflorescence of scarlet or yellow 3-cleft bracts surrounding the flowers. 
 Damp meadows or thickets, not common but conspicuous. 
 
 11. GRATiOLA. HEDGE HYSSOP. 
 
 Low, mostly perennial herbs, found in damp situations: leaves opposite: 
 peduncles axillary, 1-flowered each; calyx 5-parted, segments scarcely 
 equal; corolla 2-lipped, upper lip emarginate or 2-cleft, lower 3-lobed: 
 fertile stamens 2. 
 
 546. Mimulus luteus. 
 
408 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 G. virginiana, Linn. Stems branching, or creeping at base, more or 
 less viscid, 4-6 in. tall: leaves oblong or lanceolate, few-toothed, sessile: 
 flowers with yellowish corolla, %-% i n - long: sterile filaments not present. 
 Wet places. All summer. 
 
 12. VERONICA. SPEEDWELL. 
 
 Ours herbs with leaves mostly opposite or whorled, blue or white flowers 
 solitary or in racemes from the leaf-axils, or terminal; corolla wheel-shaped, 
 the border irregularly 4-lobed; stamens 2, inserted on corolla-tube, with 
 slender long filaments: ovary 2-celled, style slender: capsule flattened, 
 notched at apex, 2-celled, few- to numerous-seeded. 
 
 V. americana, Schw. Perennial, weak and decumbent at base, rooting 
 at nodes, finally erect: leaves opposite at base, mostly petioled, thickish, 
 oblong to lance-ovate, serrate racemes axillary, opposite, 23 in. long: flowers 
 small, pale blue, on slender pedicels: capsule swollen, many-seeded. Com- 
 mon in and about brooks and swampy ground. June through summer. 
 
 V. officinalis, Linn. Little pubescent prostrate perennial, 6 in. to 1 ft., 
 in dry fields and woods: leaves wedge-oblong, or obovate, short-petioled, 
 serrate: racemes spike-like, longer than leaves; flowers pale blue. July. 
 
 V. peregrJna, Linn. Annual, glabrous, erect, 4-9 in., branched: lower 
 leaves thick, oval, toothed, petioled; others sessile, entire: flowers very small, 
 whitish, axillary and solitary: capsule orbicular, slightly notched. A common 
 weed: April to June. 
 
 V. serpyllifdlia, Linn. Perennial, creeping; leaves small, rounded, 
 almost entire: flowering stems smooth, simple, ascending 2-6 in.; flowers 
 very small, in terminal racemes; corolla pale blue or whitish with purple 
 stripes, exceeding calyx. Common in lawns and grassy fields. May, through 
 
 XXXVI. SOLANlCE^E. NIGHTSHADE FAMILY. 
 
 Herbs or shrubs, with alternate often compound leaves: flowers 
 perfect and re'gular, 5-merous, mostly rotate or open-bell-shaped 
 in form and plaited in the bud; stamens 5, often connivent around 
 the single 2-loculed pistil, borne on the corolla: fruit a berry or cap- 
 sule (the latter sometimes 4-loculed by a false partition), the seeds 
 borne on a central column. Some 70 genera and 1,500 species. Com- 
 mon representatives are nightshade, potato, tomato, husk tomato, 
 cobacco, jimson-weed, petunia. 
 
 A. Fruit a fleshy berry. 
 
 B. Fruiting calyx bladdery-inflated and wholly inclosing 
 the fruit; anthers not connected, opening length- 
 wise 1. Physalis 
 
 BB. Fruiting calyx not inflated. 
 
'SOLANAOE^I 409 
 
 C. Stamens with anthers equaling or exceeding the 
 
 filaments. 
 D. Anthers separate or barely connected, opening 
 
 at the top 2. Solanum 
 
 DD. Anthers united, opening lengthwise 3. Lycopersicum 
 
 cc. Stamens with anthers much shorter than filaments.4. Capsicum 
 AA. Fruit a capsule. 
 
 B. Calyx 5-parted to near base 5. Petunia 
 
 BB. Calyx toothed, not deep-parted. 
 
 c. Pod usually prickly, large 6. Datura 
 
 cc. Pods not prickly, small 7. Nicotiana 
 
 1. PH^SALIS. GROUND CHERRY. 
 
 Herbs, flowering through the summer: flowers solitary, nodding on 
 axillary peduncles: leaves alternate or often somewhat paired, margins 
 entire or sinuate: calyx enlarging after flowering, and finally inclosing the 
 pulpy berry as a much-inflated papery sac ; corolla yellowish or white, often 
 with dark center, wheel-shaped, with short tube, the border obscurely 
 5-lobed, plaited in bud. 
 
 P. virginiana, Mill. Perennial by rootstocks, viscid: fruiting calyx 
 pyramidal, closed, more or less 5-angled and indented at base: berry reddish 
 yellow, edible, not filling the loosely inflated calyx: corolla yellow, nearly 
 an inch in diameter, with brown center, and edge 5- to 10-angled: anthers 
 yellow. Open places, in rich soil. Summer. 
 
 P. pubescens, Linn. Low annual, more or less pubescent and clammy: 
 stem generally diffuse in branching, 9-18 in. tall, often somewhat swollen at 
 nodes: corolla small, about K in. across, yellow or greenish, with a dark, 
 spotted center; anthers purple: the green or yellow berry does not fill the 
 closed, 5-angled calyx. In low or damp < places. 
 
 2. SOLANUM. NIGHTSHADE. 
 
 Perennials or annuals: calyx and corolla 5-parted, the latter rotate; 
 stamens 5, exserted, the anthers separate and opening by a pore in the top: 
 berry 2-loculed. 
 
 a. Plants not prickly. 
 
 S. tuberosum, Linn. Potato. Figs. 24, 45, 242. Low, diffuse-growing 
 perennial, producing stem-tubers on slender underground rootstocks: leaves 
 pinnate, the leaflets differing in size and ovate: flowers bluish: berries globu- 
 lar, yellowish green. Warm temperate elevations of tropical America. The 
 "Irish," "white" or "round" potato. 
 
 S. nigrum, Linn. Common nightshade. Branchy annual, 1-2 ft., nearly 
 smooth: leaves ovate, wavy-margined: flowers small, white: berries small, 
 black. Waste places. 
 
 S. Dulcamara, Linn. Bittersweet. Fig. 424. Tall, loosely climbing: leaves 
 cordate-ovate, sometimes 3-lobed, often with 2 or 4 small leaflets at the base: 
 flowers small, violet-purple: berries oval, red. Perennial. Common. 
 
410 
 
 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 aa. Plants prickly. 
 
 S. Mel6ngena, Linn. Eggplant. Guinea squash. Fig. 288. Stout annual 
 with large, ovate, somewhat angled pubescent leaves: flower large, purplish, 
 the calyx prickly: fruit a very large purple or white berry (often weighing 
 several pounds). India. 
 
 3. LYCOPERSICUM. TOMATO. 
 
 Differs from Solanum chiefly in having the anthers 
 united at their tips by a membrane and opening by 
 lengthwise slits. 
 
 L. esculentum, Mill. Common tomato plant. Tall, 
 hairy, strong-smelling herb, with pinnate leaves, the 
 
 _._ ^ '. leaflets ovate and unequal-sided and of different sizes: 
 
 647. Capsicum annuum. 
 
 flowers small, yellow, in short lorked racemes: iruit a 
 
 large red or yellow berry. South America. 
 
 4. CAPSICUM. RED PEPPER. 
 
 Erect, branchy, smooth herbs: stamens with slender filaments which 
 are much longer than the separate anthers, the 
 latter opening by lengthwise slits: fruit globular, 
 long or irregular, firm. 
 
 C. annuum, Linn. Common red pepper. Fig. 
 547. Annual or biennial, with ovate entire leaves: 
 flowers white, with very short-toothed or trun- 
 cate calyx: fruit very various in the cultivated 
 varieties. Tropical America. 
 
 5. PETUNIA. PETUNIA. 
 
 548. Petunia nyctaginiflora. 
 Clammy-hairy diffuse herbs: calyx-lobes leaf- 
 like and much longer than the tube; corolla funnelform, showy, the stamens 
 not projecting: fruit 2-loculed, capsular. South America. 
 
 P. nyctaginiflora, Juss. White petunia. Fig. 548. Corolla white, very long- 
 tubed: leaves oval-oblong, narrowed into a petiole. 
 P. violacea. Lindl. Fig. 549. Weaker and more 
 diffuse: corolla purple or rose, the tube short and broad: 
 leaves ovate or oval, nearly or quite sessile. The gar- 
 den petunias are mostly hybrids of the 2 species. 
 
 6. DATURA. JAMESTOWN-WEED or JIMSON-WEED. 
 
 Very strong bushy herbs, with large, long-tubular, 
 short-lived flowers from the forks of the branches: 
 stigma 2-parted: fruit a globular usually prickly cap- 
 sule, opening by 4 valves. 
 
 D. StramSnium, Linn. Fig. 275. Annual, 3-5 ft., 
 the stem green : leaves ovate, sinuate or angled : corolla 
 white. Tropics; common weed. 
 
 D. Tatula, Linn. Stem and corolla purple. 
 
 549. Petunia. 
 
 Very near the original 
 
 P. violacea. 
 
SOLAN ACE^J CONVOLVULACE^E 
 
 411 
 
 7. NICOTlANA. TOBACCO. 
 
 Tall herbs, with large usually pubescent leaves: 
 corolla funnelform or salverform, the tube usually long: 
 stigma not lobed: pod 2-4-valved, not very large, 
 contained within the persistent calyx. 
 
 N. Tabacum, Linn. Tobacco. Robust annual, 4-6 
 ft., with very large ovate decurrent entire leaves and 
 rose-purple panicled flowers. Tropical America. 
 
 N. alata, Link & Otto (N. affinis of gardens). Fig. 
 550. Slender but tall (2-4 ft.) plant with clammy- 
 pubescent herbage: leaves lanceolate .or obovate, 
 entire: flowers white, with very slender tube 5-6 
 in. long, the limb unequal. Brazil; common in 
 gardens. 
 
 ( 
 
 55 ' NlC Uana ^ 
 
 XXXVII. CONVOLVULACELE. CONVOLVULUS FAMILY, 
 
 Herbs, mostly twining, with alternate chiefly simple leaves: flow- 
 ers regular, 5-merous, the tubular or trumpet-shaped corolla mostly 
 twisted in the bud, the stamens 5 and borne on the corolla; ovary 
 commonly 1-, mostly 2-loculed, with 2 ovules in each locule, becom- 
 ing a globular capsule in fruit (which is sometimes 4-loculed by the 
 insertion of a false partition). The family contains between 30 and 
 40 genera, and nearly 1,000 species. Common convolvulaceous plants 
 are morning-glory, cypress vine, sweet potato, bindweed, dodder. 
 
 A. Plants with normal foliage. 
 
 B. Stigma 2-3-lobed, knobbed: calyx not bracted 1. Ipomcea 
 
 SB. Stigmas 2, thread-form: calyx sometimes inclosed by 2 
 
 leafy bracts 2. Convolvulus 
 
 AA. Plants leafless, parasitic 3. Cuscuta 
 
 1. IPOMOSA. MORNING-GLORY. 
 
 Mostly twining, with showy flowers on axillary peduncles: 
 corolla with a long tube and a flaring limb; pistil 1, with one 
 style, and the stigma 2-3-lobed: fruit a capsule, with 1-seeded 
 locules. 
 
 a. Leaves compound, with thread-like divisions. 
 I. Quamoclit, Linn. Cypress vine. Fig. 551. Leaves pin- 
 nate: flowers solitary, red, small, narrow-limbed, with pro- 
 jecting style and stamens. Tropical America, but run wild 
 South; also cultivated. Annual. 
 
 aa. Leaves simple or deeply lobed, broad. 
 
 551. Ipomoea * Bdna-N6x, Linn. White moonflower. Fig. 552. Tall: 
 
 Quamoclit. leaves heart-shaped, or angled or lobed: flowers 1 to few, 
 
412 
 
 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 white, opening once at night, with a slender tube and a large limb 4-6 in. 
 Tropical America. Perennial. 
 
 I. purpurea, Roth. Morning-glory. Fig. 240. Leaves 
 broadly cordate-ovate, entire: flowers 2-4, large and fun- 
 nel-shaped, 2-3 in. long, purple to streaked and white. 
 Tropical America. Annual. 
 
 I. hederacea, Jacq. Leaves heart-shaped, 3-5-lobed: 
 flowers 1-3, rather smaller than those of /. purpurea. 
 Tropical America. Annual. 
 
 I. Batatas, Poir. Sweet potato. Fig. 204. Creeping: 
 leaves heart-shaped to triangular, usually lobed: flowers 
 (seldom seen) 3 or 4, light purple, funnel-form, 1J^ in. long. 
 Tropics; grown for its large edible root-tubers. 
 
 552. Ipomcea 
 Bona-Nox. 
 
 2. CONVOLVULUS. BINDWEED. 
 
 Herbs (or shrubs) twining or erect: flowers large, on axillary peduncles; 
 sepals 5; corolla funnelform or bell-form, limb entire, 5-angled or 5-lobed; 
 stamens inserted on corolla-tube, included; style 1; stigmas 2, long; ovary 
 and pod 2-celled, 4-seeded. 
 
 C. sepium, Linn. Rutland beauty. Perennial: twining or trailing stem: 
 leaves heart-shaped or arrow-shaped, auricles often toothed: flowers axil- 
 lary and solitary on a peduncle; calyx with 2 large bracts at base, inclosing 
 it; corolla morning-glory-like, white or pink, M~2 in. long, margin quite 
 entire. Wild in low grounds. Summer. 
 
 C. arvensis, Linn. Bindweed. Perennial, nearly glabrous, prostrate or 
 climbing: leaves entire arrow-shaped, with basal ears acute-lobed, but vari- 
 able: calyx not bracted at base; corolla pink, nearly white, small, 
 not over 1 in. long. Europe. Bad weed. May to September. 
 
 3. CUSCUTA. DODDER. 
 
 Parasitic twiners without foliage (leaves reduced to scales): 
 flowers in clusters, the calyx and corolla with 4-5 lobes: fruit 2- 
 loculed, 4-seeded. 
 
 C. Gronovii, Willd. (Fig. 553), is the commonest species, 
 twining its slender coral-yellow stems over coarse 
 herbs in swales: corolla bell-shaped, the tube longer 
 than the blunt and spreading lobes. 
 
 XXXVIII. BORRAGINACE^. BORAGE FAMILY. 
 
 Generally rough herbs, with round stems, leaves 
 usually alternate and hairy, exstipulate: inflores- 
 cence commonly 1 -sided, in coiled terminal racemes, 
 straightening as flowers open; lobes of calyx 5: lobes 
 of corolla 5, usually regular; stamens 5, on corolla- 
 
 553. Cuscuta 
 Gronovii. 
 
BORRAGINACE.E 413 
 
 tube; ovary deeply 4-lobed, with style in center; stigmas 1 or 2: fruit 
 usually 4 separate 1-seeded nutlets at bottom of persistent calyx. 
 About 1,500 species and 80 genera. 
 
 A. Ovary entire, style terminal: fruit dry nutlets (2 or 4).l. Heliotropium 
 A A. Ovary deeply 4-parted, or 4-divided, the style rising 
 
 from the center. 
 B. Corolla and stamens regular. 
 
 c. Fruits (nutlets) bur-like, prickly or spiny. 
 
 D. Nutlets oblique, fixed by apex, or laterally, 
 
 to style, covered all over by hooked prickles.2. Cynoglossum 
 DD. Nutlets erect, fixed by base or side to the 
 central column: prickles in 1 or more rows 
 
 on the surface 3. Lappula 
 
 cc. Fruits (nutlets) not armed with prickles. 
 
 D. Nutlets attached laterally to the receptacle: 
 
 flowers rather large 4. Mertensia 
 
 DD. Nutlets attached by bases to receptacle. 
 
 E. Flowers not bracted, in racemes 5. Myosotis 
 
 EE. Flowers bracted, in racemes 6. Lithospermum 
 
 BB. Corolla irregular: stamens unequal 7. Echium 
 
 1. HELIOTROPIUM. HELIOTROPE. 
 
 Perennial or annual herbs (or shrubs) with white or purplish, small 
 flowers in 1-sided spikes: flowers alternate, usually entire; stamens short, 
 anthers nearly sessile; style short, with conical stigma; ovary 4-celled: 
 fruit, 4 nutlets or two 2-celled nutlets. 
 
 H. peruvianum, Linn. Common garden heliotrope. Pubescent or rough, 
 often rather shrubby: leaves lance-ovate to oblong, short-petioled, veiny 
 and wrinkled: flowers very fragrant, white to lilac. 
 
 2. CYNOGL6SSUM. HOUND'S TONGUE. STICK-TIGHT. 
 
 Tall, coarse, usually rough and unpleasantly scented hairy weeds, with 
 large entire alternate leaves: flowers small, inconspicuous, in racemes or 
 forked cymes, some bracted; corolla short, nearly wheel form, with 5 con- 
 verging, blunt scales closing the throat; ovary deeply 4-parted, with style 
 from center: fruit of bur-like nutlets, covered with hooked prickles. 
 
 C. officinale, Linn. A coarse, pubescent, troublesome dock-like weed 
 from Europe, dull green, smelling like mice, grows to 1 or 2 ft., leafy to 
 the top: leaves softly pubescent, lance-oblong, mostly sessile: corolla dull 
 reddish purple, not ^ in. across: nutlets margined. Biennial. 
 
 C. virginianum, Linn. Stem stout, 2-3 ft. tall, bristly hairy, leafless 
 above: leaves oblong oval with clasping bases: flowers pale blue, bractless, 
 on short pedicels in terminal short spikes: nutlets not margined. Perennial. 
 
 3. LAPPULA (Echinospennum). STICK-SEED. BUR-SEED. 
 
 Annual or biennial weeds in dry soils, grayish with hairs: leaves alter- 
 nate, narrow, entire: flowers small, blue or white, in terminal, leafy-bracted 
 
414 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 racemes: corolla with 5 scales in throat: nutlets erect, bearing 1-3 rows of 
 stout prickles, and fixed by side to the central column. 
 
 L. virginiana, Lehm. A troublesome biennial or annual weed of thickets 
 and open woods, 24 ft., slender and branching: leaves thin, oblong-ovate, 
 tapering at both ends: flowers small, whitish or bluish, on pedicels, in 
 racemes 1-3 in. long, reflexing in fruit: nutlets small, globose, covered 
 with barbed prickles. 
 
 4. MERT^NSIA. LUNGWORT. 
 
 Perennial, usually glabrous herbs, with leaves entire, pale green and 
 often dotted, the radical ones many- veined and the stem-leaves sessile: 
 flowers in terminal racemes; calyx short, 5-cleft; corolla funnelform or 
 trumpet-shape, often with 5 small folds in throat, and stamens inserted 
 between; style long and slender: nutlets erect, smooth, finely wrinkled. 
 
 M. virginica, DC. Leaves entire, obovate, sessile on stem: flowers large, 
 trumpet-shaped, 1 in. long, spreading or hanging on slender pedicels, light 
 blue or pinkish; corolla-throat not crested, limb entire. Perennial. Rich 
 soil. May, June. 
 
 5. MYOSOTIS. FORGET-ME-NOT. 
 
 Low, usually villous herbs, with stems erect or reclining, branching: 
 leaves small, alternate, entire: flowers small in bractless racemes; corolla 
 salver-form, 5-lobed, lobes spreading, rounded with appendages at base: 
 nutlets smooth or hard, fixed by base. Several species. 
 
 M. scorpioides, Linn. (M. palustris, With.). True forget-me-not. A 
 favorite garden perennial introduced from Europe, but also escaped to field 
 and moist spots: racemes 1-sided: leaves lance-oblong, obtuse: calyx open in 
 fruit, the lobes shorter than the tube: corolla light-blue, with yellow center. 
 
 M. laxa, Lehm. Flowers smaller, paler, on long pedicels: calyx-lobes 
 long: habit lax. Swamps. 
 
 M. arvensis, Hoffm. Hairy: leaves lance-oblong, acute: calyx closing in 
 fruit and beset with minutely hooked bristles. Fields, native. 
 
 6. LITHOSPERMUM. CROMWELL. PUCCOON. 
 
 Hairy herbs with roots usually red: leaves alternate, entire: flowers in 
 leafy-bracted racemes or spikes; calyx-segments 5, narrow; corolla funnel- 
 or salver-form, 5-lobed, sometimes crested in throat; stamens 5, with short 
 filaments, included on corolla-throat; stigma 2-lobed: nutlets 4, smooth 
 or wrinkled, usually stony. 
 
 L. arvense, Linn. Rough weed from Europe, 8-12 in.: leaves small, lan- 
 ceolate to linear: flowers insignificant: corolla white, hardly as long as calyx, 
 without appendages in throat: nutlets roughly wrinkled, dull gray. 
 
 L. Gmelinii, Hitchc. (L. hirtum, Lehm.). A rough, native perennial, with 
 simple stem, 8 in. to 2 ft., on dry, sterile ground: leaves lanceolate or linear, 
 hairy: flowers densely crowded in short terminal leafy racemes: corolla bright 
 orange-yellow, showy, longer than calyx, with little appendages in throat, 
 and woolly. June. 
 
BORRAGINACE^E HYDRO PHYLLACE^J 415 
 
 L. canescens, Lehm. Puccoon. Not so rough as preceding, but hoary, 
 6-18 in. high: flowers yellow axillary smaller and corolla-throat appendaged, 
 but not bearded. Grows in open woodlands and fields, Canada to Alabama 
 and West. 
 
 7. ECHIUM. VIPER'S BTTGLOSS. 
 
 Stout and coarse herbs: leaves alternate, entire: flowers rather large, 
 usually blue or purplish, in spicate or panicled racemes; calyx-segments 5, 
 narrow; corolla irregular, with 5 unequal lobes, short-tubed, and throat not 
 bearded; stamens 5, unequal, and long-exserted ; stigmas 2 or 2-lobed: 
 nutlets 4, erect, rough-wrinkled. 
 
 E. vulgare, Linn. Stems 1-3 ft. erect, leafy, very bristly hairy: leaves 
 lanceolate, sessile on stem, 4-8 in. long: flowers bright purplish, chang- 
 ing to bright blue in 1-sided spikes. Biennial; early summer. Naturalized 
 from Europe, and becoming a showy but troublesome weed in places. 
 
 XXXIX. HYDROPHYLLACE.E. WATERLEAF FAMILY. 
 
 Mostly hirsute or scabrous herbs, with good-sized mostly alter- 
 nate, simple or compound leaves: flowers regular, 5-parted, in 1-sided 
 cymes, spikes or racemes; ovary superior, 1 -celled, with 2 parietal 
 placentae, or apparently 2-celled; styles 2 or 2-cleft: capsule usually 
 loculicidally 2-valved. Nearly 200 species, but only 1 genus frequent 
 in northeastern states. 
 
 HYDROPHYLLUM. WATERLEAF. 
 
 Perennial, usually found in rich, low woods: leaves large, petioled: 
 cymes more or less coiled: calyx often with small appendages at the notches 
 of the lobes; corolla bell-shape, 5-cleft, usually convoluted in bud and bear- 
 ing 5 folds or scales inside the tube; style and stamens (with hairy filaments) 
 projecting. In shady places, these interesting plants make heavy masses 
 of foliage. 
 
 H. macrophyllum, Nutt. A hoary-hairy plant, about 1 ft. tall, branching: 
 leaves pinnately cut: flower-cluster on long stout peduncle: corolla white 
 or bluish, about 1 in. across: sepals not appendaged at base: stamens longer 
 than corolla. 
 
 H. appendiculatum, Michx. Hairy, 1-1 J^ ft. tall: leaves large, mostly 
 6-lobed or angled, some of the lower ones pinnately parted: flower clusters 
 loose; corolla blue; sepals appendaged at bases, bristly hairy; stamens not 
 much if any longer than corolla. 
 
 H. canadense, Linn. About 1 ft. high, smoothish: leaves all rounded, 
 with 5-9 shallow lobes, and heart-shaped bases, or with small leaflets on the 
 petioles: corolla white or purplish. H. virginicum, Linn., is closely allied, 
 but has pinnately divided leaves. 
 
416 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 XL. POLEMONIACE.E. PHLOX FAMILY. 
 
 Herbs, mostly annuals or perennials: flowers regular, in terminal 
 clusters, 5-parted, with corolla monopetalous ; stamens on corolla- 
 tube, alternate with lobes; ovary 3-celled; style simple and 3-lobed: 
 capsule 3-celled, with 3, mostly loculicidal, valves. About 200 species 
 in several genera. Phlox is the leading genus. 
 
 A. Leaves entire, mostly opposite: stamens unequally in- 
 serted on tube of the corolla 1. Phlox 
 
 AA. Leaves pinnately compound, alternate: stamens equally 
 
 inserted on the corolla-tube 2. Polemonium 
 
 1. PHL<5X. Fig. 241. 
 
 Erect or diffuse herbs, stems leafy: leaves without stipules, entire, 
 mostly sessile, opposite, or alternate above: flowers of different colors, in 
 terminal clusters; corolla salver-form, tube long; stamens 5, unequal, 
 included in tube. P. Drummondii is annual; the others perennial. 
 
 P. paniculata. Linn. Stems 2-4 ft. high, usually stout and in clumps: 
 leaves ovate-lanceolate, or oblong: flowers on short pedicels in many-flow- 
 ered panicled cymes, terminal, white to various pinks and reds; calyx-teeth 
 sharp-pointed ; lobes of corolla rounded and entire. 
 
 P. maculata, Linn. One to 2 ft. high: stem spotted with purple: lower 
 leaves the heavier, lanceolate-linear; upper taper-pointed with a heart- 
 shaped sessile base: panicle elongated, pyramidal, of many pink-purple 
 flowers; calyx-teeth less pointed than in preceding: corolla-lobes entire. 
 All summer. This and the preceding species are the originals of the common 
 perennial phloxes of gardens. 
 
 P. divaricata, Linn. Ascending or diffuse to 1 ft., or more, terminating 
 in loose corymb, rather sticky -pubescent: leaves ovate-oblong or broad-lan- 
 ceolate, rounded at base, acute at tip, sessile, pubescent: corolla large, gray- 
 ish blue or lilac, the lobes notched; calyx-teeth slender and longer than 
 tube. Moist woods. Spring. 
 
 P. subulata, Linn. Ground or moss pink. Stems creeping, tufted, much 
 branched and leafy, forming a moss-like carpet over the ground: leaves 
 about ^2 in. long, rigid, linear to awl-shaped, spreading in clusters: flowers 
 3-6 in depressed clusters, white to pinkish-purple; lobes of corolla shorter 
 than tube. Spring. 
 
 P. Drummondii, Hook. From Texas, now the common annual phlox in 
 gardens: stems branching, spreading, about 1 ft. high, rather downy-clammy: 
 flowers showy, in corymbs; various colors and patterns 011 the corolla and 
 lobes variously notched. 
 
 2. POLEMONIUM. 
 
 Perennial herbs, with alternate pinnately compound leaves: calyx com- 
 panulate, segments erect over fruit; corolla bell-form or rotate; stamens 
 
POLEMONIACE.E ASCLEPIADACE^J 417 
 
 slender, declined, hairy at base, inserted on corolla base. The following 
 native perennials are often cultivated. 
 
 P. reptans, Linn. Greek valerian. Stems rather weak, diffusely branch- 
 ing (not creeping), 6 in. to IK ft.: leaves smooth, of 7-13 leaflets, occa- 
 sionally a simple one: leaflets lance-ovate or oblong, about 1 in. long, with 
 entire margins: flowers nodding, light blue corolla 3 times as long as 
 calyx, not over ^ in. broad. 
 
 P. Van Bruntiae, Brit. Jacob's ladder. Tall, erect to 1-3 ft., smooth or 
 hairy: leaflets 9-17, lanceolate, crowded: flowers bright blue, in erect 
 long panicles; stamens and style longer than corolla-lobes; corolla 1 in. 
 broad. 
 
 XLI. GENTIANACEjE. GENTIAN FAMILY. 
 
 Generally smooth herbs, with bitter, colorless juice (tonic proper- 
 ties): entire leaves mostly opposite, sessile and without stipules: 
 flowers regular, solitary or in clusters; calyx persistent; corolla mono- 
 petalous, with 4-8-lobed margin, and with 4-8 stamens, inserted 
 on tube: capsule 2-valved, many-seeded. Some 600 species, many 
 very showy. 
 
 GENTIAN A. GENTIAN. 
 
 Herbs in low woods and damp grounds, flowering mostly in autumn: 
 flowers solitary or in clusters and showy, usually blue; corolla tubular, 
 lobes 4-7, open or closed, some having a membranous fold in each of the 
 notches of the limb; stamens 4-7: style short or wanting. 
 
 G. crinita, Froel. Fringed gentian. Annual, in moist soil, blooming in 
 September and October: distinguished by the beautiful flowers, solitary and 
 terminal on erect stems (stems about 1 ft. tall), pure blue, 1^-2 in. long, 
 funnelfonn, with 4 spreading lobes, having the margins cut into a fringe 
 all around: leaves clear green, lanceolate, acute, sessile. 
 
 G. procera, Holm. Similar to the preceding, but smaller and corolla 
 less fringed: leaves linear. 
 
 G. Andre wsii, Griseb. Closed gentian. Perennial: stems simple, smooth, 
 to about 1K~2 ft.: leaves ovate to lanceolate, with narrow base: flowers 
 in terminal, sessile clusters: corolla blue with notched folds or appendages 
 on the margin, never opening. 
 
 XLII. ASCLEPIADACEJE. MILKWEED FAMILY. 
 
 Perennial herbs or shrubs, often vines, with milky juice: leaves 
 opposite or sometimes whorled, exstipulate: flowers generally in umbels, 
 regular and 5-parted, but very peculiar in the structure and connection 
 of stamens, stigma and pollen: hood-like appendages are borne be- 
 hind the anthers, forming a corona about the stigma; stamens 5 with 
 
 AA 
 
418 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 very short filaments, and mostly monadelphous; the anthers press 
 against the fleshy 5-angled stigma, and the pollen coheres in waxy or 
 granular masses, 1 or 2 to each anther-sac: fruit of 1 or 2 follicles: 
 seeds bearing long silk (Fig. 303). About 2,000 species and 200 genera. 
 
 ASCLfiPIAS. MILKWEED. SILKWEED. 
 
 Erect perennial herbs, with mostly opposite, thick simple leaves and 
 flowers in simple umbels: calyx and corolla each with 5 lobes, bent down- 
 ward, leaving the crown of 5 hood-like appendages, each bearing a horn, 
 conspicuously surrounding the stamens; filaments generally united, and 
 the anthers adherent to the fleshy stigma; anther 2-celled and each cell con- 
 taining a firm, waxy, elongated mass of pollen; adjacent pairs of the pollen- 
 masses are connected and suspended from one of 5 glands resembling a pair 
 of saddle-bags. The flower is peculiarly adapted to insect-pollination, the 
 pollen-masses being carried on the feet of insects. 
 
 A. tuberdsa, Linn. Butterfly weed. Pleurisy root. About 2 ft., with most 
 conspicuous erect clusters of brilliant orange flowers: leaves irregularly scat- 
 tered on stems, or alternate, linear or lance-oblong, hairy, sessile: pods 
 nearly erect, finely pubescent. Dry fields and hillsides. Summer. 
 
 A. incarnata, Linn. Swamp milkweed. Fig. 271. A handsome milk- 
 weed of wet grounds: stems leafy, 2-5 ft.: leaves lanceolate or lance-oblong, 
 acuminate, rather smooth, opposite: flowers rose-colored to white, sweet- 
 scented, in somewhat paniculate umbels: follicles erect, smooth. 
 
 A. syriaca, Linn. (A. Corniiti, Decne.). Common milkweed. Fig. 303. 
 Stems 3-4 ft. high, stout, very milky, usually simple, leafy: leaves large, 
 oblong, downy beneath, stiff, 4-8 in. long, opposite, short -petioled : flowers 
 ^2 in- long, greenish-lavender to lavender, with strong, sweet, but unpleasant 
 odor: pods rough or warty. 
 
 A. purpurascens, Linn. Purple milkweed. Stems erect, 1-3 ft., leafy, 
 simple or branching: leaves oblong or ovate-oblong to elliptical, pointed, 
 short-petioled, 3-6 in. long: flowers large (^ in.), dull purple: pods smooth. 
 
 A. variegata, Linn. Stems simple, smooth, leafy: leaves oval to lance- 
 oval, opposite or whorled, petioled, pale beneath, umbels on downy pedun- 
 cles: corolla white, hoods roundish, sometimes purplish. Dry woods. 
 
 A. quadrifolia, Jacq. Stem 1-2 ft., nearly smooth, and leafy below: 
 1 or 2 whorls of 4-ovate, taper-pointed, petioled leaves near middle and 
 above or below a pair of smaller ones: umbels few, loose-flowered; flowers 
 small, crown white; corolla white, tinged with pink. Slender. 
 
 XLIII. APOCYNACE^. DOGBANE FAMILY. 
 
 Herbs and woody plants, some of the commoner ones resembling 
 milkweeds, in having milky, acrid juice, and seeds crested with silky 
 hairs, but filaments distinct, pollen granular, and corolla twisted 
 (rather than volvate) in the bud: hairs: leaves chiefly opposite, entire, 
 
APOCYNACEvE 419 
 
 simple, without stipules: flowers regular and monopetalous, solitary 
 or in cymes, 5-parted; ovary of 2 free carpels; stigmas united. About 
 1,000 species and 120 genera. 
 
 A. Herbs erect: flowers in terminal cymes or corymbs 1. Apocynum 
 
 AA. Half shrubby, trailing or erect plants: flowers solitary in 
 
 axils 2. Vinca 
 
 AAA. Cultivated house and garden shrubs: erect: leaves pppo- 
 
 site, or whorled in 3's 3. Nerium 
 
 1. AP6CYNUM. DOGBANE. 
 
 Upright branching herbs, with reddish, fibrous bark: flowers small, 
 white or pink, in terminal corymbs: leaves opposite, entire, acuminate: 
 corolla bell-shaped, 5-lobed, with 5 small, triangular scale-appendages 
 within the tube, each alternating with one of the 5 stamens attached at 
 base of tube; ovaries 2, distinct; stigma 2-lobed: pods long, slender and 
 full of seeds which are tufted with silky hairs at one end. 
 
 A. androsaemifolium, Linn. Smooth plants, 2-4 or 5 ft. tall, with 
 branches widely spreading; stems usually purplish: leaves 2-4 in. long, 
 ovate-acute, short-petioled: corolla small, J4 in- long, bell-form, with lobes 
 spreading or recurving, the tube exceeding the calyx. A very common 
 weed along hedge-rows, in light woodlands and clearings. 
 
 A. cannabinum, Linn. Indian hemp. More erect: leaves oblong or 
 oblong-ovate: flowers erect, with the corolla-lobes scarcely spreading, the 
 tube about the length of the calyx. Banks and shores. 
 
 2. VfNCA. PERIWINKLE. 
 
 Herbs, creeping or erect, and more or less woody: leaves mostly ever- 
 green and opposite: flowers solitary, axillary, 5-parted; style 1; follicles 2, 
 erect, slender. 
 
 V. minor, Linn. Periwinkle. Myrtle (improperly). A familiar trailing 
 plant of the garden, lawns and cemeteries, growing hi shady places, and 
 spreading by creeping stems: leaves evergreen, oblong-ovate, shiny: flowers 
 solitary in axils, blue (rarely white), the corolla salver-form, about 1 in. 
 across. Spring and early summer. 
 
 V. rosea, Linn. Erect, often 20-30 in. high, rather woody at base: 
 leaves ovate, obtuse, on long petioles: flowers large, on slender axillary 
 pedicels, white, white with rose eye, or plain rose-color; blooming all season 
 when grown in the house or conservatory, or all summer in the garden. 
 Tropics. 
 
 3. NERIUM. OLEANDER. 
 
 Shrubs from warm climates, much cultivated in windows and green- 
 houses: leaves lanceolate, leathery and stiff: flowers in terminal cymes, 
 white or pink, single or double; corolla large, 1-2 in., salver-form, the 
 throat bearing 5 fringed or toothed scales; ovary of 2 carpels; stamens 5, 
 the anthers tipped with awn-like bristles. 
 
420 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 N. Oleander, Linn. Common oleander. Leaves lanceolate: flowers large, 
 rose-color or white, not fragrant, with crown segments not fringed. 
 
 N. oddrum, Soland. Sweet oleander. Flower fragrant, and bearing 
 crown segments which are more fringed, and long anther appendages. 
 
 XLIV. OLEACE^E. OLIVE FAMILY. 
 
 Trees or shrubs: leaves simple or pinnately compound, opposite: 
 flowers various, but regular; calyx free from ovary, usually small and 
 4-lobed, or none; corolla regular, 4-parted, or of 4 distinct petals, or 
 none; stamens 2, with separate filaments inserted on petals, or hypogy- 
 nous: ovary 2-celled; style 1, if any. 
 
 A. Shrubs or very small trees: leaves simple: flowers perfect. 
 
 B. Flowers yellow . . 1. Forsythia 
 
 BB. Flowers white or lilac. 
 
 c. Fruit a dry pod, loculicidal 2. Syringa 
 
 cc. Fruit berry-like. 
 
 D. Flowers practically polypetalous; petals long, 
 
 narrow; flowers drooping 3. Chionanthus 
 
 DD. Flowers gamopetalous; corolla-tube funnel- 
 form, 4-lobed; flowers erect 4. Ligustrum 
 
 AA. Large forest trees: leaves pinnately compound: flowers 
 
 imperfect, mostly dioecious: fruit a samara 5. Fraxinus 
 
 1. FORSYTHIA. 
 
 Ornamental shrubs from the Orient, with opposite simple or trifoliolate 
 leaves: flowers perfect, the deciduous calyx and the bell-shaped corolla in 4 
 parts; stamens 2 on base of corolla; style short: pod 2-celled, many-seeded. 
 
 F. viridissima, Lindl. Strong hardy shrub, with green branches covered 
 with showy yellow flowers, separate on pedicels in early spring before 
 leaves appear: leaves simple, lance-oblong: corolla-lobes narrow -oblong and 
 spreading; style twice as long as stamens. 
 
 F. suspensa, Vahl. Branches slender and drooping: corolla-lobes larger 
 and more spreading and style shorter than in preceding: leaves simple, 
 broadly-ovate, also frequently trifoliolate on same bush. 
 
 2. SYRfNGA. LILAC. 
 
 Common ornamental shrubs, usually tall, with leaves simple, entire, 
 opposite: many small fragrant flowers in close terminal panicles or thyrses; 
 calyx 4-toothed; corolla salver-form, tube long; limb 4-lobed; stamens 2, on 
 summit of corolla-tube: fruit a 4-seeded flattened pod, 2-valved; seeds flat- 
 tened, somewhat winged or margined. No native species. The name Syringa 
 is sometimes popularly applied to Philadelphus. 
 
 S. vulgaris, Linn. Common lilac. Fig. 72. Well-known bushy shrub from 
 
OLEACE.E 421 
 
 eastern Europe: flowers purple, lilac to white, in dense upright thyrses, very 
 fragrant : leaves heart-shaped, entire, smooth. 
 
 S. persica, Linn. Persian lilac. Less bushy, and more slender than 
 the common lilac: leaves lance-ovate, the bases tapering: and pale lilac 
 or white flowers in loose clusters appearing later. 
 
 3. CHIONANTHUS. FRINGE-TREE. 
 
 Shrub or small tree with opposite, simple, entire, petioled leaves: flowers 
 in large loose axillary rather drooping panicles; calyx small, persistent; 
 corolla white, with 4 long, narrow petals, scarcely united at base; stamens 
 2-4, but scarcely adherent to corolla base: drupe usually 1 -seeded. A hand- 
 some bush. 
 
 C. virginica, Linn. Native to moist southern woods, but cultivated 
 for ornament: leaves oval to oblong, 3-5 in. long: panicles with some leafy 
 bracts; flowers conspicuous, in spring, appearing with leaves; petals 1 in. 
 long. 
 
 4. LIGUSTRUM. PRIVET. PRTM. 
 
 Stiff shrubs or very small trees: leaves simple, entire, firm and thickish, 
 short-pet ioled, opposite: flowers small, white, in terminal thyrses or pan- 
 icles: calyx small, minutely toothed or truncate; corolla funnelfonn, 4-lobed, 
 spreading; stamens 2, inserted on corolla-tube; ovary 2-celled: fruit a 
 1-4-seeded, black berry. 
 
 L. vulgare, Linn. Leaves thick, elliptic-lanceolate, abundant, persistent, 
 but deciduous: flowers % in- wide and white; calyx smooth: berries black. 
 Eastern Europe. Used mostly for hedges. 
 
 5. FRAXINUS. ASH. Figs. 92, 141. 
 
 Deciduous tree, some of them valuable for timber: leaves odd-pinnate, 
 petiolate: flowers small, insignificant, dioecious (polygamous in some species), 
 racemed or panicled the American species apetalous, appearing before or 
 with the leaves; calyx 4-toothed, small, seldom wanting; stigma 2-cleft: 
 fruit a flat 1- (or 2-) celled key, winged. Several species are native in 
 North America. 
 
 F. americana, Linn. White ash. Forest tree, 40-80 ft., with rough, 
 blackish bark, and gray, smooth branches: leaflets 5-9, ovate or lance-oblong 
 and acuminate, entire or sparingly serrate, pale or downy beneath, smooth 
 above, the lateral leaflets stalked : flowers mostly dioecious, apetalous; calyx 
 present in fertile flowers, and persistent: fruit with lanceolate wing at apex, 
 base nearly cylindrical, the key 1^-2 in. long. 
 
 F. pennsylvanica, Marsh. Red ash. A smaller tree than the white ash: 
 young shoots and leaf petioles and lower leaf surfaces velvety-pubescent: 
 calyx persistent on fertile flowers: fruit narrow, flattened at base, the edges 
 dilated into the oblanceolate wing. 
 
 F. excelsior, Linn. European ash, often planted: leaflets 9-13, ovate- 
 lanceolate or oblong, aeute, serrate: fruit oblong, often notched at end. 
 
422 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 XLV. PRIMULACE.E. PRIMROSE FAMILY. 
 
 Low herbs with leaves radical or opposite: flowers perfect, reg- 
 ular, 5-parted, monopetalous; stamens 5, inserted in corolla-tube, each 
 opposite a lobe; style and stigma 1; ovary 1-celled, superior, with 
 3 central placentae. About 300 species in some 25 genera. 
 
 A. Plants with all leaves basal: flowers on a scape. 
 
 B. Corolla-lobes spreading 1. Primula 
 
 BB. Corolla-lobes reflexed. 
 
 c. Several flowers on the scape; stamens protruding. . .2. Dodecatheon 
 
 cc. One flower on the scape; stamens included 3. Cyclamen 
 
 AA. Plants with leafy stems 4. Lysimachia 
 
 1. PRIMULA. PBIMROSE. COWSLIP (of England). AURICULA. 
 
 Low perennials herbs, with radical leaves: flowers in an involucrate 
 umbel in most species, terminal on a scape; calyx 5-cleft; corolla salver- 
 shaped, with 5 spreading lobes, entire or notched; stamens 5, with short 
 filaments included in corolla-tube, often of different lengths: capsules 
 ovoid, opening by valves or teeth at the top. Native species rare, but a 
 number of exotic primroses are much cultivated. 
 
 P. sinensis, Sabine. Downy greenhouse plant: flowers in umbels, large 
 and showy, of different colors, single or double; calyx large and inflated: 
 leaves cordate, 7-9-lobed, on long petioles. China. 
 
 P. obconica, Hance. Leaves ovate-cordate: scapes a foot high, bearing 
 pink, purplish or whitish flowers in large clusters, the petals obconical and 
 notched at the end; tube twice longer than the shallow-spreading calyx. 
 The hairs on this plant are poisonous to some persons. Greenhouses. China. 
 
 P. Forbesi, Franch. Baby primrose. Scapes many and very slender, 
 6-12 in., loosely hairy, bearing small lilac or rose flowers in successive 
 whorls on slender pedicels: leaves small and crowded at the crown, oblong, 
 somewhat sinuate-toothed. Greenhouses. China. 
 
 P. Polyantha, Hort. Polyanthus. Hardy primulas, grown in borders for 
 the early spring bloom, of hybrid origin : leaves upright, oblong, tapering into 
 a winged petiole, shallowly toothed, rugose beneath: flowers not much over- 
 topping the leaves, tubular, with spreading limb, in shades of yellow and red. 
 
 2. DODECATHEON. 
 
 Smooth perennial herbs: leaves radical, simple, oblong or spatulate: 
 flowers nodding in a terminal umbel on erect, unbranching, leafless scapes, 
 with involucres of small bracts; calyx 5-cleft, lobes reflexed; corolla-tube 
 very short, 5-parted, and the segments strongly reflexed; stamens 5, with 
 short filaments, united at base, the anthers long, acute and uniting at tip, 
 forming a cone; style exserted. 
 
 D. Meadia, Linn. Shooting star. Wild in open woodland in central 
 states and South and West; also cultivated; resembles Cyclamen in the flow- 
 ers, which are white or rose-purple, nodding on slender pedicels; scape 6 in. 
 to 2 ft. high. 
 
PRIMULACEvE ERICACEAE 423 
 
 3. CYCLAMEN. 
 
 Glabrous plants from fleshy conn: leaves all basal, rounded, cordate or 
 ovate: scapes bearing (each) one nodding flower; corolla-limb 5-parted, 
 lobes turning back; anthers 5, sessile, not exserted. Cultivated as house 
 plants, flowering in winter. 
 
 C. latifolium, Sibth. & Sm. (C. p&rsicum). Leaves ovate, crenate-den- 
 tate, thick, often marked with white: flowers large, white, -rose or purple, 
 sometimes spotted, oblong. The florists' cyclamen. 
 
 4. LYSIMACHIA. LOOSESTRIFE. 
 
 Perennials with leaves opposite or whorled, entire, often glandular- 
 dotted: flowers yellow, solitary in axils, or panicled; calyx 5-7-parted; 
 corolla wheel-form; petals 5-7, nearly distinct; stamens 5-7, the filaments 
 somewhat connate at base. Wild in low grounds. 
 
 L. vulgaris, Linn. Erect, 2-3 ft., downy: leaves 3 or 4 in a whorl: flowers 
 in terminal leafy panicles; corolla-lobes glabrous. Europe. Cultivated 
 and escaped. 
 
 L. quadrifolia, Linn. Erect, 1-2 ft., hairy: leaves lanceolate-ovate, ses- 
 sile, dotted, commonly 4 in a whorl: flowers yellow, witn dark lines, on 
 slender pedicels, solitary from axils of upper leaves. Damp soil. 
 
 L. nummularia, Linn. Moneywort. Trailing glabrous perennial: leaves 
 round, opposite, on short petioles: flowers pure yellow, axillary solitary, on 
 short peduncles; stamen filaments glandular, connate at base. Running wild 
 in moist places, often a weed in lawns. 
 
 XLVI. ERICACK^. HEATH FAMILY. 
 
 Plants of various kinds, many of them shrubs or shrubby herbs, 
 some trees, perennial herbs, and parasites: leaves simple and often 
 evergreen, or scale-like: flowers most perfect; corolla usually mono- 
 petalous and 4- or 5-cleft; stamens hypogynous, as many or twice 
 as many as petals, anthers usually opening by terminal pores; style 
 1; ovary generally as many celled as corolla has lobes. A large family, 
 represented by heaths, cranberry, azaleas, arbutus, laurel. 
 
 A. Shrubs, or creeping shrubby plants. 
 B. Ovary inferior: fruit a berry. 
 
 c. Berry 10-seeded 1. Gaylussacia 
 
 cc. Berry many-seeded 2. Vaccinium 
 
 BB. Ovary superior. 
 
 G. Low creeping or procumbent. 
 
 D. Fruit berry-like: leaves aromatic 3. Gaultheria 
 
 DD. Fruit dry 4. Ejngxa 
 
 GG. Shrubs, erect. 
 
 E. Corolla broadly open, with 10 little pouches 
 
 holding the anthers 5. Kalmia 
 
424 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 EE. Corolla bell-shaped, no pockets: flowers from 
 
 terminal, scaly buds 6. Azalea 
 
 AA. Parasitic herbs, destitute of green foliage, about the 
 
 roots of trees 7. Monotropa 
 
 1. GAYLUSSACIA. LOW-BUSH HUCKLEBERRY. 
 
 Shrubs, low and branching, leaves and branches sometimes with resinous 
 dots: leaves alternate, entire or serrate: flowers in lateral racemes, small, 
 white or pink, nodding on bracted pedicels, in late spring; corolla bell-like 
 or ovoid, with 5 lobes erect or reflexing; stamens 10, usually included; 
 ovary 10-celled: fruit berry-like, containing 10 little stones, blue or black, 
 sweet and edible, ripe in late summer. 
 
 G. baccata, C. Koch. High-land huckleberry. Shrub, 1-3 ft., with 
 stiff branches and deciduous entire oval leaves, sprinkled with resinous 
 dots: flowers, in 1-sided racemes; corolla white, tinged with pink, cylindrical 
 or somewhat 5-angled, and contracted at margin: berry black, not glaucous. 
 
 G. frondosa, Torr. & Gray. Tangle-berry. Shrub, 1-3 ft., with stiff spread- 
 ing branches: leaves oblong to obovate, thin, smooth and pale below, 
 resinous-dotted* corolla white, tinged with pink, short: berry large, dark 
 blue, with a bloom. 
 
 2. VACCINIUM. BLUEBERRY. CRANBERRY. BILBERRY. HIGH-BUSH 
 
 HUCKLEBERRY. 
 
 Shrubs much resembling Gaylussacia, but the ovary only 4-5-celled, 
 although appearing to have twice as many cells by false partitions: fruit a 
 many-seeded berry, generally edible. Fruit ripe in summer and autumn. 
 
 V. pennsylvanicum, Lam. Dwarf early blueberry. Shrub, 6-20 in., 
 with smooth green warty branches: leaves deciduous, lance-oblong, smooth 
 and glossy, but edges serrated and tipped with little bristly spines: flowers 
 in clusters, with corolla cylindrical, white or pink-tinged, 5-toothed; anthers 
 10, included: berry many-seeded, blue-black with a bloom, edible. 
 
 V. corymbosum, Linn. High-bush, or swamp, huckleberry. Blueberry. 
 Tall bush, with oblong or elliptical leaves: berries blue, sweet, usually 
 with a thick bloom. 
 
 V. macrocarpon, Ait. Cranberry. Creeping, slender, scarcely woody: 
 leaves small, about ^ in. long, evergreen, oval or oblong and margins 
 rolled: flowers solitary, on slender erect pedicels, pale pinkish, deeper 
 colored within, with 4 narrow reflexed segments. 
 
 3. GAULTH^RIA. WINTERGREEN. CHECKERBERRY. 
 
 Stems procumbent, with leafy branches erect: leaves alternate, evergreen 
 and tasting spicy and aromatic: flowers white or pink, nodding on axillary 
 pedicels; corolla oblong or short-cylindrical with 5 short lobes; anthers 10, 
 awned at top: fruit berry-like, with capsule inside the thickened calyx. 
 
 G. procumbens, Linn. Fig. 22. Leaves oval or obovate, much sought for 
 their spicy flavor, as well as the edible red, mealy berries, which last all 
 winter. In low and evergreen woods, 6 in. or less tall. 
 
ERICACEAE 425 
 
 4. EPIGJSA. TRAILING ARBUTUS. MAYFLOWER. 
 
 Trailing close to the ground, with rusty-hairy stems, and alternate 
 evergreen rounded leathery leaves: flowers dimorphous, in clusters at ends 
 of branches, bracted, sessile; sepals 5, persistent but scale-like; corolla salver- 
 form, with 5 lobes; stamens 10; ovary 5-lobed. 
 
 E. repens, Linn. A favorite flower of very early spring, white to pink, 
 % in. broad, spicy-scented and wax-like, in small clusters from axils of the 
 rusty leaves. Mostly North. 
 
 5. KALMIA. AMERICAN LAUREL. 
 
 Shrubs, native (belonging to East and South), with entire evergreen 
 leaves: flowers in umbels; corolla open, saucer-like, 5-angled with 10 little 
 pits in which the anthers of the 10 stamens are caught until mature or 
 disturbed by insects, when the curved filaments spring upward, discharging 
 the pollen; style long and slender. 
 
 K. latifolia, Linn. Common mountain laurel. Stout shrub, 4-20 ft., 
 often forming great patches on wild or rocky hillsides; also cultivated: 
 flowers about 1 in. across, rosy, or white and red-spotted, in terminal com- 
 pound corymbs: leaves mostly alternate, thick, acute, green on both sides, 
 lance-ovate: blooms in early summer. East and North. 
 
 K. angustifolia, Linn. Sheep laurel. Lambkill. Low shrub with flowers 
 about ^4 int- across, crimson or purplish, in lateral corymbs: leaves narrow, 
 obtuse, short-petioled, opposite or in 3's, pale beneath. Hillsides. 
 
 6. AZALEA. Fig. 220. 
 
 Shrubs, with deciduous leaves: flowers showy, hi terminal, umbel-like 
 clusters; calyx minute, 5-parted; corolla cylindrical-tubed; stamens usually 
 5; style long, slender, exserted. Rhododendron is closely allied, having ever- 
 green leaves, stamens usually 10, stamens and style usually not exserted. 
 
 A. viscdsa, Linn. Swamp honeysuckle. Stems 4-10 ft., branching: 
 leaves obovate, short-petioled, mostly smooth above and downy on under 
 veins: flowers in summer after the leaves, fragrant, white, 1-2 in. long, 
 with slender tubes rather sticky-coated, the tube longer than the lobes. A 
 swamp plant. 
 
 A. nudiflora, Linn. Pinxter flower. Shrub, 3-6 ft., in swamps: flowers 
 before or with leaves, rose-pink or white, fragrant, 1-2 in. across, the tube 
 about the length of the lobes. 
 
 Rhodora canadense, Linn., or Rhododendron Rhodora, Don, of New 
 England, is a low shrub, 2-3 ft., with fine large (1 in. wide) rose-colored 
 flowers appearing before leaves. 
 
 7. MON6TROPA. INDIAN PIPE. PINE-SAP. 
 
 Low herbs, parasitic on roots or saprophytic, no green about them, but 
 stem bearing small scales: flowers solitary or in racemes; sepals 2, bract-like; 
 petals 4 or 5, erect or spreading, wedge-shaped; stamens 8-10, hypogynous; 
 anthers kidney-shaped; ovary 4-5-celled, stigma radiate or disk-like. 
 
 M. uniflora, Linn. Indian pipe. Corpse plant. Odd fleshy waxy- 
 
426 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 white little plants, turning black when drying: stem, 3-6 in. high, bent 
 over at the top with one nodding terminal flower. 
 
 M. Hypdpitys, Linn. Pine-sap. In oak and pine woods: stems scaly, 
 white or tawny red, 4-8 in. high, single or in groups: flowers several, small, 
 rather fragrant, in a scaly raceme. 
 
 XLVII. RUBIACE.E. MADDER FAMILY. 
 
 A large and important family of herbs, shrubs, trees (including 
 cinchona or Peruvian bark, and coffee): leaves opposite, or in 3's 
 with stipules between, or apparently whorled without stipules: flow- 
 ers perfect, sometimes dimorphous (of 2 sorts) or trimorphous; 
 calyx-tube adherent to ovary, margin 3-6-toothed; corolla regular, 
 inserted on calyx-tube, and of same number of lobes; stamens of equal 
 number as corolla-lobes and alternate with them; ovary 1-10- 
 celled: fruit a capsule, berry or drupe. A large family (some 5,000 
 species), largely tropical. 
 
 A. Leaves 4-8 in a whorl: no apparent stipules: fruit 2 
 
 nutlets, bur-like, or sometimes berry-like 1. Galium 
 
 AA. Leaves opposite (or whorled), with stipules. 
 
 B. Flowers in pairs, axillary: fruit a double berry: 
 
 creeping .2. Mitchella 
 
 BB. Flowers solitary, or in terminal clusters: not creeping. 3. Houstonia 
 BBB. Flowers in round heads 4. Cephalanthus 
 
 1. GALIUM. CLEAVERS. BEDSTRAW. 
 
 Frail herbs, with square stems, often prickly or rough on angles and edges 
 of leaves, usually diffusely branching: leaves apparently whorled and with- 
 out stipules: flowers small or minute, sometimes dioecious, in cymes or 
 panicles, axillary or terminal; calyx minutely 4-lobed; corolla 3 4-lobed: 
 stamens 3-4; ovary 2-celled: fruit small, double, dry or fleshy, berry-like, 
 indehiscent, or sometimes with only 1 carpel ripening. Many species. 
 
 G. asprellum, Michx. Weak, reclining, or nearly erect branching 
 perennial, the angles of stems with backward-pointing prickles: leaves 
 small, not 1 in. long, whorled in 4's or 5's on branches, usually 6 on stem; 
 edges and mid-ribs rough with prickles: flowers tiny, white, numerous, 
 loosely clustered at end of branches: fruit small, smooth. 
 
 G. circaezans, Michx. Wild licorice. Perennial, branching, ascending 
 stems with leaves in 4's, not prickly: leaves oval to oblong, obtuse, more 
 or less pubescent, an inch or more long: flowers dull greenish or brownish, 
 on very short pedicels in branched cymes; fruit on reflexed pedicels, bristly: 
 root and leaves with sweetish taste. Dry woods. Common. 
 
 G. Apanne, Linn. Cleavers. Goose-grass. Annual, stems weak, pros- 
 trate, scrambling, and diffuse, with backward-pointing barbs on angles: 
 
RUBIACE^J 427 
 
 small lanceolate leaves, 6-8 in a whorl, about 1 in. long, rough on edges 
 and midrib: peduncles axillary, 1-3-flowered; flowers tiny, white or 
 greenish: fruit a dry little bur, covered with hooked prickles, on erect pedi- 
 cels. Low ground or thickety woodland. 
 
 2. MITCH^LLA. PARTRIDGE-BERRY. SQUAW-VINE. 
 
 Trailing, evergreen-leaved herbs: leaves opposite, round-ovate, dark 
 green, smooth and glossy, entire, on short petioles: flowers small, dimorphous, 
 in pairs, on a double ovary (2 ovaries united) from leaf-axils; corolla funnel- 
 form, 4-parted, bearded within, white with pink tips to lobes; stamens and 
 stigmas 4: fruit a double scarlet berry, with 4 seeds or stones. 
 
 M. repens, Linn. A pretty little creeper of woods in the North: flowers 
 fragrant and delicate, in June, the double scarlet berries found all winter^ 
 
 3. HOUSTONIA. BLUETS. 
 
 Low, delicate little herbs, with stems erect, simple or branching: leaves 
 opposite, entire; stipules entire and short, or a mere line connecting bases 
 of the opposite leaves: flowers generally dimorphous in respect to anthers 
 and stigmas, small, solitary or clustered; calyx 4-toothed; corolla tubular, 
 rotate, 4-lobed; stamens 4 on corolla: fruit a short pod, 2-celled, many- 
 seeded, opening at the top, upper part free from calyx. 
 
 H. caerulea, Linn. Perennial, 3-6 in., the stems erect, very slender, in 
 tufts, from slender rootstocks: leaves sessile, oblong or spatulate, M~H m - 
 long, often hairy: flowers blue to white, with yellow centers, solitary on 
 peduncle. Early spring to summer; very floriferous. 
 
 4. CEPHALANTHUS. BUTTON-BUSH. 
 
 Shrubs (or small trees): leaves entire, opposite or verticillate: flowers 
 small and many, white or yellow, in close round heads, on peduncles; calyx 
 4-toothed; corolla tubular, with 4 short lobes; stamens 4 on corolla throat; 
 style long and exserted: fruit small, dry, inversely pyramidal. 
 
 C. occidentalis, Linn. Tall shrub with leaves in 2's or 3's, oval-pointed, 
 petioled, with stipules between: heads of whitish flowers about 1 in. in 
 diameter. Usually along streams and pond banks. 
 
 XLVIII. CAPRIFOLIACE^E. HONEYSUCKLE FAMILY. 
 
 Erect or twining shrubs, or sometimes herbs, with opposite mostly 
 simple leaves: flowers epigynous, 5-merous, regular or irregular, 
 tubular or rotate; stamens usually as many as the lobes of the corolla 
 and inserted on its tube; ovary 2-5-loculed, ripening into a berry, 
 drupe, or capsule. About 15 genera and 200 species. Characteristic plants 
 are honeysuckle, elder, viburnum, snowberry, weigela, twin-flower. 
 
 A. Corolla long-tubular. 
 
 B. Fruit a berry (often 2 together) several-seeded: leaf- 
 margins entire or wavy edged: sometimes connate 1. Lonicera 
 
428 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 BB. Fruit a linear-oblong capsule, 2-valved, many-seeded: 
 
 leaf -margin serrate 2. Diervilla 
 
 AA. Corolla shallow, usually rotate. 
 
 B. Leaves simple 3. Viburnum 
 
 BB. Leaves pinnately compound 4. Sambucus 
 
 1. LONICl)RA. HONEYSUCKLE. 
 
 Erect or twining shrubs, with tubular, funnelform, more or less irregular 
 flowers (often 2-lipped); corolla bulging on one side near the base; stamens 
 5: fruit a berry, usually 2 together from 2 contiguous flowers. 
 
 a. Erect. 
 
 L. canadensis, Marsh. Open, smooth bush, 3-5 ft.: leaves cordate- 
 oblong, not sharp-pointed, entire: flowers less than 1 in. long, soft yellow, 
 the lobes nearly equal: berries red. Common in woods. Blooms in very 
 early spring. 
 
 L. tatarica, Linn. Tartarian honeysuckle. Tall shrub (to 12 ft.): 
 leaves cordate-oval, not long-pointed, entire: flowers pink or red (some- 
 times nearly white), 2-lipped, all the lobes oblong. Asia, but common 
 in yards. Spring. 
 
 aa. Twining. 
 
 L. japonica, Thunb. (L. Halliana of gardens). Fig. 554. Weak twiner, 
 with oblong or ovate entire nearly evergreen leaves: flowers small, on short 
 pedicels, fragrant, opening white or blush but changing to yellow. Japan; 
 much cultivated. 
 
 L. Periclymenum, Linn. Probably the commonest of the old-fashioned 
 climbing honeysuckles (from Old World); strong and woody: leaves oblong- 
 ovate, not joined by their bases, entire, dark green above and pale beneath: 
 flowers large, reddish outside and yellow inside, very fragrant, in a dense, 
 
 long-stalked cluster. 
 
 L. sempervirens, Ait. 
 Trumpet or coral honey- 
 
 JE^Ir' ." ,^Wr . suckle. Fig. 148. Glabrous 
 
 twining shrub, with leaves 
 evergreen, oblong, entire, 
 glaucous, upper pairs joined 
 at base about the stem, 
 appearing perfoliate: flowers 
 nearly sessile, in rather 
 
 564. Lonicera japonica. v^^^ distant whorled clusters on 
 
 terminal spikes, the corolla 
 trumpet-shape, tube almost regularly 5-lobed, 1^-2 in. long, scarlet without, 
 yellowish within; stamens and style not much, if any projecting. Moist or 
 low ground, often cultivated. 
 
CAPRIFOLIACE^l 429 
 
 2. DIERVlLLA. BUSH HONEYSUCKLE. 
 
 Erect, low shrubs or bushes: leaves simple, opposite, ovate or oblong, 
 acute-pointed, serrate, deciduous: flowers in axillary or terminal cymes, or 
 solitary; calyx-tube slender, limb of 5 slender, persistent lobes; corolla 
 funnelform, 5 lobes almost regular; stamens 5: ovary inferior, 2-celled, 
 1 filiform style: fruit slender 2-celled many-seeded pod, crowned with calyx. 
 
 D. Lonicera, Mill. Bushy shrub, 1-4 ft.: leaves oval to ovate, taper- 
 pointed, on short petioles: peduncles terminal or in upper axils, mostly 3- 
 flowered: corolla slender, tubular, greenish yellow (honey color), not over 
 % in. long. Banks. Summer. 
 
 D. hybrida, Hort. Weigela. Shrub, 2-8 ft.: leaves oval, acute coarsely 
 serrate, rather rough above and soft below, short -petioled : flowers funnel- 
 form, 1-13^ in. long; tube downy without; 5-lobed; the limb spreading. A 
 group of common garden shrubs, derived from 2 or more Japanese species, 
 with white, pink, or red showy flowers. 
 
 3. VIBtJRNUM. ARROW-WOOD. 
 
 Erect shrubs, with simple leaves and small whitish flowers in broad 
 cymes: stamens 5; stigmas 1-3: fruit a small 1-seeded drupe. 
 
 a. Flowers all alike in the cyme. 
 
 V. Lentago, Linn. Sheepberry. Fig. 305. Tall shrub (to 20 it.): leaves 
 ovate-pointed, finely and sharply serrate, shining above, on long margined 
 petioles: fruit ^ in. or more long, black. Common. 
 
 V. acerfolium, Linn. Dockmackie. Arrow-wood. Six ft. or less: leaves 
 3-lobed and maple-like, downy beneath: cyme small and slender-stalked: 
 fruit flat and small. Woods. 
 
 aa. Flowers larger on the margin of the cyme. 
 
 V. Opulus, Linn., var. americanum, Ait. High-bush cranberry. Erect, 
 10 ft. or less: leaves 3-lobed and toothed: outer flowers sterile and large: 
 fruit an acid red edible drupe. Swamps. In cultivation all the flowers have 
 become sterile, resulting in the "snowball." Compare Figs. 264, 265. 
 
 V. tomentdsum, Thunb. (V. plicatum of gardens). Japanese snowball. 
 Leaves not lobed, shallow-toothed, thickish, plicate: heads of sterile flowers 
 axillary, globular. Japan. 
 
 V. alnifdlium, Marsh. Hobblebush. About 5 ft., with straggling branches, 
 often arching to ground and rooting, thus making loops or "hobbles:" 
 flowers resemble those of wild hydrangea, in flat-topped cymes, with mar- 
 ginal flowers larger, sterile and showy, white: leaves very large, round or 
 heart-shaped, finely serrate, petioles and veinlets scurfy: drupes coral-red, 
 becoming purple, not edible. Cold woods and swamps. 
 
 4. SAMBtCUS. ELDER. 
 
 Strong shrubs, with pinnate leaves and sharp-serrate leaflets: flowers in 
 dense corymbose cymes; calyx-teeth very small or none; corolla shallow, 
 open ; stamens 5 ; stigmas 3 : pith prominent in the stems. Common. 
 
430 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 S. racemdsa, Linn. Red elder. Pith and berries red: flowers in spring 
 in pyramidal clusters: leaflets lanceolate, downy beneath. 
 
 S. canadensis, Linn. Common elder. White elder. Pith white: berries 
 black-purple, in late summer, edible: flower-clusters convex or nearly flat, 
 in summer: leaflets oblong, smooth. 
 
 XLIX. CAMPANULACE.E. BELLFLOWER FAMILY. 
 
 Herbs (with us): leaves alternate, simple, without stipules: flow- 
 ers regular and perfect, mostly bell-shaped corollas, 5-lobed or 5- 
 angled; calyx 5-lobed; stamens 5, distinct; ovary 2-5-celled; style 1; 
 stigmas 2-5: fruit a capsule. Some 1,200 or more species. 
 
 A. Corolla (of the conspicuous flowers) wheel-shape: early 
 
 flowers not opening (cleistogamous) 1. Specularia 
 
 AA. Corolla bell-form: flowers all alike .2. Campanula 
 
 1. SPECULARIA. 
 
 Annual herbs, with erect, angled stems, simple or branching: leaves 
 entire or toothed: flowers sessile or nearly so, axillary, solitary or clustered, 
 the early ones cleistogamous and small, the later expanding, light blue, 
 5-lobed, wheel-shaped corolla; filaments shorter than the anthers. 
 
 S. perfoliata, DC. Stems erect, simple or branched, 10 in. to 3 ft. tall, 
 leafy, the leaves rounded heart-shaped or broadly ovate, with clasping bases: 
 flowers solitary, 2 or 3 together in leaf-axils. More or less weedy. 
 
 S. Speculum, DC. Venus' looking-glass. Low garden annual, with stem 
 branching diffusely: flowers purplish lilac to rose-colored or white, solitary 
 and terminal: leaves oblong, crenate. 
 
 2. CAMPANULA. BELLFLOWER. HAREBELL. 
 
 Flowers solitary or racemed or spiked, blue or white, not cleistogamous: 
 calyx 5-lobed; corolla bell-shaped: pod roundish, opening at sides (Fig. 283). 
 
 C. aparinoides, Pursh. A weak, reclining, Galium-like perennial, found 
 among grasses in moist meadows: stem very slender, triangular, angles 
 bearing rough backward-pointing prickles: leaves small, lance-linear, entire: 
 flowers very small, about ^ in. long, white, on spreading pedicels. 
 
 C. rotundifolia, Linn. Common harebell. Perennial from slender root- 
 stocks, nearly or quite glabrous, 5-12 in. high: root-leaves rounded or 
 cordate, often withering before blooming season, the stem-leaves linear to 
 narrow-lanceolate, entire: flowers few or solitary on slender pedicels, nod- 
 ding when open; corolla bell-shaped, with pointed lobes, %-% in. long, blue. 
 Rocky places, northward. 
 
 C. Medium, Linn. Canterbury bell. Cultivated from Europe, annual 
 or biennial, erect to 3 ft., rather hairy, branching or simple: leaves lanceo- 
 late, rather coarsely-toothed: flowers 2-3 in. long, single or double, blue; 
 stigmas 5; sepals leafy-appendaged at base. 
 
LOBELIACE^E COMPOSITES 431 
 
 L. LOBELlACE^E. LOBELIA FAMILY. 
 
 Herbs: leaves alternate or radical, simple: flowers scattered, 
 racemed or panicled, often leafy-bracted; calyx- tube adherent to 
 ovary; corolla irregular, monopetalous, 5-lobed, usually split on one 
 side; stamens 5, usually united, at least by anthers, about the 1 
 style; stigma 2-lobed: fruit a capsule, loculicidally 2-valved. 
 
 LOBELIA. 
 
 Flowers often showy, axillary and solitary, or in terminal bracted 
 racemes; corolla as if 2-lipped; stamens generally unequal, monadelphous, 2 
 or all of the 5 anthers bearded at the top. Many species. 
 
 L. cardinalis, Linn. Cardinal flower. Indian pink. A showy plant 
 of swampy or moist soil, also cultivated: tall, simple stem, 2-4 ft., with 
 showy, deep-red flowers (rarely pale colored), about 1 in. long, bracted, in 
 terminal racemes: leaves sessile, lance-oblong, slightly toothed. 
 
 L. Erinus, Linn. The common, pretty, annual trailing or spreading 
 Lobelia of gardens and greenhouses: flowers many, small, very blue, usually 
 with white throats (varying to whitish): lower leaves spatulate; upper 
 narrow, toothed. 
 
 L. syphilitica, Linn. Stem erect to 1-3 ft., angular, heavy: leaves 
 oblong-ovate, irregularly serrate: flowers in terminal, leafy raceme; flowers 
 intense blue (or white), 1 in. or more long; calyx hairy or hispid, lobes 
 auricled at base, dentate. Perennial, in low or marshy grounds or along 
 streams. Late summer. 
 
 L. spicata, Lam. Erect smoothish stems, 1-3 ft., sparingly leafy, the 
 terminal raceme with linear, small bracts: leaves oblong, upper small and 
 narrow: flowers small, pale blue; calyx-lobes not auricled at base, entire. 
 Dry, sandy soil. 
 
 L. inflata, Linn. Indian tobacco. Erect, 9-12 in., rather hairy, branch- 
 ing: leaves ovate, toothed: flowers small, J^ in. long, pale blue, in loose, 
 racemes, leafy-bracted: capsules inflated, large. Common in fields-; juice 
 pungent-poisonous. 
 
 LI. COMPOSITE. COMPOSITE or SUNFLOWER FAMILY. 
 
 Mostly herbs, many of them very large, very various in foliage: 
 flowers small, densely packed into an involucrate head, 5-merous; 
 the corolla of the outer ones often developed into long rays; stamens 
 5, the anthers united around the 2 styles: fruit dry and 1-seeded, 
 indehiscent, usually crowned with a pappus which represents a calyx. 
 The largest of all phenogamous families, comprising about one-tenth 
 of all flowering plants, about 800 genera and 11,000-12,000 species. 
 Common composites are sunflower, aster, goldenrod, boneset, dahlia, 
 chrysanthemum, marigold, compass plant, thistles, dandelion, lettuce. 
 
432 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 A. Heads with all flowers strap-shaped (with rays) and 
 
 perfect: juice milky: leaves alternate. 
 B. Flower-heads terminal on leafless, hollow stalk 
 
 from radical leaves 1. Taraxacum 
 
 BB. Flower-heads terminal on leafy stalks: leaves 
 
 parallel-veined 2. Tragopogon 
 
 BBB. Flower-heads in corymbs or clusters. 
 
 c. Heads never yellow (usually blue or white): 
 
 pappus of blunt scales 3. Cichorium 
 
 cc. Heads usually yellow (in one. case blue). 
 
 D. Achenes beaked: pappus copious, white, soft, 
 hair-like: leaves sometimes bristly or prickly 
 
 edged 4. Lactuca 
 
 DD. Achenes not beaked. 
 
 E. Pappus soft, white: leaves usually auri- 
 cled and clasping at base, and prickly 
 
 on edges and under ribs 5. Sonchus 
 
 EE. Pappus stiff, brownish, leaves not spiny. . . 6. Hieracium 
 AA. Heads with tubular and mostly perfect disk flowers, 
 the rays, if any, formed of the outer strap-shaped 
 and imperfect flowers: in cultivated species, all 
 the flowers may become strap-shaped (head 
 "double"): juice not milky. 
 
 B. Fruit a completely closed and bur-like involucre, 
 containing 1 or 2 small achenes: flowers im- 
 perfect (see also No. 23). 
 
 c. Involucre-bur large, and sharp-spiny 7. Xanthium 
 
 cc. Involucre-bur small, not sharp-spiny 8. Ambrosia 
 
 BB. Fruit not formed of a closed and hardened in- 
 volucre (although the involucre may be spiny, 
 as in Arctium and Cnicus). 
 c. Pappus none: achenes not awned. 
 D. The leaves opposite. 
 
 E. Leaves simple: flower-heads small: flowers 
 
 blue or white 9. Ageratum 
 
 EE. Leaves compound: flower-heads large, 
 
 various colors, mostly of ray florets 10. Dahlia 
 
 EEE. Leaves dissected: heads showy 11. Cosmos 
 
 EEEE. Leaves various: rays usually about 8, 
 
 neutral and yellow. (See Coreopsis, 21.) 
 DD. The leaves alternate. 
 E. Foliage finely divided. 
 
 F. Heads small (about % in.): achenes 
 
 flattened 12. Achillea 
 
 FF. Heads good-sized (about 1 in.): achenes 
 
 oblong, angled or ribbed 13. Anthemis 
 
COMPOSITES 433 
 
 EE. Foliage leaves entire, toothed, or broad- 
 lobed. 
 
 F. Achenes curved or horse-shoe-shaped 14. Calendula 
 
 FF. Achenes straight. 
 
 o. Torus flat or slightly convex 15. Chrysanthemum 
 
 GO. Torus conical. 
 
 H. Rays yellow: flowers large, 2-3 in... 16. Rudbeckia 
 HH. Rays not yellow: flowers about 
 
 1 in. across: plant low 17. Bellis 
 
 oc. Pappus of 2 thin early deciduous scales 18. Helianthus 
 
 ccc. Pappus a short crown, or achenes awned at the 
 
 top with (2 or more) awns. 
 
 D. Achenes angled or ribbed, crowned with cup- 
 like or lobed pappus: foliage strongly 
 
 "tansy" scented 19. Tanacetum 
 
 DD. Achenes more or less flattened, and awned 
 
 at summit, with usually 2 or 4 awns. 
 E. Awns barbed downward: achenes various, 
 narrowed at top, and awned, but not 
 
 really beaked 20. Bidens 
 
 EE. Teeth not downwardly barbed: (some- 
 times achenes awnless. ) 21. Coreopsis 
 
 cocc. Pappus of many bristles. 
 
 D. Plant very prickly 22. Cvrsium 
 
 DD. Plant not prickly. 
 
 E. Involucre prickly and bur-like x.23. Arctium 
 
 EE. Involucre not bur-like or prickly. 
 
 F. Torus bristly (chaff or bracts amongst 
 
 the florets) 24. Centaurea 
 
 FF. Torus naked. 
 G. Rays present. 
 H. Flowers yellow. 
 
 i. Leaves all radical: rays numerous 
 
 and fertile 25. Tussilago 
 
 ii. Leaves on stems, alternate. 
 
 j. Heads small, in large clusters 
 
 or panicles 26. Solidago 
 
 jj. Heads large and broad: leaves 
 large on stem and in a basal 
 
 clump 27. Inula 
 
 HH. Flowers not yellow. 
 
 I. Scales of the involucre unequal . . . 28. Aster 
 
 ii. Scales equal in length 29. Erigeron 
 
 in. Scales in several rows, more or 
 
 less leafy 30. Callistephus 
 
 GO. Rays none. 
 
 BB 
 
434 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 H. Plants cottony-white, or downy- 
 looking, 
 i Heads mostly dioecious. 
 
 j. Leaves basal and also on stem: 
 pappus thickened at summit 
 and more or less barbed or 
 
 plumed 31. Antennaria 
 
 33. Stems leafy: pappus not thick- 
 ened at summit: some sterile 
 flowers, usually in center of 
 
 the fertile heads 32. Anaphalis 
 
 n. Heads not dioecious: outer flowers 
 
 pistillate, central perfect 33. Gnaphalium 
 
 HH. Plants not cottony-white. 
 
 i. Flower-heads showy, spicate or 
 racemed, rose-purple: Leaves 
 
 alternate 34. Liatris 
 
 ii. Flower-heads small, in cymes or 
 
 corymbs, 
 j. Flowers white or pale purple: 
 
 leaves mostly opposite 35. Eupatorium 
 
 33. Flowers purple: leaves alter- 
 nate 36. Vernonia 
 
 1. TARAXACUM. DANDELION. 
 
 Stemless herbs, the 1-headed scape short, leafless and hollow: florets 
 all perfect and strap-shaped: fruit ribbed, the pappus raised on a long beak. 
 Variable plants. 
 
 T. officinale, Weber (T. Dens-leonis, Desf.). Common dandelion. Figs. 
 8, 302. Perennial, introduced from the Old World: leaves long, pinnate or 
 lyrate: heads yellow, opening in sun. 
 
 2. TRAGOPOGON. GOAT'S BEARD. 
 
 Biennials or perennials, stout, smooth, often glaucous, with long, grass- 
 like leaves clasping the stem: flowers all ligulate, in large solitary heads, 
 purple or yellow, terminal on long peduncle, with single involucre of many 
 bracts, which are equal and lanceolate, joined at bases: pappus in one 
 series, long and plumose: achenes linear, mostly with long slender beaks, 
 5-10-ribbed or angled: flowers open in early morning, usually closed at 
 midday. Juice milky. 
 
 T. porrifdlius, Linn. Salsify. Oyster-plant. Biennial; involucral bracts 
 much longer than the rays: stems 2-3 ft. high, hollow and thickened 
 upward: flowers purple. Europe. Cultivated for the edible tap-root. Some- 
 times wild. 
 
 T. pratSnsis, Linn. Similar to preceding, but flowers yellow and in- 
 volucral bracts not longer than rays. Europe. Fields and waste places, 
 eastern and middle states. 
 
COMPOSITES 435 
 
 3. CICHORIUM. CHICORY. 
 
 Tall, branching perennials, with deep, hard roots: florets perfect and 
 strap-shaped: fruit lightly grooved, with sessile pappus of many small, 
 chaffy scales. 
 
 C. fntybus, Linn. Common chicory. Runs wild along roadsides (from 
 Europe); 2-3 ft.: leaves oblong or lanceolate, the lowest pinnatifid: flowers 
 bright blue or pink, 2-3 together in the axils on long nearly naked branches. 
 
 4. LACTtTCA. LETTUCE. 
 
 Coarse weedy plants: stems tall and leafy, simple or branching, car- 
 rying small panicled heads of insignificant flowers: juice milky: stem-leaves 
 alternate, entire, or pinnately divided with lobes and margins and under 
 midrib often spine-tipped: involucre cylindrical, with bracts in 2 or more 
 unequal rows; flowers all liguiate and perfect, with the ligules truncate and 
 o-toothed: achenes oval to linear, flattened, 3-5-ribbed on each face, 
 smooth, abruptly narrowed into a beak: pappus abundant, white or brown- 
 ish and soft. 
 
 L. canadensis, Linn. Common in rich soil, 3-9 ft. tall: leaves smooth, 
 lanceolate to spatulate, sessile or clasping, margins entire, sinuate, or 
 runcinately pinnatifid, the radical leaves petiolate all smooth and glaucous; 
 flowers pale yellow, in small heads (Y\-Yi in. long), the heads more or less 
 diffusely panicled. Biennial or annual. 
 
 L. villdsa, Jacq. Three to 8 ft. : leaves ovate to lanceolate, pointed and 
 serrate, teeth mucronate, sometimes hairy on under midrib, the petioles 
 winged, more or less sinuate or clasping and arrow-shaped: inflorescence a 
 panicle of numerous small heads; rays bluish: achenes short-beaked or 
 beakless: pappus brownish. Biennial or annual. 
 
 L. Scariola, Linn. Prickly lettuce. Fig. 86. Glabrous and rather glaucous- 
 green, with tall, stiff, erect stem, branching, usually somewhat prickly: 
 leaves oblong or spatulate, dentate or pinnatifid, sessile, or auricled and 
 clasping, with margins and under midrib spiny: heads small, 6-12-flowered, 
 but numerous, the rays yellow; involucre narrow, cylindric: achenes flat, 
 ovate-oblong, with long filiform beak. Europe. A common coarse biennial 
 weed. 
 
 L. sativa, Linn. Garden lettuce. Cultivated for the tender root-leaves 
 as a salad: flowers yellow on tall small-leaved stems. 
 
 5. S6NCHUS. Sow THISTLE. MILK THISTLE. 
 
 Coarse, succulent weeds, smooth and glaucous or spiny, with leafy stem, 
 resembling wild lettuce, but achenes truncate, not beaked, and the flowers 
 always yellow: involucre bell-shape in several unequal series; rays truncate, 
 5-toothed. All from Europe. 
 
 S. oleraceus, Linn. Annual, from fibrous roots, 1-5 ft., with pale yellow 
 flowers in heads %-l in. in diameter: leaves various, mostly on lower part 
 of stem, petiolate or clasping by an auricled base, the lobes acute; in shape 
 lanceolate to lyrate-pinnatifid, margins spinulous. 
 
 S. arvensis, Linn. Perennial with creeping rootstocks: flowers bright 
 
436 
 
 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 555. Xanthium 
 canadense. 
 
 yellow in showy heads: leaves various, but spiny on margins, and generally 
 with clasping, auricled bases: "bracts of the involucre bristly. 
 
 S. asper, Hill. Spiny-leaved sow thistle. Annual weed: resembles S. 
 oleraceus closely, but the clasping auricles are rounded at base, stem-leaves 
 not so divided and more spiny. 
 
 6. HIERACIUM. HAWKWEED. 
 
 Hairy, or glandular-hispid, or glabrous perennials, 
 with radical or alternate entire leaves: head of 12-20 
 yellow or orange ligulate flowers, solitary or panicled; 
 involucre in one or several series, unequal; rays trun- 
 cate and 5-toothed: achenes oblong, striate, not 
 beaked; pappus single or double, delicate, tawny or 
 brownish, stiff, not plumose. Large number of species 
 widely spread. 
 
 H. vendsum, Linn. Rattlesnake-weed. Smooth, 
 slender, leafless or with 1 or few leaves, 12 ft., fork- 
 ing into a loose, spreading corymb of heads: leaves thin, glaucous, radical 
 and tufted, or near base on stem, oblong or oval, nearly entire, slightly 
 petioled or sessile, sometimes purplish or marked with purple veins: achenes 
 linear, not narrowing upward. Dry woods. 
 
 H. aurantiacum, Linn. Orange hawkweed. Demi's paint-brush. A very 
 bad weed in meadows East, from Europe: hirsute and glandular: leaves 
 narrow: heads deep orange: achenes oblong, blunt. 
 
 7. XANTHIUM. CLOTBUR. 
 
 Coarse homely annual weeds with large alternate leaves: flowers mon- 
 O3cious: in small involucres; sterile involucres composed of separate scales, 
 in short racemes; fertile involucres of united scales forming a closed body, 
 clustered in the leaf-axils, becoming spiny burs. 
 
 X. canadense, Mill. Common clotbur. Fig. 555. 
 One to 2 ft., branching: leaves broad-ovate, petioled, 
 lobed and toothed: burs oblong-conical, 1 in. long, 
 with 2 beaks. Waste places. 
 
 X. spinosum, Linn. Spiny clotbur. Pubescent, with 
 3 spines at the base of each leaf: bur % in. long, with 
 1 beak. Tropical America. 
 
 8. AMBROSIA. RAGWEED. 
 
 Homely strong-smelling weeds, monoecious: sterile 
 involucres in racemes on the ends of the branches, the 
 scales united into a cup; fertile involucres clustered in 
 the axils of leaves or bracts, containing 1 pistil, with 
 4-8 horns or projections near the top. Following are 
 annuals: 
 
 A. artemisiaefolia, Linn. Common ragweed. Figs. 
 416, 556. One to 3 ft., very branchy: leaves opposite 
 
 556. Ambrosia arte- 
 misiaefolia. 
 
COMPOSITES 437 
 
 or alternate, thin, once- or twice-pinnatifid : fruit or bur globular, with 6 
 spines. Roadsides and waste places. 
 
 A. trifida, Linn. Great ragweed. Three to 12 ft., with opposite 3-lobed 
 serrate leaves: fruit or bur obovate, with 5 or 6 tubercles. Swales. 
 
 9. AGfiRATUM. AGERATUM. 
 
 Small diffuse mostly hairy herbs, with opposite simple leaves: heads 
 small, blue, white or rose, rayless, the involucre cup-shaped and composed 
 of narrow bracts; torus flattish; pappus of a few rough bristles. 
 
 A. conyzoides, Linn. (A. mexicanum of gardens). Annual pubescent 
 herb, with ovate-deltoid serrate leaves: cultivated (from tropical America) 
 for small and numerous clustered soft heads. 
 
 10. DAHLIA. 
 
 Stout familiar garden herbs, tall and branching, from tuberous roots: 
 leaves opposite, pinnately divided: ray flowers in natural state are neutral 
 or pistillate and fertile; disk flowers perfect; involucre double, outer scales 
 distinct and leaf -like, the inner united at base; receptacle chaffy; pappus 
 none. In the big cultivated dahlias, most of the flowers are rays. 
 
 D. variabilis, Desf. Figs. 257, 258. Several feet, with fine large heads 
 of flowers, colors various; heads solitary:" leaves pinnate, leaflets unequal, 
 3-7, ovate-acuminate, coarsely serrate. Mexico. 
 
 11. C6SMOS. 
 
 Handsome tall plants, 4-5 ft. high, cultivated for the fine foliage and late 
 flowers: leaves opposite, very finely dissected, thrice-compound, the leaflets 
 extremely narrow, and sessile: flower-head with double involucre; the outer 
 bracts dark green, calyx-like, 8 in number, the inner scales erect, with 
 recurved tips; ray flowers, usually 8, neutral, white, pink; disk flowers per- 
 fect, tubular, yellow; receptacle chaffy: achenes flattened, beaked. Mexico. 
 
 C. bipinnatus, Cav. Rays 1-2 in. long, crimson, rose or white, the disk 
 yellow. The commonest species. 
 
 C. sulphurous, Cav. Both rays and disk yellow. 
 
 12. ACHILLA. YARROW. 
 
 Low perennial or annual herbs: heads corymbose, many-flowered, white 
 or rose, with fertile rays; scales of involucre overlapping (imbricated); torus 
 flattish, chaffy; pappus none. 
 
 A. Millefolium, Linn. Yarrow. Stems simple below, but branching at 
 the top into a large rather dense umbel-like flower-cluster: leaves very 
 dark green, twice pinnatifid into very fine divisions: rays 4-5. Fields 
 everywhere. 
 
 13. ANTHEMIS. CHAMOMILE. Fig. 417. 
 
 Strong-scented, branching herbs with finely pinnatifid leaves and 
 many-flowered heads, solitary on peduncles: ray flowers white or yellow, 
 pistillate or neutral, the edge of corolla entire or 2-3-toothed : disk flowers 
 
438 
 
 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 perfect, fertile, yellow, corolla 5-cleft; receptacle convex, partially chaffy; 
 involucral bracts small, dry, in several series, outermost shortest: achenes 
 round or ribbed, smooth: pappus none or a slight border. There are a 
 number of cultivated plants in this genus. 
 
 A. Cotula, DC. May-weed. Annual, bushy, erect, 1-2 ft.: heads ter- 
 minal, corymbed, 1 in. broad; rays usually white, neutral; disk flowers yel- 
 low: leaves alternate, mostly sessile, finely pinnatifid. Roadsides. Europe. 
 
 14. CALENDULA. POT MARIGOLD. 
 
 Erect, quick-growing annuals, with terminal large yellow or orange heads 
 with pistillate rays: involucre of many short green scales; torus flat; pap- 
 pus none: achenes of the ray florets (those of the disk florets do not mature) 
 curved or coiled. 
 
 C. officinalis, Linn. Common pot marigold. A common garden annual 
 from the Old World, with alternate entire sessile oblong leaves: 1-2 ft. 
 
 15. CHRYSANTHEMUM. CHRYSANTHEMUM. 
 
 Erect herbs, annual or perennial, with alternate lobed or divided leaves: 
 rays numerous, pistillate and ripening seeds; torus usually naked, flat or 
 convex; pappus none. 
 
 a. Achenes of ray florets winged. 
 
 C. morifolium, Ram. (C. sinense, Sabine). Greenhouse 
 chrysanthemum. Tall and mostly strict, with lobed, firm and 
 long-petioled alternate leaves: flowers exceedingly various. 
 China. 
 
 aa. Achenes not winged. 
 
 C. Leucanthemum, Linn. Whiteweed. Ox-eye daisy. Fig. 
 189. Perennial, with many simple stems from each root, rising 
 12 ft., and bearing alternate oblong sessile pinnatifid leaves: 
 heads terminating the stems, with long white rays and yellow 
 disks. Fields everywhere in the East, and spreading West. 
 
 16. RUDBECKIA. CONE-FLOWER. 
 
 beck! hirta Perennial or biennial herbs, with alternate leaves and 
 
 showy yellow-rayed terminal heads: ray florets neutral; scales 
 of involucre in about 2 rows, leafy and spreading; torus long or conical, with 
 a bract behind each floret: achenes 3-angled, with no prominent pappus. 
 Strong field plants. 
 
 R. hirta, Linn. Black-eyed Susan. Ox-eyed daisy in the East. Fig. 557. 
 Bjpnnial, 1-2 ft., coarse-hairy, leaves oblong or oblanceolate, nearly entire, 
 3-nerved: rays as long as the involucre or longer, yellow, the disk brown; 
 torus conical. Dry fields. 
 
 R. laciniata, Linn. Two to 7 ft., perennial, smooth, branching: leaves 
 pinnate, with 5-7-lobed leaflets, or the upper ones 3-5-parted: rays 1-2 in. 
 long; torus becoming columnar. Low places. 
 
COMPOSITES 439 
 
 17. BfiLLIS. GARDEN DAISY. 
 
 Low tufte'd herbs with many-flowered heads, solitary on scapes: leaves 
 spatulate, petioled: flowers both radiate and tubular, mostly double, with 
 margins of the rays various, quilled, and otherwise modified in the cul- 
 tivated forms: ray flowers white or pink, pistillate; disk flowers yellow, 
 perfect with tubular corolla, limb 4-5-toothed: achenes flattened, wingless, 
 nerved near margins. 
 
 B. perennis, Linn. English daisy. European garden daisy. Fig. 200. 
 Flower-head on a scape 3-4 inches high, from radical leaves, %-l in. in 
 diameter, with numerous linear rays, white, pink, bluish. Europe. Perennial. 
 Cultivated in gardens or on lawns. April to November. 
 
 18. HELIANTHUS. SUNFLOWER. Figs. 3, 4. 
 
 Stout, often coarse perennials or annuals, with simple alternate or 
 opposite leaves and large yellow-rayed heads: ray florets neutral; scales of 
 involucre overlapping, more or less leafy ; torus flat or convex, with a bract 
 embracing each floret: achene 4-angled: pappus of 2 scales (sometimes 2 
 other smaller ones), which fall as soon as the fruit is ripe. 
 
 a. Disk brown. 
 
 H. annuus, Linn. Common sunflower. Tall, rough, stout annual, with 
 mostly alternate stalked ovate-toothed large leaves: scales of involucre ovate- 
 acuminate, ciliate. Minnesota to Texas and West, but everywhere in gardens. 
 
 H. scaberrimus, Ell. Prairie sunflower. Stout perennial (2-6 ft.), rough: 
 leaves oblong-lanceolate, entire or serrate, rough and grayish, thick and 
 rigid: heads nearly solitary, with 20-25 rays. Prairies, Michigan, west. 
 
 aa. Disk yellow (anthers sometimes dark). 
 
 H. giganteus, Linn. Tall, to 10 ft., rough or hairy: leaves mostly 
 alternate, lanceolate-pointed, finely serrate or quite entire, nearly sessile: 
 scales linear-lanceolate, hairy; rays pale yellow, 15-20. Low grounds. 
 
 H. divaricatus, Linn. Figs. 3, 4, 23, 28. Small for the genus, 1-4 ft.: 
 leaves opposite, ovate-lanceolate, 3-nerved, sessile, serrate, rough and 
 thickish: rays 8-12, 1 in. long. Common in dry thickets. 
 
 H. tuberSsus, Linn. Jerusalem artichoke. Bearing edible stem-tubers 
 below ground : 5-10 ft. : leaves ovate to oblong-ovate, toothed, long-petioled : 
 scales not exceeding the disk: rays 12-20, large. Pennsylvania west, and 
 cultivated. 
 
 19. TANACfiTUM. TANSY. 
 
 Tufted perennials, with finely divided leaves and strong odor: involucre 
 of overlapping dry scales; torus convex; heads small, nearly or quite rayless, 
 the flowers all seed-bearing: achenes angled or ribbed, bearing a short 
 crown-like pappus. 
 
 T. vulgare, Linn. Common tansy from Europe, but run wild about old 
 houses: 2-4 ft.: leaves 1-3-pinnately cut: heads yellow, pappus-crown 
 5-lobed. 
 
440 
 
 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 20. BtDENS. BUR-MARIGOLD. BEGGAR'S TICKS. PITCHFORKS. 
 
 Annual or perennial, similar to Coreopsis, including weeds known as 
 Spanish-needles or stick-tights: leaves opposite: flowers mostly yellow; 
 involucre double, outer scales large and leaf-like; heads many-flowered; 
 ray flowers 4-8, neutral, or none; disk flowers perfect, tubular: achenes 
 flattened or slender and 4-angled, crowned with 2 or more rigid downwardly 
 
 barbed awns. 
 
 B. fronddsa, Linn. Figs. 418, 558. 
 Smooth or sparsely hairy, 2-6 ft. tall, 
 branching: leaves 3 5-divided, or 
 upper simple; leaflets stalked, lanceo- 
 late, serrate: outer involucre longer 
 than head; bracts foliaceous: achenes 
 wedge-ovate, flat, 2-awned. In moist 
 places. Annual. 
 
 B. Isevis, BSP. Smooth branching 
 annual, 6 in. to 2 ft., usually abundant along 
 ditches: leaves sessile, simple, lanceolate, acumi- 
 nate, serrate, the bases sometimes united: outer 
 involucral bracts exceeding the inner, but shorter 
 than the yellow, oval or oblong rays: rays about 1 
 in. long, 8 or 10 in number: achenes small, wedge- 
 shaped, truncate, prickly on margins, with 2 rigid 
 downwardly barbed awns. 
 
 B. bipinnata, Linn. Spanish needles. Annual: 
 stem quadrangular, erect, branching freely: leaves 
 1-3 times pinnate, leaflets lanceolate, pinnatifid: 
 heads small on slender peduncles; rays short, pale 
 yellow, 3, 4 or more: achenes smooth, 3-4-grooved, 
 2- or 6-awned (awns barbed). 
 
 21. COREOPSIS. TICKSEED. 
 
 Low herbs with opposite, sometimes alternate leaves: 
 heads of tubular and ray flowers solitary, or corymbed on 
 long peduncles; involucre double, bracts all united at 
 base, the 8 outer ones usually leafy; the inner erect; re- 
 ceptacle chaffy; ray flowers neutral, usually yellow; disk 
 flowers tubular, perfect, yellow or purple; pappus of 2 short teeth or a 
 crown-like border, or none: achenes flat, often winged, 2-toothed or 2- 
 armed. A number of rather showy but somewhat weedy plants. 
 
 C. tinctdria, Nutt. Calliopsis. Annual or biennial, glabrous, erect, 1-3 
 ft.: disk flowers dark purple; ray flowers about 8, yellow with purple bases, 
 the edges coarsely 3-toothed: leaves alternate, 2 or 3 times pinnately- 
 divided; the lower petioled, the upper sessile and often entire: heads 1-1 K 
 in. wide, on slender peduncles. A favorite in gardens. Ray flowers variable 
 in shape and coloring. 
 
 C. trfpteris, Linn. Tall coreopsis. Tall and leafy stems, 4-9 ft. : disk and 
 
COMPOSITES 
 
 441 
 
 ray flowers all yellow; heads small, numerous, 1-1^ in. broad, corymbed, 
 giving a spicy odor when bruised. Perennial. Weed, common. 
 
 C. lanceolata, Linn. Perennial, native and cultivated: nearly or quite 
 glabrous: leaves oblong or linear, mostly entire, obtuse: heads large, yellow- 
 rayed, on very long stems. 
 
 22. CfRSIUM. THISTLE. 
 
 Perennial or biennial herbs, with pinnatifid, very prickly leaves : florets 
 all tubular and usually all perfect; scales of the involucre prickly; torus 
 bristly ; pappus of soft bristles, by means of which the fruit is carried in the 
 wind. Several species in our territory. 
 
 C. lanceolatum, Hill. Common thistle. Figs. 253-255. Strong, branching 
 biennial: leaves pinnatifid, decurrent, woolly beneath: heads large, purple, 
 with all the involucre-scales prickly. Europe. 
 
 C. arvense, Scop. Canada thistle. Fig. 409. Lower, perennial and a pes- 
 tiferous weed: leaves smooth or nearly so beneath: flowers rose-purple, in 
 small, imperfectly dioecious heads, only the outer scales prickly. Europe. 
 
 23. ARCTIUM. BURDOCK. 
 
 Coarse biennials or perennials, strong-scented, with large dock-like 
 simple leaves: head becoming a bur with hooked bristles, the florets all 
 tubular and perfect; torus bristly; pappus of short, rough, deciduous bristles. 
 
 A. Lappa, Linn. Burdock. Common weed from Europe, with a deep, 
 hard root, and bushy top 2-3 ft. high: leaves broad-ovate, 
 somewhat woolly beneath, entire or angled. 
 
 24. CENTAUREA. STAR-THISTLE. CENTAUREA. 
 
 Alternate-leaved herbs, the following annuals, with single 
 heads terminating the long branches: heads many-flowered, 
 the florets all tubular but the outer ones usually much larger 
 
 659. Centaurea Cyan us. At the left is an outer or ray floret; then follow three 
 details of a disk floret; then follows the fruit. 
 
442 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 and sterile; scales of involucre overlapping; torus bristly: achenes oblong, 
 with bristly or chaffy pappus. Cultivated. 
 
 C. Cyanus, Linn. Corn-flower. Bachelor's button. Figs. 256, 559. Gray 
 herb: leaves linear and mostly entire: heads blue, rose or white. Europe. 
 
 C. moschata, Linn. Sweet sultan. One to 2 ft., smooth: leaves pinnatifid: 
 pappus sometimes wanting; heads fragrant, white, rose or yellow; large. Asia. 
 
 25. TUSSILAGO. COLTSFOOT. 
 
 Low stemless hairy perennials from rootstocks: scapes simple in early 
 spring, scaly-bracted, each bearing a single dandelion-like head: leaves 
 radical, appearing later, orbicular-angled or toothed, white-woolly at first: 
 ray flowers in several rows, pistillate, fertile; disk flowers tubular, stam- 
 inate, sterile; involucre nearly simple, or 1-rowed acheries of ray flowers, 
 cylindrical, 5-10-ribbed; pappus abundant, soft, hair-like, white. 
 
 T. Farfara, Linn. Yellow heads in very early spring before the leaves.. A 
 common weed East, found in low, damp places and along cool banks. Europe. 
 
 26. SOLIDAGO. GOLDENROD. 
 
 Perennial herbs, with narrow, sessile leaves: heads yellow, rarely whitish, 
 few-flowered, usually numerous in the cluster, the ray-florets 116 and 
 pistillate; scales of involucre close, usually not green and leaf-like; torus 
 not chaffy: achene nearly cylindrical, ribbed, with pappus of many soft 
 bristles. Of goldenrods there are many species. They are characteristic 
 plants of the American autumn. They are too critical for the beginner. 
 
 27. INULA. ELECAMPANE. 
 
 Large and tall coarse perennial herbs, with large, showy yellow flower- 
 heads 2-4 in. diameter, sunflower-like: leaves large, simple, alternate, 
 and also radical in clumps: heads contain both perfect tubular, and pistil- 
 late ray florets, in one row; receptacle not chaffy: achenes 4-5-ribbed: 
 pappus in one row, bristles hair-like. 
 
 I. Helenium, Linn. Four to 6 ft., rising from a clump of large, ovate, 
 dock-like leaves on heavy petioles; stem-leaves sessile or clasping: heads 
 solitary, terminal; involucre bracts ovate, leaf-like, woolly. Weed in damp 
 pasture and along roadside. Summer. 
 
 28. ASTER. ASTER. Fig. 252. 
 
 Perennial herbs, with narrow or broad leaves: heads with several to 
 many white, blue or purple rays in a single series, the jay florets fertile; 
 scales of involucre overlapping, usually more or less green and leafy; torus 
 flat: achene flattened, bearing soft, bristly pappus. Asters are conspicuous 
 plants in the autumn flora of the country. The kinds are numerous, and it 
 is difficult to draw specific lines. The beginner will find them too critical. 
 
 29. ERIGERON. FLEABANE. 
 
 Annual, biennial or perennial erect herbs, with simple, sessile leaves: 
 heads few- to many-flowered; rays numerous in several rows and pistillate; 
 
COMPOSITES 
 
 443 
 
 scales of involucre narrow and equal, scarcely overlapping, not green-tipped; 
 torus flat or convex, naked; pappus of soft bristles. 
 
 a. Rays very inconspicuous. 
 
 E. canadensis, Linn. Horse-weed. Mare's-tail. Fig. 560. Tall, erect, 
 weedy, hairy annual, with strong scent: leaves Linear and mostly entire or 
 the root-leaves lobed: heads small and very numerous in a long panicle, 
 the rays very short. 
 
 aa. Rays prominent: common fleabanes. 
 
 E. annuus, Pers. Usually annual, 3-5 ft., with spreading 
 hairs: leaves coarsely and sharply toothed, the lowest ovate 
 and tapering into a margined petiole: rays numerous, white 
 or tinged with purple, not twice the length of the involucre. 
 
 E. ramosus, BSP. Daisy fleabane. Usually annual, with 
 appressed hairs or none: leaves usually entire and narrower: 
 rays white and numerous, twice the length of the involucre. 
 
 E. pulchellus, Michx. Robin's plantain. Perennial leafy- 
 stemmed herb, softly hairy, producing stolons or rooting 
 branches from the base, the simple stems, from a cluster of 
 rather large, roundish, short-petioled, serrate, root-leaves; 
 stem-leaves few, entire, sessile and partially clasping: heads 
 1-7, on long peduncles; rays numerous, linear or spatulate, 
 purplish or pinkish. April to June. 
 
 30. CALLISTEPHUS. CHINA ASTER. 560. Erigeron 
 
 canadensis. 
 Erect, leafy annuals, with large solitary heads bearing 
 
 numerous white, rose or purple rays: scales in several rows or series, 
 usually leafy; torus flat or nearly so, naked; pappus of long and very short 
 bristles. 
 
 C. hortensis, Cass. Common China aster, now one of the commonest of 
 garden annuals, in many forms: leaves sessile and coarsely toothed. China. 
 
 31. ANTENNARIA. EVERLASTING. 
 
 Perennial little herbs with cottony leaves and stems: flowers dioecious, 
 in many-flowered small heads, solitary or racemose or clustered (much 
 resembling Gnaphalium, but distinguished by the dioecious heads); invo- 
 lucre with dry imbricated bracts in several rows, usually woolly-white or 
 colored; pappus in a single row, that of the sterile flowers thickened and 
 plumed at summit. Several confused species, or forms of one species, mostly 
 in open, dry places. 
 
 A. plantaginif olia, Rich. Mouse-ear everlasting. Noticeable on dry 
 soil and in open places, as white cottony patches: stoloniferous root-leaves 
 soft white when young, later green above but hoary beneath, oval to spatu- 
 late, petioled, 3-veined: flowering stem simple scape-like, 48 in. high, 
 bears small, bract-like, appressed leaves, and heads in a small, crowded, 
 terminal corymb; scales of involucre whitish. 
 
444 THE KINDS OF PLANTS 
 
 32. ANAPHALIS. EVERLASTING. 
 
 Cottony-white herbs, very similar to the preceding, but pappus not 
 thickened at summit, and usually a few perfect but sterile flowers in center 
 of the head: stem leafy. Perennial. 
 
 A. margaritacea, Benth. & Hook. Pearly everlasting. One to 2 ft.: 
 heads in corymbs at summit, dioecious, but a few imperfect staminate 
 flowers in the center of the fertile heads: leaves sessile, taper-pointed, 
 broad-ovate to linear-lanceolate: involucre scale pearly white, rounded. 
 Common in dry soil. 
 
 33. GNAPHALIUM. EVERLASTING. CUDWEED. 
 
 Cottony-white herbs, with small head of many whitish flowers, sur- 
 rounded by involucre of white or colored scales, in many series: flowers all 
 fertile, outer pistillate, central perfect: 110 chaff on receptacle; pappus a 
 row of slender bristles. Common in dry fields. 
 
 G. polycephalum, Michx. Common everlasting. Annual, with leaves 
 lanceolate, margins wavy, upper surface not very cottony: scales of invo- 
 lucre white or yellowish white, a few perfect flowers in the center of each 
 head. 
 
 G. decurrens, Ives. Biennial or annual, with many perfect flowers in 
 center of each head: stem erect, 1-2 ft.: leaves lance-linear, both sides 
 cottony, bases partially clasping and running down the stem. 
 
 34. LlATRIS. BLAZING STAR. BUTTON SNAKEROOT. 
 
 Perennial herbs, with simple erect stems from tuberous or corm-like 
 roots: leaves entire, alternate, rather rigid, sometimes vertical on the stem, 
 and resinous-dotted: flowers few to many, in racemed or spicate heads; 
 flowers all alike, rose-purple, tubular; corolla 5-lobed, lobes long and 
 slender; pappus of many hair-like bristles, plumose or barbed: achene 
 slender, tapering to base: involucral bracts in several rows, unequal. 
 
 L. scariosa, Willd. Stem stout, 2-5 ft. tall: leaves lanceolate, the lower 
 long-petioled, the upper more linear and rigid: heads few to many, 30-40- 
 flowered, about 1 in broad: scales of involucre numerous, with rounded 
 tips ; often colored and rather rough on the margins; flowers bright purple. 
 Dry soil. 
 
 L. pycnostachya, Michx. Heads 3-15-flowered: flowers rosy-purple on a 
 spike 3-4 ft. high: flowers begin to open at top of the spike and continue 
 opening downward : scales with purplish tips. A western species, cultivated ; 
 very showy. 
 
 35. EUPATORIUM. THOROUGHWORT. 
 
 Erect perennials, with simple leaves: heads small and rayless, clustered, 
 all the florets perfect; scales not leafy; torus flat or low-conical, naked: 
 achene 5-angled: pappus a single row of soft bristles. Low grounds. 
 
 E. purpureum, Linn. Joe Pye weed. Tall, with purplish stem and lan- 
 ceolate-toothed leaves in whorls of 3-6: heads flesh-colored, in dense 
 corymbs. Swamps, growing 3-10 ft. 
 
COMPOSITES 445 
 
 E. perfoliatum. Linn. Boneset. Thoroughwort. Fig. 171. Two to 4 ft., 
 hairy: leaves opposite and sessile, lanceolate: flowers white, in clusters. 
 
 36. VERNONIA. IRONWEED. 
 
 Coarse perennial herbs, with tall strong leafy stems: leaves alternate 
 (seldom opposite), sessile: flowers 15 to many in a head, heads corymbed, 
 all tubular, perfect, purple (rarely white or pink); involucre shorter than 
 flowers, with several series of scales; receptacle not chaffy; pappus double, 
 the inner series bristle-like, the outer of short, small, scale-like bristles: 
 achenes cylindrical, several-ribbed. 
 
 V. novaboracensis, Willd. A coarse weed, 3-6 ft. : heads about K in- 
 long: bracts of involucre, some or all, with slender long or awned flexuous 
 points, brownish purple: leaves many, rough, lanceolate or lance-oblong, 
 2-9 in. long, serrulate, sessile, all along stem: flowers deep purple in 
 spreading, flat-topped cymes: achenes somewhat hairy. Late summer. 
 
 V. fasciculata, Michx. Tall, coarse weed, 3-10 feet, with deep purple 
 flowers in heads (20-30-flowered), corymbed; involucre campanulate, 
 scales usually obtuse, not awn-like. Summer and autumn. 
 
INDEX AND GLOSSARY 
 
 Numbers in parenthesis refer to paragraphs 
 
 Aborted: crowded out, (316). 
 
 Abronia, Fig. 18. 
 
 Abutilon, 372, Figs. 182, 520. 
 
 Acacia, leaf, 108, Fig. 163. 
 
 Accessory buds: more than one in an axil, 
 
 (88). 
 Accessory fruit: other parts grown to the 
 
 pericarp, (311), 161. 
 Acclimatization: adaptation to a climate 
 
 at first injurious, (367). 
 Acer, 376, Figs. 523-526. 
 Acetic acid, 271. 
 Achene: dry, indehiscent, one-seeded 
 
 pericarp, (313). 
 Achillea, 437. 
 Acorn, 155, 178. 
 Acorus, 328. 
 Actsea, 359. 
 
 Acuminate: taper-pointed, (211). 
 Acute: sharp-pointed, (211). 
 Adder's-tongue, 331; fern, 198, Fig. 368. 
 Adiantum, 323. 
 Adventitious buds: those appearing on 
 
 occasion, (54, 124). 
 .Ecidia, 191. ^Ecidiospore, 191. 
 Aerial roots, 10, Figs. 12-14. 
 ^sculus, 377. 
 Ageratum, 437. 
 
 Aggregate fruit: one formed by the co- 
 herence of pistils that were distinct 
 
 in the flower, (321). 
 Agrimonia, 387. 
 Agrimony, 169, 387. 
 Ailanthus, leaf-scars, 37, Figs. 57; seeds, 
 
 168. 
 
 Air-plants, 11. 
 Alcanin, 273. 
 Alder, 345. 
 
 Aleurone grains, 275, Fig. 445. 
 Alfalfa, 3, 7, V9, 94, 137, 172, 251, 383, 
 
 Figs. 21, 246, 529; nodules on root, 78. 
 Algae, 181, 183, 185, 201, 207, 263, 266. 
 Alkaloids, 271. 
 
 Almond, 61, 251, 271; bud, 39, Fig. 68. 
 Alnus, 345. 
 Alpine plants, 229. 
 Alsike clover, 382. 
 Alternate leaves, 47. 
 Alternation of generations, 182, 201. 
 Althea, 148, 372, 373. 
 Alyssum, 160, 367, 368, Fig. 519. 
 
 Amaranth, 170, Fig. 411. 
 
 Amaryllidacese, 335. 
 
 Ambrosia, 436, Figs. 416, 556. 
 
 Amelanchier, 391. 
 
 Amoeba, 266. Amoeboid, 266. 
 
 Ampelopsis, leaves of, 100, Fig. 155. 
 
 Amphibious, 208. 
 
 Amylo-dextrine, 275. Amylose, 271. 
 
 Anacharis, 85, Fig. 439. 
 
 Analogy: related in function or use, (223). 
 
 Anaphalis, 444. 
 
 Anemone, 356; fruit, 156. 
 
 Anemonella, 357. 
 
 Angelica, 398. 
 
 Angiosperms, 327. 
 
 Aniline for staining, 73. 
 
 Annual: of one season's duration, (10). 
 
 Annular, 267. 
 
 Antennaria, 443. 
 
 Anthemis, 437, Fig. 417. 
 
 Anther: pollen-bearing part of the sta- 
 men, (270). 
 
 Antheridia, 181, 187. Antheridiophore, 
 194. 
 
 Anthodium: flower-head of the Com- 
 positae,.(251). 
 
 Antirrhinum, 406. 
 
 Antitropic: against the sun, (243). 
 
 Apetalous: petals missing, (273, 290). 
 
 Aphyllon, 90, Fig. 131. 
 
 Apical; at the apex or top, (317). 
 
 Apios, 385. 
 
 Apium, 399. 
 
 Apocynacese, 418. 
 
 Apparatus, 301. 
 
 Apple, 20, 32, 68, 251, 254, 391; acid, 271; 
 bud, 36, 39, 40, Fig. 71; bud-variation, 
 238; cells, 263, 265; foliage, 65; fruit, 
 162, Fig. 295; inflorescence, 123, Fig. 
 294; leaf, 83; leaf-scar, 37; pear -graft, 
 28; phyllotaxy, 48, Fig. 84; pruning, 
 Figs. 102, 104; thorns, 108; tree, 14, 
 64, 93, 220, Fig. 17. 
 
 Apricot, 251, 366; bud, 37, 39, 41, Fig? 
 55, 68; fruit, 161. 
 
 Aquatic, 207; society, Fig. 401. 
 
 Aquilegia, 358, Fig. 517. 
 
 Arabis, 388, Fig. 536. 
 
 Aracese, 327. . 
 
 Arboriculture, 257. 
 
 Arborvitse, 326, Figs. 404, 405, 485. 
 
 (447) 
 
448 
 
 INDEX AND GLOSSARY 
 
 Arbutus, trailing, 425. 
 Archegoniophore, 194. Archegonium, 
 
 181. 
 
 Arctium, 441. 
 Arissema, 327. 
 Aristolochiacese, 348. 
 Arrow-root, starch, 274, 275. 
 Arrowwood, 429. 
 Artichoke, Jerusalem, 439. 
 Arum, family, 149, 327; water, 328. 
 Asarum, 349. 
 Ascending stems, 14. 
 Asclepiadacese, 417. Asclepias, 283, 418. 
 Ascus, 190. 
 Ash, 421; branching, 56, Fig. 92; fruit, 
 
 156; leaf, Fig. 141; mountain, 391; 
 
 phyllotaxy, 48; seeds, 168. 
 Ash in plants, 77. 
 Asparagus, 3, 285, 289, 333, Figs. 457, 
 
 458; leaves, 107, Figs. 159-162. 
 Aspen (poplar), expression in, 66. 
 Aspidium, 289, 323, 324, Figs. 331, 332, 
 
 480. 
 
 Asplenium, 323. 
 Assimilation: making of protoplasm, 
 
 (185, 186). 
 Aster, 233, 442; China, 443; inflorescence, 
 
 120, 150, 151; wild, 252, Fig. 146. 
 Atropin, 271. 
 Auricula, 422. 
 Autumn leaves, 233. 
 Avens, 386. 
 Axil: upper angle which a petiole or 
 
 peduncle makes with the stem which 
 
 bears it, (87). 
 Axillary, 119, Fig. 201. 
 Azalea, 425; anther, 135, Fig. 220. 
 
 Bachelor's button, 151, 442, Figs. 256, 
 
 559. 
 Bacterium (pi. bacteria), 91, 263, 278, 
 
 Fig. 136. 
 
 Ballast plants, 170. 
 Balloon- vine, 376. 
 Balsam, 33, 166, 286; garden, 375; for 
 
 mounting sections, 303. 
 Bamboo, forest, Fig. 437. 
 Baneberry, 359. 
 Banyan, 11, 20, Fig. 15. 
 Baptisia, 383. 
 Barberry, 360; anther, 135, Fig. 221; 
 
 family, 360; rust, 191, 192, Figs. 355, 
 
 356; spines, 109, Fig. 168. 
 Bark, 293; forms of, 65. 
 Barley, 152, 250, Fig. 261; germination, 
 
 173. 
 
 Basal: at the base or bottom, (317). 
 Basidium, 191. 
 Basswood, 37, 292; phyllotaxy, 48, Fig. 
 
 464. 
 Bast, 280, 281, Fig. 450. 
 
 Bean, castor, 4, 171, 175, 178,271,273,352, 
 Figs. 313-316; common, 3, 7, 166, 250, 
 384, Figs. 2, 530; germination, 171, 
 173, 174, 178, Figs. 308-312, 322; 
 legume, 157; Lima, 175, 384, Fig. 531; 
 scarlet runner, 174, 178, 384; sleep of, 
 49; twiner, 115, 116. 
 
 Beard-tongue, 406. 
 
 Bedstraw, 112, 426. 
 
 Bee balm, 400. 
 
 Beech, 64, 67, 343; drop, 90; European, 
 98; fruit, 155; leaf, Fig. 151; monoe- 
 cious, 138. 
 
 Beefsteak geranium, Fig. 41. 
 
 Beet, 7, 33, 250, 251; cells, 265; starch in, 
 31; sugar-, 251, 273. 
 
 Beggar's ticks, 440, Fig. 558. 
 
 Begonia, cells, 265; cuttings, 21, 27, Fig. 
 41; leaf, 298, Fig. 144; stomates, 301, 
 Fig. 473. 
 
 Belladonna, 271. 
 
 Bell-flower, 430; family, 430. 
 
 Bellis, 439. 
 
 Bellwort, 332. 
 
 Berberidacese, 360. 
 
 Berry: pulpy, indehiscent, few- or many- 
 seeded fruit, (319). 
 
 Betula, 344. 
 
 Bi-collateral, 288. 
 
 Bi-compound, 96. 
 
 Bidens, 440, Figs. 418, 558. 
 
 Biennial: of two seasons' duration, (10). 
 
 Bilberry, 424. 
 
 Bindweed, 244, 412. 
 
 Birch, 231, 344. 
 I Birthroot, 333. 
 
 Birthwort, family, 348. 
 I Bishop's cap, 394. 
 
 Bitter-cress, 367. 
 
 Bittersweet, 248, 409, Fig. 424; climbing, 
 112; false, twiner, 115, Fig. 179. 
 
 Blackberry, 20, 251, 390; cuttings, 23; 
 fruit, 160, 161; pruning, 61; and birds, 
 168. 
 
 Black-eyed Susan, 438, Fig. 557. 
 
 Black haw, Fig. 305. 
 
 Bladder-nut, 378. 
 
 Bladder-wort, 71, 207. 
 
 Blade: expanded part of leaf or petal, 
 (206). 
 
 Blazing star, 444. 
 
 Bleeding of plants, 73. 
 
 Bleeding-heart, 3, 364. 
 
 Blight, 92. Blight-canker, 92. 
 
 Bloodroot, 363. 
 
 Blueberry, 424. 
 
 Blue-eyed grass, 338. 
 
 Blue-eyed Mary, 406. 
 
 Blue-grass, 246. 
 
 Bluets, 427. 
 I Bole: trunk, (140). 
 
INDEX AND GLOSSARY 
 
 449 
 
 Boneset, 445, Fig. 138; bracts, 171. 
 
 Borage family, 412. 
 
 Boreal plants, 229. 
 
 Borraginacese, 412. 
 
 Boston ivy, leaves, 100, Fig. 155; tendril, 
 
 113. 
 
 Bougainvillea, 110. 
 Bouncing Bet, 354; fruit, Fig. 282. 
 Box, leaf, Fig. 149. 
 Box-elder, 376; phyllotaxy, 47, 48, Fig. 
 
 84. 
 
 Bracts: much reduced leaves, (231). 
 Brake, 180, 267, 323, Figs. 139, 335, 456 
 Bramble, 389. 
 
 Branched stem, 15, Fig. 21. 
 Brassica, 365, Fig. 518. 
 Briars, climbing, 112; prickles, 109. 
 Bridal wreath, 121, 392, Fig. 193. 
 Bristles, 109. 
 
 Bryophyllum, leaf cuttings, 21. 
 Bryophyte, 183. 
 Buckeye, 377. 
 Buckwheat, 76, 251, 350, Fig. 513; family, 
 
 349; flower, 130; fruit, 156; pollination, 
 
 139. 
 Bud, Fig. 165; dormant, 54; propagation 
 
 by, 21; resting, 36; -scales, 111; -scars, 
 
 old, 54, Fig. 91; struggle for existence, 
 
 52; winter, 21, 36, 61; and light, 50; 
 
 -variations, 237. 
 Bulb: thickened part, made up of scales 
 
 or plates, (80); phyllotaxy, 48; scales, 
 
 111. 
 Bulbel: bulb arising from a mother bulb, 
 
 (81). 
 
 Bulblet: aerial bulb, 21, (81). 
 Burdock, 7, 67, 169, 242, 243, 441, Fig. 
 
 306. 
 
 Burning bush, 294. 
 Bur-marigold, 440, Fig. 558. 
 Burs, 169. 
 Bur-seed, 413. 
 
 Burst of spring, 40, Fig. 72. 
 Bushes: low and thick shrubs, (15). 
 Butter-and-eggs, 137, 145, 405, Figs. 227, 
 
 544. 
 Buttercup, 3, 208, 233, 357, achene, 156, 
 
 Fig. 268; family, 355; flower, Figs. 
 
 202, 203; pistil, 130, Fig. 207 
 Butterfly weed, 418. 
 Butternut buds, 37. 
 Button-bush, 427. 
 Button snakeroot, 444. 
 ButtonWood, 294. 
 Buttresses, bracing, 9, Fig. 10. 
 
 Cabbage, 12, 16, 251; fruit, 160; head, 
 
 37, 38, Fig. 59; water pores, 299. 
 Cacti, Fig. 371. 
 Caffein, 271. 
 Calamus, 328. 
 
 CO 
 
 Calcium, 76; oxalate, 271, 275. 
 
 Calendula, 438. 
 
 Calla, 328, Figs. 486, 487; inflorescence, 
 150; lily, 328, Fig. 486. 
 
 Calliopsis, 440. 
 
 Callistephus, 443. 
 
 Callus, 62. 
 
 Caltha, 358. 
 
 Calypogon, 342. 
 
 Calyptra, 197. 
 
 Calyx: outer circle of floral envelopes, 
 (265); lobes, (266). 
 
 Cambium: the growing or nascent tissue 
 lying between the xylem and phloem 
 of the fibro-vascular bundle (481), and 
 therefore on the outside of the woody 
 trunk, since the active fibro-vascular 
 bundles are in the young outer tissues 
 (72), 62. 
 
 Campanula, 430; capsule, Fig. 283. 
 
 Campanulacea3, 430. 
 
 Campion, 354. 
 
 Canada thistle, 19, 22, 242, 244, Fig. 
 409. 
 
 Candytuft, 368, Fig. 192. 
 
 Canker, 92. 
 
 Canna, 18, Fig. 29. 
 
 Cannabis, 348. 
 
 Canterbury bell, 430. 
 
 Caoutchouc, 271. 
 
 Caprif oliaceae, .427. 
 
 Capsella, 368. 
 
 Capsicum, 410, Fig. 547. 
 
 Capsule: compound pod, (316). 
 
 Caraway, 399. 
 
 Carbohydrate, 85. 
 
 Carbon, 7& 82; dioxid, 77, 82. 
 
 Cardamine, 367. 
 
 Cardinal-flower, 431. 
 
 Cardiospennum, 376. 
 
 Carnation, 254, 255, 353; cutting, 25, 
 Figs. 34, 36. 
 
 Carpel: a simple pistil; one of the units 
 of a compound pistil, (271). 
 
 Carrot, 3, 33, 242, 243, 398, Fig. 410; 
 umbel, 121, 122, Fig. 194. 
 
 Carum, 399. 
 
 Caryophyllaceae, 353. 
 
 Cassia, 385; flower, 146, Fig. 247 . 
 
 Castalia, 361. 
 
 Castanea, 343. 
 
 Castilleja, 407. 
 
 Castor bean, 4, 271, 273, 352; germina- 
 tion, 171, 175, 178, Figs. 313-316. 
 
 Castor-oil, 273; inclusions, 275, 2.76; 
 plant, 352. 
 
 Catalpa, pods, 160, Fig. 284; seeds, 168, 
 Fig. 301. 
 
 Catchfly, 354. 
 
 Catkin: scaly-bracted deciduous spike 
 with declinous flowers, (252). 
 
450 
 
 INDEX AND GLOSSARY 
 
 Catmint, 403. 
 
 Catnip, 131, 243, 403, Figs. 213, 414. 
 
 Cat-tail, 3; seeds, 168, Fig. 304; stems, 
 285; swamp, 232. 
 
 Caulicle: stemlet of the embryo, (332). 
 
 Cedar, 326, 327, Fig. 485; and light, Fig. 
 76; fruit, 164; and birds, 168; apple, 
 192. 
 
 Celandine, 265, 363. 
 
 Celastrus, twiner, 115. 
 
 Celery, 249, 399; cell, 265. 
 
 Cell, 263; multiplication, 268, Figs. 442, 
 443; -sap, 72, 76, 265; -wall, 88, 264, 
 266, Fig. 267. 
 
 Cellulose, 266, 271. 
 
 Celtis, 347. 
 
 Centaurea, 441, Fig. 559. 
 
 Centrifugal: away from the center, (258), 
 Fig. 199. 
 
 Centripetal: toward the center, (258), 
 Figs. 197, 198. 
 
 Cephalanthus, 427. 
 
 Cerastium, 355. 
 
 Cercis, 351. 
 
 Chamberlain, quoted, 303. 
 
 Chamomile, 437. 
 
 Chara, 266. 
 
 Charcoal, 82. 
 
 Charlock, 243, 366, 368, Fig. 413. 
 
 Cheat, Fig. 412. 
 
 Checkerberry, 424. 
 
 Cheeses, 147, 148, 244, 372, Fig. 248. 
 
 Chelone, 406. 
 
 Chenopodium, Fig. 408. 
 
 Cherry, 20, 251, 387, 388, Fig. 539; fruit, 
 161; inflorescence, 123; phyllotaxy, 48; 
 and birds, 168. 
 
 Chess, 242, Fig. 412. 
 
 Chestnut, 343; fruit, 155, Fig. 267; monoe- 
 cious, 138; -oak graft, 28. 
 
 Chickweed, 242, 355, Fig. 516; mouse- 
 ear, 355. 
 
 Chicory, 435. 
 
 Chinese sacred lily, 336, Fig. 494. 
 
 Chionanthus, 421. 
 
 Chlorin, 76, 82. 
 
 Chlorophyll, 83, 270. 
 
 Chloroplast, 264. 
 
 Choke cherry, 389. 
 
 Choripetalae, 3^2. 
 
 Chromosome, 268. 
 
 Chrysanthemum, 150, 151, 153, 438. 
 
 Cichorium, 435. 
 
 Cider, acid, 271. 
 
 Cilia, 186, 266. 
 
 Cinchona, 271. 
 
 Cinquefoil, 386. 
 
 Cion the bud or branch used in grafting, 
 (70). 
 
 Circsea, 397. 
 
 Cirsium, 441. 
 
 Citric acid, 271. 
 
 Cladophyllum: leaf-like branch, (225). 
 
 Clasping: leaf partly or wholly surround- 
 ing stem, (207). 
 
 Claytonia, 371. 
 
 Cleavers, 426. 
 
 Cleft, 96. Cleft-graft, 29. 
 
 Cleistogamous flowers: small closed self- 
 fertilized flowers, (286). 
 
 Clematis, 155, 287, 359; and light, Fig. 
 77; tendril, 115, Fig. 178. 
 
 Climate, and plants, 212; and variation, 
 238. 
 
 Climbing, plants, 112; plants and light, 
 43; stems, 14. 
 
 Close fertilization: secured by pollen 
 from same flower; self-fertilization, 
 (278). 
 
 Close-pollination, 134. 
 
 Clotbur, 169, 230, 436, Fig. 555. 
 
 Clover, 4, 7, 68, 221, 249, 251, 382, Figs. 
 187, 527; bracts, 110, Fig. 173; chloro- 
 phyll, 83; inflorescence, 120; roots, 
 nodules on, 78; sleep of, 49, Fig. 85; 
 pollination, 137. 
 
 Cobea, 115. 
 
 Cockle, 242, 354. 
 
 Coco-grass, 244. 
 
 Coffee, 135, Fig. 201; tree, 100. 
 
 Cohosh, anther, 271. 
 
 Coleus, 75, 287; chlorophyll, 84; cuttings, 
 23, 25, 26; cells, 265; starch in, 86. 
 
 Collateral, 288. 
 
 Collection, making a, 279. 
 
 Collenchyma, 280. 
 
 Collinsia, 406. 
 
 Collodion, 303, Fig. 476. 
 
 Colonies, 230. 
 
 Color of foliage, 233. 
 
 Coltsfoot, 442. 
 
 Columbine, 358, Fig. 517; fruit, 157. 
 
 Columella, 188. 
 
 Column: body formed of union of sta- 
 mens and pistil in orchids, (300). 
 
 Columnar trees, 64, Fig. 112. 
 
 Commelina, 334. Commelinacese, 334. 
 
 Companion cells, 280. 
 
 Compass plant, 50, 297. 
 
 Complete flower: all parts present, (273). 
 
 Complete leaf: having blade, petiole, 
 stipules, (206), Fig. 145. 
 
 Compositse, 150, 431. 
 
 Compositous flowers, 150. 
 
 Compound leaves, 95. 
 
 Compound pistil: of more than one car- 
 pel united, (271) 
 
 Concentric, 288. 
 
 Cone-flower, 438. 
 
 Conical trees, 64. 
 
 Coniferse, 271, 324. 
 
 Conjugation, 186. 
 
INDEX AND GLOSSARY 
 
 451 
 
 Connate, 97, Fig. 148. 
 
 Convallaria, 334. 
 
 Convolvulacese, 411. 
 
 Convolvulus, 412; family, 411. 
 
 Coral root, 90, 93, Fig. 132. 
 
 Corallorhiza, Fig. 132. 
 
 Cordate: heart-shaped, (211). 
 
 Coreopsis, 440. 
 
 Cork oak, 294. 
 
 Corm: a solid bulb-like part, (82). 
 
 Cormel: a corm arising from a mother 
 corm, (82). 
 
 Cormlet: aerial corm, (82). 
 
 Corn, 8, 11, 139, 212, 213, 250, 254, 271, 
 279, 285, Figs. 14, 230, 231, 427, 448, 
 452, 454; ash in, 77; broom, 139, 250, 
 Figs. 233, 429; field, 221, 227, Fig. 385; 
 germination, 133, 134, 135, 171, 173, 
 175, 178, Figs. 317-321, 378; monoj- 
 cious, 139, Fig. 230; North and South, 
 212, Fig. 378; phyllotaxy, 48; roots, 7, 
 296; stalk, 17; starch, 274, 275; stems, 
 267; stomates, 301; syrup, 272; trans- 
 piration in, 81; water in, 76; wilting, 81; 
 as weed, 241. 
 
 Corn-cockle, Fig. 181. 
 
 Corn-flower, 442; flowers, 151, Figs. 256, 
 559. 
 
 Corolla: inner circle of floral envelopes, 
 (265). 
 
 Corpse plant, 425. 
 
 Corydalis, 364. 
 
 Corymb: short and broad, more or less 
 flat-topped.indeterminate cluster, (254), 
 Figs. 192, 193, 197. 
 
 Corymbose inflorescence: outer flowers 
 opening first; indeterminate, (248). 
 
 Cosmos, 437. 
 
 Cotton, 67, 147, 148, 249, 251, 271, Fig. 
 115; fibers, 263. 
 
 Cotyledon: seed-leaf, (332). 
 
 Couch-grass, Fig. 27. 
 
 Cowpea, 251, 384, Figs. 273, 532; nodules 
 on root, 78. 
 
 Cowslip, 358, 422. 
 
 Crab-apple, 391. 
 
 Cranberry, 424; high-bush, 429. 
 
 Cranesbill, 373. 
 
 Cratsegus, 392. 
 
 Creeper: a trailing shoot which takes 
 root throughout its length, (56). 
 
 Creeping stems, 14, Fig. 18. 
 
 Crenate: shallowly round-toothed, (212). 
 
 Cress, fruit, 160; winter, 366. 
 
 Crinkle-root, 367. 
 
 Crocus, 4, 34, 35 ; 338, Figs. 52, 53, 497. 
 
 Crops, 249. 
 
 Cross-fertilization: secured by pollen 
 from another flower, (278). 
 
 Cross-pollination: transfer of pollen from 
 flower to flower, (278). 
 
 Crowfoot, 357; family, 355. 
 
 Crown: that part of the stem at the sur- 
 face of the ground, ( V 37); -tuber, 32, 
 Fig. 47. 
 
 Cruciferae, 160, 365. 
 
 Cryptogam: flowerless plant, as fern, 
 moss, fungus, 185, 321, (353). 
 
 Crystals, 275. Crystaloids, 275. 
 
 Cucumber, 251, 287; collenchyma, 280; 
 fruit, 162; pits, 267; root-pressure, 74; 
 squirting, 167, 280; tendrils, 114. 
 
 Cudweed, 444. 
 
 Cupuliferse, 342. 
 
 Currant, 395, Figs. 540-542; bud, Fig. 
 58; cuttings, 23, 26, Fig. 40; fruit, 160; 
 stem, 294, Fig. 465. 
 
 Cuscuta, 412, Fig. 553. 
 
 Cutting: severed piece of a plant designed 
 to propagate the plant, (51), (61), 
 Figs. 29, 33-41; hardwood, 26; soft- 
 wood, 23. 
 
 Cutting-bed, 25, Fig. 36. 
 
 Cutting-box, 25, 29. 
 
 Cutting sections, 303. 
 
 Cycas, 301. 
 
 Cyclamen, 265, 423. 
 
 Cycloloma, 170. 
 
 Cyclone plant, 170. 
 
 Cydonia, 391. 
 
 Cyme: broad, more or less flat-topped, 
 determinate cluster, (257), Figs. 196, 
 199. 
 
 Cymose inflorescence: central flowers 
 opening first; determinate, (256), Fig. 
 195. 
 
 Cynoglossum, 413. 
 
 Cypress, swamp, Fig. 435; vine, 411, Fig. 
 551. 
 
 Cypripedium, 340. 
 
 Cystolith, 276. 
 
 Cytoplasm, 263. 
 
 Daffodil, 336, 
 
 Dahlia, 33, 271, 437; double, 151, 153, 
 
 Fig. 257, 258. 
 Daisy, 242, 244, 439; flowers, 150; ox-eye, 
 
 438, Fig. 189; rays, 143; English, scape, 
 
 125, Fig. 200. 
 Dalibarda, 140. 
 Dandelion, 3, 7, 13, 241, 242, 246, 434, 
 
 Figs. 8, 275; flowers, 150; rays, 151; 
 
 scape, 125; seeds, 168, Fig. 302; tissue, 
 
 283. 
 
 Darwin, quoted, 221, 240. 
 Darwinism, 240. 
 Date, seed, 271. 
 Datura, 410, Fig. 275. 
 Daucus, 398. 
 Day flower, 334. 
 
 Day-lily, 331, 332, Figs. 279, 491, 492. 
 Deciduous: falling, (216). 
 
452 
 
 INDEX AND GLOSSARY 
 
 Decompound, 96. 
 
 Decumbent stems, 14. 
 
 Decurrent: running down the stem, (207), 
 Fig. 147. 
 
 Dehiscence: opening of seed-pod or an- 
 ther, (279), (312), 159. 
 
 Deliquescent: trunk or leader lost in the 
 branches, (40), Fig. 17. 
 
 Delphinium, 359. 
 
 Dentaria, 366; pod, 155, Fig. 266. 
 
 Dentate: sharp-toothed, (212). 
 
 Dependent plants, 90. 
 
 Dermatogen, 279. 
 
 Desert vegetation, Fig. 371. 
 
 Determinate : definite cessation of growth 
 at the apex, (256), Fig. 195. 
 
 Deutzia, 61, 394. 
 
 Devil's paint-brush, 436. 
 
 Dewberry, 20, 390, Figs. 30, 170; fruit, 
 161. 
 
 Dextrin, 271. 
 
 Diadelphous: in two groups, (297). 
 
 Dianthus, 353, Fig. 515. 
 
 Dicentra, 364. 
 
 Dichogamy: stamens and pistils matur- 
 ing at different times, (280). 
 
 Diclinous: imperfect; having either sta- 
 mens or pistils, (274). 
 
 Dicotyledons, 342. 
 
 Diervilla, 429. 
 
 Digestion: changing of starchy materials 
 into soluble and transportable forms, 
 (183). 
 
 Digitalis, 407. 
 
 Digitate, 96, Figs. 140, 142, 144. 
 
 Dioecious: staminate and pistillate flow- 
 ers on different plants, (284). 
 
 Dispersal of seeds, 166. 
 
 Dissecting apparatus, 132, Figs. 215-217. 
 
 Divergence of character, 221. 
 
 Divided, 96. 
 
 Dock, 3, 242, 243, 244, 350. 
 
 Dockmackie, 429. 
 
 Dodder, 91, 94, 116, 412, Fig. 553. 
 
 Dodecatheon, 422. 
 
 Dogbane, 419; family, 418. 
 
 Dog's-tooth violet, 330, Fig. 490. 
 
 Dogwood, bracts, 110; osier, Fig. 5; tree, 
 Fig. 383. 
 
 Dormant buds, 54, Fig. 91. 
 
 Double flowers, 153. 
 
 Dragon-root, 327. 
 
 Dragon's head, false, inflorescence, Fig. 
 185. 
 
 Drupe: fleshy on,e-seeded indehiscent 
 fruit; stone fruit, (320). 
 
 Drupelet: one drupe in a fruit made up 
 of aggregate drupes, (321). 
 
 Dryopteris, 179, 324, Figs. 331, 332. 
 
 Ducts, 263. 
 
 Dusty miller, 354. 
 
 Dutch case-knife bean, 178. 
 Dutchman's breeches, 364. 
 Dutchman's pipe, 116, 349; family, 348. 
 Dwarf plants, 212. 
 
 Earth parasites, 2. 
 Echinospermum, 382. 
 Echium, 415. 
 
 Ecology: habits and modes of life of ani- 
 mals and plants, (397). 
 Egg-cell, 133, 187. 
 Eggplant, 160, 410, Fig. 288. 
 Eglantine, 390. 
 Elaboration, food, 82. 
 Elater, 196. 
 Elder, 4, 125, 282, 429; box, 47, Fig. 84; 
 
 pith, 263; poison, Fig. 422. 
 Elecampane, 442. 
 Elliptic, 98, Fig. 151. 
 Elm, 14, 64, 218, 222, 287, 346, Figs. 
 
 507-509; flower, 130, 143; foliage, 65; 
 
 fruit, 156; germination, 178; phyllo- 
 
 taxy, 47, 48, Fig. 84; seed, 168; shoot, 
 
 history, 57, 58, Figs. 96-100; trunk of, 
 
 65. 
 
 Elodea, 85, 265, 266, Fig. 439. 
 Embryo: the plantlet in the seed, (332). 
 Embryology, 106. 
 Emersed, 207. 
 Emetin, 271. 
 
 Enchanter's nightshade, 397. 
 Endodermis, 279. 
 Endogenous stems, 285. 
 Endosperm: food in the seed outside the 
 
 embryo, (333). 
 
 Entire: margin not indented, (212). 
 Environment: surroundings; conditions 
 
 in which organisms grow, (354), 212. 
 Enzymes, 87, 277. 
 Eosin for staining, 73. 
 Epicotyl: that part of the caulicle lying 
 
 above the cotyledons, (340). 
 Epidermal tissue, 279, 283. 
 Epidermis of leaf, 297. 
 Epigsea, 425. 
 Epigeal: cotyledons rising into the air 
 
 in germination, (339). 
 Epigynous: borne on the ovary, (307). 
 Epilobium, 397. 
 Epipactis, 341. 
 Epiphyte, 11, 93. 
 Equisetacese, 199. Equisetum, 199, 202, 
 
 Fig. 369. 
 Erect stems, 14. 
 Ericacea?, 423. 
 Erigenia, 399. 
 Erigeron, 442, Fig. 560. 
 Erythronium, 330, Fig. 490. 
 Eschscholtzia, 362. 
 Essential organs: stamens and pistils, 
 
 (269). 
 
INDEX AND GLOSS AEY 
 
 453 
 
 Eupatorium, 444, Fig. 138. 
 
 Euphorbia, 273, 275, 352. 
 
 Euphorbiacese, 351. 
 
 Eutropic: in the direction of the sun's 
 course, (243), Fig. 179. 
 
 Evening primrose, 3, 243, 396, Figs. 276, 
 415. 
 
 Evergreen: remaining green, (216). 
 
 Everlasting, 443. 
 
 Evolution, 240. 
 
 Excurrent: the trunk or leader contin- 
 ued through the top, (39), Fig. 19. 
 
 Exogenous stems, 286. 
 
 Exosmosis, 73. 
 
 Explosive fruits, 166. 
 
 Exposure, 215. 
 
 Expression in plants, 65. 
 
 Fagopyrum, 350, Fig. 513. 
 
 Fagus, 343. 
 
 Fall of leaf, 97, 299. 
 
 False annual: perennial by means of bulbs, 
 
 corms, or tubers, (13). 
 Farm forestry, 258. 
 Fastigiate trees, 64, Fig. 112. 
 Fats, 271, 273. 
 Fehling's solution, 272. 
 Fern, 18, 183, 205, 209, 224, 321, Fig. 479; 
 
 Christmas, 179, 323, Figs. 331, 332; 
 
 cinnamon, 322, Fig. 479; flowering, 322; 
 
 lady, 323; maidenhair, 180, Fig. 336; 
 
 marsh shield, 324; ostrich, 323; poly- 
 
 pode, 180, Figs. 333, 334; royal, 322; 
 
 sensitive, 322, 323, Fig. 337; shield, 324; 
 
 fronds, 179; in good and poor light, 42, 
 
 Figs. 73, 74; discussed, 179, 198, 202; 
 
 prothallus, 180, Fig. 339. 
 Fertilization: impregnation of the ovule, 
 
 (276). 
 
 Fertilizer, 77. 
 Fibrous tissue, 281. 
 Fibro-vascular bundles, 283. 
 Ficus elastica, 277, Fig. 447. 
 Field crop, 249. 
 Fig, climbing, Fig. 78. 
 Figwort, 406; family, 404. 
 Filament: stalk part of the stamen, (270). 
 Filices, 321. 
 Film, moisture, 75. 
 Fir, 64. 
 
 Fire-blight, 92. 
 Fireweed, 230; purple, 397. 
 Five-finger, 386. 
 
 Flag, 338 ; garden, 299, Fig. 496 ; sweet, 328. 
 Flagella, 266. 
 Flax, 249, 250, 251. 271. 
 Fleabane, 442. 
 Fleur-de-lis, 338. 
 Flora: plant population of a country or 
 
 pla?e; also a book describing this popu- 
 lation, (355). 
 
 Floral envelopes, 127. 
 
 Florets: individual flowers of composites 
 
 and grasses, (303), Figs. 255-258. 
 Floriculture, 230. 
 Flower, parts of, 127; -branches, 118; 
 
 -bud, 39; -cluster, 118; -stem, 125. 
 Foliage, 2, 65, 95. 
 Follicle: dry, dehiscent pericarp opening 
 
 on the front suture, (314). 
 Food elaboration, 82. 
 Food, reservoirs, 31 ; supply and variation, 
 
 238. 
 
 Forest, 256, Figs. 387-394, 398. 
 Forget-me-not, 414. 
 Formalin, 303. Formic acid, 271. 
 Forms of plants, 64. 
 Forsythia, 61, 420. 
 Foul-gas, 83. 
 Foxglove, 407. 
 
 Fragaria, 387, Figs. 533, 534. 
 Framework, 2, 67, Figs. 3, 4. 
 Fraxinus, 421. 
 Freesia, 339, Fig. 498. 
 Free-swimming, 207. 
 Fringe-tree, 421. 
 Frog spittle, 185. 
 Frond: leaf of fern, (345). 
 Fruit-bud, 39, Figs. 61, 62, 70, 71. 
 Fruits, 155. 
 Fuchsia, 17, 397; and light, 43; bracts. 
 
 Fig. 172; cuttings, 25, 26; flower, 128; 
 
 Fig. 205; inflorescence, 119, Fig. 183; 
 
 phyllotaxy, 48; water-pores, 299. 
 Fumariacese, 363. 
 Fumitory, 364. 
 Function of leaves, 95. 
 Function: what a plant or a part does; 
 
 its vital activities. 
 Fundamental tissue, 283. 
 Fungi, 91, 183, 187, 201, 263, 266, Figs. 
 
 135, 137. 
 Funiculus, 171. 
 Funkia, 332, Figs. 491, 492. 
 Funnelform, 144, Fig. 240. 
 
 Galanthus, 336, Fig. 495. 
 
 Galium, 426; climbing, 112. 
 
 Gall, 92. 
 
 Gametophyte, 181, 201. 
 
 Gamopetalse, 400. 
 
 Gamopetalus: corolla of one piece, (267), 
 
 Fig. 204. 
 Gamosepalous: calyx of one piece, (267), 
 
 Fig. 204. 
 Gaultheria, 424. 
 Gaylussacia, 424. 
 Gemmae, 194. 
 Generation: period from birth to death, 
 
 (8). 
 Gentian, 417; family, 417. Gentianacese, 
 
 417. 
 
454 
 
 INDEX AND GLOSSARY 
 
 Geraniacese, 373. 
 
 Geranium, 17, 287, 298, 301, 373, Figs. 
 
 470, 472; chlorophyll, 83; cuttings, 23, 
 
 25, 26, Figs. 33, 38, 39; family, 373; 
 
 inflorescence, Fig. 195; and light, 43; 
 
 starch in, 86. 
 Germander, 402. 
 Germination, 70, 171, 172. 
 Geum, 386. 
 Gherkin, 251. 
 Gilliflower, 366. 
 Gill-over-the-ground, 403. 
 Ginger, 18. 
 Ginger, wild, 99, 349. 
 Glabrous: not hairy. 
 Gladiolus, 34, 35, 339, Figs. 54, 499. 
 Glandular, 298. 
 Glaucous: covered with a "bloom" or a 
 
 whitish substance. 
 Gleditschia, 381. 
 Globe-flower, 390. 
 Globoid inclusions, 275. 
 Glomerule: dense head -like cyme, (257). 
 Gloxinia, leaf-cuttings, 21. 
 Glucose, 85, 271, 272. 
 Glucoside, 271. 
 Glume, 152. 
 Gnaphalium, 444. 
 Goafs-beard, 434. 
 Golden bell, 61. 
 
 Goldenrod, 3, 150, 232, 233, 442. 
 Goober, 141, 251. 
 Gooseberry, 160, 395. 
 Goose-grass, 426. 
 Gourd, 251; collenchyma, 280. 
 Graft: a branch or bud made to grow 
 
 on another plant, 27, (60), Figs. 32, 
 
 42-44. 
 
 Grafting-wax, 29. 
 Grape, 282; cane, Fig. 460; crystals, 275, 
 
 276; cuttings, 23, 26; fruit, 160, Fig. 
 
 176; hyacinth, 331; leaves, 100; root, 
 
 Fig. 467; sugar, 272; tendrils, 114, 117, 
 
 Fig. 176; sap-pressure, 74; sympode, 
 
 Fig. 180. 
 Grass, 17, 231, 232, 249; flowers, 151; 
 
 blue-eyed, 338; leaf, Fig. 150; family, 
 
 152; pink, 342. 
 Grasses, 285; leaves of, 98, 102; phyllo- 
 
 taxy, 49; pollination, 138; roots of, 7; 
 
 starch, 274. 
 
 Grass of Parnassus, 394. 
 Gratiola, 407. 
 Greek valerian, 417. 
 Greenbrier, tendril, 115; stem, 285. 
 Gromwell, 414. 
 Ground cherry, 409. 
 Ground ivy, 403. 
 Ground-nut, 385. 
 Guinea squash, 410. 
 Gum-resin, 271, 273. 
 
 Gymnosperm: seed naked (not in an 
 ovary); applied to pines, spruces, etc., 
 (326), 324. 
 
 Habenaria, 341. 
 
 Habitat: particular place in which a plant 
 
 grows, (355). 
 Habit: the looks, appearance, general 
 
 style of growth, (36). 
 Hackberry, 347. 
 Hair-grass, 170. 
 Hairs, 298. 
 
 Halophytic societies, 228. 
 Harbinger of spring, 399. 
 Hardhack, 392. 
 Hardwood cutting, 26. 
 Harebell, 430. 
 Haustoria, 91, Fig. 137. 
 Hawkweed, 244, 436. 
 Hawthorn, 108, 392; -pear graft, 27. 
 Hazel, 138. 
 
 Head of tree, form of, 65. 
 Head: short, dense spike, (251), Figs. 
 
 187, 188, 197. 
 Heart-seed, 376. 
 Heart's-ease, 369. 
 Heath, 93; family, 423. 
 Hedeoma, 401. 
 
 Hedera 'helix, 277, 287, 300, Fig. 468. 
 Hedge hyssop, 407. 
 Helianthus, 439. 
 
 Heliotrope, 413. Heliotropium, 413. 
 Heliotropism: turning toward the light, 
 
 (101). 
 
 Hematoxylin, 266, 303. 
 Hemerocallis, 331. 
 Hemlock, 213, 271, Fig. 484; poison, 247; 
 
 water, 247. 
 Hemp, 249, 251, 348. 
 Henna root, 273. 
 Hepatica, 156, 233, 356. 
 Herb, 3. 
 Herbaceous: not woody, (11); perennial, 
 
 3. 
 
 Herbarium, 311, Fig. 478. 
 Herb Robert, 374. 
 Herbicides, 246. 
 Heredity, 239. 
 Hetercecism, 192. 
 Hibiscus, 62, Fig. 152. 
 Hickory, 50, 155; bud, 39, 111, Figs. 63, 
 
 64, 87; inflorescence, 121; leaf -scars, 37; 
 
 monoecious, 138. 
 Hieracium : 436. 
 Hilum, or seed-scar, 171. 
 Hip: fruit of the rose, (323), Fig. 292. 
 Hobblebush, 429. 
 Hog-peanut, 140, Fig. 238. 
 Hollyhock, 4, 372; flower, 136, 147, 
 
 148, 153, Figs. 222, 223, 263; cells, 
 
 265. 
 
INDEX AND GLOSSARY 
 
 455 
 
 Holly, phyllotaxy, 48; tree, Fig. 380; 
 atomates, 299. 
 
 Honesty fruit, 160. 
 
 Honey locust, 381; buds, 37; leaf, 100; 
 thorns, 108; tree, Fig. 117. 
 
 Honeysuckle, 62, 428, Fig. 554; buds, 37; 
 family, 427; leaves, Fig. J48; phyllo- 
 taxy, 48; swamp, 425; Tartarian, 37, 
 53; twiner, 115. 
 
 Hop, 115, 116, 251, 348, Fig. 179. 
 
 Hop clover, 383. 
 
 Horehound, 403. 
 
 Horse-chestnut, 377; bud, 36, 111; fruit, 
 Fig. 277; germination, 178; inflores- 
 cence, 123; leaf, 99; leaf -scar, 37. 
 
 Horse-mint, 400. 
 
 Horse-radish, 367. 
 
 Horsetails, 199, Fig. 369. 
 
 Horse-weed, 443, Fig. 560. 
 
 Horticultural crop, 249. 
 
 Host, 78, 91. 
 
 Hound's tongue, 169, 243, 413. 
 
 House-leek, 20; phyllotaxy, 48. 
 
 Houstonia, 427. 
 
 Huckleberry, 424; anther, 135. 
 
 Humulus, 348. 
 
 Humus, 2^0. 
 
 Hyacinth' 35, 331; crystals, 276; grape, 
 331; inflorescence, Fig. 186; scape, 125. 
 
 Hydrangea, 62, 125, 131, 394; doubling, 
 153. 
 
 Hydrogen, 76, 82. 
 
 Hydrophyllacese, 415. 
 
 Hydrophytic society, 228, Fig. 395. 
 
 Hypericacese, 370. 
 
 Hypericum, 371. 
 
 Hyphse, 91, 188. 
 
 Hypocotyl: that part of the caulicle 
 lying below the cotyledons, (338). 
 
 Hypogeal: cotyledons remaining beneath 
 the ground in germination, (339). 
 
 Hypogynous: borne on the torus, or un- 
 der the ovary, (307). 
 
 Hypoxis 337 
 
 Iberis, 368. 
 
 Immersed, 207. 
 
 Impatiens, 375; collenchyma, Figs. 449, 
 
 521, 522; water-pores, 299, 301; seeds, 
 
 166. 
 Imperfect flower: having either stamens 
 
 or pistils, (274). 
 Inclusions, 275. 
 
 Indehiscent: not opening, (312). 
 Independent plants, 90. 
 Indeterminate: growing on from the apex, 
 
 (248). 
 
 Indian hemp, 419. 
 Indian pink, 431. 
 Indian pipe, 90, 425. 
 Indian tobacco, 431. 
 
 Indian turnip, 149, 327. 
 
 India-rubber plant, 271, 276, 297, Fig. 
 
 447. 
 
 India wheat, 350. 
 Indigo, 271; false, 383. 
 Indusium, 179, Fig. 338. 
 Inferior, 152. 
 Inflorescence: mode of flower-bearing; 
 
 less properly, a flower-cluster, (260). 
 Innocence, 406. 
 
 Insects and flowers, 136, Fig. 227. 
 Inula, 442. Inulin, 271. 
 Involucre: a whorl of small leaves or 
 
 bracts standing close underneath a 
 
 flower or flower-cluster, (299). 
 Iodine test for starch, 86, 274. 
 Ipecac, 271. 
 
 Ipomcea, 411, Figs. 551, 552. 
 Iridaceae, 337. 
 Iris, 338, Fig. 496; cells, 265; family, 337; 
 
 leaf, 297; stems, 285. 
 Iron, 76. 
 Ironweed, 445. 
 Irregular flower: some parts in one series 
 
 different, (275). 
 Irrigation, 215. 
 Isoetes, 200, 202, Fig. 370. 
 Ivy, 10, 100, 113, 277, 287, 292, 297, 299, 
 
 300, Figs. 174, 468, 471; Boston, 100, 
 
 113, Fig. 155; Kenilworth, 405; Fig. 
 
 545; poison, 11, 113, 247, Fig. 421. 
 
 Jack-in-the-pulpit, 149, 276, 327, Fig. 251. 
 
 Jacob's ladder, 417. 
 
 Jamestown-weed, 410. 
 
 Japan quince. 97, 392. 
 
 Japan rose, 390. 
 
 Jeffersonia, 360. 
 
 Jerusalem artichoke, 439. 
 
 Jewel-weed, 166, 230, 280, 375, Figs. 449, 
 
 521, 522. 
 
 Jimson-weed, 243, 410, Fig. 275. 
 Joe Pye weed, 444. 
 Johnny-jump-up, 369. 
 Johnson-grass, 244. 
 Jonquil, 336. 
 Judas tree, 381. 
 
 Juneberry, 391; and birds, 168. 
 June-grass, 241. 
 Juniper, 164, 326. 
 
 Kafir, 139, 250, Fig. 234. 
 
 Kale, 251. 
 
 Kalmia, 425. 
 
 Karyokinesis: indirect division or trans- 
 formation of the nucleus, being one 
 means of cell multiplication; mitosis, 
 269, (448). 
 
 Kentucky coffee tree, 100. 
 
 Kerria, 390. 
 
 Key-fruit, 156. 
 
456 
 
 INDEX AND GLOSSARY 
 
 Kinghead, 243. 
 
 Knotweed, 130, 143, 351, Fig. 210. 
 
 Kohlrabi, 33, 251, Fig. 48. 
 
 Labiatse, 144, 400. Labiate, 144. 
 Laboratory advice, 301; table, Fig. 
 
 477. 
 
 Lactuca, 435. 
 
 Lady's-slipper, 148, 340, Fig. 250. 
 Ladies' tresses, 341. 
 Lady's thumb, 351, Fig. 514. 
 Lake-cress, 21. 
 Lambkill, 425. 
 Lanceolate, 99. 
 Landscape and plants, 210. 
 Lappula, 413. 
 Larch, 326, Figs. 462, 463; European, 
 
 326. 
 
 Larix, 326. 
 Larkspur, 4, 359; flower, 137, Figs. 224- 
 
 226; fruit, 157, Figs. 269, 270. 
 Lateral flowers, 119, Fig. 182. 
 Lathyrus, 263, 381. 
 Laticiferous tissue, 282. 
 Laurel, 425. 
 Layer: a branch which takes root and 
 
 gives rise to an independent plant, 
 
 (55). 
 
 Layers of branches, 56, Figs. 93, 94. 
 Leaf, bud, 39, Figs. 70, 71; -cutting, 21, 
 
 27, Fig. 41; fall of, 299; how to tell, 103; 
 
 -spot, 92; parts of, 97. r 
 Leaflet: one part in a compound leaf, 
 
 (204). 
 
 Leaf-scars, 37, 300, Fig. 57. 
 Leaves, arrangement of, 47; fall of, 299; 
 
 general account, 95; polar, 50; propa- 
 gation by, 21; sleep of, 49; structure, 
 
 297. 
 Legume: simple pericarp dehiscing on 
 
 both sutures, (315). 
 Leguminosse, 78, 146, 157, 379. 
 Lemon, acid, 271. 
 Lens, 132, 248; stand for, Figs. 214, 
 
 425. 
 
 Lenticels, 294. 
 Leonurus, 403. 
 Lepidium, 368. 
 Lespedeza, 251. 
 Lettuce, 435; wild, 50, 243, 435, Fig. 
 
 86. 
 
 Leucojum vernurn, 337. 
 Liatris, 444. 
 
 Lichen, 94, 183, 193, 209, Fig. 373. 
 Licorice, wild, 426. 
 Life-history: sum of the events in the 
 
 life of a plant, (7). 
 Light and plants, 42, 223, Figs. 73-78, 
 
 81-85. 
 
 Ligneous: woody, (11). 
 Lignin, 266. 
 
 Ligule of isoetes, 201. 
 
 Ligustrum, 421. 
 
 Lilac, 4, 61, 420, Fig. 72; bud, 111; inflo- 
 rescence, 125; phyllotaxy, 48; stomates, 
 299. 
 
 Liliacese, 145, 146, 328. 
 
 Lilium, 329, Figs. 488, 489. 
 
 Lily, 4, 20, 329, Figs. 488, 489; bulb, 33; 
 calla, [328, Fig. 486; day-, 331, 332, 
 Figs. 279, 491,492; Easter, 330; family, 
 328; germination, 133; leaves, 102; 
 stomates, 301; tiger, 21, 33, 330, Fig. 
 31; straw, 332; Turk's-cap, 330, Fig, 
 489; water-, 3, 98, 205, 207, 361; wild 
 orange-red, 330; wood, 330. 
 
 Lily-of-the-valley, 18, 334. 
 
 Linaria, 405, Figs. 544, 545. 
 
 Linear, 98, Fig. 150. 
 
 Linnaeus, 308. 
 
 Lipped, 144. 
 
 Lithospermum, 414. 
 
 Liverleaf, 356. Liverworts, 193, 201. 
 
 Lobed, 96, 100, Fig. 143. 
 
 Lobelia, 431; family, 431. Lobeliacese, 
 431. 
 
 Locule: compartment of a pistil, (310). 
 
 Loculicidal: dehiscence between the par- 
 titions, (317). 
 
 Locust, 380; buds, 37; honey, tree, Fig. 
 117; prickles, 109; seed, 166; sleep of, 
 49; thorns, 108. 
 
 Lodicule, 152. 
 
 Lonicera, 428, Fig. 554. 
 
 Loosestrife, 423. 
 
 Loquat, 251. 
 
 Lotus, starch, 274. 
 
 Lucerne, 383, Fig. 529. 
 
 Lungwort, 414. 
 
 Lupine, 384. 
 
 Lupinus, 384. 
 
 Lychnis, 354. 
 
 Lycopersicum, 410. 
 
 Lycopus, 400. 
 
 Lysimachia, 423. 
 
 Madura, 347. 
 
 Macrospore, 182. 
 
 Madder family, 426. 
 
 Magnesium, 76. 
 
 Maianthemum, 333. 
 
 Maidenhair, 180, 323, Fig. 336. 
 
 Maize, 3, 8, 11, 48, 139, 152, 171, 175, 
 
 250, Figs. 9, 14, 230, 231, 317-321. 
 Malic acid, 271. 
 Mallow, 147, 148, 244, 372, Fig. 248; 
 
 family, 372. 
 Maltose, 272. 
 Malva, 372. 
 Malvacese, 148, 372. 
 Mandrake, 18, 361. 
 Mangrove, 12, 20, Fig. 16. 
 
INDEX AND GLOSSARY 
 
 457 
 
 Maple, 14, 47, 64, 67, 218, 241, 273, 376, 
 
 Figs. 79, 80, 523-526; branching, 56; 
 
 buds, 37, 39, 40, 41, 111; family, 375; 
 
 flowering, 373; foliage, 65; fruit, 156; 
 
 germination, 178, Figs. 323-330; leaf, 
 
 Figs. 143, 157; leaf -scar, 37; phyllotaxy, 
 
 48; sap-pressure, 74; seed, 168; trunk, 
 
 65. 
 Marchantia, 193, 197, 202, Figs. 358- 
 
 364. 
 
 Mare's-tail, 443, Fig. 560. 
 Marigold, marsh, 358; pot, 438. 
 Marrubium, 403. 
 Marsh-cress, 367. 
 Marsh mallow, 148, 372. 
 Marsh marigold, 358. 
 Matthiola, 366. 
 
 May-apple, 18, 22, 361; anther, 135. 
 Mayflower, 356, 425 
 Maypop, 162. 
 
 Mayweed, 230, 243, 438, Fig. 417. 
 Meadow grass, 3. 
 Meadow rue, 357. 
 Meadow-sweet, 392. 
 Medicago, 383, Fig. 529. 
 Medick, 383. 
 Medlar, 251. 
 
 Medullary rays, 278, 286. 
 Melilotus, 383, Fig. 528. 
 Melon, 251; fruit, 162; tendrils, 114. 
 Menispermum, stem, 287, 289, 294. 
 Mentha, 401, Fig. 543. 
 Meristematic, 278. 
 Mermaid- weed, 208. 
 Mertensia, 414. 
 Mesophyll, 272, 297. 
 Mesophytic society, 228, Fig. 396. 
 Micropyle, 171. 
 Microscope, slides, Fig. 476. 
 Microspore, 182. 
 Microtome, 303. 
 Midrib, 96, 98. 
 
 Mignonette, inflorescence, 120. 
 Mildew, 91, 189, 190, Figs. 348-351. 
 Milk thistle, 435. 
 Milkweed, 418; family, 417; fruit, 157, 
 
 Fig. 271; seeds, 168, Fig. 303; tissue, 
 
 283. 
 
 Milkwort, 378; family, 378. 
 Millet, 152, 250, Fig. 162. 
 Milo, Fig. 234. 
 Mimulus, 407, Fig. 546. 
 Mineral nutrients, 69, 75. 
 Mint, 401; family, 400; phyllotaxy, 48. 
 Mistletoe, 93, 94, 299. 
 Mitchella, 427. 
 Mitella, 394. 
 Mitosis, 269. 
 
 Mitrewort, 394; lalse, 393. 
 Mixed buds, 40; flower-clusters, 123. 
 Moccasin flower, 340. 
 
 Mock orange, 62, 395. 
 
 Mock pennyroyal, 401. 
 
 Monadelphous: in one group, (297). 
 
 Moneywort, 423. 
 
 Monkey-flower, 407, Fig. 546. 
 
 Monocotyledons, 102, 327. 
 
 Monoacious: staminate and pistillate 
 
 flowers on the same plant, (284). 
 Monopodial: axial growth continued by 
 
 growth from terminal bud or persis- 
 tence of the leader, 117. 
 Monotropa, 425. 
 Moonflower, 115, 411, Fig. 552. 
 Moonseed, stem, 287, 292, Figs. 455-457. 
 Moose-wood, 377. 
 Morning-glory, 15, 411, 412; family, 94; 
 
 flower, 144, Fig. 240; twiner, 115, 116. 
 Morphin, 271. 
 Morphology, 105. 
 Morus, 347, Fig. 511. 
 Mosses, 94, 183, 196, 201, 209, 234. 
 Motherwort, 403. 
 Mold, 90, 187, 188. 
 Mountain-ash, 391. 
 Mounting sections, 303. 
 Mucilage, 271. 
 Muck, 210. 
 
 Mucor, 188, Figs. 344-347. 
 Mulberry, flowering, 389; leaves, 100; 
 
 shoot, Fig. 88; white, 348, Fig. 511; 
 
 wild, 347. 
 Mullein, 3, 15, 243, 405, Fig. 22; hairs, 
 
 298; inflorescence, 120; leaf, Fig. 147; 
 
 pink, 354. 
 Muscari, 331. 
 Muscus, 271. 
 Mushroom, 90, 187, 247, 249, Figs. 133, 
 
 134, 419, 420. 
 
 Muskmelon seedlings, Fig. 156. 
 Musquash-root, 247. 
 Mustard. 243, 247, 251, 365, Fig. 518; 
 
 family, 365; fruit, 160; inclusions, 275; 
 
 pod, 155. 
 Mycelium: vegetative part of a fungus, 
 
 (194), 188, Fig. 137. 
 Mycorrhiza, 93, Fig. 132. 
 Myosotis, 414. 
 Myrtle, 419. 
 Myxomycetes, 266. 
 
 Nagelia, 298. 
 
 Naked flower: no floral envelopes, 
 
 (273). 
 
 Narcissus, 35, 336; double, Fig. 494. 
 Nasturtium, 374; flower, 131, Fig. 211; 
 
 leaf, Fig. 140; tendril, 115. 
 Natural selection, 240. 
 Nectarine, 237. 
 Nectary, 137. 
 
 Needle for dissecting, 132, Fig. 215. 
 Nepeta, 403. 
 
458 
 
 INDEX AND GLOSSARY 
 
 Nerium, 419. 
 
 Netted-veined, 95. 
 
 Nettle, 230, 348; acid, 271; cells, 265; 
 
 family, 345. 
 Nettle-tree, 347. 
 Nicotiana, 411, Fig. 550. 
 Nicotin, 271. 
 
 Nightshade, 276, 409; family, 408. 
 Nine-bark fruit, 157. 
 Nitella, 266. 
 Nitrogen, 76, 82, 249. 
 Node: a joint; the space between two 
 
 joints is an internode. 
 Nodules, 78, Figs. 126, 127. 
 Nucleolus, 264. 
 Nucleus, 186, 263. 
 Nut-grass, 244. 
 Nutrient, water as, 76. 
 Nux vomica, 271. 
 Nymphseacese, 361. 
 
 Oak, 14, 93, 233, 271, 286, 287, 343, Figs. 
 500-506; branching, 56; -chestnut 
 graft, 28; expression in, 66; family, 
 342; inflorescence, 121, Fig. 228; mon- 
 oecious, 138; poison, 248, Fig. 423; 
 transpiration in, 70; where grows, 
 207. 
 
 Oakesia, 332. 
 
 Oats, 250, Fig. 426; inflorescence, 121, 
 152, Fig. 191; lodged, Fig. 382; roots, 
 7; seed, 172; starch, 274, 275. 
 
 Oblong, 98, Fig. 149. 
 
 Obovate, 99. 
 
 Obtuse: blunt, (211). 
 
 (Ecology: see ecology. 
 
 (Enothera, 396. 
 
 Offset: a plant arising close to the base 
 of the mother plant, (56). 
 
 Oils, 271, 273. 
 
 Okra, 148. 
 
 Old-hen-and-chickens, 20. 
 
 Old-man vine, 359. 
 
 Oleacese, 420. 
 
 Oleander, 419; leaf, 297. 
 
 Olericulture, 250. 
 
 Olive, family, 420; fruit, 161. 
 
 Onagracese, 397. 
 
 Onion, 4, 271, 276, 277; bulb, 33, 34, 35, 
 Figs. 49-51; cells, 264; germination, 
 178. 
 
 Onoclea, 322. 
 
 Oogonia, 187. 
 
 Oospore, 187. 
 
 Operculum, 198. 
 
 Ophioglossacese, 198. 
 
 Ophioglossum, 198, Fig. 368. 
 
 Opium, poppy, 271. 
 
 Opposite leaves, 47. 
 
 Orange, mock, 62, 395; osage, 48, 108, 
 347, Fig. 510. 
 
 Orbicular, 99, Fig. 153. 
 
 Orchid, 271, 341; epiphytes, 11, 94; fam- 
 ily, 339; flowers, 143, 148, Fig. 250: 
 leaves, 102; roots, Fig. 13; stems, 285. 
 
 Orchidacese, 339. 
 
 Orchis, 341. 
 
 Ornithogalum, 331. 
 
 Osage orange, 48, 108, 347, Fig. 510; 
 phyllotaxy, 48. 
 
 Osier, 4; dogwood, Fig. 5. 
 
 Osmorrhiza, 399. 
 
 Osmosis, 71, Figs. 123, 124. Osmotic 
 pressure, 72. 
 
 Osmunda, 322, Fig. 479. 
 
 Oswego tea, 400. 
 
 Ovary: seed-bearing part of a pistil, 
 (272), Fig. 209. 
 
 Ovate, 99, Fig. 152. 
 
 Overgrowth, 232. 
 
 Oxalic acid, 271. 
 
 Oxalis, 49, 166, 374, Fig. 300. 
 
 Ox-eye daisy, 438, Fig. 189.. 
 
 Oxygen, 76; liberation of, 77, Fig. 130. 
 
 Oyster plant, 434. 
 
 Pseonia, 358. 
 
 Paint-brush, 244. 
 
 Painted cup, 407. 
 
 Palet, 152. 
 
 Palisade cells, 297. 
 
 Palisades of Hudson, Fig. 372. 
 
 Palm, 15, 65, Fig. 113; choked by fig, 
 Fig. 78. 
 
 Palma Christi, 352. 
 
 Palmate, 96, Fig. 140. 
 
 Panicle: branching raceme, (253). 
 
 Panicum, 170. 
 
 Pansy, 370; flower, Fig. 212. 
 
 Papaver, 271, 362. Papaveracese, 362. 
 
 Paper bamboo, forest, Fig. 437. 
 
 Papilionaceous flowers, 146, Fig. 245. 
 
 Pappus: peculiar calyx of composites, 
 (304). 
 
 Paraffin, 303. 
 
 Parallel-veined, 95. 
 
 Paraphyse, 197. 
 
 Parasite, 90, 200, Figs. 131, 136; vs. 
 graft, 22. 
 
 Parenchyma, 266, 278, 297. 
 
 Parnassia, 394. 
 
 Parsley, 121, 399; family, 397. 
 
 Parsnip, 3, 33, 121, 398. 
 
 Parted, 96. 
 
 Partridge-berry, 427. 
 
 Passion flower, 162. 
 
 Pastinaca, 398. 
 
 Pea, 3, 79, 97, 247, 250, 381, Fig. 426; 
 black, 384, Fig. 532; everlasting, 166, 
 381, Fig. 272; experiment in respira- 
 tion, 89; flowers, 146, Fig. 206; germi- 
 nation, 171, 173, 174, 178, Fig. 322; 
 
INDEX AND GLOSSARY 
 
 459 
 
 legume, 157; nodules. on root, 78; pistil, 
 129, Fig. 206; stock, 384, Fig. 532; 
 sweet, 254, 263, 381, Fig. 245; tendril, 
 114, Fig. 177. 
 
 Pea'ch, 2, 32, 251, 271, 287, 387, 388, 
 Figs. 105, 431, 476, 535; bud, 37, 39, 
 40, 41; crystals, 276; fruit, 161; foliage, 
 65; family, 379; inclusions, 275; leaf, 
 99; phyllotaxy, 48; and nectarine, 237; 
 pruning, Figs. 103, 105, 108. 
 
 Peanut, 141, 157, 251, Figs. 237, 238, 
 274, 430. 
 
 Pear, 251, 272, 391; bud, 36, 39, 40, 
 111, Figs. 56, 61, 62, 65-67, 70; dis- 
 eases of, 92; fruit, 162, 266, Fig. 293; 
 form of, 68, Figs. 118, 119; inflo- 
 rescence, 123, Fig. 196; leaf-scar, 37; 
 phyllotaxy, 48; -quince graft, 27; 
 sclerenchyma, 282; thorns, 108. 
 
 Peat, 210. 
 
 Pedicel: stem of one flower in a cluster, 
 (261). 
 
 Peduncle: stem of a flower-cluster or of a 
 solitary flower, (261). 
 
 Pelargonium, 374. 
 
 Peltate: attached to its stalk inside the 
 margin, (209), Figs. 135, 140. 
 
 Pentamerous: in 5's, (291). 
 
 Pentstemon, 406. 
 
 Peony, 358; fruit, 157; stomates, 299. 
 
 Pepo: fruit of pumpkin, squash, etc., (325). 
 
 Pepper-grass, 243, 368. 
 
 Pepper, red, 4, 410, Fig. 547. 
 
 Peppermint, 401. 
 
 Pepper-root, 367. 
 
 Perennial: of three or more seasons' 
 duration, (10). 
 
 Perianth: floral envelopes of lily-like 
 plants (more properly of monocoty- 
 ledonous plants), (295). 
 
 Periblem, 279. 
 
 Pericarp: ripened ovary, (311). 
 
 Perichsetia, 197. 
 
 Perigynous: borne around the ovary, 
 (306). 
 
 Peristome, 198. 
 
 Perithecium, 190. 
 
 Periwinkle, 419. 
 
 Persimmon, 271. 
 
 Persistent: ren-aining attached, (216). 
 
 Personate, 145, Fig. 243. 
 
 Peruvian bark, 271. 
 
 Petal: one of the separate leaves of a 
 corolla, (266), Fig. 209. 
 
 Petiole: leaf-stalk, (206). 
 
 Petiolule: stalk of a leaflet, (208). 
 
 Petunia, 410, Figs. 548, 549. 
 
 Phaseolus, 384, Figs. 530, 531. 
 
 Phellogen, 293. 
 
 Phenogam: seed-bearing or flowering 
 plant, (353), 324. 
 
 Philadelphus, 395. 
 
 Phloem, 283. 
 
 Phlox, 144, 233, 416, Fig. 241; family, 
 416. 
 
 Phosphorus, 76. 
 
 Photosynthesis: the making of organic 
 matter from CO 2 and water, in the 
 presence of light, (177, 178). 
 
 Phyllodium: leaf-like petiole, (226), Fig. 
 163. 
 
 Phyllotaxy: arrangement of leaves and 
 flowers on the stem, (112). 
 
 Physalis, 409. 
 
 Physostegia, inflorescence, Fig. 185. 
 
 Picea, 325, Fig. 483. 
 
 Pie-plant, 350. 
 
 Pigeon-grass, 243. 
 
 Pigweed, 3, 67, 239, 242, 243, Figs. 
 406, 408, 411. 
 
 Pine, 15, 93, 162, 232,. 249, 281, 394, Figs. 
 10, 19, 421-423, 451, 462, 481, 482; and 
 cone, Fig. 299; foliage, Fig. 158; ger- 
 mination, 171; and light, 44; needles, 
 102; pollination, 138; shoot, Fig. 158; 
 stem, Figs. 461, 466; trees, Figs. 388, 
 390; wood structure, 267, Fig. 440. 
 
 Pine-sap, 425, 426. 
 
 Piney, 258. 
 
 Pink, 4, 159, 353; family, 353; fire, 354; 
 grass, 342; wild, 354. 
 
 Pinnae, 321. Pinnules, 321. 
 
 Pinnate, 95, Fig. 141. 
 
 Pinnatifid, 97. 
 
 Pinus, 324, Figs. 481, 482. 
 
 Pinxter flower, 425. 
 
 Pistil: ovule-bearing or seed-bearing or- 
 gan, (271), Figs. 206-209. 
 
 Pistillate: having pistils and no stamens, 
 (274), Figs. 190, 229, 230. 
 
 Pisum, 381. 
 
 Pitchforks, 440, Fig. 558. 
 
 Pits, 267. 
 
 Plane tree, leaf-scar, Fig. 474. 
 
 Plankton, 207. 
 
 Plantain, 243, inflorescence, 120. 
 
 Plant-breeding, 240. 
 
 Plant-food, denned, 69. 
 
 Plant society, 228. 
 
 Plastid, 263, 264. 
 
 Plerome, 279. 
 
 Pleurisy root, 418. 
 
 Plum, 20, 251, 254, 387, 388, Figs. 537, 
 538; blossom, 162, Fig. 209; bud, 39; 
 drupe, 161, Fig. 289; phyllotaxy, 48; 
 pollination, Fig. 218; thorns, 108. 
 
 Plumule: bud in the embryo, (332). 
 
 Plur-annual: of one season's duration 
 
 because killed by frost, (14). 
 .Pod: dehiscent pericarp, (312). 
 
 Podophyllum, 361. 
 
 Pogonia, 342. 
 
460 
 
 INDEX AND GLOSSARY 
 
 Poinsettia, 352; bracts, 110; starch, 273, 
 
 274. 
 
 Poisonous plants, 247. 
 Polarity, 50. 
 Polemoniacese, 416. 
 Polianthea, 337. 
 Pallards, 56, Fig. 92. 
 Pollen germinating, Figs. 218, 219. 
 Pollen: spores borne by the stamen, 
 
 (270), 133, Figs. 218, 219. 
 Pollination: transfer of pollen from sta- 
 men to pistil, (278). 
 
 Pollinium : pollen in a coherent mass, (301). 
 Polyanthus, 422. 
 Polygalaceae, 378. 
 Polygonacese, 349. 
 Polygonatum, 334. 
 
 Polygonum, 351, Fig. 514; climbing, 112. 
 Polyhedral, 263. 
 Polypetalous: corolla of separate parts or 
 
 petals, (267). 
 
 Polypode, 180, 323, Figs. 333, 334. 
 Polypodium, 180, 323. 
 Polyporus, Fig. 135. 
 Polysepalous: calyx of separate parts or 
 
 sepals, (267). 
 Polystichum, 323. 
 
 Polytrichum commune, 196, Figs. 365-367. 
 Pome: fruit of apple, pear, etc., (324). 
 Pomology, 250. 
 Pond-lily, 361. 
 Poplar, 231; bud, 36; cuttings, 26; 
 
 dioecious, 138; inflorescence, 121; 
 
 Lombardy, 64; phyllotaxy, 48; seeds, 
 
 168. 
 Poppy, 326; family, 362; opium, 271, 
 
 362. 
 
 Pores, 79, 83, 88. 
 
 Portulaca, 159, 371; fruit, Fig. 280. 
 Portulacacese, 371. 
 Potassium, 76. 
 Potato, 4, 16, 19, 32, 35, 68, 77, 160, 249, 
 
 251, 254, 409, Fig. 24; cells, 265; 
 
 cuttings, 23; flower, 144, Fig. 242; 
 
 inclusions, 275; phyllotaxy, 49; sprouts, 
 
 31, 84, 90, Fig. 45; starch, 31, 274, 
 
 275, Fig. 42; stem, 287; sweet, 16, 32, 
 
 Fig. 204; -tomato graft, 28. 
 Potentilla, 386. 
 Pot marigold, 438. 
 Prickles, 109, Figs. 169, 170. 
 Prickly ash, 109, Fig. 169. 
 Prim, 421. 
 
 Primrose, 422; family, 422. 
 Primula, 298, 422. Primulacese, 422. 
 Prince's feather, 351. 
 Privet, 62, 421. 
 Promycelium, 191. 
 Propagation by buds, 21; leaves, 21; 
 
 rhizomes, 18; roots, 19. 
 Prosenchyma, 280. 
 
 Proserpinaca, 208. 
 Proteids, 271. Protein, 271. 
 Proterandrous: anthers maturing first, 
 
 (280), Fig. 222. 
 Proterogynous: pistils maturing first, 
 
 (280). 
 
 Prothallus, 180, Fig. 339. 
 Protococcus, 263. 
 
 263. 
 PTtra^lla, 402. 
 Pruning, 59, 60. 
 Prunus, 387, Figs. 535-539. 
 Pseud-annual: perennial by means of 
 
 bulbs, corms, or tubers, (13). 
 Pteridophyte, 183. 
 Pteris, 267, 289, 323, Fig. 456. 
 Puccinia, 190, 192, Figs. 352-357. 
 Puccoon, 414. 
 Pulse family, 379. 
 Pumpkins, 251, 289; and collenchyma, 
 
 280; corn, 221, Fig. 385; flower, 144; 
 
 fruit, 162; germination, 174; hairs, 298; 
 
 leaf, 100; roots, Fig. 121. 
 Purslane, 159, 241, 242, 243, 371; family, 
 
 371. 
 
 Pusley, 371. 
 
 Pussies of willow, 121, Fig. 60. 
 Pyrus, 391. 
 Pyxis: pod opening around the top, (317), 
 
 Fig. 280. 
 
 Quack-grass, 18, 19, 242, 244, Fig. 27. 
 Quercus, 343, Figs. 500-506. 
 Quillwort, 200. 
 Quince, 251, 271, 391; fruit, 162; Japa- 
 
 nese, 97; -pear graft, 27. 
 Quinin, 271. 
 
 Raceme: simple elongated indeterminate 
 
 cluster with stalked flowers, (249), 
 
 Figs. 184, 197. 
 Radicula, 367. 
 Radish, 7, 12, 17, 33, 69, 70, 75, 368, Figs. 
 
 11, 120; and light, 43, Fig. 75; fruit, 
 
 160. 
 Ragweed, 209, 230, 233, 243, 436, Figs. 
 
 416, 556. 
 
 Ranunculacese, 355. 
 Ranunculus, 357. 
 Rape, 251. 
 Raphanus, 368. 
 Raphe, 172. 
 Raphides, 276. 
 Raspberry, 20, 21, 251, 389; and birds, 
 
 168; fruit, 160, 161, Fig. 290; leaf, Fig. 
 
 142; pruning, 61, Figs. 106, 107. 
 Rattlesnake plantain, 341. 
 Rattlesnake-weed, 436. 
 Ray: outer modified florets of some com- 
 
 posites, (305). 
 
INDEX AND GLOSSARY 
 
 461 
 
 Receptacle, 128; of liverwort, 194; of 
 moss, 197. 
 
 Receptive stigma, 134. 
 
 Redbud, 381. 
 
 Redroot, 242, Figs. 406, 411. 
 
 Regular flower: the parts in each series 
 alike, (275). 
 
 Reinforced fruit: other parts grown to 
 the pericarp, (311), 161. 
 
 Reniform, 99. 
 
 Respiration: taking in O, giving off 
 C0 2 , 82, (187); in seeds, 173. 
 
 Resting bud, 36, 61. 
 
 Resting-spore, 186. 
 
 Rheum, 350. 
 
 Rheumatism root, 360. 
 
 Rhizoid, 186. 
 
 Rhizome: underground stem; rootstock, 
 (44), Figs. 22-24, 27-29; propaga- 
 tion by, 18; starch in, 31. 
 
 Rhododendron, 425; anther, 135. 
 
 Rhodora, 425. 
 
 Rhubarb, 3, 45, 350, Figs. 81, 82; bud, 
 36. 
 
 Rhus, Figs. 421, 423. 
 
 Ribbon grass, 86. 
 
 Ribes, 395, Figs. 540-542. 
 
 Rice, 152, 249, 250; starch in, 274, 275. 
 
 Richardia, 328, Fig. 486. 
 
 Ricinus, 352. 
 
 Rings of annual growth, 111. 
 
 Robinia, 380; spines, 109. 
 
 Robin's plantain, 443. 
 
 Rock cress, 366. 
 
 Root, 2, 7, 69, Fig. 120; action, 69; aerial, 
 10, Figs. 12-14; climbers, 112, Fig. 174; 
 cutting, 20; growth, Figs. 25, 26; -hairs, 
 9, 69, Figs. 11, 121, 122, 125; -pressure, 
 73, 81; propagation by, 19; structure, 
 69, 295; system, 7; tubers, 32. 
 
 Rootlets, 69, Figs. 120, 125. 
 
 Rootstock: subterranean stem; rhizome, 
 (44); propagation by, 18. 
 
 Rosa, 390, 
 
 Rosaceae, 385. 
 
 Rose acacia, 62, 380. 
 
 Rose, 4, 249, 251, 390; climbing, 112; 
 cutting, Fig. 35; family, 385; hip, 161, 
 Fig. 292; mallow, 373; -moss, 371, Fig. 
 280; of Sharon, 62, 373; prickles, 109; 
 swamp, 390; variation, 238. 
 
 Rotate, 144, Fig. 242. 
 
 Round-headed trees, 64, Figs. Ill, 112. 
 
 Rubber, 249. 
 
 Rubiacese, 426. 
 
 Rubus, 389. 
 
 Rudbeckia, 438, Fig. 557. 
 
 Rue anemone, 357. 
 
 Rumex, 350, Fig. 512. 
 
 Runner: a trailing shoot taking root at 
 the nodes, (56). 
 
 Russian thistle, 170, 243, Fig. 114. 
 Rust, 91, 190, Figs. 352-357. 
 Rutabaga, 251. 
 Rutland beauty, 412. 
 Rye, 249; flower, 151, 152, Fig. 260; 
 -pollination, 138. 
 
 Sage, common, 401; scarlet, 110, 401. 
 
 Salsify, 33, 434. 
 
 Salt-loving societies, 228. 
 
 Salverform, 144, Fig. 241. 
 
 Salvia, 401. 
 
 Samara: indehiscent winged pericarp, 
 (312). 
 
 Sambucus, 429. 
 
 Sand-dune plants, Fig. 397. 
 
 Sanguinaria, 363. 
 
 Sap, 72; descent of, 87; -pressure, 73. 
 
 Saphrophyte, 90, Figs. 133-135. 
 
 Sapindaceae, 375. 
 
 Saponaria, 354. 
 
 Sassafras, 143. 
 
 Savin, 327. 
 
 Saxifragaceae, 393. 
 
 Saxifrage, 276, 393. 
 
 Scalariform: with elongated mark ngs, 
 (446). 
 
 Scaly bulb, 33. 
 
 Scape: leafless peduncle arising from the 
 ground, (262), Fig. 200. 
 
 Sclerenchyma, 267, 282. 
 
 Sclerotic tissue, 282. 
 
 Score-card, 254. 
 
 Scramblers, 112. 
 
 Scrophularia, 406. 
 
 Scrophulariacese, 404. 
 
 Scutellaria, 402. 
 
 Seaweeds, 181, 185. 
 
 Secondary thickening, 291. 
 
 Sedges, leaves, 102. 
 
 Seed, coats, 171; dispersal, 166; dormant, 
 2; starch in, 31; -variations, 237. 
 
 Segments, 145. 
 
 Selection, 239. 
 
 Self-fertilization: secured by pollen from 
 same flower; close-fertilization, (278). 
 
 Self-heal, 402. 
 
 Self-pollination: transfer of pollen from 
 stamen to pistil of same flower; close- 
 pollination, (278). 
 
 Seneca snakeroot, 379. 
 
 Senna, 385. 
 
 Sensitive fern, Fig. 437. 
 
 Sepal: one of the separate leaves of 
 a calyx, (266), Fig. 209. 
 
 Septicidal: dehiscence along the parti- 
 tions, (317). 
 
 Serrate: saw-toothed, (212). 
 
 Service berry, 391 
 
 Sessile: not stalked, (207), Fig. 201. 
 
 Shadbush, 391. 
 
462 
 
 INDEX AND GLOSSARY 
 
 Shade and plants, 223. 
 
 Shadows in trees, 66. 
 
 Sharon, rose of, 62, 341. 
 
 Sheepberry, 429. 
 
 Shelf fungus, Fig. 135. 
 
 Shepherdia, hairs, 298, Fig. 469. 
 
 Shepherd's purse, 242, 368; capsule, 160, 
 
 Fig. 286. 
 Shoot: a new plant from root of old 
 
 plant, (53). 
 Shooting star, 422. 
 Shrubs: plants that remain low and 
 
 produce shoots from base, (15). 
 Sickle-pod, 366. 
 Sieve tissue, 280. 
 Silene, 354. 
 
 Silicle: short fruit of Cruciferse, (318). 
 Silique: long fruit of Cruciferse, (318). 
 Silkweed, 418. 
 Silviculture, 257. 
 Simple leaf, 95, Fig. 138. 
 Simple pistil: of one carpel, (271), Fig. 
 
 207. 
 
 Simple stem, 15, Fig. 20. 
 Sisyrinchium, 338. 
 Skullcap, 402. 
 Skunk cabbage, 149, 150, 233, 276, 327, 
 
 Fig. 446. 
 
 Sleep of leaves, 49. 
 Slips, 23. 
 Smartweed, 130, 143, 156, 230, 351, Fig. 
 
 514. 
 
 Smilacina, 333. 
 
 Smilax of florists, 107, 333, Fig. 493. 
 Smilax tendril, 115. 
 Snakehead, 406. 
 Snapdragon, 145, 406, Fig. 243. 
 Snowball, 131, 153, Figs. 264, 265; 
 
 Japanese, 429. 
 Snowberry, Fig. 287. 
 Snowdrop, 336, Fig. 495. 
 Snowflake, 337. 
 Soapberry family, 375. 
 Soapwort, 354. 
 Societies, 228. 
 Sod society, 231, Fig. 399. 
 Softwood cutting, 23. 
 Soil and plants, 209, 213. 
 Solanacese, 408. 
 Solanum, 112, 248. 
 Solidago, 442. 
 
 Solitary flowers, 119, Fig. 181. 
 Solomon's seal, 18, 334; false, 333; two- 
 leaved, 333. 
 Sonchus, 435. 
 Soredia, 193. 
 Sorghum, 139, 152, 250, 273, 275, Figs. 
 
 20, 232-234. 
 Sori, 9, 191. 
 
 Sorrel, 166, 243, 350, Fig. 512. 
 Sow thistle, 435. 
 
 Soybean, Fig. 126. 
 
 Spadix: thick or fleshy spike of certain 
 plants, (302), Figs. 198, 251. 
 
 Spanish moss, 94. 
 
 Spanish needles, 440. 
 
 Spathe: bract surrounding or attending 
 a spadix, (302), Fig. 251. 
 
 Spatterdock, 362. 
 
 Spatulate, 99. 
 
 Spearmint, 402, Fig. 543 
 
 Species, 308. 
 
 Specularia, 430. 
 
 Speedwell, 408. 
 
 Spencer, quoted, 240. 
 
 Spermaphytes, 183. 
 
 Spermatozoids, 197. 
 
 Sperm-cell, 187. 
 
 Sphagnum moss, 210, Fig. 374. 
 
 Spider-lily, 301. 
 
 Spiderwort, 264, 266, 335, Fig. 438; 
 family, 334. 
 
 Spike: compact, more or less simple, in- 
 determinate cluster, with flowers ses- 
 sile or nearly so, (250), Figs. 185, 186, 
 197. 
 
 Spikelet: a secondary spike; one of a 
 compound spike, (306). 
 
 Spikenard, false, 333. 
 
 Spines, 108, 109, Fig. 168. 
 
 Spiranthes, 341. 
 
 Spirea, 392; inflorescence, 121, Fig. 193. 
 
 Spirogyra, 185, 186, 201, 263, 265, Figs. 
 340, 341. 
 
 Spleenwort, 323. 
 
 Sporangia, 186; of ferns, 179; stamens, 
 129. 
 
 Sporangiophore, 188. 
 
 Spore: a simple reproductive body, usu- 
 ally composed of a single detached cell 
 containing no embryo, 5, 92, (344), 
 187. 
 
 Spore-case, 179. 
 
 Sporodinia, 189. 
 
 Sporogonium, 195. 
 
 Sporophyll, 183. 
 
 Sporophyte, 181, 201. 
 
 Spring beauty, 371. 
 
 Spruce, 14, 15, 64, 98, 232, 325, Fig. 483; 
 and light, 44; leaf, 102. 
 
 Spruce, 162; cone, Fig. 298; seed, Fig. 297. 
 
 Spurge, 110, 352; family, 351. 
 
 Squash, 251, 289; fruit, 162, Fig. 296; 
 germination, 171, 178; cell, 264, 265; 
 leaf, 100; prickles, 109; root-pressure, 74. 
 
 Squaw-vine, 427. 
 
 Squirrel corn, 364. 
 
 Stamen: pollen-bearin organ, (270), Figs. 
 206, 209. 
 
 Staminate: having stamens and no pis- 
 tils, (274), Figs. 228-230. 
 
 Stard, dissecting, 132, Fig. 217. 
 
INDEX AND GLOSSARY 
 
 463 
 
 Stand for lens, 132, Fig. 214. 
 
 Staphylea, 378. 
 
 Starch, 271; and sugar, 246; as plant- 
 food, 64; discussed, 273, Fig. 444; how 
 made, 78, 85; storage of, 31. 
 
 Star-grass, 337. 
 
 Star of Bethlehem, 331. 
 
 Star-thistle, 441. 
 
 Stellaria, 355, Fig. 516. 
 
 Stellate, 263, 298. 
 
 Stem: how elongates, 16; growth, Figs. 
 25, 26: system, 13, Fig. 17; tubers, 32. 
 
 Stemless plants, 14. 
 
 Sterile flower: no stamens or pistils, (274). 
 
 Steven, quoted, 303. 
 
 Stick-seed, 413. 
 
 Stick-tight, 169, 243, 413, Fig. 418. 
 
 Stigma: part of the pistil which receives 
 the pollen, (272), Fig. 209. 
 
 Stipel: stipule of a leaflet, (208). 
 
 Stipule: a certain basal appendage of a 
 leaf, (206). 
 
 St. John's-wort, 130, 371, Figs. 208, 278; 
 family, 370. 
 
 St. Peter's wreath, 392. 
 
 Stock, 366. 
 
 Stock: the part on which the cion is 
 grafted, (70). 
 
 Stolon: a shoot which bends to the 
 ground and takes root, (56). 
 
 Stoma, 301. Stomate, 79, 83, 88, 192, 
 298, 301. 
 
 Stone fruit, 161. 
 
 Strawberry, 15, 20, 232, 249, 251, 387, 
 Figs. 533, 534; frujt, 160, 161, Fig. 
 291. 
 
 Straw lily, 332. 
 
 Strict stem system, 15. 
 
 Struggle for existence, 52, 218. 
 
 Strychnin, 271. 
 
 Style: elongated part of the pistil be- 
 tween the ovary and stigma, (272), 
 Fig. 209. 
 
 Stylophorum, 363. 
 
 Suberin, 266. 
 
 Subterranean stem, 15; propagation by, 
 18. 
 
 Suckers, 54; of fungi, 91. 
 
 Sugar, 270; cane, 250, 273, Fig. 428. 
 
 Sulfur, 76. 
 
 Sumac, 300; poison, 248, Fig. 422. 
 
 Summer-spore, 190. 
 
 Sundrops, 396. 
 
 Sunflower, 3, 19, 233, 267, 439, Figs. 3, 4, 
 23, 28; family, 431; inflorescence, 
 120, 150, 151, 153, Fig. 188; trans- 
 piration in, 79. 
 
 Sunlight and plants, 42, 88, 223. 
 
 Supernumerary buds: more than one in 
 an axil, (88). 
 
 Survival of the fittest, 240. 
 
 Swarm-spore, 186. 
 
 Sweet alyssum, 160, 368, Fig. 519. 
 
 Sweet briar, 390. 
 
 Sweet Cicely, 399. 
 
 Sweet clover, 243, 251, 383, Figs. 184, 
 
 528. 
 
 Sweet potato, 16, 32, 412, Fig. 204. 
 Sweet sultan, 442. 
 Sweet William, 353, Fig. 515. 
 Swelling, 92. 
 
 Sycamore, 294; leaf-scar, Fig. 474. 
 Symbiosis, 193. 
 Symplocarpus, 327. 
 Sympode, 117, Fig. 180. Sympodial: 
 
 axial growth continued by successive 
 
 lateral shoots, 117. 
 Syngenesious: anthers united in a ring, 
 
 (304). 
 Syringa, 395, 420. 
 
 Table for laboratory work, Fig. 477. 
 
 Tabular, 263. 
 
 Tamarack, 326. 
 
 Tanacetum, 439. 
 
 Tangle-berry, 424. 
 
 Tannin, 271. 
 
 Tansy, 439. 
 
 Tap-root, 7, Fig. 8. 
 
 Taraxacum, 434. 
 
 Tare, 381. 
 
 Tea plant, Fig. 90. 
 
 Teasel, 3, 244. 
 
 Tecoma, capsule, Fig. 285. 
 
 Teleutospore, 191. 
 
 Tendrils, climbers, 112, 113, Figs. 175- 
 177; roots as, 10; as leaves, 105. 
 
 Terminal bud, 37, 50, Figs. 58-87. 
 
 Terminal flowers, 119, Fig. 181. 
 
 Terrestrial, 207. 
 
 Teucrium, 402. 
 
 Thalictrum, 357. 
 
 Thallophyte, 183, 185. 
 
 Thallus, 185. 
 
 Thinning, 258, Figs. 432, 433. 
 
 Thistle, 150, 169, 243, 441, Figs. 253- 
 255; Canada, 19, 22, 242, 244, 441, Fig. 
 409; Russian, 170, 243, Fig. 114; seed, 
 168; inflorescence, 120. 
 
 Thorns, 108, Figs. 164, 167. 
 
 Thorough wort, 444. 
 
 Thuja, 326, Fig. 485. 
 
 Thyrse: compound cluster with main 
 axis indeterminate and branches deter- 
 minate, (259). 
 
 Tiarella, 393. 
 
 Tickseed, 440. 
 
 Tiers of branches, 56, Figs. 93, 94. 
 
 Tiger lily, 21, 33, Fig. 31. 
 
 Tillandsia, 94. 
 
 Timber crop, 249, 266. 
 
 Tissues, 278. 
 
464 
 
 INDEX AND GLOSSARY 
 
 Toad-flax, 19, 22, 244, 405, Fig. 544; 
 
 flower, 145; fruit, Fig. 281; pollination, 
 
 137, Fig. 227. 
 Toadstools, 187. 
 Tobacco, 251, 271, 411. 
 Tomato, 4, 75, 251, 410; fruit, 160; 
 
 -potato graft, 28. 
 Tooth-wort, 366, Fig. 266. 
 Torus: part or organ to which the parts 
 
 of the flower are attached; upper end of 
 
 the flower-stalk, (268). 
 Touch-me-not, 166, 375, Fig. 449. 
 Toxylon, 347, Fig. 510. 
 Tracheids, 281. 
 Tradescantia, 264, 265, 266, 276, 335, 
 
 Fig. 438; stomates, 299. 
 Tragopogon, 434. 
 Trailing stems, 14, Fig. 18. 
 Transpiration: giving off of water, (157, 
 
 166), Figs. 128, 129. 
 Trees: plants that produce one main 
 
 trunk and an elevated head, (15); 
 
 and wind, 213, Figs. 379-381; forms of, 
 
 64, Figs. 111-113, 116-119; roots, 7. 
 Trifolium, 382, Fig. 527. 
 Trillium, 145, 233, 332, Fig. 244. 
 Trimerous: in 3's, (291). 
 Tropseolum, 374. 
 Trumpet-creeper, 10, 113, 160, Figs. 12, 
 
 285. 
 Truncate: squared as if cut off, (211), 
 
 Fig. 154. 
 
 Trunk, form of, 65. 
 Tsuga, 326, Fig. 484. 
 Tuber: short congested part, (78). 
 Tuberose, 337. 
 Tulip, 330. 
 
 Tulip-tree, leaf, Fig. 154; seed, 168. 
 Tumble-grass, 170. 
 Tumble-weeds, 170. 
 Tunicated bulb, 33. 
 Turnip, 33, 251, Fig. 47; fruit, 160; 
 
 root-hairs, 12; starch in, 31. 
 Turtlehead, 406. 
 Tussilago, 442. 
 Twiners, 112, 115. 
 Twin-leaf, 360. 
 Type, 236. 
 
 Ulmus, 346, Figs. 507-509. 
 
 Umbel: corymbose cluster with branches 
 
 of about equal length and arising from 
 
 a common point, (255). 
 Umbellet: secondary umbel, (255). 
 Umbelliferse, 121, 122, 247, 397. 
 Uncinula, 189. 
 Undergrowth, 232. 
 Undulate: wavy, (212). 
 Uredospore, 192. 
 Urtica, 348. 
 Urticaoese, 345. 
 
 Utricularia, 71, 207. 
 Uvularia, 332. 
 
 Vaccinium, 424. 
 
 Vacuole, 264. 
 
 Valves: separable parts of a pod, (312), 
 
 Variation, 236. 
 
 Variety, 236. 
 
 Vascular, 263, 278, 282. 
 
 Vase-form trees, 64, Fig. 112. 
 
 Vaucheria, 186, 187, 263, Figs. 342, 343. 
 
 Velum, 201. 
 
 Velvet leaf, 373. 
 
 Venation: veining, (203). 
 
 Venus' looking-glass, 430. 
 
 Verbascum, 298, 405. 
 
 Verbena, 403; cutting, 25, Fig. 37. 
 
 Verbenacese, 403. 
 
 Vernonia, 445. 
 
 Veronica, 408. 
 
 Verticillate: with three or more leaves or 
 
 flowers at one node, (113). 
 Vervain, 403; family, 403. 
 Vetch, 251, 381; nodules on root, 78. 
 Vetchling, 381. 
 Viburnum, 429. 
 Vicia, 381. 
 Vigna, 384, Fig. 532. 
 Vinca, 419. 
 Violacese, 369. 
 Violet, 3, 233, 249, 369; cleistogamous, 
 
 140, Fig. 236; seeds, 166; family, 369. 
 Viper's bugloss, 415. 
 Virginia creeper, tendril, 113, 114, 117, 
 
 Fig. 175. ' 
 Virgin's bower, 359. 
 
 Wahoo, 294. 
 
 Wake-robin, 332. 
 
 Wallflower, fruit, 160; hairs, 298. 
 
 V/alnut, 155; buds, 37, 138; inflorescence, 
 
 121, Fig. 190. 
 Wandering Jew, 335. 
 Water arum, 328. 
 Water cress, 367. 
 Water hoarhound, 400. 
 Waterleaf, 415; family, 415. 
 Water-lily, 3, 98, 205, 207, 361; family, 
 
 361; and mineral nutrients, 69, 75; 
 
 fungi, 266. 
 Watermelon, 251. 
 Watersprout, 54. 
 Wax-work, twiner, 115. 
 Weeds, 220, 230, 241. 
 Weigela, 61, 429. 
 Wheat, 77, 152, 221, 242, 249, 250, 254; 
 
 field, 68, 225, Fig. 384; flower, 151, Fig. 
 
 259; germination, 173; inclusions, 276, 
 
 Fig. 445; India, 350; starch, 274, 275; 
 
 roots, 7; rust, 189, 190, Figs. 352-357. 
 Whiteweed, 150, 242, 438, Fig. 189. 
 
INDEX AND GLOSSARY 
 
 465 
 
 Whorl: three or more leaves or flowers 
 at one node, (113). 
 
 Wild geranium. Fig. 195. 
 
 Wild oats, 332. ' 
 
 Willow: buds, 39, Figs. 60, 91; cuttings, 
 21, 26; dioecious, 138; expression in, 
 66; inflorescence, 117, Fig. 229; leaf, 
 99, Fig. 145; mildew, 189, Figs. 348- 
 351; phyllotaxy, 48; pussies, 121, Fig. 
 60; seeds, 168. 
 
 Willow-herb, 394, 
 
 Wilting, 80. 
 
 Wind and plants, 138, 213. 
 
 Windflower, 356. 
 
 Winter bud, 36, 50, 61. 
 
 Winter-cress, 366. 
 
 Wintergreen, 424, Fig. 22; anther, 135; 
 fringed, 140. 
 
 Wistaria. 115, 380. 
 W r itch-hazel, 166. 
 Wood-sorrel, 166, 374. 
 Wood tissue, 281. 
 Woody structure, 3. 
 
 Xanthium, 436, Fig. 555. 
 Xerophytic society, 228. 
 Xylem, 283. 
 Xylol, 302, 303. 
 
 Yarrow, 437. 
 Yeast, 263. 
 Yew, fruit, 164. 
 
 Zebrina, 335. 
 
 Zone societies, 233, Fig. 403. 
 
 Zygospore. 186. 
 
 Printed in ttie United States of America, 
 
 DD 
 
RETURN TO the circulation desk of any 
 University of California Library 
 
 or to the 
 
 NORTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 
 Bldg. 400, Richmond Field Station 
 University of California 
 Richmond, CA 94804-4698 
 
 
 
 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS 
 2-month loans may be renewed by calling 
 
 (510)642-6753 
 1-year loans may be recharged by bringing books 
 
 to NRLF 
 Renewals and recharges may be made days 
 
 prior to due date 
 
 [LOW 
 
 D.OOO (4/94) 
 
VB 36055 
 
 459848 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY