THE DAWN OF A NEW ERA ;/i SYRIA MARGARET M£GILVARY Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/dawnofnewerainsyOOmcgirich The Dawn ot a New Era in Syria « ««."«*« The Dawn of ii1^^ Era in Syria By MARGARET McGILVARY Secretary Beirut Chapter Red Cross ILLUSTRATED Cover design and maps by LANICE PATON DANA New York Chicago Fleming H. RevcII Company London and Edinburgh FLEMING H. REVELL COMPANY New York: 158 Fifth Avenue Chicago: 17 North Wabash Ave. London : ai Paternoster Square Edinburgh: 75 Princes Street To ALL THOSE BRAFE AMERICANS and LOTAL-HEARTED STRIANS who laboured for Syria in her darkest hour in the faith that dawn would surely succeed the night 50i)88U Preface MANY of our favourite books have been written " by request." A little boy once said to a famous author, "If you will write me a book about animals, my father will print it." The result was the " Just So Stories." It is impossible to estimate how many people have sought out the American residents in Syria with ques- tions in regard to their experiences during the war. Newspaper reporters, directors of relief-campaigns, and agents of political propaganda have been clamour- ing for stories, for statistics, for facts pertinent to this or that particular issue. It is evident that America is interested in Syria, and those of us who are concerned with Syrians welfare feel that we can do her no greater service than to introduce her to the American public. Geographically this land is regarded in America as a " remote corner of the globe," and perhaps there are comparatively few at home who realize the numerous ties which bind the United States to this small land on the eastern coast of the Mediter- ranean. American philanthropy has been pouring millions of dollars of American money into Syria during the last five years. Moreover, within the last nine months the question has arisen of an intimate 7 8 Preface political relationship between the two countries. If this little volume answers any questions, and succeeds in arousing an interest in this struggling nation, it will amply fulfil its purpose. I have been greatly handicapped by the fact that for years there has been no comprehensive treatise on Syria. If I may judge by my own scanty informa- tion before I came here to live, the average American knows very little of the geography, the government, the economy of the country, its wartime experiences, or its present problems. Any book on Syria, however simple, must supply these deficiencies. For this rea- son I have been forced to treat certain subjects more in detail than would otherwise have been necessary. "Ambassador Morgenthau's Story " is the only authoritative work on Turkey during the war that has been published. I purposely refrained from reading this book until I had completed my own, as I wished to avoid influence upon my point of view. In one or two instances I have verified my information by re- ferring to his discussion of such technicalities as the Capitulations, but in all such cases I have cited Mr. Morgenthau as my authority. If there are other points of similarity, it is purely accidental. I am under special obligation to my uncle and my aunt, Mr. and Mrs. Charles A. Dana ; and but for their encouragement and generous interest I doubt whether I should have had the courage to undertake the task. Mrs. Dana has given me invaluable assistance in the preparation of certain chapters on subjects where her information was more complete than mine. Mr. Dana Preface 9 has allowed me free use of records of Press-work and relief-activities and has set no limit to my use of facts regarding certain of his personal experiences which have been little known outside of our family circle. I am also indebted to my uncle, Lewis Bayles Paton, Professor in Hartford Theological Seminary, Hart- ford, Connecticut, for revising the manuscript and reading proof. M. McG. 'Aleih, Lebanon. Contents I. The Closing of a Highway of the Na- tions 17 Syria the most isolated country in the world during the Great War. Turkey closes every door to outside help. II. The Disintegration of Syria ... 27 At the msrcy of the Turks. Physical, racial, and religious divisions in Syria cause lack of national unity. Turkey and Germany introduce plan of starva- tion. III. Foreign Guests of the Sultan in Syria . 38 Modern Crusaders. The Capitulations — a ring in the nose of the bull. IV. Mobilizing an Elusive Army . . . 52 Bombardment of Belgrade signal for Turkish mobilization. Germany's hand on the rudder. Economic, financial, and political chaoi in Syria. Germany and the Jehad, Germany and the Capitulations. Entente campaign against Turkey a side-issue. V. Abrogation of the Capitulations . . 73 Mistreatment of consular officials. Deportation of belligerents. VI. The American Red Cross to the Rescue 82 American position unique and enviable. Civilian relief and two hospital units. xz 1 2 Contents The arrest of an American philanthropist. Relief work in Lebanon. The ship that never came. VII. The American Mission-Press in a New Role 97 What it was before the war. Converting a print-shop into a banking house and relief-bureau. The persecution of the Manager. VIII. Syrian Philanthropy FROM Abroad 113 Transfer of funds from America to Syria through the American Press. The American Dollar in Turkey. The dramatic side : humour, pathos, tragedy. The deportation of a Syrian patriot and philan- thropist. IX. Unjust Stewards 133 Personalities regarding Enver, Talaat, and Jemal in their relation to Syria. A Twentieth Century Herod. An assassin for Chief of Police. Two Governors of Lebanon. Governors of Aleppo and Damascus. X. The Effect in Syria of America's En- trance INTO THE War . . . .157 Turkish police close American institutions. Smuggling ^40,000 past Turkish guards. The departure from Syria of American repre- sentatives. The Chief of Police orders resumption of American Press activities. How a German cooperated in American relief- work. Why Jemal Pasha protected the Syrian Protes- tant College. Contents 13 XL Hysterical and Historical Excitements 167 Financial flurry, naval activities, aerial attacks, the destruction of a submarine in Beirut har- bour, evacuation, deportation, the locusts. Signals to the enemy. A hidden wireless. Spies. The arrest of the entire American Mission. Court Martial of two Americans from Armenia Typhus. Hiding provisions in a Phoenician well. XII. 19 1 7 — The Year of Horror . . .189 Relief work continued without funds by the American Mission. Americans as arbiters of life and death. A nation's struggle against extermination. The history of an average Lebanon family. XIII. How an Englishman Kept Four Thou- sand Syrians Alive .... 209 An operation and a toothache remove barriers to relief work. A visit to the Brummana Soup-Kitchen. Bayard Dodge saves thirty villages from starva- tion. XIV. The Deportation and Imprisonment of the Director of American Relief in Syria 235 Azmi's jealousy of American philanthropy. Journeying as a prisoner through Anatolia in midwinter. First impressions of Constantinople. W. S. Nelson and C. A. Dana in War Depart- ment prison. An unexpected release. The new Sultan. Decline of German prestige in Turkey. The collapse of the Central Powers. The Armistice and the end of Turkey. Home again. 14 Contents XV* The Dark Hour Before the Dawn . 263 The worst year of the war. XVI. Dawn — The Day of Syria's Liberation . 274 Syria in ignorance of military eventi. Watching the Palestine campaign from the Capital. The flight of the Germans and Austrians. Allen by '3 crusade seen from the heights of Lebanon. Deposing the Turkish Governor of Beirut. The triumphal entry. XVIL The New Day ..... 286 Syria's fate. Syria's dependence on America's friendship, 50,000 Syrians in destitute homes. Syria's right to self-determination. Will America stand by " The Fourteen Pointi " ? Illustrations Beirut and the Lebanon Mountains . FrontUpiea Facing page Miss McGilvary, Mr. Dana, Mrs. Dana, Dorothy Dana, at their Summer Home in *Aleih . , 22 28 V- 4a 54 86 100 100 X04 114 130 158 158 196 206 258 258 280 282 284 Bedouin, or Nomad Arabs . • • • Map of Syria The American Mission in Syria . • Map of Lebanon and Adjacent Districts Hospital Unit, Beirut Chapter, American Red Cross Unloading Paper for American Press • • Sending Publications to Steamer . • « Two Arabic Compositors of the American Press American Press Administrative StafF • ^ Assad Kheirallah « American Mission Compound, Beirut, Syria , American Summer Residences, 'Aleih, Lebanon Typical Starvation Cases . . . • Scenery in the Lebanon Mountains . • The Entente Fleet in the Sea of Marmora • The Fleet at Anchor in the Bosphorus . The First British to Enter Beirut . • Omar Bey Daouk General Allenby and StafF at the Dog River . THE CLOSING OF A HIGHWAY OF THE NATIONS SYRIA was perhaps the most completely isolated country in the world during the Great War. As the result of an almost ironical series of cir- cumstances this land which for so many centuries played such an important role in history was for prac- tically four years hidden behind a drawn curtain. This " bridge of the world," as it is sometimes called, this highway between Asia and Africa for the con- quests and commerce of nations, became for the first time in recorded history as much out of touch with the trend of world events as the bleak plains of Pata- gonia, or Lapland, The history of Syria is in itself practically a resume of the history of civilization from its earliest begin- nings to the present day. The Turkish Empire as it existed before this last great war included areas which were more richly endowed with the heritage of the past than any other portions of the world's surface. Meso- potamia probably cradled the earliest civilization. Egypt contains the richest and best-preserved records of a highly developed ancient culture. Arabia and Syria, both former Turkish provinces, gave birth to the three great religions of the world, Isl^m, Judaism, and 17 l8 The Dawn of a New Era in Syria Christianity. Jerusalem is the shrine of all these re- ligions, and Moslem, Jew and Christian jostle each other in the narrow streets of the Holy City and con- test with fanatical hatred for the ownership of the places that are sacred to all three sects alike. The name of this remote and crumbling Oriental city is familiar to " people and realms of every tongue," and the ignorant Russian peasant who has scarcely heard of Moscow and Petrograd is nevertheless hoarding his savings for a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. The historian, the Bible student, the archaeologist, the statesman must all include within their professional equipment a comprehension of the history of Syria and its problems. In some respects Syria is the most back- ward country in the world, and might almost be re- garded as an exhibit in the museum of time. A large majority of the peasant population of the Holy Land to-day cultivate their soil and conduct their social life just as their ancestors did three thousand years and more ago. Many of the agricultural implements and the household utensils have not been altered in the slightest particular from those which are described in the Bible. Old tribal customs, especially among the Jews, still prevail, and the traveller is constantly im- pressed with a sense of unreality as if he were observ- ing animated tableaux illustrating a long-loved book as he sees at every turn the episodes of Biblical history reproduced in the life of the modern inhabitants of the " Bible-land." In this respect Syria is the land " where all things always seem the same " ; and yet, on the other hand. The Closing of a Highway of the Nations 19 Syria is the one spot still left on the face of the earth with which the world-peace settlement has not yet been able to cope. It was a comparatively easy problem for the Entente to agree upon the terms under which Ger- many and Austria should be reinstated; but one item of the docket with which the Conference must deal before its work is finished promises endless difficulties, and may even sow the seeds of discord between the parties of the Entente. That item is the disposal of Syria. The searchlight of the world is turned in Syria's direction. There are a score of conflicting and powerful political forces at work, and the task of evolving an equitable solution from the chaos of greed bids fair to prove well-nigh impossible. To the mind of the Jews the hour has sounded for their rcestablish- ment in the land of which they were centuries ago despoiled. For the Arabs the time has come to assert their claims over the vast territory which is theirs by right of prevailing race and language. The Syrians are clamouring for independence. England and France and Italy have each political or commercial aspirations which make the possession of Syria highly desirable, and America stands in that awkward position of being the sponsor of Syria's choice, an invitation which she cannot disregard in view of the famous " Fourteen Points." Hov/ever much the existence of Syria had to be reckoned with by the various combatants in the con- flict, its real internal life during the war was prac- tically unknown to the world. Outsiders saw in the newspapers little mention of other than military events ao The Dawn of a New Era in Syria in Syria. Some may have been stirred by appeals to help the starving Syrians, but how many realized that the suffering was not due entirely to the exigencies of war but to the deliberate attempt of the rulers to ex- terminate a subject race? Those within the country felt themselves growing almost daily further out of touch with the march of world events. The great majority of these also realized that they were prisoners who faced both indignity and starvation. In one sense, all who remained in Syria during the war, whether voluntarily or otherwise, were prisoners. Foreigners and Syrians alike found themselves fettered by lack of funds, materials, ways and means ; by gov- ernment regulations and interference; and they were in danger of mental stagnation, and even death from disease, famine or torture. Those were very dark hours. Like a night during sickness they dragged on, and it seemed that the dawn would never break. In Roman times Syria was the granary of the world which encircled the Mediterranean, and she is still capable of producing wheat to feed that little world. Yet in our day, during the reign of a few Turkish gov- ernors, some of whom were eminently suited to the worst Roman era, one-half the population of Syria was wiped out entirely through disease and starvation. Even Belgium and Serbia, which probably suffered as heavily as any of the small countries engaged in the war, cannot show as high a percentage of mortality due to these causes. Probably no part of the world contained also in so small an area representatives of so many nationalities The Closing of a Highway of the Nations 21 as did Syria at the beginning of the war. Her in- ternal life, therefore, during the war presented not only the problems of her Syrian inhabitants, a race subject at that time to the Sultan of Turkey, but also certain peculiar features in relation to the foreign residents. The vicissitudes of the latter, as seen by the writer of this book, form a part of the story which cannot be lightly told. These pages are written in Lebanon during the peaceful summer of 1919; and although the surround- ings are identical with those in which the events of th^ war occurred, everything has been so altered since the British occupation less than a year ago that we some- times wonder whether it was a dream after all. We use the words " during the war " as if we were refer- ring to an epoch which we can only dimly remember. So rapidly does one adjust oneself to new conditions! I came out to Syria in the spring of 1914, having just graduated from college, to work as secretary to my uncle, Mr. Charles A. Dana, Manager of the Amer- ican Mission Press in Beirut. The offer particularly tempted me for I understood that life in Syria was peculiarly rich and delightful, affording many oppor- tunities for travel in the Near East. Moreover, as a point of contact with the outside world it could scarcely be equalled. "Everybody that is anybody " eventually visits the Holy Land, just as every one visits Paris ; but in Beirut, unlike a great city like Paris, the small Amer- ican community is privileged to entertain and become well acquainted with the distinguished guests who are constantly passing. Since one must always behold the 22 The Dawn of a New Era in Syria greater part of the world in a mirror, it seemed to me there was no better place than Syria for a Lady of Shalott. I had been in Syria only four months when the war began, and I then discovered that I had chosen as my residence for the next two years and eight months the most out-of-the-way corner of the world, instead of the greatest highway. However, life there held ample recompense for its isolation. In my position at the American Press I was in constant touch with the prob- lems of relief -work, and I came to know and love the land and the people in a way that is possible only in a community which is cut off from the rest of the world. I have incorporated into this book some sections of reports of the Beirut Chapter of the American National Red Cross which, as secretary of that organization from 1914 to 1917, it was my task to prepare for the main office in Washington. In the fall of 1917 Mr. Dana was deported from Beirut, owing to the hostility of the Turkish Governor, Azmi Bey; and the Dana family, including myself, spent the last year of the war — one of many downs and ups — in Constantinople, returning to Beirut in the spring of 1919. At the beginning of the Great War Beirut was the third city of the Ottoman Empire, a flourishing port with an extensive trade. Though it has no great his- torical past like Damascus, its story is not lacking in interest. It was an ancient Phoenician settlement, and as such enjoyed a flourishing trade with Egypt, Tar- shish, and the Greek islands. It eventually passed un- MISS McGILVARY, MR. DANA, MRS. DANA DOROTHY DANA AT THEIR SUMMER HOME IN 'ALEIH The Closing of a Highway of the Nations 23 der Roman control, which marked the beginning of the most prosperous period of its history. After its cap- ture by the Arabs in 635 a. d. it remained Moslem until 1111, when Count Baldwin took it for Christendom. In 1187 it was recaptured by §alah-ed-din (Saladin), and has since then been nominally under Moslem rule, although for one period of many years it was the seat of the rebel government of the Druze Emir, Fakhred- din. From that time on until comparatively recent years, whoever its nominal rulers have been, it has been under the influence of the Druze Emirs of Lebanon. In October, 1918, it was recaptured a second time for Christianity by the Egyptian Expeditionary Force un- der General Sir Edmund AUenby. Never in all this history of capture and recapture has Beirut been so isolated from the rest of the world as during the past four years. The neighbouring coast city of Jebail, the ancient Gebal, was besieged by the Assyrians, but was in constant touch with Egypt dur- ing the whole siege ; Tyre was besieged fifteen years by Alexander, and still maintained her sea-trade. Yet in our day not only the coast cities, but the whole of Syria was utterly cut off from the outside world and was the victim of disease, of starvation, and of tyranny. Syria from its location is naturally a highway. Generally outlined, it occupies the entire coast of the most eastern extremity of the Mediterranean. It ex- tends from the Taurus Mountains, which border Asia Minor, to Egypt and the Arabian Desert, and inland to Mesopotamia. All traffic from the coasts of Asia Minor must pass through its northern portion. Xeno- 24 The Dawn of a New Era in Syria phon's Ten Thousand filed through the Cilician Gates into Syria on their march toward Mesopotamia in the days of the younger Cyrus, just as did the troops of Von der Goltz on their expedition to Bagdad. Hit- tites, Assyrians and Egyptians centuries ago met and clashed in Syria, for it was the roadway to and from their respective kingdoms. North of Beirut the deep gorge of the Dog River affords one of the easiest passes from the coast into the heart of Lebanon. As- syrians, Babylonians, Hittites, Egyptians, Greeks and Romans have all passed that way. Near the mouth of the river the cliffs are covered with inscriptions in al- most every tongue known to antiquity cut into the solid rock, some so worn by time that one can scarcely distinguish the queer, antique figures, others remark- ably well preserved. Napoleon III left his tablet there. The most glorious and most recent inscription is that of General Sir Edmund AUenby, placed there soon after the British occupation of Beirut. In recent years Syria has become of strategic value as the one connecting link between the capital of the Turkish Empire and its most easternly provinces, as well as Its nominal dependency, Egypt. Germany recognized this and knew also that by maintaining the Bagdad Railway and her colonies in Palestine she could always menace any possible concession to Eng- land for a railroad which would carry mail and trade by the shortest possible route from Europe to Persia and India. When the war began the first step in the separation of Syria from the world was the severance of connec- The Closing of a Highway of the Nations 25 tion with Egypt, which cast in her lot with the Entente by declaring herself independent of Turkey. Next came the cessation of maritime commerce as one by one the European countries broke relations with the Otto- man Empire; and, six months after Turkey herself entered the war, scarcely a ship was seen save an oc- casional distant French or British cruiser patrolling the coast. Then Mesopotamia fell into the hands of the British; but, as a wide desert separated that part of Asia from Syria, no military advance was made be- yond Bagdad, and no connection existed between the British army and the eastern border of Syria. There remained only the slender thread of the railway which connected Syria with the government at Constanti- nople. This was controlled by the Turks and the Ger- mans; hence Syria, cut off on three sides, was at the mercy of her hostile rulers and their equally hostile allies who held the fourth side. Germany cared nothing for Syria save as a pos- sible future German colony and as a buffer against Egypt. The Turkish Government bore no love for its province whose Arab and Syrian population was frankly disaffected. Germany encouraged the isola- tion of Syria as a whole in order to further her larger schemes which included the complete disintegration of the Ottoman Empire. Turkey seized the opportunity to vent her barbaric instincts and to harass and murder a nation she hated, and in order to accomplish this she closed every possible door to outside help through the mails or otherwise. For these reasons, Turkey was cut off from all save her allies; and had Bulgaria not 26 The Dawn of a New Era in Syria entered the war on the side of the Central Powers, the Ottoman Empire would have been completely encircled by enemies, and would soon have fallen into the power of the Entente. As it was, Syria became, partly by force of circumstances, and partly through concerted action, completely isolated. Those four years when Syria was entirely segre- gated from the rest of the world formed the blackest period of her history. Just as the darkest hours pre- cede the dawn, and in sickness the vitality is at lowest ebb in the early morning hours and the pulse weakens like a candle flickering in the wind, so the flame of Syria's national life was scarcely sustained. When dawn came at last, it found Syria very weak but still alive, and ready and eager to face a new future. II THE DISINTEGRATION OF SYRIA NO small part of the difficulties in Syria during the war was due to the fact that she was at the mercy of the Turk so far as her one connection with the outside world was concerned, and this largely because of the form of government. Tur- key changed in 1908 from an absolute to a constitu- tional monarchy governed by the Sultan and a parlia- ment consisting of delegates from the various prov- inces. As a matter of fact, between 1915 and 1918 a large number of these delegates never reached Con- stantinople, or, if there, were so out of touch with their constituents that there was little representation in the true sense of the term. The real power rested in the hands of the Committee of Union and Progress which had smothered the ambitions of the Young Turk Party that had aspired to at least a nominally liberal government, and which controlled the Sultan, the Cabinet, Parliament and the majority of the pro- vincial governors. The Triumvirate of the Committee of Union and Progress were Talaat Pasha, Minister of the Interior; Enver Pasha, Minister of War; and Jemal Pasha, Minister of Marine and later Military Governor of Syria. Of these more anon. Each of the large areas in Turkey, such as Mesopo- 27 28 The Dawn of a New Era in Syria tamia, or Syria, was divided into smaller sections called vilayets under control of a Governor-General, or Vdli,^ who was responsible only to the Sultan; or in other words, to the control of the Committee of Union and Progress. During the military regime in Syria the Vdlis were limited in their functions by the power of the Military Governor. The vilayet contained four graded subdivisions the officials of which were all re- sponsible to the Vdli. The vilayet boundaries for the most part followed some logical geographic divisions. However, Beirut Vilayet, in which we lived, contained three separate areas around Beirut, Sidon and Tripoli, where the Province of Lebanon extended to the sea- coast and cut into it in two places, and a fourth part comprising Nablus in Palestine. The Vilayet of Beirut which included so many detached sections is only one of a dozen illustrations of how Syria was through her government and through her very nature internally dis- integrated. One of the chief causes of this disintegration was the physical character of Syria. There are two prac- tically parallel ranges of mountains extending through almost its entire length. The first, or Western Range, is near the coast, with which it is connected by a chain of coastal plains of greatly varied widths. The sec- ond, or Eastern Range, is on the side toward the Syrian Desert. Between these is a narrow depression, or rift, which is, at the Dead Sea, the lowest level on the face of the earth. Thus at almost any point where you cross Syria going eastward you find five parallel ^ Turkish— Vilayet and Vdli; Arahic—Wildyeh and Wdli. The Disintegration of Syria 29 bands: coastal plain, mountain, rift, mountain, des- ert. The diversity of surface in Syria produces an equal diversity in climate, and this diversity is paralleled by the variety of races and religions. The bulk of the population of Syria is Arab in origin, and is of two general classes, the settled, or Felahin, and the no- madic, or Bedouin. The settled population is of very mixed blood. It includes the Syrians, by which we mean the descend- ants of all those peoples, except the Jews, who spoke Aramaic at the beginning of the Christian era. This stock is modified by an admixture of Arab and Cru- sader blood, and its language is now Arabic The Syrians present a great diversity of types. There are the half-nomad, crude farmer folk of the borderland between civilization and the desert, the more advanced farmer class of the mountain districts, the conservative inhabitants of the inland cities, and the fairly cosmo- politan people of the coast cities. Scattered through nearly all these classes is a gradually increasing leaven of education. Besides the divisions created by location and by occupation there are still others created by religion. In America one asks, What is a man's profession? In Syria, What is his religion? Some of the Syrians be- came Moslems at the time of the Turkish conquests, but a very large proportion are still Christians. The latter are of many denominations, often with antago- nistic interests. Probably the foremost bodies among them are the Greek Orthodox and the Maronites, the 30 The Dawn of a New Era in Syria latter adherents of a modified form of the Roman CathoHc Church. The Maronites have long been sym- pathetic with French interests in Syria; and together with the Druzes, their rivals, are destined to play, in the immediate future, a prominent part in the life of their country. The Druzes are a mixed race, mostly of Arab blood. They possess a secret religion which may be termed a mixture of IslAm and Christianity in a more or less esoteric form. They also believe in a series of incar- nations of the soul after death until its final absorption into the Deity. The Druzes formerly lived in feudal state under Sheikhs, who were in turn subject to Emirs. They rose to power in the early part of the sixteenth century, and maintained their supremacy until 1860. Numerically they are still the strongest of the non-Christian sects in Lebanon, and they cherish a deep-rooted hatred of the Christians which finds fre- quent vent in local feuds. Practically all the Moslems in Lebanon are heretical, and are probably as antago- nistic toward the orthodox adherents of IslAm as they are toward the Christians. While the Druzes are the most numerous of the schismatic sects, there are a number of others, notably the Mutawailehs, and the Nusairiyeh. This bird's-eye view of the principal racial and re- ligious divisions in Syria shows how lacking the coun- try is in national unity. When, owing to the exi- gencies of war, internal communications were reduced to the minimum, or in some parts entirely suspended, the physical and racial characteristics of Syria were The Disintegration of Syria 31 such that parts of the country became as much cut of! as oases in the desert which caravans rarely touch. Hence, while Syria is not large, we in Beirut were practically out of contact with certain regions com- paratively near us. Other sections, however, claiming attention for their very isolation, had in a marked de- gree a bearing on the internal situation of the country during the war. Most travellers approaching Syria by sea usually notice first the character of its coast ; for if the sea be rough, they may not be able to land. The coast is regular and possesses no good harbours, even Beirut with a port in the sheltering curve of St. George's Bay offers but fickle entrance in bad weather. The striking feature of the Syrian seaboard along half its length is the mountains which seem to rise abruptly from the sea. There are, however, about eight maritime plains whose location is indicated on the map by the larger rivers or by the more important seaboard towns which have naturally developed near them. A narrow strip, in some places scarce wide enough for a roadway, con- nects these plains. The close proximity of the moun- tains on one side and of the sea on the other makes the scenery varied and lovely. Now and again the level areas expand into tracts of great fertility whose abun- dant yield of fruit, vegetables, and other crops supplies the needs of the coast cities and provides them with produce for export. Except in two large plains south of Mt. Carmel there is little grain raised near the sea, which explains why the coast of Syria north of Pales- 32 The Dawn of a New Era in Syria tine is dependent on the interior for its main slaple, wheat. On leaving the coast and entering the mountains one finds another distinct area, the Lebanon district. It derives its name from the Lebanon Mountains — some- times erroneously spoken of as Mount Lebanon — a mighty range which begins northeast of Tripoli and extends approximately to a region east of Sidon and Tyre. The Lebanon Mountains contain the highest peaks of the Western Range in a ridge called Dahr-el- IJIodib, southeast of Tripoli. The rugged nature of the country with its high mountains and steep-sided valleys has produced a hardy, energetic race of moun- taineers, physically vigorous, honest and free-spirited. The antagonism between the Druzes and the Maron- ites early resulted in lack of cohesion in the Lebanon, and foreign intrigue and Turkish hatred of all Chris- tian subjects played upon the religious feud. The Moslem Government first covertly incited the Druzes against the Christians, and then openly abetted them. As a result of this plotting, the Lebanon Mountains be-f came in 1860 the scene of a tragedy so horrible that the Foreign Powers realized the necessity for prompt and effective intervention. In this year occurred the massacre of the Christians by the Druzes in some scores of Lebanon villages and the slaughter of about three thousand Christians in Damascus. During that reign of terror the foreign residents underwent a most anxious time. In view of the fact that the Ottoman Government would do nothing to restore order, the European Powers found it necessary to intervene in r — 37 3? 1 ^J;s.>..n.oP^^'^ ^ yv ) \ >iW ^ ^VI^ Aniioch^^ ' ^^^ ? // ^^^ ^ ^' ttakJ 1 i ^^^ r'"'" 1 jt^>»/M4 Kj/tHOMS ..^^^^^^^^^^^ ''' yj' (|L.Aa./ ^^ .yVeM M E D I TERR ^ iST ^ .4 iVT if^Tl H: ^JDAMA3CUS ml . ) \ r^ S ^ A ""'m^-- hKuran i*4^ ^ >^JOero.a, l^ % 1 JaPFa/JOT 1 ^ '' iiSalt y J^^Lii -f Scale of Miles ^^^S^ler,^ \ ^^^^ ) SYRIA / K^^^^^^^^^^^ Ir/s/, \ M^^^ k£!7 \,£/Auja. r ^S L/W.../A 11^ ,* .ie«..__ ^ _J The Disintegration of Syria 33 Lebanon, which was occupied by S0,000 foreign troops, about half of which were French. The French occupation continued till 1861 when the Sublime Porte was forced to accede to an arrangement which would tend to lessen quarrels between the Chris- tians and the Druzes. Even after the withdrawal of foreign troops, French and English naval squadrons cruised along the coast for months, just as they did from 1916 to 1918 for other reasons. Lebanon was constituted a Privileged Province by statute of Sep- tember 6, 1864, with an autonomous government under the protection of the five Great Powers: England, France, Italy, Austria, and Germany. The Governor of Lebanon was to be a Christian, a just precaution considering the fact that three-fourths of the popula- tion were Christians, and arrangements were made for the gradual withdrawal of the Druzes from the juris- diction of the State. In 1914, when the Ottoman Empire broke relations with the Entente Powers, Lebanon ceased to be re- garded as an Independent Protectorate. It was ranked as an Independent Mutaserrifiyeh and given a Moslem Governor, or Mutaserrif, responsible to the Sultan. Curiously enough, while the Turk violated during the Great War every other treaty he had ever signed, for some unknown reason he respected the exemption of the Lebanese from military service. Up to within the last few years Lebanon had her own army of only a few hundred men, and no Lebanese could be drafted for service in the Turkish army. The Lebanese uniform was not unlike the Zouave, and it 34 The Dawn of a New Era in Syria was so novel a sight as to impress the traveller as al- most an anachronism to see these husky mountaineers in their blue and red uniforms, with little bolero jackets and full, baggy trousers, standing guard along the roads, or sauntering about the stations as the trains pulled in. It was always with a sense of relief that one crossed the vilayet boundary and passed into the region guarded by these Lebanese. The Lebanon roads were always in better condition than those which the vilayet was supposed to care for, and the very people seemed of a finer type as soon as one entered Lebanon. Dur- ing the war they were so fortunate as to have Turkish governors that were reasonable and conscientious. All Munif Bey, later Minister of Public Works, and Ismail Hakki, former Turkish Counsellor in Egypt, both tried to deal as fairly by their province as the Turkish Gov- ernment and certain unavoidable circumstances would permit. Yet Lebanon suffered more heavily during the years of the war than any other part of Syria. Practically three- fourths of her population of approxi- mately half a million were wiped out by starvation. The reason for this was that the rugged Lebanon district, unfit for much level cultivation, raised only a small fraction of the wheat necessary for her popula- tion. For their income the Lebanese depended on the sale of produce from their small farms or the export of their silk. Also certain villages were supported by special trades; for instance, one depended on silver filagree work, another on knife-making, while a third made nearly all the bells which called Christians to The Disintegration of Syria 35 worship from Aintab to Sinai. The Entente blockade, instituted the second year of the war, caused the cessa- tion of numerous small industries such as those just mentioned and the temporary destruction of the silk- raising industry, inasmuch as all the silk could not be marketed in the country, but was usually exported to France. Later, under the guise of military necessity, Jemal Pasha confiscated all the silk that he could lay his hands on, and he used as his agent a notorious ras- cal, Tewfik Bey. The poor suffered most heavily, as the rich were able to give large enough bribes to secure protection. Still another cause of distress was the fact that, owing to the complete cessation of postal commu- nication with the outside world, a large number of Lebanese were deprived of external sources of income, such as funds sent them by relatives resident in Amer- ica or in other countries, or bank accounts which they had established abroad. It so happened, therefore, that for one reason or another whole villages were annihilated. The Government commandeered wholesale, without payment, animals for transport and for army food supply. People dependent on their sheep or mules for support were impoverished, and there were no longer enough animals for the transport of foodstuffs from one place to another, a serious matter in view of the fact that the railways, being in Turkish or German hands, were available only for military use. Farmers who had saved seed-wheat the first year of the war were forced to eat it the second summer, and by the second winter Lebanon was bereft of wheat. Her dis- 36 The Dawn of a New Era in Syria couraged, almost hopeless population found their coun- try isolated by reason of its rugged mountains and the desire of the Turkish Government to cut it off from the rest of Syria. Had the Turk permitted it, the whole of Syria might have been fed by the two main inland areas, the vast level tracts in the Central Depression and the Hauran. Around Aleppo, Hama, and Homs the apparently bare and uninteresting levels are capable of raising a great deal of wheat. These plains during the war were en- tirely separated from each other and from the rest of Syria, save for roads over mountain passes or the slen- der thread of the railway between Aleppo and Reyak, the only means by which, after endless difficulties in the matter of purchase, permits, and car-space, any- thing could be transported from this region to other parts of Syria. Still more isolated was Hauran, the great wheat- raising region of Syria, which once fed half the Roman world. The plateau of Hauran lies south of Damas- cus and adjacent to it is another wheat country, Jeb- el ed-Druz, or Druze Mountain. The inhabitants of this part of Syria are partly settled Bedouin tribes and partly, as the name indicates, Druzes. They have al- ways retained distinctive tribal characteristics and cus- toms, and have maintained an exclusive and often hostile attitude, at times quite baffling to the Turk. When the Gk)vemment essayed to control the vast sup- plies of wheat raised in Hauran the population made endless difficulties and even concealed quantities of the grain. They also refused Turkish paper money, and The Disintegration of Syria 37 would sell only to buyers who could offer gold " with the horse on it," t. e., English sovereigns bearing the mounted St. George combating the dragon. Because food was the crying need of all Syria during the war, these parts of the country I have mentioned somewhat at length were constantly in the minds of all of us. The coast, dependent both on external and in- ternal trade relations, was isolated on both sides and suffering; Lebanon was segregated, internally dis- rupted and starving; the two sections of the interior which might have been utilized to feed the rest of the country were forced into passivity by the Turks. Moreover, not only did the native population suffer at the hands of their rulers, but there was scattered all over Syria the large non-Syrian element mentioned earlier in this book, the Armenians, Jews, Levantines and foreign residents, whose fortunes were bound up in the fate of the country, and whose sufferings were similar to those of the Syrians. Not only did each separate community struggle for existence, but Syria as a whole w^as a victim because her position geographically and politically facilitated her becoming a closed highway. Her inhabitants suf- fered because physically, racially and politically Syria was isolated and lacked cohesion. The Americans resident in the country felt it their task to do what they could to alleviate internal conditions. It is to Turkey, however, and to her ally, Germany, that Syria owes the fact of her remaining for nearly five years behind a drawn curtain. Ill FOREIGN GUESTS OF THE SULTAN IN SYRIA MY first introduction to Syria was through the letters of my aunt who lived there, and I was perplexed to account for the fact that these letters bore the postage-stamps of any one of five different nations. The geographies said that Syria was a Turkish province, but what could be the status of a country whose postal service was apparently under international control? Later, when I myself went to live with that aunt in Syria, I learned that the answer lay in that half -mysterious phrase, "the Capitula- tions," — what the Capitulations were and how they affected Turkey will later be discussed in detail. The question of the political status of Syria arises in the mind of each new arrival in the land. A more com- posite population could hardly be imagined, and unlike most places where the population is international, in Syria the subjects of each foreign nation maintain to an extraordinary degree the integrity of their national life. In Crusading days, all Europeans were grouped by their Eastern opponents under the title of Prank, and to-day a corruption of the term still exists in the 38 Foreign Guests of the Sultan in Syria 39 Syrian word Pranji. The Syrians themselves have drawn this line of demarkation, designating as Pranji any Occidental, European or American, and with them the word is practically synonymous with foreigner. It might seem that the result would be a social homo- geneity among the Westerners resident in Syria, but such is not the case. It is true to a certain extent in the smaller places; but in large cities, like Beirut, the foreign population as a whole has never amalgamated. One finds oneself speaking of " the French colony," or the "Anglo-American community," and each one of these units is socially self-sufficient. True, there are frequent occasions when all forgather, and the assem- bly takes on a truly cosmopolitan character, but in gen- eral, in the ordinary world of social life, each colony lives very much unto itself. The East has always been attractive for the Western world. Its lure has wooed men from home and kin- dred to endure danger and hardships in a hostile land, and this siren call is as compelling to many of us to- day as it was to our ancestors centuries ago. Long before the fire of religious enthusiasm roused in Europe the determination to gain possession of the shrines of the Holy Land, trade between the Occident and the Orient had existed to their mutual profit. In the beginning, the current was from the East west- ward, for civilization matured more rapidly in the warm Eastern climes. The Phoenicians who, centuries before the Christian Era, were masters of the Syrian coast, built their ships and ventured forth, even beyond the Pillars of Hercules, into the boundless ocean of the 40 The Dawn of a New Era in Syria 4 West. They bore their treasures to that little isle which we now call England, and brought back with them ores and furs which they had there obtained in fair exchange. Rome turned her eyes toward the East, and seeing that it was good, overthrew great kingdoms and annexed vast tracts of territory. Even among the Crusaders, political and commercial inter- ests were paramount over their enthusiasm for the holy cause. Especially was this true of the Fourth Crusade { 1204 A. D. ) , which Venice actually diverted from the Holy Land to Dalmatia and Constantinople for pur- poses of her own trade and by secret agreement with her Eastern commercial allies. The vast armies of Crusaders, recruited from all the countries of Europe, and comprising men of all walks of life, were moved by varied and often conflicting in- terests. Shoulder to shoulder with the religious fa- natic marched the social outcast who sought to obliter- ate the memory of his past offences against society by the fame of his prowess in a holy cause. Their tent- mates were an adventurer, restless and chafed under the humdrum conditions of every-day life, and a pros- perous merchant who thought in terms of commercial profit The same impulses which prompted men of wholly diverse tastes to join in the Crusades have brought the modern Westerners to the Holy Land. Some are ac- tuated by the pure spirit of missionary zeal and re- ligious fervour, others by the no less altruistic desire to encourage the advance of these less progressive coun- tries through commerce, agriculture, and the develops- Foreign Guests of the Sultan in Syria 41 ment of natural resources. Still others are inspired solely by selfish motives, and by recognition of the fact that in a country which has so obvious a future as Syria it is well to be first on the scene. According as their motives have been laudable or deplorable, the in- fluence of foreigners on the country has been beneficial or unfortunate. From the very dawn of her history, Syria has been the bone of contention and the prey of conflicting desires. She has been the victim of re- ligious fanaticism no less than the object of crass com- mercialism. She has been riven with civil dissension, and has been rent in the conflict of international jeal- ousies. And yet, for the present, her salvation lies In the beneficent and just intervention of some great power, under whose mandate she may learn to master her own forces, and develop her independence. Among tlie alien races which have exploited Syria none have wrought such ravages as the Turks. The recent history of the country has been one long succes- sion of conflicts between Christianity and Isl4m, and each power in turn has worsted the other and assumed governmental control. During the twelfth and thir- teenth centuries in particular, the struggles between the two religions were titanic, and Christian kings and Moslem princes succeeded each other with m.elodra- matic rapidity. The later Crusades were fruitless, and after the failure in 1248 of the Thirteenth and last Crusade, IslAm for nearly seven centuries was never effectively disputed. Indeed, until the nineteenth cen- tury, foreign Christians were barely tolerated in the Holy Land, and it is only during the last century that 42 The Dawn of a New Era in Syria they have gained an effective foothold there. Very quietly and unostentatiously Christian influence has spread until, with the British occupation in 1918, Syria once more passed into Christian hands. So complete, however, has been the transformation, that the population is no longer overwhelmingly Moslem, although the Moslems in all localities but Lebanon are still in the majority. The Crusade of the last few centuries has been a silent one, but the West has made its contribution of men and resources just as truly as it did in the days of chivalry. The saint, the merchant, the outlaw, the adventurer are still to be found among these modern crusaders, and all the races of the Occi- dent are represented in that army. From the point of view of numbers, the influence of the Anglo-Americans is probably greatest in Syria, and as the aims and ideals of these two nations are not dissimilar, it is fair, up to a certain point, to treat the two as one for purposes of discussion. Previous to the war, there were several hundred British and Amer- icans resident in Syria, the majority of whom were en- gaged in missionary and educational work. From Jerusalem to Aleppo, from the seacoast to the wilder- ness east of the Jordan, in the mountains, in the desert, and on the fertile maritime plain scores of mission sta- tions were scattered In an important city like Beirut, there might be a dozen missions operating simulta- neourly and harmoniously, carrying on evangelistic, educational, medical, and social work. In more iso- lated spots one foreign pastor was located, or one British or American doctor ministering to the needs of 'db Foreign Guests of the Sultan in Syria 43 the district by his efforts as a touring physician, or by the maintenance of an up-to-date hospital. In still other centers, according to their size, a school or groups of schools were located. This organized mission-work had been gradually de- veloping in the country during the last hundred years. In the early years of the nineteenth century, the first American missionaries penetrated into Syria, and be- gan their work on the same far-reaching scale which the present century has elaborated and developed, but has not radically changed. The first British mission in the Holy Land was established about the same time, and so rapidly did the work grow that at the opening of the war there was hardly an important city in Syria or Palestine, or even, one might say, a central village that was not a base for missionary operations. The main centers of missionary activity were, natu- rally, the largest cities, such as Beirut, Damascus, Aleppo, Jerusalem, Jaffa, Haifa, Sidon and Tripoli. Other towns were occupied, however, according to the opportunities that they offered for contact with an im- portant social community. In a little, out-of-the-way town in Northern Galilee, for instance, there is an in- dependent mission-worker who has been prompted to ' vote her life to the conversion of Jews ; and who has chosen this particular village as the best means of ac- cess to a large Jewish district. To Nebk and Deir 'Atiyeh, remote villages on the skirts of the Syrian desert, a small band of Danish missionaries has pene- trated, largely because this region has been left un- touched by other missionary organizations. Certain 44 The Dawn of a New Era in Syria villages in Lebanon have been chosen because they are the strongholds of the Druzes, others because they offer access to some of the more inquiring sects of Ori- ental Christians who have begun to evince an interest in the Western Church. In this way the whole coun- try has been fairly honeycombed with Anglo-American influence ; and it speaks well for the spirit in which the foreigners have laboured, that, wherever he may be, the missionary is almost an oracle in his community. Perhaps the strongest impetus the Syrian nation has had toward national unity has come from this common admiration for individuals living among them, who are not of them. Much of this incipient welding of sects and races that have been traditionally antagonistic must surely be credited to various missionary enterprises in the coun- try. The Syrian Protestant College, formerly the child of the American Congregational Mission in Syria, but now under independent management, has been one of the most prominent factors in producing this spirit of tolerance. It is a recognized fact that the Moslem, the Jew, the Druze, the Protestant, and the Oriental Christian who have been students in this College can work together as business men, or can serve on the same committee, with a degree of success that would be absolutely impossible had they not had this levelling experience of a tolerant American education. The same is true to a lesser degree of the graduates of the American mission-schools, and this only because the pupils are less mature, and their characters less stabil- ized when they leave the secondary schools. When Foreign Guests of the Sultan in Syria 45 they graduate from the College they are men, and their opinions are formulated with more or less per- manency. The graduate of the American High School is still a callow youth, and unless he continue under the influence of mature minds in some more advanced school, he may surrender himself anew to the intoler- ant prejudices of his own sect. Among the foreign organizations in Syria and Pal- estine the French missions come next to the British and American in scope and influence. It is an open secret, however, that while the latter are operating in the country from purely humanitarian motives, French missions have been established with a more subtle political purpose. It has, moreover, been unfortunate for their influence in the country that a large number of the French priests who have emigrated to Syria were ejected from France, where they were considered undesirable citizens. This has not, however, pre- vented their being used by their Government as agents of political propaganda, and they have gained a follow- ing of several hundred thousand among the Majonites, the most powerful sect of Syrian Romanists. The particular stronghold of the French missions is the Lebanon, and there is hardly a hillcrest that is not crowned with a Catholic monastery ; there is scarcely a spot in Lebanon so remote that in the evening hush one cannot hear the melodious note of a convent-bell sound- ing the hour of evening worship. The terms Catholic and Maronite and French-sympathizer are practically synonymous in Syria, for most of the Syrians who ac- knowledge the authority of the Pope look also to 46 The Dawn of a New Era in Syria France as their strongest hope in the attainment of their political aspirations. Undoubtedly the French have done a great deal for the country in the matter of education, but it has been unfortunate that this has been accomplished at the price of exaggerating the al- ready latent denominational antagonisms. Their most distinguished institution in Syria is the Jesuit Univer- sity in Beirut, which has won international recognition for the high standard of its scholarship, its famous library, and the value of some of its publications, espe- cially along historical and archaeological lines. Among the Protestant missions operating in Syria and Palestine before the war were the Danish, pre- viously mentioned, and the German. Curiously enough, the latter were assigned by their government no role as political agents, in spite of Germany's long- acknowledged political aspirations in Syria. In Beirut and in Jerusalem in particular there were numerous flourishing institutions, hospitals, hospices, orphanages and schools; but at the time of writing these are all under the control of British or American organiza- tions. There were three prosperous German colonies in Palestine, one at Jerusalem, chiefly commercial, one at Jaffa, and one at Haifa, the two latter mainly agri- cultural. These colonies were established about fifty years ago by modern crusaders from Wiirtemburg who were inspired with the desire to rebuild the Temple. Since the British occupation, the Germans, with but few exceptions, have been expelled from the territory of the former Turkish Empire; and it has not yet been decided whether they will be permitted to return. Foreign Guests of the Sultan in Syria 47 This brief statement of foreign missionary influence in Syria would not be complete without reference to the work of numerous other nationalities ; but as most of their activity has been along the line of Catholic mis- sionary methods — the domination of the few, rather than the lifting of the masses — their influence has been restricted and purely local. The Russians had exten- sive work, especially in Palestine, where, previous to the war, the richly endowed Russian Palestine Society maintained numerous hospices and schools, including a normal seminary. The Russians have always particu- larly patronized the adherents of the Greek Orthodox Church in Syria, all of whom were admittedly Russian in sympathy. The Austrians and Italians likewise supported mis- sions in the Holy Land, but their work was preemi- nently educational, or medical, and was not extensive in scope. Among the foreigners must also be included the " Frank "monks, who have long possessed monas- teries in the Holy Land. The Franciscans have been especially zealous in providing accommodations at many different places for wayfaring pilgrims. These monks are generally Spanish, or Italian, and more rarely French. They exercise a very beneficial influ- ence over the native clergy through the schools which they maintain. As was intimated, however, at the beginning of this chapter, secular interests as well as religious motives have attracted the Westerner to the Near East. There has always been a rich field for commercial enterprise, and previous to the war European finance had been 48 The Dawn of a New Era in Syria granted important concessions in Syria. There was a complete system of German banks throughout every part of the Turkish Empire, but only one other foreign bank existed in Syria, a French bank in Jerusalem. All the leading European nations, except Germany, however, had contributed liberally to the currency sup- ply of Turkey, with a result that French, Italian, Rus- sian and British gold were as much in circulation as was Turkish gold. The French in particular had extensive commercial interests, and consequently definite political aspirations. Such vital factors in the life of the country as the rail- ways, roads, tramlines, and the gas and electric com- panies were backed by foreign capital. A French com- pany had built the seawall at Beirut and controlled the port. The same was true of the Damascus, Hedjaz and Extension Railroad, and of the Gas and Electric Company of Beirut. The concession for the Bagdad Railway, on the other hand, had been granted to Ger- many, although at one time England had been almost in sight of the prize. The Beirut Tram Company was a Belgian concern: all of which indicates how keenly desirable a foothold in this little land was adjudged by the great European Powers. Ships of all nations brought foreign produce to the Syrian coast ; and, inci- dentally, America made her contribution to the econ- omy of Turkey by the importation of the Standard Oil Company's products, and by the exportation of tobacco and licorice. An American-Syrian Chamber of Com- merce was In existence before the war, and is now be- ing revived; but in comparison with other foreign Foreign Guests of the Sultan in Syria 49 countries America's interests were so limited to educa- tional and religious enterprises as to seem to the Turks of little consequence. They realized that America had no desire to interfere in the politics of the Near East, and this fact gave her a prestige wholly different from that of any other Great Power. During practically the whole course of the war the Ottoman attitude to- ward the United States was conciliatory and ingratiat- ing ; and even the Germans failed to blind the Turks to the fact that, if they alienated America, they would lose their one possible champion. In view of the fact that, at the opening of the war, America was generally supposed to be destined for the role of international arbiter at the final settlement of peace, Turkey stub- bornly persisted in maintaining amiable relations with this desirable friend. One has only to recall the history of the Turkish Empire to realize how absolutely essential it was, if foreigners were to reside there at all, that their life and property should be protected by special treaties and agreements. Such treaties have existed for centuries, and are known as " the Capitulations." I have here taken the liberty of quoting a few admirably concise paragraphs from Ambassador Morgenthau's Story on this subject: "Turkey had never been admitted to a complete equality with European nations, and in reality she had never been an independent sovereignty. The Sultan's laws and customs differed so radically from those of Europe and America that no non-Moslem country could think of submitting its citizens in Turkey to 5© The Dawn of a New Era in Syria them. In many matters, therefore, the principle of exterritoriality had always prevailed in favour of all citizens or subjects of countries enjoying capitulatory rights. Almost all European countries, as well as the United States, for centuries had had their own con- sular courts and prisons in which they tried and pun- ished crimes which their nationals committed in Tur- key. We all had our schools, which were subject, not to Turkish law and protection, but to that of the coun- try which maintained them. Several nations had their own post offices, as they did not care to submit their mail to the Ottoman postal service. Turkey likewise did not have unlimited power of taxation over for- eigners. It could not even increase their customs taxes without the consent of the foreign Powers. . . . Turkey was thus prohibited by the Powers from devel- oping any industries of her own; instead, she was forced to take large quantities of inferior articles from Europe. Against these restrictions Turkish statesmen had protested for years, declaring that they constituted an insult to their pride as a nation and also interfered with their progress." * Only under these provisions, as experience subse- quent to their abolition certainly proved, could life for the foreign resident in Turkey maintain any degree of safety or security. By grace of these treaties, he was not only permitted to pursue his work unmolested, but he had the right of appeal to his national representa- tives at the Sublime Porte in case of any infringement of his treaty rights. It may easily be understood that ^Ambassador Morgenthau's Story, pp. 112-113. Foreign Guests of the Sultan in Syria 51 these Capitulations were a thorn in the flesh of the Turk, or one might better say, a ring in the nose of the bull. If ever he so far forgot himself as to menace his foreign guests, a judicious twist would recall him to his actual position, and frighten him into at least a pre- tence of submission. However, he was biding his time, and it will shortly be seen that the first acts of independence and defiance committed by the Turk, under the instigation of the Germans, were the aboli- tion of the Capitulations and the celebration of this event with public demonstrations and rejoicing. IV MOBILIZING AN ELUSIVE ARMY THE curtain rises on Syria. Time: the summer of 1914. The heat in Beirut during June and July had been most oppressive, and long be- fore the beginning of August most of the American community had fled from the torrid humidity of the plain to their summer-homes in the mist-swept retreats of Lebanon. Only the President of the Syrian Prot- estant College, the Staff of the College Hospitals, and the Manager of the American Press were detained in the city by the pressure of their duties, which were, if anything, heavier during the summer months, when ill- ness was more prevalent, or plans must be made for the work of the coming winter season. But even these busy folk found it necessary to seek refreshment in the hills, and counted it among their duties to arrange an occasional holiday in Lebanon. On Saturday, August first, Mr. and Mrs. Dana and I set out for the village of Shweir where we expected to pass a quiet and peaceful week-end. As a matter of fact, I recall a restful and idle Sunday spent under the pines on the mountain- side. However, the memory of that uneventful day has been almost obliterated by the excitement of the events that followed. On Monday morning we were Mobilizing an Elusive Army 53 returning to the heat and dust of the plain and the work of another trying week when we met crowds of people fleeing from the city. Every one seemed panic- stricken, and many urged us to retrace our steps to the mountains. In vain we attempted to discover the cause of this feverish excitement. It was evident that no great catastrophe had befallen the city, for there it lay on the plain beneath us, pale and drowsy in the August heat. Not a wisp of smoke was visible to give the alarm of fire, nothing appeared out of the ordinary to stir the slumbering countryside, except the unusual clouds of dust raised by the hurrying feet of men and animals toiling up the steep ascent. At times we al- most feared that we too should have to join that wit- less exodus, for on several occasions we were stopped by travellers and told that if we attempted to cross the borderline between Lebanon and Beirut Vilayet our horses would be commandeered by the military. As a matter of fact, we only succeeded in reaching our desti- nation in the heart of the city because we insisted on our right as Americans to pursue our journey un- molested, an argument which continued effective until the war was several months old. When we reached the city and reliable sources of information, we dis- covered the cause of the panic. The Austrian guns had opened fire on Belgrade, and with the echo of the first report the Turkish Government had begun to mobilize its army. It was from the traditional horrors of enforced service in the Turkish ranks that the Syrians were fleeing as one man. There was nothing of Oriental sluggishness in the 54 The Dawn of a New Era in Syria way that Turkey acted in this crisis, and we in the country were wholly swept off our feet. We hardly realized even at that time how powerful the German influence in the Empire already was, for it had been fostered so secretly, and yet so skillfully, that when the crisis came, Germany alone had her hand on the rud- der. When the shot was fired at Sarajevo, Germany warned Turkey to prepare herself against the attack which must surely follow the outbreak of trouble in the Balkans, and at the drop of the hat Turkey was in the ring. In every country of Europe nations were be- ginning to stir, men were donning uniforms, and the most peaceful land was being converted into an enor- mous drill-ground. Turkey in this respect was no ex- ception, but where the men of other nations responded willingly to the call of their country, in Turkey they fled before the conscription officers as from the plague. Even the Lebanese dared not rely on their traditional immunity from military service as long as they resided in Beirut, for no one trusted the wily Turk, and each felt that he would be safe only in the fastnesses of Lebanon among his compatriots who could combine with him to defend their rights. It would hardly be incorrect to say that there was not an Ottoman subject in all of Syria who was animated by one spark of patriotism. Of the Syrians themselves, a great ma- jority secretly aspired to independence, or to a protect- orate under the mandate of one of the Great Powers. Others, less nationalistically ambitious and concerned solely with their own personal well-being, were plan- ning to leave their native land and seek their fortunes