^ 
 
n 
 
 A MANUAL OF THE HISTORY 
 
 OF THE POLITICAL SYSTEM OF EUROPE 
 
 AND ITS COLONIES. 
 
/ 
 
 UND DAS BAND DER STAATEN WAUDGEIIOBEN, 
 UND DIE ALTEN PORMEN SXiJRTZEN EIN ! 
 
 SCHILLER, 
 
 THE ROND OF THE NATIONS WAS BROKEN, AND THE ANCIENT EDIFJCE 
 OVERTIIUOWN ! 
 
A MANUAL 
 
 HISTOET OF THE POLITICAL SYSTEM 
 
 EUROPE AND ITS COLONIES, 
 
 FROM ITS FORMATION AT THE CLOSE OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY 
 
 TO ITS RE-ESTABLISHMENT UPON THE FALL 
 
 OF NAPOLEON. 
 
 BY A. H. L. HEEEEN, 
 
 PROFESSOR OF HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF GOTTINGEN, AND MEHBEB 
 OF NUMEROUS LEARNED SOCIETIES. 
 
 TRANSLATED FROM THE FIFTH GERMAN EDITION, 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 HENRY G. BOHN, YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN. 
 
 MDCCCLXXIII. 
 
^ 
 
 
 JOHN CniLDS AND SON, TRINTERS. 
 
TO THE READER. 
 
 The very satisfactory account Avhich the author himself has 
 given of the plan and execution of his Avork, renders it quite un- 
 necessary for the translator to say any thing upon that head ; and 
 the very fact of the work having passed through five editions in 
 Germany, and having been translated into French, Polish, Swed- 
 ish, and Dutch, is quite a sufficient apology, if indeed nuj were 
 necessary, for presenting it to the English reader. He lias there- 
 fore only to notice two matters connected with the translation, 
 which may seem to require some explanation. The first is the 
 use of the Avord Siates-Sysiem, which has been adopted through- 
 out the Avork, and which, though perhaps not strictly English, 
 seemed to him the only term by which he could adequately ex- 
 press the author's meaning. The second matter refers to the 
 work in general, Avhicli, not having been all translated or revised 
 by the same hand, may, it is feared, present a somewhat motley 
 appearance to the nice and critical reader. Should this be found 
 to be the case, the publisher liumbly hopes for his indulgence, the 
 more especially as he verily believes the sense of the original is 
 in all cases faithfully given. 
 
 Oxford, December, 1S33. 
 
 49nG9 
 
PREFACE 
 
 TO THE FIRST AND SECOND EDITIONS. 
 
 Among the remarkable phenomena which the general history of 
 mankind presents to our notice, that of the European States-Sys- 
 tem, or confederation of states, during the last three centuries, is 
 the greatest, and, at the same time, with reference to ourselves, 
 the most important. The states-systems which were formed in 
 ancient Greece, and in Italy during the middle ages, are far in- 
 ferior, both as regards their power and their extent ; and though 
 the Macedonian system, which arose out of the division of Alex- 
 ander's universal monarchy, may, perhaps, be compared with it in 
 this respect as well as in some others, it still altogether failed to 
 attain to such an exalted degree of maturity and refinement. But 
 it possesses this superior importance for us, not merely on account 
 of the personal interest we take in its transactions, but also be- 
 cause we have by far the best acquaintance with the mode of its 
 formation, and the various changes and vicissitudes it has un- 
 dergone. 
 
 Whoever undertakes to write the history of any particular 
 states-system, (by which we mean the union of several contiguous 
 states, resembling each other in their manners, religion, and de- 
 gree of social improA^ement, and cemented together by a recipro- 
 city of interests,) ought, above all things, to possess a right con- 
 ception of its general character. In the system of European 
 states, it is obvious this character must be sought for in its inter- 
 nal freedom, or, in other words, the mutual independence of its 
 members, however disproportionate they may otherwise be in re- 
 gard to physical power. It is this feature which distinguishes 
 
viii PREFACE. 
 
 siicli a system from one of an opposite class, that is, where an ac- 
 knowlcdjjjrd ])repon(lerance of one of tlic members exists. 
 
 An historian, therefore, who proposes to exhibit tlic various 
 chanf^cs whicli have occurred in the reciprocal connexions of tliese 
 states, must consequently regard them as a society of independent 
 incHviduals, variously related to each other. A peculiar use of 
 modern phrase, indeed, might designate such states by the name 
 of mere machines (an application of the term, Avhich, in Europe 
 at least, is contradicted by the variety of the constitutions); but if 
 it be impossible to discipline an army into a mere machine, (and if 
 this could be done none would ever retreat,) can it be less difficult 
 in the case of civil society ? 
 
 By adopting these fundamental notions, as the point from which 
 he was to set out, the field of the author's investigations was ne- 
 cessarily very much enlarged. lie could not, therefore, limit his 
 range to the mere external working of the machine ; but was 
 obliged rather to penetrate its hidden principles of action, in order 
 tp detect the secret springs which supplied a continuous motion to 
 the whole. In every society of moral beings, and consequently, 
 therefore, in every society or union of states, certain general ideas, 
 from which the leading motives of conduct originate, will of ne- 
 cessity prevail, without there being any occasion to assume the 
 fact of a generally adopted system of action. These ideas, how- 
 ever, agreeably to their nature, cannot possibly remain unaltered, 
 for the very reason that the leading minds do not. For the same 
 reason it is absurd to require that any cabinet should always act 
 xi])on one uniform system, though undoubtedly every judicious 
 government must act upon certain well established principles. 
 To have a correct apprehension, therefore, of the ruling ideas of 
 each age, and to exhibit the particular maxims arising from them, 
 will be the first requisite of the historian. But further, all the 
 members of such a svstem of states have, each of them, their pe- 
 culiar character, and their own mode of existence and action, 
 wliicli again are subject to change ; how then could a general 
 liistory of the system be properly executed, without the revolu- 
 tions in the most powerful of the separate states being noticed ? 
 
 These remarks will serve to vindicate the plan adopted by the 
 author. It was his intention not merely to furnish a sketch of the 
 
PREFACE. IX 
 
 various revolutions brought about in the political relations of mo- 
 dern Europe, together with the several events springing out of 
 them, though this would certainly form the most important part 
 of his undertaking ; but also to exhibit, at the same time, their 
 foundation in the prevailing ideas of each age, and as well witli 
 regard to the particular leading states, considered as prominent 
 actors in the system, to illustrate the formation of their respective 
 characters and consequent modes of action. With this view the 
 sections relating to the separate states have been introduced, which, 
 however, it would be a total misapplication of the author's plan, 
 to regard as an attempt to furnish a particular and special detail, 
 while he merely proposed a general history of the states in ques- 
 tion. The former very well-defined object was the one which he 
 has principally kept in view. That the author, however, has also 
 noticed the colonies, their progressive improvement, and their in- 
 fluence upon Europe itself, can scarcely require any justification. 
 Considering their vast and increasing commercial and political im- 
 portance, a general sketch like the present, Avhich did not also 
 comprise some account of the colonies, would be extremely limited 
 and imperfect. The sections relating to this portion of the work 
 will, it is apprehended, be the more favourably received, owing to 
 the absence of any other satisfactory treatise on the subject. 
 
 From what has been already said, it will be evident that tha 
 author has not spared considerable pains in the execution of his 
 design ; and a minute examination of each section will, it is hoped, 
 supply additional proofs of his care. It has been his constant 
 endeavour, as well to preserve the general view of the whole, as 
 to represent each individual subject in the light in which, after 
 deliberate study, it appeared to his own mind ; in fact, he wished 
 to exhibit on each subject the results of his own reflection, with 
 the greatest bre\T.ty consistent with the nature of his Avork, and 
 thus to supply the lovers of history with a general outline. That 
 this attempt, owing not merely to the gi-eat number, but also the 
 great variety of the subjects treated of, required a long and varied 
 course of preliminary study, he may confidently venture to assert. 
 Who indeed, without an intimate acquaintance with the whole 
 circle of political sciences, can engage to write the history of mo- 
 dern Europe ? The author is not ignorant of the objections com- 
 
X PKEFACE. 
 
 monly urged against tlie mere scholar's presuming to decide upon 
 the policy of cabinets ; he has himself felt the necessity of pre- 
 si-rving a lively sense for practical politics, by keeping entirely 
 remote from all speculation ; and wliile he has not denied himself 
 tliat proper degree of freedom which a judgment upon past events 
 requires, he at the same time believes that he has not been want- 
 ing in that proper respect, which is due to the memory of those 
 great men who have played the chief parts in this enlarged drama. 
 
 While the author was thus employed in elaborating the history 
 of the European states-system, he himself saw it overthrown in its 
 most essential parts. Its history was in fact written upon its 
 ruins. When was such a work ever executed under similar cir- 
 cumstances { While, however, he has confined the range of his 
 history so as to exclude the times immediately past, and not yet 
 ripe for historical narration,' he yet hopes to have preserved a full 
 view of the whole ; in doing which he was perhaps favoured by 
 his personal situation. Having been brought up in a very small, 
 but happy free state, he passed the years of his manhood under a 
 mild monarchical form of government, and was thus enabled" to 
 bring to the study of history, some practical ideas, simple in their 
 nature, but the result of his own observation; which, though 
 perhaps dim for others, have served him as loadstars in his voy- 
 age through its territory. It only remains for him to say, that 
 while he does not disown a certain degree of respect for the coun- 
 try to which he belongs, yet as he has never been a citizen of any 
 of the principal states of Europe, he could never entertain a par- 
 tiality for any one of them in particular. 
 
 It was therefore the author's eiuleavour to pass nothing more 
 than a human judgment upon human atiairs. He never con- 
 templated raising himself to that more elevated point of view from 
 which our speculative historians, looking down upon the Euro- 
 pean system of states as constituting merely a link in the great 
 chain of events, affect to measure the progress of mankind by 
 referring to this standard. Those who have looked from this 
 lofty point of view, have assured him tluit they could discover 
 little more than what might already be §een from below ; that 
 
 > The two first editions only reach do\ra to the establishment ef the French im- 
 perial throne, in 1804, see p. 3yO. 
 
PREFACE. XI 
 
 their prospect in one direction, that is, towards the past, was equally 
 confined; while in the other, that is, when they attempted to pe- 
 netrate the future, they could see nothing but clouds, through 
 which some doubtful forms were with difficulty to be discerned. 
 It was, they thought, a place of visions. The author, however, 
 considered it his first duty to remain on the firm ground of history, 
 and owing to the vast extent of his subject, he regarded the pos- 
 sibility of his being able to do so, as a most essential advantage. 
 
 A numerous society of states, subsisting together under long 
 and varied forms of relationship, improves and degenerates just 
 as any great mass of individuals would do inider similar circum- 
 stances. The evils, which brought with them the downfal of the 
 European States-System, chiefly proceeded, as in fact its advan- 
 tages also did, from the very circumstance of its being a system. 
 To lay before the reader the causes which prepared the final ca- 
 tastrophe, certainly formed a part of the author's design ; he has 
 not however the arrogance to pretend that the results must ne- 
 cessarily have been just as they are here described. No eye, in- 
 deed, but that of the Eternal, can see through the whole maze of 
 history. But perhaps the modest inquirer, in the representation 
 here given of the past, at the same time that it may serve to illus- 
 trate the present, will also be able to discover the prospect of a 
 greater and more glorious future; when, instead of the confined 
 European States-System of the last centuries, he beholds, in con- 
 sequence of the diffusion of European culture over remote quarters 
 of the globe, and the flourishing colonies beyond the ocean, the 
 elements of a more free and comprehensive system, which shall 
 include the states of the whole earth, and is even now risino- in 
 its strength. — The fertile theme for the historian of future ge- 
 nerations ! 
 
 Gottingen, Feb. 5, 1809. 
 
Xii rilEFACE. 
 
 rOSTSCRIPT TO THE THIRD, FOURTH, AND 
 FIFTH EDITIONS. 
 
 ^VnE^■ the two former editions of the present work appeared, 
 in the years 1809 and 1811, the re-establishment of order in Eu- 
 rope, sucli as we have now lived to see, was so far beyond the 
 bounds of probability, that the most sanguine could scarcely ven- 
 ture to hope for such an event. In those gloomy days, the re- 
 membrance of happier times, and of the principles on which the 
 policy of Europe rested, was not perhaps without advantage; and 
 that to preserve this was the author's aim, his work itself will 
 best show. He would venture to hope that he has not alto- 
 gether failed in attaining this object ; and accordingly, as in the 
 first instance he was obliged to end his labours with the over- 
 throw of the European States-System, so now he is fortunate in 
 being able to subjoin the history of its restoration. In the third 
 and fourth editions, not only was every thing, contained in the 
 two former, thoroughly revised, but also, owing to the disclosure 
 of additional sources of information, certain parts, as for example, 
 those relating to the British East India Company, and the free 
 States of South America, etc., were completely re-written. In 
 what way indeed could the writer earn additional praise, ])laced 
 as he is in a situation which the approbation of his contemporaries 
 has conferred upon him, than by endeavouring to perfect his work 
 to the utmost of his ability. His earnest request therefore is, 
 that it mav be received in the same .sense which he has intended 
 it should be, namely, as a History of the European States-System, 
 founded upon one great principle, that is, its internal freedom, 
 (as is clearly and definitively expressed in the very commence- 
 ment of the Introduction, J and consequently, notwithstanding all 
 its internal variety, as one intimate, though unconstrained and 
 connected whole, it is only when contemplated in this light, that it 
 can be properly estimated. He makes this remark Avitli particular 
 reference to the continuation, and last period, which can only be 
 appreciated, when read and examined in connexion with the 
 
PREFACE. Xlll 
 
 earlier parts of the work, and as forming a continuation of them. 
 The author had akeady, in what had gone before, expressed his 
 own principles and sentiments so plainly, that no other mode of 
 treating the subject could have been expected. He believed it to 
 be the most correct way of viewing that extraordinary man, who 
 requires to be so often mentioned in this part of the work, and 
 who, in fact, now belongs to general history, to consider him 
 simply as an instrument in the hands of Providence, employed for 
 other and higher purposes than his own; and for this reason 
 alone it was incumbent upon the author, when speaking of him 
 and the nation which suffered itself to be so abused, not to lose 
 sight of that becoming and dignified tone which, independently of 
 the motive assigned, is also the imperious duty of an historian. 
 
 Of the third edition, with the continuation, only one solitary 
 review has come to the author's knowledge.* The suggestions 
 there made with respect to certain points in his work, have not 
 been disregarded ; two or three others are of a general nature, and 
 in reply to these it Avill be necessary to enter into some explana- 
 tion. It is objected, that a sufficient degree of attention has not 
 been paid to the ' domestic life of the people.' The expression 
 here used is somewhat indefinite ; it includes constitution, laws, 
 customs, etc. Now in Avriting a history of the European States- 
 System, these subjects could only so far come under consideration, 
 as they exercised an influence upon it. And, in fact, it is pre- 
 cisely for this reason that the author has inserted occasional sec- 
 tions relating to the individual states, in which he believes he has 
 noticed every thing that was absolutely necessary, without de- 
 scending into particular details. He is fully sensible that in this 
 case, the great difficulty consists in knowing how much and how 
 little to say ; but still, as the work now stands, he is not without 
 hopes of having succeeded in preserving a just mean between the 
 two. He must leave the reader to decide whether he has not 
 
 2 In the Hermes, part iv. for the year 1819, p. 259— 285.— The fact of the au- 
 thor's work having been translated into the several languages of France, Holland, 
 Sweden, Poland, and the United States, would seem to furnish a satisf;ictory proof 
 that the principles of practical politics set forth by him, are regarded as correct by 
 those nations. He is also informed that a new translation is in progress in England. 
 [The present one.] 
 
XIV PREFACE. 
 
 given \vith siifTuicnt cloamcss and precision, as far indeed as it 
 ■was possil)lo to do so in a Manual like the present, the prevailing 
 ideas at the diffi'vent j)ei*iods, which determined the character of 
 their practical jiolicy ; as well as the great moral causes which 
 co-operated to the same end. lie was as little obliged to write a 
 general history of modern times, as to detail that of particular 
 states ; on the contrary, he has merely fulfilled the engagement 
 implied in the title-page, of giving what he calls a history of the 
 European States-System, of which so few persons seem to have 
 fonncd any clear and adequate notion. — Another fault which the 
 reviewer finds with the work, respects its division. According to 
 his view of the subject, it should have been divided into two 
 periods only, that is to say, into ' modern, and very recftit, his- 
 tory,' the latter period conmiencing with the French Revolution. 
 In reply to this o\jjection, the author might perhaps rest his 
 justification on the bare fact, that it is a matter of perfect indiffer- 
 ence whether he divided his work, as he has done, into three, or 
 into two periods ; because the last actually does commence with 
 the very point of time suggested by the Reviewer. But he will- 
 ingly confesses that the proposed alteration is entirely at variance 
 Avitli liis plan, and the particular views he has adopted. If; is 
 unnecessary to remind the reader that the work must be con- 
 sidered as a whole. The third leading period is as intimately 
 connected with the second, as the second is with the first. To 
 separate the most modern time from that which is less so, a])pcars 
 much too premature ; such a distinction may perhaps be allowed 
 to the writers of the twentieth centur}', but would be just as im- 
 proper in those of the first quarter of the nineteenth, as it would 
 be to commence the history of modern times w ith the Reformation. 
 A third objection still remains to be considered, which is, that the 
 last period has not been executed with the same degree of success 
 as the two first. Upon this point, however, it certainly does not 
 become the author to express any opinion ; he can only observe, 
 that he has anticipated the probability of such an objection being 
 made. That it is impossible to write the history of one's own 
 times as satisfactorily as that of the past, the author has most 
 sensibly felt during tlie course of his labours ; for what reader 
 does not bring to the perusal his own views, his own opinions^ 
 
PREFACE. XV 
 
 his own feelings? and what writer can expect to satisfy them all? 
 The author, therefore, must rest contented with having exhibited 
 the events which came under review, according to the political 
 principles which he regards as immutable, and which predominate 
 from the first to the last page of his work. This, in fact, is the 
 impartiality he has endeavoured to attain, and no other- 
 
 In preparing the present edition, nothing has been overlooked, 
 which, in addition to the continuation, might give it that degree 
 of correctness, as well in regard to the impression, as the deter- 
 mination of the several dates, which legitimate criticism can pos- 
 sibly require. Both indeed have been submitted to the most 
 scrupulous revision. The author considered it to be so much the 
 more incumbent on him, because, as he is now in the seventieth 
 year of his age, the present edition is, in all probability, the last 
 that will ever proceed from his hands. 
 
 Let him then express a hope, that the dearly bought experience 
 of recent times may not be without its use for the future ! May 
 no possessor of arbitrary power again seek to fetter the liberties of 
 Europe ! May the nations show themselves worthy of recovered 
 freedom ; and their rulers not be surprised when they see that its 
 enjoyment is not altogether free from abuse ! 
 
 GoTTINGEN, 
 
 April 10, 1819 and 1822, and Feb. 5, 1830. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 sottrces 1 
 
 Introduction 5 
 
 General character and leading ideas, § 1. Modern history as dis- 
 tinguished from that of the middle ages and of antiquity, 2 ; its im- 
 portance as compared with countries not European, 3. Colonies, 4. 
 Rise of the European political system, 5 ; its monarchical character,^ 
 6 ; its internal diversity, 7 ; the German empi^'e jne of its chief sup- 
 ports, 8. The principles which held tliis system together, 9 : sacred- 
 ness of legitimate right, 1 ; bgjaxice^ power, 1 1 ; maritime powers, 
 12; family connexions, 13. Resemblance and general character of 
 the constitution of these states, 14; power of their rulers, 15. Pe- 
 riods and divisions, 16, 17- 
 
 FIRST PERIOD. 
 
 From the end of the ffteenth century to the reign of 
 Louis XIV., 1492—1661. 
 
 Part the first. — History of the Southern European States- Sys- 
 tem : — 
 
 General preliminary remarks 13 
 
 Its character determined by the Reformation, § 1 . Survey of the 
 principal states : Spain, France, England, Austria, the German em- 
 pire, the Pope, and the Porte, 2. 
 
 First Period, 1492—1515. 
 
 I. History of the Negotiations and Wars respecting Italy ... 15 
 
 Political condition of Italy, § 3, 4. The expeditions of Charles 
 
 Vni. into Italy, 5, 6 ; their consequences, 7 ; of Louis XII., 8, 9. 
 
 France and Spain acquire a firm footing in Italy, 10. Pope Julius 
 
 b 
 
\\\n CONTKNTS. 
 
 II., M. Lraiiuo of C':uiil)ray, 12, 13. Orij^in of the lioly lon;;iie, 
 II, l.'i; its (li.>iS')luti<>n, \i\. View of tlie state of politics, 17; of 
 jMilitical tTuiioiny, IH; ot" tlic iiiilitary art, 1*J. 
 
 J I. Orii/in of Cnloiiiiil KstdUiiihniriits, \A^2 — ITjIj 23 
 
 Difuiitidn and cliissification of colonies, § 1 ; their relations to the 
 niiitlitr coinitry, 2 ; vast influence of colonization, 3. First disco- 
 veries and enniinests of the Spani.sh in America, 4 ; of the Portu- 
 guese in the East Indies, 5 ; extent and government of the latter, 6 ; 
 their trade, 7 ; Brazil, 8. 
 
 Second Period, 1515 — 1556 28 
 
 General remarks, § 1 . 
 
 I. History of the rivdlri/ bttuucn France find S'lini/i during tJils 
 period 29 
 
 Influence and character of this rivalry, § 2 ; its origin ; treaty of 
 Noyon ; power of Clir.'-les V. and Francis I. contrasted, 3 — 5. First 
 war, 6 ; treaty of Madrid, 7. Second war : peace of Cambray, 8 ; 
 its cflects upon Italy, 9. Alliance of the Porte with France, 10; 
 its naval power ; Malta ; foundation of the piratical states, 11. Third 
 war, 12; truce of Nice, 13; causes of its short duration, 14. Fourth 
 war; peace of Crespy, 15, IG; consequences of the struggle between 
 these rival powers, 17. 
 
 II. Political view of the Tiiformatio)} from its origin, 1517. to the reli- 
 yious peace of ir)55 37 
 
 General character of the Reformation, § 1 ; how it became mixed 
 with politics ; state of Germany, 2 ; made an affair of state by the 
 diet at "Worms ; war of the peasantry, 4 ; secularization of Prussia, 
 5 ; first alliance of the states according to their faith, 6 ; diets of 
 Spires and Augsburg, and Protestant alliance of Smak-aldc, 7 ; state 
 of parlies, and project for a general council, 8, 9 ; wliat did the em- 
 peror aim at in these affairs? 10; a new war, 11 ; dissolution of 
 the league of Smalcalde, — the Interim, 12. Maurice ; treaty of 
 Pa.ssau, 13; war witli France. Armistice at Vauecllcs, 14; reli- 
 gious peace at Augsburg, 15: Cluirles's abdication, 16; extent and 
 consequences of the Reformation, 17, 18, 19; society of Jesuits, 
 20; 8tatc of politics, 21 ; of political economy, 22; of military war- 
 fare, 23. 
 
CONTENTS. xix 
 
 III. History of Colonial Affairs during this period, 1517 — 1555 . 53 
 
 General view, § 1. Spanish colonies in America, 2; tlieir go- 
 vernment, 3 ; towns, 4 ; religion, 5 ; social condition, 6 ; their advan- 
 tages to the mother state, 7 ; slavery and negroes ; commercial re- 
 gulations, 8, 9. Dominion of the Portuguese in the East Indies, 
 10; its extension, 11, 12; Brazil and Africa, 13; first voyage 
 round the world, 14. 
 
 Thikd Period, 1556— 1618 61 
 
 General observations : religion, § 1, 2, 3 ; rivalry of Spain and 
 England, 4 ; separation of Spain from the imperial crown, 5 ; the 
 revolution of the Netherlands becomes the great object of politics, 6. 
 
 I. Origin of the Republic of the United Netherlands, and its imme- 
 diate influence on the affairs of Europe from its beginning till the 
 twelve years^ truce, 1609 63 
 
 Preliminary observations, § 1 — 4 ; their state at the accession of 
 Philip II., 5 ; grievances of the Dutch, 6 ; Pliilip's notions, 7 ; 
 compromise, 8 ; Alva's reign of terror, 9, William of Orange and 
 his achievements : taking of Briel, and general insurrection, 10, II ; 
 its progess during the government of Zuniga, 12; of Don Juan, 1 3 ; 
 of Alexander of Parma, 14. Murder of William and its consequences, 
 
 15. Participation of Elizabeth, 16 ; of Henry IV. ; peace of Ver- 
 vins ; twelve years' truce, 17- Influence of this republic on the po- 
 litical system of Europe, 18, 19. 
 
 II. A view of the Revolutions which took place during this period in 
 the other states of the icest of Europe, and their effects .... 73 
 
 General views, § 1, 2. France: religious war, 3 — 6 ; its influ- 
 ence on the national character, 7 ; on its foreign policy, 8 ; Henry 
 rV". and his European republic, 9, 1 0. Spain : formation of its na- 
 tional character under Philip II. and III., 11, 12, 13. England: 
 formation of its national character under Elizabeth ; Protestant reli- 
 gion, 14; its continental relations, 15. Germany: internal ferment, 
 
 16, 17. Relations of the East in Hungary and Transylvania, 18. 
 General character of politics, 1 9 ; of political economy ; Sully ; Hol- 
 land, 20; of military tactics, 21. 
 
 HI. History of Colonial Affairs, \bbQ—\Q>\S 82 
 
 General observations, § 1, Portuguese: decline of their power 
 in the East Indies, 2, 3 ; their possessions in Brazil and Africa^ 4, 
 
 b 2 
 
XX CONTliNTS. 
 
 r>. Sj>fii/i: Philippine islands, 0. Dnfcli: tlicir first voyape to 
 Imlin, 7. Dutch Knst India Company: its organization, 8; its 
 ruling maxims, 1), 10 ; its t-frrcts, 11. JCrif/lis/t : origin of its trade 
 with Asia, 12 ; Eivst India Company, 13 ; first attempts in North 
 America, 14; freedom of the seas, 15. French: first settlements in 
 Canada, 10. 
 
 Fourth Period, 1618— IGGO 90 
 
 Preliminary observations, § 1, 2. 
 
 I. Jfisfnri/ of the thirti/ ycctrs' tear mid its consequences down to the 
 peace of Westphalia and the Pyrenees 90 
 
 General character of the thirty years' war, § 3 ; its origin, 4 ; its 
 spread, 5, 6 ; AVallenstein, 7, 8 ; prolonged by the edict of restitu- 
 tion, 9; interference of Richelieu, 10. Gustavus Adolphus, 11 ; his 
 career in Germany, 12, 13. Wallenstein's fall, 14. Great change in 
 the state of the war, 15 ; France's active participation and its conse- 
 quences, IG, 17 ; prospects of peace, 18 ; peace of AVestphalijx, 19 — 22. 
 Consequences of this war, 23 ; on Germany, 24 ; on the political 
 system of Europe, 25. French-Spanish war and the peace of the 
 Pyrenees, 26. 
 
 II. View of the contemporary changes in the principal states of the 
 west of Europe, and of their consequences 104 
 
 Spain and Portugal, § 1. France: Richelieu, 2. Mazarin : trou- 
 bles of the Fronde, 3. England: the Stuarts: their quarrels with 
 the nation, 4 ; consequences under Charies I, and Cromwell ; his po- 
 licy ; Navigation Act, 5, 6; restoration, 7. The United Xtfhcr- 
 lands: renewed war with Spain; consequences, 8. Austria and the 
 eastern countries: relations with Hungary, 9; the Turks, 10. Ge- 
 neral character of politics, 1 1 ; political principles in England, and 
 their consequences, 12; political economy, 13; the militai-y art, 14. 
 
 'UI. History of Colonial Ajjhirs, ICAS—lGCiG Ill 
 
 General views, § 1. The Dutch, 2; in the East Indies, Batavia ; 
 their conquests from the Portuguese, 4 ; colony at the Cape, 5 ; West 
 India Company, G ; fisheries, 7 ; other branches of commerce, 8. 
 English: rivalsiiip and monopoly, 9; East India trade, 10; settle- 
 ments in the West Indies, 1 1 ; in North America, 1 2. Tlie French : 
 their attempts in the West Indies, 13. The Spanish and Portu- 
 guese, 14. 
 
CONTENTS. XXI 
 
 Part the Second. — Ilistoiy of the Northern European States-System, 
 from the dissolution of the union of Cahiiar to the treaties of Oliva 
 and Copenhagen, 1523— 1660 118 
 
 Preliminary remarks, § 1. Influence of the Eeformation on the 
 north, 2, 3. A view of the northern states : Denmark, Sweden, Po- 
 land, Pi-ussia, and Russia, 4. 
 
 I. History of the disputes and tears respecting Livonia, to the beginning 
 of the struggle of the Swedish-Polish siiccession, 1553 — 1600 . 120 
 
 Relations of Livonia, § 5. Attack of Ivan Yasilevitch II., and its 
 consequences, 6. Extinction of the dynasties of Rurik in Russia and 
 of Jagellon in Poland, and the consequences to which it led, in the 
 north and in Europe In general, 7. 
 
 II. History of the Polish and Swedish xoar of succession, and other 
 tnatters connected tvith it, to the "peace of Oliva and Copenhagen, 
 1600—1660 122 
 
 Origin of the dispute respecting the succession, § 1 ; consequences, 
 2. Anarchy and wars in Russia previous to the elevation of the 
 house of Romanow, 3. Gustavus Adoljihus in Livonia, 4. Origin 
 of the jealousy between Denmark and Sweden in the thirty years' 
 war and consequences till the peace of Bromsbro, 5. Cliarles Gus- 
 tavus and his plans, 6, 7- Peace of Copenhagen and Oliva, 8 ; its 
 consequences to Prussia, 9 ; to Denmark ; introduction of absolute 
 power, 10. 
 
 SECOND PERIOD. 
 
 From the commencement of the age of Louis XIV. to the death of 
 Frederic the Great, and the rise of the revolutionary period, 1661 — 
 1786 128 
 
 Preliminary remarks ; formation of the mercantile system, and 
 view of its maxims, 7. Standing armies, 8. Balance of power, 9. 
 Perfection of diplomacy and its results, 1 0. 
 
 FmsT Period, 1661—1700. 
 
 Part the First. — History of the Southern European States-Sys- 
 tem 133 
 
 Preliminary remarks: on France, § 1 ; on the other states, Spain, 
 England, Austria, and the German empire, 2. 
 
X\:i CONTKNTS. 
 
 I. Puf'llr Cnitrsts i/i r:Kropr, \C>61 — 1700 135 
 
 Oporntion of the mercantile system on France, § 1,2; on England 
 and Holland, 3. Projects of Louis XIV., 4, 5, "War between 
 Knjiland and the Kepublic ; peace of Breda, 6. Projects and attack 
 of Ijouis on the Spanish Netherlands ; triple alliance ; peace of Aix- 
 la-Chapelle, 7, f^. State of affairs and new projects, 9 — 12. Attack 
 on the Dutch republic in connexion with En^'land ; AVilliam III., 13. 
 Extension anil o])erati()n3 of the war, 14. l*eace of Nimwegcn, 15, 
 IG. State of atVairs, 17. Accumulated mnterials for another great 
 war, 18 — 24. War of 1688, and operations, 25, 2G. Peace of IJys- 
 •wick, 27 ; its effects in maintaining the balance of power, 28 ; in 
 laying the foundation of tlie British continental policy, 29. — Contem- 
 porary Turkish wars : the first, 1661 — 1664, 30 ; the second, 16/2 — 
 1699 ; peace of Carlowifz, 31. 
 
 II. A ghtncc at the principal c/iangcs in each of the hadiurj sfa/rs of 
 the west of Europe, and of their results, 1661 — 1700. . . . 149 
 
 Spain and Portugal, § 1. France, 2; change in its internal cha- 
 racter; origin of Jansenism, 3. England: the revolution; form- 
 ation of her political character, 4 — 7- Holland: office of hereditary 
 stadtholder ; its influence, 8. The German Empire : perpetual diet, 
 9 ; altered life of its prinee.s, 10, II. Austria: relations with Hun- 
 gary, 12, 13; and Transylvania, 14. The Porte, 15. Great changes 
 in practical politics, 16 ; the mercantile sj-stcm ; balance of tra<le, 
 17; forms of civil administration; departments. 18; political eco- 
 nomy; Colbert, 19; British funding system, 20; idea of sinking 
 funds, 21 ; military art, 22; marine, 23. 
 
 III. History nf Colonial Affairs, H\CA — 1700 157 
 
 Participation of France in colonial affairs, § I ; character and 
 maxims of Colbert's colonial policy, 2 — 4 ; West Indies, 5 ; St. Do- 
 mingo ; freebooters, 6 ; AVest India Companj', 7 ; Canada, 8 ; French 
 East India commercial Company, 9. English : West Indies ; Ja- 
 maica, 10; colonies of North America, 11 ; Hudson's Bay, 12; East 
 India Company and its trade, 13. Dutch: their East India Company, 
 14; in the West Indies, Surinam, 15. Spanish colonie.^i, 16. 7'or. 
 tugucse : Bnuil ; St. Sacrament, 17. Danish East Indies, 18, 19. 
 
 P.VKT THE Skcond. — Ilistory of the Northern European Statcs-Sj's- 
 tem, 1661 — 1700 1G6 
 
 Preliminary remarks; Poland, § 1, 2. Sweden, 3. Prussia, 4. 
 Russia, 5. Denmark; Holstcin-Gottorp, 6. Cossack disturbances, 
 
CONTENTS. Xxm 
 
 7. Disturbances in Poland and the Turkisli war, 8. John Sol>i- 
 esky, 9. Participation of Sweden in the German wars ; character of 
 its foreign policy, 10. Poland and Russia engage with Austria in 
 the Turkish wars, II, 12. 
 
 Second Period, 1/00—1740. 
 
 Part the First. — History of the Southern European States- Sys- 
 tem 172 
 
 Preliminary remarks, § 1. Influence of colonial productions, 2. 
 Paper money, 3. 
 
 I. History of the Public Contests in Europe 173 
 
 Spanish successio?i, § 4 ; negotiations respecting it, 5 — 9 ; acces 
 sion of Philip v., 10 ; origin and operation of the war, 11 — 17 ; dis- 
 solution of the alliance ; congress and peace of Utrecht, 18; of 
 Rastadt and Baden, 1 9 ; the contest not decided, 20. Consequences 
 of this war : as respects the balance of power, 21 ; separation of the ' 
 Spanish provinces, 22 ; enlarged influence of England on the conti- 
 nent, 23 ; mercantile interest, 24. Changes in the situation of the 
 single states : Spain, 25 ; Portugal, 26 ; France, 27 ; England, by 
 the accession of the house of Hanover, 28 ; Holland, barrier treaty, 
 
 29 ; the Austriaji monarchy aggrandized by the Spanish provinces, 
 
 30 ; the German empire, 31. Two new monarchies, Prussia and 
 Savoy, 32. Endeavours of England to maintain the peace of Utrecht, 
 33, 34. Ditferent views of Spain. Elizabeth. Alberoni, 25. Pro- 
 jects against Austria ; facilitated by the Turkish war, till the peace 
 of Passarowitz, 36. Conquest of Sardinia and Sicily, 37. Quad- 
 ruple alliance, 38. Fall of Alberoni, and peace, 39. Robert Wal- 
 polc ; his policy, 40. Pragmatic Sanction, 41. Ostend commercial 
 company, 42. Fruitless congress at Cambrais, 43. Unexpected 
 reconciliation of Austria and Spain, by Riperda, 44. Counter-alli- 
 ance of Herrnhausen, 45. Cardinal Fleury ; his policy, 46. War 
 respecting the election of king of Poland ; its effect on France and 
 Spain. Preliminaries at Vienna, 47. Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, 48. 
 
 n. A cursory vieiv of the changes in the leading states of the West of 
 Europe, 1700— 1740 195 
 
 General remarks, § 1. Spain, 2. France: Bull Unigenitus, 3 ; 
 Louis's financial system, 4. England : its high character in Europe, 
 5. South Sea Company, 6. Holland, 7 . Austria, under Charles VI., 
 8. The German empire, 9. General character of politics ; improve- 
 ment of cabinet policy, 1 ; of political economy, 11; art of war, 1 2. 
 
XXIV CONTENTS. 
 
 HI. I/isfori/ of Cofotiial Affairs, \700— 1740 109 
 
 Incrcnsin;: importance of colonic?, §1,2; geoprraphical confusion, 
 3. The JC/nz/i^/i, 4 ; in tlio West Indies, 5 ; in Nortli America, G ; 
 increase in the southern provinces in particular, 7 ; Is'ova .Scotia, 8 ; 
 British East India Company, 9 ; changes in the British commercial 
 policy under the house of Hanover, 10. French, II ; in tlie AVest 
 Indies, 12; Canada, 13; East Indies, 14; Pondicherry ; Isle of 
 France and Isle ftf Bourbon, 15. Dutch in the East and "West Indies, 
 IG. Spanish colonies, 17 ; the Assicnto causes a war with England, 
 18. Portmjal : increased importance of Brazil, from its gold and 
 diamonds, 19. Danish colonies and missions; and Sn'cdi.sh East 
 India Company, 20. 
 
 Pakt the Sf.cond. — History of the Northern European States-System, 
 1700—1740 207 
 
 General view : Charles XII. ; Peter I., § 1 ; glance at the separate 
 states: Russia; Sweden; Poland; Prussia; Denmark, 2. Origin 
 of the northern war, 3 ; its commencement ; peace of Travendal with 
 Denmark, 4. Contest in Livonia, 5, 6 ; in Poland ; peace at Al- 
 transtadt, 7- Building of Petersburg, 8. Charles's expedition against 
 Peter, 9, 10; conscquenccsof his defeat at Pultowa, 1 1 — 13. Turkish 
 war: peace on the Prutli, 14, l-'). Particijiation of Prussia; of 
 Hanover and England, 17. Alliance of the foes of Sweden, 18; 
 Baron of Goertz, 19. Fall of Cliarles XII., and its consequences ; 
 treaties of peace, 20. Peace at Nystadt, 21. State of Russia, 
 22 — 24 ; of Sweden, 25 ; of Poland, 2G ; of Prussia ; formation of 
 this monarchy by Frederic William I. ; its character, 27 — 31. Den- 
 mark, 32. Insulated state of Kussia after Peter, 33. Altered 
 l)olicy under Anne, 34. Courland, 35. Polish war after the death 
 of Augustus II., 3G. Poland imder the Saxon kings, 37. Turkish 
 war. Miinnich, 38 ; particij)ation of Austria ; jKMce of Belgrade, 
 39, 40. 
 
 Tjiiiu) Pkkiud, 1740 — 178G. 
 
 Paut Tin: FinsT. — History of the Southern ICuropean States-Sys- 
 tem 224 
 
 General remarks, § 1. Progress of civilization, 2 ; the great in- 
 fluence this gave to eminent writers, 3, 4. Its influence on politics, 
 5. Distinctive character and peculiarities of tliis period. 6, 7. 
 
CONTENTS. , XXV 
 
 I. Public affairs of Europe, 1740 — 1786. 
 
 1. To the alliance hetweeji France and Austria, 17-10 — 1756 . 226 
 
 Extinction of the house of Hapsburg, § 8. Frederic II. ; first 
 Silesian war, 9 ; war of the Austrian succession which led to it 
 10 — 13 ; progress of Frederic ; peace of Breslau, 14 — 17 ; partici- 
 pation of England, 18, 19. Frederic's second Silesian war, 20; 
 peace of Bavaria at FUssen, 21 ; further progress of the war, 22 — 
 25 ; congress and peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 26. Consequences of 
 this war, 27 — 29 ; British influence, 30 ; Russian, 31 ; Prussia's ac- 
 cession to the number of tlie first powers, 32 — 34. Consequences of 
 the conquest of Silesia, 35 ; Austria's combinations against Prussia, 
 36, 37 ; Kaunitz, 38. Commencement of relations between Austria 
 and France, 39 — 41. 
 
 2. From the alliance between France and Austria, to the treaties of 
 Paris and Hubertsburg,\7bQ, — 1763 240 
 
 The colonial relations of England and France give rise to a war 
 between them, § 42, 43, 44. Alliance of Prussia and England, 45. 
 The seven years' war, 46 ; its commencement and progress, 47, 48. 
 Hanoverian war, 49. Prussian war, 50, 51. Naval war, 52. Peace 
 between Eussia and Prussia, and between Prussia and Sweden, 53 ; 
 their consequences, 54. Implication of Spain and Portugal ; fomily 
 compact, 55 ; separation of the connexion ; peace of Paris, 56. Peace 
 of Hubertsburg, 57. Consolidation of the system of Frederic, 58. 
 Family connexion of the Bourbons, 59. Coldness between England 
 and Prussia, 60. Cessation of British influence, 61. The use 
 which she makes of her dominion of the sea ; her encroachment upon 
 the right of neutral powers. British maritime law, 62. 
 
 3. From the treaties of Paris and Hubertsburg, to the death of Frederic 
 the Great, 1763—1786 " 249 
 
 General remarks, § 63. Increased activity in the governments, 
 64 ; their attention to the domestic concerns of their states, 65. 
 Mechanical administration, 66. Compactness of territory, &7- Undue 
 value given to the material resources of states, 68. Mania for theories, 
 69 ; on government ; Montesquieu ; Rousseau, 70. Political economy ; 
 physiocrats ; Ad. Smith, 7 1 ; philosophical speculation, 72 ; influence 
 of authors and public opinion, 73. Fall of the Jesuits, 74 — 76 ; its 
 consequences, 77. Increasing passion for aggrandizement and com- 
 pactness of territory : partition of Poland, 7^, 79. Joseph II., 80 ; 
 his project against Bavaria, 81 — 83. Bavarian war. Peace of 
 
Xwi CONTENTS. 
 
 Tcachen, S4. Jo.^ojili's projects, 85, 86 ; further <losij:n on Biivaria 
 by nn cxchnnpjo, 87 ; frustrated l)y Frederic ; Gennan confedera- 
 tion, 88. 
 
 II. Cursory view of the internal e/mnf/cs winch tooh phtcc during this 
 period in the more powerful states in the West of Europe, and their 
 consequences, 17-^0 — I7'^<j 202 
 
 General view, § 1. Vorturja] -. Ponibal, 2. Spain: Aranda, etc., 
 3. France: internal Itroils : alliance with Austria ; national decline, 
 4 — 0. (ir((it Ihitdin : increase of royal power, 10 — 13; the fund- 
 \n^ sy.-toni, 14; internal stahility ari.-^inf^ from it, 15. The United 
 Netherlands: introduction of hereditary stadtholders : house of 
 Orange, 16 — 18 ; direful consequences, 19. The German Empire, 
 20 ; political dissension.", 21 ; yet a flouri.shing period as regards the 
 interior — its causes, 22 — 24 ; advance of German civilization, 25, 26. 
 J'russia : condition of this .^tate under Frederic II., 27 — 34. Aus- 
 tria: its condition under IMaria Theresa, 35 — 39. The Turhish 
 Empire, 40. General character of politics, 41 — 43. Practical po- 
 litical economy, 44. Mercantile sy.steni, and treaties of commerce, 
 45. Art of war, 46, 47. 
 
 III. Ilistori/ of ColoTiial J ff'airs, 1740— \78(} 278 
 
 General view, § 1. 7?W//j«7/ colonial affairs, 2 ; North America, 3, 
 4 ; commencement of diHerenccs, 5 — 7 ; rebellion, 8 ; breaking out 
 of the war, 9 — 11 ; "Washington, 12 ; declaration of independence, 
 13 ; acknowledged by France, 14; extension of the war, 15; its 
 termination, 16; treaties of Versailles. 17. Consequences of this 
 war to America: its federal constitution, 18 ; upon trade and Eng- 
 land, 19,20; armed neutrality, 21. British North America, Ca- 
 na<la and Nova Scotia, 22. British "\Ve.-5t Indie.*, 23. British pos- 
 sessions in Africa, 24 ; East Indie-s and establishment of their 
 dominion there, 25 ; how this wa.s brought about, 26 ; rivalry with 
 France and British jireponderance on Goromandel, 27 — 29 ; conquest 
 of Bengal, 30, 31 ; corrupt administration, 32, 33; fir.st alteration 
 of the internal organization of the Company ; act of regulation, 34 ; 
 war with the Malirattas and Ilyder Ali, 35 ; second alteration by 
 Pitt's Fast India Bill, 36 ; consequence.^, 37, 38. Increase of Brit- 
 i.sh navigation from the time of Cook's three voyages, in the Fast 
 Indies ; settlements in New Holland, 39. French colonial affairs, 
 40 ; in the Fiu'^t Indies, 41, 42 ; in the "West Indies — Domingo, 43 ; 
 (iuiana and Louisiana, 44. J)utch colonial afTair.*, 45 ; in the Fast 
 Indies, 4() ; in the West Indies, 47. Spanish colonies, 48 ; new 
 
CONTENTS. XXVll 
 
 political divisions, 49 ; new commercial regulations, 50 ; Philip- 
 pine company, 51, 52. Portuguese colonies : Pombal's regulations, 
 53 ; in Bi-azil, 54. Danish colonies : in the "West Indies, 55 ; in 
 the East Indies, 56. Swedish East India company, 57. Russia's 
 trade with North-west America and China, 58. General observa- 
 tions, 59. 
 
 Part the Secoxd, — History of the Northern European States- System, 
 1740—1786 304 
 
 General views, § I, 2. 
 
 I. From 1740 to the accession of Catharine II., 1762 .... 304 
 
 Survey of the single states, Russia, Sweden, Poland, and Denmark, 
 § 3. Swedish Russian war : peace at Abo, 4. Relations of Russia 
 under Elizabeth, 5 — 8 ; under Peter III., 9. 
 
 II. From the accession of Catharine II. to the alliance icith Joseph II., 
 1762—1787 308 
 
 Policy of Catharine, § 10, 1 1, 12, 13 ; she gives Poland a king, 14. 
 Conduct of Frederic ; his alliance with Russia, 15 ; which settles the 
 fate of Poland : disputes with the Dissidents, 1 6. General con- 
 federation and new laws, 17. Counter-confederation at Bar, 18. 
 First Turkish war, 19 ; its progress, 20 — 22. Swedish revolution : 
 Gustavus in., 23, 24 ; its consequences, 25. Fii-st partition of Po- 
 land, 26 — 28 ; its effect on the political system of Europe, 29. Peace 
 with the Turks at Kainardge, 30 ; its consequences to Russia under 
 Catharine, 31; Potemkin, 32 ; her project to rear a Grecian empire, 
 33 ; its influence, 34 ; close of the alliance with Prussia, 35 ; she 
 seizes the Crimea, 36 ; and builds a navy on the Black Sea, 37 ; her 
 treaties of commerce, 38; journey to Taurida, 39; alliance with Jo- 
 seph II., 40, 41. 
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 
 
 From the death of Frederic the Great, and the beginning of the revolu- 
 tionary age, to the overthrow of the imperial throne of France, and 
 the restoration of the liberty of the Political System of Europe, 1786 
 — 1820 322 
 
 Preliminary remarks, § 1. Apparent stability but actual weak- 
 ness of the European system, 2 ; from the want of constitutional 
 governments in the leading states, 3 ; (except in England, 4 ;) from 
 
xxviii COXTKNTS. 
 
 the use of standing armies, G ; the disproportion of pecuniary re- 
 sources, 7 ; the want of morality in politics, 8, 9. Prevalent popular 
 ideas, 10. Manners, II. Secret societies, 12. State of literature. 
 Freedom of the press, 13. Division and rca.sons, 14, 15. 
 
 First Division'. — From 17S6 to the peace at Carapo Formio, 1797. 
 
 r.vur TiiK First. — History of the Southern European States- System. 
 
 \. l^ihlic Contests in Europe, to 17!' 7 328 
 
 Struggle for free constitutions, § 1 G. Consequences of the death of 
 Frederic, 17. Dutch rirvnliitioit, 18; its clTeots on the affiiirs of Eu- 
 rope, 19. Austrunt Distitrhfiiices, 20. Revolutions in Liege, Aix la 
 Chopelle, and Geneva, 2 1 . Fnurh Uevohition, 22 ; its general cha- 
 racter, 23, 24 ; its elV.cts on Europe, 25 ; on the German empire, 
 26 ; emigration ; confederation of Piliiitz, 27 ; the danger appar- 
 ently averted by the new constitution, 28 ; conduct of the cabinets, 
 29, 30 ; alliance of Austria and Prussia, and expedition to Cham- 
 pagne, 31. Conquest of the Austrian Netherlands, and its conse- 
 quences, 32. Execution of Louis XVI. and its consequences, 33. 
 Origin of the first coalition : causes of its internal weakness, 34 — 
 38. "William Pitt, 39 ; his character. Breaking out and course of 
 the war, 40, 41. Fall of the system of standing armies in France 
 and consequences, 42. Conquest of Holland, 43 ; its consequences, 
 44 ; especially as regards England, 45. First signs of dissension 
 among the coalitionists, 46, 47 ; secession of Prussia and peace of 
 Basle, 48 ; its consequences. Secret treaty, 49 ; secession of Spain, 
 and peace, 50. Policy of England and consequences of tiie war to 
 England, 51, 52 ; naval war, 53. Triple alliance with Austria and 
 Kussia, 54, 55. Directorial constitution, 56. Austria invaded by 
 three French armies on three sides ; failure in Germany, 57. Italy, 
 theatre of the war under Buonaparte, 58, 59 ; siege of Mantua, 60 ; 
 invasion of Austria, fil ; fall of Venice, 62 ; preliminaries at Leoben, 
 03 ; partition of Venice, 64 ; situation of Italy, 65 ; alliance of Spain 
 with France : the prince of Peace, 66 ; fruitless negotiations with 
 England, 67 ; peace at Canqio Formio, 68 ; its consequences, 69. 
 
 n. History of Colonial Affairs, \7xCy—\^0A 350 
 
 General view, § 1. ludrpmdcnt Anirrirn: its trade ; treaties of 
 commerce, 2 ; contests witli England and their causes, 3 ; purchase 
 of Louisiana, 4. West Indies: abolition of the slave trade in Den- 
 mark and England, 5. French : "West Indies ; war of the blacks ; 
 loss of St. Domingo, 6 ; state of Ilayti, 7- Decline of the "West In- 
 
CONTENTS. xxix 
 
 dies, 8. Spanish colonies; their prosperity, 9 ; Brazil, 10; Africa, 
 II. East Indies: British dominions, 12; new war with Tippoo 
 Saib, 13 ; last war and fall of the empire, 14 ; its influence on British 
 policy, 15 ; new war and peace of 1803, 16 ; which changes the seat 
 of power, 17 ; territorial revenue, 18 ; trade, 19. Dutch East India 
 Company ; its dissolution, 20. French East Indies. Isles of France 
 and Bourbon, 21, Settlements in New Holland and the Pacific, 22. 
 
 Part the Secoxd. — History of the Northern European States- System, 
 1786—1797 364 
 
 General observations, § 1. Russian-Turliish war, 2. Swedish 
 war, 3. Congress at Riechenbach, 4. Peace with Austria at 
 Szistove, 5. Negotiations Avith Russia. Peace at Jassy, 6 ; conse- 
 quences of this war, 7 : the dominion of Russia established in the 
 Crimea and on the Black Sea, 8 ; formation of generals — Coburg 
 and Suwarrow, 9 ; its consequences to Sweden ; murder of Gusta- 
 vus III., 10. To Poland, 11 ; anti-Russian party, and Prussian 
 alliance, 12 ; constitution of May 3rd, 13 ; second partition, 14 — 17 ; 
 oppression of Russia, 18; insurrection under Kosciusko, 19, 20; 
 third and final partition, 21, 22. 
 
 Secoxd Divisiox. — From the peace at Campo Formio to the establish- 
 ment of the imperial throne of France, 1797 — 1804 . . . 374 
 
 Situation of the leading powers, France, Austria, and Russia, § 1 ; 
 Prussia, 2. Continuance of peace doubtful, 3. Congress of Rastadt, 
 4. Revolutions in Italy, 5 ; in Switzerland, 6. English affairs, 7. 
 French expedition to Egypt, 8, 9; rupture with the Porte, 10; 
 second coalition, 11, 12, 13; revolution of Naples, 14; campaign of 
 1799, 15, 16 ; return of Buonaparte and revolution of 18th Bi'umaire, 
 17 ; campaign of 1800, 18 ; peace at Luneville with Austria ; at Flo- 
 rence with Naples, 1 9 ; naval war, 20 ; conquest of Malta ; republic 
 of the Seven Islands, 21 ; renewal of the armed neutrality by Paul 
 I., and consequences to the northern powers, 22 ; evacuation of Egypt, 
 23 ; peace of Amiens, 24, 25 ; the first consul, 26, 27. Indemnities 
 in Germany, 28, 29, 30. Prospect of a new war, 31, 32. Estab- 
 lishment of the imperial throne of France, 33. 
 
 Third Divisiox. — From the establishment of the imperial throne of 
 France to the restoration of the Political System of Europe by its 
 fall, and the establishment of the freedom of America, 1804 — 
 1821 390 
 
 First Section. — History of the European States-System . . . 390 
 
ZXX CONTKNTS. 
 
 Universal inonarc-liy, § I, 2, 3. Seoornl ministry of William Pitt, 
 4. Third coalition, 5, G. Coinnicncenicnt and i)ro{^re.<3 of lio*;fili- 
 tics, 7. Peace of Presburg, fi, 9. Dethronement of the king of 
 Naples, 10. Naval war, Trafalgar, II. Death and character of 
 Pitt and Fox, 12. Disputes with Prussia, 13. Dominion of the 
 Buonaparte family in Cleves and Ikrg, Naples and Holland, 14, 15, 
 16. Subversion of the German empire, 17. Confederation of the 
 Rhine, 18—20. War with Prussia, 21 — 23; and with Russia, 24. 
 Peace at Tilsit with Russia, 25 ; and with Prussia, 26. War of 
 Rus-^ia with the Porte, and peace at Sloboja, 27. Kingdom of West- 
 phalia, 2S. War of England with Denmark and Russia, 29. Na- 
 poleon's continental system, and the English orders in council, 30 ; 
 and its consequences, 31 — 33. Plan of the partition of Portugal, 
 34 ; removal of the court to Brazil, 35. Dethronement of the Span- 
 ish house, 36. Joseph Buonaparte king of Spain. !Murat king of 
 Naples, 37. Insurrection in Spain, 38, 39, and congress at Erfurt. 
 Preparations of Austria, 40. Insurrection in the Tyrol ; the Tu- 
 gcndbund, 41. Austrian war, 42; battle of Asperne, 43; peace of 
 Vienna, 44, 45. Incorporation of the States of the Church, 46. Sen- 
 tence of excommunication, 47. Revolution in Sweden, and, after 
 the Russian war, the loss of Finland in the peace at Fredcricsham, 
 48. State of the continent, 49. Second marriage of Napoleon with 
 an archduchess, 50. Incorporation of Holland, after the flight of the 
 king, and of North Germany, 51. Naval war, 52. War in Spain ; 
 Wellington, 53. Project of a war with Russia, 54, 55. AVar be- 
 tween Russia and the Porte renewed ; peace at Bucharest, 56. Al- 
 liance of Napoleon with Austria and Russia, 57 ; his relation with 
 Denmark and Sweden. Bernadotte, 58. Russian war, 59, 60, 61 ; 
 capture and conflagration of Moscow, 62 ; retreat and destruction of 
 the French army, 63 ; the Russians advance across the Vistula, 64. 
 The German war of liberty, 1813, 65; alliances, 66; preparations 
 of France, 67 ; commencement of the campaign ; battles of Lutzen 
 and Bautzen ; armistice, 68 ; Austria joins the allies, 69 ; alliance of 
 Russia, Prussia, and England, 70, 71. War in Saxony and on the 
 Elbe ; battles of Dresden, Culm, on the Katzbach, Gross-Beei'en, and 
 Dennewitz, 72; capture of Cassel, 73 ; decisive battle of Lcijizic, 74. 
 Popular war in CJermany, 75. Revolution in Holland, and restoration 
 of the house of Orange, 76. War in Sweden against Denmark, and 
 loss of Norway by the peace of Kiel, IT . War in Italy, "Jii. War 
 in Spain ; battle of Vittoria, 79. Declaration of the allies at Frank- 
 fort, HO. Inva-^ion of France; victory of Bricnne, 81 ; congress at 
 CI)atillon, and alliance at Chaumont, 82 ; victory of Laon ; first cap- 
 ture of Paris, 83. Deposition of Napoleon, 84 ; his abdication and 
 
CONTENTS. XXXI 
 
 removal to Elba, 85. Restoration of the Bourbons, 86, First peace 
 of Paris, 87. Return of Pius VII., Ferdinand VII., and Victor 
 Emanuel, 88. The monarchs' visit to England, 89. Congress of 
 Vienna, 90. Return of Napoleon from Elba, 91 ; declaration against 
 him, and general league, 92 ; battles of Ligny and Waterloo, 93 ; 
 second capture of Paris ; second abdication of Napoleon ; he surren- 
 ders to the British, and is banished to St. Helena, 94. Restoration 
 of Louis XVIII., and second treaty of Paris, 95. Fall and end of 
 Murat, 96. War in Norway, and union of Norway with Sweden, 
 97. Death of Napoleon, 98. 
 
 Second Section. — History of Colonial Affairs, \%M — 1830. . 450 
 
 General observations, § 1. North America: its great increase, and 
 war with England, 2 — 5 ; consequences, 6 ; acquisition of the Flori- 
 das ; American maritime law, 7 ; Canada, its faithfulness to the 
 mother country, 8. Rise and establishment of the empire of Brazil, 
 9, 10, II, 12 ; war Avith Buenos Ayres, 13 ; state of the empire, 14. 
 Spaiiish America : origin and progress of the insurrection ; contest 
 continued in Caraccas, New Granada, Mexico, La Plata, Chili, and 
 Peru ; success and notice of the states that arose upon the annihila- 
 tion of the power of Spain ; notice of the new states, 15, 16, 17. Re- 
 cognition of the independence of St. Domingo by France, and of 
 Brazil by Portugal, 1 7. PFest Indies, 1 8 : kingdom and republic of 
 Hayti, 19. Colonies iii Africa: at the Cape, 20; fate of the other 
 colonies on the coast of Africa depend on the abolition of the slave 
 trade ; boundary of recent discoveries in Africa, 21 ; general aboli- 
 tion of the slave trade made a standing article in all treaties of the 
 British, 22. Missionary and Bible societies, 23. East Indies : ag- 
 grandizement of the British, 24, 25 ; charter of the Company altered, 
 26 ; Birmese war, and further aggrandisement, 27. Dutch East In- 
 dies : Batavia, under the English, 28. Australia, 29. 
 
 Third Section. — Restoration of the Political System of Europe . 476 
 
 •General observations, § 1, 2, 3. Principle of legitimacy and of 
 constitutional monarchy, 4. General measures, 5. Restoration of 
 Germany : Germanic confederation, 6, 7, 8, 9 ; restoration of the 
 Austrian monarchy, 10; of the Prussian, 11 ; of the other German 
 states, 12. Restoration of the state of the Netherlands under the 
 house of Orange, 1 3. Great Britain, 14, 15: emancipation of the 
 Catholics, 16. Restoration of the French state to its ancient bound- 
 aries, 17 ; of the Swiss coyfederacy, 18. The Spanish monarchy: 
 revolution and adoption of the constitution of the Cortes, 19, 20 ; its 
 consequences, 21. Portuguese monarchy and insurrection, 22, 23 
 
XWU CONTENTS, 
 
 Ke-ostabli.->linient of the kin^r'lom of the Two Sirilirs, and revolution 
 tiiippn-sscd, 21. Tliu kiiifidum of ^Sardinia, 25. The State of t/ie 
 Church, 2(». Tuscony, Modcna, Partna, and Piacenza, 27. Repub- 
 lic of the Srvrn Ishi/ids, 28. The north of Europe : Denmark, 29. 
 Sirrdrn and Xorirai/, 30. liiissinn mouarchif, 31. Kej^toration of 
 the kingdom of Poland, 32. The Porte : insurrection of the Greeks, 
 33. Congress at Aix-la-Chapelle, and full and perfect reconciliation 
 with France, 34. General character of the present political system 
 of Europe, 35. Aristocracy of the five leading powers, 36, 37. 
 Sanction of religion : Holy Alliance, 38. Policy of the Koman 
 court, 39. Restoration of the public credit, 40. Affairs of the East: 
 unsuccessful negotiations with the Porte, 41 ; war with Russia, and 
 capture and peace of Adrianople, 42 ; admission of Greece into the 
 li.st of European states — conclusion, 43. 
 
A MANUAL 
 
 HISTORY OF THE POLITICAL SYSTEM OF 
 EUROPE AND ITS COLONIES. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 I. Bibliography of sources and authorities. 
 
 De IMartens, Guide Diplomatique, ou Repertoire des principnux 
 Lois, des Traites, et autres Actes publics jusqu' a la Jin du 18"" sihle ; 
 a. Berlin, 1801, torn. i. ii. : a catalogue raisonne of public documents, 
 with references to the collections in which they may be found. These 
 two volumes form the first two parts of the Cours Diplomatique ; and 
 are indispensable to the historian. 
 
 II. Collections of sources and authorities. 
 
 A. State Papers. A critical notice of tliese collections is given in 
 De jNIartens, Discours sur les Recueils des Traites, prefixed to Supple- 
 ment au Recueil des Traites, vol. i. Tlie most important general col- 
 lections, necessary to be mentioned here, are — 
 
 Recueil des Traites de Paix, de Trcve, de Neiitralite, d Alliance, 
 de Commerce, etc., dcpuis la naissance de J. C. Jusqu" a present ; a 
 Amsterdam et a la Haye, 1700, torn. i. — iv., fol. ; commonly called the 
 collection of Moetjens, the name of one of the booksellers who under- 
 took it. 
 
 Corps Ufiiversel Diplomatique de Droit des Gens, co7itenant un Re- 
 cueil des Traites d^ Alliance, de Paix, de Trcve, de Commerce, etc., de- 
 puis le regne de V Empereur Charlemagne jusqiC a present ; par J. du 
 Mont, a Amsterdam et a la Haye, 1726 — 1731. 8 vols. fol. This is 
 the principal collection. It contains the state papei's from 800 — 1731. 
 Those for the last three centuries, from loOl, begin wdth the fourth 
 volume. Supplemens au Corps universel Diplomatique, par M. Eous- 
 SET, a Amsterdam, torn. i. — v., 1739, was afterwards published as a 
 supplement and continuation of this collection ; so that the whole work 
 consists of thirteen volumes. The first three volumes of this supple- 
 ment are composed of state papers previous to the year 800, of matter 
 strictly supplementaiy, and of a continuation to 1738. The last two 
 volumes contain, Le Ceremonial Politique des Cours de V Europe ; with 
 the documents connected with it. 
 
 A convenient selection for common use was published by ScnMAUSS, 
 Corpus Juris Gentium Academicum, Lips. 1730, 2 vols. 4to. This col- 
 lection comprises the period from 1100 — 1730. 
 
 B 
 
2 INT«ODUCrnON. 
 
 The fdllowitiir may l>e ropanlcd as a rontintiation of tlicsp cnllortions: 
 Fritp. Ar<;. Wil.li. Wknkii ('ti(lt.r Ji/ris (ttnfium ncnitissifiii, c (iihii- 
 1(1 riorum cxftmjthiriiintqur fidr (li(//inru/ii )iitniiniic7itis comj>nsifi/s ; Lip- 
 sia', tctin. 1.. ITsl ; torn, ii., ITSb; toin. in., 17'Jo, 8vo. TliLs iii(Iii<k'.s 
 tijc j)orio(l from 17>"5o — 1772. 
 
 A colk'ction of those of still more recent date has been comjtilcd by 
 Vu.N Maktkns, 
 
 Jicciiril (l(S prinripmix Traih's (TAUiaitce, de Pair, de Trcvr, de 
 Kcutralilc, de Cnmimrcr, rfr., conclus par Ics Puissances de rEurnpe, 
 tatit nitrv elles fpi'dvcc les Puissances, ct les Etals dans d'autres parties 
 ilii Monde, depuis 1761 jitsrjii a present, par M. de ^Iartens, a Got- 
 tiiipue, 1791 — 1H02, 7 vols. 8vo. Seconde edition revue et augmentee, 
 1818. (This at present has only proceeded a.s far as vol. i. — iv.) 
 
 This collection reaches from 17G1 to the peace of Luneville, 1801. 
 There has since appeared : 
 
 Supplement an Recueil des prineipau.r Traitis depnis \7 61, J usr/ri a 
 present, precede de Traites du IH"" sifcle anterieurs a cette tjiofjue, et 
 (jui tic se trnuvcnt pas dans le Corps universel Diploniatie/uc de JI. JJu- 
 mnnt et Poussel et autres Peeueils fjeneraux de Traites, par. M. i>i: 
 Mautens, vol. I. II., 8vo, a Gottingue, 1802; vol. iii. iv. and last, 
 1808. Beside the supplements the collection was continued to the end 
 of the year 1807. There again folluwed in addition to this, vol. v., 
 1808 — 1814, April, inclusive", 1817 ; vol. vi., to tlie end of 1816: vol. 
 vii., 1808 — 1818 inclusive, with copious indexes ; vol. vni., 1818, 1819 
 inclusive. Tiie four last parts also under the title of Xouvcau liecucil 
 des principaujc Traites d' Alliance, etc., a Gottingue, 1817 — 1820, vol. 
 1 — IV., 8vo. 
 
 B. Memoirs. Tiie accounts given by statesmen and generals them- 
 selves, of the transactions in which they took a part, unquestionably 
 form one of the most important sources ; and it is one of the essential 
 advantages of modern history to be particularly rich in them. "NVe owe 
 the great number we possess, to the fashion which prevailed in certain 
 ])eriods for courtiers to write memoirs of their life and times ; particu- 
 larly in France, where Philute de Comixes set the first example, and 
 stands at the head of tiie .series. His 3Jemoires reach from 1464 — 1498. 
 They reveal the secret causes of events, and unfold the nature of their 
 connexion, and consequently ofTer the best school for the formation of 
 statesmen. The critical iniiuirer, however, must never forget, that 
 their authors always brought to the work their own prejudices, olten 
 their own imssions ; and not unlrctpiently were bewildered themselves. 
 Tiie chief coUfctions are, 
 
 Collection l^niversellc des Mimnirrs pnrticuliers relatifs a F/iistoire de 
 France; i\ Londres, et .'■e trouve a Paris, vol. i. — LXV., 178.'3 — 1791 ; 
 with a continuation, vol. i-xvi. — LXX., Paris, 1806. This only conies 
 down to tin' en<l of the sixteenth century. 
 
 Alhjenieine Snmmlunp liistorisclier Memoirs rant 12 Juhrlnindt rt his 
 aiif die tienrsfen Xeilen, dureli mehrerc Verfasser iihersetzt, mit den 
 uittliiijen Anmcrkungen und jedesmal mil einer I'niverscl-ltistorisclien, 
 Uebersicht versehen von Vn. Sciiii.i.EK. I. Abth. B. 1 — 4. II. Alith. 
 B. 1 — 26. Jena, 1790 — 1806. This contains a selection of the more 
 important memoirs, down to the Duke of Orleans' regency. 
 
INTRODUCTION. o 
 
 m. "Works on the general history of Modem Europe, 
 
 J. J. SCHMAUSS, Einleitiing zu der Staatsicissenschaft, I, II. Tlieil, 
 Leipzig, 1741 and 1747. The first part contains The History of tlia 
 Balance of Power in Europe, or the State Afiairs of Western Europe, 
 from 1484 — 1740. The second, An Account of the Treaties con- 
 cluded between the Northern Powers, Denmark, Sweden, Russia, and 
 Prussia. This work is executed in a careful and methodical manner, 
 and will always be found useful. 
 
 Le Droit Public de F Europe, foiide siir les Traites ; precede de Prin- 
 cipes des ]S^egociations pour servir d Introduction, par il. l'Abbe de 
 IMabi.y ; nouvelle edition continueejusqiC a la Paixde 1763 ; avec des Re- 
 marques historiques, poJitiques, et critiques, par M. Rousset; a Amster- 
 dam et Leipsic, 1773, 3 vols. 8vo. From the assertions of j\Iably, and 
 the refutations of Rousset, a tolerably correct account may be gathered 
 of the views of the French and of their opponents, with regard to the 
 practical politics of Europe at that period. 
 
 Tableau des Revolutions de V Europe, par M. C. W. Koch, 1790. 
 Nouvelle edition corrigte et augmentee, 3 vols. Paris, 1813. Of the 
 three volumes, vol. i. extends to 1300; vol. ii. to 1713; vol. m. to 
 1800. Attached to it are. Tables genealogiques des Maisons Souveraines 
 de r Europe. A useful work, written with much care, and with ju- 
 dicious criticisms upon the authorities made use of, as indeed may be 
 said of all the writings of this diplomatic historian.^ 
 
 Tableau des Relations exterieurs des Puissances de TEurope, tatit 
 entre elles qu avec d'autres Etats da7is les diverses parties du Globe, 
 par G. Fr. de JNIartexs, a Berlin, 1801. This work forms the third 
 part of the Cours Diplomatique ; and is particularly valuable on account 
 of the attention it bestows on commerce and the colonies. 
 
 Ilistoire generale et raisonnee de la diplomatic Fran^aise, dcpuis la 
 fondation de la Monarchic jusqiC a la Jin du regne de Louis XVL, par 
 M. DE Flassax, a Paris, 1809; 2nd edition, 1811, 7 vols. 8vo. A 
 history of French diplomacy is not much less tlian a liistory of the 
 European political system. The use of the most important diplomatic 
 authorities, the fidelity and preciseness of the accounts, and a rare im- 
 partiality of judgment, give to this work a classic value. Part of 
 modern history is found in the first volume. 
 
 Grundriss einer Gescliichte der merhivurdigsten Welthdndel neuerer 
 Zeit in einem erzdhlenden Vortrage von JoH. G. BuscH, third edition, 
 1796, beginning with 1440, and extending, in the latest edition, to 
 1795. This is not a regular historical nai'ration, but is useful to be- 
 ginners, by making them acquainted with the mateinals of modern 
 history. 
 
 Geschichte der drei letzten JaJirhunderte von Joh. Gottfr. Eicn- 
 HORX, Gottingen, 6 Th. 8vo, third edition, 1817. The first volume, 
 which gives a view of general liistory, comes vmder this head ; and the 
 last two, as containing a history of the colonies. 
 
 Tableau des Revolutions du Si/steme Politique de VEurope; depuis 
 la Jin du quinzieme siecle, par M. AxcrLLOX, a Berlin, vol. i. u., 1803 ; 
 
 ' [A catchpenny translation of Koch's SJictch of the Revolutions of Europe 
 has been pubhshed in Constable's 3IisceUanij, wanting all its essential ad- 
 vantages, and with a preface containing one or two palpable falsehoods. Tr.J 
 
 B 2 
 
4 INTItODUCTION. 
 
 vol. III. IV., ls().>, Tliis is a valualjlc work, the complftiun of whicli 
 is much desirctl. Tlie fourth volume comes down to the peace of 
 Utncht. 
 
 or conipondiums, Aciif.XWALL's Enhnirf der allgcmrinen Evro- 
 pijischcn Stantshiindd drs Mti-n und IHtcn Jahrhtnulcrts, Gottiiifr. 
 17o6, and frecjuciitly reprinted, merits all the reputation it enjoys. It 
 comprises, however, only tlie ])erio(l IVom IGOO to 1748. 
 
 (triindriss rinrr dipIonuttisclK n (irschirlitc der Eurnpdischen Stants- 
 hiindd mid Ericdt >issc/d/isse, scit don Knde dvs \y)tcn Jahrhundrrls 
 bis zum Frirdrn ran Aniirns. Zinn (tchninrh acadtinischcr J'or- 
 ksungcn von CI. Fi:. von Mautens, Berlin, 1807. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 1. The history of the Political System of Europe must 
 not be confounded with the history of the separate states of 
 which it is composed. It is rather a history of their mutual 
 relations, and more especially those of the higher powers, 
 so far as they can be deduced from the peculiar nature of 
 the separate states, the character of the rulers, and the pre- 
 vailing opinions of the times. But a necessary condition of 
 the interchange of these relations, and therefore an essen- 
 tial property of this states-system, is its internal freedom ; 
 that is, the stability and mutual independence of its mem- 
 bers. To set forth how this was formed, endangered, and 
 preserved, is therefore the great object of the historian. 
 This, however, can only be done by a detail of the whole 
 series of internal relations, and the causes which produced 
 them. 
 
 2. The history of this states-system, comprising the last 
 three centuries, forms an important part of modern history, 
 as distinguished from ancient and that of the middle ages. 
 For, notwithstandino; there is no strikino; event here to form 
 a strict boundary line, as there is between ancient history 
 and that of the middle ages, yet the concurrence of several 
 great events prepared a change sufficient to justify this 
 division. 
 
 These events are : 1. The conquest of Constantinople, and the estab- 
 lishment of the Turkish empire in Europe, 1453 : 2. The discovery of 
 America by Christopher Columbus, 1492 : 3. The discovery of the new 
 passage to the East Indies, by the Cape of Good Hope, made by Vasco 
 de Gama, 1497 ; and the effects of these two discoveries in changing 
 the great commercial routes : 4. The changes in the art of war in con- 
 sequence of the invention and use of gunpowder. — To show the effects 
 which these circumstances had upon the politics of Europe, is the pur- 
 pose of the following work. 
 
 3. Europe acquired, during this period, an importance 
 in universal history such as it had never before possessed. 
 
n INTKODUCTION. 
 
 Neillior Africa nor America contained any state of peneral 
 importance previous to tlie in(lej)en(l('nce of the Colonies ; 
 and of the lliree |j;reat king"(h)ms of Asia, tliat of Persia 
 unth'r the Sophis, India under the Mogul?', and China, the 
 latter alone continued to exist, ai.d that only under a 
 foreign dynasty. 
 
 The Persian empire of the Sophis was founded Ly Ishmael Sophi 
 nbont 1500 ; attained its {greatest power under Sliah Abbas, 158o — 1628 ; 
 was overthrown In' the Al";;han«!, 1722 ; and, on the murder of the suc- 
 eecdinp tyrant. Kouli Clian or Nadir Sliali, 1747, fell into anarchy. — 
 Tlie Mojrul enijtire in India was cstabli.shcd by the Sultan Babour, a 
 discendant of 'Fininur, about lo2G. It gradually acquind the countries 
 of the In<lus and (lanpes, and the peninsula; and attained the heijrht 
 of its power from the reipn of Acbar the Great, Io.jG — IGOo, to the 
 death of Aureiig Zebe, f 1707, alter which it fell to pieces, and was al- 
 most entirely annihilated by the concpiest of Nadir Siiah, 173!), and the 
 policy of the Europeans. — The revcdution in China by tlie contiuest of 
 the Mantchew Tartars, whose domiuiou still continues, took place 
 in 1G41. 
 
 4. In Europe, on the contrary', most of the old slates 
 still continued to exist ; and the Europeans besides, durnij^ 
 this period, founded extensive colonies on the other con- 
 tiiTfnts^ "where witli their doiiiinion lIiey^liitfdctuccIJL tTIeIr 
 religion and civilization. Notwithstanding, hoAvever, all the 
 efforts of llie' parent states to preserve a .strict authority 
 over these establishments, some have already grown to in- 
 dependence, and others appear to be fast ripening towards 
 it. The history of these colonies is of itself an essential p;;it 
 of the history of the European system, and is becoming still 
 more so by the vast and constantly increasing influence 
 Avliich they have hiul, not only on the general conmierce, 
 ])ut on the practical politics of the leading states of Europe. 
 The historian, therefore, has to set forth, not merely the 
 hi.story of these several establishments, but must explain 
 their varicnis influences upon Europe. 
 
 /j. 'i'hough the ancient states of Europe still continued, 
 closer, more numerou.s, and more varied relations were 
 formed amongst them than had hitherto existed ; and by 
 these the states of Europe became, as it \vere, one great 
 Political States-system, whose vicissitudes may be moulded 
 into one general history. 
 
 These relations were brought alxiut by the progress of civilization, 
 which necessarily increases tlie points of contact between neighbouring 
 
INTRODUCTION. 7 
 
 states ; still they presuppose certain general points in wliich the com- 
 mon interest was concerned. Ot" this nature were : a. the Italian wars ; 
 b. the affairs of religion after the Reformation ; c. the necessity of op- 
 posing the advances of the Turks ; d. the commerce of the colonies, 
 which was constantly increasing in value, and the commercial interests 
 to which it gave rise. — As to all this there remains to he added, e. the 
 facility of communication which printing and the establishment of posts 
 aftbrd, the Christian nations of Europe became, in a manner, morally 
 united into one community, which was only politically divided. 
 
 6. The,J^ircipjean. pQlitical system, notwithstanding its 
 internal variety, was, till within these few years, a system 
 of predominant monarchies ; where republics, with the ex- 
 
 'ception of the United Netherlands, which alone attained to 
 any great degree of power, were merely tolerated. This 
 predominance of monarchies had a considerable influence 
 on general politics. It was this, in the first place, that kept 
 back the people from taking a more actiyejpartia public 
 aflV.irs. ' Po^verful popular parties, and the disorders to 
 which they gave rise, such as are met with in the great 
 republics of antiquity, w^ould have been wholly unknown, 
 if religious dissensions had not produced effects which near- 
 ly resembled them. A second consequence of this pre- 
 dominance was, that the management of public affairs be- 
 came more and more concentrated in the hands of princes 
 and their ministers, and thus led to that cabinet policy 
 which particularly cliaracterizes the European states-system. 
 
 7. Notwithstanding this uniformity, which renders mo 
 dern history so unlike the ancient, it yet displays all the 
 variety of which it is susceptible. Every form of mon- 
 archical government — hereditary and elective, unlimited, 
 constitutional, and so on, till the kingly authority dwindles 
 
 -to a mere shadow — existed in Europe. Again, in its fev/ 
 republics, what a wide difference between the severe aristo 
 cracy of Venice, and the pure democracy of the shepherd- 
 cantons ! It is undoubtedly to this practical variety that 
 Europe is chiefly indebted for her enliglitened and enlarged 
 views in general politics ; to which must be attributed not 
 only her superior pcjlicy, but, in a great measure, her rapid 
 advancement in civilization. 
 
 8. The European states-system also acquired firmer sta- 
 bility, from the fortunate circumstance of having its centre 
 composed of a state, the form of which, imperfect as it v/as 
 
8 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 in itsclt' WHS iicvprtlicloss of the n*rpatpst advnntnn-p to tlie 
 wliolf svstnn. 'J'liis was the German cnipin'. \\ itlioiit 
 such a central state, important to all, liut (lan<2;erous to none, 
 this system could scarcely have p'own up as it has. 1mi- 
 liixhtened policy soon perceived, that on the preservation ai' 
 this empire, the welfare of the existing order of things in 
 Europe mainly depended. 
 
 J). Tile princij)les whicli held this system together, and 
 guaranteed the security and independence of the weak 
 against the strong, were of various kinds. A just and per- 
 fect condition among the several states, such as might be 
 projected in theory, was certainly, at all times, far from be- 
 ing established. Still, however, a law of nations, one of 
 the fruits of advancing civilization, became gradually de- 
 veloped, resting not merely uj:)on express treaties, but upon 
 general tacit convention. This enjoined the observance of 
 certain usages in peace, but more particularly in war; and 
 though its maxims were often violated, its intluence was 
 eminently beneficial. Even the strict, and sometimes ex- 
 cessive ceremonial mutually observed by the states towards 
 one another, will appear by no means a matter of indiffer- 
 ence, if considered as a mutual acknowled<2:ment of inde- 
 pendence on the part of states often the most unlike in 
 power and constitution.' 
 
 10. The first and most important fruit of this law of na- 
 tions, and at the same time the chief support of the whole 
 system, was the sacredness of a recognised legitimate pos- 
 session, without which no such svstem could exist. Its 
 preservation was secured by most of the governments being 
 hereditary. It was by the illegal division of an elective 
 nKinarchy that tins jirincijile \\as virtually de>^troyed. The 
 l^revious u>urpations of individuals had only tended to con- 
 firm it. 
 
 ' Sam. PiFFENPORF, Jus Natura- ct Gentium. Lupd. IG72. 
 
 I)(HRi..\MAwri, Droit de la Nature et des Gens, l/dfi. 
 
 I)k Vattel, Le Droit des (jeiis, ou Prineipcs dc la Loi Nalurellc appli- 
 ques a la conduile et aux afT.iires des Nations et des Souverains. Lond. I /-"H, 
 4to. h B;Ue, 1777- 3 vols. Kvo. This work has obtained the highest aullior- 
 ity among practical statesmen. 
 
 Precis du Droit des Gens fonde snr les Trait^s et I'l'sagc, par M. de Mar- 
 TKNs, troisieme edition, revue et augmcnt^e. ;\ Gottinguc, IS2I. The last 
 literary labour of the author, who has done so much for political science. 
 
 (jrundriss eines Systems des Europiiischen Volkerrecht von Fr. Saal- 
 FELD. Gbttingen, 1809. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 9 
 
 In this respect the influence of the German body politic was highly 
 beneficial, by the example it afforded of the continuance of small states, 
 and even cities, by the side of large ones. 
 
 11. Another important support of this system was the 
 I adoption and maintenance of the principle of a balance of 
 ] power ; that is, the attention paid by the different states to 
 * the preservation of their mutual independence, by prevent- 
 I ing any particular one from rising to such a degree of power 
 I as should seem inconsistent with the general liberty. This 
 
 explanation will show the great value of this principle. 
 What is necessary to its preservation, has at all times been 
 a question for the highest political wisdom ; (and this ques- 
 tion has necessarily been ever varying ;) nothing, however, 
 but the most short-sighted polic}^ would ever seek for its 
 final settlement by an equal division of the physical force of 
 the different states. The maintenance of this principle led 
 to the following consequences : <7. to a vigilant attention of 
 the states to the affairs of each other ; and to a multitude 
 \ of new and various relations between them, by means of 
 alliances and counter-alliances, especially among the more 
 distant ones. b. It gave a greater importance in the po- 
 litical system to states of the second and third order, c. 
 It promoted a general feeling of respect for independence, 
 and a system of politics of a higher order than that arising 
 from individual gratification. 
 
 The idea of a political balance of power has always existed, to a cer- 
 tain extent, in every system of free civilized states, — e. g. in Greece 
 and Italy, — for it essentially belongs to all such systems. It is a na- 
 tural fruit of the advance of political science ; and the neglect of it leads 
 to the annihilation or subjugation of the weaker powers. As it may be 
 both abused and destroyed, it cannot afford perfect security ; but it 
 gives the greatest that it is possible to obtain. 
 
 12. The European political system found a third support 
 in the establishment of maritime states, which, more than 
 all others, have contributed to maintain the balance of power. 
 The rise of maritime states, and the peculiar nature of their 
 influence in the political balance of Europe, prevented land 
 forces from alone deciding every thing, which, as they de- 
 pend almost entirely upon the number of men which can 
 be got together, are always most easily formed. 
 
 13. In a system of states most of which were hereditary, 
 
10 INTUODUCTION. 
 
 tlic family connexions of tlic ruling houses obfaincd an ini- 
 j)()rtanco wliicli nii^Iit increase or diniinisli, but could never 
 uliolly cease. 'J'lie principle generally adopted, that princes 
 could marry none but the dauohters of princes, became a 
 security ap:ainst the evils to which marriiiges with subjects 
 always lead. The dangers, equally great, which follow the 
 connexion of many powerful ruling families, Europe hap- 
 pily escaped from by the fortunate circumstance, that (ler- 
 many contained many little principalities, which furnished 
 queens to most of the European states. Thus there grew 
 up a relationship between most of the ruling houses, m Inch 
 was neither so near as to exercise a direct controlling in- 
 fluence on politics, nor yet so distant but that its natuial 
 force was felt, and it proved an important bond of union 
 when all other ties seemed nearly dissolved. 
 
 14. The constitutions of most of the kingdoms of Eu- 
 rope, and })artieularly those of German origin, were n(;t 
 founded uj)on written documents, but had grown up out 
 of the feudal system ; though perhaps in some of them a 
 few fundamental laws existed. They could not therefore 
 well fail to bear a resemblance to one another in their prin- 
 cipal features. At the beginning of this period, the mon- 
 ai-chs were every where surrounded by a nobility, sub- 
 divided into a hijrher and lower noblesse, who had hitherto 
 yielded little more obedience to their sovereigns than tem- 
 })(>rary circumstances or ]iersonal relations demanded. The 
 clergy also had as generally obtained an important influence 
 in ail aflairs of state. Tliesc two bodies composed the 
 higher or privileged class : they enjoyed great immunities 
 in exemption from taxes, and occupied the first scats in the 
 assemblies of the nation. Besides these, another order, 
 wholly foreign to tiie strict feudal system, had gradually 
 been formed, a fruit of the institutions of free cities and 
 boroughs which had grown up by commerce : we mean 
 citizens, or freemen. The representatives of this order were 
 likewise sunnnoncd to the national assemblies, in order to 
 grant taxes, of which it had to bear tl.e chief burden. The 
 great mass of the peasantry still remained more or less un- 
 der the yoke of bondage, as villains or serfs ; but however 
 modified their servitude, they were entirely destitute of all 
 political rights. In the situation in which these two latter 
 
INTRODUCTION. 11 
 
 classes stood towards the two first, there seems to have lain 
 the elements of revolutions, which would necessarily take 
 place, either suddenly or by degrees ; for, unfortunately, in 
 none of the continental states did the existing assembly form 
 itself into a well-organized representation of the nation, by 
 which alone the government could have acquired an inter- 
 nal stability, and which would alike have protected it from 
 anarchy and despotism. 
 
 15. At first, therefore, the royal authority in these king- 
 doms was every where much limited. Without the aid of 
 the nobility no important war could be carried on ; without 
 the consent of the cities no taxes could be levied. Without 
 standing armies, (a small beginning excepted,) without po- 
 litical economy, (for no art was known but that of getting 
 money,) there existed, in reality, at this time no power, in 
 the present acceptation of the word. The royal authority, 
 however, was almost every where increasing : Ferdinand 
 the Catholic, Louis XL, and Henry VIL, laid the found- 
 ation of it, which they well understood how to do ; and 
 their successors, PhiHp IL, Louis XIV., and others, en- 
 larged it till it became absolute, without dreaming that they 
 were thereby prepai'ing its overthrow. 
 
 16. The history of modern Europe is divided into three 
 periods, of which the first two occupy nearly an equal space 
 of time : we stand, as it were, at the commencement of the 
 third. The first extends from the end of the fifteenth ,cen: 
 tury to the accession of Louis XIV., 1492 — 1661. The 
 second, from 1661 to the death of Frederic the Great and i "^ 
 the commencement of the political changes in Europe, 
 1661 — 1786. The third, from the latter period to the pre-/ 
 sent times. The principle upon which this division has 
 been made, is the different form which practical politics as- 
 sumed in each period ; and from the various characters of 
 these the first may be called the poIUka-lr-r.£lig:wus,; the 
 second, ikfimcrccuitiic-jfiiiita?^/ ; and the third, the poiitica^l- 
 revolutionary oxA. constitutional. The first was the period 
 
 ^^f the rise ; the second, that of tlie establishment ; and the 
 last, that of the dissolution of the hctldnce of 'power. 
 
 17. The course of affairs requires, that in the two first, 
 and in the early part of the last period, the history of the 
 Northern European system should be separated from that 
 
12 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 of the SoutluMii. The former of tliese comprises Russia, 
 Swcch'ii, ]*()l;iii<l, and Deiiiiiark ; the; latter, the remainiiijz; 
 states. The Prussian monarchy, forming, since its aggran- 
 dizement, the connecting hnk of the two systems, belongs 
 to both. Even earlier, on particular occasions, the North 
 may be found taking an active share in the allairs of tlie 
 South ; but previous to the division of Poland this was al- 
 wavs of a transitory nature. Still the constant influence 
 which the two systems had upon one another must not be 
 overlooked. 
 
FIRST PERIOD. 
 
 From the end ofilie Fifieenih Century to the time of 
 Louis XI V. 1 492— 1661. 
 
 PART THE FIRST. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE SOUTHERN EUROPEAN STATES SYSTEM. 
 
 1. The peculiar character of this period is determined 
 by the Reformation which broke out at its commencement. 
 For as the rehgious interests which thus arose acquired the 
 prevaiHng influence in poHtics, the disputes and parties of 
 the former became identical with those of the latter. This 
 union doubtless varied in strength at various times, but still 
 to it must be referred the spirit and direction of the age. 
 
 2. Although the Southern political system embraces all 
 the states of the south of Europe, yet Spain, France, Eng- 
 land, Austria, the German empire, the Papal and Turkish 
 powers, must be considered its most important members. 
 By them its political relations were determined ; and they, 
 in comparison with the passiveness of the others, may be 
 said to have been the active limbs of the system. 
 
 Of these powers Spain, under Ferdinand and Isabella, commanded 
 the most brilliant prospects of the future. The union of Arragon, with 
 its dependencies, Sicily and Sardinia, to Castile, which had been eflect- 
 ed by their marriage, (1469,) laid the foundation of its internal vigour ; 
 while the discovery of America had opened for it the most boundless 
 views abroad. The conquest of Grenada was, however, the great 
 event which roused the spirit of the nation, although it at the same 
 time destroyed its liberty by opening the way, principally by the estab- 
 lishment of the inquisition, to the despotic power of the crown ; with- 
 out, however, immediately causing any change, at least in the form of 
 the constitutional assembly (the Cortes). 
 
11 l'l;r.I.IMINAKV 1;1;MAKKS, 1402-IGGI. [lEiiK.i. I. 
 
 "With the rxooption of tlio Amorioan disoovories, FiiANCE pnsscsHcil 
 0(|tml ndvantnfrcs, nltli»>ii<;li tlit-ii nmrli more liiiiit<Ml in oxU'iit. 'ilie 
 n('<|iiisiti(iii of Brctii^iiie by tlic iiiarriafie of Clmrk-s VIII. liad (■(msidcr- 
 ah\y t'ldar-rcd it ; while the policy of Louis XI. and the fall of Charles 
 the Bold of lUir-nindy, (1477,) tiie last of its vassals po.esessed of any 
 danpcrons ]«iwer, had established the royal authority as lirndy as in 
 nnv (ithtr tiiiartcr, and had caused the jxiwer of tiie constitutional Ji.-- 
 FcMilily (i'tdls t/nierutij) visibly to decline. The iiicahulable advantage 
 atVorilcd to France, as a chief member of the Kuropean System, ])y her 
 geo^ra])hical ])ositit)n, cannot escape notice. 
 
 In K.Mii.AM), as elsewliere, the kiufrly i)ower'\vas gradiially increased 
 in the reign of Henry ^'II., (1483 — 1.JC9,) after the termination of the 
 wars of the white and red rosc^s. Although the parliament had already 
 received its distinguishing an<l most imjtortant features, it was still, and 
 long continued to be. a body without a soul ; but by its organization it 
 was more ca|)able of life than any other national assemblage. Kot yet 
 tniite(l to Scotland, her authority doubtful in Indand, without any naval 
 force, Kngland could hardly have shared in the continental disputes, 
 liad not the possession of Calais opened to her a road into France ; a 
 road, however, by which she could no longer jjenetratc far. 
 
 The AisTKiAX jMunakciiy was yet in a state of fonr.ation ; the 
 greater part of its possessions being scattered and of uncertain tenure. 
 To the ancient dominions of Austria, (dating from 127G,) the Nether- 
 lands (from the year 1477) were added, by the marriage of I^Iaximilian 
 with Mary of Burgundy ; and although the claims of the Ilapsbuig 
 family to Hungary and Bohemia terminated in lo27 in permanent pos- 
 session, its power was still weakened, not only by the factions peculiar 
 to elective states, but also, and especially in Hungary, by Turkish wars. 
 The imperial crown added but little to its strength, although largely to 
 its si)lendtiuj'. In fact, without the opening prospect of succession to 
 tlie Spanish throne (see below) the power of Austria would have been 
 very limited. 
 
 The Gkiimax FMrnn: appears to have attained a more perfect or- 
 ganization, by the establishment of order and recognition of rights, the 
 election of imperial courts, the ])rovincial divisictns, and embodying of 
 police throughout the empire, which it owed to Maximilian I. between 
 the years 1492 and 1519. Unfortunately the foreign disputt s, in 
 which he was for ever engaged, checked his course and imjicded the 
 caricr of im|H-ovement. Tims tiie empire remained dead as a whole, 
 thougii pregnant with life in its separate members, till the Keformation 
 awoke its energies only to waste thcin u])on internal dissension. Still, 
 however, amid all the evils of internal disunion and external defence- 
 Ic.isness, this wonderful state bore up and kept its rank among the na- 
 tions ; partly sustained by its own strength, partly by good fortune in 
 Pome of its connexions, and jjartly, nor that the least, by the general 
 and growing opinion, that upon its maintenance and freedom that of 
 the whole political system of Europe ih'pended. 
 
 The Porr.s appeared in a double ea]>acity, as rulers of the States of 
 the Church, (see below,) and as heads of the Christian community. Nor 
 did the interests of the one character always agree with those of the 
 other ; for what might not the paternal authority of the Popes have 
 
paut I.] PRELIMINARY REMARKS, 1492—1661. 15 
 
 wrought for the well-being of Europe, had the passions of our nature 
 kept aloof and spared the sanctity of their otfice ! And yet their policy 
 remains a rare example of elasticity and firmness. Haughty of tone, 
 although without arms to support it ; resting merely upon public opinion, 
 yet in continual and growing opposition to it ; they never resigned 
 any thing, even when virtually lost, but maintained a regular and con- 
 sistent course, grounded upon the assurance that they were indispens- 
 able, and would in the end be recognised as such. 
 
 The Porte (at this time essentially a conquering power) had reached 
 the summit of its greatness under Solyman II. (Io20 — 1566). Its re- 
 gular infantry (the Janizaries) had already made it formidable by land, 
 while its navy, by which the Mediterranean with its coasts might have 
 been secured, threatened the same superiority by sea. Standing in di- 
 rect and hostile opposition to the Christian part of Europe, Turkey 
 remained a foreign power : and to the danger which thereby overhung 
 Cln-istendom, the Popes had for a long time looked as a remedy against 
 the disunion of its supporters. This hope Avas frustrated by an early 
 alliance between France and the Porte, by which the latter became a 
 member, although an incongruous one, of the European political system. 
 
 Of the other states of Southern Eiu'ope Portugai. was wholly occu- 
 pied by its discoveries and its conquests (see below) ; SavitzerlaisD, 
 at first formidable from its mercenaries, soon sank into a happy inac- 
 tivity ; while Venice gradually assumed the appearance of a rich com- 
 mercial establishment, which resigns the chief burden of its affairs in 
 order to enjoy its hard-eai-ned repose. 
 
 PERIOD THE FIRST. 
 
 I. History of the Negotiations and Wars respect ing Italy, 
 from 1491 to 1515. 
 
 Istoria d'ltalia di Francisco Guicciaedini. 2 vols. fol. Venezia, 
 1738. (The edition o^ Fribvrgo, 1775, 4 vols. 4to, although pretending 
 to greater completeness, has only a few unimportant additions.) This 
 is the principal authority, as the writer was both contemporary with, 
 and engaged in, the affairs of which he treats ; and at the same time an 
 impartial historian and critic. The work extends from 1490 to 1532. 
 
 Mcmoires de Philippe ue Comines. Paris, 1747. 4 vols. These 
 close with 1498. 
 
 The works of IVFezeray, Daniel, jMeuzel, and others, on French 
 affairs in general. The history of Charles VIIL, by Godefroi, (Ilistoire 
 de Charles VIIL Paris, 1684,) that of Louis XII., by Varillas, 
 {Histoire de Louis XII. Paris, 1688,) and the Lives of Louis XII., 
 ( Vies de L.oids XII.,) published by Godefroi, Paris, 1615 — 1620, em- 
 brace an account of these events, although naturally more with refer- 
 ence to France. 
 
in CONTESTS RESPECTINT. ITALY, 1494-1515. [rEnioD i. 
 
 3. Italy, towards tho end of tlio riflccnth contury, was the 
 LTcncral mark of ronquost, and tlicrefore the central point 
 of ILuroix'an politics. Its internal condition was such as at 
 once to invite tlie conqueror, and to delay his pro^xress hy 
 plunixin;^ liim into endless debate. In a country so divided 
 materials were never wanting for internal strife ; and thus 
 forei<niers, once enc;a<xed in tlie quarrel, never failed of 
 oppcM'tunities for interference. Unimportant, tlicrefore, as 
 the Italian feuds may at first appear, they are by no means 
 so in realitv, since it was upon the action of these meaner 
 wheels that the jxreater machinery of European politics, at 
 this period, depended for the impulse and continuance of its 
 motion. 
 
 4. Modern Italy was now in the Auoustan age of arts 
 and knowledge; for more than a century it had formed a 
 world by itself, alike in politics and n^finement. In the full 
 enjoyment of independence, the Italian states constituted a 
 system in which the desire of maintaining tlie balance of 
 power gave rise to a more subtle policy, which, especially 
 
 after the death of the o;rcat Lorenzo de Medici, 
 
 1492. . 
 
 degenerated into a mere crafty selfishness, and 
 soon wrought its own destruction. The chief members of 
 this system were the duchy of Milan and the republic of 
 Venic(; in the north ; the republic of Florence and the states 
 of the Church in the centre; and the kingdom of Naples 
 in the south. 
 
 1. Tlio duoliy of Mn.AX, to which at that time not only Parma and 
 I'hirontia, hut Genoa al.*o hohmpfod, was a German fief, hehl inider tiie 
 omjM'ror. Upon tlie failure of male issue in the house of Visconti (1450) 
 it iiad passed into the family of Sforza ; and upon the death of the 
 founder Francis Sforza, (14(36,) and the murder of his son Galeazzo 
 Maria, (1476.) the son of the latter, the weak John Galeazzo succeeded 
 to the government, under the {ruardianship of his uncle Ludovico 
 Sforza, by whom he was ultimately expelled (1494). 
 
 2. Tiie republic of Vr.Nici; had already acquired all that it was ever 
 to possess upon the continent, yet without renouncing the hope of ac- 
 quiring: more. Its hereilitary plans of agjzrandizemcnt were directed 
 a;rainst Komagna, (the greatiT portion of which she had gained,) and 
 against !Milan. To the entire jRissession of the latter even the boldest 
 hopes of the senate could hardly aspire ; but the projects once adopted 
 were followed up with all the cunning and persoverance which an aris- 
 tocratical system of policy, such as that of Venice, is alone capable of 
 exhibiting. The republic was in fact considered the diplomatic model 
 of ita day. 
 
PART I.] CONTESTS RESPECTING ITALY, 14S4— 1515. 17 
 
 3. The Papal Domixioxs had not only a very uncertain frontier in 
 the rwrth, but the power of the great families, in several states as yet 
 unbroken, rendered their government still more unstable. The Popes 
 not unfrequently stood in the way of their own advancement, and the 
 practice of nepotism merged the interests of the holy see in that of their 
 several families. In this the reigning Pope, Alexander VI., (1492 — 
 1503,) was hardly surpassed by any that came eitlier before or after him. 
 
 4. The republic of Florexce still adhered to its democratical form, 
 although now, for near a century, under the dominion of the IMedici. 
 Pietro was at this time head of the family, having succeeded to the 
 principality of his father, the great Lorenzo, but not to his virtues or 
 ability. Although its territory had been increased by the conquest of 
 Pisa, (1407,) yet the sj^irit of the Pisanese was far from being sub- 
 dued ; and in this, as well as in the nature of the authority of the 
 Medici, which being wholly built upon superior talent could not be 
 expected to survive its failure, lay those seeds of revolution which bore 
 only too abundant a harvest. 
 
 5. The kingdom of Naples was subject to a collateral branch of 
 the house of Arragon, without, however, the appendage of Sicily, which 
 was attached to Arragon itself. Alfonso V. of Ai-ragon and first of 
 Naples, (I 1458,) had bequeathed it to his illegitimate son, Ferdinand 
 I., who was succeeded in 1494, by Alfonso II., elder son of the former ; 
 by him it was given up in 1395 to his son Ferdinand II., who, dying 
 in 1496, was succeeded by his uncle Frederic, and he again (in 1501) 
 lost this kingdom to Ferdinand the Catholic. The largest state in Italy 
 was the least powerful, from the unpopularity of its kings and the want 
 of character among its people. 
 
 5. Expedition of Charles VIII. from France 
 to Naples, in order to make good the claims of 
 the younger branch of Anjou to that kingdom. These he 
 had inherited from his father, and was more immediately 
 induced to follow up by the urgency of some malcontent 
 emigrants, and the invitation of Ludovico Sforza, who 
 hoped thereby to maintain himself in the duchy of Milan ; 
 but with the establishment of these was connected another 
 and much greater project, the overthrow of the Turkish 
 empire. Such a scheme could only have been formed in the 
 infancy of politics, which loves to dwell upon extensive plans, 
 without bestowing a thought upon the difficulties which sur- 
 round them, or the means by which they may be accomplished. 
 
 Italy and Naples were subdued easily and without bloodshed, between 
 Sept., 1494, and May, 1495. Ferdinand II. fled to Ischia, and both Rome 
 and Florence opened their gates to the conqueror. On February 22, 
 Charles VIII. made his entry into Naples, and the submission of the 
 whole country followed ; but although an array of thirty thousand men 
 and one hundred and forty pieces of cannon had been sufficient to awe 
 Italy into obedience, it did not prove ample enough to maintain it. 
 
 C 
 
18 CONTESTS RESPECTINf; ITALY, 1101— 1515. [if.iijodi. 
 
 G. Nay, durinjj; tlio vory progress of this oxpedition, nc- 
 p)tiations were on foot for the I'ornmtioii of a lea<j;ue, whose 
 ohjcct she)ul(l be the expulsion of the foreigners Ironi ItiiK . 
 Of this h'aoue Venice was the moving power; in it the 
 Pope, and even l^udovico Sforza, were actually associated. 
 I'enlinand of Spain and Maximilian were well inclined to 
 join it, and so determined were its views, that its partisans 
 scrupled not to make overtures to the hereditary foe of 
 Christendom. As early as May, Charles \ 111. was obliged 
 to evacuate Naples and fight his way home. 
 
 Retreat of the kinp: from Naples ^vith tlie one lialf of liis arnij, 20th 
 of May, l-iDo. His cnfraTemeiit with, ami vietory over the Venetians 
 and their allies at Fornna, (ith of .Inly. The half of his force which 
 had iteen left in Najtles w;is ol)lij:«'(l to capitulate, and Ferdinand II. was 
 thus again in possession of his kingdom. 
 
 7. Nevertheless this attempt, unsuccessful as it ])rovcd, 
 was not A\ itliout its consecjuences to I'Airope. Italy became 
 a fair mark for plans of conquest; a spirit of intrigue was 
 raised ; and, more efficient than all, men's passions were 
 awakened, for Charles A'lll. was bent on vengeance. The 
 struggle between Pisa and Florence left Italy no rest, (for 
 both Milan and Venice hoped to profit thereby,) and made 
 it easier for foreigners to find allies amono- its states. The 
 vengeance which Charles VIII. so much coveted, he did 
 
 not, however, live to exact ; a sudden death 
 
 April 7.IIW. 1 1 1 I ■ r u 
 
 snatcfiecl Inm from it. 
 
 8. Louis XII. extended and followed up the scheme of 
 his predecessor, for beside the old claim upon Naples which 
 attached to his throne, he brought a new one of his own 
 upon Milan, which he derived from his grandmother Valen- 
 tina, a daughter of the house of \ isconti. A share in the 
 booty was promised to Venice and the Pope, and the con- 
 (piest, thus made easy, was acc()mj)lished while the victims 
 of it were yet in treaty for foreign assistance. 
 
 Capture of Milan, August, 1499. Flight, and. after fruitless attempts 
 to re-estahlish himself, cajdivity of Ludovico Sforza ; a captivity which 
 ends only with his life, April 10, ]'A)0. Cremrma and Ghirar d'Ad<lii 
 become the jtortion of Venice, ami Alexan<li'r VI. appears to be on the 
 eve of accomplishing his favourite jiroject, of be.-<towing an independent 
 principality in Komagna upon hi.s son Ca?sar Borgia. 
 
 9. The conquest of Milan would have led to an immedi- 
 
PAKT I.] co:;tests respecting italy, 1491—1515. 19 
 
 ate attack upon Naples, had this been possible without some 
 previous intellig-ence with Spain. Ferdinand the Catholic 
 was read}^ for the part he had to play, and formed a double 
 alliance with his cousin Frederic of Naples on the one hand, 
 and Louis XII. on the other, a difference of time being the 
 only distinction in his intended betrayal of both. The Pope 
 was prepared to ratify his success. 
 
 Secret treaty of partition between Ferdinand and Louis XII., Xov. 
 11, 1.500. Bloodless overthrow of the dupe Frederic, followed by his 
 imprisonment for life and the conquest of his kingdom, July, 1501. 
 
 10. Angry disputes, followed by a war between the par- 
 ties, arose on the partition of the spoil. Each would fain 
 have taken the whole to himself, and thus the inner wheel 
 of Ferdinand's intrigue acquired its motion. More exten- 
 sive alliances in the country which was the scene of debate ; 
 greater cunning, and the services of such a general as Gon- 
 salvo of Cordova, turned the scale for Ferdinand, and put 
 him in undisputed possession of Naples. The conqueror's 
 right was cemented by marriage, and thus did two foreign 
 powers, that of France in Milan, and that of Spain in 
 Naples, acquire a firm footing in Italy. 
 
 The French defeated at Seminara the 21st of April, and on the Ga- 
 rigliano, 27th of Dec, 1508. The truce of the 31st of March, 1504, 
 was followed by a total cessation of hostilities on the marriage of Ferdi- 
 nand to Germaine de Foix, the niece of Louis XII., with whom, on the 
 receipt of a million of ducats, he gave his claim upon Xaples as a dowry, 
 12th of Oct., 1505. 
 
 11. While Italy v/as thus the common prey of political 
 intrigue, its relations became more complicated than ever 
 by the election of a new Pope. Having bought 
 
 the papal chair, Julius II. grasped with a bold 
 
 and practised hand the reins of European politics, and for 
 
 ten years guided them at will. Weakness has seldom been 
 
 played against strength with such boldness, such cunning, 
 
 and with so much success ! It was not however a dominion 
 
 of peace, for with such a Pope in Christendom peace was 
 
 impossible. 
 
 The first project of Julius II. was to attach to the papal see the do- 
 minion of Ciesar Borgia, which embraced Romagna, Bologna, and Fer- 
 rara, and which, since the death of Alexander, had partly fallen to pieces 
 of itself, and partly been appropriated by Venice. The wars thus set 
 
 c 2 
 
20 CONTESTS nESPECTINc; ITALY, im—151fi. [pEnioo i. 
 
 nfixit inarlt' \\i\y for tliis srrtmd nn«l proator project, for the expuljiion of 
 the furi'ignors, more e^peeinlly the Frencli, from Italy. 
 
 1*2. Tlie contests with Venice respectinp; l^omajxna lerl to 
 the scheme of a more extensive aUianee ; tliis could not liow- 
 ever be inimediately arranood, onino- cliieHy to the internal 
 circumstances of Spain, consequent on the death of 
 Isabella. Their external result was the league of 
 C'anibray, which bore the character of a secret 
 tdliance against \ enice, between Louis XIL, Maximilian, 
 Ferdinand the Catholic, and the Pope. This combination, 
 at once inijust and contradictory, found such ready advo- 
 cates in the passions and interests of the })arties, that the 
 Pope almost repented of having set afoot a business, the 
 easy conduct of which yielded no opportunity for takinix the 
 direction on hiniselt'. At all events, it was no fault of his 
 that the Venetians were not better on their guard; but the 
 proud citizens seemed not to know that kings are rarely the 
 i'riends of a republic. 
 
 The loap^ue, as far as regardeil Louis XII. and i\raxiinilian I., was 
 coiK'hidetl Dec. 10, 1508. The others subsequently joined it with the 
 common oliject of humiliating the republic, and taking possession of its 
 continental territory, the allotment of which was previously arranged. 
 
 13. Powerful as this league appears, it was not so much 
 by its strength as by the passionate impetuosity of the 
 niiuhtiest of its members, that the safety of A'enice was en- 
 dangered. Even the breaking up of the alliance could 
 hardly have warded off the assault of Louis XIL Her 
 policy, and not her armies, preserved the republic ; for it 
 was no dithcult matter to dissolve a connexion which had 
 so little internal stability. 
 
 The Venetians were conquered at Agnadello, April 15, 1509, and 
 obliged to relinquish their possessions on the main-land, under the two- 
 fold oppression of the Pope, who in his temporal caiiacity had seized on 
 Komagna, ami in his spiritual had laicl the republic under ban. The 
 quarrel of Louis and Maximilian now began, antl Venice, after retaking 
 Padua, conchiileil a treaty and reconciliation with the Pope, Feb. 25, 
 1510, which left the latter in possession of the cities of Komagna; 
 while Ferdinand retained the ports of Apulia. 
 
 14. Jidius II., who well knew that there are no such 
 enemies as former friends, arranged from the fragments of 
 the late league a second and still stronger one against 
 
PAUT I.] CONTESTS RESPECTING ITALY, 1494—1515. 21 
 
 France. This was styled the holy league, from 
 its avowed object of protecting the Roman see 
 from the ambition of France ; its further design was the 
 total expulsion of the French from Italy, an event in which 
 the Pope and the Venetians took much interest ; and the 
 conquest of Spanish Navarre for the advantage of Ferdinand, 
 who Avon Henry VIII. of England to his purpose. Even 
 Maximilian I. was rendered neutral by a truce with Venice ; 
 but the master-stroke of the Pope's policy was, to win over 
 the Swiss, since through their means alone could Milan be 
 torn from France. 
 
 The holy league was concluded between the Pope, Ferdinand, and 
 the Venetians, Oct. 5, 1511. The Emperor and Henry VIII. had a 
 free invitation to join it. The Swiss had been gained over in 1510. 
 
 15. The contest which ensued (and which from the un- 
 successful attempt of Louis to convoke a council 
 
 . . 1511 
 
 at Pisa, for the deposition of the Pope, had 
 fairly assumed the chai'acter of a struggle with the hier- 
 archy) might perhaps have terminated in favour of France, 
 had not the battle of Ravenna closed the career of the young 
 and heroic Gaston de Foix. Attacked on every side, driven 
 from Milan by the Swiss, labouring under the papal ban, 
 Louis XII. would have found it a hard matter to draw him- 
 self from this ditHcult posture, had not the death of the Pope 
 come to his relief 
 
 France maintained the advantage as long as Gaston de Foix was 
 with her. His death, at the battle of Ravenna, put a period to his 
 success, which extended from Nov., 1511, to April 11, 1512. The 
 Swiss made an irruption into Milan, ISlaj, 1512, and restored it to 
 Maximilian Sforza, eldest son of Ludovico Sforza. The attempt of 
 Louis XII. to recover it frustrated by the battle of Novara, June 6, 
 1513. The expulsion of the French from Italy brought as its conse- 
 quence the return of the Medici into Florence, ft'om their exile of 1495. 
 This was effected by the power of the league, and by an insurrection, 
 August 31, 1512, and in so violent a manner that the name of Republic 
 was all that remained to Florence. It now became a formal member of 
 the league. About the same time in the year 1512 took place the con- 
 quest of Spanish Navarre, under plea of its alliance with France. The 
 invasion of Artois by Henry VIII., and that of Burgundy by the Swiss, 
 1513. In the midst of these troubles, so congenial to his life, occurred 
 the deatli of Julius II., Feb. 21, 1513, and to him Leo X., of the family 
 of the Medici, became successor. 
 
 16. Dissolution of the holy league upon the reconcilia- 
 tion of the new Pope with France ; Louis having consented 
 
2f CONTESTS RF,sri:CTIN(; ITALY, 1191—1:15. .rcniOD i. 
 
 to i;ivo iij) llic founcil of Pisa. Peace wa.s easily concluded 
 with Ferdinand at the prices of his booty, Navarre. His 
 son-in-law Ilenrv VIII. was aj)i)easc'd hy money and niar- 
 ria«^e ; and the Swiss were — (lui)ed. Thus I'Vance retained 
 nothing otall itsconcjuests, but the claims which led to them. 
 Tiiese Louis XII. niiuht perhaps have ap;ain endea- 
 voured to establish liad not death prevented him. 
 
 Treaty with Leo X. concluded Oct, 6, 151.3 — that with Ferdinand f>f 
 Arrafjon, Dec. 1, 1,513 — with tlie Swiss, who were meantime deceived 
 by false securities, an en'r;i;Tement Wcis made, Sej)t. 1.3, 1.513; but after- 
 wards revoked by Louis XII. — with i^Iaximilian I, also a truce was 
 ngrreed on for tlie benefit of Mihm, whose new duke he had acknow- 
 ledfred. Tlie jieace purchased of Knfrland was ratified by the marriage 
 of Louis XII. with Mary, sister to Henry VIIL, Aug. 7, lol4; but 
 it led to nothing, for as early as Jan, 1, 15 15, Louis XII. died, 
 
 17. Notwithstanding^ its busy character, political science 
 remained during; tlu^ wiiole of this period still in its infancy. 
 The treachery and craft of Ferdinand, the vague and un- 
 concentratcd activity of Maximilian, the blind lust for ag- 
 grandizement of Louis, rendered it a web of intricacy and 
 confusion. There was no great interest, no great character, 
 to become the moving spring in politics. Affairs were de- 
 termined, not for the lasting benefit of the people, but for 
 the momentary advantage of the ruler. On such principles 
 no permanent alliance could be formed, but all was perpe- 
 tual change. How, indeed, could it be otherwise, where 
 the contracting parties scarcely attempted to conceal their 
 design of overreaching one another? 
 
 18. On political economy, indeed, the good example of 
 Louis XII. and his minister, Cardinal Amboise, aj^pearcd 
 to have some effect. But even in France, new and great 
 ideas were not yet awakened ; and the good example found 
 no imitators. To procure money for the wars remained the 
 sole object of the science, and it was Louis of France alone 
 who had reached the point (nor was it a small advance) of 
 considering the interests of those on whom it was levied. 
 Even th<; di-scoveiy of the new world, and the prospects 
 thereby revealed, had narrowed rather than expanded the 
 horizon. 
 
 19. The art of war, too, made less progress than might 
 have been expected from its frefjuent employment, nor was 
 there much likelihood of its doing so, as long as good in- 
 
PART I.] ORIGIN OF COLONIES, 1492—1515. 23 
 
 fantry was to be had only of the Swiss, and that for hire ; 
 or, as long as the German " Lanzkneckts " supplied the 
 place of native and regular cavalry. Besides, among the 
 princes of this period, there was no one who displayed any 
 great military genius. 
 
 II. Account of ilie Origin of Colonial Estahlishments , from 
 1492 till 1515. 
 
 Histoire des Etablissements dcs Europeens dans Ics dettx Indes, par 
 M. l'Abbe Rayis'al. a Geneve, 1781. 10 vols. A work abounding 
 alike in sophistical declamations, in researches at one time superficial, 
 at another deep and erudite, and in statistical documents of the first im- 
 portance. 
 
 Les Trois Ages des Colo/iies, on de leiir ctat passe, present, et a ve- 
 mV, par M. DE Pradt. 1801. 3 vols. This author mars his defence of 
 the freedom of the colonies by clothing it in the visions of a political 
 theorist. 
 
 An Inquii-y into the Colonial Policy of the European Poicers, by 
 IIexry Brougham. Edinburgh, 1803. 2 vols. It gives evidence of 
 much study, but is deficient in practical knowledge. 
 
 A. Andersox's Historical and Chronological Deduction of Commerce 
 from the earliest accounts to the present time. London, 1789. 4 vols. 4to. 
 It extends to the year of its publication ; and forms an incalculably rich 
 collection of materials in chronological order ; its chief bearing is upon 
 British commerce. 
 
 A copious relation of such parts of colonial history as relate to the 
 East Indies, to the middle of the eighteenth century, may be found in 
 the Geschichte der Ostindischen Hnndelsgesellschaften, in der Hallischcn 
 Allgemeinen IFelfgeschichte, Bd. 25, 26. 1763. 4to. 
 
 The best general historical view of the Colonies of the several nations 
 is contained in Eiciiiiorn's Geschichte des neuern Europas : those of 
 Asia form the oth, those of Africa and America the 6th Book. 
 
 1. The term colour/ embraces all the possessions and 
 establishments of Europeans in foreign quarters of the world. 
 They may, however, be divided according to their object 
 and nature into four classes. Of these the first is that of 
 AgricuUuj^al Colonies, whose object is the cultivation of the 
 soil. The colonists, who form them, become landed pro- 
 prietors, are formally naturalized, and in process of time 
 become a nation, properly so called. The second, that of 
 Plantation Colonics, whose end is the supply of certain 
 natural productions for Europe. The colonists in these, 
 although possessors of land, are less permanently fixed tlian 
 those of the former, nor does the smallness of their number 
 
-t OHKJIN or COLONIKS, 1192—1.015. [teriod i. 
 
 ]K'rmit any approach to a nation. Slavery ljelono;s pecu- 
 liarly to tln.s kind of colony. The third consist of A/ining 
 Colonics, \vhose object is expres.sed in their name. The 
 colonists of these become naturalized, but althoun;h some- 
 times extensively spread, they cannot as mere mining coK)- 
 nies ever attain to much population. The fourth, of 
 Trading Colonies, whose object is a traffic in the natural 
 ])roduetions, whether of the land or of the sea, (as fisheries,) 
 and the native nianiifaetiires of the country. These consist 
 at hrst of nothing; more than factories and staples for the 
 convenience of trade ; but force; or fraud soon enlarcje them, 
 and the colonists become concjuerors, without, however, 
 losing sight of the original object of their settlement. 
 Though masters of the countiy, they are too little attached 
 to it to become naturalized. 
 
 These are the chief colonial divisions, and although seve- 
 ral of these objects may have been embraced by one colony, 
 we shall fuid that there is always some feature distinct from, 
 and more important than the rest, which determines to 
 which it belonos. 
 
 '2. Time and experience were recjuired to ascertain the 
 relations in mIucIi the colonies might be placed most advan- 
 tageously for the mother country. M ithout any consider- 
 ation of their true value and proper use, the first and preva- 
 lent idea was in favour of an absolute; possession and total 
 exclusion of strangers. The propagation of Christianity 
 formed a convenient pretext, and none thought of inquiring 
 either into the justice or the utility of their treatment. In 
 truth, w(; know not how otluM" views could have been ac- 
 (juired, and yet we must needs lament that th(^ European 
 system of colonization siiould so early have taken a direction 
 as unalterable as it was destructive to the interests both of 
 the colonies and their mother states. In spite, however, of 
 this original error, the dillerent nature of the soils, and of 
 their occujiicrs, m the Eastern and Western Indies, beo-ot, 
 from the first, an essential distinction in the manner of turn- 
 ing them, severally, to advantage. 
 
 3. But, however limited may have been the notions of 
 the colonists, the conse(juences of the system were of incal- 
 culable importance, for they led to a total change in the 
 direction and order of commerce throughout the world. 
 
PART I.] ORIGIN OF COLONIES, 1192—1515. 25 
 
 Traffic (forsaking its hitherto necessary and essential cha- 
 racter) passed from the land to the ocean, and by its change 
 established a very dift'erent standard of the geographical 
 importance of countries for the purposes of trade. Its first 
 and natural effect was to transfer the site of universal com- 
 merce from the shores of the ^Mediterranean to the western 
 coasts of Europe. Thus the Spaniards and the Portuguese 
 were the earliest to profit by the change, although at this 
 period Spain had only just laid the foundation, while Por- 
 tugal had completed the whole system of her colonies. The 
 claims of both rested on the grants of the Pope, who, as 
 supreme and general m.aster, had intrusted to them the con- 
 version of the heathen. 
 
 Bull of Pope Alexander YL, 1493 ; by it a meridian of one hundred 
 leagues west of the Azores was fixed as the line of demarcation between 
 Spain and Portugal. Bj the treaty of Tordesillas, 1494, and a confirm- 
 atory bull, 1506, this line was extended to the coast of Brazil, and em- 
 braced three hundred and seventy-five leagues from those islands. AYe 
 should observe, that it was the general principle to consider the inland 
 countries, under the same latitude, as possessed in right of the coast. 
 
 4. This period is alike famous and infamous by the dis- 
 coveries and the conquests of Spain. These latter were 
 confined to the islands in the Gulf of Mexico, among which 
 Hispaniola (subsequently St. Domingo, and now, as ori- 
 ginally, Hayti) was, in consequence of the gold mines of 
 the Cibao mountains, by far the most important. As the 
 new world did not immediately present any other produce 
 of value, the discovery of gold and silver became, unfor- 
 tunately for its inhabitants, the sole object of the colonists. 
 
 Discovery of America, at least of the island of St. Salvador, (Guana- 
 haini,) by Christopher Columbus, 11th Oct., 1492. He was then on a 
 voyage to discover a western passage to India, that being in the opinion 
 of the men of science in his day the nearest land in that direction ; to 
 this mistake we owe the name of AVest Indies applied to those islands. 
 His three subsequent voyages produced, besides the discovery of the 
 West Indian maze of islands, that of a part of the coasts of the (southern) 
 continent. Nor was Hispaniola, although the chief, the only settle- 
 ment, for colonies were attempted in Cuba, Porto Rico, and Jamaica, 
 between the years 1508 — 1510 ; as for the minor islands, a casual plun- 
 dering of the natives sufficed. The great ocean discovered and taken 
 possession of by Bilboa, 1513, by whom also some knowledge was 
 gained of Peru. The revenue drawn by the Spanish government from 
 the West Indies still remained inconsiderable, and the principles of their 
 colonial system were far from being developed. 
 
S6 ORIGIN or COLONIES, 11112—1.015. Ipi.nioDi. 
 
 History of Ai/irrirn, by RouKKTSON. London, 1777. 2 vols, 4to. 
 Tlu! iK'^iiiiiiii;; «it' a tliinl vol. wn3 published by liis son, 179'j. 'J'here 
 have Iteen abinid.mt reprints. 
 
 [A I/istori/ iif (he Life and Vni/nfjrs of Cliristo])h(r Coltiwhns, by 
 ■WASiiiNtiToN IiniNt;. Abridged by himself and reprinted in vol, xi. 
 of the Family Library.] 
 
 5. Discovcri<*s and settlements of the Portuguese in the 
 East Indies, The way in vvhicli these were made, and the 
 state of the countries discovered, caused, from tlie ben;inniiuj:, - 
 the colonial allairs of Portuo-nl to dilfer very widely from 
 those of Spain. As the Portuguese discovery of the East 
 Indies was the result of a long scries of hardy adventures, 
 carried on in a uniform manner, and made by .slow hut .'^ure 
 degrees, experience had in some measure matured their 
 judgment ; and as from the nature of these countries the 
 establishment of mining colonies was out of the question, 
 they naturally turned their attention to the founding of 
 settlements for general commerce. For this reason, notwitli- 
 standing much ambition and much tyranny, we never find 
 the Portuguese in direct possession of any large e.\tent of 
 country. They were content with fixing themselves firmly 
 in the most eligible stations, around which, by the subjec- 
 tion of the native princes, they managed to collect and 
 monopolize the traffic. 
 
 The naval expeditions of the Portuguese date from 1410. They 
 owed their rise to the Jloori.sh wars in Afriea, and were mueh en- 
 couraged by Prince Ilenry, snrnamcd the Navigator {] 1463). Dis- 
 covery of Madeira, 1119. Cape Lojador doubled, 1439; and Cape 
 Verd, 1446. Discovery of the Azores 1448; the Cape Verd islands, 
 1449; St. Tiiomas nnd Annobon, 1471; Congo, 1484. From tlie.?e 
 discoveries resulted the experimental jonrnry of Covillam over land to 
 India and I'.lhiopia. Tlie Cape of Good Hope reached by Barth. Diaz, 
 1486; and iinally doubled by Vasco dc Gama, 1498, in the reign ot' 
 Emanuel tlie Great. Tiiis navigator proceeded by ]\rozaml)i(pie to 
 Lidia, landed in Calient, ami made tlie, fir.-t settlement in Cociiin. — All 
 the countries which I'orttigal might discover beyond Cape Bojador had 
 been matle over to the crown by a bull of Sixtus IV. in 1481. 
 
 (). The Portuguese dominion in India, comprising the 
 eastern coast of Africa, and extending to the penin.sula of 
 Malacca and the Moluccas, was surr;)unded and organized 
 by a chain of fortresses and factories ; it found, however, a 
 still bf'tter protection in the divided state of the country, for 
 the native princes being at once numerous and disunited, it 
 was easy to keep them dependent by embroiling them with 
 
From 1.T05 till 
 loOy. 
 
 PART 1.] ORIGIN OF COLONIES, 1492—1515. 27 
 
 each other. But thoup-h sucli advantages were doubtless of 
 importance, it was to the noble spirit and to the immense 
 authority, both military and civil, of the first 
 viceroys — of Almeida, and still more of the great 
 Albuquerque, — that the possibility of founding tisin. 
 such an empire must be attributed. 
 
 The central point of their dominion after the year 1510, was Goa, 
 and there the regency was fixed. The other principal stations were 
 J.Iozambique. Sofala, and Melinda on the coast of Africa, frorn 1508; 
 Muscat and Ormus in the Persian Gulf, 1515; Diu and Damaim in 
 the Deccan, 1533 ; Cochin, etc., on the MaUxbar coasts, which was 
 wholly dependent on them ; Xegapatam and Meliapur on that of Coro- 
 mandel ; and from 1511, Malacca on the peninsula of that name. In 
 the same year (1511) the Spice (or Molucca) Islands were discovered, 
 and settlements VN'ere subsequently effected in Ternate and Tidor. 
 
 7. It is true that the Portuguese trade with India was 
 not monopolized by any particular company, but it was not 
 the less, although indirectly, a monopoly of the crown. It 
 professed to be open to all Portuguese, but traders Vv'ere 
 obliged to obtain permission of the government, and to it 
 was intrusted the arrangement as well as the protection of 
 navigation ; besides this, certain of the principal branches 
 of commerce were reserved to the crown. In this error lay 
 the seeds of ruin, which could not fail ultimately to take 
 place ; yet so long as it was possible to bring all Europe to 
 Lisbon, as the chief and only market of Indian produce, the 
 commerce seemed to feel none of its effects. 
 
 The East Indian trade of the Portuguese embraced : 1st, the local 
 trade, which was attached to particular marts ; ilalacca, for the distant 
 parts of India ; jNIuscat, for Arabia and Egypt ; Ormus, for the conti- 
 nent of Asia. This led to important relations between the African 
 countries wliich produced gold and slaves, and the more fertile lands of 
 India. — The trade was monopolized by the rulers in India. 2ndly, The 
 traffic between Europe and India, conducted by fleets fitted out by the 
 government, having for its principal commodities pepper and other 
 spices, cotton and silken stuffs, together with pearls, and light articles 
 of native manufacture. The mode of commerce adopted by the Portu- 
 guese in Europe, did not allow of the transport of goods from port to 
 port in their own vessels. Foreigners were obliged to come to Lisbon 
 and carry them away themselves. This led to consequences injurious 
 to the Portuguese shipping, and awakened competition. 
 
 Asia de Joao de Barros, with the continuations of other hands, 
 Lisboa, 1552, and the Ilistoire des Conqiietcs des Porfrtr/nis, par Lafi- 
 TAU, Paris, 1732, etc., contain full accounts of the Portuguese conquests 
 in India ; but notwithstanding the exertiono of llaynal and tlie com- 
 
28 GKNKUAL HI:MAUKS, 1015—1550. [pehiod i. 
 
 ]iili»rrt of the ."Jotli vol. of the Alli). JViUhislorie, the history of tlioir 
 liitliaii coniintTi'i' is still very insullicicnt. The first successful attempt 
 to supply this (Icra-iciu'y was made in — 
 
 (icscliichtv drs J^or/itfficsisr/irn Ciilnnlalwrsrus in Ostiiid'uii, von 
 FiMKDiucii Saai.1 Ki.i>. Goltingeii, 1810. AVith a careful reference to 
 all the authorities. 
 
 1). W. Sol.TAt', drsr/iic/ifc dtr Entdcchungrn itnd Kroherunycn dir 
 Vortuiju'scn im Orinit nucli Di; Daimjos. Th. I. II., 1821. The wliule 
 to consist of live parts. 
 
 8. Altliouj^li \\Q liiivc chiofly dwolt upon tho East Indian 
 colonics of Portugal, she had othcr.s though of less import- 
 ance. These consisted of settlements: 1st, on the western 
 coast of Africa, which were of little note till a later period, 
 when they became valuable from the slave trade : 2ndly, on 
 the coasts of Brazil, which had been discovered and occu- 
 pied by Cabral, although the exportation of a ^iiw Jews and 
 convicts formed but a sori'v foundation of a colony. 
 
 SFXOND PERIOD. From lolo to looG. 
 
 1. The following period is distinguished from the last by 
 the more mighty rulers and more important events to which 
 it gave birth. In Charles ^'. modern Euro})e beheld for 
 the first time a statesman on the throne ; and a statesman 
 of a very different cast from that to which the trickster Fer- 
 dinand belonged. His activity extended alike to religious 
 and to secular interests, and thus gave a tone of dignity to 
 politics not altogether free from selfishness. The Spaniards 
 and the Germans, the Netherlanders and the Italians, ac- 
 knowledged for their ruler one in whom the character of all 
 appeared to be happily blended. On the other hand, Fran- 
 cis I. belonged ])eculiarly to his own nation. In him 
 I'rance saw an epitome of itself; and therein, although he 
 kn(!w it not, lay the secret of his power. Solyman the 
 Magnificent bore his part among the re.st, althougli with the 
 sword rather than the pen ; the latter, however, was a 
 weapon wIio,v(» value he soon learnt to appreciate. Under 
 princes of tiiis stamp the relations ot" the existing states to 
 each other became more clearly ascertained, and the prac- 
 tice of politics acquired some regularity in its forms. The 
 two principal causes of this were : 1st, the growing rivalry 
 
PART r.] RIVALRY OF FRANCE AND SPAIN, 1515—1556. 29 
 
 of France and Spain ; and 2ndly, the Reformation, in its 
 political character. The affairs of each of these must be 
 treated of separately ; for although they occurred at the 
 same time, yet as Charles and Francis were both opposed to 
 the Reformation, the transactions to which this gave rise 
 must have had altoo-ether a different orig-in. 
 
 1. History of the Rivalry heticeen France and Spain during 
 
 this period. 
 
 History of the Emperor Charles V., by Robertsox. 3 vols. London, 
 1769. In tlie German translation of Eemer, Bruns-nack, 1792, the 
 first and introductory part is entirely remodeled, and the value of this 
 truly classical work increa,?ed. 
 
 Histoire de Frangois Premier, roi de France, par J.I. Gaillaed. 
 7 vols. Paris, 1769. 
 
 3Iemoires de Mart, et Quill. Bellay Langley, mis en nouveau style, 
 etc., par M. l'Abbe Lasibert. 7 vols. Paris, 17o3. They extend from 
 1513 — 1547. The Paris edition of 1569, fol. is in the original style. 
 
 The Istoria d Italia von GuicciARorNi, from the fifteenth book. 
 
 2. The rivaliy of France and Spain claimed no deter- 
 minate system of policy for its parent : it arose from the 
 circumstances and passions of the day. To its consequences, 
 however, we must look for the establishment of political 
 principles, (properly so called,) since from it arose the 
 practical adoption of the theory of a balance of power, and 
 witli it the character which this system has since borne. In 
 its immediate origin it was a continuation of the Italian 
 contests ; because the desire, then so prevalent, of a doubt- 
 ful and temporary superiorit}^, was theoretically associated 
 with the sovereignty of these countries. The successful 
 attempt of Francis I. to recover Milan from the Swiss and 
 from Alaximilian Sforza, prepared the way even before the 
 accession of Charles V. 
 
 Attack of Francis I. on Milan, after renewing the alliance with 
 Venice, and decisive battle of Marignano, 13th and 14th Sept., 1515. 
 Duke ]\Iaximilian resigns his country for a pension ; Genoa and the 
 Pope assents. The treaty soon after concluded with the Swiss (a pre- 
 face to the more durable peace of 29th Nov., 1516) appeared to 
 guarantee the possession of Milan to the French, and give a general 
 security to their influence in Italy. 
 
 3. The death of Ferdinand I. wrought a great change in 
 the affairs of Europe. In Charles V., (of the 
 
 empire, but I. of Spain,) his eldest grandson. 
 
.'50 niVAI.IlY OF FHANCK AND SPAIN, 1515—1506. [rEnioD i. 
 
 proscnt mnstrr of tlio ricli Nctlicrlands, niifl tlio future joint 
 licir to Austria, tlio lioiiso of Ilapsburg' obtaiiu'd possession 
 of tlic uliole Spanisli monarcliy. Tluis tlic fute of Euroj)o 
 lav in the liands of two younfj; nionarclis, of whom one had 
 aln.'ady shown himself a successful warrior, while the other 
 was already contriving how he might conquer, though rather 
 1)V policy than the sword. The treaty of Noyon, however, 
 still maintained peace, but only till a new collision of in- 
 terests rekindled the war. 
 
 Treaty of Noyon, 13th Aug., 1.516. It was merely n delay of the 
 war which its itrovisions, touching Navarre and Naples, made only 
 more certain. 
 
 4. Both princes became candidates for the 
 imperial throne on the death ot Maximilian 1. 
 And as Charles \. was successful, he thus obtained the 
 feudal sovereignty over all those states of Italy that were 
 held as fiefs of the empire, of which Milan was one. Charles's 
 situation, therefore, was exceedingly well calculated to 
 nourish the jealousy and hatred which had already sprung 
 up between the two rivals. 
 
 An estimate of the real value which attached in those days to the 
 imperial tlirone, would show that its importance depended wholly on 
 the character of him who tilled it. It might be very small, it might l>e 
 very great ; for in such a country as Germany, and in an age wiien the 
 wiiole tendency, if not tiie regular design, of jwlitics, was in favour of 
 anihitious aggran<li/.cment, the title of emperor was a blank which might 
 be filled up as the owner best chose it. Tlie authority of the "Golden 
 Ikill," anil the capitulation signed at his election, were in fact the only 
 standard l)v wliicli the relation of the cni])cror to his states could be 
 determine<l. 
 
 G. The union of the two crowns, of Spain and of the em- 
 pire, upon one head, could not but prove dangerous; and 
 that, not only from the extent of territory thus brought to- 
 crether, but from the geogra))hical position of the countries. 
 Touching on a variety of states, every man's quarrel ad- 
 mitted of Charles's interference ; and once being in it, his 
 immense power left no assurance that he would (juit it till it 
 best suited himself The design of universal empire, if by 
 this term we understand, not an immediate dominion over, 
 but the jireponderating authority in Europe, which has been 
 attributed to the house of Ilapsburg, bore at this time so 
 litde of an imaginary character, that it appears rather a 
 
PART i-l RIVALRY OF FRANCE AND SPAIN, lol5— 1556. 31 
 
 necessary consequence of its position. In fact, the striip-gle 
 made by Francis I., although in detail it may seem the re- 
 sult of petty passions and meaner causes, having for its direct 
 object nothing more momentous than a supremacy in Italy, 
 if considered from a higher point of view, was a struggle for 
 freedom and independence. 
 
 Effective power of the two princes. That of Charles V. much 
 diminished by two causes: 1st, by the variety of his relations towards 
 his diiferent states ; in none, not even in Spain, was he wholly unfet- 
 tered : 2ndly, by the constant difficulties which embaiTassed his finance, 
 and the uncertainty wliich attended the payment of his troops ; on this 
 account it often happened that they were so situated as hardly to be 
 called his own. On the other hand, the power of France was : 1st, 
 concentrated, and almost wholly vested in the king ; 2ndly, it was 
 formidable from an organized and native infantry, which supplied the 
 place of mercenaries. A third consideration, however, must limit its 
 efficacy, for Francis I. did not pursue the financial policy of his prede- 
 cessor. 
 
 6. The first war between Francis I. and j-j,^t ^^^^ 
 Charles V. was commenced by the former, and J^^i-i^^- 
 after various fortune, terminated in his defeat and capture 
 at the battle of Pavia. Nevertheless, Charles's endeavours 
 at a partition of France, whether by the plot concerted with 
 Charles of Bourbon, or by his ov/n claims on Burgundy, 
 were not a whit advanced. 
 
 The pretexts for war on either side were as follows : — On the part of 
 Francis : 1st, the restoration of Spanish Xavarre ; 2udly, the claims 
 upon Naples ; 3rdly, the feud of Robert de la ]Mark, in Avhich Francis, 
 as his feudal sovereign, had taken an interest. Ou the side of Charles : 
 his claims on iNlilan, as a fief of the empire ; and on Burgundy, as un- 
 justly taken possession of by Louis XL — Each strengthened himself by 
 aUiances : Charles, with Henry VIII. of England and the Pope ; Fran- 
 cis, with Venice, and with the Swiss, by a renewal of his former treaty, 
 5th ^'lay, 1521, according to which a free right of levy was granted. 
 The battle of Bicocca, April 22, 1522 ; and the French, under the 
 command of Lautrec, and the court favourite Bonnivet, wholly driven 
 out of Italy, 1523. Milan, as an imperial fief, granted by Charles to 
 Francis Sforza, younger son of Ludovico Sforza (f 1531) ; but the gift 
 was merely nominal. The imperialists, unsuccessful in their attack on 
 Provence, July — Sept., 1524. Francis I. crosses the Alps in person. 
 Siege and battle of Pavia, Feb. 24, 1525. His defeat, capture, and 
 conveyance to Madrid. 
 
 7. The victory at Pavia appeared to constitute Charles 
 V. master of Italy and arbiter of Europe ; yet he became 
 neither the one nor the other. The interior organization of 
 
32 HlVAl.KY OF FUANfi; AM) SPAIN, KMC— i:.OG. [lEnioD I. 
 
 liis armv was of mure efVcct in liindoriii^ liim from tlic con- 
 duct of anv preat sclicine, than tlie awakened jealousy of 
 eitlicr HnjLiland or tlic States of Italy. 'J'liis Francis knew, 
 and consecjuently tlic treaty of peace at Madrid bron<;lit 
 Charles only promises, against which the maker of them 
 jiad already entered his secret protest. 
 
 Treaty of Madritl, 14th Jan., lo2G. Its conditions: 1st, that France 
 slioulil renounce all claims on Italy ; as also, 2n(lly, on tiie sovereignty 
 of Flanders and Artois ; ;3rdly, that tlie duchy of Burgundy should be 
 cetled to diaries ; 4thly, tliat Francis shouhl give his two sons as host- 
 ages, and marry Eleanor, the emperor's sister. 
 
 8. A second war between these two princes 
 
 Socnnd wur, •111 T 1 
 
 isOT-isi.. became thus unavoidable, its theatre was as 
 before in Italy, but more esjiccially in Naples. This, too, 
 turned a<xains't Francis, notwithstanding his English and 
 Italian alliances. The peace of Cambray, in return for the 
 total loss of Italy and a breach of faith with his allies there, 
 brought him nothing but a promise from Charles to delay 
 for awhile the putting in force his claims on Burgundy. 
 
 Secret treaty between Francis I., the Pope, Venice, and the duke of 
 Milan, concluded at Cognac, ]\Iay 22, 1526. Henry VIII. induced by 
 great promises to join it. A quarrel between the emperor and the 
 Pope, which, to the great scandal of Christendom, leads to the surprisal 
 and sack of R(»me, May 6, 1.527, by Charles of Bourbon at the head of 
 the imperial troops, although without any such design on the part of the 
 emperor. The Pope was besieged in the castle of St. Angelo, and 
 obliged to capitulate. Tiic deliverance of the Pope became a good ex- 
 cuse, not only for uniting the allies more strongly, but actually for send- 
 ing an army into Italy, under Lautrec, to advance the claims of France 
 upon Naples. Siege of the city of Naples from April to August, 1528 ; 
 but the breaking out of the plague, and the defection of Doria, renders 
 it iinsuccessful. Followed l)y negotiations and a truce, June 15, 1528; 
 and the peace of Cambray, August, 1529. In this peace Henry VIII. 
 was included, Clement VII. having secured his safety by a previous 
 and separate treat v, June 20. This peace threw the emperor's claims 
 upon Burgundy into abeyance, and drew from him the voluntary re- 
 lease of the French princes, on the same terms as those agreed on at 
 Madrid. 
 
 y. The consequences of this second war were such as to 
 extend the emperor's power in Italy, while his 
 
 Feb. »1, l.->30. • 1 • • • 1 , 1 i-k 1 
 
 reconciliation with the rope and coronation at 
 Bolo'jrna also helj^Hl to confirm it. To Italy itsf^lf, they 
 brought, 1st, the establishment of an hereditary dukedom 
 
PART 1.1 RIVALRY OF FRANCE AND SPAIN, 1515—1556. S3 
 
 ill Florence ; and 2nclly, the constitution of Genoa as it has 
 since stood. 
 
 The change at Florence was brought about by the treaty between the 
 Pope and the emperor, according to which the Medici (who had been 
 expelled Florence by an insurrection which took place during the 
 Eoman wars of 1527) were restored, and Alexander, a blood-relation of 
 the Pope, recognised as first hereditary prince. — The revolution in Ge- 
 noa, 1528, was the work of Andrew Doria, Avho passed over from the 
 French to the imperial side. Nor was the mere revolution all his work, 
 for he strengthened the liberties and secured the principles then estab- 
 lished by the introduction of a powerful family aristocracy. 
 
 10. But while the west of Southern Europe was taken 
 up by the contest of its two principal powers, the east also 
 became a partner in the strife. Solyman II. had converted 
 his wild projects for the total subjection of Christendom, into 
 an alliance with France : a measure to which he was in- 
 duced by the interests of his empire — threatened as he held 
 them to be by the enforcement of the claims of the house of 
 Hapsburg on Hungary and Bohemia, after the death of 
 Louis II. at Mohatsch. 
 
 The Turkish system of conquest had been much altered by SoljTnan 
 II. since 1519. Under his predecessor, Selim I., it had been directed 
 against Persia and Egypt, but the present sultan, after the conquest of 
 Belgrade, 1521, brought his whole force against Hungary. King Louis 
 II. was defeated and slain at jMohatsch, Aug. 29, 1526. On his death 
 the ci-own was disputed by Ferdinand and John Zapolya ; and Soly- 
 man, on whose protection the latter threw himself, found no difficulty 
 in making himself master of Hungary. This conquest, 1529, led to an 
 unsuccessful attack on Vienna, which was, however, compensated by 
 the subjection of Moldavia. The alliance with France now gradually 
 forming, gives evidence of a more liberal knowledge of policy in the 
 Porte, however just may have been the apprehensions which such ' a 
 scandal in Christendom ' could not but create in those days. 
 
 11. Formidable as were the land forces of the Turk, 
 Western Europe appeared to have had more cause of fear 
 in his navy. The conquest of Rhodes had given him the 
 dominion of the Mediterranean, and thus left the shores of 
 Italy and Spain defenceless ; while the piratical powers, 
 which under the protection of the Porte were forming on 
 the coast of Africa, threatened, in spite of the feeble oppo- 
 sition of the Knights of Rhodes, now established in Malta, 
 wholly to annihilate their prosperity. 
 
 The island of Rhodes conquered from the Knights of St. John, after 
 a stubborn resistance, 1522. The order transferred to the island rock 
 
 D 
 
^4 HIVALIIY or FHANrK AND SPAIN, 1515— l.VV,. ( rr.RioD i. 
 
 (if Malta, which it rccciveil ofChaHcs V. as sovcrcifrn of Naplt'", lo.'JO; 
 mill wliirli it hi-M as u fcmlal ilcpcinlciiry of the ein|iirc, on coiulilion of 
 war with the iiiliihl. 'I'lic power of tlie Porte was cstiihlislK'il on the 
 north roast of Africa, wliich liail till then belonj;e<l in part to the Arabs, 
 and partly to Spain, by tlu! eoncpiests of the two pirates Iloriie and 
 Hy radin llarbarossa. The former possessed himself of Al;iiers, 1517 ; 
 and was snccceded by his brother Ilyradin, who sulimitteil voluntarily 
 to the Porte, was appointed captain-general of its navy, and took Tunis, 
 lo.'Jl. The reeonquest of Tunis by Charles V. in lo3o, was so far 
 from annihilating the power of the pirates, that it did not even diminish 
 it to any extent ; and for this the capture of Tripoli, (which witli Malta 
 had been intrusted to the Knights of St. John,) by another pirate, 
 named Dragut, in lool, and the recapture of Tunis, gave suHicient 
 evideuce. Add to this that Kgyjit had been subject to tiie Porte, lol7, 
 and it will be seen that ncai'ly the whole northern coast of Africa be- 
 longed to that power. 
 
 Thiniwnr. ^ ~- Tlic ciiuscs of tlic third war betwccu 
 
 i53i-i.-as. Cliailcs and Fraucis, were furnished by the arti- 
 cles of the peace of Camhray. I'^raiicis could not bear the 
 loss of Italy, more particularly Milan, and he determined 
 on war, although his efforts to gain allies were generally in- 
 effectual. The execution of Maraviglia in Milan, furnished 
 a pretext, and the death of the last Sforza, which occurred 
 soon aft(M*, new claims and new expectations. 
 
 Ineffectual endeavours of the king to gain over Henry VIII. and the 
 Protestants of Germany. Alliance with Clement VII. by the marriage 
 of his second son, the duke of Orleans, to Catharine de i\Iedici, niece of 
 the former. This union, though it did not lead to the results expected, 
 in consequence of the death of Clement, (Sept. 25, 1534,) proved after- 
 wards of much importance. But the alliance with the Porte, first ef- 
 fected by Laforest, loJio, in Feb. of that year, uuJor the form of a com- 
 mercial treaty, was now openly avowed. 
 
 13. Italy, as before, was the chief, although not the only 
 theatre of the war. The seizure of Savoy and Piedmont by 
 Francis, did not prevent an irnij^tion of the emperor upon 
 the soutii of France; although his precautions rendered it 
 unavailing. Neither of the subsequent contests in Pied- 
 mont or Picardy were decisive, but the formidable advances 
 of Solyman in Hungary hastened the truce of Nice, which 
 was concluded by the mediation of Pope Paul III., although 
 without the knowledge or consent of Solyman. 
 
 The conquest of Savoy, 1535, just as Charles was returning from the 
 concpiest t>f Tunis, nnist have been doubly disagreeable to him, as the 
 duke of that country was his brother-in-law and ally. — The deatli of 
 Francis Sforza, the hist prince of this house, which threw Milan open 
 
PART 1.] RIVALRY OF FRANCE AND SPAIN, 1515—1556. 35 
 
 again as a fief of the empire, and an object of ambition to Francis for 
 bis son the duke of Orleans, took place Oct. 24, 1535. The emperor's 
 attack upon Savoy rendered ineffectual by the defensive warfare of 
 Francis and Montmorency, Aug., 1536. Solyman invades Hungary and 
 gains a battle at Esseg, 1537, while his fleet ravages the coasts of Italy. 
 Congress between the emperor, the king, and the Pope, effected at Nice, 
 and a ten years' truce agreed to, June 18, 1538. The conditions : each 
 to hold what he had got, (this gave Francis well nigh all Savoy and 
 Piedmont,) and their respective claims to undergo the further investiga- 
 tion of the Pope. — Therefore the feudal investment of ]\Iilan remained 
 undetermined, although the king had some hopes of it for his younger son. 
 
 14. We cannot wonder that the truce concluded under 
 such circumstances, should be shortened from ten to four 
 years' duration, although the apparent confidence of the 
 two monarchs gave a better promise. The train once 
 lighted could not be stayed; and the hatred of Francis ac- 
 quired new force from the long suspense and final disap- 
 pointment of his hopes. Neither party, however, was pre- 
 pared for immediate action ; Francis had broken off his 
 alliance both with England and the Porte ; and Charles, 
 involved in religious disputes, (see below,) and at war with 
 the Turk, had enough business on his hands to make a few 
 years' truce desirable, even had he not been forced to it by 
 the state of his finances. 
 
 The contest with the Turk touched two points: 1st, Hungary; to 
 lialf of which the emperor laid claim on the ground rf an agreement 
 between Archduke Ferdinand, and the then (Feb. 24, 1538) childless 
 John Zapolya, by which the former was declared heir to that portion of 
 Hungary possessed by the latter. A few days, however, before his 
 death, (July 27, 1540,) Zapolya had a son born, Avhom he named his 
 successor ; and Solyman, as guardian of this child, had gained a victory 
 over the Germans, and taken possession of Offen the capital, and the 
 greater part of Hungary. 2ndly, the pirate states of Africa, especially 
 Algiers. — The emperor's second African expedition, 1541, rendei'ed 
 wholly unavailing by a dreadful storm shortly after his landing. 
 
 15. The refusal of the fief of Milan deter- Fourth war 
 mined the king to a fourth war, and the murder 1542-1544.' 
 of his ambassadors in their passage through that state fur- 
 nished the pretext. This war was of a more extensive na- 
 ture than any of the preceding, for the king succeeded not 
 only in renewing his alliance with the sultan and with Ve- 
 nice, but in joining to them the duke of Cleve and the states 
 of Denmark, and even Sweden, although the two latter alli- 
 ances led to no results. On the other hand, the emperor 
 
 D 2 
 
;3() inVAI.UY OF FRANCE AND SPAIN, I.'jIO— IWG. [pehiod i. 
 
 inducrd Henry of England to a Icanuo and a common 
 assault <»n IVanre ; and yet the j)eace of ('resj)y \vas con- 
 cluded witliout any one party having attained the object lor 
 uhich it had engaged in the war. 
 
 Murder of Francis's two plenij)otontiarics to Venice and the Porto, in 
 the territory of Mihin, July .']ril, 1541. The French, chan^jinp: their 
 ])hin of warfare, confine it to defensive measures in Italy, while tliey in- 
 vade the Nitiierlands an<l Koussillon with several armies in 1542 and 
 1543, l)ut witliout any j)ernianent advantafre. Alliance of Charles with 
 Henry VIII., (who had heen olVendeil hy the marriage of James V. 
 of Scotland to Mary of Guise,) Illh Feb., 1543: its object the attack and 
 partition of France, the duke of C'leve being meantime forced to sub- 
 mit. — Francis renews his league with Solyman, 1543 ; which is followed 
 uj) bv the concjuest of what remaini-il of Hungary, and an irruj)tion into 
 Austria, while the Turkish Heet united with the French besieges Nice. 
 Contemporary invasion of France by the emperor (notwithstanding the 
 French victory at Cerisoles, 14tli April, 1544) by Lorraine, and of the 
 king of Fngland by Calais (June to Sept., 1544). Their whole ]>lan, 
 however, was frustrated, partly by discord among themselves, jiartly l)y 
 the judicious position of the French force, and partly by the court in- 
 trigues and i)rivate relations of the emperor in Germany, which led to 
 a .separate j)eace between him and Francis, concluded at Crespy the 
 18th Sej)t., 1544. Its conditions: 1st, that the duke of Orleans should 
 receive Milan as a dowry with one of the imperial princesses ; (this 
 article became null by the death of the young prince, 8th Sept., 1545, 
 on which Charles V. conferred the fief on his own son Philip ;) 2ndly, 
 that Francis should resign his claims on Naples, and his feudal sove- 
 reignty over Flanders and Artois, and Charles do the same by Bur- 
 gundy. The war with England was carried on till 1546, owing to the 
 angry feelings of Henry; but after the taking of Boulogne, 1546, it 
 never produced any event of con-sequencc. 
 
 16. The peace of Crespy put a period to the wars be- 
 tween the two rivals. Charles was too busy with plans of 
 ambition in ricrniany ; and the enterprises of Francis I. 
 and Henry \ 111. were .soon put an end to by death. Under 
 Henry H., the son and successor of Francis, hostilities were 
 continued with Charles V., ncHwithstandinQ- the internal dis- 
 turbances of his reign. The war, however, which he waged 
 with the emperor, arose from the transactions in Germany, 
 and, therefore, properly belong to the following section. 
 
 Death of Henry VHI., 2Sth Jan. ; of Francis I., 21st March, 1547. 
 
 17. The consequences of this struggle were alike im- 
 portant to France itself, and to the European political 
 system in general : 1st, the practical application of the 
 principles of a balance of power was established by tlie 
 
PART I.] RIVALRY OF FRANCE AND SPAIN, 1515— 155G. 37 
 
 counterpoise and opposition of the two principal states of 
 the continent. 
 
 2ndly, the aUiance of France with tlie Turks, the state of 
 aflairs in Hungary, and the participation, however shght, 
 of England in these wars, brought the whole of Southern 
 Europe into a closer connexion than had before existed be- 
 tween them. 
 
 3rdly, although France had failed in its attempt at the 
 sovereignty of Italy, it had prevented its own dismember- 
 ment, and secured its independence. 
 
 And 4thly, the projects of Charles V. w^ere but half ac- 
 complished, for though he obtained a predominance over 
 Italy and Germany, he never did over France. 
 
 Was the loss of the pi'edominance in Italy really a loss to France ? 
 True it is that she had great need of influence in that quarter ; 1st, on 
 account of her ecclesiastical relations with the Pope, and 2ndly, for the 
 protection of her south-east frontiers from tlie duke of Savoy. But we 
 may fairly ask, whether possessions in the country, whether a fixed 
 dominion was necessary ? Indeed we may further ask, whether any 
 foreign nation possessing these advantages, ever drew any profit from 
 them, however convenient they may have been to its rulers? 
 
 II. Political view of ihe Reformation, from its origin, 1517, 
 to the religious peace of\bbb. 
 
 JoANXis Sleida^tt de statu religionis et reijmblicce Carolo V., Cce- 
 sare commentarii, looo. The latest edition (enriclied with notes) of 
 this work, equally classical in form and material, is that of Frankfort, 
 1785, 3 vols. 8vo. 
 
 [There is a French translation, with notes by Lecourayer. 3 vols. 
 4to. La Hague, 1767.] 
 
 Geschichte des protestantischen Lehrhegriffs vom Anfange der Re- 
 formation bis zur Eiufuhrung der Concordienformel, von D. G. J. 
 'Planck. Leipzig, 1781 — 1800. 6 vols. 8vo. To this branch of the 
 subject belong the three first volumes, which comprehend also the 
 political history down to the religious peace. 
 
 Christliche Kirchcngeschichte seit der Reformation, von. J. IM. 
 ScHKOCKir. 1804. 10 parts. The two first parts contain more particu- 
 larly the political history, the first, that of the Eeformation in Germany, 
 down to the religious peace ; the second, that of other countries. 
 
 Geschichte der Reformation in Deutschkind, von C. L. AVoltmaxx. 
 Altona, 1801. 3 vols. 8vo. The history is brought down to 15o3. 
 
 Essai sur VEsprit, et V Influence de la Riformation de EufJier, par. 
 Cii. ViLLERS. 3™" ed. Paris, 1808, 8vo. No explanation of tliis im- 
 portaiit subject is more eloquent or comprehensive than tliat of JM. 
 
 ViLLERS. 
 
38 Till-: HKl-OHMATIOX, l')17— 1556. (ii-nioD i. 
 
 I'.iittrirhtliDifi ilrr jinliliscJiin Juih/ni dir Ikiformtidiiii fiir T.iirnpn; 
 rontaiiii'il in tin* lir.-<t |)urt of IIkkkkn's Misccllaiicoiis Ilistoiii-iil W'lit- 
 iiijr!^, (llisToKisciiK WiatKi;, vol. i.,) arnl joined to this translation. 
 
 1. '\\\v iininenso influonco of tlic Rcformntion aro.se, 
 (Xoiicrally sjx'akiiijj;, from tlio nature oftlic iiitcTOsts allcctcrl 
 l)y it, for llipse wero of as nuicli importance to tlie peoj)le 
 i\9. to the rulers. Had siicli not been the case, tlie com- 
 motion it raised could never have been so c;eneral or so 
 lasting-. The intermixture of religion and politics was un- 
 avoidable, becau.se the attacks of its authors were directed 
 not onlv airainst errors of doctrine, but a<rainst the nsuri)- 
 ation of an hierarchy, which had deeply interwoven itselr 
 with the administration and constitution of every state of 
 Europe. 
 
 The Reformation, as an inniiediatc attack upon the power of the 
 Pope, wa.s directed a;rainst a .'Structure already tottering and nndcr- 
 inined, but not overthrown ; undermined by the los.s of it.s chief support 
 — public ojtinion ; tottering from the etlect of the Italian wars, and by 
 the recognition, at an earlier period, of the supreme authority of general 
 councils. The question, whether the authority of the Popes would have 
 been overthrown without the aid of the Reformation, is not within tlie 
 province of our history ; but allowing that it would, we must still link 
 to the Reformation for that mighty impulse which it gave to the human 
 intellect, and which was at the same time one of its greatest and most 
 beneficial conseriucnce.s. 
 
 2. The Reformation fir.'^t broke out in Germany, and in 
 Germany it first assumed its political character, through the 
 interest taken in it bv the diilerent sxovernments of that 
 country. 'I'Ik; ])()ints, then, on which its })olitical history 
 turns, are the following: 1st, which of the princes espoused 
 it, why did they do so, and in what maimer? 2ndlv, in 
 what maimer and to what extent did they unite in forming 
 the party which was opposed to the emperor ? 3rdly, what 
 were the views, and what were the measures, adopted by 
 the emperor in his opposition to it? 4thly, and lastlv, how 
 came the parties en<j:!iL;ed to a formal rupture, and how was 
 the matter finally arranged ? — A glance will show that these 
 questions cannot be answered without general acquaintance 
 with the political state of Germany at that period. 
 
 The great distinction between the internal relations of Oermany, then 
 and now, consisted in the very ilillercnt jiroportion which the power of 
 the cities bore to that of the princes : for, 1st, the cities in the south 
 and north of Germany, which enjoyeil either total or partial freedom, 
 
TART i.l THE REFORMATION, 1517—1555. 89 
 
 were by far most numerous. 2nclly, tlieir internal wealth, and conse- 
 quently their political influence, was much more considerable, ordly, 
 their power was increased and concentrated by the Hanseatic league in 
 the north, and more particularly by the Suabian confederacy in the 
 south. 4thly, their city militia and mercenaries were naturally of more 
 importance in the general absence of standing armies. On the other 
 hand, the power of the princes was not only actually diminislied, but 
 stood every chance of further diminution from the system still in Ibrce, 
 of internal subdivisions. 
 
 The more important electoral and royal houses at the commencement 
 of the Reformation, were : — 
 
 1. The Saxon ; divided into the elder and electoral branch of Er- 
 nest, and the younger and ducal of Albert. The former, represented 
 by the elector, Frederic the Wise, (f 1525,) possessed the electoral cir- 
 cle, with Wittenburg as its capital, almost the whole landgraviate of 
 Thuringia, and some other domains. The latter, under Duke Geoi'ge, 
 (f 1539,) the opponent of Luther, held the landgraviate of Meissen, 
 with a portion of Thuringia. 
 
 2. That of Brandenburg. The electoral line under the elector Jo- 
 achim I., (f 1535,) was in possession of the margraviate of Branden- 
 burg, (a new and electoral district,) and some smaller principalities. 
 The margraviate of Franconia was divided between the families of Culm- 
 bach and Anspach. 
 
 3. The Palatine, (or elder of Wittelsbach,) which was divided into 
 the electoral line under Lewis V. {'\ 1544) ; to which belonged the elec- 
 torate on tlie Rhine ; and the Simmern, which was again divided into 
 those of Simmern and Zweibriich, and the latter again into those of 
 Zweibriich and Veldenz. 
 
 4. The Bavarian (or younger of the "VVittelsbach line). Notwith- 
 standing tlie right of primogeniture, introduced 1508, Bavaria was 
 divided between Duke "William VI. (| 1550) and his brother Lewis; 
 but was reunited after the death of the latter, 1545, and has remained 
 so ever since. 
 
 5. That of Brunsvst:ck. It was at that period divided between tlie 
 two principal branches : 1st, that of the lower line of Lunenburg, which 
 possessed Lunenburg and Celle, and which from 1520 had been under 
 Duke Ernest, the founder of the two younger families (f 1546). Tliis 
 embraced the two collateral branches of Plarbui-g and Gif horn. 2ndly, 
 that of the lower branch of Bnniswick, or Wolfenblittel, which was 
 again divided into two, of which the one under Duke Henry the younger, 
 the opponent of the Reformation, held Wolfenbiittel, the other, under 
 Duke Erich I., Calenburg and Gcittingen. Besides these there Avas still 
 a branch of the ancient Brunswick family in Grubenhagen. 
 
 6. The Hessian. This house was undivided under Philip Magna- 
 nimus, (| 1567,) and therefore one of tlie most powerful. 
 
 7. That of Mecklenburg, was likewise at first undivided under 
 Henry the Peaceable (tl552) and Albert (f 1547). 
 
 8. That of Wirtejiberg, which was raised in 1495 from the dignity 
 of a county to that of a dukedom. It was indeed undivided ; but its 
 restless duke, Ulrich, having been driven from his territories ])y the Sua- 
 bian league, 1519, was only restored in 1534 by the compact of Cadan. 
 
40 Tlii: UKroKMATIOX. 1517 — 15r>5. [period i. 
 
 {). TImt of IJahkn, iinitod while umlrr the inarprave Cliri.stoplier, 
 was in lo27 divided into llie lines of IJadcn and Diirlaeh. 
 
 10. Anionp the more powerful houst-s, whieh have since become to- 
 tallv extinct, were the ducal house of 1\)Mi:uama, undivided under lio- 
 jrislaus the Great, till 1.^2.'?, when it was divided into Wol;.'a.st and 
 Sttttin ; and the house of C'l.KVK, to which heloiiped Jidius, Berg, and 
 Kavenslterfr, remained undivided under John III. (f lljlii)). But even 
 in the j)rincipalitics which remained entire, much depended upon the 
 existence of i)rothers or near kinsmen, whose relations to the ruling 
 prince were not so clearly defined then as they have been in later times. 
 
 3. TIio .surnnions of Luther, and his appear- 
 ^ ' ancc before llie (het of M onus, t;ave liis cause, 
 
 ah'eady a matter of interest to the people and to the cliurch, 
 its new character of an ati'air of state. Here, too, his })ro- 
 scription by tlie emperor, and the undisguised partiahty 
 sliown to liim by the princes of his own and other countries, 
 laid the foundation of future divisions in the empire. 
 
 The causes which induced Charles to declare against Luther, were 
 doubtless more connected with politics than with religion. They formed 
 no part of any extensive plan, Init arose merely from his position as De- 
 fender of the Church, and from a sense, then very common, of the need 
 lie had of the Pope's friendship. From the first, however, the political 
 part of the Reformation had the most important interests for him, al- 
 though the two wars with France, which followed close upon its com- 
 mencement, joined with other causes in making his plans of profiting 
 by it gradual. 
 
 Proscription of Luther and his followers by the edict of "Worms, ^lay 
 2G, which pledges the emperor as to his future conduct. 
 
 4. The next followinp: years, while they spread tiie new 
 doctrines with signal success in many parts of Ger- 
 manv, especially Hesse and Saxony, and thus cre- 
 ated a ferment of ideas such as had never before been known, 
 and which the invention of printing served materially to 
 keej) alive, produced two events, the war of the peasants, 
 and the secularization of Prussia, which opened the eyes of 
 the European powers to its political tendency. 
 
 The war of the peasants originated in Suabia, lo24 ; and spread into 
 Thuringia, where it was kindled by Thomas Miinzer, but the battle of 
 Frankeidiausen ])ut an end to it. May lo, 1.525. 
 
 The question of, how far this insurrection was really caused by the 
 Keformation, is not nearly of so much importance to history, as that of, 
 how far it appeared to have done so. For on this apparent connexion 
 between them, manv cr)nsequences depended, and lead us to the other 
 question of, how far it might have been avoided. 
 
 Vcrstirh citicr Gesrlikhte (frs Dcutsrhcn liatiernhricgs, von G. Sau- 
 T0R1U9. Berlin. 179;>. 
 
PART I.] THE KEFORMATIOX, 1517—1535. 41 
 
 5. The secularization of Prussia, which had belonged to 
 the Teutonic order from the middle of the thirteenth cen- 
 tury, gave an example by which other ecclesiastical princes 
 might readily profit. Indeed when we consider the anxiety 
 which had been already awakened by the sequestration of 
 church property ; a measure by the way from which the 
 German princes in general drew little personal profit, for 
 they applied its proceeds to more noble purposes ; we may 
 understand what a sensation the loss of a whole country 
 must of necessity have caused at Rome. 
 
 The grand master of tlie order, Albert of Brandenburg, raises himself 
 to the hereditary dukedom of Pi'ussia, but as a vassal of Poland, 1525. 
 
 6. These events, joined to the threatening attitude which 
 the battle of Pavia enabled the emperor to assume, led to 
 the first alliances distinguished by a difference of faith ; 
 several Catholic states leagued themselves at Dessau, vrhile 
 the most prominent of the Protestants united at Torgau. 
 These leagues were at first entered into merely for protec- 
 tion, and had no aggressive measures in contemplation. 
 Peace, however, could not have been long preserved in spite 
 of all these securities, had not the plan of a general council 
 afforded some hopes of composing the quarrel. This method 
 proved only of partial success, as a palliative rather than a 
 cure ; but even thus produced much benefit. 
 
 The emperor's determination to carry the edict of "Worms into effect 
 "was well calculated to keep alive dissension. The Catholic electors of 
 Mentz, Brandenbui'g, etc., formed their alliance at Dessau, May, 1525 ; 
 the Protestant party, following the example of Ilesse and electoral 
 Saxony, did the same at Torgau, May 12, 1526. 
 
 A very poor acquaintance with the progress of human affairs will re- 
 strain our astonishment at the uncertain character of these alliances. 
 Of the two parties, however, that of the holders of the new belief re- 
 ceived a powerful impulse from tlie impetuosity of Philip of Hesse ; and 
 even as early as 1528, on the occasion of an alarm, perhaps an idle one, 
 raised by Dr. Pack, chancellor of Saxony under Duke George, sliowed 
 its readiness to act. It appears very doubtful, however, in what way 
 matters could have been arranged with the emperor at the meetings of 
 the diet, had not men's minds been amused by the idea of a free council 
 after the diet of Spires, 1526. 
 
 7. The two next diets were of importance to tlie Protest- 
 ants, that of Spires gave them their name, and that of 
 Augsburg, by the establishment of their articles of belief, 
 
42 THK HKFOHMATION, i:;17— IJ-OO. [rnnioD i. 
 
 sljowed that no iiiprnuity of explanation conld rrroncilo 
 doctrines so oj)j)os('d as those ot" the two parties. And yet, 
 ill spite of the emperor's thiv^ats, and of the new alliance ot 
 the Protestants at JSnialcald, the j)roposcd remedy of delay 
 Avas, by the further inducement of frequent alarms from the 
 'l\n"ks, so adhered to, as to secure the maintenance of jx-ace 
 and of the present state of all'airs till a general council could 
 be summoned. 
 
 Diet heltl at S|)irc>«, loSO, — wliorc, as the evanjijelical party protested 
 agaiii>t the decree which woukl liave stemmed tlie torrent of tlie new 
 doctrines, 19th April, they acquired tl.cir name of Protestants. The 
 diet of Augsburg, and the confession so caUed, date June 2o, 1530. 
 The terms prescribed by the emperor naturally led to the league of 
 Sinalcald, Feb. 27, lo31 ; and the election of Ferdinand as king of 
 Kome gave the Protestants an additional motive for forming it. Never- 
 theless negotiations were renewed and the temporary peace of Nurem- 
 berg concluded, July 23, 1532. By it, however, only the present mem- 
 bers of the league of Smalcald were secure, all future partisans being 
 excluded till the meeting of the council. 
 
 8. This peace would have done little for the prevention 
 of bloodshed, had not the internal condition of the parties 
 and a series of intermediate events conspired to give it 
 effect. In truth, the peace itself contained abundant mate- 
 rials for iutm-e war; and it was only a question who should 
 be the first to employ them b}' an attack on the allies. 
 This question, however, was not easily answered, for it ap- 
 peared doubtful whether it was the duty of the enijieror, or 
 of the Catholic states, or of both. The emperor's hands 
 were scarcely free of the Turks, (see p. 35,) when he became 
 engaged in the restoration of Ulrich duke of ^^'irtemberg, 
 and the Anabaptist war of Miinster, besides the expedition 
 against Tunis, (see p. 34,) all which conspired to keep 
 him cn)ploycd, till his third war with Francis, 
 when the efforts of the latter, although ineffect- 
 ual, to gain over the allies of Smalcald to his interests, made 
 it as dangerous as it had previously been inconvenient to 
 attack them. 
 
 If the forcible restoration of Duke Ilrich of "Wjrtemberg, by Philip 
 of Ilesse, 1534, rendered the animosity more intense, it, on the other 
 hand, not only strengthened the Protestant party, to wliich Ulricii be- 
 longed, but increased its respectability. The power of the Anabaptists 
 in Miinster, 1534, under John of Leiden, which lasted till the conquest 
 of that city, Jane 24, 1535, presents a phenomenon equally curious to 
 
PART I.] THE REFORMATION, 1517—1555. 43 
 
 the pliilosoplier and politician. — League of Smalcald enlarged and re- 
 newed for ten years, July 10, 1536, when, by the institution of a fixed 
 contingent of men and arms from each of the members, it assumed a 
 firmer shape and a more threatening character. 
 
 9. Even after the restoration of peace with 
 France, the emperor had abundant apology for 
 
 not declaring himself more decidedly, even had he wished 
 it, in the various difficulties and pursuits which either ham- 
 pered or engaged him. The Protestants, on the other hand, 
 had united merely for defence, and were anxious to remain 
 quiet as long as their enemies would allow them. This 
 state of things, however, could not last ; for independently 
 of several minor events, the temporary expedient of a peace 
 appeared to become daily more doubtful from the efforts 
 now really made for the assembling of a council ; — a mea- 
 sure, the accomplishment of which was not likely to satisfy 
 either Charles or his Pi'otestant opponents. Meantime, 
 the complaints from the reformed states, of the partiality of 
 the imperial chamber of justice, furnished an inexhaustible 
 source of discontent. 
 
 Attempts of Pope Paul III. from 1536 to convoke a general council 
 after his own mind, in some city of Italy. He managed also, (in the 
 person of the vice-chancellor Held, the ambassador of the emperor, and 
 the first mover of the sacred league of Nuremberg, June 10, 1538,) that 
 a man should be sent to Germany, who would cordially assist in keep- 
 ing alive the flame. — Henry, duke of Brunswick, was attacked by the 
 allies, 1540, and expelled from his country, 1542. — The attempts of the 
 elector Herman at Cologne, to introduce the Reformation, terminated 
 in his deposition, 1543. 
 
 10. Thus, if we except an occasional disturbance, a va- 
 riety of circumstances combined at once to maintain a 
 general peace, and to keep alive the inducements to a ge- 
 neral war. The question : What political advantages did 
 Charles seek to draw from the religious differences now they 
 presented themselves to liim, and by what method did he 
 propose to attain them ? has been proved to be of great dif- 
 ficulty by the various modes of solution adopted by the best 
 historians. This uncertainty leads to the conclusion, that 
 the emperor was either the deepest politician of that or any 
 other day, or that, and this is perhaps the most probable, he 
 had himself no settled plan. The German policy of Charles 
 was founded upon his notions of the imperial power ; these 
 
44 Tin: HKl'OU.MATION, 1517— 1555. IrF.nioui. 
 
 wore vory vaLiii(% and liis plans noccssarlly corrospondcd 
 ^\ itii tlicni. Wo should form a very erroneous ju(l<j,inent, 
 then, if we were to allow any oceasional intimations, whether 
 of his private conduct, or even of his ollicial acts, as evidence 
 of a settled scheme. The league of Smalcald was the first 
 event which pavi^ his ideas any determinate form ; he saw in 
 it an armed oj)position, and as such, a downright rebellion 
 af^ainst the soverei|^nty of the empire. But then, a<2:ain, it 
 was onlv at a later j)eriod that the league assumed this 
 character. 
 
 As for the total overthrow of the German constitution, the 
 idea was then so foreign to the spirit of the age that it could 
 hardly have been seriously formed. Such acts belong to 
 the times of written, not of prescriptional constitutions : and 
 had such an idea been formed, how, and by what means, 
 was it to be e.'^rt'cuted ? Never was the German nation less 
 disposed for subjection ; her burghers had not yet laid aside 
 the sword, and there were no standing armies to rivet the 
 fetters on her lindis. 
 
 Peace still preserved by several intervening events : the campaign of 
 Charles against Algiers, 1541, and the fmirth war with Francis I. which 
 iuinicdiately ensued, 1542 — 1544 ; again, by the decision of the diet of 
 Katisbon, July 29, 1541, and by tlie threatened Turkish invasion, 
 
 1 1 . The peace of Crespy left the allies unprotect- 
 ed, and gave the signal for war. This was in truth 
 imavoidable, after the refusal of that ])arty to acknowledge the 
 council of Trent : but then it was not directed (as the Pope 
 wished, and thought he had persuaded Charles to direct it) 
 against the states which had been guilty of heresy, but against 
 the confederates of Smalcald, who had imj)ugned the imperial 
 authority. Unfortunately this league was oppressed by all 
 those evils which a league alone can bring together, and 
 even before the battle of ]\Iiihlberg had thrown one chief 
 into captivity, and treachery at Halle the other, there were 
 too many evidences of approaching disunion. 
 
 Tlie council of Trent, which had been convoked in 1542, finally 
 opened Dec. 13, 1545: its very form and it^ first decision renders it 
 impossible for the Protestants to take any part in it. — The war had 
 broken out after the diet of Patisbon, July, 1546. The two lea<k'r3 
 were outlawed, July 20. Tlie campaign this year was altogether desti- 
 tute of plan ; and tlic league was eventually dissolved. John Frederic, 
 elector of Saxony, taken prisoner at the buttle of JMlihlberg, April 24, 
 
PART I.] THE REFORMATION, 1517—1555. 45 
 
 1547. The electorate is bestowed on Duke Maurice of Saxony. Philip, 
 landgrave of Hesse, treacherously made prisoner at Halle, June 19. 
 
 12. The total dissolution of the league left the emperor 
 at liberty to make whatever use of it he chose ; but he was 
 not, howev^er, so intent upon conquest as upon reconcilia- 
 tion, his schemes for which were founded, according to the 
 spirit of the day, upon the authority of general councils. 
 Indeed it may be a question whether the interim, by which 
 the theologians ruined his cause, was not on his part a 
 necessary measure. One only scheme, the fruit of ap- 
 proaching age, appears to have been formed by him at this 
 })e]'iod : it was to unite the two crov.'us, which he himself 
 bore, upon the head of his son. The prospect of entailing 
 the imperial power vv^as one of so wide and uncertain a range 
 that it can hardly be reckoned among his motives to this 
 plan ; it arose more probably from the conviction that the 
 strength of his house depended upon the union. Fortune 
 kindly frustrated this impolitic design, and averted Philip 
 11. from Germany : but Charles paid for the failure as he 
 never did for any other, since it hastened the most awful 
 crisis to w^hich his reign was exposed. 
 
 Diet at Augsburg, and the publication of the interim as the form to 
 be observed until the future decision of the council, May 15, 1548; 
 whereby great commotions were excited, Avhich showed, perhaps more 
 than any others, the resolute spirit of the nation. — The times were not 
 yet passed away, when a single city like Magdeburg could brave the 
 whole power of the emperor. 
 
 13. However little Charles may have desired the over- 
 throw of the Germanic constitution, it must be confessed 
 that the states held a somewhat different opinion of the 
 imperial authority from what he had himself formed : and 
 yet they would have acquiesced without any great demur, 
 but for one person among them, whom Charles had long 
 known, without however turning his knowledge to much 
 account ; for although skilled in all the quirks of policy, he 
 was but poorly acquainted with the force of individual 
 character. The bold scheme of Maurice, founded as it 
 was upon the events at Halle, took its origin from the latter 
 impulse ; but although it sprang from the heart, it was well 
 seconded by the head. Even had the result been less 
 glorious, history could never have failed to mark him as a 
 
•1(> Tin: HKFOUMATION, 1517— 1555. [ieiiiod I. 
 
 man who fur (Mit>frij)po(l liis ii^o. IMiuiriro cut the knot, 
 and with one stroke* of his sword did that tor (icnnaiiv 
 which no council would ever have accomplished. On the 
 other hand, however, his alliance with France showed that 
 power tiie secret of turninLi' to its own advanta<^e the dis- 
 sensions which set the members ap;ainst the head of the em- 
 pire ; and althoup;h the freedom of Germany may have been 
 held much at heart by France, yet there appeared no con- 
 tradiction in her makin'j; the maintenance of it subservient 
 to iier own a'iur<"'*l'''-''nient. 
 
 Plan of the cloctor to compol the emperor, by a sudden attack, to 
 estaUlish tlie eomlitiim of religion on a pcciire ba^i.^, and to restore Iiis 
 father-in-law Philip to liberty. This he found an opportunity of doin<^ 
 by means of the commission fjiven him, to enforce the law pronounced 
 apcainst the proud city of Magdeburg. Siege and capitulation of this city, 
 Nov. 5, lool. — Secret treaty concluded with Henry II. of France, at 
 Friedewalde, Oct. 5, lool. The war breaks out and is carried on with 
 spirit, from !March tillJuly, loo2. by which also the council of Trent is 
 broken up. The emperor finds himself bound to concede to the treaty 
 of Passau, Aug. 2, loo2, under the following conditions: 1st, that the 
 captive jtrinces should be restored to liberty, and Philip of Ilesse rein- 
 stated ; 2ndly, that perfect religious freedom should be granted to the 
 Protestants, Iwth on the part of the emperor and the Catholic states ; 
 3rdly, that a diet should be held within six months to confirm these con- 
 ditions, without the power, however, of making any material alteration 
 in them. Thus, though the treaty of Passau contained nothing but the 
 preliminaries, a definite peace was secured by it beforehand ; its author, 
 liowever, was not destined to see its accomplishment. He died the fol- 
 lowing year, loo3, at the battle of Silvershausen, July 9, contending 
 against Margrave Albert of Culmbach, the disturber of the peace. 
 
 14. The treaty of Passau havinp; been concluded by 
 Maurice without the concurrence of his ally Henry II., 
 (who in the mean time invaded Lorraine.) France still main- 
 tained the war; and as Charles, in the conduct of it, gave 
 scope to his feelings rather tiian his judgment, it was con- 
 cluded at the expense of the German empire, although for 
 the benefit of one who had declared himself the protector of 
 those he spoiled. 
 
 Henry II.'s invasion of Lorraine and investment of Metz, Toul, and 
 Verdun, April, 15o2. Campaign of Charles in the autumn of 1552, 
 and siege of Metz, which is successfully defended by Francis of Guise. 
 The war raged during the two next years both on the frontiers of the 
 Low Countries and in Italy (where Sienna put itself under the protec- 
 tion of the French, J)ut was at last compelled to surrender to the em- 
 peror, April 21, 1555). It was conducted without any great battles, 
 
PART I.] THE REFORMATION, 1517—1555. 47 
 
 though on the whole successfully for France, till the five years' truce 
 of Vaucelles, Feb. 5, 1555, insured to France its conquests in Lorraine 
 and Piedmont. 
 
 15. This war, and other impediments, delayed for some 
 time the assembhng of the diet, which was to be held for 
 the ratification of the religious peace. It met at 
 
 last in Augsburg', and after a discussion of six ^''''*' -'• ^■^'•'• 
 months, which plainly showed that Maurice was no longer 
 alive, the religious peace was established. By it both 
 parties had an interval of quiet secured to them, and the 
 ecclesiastical property which had been confiscated up to 
 the treaty of Passau, was confirmed to its possessors ; but 
 as it was limited in its benefits to those who embraced the 
 confession of Augsburg, this limitation, together with the 
 reservatum ecclesiasticmn, became the seeds of future 
 discord. 
 
 The reservatum ecclesiasticum respected the question, Whether the 
 future freedom of religion should be extended only to the secular orders, 
 or also to the ecclesiastical ? The Protestants, to a man, wei'e bent on 
 the latter ; but the Catholics neither would nor could grant it. 
 
 16. At the conclusion of this peace Charles V. carried 
 into effect the resolution he had long formed, and which 
 was now matured by a sense of the instability of fortune and 
 by his own weak health, of abdicating his double authority. 
 His favourite object of a lasting union between the two 
 crowns he was obliged to resign, and they were henceforth 
 divided between Philip II., his only son, and heir to Spain 
 and the Netherlands, and his brother Ferdinand I., king of 
 Rome, and now successor to the empire. 
 
 Resignation of the Netherlands and the Spanish monarchy to Philip 
 II., at Brussels, the former Oct. 25, 1555, the latter Jan. 16, 1556. He 
 did not resign the imperial crown, till Aug. 27, 1556. — Charles died at 
 St. Justus in Valladolid, whither he had retired, Sept. 21, 1558. 
 
 17. At the close of this period the Reformation had, 
 upon the whole, made as much progress as could be ex- 
 pected. Its doctrines, directed to the reason and not to the 
 imagination, naturally obtained a more easy introduction 
 among the northern than the southern nations. The differ- 
 ence of governments exerted little influence compared to 
 the difference of character among the governed. Hence 
 its religious doctrines and its political influence were no 
 longer confined to Germany, but extended over a great 
 
48 THE RKFOUMATION, ):>17— l&rjr). [rEniOD i. 
 
 portion of luirojx'. Still, liowrvrr, important a«> it was, 
 l)ot!i iVom its j)i'('S('nt and its I'uturc influence, to the inter- 
 nal condition of each individual >-tate, it was not yet beconip, 
 tlic mainspring of general politics, since the two cliicf and 
 rival powers on the continent were agreed in its suppres- 
 sion. Its only innncdiate and necessary elVects were, 1st, 
 that religion became, both in the Protestant and Catholic 
 states, more fundamentally connected with government ; 
 and 'indly, that in the 1^-otestant governments, the princes, 
 by breaking w ith Rome, and in some instances by actual 
 seizure of church property, acquired a considerable acces- 
 sion of power. But what was this, compared with the more 
 distant, though not less certain, consequences which this 
 new impulse to the human mind might be expected to 
 produce? 
 
 18. In Germany, it is truo, the l^eformation brought and 
 continued to bring new princi})les of dissension, but with 
 these came also the principles of political life. Not that it 
 is here meant that it produced any political revolution, jjvo- 
 pcrly so called, — this, so long as religion occupied the first 
 place in men's minds, was not to be dreaded, — but that the 
 princes were forced by it into exertions which first tauLiht 
 them to feel as princes should ; nor did the continuanci' of 
 the strife allow this spirit to subside till it had become essen- 
 tial to their character. From this time forth the Reforma- 
 tion became the mainspring of all j)olitical movements, and 
 in consequence of this an increased interest attached to the 
 German empire, which has been at all times the true point 
 of balance in the European system, and particularly when 
 the fate of the Protestant religion in other lands depended 
 upon its being established there. 
 
 At tho ond of tliis period the Protestant doctrines prevailed throujrliout 
 Saxony, IJrandenljurg, Brunswick, Ilesse, ISIecklenburg, Ilolstein, and 
 sonic smaller states in the north ; in the Palatinate, in IJaden and M'ir- 
 temberg, in the south ; as Avell as in ino.<t of the important cities of tlie 
 empire. — The melancholy schism that had arisen in 152o, respecting the 
 Lord's supjK-r, between tlie Protestants themselves, could be of no great 
 political importance, so long as none of the more powerful states of the 
 empire acknowledged the reformed tenets. 
 
 19. Besides Germany, the northern powers (see below) 
 and a considerable portion of Switzerland and Geneva ad- 
 mitted the new doctrines without delay. In England the 
 
PART I.] THE REFORMATION, 1517—1555. 49 
 
 struggle was still going on ; and in France and the Nether- 
 lands, as well as in Bohemia, Hungary, and Poland, the 
 Reformation obtained a footing, but not such as to deter- 
 mine its future consequences. Wherever it gained admit- 
 tance, however, it occasioned considerable modifications in 
 points of belief, as well as in church discipline and forms. 
 
 In England a rupture with the Roman see, unaccompanied however 
 by a change of doctrine, took place under Henry VIII. ; by an Act of 
 Parliament, Nov., 1534, the king was declared supreme head of the 
 church. Under Edward VI., 1547 — 1553, the Protestant doctrines 
 were advanced, though the episcopal hierarchy was retained, as depend- 
 ent on the king. The restoration of the papal dominion under Mary, 
 1553 — 1558, was speedily frustrated by Elizabeth. 
 
 In Scotland, the reformed doctrines had been disseminated as early 
 as 1525, especially at a later period, by the instrumentality of John 
 Knox, the disciple of Calvin, but was opposed by the regent and Roman 
 hierarchy. 
 
 Life of the Scottish Reformer, John Knox, with a Sketch of the Re- 
 formation in Scotland, by S. Thomas M'Crie. Translated into Ger- 
 man, and abridged by D. J. G. Planck, 1817. 
 
 In Switzerland, the Reformation arose, independently of Lather, by 
 tlie exertions of Zwinglius, in Zurich (who fell, Oct. 11, 1531, at Cap- 
 pel, in a battle with the Catholics). It spread rapidly ; in 1528, it liad 
 either been adopted altogether, or partially, by the cantons of Zurich, 
 Bern, Basle, Appenzel, Glarus, and SchafFhausen. A separation from 
 those who followed the confession of Augsburg, grew, in 1525, out of 
 the unhappy difference of opinion I'especting the sacrament of the Lord's 
 supper ; and thus originated tlie reformed party, which was first fully 
 developed in Geneva, through Calvin, 1535 — 1564. 
 
 This city acquired a great, lasting, and even increasing importance 
 in Europe, as the focus of religious, political, and scientific ideas ; and 
 likewise, since its emancipation from Savoy and the expulsion of its 
 bishop, 1533, of practical republicanism. The forms and discipline of 
 the reformed church were here fully developed. By means of the uni- 
 versity, founded 1539, under the direction of Calvin, and supported by 
 liis exertions and those of Beza, Geneva became the principal school of 
 theology to the professors of these opinions, and in those days the only 
 one where the French language prevailed. 
 
 20. To the Reformation, the society of Jesuits, wliich 
 arose during its progress, owed, if not its origin, at least its 
 practical influence. The object continually held in view 
 by this association, was the supreme control of public 
 opinion ; and by this power it hoped to oppose Protestant- 
 ism, or, in other words, the freedom of the intellect, and 
 support the highest and most unyielding assumptions of 
 papal authority. The period at which it was established 
 
 £ 
 
50 THH ur.roKMATioN, im;— i.v.rj. [i-eriod i. 
 
 oircrcd a lair prosjirct of success, ])y tlu> adojttion of an ex- 
 tensive and organized system of association. Proper means 
 it mi<i:lit liave, and d()ul)tless had, in such abundance as to 
 leave no Haw in th(! theory of its institution, hut then it re- 
 mained for the circumstances of the time to decide how 
 many of these means could ever obtain practical import- 
 ance, Tims far, then, tiie society was dependent on the 
 age, and forced to vary according to its dictates ; but having 
 one main princijile, which controlled all its actions, a com- 
 plete adaptation was impossible. Its very essence demand- 
 ed, what a time-serving policy would have been careful to 
 avoid, either a total supremacy, or utter annihilation ; if it 
 could succeed in the overthrow of Protestantism, the former 
 was of sure attainment; if Protestantism, as we have before 
 defined it, should win the day, then no delay, no truce or 
 concession, could arrest the latter. A long career, how- 
 ever, lav betwTcn it and either of these events ; a career 
 whicli required all its activity, manifold and extensive and 
 lasting as that was, for its accomplishment. Even the part 
 the society played in politics was but one of many in the 
 same ; it was a necessary but a dangerous means of ad- 
 vancing the common end. It was necessary, because princes 
 themselves are amenable to public opinion ; it was danger- 
 ous, because the loss of that opinion promised a certain 
 conflict with the princes, who had by it been kept in sub- 
 jection. Spreading itself through all Christian countries, 
 sometimes openly, sometimes secretly, it became a bond 
 which encircled the whole European system. Its influence 
 extended alike over the body and the several members, and 
 although it is difticult, often impossible, to determine the 
 amount and nature of its working in detail, its organization 
 will supply abundant evidence of the general plan which it 
 pursued. 
 
 Founclation of the society by the chivalrous enthusia-sm of Ignatius 
 Loyol;i, lit first as a private fraternity, 1534 ; it was sanctioned by Pope 
 Paul III., 1.340 ; and very much enlarged, 1.543 — 1549. The spirit of 
 the age was in favour of its rapid advance, notwithstanding tlie many 
 checks whicli it experienced. At tlie death of its founder, 1556, it al- 
 ready embraced nine jtrovinces of western Europe ; viz., one in Portu- 
 gal, tliree in Spain, one in France, two in Germany and the Netherlands, 
 and two in Italy; and in the other parts of the globe it influenced by 
 means of missions, three provinces (Brazil, Ethiopia, and India). With 
 
FART I.] THE REFORMATION, 1517—1555. 51 
 
 respect to its peculiar external forms, it was not separated from the 
 world as an order, but attached itself to it as a society, so much so as to 
 be partly amalgamated wath it, without, however, losing its own distinct 
 character. There were colleges and seminaries, but no cloisters. There 
 was a di-ess peculiar to the order, but not a monastic one. 
 
 Outline of its intei'nal organization : — 
 
 1. In respect to the government, a principle of the most absolute 
 despotism, and thence of blind and patient obedience, flowed immedi- 
 ately from the design of the institution. The general head of the so- 
 ciety {prcepositiis generalis) was dependent on no one but the Pope ; 
 he resided in Rome. From the time of Lainez, (1558 — 1564,) his juris- 
 diction was unlimited, it embraced the whole executive ; and soon after, 
 notwithstanding the general and provincial congregations, it usurped 
 the legislative also ; and thus became the source of all power in the 
 community. It was supported by councillors, governors, and vice-go- 
 vernors, who severally held the titles of assistants, provincials, and rec- 
 tors. Even his dependence on the Pope could not be oppressive, for 
 the two interests were the same ; and the manner of acting was always 
 left to the general. 2. In respect to the classes of members, there were 
 novices, scholars, and coadjutors, (the former gave instruction, to the 
 latter were committed the care of souls,) and professed members. 
 Among their chief maxims we may mention the great limitation of the 
 number of professed members, or Jesuits, in the most projjer sense of 
 the word ; who had taken the fourth vow of obedience to the Pope, and 
 by whom all the higher offices were filled. Besides these there was 
 another class of adjuncts, or secret Jesuits, without uniform, but not 
 unfrequently distinguished by stars, or bishops' mitres. 3. The princi- 
 pal means of disseminating their principles, were missions, confessionals, 
 especially at court, and the instruction of youth in lower and higher 
 seminaries. Thus they embraced the future with the present gener- 
 ation. An institution, the aim of which is the suppression of all free 
 development of the mind, is intrinsically bad. The good it has done 
 for the propagation of religion and single branches of science, is not, 
 however, on that account to be depreciated ; but unfortunately the po- 
 litical historian has little good to tell of it. 
 
 The history of the order, as it ought to be written, that is, delineated 
 from its ow)i point of view, offers a field for a future historian. Some 
 excellent preliminary matter on the subject may be found in the article, 
 Jesidten, AUg. Deutsche Encyclopcedie, B. xvii., in the Appendix (by 
 Spittler). It has also been printed separately. Leipzig, 1817. 
 
 Geschichte der Jesuiten in Baiern, von Carl. Hievrich Ritter von 
 Lang. Nurnberg, 1819. This work is drawn altogether fi'om original 
 records. It is preceded by a general introductory part, exhibiting the 
 internal organization of the society, and is critical and impartial. 
 
 Among the larger works we ought to mention : 
 
 AUgemeine Geschichte der Jesuiten von dem XJrsprunge ihres Ordens 
 bis auf gegenwdrtige Zeit ; von P. Ph. AVolff, Leipzig, 1803; 4 vols, 
 second edition. Also Schroekii Kirchengeschichte seit der Reform- 
 ation, B. iii., the last section. Very valuable. 
 
 e"2 
 
62 Tin: inirOKMAlIoN, i:>17— 1555. [rEmoD I. 
 
 •Jl. 'I'liis jxTiod, oil tlic wliolc, presents a nohlor \\c\y of 
 politics, liowever paltry many of its details may ajiju-ar. 
 The a<2;e had n;rcater and more fixed objects in view, it pur- 
 sued them from higher motives, and was led on to them, if 
 not hy wiser, at least by greater men. The powerful in- 
 lluence of theolorry, more powerful even amonp; tlie Protest- 
 ants than the Catholics, broujrht some evils in its train ; but 
 amonjj; these cannot ])e reckoned excitement to war and 
 bloodshed; the smouldering' flames of which it often damped. 
 
 22. Political economy, notwithstantbntx the p;rowing ne- 
 cessity for its improvement, made no consi(l(>rable progress. 
 New exactions, grudgingly submitted to by the states, and 
 expensive loans from the rich commercial towns, remained, 
 as before, the means of raising immediate supplies. Neither 
 princes nor their councillors bestowed a thought on it be- 
 yond the moment of need ; nor, indeed, could they be ex- 
 pected to do so at a time when their whole attention and 
 care was (b*awn to I'eligion. Besides, the treasure, which 
 at this period poured into Spain from her new colonies in 
 America, served to strengthen the error, that a country's 
 wealth depends upon the gold and silver it contains. Yet 
 Spain itself might have undeceived them, for it was not 
 rich ; nay, Charles V. was even poor, if poverty means 
 greater wants than sources of supj)ly. 
 
 23. The art of war made some progress, for although 
 neither Charles nor Francis were great generals, yet the 
 continued hostilities in which they were engaged, led of 
 necessitv to new modes of organization. Among these the 
 establishment of regular infantry, the true prop and princi- 
 ple of warfare, must be considered the most important. 
 Yet the legions of Francis still bore more resemblance to 
 militia than to a standing force; and the dreaded imjxM'ial 
 infantry consisted of mercenaries engaged for no definite 
 periofl. The difTerence between these and modern troops, 
 both in e(pii])ment and discipline, was innnense, while of 
 the higher branches of tactics they were totally ignorant ; 
 nor indeed could they hope to attain them, while the un- 
 wieldy depth of their ranks prevented all the lighter evo- 
 lutions. 
 
PARTI.] COLONIAL AFFAIRS, 1517— 1555. 
 
 III. History of the Colonies during this period. 
 
 In addition to the works before cited are the following, which have 
 particular reference to Spanish America : 
 
 AxTOX. DE Herrera, Deccidus o historia general de las hechos de las 
 Cnstellanos en las Islas y ticrra jirma net mar Oceano, en quatro de- 
 cadas desde el anno 1492 hasta el de 1531. Madrid, 1601 — 15. — The 
 best edition, with continuation, ^Madrid, 1728 — 30, 5 vols. fol. 
 
 Historia del nuevo Mundo da Juan Battista Muxos, en Madrid. 
 1793, 4to. The first volume onlj has appeared. 
 
 Saggio di storia Americana naturale, civile e sacra, de Eegni e delle 
 provincie Spagnole di terra Jirma nella America meridionale, dell' Ab- 
 BATE FiLipPO Salyadore Gilh. Roma, 1780, 4 vols. 8vo. — The po- 
 litical portion is the least satisfactory. 
 
 x^Js'TOXiA DE Ulloa, Relacion historica del J'iage a la America me- 
 ridional. Madrid, 1748, 2 vols. 4to. In French, 1751. The best 
 description of these provinces. 
 
 The principal sources respecting the internal administration of these 
 countries, are the laws and ordinances of the kings, which the Spanish 
 government itself caused to be collected and published : 
 
 Recopilacion de Leges de los Regnos de las Indias ; mandadas im- 
 primir y publicar por la Magestad Catolica del Reg D. Carlos II. 
 nuestro Sennor. Tercera edicion, ]\ladrid, 1774, 4 vols. fol. This col- 
 lection, very well arranged, according to the subject-matter, begins with 
 1509, and comes down to the beginning of the reign of Charles 11. 
 The fourth volume contains a very complete index. 
 
 1. In this as in the former period of our history, the 
 Spaniards and Portuguese remained sole masters of the 
 countries beyond the ocean. And this very absence of 
 rivals promised a prescriptive right, which would confirm 
 their claims of exclusive possession. The progress which 
 the two nations made, was, however, very dissimilar, for the 
 PortuQ-uese colonial system had attained its full o-rowth dur- 
 ing the last period ; that of Spain only assumed its enormous 
 dimensions and full organization during the present. 
 
 2. The Spanish empire in America counted 
 
 . -. r • -» ^ CI ■ T-* Spanish America. 
 
 as its provnices, Mexico, or JNew tepam, Feru, 
 Terra Firma, and New Grenada : but then there was a 
 {\nde difference between its actual and its nominal posses- 
 sions. The inhabitants of Mexico and Peru, who were 
 already in some degree civilized, and collected in towns 
 and villages, offered comparatively easy conquest ; but what 
 dominion could be exercised over the countless tribes who 
 wandered in pursuit of game over the vast forests and plains 
 of America, until civilization, or, as then understood, "con- 
 
51 COLONIAL AFFAIHS, \:,\7 -Ib'i^ [pEnior. i 
 
 v(M'sion," liad prrparrd tlicni for allo<:;ianc(' ? Accordingly, 
 the Spanisli autliurity over tlie interior depended on llien* 
 missionaries ; and the cross, although more slow in its eli'ects, 
 was here at least preferred to the sword. 
 
 Conquest of Mexico, and capture of the principal city, 1519 — lo21, 
 by Francis Cortes, was not achieved without violent resistance. At- 
 tempts to subtliic Pern. Quito, and Chili from 1.j2o; accomplished l.'>2i) 
 — 1.j3o by Francis Pizarro and his companions ami brotliers. Terra 
 Firma was conquered lo32, and New Grenada, lo.'3G. Several other 
 countries were discovered in this period, but not yet subdued. 
 
 3. The conquered countries became and remained colonies 
 of Spain. This was mainly l)rou<T:ht about by the constitu- 
 tion which they received ; — as dithcult a problem as ever 
 political science had to solve; — but even this might have 
 proved unavailing, had it not been supported by the charac- 
 ter of the people, 'i'his constitution, although gratlual in 
 its development, was in all its parts fundamentally established 
 during the present period. It was fashioned, as is com- 
 monly the case, upon that of the mother country, although 
 the interposition of the Atlantic prevented an exact imita- 
 tion. The supreme authority was vested in a council re- 
 sident in Madrid, and dependent solely on the king; this 
 was termed Conscjo real y supremo (k Indicis, and had under 
 it a board for the regulation of commerce, entitled Aitdictizia 
 ?ra/ dc la Coutratacion, which was held in Seville; and 
 thus a more settled system of colonial ])olicy was established 
 than any other nation had ever founded. In the new world, 
 itself, viceroys {rirrct/e.s) were appointed to represent the 
 monarch ; but the distribution <>f justice was confined to 
 the audicncias, which acted as supreme local tribunals, and 
 at the same time as state council to the viceroys. The 
 towns elected their own cabildos, or municipal officers. 
 
 The principal foundation of the whole constitution was laid by the 
 ordinances of Charles V. {leifcs nncvas) of the year 1.542. Institution 
 of the council of the Indies, 1511, but its formation w;is not completed 
 till 1542. Appointment of two viceroys, Hrst in Mexico, 1540, and 
 afterwards in Peru, 1542, as heads of the whole civil and military ad- 
 ministration, to whom muny gnbernndorcs ami r^/»Vr/«r,<t were gradually 
 subordinate. Institution of two auf/icncias, at Mexico and Lima, 1542, 
 the viceroys presiding, but without a voice in judicial affairs. Tlie 
 nimiber of these courts was afterwards increased to ten, as tliat of the 
 vicerovs to four. From the nudicncias, as courts of justice, there was 
 an appeal to the council of the Indies. 
 
PART I.] COLONIAL AFFAIRS, 1517—1555. 55 
 
 4. These political institutions presuppose the establish- 
 ment of towns {ciudades, villas, and lugares). These were 
 already to be found in Mexico and Peru, but not in the 
 other countries ; and even in the former, not always where 
 they were needed by the new rulers. The places first 
 colonized were the harbours and sea-ports on the coasts of 
 the Gulf of Mexico ; and shortly after those on the Pacific 
 Ocean. Settlements in the interior were made more slowly 
 and gradually. 
 
 The towns on the coasts, at first consisting for the most part of a 
 church and a few houses, were at the same time harbours and garrisons. 
 The first was Cumana, founded 1520, followed by the important har- 
 bours of Porto Bello and Cartliagena, 1532, Valencia, 1555, Caraccas, 
 1567, and at an earlier period Vera Cruz, the first settlement in ]\lexico. 
 On the coasts of the Pacific there were, in ]\Iexico, Acapulco ; in Darien, 
 Panama; in Peru, Lima, 1535; and in Chili, Conception, 1550; and 
 the first, though unsuccessful, attempt was made to settle Buenos Ayres, 
 on the Rio de la Plata, in 1535. The towns of the interior generally 
 sprang up in the vicinity of the places whei'e mines had been previously 
 opened. — The missions, which were afterwards formed, consisted of 
 small villages, inhabited by converted Indians, under the superintend- 
 ence of priests, settled along the banks of the principal and secondary 
 rivers, and on the immense plains of the interior. 
 
 5. But however strong the political ties which connected 
 the colonies to the mother countrj'-, those of religion were 
 far more powerful. All the external apparatus of Chris- 
 tianity, her hierarchy, her cloisters, nay, very shortly, her 
 inquisition, were transported across the Atlantic. With 
 these went her learning and science, and the institutions 
 necessary for their propagation, and thus, an ecclesiastical 
 constitution was formed coeval and interwoven with the 
 state, but like the state dependent on the Spanish king, not 
 on the Pope. This naturall)^ led to the overthrow of the 
 civilization of the native American nations, and with it to the 
 extinction of their national spirit. 
 
 By the privileges granted by Alexander VI. and Julius II., {pn- 
 tronazgo real,) the papal power was limited to the ratification of the 
 king's appointments to ecclesiastical oftices. — Mexico and Lima were 
 first erected into archbishoprics (to which Caraccas, Santa Fe di Bogota, 
 and Guatimala were afterwards added) and bishoj^rics, each provided 
 with a chapter. — The lower ecclesiastical clergy were divided into ctiras 
 in the Spanish settlements, doctrineras in the Indian, and missioncras 
 among the savages. — The establishment of cloisters followed from tlie 
 original purpose of converting the Indians ; they were at first confined 
 
66 COI.ONIAI. AIIAIUS, l,'.17 — ir.jj. (rEniuD i. 
 
 to tho nuMiilioant orders, and only at a later period hollared liy tlio Ji-suits. 
 Those institutions, so necessary to the object proposed, couM not hut 
 have ample success in so rich a country, protected as tiiey were by the 
 in(iuisiti«in, (established by I'liiiii* II. in 1570,) and which, owin;r to its 
 distance from the sphere of thought, possessed an unlimited authority 
 over the mind of the people. Universities were founded in Mexico and 
 Lima, lool. 
 
 G. Thus tlie forms of Europoan states were universally 
 imitatJ^d in those countries. But the mass of the people 
 liad, in the dilference of their ori;j;in, an inseparable bar to 
 an entire and national union. This physical distinction led 
 to important political results. The white colonists, by their 
 superior authority, apjjeared to hold all who partook of colour 
 {pardoz) in marked subjection. Amon<^ these we are not 
 to reckon the Indians alone, (who, like the others, were 
 under the protection of the law, and secure of personal free- 
 dom,) but all the half-castes, {mestizos, terccro/ie.s, and 
 cuarteroncs or quadroons,) who sprang from a union with 
 them. To these the slave-trade broup:ht the addition of the 
 nef2:roes, from whom another and numerous intermediate 
 class, the mulattos, arose. These different classes pursued 
 almost exclusively different occupations, and thus a system 
 of castes, properly so called, was formed ; the nobility or 
 highest rank, which consisted of the resident Europeans, 
 (crco/cs,) and the occasional visitors (or chapctoucs). Among 
 the Creoles no distinction was observed, they were all equal, 
 and all excluded from the government, which was intrusted 
 only to Spaniards, who were not pernntted to settle in the 
 colonies. This regulation was the groundwork of future 
 revolt. riaj)pilv fur Spain, tlie necessity was early felt of 
 subjecting lier own enugrations (those from other countries 
 were wholly forbidden) to a severe but wholesome police. 
 And it is to this precaution that she is mainly indebted for 
 the secure depentlcnce of her colonies. 
 
 Repeated ordinances of the Spanish government, for the improvement 
 of the Indians. (But these laws could do but little towards curbing the 
 cruelty of the first conquerors.) The j)rincipal were those made after 
 the year 1542, by whidi the system of feudal service, which had been 
 introduced, {/•Jncoininiflas, licpartimictitos,) wa.s circumscribed. Per- 
 sonal freedom was insured to tlie Indians ; the amount of service (rnifas) 
 and tributes tixed ; and tliey were allowed to reside in separate villages 
 under their own olficcrs (cacif/itcs) chosen from among themselves. 
 
 B. DK Las Casas, lidacion de la Destniycion de las Indias, Sevilla, 
 
TART 1.] COLONIAL AFFAIRS, 1517—1555. 57 
 
 loo2, 4to. The wcll-knowTi account of the cruelties of the first con- 
 querors. — The ordinances for the improvement of the condition of the 
 Indians fill almost a whole book in the Leyes (L. VI.). No otlier go- 
 vernment did so much for the aborigines as the Spanish : would it had 
 been eifective across the Atlantic. 
 
 7. Little advantage was derived from these countries as 
 yet beyond the supply of precious metals, and the abund- 
 ance of these, especially of silver, exceeded the most extra- 
 vagant expectation. They nevertheless possessed other and 
 not less considerable riches, in their various productions. 
 These, however, as long as the use of cochineal and indigo 
 as dyes, of cocoa, of tobacco, and Peruvian bark, remained 
 either wholly unknown, or had been but partially introduced 
 into Europe, could not form staple commodities of trade. 
 The search after precious metals was left to individual en- 
 terprise, with the reservation of a tenth to the crown ; and 
 thus numerous inland settlements were formed, but it was 
 long before mining was put upon a regular and scientific 
 footing. 
 
 Discovery of the rich mines of Zacotecas in Mexico, 1532, and of 
 Potosi in Peru, 1545 ; since which time the annual proceeds have on 
 an average been estimated at thirty millions of piastres, about half of 
 which has been exported to Europe. Before this time, under Charles 
 v., scarcely half a million of piastres found their way into the roj-al 
 coffers. The proportion paid to the king it was found necessary to 
 diminish by degrees from twenty to five per cent. ; notwithstanding this, 
 in the richest regions of the earth, the mining was so hazardous a game 
 that by far the greater number of speculations ended in ruin. 
 
 Fiirsten tind Volher von Sild-Europa im 1&'"^ und 17^"'^ Jahr/nmdert. 
 Vornehmlich aus ungedruckten Gesandtschafts-Berichten ; von Leo- 
 POLDE Ranke. Vol. I. Hamburg, 1827, 8vo. AVith new and important 
 disclosures respecting the condition of Spain at this period. 
 
 8. These mining operations, and the culture of what few 
 plantations were then established, gave rise to the importa- 
 tion of slaves from Africa. Tliis dreadful traffic sprung 
 from a good principle, namely, that of relieving the Indians, 
 who from their nature were unfit for the labour. It was 
 proposed by their advocate, Las Casas. The Spaniards, it 
 is true, never engaged in it themselves, but the government 
 contracted with foreigners, who engaged for a certain pro- 
 fit to supply the requisite number of slaves. 
 
 The slave-trade of the Europeans proceeded from the discoveries and 
 conquests of the Portuguese on the coasts of Africa, and was cari-ied on 
 by them before the discovery of America. Negroes had been also car- 
 
58 COLONIAL Ari'AlHS, 11^17 — 15r>5. [itiiiud i. 
 
 riotl to the West Indies before the jiroposal of Las Ca.<as, (hut through 
 liiin tliis tralVir was first refruhirly estahlished, 1517,) as is j)rove(l liy 
 the faet that Charles V. eoiiferre<l on his favourite La IJn-sa the mono- 
 poly of four thousand slaves annually, which he sold to the (lenoesc. 
 The latter, however, obtained them of the Portufruese, in whose hands 
 the traffic really lay, although the English began to participate in it to- 
 wards the end of this period. 
 
 y\. C. Snn.NCKi. i-nm Ursprunge des Ncgrrhandels. Halle, 1779, 8vo. 
 
 J'nllstnn(lii/r Historisrli-philosopJiisrhc DiirsldliOHj al/er Veniudcr- 
 viitfdi d(s yi(jns(l(tvciih(uuhls, voii dtssru Ursjiruiigc an bis zn seiner 
 yanzlchen Aiif/nbiiin/, von All. IIlNE. 2 Theile, Giittingen, 1820, 
 8vo. The lirst part contains the history of the origin and increase, the 
 second, of the abolition of the slave-trade. This is tlic best work on the 
 subject, and is written with industry and method. 
 
 9. The original character of the Spanish colonies, namely, 
 that of mining settlements, led naturally to conmiercial re- 
 strictions. A free admittance of foreigners under such cir- 
 cumstances would have been absurd. The advantages of 
 general trade, if at all considered, held a very inferior rank ; 
 the main object was to import into Spain, and to Spain alone, 
 the immediate treasure of America. Even to the Spaniards 
 it might have been evident that the prosperity of the colo- 
 nies was not likely to be advanced by these means, — but 
 the prosperity of their colonies, as usually understood, was no 
 design of th(Mrs. Nay, more, as Spain alone, of all Europe, 
 enjoyed their wealth, Spain determined that she alone would 
 supply thcu" wants. 
 
 Itegulations of trade : — In Spain, the commerce was confined to the 
 single port of Seville. Two scpiadrons were annually despatched, the 
 gnhoncs of about twelve, the fleet of about fifteen, large vessels. Tiie 
 former, destined to South America, proceeded to Porto Bello ; the lat- 
 ter, destined for Mexico, to Vera Cruz. Great fairs were held in those 
 cities. Spain did not indeed commit its colonial trade to a comi)any ; 
 but must not the monopoly of a few rich houses have necessarily sprung 
 from these restrictions ? 
 
 rortnwojMj ^^- '^''^ Portuguese not only retained but in- 
 
 coioiiica. creased their dominions in the East during this 
 period, under their kings Emanuel the Great ("j" 15*21) 
 and John ill. (| 1557). The range of their commerce re- 
 ceived even a trreater extension than their dominion. It 
 was the policy of these princes to change the viceroys at 
 least every three years, whether to the advantage or injury 
 of their colonies it is difficult to say. What might not have 
 been expected if peace could have been preserved in India 
 
TART I.] COLONIAL AFFAIRS, 1517—1555. 59 
 
 itself! But this was impossible; for the Moors (Moham- 
 medans, and chiefly of the Arabian stock) were as much 
 bent upon retaining the coasting trade as the Portuguese 
 were upon acquiring it. 
 
 Establishment of the Portuguese in Ceylon from 1518, especially at 
 Colunibo and Point Gales, and monopoly of the cinnamon trade. — They 
 were in actual possession, however, of the coasts alone. Capture of 
 Diu, 1535 ; settlements made in Camboja and others, from the Moluc- 
 cas to Sumatra, Java, Celebes, and Borneo. Even where they had 
 no settlements they did not fail to frequent the markets. 
 
 11. What mainly contributed to extend the Portuguese 
 commerce was the connexion which they early formed with 
 China, and the entrance which they obtained into Japan. 
 The Jesuits, who had been admitted into these realms by 
 John III., immediately after the foundation of their order, 
 were of great assistance by means of their Asiatic mission- 
 aries. Among these, Xavier, the apostle of the Indian.s, 
 deserves mention even from the general historian. 
 
 Attempts made to form a connexion with China as early as 1517, 
 tlirough tlie envoy, Th. Pereira. A settlement was probably made at 
 Liampo, (Ningpo ?) without any permanent result. — Japan had been 
 known since 1542 ; the mission of Xavier was followed by great conse- 
 quences, the establishment of a regular and highly lucrative commeix-e 
 for Portugal. 
 
 12. This period, then, witnessed the proud structure of 
 the Portuguese power in India in full perfection. A few 
 bold and congenial spirits had raised it ; its maintenance, 
 however, required not merely physical force, but the moral 
 support of heroic courage and patriotism, which fortunately 
 was not wanting. Such virtues do not pass suddenly away, 
 and therefore no sudden downfal of the fabric which they 
 supported was to be feared ; though their insensible dimi- 
 nution promised a gradual and sure decay. This the fol- 
 lowing period, fraught as it was with foreign convulsions, 
 tended fearfully to accelerate. 
 
 13. During this period, too, the possessions of the Por- 
 tuguese were widely extended in Brazil. A kindly fate had 
 as yet prevented the discovery of the precious metals in that 
 country, and had thus directed the attention of the settlers 
 in some degree to agricultural pursuits. The new regu- 
 lations of the crown contributed partially to extend tliis 
 branch of industry, but it still remained confined to parti- 
 
60 COLONIAL AFFAIHS, 1 Jl7-L'.:..j. |rr.i:ioi> i. 
 
 rulur portioiT^ of tlic coast, and tlioso more cspocially in 
 tlip north. I he j)rot:;ross, liowovor, uliicli was made here 
 caused a rcactit)n on tlicir African settlements of Con<2;o 
 and Guinea, by the increased demand for slaves ; since tiu; 
 natives of Hia/il, although not y^t accounted positively free, 
 Mere both dilHcult to subdue, and, when subdued, useless 
 for the purj)oses of labour. 
 
 A new system introduced in tlie year lo2o, by Jolm III.; hu-'^c 
 strips of land aloiifr the eoast, to fifty leagues into the interior, heing 
 granted to single I'i'.niilii'S or individuals, as male fiefs, with almost ali- 
 eohite jurisdietion even over the natives, whom the j)roprietors aceord- 
 ingly obliged to till the ground. In this way, 1.539 — 1549, the capifaius 
 of St. Vicente, Esperito Santo, dos Ilheos, Maranham, I'ortoseguro, and 
 Pernambueo, aro.-<e with their several cities, and more especially Bahia, 
 with its capital St. Salvador, as the centre of the whole, 1549. In 
 the same year, the fir.<t governor, Thomas of Susa, was .sent out, ac- 
 companied by six Jesuits as missionaries. The power of the pro])rietors 
 was limited in favour of the crown ; and a more regular plan of colo- 
 nization introduced. Besides the natural productions, consisting i>rin- 
 cipally of dye-wood, the sugarcane, transplanted thither from Madeira, 
 was even then in cultivation. Like Spain, Portugal retained the ex- 
 elusive trade, which was carried on by a lleet sent out every March. 
 The Indians were cruelly treated and enslaved wherever it was i)ossible, 
 whence arose continual wars with them. 
 
 Jlistori/of Brazn, by Kun. Soithey. 1810, V. I. II. A work wiit- 
 ten with profound knowledge of th(^ subject, and great impartiality. 
 
 Jlistoirc (III Brazil, dtpuis sa dccouvcrte en loOO, jusqu' cv lylO, 
 par M. Ai.i'iioNSK de Bealcuami'. 3 vols. I'nris, 1815. U>clul as a 
 general historical sketch. 
 
 14. AlthoULili ihc Spaniards and Portuguese h;ul no 
 rivals of imjiortancc among the other nations of Europe, the 
 few attempts at discovery made by France and England 
 having led to no results, they became engaged in a cpiarrel 
 between themselves respecting the Molucca i.^^lands, whose 
 position, according to the paj)al line of demarcation, was 
 not accin*ately determined. 'J'his led to the first voyage 
 round the world, from which, it is true, the contested point 
 received no solution, but which was of great consequence 
 to geography and navigation. 
 
 Voyage of Ferd. Magellan, (a Portuguese, who, on account of some 
 grievance, entered the Spanish service,) 1.319 — 1.522. Discovery of 
 the straits into the Pacific Ocean, calh'd after him, and consequently of 
 a new passage to the East Indies. Discovery of the Philippine islands, 
 where Slagellan himself lost his life, 1521. But his principal ship (the 
 Victoria) returned to Seville. — The contest respecting the ^Molucca 
 
PART I.] PRELIMINARY REMARKS, 1556-1618, 61 
 
 islands was terminated by a treaty, 1 529, Charles V. selling his claims 
 to Portugal, for three hundred and fifty thousand ducats. 
 
 PiGAFETTA (who accompanied INIagellan) Primo viaggio intorno al 
 globo terracqueo. The first perfect edition was published by C. Amo- 
 KETTi. ]Milauo, 1800. 
 
 THERD PERIOD. From 1556 to 1618. 
 
 The best general works are : 
 
 J. A. TiiUANi Historiarum sui Temporis L. CXXXVIII. ab A. D. 
 
 1543, usque ad A. 1607. The best edition is Londini, 1704, 7 vols. fol. 
 The author expressly announces this, his master-work as a general 
 history. 
 
 Fr. Cn. KnEVENHULLER Annales Ferdinandei, von 1578 his 1637. 
 Leipzig, 1716 — 1726, 12 vols. fol. This work is without method, but 
 is alike important from the richness of the materials, and the office of 
 the authoi-, who was imperial ambassador at j\Iadrid. An abridgement 
 was published by Runde ; Leipzig, 1778, 4 Theile, 8vo. It reaches 
 down to 1594. 
 
 1. The age of Elizabeth and Phihp, of WilHam of Orange 
 and Henry IV., awakens by these very names a tide of re- 
 collections amply sufficient to determine its peculiar cha- 
 racter. The Reformation was the mainspring of its whole 
 political machinery ; nor, indeed, could it be otherwise, at 
 a time when the first flush of victory on the side of the Pro- 
 testants was met by the inquisition openly arrayed against 
 them by Philip ; and by the secret, but not less determined, 
 influence exerted to their prejudice by the Jesuits in every 
 cabinet in Europe. 
 
 The great influence of the Jesuits on the cabinets, especially in their 
 character of confessors, pervaded during this period most of the coun- 
 tries of Europe. They ruled in Portugal under Sebastian ; found 
 powerful protectors in Spain in Philip II. ; in France, after a long and 
 violent resistance, in Catharine of Medici and the Guises ; in Germany, 
 in Albert V. of Bavaria, etc. Nor were they, as we shall see, less 
 active in the north. 
 
 2. Besides this, the old and dreamy hopes entertained of 
 a reconciliation by means of the council of Trent, melted 
 away at its dissolution, which soon took place. Nor were 
 its decrees felt only in the bitterness which it added to the 
 religious schism, by it rendered irremediable ; they were of 
 such a nature, that many of the Catholic states rejected them, 
 like France, altogether, or received them only under certain 
 
G;2 PUEI.IMINAUV UKMAUKS, 1556— IGIS. [period i. 
 
 restrictions, ns Ikmiicc subversive, nut only of secular, l)ut 
 even 111" ('j)i>('()|)al authority. 
 
 Tlio council of Trent Wius linally dissolved, Dec. 4, 1563 ; it had been 
 ronvmcd ajrain (after its violent separation) in Jan., 1562. Its decrees : 
 1. pronoiinee<l anathemas apainst all those who refused to subscribe to 
 the distinjzuishinir iloctrines of the Hoinish Church ; 2. they concede<l 
 much to tlie jtower of the Church, to the disailvantajre of tiie civil power ; 
 .'5. tliey <leclare<l, that the episco|)al difrnity di<l not emanate from God, 
 but that it was entirely subordinate to the papal. — Thus the Koman see 
 thoujiht that it had averted every danper by which it was threatened, 
 and yet the deadliest blow it ever sustained was from the history of that 
 very council, written by a monk, long after its dissolution. 
 
 Hislorid del Conritio Tridiiifino di PiETKO SuAVE, Polano. (Paolo 
 Sarpi) 1619, 4to. This work has passed through many editions, among 
 whicli we may mention the French translation by Fuancois l»e CuL- 
 HAYKU. Londr. 1736, 2 vols. fol. [Reprinted in 4to ; and valuable for 
 the notes of the translator.] 
 
 3. Unfortunately, the course which the Reformation had 
 of necessity followed, gave rise to an opinion in politics of 
 the highest practical importance. Its opponents saw ene- 
 mies of the state in its supporters : rebel and heretic became 
 synonymous terms. Its supporters again saw champions of 
 tyranny in its opponents, and thus the idea became preva- 
 lent, that " the old religion was a buttress and defence of 
 absolute despotism ; the new doctrine, the banner of liberty." 
 This was an idle error, as far as the doctrines themselves 
 were concerned, and has been abundantly refuted since ; 
 but so long as religious partisans were obliged to support 
 themselves by political faction it had probably some found- 
 ation. But then, why were men so obliged, and who 
 obliged them ? 
 
 4. These ideas owed their origin and confirmation mainly 
 to the fact, that during this period it was no longer, as in 
 the previous one, between Spain and France, (the latter 
 being disabled by internal disorders.) but between Spain 
 and England, that the rivalry of Europe lay. These two 
 powers were not merely of a different religion, but the po- 
 litical existence of cither was interwoven with that of the 
 laitli which it supported ; Spain with the Catholic, England 
 with the Protestant cause. Moreover both were under 
 rulers who felt an ecjual and inordinate desire of meddling 
 in the atlairs of other nations. The foreign policy of Eliza- 
 beth excelled that of Philip in little save caution. 
 
PART I.] RISE OF THE DUTCH REPUBLIC; TILL 1G09. 60 
 
 5. Another important distinction between this and the 
 previous period is to be found in the separation of the 
 Spanish from the imperial crown. The house of Hapsburg 
 was of course much weakened thereby, but it acquired a 
 new species of strength from the personal character of the 
 princes of the Austrian line : by them it was led to adopt a 
 different course of politics from that pursued by Philip II.; 
 and as their object was the maintenance of peace in Ger- 
 many, in securing that they were the means of preventing 
 a general war. 
 
 The internal relations of the house of Austria to the Spanish line ; 
 very much weakened since tlie death of Ferdinand, 1564, by a division 
 into the Austrian and Stirian branches. 
 
 6. The recent insurrection of the Netherlands became 
 the actual centre of political interests ; for beside Spain, 
 England and France were gradually engaged in it. But 
 besides that insurrection, the great ferment produced by the 
 Reformation during this period in most of the other coun- 
 tries of Europe, and its consequences, which exercised for 
 the most part a decisive influence on the future aspect of the 
 leading European states, require to be cursorily noticed. 
 
 I. History of the rise of the republic of the United Netherlands, 
 and its immediate influence on the affairs of Europe ; from its 
 beginning till the twelve years truce, 1609. 
 
 The historians of the revolution of the Netherlands are divided into 
 two classes ; the Catholic, or those who are inclined to the Spanish 
 side, and the Protestant. At the head of the former, stand : 
 
 Historia delta guerra di Fiandra, descritta del Cardinal Benti^o- 
 GLio ; in tre parti. 4to. 1670, in Venezia. This still holds its rank as the 
 best work on this subject. It reaches down to the twelve years' truce. 
 
 Fabiani Strad^e de hello Belgico decades duae ah excessic Carol. V., 
 usque ad initiiim prafecturce Alexandri Fames, principis. Francofurti, 
 1651, 4to. Little more than a detail of the wars. 
 
 Among writers on the otiier side, besides the general history of tlie 
 republic of the United Provinces by Wagen^\aji, and the abridgement of 
 it by ToTZE, {Hallische Allg. Welth. B. 34, 35,) we may mention : 
 
 Em. Meteren, Niederlandische Historien vom Aifang des Kriegs his 
 1611. Arnheim, 1611, fol. 
 
 Van der Vynkt, Geschichte der vereinigten Niederlande von ihrcm 
 Ursprunge in Jahr 1560 an his zum Westphalischen Frieden ; Zih-ich, 
 1 793, 3 vols. 8vo. But six copies of the French original. Troubles des 
 Pays-has, are said to have been printed. The author was member of 
 
64 iiisE or Tin: dutch uei'lulic; till igod. [lumoD i. 
 
 Xho OKiiiu'il (if state of Flanders, and liad nccoas to tlic archives : and 
 consequtntlv nioro that was new might have been oxjK'rtcd ; altlioiigh 
 we can n-adilv pardon his not being a great liistorian. 
 
 (tt'scliulitv (Its Alifdlls drr rcrcifi if/ten Nicdcrhindc von der Span- 
 isrlivn Iiiijitruhtj, von Fit. Sciiii.lkh. Leipzig, 17HH, Hvo. It n-aehes 
 only to the arrival of Alva. (Continued till 1G09, by C. CruTii, 3 vols. 
 1S()9.) Great minds are themselves lirst conseious in what depart- 
 ment they arc at home. 
 
 1. A r('piil)lic was the result of tlie revolution in the 
 rsetiicrlands ; but we siiouhl be mucii mistaken in our view 
 of the subject were we to imagine its establishment to have 
 been the object orio-inally proposed. The insurgx'nts had 
 no other motive than to resist the encroachments of arbi- 
 trary and, according to all their previous ideas, unconstitu- 
 tional innovations. And they at last became republicans 
 merely because they could find no one fit to direct a more 
 monarchical government. 
 
 2. Since we must be careful, then, how we bring the 
 ideas of our own day to the examination of that event, we 
 shall be the better prepared to acknowledge that it could 
 tend to the propagation of no new ideas, and most certainly 
 of no republican enthusiasm in the rest of Europe' Its po- 
 litical results were on this account of very gradual develop- 
 ment ; but hence also of more universal and lasting influence. 
 
 3. The greater part of the Netherlands had come into 
 the possession of tiie house of Ilapsburg, by the marriage of 
 
 Maximilian of Austria to Mary, the daughter and 
 sole heiress of Duke Charles the Bold ; but they 
 received such an extension under Charles V., as to embrace 
 the whole of the 13elgian and liatavian provinces, .seventeen 
 in number. These countries, althouo-h they formed but one 
 state under a common superior, had each of them a separate 
 constitution and assembly of .states, nay, several their own 
 stadtholder. — General assemblies of the states of all the pro- 
 vinces were not unusual ; and during the absence of the 
 prince, who, after the union of the crowns, resided chiefly 
 in Spain, his power was delegated to a chief stadtholder, or 
 regent, who was assisted by three colleges, which were 
 severally called, the council of state, the privy council, (or 
 council of justice,) and the coimcil of finance. The supreme 
 council at Mechlin formed a general court of appeals. 
 
 The seventeen provinces consisted of four duchies : Brabant, Lim- 
 
PART I.] IlISE OF THE DUTCH REPUBLIC; TILL 1G09. 65 
 
 burg, Luxemburg, and Gelderland ; seven counties : Flanders, Artois, 
 Hainault, Holland, Zealand, Namur, and Zutphen ; one margraviate : 
 Antwer]! ; five lordships : Mechlin, Friesland, Utrecht, Groningen and 
 Overyssel. — Cambray and Franche Comte were considered as separate. 
 
 4. The power of the princes was much circumscribed by 
 the privileges of these assembhes of the states, but still 
 more so by the spirit of the people. These were aware that 
 their happiness depended on their constitution, and this 
 conviction formed their strength. The proud feelings of 
 prosperity and wealth, the fruit of the ancient commerce of 
 Belgium, which had arisen under the protection of the con- 
 stitution, gave additional force to their attachment ; and 
 thus, though there could not be a people more easy to 
 govern than the Netherlanders while their rights were left 
 untouched, yet, on the other hand, there was no opposition 
 likely to be more determined than that with which they 
 were prepared to resist any invasion of their sanctuary — the 
 constitution. 
 
 5. At the accession of Philip II., the Reformation had 
 already been at work in the provinces. It had every where 
 spread rapidly, as might be expected in a country where 
 there were so many men who needed religious independ- 
 ence alone to complete that of wealth and birth ; but in the 
 Batavian provinces its progress was the most decided, and 
 to us the most worthy of remark, because in them its con- 
 sequences first assumed their true character. The breaking 
 out of the war anew with France, which prolonged Philip's 
 residence in the Low Countries, was probably the only 
 thing that preserved tranquillity : the peace of Chateau 
 Cambresisj which terminated it, was the harbinger of the 
 storm. 
 
 The truce of Vancelles broken (see p. 47) at the instigation of Pope 
 Paul IV., and the war renewed ; it acquired a still greater extent from 
 the implication of England by Philip II., and was prosecuted, generally 
 unsuccessfully for France, both in Italy and on the frontiers of the 
 Netherlands. The French defeated at St. Quentin, Aug. 10, 1557, 
 and that fortress they lost. On the other hand Calais was captured by 
 the duke of Guise, Jan. 8, 1558. Another defeat at Grevelingen, July 
 13, 1558. The peace of Chateau Cambresis concluded April 3, 1559. 
 A mutual restitution was made ; and although France retained Calais, 
 it lost considerably by the restoration of Emanuel Philibert of Savoy, 
 Pliilip's victorious general. A double treaty of marriage contracted, 
 uniting the houses of France, Spain, and Savoy ; and secret projects 
 
 F 
 
6G RlSIi (IF TIIH UlTCII HKITHLIC ; TILL lG*ty. [rEnion i. 
 
 coiiportod for cxtiMMiiinatinj; tlio liorr>.'»y by the influence of llio Guises 
 in France and Grnnvellas in Spain. 
 
 G. Even before Philip left tlio NcIIktIuikIs for Sjniin, 
 tlicrc were continual ronij)lainls, partly rcspectinsj; the 
 Spanish garrisons, partly on account of the penal edicts 
 ap:ainst heresy. But neither the personal conduct of the 
 king, nor his scheme of government, (hy which Margaret of 
 Parma, his half sister, was, with the assistance of Granvella, 
 to assume the regency,) gave any hope of redress ; while 
 the additional severity of the edicts after his return to Spain, 
 and the changes eftected in the hierarchy', gave just grounds 
 for apprehending, not only the subversion of the constitu- 
 tion, but even that last badge of tyranny, the establishment 
 of the Spanish inquisition in the Netherlands. 
 
 Tlie statcs-ponoral convened before bis (lf])artnre (antnnin, lo.oO). — 
 ^Vlictlier the {h'eaded inquisition Avas to be titat introduced by Cliarles 
 v., lor enlbrcing Ids edicts, or the Spanish inquisition in all its forms, 
 was of little consequence. It excited ecjual terror in the professors of 
 the old and the new faitli, and the fermentation therefore spread tlu'ough 
 all tlie provinces. 
 
 7. In paying our due tribute of abhorrence to the ty- 
 ranny of Philip II. we are bound, as imjxu-tial historians, to 
 consider the o])inions upon whicli he founded it. Accord- 
 ing to his belief, unity of religious faith was the only warrant 
 of civil fjuiet, and as such it became his immediate object. 
 Educated in these opinions, he thought the history of his 
 own time offered ample confirmation of them. M hile his 
 active but narrow mind could not comprehend that the 
 remedy was nmch worse than the imagined evil, and must 
 moreover finally prove ineftectual. 
 
 Government of I^Iarparet of Parma as (stadtholdress) from 1559 — 
 Sept. 15G7. The recall of the detcstccl (Jranvclln, 1562, could produce 
 no essential change, since the measures adojitcd were not merely his, 
 but ratht'r Philip's. 
 
 8. The troubles broke out as soon after the signing of 
 the comi)romise as a rallying point could be established ; 
 but the insurrection was so ill concerted that the })lan of 
 suppressing it by an armed force, upon whicli the Spanish 
 cabinet had secretly resolved, ])roinised an easy success. 
 The alfair might have been still more roadily settled, had 
 Philip known how to unite concession with authority. All 
 here now depended upon his choice of a leader; and by 
 
 \ 
 
PAHT I.] RISE OF THE DUTCH REPUBLIC; TILL 1609. 67 
 
 the appointment of the duke of Alva he put an end to all 
 hope. 
 
 The compromise signed at Brussels, Nov., 1565, and formally de- 
 livered to ]\Iargaret, April 5, 1566. Those who signed it were taunt- 
 ingly called beggars, gueux. Philip's plan was, to send the Spanish 
 troops in Italy to the Netherlands, under Alva, who arrived there at 
 their head in August, 1567, with such authority that the duchess of 
 Parma, the former regent, took her departure. 
 
 9. Alva's reig-n of terror ensued. The prin- ., , . 
 
 Y -n -1 1 Al'f'as roign of 
 
 cipal persons who still remained were arrested, *^"°''- 
 
 • 11 1 T-i 1 TT 1 1567-1573. 
 
 especially the counts h,gmont and Home, and a 
 tribunal with power of life and death, entitled A Council 
 for the suppres.sio?i of Disturbances, was established as a 
 mean of quelling rebellion and rooting out the heresy. Ty- 
 ranny in this as in other cases felt the recoil of a blow which 
 it had aimed at others ; for although quiet was restored, it 
 was at the expense of so much violence as to threaten the 
 emigration of many thousands of all classes ; an evil as 
 much beyond the power of the despots as the confiscation 
 of their property was within it. 
 
 General act of outlawry promulgated against the Xetherlanders, as 
 rebels against the royal authority. — Numerous executions, especially of 
 Egmont and Home, Jan. 5, 1568. — And yet the exaction of the tenth 
 penny, 1569, operated fai' more powerfully than the erection of the 
 council of blood ! 
 
 10. The last hope of freedom, then, rested on a band of 
 emigrants, who could have done little for their countiy, had 
 they not reckoned among their number a man formed ex- 
 pressly for the occasion. As a general, William of Orange 
 has been surpassed by many : as the head and leader of an 
 insurrection, he has never been equalled. Who, but he, 
 could have kept together elements so adverse ? Wlio ever 
 achieved so much with such small means ? And who ever 
 understood, as he did, the union of honest efforts for his 
 country with sure advancement for himself? Success could 
 not be reasonably hoped for the first attempts at liberty ; 
 the insuro;ents were too inferior in the field to risk a decisive 
 action, and too ill supplied with money to keep an army 
 long afoot. The only course for the Water-Gueux, was to 
 observe the Spaniards closely, and discover their weakest 
 point. At length the taking of Briel gave the insurrection 
 
 F 2 
 
G8 HKSi: OF Tin: ditch UKI'UIU.IC; till 1G(KI. litmoD I, 
 
 a (Ictcrniinatc cliarnotcr, and by niakiiip; the northern jiro- 
 viiK'cs its j)riiici|)al theatre, ti'ave an assurance of its issiic. 
 'i'he stat(\s of IloUand, Zrahiiul, and L'trcclit, iiaiucd Vt \\- 
 liani of Oranp;e royal stadlholder. 
 
 ITnsurccssful attack of Louis count of Nassau upon Fricslaml, and of 
 lii.s brotlicr, the j>rinec of AVillidin, on IJrabant, I.IGH. Kii^c and in- 
 creases of the Watcr-duiMix from loTO, the prince jrrantinj^ letters of 
 nianpic and reprisals. Captin-e of Uriel, April 1, 1072, when the in- 
 surrection breaks out in most of the cities of lloUand and Zealand. 
 Alva was able, witli what few troops he had, to suppress it in single 
 cases, but not generally. 
 
 11. Weak as were the resources of the insiirtrcnts, they 
 liad no reason to despair of foreign aid. Their cause became 
 more and more the cause of the Protestant reherion, and 
 therefore more and more connected witli general politics. 
 The Protestant princes of (Jermany, the Huguenots in 
 France, at that very time battling for their rights, and above 
 all Elizabeth of England, the rival of Piiilip, seemed to 
 regard the cause of the insurgents as their own. Tiie first, 
 however, could afibrd but little assistance, the others none 
 at all, and thus Elizabeth became the only eft'ective ally. It 
 recjuired all the activity and prudence of the prince to im- 
 prove these relations, whilst at the same time he had to con- 
 tend with the yet greater internal obstacles, thrown in his 
 way by religious and family jealousies. 
 
 The assistance of the German ]»rinccs and the German empire was 
 first solicited by the prince ; but aUhough he was not wholly unsuccess- 
 ful in single cases, yet the family connexion of Austria and Sj)ain pre- 
 vented a universal espousal of his interest. Of much greater importance 
 was the influence of the disturbances of the Huguenots; both by the 
 hopes which they encouraged, and the personal connexions of the prince 
 in France. But after the horrible massacre of St. Bartholomew, (Aug. 
 24, lo72,) wliat assistance couM they afibrd to strangers? The par- 
 ticipation of iClizabet'i, alone, (that of Denmark and Sweden was so- 
 licited in vain.) led to any great results. But it was soon felt, perhaps 
 more strongly than was justifiable, tiiat a friend may be even more 
 dangerous tiian an enemy. Not till an o])en quarrel arose between l-.er 
 and Spain, (l.jK7,) was an honest friendship ]i(issible. And would it 
 under any circumstances have been possible, couM Elizabeth have then 
 foreseen that the navy and commerce of the rising republic would in 
 twenty years outstrip those of England? 
 
 1'2. After Alva's departure the cause was threatened by 
 new and even greater perils from Zuniga y Reguesens, liis 
 successor. This ruler possessed greater moderation, which 
 
PART I.] RISE OF THE DUTCH REPUBLIC; TILL 1609. 69 
 
 was seconded by a defeat of the rebels on Mooter moor, 
 and by repeated attacks on Holland and Zealand ; he was 
 thus a very formidable antagonist, and the prince himself 
 had began to despair, when mutinies among the ill-paid 
 troops of Spain and the opportune death of Reguesens 
 came to his aid. The project of establishing a fixed point 
 as head-quarters of the insurgents, was effected by a closer 
 union of Zealand and Holland ; while the atrocious sack of 
 Antwerp was mainly instrumental in drawing five of the 
 Batavian and six of the Belgic provinces into the league of 
 Ghent ; their professed object being common protection, 
 without, however, any declared resistance to Philip. 
 
 Departure of Alva, Dec, 1573. His successor, Reguesens, stadtholder 
 till March 5, 1576. Louis, count of Nassau, and Henry his brother, 
 defeated and slain at Mooker moor, near Nimuegen, April 14, 1574. 
 During the interregnum of the council of state, after the death of 
 Reguesens, Antwerp was pillaged by the Spanish soldiers, Nov. 4. 
 Pacification of Ghent, Nov. 8, 1576. 
 
 13. The new stadtholder, Don Juan, by becoming a party 
 to the league of Ghent, appeared determined on obtaining 
 peace at any price, and it required all the vigilance of Prince 
 ^^ illiam to render his artifices ineffectual. In this lie for- 
 tunately succeeded by raising the hopes and courage of 
 Holland and Zealand. Meantime the league of Ghent fell 
 to pieces of itself, and thus confirmed the belief that it was 
 only by a closer union among the northern provinces, and 
 by a rupture with the Spaniards, that freedom could be at- 
 tained. To effect this the prince organized the confederacy 
 of Utrecht, and thus laid the actual foundation of the future 
 republic ; as far, however, as the confederacy itself was 
 concerned, it formed the basis neither of a pure republic, 
 (i. e., without any princely authority in its constitution,) 
 nor yet of one strictly Batavian. The main object, it is 
 true, was to unite the northern provinces, but that accom- 
 plished, any of the southern states were at liberty to join it. 
 
 The union of Utrecht concluded, Jan. 23, 1579, between Holland, 
 Zealand, Utrecht, Gelderland, and Groningen. Friesland and Overys- 
 sel acceded, June 11, as also Ghent, AntAverp, Breda, and other Belgic 
 cities. 
 
 14. But notwithstanding these precautions the nomina- 
 tion of Alexander of Parma as regent, on the death of Don 
 
70 RISE OF Tin: DL ICII KKTUDLIC; till IGI'O. [lERioD I, 
 
 Juan, ajjpoarrd to throw every former crisis into sluidc. 
 IMulip eould have selected no one more fitted to cope witli 
 the prince ; tind his elioice was appi'oved l)y tlie recoiujuest 
 of the Bel'^ian provinces, wliicli was accompHslied by this 
 officer. Tlic entire separation, however, of these provinces 
 from those of the nortli was perliaj^s tlie most fortunate 
 thin<^ that could iiappen. The need of foreign assistance, 
 ■which in those days implied foreign supremacy, was never 
 more needed than now ; and i^s it was at len;j,th eHectually 
 given, the political sphere over which the insurrection ex- 
 erted its inHuence, became much enlarged ; still, however, 
 it required a new blow to i^ive rise to new wants, before a 
 republic could be lorined i'roin its materials. 
 
 Regency of Alexander of Parma from Oct. 1, 1578, to Dec. 2, 1592. 
 Tlie \Valloons returned to their alk-rriancc by the treaty of !May 21, 
 1579. The others were gradually .^ulijected by the comiucst of the-ir 
 cities, till the capture of Antwerp, Aug. 17, loSo. On the other hand, 
 tiie constituted sovereignty of the United Provinces was conferred on 
 Francis, duke of Aiijou, 1581 — 1583, and now, for the lirst time, all 
 lealty to Spain was laid aside, July 26, 1581. But no one, who was 
 not greater tlian the ])rince of Orange himself, could, by tlie side of that 
 ]>rince, sustain the station of sovereign. The duke of Anjou retired, 
 June, 1583. 
 
 15. Assassination of the prince, just as he appears on 
 the point of attaining to his long planned object of being 
 elected by the states to the rank of count (or constitutional 
 sovereign) of Holland and Zealand. Nothing but the 
 weight of his personal character could have ellected this : 
 and althouo'h his son Maurice succeeded to the trust of his 
 father, yet in his very nomination, the states of Holland 
 and Zealand exercised an act of sovereignty. Still, how- 
 (•vcr, the difficidty of their situation was such as to make 
 iIkmu eager to ])Ut themselves under Elizabeth. And not- 
 withstanding her refusal of the su])reme power, great things 
 might have been ellected had the conduct of her afVairs been 
 in more able hands than those of Leicester. Meantime, 
 however, the accession of Olden liarneveld to the post of 
 grand pensionary, and his undaunted ehnnipionship of the 
 constitutional rijihts of the States, decided the future form of 
 the republic. 
 
 After the murder of William I., July 10, 1584, ^Maurice is appointed 
 stadthoMer of Holland and Zealand, and afterwards recognised by four 
 
TART I.] RISE OF THE DUTCH REPUBLIC; TILL 1609. (1 
 
 of the other provinces ; a council of state, however, Vv'as jilaced around 
 him. A treaty is concluded with Elizabeth, who sends a body of aux- 
 iliary troops, upon receiving as pledges three harbours ; but she secui-es 
 to the earl such influence, that she cherished hopes of being able to 
 rule by him. The earl becomes involved in continual quarrels with 
 the States, down to his resignation, Dec, 1587. 
 
 16. But by far the most important consequence of these 
 relations with England, not for the infant republic only, but 
 for all Europe, was the open war with Spain in which 
 Elizabeth thus designedly engaged. From that time for- 
 ward the interests of both states became inseparably allied : 
 while the defeat of the invincible armada not only gave the 
 best charter of independence which the republic could de- 
 sire, but opened to either country that noble field of unre- 
 stricted navigation in which they severally attained their 
 chief greatness and renown. 
 
 The causes of the rancour between Philip II. and Elizabeth, were 
 founded in their religious and political relations, both in Europe and 
 foreign countries (see below, history of colonies). The injuries done 
 to Spanish commerce by privateering, and the support, at iirst secretly 
 but afterwards openly, extended to the Netherlands, created the project 
 of conquering England, in pursuance of the Pope's donation, and as a 
 sure mean of quelling the insurrection of the Netherlands, 1587. Ex- 
 pedition of the invincible armada, and its fate, between July and Oct., 
 1588. The Spanish war was continued by Elizabeth till her death, 
 April 3, 1603. 
 
 17. Many other circumstances concurred with their naval 
 superiority to render the States independent ; but each step 
 towards it led them deeper into general politics. The sup- 
 port afforded by Philip to the party of the league against 
 Henry IV., induced him to send the duke of Parma with 
 a large portion of his troops into France. The death of 
 this general and the accession of Henry IV. were two new 
 supports of her independence, since Henry found it advis- 
 able to enter into an alliance with her, when he declared 
 war in form against Spain. Thus recognised by France 
 and Eno'land, victorious under Maurice in his battles and 
 sieges, and mistress of the sea, v/hat hopes could Philip yet 
 harbour of subjecting the republic. He appeared himself 
 convinced of this, since a short time before his death, he 
 settled his portion of the Netherlands as a dowry on his 
 daughter Isabella Eugenia. The contest was, however, pro- 
 longed under his successor Philip III., till the year 1609, 
 
1~ RISK OF Till-: UITCII HHI'IIU.IC; TILL \CA)9. [rtninn i. 
 
 ^vlirn, nftrr tlio poaco of Spain willi Franco at ^'nrvins, aiul 
 that with Janit's I. attor tlic death of" Ehzahctli, tlie Nether- 
 lands were compeUed to prosecute it alone ; and even then 
 (lor Spain was unwilling to make too large concessions) it 
 was suspended not by a peace but by a truce of twelve 
 years, by which the independence of the republic was tacitly 
 acknowledged. 
 
 Camprtifrns of tlie duko of Parma in France, 1.390 — 1.j92. lie died 
 Dec. 2, \')[)'2. — Henry IV. entered into an alliance with Knprland an<l 
 tlie Ketlierlands, Oct. 31, Lj9G, after tlie declaration of war ajjainst 
 Spain, Jan. 16, 159.3. — Amiens lost and reconquered, 1-397. — Separate 
 peace was concluded at Vervins, M.ay 2, 1.598. The Sj)anish Netiier- 
 lands conferred l)y I'iiilip II. on his dauprhter Clara Isabella Eugenia, 
 a.s a dowry, on occasion of her marria^ie with Archduke Albert of Aus- 
 tria, lo9H.— Death of Philip II., Nov. l.?, 1.398.— The war feebly car- 
 ried on by land under his successor Philip HI., but on the ocean 
 prosecuted with much spirit, and a succe.^sful expedition accompli>ihed 
 under James Ilcemskerk against the coast of .'^pain, 1007. Negotiations 
 commenced the same year, and continued by the mediation of Henry IV. 
 through the president Jeannin (to sustain the influence of France); 
 they are rendered, however, very difficult, by the controversies respect- 
 ing the religious freedom of the Catholics, and the East Indian naviga- 
 tion. The truce of twelve years, between the archduke and Spain, 
 signed April 9, 1609. 
 
 18. Thus in the midst of the monarchical system of 
 Europe, a republic became formed, which even during her 
 rise had become so deeply involved in the relations of this 
 system, that she could not avoid taking an active particijia- 
 tion in all that concerned it. She had obtained an object 
 to w hich she had not aspired ; her internal constitution, 
 therefore, had not been wholly changed, but occasionally 
 altered according to the exigence's ol" the moment : is it 
 strange then that it should have been imperfectly formed ? 
 The preponderance of the j)r()vince of Holland, however, 
 caused the want of a federation to be less felt; the origin 
 of the states-general, 159"i, created a point of union for 
 f )rcion affairs ; and for her internal stability she was indebted 
 to the hap|)y circumstances, that the dignities of stadtholder, 
 and of grand pensionary of Holland, constituted two situa- 
 tions in which great men could act with eflect. The Armi- 
 nian controversies which soon ensued, causing a rupture 
 between the house of Orancre and the States, and brinirino; 
 Olden Barneveld to the scaffold, demonstrated that the 
 
PART 1.] FRANCE. 155C— 1G18. 73 
 
 republic already contained within her bosom the seeds of 
 dissolution. 
 
 19. Little as the origin of such a republic changed the 
 general character of the monarchical system of Europe, it 
 nevertheless exercised a very strong influence upon it. Such 
 a commercial state, and such a naval force, Europe had 
 never before beheld. It was a new kind of weight that this 
 state threw into the political scale ; and ships, colonies, 
 and commerce, acquired a wholly different value in prac- 
 tical politics, from what they had ever before possessed. 
 The seeds of good and evil had brought forth plentifully ; 
 but as yet men were scarcely able to distinguish which was 
 the good and which the evil in so luxuriant a growth. Even 
 in later times, how little have they learnt to make the dis- 
 tinction ! 
 
 II. A view of the chavfjes which took place during this period in 
 the other leading states of the West of Europe, and of their 
 results. 
 
 1. Although the revolution in the Netherlands excited 
 the interest of the neighbouring states, it did not exclusively 
 occupy their attention. They had their own particuUu' 
 clianges, which affected their domestic and foreign relations, 
 and therefore their political character. These, then, re- 
 quire to be considered, before we pursue further the his- 
 tory of the political system of Europe. 
 
 '2. They originated, directly or indirectly, in the Reform- 
 ation. The causes of excitement, which it spread, operated 
 differently in the several states. France, Spain, England, 
 and Germany, wiU here especially claim attention. 
 
 I. FRANCE. 
 
 3. The present period was to France, for thirty Eeiisiou=iirars. 
 years, the period of religious and civil wars, J'^^-i'^- 
 which threatened to overthrow the throne itself A great 
 prince not only rescued it from the horrors of anarchy, but 
 in fifteen years raised it to an elevation of power, which 
 enabled him to meditate a political transformation of Eu- 
 rope : but his fall again made it the sport of faction, till 
 
71 riiAN(;r,s in iiii; status of wkstehn Kiuori:. [lumoDi. 
 
 Richelieu, after a lapse of ft)iirteen years, p:rasj>e(l the Iwlin 
 of state with his vijjiorous hand. Still, iiotwitlistaiulmix all 
 the confusion and vicissitudes of the period, its history turns 
 on a few leading persona<j:;es, and oives a further proof, that 
 in times of important revolutions, it is the character of great 
 men, rather than the intellect of shrewd ones, ^\hich directs 
 the course of events. 
 
 Davila, Tsforia dcUe guerre cirili in Fraiicia. Vcnozia, 1G30, 4(o. 
 Numerous otlicr editions have been publisiietl. The best French trans- 
 lation is by M. 1,'Ar.r.K M. (Mai.i.kt). Anistenhiin, 1757, 2 vols. 4to. 
 The author, who was in tlie servii-e of France and Venice, was contem- 
 porary witii, and in several instances a witness of, the events he describi-s. 
 
 [The best Kn<rlish translation is that of Ki.Lis Farnewoutii, Loud. 
 1757, 2 vols. 4to.] 
 
 (L. P. ^Vnqikth.) Esprit dc la Hf/ue, on histoire politriftie des trnn- 
 hles de France, pendant le 16 et \7 siecfe. Paris, 1771, 3 vols. 8vo. 
 From 1.3o9 to 1599. Very useful for self-instruction. 
 
 The contemporary memoirs that belong here, are : 
 
 Mcmoires dc Michael de Castklnau, servans^ a donnerla ri rife de 
 r/iistoire des regnes de Francois II., Charles IX., et Henri III., (from 
 1559 to 1570,) angmentis, par J. G. Labouueur. Bruxelles, 1731, fol. 
 In the Collect. Gen. T. xli. — xlvi. The observations of Laboureur 
 have added thus much to its bulk. 
 
 Mt moires dc Caspar de Saulx S. de Tavaxxes, drpuis loZOjnsf/u* 
 (I sa tiwrt 1573, dresses par sen Jils. a Paris, 1574, fol. In the Col- 
 lect. Gin. T. xxvi. xxvii. Important for the latter years. 
 
 Mimoires dc Pn:RRE de BorRDEU.LE S. de Brantome. h. Leyde, 
 1GG6, 6 vols. 12mo. A lively delineation of tlie luxury and dissolute- 
 ness of the age, particularly among the higher classes; drawn from his 
 own experience. 
 
 4. The general apjiearance of the French civil war, is 
 that of a war of religion, but at the same time it was pro- 
 moted by the respective attempts of the two chiefs to take 
 advantage of the king's weakness, and acquire the govern- 
 ment. The domestic relations of the court, therefore, are 
 as important as the relations of the religious jiarties; for 
 the elements of the war lay even more in the jealousy of 
 the Bourbons, as princes of the blood, towards the powerful 
 families of the nobility, especially the Guises, than in any 
 religious intolerance. 
 
 5. But when the flame liad once burst forth, and the 
 Bourbons had become the chiefs of the Huguenot fliction, 
 no speedy suppression of it could be expected, because it 
 was not only fed by fanaticism, but by the personal passions 
 of the leaders. The three first religious wars were properly 
 
FART 1.] , FRANCE. 155G— 1618. 'S'S 
 
 but one, each interrupted by a truce, called a peace ; they 
 were without any definite result, because the opposite party 
 was ahvays forced to concede to the Huguenots what the 
 edict of the noble chancellor L'Hopital would 
 have conceded to them berore the war. but 
 fanaticism, which must always rage for its full time, retained 
 the ascendency; and aided by the discontents of the time, 
 produced the dreadful massacre of St. Bartholo- 
 mew's eve, which deferred all approximation of 
 religious parties, even out of France, for almost a century. 
 
 The first war, Marcli, 1562, terminated by the edict of Amboise, March 
 19, 1563. — The second war, Sept., 1567, and was terminated by the 
 peace at Longjumeaa, March 23, 1568. — The third war, Sept., 1568, 
 ended by the peace of St. Germain en Lave, Aug. 8, 1570. The mas- 
 sacre of St. Bartholomew caused the fourth war, which was terminated 
 by the peace of Rochelle, June 24, 1573. 
 
 6. These first wars had already occasioned the interference 
 of foreign powers, since both Elizabeth and some of the Ger- 
 man princes had given assistance to the Huguenots. But 
 the convulsion did not become actually important to gener- 
 al politics, till the weakness of the miserable Henry UL, at 
 the close of the fifth v/ar of religion, gave rise Leasup. 
 to the leao-ue — an association of Jacobins, dis- ^^-'J' i^'*'- 
 guised under the fashion of the age. For a chief, like 
 Henry of Guise, the throne itself was the only object : and 
 why did he not take possession of it, when by 
 the flight of the king it stood actually vacant 
 within his grasp? He soon fell the victim of "'''■^" 
 an assassin ; and the question respecting the future succes- 
 sion now engrossed the attention, not only of France, but 
 also of foreign countries, since Henry of Bourbon was a 
 Huguenot, and by the murder of the last Valois, the right- 
 ful heir to the throne. This prince had to make good his 
 rights by the sword ; and though he received some assist- 
 ance from Elizabeth, it was the interference of foreign 
 powers which rendered the conflict arduous and long. Not 
 even his abjuration could induce either Philip H. or the 
 Pope to give up their plans. But the Bourbons retained 
 the throne, for a great man stood at their head. 
 
 Though the league existed as early as 1576, and had led to repeated 
 commotions, 1577 and 1579, (sixth and seventh wars,) its full operation 
 
70 CHANCHS IN TUK STATES OF WESTERN ErUOI'E. (rcnmr i. 
 
 bi'^nn fri>m the time when tlio oxtincliou of tin; Valnis with Ilciny III. 
 was certain, after tlie (U-ath of Franeis (hil%c of AKmu^oii, fAnjou,) June 
 10, lo84. Ilcnee its renewal, its central jjoint in Paris umlcr the six- 
 ti'i-n, and the edict of Nemours forcilily obtained a;:ainst the Ilii^juenots, 
 .Inly 7, loH.j, of which the eighth war, 1;j85 — lof).j, that terminated 
 with the capture of Paris, Marcli 22, lo94, was the consequence. The 
 ne;rotiations with the Pope could only have been successfully terminated 
 by the great diplomatist the Cardinal d'Ossat. 
 
 7. T1ioii'j:1i France was tlius saved from anarcliy, tlie 
 source ot" llicsc (li<turbaiiccs was not yet closed. ISeitlier 
 of tlie two parties was wholly annihilated, while the Ilujiue- 
 nots still lit'ld their political existence by a very doubtful 
 tenure. lU>t fantiticisni was iu some measure cooled ; and, 
 thanks to the compacts concluded since the time of L'Hopital, 
 the idea of toleration was not altop;ether lost, even in the 
 midst of these troubles. A prince, wlio like Henry 1\ . 
 possessed the confidence of his people, was in a situation to 
 cflect much ; and thus the edict of Nantes, and consequent 
 security of the Huguenots, were the more easily brou<;lit 
 
 about. Still, however, the partisans on either 
 side remained armed, and the peaceable ]:)re- 
 servation of tlieir rights depended more on the personal clia- 
 racter of the monarcli and tlie circumstances of the times, 
 than on the edict. Beneficial as was the influence of the 
 Huguenots in almost every branch of civilization, the in- 
 ternal constitution could hardly ac(juire a stable character, 
 so long as the government had to fear an opposition, which 
 could so easily be abused by the ambition of its leaders. 
 
 8. Greater stability, however, was given to the forms of 
 foreign policy ; and the uninterrupted intluence of France 
 on the political system of Europe, was perceptible immedi- 
 ately on its regeneration. The hatred to Sjxiin, whose ex- 
 cessive ])ower was the dn^id of Europe, took deeper root 
 tliiiu ever, on account of Philip's intrigues during these 
 troubles. Scarcely was (piiet i-estored in France, when 
 o|)en war was somewhat prematurely declared against Philip 
 H., and to support it England was, with difficulty, and Hol- 
 land more easily, induced to an alliance. To rise above re- 
 ligious diflerences was ever the constant merit of French 
 policy. 
 
 War with Spain, l.")!)."), terminated by a separate peace at Yervins, 
 ^lay 2, 1.j98. A mutual restitution made of conquests (see above, p:ige 
 71). An end thereby put to Philip's ambitious views on France. 
 
PART I.] FRANCE. 1556— 1G18. 77 
 
 9. With the consciousness of power, increased 3^,^ European 
 as it was under Sully's administration, new pro- wpubuc. 
 jects were formed, which concerned not France merely, 
 but were intended to change the whole system of Europe. 
 The idea of what was termed a European republic, or a 
 union of states, the members of which should be equal in 
 power though dissimilar in form, and submit their con- 
 troversies to the decision of a senate, seems to have been 
 an idea long and deeply meditated ; nay, it had even been 
 actually proposed to Elizabeth. A prince, who had grown 
 up in the midst of a revolution, 'which he had himself 
 terminated victoriously, would be highly susceptible of 
 revolutionary projects, and with him all his contemporaries. 
 But did the project spring immediately and solely from his 
 hatred of Spain and Austria, or did it result from the re- 
 flections of a master mind, which, foreboding the certain 
 approach of a general crisis, such as the thirty years' war 
 soon produced, was anxious to become in time the director 
 of its course, and able to turn it to the advantage of 
 Europe ? Hov»ever this may be, the humiliation of the 
 house of Hapsburg was certainly the first object attempted • 
 and the republic, so called, was kept in the background, 
 as a favourite idea. The whole project was ripe 
 
 I. . , • <> 1 1 1 ^ay U, 1610. 
 
 tor execution, when it was irustratecl by the 
 dagger of the assassin Ravaillac. 
 
 Estimate of the project and its practicability, according to Sully's 
 accounts. Preparations made in England, Italy, Germany, and the 
 Netherlands. The general hatred against Spain -was the impelling 
 motive, and the vacant succession of Cleves and Juliers was to supply 
 a pretext. The five elective kingdoms, and the concession of the two 
 Indies to Spain, may furnish later politicians wijh matter for sarcasm ; 
 but the moderation of Henry offers in return a weighty lesson. 
 
 10. However unfortunate for France might be the mur- 
 der of Henry, it is difficult to say how far it was so for 
 Europe. It saved her from an immediate great war, the 
 issue of which must have been the more uncertain, in pro- 
 portion to the remoteness of its aim. But France lost with 
 him, and with the removal of Sully by the fury of the court 
 factions, which were rekindled by the civil wars ^^^^ 
 under Mary of Medici, almost all foreign influence. 
 What was it to other countries, whether a Marshal d'Ancre 
 
<H riI.\N(;i:s in TIIK statics of -VVESTEHN EUROPK. [rnmoD I. 
 
 or a Lii\ IK'S |j;ui(lc(l (lie liclin of state ? IIjipj)y was it, tliat 
 other countries knew not how to take a(lvantap;e of their 
 inilxvility. M'hen, however, it was delivered into the firm 
 and steady liand of l{i(diehen, a nr'w and vigorous inthienee 
 was ajjain obtained in the all'airs of tlie political svstein of 
 Europe. 
 
 Ilistoirc (Jc la mere ct (hi Jils, rest a dire dc Marie dc Medieis femme 
 dii gratid Henry; et mere de Louis A'///., par L. F. IMkzkilvv, (or 
 ratlior by Ki(in:i,n:u,) 2 vols. 12ino. i\ Ani.-<tcr(lani, 1730. It comes 
 down to' 1620. 
 
 lie de Marie de Medieis, Heine dc France et de Navarre^ 3 vols. 
 8vo. kV&vh, 1774. 
 
 II. SPAIN. 
 
 11. Spain, yet more than France, acquired durinn; this 
 period a fixed character from its kinp;, Philip II. Catholi- 
 cism and its maintenance was made, more than ever, the 
 basis of politics, and so in fact it still remains. The conse- 
 fpience Avith respect to foreign relations, was wars with half 
 of Europe, France, the Netherlands, England ; all to no 
 purpose ! Nay, even for tiie nation itself it was an unhappy 
 chance, tliat prevented the entrance of the great revolution 
 of ideas then abroad. I'he loss of all share in those advan- 
 tages, wliich it so liberally produced elsewhere, threw Spain 
 into the background, while it advanced the nations around 
 lier. 
 
 \'2. The treasures of America, then, were not tlic chief 
 cause of tlu; decay of Spain. The intellect of lier people 
 was fettered ; she nimed at a fruitless dominion of the sea; 
 she mingled without success in all the disputes of her 
 neighbours ; and even her one success, the conquest of 
 Portugal, turned to her disadvantage. 
 
 Portugal ami its colonies were usurped after the extinction of the 
 male line there, lo80. If the powers of a state increased in j)ropor- 
 tion to the square miles it contain, and the niunher of its inhabitants, 
 tlie splendiil period of Spain must now have begun. 
 
 Liis Cahukua di: Coupoua, Jstoria del Hey Felipe IT. ; en Madrid, 
 1719, inlio. 
 
 The history r>f JViilip II., hinr/ of Spain, by KoB. WatsoV, 2 vols. 
 4to. London, 1777. Unhappily little else than an account of external 
 •wura. 
 
PART I.] ENGLAND. 1556—1618. "79 
 
 13. It was Philip II., therefore, that made Spain 
 what it has since remained. The expulsion of the 
 ]\Ioors gave it a new blow ; and the mode of government 
 bv ministers, which under Philip III. became a 
 
 •^ , r _ j5Cg 1G21. 
 
 maxim of state, tended to accelerate its downfal, 
 as the ruling favourites were never veiy successfully chosen. 
 History of the rdgn of Philip HI., by Watsox. 4to. London, 1783. 
 
 Iir. ENGLAND. 
 
 14. England, no less than Spain, acquired its character 
 as a state during this period ; and to have given it this cha- 
 racter, is the great merit of Elizabeth. Here, too, religion 
 was the basis, but then this was the Protestant religion ; it 
 preserved, however, the hierarchical forms as a support of 
 the throne, while the king was declared the supreme head 
 of the church. Religion thus became a fundamental part 
 of the constitution ; and the conviction, that both must 
 stand or fall together, became more and more deeply im- 
 pressed on the national mind. 
 
 15. These circumstances naturally established the rela- 
 tions of England with the continent. Elizabeth became 
 the opponent of Philip II., and it was this conflict with 
 Spain that called out all the energies of the nation, and laid 
 the foundation of its greatness by directing these energies 
 to the attainment of maritime superiority. Thus the Pro- 
 testant religion was the foundation of British power. The 
 interests of the government and nation were the same ; and 
 Elizabeths successor, though apparently more powerful in 
 the possession of Scotland, by attempting to separate these, 
 prepared the ruin of the former. 
 
 Besides the chapters in the general works of Hume and Eapin, we 
 mention ; 
 
 Ca^idexi Annales rervm Anglicarum et Hihernicarum, regnante 
 Elizabetha. Lond. 1675, folio. 
 
 De Keralio, Ilistoire (T Elizabeth, reine cF A/tgleterre. Paris, 1786, 
 5 vols. 8vo. 
 
 IV. GERMANY. 
 
 16. Germany, during the present period, gave rise to 
 few occurrences of general interest to the rest of Europe • 
 
80 rilAN(ii:s IN THE STATES OF WESTERN ELHOl'E. [teuiod i. 
 
 but as r('li;j;ii)ii 1i:h1 hccoiiic tli(^ niainsprinp; of all politics, 
 the country uliicii had been its cradle, could never be- 
 come wholly unimportant. ^^ hile the two parties after the 
 jjcaee were watching each other with a distrust, which petty 
 occurrences helped to increase, it was felt in foreign coun- 
 tries, that a war, breaking out here, must almost necessarily 
 become universal. The personal character of the emperors, 
 1 1564. both Ferdinand I. and his milder son Maximilian 
 1 1576. II., contributed much towards j)rcserving the peace ; 
 1 1012. j^jj^j Rudolph II. was willing to leave the world 
 undisturbed, if the world would but leave him in fjuiet. 
 
 17. This was nevertheless the period during ^vhich the 
 great storm gathered. While continual collisions could not 
 fail to give rise to small causes of controversy, the Jesuits, 
 who had established themselves in Austria from the time 
 of Rudolph II., contributed essentially towards inflaming 
 the hatred. The consequences were, associations on both 
 May 4. law. sidcs ; the evangelical union under the electorate 
 Aug. 30. 1000. of the Palatinate, and the C'atholic league under 
 Bavaria ; both in themselves weak, although both capable 
 of becoming dangerous : the latter, indeed, was already iu 
 some deo;ree become so from the character of its leader. 
 Duke Maximilian. In this unsettled state of affairs, the 
 competition for a small German country, like Juliers, Cleves, 
 and Berg, was sufficient to expose, not Ger;nany merely, 
 but Europe, to the dangers of a general war, wliich was 
 only suppressed by the murder of Henry W. and the in- 
 ternal di.-^sensions in the hou.«^e of Austria, during v.hich the 
 indolent Rudolph II. was gradually driven from the pos- 
 session of his whole dominion by his brother Mathias. The 
 further d('veloj)ment, however, of the relations of this house, 
 since the succession had already been secured by 
 Mathias, to the bigoted Ferdinand of Stiria, and a 
 clos(T connexion formed with tlif Spanish line, opened no- 
 thing but the most melancholy prospect. 
 
 Tlie vaoanoy of Julier.'', Cloves, and Bcrjr, in March, 1609, caused 
 at first only a contest between Saxony, IJrandenburp:, and the Palati- 
 nate of Ni'uhiirjT, the two last of which put thr-niselve.s in possession, 
 and remained .«o after the treaty at Xanten, Nov. 12, 1614. But it 
 was the interference of forei^xn powers that made tliefpiarrel so import- 
 ant, since, 1. the emperor sequestrated the country, 2. Henry IV. joined 
 
PART I.] CHANGES IN TURKEY, ETC. 155G— 1618. 81 
 
 the union against it, and after his murder, 3. the contest arising between 
 the princes who were in possession, involved Holland and Spain. 
 
 18. Happily for the west of Europe, the relations in tlie 
 east during this period were less menacing, though not 
 much more peaceful. The wild spirit of conquest of the 
 Porte perished with Solyman II. His successors, educated 
 in the seraglio, were hardly ever to be seen at the head ot 
 their armies ; and the nation itself underwent those changes, 
 whicli no nomadic people, that has hitherto existed, has 
 escaped ; although no immediate weakness ensued. Thus 
 Austria attained by slow but progressive steps to the full 
 possession of Hungary ; but the position of Transylvania, 
 which insisted on having its own princes, was a source ot 
 strife ; and yet greater might be foreseen from the introduc- 
 tion of the new religion, although liberty of worship was as 
 early as 1606 allowed to its professors. 
 
 Solyman II. died during his campaign in Hungary, Sept. 4, 1566. — 
 A truce was concluded for eight years, and repeatedly prolonged till 
 1593. The Tui-ks still retained a great part of southern Hungary. — 
 The grand victory over their fleet, after the conquest of Cyprus by the 
 Venetians and Spaniards, at Lepanto, Oct. 7, 1572, deprived them of 
 the preponderance at sea. — The Hungarian war was renewed, 1593 — 
 1606 ; most of the fortresses fell into the hands of the Austrians ; 
 although in the truce of twenty years, 1606, the Turks retained some 
 of them. 
 
 19. Politics appear, in this period, by no means under 
 an improved aspect. Subject to the controlling influence 
 of fanaticism, they too often sanctioned the adoption of any 
 measures which that fanaticism pronounced good. Al- 
 thougli some distinguished individuals, as Henry, Orange, 
 and Elizabeth, rose above the age, they were for ever sur- 
 rounded by the conspiracies of assassins, to which some of 
 them fell victims. The influence of the priesthood was 
 unfortunately greater than it had ever been before ; and 
 the Jesuits were not the only ones who abused it. What 
 the spirit of intolerance could do, even among Protestants, 
 was but too clearly shown in Holland and Saxony. 
 
 20. Political economy attracted more attention in this 
 period than in the former, because necessity demanded it. 
 In France it was promoted by Sully, and Ehzabcth felt its 
 importance; but the finance system of the Dutch had the 
 greatest influence on foreign countries. 
 
 G 
 
82 GENEIIAL HHMAHKS. 1556— 1G18. [iehiod I. 
 
 Sully's sy.-'tpm was no otlirr than tliat of onlcr aii<l fniirality. IIo 
 wa.s a {jreat rct'ornior, because proat abuses were prevalent ; an<l an 
 elevateii stren^'tli of character supported his correct insi;_'iit into allairs. 
 ^Io<lern schools shouhl not ri'I'er to him ; he knew nothiii;^ of their 
 sublime speculations. His rule did not depend upon general positions, 
 but upon what was expedient for France. And happy it was for his 
 fame, that the direction of private activity on the pari of governments, 
 was tlien so much less the iashion. 
 
 Mt'moires drs rot/ulrs (Eco/ioniiis (rctnt par Max. DK BETIirNE, DUG 
 PK Sully. First edition, 1G.50 — 16G2, 4 vols. fol. The last perfect 
 one is Londres, 1778, 10 vols. 12mo. (The edition parJI. D. L. D. L. 
 (he l'Eclu.se de Logics) Lon<lres, 174.'5, 3 vols. 4to, is not merely 
 reduced to a modern style, but remodeled in a totally different form.) — 
 A treasure for posterity ! 
 
 Elnrjrs dc Sully ct Jcs OSconoinics roi/ales, par I^Iir^mjeau, 2 vols. 
 8vo, 1789. 
 
 The system of indirect taxation was first perfected in Holland. The 
 exi"'encies of the last war were met by the excise, which other states 
 afterwards introduced, and which became so much the more important 
 to modern Europe, as its revenues increased in the same proportion as 
 luxury. 
 
 21. Many circumstances combined to promote tlie ad- 
 vancement of the art of war. The system of stand in^^ 
 armies was further matured in France and Holland ; by 
 Henry IV., on account of his situation, and the great desip:ns 
 he had in view ; in the Netherlands, by necessity dui'ing- 
 the long- war. France, nevertheless, had not in peace more 
 than fourteen thousand, the republic scarcely twenty thou- 
 sand men. The talents of Henry, Main-ice, and Alexander 
 of Parma, and other great generals, could not but improve 
 the system of military tactics ; the art of conducting sieges, 
 especially, was carried to the highest perfection. Nothing 
 like the naval power of England and Holland had ever 
 been seen before. The royal navy of Britain, founded by 
 Henry ATI!., first grew into importance under Elizabeth ; 
 and the Dutch force at sea soon became formidable, both 
 from the fleet of the States themselves and those of the 
 great trading companies. 
 
 HI. Ilisforij of the Colonics, from looG to 1018. 
 
 1. The colonial affairs of the Europeans, and the general 
 commerce founded on them, underwent the most import- 
 ant changes during this period. These were principally 
 
PART I.] COLO>;iAL AFFAIRS, 1556—1618. 83 
 
 caused by the monopolizing pretensions of the Spaniards, 
 which excited the jealousy of other nations, and gave rise 
 to wars. It was during this period, that, 1. the establish- 
 ments of the Portuguese in the East Indies fell to pieces ; 
 while, on the other hand, 2. the Dutch reared theirs and 
 usurped the commerce of the w^orld ; and, 3. the English 
 entered upon the field and became the rivals of the latter. 
 But, 4. a different form was given both to commerce and 
 colonial politics, by the establishment of great chartered 
 companies. 
 
 2. The Portuguese dominion in the East In- 
 dies had been declining a long time, from the 
 corruption which had entered into its internal government ; 
 its ruin was accelerated by exterior events. The former are 
 to be traced in the decline of morality, with which the spirit 
 of heroism and patriotism among the higher classes had 
 perished, and in the avarice and sensuality, which in the 
 Indies were carried to such a shameless extent, that the 
 Portuguese name excited horror. As the sole desire of each 
 was to enrich merely himself, the Indies soon cost the crown 
 more than they yielded. But in the organization of the 
 administration, there were also defects which hastened its 
 downfal. 
 
 The principal defects of the Portuguese administration in India seem 
 to have been the following: 1. The veiy frequent (at least triennial) 
 changes of A^icerojs, wliich were usually attended by a change of most 
 of the other officers. The offices were therefore triennial benefices. 2. 
 The restrictions, which gradually became greater and greater, of the 
 power of the viceroys ; partly by the council placed at their side, partly 
 by the division into three "independent governments, jMonomotapa, 
 (Ceylon,) India, and IMalacca, by King Sebastian, 3. The state of 
 commerce, which, left open to the civil and military officers, degener- 
 ated into monopolies, which were often very oppressive. 4. The de- 
 fective administration of justice, modeled strictly after that of the 
 mother country. From the decisions of the highest tribunal {relaeaon) 
 there was, with few exceptions, no appeal. 5. Tlie overwhelming in- 
 fluence of the clergy, who, by their wealth, made themselves masters of 
 every thing ; and the tyranny of the inquisition, which was no where 
 more severe than in Goa. 
 
 Ohservacones sobre las principaes causas da decadencia dos Porlu- 
 guezes na Asia, escritas por DiOGO do Couto, en forma de dialogo co- 
 mo titido de Soldado pratico, publicadas de ordem da Academia real 
 das sciencias de Lishoa, por Axtoxio Caetaxo do Ainaral, Lisboa, 
 1790. — The author, himself a commander in India, wrote his work in 
 the form of a dialogue, between a soldier who had returned and one 
 
 G 2 
 
84 COLOXIAI. All AIHS, 1W6— 1C18, [innion f. 
 
 wlio lia<1 born appointed povornor in Goa, 1606. It rcmainfil in nianii- 
 M ript till till' ncadoiiiy purcliascd and jjiinti'd it. 'Jliis i.s a .«ouito, 
 liillurto unknown, fur acipiiiing an exact knowledge of this miserable 
 administration. 
 
 ',]. To those interMial causes, some for(M;xn ones arc to be 
 added, even hetorc tlie rivalry of tlie Dutch. It Avas Avith 
 ir.71. difliculty tliat the Portuguese sustained the attacks 
 '■^i- ot" the native princes ; and tlie union with Spain 
 was in itself an evil for its eastern possessions, since they 
 were subscciucntly not only nej2,lcctcd, but also exposed to 
 the attacks of the enemies of Spain. 
 
 Macao in China obtained, 1585, in consideration of services rendered 
 against the jiirates. As a station for the China trade, and more espe- 
 cially the Japan, the settlement was of great importance. 
 
 4. Brazil soon felt the consequences of this union, for it 
 became the mark of Enf;lish freebooters. French buca- 
 niers, too, had attempted a settlement on the charming 
 island of Maranham, but being soon driven away by the 
 
 1G12. Portuguese, they made themselves masters of the 
 northern re<iions, round the mouths of the river 
 
 iGu. Maragnon ; from whence arose the governments of 
 Gram Para and Maranham. The exertions of the Jesuits to 
 convert the natives were unhappily rendered of no avail by 
 the iniquitous attempts made by the colonists to enslave them. 
 
 Btlem, the capital of Gram Para, founded, and the mouths o^ the 
 river Maragnon explored, 1618. 
 
 0. riif possessions in Africa and those in Brazil mutually 
 
 influenced each other, since the former only furnished slaves 
 
 for the latter. The animosities which were thus caused led 
 
 to the establishment of St. Paolo di Loanda, and 
 
 thence to the subjugation of Congo and Angola, 
 
 which it was intended to secure by missions. 
 
 0. Spain made an important addition to her 
 ^'"'"""' colonial .'iystem, not only by the acquisition of the 
 Portuguese ])ossessions, but also by the usurpation of the 
 Philippine islands in the East Indies, ^^'hat might not 
 these islands have become, through the communication with 
 India and China on the one side, and Mexico and Peru on 
 the other, had not the severe restrictions imposed upon them 
 rendered it impossible? 
 
 Possession taken of the Philippines, 1564, for founding missions. 
 
PART 1.] COLONIAL AFFAIRS, 1556— 1GI8. 85 
 
 Lu^on, the principal island, occupied, 1572, and a settlement made at 
 Manilla. The administration committed to a viceroy ; but the priests 
 •were the principal landed proprietors. — A regular trade was established 
 in 1572 between Acapulco and Manilla, by means of only one or two 
 ships, (the galleons of the South Sea,) despatclied once a year. Great 
 losses occasioned by tliis to the government, and complaints made re- 
 specting the silver exported from Mexico. Religion only prevented the 
 total abandonment of the islands. 
 
 The regulations respecting the Philippines, made by Philip II., and 
 afterwards those by Phihp III., are to be found in the Leyes, especially 
 L. IX. Xo other king ever made so many regulations in the colonies 
 as Philip IL, and yet the only new institution he introduced there wa3 
 the inquisition. (See p. oG.) The regulations on this subject may be 
 found in the Leyes, L. I. tit. 19. 
 
 7. While the Spaniards, now masters of the Portuguese 
 colonies, claimed the sole dominion of both Indies and tlieir 
 seas, two new nations, the Dutch and the English, entered 
 the field as their rivals, and tore from them that which, 
 from its very nature, they could never have maintained. 
 During; their conflict for liberty, the Dutch had 
 
 O . , , *' . Dutch, 
 
 already succeeded in obtainino- possession of the 
 commerce of the world ; tlieir activity was unfettered by 
 restrictions, and they soon became aware that the Indian 
 branch was best worth possessing, while Philip's interdict 
 only excited their desire to obtain it. The first 
 voyage, successfully accomplished by Cornelius 
 Hautman, roused a universal emulation to participate in 
 this trade, and several free companies were formed for the 
 purpose. 
 
 To account for the prosperity of the Dutch trade during the war, we 
 must remark, 1. that the states of Holland had for a long time carried 
 on a considerable commercial intercourse both with the east and west of 
 Europe, and possessed very important fisheries ; 2. that a spirit of ad- 
 venture was awakened by tlie privateerings of the exiles on the water ; 
 and it was found out how weak the Spaniards were on the sea ; 3. that 
 when the port of Lisbon was closed against the Xetherlands in 1594, 
 they saw themselves forced to the alternative, to lose their carrying 
 trade in Indian goods, or import for themselves from India, Finally, 
 4. many capitalists removed from Belgium to the Dutch cities. 
 
 Besides the works mentioned, p. 23 : 
 
 Geschichte des HoUandischen Handeh, nach Luzak's Hollands Llyk- 
 dom bearbeitet, von A. F. Ludee. Leipzig, 1788, 8vo. 
 
 8, Rise of the Dutch East India Company, D,„eh Enst m- 
 and its organization. Circumstances show that '•'» •-'^"'i' '"J- 
 the dominion of this powerful corporation could only be 
 
86 COLONIAL AIIAIKS, 1:).jG—1G18. [runioD i. 
 
 gradually funned ; l)ut \\\v. loadin;^ features of its constitu- 
 tion were inunediately developed. According to its first 
 charter, afterwards constantly renewed, it was a political as 
 well as mercantile body ; in the latt(>r resj)ect wln)lly indt;- 
 j)cndent, in the former little more than nominally subordi- 
 nate to the states-general. 
 
 Its first charter wa.^ {Trantt'd Mart-li 29, 1602, by wliicli it acquired, 
 1. the nion«»]X)ly of the Dutch tnide beyond the Cape and the Straits of 
 JIafiellaii ; 2. the right of transacting jMjlitical matters and of making 
 settlements in India, always, Jiowcver, in the name of the states-ge- 
 neral. The funds of the company consisted in stock, to the amount of 
 about si.x millions and a half of guilders ; it was divided into six cham- 
 bers, of which the one at Amsterdam alone had half, the one at Zealand 
 one-fourth of the wiiole. The company in Holland was governed by a 
 board of seventeen directors or managers, ("^elected from the greater 
 board of the sixty directors of the separate chambers,) who had the cliief 
 direction of its all'airs. Each chamber took care of its own concerns, 
 the fitting out of its ships, its own purchases and sales. In India, in 
 1610, a governor-general was appointed, or supreme civil and military 
 magistrate, who was, however, assisted by the council of the Indies, out 
 of tlie members of which were chosen the governors and the governors- 
 general. The number of governors naturally increased with the en- 
 largement of territory. 
 
 History of the D. E. I. Company, in the JIuIlischcn Alhj. JJ'df-IIis- 
 torie, B. 26. — The materials of its history are scattered, partly in tlic 
 works on the commerce of Holland, partly in travels in and descriptions 
 of the East Indies. 
 
 a ( sell ic fife (Ifs Ilollaudischcii Colonial ircscns in Ost'mdicn ; von F. 
 Saai.fki.I). Gotting. 1813, 2 vols. 8vo. — The writer enjo^-ed the use of 
 hitherto unknown but oilicial accounts respecting financial alfairs. 
 
 9. So far as settlements and possessions in 
 
 -, , . . 1 ,. <• 1 • n Dutch. 
 
 India itseli were necessary tor the prosecution oi 
 the Indian trade, the establishment of this company seems 
 justified ; these could not then be effected either by private 
 persons or by the stale. And who at that time knew the 
 evils inseparable from monopolies? Though the company 
 did at last sink nnder them, it nevertheless remains, — less 
 on account of the extent than the permanency of its pros- 
 perity, — an unparalleled phenomenon, which could no 
 •where exist excrjit among a ])eople who could become ex- 
 ceedinglv rich without becoming luxurious. 
 
 10. 'J'he ruling maxims of the company were soon deve- 
 loped. The strict maintenance of its monopoly, a strict 
 watch over its ofllcers, an entire prohibition of any trade on 
 
TAUT 1.] COLONIAL AFFAIRS, 155G— 1618. 87 
 
 their part, promotion according to merit, but never except 
 regularly, as well as the most punctual payment, — these 
 were the means by which it soon rose so high, that Holland 
 derived a great portion of its riches through this channel. 
 In its settlements in India, it at first employed the IMolucca 
 and Sunda islands, where Batavia on Java was already fixed 
 upon as the seat of its Indian sovereignty. By confining 
 itself afterv/ards chiefly to the islands, it escaped the various 
 revolutions of the continent of India, wliere at that time the 
 Mongolian empire was so powerful, that the thought of 
 making conquests could not be entertained. 
 
 Though the Dutch coukl only obtain settlements in India by force of 
 arms, they were aided by the general hatred of the Portuguese. — 
 Establishments were made at Amboyna, Banda, Ternate, and Tidoi-, 
 from the year 1607. — Intercourse opened witli Japan, 1611. — A set- 
 tlement had existed on Java from 1618, and Jacati'a was taken and 
 destroyed, when Batavia was founded there in its stead by Koen, 1619. 
 
 11. The rapid prosperity of this company created every 
 v\'here a prejudice in favour of such institutions, so that by 
 degrees several of the most important branches of tJie com- 
 merce of the republic were committed to privileged associa- 
 tions. And if these monopolies were injurious, the extraor- 
 dinary variety of means of gain caused the injury to be less 
 felt. The whole proud structure of the manufacturing, 
 commercial, and colonial system of the Netherlands, was 
 then displayed in all its parts, although not completed till 
 the ensuing period. 
 
 12. Tlie Eno-lish, too, under Elizabeth, became 
 
 O ' ' _ _ ' English. 
 
 active and successful competitors in the great 
 branches of general commerce. Having been trained by a 
 long and considerable traffic with their neighbours, they 
 were naturally prepared for bolder speculation and enter- 
 prise, and soon extended their views to the most distant 
 regions of the world. The intercourse they already had 
 with Persia, by way of Russia, was soon followed by a con- 
 nexion with the two Indies. But the pretensions and re- 
 sistance of the Spaniards in those seas, necessarily excited 
 continued hostilities. For a long time, however, (till the 
 war of 1588,) it advanced no fiirtlier than piracy and 
 privateering, whicli was excited by the rich liomeward- 
 bound cargoes of the Spanish ; but although petty in its 
 
58 tOLUMAL Air.MU.S, 10:,G_1G18. [PERIUD I. 
 
 imturc, it rxtendcd ovor the whole seas, even to tlie circuiii- 
 nuvigation ot tlie globe. 
 
 A coiniiu'rce luul been ooniiiK'iKiul in looS with Russia, by way of 
 Arcluinjr<'l, I'avoiircil l)y C/ar Ivan \'a.silc\ itch ; ami over thi; C'ii>i)ian 
 Si'a to I'tTsia, and even to India. — Vain attiMujjts made to disc-over a 
 Jsorth-Kast or Nortli-Wist passajro, especially by Forbisher, Davis, 
 Hudson, etc., lo7() — 1010. Drake's voyage round the world, loTT — 
 1580. The lirst Knglish voyage to India, round the Cape, loyi. 
 
 A. Anderson's Historical Deduction, etc., see page 23. 
 
 13. AVitli the progress of this remote foreign commerce, 
 the spirit of monopoly revived in Enghmd ; and no one 
 made more liberal use of it than Elizabeth. The principal 
 branches of fonngn commerce were conferred on chartered 
 
 comi)anies: thus were formed tlie ]{ussian, the 
 
 i-VH- 1561. . . 
 
 African, the Turkish (Levant) companies, that of 
 adventurers on the continent, and otlicrs. It was in entire 
 accordance with the spirit of this system, tliat tlie com- 
 merce witli the East Indies should be committed exclusively 
 to a company, who, however, like the rest, were confined to 
 mercantile and had nothing to do with political measures. 
 
 The old East India Company received its charter, Dec. 31, 1600. It 
 received, as the Dutch did shortly after, the exclusive right of trailing 
 to all the countries and places situated beyond the Cape and the Straits 
 of Magellan, not yet occupied by any European power. The Hist 
 voyage was made under Lancaster to Achem on Sumatra, and Bantam 
 on Java, KiOl ; and commercial treaties were concluded with the native 
 princes. But possessing nothing but factories at Bantam, Achem, etc., 
 (and esj)ecially at Surat, since 1G12, on account of the Persian trade,) 
 and no forts, it could not compete with the Dutch, especially on tlie 
 ^Moluccas, the object of both ; and its trallic remained very limited. 
 
 Ainuils of the Ihniournhle Kast India Conipan;/, from tlidr istnh- 
 lishnicnt hij the eluirter of Quren FJizdlnih, 1(300, to the union of the 
 London and English East India Companies, 1707 — 1708, by rloiiN 
 Bkuck, Esq., hii per of his Mojrstifs state papers, and historioyraplier 
 to the Honourable East India Compani/, Luiuion, 1810, 3 vids. 4to. A 
 sim]>Ie narrative, in the form of annals, entirely drawn from public 
 documents, and therefore the leading work for the history of the lirst, 
 or London Company. 
 
 14. During this period, also, the British founded settle- 
 ments on the coast of North America, whose prospects of 
 success as agricultural colonies depended upon very differ- 
 ent grounds from those of the others. The great ol)stacles 
 which the savage nature of the country and natives threw in 
 the way, could only be overcome by the most persevering 
 
PART I.] COLONIAL AFFAIRS, 155G— 1618. 89 
 
 industry ; but was it not this very circumstance that laid the 
 foundation of a structure which was to endure for ages ? 
 
 First, though unsuccessful, attempts made under Elizabetli from 
 1578, in the hopes of finding countries rich in gold, especially under 
 Raleigh in 1583 and 1587. But the first chartered society for this pur- 
 pose was formed under James I., after the peace with Spain. The 
 London and Plymouth companies chartered, 1606. The former for tlie 
 southern part of the coast, (Virginia, 34° — 41° N. lat.,) the latter for 
 the northern, (New England, 42" — 45° N. lat.) Only Virginia flourished 
 to any extent. Foundation of Jamestown, the first town on the Chesa- 
 peake bay, 1607. — Cultivation of tobacco in Virginia, and negroes in- 
 troduced, 1616. The Bermuda islands occupied by the London com- 
 pany, 1612, but the colonies could not prosper under the restrictions of 
 the company. The colonists, however, brought with them a taste for 
 free government. In 1619 the first general assembly was convened, 
 and a constitution modelled after that of the mother country. — Dispute 
 of the king with the company, and its abolishment, 1624. The pros- 
 perity of the Newfoundland fishery was connected with these under- 
 takings. The whale fishery of Greenland was pursued with great suc- 
 ces by the English, as early as the year 1600. 
 
 W. Robertson, History of America, books ix. and x., containing the 
 history of Virginia to the year 1688 ; and of JS^ew Erigland to the year 
 1652, Lond., 1796. Tiie best account of the rise of the British set- 
 tlements. 
 
 [_A history of the Colonies planted by the English on the continent of 
 North Ame)-ica,fro)n their settlement to the commencement of that war 
 which terminated in their Independence. By John Mahshall. 8vo.] 
 
 15. Though these attempts were but a weak beginning, 
 they necessarily led, in connexion with the pretensions of 
 the Portuguese and Spaniards, to the maintenance of the 
 freedom of the sea, which England and Holland defended 
 with the sword, and Grotius with the pen. A wide field 
 was now opened for practical politics ; but the immediate 
 influence of the colonies upon them could not yet be great, 
 because the enterprises we have mentioned were all private 
 adventures, which government permitted, without affording 
 tliem any fin-ther encouragement. It was yet some time 
 ere privateering and hostilities in the colonies were followed 
 by wars between the mother states. 
 
 Hug. Grotius, mare liherum, sive de jure quod Batavis competit ad 
 Indice commercia, Dissertatio, Lugd. Bat. 1618. 
 
 16. France, also, made some attempts to found ^^^^^^ 
 colonies, but the few which did not altogether fail, 
 
 were rather important for the future than the present. They 
 were confined to North America, where, from the com- 
 
00 PRKLIMINAUY OBSKRYATIONS, 1C18— ICCO. [period i. 
 
 nicncemcnt <»!' the sevcntcontli rciittirv, lli(3 sottlemonts in 
 Canada and Acadia accjuircd o-rcatcr stability by tlio found- 
 ation of Quebec. But the culture ot" the soil was less the 
 real object, than the trade in peltry and the fisheries. 
 
 FOUrvTTI rEPvIOD. From 1G18 to IGGO. 
 
 As a general leading work iluwn to 1G37, KnEXTlxnuLXEn, sec above, 
 page Gl. 
 
 1. Tlie important poneral wars which distina;uis]i this 
 period were the necessary cause of a closer connexion of 
 interests amonp; the European states ; England alone stood 
 aloof, being sufficiently embarrassed by her own civil broils. 
 The causes of this lay, 1st, in the much nearer alliance which 
 again took place, on Ferdinand's accession to the throne, 
 between the Spanish and Austrian families, and which was 
 further cemented by the influence of the Jesuits at the two 
 courts; 2dly, in the policy of Cardinal Richelieu, (directed 
 against the house of Hapsburg,) and his extensive influence 
 in Europe ; 3dly, in the effect which these circumstances 
 produced by bringing the northern })Owers, especially Swe- 
 den, to take part in the disputes of southern Europe. 
 
 2. Politics and religion remained during this period as 
 closely interwoven as before ; the latter was still the spring 
 which set the former in motion. The Reformation was the 
 source of most of the storms which arose : but these, which 
 in the former period had been almost confined to single 
 states, now shook the whole political system of Europe, and 
 were followed by more general consequences. 
 
 I. Ilistonj of Ihr lliirl;/ years'' nar a/nl //.v rcsiilh, douii to t/ie 
 peace of IVestphalia a/nl t/ic Pyrenees. 
 
 The history of the thirty years' war constitutes an interesting sec- 
 tion of the history of the German empire ; but is most imj)()rtaiit lur its 
 bearing's on the law of nations. A treatise upon it l)y an historian who 
 shall regard it in its most interesting light, tint is, as it alVected Europe 
 and the whole age, is still a desideratum. The works deserving of men- 
 tion are : 
 
 Jlistoirr drs yurrrcs et vryociations qui priccdrrcnt Ic traite de JJ'cst- 
 pfiolir, compoxi'c sur Ics nu'inoirrx du Compte. d'Arniix, par GuiL. IIlA- 
 CYNTUE BoUGEANT. Paris, \lo\, 3 vols. 4to. The compiler was a 
 
PART I.] THIRTY YEARS' WAR, 1G18— 1G43. 91 
 
 Jesuit. The two last parts contain the history of the conckision of 
 peace. 
 
 J. C. Krause, Geschichte des dreissigjdhrigen Kriegs und Westphd- 
 lischen Friedens. Halle, 1782, 8vo. 
 
 Geschichte des dreissigjdhrigen Kriegs, von Fk. Schiller. Liepzi"-, 
 1802, 2 Thle. 8vo. 
 
 Geschichte des dressigjdhrigen Kriegs, von Lorenz Westenrieder, 
 in the Mi'mchner historischen Calendar, 1804 to 1806. By no means 
 devoid of original inquiries and views. 
 
 3. The thirty years' war made Germany the centre-point 
 of European politics. It was not, however, a war carried 
 on from beginning to end with one plan and for one ob- 
 ject. No one at its commencement could have foreseen its 
 duration and extent. But the train of war was everywhere 
 laid, and required only the match to set it going : more 
 than one war was joined to it, and swallowed up in it ; and 
 the melancholy truth, that war feeds itself, was never more 
 clearly displayed. 
 
 The general causes of the spread and duration of this war, consisted, 
 1. in the participation which the German league took in it; 2. in the 
 renewal in 1621 of the war between Holland and Spain, which became 
 interwoven Avith the German ; 3. in the implication of the northern 
 powers, especially Sweden, since 1635 ; 4. in the share taken in it by 
 France from 1635. — These, however, were only the external causes. 
 It would not have continued so long without the internal, — the spirit of 
 religious faction, the consequent dissolution of the constitution of the 
 empire, (no diet having been convened since 1613,) and the projects 
 and hopes, which were gradually formed in various quarters. 
 
 4. Though the war, which first broke out in Bohemia, 
 concerned only the house of Austria, yet by its originating 
 in religious disputes, by its peculiar character as a religious 
 war, and by the measures adopted both by the insurgents 
 and the emperor, it acquired such an extent, that even the 
 quelling of the insurrection was insufficient to put a stop 
 to it. 
 
 Spread of the Protestant party (^ntraqnistes) throughout Bohemia, as 
 well as Austria and Hungary, Avhere Bethlem Gabcr, Vaivode of Tran- 
 sylvania, seized the thi'one through tlieir co-operation. First disturb- 
 ances break out in Prague, caused by the abuses of the imperial go- 
 vernor, May 23, 1618, and the war Ijegun under jNIathias (f 20th of 
 jVlarch, 1619). Revolt of his successor Ferdinand II., and the crown 
 of Bohemia bestowed on the elector Ferdinand V. of the Palatinate, 
 Aug. 26, 1619. — As the head of the Protestant union, as the son-in-law 
 of James I., and as the ally of Bethlem Gabor, he had sufficient re- 
 sources both witliin and without Germany if he had but known how to 
 
92 TIUKIY VI:a1!S' WAU, 1G18— 1G4*. |iEnioD i. 
 
 uso tlirni. — Tlio countcr-niovpnicntfl of Ferdinand II. wrro liijrlilv ju- 
 diriims, for bcinji already in alliance with Spain, he <:ained over tiie 
 leafrne also liy the compact with Maximilian of Bavaria, (Oct. 8,) made 
 Saxony his own, and rendered the Union impotent. Kven before the 
 defeat on the AVhite nu>untain near Pra^rue, Nov. 8, 1G20, the fate of 
 Fri'derie V. mi;rht he considered as decided. — Suhjugation of Bohemia, 
 nimihilation of its privi!(\ires, and horrible revenjje. 
 
 (usrhirhtp (lis (Ircissif/Jd/irif/r/i Kricr/s juir/i uttgrdruchtrri Pfipirrm, 
 von C W. BuKYKK. Munich, ISll. The first volume, and uidia|)pily 
 the last, reaches from IGlo to 1()21. It is in reality a history of >Iax- 
 imilian of Bavaria, and the part he took in the war, compiled from 
 orifrinal documents in his own hand-writing, and private correspondence ; 
 with much secret information respecting the internal and particularly 
 the psychological relations. 
 
 5. TIkhiltIi the Bolicniian war uas apparently toniiinatcfl, 
 yet the tlanie liad coniinuuicated to Cieriimiiy and Hungary, 
 and new fuel was added by the act of proscription promul- 
 pntcd aii'ainst the elector Frederic and his adherents. From 
 this the war derived that revolutionary character, wliich was 
 henceforward peculiar to it ; it was a step that could not 
 but lead to further results, for the question of the relations 
 between the emperor and his states, was in a fair way of 
 being practically considered. New and bolder projects 
 were also formed in Vienna and Madrid, where it was re- 
 solved to renew the war with the Netherlands. Under the 
 present circumstances, the suppression of the Protestant re- 
 ligion and the overthrow of German and Dutch liberty 
 appeared inseparable ; while the success of the imperial 
 arms, suj^ported as they were by the league and the co-oper- 
 ation of the Spaniards, gave just grounds for hope. 
 
 An edict of proscription published against elector Frederic, Jan. 22, 
 1621, and the electorate conferred on Bavaria, Feb. 2.5, 1(323. — Disso- 
 lution of the I'nion, and the war transferreil to the I'alatinate, the 
 hereditary dominion of Frederic, by the aid of Spanish troops from the 
 United Provinces, under Spinola. Tilly, tiiough at first defeated by 
 Ernest of ManslieM at Wi«.l()ch, April 29, 1022, achieves a victory over 
 the margrave of Ba<U'n at ^Vimpfen, May 6, and over Christian of 
 Brunswick at Ilochst, June 20: capture of the whole I'alatinate. But 
 Krnest and Christian remained undaunted, as long as there were any 
 hopes of aid from England, and Lower Germany continued to ofler them 
 support. 
 
 G. By the carrying of the war into Lower Saxony, the 
 princij)al seat of the Protestant religion in Germany, (the 
 states of which had appointed Christian IV. of Denmark, as 
 duke of llolstein, head of their confederacy,) the northern 
 
PART I.] THIRTY YEARS' WAR, 1GI8— 1618. 93 
 
 states had already, though without any beneficial result, 
 been involved in the strife, and the Danish war had broken 
 out. But the elevation of Albert of Wallenstein 
 to the dignity of duke of Friedland and impe- 
 rial general over the army raised by himself, was of consi- 
 derably more importance, as it affected tlie whole course and 
 character of the war. From this time the war was com- 
 pletely and truly revolutionary. The peculiar situation of 
 the general, the manner of the formation as well as the 
 maintenance of his army, could not fail to make it such. 
 What place was there for him and his plans, whatever these 
 might be, in the old order of things ? 
 
 Danish war from 1625 — 1629. — Defeat of Christian IV. at Lutter, 
 near Wolfenbuttel, Aug. 27, 1626, while Wallenstein drives the coiuit 
 of Mansfield from the Elbe to Plungary, where he died, Nov. 30. — Pro- 
 secution of the war against Christian IV., principally by "Wallenstein, 
 who recovers the countries on the Baltic as far as Stralsund, 1628. — 
 Peace with Christian IV. at Lubeck, in consideration of the restitution 
 of his lands, and the renunciation of all right of interference in the af- 
 fairs of Germany as king of Denmark, and the sacrifice of his allies, 
 especially the dukes of ^Mecklenburg, May 12, 1629. 
 
 7. The distinguished success of the im.perial arms in the 
 north of Germany unveiled the daring schemes of Wallen- 
 stein. He did not come forward as conqueror alone, but, 
 by the investiture of Mecklenburg as a state of the empire, 
 as a ruling prince. The age was already accustomed to 
 changes in the legal state of possession. Coronets had been 
 already seized ; why not crowns ? 
 
 The dukes of Mecklenburg put under the ban of the empire, Jan. 19, 
 1628, and "Wallenstein immediately invested with their territories. — He 
 held possession of Pomerania also, and was ci'eated generalissimo of tlie 
 fleets in the ocean and Baltic. The dominion of the Baltic, which he 
 hoped to obtain through the Hanseatic towns, was to be directed against 
 Denmark and Sweden, and who could say what were his ulterior pro- 
 jects ? 
 
 \^Alhrechts von JVaUcnsfcin, Diihe of Friedland and ^[ecklenhunf s 
 imprinted confidenticd autograph Letters, and Official Papers, from 
 1627 to 1634, to Arnheim, Aldringer, Gallas, Piccolo?nini, a?id other 
 princes and generals of his time. With a Life and Character of IVal- 
 lenstein. Published by Fred. Fokster. Part I., Berlin, 1828, 8vo (in 
 German). The first part of this collection, so important for the real and 
 accurate information it gives us respecting this remarkable man, only 
 comprises the years 1627-28, and leaves us highly desirous of the re- 
 mainder.] 
 
Slurcli 9. 1C29. 
 
 94 TllIliTY YKAKS' WAll, ICIS— 1G18. [ikbiod i. 
 
 S. Hut tlir elevation and conduct of tliis fiorifs Iiomn^ ex- 
 asperated and annoyed the Catholic no less than the Protest- 
 ant states, especially the lenp:iie and its chief; all imj)lor(?d 
 j)eace, and \\ allenstein's discharo-e. Thus, at the diet of the 
 electors at Auiisburo;, the emperor Avas reduced 
 
 Julv. IGM. , , P „'^' . . ' , . I • II- 
 
 to the alternative or resigning liim or his allies. 
 1I(> chose the former. Wallenstein was dismissed, the ma- 
 jority of his army disbanded, and Tilly nominated com- 
 mander-in-chief of the forces of the emperor and the league. 
 
 (And. Sf.b. Stumpf.) Di})Iomatische Geschichte dcr Deutsrhcn 
 Lifft/e, im Mteti Jdhrhuudcrl. Mit Urkunden. Erfurt, ISOO, 8vo. One 
 of the mo:>t important contributions to the critical liistory of this war. 
 
 9. On the side of the emperor sufficient care Avas taken 
 to prolong the war. The refusal to restore the unfortunate 
 Frederic, and even the sale of his upper Palatine to Bavaria, 
 must with justice have excited the apprehensions of the 
 
 other princes. But when the Jesuits finally suc- 
 ceeded, not only in extorting the edict of resti- 
 tution, but also in causing it to be enforced in the most 
 odious manner, the Catholic states themselves saw with re- 
 gret that peace could no longer exist. 
 
 The edict of restitution contained the two principal points, that, 1st, 
 according to the rcservatitm ccclesiasticum, (see p. 47,) tlie property 
 confiscated since the treaty of Passau should be restored ; and 2ndly, the 
 religious peace (all appearance of opposing wliich was assiduously 
 avoided) should only extend to such as had approved of the confession 
 of Augsburg, but not to the whole reforming i)arty. What, tlien, may 
 be a-ked, was left to the Protestants ? But the mode of enforcing the 
 etlict, by means of imiierial troops, produced almost more bitterness than 
 the edict itself. 
 
 10. The greater the success that attended the house of 
 Austria, the more actively foreign policy laboured to coun- 
 teract it. England had taken an interest in the fate of 
 Frederic V, from the first, though this mterest was evinced 
 by little beyond fruitless negotiations. Dc'iunark became 
 engaged in the quarrel mostly through the inlluence of this 
 
 1G24 power and Holland. . Richelieu, from the time he 
 became prime minister of France, had exerted him- 
 
 '®"' self in opposing Austria and Spain. He found 
 
 employment for Spain in the conte.sts respecting Veltelin, 
 
 and for Austria soon after, by the war of Mantua. 
 
 \\'illingly would he have detached the German 
 
FART I.] THIRTY YEARS' WAR, 1618—1648. 95 
 
 league from the interest of the emperor ; and though he 
 failed in this, he procured the fall of V/allenstein. 
 
 Interference of France in the disputes between Spain and the Grisons 
 respecting Veltelin, important on account of its situation, 1620, termi- 
 nated advantageously for France and the Grisons, by the treaty at 
 Itloncon, March 5, 1626. — Mantuan war of succession, in favour of the 
 duke of Kevers, with Austria, 1627 — 1630, who remains in possession, 
 by the treaty of Chierasco, April 6, 1631. Thus the supremacy of 
 Spain in Italy was again broken, and French influence re-established ; 
 which also remained in possession of the frontier fortresses. 
 
 11. Much more important, however, ^yas Richelieu's in- 
 fluence on the vv'ar, by the essential share he had in gain- 
 ing Gustavus Adolphus' active participation in oustavus Adou 
 it ; though he neither expected nor wished, that ^'"'*- ''^• 
 he, whom he desired to use only as a tool, should seem half 
 inclined to reverse the relation. The nineteen years of his 
 reign which liad already elapsed, together with the Polish 
 war, w^hich lasted nearly that time, had taught the world 
 but little of the real worth of this great and talented hero. 
 The decisive superiority of Protestantism in Germany, under 
 his guidance, soon created a more just knowledge, and at 
 the same time show^ed the advantages w^iich must result to 
 a victorious supporter of that cause. 
 
 Gustavus Adolphus lands in Germany, June 24, 1630, and an al- 
 liance, almost forced, formed between the leading states of Upper Sax- 
 ony ; Pomerania, July 20, Brandenburg, ]May 4, 1631, and Saxony, 
 (which endeavoured in vain to maintain its independence by a league ot 
 neutrality at Leipsic, March, 1631,) while measures were taken for the 
 future acquisition of Pomerania. Subsidiary treaty with France, Jan. 
 13, 1631, at Biirenwalde ; and, previously, a voluntary alliance with 
 William, landgrave of Hesse, Xov. 8, 1630. — After the horrible fate ot 
 INIagdeburg, May 10, 1631, he still needed a great victory to repair his 
 injured credit. 
 
 12. The battle at Leipzig was decisive for Gustavus Adol- 
 phus and his party, almost beyond expectation. The league 
 fell asunder ; and in a short time he was master of the coun- 
 tries from the Baltic to Bavaria, and from the Rhine to Bo- 
 hemia. What hopes, what plans, must such success have 
 given rise to, both in him and many of his followers ! But 
 the misfortunes and death of Tilly, brought Wallenstein 
 again on the stage as absolute commander-in-chief, bent on 
 plans not a whit less extensive than those he had before 
 formed. No period of the war gave promise of such great 
 
96 lllIinY VKAUS- WAR, ICIS— 1G18. [rcnion i. 
 
 iiiul niiid successes or reverses as the present, lor both 
 leaders were deterniiiied to efVect tlieiu ; hut the 
 victory of Liit/.en, while it cost Gustavus his life, 
 
 prepared the fall of W allcnstein. 
 
 The victory of the king, in connexion with Saxony, near Lcipzi;;, 
 Sept. 7, 1G31. — Conquest of Bohemia by the Saxons; advance of the 
 kinj; into tlie territory of the leaguers, and after the battle of Lech, 
 April o, 16:52, (at which Tilly was killed,) into Bavaria as far as Mu- 
 nich. May 7. — Tiie king and Wallenstein opposed to each other at 
 Nuremberg, June — Aug. — The war transferred to Saxony. Battle at 
 Liitzen ; and Gustavus Adolphus and Pappcnhcim shiin in the combat, 
 Nov. 6, 1G32. 
 
 13. Though the fall of Gustavus Adolphus frustrated his 
 own private views, it did not those of his party. It was, 
 however, already felt in Germany, that even Swedish do- 
 minion might be oppressive ; and the jealousy of Saxony 
 was not extinguished even by victory. The school of Gus- 
 tavus produced a number of men, great in the cabinet and 
 in the field ; yet it was hard, even for an Oxenstiern, to 
 preserve the importance of Sweden unimpaired ; and it was 
 but partially done by the alliance of lieilbronn. 
 
 "What were the aims of Gustavus Adolphus ? Necessarily the main- 
 tenance of the acquired superiority of the Protestant party in Germany. 
 Tiiis presupposes, 1st, tliat he should himself have possession there; 
 2ndly, that he should remunerate and strengthen his friends and parti- 
 sans. Wlio can tell to what extremes tliis might have led, in an age 
 which was accustomed to violent changes of territory and creations of 
 princes? — IIa<l the hero, snatched away in the midst of his career, him- 
 self definitely fixed his plans? Conclusion of tiie treaty of lieilbronn 
 with the four circles under Swedish direction, April 13, 1G33 ; Saxony 
 however did not accede to it. 
 
 Sam. Puffkndouf, Commcntariorum de rebus Succicis lihri XXl'I. 
 (from 1630— 16o4). Francf. 1707, fol. 
 
 Jlistnire de Gustave Adulphe, par D. M. (MAunLLOx). Amsterd. 
 1761, 4to. 
 
 14. If the forces of Sweden overrun almost every part of 
 Germany in the following months, under the guidance of 
 the puj)ils of the king, Bernard of M'eimar and Gustavus 
 Horn, we must apparently attribute it to ^\^allenstcin's in- 
 tentional inactivity in Bohemia. The distrust of him in- 
 creased in Vienna the more, as he took but little trouble to 
 diminish it; and though his tall was not suflicicnt to atone 
 for treachery, if proved, it was for his equivocal character 
 
PART I.] THIRTY YEARS' WAR, 1618—1648. 97 
 
 and imprudence. His death probably saved Germany from 
 a catastrophe. 
 
 The principal document substantiating the charge against Wallenstein, 
 is the report of Scesina, his negotiator to the emperor, according to 
 wliich he had entered as early as 1630 into secret negotiations with 
 Gustavus Adolphus. 1. But had not Scesina an interest in proving him 
 guilty ? 2. AYas every passionate expression of Wallenstein an actual 
 plan ? — He was murdered at Eger, Feb. 25, 1634. The most important 
 information respecting his history lies buried in archives. 
 
 Materials are contained in : 
 
 Beitriige ziir Geschichte des dreissigjdhrigen Kriegs, von Che. Gottl, 
 von Murr. Nlirnberg, 1790 ; and 
 
 Die Ermordimg Albrechfs Herzogs von Friedland, herausgegeben, 
 von C. G. V. Murr. Halle, 1806. — The Latin original of Scesina's state- 
 ment is here first made known. 
 
 The Apology and Defence of the Murderers of TVaUensfeiii, printed 
 in Eger, ten days after the deed, was reprinted in Morgenhlatt, F. 1816. 
 No. clxxv. — clxxviii. 
 
 15. A great change took place upon the death of Wal- 
 lenstein ; as a prince of the blood, Ferdinand, king of Hun- 
 gary and Bohemia, obtained the command. Thus an end , 
 was put to plans of revolutions from this quarter. But in"^ 
 the same year the battle of Nordlingen gave to the imperial 
 arms a sudden preponderance, such as it had never before 
 acquired. The separate peace of Saxony with the emperor 
 at Prague, and soon after an alliance, were its consequences ; 
 Sweden, driven back to Pomerania, seemed unable of her- 
 self, during the two following years, to maintain her ground 
 in Germany : the victory of \\'ittstock turned 
 
 ,,,.*' 1 ^ '' : Sept. 24, 1C36. 
 
 the scale in her lavour. 
 
 Defeat of the Swedes at Nordlingen, Sept. 6, 1634. — By the preli- 
 minaries of peace at Prague, Nov. 22, (ratified May 30, 1635,) Saxony, 
 1. retained Lusatia, of which she had taken possession. 2. The eccle- 
 siastical property, confiscated forty years or more before, was left in the 
 hands of its possessors. — Most of the other Protestant states were forced 
 to accede to tlus peace. 
 
 16. The war was prolonged and greatly ex- 
 tended by the active share taken in it by France : 
 
 first against Spain, and soon against Austria. From this 
 time the war, in consequence of the neighbouring posses- 
 sions of Spain in Italy, could hardly remain confined to 
 Germany ; but the alliance which Richelieu contracted with 
 the Netherlands, mixed up to a certain degree the German 
 war with that of the Spanish Netherlands. Besides sup- 
 
 H 
 
98 TIIllJTY YKAHS' WAU, iols -loJs, [period I. 
 
 jiortiiit;' tlic cnciiiics of Austriu and Spain, scliomcs of con- 
 {|U('st wrvo anioiiL:; tlie plans of tlic I'Vcncli minislcr. 
 I'lulcr such ciicunistanccs, when could an end cf the war 
 l)c anticij)utod .' 
 
 Tlic war, renewed in 1621, hctwofii Spain and tlic Netherlands, was 
 on land, confined to the Spanish Nctlirrhmds, and consisted for the 
 most part of siep^es. — Alliance of Richelieu with the Netherlands, for 
 the conquest and partition of the Spanish Netherlands, Feb. 8, 163o, is 
 not followed hy the desired success. But the project of that ac<iuisiti<in 
 was never banished from the French cabinet. Alliances in Italy with 
 Savoy, Mantua, and Parma, apjainst Spain, July 11, 1G35, f<jr the con- 
 quest of Milan, were, from Ki.'JS, of advuntapre to France, by the con- 
 test respecting the regency in Piedmont, which its client Christina 
 maintained against Spanish influence. 
 
 17. The German Avar, after the treaty with Bernhard of 
 ^^^'inlar, was mainly carried on by France, by the arming 
 of (jermaus against Germans. But the pupil of Gustavus 
 Adolphus preferred to fight for himself rather than others, 
 and his eai-ly death was almost as much coveted i)y France 
 as by Austria. The success of the ►Swedish arms revived 
 under Baner ; and after a vain attempt to negotiate a peace 
 at Cologne and Lubeck, tlic two crowns, both desirous of 
 
 conquest, contracted a closer alliance for only a 
 
 April », 103."). '■ •' 
 
 common peace. 
 
 Treaty for subsidies with Bernhard of "NVeimar, Oct. 27, 163o, who 
 hoped to conquer for himself a state in Alsace. Capture of Brisach, 
 Dec. 3, 1638. After his most unexpected death, July 8, 1639, France 
 made itself master of his army. — Victory of the Swedes under Baner at 
 AVittstock over the imperial Saxon army, Sept. 24, 1636. 
 
 18. If under these circumstances a glinnncr of peace at 
 length became visible, it was not created by compassion for 
 the countries of Germany — what cared strangers about 
 tliem ? — but by a confluence of circumstances. The alli- 
 ance between Austria and Spain, which was besides cm- 
 
 1040. barrassed with the civil war with Portugal and 
 
 "37. Catalonia, had been less close since Ferdinand III. 
 
 had succeeded his father as emperor. The independence 
 
 of the new elector of Brandenburg, FVcderic M'il- 
 
 liam, left both Austria and Sweden less hope, and 
 
 at the general diet, which was at last convened, the emperor 
 
 Oct. lo.i&ii. yielded to a general amnesty, or at least what was 
 
 Dec. 25. 50 designated. But when at the mectino: of the 
 
PART I.] THIRTY YEARS' WAR, 1G18— 1643. 99 
 
 ambassadors of the leading powers at Hamburg, the preli- 
 minaries were signed, and the time and place of the con- 
 gress of peace fixed, it was deferred, after Richelieu's death, 
 (who was succeeded by Mazarin,) by the war, 
 M'hich both parties continued, in the hope of se- 
 curing better conditions by victor3^ A new war broke 
 out in the north between Sweden and Denmark, i643-i&i5. 
 and when at last the congress of peace was opened ^pni- ig45. 
 at jMunster and Osnabruck, the negotiations dragged on 
 for three years, during which the south of Germany, and 
 especially Bavaria, was forced, by the repeated invasions of 
 the French and Swedes, to drain the cup of misery to the 
 very dregs. 
 
 Exploits of Torstenson, 1642 — 1645, as well in Silesia, Saxon j, 
 (victory near Leipzig, Oct. 23, 1642,) and Bohemia, as in Holstein, 
 1644, and again in Bohemia, 1645 ; while the French army was defeated 
 at Duttlingen, Nov. 14, 1634, by the Bavarians. But after Turenne 
 obtained the chief command, and after the retirement of Torstenson, 
 Nov., 1645, his successor TYrangel, in connexion with Turenne, pene- 
 trated into Bavaria, 1646, and compelled Maximilian I. to a truce at 
 Ulm, March 14, 1647, the breaking of which, Sept., 1647, was followed 
 by a new united invasion and terrible devastations in 1648 ; while tlie 
 Swedes in Bohemia, under Charles Gustavus, Palatine count, and Conigs- 
 mark, took Prague itself, by which the peace was not a little accelerated. 
 
 19. The very complicated relations of so many leading 
 powers necessarily gave the congress an importance which 
 attracted the eyes of all Europe towards it. Austria was at 
 war with Sweden and several of the Protestant states ; 
 Sweden with Austria, Bavaria, and Saxony ; France with 
 Austria and its allies, as well as with Spain ; and Spain with 
 France, with Portugal, and the Netherlands. 
 The war of the Spanish Netherlands and of 
 Germany, were the only ones terminated by this congress ; 
 but not that between France and Spain, which was not 
 brought to a close till eleven years afterwards (see below) ; 
 nor that between Spain and Portugal. The German peace 
 was negotiated at Munster between the emperor and France, 
 and at Osnabruck between the emperor and Sweden ; but 
 both treaties, according to express agreement, Oct. 24, 
 1648, were to be considered as one, under the title of the 
 Westphalian. 
 
 At the opening of the congress, all hope of peace was very remote. 
 
 H 2 
 
TOO TinUTY YKAKS' WAIl, 1G18— IGlt?. Iperiod i, 
 
 01»st:icles wore continually thrown in its way, not only by the (loniand.'*, 
 Imt liy the charactor of many of the ambassadors, and by the conti-.-tcd 
 jMiints of ceremony. The whole business was at a stand up to Nov., 
 1()45: and mipht have remaincfl so, had it not been for Count Traut- 
 mannsdorf the imperial ambassador, who showed great skill in removing 
 these diplouuitic dillieulties. The eiiief points in debate were: 1. the 
 period wliieh shoultl be determined as that by which the laws of restitu- 
 tion should l)e decided : whether 1G18 should be the point, as the two 
 crowns of France and Sweden, together with the Protestant states, de- 
 sired, or 1630, as Austria wished ; 2. the amount of indemnification 
 both as it regarded the demands of the two crowns, as of the sii\gle 
 states. It was a dillicult (iuesti<jn what should be assigned to these 
 crowned heads, and how ? also, whether they should become states of 
 the German emi)ire. 3. The reinstatement of the Palatine family ; 4. 
 the remuneration of the Swedish army, finally lixed at 5,0{)(),()()() rix 
 dollars ; o. the exertions of France to prevent a separate peace between 
 the republic and Spain. — As these were vain, and most of the other 
 points were settled by compromise, the disputes respecting religious 
 grievances, (which, according to the spirit of the age, were of the liigh- 
 est importance,) were so violent as to menace the final interruption of 
 the negotiations, had not this been prevented by the progress of the 
 French and Swedish arms in the year 1G48. 
 
 The French ambassadors at jSIunster Avere Counts d'Avaux and Ser- 
 vien ; the Swedish at Osnabruck, Oxenstiern (son of the chancellor) 
 and Salvius. Of the imperial ambassadors Count Trautmannsdorf was 
 the most important ; besides him D. Volniar and Crane. Spain and 
 the Netherlands sent each eight plenipotentiaries ; and many other 
 states sent theirs. The papal ambassador Chigi and the Venetian 
 Contarin, acted as mediators. 
 
 Beside the work of Bouoeant (see p. 90) : 
 
 Xajocidtinns sCrri'tcs toiichnnt la pair de Munstcr ct cVOstichnic ; u 
 la Ilaye, 172.5, 4 vols. fol. From this source is taken the spirited, 
 
 Gcschitlitc (Ics Jl'tstj)haUsvhcu Fricdoia, in zicci Thciloi von C. L. 
 von "NVoi.TMANN. Litpzig, 1808. A continuation of Schiller's history 
 of the thirty years' war. 
 
 J, Stki'II. Pltteh, Geist dcs JVestphdlischcn Frkdcns. Gbttingen, 
 179.5, 8vo. 
 
 The most perfect collection of oflicial documents is, 
 
 J. G. von Mkvkkx, Acta paris Ifcsf/i/idliffr. Gottingen, 1734. Th. 
 i. — vi., fol. This autiior has also i)ublislied the most correct edition of 
 the treaty of peace. Gottingen, 1747. 
 
 20. The matters sottlod by the peace of Wc^tplialia re- 
 spected, 1. indcniniHcations as well of the foreign powers 
 \vho carried on tlie war, as of sino'le states of tlie empire ; 
 2. the internal religious and political relations of the em- 
 pire ; 3. the relation of two other foreign states to the Ger- 
 man empire. "^J'o obtain the mc^ans of indemnification, 
 recourse was had to the s(^cularization of several ecclesiasti- 
 cal foundations, which had already embraced the Protestant 
 
PARTI.] THIRTY YEArxS' WAR, 1G18— lGi8. 101 
 
 religion. The foreign powers indemnified were France and 
 Sweden ; the German princes, Brandenburg, Hesse Cassel, 
 Mecklenburg, and Brunswick Luneburg. 
 
 France obtained Alsace, as far as it belonged to Austria, together with 
 Brisac ; the confirmation of the sovereignty of 3Ietz, Toul, and Yerdun, 
 (see page 46,) as well as that of Pignerol, and the right of garrisoning 
 Philipsburg. The countries ceded were incorporated with France. 
 
 Sweden gained Upper Pomerania, with the isle of Riigen, and a part 
 of Lower Pomerania, Wismar, Bremar, and Yerden ; together with the 
 rights belonging to a state of the empire, and five millions of rix dollars. 
 
 To the electorate of Brandenburg, the seculai'ized bishoprics of Mag- 
 deburg, Halberstadt, Camin, and Minden. 
 
 To Mecklenburg, Schwerin, and Ratzeburg. 
 
 To Hesse, Hirschfeld and four manors, with 600,000 rix dollars. 
 
 To Brunswick Luneburg, the alternative succession of some member 
 of that house to the bishopric of Osnaburg, and some monastic lands. 
 
 The electorate of Saxony retained what it had acquired in the peace 
 of Prague. 
 
 The Pope protested in vain against the peace on account of its secu- 
 larizations. 
 
 21. The settlement of the internal relations of the Ger- 
 man empire did not so much concern new subjects, as those 
 formerly contested or uncertain. For, 1. in respect to re- 
 ligion, the peace of Augsburg was not only confirmed, but 
 also expressly extended to the reformed party, and a perfect 
 equality of privileges established ; in respect to the property 
 of the churcli and the exercise of relimon, the beo-innino- of 
 the year 1624 was fixed on as the epoch, (aiuuis uormalis,) 
 and therefore the reservation ecclesiasticum was acknow- 
 ledged as valid for the future. 2ndly, In respect to political 
 relations, a. a general amnesty and restitution was agreed 
 on (with the limitation, however, as far as respects the 
 house of the Palatinate, that a new eighth electorate should 
 be established for it, and the electorate taken away from that 
 house, together with the Upper Palatinate, should be re- 
 tained by Bavaria), b. With respect to the relations of all 
 the states to the emperor, the rights of sovereignty in their 
 own territories were secured to them, as Avell as their rights 
 in the diets. 
 
 22. The relations with foreign states were so far deter- 
 mined in the case of the republic of the United Netherlands 
 and of Switzerland, that they were acknowledged to be 
 wholly independent of the German empire. 
 
 23. The consequences of this terrible war, as regards 
 
102 TIIIHI V VKAHS' \VA1{, 1G18— 1G18. ( rcnini) i. 
 
 clum^cs of territory, seem iinicli less important tliaii could 
 at some periods have been expected, had not the removal 
 of (nistavus Adolphus and A^'allcnstcin from the scene of 
 action frustrated tlieir projects and tlieir liopos. l^iit the 
 eflbcts of this war were not confined to Germany ; hut 
 operated upon tlie whole European system. 
 
 'J4. By it the German body politic obtained its deter- 
 minate forms, which were soon after more firmly 
 established by the permanent diet of l^atisbon. 
 The imperial power was now constitutionally restricted 
 within the narrowest limits; the princes were in the fullest 
 sense rulers of their respective states ; the welfare of Ger- 
 many was attached to the territorial government, and but 
 little to the imperial. It was a federation under a limited 
 sovereign. It had its deficiencies. A\'ho can mistake them ? 
 But to what extent these niinht become hurtful, depended 
 on circumstances which could not be previously defined ; 
 while the provisions enacted guaranteed the tranquil exist- 
 ence of the weak by the side of the strong. Does the con- 
 solidation into one monarchy, (take Spain for instance,) 
 insure a higher degree of national hap])incss, than that 
 which Germany attained? 
 
 Peace ofwcst- '-^5. In the political system of Europe, the 
 phaiia. peace of Westphalia settled neither all the im- 
 portant, nor even all the contested relations. But, 1st, the 
 maintenance of the (ierman constitution, the object of the 
 bloody conflict of half Europe, acquired in practical politics 
 a weight which it could not soon lose, tind, by the alliance 
 between France and Sweden, the north and west of Europe 
 were brought into closer connexion. But this connexion 
 wanted some connnon ])ermanent interest, there being in a 
 short time nothinii- to fear from Austria. It lan^'uished too 
 the more, as Queen Christina made no further use of it than 
 the drawing subsidies from France. 3rd, Sweden rose to 
 the rank of one of the first continental powers, and kept it 
 for more than fifty years, without, however, maintaining, 
 like France, the influence acquired by the war. 4th, the 
 independence of the United Netherlands was now uni- 
 versally acknowledged. 5th, the German constitution was 
 indissolubly connected with the maintenance of the balance 
 of power, which consequently became much more distinctly 
 
PAiiT I.J THirxTY YEARS' WAR, IGIS— 1643. 103 
 
 acknowledged and confirmed. It was not therefore by 
 settling all the great political relations, but rather b/ settling 
 the leading political maxims, that the peace of Westphalia 
 became the foundation of the subsequent policy of Europe. 
 26. The war between France and Spain was not termi- 
 nated by the peace of Westphalia, because both parties, but 
 especially Spain, hoped to gain by its prosecution. Freed 
 from the war in the Netherlands, her hopes were further 
 raised by the civil troubles of France ; while the latter coun- 
 try formed still greater expectations from the weakness of 
 Spain and the insurrections of Portugal and Catalonia, 
 which it supported. But notwithstanding the advantages 
 which Spain obtained in the beginning, its fortune changed, 
 especially as Cromwell found it expedient to declare war 
 against her, and contracted for this purpose an al- ig©. 
 liance with France. The peace of the Pyrenees, les^- 
 concluded by the directing ministers. Cardinal Mazarin 
 and Count Haro, at last put an end to it. This peace con- 
 firmed for ever the superiority of France over Spain ; not so 
 much by the concessions made, as by the prospects which 
 the marriage concerted between Louis XIV. and the infanta 
 of Spain, (the source of after wars !) opened for the fiiture. 
 
 The favourite scheme of France was to obtain all the Spanish Ne- 
 therlands, as the price of the evacuation of Catalonia. Victory of the 
 prince of Conde at Lens, Aug. 20, 1648. The change of sides, on the 
 part of Turenne, 16o0 — 1651, and of Conde, 1652, Oct. — 1659, occa- 
 sioned by the Fronde, afforded but temporary aid to the Spanish. As 
 early as 1653 the French under Turenne acquire a preponderance in the 
 Netherlands. Alliance of Cromwell with ]\Iazarin, ^March 23, 1657. 
 Capture and occupation of Dunkirk by the English, Jan. 23, 1658. 
 Cromwell's death puts an end to the war. Peace of the Pyrenees, Nov. 
 7, 1659. France obtains: 1. Eoussillon ; 2. several fortresses on the 
 frontiers of the Netherlands, in Artois, and Flanders ; 3. engages on 
 the other hand not to assist Portugal ; 4. partial restitution made to the 
 duke of Lorraine, the ally of Spain ; entire restitution to Prince Conde ; 
 5. the commercial relations were regulated ; 6. marriage agreed upon 
 between Louis XIV. and the infanta IMaria Theresa. 
 
 Hostilities between France and Lorraine sprang from the hatred be- 
 tween Richelieu and Charles III., 1624 — 1675, on account o/ the con- 
 nexion of the latter with Gaston of Orleans. France, in consequence, 
 endeavoured to obtain a part or the whole of Lorraine ; Charles III. 
 and his nephew, the great Austrian general, Charles IV., (1675 — 1690,) 
 attached themselves to the house of Austria, till full restitution was 
 made to Leopold, the son of the latter, by the peace of Ryswick, 1697. 
 France learnt to her cost, that even a banished prince may become 
 formidable. 
 
101 CONTEMPOHAKY CIIANGFS, 1G18— IGGO. [rrnioD i. 
 
 Ilistoirr drs tuffociatious t ( ihi trai/c dc I(t jjair des Pyrenees. Am- 
 stenl., 1750, 2 vols. iL'mo, 
 
 II. ] iiir III' lilt' ronto/ipornri/ c/ifnif/f'.'; in the ]iriiiriii(il .sidles of 
 iJic Jl'csl of L'taujH', (iiitl iJicir (•(inscfjuciicc's. 
 
 I. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. 
 
 1. Tliono-li tlio political character of Spain continued the 
 same, important changes had taken place in her ail'uirs, and 
 
 trrcatlv to her disadvantaire. The Low Country 
 war, renewed and so unsuccesslully conducted, 
 joined to a mi.serable administration, had led to the loss of 
 iGw. Portugal, and a long insurrection fomented by 
 1010-1052. France in Catalonia. The re-establishment of the 
 throne of Portugal in favour of John of Braganza caused 
 a long war, ])rosecuted without vigour, which terminated in 
 the acknowledgment of tiie independence of l-'or- 
 tugal. Though Portugal was a state of inferior 
 rank,' its geographical situation rendered it of consequence 
 as an ally to the enemies of Spain. But the ancient splen- 
 dour of the throne could not be restored, for there was no 
 Emanuel the Great to ascend it, and the East Indies were 
 already well nigh lost. 
 
 II. FRANCE. 
 
 2. The government of France during nearly the whole 
 of this period was in the hands of two ecclesiastics, Cardinals 
 Pichelieu and Mazarin. The first, to correct political 
 views, united much energy, though little morality of clia- 
 
 racter. His eighteen years' administration was 
 
 1C24-042. tlierefore guided from beginning to end by the 
 
 same maxims: agiirandizement of the royal power in the 
 
 interior — extension of the national influence in the atiiiirs 
 
 of Europe. The former presupposed the disarming of the 
 
 Huguenots. And after the capture of Rochelle 
 
 whom had he to fear ? The block relieved him 
 
 of the conspirators. In foreign countries he restored the 
 
 influence of the French in Italy, in the Netherlands, in 
 
 Germany, and established it in Sweden. A\'Jierever he 
 
 coidd he encouraged insurrections. Against Austria and 
 
 Spain he stood almost always in arms. The promotion of 
 
TART I.] FRANCE. 105 
 
 the arts and sciences purchased him the usual praise. It 
 is impossible to admire his administration examined in de- 
 tail ; yet on the whole it suited the character of the nation. 
 He laid the foundation of the structure which Louis XIV. 
 perfected. 
 
 Maximes (T Etat, ou testament politique dit Cardinal de Richelieu. 
 Paris, 1764, 2 vols. 8vo. This "svork is no history, but an undisguised 
 exposition of the political maxims of the minister. 
 
 3. Mazarin, the minister of the regent Anne 
 of Austria, during the minority of Louis XIV., 
 
 only strove to accomplish what his predecessor had begun ; 
 but it was soon evident that he did not possess his prede- 
 cessor's abilities. The minority of the king gave greater 
 scope to the nobles, which brouo-ht about the 
 
 ^ . 1618 IG52. 
 
 troubles of the Fronde — a true national drama 
 in its commencement, progress, and close, performed by the 
 lords and ladies of the court ; and although of somewhat 
 bloody nature, strictly belonging to that species of enter- 
 tainment whose very essence consists of intrigue. The 
 prime minister maintained his ground against the dema- 
 gogue Retz ; matters therefore remained much as before ; 
 but the kingly power was much increased by the final limit- 
 ation of the claims of the princes of the blood, wliich was 
 eftected after the failure of Conde's attempt for their ad- 
 vancement. 
 
 Commencement of the troubles, Aug., 1618. Civil war under the 
 great Conde, Oct., 1651. Flight of the condemned prince to Spain, and 
 tlie disturbances cease, Oct., 1652. Conde was not restored till the 
 peace of the Pyrenees, 1659. (Seep. 103.) 
 
 IJesprit de la Fronde, on Histoire politique et militaire des troubles 
 en France pendant la minorite de Louis XIV., par M. Mailly. Paris, 
 1772, 2 vols. 12mo. 
 
 Among the numerous memoirs, the best is that of the principal actor : 
 
 Mtmoires du Cardinal de Retz. (1648 — 1655.) Cologne, 1718, 
 3 vols. This most accurate observer of others, does not always speak 
 truly of himself. 
 
 Compare : 
 
 Memoir es de M. Johj. vols. i. ii. Amsterd. 1718. As authority on 
 the other side. 
 
 III. ENGLAND. 
 
 4. This period to England was one of great domestic 
 convulsions, the fruit, like those of Germany, of the Re- 
 
106 rONTKMl'OUAUY ClIANCiDS, IGIS— IGCO. [innioi,!. 
 
 formation. Here, liowcncr, tlioy were produco'l by tlio 
 political i);uty-s{)irit which arose amonjr the Protestants 
 thciiisolvcs, in consocnuMicc of the schisms between tlu; 
 l'>j)iseopalians and the Presbyterians or Puritans. The 
 crisis was hastened by the difference between the theoreti- 
 cal principles of the Stnarts with respect to the origin and 
 extent of the royal ])ower, and those of the Puritans. Thus 
 the kin<^s became involved in quarrels with the nation, at 
 the very time when the want of money, created by their 
 mistaken political economy, rendered them de- 
 
 I00a-1G2S. , ' . m /• ' 1 • f I II 
 
 jiendent on it. 1 he toundation or the whole 
 
 evil was laid under James I. But when his son Charles I. 
 
 increased his embarrassment Iw a double and 
 
 1G27-IC30. r- • 1 • l C- • ^ T- i v n- 
 
 fruitless war with r>paiii and r ranee, tiie difier- 
 
 cnces between him and the parliament became so serious 
 
 that his only resource was frequent dissolutions of that body, 
 
 and he even made the attempt to reig-n without it. But 
 
 ic3ft-i&jo. the troubles in Scotland, caused by himself, 
 
 Kov.iMo.to forcing him again to convoke it, the lower house 
 
 Apru.KJM. usurped, in the Long Parliament, a power similar 
 
 to that of the French national convention of later times. 
 
 5. The well-planned attacks of the Long Parliament on 
 the king's ministers and prerogatives, led eventually to a 
 .r.o. >. civil war, in which the kino; was finally defeated. 
 '*^- But in the course of this war, fanaticism gain- 
 incT ground in the Parliament, a party was formed of the 
 \\ildest and most crafty fanatics, who, under the name of 
 Independents — like the faction of the Mountain in France 
 — made liberty and equality their object; only differing in 
 this, that in accordance with the prevailing spirit of the 
 times, religion was the moving cause. Tlunr leaders, espe- 
 cially Oliver Cronnvell, made themselves mas- 
 ters of the army, and, by means of the army, of 
 the captive king, who was finally brouglit to the scaffold. 
 Conformably to the maxims of the i)arty, England was de- 
 clared a re})iil)lic ; and Scotland and Ireland were obliged 
 to submit. But the military character of government had 
 already given rise to a cpiarn^l between the chiefs of the army 
 and the parliament, so that Cromwell judged it expedient to 
 
 dissolve it, and caused himself to be proclaimed by 
 Ai-rii-io, low. , . 1 !• 4 * r ti 1 r 
 
 his council of war, protector of the republic. 
 
PART I.] ENGLAND. 107 
 
 6. The protectorship remained a military goxernment, 
 nowithstancling the repeated attempts made to give it a 
 tinge of parliamentary liberty; and consequently, being in 
 opposition to the national character, it contained within itself 
 the seeds of its own ruin. But the continental relations of 
 England, w^hich had sunk almost to nothing, were revived 
 and carried to a high pitch by Cromwell. If passion had 
 some share in this, it was kept, upon the whole, subordinate 
 to commercial interest. The fruits of this were the act of 
 navigatio)i, and the successful naval enterprises in the West 
 Indies, on the coast of the North Sea, and the Baltic. The 
 first was maintained by the bloody maritime v/ar with Hol- 
 land ; the latter were partially effected by the war with 
 Spain, in alliance with France, 
 
 The act of navigation passed, 1651, renewed by Charles II., 1660, 
 was, 1st, to secure to England the exclusive trade with its own colonies; 
 2nd, to allow to strangers no importation, unless of their own products 
 and in their own vessels. It was a fruit of the rising exertions of states to 
 monopolize all commerce to themselves ; but affected ahnost exclusively 
 Holland, who then enjoyed nearly the whole of the carrying trade. 
 Dutch war, 1652. Great naval battles repeatedly occurred. At the 
 peace, April 15, 1654, England preserved the honour of her flag. — In 
 tlie war witli Spain, 1655 — 1658 ; capture of Jamaica — 1655 ; of Dun- 
 kirk, during the alliance with France, and ceded to England. 
 
 7. Upon the death of Cromwell, his son 
 Richard succeeded him in the protectorship ; 
 
 but finding it wiser to abdicate, the contests Apni, 1&59. 
 among the leaders brought about the restoration, '^^''^'' ^™- 
 finally effected by Monk. This was rather tlie work of 
 party spirit than of reason, and was unaccompanied by any 
 precautions for the future ; and as Charles II., after he had 
 regained the throne, retained the ancient prejudices of the 
 Stuarts, the old elements of dissension between the king 
 and people still remained, and the government continued 
 destitute of any settled character. 
 
 Besides the sections in Rapin and Hume, we especially cite, 
 Tlie history of the ReheUion and Civil Wars in England, from 
 1649 to 1660, by Edw. Htoe, earl of Clarendon, fol. Oxford. [The 
 best edition, containing the suppressed passages, is Oxford, 1826, 
 8 vols. Svo.] 
 
108 CONTEMPORAliV llIANGES, 1GI8-1CG0. 
 
 IV. Tin: rMTr.D netiietilands. 
 
 8. Wlion tlio peace of M'('stj)halia secured to tlie repub- 
 lic- her iiulejx'ndence, she was in the lull bloom of her pros- 
 i)eritv. 1 he late twenty-seven years' war with Spain had 
 not diminished it, for tlic theatre of the war on land lay 
 Ix'vond her frontiers, carried on in the Spanish provinces, 
 and at sea she had been decisively successful. Thoug:h 
 n(»t iVee from debt, her citizens were rich. But the germ 
 t i.ar.. of internal dissension, suppressed under Maurice 
 1 1017. from fear, and under his brother Frederic Henry 
 from love, burst out under his son ^^'illiam II., and proba- 
 bly nothing but his early death averted greater 
 misfortunes. The abolition of the dignity of stadt- 
 holder in five provinces procured for the grand pensionary 
 of the states of Holland, Jean de ^^'itt, so much influence, 
 that the management of foreign affairs fell almost 
 
 lC5i-lG72. ,• 1 • I • 1 1 
 
 entn-ely m his hands. 
 
 Renewal of the war witli Spain, 1621. Ivendered important on land 
 by the sieges of Breda, Bois-le-diic, and many others, till the alliance 
 with France, 1635. As a naval war, successful on the side of the 
 Ketherlands, through privateering, by conquests in tlie colonies, espe- 
 cially from Portugal ; and by the naval wars in Europe, especially in 
 1(539. — Peace negotiated at tlie congress of "Wcstplialiii, which France 
 endeavoured in all ways, but in vain, to prevent from being con- 
 cluded. At the peace, Jan. 24, 1648, not only was, 1, the independ- 
 ence of the republic acknowledged by Spain, but, 2. the dominions she 
 then possessed, both in Europe (by which the re])ublic retained the ter- 
 ritory vested in the states-general and Mastricht) and in the colonies, 
 were confirmed to her ; 3. the closing of the Scheldt (a solitary exam- 
 ple) was consented to by Spain. 
 
 V. AUSTRIA AND Till: EASTERN COUNTRIES. 
 
 9. Though the influence of the house of Austria in Ger- 
 many had been contracted during this period within its 
 proper limits, yet on the other hand its power increased in 
 Hungary as well as Bohemia, which latter, being deprived 
 of its privileges, now became an hereditary monarchy. 
 More ])ermanent tranquillity might have reigned here, had 
 it not been disturbed by the prince of Transylvania and the 
 Jesuits. Partial attempts to render Hungary an hereditary 
 monarchy, were already made, however zealously the Hun- 
 
PART I.] AUSTRIA AND THE EASTERN COUNTRIES. 109 
 
 garlans resisted every innovation ; and when did a perse- 
 vering policy ever fail to be finally victorious ? 
 
 Any lasting quiet was made almost impossible by the relations of Tran- 
 sylvania, whose elective princes were at once vassals of the Porte and 
 of Hungary. If these princes would or could have improved the ad- 
 vantages of their situation, they might have become the founders of a 
 new empire. Austria was compelled to purchase peace of Gabriel Beth- 
 len, (1613 — 1629,) who was already called king of Hungary, by ces- 
 sions of territory, 1616 and 1621. Of his successors, George Rakozy 
 I., (f 164S,) and II., (f 1660,) the former entered into a connexion 
 with Sweden and France, 1643, and concluded, on the 24th of Aug., a 
 peace advantageous for him and the Protestants ; the latter was occu- 
 pied with Poland more than with Hungary. — Li Hungary the religious 
 relations produced continual excitement, since the Jesuits were able to 
 make their projects against the Protestants agree admirably well with 
 those of the court. 
 
 10. The Turkish empire already showed symptoms of 
 tlie internal decline common to the great monarchies of the 
 East ; inefficient rulers educated in the seraglio ; arrogance 
 in the Janizaries, who exercised the right of appointing 
 to the throne ; and rebellious governors. But as the per- 
 sonal energy of a barbarous nation does not die, nothing 
 was wantinp" but a ruler like Amurath IV. to 
 
 make it formidable. Happily however for Austna 
 and Germany, he sought no influence over the European 
 political system, from his projects of conquest being level- 
 led against Persia, And though his successor, Ibrahim, 
 besxan the protracted war ao-ainst Candia, which 
 
 or o ^ ^ IG48. 
 
 was wrested from the Venetians by his son Mo- 
 hammed in 1668, yet it was the part they took in the Tran- 
 svlvanian contests, that rendered the Turks so 
 
 i' , .' • 1 1 -I rioni 1G75. 
 
 dangerous to their western neiglibours ni tlie 
 following period. 
 
 11. As regards practical policy, this period 
 was important both for its forms and its funda- 
 mental maxims. The forms were rendered far more defi- 
 nite by Richelieu, the founder of cabinet policy, but the 
 web at the same time more complicated. Yet it was the 
 congress of Westphalia, wdiich exercised the principal in- 
 fluence upon it. Never had Europe seen negotiations of 
 such extent and importance. What was it not deemed 
 possible to effect after this by congresses ? The example of 
 Richelieu and Mazarin, led ecclesiastics to be preferred as 
 
 General observa- 
 tions. 
 
110 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS, 1G18— IGGO. [rEnioi) i. 
 
 nop;otiat()rs. l\»licy may have rained tliorcby in dij^nitv, 
 but ('(Ttainly not in nj)ri<j.litnf'ss. 
 
 1*J. However political maxims had been developed, their 
 consequences had not been foreseen. The work of Hugo 
 (iuoTii's, de jure helli ct pacls, taii<:ht rulers, 
 that there was a law of nations, and etiected 
 much from the high reputation of its author. The British 
 revolution had occasioned the cjuestion respeetinp" the I'inhts 
 of the people and tlu? ri;j;lits of kings, to hii thoroughl}- dis- 
 cussed : both were defended by the sword as well as with 
 the pen. Though Filmer was forgotten, Hobbes and Al- 
 gernon Sidney did not write without eilect. The obstinate 
 unreasonableness of the Stuarts only animated these inves- 
 tigations ; and prepared for the establishment of national 
 liberty. The maxims of freedom and ec|uality, promulgated 
 by the Independents, were not lost. Though they were not 
 received and acted upon in England, they took root and 
 nourished in the soil of America, whence they have since 
 been transplanted to Europe, though not in their original 
 purity. 
 
 Political Discoitrsrs of Ron. Fn^MER. Loud. 1680. A poor, but at 
 that time weighty defender of the sovereign power of kings ; far excel- 
 led by, 
 
 Tii. IIoRBES, Leviathan, sivp de materia, forma ct potestafc civitatis. 
 Lond. 1651. [First printed in Knglisli.] Uisroi/rscs on Govertimetit 
 hii Al(.i:i:non Sidney, first printed at Lond. 1698. The famous de- 
 fender and martyr of republicanism. He wrote in reply to Filmer. 
 
 13. Political economy made no essential advance. Riche- 
 lieu only provided — no matter how — for the pid^lic exigen- 
 cies of the moment; Mazarin, for himself as well. Little 
 progress could be expected, in this department of govern- 
 ment, during the wars of Germany, or the revolution of 
 England. J'^ven in the Netherlands, loans Avere the only 
 resource on the renewal of the war. But tlic example of 
 this state served to confirm more and more the fact, that 
 manuliictures and foreign trade are in general the principal 
 .sources of national wealth ; from the misapplication of whicli 
 so many injurious errors afterwards sprung. 
 
 14. The military art necessarily underwent great changes 
 during such wars as that of the thirty years and of the 
 Netherlands. These changes, however, did not consist in 
 the increase of standing armies. The generals levied and 
 
TART I.] COLONIAL AFFAIRS. DUTCH. 1618— 16G0. Ill 
 
 disbanded their troops ; what Mansfield and Christian of 
 Brunswick had done on a small scale, Wallenstein did on a 
 large one. Gustavus Adolphus was the only general whose 
 genius struck out a new species of tactics, which aimed at 
 quicker motion, by means of files less deep, lighter arms, 
 and improved artillery. His brigades overthrew the impe- 
 rial regiments, much the same as the Roman legions of old 
 did the Macedonian phalanx. — In discipline, also, he set a 
 good example ; but murdering and pillaging did not cease, 
 till the private advantage of the pillagers taught them to 
 set some bounds to their outrao-es. 
 
 III. Histonj of the affairs of ihe European Colonies, from 
 1618/0 1660. 
 
 1. The history of the colonies during this period 
 
 PIT 1 1 Dutch. 
 
 is not so important tor the changes they underwent 
 as for their rapid advance. The Dutch, already the first 
 commercial people, had established their system in the last 
 period, which they extended, but without any essential alter- 
 ation. The same holds good of the English. Least of all 
 among the Spanish and Portuguese were any voluntary 
 changes to be expected. 
 
 2. The commerce and manufactures of the Dutch, fa- 
 voured by national liberty, which was perfected during this 
 period, became so flourishing as to awaken the jealousy of 
 their neighbours. Their industry was directed to manufac- 
 tories by the peculiar character of their country ; but these 
 could only have been carried to the extent they were by the 
 happy concurrence of two circumstances : the facility of 
 procuring funds in consequence of the immense accumula- 
 tion of national capital, and the increasing wants of Europe 
 and the colonies, through the accelerated improvement of 
 the social condition. 
 
 Scarcity of fuel naturally occasioned handicraft and manufactures 
 performed by human labour to flourish, rather than manufactories im- 
 pelled by machinery, such as the steam engine in modern times have 
 given rise to in England. Among these stand the manufacture of 
 woollens, hemp linen, paper, and ship building, besides innumerable 
 smaller wares. — The propelling power was obtained by various kinds of 
 mills. The contrivance of these caUed forth the mechanical skill of the 
 
11~ COLONIAL AllAIHS. DL'TCIL 1G18— IGGO. [iekiou L 
 
 iiilinbitant.s nnd rendered IloUuud unrivallcil, or indeed uiii<iue, in that 
 brunch of industrial art. 
 
 3. As with all great cormnrrcial nations t]i(3 colonial trade 
 stands foremost, so amongst the Dutch the East Indian re- 
 mained the principal branch. The company, even as a 
 political l)udy, was now seen in its full jiowcr; and, not- 
 withstanding the treaty concluded with the English, con- 
 trived at length, chiefly by the horrible transactions in 
 Amboyna, to drive its rivals entin^ly from the Moluccas. 
 The maintenance of this monopoly, in the most odious 
 forms, remained therefore its chief object. To obtain the 
 
 if,i9 productions of these countries they subjected the 
 natives by arms and treaties. The ])utch tlicm- 
 "'^' selves were not colonists ; for there was nothing at 
 home to drive them in any numbers beyond the sea. 
 
 4. The new settlement of Batavia remained the seat of 
 government, and the centre of the Dutch possessions in In- 
 dia. As a city, however, its rise was comparatively slow. 
 It was the point from which their conquests and traffic 
 sj)read ; the former on Malabar, Coromandel, Ceylon, and 
 other islands; the latter by their relations with China and 
 Jajian. 
 
 I'nssessidns taken from tlie Portutruese : 1. Paliakata on tlic Coro- 
 mandel coast, 1615, instead of which Negapatam, from 16o8, became 
 the princijial residence. 2. On tlie Malabar, Calicut, 16.56, Cochin and 
 Cananor, 1661, by which the whole pepper trade fell into their hands. 
 Factories also were sjircad over both coasts, as far as Benjral. 3. In 
 the island of Ceylon they gained possession of Colundjo, 1656, being 
 their share of the spoils captured from the Portuguese, in the war with 
 the latter as allies of the king of Candy, wliom they had assisted since 
 1638. Mannaar and JaiVanapatam in 1658. But the Dutch became 
 involved in a war with Candy, wliich soon ceased and as soon broke out 
 again. 4. On the furtlier siile of India, Malacca was conquered, 1640, 
 and Pegu and Siam invaded. 5. Tiiey extended their power on the 
 Sun<la islands, as they became masters of the greater part of Java, on 
 Celebes, 1660, Sumatra, etc., partially by forts and factories. 6. In 
 rlai)an they succeeded, by the revolution of 1639, in driving out the 
 Portuguese, and, altiiough under great restrictions, in gaining a footing 
 for themselves. The Dutch trade with China was less important, espe- 
 cially after their expulsion from Formosa, 1661. — The wiiole territory 
 of the comjjany was divided into five governments: Java, Amboyna, 
 Ternate, Ceylon, and Macassar, in adilition to wliich there were settle- 
 ments under directors and commanders. All were subordinate to the 
 government at liafavia. 
 
 0. But the surest bulwark of their Indian possessions was 
 
Part i.] COLONIAL AFFAIRS. DUTCH. 1618—1660, 113 
 
 the settlement founded at the Cape of Good Hope. Ac- 
 cording to the intentions of its founders, it was an agricul- 
 tural colony, and its situation, joined to the judicious regu- 
 lations which were at first adopted, would have rendered it 
 far more important, had not the company made it the place 
 of call for vessels in their voyages to the East Indies. It 
 constituted a government by itself, making the sixth. 
 
 EoLBE Beschreibung des Vorgebirge der guten Hoffnung. Numb. 
 1719, folio. 
 
 Sparrjlln:\ Eeise nach dem Vorgebirge der guten Hoffnung. (From 
 the Swedish of Grosford.) Berlin, 1784, 8vo. 
 
 VoUstdndige Beschreibung des J'orgebirges der guten Hoffnung, von 
 O. F. Mextzel. Glogaii, 1785, 2 jiarts, 8vo. 
 
 Barrow's Travels in Southern Africa, Lond. vol. i., 1801 ; ii., 1804, 
 4to. With the first good map. 
 
 6. The success of the East Indian company led the 
 Dutch, immediately after the breaking out of the second 
 war with Spain, to incorporate another privileged company. 
 It was formed on the same model, and the West Indian 
 trade was intrusted to it. Brazil was the object of its at- 
 tacks, but it soon discovered that war, carried on either 
 openly or by privateering, is in the end no very lucrative 
 employment. 
 
 Foundation of the company, June 3, 1621. Its privileges comprised 
 the western coast of Africa, from the northern tropic to the Cape ; al- 
 most the whole of the eastern and western coasts of America ; and the 
 islands of the Pacific. It was divided into five chambei's, and their 
 funds amounted to about seven millions of guilders. During the first 
 years, privateering was a profitable pursuit, especially the capture of 
 the fleet laden with silver, 1628. — Conquests in Brazil from 1630, 
 Olinda in Pernambuco taken and burned ; where the fortified suburbs 
 of Recif become the principal seat of the Dutch ; the resistance, how- 
 ever, made by ]\Iathias Albuquerque, prevent their subjugating more 
 tlian the coasts of Pernambuco. But in 1636 — 1643, Count John 
 IMaurice is sent out as stadtholder-general, with unlimited power. He 
 seemed exactly calculated to form a state beyond the ocean, founded on 
 freedom of commerce and religion. All Pernambuco and some con- 
 tiguous provinces were brought under the dominion of the Dutch ; wlio 
 were unable, however, to malce themselves masters of St. Salvador ; 
 and altliough by tlie truce witli Portugal, now again independent, June 
 23, 1641, the Dutch were to retain their conquests, they were lost again 
 in the course of a few years, when envy and distrust at home led to the 
 recall of John IMaurice (1643). Even while peace still existed between 
 the mother countries, the war revived here in 1645 ; and to the heroism 
 of Don Juan de Vieira, Portugal wixs indebted for the preservation of 
 Brazil. Recif was surrendered to Vieira, Jan. 27, 1654, and all tlie 
 
 I 
 
in COLONIAL AFFAIRS. KNCiLlSH. 1G18— 16G0. [period I. 
 
 Diiloh cxp'llt'd. — Conquest of St. Georj»e drlla Mina on the const of 
 Al'rica, 1(»;57. — S«'ttli'incnts made in tli(! West Indii's, on tlu- island 
 roi'ks of St. Eustatia, 1G32, of Curarao, 1G34, and on the isle.s of Saba, 
 1(>4(), and St. Martin, l(>4i); tliesc settlements were never very inijxjrt- 
 ant as eolonie.s, but more so for their contraband trade. 
 
 7. The Dutcli herring nnd whale fisheries liad no direct 
 connexion with their colonies ; but the disputes which arose 
 with Enoland, respectino; the herring fishery on the Scottish 
 coast, led to political quarrels, as well as to the claims of 
 England to the dominion of the sea. 
 
 The question respecting the herring fishery on the British coasts was 
 first raised by Jiunes I., 1G()8; renewed by Charles I., lG3o, and by 
 Cromwell, 1G.j2. The Dutch, however, maintained the right of fishing 
 to within about forty miles from the coast. The whale fishery, after 
 the abolition of the company in 1645, was left entirely free. 
 
 8. Of the branches of European trade, that of the Baltic 
 deserves more especial notice, from its political importance, 
 as it involved the republic in the disputes of the north ; 
 though the commerce of the Rhine surpassed it in other re- 
 spects. But the carrying trade was beyond all the most 
 extensive, owing to the other countries being entirely with- 
 out ships; this however received a powerful blow from the 
 British navigation act. 
 
 9. While the republic thus raised her commerce 
 to an extent which rendered it almost a monopoly, 
 
 it was inevitable that a rivalry must ensue with England, 
 who was struggling to attain the same advantage. This 
 rivalry contributed essentially towards the two wars under 
 Cromwell and Charles II. ; but political relations subsc- 
 (jucntly prevented its continuance, and the opposition of 
 trading companies did not, at this time, lead to national 
 hostilities. In England monopolies were, during this period 
 still more than in the former one, a principal source of 
 revenue under the arbitraiy reign of Charles I. These 
 nourished discontent, yet, notwithstanding their baneful 
 effects, trade flourished and national prosperity increased, 
 for these were the work of the nation, not the government. 
 
 J. Selden, mnrc chiusum sen de dominio tnaris, liberi ii. Lond., 
 IG.'io. Written by order of the government. A prolix historical de- 
 duction, which proves nothing. It maintains that the four sea.s around 
 l->ngland were its property. Uut where were their limits in the north 
 and west ? 
 
PART I.] COLONIAL AFFAIRS. ENGLISH. 1G18— 1G60. 115 
 
 10. The British East Indian trade remained, during this 
 period, in the hands of the company, although great changes 
 were made in it. Driven from the Spice islands by the 
 Dutch, its only remaining factories were in Bantam, and on 
 the Malabar and Coromandel coasts ; even the acquisition 
 of Madras improved its situation so little, that it seemed on 
 the verge of ruin ; and a free trade with India had 1053. 
 begun, till Cromwell in some measure restored it '^ss. 
 by the renewal of its privileges. 
 
 Expulsion of the English from the Spice islands, after the massacre 
 of Amboyna, 1623 ; in lieu of these, they were promised, at the peace, 
 1651, the spice island Poleron ; but were unable to keep it. — The ex- 
 pulsion from the Moluccas turned their attention to the Cai'natic. 
 Madras obtained, and fort St. George established, 1640, with the con- 
 sent of the king of Golconda. At first dependent on Bantam, but raised 
 in I608 to a presidency. — The Persian silk trade was carried on from 
 Surat to Ispahan by way of Grambrou, after the English had assisted 
 the Persians, in 1622, to conquer Ormus. But the competition of the 
 Dutch, and the insecurity of the route, rendered it difficult ; and the 
 company still needed the firmans of the Sophis and Moguls. — The do- 
 mestic troubles of England were unfavourable to this trade ; from the 
 maxims which now prevailed there, and the needy state of the govern- 
 ment. 
 
 11. The possessions of the English in the West Indies 
 consisted of settlements made by private persons on several 
 of the smaller Antilles, which were little valued, as inferior 
 tobacco and cotton were almost their only produce. Nor 
 was it till the cultivation of the sugar cane began to thrive 
 in Barbadoes, where it had been introduced from 
 Brazil, that their value was appreciated. This, 
 
 and the conquest of Jamaica, laid the foundation of the 
 future commerce of the British in this part of the world. 
 
 First settlement on Barbadoes and part of St. Christopher, 1625 ; on 
 Bermuda and Nevis, 1628 ; on Montserrat and Antigua, 1632. Con- 
 quest of Jamaica, 1655, and introduction of the sugar cane there, 1660. 
 The English settle also on Surinam, 1640. Capture of the uninhabited 
 Bahama islands, and a settlement on Providence, 1629, the key, as it 
 were, of the West Indies. 
 
 The History, civil and commercial, of the British Colonies in the 
 West Indies, hj Bryan Edwards, 3 vols. 4to, 1793 j reprinted in 6 
 vols. Bvo. The principal work for the general history of the British 
 West Indies. The third volume comprehends the wars of St. Domingo. 
 
 12. The North American colonies, however, 
 above all others, made such rapid strides during 
 
 this period, that their importance was already felt l)y the 
 
 I 2 
 
116 COLONIAL AFFAIRS. AMEUICA. 1G18— IGGO. [ir.nioD i. 
 
 iKitioii. The pprsecution of tlie Puritans, and (ho intrrnal 
 convulsions of England, drovo p;roat nunil)ors of its inluibit- 
 ants across tlic Atlantic. The various states, as comprised 
 \nidor the general names of Virginia and New England, 
 beixan to separate; and received, after the breaking uj) df 
 IC24. the London company and the ruin of the Piy- 
 >C37. mouth association, constitutional governments, 
 whieli, tliough intended to ]iromote a greater dependence 
 on the king, were united witii a considerable leaven of re- 
 publicanism, which the state of society in these colonies 
 naturally produced. 
 
 liisc of Massachusetts, 1621, ami settlement of Boston, 1627, cliiefly 
 bv enthusiastic lovers of religious and civil liberty, whose lives mailu 
 their principles prevail on that side of the ocean. Introduction of a free 
 representative system as early as 1634. Khode island founded in the 
 same year, by emigrants from ^lassachusetts. From tliis state likewise 
 proceeded the first settlement in Connecticut, in 1636. Settlements 
 were likewise made from it in New Hampshire and JIainc, in 1637 ; 
 subject, however, to the government of Massachusetts. Union of these 
 provinces for their common defence, under the name of New England, 
 1643. — Maryland settled under Lord Baltimore, and the city of Bulti- 
 morc founded, mostly by Catholics, 1632. — Virginia, as the southern 
 portion of the coast, still undivided ; it increases in proportion to the 
 spread of tobacco. — The Act of Navigation renewed, endjracing also 
 the North American colonies, 1660; an acknowledgment, on the part 
 of the mother country, of their imi)ortance to navigatir)n and commerce. 
 
 For the earlier history: A Gttural Ilistor;/ of (he British Empire in 
 America, by J. II. AVynm:, in two volumes, London, 1770, 8vo. Com- 
 prehending Canada and tlie "NVest Indies. 
 
 RoueutsOn's America, see alK)ve, p. 89. 
 
 Cnu. Leiste, Bcschreibuiig dcs Britlischen Ameriha, AVolfen. 
 1778, 8vo. 
 
 13. The French, too, fixed their regard on ^ ^ 
 
 ' ' „■ French. 
 
 both Indies, and began to make some hgure on 
 account of their colonies. But the attempts under Riclic- 
 lieu, to acquire a share of the East Indian trade, were with- 
 out success : on the other hand, the j)lantations on several 
 of the West Indian islands flourished, but as they were 
 founded by individual perseverance, they remained private 
 property. 
 
 First settlements on St. Christopher at the .same time with the Eng- 
 lish, 162.5. Thence on Guadaloupe and Martinique, 163o, wliich pro- 
 duced a considerable supply of sugar towards tlic end of tliis period. 
 — About this time, the first attempts were made to form settlements on 
 Cayenne ; and at Senegal, on the coast of Africa. 
 
TART I.] COLONIAL AFFAIRS, 1G18-1660. IIT 
 
 For the earlier history, Histoire gcncrale des Antilles, hahitees par les 
 Frangais, par le Peee du Tertre, Paris, 1667, 4 vols. 4to. 
 
 14. Spain lost all the colonies of Portugal spamandpor- 
 with the exception of Ceuta, when the latter re- *"°^" 
 gained its independence. All her old possessions, however, 
 she still retained. But although Portugal repelled all the 
 attacks of the Dutch in Brazil, their conquests deprived her 
 of all her East Indian possessions, except Goa and Diu, 
 while Ormus was taken from her by the Persians, ^^^^ 
 v,ith the assistance of the English. Nothing but 
 the rising importance of Brazil enabled her to maintain her 
 rank among the colonial nations. 
 
 Next to Philip II., Philip TV. is the king who made the greatest 
 number of regulations in the colonies. But the principal ancient regu- 
 lations were preserved ; and no important changes took place either in 
 the administration (some regulations in Chili excepted, see Lei/es, L. 
 VI. tit. 16) or in commerce. ]\Iany things were more accurately set- 
 tled, such as the time of the departure of the fleets. Greater freedom 
 was not to be expected. 
 
FIRST PERIOD. 
 
 From tlto Old of the Fifteenth Ceniury to the time of 
 
 PART THE SECOND. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE NORTHERN POLITICAL SYSTEM, FROM IHE 
 DISSOLUTION or THE UNION OF CALMAR TO THE TREATIES 
 OF OLIVA AND COPENHAGEN, 1523 — IGGO. 
 
 J. J. SciniAUSS Fifileififiif/ zit dcr Staatswissenschaft. Zicriler 
 Thcil ; die Historic allrr zwisclini dm JVordisc/ie/i Potciizcu, Diimtunrh, 
 Schwcdcn, liusshnid, Pulcn, tt/id Prcussoi gesclilosseneti Tractateii in 
 sich haltcnd, 4to, Leipzipr, 1747-8. — Extending down to 1743. Hitherto 
 the principal work for the general diplomatic hi.story of the north. 
 
 1 . The beginning of the sixteenth century constitutes no 
 h'ss an epoch for tlie north of Europe, tlian for the west. 
 In the five principal nortlicrn states, Sweden, Denmark, 
 Poland, Russia, and Prussia, as it then existed, revolutions 
 took place, which either at once determined their future 
 form and character, or had a vast influence upon them. 
 
 2. These revolutions were brought about by two great 
 events, by the re-establishment of the Swedish tlu'one by 
 X\ui dissolution of the union of (Palmar; and the Reforma- 
 tion, 'i'he formal dissolution of that alliance, which aimed 
 at ])lacing the three northern kingdoms under one ruler, 
 without having fully obtained its object, created a number 
 of independent states in the north, whose relations, as soon 
 as ct)nunon points of collision arose, became extremely in- 
 tricate. 
 
 3. The Reformation had a still greater political influence, 
 if j)ossible, in the north of Europe than in the south. It 
 was so favourably received in the three principal countries, 
 
PART II.] PRELIMINARY REMARKS, 1523-1660, 119 
 
 Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, that it soon prevailed ; in 
 the last, it immediately became the principal basis of the 
 constitution, in the two others it became so after a very 
 short period. It aifected all the subsequent relations of 
 Prussia ; and in a great measure prepared the future fate of 
 Poland. 
 
 4. The ruling nations of the north were of twofold de- 
 scent, partly German, partly Slavonian ; and this diversity 
 showed itself in their governments. Among the former, the 
 feudal system had been established in the sam.e manner as 
 in the west ; but the citizens here formed a separate order, 
 although the nobility and clergy possessed a great prepon- 
 derance. In the Slavonian countries of Poland and Russia, 
 on the contrary, the nobility, without any distinct feudal 
 relations, had reduced the people to slavery ; and no class 
 of citizens could be formed, as there were no commercial 
 cities. The two therefore differed essentially in this, that 
 the former contained the elements for the construction of a 
 civil constitution, while in the latter they were wholly 
 wanting. 
 
 1. Denmark. Its kings, elected since 1447 fi'om the house of ITol- 
 stein Oldenburg, intended to be kings of the three united northern 
 monarchies ; they, however, but seldom were so ; and when Christian 
 II. attempted in vain to enforce the union in Sweden, a rebellion broke 
 out even in Denmark, 1523, which cost him his throne, and soon after 
 his liberty, 1532. The Reformation first introduced into Denmark, 
 1527, under his successor Frederic I., and gradually into Norway. 
 Denmark and Norway united into one kingdom, 1532. The Danish 
 elective kings much restricted by their capitulation, by the council of 
 the kingdom, and by the administration of the nobility. 
 
 J. M. ScHROECKH, ChristUche Kirchengeschichte seit der Reforma- 
 tion. Zweiter Tliiel, 1804, 8vo. For the history of the introduction 
 of the Reformation into the kingdoms of the north. 
 
 2. Saveden. Tlie Swedish monarchy was re-established in 1523, by 
 Gustavus Vasa, (f 1560,) and strengthened, 1st, by a change in the 
 relations with Denmark, under Frederic I., and by the treaty with him 
 at Malmo, 1524 ; 2nd, by the aid of the Reformation, and the confisca- 
 tions connected with it, of the property of the clergy, 1527 ; and 3rd, 
 by making the crown hereditary in his family, in the diet at Westeriis, 
 1544. Happy was it for Sweden that he reigned long enough to secure 
 the succession to his house. 
 
 Geschichte Gustav's Wasa, Konig von Schweden, von J. W. VON 
 Akchenholz. 1801, 2 vols. 8vo. From Swedish historians. But 
 superseded by, Runs, Geschichte von Schwedoi, 1803, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 3. Poland was united with the grand duchy Littliau under one king, 
 <'but not into one kingdom till 1569,) and continued tiU 1572 under the 
 
K*() rUKMMlNAKY KKMARKS, 15'23— IGGO. [pcnmn i. 
 
 tTnf»clIo3. AVIicllicr it Avas an elective or an hereditary kin;r<loni, w:i-< 
 not exactly known in I'oiaml itsr-lf. The seeds of domestic and ton-iLni 
 discord were no where more thickly sown ; no where was there so little 
 hope of amelioration as here. AVho could define its hoiindaries witli 
 respect to Kiissia, the Tartars, and the Teutonic order ? or who could 
 defnie its interiud relations ? Small as the immediate connexion l>e- 
 tween the forms of a state ami its liap|>ini'ss may appear, there are yet 
 some which are so jirejudicial, and at the same time so incapahle of im- 
 provement, that their annihilation hy a despot is the only means of 
 escape. These forms Poland possessed, hut Poland unfortunately never 
 obtained so beneficent a des|)r)t. — Even the Keformation, though it soon 
 found access to Poland, had little influence on the nation, as local causes 
 for a long time prevented the new sects (among which, besides the 
 Evangelicals, were the Socinians) from forming a political party. 
 
 4. Prussia. Neither by its situation or extent did this country seem 
 calculated to ]>lay any considerable part in the general affairs of Euroj)e, 
 yet by a strange concatenation of events, occasioned by the introduction 
 of Christianity, and afterwards by the introduction of the Keformation, 
 it became one of the chief actors. By the former, 1230 — 1283, the do- 
 minion of the Teutonic order was established. The natives were sub- 
 jugated. German commercial colonies arose, but perpetual and bloody 
 wars were carried on with Poland and Litthau, and at last, in 1525, be- 
 tween the order itself and the country and towns. By the introducti<.n 
 of the Keformation, the country was secularized under the grand master 
 Albert, of Brandenburg, 1525, and transformed into an hereditary 
 duchy, but as a Polish lief (in as far as it had not already become, by 
 the peace of Thorn, 1466, a Polish province, under the title of Polisli 
 Prussia). It passed to the electoral line, 161 H, which prepared its fu- 
 ture fate and high political importance. 
 
 5. KissiA. Under Ivan Vasilevitch I., 1462 — 1505, Kussia, by its 
 liberation from the dominion of the ^Mongolians and the compiest of 
 Novgorod, was rendered an independent empire, which, although nearly 
 bounded by the Dneiper and the Don, was already formidable from its 
 size and its desire of conquest. As this empire, however, lay quite be- 
 yond the reach of the Keformation, — that common spring of national 
 advancement, — its internal civilization required some other strong stir- 
 ring principle. But the frame-work of society would have seemed as 
 unpromising here as in Poland, had it not happened that the energy of 
 the rulers possessed a freer space for action. The reign of Ivan Va- 
 pilevitch II., the first czar, the founder of Russian dominion in the 
 north of Asia, in Casan, and Astracan, 1533 — 1584, the jirccursor of 
 Peter the Great, affords an example of this which we in vain seek for 
 in the history of Poland. 
 
 T. TJislnni of Ihr .'IJfdirs and Wars rrxprrtivfj Tjronia, in the hp- 
 ijhiuiuij of Ihc Stniijfilc for ilif Sircilisli succession. \533 — IGUO. 
 
 5. Down to the middle of the sixtccntli century there 
 was no event wliich affected the common interest of the 
 
PART n.] CONTESTS TvESPECTING LIVONIA, 1533— IGOO. 1^1 
 
 states of the north, so as to become the centre point of their 
 pohtics. Each was engaged with its own domestic affairs, 
 or at most, with those of its nearest neighbour. Ivan Va- 
 silevitch had, indeed, among his other conquests, aimed at 
 tliat of Livonia ; but the truce of fifty years suppressed the 
 dreadful hostihties respecting this country, till they were 
 renewed by Ivan Vasilevitch II., when Livonia became for 
 the north of Europe, what Milan had been for the south. 
 
 The political relations of Livonia (with Courland and Semigallia) 
 similar to those of Prussia from 1525. Christianity introduced, and the 
 country conquered by the Knights of the Sword, 1205, who, however, 
 attached themselves, in 1238, to the Teutonic order. But in 1520, 
 their Heermeister, Walter of Plettenburg, purchased his freedom from 
 this dependence, and made use of the introduction of the Reformation, 
 by means of the subjugation of the city and archbishopric Riga, to con- 
 stitute himself master of the whole country, though without either 
 having recourse to a formal act of secularization, or rendering the sove- 
 reignty hereditary. Previous to this the Heermeisters had only been 
 rulers over the western portion of the country, as the archbishops of 
 Riga possessed dominion over their archbishoprics. This partition was 
 the source of contests and wars, in which all the powers of the north 
 were involved. 
 
 Essai critique sur Vldstoire de la Livonie suivi dhm tableau de Vetat 
 actuel de cette province, par L. C. D, B. (M. le Comte de Bray.) a 
 Doi'pat, 1817, 3 vols. 8vo. An equally critical and lucid exposition of 
 the relations of the country, wliich are often extremely intricate. 
 
 6. Attack on Livonia by Ivan Vasilevitch II., isss. 
 
 and a treaty concluded between the grand mas- >fov. 28, isci. 
 ter, Gotthard Kettler, and Poland, by which, 1st, Courland 
 and Semigallia are ceded to him as an hereditary ducliy un- 
 der the protection of Poland ; on the other hand, 2nd, Li- 
 vonia itself is united to Poland, for which Esthonia 
 and Reval are united to Sweden. Thus Livonia 
 became the subject of contention between the three leading 
 powers of the north ; and the claims of the czar necessarily 
 caused a general war, (in whicli even Denmark became im- 
 plicated from her jealousy of Sweden,) till Russia was com- 
 pelled, after a contest of twenty-five years, to relinquish its 
 attempts, and Livonia was left to Poland and Sweden. 
 
 Invasion of Livonia by the czar, 1558. "War between Russia and 
 Poland, and also between Poland and Sweden, 1562. Livonia ravaged 
 in a dreadful manner, A war broke out in 1563 between Denmark and 
 Sweden, under pretence of the contested claims of right to the armorial 
 bearings of the empire ; it was at the same time a war by sea and laud ; 
 
122 POLISH AND SWEDISH [renioD i. 
 
 nn<l aUliouph ponce wns restored lu'tween flic two luttrr at Alt-Stcttiii, 
 Dlv. 13, loTO, ill ronsidi'ration of a mutual surrciKU'r of claims, yet the 
 ■war continued in Livonia, on which the czar soufrht in vain to ijnposi; 
 JMacrnus, a Danish prince, as kinfr, till Sweden and Poland united, in 
 loTT, again.-t l\u>sia, hy which tlie Russians, in the peace with Poland, 
 Jan. 15, l'iH2, and the truce with Sweden, loS3, not only lost all Li- 
 vonia, but also resi;;ned Carelia to Sweden, and were totally excluded 
 from the Baltic. Livonia remained, though without any fixed adjust- 
 ment, till the treaty of May, lo9o, in the possession of Poland, Ksthonia 
 in that of Sweden. 
 
 7. Wliile these wars were going on, and inmiediatelv 
 after their eU^se, tlie rei;:;ninp; families of two of the north- 
 ern states became extinct. In Russia, the czar Feodore I., 
 son of Vasilevitch, beinp; the last male of the dynasty of 
 
 Rurik, this line of monarchs closed at his death ; 
 
 a circumstance which was followed by an anarchy 
 of fifteen years, and which pkmged the states of the north 
 into a general war, till the dynasty of Romanow ascendetl 
 the throne. But the extinction of the liouse of Jagello in 
 
 Poland, which had happened some time before, 
 
 was of still greater importance. From the erec- 
 tion of that kingdom into an elective monarchy, a volcano, 
 in a manner, burst forth in the midst of Europe, whose 
 eruptions, at almost every change of government, threatened 
 in turn every country, far and near. 
 
 Of the eleven kings of Poland, from Ilenry of Valois, 1572, to Sta- 
 nislaus, 1764, lianlly three were unanimously elected ; foreign iullucnce 
 and a wild spirit of faction continued from first to last. 
 
 II. Hi.sfon/ of ihe Polish (iinl Sirrd/sJi u<ir of xucrrssion, and 
 oilier indltrm coinirdcd irilli if, to the peace of Oliva and Co- 
 penhagen, 1(500 — IGOO. 
 
 Besides SciiMAUSS, the great work for northern liistory, from 1578 — 
 1637, is KiiEVENnuLLEu's Annates Ferdinandd, etc., see above, p. 61. 
 
 1. Wliih? Livonia had become the object of contention 
 between the northern powers, and continued to be so be- 
 tween Sweden and Poland, there arose between these king- 
 doms the much more dreadful war of succession, wjiich 
 lasted for more than fifty years, being nourished by religious 
 differences and foreign policy. It was one of the earliest 
 fruits of the Polish freedom of election, and was oc- 
 casioned by the Poles electing Sigismond of Sweden, 
 
TART II.] WAR OF SUCCESSION, ICOO— IGGO. 123 
 
 the future heir of that country, their king, and thereby 
 opening an avenue to the monstrous union under one mon- 
 arcli of two kingdoms, separated not only by their geograph- 
 ical situation, but far more so by their difference of religion. 
 
 Sigismond, son of John III., and the Polish princess Catharine, was, 
 Kke his mother, a zealous Catholic, and the tool of the Jesuits. By his 
 means they hoped to effect the great object of their wishes, which they 
 seem almost to have done under his father ; viz. the restoration of the 
 Catholic religion in Sweden. 
 
 2. But when upon the death of John III. of 
 Sweden his son Sigismond actually succeeded 
 
 him, the consequences soon displayed themselves. No cre- 
 dit was placed in Sweden in his assurances. His uncle, who 
 was appointed regent in his stead, felt more inclination 
 to rule in his own name ; and all measures, even the most 
 severe, became to him justifiable. Thus there soon arose 
 altercation, which led to wars, that ended in the banishment 
 of Sigismond and his heirs from the crown of 1593. 
 Sweden, which was conferred on the new king 
 Charles IX. Hence a war of succession arose be- ^'^• 
 tween these two princes and their descendants, wdiich lasted 
 till the peace of Oliva, v;hen it was decided in favour of 
 the dynasty of Charles IX. 
 
 3. The anarchy, however, which at this time reigned in 
 Russia, prevented an immediate war from breaking out be- 
 tween them, both parties having their views turned towards 
 that country, with the hopes of being able to seat one of 
 their princes on the Russian throne. The elevation, how- 
 ever, of the house of Romano w, finally disappointed 
 
 their expectations, and led to the treaties of peace 
 at Stolbova and Moscow. 
 
 On tlie death of Feodor, Jan., 1598, whose brother Demetrius had 
 been murdered, 1591, he is succeeded by his brother-in-law Boris, who, 
 in 1605, being supplanted by a false Demetrius, poisons himself. The 
 latter, after ascending the thi-one, is slain, May 17, 1G06, by Vasil 
 Schoniski the conspirator, who had already been declared czar by his 
 party. The Poles and Swedes now interfere, in hopes of placing their 
 own princes on the throne, or of making conquests. The Poles, 
 esjiousing the cause of a second false Demetrius, take Moscow, and 
 cause their own prince Uladislas to be appointed czar ; while on the 
 otlier hand Schoniski attaches himself to Sweden, by a contract at "Wi- 
 borg, 1609 ; but is nevertheless overthrown in 1610, when Charles IX., 
 after the taking of Novgorod, endeavours to raise his second son, Charles 
 
1 j I POLISH AND SWEDISH [rrnioc i. 
 
 riiilip, to tho tlironc of Kii-^sia ; but dies Oct. 30, IGll, and is siic- 
 cccdfd 1)}' his eldest son, Gustaviis Adolphus. The Kussiau iiatiuii 
 settle this matter hy unanimously appointing; czar, in a solenm election, 
 the young Micha-l Federovitsh, a descendant of the house of Homanow, 
 and connected witli that of Kurik, on the 12th of Feb., 1013. The war 
 witli Sweden continued after this to the peace of Slolhova, Feb. 27, 
 1617, in which Sweden obtained Ingria and Karelia (Kexhohn) ; and 
 the war with Poland till the fourteen years' truce before Moscow, Jan. 
 3, 1(519, (afterwards changed to a peace at "Wiasma, June 15, 1634,) by 
 which Uladislas renounced his claims to Russia, which in turn relin- 
 quished to Poland, Smolensk, with its territory Severia and Tehernigov. 
 Gesrhichtc dvr Jiiissen. Versuch eines Ilandbuchs von Jon. Phil. 
 Gust. Eveks, Krster Thiel. Dorpat, 1816, 8vo. Far more than an 
 attempt. The first part, all that has yet appeared, comes down to Peter 
 the Great. 
 
 4. The Poles and Swedes were no sooner free from tliese 
 wars, than liostilities broke out between themselves. CJus- 
 
 tavus Adolpluis hastened to transfer it to Livonia, 
 and as the Polos were by no means disposed to 
 support the claims of their king to the crown of Sweden, 
 both Livonia and a part of Polish Prussia fell into the hands 
 of the young Swedisli hero. Had he not been allured by 
 the nobler scenes of Cicrniany, what would have become of 
 Sigismond ? By the mediation of France a truce was ef- 
 fected, which p-ave Gustavus Adolphus time to enter 
 
 1G25. 1 • 1. • • o 
 
 upon his heroic career hi (jrerman3\ 
 
 Truce of six years concluded between Poland and Sweden, at Alt- 
 mark, Sept. 26, 1629; prolonged, Sept. 12, 163.J, for twenty-six years. 
 Sweden was placed by this in possession of almost all Livonia. 
 
 5. The deep participation of Sweden in the thirty years' 
 war, now gave the north a period of repose ; especially as 
 the Turks were at this time occupied against the Persians 
 (see above, p. 109). But the jealousy entertained by Den- 
 mark towards Sweden, which had its foundation partly in 
 the personal characters of Clu-istian IV. and (nistavus Adol- 
 phus, partly in the rapid increase of Sweden, caused a dis- 
 trust between these states, which broke out into repeated 
 wars ; Denmark, however, was imable to prevent Sweden 
 from accjuiring a predominancy at the peace of M^estphalia. 
 
 Christian IV. had already, in 1611. taken advantage of the embar- 
 rassment of Sweden, caused by the Polish and Russian wars, to make a 
 successful attack on Charles IX., which diil not terminate till after his 
 death, at the peace of SiiJroil, Jan. 20, 1613, when restoration was 
 made by Denmark of her conquests in consideration of Sweden paying 
 
PART 11.] WAR OF SUCCESSION, IGOO— 1660. 125 
 
 a million of dollars. The part which Christian IV., so unhappily for 
 himself, took in the German war, (see above, p. 92,) had forced him to 
 remain quiet since the peace at Lubeck, 1629 ; but the extensive views 
 of Sweden during the negotiations of the peace of Westphalia, irritated 
 aiiew the jealousy of Denmark, stimulated as it was by Austria, and 
 caused the war of 1643 — 1645. Invasion and conquest of Holstein 
 and Jutland by Torstenson, Sept., 1643. Schonen, then belonging to 
 Denmark, attacked. Tiie Dutch fleet also came to the assistance of the 
 Swedes. Peace at Bromsbro, Aug. 13, 1645. Sweden obtains, 1st, 
 full freedom from duties and search in the Sound and on the Elbe at 
 Gluckstadt : 2nd, Jamtland, Herjedalem, and the islands of Gothland 
 and Oesel resigned by Denmark for ever, and Holland as a pledge for 
 thirty years. 
 
 G. This peace and that of \yestphalia raised the supe- 
 riority of Sweden in the north so high, that it appeared to 
 depend solely on the personal character of its kings what 
 use should be made of it. Under the personal dominion of 
 Christina, whose foreign influence since the peace of West- 
 phalia had been confined almost exclusively to fruitless ne- 
 gotiations, no danger was to be apprehended : but the case 
 w^as different when she resig-ned the p'overnment 
 
 o ~ 1G64— 1G60. 
 
 to her cousin Charles Gustavus. Already proved 
 an able general, full of ambition and activity, the new Pyr- 
 rhus ascended the throne with projects of conquest, which 
 rendered peace in the north impossible during his life. 
 7. A new war with Poland, because its kino;, 
 
 . ~ 1655. 
 
 John Casimir, would not acknowledge him and re- 
 nounce his pretensions to the throne of Sweden. The ex- 
 traordinary progress made against Poland, (which was be- 
 sides entangled in an unliappy w^ar with Russia, on 
 account of the Cossacks,) by which the whole king- 
 dom appeared on the point of becoming a Swedish province, 
 •roused the interests of the neighbouring nations, in propor- 
 tion to the greatness and boldness of the plans of Charles 
 Gustavus, who, aiming immediately at the annihilation of 
 Denmark, seemed to have no less a design than the erection 
 of a universal monarchy in the north. His views, however, 
 were interrupted by the active part which nearly half Europe 
 took in opposing them, and were wholly frustrated by his 
 sudden death. 
 
 The king invades Livonia and Poland, 1655, Warsaw taken, and 
 John Casimir flies to Silesia. But Poland was easier to conquer than 
 to maintain ; great insurrection, and a battle of three days at AVarsaw, 
 July 18—20, 1656, to the disadvantage of the Poles. The extent of 
 
1:2() I'OI.ISH AND SMHDISII [rERioDl. 
 
 till- war niiich ciilargcil, when the C/ar Alexis, Einpcrot T>oopol(l 11., 
 Frcilcrir III. of Denmark, ( May and June, 16o7,) ii'"l !*«i'n also Frederic 
 William, elector of Hrandi'nl)ur<r, ( Se|)t., I GoT,) declared afrainst Sweden. 
 All Poland, with the exception of IVli^iJi-Prus.sia, was soon lost, but the 
 scene of tiie war was transferred to Denmark, when Charles Gustavus 
 attacked tiic Danes. Denmark was subdued, the frozen Belt cro.saed in 
 Feb., Kj.jS, and peace made, at IJoxhiM, Feb. 2G. Conditions: 1. Den- 
 mark resigns for ever to Sweden, Halland, Schoncn, lilekingen. Balms, 
 Drontheim, and the island Bornholm. 2. The frci'doin from duties in 
 the Sound is confirmed. .'5. The feudal allegiance of the duke of IIol- 
 ."stein-Cottorp to Sweden is given up. — But the weakness of Denmark 
 had only renewed the .schemes of conquest of Charles Gustavus. Zea- 
 land was therefore suddeidy invaded again from Ilolstein, Aug., KJ.jH, 
 in order to annihilate the kingdom by the destruction of the capital. 
 But the siege of Cronberg, (Aug. 16 — Sept. 6, 1658,) gave the Danes 
 time to recover their faculties ; and the bold defence of Copenhagen 
 gave time to foreign powers, Au3trian.s, Pedes, Branrlenburgians, and 
 several German princes, to come to their aid on land, and above all, to 
 the Dutch, (who feared for their commerce on the Baltic,) to reach them 
 with a fleet. The siege was raised, and Charles Gustavus died sudden- 
 ly, Feb. 23, 1660. 
 
 8. With Cliurlcs Gustavus died his wild projects. Peace 
 was now easy, for it was desired by all ; and these treaties 
 were the more beneficial, because by them were extermi- 
 nated the seeds of the former wars, with the exception of 
 the Cossack disturbances. Thus the liberty of the north 
 was preserved, notwithstanding" the dangers with which it 
 liad been menaced. 
 
 Peace was concluded at Copenhagen, May 27, 1 660, under the media- 
 tion of France and of the maritime powers. The peace of Koschild was 
 renewed ; Denmark retaining the re-conquered district and city of 
 Drontheim, and, by a particular compact, the island of Bornholm. 
 
 Peace concluded between Sweden and Poland at Oliva, April 2.}, 
 
 1660. Conditions: 1. John CiLsimir renounced, for himself and de- 
 scendants, all claims to Sweden. 2. Poland resigns Livonia to Sweden,^ 
 (excepting the southern part, or former Polish part.) KstiK)nia, and the 
 island Oesel. 3. The diikc of Courland, taken captive by Sweden, is 
 released and restored to his possessions. 
 
 Peace concluded between Sweden and Russia at Cardis, June 21, 
 
 1661. Conquests mutually resigned, and matters restored to their 
 former footing. 
 
 Sam. PrFFF.N'UORril, r/f' rrbtis grsfis Cfirnli Giiatrtvi.Wh. vii. Norim- 
 berg, 1696, fol. The leading work for the history of the wars of this 
 king. 
 
 Mcinoircs du C/icv. de Tcrlon, dvpuis 16.'>6 — 1661. Paris, 1681, 
 2 vols. 12mo. The author was the French ambassador to Charles 
 Gustavus, and enjoyed his confidence. 
 
 9. If Sweden, by these treaties of peace, secured to itself 
 
PART II. J WAR OF SUCCESSION, 1600—1660. 127 
 
 not only the possession of Livonia, but also of the Danish 
 provinces along its coast, Prussia and Denmark reaped from 
 it, as a counterbalance, other advantages. The elector Fre- 
 deric William, under whom Brandenburg rose to be a con- 
 siderable power, availed himself with rare ability of the war 
 between Poland and Sweden, to break the feudal relations 
 of Prussia to Poland. By appearing at first inclined to em- 
 brace the Swedish interest, he purchased this in- 
 dependence by the treaty at Welau. But when 
 Charles Gustavus desired to render him his vassal, in ac- 
 cordance with his design of founding a great monarchy, 
 the elector was fully aware of the danger of his own situa- 
 tion, and became one of Charles's most violent enemies. 
 The treaty of Oliva confirmed the entire independence of 
 Prussia, on the side both of Sweden and Poland. 
 
 10. To Denmark, the storm that had arisen was the oc- 
 casion of a civil revolution, by which Frederic 
 III. became hereditary and absolute sovereign. 
 The cause of this revolution had long existed in the great 
 disproportion which had grown up between the different 
 classes of the community, and the constitutional states of 
 the realm ; but there was need of a concurrence of cir- 
 cumstances like the present to bring it to maturity. A 
 royal couple, like Frederic III. and his wife, seconded by a 
 faithful servant like Gabel, can do much of themselves ; but 
 how much more, when aided by such ministers as the bishop 
 Svane and the burgomaster Nansen ; who, however, can 
 prescribe the limits of a revolution ? The original object 
 of the king was to render the throne hereditary, instead of 
 elective ; and to destroy the great power of the aristocratic 
 nobility. He had hardly expected the annihilation of the 
 constitutional assembly would follow. Thus 
 Frederic III., by the act of sovcrcig/iti/ and the 
 7'Oi/al laiu, was made the most absolute monarch of Europe. 
 
 Geschichte der Revolution in DdnemarJt, von L. T. Spittler. Ber- 
 lin, 1796. Principally from the materials made public by von Suhm. 
 
SECOND PERIOD. 
 
 FROM THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE ACE OF LOUIS XIV., 
 TO THE DEATH OF FREDERIC THE GREAT, AND THE 
 RISE OF THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD. 1G61 1778. 
 
 1. The reader is now commencing; a new and highly in- 
 teresting portion of the history of modern Europe. If the 
 hist period derived its o'cneral eliaraeter from an extraordi- 
 nary interference of religion with i)ohties, the present is no 
 less determined by the influence of the monied system upon 
 them. The continually increasinp: importance of money 
 matters in politics, Avas certainly, upon the whole, a conse- 
 quence of advancing civilization, which drove the states to 
 the formation of numerous projects, mostly of an expensive 
 nature. Based, however, u})on no fixed principles, it led 
 to errors, with which it is necessary to be acquainted, in 
 order to understand the subsequent history of Europe. 
 Men now discovered that a certain relation always exists 
 between the means of government and that of the nation ; 
 and endeavoured, accordingly, to promote the wealth of the 
 latter. But the three great questions, which from their 
 nature constitute the foundation of jiolitical economy, name- 
 ly : 1st, M hat are the nature and sources of national wealth ? 
 2nd, M'iiat influence may a government exercise in the 
 ])rom()ti()n of national wealtii ? And, 3rd, \\'hat relation 
 exists between the revenues of the nation and that of the 
 government? were left untouched, till a roufin<! had be- 
 come established, against which even better principles could 
 do but little. 
 
 The system fornuMl from the mnxims to wliicli this routine gave birtli, 
 is that coinprelicndfd under the name of the mercantile system, which 
 is therefore nofhinp hut this practice reduced to rules. 
 
 The hfst delineation of it will be found in, 
 
 StaatswisscTicluiftcn von v. Jusxi. Gottingen, IToo, 2 parts. 
 
PART I.] PRELIMINARY REMARKS, 16GI— 17SG. 129 
 
 2. While these principles, which we are accustomed to 
 consider as the most correct, place the nation's means, not 
 so much in its material, as in its moral wealth, that is, in the 
 talents and knowledge which alone make the former avail- 
 able ; this practical system, on the other hand, placed it 
 merely in the amount of its ready money. Since, then, the 
 increase of this was alone deemed a real gain, and the 
 diminution of it a real loss, the highest aim of political 
 economy was naturally very limited ; for industry was to 
 be encouraged only on the principle of turning its produce 
 into money, while the everlasting truth, that all productive 
 industry is actually useful only in proportion as it is adapted 
 to the character of the country, and the wants and circum- 
 stances of its inhabitants, at the same time impeding no 
 more useful application of their power, was entirely kept 
 out of sight. While the whole horizon of political economy 
 was circumscribed in this incredible manner, there resulted 
 from it a series of the most perverse measures, which were 
 the more oppressive, as hardly a doubt arose respecting 
 their justice, and even their expediency. 
 
 Though the resources of a nation consist in its possessions, yet the 
 (material) -wealth of a government consists principally in its ready 
 money ; because this, above all things, is needed for accomplishing its 
 purposes. Thus the increase of ready money was regarded as the chief 
 object of political economy by the governments ; but does this excuse 
 the mistaken views entertained of national wealth ? 
 
 3. It will scarcely be expected that the ideas formed 
 respecting the resources of national wealth, were more en- 
 larged than those respecting its nature. Mines, and the 
 acquisition of money from foreign countries, were considered 
 as the only means of increasing a nation's wealth. As manu- 
 facturing and commercial nations were found to become 
 the richest, men were confirmed in the belief that manu- 
 factures and commerce were the prime sources of wealth, — 
 that to increase by art the value of raw materials and to sell 
 to foreigners, was more important than to produce for home 
 consumption and home trade. Participation in foreign 
 commerce, and the establishment of large manufactures, be- 
 came, therefore, now the great object of domestic policy. 
 
 4. But as navigation and foreign commerce depend al- 
 most entirely upon colonies, it naturally follows that these 
 
130 I'RHLIMINAHV KKMARK.S, ICGl— 178C. [ri;RioD a. 
 
 ac(juir(' a orcattM* iniportanco ; and tliat llir maritime 
 powers, who alone were ahle to possess and defend, slioidd 
 t)l)tain a j^reater weip,lit in tlic political balance than would 
 liave been possible nnder other circumstances. 
 
 5. These ideas obtained at once a practical consetjuence, 
 because the governments felt every day less hesitation in 
 directing the whole force of national industiy to the ac- 
 ([uirement of money — particularly by commerce and arti- 
 ficial industry. To do this, rulers Cbtablished privileged 
 manul'actories, partly by tarifi's, partly by the entire prohi- 
 bition of the impoitation or ex])ortation of certain articles. 
 It mattered not w hether tin; articles purchased were eitiier 
 bad, or dear, or both, provided the money did but remain 
 in the coinitry. Even knowledge and information were 
 only to be fabricated and i)roduced at home. In conse- 
 quence of these mistaken views respecting the fundamental 
 principles of finance, commerce, and the influence of go- 
 vernment, and the confounding together the entirely dis- 
 tinct objects of political and commercial independence, 
 there became formed a sj/stcf?i of isolation, according to 
 which every nation was to be as much as possible sufficient 
 for itself, — to buy nothing, but to sell all it could. Strange 
 infatuation ! that while every government was seeking to 
 extend its commerce, all were taking the most cti'ectual 
 means to destroy it. 
 
 By leaving tlic industry of nations to itsflf, and to the nianagoniont 
 of those engagi'd in it, it is l»y no means intendi-d to exelude tlio iiifiu- 
 encc of government entirely from it. It may he a<ked, -where is the 
 limit of this influcnec ? ISo general formula ean mark this for partiiu- 
 lar cases. It must be left to the discernment and knowledge of the 
 government. 
 
 6. At the first glance it may seem astonishing, how com- 
 merce, notwithstanding this, contrived to raise itself to the 
 importance; it did, and obtained an extent never before 
 known. But it is to be considered, that this system only 
 came into operation by degrees ; that nature is still more 
 powerful than government; and finally, that many com- 
 modities produced in remote quarters of the world, found 
 so ready an access into Europe, that they ceased to be 
 articles of luxury, but became of the number of necessaries, 
 and conse(|uently immeasurably important. It is only 
 
PART i] PRELIMINARY REMARKS, 1C61— 1786. 131 
 
 single branches of commerce among single nations, that 
 have been rendered flourishing by the ordinances of go- 
 vernments ; the commerce of the world, as a whole, has 
 risen into prosperity, not through them, indeed, but, abso- 
 lutely in spite of them. 
 
 7. The consequences, which the application of these 
 maxims had upon the mutual relations of the states, could 
 not but be highly pernicious, both in peace and war. In 
 peace, on the one hand, a continual distrust was maintained, 
 as each one was apprehensive of being overreached, a state 
 of feeling to which the many commercial contracts only 
 gave fresh encouragement. And on the other, those states 
 which were enriching themselves by commerce, inasmuch 
 as their gain was supposed to be the loss of others, were the 
 means of exciting a general envy, which became vehement 
 in proportion to the increase of commerce, and but too 
 often broke out in violent wars. — But in war itself, there 
 arose, 1st, Attempts to annihilate the commerce of the 
 enemy, and thence privateering with all its abuses, a mode 
 of warfare which is never decisive. 2nd, The extension of 
 war to the colonies. 3rd, The restrictions and oppressions 
 of the neutral trade, as soon as ever a nation deemed itself 
 strong enough to impose them. — The gradual development 
 of these principles eventually led to extremes, such as no 
 age had witnessed, and no statesman could have foreseen. 
 
 8. With this mercantile character of the age, the military, 
 also, was in a peculiar manner combined. From the ge- 
 neral state of society, in connexion with the continual dis- 
 sensions to which the mercantile system gave rise, proceeded 
 the system of standing armies, which, having been pre- 
 viously founded, received its ultimate perfection from Louis 
 XIV. and Frederic II. By the separation of the military 
 class, this system accorded with the character of an age, 
 which placed so high a value on the arts of peace ; and for 
 that reason it succeeded. It had no beneficial re-action 
 either on the diminution of wars, or on morality ; but it 
 brought with it the advantages of more secure tranquillity 
 in peace, and of a considerable mitigation of the evils of 
 war. But is it not evident that nations must grow ripe for 
 subjugation, in proportion as they lay aside the instruments 
 of defence ? 
 
 K 2 
 
132 rin:i.IMIN.\KV U1:.M.\UKS, IGGI — 17sfi. [rEmoo 11. 
 
 J). Tlioiinli frct|U(Mit attcnij)ts were made in tliis period, 
 to pive a sino'le state the preponderance in Eurojje, by tlie 
 destruction o\' the balance of j)o\ver, tliev were ahvays 
 frustrated ; and their failure naturally contributed to con- 
 firm that balance. Tiie maritime powers operated in this 
 j)eriod far more ])Owerfnlly than in the former; since their 
 interest demanded the preservation of their own influence, 
 and the value placed on commerce and colonies would of 
 course render it decisive. Standing* armies are not fit for 
 great conquests ; they have their natural limits of them- 
 selves. Thus the ])olitical system of Europe, though the 
 ine([uality of its mend)ers was so great, still remained a 
 system of self-existent, independent states. 
 
 10. 'i'he relations between the states became in this 
 period much closer, owing to the perfection which diplomacy 
 had attained ; the natural fruit of a political system, where 
 it was not an authoritative decree, but negotiation that was 
 the efficient power. The custom, which had become preva- 
 lent in the great courts, ever since the time of Uichelieu, of 
 keeping continual embassies even at the smaller, was thus 
 enlarged, and the whole reduced to system. If the web of 
 ])olitical negotiations was in consequence rendered much 
 more comph.w, the introduction of personal influence into 
 politics was, perhaps, the most pernicious consequence, be- 
 cause the petty passions of the potentates, and those who 
 inunediatelv surrounded them, were too frecpiently roused 
 by unfavourable despatches, which even produced and ])vo- 
 longed wars. But, on the other hand, these embassies con- 
 tributed very much towards settling the forms of foreign 
 policy, and whoever, in examining these forms, sees some- 
 thing more than mere ceremony, will not hesitate to appre- 
 ciate them accordingly. 
 
 Fcrdinainl the Catholic liad cstahlisliocl the maintenance of permanent 
 embassies, but only at sinjile courts. It was not till the French policy 
 under Louis XIII. and XIV. comprehended almost all Europe, that the 
 system of dij>lomacy was enlarged, and with the enlargement of it, the 
 etiquette also became permanently fixed. 
 
FIRST PERIOD. 
 
 From 1661 to 1700 
 
 PAET THE FIRST. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE SOUTHERN EUROPEAN STATES-SYSTEM. 
 
 1. The following period is generally called tlie age of 
 Louis XIV., as it includes the golden years of this monarch's 
 reign. The name itself shows that France was, at this time, 
 the prominent state of Europe. But although this prece- 
 dence was founded partly on arms, it was far more so on 
 the preponderating influence of civil refinement, which at- 
 tracted the observation of foreign countries, by its splendour 
 no less than its variety. To it the nation owed the dominion 
 of their language ; and does not a well-grounded dominion 
 of the language in some degree establish a correspondent 
 dominion of the nation ? Conquests by arms are, after all, 
 extremely limited ; but these peaceful conquests compre- 
 hended the whole civilized world ; and were imperishable 
 because they were based, not on compulsion, but on freedom. 
 
 Le siccle de Louis XIV. (par ^M. de Yoltaire). a Berlin, ITol. 
 Rather a sketch than a complete account. 
 
 For the history of Belles Lettres ; La Harpe cours de litttrature. 
 But also compare : 
 
 F. BouTERAVECK Gcschichte der Franzosischen Litteratur. B. ii. 
 Gottingen, 1807 ; and the masterly critiques of Lessixg and A. W. 
 
 SCIILEGEL. 
 
 2. Not only from its population, situation, and extent, 
 was France the most powerful state of Europe ; but also in 
 consequence of the royal power, so much increased by 
 Richelieu ; this power, however, was still very remote from 
 pure despotism. The constitution was too complicate to 
 admit of this. In fact, what limits were not set to the royal 
 will by the nobihty and clergy, by prescription and local 
 privileges \ It could become formidable only to individuals, 
 
I't I'HKl.IMINAKV KK.MAUKS, ICCl— 1700. (pEnioDii. 
 
 and not to the \vliol(; nation ; nor easily even to sinii;lt3 
 powerful bodies. Thus, in defiance of it, national spirit 
 was preserved, and was elevated by the splendour of the 
 aire. Tlie internal relations of the other leadinLT states of 
 the south of Europe, 8j)ain, En<j;land, the Netherlands, and 
 Germany, seemed especially adapted to exalt France, by 
 scrvintr as a foil to her. 
 
 1. After the death of Pliilip TV., (f 1665,) Spain seems to have been 
 in a piujsive, rather than an active state, under Charles II., (f 1700,) a 
 minor who never became of n^o, thouprh it still continued to be the ai;n 
 of French conquests in it.s Netherlands. But although the causes of 
 the debility of Spain are to be attributed in part to the weakness of the 
 government and its mistakes, (see p. 78,) they lay yet more in the 
 constitution and the manners. In a kingdom, Avhere the high ollices of 
 government are but benefices, purchased fi)r three or four years, where 
 the landed property is vested almost entirely in the hands of the nobi- 
 lity and clergy, a kingdom, where, from the want of circulation, no 
 capital is accumulated, and where wealth consists in silver plate, a 
 general impoverishment must ensue in the midst of riches. AVhat an 
 entire stagnation nuist then take place, when in seasons of war the trea- 
 sures of America failed to be received ! 
 
 Lcffrcs (ie rEspafjiic (par Md. d'Aulnoi). Paris, 16S2 j and — 
 Relation dc 1(1 Cour de Kspogne. Paris, 16S7. Incontestably the 
 most lively descrii)tion of the miserable condition of the country. 
 
 2. England, given up to foreign influence under the government of 
 the unworthy Charles II., and (since Clarendon's fall, 1667) of his 
 venal minister, was destitute of any stable character ; because there was 
 ft perpetual contradiction between the maxims of the Stuarts and those 
 of the majority of the nation, which necessarily terminated in a catas- 
 trophe, such as the revolution of 16SS, which hurled James II. from the 
 throne, and raised to it AVilliam III. 
 
 3. The republic of the United Nktiiert.axd.<5, powerful on the ocean, 
 was so much the weaker on land, since the interest of the now ])revail- 
 ing ])arty of the states, under the grand pensionary of Holland, Jean 
 de AVit, 16.53 — 1672, required the weakening of the land force. Great 
 as a statesman, that is, as far as diplomacy could make him so, De "VVit 
 was obliged to find by experience, that continual negotiating hastens 
 rather than averts a catastroplie. 
 
 4. Austria, under Leopold I., was, during its operations in Hun- 
 gary, too much occupied witli itself and the Turks, to be able ever to 
 use its fnll power against France. But what an inefiuality Avas pro- 
 duceil by the ])ersonal difi'crence between the inonarchs I — what an in- 
 e(piality, by the talents of their ministers and generals ! And what 
 could not be cfVcctcMl by means of the secret influence of the Jesuits, in 
 whose hands Ix-opolil was ; for the Jesuits were also the confessors at 
 tlie French court ? 
 
 5. Under the political relations of this period, the Gkuman Emtike 
 could not conceal its weakness ; and its subsequent history demon- 
 strates, that Louis XIV. had discovered but too soon, what force and 
 
r-ART I.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IX EUROPE, IGGI— 1700. 135 
 
 policy might here accomphsh. But the new roll of the empire in 1681, 
 though it could not remove the actual deficiencies in its military con- 
 stitution, proved that the nation would not remain behind the age ; and 
 the weight thrown into the balance of politics by the great elector, 
 showed what even individual states of the empire were competent to 
 effect. 
 
 I. Public Contests in Europe from 1C61 to 1700. 
 
 Besides the general works on the history of France and the Nether- 
 lands, there belong here : 
 
 IJistoire de la vie et du regne de Louis XIV., publiee par M. Bruzon 
 DE LA j\La.rti>,iere. a la Haye, 1740, o vols. 4to. This work is valu- 
 able, as it is not written in the court tone. 
 
 Histoire du regne de Louis XIV., par M. Reboullet. 1746, 9 vols. 
 12mo. The author was a Jesuit. 
 
 Of memoirs : 
 
 Memoires Ilistoriques et instructions de Louis XIV. pour le Dauphin 
 son Jils, in the (Euvres de Louis XIV. Paris, 1806, 6 vols. Espe- 
 cially the two first volumes. 
 
 (Euvres de Louis D. de St. Simon. Paris, 1791, 13 vols. 8vo. A 
 lively delineation of the principal personages, from personal observation. 
 
 1. There was no room in the existing political system of 
 Europe for the plans of conquest formed by Louis XIV. 
 They had reference to countries, with the fate of which the 
 fate of the whole was intimately connected ; and in case of 
 success they would at the same time have overthrown their 
 political principles. Frustrated in their principal aim, they 
 served only to consolidate the existing order of things. 
 
 2. The commercial spirit, now excited in France by the 
 government, acted no less strongly on the rest of Europe 
 than the spirit of conquest. The genius of one man created 
 for this empire, not only well-arranged finances, but also 
 manufactures, commerce, colonies, ports, canals, and a 
 powerful navy ; all this surrounded by the splendour of 
 high scientific, social, and military refinement. But the 
 manner in v.liich Colbert raised France to the rank of one 
 of the first commercial powers, established the future influ- 
 ence of the mercantile system on general practical politics. 
 
 France was placed in an entirely new political situation, by its colo- 
 nies, its monopolizing commercial companies, its treaties of commerce, 
 and especially by the new tariffs of 1664 and 1667, regulated altogether 
 according to the maxims of the mercantile system. Colbert's manufac- 
 tures flourished, because the condition of society was rij^e for them ; his 
 foreign commercial projects, modelled after the examjile of Holland, 
 
!;)(» rrin.lC CONTKSTS in KUUOrK, ICCl— 1700, [irnioD II. 
 
 rniild linrdly floiirlsli, because France ncitlicr was nor coulcl become 
 lik.- Hnllan.I. 
 
 TdlilKiu (fii nii/ii.-ifrrr (fr Co/fx rf. ;i Amsterdam, 1774. 
 
 Klnijc polilir/ue de Col/iirt, ]y.\r >[. 1'klissekv. a Lausanne, 177.'>. 
 NiitliL-r of tlie two exhausts tlie subject. 
 
 3. The commercial refi'ulcitions of tlie Eno-lisli and Dutcli 
 ("(>iiti'il)ut('(l no less on the other side towards loniciitinp: 
 mutual jealousy. M'hat else could have resulted trom tlie 
 
 confirmed and renewed Navio-ation Act of the 
 former, the <j,reat commercial companies of the lat- 
 ter, and li'om tlie mutual exertions of all to sujjplant one an- 
 other, or to sj)oil the market by excessive duties. 
 
 Maiioins de J. dc Jf'if, tradiiits de V Ilollaiidois. Katisbon, 1700, 
 12ino. An instructive exposition of tlie interests of the re])ublic, witli 
 respect to politics aiul commerce; and generally of the political pro.s- 
 pects at that time. 
 
 4. Besides this newly-awakened commercial policy, an 
 ell'ect more speedy and more powerful was ])roduced hy the 
 ambition and })lans of conquest of Louis Xl\ ., supported 
 
 icoi. by Louvois. The contest respecting precedence 
 >«»■ with Spain, the disputes with Rome respecting* mat- 
 ters of police, however insio-nificant in themselves, were 
 made very important by the claims to be in every thing- the 
 first. Could this be reconciled with the previously existing 
 relations between free states? 
 
 5. But the favourite idea of Louis XIV., as it had pre- 
 viouslv been that of Richelieu, was the conquf^st of the 
 Spanish Netherlands, or Belgium. A\ hat coidd be more 
 inviting? The accomplishment would have established the 
 sovereignty of France in Europe. The freedom of the re- 
 ])ul)lic and of the German empire must have fallen of theui- 
 selves ; and Sj)ain w(>uld ultimately lune been obliged to 
 submit. The preparation, in the mean time, involved Louis 
 XIV. in a series of negotiations, and at the same time in 
 closer connexions with the republic of the Ignited Nether- 
 lands, which soon, however, became burdensome to him, as 
 they disturbed his more important relations with England, 
 
 which hafl already i)rocurc<l for him the acquisi- 
 
 tion of JJunkirk. 
 Negotiations were commenced between the grand pensionary De AVit 
 and tiie ^lanpiis d'Estrades, at the Hague, in order to retard, or at least 
 to modify the project. A treaty of commerce and alliance was con- 
 cludo<l with tlie republic on the 27th of April, 1662. 
 
PART I.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, IGGl— 1700. 137 
 
 Lettres, 3Iemoires, et Negociations de M. le Comte (TEstrades. Lon- 
 dres, 1745, T. i. — ix. The true school for the formation of" diplomatists. 
 
 Brieven van de Wit. Amst. 1725, 6 vols. The leading source for 
 the historical details. 
 
 6. Meanwhile war broke out between England and the 
 republic, occasioned partly by commercial jealousy, partly 
 by the personal hatred of Charles II. towards Holland. Al- 
 though France and Denmark were the allies of the Dutch, 
 the war was in reality carried on between the parties them- 
 selves only on the ocean, though with great obstinacy. The 
 peace of Breda, by which the war was terminated, gave 
 neither of the two maritime powers a decided superiority. 
 
 Hostilities were commenced on the coasts of Guinea as early as 1664. 
 "War was declared, March, 1665. Naval battles were fought, June 21, 
 1665, June 11, 14, and Aug. 4, 1666. France took an inefficient part, 
 Jan. 26, 1.666. The weakness of the Dutch on land was strikingly dis- 
 played in the contemporary war with the bishop of JMunster, 1665. 
 Peace was made at Breda, (after Ruyter had sailed up the Thames, 
 June, 1667,) July 31, 1667. 1. Between England and France. The 
 islands St. Christopher, Antigua, and Monserrat were restored to 
 England, and Acadia to France. 2. Between England and Holland, on 
 the principle of the Uti possidetis. In accordance with this, England 
 retained New Belgium, (New York and New Jersey,) Holland retained 
 Surinam. The Navigation Act was modified in favour of Holland, with 
 respect to the navigation of the Rhine. 
 
 7. However, even before the conclusion of the peace of 
 Breda, Louis XIV. had taken up arms to enforce his alleged 
 claims to the Spanish Netherlands, founded principally on 
 the Ju.f devoliitioiiis, after the death of his father-in-law, 
 Philip IV. king of Spain. Such a violation of the just right 
 of possession was certainly an offence, not against Spain 
 merely, but against all Europe. There were statesmen who 
 were aware of this ; and Sir William Temple formed at the 
 Hague, with De Wit, and afterwards with Dohna, the triple 
 alliance between England, Holland, and Sweden. 
 
 The negotiation and the conclusion of the triple alliance, Jan. 23, 
 1668, consisting of a preliminary defensive league, and a further agree- 
 ment of an armed mediation between France and Spain, for tlie liberty 
 of Europe, is one of the noblest spectacles of modern history. Thus no- 
 bly do great statesmen feel, and thus openly and boldly do they act. 
 
 SirWilliaji Temple; Biograpliievon Ileinrich Luden. Gdttingen, 
 1808. Derived mostly from Sin AVilliam's own account in his Letters, 
 ( Works, vol. ii.,) and worthy of that great man. 
 
 8. Under these circumstances Louis XIV. considered it 
 
1-')S rrni.ic contests in kuhoi'i:, ig(;i— 1700. in.uiou n. 
 
 judicious to conclude tli<^ pcaco of Aix-la-Cluipcllc. But 
 wliy did not the allies perfect their work, and leave the con- 
 queror no portion of his booty ? The maintenance of the 
 sanctity of rij^htltd posses-sion can never be bought too 
 dearlv, in a s\>tcni of states. But they were obliged to 
 make haste, and the chief object was attained. 
 
 IVaco was inaile at Aix-la-Cliaiu'lIc, May 2, 16G8. Franco rotaincil 
 twelve i'ortrcssi's on the iVoiilicrs ol" tlie Netlierlands, amon;jr which were 
 Douai, Tournay, and Kyssd. The war Ix'twccn Portu;ral and Spain, 
 (in'v p. 104) was also terminated by a peace with the latter eountry, 
 Jan. 13. — Spain retained Centa oidy. 
 
 9. Even after the restoration of peace, the political rela- 
 tions remained essentially changed. The conqueror was, or 
 at least seemed to be, restrained by an alliance, ^^'hat was 
 not afterwards exj^ected of alliances? On the other hand, 
 France maintained a large army, equipped even in peace. 
 Her lelations with the republic were severed, and of all 
 others they were apparently the most difficult to form anew, 
 because the pride of the king was mortified, and defenceless 
 Spain had shown all its weakness. 
 
 10. What else could arise; from those incongruities, in- 
 creased yet more by commercial disputes, but a ])roject of 
 revenge on the republic ? with the downfal of which, it was 
 likewise hoped, as if such a thing were possible, to gain by 
 conquest her eonnnerce and industry. But the more it was 
 felt that such an attempt must raise a mighty storm, so 
 much the more active was French policy in its endeavours 
 to avert it. 
 
 The eoniniereial disputes had their oriirin in the jirohihition of the 
 importation of Dutch jroods, or the high duties laid on them by the auLT- 
 niented tarifl" of l(j(34, which the Dutch retaliated, 1(>71, by similar 
 duties on French wines. — Thus the mercantile system, now in its de- 
 velopment, alfurded at least a pretext for ruinous wars. 
 
 1 1. To produce a dissolution of the renewed tri- 
 ])!(' alliance, was the first object of Trench policy. 
 And how could it fail of success, since this combination, the 
 work of the ministers, liad never seriously occupied the at- 
 tention of Charles II., and to Sweden was a mere financial 
 speculation? — But that it should not merely bo dissolvcnl, 
 that it should, on the other hand, be converted into an alii- 
 
TAUT i] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, ICGl— 1700. 139 
 
 ance with France, was certainly more than could have been 
 expected. 
 
 A secret alliance was formed between England and France by the 
 Cabal ministry, not merely to produce the fall of the rejiublic, but also 
 of the British constitution ; and, in consideration of subsidies, as usual, 
 an alliance was soon after made Avith Sweden, April 14, 1672, nominally 
 only for protection. — Sir "William Temple, having been deceived by the 
 king, retired into private life. 
 
 12. But it was principally the negotiations, which pre- 
 ceded this peace, that established the influence of Louis in 
 the German empire. Negotiations were made with every 
 one ; and who, the great electors alone excepted, could re- 
 sist the proposals of neutrality, subsidies, and marriage ? 
 Cologne and JNIunster actually became allies. Austria and 
 Spain were silenced ; while the duke of Lorrain, as the 
 friend of the latter, was expelled from the countr3\ 
 
 But can this seem strange, when De A\ it himself 
 
 could be deluded ? That high-minded man, like so many 
 
 ministers, viewed his state through a magnifying medium. 
 
 13. Policy appeared therefore to have prepared exery 
 thing with unexampled care, though to a senseless purpose. 
 And, nevertheless, how falsely had it reckoned ! When the 
 storm of annihilation burst forth, the republic did not sink ; 
 but by the fall of De \yit, Louis himself was instrumental in 
 raising up, in the person of William III., the man who sub- 
 sequently stood in opposition to him, as the first Prince of 
 Orange had done to Philip II. But if the latter fought only 
 for the freedom of his country, William III. contended, — • 
 equally unwearied, and with equally varying success, in the 
 cabinet as on the field of battle, — for the liberty of Europe. 
 And he maintained it. 
 
 An attack was made on the republic by water and by land, in IMay, 
 1672, A naval battle was fought at Solbay, June 7, and a landing was 
 frustrated, July 15. But gi'eat advances were made on land in con- 
 nexion with Cologne and ^Nlunster ; and four provinces were conquered 
 in June and July. — Amsterdam was preserved by putting the country 
 under water. — A revolution took place at the Hague ; the brother of 
 De Wit was murdered, Aug. 20. "William III. was made hereditary 
 stadtholder in five provinces. 
 
 Histoire de la vie et de la mort des deux illustres frcres, Corneille et 
 Jean de Wit. a Utrecht, 1709, 2 vols. 12mo. 
 
 14. The actual progress of France created, moreover, an 
 entirely different sensation in Europe, from what mere diplo- 
 
1 10 rilU.IC CONTKSTS IN EUROTF,, IGGl-lTtK). [iekkj. ii. 
 
 iiiacv could liiivo (lono. All were filled witli consternation 
 at the imminent overthrow of a state like the rej)ublic. Siie 
 soon found allies in Austria, Spain, Germany, and Branden- 
 burg- ; while France lost those that it pnniously had, and 
 not without trouble induced Sweden to take an active |)art, 
 in order to employ Brandenburg- and the empire. Thus 
 unort'endinir countries had to sutler in a foreitrn cause : but 
 the republic was saved, as soon as the war was removed from 
 her boundaries. ^^ ithout the loss of a foot of territory, 
 she eventually withdrew from the contest ; but the cost of 
 affording satisfaction fell upon the weaker of her allies; as 
 the superiority of the Frencii generals held victory, as it 
 were, in chains. 
 
 An alliance was forniccl tx-twecn the repiililir, the emperor, Spain, 
 and the duke of Lorrain, Aupr. 30, 1673. The German empire en- 
 gaged in the quarrel, Mareli 31, 1(374. The elector of Brandenburjr, 
 who had previously been compelled to conchulc a separate peace at 
 A'ossem, June 6, 1673, renewed his alliance, and Denmark joined, July, 
 1674. — Already, in 1673, the war was transferred to the regions of the 
 Khine. The Frencli conquered Mastricht, July 1. A disend)arkation 
 was prevented by tlirce naval battles, on the 7th and 14th of June, and 
 the 21st of August. On the other hand, a separate peace was made 
 by England, Feb. 19, 1674, demanded by the voice of the nation. The 
 Spanish Netherlands and Upper Rhine were subsequently the principal 
 theatre of combat. In the former were Conde and Orange ; and a 
 bloody but indecisive battle occurred at Sencfle, Aug. 1 1. — In the latter 
 ■were Turenne and Bournonville, at last joined by the elector of Bran- 
 denburg. Battles were fought at Sinsheim, June 16, at Ensisheim, 
 Oct. 4, and a sudden attack was made at Mulhausen, in Alsace, Dec. 
 29. Turenne was always superior. — The Swedes invaded Bran<len- 
 burg in 167o, but were defeated at Eehrbellin, June 28. Denmark 
 and the empire declare war against them. Turenne and IMontecuculi 
 met on the Upper Khine. The former died at Sasbach, July 27. But 
 with the master of higher tactics, his school did not perish. In 1676 
 and 1677, Luxemburg and Orange were in the Netherlands. A battle 
 wa-s fought at ^lont Cassel, April 11. The superiority of the former 
 opened to Louis, in 1678, the way to the frontiers of Holland. 
 
 15. During the war, all sight had been lost of tlio ori- 
 ginal object, the annihilation of the republic. But the 
 question was rendered so much the more complicate by the 
 participation of so many powers. After a useless attempt 
 to bring about a peace at Cologne. Nimwegen was 
 finally fixed upon as the place for the meeting of a 
 general congress. The manifold claims, the form of the 
 negotiations, the intermediate events of the war, which pro- 
 
PART I.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 16G1— 1700. 141 
 
 ceeded in the mean while, no less than the disputed points 
 of ceremonial, gave reason to expect long and perhaps use- 
 less negotiations ; but did not all these forms, not excepting 
 the contests respecting rank, spring from the nature of a 
 free political system, where each member felt its own inde- 
 pendence, and mere physical superiority dared not dictate 
 laws? — The proceedings were, at least, successful, being- 
 promoted by the zealous love of peace on the part of the 
 states of Holland, and the apparently threatening position 
 which England took by an alliance with Holland. 
 But French policy severed the combination, by 
 inducing the republic to make a separate peace, notwith- 
 standing the resistance of the hereditary stadtholder. 
 
 The congress at Nimwegen had been slowly convening since 1676, 
 and was opened in 1677. From the nature of things, a series of trea- 
 ties of peace ensued. 
 
 1. Peace between France and the republic, Aug. 10, 1678. Com- 
 plete restitution was made, in consideration of a promise of neutrality. 
 — Of greater consequence to the Dutch than the treaty of peace, was the 
 commercial treaty, concluded at the same time. The old commercial 
 relations were restored. 
 
 2. Peace between France and Spain, Sept. 17, 1678. France retains 
 a. Franche Comte ; b. twelve fortresses on the frontiers of the Nether- 
 lands, with their territory ; including Valenciennes, Conde, Cambrais, 
 Ypres, etc. 
 
 3. Peace between France and the emperor and empire, Feb. 5, 1679. 
 a. France retains Freiburg, in lieu of the right of holding a garrison in 
 Philipsburg. (See p. 101.) b. To the duke of Lorrain a very imper- 
 fect restitution was made, which he refused to accept, 
 
 16. More difficulties were caused by the treaty of peace 
 between Sweden, now deprived of its provinces, and Bran- 
 denburg and Denmark ; for Louis made it a point of honour 
 not to desert his ally. Peace was concluded bv 
 r ranee and oweden, with brandenburg at fet. 
 Germain, and soon after with Denmark. To ^^p*-^- 
 the latter, full restitution was made; to the former, one 
 almost complete. The treaties between Sweden and the 
 other allies contained nothing remarkable. 
 
 The principal ambassadors to the congress at Nimwegen were : from 
 France, the Counts d'Estrades, Avaux, (nephew of the ambassador to 
 Munster, see p. 100,) and Colbert-Croissy. From Holland, van Be- 
 verning, van Haren, Boreel. From Austria, the bishop of Gurk and 
 Count Kinsky. From Spain, the INIarquis de los Balbasos, Count Fuente, 
 etc. As mediators ; from England : Temple, Hyde, Jenkins ; from the 
 Pope, Bevilacqua. 
 
142 n ni.ic contests is euiiofk, iggi— I'oo. [peuiod n. 
 
 Aries rf mnnnircs des ntgocintintis dr Id pair dp Nlmcyuc. a Amsterd. 
 1()S0, torn. i. — iv., Il2iiu). — A cullci'tion ot" doruincnts. 
 
 St. DiDir.u, Jltsfoire dv la pnix de Xiincf/iic. Pari.-J, 1697, 8vo. The 
 aiitluir wju secretary to the enibnssy of Count Avaiix. 
 
 I/i.ifnirr dc (raid's dr pair dv Ximrifuc. 11 ')A, toin. i. ii. 
 
 The memoirs of Lord Temple, botli tlie older, from 1()72 to 1679, niid 
 the latter, from 1679 to 16yl, arc replete with information for this 
 period. 
 
 17. Tlie concessions tliut France acquired l)y the treaties 
 of peace, were by no means very dangerous tor Europe, 
 thougli tlie possession of the fortresses opened to it a door 
 for perpetual invasions of the Netherlands. The greatest 
 dangers arose from the manner in which the peace had been 
 accomplished. France had not only sustained with success 
 the combat with half of P^urope ; she had also severed the 
 cond)ination formed against herself; and when is the power- 
 fid more powerful than at such a moment ? The disorder 
 which prevailed in the public relations, and seemed to ren- 
 der a new combination impossible for a long time — and no 
 individual state dared any longer to defy the preponderance 
 of France — gave Louis time to reap all the advantages of 
 his policy. Whether the projects that now appeared were 
 a consequence of the peace, or whether the peace was a 
 consequence of those projects, Europe had never before 
 witnessed such encroachments on the sanctity of the rights 
 of property as she now beheld. — \\'as the Prince of Orange 
 wrong, in opposing, to the last, the conclusion of the separ- 
 ate peace ? \Vas it the interest of the house of Orange alone, 
 or was it the interest of all Europe ? 
 
 The chanucs in the French administration of foreiijn affairs had an 
 important influence on politic?. The intrijruinjr and luxurious Lyonne 
 (since 1663) was followed, in 1671, by the reasonable and uprijrlit Pom- 
 ]»onne, who was dismissed in 1679. His successor, tlie rou<.'h and vio- 
 lent Colbert-Croissy, (brother of the minister of finances, and father of 
 C(dbert-Torcy, his successor,) till 1696, accorded too well with the 
 wild Louvois, to leave any thing to be hoped for but tlic worst. 
 
 18. Acts of violence were committed in Alsace, imme- 
 diately aft(T the peace; reunions (so called) were made of 
 the countries of the (Jerman emj)ire, (as dependencies of the 
 new concessions,) and soon after, open violence was used 
 aaainst the Spanish Netherlands. It seemed clear that the 
 Upper Rhine was to constitute the boundary of France. 
 
PART I.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1661—1700. 143 
 
 The chambers of the reunions were erected at Metz, Brisac, and 
 Besan^on, in 1680. Was not the form moi'e irritating than the reality ? 
 — Possession was taken of Strasburg and Casale, Sept. 30, 1681, the 
 keys of Upper Germany and Lombardy, in one day. — The Spanish 
 Netherlands were invaded in 1683. — Luxemburg was conquered and 
 Treves subdued, June, 1684. Lorrain still continued to be occupied by 
 the French ; and Genoa, which had become the friend of Spain, was 
 obliged to find, by experience, what ideas Louis entertained of the laws 
 of nations. 
 
 19. Loud remonstrances were not wanting in Europe; 
 but the political relations of almost all the principal states, 
 the weakness of Spain and the empire, the partiality of 
 Charles II., the desire for peace entertained by the party of 
 the states in Holland, Avhich Louis managed by means of 
 his ambassadors, and above all, the distress of Austria from 
 the Turkish war, (see below,) appeared to destroy every 
 hope of future resistance. Nevertheless, the unwearied ac- 
 tivity of the Prince of Orange produced an alliance be- 
 tween the four leading states. But how careful were they 
 to make it only defensive. Thus Louis advanced from con- 
 quest to conquest, always offering peace ; and could still 
 speak of generosity, when in the truce of twenty years he 
 retained the greater part of his booty. 
 
 A defensive alliance was made at the Hague, Feb. 6, 1683, between 
 the emperor, Spain, Sweden, and the republic, preceded by particular 
 contracts, for the maintenance of the peace of Munster and .Nimwegen. 
 But it was the interpretation of this peace which was contested. A 
 truce was finally agreed upon for twenty years, Aug. 15, 1684, partly 
 with the emperor and empire, with the retaining on the part of France, 
 of Strasburg and the reunions which dated from before the 1st of 
 August, 1581, partly with Spain, with the retaining of Luxemburg, 
 and the conquests made before the 26th of August, 1683. 
 
 Ncgociatio7is de M. le Comte d'Araux en HoUande depuis 1679 — • 
 1688. Paris, 1751. T. i. — vi., 12rao. He was French ambassador at 
 the Hague. 
 
 J. V. LucHESixi Historiarum sui tempoj-is Ubri XIV. Roma?, 1779, 
 3 vols. 4to. 
 
 20. But was it possible for a truce thus purchased, to 
 defer the war for so long a period, as that for which it was 
 formed ? Was any barrier opposed to the devastations of 
 the stream ? Nothing could effect an alteration, but the ex- 
 haustion, with which the preponderating state purchased its 
 superiority, and perhaps the change of very important per- 
 sonages. But in such a state, exhaustion must proceed 
 
151 rUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, IGGl— 1700. [rj:nion ii. 
 
 vcrv fiir in llic interior, hofore it bocomos externally visible ; 
 and altliouixli Colbert died, yet Ivouvois lived ; one, 
 to \vlioni war was an absolute necessity. 
 
 21, Xotwitlistandin<2; the temporary preservation of the 
 peace, the materials of a new war were very naturally ac- 
 cumulated, by a series of single occurrences, which however 
 hetero*2:eneous in other respects, contributed to ap:<z:ravate 
 the animosity against the too overwhelminp; power of 
 France ; but the elements of combustion were spread so 
 abundantly and so extensively, that should a war break out, 
 it could hardly fail to become general. The new contests 
 with the Pope, the altercation respecting the succession to 
 the palatinate, and the quarrels about the election of bishop 
 at Cologne, all concurred to produce this effect. And tlu; 
 
 persecution of the Ilugnienots, which was lonu; ajxo 
 organized, and which terminated in their banish- 
 ment by the revocation of the edict of Nantes, must have 
 contributed so much the more to involve Louis in continual 
 difficulties with the Protestant powers, because such scenes 
 were no longer common in Europe. And in addition, 
 there were still perpetual petty altercations between France 
 and the republic, on account of tariffs and prohibitions. 
 
 Disputes arose, in 1673, with Pope Innocent XI., respecting tlie re- 
 gale ; and led, in 1682, to tlie convocation of a national council, which 
 bv its four artiilos determined the rehitions with I\onie, or the rights of 
 the Gallican churdi ; and in 1682 respecting the absurd freedom of 
 quarters. — The altercation respecting the succession to the palatinate 
 had its origin in the attempt of Louis, after the extinction of the pala- 
 tine Simmerian male line with the elector Charles, in 168.3, to assert 
 the claims of his sister, the duchess of Orleans, to tlie allodial succession, 
 and also to the greater portion of the country. — Quarrels arose about 
 the episcopal election at Cologne in 1688 ; Louis sujiported his client, 
 the bishop of Fiirstenberg of Strasburg, in opposition to John Clement, 
 prince of Bavaria, who, tiiough chosen by the minority of the chapter, 
 was nevertheless confirmed by the Pojic. 
 
 22. ^\'hile all thus felt themselves injured, and were ap- 
 prehensive for themselves, it was more easy for the Prince 
 of Orange to negotiate a new league, for maintaining the 
 truce, which was concluded at Augsburg. As Louis con- 
 sidered it to be formed against himself, the immediate break- 
 inti: out of a great war hardly aj)j)enred any longer doubtful ; 
 and though the embarrassment of Louvois precipitated the 
 
PART I.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1661—1700. 145 
 
 eruption, this was only what must have taken place at a 
 somewhat later period. 
 
 The league of Augsburg was concluded July 29, 1686, between the 
 emperor, Spain, Sweden, the elector of Bavaria, the Suabian, Bavarian, 
 and Franconian circles, and some German princes. As the breach was 
 already wide enough, the choice of elector of Cologne (see above) brought 
 the matter to a crisis. "VYar Avas declared against the emperor and em- 
 pire, Sept. 24, 1688. 
 
 23. But scarcely had the war broken out, when an event 
 occurred, that alone would have rendered war inevitable ; 
 the revolution in England, which raised William 
 
 III. to the throne of his father-in-law. The re- 
 ception given by Louis to James II. as a friend and a king, 
 was a virtual declaration of hostilities. 
 
 24. Thus there was kindled in Europe a new war, the 
 extent of which was as uncertain as its duration. In three 
 months there was no longer a neutral state in the west of 
 Europe ; and Louvois took the best care to spread the flames 
 most widely. 
 
 The declaration against the emperor and empire was followed by one 
 against the Pope, as a secular prince ; against the republic, Nov. 6, 
 1688 ; against Spain, April 15, 1689. War on France was declared 
 by England, JNIay 17. A grand alliance was formed at Vienna, ]\fay 
 12, 1689, to which the duke of Savoy also, forced by Louvois, acceded, 
 June, 1690. Denmark promised auxiliaries to England. 
 
 25. It seemed inevitable, that the fearful nine years' con- 
 test, (remarkable also for new interdictions laid upon com- 
 merce,) in the Netherlands, in the Rhine lands, in Italy, 
 in Ireland, and on the Spanish frontiers, and moreover on 
 the ocean and Mediterranean, would terminate either in the 
 subjection, or the most decisive triumph of France. And 
 yet neither was the case. The superiority of the French 
 generals, the unconquered Luxemberg, and the modest Ca- 
 tinat, still continued ; but the progressive exhaustion of the 
 interior became too apparent abroad, and Colbert had 
 formed no pupils like Turenne. 
 
 Were not the horrible devastations of the palatinate, in 1688 and 
 1689, with fire and sword, by Louvois (fl691) in order to protect the 
 frontiers, proofs of the consciousness of internal weakness ? The French 
 could never penetrate much beyond tlie Rhine, especially as they were 
 opposed, after 1693, by the bold Louis, prince of Baden. — The principal 
 theatre of tlie war was in the Netherlands, where Luxemberg gained a 
 victory at Flcurus, July 1, 1690; one at Steenkerke, August 3, 1692; 
 
 L 
 
1 IC) PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, IGGl— 1700. [rcnioo ii, 
 
 nn<l nt Nocrwimlou, July 29, 1003, tlio two latter over "NVilUnm III., 
 niul to(»k Namur and si'vcral f'ortros.«o.s. Yet the I'rince ot" ()ran;:e, 
 (il^en <ler('at«'il but never vaiu|uislie(l, stoinl lii.s proiind ; and what 
 l.uxciulierp (f Jan., 16;)')) eouhl not elVeet, liow could his .sucressor 
 \'iIlrroy aeeinnplish ? — In Italy, a Ijattle was fou^ilit between Catinat 
 and Victor Ania<leus II. of Savoy. Catinat obtained a victory at 
 Stal'arda, Aufr. IH, 1690, ami subdued Savoy, and a jiart of Piedmont 
 in l(i;)l. A battle was gaineil at Marsaglia, Oct. 4, KiOJJ, when secret 
 nc;rotiations were commenced betwei'n the didio and France. — The war 
 on the boundaries of Catalonia was for a long time a matter of secondary 
 importance, but terminated, 1G97, in the conquest of Barcelona. — The 
 naval war, successfully begun by France, by Tourville's victory at 
 Diejipe, July 10, KJfK), was connected with the project of a landing in 
 Kngland and Ireland, in favour of James II. The latter, executed in- 
 deed i)y France, but badly sustained, was frustrated by the victory of 
 ^Villiam III. on the river Boyne, Jtdy 1, 105)0; the former was iVus- 
 trated by the naval victory of the British at La Ilogue, May 29, 1()92, 
 the result of which insured to tiiem tlie superiority. — The war reached 
 also the Fast and West Indies. Carthagena in South America wa.s 
 conquered, May 5, 1G97. — A strict embargo had been imposed by 
 p]nglan<l from the commencement of the war ; (the interdiction pre- 
 viously laid on all commerce with France, by an act of parliament, 1()78, 
 having been invoked by James II. ;) for not only was the eontraliand 
 trade, as usual, forbidden, but all commerce with France, either by 
 natives or foreigners, Aug. 22, 1689. Scai'cely, however, ■were any 
 foreigners to be found who were neutral. 
 
 20. It was to be oxpcctcd, that, in tliis war also, the 
 separation of tho ixrand confederacy would be the aim of 
 French policy. It was hoped at least to piin the duke of 
 Savoy, and secret neo-otiations were be(:^un in lGfJ4, tliat 
 finally led to a treaty, by A\hich France attained its object. 
 
 By the treaty at Turin : 1. The duke recovered all his territories and 
 I'ignerol itself, tliough much curtailed. 2. His daughter was espoused 
 to the eldest grandson of Louis, tiie Due do Bourgogne. 3. He pro- 
 mised to etfect with .Spain and Austria the neutrality of Italy, which 
 was done by the treaty of Vigevano, Oct. 7. 
 
 '27. Tliou^h this separation was of n;reat moment, yet the 
 ncknowledninrr of M'illiam 111. and the requisitions of 
 Austria, j)laced great obstach's in the way of a pacification. 
 But it was promoted on the side of France by the projects 
 on the Spanish monarchy, (the preparations for which, pos- 
 sible only in peace, could be no longer protracted,) and on 
 the other side by distrust among the allies. A congress, 
 which was convened at the casth^ near Rvswick in Holland, 
 prosecuted the negotiations under Swedish mediation; and 
 
PART 1.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1661—1700. 147 
 
 Louis attained his object the sooner by creating new di- 
 visions among the confederates. 
 
 The congress was opened at Ryswick, IMay 9, 1697. A preliminary 
 agreement was made with the maritime powers ; and after the expira- 
 tion of the period of time assigned to the emperor and empire, peace 
 was concluded between them and Spain, Sept. 20, in which the em- 
 peror and empire were soon forced to acquiesce, Oct. 30. 
 
 a. Peace between France and Enghmd. 1. William III. was ac- 
 knowledged. 2. Conquests were mutually restored. 
 
 b. Peace between France and Holland, on condition of mutual resti- 
 tution ; and a commercial treaty. 
 
 c. Peace between France and Spain. All conquests and annexations 
 in Catalonia and the Low Countries were restored, with the exception 
 of some villages as adjusting the boundary. — Without any especial con- 
 cession, France retained the already occupied part of St. Domingo. (See 
 below.) 
 
 d. Peace with the emperor and empire. 1. France retained all the 
 annexations in Alsace ; and also Strasburg. 2. All others, except 
 those of Alsace, were restored (yet according to an inserted clause, the 
 Catholic religion was to remain in statu quo). 3. The quarrel respecting 
 the palatine succession was to be decided by ai'biters. 4. Full restitu- 
 tion was made to the duke of Lorrain. 
 
 The principal ambassadors were : from France, Callieres, de Harlay ; 
 from England, the earl of Pembroke, Lord Lexington, etc. ; from Hol- 
 land, A. Heinsius, J. Borcel, etc. ; from the emperor, Count Kaunitz, 
 Stratman, von Sailern ; from Spain, Don Quiros ; from Sweden, as 
 mediators. Count Bonde, von Lilienroth. 
 
 Actes, memoires, et ncgociations de lapaix de Ryswic, par Ad. Moet- 
 JENS. T. i. — V. a la Haye, 1707. 
 
 3Ianoir€s jJoUtiques pour servir d la parfaite mtelligence de la paix 
 de Rysivic, par du Moxt, 1699, T. i. — iv. contain a diplomatic history 
 of the disputes of the states since the Westphalian peace, but go only 
 to 1676. 
 
 28. Although by this tedious war, the wish of the allies, 
 to restore things to the standing of the peace of Nimwegen, 
 or if possible of Westphalia and the Pyrenees, was by no 
 means perfectly satisfied, yet the principal object was at- 
 tained ; the mutual freedom and independence of the states 
 was maintained and secured. The wars prosecuted for this 
 end, and terminated by three such treaties of peace, had 
 made the importance of the political balance of power to be 
 so strongly felt, that there was no danger of its being soon 
 lost in practice. 
 
 29. In close connexion with this, as a result of the war, 
 stood the adjustment of the British continental policy in its 
 leading forms. It proceeded from the rivalship with France, 
 
 L 2 
 
1 18 rUULIC CONTESTS IN EUROPi:, IGGl— 1700. [rzniov ii. 
 
 wliich, ori'^inating in the commercial jealousy existinp; be- 
 tween tlu' nations, Avas permanently rooted by \\ illiaiii III. 
 Too weak to resist Franc^e on land, it attached itx'lfto Aus- 
 tria, the second power of the continent, and very naturally 
 to the iiouse of IIapsb\n"<j:, so lon|4' as it ruled in Sj)ain. 
 'Hie close connexion with the Netherlands was a eonsc- 
 quenee dI" William lll.'s accession to the throne; in Italy 
 it had just learned to appreciate the importance of the Duke 
 of Savoy, and in the German empire it could hardly want 
 single allies. 
 
 30. But while those wars shook the west of Europe, 
 storms no less violent raged in the east. The danger from 
 the Turks was never so threatening to Germany as during 
 this period, when it seemed inevitable that the fate of Vienna 
 would decide that of the empire. The contests respecting 
 Transylvania, and the tyranny of the Austrians in Hungary, 
 did not leave the Turks without adherents ; and though in 
 reg-ular battles they had to bend to German tactics, there 
 Avere found some leaders who imderstood what might be 
 elfected by great masses of light troops, animated by na- 
 tional pride and religious hatred. Those wars had no small 
 infinence on the contests of western Europe. Louis XIV., 
 in ])olicy as in private life, never untrue to decorum, was 
 not indeed the formal coadjutor of the enemy of Christen- 
 dom ; on the contrary, he sent an auxiliary force against it ; 
 but his ambassadors were not for this reason the less active 
 in Constantinople, or his diplomatists in Hungary. 
 
 War was already, IGGl — 1664, stirred up in Transylvania, by tlie 
 contested election between Prince Kenieny, supported by Austria, and 
 ^Michael Abatli, who was lavonred by the Turte. The fortress of Gross- 
 wardein was talcen 1661, and Neuhausel 1662. Imminent dan;rer finally 
 induced the empire, and even France, to afford a,-sistance to the em- 
 peror. IMontecuculi obtained a victory over Achmet Kiuprili, at St. 
 (t(»tthard on tlie Kaab, July 22, 1664 ; but in the truce of twenty years, 
 All". 22, the Turks remained in possession of Neuhausel and Gross- 
 wardein. 
 
 31. The second war was nnu-h more lasting and import- 
 ant, which began under French influence, before the lapse 
 of the truce, and was terminated at the clo.se of the century 
 by the ]V'ace of Carlowitz. How much were the contem- 
 porary undertakings of Louis XI\ . favoured by it! But 
 though, at its commencement, the siege of Vienna menaced 
 
TAUT I.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, IGCI— 1700. 149 
 
 the freedom of Germany, yet as the dominion of Austria 
 was established by it in Hungarj'^, Germany was in future 
 secured from the attacks of the Turks. By the participa- 
 tion of Poland and Russia, the war was extended to the 
 north of Europe. (See below.) 
 
 The truce of twenty years was broken by the assistance afforded to 
 Count Tekeli in Hungary, 1682. Austria was invaded, and Vienna in- 
 vested, July 22, 1683. The city was relieved by the combined German 
 and Polish army, under the Duke Charles of Lorrain, and John So- 
 biesky, Sept. 12. The German princes subsequently took a more de- 
 cided part, and Venice acceded, 1684. Hungary continued to be the 
 theatre of the war. Neuhausel was conquered, Aug. 19, 1685, and 
 Ofen by the Germans, Aug. 2, 1686. The Turks were defeated at 
 Mohacz, Aug. 7, and Slavonia was lost, 1687. Venice makes conquests 
 in Dalmatia, the Morea, and Attica. The vizier Kiuprili Mustapha, 
 (since 1690,) shortly after demonstrated what may be effected in a bar- 
 barous nation by quickening the national spirit. Nissa was conquered, 
 and Belgrade (Oct.); but in the battle of Salankemen, Aug. 19, 1691, 
 the hero fell without finding a worthy successor. In the field the con- 
 test began to languish, while the contest of French and British diplo- 
 macy at Constantinople was proportionably active. But the latter 
 impeded the peace; and when JMustapha U. placed himself, 1695, at 
 the head of affairs, the war revi\ed. When, however, Prince Eugene 
 acquired the chief command, 1697, the war was decided by the battle at 
 Zeutha (Sept. 11). Peace was concluded at Carlo witz, Jan. 26, 1699. 
 1. With Austria, which retained Transylvania, the Porte retaining 
 Temeswar. 2. With Venice, which retained the ]\Iorea, besides the 
 islands St. Mauro and Egina. 3. With Poland and Russia (see below). 
 
 De la Croix, Guerres des Turcs avec la Polonge, la Moscovie, et la 
 Hongrie. a la Haye, 1698, 8vo. 
 
 II. Cursory view of the principal contemporary changes in each 
 of the leading States of the West of Europe, and of their results. 
 
 I. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. 
 
 1. These two kingdoms, now separated, continued to ex- 
 ist Avithout the renewed independence of Portugal being 
 sufficient to give a new impulse to the national spirit. But 
 the state of this country was better than that of Spain, 
 where all the germs of internal corruption were so fully 
 developed, (see p. 134,) that it is difficult to explain even 
 the continuance of its political existence. But a great state 
 can go a long way in the career of error, before it is over- 
 taken by political death. 
 
l.'.U CONTEMrOHAUV CHANGES, IGGl — 1700. [riiiiioD ii. 
 
 11. FRANCE. 
 
 ti. A rcii:!! so splendid as tliat of I^ouis XIW liitrnioiii/.cd 
 too wf'll \vitli tlio cliiiractcr of tlic nation, to allow (iiscoii- 
 tcnt, in spite of all oppression, to find a central point of re- 
 sistance. The moderate aggrandizements that were made, 
 were ])nrcliased at so high a price that they conld scarcely 
 be regarded as a gain. ]'Vench inthience, however, increased 
 in a far greater degree than French power ; and even the 
 expulsion of the Huguenots, while at the same time this 
 outrag(^ uj)on luunanity was coinj)ensated, in some measure, 
 by the diilusion of French capital and industry, powerfully 
 contributed thereto, by a corresponding ditlusion of the 
 French language and manners. 
 
 3. Yet in the midst of this period of royal unlimited 
 power, religious controversy produced a germ, of slow 
 growth indeed, but the less easier on that account to be 
 exterminated, and which subsequently became of multiplied 
 Iruitiulness. Jansenism, as opposed to Jesuitism, was ne- 
 cessarily allied to freedom of thought and a spirit of in- 
 (juiry; and thus alVorded some amends for the immeasur- 
 able injury that France sutfered in this respect from the 
 expulsion of the Huguenots. The political influence of the 
 Jesuits gav(; it, inevitably, though gradually, a political 
 character, and was able to make it, al'terwards, the vehicle 
 of opposition to the government. 
 
 Jansenism liatl its origin in tlie controversy -with the Jesuits respect- 
 ing the Ijook of" Jansen, Itisliop of Yi)res, (f 1(3-10,) yltu/ustmus s. de 
 (/ratio. B}' tlie c-ondcnination of tlw live positions of I'ope Alo.Xiinder 
 VII., 16.5G, and the form of the oatli roipiireil, tiie contest liccanic of 
 practical imjmrtancc among tlie clergy, as early as IGtio. It did not, 
 however, acquire any political importance till the following period. 
 
 in. ENCJLAND. 
 
 4. No state experienced internal changes of such mo- 
 ment as England. They fully determined its future cha- 
 racter as a state ; and its part as a mendjer of the European 
 political system. The revolution which raised 
 M'illiam HI. to the throne, that had been vacated 
 by his father-in-law, restored harmony between the nation 
 
PART I.] ENGLAND. 151 
 
 nnd the government ; and was, therefore, productive of in- 
 calculable benefit for the future. The supremacy of the 
 Protestant religion and constitutional freedom were the 
 desire of the people ; both were secured to them by the 
 present revolution ; and formally ratified by the Bill of 
 Rights. 
 
 5. But it was not the giving greater stability to forms, 
 (generally the ancient ones,) that gave to the British con- 
 stitution its subsequent life. This proceeded from the na- 
 tion itself, from the long struggle of the lower house against 
 the projects of the Stuarts, and from the national spirit, which 
 was thereby brought into action ; even the survival of the 
 parties of whigs and tories, (for how could all parties have 
 disappeared on a sudden?) was only another symptom of life. 
 
 6. The great advantages of this constitution by no means 
 consisted in an equilibrium of powers, effected by artificial 
 forms ; on the contrary, they lay in the increased practical 
 authority of parliament, especially in the lower house, and 
 of the unrestrained intercourse of the monarch with it, by 
 means of his organs, the ministers. As mediators betvveen 
 king and parliament, then' weight was necessarily increased ; 
 but after the secret was disclosed, that a breach could never 
 occur between the two houses, the maintenance of a ma- 
 jority in parliament was the condition of their efficiency. 
 The public opposition secured them from secret cabals ; 
 though unity among themselves was naturally requisite ; 
 and for this, provision was made, in the manner of forming 
 the ministry. 
 
 7. There could not therefore be, in any of the leading 
 states of Europe, so much political life in the nation itself as 
 in this country ; and certainly not without reason was Great 
 Britain, for a century, the object of admiration as the model 
 of a constitutional monarchy ; though men sought in forms 
 for what lay much deeper. The constitution, however, 
 unavoidably contained within itself the seeds of corruption. 
 These lay in the imperfect state of representation ; yet not 
 so much in that alone, as in the subsequent abuses of the 
 elective franchise, by which the ministers endeavoured to 
 secure a majority in parliament. — Foreign powers had 
 ample cause to use circumspection in their relations with 
 England ; for a change of ministers implied a change of 
 
ITjiJ CONTEMrORAHV CllANGKS, ICf.l — 17(K). [rEnion ii. 
 
 political maxims, and the successors decmorl tliemselves but 
 sli'i'litly boiiiid by tlie cnixagcments of tlicir predecessors. 
 
 Dk I.OLMK sur la Constitution (FAnfilctcrre. Gcnt-ve, 1771, 8vo. 
 ScilMALZ, Staatsi'crfiissiUKj von (iross Britannien. 180(>, 8vo. — 
 Both very valuable works ; but noitlicr liavc exhausted the subject. 
 
 IV. Tin: iNiTKD m:tiierlands. 
 8. The makinp: of the office of stadtholder liere- 
 
 1C7»-17(H. 
 
 ditar}'^ in five provinces, a work of necessity, and 
 idtimatelv the means of preservation, (see p. 139,) would 
 probably have been attended with results of p:reat conse- 
 ([uence to the interior, had the new stadtholder possessed 
 heirs. But while his activity was turned almost exclusively 
 to forei52:n policy, it was limited at home principally to 
 brinp;inp; men of his own principles into the states, and 
 placinp: them in the offices of government. More of a states- 
 man than a soldier, (though he was justly admired as a 
 general in misfortune,) \\'illiam III. formed rather a poli- 
 tical than a military school ; and as his spirit survived in 
 lleinsius, Fagels, etc., his peeuliur maxims of policy, which 
 were opposition to France and union with England, con 
 tinued in operation after his death. 
 
 V. THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 9. After the settlement of contested political relations by 
 the peace of \Wstphalia, we might indeed have expected 
 internal quiet as the result ; but the elements of diplomacy, 
 and even of quarrel, could not be wanting in a body poli- 
 tic, whose internal relations were not only so infinitely 
 involved of themselves, but also became even more compli- 
 cated, owing to the distrust of religious parties, which pro- 
 
 ,653. duced the formation of the Corpus Evongclicorum. 
 But such disputes could hardly be called evils ; 
 
 ""'^- and while they gave rise to the perpetual diet, the 
 whole acquired a greater degree of solidity. The form of 
 the ancient diet had its advantages in its time ; but after 
 the court manners had changed, it necessarily grew anti- 
 quated. A perpetual congress therefore arose, simply be- 
 
PART I.] THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 153 
 
 cause it was needed ; it was scarcely known how ! But for 
 that very reason scarcely any one troubled himself to in- 
 quire how it might be most suitably organized. 
 
 10. Great changes were produced in the life of the Ger- 
 man princes by the influence of the French court ; but 
 similar changes were also produced in their power, civil 
 and military. As Louis XIV. found it conformable to his 
 interest to treat the several princes as such, they felt them- 
 selves to be petty powers. An elector of Brandenburg- 
 threw an important weight into the scale of general politics, 
 and the erection of the new electorate for Hanover seemed 
 an occurrence of no less universal interest. The individual 
 members of the German body politic acquired an increased 
 importance, and through them the whole, though not in an 
 equal proportion. 
 
 11. Consequently this state, though assaulted on two 
 sides by powerful conquerors, contrived to maintain itself 
 entire, with but few exceptions. The formidable Turkish 
 wars, the school of courage for the Germans, rendered tlie 
 sons of the princes generals, and likewise created a com- 
 mon point of union for the emperor and the states. Even 
 the wars with France contributed to the same end ; for not- 
 withstanding the influence of French policy during peace, 
 yet in war attachment to the common country was, on the 
 whole, the predominant feeling. 
 
 VI. AUSTRIA AND THE COUNTRIES OF THE EAST. 
 
 12. Great changes were to have been effected 
 in the interior of the Austrian monarchy. Po- 
 litical unity, especially in the principal country, Hungary, 
 was to have been enforced ; for this was regarded as the 
 sole method of establishing power. The consequence was 
 an almost perpetual revolutionary state of affairs, which, 
 joined with the formidable wars in the east and west, might 
 have become highly dangerous to the monarchy. But there 
 was not much cause for apprehension on the side of France, 
 powerful as it was, so long as the empire, undivided, served 
 as a bulwark. 
 
 13. Of much greater danger were the disturb- 
 ances in Hungary, which were excited by the 
 
154 CONTIiMrORAUY CHANGES, IGCl — 17(X). [peiiiou u. 
 
 persecutions of the Protestants, and had lor their aim the 
 t'stabhsliment of liereditary and, if possible, of absolute 
 j)o\v(>r ; and were prosecuted with a cruelty whicii drove 
 even ])atriots to insurrection. llunjj;ary became an heredi- 
 tary monarchy; but the people preser^•ed, on the wiiole, the 
 rest of their constitution, and with it their nationality. Tiiis 
 would have been a o'reat piin, notwithstanding- the defects 
 of the constitution, had not the disposition for making the 
 necessary reforms been crushed at the same time. 
 
 Great disturbanoes were created during the truce of twenty years, 
 1G64, (see p. 149,) by tlie palatine Wesselcn^ ( f 1G70) ; executions took 
 place and a tribunal of terror was erected at KpLriis. — The pijvernment 
 at length ajipcared willing to adopt milder measures, but Tekeli, who 
 had fle<l, transfornifd tin; disturbanci-s into a Turkish war, o( the vic- 
 torious termination of which Austria availed itsell" lor establishing the 
 liereditary kingdom, Oct., 1687. — But this did not put an end to further 
 plans iu S^^ienna. 
 
 14. One very essential advantage, however, which Aus- 
 tria derived from the disturbances, was the union of Tran- 
 sylvania with Hungary; the last prince Michael Abafii II. 
 having been made a pensioner. This was important, not 
 mei'ely on account of the country itself", but because the 
 most dangerous source of Turkish wars was thereby closed. 
 
 The prince Michael AViafTi II. abdicatcil, in 1699, in consequence of 
 the peace of Carlowitz. — Tranquillity, however, was again interrupted 
 by the rebellion of the younger Kak(,itzi, 1703, and his comidete sub- 
 jugation was not accomplished till 1711. 
 
 \~). The Turkish empire was, duriuLT this pe- 
 
 TurkUh empire. • ^ r i i , . ■ \i ^ i- / < 
 
 nod, tor the last tune the terror ot Oermany ; 
 for even in time of war Hungary was ever after a firm 
 bulwark. That empire was usually in a state of anarchy ; 
 but even in such a state, experience has rej^f^itedly shown, 
 how clifHcult it is to overcome a people, when animated by 
 national pride and religious fanaticism. 
 
 General rcmnrlu. 
 
 l(j. Tiie changes which practical j);)litics m 
 p;eneral underwent, may be gathered from the 
 history itself. They now began to be actuated by another 
 and a dillerent ."Spirit. I^eligious interest ceased to be the 
 mainspring of general policy; it no longer exercised nuich 
 influence on tlu; mutual relations of states. But it did not, 
 tiierefore, lose its influence on internal affairs, partly in con- 
 
PART I.] GENERAL REMARKS. 155 
 
 sequence of the arts of the Jesuits, and partly because it was 
 the basis of the several constitutions. If the Protestants 
 were persecuted in France and Hungary, the Catholics were 
 no less so in Ireland. 
 
 17. The commercial and monied interest, which, being 
 introduced by Colbert, was substituted in its place, soon 
 disclosed its influence on the governments and people, by 
 producing envy, altercation, and public feuds. After it 
 was confidently believed, that the secret of the balance of 
 trade was discovered, (the climax of folly !) an inexhaustible 
 source of national hatred and envy was opened. 
 
 The investigations into the balance of trade, (or the loss and gain of 
 specie, in international commerce,) had their origin in England under 
 Charles II. They flowed immediately from the error, that specie is the 
 criterion of national wealth, and occasioned all those measures, teeming 
 with misfortune, intended to guide it by commercial restraint. The 
 faith, however, of practical men is not to be shaken by the opposition 
 of theory, or even of experience. 
 
 Among the authors of that time, consult, 
 
 Discourses on Trade, by S. Jos. Child. London, 1670. 
 
 18. The forms of civil administration were more strictly 
 determined. As there was no longer any prime minister 
 in France, a division was naturally formed into certain de- 
 partments, at the head of which ministers were placed. 
 This example was more or less followed by other states, 
 tlioiigh in most of them this separation of the branches of 
 the administration, and the organization of the cabinet 
 formed upon it, were far from being made on fixed princi- 
 ples. It was seen in France how much depended upon the 
 choice of men ; but the number of great ministers remained, 
 nevertheless, much smaller even in these times, than the 
 number of great generals. But has it not always been so ? 
 
 19. Political economy reached in this period a much 
 higher degree of perfection than in the preceding. It was 
 not mere necessity that effected this ; the subject stood in 
 too close a connexion with the whole spirit of the new po- 
 licy, not to engross general attention. Was not the wealth 
 of the governments the ultimate object of the wealth of the 
 nations, which it was attempted to promote by commerce, 
 industry, and colonies? Here too Colbert's example led 
 the v/ay ; but if he never found a worthy successor in 
 France, how could this be expected in foreign countries ? 
 
!;";') CONTKMl'OItAUY fllANCKS, ICGl — 17(K). [pEnion ii. 
 
 I low (l(>os Colhcrt coniparp with Sully, as a financier ? Botli indeed 
 were ^rrcat rrionncrs, l)iit ColKcrt was also a on-ator, lie nicritcil this 
 lattir apiullation, partly on account of the relation in which he placcil 
 an increased and vari«'d national activity (thon^'h in accordance with 
 tlie narrow vi»'ws of liis age) to the (inances ; and partly liy his system 
 f>f loans founded on safe credit. The great difliculties that he had to 
 surmount, consisted, not so much in the greater sums which he lia<l to 
 jirocure, as in the repeated interrujitions from expensive wars, while 
 Sully was able to act undisturbed. The fabrics of both fell with their 
 authors, because they had no support in the constitution. 
 
 20. It was entirely (litlcnMit witli the British financial 
 system, which aro.'^e about the end of this period, by fund- 
 ing the interest of the loans, without entering into any ob- 
 licration to pay back tlu; caj)ital, which was transferable to 
 any one. M iio at its origin had any conception of its im- 
 portance and future extent ? But it immediately found a 
 sujijiort in the constitution by the ouarantcc^ of ])arliani('nt, 
 and its {gradual extension in the wealth ot" the nation, which 
 had been on the increase for a century. It was not, there- 
 fore, the work of one man, but a fruit of the whole social 
 condition, as it was formed by means of, and subsequent to, 
 the British revolution. 
 
 The funding system had its origin in the estal)lishment of the Bank, 
 1694, when it lent its capital to the government, at a lower rate of in- 
 terest than was ever done before, in conserpiencc of the existing war. 
 The extension of this system of loans was possible, therefore, only in 
 case of the continual increase of the natif)nal wealth of Britain. It is 
 true, indeed, that no right at home or abroad was thus violated ; but 
 even what is good may be abused. 
 
 21. In other states the necessity was soon felt, of resort- 
 ing to new resources for paying the public debt, and sink- 
 ing funds were established by a reduction of interest : this 
 measure, however, f >r want of being prosecuted with earn- 
 estness, was not so ])roductive as it should have been. But 
 the idea was suggested and contniucd to exist. 
 
 Tiie first sinking fund was established in Holland, ](]').'> ; this ex- 
 ample was followed by Popii Innocent XI., IfiS.). In Ilnllnnd, the re- 
 <lucti«»n was from five to four, in the States of the Ciiurch, fron; four to 
 three per cent. 
 
 22. Not only the art of war, but all the affairs of war, 
 acquired in these times an altered aspect; since in France 
 great armies were maintained even in peace, trained for 
 battle as for parade. Other powers, great and small, (among 
 
PART I.] GENERAL REMARKS. 157 
 
 which was Austria in particular, on account of the Hun- 
 garian disturbances,) followed more or less the example of 
 France ; but England and Holland, where fears were enter- 
 tained for the national freedom, followed the most slowly, 
 and not without perpetual resistance from the parliament 
 and the states. The reformation and perfection of the art 
 of war in all its parts, necessarily proceeded from the new 
 system. 
 
 If the new art of war was carried to perfection by Turenne and 
 others, the authors and improvers of the new military system in general, 
 were Le Tellier, and his son and successor, Louvois. Instead of the 
 fourteen thousand men under Henry IV., Louis XIV. maintained since 
 the peace of Nimwegen, one hundred and forty thousand men. AVhat 
 changes in the whole condition of society does the mere possibility of 
 effecting such a measure imply ! 
 
 Hec/ierches sur la force de Varmee Francoise depuis Henri IV.jusqiC 
 en 1805. a Paris, 1806. 
 
 23. In an equal degree with the land forces increased 
 the marine, as a natural consequence of the formation of a 
 mercantile system. In the course of a few years France 
 assumed a station among the first maritime powers, and 
 would perhaps have become the first, had she not been pre- 
 vented bv the coalition of two others after the de- 
 
 J , 1G92. \ 
 
 feat at La Hogue. At no period has the French 
 
 navy become again what it was at that time. But the 
 
 political influence of the maritime powers, as such, was so 
 
 firmly settled, that it was impossible for it subsequently to 
 
 decay. 
 
 III. History of Colonial affairs, from 1661 to 1700. 
 1. The principal chancre that the colonial 
 
 1 1 o FrflncG. 
 
 affairs of Europe endured in this period, was 
 caused by the participation of France, which likewise de- 
 termined in a great degree the character of their successive 
 development. It was the period when the French govern- 
 ment first began to think seriously of planting colonies. Those 
 of the British were now strongly attached to the mother 
 country, (an illustrious example for others !) with regard to 
 navigation and trade, by means of the renewed Navigation 
 Act, (see p. 116,) and prospered remarkably well ; whereas 
 
\i)H COLONIAL AI-FAIRS, ICCl— 1700. [period il, 
 
 tlioso of otlicr nations remained most of them in their former 
 state. 
 
 •J. Tlie colonies that France has attempted to found, arc 
 in oeneral of tlirec sorts, commercial, agricultural, and for 
 planting; but witii very diiVerent success ! The character 
 of the government, desirous of forcing every thing by regula- 
 tions, was but little calculated to form commercial colonies; 
 ^vhile on the other hand the character of the nation itself, 
 impatient as it \vas of long-continued and qui(?t exertion, 
 was equally unsuited to the purpose of establishing agricul- 
 tural colonics. The case is difl'erent with regard to the 
 plantations, where the planter alone constitutes the overseer, 
 and labour is soon rewarded by ample gain. Colonies of 
 this kind onlv have prospered in the hands of the French. 
 
 3. In point of commercial compulsion, the maxims of 
 French colonial policy coincided with those of other na- 
 tions ; in other respects they were more liberal. No one, 
 not even strangers, were obstructed in visiting the colonies 
 and settling in them. In France they stood under no 
 especial board, but under the minister of the marine ; and 
 in their interior, their military and civil administration was 
 flivided between the governor and the intendant, who con- 
 sulted in common on affairs of moment. 
 
 4. But while Colbert did homage to the prevailing spirit 
 of his time by the. foundation of colonies, he did so no less 
 by the forms which he gave to commerce. It was com- 
 mitted to chartered companies. But great as were the 
 privileges conferred upon them, no one of the companies 
 subsisted long; commerce flourished only when it was left 
 to itself 
 
 i"). Establishment of the French colonial system in the 
 M'est Indies. Fn'uch settlements had already been made 
 on several of the islands there, (see p. 116,) but they were 
 the property of private individuals. Colbert made them Ijy 
 purchase the projM'rty of the government. Not till this 
 time, therefore, could a fixed administration be introduced. 
 
 Tho islands of ^fartiniquo, Gnadalotipo, St. Lucia, Grenada, and the 
 Grcnadillai', tlie small islands of Maricjralanto, St. Martin, St. Christo- 
 pher, St. Bartholonunv, St. Croix, and Tortola, were jiurchased of their 
 original cultivators by individuals, the la.st five by the ^Maltese. In 
 1664, Colbert bought them of the hist mcntioneil, on the part of the 
 government, for nearly a million of livres. — New colonists were sent 
 
PART 1.] FRANCE. 159 
 
 out to Cayenne, in 1664, by a company; but with the same want of 
 success. 
 
 Eai'NAL, Histoire philosophique et politique des isles Franqaises dans 
 Ics hides occidentales. Lausanne, 1784. — An abridgement of the great 
 work mentioned p. 23. 
 
 6. But the portion of St. Domingo, acquired during this 
 period, was to become of more importance to France than 
 all these possessions put together. This, as well as the first 
 settling of the other islands in general, was occasioned by 
 the tyranny of the Spaniards, who, by treating all strangers 
 as enemies, organized a perpetual war in the We&i Indies, 
 and thus obliged foreign settlers to become corsairs and 
 warriors. Thus arose the pirate state of the buccaniers, 
 from which proceeded the French settlements on the western 
 portion of St. Domingo. These settlements were retained 
 by France after the peace of Ryswick, without any express 
 contract, a Bourbon having soon after ascended the Spanish 
 throne. Who then anticipated their future importance ! 
 
 The expulsion of the French and English from St. Christopher gave 
 rise to the buccaniers and pirates, after 1630. — They founded a piratical 
 state on Tortuga, and made settlements on the Avestern coasts of St. Do- 
 mingo, being recognised and assisted by France, after the year 1664. 
 
 The histori/ of the Buccaniers of America, by Oexiielix. London, 
 1742, 2 vols. — For a more general view consult, 
 
 Von Archexholz, Geschichte der FUhustiers. 1803. The sources 
 for the history of their deeds and cruelties require to be more closely 
 examined, as tliey may very likely have been disfigured by the Spanish 
 writers. See Bryan Edwards' History of St. Domingo, p. 128, note. 
 
 7. A privileged West Indian company was established. 
 But it had to be abolished ten years after, being 
 unable to support itself, on account of the smug- 
 gling trade. Such restrictions were imposed upon the 
 trade, even after it had been made free to all the French, 
 that it was of little benefit. So long, moreover, as the 
 West Indian produce was not as aftei*wards diffused through 
 Europe, the colonies necessarily thrived slowly. Sugar and 
 cotton, before the introduction of the coffee tree, were the 
 chief produce of the islands. 
 
 The West Indian company, established by Colbert in 1664, compre- 
 hended not only all the American possessions from Canada to the river 
 Amazon, but also the coasts of Africa from Cape Verd to the Cape of 
 Good Hope, on account of the slave trade. — The company was aboUshed 
 in 1674. The high duties on West Lidian produce, and the restriction 
 of the commerce to a few harbours, concurred to keep the colonies in a 
 
160 COLONIAL AFFAIllS, IGGl— 1700. [pKniou il. 
 
 fiH'blc state. — Tlio African trade still romaiiu'd in tlio liands of chartered 
 companies. The .Senepral etJnipany wa.s established in 1()79, at first for 
 all the western coast fmni Cape JManca to the Cape of Good Hope; 
 althoiijih siihsecpii-ntly ohlijred to share it with the Cuinea company, 
 which wiis erected in 1G85, and privileged to trade from Sierra Leone 
 to the Cape. 
 
 J. B. LvRAT, twiivcait rni/cif/c cntx isles (TAmcrir/nc. Paris, 1692, 
 8 vols. The leading work ibr acquiring a knowledge of the state of the 
 French West Indies at that time. 
 
 8. Canada, aun;mented by Acadia, belongs to the class of 
 agricultural colonics ; but the cultivation of the soil, limited 
 then to Lower Canada, continued to make but small pro- 
 gress ; since the tralHc in peltry and the fisheries of New- 
 foundland were more and more regarded as the principal ob- 
 ject (see p. 90). The settlement attemj)ted in Louisiana, 
 after exploring the Mississippi, was wholly unsuccessful. 
 
 After long contention with England respecting Acadia, and frequent 
 changes, France eventually remained in quiet possession of it, by tiie 
 peace of Breda, 1GG7. — I'laisance was established on Newfoundland, 
 but the tisheries were subsequently the occasion of perpetual quarrels 
 with England. — La Salle sailed up the Mississippi in 1680, and made 
 an unsuccessful attempt at a settlement. 
 
 Description de la Louisiane, par Hexxequix. Paris, 1685. The 
 author was a missionary. 
 
 9. The participation of France in the East Indian trade 
 must have been attended with still greater obstacles, as she 
 had to encounter more powerful rivals, and possessed as yet 
 no settlements. An East Indian connnercial company was, 
 nevertheless, chartered by Colbert ; but it remained in such 
 a languishing situation, that at the end of this period it was 
 near its dissolution. 
 
 The French East Indian company was established in 1664, with the 
 exclusive right of trading for fit'teen years, of being the proprietors of 
 their conquests, (invested, therefore, with the right of war I) and a fund 
 of fifteen millions. The first experiment at conrjuests and s<ttlcment3 
 was made at Madagascar, under the active Canon, 166o. It was to 
 become a second Java. A conmiercial colon}', where there was nothing 
 to buy or sell I — A lactory was erected at Sural on the coast of ^Malabar, 
 in 167o. — In 1679, PondiclK'rry wjus founded on the Coromandel coast, 
 and was afterwards the principal jdace. But wars in Europe, which ex- 
 cited a lust of conquest even in the Indies, together with the measures of 
 the government, especially after Colbert's death, reduced it to so low an 
 ebb, that it could not maintain its monopoly. How could it have been 
 otherwise ? The mercantile system was at war with itself. In order 
 to su])port domestic manufactures the importation of Indian fabrics wajs 
 
PART i] ENGLAND. IGl 
 
 prohibited. The company was, therefore, only to carry on a coasting 
 trade. 
 
 10. The increase of the British colonies, at- 
 tached more firmly to the mother country by means 
 
 of the renewed Navigation Act, was more certain, because 
 it depended less on the government than on the nation. 
 The continual political and religious ferment under Charles 
 II. and James II. was favourable for them. To what ex- 
 tent did not commerce and wealth even then increase ? 
 The peaceful relations, and even compacts with Spain, fa- 
 voured the possessions in America ; and the West Indies, 
 on account of the progressive culture of Jamaica, began to 
 be more important to the British. The advancement of 
 these colonies was incontestably promoted by their free con- 
 stitution, being placed under a governor and his council, 
 assisted by an assembly of deputies from the several parishes. 
 Commerce to them was free ; the slave trade alone remained 
 in the hands of a privileged company. 
 
 A compact was made with Spain, 1670 ; the sovereignty of Britain 
 over its possessions in that quarter was expressly acknowledged ; and 
 the foundation of permanent harmony was laid. — In 1674, the fourth 
 African company was established (the former ones of Elizabeth and 
 Charles II. had fallen to decay) ; but this was unable long to maintain 
 the monopoly. Forts were founded on the Gambia (St. James), and 
 Sierra Leone. 
 
 11. Far more flourishing than the possessions of the 
 British in the West Indies were those in North America. 
 The circumstances of the times exerted a peculiarly happy 
 influence upon them ; not only by means of increased emi- 
 gration, but also by the political revolutions in the parent 
 land. The first obstacles in the way of colonization were 
 mostly surmounted by the perseverance of the cultivators ; 
 England acquired the sole possession of the whole line of 
 coast from Canada to Georgia ; New York, New Jersey, 
 Pennsylvania, and Carolina, were formed into distinct pro- 
 vinces ; others, as Connecticut and Rhode Island, obtained 
 important privileges and improved constitutions. 
 
 The political "alterations in the northern provinces, were especially 
 caused by the expulsion of the Dutch, in 1664, from the regions near 
 the Delaware (New Belgium, New Holland) ; these possessions being 
 retained by England in the peace of Breda. (See p. 137.) This gave 
 I'ise to the provinces of Delaware (afterwards united with Pennsylvania, 
 
 M 
 
liVZ COLONIAL AFFAIRS, IGCI— 1700. [ikriod il. 
 
 \(\h2 — 170 0; Now York ami Ni'W Jersey, 16C.5 ; ami New Ilainp- 
 phiro, which was separated Irom Mi\.*sacliusctts, in ](i[)\, aixl ha<l a 
 povernor of its own. — Tln^ C'aroliiias had tlieir origin, in 1G()."}, in the 
 grant, by Charles II., to riglit lords, of the country l»etwoen 31" and 
 3G" N. lat. Thus separated from Virginiju, (see p. 89, )it became an in- 
 dependent state, (divided, lirst in 1729, into North and Soutli Carolina,) 
 to which Ivocke pave a constitution (the worst of ail his works). — 'I'iie 
 colonies in IVnnsylvania were founded by tlie (Quaker, "William I'enn, 
 son of the admiral, 16H2. He received the country on the Delaware, 
 between 40" and 42° N. lat. from the king, in payment for a debt, as 
 proprietor and hereditary governor. A contract was peaceably made 
 witii the Indians. He introduced perfect religious liberty, for which 
 there was no room in Europe ; and Philadeljdiia and Gennantown were 
 foundt^l. A glorious idea was for the lirst time realize<l by Penn in a 
 remote corner of the earth ; and the example has not ren)ained fruitless ! 
 C. D. KiiKi,lx«r, Enlhrschrcibnnfi and Geschichtc von \oril-Anicrilnt. 
 Th. i. — vii. 1793 — 1803. This classical work compris^-s tlie ten north- 
 ern provinces, to which is added of the southern, Virginia. For their 
 domestic history, the leading sources are the collections of laws and 
 statutes of several of them, such as Ncw York, Massachusetts, Mary- 
 land, Virginia, and N. Carolina. 
 
 12. To the north of tlie colonies, not only the fisheries 
 of Newfoundland remained of great im|wrtance, but En;^- 
 land aj^propriated to itself all the regions on Hudson's Bay, 
 and with them the trade in peltry, which has since been 
 prosecuted by a chartered company, without 'ever having 
 been very lucrative. 
 
 The Hudson's Bay company was established in 1669, with a commori 
 fund. — Some geographical discoveries were made ; but disputes always 
 existed with the Frencli in Canada. 
 
 13. The East India trade of the British remained in the 
 hands of the chartered company, which underwent, however, 
 several changes, and finally had to see a second comj)any 
 spring up by its side. Their possessions were somewhat 
 augmented, but their trade was not so in an equal propor- 
 tion ; the Dutch were too |x)werful competitors. An es- 
 sential chang(^ was ])roduced in Indian commerce, by the 
 great quantity of Indian muslins and silks imported into 
 England after 1(170. The clamour excited by it, contri- 
 bute<l, not a little, towards increasing the general hatred 
 against the company. 
 
 The patent of the East India company was renewed by Charles II., 
 1G61, witli pfditical jjrivileges, extended to the erection ot* forts. — Pos- 
 stission was taken of the island of St. IIelen:i, deserted by the Dutch 
 after the s>ettlement of the Cai>e colony. This island, so important as 
 
TART 1.] ENGLAND. 163 
 
 a resting-place for ships returning from the Indies, M'as granted to the 
 company by a royal patent, April 3, 1661. Bombay was acquired in 
 1661, by the marriage of the king ; and was shortly after, in 1668, con- 
 ferred on the company by the crown. Bombay increased in importance 
 as a secure harbour and a commercial place, while Surat sunk lower and 
 lower, owing to the oppressions of the Great Mogul, as sovereign, the 
 rise of pirates, like Sevagi, together with the influx of smugglers and 
 French, and the decline of Persian commerce. For this cause, the 
 government Avas at last formally transferred from Surat to Bombay ; 
 which, as well as Madras, was declared a presidency in 1687, inde- 
 pendent of Mogul dominion. — After the natives had been expelled from 
 Bantam, by the aid of the Dutch, 1683, a factory and fort were erected 
 at Bencoolen on Sumatra, 1687, for the pepper trade. Factories were 
 established at Hoogly and Calcutta ; and when hostilities commenced 
 between the Great Mogul and the nabob of Bengal, 1687, exertions 
 were made to maintain a fortress there also. The district of Calcutta 
 was purchased and Fort "William built, 1699, it having been declared 
 a presidency. — A great outcry was raised against the company upon 
 the introduction of cotton and silk goods, partly by the manufacturers, 
 partly by the Levant association. Here too the mercantile system was 
 at a loss. — Complaints were made against it in parliament, 1692. It 
 purchased, hov\'ever, a renewal of its patent, Oct. 7, 1693. A second 
 company was finally formed, called the English East India Company, 
 which obtained its privileges by the advance of two million pounds ster- 
 ling to the government, Sept. 5. It was not, however, till the following 
 period, that the intended union of the companies was accomplished. 
 
 F. RussEL, Collection of Statutes, concerning the incorporation, trade, 
 and commerce of the East India Company, tvith the statutes of piracy, 
 lists of duties, etc., and an abridgement of the Company s charters. Lond. 
 1786, fol. This indispensable collection contains, in full, all the acts 
 respecting the company, from 1660 till 1786, as also all the charters 
 abridged. Its utility is increased yet more by an excellent index. 
 
 Bruce, Annals, etc. vol. ii. (see p. 88). 
 
 14. Thus the Dutch still remained in posses- 
 sion of the Indian trade, and their company re- 
 ceived the renewal of its charter ; though De Wit was su- 
 perior to the common views of his age. They were now in 
 exclusive possession of the spice islands. Continued hosti- 
 lities with the Portuguese, gave them an opportunity to 
 obtain a permanent footing on both coasts of the peninsula, 
 by the conquests of Cochin and Negapatam (see p. 112) ; 
 but they continued to be the masters of the islands, and 
 grocery wares and spices were the principal objects of 
 commerce ; essentially different from those of the British 
 and French, which consisted more in manufactures and raw 
 materials. 
 
 A compact was made with Portugal, 1669, by which each party re- 
 
 M 2 
 
\(][ COLONIAL AFFAIUS, IGGl— 1700. [ii.nioD ii. 
 
 taiin<l in llic two Imlii.-s, its existinf;; possessions. — In the spice islands, 
 nlso, tlic coiupiiny onlar^cil its torritory l)y tlic war ol" three yc-ars, and 
 hv nialiin;.; a linn SfttK'incnt in Coh-lics, IGGi) ; and hy tin- suhjn^ration 
 di" Hantani, 1()S;}. The l)ut<'h rcsisd-il with (h-cidod succfs-.s the attempts 
 of I he French company on Ceylon, in the war of 1072. 
 
 l.">. In the West Indies, too, the Dutch ('nlar«ji:c(I tlirir 
 jurisdiction by tlie possession ot'Suriiiain. Time, and Dntcli 
 perseverance, were able to form of tliis unliealtliy country 
 one of the most flourishing of colonies. 
 
 The colony of Snrinam was first fdiindcd in 1642, by Portuguese, 
 espf^eiallv Jews, who fleil from the inquisition. The Knplish soon after 
 settled there ; but tlie Dutch rcconqnercd it in 1667, and retained it in 
 the peace of Breda. — It was sold to the ^Vost India company in 1()7{), 
 and Paramaribo was founded. The plantations of Esscrpiibo and Ber- 
 bice also remained in the hands of the Dutch. 
 
 10. The Spanish colonies, now more quiet on 
 account of the connexion of the mother coinitry 
 ^\]\]\ the maritime powers, underwent no important changes 
 cither in point of extent or of regulation. Thougli the 
 missions of the Jesuits on the banks of the Paraguay and 
 the Maragnon penetrated farther and farther, who heard 
 any thing of it in Europe ? The internal decay of the 
 motiicr country seems to have had little influence upon 
 tiiem ; of what consequence indeed was it who maiuithc- 
 tured the commodities, with which they were supplied ? 
 They constituted a world in themselves, but then, it was a 
 Spanish world ; j)r<)tected from conquests by its immense 
 extent. The maritime cities, however, frequently suifered 
 severely from the attacks of the buccaniers. 
 
 The 'missions of the Jesuits on the Paraguay were commenced in 
 1609, and had already made considerable progress in the present period. 
 
 17. Since the recovery of her independence, 
 Portugal had saved only a few fragments of her 
 East Indian dominion (see p. 117); in Brazil she was 
 more fortunate. 'I'iu; treaty with Holland in the beginning 
 of this period, insured to her the quiet possession of it. 
 A\'liat might not Brazil have become, had the govern- 
 ment so willed it ? l?ut the promotion of the smuggling 
 trade, and the aggrandizement of territory as far as the river 
 La Plata, by founding St. Sacrament, were re- 
 garded as more important that the promotion of 
 
PART I.] DENMARK. 165 
 
 colonization. But this too was an advantage ; and it was 
 in all probability fortunate for Portugal, that the mines of 
 gold were not discovered till the end of this period. In 
 the interior the missions of the Jesuits advanced along 
 the Maragnon, till they at last came in contact with those 
 of the Spanish. 
 
 Almost all the northern coast was conquered by the Dutch, between 
 1630 — 1640, in the possession of which they remained, agreeably to the 
 truce of June 23, 1641, till their expulsion by Juan de Vieira, 1654 
 (see p. 113). The definitive treaty with Holland, 1660, secured to the 
 Portuguese, in consideration of a sum of money, their second country. — 
 The great gold mines were discovered, first in Minas Geraes, at Villa 
 Ricca, 1696. It was the work of the Paulists, a people collected under 
 Spanish dominion in St. Paul, who, forming a state of freebooters and 
 soldiers, turned from the slave trade to the seeking of gold, and for that 
 purpose penetrated into the interior. 
 
 18. Even one of the northern states, Denmark, 
 took a stand among the colonial powers, and by 
 the possession of Tranquebar, sought to gain a share, how- 
 ev^er small, in the East Indian trade. 
 
 The Danish East India company was founded as early as 1618, under 
 Christian IV. First attempts were made to create a commerce, and 
 Tranquebar was obtained from the rajah of Tanjore. But the company 
 was dissolved in 1634. A second was nevertheless founded in 1670, 
 which survived, though in a state of weakness, till 1729. 
 
 19. Thus the colonial system of the Europeans in the 
 two Indies, while it became greater in extent, became also 
 more and more complicate in geographical situation. Al- 
 ready in this period the wars of the Europeans reached 
 their colonies ; but the time was to come, when contests in 
 the colonies would excite wars in Europe. 
 
 Denmarfe. 
 
FIRST PERIOD. 
 
 From UiOl tu 1700. 
 
 PART THE SECOND. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE NORTHERN EUROPEAN STATES-SYSTEM. 
 
 J. J. ScnMAUSS, Eijilcitung zn dcr Staatsicisscnschaft, etc. 2 Tli. 
 (seep. 118). 
 
 1. As tlic political relations of the south, fixed by the 
 treaties of peace at Munster, Aix-la-Chapelle, iS'imwep;en, 
 and Ryswick, rested on these treaties, so the relations of the 
 north were based on the pacifications of Oliva, Roeschild, 
 Copenhaoen, and Cardis (see p. 126). In the mutual rela- 
 tions of tlie states, therefore, there seemed to remain little 
 matter for quarrels, provided the general quiet were not in- 
 terrupted by any foreign influence, or Turkish wars, against 
 which no policy could guard. 
 
 '2. But the internal relations of the individual 
 states were unhappily so replete with the elements 
 of disorder, that the preservation of peace in the north was 
 almost hopeless. Since Poland had become an 
 elective kingdom, and unanimity of votes was re- 
 quisite in the diets, how was a peaceful election to be ex- 
 pected, when it was so easy for strangers to interfere? 
 When foreign policy went so far as even to attempt to ap- 
 point a successor in the lifetime of the king, a confusion was 
 ])roduced in the interior, which in such a state might at 
 any time have produced a civil war. 
 
 A Polish royal election wa.s henceforth nothing more than a double 
 auction of the tlironc, partly in public, lor tin- licnffit of the state, partly 
 in secn.'t, for the benefit of the voters. Polish power was, nevertheless, 
 maintained, so lonp; as the rude vigour of the Saniiatians was not ener- 
 vated by foreign manners, and their art of war was not surpassed by 
 tliat of tlu'ir neighbours. In the field and in the cabinet, characters 
 like the Koman were not rare ; but a mistaken national pride allowed 
 no correct political intelligence to become prevalent. 
 
PART II.] NORTHERN STATES, 16G1— 1700. 167 
 
 Polens Staatsverdndenmgen imd letzte Verfassting, von Fr. Joh. 
 Jekel. T\'ein, 1803, 3 Th. Very valuable for obtaining a knowledge 
 of the interior of tliis state. 
 
 3. Sweden, possessing provinces almost sur- 
 roimding the Baltic, still shone as the first power 
 
 of the north. But these provinces, which occasioned a par- 
 ticipation in the wars of the east and west, were an advan- 
 tage of very doubtful character ; and in the interior, during 
 the minority of Charles XL, a condition, not much better 
 than that of Poland, seemed on the point of obtaining, had 
 not the king, at the decisive juncture, vindicated 
 his rights and his revenues. But the regal power 
 thus became almost absolute ; and the time was to come, 
 when Sweden would have to deplore the pernicious conse- 
 quences. 
 
 4. Prussia, thouo-h now a sovereio;n state, re- 
 
 • o ' Prussia 
 
 mained, nevertheless, a province of Brandenburg, 
 because the latter was the residence of the court. What 
 difference would there have been, had it been removed to 
 Konigsberg? This state partook, therefore, much more in 
 the public contests of the south than in those of the north, 
 except in so far as the latter were caused by the former. 
 
 Already under the elector Frederic William, Prussia became inde- 
 pendent in her foreign policy, as far as was compatible with the duties 
 of a state of the empire ; and the autocracy was established in the inte- 
 rior by arbitrary taxes, a consequence of the wars. But the great in- 
 stitutions, which constitute the character of the Prussian state, are of 
 later origin. 
 
 5. The participation of Russia in the affairs of 
 the north was at first very far from decisive ; for 
 
 this country needed a radically new internal organization, 
 before it could exert any external influence ; and this diffi- 
 culty was still more aggravated by the family relations of 
 the reigning dynasty. But the conquest of Azoph and the 
 settlement in the Ukraine, showed what was to be expected 
 in future. 
 
 Under the reign both of czar Alexis (f 1676) and his son Feodor, 
 (t 1682,) the influence of Russia on Poland was limited to taking a part 
 in the contests of the neighbouring countries. Some connexions were, 
 nevertheless, contracted with remoter kingdoms, by means of embassies, 
 as with France, in 1687 ; those with England originated in commercial 
 relations. — The endeavours of Sophia, in the name of her incompetent 
 brother Ivan, to usurp the government by the insurrection of the Strelzi^ 
 
1(J8 NOUTIIEUN STATES, ICGl — 1700. [iiiiioi. ii. 
 
 (the imporial lifi'-gimnls,) 1(582, caused a dissension witli licr li:ill'-l>r(i- 
 tluT I'cti-r, wliicli ti-nnitiatfd, in l(jH*>, with her (luwiiral, mid iiia<le 
 IVter the ruler of Kussia, Ivan (| l(ji)G) retaining notiiing but tlie 
 empty title. 
 
 C. Denmark, possessinc: GToatcr stability in itself 
 alter tlic introduction ot the autocracy, was sub- 
 jected to an internal evil, the consequences of which were 
 lar more extended than was probably foreseen. The dis- 
 pute that j)revailed between the two lines of the reigning 
 dynasty, the royal and ducal houses of IIolstein-Gottorp, 
 gradually aifected the relations of the whole north, and at 
 last contributed materially to produce the great war, which 
 in the following period involved the whole of the north in 
 its Hamcs. 
 
 The liouse of IIolstein-Gottorp was derived from Adolph, tlie younger 
 son of King Frederic I. ; by a division of the inheritance, in 1544, the 
 ducal line of Gottorp received the lialf of Sleswic and Ilol.-tein, the 
 former as a fief of Denmark, the latter as a fief of the German empire. 
 The cause of the quarrel (sub.•^equent to 1654) was the abrogation of 
 the feudal allegiance of Sleswic, demanded by Duke Frederic II., at the 
 peace of KoeschiM, (see p. 126,) through his son-in-law Cliarles Gusta- 
 vus, and confirmed by the peace of C(ij)enhagen, 1660. But obliged by 
 artifice, a restoration of the feudal allegiance was made by King Chris- 
 tian v., by the contract of Kendsburg, July 10, 1675 ; and Sleswic was 
 subdued after the fiight and remonstrance of the duke. A restoration 
 was made, under French mediation, at the peace of Fontainbleau, 1679. 
 But the relations with France being altered, Sleswic was again taken 
 away, 1684, until after much discussion it was again restored to the 
 duke, under the mediation of tlie emperor, Brandenburg, and Saxony, 
 in the contract at Altona, June 20, 16S9. But what enmity is more 
 dillicult to be a])peased than family enmity ? A closer connexion was 
 formed with Sweden, by means of the marriage of the young Duke 
 Frederic IV. with Iledwig Sophia, eldest sister of Charles XII., .since 
 1698. AVe shall have occasion to examiue the consequences of this 
 marriage hereafter. 
 
 7. Such being the situation of the northern states, there 
 was hardly any interest that could constitute a common 
 centre of politics, had not the disturbances of the Cossacks 
 in some degree supplied it. These contests were both of 
 importance in themselves, since they decided respecting the 
 dominion of the Ukraine and its warlike inhabitants; and 
 were also very comprehensive, as the situation of this coun- 
 try rendered the ])articij)ation of all the contiguous nations, 
 of tlie Russian.^ the Poles, the Tartars, standing under 
 Turkish protection, and of the Turks themselves, almost in- 
 
PART II.] NORTHERN STATES, IGGl— 1700. 169 
 
 evitable. — The war, caused by them between Poland and 
 Russia, (see p. 125,) having been prosecuted, generally 
 without success, by Poland, was terminated by the truce at 
 Andrussov, by which the Cossacks were divided between 
 Russia and Poland. 
 
 The Cossacks, sprung from an intermixture of free Russians, Poles, 
 and Tartars, in ]?*odolia, and Volhynia, (Ukraine,) on both banks of the 
 Dneiper, had been under the protection of the Poles since the fifteenth 
 century. Stephen Bathori made them, by a military organization, 
 1576, an excellent bulwark against the Turks and Tartars. But the 
 oppression of the Polish nobles, strengthened by religious hatred, urged 
 them to rebellion under their Hetman Chmelnizki, in 1648, Avhich, al- 
 though quelled for a time, was however renewed in 1651, and in the 
 end obliged them to submit to Russia, June 6, 1654. Poland was in 
 consequence plunged into a war with Russia, while that with Sweden 
 (see p. 126) still continued : and there was also some danger of a war 
 with the Turks, as a portion of the Cossacks submitted to the Porte. 
 Poland thus saw itself forced to acquiesce in the truce of Andrussov for 
 fifteen years, Jan. 30, 1667 (afterwards repeatedly renewed, and finally 
 confirmed for ever by the peace at Moscow, April 14, 1686). By this 
 truce, 1. The Cossacks on the eastern and western bank of the Dneiper 
 were divided between Russia and Poland. 2. Russia remained in pos- 
 session of the palatinates of Kiev and Smolensk, and the regions on the 
 eastern side of the Dneiper, Severia, and Tsernikov. — Thus these wars 
 deprived Poland of its best conquests ; but they were the school where 
 heroes and generals were formed, like John Sobieski and his compeers. 
 
 Von MiJLLER, von dem Ursprunge der Cossacken ; in Sammlung 
 Russischer GescJiichten. B. iv. 
 
 8. During; these occurrences, a continual ferment ex- 
 isted in Poland, which was kept up by the endeavours ot 
 France to effect the appointment of a French prince as 
 successor of John Casimir. But when the latter, fatigued 
 with the cares of government, finally abdicated, the attempts 
 of foreigners in the new election were unsuccessful, and the 
 throne was bestowed on Michael Wisnowiecki, a Pole, who 
 was himself conscious how little he was adapted for such a 
 station. An unhappy Turkish war, occasioned by the Cos- 
 sack disputes, and terminated by an ignominious peace, 
 again disturbed the quiet of Poland and the north, when 
 the death of Michael occurred opportunely enough to save 
 him from being deposed. 
 
 John Casimir, brought into the French interest by his wife, Louisa 
 Maria, of the house of Nevers, was desirous to elevate the house of 
 Conde to the Polish throne, 1660. This gave rise to internal disturb- 
 ances under Lubomirski, which led to a civil war, 1665. After the 
 
170 NOHTIIKHN STATES, IGCl — 1700. [rnniocii. 
 
 ilnitli of tlio qnoon, \G(]7, tlif kin^r abdicated, Sept. 17, lOGS. Six fo- 
 irijrinTs caiiM- iorwjird as candidatfs lor the throne, wliieli was, however, 
 ilcstined for a Polish nohlr, in the person of Miehat-l. The Cossacks 
 rcl)elle<l aj:ain under Doroscensko, who joined the Turks, 1(372. This 
 pave tiie Turks a pretence for a war, whieli was carried on most unhap- 
 })i]y for the l\)les, though in alliance with Russia. Kaniieniec was 
 lost, and the Turks penetrated into the lieart of Poland, favoured by 
 internal commotions ; till iSIichael in the peace of Oct. 18, 1672, con- 
 8ented to the emancipation of the Cossacks and a tribute. The nation 
 was unable to tolerate such a peace ; the war was therefore renewed, 
 1673 ; and a victory pained at Chozim under John Sobieski, Nov. 11. 
 The king himself died Nov. 10. 
 
 9. The election of John Sobieski seemed to 
 
 May 19, 1G74. , • i p i r 
 
 be necessarily ot great moment, not merely tor 
 Poland, but for the whole north. Hardened, however, at 
 an early no-e, into a soldier and general, he never ripened 
 into a ruler. He wiped away the ignominy of the last 
 peace ; but thorough internal improvements entered not 
 into the political horizon of a Polish noble ; and largely as 
 Poland participated in the contests of the north, it was all 
 transitory, because it was purely personal. 
 
 The Turkish war was terminated by a separate peace at Zurawno, 
 Oct. 16, 1676, by which, 1. The tribute was abolished. 2. Kaniieniec 
 and a third part of Ukraine were kept by the Turks. — But even this 
 was wrested from them by the Russians, to whom it was secured by the 
 truce of Radzyn, 1680. 
 
 Ifisfoirc dc Jean Sohieshy, roi de Pologne, par ^I. i/ AnBE COTKU. 
 •d "Warsowie, 1771, 3 vols. As faithful as a very spirited naiTative 
 can be. 
 
 10. While the Cossack disputes thus occupied 
 Poland and Russia, Sweden had allowed itself to 
 be inveigled by France into the war between Holland and 
 Germany, and encouraged to make a diversion against 
 Brandenburg, by which it became entangled in a 
 war with Denmark and the German empire. It 
 not only lost its ])rovinces, but also, what was of no less 
 value, its military renown, at Fehrlx'llin. J he for- 
 mer it recovered by the instrumentality of France 
 in the peace of St. Germain and Fontainbleau (see p. 141) : 
 but to r('st(jre the latter, there was first need of a king, who 
 like Charles XII. was a soldier. 
 
 The foreipn policy was ever determined principally by subsidies, 
 which it drew .sometimes from Spain, sometimes from France. How 
 could that government have a fixed policy, which oOered its assistance 
 to the highest bidder ? 
 
TART ii.l NORTHERN STATES, lGGl-1700. ITl 
 
 1 1 . A new war having broken out with the Turks, Po- 
 land, and soon after Russia also, formed a union with Aus- 
 tria. The relief of Vienna (see p. 149) was in truth the 
 most glorious day in the life of Sobieski ; but fortune seems 
 subsequently to have favoured him less, and he had to pur- 
 chase the participation of Russia by changing the truce of 
 Andrussov into a permanent peace. Sobieski did not live 
 to see the end of the war ; and Russia, far more than 
 Poland, reaped the fruits of the long contest. 
 
 An unsuccessful attempt was made to conquer Kamieniec and Mol- 
 davia, 1684 — 1687. Eussia engaged in the war, 1686. Conquests 
 •were made by the Austrians, in Hungary, as well as by the Russians 
 of the Ukraine against the Tartars, 1688 ; but the internal relations of 
 Eussia impeded the progress of the war, till Peter I. became sole ruler. 
 Azoph was besieged and taken, 1695 and 1696. In the truce, Dec. 25, 
 1698, (confirmed for thirty years, 1700,) Russia retained Azoph, as a 
 fortified place, with its dependencies, with free trade on the Black Sea. 
 Poland, by the peace at Carlowitz, (see p. 149,) recovers Kamieniec 
 and Podolia, which had before been ceded. 
 
 12. Thus ended these wars, without indeed absolutely 
 deciding the fate of the north, but not without preparing 
 the way for it. The change of rulers in all the northern 
 kingdoms about this time, by raising two of the most ex- 
 traordinaiy men to the throne, produced in the ensuing 
 period far greater revolutions than all the Cossack wars 
 could have effected. 
 
SECOND PERIOD. 
 
 From 170n lo 1710. 
 
 PART THE FIRST. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE SOUTHERN EUROPEAN STATES-SYSTEM. 
 
 1, Three p;roat wars liad boon rarriod on ap;ainst Louis 
 XIV., for the maintenance of the balance of power, and this 
 period opens witli a fourth, still more protracted, and un- 
 dertaken principally for the same purpose ; while the north 
 was suHeriu^ under a contest no less obstinate, but which 
 was entirely distinct from that of the west. When this was 
 finally suspended by the treaties of Utrecht and Rastadt, 
 the claims of all parlies were by no means adjusted ; and 
 Europe afterwards remained in a fluctuating condition, from 
 which proceeded a new conflag-ration ; and, after this was 
 allayed, there followed a series of negotiations, of alliances 
 and counter-alliances, that characterize in a striking manner 
 the increasing intricacy of the relations of the I'^uropean 
 political system. But notwithstanding all imperfections, 
 tlie principal object was attained ; and this must always be 
 the first question of the intelligent observer. 
 
 2. But in such a disposition of things, tli*^ mercantile 
 system lost none of its influence. This was a natural con- 
 secjuence of the ever increasing importance of colonies, from 
 the time that their productions, especially coflee, sugar, and 
 tea, began to coiuo into more general use in Europe. The 
 groat inlluonco wliicli tliesc commodities have had, not only 
 on politics, but also on the reformation of social life, is not 
 easilv calculatod. Aj)art from the vast gains resulting to 
 tlie nations at large from conunerco, and to tlu; govern- 
 ments from duties, — what inlluence have not cofl'ee-houses 
 exercised in the capitals of I'^urope, as central points of 
 political, mercantile, and literary transactions ? In a word, 
 
PART I.] PRELIMINARY REMARKS, 1700—1740. 173 
 
 without those productions, would the states in the west of 
 Europe have acquired their present character ? 
 
 3. The previous great wars had ah'eady plunged most of 
 the states into debt, which was accumulated by new wars, 
 and in general by increased wants. Men were thus led to 
 use paper money on a large scale ; but from ignorance of 
 its nature, sometimes too confidently, by making the wants 
 of the government, and not of the circulation, the measure 
 of its abundance ; sometimes too timidly, by regarding the 
 mass of specie as the pledge for its redemption, often to the 
 great detriment of the state. But the resources of the go- 
 vernment were still always temporarily increased by it ; and 
 without it would never have been capable of any great and 
 continued exertion ; and happily it was not immediately 
 discovered how far public credit and the system of loans 
 mio-ht be carried. 
 
 The expression paper money is frequently used in a more compre- 
 hensive sense, (improperly however,) of all papers which the state 
 issues on its own ci'edit, in as far as they may be transferred to a third 
 person (as bonds, especially stocks, etc.). In a narrower sense, paper 
 money can denote that paper only which serves as a substitute for 
 specie, i. e. which is destined immediately and solely for general circu- 
 lation, as a general medium of payment. This is either issued directly 
 by the government, (in the shape of assignats, treasury notes, etc.,) or 
 by associations chartered for the purpose, called banks, (bank-notes or 
 bills,) the relations of which to the government may be very different 
 (as free banks, or government banks). All paper money, issued either 
 directly or indirectly by the government, must be insecure, because go- 
 vernments cannot always be masters of their wants ; the paper money 
 of free banks can lose its credit only by their own fault ; as no external 
 causes oblige them to suffer its accumulation. 
 
 I. History of the public Contests in Europe. 
 
 Collections of state papers. Besides the general works (see p. 2) : 
 
 RoussET recueil d'actes, negociations, etc. depuis la paix (T Utrecht. 
 Tom. i. — xxi. 8vo. a Amsterdam, 1728, etc. It comprises the period 
 of 1713—1748. 
 
 The historical works are : — ■ 
 
 3Itmoires pour servir a Vhistoire dii XVIII. siecle, contenant les nt- 
 gociations, traites, etc. concernant les affaires d^etat, par M. De Lam- 
 BERTY. a ia Haye, 1724, torn. i. — xiv. 4to. The leading work for the 
 period 1700 — 1718. A full and impartial narration, Avith the docu- 
 ments inserted. The author, having passed a long time in a diplomatic 
 situation, wrote this work during his old age, in retirement. 
 
171 I'rm.IC" rONTKSTS in KUROPE. 1700— 17iO. [pEtiioDil. 
 
 Mtinnirrs de M. dr l^tn if, pour siri'ir o I'/iisfdirr firs nccfociatinns 
 (Irpiiis Ir trditc de lii/struk^ jiisi/n' ti la paix (F I'inclit. Tom. i. — iii. 
 12iiK). Paris, X'i'Ay. Tlic author was a Frondi iiiiiiistcr and ainbiLssador. 
 
 Mt moires et myorintio/is sicrr/rs dc divcrscs coitrs dc PEi/ropr, par 
 M. DE LA ToKKi:. ii la llaje, 1726, torn. i. — v. 8vo. Tlicy go IVoni 
 169H to 1714. 
 
 Tlic pulitii-al journals of tlie day, moreover, now become sources of 
 history; but having been naturally written in the spirit of the country 
 where they appeared, they must be estimated accordingly. The most 
 important are : — 
 
 Mrrcure historique ct poUtirjue de la Ilayc. From 1686 — 1782, vol. 
 1—187. 
 
 Die Europaische Fama. Th. 1—360 (from 1702—1734). Die 
 tieiie Kuropaisehe Fama (from 1735 — 1756). Tii. 1 — li)7. Strongly 
 Antigallic. 
 
 As a sketch : 
 
 F. G. ir\r.i:Ki-iN, volts fiindi/jer Entwnrf dcr pnlilischen Ilistoire des 
 A' fill. Jiihrhuiiderfs. Th. i." 1748. It" extends from 1700 to 1740. 
 A sim])le ciironological narration of the occurrences, with an index to 
 the authorities. 
 
 4. Tlie great question which engrossed the attention of 
 the cabinets of the west since the peace of Ryswick, and 
 which gave rise not only to a tedious war, but also to most 
 of the public contests of this period, was that respecting the 
 Spanish succession, the Spanish line of the house of Haps- 
 burg promising to become extinct with Charles II. This 
 subject, at all events of the higliest importance to Europe, 
 was viewed partly as a question of right, and partly as a 
 measure of political expediency. But the whole was an 
 affair of the cabinets ; the nation itself, though possessed of 
 a legitimate claim to a voice in tlie discussion, was not con- 
 sulted. 
 
 5. On the side of right, three great competitors came 
 into consideration, laying claim to the whole monarchy ; 
 Louis XIV., as husband of Maria Theresa, the elder daugh- 
 ter of Charles II. for the Dauphin ; Leopold I., as husband 
 of the younger sister Margaret Theresa, and by right of 
 the will of IMiilij) I\'., for one of his sons by his last mar- 
 riage ; and the elector of Bavaria, in behalf of his minor 
 son, Joseph Ferdinand, as grandson of Margaret Theresa. 
 The right of birtli was in favour of the Dauphin ; but he 
 was o|)j)osed by tlu^ most solemn renunciations of his mother 
 to all hereditary claims upon Spain. After him, the elector 
 of Bavaria was the next male heir; but it was in the power 
 
PART I.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1700—1740. 175 
 
 of Leopold to have anticipated both, had he known how to 
 improve the moment. The duke of Savoy, Victor Amadeus 
 II., demanded only a part. 
 
 Conclusions of right in favour of Austria may be found in Thucelii 
 Reichs- Staats-Acten. T. i. ii. 
 
 La dejhise du droit de 3Iarie Therese Rei?ie de France a la succeS' 
 sion d'Espagne, par M. d'Anbusson. Paris, 1699. 
 
 6. The political point from which the cabinets, especially 
 the maritime powers, viewed so important a question, was 
 the maintenance of the balance of power. Could it be 
 otherwise in an age when this had become the basis of po- 
 litics ? Could it be indifferent to them, what was to be- 
 come of Spain, and particularly the Spanish Netherlands ? 
 It was regarded as an axiom, that the union of the whole 
 Spanish monarchy with Austria or France, especially with 
 the latter, would destroy the equilibrium ; and particularly 
 if the two crowns should be united in the person of one 
 monarch. To prevent this, Louis XIV. had already pro- 
 mulgated his intention of transferring the claims of the 
 Dauphin to his younger son, Philip, duke of Anjou ; while 
 Leopold I. declared himself ready to transfer his to the Arch- 
 duke Charles, his younger son by his last marriage. 
 
 7. At Madrid, during the lifetime of the king, the mar- 
 quis of Harcourt, the French ambassador, soon acquired an 
 ascendency over the Count Harrach from the imperial court. 
 But Louis XIV. knew very well, that the consent of the 
 maritime powers was necessary ; and the first 
 
 f, ^ . . 1-11 1-1 Oct. II, 1G98. 
 
 treaty oi partition concerted with them, which 
 assigned to the elector, Spain itself with the colonies, and 
 to the other two candidates, the provinces in Italy and the 
 Netherlands, seemed to accord with the interest of each 
 party and the whole political system of Europe, when the 
 electoral prince was unhappily carried off" by a 
 
 ^ , , ^^ •' •> Feb. 6, 1G99. 
 
 premature death. 
 
 Besides the above : Mimoires et negociations secretes du Comte de 
 Harrach, par M. DE LA Torre, a la Haye, 1720, 2 vols. 8vo, go from 
 1695 to the first treaty of partition. 
 
 8. Notwithstandino- a second treaty of parti- 
 
 o J t March 25 1700. 
 
 tion, signed by France and the maritime powers, 
 
 little hope could remain of a peaceful compromise ; for 
 
 Austria not only refused to acquiesce in it, but in Spain 
 
176 riBLIC CONTESTS IN KlHOI'i:, 17(i()— 1710. [pEnion u. 
 
 itself the idea was prevalent, both with thr kin;j; and the 
 luition, that any division would Ix; a niibfortune for the 
 ludiiarrhy. "^I'he cession of the provinces in Europe was 
 regarded as a loss of political streno;th as well as of coni- 
 nierce. And yet without this division, a compromise was 
 hardly possible. How much blood and money would have 
 been s|)ared by the exercise of a little reason ! 
 
 J). 'J'he aj)j)roach of death and the Cardinal Portocarrero 
 linally induced Charles II. to make a will, in 
 which he bequeathed the whole Spanish mon- 
 archy, undivided, to Philip of Anjou, and in case of his re- 
 fusal, to the Archduke Charles. The death of 
 the king, which occurred soon after, left Louis 
 XIV. nothing but the alternative of accepting the whole 
 testament, or of observing the treaty of partition. Not 
 without serious reflection — for how gladly would he have 
 avoided war — did he resolve on the former. 
 
 10. Philip \. was acknowledged both in Spain and in 
 all the colonies and provinces ; even peace with the mari- 
 time powers seemed of possible continuance. But Leopold 
 II. felt himself the more deeply wounded, in proportion as 
 he was obliged to admit that he had lost the Spanish mon- 
 archy solely by his own fault. 
 
 1 1. Preparations commenced on both sides, and exertions 
 were mad(^ before the commencement of the war to secure 
 allies. France having gained the duke of Savoy by mar- 
 riage, and the duke of Mantua by money, acquired before- 
 hand a strong hold in Italy. In tlu; Spanish Netherlands, 
 the French availed themselves of the Hrst moment for gar- 
 risoning the fortresses with their troops ; and the disorders 
 that broke out again in Hungary, under Rakot/.i, were very 
 
 much in their favour. Hut in CJcrmany, the ac- 
 quisition of Maximilian II. elector of Bavaria, who 
 was joined b}' his brother, the elector of Cologne, seemed 
 likclv to be of the most important consequence. For thus 
 one of the leading German })rinces, on the very frontiers of 
 Austria, might easily be converted into a formidable anta- 
 "(Miist of the latter. 
 
 I-?. But all these pn^parations were as unable to prevent 
 the rise of a j)owerful alliance on the other side, as France 
 was to maintain the predominance. In Germany, Austria 
 
PARTI.] PUBI,IC CONTESTS IN EUROrE, 1700—1740. 177 
 
 immediately found allies in the new king of Prussia, in 
 several other states, and soon afterwards in the whole em- 
 pire ; and the maritime powers, already irritated by the 
 occupation of the Spanish Netherlands, were likewise sum- 
 moned to war, when Louis XIV., in violation sept. ig, noi. 
 of the treaty of Ryswick, after the death of James 
 II., acknowledged his son as king. And although ^^'■'=^8.1702. 
 the British throne, and the dignity of hereditary stadtholder, 
 were at the same time vacated by the death of William III., 
 yet the system followed by his successor Anne, and in the 
 Netherlands, continued the same, and a closer connexion 
 of all was the consequence. 
 
 A grand alliance was concluded at the Hague, Sept. 7, 1701, between 
 the emperor, England, and Holland, having for its object the conquest 
 of the Spanish provinces and colonies. The alliance was subsequently 
 strengthened by the accession of the king of Prussia, Jan. 20, 1702 ; 
 of tlie German empire, after the previous associations of the circles, 
 Sept. 28, 1702 ; of Portugal in consideration of subsidies and promised 
 aggrandizement, at the expense of Spain and the colonies, May 16, 
 1703 ; and finally of the dissatisfied duke of Savoy, Oct. 25, 1703. 
 
 13. Considered in itself, the new alliance could hardly 
 appear a durable one, because the projects of the maritime 
 powers, which aimed at a partition, did but ill agree with 
 the demands of Austria, which desired the whole. It ac- 
 quired, however, an unexampled degree of consistency, 
 when men of high minds and rare talents, bound together 
 alike by principle and interest, were raised to its head. A 
 triumvirate, like that of Eugene, Marlborough, and Heinsius 
 is rarely found to occur in history ; but not merely their 
 greatness, their very weaknesses contributed to make the 
 alliance indissoluble. Would it have been so without the 
 avarice and ambition of Marlborough, without the obstinate 
 narrowness of Heinsius ? The noble Eugene alone is with- 
 out a blemish. 
 
 The personal situation of these men rendered their sphere of action 
 extensive i of Eugene as a general, and since 1703 pi-esident of the 
 council of war ; of Heinsius, as grand pensionary, without a stadtholder ; 
 of ]\Iarlborough, at once as a general, a statesman, and the head of a 
 party. He ruled in the cabinet as well as in the field, as long as the 
 party of the whigs was at the helm ; a crafty, uncertain, fascinating hero. 
 
 Memoires du Prince Eugene de Sarot/e, ccrits par hdnieme. Weimai', 
 1810, 8vo. Remarkable both in a mihtary and a psychological point 
 of view ; they were not however written by himself, but by the late 
 Prince of Ligne. 
 
 N 
 
178 PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUIlOrE, 1700—1710. [hiuod n. 
 
 It. Tlion^li tlio war, therefore, in its orip^in, was a war 
 between Austria and France, the Ihime could not fail soon 
 to spread over all the west of Europe. The country, how- 
 ever, tlie possession of which was, in fact, the subject of dis- 
 pute, remained a secondary scene ; Italy, the Netherlands, 
 and above all Germany, a;j;ain had the melancholy lot of 
 becoming the principal theatres. 
 
 The war wa.s bop;un on the .«i.lc of Aiistria, by Eu;ienc's invasion of 
 Italy, July, 1701, anil occupation of Lonibanly. It wa.s not till after 
 the capture of Villeroy, Feb. 1, 1702, that he found in Vendonie, a 
 cynic with the eye of a general, a more worthy foe. An engagement 
 took place, with <loulitiul i.ssue, at Luzzara, Aug. 16. The war com- 
 menced on tlie upper IJhine, by the conquest of Landau, Sept. 10, and 
 in the Netherlands!, 1702, where Marlborough first entered the iiehl. 
 But in 1703 the war first became general, both in Germany by the 
 formal alliance of Bavaria with France, and the invasion, though ulti- 
 nuitely uiisuccessl'ul, of Tyrol by the elector, June — Sept. ; in Italy by 
 the defection of the duke of Savoy to the interest of the allies, severely 
 a.^ he was at first punished for it by France ; and in Spain itself, as it 
 was possible after the accession of Portugal to the grand alliance to 
 transfer the war to this country, by sending thither the Archduke 
 Charles. The campaign of 1704 was the first decisive one for Ger- 
 many. A great victory was obtained by the allies at Iloch.-tiidt or 
 Blenheim, Aug. 13. Bavaria was conquered and Germany delivered. 
 Siicli a day Louis XIV. had never witnessed. — The war was begun in 
 Spain between Charles and Philip ; it was not however decisive, but 
 for tiiat reason, the more destructive as a civil war, Charles being ciiiefly 
 sui)ported in Catalonia, Pliilip in Castile. Tlie operations, which com- 
 menced al)out the same time at sea, especially on the ^leditcrranean, 
 made the English masters of Gibraltar, Aug. 4. — AftiM- the death of 
 Leopold L, May 5, 170.'), the war was kept up with equal spirit under 
 Joseph I. A vain attempt was made by Marlborough and Louis, Prince 
 of Baden, to penetrate into the interior of France. But the campaign 
 of 1706 put the allies in possession of the Netherlands, after Marl- 
 borough's victory at Hamillies, May 23, (over Villeroy,) and of Lom- 
 bardy also, by the relief of Turin, Sept. 7, as soon as Eugene had no 
 Vendome to encounter. — The consequences were, the entire evacuation 
 of Lombardy by the French, agreeably to the terms of a convention at 
 Milan, ^larch 13, 1707; the conquest of Naples, almost without re- 
 sistance, (in May,) and even an attempt, of no avail however, against 
 'J'nulon (July and Augiist). Great exertions were made by Louis 
 XIV, for reconjpicriiig the N<'(herland8, 170H, which were frustrated 
 by the defeat at Oiidennrde, July 1 1, which in its turn Avas followed by 
 the siege and taking of the French fortified place Lille, Oct. 23. Even 
 Vendome and Bouftiers were not sufficient to meet the combined abili- 
 ties of Marlborough and Eugene. 
 
 15. Such defeats, united with internal misfortunes, re- 
 duced France to a situation which I^luIs XIV. had never 
 
PAUT I.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1700—1740. 179 
 
 before experienced. But he has the reputation of having 
 borne calamity better than his enemies did their success. 
 Ready to resign all that he geemed unable to maintain, he 
 showed himself inflexible in every thing that would have in- 
 volved a moral degradation. The negotiations of the Hague 
 and Gertruydenberg are the most instructive school for 
 princes in misfortune. Perseverance here met with its re- 
 ward ; the allies slighted the opportunity, because they did 
 not desire peace ; and a few years after, Louis concluded 
 one on terms which he would previously have deemed im- 
 possible. 
 
 The negotiations were commenced March, 1709, between the presi- 
 dent Rouille and the Dutch delegates Bliys and Yan der Diissen, first 
 at Moerdyck and afterwards at Woerden ; till Torcj himself, the minis- 
 ter of foreign affairs, being sent to the Hague, (in May,) appeared in 
 the ante-chamber of the grand pensionary. — The demands of the aUies 
 were, in general, the entire cession of the whole Spanish monarchy in 
 favour of Austria : in particular, of the Dutch, — the erection of barriers 
 (i. e. garrisoning the boundary fortresses) in the Spanish Netherlands, 
 and the restoration of the tarilF of 1664 ; of the English, — the acknow- 
 ledgment of the Protestant succession, and aggrandizement in the colo- 
 nies ; of the emperor and empire, — the restoration of things to the foot- 
 ing of the peace of Munster. — All this was conceded ; (preliminaries, 
 framed in forty articles, INIay 28 ;) and was more needed for the indem- 
 nification of the confederates ? or for the security of Europe ? But 
 Louis XIV. could not, without dishonouring himself, subscribe to the 
 deposition of Philip of Spain by his own instrumentality (Ai't. 4. 37). 
 The negotiations for peace were in consequence broken oflP. 
 
 16. The war proceeded, still unfavourably for France; 
 and yet even after the victory at Malplaquet, the allies were 
 unable to resolve on peace ; though they were as little able 
 to penetrate into the interior. At hile Vendome was victo- 
 rious in Spain, Yillars and Boufflers defended with spirit 
 the frontiers of the kingdom ; and the results of the victo- 
 ries in the field were confined to the taking of some places. 
 
 A great battle was fought at Malplaquet, Sept. 11, 1709, in which, 
 scarcely less honour accrued to Yillars and Boufilers from the defeat, 
 than Marlborough acquired by their victory. Mons was taken Oct. 
 20; Douai and some other places, 1710. Before the end of the year, 
 the advantages obtained by the Archduke Charles in Spain were frus- 
 trated by Vendome, even after the conquest of Madrid, 1710, and 
 French generals made amends to Philip V. for the losses he sustained 
 from French women and ambassadors. But his antagonist Charles 
 found neither a Vendome nor a Berwick. — The negotiations of peace 
 were renewed to no purpose by d'lluxelles and Polignac with the Dutch, 
 
 N 2 
 
180 irBi.IC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1700—1710. [pehiod IL 
 
 T^fjircli — .Tulv. T.diiis oonsente<l even lo furiii>Ii subsidies nfr:iin>t his 
 ;.MaMtls(iii. 15ut the allit'8 dciuamlcd lliat liu liimscll", and la- only, .-sliould 
 
 drposc llilll. 
 
 17. Hilt llic p;rcat ([uostion was not, after all, to he dctcr- 
 iiiincd 1)V the swonl. An alteration was ])ro(lu('e(l in the 
 ))olitical relations of all parties by tlio fall oflhewlii;j; minis- 
 try in Enn;lan(l, wliich soon involved the fall of Marlboronp;h; 
 and 1)V the death of the emperor Joseph I. The tories had in- 
 si>te(l for a lonp; time on the termination of a war, which 
 England was prosecuting at avast expense without any im- 
 mediate '^ain. As soon, therefore, as they succeeded to the 
 administratii)n of aflairs, the way seemed open for a se})arate 
 peace. And when, after the death of Joseph I., his brother and 
 successor Charles ^ I. became the only support of the house 
 of Ilapsburg, it could hardly appear politic for the maritime 
 powers to unite in one person the imperial crown, w ith that 
 of Hungary, Bohemia, and Spain. 
 
 Tlie fall of the whip: ministry was acconipli.<hcd by the dismissal of 
 Sunderland and Godolphin, Aupr. 10. A new ministry of the tories was 
 formed under Ilarley, tJie Earl of Oxford, and .St. John, Viscount Boling- 
 broke. Secret negotiations were soon entered into with France by 
 Gauthier, and afterwards by Prior. Carefully as the semblance of a 
 sejiarate jteace was avoided, there was an end to the contidence of the 
 confederates; and after Marlborough's removal, Jan., 1712, (who was 
 followed by that of Ormond, merely for a]ipearance sake,) and Villars* 
 victory at Ueiiain, July 24, the fortune of war turned in favour of France. 
 The preliminaries of peace between France and England, Oct. 8, 1711, 
 were communicated to the allies as a mere project, though the war, how- 
 ever, ceased from that moment. 
 
 Mvwnirs of John Duke of MdrlhoroiKih, by "\V. Ci>xr.. 1820, G vols. 
 Svo. From original ])apers. A leading work for (his period. 
 
 18. This separation of the alliance led, of course, to a 
 ])eace, but one far ditlerent from that which miii'ht have 
 been obtained a short time before ; and as Holland was still 
 regarded as the centre of politics, Utrecht was selected as the 
 place for the meeting of the congress. The nature of things 
 now rendered it necessary, that instead of a general peace, 
 a scries of treaties sliould be concluded, j)artly between 
 Spain, and ]>artly between France and each of the allies, in 
 all of which treaties each J)arty determined its own claims. 
 But neither respecting these nor respecting the principal 
 question, the fate of the Spanish monarchy, were the allies 
 agreed among tliemselves. \Mjile Austria selfishly persist- 
 
PART I.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1700—1740. 181 
 
 ed in its own demands, Enp;land, and even the rest, were 
 not averse to leaving the Spanish throne to the house oF 
 Anjou, (with the exception of its European provinces,) pro- 
 vided there should be no union of the crowns of France 
 and Spain on one head. Distiiist arose, moreover, between 
 England and Holland themselves, because each was jealous 
 of the commercial privileges that the other wished to reserve 
 for itself Could France commence a negotiation under 
 more promising auspices ? 
 
 The congress opened at Utrecht, Jan. 29, 1712, at first between the 
 plenipotentiaries of France, England, and Savoy only ; those of tlie 
 other allies arrived in February. The dissolution of the alliance was 
 already decided by the determination, that each of the confederates 
 should submit his claims singly. — The contests between the allies in- 
 creased, while the negotiations were almost entirely in the hands of the 
 English, and were carried on in secret directly between the cabinets of 
 St. James and Versailles. The final results were, separate treaties of 
 peace concluded between the other allies, leaving Austria and the 
 empire to themselves. Preliminary contracts : 1. Mutual renunciation 
 of France by the house of Anjou, and of Spain by the French princes, 
 June 22, 1712. 2. A compact between Austria and France respecting 
 the evacuation of Catalonia and the neutrality of Italy, ]\Iarcli 14, 
 1713, at the instigation of England. These were followed, April 11, 
 by the following treaties of peace with France. 
 
 1. Peace between France and England, a. Acknowledgment of 
 tlie Protestant succession in England, in favour of the house of Hano- 
 ver, and the removal of the pretender from France, b. Permanent 
 separation of the crowns of Spain and France, e. Dismantling of the 
 harbour of Dunkirk, d. The cession to England of Newibundland ; 
 (with the reservation of Cape Breton and a participation in the fish- 
 eries ;) of Acadia, according to its ancient boundaries ; of Hudson's Bay 
 and the contiguous regions, and the French portion of St. Christopher. 
 e. That France should carry on no further trade to the Spanish colonies 
 than she did under Charles II., and should possess no particular privi- 
 leges there. — A more advantageous treaty of commerce was made for 
 England, a. The ancient prohibitions Avere repealed, b. Perfect re- 
 ciprocity was established, and treatment on the footing of the most 
 favoured nations, c. The fundamental principle was recognised, that, 
 with the exception of contraband articles, restricted merely to the ne- 
 cessaries of war, free ships make free goods. 
 
 2. Peace between France and the Netherlands, a. A barrier was 
 established against France. The Spanish Netherlands were therefore 
 relinquished to the republic, that she might resign them to Austria 
 after the formation of a barrier treaty, b. France Avas restored to the 
 possession of Lille, and the other frontier places which she had lost. — 
 A commercial treaty, advantageous for the republic, was made at the 
 same time. The rate of duties was diminished, and the free introduc- 
 tion of herrings permitted. 
 
182 I'LBLIC CONTKSTS IN lirUOPE, 1700— 17 HL [pkiiiod ii. 
 
 3. Peace hrtircrn France and Savoy. a. The boiinduri<'s were 
 ostalili^lu'd f'av<)\irably for Savoy, b. Savoy rcc-civcd tlie island of 
 Sitily as a kiiiji(loni, uiul c. reserved its claims to Spain in case of the 
 rxtiiiction of the house of Anjou. 
 
 4. l\nrc bvtncrn France and VorliKjal. Tiie boundaries were fixed 
 ill South America, by which Portugal retained the territory between 
 the rivers Maragnon and the Oyapok. 
 
 5. Peace between France and Prussia, a. France recognised the 
 I'russian roval title, b. Kelinquishcd to Prussia, in the name of the 
 king of Spain, the upper quarter of Guelderland. c. Kecognised the 
 king of Trussia as sovereign of Neufcliatel. d. Prussia resigned to 
 France its inherited rights to the principality of Orange. 
 
 S|)ain concluded peace at Utrcclit with England and Savoy, July 
 13, 1713. 
 
 1. ]\ace between Spain and Encjhind. a. Spain reliiifpiished to 
 Kngland, Gibraltar and the island of iSIinorca. b. Sjiain grants to 
 l-'.iigland (conformably to the assiento or contract signed in Madrid on 
 the 2iHh of March) the right, which France had before possessed, of 
 importing for thirty yeai-s 4800 negroes into America ; and permission 
 to despatch every year a ship of 500 tons to Porto Bello. c. It was 
 not to confer either on France, or any other power, commercial liberties 
 of trading to the Indies, nor was it to alienate any of its possessions. 
 
 2. Peace between Spain and Savoi/. a. Cession of Sicily, b. Re- 
 petition of tlie terms contracted with France. So afterwards in the 
 treaties of peace with Holland and I'ortugal, June 26, 1714. 
 
 The most important plenipotentiaries at Utrecht were : from France, 
 the Marshal (riluxelles, Abbe (afterwards Cardinal) Polignac, and M. 
 Menager. From England, the Earl of Stafford. From the Netherlands, 
 Van Buys and Van der Diissen. From the emperor, Count Sinzendorf. 
 From Spain, Count MafVei, etc. 
 
 Actes, vianoires et aiitres pieces aiit/untir/i/es concernant la paix 
 dl'lrreht. 1714. T. i. — vi. iL'iiio. The most complete collection of 
 state papers. 
 
 Letters and cnrresj)ondence of the 7?. //. T.nrd Vise. Bolinrfhrnhe, by 
 Giuii. Paijkk. Lond. 179H, vol. i. — iv. 8vo, containing the political cor- 
 responilence of the minister during his administration from 1710 — 1714. 
 
 Jlistoire du congrcs dc la pai.r (rCtrec/it, coninie anssi de cellc de 
 liastadt et Bade. Utrecht, 1716. 12mo. 
 
 19. Thus tlio emperor and empire were left to tliem- 
 sclves, in concludino- the peace. Thouoh most of the 
 provinces of fSpain were reserved for the former, the latter 
 on tlie contrary was offered only tlie fundamental articles 
 of tlie peace of Kyswick, and a limit of time was ])cremp- 
 torilv set to hotli, which was not accepted. The war still 
 continued, especially on the I^hine, with little success for 
 Austria. The consecjuence was, a renewal of the negotia- 
 tions between the two, the next winter,' at Rastadt, which 
 led to a peace, that was afterwards changed into a peace ot 
 
PART I.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IX EUHOrE, 1703—1710. 183 
 
 the empire at Baden. Austria obtained its share ; the em- 
 pire on the contrary — no longer at unity with itself, owinp: 
 to the separate treaties of peace — went away empty ; and 
 the pleasing dream of a complete restoration to the footing 
 of the peace of ^»Iunster vanished at once. 
 
 The war continued on the Rhine, 1713 ; Landau was taken, Aug. 20, 
 and Freiburg, Nov. 16, by ViUars. Negotiations were commenced 
 between him and Eugene at Rastadt, Nov., and lasted till Mai'ch, 1714. 
 The peace was finally concluded ]^.[arch 6, under the name of prelimi- 
 naries, which were afterwards offered to the empire for acceptance. 
 Principal conditions : a. That Austria should take possession of the 
 Spanish Netherlands, after having agreed upon a barrier for Holland. 
 h. That she should continue in possession of her territories in Italy, viz. 
 Naples, Sardinia, ^Milan, and the Stati degli presidi. c. That restitution 
 should be made of the electors of Bavaria and Cologne, v/ho had been 
 put under the ban of the empire, in consideration of the acknowledg- 
 ment of the electorate of Hanover, d. The empire received only a re- 
 storation of the state of things that existed before the war, conformably 
 to the provisions of the peace of INIunster, Nimwegen, and Ryswick. — 
 The preliminaries proffered to the empire were accepted and ratified at 
 Baden, in Switzerland, Sept. 7. 
 
 20. The decision of the contest was, therefore, as fer as 
 respected the principal object, effected by the separation of 
 the provinces in Europe, which would have been willingly 
 relinquished even before the war. But the contest unhap- 
 pily was not wholly decided ; though the war ceased for 
 the present. Between the two leading competitors, Spain 
 and Austria, no formal peace subsisted, because neither 
 would resign its pretensions. The fluctuating condition in 
 which the European system remained for ten years, was 
 thence inevitable, and the maintenance of the peace of 
 Utrecht was one of the most difficult problems of policy. 
 
 21. The consequences, w'hich this war and the treaties of 
 peace by which it was terminated brought upon Europe, 
 were alike various and important. As the Spanish mon- 
 archy belonged to a branch of the house of Bourbon, it put 
 an end to the ancient rivalry between France and Spain, 
 for which Europe had suffered so severely. But it soon 
 became evident, that bonds of consanguinity are by no 
 means strengthened by being made subservient to motives 
 of policy. The consequences apprehended for the equi- 
 librium of Europe, did not indeed ensue ; though France 
 \vas, in fact, so utterly exhausted, that the closest connexion 
 with Spain could excite but little apprehension. 
 
184 rriU.K" CONTKSTS in KUROI'I:, IThO— irio. [rEmon II 
 
 "2'2. l\\o s('j);iration of tlio Sj^misli ])roviMrrs from tlio 
 inotlior country was ])articul:irly important to tlio states of 
 Europe, inasmuch as the Netherlands thereby came into the 
 ])ossession of Austria. Always the immediate; object of 
 French conquest, it was one of the prevalent maxims of 
 policy, that their maintenance was the interest of all, and 
 the condition of the preservation of the balance of power. 
 J)i<l not in fact the fate of the republic, of the German em- 
 pire, and with it that of Austria itself, materially depend 
 thereon ? 
 
 'J3. One of the most important consequences of these 
 wars, was the enlarj^ed influence of England. Its system 
 of loans (see p. 15()) enabled it to give to its subsidiary 
 treaties an unparalleled extension ; and the part it had 
 already begun to resume in contin(Mital politics was enlarged 
 and strengthened. The acquisition of the Low Countries 
 by Austria, seemed to render its connexion with that 
 country inseparable ; the republic was blindly devoted to 
 it ; while Savoy and the single states of the empire were to 
 be had in exchange for subsidies. The peace of Utrecht 
 was concluded under its direction, and happily, therefore, 
 the maintenance of this peace appeared its natural policy. 
 Ought we to be astonished, then, that the management of 
 the atVairs of Europe wen; for a long time in its hands? 
 
 24. Though the war did not possess much of the charac- 
 ter of a naval war, nevertheless, in the ensuing peace, the 
 mercantile system began to manifest itself in all its strength. 
 Grants of connnercial privileges of the highest importance 
 were made the conditions of peace with the maritime 
 ]>owers, and even territorial concessions were made partly 
 on account of commerce. The foundation of the great 
 commercial preponderance of England was in reality laid 
 by the peace of Utrecht, and with it, the germ of two future 
 nii«j;htv wars ; but these consequences necessarily had a 
 gradual develoj)ment, and the rejiublic still remained for a 
 considerable period the first commercial state of this quarter 
 of the globe. 
 
 25. The situation of the single states was altered, not 
 merely by the war, but partially also by the change of go- 
 vernments. In Spain, a new dynasty ascended the throne ; 
 but Philip V. was not the i)rince to raise up a fallen king- 
 
PART I.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1700—1740. 185 
 
 dom. For this purpose his wife, Ehzabeth of Parma, would 
 have been the fitter person, had she not been swayed, more 
 by the interest of her family, than by the interest of the 
 state. But nothing was too dear to her, when the question 
 related to providing for her sons ; and without gaining any 
 thing for itself, Spain acquired by her means a greater in- 
 fluence — unhappily, however, a pernicious influence — on 
 the system of Europe, than it had had under the last of the 
 house of Hapsburg. 
 
 26. Portugal, bound to England during the war 
 by the ties of policy, was upon its termination still 
 more closely connected with it by the ties of commerce. 
 But though the treaty of Methuen was injurious to indus- 
 try, did the fault lie in the treaty, or in the nation and go- 
 vernment? If the woollen manufactures no longer found 
 support, were there no other? Was there no soil to be 
 cultivated ? As long as Portugal, however, continued to 
 find in England a market for its wines, the bonds of poli- 
 tical union were strengthened at the same time with the 
 mercantile, and in fact rendered almost indissoluble. 
 
 27.- The greatest change, however, occurred 
 in France. Louis XIV. outlived the war but a 
 short time, and in his great grandson Louis XV. left a weak 
 and minor child for his successor. His authority died with 
 him, and, contrary to his will, his nephew Philip 
 of Orleans obtained the regency, with all the 
 plenitude of power. Though without morals, or even any 
 sense of shame, he was yet looked upon as a greater pro- 
 fligate than he really was ; and the long-continued anxiety 
 respecting the life of the young king, who was, moreover, 
 weakly, had a strong influence on the politics of the time, 
 and especially on the relations with the Spanish line. Who, 
 in such event, was to succeed, Philip of Spain, or the Duke 
 of Orleans ? The mistrust between the two was therefore 
 as natural as it was momentous ; since it could not but de- 
 termine the character of foreign connexions. 
 
 Changes took place in the administration of foreign affairs. A Con- 
 seil was established under IVIarshal d' Iluxelles as president. The pa- 
 triotic and honest Torcy resigned, 1716, after nineteen years of service 
 (see p. 142). After the abolition of the Cmiscil, the infamous Dubois 
 was appointed secretary of state, 1718, and at last prime minister, 1722. 
 
1S6 rrni.ir contksts in I'rnori:, 1700—1710. (ii;ni(.p n. 
 
 St. Simon, Mt moires secrits dc la rcymcc, (^CEiirrcs, vols. vii. viii.) 
 Sec p. 135. 
 
 28. In England, also, after the death of Anne, hy tlic 
 most wonderi'ul course of Providence, the lionMi of Hano- 
 ver succeeded that of tlie Stuarts. Protest- 
 '^"^' ' ' ' autism gave them tlie throne, and it was Protest- 
 antism that was to preserve it to them. No new maxims, 
 no new system of continential pohey, (for this was not de- 
 termined for tlie first time by the possession of Hanover.) 
 could then^fore become prevalent ; it was the ancient po- 
 licy of M'illiam 111. modified accordinn; to the circumstances 
 of the times. Thus harmony was established between the 
 nation and the government ; and, fortunately for the new 
 dynasty, there was for a long time yet a pretender, who did 
 not permit these maxims to be forgotten, 
 
 TliP natural con?cqu<>nre of lliis policy was the fall of the tory minis- 
 try, wiiich liacl made it.sclf more than suspected by its conduct towards 
 the pretender, 1714, and the restoration of the superiority of the whigs. 
 
 29. In this war the republic, from being powerful by sea, 
 had become almost equally powerful by land. It had in- 
 creased the burden of her debts to three hundred and fifty 
 millions of guilders ; so dear was the purchase of the bar- 
 rier treaty, in which she saw the security of her existence. 
 She derived, moreover, an important lesson from her expe- 
 rience in this war, that she had little to gain from partici- 
 pation in the contests of the greater powers ; and from this 
 time it was the finulamental axiom of her policy to keep as 
 free from them as possible. For a power that had taken its 
 station amongst the first, was not such a retiring more dan- 
 gerous than |)articipation? By lulling into slumber her 
 military energies, especially in a country which possessed 
 no stadtholder and captain-general since William III. ; a 
 decline in tlie opinion of the other powers was a conse- 
 cjui'uce, which, tliough gradual, was inevitable and of the 
 last importance. A state passes for the value it sets upon 
 itself. 
 
 A harrier treaty witli Austria was sipi'i'd at Antwerp, vmder the 
 mediation of Knj,'land, Nov. l.j, ITlo ; in wliich tlie rejjuhlie, by relin- 
 qui.-hin;^ the J>(iw Countries to tlie enijK-ror, acriuired in exclianpe the 
 exclusive right of holdinjr jrarrisons in Naunir, Doriiik, Mcnin, AVarne- 
 ton, Ypres, and P'ort Knocke, and, in common with Austria, in Iture- 
 mondc. — But what are fortresses without soldiers ? 
 
PART I.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1700—1710. 187 
 
 30. The Austrian monarchy was aggrandized by the pos- 
 session of certain provinces, of Naples, Sardinia, Milan, and 
 the Low Countries. Whether this aggrandizement was to 
 be a gain or a loss, depended on the spirit of the adminis- 
 tration. Adapted for serving, in connexion with the em- 
 pire, as a bulwark to the main body of the monarchy, they 
 would, nevertheless, if weakly defended, only offer so many 
 points of attack to an enemy ; and under an administration 
 like that of Charles VI., the truth of this was soon experi- 
 enced. 
 
 The possession of Transylvania was secured, in 1711, by the sup- 
 pression of the disturbances caused by Francis Rakotzi. 
 
 31. The German empire, internally distracted by the po- 
 licy of Bavaria, was reunited again by the peace, as far as 
 it could be so. The example, however, once given, was 
 not without its consequences. But the times approached, 
 when entirely different schisms were to arise. 
 
 32. Two new regal thrones were erected, the one for the 
 house of Brandenburg in Prussia, (see below,) the other for 
 the house of Savoy in Sicily, which it soon after had to ex- 
 change for Sardinia. Both were then states of secondary 
 rank, but differed in this important particular, that the 
 former was yet to have its greatest rulers, the other had al- 
 ready enjoyed them. This fundamental difference after- 
 wards afforded the criterion of their influence on the states- 
 system of Europe. 
 
 33. The great point on which the politics of the west of 
 Europe were now to turn, (in the east the Turkish wars, 
 that soon ensued, formed an exception,) was the preserv- 
 ation of the peace of Utrecht, which was in a most tottering 
 condition ; and the diplomacy of the cabinets almost uni- 
 versally aimed at this, either directly or indirectly ; because 
 on it depended almost every other great political interest. 
 
 34. Those powers were of course most interested in the 
 preservation of the peace, who were the greatest gainers by 
 it. At the head of these was England, under whose direc- 
 tion it had been concluded. Its flourishing commerce with 
 all parts of the world was in several essential particulars 
 founded on the conditions of this peace ; and the Protestant 
 succession was no less confirmed by it. France had an 
 equal interest from other causes ; for with this peace was 
 
188 rur.LIC CONTKSTS in KUHOPK, 1700—1710. [rEmon 11. 
 
 involved the renunciation of the French tlirone by the 
 lioiise of Anjou, to wliich Pliilip of Orleans was indebted 
 i'or the regency. Austria hud to seek in tlie peace of 
 Utrecht for the secure possession of the conceded provinces ; 
 and even the republic, indiflerent, as she soon showed iier- 
 sclf, in the Italian contests, could enjoy her new privileges 
 oidy in time of peace. Such an interest occasioned closer 
 Halations between those powers ; and even the ancient rival- 
 siiij) between France and Enp:land expired, so long as per- 
 sonal interest outweighed the interest of the state. 
 
 An alliance was formed between England and Austria, May 25, 1 7 1 G, 
 and with France and the rci)ublic, Jan. 4, 1717, buth I'ur the prc-crv- 
 ation of i)eace. 
 
 35. Entirely different purposes were cherished by Spain. 
 The loss of the jirovinces, esj)ecia]ly of those in Italy, was 
 not forgotten. And though Philip \'. would never have 
 disquieted himself on the subject, he was, on the other hand, 
 inuler the dominion of persons who were interested in the 
 renewal of the war. Elizabeth his queen, already mother 
 of two sons, began even while they were in their cradle to 
 meditate a provision for them. Through her instrumental- 
 ity, the abbate Alberoni, her countryman, had made his way 
 to the elevation of cardinal and prime minister ; not without 
 the talcMits of a great statesman, had he merely known how 
 to distinguish between a statesman and a political projector. 
 But while the whole character of foreign policy was changed, 
 together with the internal administration, he entered upon 
 such broad projects, that the bold(;st hopes could hardly 
 cherish an idea of their feasibility. 
 
 Projects of Alberoni in respect to forcijrii jtolicy and their cnnnexion. 
 "NVliile the reconquest of the Italian province.^ wa.s the ininiediafe ob- 
 ject, he not only entertained at the same time the project of .securing 
 the regency to his king, Ijy the downfal of the regent, (to have been 
 effected by Celiainarc'.s conspiracy, Dec, 1781,) but also of reinstating 
 the pretender in England, for which purpose he contracted a new alli- 
 ance with Sweden. 
 
 St. Simon, Mtmoircs dc la rcffnicc, vol. i., L. 4, contains a caustic 
 sketch of the Spanish court at that time ; and of Alberoni in ])articular. 
 
 Ilisfnirr da cardinal Alberoni ct dc son iiiinistcrc, par M. J. IJ. a la 
 Ilaye, 1720. 
 
 ScuMAUSS, «7f//«'»ic Geschirhte des Spatiisc/ien Hofcs. 1720. Trans- 
 lation of some writings respecting Alberoni. 
 
 36. These plans of conquest, directed immediately against 
 
PART I.] ■ PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROrE, 1700—1740. 189 
 
 Austria, became more alluring in consequence of the Turk- 
 ish war in which Austria was implicated at this time for the 
 preservation of the peace of Carlowitz (see p. 149) ; and 
 which, successful as was its issue, employed nevertheless the 
 greater part of its army on the other side of Europe. 
 
 The war with the Turks began with Venice, and an easy conquest 
 was made of the Morea, Cerigo, etc., alike badlj administered and de- 
 fended, July, 1715. Corfu alone was maintained. Austi-ia engaged 
 in the war, 1716. Against Eugene's name and tactics, Turkish valour 
 was of no avail. A splendid victory was gained at Peterwardein, Aug, 
 5. Bannat was subdued, together with a part of Servia and TTaUachia, 
 Oct.; Belgrade was besieged, June, 1717. The grand vizier was de- 
 feated, Aug. 16, and the fortifications were taken, as also Orsowa, Se- 
 mendria, etc. At the opening of the new campaign in 1718, a truce 
 was agreed upon, and a peace for twenty years, under the mediation of 
 the naval powers, according to the state of possession at the time, at 
 Passarowitz, July 21, conformably to which, 1. Austria obtained Bel- 
 grade, Temeswai', Bannat, and a part of Servia and Wallachia, as far as 
 the Aluta. 2. Venice retained the conquered places in Dalmatia ; but 
 resigned to the Porte, Morea, Cerigo, etc. The commercial treaty, con- 
 cluded at the same time, opened to Austria all the Turkish states. — 
 "Who would not have expected from such concessions the rapid pros- 
 perity of Austria to have ensued, had it not been more difficult to im- 
 prove advantages, than to effect conquests ? 
 
 37. During this war attempts were made by Alberoni 
 to execute his schemes ; at first by a sudden in- 
 
 Au*". 1717 
 
 vasion and conquest of Sardinia, which was fol- 
 lowed the next year by the conquest of Sicily; ■^"'^'i''^*- 
 while more remote undertakings against the continent of 
 Italy were in agitation. 
 
 38. But the connexions already formed, made it easy for 
 England to accomplish an alliance against Spain, for the 
 preservation of the peace of Utrecht, known under the name 
 of the quadruple alliance, though at first it was a combina- 
 tion of France and England only, in order to induce or 
 compel the powers interested to accept the concerted pre- 
 liminaries ; to this it was assumed, that the republic would 
 accede ; and Austria actually joined. 
 
 A quadruple alliance was concluded between England, France, and 
 Austria, Aug. 2, 1718, in the hope of the accession of the republic. 
 Conditions : 1. Mutual renunciation of Spain and India by the emperor, 
 and of Italy and the Netherlands by the king of Spain. 2. For Don 
 Carlos, the son of Elizabeth, the reversion of Tuscany, Parma, and Pia- 
 cenza, as fiefs of the empire, to be occupied, for security, till the open- 
 ing with neutral troops. 3. Austria was to exchange Sicily for Sar- 
 
190 PUBLIC CONTESTS IN ElROrE. 17(K)-17lO. ' [pEniOD n. 
 
 (linia. — Three months were left to the kings of iSpain an«l Sicily fo 
 (Irchirt' thi'ir intentions. — A British fleet was sent to the Mediterranpaii 
 f(ir the pniteetion of Sicily, and a naval battle was fou^rht at Cai)e Tas- 
 saro, Au;i. 22, 1718. ' 
 
 39. Rcsistiince was nuule by Albcroiii to tliesc ('uiiditiuiis, 
 
 which Savoy accepted, thoug;h un\vilhno;Iy, and 
 
 received the crown of Sardinia instead ot" tliat of 
 
 Sicily. M'hen the intentions of the minister against tlie 
 
 regent and England were disclosed, the consequence was a 
 
 formal declaration of war hv both a<iainst Spain, 
 
 Jan. 9, 1718. , ., , ,. , .,, , '' ,. ' ,^* 
 
 winle the JJutcli still acted as mediators, reace, 
 however, was out of the question, as lonf^ as the 
 hated Albcroni remained in power; and Elizabeth 
 was soon framed, when a prospect of the r^rench throne was 
 opened to her danp;hter, now a child only three years olfl. 
 Alberoni fell, and the conditions of the quadruple 
 alliance were immediately accepted by Spain. 
 The fire of war was thus e.xtinouished ; but many of the con- 
 tested points were not to be adjusted till tlie great congress 
 at Cambrais. 
 
 40. \VhilG England thus obtained peace with an armed 
 hand, it became more deeply than ever entangled in the 
 ])olicy of the continent. It must needs have been, there- 
 fore, of high importance to Europe, that the minister, who 
 
 was there placed at the helm, and manaired it 
 for twenty-one years under two kings, honestly 
 desired the preservation of peace. Sir Robert Walpole, 
 without the restless activity which is so often miscalled 
 greatness, was a statesman well worthy of our respect. He 
 introduced uprightness of principle into politics, at a time, 
 when they were disgraced by the |)rotligacy of Dubois, and 
 the falsehood of Alberoni. But his maxim, to be on good 
 terms with all, entangled him in a web of negotiations and 
 j)olitical relations, from which none but an island state, like 
 England, could have disengaged itself. 
 
 Memoirs of Sir Tiohirt JTuIpolc, by WiLLLVM CoXE. 3 vols. 4to. 
 179S. 
 
 iMrmnirs of Ilornce fj'alpnle. 1802, 4to. — Two of tlie most import- 
 ant collections of materials, from the best sources, for the history of the 
 tini,.ii. — Horace was his younger brother, ami frequently employed in 
 embassies, especially at Paris and at the Hague. 
 
 4 1 . About this time, a double interest was created by the 
 
PART I.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1700—1740. 191 
 
 proceedings of Austria, which had a frequent and powerful 
 influence on general politics. The anxiety of Charles VI. 
 at leaving behind nothing but daughters, led him to frame, 
 thus early, an order of succession, under the name of the 
 Pragmatic Sanction, which, if possible, was to be accepted 
 and guaranteed by all tlie powers. It was the ground of 
 negotiations and concessions, of which foreign cabinets well 
 knew how to make an excellent use. 
 
 The Prasma^tic Sanction was planned in 1713, and was accepted by 
 the hereditary states from the year 1720. It was afterwards almost 
 always a standing article in all foreign negotiations. 
 
 42. But commotions still more violent were occasioned 
 by Charles VI.'s project to give his Netherlands a share in 
 the Indian trade, from the port of Ostend. The establish- 
 ment of his commercial company there, was regarded by 
 the maritime powers as an encroachment on their rights, 
 contrary to the peace of Westphalia. They, who had for- 
 merly maintained the freedom of the ocean against Spain, 
 now wished to exclude others, as they themselves had been 
 once excluded by the Spanish. 
 
 The Ostend company was chartered for trade to the East and West 
 Indies 19th of December, 1722. — The remonstrances of the Dutch 
 were founded on the conditions of the peace of Munster with Spain, 
 that the trade to the Indians should remain within its limits at that 
 time. Did this bind the present possessors of the Netherlands ? Still 
 more inconsistent were the arguments of the English ! 
 
 43. It was these, and many other important and unim- 
 portant points, which brought about the congress at Cam- 
 brais, through the mediation of France and England. Aus- 
 tria, Spain, Sardinia, and Parma, all gave in their claims. 
 But by wishing to accomplish every thing, nothing was 
 actually done. The many petty interests roused as many 
 petty passions ; and as the congress, after long discussions, 
 and interrupted by other intermediate events, at length 
 separated without coming to any agreement, there wanted 
 but little to produce a general war. 
 
 After long delays, the congress finally opened, April, 1724, the mu- 
 tual renunciations of Austria and Spain, Sept. 27, 1721, being previ- 
 ously guaranteed by England and France. Besides the above cliief 
 points, disputes were occasioned by the feudal relations of Parma and 
 Piacenza to the German empire, the right of conferring the Order of 
 the Golden Fleece, etc. What could be expected of a congregation of 
 
192 riiu.ir contests in KiKori:, 1700—1740. [ikriodm. 
 
 iiu'ii, who dill but start diflicultics, wiflioul a single leader to direct 
 tlaia ? 
 
 44. J)urin<2; tliose nci^otialions, tlic cli:in<^c of a j)r()j('ct of 
 maiTiap;e caused an unexpected revolution in politics ; and 
 ]>v l)('Corniii<2; the soinT(> of aninmsity between Sj>ain and 
 France, led to a reconciliation and alliance between Spain 
 and Austria. 
 
 Tlie Spanish Infanta, yet in her minority, was sent back from Paris, 
 April 6, 1724, heraust' the duke of Bourbon, the new minister, wishc-d 
 to marry the younp king at once. Louis XV. espoused Maria, the 
 daughter of tlio Polish ex-king Stanislaus LcsciriSky, Aug. 16, 172.J. 
 Tlie qucen-mothor was in consecpience exasperated ; and tlie negotia- 
 tions, already (Nov. 1724) commenced by the baron and adventurer 
 Kipcrda at Vienna, Averc speedily eoncludi'd. A poacc an<l alliance were 
 made between Austria and Spain, April 30, 172o. Conditions: 1. 
 Patilication of the peace of Utreclit, and a mutual guarantee of all pos- 
 sessions as they then were. 2. Acknowledgment of the mutual order 
 of succession. 3. iVIutual succour in case of an attack (as a secret 
 article). In the commercial treaty, signed ^lay 1, S])ain recognised tlie 
 Ostend company. — The congress at Cambrais was dissolved after the 
 recall of the Spanish ambassador, June, 1725. 
 
 45. The less this compromise was expected, though it 
 could have little ditHculty in itself, the greater was the com- 
 motion it created in the several cabinets ; and particularly 
 as a part of the conditions were without reason made a 
 secret. The ruling powers of England and France, felt not 
 a little annoyed that such an agreement had been concluded 
 without their co-operation ; and it was at one time deemed 
 to augur an attack, at another, a union by marriage, of the 
 SjKinish and Austrian monarchies. 'J'he natural measure of 
 a counter-alliance was therefore resorted to, which was con- 
 cluded at Herrnhausen, between England, France, and 
 Pru.-^sia ; and like that of A'ienna, soon extended to the north 
 of Europe, Demnark and Sweden being involved in it, as 
 Russia was in that of Vienna. 
 
 The leagtic of Hemihausen was signed, S(>pt. 3, 172o, from which 
 Prussia, however, soon retiretl and joined the imperial party by a secret 
 treaty at "Wusterliausen, Oct. 12, 1726. On the other liand, the league 
 was strengthened by the acce.'ision of the United Netherlands, on ac- 
 count of tlie Ostend company, though with much circumspection, Aug. 
 9, of Denmark ami Sweden, in consideration of subsidies, March 25, 
 1727, as also of IIes.se Ca-si^el and "NVolfenbiittel. On the otiier hand, 
 the emperor gained not only Kussia, Aug. 6, 1726, but also several 
 German states, besides Prussia. 
 
PART I.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1700—1740. 193 
 
 46. Thus the countries of Europe, they scarcely knew 
 wherefore, not only stood opposed in arms to each other, 
 but the fitting out of British squadrons, and the attack of 
 Spain on Gibraltar, brought matters to the brink of an ex- 
 plosion, when, just as the flames of war were on the point 
 of bursting forth, they were again fortunately extinguished. 
 A\liere there was no good reason for war, this was not, in 
 itself considered, so difficult ; but what is more difficult than 
 to still the tumult of petty angry passions ? Happily, how- 
 ever, for Europe, a minister was placed at the head of the 
 administration of France, who, already an aged man, was no 
 less an upright friend of peace, than Sir Robert Walpole. 
 If the seventeen years' administration of Car- Jan., 1721;. to 
 dinal Fleury was not free from faults in the in- ^'^" ^'^^" 
 terior, it was, nevertheless, generally beneficial to Europe. 
 Without him, the various compacts would hardly have 
 been formed, which now restored peace, and its longer 
 duration appeared to be warranted by his amicable relations 
 with Walpole, springing from similar principles, and sus- 
 tained by Horace Walpole, as ambassador. Even a change 
 of rulers in Eno-land, consequent upon Georo-e 
 
 TT T 1 • p 1 1 1 • June 11, 1727. 
 
 11. succeedmg his lather, made no alteration, 
 
 because Walpole still remained at the head of affairs. 
 
 Pi'eliminaries were signed at Paris between Austria and the allies of 
 HeiTnhausen, INIay, 31, 1727. The principal obstacle was removed by 
 the suspension of the Ostend company for seven years. It was joined by 
 Spain, June 13, and peace with England was restored by the treaty at 
 Pardo, March 6, 1728. The other points of contest Avere to be adjusted 
 at the congress of Soissons, June, 1728. But the restless ambition of 
 the Spanish queen Elizabeth, who, by a treaty concluded at Seville, 
 Nov. 9, 1729, between England and France, had carried her point, that, 
 in order to secure the succession of her son in Tuscany and Parma, 
 these countries should now be occupied by Spanish troops, not only dis- 
 solved the congress at Soissons, but even drove offended Austria to 
 arms. The guarantee of the Pragmatic Sanction was the talisman, by 
 which Charles VI. was always to be gained over. Thence originated a 
 treaty with England and the republic at Vienna, March 16, 1731, the 
 emperor, in return for that guarantee, acquiescing in the occupation of 
 the Italian countries and in the abolition of the Ostend company. To 
 this treaty, Spain acceded June 6, and the empire July 14. 
 
 47. In this way, by singular good fortune, notwithstand- 
 ing the destruction of the fundamental relations of the 
 political system of Europe, peace was maintained, and even 
 seemed likely to be permanent. France and Spain were 
 
 o 
 
ll>4 rnu.ic contests in kuuoim:, 1700—1710. [luuion n. 
 
 reconciled ; Austria, in liannony witli Spain, saw its Prag- 
 matic Sanction nnivcrsallv ackno\vle(ln;c(l and even jruaran- 
 t<'("(l ; f'j)<j,lan(l was in amity with all. The ancient moving 
 ])rincij)le of politics, the rivalship of powerful states, aj)- 
 peared to have grown ol)sol(!t(! ; but the lust of aggrandize- 
 inent, ever the prevailing malady of cabinets, was as active 
 as ever, and nothing was wanted but an opportunity, which 
 should promise satisfaction. This occurred not long after, 
 uj)on the death of Frederic Augustus, king of 
 l^oland, when the choice of a successor pro- 
 duced a war in the north (see below). Russia and Austria 
 declared in favour of Saxony, while France, by defending 
 the ])r('t('iisions of Stanislaus Lescinsky, considered it a 
 favourable moment for aggrandizing itself at the expense of 
 the empire, and Spain and Sardinia at the expense of the 
 emjieror. A short war now made greater changes in the 
 state of possessions, tlian the previous long ones ; and not 
 merely the republic, as she etiected the neutrality of the 
 Spanish Netherlands, but even England itself, in spite of 
 its guarantee and treaty, looked on quietly, while its ally, 
 Austria, was deprived of its most important acquisitions. 
 
 France filtered into an alliance with Spain, Oct. 2.5, and Sardinia, 
 Sept. 26, 17.'5.'3, ])rincipally brought about by the intri;j:uinjr C'liauvelin, 
 who under Fleury had the management of foreign affairs till 1737. The 
 French, under IJcrwick, made an attack on the empire. Kehl was re- 
 duceil, and Lorrain invaded, war having been declared by the empire, 
 3Iarch 13, 1734; the combined French and Sardinian troops under 
 Villars took ]Vlilan, and tlie Spaniards Naples, 1733, whence they j)r()- 
 ceeded to Sicily, !May, 1734. The aged Kugene no longer held victory in 
 ciiains. — All the Austrian possessions in Italy were taken. — Prelimina- 
 ries of peace were quickly signed at Vienna, after a direct negotiation 
 between France and Austria, Oct. 3, 1735, to which Sardinia acOeded, 
 May 1, 173G, and Spain, Nov. lo. Conditions: a. Austria surrendered 
 to Sj)ain, as a .secundogeniture, (stii)ulating, however, that they should 
 never be united wkh it,) Na])lcs and the Sicilies, the island of Elba, 
 and the Stati degli Presidi, in favdur of Don Carlos, b. France ob- 
 tained the reversion of Lorrain and Bar, which were given to Stanislaus 
 Lescinsky, after his renunciation of the crown of Poland (who imme- 
 diately resigned it to France), c. Francis Stephen, duke of Lorrain, 
 obtained tlie reversion of Tuscan}', into possession of which he came, 
 July 9, 1737. d. The emperor obtained as an indemnification, Parma 
 ami Piacenza. e. Sardinia obtained some districts of ]\Iilan. f. France 
 guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction. — It was not, however, till Nov. 18, 
 173S, that tlie ])reliminaries were changed into a definitive peace. 
 
 48. In consequence of this war, Alberoni's formerly un- 
 
PART I.] CHANGES IN THE WEST OF EUROPE, 1700—1740. 195 
 
 successful plans on Italy, were for the most part carried into 
 execution. But if Spain only drew from it the advantage 
 of placing one of its princes on the now independent throne 
 of the two Sicilies, France on the contrary, as a power, en- 
 joyed the much more substantial advantage — in as far as 
 conquests can be called such — of obtaining in Lorrain, a 
 province, the loss of which must have been, both in political 
 and geographical respects, very sensibly felt by the German 
 empire. Though this war was both carried on, and more- 
 over terminated, without the participation of the maritime 
 powers, yet, after the restoration of peace, Europe returned 
 to its former relations, which were not altered even by the 
 participation of Austria in the Turkish wars. But these, 
 however, being prosecuted in common with Russia, belong 
 rather to the north (see below). 
 
 II. A Cin-aory View of the Changes in the sivgle leading States 
 of the iVest of Europe, 1700—1740. 
 
 1. The changes that took place during this period in the 
 interior of the states of the west of Europe, were rarely of 
 the kind to have any lasting influence. They were mostly 
 the development of germs, tliat were previously formed : in 
 some the change was of growth, but in others of gradual 
 decay. 
 
 2. We have already noticed (see p. 185) how far the 
 reign of the new dynasty was the commencement of a fresh 
 epoch for Spain. The great share it took in the public 
 contests of Europe, did not proceed from the restored energy 
 of the nation, but was the fruit of personal ambition among 
 the rulers. Even the successful efforts of its arms gave no 
 new impulse ; what could it have gained by conquest ? 
 
 3. Though a change was produced in the external rela- 
 tions of France by its attachment to England, so little essen- 
 tial alteration was made in the character of its policy, that 
 the seeds of future wars were disseminated durino; these 
 amicable relations of the governments by the increasing 
 commercial jealousy of the two nations. But in the inte- 
 rior, the accepting of the Bull Unigenitiis by Louis XIV., 
 towards the close of his reign, created a ferment, which did 
 not remain a mere contest between Jesuits and Jansenists, 
 
 o 2 
 
IDG fiiANcKs IN Tin-: \vi:.st of p:uuori:, 1700—1710. [pEmoDn. 
 
 (see p. 150,) l)ut necessarily eonstituted an opposition to tlie 
 government, wliicli, soon findini^ defenders even in parlia- 
 ment, was the more dangerous to the state, inasmuch as it 
 called to mind the suppression of the ancient national liberty. 
 
 The Bull Unigcnitus was promul^rfited by Pope Clement XI., Sept. 
 8, 1713; and adopted in Franee, Feb. 14, 1714. The schism amonj^ 
 the clergy iiinncdiately followed. The great political importance of this 
 dispute, however, dates from the following period. 
 
 C. ^\. Vvwvw Acttt pxhlica cniistUiitioiiis l'?iiffrnifus. Tiibing. l72o. 
 
 A/irrdittrs, nil Mtnioircs secrets siir la coiist'dution Uiiigenitus. a 
 Utrei-lit, 1732, 3 vols. 
 
 4. But the abortive attempt that France made, to pay ofi' 
 the burden of its debts by means of the paper bank of Law, 
 and the Mississippi company connected with it, were of no 
 small consequence to its future destinies, and its general 
 influence on the European political system. The ruin of 
 thousands of families might be repaired in time, but it was 
 the arbitrary money operations of the government, that re- 
 duced its credit to irrevocable ruin. From this time no 
 paper money could be issued in France under the old con- 
 stitution ; and the French financial system was ever after- 
 wards in an unsettled state. 
 
 A paper bank was established by Law, a native of Scotland, 3Iay, 
 1716, on very reasonable principles; but it was driven so far by tlie 
 government, which purchased it, Jan., 1719, that it became a terror to 
 the government itself. A depreciation was made in the value of bank 
 notes by the edict of May 21, 1720; and the bank itself was utterly 
 ruined. 
 
 Ilistoire du si/stcmr clrs Finances sous la minoritc dc Louis A'P., 1719 
 et 1720. a la Ilaye, 1736, 6 vols. 12mo, But the most lucid exposition 
 of this com])licated subject is given in, 
 
 J. Stkwakt, Inquiry into the jirinciphs of Political Econowi/. 
 Lond. 1767. 
 
 5. Hardly any other power enjoyed so high resjject in 
 
 the European system, as England, which was ren- 
 dered yet stronger by its union with Scotland. 
 This resj)ect was founded not merely on its power, but also 
 on its policy, so beneficial for the continent. The path, 
 which the rulers of the new house were to pursue, was most 
 clearly marked out for them ; and where could they have 
 pursue(l it more faithfully and more conscientiously ? 
 
 6. But the pressure of increased debt, gave rise to various 
 projects in England also, which were followed by consc- 
 
PART I.] CHANGES IN THE WEST OF EUROPE, 1700—1740. 197 
 
 qucnces no less extravagant than tliey had been in France, 
 Here, too, it was beheved possible speedily to perform by 
 art, what can be tlie result only of continued exertion, the 
 liquidation of the public debt ; but the projects of the South 
 Sea company foundered, like those of the Mississippi com- 
 pany in France. But as the English government allowed 
 itself no despotic steps, its credit was preserved entire ; and 
 it found itself able, by a diminution of interest, to establish 
 a sinking fund which only needed a better administration to 
 effect its object. 
 
 The ancient sinking fund consisted in a free diminution of interest 
 from six to five per cent., 1717, and again from five to four per 
 cent., 1727. 
 
 7. The republic of the United Netherlands underwent, 
 in this period, no important internal changes, after the 
 death of William III. But when the title of Prince 
 of Orange passed by right of inheritance to his cousin, 
 William Friso ; and after his death to his son \A illiam, 
 governor of Friesland and Groningen, the Orange party 
 continued to exist in the republic ; and the restora- 
 
 ' . . 17U. 
 
 tion of the dignity of hereditaiy stadtholder might 
 be expected, should an opportunity offer. The further re- 
 lations of this youno-er house of Orano'e were determined 
 beforehand, by its closer connexion with the British, through 
 the marriage of the prince with Anne, daughter of n:». 
 Georo-e II. 
 
 8. The Austrian monarchy changed its policy and pro- 
 vinces, without suffering any internal revolution, other 
 than that of a gradual decline. The emperor Charles VI., 
 more occupied with the future than the present, had already 
 obtained the guarantee of his Pragmatic Sanction from all 
 the European powers — at least on paper. Providence, in- 
 deed, had given him an Eugene ; but he was unable to pre- 
 vent even the decay of the army, much less that of the 
 finances, and the whole internal organization. 
 
 9. The German empire attached to Austria, partook of 
 all the wars of this country, however foreign they were to 
 itself And how would neutrality have benefited it ? But 
 four of its first princes, Brandenburg, Saxony, Hanover, 
 and Hesse Cassel,Nhad acquired, in this period, foreign 
 regal crowns ; and it was impossible to say what degree of 
 
lOS cllANcaCS IN Tin: WKST or KIUOIM:, 170U-17t(>. [pRmoD n. 
 
 influonco this niiplit liavc upon their German territories. 
 'J'hiis much a]>peare(l at all events certain ; that the solidity 
 of the federation ot" the empire, otlierwise so weak, could 
 not be mucli increased by it. Mould it be always possible 
 to separate the interest of their regal, from those of their 
 jiriueelv diiiiiities ? And even if they themselves wished it, 
 woukl their enemies be equally willing ? In what disputes 
 with the rest of Europe, must not at least some German states 
 be involved ! And how easily in that case the whole ! 
 
 10. Politics in general — altogether in tlie hands of a few 
 ministers and their confidants — obtained, during this jjcriod, 
 in all respects, the character of cabinet politics. Never 
 had there been so much diplomacy in Europe, and never 
 were such ideas entertained of its efficiency. Its greater or 
 less morality depended, of course, to a certain extent, on 
 the morals of the ministers. So long as it was built on 
 certain principles, so long as no one dared to violate directly 
 the sanctity of legitimate possession, it must have exhibited, 
 at least, the semblance of morality. Even the regent and 
 the abandoned Dubois, did not appear so odious in their 
 public as in their private life. 
 
 1 1. Political economy, based on no more enlarged theory 
 than the mere acquisition of ready money, was conformable 
 in its maxims to that principle ; and the mercantile system 
 continued to bear, with increasing truth, the name of a 
 .system. Foreign commerce remained the prime sonrce of 
 wealth ; and happy the merchant, whose accounts siiowed 
 a balance in his favour. The sudden accumulation of paper 
 money, occasioned by attempts to pay oif the ])ublic debts, 
 ended in its depreciation ; but if it reacted on the extension 
 of internal trade, by increasing the medium of internal cir- 
 culation, and on the whole condition of societv, bv raisino; 
 the pri('(> of things, — what financial operations, both good 
 and bad, has it not made possible to governments? 
 
 I'J. The progress of the art of war, which must have 
 been considerable under such great generals as this age 
 produced, can here be the subject of nothing but a general 
 remark. It must have continued to become an art, in pro- 
 portion as the .system of standing armies was perfected, to- 
 wards which a second step was taken by Prussia, after the 
 example of France (see below). 
 
PART I.] COLONIAL AFFAIRS, 1700—1740. 199 
 
 III. History of Colonial Affairs, from ITOO io 1740. 
 
 1. The colonies of the states of Europe were neither 
 much enlarged in extent, during- this period, nor, with the 
 exception of some cessions made by France to England, 
 did they undergo very great changes of masters. But so 
 much the greater was their internal increase. Colonial pro- 
 ductions, especially those of the AVest Indies, met with a 
 sale in Europe that exceeded all expectation ; the motives 
 of cultivation increased in an equal degree ; and as they 
 naturally formed a considerable portion of general com- 
 merce, more than one state regarded them as the foundation 
 of their commercial, and even of their political, greatness. 
 
 2. The importance of colonies being thus augmented, 
 their influence upon politics was consequently greater. The 
 mother states did not, indeed, on the whole, relinquish their 
 ancient claims to the exclusive trade of their colonies ; but 
 they were willing to connive at the contraband trade which 
 their colonies prosecuted with those of other powers, and 
 necessity compelled them to allow greater liberties "with 
 respect to exportation. 
 
 3. If mutual jealousy was thus kept alive, it was no less 
 promoted by the geographical confusion of the colonies, 
 especially in the narrow M'est Indies. It was remarkably 
 ordained by Providence, that in this very spot, the states of 
 Europe should lay out their gardens, in which they laboured 
 to raise products that otherwise grew spontaneously far and 
 wide on the face of the earth. Thus as their importance 
 increased, envy and jealousy became more intense ; and at 
 the end of this period a war broke out, for the first time, 
 relatino- to colonial interests. 
 
 4. Amono; the sino-le states, Eno-land beo;an, 
 in this period, to take an elevated station in co- 
 lonial trade. The concessions of the peace of Utrecht had 
 given it, in several respects, the preponderance. The as- 
 sicnto treaty with Spain, (see p. 182,) which authorized it 
 for thirty years to supply Spanish America with slaves, and 
 to attend the great fair of Porto Bello, was not, in itself, 
 veiy advantageous ; but it opened the way to such a smug- 
 gling trade, that it brought almost the whole commerce of 
 Spanish America into the hands of the English. 
 
200 COLONIAL AFFAIRS, 1700—1710. [rEnioi, ii. 
 
 The South Spa company was incorporalrd Anpr. 1, 1711, with a 
 nioiiopolv f>f thf tra<h' Iviii^j to tlic soutli of tlio ()rf>n'oko, iilonp the 
 (•astern and the whole oi" the western coast of America. — It prospered 
 exceedin'zly after tlie peace at ITtreelit. — The nature of the trade witli 
 S|)anish America was sudi, as to enrich the agents rather than tlie 
 company. 
 
 5. Tlic possessions of the Britisli in tlio ^^'('st 
 Indies iikkIc l)iit small ndvnnros in tins period, not- 
 Mithstandino; the newly introduced cultivation ol" coffee, 
 which always remained behind that of the sugar cane. Their 
 rise was obstructed Ijy the snui<rci:liiip; trade of the North 
 American colonies with the French islands, and the great 
 prosperity of the latter. But this very circumstance paved 
 the way for their ultimate prosperity, because parliament 
 was obliged to grant them j)rivileges, by which the oppres- 
 sive commercial restraints were in some measure alleviated. 
 
 A tax was imposed in North America on tlie importation of all foreign 
 sugar, 1733. — The immediate exportation of sugar was allowed, pro- 
 vided it were in British vessels, from the British colonies to the coun- 
 tries of Europe, south of Cape Finisterre, 1739. 
 
 6. The British colonies on the coasts of North America 
 were in a far more thriving condition, notwithstanding the 
 exclusive trade, which the mother country still attempted 
 as far as possible to reserve for itself. But the extent of 
 coast, the situation and contiguity of the French, and espe- 
 cially the Spanish possessions, would have made it impos- 
 sible to prevent the prosecution of the lucrative slave traffic, 
 even if the dis})roportion, that must inevitably exist between 
 the mutual productions and wants of the mother country 
 and the colonies, had not rendered various modifications 
 necessary. 
 
 7. Though the increase of those provinces was general, 
 it was, nevertheless, the southern that had particular reason 
 to congratulate themselves on their rising ])rosperity. The 
 
 culture of rice, first introduced into the Carolinas 
 
 from Madagascar, contributed essentially to this 
 
 effect; and the new emigrations, increased by the religious 
 
 persecutions in the south of Ciermany, gave existence, in 
 
 (jeorgia, to the youngest of the thirteen old provinces. 
 
 Georgia was separated from Sotith Carolina, 1732, having been grant- 
 ed to a private a.ssociation, as a distinct province, not witliout the re- 
 sistance of the Spaniards, who pretended that it formed a part of Flo- 
 
PART I.] ENGLAND. 201 
 
 rida. Emigrations were numerous, but it prospered slowly, because 
 the trade in peltry was at first preferred to agriculture, until, the year 
 1752, when the proprietors resigned their privileges to the government. 
 
 8. Nova Scotia, ceded to the British by the peace of 
 Utrecht, was then httle more than a wilderness ; such also 
 was the island of Newfoundland. But the participation in 
 the cod fisheries, secured by the possession of this country, 
 was of so much the greater importance both to the com- 
 merce and the navigation of England. Owing to the rights 
 reserved by the French, this too became a new source of 
 jealousy and altercation. 
 
 9. The East India trade of the British suffered a material 
 alteration. This was, indeed, by no means the period of 
 great possessions in India, which were almost solely limited 
 to Bombay, Madras, Fort William in Bengal, and Bencoolen 
 on Sumatra. But the perpetual wrangling between the old 
 and new East India companies, (see p. 163,) eventually led 
 to a union of the two, from which proceeded the still exist- 
 ing company of merchants trading to India, From this 
 time, the East India trade continued to increase ; especially 
 as the cotton stuffs of the Indies came into universal use ; 
 which were, however, actually prohibited on the remon- 
 strances of the native manufacturers. — Meanwhile, the 
 resistance to the monopoly of the company still continued, 
 and became particularly clamorous about the time of the 
 renewal of their charter. It was, nevertheless, confirmed 
 anew in 1733, for thirty-seven years ; and the project of a 
 free company without a common fund was abandoned, — 
 who can say, whether fortunately or unfortunately for 
 England ? 
 
 The ancient disputes of the two companies Avere nourished by the 
 spirit of political party, (the new one being supported by the whigs, tlie 
 old by the tories,) and threatened to become dangerous to the public 
 quiet. — The two companies were united, July 22, 1702, under the title 
 of The United Company of Merchants of England trading to the East 
 Indies. Conformably to a preliminary compromise, the fund of the two 
 was made one common fund, amounting to two millions of pounds ster- 
 ling, with a division of the gains. A complete union under one direc- 
 tory was not effected till seven years after. 
 
 The acts of the union may be found in Russel's CoUcction (see p. 
 163). Appendix, p. xxiii. The most copious history in Bruce's 
 Annals, etc. T. iii. (see p. 88). 
 
 10. Notwithstanding this continued monopoly, the com- 
 
20:2 COLONIAL Al-rAIHS, 17tKJ— 1710. [rsninD u. 
 
 nioirial p(tlicv of tlio British [2;()V(M'nnicnt, psppcially iiiuler 
 tlio house ot" Hanover, was ahered essentially in favour of 
 the colonies. All other monopolies by degrees disappeared ; 
 and with them, exee])tin<j; a few prohibitions, almost all di- 
 riH-t interference of the jjovernment in private activity and 
 national economy ceased also. Without renouncing the 
 ])rincij)les of the mercantile system, or formally substituting 
 any other in its stead, it was soon felt that the blessing of 
 a free constitution flowed from the free application of pri- 
 vate energy ; and that the chief w isdom of the government 
 consisted far more in not oppressing any branch of indus- 
 try, than in attempting to encourage new branches. The 
 British tariff conformed to this maxim. All this, it would 
 se(Mii, necessarily proceeded from the progressive funding 
 system. Certain it is that the British commercial policy 
 was relatively the most reasonable, though not exactly con- 
 formable to the rules of theorists. How much this was cal- 
 culated to promote the welfare of the nation by means of 
 continually increasing prosperity, was manifested in a strik- 
 ing manner, by the extraordinary improvement of the coun- 
 try towns. Yet let the eternal truth never be forgotten, 
 that in our world a luxuriant growth is never free from 
 noxious weeds. 
 
 11. France, once placed by Colbert in the 
 number of colonial states, never forsook it, and 
 maintained her station during this period not without suc- 
 cess. There was yet so much room in the two Indies, that 
 she had to infringe on the rights of no other powers, and 
 whenever single collisions arose, the amicable relation w ith 
 England, since the death of Louis XIV., concurred to make 
 them less momentous. 
 
 ]'2. The French West India possessions, especially in 
 Martini(|ue, Guadaloupe, and a j)art of Domingo, prospered 
 the best of all. The coffee tree, introduced into 
 Martinicpie from Surinam, opened a new source 
 of commerce ; but tlui. cultivation of the sugar cane, on the 
 whole, maintained the ascendency. The prime causes, 
 however, of the prosj^erity, and indeed of the superiority 
 which the French islands acquired over the British, consist- 
 ed partly in the far greater commercial privileges extended 
 to them, partly in the slave traffic with Spanish America, 
 
PART I.J FRANCE. 203 
 
 and partly also in the habits of the planters, who devoted 
 their whole time to the plantations, in order that they might 
 return the sooner enriched to their native land. 
 
 Great commercial liberties were given to the French islands by the 
 regulation of 1717. The importation of French products was made 
 free of duty, and the duties were very much diminished on colonial 
 produce I'e-exported from French harbours ; and permission was finally 
 given to export directly from the islands of foreign ports. — Martinique 
 was thereby rendered by far the most poAverful of those possessions. 
 Attempts were made to form settlements on the neutral islands, so call- 
 ed, (now belonging to the Caribbees,) of St. Vincent, Dominica, To- 
 bago, and St. Lucia ; a dispute respecting them arose with England, in 
 1722, which was terminated by the treaty of the 19th of Jan., 1723, for 
 mutual evacuation. 
 
 13. In North America the territories of the French were 
 brought within narrower limits by the loss of Nova Scotia 
 and Newfoundland ; but as long as they possessed Canada 
 and Louisiana, which was then becoming more important, 
 they had no reason to complain. It is not easy to foretell 
 what might otherwise have been the consequences, had the 
 want of some line of separation from the English posses- 
 sions not contributed to excite apprehensions for the fu- 
 ture. But the attempts, then in their commencement, to 
 establish a communication between these countries by a 
 chain of forts in the rear of the British colonies, kindled a 
 jealousy, which was afterwards to break out into a great 
 war. 
 
 14. The East India trade of France underwent various 
 changes during this period. The French remained, indeed, 
 true to the maxim of always committing it to a chartered 
 company ; but this chartered company was always a mere 
 instrument in the hands of the ministers, apparently used 
 only to try whether they could miake money of it. It 
 might have single moments of prosperity ; for these it was 
 indebted to some few o-reat men amono; its directors in 
 India; but how could it reckon on any stable foundation, 
 while it was subservient to the changing plans and the des- 
 potic will of the ministers ? 
 
 The old East India company, which had long been in a state of de- 
 cay, was renovated, jNIav, 1719, by an amalgamation with tlie Missis- 
 sippi, (West India,) African, and China company, founded 1717, under 
 the name of the India or jNIississippi company ; which, united with the 
 bank, undertook, in consideration of the privileges conferred on it, the 
 
204 COLONIAL AlFAIRS, 17UO-1710. (peuiod ii. 
 
 niyiiiont of tlio ilclit of the crown (one tliousand six Imniln-d millions); 
 tili the bank M\ to jjicocs, in 1721 (see p. 196). — The company was 
 nitlcd by great privilej^es, especially the nionopoly of toliacco, 1723. 
 Such were the pains taken to form an artificial Ka.-'t India trade at the 
 cost of the nation ! — But the peaceful relations of France with the other 
 maritime powers jjromoted tlie interests of the company, especially as, 
 uniler the ministry of Flenry, the minister Orry gave them a great share 
 of his attention after 1737. 
 
 15. Wliile the (lominlon of France oxtciulcd no furtlicr 
 on the continent of India, wliere Pondiclierry still continued 
 to be tiieir j)rincipal station, permanent possessions, how- 
 ever, were piined bv the occupation of two small islands, 
 which were alike important to commerce by their produc- 
 tions, and by their situation and character as military stations 
 in war. 
 
 The two islands, deserted by the Dutch, were occupied ; tlic Isle of 
 France, about 1()*J(), and the Isle of Bourbon, 1720. Towards the end 
 of this period they began to prosper, under the administration of La- 
 in. unlonnais, 1736, owing ])articularly to the cultivation of coffee. 
 
 Ch. GiUNT, Vise. DE Vaux, History of the Isle of St. Mauritius. 
 London, 1801, 4to. A rich collection of materials for the history of 
 the two islands. — The father of the author was governor. 
 
 16. The colonial affairs of the Dutch, in this 
 period, underwent no great ostensible alterations. 
 Things in the colonies took the same course as they did at 
 home, only with this exception, that they were not always 
 for the better. In the East Indies the Dutch were, without 
 contradiction, the first European commercial nation; as no 
 one attempted to distuib them on the i.^lands they had oc- 
 cupied ; and yet IVoiu this time dates the period of the 
 gradual decline of their eomi)any. In the AVest Indies^ the 
 colony of Surinam began to rise, in consequence of the in- 
 troduction of the coffee tree from Java, in which 
 island also it was now first becoming important. 
 
 To give a documentary history of the decline of the Dutch Fast India 
 Company — as far as the question respi cts its causes — would be impos- 
 sible even from the archives of the com])any itself. It sank under age, 
 as every human institution must do at last, and above all, a strictly 
 niono|K)lizing commercial association, in which the germ of dissolution 
 must be finally, tliough slowly, developed. Although in the extracts 
 now made public from the books of the company, (Saalfeld, II. p. 138,) 
 for the years 1613 — 1696, we iind a receipt of three hundred and forty 
 millions of guilders, with a surplus of forty millions over the expendi- 
 ture, yet after the year 1697 a gradually increasing deficit commenced, 
 which did not again cease. The solution lies partly in the character of 
 
PART I. SPAIN. 205 
 
 its first officers. Did not perhaps the frequent change of governors in 
 this period, — as many as eleven in less than forty years, (1704 — 1741,) 
 — contribute its part to the gradual decline ? 
 
 Vies des gouvei-neiirs generanx, avec Vabrcge de Thistoire des Eta- 
 blissements HoUandois aux Indes orieiitales, par J. P. J. Dubois, a la 
 Have, 1763, 4to. Very meagre in its information respecting the liis- 
 tory of the administration. 
 
 17. It might have been expected that the 
 great changes and convulsions, experienced by 
 
 tlie Spanish monarchy, would have had a corresponding in- 
 fluence on its colonies. But the storms of the mother 
 country did not reach them. Tiie Spanish war of succes- 
 sion was, by the genius of the generals, prosecuted merely 
 on land ; and the colonies were not yet ripe for a revolu- 
 tion ; othervv'ise, would not the assieiito treaty, which 
 opened an access to strangers, have precipitated it ? The 
 new dynasty during this period effected still less for the 
 colonies than it did for Spain itself A quiet progress 
 must, nevertheless, have been made by them, as is shown 
 by the sketch of their condition at the end of this period. 
 
 Instead of enjoying greater privileges, the trade with America was 
 laid under additional restrictions, partly by the high tariff of 1720, 
 (which promoted, so much the more, the smuggling trade,) and partly 
 by the incorporation of the Caraccas (or Guipuscoa) company, 1728, 
 Avhich put itself in sole possession of the commerce with that province. 
 The transfer of the trade in Spain from Seville to Cadiz, to facilitate 
 navigation, was not an equivalent for those disadvantages. 
 
 Don Ulloa, Voi/age historique dans V Amerique meridionah. 17o7, 
 ■ 2 vols. 4to. The leading work. The author was employed by the 
 French in measuring a degree. 
 
 18. Towards the end of this period, the colonies became, 
 for the first time, the direct cause of war between two of 
 the leading powers of Europe. The privileges gained by 
 England from the assiento treaty, of which the great smug- 
 gling trade with the Spanish colonies was the result, led to 
 counteracting regulations ; and the disputes with 
 
 the Garda-Costas produced a war, before the limit 
 
 of the treaty of thirty years had elapsed, notwithstanding all 
 
 the exertions which ^^^alpole made to avoid it. 
 
 The real points of contest were : the pretensions of the Spanish to 
 visit British vessels in open sea, as consequent on their old claims to 
 the exclusive dominion of the Indian seas. A compact was made at 
 Madrid, Jan. 15, 1739, which only protracted the decision. ' The war, 
 demanded by the popular voice iu England, broke out again in 1739. — 
 
20G COLONIAL AIIAIHS, 1700-1710. [pEniou ii. 
 
 Porto lifllo Wiis conquered, and tlio prcat fair afterwards reaped to lie 
 lu'ld there. But an unsueeessfiil attaek was niaile on ('aitli:ii:<'iia in 
 Soutli America. — The war wa,-( then united with the Austrian war of 
 succession (see below). 
 
 19. For Portiioal, Ih'azil acquirod an in- 
 creased iniportance (liiniip; tins period, o\vin;j; to 
 its valuable i^old mines, (from wliicli, however, England 
 derived the greatest advantaop,) and the dis- 
 covery of" treasures of diamonds, which recjuired 
 some peculiar regulations, if these commodities were to 
 sustain their price. But how dearly were these treasures 
 jnirchased, if agriculture was retarded hy them ! The con- 
 trary, liowever, seems to be proved by the increased ex- 
 portation of produce, of sugar, cotton, logwood, etc. 
 
 Thirst of pold drove the Paulists (who were brought under subor- 
 dination during this period, partly by severe, and partly by conciliatory 
 measures) furtiier into the interior ; and the provinces of Matto Grosso 
 and Goyas rewarded them with a rich profit. Tlie cities in the interior 
 prospered rapidly : Villa Kicca, Villa Boa, Villa do Principe, etc., 
 especially after the peace of Utrecht. Above all, Rio Janeiro (notwith- 
 standing it was surprised and burned by Dugue Trouin, 1711) par- 
 ticularly flourished, it being the emporium of gold, and ultimately the 
 capital. The crown's fifth amounted annually to twenty-five million 
 crusados. Agriculture and commerce flourished ; those who had be- 
 come opulent investing their capital in them. 
 
 20. Denmark also maintained its station among 
 the colonial states, having obtained Tranquebar in 
 the East Indies, the value of which was increased by the 
 i^Qs evangelical missions established there ; and it was 
 also able to acquire possessions in the West Indies. 
 ''^'" In Sweden, too, an East India company was char- 
 tered, to take an immediate share in the trade with China, 
 without, however, having any permanent fund, or posses- 
 sions there. 
 
 The Danes took possession of the small island St. Jean, 1719, and 
 purchased tiie island St. Croix from France, June 15, 1733. The 
 island of St. Thomas had been occupied by the Danes ever since 1671. 
 
SECOND PERIOD. 
 
 From 1700 to 1740. 
 
 PART THE SECOND. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE NORTHERX EUROPEAN STATES-SYSTEM. 
 
 3Ienwires, etc., de Lambertt, see p. 172. 
 
 ScH5iAUSS, Staatsivissenschaft, etc., see p. 118. 
 
 The biographies of Peter the Great aud Charles XII. The best of 
 them are : 
 
 Leben Peter's des Grosse?i, von G. A. ton Halem. 1804, 3 vols. 
 Bvo. AYith an index and critical examination of the other auxiliary- 
 sources. 
 
 Nordberg Leben von Carl XI I. 1745, 3 vols. fol. : together with, 
 
 Anmerkungen oder A)iecdoten, vertrantern Freunden mitgetheilt. 
 1758, 8vo. 
 
 Histoire de Charles XII., par M. de Yoltaike. 1754, 4to. 
 
 G. Alderfeld, Histoire militaire de Charles XII. 1740, 4 vols. 
 12010. 
 
 1. No one of the former periods was of such decisive 
 importance to the north of Europe, as the present. It was 
 not a mere renovation of the mutual relations of the states, 
 it was a new world which was then formed. Previous occa- 
 sions had already evinced great vigour, but rulers were 
 wanting, who knew how to manage it with effect. 
 
 2. All the members of the system of the north had 
 changed their rulers about the end of the former period ; 
 and the revolutions that the states experienced, had their 
 origin for the most part in the peculiarities of character be- 
 longing to the new monarchs. But though all the states of 
 the north were overtaken by the great storm, it was, in 
 reality, Russia and Sweden whose contest gave the decision. 
 In Peter the Great and Charles XII, two princes appeared 
 as adversaries, both of equal energies and equally inflexible 
 purpose ; with the important distinction, however, that in 
 the one, this purpose was linked with reason, in the otlier 
 with passion. And it was this difference which at last 
 
208 N(»UlIli;iiN SlAli:s, 1700-1710. [rEmon ii. 
 
 noccssarilv drcidcd tin' Tatr of tlioir realms, '^riioiiu'h i)<>tli 
 wrrc caj)al)le of colossal j)r()JL'cts, Peter never went beyond 
 the capabilities of his empire. 
 
 1. KussiA. UndtT the dnniinion of IVtcr I., after 1G89, (see p. IGS,) 
 tliis was tlie greatest of empires in extent, reaeliing IVoin Arclianfri-l to 
 Azopli, (see p. 1G9,) but as yet exeUuled from the Baltie. It was in- 
 habited indeed by a barbarous people, but constituting one grand na- 
 tion. A reformation was already begun in the interior, both of the 
 constitution, which was that of the most complete autocracy, and of the 
 manntTS ; for the nation was to be assimilated to the rest of Europe. 
 ]{ut the higher classes were so only in part, for the ruler gave the ex- 
 ample ; language and religion were still powerful supports of nationality. 
 'J'hi; military department was reorganized allogether according to the 
 European m<ide, after the di.>missal of the Strelzi ; a new army was 
 formed in 1G9*J. Single c<)r])s had been previously formed. 
 
 2. SwKUKN. Charles XII. came to the throne, when a youth of but 
 fifteen years, in 1()5)7. He inherited a well-ordered state, then the 
 first in the north, with a full treasury, and an excellent navy and army. 
 But the political greatness of Sweden was inseparably attached to the 
 possession of the provinces, which almost surrounded the Baltic ; and a 
 nation of ni)t quite three millions can hardly be destined to rule the 
 world ior a Icngtli of time, though it may perhaps conquer it. 
 
 3. Poland liad been since 169G under the sway of Augustus II., 
 elector of Saxony. But the ancient anarchy did not end with the elec- 
 tion of a new king ; new projects excited new distrust ; and the new 
 manners introduced into the luxurious court, by enervating the old 
 Sarmatian vigour, sapped the last pillar of the state. The nation care- 
 fully guarded against any reform, such as obtained in Russia ; and the 
 new king, though not without ambition, was by no means qualified for 
 a reformer. The retaining of his Saxon troops brought ujion him the 
 dislike of the nation, and religious controversy soon gave fresh encou- 
 ragement to the factious and discontented. 
 
 4. Prussia, fi-om 1G88 to 1713, was under the dominion of Frodeiici 
 I., elector of Brandenburg, and duke (after 1701, king) of Prussia. 
 The elevation of Prussia to a king<lom, first recognised by the emperor, 
 and gradually by the other powers of Europe, was no immediate acces- 
 sion of strength, but a stimulant to the reigning house to assert its dig- 
 nifv, either by pomp, or economy, or aggrandizement. ^Vhat measures 
 should be resortcfl to, depended on the spirit of the regent ; but the en- 
 deavour to place itself on an ecpial rank with the other leading powers 
 of Europe, was the fuii<lamental maxim fif this state. The rise, in a 
 political states-system, of any power to which aggrandizement is neces- 
 sary, can never be any thing else than dangerous to the welfare of the 
 whole. AVhat would have Iteen the result, had there not been long 
 united with this love of aggrandizement, a certain moderation, to which 
 it was bound in the west by its character as a state of the empire, and 
 in the east by the superiority of its neighbours? 
 
 5. DicxMAUK. At llie very commencement of this period it obtained 
 in Frederic IV., 1700 — 1730, a ruler, who with the man ripened into 
 the king. Though immediately overtaken by the storm, it suffered, in 
 
PART II.] NORTHERN STATES, 1700—1740. 209 
 
 the end, least change of any, either in its constitution, or in the charac- 
 ter and spirit of the government. The fall of Sweden and the rise of 
 Russia, were for the benefit of Denmai'k ; for Russia, being more re- 
 mote, was less oppressive than Sweden, which was nearer. But tlie 
 family dissensions with the house of Gottorp assumed a more threaten- 
 ing aspect, owing to the marriage of the young Duke Frederic IV. with 
 Hedwig Sophia, the sister of Charles XII. (see p. 168); and the per- 
 sonal friendship of the two young princes, even more than their rela- 
 tionship, tended to strengthen the connexion between Sweden and 
 Holstein-Gottorp. 
 
 3. These were the internal relations of the northern states, 
 when with the opening of the century, the fearful twenty 
 years' contest began, which was to give a new form to the 
 north. It could not but be a fearful contest ; for men like 
 Peter and Charles do not easily bend ; and it would, more- 
 over, necessarily prove a widely extended contest. Whe- 
 ther the superiority of Russia or Sweden was at first, or 
 became afterwards, the particular object in view, the ele- 
 ments of war were so generally scattered, that the flame 
 could not but spread in every direction. 
 
 Causes of the northern w^ar. They consisted, 1. In the decided pur- 
 pose of Peter to extend Russia to the Baltic ; an object which was only 
 to be attained at the expense of Sweden. 2. In the attempt of King 
 Augustus the Second, encouraged by Patkul, to subject Livonia to Po- 
 land. 3. In the quarrel of Denmark with Frederic IV. of Holstein-Got- 
 torp ; and the exasperation and fear at its connexion with Sweden. 
 
 4. A secret league was made between Den- 
 mark and the king of Poland, (Augustus II. en- 
 deavouring in vain to induce the distrustful nation to join,) 
 against Sweden ; this league was soon joined by Peter, 
 while he nevertheless acted as the friend of Sweden, till the 
 truce with the Turks was signed (see p. 169). In 
 
 the same year all three disclosed their plans, Den- 
 mark immediately against Holstein-Gottorp, the other two 
 against Livonia. Charles XII. was attacked entirely with- 
 out his own fault ; and how must the consciousness of the 
 justice of his cause, soon crowned by his almost incredible 
 success, have animated and steeled the heart of the northern 
 hero ! 
 
 The Danes invaded Sleswick, and besieged Tonningen, April, 1 700. 
 Brunswick, England, Holland, etc., joined as guarantees of the peace of 
 Altona, (see p. 168,) in favour of Holstein-Gottorp. Charles XII. dis- 
 embarked in Zealand, (July,) and extorted a peace at Travendal, Aug. 
 18. It was stipulated : 1. That the peace of Altona should be ratified. 
 
 P 
 
210 NOUTMKRN STATliS, 1700—1710. [pebiod ii. 
 
 2. Tlint Donnuirk should promise to undertake nothing hostile against 
 Sweden. 
 
 5. Tims treed tVoin one enemy, Charles hastened to Livo- 
 nia, to confront the king of Poland and the czar. But if 
 the landinjj; on Zealand had been suflieicnt to cripple Den- 
 mark, the strength of the north was first roused by that at 
 Pernau. Even a battle like that of Narva, could not dis- 
 arm Russia ; and Charles himself caused the Poles to sup- 
 port their king. 
 
 Augustus II. invaded Livonia with a Saxon army, and invested Riga 
 •without efll'cting any thing, (Sept.,) while the czar, as the ally of Au- 
 gustus, fleclared war on Sweden (Sept. 1) and besieged Narva. — Charles 
 XII. landed and olttained a vietory at Narva, Nov. 30, not a little fa- 
 cilitated Ity the disagreement of tlie Russian captains, under the forced 
 ooniniand of the foreigner, the Due de Croi.x. — Did I'eter wish to be 
 beaten ? 
 
 6. The liberation of Livonia left Charles XIL free to 
 choose against which of his enemies he would now turn his 
 forces ; whether against the czar, or the king of Poland ; 
 a choice, on which the fate of vSweden probal)ly depended. 
 But Charles did not consider which was the most dangerous 
 of his foes ; hatred, not prudence, decided ; he left the czar, 
 who needed nothing but time, in order to overthrow Au- 
 gustus IL, who had already sued for peace. 
 
 A meeting took place and a closer league was formed between the 
 czar and Augustus II. at Birsen, Feb., 1701. — Charles crossed the Duna. 
 and gained a victory over the Saxosis at Riga, July 18, leaving behind 
 only two weak corps to resist the Russians. — Possession was taken of 
 Courland. 
 
 7. The resolution, now immutably adopted by Charles, 
 imboldened by the spirit of faction in Poland, to dethrone 
 Augustus IL and give the Poles another king. |)lunge(l him 
 in a war with the greater j)art of this nation, which ac- 
 celerated its downfal no less than the sul)version of Swedish 
 greatness. Besides all the other incalculable miseries 
 brought in its train, it kindled in Poland the flame of re- 
 ligious contest, which was never extinguished ; and robbed 
 Charles of five precious years, for which nothing could after- 
 wards compensate. 
 
 A union took place between the party of the Sapiehas and Charles 
 XII. — Poland engaged in the war, and Charles was victorious at Clis- 
 sow, July 19, 1702, and at Pultusk, May 1, 1703. A new confedera- 
 tion against Charles was concluded at Scndomir, Aug. 22, 1703, and a 
 
PART II.] NORTHERN STATES, 1700—1740. 211 
 
 counter league at "Warsaw, under the Prince Primas, Jan. 24, 1704. 
 Stanislaus Lescinskj, voivode of Posen, was elected at Charles's su"-- 
 gestion, July 12, with whom, as king of Poland, Charles concluded a 
 treaty and alliance. — The war proceeded in Poland and Lithuania, 
 1705, but the Saxons were defeated at Fraustadt, Feb. 13, 1706; 
 Charles penetrated into Saxony, and extorted a peace at Altranstadt, 
 Sept. 24. Conditions: 1. Augustus renounced the dignity of king of 
 Poland, as also the compact with the czar. 2. He acknowledged Stan- 
 islaus Lescinsky as king of Poland ; and 3. Conceded to the Swedish 
 army winter-quarters, with sustenance and pay, in Saxony. 
 
 8. But during these wars Peter had found time to estabHsh 
 his new dominion on the Baltic. Ingria and Kareha, for- 
 merly lost to the empire, (see p. 124,) were recovered, and 
 in a country hardly as yet conquered, the foundations of St. 
 Petersburg were already laid. Well might Charles, five 
 years before, have had no suspicion of what was here to take 
 place; but that the advancing erection itself did not open 
 his eyes, shows that Peter deserved to perfect it. 
 
 The corps left in Ingria and Livonia by Charles XIL were overcome, 
 1701 and 1702. Notteburg (Schllisselberg) was conquered, Oct. 11, 
 and Ryenschanz, May 1, 1703. St. Petersburg was founded immediately 
 after. May 27. — A strong hold was gained in Livonia, and Narva con- 
 quered, Aug. 20, 1704. 
 
 9. Charles resolved to attack his yet remaining powerful 
 enemy, in the midst of his own empire. But if Russia had 
 been as easy to subdue as Poland, Peter was certainly not 
 so easy to vanquish as Augustus. To him no measure was 
 too dear, so that he promoted his principal object ; and the 
 devastation of his own country was a formidable impediment 
 in the way of the Swedish conqueror. It obstructed his 
 direct route to the capital ; and when, deluded by the pros- 
 pects that the Hetman Mazeppa held out to him, he turned 
 his course to the Ukraine, the issue could scarcely seem 
 dubious. If Charles was to conquer, he must have done it 
 by the direct and shortest path. 
 
 The king left Saxony, Sept., 1707. He marched through desolated 
 Poland, while Lewenhaupt received orders to join him. — He crossed 
 the Dnieper, Aug. 11, 1708, and pressed forward to Ukraine. Lew- 
 enhaupt was defeated at Liesna, Oct. 8 ; and the king soon saw most 
 of the promises of Mazeppa frustrated. Pultawa was invested, May, 
 1709, and Peter hastened to relieve it. 
 
 10. The battle of Pultawa decided the fate of 
 the north. Much greater battles have been 
 
 p 2 
 
912 NORTHKUN STATICS, 1700-1710. [itriod ii. 
 
 fought, but no one more tecniinj:^ with conscquonces. Po- 
 tors now crratit)n was at onco confirniod ; aiul Sweden's do- 
 minion at the same time overthrown. Thus Jell a structure, 
 which was too hi<;h for its foundations ; and Sweden was to 
 give astonished lun'opc the first grand exam})le of the ini- 
 certainty of artificial 'greatness. 
 
 1 I. \\ iiat was this issue but the natural issue? Or was 
 this fall of Sweden in itself any thing more than a return to 
 its natural condition ? Tiie continuance of the kingdom was 
 not concerned, but its excess of power ; and liad a voluntary 
 restriction, to what it must after all be restricted, been pos- 
 sible — in how much better a condition would Sweden have 
 emerged from fh«^ contest? But how could such a resigna- 
 tion, which, however strongly reason might have advised it, 
 was scarcely possible for a common man, have entered the 
 breast of d'larles XII.? 
 
 12. The iimuediate consequence of the defeat at Pultawa 
 was the dissolution of all the political relations forcibly 
 established by Charles XII. Denmark no longer deemed 
 itself bound by the peace of Travendal, nor Saxony by that 
 of Altranstadt ; and while Augustus again ascended the 
 Polish throne, deserted by Stanislaus, his friendship with 
 Peter was re-established by the convention at Thorn. But 
 Peter, as was reasonable, retained Livonia, which in the 
 mean while had been conquered by him. 
 
 S.ixony ami Denmark renewed their connexion with Russia, Aug;., 
 1709, but the invitation, prolVeied to I'russia, was refused. — King Au- 
 gustus returned to "Warsaw, and was acknowledged by the nation. — 
 Denmark declared war anew, and invaded Schonen. (November.) 
 
 13. But while the Swedish-German provinces presented 
 such attractions to the concjuerors, alter the war was re- 
 newed, and the Swedish troops had withdrawn from Poland 
 into Poni»>rania, it appeared, that the northern war must 
 extend to (Jermany, and ])erhaj)S giv(> new aliment to the 
 Spanish war of succession. TIk; j)owers, however, who 
 were implicated in such a contingency, procured an ac- 
 knowledguient of the neutrality of these countries by the 
 treaty of the Hague; but it >oou appeared that it was to 
 no pur|)Ose. 
 
 Tiie treaty of (he Hague was concluded, March 31, 1710, mediated 
 by the maritime powers and the cmi>eror, between the senate of Sweden, 
 
PART II.] NORTHERN STATES, 1700—1740. 213 
 
 tlie allies, and the German empire ; under the conditions : 1. of the 
 neutrality of the Swedish- Germ an provinces ; and also, 2. of Sleswick 
 and Jutland, under 3. the fruarantee of the maritime powers, Prussia, 
 Hanover, etc. — Charles XII. remonstrated, Nov. 30. 
 
 14. Deprived of his own strength, Charles sought to 
 recover his fortune by foreign aid, and buih his hopes on 
 the assistance of the Turks, who had received the defeated 
 hero with that respect, wliich semi-barbarians are wont to 
 pay to personal greatness. Who, indeed, had greater rea- 
 sons than the Turks not to allow him to fall ? The influence 
 of Charles in the Divan was at last victorious, and war was 
 declared against Russia. 
 
 Charles was received in Bender, and resided there from Sept., 1709, 
 to Feb. 10, 1713. — The thirty years' truce was broken, (see p. 171,) and 
 war declared, Dec, 1710. 
 
 15. Thus the hopes of the Swedish hero revived ; though 
 there is but little probability, that even the successful issue 
 of the war would have raised Sweden to its former eleva- 
 tion. But these hopes were to be most bitterly disap- 
 pointed. In the very moment, when Peter, shut up with 
 his whole army in Moldavia, was on the point of surrender- 
 ing himself a prisoner, he was saved by the wisdom of a 
 woman and the corruptibility of the grand vizier. The 
 peace of the Pruth inflicted a deeper wound on the king, 
 than had been inflicted even by the battle of Pultawa. 
 
 Peter concluded a treaty with Demetrius Cantimer, the prince of 
 ]Moldavia, April 13, 1711, under the promise, that the dignity of prince 
 should be hereditary in his house, as the protege of Russia, in consider- 
 ation of stipulated assistance. — Peter passed the Niester, and joined the 
 prince at Jassy. — Provisions were soon wanting, and he was surround- 
 ed on the Pruth. — Negotiations were entered upon, accoi-ding to Ca- 
 tharine's advice; and the peace was concluded, July 24, 1711, under 
 the conditions : 1. That Azoph with its territory should be restored to 
 the Porte. 2. That the new fortifications on the Samara, especially at 
 Tagain-og, should be demolished. 3. That a free return should be 
 given to tlie Swedish monarch to his kingdom. — Charles, who had 
 hastened from Bender, arrived just in time to see the Russian army 
 march off unmolested. — He did not, however, give up all hopes of 
 annihilating the peace; but no sooner was it broken, Dec. 17, 1711, 
 than it was established anew under tlie mediation of England and Po- 
 land, April If), 1712 ; Peter promising, besides the above stipulations, 
 to evacuate Poland. — The king was violently removed from Bender 
 to Demotica, Feb. 10, 1713. The former peace was ratified, July 3, 
 whi(;h was followed by the compromise of King Augustus with the 
 Porte, April 2, 1714. 
 
214 NORTHERN STATES, 1700—1740. [pERiot ii. 
 
 "VV.TlTKVI.S Mcmnirrs pour .srrvir it F/iistoirc dc Charles XII. jinitftt/it 
 sou stjour dans rtnijiirc OKoinau. ix Ia^cIc, 1722, Hvo. Tlic author 
 ■was Dragoman of the Porte. 
 
 in. M'liilr tlif Swedish nionarcli had, to all pnrywsos, 
 disap|)('ar(Ml IVdiu l^iropc, his rejection of the treaty of the 
 IIa}i;iie had iin))i)rtant consequences to the north. The 
 Swedish j)rovinces in Germany now attracted the allies; 
 and the chan«j:e of rulers, which took j)lace at the same time 
 in Prussia, and raised A\ illiam I. to the throne, 
 led to a participation in the war. The kinos of 
 Denmark and Sweden invaded Pomerania ; and the former 
 not only made himself master of Bremen and \ erden, but 
 soon found a pretence for occupying IIolstein-Gottorp. 
 And thoutih the secjuestration of Stettin by i^russia was only 
 designed for the protection of a neutral, it contained the 
 latent cause of a war. 
 
 The Danes and Saxons invaded Pomcranin, 17II. Stccnbock crossed 
 over, Sept., and oljtained a victory over tlie Danes at Gadebush, Dee. 
 14. — But soon after the burning of Altona, Jan. 8, 1713, he was sliut 
 up in Tonningen, and forced by the Russian troops to surrender, May 
 16. — A treaty respecting the occupation of Stettin was made June 22, 
 between the governments of IIolstein-Gottorp and Prussia, and forcible 
 possession taken, Sept. 29. Prussia concluded a contract with Poland 
 and Kussia, respecting the sequestration, Oct. 6. 
 
 Mt moires couccrnunt hs campru/nes de M. le Compte de Stecnboh, 
 de 1712 ct 1713, avec saJus(iJicaiio/i, par M. N**, 1745, 8vo. 
 
 IT. Of no less moment was the use Denmark made of its 
 conquests, by selling Bremen and Verden to Hanover, as 
 the price of its particij)ating in the war against Sweden. 
 The resentment of Charles XII., thus excited against George 
 I., involved not only Hanover, but England also, in the 
 northern war ; and the knot became more entangled than 
 ever, when in ccmsequence of the measures adopted in 
 Sweden itself, Charles unexpectedly returned to Stralsund, 
 more like an adventurer than a king, yet indulging the 
 hope of severing this knot with the sword. 
 
 The duchies of Bremen and Verden, equally important to England 
 and Hanover, were j)urcha.'^ed June 2(), 171.3. — The particijiatiun o." 
 Knglaud, b}- despatching a squadron to the Baltic, was i)roduced by the 
 strict edicts of Charles against the navigation of neutrals. — Attempts 
 were made in Sweden to transfer the regency to Ulrica Eleonora, tlie 
 sister of the king, Dec, 1713, and a diet was convoked. — Charles re- 
 turned to Stralsund, Nov. 22. 1714. 
 
PART 11.] NORTHERN STATES, 1700—1740. 215 
 
 18. Of all the foreign provinces of the Swedish monarchy, 
 but few remnants were left beside Stralsund ; jet even then, 
 Charles was not only resolved to continue the war, but soon 
 saw the number of his enemies increased by Prussia and 
 Hanover, and the Swedish main country exposed to the 
 czar, the new lord of the Baltic. The remainder of the 
 Swedish possessions in Germany were finally lost with 
 Stralsund, and Charles brought back to Sweden nothing 
 but himself. 
 
 An alliance was formed between Prussia, Saxony, Denmark, and 
 Hanover, Feb., 1715, and shortly after in Oct. between Prussia, Han- 
 over, and Russia. What else but war could have resulted from the 
 equivocal conduct of Prussia towards a prince like Cliarles ? — Wismar 
 was besieged in common, and more especially Stralsund, which surren- 
 dered immediately after Charles's departure, Dec. 12. 
 
 19. While Charles thus seemed to have little else but his 
 hopes left, he found in the baron of Goertz, the minister ot 
 Holstein-Gottorp, the friend and counsellor that he needed. 
 Rarely have two men met together who were less alike, and 
 still more rarely, two who had greater need of each other. 
 Charles had been finally forced to understand — but perhaps 
 too late — that every thing is not to be effected with the 
 sword. Goertz taught him the efficiency of policy and the 
 financial art, and met with a docile scholar, because he at 
 the same time yielded to the passions of the king. Intrusted 
 with the manao-ement of domestic affairs, notwithstandino- 
 the hatred of the Swedish nobles, he gained credit for 
 Sweden, and thence the means of prosecuting the war. But 
 the war was no longer to be carried on without an object. 
 While amity was restored with the more powerful, by ceding 
 to Peter his conquests, the weaker were to pay for the loss. 
 And the project, in all respects adapted to the relations of 
 the times, appeared almost certain of success, because it 
 accorded completely with Peter's purpose, who could derive 
 no benefit from a longer war with Sweden ; and because a 
 man like Goertz, whose connexions extended throus'h all 
 burope, was at the head of the negotiations. 
 
 The other allies, especially England and Denmark, began to entertain 
 a great distrust towards the czar, after the expedition, purposely frus- 
 trated, against Schonen, 1716. Goertz joined with Alberoni and the 
 pretender, against George I. The czar made a useless attempt on his 
 journey, 1 7 1 7, to gain France against England ; altliough a treaty was con- 
 
SIR NOUTIIKIJN STATKS, 1700— 1710. [PEniop ii. 
 
 rluil('(l Aiiir. 4, willuiiit any particular consofiucnces, yet rcmarka])U' ns 
 tin- lir.st i)articipati(>n ol" Huri-ia in X\w alliiirs <»f the wt-st. Si-crct ne- 
 potiations were carried on at Aalaml, hctwccn Sweden and Knssia, ^\'.\y, 
 171H, by Goertz and Ciyllcnl»(»rjr on the side of Sweden, and Osternian 
 and liruce on the part of Kns.siiv, and were brou^rlit ahnost to a con- 
 chision. Norway and Hanover were, a.s was afterwards discovered, to 
 indemnify Sweden, and the duke of IIolstein-Gottorp and Stanislaus 
 in roland to lie reinstated. 
 
 Kettung dir Ell re mid Uiishiild dcs Frcihcrrn ro» Goertz, 1776, 
 8vo. 
 
 Ihr Frrilurr von Goertz, in "^^'uI,T^IA^•'s Geschichte und Politik, B. 
 I. II. ISOO. 
 
 20. But fate liad determined otherwise ! 
 '>i«-' ' Cliarles XII. tell in tlie trenches before Fried- 
 richsliall ; and tlie cnrag;ed aristocrats forthwith 
 ni.. 28, 1719. dratxiied his friend and adviser to the scaii'old. 
 A rachcal clianoe in Swedisli pohcy was the consequence. 
 A rupture took place with Russia ; but urged by the feeling 
 of their inability to help themselves, the Swedes resorted 
 to an alliance with England. A series of treaties of peace 
 witii Hanover, Prussia, Denmark, and Poland, 
 were now dearly purchased through the medi- 
 ation of England ; when this was accomplished, nothing 
 was wanting but a peace w ith the most dangerous enemy. 
 
 After preliminaries and previous truces, Sweden concluded the fol- 
 lowiiijx formal treaties of peace : 
 
 1. AVith Hanover, Nov. 9, 1719. n. Hanover was to retain Bremen 
 and Verden, h. and ])ay to Sweden a million of rix dollars. 
 
 2. "With Prussia, Feb. 1, 1720. a. Prussia was to retain Stettin, be- 
 sides Pomerania, as far as the Peene ; and the islands AVoUin an<l Use- 
 doin, h. and pay to Sweden two millions of dollars. 
 
 3. With Denmark, July 14, 1720. a. Denmark was to restore all 
 its conquests to Sweden, b. Sweden to renounce its exemj)tion from 
 toll in tlie Sound, and pay 600,(X)0 dollars, r. France and Kn^rland 
 piiaranteed to Denmark the possession of the duchy of Sleswiek, and 
 Sweden eii^aj:ed not to assist the (deserted) duke of IIolstein-Gottorp. 
 
 4. With Pt)laiul, the conditions were those of the truce signed Nov. 
 7, 1719. 
 
 21. But what were these losses compared with the sa- 
 crifice, with which peace had to be purchased from the 
 czar, rendered necessary by his dreadful devasta- 
 tions on the coast of Friesland, ngainst which the 
 British fleets could atford no protection. The peace of 
 Nystadt completed the work, for which Peter had been la- 
 bourincT the last twenty years. 
 
PART II.] NORTHERN STATES, 1700—1740. 1217 
 
 Peace was signed between Russia and Sweden at Nystadt, Sept. 10, 
 1721. a. Sweden relinquished to Russia, Livonia, Esthlonia, Ingria, 
 and Karelia, part of Wiborg, besides the islands Oesel, Dagoe, and 
 ]\Ioen, and all others from the boundaries of Courland to Wyborg. h. 
 On the other hand, Finland was restored, and two millions of dollars 
 paid to Sweden, c. The czar promised not to interfere in the internal 
 affairs of Sweden, d. Poland and England were included in this peace. 
 
 22. The history of a war, thus carried on and thus ter- 
 minated, displays clearly enough the vicissitudes of things in 
 the north. But it was far less the gain or the losses of the 
 war, that were decisive of the future, than the internal rela- 
 tions, which were now unfolded in most of the states of the 
 northern system, in some for good, in others for evil. 
 
 23. Russia was now indisputably the first of them. The 
 colossal monarch of that colossal empire had succeeded in 
 giving the European character, not so much to his people, 
 as to his court and his residence. His new creation in Pe- 
 tersburg stood firm ; and not without reason did he now 
 adopt the imperial title. Europe had already felt, 
 
 that he had drawn nearer ; but for the north, 
 the new dominion of the Baltic was the principal thing. 
 After he navigated it victoriously with fleets of his own 
 building, the Swedish power was of itself at an end. 
 
 24. Who could say, how far this extorted supremacy 
 of Russia might lead ? It depended on the personal cha- 
 racter of the ruler. The sphere of Russia's activity remain- 
 ed, nevertheless, for a long time confined to the north ; its 
 navy never went beyond the Baltic, and its army was for- 
 midable only to its neighbours. Peter himself in his last 
 years wasted his powers against Persia ; and though he had 
 himself chosen his successor, it was soon felt that he was no 
 more. The throne was often afterwards filled by revolu- 
 tions ; but they were revolutions of the court, without dis- 
 turbing the internal quiet ; phenomena of frequent occur- 
 rence in similar great empires. But the foundation of 
 Petersburg, and the possession of the other ports on the 
 Baltic, by which a way of exportation was opened to the 
 products of the interior, as well as of importation to those 
 of other countries, created within the empire a change the 
 more sure because it was not sudden. 
 
 25. Sweden stood like a tree stript of its branches; but 
 the wounds inflicted by the war, were neither the only ones, 
 
218 NOUTIIEHN STATES, 1700— 17J0. [rEUiOD il. 
 
 nor the doopost. An oiul, indeed, had been pnt to the 
 abuses of unHuiitcHl power after tlie dcatli of Cliarles; but 
 tlie manner in wliicli tliis was done, occasioned {greater evils 
 tlian the autocracy itself. The aristocrats usurped tiie 
 S(iverei«j:ntv ; the throne was filled by election ; the council 
 of the kin;j:doni reipKMl, and the kinp; possessed little more 
 than the bare title and the representation. 
 
 The younjror sister of Charles XII., Uh-ica Eleonora, was elected 
 Fel). 21, 1719; the duke of Ildlstcin-Gottdrp, son of his elder sister, 
 bfinj; passed over. A now {onstitiition was framed ; the sovereifrnty 
 was rt'noun<-ed ; and the co-equal autliority of the council of the kini;- 
 doni acknowledged. Tiie crown was trausffrred from the queen to lier 
 husband, Frederic of Hesse, May 3, 1720, with yet greater restrictions. 
 
 2G. Poland presented a still more melancholy aspect. 
 Devastated by forei<^n and civil wars, and by famine and 
 the plague, that followed in their train, the peace itself 
 S(M'ved but to develoj) new miseries. The Swedish war 
 liad, likewise, intlamed religious discord ; and the Jesuits 
 took good care that the Hre should not be extinguished. 
 The dissidents now became, irom compulsion, a political 
 party. 
 
 The dissidents began to be deprived of their political rights, in the 
 diet of 1717. Their churches were torn down ; massacres were perpe- 
 tratofl at Tliorn, occasioned by the Jesuits, 1724, and which had almost 
 renewed the war with Russia. — Tiie exclusion of the dissidents fmin 
 the diets, the iiigh olhces, and the ^tarostics, was conlirmcd by the diet 
 of 1733. 
 
 27. But while Poland appeared in a state of internal dis- 
 solution, the new Prussian monarchy had acquired a high 
 degre(! of internal i)erfection. Tiie I'all of Sweden had fre(Ml 
 it from a very troublesome neighbour, and after Frederic 
 
 William I. had succeeded his extravagant father, a 
 
 1713. .... 11- 
 
 new creation came into hemg iiere, no less than in 
 Russia ; though in a very ditierent way. Peter formed 
 greatness from great materials ; here, on the contrary', some- 
 thing similar was to be formetl from proportionably small 
 means. Thence it followed, that economy was necessarily 
 the basis of Pru.ssian power. 
 
 28, But this economy was shaped in a peculiar way in a 
 state, which drew the greater part of its revenues from its 
 domains. Tlu' management of thes(> constituted, therefore, 
 the most important part of the whole domestic administra- 
 
PART II.] NORTHERN STATES, 1700—1740. 219 
 
 tion ; and Frederic William I. laid the foundation of the 
 internal organization of the monarchy, by erecting the 
 chambers of the domains, after the abolition of 
 hereditary leases, and subjecting them, as well as [ 
 the management of the lands of the cities, to a 
 general directory. In consequence of this regulation, there 
 was an annual fixed revenue, which rendered it possible to 
 fix the expenditures with equal exactness ; while the surplus 
 was applied to the accumulation of a treasure. These re- 
 gulations determined the whole spirit of the Prussian ad- 
 ministration ; which was not altered by the opening of 
 sources of revenue, such as the excise, etc., which in their 
 nature are more variable. 
 
 29. Thus the favourite principle of unity in the adminis- 
 tration, proceeding from the personal character of Frederic, 
 was for the first time made effectual. The Prussian state 
 was like a great household, managed in the most parsimo- 
 nious manner. But even in private life, we do not always 
 regard the most parsimonious housekeeping as the most 
 perfect. How much less so, wdien the reason of this strict 
 economy is the gratification of a whim ; for with Frederic 
 William — who possessed nothing of the spirit of a great 
 general or conqueror — his military system was not much 
 more. But, notwithstanding, what consequences must not 
 necessarily follow the establishment of a monarchy, in which 
 the army was the principal thing ? 
 
 30. The application that was to be made of this army 
 depended on the genius of the ruler. But it was not by 
 this alone that Prussia operated on the rest of Europe ; it 
 was the relative strength, and the internal regulation of this 
 army, soon to serve as a model for others, and in a great 
 measure to determine the future character of standing 
 armies. The principle of maintaining a larger army than 
 the population could supply, led to the system of foreign 
 levies, and all the cruelties connected with it ; from which 
 again sprang that odious impressment, which could serve 
 to make the condition of a common soldier neither respected 
 nor desirable. 
 
 31. Such was the geographical situation of this country, 
 that it might be doubted v/hether it belonged to the east or 
 Vv^est. It had to see itself involved almost equally in the 
 
220 NOHTIIKRN STATES, 17(.K)— 1710. [rEni..i) u. 
 
 nlTuirs of botli ; llio (lisj)ut(*s of tlio mai'itiiiic jxtwors and 
 tlic Turkish ^^■a^s alone lay hoyond its sphere. 'Hie proof's 
 of this were visible under Frederic M'illiaui. 15ut as yet on 
 pood terms with Austria, its hopes would have been limited 
 to the accjuisition of some ^^estphalian provinces, had not 
 the northern war afforded an opjxntunity of aggrandizement 
 in Pomerania. 
 
 32. Denmark, though involved in the northern war, suf- 
 fered the least change. It received Sleswick as its .share of 
 the spoil ; but the times were coming when the ofTended 
 house of Holstein-Gottorp would be able to excite in it 
 bitter rep;ret for the injury. 
 
 33. The last treaties of peace had left no contested point 
 undecided ; and the superiority of Russia and the exhaustion 
 of lunnbled Sweden, were too g-reat to allow the rancour, 
 which still remained here, to produce any immediate conse- 
 quences. Under the two next reigns after Peter's death, 
 those of Catharine I. and Peter II., foreign policy was not 
 the subject that employed the Russian government ; for 
 Menschikow, and alter his fall the Dolgorukies, had too 
 much to do for themselves ; what did they care about fbrei;jii 
 countries? Even the connexion with Austria, into which 
 Catharine I. was drawn by the league of Vienna, (see p. 
 
 192,) was at first attended with no particular re- 
 
 172C. , '^ i 
 
 suits. 
 
 The reign' of Catharine I., wlioUy nndor Men.'?cliikow'g guidance, 
 lasterl from Feb. 9, 1725, to IMay 17, 1727. Under her sucoe.«por, 
 Pfter II., (f Jan. 29, 1730,) Menschikow was deposed, Sept., 1727, and 
 tlie Dolgorukii'.s came into powur. 
 
 31. But it was altogether different after Anne, the niece 
 Frh. ITS). to of Peter the Great, and the widowed duchess of 
 oci.. 1740. Courland, ascended the throne. The attem])t to 
 restrict the supreme power ruined the native nobles; and a 
 cabinet ^\'as now for the lii-st time formed in Russia, con- 
 sisting mostly of strangers. Xvvy dillerent in their hopes 
 and j)rojects, they all recpiired the external splendour of the 
 empire; and already initiated in tli(> mysteries of politics, 
 they sought this splendour in foreign relations. But these, 
 liowever, were men jnirtially moulded in the school of P(!ter 
 the Oreat. \\ hen; a Miinnich and an Cstermann were ac- 
 tive, the sport of court intrigue it.self led to bold projects; 
 
TART II.] NORTHERN STATES, 1700—1740. 221 
 
 for even the all-powerful favourite Biron, saw in this the 
 only means of exercising his despotism over the nation with 
 impunity. 
 
 Manoires politiques et militaires sur la Russie, depuis Vannee 1727, 
 jusqu' a 1744, par le general de Ma^vSTEen*. a Leipsic, 1771. — The 
 leading source for the history of the court and war. 
 
 Contributions in : Bcschin'g's Magazin, B. I. II. III., collected in 
 the empire itself. 
 
 35. One inducement to this foreign activity was held out 
 by the duchy of Courland. As a fief of Poland, at the ap- 
 proaching extinction of the ducal house of Kettler, it was to 
 revert to the country, in order to be united with it ; but the 
 states had set themselves against this scheme ; and Anne 
 improved these relations to procure it for her favourite 
 Biron. From this time Russia appointed to this duchy ; 
 but the revolutions in this empire had in almost every case 
 an influence on Courland. 
 
 As early as ] 726, the states, to prevent the union with Poland, had 
 chosen Count Maurice of Saxony to succeed Duke Ferdinand, even in 
 his life-time ; but Maurice was unable to maintain himself. After the 
 death of Ferdinand, in 1737, Ernest, duke of Biron, was elected under 
 Russian influence. After his fall, 1741, Courland remained occupied 
 by Russian troops ; and although Chai'les, prince of Saxony, obtained 
 the investiture from the Poles, in 1759, Ernest of Biron was neverthe- 
 less, after his recall from exile, in 1762, by Peter III., again declared 
 duke, and afterwards confirmed by Catharine II. 
 
 36. But a more important opportunity was offered when 
 the royal throne of Poland became vacant by the 
 
 . . 1733 
 
 death of Augustus II. The nation desired a na- 
 tive, and, at the suggestion of France, unanimously chose, 
 for the second time, Stanislaus Lescinsky, the father-in-law 
 of Louis XV. But Augustus of Saxony gained Russia, by 
 promising Courland to Biron, and Austria, by acknowledg- 
 ing the Pragmatic Sanction. A Russian army decided for 
 Augustus III. ; while only a French corps came to the aid 
 of Stanislaus ; and though France and its allies found op- 
 portunity to compensate themselves amply in the west, (see 
 p. 194,) it lost for ever the confidence of Poland. 
 
 Stanislaus Lescinsky, who had returned to Poland in secret, was 
 chosen at the impulse of Prince Primas, Sept. 9, 1733. But the Rus- 
 sians quickly advanced under Lascy ; and a counter-choice was made of 
 Augustus III., Oct. 5, by a small number of nobles, Stanislaus retreat- 
 ing to Dantzic. Count Miinuich obtained the chief command in order 
 
iStSb NORTHERN STATES, 1700—1740. [period ii. 
 
 to remove liim from the court. Dantzie was invested an<l reduced, after 
 Stanislaus liad escn|)('(l in dis^juise, June 30, 1734. Tlic contest was 
 pcttled at tlie pari/lfdliim-dirt, July, 1736. It was agreed that for the 
 present llie country shoultl be evacuated hy the foreign troops. 
 
 37. Tlic n^'^ult of tills war, therctoro, was, that Aup;uslus 
 III. obtained the Polish crown, for which he was indebted 
 to forcion aid. His o-overnnicnt seemed merely a continu- 
 ation of that of his liither; and the seed of evils which had 
 germinated under the latter in the interior, could now thrive 
 luwiriantly, because a lonp; ])eriod of peace ensued. Nothincr, 
 thcrctore, j)revent<'d the noi)les from corrupting their morals 
 abroad, to which they were even invited by the fondness of 
 the kinp; for pomp and display. Never was this corruption 
 of the state so fearful as here, where the nobility, and ainon<i; 
 the nobility the orandees, constituted the nation ; and where 
 morals alone had made the want of a constitution less per- 
 ceptible. Every thing therefore deteriorated, while it was 
 thought that every thing remained as of old. The time of 
 awakening from this lethargy could not but come ; but what 
 a moment was it to be ! 
 
 38. AMiile Poland was thus situated, and the contest of 
 factions was preparing in Sweden, Russia turned its power 
 against the Turks. The parties of the court deemed it ju- 
 dicious now to execute the old project of Peter, of reveng- 
 ing the peace on the Pruth ; and while the dominion of 
 Russia was again extended to the Black Sea, to give em- 
 ployment to Miinnich as commander-in-chief. The junc- 
 ture seemed not ill-chosen ; for the Porte was in Asia, 
 combating the conqueror Nadir Shah ; but the issue showed 
 that in many points they had miscalculated. 
 
 The campaigns of Miinnich, from 173.3 to 1739, were brilliant, but 
 very expensive. Azoph was conquered, and the Crimea was entere<l, 
 1736, but could not be maintained. A fixed cstablisluiient was made 
 on the mouths of the Dneiper, and the bloody conquest of Otchakov 
 achieved, 1737. But the campaign of the year 1738 was rendered un- 
 successful by famine and plague in the deserts of Ukraine. On the 
 other hand, in 1739, a successful expedition was made beyond the 
 Kiester ; a victory was gained at 8tawuts<']iane, Aug. 28 ; of which 
 the conquest of Choczim and the possession of MoMavia were the con- 
 sequences. 
 
 LrhnishrschriclniiHi drs Nttss. Kaiscrl. Ginn(iIfthhu(irsch(iUs B. C. 
 Gnifcn vnn Mitnuidi, von G. A. vox IIalkm. Oldenburg, 1803. 
 
 31). But unhappily for Russia, it found in this war an 
 
PART 11. J NORTHERN STATES, 1700—1740. 223 
 
 ally in Austria, to whom the treaty of alliance with Catha- 
 rine I. gave a pretence for participation. But the hope of 
 conquest was much disappointed. The Turks soon observed 
 that Eugene was no more ; and the jealousy of the allies 
 facilitated their operations. The losses of Austria brought 
 it to the ignominious peace of Belgrade ; which opened the 
 way to a peace with Russia. 
 
 In the campaigns of the Austrians, from 1736 to 1738, they were 
 expelled from Servia, Bosnia, and Wallaehia. The generals had to 
 bear the faults of the court. The grand vizier advanced before Bel- 
 grade, 1739 ; under the walls of which place, under French mediation, 
 peace was concluded, Sept. 18, 1739 ; for which Charles himself believed 
 he owed an excuse to Anne. Conditions : a. The evacuation and re- 
 storation of Belgrade, Orsowa, and Sabacz to the Porte, b. The cession 
 of Servia and Austrian Wallaehia. c. The Bannat, on the other hand, 
 was retained by Austria. — Russia now thought itself obliged to conclude 
 a peace, (Dec. 28,) in which : a. Azoph, razed however, was retained 
 by Russia, b. The boundaries were enlarged in the Ukraine, c. All 
 other conquests were to be restored to the Porte. 
 
 40. By this peace Austria lost all the fruits of Eugene's 
 victories, and the projects of Russia to acquire a strong- 
 hold on the Black Sea were reserved for accomplishment 
 to a later time. Meanwhile the ignominy of the peace 
 of the Pruth was regarded as avenged ; and this belief was 
 not much less than the truth. Whatever the war had cost, 
 the superiority of the Russians was nevertheless decided ; 
 the interior organization of the Russian army was perfected, 
 and not without reason has ]Miinnich been called the Eugene 
 of the north. 
 
TIIIUD PERIOD. 
 
 From 1740 /o 178C. 
 
 PART THE FIRST. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE SOUTHERN EUROPEAN STATES-SYSTEM. 
 
 L The a«:i:c of Frederic may justly take liis naiiio ; yrt 
 liow powerfully soever his mind may liave acted upon it, the 
 n^Q was so variously marked, that it is dithcult to rej)resent it 
 in all Jts bearinp^s. Tiie civilization of Europe was carried 
 during this period to its highest point of perfection, and 
 embraced all that the mind of man could grasp. The na- 
 tions of this part of the world consequently became more 
 assimilated to each other; languages widely diffused facili- 
 tated the general circulation of ideas ; and the ditierence of 
 religious faith began more and more to lose its importance 
 among the people, as it had already lost its weight among 
 their rulers. 
 
 2. This progress of so extensive a civilization manifested 
 itself in various ways. Government, as well as political 
 economy, made surprising advances ; the commerce of the 
 world obtained an extent and imjiortancc hitlierto unparal- 
 leled. Every sea was navigated, and the most distant coun- 
 tries explored. Military and naval tactics were carried to 
 the highest perfection. And this great advance was not 
 confined to merely practical affairs; the spirit of the age 
 was not less inclined to matters of theory: every thing be- 
 came subject to investigation ; every notion was tried by 
 the test of reason ; and this was its most striking peculiarity. 
 Nothin<x was thouoht beyond the reach of human intelli- 
 gence. What discoveries it already imagined it liad made ! 
 what did it believe beyond its n^ach ? 
 
 3. One consequence of this wide diffusion of civilization 
 was the great influence which it gave to writers of eminent 
 talents. The cultivated classes of society were far more 
 
TAUT I.] GENERAL REMARKS, 1740—1786. 225 
 
 closely connected than in any former period. The wall of 
 partition, which manners and fashion had placed between 
 the citizens and nobility, was broken down, when the world 
 of polite literature became common to both, and was alike 
 valued by both ; and however tenacious the nobility might 
 be of their civil prerogatives, they willingly relaxed much 
 of their haughty rigidity in social life. The first example 
 of this change was given by that very city, which the na- 
 tions of Europe regarded as the arbitress in all matters of 
 ton and etiquette ; and its influence was correspondently 
 great. 
 
 4. Notwithstanding, therefore, tliat the cabinet policy of 
 Europe retained its ancient forms, it was affected by things 
 which had never influenced it before. Great writers, read 
 in all circles, even in the highest, guided, public opinion ; 
 and their voice became one of authority. Though they did 
 not directly hold a seat in the cabinet, though they exercised 
 no immediate influence on the events of the day, they never- 
 theless enlarged, in various ways, the circle of ideas ; and 
 in many cases, of the highest practical importance, they en- 
 tirely directed the public mind. How could this be other- 
 wise, when statesmen, even kings, became authors, and 
 lived in familiar intercourse with authors? Could this 
 happen without influencing the tone and practice both of 
 domestic and foreign policy ? And could any thing less be 
 expected considering the great change which had taken 
 place, generally for the worse, in the modes of thinking, 
 arising from the diminution of religious feeling, not only 
 among the great, but also among the people ? How unsa- 
 tisfactory would be the history of this period, were we to 
 sliut our eyes to these phenomena, and to the influence 
 which they exercised on the state of Europe. 
 
 5. How much, not directly political in its nature, would 
 it be necessary for us to notice, were we to attempt to an- 
 swer the great question : How, in the very time when the 
 proud structure of the political system of Europe appeared 
 to stand forth in all its strength and solidity, it could have 
 been undermined on so many sides, and its principal pil- 
 lars made to totter ? The work of destruction was, perhaps, 
 begun at an earlier period, but it is undeniable that it made 
 most progress during this, though unheeded by the age 
 
 Q 
 
J3i26 (;i:NI:KAI, KM.MAUKS, 17I0— ITSG. fn-mon II. 
 
 itself. None hut a biiildino; coniplctcly undcrniiucd could 
 liavo cxprricnord so foarful a shock as that uliich has siucc 
 hcfallcMi the political system of Europe. 
 
 (). If we wish to (listin*i;uish this period \\ilh a gc'iieral 
 ajipellation, perha])S that of the German period would he 
 the most ap|)r()j)ricite. flenuaus filled all the jiriueipul 
 thrones of Europe, that of the Bourbons excepted : Fre- 
 deric, in Prussia ; Maria Theresa, in Austria ; Catharine, in 
 Russia; and the (Jeorn;es, in England. German armies 
 were the models oi' military tactics; German countries, of 
 civil p;overnment. None disputed with this nation the fame 
 of science ; and thou<j;h in the holder lli<;iit of its literature, 
 its writers belonged l(>ss to Europe than to itself, it pos- 
 sessed, on the other hand, the consolation, that it never 
 cherished in its bosom any of that race of sophistical scep- 
 tics, the general dillusion of whose writing's contributed so 
 essentially to disturb the peace and order of society. 
 
 7. In looking at the public affairs of this period, we are 
 struck with the fact, that the west and north of Europe were 
 more deeply connected with each other than in any pre- 
 ceding period. This is accounted for by the flourishing 
 state of the Prussian monarchy, which, after it had assuiried 
 its station in the rank of the great powers, became the link 
 which united the chains of the two state-systems. Although 
 this connexion should not pass unobserved, yet the north still 
 retained its own proper interest ; and it was rather Prussia 
 itself, which was implicated in the disputes of the two sys- 
 tems, than that they became in reality united into one. 
 
 I. PUBLIC AFFAIRS OF EUROPE. 
 
 FROM 1V40 to 178G. 
 
 I. To the alliducc hrttccrn Frrnicc and Austria, finm 1740 to 1756. 
 
 Tlic collection of stato papers of Wknk and of Vox ISFau- 
 SonrcM. .j.j-j^-g ^mjg p 2). A general view of the treaties of peace is 
 given in : 
 
 Gcist flrr mrr/nciirflit/sfrn li'i'mrlnisse und Fricdcnsrhlusse des 18/f?« 
 Jalirlnnuhrts, von Chk. D. Voss. Gera, 1801-2, 5 vols. Svo. Tlic 
 fourth v<tliimc belongs to tliis period. 
 
 "We have as yet no general history of this remarkable period : an 
 attempt is made in : 
 
PART I.] AFFAIRS OF EUROPE, 1740—1756. 227 
 
 J. C. Adelung's pragmatische Staatsgeschichte Eiiropas von dem 
 Ableben Kaiser KarFs VI. an bis aiif die gegemcdrligen Zeiten. 
 Gotha, 1752 — 1769, 9 vols. 4to. This comes dowu to 1759. 
 
 Memoirs unfortunately now begin to become more rare. Their place 
 is supplied in some degree bj, 
 
 W. Coxe's History of the House of Austria, from the foundation of 
 the Monarchy tinder Eodolphus of Hapsburgh, to the death of Leopold 
 II. Loud. 1807, 3 vols. 4to, or 5 vols. 8vo. And by, 
 
 (Euvres posthumes de Frederic II. Berlin, 15 vols. Svo, 1788. To 
 history belong, vol. i. ii., containing the Histoire de mon temps, from 
 1741 to 1745. The most spirited of all the historical works of this 
 royal author, but not without animosity. Vol. iii. iv. contain the His- 
 toire de laguerre de sept ans. As the title announces, it is merely a 
 history of the war. Vol. v. contains Histoire depuis 1763 a 1778. 
 
 The number of journals and political pamphlets increased extraor- 
 dinarily in this period. After those formerly quoted in vol. i. had 
 ceased, the most perfect was, 
 
 PoUtisches Journal. Altona, from 1781, two volumes annually. 
 (Edited by Schirach.) [The annual Register is the most important 
 English work.] 
 
 A. Chr. Wedektxd Chronologisches Handbuch der neuern Ges- 
 chichte von 1740 to 1807. Luneburg, 1808. Very useful for the 
 chronology. 
 
 8. This period began with a violent convulsion of the 
 European system, which, in as far as it aimed at the de- 
 struction of one of its leading monarchies, seemed to menace 
 the overthrow of the whole. It was occasioned by the ex- 
 tinction of the male line of the Austrian or Hapsburg 
 family, in Charles VL, who, as well as his elder brother 
 Joseph, left only daughters. 
 
 Death of Charles VL, Oct. 20, 1740. Maria Theresa, his elder 
 daughter, (born 1717,) according to the Pragmatic Sanction, heiress to 
 all hfs states, was married to Francis Stephen, formerly duke of Lor- 
 raine, but, as akeady mentioned, from 1737 archduke of Tuscany. 
 Maria Josepha, eldest daughter of the emperor Joseph I., was married 
 to Augustus III., king of Poland and elector of Saxony ; the younger, 
 Maria Amelia, was married to Charles Albert, elector of Bavaria. 
 
 9. In this same year Frederic II. had sue- ^^ ^^ ^.^ 
 ceeded his father on the throne. He ascended 
 
 it determined to raise Prussia to the rank of one of the 
 great powers of Europe ; and regarded aggrandizement as 
 the means by which he must effect it. He gave himself 
 but little trouble respecting the justice of his undertakings ; 
 but he was distinguished from the herd of common con- 
 querors by having one fixed object. He desired no more 
 than was requisite for that object, and the conquest of Silesia 
 
 q2 
 
228 AI TAIUS OF KUKOrK, 1710— 175G. [period ix. 
 
 ai»p('ar((l to Iiim suHicicnt.- His claims to somo portion of 
 it furnishcil liiin with an apolofxy. Thus bogan, in this 
 year, \m(h'r a |)ix)j)itious concurrence oj" political reUilions, 
 the tirst Milesian war. 
 
 Claims of Prussia on the diichy of Silesia : 1st, JiKjcrndorf. It jiro- 
 porly bclotiirod to a yoiin<r<'r branch of tlic flt-ctoral line, but Duke .John 
 (loorfrc, as adherent to Frederic V. elector of the Palatinatf, was put 
 under the ban of the empire, by Ferdinand II., IG'i.'J, ami, neither he 
 nor his heirs restored. 2ndly, Lv'xiuitz, Hrifr/, and If'a/i/ait. These 
 claims were founded on a compact of inheritance, by which the sur- 
 vivor was to succeed to the i>ruperty of tlie other, concluded ITSo, be- 
 tween the then duke and the elector Joachim II. This compact was 
 opposed by Ferdinand I. as kin;; of Bohemia and supreme feudal lord. 
 After the extinction of the ducal hou.se, 1675, Austria took pos!<ession 
 of it: and in IGHG, the prince; elector, Frederic AVilliam, renounced it, 
 in consideration of the transfer of the circle of Schwiebu.ss, which how- 
 ever was again secured to Austria, by a .'secret treaty with the then 
 electoral prince, and actually resigned in 169o, after the commencement 
 of his reign. — However just or groundless these claims were, the whole 
 ecmdiict of Frederic proves, that he would rather enforce them by arms 
 tlian by negotiation, for thus only could he gain the whole of Silesia. — 
 Invasion of the almost defenceless country, Dec, 1740, and almost 
 bloodless conquest till the battle of Molwiz, April 10, 1741. 
 
 10. This sudden enterprise of Frederic hastened forwards 
 a far |T:reater project in the Frencli court ; not devised by 
 tlie rulinp; minister, Cardinal Flcury, but by a party in the 
 court ; the leaders of which, the IMarshal Belleisle and his 
 brother, hoped to make it the means of increasing their 
 power. Elizabeth of Sj)ain was no less urgent, " that her 
 second son too mioht gain a morsel of bread." Its object 
 was nothing less than to tear from the Austrian monarchy 
 the imjM'rial crown, and at the same time to cflect its dis- 
 memberment. 
 
 The depriving of Austria of the imperial crown, which wotdd have 
 rendered it, botli in form and fact, elective, would of itself have been 
 tiunicient to destroy the ICuropean .system. — Had there not already l>een 
 enough of elective kingdoms ? 
 
 11. No semblance of justice could here be brought for- 
 ward, for iM-ance had not merely recognised, but even gua- 
 ranteed the Pragmatic Sanction. This, however, seemed 
 to France the time for destroying her ancient rival, and for 
 dividino- her provinces. The distracted condition of the 
 Austrian monarchy, and the certainty of finding allies, was 
 a powerful inducement ; but it was soon seen, that the 
 
PART I.] AFFAIRS OF EUROPE, 1740—1756. 229 
 
 means were badly calculated : even if the attempt had suc- 
 ceeded, would France have been a gainer? Under exist- 
 ing circumstances, the dominion of Europe, which she, 
 perhaps, flattered herself she should obtain, was an empty 
 phantom. To maintain that dominion, far different men 
 would have been necessary, than any which France could 
 bring into the field or employ in the cabinet. 
 
 Memoir es four servir a F/iistoire de T Europe depuis, 1740 j\tsqu' d 
 1748. Amsterd. 1749, 3 vols. 12mo (par M. De Spohx). Written en- 
 tirely to favour the interest of France. 
 
 12. But the aggression itself needed a pretext; and as 
 this was found in the support of foreign claims, the need of 
 foreign alliances followed. In this lay the tacit confession 
 of weakness. A power, which wishes to become the mis- 
 tress of others, may as well renounce its pretensions, if it 
 has not sufficient strength of its own to make them good. 
 Allies will soon desert ; and of this France had bitter expe- 
 rience. In none of the preceding great wars had there 
 been such a vacillation of alliances, for never had allies 
 fewer points of agreement in their respective views. Be- 
 sides, what member of the confederacy, except France, 
 could have seriously wished, or even hoped for, the entire 
 dissolution of the Austrian monarchy ? 
 
 13. No wonder, though, that France should have imme- 
 diately found many and powerful allies, where the prospect 
 of gain was so inviting. Her attention, above all, was 
 directed towards Bavaria, her ally in the former war of suc- 
 cession, in order to have a candidate for the imperial crown. 
 But the elector, Charles Albert, discovered, in addition, that 
 he had in reality a right to the whole Austrian monarchy. 
 Spain also made the same discovery for itself: »„. . , 
 
 I J ' Alliance asainst 
 
 and Saxony soon after found that the Pragmatic Austria. 
 Sanction could have no validity, and that she, of all, had 
 the nearest claim. Thus Europe witnessed the singular 
 spectacle of three powers, each of which claimed the whole 
 monarchy, uniting with France, which itself had no further 
 pretence, than a wish to vindicate the rights of all. 
 
 Claims of Bavaria, founded on a will of the emperor Ferdinand I., of 
 which the original did not contain what it was said to do. — Those of 
 Spain on a very erudite genealogy ; on a compact between Charles V. 
 and his brother Ferdinand, at the abdication of the German countries ; 
 
230 All'AIHS OF KlUOri;, 171f>— 175r,. [period II. 
 
 ninl a proviso of Pliilip Til. at liis rrnnnciation of tin* Austrian piirrcs- 
 sion, 1()17. — Tliose of Saxony on tlif ri^'lit.s of tlio wife of Aii;:iistiis J 1 1. 
 n.H tlio eldest daughter of Josi'ph I. — Secret alliance at Nyniphenburg, 
 May 18, 1741, between France, Bavaria, and Spain, to which Saxony 
 also acceded September 19. 
 
 14. Under these circumstances, Frederic II. considered 
 it judicious to join the confederacy ap:ainst Austria ; and 
 
 Prussia, for the first time, became allied -svith 
 France. But it was soon seen how dilferent 
 were tlie views of this kino- from those of the allies. They 
 were to serve him as means for accomplishing his schemes ; 
 and though he joined them, it was with the tacit proviso, 
 that he should withdraw himself as soon as his own conve- 
 nience should ])ermit. 
 
 15. Maria Theresa, who made her Imsband joint ruler 
 with herself, (without however imjiartino- to him any great 
 share in the government,) thus saw more than half Europe 
 leagued against her ; and had but little reason to hope for 
 f(M'eign assistance. England was already in open war with 
 Spain ; and as for Sweden, foreign policy had taken ad- 
 vantage of its domestic troubles to involve it in 
 a war with Russia (see below). She had, then, 
 
 only her own strength to trust to, which did not seem 
 augmented by the loss of the imperial crown, (by the 
 election of Charles ATI. of Bavaria,) or by the general 
 course of the war. Charles VII. gained but little by the 
 imperial diadem, but Austria lost a great deal. 
 
 Union of the French army under Belleislc witli the Bavarian, Sept., 
 1741, they penetrate into r|)i)(r Austria, (which however is .«oon 
 freed,) and Bohemia, and, in connexion with the Saxons, capture 
 Prague, Nov. 26, where diaries VII. receives homage as king of Bo- 
 hemia, Dec. 19, as does Frederic II. in Sih'sia, which was now entirely 
 subdued. A second French army, under ]SIarshal Maillebois, in West- 
 phalia, preserves the neutrality of the nuiritimc powers. Treaty on 
 this account with George II., Sept. 27, 1741. 
 
 Ifi. But the threatened violence to the Austrian monarchy 
 did not allow England to remain a cjuiet sjiectator, notwith- 
 standing its war with Sj)ain. Tlie voice of the pcoj^le de- 
 manded too strongly an active j)articipation, to be satisfied 
 with mere subsidies. Could it, without forsaking its whole 
 former policy, have refused assistance to its first ally on the 
 continent? Walpole was not adapted for such 
 jan.24.i742. g^^^.^^^^, tj^^^s j lic yicldcd his place to the more 
 
TAKT I.] AFFAIRS OF EUROPE, 1740—1756. fiSl 
 
 impetuous Carteret, and active measures for rendering as- 
 sistance were immediately adopted. Thus, after the alhance 
 of Spain with France, the Spanish war necessarily became 
 connected with the German, different as they were in their 
 origin. British subsidies had already found an entrance 
 into Sardinia. 
 
 A treaty for subsidies had been previously concluded between Eng- 
 land and Austria, June 24, 1741. — A British-German army now 
 assembled in the Netherlands, and at the same time subsidies sent to 
 Sardinia, which bound itself by an agreement, Feb. 1, 1742, to procure 
 the neutrality of Italy. 
 
 17. But before the end of the year, the confederacy 
 against Austria was broken up by Frederic II. 's retirement. 
 He was in possession of Silesia ; and the victory 
 
 . n 1 '^ . 1 4. n 1 V ■ May 17, 1742. 
 
 at Lzaslau put an end to all hopes oi recovering 
 
 it from him. He concluded at Breslau his separate peace, 
 
 to which Saxony likewise acceded. 
 
 Preliminaries of peace between Prussia and Austria at Breslau, June 
 11; definitive treaty at Berlin, July 28, 1742. Conditions: 1. Re- 
 nunciation of all alliances which were opposed to peace, 2. Maria 
 Theresa resigns to Prussia all Upper and Lower Silesia, and the 
 county of Glaz. 3. The principality of Teschen, with some contiguous 
 districts of Upper Silesia, still remained to Austria. 
 
 18. By thus ridding itself of one of its most powerful 
 enemies, Austria acquired a great superiority over the 
 others. Bohemia was recovered ; Bavaria itself was con- 
 quered, and the emperor Charles VII. compelled to fly ; 
 and the British-German army gaining, the next year, a 
 complete victory at Dettingen, the French were not only 
 compelled to recross the Rhine, but Austria and England 
 succeeded in obtaining two new allies, the king of Sardinia 
 in Italy, and the elector of Saxony in Germany. And when 
 the British troops had landed in the Netherlands, the re- 
 public agreed, at the request of England, to raise an auxili- 
 ary body for Austria. 
 
 Recapture of Bohemia and blockade of the French army in Pi-ague, 
 June, 1742. After the evacuation of the city by Belleisle, possession is 
 taken of it, and Maria Theresa is crowned there. May 12, 1743. Ba- 
 varia occupied, jNIay, 1743. Victory of the Pragmatic army at Det- 
 tingen, June 27 ; alliance at Worms with the king of Sardinia, Sept. 
 13; and with Saxony, Dec. 20, 1743. 
 
 19. But France, so far from thinking of peace, especially 
 
232 AFFAIRS OF EUROrK, !7IO-17:.G. [rEnioo n. 
 
 ns Fleurv, tlir IViciid of peace, was dead, no 
 
 Jan. an. 1,«3. - • * ... „ , !, . 
 
 Ionp:er appeared the mere auxiliary other allies, 
 l)iit declared war directly a|j;aiiist both Austria and Enjxland. 
 
 AVliilo Fr.incc ami Kii^^laiid carried on the war merely as auxiliarie.'!, 
 it (lid not extend either to the sea or to the colonies, as now happened. 
 Naval victory of the IJritish over the Spanish-French fleet, off Toulon, 
 Feb. 24, 1744. This battle occasioned the declaration of war anfainst 
 En-rland, March lo, ajrainst Anstria, April 27, an alliance, offensive 
 and defensive, havinp; been already concluded, Oct. 25, 1743, at Fon- 
 tainebleau, Ix'tween France and Spain. 
 
 '20. The allies having thus the superiority, Frederic II. 
 again decided upon war. Honour appeared to demand, 
 that he should prevent the utter ruin of the emperor Charles 
 ^ 11., of Bavaria and the Cierman empire, who had escaped 
 by riiiiht, and in whose election he had participated. But 
 a stronn-er motive than honour, the fear of losino; Silesia, if 
 Austria, now leagued with Saxony, should be victorious, 
 cno;afred him to this measure. He therefore ajrain entered 
 into an alliance with France and the German empire. He 
 found an easy access, for he was needed ; though his max- 
 ims in alliances could be no longer a secret. 
 
 Second alliance between Prussia and France, IMarcli, 1744 ; and, soon 
 after, the union of Francfort, May 22, with Charles VII., the Pala- 
 tinate, and Ilcsse-Cassel. 
 
 21. This second Silesian war gave new life to the strug- 
 gle. Frederic II. invaded Bohemia, though without suc- 
 cess ; while France, delivered thereby from the Austrians 
 along the up|)er Rhine, breathed more freely ; and Charles 
 
 \{\. survived long enough to return to his 
 capital. His death, which soon followed, seemed 
 necessarily to produce an entire cliange in the situation of 
 affairs; his son and successor, Maximilian Joseph, willingly 
 renounced his claims on tlu> imperial crown, in return ibr 
 his hereditary territories. 
 
 Peace of Fiissen, between Austria an<l I.avaria, April 22, 1745. 
 Conditions: 1. Austria restored to IJavaria all its conquests. 2. The 
 elector promised Francis Stephen his vote at the imperial election. 
 
 22. The onlv effect of this secession of Bavaria was, that 
 the war no Ioniser raged in the interior of (iermany ; and 
 that Austria, though opposed by Brandenburg, succeeded 
 
 in obtainino; tlu? imperiid crown for Francis I. 
 
 8cpt. 13, 1754. ,1 .,, , , • ■ i-ii- 1 
 
 r ranee still prosecuted the war — it is dirncult to 
 
PART I.] AFFAIRS OF EUROPE, 1740—1756, 23S 
 
 say for what purpose — but the death of the emperor inchned 
 Frederic II. to peace, as soon as he had secured to himself 
 Silesia. This security was streng-thened by repeated vic- 
 tories, and the convention with England at Hanover : and 
 before the end of the year, he entered, for the second time, 
 into a separate peace for himself; without demanding more 
 than in the former one. 
 
 Victory of the king, over the Austrians and Saxons, under Charles 
 of Lorraine, at Hohenfriedberg, June 4, 1745. Convention at Hanover, 
 August 26, by which Enghind offered itself as the guarantee of Silesia. 
 But to impel Austria to accept it, needed the new victories of the king 
 over the Austrians, at Sorr, Sept. 30, and of the prince of Dessau over 
 the Saxons, at Kesselsdorf, Dec. 15. Peace of Dresden, Dec. 25, be- 
 tween Prussia on the one hand, and Austria and Saxony on the other, 
 according to the basis of the convention at Hanover, Conditions: 1. 
 Possession of Silesia is confirmed, according to the peace of Breslau. 
 2. Frederic II. recognises Francis I. as emperor. 3. Saxony pays 
 Prussia a million rix dollars. 
 
 23. On the other hand, the war w^as carried on by France, 
 and her yet remaining allies, in the Netherlands and Italy 
 with the greatest vigour. It was planned, that a descent 
 should be made upon Scotland by Charles Edward, son of 
 the pretender, the first success of which was beyond their 
 hopes. France, too, found the general she wanted in a 
 foreigner ; the victories of the marshal Prince Maurice of 
 Saxony in the Netherlands, opened her an outlet from the 
 labyrinth, w^hich the presence of the king with the army 
 had not disclosed to her. 
 
 Campaigns of the Marshal of Saxony from 1745. Victory at Fonte- 
 nai, in the presence of Louis XV., May 11, over Cumberland. Winter 
 campaign, and capture of Brussels and Brabant, Feb., 1746. The pro- 
 gress of the pretender recalls the Duke of Cumberland, and the best of 
 the British troops, to England, till the victory at Culloden, April 27, 
 suppresses the insurrection. JMeanwhile, the French make some pro- 
 gress in the Netherlands ; victory of Marshal Saxe at Eaucoux, over 
 Duke Charles, Oct. 11, and in the following year, June 20, 1747, over 
 the Duke of Cumberland, at Laffield. 
 
 Lettres et Memoires du Marechal de Saxe, choisis parmi Ics papiers 
 orighiaux. Paris, 1794, 5 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Memoires sur les campagnes des paijs-has en 1745, 1746, et 1747, 
 publics par A. H. L. Heeren. a Goettingue, 1803, 8vo. From the 
 papers of Charles Frederic, Prince of Waldeck, commander of the Dutcli 
 auxiliary troops. — By means of these accounts of both parties, few cam- 
 paigns have been described so clearly as this. ]\Iuch of the greatness 
 of the marshal must be attributed to the littleness of his foes ! 
 
231 AFFAIKS OF Kl'KOI'K, 1710— 17:.G. [rnniOD ii. 
 
 24. Italy, too, within these last years, had become the 
 field of action. The hopes of l*llizal)eth to coiujuer in that 
 country a kingdom for 1). Philip, her yonnp;or son, had di- 
 rected thither, from the very beoinnino-, the eyes of 8j)ain ; 
 but the kinn- of Sardinia's espousal of the cause of Austria, 
 at the instigation of England, and the British dominion of 
 the Mediterranean, opi)osed the progress of the power of 
 the lioiu'bons ; and tlic late concjuest of Lombardy, after 
 Genoa had concurred, was of short duration, as soon as 
 Austria was lefl at liberty by the peace of Dresden. 
 
 Landing of the Spanish troop?, now commanded hy Don Philip, in 
 Italy, as early as Nov., 1741, in order to conqner Milan with the aid of 
 Naples. Treaty of Sardinia with Austria. Ft'l). 1, 17-12, respi-eting the 
 reservation of its own elaims on Milan. Naples forced to neutrality I»y 
 a British fleet, Aug. 19. Don I'hilip reinforced, 1743, by a French 
 army. Treaty of Worms, between Sardinia, and England, and Aus- 
 tria, Sept. 13; the Bourbon troops driven back in October, and fruit- 
 less attempt to conrpier Piedmont. But (Jenoa joins the Bourluiii 
 courts, June 29, 1745; and Milan and Parma thereupon captured. 
 The Austrian?, however, 1746, are reinforced by new troops alter the 
 ])eace of Dresden. The French repulsed, the Spaniards forced to re- 
 treat from Lond^ardy, and Clenoa taken by the Austrians, Sept. 5. In- 
 vasion of Provence, which fails alter the loss of Genoa, in consecpience 
 of the insurrection there, Dec. 5. Genoa heroically defended, and re- 
 lieved by French aid, April to June, 1747. 
 
 2o. So protracted a contest had o'iven passion time to 
 cool, hy the death of Philip V. of Spain, France saw her- 
 self deserted by this ally ; her weak navy was almost anni- 
 hilated ; her colonics in the two Indies were captured, or 
 menaced. She still, howeyer, hoped to effect a separation 
 of her enemies, throutrh her superiority in the Netherlands, 
 by a yiolent attack on the republic. (The restoration of the 
 hereditary stadtholders was a consequence of this attack.) 
 But France was now threatened by a new and powerfid 
 enemy, as Austria had induced Russia to join in the war, 
 and a Russian auxiliary army poured down upon the Uhine. 
 
 "War declared by France against the Republic, April 17; an attack 
 on Dutch-Brabant, and cjipture of Bergen-op-zooni, Sejit. 16, 1747. — 
 Defensive alliance concluded between Austria and Russia, June 12; 
 and a subsidiary contract between Russia and England, Nov. 30. 
 
 2n. These circum.'^tances led to the opening of a congress 
 at Aix-la-Chapelle ; but France did not forget its ancient 
 
TART I.] AFFAIRS OF EUROPE, 1740—1756. 235 
 
 policy of separating tlie allies. The siege of 
 Mastriclits, the threatened demolition of Bergen- ^"^ ' ^'^' 
 op-zoom, and the appreliension of a separate peace with 
 Austria, soon occasioned separate preliminaries with the 
 maritime powers ; and these Austria and the other allies 
 were soon compelled to adopt. 
 
 Congress opened at Aix-Ia-Chapelle, April, 1748. Preliminaries con- 
 cluded between France and the maritime powers, April 30, to which 
 Austria acceded. May 25. The negotiations, however, were protracted 
 through the summer, in consequence of the advances of the Russians, 
 with whom a special convention was made, August 2. Definitive peace 
 at Aix-la-Chapelle, between Fi-ance and the maritime powers, to wliicli 
 Spain, Austria, Genoa, and Sardinia immediately acceded. Conditions : 
 1. Mutual restitution of the respective conquests made by France and 
 England. (To France, Cape Breton ; to England, Madras ; to the Re- 
 public, the frontier fortresses, mostly dismantled.) Nothing concluded 
 respecting the contested boundai-ies of Canada and Nova Scotia. 2. 
 Resignation of Parma, Piaeenza, and Guastalla, in favour of Don 
 Philip and his male posterity, with the condition of a reversion. 3. 
 Sardinia obtains the portions of Milan, resigned 1743. 4. The assie?i(o 
 treaty of 1713 is confirmed to England for the four years still remaining. 
 (An acquittal from its obligations afterwards purchased by a treaty at 
 Buen Retire, Oct. 5, 1750.) 5. Dunkirk remained fortified on the 
 land side. 6. Guaranty of Silesia and Glatz, in favour of Frederic, 
 from all claimants. 7. Guaranty of the Pragmatic Sanction in favour 
 of Austria. 8. Guaranty of the British succession and of the German 
 states, in favour of the house of Hanover. 
 
 The most important ambassadors at the congress of Aix-la-Ciiapelle, 
 were : for France, the Count of St. Severin and la Porte du Theil. For 
 Great Britain, the Earl of Sandwich. For Austria, the Count of Kau- 
 nitz-Rietberg. For the Republic, Count Bentinc, Baron von Wassenaer 
 von Haren, etc. For Spain, Don de Lima. For Sardinia, Don Ossorio. 
 For Genoa, Marquis Doria. 
 
 27. Thus an end was put, by this peace, to the project 
 of overthrowing the existing system of Europe, by the dis- 
 memberment of Austria. It lost Silesia, Parma, and Pia- 
 eenza ; but it kept its station as one of the great powers ; 
 and it gained, in a short time, a rich compensation for its 
 losses, by a better use of its vast internal resources. 
 
 28. But the consequences of this war were important, 
 not merely to the separate states, who had been engaged in 
 it ; they were still more so as regards the mutual relations 
 between them ; and they soon gave rise to a revolution in 
 these, which gave the first great shock to the stability of the 
 European system. 
 
236 AFFAIRS OF EUROPE, 17>0-17r)G. (pEnioDii. 
 
 t2!). At llic lii'st jj^lancc, it ini^lit ajjpcai', tliat I'^ii'opc 
 liad in reality been restored by this peace to its former rela- 
 tions. I'rancc and Austria stood in rivalry, as the leading 
 powers of tlu^ continent. I'^ngland had renewed its ancient 
 connexions with Austria, and contributed essentially towards 
 its preservation ; even an alliance between Austria and 
 Russia was not now contracted for the first time. 
 
 30. And yet how much had been chann;ed durin*;- the 
 war, and still more since ! The continental policy of Britain, 
 so far as it aimed at the preservation of the existing; political 
 system, was, in its object, hi;j:hly salutary for Europe ; but 
 the measures adopted for ellecting this, were not equally 
 so. On land, I'lngland maintained the war, rather by sub- 
 sidies than by her own strength. Tiic old ties of conti- 
 nental relations were renewed; and states, not only of the 
 second, but also of the first lank, were subsidized, and 
 among these, not only the o]:»pressed Austria, but even 
 Russia. Thus, by money, England acquired tiie direction 
 of the w^ar, and by the same means the arrangement of the 
 peace. To what lengtlis did she not carry, in after years, 
 her notions respecting the right and power she had to direct 
 the affairs of the continent ? Still more important conse- 
 cpiences, however, arose from her dominion of the sea, now 
 accjuired for the first time, which cannot, however, be made 
 j)lain till the foUowino' sections. 
 
 131. It was a new thing to see Russia, not merely partici- 
 pating in the allairs of tlie west, but, in a certain measure, 
 determining the balance. Though the part she took at this 
 time was little more than a demonstration of her power, yet 
 the tie by which she now became connected with the ruling 
 affairs of Europe was never again severed, as was more fully 
 proved by the next great European war. 
 
 32. But the greatest, the most important revolution, 
 which this war occasioned in the states-system of Europe, 
 was the elevation of Prussia to the rank of a leading power. 
 Even the entrance of a new state, such as this, into the 
 svstem, could not take ])lace without causing great changes 
 in its j)olitieal relations. Such a power could not maintain 
 its position of itself; and it' it x'ek I'rieiids and allies, this 
 cannot take place without having a correspondent influence 
 on the relations that iiave previously existed between these 
 and others. 
 
PART 1.] AFFAIRS OF EUROPE, 1740—1750. 237 
 
 33. It is evident, too, that a new power, like this, would 
 not be regarded by the old ones with a friendly eye. AVhen 
 was the aspirant ever viewed without jealousy by the an- 
 cient possessors of the power he desired to obtain ? It was 
 with bitter feelings, that Fleury called Frederic the arbiter 
 of Europe. Frederic retired from the war without a single 
 friend ; nor had he taken the least pains to form any friend- 
 ships of a lasting nature. His method of contracting and 
 dissolving alliances, was not the way to effect this ; and the 
 independence he manifested only receives our approbation, 
 because the manner in which he maintained it extorts our 
 admiration. 
 
 34. The rise of Prussia was the more annoying to the 
 other states, because its aggrandizement was effected by 
 conquest. When Austria ceded territory of much larger 
 extent at the peace of Vienna and Belgrade to Spain and 
 Turkey, she regarded it but as a single loss ; the renunci- 
 ation of Silesia was at the same time a mortification. The 
 former might demand compensation, the latter called for 
 revenge. After events soon proved that it was only in the 
 hope of being able to gratify this, that peace had been con- 
 cluded. 
 
 35. Hence the peace, while it lasted, was necessarily a 
 time of strong excitement ; not only for the Prussians, who 
 merely rested on their arms, but also for other powers. 
 The possession of Silesia, being the great point contended 
 for, became the principal object in practical politics ; and 
 it follows from the situation of Prussia and Austria, that 
 they would be the leading continental powers in this strug- 
 gle ; and as their relations and interests called the rest of 
 Europe into action, the whole system became influenced by 
 their fortunes. The rising rivalry between them kept them 
 vigilant and active, and called forth all their vigour ; and 
 wherever states are roused to these virtues their power is 
 sure to dominate. 
 
 36. Austria still felt, that in order to subvert Prussia, 
 allies were necessary. But with the feelings which then 
 prevailed in the cabinets of Europe there could be little 
 trouble in obtaining these, as Frederic II. had so little re- 
 strained himself from irritating the weak passions of the 
 potentates. The close relations of Austria with Russia and 
 
2.']8 Al-IAIRS OF EUROPE, 1710—1750. [pEnioD ii. 
 
 Saxoiiv, had lioon kept up fntin llic poaco of Aix-la-Clui- 
 pclle ; and from tlio personal liatrcd of tlic empress Eli/.a- 
 liclli of Ihissia, and tliat of Count Brlilil, the ruhii<j: minister 
 at the eourt of Saxony, Austria easily persuaded these 
 ])owers to co-operate with her. Measures were aecordinp,ly 
 secr(!tly concerted (not so secretly, however, that Frederic 
 II. did not discover them) for a common attack, as soon as 
 tiic parties could make the necessary preparations. 
 
 37. However im})ortant these alliances were for Austria, 
 there still remained the power of France, which, in case of 
 a renewed war, would jji-obably, in accordance with its for- 
 mer relations, take up arms on the side of Prussia, to throw 
 into the opposite scale : and how uncertain, in such a case, 
 must be the issue? Under these circumstances, an allianc(; 
 with France was the most desirable thing for Austria ; but 
 there appeared but little prospect of her wishes being real- 
 ized in this respect. 
 
 38. Austria, however, found a minister, who not only 
 conceived, but attempted this project ; and built his own 
 
 greatness on its accomplishment. During four 
 reigns, Prince Kaunitz was the soul of the Austrian 
 cabinet; or rather, in possessing the joint dignities of chan- 
 cellor of the court and state, he almost constituted this ca- 
 binet of himself Contrasted with Frederic, he appeared 
 in almost every thing his opposite. In outward appearance, 
 the statesman lay concealed under the Sybarite ; his natural 
 indolence, joined with his great diplomatic abilities, led him 
 to form his bold designs in private; and, though well ac- 
 (|uainte(l himself with all the intricacies and intrigue of ca- 
 binet policy, he chose rather to leave the execution of his 
 projects to others than to take the trouble into his own 
 hands. 
 
 Notwitlistanclinf; VoN IIormayr's valuable sketch in the CEstreich- 
 isrfirn P/ut//rrfi, vol. xii., a full biography of this cniirniatical statesman, 
 wild, after Frederic, had the greatest influence on the, politics of his age, 
 is still a desideratum. The works of Flassan and Kllhiehk, as well 
 as of CoXK, contain contributions to such an undertaking, besides the 
 C/inrartrrls/Irs, in the (lernuin literary journal called Jason, (Aug., 
 180S,) e<litcil by Bkvzkl-Steiocau. 
 
 39. And what might not now be accomplished at the 
 French court, where Louis XV. had sunk into the slave of 
 his mistresses ? Under his predecessors, Europe had already 
 
TART I.] AFFAIRS OF EUROPE, 1740—1756. 2od 
 
 seen mistresses and their influence ; but never a 
 
 1746 to 17G4. 
 
 government of mistresses like that of the Mar- 
 chioness of Pompadour. As the remains of ancient princi- 
 ples had been banished with the ancient ministers, an adroit 
 diplomatist, like Kaunitz, could not despair of obtaining his 
 ends. Had there been no other reason, novelty itself had a 
 charm. 
 
 Since the death of Fleury, 1 743, the French ministry had never been 
 able to acquire any stability ; and least of all, the department of foreign 
 affairs, which Louis XV., as usual, believed himself competent to con- 
 duct, till his mistress relieved him of this care also. After the re- 
 tirement of her fixvourite, the Abbe Bernis, he was succeeded, from 
 1757 to 1770, by De Choiseul-Stainville, a native of Lorraine, who 
 showed the world that a mistaken policy may be united with great 
 talents. Under him, his cousin, Choiseul-Praslin, had the management 
 of foreign affairs from 1761. 
 
 40. The ready mind of Kaunitz, w^ho w^ent to 
 
 J _ ' . Dec. 17.";0. 
 
 France as ambassador extraordinary, soon disco- 
 vered this state of things, and conceived the project, whicli 
 he, placed at the head of the cabinet after his re- 
 turn, left for his successor, Staremberg, to execute. 
 To rule Europe in common, provided Frederic II. should 
 be overthrown, was the prospect which the Austrian policy 
 held out to France. But what could have been the pro- 
 bable result of Frederic's ruin, but the oppression of the 
 weaker, and with Austria's predominance in Germany, the 
 subversion of the freedom of the European system ? 
 
 First alliance, offensive and defensive, between France and Austria, 
 concluded May 1, 1756, by the Abbe Bernis, introduced by a simul- 
 taneous compact of neutrality on the side of the empress, in the war 
 just breaking out between England and France ; by which compact 
 Austria renounced, therefore, her connexion with England. During 
 the seven years' war, in an agreement subscribed in May, 1757, though 
 not ratified, definite resolutions were adopted with respect to the divi- 
 sion of the Prussian monarchy ; Silesia was to fall to Austria, Pomera- 
 nia to Sweden, Magdeburg, etc. to Saxony, the Netherlands, in return 
 for Parma and Piacenza, to Don Philip, etc. — This treaty of alliance 
 was finally renewed and enlarged Dec. 30, 1758, by Choiseul. They 
 agreed to assist each other with all their power ; and never to make 
 peace except by mutual consent. 
 
 41. The advantages of this connexion were, therefore, 
 altogether on the side of Austria ; for what could France 
 gain from helping to ruin the enemy of Austria, but the 
 honour of participating in the future dominion of Europe, 
 
240 AFFAIKS OF EUROPE, \lbG—\10X [peiiiod ii, 
 
 as fiir as Austria would permit? In the eyes of cnlifjhtcned 
 policv, liowcvcr, tlu' principal error of Franc(? docs not con- 
 sist in tins mistake, but in the sacrifice she made ot" her 
 political character; and no power can do this with impu- 
 nity. As tlie opjxMient of Austria, siie had for two cen- 
 turies luaintained her high rank among the continental 
 powers ; how must she have sunk, then, on becoming the 
 mere assistant of Austria ! 
 
 Tlie alliance of Austria and France must be contemplated in two 
 points of view : 1. As it affected the separate states. The gain of 
 Austria, and the loss of France, are here manifest. 2. As it affected 
 the political system of Europe in general. The escape from the dangers 
 which threatened it, and the later advantages, were accidental; because 
 the principal object, the destruction of Frederic, failed. A merely de- 
 fensive alliance, such as liernis wished it to be, miglit have been justi- 
 fied by the necessity of keeping in readiness to encounter Englan<l ; 
 but could a merely defensive alliance have existed under the circum- 
 stances of the times. 
 
 II. Froi/i the alliance between France and Ansti-ia to the treaties 
 of Paris and Hnbertsbur(j, 17o(i — 1703. 
 
 42. This great change in the European political system, 
 which shook it to its centre, would of itself have been suffi- 
 cient to excite a fierce contest, as it took place at a time 
 when an attack on Prussia had been already concerted. 
 
 But materials had Iouq- been collectino; for war 
 in another quarter, which, though different in its 
 
 origin, could not but become mixed u|) with the former. 
 
 It arose out of the colonial relations of England and France. 
 
 43. England, having succeeded for the first time, during 
 the late war, in annihilating the navy of her enemy, was 
 little inclined to permit her rival to recover, who was now 
 rebuilding her fleets with remarkable energy. The former 
 amicable relations with France, had prevented the rivalry 
 between the governments from growing to any extent. 
 'J'his, however, now increased in proportion to their foreign 
 conuuerce, which was again connected with their colonies. 
 Here perpetual collisions and disputes arose from the want 
 of sufficient geographical information to enable the parties 
 to fix the limits of their respective possessions. But even 
 had the point of contest at this time been settled, as it per- 
 
 Eniilanil and 
 >"raiicc. 
 
PART l.l AFFAIRS OF EUROPE, 1756— 17C3. 241 
 
 haps might have been, by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, can 
 we doubt that others would soon have occurred ? Upon 
 this occasion, British pohcy took a new method of deahng 
 with her opponents : if she did not receive immediate satis- 
 faction for the injuries of which she complained on land, she 
 indemnified herself by making reprisals at sea, and began 
 the war even without its being declared. 
 
 Contested points between England and France: 1. Respecting the 
 boundaries of Nova Scotia, which had been given up at the peace of 
 Utrecht, according to its ancient boundaries, (see p. 184,) as England 
 considered New Brunswick to belong to it. 2. Respecting the building 
 of forts along the Ohio, in order to connect Louisiana and Canada ; 
 this England would not permit, as she had forts there already. Hos- 
 tilities commenced, 1754 and 1755, by the mutual seizure of forts. 3. 
 Respecting the occupation of Grenada and neutral islands of the An- 
 tilles, Tobago, St. Vincent, Dominique, and St. Lucia, by the French, 
 contrary to former agreements. 4. Add to these the i-ising jealousy 
 respecting Coromandel in the East Indies (see below). The English 
 first had recourse to open force, by the capture of several merchantmen 
 and two ships of the line, June 10, 1755, as reprisals. 
 
 44. The commercial and colonial interest had now risen 
 to such a degree of importance, that remote w^astes and 
 islands became the occasion of a war, wdiich necessarily 
 spread over all quarters of the world, and the cost and issue 
 of which no one could calculate. But the British navy was 
 superior to the French even before the war, and the hopes 
 to which this gave rise, were among the strongest incentives 
 to it. 
 
 England declares war against France, May 15, 1756. Successful at- 
 tempts of the French against IMinorca, and capture of Port Mahon by 
 the Duke of Richelieu, June 29. 
 
 45. But at the commencement of this maritime war, the 
 combinations against Prussia had advanced so far, that a 
 war with Austria and her allies became inevitable. But as 
 Austria gave up her connexion with England, and con- 
 nected herself with France, the way seemed opened to an 
 alliance between Prussia and England ; the more so, as 
 George II, believed this the only way by which he could 
 secure his German territories against France ; and this 
 alliance, Russia, as the ally of Austria, could not allow. 
 Accordingly the two wars became resolved into one ; but, 
 before their termination, were again separated and conclud- 
 ed by distinct treaties of peace. 
 
 R 
 
212 AFFAIRS OF EUROPE, 1756—1763. [peiiiod ii. 
 
 Oiilv a cniTij)l»'to rcvulution (■(iiiM liavc fdrcccl tlio two liousos of 
 llaimvcr suul Hniinlciiltiir;^, wliicli liivl almost alwavs liccii at varianre, 
 to an alliancf. Tlic first treaty, cinicltulcil at Wliitcliall. .Ijui. 1.'), 1756, 
 for the inaintciiain-c of neutrality in (iermaiiy, by wliicli the cninpaft of 
 neutrality between Franee and Austria (see ab<tve) was hastened. Al- 
 liance by the eonvention of Jan. 11, 1757. Treaty of London, 1758. 
 In eonsiileration of a snltsidy of one million sterling, Prussia engaged to 
 furnish Kngland with 2(),()()0 troops. 
 
 4f). If tlic first Silesian war on Frcflcric's su]c 
 
 Seven years' war. , r • i > 1 
 
 was an ollciisivf! one, the seven years war. al- 
 thoiinli lie first di-cw the swonl, was strictly defensive; btit 
 the laurels he earned are the more iinix-rishable, the less he 
 was the favourite of fortiin(\ Tiie fonnidable coalition 
 against liiin, was mainly indebted for its strenp;th to the 
 meaner j)assions of the riders; and it remained indissoluble 
 fill the death of Elizabeth. There is sometliinu; peculiar too 
 in the connexion between Frederic and England ; closely 
 allied, yet scarcely ever acting in common. M'illiam Pitt 
 pursued his career, and Frederic his ; both however con- 
 ducted to the same object ; and provided they met there, 
 what need was there of their unitino; on the road? 
 
 Administration of "William Pitt, afterwards Lord Chatham, from Oct. 
 20, 1756, to Oct. 5, 1761. "What a glorious five years! By the 
 greatness of his own character, he elevated that of the nation ; for he 
 ■was the first to breathe into it a confidence in itself. 
 
 Life of U'illidm Pitt, 2 vols. 4to, 1780. 
 
 47. The war began on land, by Frederic's in- 
 vasion of Saxony ; he found proofs in Dresden 
 of the designs of his enemies. 
 
 According to Fnideric's manifesto, the preliminary treaty, concluded 
 May IS, 1745, respecting the division of the Prussian territories, re- 
 mained, even after the peace of Dresden, Dec. 25, the basis of the ne- 
 gotiations between Vienna, Saxony, and Hui^sia ; whereupon, May 22, 
 1746, a defensive treaty is shortly after concluded at I'etersburg between 
 Austria and Russia, with four secret articles against Prussia, to which 
 Saxony is disposed to accede, as soon as circumstances would allow. 
 The plan of attack is said to have been matured in Petersburg, about 
 the end of the year 1755. 
 
 Jircueil (hs drductiniis, }}innifisfr.<t, traitts, etc. qui Q»t ctt rcdifjcs et 
 pulilits pour In cnitr de JViissr, {di'piiis ["^oi] ji/sqn^ a 1778,) par E. F. 
 CoMTi: 1>K IIi:ii/Ki5EK<;, a Herlin, 17!K) — 1795 ; 3 vols. 8vo, containing 
 the state papers of this and the following periods. 
 
 Invasion f»f Saxony l)y Fn>deric, Aug., 1756 ; capture of Dresden, 
 and blockade of the baxon army at Pirna, Sept. Victory over the 
 
PART I.] AFFAIRS OF EUROPE, 1756—1763. 243 
 
 Austrians under Field-marshal Brown, at Lowositz, Oct. 1, and capitu- 
 lation of the Saxons, Oct. 16. 
 
 48. By the terms of their agreement, the alHes, Saxony, 
 Austria, Russia, and France, were bound, upon the break- 
 ino; out of hostihties, immediately to take up arms. In ad- 
 dition to these, the German empire was induced by the 
 influence of Austria, and Sweden by that of France, to join 
 the coalition; and thus more than half of Europe were ar- 
 rayed against Frederic. 
 
 Declaration of war by the empire against Prussia, Jan. 17, 1757. 
 Convention of the allies with Sweden, May 21, under the pretence 
 of guaranteeing the peace of Westphalia, and the promise of Po- 
 merauia, 
 
 49. Fortunately for Frederic, France resolved to com-: 
 mence hostilities against the English in Hanover, who were 
 thus forced, together with Hesse and Brunswick, to become 
 active allies of Frederic. Even small states can at times, 
 when favoured by circumstances, maintain a glorious struggle 
 against the more powerful ; and perhaps history never wit- 
 nessed a more brilliant example of this than was displayed 
 by the allies, after Duke Ferdinand, the pupil of Frederic, 
 had become their leader. 
 
 Advance of the French army under d'Etrees against Hanover ; and 
 victory over the Duke of Cumberland at Hastonbek, July 26, 1757. 
 Occupation of Hanover, and convention with Richelieu at Kloster 
 Zeven, Sept. 8 ; abrogated immediately after, Sept. 26. Duke Ferdi- 
 nand obtains the command. 
 
 50. Perhaps the whole circle of history no where dis- 
 plays a spectacle more instructive as respects military tac- 
 tics, or more sublime as regards human nature, than the 
 conduct of the seven years' war by Frederic. The political 
 historian, on tlie contrary, finds little deserving his attention, 
 as, till towards its close, no change took place in the political 
 relations of Europe : and Frederic, contending with his 
 apparently inexorable destiny, was compelled to confine his 
 manoeuvres to the maintenance of Silesia and Saxony, and 
 the securing, as much as possible, the heart of his territories. 
 The more remote provinces, and even Prussia itself, he was 
 oblio;ed to abandon. 
 
 Principal events of the Prussian war. — 1757: the invasion of Bo- 
 hemia, and victory at Prague over Charles of Lorraine, May 6 ; siege 
 of Prague; evacuation of Bohemia after the defeat at Collin, June 18, 
 
 . R 2 
 
21 i AllAIUS OF EntOPi:, 175G— 17C3. [ieiiiod ii. 
 
 hv Marslml Daun. Advance of tlic Fri'iicli and imperial arniios nndrr 
 S<)uV)is(>, and dctVvit at Kosslmch, Nov. ."j. Silesia r(*c(tn(iufred hy tli»; 
 victory at Lcnthcn over Duke Cliarles V., Dec. 5. — On the other hand, 
 a great defeat hy the Kn>sians under Aprarin, near Gross .Ja<h'rndorf, 
 Aug. 30, who made, however, no use ot' his victory. — 1758 : fruitless 
 attack on Ohnutz, May. The advance of the Russians under Ferinor. 
 Battle at Zorndorf, Aug. 25. Tlius, at the same time with the driving 
 back of the Swedes, Brandenburg Avas coAcred. Defeat at Ilochkirchen, 
 by Daun, Oct. 14. Nevertlieless Silesia was still preserved and the 
 siege of Neisse raised, Nov. 5. — 17o9: renewed advance of the Rus- 
 sians, reinforced by Austrians under Laudon. Severe defeat of the 
 king at Kunersdorf, Aug. 12, and njisfortune at Maxen, Nov. 20. Yet 
 Frederic sunk not untler tliese reverses. — 17()0 : fruitless siege of Dres- 
 den, July. Alfairs of Liegnitz, Aug. 15, and Silesia maintained. Battle 
 of Torgau, Nov. 3, by which Frederic is enabled to maintain Saxony. 
 — 17()1 : he carries on a defensive war against the combined armies, 
 Aug. and S(>pt. Schweidnitz taken by Laudon, Oct. I. 
 
 Jlistoire de la guerre de sept aiis, hi the CEuvrcs post/mines de 
 Frfd(rir II., vols. iii. iv. 8vo. Berlin, 1788. 
 
 Ilistorifnfthc late war in Gernniiii/, between the kinf/ of Prussia and 
 the empress of Germany and her allies, by Gicnkual Ll.uYD. London, 
 1781—90, 3* vols. 4to. 
 
 J. W. vox Archexholz, Gesehichte des sichenjiihrigen Kriegs in 
 Deutschland. Berlin, 1793, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 "Wauxeuv, Campagnes de Frederic II. de 1757 — 17G2. a Vieniie, 
 1788, 8vo. 
 
 V. RuxTACZO, Gestdndnisse eines CEstreichisehen Veterans, in Ilinsicht 
 auf das J'erhdlfnisse zwischen Q£stnich und Preussen wcihrend dir 
 Regicrung Friedrichs II. Breslau, 1794, 4 vols. 8vo. 
 
 51. During these years, one flank of Frederic was always 
 covrrod by the victories of Ferdinand. His fate probably 
 would have be(Mi very diticrent had the French armies been 
 able to advance as easily as the Russians did from the east. 
 
 "Winter campaign of Duke Ferdinand, and the French compelled to 
 evacuate Hanover, 1757, after the abrogation of the convention of 
 Kliister Zeven. — 1758 : the duke crosses the Rhine, and victory at 
 C'refeld over Count Clermont, June 23. Junction with the British 
 troitps. — 1759: victory at Minden, over Marshal Contades, Aug. 1, 
 twelve days l)efore Frederic's defeat at Kunersdorf. — From this time a 
 continual superiority is maintained, 1760 and 1761, and the greater 
 j)art of Hanover preserved. 
 
 .1. Maivh.i.ox, Gesehichte des Ilerzogs Ferdinand von Braunschiccig 
 und Lunehurg. Leipzig, 1794, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 52. During tliis time the war was carried on with equal 
 spirit at sea, and extended to the two Indies. The Briti^ii 
 soon obtained a decided superiority on the ocean, after 
 which the conquest of the colonies was easy. In North 
 
p,i.!iT I.] AFFAIRS OF EUllOPE, 175G— 17G3. 24.5 
 
 America the war at first was no more than a continuation 
 of ancient hostilities ; but a decisive battle soon deprived 
 France of all Canada. In the West Indies and Africa the 
 most important settlements were captured by the English ; 
 as was also Pondicherry in the East Indies. French com- 
 merce v.'as annihilated ; and all this happened at a time when 
 colonies were considered of the greatest consequence. 
 
 Capture of Cape Breton, July, 17.58, and shortly after Canada, in 
 17.59, by General AVolf's victory at Quebec, Sept. 13. — Naval victory 
 at Brest, by Hawke, Nov. 20. — In the West Indies, capture of Guada- 
 loupe. May 1. — Martinique, Feb., 1762, and shortly after Grenada, St. 
 Lucie, and St. Vincent. — In the East Indies, Pondicherry, Jan. 16, 
 1762. — On tlie coasts of Africa, the British made themselves masters of 
 Senegal and Gorea, 1758. 
 
 53. Thus the war continued without any change in the 
 political relations of Europe — even the death of 
 
 r~i TTI1 • T m -nil Oct. 27, 1760. 
 
 (jreorge 11. had no immediate etiect — till the last 
 year but one, when two deaths in its eastern and western 
 extremities, were followed by important, and, in some re- 
 spects, very remarkable revolutions. The death 
 of the empress Elizabeth deprived Frederic of 
 his bitterest enemy; and in her nephew and successor Peter 
 III. he had as great a friend. This led not only to a sepa- 
 rate peace, which was immediately followed by another 
 with Sweden, but even to an alliance; and Europe saw with 
 astonishment, the unprecedented spectacle of an army leav- 
 ing its allies, and marching over to the camp of its enemies. 
 
 1. Cessation of arms at Stargard, March 16, and a peace. May 15, 
 between Russia and Prussia : mutual restitution of all conquests, and 
 disavowal of all unfriendly alliances. The separate articles provided 
 for the establishment of an alliance. — 2, Peace between Sweden and 
 Prussia at Hamburg, May 22, by which matters were restored to their 
 ancient footing. 
 
 54. These new relations, however, seemed likely to be 
 destroyed bv the almost immediate fall of Pe- 
 
 TTT 1 /-I 1 • TT -11 1 JuIyO, 170-2. 
 
 ter 111. ; but Catharine 11. still preserved a neu- 
 trality, which was probably of more advantage to Frederic 
 than an alliance ; for much was gained by one leading power 
 setting an example of moderation and reflection. The vic- 
 toi'ious campaign of this year achieved the rest. 
 
 Victory of the king at Burkersdorf, July 21, and of Prince Henry 
 at Freiburg, Oct. 29. 
 
246. AFFAIRS OF KLHOI'i:, 1700—1703. frruioD ii. 
 
 5o. On tlio otlicr hand, the war became; extended in the 
 west in tlic same year by both Spain and Portn|i;al joinin<^ 
 in it. The neutnihty ot" Spain luul eontiiuied nninterrupted, 
 as long as Ferdinand \T. reigned. But as Ehzabetli sur- 
 vived Iiis death lono; enough to sec her son Charles 
 
 17.'i9 ~ ^ » 
 
 III. vacate; tlie throne of Naples to ascend tliat of 
 S|)ain, French influence obtained a predominance at Ma- 
 diid ; and France, after all her reverses, hoped to gain a 
 coinj)eusation for her losses and an increase of power, by 
 heading a general union of the various branches of the 
 house of Bourbon. This was the origin of the Family 
 Compact, the stipulations of wliich necessarily involved 
 Spain in immediate war. But a power, in the full tide of 
 victory, as Great Britain nov/ was, could not be checked by 
 a sinQ;le additional (Miemy. Spain was made to pay dearly; 
 and even the implication of Portugal, under these circum- 
 stances, was an advantage to England. An important 
 though accidental consequence of it, was the secession of 
 Pitt from the administration. 
 
 Secret conclusion of the family alliance of the Bourbons, first between 
 France and Spain, Aug. 1.5, 17G1, with the assumed accession of Na- 
 ples and Parma. iMutual giiaranfLM; of the possessions of both partic-j ; 
 and an alliance offensive and defensive, for ever. — Pitt retires from 
 the ministry, Oct. 5, as the cabinet refuses to anticipate Spain by an 
 immeiliate declaration of war. — AVar against Spain actually declared, 
 Jan. 4, 17G2. llavannah taken by Pocock, Aug. II, and Manilla ca- 
 pitulates, Oct. 6. — The attack of Spain on I'ortugai, imatteiided by any 
 important consecpienees, occasions a reform in the military department 
 of that country, under William couut of Lippe Biickebiu-g, one of the 
 lieroes of the seven years' war. 
 
 56. The alliance between Prussia and England, marked 
 by an almo.st continual succession of victories till near the 
 end of the war, was now to be dissolved before its complete 
 termination. England had obtained its object. The navy 
 of France was annihilated ; almost every colony which that 
 country possessed had fallen into her hands. The cry of 
 the nation for peace, excited by the enormous increase of 
 the national debt and its aversion to the continental war, 
 had grown stronger since Pitt's retireuKMit from office. The 
 proposals of France were soon followed by preliminaries, 
 which were changed into a separate peace; without any 
 stipulation in favour of Frederic II. beyond the neutrality 
 
PART 1.] AFFAIRS OF EUROPE, 170G— 17G3, 247 
 
 of France. Well might Frederic complain, but was he not 
 himself the founder of this school of policy? 
 
 Preliminary negotiations by the Due de Nivernois in London, and the 
 Duke of Bedford in Paris. Preliminai'ies concluded at Fontainbleau, 
 Nov. 3, 1762, between England on the one side, and France and Spain 
 on the other : changed into a definitive peace at Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. 
 Conditions: c. Between France and England. 1. France renounced 
 all claims to Nova Scotia, and resigned Canada with Cape Breton to 
 England. 2. She retained a share in the fisheries of Newfoundland, 
 with the islands St. Pierre and Miquelon, but without fortifications. 
 3. The ^Mississippi to form the boundary between the British colonies 
 and Louisiana. 4. In the West Indies, France yielded Grenada to 
 England, Avho also retained the formerly neutral islands, St. Vincent, 
 Dominique, and Tobago ; the island of St. Lucie was restored. 5. In 
 Africa, Senegal was given up to England, in consideration of the resti- 
 tution of Gorea. 6. In the East Indies, France recovered all that she 
 had possessed in the beginning of 1749, and even Pondicherry, upon 
 renouncing all the conquests made there since that time. 7. In Eu- 
 rope : restitution of Minorca to England. 8. Evacuation of Hanover ; 
 the allied states left in their former situation. 10. All French troops 
 withdrawn from the empire ; and neutrality in the Prussian and Aus- 
 trian war. b. Between Spain and England. 1. Spain resigned the 
 Floridas (for which France declared iierself ready to concede Louisiana 
 in a separate contract ; which was not fulfilled till 1 769). 2. In return, 
 England restores the conquests made in Cuba and Ilavannah. 3. Eng- 
 land retained the right of cutting logwood in the bay of Honduras. 4. 
 Full restitution to Portugal, who accedes to the peace. 
 
 Plenipotentiaries : for England the Duke of Bedford ; for France, the 
 Due de Choiseul ; for Spain, the Marquis de Grimaldi. 
 
 (Eiivres jjosthumes du Due de Niveriiois. Paris, 1807, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 The letters of the Duke during his embassy in England, contain the most 
 important materials for the history of this negotiation. 
 
 ^7. Only Prussia, Austria, and Saxony now remained 
 in a state of warfare. But what could Austria expect to 
 accomplish by herself? especially as (besides Fre- 
 deric's last victories) all her hopes of Silesia were 
 blighted by the conquest of Schweidnitz. The negotiations 
 for a peace were easy to arrange, for neither party coveted 
 aggrandizement or compensation ; and Frederic concluded 
 the glorious peace of Hubertsburg, without having lost a 
 foot of territory. 
 
 Peace of Hubertsburg concluded, Feb. 15, 1763. a. Between Prus- 
 sia and Austria. 1. Mutual renunciation of both parties of all claims 
 to the possessions of the other. 2. Confirmation of the treaties of 
 Breslau and Dresden. (In separate secret articles, Prussia promised 
 its electoral vote, in the clioice of king of tlie Romans, to the Archduke 
 Joseph, and its mediation in favour of Austria's expectations on Mo- 
 
?I8 AIFAIIIS OF EUROPE, 1750— 17G3. (ri:nion ii. 
 
 (l<'n:i.) /'. Bi'twoon Prussia and Saxony, all affairs were plarod on 
 tlifir anciont footinpr. — The (iorinan t'ini)ire had already declared itself 
 neutral, Feb. 11, and was inclii(U'd in tiie peace. 
 
 Plenipotentiaries at Ilubertslinrp; ; for Prussia, Dc Ilerzlx'rg ; for 
 Austria, Von Colleiibacli ; for Saxony, Baron Fritscb. 
 
 5^. Tliis war, and tlio. peace which tcrminatcfl it, con- 
 finncd tlie European system as estabhshed. Prussia and 
 Austria remained the two first continental powers ; neither 
 the distant l^ussia, nor the weakened France, encliained hy 
 Austria, could make tlie least pretension to this distinction. 
 Even after the adjustment of tlieir quarrel, therefore, the 
 7'eiations between the two former states, whicli, thouiih no 
 ]onp;er hostile, admitted of no close alliance, remained the 
 leading object of European policy. On these depended not 
 only the balance of power in Ciermany, but even that of 
 Europe. 
 
 .5!). The close alliances between the Bourbon courts, 
 further cemented by the f(nnili/ compact, appear, indeed, 
 to have reali/xnl the anxieties that were felt durino; tlie 
 Spanish war of succession. But the internal situation of 
 these kingdoms prevented any alarm ; and the result has 
 shown, that France could derive but little real benefit from 
 tliis alliance, though by it she engaged Spain in wars in 
 which that power had no separate interest. 
 
 60, The alliance between Great Britain and Prussia was 
 broken bv their separate treaties of peace; and a prejudice 
 a^iainst the former took root in Frederics mind, which 
 seems never to have been eradicated till towards the end of 
 his rei<j;n. No important point of collision existed between 
 them on the continent, not even in Hanover; for the main- 
 tenance of the constitution of the German empire formed 
 an essential j^art of Frederics system. 
 
 61. 'J'his dissolution of the alliance between En<iland and 
 Prussia destroyed nearly all the great ties by which the 
 former power was connectr'd with continental policy : there 
 was now only left her relations with Holland and Portugal. 
 As Austria had abandoned her to gain France, and she was 
 only connected with Russia by a commercial treaty, what 
 was there again to engage her in the aftairs of the continent, 
 with which she had no common interest? The political 
 inlluenco of England therefore in the European system 
 
PART I.] AFFAIRS OF EUROPE, 175G— 17G3. 249 
 
 ceased nearly altogether ; and the more so, as the otlier 
 powers were almost exclusively engaged in domestic con- 
 cerns of great importance. Commerce with the continent 
 w^as secui'ed by amicable relations, and some new commer- 
 cial treaties ; and it was eas}^ to foresee the restoration of its 
 political influence, as soon as new commotions on the con- 
 tinent should render British subsidies necessary. 
 
 Versuch eincr historischen Entwickehmg des Brittischen Continen- 
 tal inter esse, in Heeken's Miscellaneous Historical JVritings. Tli. i., 
 1821, 8vo. 
 
 62. Much greater consequences, however, to English maritime 
 Europe, than could at the time have been antici- 
 pated, sprung out of the use which England began to make 
 in these wars of its maritime superiority. She had now, for 
 the second time, annihilated the naval force of her enemies. 
 In order to destroy their commerce with it, she now began 
 to deny to neutrals, under whose flag it might be carried 
 on, the riglit of trading ; especially with their colonies. 
 This encroachment upon the rights of neutral flags laid the 
 foundation of the unjust maritime code, which England 
 afterwards, in times of war, called her maritime law ; modi- 
 fying it according to time and circumstances. Similar 
 claims had indeed been previously made by other powers ; 
 but as no one had ever acquired so superior a naval force 
 as the British now possessed, their pretensions had but little 
 practical importance. 
 
 The great point in dispute was, the right of neutrals to carry on the 
 colonial trade of a belligerent power under its own flag, and on its own 
 account. It was occasioned by the permission granted by France, 17o6, 
 to neutrals, to trade with its colonies, having itself been deprived of the 
 power. The English maintained the absolute illegality of this trade, 
 and captured neutral ships and neutral property. Only the usual com- 
 merce permitted in peace was allowed to be carried on. The dispute, 
 Avithout important consequences at this time, expired of itself with the 
 return of peace ; but the rule of 1756 now became in England a rule for 
 the future ; unless when they saw fit to relax it. — Every naval war, how- 
 ever, renewed and enlarged the dispute, since the general question, whe- 
 ther free ships make free goods, was necessarily bi'ought into agitation. 
 
 III. From the treaties of Paris and Hubert shiirf/, to the death of 
 Frederic the Great. 17G3— 1780. 
 
 Deyilm-iirdigkeitcn 7iieiner Zeit, ein Beitrag zur Geschichte vom lefzten 
 Viertel dcs achtzchntcn and vom Anfang des ncunzehntcn Jahrhundcrts 
 
S50 AFFAIRS OF EUROFE, 1703— 178C. (rnnioD ii. 
 
 177S — \HOG ; von C'liR. Wii.ii. vo\ Doiim. Lonia;in, 1S14 — 1S19, 8vo. 
 ]lc-t'orc the (It'atli of the nutlior, live parts were published, which reach 
 to tlie death of Frederic II. — Not a fjeiieral liistory ; hut eoiifiiieil to 
 particuhir important events. It is coni]»iled in part from the author's 
 own observation, with the most scrupulous accuracy and love ol" truth. 
 The authorities for particular points arc given under the various lieads. 
 
 ()3. The late treaties of peace gave the Avest of Eiiroj)e a 
 fair riglit to expect a lasting repose, as the ancient and estab- 
 lished order of possessions was again confirmed. Nearly 
 thirty years of uninternipted peace did indeed succeed, 
 during \vhich no continental war of consequence disturbed 
 the general tranquillity. \W\s period, however, was charac- 
 terized by various extraordinary events, which, though rather 
 of a moral than of a strictly political nature, had, by their 
 influence on every grade of society, and on almost every 
 branch of politics, a striking influeuce in the end upon 
 states and government. 
 
 64. Numerous and mighty energies had been developed 
 by the late struggles. M ar had called forth a spirit of ac- 
 tivity which peace could not allay. A kingdom, like Prus- 
 sia, which had newly raised itself to rank as one of the first 
 states of the European system, could only hope to maintain 
 this distinction by continual exertion, and the manifestation 
 of all its resources. Its rival Austria, on the other hand, 
 dared not remain behind ; and this feeling, on both sides, 
 became the main-spring of political exertions. A principal 
 character, however, of the activity now displayed, was the 
 facility with which the growing intelligence of the age en- 
 abled it to employ itself upon a variety and multiplicity of 
 objects unknown to it before; especially upon the mutual 
 relations of men and states, which now began to be under- 
 stood and appreciated. The general mass of ideas which 
 this mental activity called into existence, was considered by 
 the age as the dawning of a new day, and every government 
 was beset with clamours for the difiusion of its light. Alas ! 
 how often was the false dazzle of sophistry regarded as the 
 clear light of truth ! 
 
 Go. Upon the return of peace, the domestic concerns of 
 their states became the natural care of the various govern- 
 ments. The wounds which war had left recjuired to be 
 healed ; and the public burdens, whicli its expenses had en- 
 tailed upon the people, to be alleviated ; a task rendered 
 
PART 1.1 AFFAIRS OF EUROPE, 1763—1786. 251 
 
 difficult, as even in peace the standing armies were rather 
 increased than diminished. Finance consequently obtained 
 a continually increasing' importance, as the object of all po- 
 litical economy. The disposition of rulers, and the consti- 
 tutions with which some states were favoured, prevented a 
 general abuse ; but the evil was too contagious not to spread 
 rapidly. 
 
 66. Closely connected with this was the principle of ren- 
 dering the administration of the state, as far as possible, a 
 mechanical operation ; for thus, it was thought, it could be 
 organized most cheaply and commodiously. Even the ex- 
 pression, political miachines, became the favourite expres- 
 sion of men in this department. These evils, too, operated 
 slowly, and not every where equally ; but the error, that 
 seeks in forms for the happiness of a state, which can only 
 proceed from the free action of free men, the necessary con- 
 dition of genuine patriotism, was committed and diiiused. 
 
 67. From these maxims of internal administration, pro- 
 ceeded a struggle for aggrandizement, which, when preva- 
 lent, threatened to overthrow the existing political system. 
 The more the division of territory interfered with the me- 
 chanical administration of affairs, the greater value was 
 placed on the compactness of possessions ; and it is evident 
 to what this mania for compactness, soon the moving spring 
 of the projects of the various cabinets, must necessarily lead. 
 And where could the danger be greater, than in a system 
 composed of such unequal states as that of Europe ? 
 
 68. Thus the material resources of states gained a more 
 and more exclusive value in the eyes of practical politics ; 
 and square miles and population became the measure of 
 prosperity and strength. Never did writers so play, as they 
 then did, into the hands of those who practised. What did 
 not the writers in statistics calculate ? And what could be 
 more convenient for men of business ? On a single sheet, 
 they thought they had before them the whole state ! 
 
 Perhaps there is not in the whole range of science, one which ha3 
 been so much degraded as statistics. Into what a stupid meciianical 
 exercise has it sunk ! Does an enumeration of men and cattle, — does a 
 dissection of the body politic, constitute the knowledge of a state ? 
 Just as well might the anatomist hope to acquire a knowledge of human 
 nature by the dissection of dead bodies. 
 
 69. Although in politics, as in political economy, ancient 
 
252 AFFAIRS OF Kl'ROl'K, 17G3— IT^^r,. lirnion ii. 
 
 iis:i>j^e continued to })r('vail, yet tli(! s|)int of rcasoiiiiijj; ^'ot 
 jKissessioii cif these subjocts, and theories were formed ^^l^(•h 
 ])resented a most strikin<j; contrast with the reahty. These 
 th(H)ries were considered as harndess, Ijecanse they remained 
 notliinp: more than theories, and tlieir authors were actuated 
 l)y no (hinL:,'erons motives. But do not all human institutions 
 rest tiuuhmientallv upon ideas? And are tliev not endan- 
 gered wlien these chanoe ? 
 
 70. Government and lep:ishition l)ecame tlie prime ob- 
 jects of investigation. Montescjuieu first raised them to im- 
 portance : but his work, a critique ratlier than a 
 system, taught the world to think, without leading- 
 it into error. The case was very dill'erent when IJousscau, 
 the most elocpient of all sophists, erected liis consti- 
 tution on a foundation, on which no existing one 
 liad been based, and on which, in reality, no future one 
 could stand. The unalienable sovereignty of the people 
 and a state, arc ideas practically contradictory ; a state only 
 begins wliere the exercise of the popular sovereignty has 
 been delegated, 
 
 Locke had some time before acquired celebrity as a political Avritcr ; 
 but liis theories harmonized witli the constitution of his country. Mon- 
 tesf|uieu, on the contrary, was tlie eulogist of a foreign, and Kousseau of 
 an ideal constitution, wliicli could have no existence witiiout the pre- 
 vious destruction of the pillars on wliich the ])resent governments rested. 
 
 Two Trcdthcs of Govrriiiuoit ; or an ICssai/ coiircDiiiig the tnie 
 Original, Kxlciit, and Kvd of Civil Govirnniint, by J. LoCKi;. Lomlun, 
 various editions ; in his Wiirks, etc. 
 
 MoNTKSQiU'.r, JCsprif (Its Lois, on dn rapport que Irs loisdoivrnt 
 avoir a fee la constitution de eharjnc gouvcrnvinent, etc. Genev. 1749, 
 3 vols. 8vo. 
 
 [Numerous other editions — translatcil into English by Nugent.] 
 
 J^p contrat soeitd, par J. J. I{f)rssKAU. 17(52. 
 
 These works arc examined and compared in : 
 
 IIkkhf.n's J'ersitr/i nher die Kntstrhiing, die AushiJdiing iind dm 
 praetiselien Kinfhiss der politiselien Iheorieen rind die Krh(dti(ng des 
 Monareliisriivn J*riiieips in dein neuerti Kitropa. MiseeUaneoits Ilisto- 
 rienl JVritings. Th. i., IS21. In this treatise is argued the incom- 
 patibility of democracy with monarchy. — Tlie best attemj)! to refute 
 these theories is : 
 
 Caul Lrnw. von IIai.i.ku Kesfaitration d r S'faatswissrnsehaff, oder 
 Tlieorie des gesel/ig natiirliehen Ziistatides ; der C7iiniaire des kiinstlieh 
 h rgerliehen entgegenges<tzt. In vicr Theilcn, 1814 — 1818 ; the first 
 containing r//V (iesehiehtc iind Kritik der hisherigcn falsehen Si/stemc ; 
 iind die allgemeinen Grtindsiitze der cntgegeng'setzcn Ordnung Gottcs 
 vnd der Xatur : the second and third discusses the two classes of mou- 
 
TAUT I.] AFFAIRS OF EUROPE, 17G3— 178G. 253 
 
 archies ; patrimonial and military states : the fourth, " the most import • 
 ant and difficult part of the whole work," which treats of ecclesiastical 
 states and societies, contains an apology for the Catholic church and 
 Popery. 
 
 71. These speculations on government were followed by 
 others on political economy. The manifest errors discovered 
 both in the theory and practice of the mercantile system, laid 
 it open to attack. The advocates of physiocracy, or 
 natural government, who entered upon it, certainly 
 did much, by recalling many great truths into notice, such as 
 the importance of agriculture, the free exercise of every 
 kind of industry and talent, and consequently of trade and 
 commerce. Their example produced other hardy thinkers : 
 without them would Adam Smith have attained to such 
 high perfection ? Their system, however, built upon sophis- 
 try, and veiled in a new phraseology, became comparatively 
 useless ; and its founder, Quesnay, formed a sect of theorists, 
 but no practical statesmen. But, besides enforcing their 
 system of political economy, their doctrines attacked the 
 existing principles of governments, because they led to the 
 establishment of political equality. They appeared, too, 
 the more dangerous, as they did not, like Adam Smith, 
 argue a question of utility, but contended for a right. 
 
 The doctrines of the p/ii/siocrafs rested on the maxim, that the soil 
 is the only source of wealth ; for which reason, this wealth ought to be 
 the sole and immediate source of I'evenue. In their very first position, 
 in which the elements of national wealth are defined, they difler from 
 Adam Smith, since improvement and traffic are sources of wealth, no 
 less than production. Still this difterence was of little practical import- 
 ance, since even the p/i>/siocrats by no means pretended to deny the in- 
 direct gain derived from improvement (by an increased susceptibility 
 of production). But the great practical difference rose, partly, from 
 the second position, or the application of the first to the method of tax- 
 ation, partly in the further results of the equality and freedom to which 
 the system of the physiocrats necessarily tended, and for which it 
 essentially prepared the public mind. 
 
 QcESXAY, Tableau Eccmnmique. Paris, 1758, 8vo. Extended in, 
 
 Phi/siocrafie ; ou constitution naturelle du gotcvernement ; publiee par 
 DuPOXT. Yverdun, 1768, 8vo. 
 
 V. ]\L\.uviLLiox PInjsiokratische Briefe an Dohm, Braunschweig, 
 1780, 8vo. And as example: 
 
 Kiirze Vorstellung des Phjjsiokratischen St/stems nebsteinigen erin- 
 nerungcn i'lber dasselbe, von C. K. W, DoH.Ar. Cassel, 1778, 8vo. 
 
 An Inquiry into the nature and causes of the JVealth of Nations, by 
 Ad. Smith. Lond. 1776, 2 vols. 4to. Reprinted with notes by ]\I'Cul- 
 Icch, Ediub. 1828, 4 vols. 8vo. The best edition. Without doubt the 
 
251 AFFAIRS OF FU'IIOPK, 17G3— 178G. [ninioD li. 
 
 mast acute (levelopmont of tlio constitiionts nnd sourcrs of national 
 >v«'altli ; Itiit for that reason partial. IJoldcr views will he found in, 
 
 Ai). yiiu.y.ii clfwcnfe df-r Stnatshuiist. Berlin, 1S()9, 3 Tlile. 
 
 [^ifirr \(tti()ji(il Industrie unit Sfaafsicirt/isr/nift, nach Ad. Smith 
 bcarhcitet, von. A. F. LlT.DKR. IHOO, etc. 3 Tlile. 
 
 It is well known how much the excellent manuals of Sartorius, Jacob, 
 nnd others, have contributed both to the circulation and elucidation of 
 Adam Smith. 
 
 72. Tims it appears tliat this new system \vas not the 
 fruit of experience, rising- from routine to oencral views, 
 but of a g;rowing propensity to pliilosophical speculation, 
 which at the same time directed itself to reliixion, to morals, 
 and to education ; wliich now anmsed itself with tritles, now 
 with sophisms ; but in whatever shape it appeared, its aim 
 was the profanation of all that is sacred. Voltaire mijxht 
 deride tlie popular belief; Diderot, dAlcmbert, von Hol- 
 bach, and their disciples inculcate atheism ; and Helvetius 
 chann;e morality into a system of egotism ; but however dif- 
 ferent in other respects, did tliey not all agree in this par- 
 ticular? Nay, had the great reform in education begun by 
 Rousseau, and extolled as more conformable to nature, any 
 other tendency than the development of the animal passions 
 of man, at the expense of his nobler attributes ? 
 
 The Enn/clnpcdie, whose publication began in 1751, under the 
 superintendence of Diderot, and which promoted so widely the diffusion 
 of superficiiil knowledge, offered to most of these men a literary point of 
 union. Though their exertions were of a literary and not a political 
 nature, their intolerant sectarian spirit — for is not bitter derision of the 
 opinion of others, intolerance ? — was the more insuflerablc, Ixom their 
 continual talk of liberality. 
 
 73. Thrs revolution in the public mind originated in the 
 city, generally regarded as the focus of intellectual culture 
 and taste. Its authors were far from acting so powerfully 
 on foreign coinitries as on their own ; but still how wide 
 has extended the sphere of their intluence ! If they did 
 not determine the mode of thinking of the nations, they did 
 at least that of the higher class of society. But their influ- 
 ence ac(juired its greatest force from their being of this class 
 themselves ; a circumstance quite peculiar to the age, and 
 one which afforded them an advantage over all preceding 
 writers. 
 
 Of no age is the state of society, and especially the literary part, so 
 
PART I.] AFFAIRS OF EUROPE, 1763—1786. 255 
 
 necessary to be known as the one under review. The most faithful and 
 lively delineation of it as it existed in Paris, is given in, 
 
 Manoires de Marmontel. 1803, 9 vols. 12mo. An invaluable source 
 of information respecting the learned men of his times. 
 
 74. Under these circumstances, public opinion, guided 
 by such writers, obtained a consequence which it would 
 otherwise never have possessed ; and those institutions, 
 against which it declared itself, lingered out a very preca- 
 rious existence. Of this the order of Jesuits gave the first 
 great and signal example. A variety of causes certainly 
 conspired to work their downfal ; but these would never 
 have produced so great an effect but for the opposition 
 which grew between their institution and the prevailing 
 spirit of the age. Hence they always found their most vio- 
 lent and obstinate antagonists in the very country where 
 the fraternity reached its highest perfection ; and although 
 they were expelled from Portugal somewhat sooner than 
 France, yet the history of their decline and final fall mani- 
 festly depends on their Telations in the latter country. 
 
 The causes which accelerated the fall of the Jesuits were : 1. The 
 controversy with the Jansenists, which had already lasted for a cen- 
 tury, public opinion having been first turned against them, 1652, by the 
 Lettres provinciales of Pascal. 2. The political party formed against 
 them at court and in the parliament by the aid of Jansenism, principally 
 by le Tellier, the last confessor of Louis XIV. 3. The still more for- 
 midable opposition of philosophers and literary men, who attacked them 
 with ridicule. 4. The insufficiency and nature of their education, 
 which neither kept pace with the age nor was directed to the objects in 
 which it took most interest. 5. Their lax morals, (however much they 
 insisted on external decency,) and the accusation of having justified 
 the murder of the king, and the criminal attempts laid to their charge. 
 6. Their neglect of science, and the total absence of scientific reputa- 
 tion, which was perhaps in this age their only resource. The whole 
 spirit of tlieir institution prevented them from keeping up with the in- 
 tellectual march of the age beyond a certain point (see p. 49) ; but 
 they manifestly remained behind further than was necessary. 
 
 75. It only required therefore a few collisions with indi- 
 vidual potentates, and the partial suppressions by which 
 these were followed, to prepare the way for the total sup- 
 pression of this society. These were begun first in Portu- 
 gal by the powerful Pombal ; then in France, Spain, Na- 
 ples, and Parma ; and in two years they were driven from 
 all these countries. 
 
 Suppression of the Jesuits in Portugal, Sept. 3, 1759, after having 
 
256 AFFAIRS OF i:rU()l'i:, 17G3— 1786. [lEHioL- 11. 
 
 boon banishcil from the ccmrt, nml tlitir ] x isscssions confi.scatod. Tliey 
 ■were in every way an obstacle in the patli of a reformer bke Pombal. — 
 Tlieir fall in France was efVected Nov., 17(34, by Choiseul and I'omjia- 
 dour. Their lawsuit with the Lioncys, bef^un by Lavalette, ITo.j, only 
 gave the public and parliament an op|)ortnnity of showing their aver- 
 sion to them. They were banished iiom Spain, April 2, 17G7, (soon 
 after from Naples, Jan., 1708, and from I'arma, in Feb.,) by Aranda and 
 Comi)omanes, who regarded them as their enemies. 
 
 D' Alkmukut 5«r la dcst ruction dis Jcsiiitcs en France. 17G.3, 8vo. 
 (Q^uvres, tom. v.) 
 
 Lcttere siille cacjioni ddla expiilsionc r/e' Gcsitifi di Spagnn, 17(38. 
 
 C. G. VOX ^lUKU, Geschichte der Jesniten in Portugal unter Pombal. 
 Nurnberg, 1787, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 76. Amid all th(?se misfortunes, the Jesuits, as tlieir or- 
 der could only be dissolved by the Pope, found a powerfid 
 support in Clement XIII., as lonp; as he lived, although his 
 
 obstinacy and violence, especially in the contest 
 with Parma, not only injured them, but in general 
 compromised the papal power, and imbittered all tlie Ca- 
 tholic courts. The suppression of the society was so firmly 
 determined on at those of the Bourbons, that even the 
 change of ministers in France, after the fall of Choiseul, pro- 
 duced no alteration. Thus Clemens W\ . (Ganganelli) was 
 finally compelled to take the step, of which he well foresaw 
 the consequences for himself and the Roman see. By the 
 brief Dominus ct rcdcmntor iioster. the order 
 
 Julv21,lT73. 1111 
 
 was abolisne(j. 
 
 Besides the works quoted in the former part of the volume, see Vita 
 dc Chmcnte A'lJ'. Gdur/anrlli per il Si<;. Makciiese CatLiVCCIOLI. 
 Firenze, 1776, 8vo. The rare Franciscan deserves a better biography. 
 
 77. The fall of the order of the Jesuits was considered as 
 a triumph of philoso])hy. But though all may agree re- 
 specting the pernicious nature of this institution, its over- 
 throw was prosecuted in a spirit which is rarely beneficial 
 to society. The great political influence of the order had 
 passed away ; and it wotdd be absiu'd to believe that it was 
 any longer able to rule those \s\'c\\\ events which involved 
 the interests of the world. I'xit witli it was overthrown a 
 princii):il ])illar of the Roman luerarcliy, and where so much 
 was totteri^<^ it was easy to foresee that more would soon 
 fall. AN'hat a gaj), too, it must suddenly have left in the 
 Catholic world ! Tlie total abolition of great institutions is 
 always dangerous, even when they are deg(3nerate ; and it 
 
PART I.] AFFAIRS OF EUROPE, 17G3— 1786. _ 257 
 
 will ever remain a problem for liistory, whether the reaction 
 caused by the suppression of tlie order, was not even more 
 hurtful than its continuation would have been, limited by 
 reform. 
 
 78. During these transactions, the west of Europe en- 
 joyed the happy repose which the friendly treaty 
 between Austria and Prussia, favoured as it was by 
 
 the state of affairs in the north, had re-established. At the 
 same time, however, the policy there ripened in the interior of 
 the cabinets that desire of aggrandizement and compactness 
 of territory, which, originating chiefly in the scattered state 
 of the Prussian dominions, found such loud advocates in the 
 wants and internal administration of the kingdoms, that it 
 soon came to be considered as the ruling principle of poli- 
 tics. The first fruit of this policy, which astonished all 
 Europe, was the first partition of Poland, ^yhat 
 further proof could be wanting, to show to what a 
 wretched condition a political injustice such as this, must 
 ultimately bring the federative system of modern Europe ? 
 
 (See the history of the first partition of Poland in the section re- 
 specting the north.) 
 
 79. The partition of Poland itself, however, was not so 
 dangerous as the application of this principle to the German 
 empire ; upon which the preservation of the whole European 
 system seemed to depend. And yet this very country, from 
 its internal piecemeal state, offered the greatest excitements 
 to the powerfid to follow the example which the division of 
 Poland had set them. 
 
 80. .Its consequences were soon visible, now that Joseph 
 II. became, not only in name but in deed, the colleague of 
 his mother. This emperor may be called, in the fullest 
 sense of the word, the child of the age, for in him its vices 
 and virtues were faithfully personified. Insatiable of in- 
 formation, he possessed great and various abilities ; of rest- 
 less activity, and therefore fertile in projects. Often un- 
 reasonable, and careless of justice. In the prime of youth 
 and full of ambition, he was desirous of acquiring a name. 
 What had not Europe to fear from such a character, even 
 where his intentions appeared good ? Where could the pre- 
 vailing disease of cabinet policy, the passion for the com- 
 
 s 
 
258 AFrAIllS OF EUROrE, 17G3— 178G. [rEnior. u. 
 
 ])actn(>ss of states, be more likely to take effect than on such 
 a character as this ? 
 
 81. Examples of this system were exhibited in 
 the seizure of Bukowina, and similar steps were 
 meditated in Italy, l^ut it was soon introduced into Ger- 
 many itself, where Bavaria, from its situation, seemed likely 
 to become an easy prey, 'Hie aj)proaching extinction of 
 the electoral line, led the emperor to project the annexation 
 of this state to the Austrian dominions, and this most 
 vicious project had the most lasting result. Even before 
 it became actually extinct, the rightful successor was gained 
 over and induced to enter into a comj)act. But the speedy 
 occupation of Bavaria was still more revolting than the 
 compact itself 
 
 Extinction of tlie electoral house of Bavaria with the elector ]\Iaxi- 
 milian Joseph, Doc. 30, 1777, and succession of Charles Theodore, 
 elector of the Palatinate, as the head of the elder "Wittelsbachian line. 
 But a compact was made with him, Jan. 3, 1778, at Vienna, and all 
 Lower Bavaria was occupied by Austrian troops. 
 
 82. Hazardous as these steps w^ere, they appeared to be 
 favoured by the situation of Europe ; France, now 
 connected with Austria by the marriao-e of the heir 
 apparent with Maria Antoinette, without any particular 
 views on the continent, plunged, to please America, into a 
 naval war ; Russia sought to aggrandize herself at the ex- 
 pense of the Turks, and a war seemed highly })robable. 
 England, engaged in a colonial war, comes not at all into 
 consideration. Prussia, therefore, alone remained. 
 
 S.'3. J'rom this quarter a powerful op|)osition was to be 
 expected. The fall of Bavaria was also the fall of the. whole 
 ))olitical system of Frederic II. It led miavoidably to the 
 de>tructit)n of the constitution of the Cierman en)pire ; its 
 forms could hardly have survived. The further conse- 
 (jucnces of this step were very evident : consecpiently Fre- 
 (h'Hc, by having recourse to arms, not only protected 
 Bavaria, but himself, and what he had already fought for. 
 
 84. Frederic's self-denial, nevertheless, afforded a proof, 
 that there existed in iMn-opean policy a higher principle 
 than sheer egotism. \\ here will a more striking example 
 of pure disinterestedness be found, and of a sj)irit raised 
 above the prejudices of the age, than his conduct evinced 
 
•PART I.] AFFAIRS OF EUROPE, 17C3— 17S6. 259 
 
 when the opportunity was offered him of enlarging and con- 
 necting his own dominions ? Contrary to the usual course 
 of events, it was decreed that the war which now broke out 
 should close without bloodshed. Maria Theresa feared for 
 the repose of her old age and the welfare of her son, and 
 Frederic desired not to tempt fortune again. The mediation 
 of France and Russia, especially the latter, who, as her war 
 with the Turks was concluded, threatened to become more 
 than a mediator, moderated the demands of hostile powers ; 
 and the war was terminated by the peace of Teschen ; not 
 however without Joseph's retaining a portion of his booty. 
 
 The protestation of the Duke of Deux Fonts, as next of kin, against 
 the compact of Vienna ; claims of the electorate of Saxony to the allo- 
 dial succession ; and of Jlecklenburg, to Leuchtenberg, supported by 
 Frederic. Unsuccessful negotiations, and Bohemia invaded by Frederic, 
 Prince Henry, and the Saxons, July 4, 1778, who were not, however, 
 able to drive the Austrians from their strong position along the upper 
 Elbe. — In the mean time, an autograph correspondence commenced by 
 !Maria Theresa, and a congress held, soon after, at Teschen, under 
 French and Russian mediation; truce, March 7, and peace. May 13, 
 1779. Conditions: 1. Austria obtained the part of Lower Bavaria 
 between the Inn, the Salza, and the Danube ; in consideration of the 
 abolition of the convention of Vienna. 2. She promised not to oppose 
 the future union of the Margravates of Anspach and Baireuth witli the 
 Prussian monarchy. 3. Saxony received, in instalments, six million 
 dollars ; and Mecklenburg, the privilege de non appeUando. The con- 
 ditions were guaranteed by France and Eussia, and the empire acceded 
 to tliem. 
 
 The ambassadors to Teschen were: from Austria, Count J. Phil. 
 Cobenzel ; from Prussia, Baron von Eiedesel ; from the electorate of 
 Saxony, Count von Zinzendorf. As mediators : from France, Baron de 
 Breteuil ; from Russia, Prince Repuin. 
 
 Me moire historiqiie de la negociation en 1778, pour la succession de 
 Baviere, con fee par le Roi de Prusse Frederic le Grand au compte 
 Eustathe de Goertz. a Francfort, 1812, 8vo. The principal authority. 
 From this work is drawn the greater part of the information in Doiui's 
 Mcmoires, etc., vol. i. Whoever has a taste for diplomatic greatness, 
 may here be gratified. 
 
 CEuvres posthumes de Frederic II., tom. v. To this narration, the 
 correspondence between Frederic, IMaria Theresa, and Joseph is an- 
 nexed. How inferior Joseph here appears to the great king and to his 
 own noble mother. 
 
 Collection of Prussian documents in, 
 
 Reciieil de deductions, Manifestes, etc., qui ont etc. redigcs et puhlies 
 par le Comte de Herzbekg, (see above,) dcpuis 1778, jusqiC a 1789. 
 Berlin, 1789, tom. 2. 
 
 85. The peace of Teschen put an end to hostilities, but 
 
 s 2 
 
SfiO AFFAIItS OF FlHOrF, 17G3— 178G. [rEnion n. 
 
 not to irritation, (of wliicli a(lvant;i<;o niio;lit oaj>ily bo takon 
 by foreip^n powers,) for tlic (U<]uisil'i(»i of Bavaria (with a 
 now policy now ntinios also oanio in voj^no) roiuamcd tlio 
 favourite ])rojoct of tlio Austrian cabinet. In what cabinet, 
 whether groat or small, did not similar wishes at this time 
 sprinix up? Tin; death of Maria Theresa, which 
 
 Xov. 29, 17S0. 1 ,. I 1 Ti 1 1 1 p 1 • II 
 
 Jelt Joseph Jl. sole ruler, lett hun at lu)erty to 
 act as lie pleased ; and not only in the great domestic 
 changes which took j)lacc, especially those relating to the 
 
 church, which Pius ^ I. sounht to avert by a 
 
 March. 1782. ', . ,,. " , , • "i • 
 
 personal journey to \ lenna, but also in Ins 
 foreign policy, he evinced that reckless desire of aggrandize- 
 ment, jxirticularly in the (icnnan empire, and that contempt 
 for existing treaties, of which his conduct towards the Dutcii, 
 respecting the demolishing of the frontier fortilications, as 
 well as the still more important one respecting the opening 
 of the Scheldt, afford such striking examples. 
 
 Arbitrary renunciation of the barrier-treaty, Nov. 7, 1781. — The 
 opcnin;:; of tlie Sdiehlt, the fortress of !Mastricht and twelve others ilo- 
 mandeil', May 4, 17S4 ; acts of violence immediately followed. Treaty 
 of Versailles concluded tlirough tlie intervention of France, Nov. 8, 
 178o, by which Joseph <rives up his claims for ten million guilders ! 
 
 V. DuH.M Drnkinirdir/keiten, vol. ii., contains a minute account of 
 botli transactions. 
 
 86. The state of the west of Europe facilitated those en- 
 terprises of Joseph. England, France, Spain, and tlie 
 Netherlands, had just concluded the war respecting North 
 America, and stood in need of repose. By the 
 
 Jail. 20, 17S3. ,' T - 11 II 1 11 
 
 treaty ot \ crsailles, wlncii closed that war, no 
 alteration had been made in the European possessions; and 
 the harmony between England and I'Vance seemed even 
 
 more i)erfect than before the war. A com- 
 
 Scjit. aC, I7S6. . { 1111 1 
 
 mercial treaty was concluded between them ; 
 and the only object which seemed at all likely to lead to a 
 future misunderstanding was the Dutch republic, which 
 France had attached to her interests by the great services 
 .'^ho had rendered it by her friendly mediation both with 
 England and Austria. Some jealou."<y, too, was excited by 
 the treaty of commerce, which was nnich to the advantage 
 of England. 
 
 (See the history of the colonial war, in the section on the colonies.) 
 
PART i] AFFAIRS OF EUROPE, 17G3— 1786. 2G1 
 
 87. Under these circumstances, Joseph II. thought it 
 possible to execute his darhng- scheme on Bavaria by an ex- 
 change. Under the name of the kingdom of Burgmndy, 
 the elector was to have the greater portion of the Austrian 
 Netherlands, with several limitations, however, and in return 
 he w^as to resign to Austria all Bavaria, with the Upper Pa- 
 latinate. This project must have been some time in agita- 
 tion, as Joseph had not only made sure of the elector, but 
 had also gained over Russia by a new alliance. France 
 appeared to remain indiUerent. 
 
 Proposals for an exchange made at jMunich by the Count von Lehr- 
 bach ; and in Deux Fonts, with the heir presumptive, bj the Russian 
 minister, Count Romanzo'sv, who allowed but eight days for considera- 
 tion, Jan., 1785. 
 
 ErkJariing der UrsachciJ, icelche Se. Preussische Majestcit hewogen 
 haben, ihren Mitstcinden eine Association zur Erhultung des Reichssys- 
 tems anzutragen ; in Herzherg Recueil de deductions, etc. depuis, 1758, 
 torn. ii. 
 
 88. Thus Frederic, on the verge of the grave, again saw 
 his system endangered. He did not, however, again un- 
 sheath the sword ; but there is hardly any portion of his 
 glorious career, in which his character appears to more ad- 
 vantage than in the present. He never before so clearly 
 and loudly proclaimed the great importance both to Ger- 
 many and the whole European system, of the preservation 
 of the German constitution. From this time, the whole was 
 based on a strong foundation, — on a German federate sys- 
 tem, of which Prussia was the centre. Thus he formed, in 
 unison with his successor, an association of the German 
 princes, which was held together by their common and per- 
 manent interest. This was his last day's w^ork — tranquil now 
 with recrard to the future, he was e:athered to 
 
 ins lathers m peace. 
 
 The German confederation concluded at Berlin, first with the elector 
 of Saxony, and, advances being made to England, (for the old man con- 
 quered even his long-cherished dislike,) with the elector of Brunswick, 
 July 23, 1785, for the common defence of the German constitution. 
 To it the collateral lines of the three electoral houses, and Mentz, Hesse- 
 Cassel, Mecklenburg, and Anhalt acceded. 
 
 DarsteUung des F'urstenhundes, (von JOH. vox Mlxler,) 1787. 
 Containing infinitely more information than the title seems to promise. 
 
 Ueber die Deutschen Fitrstenbund, von Chr. Wilh. vox Dohm. 1785, 
 Svo. Principally a confutation of the writings printed with it. 
 
520.2 CONTKMI'OKAltY CHANfilCS, 17 10— K'-G. ( iKnu-i. ii. 
 
 f'l/icr (Irti hoiiiijluhc J'rcussischc Association zur ErhitltutKj dts 
 lu ii/issi/stcnis, voM Otto VON Gkmminckn. 17H5. 
 
 The most nciito, copious, and accurate account of the whole trans- 
 action is given in tlie Mcmoirrs, vol. iii., of VoN DoilM, who was him- 
 self employed in tlic transaction. 
 
 II. ('iirsnri/ rinc of tlic iufcnuiJ chutnjrH tcliivh took p}(uc diir'nuj 
 this period hi tlie more powerful stales of tlie \\ Vv/ i>f iliirope, 
 (Did their consequences ; 1740 — 1780. 
 
 1. Tlioiin;h no ^rcat or suddon rovoliitions took plaro 
 during this j)C'riod in the y^oveinnicnt of any of the chief 
 states of the west of Europe, yet in nearly all of thcni a 
 state of thinc^s was ljrou<i;ht about which was likely to lead 
 to tlicni. 
 
 I. PORXrr.AL AND SPAIN. 
 
 2. In Portupil the cxjK'riment was tried how far a na- 
 tion may be reformed, by well-intended compulsion on the 
 part of the government. John V. being succeeded in the 
 royal dignity by his son, Jos. Emanuel, the latter resio-ned 
 
 the helm of state to the Count of Oeyras, Car- 
 
 1750 1777. . . . *^ . 
 
 valho, Marquis of Pombal. No minister besides 
 ever attemj)ted so general a reform, and executed it so vio- 
 lently as Pouibal. Agriculture, industry, connnerce, the 
 military department, instruction, were all to be modelled 
 anew. All that stood in the way, the higher nobility and 
 the Jesuits, were got rid of; and yet after the lapse of 
 twenty-seven years of exertion, tilings were not the same in 
 Portugal, as Pombal had seen them in Germany and Eng- 
 land. No traces of his reforms, not even in the military 
 department, appear to have remained ; nothing but the ex- 
 ample, if any was needed, that institutions established by 
 force will fall when the force is taken away. 
 
 !Much has been written respecting Pombal ; but all either for or 
 against him. Among the first is: 
 
 JJ'admitii.strotion de Schast. Jos. dc Carval/io, Comic (t Oeyras, Mar- 
 quis dr l\tinh(d. Amsterdam, 1788, 4 vols. 8vo. Valuable for the 
 pieces jtisfijicatires. 
 
 Among the works against him : 
 
 Memoirs of tlic Court of Portiujid, and of the Administration of the 
 Count (FOei/ras. Loud. 17G7, 8vo. 
 
TAUT i.J PORTUGAL AND SPAIN. 2G3 
 
 Vida di Sehast. Guis. Marchese dl Pomhal, Conte crOri/ras. 1781; 
 
 4 vols. 8vo. 
 
 The collection of his laws, which no writer has used : 
 
 Colleccao das Leyes, Decretos e Alvaras, del Rey Fidelissimo Don 
 
 Jozeo I. desde o anno 1750 ate o de 1759. Lisboa, 1767, 2 vols. fol. 
 
 3. In Spain, the maxims of government changed, with 
 the rulers ; Ferdinand VI. pursued a different 
 policy from his father ; and his half-brother Charles 
 
 III. again adopted a new course ; yet no import- ^"^' 
 ant revolution was made in the constitution. The change 
 \vhich had taken place in the relations of the court with the 
 see of Rome, and the suppression of the order of Jesuits, 
 were striking proofs that the Pyrenees had not altogether 
 prevented the entrance of new ideas. The reign of Charles 
 III. is distinguished for enlightened ministers. To ,-,,^, 
 Aranda and Campomanes, succeeded Florida Blan- i'-^- 
 ca ; and many wise regulations, both for the mother country 
 and her colonies, mark their administrations. But on the 
 great mass of the nation and on its character, this had little 
 effect. Its principal features were too deeply impressed to 
 be easily effaced. 
 
 J. F. BouRGOiNG, Nouveau Voyage en Espagiie, on tableau de Vttat 
 de cette Monarchic, a Paris, 1788, 3 vols. 8vo. Third edition, 1803. 
 The best work for information respecting Spain as it then was. 
 
 AV. CoxE, Memoirs of the kings of Spai?i of the house of Bourbon, 
 
 from the accession of Philip V. to the death of Charles III., 1700 to 
 
 1788. Lond. 1815, 5 vols. 8vo. The principal work for the court and 
 
 diplomatic history of Spain during this period, and mostly drawn from 
 
 otiicial information. 
 
 II. FRANCE. 
 
 4. France manifested all the symptoms which weak and 
 unfortunate rulers usually bring upon a state. The inepti- 
 tude of Louis XV. is sufficiently known ; but a concurrence 
 of circumstances, such as is rarely to be found in a state, 
 combined to produce here that internal disorganization 
 whose consequences it was impossible to foresee. 
 
 Memoires du Marechal de Richelieu. 1790 — 1793, 9 vols. 8vo. 
 Compiled from the papers of the French Alcibiades, by Soulavie. ' 
 They comprise the long period of 1710 — 1774. Replete with interest- 
 ing information, they give a picture of the sinking French monarchy, 
 in almost all its details. Would that the publisher had not given it a 
 tint of the revolutionary spirit of the age. 
 
S64 CONTEMPOllARY CHANGES, 1710—1786. [rEnioD ii. 
 
 To this class lx'lonj» also, tlie 
 
 Mcinnirrs srcrrtts dr T.niiis XIV., <Ie la rrf/rnce, ct dc Louis Xl'., par 
 J. Drct.os. (ill liis G^nvrvs, vols. vi. vii.) I'uris, 1790. 
 
 f). 11i(' ancient cause of dispute raised l)y the Jansenists 
 and tlir l)ull Unigenitus, still continued ; and the acceptance 
 or non-acceptance of that bnll led to a real ecclesiastical 
 schism, which on account of its unavoidable reaction on the 
 great mass of the people, must have been liighly 
 critical : it gave occasion to the most scandalous 
 scenes. 
 
 G. But it was still more critical by the influence which it 
 liad upon the parliament, and by the opposition which these 
 manifested. Tiie pretensions of these assemblies in France, 
 were not perhaps supported by history, but they were con- 
 sidered by the nation as the last prop of liberty, as there 
 was no longer any convention of the States-general. 'J'he 
 dubious nature of this opjX)sition rendered it more hurtful 
 than a legitimate one, as it drove the government to violent 
 
 ,7.-,3. measures, which it was without ability to execute. 
 
 1713. The repeated exile of the parliament terminated 
 with their triumph. Their final suppression was 
 regarded as an act of pure despotism ; and how 
 hazardous tlieir re-establishment was by Louis X\ I., has 
 been shown by the result. 
 
 7. These disputes wei'e the more dangerous, because they 
 were periodically renewed : but they were nothing com- 
 pared with the danger })ro(luced by the alliance with Aus- 
 tria, which became firmly cemented by the mar- 
 
 Mav If., ITTn. . ' „ , , , . * • 1 TV 1 • K 
 
 riage ot the (hui})hm with Maria Antomette. 
 By this measure, the ruling dynasty sacrificed the character 
 of the nation, and took the first step towards its downfal. 
 Like the Stuarts of EntJ-land, in former times, it set itself in 
 opposition to tlie nation ; and the long series of unfortunate 
 consequences, the insignificance to which it reduced the 
 
 nation in the political system of Europe, which 
 
 \Yj\ 17x7. * * ^ . , 
 
 daily became more apparent, and w^hich A'er- 
 gennes during his ministry was imable to conceal, neces- 
 sarily widened the breach in proportion as the national 
 pride was wounded. 
 
 8. In addition to this, the finances were in such a 
 wretched state of disorder as left no hope of their thorough 
 
 1771. 
 1771. 
 
FART I.] GREAT BRITAIN. 265 
 
 re-establishment, without such measures as might endanger 
 the stability of the government. Since the death of Fleury 
 the empire of mistresses had prevented the organization of 
 any effective ministry. And when under Louis XVI., the 
 finance was placed under the control of Necker, 
 
 ^ . , , n 1- 11 1777—1781. 
 
 it was at once evident that mere irugality would 
 
 be productive of as little benefit, as the highly unseasonable 
 
 experiment of publicity had been. The abolition 
 
 of the privileges of the nobility was perhaps the 
 
 only resource ; but was not even this an attack upon the 
 
 constitution ? 
 
 Compte rendu au Roi par M. Necker. Paris, 1781, 8vo, 
 
 9. Thus France presented the image of an absolute 
 monarchy, which, at variance with the nation, found itself 
 entangled in embarrassments, from which it could only ex- 
 tricate itself by concessions ; whilst these very remedies 
 inflamed the lono'-o-rowing; hatred of the nation towards the 
 privileged orders. What a situation ! There is only the 
 mere chance that bold and decided measures on the part ot 
 the government might have been successful ; what then 
 could mere honesty effect, supported by no extrinsic talent, 
 and united with weakness ? 
 
 III. GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 10. If we should judge of the revolutions made in this 
 state during this period, by the changes in its constitution, 
 scarcely any thing will be found deserving notice. But 
 though the forms of government remained the same, the 
 spirit was greatly changed ; especially after the termination 
 of the seven years' war. 
 
 11. The power of the crown in the interior increased 
 with the power and greatness of the state abroad. The 
 constitution fixes the formal power of a government ; cir- 
 cumstances, the real. After wars so victoriously prosecuted, 
 amid a continual increase of national prosperity, attachment 
 to the constitution and government was natural. What 
 government would not have become more powerful under 
 such circumstances ? 
 
 12. In England, this showed itself by the increasing pre- 
 
~fi6 CONTEMPORAUV ClIANCKS, 17 1U— 17SG. [ii:iiiou ii. 
 
 (lommaiKM! (»!" tlic crown iu piirlianicnt. Tlic j)ractic:il |)('cu- 
 liarity of British freedom consists in this, that tlie parhanicnt 
 lias not to fear a strn|j:<j;le witli the crown, but the crown a 
 struLi'^'le witli tlie parhament. This coinjx'ls ministers to 
 use every exertion to acquire and maintain a majority, and 
 obliges them to resign wlicn tlicy fail in doinn; so. In this 
 respect \\ alijolc's adnnnistration forms an epoch, 
 
 1721 1712. ' I . . . ' , 
 
 as he was the first minister who held ollicc i'or 
 more than twenty years, by preservintj; always a majority. 
 lie is accused of having done so by corruption. But though 
 no one doubts this to have existed among the electors, there 
 is much uncertainty with respect to the elected. No doubt, 
 the temptation is great for a minister to obtain a majority 
 by any means in his power; but what must that nation at 
 last have become, whose representatives were nothing more 
 than a herd of men for sale ! 
 
 13. The increasing intiuence of the crown, however, led 
 to the idea of a reform ; which, it was thought, might be 
 ellected by an improved national representation. Several 
 of the greatest men, among others the two Pitts, were in- 
 clined to it at first ; but neglected it when they came into 
 power. Thus the time of tranquillity escaped, and times of 
 conunotion are not adapted for such experiments ! Should 
 it ever take place without an entire revolution, is there any 
 thing like certainty that the choice will fall on worthier jkm-- 
 sons ? — Yet jiei-haj)s this is the rock on which the constitu- 
 tion of Great Britain will (me day be wrecked. 
 
 Loud Sklkhuv, on Parliamentary Reform. A higlily instniotivc 
 essay. 
 
 14. One striking peculiarity in the British constitution 
 is the extent to which its stability seems gradually to have 
 become dcpcMidcnt upon jiublic credit. By the rise of the 
 funding system tlu^ money atfairs of the government became 
 connected with those of tlie nation ; and, as nearlv all the 
 money was borrowed within the kingdom, in proj)ortion as 
 the national debt increased, so did tin* monied intei'cst of 
 the government and the nation become more firmly knit 
 together. Ever}- thing that affected public credit naturally 
 allected the funding system; and with the fall of the latter, 
 the government must have become powerless. Thus this 
 system forms the strongest buttress of the government. 
 
PART I.j 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. ~G7 
 
 Besides, in proportion as the national debt grew larger and 
 larger, the preservation of the government required that the 
 national prosperity should go on increasing ; and no other 
 government ever found itself so imperiously called upon to 
 promote the welfare of its people. It was, however, long 
 ago discovered tliat, though under no engagement to pay 
 otF the capital, there is a point beyond which even the in- 
 terest could not be raised ; a discovery which naturally gave 
 rise to fear for the national credit. This fear was allayed by 
 the establishment of the celebrated sinking: fund, 
 
 O ' 1786. 
 
 by William Pitt, which, by seeming to provide for 
 
 the payment of the debt, effected the principal object, the 
 
 security of public credit. 
 
 The funded debt of Great Britain, at the beginning of this period, 
 ]739, was something more than fiftj-four million pounds. The Aus- 
 trian war of succession increased it to seventy-eight, the seven years' 
 war to one hundred and forty-six, the colonial war to two hundred and 
 fifty-seven millions. The former expedients adopted to reduce it, the 
 ancient sinking fund, established 1717, and some payments in peace, 
 had done but little. Pitt's new sinking fund was established May 26, 
 1786, according to the calculation of price ; but only to liquidate the 
 debt then due ; by the bill of Feb. 17, 1792, however, a separate sink- 
 ing fund of one per cent, was decreed for every new loan. Thus the 
 stock, since government is always its purchaser, maintains nearly always 
 the same value, however chimerical may be the calculations respecting 
 the entire payment of the national debt, so long as new loans are con- 
 stantly made. 
 
 Essai sur Vetat actiiel de Vadminisfjmtion des finances et de la dette 
 nationale de la Grande Bretagne, par Fr. Gentz. Londres, 1800, 8vo. 
 
 15. While the government, public credit, and national 
 prosperity, were thus closely interwoven with each other, 
 Great Britain could not but acquire an internal stability, 
 quite the reverse of what had lately existed in France. The 
 increase, too, of the national prosperity seemed the more 
 secure, as it did not so much depend upon foreign trade as 
 upon domestic culture, industry, and traffic, all of which had 
 v/onderfully improved since the seven years' war, and had 
 been greatly promoted by canals and other public works. 
 Still, after all, the state of a government whose existence 
 depends on a continual and increasing prosperity, must be 
 in the highest degree dangerous. To what expedients may 
 it give rise ! 
 
2G8 CONTEMI'ORAUY CIIANGKS, 1710— 178G. [i-cnioD ir. 
 
 IV. Tin: UNITED NETHERLANDS. 
 
 16. An important revolution took placo in tlie |2;ovcm- 
 mont of this republic, soon after the eoinrnenrenicnt of this 
 period, by the introduction of hereditary stadtholders over 
 all the provinces. This happened in consequence of a 
 threatened invasion of Dutch lirabant by the French, which 
 gave rise to a revolution of the people in favour of \\ illiani 
 
 IV., already stadtholder of Friesland, Groninfjen, 
 
 and (lueldcrland, and who was descended ironi 
 
 th(,' younger branch of the house of Oi'ano-c. This certauily 
 
 occasioned a change, but by no means an im})rovement in 
 
 the ixovernment, 
 
 17. One party only conquered ; the other was subdued 
 but not annihilated. The victorious believed the country 
 strengthened by the increased power of the hereditary stadt- 
 holder, which to the conquered appeared the yoke of tyranny. 
 This, however, was not the means of restoring the declining 
 republic to its former vigour — whether this was at all pos- 
 sible is another question. It may also be observed, that the 
 new house of Orange was not so fruitful in great men as the 
 ancient one. 
 
 18. The family connexions of the new hereditary stadt- 
 holder accjuired also a high political importance. Related 
 by blood with the present royal family of England, the 
 Orange party drew their chief support from this country ; 
 while commercial jealousy, and especially the maritime 
 power of the Enghsh during the seven years' war, had 
 formed a strong anti-English party, particularly in the great 
 connnercial cities. The early death of M illiaui W . gn^atly 
 streugthened these relations ; but the subsecjuent marriage 
 
 of his son and successor, William \ ., with a Prus- 
 
 1767. . . .,,' „ . 
 
 sian prmcess, was still more imj)ortant from its 
 consequences. 
 
 After tlie early death of "VVilliam IV., Ott. 22, 1751, Anna, his 
 wi«l<»w, daughter of George II., acted as guardian to her minor son, 
 "William V., assisted by field-marshal Prince Louis of Brunswick, who 
 after her death, Jan. 12, 17o9, exercised the office alone, and retained a 
 strong legitimate influence even after the majority of the prince, 1766. 
 
 19. Thus this state, apparently in its vigour, was under- 
 mined by domestic misfortunes, and only required an ex- 
 
PART I.] THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 269 
 
 ternal shock to bring it to its last struggle. This shock was 
 
 given it by the war with England, which deprived 
 
 it of what was left of its political importance ; took 
 
 from it its colonies and commerce ; and left it a prey to 
 
 factions, which in the following period worked its ruin. 
 
 V. THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 20. In this period, the German empire underwent the 
 most important revolutions, not indeed in the form of its 
 constitution, but in its internal relations. The Austrian 
 war of succession plunged it in civil dissensions ; and not- 
 withstanding that Bavaria was reinstated at the peace in her 
 ancient situation, and the imperial crown again annexed to 
 the house of Austria, yet by the treaty of Breslau, Prussia 
 was placed in a new and permanent relation towards the 
 empire. 
 
 21. The conquest of Silesia broke off the ancient and 
 friendl}' alliance between the houses of Austria and Bran- 
 denburo; ; and the new and hostile attitude which Frederic 
 assumed towards Austria, practically annihilated the unity 
 of the German body, although its form still continued. A 
 general union for the attainment of any particular object, a 
 general war of the empire, seemed scarcely practicable, 
 while one of its members stood at the peace as the opponent 
 and rival of the emperor. Yet the empire not only sur- 
 vived, but, after the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle and Huberts- 
 burg, entered upon the happiest days of its existence. 
 
 22. This, at the first glance, appears one of the most 
 striking occurrences in history ; but it arose from a variety 
 of causes, which render it not difficult to explain. The first, 
 without doubt, was the alliance of Austria and France. 
 There could be no secure peace in Germany while these 
 two powers remained rivals ; for as it was the usual theatre 
 of their wars, it is difficult to conceive how they could have 
 engaged in any in which the empire could help being en- 
 tangled. With tliis alliance, therefore, the ancient danger 
 disappeared, and security was re-established. At Ratisbon, 
 Kaunitz and Pompadour deserved a monument ! 
 
 23. The second cause, is to be found in the situation of 
 Frederic, which compelled him to maintain the German 
 
270 CONTEMPORAWV CIIANCiES, 1740—1786. [ri-nioc ii. 
 
 body C{>rj)or:it(', as its fall Nvould liavp ])orn the ncrg:nin(lizp- 
 nu'iit of Austria. M'liat, tluMT'lbrc, had tlio otlier statos to 
 fear from liim, ovon witli his wihh'st sclicmes for tlie exten- 
 sion of liis own dominions. Thus a combination of circum- 
 stances assured tlie security of tlin empire ; nevertheless, 
 tliat it was in reahty dependent upon tlicse political relations 
 alone, scarcely any one would acknowledge, after reflecting 
 on their mutability. 
 
 24. FredcM'ic s long reign gave permanence to this state 
 of things in Germany, which now, ior the first time, enjoyed 
 a thirty years' repose. On her wide plains, where had so 
 often been fought the battles of Europe, the arts of peace 
 Avere at length suffered to ripen. The various blessings of 
 a ^vce federative government, now favoured by circum- 
 stances, oTadually unfolded themselves ; and states of the 
 second and third magnitude, even down to the free cities, 
 acfpiired their full importance; each government assuming 
 its own proper character. 
 
 25. Amid this political diversity, civilization advanced 
 in Germany, with such force, rapidity, and variety, as had 
 never before been equalled ; the scientific, however, gener- 
 ally had the start of the beautiful. The literature of the 
 Germans was peculiarly their own work, as it did not, as is 
 usual, descend from the upper ranks downwards, but sprung 
 from the nation itself It has grown, as it were, with its 
 growth ; and forms so essentially a constituent part of its 
 character, that it never can be separated from it. 
 
 2G. M hile the progressive advance of its language and 
 literature united the nation, the political bond, which should 
 liave held all together, continued to grow weaker. The 
 emj)eror enjoyed little more than his direct influence, and 
 w hat political writer out of Austria would have dared to 
 recommend an enlargement of the power of that sovereign ? 
 The season of tranquillity is the time for reforms ; but it was 
 not possible to reform even the tribunals of the 
 empire ; and under the existing relations of Aus- 
 tria and Prus.sia, how were greater ones possible? Melan- 
 choly fate of nations ! TIk? corruption of their constitutions 
 springs from their prosperity ; and those who ought to take 
 the lead in improvements are generally the most interested 
 in the c(>rruption. 
 
TART I.] PRUSSIA. 271 
 
 VI. PRUSSIA. 
 
 27. The Prussian monarchy, raised by Frederic II. to a 
 station among the leading- powers, was ahnost doubled in 
 extent and population ; but the basis of its internal organiz- 
 ation, established by his father, and with it the character of 
 the state, remained essentially unchanged. Frederic en- 
 larged and improved, but he overthrew none of the ancient 
 fundamental institutions. 
 
 28. The government of this state, with the exception of 
 two secondary provinces, is not constitutional as the German 
 generally are, but purely autocratic. Is it this, or the 
 various restraints it imposes, that makes it so little beloved 
 in foreign countries, however highly it may be extolled ? 
 Still tlie autocracy was much modified ; and its arbitrary 
 character was much softened, as the government of most 
 of the provinces was deputed to colleges, and not to indi- 
 viduals. 
 
 29. By the great increase of the army, economy was 
 forced upon the government, especially as the accumu- 
 lation of a treasury from the surplus of the etats was one of 
 Frederic's maxims. Great institutions, therefore, which 
 depend on a liberal expenditure, could scarcely flourish 
 here ; but in all other respects, so far as compatible with 
 absolute power, the government was noble and excellent. 
 The laws were just, and duly administered ; agriculture was 
 protected and encouraged ; the liberty of the press and of 
 speech was almost as entire as in the most free republics ; 
 and its beneficial consequences were the greater, as Prussia 
 became, in this respect, the pattern of other governments. 
 
 30. In a state composed of parts, gradually brought to- 
 gether, this unity of government compensated for the want 
 of unity of nation and territory. Frederic's personal indus- 
 try and method, to which history can offer no parallel, form- 
 ed the mainspring of the whole administration. Perfectly 
 master of himself, he was always at his post ; and the dawn- 
 ing light generally found the duties of the day already done. 
 It is impossible to contemplate tliis extraordinary man, who 
 thus exhibited for nearly half a century the brightest ex- 
 ample of a high-minded performance of duty, without feel- 
 
272 CONTKMl'OKAKY CHANCES, 1710— 17&G. [n.Kiou ii. 
 
 iiii^s of nn'orciicc and luliniratioii. ^\ ho needs so little as 
 li(% to fear eensure .' His very I'ailiii'^s sjiran*;' from his 
 {greatness; hut they re-acted no less powerfully on the state 
 and on the nation. 
 
 :U. I'^rederie never eonf()und<'d himself with his people. 
 To them, only the ruler helon^ed ; the man, to a small 
 circle of foreip;ners. This division produced the most im- 
 portant consecpiences.— iiy it he threw a shade over his 
 own natii)!! ; a misfortune, an irreparable misfortune for 
 both ! The nation lost the respect it deserved ; the king 
 remained behind his peoi)le and the spirit of the age. Must 
 wc not attribute it to this, that tlu; important changes, 
 especially in the rights and relations of the various orders of 
 the state, so loudly demanded by the spirit of the age, re- 
 mained entirely out of his ])lan .' 
 
 3"2. The strength of a state, which projx'rly lies in the na- 
 tion and government, Frederic only saw in his army and his 
 treasure. " On it rests the state, like the world on the 
 shoulders of Atlas." He sought to realize his ideal of a 
 standing army, by making it, as far as possible, a mere 
 machine. He never admitted that there even exists here a 
 boundary line, beyond which men cannot go without 
 olfending nature. No w here, therefore, has the wall of par- 
 tition between the civil and military classes been so strong 
 as in the Prussian monarchy. Never has internal weakness 
 been more completely concealed under the semblance of ex- 
 t<'rnal strength. 
 
 '3'S. T\\o. greatest misfortune which sprung from the per- 
 sonal government of Frederic, was the a})j)lication of it as a 
 ])rinciplc to the civil administration. W ho can deny the 
 truth of this? Where can there be found in a state, in 
 which the chief minister is little more than head clerk, 
 scope for the talents and action of superior abilities and 
 genius? A\'here a practical school for their formation and 
 growth ? How nnich was the activity of the subordinate 
 offices rej)resse(l by forms ! But although Frederic's go- 
 vernment extendefl this j^rinciple, its foundation had been 
 laid by the organization introduced by his father. 
 
 If we examine what is meant by the conversion of the state into a 
 machine, (see p. 251,) by state mnst be understood neither tlic iiatioii, 
 nor even the whole retinue of public servants ; but the administration, 
 
p^RT 1.] AUSTRIA. 273 
 
 and the executive authorities. These must be regulated so that all their 
 efforts may be directed to the fulfilment of one principal object ; but 
 this is perfectly consistent with freedom of action, and is far removed 
 from that species of administration which would effect all bj forms, and 
 bind every thing to forms. 
 
 TJeber die Staatsverwaltung deutscher Lander, und die Dienerschaft 
 des Regenten, von Aug. Wllh. Eehberg. Hanover, 1807, 8vo. 
 
 34. B)^ this immediate government of tlie prince, the 
 welfare of the state was necessarily bound in a high degree 
 to his person. Frederic, sufficient of himself, had no coun- 
 cil of state ; the principal means in an hereditary autocracy 
 of making the spirit of a ruler survive him. He alone con- 
 stituted his cabinet. Not eveiy one was as competent to 
 do so as he ; and what pernicious consequences may spring 
 from the collisions of the higher authorities, has been shown 
 by later experience. 
 
 De la Monarehie Prussienne sous Frederic le grand; par le Comte 
 DE ISIiRABEAU. Londres, 1788, 7 vols. 8vo. (The two last parts con- 
 sist of an appendix respecting Austria, Saxony, and Bavaria.) Inac- 
 curacies may easily be discovered in this work, but how few states can 
 boast of such a spirited delineation ! — Did those who make statistics to 
 consist of tables never suspect what a lesson they might learn here ? 
 
 Von DoHir, Denkwiirdigkeiten (see above, p. 249). The fourth vo- 
 lume is wholly devoted to a sketch of Frederic's character. By far 
 the best. 
 
 VII. AUSTRIA. 
 
 35. Respecting no one of the great states of Europe is it 
 more difficult to form a general opinion than of Austria, not 
 only because it has so little that is general, but because 
 even that is enveloped in obscurity. Statistical tables ex- 
 hibit, with sufficient exactness, its superficial resources, both 
 in population and cattle ; but these accounts are deficient 
 as to the finances. What satisfactory information do they 
 give us of the internal spirit, or even of the course of the 
 administration ? 
 
 36. With the house of Lorraine a new family was seated 
 on the throne, widely different from that of Hapsburg. 
 Spanish etiquette, together with many of the ancient maxims 
 of government, disappeared. Little change, however, was 
 made in the great internal relations of the monarchy, though 
 much was at times attempted. 
 
 37. Among these, the connexion between Hungary and 
 
 T 
 
^71 CONTKMrORAUV CHANGKS, 1710— 178G. [feiuod ii. 
 
 Austria was indubitably the most important. IIuu|:^arv, in 
 liut tlie chief country of the monarcliy, was treated like a 
 coiHiucrcd province ; subjected to the most opj)n'ssive com- 
 mercial restraints, it was re^;ar(led as a colony, from which 
 Austria exacted wdiat she could for her own advantage. 
 The injurious consequences of this internal discord are evi- 
 dent : it depends on circumstances how far they may be- 
 come danp^erous ; but all attempts at a radical change have 
 hitherto been in vain. 
 
 Utigarns' Industrie und Commcrz von Oeorc VOX BF.RZE"^^czv. 
 "NVt'iiiiar, 1802. An excellent exposition of tiie cdniinereial relations of 
 Hungary, conformably to the maxims of an enlightened political econo- 
 my. Happy would it have been, if the internal relations of this fine 
 country had presented no greater obstacles to its prosperity than its ex- 
 ternal. Poland has sulficiently shown how a state, notwithstanding all 
 its patriotism, may become the victim of its constitution. 
 
 38. To this may be added the evils caused by the abuse 
 of paper money. No one of the leading states of Europe 
 has sullered so long and so severely on this account ; but 
 the causes of these evils, brought to maturity by the full 
 formation of the mercantile system, unfortunately lay too 
 deep to be removed by mere regulations. They had their 
 origin in the establishment of the bank of Vienna, which 
 
 aj)|iears to have been designed for a money ma- 
 chine ; but although at particular periods it pro- 
 bably might be of service, yet great foreign wars, which 
 could only be carried on with specie, brought witli them 
 new wants, new embarrassments and troubles. 
 
 Fr. Nicolai, Beschriehtaig einer Reise durch Dcntsrlihiiid und die 
 Srhweiz. 17S3, 12 vols. 8vo. The leading source for Austrian statis- 
 tics of that time, and the only one for the history of the bank of Vienna. 
 
 39. Notwithstanding these drawbacks, this monarchy of- 
 fered immense resources to the prince wiio knew how to 
 govern it aright. And how (Nisy this is, to any one who 
 respects the rights of his subjects, and wishes not to rule as 
 a despot, is exemplified in the reign of Maria Theresa, whose 
 greatness consisted far more in her virtues than in her talents, 
 and whose jiraise is still the theme of all the nations siie 
 governed. Unhap[)ily the new maxims of government in- 
 troduced by Joseph II. were exactly the reverse. With 
 too little energy to eti'ect a violent reform, too impatient to 
 
PART I.J THE TURKISH EMPIRE. 275 
 
 produce a gradual one, and too open to conceal his projects, 
 he stirred up opposition in every quarter, while he believed 
 he was establishing all in the best manner possible. What 
 might not have been the result, had a longer life and more 
 stability allowed him to persevere in his designs ! 
 As it was, he left his dominions either in open re- ''^" 
 bellion, or on the point of becoming so. 
 
 VIII. THE TURKISH EMPIRE. 
 
 40. The Porte, having sunk into a defensive position, and 
 only on compulsion taking part in the affairs of the North, 
 was no longer an object of dread, but rather, the mark to- 
 wards which the desire of aggrandizement was directed. 
 Its political importance, as respects Europe, had thus under- 
 gone a complete change. Writers, too, exposed its internal 
 weakness ; but by forming their judgments according to a 
 European standard, they ran, in many cases, into error. 
 
 Menioires sur les Turcs et les Tartares, par le Bakon de Tott. 
 1785, 4 vols. 
 
 General Remarks. 
 
 41. The course and character of politics in 
 this period, may be gathered from the foregoing 
 sketch. Most of the great relations of the continent were 
 controlled by Frederic II. The part he played was that of 
 conqueror, ambitious but considerate. He owed it to him- 
 self and his kingdom, to maintain the system established by 
 the conquest of Silesia ; still this system was at first founded 
 in pure selfishness. The alliance of Austria and France, 
 however, raised him to the rank of protector of European 
 liberty. Who else could have secured it? On the pre- 
 servation of the Prussian monarchy, therefore, depended the 
 balance of power, not only in Germany, so long as that alli- 
 ance continued, but in all Europe. In this sense Frederic 
 was called, and was in fact, the arbiter of Europe. Would 
 that he had kept strictly to this glorious character ! 
 
 42. The bad direction given to politics by the cabinet 
 plans for the aggrandizement, and the compact formation of 
 their states, has been already pointed out ; yet the magna- 
 nimity of the rulers prevented their degenerating below a 
 
 T 2 
 
JJTG C;1:N1:KAI, KKMAKKS, 17IU- 178G. [n-niODil. 
 
 certain j)()int. 'riicrc iniiilit Ix' imich sclfi.sliiu'ss in tlio po- 
 licy of I'^'cdcric and Catharine, but notliin*^ little or nx'an ; 
 even tiieir selfishness led to a certain de<;reo of stabihty. 
 Jiulers however niaonanimous die, thonixh not the love oi' 
 aic<2,randizenient ; and experience has unhaj)pily proved, that 
 even the virtnes and moral di'j:nity of sovereigns may sink 
 under the corruption of cabinets. 
 
 43. Much alarm, too, was necessarily excited by the 
 levitv with which some of the sxreatest j)otentates of Europe 
 at once set at nought tlie fundamental principles of Euroj)ean 
 policy. C'atharine led the way, by attacking;- the balance 
 of power. She mioht have had reasons for this proceedint^, 
 but wliat appeared simple in her, was contemptible in her 
 numerous imitators. Two systems were likewise introduced 
 into politics during this period, which could not but have a 
 baneftd effect. The first of these, was the conmion practice 
 of makinn- secret articles in j)ublic treaties (the bane of all 
 confidence in a political system) ; and the other, was the 
 abuse of G;uarantees. What are the guarantees offered by 
 great powers, in general, but one sword more placed in 
 tlieir hands to be used at their pleasure ? And how entirely 
 so, when, as in the case of Poland, they guarantee their 
 own acts of injustice? 
 
 44. Practical political economy, though variously modi- 
 fied in particulars, upon the whole remained the same, not- 
 withstanding the rise of many heterogeneous theories. The 
 general land-tax of the pitiisiocrats was favourably received ; 
 but it was found impracticable to make this the only tax ; 
 and if the doctrines of Adam Smith could not prevail even 
 \\\ I'lngland, how could it b(; expected tliey should do so in 
 foH'ign countries? The narrow views of Frederic II., a 
 consecpiencc of the mercantile system, and the still narrower 
 ones of Joseph, were powerful obstacles. It was, neverthe- 
 less, a great step for society in general, that agriculture, and 
 with it the lower orders of the community, obtained a much 
 higher consideration in the eyes of all |)ractical men. The 
 abolition or amelioration of personal villanage or feudal 
 service, was demanded in a tone that prevailed in several 
 countries ; and the promotion of agriculture was at least 
 practically adopted ; generally, however, only as far as 
 could be done without tbrsakiivj; the ancient maxims. The 
 
PART I.] GENERAL REMARKS, 1740— 178G. 277 
 
 contest respecting the free trade in grain affords the best 
 commentary on this subject. 
 
 Dialogues sur le commerce des bleds, par l' Abbe Galliaxi. Loud. 
 1770. A specific for tlie system-mongers. 
 
 Die Freiheit des Getreidehandels in einem Gutachten erortert von 
 G. P. S. NoRRiiAX. Hamb. 1802, 8vo. 
 
 45. The effect of the mercantile system on politics, there- 
 fore, was not diminished, but strengthened, in proportion 
 to the endeavour of governments to get a share of com- 
 merce for themselves, and to exclude others. The regula- 
 tion of their mutual commercial relations by treaties of 
 commerce excited jealousy and variance, sometimes in the 
 contracting parties, sometimes in a third ; and colonial 
 trade, and the new disputes respecting the rights of neutral 
 flags, (see below,) afforded ample matter for contention. 
 
 • The commercial treaties of this period, very important from their in- 
 fluence on politics, were : 1. One between England and Russia, June 
 20, 1766, for twenty years; greatly in favour of British merchants 
 settling in Russia. 2. The treaty between England and France, Sept. 
 26, 1786, for twelve years, A mutual encouragement to the importa- 
 tion of British manufactures, and French wines and brandy, by means 
 of diminished duties ; much to the disadvantage of French manufactures. 
 3. The treaty between France and Russia, Jan. 11, 1787, for twelve 
 years. A mutual encouragement to the introduction of French wines 
 and Russian iron, soap, and wax, by means of reduced duties, also 
 favourable to the merchants settling in either state ; and a definition of 
 the rights of neutrality. 
 
 46. In this period, war became, in the fullest sense of 
 the term, an art, and the system of standing armies reached 
 its highest perfection, both in the larger and smaller states. 
 The art however degenerated into trifling and trickery ; 
 soldiers were taught rather the parade exercise than the use 
 of arms. A long peace naturally produced this evil, which 
 even the genius of Frederic could not overcome. 
 
 47. Much greater evils than this were found in the mili- 
 tary system of this period ; we may particularly notice the 
 immense augmentation made to the armies, by the enlist- 
 ment of foreign troops, who were generally distributed as 
 garrisons into fortified towns ; the almost exclusive prefer- 
 ence given in promotion to birth, and next to seniority ; 
 and the degradation of the common soldier by a disgraceful 
 discipline. From these evils consequences ensued, which 
 
27H COLONIAL AITAIHS, 1710— 17W3. [rEnioD ii. 
 
 were tlic more danoorous since outward splendour rendered 
 llicin less perceptible. 
 
 111. Colonidl J //'airs from 171U /a 17S(;. 
 
 1. The settlements which the European nations had 
 })lante(l beyond the Atlantic, and whicli liad been growing 
 for almost three centuries, began in this period to ripen. 
 Colonies of all kinds became in themselves of more import- 
 ance than ever. Hut a succession of circumstances and 
 events arose, which, although perhaps following the natural 
 order of tilings, had not been expected. 
 
 2. Great Britain, during this period, acquired a vast 
 superiority over all the other states in colonial possessions. 
 The foundation of this was her navy, which enabled her, 
 during war, not only to keep up a constant communication 
 with lier distant colonies, but at the sam(; time to prevent 
 her enemies from doing the same, by whicli their trade be- 
 came ruined. It must not however be less ascribed to the 
 spirit and genius of the whole nation and government, who, 
 always inclined to commerce, regarded tlieir colonies with 
 anxious care, as that on which it chiefly depended. 
 
 Amoricnn war. 3. Ilcr posscssious iu North America, extend- 
 17&4-17S2. jj^^. fpop^ i^jjg Mississippi to tiie great St. Law- 
 rence, and from the ocean to the Alleghany mountains, were 
 enlarged at the peace of Paris, by the acquisition of all 
 Canada and Florida (see above, p. 247). Never did 
 British authority sccfn more firmly established in these 
 regions ; but events soon proved that it never was less so. 
 
 4. The desire of independence is natural to flourishing 
 agricultural coloni<*s ; because a new nation gradually be- 
 comes formed within tliem. In America, this desire is 
 augmented by long-nourished principles of democracy, a 
 leaven of which had introduced itself into the government 
 of almost every province; a ^llgllter political dependence 
 u|)(tn tiie mother state, and the feehng of growing strength, 
 already tried in tlie seven years' war. Nothing seemed 
 wanting but seme ground of (piarrel ; — the result was in- 
 evitable. 
 
 5. This ground was not wanting long ; but it arose not 
 so much from a ieeling of o])pression, as a question of right: 
 
PAST 1.] AMERICAN WAR, 17G1— 1732. 279 
 
 this was, whether the British parliament liad a right to tax 
 the colonies ? Parliament maintained the affirmative ; the 
 colonies denied it, because they were not represented. — The 
 Americans, almost from the foundation of their colonies, 
 had been trained to the discussion of political and religious 
 rights ; and were particularly adapted to maintain a prin- 
 ciple of this kind to the last extremity. But the enforce- 
 ment of a stricter trading monopoly with respect to the 
 colonies since the peace of Paris, and the lessening the con- 
 traband trade with the French and Spanish possessions, 
 must have increased their discontent, in proportion as it 
 lessened their commerce. 
 
 The first dispute arose in 1764, occasioned by Grenville's Stamp Act, 
 passed ISIarch 22, 1765. Great commotions immediately produced in 
 all the provinces, especially in Massachusetts and Virginia, and a con- 
 gress convened at New York in October, which publishes a declara- 
 tion of the rights of the people. — Repeal of the Stamp Act by the 
 Rockingham administration after Grenville's resignation, March 19, 
 1766; but the principle was at the same time confirmed by the bill, 
 declaring the supremacy of the parliament in all cases whatsoever. 
 
 6. Though the flame was prevented from breaking out 
 at present, the fire still continued to smoulder ; disputes 
 arose in some of the provinces, sometimes with the govern- 
 ors, sometimes with the troops ; an opposition was already 
 formed, with men of the highest influence at its head. 
 Among them was Franklin ; but so little was the true state 
 of affairs known in England, that, after another change of 
 ministry, Townshend deemed it possible, by means of in- 
 direct duties imposed by parliament, to maintain its author- 
 ity and to carry into effect the object of government. 
 
 Duties on tea, paper, glass, and colours, by the Revenue Act, June, 
 1767. The proceeds of these duties to form a civil list for America, 
 which should be wholly at the disposition of the ministers for confer- 
 ring remunerations, pensions, etc. 
 
 7. The opposition to the right of taxation was renewed, 
 especially in Massachusetts, whose capital, Boston, was the 
 principal seat of the opponents. A voluntary agreement to 
 make use of no British commodities, a sure mean of injur- 
 ing England, was immediately entered into and acted upon. 
 Lord North was soon after placed at the head of 
 
 affairs in England, which again gave way, but not 
 sufficiently to satisfy the Americans. 
 
280 COLONIAL AFFAIRS, 1710-17%. [rEmon ii. 
 
 Rcpcnl of nil llio duties excopt tliat on tfn, Fih., 1770. Ilowcvor 
 trifliiifx the iliity rctuiiu'd, it wiis still a tacit assi-rtion of the ii;rht of 
 Knfrlaiul to tax AiiU'rica ; a principle which the colonists wore deter- 
 mined never to admit. [This was felt in the Kufilish house of commons, 
 where Mr. Powirnl moved the ahropation of the «7<o/fof the duties, but 
 his amendment was lost by a majority of sixty-two.] 
 
 8. To what could sucli lialf measures load, but to proatcr 
 distrust? Tlic more tlie Americans examined tlie subject 
 the more fully they were convinced of the justice of their 
 cause ; and the ]iress, by an immense circulation of pam- 
 phlets, had already produced here the same consequences, 
 to which it afterwards led on a much larger scale in Eu- 
 rope. En<2;lan(l, nevertheless, still persevered in her half 
 measures, but leavinp; the application of them to the East 
 India Company, the first insurrection broke out in Boston. 
 
 Determination of the Americans not to purchase tea on which a tax 
 liad been levied. — The East India Com])any embarrassed ; and after the 
 repeal of the export tax in England, attem|)t to gain the Americans by 
 a cheaper price. — But, nevertheless, measures were adopted to prevent 
 the importation of tea, and a cargo of it was forcibly seized and thrown 
 into the harbour, in Boston, Dee. 26, 1773. 
 
 T/ie Ilistnrt/ of the American licvoUttiov, by Dattd Ramsay. Lond. 
 1791, 2 vols. Svo. The calm account of a contemporary who was in- 
 formed of all the facts, and particijiated in the events. 
 
 Stnrid dcJIn giarrn (hlT indejxudenza dcgli Stati Uiiiti d'Anicricn ; 
 scritta da Carlo Botta. Parigi, 1809, 4 vols. Svo. A liistory of the 
 revolution, compiled from the best authorities with care, and well writ- 
 ten. — For the investigation of the ))rinciplc of right, we quote: 
 
 Drr UrspriUKf u/id die dnnidsiitzc der Amcrikavixchcn lietolution, 
 von Fiur.nu. CIkn/.. in his Ilist. Joumn], 1800, vol. ii. 
 
 For a deeper insight, the contemporary British Journals are neces- 
 sary, such as : 
 
 Gentlcmaiis Magazine, 17G1 — 1784, and others. 
 
 9. This event drove England to more decided measures. 
 The harbour of Boston was closed up, and acts were passed 
 which annihilated the charter of Massachusetts. This was 
 in fact the cause of the general insurrection ; as the other 
 colonies saw, in this proceeding, the insecurity of their re- 
 spective constitutions. 
 
 The Boston Port Bill passed ^farch 2.5, 177 1, and on the 20th of JNIay, 
 acts for erecting a royal court of justice, etc., in Massachusetts. — Bos- 
 ton was occupied by English troops. 
 
 10. The other colonies readily united in this cause, and 
 measures were taken for convoking a general congress, 
 with rare moderation and order ; such as were only possible 
 
PART 1.] AMERICAN WAR, 17G4— 1782. 281 
 
 in a country where there existed no mob. The resolutions 
 of the congress, while they resisted the pretensions of par- 
 liament, were by no means directed against the crown. 
 
 Congress opened at Philadelphia, Sept. 5, 1774. — A resolution passed 
 to suspend all commercial intercourse with England. 
 
 11. England was thus brought to the alternative of either 
 making concessions or entering upon civil war. Wiiat 
 could be lost in case of the former? What could be gained 
 by the latter ? Even the most successful termination of the 
 war could scarcely be expected to insure a lasting domi- 
 nion : — The risk bore no sort of comparison with the pro- 
 bable advantage ; — and there were not wanting men of 
 prophetic spirit, who advised a compromise ; though no one 
 had sufficient penetration to discover, that the loss of North 
 America would be a gain to England. The eloquence even 
 of Chatham and Burke were ineffectual against the minis- 
 ters. The provinces were declared in rebellion. 
 
 An address voted by parliament against the rebellious provincials, 
 Feb. 9, 1775. An attempt made by Lord North's conciliatory bill, Feb. 
 20, to induce them to tax themselves, with the reservation, however, 
 of the supreme authority of the i^arliament. — The propositions of Chat- 
 ham, Jan. 20, and Burke, March 22, to secure the ancient rights of 
 the colonies, were rejected in both houses. — Hostilities begun by the 
 battle at Lexington, April 19. — New troops arrive from England in 
 May. It was still hoped that a few regiments would be sufficient to 
 maintain America ! 
 
 12. The war hastily begun on the part of the colonies, 
 by the fruitless expedition against Canada, necessarily be- 
 came defensive ; and who so capable of maintaining it as 
 Washington ? There was need, not of a Caesar, but of a 
 Fabius. For though the British might possess separate 
 sea-ports, had not the Americans the country, with all that 
 it contained 1 
 
 Expedition against Canada under Arnold and Montgomery, Oct., 
 1775, frustrated by tlie relief of Quebec, by Carleton, May, 1776. 
 Boston evacuated by Howe, March 17 ; on the other hand, Long Is- 
 land was captured in Aug., and New York became the chief seat of tlie 
 war. Washington's immortality as a hero, rests not on splendid days, 
 but laborious years ; not on rapid success, but enduring perseverance. 
 
 13. This increased animosity naturally gave an easy en- 
 trance to the idea, which had been widely propagated by 
 statesmen and the periodical press, of an entire separation 
 
282 COLONIAL AFFAIRS, 1710— 178G. frEnioD ii. 
 
 iVoin tilt' mother country. Only ni tliis case could ii.ssist- 
 ance be hoped for from Europe ; and the sending out of 
 Cierman mcrccnnrios seemed to render this inevitable. Di> 
 
 CLAUATION OF INDLPFNDKNCE BY THE THIRTEEN 
 
 UNITED STATES. Novits scoclorum iiasc'itur onlo. 
 
 Common Sense, hy Thomas Paine, 1776. Perhaps the most import- 
 ant j):uiH)liKt for general history. 
 
 14. After this great step, but one happy blow was want- 
 in<j; to procure the colonies allies in lMiroj)e. This v/as 
 done by tin; capture of Burgoyne and his troops. The issue 
 of trifling engagements here, was followed by greater con- 
 secjuences in the affau's of the woi'ld, than the victories of 
 immense armies elsewhere. 
 
 Attempt of the English to attack the colonies on the rear, by invading 
 them from Canada, imder Burgoyne. lie was surrounded by (Jates, 
 and capitulates at Saratoga, Oct. 16, 1777. 
 
 Die Jirrii/sreise nctch Ameri/ia, oder l>riefe der Generalin von Rei- 
 desel wiilirend ihres seelisj.ihrigcn Aufentlialts daselbst ; (herausgegclx-n 
 von Heinrieh xliv. Grafen Keuss.) Berlin, 1801, 8vo, wife of the com- 
 mander of tlie Brunswick troops, and an eyewitness. In English, un- 
 der the title of, 
 
 Letters and Memoirs relating to the tear of American Independence, 
 and the capture of the German troops at Saratoga. By jNIadanie de 
 KiEDESEL. New York, 1827. 
 
 15. This event opened an entrance to tlie court of Ver- 
 sailles for the previous proposals of Benjamin Franklin. 
 The independence of America was acknowledged by France, 
 and a war with England thereby decided upon. This was 
 a victory of the cabinet against the expressed inclination of 
 the king. — What a grand mistake it made ! That the war 
 should become a maritime war, and that it should spread to 
 the two Indies, lay as much in the existing political rela- 
 tions, as that Spain should be shortly involved, though only 
 as the ally of France, and at last Holland. It thus became 
 a war for the dominion of the seas, and was prosecuted by 
 France, for some time, with more success than usual. 
 
 Treaty of amity and commerce concluded between France and Ame- 
 rica, Feb. 6, 1778. War with England, March 24. Indeeisive naval 
 battle at Qiiessaut, July 27. Comuiencement of the naval war in Ame- 
 rica and West Indies, under d'Estaing, September. Capture of St. 
 Dominique, by the French, Sept. 7 ; Senegal, Jan. 30, 1789; St. Vin- 
 cent, June 16; Grenada, July 4: on tlie otlier hand, tliey lose St. 
 Lucia, Dec. 14, 1778. Commencement of the war in the East Indies ; 
 
PART i] AMERICAN WAR, 17G4— 1782. 283 
 
 capture of Pondicherry, Oct., 1778. Attack on Hyder Ali, Sept., 1780. 
 A naval war there, under SufFrein and Hughes. — Spain takes a share 
 in this, June, 1779, and a junction of the French and Spanish fleets 
 takes place, but leads to nothing. Minorca taken, Feb. 5, 1782 ; and a 
 protracted siege of Gibraltar, gloriously defended by Elliot, from 1779 
 to Oct., 1782. — England declares war against Holland, already nego- 
 tiating with America, and wishing to join the armed neutrality, Dec. 
 20, 1780. Indecisive naval battle at Doggersbank, Aug. 5, 1781. But 
 Negapatam lost, Nov. 12, and Trincomale, Jan. 15, 1782, and St. Eus- 
 tace in the West Indies. The British naval power was thus almost a 
 match for tliat of all the rest of western Eui'ope, and acquired an abso- 
 lute superiority, by Rodney's new naval tactics, after the great battle off 
 Gaudaloupe, April 12, 1782. 
 
 16. The fate of America, however, had to be decided on 
 land, and not on the ocean ; and however much assisted by 
 the French auxiharies under Rochambeau and La Fayette's 
 enthusiasm, Washington has the glory of having struck the 
 decisive blow. The surrender of Lord Cornwallis extin- 
 guished all hope of success in the English nation. 
 
 Expedition against the southern states ; Charleston taken ; but 
 Cornwallis was surrounded at Yorktown, and forced to capitulate, Oct. 
 19, 1781. 
 
 17. Nothing but a change of ministers, which took place 
 upon Lord North's retirement, was required to produce 
 peace. This had long been desired, and clamorously de- 
 manded by the English nation ; but had now to be con- 
 cluded, not only with North America, but also with France, 
 Spain, and Holland. It could not be purcliased without 
 sacrifices ; but it was, in reality, the peace with Holland, 
 which caused the most difficulty ; because England wished 
 to gain from Holland some compensation for its losses. 
 
 After Lord North had retired, ]\Iarch 20, 1782, a ministry was at 
 first organized under Rockingham, who died July 1 ; in this, Shelburne 
 and Fox were secretaries of state. Shelburne's administration followed 
 (Fox having resigned) till March 14, 1783. He being foi-ced to retire, 
 after the conclusion of peace, a coalition was effected between Lord 
 North and Fox till Dec. 18, when William Pitt, placed at the head of a 
 new ministry, Dec. 23, 1783, continued in this post till Feb. 9, 1801. 
 Negotiations of peace were entered upon at Versailles, and preliminaries 
 signed with America, Nov. 30, 1782 ; with France and Spain, Jan. 30, 
 1783 ; which were changed into a definitive peace, Sept. 3. 
 
 a. Peace between England and America. 1. The independence of 
 the thirteen United States acknowledged. 2. The boundaries so fixed, 
 that the great western territory was relinquished to the Americans. 3. 
 They continued to participate in the fisheries of Newfoundland. 4. The 
 navigation of the ^lississippi left common to both parties. 
 
284 COLONIAL AFFAIUS, 1710—1780. [period ii. 
 
 Ainbafpailors : from Knglnml, Lord Oswald ; from Amcrira, Frank- 
 lin, Adams, and Laurons. 
 
 b. Pence hetivten KiKjhmd iiud Fniiuv. 1. All conquests in (he 
 "\V(»st In<li«'s rt'stori'd, and T()l)a;,H) resigned to France. 2. In Africa, 
 Senegal ceded to Franco, in return for the guarantee of Clandiia and 
 Fort St. James to Fnglaml. 3. All con<iues(s in the Fast Indies re- 
 stored. The allies of Franco, (Tippo Sail),) invited to accede to the 
 treaty. 4. The participation of France in the fisheries of Newfound- 
 land enlarged, ami the isles of St. Pierre and Miguelon ceded. 5. It 
 was mutually agreed to conclude a treaty of commerce within two years. 
 
 Negotiators : from England, Lord Fitzhcrhert ; from Fiance, the 
 Count de Vergonncs. 
 
 c. Pence biiiceeti Etifjiiiiitl (1)1(1 Sjxi'm. ]. Spain to retain possession 
 of Minorca. 2. Likewise of all Florida. 3. All other conrpiests re- 
 stored. 4. It was likewise proniiseil that a treaty of commerce should 
 be made within two years. 
 
 Negotiators: Lord Fitzherbert ; and from Spain, the Count of 
 Aranda. 
 
 d. l*eacc hcticecn Eiu/htnd and llaUdud. Though Holland, by the 
 preliminaries of the other states, was included in the truce, yet prelimi- 
 naries with her were first signed under French mediation at I'aris, 
 Si'pt. 2, 1783, and a definitive treaty. May 20, 1784. Conditions: 1. 
 Negapatam ceded to England, under the condition that it should be re- 
 stored for an equivalent. 2. All other conquests restored. 3. The 
 navigation of all the Indian seas made free to the English, 
 
 Negotiators : from England, the Duke of ^Linchester ; from Holland, 
 Van Berkenrode and Brantzon. 
 
 18. No other war of modern times lias led to such vast 
 consequences as this in the atlairs of mankind. Not the 
 least of these is the foundation of a new republic across the 
 Atlantic : a state of Europeans, not belong'ing- to the Eu- 
 ropean political system, independent by its own miolit and 
 its own ])roductions, and at the same time called by its 
 situation to take an active and large share in the general 
 connnerce of the world ; yet without the need of standing 
 armies, and without cabinet policy, ^^'llat a dillerent state 
 of things must arise iiere from that which we have in Europe! 
 
 The new republic — cstablisheil without any internal revolution of 
 the single states, (oidy trifling changes were necessary,) — languished at 
 first under its liberty. The first constitution was a federative govern- 
 ment, without strength and without cre<lit. But the changed constitu- 
 tion of 1785) gave it all the solidity that a federative state can possess ; 
 ns it placed the executive jxiwer in the hands of a president, in connexion 
 with the senate ; and tlr- legislative, (conformably, in most respects, to 
 British forms,) in the two chamlters, the senate and house of represent- 
 atives, not, however, without the particij)ation of the president. Pub- 
 lic credit, too, was established by a system tif finances for the union. 
 
PART I.] AMERICAN WAR, 1764—1782. 285 
 
 To Washington the president, the new state was not less indebted than 
 to "Washington the general. Only by committing the high offices of 
 the state to great men can this union be preserved. 
 
 19. Commerce would naturally feel the first influence of 
 the new republic, and almost every maritime power was 
 eager to form treaties with it. But the republic, almost 
 destitute of capital, traded most readily with that which 
 would give her the longest credit ; and the commerce with 
 England became far greater, now free, than it had ever 
 been when restricted. Even now it might be foreseen that 
 America would become a maritime power worthy of her 
 descent ; her naval force, however, was upon a very small 
 scale, till in the later sea-wars of Europe, it suddenly grew 
 and acted in a manner that astonished the world. 
 
 20. While this war, by establishing the independence of 
 America, gave, contrary to all expectation, a vast impulse to 
 the increasing commerce of England, its progress was not 
 much less aided by the sudden decline of the trade of Hol- 
 land, which, once overthrown, never acquired sufficient 
 strength to sustain the powerful competition of its rival, in- 
 to whose hands the greatest part, if not the whole of it, fell. 
 
 21. The American war also gave rise to a new, ^^^^ 
 extraordinary, and very important political com- neutrality. 
 bination — the armed ncutralilij. This had its origin in the 
 north, but its influence was soon spread over the rest of 
 Europe ; and, however accidental its rise, the want of some 
 such power was too universally felt at the time ever again 
 to be lost sight of Its object was the protection of the 
 rights of neutral flags. Uncertain as was the issue, Russia 
 shone as the support and centre point of the new system, 
 around which all the neutrals rallied. Thouo:li the neces- 
 sity of this power died with the return of peace, every naval 
 war must necessarily renew it ; and it will depend solely on 
 the situation of the kingdoms engaged, whether, and in what 
 manner, this new political engine shall be employed. 
 
 First declaration of an armed neutrality made by Russia, Feb. 28, 
 1780. It demanded : 1. That neutral vessels should sail free from 
 port to port, and along the coasts of the belligerent powers. 2. That 
 the property of enemies should be free in neutral vessels, with the ex- 
 ception of contraband, which was restricted to arras and the actual mu- 
 nitions of war. 3. Accurate definition of what a blockaded harbour 
 
286 COLONIAL ArFAIUS, 1710—1786. [ikihod ii. 
 
 rIiouM he. 4. That this definition should serve as a ruk' in jinlging of 
 the lawfuhiess of jjrizes. 
 
 Derhiroil accession of Denmark to the nrmed neutrality at tlio invita- 
 tion of Hussia, July 9, 1780; of Sweden, July 21 ; of Prussia, May 8, 
 ITsl ; of Austria,' Oct. 9 ; of Portugal, July 13, 1782. The Engli.sh 
 nuticipatt'il the declaration of the accession of Holland hy a declaration 
 of war, Dec. 20, 1780. — In the answers, (April 23,) England expressed 
 no explicit opinion respecting the principle. It was recognised by Spain, 
 (April 18.) and France (April 25). 
 
 Miinoirr on precis /iistori</uc siir la ncutralite armce ct son origine, 
 sitiri (Irs pieces jitstijicativcs, par !M. LK C'oMTK DE GiiKZ, (at that time 
 Prussian ambiLssador at Petersburg,) 1800, 8vo. "What gave rise to 
 this system was the seizure of two Russian vessels by the Spaniards ; 
 and the Spanish blockade of Gibraltar ; (the English had not dared to 
 renew their regulation of 17oG, see p. 249, in this war;) but its true 
 cause was, the necessity of Count Panin to counteract the influenre and 
 projects of the British ambassador. Sir James Harris (Lord Malme.sbury). 
 Thus this intrigue led to a greater object than it could have had any 
 notion of. 
 
 Vox Doiisi's Denkwiirdiffkeiten, B. II. [North American Review, 
 Ko. lix., page 308, etc.] 
 
 Heeken's Miscellaneous Historical JVritings, Th. i., p. 344, con- 
 tains, in the treatise entitled. An Examination of the Qitestiotts respect- 
 ing the Claims of the Armed Netitraliti/, the necessary explanations of 
 the law of nations beai'ing on the subject. 
 
 2*2. Thoiio-h Eng'land lost its ancient colonies in America, 
 it still retained its new acquisitions, Canada and Nova Scotia, 
 which became of greater importance, as it was hoped they 
 would make up for what had been lost. As the value of 
 tiicse possessions increased in the eyes of the mother coun- 
 try, they became greater objects of her care. The repeal 
 of the Test Act led to the introduction of .so mild 
 a constitution into Canada, whose inhabitants were 
 mostly Catholic, that culture was no longer limited to Lower 
 Canada, but was so extended in Uj)j)er Canada, that a «^o- 
 vernment of its own was deemed necessary for it. Halifax 
 in Nova Scotia now remained the principal harbour belong- 
 ing to England on the continent of America. 
 
 23. The British possessions in the West Indies 
 h:id been extended by the cessions made at the 
 treaty of Paris. Of these, however, Tobago was restored to 
 France by the peace of Versailles. The state of the colo- 
 nies had been imj)roved by the grant of several commercial 
 privileges ; but successive wars, the attacks of the maroous^ 
 (runaway negroes,) and the dreadful storms, which repeat- 
 
 urn uh Wcjt 
 
PART I.] BRITISH WEST INDIES. 287 
 
 edly devastated the principal island, Jamaica, towards the 
 end of this period, almost annihilated the expectations which 
 had been formed of the advantages that would be reaped 
 from these possessions. The independence of America 
 would indeed have been the ruin of the British West Indies, 
 had not necessity triumphed over the maxims of the mer- 
 cantile system. 
 
 The new commercial privileges consisted, partly in the opening of 
 free ports, 1766, on Dominica and Jamaica, for general trade with 
 foreign colonies in their own vessels, (especially for the necessaries of 
 life, and the slave trade,) partly in a free commerce with Ireland, 
 granted January, 1780. The emancipation of America would have 
 exposed the West Indies to famine, liad not the former commerce, 
 though circumscribed, been still permitted, April 4, 1788. 
 
 A descriptive account of the isle of Jamaica, by W. Beckfokd. 
 1790, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 24. The African colonies had been improved for nearly 
 twenty years by the possession of Senegal, by which the 
 gum and slave trade had fallen into the hands of the English. 
 There seemed indeed a natural connexion between the lat- 
 ter and the West India colonies ; but the markets for slaves 
 opened for foreign colonies in the free ports, and the entire 
 freedom allowed in this traffic, during this period, unhap- 
 pily concurred to give it an increasing importance. 
 
 ^\ hile the voice of humanity grew louder and 
 louder in its condemnation, the independence of America, 
 gave rise to the foundation of a colony of free negroes at 
 Sierra Leone on the coast of Africa itself, which was in- 
 tended to prove that slavery might be dispensed with. 
 
 All the still existing duties, payable to the African company, were 
 abolished 1749; it had been deprived of its monopoly in 1697. — The 
 colony at Sierra Leone settled in 1786, mostly by the negroes of the 
 emigrant royalists. A noble monument of humanity ! Though the 
 leading object was not immediately attained, who can say to what it 
 may lead ? 
 
 An account of the colom; of Sierra Leone from its first establishment. 
 1795, 8vo. 
 
 25. But the East Indies became during this 
 period the greatest and most magnificent theatre 
 of the colonial policy of Britain. Its merchant princes be- 
 came conquerors, and founded an empire, which in a short 
 time far exceeded the mother country in extent and popula- 
 tion. The company now appeared under the twofold form 
 
 British East 
 Indies. 
 
2S8 COLONIAL Al TAIKS, 1710—1780. [ikhiod ii. 
 
 c)t" uKM'cliaiits and rulers; while ]^ii;j:lan(l became the ^reat 
 market for the merchandise of India, and the gulf into 
 ^vhich its riches were drawn. 
 
 Transactions in India, from the conunencement of the French war in 
 1756, to the conclusion of the late peace, 1783. London, 1786, Svo. A 
 (Icrnian viTsion lias been publislietl hy M. C. Si'KENGix, under tiie 
 title, (ieschirhte (hr tcichtiysten Indischen Staatsveriinderiingen von 
 17.')6 his 1783. 2 Tide. 1788. Tlie nio.st valuable as a general outline. 
 
 KoUT. OioiF.'s llistory of the Military Transactions of the British 
 JVation in Indostan from the year 174.5. Lond. 1778, 2 vols. 4to. — A 
 version of this also has been given by AucilEMlOLZ, Die Knejlander in 
 Indieu, 2 Tide. 1788. 
 
 A short History of the East India Company, by Fr. Rcssel. Lond. 
 1793, Svo. 
 
 26. This great revolution in the European afliiirs of India 
 was prepared by the fall of the Mogul empire. M'hile that 
 retained its power the lun-opeans could scarcely appear on 
 the continent otherwise than as merchants. But, divided 
 
 1707. in itself after the death of Aureng Zeb, the preda- 
 
 1739. tory invasion of Nadir Shah gave a final blow to 
 
 this tottering empire. The name of sovereign still remained ; 
 
 but the governors made themselves independent, and the 
 
 subject nations began to shake off their fetters. 
 
 Of the governors (subahs and nabobs) to tliis time, the most import- 
 ant are: the subaii of the Dccean, (the Nizam,) on whom was depend- 
 ent the nal)ob of Arcot, or the Carnatic ; the nabob of Bengal, of Oude, 
 and the rajah of Benares. Among the nations, the Patans had long 
 been formidable, and the Mahrattas and the Seiks were still more so. 
 
 27. Both the French and English soon endeavoured to 
 turn these circumstances to their advantage; to the former 
 however, at fii'st, fortune seemed to have allotted the do- 
 minion of India. Had Labourdonnaye and Dupleix under- 
 stood each other, who could have wrested it from them ? 
 By their dissensions, however, and the incapacity of the 
 French government, which did not know how to turn the 
 talents of sucli men to advantage, the precious moments 
 were lost that might have given India to France. 
 
 IVfadras conquered by Labourdonnaye, Sept. 21, 1746, when a dis- 
 j)ute arose respecting it with Dupleix, governor of Pondiclierry. J'all 
 and recall of tiie former ; Pondiclierry besieged in vain by the English, 
 Aug. till Oct., 1748, and Madras restored by the peace of Aix-la-Cha- 
 pelle (see p. 23.5). 
 
 Ilistoire du Sicye dc Pondichcrry sous le gouier7iemcnt de M. Du- 
 pleix. 1766, 8vo. 
 
PAUT I.] BRITISH EAST INDIES. 289 
 
 28. The rivalry thus revived between the two nations, 
 was carried to a high pitch by the attempts of Dupleix, who 
 endeavoured to make up for an unprofitable commerce by 
 territorial possessions. An opportunity of doing this was 
 found by interfering- in the quarrels of the native princes ; 
 first in the Carnatic, on the Coromandel coast, where the 
 contio'uity of the principal settlements made it almost im- 
 possible to do otherwise. This could not be difficult in an 
 empire thus fallen to pieces ; but it was facilitated even 
 more by the base and venal disposition of the native princes, 
 than by anarchy itself By the superior talents of Dupleix 
 the French acquired a general predominancy, till the break- 
 ing out of the seven years' v/ar. 
 
 Disputes in tlie Carnatic in consequence of Dupleix supporting the 
 claims of IMuzzefar Jung to the Deccan, and of Chunclasaheb to Arcot ; 
 against whom the English defended their client iSIohammed Ally, 
 who finally maintains himself in Arcot, 1756. The recall of Dupleix, 
 who was followed by the unfortunate Lally ; while at the head of the 
 British troops, the formidable Clive was forming under the warrior 
 Lawrence, gave the latter the superiority. 
 
 29. But it was during the seven years' war, that the com- 
 pany founded its extensive empire. The superiority* of 
 British arms triumphed even in India. The conquest and 
 dismantling of Pondicherry established from this time the 
 British dominion on the coast of Coromandel, notwithstand- 
 ing the restitution of that city by the peace of Paris. 
 
 Hostilities begun in the Carnatic, 1758, after the arrival of Lally ; it 
 spread over the whole coast, especially to Tanjore. — The British pre- 
 served the superiority, and Masulipatam was taken, 1760, and Pondi- 
 cherry, Jan. 16, 1761. The northern Circar was given up by the 
 Nizara, 1766; and the nabob of the Carnatic rendered perfectly in- 
 dependent. 
 
 The History and Management of the East India Company, vol. i., 
 containing the affairs of the Carnatic ; in which the rights of the 
 nabob are explained, and the injustice of the company proved. Lond. 
 1779, 4to. Comes down to 1755. 
 
 30. But the English soon discovered that it cost more 
 to maintain Coromandel than it was worth ; and that a 
 territorial dominion could only be established in India, by 
 the possession of the countries about the Ganges, and espe- 
 cially Bengal, where factories had already long existed, as 
 well as great territorial revenues. The nabob himself gave 
 
290 COLONIAL ATFAIKS, 1710-1780. [rEnioD ii. 
 
 tlu'in Mil ()])i)orliiiiity of attcniptinp; this; and C'livc founded 
 the dominion of tlie company witli greater case tlian lie 
 himself had expected. No strnijo-le was re(|nire(l here, 
 such as tlie Cortc's and Pi/arros had sustained in America; 
 for the base and simple Mogul nobles readily j.layed the 
 game of the British. 
 
 As early as 1690, (see p. 163,) tlie Britisli had a fartory at Calcutta ; 
 and in 1G9D, in consequence of an insurrection, tliey liad secured it by 
 the erection of Fort "William. Capture of Calcutta and Fort Wil- 
 liam, by the nabob Seraja Dowla, June, 17'j6. The captives incar- 
 cerated and suffered to perish in the Black Hole. Expedition of 
 Clive against Madras, 1757. Calcutta reconquered, and a dc-cisive vic- 
 tory obtained at I'lasscy, June 26, by the treachery of Mir Jaflicr, now 
 appointed nabob of Bengal instead of his brother-in-law, but deposed, 
 in 1760, by C'live, in favour of his son-in-law, Mir Cossir ; but as the 
 latter, impatient of slavery, rebelled, !Mir Jailier was again appointed 
 nabob, July 10, 1763. The secret of ruling under the name of others 
 was found out ; but it was now scarcely necessary to have recourse to 
 this deception. It cost, however, one more struggle with the subah of 
 Oude, 1765, to whom ]\Iir Cossir and the Great Mogul, who had been 
 driven from the ^lahrattas, had fled, to secure the possession of Bengal 
 to tlie English. 
 
 J31. Surrender of tlic D(>vaiil of Bengal, with its revenues 
 and the right of collecting them, to the company, by the 
 Cireat Mogul ; the nabob becoming their pensioner. Thus 
 the company, having previously acquired the commerce, 
 now obtained the government of the country, though the 
 shadow of it was still left to its former rulers. 
 
 Treaty of Allahabad, between Lord Clive and the Great ]\rogul, (as 
 apparent sovereign,) respecting the resignation of the Devani of Ben- 
 gal, Bahar, and Urissa, Aug. 12, 1765, for an annual payment of twelve 
 lacks of rupees. 
 
 32. The companv from this time became the rulers of 
 an extensive and opulent country ; but the expectation that 
 its riches would be greatly increased thereby, was soon 
 shown to be fallacious. A clashing of interests arose be- 
 tween the functionaries — between the directors in England 
 and their officers in India. The former still received the 
 moderate profit of the trade between India and Europe; 
 but they wished to augment the commercial dividends, by 
 the territorial income they now possessed : the surplus ol 
 which, however, their agents in India were bent upon ap- 
 plying to their own advantage. The most important branches 
 
PART I.] BRITISH EAST INDIES. £91 
 
 of the domestic trade of that country, too, were abandoned 
 to the subalterns residing there. Thus the wretched Bengal 
 had to endure at once nearly all the evils that tend to crush 
 a nation — a corrupt and tyrannical government, and the most 
 oppressive monopolies. 
 
 The principal evils were: 1. The change of the established heredi- 
 tary rents of farms of the zemindars and ryots, (gi'eater and less 
 farmers,) into annual rents. In a country where almost all landed pro- 
 perty was held by rents, all security of possession disappeared at once ; 
 and numerous extortions took its place. 2. The bad administration of 
 justice, and the application of British laws. 3. The monopoly granted 
 to the government, in 1765, of salt, betel, and opium, the great neces- 
 saries of life in India. 4. The yearly exportation of hard money to 
 England and China. 5. The losses in discounts, occasioned by the de- 
 fective system of coinage. — The ruin of the country would have been 
 inevitable, even without the tei-rible dearth of 1770 and of 1771. 
 
 The most important works to which these disputes gave rise in Eng- 
 land, are : 
 
 Considerations on the affairs and the present state of Bengal, by W. 
 Bolts. Lond. 1772, 3 vols. 4to. Against the company. As an answer: 
 
 A view of the rise, progress, and the present state of the English go- 
 vernment in Bengal, by Mr. Verelst. London, 1772, 4to. The se- 
 cond and third volumes of Bolts, contain the answer to this. Only 
 single acts of oppression can be refuted or exculpated ; the truth of the 
 general oppression was soon established by the results. 
 
 A. F. Tyttler's Considerations on the present state of India, 
 London, 1815, 8vo, contains the best historical survey of the system 
 of possession and farms in India. Even in the well-intended regula- 
 tions since 1772, the burden eventually devolved on the poor ryots or 
 peasants ; while the zemindars grew rich. 
 
 33. A dominion usurped with so much violence, must 
 necessarily remain for some time in a state of great weak- 
 ness ; and in Hyder Ali, sultan of Mysore, the English met 
 with a much more formidable opponent than they expected. 
 The impossibility of procuring a sufficient supply of Euro- 
 pean troops, led to the dangerous expedient of organizing a 
 body of native troops, which, contrary to what might have 
 been augured, has hitherto answered very well. 
 
 First war against Hyd^r Ali, (who had usurped the government of 
 the INIysore, from 1760,) and his ally the subah of Deccan, 1767. But 
 the company gain over the latter, Feb., 1768. Still successful invasion 
 of the Carnatic, and peace concluded before the gates of INIadras, April 
 3, 1769. The conquests of both parties restored, and free trade for 
 parties. But Hyder Ali had discovered what he could accomplish. 
 
 34. Amid these great revolutions, the internal organiza- 
 tion of the company still continued the same. The directors 
 
 u 2 
 
?02 COLONIAL AII-AIKS, 1710—1786. [pehiod ii. 
 
 in IjiLiliiiid WT-ro tlio cliicrs, un(l<'r whom stood tlic go- 
 vernors of tl»c four presidencies, independent of one anotlier. 
 YawU acted on his own rcsponsibihty ; and of course it fre- 
 ([uently liappcned tliat the most important transactions 
 mi;j,ht occur, before orders could arrive from Enp;land. 
 Tliese great defects, which were regarded as a principal 
 source of the evils that arose, it was ])roposed to remedy by 
 a new act of regulation. A new organization of the com- 
 pany was to take place ; the government in India was to 
 be consolidated into one ; and rendered in some measure 
 dependent u}K)n the crown. 
 
 " Act for establishing cortain regulations for the better management 
 of the alfairs of the East Imlia Company," passed in May, 1773; iiitro- 
 diH'ctl into India, Oct., 1774. Its ])riiieipal objects: 1. Improvement 
 in tiie election of directors: none to hold their seats longer that four 
 years. 2. No person to vote at their election who had not possessed 
 their stock twelve months ; and the qualification for directors was raised 
 from stockholders of £500, to holders of £1000. 3. The governor of 
 Bengal made governor-general of all British India, with the highest 
 authority both in civil and military affairs ; assisted, however, by the 
 supreme council, consisting of four members with a restraining power ; 
 and where a diiference of opinion should arise, the affair to be decided 
 by the majority. 4. The right of making war and peace, and of nego- 
 tiating with the native princes, vested solely in the governor-general 
 and the supreme council. 5. A high court of judicature erected, con- 
 sisting of a chief justice and three puisne judges; the appointment of 
 these judges resting in the croAvn : but appeals might be made from thi.s 
 court to the privy council. All regulations, civil and military, to be laid 
 before the secretary of state in England ; the king having the power to 
 annul tiicm. AVarren Hastings, governor, 1772, was the first governor- 
 general, 1774 — 178.5. 
 
 The whole act is in Russel's Collections, etc. (vol. i. p. 190, etc.) 
 
 35. By tliese new regulations, the affairs of India were 
 ])rought almost comj)let('ly imdcr the control of the English 
 government ; but still nmch more was done for the com- 
 pany than for the inhabitants of India. The supreme 
 government here became more concentrated, though not 
 without occasional disagreements with the other presiden- 
 cies. Under the sway of the aibitrary, rapacious, and ex- 
 perienced Hastings, opjiression became reduced to a system. 
 There could be no lasting peace, consecjuently there co\dd 
 be no secure state in India. The usual round of conquest 
 took place. Oppression gave rise to resistance — resistance 
 to war — war to expenses — expenses to new oppressions. 
 
TAUT I.] BRITISH EAST INDIES. 293 
 
 Thus arose the Mahratta and otlier wars ; till at length 
 conquest became necessary to existence. 
 
 The jMabratta wars were first occasioned by the protection given by 
 the Bombay government to the usurper Ragobah, {Ragonaut Roij,) 
 against the rajahs Boosla of Berar, Sindia ot' Ougein, and Holkar of 
 Malwa, but whom they afterwards gave up by the peace of 1776, in 
 consequence of a change in the policy of Calcutta, where the supreme 
 court was now established. Renewal of the war, 1777. Bold march 
 of Goddard from Calcutta to Surat, which necessarily alarmed all the 
 IMahratta chiefs. General alliance of the Mahrattas, the Nizam, and 
 Hyder Ali, against the company, 1779, just about the time when the 
 war breaks out with France. Kew and dreadful invasion of the Car- 
 natic by Hyder Ali, 1780, where he maintains himself two years. 
 Great distress for money, as the war had spread over almost every part 
 of India ; and consequent exactions and revolutions in Benares, in 
 Oude, etc., with the most revolting acts of injustice, while the maritime 
 war with the French is going on, at the same time, under Saffrein, and 
 Ilyder is assisted by French troops. The separation of the allies extri- 
 cates England from this embarrassment. Peace concluded with the 
 ^lahrattas. May 17, 1782. Restoration of all conquests ; and the 
 English obtain the exclusive right of trade. In the peace with France, 
 Pondicherry and the other conquests are restored, Nov. 30, 1782. 
 Ilyder Ali (f Nov. 9, 1782) thus had to prosecute the war alone, 
 which his son and successor Tippo Saib terminated by the peace at 
 JIangalore, March 11, 1784. Conquests also here restored, and the 
 trade left free to the English. — Great acts of injustice and oppression 
 brought to light in 1788, by the trial of Warren Hastings ; but no 
 restitution made or punishment inflicted for them. 
 
 The Trial of Warren Hastings before the Court of Peers. Loud. 
 1788, 2 vols. 8vo ; also Buiike's JVorks, vol. xi. xii., 8vo. 
 
 Articles of Charge of high crime against IV. Hastings, by Edm. 
 Burke. Loud. 1786, 8vo. 
 
 3Iemoirs relative to the state of India, by Warren Hastings. 1786, 
 Svo. His own account. 
 
 Geschichte clcr Maratten bis avf den Frieden mit England, von INI. 
 C. Sprexgel. Ilalle, 1786. Comes down to 1782. 
 
 A History of the Mahrattas, l)y James Grant Daff. Lond. 1816, 
 3 vols. Svo. The principal work on this subject. It comes down to 
 1815, and its author had a command in India. 
 
 36. Notwithstanding, however, this fortunate conclusion 
 of the war, and the extension of the company's territory in 
 Bengal, by the capture of Negapatam, it was still evident 
 that it could not long continue in its present condition. All 
 its exactions did not enable it to fulfil its engagements with 
 the government ; and its affairs were considered in a state 
 of bankruptcy. It had been felt, too, during the last war, 
 more acutely than ever, that the company formed a state 
 within the state. The necessity of a stricter dependence on 
 
204 COLONIAL ATI- AIRS, 1710—1786. [rEitioD ii. 
 
 ihc }Xovrrnmcnt had hcconio so obvious, tliat all parties 
 a<j;r('cd in it. Fox attempted to eHcct this without success 
 during his short administration ; but tlie object was soon 
 after attained by Pitt's East India bill. 
 
 Fox's East India bill, brouglit into parliament Nov. 18, 1783, rejected 
 in tlic house oi" lord^ri. Contents: 1. Tiie existing direction to be en- 
 tirely abolislicd ; and the company, in its political, commercial, and 
 linancial relations, to be subjected to a board of control of eight persons, 
 chosen by i)arliament for four years. Its commercial affairs to be 
 managed by a connnittee of nine members of the conij)any, subordinate, 
 however, to the board of control. 2. The board to have in its gift all 
 the ])laces of the company, and, like the former court of directors, to be 
 under the control of tiie king and the ministry. — Would not the board, 
 thus organizt'il, have constituted a new state within the state? 
 
 yi cnmpardtive sldtcmeitt of (he firo hills for the In tier govcriiwoil of 
 the British possessions in India, hroin/ht into piirliotncnt hy Mr. Fox 
 (ind Mr. Pitt, with cxpUindtoni ohscrvatiuns, by K. B. SiiKiUDAX, ]Csq. 
 Loud. 1788. In favour of tliis bill :— 
 
 Speech on Mu. Fox's East India Bill, by Edm. Bukke, in his J]'orhs, 
 vol. ii. 
 
 After Fox's retirement, Mr. Pitt brouglit forward his East India 
 bill, Aug. 4, 1784, the basis of the present government of India. Prin- 
 cipal ]H)ints : 1. That the former board of directors should be continued ; 
 but, 2. That it should be subordinate to a board of control, with regard 
 to the political, military, and financial affairs of the territorial govern- 
 ment of India. All despatches to be submitted to its inspection, and 
 might be altered by it. 3. In the court of directors, a secret committee 
 to be appointed, which should swear obedience and secrecy to the board 
 of control. 4. The ]>rincipal ollices to be filled up by the directors, 
 within two months after receiving inft)rmation of their vacancy — alter- 
 wards tlie king appoints. The right of dismissing ])ersons from these 
 ofliccs was vested in the king as well as in the court of directors, o. The 
 supreme council of Calcutta to consist of the governor-general and 
 three councillors ; the commander-in-chief being the second in authority. 
 The same regulations made for Madras and Bombay. 6. The otlier 
 ])resi<l('ncies strictly subordinate to the authority of the government of 
 Calcutta ; the latter, however, to have no power to declare war, except 
 defensive, without permission from England. Great power, however, 
 was ])laced in the hamls of the governor-general, acting on his own re- 
 siionsibility, in all extraordinary cases. 7. Accounts to be rendered of 
 tiie property of those going to and returning from India ; and the de- 
 faulters punished. 
 
 The whole Act (afterwards improved by the Act of 1786) may be 
 found in Russel's Collection, p. 294, and p. 342. 
 
 37. The vast dominions of tlie company in the Indian 
 peninsula, comprising" the countries of the Ganges as far as 
 Benares, the Circars, and indirectly the Carnatic on the 
 Coromandel, with Bombay and other possessions on the 
 
PART I.] BRITISH EAST INDIES, 2'J5 
 
 Malabar coast, were thus brouglit under the authority of the 
 government at home, with respect to every thing except 
 trade ; its commerce still remained in the hands of the com- 
 pany. Even this would scarcely have been left to it, but 
 for the great importance of the China trade, and the im- 
 mense consumption of tea. In this branch of their com- 
 merce, they were greatly indebted to the ministry ; as tlie 
 Commutation Act, brought in by William Pitt, was the sal- 
 vation of the company. 
 
 The annual consumption of tea amounted at this time to about twenty 
 million pounds, of which two-thirds were imported by smuggling. The 
 duty on tea was changed by the Commutation Act, July, 1784, into a 
 tax on houses ; in consequence of which the smuggling trade ceased of 
 itself. 
 
 The complete Act is in Russel's Collection, etc., p. 319. 
 
 38. Although by these proceedings the existence of the 
 company, and the dominions of the British in the East, 
 seemed secured, it still in reality chiefly depended upon the 
 choice of the governor and high officers ; England, per- 
 haps, was not much less indebted to Cornwallis than to 
 Pitt. Many ameliorations were made in the condition of 
 the inhabitants ; but the weeds of corruption arising from 
 internal war, though considerably lessened, had taken too 
 deep root to be eradicated entirely. 
 
 39. This wonderful extension of colonial territory and 
 affairs, caused a corresponding increase in the navigation of 
 the British, whose ships penetrated into every region of the 
 globe, and were only stopped by the limits nature herself 
 had imposed in eternal fields of ice. The three voyages of 
 Cook awakened a spirit of discover}^, not much less than the 
 enterprises of Columbus had formerly done. The islands of 
 the South Pacific Ocean became as well known as those of 
 the Mediterranean Sea ; instead of the precious metals, they 
 yielded the sugar cane of Otaheite, and the flax of New 
 Zealand ; and Cook himself started the idea of a settlement 
 on the continent of New Holland, which, resting on the 
 sure basis of agriculture, after a lapse of scarcely forty 
 years, promises to outgrow the fostering care of the mother 
 country, to afford her a rich reward, and to become one of 
 lier glorious descendants. 
 
 Foundation of a colony in Sidney Cove, New South Wales, Jan., 
 
2iH5 COLONIAL AIFAIUS, 1710— 178G. [nnioD ii. 
 
 17SS. Vn»li:il»ly the most iliinible inoiiument wliicli Pitt has left of his 
 aihiiiiiistration. 
 
 AuTUlK Pllll.ir's roijatjc to Jinlaitif Ihn/. Loiul. 1789, 4to. 
 
 David Coi.i.in.s's nrcmnit of the Colon}/ in X. S. If 'airs, from itsjirst 
 sdtlnnrnt in Jan., 1788, //// 1801. Luiul. 1802, 2 vols. 4t(). 
 
 40. TIk! liistory of tlie French colonics is partly 
 included in the foregoing. Tlieir unfortunate 
 p;e(><j:raj)hK'al dovetail iivj; with the l^ritish possessions never 
 allowed th(^ rivalship to expire. It was always to the disad- 
 vantage of France. By the great concessions she made at 
 the ])eaee of Paris, sIh^ lost all Canada, with several of the 
 smaller Antilles; and, the 13ritish navy having such a supe- 
 riority, the preservation of her other .colonies was exceed- 
 ingly precarious. The course of events, however, was very 
 ditlerent in the East and ^^'cst Indies. 
 
 41. The hopes of France in the East Indies, were built 
 by Dupleix on territorial possessions. After these were lost 
 in the seven years' war, and the English predominated in 
 India, how could their commerce there Nourish any longer, 
 w hether carried on by a company or not ? 
 
 The flouri.shinjr period of French power in India was from 1751. 
 By the aid of Diii)leix, it acciuired the four Cirears ; the i.->land Sheriiran 
 in the river Cauvery, Masulii)atam, and an extensive district near Ca- 
 rical and Pondicherry. But tiie peace of 1763 restored every thinu; to 
 tlie footing of 1749, (see p. 247,) excei)t that the dismantled Pondicherry 
 and Carical remained to France. — Tlie India Coini)any was abolisheij, 
 17()9, and the trade left open, with the restriction of returning ships to 
 L'Orient. Even in its last throes, the mercantile system had its 
 influence. 
 
 42. France, however, could not be wholly driven from 
 the East Indies, as the isles of France and Bourbon, unaf- 
 fected by the troubles of the continent, could not be wrest- 
 ed from her. In addition to tlu'ir jn-oduce, these served as 
 staples for commerce, and as strong holds for the materials 
 of war. But why, asked the jihysiocrats, do we attempt to 
 carr\' on a direct trade to the I'last Indies by force, when 
 the indirect is far more certain and advantageous? 
 
 J)h commerce <t dc In coinprujuic (lis Jndcs, par DU Pont. Paris, 
 1769, 8vo. 
 
 43. France was much more fortunate in the West Indies ; 
 for though she certainly lost here in extent of territory, and 
 thouiih the fortune of war and natural calamities retarded 
 
TART I.] FRANCE. 297 
 
 the prosperity of the smaller islands, yet Domingo alone 
 afforded her, in the latter half of this century, such an im- 
 mense return, that it almost surpassed the expectations of 
 the mother country, whose foreign commerce became almost 
 entirely connected with this island. 
 
 The smaller islands were given up by the treaty of Paris (see p. 
 247) ; of these, Tobago fell again into the possession of France. Mar- 
 tinique and Guadaloupe (see p. 245) both fell into the hands of the 
 English, and the former island was long devastated by insects and hur- 
 ricanes. Domingo, on the contrary, favoured by its fertile soil, and 
 neither desolated by nature or war, grew in prosperity. Its two thou- 
 sand plantations, towards the end of this period, jnelded produce to the 
 amount of about one hundred and seventy millions of livres, (almost as 
 much as all the rest of the West Indies,) the great markets for which 
 were Bourdeaux and Xantes. 
 
 JSotivelles considerationes sur St. Domingne en reponse de INI. H. Dr,. 
 par M. D. B. Paris, 1780, 2 vols. — But especially the third vol. of 
 Bryan Edwards. (See p. 115.) 
 
 44. On the other hand, the possessions on the American 
 continent, both in Guiana (Cayenne) and Louisiana, which 
 was ceded to Spain, remained of little importance, notwith- 
 standing the absurd endeavours to make something of the 
 former. How far the introduction of spices may answer, it 
 is impossible at present to determine. 
 
 Louisiana, with "West Florida, which appertained to it, was ceded to 
 Spain by France, April 21, 1764, in exchange (which was never ef- 
 fected) for the Spanish portion of St. Domingo. Spanish policy and 
 tyranny reduced the colony to the verge of ruin. — Great efforts made 
 to colonize Guiana, in 1763, to make up for the loss of Canada. Of 
 twelve thousand parsons who emigrated to this colony, the greater 
 part perished of hunger within a year. — Spices introduced from the 
 Isle of France, whither Poive had brought them, in 1770, from the 
 Moluccas. 
 
 Champignt, etat present de la Louisiane. a la Haye, 1776, 8vo. 
 
 Collection de Meinoires et de correspondances officielles sur Vadniinis- 
 tration des Colonies et notamment sur la Guiane Francaise et Hollnn- 
 daise, par Y. P. I\La.louet. Paris, 1802, 5 vols. 8vo. A rich collec- 
 tion of materials. 
 
 45. With regard to the Dutch colonial affairs, 
 this period was that of their decline and fall. 
 
 Awhile other nations were making such rapid advances, to 
 have stood still would have been to go back ; but the hid- 
 den disease, from which the colonies, as well as the state in 
 general, had long been suffering, was brought to a crisis by 
 
^98 COLONIAL AI TAIHS, 1710—17%. [pEnion ii. 
 
 tlio uno\]X'cto(l waiMvitli En^liind. If tlic wounds inHiclcd 
 by this war on its coniniorce liad not been incurahh', tlicy 
 would have boon rondon.'d so by the domestic convulsions 
 which soon fbllowod. Wiuit arc colonics without navies to 
 })rotoct them ? 
 
 46. As the possessions of the Dutch in the East Indies 
 consisted almost entirely of islands, it is evident that they 
 could not be immediately aftected by the revolutions in 
 Ilindostan : oven the loss of Necapatam mip;}it easily have 
 been borne. Still they were not without an injurious in- 
 fluence. But the moral causes which had lonp; been bring- 
 ing; on the decline of the East India company, were more 
 dangerous than the political ; and there can be no doubt, 
 that even without the latter, the company would not have 
 escaped bankruptcy. 
 
 As further causes of the decline of the company in this period, (see 
 p. 204,) we must consider : 1. The great massacre of tlie Cliinese on 
 Java, 1740, under the i)retence of* a conspiracy. 2. The loss of the 
 Indian coasting trade, both in India itself, and to Persia and Arabia, by 
 the rivalry of tiie English. 3. The continued bad regulations made 
 with respect to navigation. 4. Above all, the war with England and 
 the loss of Negai)atam. 
 
 Consideration stir Fitat priscnt de la Conipagnie IloUandaise des 
 Jiidcs Orientiilrs, par ]\I. lk Bauox d'Ixiiiof, ci-devant Gcncral-Gou- 
 vcrneur. 1741. Published as an Appendix to 
 
 DunoiS, Vies des Gouverneurs, etc., vol. i. p. 287. 
 
 47. The Dutch West Indies, possessed of greater com- 
 mercial freedom and a diil'erent constitution, sullercd much 
 less from the evils which attlicted the mother country. The 
 colony of Surinam was in a very flourishing condition from 
 
 the middle of the century; and the islands of Vu- 
 racao and St. Eustace were frequently, during the 
 wars of the other maritime powers, the marts of the \\'est 
 Indies, while the republic preserved a neutrality. Here it 
 was that the war with iMighmd inflicted the most incurable 
 wounds, and prej)ar('d tiie dissolution of the company, wdiich 
 had been renewed in 1674. 
 
 Some changes took place in the possession of Surinam, as the West 
 India company (p. 164) sold two-tliirds of it to Amsterdam, and the 
 liunily of Somm«lsilyk, but the latter again relinquished its portion to 
 Ilulland, in 1770. The Surinath company, however, who were the pro- 
 prietors of the island, never possessed more than the government and 
 the right of levying taxes ; the trade was 0]>cn to all the Dutch. In 
 
FART i.j SPAIN. ^99 
 
 its most flourishing state, IToO — 1780, the annual value of its produce 
 amounted to about eight millions of guilders. 
 
 Statistlsche Besc/iriebunc/ des Besit:iingen der Hollander in Amerika, 
 vom Prof. Lueder. 1792. The first part, all that has been published, 
 only comprises Surinam. 
 
 48. The Spanish colonies suffered much less 
 than the others by the rivalries and wars of the 
 mother states. The islands were the most difficult to attack; 
 and the immense regions of the continent of America were 
 secured by their size. Though the regular trade with the 
 mother country was interrupted by the wars, the contra- 
 band, on the contrary, proceeded, and even increased. The 
 quiet internal prosperity seems to have been little affected 
 by them. 
 
 Conquest of Porto Bello, 1740, and especially of Havannah, 1762, by 
 the English, were the only losses of any consequence to the Spaniards 
 during this period. Both cities were restored at the peace. — By the 
 possession of the small islands Annobon and Fernando Po, which 
 Portugal cedL'd to her in 1778, Spain acquired possessions in Africa for 
 carrying on the slave trade. 
 
 49. The extent of their American possessions were but 
 little changed. For Florida, first relinquished (see p. 247) 
 and afterwards recovered, (see p. 284,) Louisiana (see p. 
 297) had already afforded an equivalent ; but its deserts 
 were regarded as a security against the smuggling trade 
 with New Mexico. T!ie ancient settlements still continued 
 the most important, and their internal increase in connexion 
 with their extent, now rendered new political divisions and 
 regulations necessary. 
 
 The new political division of Spanish America was settled by the 
 regulation of 1777, and the erection of the vice-royalty of Buenos Ayres, 
 and the government of New Mexico ; New Grenada with Quito having 
 been already, in 1739, raised into a distinct vice-royalty. From this 
 time there were four F«rf^7?o/o*- (vice-royalties) : 1. New Spain (ilexi- 
 co). 2. Peru. 3. New Grenada. 4. Rio de la Plata and Buenos 
 Ayres. Besides which, there were, independent of these, the capkanias 
 generates: 1. Mexico. 2. Guatimala. 3. Chili. 4. Caraccas. 5. 
 Cuba and Havannah. 6. Porto Rico. 7. Louisiana, (ceded 1801,) 
 and Florida (ceded 1821). 8. Domingo (ceded 1797). After the 
 cession of Louisiana, Florida was attached to Cuba. The number of 
 the Audiencias was augmented to ten. (See p. 54.) 
 
 (Rajtdel), Nexiere Staatskunde von Spanien. II. Theil. Berlin, 
 1787. Compiled with much care and judgment, from the best au- 
 thorities. 
 
SOO COLONIAL AlFAIUS, 1710— 178G. [rF.nioD ii. 
 
 r)0. Of far p,roatcr importance still, ^voro llio now com- 
 iiicrcial rcgiilutioiis, winch, alter the dcliveraiico of Spain 
 from the a.ssicnto treaty, by the peace of Aix-la-Chaj)elle, 
 knocked olV at once the old fetters by which trade had been 
 encnmbercd. The mother country retained, indeed, the 
 exclusive rip,ht to trade with the colonies; but both this, 
 and the trade of the colonies with one another, were ar- 
 ran<;'ed on more liberal j)rinciples. 
 
 American coninioroe advanced, step by step, to freedom. The gral- 
 leons ceased as early as 174H, (see p. 58,) and single ships were sub- 
 sequently introduced, (register ships,) sailing to South Americjv, at no 
 fixed time, from Cadiz, whither the trade had been transferred from 
 Seville, in 172(i. — In 17(5o, the trade to the Spanish West India islands 
 was opened to all Spaniards, and from nine Spanish harbours, in con- 
 sideration of a duty of only six jK'r cent. — Tiiis liberty was extended, 
 in 1779, to Buenos Ayres, to Peru, Chili, Santa Fc, and Guatimala. 
 The fleet still continue<l to sail to Mexico (p. 58); and did not even 
 obtain a freedom, restricted to six thousand tons importation, till 1786. 
 iJut the most important relief of all was, the diminution of all duties by 
 the new tarilfs of 1778 and 1784. — Tiie trade of the Amei-ican colunies 
 among themselves had already been thrown open by the regulation of 
 of 1774. — A regular communication with the mother country was main- 
 tained by packet boats ; and posts were established throughout all Span- 
 ish America. 
 
 The Bourbons have caused no collection of colonial laws to be com- 
 piled, as the house of Ilapsburg did (sec p. 53 sqcp). Boukgoixg, 
 Voi/nge en Esprtgne, tom. ii., is here the princijial authority (see p. 263). 
 
 51. These new arrangements extended also to the Asiatic 
 possessions, the Pliilij)pin('s. Their trade to America was, 
 indeed, still carried on by the galleons to Manilla, (see 
 p. 85,) but to promote a direct intercourse with Spain, 
 a Philip])ine comjjany was established, which did not, li<)\v- 
 cver, meet with all the success that was expected. 
 
 The company of the Philippines was formed May 10, 1785, by .share- 
 holders, especially of the old Caraccas company, now broken up. The 
 ships went by way of Peru to Manilla, and returned to Spain by way of 
 the Cape. ]\Ianilla mad(^ a free port, with frei'dum of trade to Asia. — 
 Court cabals and wars soon palsied tiie activity of the company. 
 
 Crome, tihrr die Spauisrhv IfdiidliDujxrompdfpne dcr J'/iU/j)j)ifien, in 
 "Woi.TMANN, (hsrhirhtc if /id J'oli/i/i. ISOO, 3 Vols. 
 
 ~y2. It call liiirdiy Ix; ilciiicd, tli;it the colonics i;'aincd 
 more by these regulations than the mother couiitrv. J'he 
 latter, it is true, still remained the channel through which 
 they must obtain the produce of foreign industry; but then 
 their own productions had increased and multiplied at a 
 
PART I.] PORTUGAL. 301 
 
 most extraordinary rate. With commerce, too, the circle 
 of ideas had become expanded ; and the science and grow- 
 ing intelhgence of modern Europe, found an easy and happy 
 Avelcome, which the hierarchy and inquisition were unable 
 to repress. 
 
 53. The changes in the colonial affairs of Por- 
 tugal arose in part from her quarrels with Spain, 
 
 but far more from the administration of Pombal. Her colo- 
 nial policy became, in general, more concentrated in Brazil. 
 With regard to her possessions in Asia and Africa, (Madeira 
 excepted,) she could not even conceal from herself, that 
 they were every day becoming more insignificant. 
 
 The contest with Spain arose respecting the colony of St. Sacrament, 
 (see p. 164,) and its smuggling trade ; especially since the colony, 
 with its territory, had been ceded to Portugal by the peace of Utrecht, 
 1713. A compact, made in 1750, respecting the exchange of this co- 
 lony for seven Spanish missions to the Indians of Paraguay. This gave 
 rise to a dispute with the Jesuits, the founders of the missions, and was 
 opposed by the Indians. The compact was annulled, 1761, and new 
 altercations arose, which finally plunged Spain into a war, 1777. Cap- 
 ture of St. Sacrament and the island St. Catharine. In the peace, St. 
 Sacrament was secured to Spain, but St. Catharine was restored. An 
 exact settlement of boundaries between Brazil and Spanish America, 
 was adjusted to the advantage of Portugal, Oct. 1, 1777. The attempt 
 to found a kingdom in Paraguay has been unjustly charged to the Jesuits. 
 How could extensive missions exist, unless conducted as theirs were ? 
 
 54. The regulations introduced by Pombal, relative to 
 Brazil, had their foundation partly in his political S3'stem, 
 ■partly in his hatred of the higher nobility and the Jesuits. 
 The confiscation of the property of the great families there, 
 as crown lands, was intended to mortify the former, and se- 
 cure Brazil to the crown. By the erection of privileged 
 commercial companies, commerce was to be regulated, and 
 taken from the Jesuits. Greater evils were to do away the 
 smaller ! Yet, in spite of these measures, agriculture seems 
 still to have flourished in Brazil, as the exports were always 
 increasing. 
 
 Brazil was politically divided into nine governments, six of wliich 
 were on the coast : 1. Rio Janeiro; 2. Bahia ; (the two most import- 
 ant ;) 3. Pernambuco ; 4. St. Paulo ; 5. ]\Iaranhao ; 6. Gran Para ; 
 and three in the interior : 7. Matto Grosso ; 8. Goyas ; and, 9. Minas 
 Geraes ; all three abounding in gold, and the last in precious stones. 
 Each had its own governor, who was immediately under the crown. 
 Some contained subdivisions. <■ 
 
302 COLONIAL AFFAIRS, 1710—1786. [rERiou ii, 
 
 Tlio trado with Brazil, hithrrto open to all the Portupjucso, wns c-ar- 
 ricil on iiiidfr tho pnitcctioii of four sciuadroiis, to Kio dc Janeiro, ISahia, 
 I'cniainlnico, ami Maraiiliau Avitli (iran Para. Iiii^tcail ol" tlii^, forma- 
 tion of the coniintM'cial company of Maranhao with Gran Par.'t, cliartered, 
 .Iiinc (), 17.'j(): and on the same })lan the company of IVrnamhiico and 
 Paraiba, .Inlv .'50, IT-ii). Principal rcpulation.s : 1. The capital of hotli 
 to 1)0 raised hy .«;liares. 2. Kach to have its .«npreme hoard of directors 
 {Jiiiit(i) in Lisbon. 3. Kach to have tlie whole trade, both to export 
 and import, of their respective provinces (that of Pernambuco with the 
 exception of two or three ports). 4. Their business to be strictly whole- 
 sale. — On the other hand, the fleets to Kio Janeiro and IJaliia were 
 abolished, and the traile tlirown open, Sept. 22, 1765 ; (so also to An- 
 gola, 1758, and to Mozambi(pie from India.) Several lucrative branches 
 of the trade were, however, m<inopolized by the crown. — The conse- 
 quences of the entire emancipation of the natives, in 1755, cannot be 
 determined. 
 
 The complete charters of the two companies in the ColiWrao, etc., 
 (see p. 263,) vol. i., nd atintim 1755 and 1759. That of the comjjany of 
 Pernambuco is almost verbatim a repetition of the previous one of ^la- 
 ranhao. — The law for the emancipation of the Indians in ISIaranhao, 
 June 6, 1755, (extended so as to comprehend all Brazil, May 8, 1758,) 
 Collecrao, vol. i., recites the former ordinances on the subject from 1570, 
 especially those of 1647 and 1680, whicli it repeats word for word, and 
 complains of the little good they had done. 
 
 55. The nortliern states also continued to take a 
 part in colonics and colonial trade. The posses- 
 sions of Denmark in tiie West Indies remained, indeed, the 
 same, (see p. 206,) but their culture increased, and the 
 ^vars of other nations frequently made their harbours staple 
 places of tiie highest importance. 
 
 A Danish West India company was formed, 1734, with exclusive 
 commercial privilcfres for the whole of the Danish West Indies. Upon 
 its dissolution, in 1764, the trade was thrown open. 
 
 50. In the East Indies Denmark still kept possession of 
 TrMn(|ucl)ar, and the East India Conij)any, ^vhose charter 
 liad been renewed, carried on a successful trade, both with 
 India and China. Without even a pretension to aggran- 
 dizement, it liad nothing to f(^ar from tiie envy of the 
 powcrfid. 
 
 After the downfal of the old company, 1730, a new one was chartered, 
 1732, with funds partly permanent, ])artly transferable. Their j)atent 
 (renewed, 1772) extended only to China, and not to India, which was 
 open to all, umler certain con<!itions. New retrulation ; and the com- 
 pany relieved by the cession of their Iiulian possessions to the crown, 
 1777. 
 
 Geschichte dcs Privathandcls und dcr Jetzigcn Vcrfassung der Besit- 
 
TAUT i.^ SWEDEN. RUSSIA. 303 
 
 zungender Diinenhi Ostindien, von A. Hexntngs. Hamb. 1785, 8vo. 
 (Otler: Gcgenwartiyer Zustand der Europder in Ostindien. Erster 
 Tliiel.) Compiled from original documents. 
 
 57. In Sweden the company instituted at Got- 
 tenburg (see p. 206,) carried on an advantageous 
 Indian trade, yet almost exclusively to China. In the 
 West Indies, also, Sweden obtained a firm footing, by pro- 
 curing the island of St. Bartholomew from France. 
 
 The charter of the East India Company was renewed, 1747, 1766, 
 and 1786, each time for twenty years. St. Bartholomew was obtained 
 in exchange for commercial concessions, July 1, 1784. 
 
 58. Even distant Russia not only participated 
 
 , rN, • ,11 c 1 , Russia, 1741. 
 
 in the Chmese trade, by means ot caravans, but 
 after the discovery of the Kurili and Aleutian islands, 
 carried on hunting, and established a trade in peltry there, 
 which led at last to settlements on the coasts of North 
 America, and the erection of a commercial company for 
 this particular object. 
 
 An intercourse was opened with China as early as 1692, by Peter I., 
 of which Kiachta became the principal seat. This trade remained a 
 monopoly of the crown, till it was thrown open by Catharine II., in 1762. 
 
 59. Where can we find a more interesting subject for 
 contemplation than in this spread of European dominion 
 over half Asia, nearly all America, and the coasts of Africa 
 and Australia? Though lust of gain may have been its 
 first object, yet it was acquired, and has been since main- 
 tained, by intellectual superiority. If the barbarians still 
 remained barbarians, the Europeans, at least, preserved 
 their civilization, even beyond the Atlantic. Their crea- 
 tions have prospered too well — the seeds of cultivated in- 
 telligence have been scattered too widely, and have taken 
 too firm root, to leave any fear of their future decay, how- 
 ever various may be their fate on the different soils on 
 which they have been sown. Who can conceive the ulti- 
 mate effect of all this ? What mind can penetrate the 
 boundaries of the immense prospect it has opened to our 
 view ? 
 
TIIIUD PEHIOD. 
 
 FroNi \7i0 to 17 Si). 
 
 PART THE SECOND. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE NORTHERN EUROPEAN STATES-SYSTEM. 
 
 For want of a general history of the north, we must mention here, at 
 the lu>ginninjr, 
 
 I/istoire de F Attarchie de Polor/vc ct (hi dnnemhremnit de cette rc- 
 j)n//lif/iic, par Cl. Kiillhikkk. Paris, 1S()7, 4 vols. 8vo. Conf. the 
 criticiuc of DurONT de Nkmouks, in Kurop. Aiuialen. 1812, 8t. 8, 9. 
 It fioes down to the first partition of Poland, 1772. Properly a leading 
 worli only for tlie history of the Poles, but important for that of the wliole 
 north ; comjiiled from actual observation. In this respect a capital 
 work ; but tlie perfect historian is not formed in the great world alone. 
 
 Tlic CEuvrcs posthtuncs de Frederic II. apply to particular facts. 
 
 \. The north of Europe stood, din-ing this period, after 
 tlie afro-nindizement of Russia, in a closer connexion with 
 the west than formerly ; but, except the period of the seven 
 years' ^var, its influence was rather of a diplomatic than mi- 
 litary character. Notwithstandin"^, therefore, that we have 
 been compelled to glance occasionally at the north in the 
 foregoing period, it still requires its own separate histoiy. 
 
 2. The relations of the north certainly, from this time, 
 depend in a great measure upon Russia, but in a very dif- 
 ferent manner during the first half of this period to what 
 they do in the last. The accession of Catharine IL forms 
 the epoch ; and the period naturally divides itself into two 
 sections, before and after that event. 
 
 L From 1740 io iho dcccxxion of Catharine II., 176^. 
 
 3. In this period the north of Europe offers, in a political 
 respect, a perfect contrast with the tbrmer. Not a single 
 prominent character appears, either on the throne, in the 
 cabinet, or in the field. Personal interests and passions, 
 
PART ii.J NORTHERN STATES, 1740— 17G2. 305 
 
 frequently of the most detestable kind, decided respecting 
 the foreign, no less than the domestic relations of the states. 
 "SMiile the leading empire was vegetating under an indolent, 
 but on that account a no less cruel despotism, anarchy was 
 organized in the two bordering monarchies. 
 
 1. Russia. After the short but stormy reign of the minor, Ivan the 
 third, from Oct. 28, 1740, to Dec. 6, 1741, a revolution raised Eli- 
 zabeth, youngest daughter of Peter I., to the throne. Her sway, (till 
 Jan. 5, 1762,) beginning with the fall of foreigners, (see p. 220,) seem- 
 ed about to bring back the empire to its ancient state of barbarism. 
 Foreign affairs, divided between the privy councillor Lestoc and Count 
 Bestuchef Eiumin, chancellor of the empire, after the overthrow of the 
 former, (Nov. 13, 1748,) came wholly inider the management of the 
 latter, till he also (Feb., 1755) jirepared his own fall. The state subsist- 
 ed, because it could not fall asunder ; and was imposing, not by its 
 spirit, but by its mass. 
 
 Respecting Lestoc and Bestuchef, see Buschixg's 3Iagazin, 1768, 
 B. ii. Russia, N. 3, 4. 
 
 2. SvrEDEN, under the reign of Frederic of Hesse, (f 1751,) and yet 
 more under his successor Adolphus Frederic, was rather an aristocracy 
 than a monarchy ; and the civil broils fomented among the various fac- 
 tions of the nobility, by the rankling hatred of Russia, seemed teeming 
 with danger in a state where actual poverty made foreign subsidies so 
 acceptable. Thus this kingdom became an instrument, as it were, in 
 the hands of the foreign power who could pay most. And as for the 
 factions of Syllenborg and Horn — of the hats and the caps, as they call- 
 ed themselves — though in principle the former was for war and tlie lat- 
 ter for peace, yet amid the various changes which took place, they be- 
 came nothing more than a French and anti-French party. 
 
 Des Grafex R. F. zu Lyxab hinterlassene Staatsschriften. Ham- 
 burg, 1793, 2 vols. 8vo. Under 1, 3, 4, and 7, they give by far the best 
 account respecting the internal relations of Sweden during this period ; 
 which is perfectly confirmed by Flassax's accounts. 
 
 3. PoLANTD, under Augustus HI. and Brlihl, (p. 208,) was the image 
 of anarchy at rest, as Sweden was of anarchy in action. To the people 
 misery, to the nobles pleasures had become necessary. And matters of 
 state were among these pleasures, while they were managed by ladies. 
 Among a people so enervated, the Czartorinskies and Branickies were 
 able to form their projects and parties, without fear or trouble. With- 
 out attachment to Russia, but crouching under its feet, Poland possessed 
 scarcely the shadow of liberty. As it could not protect itself, France 
 and the Porte seemed to be its natural guardians : but even the alliance 
 of France with Austria (and consequently with Russia) was insufficient 
 to arouse them from their lethargy ; and foreign influence, (additionally 
 supported by the political relations of Courland, see p. 221,) notwith- 
 standing all that a AVilliams or Broglio could do, was able to form 
 nothing more than projects. Relations of a very different kind from 
 those of policy were to decide the future destinies of Poland, after the 
 youthful Poniatowski (nephew of Prince Czartorinski) was introduced 
 
 X 
 
306 NORTH EIIN STATKS, 17J0— 17C2. (rrnioc ii. 
 
 l)v the roiincillor "Williiims into the prand iluke'.s court at St. IVlciu- 
 hiirp, wh«M-(' he i'ormcd an allianee f(ir Iiinisell". 
 
 4. Di.NMAiJK, without a rival after the fall of Sweden, was, uih1<t 
 Christian VI. (Sept. 1.5, 174(5) and Fn'd.'rie V., (Jan. 14, 17G(J.) miIH- 
 eit'utlv ha)>])V in bcinrj ahle to retire within itself. Even the Hussian 
 cahinet, under Kli/abt'th, owinp to the political relations with Sweden, 
 nia<le the preservaticjn of its friemlslii]) with Denmark a maxim of state 
 polioy. Under these eireumstanees, wliat was wantiufr to complete the 
 serurity of the latter ])ower, hail not the ancient feuds with Ilolstcin- 
 Gottorp still disturbed its prospects of tlie future ? 
 
 5. For TiassiA, sec above, page 271. 
 
 4. Tlic period commenced, even under the empress Anne, 
 \y\\U a Swcdisli-Riissian war, (after the victory of the Syl- 
 Icnhor;^" party at tlie imjjcrial diet,) wliich was privately l"o- 
 mented by France, in order that she mioht not be tliwartcd 
 in her dcsions npon Austria, by the intervention of Russia. 
 8\ve(U'n actually exj)ected to recover the lost provinces on 
 the Baltic, iiu'ludinsj; St. Pctersbunj; ! The war, however, 
 thoii«2,h conducted with very ill success to Sweden, Avas ne- 
 vertheless terminated by the peace at Abo, much more to 
 her advantage tlian she ctndd have dared to hope for. A 
 more lasting peace with Russia, was not purchased too 
 dearly at the expense of conceding the election of a suc- 
 cessor, and a new adjustment of the boundary line in Fin- 
 land. But the spirit of faction was not therefore destroyed, 
 as it found perpetual encouragement and support in the 
 machinations of France and Russia, the one power endea- 
 vourinp; to overthrow, the other to preserve the existing 
 constitution. 
 
 Sweden declares war on Russia. Auir. 4, 1741 ; loses the battle at 
 "Willemstrand, Sept. 2, and then all Finland, for which two generals, 
 Leweidiaupt and Jluddenbrok, sulVer on tlie scaHbld. Peace concluded 
 at Abo, Aug. 17, 174;3. Conditions: 1. The Kymen made the bound- 
 ary, by which I'et<'rsburg is made secure. 2. Adolphus Frederic of 
 Ilolstein-dottorp, according to Elizabeth's wish, is appointed next suc- 
 cessor to the crown of Sweden. 
 
 5. The choice, however, which Elizabeth made, shortly 
 after she came to the throne, of her future successor, had a 
 considerable influence, not only on Russia, but on the north- 
 ern states in jxeneral. Tiic |)erson she fixed on was her 
 nephew, the young Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, Charles Peter 
 Ulrich, who, by birth, had an e(|u:illy near prospect of suc- 
 ceedinn- to the Swedish thron<'. whicli, however, he resigned 
 in favour of his cousin Adolphus Frederic. The opening 
 
PART II.] NORTHERN STATES, 1740—1762. 
 
 307 
 
 of such splendid prospects to a collateral branch of the house 
 of Holstein, must have been an additional cause of appre- 
 hension to the direct reigning line in Denmark, because the 
 young duke did by no means, in his new hopes, lose the 
 deepest sense of the old grievances of his house. The con- 
 sequence was, a long series of negotiations for adjusting the 
 ancient contests concerning Holstein and Sleswick, which 
 left policy the lesson how dangerous it is to attempt to ex- 
 ecute even the most useful projects at an unseasonable time. 
 
 The history of these protracted negotiations is given at large in, 
 Staatsschriften des Grafen zu Lynar. Th. i. No. 6. 
 
 C. But after Frederic's appearance on the scene, the af- 
 fairs of the west occupied the Russian cabinet, far more than 
 the afiairs of Russia itself The question was not, whether 
 the interest of Russia was to be espoused, but whether that 
 of Prussia or of Austria. After the fall of Lestoc, 
 the Austrian party was triumphant, to which not 
 only Bestuchef, (for thus only could subsidies be obtained 
 from England,) but Elizabeth herself — it may be doubted 
 if she knew why — was devoted. 
 
 Russia made an alliance with Austria. June 12, 1747, and a subsi- 
 diary treaty Avith England, for hastening the peace of Aix-la-ChapeUe. 
 (See p. 235.) 
 
 7. Whether the increase of Prussia threatened danger to 
 Russia was a problem for speculative politics ; but the con- 
 tinued alliance with Austria and Saxony, which eventually 
 led to an eager participation in the seven years' war, (p. 
 242,) was not viewed from so high a point. Though Russia, 
 in the end, derived no aggrandizement from this war, it 
 nevertheless first established in the west the renown of Rus- 
 sian arms ; just as Sweden, by an equally impolitic partici- 
 pation, lost its fame ; and while all the power of Russia was 
 turned to this object, the Porte not only saw itself mean- 
 while secured, but even Poland could enjoy a kind of falla- 
 cious quiet, that prepared its fall. 
 
 8. But this eager participation against Prussia created 
 in the court itself such a division, that, in all probability, 
 nothing but the fall of the perfidious Bestuchef ^.^ 
 prevented a revolution, which he himself was de- 
 sirous of producing. Three characters, so different in their 
 
 X 2 
 
SOS XOIITIIERN STATKS, 17 JO— 1702. ImnioD ii. 
 
 princijilos nnd view? as Eli/abrtli, Peter, and liis yonnp^ 
 wile Catliarine, could not live in liarmonv. I'^li- 
 
 Jan. r>, 17'i'J. I I 1' 1 1 1 <• r^ 1 ■ 
 
 zabeth died o))])ortunely, not oiilv lor rrederic, 
 ])nt perhaps also for lierself, 
 
 liiofjrnphic Peters des Dritlen ; Tiibin;zcn, 1808, 2 Theilo. — The 
 first volume illustrates the history betbre his accession with discern- 
 ment and love ot" truth. 
 
 9. It was easy to foresee a total change of political rela- 
 tions under her successor, Peter 111. He ascended the 
 throne, in ill humour at the treatment he had received, en- 
 thusiastic for Frederic, and exasperated ap^ainst Denmark. 
 Yet, notwithstandinp: his alliance with the former, (p. 245,) 
 his projects against Denmark might have met with great 
 difHculties in the execution. But after a reign of hardly 
 six months, a revolution precipitated him from the throne 
 into the arave : and with his successor Catharine 
 
 July 9. ^ . 
 
 II. a new order of things bejxan. 
 
 Ilistoirc dc la IicvoIntio7i de Jiiisse en 1762, par IvIIULIkre. — This 
 work could not be printed till after Catharine'd death. — It is also an- 
 nexed to the Ilistnire de Vanarchie dc Pologne, torn. iv. Though not 
 free, perhaps, from single inaccuracies, it is still the leading work. 
 
 II. From the accession of C(it]iari)w II. to the alliance with 
 Joseph II., 17()-2— 1787. 
 
 A good biography of Catharine would almost form a complete history 
 of this period. Till we obtain which, we nnist be eontcnt with, 
 
 Ilistoirc dc Cothnriyic II. Inipnatricc dc liussic, \vay J. Castki^a. 
 Tom. i. — iii. Paris, An VIII. Kespeeting the history of tlie court 
 and other single topics, the author or authors give good information. 
 
 10. The accession of Catharine evidently con- 
 stitutcd a new ej)och, not only for Ihissia, but 
 for the north in general. 'J he ratification of the separate 
 peace (though not of the alliance) with Prussia (p. 245) 
 altered the relations of the north, by severino; the alliance 
 with Austria and leaving Catharine free scope. 
 
 11. It is of great importance to seize rightly the prevail- 
 in^■ ideas in the policy of this ])rincess. Even great histo- 
 rians have spoken of the dictatorship which she exercised 
 or wished to exercise in Europe. But although her diplo- 
 macy encircled all Europe, she yet knew how to separate 
 
PART u.] NORTHERN STATES, 1762—1787. 309 
 
 most accurately her sphere of practical influence. This 
 embraced only the contiguous nations, the north and the 
 Porte, and never exceeded these limits. Even personal 
 affronts could urge her no further. Much of her greatness 
 may be merely conventional ; that her policy grew nobler 
 with the progress of time, no one has maintained ; but his- 
 tory will not deny her the rare honour, of having correctly 
 estimated the strength of her dominions. 
 
 The indolent, and yet indispensable, Count Panin, was the minister 
 of foreign atfairs till 1781. But his influence was often outweighed by 
 that of the favourite, Prince Gregory Orloff. 
 
 12. AVhat a field for her projects was offered by her 
 neighbours ; Sweden, Poland, the Porte, in a state of 
 anarchy, and all the other powers exhausted ! Under the 
 name of a great Northern Alliance, comprehending also 
 Prussia and England, the principality of Russia was to be 
 established ; but soon forsaking such projects, she found in 
 Poland the real theatre for her exertions. Its geographical 
 situation must, of itself, have produced the various relations 
 in which it stood with regard to the other powers. 
 
 13. What did Russia need in Poland, but the continu- 
 ance of the existing anarchy ? Under the pretence of pre- 
 serving its liberty and constitution, a dominion could be 
 founded, for which the nation had, as yet, to be grateful. 
 Tlie occupation of Courland had originally occasioned the 
 altercation ; but the vacancy of the throne, occa- 
 sioned by the death of Augustus III., brought mat- 
 ters to a crisis. 
 
 Prince Charles was driven from Courland, and Biron was again put 
 in possession, 1763. 
 
 14. To give a king to Poland Avas now the decided wish 
 of Catharine, although the final elevation of her former 
 favourite was the work of her minister, rather than herself. 
 To give Poland a king ! how much did such a proposition 
 include, when Frederic, and Maria Theresa, and Mustapha 
 were to be the spectators, and France left unnoticed ! M'liat 
 obstacles were to be surmounted in Poland itself, unless the 
 decision was to be immediately effected by the bayonet ! 
 There was here no want of men of courage and experienced 
 age. But what could individuals do, if the great body of 
 the people, listening to no reason, regarded foreign tyranny 
 
310 NOUTHEKN STATKS, I7C2--I787. | PBnioi, n. 
 
 US more tolnrablo than domestic sway? 'i'lius could llie 
 ( ral'tv l"avourit(! ol" the ('mj)r('ss ojx'u an avcmu;, hy uliicli 
 the imperious Uepnin soon attained his object, and the 
 finely conceived plans of reform of the Czartorinskios were 
 friistratcd. Stanislaus Poniatowsky was elected 
 
 8opl.7, ITtVJ. in- 
 
 iiu'ler Kiissian arms. 
 15. No power could be more interested in these ])ro- 
 cecMlino's than Prussia. But Frederic, without allies, and 
 the toe of Austria, solicited Ilussia's alliance ; in return for 
 which he was ready to sacrifice Poland. Thouoli pcrhaj)s 
 his situation excused this policy, the danp^er and de<xradation 
 of which did not escape him, tiierc is yet a limit of compli- 
 ance which egotism itself does not readilv exceed. That 
 Frederic suiVered the continuance of the Polish anarchy to 
 be expressly made a condition, was a liumiliating circum- 
 stance, which ])osterity cannot j)ardon in a hero. Yet this 
 great man was not wholly untrue to himself He did not, 
 at least, conceal from Poland, that it had nothing to expect 
 from him. 
 
 A treaty of alliance was signed between Russia and Prussia, April 
 11, 1764. The conditions were, a mutual defence and guarantee of all 
 European possessions. — The preservation of the constitution of Poland 
 was the subject of a secret article. 
 
 IG. If this alliance settled the fate of Poland, and j)er- 
 haps that of the whole north, l^rnssia now wanted nothing 
 but a pretext for acquiring permanent dominion in Poland. 
 This was soon discovered in the case of the Disside/ifs. By 
 protecting them, a party was soon ft)rmed, and the reputa- 
 tion of beiu'i; tolerant secured at the same time. But the 
 dullest eye could not but perceive, that this was much less 
 the o])ject than the foundation of desj)olic j)ower. It was 
 not, therefore, blind fanaticism which impelled the patriotic 
 party to resist ; but its leaders, Soltik, Krasinsky, and 
 Pidaski, men of exalted character, stirred up fanaticism, 
 because they found their support in that alone. Flven 
 Catharine was apparently very desirous to produce it, as 
 she soon demanded not merely toleration, but political 
 equality for the dissidents. 
 
 Though the toleration of all dissidents (those who were not Catho- 
 lics) was effected, yet the political equality could only refer to the dis- 
 sident nobles, who were few in number. They themselves had asked 
 
rAHT II.] NORTHERN STATES, 17G2— 1787. oil 
 
 no more than toleration. The Eu^;siau reqiTisitions were declined, 
 Nov. 1766. 
 
 17. Throuo-h the instrumentality of Repnin, 
 
 June 1737 
 
 a general confederacy was formed at Radom, 
 by the union of the dissidents and other discontented per- 
 sons, under Radzivil, who till now had been the enemy of 
 the Russians and the king ; and a diet was soon 
 after convened at Warsaw. The adoption of the 
 new laws, perpetuating the rights of the dissidents, and all 
 the evils of the constitution, under the guarantee of Russia, 
 was efiected by force ; but not till the bishops Soltik and 
 Zaluski, and the Rzevuskies were arrested in Warsaw and 
 sent to Siberia. Such men even a Repnin was unable to 
 bend ! 
 
 18. And yet they had miscalculated; because it had not 
 been taken into consideration, that despair does not calculate 
 at all. A counter-confederacy was formed at 
 
 Bar, prepared by Bishop Krasinsky, and com- 
 pleted by Pelaski and Potocki. The object of the con- 
 federates now was the change of their union into a general 
 confederacy for the dethronement of the king, who, always 
 inclining to the Russian side, could never have gained the 
 confidence of such a party. But a war, marked with all 
 the cruelties of devastation, must first have opened them 
 the way ; and they soon had to experience how little the 
 hiohest courao-e, unless fortune and numbers mve it the 
 superiority, can efl'ect against a methodical art of war. 
 
 19. One hope, however, remained ; and it was not de- 
 lusive ! The policy of the Porte had not altered, like that 
 of the Christian courts. If the latter believed it necessary 
 to yield, in the divan the old idea still survived, to allow no 
 Russian army in Poland. The evacuation of Poland had 
 always been, therefore, the constant demand of the Porte 
 from Russia ; and nothing but the gross ignorance of the 
 divan would have made it possible to deceive it so long. 
 The requisitions of tlie confederates and the in- 
 fluence of France finally prevailed. The Porte 
 declared war on Russia. 
 
 20. Thus the theatre expanded of itself, and peace could 
 hardly be expected without great changes in the north. It 
 was purchased at last by a six years' contest, which taught 
 
.T12 NORTIIKKN STATES, 1702—1767. [pBnion u. 
 
 Catliarino wliat slic could do in tlir rul^inct and in tlic field. 
 Austria and Prussia (juictly looked on ; while Frederic paid 
 liis stipulated subsidies. 
 
 21. The war proceeded on land and sea. New and bold 
 ])lans were projected lor pcnetratino; beyond the Danube ; 
 ior ur«;in<;' the (Jreeks to rebellion ; tor despatchinLT a 
 squadron trom the Baltic to the Archipelapio, and nienacinj.^ 
 the capital ; for contracting alliances in Efrypt, in order to 
 detach it I'roni the Porte ; — and all were executed, but only 
 in part. A peace of almost thirty years had lulled the 
 ener<j:ies of the Porte ; but a Ronianzolf had first to be form- 
 ed amono- the Russians. 
 
 C'ampaijrn on the Dniester, under Gallizin, ajr:iin?t tlie alliefl Turks 
 and Tartar:*, 1T<>9, witli little success. I'ossession was taken of CIioc- 
 zin, whicii had hcen abandoned, Sept. 9. — HonianzofT was invested witii 
 the command, who subdued ]\Ittldavia, after the victory on the Pruth, 
 July 18, 1770 ; and Walachia after the {rreater victory on the Ka;rul, 
 Aug. 1. Bender was conquered by Panin, Sept. 1. — Meanwhile, the 
 Russian fleet under Alexis Orloflf made its appearance in the Archipe- 
 lairo, obtained a victory at Scio, .July .3, and burned the Turkisli llet't at 
 Tehesme, July 16, without making any further use of the victory. — In 
 the following campaign of 1771, a defensive war Avas waged on the 
 Danube ; tlie Crimea was conquered by Dolgoruky. A connexion was 
 formed with the then victorious Ali Bey in Egypt. The year 1772 
 elapsed with fruitless negotiations between Romanzoff and tlie grand 
 vizier at Foczani and Bucharest. — Se])arate treaty made with the Tar- 
 tars in the Crimea. Tlie war renewed 1773. Romanzoff crossed the 
 Danube ; made a useless siege of Silistria, and retreated across the river. 
 — Ali Bey was defeated and taken prisoner in Egypt, ]May 7. 
 
 A clear light is shed over Komanzotrs campaign by the well known 
 eorresj)ondence, in their own hand-writings, between the empress and 
 him. 
 
 Respecting the revolution attempted by Ali Bey : 
 
 (rX)USK;x.\x) Ilisfnire de la Ju'rolu/ion (rA/i lici/. Tom. i. ii. 1783 ; 
 and the accounts of Volney in his ]'ot/agc en Si/rie et en j-Egi/pte. 
 
 22. But althoun;h Catharine was fortunate in not being 
 interrupted in her undertakino-s by the participation of other 
 powers, her attention was nevertheless cno'aged by affairs 
 of another kind, partly in the interior of her own empire, 
 
 ,_, and partly in the neighbourino; states. A deso- 
 lating pestilence spread to ^Moscow ; and the in- 
 surrection of a common Cossack, Pugatschef, who 
 gave himself out for Pet(T III., employed an important part 
 of her troops, and even threatened to shake her throne. 
 But in two neighbouring kingdoms two most opposite revo- 
 
r.vRT n-l KOKTIIERN STATES, 17C2— 1787. 313 
 
 lutions were taking place at the same time ; in Sweden con- 
 trary to, in Poland according to, her Avishes. 
 
 23. The Swedish revolution, produced by Gustavus III., 
 preserved the independence of this kingdom. The violent 
 factions of the nobility, led on solely by family interests and 
 foreign influence, ofter a much more disgusting aspect than 
 those of Poland. Not even a mistaken feeling of patriot- 
 ism ; not even single eminent characters ; nothing but the 
 Aveakness of the two former kings could have allowed such 
 a state oj" things to continue. But in one respect, Sweden 
 was superior to Poland ; it still had a class of free citizens 
 and peasants ; and in this consisted the possibility of its 
 salvation. 
 
 After the victory of the Hats in the diet of 1738, (p. 305,) this party, 
 and with it the influence of France, (subsidiary treaty, Nov. 10, 1738 ; 
 renewed 1747 and 1754,) maintained themselves till the diet of 17G2. 
 When France could or would pay nothing more, the Caps triumplied, and 
 the Anglo-Russian influence began. A treaty was made witli England, 
 Feb. 5, 1766. But both parties, each in the time of its superiority, 
 deemed it necessary to restrict tlie regal power ; till in the diet extraor- 
 dinary of 1769, France again purchased its influence, in the vain hope 
 of alleviating Poland and the Porte, by exciting a war. King Adoli:)hus 
 Frederic died Feb. 11, 1771. 
 
 Compare Flassan, Histoire, (p. 3,) torn. v. p. 457, etc. 
 
 24. Gustavus III. appeared on the scene. He seemed 
 to have derived much from Frederic, his grand-uncle ; the 
 quick-sighted eye of genius, elevation of mind, and every 
 splendid talent. One thing only was wanting ; that coolness 
 
 of character, without which no man can become a o-reat 
 
 . . . . . '-' 
 
 ruler. To remain in a state such as his, was for him impos- 
 sible. The bloodless revolution, altogether his work, is also 
 his greatest achievement ; and was alike beneficial for him- 
 self and the kingdom. The states of the kingdom under- 
 went no change, the council only was overturned. 
 
 The revolution broke out and was completed in Stockholm, Aug. 19, 
 1772 ; in understanding with France. The new constitution left the 
 states their rights ; the council of the kingdom was merely deprived of 
 its share in the government. No aggressive war could be Avaged with- 
 out the consent of the states. — It was not the fault of the constitution, 
 if any thing was wanting to national happiness. 
 
 C. F. Sheridan's History of the late Revolution in Sweden. Lon- 
 don, 1778, 8vo. The author was secretary to the English embassy in 
 Stockholm. The work gives a clear and, for the most part, an impar- 
 tial survey of the earlier internal relations, subsequent to 1720 
 
•"^ll N'OHTIIKIIN STATES, 17G2— 1787. IrEiiioD u. 
 
 "25. Tills restoration of the royal power in Sweden oj)Pr- 
 ated (litVcrontly on the relations of the north in {xcncral. 
 I'jiiLrland hchold it with dissatisfaction, because France saw 
 it with pleasure ; the others had no objections ; Russia alone 
 had to teel it deeply, that no dominion could now be found- 
 ed in Sweden as in Poland. Ikit Catharine was sufficiently 
 nn.>^tress of herself, to restrain her displeasure. She was too 
 much occupied with other atiairs. 
 
 The embarrassment of Frederic as guarantee of tlie Swedish con- 
 stitufif)n apainst Russia, was removed by the mediation of Austria ; 
 and his mediation aj^ain preserved the jrood understandinji with Den- 
 mark, wliiTe, after Struensee's fall, .Tan. 17, 17o2, the witlowed queen 
 Juliana Maria liad taken, for a short time, the administration into her 
 own hands. 
 
 26. The fate of Polanfl drew near its decision in another 
 way. The activity of the confederacy of liar had not re- 
 laxed during the Turkish war ; it had declared the throne 
 vacant, and had dared to remove the kino; fiom 
 
 Nov. 3. 1771. , . ' . , ,, 1 1^ 1 1 '^ , 
 
 Ins own residence, liut the l^orte had enouoh 
 to do for itself: and the increasing preponderance of Russia 
 finally seemed so dangerous to Austria also, that a further 
 extension of the war seemed inevitable. 
 
 The Austrian cabinet was resolved not to permit tlie Ru.ssians to 
 penetrate beyond the Danube, as was then meditated. Austria liad also 
 claimed and occupied the county of Zip, as formerly pledged to Poland. 
 
 rartiti-.nof -7. Uudcr these circumstances, on occasion 
 
 of a visit of Prince Henry of Pru.ssia to Peters- 
 burg, a project was matured, to re-establish peace at the ex- 
 pense of Poland. Though Prince Henry and Catharine 
 were its first authors, Frederic soon became its zealous ad- 
 vocate. Whatever share accident may have had in its origin 
 is, on the whole, of le.ss importance than the possibilitv of 
 its being matured. Deep as public morals may sink, they 
 can never sink so low, that the calmly concerted robbery of 
 a neighbour should need any commentary. It was a fruit 
 of the policy of aggraiidi/.ement and compactness of terri- 
 tory, proceeding from the divided situation of the Prussian 
 monarchy. 
 
 Negotiations were entered upon respecting the first partition of Po- 
 land, at first between Prussia and Russia, and subsequently between 
 Prussia and Austria. These negotiations were followed, Aug. 5, 1772, 
 by the treaty of partition, in virtue of which, 1. Russia obtained tiie 
 
PART II.] NORTHERN STATES, 17G2— 1787. 315 
 
 country between the Dwina, Dnieper, and Drutsch. 2. Austria, what 
 was then East Galicia and Lodomiria. 3. Prussia, all Polish Prussia 
 (except Dantzic and Thorn) and a part of Great Poland as far as the 
 Netze ; Avhich boundaries were afterwards extended at Avill by Austria 
 and Prussia. The three powers not only guaranteed mutually to each 
 other what they had taken, but also guaranteed what remained after the 
 partition, to Poland itself ! 
 
 3Iemoires et actes aiithentiqiies relatifs mix negockitions, qni ont pre- 
 cedees le partage de la Pologne ; tires du portefeuille d'un ancien minis- 
 tre du 18™" siecle (le Comte de Goertz) 1810. From this source has 
 been mostly drawn the narration in Dohm's DeJikwurdigkeiten, vol. i., 
 and the additions in vol. ii., by which a clear light has been shed over 
 the origin and progress of this deed of violence, of which Frederic, in- 
 deed, was not the author. 
 
 Vie prirfr, publique, et 7nilifaire, du Prince Henry de Prusse. Paris, 
 1809. This book gives a good account of the origin of the first Polish 
 partition, as well as several contributions to the history of the progress 
 of the system of connecting their territories among the great. The bro- 
 ther of Frederic had no other policy. He conferred quite as calmly 
 with Joseph concerning the partition of Germany, as with Catharine 
 concerning the partition of Poland. 
 
 28. The consent of the nation was extorted by force in 
 the diet at ^yarsaw, after possession had ah-eady been taken. 
 But Catharine was not wilhng to rehnquish or divide her 
 dominion in the rest of Poland ; and who dared to contra- 
 dict her? The erection of the perpetual council, and the 
 guarantee of the kingdom as elective, together with the 
 liberum veto, insured to her the lead, which, after Repnin's 
 recall, ambassadors even of a much less determined charac- 
 ter were able to take. As for the affair of the dissidents, it 
 was, of course, left to shift for itself ! 
 
 29. But what were the consequences to Poland, in com- 
 parison with those which threatened the political system of 
 Europe ? The potentates themselves had begun its subver- 
 sion ! Politicians consoled themselves, indeed, and so did 
 Frederic, that the balance of power would be upheld in the 
 north by the nearly equal division. So fearfully had the 
 error taken root, that this is to be sought in the material 
 power of the state, and not in the preservation of the max- 
 ims of international law. What dismemberment could be 
 illegal, if this should be regarded as lawful ? And what state 
 could be more interested in maintaining the law of nations, 
 than Prussia, a state which was itself conquered by piece- 
 meal, and brought together by compacts and treaties of 
 peace ? 
 
SIG NOKTIir.UN STATKS, 17G'2— i:":. [iKRJon ii. 
 
 30. 'I'liis first l\»li>li jiailitioii, ill connexion uith a -iic- 
 ccsstul canijJiiiLin, facilitated the ('()iii])r()niisf> Ijctwfcii ]{us- 
 sia atid tlic 'lurks ; since ('atliarinc remitted lier claims to 
 Moldavia and ^^'alachia, and the resolute Musta))lia III. liad 
 
 heen siicce<'de(l by liis imbecile hrotlior, Ahdul- 
 
 .I.in. 21, 1774. ,, . , rri * 111 
 
 liamid. 1 he manner inwjiicii the peace was 
 concluded at Kainardne, near Silistria, witiiout foreign me- 
 diation, fully proved that she could dictate the terms. 
 
 Konianzoff cros.''ed the Danube a seooncl time, and surroundfil the 
 grand vizier in tlie nionntains of Bul;;aria. A sliort negotiation was 
 made in the Ku,<^sian camp hetwei-n licimin and Acliinet KfFendi, and 
 the peace was conchided at Kut.schuk Kainardge, July 21. Conditions: 
 1. The Tartars in the Crimea and in Cuhan were to he imlejiendent 
 under their khan. 2. The conque.-Jts, especially Moldavia and AVala- 
 chia, were restored to the princes appointed hy the Porte. Kussia re- 
 served, however, the right of taking an interest in their affairs at 
 Constantinople. 3. Kussia retained Kiiiburn and Azoph, as al.-^o in the 
 Crimea, Jenikale and Kirtsch with their districts, besides the greater 
 and less Cabardia. 4. Commercial navigation was to be free in the 
 lilack Sea, and in all the Turkish seas. 5. Several arrangements were 
 made respecting the prerogatives of the Russian ambassador to the 
 Porte, the Russian consul, the imperial title, etc. 
 
 31. By this peace and the Polish partition, an order of 
 thino;s was established, which seemed merely a transition to 
 further convulsions. — The alliance of Russia with Prussia 
 continued in form ; after the Swedish revolution, a secret 
 
 alliance had heen formed with Denmark ; the as- 
 cendency in Poland was confirmed ; the relations 
 with Sweden were very doubtful ; those witli the Porte very 
 com])licated. But what was the increase of the ])hysical, 
 compared with the moral power of Russia ! After Catharine 
 had succeeded in these great trials of her strength, she first 
 learned to perceive what she was able to do. To enable iier 
 to make a full use of the strength of her vast empire, no- 
 thing was wanting but a methodical internal organization. 
 For this also she found time. The new division into govern- 
 ments, and the whole administration founded on it, bene- 
 ficial in many respects, was on that account no less suited 
 to the masculine woman, who would herself be the efficient 
 ruler. 
 
 32. It was about this time, that the new favourite Po- 
 temkin rose. Of the sparks of genius peculiar to the Titan 
 race of the Orloffs, none seemed to have fallen on him ; his 
 
PART II.] NORTHERN STATES, 1762—1787. 317 
 
 impulses proceeded not so much from a desire of power 
 and fame, as from avarice and the love of orders. At the 
 side of a monarch capable of high and bold ideas, he flat- 
 tered her ; and supported by a degree of haughtiness adapt- 
 ed to his narrow-minded views, he acquired and maintained 
 an influence, which determined the destinies of the north. 
 
 Potemkin (after 1776, a prince of the German empire) was the only 
 one of Catharine's favourites, wliose great political influence began after 
 he had left the station of favourite. From 1778 to his death in 1791, 
 he had almost the sole direction of foreign relations. 
 
 Potemkin der Taurier, in the Minerva of Archexholz, in numbers, 
 from April, 1797, to Dec, 1800. The -well-informed author of this bio- 
 graphy has not up to this time been contradicted in any essential point. 
 
 33. From this time the Grecian project received its form. 
 To rear a Grecian empire on the ruins of the empire of the 
 Ottomans, and to place a prince of her house on the new 
 throne, was now the darling idea of Catharine. This scheme 
 had been much advanced by the last war, and still more so 
 by the last peace. The great difficulties which obstructed 
 its accomplishment could not but be seen, but even these 
 endowed it with greater charms in her eyes, and in the 
 worst event, it seemed possible to remove them by a parti- 
 tion in the case of Turkey, as in that of Poland. 
 
 The correspondence, psychologically and physically interesting, of 
 Catharine with ZisiiiERJiAX, contained in his Verhaltnisse mit der Kai- 
 seri7i von Markard, 1803, contains (Lettre XXVI.) the confession of 
 the empress herself on this subject. The origin and progress of this 
 project has been best developed in Dohm's Denkwilrdigkeiten, vol. ii. 
 Though the aged Miinnich first gave the suggestion to Catharine, it was 
 encouraged by Voltaire in his Tocsin des Rois, and yet more in his 
 letters to the empress. 
 
 34. This project was, however, and continued to be for 
 a long time, a mere idea ; and when a second war broke 
 out with the Turks ten years after, insurmountable obsta- 
 cles in the way of its execution were soon disclosed. But 
 even as an idea, it had too great an influence to remain un- 
 noticed. From this time, the Porte remained the aim of 
 Russian policy ; the dislike conceived against Sweden thus 
 found another channel ; the ancient domestic contest witli 
 Denmark (the subject of so long and fruitless negotiations, 
 p. 306) was settled by an exchange and a present, and it 
 determined its other relations with foreign countries. 
 
318 NOUTIIKUN .ST.\Ti:s, 17C2— 1787. tninion ii. 
 
 TUf nnciont rluiiiis of IIolstein-Gottoq) wcrr ndjiHtPil liy tlio ex- 
 rliiingp of Ulileiilxirj; ami Dt'lim-iiliorst for the country of Ilol.xt«'iii-Got- 
 torp, Juno 1, 177;5. — Ol'lciiUur;; Wius confer rod as a ducliy on the 
 younger line, a.s yet unprovided for, of the house of Ilolstcin-f Jottoip, 
 J.dy 14. 
 
 i.rhrn dcs drnfrn A. P. rnii lirnistnr von v. ICr.(;r.ii8, 1800, gives 
 the best account of this, as well as of Danish politics generally. 
 
 35. The alliance with Prussia, the work of Panin, now 
 lost its importance; it afforded no assistance a^iiainst the 
 Turks, and the purjiose for which it had been intended, was 
 already attained. But without the acquiescence of Eng- 
 land and the aid of Austria, it seemed impossible to put the 
 <2;rand project in execution; to f;ain thcin botii was there- 
 fore the plan of Potenikin. The connexion with Enp;land 
 was near a conclusion, when Panin by an armed 
 neutrality (see p. '2S5) averted the stroke, which 
 would have rendered him, as well as the Prussian alliance, 
 unnecessary ; and in the execution of this new project, a 
 new career of glory was opened for Catharine, by which her 
 ancient purpose was removed from her mind, l^ut for that 
 very reason, Potenikin did not lose sight of it, because he 
 had nothing to gain from the armed neutrality. 
 
 3G. If the conditions of the peace at Kainardge, from 
 their very nature, presaged a truce rather than a lasting 
 peace, it was less to be doubted that, after politics had taken 
 this direction, the ])rincipal thread of disputes would be 
 broken off. The donunion of tlu; Black Sea was apparently 
 the necessary condition of the accomplishment of the leading 
 plan ; and this again implied the dominion of the Crimea 
 and the contiguous comitries. Thus the relations of this 
 peninsula aftbrded materials for the demands of Russia, 
 which at last terminated Avith its subjugation to Russian 
 sway. 
 
 The Crimea and the plains of Cuban (Little Tartary) a remaining 
 fragment of Ginghis Khan's v.ist emi)ire, stood from 14 41 each under 
 its «)wn khan, from the house of the conrpieror. The khans were taken 
 by Maliomed II., in 1474, under the protection of the Porte, which 
 appointeil the successors from the reigning house, without exacting 
 tribute. In these nomads the Porte beheld faithful and powerful allies, 
 devoted to it by religion and policy. How often was it assisted by 
 their numerous armies of cavalry ! To what indeed could their inde- 
 pen«lence (stipulated of the Porte in the peace of 1774) lead, but to tlie 
 establishment (»f a Russian principality, wliich wa.s also provided for by 
 the other conditions ; and this principality led to complete subjection. 
 
r-iKT II.] NORTHERN STATES, 1762— 17S7. 319 
 
 Disputes arose with the Porte after the peace, but were allayed bj the 
 Convention explicatoire, ^larch 10, 1779, by which the Porte acknow- 
 ledged the khan Sahin Guerai, the protege of Russia. New disputes 
 arose, and the khan, banished by the Tartars themselves, was reinstated 
 1782. But the Crimea and Cuban were formally occupied in 1783, 
 and incorporated into the Russian empire, in which transaction the 
 Porte saw itself finally compelled to acquiesce by the treaty of Jan. 8, 
 1784. By this the river Cuban was agreed upon as the boundary ; but 
 most of the Tartars, exasperated and cruelly abused, left the country. 
 
 Mi'moires du Baron de Tott, etc., (see p. 275, ) and vox Dohm, Denk- 
 w'tirdigkeiten, B. ii. The monster Paul Potemkin caused thirty thou- 
 sand Tartars to be massacred. 
 
 37. The immediate consequence of this peaceful con- 
 quest was the estabhshment of a navy on the Black Sea, 
 Who would not now have expected the accomphshment of 
 the chief project ? But the building of the fleet cost time ; 
 and the intermediate events in the west, the Bavarian war 
 of succession, the league of the princes, etc., admitted of no 
 precipitation. The whole game of the political relations of 
 tlie north seemed in general to disappoint almost all calcu- 
 lations, because it was so frequently determined by the per- 
 sonal conferences of the princes. Who was not attracted 
 by Catharine's splendid court, and still more by herself? 
 If Frederic did not attend in person, he at one time sent his 
 second self, his brother Prince Henry, at another, the heir 
 to his throne. Gustavus III. displayed the splendour of his 
 genius ; Joseph II. came to see ; for Stanislaus Poniatow- 
 sky, a later journey was in reserve ! The meeting of such 
 talented princes could not be without consequences ; but 
 certainly they were not themselves able to calculate the re- 
 sults beforehand. 
 
 It is important for the history of politics to fix the dates of these 
 meetings. Prince Henry's first journey, 1771. Consequence: The 
 first partition of Poland. The second, 1776. Consequence: The con- 
 firmation of the alliance with Prussia by the second marriage of the heir 
 to the Russian throne. — Perhaps the project was already started of a 
 new division of Poland. Gustavus III. arrived in 1777. Conse- 
 quence : Mutual distrust, afterwards leading to war. First meeting of 
 Catharine and Joseph II. at ]Mohilow, and afterwards at Petersburg, 
 1 780. Consequence : The subsequent alliance against the Porte was 
 concerted, and the scheme for the exchange of Bavaria. The ensuing 
 arrival of the crown prince of Prussia produced notliing but court festi- 
 vals — and a friendship with the heir-apparent. 
 
 Ueher die Reise des Kronprinzen. Vox DoHii, Denkwurdigkeitiv, 
 B. ii. in the Appendix to the first part. 
 
V20 NOKTIIKUN SIATHS, l7oJ— 17?7. 
 
 I-IIRIOU II. 
 
 3f^. Aftrr Joseph's visit, llicrcforc, I^ussiaii jxilicy ob- 
 tained a lixcd direction. The ahiance with 1^'iissia was 
 ^veakened, and tliat \\ith Anstria iornied anew. It" the 
 armed iientrality kej)t iMi^land aloof", the other h'adin^ 
 states were <xanied hv advantauvous treaties of connnercf! ; 
 whoconld contract them like l{ussia? I^otenikin's political 
 inHucnce now rose to its zenith ; the consequences were the 
 disputes respoctina; the Crimea and its subjurration (see 
 above). To j)rotect the new conquests required a numerous 
 army ; and while Potemkin, raised to the dignity of field- 
 marshal, was appointed at the same time p;overnor-general of 
 Taiu'ida, he became possessed of a civil and military power, 
 which may at other times have been taken, but has seldom 
 been granted. 
 
 Of the miniber of treaties of commorce that Catharine then con- 
 rlixlcd, wc niii.-^t mention: that with Denmark, Oct. 19, 1782 (regu- 
 lating among other tilings the duties in the Sound to be paid by 
 Russia); with Austria, Nov. 12, 1785; (the privileges of the most 
 lavoured nations were mutually accorded ; a taritl' was made for Hun- 
 garian wines, for Russian leather, peltry, etc. ;) but above all with 
 France, Jan. 11, 1787, (see p. 277,) by which the jealousy of England 
 was excited. They all contained a repetition of the maxims of the 
 armed neutrality. 
 
 39. Nothing was wanting but the actual inspection of 
 the empress herself, to give to the new conquest its full im- 
 
 jan. 10 portance in the eyes of herself and the world, Ca- 
 juni-,1/87. tijQ,.i,^e's famous journey to Taurida, similar in its 
 pomp to a triimiphant procession, was at tlie same time a 
 li()nia<'e done to Potemkin. 15ut it was rendered more im- 
 portant by the consununation of the alliance with Austria, 
 for Joseph II. hastened in his travelling carriage to meet 
 her. 
 
 40. The Tauridian (for Catharine rewarded her favour- 
 ites after the Roman fashion) thus saw his plans near their 
 accomplishment. Though the conditions of the alliance 
 that was concluded remained a secret, the consequences 
 soon disclosed its reality. Whether a war against the 
 Porte was formally concerted may be doubtful, but all pre- 
 ]iarations were made ; and Potemkin, by diplomatic skill, 
 took care that the Porte, notwithstanding its apathy, should 
 soon be the first to declare against Russia. 
 
PART II.] NORTHERN STATES, 1762—1787. 321 
 
 The general opinion that it was concerted has been denied by Segur, 
 Hist, de Fred. Guilt. II., Catharine's travelling companion. But did 
 the French ambassador know all that was concerted ? 
 
 41. In this way a storm was prepared against the Porte, 
 which seemed to forebode its overthrow. But never were 
 the calculations of human foresight more signally disap- 
 pointed. Many, who imagined themselves strong, lay in 
 the dust ; and the state devoted to destruction rose in pride 
 over the ruins of Europe. 
 
THIRD PERIOD. 
 
 FROM THE DEATH OF FREDERIC THE GREAT AND THE 
 COMMENCEMENT OF THE REVOLUTIONARY AGE, TO THE 
 OVERTHROW OF THE IMPERIAL THRONE OF FRANCE AND 
 THE RESTORATION OF THE LIHERTY OF THE POLITICAL 
 SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 178G \&20. 
 
 1. Though tlin dfjatli of Frederic the Great was not an 
 event that constituted a general epoch, it was, liowever, im- 
 mediately followed by those great convulsions of states, 
 which gave the ensuing period a character so different from 
 the former. The contemporary world, which lived in it, 
 calls it the revolutionary ; but it is as yet too early to decide 
 with what name it will be denoted by posterity, after the 
 lapse of a century. Probably the constitutional ; for the 
 struggle after regular but free constitutions, is the thread 
 that guides us through the whole confusion. But who will 
 thus early determine to what end this struggle may at last 
 lead? whether, as is to be hoped, to regular monarchical 
 or republican constitutions, or to autocratic governments? 
 The elements of either exist in abundance. The most de- 
 sirable at all times, will l)e a diversity of constitutions adapted 
 to the character and wants of the peoj)le. That the same 
 thing is not and will not be suited to all, none but the most 
 short-sighted can deny. 
 
 2. Tiie attfMupts which had been hitherto made to subvert 
 the freedom of the European political system were unsuc- 
 cessful. At the death of Frederic, the proud structure 
 stood erect, apparently unshaken and firm ; if an overthrow 
 was feared, it was in the east, and not in the west. The 
 times however were impending, in which it was to experi- 
 ence severer storms, and, after being thrown down, to rise 
 again from its ruins. After the catastrophe, which disap- 
 
l>A5iT I.] PRELIMINARY REMARKS, 1786—1820. 323 
 
 pointed all expectation, it may be easier to unravel its causes. 
 But do not the elements of it lie already in the preceding 
 investio-ations ? 
 
 3. He who examines more minutely the interior of the 
 leading states, cannot avoid remarking, that the constitu- 
 tions of the majority of them had by no means continued 
 to improve, but had rather outlived themselves. That of 
 Spain, since the Cortes had ceased, rested on the inquisition 
 and the Catholic religion ; that of France, since the disap- 
 pearance of the states-general, was an autocracy ; but at 
 war in itself, and already for a long time involved in a silent 
 internal contest, by disputes with the parliament ; that of 
 the republic, always misshapen, now without support, was 
 torn by factions ; the German empire, burdened by its tardy 
 forms, was hardly able to move ; that of Prussia was an 
 artificial administration, now deprived of its mainspring, 
 but no constitution ; that of Austria, where it had one, was 
 plunged in a reform, which soon proved unsuccessful ; 
 Poland and the Porte were in acknowledged anarchy. The 
 efforts of the rulers to obtain unlimited power had over- 
 thrown the old national freedom in all the states of the con- 
 tinent ; the assemblies of the states had disappeared, or were 
 reduced to mere forms ; no where had they been modelled 
 into a true national representation, 
 
 4. But the idea of it not only lived in theory, dis- 
 seminated and fostered by the first writers of the day, but 
 was seen permanently realized in a neighbouring happy 
 island state. It could not therefore pass away from practi- 
 cal politics, and was necessarily, during the storms of the 
 following period, the polar star, which was ever kept in 
 view in all the aberrations of the times. 
 
 5. But it was not merely the relation of the rulers to 
 their subjects, it was no less the relation of the states to 
 each other, which had been altered with the gradual disso- 
 lution or transformation of the old feudal constitutions. 
 How little did the present class of citizens, how little did 
 the present nobility, resemble those of earlier times ! Did 
 the latter still form the nation, or only the principal con- 
 stituent part of it ? Could any one still contest the claims 
 of the former to be regarded as a part of the nation ? Did 
 the nobility fulfil the obligations, under which they had ob- 
 
 Y 2 
 
824 rUHI.IMINARY KHMAUKS, 1786—1820. [period hi. 
 
 tiiincd tlicir <j:r(';it privilop^cs ? Tlio moro oppressive tlio 
 burdens of llif state beeaine, the louder were the deniaiids, 
 that they should be borne equally by all. 'I'hus in every 
 convulsion, the privilej^ed classes were threatened even 
 more, jH-rhaps, than the princes. And yet the aneient 
 constitutions were founded on this very diflerence of 
 classes. 
 
 0. For the strenp;th of the states no other criterion was 
 known than standinti; armies. And in reality there hardly 
 was any other. By the perfection, which they had attained, 
 and which made almost (^f[nal steps with the irrowino; pcnver 
 of the princes, the line of j)artition was gradually drawn be- 
 tween them and the nation ; they only were armed ; the 
 nations were defenceless. What remained but subjection, 
 if the army should be routed and destroyed ? Thus the days 
 of Zama and Pydna might ap;ain return ; and one battle 
 decide the fate of mighty empires. 
 
 7. How much more forcibly does this observation apply, 
 if we compare the military with the pecuniaiy resources, 
 without which the former were utterly dead ! And they 
 were indeed almost dead for all practical purposes. Not a 
 single state of the continent Avas able to wage a great war of 
 any length with its own resources ; subsidies or extortions 
 of a new kind alone rendered it possible. The time had 
 thus come, wlien the carrying of the system too far brought 
 with it its own punishment. The fearful consequences of 
 this difference must needs have been unfolded at the very 
 first opportunity. 
 
 8. lUit if these political supports were in a tottering con- 
 dition, the moral were no less shattered. The corner-stone 
 of ever}' political system, the sanctity of legitimate possession, 
 without which there would be only one war of all against 
 all, was gone; ; politics had already thrown off the veil in 
 I'oland ; the lust of aggrandizement had prevailed. The 
 imhappy error, encouraged by statistical writers, which 
 places the strength of a state in its physical power, and 
 estimates its increa.se by square miles, and the revenue in 
 money, had taken deep root. If the system did not fall at 
 once, it wa>^ prevented, not by the acknowledged maxims of 
 international law, but by nnitable relations. The indis- 
 soluble bond, connecting morals and politics, resulted in 
 
PART I.] PRELIMINARY REMARKS, 1786—1820. 325 
 
 making egotism the prevailing principle of public as well 
 as of private life. 
 
 9. And yet who does not see that a political system, in 
 which pure egotism is the principle, is near its dissolution ? 
 above all, a system of states, so unequal as the European, 
 which had been hitherto upheld only by alliances against 
 the too powerful ? Experience soon proved, that alliances, 
 attended by sacrifices, were regarded as foolish by the several 
 cabinets ; and yet what are alliances without sacrifices ? 
 
 10. But new maxims had not only become prevalent in 
 the morals of the cabinets ; new opinions also were diffused 
 among the nations themselves, which were in opposition to 
 the existing order of things. And do not all human insti- 
 tutions, states, and their constitutions, rest ultimately on 
 opinion ? After sophistical arguments in favour of popular 
 sovereignty, as the basis of the state in general, and there- 
 fore of the monarchical state also, had been circulated by 
 writers, they had received an apparent confirmation from 
 the independence of North America ; and the defenders of 
 America transported them to Europe. Democratic ideas 
 w^ere thus spread and cherished in the midst of the mon- 
 archical system ; the ready materials for a conflagration, 
 far more formidable than their authors had anticipated, 
 should a burning spark unhappily light upon them. Others 
 had already taken care to profane the popular religion ; and 
 what remains sacred to the people, when religion and con- 
 stitution are profaned ? 
 
 11. In addition to this was the change of morals, pro- 
 ceeding from alterations that took place in social life among 
 the higher and middle classes, which had a necessary re- 
 action on the public. Instead of natural improvement, its 
 aim was mere pastime ; and what ought to have been re- 
 creation soon became a daily necessity in the establishment 
 of clubs and similar societies of men. That the foundations 
 of the state can be shaken by the forms of private life, no 
 one seemed ever to suspect, while, with the exception of the 
 relations of menial service, a social equality was introduced, 
 which stood in direct contradiction with the inequality un- 
 avoidable in all monarchical states. Did not this tend im- 
 mediately to dissolve the tenderest and the strongest ties ? 
 
 Ueber den Eirijluss inid die Wirkungen des Zeitgeistes aiif die hijhern 
 
.126 rnilLIMINARY in:MAUK.S, 1 7-0-1^:^0. [period III 
 
 Sinufh Drutsrhldiids : von H. liuANDi-.s. 1810. A continuation of the 
 ^V(>rk, lirfrar/ififiii/i /I urhrr dm Z<i/t/ris( in Drutsrlilaiid. IMOH. — A 
 liiltiT Itiit true (Icliiuatioii of the dark side of tlii' ajjf. 
 
 Iti. Olio jXTiiliar Iratiiro of these social relations con- 
 sisted in the torniation of secret societies, which arose in 
 most countries after the middle of this century, throui:;h tlie 
 diffusion of freemasonry over the continent of Europe. Fo- 
 reiou as pohtieal objects are, or should be, from this society, 
 it wiis nevertheless exposed to abuse, like every other insti- 
 tution, especially in countries where it was oppressed or 
 persecuted. Tlie danji;ers apprehended for the states did 
 not procefMl so much from freemasonry as from the other 
 societies, which only imitated its form. Of tliis the society 
 of the Uluminati gave the first strikin;^ proof in Germany. 
 
 The expression, secret society, denotes either a society which con- 
 ceals its existence, and thus endeavours to withdraw from the inspection 
 of the state. Such a one, though not always liable to punishment, is 
 alwavs exposed to suspicion. Or it denotes a society, which conceals, 
 not its existence, but its tenets, by delivering tliem under the mask 
 of symbols. Freemasonry belongs to the latter class. To tlie former 
 it belongs in those places only, where, contrary to its legitimate destina- 
 tion, it attempts to continue as a society, against the prohibition of the 
 state. But the mode of communicating its tenets is not sufficient to 
 make the tenets themselves suspicious. 
 
 13. Added to all this was the turn that literature had 
 taken in all the principal countries of Europe. It hud be- 
 come, in a higher degree, the literature of journals and ga- 
 zettes, and could not but degenerate in proportion, not only 
 as the number, but also (especially by means of the French 
 Moniteur) as the size of the gazettes increased. The con- 
 stant ferment in which their periodical appearance enabled 
 tliein to keep the public mind, banislied all interest for other 
 subjects; they were alike the lever of j)olicy and the means 
 of guiding or misguidmg j)ublic opinion ; and thus it miaht 
 ultimately come to pass, that the question of the preserva- 
 tion of the states was connected with that of the freedom of 
 the press. 
 
 14. Threatening as these circumstances were, yet it 
 seemed possible in the usual course of things for every thing 
 to continue as it was ; and no one had any presentiment of 
 the impending catastrophe. But in this consisted the dan- 
 ger, that every thing in I'^uropo was calculated for the usual 
 
PART I.] PRELIMINARY REMARKS, 1786—1820. 327 
 
 state, while every thing was thrown out of its course, as 
 soon as any unusual complication of circumstances took 
 place. 
 
 15. The following period is naturally divided into three 
 divisions, between which the peace of Campo Formio, (be- 
 cause, from this peace, after Catharine's death, begins the 
 active participation of the north in the disputes of the west, 
 which has subsequently closely united Europe into one 
 political system,) the establishment, and the overthrow of 
 the imperial throne of France, constitute the points of 
 separation. 
 
 As a collection of documents besides the Recueil par M. de SIartens, 
 (p. 2,) see especially, 
 
 Recueil des principmix traifes, etc., conclus entre la Republiqne 
 Francaise et les differentes Puissaiices de F Europe, depuis 1792 jusqv! 
 a la paix genercde, (par G. Gebhakd,) P. i. ii. a Goettingue, 1796. P. 
 iii. iv. a Hambourg et Paris, 1803. 
 
 A real practical history of the whole period is reserved for a later 
 generation. The most perfect narrative of the events is to be found in, 
 
 F. Saalfeld, AUgemeine Geschichte der neuesten Zeit, seit dem 
 Anfange der Franzosischeti Revolution: in four divisions, each in two 
 volumes, the last of wliich has not yet appeared. 
 
THIRD PERIOD. 
 
 FIRST DIVISION OF THE FEIIIOD. 
 
 From 1780 to Uic Peace at Campo Formio, 1707. 
 
 PAKT THE FIRST. 
 HISTORY OF THE SOUTHERN EUROPEAN STATES-SYSTEM. 
 
 I. Public Contests in Europe, to 1797. 
 
 Ilistoire des principatcx cv^neme.7is dii regne de Frederic GuiUanme 
 II., roi de Prusse ; et tableau politique de VEarope, depitis 1786 
 Jusf/u'en 1796, contenant mi precis des Pc roll/ f ions de lirabant, de IIul- 
 lande, de Pnlogne, et de France, par L. P. Skgur Taine ; ex-amba.?.sa- 
 (leur. Paris, 1800, 3 vols. — The title itself shows that it is a general 
 history of tlie period, attaeheJ to that of Frederic William II. The 
 autlior was the royal Frenih ambassador at Petersburg. Tlie sections 
 wliich respect the north are tlierefore of greater value. A prejudice 
 against Prussia and England may naturally enougli be expected ; but it 
 is, notwithstanding, one of tlie best works. 
 
 Among tlic German political journals, the most complete is, das 
 Poli/isc/tes Journal, (p. 227.) The richest in single interesting essays 
 is, Minerva, von v. Auciikniiolz, (3 vols, annually since 1793.) 
 
 16. Diversified in their orip^in as were the internal dis- 
 turbances of the states diirino; tliis period, tliere was always 
 manifest in tlicni a strii'jfiilc after more free constitutions, 
 'i'hoso forms of government whicli had prevailed hitherto, 
 rested far more on ancient usage than written documents ; 
 but for this reason so murli more violent must have been the 
 shock of revolutions, lor wi'itten constitutions never acquire 
 stability till established by prescription. In policy, how- 
 ever, the simplest truths are generally acknowledged with 
 the greatest difhculty ; and this explains the erroneous pre- 
 sumption, that not only every thing can be fixed in the 
 
PART I.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1786—1797. 329 
 
 original document of a constitution, but also that nothing 
 is necessary but its introduction, to secure its permanency. 
 
 17. Though the death of Frederic the Great, occurring 
 in a period of profound quiet, produced no immediate per- 
 ceptible consequences, as his successor retained his ministers, 
 yet the chasm he left was far too great for those conse- 
 quences not to disclose themselves soon. The chief rela- 
 tions of Europe had been formed by his mind, and main- 
 tained by his character; but the latter was inherited by his 
 successor still less than the former. And Frederic had never 
 formed a minister who was competent to take the direction. 
 
 18. The first deviation from the policy of his predecessor 
 was an active participation in the Dutch disturbances; the 
 first link in that chain of revolutions, which was to overturn 
 Europe. One step here inevitably involved another. 
 These disturbances liad their origin while Frederic yet lived, 
 in the disputes of the Orange and patriotic parties, concern- 
 ing the rights of the stadtholder, which the patriotic party 
 wished to impair or wholly to abolish. The influence of 
 England and France had fomented these disputes ; but 
 Frederic contented himself with recommending a reconci- 
 liation. His successor made a family affair a matter of 
 state, and the easy overpowering of the patriots, forsaken as 
 they were by France, led to a new series of relations. 
 
 The Dutch disturbances were a result of the germ of corruption in 
 the constitution, modified by the relations of the times. The patriotic 
 partj, prevailing in the maritime cities, was something more tlian the 
 old party of the states, though originating for the most part in it. — 
 Party hatred arose during the war with England, 1780, and the here- 
 ditary stadtholder was accused of duphcity. It was increased during 
 and after the peace of 1783 by French and English influence. The pa° 
 triotic party acquired the superiority, and a defensive alliance of the 
 repubHc with France was made by Vergennes, Nov. 10, 1785. — At- 
 tacks were made on the rights of the stadtholder, and he was removed 
 from the Hague, 1786. — Bodies of armed patriots now made their ap- 
 pearance, a sight altogether new to Europe, which learned the lesson 
 from America ! The Orange party was possessed of little internal 
 unity ; the patriotic was destitute of adequate leaders and a fixed posi- 
 tive purpose. Who indeed could imagine that the successors of Ver- 
 gennes (t Feb. 13, 1787) would accomplish absolutely nothing !— 
 Prussia intervened and a proclamation was promulgated, July 10, ai'ter 
 the procrastinated journey of the wife of the stadtholder, June 29. 
 Possession was easily taken of Holland by a Prussian corps, under the 
 Duke of Brunswick, Sept., 1787. 
 
i\"0 VVm.lC CONTKSTS IN KmOPE, 17^0— 17'J7. (iinioD in. 
 
 All introfliirftnti fo f/tr /iLstori/ of ihr Dutch Iiij)ttfilir for (fir last ten 
 yrorx, richnuiiKf from titr yvar 1777, (liy SiK .J. Haki!IS, at tliat time 
 I{riti>li ambassador ; dllicrs say, by liis secretary Kllis.) London, 17HS. 
 ]Jv no means a liistory, but n sketch of tlic^ internal relations. Harris 
 himself does not conceal the deliciencies of the ( )ranjre party. 
 
 Mtinnirc sur la lih'ohitiou de la IloUaiuU\, par le citoyen CAIi.l-Ann, 
 (tiien Frencli Char^e-d'allaires at the Ilajriie,) inserted in, Sk(11|{, llisl. 
 (If Fred, (itnll., vol. i. A very lucid delineation and narration, by a 
 eunfidunt of the patriotic party ; and written in the spirit of that party. 
 
 10. The natural consoquonco of this catastroplio to tlic 
 n'])ul)lic, was tlic rcinstatciiR'ut ot" the stadtholder in liis ohi 
 and new riglits ; but to an extent and with a severity that 
 it ahnost .seemed to be forgotten that tliere still e.xisted a 
 rei)ul)hi' 5Uid an opposite party. '^Fhe continuanee of tlie 
 constitution was, however, to be insured by stranjxers, and 
 tliis naturallv led to a triple alhance with Enixhuid and 
 Prussia, tlie eftects of wliicli, by establisliing; again tlie in- 
 fluence of England on the continent, spread in tlie follow- 
 ing- years over the rest of Europe, and particularly the 
 north. 
 
 An alliance was first made of the two powers with the Republic, and 
 a guarantee of the office of stadtholder and all its rights, April lo, 1788. 
 A defensive alliance was next formed between Enjrland and Prussia at 
 Loo, June 13. A mutual guarantee was made of all possessions. Prus- 
 sia therefore became a guarantee of the English colonies. 
 
 20. During these storms in the United Netherlands, a 
 similar sj)irit of turbulence began to rage in tlie Austrian 
 Tsetherlands. It was roused by the plans of innovation of 
 Joseph II., strengthened by his inconsistency ; but when 
 the insurrection had proceeded to a declaration of indep(>nd- 
 ence, the insurgents quarrelled among themselves, and there 
 was no chief cai)able of maintaining unanimity. M'hile it 
 was desired in h'landers to retain the old constitution of 
 the states, the democrats in Brabant were clamorous tor a 
 popular sovereignty. It was therefore easy for Leopold II., 
 after the death of Josej)h, to appease the tumult, particularly 
 as the insurgents saw themselves deceived in their hopes of 
 Prussian assistance. 
 
 The disturbances had their origin in 1787, owing to encroachments 
 on the privileges accorded to the states in the Joycnsc Entree, by the 
 introduction of a new constitution of courts, churclies, and universities. 
 Tumultuous scenes occurred in several towns ; the orders given were 
 recalled, Sept. 2, 1787. But the continued attempts to make changes 
 
PART I.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1786—1797. 331 
 
 in the universities of Louvain gave nourishment to the strife between 
 tlie clergy and the states. Subsidies were refused the emperor, Jan., 
 1789. The privileges of the states of Brabant were annulled, June 
 18, 1789. The insui-rection was renewed by Van der Noot, the patriots 
 were armed, and the imperial troops expelled, July — Nov. A sove- 
 reign congress of all the provinces except Luxemburg was erected ; 
 and independence declared, Jan. 4, 1790. But internal factions were 
 soon formed ; and after Leopold II. 's accession the strife was allayed 
 by the ratification of the ancient privileges at the congress of Reichen- 
 bach, Dec. 10. 
 
 For want of a good history, the materials which as yet are the best, 
 are contained in the Politische Journal. 
 
 21. The efforts at revolution in several small states, such 
 as Liege, Aix-la-Chapelle, and Geneva, which were made 
 at this time, should by no means pass unnoticed, as they are 
 so many proofs of the prevailing spirit. Different as they 
 were in other respects, they all coincided in the circum- 
 stance, that a democratic party attempted to overturn the 
 existing order of things. But the manner in which they 
 were suppressed, though by armed mediation, gave a striking- 
 evidence of the respect still entertained for the rights even 
 of small states. 
 
 The rebellion in Liege, against the sovereign bishop, "was to maintain 
 the rights of the states, Aug. 17, 1789. The imperial chamber issued 
 a mandate, Aug. 17, and the execution was intrusted to the direction of 
 the circle of Westphalia. After some remarkable proceedings, Prussia 
 finally withdrew, April, 1790. On this the prince was at last reinstated 
 by Austria, Jan., 1791. — The disturbances in Geneva, caused by the 
 disputes of the Negatifs (aristocrats) and Bepresentans, 1788, but qui- 
 eted by the new constitution, Feb. 13, 1789, were a consequence of the 
 previous ones of 1782, which had been quelled by the armed mediation 
 of three powers. 
 
 Excellent preparatory studies to the history of greater revolutions. 
 
 Recherches sur Fhistoire de la ci-devant principaute de Liege, (par 
 ]\I. Repelaer van Driel.) a Liege, 1817, 2 vols. 
 
 Tableau Instorique et politique des Revolutions de Geneve dans le 
 18"" siecle ; (par M. d'Iverxois.) a Geneve, 1782. 
 
 jSIeixers, Brief e iteber die Schweiz, 1790. B. iv. contains the best 
 accounts of the last disturbances. 
 
 22. But what were all these petty commotions in com- 
 parison with the eruptions of the desolating volcano, that 
 had arisen about this time in the leading state of western 
 Europe ?— Though we do not here treat of the internal, but 
 the external history of the French revolution, that is, with 
 regard to its influence on the political system of Europe, 
 still the character of the one cannot be adequately described 
 
332 PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, I7&G— 1797. (rpnioDiii. 
 
 ^vi1lu)ut a proprr undcM'staiuling of tlio othor. It was tlic 
 jxrwliarity of tlie ago, tliat the; external relations of the 
 states proceeded from the internal. 
 
 *J3. The prevailing sj)irit of the age disclosed itself in the 
 convocation of the states-general. Though occasioned by 
 financial necessity, what was this but a restriction of the re- 
 gal supreniaey? what but an innovation on the existing 
 constitution? And the very persons, that held this to be a 
 salutary measure, could not but entertain, from what imme- 
 diately happened, too well-founded apprehensions for the 
 issue. 
 
 24. There were three principal points that necessarily 
 precluded, beforehand, the prospect of a favourable issue. 
 1st, The measure in question was not confined to a reform 
 or restoration of ancient usages, as was the case elsewhere ; 
 but it attempted something wholly new, and consequently 
 had no point of suj^port or stay on which to maintain itself 
 '2nd, This innovation was to be secured by means of a 
 numerous popular assembly, left to itself, independent of 
 the crown, and surrounded by an untractable populace. 
 And, 3rdly, if any hope still remained, the idea, derived 
 irom the theories of the philosophers, of the entire or the 
 greatest possible separation of the executive and legislative 
 powers, was amply sufficient to frustrate it. 
 
 The new order of things was at once establislied inimciliatclj after 
 the opening of the state.s, May 5, 1789, when the third state declared 
 itself a national assembly. Tims there actually remained of the mon- 
 archy only the name ; and the abolition of femlal rights in the tunnilt 
 of the night of the 4th of August, (a spectacle without its parallel in 
 the history of the world,) founded the popular sovereignty on the ruins 
 of the old constitution, — and, even when tliis fell, still established a new 
 futurity for France. 
 
 25. The reaction of this grand catastroi)he on the rest of 
 Europe could at first be moral only, not political. Who 
 could have presumed to prescribe aught to France, respect- 
 ing its internal allairs? But its moral influence on foreign 
 countries was tiireat(Miing, from the fact that it must infalli- 
 bly infiame the hatred of the classes of society there, as in 
 I'ranre. AA'ho could say what might be the consequences 
 of the general enthusiasm, (piickcned as it was by the 
 general voice of authors, and which few individuals had the 
 courage to resist ? 
 
PART I.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1786—1797. 335 
 
 At the head of the few who did resist in England and Germany, 
 stands, 
 
 Edmund Bukke, Be/Sections on the devolution in France and on the 
 Proceedings in certain Societies in London. 1790, 8vo. (Besides some 
 smaller Avritings of the same kind in his Worhs, vol. iii. iv.) Written 
 with all the force with which the conviction of the actual danger of his 
 countrymen could inspire the British Demosthenes. — In Germany, 
 
 PoUtische Betrachtwigen ueber die Franzosischen Revolution. 1790: 
 (before Burke :) and, 
 
 Ueber einige bisherige Folgen der Franzosischen Revolution fiir 
 Deutschland, von E. Brandes; 2te Ausgabe, 1793. — Cool reasoning 
 at a time of general giddiness. 
 
 For forming a judgment both of the subject and the principal works, 
 may be recommended, 
 
 Untersuchungen uber die Franzosische Revolution, nebst hritischen 
 Nachrichten von den merkwurdigsten Schriften, von A. W. Rehberg. 
 1793. 
 
 Among the deluge of French works, those of Neckar and his ta- 
 lented daugliter, Considerations sur la Revolution Frangaise, par Mad. 
 t)E Stael-Holstein, Paris, 1818, 3 vols., are the first in celebrity, but 
 not equally so in point of internal value. 
 
 26. A political structure, like the ancient French, could 
 hardly be thrown down at once, without injuring others. 
 The first loss befell the German empire, by the abolition of 
 feudal rights. Several princes who had possessions in Al- 
 sace lost theirs, and the emperor and empire took their part. 
 Prudence at least, if not justice, would seem to dictate a 
 compromise. But in vain ! and there was no greater con- 
 trast than the new French, compared with the old German 
 mode of doing business. 
 
 27. The numerous emigrations from France, the recep- 
 tion and projects of the emigrants in several neighbouring- 
 German countries, soon became more dangerous to the 
 quiet of Europe than the contests which had occasioned 
 them. Where did not emigrants bring with them their 
 hopes and passions ; and especially the emigrants from the 
 hio;her and even the hio-hest classes ? The restoration of the 
 ancient order of things, though by means of a war, was 
 their wish ; and their efforts v^^ere to make their cause the 
 cause of Europe. An eventual concert, however, for the 
 common defence of some German princes at Pilnitz, was 
 the only expedient adopted. Few would be disposed to 
 find fault with them in consequence, and yet this very ex- 
 pedient gave rise to mistrust. 
 
 A meeting and conference took place at Pilnitz between Leopold II., 
 
.134 rilU.lC CONTESTS IN KlHOrK, 17&6— 17'.»7. [peiuod hi. 
 
 I'n-ilcric William II., ami flu* elector of Saxr.ny, Aii^r. 27, \79\. But 
 imliapiiilv the Count of Artois cuiuo, uiiiuvited ; a dt'c-laration, ami tluit 
 a very imli-fiiiite one, was all that he obtained. 
 
 28, As the now constitution of Louis X\ I. 
 Sept. 13, i?ji. 1.1 1 * 1 ii 1 r 
 
 was coiiiplctca and accepted, the danger oi a 
 
 war seemed removed, a circular l)y the emperor Leopold 
 IL liimseir, expressly notified this to the courts. \\'orse 
 constitutions had subsisted much lonp;er ; but could it be 
 seriously believed, — and yet it was Ix'lieved, — that all was 
 ended by this paper act ? The transition from partial free- 
 dom to that which was called perfect freedom, was inevitable, 
 with so passionate, and now so e.xcited a nation : and how 
 could this be etli'cted without the most violent convulsions? 
 The conflict of factions soon became milder than before, 
 after the .Jacobins ac(juired the predominance in the second 
 National Conventii)n, and the subversion of the 
 throne was the object in view. J liey felt that a 
 foreitrn war was necessary for their projects, (what ])olicy 
 could from this time have averted it?) and Austria, where 
 Francis IL succeeded, after the unexpected 
 death of Leopold IL, was their nearest aim. 
 Aprii2o. Louis XVL was obliged to yield; and accord- 
 ingly he declared war on Austria. 
 
 After the dissolution of the Asscniblce coiistitiiautc, Sept. 30, 1791, 
 the Assrmltlce lu/isfafive was convened till Sept. 21, 1792, altogether 
 under the influence of the Jacobins. 
 
 2.0. The conduct of the various cabinets themselves can 
 hardly be called faultless. The fearful .'^cenes in France 
 were so new, that they lay wholly without the circle of their 
 former policy. Kaunitz him.self, the Nestor of ministers, 
 had never beheld any thing' like them ; and his conduct 
 showed how little he was able to estiniate the power of a 
 great poj)ular faction. In this consisted a |)rincipal advan- 
 tage of the democratic ])arty, that they banished the whole 
 system of cabinet ptditics out of their sphere. 
 
 30. It seemed almost necessary for the flame, when once 
 in a bla/.e, to spread widely. Every passion was kindled ; 
 every political relation was altered ; old foes became friends ; 
 old connexions were torn asunder. The cause of Louis XVL 
 seemed to be the cause of kings; and a king was about to 
 place himself at its head, when he was snatched away by 
 assassination. 
 
PART I.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 178G— 1797. 335 
 
 31. The connexion of Austria and Prussia gave the first 
 proof of this change of relations. But the unsuccessful ex- 
 pedition to Champagne, undertaken in common, only ac- 
 celerated the full eruption of the volcano. The royal throne 
 of high antiquity was formally overthrown ; and a demo- 
 cratic republic, a republic which loudly proclaimed the 
 ditfusion of its maxims, suddenly stood in the midst of the 
 monarch ico-political system of Europe. It was a war not 
 merely against nations, but against constitutions. 
 
 The Russian and Prussian forces were combined under the duke of 
 Brunswick, July, 1792, reinforced by Hessians and emigrants. — False 
 representations were circulated by the latter respecting the situation of 
 things in France. Nothing more than a second campaign to Holland 
 was expected. — The duke of Brunswick issued a manifesto, July 25 ; 
 and the French throne was subverted, Aug. 10. The National Con- 
 vention {Convention 7iationale) assembled Sept. 21, 1792, till Oct., 
 1795, and France was immediately declared a republic ; when the 
 army, having pressed forward as fixr as Yalmy, was forced to retreat, 
 being opposed by Dumouriez, and stiU more by nature. 
 
 32. The immediately ensuing conquest of the Austrian 
 Netherlands, showed at the same time the altered nature of 
 the war, as well as prepared for its further extension. Had 
 not the political system thus far principally depended on 
 these provinces ? Did not the bulwark of Holland fall with 
 them ? Must not England have been startled ? One battle 
 decided their fate, which, at other times, several campaigns 
 had been unable to decide ; and men, hitherto unknown, 
 soon took the lead as famous generals. The bloodless seizure 
 of Savoy afforded likewise a sample of the new republican 
 international law. 
 
 A battle was fought at Genappe, Nov. 5, and Belgium was conquer- 
 ed, after Custine had seized upon unguarded Mentz in the heart of 
 Germany, Oct. 21. — Of Savoy and Nice possession was taken in Sept. 
 without a declaration of war, and they were forthwith incorporated with 
 France in October. 
 
 33. But the grand tragedy at Paris was more influential 
 than these conquests. The head of the guiltless 
 
 Louis fell under the axe. It will ever be vain 
 in politics to attempt to stifle all feeling, so long as princes 
 continue to be men. Though the most vehement abhor- 
 rence constituted no cause of war, it yet troubled every 
 negotiation. And how should princes negotiate with a 
 
336 n'BLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1786—179?. [peeiod iii. 
 
 Convention, wliich loiullv snnimonrd thrir 9.\\h- 
 jccts to insnrrcction : — All Ji,uroj)(', tncrctorc, 
 
 necessarily tended to a great combination against tlie re- 
 
 ])ul)lic. 
 
 Mcmnirrs scrrr/rs pour strrir a Fliistoirc dc hi demure anncv du 
 rrff/ic dc Louis A'/'/., pai" Bkutilvnd ct MoLLKVlLLE, ini/iistrcs (rcfuf a 
 cctte cpoque. Lomlrcs, 1793, 3 vols. — Few could know, and none liavc 
 said, more on the subject. 
 
 34. Great combinations liavc rarely been successful and 
 of long continuance ; but none had ever been so unfortu- 
 nate as those which the world was now to behold. Much 
 may be explained by the revolutionary measures of the 
 enemy, much by the disinclination of the people, but not 
 all. Within themselves also lay the causes of destruction. 
 A\'as it a vague suspicion of this, which induced the age to 
 term them, not alliances, but coalitions ? 
 
 35. One of these causes lay in the disproportion of the 
 financial to the military powers of the states (p. 324). 
 ]']very power, with or without a treasury, found itself ex- 
 hausted after a short effort ; and they were enabled to per- 
 sist, not by their own resources, (the revolutionary they 
 could not apply,) but only by foreign subsidies. Did not 
 this paralyse every effort? Of wliat use to the giant were 
 his arms, if others had first to lift them for him ? 
 
 36. Not a single European state, with the exception of 
 England, could ofi'er these subsidies. This country was, 
 therefore, not only the bond of all, but it also acquired the 
 direction of the war. It was, however, somewhat unsuited 
 for this part, from its geographical situation, and still more 
 from its se})arate interests. Its objects were not always 
 those of the allies ; its advantages were not theirs : nor were 
 theirs its losses. Constantly averting the danger from itself 
 by the war on land, it was readily consoled for those losses, 
 if war only continued. Yet did its naval victories and con- 
 quests beyond the ocean essentially weaken the power of 
 the enemy ? And did they give the confederates a com- 
 pensation for their sacrifices ? 
 
 "Wliat are subsidies in themselves but a pecuniary aid to the allies 
 whose prfscrvation is our advantajje ? Thus Maria Theresa and Fre- 
 deric obtained subsidies, and yet defended tlieir own cause. On the 
 other hand, what a revolution of political relations must take place, 
 when subsidies become the principal resource ! 
 
PART I.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1786—1737. Sol 
 
 37. But a more dangerous cause of dissolution consisted 
 in the general egotism, proceeding from the pohcy of the 
 states to round off their territory. No connexion can exist 
 without mutual sacrifices. How much more so, when the 
 original object, the preservation of the present states of 
 things, was forgotten amidst the hopes of aggrandizement ! 
 and when, moreover, the prospect of acquisitions, whether 
 at the expense of a neighbour, or even an actual ally, — (and 
 who had more to give or lend than victorious France ?) — be- 
 came an inducement to defection ! Thus fearfully did mo- 
 rality avenge itself for its banishment from politics ! — When 
 misfortune came, not one possessed a friend in whom he 
 could trust ! 
 
 38. If these internal causes were sufficient to dissolve the 
 connexions, this was equally promoted by the want of men 
 who were competent to hold them together. No Eugene, 
 no Marlborough appeared ; even talent, hated by mediocrity, 
 could not maintain itself; while in the revolutionary states, 
 the most violent and energetic men forced themselves into 
 the highest offices. 
 
 39. As the founder, and as the head of these combina- 
 tions, history has only to mention William Pitt. His name 
 lives in the annals of Great Britain and in the history of 
 Europe. More correct than others in his estimate of the 
 danger, and no less great in character than in talents, he 
 never capitulated with political maxims. But his situation 
 did not permit him to be, like William the HI., the soul of 
 a great alliance. This is not in the power of a financier, 
 but only of him who is at once a statesman and a general. 
 Whatever could be accomplished by gold and perseverance, 
 he accomplished ; but he was often faulty in his choice of 
 means and persons, and he either could not or would not 
 always take that elevated view, which places the general in- 
 terest of Europe above the particular interest of England. 
 
 Speeches of the Right Hon. JViUiam Pitt, in the House of Commons, 
 vols. i. iii. London, 1808. The anti-revolutionarj maxims of this great 
 man may be fullj learned from the two last volumes. 
 
 40. Under such auspices began the first coalition. The 
 continued connexion of Austria and Prussia was reinvigor- 
 ated by the declaration of war by the Convention against 
 England, the hereditary stadtholder, and soon afterwards 
 
 z 
 
338 PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1786—1797. [rr.nioD iif 
 
 nLraiiist Sjinin ; Sardinia had already bocn attacked ; Portii- 
 pd, Naj)les, 'ruscaiiv, and the Pope were involved. How 
 could the (lerinan enijiire, already sufierinp; hostilities, liavc 
 resisted the unit(^d inf]nene(; of Austria and Prussia ? The 
 accession ot" Sweden \vas prevented only by the murder of 
 Cnistavus III. ; no one threatened more loudly, or perform- 
 ed less, than Catharine. With the exception of some states 
 of secondary rank, and, for the present, of the Porte, no 
 neutrals were now to be found in Europe. 
 
 "War was declared aj^ainst Enjiland, after it liad refused to recofrnise 
 tlie republic, and against the stadtiiolder, as its ally, Feb. 1, 179.'5; 
 against Spain, Marcii 7. The German empire declared war, (Hanover 
 opposing it,) March 22. England, as now the central point, formed al- 
 liances with Russia, Marcii 2o ; with Sardinia, April 2.5 ; with Spain, 
 May 25; witii Naples, July 12; with Prussia, July 14; with Austria, 
 Aug. 30; with Porlugal, Sept. 29; with Tuscany, Oct. 2^ ; besides 
 subsidiary treaties with several German princes. 
 
 Uebcr den Ursprung imd Character drs Kricges gegen die Fraiiziis- 
 iscfie licvnlution, von Fkiedr. Gknz. Berlin, 1801. The most acute 
 aiialvsis, considered on the side of right. 
 
 JJistorische Ucbcrsicht der Politik Eiiglands nnd Franhrcichs roti dcr 
 Coufercnz zu Pilnitz his zur Kriegserklu rung gcgcn England, von IIicu- 
 BEUT ^Lvusii. Leipz. 1799. — A diplomatic justification of England. 
 
 41. This war was to decide, therefore, not, as usual, the 
 conquest of a province — it was nothing less than the pre- 
 servation or overthrow of the e.\isting states. It was not 
 merely a conflict of arms, but of clashinu; political elements. 
 As tar as the armies of the republic reached, (and who could 
 fix their bounds?) an express decree of the Convention an- 
 nounced the introduction of the sovereirrntv of 
 
 Dec 17. 17T>2. 1 rri 1 1 ^ \ 
 
 tlie people. 1 he danger, liowever, seemed to 
 be diminish(!d in the first campaign, as several victories of 
 the allies confined the French armies once more to their 
 own territory. 
 
 The Anstrians under Coburg gained a victory at Aldenlioven, March 
 1. 1793 ; at Neerwinden, Marcii 18 ; the Netherlands were reconquered ; 
 Dumouriez went over, April 4. A victory was obtained at Eanuars, 
 May 23, and the French border fortresses were taken, especially Valen- 
 ciennes, July 28. Meiit/ was invested and reduced by the Prussians 
 and Hessians, July 22. Alsace was invaded, and a battle fought at 
 Kaiserslautern, Nov. 28. But a retreat followed in Dec. — . The 
 Spanish pcm.'trated into IJoussillon in June. 
 
 La vif privcc vt politique dii Diiwnuriez. i\ Ilainbourg. T. i. — iii. 
 It goes to the end of 1792. As a continuation for 1793, 
 
PART I.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1786—1797. Sod 
 
 Jfcmoires dii General Dumouriez ecritcs par lici-mcme. 1794. T. i. ii. 
 Compare, 
 
 Corrtspondance dii General Miranda avee le General Dumouriez. 
 a Paris, 1794. 
 
 42. Rarely however has success been more fatal for the 
 victors than here ! While ideas of conquest usurped the 
 place of the original object, they excited a resistance of de- 
 spair ; which, calling- forth a reio-n of terror 
 
 . . . ® , . ^ . Mav 31 1793. 
 
 with all its cruelties and all its vigour, sanction- 
 ed at the same time a maxim, more momentous and fearful 
 than a series of victories, that every citizen is a 
 soldier. With one blow it annihilated in the 
 leading state of Europe, the system of standing armies ; 
 was it credible, that under such circumstances the others 
 could exist? 
 
 The Committee of Public Safety {Comite du sahit piiblic) was estab- 
 lished April 6, 1793, till July 27, 1794, consisting of eleven members, 
 Robespierre, Barrere, St. Just, Carnot, etc., with dictatorial pov\-er 
 over persons and property. After the fall of the Girondists, (the more 
 moderate party,) May 31, the Revolutionary Tribunal was instituted 
 throughout France, and made daily sacrifices. Tlie armies remained the 
 only safe place of refuge. 
 
 43. AVar, and the military art, therefore, necessarily ac- 
 quired an entirely new aspect. The old tactics found an 
 application indeed in single cases ; but they were no longer 
 practised in general ; and the armies of the republic were 
 more speedily formed, in proportion as the new system be- 
 came simplified. Soldiers of low degree were soon famous 
 as generals ; and the next campaign, opening an access to 
 Holland by the recovery of the Netherlands, w^as, 
 
 on this side, decisive for the future. Holland was 
 conquered, under favour of the patriotic party. The stadt- 
 holder fled to England, and Holland was changed into a 
 single and indivisible Batavian republic. 
 
 The English were routed in 1 793 at Hondschoote, Sept. 8, in conse- 
 quence of their partial attack on Dunkirk. — Pichegru achieved a vic- 
 tory at Tournay, i\Iay 22, 1794, and Jourdan at Fleurus, June 26. 
 The alUes subsequently fell back upon the frontiers of Holland ; and 
 then retreated to Germany ; Pichegru crossed on the ice, Dec. 27, and 
 all Holland was conquered in Jan. — The contest on the Upper Rhine 
 was bloody ; battles were fought at Lautern, July 15 and Sept. 20, but 
 here too the Austrians and Prussians retreated beyond the Rhine in 
 Oct. — On the Spanish frontier, the French penetrated beyond the 
 P^Tenees, in Nov. 
 
 z 2 
 
310 rriil.IC CONTF.STS in KfROPi:, 1786— 1707. [n-nion iil. 
 
 4-1. Tlw coiujuest of IloUiind, tlicn pcrliaps tlic riclicst 
 rouiitry of Europe, attacliod it tlicnccfortli to France; se- 
 cured tlie possession of IJelo-iuni ; excluded tlie army of 
 l^n<2,land iVoiu the continent; and alto|j;etlier cliantred the 
 situation of Prussia and the north of Cjermany. Former- 
 ly it would alone have sufficed to subvert the whole system 
 of Europe ; whereas, now it was only a single act in tlie 
 great drama. 
 
 A treaty of amity was concluded between the French and Batavian 
 ropiihlics, ^lay 16, 1795. Conditions: a. Payment of one hundred 
 millions of puiltlcrs. b. Kelinquishnient of Dutch Flanders, in con- 
 sideration of a future compensation, c. Use iu common of the harbour 
 of Vlissingen. 
 
 45. The most important consequence, however, was the 
 chano-e of the relations of England. Its actual })articipa- 
 tion in the war on land ceased ; it had nothino- more to lose 
 on the continent. It inherited the trade of Holland, and 
 the war now denounced on it, opened a prospect to the 
 conquest of its colonies. Carefully as it encouraged the 
 war, it was less interested in the course of it on land. 
 
 46. But the seeds of dissension had already been spring- 
 ing up among the allies of the continent. The most up- 
 right personal connexion of the monarchs in the cabinet, 
 as well as in the army, were unable to eradicate the distrust 
 of Austria and Prussia, nourished as it was for almost half a 
 century by Frederic himself; and the consequences had been 
 but frecjuently and too severely felt. When do not one- 
 sided views in politics at last punish themselves ? 
 
 47. Added to this there was, in the case of Prussia, an 
 exhaustion, so rapid and complete, that it can hardly be ex- 
 plained even by the extravagant management of Frederic 
 ^\'ilIiam II. Not a fourth of the army was used. And 
 before (piite two years were passed, debts had taken the 
 place of a full treasury. Provision for the army was de- 
 niiuidcd from the frontier circles of the German empire; 
 and new subsidies were received from England, apparently 
 not loi" the s;ik(! of the war but of the money. 
 
 A subsidiary treaty was signed at the Hague between Prussia and 
 England, April 19, 1794. 
 
 48. On the other hand, the double maxim was adopted 
 by the Convention, to conclude only a separate peace, and 
 
FART 1.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 178G— 1797. 341 
 
 not to terminate the war till the Rhine was made the 
 boundary. What materials of serious consideration for the 
 successor of Frederic the Great ! But the German empire 
 was not Prussia ; the losses of the one and the other were 
 not the same ; Prussia had even hopes of gaining at the 
 expense of its ecclesiastical fellow-states. — Peace was signed 
 at Basle ; and the line of demarcation fixed for the neutral- 
 ity of the north of Germany. 
 
 Conditions of the peace at Basle, April 5, 1795. a. Until the ar- 
 rangements to be made at the peace with the empire, France remained 
 in possession of the Prussian provinces on the left bank of tlie Rhine. 
 b. France promised to admit the mediation of Prussia for the other states 
 of the German empire, with respect to acceding to the peace, c. No 
 hostile marches should be made tlu'ough the Prussian provinces. — Hesse 
 Cassel concluded a formal peace for itself, Aug. 28, the line of demarca- 
 tion having been previously drawn, May 17, after the accession of Han- 
 over, Saxony, etc. 
 
 The negotiators at Basle were, citizen Barthelemy and the minister 
 Baron von Hardenberg. 
 
 49. In this manner, without having attained the principal 
 object of the war, which was the suppression of revolution- 
 ary principles, Prussia, together with the north of Germany, 
 withdrew from the coalition. Half the empire had made 
 peace ! Meanwhile a union was formed for mutual defence ; 
 and it seemed to be the proper moment for reviving the 
 last idea of Frederic the Great, and making Prussia the 
 centre of a grand confederacy. But this required a separ- 
 ation from the German empire ; and although the chief step 
 was already taken, the name of it was held in terror. And 
 whence could have been derived that confidence, which is 
 the bond of every confederacy, when the new partition of 
 Poland (see below) had just then been accomplished? 
 Nuremberg was occupied to its gates ; and the secret com- 
 pact with the Convention, by which Prussia was to be in- 
 demnified at the expense of its own fellow-states, was soon 
 no secret. 
 
 Prussia made a secret compact with France, Aug. 5, 1796. Condi- 
 tions : Preliminary consent was given to the cession of the left bank of 
 the Rhine ; Prussia was to be indemnified by secularizations in INIunster 
 and elsewhere, according to convenience and agreement ; for Orange in 
 Wurzburg and Bamberg. 
 
 50. But another ally, Spain likewise, soon seceded from 
 the coalition. Its accession had been occasioned by family 
 
oi2 rrBl.lf rONTKSTS in KUHOIM:. I7SG-1797. [iKiuon iir. 
 
 relations ; it soon had to pcrcoivo, tliat it could only lose by 
 the war, and had nothing to oain ; and tho conclusion of 
 the j)('ac(3 was tot) much jjroniotcd hy tlic actual interest of 
 France, to he liable to threat ditliculties. 
 
 IVace was ronclutkd between France and Spain at Basle, July 22, 
 179.). Conditions: a. Ke.stitution to Spain of all the conquests made. 
 f>. On the other hand, Spain rclin(|ui.shed to France its portion of the 
 island St. Doniin^jo. Previous to the peace with Sj)ain and Prussia, 
 the Convention liad concluded peace with the grand duke of Tuscany, 
 Feb. 9, as if it were to show that princes could conclude peace witli it. 
 
 The negotiators at Basle were, citizen Barthelemy and Don Yriarte. 
 
 51. But the half-ruined coalition was not to be altoo-cther 
 disiniited. The continuation of war on the continent, what- 
 ever nii|j;ht be its course, was too important for Eno-land in 
 order to jjursue its plans. The war was prosecuted, for the 
 most part, at its cost, in every country and on every sea. 
 Mho (lid not solicit money? Who did not obtain money? 
 A ast loans (posterity will scarcely credit their amount) were 
 necessary ; and in a few years the sum of the national debt, 
 and with it the burdens of the nation, were doubled. How 
 was this possible, unless the income of the nation should 
 likewise be doubled ? 
 
 An inqtiiri/ ronrcrninf/ the. rise nttd prof/ress, the redemption and the 
 present state of the Nationcd Debt of Great Britain, by Bun. IIA.^^L- 
 TON. Ivlinburgli, 1814. This work gives the most exact and authentic 
 information respecting the whole history of the British debt. 
 
 Owing to the loans made by I'itt during the war of the Revolution, 
 the funtled debt had increased at the peace of Amiens from 2.)7 to o(i7 
 millions of pounds sterling, of which the annual interest amoinited to 
 twenty millions. But the public credit, supported by the sinking fund, 
 did not waver. 
 
 52. But this rapid increase could not spring; from its own 
 soil ; it could only proceed from foreign trade. To pro- 
 mote this by excludinp; others from it, as far as possible, 
 was therefore the main object of exertion. Thus Pitt 
 chan'^ed the whole foundation of (he I^ritish power ; for 
 which, indeed, the pos.session of India ha<l long- been pre- 
 paring. Instead of resting as before on the cultivation of 
 its own soil and a few colonies, its present support was 
 foreign commerce, embracing every quarter of the globe. 
 The annihilation of hostile and the suppression of neutral 
 trade, (in so far as it was not even required,) were therefore 
 
rATiT 1.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROrE, 1786-1797. 343 
 
 the fundamental maxims ; and England was tlierebv placed 
 in an entirely new relation with the continent. Thus the 
 spii'it of the mercantile system was here also triumphant ; 
 and the war of the revolution was a commercial war, almost 
 as much as it was a war against constitutions. 
 
 The commercial oppressions practised on neutrals proceeded : a. 
 From the plan of Pitt (the first of his mistakes) to reduce France by 
 famine. Hence the nature of contraband was extended, and the im- 
 portation of all kinds of provisions forbidden, June, 1793. b. From 
 the extension of the blockade system ; since not only actual blockades, 
 but the mere declaration to that effect, as applied to a whole coast as 
 well as to single hai'bours, was to prove a real state of blockade, c. 
 From an extension of the practice of searching vessels, even when under 
 neutral convoy, d. From the regulations laid down respecting the 
 trade of neutrals with the colonies of the enemy. The rule of 17o6 
 (see p. 249) was first renewed 1793, and an entire prohibition de- 
 clared. At the remonstrances of the Americans, Jan., 1794, it was li- 
 mited to the direct trade of neutrals from the colonies to Europe ; and 
 in 1798, it was remitted in favour of European neutrals trading to their 
 own ports. 
 
 Ueher das Bestreben der Volker neuerer Zeit, sich einander in See- 
 hcnuhi recht icehe zu tliini, von JoH. G. Bl'sch. (^UmarbeUung der 
 Abhandlung von der Zerr'utiung des See//andels.) Hamburg, 1800. 
 On very liberal principles, but deficient in method. 
 
 Essai concernant les armateurs, les prises, et surtout les reprises, par 
 M. DE ^Martexs. Goettingue, 1795. Containing also a critical his- 
 tory of privateering. 
 
 Handbuch ueber das praktische Seerecht der Englander und Fran- 
 zosen, von Fr. Jon. Jacobsen. Hamburg, 1803. 2 Thle. An in- 
 teresting exposition of a very complicated subject. 
 
 War in disguise, or the frauds of the neutral JJags. London, 1806. 
 Undisguised British maritime orthodoxy, too rigorously asserted in the 
 estimation even of English writers themselves. 
 
 53. The sole dominion of the seas and the ensuing con- 
 quest of the enemy's colonies, were the conditions under 
 which alone the British system could be maintained during 
 such a war. The reduction of the French marine by the 
 revolution facilitated not a little the victories of England 
 over the hostile squadrons. At the end of this period the 
 French and Dutch navies were more than half destroyed, 
 and the most important colonies were already in British 
 hands. 
 
 Toulon was taken and occupied, Aug. 28 — Dec. 21, 1793, and the 
 fleet there carried oif or destroved. Naval victories were gained over 
 the French: at Ushant under Howe, June 1, 1794; at Savona under 
 Hotham, March 14, 1795 ; at L'Orient under Bridport, June 23 ; at thj 
 
•SU ITMI.ir rONTKSTS IN F.rnoPi:. 17st;-17fi7. (i-rninn iir. 
 
 IliiTcs Islnnils, July 13. Over tlic Diitcli, Aiijr. 10, 1790, in Saldanliri 
 Itav umlcr Elphiiistimc ; at C'ain|>i'nl()\vn under Duncan, Oct. 11, ITI'7. 
 Over tlu' Sp.iiii.-ili uii'lcr Jcrvis at Capo St. Vincent, Feb. 14, 1797. — 
 ("iiin|U('sts in till' W'vM. Indies: several places on St. Domingo were oc- 
 (•ii|iied, 175)3 — I7JH), wliicli however it was afterwards Ibund necessary 
 to evacuate ; Tol>a;io, April 1.), 1793 ; Martinicpie, (wuadalou|>e, and 
 St. Lucia, March and April, 1794. In tlie East Indies: I'ondicherry, 
 A|)rii 2.5, 1793. — From tiie Dutcli, Ceylon; Malacca; their estahlisli- 
 nients on tlie Malahar coast, Auj^ust, 179o. The Cape, Sept. 16. De- 
 nierara ami Kssequiljo, April, 179() ; the Moluccas, 1796. — From Spain, 
 onlv tlie island ot'Trinidad was taken, Feb. 18, 1797. 
 
 ')A. After tlio secession of" Prussia and Spain, England 
 redoubled its exertions, in order to liold tot^ether the re- 
 mainder of the coahtion, and if possible to reinforce it by 
 the adjunction of Russia ; the more so, since it also had at 
 heart the renewal of the treaty of commerce, which had 
 now expired. It succeeded indeed jn both ; and after the 
 trij)le alliance signed with Austria and Russia, a new treaty 
 of connnerce with Russia was effected. But an active co- 
 operation (with the exception of sending a s([uadron to 
 England, the very thing that was least needed) Catharine 
 did not find advisable. 
 
 As early as Feb. 18, 179.), a defonsive alliance was entered into be- 
 tween England and Russia, with a nuitual guarantee of all possessions ; 
 and May 20, between England and Austria. Both were made the basis 
 of a triple alliance, concluded Sept. 28, the conditions of which were not 
 exactly known. — The treaty of commerce was concluded with Russia, 
 Feb. 21, 1797, with still greater privileges than in 1766. 
 
 55. Thus the burden of the war on the continent always 
 fell on Austria in connexion with Sardinia and the states of 
 the south of Germany. The war itself however seemed to 
 languish, nor w^as it till autumn renewed on the Upper 
 Rhine, with success on the side of Austria, and thus a truce 
 was efiected before the end of the year. 
 
 The French armies umler Pichegru were driven back (perhaps by 
 agreement) across the Rhine ; and Mcntz was invested by Clairfait, 
 Oct. — A truce was made with Austria, Dec. 30. 
 
 5(^. The course of the internal affairs of France, after the 
 downfal of Robespierre and his faction, had in the mean 
 time jM'oduced more moderate sentiments, and subsequently 
 a new constitution ; by which a more permanent order of 
 things was to be e.stablislied. The executive power was com- 
 mitted to a directory of five members, while the legislative 
 
PART I.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 17S6— 1797. 345 
 
 was to be administered by an assembly divided into two cham- 
 bers, the Council of Elders, and the Council of Five Hundred, 
 a kind of Upper and Lower House. This entire separation 
 soon necessarily engendered strife between the two. But ot 
 how many other evils were not the elements contained in this 
 constitution, so much extolled as the result of high wisdom, 
 and soon afterwards forced upon the acceptance of tlie 
 daughter-states ! Nothing essential was gained in the rela- 
 tions with foreign countries by these innovations, while the 
 revolutionary system itself continued in full force. 
 
 The new constitution was introduced, the directory installed, and the 
 legislative body opened, after the dissolution of the National Conven- 
 tion, Oct. 28, 179o. 
 
 57. Henceforward, the peace of the continent seemed to 
 depend on that with Austria. To oblige this country to 
 sue for it, by penetrating into the heart of its states, was 
 consequently the object of the directory, which was to 
 be effected by three armies, pressing forward from the 
 Upper Rhine, from the Lower Rhine, and from Italy. Such 
 a complex plan, difficult in itself to execute, must be far 
 more so in Germany, while the fastnesses of the Rhine were 
 in the hands of the Germans. Austria also succeeded in 
 finding a general in its own imperial house, in the person 
 of the Archduke Charles, who soon enjoyed the full confi- 
 dence of the army. To him, Austria was then indebted for 
 its preservation. 
 
 General Jourdan crossed the Lower Ehine and penetrated into the 
 Palatinate ; and General Moreau from the Upper Rhine into Bavaria, 
 and a truce was made with Baden, AYirtemberg, etc., June and July, 
 1 796. But the archduke gained a victory over Jourdan at Amberg, 
 Aug. 24, and TVurzburg, Sept. 3. — Moreau made his celebrated retreat 
 across the Rhine at Huuingeu, though obliged to figlit his way at every 
 step, Oct. 
 
 58. But the fate of Austria was not to be decided in 
 Germany. Italy, hitherto of secondary importance, now 
 became, through altered relations, the principal theatre of 
 tlie war; far more, however, through the high spirit of the 
 young general to whom the command there was intrusted. 
 One campaign gave him Italy, the second, peace. But the 
 age regarded him as something more than the mere con- 
 queror and peace-maker, and erred only where he himself 
 desired it to err. 
 
olG rrni.ic contksts in Europe, 17»c— 17'.'-. (rumoD m. 
 
 In the first cnmprti}in of Nupolcon liuonnpartc, ftftcr acccptiiip; tl>e 
 rhiof command at Nico, March 30, 179G, lie pained a victory at Monte 
 Notte, April 12; at Millcsimo, April 1.3; and at Mcndovi over the 
 I'ietlmontese, April 22. — He Ibrceil Sardinia to .solicit an armi>tice, 
 April 28 ; and a separate peace was concluded, May lo. Terms: n. It 
 should surrender Savoy and Nice, and b. allow the French to occupy 
 the strongest fortresses. — Buonajjarte pursued the Austrians, forced a 
 ]>assape over the l)riil}re of Lodi, May 10, and con(iuered the whole of 
 Lomhardv, with the exce|)ti<)n of Mantua. 
 
 C(i»ij>(if/)irs (In Gtin'rai lyuojKipnrtc rn Italie pen(l(t7it les onnecs IV. 
 ct ]'. par un ollu-ier general. I'aris, 1797. T. i. ii. 
 
 .Of). These victories decided the fate of tlic rest of Italy. 
 Tlie dukes of Parma and Modena, the Pope and \\\q kino* 
 of Naples, had to purchase their armistices and peace. But 
 if the dominion of France in Italy had been acquired by 
 arms, it was to be confirmed by policy. The means of 
 doino; this was the formation of a new republic, fashioned 
 according to the model of France, out of the Austrian and 
 papal provinces, under the name of the Cisalpine Republic. 
 
 A truce was granted to Parma, ]\Iay 9 ; to Modena, May 17 ; to the 
 Pope, June 13, in consideration of payment of money and the surrender 
 of works of art ; and then, by the peace at Tolentino, on Feb. 19, 1797, 
 liologna and Ferrara were relinquished, and all pretensions to Avignon 
 renounced ; a truce was granted to Naples, June 5, which was after- 
 wards changed into an advantageous peace, Oct. 10. Genoa put itself 
 under French protection, Oct. 19 ; and Corsica, having previously 
 (June, 1794) been occupied by the English, was evacuated by them, 
 but on the other hand, Elba was occupied, July 9. 
 
 60. The revolutionary system was thus made to embrace 
 the whole of Italy ; and the possession of the principal for- 
 tress, Mantua, was now the point on which the execution of 
 the ulterior plans against Austria depended. The present 
 century had never yet beheld a conflict so obstinate as that 
 for Mantua. Four times Austria altemj)te(l to send relief; 
 loiu" times its armies were routed !— The fortress at length 
 fell ; and the way to Austria stood open. 
 
 Mantua was besieged from Jidy, 179^, to Feb., 1797. The first at- 
 tempt to succour it was made by the undaunted Wurmser ; defeated at 
 lirescia and the Lago ili f Jarda, 3rd and oth of August. He advanced 
 again, but was again defeated at Roveredo ami Bassano, 4th and 9th of 
 September ; but Wurmser, cut olT from retreat, fought his wa}' to Man- 
 tua. The third attempt was made by Alvinzi. After a battle, which 
 lasted three days, he was routed at Areola, loth to 19th November. 
 The last attempt was made under the same general, and a battle was 
 fought at Kivoli, January 14. 1797. ^Mantua capitulated, Feb. 2. 
 
TART I.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 17cG— 1707, 347 
 
 61. Buonaparte left Italy, and, crossine; the 
 
 . , . 3Iarch 1797 
 
 Alps, penetrated into the interior of Austria as 
 far as the Muhr, after several battles ; while Moreau and 
 Hoche were again to advance across the Rhine. It seemed 
 as if a violent contest must decide the fate of the imperial 
 city. But when the sword was about to decide, policy 
 found an expedient ; it was agreed to conclude peace at the 
 expense of a third. 
 
 62. Venice was, for the present, destined to be the vic- 
 tim. Lost in stupor for a century, this republic had re- 
 sorted, in the conflict of the more powerful, to neutrality, 
 the usual defence of weak states. She had long outlived 
 herself; but her fall first disclosed her utter weakness. 
 She was not only without energy, but without counsel. 
 She fell the victim of convenience and the desire of conti- 
 guity of possessions ; but apart from this, how could a con- 
 stitution subsist, Avhich stood in the most direct contradic- 
 tion to the prevailing maxims of the age? 
 
 Since the year 1718 (p. 189) the history of the political sys- 
 tem of Europe has offered no oiiportunity of mentioning Venice. A 
 peace of seventy-nine years hatl gradually matured, in the ruling classes, 
 all the evils of an indolent apathy, so that not even an armed neutrality 
 could have been carried into effect. 
 
 Textori, Raccolta ragionata di documenti inediti che formano la 
 storia diplomatica della rivoluzione e caduta delict repuhlica di Venezla 
 corredata di critiche osservazioni. T. L ii. 1800. Valuable materials 
 for the future historian. Compare P. Daru, Histoire de la Republique 
 de Venise. T. v. 1819. 
 
 63. It was not however a definitive peace, but only the 
 prelimniaries (by no means without reason, as was shown 
 by the result) that were concluded at Leoben on the P»Iuhr. 
 Every thing conceded in the preliminaries was not repeated 
 in the definitive peace. 
 
 Preliminaries were signed at Leoben, April 18, 1797. The principal 
 stipulations were : a. That Austria should resign all its rights in the 
 Belgic provinces to France, and recognise the boundaries of France, 
 fixed by the constitutional laws. b. A congress should be convened 
 for the purpose of concluding peace with the German empire, assuming 
 its integrity as the basis, c. That Austria should renounce its posses- 
 sions beyond the Oglio, and receive in exchange the portion of the Ve- 
 netian territory between the Oglio, the Po, and the Adriatic Sea ; 
 besides Venetian Dalmatia and Istria. d. Immediately after the rati- 
 fication of the definitive peace, Austria should likewise receive the for- 
 tresses of Palma Nova, ]\Iuntua, Peschiera, and some castles, e. The 
 
.IIS rrni.IC contests in KIHOPI:, 17»G— 17'J7. [innionm. 
 
 rrpul)lic of Venice «hoiil«l hnvc Roniaf»nn, Bologna, and Fcrrara as an 
 indcnmifiration. f. Austria should ri'c<);,Miiso the Cisalpine (at lirst 
 C'ispadano) HcpuUlic, to Ix? fornn-d of the ('('(h-d provinces, 
 
 Thf edinjilcte tn-aty. with the secret articles, was first made public 
 in Tos^KLT, Aiiiiali/i, I<S()4. st. xii. 
 
 64. Venice Mas ovfrpowcrod, and its fonucr constitution 
 nnniillcd. The proviiu*(>s ap;r('(>(l ii|)on were innnediatclv 
 occuj)ie(l by Austria, and the remainder, with the capital, 
 by France. Long negotiations wore necessary to decide 
 its final fate. 
 
 The French declared war apcainst Venice, under the ostensible pre- 
 text of an insurrection, wliich liad broken out in Verona, May 3. The 
 aristocracy was abolished, and a popular sovereip:nty established, May 
 12. The city was oecupieil by French troops, May 16. — From thence 
 the Grecian isles belonpinfj to Venice were occupied, Corfu, Cephalonia, 
 St. Mauro, Zante, and Cerigo, by a French-Venetian flotilla, June 28. 
 In the preliminaries they had not even been mentioned. 
 
 63. The state of afVairs intervening between the preli- 
 minaries and the definitive peace, could scarcely be more 
 Huctuatinp: than it was here. What ample materials still 
 remained for negotiation ! But how grand a prospect was 
 opened to the general, who was the soul of the war, and 
 no less of the pacification ! Like Pompey of old, the ar- 
 biter of Asia after tlie Mithridatic war, Buonaparte had to 
 regulate the afl'airs of Italy. In the erection of the Cisal- 
 pine Republic was seen the founder of states; and he had 
 a powerful influence on the changes of the constitutions of 
 the other Italian states. But his views were not confined 
 to Italy. Switzerland stood in anxious expectation ; a Polish 
 legion was formed ; and how far was it to Egypt ? 
 
 The Cisalpine Kcpublic was proclaimed, consisting of ]\Iilan, I^fodena, 
 Ferrara, Bologna, and Komagna, to whicii Brescia and Mantua were 
 soon added, June 28. — The Genoese republic was changed into a Li- 
 gurian, with a democratic constitution, under the direction of the 
 French minister Fai|)oult. May 22 — 31. Great democratic commotions 
 took place in Piedmont, the States of the Church, etc. 
 
 Gf). But the relations in the west of Europe were also 
 changefl ; for S|iain had returned to its ancient connexion 
 with France, and the favourite, Don (lodoi, duke of Alcudia, 
 (Principe de la paz,) who was devoted to the interest of 
 France, from this time guided the helm of state with almost 
 unlimited power. The innnediate consequence of it was 
 the participation in the war against England ; but for the 
 
fART I.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1786—1797. 349 
 
 future also, the fate of Spain was so bound to that of France 
 by the treaty of alliance, that it depended at least on the 
 latter alone, how far Spain should partake in its wars. 
 
 A treaty of alliance was concluded between France and Spain, Aug. 
 19, 1798. 1. An alliance offensive and defensive in all wars. 2. In 
 the present, however, only against England. 3. Arrangements as to 
 the aid to be afforded on sea and land. — Spain declared war against 
 England, Oct. o.^Trinidad was lost, Feb. l8, 1797 ; but the attacks 
 of the English on Porto Rico, April 1 7, and on Teneriffe, in July, Avere 
 repelled. 
 
 67. Notwithstanding this extension of the war, the hori- 
 zon appeared to brighten after the preliminaries of Leoben. 
 Austria continued to negotiate ; and England, now without 
 allies on the continent, deemed itself also bound to nego- 
 tiate. But while the hopes of pacification were augment- 
 ing, they had to be partially annihilated again by a new 
 revolution in the French authorities. Much sooner than 
 had been supposed, it was ascertained that no government 
 could be less adapted to the national character, than the 
 many-headed directorial government. 
 
 Negotiations were commenced at Lille, July — Sept. 17, by Lord 
 Malmesbury. (The same person had previously attempted them in vain 
 at Paris, Oct. — Dec, 1796.) But after the revolution of Sept. 4, 
 (Fructidor 18,) in which the evils of the directorial constitution mani- 
 fested themselves sooner than was expected, and by which the minority 
 of the directory and the legislative body was displaced, and a part of 
 them transported, the pacific negotiations with England were broken 
 off. — A short time before, peace had been concluded with Portugal, 
 Aug. 20 ; but it was now renounced by France, Oct. 26. 
 
 Recueil de toutes les pieces officielles, relatives a la ncgociation de 
 Lille, Oct., 1797. 
 
 Q^. The case was entirely different with regard to the 
 negotiations of peace with Austria. They were, and con- 
 tinued to be, in the hands of the peace-maker, not of the 
 directory ; peace was made because he wished it, and as he 
 wished it. For half a year it was negotiated at Milan ; and 
 when it was finally concluded at Campo Formio, near Udine, 
 and the secret articles were afterwards made public, the 
 length of the negotiations was satisfactorily explained ! 
 
 Peace between France and Austria, concluded Oct. 17, 1797. Con- 
 ditions : a. Austria renounced all its claims to the Netherlands in favour 
 of France, b. Austria obtained the territory of Venice, from the Lago 
 di Garda, the city of Venice itself, Istria, Dalraatia with the islands, 
 and Bocca di Cattaro. c. France acquired the Venetian Greek islands, 
 
850 COLONMAI, AIFAIHS, 178G— 1801. IrEuion in. 
 
 nn<l tin" pos9os.<<i()n9 in Albania, d. Austria ncknowlcdjipd tlio Cisalpiiio 
 K<'|iiil»lic. c. A (•()np;rc,sa was to l>c coiivcikmI at Hastadt for inaUiiir^ 
 j)cact' with the empire, f. Austria was to iinh-mnity tlie diilic of Mo- 
 deiia witli l}rcis;;au. — Secret eonditioiis : a. Austria aequicsced in the 
 cession of the h-ft bank of the Rhine from I'aslc to the eonfliienee of the 
 Kliine and Xethe at AiKh-rnach, witli the city and fortress of Mayence. 
 h. The navi;ration of the Khine was to b(> common to both parties, c. 
 France en;ra;red to intercede that Anstria mifflit obtain Salzburj^, and 
 tlie ])art of Bavaria between tiiis, Tyrol, and the Inn and Salza. d. 
 Austria afrreetl to relinciuisli Frickthal in the peace of the empire, e. 
 A mutual compensation for all tiiat France should hereafter obtain in 
 the German empire. /'. Mutual guarantee that Prussia should make no 
 further acquisitions, upon the restoration of its possessions on the left 
 bank of the Rhine. Tiie injured jtrinces and states on the left bank of 
 the Rhine were to receive iiidenmitications in Germany, cf. AVithin 
 twenty davs after the ratification, all the fortresses on tlie Rhine, as also 
 Ulm and Ingolstadt, were to be evacuated by the Austrian troops. 
 
 The negotiators of the peace were : from France, General Buona- 
 parte ; from Austria, the ^larquis de Gallo, Count L. Cobenzl, Count 
 von Meerveldt, Baron von Degelman. 
 
 G9. Conformably to this pacification, France remained 
 in possession of Bel<2;inm, and tlie dominion of Italy ; the 
 republic of Venice disappeared altooetlier from the number 
 of states. The German empire, abandoned in secret by 
 Austria, as it had before been by Prussia — (what disclosures 
 do these secret contracts, compared with each other, (p. 
 341,) offer to posterity!) — anxiously looked forward to its 
 fate. The pillars of the old political system lay prostrate ; 
 but politicians spoke of perpetual peace, now that France 
 and Austria had become contio;uous in their respective 
 possessions and natural boundaries. 
 
 II. Hislory of Colonial AJfair.<i,from 1786 to 1804. 
 
 [To facilitate the general view, ccdonial history is at once continued 
 to the end of the second division of the period.] 
 
 1. It was almost impossible to determine what influence 
 the f^reat convidsions of I'lin'opc wotdd hav(! on the colonies, 
 since it depended not UK^rely on the extension of arms, but 
 still more on the extension of principles. How diflerent, 
 moreover, must be the operation of the latter, according- to 
 the various relations of the classes of society in the colonial 
 countries ! How entirely ditlerent in North America and in 
 the East and West Indies ! Add to this the fluctuations in 
 
PART i.J AMERICA, S51 
 
 the course of commerce. And yet the trade of the world, 
 and with it the fate of more than one leading state of Eu- 
 rope, was connected with the colonies. 
 
 2. Of the colonies, independent America stands 
 at the head, both for itself, and its influence on 
 Europe. It is seldom that any state can so rapidly increase 
 as America, because it is seldom so highly favoured by cir- 
 cumstances. If the culture of the earth made such an ex- 
 traordinary progress, that the number of the provinces ad- 
 vanced in this period from thirteen to sixteen, the progress 
 of its commerce was far more astonishing, which in a short 
 time, no longer limited to the exportation of domestic pro- 
 ducts, but spreading over every sea, gave America, since 
 the beginning of the European maritime war, such a vast 
 carrying trade, especially between the \Yest Indies and Eu- 
 rope, that its commercial navigation was hardly surpassed 
 by the British. 
 
 Besides the natural advantages that America possessed for navigation 
 ahove any country in Europe, such as her situation, the character of her 
 coasts, and an abundance of wood proper for building vessels, as well as 
 the nature of her productions, the principal causes of the prosperity of her 
 foreign trade consisted : 1. In her regulations respecting duties. It 
 was adopted as a fundamental law, that the exportation of home pro- 
 duce should be entirely free ; while imported goods were entitled to a 
 drawback upon re-exportation. 2. In her advantageous treaties of 
 commerce with foreign powers. With France, Feb. 6, 1778. Tiie 
 two parties mutually treated each other on the footing of the most fa- 
 voured nations. (It was renounced by America on account of tlie iu- 
 juries of the Convention, July 7, 1798. By the new treaty, Sept. 30, 
 1800, a preliminary settlement of free navigation, witli the reserve of 
 further negotiations.) The treaties of commerce with the United Ne- 
 therlands, Oct. 8, 1782; with Sweden, April .3, 1783; with Prussia, 
 Sept. 10, 1785 ; with vSpain, Oct. 27, l79o, contained similar conces- 
 sions and liberal maxims both with respect to the contraband trade 
 (limited to the actual necessities of war) and the rights of neutral flags; 
 in that with Prussia all privateering even was renounced in case of a 
 war. But the most impf^irtnut of all was the treaty with England, Nov. 
 19, 1794, not ratified till June 14, 1795 ; the first ten articles (the ad- 
 justment of boundaries, evacuations, indemnifications, etc.) of permanent 
 obligation ; the rest, eleven to twenty-eight, (the real treaty of com- 
 merce,) for twelve years. Among these : a. Trade to the British West 
 Indies in American vessels under seventy tons was made free ; the im- 
 portation of American and exportation of West Indian produce, how- 
 ever, only to America. (This article was suspended, and never came 
 into effect.) b. Navigation was made free to the British East Indies, 
 both as to imports and exports ; the last only to the ports of America. 
 
302 COLONIAL AllAlUS, 178G— IbUl. [i-iiiiiob iii. 
 
 r. 1)111 on till- ntlicr lianJ, the Britisli maxims were recognised, respect- 
 in;.' tlic riglit.'* of ntiitial Hags, the contrahand trade, and the right of 
 bh)ckade. 
 
 A (Irf'ttice of tlir trcdti/ of Ainitif, Cniiuiirrrr, afid \(ivif/fitio/i, ottered 
 into hetwern the I'liifrd States of yliittriro a/id (treat liritai/i, \>y Ca- 
 Mii.i.r.s (Alkx. Hamilton). ITUo. Only a dc'lV;nfc of tlit- pernianLiit 
 urticK's. 
 
 3. ^^'lliIe America by this spirit of concession opened to 
 lierselt", in the war of the Frencli revolution, every sea, it 
 was inipossihle for her to avoid contests with tlie belligerent 
 powers, to which she was the ni(jre exj)osr'd from beiiip; al- 
 most wholly destitute of a navy. Tlie treaty with England 
 
 exasperated tlie directorv ; and the decrees of 
 
 Jan. 18, 17W. 1 / , 1 * I -1 , 
 
 the Convention, bearnig so lieavily on the navi- 
 gation of neutrals, did not permit the disputes to subside. 
 But contests arose with England itself, which began to see 
 in America a formidable rival ; these disputes, inflamed yet 
 more by the parties formed in the interior, finally impehed 
 America, in order to escape war, to have recourse to the 
 unexampled resolution of voluntarily suspending her own 
 commerce. 
 
 Tlie disputes between the United States and England had their 
 origin : 1. In the prohibited serving of British seamen in American ves- 
 sels ; and in the violent .seizure of them. This point was passed over 
 in the treaty on account of its great diiricultios. 2. On account of the 
 colonial tra<le. — The restriction of tiie prohibition to the direct trade 
 from the colonies to Europe, Jan., 1794, (p. 343,) enabled the Ameri- 
 cans, by means of drawbacks, to export to Europe the colonial com- 
 modities brought to their harbours, and for which duties had been paid. 
 Disputes arose after the renewal of the war, in 1803, respecting the 
 question, what is a bona fide importation ? American vessels were 
 captured from May, 180.5 ; and .soon after, August 3, the trade with 
 tlie hostile colonies was limited to the British free ports in the "West 
 Indies, in order to secure the commerce to England. 
 
 Hi'spi'cting the contest between the United States and England, 
 7W//. Jourtwl, 1807, B. i. p. 27 seq. 
 
 4. The further influence of America on commerce de- 
 pended for the most part on her determination to become a 
 maritime power. But the situation of this republic was 
 materially changed by the purchase of Louisiana from 
 France, about the end of this period ; by which purcha.se, 
 not only her territory, soon extending to the Pacific, was 
 almost doubled, but she came into the full possession of the 
 
PART I.] WEST INDIES. 353 
 
 Mississippi river, with all its subordinate streams, and 
 especially the mighty Missouri. What a prospect for the 
 future ! 
 
 Louisiana, with the city and territory of New Orleans, in the same 
 extent as formerly possessed by Spain, was purchased for sixty millions 
 of francs, April 30, 1803. Rapid progress was made in the improve- 
 ment of the country, which had never thriven as a European colony ; 
 hut disputes had already arisen with Spain ; partly respecting the 
 boundaries of Louisiana and West Florida ; and partly respecting the 
 boundary on the side of New Mexico, viz., as to whether the neigh- 
 bouring river Sabine, or the remote Rio Bravo, was to constitute it. 
 
 Voyage dans les deux Louisianes en 1801 — 1803, par Perrin du 
 Lac. Paris, 1805. A description of the interior of this rich country, 
 especially the country on the ^lissouri. 
 
 Travels of Capt. Lewis and Clarke from St. Louis by the loay of 
 Missouri and Columbia to the Pacific Ocean, compiled by Gass. Phila- 
 delphia, 1809. This voyage of discovery, undertaken by order of con- 
 gress, first disclosed the full value of the countiy. 
 
 5. The West India colonies, founded on 
 slavery, underwent daring this period the great- 
 est changes, and some of them the most fearful catastrophes. 
 They had reached their maturity, and would probably have 
 begun to decline by degrees, even without any violent com- 
 motions, after the culture of their produce by free labourers 
 had become general on the continent of America, and no 
 less so in the East Indies. But it was not wars alone, the 
 great revolution of ideas in Europe exerted a still stronger 
 influence on their destiny. The voice of humanity was 
 raised against the cruelties of the slave trade, and was 
 eventually triumphant. But the inconsiderate application 
 of general maxims created in some of them, greater atroci- 
 ties than those which they were designed to prevent. 
 
 "We must carefully discriminate between the abolition of the slave 
 trade, and the abolition of slavery. The opponents of the slave trade 
 were not, for that reason, unconditional opponents of slavery ; the 
 actual propagation of the blacks in the West Indies was to suffice for 
 their culture. The subject was discussed in England and America. As 
 early as 1754, the traffic in blacks had been abolished among the 
 Quakers, and emancipations soon became general, to the advantage, it 
 has been asserted, of the owners. But the grand impulse was given by 
 the independence of America, and the prohibition, imposed on the in- 
 troduction of negroes (with the exception of the Carolinas and Georgia). 
 In England, the public interest was strongly excited by the Avorks of 
 Ramsay, and the prize essay of Clarkson at Cambi-idge, 1785. The 
 Society for the Abolition of the Slave Trade was founded at Manchester, 
 1787, by Granville Sharp, (founder of the Sierra LeOne colony, p. 287,) 
 
 2 A 
 
<"5.'34 COLONIAI, AllAIUS, 17SG— 1801. [rEnion iii. 
 
 and soon sproad tliroiipli nil Kiiirland. The mottor was fir-'t hronplit 
 bcfort' parlinnu-nt by iinaiis of petitions, Fcl). 1, 178H ; the only result 
 was, an a<'t for the hctter rc^rulation of tiic slave trado, July 10. The 
 honour of licinjj tiie first to aholisii it in Kurope bclon^rs to D<'nniark. 
 A royal order was issued, May 1(>, 1792, that the trallie in blacks 
 .should cease in the Danish possessions from the end of 1802. liut 
 Knirland did not remain inactive; Chirkson himself, then a young man, 
 eontribnted to excite tiie public attention, as much by his own personal 
 activity, as he had before done by his prize essay; and after May 12, 
 17H8, tiie cause of the blacks found in the exalted Wilberforce, so per- 
 severing an advocate in ])arliament, that after a eonllict, aiumally re- 
 newed for eight(M^n years, and supported against liim for a long time by 
 Fox and even by Pitt, and latterly by a pressure of eireumstances, it 
 was finally carried in the I^ower House. Tiie act for the abolition of 
 the slave "trade was passed .'\Iareii 24, 1807. 
 
 All rssni/ on the trentiiient and conversion of (he African Slaves in 
 the British iSufjar Colonics, by tlie Kev. Jamks Hamsay. Lond. 1784. 
 Tijc author resided for some time in St. Christopher, in a professional 
 capacity. 
 
 JJssai/ on (he Slavery aiid the Commerce of (he human species, by 
 TiioM. Claukson. Lond. 1786. A translation of the Latin prize essay 
 in answer to the question : Num lieeat invitos in scrvitutem dare ? 
 
 Claukndon's accura(e and copious account of (he Debates of (he 
 House of Commons on Mr. Jl'ilherforcc's Modon for an Aholidon of 
 (he Slave Trade, April 2, (Lond. 1792,) gives most of the arguments 
 lor and against it. 
 
 The IIis(orif of (he Aholition of (he Slave Trade, by TiiOM. Clauk- 
 SOX. Lond. 1808, 2 vols. 8vo. Tiie leading work for tlie history. 
 
 Agreeing in most respecta witli the above, but compiled from differ- 
 ent sources, is, 
 
 D. Hum:, Dars(clhnig, etc., (p. 58,) the whole of the second part. 
 The most comprehensive work on the subject. 
 
 An enumeration of many otlier works may be found in, Versuch ciner 
 Gcsehichfe des Xvgershlavcnh(uuhis,\i)n Jull. Jac. Si:ll. Halle, 1791. 
 
 6. Tliis matter took an entirely dillc'rent course in France 
 and in the Frencli colonies. Instead of followino- the die- 
 tates of experience, the national assembly acted on general 
 j)rinciples, and applying the declaration of the Rights of 
 Man to the islands, by the decree of May 16, gave the 
 signal to .«;cenes of horror, of ^vhi(•h it soon, but too late, re- 
 jx'uted. It ^vas not however th(> bhicks, but the mulattos, 
 ^vho dcniaiuHng equal rights ^villl the white inhabitants, be- 
 gan the insurrection and led away the blacks. Tliough 
 these rebellions were (judhnl on the smaller islands, that of 
 St. Domingo on the other hand was unavoidably sacrificed ; 
 and "with it, the mother country lost one of the richest 
 sources of her foreign trade (see p. 297). 
 
PART I.] WEST INDIES. 600 
 
 The Societe des amis des Koirs was formed in Pai'is, 1788, for the 
 abolition not only of the slave trade, but also of slavery itself. Its in- 
 fluence reached the colonies by means of the mulattos then in Paris. — 
 Immediately after the opening of the national assembly, commotions 
 and contests arose among the Avhites themselves ; especially on St. Do- 
 mingo. — The decree of the national assembly of May 1.5, 1791, estab- 
 lished the equality of rights of the ^Yhite inhabitants and the mulattos 
 {gefis de coideur). The whites evinced a repugnance to this measure, 
 and an attachment to the cause of royalty. The mulattos seized arms, 
 and stirred up the blacks to insurrection. The rebellion commenced 
 Aug., 1771. The plantations were destroyed, and Port au Prince 
 burned Nov. — . The commissaries Santhonax and Polverel, two 
 staunch Jacobins, were sent out with dictatorial power and six thousand 
 men, by the second national assembly, Sept., 1792. They united with 
 the mulattos ; a reign of terror ensued ; disputes arose with the com- 
 mandant Galbaud (the whites were never agreed among themselves) ; 
 they invoked against liim the aid of the blacks, and the plundering, 
 massacre, and burning of Cape Francois followed, June 21, 1793. The 
 negroes were declared free. — AA'ar having broken out with England, the 
 English began their attempts on Domingo, Sept., 1793, at the invitation 
 of a party among the whites ; several places were conquered, 1793 — 1797 
 (see p. 344).. But the climate devoured more than the sword. The 
 island was evacuated, 1798. The whites emigrated, and the negroes 
 exercised the sovereignty under Toussaint L'Ouverture ; and after his 
 removal, 1803, under Dessalines, Christopher, etc. 
 
 Bryan Edwabi>s's Historical survey of the French Colony in the 
 island of St. Domingo, 1797, 4to. (See p. 115.) This work reaches 
 down to the year 1793. 
 
 Histoire des desastres de St. Domingue. Paris, 1795. Narrated with 
 exactness, by an emigrant planter. What are the horrors of civil, in 
 comparison with those of servile wars ! 
 
 Memoires pour servir a Thistoire de la revolution de St. Domingue, 
 par le Lieut.-Gen. Baeon' Pa^iphile de Lacroix. 2 vols. 1820. The 
 author was on the spot, and his work is the leading authority oit the 
 French side of the question. 
 
 7. The fruitless efforts to reconquer the island 
 after the peace of Amiens strengthened the do- 
 minion of the blacks, who, after the utter destruc- oct. 29,1803. 
 lion of the city, erected a distinct state, Hayti. 
 
 But the leaders soon waged war against each other, and 
 France maintained itself, at least in the portion ceded by 
 Spain. 
 
 M. Eaixsfokd, Account of the Black empire of Hayti. Lond. 1805. 
 
 8. Although the peace of Amiens, which left Trinidad 
 only to the English, who restored all other conquests, made 
 no great changes in the state of possessions in the West In- 
 dies, they nevertheless were not what they had been before 
 
 2 A 2 
 
ooG COLONIAL AITAIHS, 178G— IsOL [rKnion in. 
 
 llic war. 'i he first of tl)(\sr colonies was nuulc dcsolato ; 
 tlic tmiuiuillity of tlic otiiors was pre.scrvcd with (lilliculty ; 
 loud comphiints reached Europe itself. Even Jamaica could 
 not recover. A concurrence of circumstances could alone 
 make these hot-houses prosper; these however had changed ; 
 ynd their hap]\y times were p:one, probably for ever. 
 
 }). The situation of the great Sj)ani.sh colonies on 
 the continent of America was entirely difl'erent. 
 Tiiough slavery existed among them, the slaves never had 
 the preponderance. No disturbances of importance were 
 ever heard of; and the int('rruj)tion of communication with 
 the mother country seemed to be the only evil that the war 
 inflicted on them. Well-informed travellers in great mea- 
 sure withdrew the veil which formerly conc(>aled them, and 
 gave authentic accounts of their tran(juil internal prosperity, 
 a result of their greater commercial privileges, (see p. 300,) 
 tliough they had but just emerged from an infant state. At 
 their head stood Mexico, destined to be the first commercial 
 country by its population, its treasures, its productions, and 
 its situation. Buenos Ayres, New Granada, and Peru, (the 
 two latter however in a less degree as it would seem than 
 the former,) had all arisen by commerce. As the political 
 I'elations of these countries developed themselves, their com- 
 mercial relations also must of necessity undergo some 
 change ; and to what results might not this change lead ? 
 
 Among the works which shed so much light over Spanish America, 
 the lirst are the works of Al. von IIu.^iuoldt ; of these we must here 
 cite : 
 
 Essai pnlifirjiie sur le linyanmr <lv hi XouvvUc Espnfjvc. Paris, 1808. 
 Since its coniplctifm it lias been the Icailing work on ^lexico. 
 
 Voj/agr a ht parfic nrictitnlc dc la Tirrra firma, par DK Pons. Paris, 
 180G, 3 vols. Tlic leading Wfirk for Caraccas, Venezuela, etc. 
 
 Skinnf.r, On the present statr of Peru. Lonilon, 180G, 4to. It con- 
 tains very instructive extracts from the Mereurio VeriKinn. 
 
 I). Fklix AzAiiA, ]'()tf(if)e (Ions PAineri'/ue fneriftionale, dcpuis 
 1781 — IHOl. Paris, 1807, T. i. iv. Tiie leading work on Buenos 
 Ayres and I'araguay. The two last volumes comprise their natural 
 histciry. 
 
 Beilrihp' :>ir f/e/ifti/(rn I\'inn/ni.'<s tier Spanisehen liesitzi/nfjen in 
 Atneri/io, von Cuu. Aii;. Fisciii.ij. Dresden, 1802. Conipilcil fmiu 
 Spanish sources, and particularly important for tlic modern commercial 
 state of Buenos Ayres. 
 
 10. The political relations of Brazil differed con- 
 siderably from those of Spanish America. Pom- 
 
PART I.] BRAZIL. AFRICA, 357 
 
 bal's monopoly of the company of Maranhao terminated, in- 
 deed, after his fall ; yet the commercial restraints were by 
 no means lessened. As, however, the mother country re- 
 mained in the interest of England, the free communication 
 was not interrupted, and it had more to gain than to lose 
 from the naval wars of the Europeans. The times approach- 
 ed when the political relations of the mother country were 
 to occasion the independence of the colony, and South 
 America was to contain an empire equal in extent, and per- 
 haps superior in fertility, to the republic of North America. 
 
 Schizze voji Brasilien, von J. Lobo da Silveira. Stockholm, 1809. 
 Written in German by a Portuguese ; and full of interesting inform- 
 ation, which confirms at tlie same time its internal prosperity. 
 
 Der Handel von Portugal im Jahre 1804, in Europdische Annalen, 
 1806, St. 4, s. 42, gives the most authentic account of the exports of 
 Brazil at that time. 
 
 11. What influence the revolution of Brazil, and 
 the abolition of the slave trade in England and 
 Denmark, will have upon the colonies on the coast of Africa, 
 time must show. But in general Africa was drawn within 
 the horizon of the Europeans, much more in this period 
 than in the former. To explore its interior was the grand 
 problem of the day. Owing to the labours of Bruce, the 
 British African Association, and the Egyptian Expedition, 
 the darkness which covered this quarter of the globe was in 
 part removed, and what still remained unexplored, only 
 gave an additional charm to enterprise, and stimulated the 
 zeal of future travellers. What a new world dawns here 
 also on the prospect of the European ! 
 
 Travels to discover the sources of the Nile, in the years 1768 — 1773, 
 by James Bruce. London, 1790, 5 vols. 4to. Second edition, 1805, 
 7 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Proceedings of the Association for pi'omoting the discover?/ of the in- 
 .^rior parts of Africa. London, 1790, 4to. The Society, founded June, 
 1788, doubled the value of their transactions by subjoining Kennel's 
 excellent JMaps of N. Africa. 
 
 12. The influence of the European revolu- British 
 tions on the East Indies was at first of a purely e^^'I"'^'^^- 
 military character. On the continent of India the British 
 had to fear no European rivals ; the war with Holland gave 
 them the islands also ; and they became, in consequence 
 the sole rulino- nation. But in India itself war still con 
 
.358 COLONIAL AFFAIRS, 17C8— 1501. [rr.nion iii. 
 
 tinned, and tlio fall of the kingdom of Mysore constituted 
 nn important epoch. 
 
 Hi. As lonix as Tippoo Sail) rci<j:npd lie was tlie most 
 formidable enemy of the British ; and their military forces 
 were therefore more concentrated in the south. To prevent 
 coml)inati(Mis of the other Indian powers, especially of the 
 princes of the Mahrattas with Tippoo, and to secure their 
 co-operation, wherever possible, by a division of the spoil, 
 was therefore the p:rand aim of British policy. The power 
 of the new .Iu<j:Mrtlia was thus broken in tlie next war, by 
 which he lost half of his territories, though his resentment 
 against the British was doubled. 
 
 The new war of Tippoo, 1790 — 1792, was caused by liis attack on 
 tlic rajah of Travancore, the ally of the English, in order to conquer 
 the coast of South Malabar. This gave rise to the participation of the 
 English, in connexion with the ^Mahrattas and the Nizam. Bangalore 
 was conquered, 1791 ; but fruitless attacks were made on the capital 
 uniler Cornwallis and Abercrombie. The expedition was renewed in 
 1792, and a peace, inclusive of the British allies, was negotiated under 
 the walls of Seringapatam, March 17. Conditions: a. Tippoo relin- 
 quished half of his territories, according to the choice of the allies, b. 
 lie agreed to pay three crores of rupees, and gave two of his sons as 
 hostages till the payment should be made. — For themselves and their 
 allies, the English selected the provinces that bordered on their old pos- 
 .^essions. 
 
 Respecting the causes of this war, exact information may be found in 
 Polit. Journal, 1792, p. 1045. 
 
 14. Under these circumstances was it to be wondered 
 that Tippoo should resume his sword on occasion of the 
 Eg}'ptian expedition ? But the precipitate promulgation of 
 his embassy to the Isle of France had roused the British ; 
 they resolved to anticipate him ; and with the conquest of 
 Seringapatam, his empire fell, overwhelming Tippoo in its 
 ruins. 
 
 Some adventurers transmitted the influence of the French revolution 
 to Tippoo ; and a Jacobin club was instituted at the court of the citizen 
 .■sultan, 1797. He despatched an embassy to the Isle of France, and to 
 Zcmaun-sliah of East Persijv, 1798. Tlie apprcliensions of the British 
 iin])i'lled tlieni to great activity ; and tlieir armies pressed forward under 
 General Harris, Feb., 1799. Seringapatam was invested and taken by 
 assault. May 4. The sultan was slain, and liis empire divided ; while 
 in the remainder, a branch of the old dynasty of tlie Hindu rajahs was 
 elevated to the throne, as a subsidiary of the British. 
 
 Vine of (hr nrir/in and coudurt of the war icith Tippoo Sultan, by 
 Alex. Beatson. London, 1800. 
 
PART I.] BRITISH EAST INDIES. os^ 
 
 Hijder All and Tippoo Sa/ieb, oder historisch geographische Ueber- 
 sicht dcs Mysorischen Beichs, und desseii EntsteJiung und Zertheilung, 
 von jNI. C. Sprexgel. Weimer, 1801. The author had the advantage 
 of the best Britisli sources. 
 
 15. Since the fall of Mysore the British policy in the 
 East Indies has evidently changed, as the policy of an all- 
 powerful conqueror is usually found to do. Its indirect 
 dominion was transformed into a direct one ; the allies of 
 the company were deposed ; their lands altogether or for 
 the most part confiscated ; and in those which they retained 
 they had to support British garrisons or pay tribute instead. 
 
 Tanjore was taken, 1799, the rajah consenting to receive a pension ; 
 half of Oude and Allahabad followed after the expulsion of the refrac- 
 tory nabob Ali, under pretence of protecting an incompetent pretender 
 to the throne, 1799, who was soon after pensioned. The whole Carna- 
 tic was taken after the death of the nabob of Arcot, 1805, in the most 
 revolting manner. 
 
 Instructions of the nabob of the Carnatic to his agents in London; 
 in von AKCnExnoLZ Minerva, 1802, p. 335. 
 
 [The autlior appears to view the subject in too partial, not to say a 
 prejudiced, light ; the following vivid but rather startling picture of 
 the manner in which our Indian empire has gone on increasing, is drawn 
 by a well-ciualified judge, Mr, R. Jenkins, who was political resident at 
 Isagpore for twenty years. " The rise and progress of our power in 
 India have been rapid and marvellous. Unlike other empires, ours in 
 the East has been in a great degree forced upon us, and built up at 
 almost every step against our own deliberate resolution to avoid it ; in 
 the face of every opposition Avhich could be given to it by the legisla- 
 ture, his Majesty's government, and by the court of directors, acting 
 upon corresponding dispositions in our governments abroad. Each suc- 
 cessive governor-general in the last half century, sent out from this 
 country with minds fresh and untouched by local prejudices — including 
 Lord Cornwallis during his first administration, who went to India 
 under an act containing an express denunciation against conquest and 
 extension of dominion. Lord Wellesley, Lord j\Iinto, Lord Hastings, 
 (the last two strongly impressed against the existing foreign policy in 
 India,) and Lord Amherst — have seen reason to enter into wars and 
 negotiations, defensive in their objects, but generally terminating in 
 that very extension of territory and dominion which was so much dread- 
 ed." jMr. Jenkes's, Evidence before the House of Commons, March 27, 
 1832. Transl.] 
 
 16. The princes of the Mahrattas were thus the only re- 
 maining powerful foes in India ; formidable partly on ac- 
 count of their personal qualities, like Holkar, and partly on 
 account of the French officers whom they took into their 
 
ouO COLONIAL AlIAIKS. 17fG— ISOl. fn.nion iir. 
 
 service. IIa[)j»ily lor tlic Britij>li, iu> lianuony prevailed 
 amoiiij; tiiein. Hut liow can peace exist with nations, who 
 are hai)itiially in a state of war, as long as they arc not in- 
 capacitated from waging it ? 
 
 War was carried on with tlie conibinccl rajahs of IJerur (p. 29'<)) and 
 Sfiiuha, who caused his troops to be or;:anized al'tcr tlie Kumpean man- 
 ner, hy Perron, Sept. — Dec, 1803. The British were victorious, con- 
 quered A;j:ri and Delhi itself, the residence of the Great Mogul. Peace 
 was agreed upon, Dec. 30, 1803. Conditions: a. The resignation of 
 tiie Dual) (l)etween the Jumna and the Ganges) ; of lieroach in Guzerat, 
 ami of the district of Kuttakwitli the harbour of Balasore, between Ben- 
 gal and the Circars. b. The rajahs promised neither to engage or retain 
 foreign Europeans in their service, r. The Great Mogul was to remain 
 in the most perfect dependence on the British (he soon became a mere 
 pensionary). — Tlie war with Ilolkar, (at the same time the enemy of 
 Scindia,) prosecuted by the British since April, 1804, at lirst witli ill 
 success, consisted only of a border war. 
 
 Contributions to the latest history of India, in Europiiische Annalen, 
 180o, B. 3, 4, from intercepted despatches of Governor-general Wellesley, 
 first published in the Moniteiir. 
 
 17. These wars and conquests, to wliicli were added, at 
 the peace of Amiens, the possessions of the Dutch in Cey- 
 lon, extended the immediate territory of the company over 
 all the eastern coast, the greater part of the western coast, 
 and on the Ganges and Jumna as far as Delhi. They 
 moreover totally changed the military situation of the Brit- 
 ish in the East Indies. Instead of southern India, the 
 northern, the countries on the Upper Ganges, became the 
 principal seat of their power. They were again neighbours 
 of the Seiks and other warlike nations, with which the main- 
 tenance of their dominion kept them in a state of constant 
 dispute. 
 
 18, With the great enlargement of territory, especially of 
 the presidencies of Madras and 13ombay, by Tippoo's tall, 
 the territorial incomes were necessarily augmented. But 
 hardly more than to meet the expenditures ; and an inten- 
 tional darkness was apparently thrown over the whole af- 
 fairs of the comj)any. Much depended of course on the 
 character of the governor-general in India ; what a ditler- 
 ence was there between the spirit of the administration 
 under the simple Cornwallis and the sumptuous M^ellesley ! 
 With the extension of territory the power of these viceroys 
 
PART I.] HOLLAND. 361 
 
 became greater of itself; but circumstances sometimes re- 
 quired it to be expressly increased. 
 
 After Hastings, 177-1 — 1785, the British governor-generals in India 
 were: first, Lord Cornwallis, till 1794 ; then Sir J. Shore, and he hav- 
 ing been recalled, in 1796, in consequence of some disturbances among 
 the soldiery, Cornwallis was again appointed, but resigned his office, in 
 1797, without going to India, the disturbances having been allayed; he 
 was followed by the Marquis Wellesley, (Lord Mornington,) who 
 was recalled in 1804 ; when Lord Cornwalhs, appointed a third time, 
 actually went out, but died soon after his arrival, 1805. He was suc- 
 ceeded by Lord xilinto, who was followed, in 1813, by the Earl of Moira 
 (jiarquis Hastings). 
 
 Tlie East India annual Register and Directory. This British-Indian 
 state Calendar, appearing annually in London, aifords the best informa- 
 tion respecting the interior organization of the government. 
 
 19. The Bristish East India commerce was naturally en- 
 larged by the conquests from the Dutch, (p. 344,) as the 
 whole of the spice trade came into the hands of the British. 
 Though the monopoly of the company continued, it was 
 circumscribed by the regulation, that private per- 
 sons might trade to India on paying a fixed tax, pro- 
 vided it were in the vessels of the company. An oppressive 
 monopoly of the company was in reality incompatible with 
 the well-known regulations of the traffic in its stock, and its 
 periodical sales by auction. 
 
 20. The Dutch East India company, havino- 
 
 . . . Holland 
 
 been for a long time approaching its dissolution, 
 resembled, after the revolution of the mother country, an 
 expiring; taper. Its downfal was produced, not 
 
 . . . Sept. 5 1795. 
 
 by the loss of its possessions, but by its own want 
 of actual internal vitality. The territorial receipts of most 
 of the possessions had long been inadequate to defray the 
 expenses of the administration ; and the smuggling, carried 
 on by its own oflicers, who were paid with illiberal parsi- 
 mony, robbed it in a great degree of the advantages of com- 
 merce. Its possessions, of which Ceylon only was ceded by 
 the peace of Amiens, became the property of the 
 nation ; and its debts were attached to the mass of 
 the national debt. In Europe the administration was com- 
 mitted to a board of control ; in India, it seems to have re- 
 mained unaltered. As for the commerce, the monopoly of 
 
3()2 COLONIAL AFFAIRS, 17&C— 180L [iniuon iii. 
 
 it to the wostcni i)art of Iiuliii was revoked, and 
 
 >rAr. 1. IWO. ,.., , ■ , /1Tl;ll 
 
 Imiitcd to the eastern part alone (the Moluccas 
 and tlie spice trade). 
 
 Tlic spcely full of the cornjiaiiy followed its slow declino after the 
 war with Kiijzland, 17S0. The dehts, which amounted in ITfSl to no 
 more than twelve millions of guilders, had increased in 1792 to one 
 liundrcd antl seven millions ; at this time the receipts were more than 
 seventy millions less, and the expenditures thirty millions more than in 
 the twelve jwecedin^r years. 
 
 Sfddt drr (iincrdle y^fdcrhtndsrJirti Oosfi/nfisr/ir/i Coinpar/nic hcltil- 
 zciule /i(ipporf( n, ran dc Ilccrcn Jfaar Kd. Gront Mnr/ctidc (hcom- 
 miflccrdcn en Jii/lnf/cn, in date 14 ./////, 1791. Amsterdam, 1792, 2 vols. 
 8vo. This book contains a threefold report of the commissaries to the 
 states-general, respecting the finances of the company, with all the ne- 
 cessary documents. — Afterwards appeared, 
 
 Jiericlit ritlifiidr dc Vcrnirtir/inf/ van hct trrfenicnnrdirj Bcivind dcr 
 Onsl-Indisrlie Conipnc/nic ; in, Nicuwe Nrderlansclie Jactrliocken, Oct., 
 179."5, p. G3S1 seq. The principal document for the history of the last 
 period of the company, 1772 — 1792, with references and proofs. — Tlie 
 internal decay, which had already begun at an earlier period, is here 
 confessed. 
 
 Bcricht ran den ter/cnicnnrdir/oi (oesfand der hatanfsrhc Bezittingen 
 in Oosf-Indicn, van den Handel op dczcJve, door DmCK VAX IIoOfiK.v- 
 DORP. Delft, 1799, 8vo. TIk; most lively (whether the most faithlul ?) 
 sketch of the miserable condition of the company's atlairs in the East 
 Indies themselves. The author Avas arrested in Java, but escaped to 
 Holland. He has not been contradicted. 
 
 Bcknoptc Beschryving dcr Oost-Indischen Etrihlissementen, verzcid 
 van eenige B'/hgen, door Aby Huvskrs, Oud Koopmann, etc. Utreclit, 
 1789, 8vo. Useful for obtaining a knowledge of the organization of the 
 company in India, especially from the Appendix, No. 3, which includes 
 the regulation of the governor-general, James Mossel, 17o3, respecting 
 the rank and pay of the officers of the company in the East Indies. 
 
 21. The French East Indies wore soon limited, 
 after tlie bej^inninpi; of the war of the revolution, to 
 the isles of France antl Bourbon. Protected by their situa- 
 tion, and faithful to the mother country, these islands main- 
 tained tliemselves not only ap:ainst foreio'u attacks, but also, 
 what was much more dillicult, against the internal storms 
 of the revolution. They were always a thorn in the side 
 of Enf!;land, on account both of the privateorinp; they carried 
 on, and of the connexion they sustained with single Indian 
 princes. 
 
 22. The settlements of the British in Australia (p. 295) 
 were already so thriving, that they supported themselves, 
 
TART I.] COLONIAL AFFAIRS, 1786—1804. S63 
 
 and promised a rich reward to the mother country, particu- 
 larly from their flocks. Two colonies had been already 
 settled on Norfolk Island and Van Dieman's Land. Tiie 
 navigation of the British continued to embrace the great 
 Pacific. Missions were established to Otaheite ; the Sand- 
 wich Islands began to adopt European culture, and 
 parts, hitherto unknown, of North America, around 
 Nootka Sound, acquired such an importance from the trade 
 in peltry, that they almost caused a war between Great 
 Britain and Spain. 
 
THIRD PERIOD. 
 
 FIRST DIVISION OF THE FERIOD. 
 
 From 1780 to 1797. 
 
 PART THE SECOND. 
 HISTORY OF THE NORTHERN EUROPEAN STATES-SYSTEM. 
 
 1. The internal relations of tlie north in tliis period, grew 
 cliiefly out of tlie alliance of Russia with Austria, and the 
 dissolution of its connexion with Prussia. Hence proceeded 
 the Russian-Austrian war against tlie Turks, and in conse- 
 quence, the war witli Sweden, as well as the whole series of 
 tlie destinies of Poland, and the final destruction of that 
 state. The league, occasioned by the Dutch disturbances, 
 Ijetween Prussia and England, gave the latter power a 
 greater influence over the north than it had hitherto exer- 
 cised ; and towards the close of this period, the north was 
 inlluenced by the new scenes in France, which modified, in 
 a greater or less degree, the spirit of all the Eurojx'an 
 cabinets. 
 
 2. The circumstance of Russia being thus at variance 
 witli I'lngiaiid and Prussia, may pcrhajis have contributed, 
 as much as foreign policy, to the breaking out of the war 
 with Turkey : Potcmkin was nevertheless its princijxil au- 
 thor, as lie was its soul, in the caj)acity of commander-in- 
 chief But the war acquired the aspect of a 
 
 Auk. 1G, 17h7. ] ,. • • *1 I) i xl £ i. X 
 
 detensive war, since tlie rorte was the hrst to 
 
 declare it. With so much the greater certainty could the 
 
 participation of Joseph be reckoned upon ; not- 
 
 withstandinsx tlic Turks avoided, with the utmost 
 
 care, giving the least oll'ence. Thus arose a conflict of four 
 
PART 11.] NORTHERN STATES, 1786—1797. 365 
 
 years, by which Russia saw only a small proportion of its 
 wishes accomplished, and Joseph, fearfully deluded in his 
 hopes, prepared his own grave, before witnessing the issue. 
 
 The theatres of the war were : partly the Crimea and Bessarabia for 
 the Russians alone ; and partly the countries on the Danube, from 
 Bosnia to Moldavia, for the Austrians and Russians. In 1787, the 
 Turks made some fruitless attacks by sea upon Kinburn, Sept. and Oct., 
 for the purpose of reconquering the Crimea. The Russians, hitherto 
 accustomed, like the Romans, to appear with moderate armies, this time 
 came forward in greater force ; the principal army under Potemkin ; a 
 second on the frontiers of [Moldavia under RomanzofF. The Turks, 
 avoiding decisive battles, defended their fortresses. In the year 1788, 
 naval battles, unfavourable to the Turks, were fought at the mouths of 
 the Dnieper, June 28, and July 12 ; and soon after OczakofF was be- 
 sieged by Potemkin, July — December. It was taken by assault, -with 
 terrible carnage, Dec. 17. The Austrian war was begun by the main 
 army luider Joseph himself and Lascy, jSIarch. A singular system of 
 defensive war by means of a frontier cordon was adopted ; it was pene- 
 trated by the Turks in the Bannat, in August. The night at Lugosch, 
 Sept. 20, cost Joseph his reputation as a general, and his health. He 
 soon abandoned the army in discontent ; Laudon with Haddik obtaining 
 the chief command. — The body under the Prince of Cobourg joined the 
 Russians in ]Moldavia, and Choczim was reduced, Sept. 19. — In the 
 follo^ving campaign, 1789, the Austrians were more successful under 
 Laudon, conquered Belgrade, Oct. 8, and invested Orsowa. In Islol- 
 davia under Cobourg and Suwarrow they won a battle at Fockschani, 
 July 31, and at Martinestie on the Rimnik, Sept. 22. The Russians 
 were constantly laying sieges. Gallacia was conquered. May 1 ; Aeker- 
 mann, Oct. 13; Bender, Nov. 15. No less achievements were effected 
 in the campaign of 1790, when Austria had ^xnthdi-awn, after the death 
 of Joseph. Killanova was conquered, Oct. 15; and the terrible storm- 
 ing of Ismail, by Suwarrow, took place Dec. 22. 
 
 GescJtichte des Oestreichisch-Russischen und Turkischen Krieges in 
 den Jahren von 1787 — 1792, nebst Aktexstucken und Urkuxden. 
 Leipzig, 1792. Compiled from the Political Journal. 
 
 Considerations sur la guerre actuelle des Turcs, par ]\I. de Volxey. 
 a Londi'es, 1788. — Respecting the impending partition of the Turkish 
 empire, and the interest of France in it, especially with respect to 
 Egypt. 
 
 Examen du livre intitxdc Considerations, etc., par j\I. be Petssoxel. 
 Amsterdam, 1788. — Very profound as a critical performance, but dry 
 and uninteresting. 
 
 3. But the distresses of the Porte had roused the activity 
 of other powers, England, and particularly Prussia. A\"ithout 
 themselves engaging in the contest, they attempted to effect 
 diversions in Poland and Sweden. Gustavus III. believed 
 the favourable moment had arrived for extricating himself 
 from the burdensome pjeponderance of a neighbour, by a 
 
SGG NOUTllKUN STATKS, 178G— 1797. [rtitioi. ill. 
 
 hold stroke. He therefore (luarrillcd with Russia; and 
 liavinii" to contend witli domestic as well as foreign an- 
 ta«;onists, he soon had ample opportunity of showinj:; what 
 an extraordinary man is able to perform, even wiien left to 
 himself alone. His conflict was not without |i:lory, and 
 ended \Mthout loss. 
 
 The kiii;j invaded Russian Finland, Juno 23, 17S8; anil Russia de- 
 clared war, -July 11. The war, both on land and sea, was rendered 
 more extensive by the partieipation of Denmark in lavour of Russia, 
 conformably to the existing alliance, (p. 316.) Sept. Norway wius in- 
 vaded and Clottenburg menaced; but on the ajjplication of Britain, 
 Oct. 9, an armistice was agreed u])on, and suli-e(|uently a retreat. — Aii 
 indecisive naval battle occurred at Ilochlaiid, tluiy 7. — But the Swedish 
 army mutinied, becausr- an aggressive war was contrary to the constitu- 
 tion, and of itself concluded a truce with Russia. The states were con- 
 vened ; and by the Act of Union and Safety, Ajiril 3, 1789, the royal 
 power was augmented and invested with the right of war and peace, 
 not without the vehement resistance of the nobility. The war was re- 
 newed ; in Finland, however, none but frequent battles near the ports 
 occurred. On sea, the contest was bloody, of the main fleet as well as 
 of the squadrons. A victory was obtained by a Russian squadron, 
 Aug. 24. So also in the following year, 1790. The attack on the fleet 
 at Neval, was repelled. May 14 ; but the king gained a victory with 
 his squadrons, May 15. After the naval battle of June 3, the Swetlish 
 fleet retreated and was blockaded in AViburg Sound, and suflered great 
 loss in the battle of July 3. But the king was again victorious with 
 the squadron in Svensca Sound, July 9. Negotiations were then en- 
 tered upon ; and peace was concluded, without I'oreign mediation, at 
 "Werela, Aug. 14. Conditions: a. Restoration of the s/atus quo be- 
 fore the war. b. Russia acknowledged the existing Swedish consti- 
 tution. 
 
 Plenipotentiaries : from Russia, Baron Igelstriim : from Sweden, Baron 
 Armfchh. 
 
 Ml /noire sitr la Campngnc de 17SS en Siirdr, jiar lo PuiNCE Charles 
 i)E Hesse, k Copenhague, 1789. For the history of the Danish cam- 
 paign. 
 
 4. Much greater dilhculties obstructed the terminal it)n of 
 tJjc Turki>li war, because strangers mingled in it. England, 
 and partieulai-ly Prussia, desired to jirescribc the terms ; a 
 
 Prussian alliance was concluded with the Porte ; 
 
 and a l*russian army was ass(,'mbled in Silesia. 
 Fcb.20. The death of Joseph H., and the situation of the 
 
 monarchy at the accession of Leopold, strength- 
 ened the hopes of ))acirication. Belgium was in open re- 
 bellion, (p. 32J),) Hungary discontented and turbulent, the 
 whole state exhausted and destitute of internal support. 
 
PART II.] NORTHERN STATES, 1786—1797. 367 
 
 The congress at Reichenbach was nevertheless opened 
 under very uncertain prospects. 
 
 The congress was holden at Reichenbach, June, 1790. The project 
 of Hertzberg was to restore Galicia to Poh\nd in consideration of an in- 
 demnification in Servia and Walachia, according to the boundaries of 
 Passarowitz (see p. 189); and to Prussia, Dantzic and Tiiorn ; this 
 was rejected by Austria. The project was abandoned on Hertzberg's 
 fall, and a strict status quo insisted on. The convention at Reichen- 
 bach, June 27, was to be the basis of future peace between Austria and 
 the Porte ; Austria agreed to the status quo; and Prussia and the 
 maritime powers promised their aid in the Netherhinds. 
 
 Plenipotentiaries : from Austria, Prince Reuss and Baron von Spiel- 
 mann ; from Prussia, Count Hertzberg ; from England, Jos. Ewart ; 
 from the republic. Van Reede. 
 
 Herzberg, Recueil, etc. T. iii. p. 77 seq. 
 
 5. The immediate consequence of this procedure 
 was a truce between Austria and the rorte ; but 
 
 the conclusion of the definitive peace at Szistove was de- 
 layed, on account of several intermediate events and some 
 modifications, till the middle of the following year. 
 
 Peace was concluded between Austria and the Porte, Aug. 4, 1791. 
 Conditions : a. Restoration of the status quo before the war ; but old 
 Orsova remained with Austria, though without fortifications, b. The 
 fortress of Choczim vras to be occupied by Austria, till the peace with 
 Russia, c. The boundaries were more accurately fixed ; and after- 
 wards ratified by the convention of Nov. 28, 1795. 
 
 Plenipotentiaries : the Baron v. Herbert ; and the reis Efiendi. 
 
 6, The negotiation with Russia was attended with much 
 greater difficulties. Catharine, already reconciled with 
 Svveden, was not pleased with the high tone in which Prus- 
 sia, and still more England, were desirous of prescribing to 
 her similar conditions of the status quo. In vain did Pitt, 
 amid the murmurs of the nation, equip a fleet ; Catharine 
 declared her resolution to conclude her peace alone, and she 
 did conclude it alone. 
 
 Preliminaries were sign'^d betAveen Russia and Austria, Aug. 11, 
 1791 ; they Avere changed into a definitive peace at Jassy, Jan. 9, 1792. 
 Conditions : a. Russia obtained Oczakotf with the strip of land between 
 the Dnieper and the Niester, which last constituted the boundary, t). 
 In other respects, all conquests being restored, the boundaries were the 
 same as before the war. — Potemkin, the author of the Avar, did not live 
 to see the pacification. He died, Avhile travelling, under a tree, not far 
 from Jassy, Oct. 15, 1791. 
 
 The plenipotentiaries at Jassy were : the Count Besborodko, and the 
 grand vizier Jussuf Pncha. 
 
308 NOHTHEHN STATES, 1780—1797. [peiuou m. 
 
 7. After four years of contest, and witli streams of blood, 
 it was liardly found possible to break down even the out- 
 works of a stat(>, which it iiad been attempted to overthrow ; 
 (so much can national feeling and courage do against tac- 
 tics !) and even these had to be restored with a few slight 
 exceptions. But even without further conquests, the war 
 was no less replete with consequences. 
 
 8. The first and most important one was the establish- 
 ment of the; dominion of Russia on the Black Sea. It con- 
 tinued to hold the Crimea and the contiguous countries, 
 then indeed deserts, but deserts where Cherson and Odessa 
 were soon afterwards to bloom. Catharine planted here, 
 not for herself, but for future generations. M'hat may be- 
 come of these; places is manifest by a glance at tlu; neigh 
 bouring sea with its coasts and islands; what will become 
 of them, future histoiy must narrate. 
 
 But these advantaj^es were purchased with tlie embarrassment of tlie 
 Ivussian money affairs, an embarrassment not yet remedied. Since the 
 beginning of tliis Turkish war, the paper money, issued by Catliarinc 
 in 17G8, fell below its nominal value ; and the issues being repeated, it 
 continued to depreciate, till it fell to about a fourth of its value. 
 
 l^elur Iiussldtids ]\ij}ierr/cld loid die JI/(f(l, ddssclhc bci cincm i/jive- 
 riinderUchcn If'crf/ie zu crhalten von L. It. Jakoh. Halle, 1817. 
 Drawn iVom a thorough practical as well as theoretical knowledge of 
 the subject. 
 
 9. A higher advantage for the present was the formation 
 of generals. Russia and Germany found theirs ; Suwarrow 
 and Col)Ourg, rivals without envy, were of much more value 
 than the devastation of Oczakoil' and Choczim. The times 
 were approaching when both should appear on another 
 stage. Wliy had their great career to begin in the evening 
 of their life I 
 
 AjfTHrNG, Vcrsnrh c'lnrr Kricgsgescliichtr d(S Crafoi. AI. Suicar- 
 rcir. 1799, 3 Thle. 
 
 10. For the two neighbouring states, Sweden and Po- 
 l;ni(l, this second Turkish war had opposite results. For 
 Sweden, the gu(M"don ^.A' the war was its restored independ- 
 ence and friendship with Russia. But could the new aug- 
 mentation of the regal power be regarded as fortunate? 
 The very next years proved, that it might be highly dan- 
 gerous for Sweden : and no one atoned for it more severely 
 tlian the ill-fated Gustavus III. ! 
 
PART II.] NORTHERN STATES, 178&— 1797. 369 
 
 The peace at Werela was shortly followed by a defensive alliance 
 with Russia, Oct. 19, 1791, brought about by their similar sentiments 
 towards France. Gustavus III. resolved to join the alliance against 
 France, and place himself at its head. But a great ferment arose among 
 the nobility ; and the king was murdered after the diet at Gefle, March 
 16, 1792. The consequence was the preservation of neutrality under 
 the regency of Duke Charles of Siidermanland (till 1796). 
 
 Reisen i'lber deti Simd. TUbingen, 1803. Valuable for the inform- 
 ation it conveys of this period. 
 
 11. A series of extremely different destinies grew out of 
 the wars, as affecting the condition of Poland. Its fall had 
 meanwhile been preparing. The variance of Russia and 
 Prussia necessarily reacted on this state ; and its situation 
 soon became such, that neutrality was impossible. 
 
 Russia had made a proposal, favoured by Stanislaus, in the diet of 
 the confederacy, for a league, in order to involve Poland in the Turkish 
 war ; on the other hand, Prussia declared to Poland, Oct. 12, 1788, 
 that it would consider this as a step against itself. 
 
 Vom Entstehen und Untergange der Polnische7i Constitutio?i vom 3 
 Mni, 1791. Germanien, 1793, 2 Thl. Comprehending the accom- 
 plishment of the second partition of Poland, Oct. 1793. Written by 
 Polish patriots. Grief, even when best justified, does well to moderate 
 its expression. — The opposite side of the picture is shown in, 
 
 Histoire de la •pretendxie Revolution de PoJogne, avec un examen ds 
 sa nouvelle constitution ; par M. jNIehee. Paris, 1793. The new con- 
 stitution certainly could not please a violent Jacobin. 
 
 12. The anti-Russian party became clamorous, as soon 
 as a defender was seen in Prussia. The abolition of the 
 constitution, guaranteed by Russia, (p. 314,) and the in- 
 troduction of a new one more adapted to the age, were its 
 principal objects. Constantly encouraged in 
 
 f] U T> • •* i. 11- -.1 March 29, 1790. 
 
 them by Prussia, it came to an alliance with 
 this power, in which not only the present possessions of Po- 
 land were guaranteed, but assistance promised, should others 
 attack it on account of its domestic affairs. The Poles 
 were indeed startled, as the acquisition of Dantzic and 
 Thorn already began to be agitated. 
 
 The first differences between Prussia and Poland originated in the 
 discussions respecting the treaty of commerce ; in which the cession of 
 Dantzic was proposed. The aUiance was concluded, the treaty of com- 
 merce remaining unfinished. 
 
 13. Freeing itself of Russian guardianship, and refusing 
 to permit Russian troops to march through the country, 
 Poland now assumed the attitude of a sovereign state. Ig- 
 
 2 B 
 
870 KORTIIKUN STAThS, 178G— 1797. [rEniOD m. 
 
 iKitius Pot(H'ki Jind liis friends inoanwliil*' purMiod in j^ro- 
 
 foiMMl socrocy, and with the aj)|)n)l)ati()n of IVussia, the 
 
 project of the new constitution. The kinp; also was piined, 
 
 as far as lie could be. But still the ancient nre- 
 
 Wuy3,n'Jl. ... Til I ■ 1 • 
 
 |u<lic('s were so ra(nral, tliat the accepting this 
 constitution could only be etlected by a kind of surprise. 
 
 Tlie chief points of the constitution of May 3, were : o. The chanp:e 
 from ail elective to an lierc<litary kinirflom. b. The elector of Sa.vony 
 Avas declared tlu^ isuccessor ; — tlie tlirone was to he hereditary in hia 
 house, c. The kinpr, with tlie council of state, was invested with the 
 executive power, d. The <liet should continue in two chambers ; with 
 the ahro;::ilion of the lihcnim veto. e. All the privileges of the nobility 
 were conlinned, though f. some favours were accorded to the citizens 
 and pea.sants. The.se were, indeed, very .slight ; but could more be 
 granted at once, without irritating the former nation, the nobility ? 
 
 The best critical view of the constitution is to be found in Jekel, 
 Sfa/ifsrrrdndennif/en, etc. (see p. 167). 
 
 14. Rarely has a new constitution ever been accepted 
 with Li'reater enthusiasm. The nation considered it the 
 dawn of their liberty. But to defend was more diffietilt 
 than to project; and in fact this was almost impossible, be- 
 cause the king', who ouoht to have defended it, was too 
 weak even to have the wish. 
 
 15. Catharine appeared intentionally to observe an om- 
 inous silence, so long as her hands were bound by the war 
 with the Turks. And she did not break it without a pre- 
 text. Tiiis had to be aflorded by the union of a small num- 
 ber of discontented persons, Felix Potocki and his assistants, 
 at Targowitz, for maintaining the old constitution. Under 
 
 her protection, they erected a confederacy, (soon 
 
 May 14, \7'.<2. , /, , '', , , \ i •' i 
 
 loudly execrated by themselves,) whicli was 
 called the nation, ^^'hat was not now to be expected, when 
 the peace at Jassy (p. 367) left Catharine free ! 
 
 A Ru.ssian army advanced into Poland, May, 1792. A bold but use- 
 less resistance was made under Poniatowsky, Kosciusko, and others. 
 The king joined the confederacy of Targ(jwitz, July 23 ; a truce was 
 made, and the new constitution entirely overthrown. 
 
 16. Still, however, the hopes of Poland rested on Prus- 
 sia. But many changes had meanwhile taken place in the 
 west. Frederic \\ illiam II. had returned from Champagne, 
 without laurels and witli his treasury almost exhausted; 
 and the war on the Rhine continued. What a prospect, 
 
PART II.] NORTHERN STATES, 1786—1797. S71 
 
 joined to that of a second war with Russia ! That Prussia 
 would abandon them, the Poles might therefore anticipate ; 
 but that their protector, already in secret connexion with 
 Russia, would aid in their ruin — was more than could have 
 been expected ! 
 
 The Prussian troops marched into Poland under the pretence of sup- 
 pressing Jacobinism, and issued a declaration, Jan. 16, 1793, which 
 v/as followed by a second, Feb. 24, respecting the taking of Dantzic, 
 which had been the declared object of Prussian policy since the first 
 partition, but was prudently concealed by Catharine, and by the pro- 
 secution of Avhich object Frederic had detracted from his reputation 
 in 1783. But the declaration in common, of April 16, dispelled all 
 uncertainty. 
 
 17. Poland was again divided, between Russia and Prus- 
 sia, and lost all but a third of its former territory. The 
 partition itself was bad enough, but the manner in which 
 the consent of the nation was extorted at the diet of Grod- 
 no was still worse. Such scenes had never before been 
 witnessed in Europe. 
 
 The cession, of what had been seized, to Russia, was extorted Aug. 
 17, 1793 ; to Prussia, Sept. 3, in consideration of a renunciation of all 
 further claims, and of a guarantee of what was left behind. 
 
 18. That the rest of Poland was to be under the sway of 
 Russia was tacitly understood. A closer union with the 
 latter country left it hardly the shadow of independence ; 
 and what other but a military dominion could now have ex- 
 isted ? Even the capital was occupied by Russian troops, 
 and the commander-in-chief was likewise the ambassador. 
 
 A treaty of union was made with Russia, Oct. 16. Chief points: a. 
 Russia reserved the direction of future Avars, b. Its consent was to be 
 no less necessary in all future compacts with foreign states, c. Its 
 troops should be allowed to march into Poland, on the shortest notice. — 
 For the present, the heaviest measure was the appointment of the general 
 Igelstrom as ambassador. 
 
 19. Under these circumstances hardly a semblance of 
 hope seemed to remain ; yet the nation was not entirely 
 given up by the patriots, who had fled to foreign countries, 
 and were acquainted with the state of public feeling in Po- 
 land. They found in Kosciusko the man, competent as a 
 general to be the head of a revolution. Prepar- ^^^ 
 ed by him, it broke out in Cracow, and soon atter- 
 
 2 B 2 
 
372 NOUTIIKUN STATKS, 17SG-1797. [rEninn iii. 
 
 uanls in tlie capital also ; and tlio only nieasuro likely to 
 insure success \vas adopted, ot" |)la{'inn' the leader, as supreme 
 ma«^istrate, at the head of the nation. 
 
 The revolution broke out on ocra.-sion of tlie redurtion of the Polish 
 troops in Cracow under Mailalinsky, March 24. Tlie i)ea.sants were 
 anne<l, and the measures adopted wi^re marked with boldness. It broke 
 out in Warsaw, April 17. The Kussians sufl'ered a bloody defeat. A 
 government was erected ; (the king retaining bis title ;) and the national 
 insurrection quickly spread. 
 
 I'crsuch cincr Gescliichte dcr Ictzen Pohiisc/ien Insurrection i-on Jahr 
 1794. 179(), 2 Th. In a certain degree, a continuation of the work ; 
 }'om Entstelicv, etc., (see p. 69,) but in a more moderate tone, and by 
 anothor author. 
 
 Mi moires sur la Revolution de ht Pologne, trouvies a Berlin. Paris, 
 18(K). Containing, after a sketch of Polish history, the despatches to 
 the empress from General Pistor respecting the occurrences in "Warsaw. 
 
 20. Though in contest with two most powerful enemies, 
 the hopes of the Poles were not a little animated by Frederic 
 A\'iniam*s fruitless expedition against A\ arsaw. But their 
 preservation was connected with one man ; his fate decided 
 theirs. In a short time nothing- but the capital remained ; 
 and Poland ceased to be reckoned amono- the nations. 
 
 o 
 
 The siege of TVarsaw was raised l)y Frederic William, an insurrec- 
 tion having arisen in his rear, Sept., 1794. But Kosciusko was defeated 
 and made prisoner by the Russians under Fersen, Oct. 10. Suwarrow 
 pressed forward and took Praga by assault, witli a terrible massacre of 
 the inhabitants, Nov. 4. 
 
 21. Poland was dismembered a third time and com- 
 pletely, with the co-operation of Austria, after a mere con- 
 vention of the three courts, as the consent of Poland was no 
 long-er necessary. The anniliilation of this state was fol- 
 lowed by the subjection of Courland, its former fief, (see p. 
 220,) to Russia. 
 
 The two imperial courts first issued declarations, with a pnliminary 
 definition of the boundaries. Jan. 3, 179.5 ; and then, alK-r a conven- 
 tion, a threefold mutual comjKict was concludeil, Oct. 24, according to 
 the boundaries as they then were. — The voluntary and unconditional 
 act of subjugation of Courland was ])romulgated March 18, 1795. 
 
 Fkku.wk, Ilisloirc Hes trois drnu nibrcDicns de la Pologne, pour faire 
 suite a F/iisfoire de Fannrrhie de ht Polngne, par RlfULlERES. Paris, 
 1820, 3 vols. An exact detail of the previous negotiations. 
 
 22. Catharine thus lived to see tlic conclusion of the 
 grand tragedy, which, in fact, she alone terminated, as she 
 
PAUT 11.] NORTHERN STATES, 17S6— 1797. 373 
 
 alone had begun it thirty years before. She luicl divided 
 the soil with others, but not the dominion ; and what she 
 had granted, would perhaps have only been lent, had she 
 not been surprised by death. No one of her 
 predecessors had exercised influence like hers 
 on Europe ; but history has shown, that this influence had 
 its bounds, and what they were. Things were entirely 
 changed, when her only son Paul I. ascended the throne, 
 too late for himself, with contrary maxims. 
 
'JI1I1{1) PJ'UIOD. 
 
 SECOND DIVISION OF THE PERIOD. 
 
 From t/ic peace at Campo Furmio, to the cstahlhhmcnt of the 
 French imperial throne. 1797 to 1804. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE EUROPEAN STATES-SYSTEM. 
 
 ScnUTZ, llamlhnch dcr Geschichte N^apoleons mid sritics Zcitdlters. 
 Leipzi^r, 1810. A couijilete chronological enumeration of the events 
 from 17(39 to IS 10. 
 
 Geschichte Xdpoleon Buonaparte's, von Friedr. Saalfeld. Leipzig, 
 1817, 2 Theile. A copious narrative. 
 
 1. At the bcp;inninp^ of this period, the situation oftho lead- 
 ing powers ol" Europe, thougli they all stood erect, had essen- 
 tially changed. France, already geographically aggrandized 
 by the possession of Belgium, Savoy, Nice, and Avignon, 
 and most closely allied with Spain, held Italy and Holland 
 occupied, and could confidently reckon upon the cession of 
 the left bank of the Rhine, and the consecjuent dependence 
 of the German empire. ^^ hat more did it need for assum- 
 ing the entire sway of the continent ? Austria was cm- 
 ployed in healing its wounds. In the east was Russia, with 
 unweakened vigour, not only aggrandized by the last Polish 
 partitions, but brought geographically nearer to the west, 
 and, since the accession of the new ruler, adopting a line 
 of policy substantially changed by a participation in the 
 war of the nnolution. Tiiis participation once begun, how 
 couUl it have ceased, even in case of a change of party ? 
 From this time, therefore, the former separation of the 
 northern and southern states disappears, and, by the closer 
 union of them both, Euroj)e now constitutes but one politi- 
 cal system. 
 
 2. Between them stood Prussia, rapidly drained by an 
 
PERIOD III.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1797— 1S04. 3T5 
 
 extravagant administration ; now become tlie immediate 
 neighbour of Russia, and soon afterwards of France, with 
 frontiers open to both ; and, though possessed of a great 
 commercial navigation, yet from the want of a navy exposed 
 to every attack on sea. Whether to attach itself to Russia 
 or France was the grand question at home. The idea seems 
 to have been buried with Frederic that there was yet a third, 
 perhaps the only course left for Prussia, to stand or fall with 
 the former political system of Europe : — for what place 
 would there be for this intermediate state, in a new order of 
 things ? 
 
 King Frederic William II. died before the meeting of the congress at 
 liastadt, Xov. 16, 1797. A reform was soon introduced into the court 
 and ministry under Frederic William III. ; there was no material 
 change, however, in the organization of the state, or in foreign relations. 
 
 Historische Denkicurdigkeiten zur Geschichte des Verfalls des Preiis- 
 sischen Sfnats seit dem Jcihre 1794, von dem Obristen i-on Massenhach. 
 1809, 2 Th. Even the wisest heads believed aggrandizement to be the 
 only remedy for the state. 
 
 3. Even after the peace, it was soon felt that things were 
 still in an uncertain state. The naval war continued, and 
 who could doubt that Pitt would do every thing to rekindle 
 the war on land ? The conclusion also of the peace of the 
 empire at Rastadt, could not be unattended with difficulties ; 
 and even if neither had been the case, the continued repub- 
 licanizing plans of the directory gave support to that conflict 
 of political maxims, which admitted of no permanent paci- 
 fication. 
 
 4. The congress met at Rastadt, under the most melan- 
 choly auspices for the empire. It was only to be supported 
 by a close union of Austria and Prussia ; but old maxims, 
 new projects, and new prospects already opened, (p. 341, 
 sqq.,) formed too strong a wall of partition ; and the surren- 
 der of Mayence and the capture of Ehrenbreitstein, during 
 the negotiations, showed beforehand the future situation of 
 Germany. The demands of France were doubled : 1st, 
 The cession of the whole left bank of the Rhine, which se- 
 cured its military influence. 2nd, The adoption of the 
 maxim of indemnifying the injured princes by seculariza- 
 tions, which secured its political influence. 
 
 The congress at Rastadt lasted from Dec. 9, 1797-8, to April, 1799. 
 After the principal demands of France had been granted, March 11, 
 
376 PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1797—1804. [peiiiod in. 
 
 1798, on tlic side of the empire, a speedier termination might have been 
 cxpeftfd, had it not het-'U shown that tlii-s did not dejjend on tlie con- 
 gress itself, but on tlie .situation of Europe, which became every day 
 more complicated. 
 
 The deputies were : from France, Bonnier, Jean de Br}', and Bo- 
 berjot (the last after Triclhard's departure) ; from the emperor. Count 
 Metternich, Count L. Cobenzl, and von Lehrbach ; from Prussia, Count 
 Goertz, von Jacobi, von Dohm ; from the electorate of Mayence, Baron 
 von Albini, etc. 
 
 Geheime Geschichte der Rastadter Fricdfnsunterhandhingen in Ver- 
 hindii>i(/cn mit den Staafsfia?id(bi dciscr Zeit. Von einem Schweizer. 
 Kihst den wichtigsten Urhinuloi. Germanien, 1799, 6 Th, 8vo. Only 
 the first part of this comprehensive work contains, in a cond<Mised 
 sketch, the history from the bciiinninp: of the wars of the revolution to 
 the breaking out of the war, 1799; tlie remaining five contain the col- 
 lection of documents. 
 
 5. During these negotiations several of the countries, and 
 especially Italy, continued in a revolutionary stat<'. Since 
 the erection of the Cisalpine and Ligurian republics tiie 
 democratic party had become more widely spread, and had 
 caused, in Rome itself, the subversion of tlie existing go- 
 vernment, and a Roman republic. But no where would 
 the tree of liberty take less root than there. 
 
 Rome was occupied by French troops on occasion of a popular insur- 
 rection, Feb. 10, 1798. The Roman republic was proclaimed, Feb. 15. 
 Pius the Sixth, now eighty years old, (who died in exile, Aug. 29, 
 1799,) was harshly treated and carried away, together with several car- 
 dinals, Feb. 20. 
 
 A brief account of the subversio?i of the Papal government, 1798, by 
 R. DuiTA. London, 1799. 
 
 6. If this treatment of the head of the church at the order 
 of the directory was a proof of its contempt of public 
 opinion, a much more striking one was seen in tlie violent 
 revolution of Switzerland. For almost three hundred years 
 this republic in the midst of Europe had not only succeeded 
 in avoiding all particii:)ation in those great disputes, with 
 which the world had been entangled, but the conventional 
 international law had also accorded to it, in a certain mea- 
 sure, an inviolability which bordered on sanctity. How 
 could an age that spared nothing have spared this sanctity, 
 in wliich there was freedom indeed, but no equality? Be- 
 sides the financial gain that it was hoped would accrue from 
 the spoils, the military importance of the country, from its 
 situation and character, was in all probability a no less power- 
 
PERIOD III.] rUBLlC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1797— 1S04. 377 
 
 ful motive. Notwithstanding the resistance offered, a few 
 weeks were sufficient to overthrow the structure of centu- 
 ries, and to transform the league of the confederates into 
 one Helvetian republic. 
 
 Switzerland preserved its neutrality notwithstanding the disputes re- 
 specting the emigrants, till the revolution of Fructidor 18 (p. 349) de- 
 termined its fate, by the expulsion of Barthelemy and Carnot. Switzer- 
 land became agitated, and the revolution began in Pays de Vaud, Dec, 
 1797. The evils of the federal constitution were soon disclosed; there 
 ■was a want of unity, and the burden at last fell almost exclusively on 
 Berne. Here also there was no want of deliberation and energy ; but 
 the majority adopted partial measures, and with Kosciusko's courage, 
 the bold d'Erlach was never possessed of Kosciusko's means. The 
 French advanced on two sides, and obstinate battles ensued ; Berne 
 was overpowered, INIarch 2 — 5, 1798 ; and the other cantons were con- 
 quered, with the exception of the three smaller. These made an obsti- 
 nate resistance and an honourable capitulation, May 1 — 4. The Hel- 
 vetian republic was proclaimed, April 12. Then followed five unhappy 
 years of war and faction, till the French Act of Mediation, Feb. 19, 
 1803, restored to the Swiss their federal (but altered) constitution and 
 tranquillity. — At the time of the taking of Switzerland, the republic of 
 Geneva was destroyed, by its incorporation with France, April 26, 
 1798. 
 
 Essai historiqiie sur la destruction de la ligue ct de la libertc Helvc- 
 tkjue, par j\La.llet du Pax. Londres, 1798. Is there no native of 
 Berne to write this history ? 
 
 Authentic information respecting the destruction of the republic of 
 Geneva may be found in the Polit. Journal, May, 1798. 
 
 7. England stood against the continent ; with doubled 
 power ; with doubled debts ; with doubled resources. The 
 fearful secret began to be avowed, that it could exist as it 
 was only in war ; and experience soon showed, that a peace 
 would be nothing but an armistice. Pitt's long and disin- 
 terested administration concentrated the power in the hands 
 of a few families, and in the bosom of the free constitution 
 an oligarchy was formed, which, subsequently pushing to a 
 scandalous excess the altercations respecting the offices of 
 state, w^as nevertheless long unable to produce a single lead- 
 ing mind. But the maxims of the anti-revolutionary policy 
 had been firmly established by Pitt ; and the government 
 had soon to recur to them, even when it seemed, for a short 
 space, to have abandoned them. 
 
 8. But the continued war with Eno-land about this time 
 matured an enterprise, which, executed by the hero of the 
 day, for whom there was now no suitable theatre in Europe, 
 
o78 rrm.ic contests in r.ruori:, 17'.»7— iboi. [rruion m. 
 
 attracted by its novelty tlie interest of tlic world. 'I'lie con- 
 (juest and colonization of Eir>'pt was at the same tini*.' to 
 aHord a compensation for the West Indies, and j^ive another 
 direction to the colonial system of l:lurope. Prepared under 
 the mask of an expedition ao;ainst England, the execution 
 was yet more wonderful than the preparation. The con- 
 quest of Malta, combined with it, has been followed by al- 
 most greater consequences to Europe than the conquest of 
 Egypt itself. 
 
 Groat preparations and embarkations were made at Toulon (as con- 
 stituting tlie left wing of the ' army of England' in the Ciiannel). The 
 fleet and army under Buonaparte set sail May 18, 1798. Malta capi- 
 tulated and was occupied, June 10 — 12, witliout resistance. Tlie fleet 
 was pursued but not overtaken by the Briti.-h, and finally anchored at 
 [Marabou. The troops landed July I. Alexandria was taken on the 
 2nd, after which Buonaparte pressed forward towards Cairo, and gained 
 the battle of the Pyramids, July 21. Cairo was invented on the 22n(l. 
 Desaix made an expedition against Upper Egypt, and subdued it after 
 the battle at Sediman, Oct. 7. The JSyrian expedition Avas defeated at 
 Acre, Dec. — ^lay, 1799; (it was ascertained too late tiiat Egypt cannot 
 be maintained without the possession of Syria.) The Turks landed and 
 were tlefeated at Aboukir, July 2.3. 
 
 liclation des campagucs du General Buonaparte en Eyypte ct en 
 Sijrie, par Berthier. Paris, 1800. 
 
 9. No undertaking ever created such intense anxietv in 
 
 England. Even the great naval victory at Aboukir, 
 by which Nelson almost annihilated the French 
 fleet, could not allay it. But by this victory it acquired 
 the dominion of the Mediterranean, and the British ministry 
 made it a maxim not to rest till Egypt should be torn from 
 France. 
 
 10. The epoch of the victory at Aboukir gave this battle 
 a greater political importance than naval battles usually 
 
 possess. The first consequences were a declaration 
 
 S«pt. 12. ' , ,, 1 , .^ 
 
 ot war agamst ri-ance l)y the rorte, on account or 
 the invasion of Egypt, accompanied with etlbrts to recon- 
 quer it, aided by England. Thus was dissolved the oldest 
 bond of amity in Europe ! 
 
 11. A still more important consequence was the forma- 
 tion which it promoted, of a second coalition, by means of 
 
 England and Russia. The office, accepted by Paul 
 
 I. after the coiKjucst of Malta, as grand master of 
 
 tlic order, led to further steps, and the world beheld a new 
 
PERIOD III.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1797—1804. S79 
 
 example, how antiquated institutions may recover a mo- 
 mentary importance from the passions of rulers. 
 
 Russia formed alliances with Naples, Nov. 29, 1798 ; with the Porte, 
 Dec. 23 ; with England, Dec. 29 ; and with the remote Portugal, Sept. 
 28, 1799. England formed alliances with Sicily, Dec. 1 ; with the 
 Porte, Jan. 5, 1799. So also did Naples with the Porte, Jan. 21. 
 
 12. The condition of these treaties were, in general, a 
 mutual guarantee of all possessions, (including Egypt, in 
 the case of the Porte,) a common prosecution of the war, 
 according to exact stipulations, and none but a common 
 conclusion of peace : the closing of all harbours, especially 
 in the Mediterranean, to French navigation and commerce ; 
 British subsidies to Russia and others. The duration of the 
 treaties was fixed for eight years. 
 
 13. But it was the accession of the two leading German 
 powers, which could alone open to this mighty combination 
 the way of attack. The course of affairs in Rastadt, and 
 the increa^ng differences with Austria, hardly left room for 
 a doubt, that these might be gained. Prussia, on the other 
 hand, thinking to steer in the general storm between Scylla 
 and Charybdis, persisted, with unshaken purpose, in its 
 neutrality. The warrior state suddenly changed its charac- 
 ter, and became the most peaceful. The most dangerous 
 of all experiments, when the state itself destroys the halo of 
 its power ! 
 
 After the fruitless negotiations at Selz, ]\Iay 30 — July 6, 1798, 
 Austria began to contract closer relations with Russia and England, 
 conceding to Russia the mediation with Prussia respecting future in- 
 demnifications. The advance of a Russian army through the Austrian 
 territories, Dec, gave the clearest proofs ; and caused the French am- 
 bassador to make a declaration, Jan. 2, 1799. 
 
 14. Thus a new combination was formed against the 
 French republic, in extent, at least, greater than the former, 
 but from this very circumstance, proportionably checked in 
 its operations. AVhat obstacles were thrown in its way by 
 the geographical distance of London, Petersburg, and 
 Vienna, obstructing all concert ; what by the neutrality of 
 Prussia, covering at the same time Holland and Belgium ; 
 what still greater obstacles were presented by the clashing 
 interests of England and the continent, and the capricious 
 character of the Russian monarch ! Besides, the premature 
 secession of Naples, which soon proved destructive both to 
 
380 rVRLIC CONTESTS IN EUROrE, 1797—1601 (lunioi. in. 
 
 itself and Siinlinia, did not permit very inijxirtaiit ronse- 
 Cjucnces to be expected from such combinations. 
 
 The war broko out in Na])lt'P, Nov., 1798. The directory declarod 
 war apjainst Naples and Sardinia, Dee. 6, and compelled Charles 
 I'jnnianuel IV. to renounce all his possessions on the continent. Dee. {). 
 The Neapolitan war proceeded unfortunately under Mack. Tiie king 
 lied to Palermo, June 2, 1799. Naples was taken after some obstinate 
 lighting by Championnet, Jan. 23, and erected into a so-called I'ar- 
 thenopiran republic, though not formally recognised as such by the 
 directory. 
 
 15. Those obstacles, however, could not weaken tlie first 
 onset ; and the financial embarrassment and the declining 
 importance of the directorial o;ovcrnmcnt, in France itseh", 
 imj)e(led all its steps. But the choice of leaders was most 
 decisive. If the directory here failed, the Archduke Charles, 
 on the contrary, and the dreaded Suwarrow, at the head of 
 the allies, were the harbingers of victory. The 
 congress of Rastadt was dissolved ; and one cam- 
 paign was enough to give the victorious allies Italy, Switzer- 
 land, and Germany. 
 
 The congress of Rastadt broke up, April 8, 1799, and the French 
 ambassadors were barbarously murdered on their return, April 28. Tiie 
 war was already begun on the Upper Rhine. The archduke won a 
 battle at Ostrach, IMarch 21, and at .Stockach on the 2oth, over Jourdan. 
 He penetrated Switzerland as far as Zurich against !Massena, till, 
 separated from the Russians under Korsakow, (Sept.,) he held the com- 
 mand victoriously on the Upper Rhine. Manheim was taken, Sept. 
 18. — The war began in Italy, and Kray was victorious over Scherer at 
 Verona, March 26 ; at Magnano, April 5. After his arrival, Suwarrow 
 took the conmiand of the Russian-Austrian army, A]iril 16. A victory 
 Avas gained at Cassano, April 27, and !Milan and Turin were taken. 
 Almost all the fortresses, even Mantua itself, fell, July 28. The French 
 under ^lacdonald retreated from Naples, and were defeated by Suwar- 
 row on the Trebia, June 17 — 19. Naples was reconquered by the 
 Calabrians under Cardinal Ruffo, when the most revolting cruelties 
 were perpetrated, and the throne was re-estal)lishcil, supported by 
 Russians, Turks, and Britons, (a singular combination,) as also the 
 papal dominion under Pius VII. Another French army advanced 
 under Joubert ; it was likewise routed by Suwarrow at Novi, Aug. 15. 
 Genoa and Ancona alone remained occuj)ied by French troops. 
 
 J'rccis dcs cvencmcuts niilitaircs, on cssnis historirjiies stir les cam- 
 pnrfncs dr 1799 (i 1814, ai'cc cartes ct plans, par M. le Comte Mat- 
 TiUEU DiMAS ; lieutcnant-gcntral des armees du Roi. Paris, 1817. 
 The six vols, that have hitherto appeared of this valuable work, com- 
 prehend the campaigns of 1799, 1800, and 1801. 
 
 Gescliiclitc (Icr Ji'irkuncfcn mid Folgei} dcs Ocstrcichischen Fcldzuges 
 in dcr Sclnvciz, von C. L. voN IIallek. Zwei Theile, 1801. 
 
PERIOD III.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1797—1804, 381 
 
 3Icmoires pour servir a V histoire des dernieres revolutions de Naples, 
 par B. N. temoin oculaire. Paris, 1803. 
 
 Die Geschichte des Feldziiges 1799 in Deutschland nnd in der 
 ScJiweiz. Wien, 1819, Th. i. ii. (by the Akchduke Charles), The 
 best account of the campaign of 1796 in Germany, has been given by 
 the Gru7idziige der Strategie of the same author. 
 
 16. Were not these days of victory the days for founding 
 peace ? Or was it not the time for a neutral power, hke 
 Prussia, to assert with effect and dignity the restoration of 
 Europe ? But when has it not been more difficult to make 
 a wise use of a victory, than to obtain the victory itself? 
 The precious moments were gone, and before the year was 
 expii-ed, the coalition had fallen asunder, by the secession 
 of Russia. 
 
 A misunderstanding had arisen between Austria and Eussia in Italy 
 respecting Ancona and Piedmont, Russia having taken Sardinia under 
 its protection. The Russians withdrew under Suwarrow to Switzer- 
 land, to join Korsakow. But Korsakow had been defeated two days 
 before by Slassena, Sept, 25 — 27, and Suwarrow retreated over path- 
 less Alps to Upper Suabia, the last and greatest of his achievements ! 
 He and his army were recalled, Jan. 1800, and met with a cold recep- 
 tion ! England and Russia also were disunited by the unsuccessful 
 combined descent on North Holland under the Duke of York, Aug, — 
 Oct, ; one advantage, however, accrued to England from it, namely, 
 the surrender of the Dutch fleet in the Tesel, Aug, 30. 
 
 17. While the allies were thus trifling away the advan- 
 tages of their success, a much more important change was 
 proceeding in France. The ship, which was freighted with 
 the immediate destinies of France and Europe, had 
 
 . Oct. 9. 
 
 landed at Frejus. A few weeks were sufficient to 
 establish a new order of things by the overthrow of the long- 
 undermined directorial constitution — the directory abdi- 
 cated ; the deputies of the people were driven asunder with 
 clubs ; — and one campaign was enough to reconquer the 
 lost fruits of victory, and peace at the same time. 
 
 General Buonaparte returned from Egypt, Oct, 9, 1799, Prepar- 
 ations were made for an internal revolution, executed after the removal 
 of the chambers of St, Cloud, principally through the instrumentality 
 of the council of the ancients, Nov, 9 (Brumaire 18), The consular 
 constitution was introduced, Dec. 15. Buonaparte was appointed re- 
 gent, as first consul. The popular sovereignty was abolished by the 
 abrogation of the municipal governments, and the appointment of pre- 
 fects. The separation of the legislative and executive authority ceased, 
 the government reserving to itself the sole right of originating bills in 
 
882 PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1797—1804. [peiiiod hi. 
 
 tlio legislative body. In appearance it was the outline of a constitution, 
 
 lallKT tliaii ft rnii.'<hc(l drauglit. 
 
 18. After peace liad been vainly proffered to England, 
 (the manner in which it was proHered woiild alone have 
 Ihistrated it,) preparations were made for openinfj; the cam- 
 pai«2;n. How very different was the situation of atlairs now, 
 when Russia, no lonocr co-operatino;, was soon half won ! 
 On the continent, therefore, Austria only had to be van- 
 (juishcd, beinn; feebly supported by Naples and a part of 
 the German empire, but soon more closely united to Eng- 
 land bv a new subsidiary treaty. It even seemed 
 to be the g:eneral wish, to assist the purposes ot 
 France ; for, previous to the commencement of the cam- 
 paign, the Archduke Charles was recalled from the com- 
 mand ! 
 
 A doul)le plan was marked out for the campaign of 1800; in Italy 
 under the first consul ; in Upper Germany under ]\Ioreau, In Italy, 
 Genoa was obstinately defended by Massena, till June 4. ^Meanwhile 
 the reserve army crossed INIont St. Bernard. IMilan was entered, and 
 the Cisalpine republic restored. Buonaparte gained a victory at Ma- 
 rengo, over ^lelas, June 14, and a cai)itulation was made on the loth, 
 by which Lombardy and all the fortresses to INIantua were to be eva- 
 cuated. Thus the fruits of a whole year were lost in one day. — In 
 Germany, Moreau crossed the Rhine into Alsace, April 25, and ad- 
 vanced without intermission, beating Kray in several engagements, to 
 Ulm, May 2 — 10; he then penetrated into Bavaria and the Grisons, 
 June and July. Repeated armistices were made in Germany (after 
 preliminaries had been concluded, July 28, but not ratified in Vienna) 
 in consideration of the evacuation of Ulm and Ingolstadt, July 15 — 
 Nov. 9, and in Italy, after Sept. 29. A great victory was gained at 
 Ilohenlinden, Dec. 3, and Austria was entered as far as Linz ; and at 
 the same time another victory was gained in Italy on the Mincio, under 
 Brune, Dec. 26 ; and the Adige was passed, Jan. 1, 1801, till a truce was 
 concluded at Treviso, Jan. 16. 
 
 10. While the old century departed, thus stained with 
 ])lood, the new ushered in at least a hope of peace. Gladly 
 would humbled Austria have acceded to it : but the dissolu- 
 tion of the connexion with England was the condition. 
 Hardly had Austria consented to this, at the close of the 
 pre\ious century, when negotiations were opened 
 at Luneville, of which a peace, both for the em- 
 ])('ror and empire, was the consequence; followed by an- 
 other peace at Florence with Naples. 
 
PERIOD m.J PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1797—1804. 383 
 
 Negotiations were carried on at Luneville, Jan. 1 — Feb. 9, 1801. 
 The basis of them was, not only the peace at Campo Formio, but also 
 the concessions already made by the emperor at Eastadt ; new ones, 
 however, were added. Chief conditions : a. The cession of Belgium 
 and Frickthal (afterwards granted to Helvetia, Aug., 1802) to France. 
 b. Confirmation of the cessions made in the peace of Campo Formio to 
 Austria in the Venetian territory, c. As also of Breisgau to Modena. 
 d. Resignation of the grand duchy of Tuscany in favour of the house 
 of Parma, in consideration of an indemnity in Germany, e. The em- 
 peror and empire acquiesced in the alienation of the left bank of the 
 Ehine, so that the course of the Ehine constituted the boundary, f. The 
 hereditary princes, who suffered deprivations, were to be remunerated 
 in the empire, g. The Batavian, Helvetian, Cisalpine, and Ligurian 
 republics were acknowledged, and included in the peace. — For the pre- 
 servation of Tuscany, (afterwai-ds changed into the kingdom of Etruria, 
 in favour of Parma,) besides Parma itself, Louisiana was ceded by 
 Spain to France, March 21, from which it was afterwards purchased by 
 the United States of America (p. 353). A truce was made with Naples 
 at Foligno, Feb. 18 ; and peace was concluded at Florence, March 28, 
 1801. Conditions: a. The harbours were to be closed against British 
 and Turkish vessels, b. The relinquishment of its possessions in Tus- 
 cany, Elba, and Piombino. (Stati degli presidi.) c. Otranto remained 
 occupied by French troops. 
 
 The negotiators at LuneviUe were Joseph Buonaparte and Count L. 
 Cobenzl. 
 
 20. If the continent of Europe began to enjoy tranquil- 
 lity by these pacifications, (if a tranquillity, enforced by 
 the sword, can be called such,) the war was still w^aged on 
 the ocean ; the altered policy of Russia soon produced new 
 scenes in the north ; and the indemnities, to be allotted in 
 Germany, opened a wide field for negotiation. 
 
 21. Since the conquest of Egypt, the Mediterranean had 
 been the principal theatre of the naval war, being covered 
 by Russian, Turkish, and English fleets. To establish here 
 its new dominion, was the grand object of British policy ; 
 and the final surrender of Malta, reduced by 
 
 hunger, laid for it a foundation, W'hich can 
 hardly be shaken. From this time, who could hope for a 
 lasting maritime peace ? — The conquest of the French Gre- 
 cian islands by the Russians and Turks exhibited to Europe 
 the strange spectacle of a Grecian republic ; and a republic 
 — founded by Russia and the Porte ! 
 
 Corfu was taken by the Eussian-Turkish fleet, March 1, 1799. The 
 republic of tlie Seven Islands was erected under Turkish protection and 
 Russian guarantee, by tlic convention at Constantinople between Russia 
 and the Porte, March 21, 1800. Its constant occupation during the 
 
384 PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1797— 18U1. [period in. 
 
 war l»v Russian forces, till 1807, p^ave Russia an important influence in 
 the >IcilitorniMcan. — Minorca had been ufldcd to tlic coiuiucsts of the 
 liritisli in that pea, Oct. 1.5, 171)8; and in tlie AVest Indies, the other 
 Dutch colonies were conquered, (p. 344,) Surinam, Aug. 21, 1799, and 
 Curasao, Sept. 13, 1800. 
 
 22. Of no less moment \vas tlie procedure of P;iiil I. in 
 the north. Withch'awing; from his connexion witli Eno;lan(l 
 and Austria, and craftily won over by the flattering policy 
 of the new French ruler, he first drew the northern states 
 nearer to himself; but the increased oppressions, inflicted 
 on neutral flags by the British, soon led him to further pro- 
 jects. Catharine's scheme of an armed neutrality was re- 
 newed ; the eruption of a new maritime war in tlie north 
 was the consecjuence, which would perhaps have been car- 
 ried much further, had not the relations been altered by the 
 death of Paul I. 
 
 A defensive alliance was formed between Russia and Sweden, Oct. 
 29. 1799. Closer relations were contracted with Prussia, 1800; the 
 former ones with Denmark continuing. The project of the armed neu- 
 trality was renewed, on account of the capture of Danish and Swedish 
 ships under convoy, Aug., 1800. To this end, Russia entered upon a 
 connexion with Sweden and Denmark, Dec. 16. to which Prussia ac- 
 ceded, Feb. 12, 1801. The principles of 1780 (p. 285^^ were repeated, 
 with the addition, that convoy protected from search. — An embargo 
 was laid on British ships in Russia, Nov. 8. The banks of the Weser 
 and Elbe were occupied by Prussians and Danes, and in a short time, 
 Hanover by Prussia, !March, 1801. A British squadron was despatched 
 to the Baltic ; the battle of Copenhagen was fought, April 2, when the 
 emperor I'aul had already ceased to live, March 24. Alexander I. 
 adopted ditlerent measures. A convention was made with England, 
 (according to its wishes,) June 17, to which the allies acceded, and the 
 conquests in Europe and the West Indies were evacuated. 
 
 23. The great change in Russia, (rarely has a greater 
 been produced by a change of rulers,) and the mild spirit 
 
 of the new monarch, who, by the restoration of 
 
 the old relations, concluded peace both with 
 
 France and Sjiain, had a perceptible influence on the tone 
 
 of politics. Even England, distressed for want of corn, and 
 
 almost insulated, desired peace, and it was regarded as a 
 
 presage of it, that Pitt, who was fully conscious that he 
 
 could never make peace himself, left of his own 
 
 accord the post he had so long occupied. But 
 
 the fate of Egypt gave the actual decision. In this matter, 
 
 British policy did not waver; and the most unlimited exer- 
 
PEraoD III.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1797— ISt)4. 385 
 
 tions were not, in its opinion, too great for attaining this 
 end. — Were these apprehensions well founded ? 
 
 The fate of Egypt was detei*minecl from the departure of Buonaparte, 
 who devolved the command on Kleber, Aug. 22, 1799. A British- 
 Turkish army advanced from Syria, and conquered El-Arisch, Dec. 29. 
 A convention was made with the grand vizier, Jan. 24, 1800. It was 
 annulled, and the grand vizier was surprised and defeated at Heliopolis, 
 ]\Iarch 20. General Kleber was murdered at Cairo and was followed 
 by Menou, June 14. A British army under Abercrombie was sent out 
 in Dec, and disembarked at Aboukir, ISIarch 8, while another, under 
 Bairel, came from the East Indies by way of the Red Sea, in April. A 
 victory was gained at Ramanie, March 21. Abercrombie died; and 
 his successor. Lord Hutchinson, made a convention at Cairo for the 
 evacuation of Egypt, June 27. This was done, and Alexandria sur- 
 rendered in Sept. Egypt was restored to the Porte. 
 
 Wilson's History of the British Expedition to Egypt. London, 1800. 
 — Respecting the importance of Egypt as a colony, consult, 
 
 Heeren's Treatise : Ucbcr die Colonisation von A^gypten und ihre 
 FoJgen fur das Europdische Staatensystem ueberhaiqit, in Vermischte 
 historische Schriften. Th. ii. 
 
 24. By this issue, the principal obstacle which stood, for 
 the present at least, in the way of the nearer approaches of 
 England and France, was removed. The peace, 
 which Portugal, attacked by Spain at the instiga- 
 tion of France, had to conclude with both, on condition of 
 the cession of Olivenza, and the closing of its harbours to 
 British vessels, was a new inducement. Thus the prelimi- 
 naries, so lono^ discussed in London, were soon 
 
 ~ _ . ' _ _ Oct. 1. 
 
 concluded. The negotiations for the definitive 
 peace, conducted at Amiens, led to the desired end in the 
 ensuing spring. After the peace between France and 
 England, that with the Porte could meet with no difficulty. 
 
 Peace was concluded at Amiens between England on the one side, 
 and France, Spain, and the Batavian republic on the other, March 25, 
 1802. Conditions: a. Restoration to France and its allies of all the 
 conquests made by England, with the exception of the island of Trini- 
 dad, resigned by Spain, and Ceylon, ceded by the Batavian republic. 
 b. The Porte Avas to be preserved in its integrity. It was compre- 
 hended in the peace, and was to be invited to join it. c. France recog- 
 nised the republic of the Seven Islands, d. The island of Malta, with 
 Gozzo and Comino, was to revert to the Order, to be evacuated within 
 two months, to be occupied by Neapolitan ti'oops, and its independence 
 guaranteed by France, England, Russia, Spain, and Prussia. Neither 
 the French nor English tongue was to prevail ; the Maltese tongue was 
 to be cultivated, and the returning knights were to elect a grand master 
 from among themselves. 
 
 2 c 
 
oS^Cy rrHLIC COXTKSTS IN LUKOIT,, 17'.17— IROI. [ieriod hi. 
 
 Tlio j)k'nipntontiario3 at Aniions were; fnun Franco, tTosoph Buona- 
 parte ; iVoni Knpland, Lord Cornwallis ; preliminaries liavin<; alreaily 
 iteen nr;xotiatc(l in London hy Lord Hawkesbury and the French en- 
 voy, ^[. Otto; from Spain, Don Jos. Nie. de Azarra ; Crom the IJata- 
 vian rcpnblic, the ambassador to Paris, Schimmel{»ennink. 
 
 Peace was concluded between France and the Porte (according to 
 the preliminaries previously ajjrocd upon, Oct. 8, 1801). a. F^rypt was 
 restored, and the possessions of both parties {guaranteed, ff. The old 
 compacts were renewed, and the navigation of the Black Sea opened to 
 France, r. The republic of the Seven Islands was acknowledged, d. 
 Mutual treatment on the footing of the most favoured state.'?. 
 
 25. Tlic conditions, on wliicli the peace of Amiens was 
 concluded, must excite the lii^liest astonislmient. The war 
 liad not been waged for Ceyk)n and Trinidad ; but for the 
 fi'e(>(lom of Europe. This was tacitly relinquished, for 
 Enoland seemed to renounce all participation in the affairs 
 of the continent; even tlie evacuation of Holland was not 
 stipulated. The war was therefore terminated, with its ob- 
 ject still unattained ; and the question, wliether such a state 
 of things, as this peace produced, could 'possibly continue 
 long, must soon have become problematical. 
 
 26. This peace raised the first consul to the zenith of his 
 renown. France retired from the conflict, with its interior 
 well ordered and tranquillized, increased in tei-ritory, with 
 all its colonies restored, and with but a slight loss on the 
 part of its allies. All this, even the rebuilding of the altars 
 and the establishment of religious liberty, seemed his work : 
 and together with the power of arms, he was surrounded by 
 the still greater power of public opinion. It now stood in 
 liis choice to rule Europe without further contests. And he 
 woidd have governed it, had he been able to — govern him- 
 self! 
 
 Buonaparte was appointed first consul for life, Aug. 4, 1802, after he 
 had already been nominated presid<'nt of the Italian rejiuldies, June 26. 
 He took the title of mediator of Switzerland, Feb. 19, 1803. This 
 transformation of the French constitution had a corresponding influence 
 on the secondary states ; the Batavian republic received a directory ; 
 the Ligurian a doge ; even the little Lucca (for which no new name had 
 been found) did not escape transformation. — The Concordat with the 
 Pope was concluded, July 1.3, 1801, ratified by the legislative bod}', 
 April 8, 1802. Not only the Catholic but also the Protestant worship 
 thus acquired its forms. 
 
 27. But th.e maintenance of public opinion, indispensable 
 for the first magistrate of the republic, as it was still called, 
 
PERIOD III.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1797—1804. 387 
 
 presupposed the maintenance of a great political character. 
 He could not but sink in the former, in the same proportion 
 as he was untrue to the latter ; and the steps which unde- 
 ceived the nations on this point followed in but too rapid 
 succession ! 
 
 28. The first great political transaction was the affair of 
 the German indemnities, fixed at the peace of Luneville. 
 It was prosecuted in Ratisbon, under the mediation of 
 France and Russia, and the predominant influence and the 
 policy of the former were here most clearly displayed. 
 While all the spiritual princes were deprived of their seats, 
 — that only of the arch-chancellor of the empire, with whom 
 it was not deemed possible to dispense, being retained, 
 though transferred from Mayence to Ratisbon, — the tem- 
 poral estates, being more or less favoured by France, shared 
 their inheritance. Every German would rather turn his 
 eyes from a transaction, which, though perhaps inevitable 
 in itself, is revolting from the manner in which it was ex- 
 ecuted. 
 
 A preliminary convention was made at Paris between Eussia and 
 France, respecting the plan of indemnities, June 4, 1802. It was given 
 up and a proclamation issued by the diet, Aug. 18. The sessions of 
 the extraordinary deputation of the empire were opened Aug. 24 ; final 
 resolve of that deputation Feb. 25, 1803. The most favoured, in com- 
 parison Avith their losses, were Prussia, and the states near the Rhine ; 
 and the easiest to be kept in dependence, Baden, Wirtemberg, and Nas- 
 sau ; less so Bavaria ; least of all Austria. Two Italian princes also 
 were directed to Germany, the great land for indemnities ; Tuscany had 
 to satisfy itself with Salzburg, Modena with Breisgau and Ortenau. 
 Four new electoral hats were conferred on AVirtemberg, Baden, Hesse, 
 and Salzburg ; men no longer aspired to a dignity, which soon remained 
 but an empty title. 
 
 29. Thus there was still a German empire, but not the 
 old German empire. It was an aggregate of states under 
 foreign influence, with the emperor as nominal sovereign. 
 Antiquated as it was, the truth was soon confirmed, that the 
 central state of Europe could not disappear without a ge- 
 neral convulsion. 
 
 30. The scanty period of peace enjoyed by Europe gave 
 a striking proof of the extraordinary energies of its inhabit- 
 ants. All strove by applying themselves to industry, trade, 
 and navigation, to heal the wounds that had been inflicted, 
 and. deep as they were, a few years of peace would have 
 
 2 c 2 
 
388 nin.lC contests in i:UUOri:, 17'j7— IhOl. (rmion m. 
 
 bt'cn sufllcirnt. But peace did not eradicate distrust, tlie 
 element of new strife, whicli soon received too anijile sup- 
 ])(>rt. Eniiland, perceiving' its error, would not r(;lin(|uisli 
 Malta, (tiie bulwark of E|i;vpt, which France never lost 
 from its sphere of vision,) and with it the dominion of tiie 
 INlediterranean, nor would France concede these points; 
 and the formal incorporation of plundered Piedmont, with- 
 out any previous ao:reement, showed the nations of the con- 
 tinent that the natural hoimdaries, on which so much stress 
 had been placed, were boundaries no more. 
 
 The restoration of Malta was refused, because after the abolition tliat 
 had tukon plai-e of the Spanish and Bavarian tonjrue, it could not return 
 to the Order in its old form. In Sept., 1802, a nii.ssion was institutcil, 
 and Col. Scliastiani made an offensive report re.-ipecting the situation of 
 Egypt and the Levant, Jan. 30, 1803, while on the other side, the pub- 
 lic animosity was inflamed by the constant paper war carried on by the 
 journalists of London. 
 
 31. It was therefore soon manifest that the treaty of 
 Amiens, though not intended as a mere armistice, was in 
 reality nothing more ; and the palm of peace had not been 
 planted a year, when it was torn up by a new war, more 
 lasting and important than its authors had foreseen. 
 
 The king of England sent a message to parliament respecting the 
 threatened security of the British territory, March 8, 1803. The ne- 
 gotiations of Lord Whitworth at Paris were fruitless. — Great Britain 
 declared war against France, May 18. 
 
 32. This war, however, in which the Batavian republic, 
 and all the other daughter-states of France, had to partici- 
 pate, was of an entirely diH'erent nature, since the two 
 powers, the one strong on land, and the other on sea, found 
 few points of contact, notwithstanding all their desire to 
 inflict mutual injuries. The occupation of the neutral 
 Hanover, without the least indication of it having been 
 previously given at Hatisbon, and witiiout any remonstrance 
 from the diet, was as indecisive as the vain, though osten- 
 tatious, disjilay of forces for a descent on the coasts of the 
 Channel. This display served rather to call the British 
 nation to arms. France and England migiit be said to be 
 in the condition of war, rather than actually at war; and 
 who could foresee the end ? 
 
 Hanover was occupied by General INIortier, after the convention at 
 Sulingen, June 3 ; and the caj)itulation at Artlenburg, July 5. 
 
PERIOD HI.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUTxOrE, 1797— 1S04. 389 
 
 33. But the immediate and widely important consequence 
 of this war was the re-estabhshment of an hereditary throne 
 in France, to which the consular constitution was only de- 
 signed as a state of transition. But instead of the ancient 
 regal throne, an imperial one was erected ; instead of the 
 legitimate monarch it was ascended by a successful soldier, 
 who, in defiance of all morality and policy, had just 
 dipped his hands in the blood of a branch of the 
 royal family. Europe, accustomed for a long time only to 
 legitimate princes, was now to learn from a grand example 
 how tyrants rise. 
 
 A decree of the senate was passed INIay 18, 1804, by which, at the 
 proposal of the tribunate, the first consul was proclaimed emperor, and 
 the dignity declared hereditary in his family. The votes were taken, 
 (those not voting were regarded as assenting,) and it was declared to be 
 accepted by the nation, Nov. 6. Napoleon I. was accordingly crowned 
 and anointed by Pius VII. as emperor of the French, Dec. 2. 
 
THIRD PERIOD. 
 
 THIRD DIVISION OF THE PERIOD. 
 
 Frntn the rstdhllsJnnrht of the. French imprr'ntl throne to (he reatornfinrt 
 of the piiHtivdl si/stem of Europe hif its fill ; find the cstdhlishiuerit of 
 the frci iloni (f America ; from 1801 to 1821. 
 
 FIRST SECTION. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE EUROPEAN STATES-SYSTEM. 
 
 ITistoirc ahreqee des traitts de pair, cntre Ics puissances de V Europe, 
 depuis Id paix de JVestph(die, pai" ft'H M. DE Kocil. Ouvrngc oitiere- 
 vicut refondu, (tucjmcntc et continue juscpCau Congrcs de I'ienne ct au.v 
 traites de Paris de 1815, par F. Sciioell, conseiller d'ambassaile de 
 S. M. leroi de Prusse pres la cour de France. Paris, 1817, vol. i. — xiv. 
 "VVe mention this very important, and indeed indispensable, work for 
 modern history, in conformity ■with its principal contents, here ratlier 
 than at p. 128. The vols. vi. — xi. refer to the present period ; the last 
 three comprise the history of the system of the north. In connexion 
 •with this work is, 
 
 Rccueil de pieces officiellcs destinies a dctrompcr Ics Fravrais sur Ics 
 evenements qui seso7it passes depuis rjuehjues annces, par Fiu:i). SciiOELL. 
 Paris, 1814, vol. i. — ix. 8vo. The collection hoirins with tlie Kussian 
 campai;rn of 1812, bnt comprehends also the Spanish war and the dis- 
 putes with the Pope since 1808. 
 
 1. The project of universal monarchy, a project fraught 
 with terror to former periods, had almost fallen into obli- 
 vion, when it was again revived in the breast of the man 
 who had already advanced almost half way to this object. 
 If we iniderstand by this expression the dominion either 
 direct or indirect of Europe, this can no longer be subject 
 to doubt. The problem for the history of this period is to 
 show li(»w far, and by what means, he advanced on this way, 
 till destiny, interposing, assisted the abused nations in re- 
 covering their liberty. 
 
 2. Never liad a potentate in Europe such resources at 
 command as the present emperor, Napoleon. His sove- 
 
TEraoD III. J PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1804— lb21. 391 
 
 reignty in the interior was absolute, since tlie despotism of 
 freedom had levelled every thing ; the legislative body was 
 mute after the weakening and subsequent abolition of the 
 tribunate ; while the so-called conservative se- 
 nate, was a ready instrument of tyranny, for 
 freedom does not live in dead forms ! Abroad, France 
 extended to the Rhine and beyond the Alps, and the Italian 
 republic, as it was now to be called, was soon 
 
 1 1 . 11- 1 p T 1 1 rt March 17, 1805. 
 
 changed mto the kmgclom or Italy, under buo- 
 naparte's sceptre and his immediate dominion ; Spain, Ba- 
 tavia, Helvetia, the rest of Italy, and the German states on 
 the Rhine, were kept in dependence by alliances or by 
 fear : by the occupation of Hanover, a French army was 
 stationed in the heart of the Prussian monarchy and on the 
 frontiers of Denmark ; while Austria was liable to imme- 
 diate invasion, whenever it should be deemed expedient. 
 The distant Russia alone with Sweden stood erect, but with 
 a more gloomy aspect since the murder of Enghien ; and 
 the dominion of the sea was out of the question. 
 
 All diplomatic relations with France were broken off on tlie side of 
 Eussia, Aug. 28, and of Sweden, Sept., 1804. Both refused to acknow- 
 ledge the new imperial dignity. 
 
 3. The repeated solemn assurance, that the 
 territory of France should be enlarged by no 
 
 further incorporations, seemed, indeed, to fix the future 
 botmdaries ; but v/ho could repose any trust in an assurance, 
 which was violated, almost before it was given, by the in- 
 corporation of the Liourian republic ? The in- 
 
 k- 1 I'll 1 11 June, 1S(B. 
 
 mg language, which the new ruler employed 
 
 in his bulletins against foreign princes, could hardly serve 
 
 to conciliate their minds. Is not such lano-uao-e still more 
 
 n-ritating in pubhc than in private life? And though the 
 
 newly-erected throne was called the re-established throne 
 
 of Charlemagne, this very expression sufficiently showed, 
 
 that there was no room for it in the old system of Europe. 
 
 4. Under these circumstances, in England the helm of 
 state was a second time committed to William 
 Pitt. Who, that knew his ancient policy and 
 the new relations, could doubt of his attempts to form a 
 new combination against France ? By this he only antici- 
 pated the wishes of Napoleon, who could no longer permit 
 
 August, 18(M. 
 
r/.)2 rrni,lC CONTKSTS in r.niion:, I'^oi— 1S21. [rrnmn nr. 
 
 liis arniv to parade idly on tlic C'lianncl. — The war was al- 
 ready ('nlar<i(Ml hy the participation of Spain, which had 
 hitherto been able to i)nrchase its fluetuatiii'': 
 
 Oct 30 Isfl3 . . 
 
 neuti'ality only by subsidies to France ; and 
 Portugal began to be threat(Micd as partial to France. 
 
 TIio Spanish galleon?, returning with their treapnros, were taken be- 
 fore Cadiz, Oct. o, 1804. War was declared against England, after 
 rciteratt'd negotiations, Dec. 12, retaliated by ICngland, Jan. 11, iSOo. 
 
 Fr. Gkntz, aiithentische DarskUuiiy ilcs J'cr/nilt/tisscs zwisc/ien 
 E tiff land unci Spanien, 1806. 
 
 •0. The third coalition ap;ainst France was formed. Enp;- 
 land was its centre ; a General rising of Europe was, ac- 
 cording to Pitts plan, to reduce France to its old bounds, 
 and the indejiendence of the states was to be secured l)y 
 judicious regulations and divisions. That the restoration of 
 the old royal house was in that case a necessary condition, 
 no one ventured to affirm ; so far did it then lie without 
 the province of probability. 
 
 C. But although in part effected, the project of Pitt 
 eould be only half executed ; and even the formation of this 
 coalition is involved in an obscurity which time alone can 
 fully explain. Though it was joined by Sweden, Russia, 
 and Austria, Prussia on the contrary, obstinately insisting 
 on a neutrality, of which it soon had most bitter cause to 
 repent, was not to be gained. And yet, without Prussia's 
 accession, no efficient attack on France was possible. Its 
 mere neutrality was a full protection to the northern half of 
 the French empire. 
 
 England contracted an alliance with TJussia, April 1 1 ; with Sweden, 
 (wiiieh was already allie<l to Ilussia, Jan. 14,) August 31, renewed 
 Oct. 3, 1805. A Russian-Swedish army was to lan<l in Tonierania. 
 Had the power and understanding of (Jtistavus IV. been e<[ual to his 
 hafird and perseverance, Napoleon would have found in him his most 
 Inrniidahle opponent. Austria acce<led to the alliance between England 
 ami Ilussia, August 9. British subsidies, and an army of five hundred 
 ihoiisand men, were to restore the freedom of Eurojie, without dictating 
 to France in the least witli respect to its internal affairs. On the other 
 hand, by the treaty with Najioleon, June 2o, Naples Avas forced to per- 
 mit tiic entrance of French troops ; which were afterwards designedly 
 withdrawn. 
 
 Fk. Gkntz, Frnrimrnte nun <hr netisten Gcschichte drs poVulsrhrn 
 (llchhgncichts in Eiirnpn, I80G. Unfortunately only the fragments of 
 an imperfect work, containing a preface written with the pen of Tacitus 
 in a season of despondency. 
 
PEniOD in.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1804—1821, 393 
 
 7. The war broke out after fruitless negotiations ; and 
 the whole plan of the allies was overthrown by the attack 
 made on the Austrian army near the Iller, (where Mack 
 was opposed to Napoleon,) before the Russians could join 
 it. After its annihilation, in the lapse of a few days, the 
 projected aggressive war in Italy fell away of itself; and, 
 being reinforced on his march by the accession of Baden, 
 Wirtemberg, and Bavaria, Napoleon v/as able to march to 
 the imperial city. 
 
 Ulm capitulated, October 17 ; after which the other detachments of 
 the army, separated, were ahnost all taken prisoners. — The Italian army 
 under the Archduke Charles, notwithstanding the successful battle at 
 Caldiero, Oct. 30, retreated to the boundary of Croatia. — The French 
 entered Vienna, Nov. 13. 
 
 8. The Russians upon their arrival found only the re- 
 mains of the army wliich they were to have joined, and the 
 assistance which they were able to afford them on 
 
 the bloody day at Austerlitz in Moravia, was but 
 slight. When they were compelled to retreat, there was 
 no alternative to the humbled and abandoned Austria, but 
 to receive the conditions of peace which were offered. It 
 was concluded at Presburg after short deliberation. 
 
 Conditions of the peace at Presburg, Dec. 26 : a. France was to keep 
 all the countries in Italy which were embodied with it, or administered 
 by French laws (Piedmont, Parma, and Piacenza). b. Austria resigned 
 all that she had acquired from Venice (including therefore Dalmatia, 
 formerly belonging to Venice, and bordering on the Turkish empire) to 
 the Italian kingdom, and recognised Napoleon as its king. c. Bavaria 
 and Wirtemberg received the royal dignity with full sovereignty in all 
 their possessions, old as well as new. d. Austria ceded to Bavaria the 
 whole of Tyrol with Voralberg, and the bishoprics of Brescia and 
 Trent, Burgau, Eichstadt, Passau, Lindau, and several principalities ; 
 Augsburg also fell to Bavaria, e. It gave to Wirtemberg and Baden 
 the nearer Austrian countries, of which Baden obtained the greater part 
 of the Breisgau, Ortenau, and the city Constance ; and AVirtemberg 
 the rest. f. Austria obtained Salzburg and Berchtolsgaden, as a duchy ; 
 besides the hereditary dignity (already secularized) of grand master of 
 the Teutonic order ; the elector of Salzburg was indemnified on the 
 part of Bavaria by Wurzburg as an electorate, g. Napoleon guaranteed 
 the integrity of the rest of the Austrian monarchy. 
 
 The negotiators at Presburg were, Talleyrand, and Prince Lichten- 
 stein, with Count Giulay. 
 
 9. The peace at Presburg was not universal, since Russia 
 still remained in a state of war. But a new and important 
 step towards universal dominion was made. Tlie power of 
 
804 ITI'.LIC CONTESTS IN KUUOPE, 1801—1821. [rLiiiOD in. 
 
 Austria ^vas broken; dcjjrivcd of its bulwarks Tyrol and 
 Venice, its security now consisted in the fidelity of llie in- 
 liabitants. The southern states of Germany were still more 
 closely connected with France ; and, by a crafty division, 
 arrorandizcd in appearance more than in reality ; I'or how 
 ■willinuly could Bavaria have dispensed with Tyrol so that 
 she retained W'urzburg ! "With tin; custom of exchanges 
 of lands, all security of possession had vani>hcd, and the 
 most sacred ties, which had hitherto bound the nations to 
 their princes, as well as the princes to their nations, were 
 dissolved. 
 
 10. The first instance of a royal family being de- 
 throned by bare ])roclamation, occurred at Naples, 
 and Buonaparte laid the foundation of his family in l-'.urope 
 by the promotion of Joseph his elder brother, and of Eugene 
 lieauharnois, his adopted step-son, to the vice-royalty of 
 Italy ; while the family itself was by a s})ecial law slavishly 
 subjected to its head. 
 
 The neutrality of Naples, wliifli had been evacuated, was said to 
 have been violated, by the landing of a corps composed of Knglisli and 
 Russians, from Corfu ; it is uncertain whether in compliance witli, or 
 against, the will of the king. A proclamation was issued from Schon- 
 brun, Dec. 27, 180o, declaring, "That the dynasty of Naples liad 
 ceased to reign," and on Feb. 2o, 1806, Naples was occui)ied, and 
 Josojdi the new king entered and was proclaimed king of both Sicilies, 
 while the court of Naples retired to Palermo. Tiie narrow Strait of 
 Mesyina was sufFu-ient to limit the power of the conqueror. His sisters 
 were provided fur in Lucca, Piombino, and GuastaHa ; whicli last, but 
 IV short time after it had been conferred, March 30, was again rcsunu-d 
 in order to be joined to France with I'arma and Piacenza, »luly 21, 
 180.5 ; for the blind arbitrary will of the emperor was displayed in small 
 as well as in great alfairs. 
 
 11. During these triumphs on the continent, the free- 
 dom of Euroj)e would have been vindicated on the ocean, 
 had it there been at issue. 'Jhe expeditions of 
 smaller and larger rrencli squadrons to the bast 
 and ^^'^est Indies, which iMigland could not ])revent, were 
 without ])ormancnt results ; the colonies that had been re- 
 stored fell again, almost without resistance, into the hands 
 of tlie English ; and the brittle of Trafalgar, a double victory 
 by the glorious death of Nelson, almost entirely destroyed 
 at one blow the navies of France and Spain, and all the 
 plans which had been founded on them. 
 
PERIOD III.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1804—1821. 395 
 
 Surinam was taken, April 29, 1804 ; Goree, March 8 ; the Cape, 
 Jan. 18, 1806 ; from which an unsuccessful attack was made on Buenos 
 Ajres, July 2, 1806, and after it had been repelled, Aug. 12, was vainly 
 repeated, July, 1807. 
 
 12. The messengers of those defeats, by which the third 
 coalition was dissolved, found its author on his death-bed. 
 Impoverished and involved in debt, (for in his intense devo- 
 tion to his country and Europe he had never thought of 
 himself,) and with a broken heart, died the man, who to his 
 last breath had maintained the cause of liberty. He left no 
 heir of his greatness ; but he left a school which had im- 
 bibed his maxims, and was yet one day to be victorious. 
 And although his opponent w^as his successor, his brief ad- 
 ministration was destined only to justify the policy of his 
 predecessor. 
 
 Wilham Pitt died Jan. 23, 1806.— The ministry of Grenville and 
 Fox was compounded of different elements. The negotiations carried 
 on with France since Feb. soon demonstrated that the man of the peo- 
 ple is not always the man of the state. — Napoleon refused to negotiate 
 Avith England and Russia in common, April 1. And after a sepai-ate 
 discussion had been agreed upon, a new contest arose with England re- 
 specting the basis of the peace, the tcti possidetis ; and the deliberations 
 with Russia were broken off, the compact made by the Russian minister 
 Oubril, July 20, not having been ratified. With the death of Fox all hopes 
 of peace disappeared, which, however, would hardly have been even a 
 miserable armistice. — AYhether Pitt or Fox were tlie greater is still 
 made a question in England ; but what would have become of Europe 
 had Fox stood in the place of Pitt ? The constant advocate of ideas, 
 apparently or really liberal, will always enjoy the public favour, while 
 the truly great minister is above courting popularity. 
 
 Speeches of the Right Honourable Charles James Fox in the House of 
 Commons. London, 1815, 6 vols. Fox has had no want of panegp-ic 
 biographies, while the greatest statesman of his time was destitute of a 
 worthy historian till his former instructor, the bishop of Winchester, 
 attempted to supply the chasm, in a work of six volumes : The life of 
 W. Pitt. How much history was buried with Pitt ! 
 
 13. As if in complete ignorance of what was passing on 
 the continent, Fox, on his death-bed, negotiated for peace. 
 The consequences of the compact of Presburg were de- 
 veloped rapidly and fearfully for Europe ; and the error was 
 soon dissipated of those who had erroneously presumed that 
 neutrality could be preserved towards him who wished for 
 no neutrality, and could wish for none on the road to his 
 object. Prussia now stood directly in his way ; during the 
 war its neutrality had already been set at nought by the 
 
SiWy runLIC contests in EUROPE, 1801-1821. [rRnion iii. 
 
 march of French armios tliroup;h one of its provinces. And 
 the transactions after tlie peace, by forcing on Prussia the 
 garment of Nessus for several of its provinces in Hanover, 
 j)hingril it into sucli embarrassment tliat its fall could be 
 foreseen even before the contest. 
 
 Tlio (lisputos with Prussia had thoir origin in Berna<lott<''s arbitrary 
 march from Hanover to the Danube, by way of An^pach, Oct., 1S0.3. 
 Prussia bciran to make preparations after the war had been actually dc- 
 citled at I'lm and Austerlitz. Ilaugwitz was peacefully sent to Vienna, 
 and obtaining an audience not till (tf'/ir the baltle at Austerlitz, con- 
 clude(l a treaty, Dee. lo ; accordinjr to which the tranquillity of northern 
 Germany was to be peremptorily purchased on condition, that, n. Prus- 
 pia should cede to France the province of Anspach, the still remaining 
 Cleves and Neufchatel ; and in return, b. Should take possession of 
 Hanover. Reduced to the alternative of accepting the treaty of war, 
 the just disposition of the king was yet more deeply mortified by the 
 circumstance, that the provisory occupation of Hanover, proclaimed Jan. 
 26, 1806, had to be changed by a supplementary treaty of March 9, 
 into a definitive one, of which the immediate consequences were: the 
 declaration of war by England, April 20, and the capture of the Prus- 
 sian merchant vessels ; and even a state of war with Sweden, since 
 Gustavus IV. would not relinquish Laucnburg, which he occupied for 
 Hanover. A compromise was at last effected with him, August 22. 
 
 14. The cessions exacted from Prussia were employed 
 
 to augment the dominion of the family of the emperor. To 
 
 his brother-in-law Joachim Murat, Cleves and Berg were 
 
 assigned as a grand duchy ; instead of Berg, Bavaria, hav- 
 
 ino" been drawn into the family interest by the 
 
 Jan. 14,1806. » . f .1 • " 1 \ 11 
 
 marriage oi tlie viceroy, received Anspach ; and 
 Neufchatel was granted as a principality to the bosom friend 
 and constant companion of the emperor, Marshal Berthier. 
 What prince must not have trembled on his throne at perceiv- 
 ing the continually increasing number of those for whom 
 provision was to be made ? 
 
 Murat was appointed hereditary grand duke of Cleves and Berg, 
 March 23, " for guanling the frontiers of the empire;" Berthier, here- 
 ditary prince of Neufchatel, March 3. Even the arch-chancellor elector 
 did not refuse to appoint, of liis own accord, the step-uncle of the em- 
 peror, Cardinal Fesch, his successor as coadjutor, ^lay 28. 
 
 lo. But this family power acquired a more important 
 aujxmentation about this time by the change of the Batavian 
 republic into a kingdom. A mere decree — which had first 
 to be solicited — was sufficient to overthrow the republic, 
 and erect upon its ruins a new throne for Louis, a younger 
 
PERIOD III.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1804—1821. 397 
 
 brother of the emperor. When this was formerly attempted 
 by Louis XIV., half Europe had taken up arms, while now 
 not even a single voice was raised against it. 
 
 This transformation had been already prepared by the revolution of 
 April 29, 1805, by which a chief was placed at the head in the person 
 of the Grand Pensionary, as he was called, — almost in actual mockery 
 of this unhappy state. — A preliminary contract was made, May 24, 
 1806, and the royal constitution was promulgated, June 10, modelled 
 after that of France. By it Louis Buonaparte was declared hereditary 
 king of Holland, but always in subordination to the family statute. 
 Thus was his dependence more than sufficiently secured. 
 
 16. After such advances little seemed to be wanting to 
 universal dominion but the name. The federative system 
 was now loudly spoken of, — called by others the gravitation 
 system, — which was to take the place of the balance of 
 power. Less was said of the great nation, but more of the 
 great empire. A decree of the senate had al- 
 ready given the monarch the surname of Great, ''°'"' 
 and, religion itself being perverted to flattery, the solemniz- 
 ation of St. Napoleon's day, rendered it intelli- 
 gible how in ancient times at Rome tyrants could "°" 
 
 be transferred to the number of the gods. 
 
 A difference arose between France {la France) and the French em- 
 pire {empire Frangaise). It is no less interesting to pursue the ideas 
 connected with this subject and gradually developing themselves, than 
 in the case of the Socii Populi Romani of old. 
 
 17. And yet there were many impediments to be re- 
 moved. Though the German empire was only a form, yet 
 the form itself of the ancient central state of Europe was 
 troublesome, because it obstructed a new arrangement. 
 History was to give a new example how states outlive them- 
 selves. A simple declaration of the new poten- 
 tate to the diet, that he no longer recognised the 
 German empire, was sufficient to subvert the structure of a 
 thousand years. In consequence Austria volun- 
 tarily laid aside the imperial crown of Germany, 
 adopting instead the hereditary imperial crown of Austria. 
 Only in the heart of Germans did the German emperor 
 survive. 
 
 18. But not the empire alone, the very name even of 
 German, for tliis too he hated, was if possible to disappear. 
 
S98 PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, Igai— 1821. [pnnioD in. 
 
 Oil {\\o j;ill(Mi ruins of tlio ancient odificc a new one was 
 iniinediately erected ; of which tlic first authors have re- 
 fused to betray their names to posterity. At the same time 
 witli the (h'claration mentioned above, anotlier was submit- 
 ted to the diet by the princes of southern Germany, to the 
 ert'cct, that, renouncing; tlieir old connexion, tliey had form- 
 ed a new one, of which Napoleon was the protector, under 
 the appellation of the Confederation of the Rhine. 
 
 Tho constitution of the Conft'dcnition of the Rhine was framed and 
 sip:nc<l, July 12, by Bavaria, Wirtemberg, Baden, Berjj, tlie archchan- 
 ccllor, Ilcpso-Darnistadt, Na^sau-Usingen, and Nassau- Woilbur;!, IIo- 
 henzollern-IIochingen ami Sioirniaringon, Salm-Salm and Sabn-Kirburg, 
 Iscnburg, Arembcrg, LichtcJistcin, and the Count of Lcyen, forming 
 altogether a strange combination ; the three preceding the last, being 
 uninvited ; the last, a relation of the archchancellor. The ministers 
 ■who signed it cannot for that reason be regarded, on the whole, as its 
 aiitliors. The subscribers made a declaration at the diet of Aug. 1. 
 Though all the German princes gradually joined it, with the exception 
 of Austria, Brandenburg, the houses of Brunswick and the electorate of 
 Ilesse, (Swedish Pomerania and Ilolstein were united, the former with 
 Sweden, the latter with Denmark, Sept. 9, 1806,) it cannot be regarded 
 as a voluntary accession ; it was the only means of safety. 
 
 19. This new combination was the more revolting, since 
 it was at the same time the sentence of death to many small 
 princes and free cities ; of which tho former were incor- 
 porated into the larger powers, tiie latter taken possession 
 of. Thus the validity of the right of the stronger was en- 
 forced, and would not this soon end in the right of the 
 strongest? The affair itself was revolting enough; yet the 
 treatment of the reduced princes by more than one of their 
 new rulers was still worse. 
 
 The aggranilizements were made, partly by mutual cession.'', according 
 to the .system of contiguity, partly by ciiufiscation of the proscribed 
 estates of the Teutonic order, and partly by the reduction of tiie smaller 
 princes. Tiie archchancellor was changed into a prince primate, and 
 obtained Frankfort with its territory; while Nuremberg was allotted 
 to Bavaria. Tlie electoral hats were laid aside ; but the princes be- 
 came dukes, and dukes became archdukes, and counts became princes ! 
 
 20. It was soon evident that this confederacy was no 
 union, but merely an attachment to the protector to favour 
 liis purposes. The duties towards him, participation in all 
 his wars, and the aid to be furnished, were most strictly de- 
 fined and exacted ; but of the diet, which was to assemble 
 
PART in.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1804— 1S21. 399 
 
 at Frankfort in two chambers, that of the kings and that of 
 the princes, nothing was ever said, except in the Act of 
 Confederation. In return, the protector remunerated them 
 with the magic word of sovereignty ; a mockery for sub- 
 jects ; but unjustly used by some for destroying the consti- 
 tutions of their states, and the legitimate relations towards 
 their people, concerning whom the protector gave himself 
 no trouble. The humble are always prone to follow the 
 example of tyranny in the exalted. 
 
 Sovereignty, -with respect to foreign countries, denotes the independ- 
 ence of one state of another, and need not first be conferred, for it be- 
 longs naturally to every state as such. Did the confederates of the Khine 
 possess it in relation to their head ? — With respect to the interior, it 
 denotes the possession of the supreme power ; but by no means the sole 
 right of legislation without consulting the nation. And even if it meant 
 this, whence had the protector a right to confer it ? 
 
 21. Another great stride had been taken towards univer- 
 sal dominion, by the erection of the Confederation of the 
 Rhine. Not only was it henceforth impossible to form a 
 league in Germany against France, but each German state 
 was now individually chained to France by fetters of iron. 
 Thus was prepared the fall of Prussia, now in reality isolated. 
 Could Napoleon rule Germany, so long as this power stood 
 upright ? 
 
 The erection of the Confederation of the Rhine without the know- 
 ledge of Prussia, which was the party most interested in it, was in itself 
 an injury; but the invitation to establish a northern confederacy in 
 Germany seemed almost derision. — The incorporation of Wesel, July 
 29, the taking of Essen and Werden, the ill-treatment of the Prince of 
 Orange — were so many challenges ; while French armies in the midst 
 of peace occupied half Germany. But the certainty, that France had 
 oifered, in the negotiations with England, to take from Prussia that 
 very Hanover she had forced upon it, brought to maturity the deter- 
 mination to make war. — After the negotiations in Paris by Knobels- 
 dorf had been broken off, Prussia declared war, Oct. 8, 1806. 
 
 22. The situation of Prussia at the beginning of the war 
 was dangerous, both within and without. The whole strength 
 of the state, the military and civil classes being wholly se- 
 parate, depended on an unpractised army, under a general 
 who had already outlived himself It was without allies 
 abroad except Russia, whose armies were at a distance, and 
 Saxony, half on compulsion ; while Hesse imagined it pos- 
 sible to maintain a neutrality, though disunited not merely 
 
'100 PUBLIC CONTESTS IN KUROI'E, 1804—1821. [rEiiiou ni. 
 
 IVoiu I'LiiLiliuul, but also from tlie princes of the ('(jiilWlenition 
 of the Ulnno. It was thus thrown upon its own resources, 
 tluriuii' the decisive days, when it liad to contend a<xaiiist an 
 ahnost double force. But no kingdom has ever been in 
 modern times so utterly overthrown by one battle, as Prus- 
 sia was by that at Jena and Auerstadt ! In a few weeks, all 
 its pn)vinces as far as the Vistula, with their fastnesses, 
 were in the hands of the enemy, and even beyond that 
 stream the royal house found an asylum only under Russian 
 protection. 
 
 Tlic Prussian army was collected in Thuringia under the command 
 of the Duke of Brunswick, Sept. and Oct., and suffered a total defeat 
 in the battle at Jena and Auerstadt, Oct. 14, 1806. — The army, put to 
 flight and dispersed, were in part taken prisoners ; and the duke, se- 
 verely wounde<l, and expelled moreover from his own country, died at 
 Altona, Nov. 10. The fortresses (with the exception of Colberg and 
 Graudentz) were most incredibly surrendered, and even Magdeburg, 
 Nov. 8, to the utter surprise of the enemy himself. A separate peace 
 and alliance was concluded with Saxony at Posen, Dec. 1 1, which, being 
 raised to a kingdom, Dec. 20, acceded to the Confederation of the Rhine. 
 On the other side, the elector of Hesse was surprised and expelled, 
 Nov. 1, — in reward of his neutrality, — and all his territories, both of 
 Hanover and Brunswick, with the Ilanscatic cities, were occupied. 
 " The houses of Hesse Cassel and Brunswick had ceased to reign." 
 
 23. AA'^ith Prussia, the bulwark of Russia had fallen ; on 
 its boundaries, the victor conceived another project, the re- 
 storation of Poland ; by which he mip;ht obtain, perhaps, a 
 spy on Russia. The erection of a Polish legion, (see p. 348,) 
 had ])roved, that from the beginning this country lay with- 
 in the horizon of the potentate ; but the inevitable certainty 
 of giving olfence to three leading powers in the full execu- 
 tion of his plan, made him more cautious than ever, so that 
 for this time the restoration remained partial, after the in- 
 surrection had been created. 
 
 The Poles were sunmioned to insurrection, under the abused name 
 of Kosciusko, Nov. 1. — The insurrection sjjread in Prussian Poland; 
 and an auxiliary army was formed. 
 
 24. Thus the war was transferred, as if by magic, from 
 the banks of the Saal to the banks of the A'istula ; and 
 Russia, which was moreover involved in a war with the 
 Porte, (see below,) had to defend its own frontiers. Old 
 l-*russia was the theatre of a devastating war; and though 
 Russian valour was there tried, it was nevertheless seen, 
 
PERIOD III.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1804—1821. 401 
 
 how difficult it was for this power, to concentrate great 
 masses of troops out of its boundaries. It was found im- 
 possible to reheve so important a place as Dantzic. 
 
 After several bloody combats at Pultusk, etc., the grand battle was 
 fought at Preussisch-Eylau, Feb. 8, 1807. Though indecisive, it led 
 to the fall of the bravely defended Dantzic, May 24. Aftei' several 
 skirmishes, another great conflict took place at Friedland, June 14. 
 Konigsberg was taken, and the Russian and Prussian armies retreated 
 across the Niemen ; ^Memel, the last city in the kingdom, was the only 
 refuge that remained to the royal house of Prussia. 
 
 25. The battle of Friedland led to an armistice, and soon 
 afterwards to a peace, the motives of which require farther 
 explanation. After a personal meeting of the two emperors 
 in the middle of the Niemen, it was concluded at Tilsit. 
 The czar still needed, it seems, personal experience, that no 
 concessions could gain the friendship of the conqueror. 
 
 A truce was agreed upon between France and Russia, June 21, while 
 Prussia, left to itself, made its pacification on the 25th. The two mon- 
 archs met on the Niemen, June 25. Peace was concluded between 
 Russia and France at Tilsit, July 7, 1807. a. The provinces to be re- 
 turned to Prussia were fixed, b. Russia recognised the duchy of War- 
 saw, consisting of South Prussia as before, and a part of West Prussia, 
 under the king of Saxony, c. Dantzic was declared again a free city. 
 d. A part of New East Prussia, the government Bialystock, was ceded 
 to Russia, e. Russia recognised Joseph Buonapai'te as king of Naples, 
 Louis Buonaparte as king of Holland, (to which it promised also to re- 
 linquish the lordship of Jever,) and Jerome Buonaparte as king of the 
 newly-erected kingdom of Westplialia. f. Russia likewise acknowledged 
 the Confederation of the Rhine, not only in its present extent and con^ 
 stituent parts, but also in its future enlargements, on mere notice being 
 given, g. Mutual guarantee of the state of both parties and of their 
 allies, who were included in the treaty, k. Russia at the same time 
 concluded an armistice witli the Porte, withdrew its forces from Mol- 
 davia and Walachia, which remained unoccupied by the Turks ; and 
 accepted the mediation of Napoleon, i. Napoleon accepted the medi- 
 ation of Russia with England, on condition that England should accept 
 of it within a month after the exchange of the present treaty, j. In a 
 secret article (Moniteur, July 8, 1812) Russia entered upon an obliga- 
 tion to make common cause with France, in case England should reject 
 the peace, with the acknowledgment of the freedom of the ocean ; to 
 require the courts of Copenhagen, Stockholm, and Lisbon to do the 
 same ; and to declare war against England. 
 
 The negotiators of the peace of Tilsit with Russia were Talleyrand 
 and Prince Kurakin. 
 
 26. The peace with Prussia, concluded two days after, 
 by which about half of the monarchy was returned as a gift 
 
 2 D 
 
402 rUDI.IC CONTl'STS IN KUIiOri', ISOl— 1821. (rr.nioD ill. 
 
 ofc'liarity, reduced this state, in cxtrnt and niatorial power, 
 to a stale of the second rank. Hut this loss of territory was 
 not its greatest misfortune. The oppression it liad to bear 
 in the peaee, and the most contemj)tuons treatment, which 
 only the haughty conqueror can allow himself to exercise, 
 seemed — if any object can be ascribed to it — to justify the 
 suspicion, that his only wish was to urcce it to the resistance 
 of (h'spair, in order to complete the half-perfected work, as 
 in the case of \'enice and Naples, and elsewhere, and to de- 
 clare that, " The house of Brandenburg had ceased to reign." 
 Does not a moral degradation inflict a deeper wound on a 
 generous j)cople than a political ? Or must this first occur, 
 to make it felt by all, that life is not the first of blessings? 
 
 TIic conditions of the peace at Tilsit, between France and Prussia, 
 July 9, 1807: 1. Prussia received back the territories it was not re- 
 quired to resign. 2. Prussia ceded and left to the disposition of the 
 I'Vench emperor : a. All its possessions between the Elbe and the Khinc 
 ■without exception, b. The circle of Cotbuss to Saxony, c. All its 
 provinces acquired since 1772 from Poland ; (all of South Prussia, and 
 n part of West Prussia and New East Prussia ;) of which the duchy of 
 A\ arsaw was formed, and consigned to the king of Saxony, d. The 
 city of Dantzic with its territory. 3. Prussia recognised Joseph Buona- 
 parte as king of Naj)k'S, Louis Buonaparte as king of Holland, and 
 Jerome Buonaparte as king of AVest])halia, as also the formation of this 
 kingdom from the ceded Prussian and other countries. 4. All Prussian 
 harbours and countries should remain closed, till the future peace, 
 against British navigation and trade. 5. All sums and monies, which 
 were imposed on private persons or institutions in the restored pro- 
 vinces, or on Prussian institutions in the ceded provinces, should revert 
 to the owners. 6. All further jioints respecting the return and evacu- 
 ation of the provinces and fortresses, were to be regulated by a particu- 
 hir conventi<»n, which was concluded at Konigsberg, on July 12. The 
 entire evacuation of the Prussian territory by the 1st of Oct. was pro- 
 mised, on condition of the payment of all contributions levied since 
 Nov. 1, 1806, and still in arrears. But instead of the 19 millions of 
 Irancs, according to Prussian reckoning, the French estimate fixed it at 
 112 millions; even this, after long negotiations and unheard-of oppres- 
 sions, was arbitrarily augnu'nted to 140 millions, Sept. 8, 1808. And 
 afttT 120 millions of this had been already paid, the evacuation was ac- 
 corded, Nov. ;3, only under the proviso, that three fortresses, Stettins, 
 C'ustrin, and (Uogau, shouhl be occupied, and provisioned at the expense 
 of I'russia. Dantzic also, though a free city, received a French garri- 
 son. And yet amidst all this jiublic misery, the university of Berlin 
 was founded tosu|)ply the loss of Halle. So high does intellectual cul- 
 ture stand in the r<'gard of a (Jerman state ! — Prussia had already con- 
 cluded peace with England at Meniel, Jan. 28, 1807, in consideration of 
 renouucinjr all claims to Hanover. 
 
rsRioD III.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1804—1821. 403 
 
 27. The peace at Tilsit determined likewise, though in a 
 very different manner, the political relations with the Porte 
 and Sweden. To the former it gave quiet and restored a 
 province already lost ; on the latter it brought down re- 
 newed war, and soon afterwards, the loss of almost half its 
 territory. 
 
 In consequence of the dominion of the British in the Mediterranean, 
 the occupation of Corfu by Russian troops, and the insurrection and war 
 of liberty of the Servians, favoured by them, under their heroic leader 
 Czerni George, after 1801, on the one side, and the neighbourhood of 
 France through the cession of Dalmatia (see p. 393) on the other, the 
 situation of the Porte had become much more critical in the eyes of 
 every one but itself. General Sebastiani was sent thither in 1806, and 
 demanded that the connexion, renewed with England and Russia, (Dec. 
 30, 1805,) should be dissolved, Sept. 16, and acquired an increasing 
 influence in the Divan. Russia anticipated a movement, and occupied 
 ]Moldavia in Nov. The Porte declared war on Russia, Jan. 7, 1807. 
 The Turks lost a naval battle at Lemnos, July 1, but no further use of 
 their victory was made by the Russians. An English squadron also 
 appeared for the first time, though in vain, before Constantinople, Feb. 
 20. — In consequence of the peace of Tilsit, a truce was made at Sloboja, 
 Aug. 24, and Moldavia was evacuated. — The relations of France with 
 Sweden, after the armistice already concluded in Pomerania at Schlatkov, 
 July 3, had been annulled in a most ill-fated hour, were inimical, and 
 were soon the cause of war with Russia. 
 
 28. After such pacifications, the universal dominion of 
 Buonaparte seemed to be sufiiciently established on the 
 European continent. Russia, expressly renouncing all in- 
 fluence, appeared no longer to belong to it; on its frontier 
 the duchy of Warsaw was a rival, striving after aggrandize- 
 ment ; Prussia, overthrown and dismembered ; Austria, 
 humbled ; Germany, fettered to France by the enlargement 
 of the Confederation of the Rhine, and by the foundation 
 of the kingdom of ^yestphalia, as it was called, at the ex- 
 pense of Prussia, Hanover, Hesse, and Brunswick (though 
 never acknowledged by the three last) ; French princes on 
 the thrones of Holland and Italy ; Spain in alliance ; from 
 the Pyrenees to the Vistula, French dominion, French law, 
 and, in the midst of peace, French armies — where could 
 any hope survive, unless it were in Britain ? 
 
 The decree for the foundation of the kingdom of "Westphalia was 
 promulgated, Aug. 18, 1807, and afterwards increased by the rest of 
 Hanover, Feb., 1810. Half the domains were reserved, together with 
 the property of the cloisters, for the endowment of French officers. 
 
 2 D 2 
 
404 rUlU-IC CONTKSTS IN 1:i:K0PI:, ISOl — 1s.>1. [vv.r.wr III. 
 
 12!). lUit a now and p:roator storm was gatliorinp; against 
 liiitain. Hy tlic peace ol" 'lUsit— contrary to all ex jacta- 
 tion — Ihissia had been made Ix'forelnuid iii>t merely ii 
 spectator, hnt an active ])articipator in it, i)y the secret 
 articles. l)(>pendence was placed on the volnntary or 
 forcible co-oj)eration of the tleet of Denmark. This, how- 
 ever, was anticipated by England, and the compelled sur- 
 render of the Danish fleet, in consequence of the bombard- 
 ment of Copenhaoen, gave her an accession of security, 
 thou<rh not of renown. 
 
 Had tlie committing of the mediation to Russia at the peace of Tilsit, 
 (tlie consctiuenccs of which were easily furusecn,) any other object than 
 to estranjro Kiissia and Enghmd ? — The refusal to impart tlie secret 
 articles (wliich were learned, liowever, through other channels) could 
 hut check confidence between the two states; and if at such a juncture, 
 projiortionably petty motives, like the refusal of a loan, or the demand 
 of commercial concessions, operated on either side, it was one of those 
 moments, of which policy but too soon repents. — Tlie attack on Copen- 
 liagen, the trium])h of French artilice, brought the war to an open rup- 
 ture. Russia declared war against England, Nov. 7, 1808. — Anotlier 
 consequence was, an alliance of Denmark with France, Oct. 31, 1807, 
 whicli was to open to the latter power the road to Sweden. 
 
 30. And yet it was too evident, that even the connexion 
 with Russia could not compel impregnable England to 
 peace by open force. Tins then was to be efl'ected in 
 anotlier way, and the continental system, as it was termed, 
 — the total exclusion of l^lngland from all trade and all 
 communication with the continent, — was brought forward. 
 Though the idea itself was by no means new, it was made 
 so by the extent and mode of its enibrcement. Practical 
 tyranny was unveiled in all its odious characters in the 
 system of customs and espionage; and while tiie (h^sjwt in- 
 volved himself in a conflict with nature herself, who dictates 
 the exchange of the productions of every zone, he began a 
 contest, of which the final issue could not be doubtful to 
 the intelliiient observer. 
 
 The idea of the continental system originated in America (see p. 280); 
 but its enforcement in such an extent was a result, and at the same 
 time a proof, of Napoleon's universal dominion. Its corner-stone was 
 laid by the d<'crees of Berlin, Nov. 21, 1806, as a fundamental law of 
 the empire, till England should recognise tlie French maritime law : by 
 them, a. The British islands were declared in a state of blockade, h. 
 Every English subject on the continent was declared a prisoner of war. 
 c. All trade in English merchandise was prohibited ; and all articles of 
 
PERIOD III.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1804— 1S2I. 405 
 
 its manufactures or its colonies were confiscated, d. No vessel should 
 be admitted from a British harbour or its colonies. These regulations 
 were met by the British orders in council, Jan. 7, 1807, which prohi- 
 bited every ship from entering any French port, or any port under 
 French influence, under pain of confiscation. This was followed by the 
 decree of Warsaw, Jan. 25, 1807, declaring that all British commodities 
 were confiscated in the (just occupied) Hanseatic cities, without respect 
 of owners. This decree was retaliated, Mai'ch 11, by a strict blockade 
 of the Elbe and "VVeser ; and the order in council of Nov. 11, de- 
 claring all ports from which the British flag was excluded to be in a 
 state of blockade ; and that all ships proceeding thither should be cap- 
 tured, unless they had touched at a British port and paid a duty. This 
 was answered by the decree of Milan, Dec. 17, 1807, by which every 
 ship, which should submit to these conditions, was declared denational- 
 ized, and a lawful prize. Thus all the navigation of neutrals was sup- 
 pressed. — Would it not have been — especially with respect to the United 
 States of America — more politic and more worthy of England to have 
 replied to the first decree by silence ? — Finally, by the frantic decree of 
 Fontainbleau, Oct. 19, 1810, it was ordered that all British manufec- 
 tures should be burned, from Naples to Holland, and from Spain to 
 Germany. Instead of the pyres of the inquisition of belief, those of the 
 inquisition of commerce were now reared, often the objects of ridicule 
 to those by whom they were kindled. And yet the love of gain was 
 stronger than madness. By the decrees of Trianon, Aug. 5, and Sept. 
 12, 1810, permission was given to import colonial commodities on pay- 
 ment of a duty of 50 per cent, on their value. And finally — will pos- 
 terity believe it ? — a formal trade was allowed to be carried on by 
 licences, contrary to his own decrees ! The contraband trade was car- 
 ried on to an incredible extent, which no lines of custom-houses and no 
 oaths could prevent. 
 
 Napoleon has a right to demand, that his policy should be viewed 
 from his own position. This is done to the utmost in the Mamiscrit 
 vcnu de St. Helene, London, 1817, written by him. The open avowal, 
 that " he never took into consideration the right, but only the matter," 
 p. 6, applied to the assertion, that "he had made it his aim as emperor, 
 not only to rule France, but to subdue the world," p. 28, gives the 
 fullest key to his policy, to which we have certainly but little reason to 
 object the want of consistency. After snch a confession, the judicious- 
 ness of the measures he adopted, and not their morality and justice, is 
 to be considered. We shall therefore have, hereafter, to view them 
 from this point only. 
 
 31. The consequences of this system were ahke perni- 
 cious both in a mercantile and political respect. By the 
 continental system, the despot put himself in opposition to 
 our whole civilization. It was most closely connected with 
 commerce, and this, prosecuted for a long time with every 
 portion of the eai-th, could not be reduced to a miserable 
 internal trade, without being followed by its destruction. 
 What was all the trade in woad and beet-root in comparison 
 
406 PUBLIC CONTKSTS IN LUKOI'i:, 1801-18-21. [rtniOD in. 
 
 with lliG trado of the two Indies? Domestic nianuflirturers, 
 it was said, were the jiaiiKM's. liut is the <'aiii of the inaiiu- 
 facturers at the same time a sure gain of the people at 
 hirn;e, so lonp; as they do not olVer as good and cheap com- 
 ino(Hties as foreign countries ? 
 
 32. In a pohtical point of view, the continental system 
 was a false system, because it rested on the double assump- 
 tion, that the foreign commerce of the British was to them 
 the grand source of acquisition, and that this would be 
 annihilated by closing the continent. Experience has 
 shown the contrary. If single sources of gain failed, a 
 peoj)le that ruled every sea could easily open others. 
 \\'as it not the very discovery of the secret, that, in case of 
 necessity, the continent itself might be foregone — at least 
 for a long time — which must have made Great Britain in- 
 vincible in her own estimation? 
 
 33. But it was easy to foresee the consequences, which 
 the continental system must have upon the dominion of the 
 emperor on the continent itself. Its entire impoverishment 
 would have imposed a limit ; for among the continental 
 states themselves — France only was to be benefited at the 
 cost of others, even of its allies — there existed any thing 
 but freedom of traflic ; and such a compulsion must have 
 been short in proportion to the strictness with which it was 
 enforced. The fe(!ling of intolerable oppression must hav(; 
 created the greater opposition, and soon resistance, in pro- 
 portion to the number of those who had been forced to 
 submit. It is in>tructivc to see, in a new exam[)le, how 
 tyranny becomes the mother of liberty. 
 
 Russia and Prussia acocdcd to tlio continontnl systpm by the treaty of 
 Tilsit ; Di'iimark l)y its nllianee ; the Conleth'rntion of tlie Rhine, Hol- 
 land, and Italy, liy tlwir relations ; Austria and Spain, in Jan., 1808; 
 and at last even Sweden, in IS 10. vVt (he two extremities of Europe, 
 there reniainecl I'ortu^^al, an<l tiie Porte; to whieh the whole system 
 was probably a riddle, and which self-interest still prompted to spare. 
 
 34. Projects were planned against Portugal, wliich was 
 devoted to England, in order to prepare the way for greater 
 plans against iSjr.iin. But fust Spain itself was to assist in 
 overthrowing Portugal. The partition of Portugal was 
 concerted in a secret treaty, and Sj)ain was assured of its 
 share of the spoil ; while a French-Spanish army marched 
 against Lisbon. 
 
TEiiioD 111.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUKOPE, 1801—1821. 407 
 
 A secret treaty was signed at Fontainblcau, Oct. 27, 1807, between 
 Duroc and Don Izquierdo. — Portugal was divided into three parts ; the 
 northern, Lusitania, Avas destined for the king of Etruria, who relin- 
 quished his kingdom to Napoleon (in consequence, the queen of Etruria 
 abdicated, Dec. 10, see above, p. 383) ; Lusitania was occupied by 
 French troops. The second, Algarves, was for the prince of Peace ; 
 the tliird, the main part, was to remain in sequestration till the peace, 
 in favour of France. A French army of twenty-eight thousand men, 
 combined with eleven thousand Spaniards, marched tlirough Spain 
 against Portugal : a greater ai-my was assembled at Bayonne. — It was 
 tiierefore a conspiracy of a father against his own children ; if, indeed, 
 Charles FV^. knew more of it than his favourite wished. 
 
 35. Fate, however, had decreed otherwise. Thouoh the 
 tlirone of Portugal fell, and although it was there declared, 
 that " The house of Braganza had ceased to reign," a new 
 and greater one arose on the other side of the ocean. On 
 British advice and under British protection, the royal house 
 emigrated to Brazil. 
 
 Lisbon was entered by Junot, Dec. 1, after the court had set sail to 
 Brazil, with troops and treasures, Nov. 30 previous. Many Spanish 
 fortresses had already been craftily occupied on the march through 
 Spain. — And under pretence of occupying Etruria, the flower of the 
 Spanish troops was sent to Italy ; whence they were transferred to 
 Denmark in 1807, after the cession of this country, in order to threaten 
 Sweden; but they soon escaped from FLihnen, under their leader Eo- 
 mana, in English ships, to their oppressed country, 1808. 
 
 36. Hitherto, enemies only had been driven from their 
 thrones ; Spain was to show that friends and allies — for Na- 
 poleon had long ruled in Spain under these. titles — were no 
 more secure on theirs. Charles IV. had seen and aided in 
 the expulsion of his brother, his daughter, and his son-in- 
 law ; it was now his own turn. Dispossessed by the rebel- 
 lion of his own son, allured with him and his family into the 
 snare of the robber of crowns, and deprived of his throne and 
 liberty, the Spanish house was doomed to exhibit scenes to 
 tlie astonished world, similar to those of the ancient regal 
 houses, whose crimes and fall had lono- been the exclusive 
 property of the tragic stage. — Thus all the Bourbons in suc- 
 cession had been compelled to descend from their thrones. 
 
 The plan against Spain was to take advantage of the internal discord 
 in the royal family, kept up and managed by French agents. A rupture 
 was occasioned by the hatred that Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias, enter- 
 tained towards the all-directing favourite, Don Manuel Godoy, who, 
 v.'holly devoted to France, had permitted himself to be used, since his 
 
403 PUBLIC CONTESTS IN lU'ROPK, 1*^01-1821. [rKnioD in. 
 
 clcvntion, as Nnpoloon's instrument. Frnlinand vran imprisoned, Oet. 
 30, 1807, on tlio charpc that lie liiul att(.'nijtt('<l the liib ot' liis fiitlier. 
 lie was rcl('a.Ht'(l, Nov. 3, and his pretcuded accomplices acquitted ; but 
 from that time (here whs mutual animosity. Tiie jx-oplc became exas- 
 )>crated with the ministers, wliile a Hccond French army, under ]Mnrat, 
 approached tlie capitaJ. A |M)pidar insurrection, having arisen in Aran- 
 juez, Man-h IG, IHOM, .soon s]iread to Madrid ; tin' |)rince of Peace was 
 arrested, and Cliarles IV. abdicated, March 19. The accession of Fer- 
 dinand Vll. and tiie fall of the minister wotdd have frustrated tiie jdans 
 of Napoleon, had nut Charles IV. protested aprainst his own abdication 
 as forceil. Napoh'on arriveil at Bayonne, Ajtril 1.5, whither Ferdinand 
 was inveifxled by Savary, April 20, as also his parent.s, April 30. By 
 the treaty of Bayonne, May 5, diaries IV. eonsijrned to the disposition 
 of Nap<deon the Si)anish monarchy, in consideration of — the castle and 
 l)ark of Compiegne and a pension. The weak father, now the accuser 
 of his own son, demanded the renunciation of hi.s rights to the suc- 
 ces.sion. After the tin-eat of Napoleon, "death or ab<lication»" Ferdi- 
 nand renounced all his rights by the convention of May 10. — The 
 royal family was removed to Compiegne, Ferdinand and his brother 
 to Valentj-ay, where they were detained as prisoners under Talleyrand's 
 supervision. 
 
 Thick as was the veil, wliicli it was attempted to throw over this 
 tissue of wickedness, it was soon removed by the secretary of state, 
 Peduo Cevallos : Expose dcs moi/ois ciuploifcs par rcmpercur Napo- 
 leon pour iisurpc}- la couronnc cVEspacjnc, publics a IVIadrit, Sept. 1. 
 1808. — And afterwards, Expose dcs motifs fpii out cngaijc en 1808. S. 
 jV. C. Ferdinand I'll, a sc rendre a Bai/onne, prcseutc a FEspagne et 
 () r Europe, par D. Juan Escoiquiz. Paris, 1816. Both were men of 
 the best information, as eye-witnesses. 
 
 37. The tlirone of Spain and tho Indies, thus vacated, 
 
 was confbri'cd by a decree of the tyrant, which was 
 
 ratified by a Junta convened on the frontier, upon 
 
 junc2o. jjj^ brother Josepli, kinp; of Naples, who had for liis 
 
 successor in that kinp;doni Joachim Murat, Buonaparte's 
 
 brother-in-law, formerly Duke of Berg. A constitution 
 
 similar to the French, religious liberty excepted, was prof- 
 
 f(;rcd to the Junta, and accepted ; the Junta was innne- 
 
 diately dissolved, and the new kin<2: sent to Madrid, 
 
 Jiilv 7. / • <• 1 1 I • 1 , 
 
 to take possession ot the throne, thus gamed by 
 robbeiy. 
 
 The grand duko of Berg was appointed king of tlie two Sicilies, 
 July 1.5, 1808 ; the vacated duchy was granted to the son (four 3'ears 
 old) of the king of Holland, with the injunction, oflicially inculcated, 
 " that his first duty w.as towards the emperor, his second towards 
 France, his third towards his future subjects." Till his majority, the 
 grand duchy, divided into four departments, remained under Fi'ench 
 ail ministration. 
 
PERIOD III.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1804— 1&21. 409 
 
 38. The Spanish usurpation, by enlarging the dominion 
 of the family, seemed to be an additional step towards uni- 
 versal dominion. Experience, however, has proved that — 
 judged by this standard — it was a political fault. It was 
 unnecessary, since Napoleon already ruled there. It was 
 done without a knowledge of the country and the nation ; 
 a universal insurrection having ensued, it opened the 
 abyss, which devoured alike the French armies and the 
 French finances ; and it gave England a theatre for war. 
 But it taught Europe, that the people are more powerful 
 than mercenary armies; and it was moreover destined — to 
 give freedom to another quarter of the globe. 
 
 The insiuTection first broke out in Aranjuez, May 2, 1808. In the 
 same month it liad spread over almost all Spain ; Juntas were erected 
 in each province ; and particularly at Seville. The first great result 
 was the capitulation of Genei'al Dupont in Andalusia, extorted by Cas- 
 tanos, July 20 ; and the successful defence of Saragossa by Palafox, 
 Aug. 15. On Aug. 1, Joseph had to leave Madi'id. — j\Iean while the 
 insurrection spread through Portugal ; and a league was made with 
 Spain, June 14, England having declared the war with the Spanish 
 nation to be at an end, June 4, and having sent an auxiliary body to 
 Portugal ; where Junot, after the battle at Vimeira, Aug. 21, was com- 
 pelled to make an honourable capitulation at Lisbon. — In Spain many 
 battles were fought, great and small ; but the victories of the French 
 gave them nothing more than the ground on which they stood. But 
 new, reinvigorated armies were sent out, composed of French troops 
 and the troops of the Confederation of the Rhine, Prussia having been 
 evacuated. — A central Junta was, meanwhile, established in Aranjuez, 
 Sept. 25 ; the higher authority of which the provincial Juntas would 
 not, however, acknowledge, as they regarded it only as a subordinate 
 deputation from their own number, 
 
 39. The resolution of Napoleon to proceed to Spain in 
 person rendered some precautions in Europe necessary, in 
 order, as Austria had already assumed a doubtful attitude, 
 to protect his rear, and, above all, to secure Russia. A 
 personal meeting seemed the most judicious expedient, as it 
 had been seen at Tilsit how much might be effected by 
 such a measure. The congress at Erfurt had apparently no 
 other object, since the renewed proffer of peace to England 
 was evidently only for ostentation. It has not been au- 
 thentically divulged, what other agreements were made ; 
 what may have been concerted with respect to Sweden, and 
 even with respect to the Porte, in order that Napoleon 
 might have his hands disencumbered in Spain ; but that 
 
410 rUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUUOPE, 1801—1821. [ieriod hi. 
 
 tlx' integritif of the Porto, so ofton broiu^lit forward, was, 
 in tilt' mouth of the usurper, iiothiu'^- more than a flLTiu'e of 
 .•speech, could scarcely be doubted alter the expedition to 
 
 At the conjrrcss of Erfurt, Oct., IROS, t)f>si(lcs the two omporor.*, the 
 four kiufTfl of the Confoih-ration of tlie Kliiue nppciired in person, topre- 
 thor with a pjrt'iit number of jirinces ; others sent anilia.s.s;ulor.s. The 
 two emperors extended an invitation to peace to Eni;h\nd hy a joint 
 letter, Oct. 8. It was immediately declined, because it was refused to 
 admit the Spanish nation to a share in the deliberations. — M<d<lavia and 
 AVala?hia were given up (according to French accounts) to Russia, in 
 consideration of its recognising the occupation of Spain ; Turkish pro- 
 vinces were probaldy assigned to Austria, but not accejited. — These 
 transactions were followed by the campaign of the emperor in Spain, 
 Nov. and Dec. Several Spanish corps were defeated, which could not 
 maintain their ground in a regular battle. The English army retreated 
 under Sir John Moore to Corunna. This bold general fell in the con- 
 flict before the city, Jan. 16, 1809, soon, however, to give place to a 
 greater. The British army embarked, but a formal alliance was con- 
 cluded with the Spanish nation, Jan. 14, on condition of mutual assist- 
 ance, and none otiier but a common peace. Ferdinand VII., or who- 
 ever should be recognised by the Spanish nation as their king, was to 
 be recognised by England. 
 
 40. The congress of Erfurt and the negotiations begun 
 with tlie ambassadors of Austria seemed indeed to restore 
 the amicable relations between that country and France. — 
 It was even permitted to the princes of the Confederation 
 to withhold their preparations in behalf of tlieir protector; 
 — but the causes of the distrust lay too deep, and the cir- 
 cumstances of the times required too oppressive demands to 
 suffer the peace to exist. After the experience already ac- 
 quired at the peace of Prcsburg, was Austria quietly to look 
 forward to a fate like that sustained by Prussia at the treaty 
 of Tilsit ? And could it meet with any other if Spain should 
 be subjected ? The effects of the example given in Spain 
 were already visible ; the princes felt tliat their strength lay 
 in their j)eople ; and by the erection of the militia in Aus- 
 tria — undervalued and even ridiculed by the emperor him- 
 self — the first great impulse was given, which was at a future 
 ]>eriod to hurl him from his throne. Not in the single 
 wrongs only, enumerated by Austria in its manifesto, but in 
 the general situation of I'>uro])e, lay the cause of a fourth 
 war, which it began against the usurp-er. Apart from its 
 issue, Austria retains the glory of having the most persever- 
 
PERIOD III.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1804—1821. 411 
 
 ingly persisted in the conflict for liberty on the continent ; 
 as it was eventually to decide that conflict by its accession. 
 
 As early as June, 1808, military preparations were made in Austria, 
 and a general militia was established ; which make it probable that war 
 was already resolved on. — Napoleon made repeated demands tliat the 
 people should be disarmed ; for the states were to stand defenceless. 
 Fruitless proposals of a mutual guarantee were made to Russia, March 
 27. The war immediately broke out, and was formally declared against 
 France, April 15. 
 
 4 1 . Though this was altogether an aggressive war on the 
 part of Austria — very inconvenient just then to the emperor 
 — it was a rightful aggressive war for breaking the chains 
 that she endured, and avoiding others yet more severe. 
 This was felt by the nations ; and though the summons of 
 Austria to the Germans was answered by action only in the 
 faithful Tyrol, yet in other places were seen the convulsions 
 of liberty, striking the oppressor v/ith terror. The dreaded 
 imao-e of the Tiaroidbuud had more efl:ect than the Tuo-end- 
 bund itself could have had, had it appeared in public. And 
 if the flames that Schill and Doernberg attempt- 
 ed to kindle were again extinguished, they showed 
 
 what a fire was still smouldering; under the ashes. 
 
 The Tyrolese commenced an insurrection under Hofer, Speckbacher, 
 etc., aided by the Austrians under Chasteler, etc. — A bloody conflict 
 was sustained with the Bavarians and French, April and May, with de- 
 cided success till the departure of the Austrians, May 19, 1809. The 
 insurrection was revived, and, having spread to Vorarlberg and Salz- 
 burg, was kept up under the most furious battles with varying success 
 till the end of Nov. The final issue depended necessarily on the event 
 of the contest waged on the principal theatre. But it was seen in a 
 German country what a popular war is ; and the execution of Hofer 
 and others, after an amnesty had been proclaimed, April 5, 1810, at 
 Mantua, gave freedom its martyrs. 
 
 Der Krieg gegen die Tyroler LancUeute im Jahr 1809, von J. L. S. 
 Bartiioldy. 1814. We might believe ourselves transported to an 
 earlier age ! 
 
 42. Judicious as were the reo-ulations of Austria, and ffreat 
 as was the enthusiasm of the nation and its armies, it was 
 left to itself alone. No connexion with Eno-land, cut off as 
 she was, was possible ; (and no benefit accrued to Austria 
 from England's partial undertakings;) Prussia lay prostrate; 
 in Russia, its old ally, it could now behold only an enemy ; 
 its Polish provinces bordered, not without danger, on the 
 duchy of Warsaw ; and instead of the German empire, which 
 it once managed, its moit danj^erous foe stood on its bound- 
 
412 PUBLIC CONTKSTS IN KlHorK, IbOl— i&21. [innioD ill. 
 
 arics in tlic Confederation of llio IJliinc And it was on the 
 ussistance of this conlcthTacy tliat liuonaparlc calcnhitrd, 
 havinjx left the orcater j)art of his own forces in .Spain. 
 'J'hns Germany saw — for the last time it is to be hoped — the 
 niournfid spectacle of its sons lacerating each other. 
 
 Tlio main Austrian army ontiM-cd liavaria under tlie Arflidukc Charles, 
 wliilo anotlicr under tlio Ardidukc Julm pcnclrated into Italy and 'i'yrol, 
 and a smaller one advancecl to Warsaw under the Areliduke Ferdinand, 
 Ai)ril 10, iSOi). . Tiieir antaironists, besides some French corps, were 
 principally Bavarians, "\Virtend)er;rers, Saxons, and Poles. The Ger- 
 mans, however, were all tnider French penerals. After several p^reat 
 battles, at Landshut and Abenshnrjr, April 19, 20, the battle of Kck- 
 nuiid was fou;^ht, April 22, ui)on which Archduke Charles retired to 
 lioheniia over the Danube by way of Katisbon, in order to confront 
 liis enemy once more at Vienna. Naiioleon passed forward, therefore, 
 throufjh Austria by way of Linz and Kbersberg towards Vienna under 
 several battles. Vienna was a second time taken, ]\Iay 12, and the 
 IIun;iarians were, but in vain, exhorted to insurrection. In consequence, 
 the Archduke John retired from Tyrol and Italy, alter the successful 
 battle at Sacile, to Hungary, April 12 ; and was followed to the Kaab 
 ])v the viceroy, who formed a junction with the main army of Napoleon 
 at IJruck, May 27. — The Archduke Ferdinand withdrew iVom AVarsaw, 
 and Gallicia was occupied in jMay by the Poles under I'oniatow.-ky ; 
 who were tardily joined by the Russians. 
 
 43. The theatre of the war was thus transferred to tlie 
 pites of the capital ; and nothinn- but the Danube separated 
 tlie two armies. Tlie day at Aspern proved, for the first 
 time, that even he who was deemed invincible might be 
 conquered ; l)ut the victory was not imj)roved as had been 
 expected. Time was thus gained lor new preparations, and 
 after the second passage the battle at Wagram was fought, 
 •which resulted in the retreat of the Austrians, and bhortly 
 in a truce which led to a jjcace. 
 
 On the first passage of llie Danube the great battle was fouglit at 
 Aspern and Ksslingen on the >AIarchfeld, May 21, 22, 1S09. Repulsed 
 ami (after the destruction of the bridges) cooped up in the island of Lo- 
 bau, Napoleon was allowed time to escape and recover. He crossed the 
 river a second time, and the deadly battle of AVagram was fought for 
 two days, Jidy .'), G. The Austrians retreated to Znaim, where they con- 
 cluded a truce, July 12 ; al"ter which the gallant Duke William of liruns- 
 wick-Oels, refusing to have, any p;ut in it, and mindful of the honour 
 of the house of the Ciuelphs. accomplisli(vl with his band of volunfecr.s 
 liis chivalrous journey from Saxony to ICngland, by way of Oldenburg, 
 July 2.) — Aug. 14. — Meanwhile England undertook an expeililion, 
 badly planned and worse executed, against the island of AValchoren, 
 July — Sept., intending to destroy the newly-built navy at Antwerp. On 
 
rERioD III.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1804—1821. 413 
 
 the other hand jNIartinique was conquered, Feb. 25, and a fruitless at- 
 tack was made on the Isle of Bourbon, Sept. 21. But no energetic 
 diversions were made in the north of Germany, where there were no 
 ships and colonies to conquer. 
 
 44. The truce of Znaim was not followed by such a 
 speedy pacification as is usual ; whether it was because 
 Austria would not so easily comply with the conditions ex- 
 acted, or because she expected Russia's participation, or 
 whether, in fine, because the emperor wished first to have 
 time to levy the immense contributions imposed on the 
 Austrian provinces ; since no such treatment as was used 
 in the case of Prussia would be possible here after the peace. 
 After the lapse of three months, and the removal of the de- 
 liberations from Hungary to Schoenbrun, together with a 
 change of negotiators, the peace of Vienna was concluded, 
 purchased by conditions less honourable, apparently, than 
 might have been expected after such a struggle. 
 
 Conditions of the peace of Vienna or Schoenbrun, Oct. 10, 1809 : a. 
 Austria ceded to the disposition of Napoleon, in favour of the princes of 
 the Confederation of the Rhine, Salzburg with Berchtolsgaden, the Inn- 
 viertel, and half of the Hausruckviertel (granted to Bavaria), b. Aus- 
 tria ceded to Napoleon the Jllyrian provinces, as they were afterwards 
 called (the circle of Villach of Carinthia, all Crain, the county of Goertz, 
 the territory of Trieste and Montefalcone, half Croatia, with the Hun- 
 garian Littorale and Fiume). c. To the king of Saxony, as Duke of 
 Warsaw, all West Gallicia ; and to Russia — in recompence of its aid — ■ 
 a district of four hundred thousand inhabitants in East Gallicia. d. 
 Amnesty for the Tyrolese and Yorarlbergians. e. Austria promised 
 an unconditional accession to the continental system, and to break oif 
 all its relations with England, f. Austria renounced the dignity of 
 grand master of the Teutonic Order (afterwards declared to be abolish- 
 ed by Napoleon), g. Austria acknowledged the changes that should 
 be made in Portugal, Spain, and Italy, h. The allied states of France 
 were included in the peace, and Napoleon guaranteed to Austria the 
 rest of its possessions. The war with Russia ceased of itself. 
 
 The negotiators of the peace of Vienna were, the Duke of Cham- 
 pagny and Prince John Lichtenstein, for whom Prince Metternich was 
 substituted. 
 
 45. The peace of Vienna robbed the Austrian monarchy 
 again of more than three millions and a half of its inhabit- 
 ants. Yet it found a recompence for this loss in the faithful 
 attachment of its subjects; and what was lost like Tyrol 
 could scarcely be called a loss. But nevertheless it ap- 
 peared almost certain that after another pause another 
 storm only would be wanting to dissolve it into several 
 
4U I'LIU.IC CONTESTS IN KUROPE, ISOI— 1821. frEnion ill. 
 
 states. Did not tlio oxliortatimi to Hungary, tho c'stal)lii.h- 
 ment of tlio lllyrian provincos, and tho ap:o;randi7.omnnt of 
 the ducliv of Warsaw by lialf of (nillicia, (wliich made. 
 Russia itself begin to fear,) perfectly justify this view, if 
 policy, judging by the past, might dare to throw a glances 
 into ilie future? Wholly cut otV from the sea, deprived of 
 its bulwarks the Alps, and with open boundaries politically 
 surrouniled by armed states on the south, west, and north, 
 and with distracted finances, no hope seemed left to Austria, 
 except that policy is so often mistaken (because })hysical 
 ])0wer alone can be calculated) where it believes itself to 
 have jud<x<-<l most correctly ; and after all, every thing in 
 the world has its measure and limit. That a future catas- 
 trophe for the Turkish empire lay in the background of the 
 jieace of Vienna appeared hardly doubtful ; but reflecting 
 minds were more and more convinced that the path to bet- 
 ter things lay only through great calamity. 
 
 The erection of the lllyrian provinces, to wliich Dalmatia, ceded in 
 tlie peace of Presburjr, ami unitcil with the kingdom of Italy, (see p. 
 393,) was added, totrether with Ratrusa, which had been occuj)ied, May 
 27, 1806, and Cattaro, and the cession of the Ionian islands by Russia 
 to France, Aug. 9, 1807, of which England was able to conquer only 
 the smaller and unfortified one, Corfu, made France the immediate 
 neighbour of the Turkish empire, as well as Servia, now in a state of 
 revolt, as of Greece. 
 
 46. The moment of the contest with Austria, to which 
 the eyes of all were turned, appeared to the emperor to be 
 the most favourable moment for striking a blow, from which, 
 although it had been a long time concerted, he had hitherto 
 been restrained by a respect for what was held sacred. 
 There was something revolting in driving the head of the 
 church from his throne, however much the world was ac- 
 customed to the robbery of the church. But too many 
 lofty ideas were associated with the name of Rome, for the 
 empire of Europe to be complete without the dominion of 
 Rome, even if the way thither lay through crimes. Hence, 
 after many acts of violence, the decree went forth from \\- 
 cnna, commanding the yet remaining states of the church 
 to be incorporated into the French empire. 
 
 The collisions of the temporal with the spiritual authority were in- 
 evitable in the system of Napoleon, who wisheil the latter to have no 
 inllucnce on civil aOair?. These collisions liad begun soon after the 
 
PERIOD III.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1804—1821. 415 
 
 conclusion of the Concordat (see p. 386) on account of the conditions 
 arbitrarily annexed to it. From that time incessant demands and con- 
 tentions ensued, which soon became of a political nature. — The city of 
 Eome was occupied by a military force under Gen. Miollis, Feb. 2, 
 1808. The demand of an alliance, offensive and defensive, (principally 
 against England, by shutting the ports,) was firmly resisted by Pius VU., 
 as inconsistent with the obligations of the head of the church. Ancona, 
 Urbino, and IMacerata were immediately occupied and annexed to the 
 kingdom of Italy, April 2. During the whole of the next year, un- 
 paralleled acts of violence were perpetrated. The cardinals and papal 
 ministers were removed and incarcerated, his troops disarmed ; even 
 the recesses of his jialace no longer afforded an asylum. Finally, the 
 decree of the annexation of the States of the Church and the city of 
 Eome was pi-omulgated. May 17, 1809, and executed, June 9, by virtue 
 of his rights as successor of Charles the Great ! 
 
 47. The defenceless could not prevent the rapine of the 
 powerful. But Buonaparte did not seize his prey with en- 
 tire impunity. In the full dignity of his office, without 
 deviating a tittle from his duty, Pius VII. had withstood 
 every encroachment on his rights as a prince and Pope. 
 When the last blow of the usurper fell, he also had recourse 
 to his last weapons ; and Napoleon bore away his spoils, 
 loaded with the maledictions of the church. Pius \ll. was 
 arrested, forcibly removed and imprisoned. All this, power 
 could do ; but it could not restore the harmony between 
 church and state, and how far might this variance lead, if 
 the church should continue united with the state ? As the 
 continental system of Napoleon was repugnant with nature, 
 so his ecclesiastical system was at war with conscience. 
 And was the latter easier to subdue than the former ? 
 
 By the papal bull to Napoleon I. of June 11, 1809, published, not- 
 withstanding every precaution, on the 12th, "Napoleon I. emperor of 
 the French, and all his coadjutors in the violences perpetrated in Rome 
 and the States of the Church, since Feb. 2, 1808, are declared excom- 
 municated, with all who shall oppose the publicity of this bull." — From 
 that time the Quirinal palace was watched, and finally, about midnight, 
 July 5, the department of the Pope was entered by gens d'armes under 
 their captain Eadet ; the Pupe Avas arrested, and immediately trans- 
 ported, in company with Cardinal Pacca, at first over Mont Cenis to 
 Grenoble, July 21, and from thence by way of Nice to Savona, Aug. 9, 
 where Pius VII., refusing all compliance with the demands, and receiving 
 only the .daily prison allowance, lived three years, in part on alms ; till 
 in June, 1812, he was dragged as a prisoner to Fontainbleau. lie, who 
 bent all, was unable to bend this aged prelate ; for the church also was 
 to have its martyr ; and who was more worthy of this than its head. 
 
 A collection of the most important documents from the papal court, 
 
410 I'LIILIC CONTESTS IN EUUOrE, I&0l-If2l. (rtiuou ill. 
 
 (porlmps the nioHt nioviiiff of those eventful times,) from Feb., ISOH, to 
 .lutie, IHO}), with the hull of excomiiuinieation and its publieution, iiuiy 
 l>e found in S('iif)r.i.i., Ii'ccucil, etc., vol. i. p. 12.'} — 2.55. 
 
 Sforia di J'ontifirato di ]*in ]\tpa J'Jl. Jiiio al J'tiitxtissinio di lid 
 rilnrno (did S. Side, scyuito in ffiorno 24. Ma;:;zio, 1814. Kunui, 
 181.5, 2 vols. Drawn and compiled from public papers and documents. 
 The two vols, however only go to Sept., 1806. 
 
 48. But in tlie north of Europe, ^reat revolutions were 
 produced by tlie peace of Tilsit, and the political convulsion 
 was to extend even to the furthest boundaries of Lapland. 
 It was occasioned by the obstinate hnnness of Gustavus 1\ . 
 He had remained in a state of war with France, (see p. 
 403,) and his close connexion with En;jland, occasioned not 
 only a war with Russia and Denmark, but was to cost him 
 and his house the throne, and deprive his kingdom of Fin- 
 land ; for Russia believed herself bound not to let .such an 
 opj)ortunity pass unimproved. Strange ! The only one 
 that was able, and ought to have maintained a dignified 
 neutrality — would not. 
 
 A subsidiary treaty was concluded between England and Sweden, 
 Feb. 8, 1808; on the other hand, Eui^sia demanded the fuUilment of 
 the conditions of the armed neutrality (which had long ago ceased). — 
 Russia issued a declaration, Feb. 22, and at the same time commenced 
 hostilities ; the imperial ambassador was unwisely arrested in Stock- 
 holm. — The Russians invaded Finland, with the declaration that it was 
 incorporated with Russia, and the commander promulgated an address 
 calling on "their good neighbours and the brave Fins to be quiet, and 
 (for they had not gone to school to France in vain) to desert the cause 
 of their king." — At this time, Denmark declared war against Sweden, 
 in consequence of the alliance of the first-mentioned power with France, 
 (see p. 404,) while a French-Spanish corps-d'arnue under Bernadotte 
 (from whom however the Spanish escaped to Spain under Romana, see 
 ]). 407) advanced to Denmark, without however crossing to Sweden, 
 though Swedish troops attacked Norway, but ineffectually, 1808, the 
 cession of which country was even then in agitation. The British 
 auxiliary corps under General ]\Ioore had to return to Gottenburg 
 without disembarking, (July.) because the two i)arties could come to no 
 agreement respecting the use to be made of them. — Tiius Gustavus IV. 
 remained wholly aliandoned. — Meanwhile the Russians advanced into 
 Swedish Finland in the summer of 1808, having Ibuglit many single 
 engagements on land and sea, with various success ; but having })ene- 
 trated in the autumn into Northern Finland, a truce was made, Nov. 
 19, by which the province of Uleaburg was relinquished to tlie Rus- 
 sians. — But after the expiration of the truce, the Russian army crossed 
 the frozen Bothnian gulf, from AVasa to Uniea, under General Barclay 
 de Tolly (an unheard-of feat) ! and Tornco was at the same time occu- 
 pied, March 1809, and the isle of Aland taken. Thus threatened on 
 
PERIOD III.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1804—1821. 417 
 
 all sides as far as the capital, and on the brink of destruction, a part of 
 the army broke out into insurrection ; after the revolution of March 13, 
 1809, the king was arrested by Klingspor and Adlercreutz ; he abdi- 
 cated at Gripsholm, i\Iarch 29 ; and the deposed monarch with his 
 family was expelled from the kingdom. Necessity indeed enjoins, that 
 the pilot, who is steering directly on the rocks, should be removed from 
 the hehn ; but was there no hereditary right in Sweden ? The govern- 
 ment was taken possession of by the king's uncle, Charles XIII., Chris- 
 tian Augustus, Prince of Holstein-Augustenburg, being adopted and 
 appointed his eventual successor. Negotiations were opened with Rus- 
 sia, and, by the peace at Fredericksham, Sept. 17, 1809: a. Sweden 
 ceded to Russia all the principality of Finland to the river Torneo, to- 
 gether with the isle of Aland, b. It promised to adhere to the conti- 
 nental system, c. It retained, however, certain privileges with respect 
 to the trade with Finland ; especially the free export of grain from 
 thence to the amount of fifty-thousand Tschetwert. d. Russia promised 
 its mediation towards obtaining peace with France and Denmark. 
 Sweden thus lost more than a tliird of its territory and population, while 
 Russia was I'endered impregnable in the north. — In consequence of the 
 mediation, peace was concluded with Denmark at Jonkopping, Dec. 10, 
 without any conditions of importance, and with France at Paris, Jan. 
 6, 1810. a. Sweden was to join the continental system, h. Swedish 
 Pomerania with the island Rugen was to be restored ; but Sweden ac- 
 quiesced in the endowments made there. 
 
 The negotiators of the peace at Fredericksham were. Count Roman- 
 zoff and Alopeus on the side of Russia; Stedingk and Skoeldebrand on 
 the part of Sweden. — Of that at Paris, De Champagny and D'Essen. 
 
 Memorial du Colonel Gustafson (the deposed king), a Leipsic, 
 1809, Svo. 
 
 49. At the close of the year the continent was again in a 
 state of tranquilhty, with the exception of the peninsula of 
 the Pyrenees. But what a fallacious tranquillity ! The con- 
 tinental system, now embracing a quarter of the globe ex- 
 tending from the Pyrenees to the Wolga, rendered it one 
 immense prison, in which the " great European family" was 
 confined with the utmost rigour, and surrounded by an 
 army of spies. And even within this spacious prison, there 
 was any thing but freedom of traffic. The boundaries of 
 each state, and especially of the leading state, were guarded 
 with threefold exactness ; the system of passports (for all 
 strangers were suspected) recalled tyranny to remembrance 
 at every step ; every person coveted the good fortune to be 
 maimed, in order perhaps to escape conscription ; and no 
 attack on productive industry was too outrageous, so that it 
 promised to augment the ready money in France, and con- 
 sequently in the public treasury ; for to this single funda- 
 
 2 E 
 
418 rUULIC CONTK.STS IN EUROI'E. If-Ol— 1^21. [rEnioD iiI. 
 
 mental position the wliolo national oronomy ^vas rcducod, 
 fornunl as it was upon the strictest maxnns of tlio mercantile 
 system. Several ^i'^antic undertakings were indeed exe- 
 cuted in consequence of tliis despotism, thoup;li at the cost 
 of the peoph\ canals cxcavat<'d throuj^h hii^hlands, and 
 roads constructed over the Alps ; but what are these with- 
 out trade ? And if millions were annually cxjx'uded on the 
 embelhslnuent of the capital, (while the exchequer appro- 
 priated to itself the income of tlie towns,) yet the union 
 of all kind of resources was unable to rear a monument, 
 which, like those of the Pharaohs and Ca?sars, nay, like those 
 of Louis Xn\, mip;ht proclaim to future generations the 
 power and taste of the monarch. 
 
 50. By wars and pacifications, by the subversion and 
 erection of thrones, was the system of universal sovereignty 
 thus founded ; but means of another kind were necessary to 
 confirm it. Not all the ancient dynasties could be, or in- 
 deed were to be overthrown, for the new dynasty had not 
 princes enough to fill all the vacant thrones. It seemed 
 possible to supply the deficiencies by family alliances, con- 
 tracted by intermarriages with the ancient houses ; and a 
 brother, a step-son, and an adopted daughter were married 
 into the princely houses of (Jermany. The union of the 
 emperor himself — after the divorce of his first wife — with 
 the daughter of a German emperor, soon blessed by the 
 birth of a son, satisfied his boldest wishes alike for the pre- 
 sent and for the future. Many hoped that ambition would 
 be repressed by softer feelings, the interest of the husband 
 and father; others feared that his empire was now consoli- 
 dated by such connexions beyond the jiossibility of being 
 shaken, both ignorant that Germany had an emperor, who 
 — if reduced to the choice — would not scrujjle to postpone 
 the consideration of his daughter to that of his country. 
 
 Napoleon wn-; divorcod from Iiis first wife, Josephine, by birth la 
 Pagerie, the widow of IJeauliarnois, Doc. lo, 1809. lie married Maria 
 Louisa, artdiduchess of Austria, April 2, 1810. A son was born March 
 20, 1811 ; who wa.s immediately appointed king of Rome. 
 
 51. Experience soon proved how vain were those hopes. 
 The cause, however, is not to be sought altogether in the 
 personal character of the cm))eror ; it lay no less in the na- 
 ture of the dominion of which he was the founder. His 
 
PERIOD III.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1804—1821. 419 
 
 efforts to change his indirect sway into immediate dominion 
 ■ — of which the old Roman provincial system affords an 
 evidence — were apparently inseparable from it; because 
 partial thraldom is more insupportable than total servitude. 
 The maxim of uniting the dependent countries to the lead- 
 ing state became more and more general. It was applied 
 to parts of Italy, Switzerland, Germany, and, destroying his 
 own work, to the kingdom of Holland, where his brother 
 himself, no longer able to endure his tyranny, abdicated the 
 throne. A mere decree, expedited by the ever ready con- 
 servative senate, was sufficient to determine the doom of 
 those countries ; and what limits could be looked for, if not 
 even his own brother was spared ? 
 
 The estates of the church were incorporated with France, Feb. 17, 
 1810; Tuscany, March 5 (nominally under the administration of Na- 
 poleon's sister Eliza) ; Valais, separated from Switzerland, Dec. 10, on 
 account of the military road over the Simplon. The Italian Tyrol, 
 taken from Bavaria, was annexed to the kingdom of Italy, May 28, 
 1810; which, being joined to the lUyrian provinces, extended the im- 
 mediate empire of the ruler to the boundaries of Hungary and Turkey. 
 And what was necessary but a decree of the senate to attach the whole 
 of these countries to France ? — The incorporation of Holland had its ori- 
 gin in the continental system, the enforcement of which bore on no 
 country hai'der than on Holland, and was no where more difficult, on 
 account of its geographical and mercantile relations. The contest be- 
 gan and the threat of incorporation held out, Jan., 1810. It was then 
 averted by the cession and immediate incorporation of Dutch Brabant, 
 and part of Zealand, April 26. — Holland was nevertheless occupied by 
 French troops and officers of the customs, who committed various 
 abuses, June. Louis abdicated and fled, July 1, carrying with him the 
 affection of liis people. (About this time, Lucian, the otlier brother, 
 fled to England, Aug. 10; for, though refusing every crown, he had 
 found no refuge from the t}Tanny of his brother in his peaceful habit- 
 ation at Tusculum.) Holland, with East Friesland, which had been 
 previously joined with it, was incorporated with France, as " the alluvia of 
 French rivers," by a decree of the senate, Dec. 13, 1810. The same blow 
 reached Northern Germany. The decree of Dec. 13 united, according to 
 a line arbitrarily drawn, half the kingdom of Westphalia, part of the 
 grand ducliy of Berg, all Oldenburg, and the three Hanseatic cities to 
 France, which now bordered on the Baltic. His brother was deprived, 
 unasked, of lialf of his kingdom ; a prince of tlie Confederation of the 
 Rhine, a relation of Alexander, was deprived of his whole territory. 
 The Hanseatic cities met with the heaviest oppression. Where freedom 
 was the greatest, its loss was the most painful. 
 
 Documens hlstoriques sur le gouvernement de la Hollande, par LouiS 
 BuoxAPARTE, ex-roi de Hollande. 3 vols. 1819. The most lively sketch 
 of the public as well as private tyranny of his own brother. 
 
 2 E 2 
 
4J20 riiti.ir contkst.s in Kniori:. i<^oi— 1821. [pEmoD m, 
 
 r>2. Tliis (loiuiiiion of the wliolr; line of coast, from tlie 
 Pyrt'iK'cs lo the nioutli of tlic Elbe, iimintained hv a rein- 
 forced army of revenue officers, niiglif up;gnivat(' the diffi- 
 culties of the interdicted trade, but could not entirely anni- 
 hilate it. The <:;reat j^roblem, Avhether a sole dominion 
 ^\( re possible without the dominion of the ocean, became 
 more and more improbable to the desj)ot ; " but this was to 
 be obtained by a Heet of a hundred shij)s of the line," and 
 the p;igantic works at Antwerp seemed to render this no 
 empty threat, if seamen could only be manufactured like 
 ships, or drilled like soldiers. Meanwhile, not a French 
 ship of war could show itself out of harbour with impunity ; 
 the remainincr island-colonies fell into the hands of the 
 British ; and all the preparations of the new sovereign of 
 iSaples did not make it practicable to cross even 
 
 Sept., 1810. ,^ c- TAT- 1 c 1- 
 
 the narrow otraits oi IVlessnia, and eniorce his 
 title as kinjx of the Two Sicilies. 
 
 Cayenne was conquered, Jan. 4, 1809; the important ^lartinique, 
 Feb. 2o ; Scncsral, June 10 ; the city of St. Domingo, which the French 
 had occuj)icd, July G; Gaudaloupe, Feb. 3, 1810; St. Eustace and St. 
 Martin, Feb. 21. In the East Indies, the Isle of Bourbon was con- 
 quered, July 7, and the important Isle of France, Dec. 2. The taking 
 of Ainboyna and its dependencies in the ^loluccas, Feb. 17, was only 
 the ])rclude to the conquest of the hitherto unsubdued Batavia, and the 
 island of Java with its dependencies, Sept. 18, 1810. The Danish 
 island.s, St. Tiiomas and St. Croix, were taken, Dec. 21 — 25, 1807. 
 And even in the remotest north, Iceland was occupied, July, 1809. 
 
 53. But the participation of the British was no longer 
 limited to the ocean, after the peninsula of the Pyrenees 
 presented an arena for war by land ; on which the Marl- 
 borough of the nineteenth century was finally to appear. 
 Though the contest had never been remitted in this country, 
 it did not acquire its full extent, embracing the whole pe- 
 ninsula, till after the peace of Vienna, when all the forces 
 of I'^rance stood at the disposal of the emperor. The an- 
 nexing of the Spanish and Portuguese to the British army 
 gave them mutual strength, though Spanish jealousy and 
 want of internal concord threw obstacles in the way, from 
 vanc|uishing which, scarcely l(>ss glory accrued to the Brit- 
 ish hero than from vanquishing the enemy. 
 
 The supreme command of the British army in Portugal (of which the 
 German legion, as it was called, consisting of Hanoverians, constituted 
 
TEKiOD III.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, IS04— 1821. 421 
 
 a large part) was accepted by the Duke of "Wellington, (then Sir Artliur 
 Wellesley, third son of Colley, Lord Wellesley, Viscount Mornington,) 
 April 22, 1809. A Portuguese army was formed under General Beres- 
 ford, likewise subordinate to AVellington, and several Spanish corps 
 under Guesta, etc. To these were opposed the French generals, Soult, 
 Key, Victor, ]\Iortier, Gouvion St. Cyr, Augereau, etc. ; and afterwards 
 Suchet, ]\Iassena, Marmont, ISIacdonald, Jourdan, etc. Among the 
 numerous battles of the year 1809, that of Talavera, July 27, 28, stands 
 pre-eminent ; Saragossa was besieged and heroically defended, Xov., 
 1808 — Feb., 1809, (renewing the stories of Numantia and Saguntum,) 
 as well as Girona, June — Dec. In the year 1810, Napoleon exerted 
 himself to tlie utmost ; the troops of France, Italy, Poland, and the 
 Confederation of the Rhine, inundated the peninsula. Andalusia was 
 subdued by Victor, Mortier, etc., then followed the siege of Cadiz, 
 (whitlier the central Junta had fled, being driven from the mainland,) 
 conducted with incredible but useless elForts. — A regency was erected, 
 consisting of five members, in lieu of the central Junta ; the Cortes ex- 
 traordinary were convened, and soon opened their deliberations at Cadiz, 
 claiming the supreme power, Sept. 24, 1810. But at the same time, 
 "Wellington made a remarkable campaign in Portugal, where Massena, 
 being conquered without coming to an engagement, March, 1811, for- 
 feited all his military reputation. Tarragona was besieged and heroic- 
 ally defended in 1811, and Valencia in 1812, against Suchet. — ^TeUing- 
 ton pressed forward again into Spain, 1812. Ciudad Rodrigo was 
 conquered, Jan. 9 ; Badajoz, April 6. He gained the battle of Sala- 
 manca, July 22, and took the city. In consequence, the siege of Cadia? 
 was raised, the south of Spain evacuated, and Joseph fled from the 
 capital, which "Wellington entered Aug. 12. In the mean while, "Wel- 
 lington was appointed by the Cortes commander-in-chief of all the Span- 
 ish armies, Sept. 25. Though ^Madrid was again evacuated and 
 occupied by the Frencli (Xov.) in the same year, after raising the siege 
 of Burgos and the retreat over the Douro, (Oct.,) yet the capture of the 
 principal town was not much more decisive than the capture of a village. 
 For nothing more was gained tlian the mere ground on which they stood. 
 
 54. While the war on tJie peninsula employed the best 
 forces of the French empire, the dark spirit of its monarch 
 was meditating a new, greater, and more formidable war. 
 " Two suns cannot exist in the firmament," was the reply of 
 the ancient conqueror of the world, when a division of do- 
 minion and empire was proposed to him. AYould Napoleon 
 have given a different answer, had he been equally frank '( 
 Sole dominion cannot be divided between two. The pro- 
 ject of a war with Russia proceeded, therefore, from the 
 project of a universal monarchy ; beyond this empire there 
 was nothing more to fear and conquer ; and, in his estima- 
 tion, who rated men as nothing, in the worst case there was 
 but little to lose. It is only strange, therefore, that he was 
 
422 rriu.ic contksts in Europe, 18oi— 1821. [rEn:oD m 
 
 so hliiuk'd, as to srlcct this moniont, while the contest in 
 Spain was still undecided, were not precipitation the cha- 
 racteristic of t1u> period. That the F'orte, Asia, and per- 
 haps India itself, stood in the bacisLiround, is rendered ex- 
 tremely probable b}' the character of tlie man and iiis varions 
 preliminaiy measures tendin'j; thereto, wliatever objections 
 a considerate policy may make, lint the execution was ac- 
 celerated by the continental system, which necessarily put 
 him at variance with Russia, feelinp; as she did its conse- 
 quences most severely in her fmancial concerns, as all her 
 exports were interrupted. By her withdrawinp; from the 
 system, a coldness arose, which soon openly showed itself 
 in words and actions ; and where friendship demands sub- 
 mission, coldness leads to open feuds. 
 
 The new tariff, established by the Ukase of Dec. 31, 1810, proliibit- 
 ing or clojrpiiig the importation of French products, and permitting that 
 of colonial products under neutral tlags, contained the tacit avowal tliat 
 Ivus.sia renounced the continental system. — The seizure of Oldenburg 
 about this time (see p. 419) manifested that Napoleon did not fear to 
 all'ront Russia ; while the extension of the grand duchy of Warsaw, 
 and the continued occupation of Dantzic, were equal)}' striking proofs 
 that he was not afraid to disquiet her. Negotiations, of which little was 
 Tinown, were carried on in tiie course of tlie year 1811, till the elusive 
 answers returned to the proposals of Prince Kurakin, (April, 1812,) 
 compelled him to leave Paris. From this time war coultl not seem 
 doubtful, though the mask was not yet wholly tiirown off. 
 
 55. It was apparently certain that the approachino; con- 
 flict must <]ecide the destiny of Europe, comj)rehendin<j; as it 
 did this whole quarter of the globe, and not, as in Spain, only 
 the peninsula of the Pyrenees. What was the general situ- 
 ation of Europe at its commencement ; what the relations 
 of the sino'le states? AA'liat were the relations of the Ger- 
 mans, the northern powers, and of the Porte ? The common 
 resource of the weak, neutrality, could be of no benefit here, 
 where the weak were oblioed to feel that in such a conflict 
 of the powerful, neutrality was certain ruin. 
 
 5f). Previous policy had certainly prepared much for an 
 attack on Russia. The road to its frontiers lay open ; the 
 chain of alliances and of o-arrisoned fortresses reached to 
 them ; useful allies were found on the boundaries of Russia 
 in the Poles ; and Russia itself, by renewing the contest 
 with the Port<% had become involved in a war which would 
 have taken otf a considerable proportion of its forces, had it 
 
PERIOD in.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1804—1821. 423 
 
 not been able to liberate itself in the rip;ht time, and yet 
 with aggrandizement ; while France was thus deprived of 
 co-operation from a quarter where it might have been highly- 
 injurious to Russia at such a moment. 
 
 The renewal of the war with the Porte soon after the congress of Er- 
 furt, took place in consequence of the agreements made there with re- 
 spect to INIoldavia and Walachia (see p. 410). Hostilities were com- 
 menced after the short deliberations at Jassy had been dissolved, April, 
 1809, and those provinces were occupied. Tlie Eussians passed the 
 Danube in August. But the chain of Hasmus presented a stronger line 
 of defence than the river with its fortresses. The grand vizier was 
 strongly encamped at Chiumla in Bulgaria: the campaign of 1810 was 
 a bloody one ; while the Servians, as tlie allies of the Russians, rekindled 
 their insurrection in June. Silistria was conquered, June 23. The 
 grand vizier was attacked without avail, July 5, 6. An attack was 
 made on the fortified place of Routschouk with one half of the army, 
 while the grand vizier routed the other half, Aug. 4. But he was con- 
 quered by the Russians when hastening to the relief of Routschouk, 
 Sept. 19. — In the following year, 1811, the Russians retreated across 
 the Danube under Kutusoff, pursued by the Turks, but to their destruc- 
 tion. After one half of their army had passed the left bank of the 
 Danube, Sept. 20, the remainder was surprised and annihilated by the 
 Russians, Oct. 26, the grand vizier himself escaping with difficulty. 
 Negotiations were soon commenced at Bucharest, and the demands of 
 Russia being moderate, peace was concluded, INIay 28, 1812, France 
 being unable to prevent it. Conditions: a. The Pruth to its confluence 
 with tlie Danube, and this latter river to its mouth, should constitute 
 the boundary of the two empires. Russia remained therefore in pos- 
 session of Bessarabia and the eastern part of Moldavia (the other and 
 greater portion, together with "Walachia, was restored to the Porte), 
 b. A full amnesty was granted to the insurgent Servians ; the sove- 
 reignty of the Porte over them was acknowledged, under the assurance 
 of its generosity. 
 
 The plenipotentiaries at Bucharest were, Italinsky and Gatib Ef- 
 fendi, etc. 
 
 57. The situation of Austria in the impending contest 
 was less dangerous, because it lay beyond the sphere of its 
 influence, and could determine for itself what auxiliary force 
 it would furnish, because at such an important juncture it 
 must necessarily be spared. So much the more desperate 
 was the situation of Prussia. The grand route of the war 
 lay through the midst of its provinces. Its utter ruin 
 seemed inevitable ; and at no time could the existence of 
 the monarchy (for it was dangerous to leave an uncertain 
 friend in the rear) be considered more doubtful. Neutral- 
 ity and resistance were certain ruin ; what means of salva- 
 
424 PUBLIC CONTKSTS IN EUROPE, I081-ls21, [teriod hi. 
 
 tion were left Imt an alliance? And even the permission 
 ti) contract an alliance was not obtained without dilhculty. 
 The moments of the deepest debasement must precede those 
 of the proudest exaltation ! The obligations of all the 
 j)rinces of the Confederation of the ]{hine towards their 
 protector admitted of no doubt ; they had no option. Swit- 
 zerland herself hatl to supj)ly her mediator with auxiliaries; 
 and the assistance of the states of Italy (where only the kinjj;- 
 doms of Italy and Naples, with Lucca, still remained) and 
 of the Illyrian provinces was expected of course. It was 
 hazardous for any one to remain behind with his contin- 
 gents ! 
 
 Tlie alliance with Austria was concluded at Paris, ^farcli 14, 1812. 
 a. The alliance was ddVnsive, viz. against Ixussia. b. The force Aus- 
 tria was to furnish amounted to thirty tliousand men. c. France guaran- 
 teed to Austria, at all events, the ])ossession of Gallicia, possibly in con- 
 sideration of the exchange of the Illyrian ]»rovinces. — Conditions of the 
 alliance with Prussia, Feb. 24, 1812. o. It was an alliance offensive 
 and defensive against Russia (clearly so expressed in the secret arti- 
 cles). f>. I*rus.sia was to furnish an auxiliary force of twenty thousand 
 men. And in another compact, the immense supphes fur the French 
 army were fixed. How much nations and countries can endure before 
 they entirely sink ! 
 
 58. The political relations of the two northern powers 
 were very diHerent. Denmark, after peace had been re- 
 stored with Sweden, (p. 417,) thouo-h allied with France, 
 (p. 404,) and in constant war with England, was enabled, 
 by its geographical situation, to maintain a neutrality in the 
 contest with Russia. Sweden, on the contrary, (where, after 
 the sudden death of the heir to the throne, a French prince, 
 distinguished both as a general and a man — previously 
 hated by the emperor, but now doubly so because it was 
 done independently of him — was appointed successor by 
 the states, and was adopted by the king,) took advantage of 
 this crisis with great adroitness, not only to emancipate 
 itself from TVcnch dependence, but also — without engaging 
 at ))resent actively in the war — to open a prospect to Nor- 
 way as a compensation for the loss of Finland. 
 
 Marshal Bernadotte, (Charles John,) Prince of Ponte Corvo, was 
 chosen successor to the throne of Sweden by the states, Aug. 21, 1810. 
 He arrived there Oct. 20. At that time, after many censures for the 
 non-enforcement of the continental system, war was declared against 
 England, Nov. 17, on the peremptory demand of Napoleon. England, 
 
PERIOD III.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1804—1821. 425 
 
 however, took no notice of it. But after repeated new demands and 
 proposals had been decUned, 1811, Swedish Pomerania and Rugen were 
 occupied, Jan., 1812, and Sweden treated in reality like an enemy. 
 Sweden immediately made advances to Russia, and concluded a treaty 
 at Petersburg, April 8. a. Russia promised to Sweden the union of Nor- 
 way, in consideration of a compensation to Denmark, whether by nego- 
 tiations or an auxiliary force of thirty-five thousand men, and guaran- 
 teed the ratification of this promise at the peace, b. Sweden promised 
 in that case a diversion in the north of Germany, in connexion with a 
 Russian detachment. This treaty was confirmed by the meeting of the 
 prince royal with the emperor Alexander at Abo, (Aug.) Peace was 
 restored between Sweden and England by the treaty at Oerebro, July 
 12, according to the ancient relations; and Swedish ports were again 
 opened to British vessels. 
 
 The plenipotentiaries at Oerebro were : from England, Edw. Thorn- 
 ton ; from Sweden, Engstroem and Wetterstedt. 
 
 3Iemoriah of Charles John, king of Sweden and Norway ; illustra- 
 tive of his character, of his relations with the emperor Napoleon, and 
 the present state of his kingdom, by "SY. George IMeeedith. London, 
 1829, 8vo. 
 
 59. But notwithstanding all these circumstances, Russia 
 stood alone in opposition to its foes. — Though the peace 
 with England was restored, and even an alliance concluded 
 with Spain, no other aid could be expected from these quar- 
 ters but an energetic diversion on the peninsula. But in 
 this very circumstance consists the glorious triumph of 
 Russia ; having sustained the great conflict alone — even 
 without a subsidy from England ! 
 
 Peace was concluded with England at Oerebro, July 18, 1812. The 
 plenipotentiaries were, Suchtelen and Edw. Thornton. The plenipo- 
 tentiaries of the treaty with Spain, (the Spanish regency at Cadiz in 
 the name of Ferdinand All.,) at Weliky Luky, July 20, 1812, were 
 Bermudez and Romanzoff. In both, mutual amity and assistance, though 
 not exactly defined, were stipulated, including an acknowledgment of 
 the authority of the Cortes. 
 
 60. In this way a storm of nations arose (about twenty 
 were united under the standard of the conqueror) unparal- 
 leled in history since the expeditions of Xerxes and Attila. 
 What — asks reflecting policy — could have been its ultimate 
 object? The destruction of the Russian monarchy could 
 hardly have been anticipated by the most sanguine ; " to 
 exclude it from Europe and send it back to Asia" had 
 been ever since the time of Peter I. a chimerical idea. 
 And had a speedy peace, perfecting the work of Tilsit, pro- 
 duced the entire restoration of Poland, — could it have been 
 
i'2i) ITIU.IC CONTESTS IN EUROl'K, 1^04— l>.il. [rcnioD in. 
 
 moiv tlian a truce? I^ut in Poland itself, on uliich llic 
 jilan tor the future in reality dejx'nded, half measures, only, 
 ^\ere most inconsistently adopted, out of forbearance to 
 Austria. The Poles could never eflect a ])ul>lic proclama- 
 tion of tlie complete restoration of their kingdom. 
 
 More than half a million of soMiens, according to the most credible 
 account-'^, constituting the flower of the nations of Europe; French, 
 Italians, Neapolitans, Swiss, Dutch, Austrians, Hungarians, Bavarians, 
 the inhabitants ol" Wirteniberg, of liailen, Saxons, AVestj)halians, be- 
 .'sides the contingents of the smaller princes of the Confederation of the 
 Khine, Prussians, Poles, Illyrians, and even the remains of the Pt)rtu- 
 guese and Mameluke corps, were torn from their homes, and driven into 
 the face of death. But the Austrians and Prussians formed separate 
 armies, the former on the extreme right wing in Volhynia, the latter 
 on the left wing in Courland. Nothing but a Demaratus was wanting, 
 though the new Xerxes would neither have rcfjuested, nor indeed have 
 li^tened to his counsels. Not a less number of nations might have been 
 mustered in opposition by Bussia herself, if she had only had time to 
 summon them from the mountains and deserts of Asia. All her trooi)s, 
 divided into three armies, by no means equalled in number those of the 
 enemy. 
 
 61. The campaign was opened by the passage of the 
 Kiemcn ; and by mutual declarations of war. The war was 
 to have been speedily terminated by penetrating into the 
 lieart of Russia as far as the ancient capital of the empire ; 
 but the constant retreat of the Russians, without risking a 
 great battle, and the declaration of Alexander in his mani- 
 iesto, " that he would never make peace, as long as the 
 enemy remained within his emj^ire," must have; very much 
 weakened this expectation. Fire and ra})ine, by friends 
 and foes, marked the course of the invading army, and 
 seemed to render return impossible. The march to Smo- 
 lensk, where both wings and magazines were still protected 
 by the flanks, was performed agreeably to the rules of tac- 
 tics ; but the rapid advance from Smolensk to the capital 
 with uncovered wings, has been blamed by tacticians, in- 
 dependently of the final issue, as an excess of temerity. 
 
 On the same day that the French crossed the Niemen, the Russian 
 manifesto was issued. Wilna Avas occuj)ied June 28. The French 
 advanced with many skirmishes by wayof Witepsk to Smolensk, where 
 the two Russian armies formed a junction, Aug. 6, while the Prussian 
 auxiliaries besieged Riga, and the Austrian were manu'uvring in 
 A'olliynia. — Smolensk was stormed and destroj-ed, Aug. 18, after which 
 Kutusotf wa.s vested with the chief command. The Russians retreated 
 to Borodino on the Moskwa. A great battle was fought at Borodino 
 
PERIOD III.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1804— I82I. 427 
 
 and Mosaisk, Sept. 7. The Russians retreated, but not in flight, 
 through Moscow, to which the road now stood open. The sohtary 
 capital was entered, Sept. 14, 15. In the Kremlin, the ancient resi- 
 dence of the czars, the conqueror took up his head-quarters, the limit of 
 his expedition and the tomb of his greatness. 
 
 62. Here the fatigued and debilitated army hoped to find 
 repose and refreshment ; when suddenly the flames burst 
 out in a hundred places, and the vast capital resembled an 
 ocean of fire. It fell a victim to the empire — for such a 
 drama demanded such a catastrophe ; but in its pillars of 
 fire, the first dawn of freedom shone over shackled Europe 
 in the furthest east. Instead of a Capua, the army sud- 
 denly stood in a waste. " The campaign may now end," 
 was the proposal of Napoleon ; " The campaign is now be- 
 ginning," was the reply of Kutusoff. A speedy retreat, 
 before the beginning of the winter's cold, might perhaps have 
 saved the army, but the pride of the conqueror disdained 
 this measure, till it was too late. 
 
 The grand conflagration of [Moscow (four-fifths of the city) raged 
 Sept. 16^ — 19, having been prepared by Rostopschin the governor, at 
 KutusotF's order, who was possessed of unlimited authority. The 
 general pillage proceeded among heaps of ashes and ruin. Napoleon 
 proposed a truce, and oifered to retreat to Wiasma, Oct. 5. The answer 
 of the Russians was purposely delayed, but it was a refusal — they had 
 begun to know themselves after the peace of Tilsit. 
 
 63. No alternative but a retreat remained ! A retreat 
 over upwards of seven hundred miles, with an army already 
 enfeebled, encompassed, defeated again and again by enemies 
 increasing every day, through deserts of his own creation, 
 and through smoking ruins, without shelter and without 
 magazines, and soon overtaken by avenging destiny ; when 
 the cold, which could be endured neither by man nor beast, 
 killed both by thousands. History refuses to delineate 
 scenes, which imagination herself can scarcely conceive. 
 Sufiice it to say, that of the hundreds of thousands, who had 
 crossed the Niemen with him, scarcely as many tliousands 
 returned, and of these, how few were capable of bearing 
 arms ! The army of the tyrant, half dead, half captive, ex- 
 isted no longer ; he himself, in a miserable sledge, and 
 unknown, escaped death, if not shame, to carry the first 
 news of his defeat to his capital. " That there is but one 
 step from the sublime to the ridiculous," was his only con- 
 solation, 
 
428 rrin.U" contests in KUUOrE, 18Ul— 18*21. [rv.mon III. 
 
 The French lift tin* ruins of Moscow, (the Kremlin havinpj been 
 l)h)wn up,) Oct. 15), 1M1L\ after the cavalry liad been surprised the day 
 before by Bcnniirsen at Tarutina. They retreated, after a short circuit, 
 1)V the n)ad to Suiolensk, ])ursued by the main army c.f KutusolT and 
 numberless swarms of Cossacks ; while on the nortli, Witt;zenstein was 
 hast<Miing from tlie Dwina, and on the soutli, Te]iitcha;.'olf from Mol- 
 davia, the jieace with the Porte (p. 423) not liavin^j: been concluded in 
 vain. Sinple corps d'armee were route(l at Yaroslavez, Oct. 24, and at 
 AViasma, Nov. 3. The tremendous cold weather commenced Nov. G. 
 As there was no place of rest at Smolensk, they were defeated at Kras- 
 noy, Nov. 17, 18. They were soon after reinforced by fresii forces 
 under Victor and Oudinot ; but after the battle at BorizoflT, Nov. 2o, 
 and the passage over the Beresina at Studzianka, (the most horrible of 
 the scenes of horror,) Nov. 2G — 28, these too were overtaken by a simi- 
 lar fate. From thence to "NVilna, Dec. 9, the remainder of the army 
 was wasted away in its flight, and on Dec. 4, the emi»ert)r himself, send- 
 ing before him his twenty-ninth bulletin, fled from Smorghoni in his 
 sledge to Paris, by way of "NVarsaw and Dresden, which had been five 
 montiis before the scene of his splendour, and where he had received 
 the homage of kings and princes. — Before the close of the year 1812, 
 Kussia was cleared of the enemy. Not a thousand men, capable of 
 bearing arms, could the viceroy at first collect bcliiii<l the Vistula ; only 
 a few reserves, the garrisons of the fortresses, and the separate armies 
 of Prussia and Austria, the last, however, no longer belonging to Na- 
 poleon, were remaining ; 240,000 bodies were buried in Russia. 
 
 Relation circonstnncice dc la campayne de liiissie, par El:<;kne La- 
 BAUME, Cajiitaine, etc. Paris, 1814. This delineation by an eye-wit- 
 ness and a Frenchman, precludes every suspicion of exaggeration in 
 the Kussian accounts. The fourth corps d'armee of 48,000 men, to 
 whicii tlie author belonged, were at last able to take up its quarters — 
 in one chamber ! 
 
 64. The diffusion of these accounts over Europe excited 
 at first a vague astonislinient, ratlier tlian a loud expression 
 of joy ; it was saddened, however, by tlie lamentations of 
 parents, wives, and widows, for hardly a village was free 
 irom losses. That great revolutions of things were impend- 
 ing did not pass unobserved even by the careless. A sud- 
 den eruption was prevented by the fortresses and countries 
 which were occupied, by the relations of the rulers, and the 
 cfrtainty that Xa|iol('()n himselfliad escaped. Some power- 
 I'ul imj)ulse was first needed, 'iliis was afforded by Russia; 
 wiien Alexander, pursuing the enemy even beyond the 
 boundaries of his empire, gave the signal for the emancipa- 
 tion of Europe. From this time, the storm of nations, 
 which had gathered in the west against the east, was to be 
 turned back in an opposite direction. 
 
 The emperor Alexander arrived at Wilna, Dec. 17. The Russian 
 
PERIOD III.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1804—1821. 429 
 
 army passed the frontier in five bands, under the chief command of 
 Kutusoff, accompanied by the emperor as far as Kalisch, It entered 
 Prussia, and exhorted the nation to war. Dantzic was besieged, Jan., 
 1813. The Vistula was crossed, and soon after the Oder, in February. 
 On ]\rarch 4, the first Cossacks appeared in Berlin, which was occupied 
 by "Wittgenstein, IMarch 11, the viceroy retreating with all his forces 
 beyond the Elbe and Saale. 
 
 65. Thus opened that momentous, bloody year, 
 in which the dominion of the one was to fall, and 
 nations and princes were to regain their freedom. In Rus- 
 sia the war had become a popular war ; whether it was to 
 be such in Germany was yet to be decided. Prussia made 
 it so. Tearing oiT his ignominious chains, the king sum- 
 moned the nation to arms ; and it obeyed his call. Meck- 
 lenburg and Hamburg followed the example ; active assist- 
 ance w'as promised by Sweden ; and if the insurrection did 
 not become general this side the Elbe, it was only force 
 that restrained it. On the other hand, Denmark, still in 
 war with Eno-land and inclinino- to France, collected its 
 troops in Holstein. 
 
 The king left BerHn for Breslau, accompanied by Hardenberg, the 
 chancellor of state, and others, Jan. 22, 1813. From this place was 
 issued the edict of Feb. 3, for the formation of volunteer corps of Ya- 
 gers ; on which all the youth hastened to arms. The whole nation was 
 then summoned, March 17, and the war was made completely national, 
 by the regulations for the erection of the militia for defence, and for 
 attack ; the army was also addressed, of which the corps of French 
 auxiliaries under Gen. York, refusing obedience to the Marshal Mac- 
 donald, Dec. 30, had joined the Russians. A well-trained army of more 
 than 100,000 men — thanks to the quiet preparations of Scharnhorst and 
 Gneisenau — suddenly stood in being ; and was afterwards reinforced 
 by a still stronger militia. The insurrection broke out in Hamburg, 
 where the utmost enthusiasm was displayed, upon Tettenborn's arrival, 
 March 24, and the free constitution was restored ; the same spirit pre- 
 vailed in j\Iecklenburg, whose princes were the first to renounce allegi- 
 ance to the Confederation of the Rhine, as weU as in Luneburg. These 
 movements extended as far as the Rhine. 
 
 66. New leagues were the natural consequences of this 
 incipient revolution of things. The one between Prussia 
 and Russia was the first ; it was followed by the alliance 
 between Sweden and England ; and somewhat later, by the 
 one between Prussia and England, as well as between Rus- 
 sia and England. 
 
 Tlie conditions of the treaty between Russia and Prussia at Kalish, 
 Feb. 28, 1813, were: a. An alliance defensive and offensive, with an 
 
4:30 rnu.ic contests in Europe, isci— ip21. [rEnmn m. 
 
 nproomcnt fts to the auxiliary armios of Itoth parties, h. Kf-itoration of 
 the l*riii*5ian inoiiarehy acconliii'? to its ancient statistical relations, c. 
 Invitations were jjrofl'en'tl to Austria and Knfiland to join the league. 
 The negotiators were Kutusoll" and Ilardenherg. — Conditions of the 
 convention between England and Sweden, March 3 : n. Sweden jiro- 
 niised thirty thousand auxiliaries on the continent, under the coniniand 
 of the crown jirince. h. England promised a million of subsidies annu- 
 ally, c. England promised at least not to oppose the union of Norway, 
 but even to further it to the utmost, in case Denmark should refuse to 
 join the Russian alliance, d. A promise was given that Guadaloupc 
 sliould be ceded (this was never performed), e. Commercial concessions 
 in favour of England, in Gothenburg and Stralsund. The negotiators 
 were, Edw. Thornton and V. "NVetterstedt. — The conditions of the al- 
 liance of England with Prussia at Reiehenbach, June 15: a. Restor- 
 ation of the I'russian monarchy according to the oM relations. (Bv a 
 separate compact, however, Ilildesheim remained to Hanover.) b. Re- 
 gulations respecting subsidies. — The same conditions were contaiDcd in 
 the contemporary treaty with Russia. 
 
 67. But a harder struggle was impending. What was 
 the destruction of an army to liim, who cared not for tlie 
 loss of men, so long as there was a magazine to supply liim 
 with a new one ? The first measures of the defeated em- 
 peror after his return, evinced that he would not, willingly, 
 remit any part of his claims; and not one free dissentient 
 voice was raised either in the senate or in the legislative 
 body. The readiness with which the desired aid was given 
 by the nation, has been called by the appelhition of magna- 
 nimity. Not without justice, had the object been the de- 
 fence of its own soil ; but how can the enforcement of unjust 
 pretensions merit this name ? The perversion of moral sen- 
 timent is inseparable from times of tyranny; it will not be 
 superfluous tlierefore to guard against such a misaj)plication 
 of tlie term in question. 
 
 By a decree of the conservative senate, elan. 10, 1813, two luindrcd 
 and iifty thousand conscripts, more than Napoleon had demanded, were 
 placed at the disposal of the emperor. — Wonderful dispensation of re- 
 tributive justice ! In the Monitcur of March 30, 1813, he himself de- 
 clared, that *' Even if the enemy stood on Montmartre, he would not 
 give up a village of the empire." On March 30, 1814, ^Montmartre was 
 taken by assault, and — the empire itself was given up ! 
 
 68. The first months of the year were, therefore, the pe- 
 riod of the most earnest preparations on both sides. Ger- 
 many was again destined for tlie field of battle ; the Elbe, 
 from its mouth to the boundaries of Bohemia, constituted 
 the line of division between the forces of the two belli- 
 
PEniOD III.] rUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1804—1821. 431 
 
 gerents ; and on the other side, three Prussian fortresses, 
 besides Dantzic, were in the hands of the French. While 
 Russia and Prussia combined their armies, which the mon- 
 archs themselves from this time always attended in person, 
 Sweden was impelled to active participation by British sub- 
 sidies and the promise of Norway. Napoleon, however, not 
 only demanded from the princes of the Confederation of the 
 Rhine their contingents, but found an ally in Denmark, 
 with whom the negotiations respecting Norway had been 
 broken off. — Painful as was the situation of the towns and 
 places that lay between the armies ; a still more cruel fate 
 befell Hamburg, which, abandoned to the revenge of Napo- 
 leon, had to drain the cup of misery to the dregs. Saxony, 
 however, was the principal theatre of the war ; whose king 
 could not separate his cause from that of Napoleon. 
 
 Dresden was occupied, after the retreat of Marshal Davoust, by Rus- 
 sians and Prussians under Wittgenstein and Blucher, March 27, 1813 ; 
 they then pressed on to Leipzic, while the French army assembled in 
 Franconia, Thuringia, and on the Elbe. The war of liberation was 
 begun in Germany by the battle of Gross Goerschen or Lutzen, INIay 2. 
 The allies made a regular retreat, not a disorderly flight, over the Elbe. 
 With a weaker force, they had withstood the stronger, in oi'der to con- 
 front him again in Lusatia. The battle of Bautzen, May 21, under 
 Barclay de Tolly (commander-in-chief after the death of Kutusoff, 
 April 28) and Blucher, was attended with equal success, and followed 
 by a similar and even glorious retreat to Silesia. An armistice was 
 mutually oifered (both parties being exhausted and expecting reinfoi-ce- 
 ments) and was signed at Poischwitz, June 4 to July 26 ; soon after- 
 wards pi'olonged till Aug. 10. — In the mean while negotiations were re- 
 newed with Sweden, and, conformably to its convention with England, 
 March 3, (see p. 430,) the crown prince landed with Swedish troops in 
 Pomerania, May 18 ; at the same time a German auxiliary corps was 
 formed under Walmoden, afterwards in British pay ; but Lubeck and 
 Hamburg were lost, being occupied by Davoust after the retreat of the 
 Russians, May 30. It was violently transformed into a fortress ; de- 
 vastations, a reign of terror, and methodical pillaging ensued ; and 
 when nothing more was to be taken, the bank was at last attacked. — 
 Fruitless negotiations were begun by England and Sweden with Den- 
 mark (April) ; Denmark made advances to France ; and concluded au 
 alliance at Dresden, July 10. Denmark promised to declare war imme- 
 diately against Russia, Prussia, and Sweden. 
 
 Darstellung des Feldzugs der Verhundeten gegen Napoleon in Jahr 
 1813 tcvd 1814, in zwei Theilen, 1817. 
 
 Der Krieg in Deutschland und Frankreich in den Jahren 1813 und 
 1814, von V. Plotiio. Berlin, 1817, 3 Theile. — Both authentic Ms- 
 tories of the war. 
 
432 rUBLIC CONTESTS IN KUHOrE, l&Ol— 1&'21. [rEuioD lit. 
 
 69. Never was a jxTiod of two months" arniistiee of such 
 importance! aii<l at the same time such a period of active 
 negotiations and preparati(jns. Not without reason was 
 peace feared. \\ hat otlier situation could it have pro- 
 duced, hut lliat unliappy intermediate state, which, after re- 
 peated experience, was (h'ea(h'd more than war itself? The 
 restriction of France to its ancient boundaries was not to be 
 expected ; a restoration of the ancient dynasty could not 
 have been even mentioned. Very different occurrences 
 were re(i\iire(l, before the restoration of tlie political system 
 of Euroj)e could be thought of. But one great hope arose 
 during the truce, and it was not deceptive ; the accession 
 of Austria. It was reserved for Austria to give the deci- 
 sion, when the decisive moment arrived. 
 
 During the truce Austria (suspending its former treaty of alliance 
 witii France, see p. 424) undertoc^k tlie part of mediator, which it had 
 previously attempted, though in vain, witli the single nations. A con- 
 gress was agreed on to be held at Prague (the emperor Francis going 
 ti) Bohemia) on July o ; but in consequence of the delay of the French 
 pIeni])otentiaries it was not opened till July 28. The sentiments of 
 Napoleon were made manifest by the retardation of the French answer 
 till Aug. 6 ; and still more by the aflVonting tenor of the answer itself. 
 It could not escape him, that even the allies, already secure of Austria, 
 thought no more of peace. After a useless exchange of notes, the con- 
 gress was declared to be dissolved by the allies, Aug. 1 1, and on the 
 following day, Aug. 12, Austria declared war against France. 
 
 The ])lenipotentiaries at Prague, were : Prince Metternich as medi- 
 ator ; Von Amstett and V. Humboldt on the part of the alhes ; De 
 Caulincourt and De Narbonne on the part of France. 
 
 70. The issue of the negotiations led again to new alli- 
 ances. The ties with Austria, as well as with Sweden and 
 F.ngland, had to be drawn in the closest manner. A con- 
 llict was ini])ending, wliere national existence was at stake; 
 and the day of decision could not be far distant. But those 
 ties were not only to be contracted by policy, they were 
 consolidated bv the personal fricndshij) of the monarchs. 
 From henceforth, alike insc[)arable from one another, and 
 their armies, they shared every toil and every danger, every 
 care an<l every ho|)e, as they aHerwards shared the gratitude 
 of the nations and the glory of the victory. The armies too 
 were amalgamated with each other ; there was no longer 
 any Russian, Prussian, or Austrian army ; all were united 
 as one ; and officers from all commanded all ; the honour of 
 
PERIOD III.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1804—1821. 433 
 
 the supreme command being- conferred on Austria. When 
 the highest interests were at stake, all petty passions were 
 hushed ; and if, in addition to the names of the monarchs, 
 history consecrates also those of a Schwarzenberg, a Blucher, 
 Barclay de Tolly, and others, it should not forget to add, 
 that their concord made them no less formidable to the ene- 
 my than their arms. It can exhibit no similar example ! 
 
 During the armistice, Austria had ah-eady concerted, July 27, a pre- 
 liminary alliance with Russia and Prussia, (so much the more likely to 
 be permanent, as it was the less formal,) which came into operation of 
 itself with the declaration of war, and was afterwards concluded in a 
 threefold form at Toplitz, on Sept. 9, 1813. a. Firm union, and a 
 guarantee of their states, b. Mutual aid with at least sixty thousand 
 men, and in case of necessity with more, for restoring and maintaining 
 peace in Europe, c. None other but common peace or armistice. In 
 the secret articles, as for as they have been divulged, the re-establish- 
 ment of the Prussian and Austrian monarchies, as much as possible on 
 the footing of 1805, was confirmed. The negotiators at Toplitz were, 
 the Counts Metternich, Nesselrode, and Von Hardenberg. — England 
 concluded treaties for subsidies at Eeichenbach with Russia and Prussia, 
 June 14 and 15 (see p. 430). In addition to subsidies it gave its gua- 
 rantee for paper money to the amount of five millions of pounds sterling 
 (under the name of federative money) ; England also signed at Toplitz 
 a treaty of alliance with Austria, Oct. 3, stipulating mutual aid with all 
 its forces. The negotiators were, Count Metternich and Lord Aber- 
 deen. For the compact with Sweden, see p. 430. 
 
 71. Thus the greater part of the east and west of Europe 
 stood in opposition to each other ; Austria, Russia, Sweden, 
 and Great Britain, on the one side — France, Italy, the 
 Confederation of the Rhine, (mostly forced,) and Denmark 
 on the other ; while the contest was still waged in Spain. 
 The war became more and more a popular war ; and the 
 great exertions of both parties called forth masses of soldiers, 
 such as Europe had never before seen in the times of stand- 
 ing armies. 
 
 The forces • of the allies were divided into the grand (Bohemian) 
 army, under the commander-in-cliief, P. Schwarzenberg ; the Silesian, 
 under Blucher ; the northern, under the crown prince of Sweden (who 
 had recalled from America his banished friend Moreau) ; the Austrian 
 corps in Italy, under Hiller, as well as those on the boundaries of Bava- 
 ria ; the Russian and Austrian reserves in Poland and Austria, besides 
 the corps employed in the siege of Dantzie, and of the fortresses of the 
 Oder. The whole was estimated at 7 — 800,000 men ; but witli the 
 Spanish, Portuguese, and British armies on the peninsula, could not 
 Lave amounted to much less than a million. Though the forces of 
 
 2 F 
 
•l.)! irni.lC CONTESTS in KUROPK, 1804—1821. [rERioo III. 
 
 NiUM)loon in Germany, diviili'il into (iftcoii corps, nnd n corps (l*arin('c 
 in Italy, were pcrliap.s only lialf as minicrous, (to the 2.j(),(K)() men al- 
 ready frrantrd, by the decree of the senate of April .T, 1H(),()()0 men 
 were ailded, after Prussia had <leelareil war, besides 1(),()()0 jrnards of 
 lionour, thi- flower of the more opnlent families,) it was, on the other 
 liand, more coneentrate<l ; and all the I'ortresses as far as the ()<ler, and 
 Dantzic, were his ; but Dresden was his principal head-cpiarters. 
 
 7*2. The saniP country which liad so often possessed tlio 
 dearly purchased fame of being Germany's classic ground 
 and soil, was to be so in this instance. From the plains of 
 kSaxonv (its inhabitants were German though under French 
 arms) the decision was to come forth ; but how much had 
 to precede that moment ! Of such a series of battles, pre- 
 liminary to the great decisive battle, and in so brief a period 
 of time, history can furnish no parallel. And from the 
 failure of the attempt to surprise Dresden, it was ordained 
 by Providence that success should ultimately spring. 
 
 Dresden was suddenly attacked (in accordance with Morcau's plan ?) 
 with the grand army, while Napoleon was allured into Lusatia ; but the 
 attack failed on account of the delays, and his speedy return, Aug. 2G, 
 27, 1813. It cost ]Moreau his life! But on the retreat to Bohemia, 
 Vandamme, who had wished to cut liim off, was defeated and taken 
 prisoner with his corps, by Kleist, in the battle at Culm and the "'illage 
 of Nollen, Aug. 29, 30. And in Silesia the hero of the German?, the 
 old man with the spirit of a youth, had begun his career of victory, in 
 which he i)roceedcd onwards, always rapidly and yet deliberately, from 
 Katzbach to the Seine. Blucher defeated JNIacdonald on the Katzbach, 
 Aug. 26, with the almost total annihilation of his army. And in the 
 north also, where the conquest of Berlin was to afford the most delight- 
 ful revenge, fortune wa.s no less favourable. Oudinot was defeated at 
 Gross-Beeren by the crown prince, Aug. 23, and when the favourite 
 plan was on the point of being executed, Ney was routed and his army 
 dispersed in the battle at Denncwitz, Sept. 6, by Bulow and the crown 
 prince. On the Lower Elbe also, AValmoden was victorious over Pe- 
 clieux in the skirmish at the Goluvle, Sept. 16. None but an extensive 
 liistory of the war can mention the numberless small battles that oc- 
 curred every day, as the ever-increasing masses of troops pressed upon 
 each other. 
 
 73. The allies thus drew a semicircle closer and closer 
 round the emperor. It was vainly attempted to penetrate 
 to Ik'rlin ; to no purpose did he himself attempt to reach 
 Bohemia. Whenever he was desirous of giving battle, the 
 i'oe avoided him ; whenever he wished not to fight, he found 
 the enemy. Even in his rear the leaders of the light troops 
 swarmed around him ; the boldest and most alert of them, 
 
FEuioD III.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1804—1821, 435 
 
 with his band of Cossacks, chased the king of Westphalia 
 from his throne, and declared his kingdom to be dissolved. 
 It was at last impossible for the French to remain in Dres- 
 den, unless they wished to perish by starvation. Napoleon 
 therefore evacuated it to meet his fate at Leipzic. 
 
 Cassel was taken, Sept. 30, 1813, by CzernischefF, and the kingdom of 
 Westphalia was dissolved by proclamation, Oct. 1. Even after the 
 short return of the king, the tottering throne could no longer stand, and 
 it Avas soon wholly overthrown by the battle of Leipzic. — Napoleon 
 started from Dresden, followed by the king of Saxony, for the country 
 before Leipzic, where he arrived Oct. 7, and whither, after a fruitless 
 search of the enemy, who had eluded him in detached bodies, he drew 
 the still remaining reinforcements, Oct. 14, 15, consisting of nine corps 
 d'armee, besides the cavalry, the whole, according to exact lists, amount- 
 ing to rather more than 170,000 men. His subordinate commanders 
 were the king of Xaples, Marshals Berthier, Ney, Mortier, Victor, Mar- 
 mont, Macdonald, Angereau, Poniatowsky, and Grenerals Bertrand, 
 Lauriston, Reignier, and Souham, as well as the officers of the cavalry, 
 Latour-Mauburg, Sebastiani, Arriglii, KeUerman, and Milhaud. Dres- 
 den remained occupied by the Marshal Gouvion St. Cyr. 
 
 74. The decisive battle of three days' duration on the 
 plains of Leipzic unrivetted the fetters of Germany, and 
 dashed to the ground the already rocking edifice of Buona- 
 parte's universal dominion ; its ruins only remained in the 
 occupied fortresses of Hamburg, Magdeburg, etc. If the 
 mass of combatants engaged in tlie field (amounting to al- 
 most half a million) makes it the first battle of modern his- 
 tory, it was no less so for its important consequences. A 
 fraction only of the army reached the Rhine, after a flight 
 similar to that from Moscow, and most of those were infected 
 with a contagion, which swept them away by thousands. 
 
 Tlie battle of Leipzic occupied the 16th, 18th, and 19th of Oct., 1813. 
 On the 16th an indecisive battle of the grand army and the cavalry was 
 fought at Wachau ; but Blucherwas victorious at Moeckern. The 17th 
 was a truce, but about evening the four armies of the allies formed a 
 junction ; the grand army having been joined by the northern army, 
 to which the Silesian was united, after Blucher's memorable marcli ; 
 and the army of Russian reserves hastening up from Dresden under 
 Bennigsen. These were disposed in a wide semicircle, 300,000 men 
 strong. The history of wars has no second example of such a meeting. 
 On the 18th, there was a general attack, and after nine hours of fight- 
 ing the battle was decided. In the night the French retreated to the 
 gates of Leipzic, and the Saxon corps passed through. On the 19tli, 
 Leipzic was taken by assault, the king of Saxony made prisoner, and 
 the emperor fled witli his routed army by way of Erfurt and Fulda to 
 the Rhine, pursued by Blucher ; he was attacked on the way at Ilanau 
 
 2 F 2 
 
4.36 PUBLIC CONTESTS IN KUnOPE, 180J— 1821. [rEnioD iii. 
 
 by {he Bavarian-Austrian army under "Wredo, 0<'t. .30. On Nov. 2, 
 he brouglit back to Mayence souic 70,000 men to lill the hospitals. 
 
 75. The victory at Loipzic made the German war in tlic 
 fullest sense a popular war. The prince.s, and with tlieni 
 the nations, (aecordino; to German usap;e,) arose and threw 
 oti" the chains of tlu; Confederation of the l{liine. Even 
 before the victoiy Bavaria pive the sin;nal ; A\'irtembern;, 
 Baden, and the rest followed. Every one that could bear 
 arms seized them ; the plough and workshops were aban- 
 doned ; the lecture-rooms and countina;-houses were de- 
 serted ; even young females, dissembling their sex, hastened 
 in arms to the ranks of the combatants ; while matrons, 
 undismayed at contagion or death, nursed the sick and 
 wounded. Hermann's spirit seemed awakened, and the 
 day of suflering for Germany was the day of its renown. 
 Long will their memory live in the history of Germany, as 
 an example to future generations. 
 
 Bavaria seceded from the Confederation of the Rhine, and signed an 
 alliance with Austria, at Ried, Oct. 8. It first declared war a.irainst 
 France, Oct. 14, and united its army to the Austrian umler AVrede. 
 Tiie army made a rapid march on the Elaine, to meet the fujritivc 
 French army; and the battle of Ilanau was fought, Oct. 30, 31. — 
 "NVirtomberg and Hesse Darmstadt joined the great alliance, Nov. 2, 
 and Baden, Nov. 5. The other German princes, in the course of the 
 same month ; partly on conditions relating to the future regulations of 
 Germany. In the electorate of Ilesso, in Hanover, Oldenburg, ami 
 Brunswick, tiie legitimate governments were reinstated after the fiigjit 
 of the king of Westphalia. Bremen was liberated, Oct. 14, and Frank- 
 fort, Nov. 1. Dresden, Nov. 11, Stettin, Nov. 21, Zamosk, Nov. 22, 
 IModlin, Nov. 2.3, Dantzic, Nov. 30, Lubeck, Dec. 5, Torgau, Dec. 26, 
 fi'll in the same year, and the half-destroyed Wittenberg, Jan. 23. Cus- 
 trin did not yield till March 7, and Glogall, April 10, lbl4. But Ilani- 
 l)urg's heaviest sulferings now began, D.ivoust having retreated thither 
 from Lancnburg ; and Magdeburg, with the citadels of Wurzburg and 
 Erfurt, was still occupied. 
 
 7(1. The insurrection spread also over Holland. Scarcely 
 (lid the armies of the allies approach, before it broke out in 
 Amsterdam ; and the voice of the nation, mindful of its 
 ancient glory, recalled also its ancient dj'nasty of princes. 
 Instead of the former (h^fcctive constitution, the foundation 
 of a constitutional monarchy was laid. Under the name of 
 a sovereign prince of the Netherlands, William of Orange 
 was recognised as monarch. — Thus fell one part of the edi- 
 
PERIOD III.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1804—1821. 437 
 
 fice of universal monarchy, because it was not built on the 
 will of the people. 
 
 The insurrection broke out in Amsterdam, Nov. 15, 1813, and after 
 tlie flight of the French authorities a board of government was erected, 
 at Avhose invitation the Prince of Orange returned from England, Dec. 
 1. In the mean while a part of the northern army advanced under Bu- 
 low, in Dec. The fortresses Breda, Hergozenbusch, etc. were taken. 
 Before the end of the year Plolland was emancipated, with the excep- 
 tion of some forts, and the road to Belgium laid open. 
 
 H. BossciiA, Geschiedenis der Staaten-Omventtling in Nederland in 
 1813. Amsterdam, 1814. 
 
 77. No less speedily did the fruits of the victory ripen 
 with respect to Sweden. The declaration of war by Den- 
 mark (see p. 431) facilitated the execution of the plan for the 
 conquest of Norway, which had been long prepared by trea- 
 ties, (p. 425 seq.) It was not effected in Norway itself, but 
 in Holstein, which the crown prince, separating from the 
 other allies, invaded with the greater part of the northern 
 army. A short cam.paign was sufficient to procure its ces- 
 sion, in consideration of Swedish Pomerania, from Den- 
 mark, now almost unarmed and deserted by its ally. 
 
 The crown prince, supported by Russians, etc., invaded Holstein, 
 while Davoust was blocked up in Hamburg. After the battle at Sehe- 
 stedt, against Walmoden, Dec. 10, 1813, the Danes retreated to Bens- 
 burg. — A truce was agreed upon, Dec. 15, and after some negotiations, 
 peace was concluded at Kiel, Jan. 14, 1814. a. Denmark renounced 
 the possession of all Norv/ay to the Russian boundary, b. Sweden 
 assured to Norway the possession of all its immunities and rights, c. 
 Sweden ceded to Denmark Pomerania with the island of Rugen, and 
 promised its interference for further indemnification. But the renun- 
 ciation of Denmark did not imply the consent of Norway, which needed 
 further exertions (see below). — Denmark made peace at the same time 
 with England, a. The return of all conquests with the exception of 
 the island of Heligoland, b. England also promised its interference. — 
 Peace was concluded with Russia at Hanover, Feb. 8, 1814, and with 
 Prussia at Paris, June 2. The old relations were restored, and inter- 
 ference promised for the same purpose. 
 
 78. The course of things was quite different in Italy and 
 Illyria. The Illyrian provinces were wholly emancipated 
 after the retreat of the viceroy Prince Eugene, and half of 
 Lombardy and Italian Tyrol were occupied. But though 
 Eugene, as his relations demanded, continued faithful to his 
 adopted fatlier. Napoleon s brother-in-law, on the contrary, 
 Murat of Nuples, by acceding or attem[)ting to accede to 
 
438 rUBMC CONTESTS IN KL'Uori:, IsOl— l?^!. [pEnioD III. 
 
 tlic nllios, fxporioncofl, that in such revolutions an anil)i<^u- 
 ous conduct most ccrtanily leads to ruin. 
 
 In tlio IIIyri:in provinces, tlio conllict was wairf<l bctwfoii Priix-e 
 Kufjone niul Ilillt^r (in whoso plact.' Bcllf^ranlc was aftoiwanls sul)sti- 
 tuU'tl) with various success, in Auirust an<! Sc'pt<-inlM'r of 1SI3. IJut 
 after the secession ol' Bavaria, the lirst mentioned retreated across the 
 Adijre to tlie Mincio, Nov., and Dec, and several successful skirmishes 
 occurred Feb. and March, 1814. Under the most perplexing relations, 
 till the conclusion of the armistice witli Austria, April 1(>, 1814, and 
 Lis resiprnation of the command, A])ril 17, Prince Eugene suirereJ 
 neither in honour nor in military reputation. lie carried away with 
 Iiim the testimony of the resjx'et of Italy. — Murat opened nefrotiations 
 witii Austria, and an alliance was sifined at Najiles, Jan. II, (with 
 Kngland he was only able to make a truce, Feb. 3,) after which, with- 
 out declaring his sentiments, he occupied Kome and Florence. Wiiile 
 it was seen, that his sole wish was to gain time, he lost the confidence 
 of all. 
 
 7i.). But in the Spanish peninsula also, the power of the 
 French, scarcely founded and always totterin;:^, was entirely 
 annihilated the same year. Every step of the Duke of 
 A\'ellington was one of constant victory. While Germany 
 was preparing itself during the armistice for the decisive 
 contest, in Spain, on the other hand, the battle of \'ittoria 
 decided the whole question at once ; and before the end of 
 the year, the victorious army was standing on the soil of 
 France. Napoleon himself, relinquishing all hope, con- 
 cluded a treaty with Ferdinand, by which he acknowledged 
 liim as king of Spain. 
 
 The war in Spain became more and more a popular war, and was 
 carried on nf)t merely with regular troops, but also i)y bands of gueril- 
 las, formidable because they were onmipresent. — Tlie French power 
 was weakened by the recall of Soult to Germany, with many troops, 
 Feb., 1813, who was followed by Jourdan under King Joseph, Avhile 
 Suchet still maintained himself in Valencia. — "Wellington left Portugal 
 with nn anny composed of British, Spanish, and Portuguese, and 
 marched against Jourdan on the Ebro. In the battle at Vittoria, June 
 21, the French ami}' wa.s totally defeated and cut ofT with the loss of 
 nil its artillery. — The army lied to Pampcluna, and King Joseph to 
 France. — Pampcluna was besieged by the Spanish, and surrendered 
 Oct. 31. Meanwhile Soult wa-s sent back with reinforcements, July 
 23, but was defeated on the Pyrenees, July 28, 29, while attempting to 
 raise the siege of Pampehnia. He retreated to France behind the Bi- 
 dassoa ; while Saragossa was lost, July 30, and St. Sebastian, Aug. 30. 
 — Suchet retreated from Valencia to Barcelona in July, after the in- 
 vestment and destructiou of Tortona, Aug. 19. After the surrender of 
 I'ampcluna, Wellington advanced, and passed the boundary river Bi- 
 
PEKiOD III.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1804—1821. 439 
 
 dassoa, while Soult, vanquished again, Nov. 10, retired before Bayonne. 
 In the whole peninsula, at the end of 1813, the French were masters of 
 Barcelona alone, with the forts of Figueras and Rosas. MeauAvhile a 
 treaty with Ferdinand was signed at Valencay, Dec. 8, and himself and 
 brothers were released from their imprisonment. The Cortes refused 
 to give the required ratification to the treaty, " because Ferdinand had 
 not been free, and no peace could be concluded without England." 
 
 80. While the universal sovereignty in Europe was thus 
 overthrown in the east and west, France itself alone re- 
 mained. The victorious armies followed as far as the 
 Rhine, attended by the monarchs, and spread along- the 
 principal river of Germany from the boundaries of Switzer- 
 land to its outlet. If they needed repose, the cabinets also 
 needed deliberation. Rarely have such victories been sue 
 ceeded by such moderation. Happily for Europe, the 
 lesson was lost on Napoleon. The phantom of universal 
 sovereignty had been too nearly realized for him to acknow- 
 ledge it to have been a mere phantom. 
 
 The allies declared at Frankfort, Dec. 1, 1813, that " They contend 
 ed, not against France, but against the preponderance which Napoleon 
 exercised without the boundaries of his empire. They offered the em- 
 peror peace, under the condition of the independence of the French 
 empire, as well as of the other states of Europe. They wished to see 
 France great, strong, and happy ; because its power was one of the 
 corner-stones of the social system. They allowed France a ten-itory, 
 greater than she had ever possessed under the kings. But they too 
 wished to be happy and quiet. Tiiey desired a state of peace, Avhicli, 
 by a just balance and distribution of power, should protect the nations 
 from the misery tliey had experienced for twenty years. They declared 
 that they would not lay aside their arms, till this object was attained." 
 — Could any thing be more noble and liberal ? — The Rhine, the Alps, 
 and the Pyrenees were offered for boundaries, as the basis of the peace, 
 in the negotiations commenced by the French plenipotentiary St. Aig- 
 nan. — His delay fortunately showed, that this was not enough for him ; 
 and the negotiations were broken off. 
 
 81. It v/as therefore determined by the allies, that the 
 issue should be decided in France itself It appeared indeed 
 rashness to penetrate into an unconquered country in the 
 midst of winter, with more than thirty hostile fortresses in 
 the rear. But the enemy was almost unprepared ; the allies 
 were strong enough to blockade all the fortresses ; and while 
 the allied armies, crossing the Rhine, pressed forward at the 
 same time from Switzerland, Germany, and the Nether- 
 lands, Wellington stood on the Garonne. But in vain was 
 it attempted to move Switzerland to share in the struggle 
 
4\0 rriU.ir CDNTK-STS IN' EUROrE, l«^01— 1S21. [ir.mon m. 
 
 lor frccddiii, tlioii'jli by its vory situation nocossnrily an ally. 
 A\ lien all wen; arming tor lihrrty, the sons ot" 'i'cll alono 
 resolved on neutrality, and at last only ])crmitt('d that wliich 
 tliov could not jircvcnt. It was not one of the most glorious 
 moments of their history. 'J'he conduct of the allies, how- 
 ever, to them, gave the first i)rool"that iVecdom was return- 
 ing to the states of Europe. 
 
 The allied armies, amounting: to ni^arly JOOjOOO stron;x, crossed the 
 Kliine, the grand army under Scliwartzi-iiberfr, Wredt-, etc., across the 
 Tapper lihine, and tliroiigh Switzerhmd, (which withdrew its corps of 
 (ihscrvation,) Dee. 21 — 2o ; the Sil«;?ian army under Bluehcr over tlie 
 JMiddle Rhine, Jan. 1, 1814, and the army of the Netherlands under 
 Bulow, These were soon followed by otiier battalions. — lUionajiarte, 
 though 300,000 men were granted him by the senate, Nov. 15, (tlie legis- 
 lative body, in wliich th<* lR)ld voices of a Laine and liaiiiouard, which 
 well merit to be named by tlie siile of the generals, were at last heard, 
 was inimeiliately prorogued,) could only oppose to them single corps. 
 The allied armies forniod a junction in Chamjingne, Jan, 2o. After the 
 victory of Bhieher at Brienne, (La Kothiere,) Feb. 1, the Silcsian army 
 following the coursL* of the jNIarne, and tlie grand army that of the Seine, 
 (extending at the same time as far as Lyons, where Marshal Angereau 
 was endeavouring to collect forces,) advanced towards Paris. 
 
 82. But the dangers of battle were not the greatest to 
 which the allies were exposed ; these were the negotiations, 
 when, in doubt whether their aim could be attained by 
 arms, the allies opened a congress at Chatillon. A\'liat a 
 glorious peace would it have accomplished had it not been 
 frustrated by tlie j)ri(lc and duplicity of the emperor! As 
 it was, there ])roceeded from it, instead of peace indeed, a 
 stronger union of the allies, confirmed by their close quad- 
 ruple alliance at Chaumont. The hope, that the royal 
 thnme would again be established by the nation, was re- 
 vived ; a Bourbon showed himself in the allied armies and 
 in that of A\'ellington ; and after the dissolution of the con- 
 gress, but not till iIr'U, the conviction became more firmly 
 rooted, that only on such an event was the restoration of 
 Europe possible. 
 
 A congress was held at Chatillon, Feb. 3 — IMarch 15, 1814, without, 
 liowever, granting a truce. It still remained in Napoleon's power to 
 preserve tlie throne and empire, had he been satisfied with ancient 
 France. But he required that the Kliine and Alps with all the points 
 of attack should constitute the boundaries of France; that Italy should 
 bcUmg to his step-son, and his brothers lie indemnified. How fortunate 
 was it that he demanded so much ; and nevertheless, an intercepted 
 
PERIOD III.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, ISOl— 1821. 441 
 
 letter of his minister ]Maret, afterwards showed that even this was only 
 a deception. — During the congress a quadruple alliance for twenty years 
 was signed at Chaumont, March 1, 1814, between England, Russia, 
 Austria, and Prussia, a. Every power furnished for continuing the war 
 150,000 men. h. England promised five milhon pounds sterlino- of 
 subsidies, c. No separate negotiations were to be held. — Provision was 
 thus made not for the present only but also for the future ! 
 
 The plenipotentiaries at Chatillon were : Caulincourt : on the side of 
 the allies. Lord Cathcart, Count Rasumovsky, Count Stadion, Von Hum- 
 boldt. — At Chaumont : Lord Castlereagh, (for the first time, a British 
 secretary of state for foreign afiairs appeared in person on the conti- 
 nent,) Prince Metternich, Von Hardenberg, and Von Nesselrode. 
 
 83. The war was meanwhile prosecuted in France with 
 various success. So far from decreasing, the forces of 
 Napoleon actually increased ; and it was easy for him to 
 concentrate them in single points and to acquire the ad- 
 vantage. The retreat of the grand army v/as already com- 
 menced, when Blucher s good sword decided at Laon for 
 the better. From this time the capital of France was the 
 aim, and Napoleon himself, guided by his evil genius, 
 facilitated the march. But a battle under its walls was 
 necessary ; and for the first time its inhabitants heaid the 
 thunder of hostile artillery. It fell, and with the victorious 
 armies received into its bosom the victorious monarchs, and 
 soon afterwards its leg-itimate kins;. 
 
 Upon the separation of the two armies after the battle at Brienne, 
 (p. 440,) several skirmishes occurred along the Marne ; and Blucher 
 achieved his memorable retreat from Beauchamp and Montmirail, Feb. 
 14, 1814, with his army already surrounded. The grand army ad- 
 vanced along the Seine to Fontainebleau, but upon the crown prince 
 of Wirtemberg being overpowered after an heroic resistance at ]\Ionte- 
 reau, Feb. 18, it retreated towards Troyes, as far as Bar-sur-Aube, 
 Feb. 25, and even commenced fruitless negotiations for an armistice. 
 The fate of Europe was again at stake. Blucher, m.eanwliile, after his 
 retreat to Laon, was joined by the corps of the northern army, and 
 fought the glorious battle of Laon, March 9 and 10. Upon this, he 
 pressed forward again and joined the grand army, jNIarch 18. After 
 tlie battle at Arcis-sur-Aube, [March 20, Napoleon resolved to manoeuvre 
 in their rear ; and by doing so left the road open to the capital. After 
 tlie defeat of ^larmont and Mortier, at la Fere Champenoise, March 25, 
 tliey proceeded to Paris. A battle was fought before Paris ; Mont- 
 martre was stormed, and the city capitulated, March 30 ; the allies en- 
 tered March 31, while the shouts of victory resounded throughout 
 Europe. Paris was taken one year five months and eleven days after 
 the march from ]\Ioscow, and seven months and five days after the 
 march from Katzbach. — Meanwhile Wellington advanced, equally vic- 
 torious, against Soult, on the Garonne; Bourd^aux vras occupied, 
 
412 I IBl.IC CONTK.STS IN KUUOri:, 1304— IS'Jl. (rnnioDiM. 
 
 Miirch 12, wlioro the royal standanl was first planted, and Toiili)Use, 
 Ai»ril 10, after an unOirtunatc anil iinneecssary waste of blood (the 
 eoiiricrs from Paris havinp; been detained on their route). As Lyons 
 had been previously occupied by the allies, March 19, tlie armies were 
 possessed of a line of conununication from the Moskwa to the Tagus, 
 
 84. Witli tlic capital France was conquered, because in 
 France tlie capital is every tliino:; the wise moderation of 
 tlio victiM-s, flatterino; to the feclintrs and vanity of the nation, 
 acconiplislied the rest. The proclamation of the allies, 
 "That they would treat no lonoer with Napoleon or any 
 one of his family," (he had appointed his wife rejicnt,) was 
 decisive, and witiiout openly dictatintj;, suUicicntly showed 
 the nation what was to be done. 'I'he senate, so late his 
 obsequious slave, actually proposed the deposition of Buo- 
 naparte, and appointed a provisory o-ovcrnment ; the coun- 
 cil of the department demanded tlie restoration of the royal 
 throne in favour of Louis X\ 111. 
 
 Alexander and the allies issued a declaration, IMarch 31, 1814. Na- 
 poleon was declared deposed by the senate, April 1. It was of preat 
 importance, that this should be performed by tiie authorities of the 
 empire. A provisionary frovernment of five members was named, at 
 the head of which was Talleyrand. — Tlie council for the department of 
 the Seine first demanded the restoration of the Bourbons, Ajjril 2. 
 
 85. It was of much consequence to obtain the abdication 
 from the emperor himself. Convinced of the impossibility 
 of reconquering the capital, to the succour of which he had 
 come too late, and deserted every day by his army and his 
 marshals, he resolved to do so for himself and family, after 
 many useless attempts in favour of his son. He descended 
 from the fallino- throne; after a compact with the allies, in 
 which magnanimity, triumphing over policy, prescribed the 
 conditions. 
 
 Napoleon rajiidly marched back towards Paris, by way of Troyes, as 
 far as Fontain(l)l<'au, March 30, 1SI4. After information of his depo- 
 sition was received, Marmont, with his corps, deserted him, April 3. 
 Nefrotiations were commenced through Ney and Macdonald, and an un- 
 conditional abdication was executed on the part of Napoleon and his 
 heirs, April 1. This was followed by a treaty with the allies, a. A 
 repetition of the renunciation, on the part of himself and heirs for ever, 
 of all dominion and sovereignty over France, Italy, and all other coun- 
 tries, b. He received the island of Elba with full sovereignty, and a 
 pension of two millions and a half from the revenues of France, c. He 
 was allowed to maintain a body guard of four hundred men. d. His 
 wife obtained, with full sovereignty and in perpetuity for her descend- 
 
PERIOD HI.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1604—1821. 413 
 
 ants, the ducliies of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla, both retaining the 
 imperial title, e. In addition, an income was granted to the Buona- 
 parte family, and Prince Eugene. — Buonaparte was immediately escort- 
 ed to Elba, and arrived there, May 4. 
 
 86. The throne of the Bourbons was immediately erected 
 again on the ground thus levelled. — It was not the differ- 
 ence of the royal from the imperial constitution, but the 
 difference of the rulers who were at its head, their relations, 
 and above all, their characters and sentiments, that gave 
 Europe a pledge for the future. Even if the territory 
 of the kingdom had been equally restricted, what would a 
 peace with Napoleon have been but a truce, in which the 
 nations would never have dared to lay aside their arms ? 
 
 The Comte d'Artois returned, April 12, 1814, and was appointel 
 lieutenant du royaume by the king ; and a convention was immediately 
 made with the allies respecting the cessation of hostilities and the eva- 
 cuation of the forti'esses without the territory of ancient France (ful- 
 filled at Mayence, May 4 ; Wesel, May 8 ; Magdeburg, May 14 ; Ham- 
 burg, May 25, etc. ; all in the same month). — Louis XVIII. landed at 
 Calais, April 25, after an absence of twenty-three years from his king- 
 dom (spent in Italy, Germany, Russia, and latterly in England) ; and 
 made his entrance into Paris, IMay 4, after rejecting the constitution 
 framed by the senate, but with the assurance of a free constitution. 
 
 87. To bestow peace on France and Europe was the 
 first beneficent occupation of the king, now reinstated in 
 his rights. It must have been easy to negotiate with a 
 monarch, in whom the other monarchs saw an equal ; par- 
 ticularly too as the transactions were hastened by their pre- 
 sence. If on the one hand, the phantom of universal 
 monarchy was abandoned, on the other, the promise was 
 most exactly fulfilled, that France should be left still great 
 and powerful. The return of France to its ancient bound- 
 aries was the basis of the treaty. 
 
 By the first peace of Paris, May 30, 1814: a. France preserved its 
 integrity according to the boundaries as they existed Jan. 1, 1792, 
 Avith some additions on the eastern frontier and in Savoy, as well as by 
 tlie confirmed possession of Avignon, h. Fi'ance recognised the inde- 
 pendence of the state of the Netherlands, with its future aggrandize- 
 ment of all the German states, which were to be united by a federal 
 league of Switzerland, and the Italian states, c. France recovered its 
 colonies from England, including even Guadaloupe, to which Sweden 
 (p. 430) laid claims, with the exception of Tobago, St. Lucia, and the 
 Isle of France with its dependencies. It engaged not to fortify its 
 places in the East Indies, and to keep no troops, but what were neces- 
 
411 ri'DLIC CONTESTS IN KlTvOPF., ISOJ— 1821. [ii.kioi> m. 
 
 Farv for the police, d. Malta was ntaincd by En;^lan(l. r. Frnidi 
 Ciiiiuna was restored by Purtiip^al, ac<'()rilins to an a<ljustiin'nt (*f boiiiid- 
 arics. f. In the harbour.*: evaeiiatod by France, the ves.-iels of war ami 
 naval .stores were divitlcd in siicli a manner that two-tiiirds were iLS- 
 pi'^iied to France. (/. Tlie allies magnanimou.'^ly renounced all the sums, 
 to which their governments might have claims from France lor con- 
 tract.s, stipplie.s, and loans of money, h. France engaged to pay the 
 .similar <lemands of private persons, i. And promised England to abol- 
 i.-ih tlie slave trade within live years. 
 
 N(>gotiators : Talleyrand : on the part of the allies, Lord Castle- 
 rcagh, Rasumovsky, Metternich, and A'on Ilardenberg. 
 
 88. The same month that rostorcd to France lier kinp;, 
 belielcl tln-ee otlier princes, who liad been driven from tlieir 
 throne?, ascend tlicm apiin. — Pius ^'11. returned to Rome, 
 I'crdinand ^'II. to Madrid, and A'ictor I'^manuel to Turin. 
 In vain liad Napoleon tried to terrify Pius VII. by tlireats, 
 ciiusino; him to be dra^-o-ed as a prisoner to Fontainebleau ; 
 in vain had he tried to deceive the world by a fictitious con- 
 cordat. The return of the Pope restored quiet to his state. 
 It was otherwise in Spain, where, after the rejection of an 
 almost republican constitution, drawn up by the Cortes, an 
 outrageous contest of absolute power against freedom com- 
 menced, the results of which hardly left any liope of a 
 favourable issue. 
 
 Tlie imprisoned Pope resided at Fontainebleau, June 19, 1812 — Jan., 
 1813. A concordat, the principal ])rovisions of which Pius VII. had, 
 only as a preliminary measure and conditionally, accejited, was pro- 
 iiiuigated as already concluded, Jan. 23, 1813, (after Buonaparte's re- 
 turn from Moscow,) against wliich Pins immediately protested. He 
 was carried back to Savona, Jan. 24, and afterwards given up to the 
 Austrians, March 31. — lie returned to Rome and made a solemn en- 
 trance, ]\lay 24, 1814. — Ferdinand VII. entered Madrid, May 14; and 
 Victor Emanuel, Turin, about tiie .same time. 
 
 89. MHiile the foundation of the sid)verted political sys- 
 tem of Europe was thus every where laid afresh, it could 
 esca|)e no one how much was wanting to complete its entire 
 restoration. The monarchs, united in peact; as in war, re- 
 solved to do this in conunon at a congress in tlu; imjK'rial 
 city of Germany, while they contracted, during the prepar- 
 ations, the bands of j)er.-^onal amity willi the British royal 
 family and the prince regent of England. After the storms 
 of the times had subsided, policy united itself more closely 
 \\illi humanity. 
 
PERIOD III.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, 1804— 1821. 445 
 
 The emperor Alexander and king Frederic William, accompanied by 
 their victorious generals, Blucher, Platoff, etc., visited London, June 
 7 — 22, 1814, and were enthusiastically received by the nation, 
 
 90. Congress at Vienna. The history of the pohtical 
 system of Europe can present no congress — not excepting 
 even the congress of Westphaha — where so many and so 
 great interests, comprehending those of all Europe, were to 
 be adjusted ; for, though several times shaken, they were 
 never so utterly overthrown as at present. What result, or 
 at any rate what continuance of tlie congress could have 
 been expected? Happily there were two beneficial cir- 
 cumstances. First : there already existed a general coinci- 
 dence of opinion on most of the principal points. No one 
 doubted the necessity of maintaining the French monarchy 
 in its existing integrity, and of restoring the Austrian and 
 Russian monarchies according to the former statistical rela- 
 tions (which were already decided beforehand by means of 
 treaties, see p. 433). The second was the presence, the 
 characters, and the mutual friendship of the monarchs. 
 The former accelerated, the latter facilitated every transac- 
 tion. But nevertheless there could be no want of stum- 
 blino'-blocks. The o-reatest consisted in the arrano-ements 
 respecting Poland and Saxony, and also in the political and 
 territorial relations of Germany. Not without cause were 
 fears repeatedly entertained that the deliberations would be 
 interrupted. But yet they came to their regular close. 
 This was furthered by an extraordinary, and an unexpected 
 occurrence, wliich hushed the voice of individual interest. 
 The man of destiny was again to make his appearance, to 
 confirm that which he wished to destroy. 
 
 The congress of Vienna was formally opened, Nov. 1, 1814, after 
 preliminary negotiations. It sat till May 25, 1815. (For the results 
 see below in the last section.) 
 
 There were present in person, the emperors of Austria and Russia ; 
 the kings of Prussia, Denmark, Bavaria, and Wirtemberg ; the elector 
 of Hesse ; the grand duke of Baden ; the dukes of Saxe "Weimer, of 
 BrunsA\'ick, of Nassau, of Cobourg, and several other princes. — The 
 principal ambassadors and ministers were : from the Pope, Cardinal 
 Gonsalvi ; from Austria, Prince Metternich ; from Russia, Prince Ra- 
 sumovsky. Counts Stakelberg and Nesselrode ; from Great Britain, 
 Lord Castlereagh and the Duke of Wellington ; from Prussia, Prince 
 Ilardenberg and Von Humboldt ; from France, Talleyrand and Dal- 
 berg ; from Spain, Don Labrador ; from Portugal, Count Palmella and 
 
416 ITIJI.IC CONTKSTS IN KL'HOI'E, Isai— 1S2I. [pEniou iii. 
 
 Count Tvobo (III Silvi^yra ; from the Nftlicrlands aiul Nassau, Spoon and 
 GnfTorn ; from Donniark, Count Bfrnstorf ; from Sweden, Count 
 Lowcnliirlni ; from Sardinia, the Manpiid of St. Marsan ; from IJu- 
 varia, Harou Wredo, Count Kechberf; ; from Wirtemlx-rfr, Count Win- 
 zinperode ; from Hanover, Count Miinster, Count llardenberg ; Irum 
 Saxony, Count Schuh-nbcr;.', and otiiers. 
 
 Dl. 'I'lic rcliini of Napoleon from Elba to France was 
 ft)llo\v('(l hy a momentary overthrow of the yet unstable 
 roval throne. How could it .stand hrni, when the nation 
 as yet hardly knew its kin;^; when the army, newly organ- 
 ized, swore fidelity with the mouth and not with the heart ; 
 and the eyes of both were still dazzled with the lustre of 
 glory. But it was soon perceived that the re-erected im- 
 perial throne was no less weak, and lound its support not 
 in the nation, which merely sulfered it, but in the army. 
 What a ])rospect, however, if things should come to such a 
 pass, that a rebellious army could prescribe laws to the em- 
 pire and to Europe itself! 
 
 Napoleon hmded at Cannes, !Mareh 1, 1815, with about one thousand 
 five hundred men, and marched with celerity to Paris, without any 
 great achievements, because he met with no resistance. The previous 
 conspiracy does not seem to have been very extensive, because Naj)o- 
 Icon could, and of course did, count on the assistance of the troops and 
 their leaders on his appearance. He entered Paris, March 30 ; the 
 king having withdrawn to Lille, and afterwards to Ghent. But his 
 old power was not revived witli his old title ; instead of ruling the 
 parties as formerly, he seems to liavc been swayed by them ; and the 
 comedy of the Champ de IMai (June 1) exhibited only the caricature 
 of Ciiarles the Great. So much the more energetic were his warlike 
 preparations ; for he was well aware that all his proffers would nut 
 give him peace. 
 
 92. The news of Napoleon's return fortunately reached 
 the congress wliile still sitting. This rendered the most 
 sj)eedy and decisive measures possible, and they were ac- 
 cordingly adopted. By a special act the usurper was de- 
 clared the enemy of nations, and to have forfeited the pro- 
 tection of the laws ; and all the ])owers, both great and 
 small, innnediately entered into a firm combination against 
 him. The fortune of war might waver, but his final over- 
 throw seemed inevitable ; for the princes could now depend 
 on the hearty concurrence of their respective nations. 
 
 A declaration again.-t NapoU-on was signed, March 13, 1815, by 
 Austria, Prussia, England, and liussia, as well as by France, Spain, 
 Portugal, and Sweden. And soon after, an alliance was concluded be- 
 
PERIOD in.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, ISOl— 1821. 447 
 
 tween the four loading powers at Vienna, March 25. a. Repetition of 
 the alliance at Chaumont, (see p. 440,) for the maintenance of the 
 tranquillity and independence of Europe against Napoleon Buonaparte 
 and his followers. h. The contingent of each power was fixed at 
 180,000 men. c. AU the powers of Europe were invited to join the 
 alliance. — All of them with the exception of Sweden, (whicli was still 
 occupied with Xorway,) and all the states of Germany, including Swit- 
 zerland, acceded in order ; Spain conditionally ; and a subsidiary treaty 
 was concluded with Great Britain. Tlie sum of all the contingents to 
 be furnished amounted to 1,057,400 men. 
 
 93. Again, therefore, all Europe was plunged in commo- 
 tion by a single man ; for the danger was great though it 
 was not deemed such ; and it was easy to prophesy that the 
 usurper would not wait for the union of the hostile forces. 
 An army, composed of British, German, and Prussian forces 
 was assembled with the utmost speed under Wellington and 
 Blucher. Napoleon also made his preparations with equal 
 activity ; but the great day at Waterloo hurled him at once 
 to the ground and saved Europe. 
 
 Napoleon pressed forward across the boundaries with 1 70,000 men, 
 June 15, 1815. A battle was fought at Ligny against Blucher, June 
 16; who after a bold resistance (the grey hero himself was wounded 
 by the kick of a horse) was forced back to Wavre. On the same day 
 Ney risked an action with the Duke of Brunswick at Quatre Bras, who 
 fell the victim of his inherited valour. IMeanwhile the army of Wel- 
 lington, consisting of British, Hanoverians, Dutch, and the soldiers of 
 Brunswick and Nassau, was drawn up at Waterloo and La Belle Alli- 
 ance. Napoleon commenced the attack at noon of June 18, with a 
 great superiority. After a formidable conflict the victory fluctuated 
 till the evening, when Blucher appeared with his auxiliaries at the right 
 crisis. This was decisive. The French army was routed, put to flight, 
 pursued by Gneisenau, and totally dispersed. Napoleon, abandoning 
 every thing, escaped with difliculty to Paris, to bring the news of his 
 own defeat. His star had set for ever ! 
 
 94. The second taking of Paris without bloodshed was 
 the consequence of that victory, but whether it would result 
 in the submission of France might seem uncertain. The 
 remains of the defeated army retreated, conformably to the 
 convention, beyond the Loire ; the commanders of most 
 of the fortresses refused obedience ; but without a dissolu- 
 tion of the army no security was to be expected. The first 
 and most important step was to impel its chief after his re- 
 turn to the capital to execute a new abdication. In order 
 not to be deposed he abdicated at the request of the cliam- 
 
418 PUBLIC CONTESTS IN FX'ROrE, 1801—1821. [rtnioD in. 
 
 hers convcni'd by him ; and the (hshandinii; of llie army hy 
 its pencrals was happily accomphshcd. Meanwhile he re- 
 treated to Hochefort in order to escape to Amcriea ; and 
 finding that impossible, he surrendered to the English. 
 
 Nnpoleon's abdication in favour of his son, June 22, wa.s accepted by 
 tli(' cliainbcrs, so called, on the 2;3rd. How much single advisers, espe- 
 cially a Fouelio, (the head of the j)rovisory board of government) may 
 have contributed towards it, (the former minister of police and his 
 former master were unciuestionably the best acquainted with each other,) 
 is reserved for the future to divulge. He set out for IJochefort June 
 28 ; and after useless attempts to escape, surrendered to Ailmiral IIo- 
 tham, and the British ship of the line Bellcrophon, July 15, in which 
 he was transported to England, and from thence being transferred to 
 the Northumberland without landing, according to the resolution adopted 
 in common by the allied powers, July 31, he was conveyed to the island 
 of St. Helena, Aug. 8, where he landed, Oct. 16, and was detained as 
 a prisoner of war till his death, every attempt to liberate him having 
 been declared a capital crime by parliament, April 11, 1816. Queni 
 cursum dederat Fortuna peregit ! 
 
 95. The kinCT returned to his capital after an 
 
 July 9, 1815. , „ 1111 11 , 1 
 
 absence oi one hundred days, liut what exer- 
 tions and what experience had not the allies made in these 
 hiin(h-ed days ! Should they, at their own expense, re- 
 establish the royal throne of France, to see it perhaps again 
 overthrown ? A remuneration for what liad been spent, and 
 security for the future, they owed not only to themselves, but 
 also to their subjects, who had suffered ah'eady for their 
 former mairnanimitv. New nccrotiations had therefore to 
 be opened with the restored regal government ; and it was 
 agreed that remuneration should be obtained by a sum of 
 money, and security by an adjustment of boundaries, with 
 the cession of four fortified places, and a temporary occu- 
 pation of the frontiers at the cost of France. 
 
 By the second treaty of Paris, concluded after long conferences, Nov. 
 20, 181.3: a. An adjustment of the boundaries was made witii the ces- 
 sion of the four fortresses Philipville, Marienburg, Saarlouis, and Lan- 
 dau, with their environs as far as the Lauter ; and in Italy, of the part 
 of Savoy that had remained to France (see p. 443). b. The fortress 
 Huningen was demolished, c. The northern and eastern frontier of 
 France with eighteen fortresses was to be occupied at the cost of France, 
 for at least three years, by an army of the aUies of 150,000 men ; after 
 the expiration of that time, it was to be seen whether cii'cumstances 
 would admit of their removal, d. As a remuneration, France agreed 
 to pay at fixed times, the sum of seven hundred millions of francs (not 
 including the claims of private individuals). Both this and the rest of 
 
PERIOD III.] PUBLIC CONTESTS IN EUROPE, lSO-1— 1821. 449 
 
 the above conditions were fixed by separate conventions. — The ill-gotten 
 monuments of art with which Paris was embellished, the sacred property 
 of the nations, were with strict justice taken back without any particu- 
 lar convention. Kot without murmurs had they been permitted to re- 
 main at the fii-st taking of Paris. 
 
 The plenipotentiaries at this treaty were : from France, Richelieu ; 
 from Austria, Metternich and Wessenberg ; from England, Lord Cas- 
 tlereagh and the Duke of Wellington ; from Russia, Prince Rasumov- 
 sky and Count Capo d' Istria ; from Prussia, Prince Hardenberg and 
 Von Humboldt. 
 
 96. In Napoleon's fall his brother-in-law Murat of Na- 
 ples, reaping the reward of his ambiguity, was involved. 
 At the apparent progress of Buonaparte, Murat also declared 
 for him ; but Austria gave him no time to furnish assist- 
 ance. After a campaign of less than two months he lost his 
 kingdom, and wandering about like a fugitive, soon after 
 lost his life as a criminal. 
 
 Since their restoration the Bourbon courts had declared against Mu- 
 rat, Dec, 1814. England also refused all connexion with him, Jan. 25, 
 1815. He was engaged in making preparations before Napoleon's land- 
 ing, and immediately after manifested his warlike intentions by exhort- 
 ing the nations of Italy to vindicate their liberty, March 30. Austria 
 declared war against him, April 10, and signed an alliance with Ferdi- 
 nand of Sicily, April 29. Actions took place on the Po with Bianchi 
 and Nugent, but JMurat was soon forced to retreat. After the battle 
 at Tolentino, May 2, 3, and on the Garigliano, May 16, General Caras- 
 cosa capitulated on the 20th. Naples was conquei'ed and Ferdinand 
 restored. Murat escaped to France by way of Ischia. After Napo- 
 leon's defeat he fled to Coi'sica : and having afterwards made a descent 
 upon Pizzo in Calabria, he was taken prisoner and shot as a rebel, 
 Oct. 13. 
 
 97. The fate of the Scandinavian kingdoms was already 
 fully developed. Though after the peace of Kiel (see p. 
 437) Norway would not acquiesce in the cession made by 
 Denmark to Sweden, but on the contrary proclaimed its 
 governor king, it required only a short and almost bloodless 
 campaign of the prince royal of Sweden to make the peace 
 effectual. The assurance given to Norway of freedom and 
 political independence operated far more than arms ; and 
 Sweden and Norway were thus united like tv/o kingdoms 
 under the sceptre of the same monarch. 
 
 After the promulgation of the peace of Kiel, Jan. 14, 1814, great 
 commotions arose in Norway. It was proclaimed independent by the 
 governor. Prince Christian Frederic of Denmark, Feb. 19. A diet 
 ( Storthmg) was convoked at Eidswold, April 10, by which he was 
 
 2 G 
 
4-")0 I'l lil.U; CONTI:m> IN l.l hope, ISOl-l&Jl. IrEmon m. 
 
 tliTlared oonstitutional kiiifr, M:iy 17. l'sfl«'s.s ntti'inpts nt n roniproniise 
 wvrt' luadf by !i cnmiiiissidn of tlic allu-s, (July,) wlio iii^iisti-'l (ni siin- 
 luission ; ami it was blofkailrd liy lJriti.«li ships. Ilustilitics {'(Hiiiuciiccd, 
 An;r. 4 ; but aftiT some uniinportant hikirnii^lies, and tiie ."urrendor ul 
 the border fortresses, by whieh the road to Ciirisliana was left open, a 
 truce was a;jreed upon at Moss, Aujr. 14. Prinee Christian Frederic 
 vesi^rned, Auir. Ifi. The Storlhin^r at Christiana declared, on Oet. 20, 
 Norway to be united, as an independent kinprdoin, with the erown of 
 Sweden ; and Charles Xlll. was proclaimed king of Norway, Nov. 
 4, 1814. 
 
 98. On an island rock, in llie midst of tlie ocean, died, 
 almost unnoticed, the man, wlioso name but a short ?jxu'(3 
 bffore had filled the world. His plans were wrecked ; 
 and from the thraldom which he was preparing for the 
 nations, there spran<r up liberty in more than one quarter 
 of the cjlobe. Unknown to himself, he was but the instru- 
 ment of a hip;her power ; for his objects w^ere not its objects. 
 M'hatever jud«j:ment posterity may pass on him, universal 
 history can view him only from this point. 
 
 Napoleon Buonaparte died on the island of St. Helena, May 5, 1821. 
 
 The works published by the companions of his exile at St. Helena, 
 such as. Memorial de Sainte Ilclciir, on journal oi'i se trouve consiyne 
 jnur par jour ce que dit et fait NapoUon durant dixhtiit mois, par le 
 Conite DE LAS Casas. ti Paris, 1823, 8 vols. 8vo. And, 
 
 Miinoircs pour scrvir a Vhistoirc de France sous y^apoleon, ccrits a 
 St. inline sons sa dictie, par hs gaiiratix qui ont partarje sa captirifc, 
 ct publics sur les manuscrits enticrement corriyCs de la 7nain dc JSupo- 
 Icon. Mcnioires, torn. i. ii. ccrits par le General Gourgaud ; torn. iii. 
 par le General ^Montiioi.ox, — contain only so much as Napoleon himself 
 chose to let the world know of his con<luct. No one therefore will con- 
 sider them as pure sources of historical information. 
 
 The best and most circumstantial disclosures relative to the personal 
 character of this extraordinary man, are furnished in, Mcmoircs de 
 BounncNXE. a Paris, 1828, 8 vols. 8vo. The author was the friend of 
 Napoleon's youth, and his private secretary, till he ascende<l the throne. 
 The biojfraphies compiled even by celebrated writers supply us with no 
 additional information. 
 
 SECOND SECTION. 
 History of Colon ial . [(fairs, from 1 80 1—1 830. 
 
 1. The great convulsions and revolutions in Europe 
 during this period must liave exercised an influence so 
 much the more direct on the colonies, as it was less prac- 
 ticable to enforce on them the project of a universal 
 
PERIOD III.] COLONIAL AFFAIRS, ISOl— 1830. 451 
 
 monarchy. This could lead to nothing else than to their 
 independence, as far as it was compatible with their nature 
 and the maritime dominion of the British. A new order of 
 things began in America ; the flames of revolution com- 
 municated from the old world to the new, and kindled there 
 a conflagration no less violent. From their nature and 
 political relations, the East Indies were proof against them ; 
 but here, too, equally important alterations of another kind 
 were prepared, as well as in Africa. Even the fifth portion 
 of the world, its continent and its islands, received a con- 
 tinually increasing share of European civilization. 
 
 2. The United States of America underwent in this 
 period no changes in their constitution. But their territory, 
 (by the purchase of Louisiana, see p. 353, and the acquisi- 
 tion of Florida,) its population and revenues, were doubled ; 
 and their boundary, both on the British and the Spanish 
 side, was the Pacific. Colonization in the western territory, 
 as well as in Louisiana, advanced with a rapidity beyond all 
 expectation, and increased the number of allied states from 
 seventeen to twenty-four, several of the territories being 
 admitted into the union. 
 
 The two Floridas were acquired in consideration of the surrender of 
 pecuniary demands, from Spain, Oct. 24, 1820, ratified by the presi- 
 dent, Marclx 22, 1821. At the same time the boundaries on the side 
 of Mexico were determined by tlie rivers Sabine and Arkansas, and by 
 tlie parallel of 42° N. Lat., from tlie sources of those rivers to the 
 Pacific. And with respect to England, conformably to the treaty of 
 Ghent, (see below,) the boundary line extended from the Lake of the 
 Woods, along the parallel of 49° N. Lat., to the Pacific. 
 
 Besides the district of Columbia, the territory of the capital, Washing- 
 ton, the twenty -four United States at present ai'e : 1. Pennsylvania. 
 2. New York. 3. Maryland. 4. Delaware. 5. Rhode Island. 6. 
 Connecticut. 7. Massachusetts. 8. New Jersey. 9. Vermont. 10. 
 New Hampshire. 11. Maine. 12. Virginia. 13. North Carolina. 
 14. South Carolina. 15. Georgia. 16. Tennessee. 17. Kentucky. 
 18. Ohio. 19. Indiana. 20. Illinois. 21. Louisiana. 22. Missis- 
 sippi (to the east of Louisiana). 23. Alabama. 24. Missouri. Florida 
 was declared a territory as well as Michigan. West Florida from the 
 Mississippi to the river Perdido was previously claimed as a part of 
 Louisiana, and occupied, Oct. 20, 1810. — The population was augmented 
 from six to about ten millions, the public revenue from twelve to twenty- 
 four millions of dollars, without increase of taxes. 
 
 3. Though the constitution remained unaltered, party 
 spirit was nevertheless excited, and there were moments 
 
 2 G 2 
 
452 COLONIAL Al 1 AlUS, 180J— 1S30. [pehiod ill. 
 
 when it threatened to become (lang;erous. Tlie parties of 
 the (lenio(M'ats and federalists, (tlie ftiniior Ix-iiifj; strongest 
 in tin; soutlicrn and interior states, and originally the favour- 
 ers of th(> agricultural system, while the latter, prevailing 
 in the north, were the advocates of the commercial system,) 
 found encouragfMnent and support in the disputes between 
 France and England, and almost became, the former a 
 French, the latter an English party. But the love of their 
 common country and the attack of the British on the capital 
 united both ; and after the restoration of peace in Europe, 
 these parties became to all appearance mere names. 
 
 4. A commercial state like that of America could not 
 possibly avoid being involved in those contentions which 
 made the war between France and England a commercial 
 war. The collisions were necessarily most violent with the 
 state that had the mastery of the sea, and eventually led to 
 a war, as Fi'ance artfully took advantage of them to increase 
 her own influence. 
 
 The pre-existing causes of contention (see p. 352) still continued, 
 and were aggravated by the increasing oppression of navigation and 
 commerce. On that account the Kou-importation Act was passed, 
 against the inii)ortation of Britisli nianufacturos. Negotiations conti- 
 nued ; but the diHerences were augmented, partly by single occurrences 
 at sea, but principally by the British orders in council and the French 
 decrees of 180G and 1807, (see p. 404,) by which the trade of neutrals 
 was in fact anniiiilatcd. In consequence, a jirohibition was laid on tlujir 
 own navigation by the Emhnrcio Act, Dec. 22, 1807, and by the Non- 
 intercourse Act, ;^Iarcll 1, 1809. All trade with England, and witli 
 France and its colonies, Avas interdicted, together with the importation 
 of the ]iroducts of either, till those orders should be revoked. It Wiis 
 repeated with greater restrictions, !May 1, 1810. This was followed, 
 on the side of Napoleon, by a partial annulment of his decrees, with re- 
 spect to America, April 28, 1811. From that time America became 
 more friendly to France, and more estranged from England, till the de- 
 claration of war against it, June 18, 1812, after a previous general em- 
 bargo on all the vessels then in tlie harbours of the United States, 
 whether domestic or foreign, April 4. The declaration of England, 
 that it would recall ita orders in council, June 24, came too late. 
 
 5. It coidd not be a war like that which was raging in 
 Europe. It was carried on with moderate bodies of soldiers 
 on the boundaries, especially of Canada, and with single 
 ships. Though the new American navy gained a glorious 
 distinction in this contest, the army was not so fortunate ; 
 the capital itself became the spoil of the English, but New 
 
PERIOD III.] COLONIAL AFFAIRS, 1804—1830. 453 
 
 Orleans was defended with courag'e and success. Tlie ne- 
 gotiations at Ghent led, in a happy hour, to the conclusion 
 of a peace, which again left England free and unembar- 
 rassed in the war that broke out soon after in Europe. 
 
 The petty war on the fi-ontiers and lakes of Canada, into which the 
 natives were unfortunately drawn, had an unsuccessful termination for 
 America on the mainland, but the English were, nevertheless, unable 
 to penetrate for into the interior. The city of Washington was at- 
 tacked and all the public buildings reduced to ashes, by General Ross, 
 Aug. 24, 1814, a proceeding which was condemned in England itself. 
 But a fruitless attack on Xew Orleans was made by General Packen- 
 ham, who fell in the action ; the city was gallantly defended by General 
 Jackson, Jan. 8, 1815, the peace of Ghent having been signed a short 
 time before, Dec. 24, 1814. Conditions: a. A settlement of boundaries 
 on the side of Canada to the remote Lake of the Woods, and of the 
 islands in Passamaquoddy Bay, to be afterwards adjusted by commis- 
 sioners, h. Restoration of all conquests, c. Both parties bound them- 
 selves to do their utmost to abolish the slave trade. 
 
 The plenipotentiaries at Ghent were : on the part of England, Ad- 
 miral Gambler, etc. ; on the part of America, Alb. Gallatin, J. Q. 
 Adams, H. Clay, etc. 
 
 The Diplomacy of the United States, being an account of the foreign 
 relations of the country, from the first treaty icith France in 1778 to 
 the present times. Second edition, with additions by Theodore Ltmajn'. 
 Boston, 1828, 2 vols. 8vo. The work contains an historical discussion 
 of the various contracts entered into with European states during the 
 above period, including the original documents. 
 
 6. The greatest immediate advantage which America, 
 now become known both in her strength and in her weak- 
 ness, derived, notwithstanding the increase of the public 
 debt, from the war, was a greater consolidation of the union, 
 especially since the burning of Washington, which put an 
 end to all ideas of separating the southern and northern 
 provinces. The more indirect advantages arose from the 
 impulse given by the previous prohibitions to her manufac- 
 turing industry, and the necessity it caused to be felt of a 
 navy, to which the leading energies of the nation were after- 
 wards directed, with the restriction, however, to what her 
 actual security demanded. England itself had raised up a 
 new rival ! But was not such another rival almost indis- 
 pensable for the maintenance of its own power ? 
 
 7. With the return of peace the navigation and trade of 
 the republic was diffused over every sea. Her flags were 
 displayed in the two Indies, in China, and in Europe ; and 
 
454 COLONIAL AFFAIRS, IS^Ol— 1830. [pEBion iii. 
 
 in the Mcditorranoan tlio piratical states liad to tronil)le ho- 
 foro lior. Ilcr territory now extends to tlie month of the 
 Cohnnhia on tlie Paeilic ; tlie whole immense regions (»f the 
 Mississijipi, with its tribntary rivers, belono; to her; the 
 pnrchase of I^uisiana, where a rich commercial city already 
 rises in New Orleans, holds a place among the events in 
 Avhich the world is interested ; and the possession of the 
 rioridas, which comj)letes her territory, seems to promise 
 lier at some time the dominion of the West Indies. Mean- 
 ■while internal improvement advances with rapid strides. 
 Such works as tlx' Erie canal and otiuTs now in prof^ress, 
 in connexion witli the inestimably important invention of 
 steam carriage, will oj)en a line of inland communication, 
 from the sources of tiie Missouri and its tributary rivers, to 
 the mouths of the Mississippi, as well as the Hudson, where 
 New York already flourishes as the first commercial city of 
 the new world ; and the times are cominjr when a man may 
 travel with the mail from one ocean to the other. 
 
 The practical maritime right of tlic United States, in tlicir treaties of 
 commerce and re^rnhitions, is bas<^d on the strictest reciprocity. So in 
 their Act of Navicration, ]MarcIi 1, 1817, tlie prohihition "of the intro- 
 duction of goods from a foreign liarhour, except in sliips of the United 
 States, or such as belong to tlie subjects or citizens of the country where 
 tlie articles were produced or manufactured," does not bind the vessels 
 of any foreign nation which has not adopted, or will not adopt, any 
 similar reguhition. There is an especial act of the same date, " that all 
 British ships coming from ports to which American ships are not ad- 
 mitted, (West Indies,) shall not be admitted in an American port." 
 The treaty of commerce witli England, July 3, 1815, contained the fol- 
 lowing articles : o. Reciprocity in respect to freedom of trade and du- 
 ties, h. The Americans were to enjoy the privileges of free trade in 
 all the British East India ports ; they were not to pursue any coasting 
 trade or unload their East India cargoes in any other ports than tliose 
 belonging to the United States. The dillerences relative to the Ameri- 
 can trade with the Britisli West Indies are not as yet adjusted, and the 
 victory gained by the mercantile interest over the partisans of free 
 trade, in tlie congress of 182(5, in consequence of raising the duties on 
 all articles of foreign maiuifacture, may easily occasion still further 
 disputes. 
 
 A stfifistirnl vine of (he cnmim rrc nf the T^tiifed States of Amerien ; 
 its eonnr.riojt irith nr/ricuffitre niul )n'i/ifif}iefi/?:'S, ntnl n}i accoimt of the 
 piihlir (Ithf, r( venues, and e.rpendititres of the United States; aceompn- 
 itied with tables illustrative of the prinrijdes and objeets of the irorh, by 
 Timothy I'itkin, a member of the house of representatives. Hartford, 
 1816. — The best and latest statistics of the United States. 
 
 Statistical annals of the United States of Ameriea, founded on of' 
 
PERIOD III.] COLONIAL AFFAIRS, 1804— 1S30. 455 
 
 ficial doctime77ts, by Adam Seeert. 1818, 4to. Statistical materials 
 for the period extending from 1789 to 1818, but rather a crude per- 
 formance. 
 
 8. The fidelity of the British colonies of Canada and Nova 
 Scotia was tried in the last war with America, ^^ hy should 
 those colonies strive after independence, which are already 
 possessed of a free constitution, which suffer no religious 
 constraint, pay no taxes, and see their colonization and trade 
 becoming every year more and more flourishing ? If their 
 importance was doubled in the eyes of England, which in 
 the times of embargoes drew from them the necessary sup- 
 plies of timber and corn, etc., for itself and theAVest Indies, 
 it has requited this by milder treatment than any other 
 colony can boast of. The warnings of historj'^ have not 
 been given in vain ! And yet the spirit of discontent has 
 already manifested itself in the opposition i-aised against the 
 house of assembly and the governor, with his dependent 
 council. 
 
 By the constitutions of Lower and Upper Canada, as established by 
 the act of parliament, 1791, the former has a governor-general, the latter 
 a governor, subordinate to the governor-general only in military affiiirs. 
 At the side of the governor is a council, (Upper House,) consisting of 
 fifteen members in Lower Canada, and seven members in Upper Ca- 
 nada, appointed by the governor for life, and an assembly, (Lower House,) 
 consisting of fifteen and sixteen members, chosen ewerj four years by 
 the proprietors. The bills that have passed the council and assembly 
 only require the signature of the governor, and become laws, unless the 
 king expresses his disapprobation in two years. In 1788 the parlia- 
 ment resigned the right of taxation, with the exception of the power of 
 making commercial regulations ; and the Test Act was here superseded 
 by the'' Quebec Act, 1774 (see p. 286). 
 
 Letters from Canada, written during a residence there in the years 
 1806, 1807, and 1808 ; showing the present state of Canada, etc., by 
 Hugh Gray. London, 1809. Containing a good deal of valuable in- 
 formation, but not free from British prejudices. 
 
 A Topographiccd Description of the Province of Lower Canada, tcith 
 Remarhs on Upper Canada, by Joseph Bouchette. London, 18 lo. 
 Tlie leading work for the modern statistics of Canada, with an excelt 
 lent atlas. 
 
 9. In a different mode from North America, a new state 
 arose in the southern continent. The empire of Brazil — 
 expressly declared such by its ruler — about equal ^^^. 
 
 in extent to European Russia, but far more rich- 
 ly endowed by nature, was a consequence of the fate of the 
 
•156 COLONIAL ArFAIUS. ISOl— 1830. [pEniot iii. 
 
 jso- mother countiy (see p. 407). From this time it 
 was impossible ao^ain to make it a colony, even 
 March.iMB. ^y})(,,^ t|,c kinp; retumed to Europe; the natural 
 result was the openinp; of the ports of Brazil to all neutral 
 and friend Iv states, which soon began to ameliorate the so- 
 cial condition. From this time the complete separation of 
 Brazil I'rom the mother country mi^ht very reasonably have 
 been expected, thoup;h it could only take place gradually, 
 and indeed was impracticable till the king, John \ I., re- 
 turned to Europe ; he, however, left behind him his eldest 
 son, Don Pedro, and family, to administer the affairs of the 
 empire in quality of regent. 
 
 Marriage of the crown prince with an areljduchoss of Austria, Oct., 
 1817, who brou>,'lit him an heir to the throne. Ilcr death, Dec. 11, 
 182G. Second marriage, witli a Bavarian princess, Oct. 17, 1829. 
 
 10. But notwithstanding the elevation of the colony into 
 an empire, nothing was said of forming a constitution, which 
 the circumstances as well as the voice of the people seemed 
 so loudly to demand. Thus the valuable moment was let 
 slip, when it was still possible to give freely, instead of being 
 obliged to accept what would never have been given. The 
 forced adoption of the new Portuguese constitution left the 
 king, there, as in the mother country, nothing but the shadow 
 of authority ; and the natural consequence was his return 
 to Europe. 
 
 An in.-jnrrection broke out among the soldiery in Para, and after- 
 wards in Bahia, Pernambuco, and Eio Janeiro, Feb. — Ai)ri], 1821, and 
 the — as yet imperfect — Portuguc.'^e constitution wa^ adopted; after 
 which the king, with his court, sailed for Portugal, April 26. 
 
 1 1. After this time, and as soon as the Portuguese mili- 
 tary had been put down by main force, there followed a 
 gradual declaration of independence on the part of Brazil, 
 an<l its elevation to the rank of an empire, which was even 
 recognised by Portugal, shortly before the death of the 
 king. 
 
 The prince regent announced his determination to remain in Brazil, 
 fTan. 1.5, 1822; assumed tiie title of "perpetual defender of the king- 
 dom," May 13. Upon the expulsion of the Portuguese troops he pro- 
 claimed the independence of Brazil, Aug. ; and soon after appointed 
 himself "constitutional and hereditary emperor," Oct. 12. The differ- 
 ences arising tlicrefrom, between this country and Pt)rtuga], lasted until 
 the king, John VI., was induced, by British mediation, to recognise its 
 
TERioD III. J COLOInIAL affairs, 1801—1830. 457 
 
 independence, May 15, 1825 ; this was followed by a treaty, concluded 
 Sept. 29, and ratified at Lisbon, IS'ov. 15 ; agreeably to which John VL 
 reserved to himself the imperial title only during his life (died March 
 10, 1826) ; and on the other hand the emperor Pedro I. engaged not to 
 unite any other Portuguese colony with Brazil. 
 
 12. The declaration of independence rendered it neces- 
 sary to adopt some form of constitution, which, in a mon- 
 archical state, surrounded as it was by pure republics, was a 
 matter of peculiar difficulty. The imperial authority, it 
 was thought, could never be restrained within too strict 
 limits, and the congress summoned to debate on this ques- 
 tion, were willing enough to give, but not to accept, a con- 
 stitution. And though, after dissolving the congress, the 
 emperor himself did, in point of fact, give the constitution, 
 yet it was not without a compromise of the monarchical 
 principle. 
 
 The first national congress assembled, Aug., 1822, and drew up a 
 plan of a constitution, which was rejected by the emperor. The con- 
 gress forcibly dissolved, because it had declared itself permanent, Nov. 
 12. A second convened in INIay, 1823, which accepted the constitution 
 laid before it by the emperor, Dec. 17. According to this, the govern- 
 ment was to be monarchical and hereditary ; the general assembly to 
 consist of two chambers ; that of the senators, who were to be nominated 
 for life by the emperor, from a certain list submitted to him, and that of 
 the deputies, who Avere to be elective. The monarchical principle, 
 however, was herein compromised, viz. that a legislative measure was 
 to have the force of law, even without the imperial sanction, provided 
 the latter had been tAvice refused. 
 
 13. The new empire, however, was soon involved in a 
 war with the neighbouring republic of Buenos Ayres, for 
 the express purpose of uniting the Banda Oriental with 
 Brazil, after taking possession of Monte- Video with Brazilian 
 troops. This war, after being carried on with various suc- 
 cess by sea and land, terminated at last to the advantage of 
 neither party, the country in question being declared a free 
 state throuo'h the mediation of the British. 
 
 War declared by Brazil against Buenos Ayres, Dec. 10, 1825. In- 
 dependence of the Banda Oriental proclaimed, Dec. 11, 1828, under the 
 title of the Cisplatine Republic. Notification of peace at the opening of 
 the chambers in Rio Janeiro, May 3, 1829. 
 
 14. Thus has there arisen in South America, a mighty 
 empire indeed, in point of extent, and containing within 
 itself the germs of further development ; though we must 
 
i'tS COLONIAL AI FAIIIS, 1801-1S30. [teriod hi. 
 
 not export it to make such a rapid jirogress as the ^rcc. 
 I'nited States of North America. 'I'his can only j)roeee(l 
 IVom the enjoyment of reHgious and pohtical fVee(K»ni, l)oth 
 of Avhieli arc here very much restricted, notwithstanding: 
 some hheral rep;nlations. lirazil possesses miicli more of 
 tlie character of a plantation than an agricultural colony, 
 both as regards its j)roductions and the cultivation of the 
 soil, which is performed almost wholly by negro slaves, the 
 trade in whom still continues without interru])tion. It is 
 true, tlieii- number, as compared to that of the free inha- 
 bitants, is mucli less here than in the West Indies; they 
 are all Christians, are pretty well treated, enjoy the numer- 
 ous festivals of the Romish church to themselves, and besides 
 liave tlie privilege of jiurchasiiig their own freedom ; but 
 still tiiey are slaves, and contribute to support the indolence 
 of their masters. The abolition of the slave trade, and the 
 gradual augmentation of free labourers, must alone constitute 
 the foundation of the prosperity of this state. Experience 
 will show whether the promised discontinuance of import- 
 ing slaves, to have taken place in 1830, is fulfilled or not. 
 
 For want of Portuguese sources of information we can onlj refer to 
 tlie works of recent travellers, such as that of Coster, for the northern, 
 nn<l tliat of Mawk, for the southern provinces, together with the travels 
 of Prince ]Maximili.vn von Nkuwied. Respecting the interior of the 
 country, wliich is still in great measure unexplored, additional inform- 
 ation may be obtained from the travels of the Bavarian naturalists Simx 
 and Mautius, besides what is promised in the forthcoming works of the 
 Austrian and Russian travellers in Brazil. 
 
 15. For Spanish America, also, the political convulsions 
 of the mother country introduced a new period, the ])eriod 
 of the struggle for liberty and independence. It did not, 
 liowever, bv anv means originate in the intention of an en- 
 tire separation from the Spanish throne, but only from re- 
 sistance to the usurpation of Napoleon and his brother Jo- 
 se|)h. The American insiu'gents were therefore no more 
 rel)els than the Spauiards tlu.'mselves. But they were as 
 unwilling to be ruled by Spanish .luntas, as by their vice- 
 roys and caj)tains-general, in whom tliev did not, and, for the 
 most part, could not confide. Like the Spanish they estab- 
 lished Juntas (governments) of their own, during the im- 
 prisonment of their legitimate king. Meanwhile after the 
 erection of the regency in the mother country, and its re- 
 
Aug. 31, 1810. 
 
 rERioD III.] COLONIAL AFFAIRS, 1804—1830. 459 
 
 fusal to comply with their just demands, they in turn refused 
 to recognise its authority, or the authority of the Cortes as- 
 sembled by it ; upon this they were declared 
 rebels. They were thus forced upon a line of 
 conduct which they had not previously determined to adopt ; 
 and after tlie accession of Ferdinand VII. they had gone too 
 far to retreat, even had more moderation and sincerity been 
 evinced on the part of the throne and its officers than was 
 done. But thev were immediately ordered to 
 
 1 • 1 1 • 11-1 Aug. 4, 1814. 
 
 lay aside their arms, and a hostile treatment was 
 exercised towards them by sending out Morillo. The con- 
 test continued with varying success in Caraccas, New Gra- 
 nada, Mexico, La Plata, Ohih, and Peru. But the year 
 1821, after the loss of Mexico and Lima, and the victory of 
 the insurgents in Venezuela, if it did not put a complete 
 end to it, seems, nevertheless, to have brought it near a ter- 
 mination ; since hardly two or three small corps of Spanish 
 troops were able to maintain themselves in single places. 
 
 Previous to the dethronement of the royal family, no traces of insur- 
 rection had appeared in the Spanish colonies (the attempts of Miranda 
 in Caraccas, 1806, who was able to collect but a small number of fol- 
 lowers, having been immediately suppressed) ; the account of this trq^ns- 
 action, in July, 1808, gave the first impulse to ulterior proceedings. 
 The demands submitted to the regency, Dec. 31, 1810, were: a. 
 Equality of rights with the inhabitants of the mother country, h. Free- 
 dom of cultivating all productions and manufictures. c. Freedom of 
 importation and exportation from and to all Spanish and friendly har- 
 bours, d. Free trade between Spanish America and the possessions in 
 America, e. Likewise from the Philippines to the Spanish colonics. 
 f. The abolition of all connnercial monopolies, in consideration of an 
 indemnification by duties, g. Freedom of Avorking the quicksilver 
 mines, h. The eligibility of all Spanish Americans to all offices and 
 dignities, i. That half the offices should be filled by them. j. That a 
 Junta should watch over the observation of these points in each capital. 
 h. The restoration of the Jesuits for the instruction and conversion of 
 the Indians. 
 
 1. Caraccas or Venezuela, six provinces. Tlie inhabitants peti- 
 tioned for the establishment of a Junta ; but the governor Las Casas 
 caused the petitioners to be arrested. A supreme Junta was erected 
 for maintaining the rights of Ferdinand VII. and the Spanish magis- 
 trates were imprisoned, Api-il 19, 1810. But after the declaration of 
 rebellion by the regency, the congress of the United States of Vene- 
 zuela was convened, and the republic proclaimed independent, July 5, 
 1811; comprising the provinces Caraccas, Cumana, JNIaracaibo, Gui- 
 ana, Barinos, and the island Margarita. Affairs seemed in a prosper- 
 ous state, when every thing was destroyed by the terrible earthquake 
 
•100 COLONIAL AIFAIRS, l&Ol— IS.'W. [rr.niOD iii. 
 
 of March 26, 1812. The contest, however, was continued, nt first un- 
 der Miranda, and, after 1813, under Simon Bolivar. Upon the arrival 
 of Morillo, June, 1815, and the concjuest of Cartaj^ena, Dec. 5, tiie in- 
 surgents seemed to lose jjrouiid. They maintained themselves, however, 
 in the interior, especially in Guiana, whither the congress transferred 
 its sessions, to Angostura, while the Spanish made themselves masters 
 of the maritime cities. Never before was war waged with such atroci- 
 ties, till it was apparently terminated by the truce between liolivar 
 and Morillo, Nov. 25, 1820. I5ut alter the resignation of Morillo, hos- 
 tilities commenced afresh. Bolivar gained a decisive victory at C'ara- 
 l>obo in the neighbourhood of Valencia, June 24, 1821, in consecpience 
 of which the Spaniards retained nothing but Porto CabeUo ; and upon 
 the evacuation of this latter place, Nov. 10, 1823, there were no more 
 Spaniards here to overcome. 
 
 2. Nkw Gij-Vxada, with twenty-two ])rovinccs, among wliich were 
 Cartagena and C^iiito. A Junta was estaldished in the caj)ital, Santa 
 Fe di Bogota, July 20, 1810, which caused the viceroy to be arrested. 
 But a part oidy of the jtrovinces juined. The scenes of barbarity \)ut- 
 petrated in (^uito, Aug. 2, 1810, excited the greatest indignation, where 
 tiie leaders of the patriots, having been arrested by the troops of tlie vice- 
 roy of Peru, were murdered in prison and the city sacked. The pro- 
 vinces of Nueva Granada could never attain mutual harmony; even a 
 civil war broke out, and the fall of Carthagena opened to JNIorillo an 
 avenue to the capital, June, 1816. But the Spanish were unable to 
 maintain themselves tiiere ; the victorious campaign of the insurgents 
 in 1819, deprived them again of the capital, which was entered by Bo- 
 livar on the 10th of August. After that time, preparations were made 
 to unite with Venezuela and form a common republic, under the name 
 of Columbia. See below. 
 
 3. Mexico, or New Spain, the principal country. A stronger mili- 
 tary force, and the firmness of the viceroy Venega, delayed the rupture 
 for a long time. The rebellion was begun by an ecclesiastic, Hidalgo, 
 in Guanaxiuita, Sept., 1810. lie was soon at the head of a numerous 
 army, but he was exeonununicated, defeated, taken prisoner, and exe- 
 cuted, IMareh 21, 1811. After him IMorelos became the princijjal 
 leader ; the insurrection spread to New INIexico and Acapulco, promoted 
 by the cruelty of the new viceroy Apodaca, till Oct., 1815, when the 
 same fate befell Morelos, and soon alterwards his successor Mina, Dec. 
 11, 1815. The insurgents were unable to gain possession of the capital, 
 on which every thing depended ; the Junta, that was formed, had no 
 Oxed seat, and the character of the coasts rendered foreign aid and im- 
 portation of arms almost impossible. Tiie royal power appeared here to 
 have the preponderance; Avithout, however, the insurrection being en- 
 tirely quelled. There was only need of a common leader, to unite the 
 disperse(l forces. Such a one the insurgents acquired in Don Iturbide, 
 1820. The insurrection now became more general than ever; even the 
 newly-arrived viceroy, O*l)on<ij(iu, was forced to make a treaty, Aug. 
 24, 1821, in which ho acknowledged the independence of the empire of 
 Mexico ; and Iturbide made his entrance into the cajjital, Sept. 27, 
 without bloodshed. In the disputes, however, which soon followed, 
 with the assembled Cortes, Iturbide was unable to maintain himself 
 
PERIOD III.] COLONIAL AFFAIRS, ISOl— 1830. 4G1 
 
 against the republican party; he therefore resigned, March 16, 1823, 
 and was obliged to leave America ; and upon his venturing to return 
 thither from Europe, was apprehended and shot, July 19, 1824. After 
 the surrender of Vera Cruz, Oct. 26, 1821, the fort of San Juan D'Ulloa 
 was the sole remaining possession in the hands of the Spaniards, and 
 this too was given up after a tedious blockade, Dec. 18, 1825. In the 
 mean time, a sovereign congress was assembled, wliich proclaimed the 
 federative republic of Mexico, Dec. 16, 1823, and published a formal 
 attestation of the constitutional government, Jan. 31, 1824 (see below). 
 From this time a period of internal tranquillity succeeded, until the ec 
 clesiastical relations of the country, and the intermeddling of the Pope, 
 gave rise to a series of quarrels with the clergy, which were soon after- 
 wards followed by similar disf)utes between the Creoles and the Spanish 
 inhabitants. Thus were formed the two parties of the Escossesos 
 (Scots) and Jorkinos, (Yorkites,) so called after their respective Masonic 
 lodges, the former comprehending the aristocrats, that is, the clergy and 
 Spaniards, the latter the popular fiictiou, or Creoles, 1827. The con- 
 gress passed a decree for suspending the Spaniai'ds from office, May 14, 
 and expelling the clergy and unmarried Spaniards from the country, 
 Oct. 16. These disputes had a reflex influence on the election of the 
 president. The vice-president. Bravo, raised himself in opposition to 
 the president, Guadelupe Vittoria ; but was soon overcome by General 
 Guerrero, Jan., 1828, and the latter, through the influence of the Jor- 
 kinos under General Santa Anna, was elevated to the presidency, «Jan. 
 1, 1829 ; upon this immediately followed the edict for the total expulsion 
 of the Spaniards, who had concerted a plan for making a descent from 
 the Havanna, and had actually commenced putting it into execution 
 under General Barradas ; the attempt, however, was foiled by Santa 
 Anna, Avho forced the Spaniards, upon their landing, to capitulate near 
 Tampico, Sept. 11, 1829, and in this manner established the independ- 
 ence of jNIexico. 
 
 Memoirs of the Mexiean revolution ; including a narrative of the ex- 
 pedition of General ISUnas. Philadelphia, 1820. By an American who 
 Avas present. Hitherto the most credible narrative, but it goes no fur- 
 ther than 1819. 
 
 Further information respecting Mexico as well as the other new 
 states will be found in, 
 
 IJ Art de verifier les dates drpuis Vannce VJIO, jusqu^ a 1826, vols. 
 ix. X. ; a work which supplies the most correct chronological data on 
 this subject. — Consult also, 
 
 Jahrbucher der Geschichte von America, 1492 — 1829, von G. W. 
 Hugo. 
 
 4. Rio de la Plata or Buenos Ayre^, in fourteen provinces. The 
 strength of the capital had been tried in the repeated attacks of the 
 British, 1806 and 1807 (see p. 395). A Junta was first established, 
 after the execution of the ex-viceroy Liniers, May 21, 1810; but its 
 authority was not recognised by all the provinces. A constituent as- 
 sembly was finally established, consisting of deputies from the towns of 
 all the provinces of the viceroyalty, Jan. 31, 1813. A government Avas 
 organized consisting at first of three members ; but soon afterwards of 
 one director and a council of seven members, Dec. 31. Its entire in- 
 
4G2 COLONIAL AIFAIRS, ISOi— 1830. [period hi. 
 
 dependence was proclaimed, July 9, 1816. The new republic had to 
 contend with tin; SjKinish tn^ops from Peru in the u])per ])rovince8, 
 witli the partisans of" Arti^ras, who appeared jus an indrpcmlent eliief in 
 Parafruay, and with the Portuguese, who oceupieil Munte-Video ; it 
 sustained the conflict witli varied success. The republic, however, ha-S 
 been sorely curtailed in its extent, owing to the sejiaration of Upper 
 Peru, (Holivia,) as well as the Banda Oriental. Moreover Ijetween tlje 
 princi])al province of Buenos Ayres, and those of the interior, jealousies 
 and disj)utes arose which led to a separation, as the interior provinces 
 dill not choose to recognise the authority of Buenos Ayres. To this 
 may be referred the war with Brazil for the possession of Monte-Video, 
 alreaily noticed (sec p. 457). In fine, Sept. 21, 1827, an agreement, 
 to which the other provinces acceded, was entered into between Buenos 
 Ayres and Cordova, (as the most important province,) for adopting a 
 federative government, thougli at the same time a preponderating influ- 
 ence was given to Buenos Ayres, by the nomination of Dorrego a.s pre- 
 si<lent, after the departure of lviva<lavia. This, however, did not put 
 an end to the disputes of tlie interior, where the chiefs were always 
 making war upon one another. 
 
 5. Bolivia. This republic was founded after the victory at Ayacucho 
 by Bolivar, out of Upper Peru, April 11, 182.5 ; and assumed of its 
 own accord the name of Bolivia, Aug. 12, the same year. 
 
 6. Chili. The insurrection began as early as 1810. A congress 
 assembled at Santiago, and the captain-general was t)bliged to resign 
 his office. But internal discord prevailed. An opposition to the con- 
 gress was formed by the brothers Carrera, and a Junta erected, which 
 dissolved the congress, Dec, 1811. The despotism of the Carreras oc- 
 casioned serious disturbances, and even a civil war, which facilitated 
 the attempts of the Spanish to subjugate the country, Oct., 1814. But 
 in Jan., 1817, Gen. San ^Martin advanced from La Plata across the 
 Andes with a body of troops ; he gained a victory at Chacabuco, Feb. 
 12, and convened a congress. The Spanish, pressing fonvard again 
 under Osorio, were routed at ^laipo, April 5, 1818, and the Spanisli 
 dominion was at an end. On Jan. 1, 1818, Chili was proclaimed inde- 
 pendent. Tlie establishment of a navy, under the British admiral 
 Cochrane, who had entered its service, gave this state a peculiar degree 
 of importance. From this time there was no further opposition to 
 overcome, and internal tranquillity prevailed here under the director 
 O'lliggins, until May 9, 1823, when he was dispossessed by General 
 Friere, who himself gave way to Don Pinto, May 29, 1826, who was 
 re-elected in 1828. 
 
 Maria Gkaiiam, Journal of a residence in Chili during the year 
 1822. London, 1824, 8vo. Contains the best account of the occur- 
 rences which had taken place in that country up to the year 1822. 
 
 7. Peru. The Spanish dominion was maintained the longest in the 
 capital, Lima, and the greater part of Peru, (with the exception perhaps 
 of the southern provinces.) though a powerful opposition was organized 
 against it. But the attack on Lima by San ]\Iartin, from the land, 
 whih; Cochrane blockaded the harl)our of Callao, forced the Spanish to 
 leave Lima, which wa^ entered by San Martin, July 16, 1821. Callao 
 capitulated, Sept. 19. Li the southern provinces, however, a Spanish 
 
PERIOD III.] COLONIAL AFFAIRS, ISOl— 1830. 463 
 
 corps still maintained itself, which heing reinforced by General Canterac, 
 succeeded in recapturing Lima, June 18, 1823. At this juncture Bo- 
 livar, the liberator of Columbia, undertook the liberation of Peru ; and 
 as earl}' as Sept. 1, of the same year, made his entry into Lima, was 
 placed at the head of the republic, and, Feb. 10, 1824, nominated dic- 
 tator of Peru. Victory over General Canterac, near Junin on the Lake 
 of Tifficaca, Aug. 4, 1824, and a decisive one gained by Gen. Sucre at 
 Ayacucho, Dec. 9 ; after which the Spanish army was obliged to ca- 
 pitulate. In consequence of this victory, which was followed by the 
 surrender of Callao under Gen. Rodil, though not indeed till Jan. 19, 
 
 1826, Peru was completely freed from Spanish dominion. 
 
 Outline of the Revolutioti in Spanish America, or an account of the 
 origin, progress, and actual state of the rear carried on between Spain 
 and Spanish America, by a South American. London, 1817. Hi- 
 therto the most credible narrative of the events, so disguised as they 
 are by the spirit of party. 
 
 3Iemoirs of General Miller, in the service of the Republic of Peru, 
 by Jonx IMjxlek, London, 1828, 8vo. The leading work for the his- 
 tory of the war. The author himself also served under Bolivar and 
 Sucre. 
 
 8. The Catitaxia of Guatdiala likewise proclaimed itself inde- 
 pendent, Sept. 24, 1821, (without however having any Spanish troops 
 to contend against,) and assumed the title of Central America. Its 
 tranquillity was afterwards disturbed by intestine party broils, which, in 
 
 1827, led to a civil war, without producing any decisive consequences. 
 
 16. Thus the power of Spain on the continent of Ame- 
 rica is in reahty annihilated. The deep decay of the 
 Spanish finances and navy ; and the total paralysing of its 
 commerce by the audacious privateering of the insurgents, 
 must have aggravated to an extreme degree the difficulty 
 of every undertaking. That the ancient relations, on which 
 it formerly insisted, especially the commercial constraints, 
 could no longer be enforced, Spain itself confessed in its 
 negotiations with the allied powers ; and the idea of a sim- 
 ple confederation has been already, if not adopted, )^et at 
 least publicly agitated even in the mother country. What- 
 ever forms its political relations may assume, v/e may con- 
 sider the freedom of America as actually established, though 
 not yet formally acknowledged by the parent state, unless 
 this is sufficiently done by the existence of two powerful 
 leading states in the north and south of this quarter of the 
 globe. But notwithstanding the adoption of the political 
 forms of North America, we must not look for that rapid 
 progress of colonization and population here, where the 
 same obstacles are presented by religion, modes of life, and 
 
4CA COLONIAL AFFAIRS, 1804-1830. irKnioD m. 
 
 cliinatc, as in Brazil. The Spanisli American insurgents 
 have their most dangerous enemy in themselves. Who will 
 insure solidity and permanence to these newlv-ariscn or 
 np\vlv-arisin<x states? And though we see republican con- 
 stitutions sj)rin<2;inp; up almost every ^vhere in this continent, 
 can rcjiublican constitutions subsist, even in the most fa- 
 vourable event, among nations, where colour determines 
 the caste, (see p. 50,) and military commanders pre- 
 scribe laws? And how can the universally proclaimed 
 freedom of the press be compatible with the hierarchy ? 
 An indejiendcncc; under monarchical forms of government, 
 Mere pei'haps eijually desirable for America as it is for 
 Europe. 
 
 Towards the end of the year 1829, the following states of Spanish 
 America had either already adopted republican constitutions, or wero 
 on tiie point of doing so : 
 
 1. ^Ikxico. This republic, acrreeably to its constitution," comprehends 
 the following states. 1. j\Icxico. 2. Chiapa. 3. Texas. 4. Du- 
 rango. 5. Guanaxuata. 6. IMichoacan. 7. New Leon. 8. Oaxaca. 
 9. Pueblos de los Angelos. 10. Quevetaro. 11. San Luis de Potosi. 
 12. Sonora and Cimaloa. 13. Tabasco. 14. Tamaulipes. lo. Vera 
 Cruz. 16. Chalisco. 17. Yucatan. 18. Zacotecas. 19. Tlascala. 
 California and Santa Fe are territories belonging to New Mexico. 
 The government, for the most part modelled after that of the United 
 States, is federative, and administered by a congress of two chambers, 
 viz. that of the senate, half of which is elected every two years, each 
 state sending two members, and that of the deputies, who are elected 
 once in two years, according to the rate of population, that is, one de- 
 puty for every forty thousand souls. The president and vice-president 
 are chosen once in four years, by the legislature of each state. Tlie 
 former can only be re-elected after an interval of four years. — Slavery 
 was abolished by a decree of the republic, Sept. 15, 1829. 
 
 2. GuATiMALA or Central Ajierica. Tiiis republic comprises the 
 states of, 1. Guatimala. 2. San Salvador. 3. Nicaragua. 4. Cos- 
 tarica. 5. Honduras. The form of government is similar to that of ^Icx- 
 ico ; but the prevalence of intestine troubles make it extremely uncertain 
 whether it will last. 
 
 3. CoLFMiuA. Upon the union of New Granada with Venezuela or 
 Caraccas, which was etlected after great exertions by Dolivar, Dec. 17, 
 1819, and the seat of congress removed to Santa Fe de Bogota; botii 
 countries, together with (^uito, were comprised under the republic of 
 Columbia, in eighteen provinces, seven of which belong to Venezuela, 
 viz. 1. Cumana. 2. New Barcelona. 3. Varinas. 4. Caraccas. 5. 
 l^Ierida. 6. Truxillo. 7. The island of IMar^iarita. Eight to New 
 Granad.a, viz. 8. Cundinamarca (Santa Fe de Bogota). 9. Neyva. 10. 
 Pamplona. II. Tunja. 12. Cartagena. 13. Antioquia. 14. Santa 
 Martha. 15. Popajan. And three to Quito, viz. 16. Guayaquil. 17. 
 
FERioD III.] COLONIAL AFFAIRS, 1804— 1S30. 465 
 
 Quito, and, 18. Pasto. The government is under a president, invested, 
 at least at present, with dictatorial power, and a congress consisting of 
 two chambers, the particular organization of wliich is not yet deter- 
 mined. The provinces are departments, and not states, with a central 
 government. 
 
 4. Peru. This republic contains seven provinces. 1. Lima. 2. 
 Truxillo. 3. Tarma. 4. Arequipa. 5. Ayacucho. G. Janja, and, 
 7. Cuzco. In addition to these its territory includes also the Pampas 
 Del Sagramento and Montana Real, on the eastern side of the Andes, 
 where there are only missions. The form of government, which is 
 under a president and congress, is similar to that of Columbia. 
 
 5. CniLi. Contains the provinces of, 1. Santiago. 2. Coquimbo. 
 3. Acoacagua. 4. Maule. 5. Concepcion. 6. Valdivia. 7. Col- 
 chagua, and, 8. The island of Chiloe. The mode of government, under 
 a director and congress, was established by the constitution, Aug. 6, 
 1828. 
 
 6. Bolivia. Founded by Bolivar, imder General vSucre, comprises 
 the provinces formerly belonging to Upper Peru. 1. Potosi. 2. Char- 
 cas. 3. La Paz. 4. Cochabamba. 5. Santa Cruz de la Sierra. 6. 
 Oruro. Los Moxos contains only missions. The republic is at present 
 under the orders of the grand marshal Sucre, and after him is to have 
 a representative constitution. 
 
 7. Paraguay. This state is under the dominion of a single person, 
 the lawyer Dr. Francia, without any title, though invested with dicta- 
 torial power, the government having been conferred upon him by the 
 people. 
 
 Essai historique de Paraguay et le gouvernement dictatorial du Doc- 
 teur Francia, par MM. Reugger et Longchajup. a Paris, 1829, 8vo. 
 Both these gentlemen have visited the country. 
 
 8. RiO DE LA Plata, or Buekos Ayres. Notwithstanding the se- 
 paration of Upper Peru, and the Banda Oriental, this free state is still 
 said to contain thirteen provinces, viz. 1. Buenos Ayres. 2. Santa 
 Fe. 3. Entre Rios. 4. Corrientes. 5. Tucuman. 6. Cordova. 7. 
 Santiago del Estero. 8. Salta. 9. Mendoza. 10. San Juan de la 
 Frontera, 11. Rioja. 12. Catamarca, and, 13. San Luis. These are 
 reported to form a federal state under a director and a congress ; it is 
 however uncertain whether the constitution is permanently fixed. 
 
 9. Cis-PLATiXA ; comprising the Banda Oriental and Monte- Video. 
 The constitution is not yet definitively settled. 
 
 17. In the mean time, nevertheless, the more permanent 
 consohdation of the American republics, depended in a higli 
 degree on their being recognised by the European powers. 
 Of the mother states, France and Portugal are the only 
 ones who have recognised the independence of their old 
 colonies, the former that of Domingo, the latter that of 
 Brazil. On the other hand, Spain obstinately refuses any 
 sort of compromise, and is absolutely making preparations in 
 tlie Havanna for the purpose of recovering Mexico, the first 
 
 2 H 
 
•ll",0 COLONIAL AIFAIUS, 1801—1830. [rp.nioD in. 
 
 opportiiiiitv that oflors. T\u' first and most important stop 
 liowcvcr was taken by lMip:lan(l, towards gradually re- 
 c<)t;nisin<2; the indi'p<Midcncc of tlic Spanish colonics, by 
 trcatinn- th(>m as s('parat(! and sflf-oxisting; states, an example 
 which was soon afterwards followed by most of tlie other 
 European powers. 
 
 Note of the English ministry at the suggestion of 'Mr. Canning, in 
 ■wliicli tlie ai>i)roaching conchision of eonHiierciul treaties with Mexieo, 
 Cohunbia, aiul Bueiio.s Ayres, preparatory to reeognising their inde- 
 j>en»lenoe, was .signified to the (hploniatic corps, Jan. 1, 182o. Tiie re- 
 eognition itself took plaee, with a reservation of neutrality towards 
 S|)ain, provided tlie other European powers remained equally neutral. — 
 A e(»mmereial treaty was eoneludetl with liuenos Ayres, Feb. 2, with 
 ^lexico, April 6, an<l with Columbia, April 18, 1825. 
 
 18. The colonies of the Europeans in the West Indies 
 underwent no other oreat chano;es, tlian that, having been 
 most of them conquered by the British, they were restored 
 at the peace with the exceptions mentioned page 443. The 
 insurn'ction of Spanish America did not reach Cuba and 
 Porto Rico; the important possession of the Ilavannas re- 
 mained uninterrnptedly in the hands of the Spanish, and 
 the British were powerful enough to preserve tranquillity 
 on their own and the conquered islands, towards which 
 much was certainly contributed by the milder treatment of 
 the slaves, after the prohibition of the slave trade. 
 
 By the compact with the Netherlands, Aug. 13, 1814, England rc- 
 mai!icd in possession of the colonies of Berbice, EssequelK), and Demc- 
 rara, which were in a very prosperous condition. By this arrangement, 
 therefore, England acquired possessions on tlie continent of South Ame- 
 rica. French Guiana, occupied by the Portuguese, (see p. 444,) was 
 by the acts of the congress of Vienna, Art. 107, restored to France, 
 aecording to its ancient boundaries, the river Oyapoe instead of the Ar- 
 vari, to which Napoleon had extended it in the peace of 1801, 
 
 19. A much more remarkable spectacle is exhibited to 
 us in St. Domingo, or llayti. After the utterly unsuccess- 
 fid attem])ts of the French to reconquer the island, its inde- 
 pendence was decided ; and no fresh attempts will ever be 
 undertaken. The new empire was soon divided into two 
 states ; th(? smaller of which, with the capital of Port au 
 Prince, had a rejiidjlican constitution under a president : 
 the larger, with the capital, Henri, (Cape Francois,) had a 
 monarchieal constitution under a king, till the overthrow of 
 tlie royal throne, followed by the subjection of the Spanish 
 
I 
 
 PERIOD III.] COLONIAL AFFAIRS, 1804— 1S30. 46T 
 
 part of the island, united both states into one republic, that 
 of Hayti. The adoption of European culture and regula- 
 tions, in the civil and military departments of this state ot 
 blacks, is a most striking phenomenon. It was natural that 
 almost every thing should be shaped after French models, 
 notwithstanding the hatred towards France ; and coloniza- 
 tion, and with it foreign trade, seemed to make important 
 advances by means of free labourers, who remained, how- 
 ever, attached to their plantations in consideration of one- 
 fourth of the raw produce. Nothing has been heard of the 
 piracy, which was so much dreaded. 
 
 After the retreat and capitulation of the French under the savage 
 Rochambeau, who succeeded Laci'oix, (see p. 355,) Dec, 1803, and the 
 declaration of independence, Jan. 1, 1804, the negro general John 
 James Dessalines was appointed governor, May, 1804; and soon after 
 declared himself emperor of Ilayti, Oct. 5. (James I.) The constitu- 
 tion was purely military, under a blood-thirsty tyrant, who was over- 
 thrown and murdered, Oct. 17, 180(3. The general Henri Christophe 
 was appointed by the army provisory chief of the government of Hayti. 
 But a quarrel and war soon arose between the mulatto general Petion 
 and the negro chief Christophe. The latter was raised to the dignity 
 of king of Hayti, and the constitution promulgated by the council of 
 state, April 4, 1811. a. The president was declared hereditary king of 
 Hayti. b. Regulations respecting the grand ConseiJ, Conseil prive, the 
 higher officer of state and the four ministers, c. Respecting the oaths, 
 and promulgation of the laws, etc. ISTothing was said of popular repre- 
 sentation or of difi'erent chambers. — The president Petion maintained 
 himself in his part of the island, and appointed a senate and chamber of 
 representatives, modelled after the forms of the United States. Petion 
 was succeeded, after his death, March 17, 1818, by Boyer. Christophe 
 proffered a union in vain ; peace however continued to exist. The 
 territory of Christophe consisted of the northern part of the island ; the 
 territory of Petion of the south-western part. But Christophe's cruelty 
 armed his own soldiers against him ; upon Avhich he shot himself in de- 
 spair, Oct. 8, 1820. The president Boyer afterwards succeeded in 
 effecting a union, since which all tlie former French part of the island 
 has constituted a republic under the name of Hayti. — The Spanish part 
 also of St. Domingo declared itself independent, Nov. 30, 1821, and 
 seemed at first desirous of uniting with Columbia ; the president Boyer 
 however came against it with a body of troops, took possession of the 
 capital, St. Domingo, and thus succeeded in incorporating it with Hayti, 
 Feb., 1822, since which time the whole island has been formed into one 
 free state under the same title. — The proposals of Louis XVIH. for a 
 union with France were useless ; and therefore, at length, under his 
 successor, the independence of Hayti was formally recognised in the act 
 of April 17, 1825, upon condition of a reimbursement of one hundred 
 and fifty millions of francs to the former planters, and the award of 
 commercial privileges to France. By the constitution of Hayti the 
 
 2 H 2 
 
4ns COLONIAL AIFAIUS, lS01-lb30. [rERion iir, 
 
 jirosiilt-nt is invostod with tlie executive power «liirin^ his lifetime, nnd 
 proposes his successor to the senate, in a waleil note to he opened after 
 liis (h-atli, when tliey either confirm tiiv- nomination, or appoint anotlier, 
 witliin twenty-four hours, lie proposes all laws to the chamhers, ex- 
 cept those wliich relate to the taxes. The members of the senate arc 
 elected by the chamber of representatives, and from a threefold list suh- 
 niitt(>d to them by the president ; tiieir term of olliee is nine years. 
 I'roposals of law are iir.st debated in the chamber of representatives, 
 from whence tlu'v pass to the senate, which confirms them. 
 
 The Almaiiach Ixoijdl iT Hayt'i, on the plan of the Alinunach Iniprrialy 
 gives tlie clearest insight into the organization of the former kingdom 
 of Ilayti. 
 
 JftPftiiin Papers ; a collection of the very interesting proclamations 
 nnd other official documents of the kingdom of Ilayti, with a preface by 
 Prinxe Sai:n1)KRS, Esq., agent for the Ilaytian government. London, 
 1816. Besides several proclamations, and the constitution in thirty-five 
 articles, we find in this collection, the Law resj)ecting the Culture, from 
 the Cmle Henri, fixing the legal relations between the proprietors and 
 fanners of the plantations, and tiie labourers ; these relations cannot 
 have been much altered by the union with the republic. These are 
 very much to the advantage of the labourers ; who have their legal con- 
 diti<m, and a sliare in tlie produce, but belong to the plantations on 
 which they dwell ; and the master is obliged to provide for them in old 
 age. — These regulations naturally proceeded from the circumstances of 
 the place and times. 
 
 20. In Africa tlio colony on the Cape remained in the 
 liands of tlic Englisli, to wliom it had belono-ed, witli a 
 sli;4lit interruption, for twenty years (see p. 344). Colo- 
 nization made, indeed, great progress ; in the remote re- 
 gions only is there land still destitute of masters ; and the 
 zeal of British and German missionaries has introduced 
 Christianity among the wild Hottentots, and — which may 
 be of far greater importance — among the C a ft res ; but tlie 
 want of navigable rivers and passable roads throws insuper- 
 able obstacles in the way ; and Cape-town itself, visited al- 
 most exclusively by liritish vessels, resembles an inn, the 
 custom of which is diminishing. Who, besides the English 
 and the Americans, still trade to the East Indies? And 
 not all of them touch at the Cape. 
 
 21. The fate of the other colonies on the coasts of Africa, 
 whether belonging to the French or the Portuguese, was 
 for tlie most part coimected with the slave trade. It is re- 
 served for experience to show, whether they can flourish, 
 when changed from j)lantations into colonies, as has already 
 
 been don(^ with resi)(>ct to Senegal after its re- 
 
 Jan., 1«19. T-> 1 1 f> 1 1 • rr<i 
 
 storation to Trance, by order ot the kmg. Ihe 
 
PERIOD III.] COLONIAL AFFAIRS, ISO 1—1830. 469 
 
 colony of Sierra Leone founded for this purpose (see p. 
 287) seems to grow slowly. But the efforts of the Euro- 
 peans, to penetrate into the heart of Africa, have not ceased ; 
 and for the first time a British resident has been 
 
 1817 
 
 stationed at the court of a negro, the king of the 
 Ashantees on the Gold-coast. This however has not led to 
 very important consequences, owing to the unfortunate war 
 with that nation. In the mean time, however, there has 
 been no lack of adventurous travellers to explore the in- 
 terior ; and through the exertions of Denham and Clapper- 
 ton, the opulent kingdoms of Bornou and Haussa have 
 begun to emerge from their obscurity, as well as the coun- 
 tries of the Upper Nile through those of Caillaud, Burck- 
 hardt, and Kiipel. The parallel of 10° N. Lat. may now be 
 considered as formino; the extreme limit of the discoveries 
 hitherto made in North Africa. 
 
 JVarrative of Travels and Discoveries in Northern and Central 
 Africa, in the years 1822 — 1824, by Major Dexha3I, Capt. Clap- 
 PEKTOx, and the late Dr. Oudxey. London, 1826, 4to. 
 
 Journal of a second Expedition into the Interior of Africa, by the 
 late Capt. Clappertox. London, 1829, 4to. 
 
 Voyage a Meroe, au fleiive blanc, etc., fait dans les annees 1819 — 
 1822, par Freiteric Caillaud. a Paris, 1826, 3 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Reise nach Xuhieti und Gardofan, von Ed. Kuppel. Fi-ankf. 1829. 
 
 22. The abolition of the slave trade is unquestionably 
 one of the most remarkable phenomena for colonial affairs. 
 The earnestness with which the British government has 
 pursued this object since the acts of parliament of 1807, 
 (see p. 353,) not only by declaring it a capital crime to 
 participate in the traffic, but by making it a standing article 
 in all treaties, would seem almost astonishing, did we not 
 know how much it is the interest of the ministers to give 
 no handle of calumniation to the opposition, particularly as 
 the nation likewise appears to regard it as an affair of 
 honour. It must be difficult to succeed in a contest, where 
 avarice and prejudice are both to be subdued. 
 
 The powers most interested in the abolition of the slave trade are 
 Portugal, Spain, and France. At the congress of Vienna, the principle 
 was generally acknowledged, that the slave trade should be abolished as 
 soon as possible ; but the detei-mination of the limit of time was reserved 
 for separate negotiations l)etween the eight powers, Great Britain, 
 Russia, Austria, Prussia, France, Spain, Portugal, and Sweilen. In the 
 treaties of Great Britain v.-ith the single powers, the following stipula- 
 
•170 COLONIAL AI-FAins, ISOl— IsTO. Ipekiod in. 
 
 lions were agreed upon. First, in a treaty with France, ^lay 30, 1814 : 
 a. No foreigner yn\» in fiitiire to introduce slaves into the French 
 colonies, b. The slave trade should be aUsolut<'ly interdicted to the 
 French themselves after June 1, 1819. — By nn edict, Oct. 8, 1814, the 
 French slave trade to the coasts of Africa wa.s limited to the i)arts south 
 of Cape Formosa (4" N. Lat.). Finally, in eonf(»nuity to the secon<l 
 jK-ace of Paris, Nov. 20, 1815, a total j)rohil)ilion was lai<l on the traflic. 
 Secondly, in a treaty witli Portugal, dan. 21 and 22, 181.5 : a. An ab- 
 .'iolute prohil)ition of Portuguese subjects I'roin prosecuting the slave 
 trade north of the equator, b. South of the equator it shuuM remain 
 free till further measures. — By a declaration, Feb. 6, this term was 
 fixed at tiie expiration of eight years, (flan. 21, 182.'J,) though it has 
 been since extended to Feb., 1830. c. England paitl three hundred 
 tliousand pounds as a remuneration to Portuguese subjects. Thirdly, 
 in a treaty with Spain, S>i)t. 23, 1817: a. The slave trade to cease in 
 all the Spanish jxissessions, May 30, 1820. b. No Spanish vessel was 
 to prosecute it in future north of the cipuitor, nor even south of it, after 
 the lixed term. c. England paid, Feb. 9, 1818, four hundred thousand 
 pounds to Spain as an indemnification for accidental previous losses 
 sustained by Sj)anisli subjects (rare magnanimity!). Fourtlily, In a 
 treaty witli the Netlierlands, Aug. 13, 1815; containing an entire pro- 
 Jiibition of the Dutch from participating in the slave trade. Fifthly, In 
 a treaty with Swe<lcn, ]\Iarch 3, 1813: the same conditions. Sixthly, 
 Denmark had preceded England in the abolition, (see p. 354), con- 
 firmed at tlie peace of Kiel, dan. 14, 1814 (see p. 437). In England 
 itself, after the abolition in 1807, (see p. 354,) the act of parliament of 
 ]\Iay 4, 1811, declared participation in the trailic a eaj)ital crime. In 
 the United States of America slavery exists indeed in the southern 
 states, inclusive of Virginia ; but the importation of new slaves is pro- 
 hibited. By the peace of Ghent, (see p. 453,) England and the United 
 States mutually bound themselves to do every thing that lay in their 
 power to abolish the slave trade. In the new republic of La Phita, it was 
 immediately prohi])ited. and in the state of Columbia, July 16, 1821 ; 
 the children born of slaves after tliat tlate were to be free as soon as 
 they had attained their eighteenth year. — The slave trade still exists 
 therefore south of the r(piator in the Portuguese provinces, Angola, 
 Congo, etc., and Jlozanibique ; and the future will teach, how far it is 
 possible to extirpate it entirely. It has been alleged as the object of 
 British policy to encourage the Eiust Indies, where cotton and sugar 
 are raised by free laljourers, by causing the West Indies to decline for 
 want of them. But, a. England possesses tiie most important of these 
 colonies, and would tluiefore but inflict a wound on herself, b. The 
 assumption, tliat the-.e (< l.uiies will want labourers, is in all probability 
 wholly gratuitous. 
 
 23. In close connexion uilli this subject stand the Mis- 
 sionaiy and Ril)l(^ S( cietios, wliich l)ave spread themselves 
 Ironi Enjiland over ;ill the parts of the uorld. Is not the 
 introduction of Christianity the condition, without which 
 European civilization in the other portions of the globe will 
 
PERIOD III.] COLONIAL AFFAIRS, 1804— 1S30. 471 
 
 ever be imperfect ? In this, too, the first steps are the most 
 difficult ; for they cannot become great and rapid, till teach- 
 ers shall have been formed among; the native inhabitants 
 themselves. If this victory of Christianity, by which it is 
 to become the prevailing religion of the world, lies in the 
 plan of Providence, — who can calculate its consequences ? 
 
 24. The history of the East Indies during this period is 
 almost exclusively the history of the British empire there. 
 All the possessions of the other European powers, of the 
 Dutch, the French, and the Danes, fell with but little resist- 
 ance into the hands of the Enolish ; and Goa 
 
 . . . Dec. 1S07. 
 
 itself, after an amicable convention with Madeira, 
 was taken under their protection. Of greater importance 
 were the wars w'ith the native princes. They eventually 
 enlarged the territory of the company to the Indus on the 
 one side, and the inaccessible mountains of Thibet on the 
 other. The power of the Mahrattas was subverted indeed, 
 but the English became in Panjab the neighbours of the 
 Afghan or East Persian empire, as well as of Thibet, and 
 thereby of China. That further aggrandizement is a mis- 
 fortune, England is well aware ; but the conqueror cannot 
 always set his own bounds. Peace, however, still continues, 
 and a much improved system of administration promises to 
 afford British India some recompence for its past miseries. 
 
 Notwithstanding the peace, concluded Dec. 30, 1803, (see p. 360,) 
 war was begun again with Holkar, the prince of the IMahrattas, in 
 April, 1804. Eampur was conquei'ed by Gen. WeUesley, May 16, and 
 Holkar's capital Indore, Aug. 26. On the other hand, a great loss was 
 suifered before Bhurtpur, Jan. 11, 180o. In the peace, Dec. 24, Hol- 
 kar renounced all his claims, and agreed to hold no European in his 
 service. Scindiah had also engaged in the war. Li the peace, Xov. 
 22, he relinquished to the company his possessions north of the river 
 Chumbul, wliich was made the boundary. From this time tranquillity 
 prevailed in this part of the country, — but in Nov., 1814, the war be- 
 gan with the rajah of Nepaul, (the border country between Oude and 
 Ihibet,) originating in disputes respecting the boundaries. The pro- 
 gress of this war during the year 1815 was rather unfavourable ; but 
 by the victorious advance of General Ochterlony, peace was obtained, 
 J\[ay 4, 1816, with the cession of the contested districts, and of the 
 mountainous passes. But a new war with the Mahrattas was to decide 
 the fate of this nation, 1817. The invasions of the Pindarrees, (nomadic 
 hordes of cavalry from the north of the peninsula,) who increased into 
 an army, soon showed that they were in understanding with the chiefs 
 of the Mahrattas, the Peishwa Bajee Row in Poonah, Scindiali, tlie 
 rajah of Nagpur, (the Bunsla,) as well as Holkar and Amer Khan in 
 
472 COLONIAL MI'AIHS, 1sOJ-1h30. [rEnion iii. 
 
 Malpa. By tlie combined operations of the gfivernor-frencral IIii.«tiii{?8 
 ( Lunl Moiiii) tlie single nations were overpowi-nd before they could 
 furn) a junction, and the Pimlarrocs were annihilated. The regions be- 
 tw«M'n tiie Sinde an<l C'hunibtd (l)ranches of the fTunina) were the ])rin- 
 fipal theatre ctf the war. Consequences : a. The I'eishwa, defeated 
 !Nov. 5, 17, 1817, was deposed and maile captive, b. The rajah of 
 Nagpur was compelled to surrender at discretion, Nov. 2G, and having 
 been convicted of a new consi>iracy, met with the same fate. c. Having 
 been defeated on Di-c. 21, Ilolkar was compelle<l to cede two-thirds of 
 liis territory, which was divided between some small allied rajalis and the 
 company, d. Seindiah was entirely isolated, and too weak to support 
 liimself. e. Amer Khan was rendered defenceless by the dissolution of 
 his army and the loss of all his artillery, Nov. 5. " Thus the Indus 
 became in truth the boundary of the British dominion. Between that 
 river and Calcutta there are nothing but small states, either attached to 
 the English, or too weak to raise a single standard against them. The 
 ])ower of the Mahrattas is broken for ever." — Ansiccr of the (/nveriior' 
 (fciicral, >LvK(iris Hastings, to the address of the inhabitants of Cal- 
 cutta, on his return ; a very valuable document. 
 
 An account of the kingdom of Ntpaid, l)y CoL. Kii;KrATi:i<K, witli 
 a map. London, 1811. The author himself had already been sent 
 tliither as ambassador, in 1793, and his work contains the best descrip- 
 tion we have of that country. 
 
 25. The wars in Europe also enlarocd the territory of 
 tlie Britisii in the East Indies. Tliey acquired tlie import- 
 ant Isle of France, (p. 443,) by which their Indian naviga- 
 tion would be protected in future maritime wars. From 
 the Dutch they obtained Cochin on the Malabar coast, in 
 consideration of the island of Banca, aboundino; in tin, 
 and acquired by them during the possession of Batavia. 
 "J'lie Dutch possessions on Ceylon, already ceded, led to the 
 conquest of tlie island and overthrow of the kino- of Candy; 
 but it was easier to make than to retain the conquest. 
 
 After the cession of the Dutch possessions in Ceylon, at the peace of 
 Amiens, 1802, a fruitless attemjit was made in 1803 to conquer Candy. 
 It was accojHplished by a connexion with the native governor, 181.5. 
 After the seizure of the capital, the rajali was made i)risoner, dethroned, 
 and transported to Madras, .Ian. 24, 181(j. Is there in the East Indies 
 a diilerent international law to be observed towanls rightful nionarchs 
 from what exists in England ? The insurrection, whicii soon broke 
 out, took amph- revenge for this deed of violence ; but it was the cause 
 of great suH'ering to the island. 
 
 Account of the intrrinr of ('ci/Inn,])y ,1.T)\\Y. London, 1821. The 
 author was on the island from 181G to 1820, and his work supplies 
 some very important information relative to the antiquities and reli- 
 gious state of the island, where the worship of Buddha still prevails. 
 
 26. Notwithstanding the enlargement of the territory of 
 
PERIOD m.] COLONIAL AFFAIRS, 1804—1830. 473 
 
 the company, no alterations took place in its political con- 
 stitution ; the regulations introduced by Pitt (p. 294) still 
 continued in force. But of so much the greater importance 
 were the changes made in its commercial privileges, when 
 the charter of the company was renewed in 1814. The 
 clamours, so often raised against the monopoly of the com- 
 pany, were at last successful, and obtained a partial restric- 
 tion of it. The company preserved their exclusive trade to 
 China, but not to the East Indies proper. The latter might 
 be carried on by private individuals, with all the harbours 
 of the company, not only from the port of London, but 
 from others at the discretion of the government, and in 
 their own vessels. The future must show, whether these 
 regulations will be followed by all the advantages that were 
 anticipated. Hitherto, the trade of the company does not 
 seem to have suffered. 
 
 The charter was renewed, April 10, 1814, for twenty years. 1. The 
 monopoly of the company was limited to China. 2. The other trade 
 was made free to all English subjects, in ships not under three hundred 
 and fifty tons, subjected however to certain formalities. 3. In doubtful 
 cases, the decision was to rest with the board of control (see p. 294). 
 4. Certain regulations respecting the appUcation of the territorial re- 
 venues for defraying the expenses : a. of the administration and the 
 army ; h. of the civil and commercial establishments ; c. the surplus to 
 be expended on objects assigned by the court of directors with the ap- 
 probation of the board of control. 5. Regulations respecting the ap- 
 plication of the profit accruing from trade : a. to the payment of ac- 
 cepted bills of exchange ; h. to the interest of the debt, and costs of 
 commerce ; c. to a yearly dividend often per cent. ; d. to the reduction 
 of the capital debt in India and England, till the former should be 
 diminished to ten, the latter to three million pounds sterling. The 
 overplus was to be at the disposal of parliament. 6. The governor- 
 general, governors, and commanders-in-cliief were to be chosen by the 
 court of directors, subject, however, to the approval of his Majesty. 
 7. A bishop and three deacons were to be chosen to superintend the 
 ecclesiastical affairs in India. 
 
 The History of the European Commerce with India, to which is sub- 
 joined a review of the arguments for and against the trade with India, 
 and the management of it by a chartered company. By David ]\La.c- 
 PHERSOX. London, 1812. This very instructive history is written to 
 prove, that the entire monopoly of the company must continue. We 
 here find the arguments on both sides most copiously detailed. 
 
 27. The British dominion, however, in the East Indies, 
 was to receive a still further increase, by being brought 
 into contact vrith the opposite peninsula beyond the 
 
474 COLONIAL .vrFAIUS, 1901—1830. [iEiiiou iil. 
 
 Oanrrcs. In tlic Birmcsc war, tlic En<j;lish found a power- 
 ful o|)pon('nt, witli whom, as lonp; as any fcclinij; of jealousy 
 existed, it was impossible to reckon uj)on the eontiiiuance 
 of amicable relations. The cessions of territory and other 
 advantages, which they obtained at the peace, can iiardiy 
 cover the expenses of the war, to .say nothin<x of the cost of 
 niaiutainin'j; their additional concjuests. ^\ iiat advantajj;es 
 indeed will accrue to their connnerce from particular estab- 
 lishments on the coast of Siam, remains to be shown. 
 
 The Birmese war was occasioned l»y di.^putes relative to the i.-<laiid 
 of Chi'duba on the coast of Arracan. Dcchiration of war hy the Kng- 
 lisli, March 5, 1S24. Conquest of Arracan, April, 1S2.5. Capture of 
 Kaniroon, anil afterwards of I'romc, April 2.5. Further advance of the 
 British alonp: the Irawadili, and conclusion of peace at Yandabu, Feb. 
 24, 182G. Conditions: a. Cession of the four provinces of Arracan, 
 jMerjrui, Tavoy, and Tenasserim on the coast of Siani. b. A British 
 resiflent in Assam, c. Payment of one crore of rupees, (upwards uf 
 ±'1,. 500,000 sterling,) and mutual exemption from commercial duties. 
 
 The increased security of Bengal and Calcutta, owing to the pos- 
 session of Arracan, would seem at lirst sight to be almost the only ad- 
 vantages obtained by this war. 
 
 28. Though at the peace of Paris, the East India pos- 
 sessions of the French, as well as of the Danes and Dutch, 
 were restored, with the exceptions mentioned above, (p. 
 4-13,) the Dutch alone deserve to be noticed. After the 
 dissolution of the East India company, they became the 
 property of the state, wliich, after its transmutation into a 
 kingdom, sent over to Batavia a marshal as o-overnor-p;e- 
 neral, with dictatorial power over all Dutch India, who in- 
 troduced an almost military rule, and an organization en- 
 tirely new. But soon after, the British made themselves, 
 for the first time, masters of Batavia, having conquered it 
 from Bengal. During their five years' possession, so wise 
 and mild an administration was exercised, that after the 
 restoration, it seems to have been diliicult for the natives 
 and Europeans to accustom themselves again to Dutch do- 
 minion. During the short time it was in possession of 
 liritain, a clearer light was shed over this remarkable island, 
 than was done during the two whole centuries of the do- 
 minion of Holland. 
 
 The administration of Marshal Daendels lasted from Jan. 14, 1808, 
 to May IG, 1811. His principal exertions, with respect to the produce, 
 
PERIOD III.] COLONIAL AFFAIRS, 1804—1830. 4T5 
 
 were to encourage the cultivation of coffee (upwards of forty-seven 
 million trees having been planted, according to his own account) ; but 
 this was attended with the greatest oppression of the natives. The 
 English were in possession from Sept. 11, 1811, to Aug. 19, 1816. 
 
 Daendel's Staat cler Nederlandschen Oostindischen BczUtingen in 
 den Jaaren 1808 — 1811. S'Gravenhaage, 1814. With a collection 
 of documents as an appendix, in 4 vols. The sketch of the condition 
 of the country at the beginning of his administration, shows that Hoog- 
 endorp had not exaggerated. The causes of decline are those we have 
 mentioned above. 
 
 The History of Java, by Thojias Stamford Eaffles, Esq. late 
 lieut. -governor of that island and its dependencies ; in 2 vols. London, 
 1817, 4to. In every respect the leading woi-k respecting Java, and 
 abounding in new disclosures relative to Indian antiquities. 
 
 Nederlandsche Bezittingen in Azia, Africa, en America, in derzelven 
 Toestand en Aangclendheit voor dit Ryk, loysgeerig, staatshuishond- 
 hundig en geographisch besclireven, door J. van den Boscn, general- 
 major, etc. Amsterdam, 1818, 4to. A justification of the early Dutch 
 administration. 
 
 29. For the continent of Australia, also, new and pleas- 
 ing projects were unfolded. The British settlements in 
 New South Wales and Van Dieman's Land prospered, 
 because the number of free labourers increased ; in a 
 few years the population had doubled ; and important re- 
 turning cargoes, especially of wool, compensated for the 
 expenditures of the mother country. A lively trade was 
 carried on with India and the remotest regions of the world. 
 The chain of mountains in the rear of the colony, before 
 deemed inaccessible, were surmounted, and a road con- 
 structed over them. Spacious and fertile, but thinly in- 
 habited plains, intersected by rivers, invited the agricultur- 
 alist ; and the lately-founded town of Bathurst is to be the 
 starting point for explorers of the interior of this surprising 
 country. On the Society Islands (see p. 363) Christianity 
 is victorious ; the Sandwich Islands resemble a British set- 
 tlement ; and the New Zcalanders, carrying on an in- 
 creasing traffic with New South Wales, have begun to eat 
 potatoes instead of human flesh. All these are the elements 
 of a new order of things ; the elements of one grand, uni- 
 versal, political system, growing out of the narrow colonial 
 system of Europe. 
 
 The History of New South Wales, by O'Hara. London, 1817. 
 Comes down to 1816. 
 
 A Statistical, Historical, and Political Description of the Colony oj 
 New South Wales, and its dependent settlements in Van DiemavLS Laud, 
 
•17(1 I'OLITICAI, KKI.ATIONS OF KUROri!, 1821—. [irnion iii. 
 
 by ^V. C- "NVkntwortii, n native of the colony. London, 1S2(). Tlie 
 li-atliiif? work in respect of statistics. 
 
 TIte Si)(lnci/ Cidzctte. The number of inhabitants in New South 
 "Wales and Van Dieinan's Land, has increased within six years from 
 12,(K)0 to 2.),(XK) : hall" of whom are free agriculturalists. Tiie popula- 
 tion already exceeds 40,000, and is continually on the increase. 
 
 THIRD SECTION. 
 
 llesturatiuii of tlie jxilitical system (f Europe. 
 
 .7. L. Kll'ber, Acten des JVienrr Congresses. 1815, 8vo. Bisher 
 sieben Biinde. A highly meritorious collection. 
 
 J. L. KlI'bkk, l^ebersicht der diplomatischen Ver/ia/idliinr/rn des 
 JVirner Co>i</rtsses iihcrhaupt, nnd insnnderht'tt libcr icichtif/e Atigclc- 
 genluiten des Deutschen Ihoides. 1816, in zwei Abtheilungen. 
 
 ScnoELL, Hisloirc (dtregce, (see p. 390,) vol. x. — xii. — The eleventh 
 volume principally, according to Ivliiber, contains the history of the 
 congress of Vienna. 
 
 The following section naturally contains the results, not only of the 
 congress of Vienna, .so far as they relate to the political system of 
 Europe, but also of the previous and subsequent negotiations of Paris ; 
 arranged not according to time but matter. 
 
 1. The restoration of the dismembered political system 
 of Europe was the greatest, and — if successful — would 
 ])rove tlie most glorious office that statesmen were ever 
 called upon to discharge. But the policy of statesmen 
 was of itself unable to solve this problem ; how could they 
 have concihated tlie many clashiug interests ? Nothing but 
 the pure will of the monarchs was able to efi'ect it ; and 
 whence should this will proceed, but from their personal 
 sentiments, and the great experience tliey had just accjuired I 
 Their work itself must constitute their eulogium ; but it is 
 impossible to delineate it, except from this point of view. No 
 less, indeed, depended, at the same tiuie, on the views and 
 sentiments of the ministers to whom tlie execution was in- 
 trusted. Dirterent as their characters were, they were at 
 least ])ractical statesmen : and tliis alVorded a security against 
 tlie danger, that a structure would be reared which could 
 have existed oidy in theory. 
 
 "With regard to the leading characters who attended the congress of 
 Vienna, and were particularly active both before and alter the negotia- 
 tions at Paris, see p. 44.3. 
 
 2. But tliat tiie powerful, and even the most powerful on 
 
rEKiOD III.] POLITICAL RELATIONS OF EUROPE, I82I— . 477 
 
 earth, are always subject to the influence of the prevaiHng 
 ideas of the age, has seldom been more strongly illustrated 
 than in the present case. That princes and nations do not 
 exist to make war on each other, unless forced by necessity; 
 that states, in forming a free political system, must mutually 
 respect each other's independence ; that the constitutions 
 must be regulated by fixed laws ; that a certain portion in 
 the legislation, especially in taxation, must be conceded to 
 the people through their representatives ; that slavery and 
 bondage are evils, which must be abolished ; that a legiti- 
 mate share of freedom should be allowed to the communi- 
 cation of ideas by means of the pen and press ; finally, and 
 above all, that there is a connexion between religion, policy, 
 and morality, W' hich is to be strengthened to the utmost de- 
 gree — these w^ere maxims either explicitly declared or 
 tacitly acknowledged. And the influence which the forms 
 of social life have on political transactions, was manifested 
 in the most beneficial way. Nothing was heard of that 
 altercation respecting rank, which a century before had so 
 clogged the proceedings at Utrecht ; and the most powerful 
 monarchs w^ere daily seen moving among the citizens in the 
 dress of private men. 
 
 3. Favourable, however, as these circumstances were, 
 every intelligent person could plainly foresee that there 
 would be no want of obstacles ; and that the edifice to be 
 reared would bear little resemblance to the ideal structures 
 that so many had formed. The criterion, by which every 
 proposition had to be measured, was not what was ab- 
 stractly possible, but what was possible under the given 
 circumstances and relations ; and though this criterion itself 
 involved certain imperfections and deficiencies, can this 
 surprise the experienced ? 
 
 4. The restoration of the political system of Europe was 
 in general founded on the principle of legitimacy;^ the 
 
 ' Legitimacy is necessarily founded on the right of succession, regulated 
 by primogeniture, which alone confers a lawful claim. Thus our European 
 princes are legitimate rulers, not because they happen to be in possession of 
 power, for this would apply with equal force to a usurper, but because they 
 are so in point of law, owing to their right of succession. A primogenital 
 right, however, it is obvious, can only exist in connexion with monogamy, as 
 in such case there cannot possibly be more than one lawful competitor to the 
 throne, the verj- reverse of which must of course obtain under a system of 
 polygamy. It is for this reason, that in speaking of oriental governments we 
 
478 roLiTiCAL in:i, ATKINS or rriiDri:, ]^n—. [ry.mon m. 
 
 l(*<2;itiniato dynasties, tliat liad hcou more or less dispossessed, 
 were to be rcinslated. 'J'lie restoration necessarily cm- 
 braced tlie single parts as well as the wliole. M'itli repu-d 
 to the sintjle })arts, their territorial extent as well as their 
 constitution would naturally be taken into consideration ; 
 this last, however, was left to the discretion of the particular 
 state itself. But the popular opinion, confirmed not only 
 by theorists, but principally l»y the example of Great Britain, 
 had declared itself so loudly in favour of constitutional 
 monarchy, that this form of c;overnment became prevalent, 
 if not universal, throu<2;hout luirope. After the disappear- 
 ance of all the larocr republics, Switzerland alone excepted, 
 the European political system acquired more than ever a 
 monarchical character, without, however, sustaining any 
 infraction of j)olitical liberty ; and as elective kingdoms had 
 happily disappeared from it at the same time, it also ob- 
 tained, together with legitimacy, a greater share of general 
 stability. The conflict of parties, that universal symptom 
 of freedom, reaches not the rulers, but only the responsible 
 ministers. It were well had there been a unanimity of 
 opinion respecting the nature of that form of government; 
 but painful experience was soon to prove how much was 
 wanting to it. 
 
 The superiority of a constitutional monarclij (\vith a representative 
 assembly, tlic proceedings of wliicli are public) over an autocratic nion- 
 arcliy (where both are wantinjr) is not founded on the fact, that the 
 former is always better governed ; (for even autocracies are not unfre- 
 quently very well governed ;) but on the greater or less value wJiich is 
 jilaced in the political improvement of the nation and its consequences. 
 This improvement can proceed from nothing but an actual participation 
 in their own concerns : and it is therefore to be hoped that the diffusion 
 of constitutional forms of government will have a beneficial influence on 
 Europe, provided the restrictions which the nature of monarchy de- 
 mands are properly observed. Experience must show how far each 
 people is ripe for this liberty ; the character is, in this case, more deci- 
 sive than the spirit. It takes time to learn — how to become accustomed 
 to liberty. And let him who expects immediately to find in a new 
 chamber a Pitt or a Fox, only turn over the annals of Great Britain 
 itself, as far back as the times of the Ixmg Parliament. 
 
 See IIekren's essay, Ueber den Einjiuss dcr politischen Theorieen, 
 
 can never apjily the term ' legitimate' in the European sense of the word. 
 The princes of the East possess their thrones cither by mere chance, or the 
 capricious will of their predecessors, and not at all because they have any 
 personal right to them ; a fact of which the history of the world has furnished 
 abundant proofs at all times. 
 
TERioD m.] POLITICAL RELATIONS OF EUROPE, 1821—. 479 
 
 V7id die Erhaltung des DFoiiorchischen Princips i?i dem neueren Etiropa. 
 Historische Werke, B. i. p. 365 sq. The second lately-annexed part 
 of the essay describes the necessary conditions of a constitutional mon- 
 archy, (provided the states of Europe do not degenerate into mock-mon- 
 archies and mock-republics,) and that not in wavering positions and 
 half-assertions, but according to the particular views of the author, in a 
 clear and explicit manner. It is in fact his political confession of faith. 
 
 5. There was scarcely a state of Europe, whose territorial 
 relations were not in a distracted state. Nothing but the 
 limitation of France to its ancient boundaries by the treaties 
 of Paris, in consequence of which so many important coun- 
 tries on that side of the Rhine and the Alps were placed at 
 the disposal of the allies, could render adjustment or re- 
 storation possible. But a complete restoration could not be 
 effected without greater injustice than before. The number 
 of souls and square miles, besides the amount of revenues, 
 was generally taken as the criterion of adjustment ; and not 
 wholly without reason ; but was it not too frequently taken 
 as the sole criterion ? It was also impossible to establish a 
 general epoch. This difficulty was avoided by adopting a 
 different one for each of the three leading powers ; with 
 France it preceded 1792; with Austria it was the year 
 1805, though with some variations ; and with Prussia the 
 statistical measure of 1806 was adopted. All further ques- 
 tions, with these as well as the smaller states, were to be 
 settled by cessions. 
 
 6. From Germany, the central state of Europe, must be- 
 gin our survey of each of the states. That with its fate is 
 closely united the fate of Europe itself, modern history has 
 too forcibly inculcated, to need any further demonstration. 
 But what an aspect did Germany exhibit at the moment ot 
 its emancipation ! For ten years it had ceased to be a state. 
 On all sides, its boundaries were circumscribed. The left 
 bank of the Rhine, Holstein, and the Illyrian provinces had 
 been detached from it. In the interior, the rights of pos- 
 session were almost every where altered and uncertain. 
 The Prussian monarchy had been dismembered ; Austria 
 deprived of a great portion of its oldest hereditary pro- 
 vinces ; Saxony, with several smaller countries, placed un- 
 der administration ; and the ephemeral kingdom of West- 
 phalia dissolved. How much was requisite to restore order 
 to this chaos ! 
 
480 I'OLITICAL HKLATIONS OF EUROrE, 1821—. [period hi. 
 
 7. It thoy were to exist at all, tho necessity of foriniii}:; 
 the (German states into a political union, as fur as this was 
 ])ossil)le, \vas evident to the unprejudiced ohservcr. It was 
 joiidlv deniandcd hy the public voice, and never was the 
 national spirit of CJernumy so much excited. But how I'ar 
 was it possible ? Not a thought could be entertained of a 
 transformation into one slate — which would have been the 
 grave oi' (Jerman improvement and luiropean freedom — - 
 nothing more could be designed, than a union of the exist- 
 ing states of Germany. This idea was already proposed in 
 the first peace of Paris, and at the congress of \ ienna, the 
 question of its feasibility was discussed. All hopes of its 
 ultimate execution were just on the point of being given 
 up, when a higher de>tiny, confirming the tardy resolutions 
 of the princes by an appeal to their fears, stepped in to its 
 assistance ; and owing to a pressure of other favourable cir- 
 cumstances, the act of the German confederation was at 
 length brought to a conclusion. By it the sovereign princes 
 of Germany and the free cities formed themselves into a 
 perpetual league, called the Germanic Confederation, with 
 a federative diet, to be held at Frankfort on the Maine. A 
 permanent bond was to encircle the German states ; and 
 though it was drawn less tightly than was expected by the 
 nation, and less so than was desired by some of tlie most 
 powerful parties concerned in framing it, it was, neverthe- 
 less, a bond ; and the hope at least remained, that time would 
 render it more compact, when the necessity should be felt. 
 
 Tlie first preliminary declaration of a Germanic confederation was 
 contained in the peace of Paris, 1814, Art. 6. " 'J'lie states of Ger- 
 many shall be ind('i)endent, and united by a federative league." (There- 
 fore no longer a German em])ire, under an in)perial sovereign.) A 
 German commission was establishe<l at the congress of Vienna, consist- 
 ing of the plenipotentiaries of Austria. Prussia, Bavaria, Hanover, and 
 "VVirtemberg. Put tiiirtecn sessions, Oct. 14 to Nov. 16, furnished the 
 melancholy result, tiiat no agreement could be hoped for, while Bavaria 
 and Wirtcmberg i)n>sented so many objections. And besides, the other 
 German states and free cities entered into a counter-alliance, in order 
 to oppose the right of the comn)ission to settle any thing without their 
 assent. A general deliberation was first held in May au<l June, (yet 
 AVirteniberg and Baden accecled at a later period,) and the act of con- 
 federation was signed, June S, 1815. Tiie parties to this act were : — 1. 
 Austria. 2. Prussia (both for the countries which formerly belonged 
 to the German empire, with the inclusion of Silesia). 3. Bavaria. 4. 
 baxony. 5. Ilauover. G. Wirtemberg. 7. Budcn. 8. Electorate of 
 
PERIOD in.] POLITICAL RELATIONS OF EUROPE, 1821—, 481 
 
 Hesse, 9. Grand duchy of Hesse. 10. Denmark, on account of Hol- 
 stein. 11. The Netherlands, on account of Luxemburg. 12. Bruns- 
 wick. 13. Mecklenburg Schwerin. 14. Nassau. 15. Saxe Weimar. 
 16. Saxe Gotha. 17. Saxe Cobourg. 18. Saxe Meiningen. 19. 
 Saxe Hiklburghausen. 20. Mecklenburg- Strelitz. 21. Holstein-Old- 
 enburg. 22, Anhalt-Dessau. 23. Anhalt-Bernburg. 24. Anhalt- 
 Kothen. 25. Schwartzburg-vSondershausen. 26. Schwartzburg-Ru- 
 dolstadt. 27. HohenzoUern-Hechingen. 28. Lichtenstein. 29. Ho- 
 hengoUen-Siegmaringen. 30. AValdeck. 31. Eeuss, elder line. 32. 
 Eeuss, younger line. 33. Schaumbui'g-Lippe. 34. Lippe-Detmold. 
 To these were afterwards added, 35. Hesse-Homburg. And the four 
 free cities. 36. Lubeck. 37. Frankfort. 38. Bremen. And, 39. 
 Hamburg. Principal points. I. General : 1. All the parties, con- 
 vinced of the advantages of their connexion for the maintenance of 
 the tranquillity and the balance of Europe, unite themselves in one 
 league, to be called the German Confederation. 2. Its object is, 
 the maintenance of the internal and external security of Germany, 
 and of the independence and inviolability of each of the German 
 states. 3. All the members of the confederation have, as mem- 
 bers, equal rights ; and all bind themselves equally to keep the 
 act of confederation inviolable. 4. The concerns of the confeder- 
 ation are to be managed by a federative diet, to have, in all, seven- 
 teen voices. 0. Austria shall preside in the sessions of the diet. Every 
 member is authorized to make propositions, which the president will 
 submit for deliberation. 6. In bringing forward or altering any 
 of the fundamental laws, or organic regulations of the confederation, 
 the assembly will form itself into a plenum of sixty-nine votes, accord- 
 ing to future distribution. 7. In the plenum as well as in the smaller 
 diet, the majority of votes is to decide ; in the latter the absolute ma- 
 jority alone is requisite ; in the former two-thirds. But when there is 
 a question, that concerns the adoption or alteration of the fundamental 
 laws, the organic regulations of the confederation, the jura singulorum 
 or affairs of religion, no resolution can be made, by a majority of votes. 
 8. Regulations respecting the order of voting. 9. The confederative 
 diet is to be held at Frankfort on the Maine. 10. Sketching of the fun- 
 damental laws. 11. All the members promise to defend the whole of 
 Germany, as well as each particular state of the confederation, against 
 every attack, and mutually guarantee all the possessions of each other 
 included in the confederation. In a war of the confederation, there are 
 to be no partial negotiations, or truce, or peace. The members of the 
 confederation, however, reserve to themselves the right of making alli- 
 ances of every kind, but at the same time engage not to enter into any 
 connexion, which should militate against the safety of the confederation 
 or that of tire single states. They engage neither to make war upon 
 each other, on any pretence whatever, or to enforce their claims with 
 violence, but to bring them before the federative diet, and submit to tlie 
 decision of a commission, or of an impartial court of reference. II. 
 Particular points: 12. The erection of supreme courts of judicature. 
 13. A i-epresentative constitution to be adopted in all the federate 
 states. 14. Regulations respecting the relations of pi'inces wlio had 
 been formerly independent, but are so no longer. 15. Respecting the 
 
 2 I 
 
482 roLITICAL UELATIOSS OF EUROPE, 1821—. [tehiod m. 
 
 pensions of the former members of the foundations, and of the Teutonic 
 Order. 16. Respecting deht.s and jKMisions. 17. E<iuality of civil and 
 political right:j for all tlenominations of Christians. 18. Hcfrnlatiuns re- 
 spi'ctins the jxjst in favour of tlie house of Thurn and Taxis. 19. 
 (Tciu-ral riirlits of tlie subjects of the states of the Clennanic confeder- 
 ation. «. Tlie j)ower of possessing landed property in other states, 
 without any extra taxes, b. The right of free removal, of entering in- 
 to service, exemption from all substMpient taxes; an<l the future a<lop- 
 tion of similar arrangements respecting tlic liberty of tiie press and tlie 
 rights of authors and publishers. 
 
 The constitution of tlie Germanic confederation first acquired its 
 perfection by the ministerial conferences holden at Vienna, Dec., 1819 
 — May, 1820, a supjjlenientary act of sixty-live articles having been 
 added, May lo, 1820. Tlie principal points fixed by it respected, a. 
 tlie ellieiency and competency of the diet. b. The ca»es, where the in- 
 ferior diet is sullicient, or a plenum is necessary, c. Adjustment of the 
 diflerences between the members of the confederation, d. The execu- 
 tion of the resolutions of the confederation, e. The relations with fo- 
 reign states, and resolution respecting war and peace, etc. 
 
 S. What iintlor the existing; circumstances and relations 
 it was possible to etiect, must here also liave determined the 
 particular line of conduct. A union of states, with a fe- 
 deral government, like that of North America, could have 
 been expected by those only, who assumed, that the princes 
 of Germany would relinquish their thrones. How much is 
 gained, and how much is wanting, is evident. The main- 
 tenance of the internal tranquillity and peace of Germany, 
 as well as its independence with respect to other countries, 
 the formation of Iree constitutions, the equality of the weak- 
 est and the most powerful members, (an event unparalleled 
 in history,) was explicitly ])roposed ; and has hitherto been 
 pursued by no one more conscientiously than by the most 
 powerful. What is still wanting may be supplied, if the 
 Germans are willing to supi)ly it, not by forms, but by the 
 love of their common country. The princes, on the one 
 hand, should recollect, that as being partners in the confe- 
 deration, they should not refuse to submit to the consider- 
 ation of the diet such atlairs as actually fall withjn its cog- 
 nizance ; and, on the other, the mass of the people, who are 
 always de|)reciating the present good, and therefore speak 
 only of the deficiencies of the confederation, should know, 
 that they themselves are its most dangerous enemies. The 
 voice of the nation must support and exalt it. The cabinets 
 alone are unable to do so, even if they wished it, unless they 
 
PEKioD III.] POLITICAL RELATIONS OF EUROPE, 1821—. 483 
 
 are seconded by the public voice and the popular sympathy. 
 To be the pacific state of Europe is its high destination ; can 
 there be a more glorious one, provided it fulfils it ? The 
 diet was opened at Frankfort, Nov. 5, 1816. 
 
 Der Deutsche Bund in seinen Verhdltnissen zu dem Europdischen 
 Staatensi/stem ; bey Eroffnung des Bundestags dargestellt, von A. H. L. 
 Heerex. 1816. With a postscript in Vermischte historische Schriften, 
 B. ii. p. 452 sqq. 
 
 9. The territorial arrangements in Germany were most 
 closely connected with the restoration of the two greater 
 German monarchies. But the restoration of these mon- 
 ai'chies was the affair, not of Germany only, but of all 
 Europe, and as such, indeed, it was treated. The five lead- 
 ing powers, w^hich had concluded the peace of Paris, viz., 
 Austria, Prussia, England, Russia, and France, formed at 
 the congress a closer union, for the affairs of Europe, under 
 the presidency of Prince Metternich : into this union, the 
 three other powers were drawn in single cases, viz., Spain, 
 Portugal, and Sweden, These eight powers, therefore, 
 were those who signed the acts of the congress of Vienna. 
 
 For tlie names of the ambassadors, see p. 445. 
 
 10. The restoration of the Austrian monarchy was effected 
 for the most part by means of the dissolved kingdom of 
 Italy, and of the reconquered Illyrian provinces, but in part 
 by the return of the cessions to Bavaria. In consequence 
 of this, the Austrian monarchy became a geographical 
 whole, — with twenty-eight million inhabitants, of whicli 
 nine and a half belonged to the German confederation ; 
 the rest were Hungarians, Italians, Illyrians, and Poles. 
 This monarchy thus resumed its ancient character, that of a 
 union of nations and states under a common sovereign, but 
 without a common constitution. To respect these therefore 
 will be the true wisdom of the rulers. 
 
 By the congress of Vienna, Austria acquired, I. In Italy, all the 
 countries situated between the Tessino, Po, and Adriatic Sea, with the 
 Veltelin and Cliiavenna, the part of Mantua south of the Po, and the 
 right of holding a garrison in Ferrara. They were elevated into a 
 Lombardo-Venetian kingdom. (And moreover, the family acquired 
 the three secundogenitures, Tuscany, IModena, and Parma and Piacenza.) 
 2. The Illyrian provinces, ceded at the peace of Vienna, (p. 413,) and 
 immediately after elevated into the kingdom of Illyi'ia. 3. What was 
 formerly Venetian Dalmatia, witli the republic Ragusa and the islands, 
 
 2 I 2 
 
484 rOLlTICAL UKI.ATIONS OF KUROPE, 1821—. [pEnion in. 
 
 ns far ns llio diilf of Cattaro. 4. By conipacts witli Bavariiv, Juno 3, 
 1H14, ami A])!-!! 14, is 1(5, (in coiisidiTation of sonic otlur indfrniiilica- 
 tion,) Tyrol and V(irarll»ei<:, (witli tlie cxcoption of tluMlistrict Wcrli'i-,) 
 Sal/l)nr<r as far ns the Salza ; tlic portions of the InnviiTtcl and 
 llausrnckviertcl, which were cedi'd hy Austria in 1809. 5. From 
 Kussio, the district ceded in East Gallicia (p. 413). 
 
 11. Tli(> rostoratiou of tho Prussian monarcliv aroinliiif^ 
 to the statistical relations of 1805 \vas rcco<^nisccl by all, 
 and ('sj)ecially by Austria, as essentially necessary. \\'iio 
 could (loubt it ? Who, after such sacrifices, would refuse it 
 to Prussia .' But the restoration was necessarily exposed to 
 greater diHicultie.s, because this country had been much 
 more disnienibered ; and every tliin<j: could not be restored 
 to the footing of l!^()5. Anspach and Baireiith could not 
 be restored, by reason of their situation, without mutilating 
 Bavaria ; Cleves and Berg, however, were substituted in 
 their stead. But the greatest difficulties were occasioned 
 by the claims of Russia to the duchy of M arsaw. — The 
 curse of the Polish partitions still lay heavily on Europe. 
 Prussia, attaching itself to Russia, demanded for its sacrifices 
 in Poland, all Saxony, whose king was to be indemnified in 
 M'estphalia. Austria, England, and particularly France, 
 advocated the cause of the Saxon house. Scarcely any 
 mention was made of the Saxon people. There were 
 moments indeed, when, from less pacific princes, extremities 
 might have been apprehended. An intermediate course 
 was at length discovered by policy ; the country which had 
 surt'ered lor Germany was divided ; and a part also of the 
 duchy of Warsaw was allotted to Prussia. The most per- 
 plexing knot was therefore untied, or at least cut ; and 
 nothing further could create difficulties of importance. Thus 
 with about ten million inhabitants, and a territory divided 
 into two groat j^ortious, Prussia came again into the num- 
 ber of th(> lirst ])ow('rs, the territory and population of each 
 of which generally aiuounted to thrice as much. If it wishes 
 to hold its station, its spirit must supply what is wanting in 
 mass. That it can do so, it has already proved ; lor witii 
 ten millions Prussia fell, and with five it recovered itself. 
 It is well for Europe, that it has such a state in its centre. 
 
 By the peace of Tilsit, Prussia lost about half of its territory and 
 population. It recovered what it tlien resigned, but renounced its 
 claims to the greater part of South Prussia and New East Prussia, 
 
 i 
 
PEHiOD III.] POLITICAL RELATIONS OF EUROPE, 1821—. 485 
 
 which were assigned to Russia ; Anspach and Baireuth, which were 
 retained by Bavaria ; Hikleslieim and East Friesland, and a portion of 
 Lingen and Eiclisfeld, which were allotted to Hanover. For its lost 
 provinces, it claimed an indemnification, which it acquired in a part of 
 South Prussia, (duchy of Posen,) almost half the kingdom of Saxony 
 (ceded by the act of May 18, 1815) ; Swedish Pomerania, Cleves, Berg, 
 Ahremberg and other portions of Westphalia, and the greater part of 
 the left bank of the Rhine to the Saar, by which Germany obtained, at 
 the same time, a bulwark in that quarter. Of the ten provinces of the 
 monarchy, seven, Brandenberg, Pomerania, Saxony, Silesia, Westphalia, 
 Cleves and Berg, and the Lower Rhine, with almost eight million in- 
 habitants, belonged to the Germanic confederation ; the three others, 
 East and West Prussia with Posen, did not. A constitutional form of 
 government was to take the place of an autocracy ; but the organization 
 of the administration was suffered to precede the organization of the 
 constitution, which could not be unattended with great difficulties in so 
 divided a state. 
 
 For the history of the negotiations respecting Saxony, besides the 
 works quoted page 476, we refer the reader to the essay in the first vo- 
 lume of the JSIinerva, 1817, with the documents. And the work en- 
 titled, Wie wurden loir was wir sind? Von eiiiem Sachseii, 1815. 
 
 12. In the territorial adjustment of the other great states 
 of Germany, 1. Bavaria acquired, in remuneration for its 
 cessions to Austria, a part of the left bank of the Rhine, 
 Wurzburg, Aschaffenburg, and some portions of Fulda. 
 Its further claims on Baden for the circle of the Maine and 
 Tauber, and the escheatage of the circle of the Neckar, re- 
 mained unsatisfied. 2. Wirtemberg, and 3. Baden, re- 
 mained unaltered. 4. Hanover was elevated to the rank of 
 a kingdom ; and received from Prussia, Hildesheim, East 
 Friesland, the lower district of Lingen, Meppen, and a part 
 of Eichsfeld, together with some districts from the elector 
 of Hesse ; but in return it ceded to Prussia, Lauenburg be- 
 yond the Elbe, (exchanged with Denmark for Pomerania 
 and Rugen, formerly obtained from Sweden, p. 437,) to- 
 gether with some other districts. The territorial adjust- 
 ment of the smaller states will be found in the acts of the 
 congress of Vienna. The introduction of representative 
 constitutions (promised by Art. 13) has already been ac- 
 complished in Bavaria, Wirtemberg, Hanover, Baden, the 
 grand duchy of Hesse, Brunswick, Nassau, Mecklenburg, 
 Saxe Weimar, etc. ; in Saxony, however, as well as the 
 electorate of Hesse, the old forms still exist ; in the others 
 the representativ^e system is expected to take place. 
 
 The constitutions of the German states, notwithstanding many modi- 
 
486 rOLITICAL inCLATIONS OF EUUOri:, 1^21—. [ri:iuoi) III. 
 
 fications in respect both of the organization, and the greater or less pub- 
 licity of their transactions, have hitiuTto coincided in tiie following 
 points : a. The monarchical principle has every where been upheld, in 
 the mode of conferring constitutions by the rulers, and by a just de- 
 tenninatitm of their rights in relation to the states, h. The assendjly of 
 the states consists of two chambers, c. To these is allotted their pro- 
 per part in the legislation, especially with regard to taxation. 
 
 Expose (hi droit public de VAUcinagne, \ym 10. II. DK S. (Schwartz- 
 koj)f.) Paris et Geneve, 1821. AVritten chiefly for foreigners. 
 
 13. Tlic restoration of tlio state of the Netherlands was 
 one of the principal points in tlie restoration of the political 
 system of Europe. History has shown how intimately the 
 fate of the latter was connected with that of the Bel<ric, no 
 l(»ss than the Batavian, ]:)r()vinces, since Bel;j;ium in the 
 hands of France first oj)ened the avenue to universal do- 
 minion. It was considered necessary to found there a 
 powerful state, which, at least in alliance with Prussia, sliould 
 be strong enough to defend itself; and the union of all 
 the Netherlands into one kino;dom was resolved on at W- 
 enna. The sovereign prince adopted in consequence the 
 royal title, and the house of Orange, governing the same 
 provinces which had belonged to the house of Hapsburg, 
 gave them a free constitution instead of the tyrannical des- 
 potism of Philip, The necessity of a fixed boundary was 
 likewise perceived and provided for. Though two nations, 
 differing in origin, language, (as they had done for two thou- 
 sand years before,) and religion, coiild not be inniiediately 
 amalgamated ; and though it was not possible to open at 
 the same time to the commerce and manufactures of both, 
 the market they desired, the foundation was, nevertheless, 
 laid of a permanent union ; and the wisdom of the liouse of 
 Orange must accomplish the rest. 
 
 According to the treaty of Vienna, ]May 01, IS 15, the constituent 
 parts of the kingdom of the Netherlands were : all the Batavian and 
 Belgic provinces witli Luttich, divided into seventeen provinces, besides 
 the separate grand duchy of Luxemberg, belonging to the Germanic 
 C'onfedi'ration. Constitution : inheritance of the throne secured to the 
 house of Orange. The king invested with full executive powers and 
 the right of first proposing laws ; but the chambers may make proposi- 
 tions. At the side of tiic king, a council of state, of his own ai>pi)int- 
 ment. A legislative! body, the states-general, in two chambers. The 
 first consisting of from forty to sixty members appointed for life by 
 tlie king. The second of one hun<lred and ten members elected by 
 the states of the provinces. These in each province ai'e composed of 
 
TERioD III.] rOLITICAL RELATIONS OF EUROPE, 1821.— 487 
 
 the knighthood, cities, and deputies from the county. Freedom of wor- 
 ship, and political equality of religious denominations. — The boundaries 
 to be strengthened by a chain of fortifications, built at the cost of Eng- 
 land in return for the cession of the colonies of Essequibo, Demerara, 
 and Berbice. (Convention, Aug. 13, 1814.) — The restored colonies, 
 dependent on the king, are : Surinam, Curasao, and St. Eustache Avith 
 St. Martin ; Batavia with Banca, Malacca and the JNIoluccas with its 
 dependencies, (see p. 466,) subsequently extended by the overthrow 
 of the sultan of Palembang on Sumatra, in 1820, after previous fruit- 
 less attempts. 
 
 14. The state of Great Britain, emerging uninjured from 
 the storms of the times, needed no restoration either of its 
 territory or its constitution. The maxims of Pitt were 
 maintained and had been triumphant : the erec- 
 
 „ , , , , ^, ' , . Jan. 10, 1811. 
 
 tion ot the regency had produced no alteration ; 
 and the accession of the king as Httle. Its influence on 
 the civihzation of the world, contributed still more than the 
 splendour of its victories and its political influence to the 
 glory of Great Britain. It was the source of the spirit 
 of free constitutions. The constitution was the model — not 
 for the blind imitation, but for the instruction of others. Its 
 influence and earnest purpose prohibited the slave trade ; 
 and by its institutions, the light of Christianity, the vehicle 
 of European civilization, was difl'used throughout every 
 part of the world. A new method of popular instruction, 
 (useful so long as it keeps within these limits,) already no 
 less diflused, had its origin there, almost contemporarily with 
 the discovery of vaccination, which seems to do 
 
 J ' 1799. 
 
 more than compensate for the carnage of war. And 
 will not the great progress of manufactures, which was pre- 
 viously able to repress, in part, the manufacturing industry 
 of other countries, like every advancement of the human 
 mind, ultimately have, on the whole, a beneficial operation ? 
 ^\'hen the art of printing began to prosper, the trade of 
 copyists and the art of calligraphy declined. But should 
 a prohibition therefore have been laid on the press ? 
 
 The aggrandizements of the British state were confined in Europe to 
 IMalta and Heligoland. In the colonies, they embraced Tobago, St. 
 Lucia, and Surinam, in the West Indies ; in Africa, the Cape ; in the 
 East Indies, the Isle of France, Cochin, and the conquests obtained from 
 the Mahrattas (see pages 443, 471). 
 
 After the dissolution of the ministry of Grenville and Fox, March 26, 
 1807, the British ministry had been composed, with the change of sin- 
 
488 POLITICAL RELATIONS OF EUROPE, 1821—. 
 
 PErilOD III. 
 
 plc ofliccs, of friends and disciples of Pitt. Lord Liverpool, Ilawkes- 
 bury, Caniiin^r, IVrcival, Castlerea<rli, Vaiisittart, cte. all iK-hmf^ to this 
 class. Ailcr the inurder of the fust U)rd of the treasury, Sp«Mi(er I'er- 
 cival, May 11, 1812, Lord Liverpool siieeeeded to his plaee, whieh he 
 retained in conjnnction witli Lord Castlereajrh as secretary of state for 
 forei.lin atlairs, till the melancholy death of the latter, An^'. 12, 1822, 
 M'hcn Mr. Canning eanie into oilicc, Sept. IG, and, npon Lord Liverpool's 
 retiring, was made premier, April 12. 
 
 15. Upon tlio introduction of Mr. Canninix to tlie British 
 cabinet, and particularly after his elevation to the rank of 
 prime minister, several rep;iilations took place, which were 
 considered as so many ])roofs of the liberal spirit of domestic, 
 as well as foreij^n [)()licy. In conse(|uence of an alteration 
 made in the department of customs, the strictness of tlie 
 imj)(>rtation laws, which had becMi hitherto conformable to 
 the prineij)les of the mercantile system, was considerably 
 softened. The recognition of the new American free states, 
 (see p. 460,) the active interest taken in the affairs of the 
 east, in oi'der to please the Greeks, was all the work of Can- 
 nino-. His jn'ojected reform of the corn laws, however, 
 brought him into a conflict with the great landed proprietors 
 in parliament, and occasioned the hatred and persecution of 
 the opposite party ; though his genius and eloquence did 
 not the less powerfully operate upon the character of the 
 times. It had now become evident enough, that all things 
 could not remain for ever as they had done. 
 
 Convention with Russia and France for the purpose of settling the 
 affairs of Greece, by the Protocol of July G, 1827. A corn bill 
 brought into the lower house, June 18; Init defeated in the upper, 
 tlirougii the inliuence of tiic Duke of Wellington. Death of Canning, 
 Aug. 8, 1827. 
 
 If). The most important change in the domestic ]M)licy 
 of England was occasioned by the so-called Emancipation 
 of the Catholics, and consequent tranquillization" of Ireland, 
 bv which the l)uk<' of W'ellmgton, as premier, in conjunc- 
 tion with Sir Robert Peel, has immortalized his ministry. 
 In consequence of this measure, the Romanists were admit- 
 ted into ])arliament; and, with some few e.vceptions, to the 
 ofHces of state, from both of which they had previously been 
 
 * [Had the author made use of (he term "distraction," it would, at least, 
 as correctly represent the immediate consc(|uences of tliis questionable mea- 
 sure. — TUANS.] 
 
TERioD III.] POLITICAL RELATIONS OF EUROPE, 1821—. 489 
 
 excluded. The future will show how far they are satisfied 
 with these concessions. 
 
 The Duke of Wellington appointed prime minister, Jan. 25, 1828. 
 The Catholic Emancipation Bill, occasioned by O'Connell's being elected 
 in Ireland as a member of parliament, passed the lower house, March 
 31, and was accepted by the Lords, April 13, 1829. 
 
 17. The restoration of the French state was the condition 
 of the restoration of Europe. That it was necessary for 
 France herself, as a member of this political system, to be 
 great and powerful, the allies themselves had loudly pro- 
 claimed in the midst of their victories. Ever since her re- 
 striction to her former boundaries, her situation, her extent, 
 her population, and the spirit of her inhabitants, render her 
 the most powerful state of Europe. Her boundaries were 
 determined by the treaties ; her constitution was left to her- 
 self. A difficult task ! But Providence gave France, at 
 this moment, the greatest blessing it could confer, a pru- 
 dent man for a king, and at his side, a counsellor like Riche- 
 lieu. From England he brouglit his people the most valu- 
 able of gifts, that of a free constitution. It is now for the 
 nation to show, that they can bear freedom. Their history 
 may excite apprehension ; but if the French can bear it, 
 what a future is opened to France ! She no longer has an 
 enemy in Europe, unless she is resolved to have one. The 
 culture of her fertile soil is her chief source of acquisition ; 
 yet her manufacturing industry is not palsied. Her free 
 colonies no longer excite jealousy, and yet secure to her a 
 share in the commerce of the world. But witli a free con- 
 stitution, she has still an autocratic administration. Can 
 these exist together ; and will not the change of the latter 
 be more difficult than that of the former? 
 
 The constitution framed by the conservative senate before the arrival 
 of the king, in which tlie senate had taken the best care of its own in- 
 terests, was rejected by the king ; but on the other hand, a constitution 
 was proffered by him, and accepted by the senate (which was aboUshed) 
 and the chamber of deputies. 
 
 The present constitution, given by the C/iarfe, has much in common 
 with the British, but not every thing. A constitutional king, with the 
 plenitude of executive power, and the soui-ce of legislation ; responsible 
 ministers, a cliamber of hereditary peers appointed by tlie king, and a 
 chamber of deputies. But the king has the exclusive power of pro- 
 posing laws ; the inheritance of the peerages is connected Avith primo- 
 geniture ; and the ministers have, as such, a seat, and the power of 
 
'H>0 roi.rricAL rklations of Europe, I821— . [nmoD m. 
 
 Sjxakinjj in the clininbcrs. The Irtw of rlortion and tlic law of ajre 
 (tliirtv y»'ars boinj? roquisitc for n peer, and forty for a deputy) must he 
 tin- main supports of this constitution. But after so many scenes in tlie 
 cliainhers, the hitter hnv seems to be hardly ade<piate to the attainim-nt 
 of its oliject. And in the former, it has been found necessary to make 
 repeated alterations, which are still insiiflicient, to secure a ])reponder- 
 nnce to the ministers. But that no ministry can exist in this country, 
 while the press is perfectly free, the ailvocates of the freedom of the 
 press themselves are well aware. In repeated cases, nevertheless, only 
 a temporary censorship was accorded, which, finally, had to make way 
 for a stricter repulation. — Of its colonies, France has recovered, in the 
 "West Indies, Martinique, Guadaloupe, Marie Galante, Desirade, Les 
 Saintes, together with its part of St. Martin and Cayenne; in Africa, 
 Senegal and Gorce ; in the East Indies, the Lsle of liourbon, Pondi- 
 chcrry, Mahe, and Chandernagore. (See p. 443.) 
 
 18. Tlie restoration of tlic Swiss confodcrary \vas zeal- 
 ously pursued at the congress of A'ienna, in a special com- 
 niiltce, appointed by the five leading powers. Tiie result 
 was, the territorial aggrandizement of the confederacy by 
 three cantons, and the acknowledgment of its perpetual 
 neutrality. What an advantage for France, covering, as it 
 does, its unprotected part ! Tlie restoration of its constitu- 
 tion, after the abrogation of the act of mediation, was relin- 
 quished to the cantons themselves. 
 
 I»y the declaration of the powers, IMarch 20, 1815, the acquiescence 
 of the confederacy being declared, ^March 29, the separated cantons 
 Valais and Neufchatel, and the territory of Geneva, somewhat enlarged 
 at the exi)ense of France and Savoy, were added as three new cantons 
 to the existing nineteen, which were acknowledged in their integrity ; 
 the bishopric of Basle was annexed principally to the canton of Berne, 
 but partly also to the canton of Basle. The confederacy has subse- 
 quently consisted of twenty-two cantons. 1. Zurich. 2. Berne. 3. 
 Lucerne. 4. Uri. 5. Schweitz. 6. Underwalden. 7. Glaris. 8. 
 Zug. 9. Friburg. 10. Soleure. 11. Basle. 12. Schaffhausen. 13. 
 Appenzell. 14. St. Gall. lo. Grisons. 16. Aargau. 17. Thurgau. 
 18. Tesin. 19. Vaud. 20. Valais. 21. Neufchatel. 22. Geneva. 
 By the new act of confederacy, signed and .sworn to by the twenty-two 
 cantons, Aug. 7, 181.3 ; a. All the cantons guaranteed each other's ter- 
 ritory and constitutions. There are no longt-r any subject countries, 
 and the enjoyment of political rights cannot be the exclusive privilege 
 of any class of citizens. />. The connnon affairs of the confederacy shall 
 be discussed in a diet, to be held, every two year.s, alternately at Zurich, 
 Berne, and Lucerne. (In the intervening time, the presiding jdace 
 manages them.) It consists of the ambassadors of the twenty-two 
 cantons, who vote according to their instructions. Each has one vote ; 
 the majority decides ; in foreign alliances two-thirds are necessary. 
 The burgo-master or mayor in office of the city, in which the diet is 
 convened, presides, c. The diet manages the affairs of the confederacy, 
 
PEraoD HI.] POLITICAL RELATIONS OF EUROPE, 1821—. 491 
 
 declares war and peace, and forms alliances Avith foreign states, d. 
 Settlement of the contingents of troops and pecuniary contributions, etc. 
 (P. UsTERi) Handhiich des Schweizerischen Staatsrechts. Aarau, 
 1816, 2 Thle. 
 
 19. Thougli the restoration of the Spanish monarchy in 
 Europe was a consequence of the fall of Napoleon, matters 
 took a different turn from their course in other states. 
 Tlie territory of the state within Europe had undergone no 
 c?^ianges ; but the Cortes, which had assembled during the 
 war and imprisonment of the king, had framed a constitu- 
 tion, which, founded on the sovereignty of the 
 people, made the king the mere servant of the 
 Cortes. But at the return of the king he not only refused 
 to accept it, but proceeded with the utmost rigour 
 against its authors. Instead, however, of employ- 
 ing the moment for the introduction of a better constitution, 
 which the nation was justified in expecting, after such a 
 conflict and such sacrifices, the opposite extreme was adopt- 
 ed ; and the absolute power of the king was again intro- 
 duced, supported by the inquisition, restraint on the press, 
 and the Jesuits. Many symptoms of secret ferment were 
 afterwards exhibited, with the deepest decline of the fi- 
 nances, and a total want of credit. Notwithstanding, an 
 army was collected at Cadiz, against the insurgent America ; 
 an army, which Spain could neither pay nor embark. 
 
 20. The consequence of this political error was an insur- 
 rection among the army, kindled by Riego and others of its 
 leaders, with the proclamation of the constitution of the 
 Cortes, which the king was forced to accept. Europe 
 saw, therefore, for the first time, the doubly pernicious ex- 
 ample (which was not unfortunately to be without imitation) 
 of an army, commanding instead of obeying, and of a con- 
 stitution which, instead of a true monarchy, was neither a 
 monarchy nor a republic. 
 
 The insurrection, having broken out in the army at Cadiz, Jan. 1, 
 1820, soon spread to Ferrol and Corunna (Feb.). The king issued a 
 proclamation that he accepted the constitution of the Cortes, and the 
 oath was administered, March 8. 
 
 Conformably with the constitution, March 18, 1812: 1. The Cortes 
 were entirely independent of the king as far as respects their conti- 
 nuance, form, and assembling. 2. They consisted of only one chamber. 
 3. They had the right of moving and enacting laws. 4. The king pos- 
 sessed the right only of proposing them, and a temporary veto. 5, 
 
492 rul.lTlCAL KKLATIONS OF ELUOI'E, 1821—. [rtuiOD ill. 
 
 They fixtil nnnimlly the amount of forces, l)oth on land and sea. 6. 
 Tliey i>o.x<essed the ri^ht of confinninj; treaties of alliance and coni- 
 nierce. 7. They nominated to the king the members of his council of 
 state. 8. Tliey fixed tlie salaries of his council as well lus of the seven 
 ministers (secretaries of state). 9. All ecclesiiustical benefices, and all the 
 ofliccs of judge, could be bestowed or filled liy the king only, on the 
 nomination of the council of state. 10. Tiie king was not to marry or 
 go out of the kingdom, witiiout the consent of the Cortes, on penalty of 
 the loss of his throne. — What powers and rights still remained to the 
 king, every one may eiisily judge. ^ 
 
 21. The consequences of such a defective state of ad- 
 ministration were inevitable. An opposite party ^vas soon 
 formed at Urj^el, under the protection of a Frencli cordon 
 on the frontiers ; and, as the foreign powers considered it 
 impossible to submit to tlie deposition of tlie kiiip;, his forci- 
 ble restoration to sovereign autliority was, at the congress 
 of Laybach, confided to the armed mediation of France. 
 But instead of a constitutional monarcliy, the old system of 
 absolute and uncontrolled power was introduced, and put 
 into execution with the most rigorous severity. Excessive 
 irritation in the interior and numerous emigrations natu- 
 rally followed. The clergy and their followers, calling 
 themselves the apostolical party, were predominant ; be- 
 cause, at the low ebb of the public finances, they only were 
 in possession of money. Time alone will show, whether a 
 more happy state of atl'airs will result from the present con- 
 dition of turbulence and discord. 
 
 Erection of a hostile regency at Sec d'Urgel, Aug. 15, 1S22, with a 
 proclamation of the absolute king. March of the French army into 
 Spain, under the command of the Dauphin, April, 1823, upon which 
 the king was conveyed by the Cortes to Seville, and subsequently, 
 owing to the rapid advance of the French, to Cadiz, June. Siege of 
 Cadiz, which capitulated after the storming of Trocadero, Aug. 31. 
 Upon the liberation of the king, however, the decree of Oct. 1 was 
 issued, by which all the acts of the constitutional regency, from March 
 7, 1820, to Oct. 1, 1823, were declared to be null and void, and abso- 
 lute power again restored. Thus then the total absence of political 
 illumination, was justly punished by a transition from one extreme to 
 the other. 
 
 2'2. That the great change in the Portuguese monarchy, 
 by which a colony became the principal country and the 
 seat of government, has been already noticed. Though 
 Portugal still preceded Brazil in the royal title of the united 
 monarchies, this was not enough to compensate for the loss 
 
PERIOD III.] POLITICAL RELATIONS OF EUROPE, 1821—. 493 
 
 of the court, so severely felt by the capital ; and the military 
 spirit, SO powerfully awakened in the nation by the war, 
 made the consequences of the discontent doubly formidable, 
 as soon as the example was given by Spain. In Portugal, 
 also, the insurrection first broke out among the troops ; an 
 intermediate government had to convene the Cortes, who 
 were still employed in framing a constitution, which was, 
 however, sufficiently far advanced to leave the king, on his 
 return from Brazil, only the shadow of authority. 
 
 The insurrection broke out among the troops at Oporto, Aug. 24, 
 1820; it soon formed a combination with the insurrection at Lisbon, 
 for the erection of a provisory government, and the convocation of the 
 Cortes. The Cortes were opened, May, 1821, and the king returned 
 in July. In the essential points, the constitution framed by the Cortes 
 coincided with the Spanish ; and in some particulars circumscribed the 
 royal power still more. 
 
 23. How could it therefore be otherwise than that similar 
 consequences should follow such a state of things, as had 
 previously developed themselves in Spain. In Portugal, 
 however, they were further aggravated by personal con- 
 nexions, and the distracted family circumstances of the 
 house of Braganza. The constitutional government had 
 scarcely been introduced v.dien it was abolished. Don 
 Miguel, the younger son of the king, actually made an at- 
 tempt, though in vain, to dethrone his own ftither; and 
 upon the death of the latter, there ensued a quarrel between 
 the two brothers, relative to the succession, which is not 
 yet determined, and has subjected Portugal to a system of 
 tyranny which seems to have no bounds. 
 
 The constitution abolished, by an insurrection of the troops under 
 Don Miguel, June 5, 1823. His abortive attempt to dethrone his 
 father. May 9, 1824, in consequence of which he was obliged to leave 
 Portugal. Upon the death of John YI., March 10, 1826, Don Pedro, 
 emperor of Brazil, nominated his daughter, jSIaria da Gloria, to be 
 queen, under the regency of the Infanta Isabella, till Feb. 26, 1828, and 
 afterwards under that of Don Miguel, who, however, caused himself to 
 be proclaimed king by the Cortes, June 30, but without being ever re- 
 cognised as such by the foreign courts. 
 
 24. The new Spanish doctrines were not, however, to 
 be confined to the peninsula of the Pyrenees ; they soon 
 found their adherents in Italy. The restoration of the prior 
 order of things would have found its principal obstructions 
 in the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, had not the conduct of 
 
404 POLITICAL RELATIONS OF EUIlOPi:, 1821—. [peiiiod hi. 
 
 IMiirat come to the aid ot'tlie allies. After his downfal (sen 
 ]). 449) there was no ohstach^ to the restoration of Naples 
 to kinir Ferdinand of Sieilv, when l)oth countries were a«rain 
 united into the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, according; to 
 its ancient boundaries. But to preserve internal tranquillity 
 was (litHeult anion^ a dis(juiet people, accustomed to so 
 many revolutions, and in whom the seed of innovation had 
 ])rol)ably been long cherished in a society, called that of tin; 
 ('arbonari, who soon grew into an extensive sect, but first 
 became danp;erous to the state by their success with the 
 army. Here, too, an armed power prescribed to and ex- 
 torted from the king the acceptance of a constitution, and 
 that indeed a foreign constitution, the Spanish. Tiie fur- 
 ther ditl'usion of the insurrection could be no lontxcr doubt- 
 ful, since it was speedily seen in the north of the peninsula ; 
 and left it to the option of the allied powers, and especially 
 of Austria, (which was most interested in the case,) either 
 to be the quiet spectators of a general Italian revolution, or 
 to anticij)ate it by force of arms. The latter was preferred ; 
 and the facility of success put an end to the apprehensions 
 which Iiad been entertained. 
 
 The insurrection began in the army, July 2, 1820. The Spanish 
 constitution was accepted by the kintr, and the crown prince appointed 
 regent, July 7. A parliament was convoked and opened, Oct. 1. But 
 the nionarchs and their ministers assembled at Troppau, and afterwards 
 at Laybach, Oct. 18, whither the king of the Two Sicilies was invited 
 in person, and proceeded, December 13. The allied monarchs promul- 
 gated a declaration against the new order in Naples, Feb. 9, 1821 ; and 
 an Austrian army advanced, by which the ancient order was restored 
 without bloodshed ; but the kingdom remained occupied by the Aus- 
 trians. 
 
 Carrascosa, Mimoircs siir la rcrohition de Naples. London, 1823. 
 
 25. The restoration of the kino-dom of Sardinia constituted 
 a material part of the restoration of Italy. Its tcM'ritorial ex- 
 tent — less in conformity with the principles of right than of 
 convenience — was increased by the incorporation of the re- 
 j)ul)lic of (Jenoa, with the grant of some lil)erti(>s and of a ^ree 
 liai'bourto th(> capital. 'J'he succession was at the same time 
 secured to the line of Carignau, by the act of the congress 
 of A'ienna. Here also the jiublic quiet was interrupted by 
 the insurrection of a part of the army ; it was soon, how- 
 ever, quelled, with the assistance of Austria, but induced the 
 
vzRioD III.] POLITICAL RELATIONS OF EUROPE, 1821—. 495 
 
 king Victor Emanuel to resign the crown in favour of his 
 brother Charles Felix. 
 
 The garrisons Alessandria and Turin became insurgent, March 10 
 and 12, 1821. The Austrian troops formed a junction, Aprils, with 
 those which remained f;iithful to the king, and after some skirmishes 
 the insurrection was put down. 
 
 26. The state of the church was restored to the same ex- 
 tent it possessed before the revolution, including even Bolog- 
 na and Ferrara, Austria reserving the right of holding a gar- 
 rison in Ferrara, with the small district on this side the Po ; 
 while France retained Avio-non, But the Roman 
 
 , .=',., , . . June 14, 1815. 
 
 court protested even against this, though in vain. 
 
 27. The restoration of the secundogenitures of Austria, 
 in Italy, in the grand duchy of Tuscany, (aggrandized by 
 the possession of the island of Elba and the Stato degli pre- 
 sidi,) and in the duchy of Modena according to its ancient 
 boundaries, was increased by a third, in Parma and Pia- 
 cenza, in favour of the Archduchess Maria Louisa, the wife 
 of Napoleon. But not without the resistance of Spain, 
 which refused for that reason to sig-n the act of the cono-ress 
 of Vienna, claiming Parma and Piacenza for Don Carlos the 
 son of the Infanta Maria Louisa, formerly queen of Etruria. 
 The justice of the demand was acknowledged; and the 
 matter was adjusted by a subsequent compromise. 
 
 By the compact between Austria and Spain at Paris, June 10, 1817, 
 o. The Archduchess Maria Louisa remained in possession, for life, of 
 Parma and Piacenza. b. After her death it was to revert to the Infanta 
 Maria Louisa, and her son Don Carlos. After the extinction of his 
 male posterity, Parma reverts to Austria, and Piacenza to Sardinia, c. 
 The Infanta acquired, in the mean while, the duchy of Lucca ; which in 
 case of succession in Parma, or of extinction, falls to Tuscany. 
 
 28. The republic of the Seven Islands, formed during 
 the storms of war, the possession of which had already 
 changed several times in the course of fifteen years, (see p. 
 383, 414,) was placed under the protection of Great Bri- 
 tain, by a compact of the four leading powers, with tiie 
 right of garrison, the assurance of a free constitution, and 
 the acknowledgment of her commercial flag. She is thus 
 secured ; but time must determine, whether Grecian cul- 
 ture will revive under British guardianship. 
 
 A treaty respecting the seven Ionian islands was signed at Paris, 
 Nov. 5, 1815, by Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia. The 
 
496 rOLITICAL RKLATIONS OF EUROPE, 1821—. [period hi. 
 
 ropublir oon.slsts cif the island.'^ Corfu, Coplmlonia, Zantc, St. Mnuro, 
 Itliara, Paxo, nntl Ccripo, with tluir (Icpondcncio.s. Constitution of" Doc. 
 29, 1H17. A lord coniinissioncr occupies the place of the king of Kng- 
 land as protector. He appoints the ])re.Hi<lent of the senate, consisting 
 of five nicnil)ers, taken from tiie legislative a-ssenibly, which is chosen 
 by the noble electors. The senate has the executive and the initiatory 
 power ; but every law and resolution must first have the approbation of 
 the lord commissioner. Kach island has its separate government and 
 courts. For them all, there is a court of appeal. The Greek church 
 and language are jiredoininant. 
 
 29. Tlie nortli of Europe, as tlio preceding history lias 
 shown, was not spared by tlie convulsions of the times ; and 
 all the states, pertaining to it, underwent great changes. 
 Denmark had to renounce Norway ; and received in com- 
 pensation, nothing but Swedish Fomerania, which it ex- 
 changed with Prussia for the duchy of Lauenberg as far as 
 the Elbe (see p. 485). Reckoned by its superficial con- 
 tents, this was but a poor indemnification ; but by its 
 situation and internal value, by no means unimportant. 
 ^^'hether the loss of Norway was in reality a loss to Den- 
 mark may be doubted. Norway indeed had need of Den- 
 mark, but, taking the navy out of the question, Denmark 
 was not equally indebted to Norway. And a navy of its 
 former strength Denmark would hardly wish to restore. 
 Tiie constitution of Denmark remained unaltered. The in- 
 troduction of a constitution of states in Ilolstein, which, 
 separated again from Denmark, (see p. 481,) belonged to the 
 Germanic Confederation, has not yet grown to maturity. 
 
 30. The Scandinavian peninsula now stood under one 
 sovereign in consequence of the union of Norway and 
 Sweden (see p. 449). Sweden sought in this union a re- 
 compence for the loss of Finland, and found it in a political, 
 if not in a statistical respect. Under a king wlio has already 
 won renown in war, the two kingdc^ns are probably destined 
 to enjoy a long period of peace. It will heal the wounds 
 inflicted bv uiniecessary ])articij)ation in former wars, if 
 Norway, treated so ungraciously b}' nature, can but find a 
 remuneration for what nature has denied. In possession of 
 a free constitution, both kingdoms have, in this respect, no- 
 thing to desire. They both enjoy their trancjuillity. 
 
 The Swedish and Norwegian constitutions differ in the circumstance, 
 that in Sweden there exists a powerful hereditary nobility as the first 
 estate of the kingdom ; in Norway there neither exists any nobility, 
 
PERIOD III.' POLITICAL RELATIONS OF EUROPE, 1S21— . 497 
 
 nor can any be erected. The Swedish constitution underwent no alter- 
 ation from the change of dynasty. The fundamental law of Norway 
 in one hundred and twelve articles, May 17, and Nov. 4, 1814, estab- 
 lishes an hereditary, constitutional monarchy, as in a self-existent, in- 
 dependent, and indivisible kingdom, imited under one king with Swe- 
 den. The king has the whole executive power, and the ratification of 
 the laws (with limitations) ; appoints his council of state ; declares war 
 (with the observance of some formalities) ; concludes alliances, treaties 
 of commerce and peace. The assembly of the estates (Storthing) con- 
 sists of elected members, and is divided, by choice, into two divisions, 
 the Lagthing, containing a fourth of the members, and the Odelsthing, 
 containing three-fourths. The Storthing has the legislative power ; the 
 king shares the right of proposing laws with the Odelsthing, by which 
 the propositions are laid before the Lagthing. The members are chosen 
 for three years, and the Storthing is held triennially in the capital, and 
 opened by the king ; he can, however, convoke it on extraordinary oc- 
 casions. 
 
 The fundamental law may be found complete in Polit. Journal^ 
 1818, numbers i. — v. 
 
 31. No state issued from these storms more enlarged and 
 strengthened — for strength grows by strugghng — than Rus- 
 sia. In the north it was aggrandized by the possession of all 
 Finland, in the south by Bessarabia and part of Moldavia, 
 and in the east by several provinces in consequence of the 
 treaty of peace with Persia, while Poland was allot- 
 ted to it at the peace of Vienna. Of greater influ- 
 ence was the national spirit, heightened by the happy event 
 of the conflict, and most of all, a ruler, whose spirit and ac- 
 tivity was acquainted with, and embraced all his vast sphere 
 of action. Russia, pertaining to two quarters of the world, 
 and founding its dominion in a third, is thus placed in a 
 situation, where — aggrandizement is no longer fortunate. 
 Its constitution is, on the whole, unaltered ; but single re- 
 forms seem to be only the preludes of a revolution which the 
 future must unveil. 
 
 By the Ukase of Sept. 16, 1821, Russia appropriated to itself the 
 north-west coast of America, from Bhering's Straits to 51° N. lat., 
 and the Kurile isles as far as Urup, 45° N. lat., and prohibited foreign 
 navigation in the vicinity of the coasts, as well as on the coasts. 
 
 32. The restoration of the kingdom of Poland was the 
 final result of the changeful destiny and sufferings of this 
 state. Its territory comprises the greater part of the former 
 duchy of Warsaw, with the exception of the duchy of Posen, 
 assigned to Prussia, and the city of Cracow with its territory, 
 
 2 K 
 
408 POLITICAL RELATIONS OF KUROPE, 1821—. [rEnion iii. 
 
 ^vllicll was declared a free city. Tlioiigli Pt)land was united 
 for over willi tlie Russian empire, it acquired its own rc- 
 ])resentativc p;overiunent, and constitutes, therefore, a state 
 distinct iVoni Russia, but united under the same monarch. 
 
 Tlie fate of the kingdom of Poland was decided at Vienna by the 
 compacts of May 3, 181.3. The constitution given it, May 2.5, U'ft the 
 principal regulations, as they existed in the duchy of Warsaw, unchangeil. 
 a. Tiie king possesses the plenitude of executive power. He confides the 
 discharge of it to a governor or viceroy, appointed by him, a council of 
 .state, and ministers, b. The diet consists of the senate, and the cham- 
 ber of deputies. The senate consists of thirty members (among them ten 
 bishops) appointed by the king for life. The chamber of deputies con- 
 sists of sixty memlx;rs, chosen by the assemblies of the provinces, at lea.<t 
 forty years of age. They continue in olficc nine years, and a third is 
 renewed triennially. The members of the council of state have a seat 
 and vote in the chamber, c. The diet is convened every two years at 
 the time fixed by the king, and deliberates concerning the laws proposed 
 by him ; its session, however, continues no longer than fourteen days. 
 
 For further information see the Polif. Journal, 1816, p. 11. 
 
 The free city of Cracow, with its territory, to which the act of the 
 congress of Vienna, App. iii., (a document worded with the most care- 
 ful precision,) secured independence, a free constitution, and absolute 
 neutrality, (as too important in a military point of view to be overlook- 
 ed,) together with the republic of San ^Marino, which still exists and has 
 hitherto existed, as far as is known, unchanged, in the state of the 
 church, belong to the political curiosities of Europe. 
 
 33. The Porte liad kept itself aloof from these storms, 
 with the exception of the war with Russia, (see p. 42*2,) 
 which had cost it Bessarabia and a part of Moldavia. As- 
 sisted by the powerful and almost independent pacha of 
 Ep;ypt, Mohammed Ali, who seems by the introduction of 
 European civilization to be desirous of restoring the throne 
 of the I^hai-aolis, the Porte was more active in Arabia, a;j:ain>t 
 the Walihabites, than in Europe. But in its own territory 
 a storm oathered, of which it is still uncertain whether it 
 will be confined to its boundaries. The (Jreeks recalled to 
 remembrance their ancient IVeedom and their ancient re- 
 nown ; an insurrection broke out simultaneously in almost 
 every ))art of the country, and was pursued on both sides, 
 on the main land and on the sea, with a degree of rancorous 
 hostility winch scarcely seems to admit of reconciliation. 
 
 The insurrection broke out in Moldavia, under Ypsilanti, and almost 
 simultaneously in the Morea, April, 1821, as well as on most of the 
 islands of the Archipelago, whose squadrons were generally superior to 
 
FERiOD III.] POLITICAL RELATIONS OF EUROPE, 1821—. 499 
 
 the Turkish. At the end of the year 1821, the Turks were driven 
 from the Morea and the islands, with the exception of the garrisons of 
 several strong fortresses, but a great Russian army was already assem- 
 bled — surely for some purpose — on the banks of the Pruth. (For the 
 objects of this movement see below.) 
 
 34. In order to complete the work of the aUied sove- 
 reigns, as far as that was possible to be done by outward 
 forms, there was still wanting a full and perfect reconciliation 
 with France, by withdrawing the army of observation. (See 
 above, p. 448.) Accordingly, after the full discharge of 
 the pecuniaiy engagements entered into by France, that 
 measure was finally resolved upon, and put in execution 
 at the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, principally 
 
 throuo-li the mediation of the Duke of Wellino-- 
 
 ton. The admission of France into the confederation of 
 
 the great powers followed of course. 
 
 35. The political system of Europe was thus restored in 
 its single parts ; no important territorial question remained 
 unsettled. That it was to be a free political system, a 
 restoration of the balance of power — was loudly and re- 
 peatedly declared by the restorers themselves. It has been 
 asked, whether such a balance can exist with the inequality 
 even of the leading members 1 It has been apprehended, 
 that by the union of Poland with Russia, the preponderance 
 of the latter power on the continent would become too 
 great, while Great Britain, as a naval power, had no coun- 
 terpoise. But naval wars, like the former, are no longer to 
 to be feared in Europe ; since England has now no rival 
 either in Europe or in the colonies ; and as for the first 
 question, we now know that the mass itself does not decide, 
 but the spirit by which the mass is animated. The taste 
 for political freedom, so generally excited in the nations of 
 the west of Europe, is a stronger bulwark than a chain of 
 fortresses, however desirable this also might be. 
 
 36. But nevertheless, an aristocracy of the leading powers 
 has been practically and diplomatically formed in the re- 
 stored political system of Europe, such as did not exist, at 
 least openly, in the former system of that quarter of the 
 world. Practically, it originated in the manner itself of the 
 restoration ; for how was it possible that the management 
 of general affairs should not come into the hands of the 
 monarchs to whose strenuous exertions the weaker were 
 
 2 K 2 
 
600 POLITICAL RELATIONS OF EUROPE, 1821—. [rpnioD ni. 
 
 indebted for tlieir restoration ? In a diplomatical point of 
 view, this aristorraev, proeeedini;!^ from tlie nature of the 
 relations, was louiuh-d l)y the treaty of Channiont. estaljli^h- 
 ino; for twenty years a cjuadrii])le alhance of tlie four leading 
 powers, Austria, Russia, Enp,land, and Prussia (sec p. 
 441); it was confirmed by the ibrm of the negotiations at 
 A'ienna, and the leaouo of \ ienna (see p. 445) ; and finally, 
 it was perfected bv the accession of France at 
 
 Kov., 1819. , ' r> *'• 1 ni ii a i • 
 
 the conp;ress ot Aix-la-Chapelle. A j^radation, 
 liowover, in the aristocracy, was immediately formed at 
 A ienna; for while the general concerns of Europe were 
 discussed by those five leadinc; powers, the acts of the con- 
 
 p-ress were, moreover, siirncd bv Portujial and 
 
 June IS. 1H17. [; , lie 1' r • • 1 
 
 Sweden, which bpam afterwards jomeu. 
 
 37. But what cause is there to find fault with such an 
 aristocracy, so long as, confining itself to affairs of general 
 interest, it prescribes to itself the limits which these de- 
 mand ? It is then necessary and useful, because it springs 
 from the nature of things ; unsuspicious, because it is pub- 
 lic ; while it constitutes, in a certain measure, a European 
 senate, which wants only a fixed form. The personal meet- 
 ing of the monarchs cannot always supply this deficiency ; 
 that it will be felt, some incidents have already evinced. 
 But here also it is reserved for time to bring to maturity 
 what time only can develop. How beneficial might such 
 a union be for settling the differences that may arise be- 
 tween the powers themselves, or as mediating authorities 
 between the others ! But on the other hand, how dan- 
 gerous if, even though from excessive anxiety, they should 
 transgress the proper limits ! 
 
 The political principles of this union were clearly expressed in the 
 Protocol and Declaration made at Aix-la-Cliapelle. (See Appendix.) 
 The confrrc?!s of the sovereigns and their ministers at Laybach, Jan. — 
 May, \H2l, and at Vienna, Oct., 1822, was a consequence of this 
 arranfroinent, having for its object the preservation of peace in con- 
 nexion with li'gitiiiiacy, both of which had been violated by the military 
 revolutions tliat had just occurred in Najiles and Sardinia, in Spain and 
 in Portugal (see above). Tiiat tlieir apprehensions, in this ease, were 
 not exaggerated, has been shown by experience, however causeless they 
 might have been elsewhere. ^Vc have already noticed above, (see p. 
 47H,) that the idea of legitimacy, in the European sense of the term, 
 does not apply to the case of the Porte. 
 
 38. But a higher sanction than mere diplomacy could 
 
PERIOD III.] POLITICAL RELATIONS OF EUROPE, I82I— . 501 
 
 lend, policy was to acquire by invoking religion to her aid. 
 To Alexander may be attributed the origin of the Holy Al- 
 liance, personally concluded with the monarchs of Austria 
 and Prussia, who were gradually joined by all the Christian 
 states of Europe, England not acceding formally, but ac- 
 knowledging its principles. The three monarchs bound 
 themselves " agreeably to the words of Holy Scripture, 
 which commands all men to love as brethren, to remain 
 united in the bonds of true and indissoluble brotherly love ; 
 always to assist one another ; to govern their subjects as 
 parents ; to maintain religion, peace, and justice. They 
 consider themselves but as members of one and the same 
 Christian family ; commissioned by Providence, to govern 
 the branches of one family. They call on all powers who 
 acknowledge similar principles to join this Holy Alliance." 
 
 The Holy Alliance was concluded at Paris, Sept. 26, 1815, between 
 the emperors of Austria and Russia, and the king of Prussia. — Poli- 
 ticians, accustomed only to the language and forms of modern diplo 
 macy, were startled at this strange phenomenon. Had they forgotten 
 that the diplomacy of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was wont 
 to say much respecting Christianity and its welfare ? The conclusion 
 of an alliance by a declaration similar to the one above given, namely, 
 " That the right of the people should be the foundation of policy," was 
 not merely suitable to the times, it was, in fact, absolutely necessary in 
 an age, which had so lately seen the liberties of the people trodden under 
 foot. That no sinister motives or ambitious views lay concealed in the 
 background, has been sufficiently shown by the result. The difficulties 
 that have stood in the way of its beneficial operation are owing to the 
 defective nature of popular right on the continent, which leaves several 
 of the most important questions undetermined, such, for instance, as 
 that touching the propriety of intermeddling with the aifairs of foreign 
 states. 
 
 Notice siir Alexandre, empereur de Russie, par H. L. EarPETA, minis- 
 tre du St. Evangile. a Geneve, 1828, 8vo. The influence here said to 
 have been exercised by a certain Baroness von Kriidener upon the em- 
 peror, and the Holy Alliance, is contradicted by General La Harpe, 
 formerly the emperor's preceptor, in the Globe, torn. vii. No. 65, Aug. 
 15, 1829. 
 
 39. While the most powerful monarchs of the principal 
 Christian creeds were thus binding the ties of brotherly love 
 in behalf of themselves and their subjects ; while the two 
 evangelical churches, so long separated, were forming a 
 voluntary union in several countries ; the papal court pur- 
 sued an opposite line of policy. In truth, the Roman 
 churchj as well as the Roman state, had need of a restora- 
 
.W2 roLITlCAL RELATIONS OF lailOPi:, 1S21— [rr.niOD iii. 
 
 tioii; and Pius \'II., as its licad, only (liscliarfi;(;fl liis duty 
 a.s far as \hi deemed it to the a(lvanta;j;(j of tlic cliurcli. But 
 it was soon perceived, tliat nmeh less was tliouj^lit of the 
 restoration of tlie Roman churcdi than of the restoration of 
 the autliority of the ^ atican, and the enforeenient of its ])re- 
 tensions. One of the first measures was tlie re-estahhsh- 
 mcnt of the society of the Jesuits, as a principal support of 
 the ]{oniaji eliair. Time must show how far it can he so; 
 and whether, as in Italy, and part of Germany and Swit7x*r- 
 land, it will fmd access also into France and the rest of 
 (lermany, and, as formerly, rekindle the flames of hatred 
 and discord. 'J'his, indeed, it may always etl'ect, without, 
 liowever, recovering its political influence ; and that its 
 mcndjers want neither a hearty o-ood-will nor means for the 
 work, has been already experienced to the cost of France, 
 Spain, and the Netherlands, From Russia they were al- 
 ready expelled. One state alone, Portugal, declared itself 
 imnuMliately against their admission; w^ill not others, will 
 not (lermany follow ? Can the fearful lessons of the past, 
 exhibited in these very courts, which saw their only chance 
 of safety in the expulsion of the Jesuits, be so soon forgot- 
 ten ? — A bull was sent forth against " the pestilence of Bible 
 Societies;" as if the days of Gregory Vll. were returned. 
 But the most important step w'as undoubtedly the conclu- 
 sion of treaties respecting the ecclesiastical relations with 
 the temporal princes. But only two concordats, with Na- 
 ples and with Bavaria, have been hitherto completed ; and 
 the last not without opposition. The one negotiated witli 
 France seems to have been tacitly revoked by the govern- 
 ment, and the ready advances made by Protestant princes 
 towards their Catiiolic subjects, as for instance in Prussia, 
 Hanover, and tlie Netherlands, have only been attended 
 \silh j);n-tiid results. 
 
 Tlic Jesuits were rcstorod by tlic bull, Sollrifiulo oniniinn, 1814, 
 Aug. 7. A roniarkablo. \n\\n\\ brief (its autliontioity has not bccMi denied) 
 was issued against liible Soeieties, describing tliem as, V(if(rri?ninu in- 
 rctitum, ]irs/(ni, (juond fieri pnlrst dclcnihnn, and addressed to tlie arcli- 
 bisliop of (inesen, primate of Poland. Jesuit maxims and Jesuit Latin 
 arc equally incorrigible ! 
 
 It may be found in the PolU. Journal for June, 1817. 
 
 40. Next to their solicitude for the preservation of peace 
 thus restored, the principal business which occupied the at- 
 
rERioD in.] POLITICAL RELATIONS OF EUROPE, 1821—. 503 
 
 tention of the several governments, vv^as the preservation, or 
 at least the restoration, of public credit in money matters. 
 The desire of providing for the excessively increased burden 
 of debt, under which almost all the states laboured, toge- 
 ther with the necessary demands for the payment of interest, 
 or, where it was possible, the discharge of the capital itself, 
 by a fresh system of equitable loans, gave rise to a speculat- 
 ing trade in government securities, which engrossed the 
 mercantile interest and activity, to the exclusion of almost 
 every thing else, and was even the means of procuring for 
 some of the great banking houses, a degree of political in- 
 fluence never before known. This was, alas ! an unpro- 
 ductive speculation, ruinous alike to public industry and 
 good manners. 
 
 Der offentUche Credit dargestellt in der GescJiichte und in den Finanz- 
 operationen der grossen Europdischen Staaten seit Herstellung des all- 
 gemeinen Friedens, ihrer 3Iassregeln zur Begrundung oder Befestigung 
 offenilicher Creditayistalten, und der Begehenheiten in der Ilandelswelt, 
 deren JVirkung damit zusammengetroffeji, von Fr. Nebenius, Karls- 
 ruhe, 1802, 8vo. The most instructive work on the subject : the se- 
 cond edition, still in progress, will bring it down to the present time. 
 
 41. While the affairs of the West were thus being com- 
 posed, those of the East, on the other hand, continually at- 
 tracted the eyes of politicians. The insurrection of the 
 Greeks still proceeded, with various success indeed, but with 
 an interest on the part of the European nations, scarcely if 
 at all inferior to what they would have exhibited in their 
 own behalf. It was excited under the noblest of feelings, 
 and witli the most favourable hopes for the result. The 
 several cabinets naturally regarded it in a political point of 
 view, and the negotiations entered into could hardly fail, in 
 the long run, to produce at least a unanimity of opinion, that 
 Greece ouglit to be a free state, notwithstanding the Porte 
 obstinately withheld its consent. 
 
 Proclamation of independence issued by the Greek national congress 
 at Epidaurus, Jan. 27, 1822. Among the particular events of the war, 
 the daring achievements of the Greeks by sea, especially by means of lire- 
 ships, and on land the victory at Thei'mopylte (Zeitun) are distinguished ; 
 and not less so the barbarous captui'e of Scio, April 12, 1822, and of 
 Ipsara, July 3, 1824, by the Turks. It was not however till tlie land- 
 ing of an Egyptian and Turkish flotilla and army under Ibrahim Pacha, 
 in the Morea, Nov. 5, 1825, that the war on the mainland became of a 
 truly murderous character, owing to the ravages committed in the pe- 
 
504 rOLITICAL UELATIOXS OF El'ROl'E, 1&21— . [rERioD iii. 
 
 ninsula, aiul the siege of fortified places, in particular of tlie heroically 
 deft'iided Missolonghi, Nov., lH2o, to April 23, 1826. — Nevertlu'less 
 Ihrahim could not maintain his posse.ssion of Argos or Napoli di Ho- 
 niagna. — In the mean time a treaty was concluded at lyomlon, July 6, 
 1.S27, brtween Kussia, England, and France, having fur its object the 
 restoration of peace and the cstahlishnient of Gri-ek independence ; 
 ■\vliercui)on, in consequence of Ihraliim's rel'usal to evacuati.' the Morca, 
 followed the battle of Navarino, Oct. 20, 1H27, which ended in the total 
 destruction of the Turkish navy l)y the allies, witiiout, however, im- 
 mediately producing a general war, though it led, after a tedious delay, 
 to tlie ultimate evacuation of the Morea by Ibrahim, Aug., 1828 ; upon 
 which a body of the French troops were introduced, Sept., and at the 
 pame time Count Capo d'Istria, having been nominated to the presidency 
 of Greece, ujum the erection of the Panhcllenion, Jan., 1828, occupied 
 himstdf with the organization of the rising state ; while the Morca and 
 the Cyclades were placed under the protection of the allied powers, Nov. 
 16, and the agreement made by Protocol at London, March 22, 1829, 
 was to fix the yet undetermined boundaries of the future state. 
 
 42. Although the alHes had reason on their own part to 
 appreliend a general war with the Porte, yet tlie injurious 
 behaviour of the Porte itself towards Russia, and its delay 
 in fulfilling the conditions of the treaty of Ackerman, was 
 the occasion of a war between these two powers, which did 
 not end before the victorious arms of Russia, already in pos- 
 session of Adrianople, menaced the Turkish capital itself, 
 and Sultan Mahmud saw himself reduced to the necessity 
 of accepting such conditions as the emperor Nicholas I. 
 thought fit to prescribe. 
 
 By the treaty of Ackerman, Oct. 26, 1826, the still disputed articles 
 of the peace of Bucharest, (see above, p. 423,) were to be adjusted. 
 Offensive firman issued by the Porte against Russia, Dec. 20, 1827. 
 Declaration of war by Russia, April 26, 1828. The fortress of Braila 
 was taken June 19, and Varna Oct. 11, but the Russians were not able 
 to advance in this campaign beyond the Balkan. But in the summer 
 of 1829, under the command of general Count Diebitsch, after the siege 
 of Schumla, June 11, they crossed the Balkan, captured Adrianople, 
 and concluded a peace there, Sept. 14, lS29. — Conditions: a. The 
 Pruth was to constitute the European boundary as heretofore. All that 
 liad been taken was to be restored ; Silistri;x, however, to be dismantled. 
 h. An alteration of the Asiatic boumlaries ; so that the whole eastern 
 coast of the Black Sea from the Kuban to the harbour of St. Nicholas, 
 together with the fortres.ses of Anapa and P<.ti, remained in the posses- 
 sion of Russia, c. The principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia to be 
 confirmed in tlu»ir rights; but the Iluspodars to be nominated only for 
 life. No Turks were to dwell there, d. Free trade on the Black Sea 
 anil navigation througii the straits, for vessels belonging to Russia, and 
 all other countries at peace with the Porte, e. The Porte to defray the 
 
PERIOD in.] POLITICAL RELATIONS OF EUROPE, 1821—. 505 
 
 expenses of the war, hereafter to be determined ; and, f. To accede to 
 the treaties conchided at London, with reference to the Greeks. 
 
 Negotiators ; Counts Orloff, Pahlen, and Diebitsch, and Sadik 
 Effendi. 
 
 43. By this treaty, therefore, the admission of Greece into 
 the hst of European states, was at the same time secured in 
 the ojitset. What consequences the project may lead to, 
 and how far the Porte may choose to recognise its separate 
 existence under a monarchical constitution, and the do- 
 minion of a German prince, still remains to be seen. What- 
 ever it may become, a new prospect at all events unfolds 
 itself for the East. The great drama, however, of universal 
 history knows no last act ; and the political edifice was 
 never yet possessed of entire perfection and immutability ; 
 for nothing is faultless that is the work of man. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 PROTOCOL SIGNED AT AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, NOV. 15, 1818, BY THE 
 PLENIPOTENTIARIES OF THE COURTS OF AUSTRIA, FRANCE, 
 PRUSSIA, ENGLAND, AND RUSSIA. 
 
 The ministers of these courts, after a mature consideration of the prin- 
 ciple on which the restored order of things in Europe depends, do here- 
 by declare: — 1. That the above courts are firmly resolved, neither in 
 their own mutual connexions, nor in those which they may contract 
 with other states, to depart from the fundamental principles of that close 
 alliance which has hitherto subsisted in all their common affairs, and 
 which, in consequence of the bond of Christian brotherhood established 
 between the sovereigns, has become still more intimate. 2. That this 
 alliance, being so much the more essential and permanent, as it will not 
 be determined by any particular detached interest, nor by any pre- 
 dominating combination, can have no other object in view than the pre- 
 servation of peace, founded on a conscientious discharge of the several 
 engagements prescribed in the treaties, and a recognition of all the du- 
 ties arising therefrom. 3. That France, in consequence of the restor- 
 ation of legitimate and constitutional kingly power, associates herself 
 with the other allies, and undertakes from henceforth to co-operate in- 
 cessantly towards maintaining and strengthening a system which has 
 given peace to Europe, and which can alone secure its continuance. 4. 
 That, in case the powers who accede to the present resolution, in order 
 to the attainment of the objects here proposed, should judge it necessary 
 to hold an especial meeting, either between the high sovereigns in per- 
 son, or their ministers and plenipotentiaries, for the purpose of deliber- 
 ating in common on their own proper affairs, in so far as these are con- 
 nected with the subjects of their present negotiations, the time and 
 place of such meeting shall always be previously determined by a di- 
 plomatic consultation ; in case, however, the affairs to be deliberated on 
 affect the interests of other European states, the meeting aforesaid shall 
 only take place in consequence of a formal invitation on the part of the 
 state thereby affected, and with a reservation of the right of the latter 
 to attend thereat, either in person or by its plenipotentiaries. 5. That 
 
COS ATPHNDIX. 
 
 tlic resolutions herein speeificd sliall be submitted to tbe knowled;:"' of 
 nil tlic ICuropcun courts, tlirough the medium of the subjointMl dcchir- 
 ation. 
 
 Aix-la-Chnjulle, Xor. lo, 1818. Mettkunich, Kicmki.iku, Ca3- 
 
 TLKKKAGII, WkLLINGTON, IlAIiUENBEKG, BeIINSTOUE, KeSSELI£OUE, 
 
 Capo u'Istuia. 
 
 DECLARATION. 
 
 At the moment when the last seal is in the act of being put to the 
 determination of withdrawing the foreign troops from the French terri- 
 tories, upon the restoration of peace in Europe ; and when the pru- 
 dential measures, enjoined by painful necessity, are no longer required, 
 the ministers and plenipotentiaries of their imperial ^lajestics, the em- 
 perors of Austria and Russia, the kings of France, Great Britain, and 
 Prussia, are commissioned by their respective sovereigns to submit the 
 results of their conference at Aix-la-Chapelle, to the knowledge of all 
 tlio European courts, and for this purpose to make the following de- 
 claration : — 
 
 The agreement of Oct. 9, by which the execution of the articles con- 
 tained in the treaty of peace of Nov. 20, 1815, (see above, p. 448,) re- 
 ceived its final direction, will be considered by the sovereign powers 
 who assisted thereat, as the key-stone of their work of peace ; and as 
 the completion of the political system which is to secure to this work 
 its durability. 
 
 The close alliance of the nionarchs who became parties to that sys- 
 tem, induced thereto by a regard for its principles as well as the interest 
 of their own people, affords Europe the most sacred pledge of its future 
 tranquillity. 
 
 The object of this alliance is as simple as it is beneficent and great. 
 It is neither directed towards any new political undertakings, nor does 
 it intend any disturbance of the relations at present subsisting between 
 the powers, and consecrated by the various treaties now in force. In 
 its steady and peaceful course it aims at nothing so much as the pre- 
 servation of peace, and the security of all those negotiations by which it 
 has been established and confirmed. 
 
 Tlie sovereigns recognise as a fundamental principle of the high com- 
 pact now existing between them, the unalterable resolution, neither in 
 their own reciprocal concerns, nor in their relations with other powers, 
 to depart from the strictest obedience to the maxims of popular right ; 
 because the constant application of these maxims to a permanent state 
 of peace, affords the only effectual guarantee for the independence of 
 each separate power, and the security of the whole confederation. 
 
APPENDIX. 509 
 
 Faithful to these principles, the sovereigns engage to be no less ob- 
 servant of them in the vai'ious conferences which may from time to time 
 be held, either between themselves or their respective ministers ; whe- 
 ther the conferences in question be devoted to a common deliberation 
 upon their oa\ti particular affairs, or whether they concern matters in 
 which other governments shall have formally requested their media- 
 tion ; the same disposition which is to guide their own deliberations and 
 govern their own diplomatic transactions, shall also preside at these 
 conferences, and have for its constant object the general peace and 
 tranquillity of the world. 
 
 Under the impression of such sentiments have the sovereigns con- 
 cluded the work for which they were called together. In the mean 
 time they will never cease to labour in strengthening and perfecting it. 
 They solemnly acknowledge that their duty towards God and towards 
 the people over whom they rule, imposes upon them the obligation of 
 exhibiting to the world, as far as lies in their power, an example of 
 justice, unanimity, and moderation. They consider themselves for- 
 tunate in being allowed from hencefortli to direct all their endeavours 
 to promote the arts of peace, to advance the internal welfare of their 
 respective states, and re-animate those religious and moral feelings, the 
 authority of which has been but too much weakened by the calamities 
 of the times. 
 
 Aix-la-C/uipelle, Nov. 15, 1818, signed as before. Ad mandatum 
 Genz. 
 
TABl.i: OF THE SOVEREIGNS OF EUROPE, 
 
 I'UOM 1500 TO 1828. 
 
 I. roPES. 
 
 AleXvVNDEU VI. (Borgia) from 1492 
 
 Pius III. (Piccoloinini) 
 
 Julius II. ((Idle Revere) 
 
 Leo X. (Medici) 
 
 Hadrian VI. 
 
 Clement VII. (Medici) 
 
 Paul III. (Farnese) 
 
 Julius III. (Giocchi) 
 
 ^larcellus II. (Ccrvini) 
 
 Paul IV. (Caraffii) 
 
 Pius IV. (^ledighi) 
 
 Pius V. (Ghisleri) 
 
 Gregory XIII. (Buoncompagni) 
 
 Sixtus V. (Montalto) 
 
 Urban VII. (Castagni) 
 
 Gregory XIV. (Sfondrati) 
 
 Innocent IX. (Facliinetti) 
 
 Clement VIII. (Aldobrandini) 
 
 Leo XI. (Medici) 
 
 Paul V. (Borghesc) 
 
 Gregory XV. (Ludovisi) 
 
 Urban VIII. (Barberini) 
 
 Innocent X. (Pamphili) 
 
 Alexander VII. (Chigi) 
 
 Clement IX. (Rospigliosi) 
 
 Clement X. (Altieri) 
 
 Innocent XI. (Odescalchi) 
 
 Alexander VIII. (Ottoboni) 
 
 Innocent XII. (Pignatelli) 
 
 DcaUi 
 
 1503, 
 1503, 
 1513, 
 1521, 
 1523, 
 1534, 
 1549, 
 1555, 
 1555, 
 1559, 
 1565, 
 1572, 
 1585, 
 1590, 
 1590, 
 1591, 
 1591, 
 1605, 
 1605, 
 1621, 
 1623, 
 1644, 
 1655, 
 1667, 
 1669, 
 1676, 
 1689, 
 1691, 
 1700, 
 
 or abdication. 
 
 18th Aug. 
 18th Oct. 
 21st Feb. 
 1st Dec. 
 14th Sept. 
 25th Sept. 
 10th Nov. 
 22nd I^Iar.-l 
 30th April. 
 17th Aug. 
 9th Dec. 
 1st May. 
 10th April. 
 26th Aug. 
 28th Sept. 
 15th Oct. 
 29th Dec. 
 5th March. 
 27th ApriL 
 27th Jan. 
 18th July. 
 29th July. 
 7th Jan. 
 21st May. 
 9th Dec. 
 21.'-t July. 
 12th Aug. 
 1st Feb. 
 27th Sept. 
 
SOVEREIGNS OF EUROPE. 
 
 511 
 
 Clement XL (Albani) 
 Innocent XIII. (Conti) 
 Benedict XIII. (Orsini) 
 Clement XII. (Corsini) 
 Benedict XIV. (Lambertini) 
 Clement XIII. (Rezzonico) 
 Clement XIV. (Ganganelli) 
 Pius VI. (Braschi) 
 Pius VII. (Chiaramonte) 
 Leo XIL (della Genga) 
 Pius VIII. (Castiglioni) 
 
 Death 
 
 1721, 
 
 1724, 
 1730, 
 1740, 
 1758, 
 1769, 
 1774, 
 1799, 
 1823, 
 1829, 
 
 or abdication. 
 
 18th March. 
 3rd March. 
 20th Feb. 
 5th Feb. 
 2nd May. 
 2nd Feb. 
 22nd Sept. 
 29th Aug. 
 19th Aug. 
 10th Feb. 
 
 IL ROMAN EMPERORS.— HOUSE of hapsbiirg. 
 
 Maximilian I. from 1492 
 
 
 1519, 
 
 12th Jan. 
 
 Charles V. abdicated 
 
 
 1558, 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Ferdinand I. 
 
 
 1564, 
 
 2oth July. 
 
 Maximilian II. 
 
 
 1576, 
 
 12th Oct. 
 
 Rudolf II. 
 
 
 1612, 
 
 10th Jan. 
 
 Mathias 
 
 
 1619, 
 
 20th IMarch, 
 
 Ferdinand IL 
 
 
 1637, 
 
 15th Feb. 
 
 Ferdinand III. 
 
 
 1657, 
 
 23rd March. 
 
 Leopold I. 
 
 
 1705, 
 
 5th May. 
 
 Joseph I. 
 
 
 1711, 
 
 17th April. 
 
 Charles VL. 
 
 
 1740, 
 
 20th Oct. 
 
 Charles VH. (of Bavaria) 
 
 
 1745, 
 
 20th Jan. 
 
 HOUSE 
 
 OF LORRAINE. 
 
 
 
 Francis I. ) 
 Maria Theresa) 
 
 
 1765, 
 
 18th Aug. 
 
 
 1780, 
 
 29th Nov. 
 
 Joseph IL 
 
 
 1790, 
 
 20th Feb. 
 
 Leopold IL 
 
 
 1792, 
 
 1st March. 
 
 Francis II. , as Roman emperor 
 
 till 
 
 1806, 
 
 6th Aug. 
 
 III. 
 
 RUSSIA. 
 
 
 
 Ivan Vasilevitch the Great from 1462 
 
 1505, 
 
 27th Oct. 
 
 Vasilei 
 
 
 1533, 
 
 3rd Dec. 
 
 Ivan Vasilevitch II. first czar 
 
 
 1584, 
 
 28th March. 
 
 Feodor I. 
 
 
 1598, 
 
 7th Jan. 
 
 Boris 
 
 
 1605, 
 
 13th April. 
 
 Pseu do -Demetr i U3 
 
 
 1606, 
 
 18th ]\ray. 
 
 Shuskoi 
 
 
 1610, 
 
 27th July 
 
6\2 
 
 so VEK KICKS OF KIKOIK. 
 
 IIOUSK OF UOMAKZOKF. 
 
 ^lichaol Fcodorovilcli, KilS 
 
 Aloxoi 
 
 Feodor II. 
 
 Ivan (with Pctor and Sophia) 
 
 Pet<M- 1. ah)nc (emperor, 1721) 
 
 Catharine I. 
 
 Peter 11. 
 
 Anno 
 
 Ivan III. 
 
 Elizahctli 
 
 Peter III. (of IIolstein-Gottorp) 
 
 Catharine II. 
 
 Paul I. 
 
 Alexander I. 
 
 Nieholas L 
 
 Donth or aNIIcalton. 
 
 1645, 12th duly. 
 1676, 8th F.-h. 
 1682, 27th April. 
 1689, 11 til Sept. 
 1725, 8th Fel). 
 1727, 17th May. 
 1730, 2;)th Jan. 
 
 1740, 28th Oct. 
 
 1741, 6th Oct. 
 1762, 5th Jan. 
 1762, 9th July. 
 1796, 17th Nov. 
 1801, 24th I^Iarch. 
 1826, 1st Dec. 
 
 IV. SULTANS. 
 
 Bajazet II. from 1481, deposed 
 
 1512, 
 
 August. 
 
 Selim I. 
 
 1520, 
 
 22nd Sept. 
 
 Soliman II. 
 
 1566, 
 
 4th Sept. 
 
 Selim II. 
 
 1574, 
 
 13th Dec, 
 
 Murad III. 
 
 1595, 
 
 1 8th Jan. 
 
 ^luhammed III. 
 
 1603, 
 
 21st Dec. 
 
 Achmet I. 
 
 1617, 
 
 15th Nov. 
 
 Mustapha I. dethroned for the second time 
 
 1623, 
 
 16th Aug. 
 
 IMurad IV. 
 
 1640, 
 
 8th Feb. 
 
 Ihrahim 
 
 1648, 
 
 17th Aug. 
 
 Muhammed IV. deposed 
 
 1687, 
 
 29th Oct. 
 
 Soliman III. 
 
 1691, 
 
 22nd June, 
 
 Achmet II. 
 
 1695, 
 
 6th Feb. 
 
 Mustapha II. deposed 
 
 1703, 
 
 30th Sept. 
 
 Achmet III. deposed 
 
 1730, 
 
 2nd Oct. 
 
 Mahmud I. 
 
 1754, 
 
 13th Sept. 
 
 Osman III. 
 
 1757, 
 
 28th Oct. 
 
 IMustapha III. 
 
 1774, 
 
 21st Jan. 
 
 Abdul Haniid 
 
 1789, 
 
 7th April. 
 
 Selim III. deposed 
 
 1807, 
 
 29th May. 
 
 Mustapha IV. deposed 
 
 1808, 
 
 28tli July. 
 
 Malmiud 11. 
 
 
 
SOVEREIGNS OF EUROPE. 
 
 513 
 
 V. PORTUGAL. — HOUSE of burgundy. 
 
 Emanuel the Great, from 1495 
 
 John III. 
 
 Sebastian 
 
 Henry 
 
 Portugal Spanish till 1640. 
 
 HOUSE OF BRAGANZA. 
 
 John IV., Dec., 1640 
 Alphonso VI. deposed 
 Peter II. 
 John V. 
 
 Joseph Emanuel 
 Maria I. 
 
 John VI. (regent 1799) 
 Maria da Gloria 
 
 I)eath or abdication. 
 
 1521, ] 3th Dec. 
 10th June. 
 4th Aug. 
 31st Jan. 
 
 1557, 
 
 1578, 
 1580, 
 
 1656, 28th Feb. 
 
 1667, 23rd Nov 
 
 1706, 9th Dec. 
 
 1750, 31st July. 
 
 1777, 25th Feb. 
 
 1816, 20th March. 
 
 1826, 10th March. 
 
 VI. SPAIN. — HOUSE OF HAPSBURG. 
 
 Ferdinand the Catholic, 
 
 from 1479) 
 
 1516, 
 
 1st Jan. 
 
 Isabella, from 1474 
 
 1504, 
 
 26th Nov. 
 
 Philip I. of Austria, from 1504 
 
 1506, 
 
 25th Sept. 
 
 Charles I. from 1516, (abdicated 1556) 
 
 1558, 
 
 21st Sept. 
 
 Philip II. 
 
 
 1598, 
 
 13th Sept. 
 
 Pliilip III. 
 
 
 1621, 
 
 28th Feb. 
 
 Philip IV. 
 
 
 1665, 
 
 17th Sept. 
 
 Charles II. 
 
 HOUSE OF ANJOU. 
 
 1700, 
 
 1st Nov. 
 
 Philip V. 
 
 
 1746, 
 
 9tli July. 
 
 (Louis) 15th Jan., 1724 
 
 
 1724, 
 
 1st Aug. 
 
 Ferdinand VI. 
 
 
 1759, 
 
 10th Aug. 
 
 Charles IIL 
 
 
 1788, 
 
 13th Dec. 
 
 Charles TV. abdicated 
 
 
 1808, 
 
 19th March, 
 
 (Joseph Buonaparte, till 
 
 May, 1814) 
 
 
 
 Ferdinand VII. 
 
 
 
 
 VII. FRANCE. — HOUSE of valois. 
 
 Charles VIII. from 1483 
 Louis XII. 
 
 1498, 7th April. 
 1515, 1st Jan. 
 
 2 L 
 
514 
 
 SOVEREIGNS OF EUROPE. 
 
 Fraiu'i.s I. 
 Ilcnry II. 
 Francis II. 
 Cliurlcji IX. 
 Ilcnry III. 
 
 Death or alxllcatlon. 
 
 1547, 31. St March. 
 
 1559, lOth July. 
 
 1560, 5th Dec. 
 1574, 30th May. 
 1589, l.st Aug. 
 
 HOUSE OF UOUKBON. 
 
 Henry IV. 
 
 LouiJxilI. 
 
 Louis XIV. 
 
 Louis XV. 
 
 Louis XVI. 
 
 (Ivouis XVII.) 
 
 (Napoleon, emperor, 1804- 
 
 Louis XVIU. 
 
 Cliarles X. 
 
 -1814) 
 
 1610, 14th INlay. 
 1643, 14th May. 
 1715, 1st Sept. 
 1774, 10th May. 
 1793, 21st Jan. 
 1795, 8th June. 
 
 1824, 16th Sept 
 
 VIII. ENGLAND.— uo USE of tudou. 
 
 Henry VII. from 1485 
 
 Henry VIIL 
 
 E.lward VI. 
 
 IMary 
 
 Elizabeth 
 
 1509, 21st April. 
 1547, 28th Jan. 
 1553, 6th July. 
 1558, 17th Nov. 
 1603, ord April. 
 
 UOUSE OF STUART. 
 
 James L 
 Charles I. 
 (Cromwell) 
 Charles IL from 1660 
 James II. exiled 
 William UI. ) 
 ^lary J 
 
 Anne 
 
 1625, 6th April. 
 1649, 30th Jan. 
 1658, 3rd Sept. 
 1685, 5th Feb. 
 1688, 24th Dec. 
 1702, 19th .Alareli 
 1695, 6th Jan. 
 1714, 12th Aug. 
 
 HOUSE OF IIANOVEH. 
 
 George L 1727, 22nd June. 
 
 George II. 1760, 25th Oct. 
 
 George 111. 1820, 29th Jan. 
 
 George IV. (Prince Regent, 1^11, 1 0th Jan.) 
 
SOVEREIGNS OF EUROPE. 615 
 KINGS IN SCOTLAND BEFORE THE UNION. 
 
 HOUSE OF STUART. 
 
 Death or abdication. 
 
 James IV. from 1488 1513, 9tli Sept. 
 
 James V. 1542, 8th Dec. 
 
 Mary 1587, 8th Feb 
 James VI. king of England, 1603 
 
 IX. NAPLES. — HOUSE OF akeagon. 
 
 Ferdinand L from 1458 1494, 25th Jan. 
 
 Alphonso 11. abdicated 1495, 22nd Jan. 
 
 Ferdinand II. 1496, 7th Oct. 
 
 Frederic, dethroned 1501. 
 Naples Spanish till 1713. 
 Austrian till 1735. 
 
 SPANISH house of ANJOU. 
 
 Charles IIL from 1735 1759, 5th Oct. 
 
 Ferdinand IV. 1825, 4th Jan. 
 
 (Joseph Buonaparte 1806, 30th March 1808, 15th July.) 
 
 (Joacliim ^lurat 1815, 20th May.) 
 Francis I. 
 
 X. SAVOY. 
 
 Philibert IL duke from 1497 1504, 10th Sept. 
 
 Charles IIL 1553, 16th Sept. 
 
 Emanuel Phihbert 1580, 15th Aug. 
 
 Charles Emanuel I. the Great 1630, 26th July. 
 
 Victor Amadeus I. 1637, 7th Oct. 
 
 Charles Emanuel IL 1675, 12th June. 
 Victor Amadeus II. king of Sardinia, 
 
 1720, abdicated 1730, 2nd Sept. 
 
 Charles Emanuel IIL 1773, 20th Feb. 
 
 Victor Amadeus IIL 1796, 16th Oct. 
 
 Charles Emanuel IV. abdicated 1802, 4th June. 
 
 Victor Emanuel, abdicated 1821, 13tli March. 
 Charles Felix 
 
 2 L 2 
 
AG 
 
 SOVEREIGNS OF EUROPE. 
 
 XI. rOLAND. 
 
 Sigismund T. from 1506 
 
 Sifrismund II. Aii<;nstU8 
 
 Henry of Valois, Ik' J 
 
 Stephen l?:ith(iri 
 
 Sigi.smuiul III. 
 
 Ylaclislaus IV. 
 
 Ji>]in Casiniir, abdicated 
 
 !Mit'liael Vi.^novicky 
 
 John Sobiesky 
 
 Augustus II. of Saxony 
 
 (Stanislaus-Lesczinsky, 1704 — 1709) 
 
 Augustus III. 
 
 Stanislaus Poniatowsky, deposed 
 
 Dentil or alxlirntlon. 
 
 1548, 1st April. 
 1572, 1st Juno. 
 1574, IHth .June. 
 15S6, 12th Dec. 
 1632, 30th April. 
 1648, 20th May. 
 1668, 17th Sept. 
 1673, 10th Nov. 
 1696, 17th .lune. 
 1733, 1st Fel). 
 
 1763, 5th Oct. 
 1795. 
 
 XII. DENMARK. — house of iiolsteix-oldenburg. 
 
 John, from 1481 
 
 Christian II. deposed 
 
 Frederic I. 
 
 Cliristian III. 
 
 Frederic II. 
 
 Christian IV. 
 
 Frederic III. 
 
 Christian V. 
 
 Frederic IV. 
 
 Cliristian VI. 
 
 F^rederic V. 
 
 Christian VII. 
 
 Frederic VI. (associate sovereign 1784) 
 
 1513, 20th Feb. 
 1523, Jan. 
 1533, 10th April 
 1559, 1st Jan. 
 1588, 4tli April. 
 1648, 28th Feb. 
 1670, 9th Feb. 
 1699, 25th Aug. 
 1730, 12th Oct. 
 1746, 6th Aug. 
 1766, 14th Jan. 
 1808, 13th March. 
 
 XIII. SWEDEN. — HOUSE of vasa. 
 
 Gustavus Vasa, from 1524 
 
 Erich XIV. deposed 
 
 John 
 
 Sigmund, deposed 
 
 Charles IX. 
 
 Gustavus Adolphus 
 
 Christina, abdicated 
 
 1560, 29th Sept. 
 
 1568, 29th Sept. 
 
 1592, 21st May. 
 
 1600. 
 
 1611, 30th Oct. 
 
 1632, 6tli Nov. 
 
 1654, 16lli June. 
 
SOVEREIGNS OF EUROPE. 517 
 
 HOUSE OF DEUX FONTS. 
 
 Death or abdication. 
 
 Charles X. Gustavus 1660, 23r(l Feb. 
 
 Charles XI. 1697, loth April. 
 
 Charles XU. 1718, 11th Dec. 
 
 Ulrica Eleonora 1 -.--i ^ , » •, 
 
 T-, 1 . P TT r l(ol, 6th April. 
 
 Iredenc oi Hesse J '■ 
 
 HOUSE OF nOLSTEIX-GOTTORP. 
 
 Adolphus Frederic 1771, 12th Feb. 
 
 Gustavus in. 1792, 29th March. 
 
 Gustavus IV. deposed 1809, 13th March. 
 
 Charles XIII. 1818, oth Feb. 
 Charles XIV. John (Bernadotte) 
 
 XIV. THE ELECTORAL-PALATINATE. 
 
 Philip Ingenuus, elector from 1476 1508, 28th Feb. 
 
 Ludovicus V. 1544, 16th March. 
 
 Frederic H. 1556, 26th Feb. 
 
 Otto Heury 1559, 12th Feb. 
 
 PALATINATE OF SIJIMERX. 
 
 Frederic HI. 1576, 26th Oct. 
 
 Ludovicus VL 1583, 12th Oct. 
 
 Frederic IV. 1610, 9th Sept. 
 
 Frederic V. (deposed 1623) 1632, 19th Nov. 
 
 Charles Louis, reinstated 1650 1680, 28th Aug. 
 
 Charles 1685, 16th May. 
 
 PALATINATE OF NEUBURG. 
 
 Philip William 1690, 2nd Sept. 
 
 Charles Philip 1742, 3l6t Dec. 
 
 PALATINATE OF SULZBACH. 
 
 Charles Theodore (see Bavaria) 1799, 16th Feb. 
 
 XV. BAVARIA. 
 
 Albert IV. duke, from 1473 1508, 17th ^larch. 
 
 William IV. 1550, 6th March. 
 
518 SOVKHEIGNS OF EUROPE. 
 
 Dcitli or alxllcatlon. 
 
 Albert V. loTf), 2Uli ()<t. 
 
 "VVilliuin V. abdicated lo'JT. 
 
 Maximilian I. elector 1623 1G.j1, ITtli Sept. 
 
 F.-nliiiand Maria IGVJi, 2fJtli May. 
 
 Maximilian II. Emanuel 172(3, 27tli Feb. 
 
 Charles Albert (emperor Charles VII.) 1745, 20th Jan. 
 
 Maximilian III. Joseph 1777, 30th Dec. 
 
 Cliarlos Theodore of the Talatinate 1799, IGth Feb. 
 
 ]\Iaximilian Joseph, king, 1806 1825, 13th Oct. 
 Li>ui3 I. 
 
 XVT. ELECTORATE OF SAXONY. 
 
 ERNESTINE LINE. 
 
 Frederic III. the wise elector, 1500 1525, 5th May. 
 
 John Constance 1532, 16th Aug. 
 
 John Frederic, lost the electorate 1547, 4th June. 
 
 ALBEUTINE LINE. 
 
 Maurice, elector, 1547 1553, 11th July. 
 
 Augustus 1586, 11th Feb. 
 
 Christian I. 1591, 25th Sept. 
 
 Christian II. 1611, 23rd June. 
 
 John George I. 1656, 8th Oct. 
 
 John George 11. 1680, 22nd Aug. 
 
 John George III. 1691, 12th Sept. 
 
 John George IV. 1694, 27th April. 
 
 Frederic Augustus I. 1733, 1st Feb. 
 
 Frederic Augustus II. 1763, 5th Oct. 
 
 Frederic Christian 1763, 17tli Dec. 
 
 Frederic Augustus III. king, 1806 1827, 6th May. 
 Frederic Augustus IV. 
 
 XVII. BRANDENBURG. — house of iioiiENzoLLEnN. 
 
 Joachim I. elector from 1493 1535, 11th July. 
 
 Joachim II. 1571, 3rd Jan. 
 
 John George 1598, 8th Jan. 
 
 Joachim Frederic 1608, 18th July. 
 
 Joachim Sigismiiud, duke of Fnissia, 1618 1619, 23rd Dec. 
 
 George AVilliam 1640, 21st Nov. 
 
 Frederic William the Great 1688, 29th April. 
 
SOVEREIGNS OF EUROPE. 619 
 
 Death or abdication. 
 
 Frederic III. (I.) king of Prussia, 1701 1713, 2oth Feb. 
 
 Frederic William I. 1740, 31st May. 
 
 Frederic II. 1786, 17th Aug. 
 
 Frederic William IT. 1797, 17tli Xoy. 
 Frederic William III. 
 
 XVIII. HANOVER. 
 
 George Augustus, elector from 1692 1698, 28tli Jan. 
 George I. (see England) 
 
 XIX. STADTHOLDEES IN HOLLAND. 
 
 ELDER LINE OF ORAXGE. 
 
 William I. from 1572 1584, 10th July. 
 
 Maurice 1625, 23rd April. 
 
 Henry Frederic 1647, 14th May. 
 
 William II. 1650, 6th Nov. 
 
 William III. hereditary stadtholder from 1674 1702, 18th March. 
 
 TOUNGER LINE OF ORAKGE. 
 
 WiUiam IV. general hereditary stadtholder 
 
 from 1747 1751, 22nd Oct. 
 
 William V. 1795, Jan. 
 William I. king of the Netherlands 
 
 XX. TUSCANY.— MEDICI. 
 
 Alexander first duke, 1531 1537, 7th Jan. 
 
 Cosmo I. (grand duke, 1569) 1574, 21st April. 
 
 Francis 1587, 19th Oct. 
 
 Ferdinand I. 1608, 7th Feb. 
 
 Cosmo IL 1621, 28th Feb. 
 
 Ferdinand II. 1670, 24th IMarch. 
 
 Cosmo ni. 1723, 21st Oct. 
 
 John Gasto 1737, 9th July. 
 
 HOUSE OF LORRAINE. 
 
 Francis Stephen 1765, 18th Aug. 
 
 Leopold I. 1790, 2nd July. 
 
 Ferdinand 1824, 17th June. 
 Leopold H. 
 
620 SOVEREIGNS OF EUROPE. 
 
 rRESIDENTS OF THE UMTEI> STATES OK AMEKICA, SINCE THE 
 CONSTITUTION OF 1789. 
 
 Death or atKllcatlon. 
 
 George Washington from 1789 1797, 4tli March. 
 
 John Adams 1801, — 
 
 Thomas Jefferson 1809, — 
 
 James Madison 1817, — 
 
 James Monroe 182.5, — 
 
 John Q. Adams 1829, — 
 Andrew Jackson 
 
 THE END. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Ahenshurg, battle of, 412. 
 
 Abercrombie, 358, 385. 
 
 Aberdeeti, Lord, 433. 
 
 Abo, peace of, 306. . 
 
 Aboukir, battle of, 378. 
 
 Acadia, 160. 
 
 Achmet Kiuprili, 148. 
 
 Adams, 289. 
 
 Adolph, son of Frederic I. of Denmark, 
 168. 
 
 Adolphus Frederic, 305. his death, 313. 
 
 Africa, British acquisitions in, 245. 
 
 Agnadello, 20. 
 
 Agricultural colonies, 23. 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, peace of, 138. congress 
 of, 235. second congress at, 500. 
 
 Alberoni, Abbate, 188, 189. 
 
 Albert of Brandenburg, 41. 
 
 Albert of Culmbach, 46. 
 
 Albert, arch-duke of Austria, 72. 
 
 Albert of Wallenstein, 93. See IValloi- 
 stein. 
 
 Albziqxierqtie, TJ . 
 
 Aldenhoven, battle of, 338. 
 
 Alexander VI., his nepotism, 17. joins the 
 league for the expulsion of foreigners 
 from Italy, 18. Cremona and Ghirar 
 d'Adda assigned to him and Venice, 
 after the capture of Milan by Louis 
 XIL, 18. fixes the boundary line be- 
 tween the Spanish and Portuguese colo- 
 nies, 25. his death, 19. 
 
 Alexander J. of Russia, his accession, 384. 
 meets Napoleon at Tilsit, 401. makes 
 peace with Sweden, 425. invasion of 
 Russia by France, ib. his manifesto, 
 426. pursues the French army beyond 
 his kingdom, 428. visits London, 445. 
 
 Alexander of Parma, 69. 
 
 Alexis, czar, 126, 167. 
 
 Algiers, conquered by Horuc, 34. expedi- 
 tion of Charles V. against, 44. 
 
 Ali Bey, 312. 
 
 Alliance, The Qtiadruple, 189. 
 
 Allia7ice, The Holy, 501. 
 
 Almeida, 27. 
 
 Alopeus, 416. 
 
 Altmarh, truce of, 124. 
 
 Altona burnt, 214. 
 
 Altranstadt, peace of, 211. 
 
 Alva, Duke of, his government of the 
 Netherlands, 67. 
 
 Alvinzi, 346. 
 
 Amboise, Cardinal, 22. 
 
 Amboise, edict of, 75. 
 
 Amboyna, massacre of, 112, 115. 
 
 Amcr Khan, 472. 
 
 America, its discovery, one of the events 
 which define the commencement of 
 modem European history, 5,25. Spanish 
 colonies in, 53. their division and or- 
 ganization, 54. British settlements iu 
 North America, 115. insurrection and 
 emancipation of the British colonies, 
 278. 
 
 America, North, settlements founded by 
 England, 88. French colonies in, 89. 
 
 Amherst, Lord, 359. 
 
 Amiens, captured, 72, peace of, 383. 
 
 Amurath IV., 109. 
 
 Anabaptists in Miinster, 42. 
 
 Andrussor, peace of, 169. 
 
 Anna, wife of William IV. of the Nether- 
 lands, 268. 
 
 Anne of Austria, 105. 
 
 Anne of England, her accession, 177. 
 death, 186. 
 
 A7ine, daughter of George II, of England, 
 197. 
 
 A7me, Duchess of Courland, 220. 
 
 Annoboji discovered, 26. 
 
 .(iH^jf'e;-;;, pillaged by the Spanish troops,69, 
 
 Aprarin, battle of, 244. 
 
 Aranda, 263. 
 
 Arcis-sur-Aube, battle of, 441, 
 
 Areola, battle of, 346, 
 
 Arnold, General, 281. 
 
 Arragon, its union to Castile, 13. 
 
 Artois, invaded by Henry VIII., 21. 
 
 Asia, the condition of its great kingdoms 
 at the commencement of modern Euro- 
 pean history, 6. 
 
522 
 
 INDKX. 
 
 jl!>pfn}, liallle of, 412. 
 
 Aiurstmlt, l.ultle of, 400. 
 
 Aui/rmiu, 121. 
 
 jiuifshurff, (lift of, 41. loapiic of, 115. 
 
 Au'f/ustiu III. of I'olaiid, 2'21. bis dcatli, 
 
 Aurenff Zeb, 2b8. 
 
 Austcrlit:, bntllc of, .393. , 
 
 Auslralia, its rcctiil liislon', 475. 
 Austria, rrtrtid into a kinpdoin, 154. war 
 with Friinco, 177. peace of Ctrcchl, 
 182. ncjiociation at Hastadt, 1S.3. prac e 
 of Badt'n, ib. war witli Tiirki y, 1>*'J. 
 Inuc of Passarowitz, ISO. tlie Quadru- 
 ple Alliance, ib. tlie Prapnatic Sanc- 
 tion, 191. Conprcss of Cambrais, 191. 
 nlliance with Spain, 192. war with 
 France and Spain, 19 1. peace of Vi- 
 enna, ib. pradual decline of the king- 
 dom, 197. war with Turkey, 223. peace 
 of Helprade, ib. first Sile-sian war, 228. 
 desipis of France, 229. alliance of 
 Nymphrnburp, 230. alliance with Enp- 
 laiid, 231. peace of Breslau, ib. alli- 
 ance at Worms, ib. war with Russia 
 and Franco, 232. peace with Bavaria, 
 ib. peace of Dresden, 2.33. treaty with 
 Sardinia and England, 234. alliance 
 Mith Russia, ib. Congress of Aix-lii- 
 ChapdlP, 2,35. alliance with France, 
 239. the Seven Years' war, 242. peace 
 with Prussia, 247. results of the con- 
 nexion with Hungary, 274. abuse of 
 paper money, ib. accedes to the Armed 
 Neutrality, 28G. war with France, 334. 
 retreat beyond tlie Rhine, 3.39. alli- 
 ance with Russia and England, 345. 
 invaded by France, ih. vow\\u's\. of 
 Italy, 34G. penetrated by Buonaparte, 
 347. preliminaries of peace, ih. peace 
 of Campo Formio, 349. war with Tur- 
 key, 3G5. truce with Turkey, 3G7. coa- 
 lition with Russia and England, 379. 
 campaign in Italy, 3S0. secession of 
 Russia, 381. successive defeats by 
 Buonaparte and tnicc of Treviso, 382. 
 negociations at Luneville, 383. alliance 
 with England and Russia, 392. defeat 
 of the anny near the lller, 393. the 
 French enter Vienna, ih. peace of 
 Tresburg, ih. the kingdom made an 
 hereditan' empire, ,397. Cnfcih ration 
 of the Rhine, 398. war with France, 
 411. Vienna t.ikcn a .>;econd time, 412. 
 Inice of Znaim, ih. peace of Vienna. 
 413. position at the commencement of 
 the Russian invasion, 423. alliance 
 • against Rus.sia, 424. interposes a.s me- 
 diator between Napoleon and the allies, 
 4.32. declares war against France, ih. 
 nlliance with Russia and Prussia, 4.33. 
 and England, ih. quadruple alliance 
 It Chaumont, 440. second alliance at 
 Chaumonf, 447. restoration of tlie mon- 
 
 anhv, 483. joins the Holy Alliance, 
 601.' 
 
 Austrian monarchy, its circumstances at 
 the commencement of niodcni Euro- 
 pean history, 14. 
 
 Avaux, 111. 
 
 Azopli conquered by the Russians, 222 
 
 Azores, The, discovered, 20. 
 
 Baircl, 385. 
 
 lianer, 98. 
 
 liarbarossa, 34. 
 
 llarcctona, conquest of, 14G. 
 
 liarclay de Tolly, General, 4IG, 431. _ 
 
 Barnereld, Olden, 7U. his execution, 72. 
 
 liarrere, 339. 
 
 narthilemy,3A], 342. 
 
 liasle, peace of, 341. 
 
 liassauo, battle of, 346. 
 
 Hatavia, founded, 87. its slow rise, 112. 
 
 Jiatarian liepublic, .3.39. 
 
 Bautzen, battle of, 431. 
 
 Bavaria, Jbins the alliance of N>TT)phen« 
 burg, 230. conquered by Austria, 231. 
 annexed to Austria, 258. reinstated, 2G9 
 
 Beauhaniois, Eugene, 394, 437. 
 
 Bcllcisle, Marshal, 228. 
 
 Bennigsen, 428. 
 
 Bentina, Count, 2.35. 
 
 Beresford, General, 421. 
 
 Bcrcsina, passage of the, 428. 
 
 Bertnudez, 425. 
 
 Bernadofte, 416. chosen king of Sweden, 
 424. campaign in Gemiaiiy, 434. in- 
 vades Holstcin, 437. 
 
 Bernard, of Weimar, 96, 98. 
 
 Bcmis, Ahh6. 239. 
 
 Bcrnstorf, Count, 446. 
 
 Bcrthier, Marshal, 396. 
 
 Bericick, Marshal, 194. 
 
 Bcstuchef Biumin. 305. 
 
 Bcthlem Gahor, 91, 109. 
 
 Bevilacqua, 141. 
 
 Beza, 49. 
 
 Bible Societies, 470. 
 
 Bicocca, battle of, 3x. 
 
 Bilboa, his discoveries, 25. 
 
 Biron, 221. 
 
 Birsen, league of, 210. 
 
 Blenheim, battle of, 178. 
 
 Blucher, 431, 4.3.3, ct scq. 
 
 Bogislaus the Great, 40. 
 
 Bois-le-duc, siege of, 108. 
 
 Bojador, Cape, doubled, 26. countries be- 
 yond it granted to Portugal, ib. 
 
 Bolingbroke, Viscount, IbO. 
 
 Bolivar, 4 (',2. 
 
 Bolivia, Wl, 4G5. 
 
 Bombay acquired by Britain, 163. 
 
 Bondc, Count, 147. 
 
 Bonnivet. .31. 
 
 Boreel, 141, 147. 
 
 Borizoff, bailie of, 428 
 
 Bomou, 469. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 523 
 
 Borodino, battle at, 426. 
 
 Boston, (America,) settled, 116, occupied 
 by English troops, '281. evacuated by 
 Howe, ib. 
 
 Boufflers, 178, 
 
 Bourbon, Charles of, 31. sacks Rome, 32. 
 
 Bourbon, Isle of. 204. 
 
 Bournonville, 140. 
 
 Botjer, 467. 
 
 Boyne, battle of the, 146. 
 
 Brantzen, 284. 
 
 Brazil, discovered, 28. the Portuguese 
 colonies therein, 59. Dutch conquests 
 in, 113. the Dutch expelled, ib. Pom- 
 bal's management of them, 301. emi- 
 gration hither of the Portuguese royal 
 family, 407. insurrection and Portu- 
 guese constitution adopted, 456. em- 
 pire founded, ib. becomes a free state, 
 457. 
 
 Breda, siege of, 108. peace of, 137. 
 
 Bresa, La, 58. 
 
 Brescia, battle of, 346. 
 
 Brest, naval battle of, 245. 
 
 Bridport, Lord, 343. 
 
 Briel, taking of, 67. 
 
 Brienne, Blucher's victory at, 440. 
 
 Broynsbro, peace of, 125. 
 
 Broicn, Field-marshal, 243. 
 
 Bruce, 216. 
 
 Bruce, the African traveller, 357. 
 
 Bruhl. Count, 238, 305. 
 
 Brmie, 382. 
 
 Brunsicick, duke of, his manifesto against 
 France, 335. commands the Prussian 
 forces, 400. 
 
 Buddenbrok, 306. 
 
 Bue7ios Ayres, 461, 465. 
 
 Btiloic, 434. 
 
 Buonaparte, Joseph, 383, 385. raised to 
 the throne of Naples, 394. of Spain, 
 408. leaves Madrid, 409. 
 
 Buonaparte, Louis, 397, 419. 
 
 Buonaparte, Jerome, 401. 
 
 Buonaparte, Liician, 419. 
 
 Buonaparte, Napoleon, his conquest of 
 Italy, 346. penetrates Austria, 347. re- 
 gulates the affairs of Italy, 348. con- 
 quest of Egypt, 378. return to France, 
 381. First Consul, ib. campaign in 
 Italy and Upper Germany, 382. Con- 
 sul for life, 386. proclaimed emperor, 
 Napoleon I., 389. his resources at this 
 period, 391. defeats the Austrian army 
 and enters Vienna, 393. extinguishes 
 the German empire, 397. forms the 
 Confederation of the Rhine, 398. de- 
 feats the Russian and Prussian armies, 
 401. meets Alexander at Tilsit, ib. his 
 dominion on the European continent, 
 403. establishes the continental sys- 
 tem, 401. designs and attempts on 
 Portugal, 407. obtains possession of 
 Charles IV. and Ferdinand of Spain, 
 
 408. declares his brother Joseph king 
 of Spain, 409. congress of Erfurt, ib. 
 his campaign in Spain, 410. campaign 
 against Austria, 412. defeated and in 
 danger at the battle of Aspern, ib. his 
 contest with the pope, 414. annexes 
 the States of the Church, 415. his mar- 
 riage to Maria Louisa, 413. birth of 
 his son, ib. his efforts in the Peninsula, 
 421. his projects against Russia, 422. 
 invasion of Russia, 426. retreat from 
 Russia, 427. insurrection of the Ger- 
 man princes, 429. congress of Prague, 
 432. campaign in Germany, 4-34. battle 
 of Leipzic, 435. flight from Leipzic, ib. 
 makes a treaty with Ferdinand of 
 Spain, 438. proposal of the allies at 
 Frankfort, 439. 300,000 men granted 
 by the senate, 440. congress of Cha- 
 tillon, ib. campaign in France, 441. 
 capture of Paris, 442. abdication of 
 Napoleon, ib. Elba assigned to him, ib. 
 returns from Elba, 446. defeated at 
 Waterloo, 447. conveyed to St. Hele- 
 na, 448. his death, 450. 
 
 Burckhardt, 469. 
 
 Burgoyne, General, 282. 
 
 Burqundy, invasion by the S\^iss, 21. 
 
 Burke, E., 281. 
 
 Burkersdorf, battle of, 245. 
 
 Cahal ministry, 139. 
 
 Cabral, 28. 
 
 Ccesar Borgia, 18, 19. 
 
 Caillaud, 469. 
 
 Cairo, convention of, 385. 
 
 Calais, captured by the duke of Guise, 
 65. 
 
 Calcutta, factory founded at, 163. cap- 
 ture by Seraja Dowla, 290. recon- 
 quered, ib. 
 
 Caldiero, battle of, 393. 
 
 Calicut taken from the Portuguese, 112. 
 
 Calliires, 147. 
 
 Calvin, John, 49. 
 
 Cambrais, congress of, 191. 
 
 Cambray, league of, 20. peace of, 32. 
 
 Camperdown, naval battle of, 344. 
 
 Campo Foriyiio, peace of, 349. 
 
 Campomafies, 263. 
 
 Canada, 160. gained by England, 245. 
 repeal of the Test Act, 286. 
 
 Cananor, taken from the Portuguese, 112. 
 
 Candy, conquered by the British, 472. 
 
 Caniiing, George, 488. 
 
 Cape Breton, captured by England, 245. 
 
 Cape St. Vincetit, naval battle of, 344. 
 
 Cape Verd Islands discovered, 26. 
 
 Capo d' Istria, Count, 449. 
 
 Caraccas, The, their- coutest with Spain, 
 459. 
 
 Carascosa, General, 449. 
 
 Cordis, peace of, 126. 
 
 C.trleton, General, 281, 
 
52 \ 
 
 INDKX. 
 
 Carhvcitz, pence of, 1 19. 
 
 Carnot, 3.TJ. 
 
 Carolinas, The, founded, IG'2. 
 
 Car r on, 160. 
 
 Carteret, Lord, 231. 
 
 Carthagena conquircd, 1 IG. 
 
 Carvaiho, Coiml of Ocyras, 2G2. 
 
 Casiano, battle of, 3*0. 
 
 Castanoi, 109. 
 
 Caatlereagh, Lord, 415, 4 19. 
 
 Catharine I. of Hussia, 220. 
 
 CaUiarine II. of Russia, 275, 308. her de- 
 signs on Poland, 309. partition of Po- 
 land, 314. contemplates a Grecian kin^;- 
 doin, 317. her journey to Taurida, 320. 
 
 Catinat, 1 15, 1 Iti. 
 
 CerisoUs, battle of, 36. 
 
 Ceylon, the Portuguese establishmeuts 
 Uierein, 59. ceded to Enpland, 385. 
 
 Champagmj, duke of, 413, 417. 
 
 Charles I. of England, 106. 
 
 Charles VIII. of France, 17, 18. 
 
 Charles I"., 28. elected emperor, 30. war 
 with Francis L, 31 . battle of Pavia and 
 its results, 31, 32. second war witli 
 Friincis, 32. reconquest of Tunis, 34. 
 tliird war with Francis, ib. truce, ib. 
 second African expedition, 35, 44. 
 fourth war with Fnmcis, ib. peace of 
 Crespy, 36, 44. his policy in relation 
 to the Reformation, 43. resigns his dig- 
 nities, 47. his death, ib. 
 
 Charles VI. emperor, 180. frames the 
 Pragmatic Sanction, 191. his death, 227. 
 
 Charles VII. of Germanv, 230. compelled 
 tu fly, 231. his death, 232. 
 
 Charles II. of Spain, his death, 176. 
 
 Charles III. of Spain, 246, 263. 
 
 Charles IV. of Spain, 407. his abdication, 
 408. 
 
 Charles IX. of Sweden, 123. 
 
 Charles XII. of Sweden, his accession, 
 20m. war with Poland and Russia, 209. 
 alliance with Turkey, 213. return to 
 Stralsund, 214. his death, 216. 
 
 Charles XIII. of Swi.dtn, 417. 
 
 Charles Albert, Kkctur of Bavaria, 227. 
 his claims on Austria, 229. eniin rur of 
 Germany, 230. See Charles VI 1. 
 
 Charles, Archduke, 176. his claim to the 
 Spanish throne, ib. 
 
 Charles, Archduke of Austria, 345. cam- 
 jjaipn on the Upper Rhine, 3»0. re- 
 called, 3)^2. commands Uic Italian 
 army, 393. 
 
 Charles Edward, the Pretender, 233. 
 
 Charles Felix, of Sardinia, 495. 
 
 Charles Gustavus, Coiuit Palatine, 99, 
 125. 
 
 Charles, duke of Lorrain, 149, 21 L 
 
 Charles Peter Ulrich, duke of Ilolstcin- 
 Goltorp, 306. 
 
 Charles, duke of Siidermanland, 369. 
 
 Charleston, capture of, 2>3. 
 
 Chateau Camhresin, pence of, 65. 
 
 Chatham, Lord, 212, '2^1. 
 
 Chatitlon, congress at, 410. 
 
 Chaumont, quadruple alliance at, 410. se- 
 cond alliance at, 4 17. 
 
 Chaurelin, 194. 
 
 Chicrasco, 95. 
 
 Chiffi, 100. 
 
 Chili, contest with Spain, 459, 4C2, 4G5. 
 
 Chmelnizki, Hetman, 169. 
 
 ('hoiseul Praslin, 239. 
 
 Chozim, 170. 
 
 Christian ^t/(7i«<i/s of Sweden, 417. 
 
 Christian VI. of Denmark, 306. 
 
 Christian of Brunswick, 92, 111. 
 
 Christian IV. of Denmark, 92. 
 
 Christianity, its projiagation, a pretext in 
 early history of colonies for the ex- 
 clusion of strangers, 24. 
 
 Christina of Sweden, 102. 
 
 Christopher of Baden, 40. 
 
 Christopher, negro chief in St. Domingo, 
 355, 467. 
 
 Cis-Platina, 465. 
 
 Clairfait,ZAL 
 
 Clapperton, 469. 
 
 Clara Isabella Eugenia, daughter of Phi- 
 lip 11., 72. 
 
 Clarkson, Thomas, 353. 
 
 Clement VII., alliance with Charles V., 
 31. with Francis L, 32. quarrel with 
 Charles V., ib. besieged and capitu- 
 lates, ib. reconciled to Charles V., ib. 
 death, 34. 
 
 Clement XIII., 256. 
 
 Clement XI V'., 256. 
 
 Clermont, Count, 244. 
 
 Clissotp, battle of, 210. 
 
 elite, 289. 
 
 Cobenzel, Count J. Phil., 259. Count L., 
 350, 383. 
 
 Cobourg, 368. 
 
 Cochin, taken from the Portuguese, 112. 
 acqiiircd by England, 472. conquest by 
 the Dutch,' 163. 
 
 Cajfee introduced from Surinam into 
 Martinique, 202. 
 
 Coqnac, treaty of, 32. 
 
 Colbert, 135, 156. 
 
 Colbert-Croissg, 141, 142. 
 
 Colbert- Tor eg, 142. 
 
 Collin, buttle of, 243. 
 
 Colonies, divided into Agricultural, Plant- 
 ation, Mining, Trading, 23, 2 1. the first 
 and prevalent idea, in favour of abso- 
 lute possession, and exclusion of stran- 
 gers, 2 1. propagation of Christianity, 
 a convenient pretext, ib. led to a tutal 
 change in commerce, ib, occasion tlio 
 transfer of commerce from the shores 
 of the Mediterranean to the western 
 coasts of Europe, 25. Spanish disco- 
 veries and colonies in America, ib. 
 Portuguese in the East Indies, eastern 
 
INDEX. 
 
 525 
 
 coast of Africa, 26. on 'the -western 
 coast of Africa and Brazil, 28. change 
 in colonial atiairsfrom 1556 — 1618, 82. 
 
 Columbia, 465. 
 
 Columbo gained by the Dutch, 112. 
 
 Columbus, his discovery of America, 5, 25. 
 
 Compact, Tlie Family, 246. 
 
 Co7id'c, Prince, 103, 1U5. 
 
 Confederation, German, 261. 
 
 Confederation of the Rhine, 398. 
 
 Congo discovered, 26. 
 
 Conigsmark, 99. 
 
 Connecticut, first settlement in, 116. 
 
 Constantinople, its conquest by the Turks, 
 one of the events which define the com- 
 mencement of modern European his- 
 tory, 5. 
 
 Contades, Marshal, 244. 
 
 Contarin, 100. 
 
 Co7ivention, National, 335, 
 
 Cook, Captain, 295. 
 
 Copenhagen, peace of, 126. battle of, 384. 
 
 Corfu taken by the Russian-Turkish fleet, 
 383 
 
 Coniicallis, Lord, 283, 358, 386. 
 
 Corpus Evangelicorum, 152. 
 
 CoTunna, retreat to, 410. 
 
 Cortes, Francis, 54. 
 
 Cossacks, The, 169. 
 
 Courlaml ceded to Gotthard Kettler, 121. 
 
 Covillam, 26. 
 
 Crane, 100. 
 
 Crefeld, battle of, 244, 
 
 Crespy, peace of, 36. 
 
 Cronnoell, 103, 106. 
 
 Cuba, early attempt of Spain to form 
 colonies here, 25. 
 
 Cidloden, battle of, 233. 
 
 Culm, battle of, 434. 
 
 Custine, 335. 
 
 Czaslau, battle of, 231. 
 
 Daendels, Marshal, 474. 
 
 Dalberg, 445. 
 
 ly Alembert, 254. 
 
 D^ Ancre, Marshal, 77. 
 
 D'Artois, Comfe, appointed lieutenant du 
 
 royaume of France, 443. 
 Daun, Marshal, 244. 
 D'Avaux, Count, 100. 
 Davis, 88. 
 Davoust, 431. 
 
 De Azarra, Don Jos. Nic, 386. 
 De Breteuil, Baron, 259. 
 De Caulincoitrt, 432. 
 De Choiseul-Stainville, 239 
 De Gallo, Marquis, 350. 
 De llarlay, 147. 
 
 Delaware, province" of, founded, 161. 
 De los Balbasos, Marquis, 111. 
 Demetrius Cantimer, 213. 
 Denain, battle of, 180. 
 De Narbonne, 432. 
 Denham, 469. 
 
 Denmark, war of succession, 93. history 
 in the beginning of ]6th century, 119. 
 war with Sweden, 121, 140. congress 
 of Nimwegen, 141. its condition un- 
 der Frederic IV., 208. accedes to the 
 Armed Neutrality, 286. alliance with 
 Russia, 384. battle of Copenhagen, ib. 
 destruction of the Danish fleet, 404. 
 alliance with France, ib. declares war 
 against Sweden, 416. peace, 417. main- 
 tains neutrality in the war of France 
 and Russia, 424. alliance •with France, 
 431. attacked by Sweden, 437. peace 
 of Kiel, ib. peace with England, Russia, 
 and Prussia, 437. slave trade treaty 
 with England, 470. arrangements by 
 the Congress of Vienna, 496. 
 
 Denneioitz, battle of, 434. 
 
 Desaix, 378. 
 
 Dessalines, John Jam,es, 355, 467. 
 
 Dessau, Catholic alliance at, 41. 
 
 D' Essen, 417. 
 
 D'Estaing, 282. 
 
 D'Estrades, Marquis, 136. 
 
 D'Etrces, 243. 
 
 Dettingen, battle of, 231. 
 
 De Vergennes, Count, 281. 
 
 De Wit, 134, 136, 137. 
 
 D'Huxelles, Marshal, 182. 
 
 Diaz, Barth., 26. 
 
 Diderot, 254. 
 
 Dieppe, French victory at, 146. 
 
 Doggersbank, battle at, 283. 
 
 Dohna, 137. 
 
 Dolgoruky, 312. 
 
 Domingo, St. See Hispaniola. 
 
 Doria, Marquis, 235. 
 
 Doroscensko, 170. 
 
 Dragut, 34. 
 
 Drake, 88. 
 
 Dresden, peace of, 233. 
 
 Dubois, 185, 190. 
 
 Dtigue Trouin, 206. 
 
 Dumouriez, 3.35. leaves the French in- 
 terest, 338. 
 
 Duncan, 344. 
 
 Dunkirk, ceded to England, 107. 
 
 Ditpleix, 288. 
 
 Duroc, 407. 
 
 Dutch, The. (See Netherlands.) Obtain 
 the commerce of the world, 85. settle- 
 ments in India, Japan, and Java, 87. 
 their commerce and manufactures, 
 1G18— 1660, HI. their colonics, 112. 
 herring and whale fisheries, 1 14. rivalry 
 and wars with England, ib. 
 
 Duttlingen, battle of, 99. 
 
 East India Company, Dutch, 85. second 
 
 Company, 113. its decline, 204, 298. 
 
 its fall, .362. 
 East India Company, English, 88. second 
 
 Company, 163. the two united, 201. 
 
 Act of 1773, 292. 
 
5:26 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 East India Company, French, 100. 
 
 East India Comp.tny, Danish, 1G5. 
 
 Erknnthl. battle of. {12. 
 
 Edward 17. of Kngland, 19. 
 
 K'jmont, Count, G7. 
 
 E-iypt, conq^»l•^t of, by Buonaparte, 378. 
 ristortil to tlie Porte, ."^85. 
 
 r.Ifm, assipifd to Niipoloon, 4 12. 
 
 I'.lcanor, sister of Chiirlos V., 32. 
 
 Elizabclh of EnRland, Gl. Inr interest in 
 the insurrection of tlie Netherlands, Gk. 
 }^vc a character a3 a state to Eng- 
 land, 79. 
 
 Elizabeth of Parma, IB,"?, 188. 
 
 Elizabeth of Russia, 245, 305. 
 
 Elliot, (Jeneral, 2n3. 
 
 Elphinstone, 314. 
 
 Jlmanuel the (Ireat of Portugal, 68. 
 
 Emanuel I'hilibert of Savoy, G5. 
 
 Embassies, permanent, established by Fer- 
 dinand the Catholic, 132. 
 
 Enctjlopcdie, The, 254. 
 
 Enghien, 3S9, 391. 
 
 England, its circumstances in the 15th 
 century, 14. rupture with tlie Konian 
 see, 49. advance of Protestant doc- 
 trines imder Edward V'l., ib. ac- 
 qtiircd its character as a state under 
 Elizabeth, 79. the foundation of its 
 power, ib. rivals Spain in commerce 
 and dominion of the seas, 85. com- 
 merce with Persia and witli the two 
 Indies, 87. with Russia, 88. founds set- 
 tlements in North America, 89. the 
 reig:ns of James I. and Charles I., the 
 Protectorate, and Restoration, 1U5. 
 rivalry and wars with Holland, 107, 
 114. their colonial affairs, IGlM— IGGO, 
 111. war witli Holland, 137. triple alli- 
 ance with Holland and Sweden, ib. war 
 with France, 145. revolution of 1G88, 
 ib. peace of Ryswick, 147. conti- 
 nental policy, ib. results of the revolu- 
 tion, 150. West Indian and North 
 American colonies, 161. war witli 
 France, 177. accession of Anne, ib. peace 
 of Utrecht, 181. death of Anne, IbG. 
 the quadruple alliance, 189. conprcss 
 of Camhrais, 191. leajrue of Herrn- 
 hausen, 192. union with Scotland, 19G. 
 increase of trade with East Indies, 201. 
 war with Spain, 205. involved in the 
 northern war, 214. alliance with Aus- 
 tria, 231. treaty of Wonjis, 231. con- 
 press of Ai.\-la-Cliapelle, 235. war with 
 France, 211. alliance with Prussia, 212. 
 the Seven Years' war, ib. pains Ca- 
 nada, 215. acquisitions in the Wist 
 Indies and Africa, ib. war with Sj)ain, 
 24G. peace with France, ib. treaty of 
 Fontainbleau, 217. cessation of conti- 
 nental influence, 219. maritime law, j'6. 
 increased predominance of the crown 
 in parliament, 26G. peculiarity of tlie 
 
 British con.stitution, ib. cfTect of the 
 funding system, 267. stability and pros- 
 perity of the nation, ib. colonial pos- 
 sessions, A. D. 1740 — 17n6, 278. insur- 
 rection and emancipation of North 
 American colonics, 279. war with 
 France, .Spain, and Holland, 2>«2, 2^3. 
 peace, 284. increased commerce, 2^5. 
 care of Canada and Nova Scotia, 2»56. 
 extension of West Indian possessions, 
 ib. conquests in the East Indies, 287. 
 increase of navipation, 295. alliance 
 with Prussia and Holland, .3.30. be- 
 comes the bond of all the continental 
 powers ui their war on revolutionary 
 France, 33G. war declared by the 
 French Convention, 337. defeated in 
 Holland, .339. subsidiary treaty Mith 
 Prussia, 310. enormous cost of main- 
 taininp war with France, 312. chanpe in 
 the foundation of British power, ib. 
 naval victories over the French, 343. 
 over the Dutch and Spanish, 344. con- 
 quests in the West Indies, East Indies, 
 the Cape, &c., 344. alliance wiili Rus- 
 sia, ib. war with Spain, 319. wars in 
 India, 358. change of British policy in 
 India, .359. takes Malta, 3»3. peace of 
 Amiens, 385. refuses to relinquish 
 Malta, 388. renewed war with France, 
 ib. with Spain, 392. battle of Trafalgar, 
 391. death of Pitt, 395. ministry of 
 Grcnvillc and Fox, ib. negotiations 
 for peace, ib. Britain the sole opponent 
 of France after the treaty of Tilsit, 403. 
 captures the Danish fleet, 404. war with 
 Russia, ib. tlie Continental System, ib. 
 makes peace with Spain and Portugal, 
 and sends troops thither, 409. invited 
 by the congress of Erfurt, but declines, 
 to make peace, 410. retreat of troops 
 under Sir John Moore, ib. expedition 
 a-rainst Walcheren, 412. her maritime 
 dominioHj 420. command of British 
 army in Portiigiil assumed by Sir 
 Arthur Wellesley, 421. treaty with 
 Sweden, 425. peace wilh Russia, ib. 
 alliance wiih Sweden, Prussia, and 
 Russia, 429. with Austria, 433. with 
 Denmark, 437. successes of Wellington 
 in Spain, 438. conprcss of Chatillon, 
 411. British forces advance from Spain 
 into France, 412. treaty of I'aris, 443. 
 visit of the allicrl monarchs to Eng- 
 land, 444." conprcss of Vienna, 445. bat- 
 tle of Waterloo, 447. second treaty of 
 Paris, 448. dillcrenccs with the United 
 Slates, 452. war, ib. peace of Ghent, 
 453. recoffiiiscs tire South American 
 States, 466. treaties respecting the 
 slave trade, 470. Birmese war, 474. 
 emancipation of the Catholics, 488. 
 
 England, Xetr, settled, 89. 
 
 Engstroem, 425. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 627 
 
 Ensisheim, battle of, 140. 
 
 Entree, Joyeuse, 330. 
 
 Erfurt, congress of, 409. 
 
 Erich I., 39. 
 
 Ernest of Saxony, 39. 
 
 Ernest of Brunswick, 39, 
 
 Ernest of Mansfield, 92. 
 
 Esseg, battle of, 35. 
 
 Esthonia added to Sweden, 122. 
 
 Eugene, Prince, 149, 177, 194. 
 
 Europe, the commencement of its modem 
 history, 5. its increase of importance, 
 ib. the relations of its state at this pe- 
 riod, 6. its political system one almost 
 exclusively of monarchies, 7. the causes 
 of the rapid increase of "European civil- 
 ization, ib. the importance of the Ger- 
 man state, 8. the principles by which 
 the states-system was held together, ib. 
 sacredness of legitimate possession, ib. 
 balance of power, 9. maritime laws, ib. 
 family connexions of the ruling houses, 
 10. the divisions of the history, 11, 
 
 Faff els, 152. 
 
 Farmars, battle of, 338. 
 
 Fehrbellin, defeat of Swedes at, 140. 
 
 Feodore, I. 122, 123, 167. 
 
 Ferdinand I., king of Rome, 42. emperor 
 of Germany, 47, 80. 
 
 Ferdinand IL, king of Naples, 17, 18. 
 
 Ferdinand III., emperor, 98. 
 
 Ferdinand VI., of Spain, 263. 
 
 Ferdinand, prince of Asturias, 407. as- 
 cends the throne as Ferdinand VII., 
 408. inveigled to Bayonne, and abdi- 
 cates, ib. his restoration, 444. 
 
 Ferdinand of Bohemia, 91, 97. 
 
 Ferdinand the Catholic, 17, 18, 19, 20, 
 21, 22. 
 
 Ferdinand, Duke, 243. 
 
 Ferdinand of Spain, 21, 22. 
 
 Ferdinand of Stiria, 80. 
 
 Fermor, 244. 
 
 Fesch, Cardinal, 396. 
 
 Filmer, Hubert, 110. 
 
 Fitila7id, invaded by Sweden, 366. 
 
 Fitzherbert, Lord, 281. 
 
 Fleurus, battle of, 145. 
 
 Fleury, Cardinal, 193, 194. liis death, 239. 
 
 Floretice, its condition at the close of the 
 15th century, 17. its stnicKlcs with 
 Pisa, ib. on the defeat of Ferdinand II. 
 submits to Charles VIII., ib. return of 
 the Medici, after the expulsion of the 
 French from Italy, 21. loss of its re- 
 publican character, ib. 
 
 Florida Blanca, 2G3. 
 
 Fontainebleau, treaty between France and 
 Spain at, 232. 
 
 Fontenai, battle of, 233 
 
 Forbisher, 88. 
 
 Fouchi. 418. 
 
 Fox, C, 283, 395. 
 
 France, her circumstances at the begin- 
 ning of modern European history, 14. 
 advantages of her geogi-aphical posi- 
 tion, ib. her rivalry with Spain, 29. re- 
 ligious wars, 73. the Huguenots, 74. 
 massacre of St. Bartholomew, 75. 
 league of Jacobins, ib. accession of 
 Henry IV., 76. edict of Nantes, ib. 
 war with Philip II., ib. Sully's ad- 
 ministration, 77. murder of Henry 
 IV. ib. administration of Richelieu, 
 78. colonies in North America, 89. 
 the policy of Richelieu in the Thirty 
 Years' war, 90, et seq. war with Spain, 
 99. results to France of the treaty of 
 Westphalia, 101. alliance with Crom- 
 well, 103. peace of the Pyrenees, ib. 
 the government under Riclielieu and 
 Mazarin, 104. colonial affairs, 1618 — ■ 
 16G0, 116. desians of Louis XIV. on 
 Holland, 137. war with Holland, 140. 
 congress of Nimwegen, 141. invasion 
 of the Spanish Netherlands, 143. dis- 
 putes Avith Innocent XI , 144. war with 
 Germany, 145. with the Pope, Holland, 
 Spain, and England, ib. congress of 
 Ryswick, 147. the kinds of colonies 
 she has founded, 157. system in the 
 West Indies, 158. war with Germany, 
 England, and Holland, 178. peace of 
 Utrecht, 181. death of Louis XIV., 185. 
 regency of Philip of Orleans, ib. the 
 quadruple alliance, 189. congress of 
 Cambrais, 191. league of Herrnhausen, 
 192. alliance with Spain and war with 
 the empire, 194. peace of Vienna, ib. 
 the results of the Bull Unigenitus, 196. 
 Law and the Mississippi company, ib. 
 the South Sea company, 197. forms an 
 alliance against Austria, 229. war with 
 England, 232. alliance with Frederic 
 II., ib. declares war against Holland, 
 234. congress of Aix-la-Chapellc, 235. 
 the monarchy luider Louis XV., 238. 
 alliance with Austria, 239. war with 
 England, 241. the Seven Years' war, 242, 
 loses Canada, 245. the Family Com- 
 pact, 246. French navy annihilated, ib. 
 peace with England, ib. treaty of Fon- 
 tainebleau, 247. expulsion of the Jesuits, 
 256. treaty with the United States, 282. 
 naval war with England, 260, 282. 
 reign of Louis XV., 263. ecclesiastical 
 schism, 264. opposition of the parlia- 
 ments, ib. their suppression by Louis 
 XVI., ib. state of the finances, 265. 
 peace with England, 281. colonial 
 losses, 296. The Revolution, 331, et 
 seq. war with Austria, 334. republic 
 declared, 335. the Convention declare 
 war on England, .337. on Holland, 
 Spain, Portugal, Sardinia, Naples, Tus- 
 cany, and the Pope, 338. the reign of 
 terror, 339. Comiie du Salut public, ib. 
 
528 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 conquest of Holland, ib. peace with 
 Pnissia, 341. secret compnct with Pnis- 
 sin, i6. pence with .S])iiin, 312. British 
 naval victimes, 313. fall of Hubcspicrrc, 
 345. the Directory, ib. dcsijnis on Aus- 
 tria, ib. conquest of Italy, 31G. invnsiDii 
 of Austria, 347. jjoace with Austria, ih., 
 34'J. conquest of Kpypt, 37^<. war witii 
 Turkey, tb. defeated in Italy by the 
 Hussi.an-Austrian army, 3s0. retuni of 
 Buonaparte from Epjpt, 3yl. consiilar 
 constil>iti(jn, ib. victorious campaigns 
 in Italy and Austria, 382. truce of Tre- 
 viso, ib. negotiations of Luneville, .383. 
 peace with Russia, 384. loses Egypt, 
 385. peace of Amiens, ib. peace with 
 the Porte, 386. Concordat with the 
 Pope, ib. new war with England, 388. 
 occupation of Hanover, ib. Buonaparte 
 proclaimed emperor, 3*9. the condition 
 and extent of the empire, .391. third 
 coalition against France, 392. defeat of 
 the Austrian forces and peace of Prcs- 
 hurg, 393. loss of East and West In- 
 dian colonies, .394. battle of Trafalgar, 
 ib. negotiations with Russia and Eng- 
 land, .395. war with Prussia, 399. bat- 
 tle of Jena and Auerstadt, 400. war 
 with Russia, ib. defeats tlie Prussian 
 and Russian armies, 401. truce and 
 peace of Tilsit, i6. designs and attempts 
 on Portugal, 406. war with Spain, 408. 
 ■war with Austria, 411. Vienna again 
 taken, 412. peace of Vienna, 413. in- 
 corporation of the continental states, 
 419. the maritime supremacy of Eng- 
 land, 420. war in Spain and Portugal, 
 421. inv.-ision of Russia, 426. retreat 
 from Rtissia, 427. continental alliances 
 against France, 429. new armies raised 
 for Napoleon, 430. war in Germany, 
 431. alliance with Denmark, ib. truce 
 of Poischwitz, ib. congress of Prague, 
 4.32. successive defeats in tlie cami>ai[rn 
 in Germany, 437. and in Spain, 43"S. 
 the allies propose to maintain the inte- 
 grity of tlie French empire, 439. nego- 
 tiations, ib. the allied armies enter 
 France, 4 10. congress of Chatillon, ib. 
 quadniple alliance at Chatimont, ib. 
 capttirc of Paris, 411. deposition <if 
 Napoleon, 442. his abdication, ib. re- 
 storation of the Bourbons, 443. restric- 
 tion of the kingflom to its ancient limits, 
 ib. treaty with the allied powers, ib. re- 
 turn of Napoleon from Elba, 446. bat- 
 tle of Waterloo, 447. second capture i<{ 
 Paris, ib. second treaty of Paris, 44><. 
 slave trade treaty with England, 470. 
 restoration of the state, 489. interferes 
 in the Spanish revolution, 492. 
 
 Frauce, Isle of, 204, 443, 472. 
 
 Frfiiicia I. of France, his attack on Milan, 
 29. an luisuccessful candidate for the 
 
 imperial throne, 30. tlic nature of his 
 power, 31. first war with Charles V., 
 ib. taken nt the battle of Pavia, ib. 
 treaty of Madrid, .32. sccuncl war with 
 Charles, ib. peace of Cambray, i6. al- 
 liance with Solyman II., 33. lliird war 
 Willi Charles, .31. truce of Nice, ih. 
 fiiirth war with Charles, 35. peace of 
 Crcspy, 36. his death, ib. 
 
 Francis I. of Germany, 2-32. 
 
 Francis II. of Austria, .3.34. attends the 
 congress of Prague, 432. the congress 
 of Vienna, 445. 
 
 Francis of Guise, 46. 
 
 Francis, duke of Anjou, 70, 76. 
 
 Francis Stephen, archduke of Tuscany, 
 227. husband of Maria Theresa, ib. ob- 
 tains the imperial crown, 232. 
 
 Franket}/iauscti, battle of, 40. 
 
 Franklin, Benjamin, 279, 284. 
 
 Fraustadt, battle of, 211. 
 
 Frederic III. of Denmark, 126, 127. 
 
 Frederic IV. of Denmark, 168, 208. 
 
 Frederic V. of Denmark, 306. 
 
 Frederic V. Elector, 91. made king of 
 Bohemia, ib. proscribed, 92. 
 
 Frederic II. of Prussia, his accession, 
 
 227. his objects, ib. first Silcsian war, 
 
 228. joins the alliance against Austria, 
 230. retires from the alliance, 231. 
 fresh war with Austria, 232. concludes 
 a separate peace, 23.3. the Seven Years' 
 war, 242. his disinterestedness and ele- 
 vated spirit, 258, 272. invasion of Bo- 
 hemia, 259. peace of Teschen, ib. 
 forms the German confederation, 261. 
 his death, 262, 329. 
 
 Frederic William I. of Prussia, 218. 
 
 Frederic William II. of Prussia, 334. his 
 death, 375. 
 
 Frederic Attgustus, king of Poland, 194. 
 
 Frederic of ilessc, 218, .305. 
 
 Frederic of Naples, 17, 19. 
 
 Frederic H7//»Vjot of Brandenburg, 99, 126. 
 
 Frederic William of Prussia, visits Lon- 
 don, 415. present at tlie congress of 
 Vienna, ib. 
 
 Frederic the Wise, 39. 
 
 Friedland, battle of. 401. 
 
 Frieslatid, attack of Louis of Nassau up- 
 on, Gm. 
 
 Fronde, The, 105. 
 
 Fuente, 141. 
 
 Gabel. 127. 
 
 Gadebnsh, battle of, 214. 
 
 Gaqrrn, 4 16. 
 
 adllizin, 312. 
 
 Gania, Vasco de, his discovery of the 
 
 passage by the Cape of Good Hope, 
 
 5, 26. 
 Gaston de Fair, 21. 
 Gates, General, 2n2. 
 Gatib Effc7idi, 423. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 539 
 
 Gmdhier, ISO. 
 
 Genappe, battle of, 335. 
 
 Geneva, admits the doctrines of the Rc- 
 foiination, 48. its importance in Eu- 
 rope, 49. revolution at, 331. 
 
 Genoa, oppressed by Louis XIV., 143. 
 taken by the Austrians, 234. 
 
 George, Duke, of Saxony, 39. 
 
 George I. of En^rland, 193. 
 
 George II. of England, 193. his death, 215. 
 
 Georgia founded, 200. 
 
 Germaine de Foix, 19. 
 
 German empire, its importance to the 
 stability of the European states-sys- 
 tem, 8. its condition at the commence- 
 ment of modern European historj', 14. 
 at the time of the Reformation, 38. the 
 centre of European politics during the 
 Thirty Years' War, 91. treaty of West- 
 phalia, 101, 102. alliance with Holland, 
 140. congress of Nimwegen, 141. al- 
 liance with Holland, 143. war with 
 France, 145. peace of Ryswick, 147. 
 war with the Tui-ks, 148. peace of Car- 
 lowitz, 149. war with France, 177. 
 peace of Utrecht, 181. negotiations at 
 Rastadt, 182. peace of Baden, 183. 
 war with France, 194. peace of Vienna, 
 ib. election of Charles VII. emperor, 
 230. death of Charles VII., 232. elec- 
 tion of Francis I., ih. danger to the 
 empire from the partition of Poland, 
 257. German Confederation, 261. revo- 
 lutions in the empire, 269. general 
 
 ■ prosperity, 270. the German Indemni- 
 ties, 387.. change in the condition of 
 the empire, ib. the abolition of the 
 empire, 397. 
 
 Germany, reconstitution of the German 
 states after the battle of Waterloo, 480. 
 
 Ghent, pacification of, 69. 
 
 Gibraltar taken by England, 178. siege 
 by the French and Spanish fleets, 283. 
 
 Girondists, The, 339. 
 
 Gneisenau, 447. 
 
 Goa, 27. 
 
 Godoi, Don, 318,407. 
 
 Godolphin, Lord, ISO. 
 
 Goertz, 215. 
 
 Gonsalvi, Cardinal, 445. 
 
 Gonsalvo of Cordova, 19. 
 
 Good Hope, Cape of, the discovery of the 
 new passage to the East Indies one of 
 the events marking the commencement 
 of modem European history, 5, 2G. 
 settlement founded by the Dutch, 113. 
 its recent condition, 468. 
 Gorea, cajjtured by England, 245. 
 Gotthard Kettler, 121. 
 Granada, New, a Spanish colony, 53. 
 
 contest with Spain, 459, 460. 
 Granvella, 66. 
 
 Greeks, The, their insurrection against 
 Turkey, 498, 503. 
 
 2 M 
 
 Greenland, its whale fishery pursued by 
 the English, 89. 
 
 Grenada, its conquest, 13. captiu-cd by 
 England, 245. 
 
 Gre7iada, Neio, 53. 
 
 Grenville's Stamp Act, 279. 
 
 Grevelingen, battle of, 65. 
 
 Grodno, diet of, 371. 
 
 Grossicardein taken, 143. 
 
 Grotiiis, 89, 110. 
 
 Guadaloiipe, first settlement on, 116. cap- 
 tured by England, 245. battle of, 283. 
 
 Gitatimala, 463, 464. 
 
 Guesta, 421. 
 
 Gueux, The, 67. 
 
 Gimpowder, the changes in war from its 
 invention and use, one of the events 
 marking the commencement of Eu- 
 ropean histors', 5. 
 
 Gustavus Adolp'hus, 95, 96, 111, 124. 
 
 Gustavus Vasa, 119. 
 
 Gustavus III., 313. assassinated, 338, 369. 
 
 Gustavus IV., 392. deposed, 417. 
 
 Gyllenborg, 216. 
 
 Hague, The, negotiations of the French 
 and Dutch at, 179. treaty of, 212. 
 
 Hamburg, its pillage by Davoust, 43 L 
 
 Hampshire, New, settled, 116. 
 
 Hanseatic League, 39. 
 
 Harcourt, Marquis of, 175. 
 
 Haro, Count, 103. 
 
 Harrach, Count, 175. 
 
 Hastings, Warren, 292. 
 
 Hastings, Lord, 359, 472. 
 
 Hastonbek, battle of, 243. 
 
 Havssa, 469. 
 
 Hautman, Cornelius, 87. 
 
 Havannah taken by Pocock, 246. 
 
 Haicke, Admiral, 245. 
 
 Haickesbury, Lord, 386. 
 
 Hayti. See Hispaniola. 
 
 Hedwig Sophia, sister of Charles XII., 168. 
 
 Heemskerk, James, 72. 
 
 Heilbronn, 96. 
 
 Heitisius, A., 147, 149, 177. 
 
 Held, Vice-chancellor, 43. 
 
 Helvetius, 254. 
 
 Henry VIII. of England, invited to 
 join the holy league, 21. invades Ar- 
 tois, ib. appeased at the dissolution 
 of the holy league, 22. alliance with 
 Charles V., 31. rupture with Rome, 49. 
 declared supreme head of the church 
 in England, ib. joins the treaty of Cog- 
 nac, 32. war with Francis I., 36. 
 death, ib. 
 
 Henry II. of France, 36. his treaty with 
 Maurice of Saxony, 46. invasion of 
 Lorraine, ib. 
 
 Henry IV. of France, his accession, 71. 
 alliance with the Netherlands, 72. 
 
 Henry of Brunswick, 39. expelled from 
 his country, 43. 
 
.30 
 
 IXDKX. 
 
 Henry tho PcarraMo, ."9. 
 
 llrtny, rriiicc, of I'orlu^Ml, surimmed ihr 
 Niivipitor, '2<). 
 
 Henry, I'rintrc, of Prussia, 311. 
 
 Henry of Vulois, king of I'oliiinl, 122. 
 
 Herman, Hloctor, 4-3. 
 
 Jlrrrn/iausen, leapue of, 192. 
 
 Hisjtaniola, its discovery, '25. portion of 
 tlu' island aiquind l)y France, 159. in- 
 surrection, and loss of the island by 
 France, 354. its subsequent historj", 
 466. 
 
 JJobbes, Thomas, 110. 
 
 Jfochc. .317. 
 
 HiHThkirchcn, battle of, 211. 
 
 llorhst. battle of, 92. 
 
 HcH-hstddt. battle of, 178. 
 
 Jht^yes, 283. 
 
 Hofer, -111. 
 
 H,',henfricdberfj, battle of, 233. 
 
 Htihenlindeu, liattle of, 382. 
 
 JInlkar, 359, 47 1 . 
 
 Holland. See Netherlands. 
 
 Holland, Neic, 295. 
 
 Holstein, conqucreil by Torstcnson, 125. 
 
 Hondschoote, battle of, 339. 
 
 Horn, G us tarns, 96. 
 
 Home, Count, G7. 
 
 Hortic, .31. 
 
 Jlotham, 313. 
 
 Howe, 281. naval commander, 313. 
 
 Ilubertsbtirg, peace of, 217. 
 
 Iimlson, 8><. 
 
 Hudson's Bay Company, 102. 
 
 Huguenots, 74. their wars, 75. edict of 
 Nantes, 76. revocation of that edict, 
 145. 
 
 Hungary, seized by Soljinan, II., 35. its 
 connexion with Austria, 274. 
 
 Hutchinson, Lord, 385. 
 
 Jlyde, lt)7. 
 
 Hyder Alt, 283, 291. 
 
 n>rahim, 109. 
 
 Independents, The, 106. 
 
 India, or Indies, East, discoveries of the 
 Portuiruesc in, 26. their trade, 27. 
 downifal of the Portupurse establisli- 
 nients, 83. increase of British tra<le, 
 201. British conquests, 287. fall of the 
 Mopul empire, 288. new orsranization 
 of the Kovernnunt, 292. Mahratta war, 
 293. Fox's East India Bill, 294. Pitt's, 
 ib. Briti.sh wars, .357. fall of Tippoo 
 Saib, 358. chanpe in the British policy, 
 359. recent history of the country, 471. 
 
 Indies, West, their discovery, 25. n.venue 
 derived from them by Spain, ih. Brit- 
 ish possessions in, 115. acquisitions of 
 England in, 2 15. 
 
 Indore conquered, 471. 
 
 Innocent XI. disputes with France, 1 1 1. 
 
 Inquisition established in the Nether- 
 lands, GO. 
 
 Isabella fif Spain, her di alh, 20. 
 
 /*«irtc/ stormed by Suwarrow, 3(>5. 
 
 Italinsky. 423. 
 
 Italy, its condition at the end of the 15th 
 century, 16. the states composing it. i>>. 
 conquest of Naples by Charles VIII. 
 of France, 17. leajnie to expel him, arsd 
 his retreat, 18. strupcle between Pisa 
 and Florence, ib, capture of Milan by 
 Louis XII., ib. footing obtiiined by 
 France and Spain, 19. project for the 
 expulsion of foreigners, 20. league of 
 Cambray, ib. the holy league, 21. ex- 
 pulsion of the French, ib. dissolution 
 of the holy league, ib. small progress 
 in political economy, and in the art of 
 war, 22. Buonaparte's campaign in, 
 3-15. recovered by the allies, 3t<0. 
 
 Ivan Vasilevitch, I., 120. 
 
 Ivan Vasilevitch II., 68, 120. 
 
 Ivan III., 305. 
 
 Izquicrdo, Don, 40.'. 
 
 Jacobins, French, 331. 
 
 Jaffanapatam gained by the Dutch, 112. 
 
 Jamaica, early attempts of Spain to form 
 colonies here, 25. captured by ling- 
 land, 107, 115. 
 
 James I. of England, 106. 
 
 James II., 1 15, 146. 
 
 Janizaries, 109. 
 
 Jatisetiism, 150, 255. 
 
 Japan, Portuguese commerce in, 59. the 
 Portuguese driven out by the Dutch, 
 112. 
 
 Jassy, peace of, 367. 
 
 .Icna, battle of, 400. 
 
 Jenkins, 111. 
 
 Jersey, \ew, founded, 102. 
 
 Jerris, 311. 
 
 Jesuits, the Society of, 49. its foundation 
 and organization, 50. tlieir influence in 
 the European cabinets, 61. their aid in 
 inflaming the irritations in Germany, 
 80. their projects in Ilimgarj-, ll)9. 
 their missions on Uie Parapniay, 161. 
 along the Maragnon, 165. their fall, 255. 
 dissolution by Clemens XIV., 256. 
 their restoration, 502. 
 
 Joachim /., 39. 
 
 Joachim II., 22S. 
 
 John III. of Ckve, 40. 
 
 John of Sweden, 123. 
 
 John of Portugal, 58. admitted the Je- 
 suits to the Asiatic colonies, 59. 
 
 J,.hn George, Duke, 228. 
 
 Johti of Leiden, 42. 
 
 John i'. of Portugal, 202. 
 
 .John VI. of Portugal, 49.'v 
 
 John Frederic, elector of Saxony, 44. 
 
 John of Braganza, 104. 
 
 John Sfaurice, Count, 113. 
 
 John Casimir, 125, 169. 
 
 John Clement, 144 
 
INDEX. 
 
 11 
 
 Joseph /., emperor, 180. 
 
 Joseph II., emperor, 257. his designs on 
 Bavaria, 258, 261, his conduct towards 
 Holland, 2G0. 
 
 Joseph Emanuel of Portufral, 262. 
 
 Josephine Beauharnois, 4l8. 
 
 Joubert, 380. 
 
 Jourdain, General, 345, 3S0, 421. 
 
 Juan, Don, 09. 
 
 Jz/a?i de Vieira, Don, 113, 165. 
 
 JtiHana Maria, 314. 
 
 Julius II., liis masterly guidance of Eu- 
 ropean politics, 19. joins the league of 
 Cambraj', 20. forms the holy league, 
 2'I. his death, ib. 
 
 Jwiot, 407. 
 
 Jutland, conquered by Torstenson, 125. 
 
 Kagul, battle on the, 31 2. 
 
 Kaiserslantern, battle of, 338. 
 
 Kakotzi, Francis, 1S7. 
 
 Kaunitz, Count, 147. Prince, 238, 334. 
 
 Kaiinitz-Rieiberg, Count of, 235. 
 
 Kemenij, Prince, 148. 
 
 Kesselsdorf, battle of, 233. 
 
 Kinsky, 141. 
 
 Kinprili Mustapha, 149. 
 
 Kleber, 385. 
 
 Klcist, 434. 
 
 Kloster Zeven, convention, 243. 
 
 Knobelsdorf, 399. 
 
 Knox, John, 49. 
 
 Korsakorc, 380. 
 
 Kosciusko, 370, 371. 
 
 Krasinsky, 310. 
 
 Krasnoy, defeat of the French at, 428. 
 
 Kray, 382. 
 
 Kremlin, The, 427. 
 
 Ktinersdorf, battle of, 244. 
 
 Ki'ipel, 469. 
 
 Kin-akin, Prince, 401, 422. 
 
 Kutschitk Kainardgi, 316. 
 
 Kutusoff, 423, 426". 
 
 Labour donnais, 204. 
 Labourdonnaye, 288. 
 Labrador, Don, 445. 
 Lacroix, 467. 
 Lajfield, battle of, 2.33. 
 Laforest, 34. 
 
 Lago di Garda, battle of, 346. 
 La Hague, battle of, 146. 
 Laine, 440. 
 Lally, 289. 
 
 Landshiit, battle of, 412. 
 Lanzknechts, German, 23. 
 Laon, battle of, 441. 
 La Porte du Theil, 235. 
 La Salle, 160. 
 Las Casas, 57. 
 Lascy, 221. 
 Laudon, 244. 
 Laurens, 264. 
 Lautcrn, batllc of, S.^iO. 
 2 M 2 
 
 Lautrec, 31, 32. 
 
 iaw, his financial projects, 196. 
 
 Laicrence, 289. 
 
 Laybach, consrress of, 492. 
 
 Lech, battle of, 96. 
 
 Leicester, Earl of, 70. 
 
 Leipzig, victory of Gusta^nis Adolphus at, 
 95. victory of Torstenson near, 99. 
 victory over Napoleon at, 435. 
 
 Lens, battle of, 103. 
 
 LeoX., 21,22. 
 
 Leopold II., 126. 
 
 Leopold of Germany, 330. meeting at Pil- 
 nitz, 334. his death, ib. 
 
 Lepanto, battle of, 81. 
 
 Lestoc, 305. 
 
 Le Tellier, 157, 255. 
 
 Leuthen, battle of, 244. 
 
 Leicenbaupt, 306. 
 
 Lewis of Bavaria, 39. 
 
 Lewis T^, 39. 
 
 Lexington, hostilities at, 281. 
 
 Lexington, Lord, 147. 
 
 L'Hopital, 75. 
 
 Lichtenstein, Prince JoAn, 413. 
 
 Liege, rebellion of, 331. 
 
 Lifle, taking of, 178. 
 
 Lima, Don de, 235. 
 
 Lippe Buckeburg, William Coxuit of, 246. 
 
 Lisbon entered by Junot, 407. 
 
 Livonia annexed to Poland, 121. invaded 
 by Charles Augustus, 125. by Au- 
 gustus II., 210. relinquished to Rus- 
 sia, 217. 
 
 Lobo da Silveyra, Count, 446. 
 
 Locke, John, 252. 
 
 Lodi, battle at the bridge of, 346. 
 
 Lombardy, conquered by Buonaparte, 
 346. 
 
 London, treaty of, 242. 
 
 Lonojumeau, peace at, 75. 
 
 L' Orient, battle of, 315. 
 
 Lorraine, invested by Henry II., 46. by 
 the French, 194. 
 
 Losotcitz, battle of, 243. 
 
 Louis IT., of Hungary, 33. 
 
 Louis of Nassau, 68. slain, 69. 
 
 Louis, Prince of Baden, 145. 
 
 Louis XII., extends and follows up the 
 scheme of Charles YIII. upon Italy, 
 18. forms a double alliance with Fer- 
 dinand the Catholic, and Frederic of 
 Naples, 19. joins the league of Cam- 
 bray, 20. his marriage, 22. his death, ib. 
 
 Louis XIV., his plans of conquest, 135, 
 
 136. his claims on the Netherlands, 
 
 137. war with that country, 140. peace 
 of Nimwegen, 141. war with the Span- 
 ish Netherlands, 142. war with Ger- 
 many and her allies, 145. war with 
 Germany, England, and Holland, on 
 the Spanish succession, 178. nego- 
 tiations at the Hague, 179. his death, 
 185. 
 
532 
 
 iNDi:x. 
 
 jA>uis XV., lf>5. his marriago, VA. liis 
 
 slavery to mistri'sses, 2.'iM. 
 Louis XVI., his new ronslituliMH. 331. 
 Louis XVIIL, his restoration, 113. 
 Louis of Hninswick, rriucc, '2.G^. 
 Louisa Mnria, ICAK 
 Lnuvois, 13(i, 1 12, 141, 145. 
 L'vireiifiielm, Count, 4 IG. 
 Loyola, Jtjnatius, JJO. 
 Luhomirski, IW). 
 Luiieville, negotiations at, 383. 
 Lvthcr, 40. 
 Luttcr, battle of, 93. 
 Lutzen, battle of, 96. 
 Lturcmberg, 1 lo. 
 Luyues, 78. 
 
 /.Kczara, battle of, 178. 
 Lyonne, 112. 
 
 Macdonald, 380, 421, 429. 
 
 3/(7r/t, General, 393. 
 
 lilndaynscnr, first settlements in, IGO. 
 
 Madeira discovered, 26. 
 
 Madrid, treaty of, 32. 
 
 MaJTci, Count, 182. 
 
 Magdeburg surrendered to the French, 
 
 400. 
 Magellan, Ferrf.,60. 
 Mahrattas, The, 471. 
 Maillcbois, Marshal, 230. 
 Maine sc Itled, 1 16. 
 
 Malacca, conquered by the Dutch, 112. 
 Mulplaquet, battle of, 179. 
 Malta, taken by England, 3S3. restored 
 
 to the knights, .385. 
 Manchester, Duke of, 284. 
 Maitheim taken, 380. 
 Manilla, capiiulation of, 216. 
 Manuaar, gained by tlie Dutdi, 112. 
 Mans/cld, 111. 
 Mntttua, siege of, 3 IG. taken bv Suwnrrow, 
 
 360. 
 Maraviglia, 31. 
 Marengo, batlle of, 382. 
 Margaret of Parma, GG. 
 Mnria Amelia, daughter of Joseph I., 
 
 227. 
 Maria Antoinette, 258. 
 Maria da Gloria, 493. 
 Maria Josepha, daughter of Joseph I., 
 
 227. 
 Maria Theresa, infanta of Spain, 103. 
 Maria Theresa, ihuiphter of Charles VI. 
 
 of Austria, 227. crowned nt Prague, 
 
 231. her death, 2G0. 
 Marignano, battle of, 29. 
 Marlborough, Duke of, 177. 
 Marmont, 421. 
 Marsaglia, battle of, 146. 
 Martinique, first srttlonienl on, 116. cap- 
 tured by l-'ngland, 2 15. 
 Mastrirht, conquered by the French, 140. 
 Mary, sister to Iltnry VIII., 22. 
 Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold, 6 1- 
 
 .Vrrry/flHrf settled, 116. 
 
 Massachusetts, rise of, 116. 
 
 Massena, 3sU, 421. 
 
 Mathias, brother of Rudolph II., 80, 91. 
 
 Maurice, stadtholder of tlie republic of 
 
 the Netherlands, 70. 
 Maurice, Duke, of Saxony, the electorate 
 
 bestowed on him, 45. his character and 
 
 death, 45, 46. 
 Maurice, Prince, of Saxony, 233. 
 Maximilian /., 20, 21, 22. 
 Maximilian of Austria, G4. 
 Maximilian II., of Germany, 80. 
 Maximilian II., elector of Bavaria, 176. 
 Maximilian Joseph, elector of Bavaria, 
 
 232, 258. 
 Mazarin, 99. alliance with Cromwell, 103. 
 
 his policy, 105, 110. 
 Mazcppa, Hetnian, 211. 
 Medici, their return into Florence, after 
 
 the expulsion of the French from 
 
 Italy, 21. 
 Medici, Catherine de, 34, 61 
 Melas, 382. 
 Menagcr, M., 182. 
 Mcndovi, battle of, 346. 
 Menschikow, 220. 
 Mercantile system. The, 128. 
 Metternich, Prince, 413, 432, et seq. 
 Metz, siege of, 46. 
 Mexico, a Spanish colony, 53. conlesls 
 
 with Spain, 459, 4G0, 464. 
 Michael Aba Ji, 148. 
 Michael Abaffi II., 154. 
 Michael Federotitsch, 121. 
 Michael Wisnoiciecki, 169. 
 Miguel, Don, 4't3. 
 Milan, a German fief at the close of the 
 
 15th century, 16. captured by Louis 
 
 XII., 18. he is driven out, 21. truce for 
 
 its benefit, 22. taken by Francis I., 29. 
 
 granted to Francis SIbrza, 31. coiil'erred 
 
 by Charles V. on his son Pliiliji, 36. 
 
 taken by Bourbon troops, 231. taken 
 
 by Suwarrow, 380. entered by the 
 
 French troops, .382. 
 Millcsimo, battle of, .346. 
 Miucio, battle on the, .382. 
 Mindcn, battle of, 244. 
 Mining colonies, 24. 
 Minto', Lord, 359. 
 Miranda, 459. 
 Missionary Societies, 470. 
 Mississippi Company, 196. 
 .l/ci/ifffz, battle of, 149. 
 Mohammed of Turkey, 109. 
 Mohammed All, 498. 
 Mohatsch, battle of, .33. 
 Moldavia, conquered by Solyman 11., 33, 
 Moluccas, The, discovered, 27. 
 Mohci:, battle of, 228. 
 Monarchy, the predominant form of go- 
 
 veniinent in Kuropean states at the 
 
 commencement of luodcm history, 7. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 533 
 
 the results of this, ib. its various forms, 
 ib. limited by the influence of the no- 
 bility, clergy, and representatives of 
 the freemen, 10. 
 
 Monfon, treaty at, 95. 
 
 Monk, General, 107. 
 
 Mont Cassel, battle of, 140. 
 
 MontecucuU, 140, 148. 
 
 Monte Xotfe, victory at, 346. 
 
 Montesquieu, 252. 
 
 Montgomci-y, General, 281. 
 
 Montmartre, stoiTned, 411. 
 
 Montmorency, 35. 
 
 Moore, Sir John, 410. 
 
 Moors, expelled from Spain, 79. 
 
 Moreau, 345, 347, 382, 433, 434. 
 
 Mortier, General, 388, 421. 
 
 Moscoic, taken by the Poles, 123. by the 
 French, 427. burnt, ib. 
 
 Muhlberg, battle of, 44. 
 
 Mimnich, 220, 221. 
 
 Mvnster, Count, 446. 
 
 M'unzer, Thomas, 40. 
 
 Murat, Joachim, 396, 408, 438. his death, 
 419. 
 
 Mustapha II., 149. 
 
 Nadir, Shah, 222, 288. 
 
 Nansen, 127. 
 
 Nantes, edict of, 76. revocation of that 
 edict, 143. 
 
 Naples, its condition at the close of the 
 15lh century, 17. entered by Charles 
 VIII., ih. his retreat, 18. is put into 
 possession of Ferdinand, 19. the claims 
 of Louis Xll. relinquished to Ferdi- 
 nand, ib. besieged by the French, 32. 
 conquered by the German Allies, 178. 
 annexed to Austria, 187. overawed by 
 an English fleet, 234. truce with 
 France, 346. reconquered by the Cala- 
 brians, 380. truce with France, 383. 
 incorporated with the kingdom of the 
 Two Sicilies, 394. 
 
 Narva, battle of, 210. conquered, 211. 
 
 Navarre, S2}a7iish, 21, 'J.2. 
 
 Navigation, English Act of, 107. 
 
 Navy, English, 82. Dutch, ib. 
 
 Necker, 265. 
 
 Neerwinden, battle of, 146. in 1793, 338. 
 
 Negapatan, conquest by the Dutch, 163. 
 
 Negroes, introduced into America, 56. 
 into Virginia, 89. 
 
 Nelson, 378. 
 
 Nesselrode, Count, 445. 
 
 Netherlands, United, rise of the republic, 
 , 64. severities of Philip II., 66. go- 
 vernment of Margaret of Panna, ib. 
 insiurection, ib. reign of Alva, 67. 
 William of Orange, ib. government of 
 Zxmiga y Regiiesens, 68. pacitication 
 of Ghent, ib. government of Don Juan, 
 69. the Union of Utrecht, ib. regency 
 of Alexander of Panna, 70. fealty to 
 
 Spain laid aside, 70. contest prolonged 
 imder Philip III., 71. independence 
 tacitly acknowledged, 72. Treaty of 
 Westphalia, 101, 108. internal dissen- 
 sions, 108. claims of Louis XIV., 136. 
 war with England, 137. triple alliance 
 with England and Sweden, ib. war with 
 France, 139, 140. congress of Nim- 
 ■wegen, 141. war with France, 144, 
 145. peace of Ryswick, 147. the first 
 Sinking Fund, 156. war with France, 
 177. peace of Utrecht, 181. power of 
 the Kepublic, 186. war with France, 
 234. revolution in the government, 268. 
 the state imdermined by domestic mis- 
 fortimes, 268. war with England, 282. 
 peace, 283. decline of trade, 285. de- 
 cline and fall of colonial affairs, 297. 
 alliance with France, 329. taken pos- 
 session of by Prussian troops, 329. 
 change in the constitution, 330. alli- 
 ance with England and Prussia, 3-30. 
 disturbances and insurrections, 331. 
 war declared by the French Conven- 
 tion, 337. conquered by the French, 
 339. naval victories of England, 344. 
 erection of the Batavian republic, 383. 
 the republic changed to a kingdom, 
 397. insurrection against Napoleon, 
 436. William of Orange recognized as 
 
 - sovereign prince, ib. its independence 
 recognised by the treaty of Paris, 443. 
 slave trade treaty with England, 470. 
 restoration of the state, 486. 
 
 Neuhausel taken, 148. 
 
 Neutrality, Armed, 285. 
 
 Newfoundland, 201. ceded to England, 
 181. 
 
 Ney, 421, 434. 
 
 Nice, truce of, 34. 
 
 Nimicegen, congress of, 141. 
 
 Nordlingen, battle of, 97. 
 
 North, Lord, 279, 283 
 
 Noricay, its reception of the Reformation, 
 119. united with Sweden, 449. ar- 
 rangements at the congress of Vieima, 
 496. 
 
 Notteburg conquered, 211. 
 
 Nova Scotia, 201. 
 
 Novgorod taken, 123. 
 
 Novi, battle of, 380. 
 
 Novara, battle of, 21. 
 
 Noyon, treaty of, 30. 
 
 Nuremberg, sacred league of, 13 
 
 Nymph C7ibwg, alliance of, 230. 
 
 Nystadt, peace of, 217. 
 
 Ochterhny, General, 471. 
 O'Connell, D., 489. 
 Oerebro, treaty of, 425. 
 Orlojf, Prince Gregory, 309. 
 Orlojr, Alexis, 312. 
 Orry, 201. 
 Oliia, peace of, 123, 126. 
 
bPA 
 
 iNi)i:x. 
 
 (irnuar. rrinri- I'f. See William III. 
 
 (hsotio, Uoii, '-i.'>5. 
 
 O.ilmiiau, "ilti. 
 
 Ostracfi, l.atlli-of, 3S0. 
 
 Osiratd, Lord, "2!: J. 
 
 Otchakov, battle of, 222. 
 
 Otto, M. 3sG. 
 
 Oiidenarde, battle of, 178. 
 
 Oiidinut, I.VI. 
 
 Oxcnslieni, 9G. 
 
 Osenatiertt, son of the preceding, 100. 
 
 Ojrford, Earl of, 180. 
 
 Pa<:/t, Dr. Jl. 
 
 Padua taken by the Venetians, 20. 
 
 J'alafox, 4U'.t. 
 
 J'atiakuta, taken from the Portuguese, 112. 
 
 ralmclla, Count, 115. 
 
 Pauin, Count, .30y. 
 
 J'aper money, 173. 
 
 J'appeithciin, 9(j. 
 
 Paraguay, l(jl, 4C5. 
 
 Paramaribo founded, 164. 
 
 Paris, taken by the allied forces, 441. 
 
 peace made there, 443. taken a second 
 
 time, 417 
 Pascal, 255. 
 
 J'assaro, Cape, battle of, 190. 
 l^assaroicitz, truce of, 1S9. 
 Ptissau, treaty of, 4G. 
 Putkid, 209. 
 Paul III., Pope, 31, 43. sanctions the 
 
 Society of Jesuits, LQ. 
 Povl IV., G5. 
 J'diil I. of Russia, .37'^. withdraws from 
 
 alliance with England and Austria, 384. 
 
 his death, ib. 
 Pavia, battle of, 31. 
 Pcc/eiur, 434. 
 Pedro, Don, 493. 
 J'ccl, Sir Jiobert, 488. 
 Pclaski, 311. 
 Pembroke. Earl of, 147. 
 Penn, William, 1G2. 
 Pennsylvania founded, 162. 
 Pent, known to Bilbao, 25. a Spanish 
 
 eolonv, 53. contest with Si>ain, 459, 
 
 4G2, 4G5. 
 Peter the Great, 168. war with Sweden, 
 
 209. establishes his dominion in the 
 
 IJallir, 211. peace of Nysladt, 217. wars 
 
 with Pi rsia, ib. 
 Peter II. of liussia, 220. 
 J'eter HI. of Hussi.i, 215. 309. 
 J'cterirarden, battle of, 189. 
 J'etron, I(j7. 
 
 J'kiladelphia, conprcss nt, 281. 
 Philip II., son of Charles V., 17. obtains 
 
 the crown of .Sjiain, ib. his tyranny in 
 
 the Nethirlands, GG. his deutli, 72. 
 Philip of Orleans, lH5. 
 Philip in. of Spain, 72. 
 Philip IV. of Spain, 117. 
 Philip V. of Spain, 17G. his death, 231. 
 
 Philip. Don, 231. 
 
 Philip ..f Hesse, 41. 
 
 Philip Miifftianimus, 39. 
 
 Philippine Islands discovered, GO. usurp- 
 ed by Spain, b I. 
 
 Pichcyru, .'i.39. 
 
 Piedmont, seized by Francis I., 31. 
 
 Pilnitz, conference of German princes at, 
 .33.3. 
 
 Pisa, its slnipglc with Florence, 17, 18. 
 
 Pitt, William, (Lord Chatham,) 242. 
 
 Pitt, William, son tif the precetlinp, 283. 
 his inJluence on the Euriipi^an combin- 
 ations after the French Revolution, 
 337. changes the whole foundation of 
 Rrilish j^ower, 312. retires from otlice, 
 • >\. returns to power, 391. his death, 
 395. 
 
 Pius VI., Pope, 2G0. 
 
 Piu3 VII., Pope, 369. deposed and im- 
 j>risoned by N'Hi)oleon, 415. Lis restor- 
 ation, 41L 
 
 Pizarro, Francis, 54. 
 
 Plaisance established, 160. 
 
 Plantation, Colonies, 23. 
 
 Plata, La, contest with Spain, 459. 
 
 Plntojr, 415. 
 
 Poischtcitz, tnice of, 431. 
 
 Poland, history at the beginning of the 
 IGlh century, 119. war with Russia and 
 Sweden, 121. war of tlic Succession, 
 122. war with Russia and Turkey, 1G9. 
 its condition uiuler Augustus 11., 208. 
 war with Sweden, 2U9. its condition 
 alkr the Swedish war, 218. disturb- 
 aiucs at the death of Augxistus II., 
 221. reign of Augustus 111., 305. 
 death of Augustus, III., and desipis 
 of Catherine II., 309. Stanislaus Po- 
 nialowsky elected, 310. consLitutiou 
 guaranteed by Russia and Prussia, 
 ib. conitderacy of the Dissidents, 311. 
 confederacy at Bar, ib. partition of Po- 
 land, 257, 314. alliance with Prussia, 
 369. new constitution, 370. second 
 partition, 371. revolution under Kos- 
 cuisko, ib. iinal dismemberment, 372. 
 insurrection prt>moted by France, 400. 
 congress of Vienna, 445, 4'J8. 
 
 Poliinac, Cardinal, lb2. 
 
 Pulierel, .355. 
 
 Pomhal. 255, 262. 
 
 Pompadour, Madame, 239. 
 
 Pomjonue, 1 12. 
 
 Pondicherry founded, ICO. captured by 
 England. 245. restored to France, 247. 
 
 Poniatoirs!;i, .3115. 
 
 Popes, The, at the commencement of mo- 
 dern European histon,', 14. the state of 
 their dotninions at the close of tlje 15th 
 centuni', 17. 
 
 Port Mahon, captured by France, 241. 
 
 Porte, The, its condition in the 16ih cen- 
 tury, 15. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 535 
 
 Porto Bico, early attempts of Spain to 
 form a colony here, 25. 
 
 Portocarrero, Cardinal, 176, 
 
 Portugal, its ccndition at the commence- 
 ment of modem European history, 15. 
 ■w"ith Spain, the earliest to profit by the 
 
 ; geographical discoveries at the end of 
 the 15th century, 25. discoveries be- 
 j'ond Cape Rojador prospectively grant- 
 ed to her, 'is. discoveries in the East 
 Indies, ib. East Indian trade, 27. her 
 colonies on the West of Africa and 
 Brazil, 28. increased her dominions 
 under Emanuel the Great and John 
 III., 58. her connexion with China and 
 Japan, 59. her power in India, ib. and 
 in Brazil, ib. conquest by Spain, 78. 
 do\sTifal of establishments in the East 
 Indies, 83. Kingdom re-established, 
 104. colonial affaij-s, 1618—1660, 117. 
 treaty of Methuen, 185. unsuccessful 
 attack by Spain, 246. treaty of Fon- 
 tainbleau, 247. suppression of the Je- 
 suits in, 258. reforms introduced by 
 Pombal, 262. accedes to the Armed 
 Neutrality, 286. contest with Spain, 
 301. war declared by the French Con- 
 vention, 338. designs of Napoleon to 
 dismember the country, 406. invaded 
 by a French-Spanish army, ib. instir- 
 rection against the French, 409. peace 
 with England, ib. Sir Arthur Welles- 
 ley invested with the chief command, 
 421. campaigns of 1809, 1810, 1811, 
 IS 12, ib. restoration of the state, 493. 
 insurrection at Oporto, 493. constitu- 
 tion framed by the Cortes, ib. insur- 
 rection by Don ISIiguel, 493. 
 
 Potemkin, 316. author of war with Tur- 
 key, 364. 
 
 Potocki, 311,370. 
 
 Potosi, mines of, 57. 
 
 Presbi/terians, 106. 
 
 Primas, Prince, 221, 
 
 Prior, Matt., 180. 
 
 Protestant religion the foundation of Bri- 
 tish power, 79. 
 
 Prussia, secularization of, 41. history at 
 the beginning of 16th century, 120. its 
 independence both of Sweden and Po- 
 land effected, 127. league of Hern- 
 hausen, 192. treaty of Wusterhausen, 
 192. erection into a kingdom, 208, 
 under the dominion of Frederic II., ib. 
 iuternal perfection of the State, 218. 
 government of Frederic William I., 
 219. war with Austria, 2.30. peace of 
 Breslau, 231. alliance with France, 
 232. v,-ar with Austria, ib. peace of 
 Dresden, 233. results of the Congress 
 of Aix-la-Chapelle, 236. alliance with 
 England, 212. the Seven Years' war, 
 ih. peace with Russia and Sweden, 
 215. peace with Austria, 247. form of 
 
 the government, 271. accedes to the 
 Armed Neutrality, 286. partition of 
 Poland, 316. Prussian corps take pos- 
 session of Holland, 329. alliance with 
 Holland and England, 330. withdraws 
 from interference in Holland, 331. war 
 with France, 335. retreat beyond the 
 Rhine, 339. exhaustion of the country, 
 340, subsidiary treaty with England, 
 ih. peace of Basle, -341. secret compact 
 with France, 341. alliance with Poland, 
 369. partition of Poland, 371. refuses 
 to accede to the coalition of England, 
 Russia, and Austria against France, 
 392. French violation of her territories, 
 395. disputes with France, 396. war 
 with France, 399. routed at Jena and 
 Armstadt, 400. peace with France, 
 401. position at the commencement of 
 the Russian invasion, 423. alliance 
 against Russia, 424. entered by the 
 Russian army, 429. declares against 
 France, ib. alliance with Russia and 
 England, 429. alliance with Austria, 
 433. peace with Denmark, 437. con- 
 gress of Chalillon, 440. alliance at 
 Chaumont, ib. campaign in France, 
 441. treaty of Paris, 443. congress at 
 Vienna, 445. declaration against Na- 
 poleon on his return from Elba, 446. 
 second treaty of Paris, 448. restoration 
 of the monarchy, 484. joins the Holy 
 Alliance, 501. 
 
 P ntssisch-Eylau, battle of, 401. 
 
 Pruth, peace of, 213. battle of the, 312. 
 
 Puqatschef, 312. 
 
 Pidaski, 310. 
 
 Pidtaica, battle of, 211. 
 
 Pultu^k, battle of, 210. 
 
 Puritat2S, English, 106. 
 
 Pyrenees, peace of the, 103. 
 
 Quatre Bras, battle at, 417. 
 Quebec founded, 90. battle of, 245. re- 
 lieved by Carleton,281. 
 Quentin, St., defeat of the French at, 65 
 Quesnay, 253, 
 Quessant, battle of, 282. 
 Quiros, Don, 147. 
 
 Padom, confederacy of, 311. 
 
 Badzivil, 311. 
 
 Radzyn, truce of, 170. 
 
 Bainouard, 440. 
 
 Rakozy I., George, 109. 
 
 Baleigh, 89. 
 
 Bamanie, battle of, 385. 
 
 Bamillies, battle of, 178, 
 
 Banipur, conquered, 471. 
 
 Batnsay, 353. 
 
 Bastadt, congress of, 375, broken up, 380. 
 
 Bastimovsky, Prince, 445, 449. 
 
 Batishon, diet of, 44. 
 
 Bancoux, battle of, 233. 
 
530 
 
 INDI.X. 
 
 I!'rr.tnia, battl.' if. 21.* 
 
 /.•-, '.'..ry. Ci'unt, 410. 
 
 Jii J\,iniatwn, The, dftormiiics the cli.i- 
 r.iclfr i>f the first period of inodcni Eii- 
 ropwin liislory, 13. its oripin, 38. its 
 jiroRri'.ss at the diiith of Charles V., 47. 
 iLs influence on soriety at Uie close of 
 tlie KJlh ccnltiry, Gl. its progress in 
 the Nclhti lands, G."). its cHecls in the 
 Northtrn Slates, 118. 
 
 Jleichenbach, congress of, 331, 367. 
 
 Jicpiiin, .311. 
 
 litpuiti, Prince, 259. 
 
 7.V^-, 105. 
 
 JlfvoliUion, French, 331. 
 
 JUiine, Confederation of the, .398. 
 
 Ithode Island, fonnded. IIG. 
 
 Jlhodes, conquered by the Turks, 33. 
 
 JUce, introduced from Madagascar into 
 the Carolinas, 20(). 
 
 Jlichelieu, 78. his policy, 90, 91, 101, 109, 
 110. pains Gustavus Adolphus, i<b. his 
 death, 99. 
 
 Hichclieu, French plenipotentiary at the 
 second treaty of Paris, 449. 
 
 nii;a, battle of, 210. 
 
 liiperda, 192. 
 
 JUv.jU, battle of, 346. 
 
 liobcspierre, .339. his fall, 3 14. 
 
 Jtochambeau, 4G7. 
 
 JiocheUe, peace of, 75, 104. 
 
 Rockingham, Lord, 279. 
 
 liodncij, Lord, '2S3. 
 
 Bomagna, 19, 20. 
 
 Jlojnauzoff, 312, 41G, 425. 
 
 Jivmanzon, Count, 2G1. 
 
 Rome, submits to Charles VIIL, 17. be- 
 sieged and sacked by Charles of Bour- 
 bon, 32. Ferdinand elected king of, 42. 
 occupied by Freni;h troops, 37G, 415. 
 a republic proclaimed, .37(). 
 
 Roschild, peace of, 12G. 
 
 Rosshach, battle of, 211. 
 
 Rostopochin, 427. 
 
 Rovcredo, battle of, 31G. 
 
 Rousseau, 252. 
 
 liudulph II., 80. 
 
 Russia, its history to the beginning of the 
 IGlh century, 120. war with Poland, 
 121. anarchy after the death of Fcodorc, 
 12.'}. accession of Peter, 1G8. condition 
 under his reipi, 2(ls. war with Sweden, 
 209. jieace of Nystadt, 217. reigns of 
 Catherine I. and Peter II., 220. war 
 with Turkey, 222. peace, 22-3. alliance 
 witli Austria, 231. ju-acc with Prussia, 
 215. declaration of Armed Neutrality, 
 285. designs of Catharine II. on Po- 
 land, 309. war with Turkey, 311. par- 
 tition of Poland, 314. peace witii the 
 Porte, 316. policy of Potcmkin, 318. 
 subjugation of the Crimea, 319. navy 
 established in the Black Sea, ib. war 
 with France, 335. joins the alliance 
 
 ntrainst Franco, .314. war with Turkey 
 .3)1. second partition of Poland, .371. 
 iMiropean coalitions, 379. campaign 
 in Italy, 380. secedes from the coali- 
 tion, ,381. niaritiinu conquests in con- 
 nexion with Turkey, ib. defensive alli- 
 ance with Sweden, 3tt4. renewal of 
 Armed Neutrality, ib. accession of 
 AUxaiider, ib. convention willi Kng- 
 land, ib. peace with France and Spain, 
 ib. refuses to acknowledge the imj)erial 
 dignity of Buonaparte, 391. alliance 
 with Kngland against F" ranee, .392. war 
 with France, 400. truce, and peace of 
 Tilsit, 401. war witJi the Porte, 403. 
 truce of Sloboja, ib. war with England, 
 4t)l. attacks Sweden, 41G. peace of 
 Fredericksham, 417. designs of Na- 
 poleon against Russia, 422. war Asith 
 Turkey, 423. ])eacc, ib. peace with 
 Sweden, 425. and with England, ib. 
 alliance with Spain, ib , invaded by 
 France, 426. retreat of the French 
 army, 427. alliance with Pnissia and 
 England, 429. alliance with Austri.a, 
 43.1. peace with Denmark, 437. qua- 
 druple alliance at Chaumont, 4 10. 
 second alliance at Chaumont, 447. 
 results to Russia from the war and the 
 congress of Vienna, 497. forms the 
 Holy Alliance, 501. 
 
 Rycn.icham, conquered, 211. 
 
 Ri/swick, peace of, 103, 147. 
 
 Rzevuskies, jf'/ie, 311. 
 
 Sacile, battle of, 412. 
 
 Salama7wa, battle of, 421. 
 
 Salankermcn, battle of, 149. 
 
 Saldanha Rag, naval battle of, 311. 
 
 Sah-ador, St., its discovery, 25. 
 
 Sa)iction, The Pragmatic,' 191, 193, 197, 
 2.35. 
 
 Sandtcich, Earl of, 235. 
 
 Sandwich Islands, 475. 
 
 5!ant/iona.r, 355. 
 
 Sardinia, its union to Castile, 13. erected 
 into a kingdom, 187. conquest by .Spain, 
 18l(. its crown given to the i)uke of 
 Savoy, 190. alliance with Austria and 
 England, 231. treaty with Austria, 234. 
 congress of Aix-la-Chajielle, 235. war 
 deeiared by the French Convention, 
 .33X. compelk'd to solicit an aniiisticp, 
 3 16. restoration of the kingdom at the 
 congress of Vienna, 494. 
 
 Sarragossa, defence of, 421. 
 
 Sat-ary, 408. 
 
 Sarona, battle of, 313. 
 
 Savoy, seized by Francis L, .34. erected 
 into a kiiiffdom, 187. incorporated with 
 France, .3^35. 
 
 Saxe, Marshal, 23-3. 
 
 Saxo7iy, electorate conferred on Duke 
 Maurice, 45. partakes in the Thirty 
 
INDEX. 
 
 53" 
 
 Years' War, 94. peace of Prague, 97. 
 renews connexion ■with Russia, 212. 
 joins the alliance of Nymphenburg, 
 230. alliance of Worms, 231. peace of 
 Dresden, 233. the Seven Years' War, 
 242. peace with Prussia, 248. peace 
 with France, 400. battle of Leipzic, 
 435. congress of Vienna, 446. recon- 
 stitution of the kingdom after the bat- 
 tle of Waterloo, 485. 
 
 Scesina, 97. 
 
 Schemmelpennink, 386. 
 
 Schlatkov, armistice of, 403. 
 
 Schulenherg, Count, 446. 
 
 Schioarzenberg , 433. 
 
 Scio, victory of, 312. 
 
 Scotland, the reformed doctrines intro- 
 duced, 49. union with England, 196. 
 
 Sebastian, king of Portugal, 61. 
 
 Sebastiani, Colonel, 388. 
 
 Sehestedt, battle of, 437. 
 
 Semigallia, ceded to Gotthard Kettkr, 
 121. 
 
 Sendomir, league of, 210. 
 
 Seneffe, battle of, 140, 
 
 Senegal, captured by England, 245. 
 
 Servien, Count, 100. 
 
 Seven Islands, republic of, 495. 
 
 Sforza, Ludovico, 17, 18. 
 
 Sforza, Francis, founder of the family of 
 that name, 16. Milan granted to him, 
 31. his death, 34. 
 
 Sharp, Granville, 353. 
 
 Shelburne, Lord, 283. 
 
 Shore, Sir /., 361. 
 
 Sicily, its union to Castile, 13. 
 
 Sicilies, The Two, erected into a kingdom, 
 195. 
 
 Sidney, Algernon, 110. 
 
 Sidney Cove, colony at, 295. 
 
 Sienna, surrenders to Charles V., 46. 
 
 Sierra Leone, forts founded at, 160. co- 
 lony of free negroes founded, 287, 469. 
 
 Sigismond of Sweden, 122. 
 
 Silesia, first Silesian war, 228. second 
 war, 232. 
 
 Sinking fund. The first, 156. 
 
 Sinsheim, battle of, 140. 
 
 Sinzendorf, Count, 182. 
 
 Si'ur'ud, peace of, 124. 
 
 Skoeldebrand, 417. 
 
 Slave trade, its establishment, 57. Bri- 
 tish, abolished, 354, 469. 
 
 Slavery and Slave trade in the West In- 
 dies, 353. 
 
 Slesicick, invaded by Denmark, 209. 
 
 Sloboja, peace of, 403. 
 
 Smalcald, League of Protestants al, 42. 
 its dissolution, 44, 45. 
 
 Smith, Adam, 253. 
 
 Smolensk, stormed by the P'rench, 426. 
 
 Sobiesky, John, 149, 170, 171. 
 
 Society Islands, 475. 
 
 Solbay, battle of, 139. 
 
 2 N 
 
 Soltik, 310. 
 
 Solyman the Magnificent, 28. makes him- 
 self master of Hungary, 32. his alliance 
 with Francis I., 33. renewed alliance 
 with Francis, 35. his death, 81. 
 
 Sorr, battle of, 233, 
 
 Soubise, 244. 
 
 Sotilt, 421. 
 
 South Sea Company, 197. 
 
 Spain, its brilliant prospects in the I5th 
 centiuy, 13. union of Arragon, Sicily, 
 and Sardinia to Castile, ib. conquest of 
 Grenada, ib. with Portugal the first 
 profited by the geographical discoveries 
 at the close of the 15th century, 25. 
 line of demarcation between Spanish 
 and Portuguese colonies, ih. her dis- 
 coveries and conquests, ib. different co- 
 lonial system from that of Portugal, ih. 
 her rivalry with France, 29. her colo- 
 nics in America, 53. the character com- 
 municated by Philip II., 78. causes of 
 her decline, ib. conquest of Portugal, 
 ib. usurps the Philippine Islands, 84. 
 war -with France during the Thirty 
 Years' War, 99. war declared by 
 Cromwell, 103. peace of the Pyrenees, 
 ib. loses Portugal, 104. colonial aflairs 
 1618—1660, 117. alliance with Hoi- 
 land, 140. congress of Nimwegen, 141. 
 alliance with Holland, 143. Avar with 
 France, 145. peace of Ryswick, 147. 
 contests for the succession, 174. ac- 
 cession of Philip v., 176. peace of 
 Utrecht, 181. projects of Philip V. and 
 Elizabeth his queen, 188. congress of 
 Cambrais, 191. alliance with Austria, 
 192. alliance with France, 194. peace 
 of Vienna, ib. alliance against Austria, 
 229. death of Philip V., 234. congress 
 of Aix-la-Chapelle, 235. joins in the 
 Seven Years' War, 246. the Family 
 Compact, ib. attack on Portugal, ib. 
 treaty of Fontainbleau, 247. expulsion 
 of the Jesuits, 256, 263. reigns of Fer- 
 dinand VI. and Charles III., 263. pros- 
 perity of her colonies, 299. war with 
 Portugal, 301. war declared by the 
 French Convention, 338. peace with 
 France, 342. war with England, 348. 
 peace with Russia, 384. peace of 
 Amiens, 385. war with England, 392. 
 joins France in a treaty to dismember 
 Portugal, 407. the designs of Napo- 
 leon on the kingdom, and renunciation 
 of Charles IV. and Ferdinand, 407, 
 408. Joseph Buonaparte declared king, 
 408. universal insurrection of the king- 
 dom, 409. peace with England, ib. 
 campaign of Napoleon, 410. regency 
 erected, 421. Wellington follows the 
 French armies into Spain, ib. his suc- 
 cessful progi'ess, 438. Napoleon makes 
 a treaty with Ferdinand, ib. return of 
 
538 
 
 INDKX. 
 
 Ferdinand to Madrid, 1 U. iinliai<'.iy 
 ronlosLs, ib. conprcss of Vienna, 4 15. 
 condition of Anu-ricnu colonies, -158. 
 Ihcy obtain Uu-ir iiidcpi-ndence, 459. 
 slave trade treaty with Enfiland, 47U. 
 restoration of the state, 191. insurrec- 
 tion, ib. repency at Urgel and French 
 interference, 19'2. 
 
 Spcckbacher, 411. 
 
 Spinola, 92. 
 
 Spires, diet of, 41. 
 
 Spoen, 446. 
 
 Stafnrda, battle of, IIG. 
 
 StdjTord, Earl of, 182. 
 
 Stahelberg, Count, 445. 
 
 Stanislaus, 122. 
 
 Stanislaus, Lcscinsky, 192, 194, 221. 
 
 Staretnberg, 2.39. 
 
 Stawittschane, battle of, 222. 
 
 St. liartfiolomeip, massacre of, 75. 
 
 St. Christopher, first settlement in, IIG. 
 
 St. Cyr, Gouvion, 421. 
 
 Stedingk, 417. 
 
 Steenbock, 214. 
 
 Stcenkerke, 145. 
 
 St. Germain en Laye, peace at, 75. 
 
 St. Helena taken by the English, 162. 
 
 i><. John, Knights of, 33. 
 
 St. Lucie, captured by England, 215. 
 restored to France, 247. 
 
 St. Marsan, Marquis of, 446. 
 
 Stockach, battle of, 380. 
 
 Stolbova, peace of, 124. 
 
 St. Petersburg, foiimu .1. 211. 
 
 Strattnan, 147. 
 
 Struensee, 314. 
 
 St. Sacrament founded, IGi. 
 
 St. Severin, Count of, 235. 
 
 St. Vincent captured bv the English, 
 215. 
 
 Sunbian Confederacy, 39. 
 
 Stichet, 421. 
 
 Stichtclen, 425. 
 
 SuJTrein, 283. 
 
 Sulingen, convention at, 388. 
 
 Sully, 77, 156. 
 
 Sunderland, Earl of, 180. 
 
 Surat, factory at, 160. 
 
 Surinam, 164. 
 
 Suwarrow, 368. capture of Praga, 372. in 
 Italv, 380. 
 
 Svane, 127. 
 
 Sweden, alliance with Francis I., 35. her 
 share in the Thirty Years' War, 95. et 
 acq. in the treaty of Westplialia, lOl. 
 history at the beginning of the 16th 
 century, ib. war ■with Poland and Dtn- 
 mark, 121. war of the Succession, 122. 
 triple alliance with England and Hol- 
 land, 137. alliance with France, 140. 
 war with Holland, ib. peace of Nim- 
 wegen, 141. alliance with Holland, 
 143. war with Germany, 170. war with 
 Russia, 209. ruin by llic battle of Pul- 
 
 tawa, 212. peace of Nystadi, 217. in- 
 t< rnal evils, 218. peace with Prussia, 
 245. accedes to the Armed Neutrality, 
 286. war with Russia, 306. peace of 
 Abo, ib. revolution produced by Gus- 
 tavns III., 313. new constitution, ib. 
 alliance with Russia and Armed Neu- 
 trality, 384. alliance with Russia and 
 EuL'land against France, 392. armistice 
 of Schlatkov, 403. relations with France 
 annulled, ib. subsidiary treaty with 
 England, 416. attacked by Russia, ib. 
 Gustavus IV. expelled, 417. peace of 
 Fredericksham, ib. Beniadotte chosen 
 successor to the throne, 424. extricates 
 itself from French alliance, 425. peace 
 with Russia and England, ib. alliance 
 with England, 429. slave trade treaty 
 with England, 470. attacks Denmark, 
 437. peace of Kiel, ib. arrangements at 
 the congress of Vienna, 496. 
 
 Swiss, The, won over by the Pope, 21. 
 drive Louis XII. from Milan, ib. invade 
 Burgundy, ib. duped at the dissolu- 
 tion of the holy leasrue, 22. their in- 
 fantry alone valuable, 23. treaty with 
 Francis I., 31. erection of the Hel- 
 vetian republic, 377. 
 
 Sicitzerland, 15. admits the doctrines of 
 the Reformation, 48. Treaty of West- 
 phalia, 101. the Helvetian republic, 
 377. restoration of the stale after the 
 batUe of Waterloo, 490. 
 
 Talleyrand, 401, 442, 415. 
 
 Tchitchagoff, 428. 
 
 Tekili, 149, 152. 
 
 Temjile, Sir William, 137, 139, 141. 
 
 Terra Firma, 53. 
 
 Thomas, St., discovered, 26. 
 
 Thomas of Susa, 60. 
 
 Thornton, Edw., 425, 430. 
 
 Tilhj, 92, 95. 
 
 Tilsit, peace of, 401. 
 
 Tippo Saih, 293, 358. 
 
 Tobacco cultivated in Virginia, 89. 
 
 Tolentino, battle of, 4 19. 
 
 Tonningen, siege of, 209. 
 
 Toplitz, treaties of, 433. 
 
 Torcy, 179, 185. 
 
 Torgau, Protestant alliance at, 41. battle 
 
 • of, 244. 
 
 Torstenson, 99. 
 
 Totdon, battle of, 232. taken, 343. 
 
 Tournay, battle of, 339. 
 
 Tourville, 146. 
 
 Toussaint L' Ouverture, 355. 
 
 Trading colonies, 24. 
 
 Transylvania united with Hungary, 151. 
 
 Trautmannsdorf, lUO. 
 
 Travctidal, peace of, 209. 
 
 Trent, council of, 41. the character of its 
 
 decrees, 62. its dissolution, ib. 
 Treviso, truce of, 382. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 539 
 
 Ttinis, reconqucst by Charles V., 34. re- 
 captured by Dragut, ib. 
 
 Ttirenne, 99, J 03, 140. 
 
 Tiiri?), treaty of, 146. taken by Suwar- 
 row, 380. 
 
 Turks, tlieir sj'stem of conquest under 
 Selhn I. and SoljTnan II., 33. alliance 
 M-ith France, ib. tlieir advances in 
 Hungarj', 34. vrar ■with Charles V., 35. 
 decline in the empire, 109. war -vs-ith 
 Germany, 148. peace of Carlowitz, 149. 
 ■war with Poland, 169. with Germany, 
 171. war with Austria, 189. truce of 
 Passarowitz, 189. war Avith Russia, 
 222. with Austria, 223. peace of Bel- 
 grade, ib. peace with Russia, ib, war 
 with Russia, 311. peace with Russia 
 and Austria, 367. war with France, 
 378. peace, 386. war with Russia, 423. 
 peace, ib. war with Russia, 403. truce 
 of Sloboja, ib. insurrection in Greece, 
 498. 
 
 Tyrol, invasion of, 178. insurrection under 
 Hofer, &c., 411. 
 
 Uhn, truce of, 99. 
 
 Ulrica Eleotiora, 214, 218. 
 
 Ulrich of Wirtemberg, 39, 42. 
 
 Unigenitus, The Bull, 196. 
 
 United States of Afnerica, 282. their ra- 
 pid progress, 351. disputes with Eng- 
 land, 352. increase in their territory, 
 451. party contests, 452. war with 
 England, ib. peace of Ghent, 453. in- 
 crease of trade, 454. 
 
 Ushant, battle of, 343. 
 
 Utrecht, union of, 69. peace of, 181. 
 
 Valenciennes, taking of, 338. 
 
 Van Berkenrode, 284. 
 
 Van Beverning, 141. 
 
 Van Buys, 182. 
 
 Vandamme, 4-34. 
 
 Vafi der Diissen, 182. 
 
 Van der Noot, 331. 
 
 Van Dieman's Land, 475. 
 
 Van Harel, 141. 
 
 Vaucelles, truce of, 47. broken, 65. 
 
 Vendome, 178. 
 
 Venice, 15. its condition at the close of 
 the I5tli century, 16. the moving power 
 of the league for the expulsion of 
 foreigners from Italy, 18. defeated at 
 Fornua, ib. after the capture of Milan 
 by Louis XII., Cremona and Ghirar 
 d'Adda given to Venice and the Pope, 
 18. league of Cambray, 20. defeated at 
 Agnadello, ib. retakes Padua, ib. the 
 republic is saved by its policy, ib. takes 
 part in the holy league, 21. league with 
 Francis I., 31. joins the treaty of Cog- 
 nac, 32. renewed alliance with Francis 
 I., 35. her extinction as a state, 347, 
 318. assigned to Austria, 319. 
 
 Vcrd, Cape, doubled, 26. 
 
 Versailles, treaty of, 260. 
 
 Vervins, peace of, 72, 76. 
 
 Victor, General, 421. 
 
 Victor Amadeus, 146. 
 
 Victor Emanuel, 444. resigns the crovra, 
 
 495. 
 Vientia, unsuccessful attack by Solyman 
 
 II., 33. besieged by the Turks, 149. 
 
 taken by the French, 393. again taken, 
 
 412. 
 Villars, 179,194. 
 Villcroy, 146, 178. 
 Vimeira, battle of, 409. 
 Virginia, an English settlement, 89. 
 Vittoria, battle of, 438. 
 Volmar, D. 100. 
 Voltaire, 254. 
 Von Amstett, 432. 
 Von Degelman, 350. 
 
 Von Hardenberg, Baron, 341, 430, 433, 445. 
 Von Haren, 235. 
 Von Holbach, 255. 
 Von Humboldt, 432, 445. 
 Von Lehrbach, Count, 261. 
 Von Lilienroth, 147. 
 Von Merveldt, 350. 
 Von Riedesel, Baron, 259. 
 Vo}i Sailern, 147. 
 Vo7i Wassenaer, Baron, 235. 
 Von Zinzendorf, Count, 259. 
 Vosscm, peace of, 140. 
 
 Wagram, battle of, 412. 
 
 Walcheren, expedition against, 412. 
 
 Wales, New South, 475. 
 
 Wallenstein, 93. his designs, ib. dismissed, 
 
 94. again made commander-in-chief, 
 
 95. his fall and death, 97. 
 Walmoden, 431, 434. 
 
 Waljjole, Sir Robert, 190, 266. his retire- 
 ment, 230. 
 
 Walpole, Horace, 193. 
 
 Walter of Plettenburg, 121. 
 
 Warsaw, battle of, 125. league of, 211. 
 
 Washington, George, 281. 
 
 Waterloo, battle of, 447. 
 
 Wellesleg, Lord, 359. 
 
 Wellington, accepts the supreme com- 
 mand in Portugal, 421. his campaigns 
 in the Peninsiila, ib. drives out the 
 French armies, 438. enters France, 
 439. advances into the country, 412. 
 British representative at the congress 
 of Vien^, 445. on the return of Na- 
 poleon from Elba assembles an army, 
 447. fights the battle of Waterloo, lb. 
 plenipotentiary at tlie second treaty of 
 Paris, 449. 
 
 Wesseling, Palatine, 154. 
 
 Wessenberg, 449. 
 
 West India Company, French, 160. 
 
 Westphalia, peace of. 100, 109. the king- 
 dom of, founded, 403. 
 
511) 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Wetlcrstrilt, I'.T), V.\0. 
 
 ]\liiUh<ill, in'iitv of, 212. 
 
 Whilicorth, Lord, 388. 
 
 Wilbcrforce, 35 1. 
 
 WiUcmstrand, battle of, 30G. 
 
 li'illiam of Orange, G7. named royal 
 
 stadiholdcr, G8. orpanizes the confe- 
 
 dtraiy of Utrecht, Gt). murdered, 70. 
 WiUiam of Orange recognised as sovc- 
 
 reif;n prince of llie Netherlands, -130. 
 William II. of the Netherlands, 108. 
 William III. of England, 139. his oppo- 
 
 Bition to the peace of Nimwegen, 112. 
 
 procures an alliance against France, 
 
 113. raised to the English throne, 145. 
 
 his death, 177, 197. 
 William rriso, 197. 
 William IV. of Holland, 203. 
 William V. of Holland, 2G8. 
 William, Duke of Brunswick-Oels, 412. 
 William, 3U6. 
 William VI., Duke, 39. 
 William, landgrave of Hesse, 95. 
 Wimpfen, battle of, 92. 
 M'inzcugerode, Count, 41G. 
 Wisloch, battle of, 92. 
 Wittgenstein, 428, 429, 431. 
 
 Wittstock, battle of, 97. 
 
 Wolf, General, 215. 
 
 Worms, edict ofj 10. treaty of, 231. 
 
 W rang el, 99. 
 
 Wrcde, Baron, 41G. 
 
 Writers, Great, tlieir influence on Eu- 
 ropean policy in the middle of the Ibth 
 century, 225. 
 
 Wunnser, 34G. 
 
 Xanten, treaty of, 80. 
 
 York, General, 429. 
 York, 2\'ew, founded, 1G2. 
 Ypsilanti, 498. 
 
 Zacoticas, the mines of, 57. 
 Zahiski,Z\\. 
 Zapoyla, John, .3-3. 
 Zealand, Neic, 475. 
 Zetitha, battle of, 1 19. 
 Znaim, truce of, 412. 
 Zorndorf, battle of, 244. 
 Zuniga y Bcgiiesens, G8. 
 Ztiratcno, peace of, 170 
 Ztcinglius, 49. 
 
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